title: Lakes of Titan

paragraphs: The lakes of Titan, a moon of Saturn, are made of liquid methane. The lakes were found by the "Cassini-Huygens" space probe. The larger lakes are known as maria (seas) and the smaller ones as lacūs (lakes).

paragraphs: It was possible that there were seas of liquid methane on Titan and first suggested after reading Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 information that showed Titan to have a thick atmosphere, capable of supporting lakes, but exact evidence was not found until 1995 when pictures from the Hubble telescope and other telescopes had already shown some proof of liquid methane possibly in lakes or planet-wide oceans, similar to oceans on Earth.

paragraphs: The "Cassini" mission proved there are liquid lakes on Titan, but not at first. When the probe arrived in the Saturnian system in 2004, scientists hoped that hydrocarbon lakes or oceans might be seen in reflected sunlight from the surface, but no reflections were found.

paragraphs: Scientists still believed that liquid ethane and methane would be found near Titan's poles, where they expected to find lots of liquid. At Titan's south pole, a large dark area named Ontario Lacus was the first lake identified, possibly created by rain as clouds are often seen in the area. A possible shoreline was also identified at the pole in radar images. As the Huygens-Cassini probe flew by on July 22, 2006, its radar took pictures of the northern part of the planet (which was in its winter), a number of large, smooth areas were found on the surface near the northern pole. Based on this data, scientists announced "definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane on Saturn's moon Titan" in January 2007. The "Cassini–Huygens" team decided that the smooth areas are the hydrocarbon lakes they had been searching for, the first lakes found off Earth. Some valleys appear to have rivers.

paragraphs: The satellite was not able to show pictures of lakes moving in the wind. The heavy moisture and clouds of methane near Titan’s surface could be a sign of evaporation from lakes. The lakes cover 0.002–0.02% of Titan's surface.

paragraphs: The "Cassini-Huygens" probe flew by in February, 2007, taking radar and camera pictures of some large areas near the north pole that may be large areas of liquid methane and/or ethane, including one sea larger than 100,000 km² (larger than Lake Superior), and another area similar in size to the Caspian Sea. Pictures taken near Titan's southern pole in October 2007 showed similar, but far smaller, areas that look like lakes.

paragraphs: The Cassini-Huygens probe, flew very close to Titan in December 2007, and took infrared pictures of the chemicals on the surface and found a lake called Ontario Lacus near the south pole. Scientists studying the infrared pictures decided that one or more of the large lakes in the pictures of Saturn's moon Titan does hold liquid and that the liquid is made of hydrocarbons. They have also found ethane on Titan. This mission proves Titan to be the only other planet known to have liquid on its surface. The lakes make Titan a very important planet for studying weather science. Liquids, gases and temperatures are at play on Titan. This should help the science of weather forecasting.

paragraphs: Lakes were not found near near Titan's center of Titan which was studied on January 14, 2005. A part of the Huygens-Cassini probe landed there. The pictures taken by the probe as it fell showed no open areas of liquid, but showed rivers that had dried. It was at first thought that dark areas near the center of Titan could be a lake of a liquid or tar-like substance, but the probe landed on the dark area, and it is solid without any liquid. A device known as a penetrometer studied the surface as the probe landed and seemed to find wet clay. Scientists believe that the penetrometer may have landed on a large pebble, and they say that the surface is similar to sand made of ice. Pictures taken after the probe landed show a large flat area covered in pebbles. The pebbles may be made of water ice and are partly rounded, which indicates fluids.

paragraphs: On February 13, 2008, scientists said that Titans polar lakes contain "hundreds of times more natural gas and other hydrocarbons than all the known natural gas on Earth." The desert near the center of the planet are not liquid but do have more organics than Earth. In June 2008, "Cassini"'s Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer confirmed the presence of liquid ethane beyond doubt in a lake in Titan's southern hemisphere.

paragraphs: Predictions of Titan's clouds are that during in a Saturnian year, liquid moves from the equator to the poles, in clouds, and falls as rain.

paragraphs: Titanian "maria" (large hydrocarbon seas) are named after sea monsters of Earth.

paragraphs: Areas named "Lacus" are believed to be methane lakes. They are named after lakes on Earth.


title: West Coast blues

paragraphs: The West Coast blues is a type of blues music related to jazz and jump blues, with lots of piano sounds and jazz guitar solos, which originated from Texas blues musicians that moved to California in the 1940s. West Coast blues also uses smooth, honey-toned vocals, often sounding similar to urban blues.

paragraphs: The best known West Coast blues musicians may be guitarist T-Bone Walker, famous for the song "Call It Stormy Monday (But Tuesday Is Just As Bad)", originally from Texas, he had made his first recordings in the late 1920s. During the early 1940's Walker moved to Los Angeles, where he recorded a lot of music for Capital, Black & White, and Imperial. Walker an electric guitar sound to the blues, prossibly doing more to make the use of electric guitar popular in blues than anyone else. Much of his material had a jazzy jump blues feel, which is typical of popular blues from California in the 1940s and 1950s. Other Texas bluesmen followed: Pianist/songwriter Amos Milburn, singer Percy Mayfield, famous for the song "Hit the Road Jack", and Charles Brown moved to Los Angeles. Guitarist Pee Wee Crayton divided his time between Los Angeles and San Francisco, while Lowell Fulson, from Texas by way of Oklahoma, moved to Oakland.

paragraphs: After the efforts of Tom Mazzolini, producer of the San Francisco Blues Festival, started in 1974, and the efforts of recording companies like Arhoolie and HighTone, the West Coast is one of the most important blues areas in the country.


title: Third person

paragraphs: Third person (or third-person) may refer to:


title: Frederick Pottinger

paragraphs: Sir Frederick William Pottinger, 2nd Baronet (1831–1865), police inspector, was born on April 27, 1831, in India. He became famous for leading the New South Wales police in their hunt for the bushrangers Ben Hall, John Gilbert, Frank Gardiner and John Dunn.

paragraphs: He was the son of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Pottinger of the British East India Company, and his wife Susanna Maria, née Cooke, of Dublin. Henry Pottinger was the first Governor of Hong Kong. Frederick went to Eton from 1844 to 1847. Between 1850 and 1854, Pottinger was an officer in the Grenadier Guards in England. He lost a lot of his mother's money gambling on horse races. In 1856 he took the place of his father as second baronet. He soon gambled away all his money. He owed people a lot of money.

paragraphs: He went to Australia to search for gold. He joined the New South Wales police force as a mounted trooper. He was an excellent horse rider and spent the next few years working on the gold escort between Gundagai and Goulburn.

paragraphs: Pottinger kept his title secret but in 1860 the inspector-general of police, John McLerie, found out. He was quickly given better jobs. In November he became clerk of petty sessions at Dubbo and on October 1, 1861, assistant superintendent of the Southern Mounted Police Patrol. He wanted to do a good job in the police, but he got into a drunken brawl at Young on 20–21 December 1861. He was a publicly warned about his bad behaviour. He was sent to the Lachlan River area. He showed he was a busy but unlucky hunter of bushrangers.

paragraphs: In 1862 Pottinger was made an inspector of police for the Western District of New South Wales. In April 1862 he arrested Ben Hall at Forbes on a charge of robbery. Hall he was released because there was not enough evidence to prove he was a robber. Soon afterward Hall joined Frank Gardiner's gang. On June 15, 1862, they robbed the Lachlan gold escort of some £14,000 at Eugowra. This was Australia's biggest gold robbery. Pottinger was able to capture two of the bushrangers quickly. They escaped several days later in a gun battle. Pottinger got back some of the stolen gold.

paragraphs: People thought Pottinger made a lot of mistakes. He was in trouble for not having enough police guards on the gold escort and letting his prisoners escape. On the night of August 9, Pottinger and a group of police surrounded the house of Gardiner's mistress, Kate Brown. The bushranger escaped when Pottinger's pistol fired accidentally. They arrested a young boy who they thought was a friend of the bushrangers. When he died from a fever in gaol in March 1863, this was seen to be caused by Pottinger's cruelty. In February 1862 Pottinger was in court at Yass for assault. During a game of billiards he had been called a cheat, a liar and a scoundrel. He hit the person with the billiard cue and smashed his head through a window. On September 27, 1862, Pottinger had appeared before a Bathurst court on a charge of assault. In February 1863 Pottinger went to Sydney for the trial of the escort robbers. He was pushed in the street by people in the crowd. He also threatened a Member of Parliament, J. J. Harpur, with his whip. He didn't like things that Harpur had said about him.

paragraphs: The bushrangers in his area became more active. He captured Patrick Daley. On August 17, 1864, he nearly caught James Alpin McPherson.

paragraphs: In May 1863 the inspector-general told police to think of new ways to catch the bushrangers. Early in January 1865 Pottinger rode a horse in the Wowingragong races. This was against the rules of the police force. He was sacked (lost his job) on February 16, 1865. Pottinger said that he was just trying to get Ben Hall and John Dunn to come out of hiding. His plan worked and the bushrangers went to the races, only Pottinger didn't see them. Protest meetings against his sacking were held on the gold diggings and in the towns. People signed petitions for him to get his job back. He was regarded as a brave and tireless policeman. Pottinger went to Sydney to try and get back his job. On March 5, 1865, at Wascoe's Inn in the Blue Mountains Pottinger accidentally shot himself in the stomach while trying to get onto a moving coach. He was moved to the Victoria Club in Sydney where he died on April 9, 1865. His brother Henry became the 3rd Baronet. He was buried at St Jude's Anglican Church, Randwick.


title: Bushfire

paragraphs: A bushfire is a wildfire that happens mostly in the Australian bush. Bush is the word for scrub, woodland or grassland of Australia and New Zealand. In south east and south west of Australia, bushfires are most common in the summer and early autumn. In the north of Australia, bushfires usually happen during winter which is the dry season. Many Australian plants burn easily. Eucalyptus trees have a high oil content which makes them burn. Over the last 40 years, Australian bushfires have cost around 2.5 billion Australian dollars. In the same period, Australian bushfires caused the death of around 250 people and the destruction of 4,554 homes.But these figures do not include the 173 people who died and the 2000 homes destroyed in the 2009 Victorian bushfires. They can also kill wildlife including rare koalas.


title: Artificial selection

paragraphs: Artificial selection is the intentional breeding of plants or animals. It means the same thing as selective breeding and is an ancient method of genetic engineering.

paragraphs: Selective breeding is a technique used when breeding domesticated animals, such as dogs, pigeons or cattle. Some of these animals may have traits that a breeder will want to carry over to the next generation. The breeder will therefore select those animals to breed which have that quality, rather than those that do not.

paragraphs: Inbreeding is a particular kind of selective breeding, designed to produce a population which is genetically virtually identical. Such populations are rarely viable outside the laboratory. They lose fertility. To control this, most breeds are outcrossed or backcrossed to wild-type individuals, or at least less inbred stock. The details differ from breed to breed. The improvement when outcrossing is done is called hybrid vigour.

paragraphs: Charles Darwin used the example of artificial selection to introduce his idea of natural selection. Artificial selection may be contrasted with the process of natural selection. In natural selection, the differential reproduction of organisms with certain traits happens. This is because some variations help the organism to have better survival and reproduction. The process maintains or enhances the fitness of a population in its natural habitat.

paragraphs: Artificial selection may sometimes be unintentional; it is thought that domestication of crops by early humans was largely unintentional.


title: Selectable marker

paragraphs: A selectable marker is a reporter gene introduced into a cell along with a gene insert. What this means is, the experimenter can tell the right gene is in the cell because the marker can be seen or detected.

paragraphs: Most often, this is used for bacteria or for cells in culture. Selectable markers show the success of a transfection or other procedure meant to introduce foreign DNA into a cell. It is a technique in gene targeting and gene knockout.

paragraphs: Selectable markers are often antibiotic resistance genes; bacteria that have been subjected to a procedure to introduce foreign DNA are grown on a medium containing an antibiotic. The antibiotic knocks out cells which do not have the resistant marker. Those bacterial colonies that can grow have successfully taken up and expressed the introduced genetic material.

paragraphs: An alternative to a selectable marker is a screenable marker, which allows the researcher to distinguish between wanted and unwanted cells.


title: Evolutionary algorithm

paragraphs: In Computer Science, especially in artificial intelligence, evolutionary algorithms are a kind of algorithm that simulate evolution to optimise something. Each generation of solution is subjected to some kind of fitness function; those that "survive" are then recombined in some way to make the next generation of solution. This is done until a certain level of fitness is reached, or a determined number of generations have been used.


title: Artificial life

paragraphs: Artificial life (commonly Alife or alife) is a field of study which examines systems related to life, its processes, and its evolution. This is done with simulations using computer models, robotics, and biochemistry. There are three main kinds of alife, named for their approaches: "soft", from software; "hard", from hardware; and "wet", from biochemistry. Artificial life imitates traditional biology by trying to "recreate" biological phenomena. The term "artificial life" is often used to specifically refer to soft alife.


title: Nils Aall Barricelli

paragraphs: Nils Aall Barricelli (born 1912, died 1993) was a Norwegian-Italian mathematician.

paragraphs: Barricelli's early computer-assisted experiments in symbiogenesis and evolution are considered pioneering in artificial life research. Barricelli, who was independently rich, held an unpaid residency at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in 1953, 1954. and 1956. He later worked at the University of California, Los Angeles, at Vanderbilt University (until 1964), in the Department of Genetics of the University of Washington, Seattle (until 1968) and then at the Mathematics Institute of the University of Oslo. Barricelli published in a variety of fields including virus genetics, DNA, theoretical biology, space flight, theoretical physics and mathematical language.


title: Genetic algorithm

paragraphs: A genetic algorithm is an algorithm that imitates the process of natural selection. They help solve optimization and search problems. Genetic algorithms are part of the bigger class of evolutionary algorithms. Genetic algorithms imitate natural biological processes, such as inheritance, mutation, selection and crossover.

paragraphs: The concept of genetic algorithms is a search technique often used in computer science to find complex, non-obvious solutions to algorithmic optimisation and search problems. Genetic algorithms are global search heuristics.

paragraphs: Natural evolution can be modeled as a game, in which the rewards for an organism that plays a good game of life are the passing on of its genetic material to its successors and its continued survival. In natural evolution, how well an individual performs depends on its who it works with and who it competes with, as well as the environment. Genetic algorithms are a simulation of natural selection on a population of candidate solutions to an optimization problem (chromosomes, individuals, creatures, or phenotypes).

paragraphs: Candidates are evaluated and crossbred in an attempt to make good solutions. Such solutions may take a lot of time and are not obvious to a human. An evolutionary phase is started with a population of randomly generated beings. In each generation, the fitness of every individual in the population is evaluated. Some are randomly selected from the current population (based on their fitness) and modified (recombined and possibly randomly mutated) to form a new population. The cycle repeats with this new population. The algorithm ends either after a set number of generations have passed, or a good fitness level has been reached for the population. If the algorithm has ended due to reaching a maximum number of generations, it does not necessarily mean a good fitness level has been obtained.

paragraphs: The above description is abstract. A concrete example helps.

paragraphs: Genetic algorithms are good at solving problems that include timetabling and scheduling. They have also been applied to engineering. They are often used to solve global optimization problems.

paragraphs: As a general rule of thumb, genetic algorithms might be useful in problem domains that have a complex fitness landscape as mixing is designed to move the population away from local optima that a traditional hill climbing algorithm might get stuck in. Commonly used crossover operators cannot change any uniform population. Mutation alone can provide ergodicity of the overall genetic algorithm process (seen as a Markov chain).

paragraphs: Examples of problems solved by genetic algorithms include: mirrors designed to funnel sunlight to a solar collector, antennae designed to pick up radio signals in space, walking methods for computer figures, optimal design of aerodynamic bodies in complex flowfields

paragraphs: In his "Algorithm Design Manual", Skiena advises against genetic algorithms for any task: ""It is quite unnatural to model applications in terms of genetic operators like mutation and crossover on bit strings. The pseudobiology adds another level of complexity between you and your problem. Second, genetic algorithms take a very long time on nontrivial problems. [...] The analogy with evolution—where significant progress require [sic] millions of years—can be quite appropriate.

paragraphs: [...] I have never encountered any problem where genetic algorithms seemed to me the right way to attack it. Further, I have never seen any computational results reported using genetic algorithms that have favorably impressed me. Stick to simulated annealing for your heuristic search voodoo needs.""

paragraphs: Board games are a very relevant part of the area of genetic algorithms as applied to game theory problems. Much of the early work on computational intelligence and games was directed toward classic board games, such as tic-tac-toe, chess, and checkers. Board games can now, in most cases, be played by a computer at a higher level than the best humans, even with blind exhaustive search techniques. Go is a noted exception to this tendency, and has so far resisted machine attack. The best Go computer players now play at the level of a good novice. Go strategy is said to rely heavily on pattern recognition, and not just logical analysis as with chess and other more piece-independent games. The huge effective branching factor required for finding high quality solutions heavily restricts the look-ahead that can be used within a move sequence search.

paragraphs: The genetic algorithm can be used in computer games to create artificial intelligence (the computer plays against you). This allows for a more realistic game experience; if a human player can find a sequence of steps which always lead to success even when repeated in different games, there can be no challenge left. Conversely if a learning technique such as a genetic algorithm for a strategist can avoid repeating past mistakes, the game will have more playability.

paragraphs: Genetic algorithms require the following parts:

paragraphs: The fitness function accepts a mutated instantiation of an entity and measures its quality. This function is customized to the problem domain. In many cases, particularly those involving code optimization, the fitness function may simply be a system timing function. Once a genetic representation and fitness function are defined, a genetic algorithm will instantiate initial candidates as described before, and then improve through repetitive application of mutation, crossover, inversion and selection operators (as defined according to the problem domain).

paragraphs: There are limitations of the use of a genetic algorithm compared to alternative optimization algorithms:

paragraphs: In 1950, Alan Turing proposed a "learning machine" which would parallel the principles of evolution. Computer simulation of evolution started as early as in 1954 with the work of Nils Aall Barricelli, who was using the computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. His 1954 publication was not widely noticed. Starting in 1957, the Australian quantitative geneticist Alex Fraser published a series of papers on simulation of artificial selection of organisms with multiple loci controlling a measurable trait. From these beginnings, computer simulation of evolution by biologists became more common in the early 1960s, and the methods were described in books by Fraser and Burnell (1970) and Crosby (1973). Fraser's simulations included all of the essential elements of modern genetic algorithms. In addition, Hans-Joachim Bremermann published a series of papers in the 1960s that also adopted a population of solution to optimization problems, undergoing recombination, mutation, and selection. Bremermann's research also included the elements of modern genetic algorithms. Other noteworthy early pioneers include Richard Friedberg, George Friedman, and Michael Conrad. Many early papers are reprinted by Fogel (1998).

paragraphs: Although Barricelli, in work he reported in 1963, had simulated the evolution of ability to play a simple game, artificial evolution became a widely recognized optimization method as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg and Hans-Paul Schwefel in the 1960s and early 1970s – Rechenberg's group was able to solve complex engineering problems through evolution strategies. Another approach was the evolutionary programming technique of Lawrence J. Fogel, which was proposed for generating artificial intelligence. Evolutionary programming originally used finite state machines for predicting environments, and used variation and selection to optimize the predictive logics. Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the work of John Holland in the early 1970s, and particularly his book "Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems" (1975). His work originated with studies of cellular automata, conducted by Holland and his students at the University of Michigan. Holland introduced a formalized framework for predicting the quality of the next generation, known as Holland's schema theorem. Research in GAs remained largely theoretical until the mid-1980s, when The First International Conference on Genetic Algorithms was held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.


title: Ingo Rechenberg

paragraphs: "Ingo Rechenberg"' (born January 20 1934 in Berlin) is a German computer scientist and professor. Rechenberg is a pioneer of the fields of evolutionary computation and artificial evolution. In the 1960s and 1970s he invented a highly influential set of optimization methods known as evolution strategies (from German "Evolutionsstrategie"). His group successfully applied the new algorithms to challenging problems such as aerodynamic wing design. These were the first serious technical applications of artificial evolution, an important subset of the still growing field of bionics.

paragraphs: Rechenberg was educated at the Technical University of Berlin and at the University of Cambridge. Since 1972 he has been a full professor at the Technical University of Berlin, where he is heading the Department of Bionics and Evolution Techniques.

paragraphs: His awards include the Lifetime Achievement Award of the Evolutionary Programming Society (US, 1995) and the Evolutionary Computation Pioneer Award of the IEEE Neural Networks Society (US, 2002). In 1954, Rechenberg also became world champion in the field of model airplanes.


title: Evolution strategy

paragraphs: Evolution strategies are ways to solve a problem using evolutionary algorithms. The term was coined by Ingo Rechenberg.


title: John Henry Holland

paragraphs: John Henry Holland (February 2, 1929 – August 9, 2015) was an American scientist. He was Professor of Psychology and Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He was a pioneer in complex system and nonlinear science. He was known as the father of genetic algorithms.

paragraphs: Holland died on August 9, 2015 in Ann Arbor, Michigan, aged 86.


title: Ontario Lacus

paragraphs: Ontario Lacus is a lake filled with methane and ethane near the south pole of Saturn's moon Titan. It was identified as a hydrocarbon lake and confirmed by data from the Cassini spacecraft. This discovery was announced in the 31 July 2008 edition of "Nature". Ontario Lacus is about 20,000 km in area, and is named after Lake Ontario in North America, which is a similar size and shape.


title: Penetrometer

paragraphs: A penetrometer is a device to test the strength of a material.

paragraphs: It is often used on soil. The penetrometer is dropped on soil or it is pressed against soil to measure how deep a hole it makes. This is a way to decide if soil is strong enough to build a road on. Scientists can use a penetrometer to measure how much moisture is in soil. Penetrometers are used on space probes such as the Cassini-Huygens probe, to measure the amount of moisture in soil on other planets.


title: Crème brûlée

paragraphs: Crème brûlée (or Crème brulée) is a dessert. It is made of custard. It is topped with a thin, brittle crust of caramelized sugar. It may be served cold, warm, or at room temperature. The custard is baked, and then sprinkled with sugar Casa that is caramelized under a broiler or with a kitchen blowtorch. The custard is flavored with vanilla. Other flavorings include chocolate, orange liqueur, fruit, or other. The caramelized sugar crust can be covered with a liqueur and set on fire.

paragraphs: The exact origin of crème brûlée is uncertain. France, England, and Spain all claim to be the country where crème brûlée had its origin. The first printed recipe for a dessert called crème brûlée is from the 1691 edition of the French cookbook "Le Cuisinier Royal et Bourgeois" by Francois Massialot, a cook at the Palace of Versailles. That version was a sweet custard of egg yolks and milk with a burnt sugar crust. It is similar to the modern versions. In the second edition of the book, the dessert is called "crème anglaise".

paragraphs: At Trinity College, Cambridge, England, the dessert was known as 'burnt cream'. The college crest was burnt into sugar on top of a custard using a hot iron. It may predate Massialot's cookbook with one authority claiming it was first served at Trinity in 1630.

paragraphs: Catalans claim their dessert known as "crema catalana" is the original. It is a rich custard often flavoured with cinnamon and lemon or orange zest topped with carmelized sugar. The Catalan version was first recorded in the 18th century. It is also called "Crema de Sant Josep", after Saint Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary. In Spain and in many other parts of Europe, Saint Joseph’s Day is celebrated on 19 March. "Crema Catalana" is a traditional dessert served on this day.


title: Kraken Mare

paragraphs: Kraken Mare is the largest known lake on the surface of Saturn's moon Titan. It was discovered in 2007 by the Cassini probe and was named in 2008 after the Kraken, a legendary sea monster.

paragraphs: Kraken Mare is believed to be the largest of seas and lakes near Titan's north pole. It was discovered as a sea of hydrocarbons by radar pictures. Only a small part of the sea has been pictured by radar, but its full size is seen in visible light pictures. Kraken Mare is believed to be similar in size to the Caspian Sea.

paragraphs: An island in the sea is named Mayda Insula.


title: Ligeia Mare

paragraphs: Ligeia Mare is a lake on Titan at 79.0° N, 248.0° W, measuring around 500 km in width. It is named after Ligeia, one of the sirens in Greek mythology. Ligeia Mare has been a proposed lake to land the Titan Lake In-situ Sampling Propelled Explorer space probe


title: Keystream

paragraphs: In cryptography, a keystream is a stream of random or pseudorandom characters that are combined with a plaintext message to produce an encrypted message (the ciphertext).

paragraphs: The "characters" in the keystream can be bits, bytes, numbers or actual characters like A-Z depending on the usage case.

paragraphs: Usually each character in the keystream is either added, subtracted or XORed with a character in the plaintext to produce the ciphertext, using modular arithmetic.

paragraphs: Keystreams are used in the one-time pad cipher and in most stream ciphers. Block ciphers can also be used to produce keystreams. For example, the CTR mode (also known as Integer Counter Mode (ICM)) is a block mode that makes a block cipher produce a keystream then turns the block cipher into a stream cipher.

paragraphs: In this simple example we will use only the English alphabet of 26 characters from a-z, therefore we will not encrypt numbers, commas, spaces and other symbols. As we have only 26 characters the random numbers in the keystream have to be at least between 0 and 25.

paragraphs: To encrypt we add the keystream numbers to the plaintext. And to decrypt we subtract the same keystream numbers from the ciphertext to get the plaintext.

paragraphs: If a ciphertext number becomes larger than 25 we wrap it to a value between 0-25. I.e. 26 becomes 0 and 27 becomes 1 and so on. (Such wrapping is called modular arithmetic.)

paragraphs: Here the plaintext message "attack at dawn" is combined by addition with the keystream "kjcngmlhylyu" and produces the ciphertext "kcvniwlabluh".


title: Noor Jehan

paragraphs: Noor Jehan () was the adopted stage name for Allah Wasai (September 21, 1926 – December 23, 2000). She was a Pakistani singer and actress. She is renowned as one of the greatest singers of her time in the Indian subcontinent and was given the honorific title of "Mallika-e-Tarranum" (, English: the queen of melody). She achieved special national recognition and popularity in Pakistan with her patriotic songs of 1965, which elevated her to an iconic level.

paragraphs: Along with Ahmed Rushdi, she holds the record for having given voice to the largest number of film songs in the history of Pakistani cinema. She is also considered to be the first female Pakistani film director.

paragraphs: Noor Jehan was awarded the Pakistan President's Award in 1965.

paragraphs: She married Shaukat Hussain Rizvi in 1942. The marriage ended in 1953 with divorce. The couple had three children, including their singer daughter Zil-e-Huma. She then married Ejaz Durrani in 1959. The second marriage also produced three children. It ended in divorce in 1970.

paragraphs: In 2000, Jehan was hospitalized in Karachi and suffered a heart attack. Jehan died as a result of heart failure.


title: Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan

paragraphs: Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan (, October 13, 1948 – August 16, 1997), was a Pakistani musician. He was a singer of qawwali, the devotional music of the Sufis (a mystical tradition in Islam). In 2006, "Time" magazine included him in their list of "Asian Heroes'.

paragraphs: Traditionally, qawwali is a performing art which is passed down with in the family. Nusrat's family has been performing qawwali for the last 600 years. Among other honorary titles given to him, Nusrat was called "Shahenshah-e-Qawwali", meaning "The Emperor of Qawwali".


title: Aziz Mian

paragraphs: Aziz Mian Qawwal () (April 17, 1942 – December 6, 2000) was a Pakistani singer, most famous for his performing of Qawwalis. Aziz Mian was born as Abdul Aziz () in Delhi, British India. The exclamation "Mian", which he often used in his qawwalis, became part of his stage name. He began to introduce himself as Aziz Mian Mairthi. The word "Mairthi" refers to Meerut, a city in northern India, from which he migrated to Pakistan in 1947.

paragraphs: At the age of ten, he began learning the art of Qawwali under the tutelage of Ustad Abdul Wahid Khan. He received sixteen years of training at the Data Ganj Baksh School of Lahore, and obtained a degree in Urdu literature from the University of Punjab, Lahore.


title: Kashmir Solidarity Day

paragraphs: Kashmir Solidarity Day has been celebrated on 5 February each year since 1990. It is a day of protest against Indian control of part of Kashmir. It is a national holiday in Pakistan.


title: National emblem of Bangladesh

paragraphs: The National Emblem of Bangladesh was adopted shortly after independence in 1971.

paragraphs: Located on the emblem is a White water lily, that is bordered on two sides by rice sheaves. Above the water lilly are four stars and a three-leaf clover of jute leaves. The water lily is the country's national flower, and is representative of the many rivers that run through Bangladesh. Rice represents its presence as the staple food of Bangladesh, and for the agriculture of that nation. The four stars represent the four founding principles that were originally enshrined in the first constitution of Bangladesh in 1972: Nationalism, Secularism, Socialism, and Democracy.

paragraphs: The details of the emblem is given as quoted below:

paragraphs: "The national emblem of the Republic is the national flower Shapla (Nymphaea pubescens) resting on water, having on each side an ear of paddy and being surmounted by three connected leaves of jute with two stars on each side of the leaves." - Constitution of Bangladesh Article 4(3)

paragraphs: The Government of Bangladesh has adopted Education, Nationalism and Democracy as its ""National Motto"".


title: Instrument of Surrender

paragraphs: The Instrument of Surrender () was a written agreement that enabled the surrender of the Pakistan Armed Forces in the Bangladesh Liberation War. The surrender took place at the Ramna Race Course in Dacca on December 16, 1971. Lieutenant-General A A K Niazi, joint commander of the Pakistan Armed Forces in East Pakistan, and Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, joint commander of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces, signed the instrument amid thousands of cheering crowds at the race course. Air Commodore A. K. Khandker, Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Bangladesh Armed Forces, and Lieutenant General J F R Jacob of the Indian Eastern Command, acted as witnesses to the surrender.

paragraphs: Subsequently, around 93,000 Pakistani troops and officials were taken as prisoners-of-war by the Indian Army, the largest number of POWs since World War II. They were later repatriated in 1973 under the terms of the Delhi Agreement.

paragraphs: The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the Eastern Theatre. This surrender includes all Pakistan land, air and naval forces as also all para-military forces and civil armed forces. These forces will lay down their arms and surrender at the places where they are currently located to the nearest regular troops under the command of Lieutenant- General Jagjit Singh Aurora.

paragraphs: The Pakistan Eastern Command shall come under the orders of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora as soon as this instrument has been signed. Disobedience of orders will be regarded as a breach of the surrender terms and will be dealt with in accordance with the accepted laws and usages of war. The decision of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora will be final, should any doubt arise as to the meaning or interpretation of the surrender terms.

paragraphs: Lieutenant- General Jagjit Singh Aurora gives a solemn assurance that personnel who surrender will be treated with dignity and respect that soldiers are entitled to in accordance with the provisions of the Geneva Convention and guarantees the safety and well-being of all PAKISTAN military and para-military forces who surrender. Protection will be provided to foreign nationals, ethnic minorities and personnel of Western Pakistan origin by the forces under the command of Lieutenant - General Jagjit Singh Aurora.

paragraphs: (Jagjit Singh Aurora) Lieutenant-General General Officer Commanding in Chief Indian and Bangladesh Forces in the Eastern Theatre

paragraphs: (Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi) Lieutenant-General Martial Law Administrator Zone B and Commander Eastern Command (Pakistan)

paragraphs: This document can be seen on display in the National Museum in Delhi (as of January 2012)


title: Product cipher

paragraphs: In cryptography, a product cipher is a popular type of stream ciphers that works by executing in sequence a number of simple transformations such as substitution, permutation, and modular arithmetic.

paragraphs: Product ciphers usually consist of iterations of several "rounds" of the same algorithm. Individual "rounds" themselves are not secure. However, it is hoped that a sufficiently long chain of "rounds" loads the cipher with sufficient confusion and diffusion properties to make it resistant to cryptanalysis.

paragraphs: A product cipher that uses only substitutions and permutations is called a SP-network. Feistel ciphers are another important class of product ciphers.


title: Islamic Republic

paragraphs: Islamic Republic is the name given to forms of government of several states. These states often have Islam as a state religion and are governed by the principles of Sharia, islamic law. Laws made by the state cannot contradict Sharia.

paragraphs: The following states call themselves Islamic Republic (non-exhaustive list)

paragraphs: Despite the similar name the countries differ greatly in their governments and laws.


title: Key schedule

paragraphs: In cryptography, the so-called product ciphers are a certain kind of ciphers, where the decryption of data is done in ""rounds"". The general setup of each "round" is the same, except for some hard-coded parameters and a part of the cipher key, called a subkey. A key schedule is an algorithm that, given the key, calculates the subkeys for these "rounds".

paragraphs: Knudsen and Mathiassen (2004) give some experimental evidence that indicate that the key schedule plays a part in providing strength against linear and differential cryptanalysis. For toy Feistel ciphers, it was observed that those with complex and well-designed key schedules can reach a uniform distribution for the probabilities of differentials and linear hulls faster than those with poorly-designed key schedules.


title: Block size (cryptography)

paragraphs: In modern cryptography, symmetric key ciphers are generally divided into stream ciphers and block ciphers. Block ciphers operate on a fixed length string of bits. The length of this bit string is the block size. Both the input (plaintext) and output (ciphertext) are the same length; the output cannot be shorter than the input – this is logically required by the Pigeonhole principle and the fact that the cipher must be invertible – and it is simply undesirable for the output to be longer than the input.

paragraphs: The DES is using a block size of 64 bits (8 bytes) while the AES is using a block size of 128 bits (16 bytes). Rijndael, supports block sizes of 128, 192, and 256 bits, although the extra block sizes were not adopted by the AES standard.

paragraphs: A few block ciphers, such as RC5, support a variable block size. The Luby-Rackoff construction and the Outerbridge construction can both increase the effective block size of a cipher.

paragraphs: Few ciphers have unusual block sizes, for example the 3-Way block cipher have an unusual block size of 96 bits (12 bytes).


title: EFF DES cracker

paragraphs: In cryptography, the EFF DES cracker (nicknamed "Deep Crack") is a machine built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) to perform a brute force search of DES cipher's key space — that is, to decrypt an encrypted message by trying every possible key. The aim in doing this was to prove that DES's key is not long enough to be secure.

paragraphs: The DES uses a 56-bit key, meaning that there are 2 possible keys under which a message can be encrypted. This is approximately 7.21 (more than 72 quadrillion). When DES was approved as a federal standard in 1976, a machine fast enough to test such a number of keys in a reasonable time would have cost an unreasonable amount of money to build.


title: Classified information

paragraphs: Classified information is sensitive information to which access is restricted by law or regulation to particular classes of people. A formal security clearance is required to handle classified documents or access classified data. The clearance process requires a satisfactory background investigation. There are typically several levels of sensitivity, with differing clearance requirements. This sort of hierarchical system of sharing information among a group of people is almost used by every national government. The operation of assigning the level of sensitivity to data is called data classification.

paragraphs: The purpose of classification is to protect information from being used to damage or cause danger to national security. Classification formalizes what constitutes a "state secret" and deals with different levels of protection based on the expected damage the information might cause if it reached the wrong hands.

paragraphs: Certain non-government organizations and corporations also have their own secret information, normally referred to as trade secrets.

paragraphs: Although the classification systems vary from country to country, most have levels corresponding to the following British definitions (from the highest level to lowest):

paragraphs: Depending on the level of classification there are different rules controlling the level of clearance needed to view such information, and how it must be stored, transmitted, and destroyed. Additionally, access is restricted on a "need to know" basis. Simply possessing a clearance does not automatically authorize the individual to view all material classified at that level or below that level. The individual must present a legitimate "need to know" in addition to the proper level of clearance.


title: Security clearance

paragraphs: A security clearance is a status granted (approved) to individuals allowing them access to classified information, e.g. state secrets. It is something like permission or a license. The term "security clearance" is also sometimes used in private organizations that have a formal process of selecting employees to access ""sensitive information"".

paragraphs: A clearance by itself is normally not sufficient to gain access; the organization must determine that the cleared person ""needs to know"" the information. No one is supposed to be granted access to classified information only because of rank, position, or a security clearance.


title: Sensitive information

paragraphs: Sensitive information is information or knowledge that might result in loss of an advantage or level of security if exposed to others who might be unfriends or have low or unknown trustability.

paragraphs: Loss, misuse, modification or unauthorized access to sensitive information can negatively affect the privacy of an individual, trade secrets of a business or even the security, internal and foreign affairs of a nation depending on the level of sensitivity and nature of the information.

paragraphs: The term classified information generally refers to information that is subject to special security classification regulations imposed by many national governments. The term "Unclassified" as used in the below refers to information that is not subject to security classification regulations. Information can be reclassified to a different level or declassified (made available to the public) depending on changes of situation or new intelligence.


title: Trade secret

paragraphs: A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or a collection of information which is not generally known, invented or created, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers. In some jurisdictions, such secrets are referred to as "confidential information" or "classified information".

paragraphs: There are three factors that are common to all definitions of a trade secret, a trade secret is information that:


title: Rock Steady

paragraphs: Rock Steady is the fifth studio album by the American alternative rock band No Doubt. It was released on December 11, 2001. The album was influenced a lot by reggae, dancehall, and electronica, compared to their previous albums. A lot of music critics saw this and gave the album good reviews. For example, "Rolling Stone" magazine put the album as the 316th greatest album of all time in their book "Rolling Stone's List of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2003 Grammy Awards. Four singles were released from the album. The first single, "Hey Baby", won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The second single was nominated for Best Dance Recording. The third single, "Underneath It All", was released August 15 2002. It won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 2004 Grammy Awards. The album's last single, "Running", was released July 1 2003.

paragraphs: The iTunes version of the album has two extra songs.


title: Meet-in-the-middle attack

paragraphs: The Meet-in-the-middle attack is a cryptographic attack which, like the birthday attack, makes use of a space-time tradeoff. While the birthday attack attempts to find two values in the domain of a function that map to the same value in its range, the meet-in-the-middle attack attempts to find a value in each of the ranges and domains of the composition of two functions such that the forward mapping of one through the first function is the same as the inverse image of the other through the second function—quite literally meeting in the middle of the composed function.

paragraphs: It was first developed as an attack on an attempted expansion of a block cipher by Diffie and Hellman in 1977. When trying to improve the security of a block cipher, one might get the idea to simply use two independent keys to encrypt the data twice and think that this would square the security of the double-encryption scheme. Certainly, an exhaustive search of all possible combination of keys would take formula_1 attempts if each key is n bits long, compared to the formula_2 attempts required for a single key. However, Diffie and Hellman, discovered a time-memory tradeoff that could break the scheme in only double the time to break the single-encryption scheme. The attack works by encrypting from one end and decrypting from the other end, thus meeting in the middle.

paragraphs: Assume the attacker knows a set of plaintext and ciphertext: "P" and "C". That is,

paragraphs: where E is the encryption function (cipher), and "K" and "K" are the two keys.

paragraphs: The attacker can then compute "E"("P") for all possible keys "K" and store the results in memory. Afterwards he can decrypt the ciphertext by computing "D"("C") for each "K". Any matches between these two resulting sets are likely to reveal the correct keys. (To speed up the comparison, the "E"("P") set is stored in an in-memory lookup table, then each "D"("C") can be matched against the values in the lookup table to find the candidate keys.)

paragraphs: Once the matches are discovered, they can be verified with a second test-set of plaintext and ciphertext. If the keysize is "n", this attack uses only formula_4 encryptions (and formula_5 space) in contrast to the naive attack, which needs formula_1 encryptions (but only formula_7 space).


title: Key whitening

paragraphs: In cryptography, key whitening is a technique used to increase the security of block ciphers. It consists of steps that combine the data with portions of the key (most commonly using a simple XOR) before the first round and after the last round of encryption. DES-X was the first block cipher that used key whitening.


title: ESTREAM

paragraphs: eSTREAM is a project to identify "new stream ciphers that might become suitable for widespread adoption", organized by the EU ECRYPT network. It was set up because of the failure of all six stream ciphers submitted to the NESSIE project. The call for primitives was first issued in November 2004. The project was completed in April 2008. The project was divided into separate phases and the project goal was to find algorithms suitable for different kinds of application.


title: MacGuffin (cipher)

paragraphs: In cryptography, MacGuffin is a block cipher created in 1994 by Bruce Schneier and Matt Blaze at a Fast Software Encryption workshop. It was intended as a catalyst for analysis of a new cipher structure, known as Generalized Unbalanced Feistel Networks (GUFNs).

paragraphs: Schneier and Blaze based MacGuffin on DES, their main change was spliting the DES 64 bits data block into two unequal halves in the Feistel network, 48 bits of the 64-bit data block are fed through the round function, whose output is XORed with the other 16 bits of the data block.

paragraphs: MacGuffin's key schedule is a modified version of the encryption algorithm itself. Since MacGuffin is a Feistel network, decryption is easy; simply run the encryption algorithm in reverse.

paragraphs: The algorithm was experimental, intended to explore the security properties of unbalanced Feistel networks. The cryptanalysis proceeded very quickly, so quickly that the cipher was broken using differential cryptanalysis at the same workshop by Vincent Rijmen and Bart Preneel. They also tried attacking MacGuffin with different S-boxes, taken directly from DES. This version was slightly stronger.

paragraphs: Rijmen and Preneel warn that designing an algorithm to resist only known attacks is generally not a good design principle.

paragraphs: Schneier and Blaze recommended using 32 "rounds", and specified MacGuffin with a 128-bit key.


title: Feistel cipher

paragraphs: In cryptography, a Feistel cipher is a symmetric structure used in the construction of block ciphers, named after the German IBM cryptographer ; it is also commonly known as a Feistel network. A large set of block ciphers use the scheme, including the Data Encryption Standard

paragraphs: The Feistel structure has the advantage that encryption and decryption operations are very similar, even identical in some cases, requiring only a reversal of the key schedule. Therefore the size of the code or circuitry required to implement such a cipher is nearly halved.

paragraphs: Feistel construction is iterative in nature which makes implementing the cryptosystem in hardware easier.

paragraphs: Feistel networks and similar constructions are product ciphers, and so combine multiple rounds of repeated operations, such as:

paragraphs: Bit shuffling creates the diffusion effect, while substitution is used for confusion.

paragraphs: Many modern symmetric block ciphers use Feistel networks, and the structure and properties of Feistel ciphers have been extensively explored by cryptographers. Specifically, Michael Luby and Charles Rackoff analyzed the Feistel block cipher construction, and proved that if the round function is a cryptographically secure pseudorandom function, with K used as the seed, then 3 rounds is sufficient to make the block cipher a pseudorandom permutation, while 4 rounds is sufficient to make it a "strong" pseudorandom permutation (which means that it remains pseudorandom even to an adversary who gets oracle access to its inverse permutation). Because of this very important result of Luby and Rackoff, Feistel ciphers are sometimes called Luby-Rackoff block ciphers. Further theoretical studies generalized the construction, and defined more precise limits for security.

paragraphs: Let formula_1 be the round function and let

paragraphs: formula_2 be the sub-keys for the rounds formula_3 respectively.

paragraphs: Split the plaintext block into two equal pieces, (formula_4, formula_5)

paragraphs: For each round formula_6, compute (calculate)

paragraphs: Then the ciphertext is formula_9. (Commonly the two pieces formula_10 and formula_11 are not switched after the last round.)

paragraphs: Decryption of a ciphertext formula_12 is accomplished by computing for formula_13

paragraphs: One advantage of this model is that the round function formula_1 does not have to be "invertible", and can be very complex.

paragraphs: The diagram illustrates the encryption process. Decryption requires only reversing the order of the subkey formula_18 using the same process; this is the only difference between encryption and decryption:

paragraphs: Unbalanced Feistel ciphers use a modified structure where formula_4 and formula_5 are not of equal lengths. The MacGuffin cipher is an experimental example of such a cipher.

paragraphs: The Feistel construction is also used in cryptographic algorithms other than block ciphers. For example, the Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP) scheme uses a simple Feistel network to randomize ciphertexts in certain asymmetric-key encryption schemes.


title: George Wythe

paragraphs: George Wythe (1726 – June 8, 1806), was a lawyer, judge, prominent law professor and "Virginia's foremost classical scholar." Wythe was one of the seven men from Virginia who signed the United States Declaration of Independence.

paragraphs: Wythe served as mayor of Williamsburg, Virginia from 1768 to 1769. In 1779 he was appointed to the newly created Chair of Law at William and Mary, becoming the first law professor in the United States. Wythe's pupils included Thomas Jefferson, Henry Clay, James Monroe, and John Marshall.


title: Josiah Bartlett

paragraphs: Josiah Bartlett (November 21, 1729– May 19, 1795), was an American physician and statesman, delegate to the Continental Congress for New Hampshire. He signed the Declaration of Independence. He was later Chief Justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature and governor of the state.


title: Carter Braxton

paragraphs: Carter Braxton (September 10, 1736 – October 10, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and a representative of Virginia.

paragraphs: He was born on Newington Plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia and educated at the William and Mary. He married a wealthy heiress named Judith Robinson at the age nineteen, but she died two years later, leaving him two daughters.

paragraphs: He journeyed to England for two years and returned to the colonies in 1760, marrying again, this time to Elizabeth Corbin, and represented King William County in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He joined the patriot's Committee of Safety in Virginia in 1774 and represented his county in the Virginia Convention.

paragraphs: When Peyton Randolph died in 1775, Braxton was appointed to take his place in the Continental Congress. He served in the Congress from February 1776 until August, when Virginia reduced its delegation to five members. Afterwards he returned to the House of Burgesses, and later served on the State's Executive Council.


title: Islamic theology

paragraphs: Islamic theology deals with the beliefs of the Islamic faith.

paragraphs: Islamic theology comes from the Qur'an, Hadith, and the story of Muhammad's life ("Sirah Rasul Allah").

paragraphs: Kalam is the Islamic philosophy of seeking theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word means "speech". A scholar of kalam is called a "mutakallim" (Muslim theologian; plural "mutakallimiin").

paragraphs: Eschatology is understood as the last things or ultimate things, and in Muslim theology, eschatology is about the end of this world and what will happen in the next world. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the destruction of this world, the resurrection of human souls, the final judgments of human deeds by Allah after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers. The places for the believers are known as Paradise and for the non-believers as Hell.

paragraphs: Comparative religion in Muslim theology is about the differences and similarities between it and other theologies such as Christian and Jewish as explained in the Qur'an and the Prophetic traditions.

paragraphs: In the history of Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims with both similarities and differences with each other about their beliefs.

paragraphs: Sunni Muslims hold that there are six articles of belief: belief in Allah, in angels, in divinely revealed scripture] like Qur'an, in prophets, in the "Last Day" or end times, and in predestination.

paragraphs: Shi`ite Muslims hold that there are five articles of belief: the Divine Oneness and Justice, the Prophethood, the Imamate, and eschatology.

paragraphs: In the relationship between humans and their creator, Mu`tazilites emphasize human free will over predestination and God's justice over God's omnipotence. Mu'tazilites also believe in the use of logic to decide the true meanings of the Qur'an. This and the principal of Ijtihad, led to their belief in dynamic Fiqh.


title: Mac OS X Leopard

paragraphs: Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard" is an operating system made by Apple Inc. for its Macintosh line of computers. It is a version of Mac OS X, and carries the release number 10.5. It was released on October 27, 2007, and came in one release for both Intel Mac's, and PowerPC processors. According to Apple, Leopard contains over 300 changes and improvements since Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger". Leopard was the last release for the PowerPC processor.


title: Weather forecast

paragraphs: A weather forecast is a prediction of what the weather will be in the future. Weather stations measure things such as temperature, air pressure and cloud cover. Meteorologists use these measurements and fluid dynamics and other methods to predict the weather. A forecast for many days in the future is less trustworthy than one for tomorrow or the next day.


title: MacBook

paragraphs: A MacBook is a type of laptop computer made by Apple Inc. It runs Mac OS X and comes with a built in webcam and microphone and a power adapter that is attached by magnets. MacBooks are currently available housed in white and black plastic.

paragraphs: Many college students purchase MacBooks to help with their studies and to stay connected with their family and friends.

paragraphs: The first models were released in 2006. It now has the same "unibody" construction as the MacBook Pro's.

paragraphs: The Macbook was introduced by Apple in May 2006. It replaced the iBook and 12 inch PowerBook series of notebooks because Apple was switching all of their CPUs to Intel from Power PC's.

paragraphs: Apple upgrades, or makes the MacBook better, about every six months, or half a year. This makes them faster and more reliable.

paragraphs: In October 2008, Apple decided to make a MacBook housed in aluminum. It was pretty much the same as the one housed in plastic except that it was a little better and that it was housed in metal. In June 2009, during WWDC (Apple's big yearly gathering), this laptop was renamed the MacBook Pro 13 inch.


title: SMS

paragraphs: An SMS, or short messaging service is a type of communication used in mobile phones. They are more commonly called 'text messages'. With SMS, someone can send text to another person.

paragraphs: SMS can be slow, as a network gives priority to phone calls, and only carries text messages after calls are handled. There is also a limit of 160 characters that a text message can send. Longer messages than this will be sent as multiple messages, where the sender has to pay for each individual message.

paragraphs: Text messages are often sent between phone users when an actual phone call is not wanted or needed. For example, they may be used in a situation where silence is needed, or to send something private that one person does not want people near them to hear. Message price depends on the phone network of the user. Some mobile phone plans allow for unlimited texting.


title: International waters

paragraphs: International waters is a body of water that does not belong to any country. This is because it is farther than two hundred miles away from a country.


title: Alternative hip hop

paragraphs: Alternative hip hop is a form of hip hop music that is very different from gangsta rap, crunk, and snap. A way to explain it would be that if "regular hip hop" was on the middle of a number line, gangsta rap, crunk, and snap would be on one side, and alternative hip hop would be on the other. Even though it is a form of hip hop, fans of alternative hip hop tend to also be fans of horrorcore more than "regular hip hop" or especially R&B.

paragraphs: Alternative hip hop originally came from the United States, and some artists like Gorillaz sprang up from the United Kingdom. Examples of American alternative hip hop artists are Talib Kweli, Mos Def, (and the band they started together, Black Star), Common, Nas, Kanye West, A Tribe Called Quest, Jurassic 5, and Styles of Beyond. It started as a movement-of-sorts from hip hop artists against the "tasteless" hip hop that was popular in the 1990s.


title: Jason Varitek

paragraphs: Jason Varitek (born April 11, 1972 in Rochester, Michigan) is an American retired baseball player who played in the MLB. Varitek played for the Boston Red Sox up until his retirement in March 2012.

paragraphs: Varitek was called up from Triple A Pawtucket on September 24, 1997, for one game. In 1998, he and catcher Scott Hatteberg were the starting catchers. That season, Varitek played 86 games, while Hatteberg played 76. Varitek had a good spring training in 1999. Because of that, he became the starting catcher.

paragraphs: Varitek had a great season in 1999. Varitek played in 144 games. He hit a .269 batting average, with 20 home runs and 76 RBIs. Varitek went 5–21 with 3 RBI in the 1999 ALDS playing. the Cleveland Indians. He then went 4–20 with 1 RBI in the ALCS playing the New York Yankees.


title: Süddeutsche Zeitung

paragraphs: The Süddeutsche Zeitung ("South German Newspaper") is the most-read nationwide quality-newspaper in Germany. It is published in Munich. Recently, they are known for leaking offshore bank accounts that led to the Panama Papers and the Paradise Papers leak.

paragraphs: The Süddeutsche Zeitung is a liberal newspaper. The national edition features four sections: Politics, Culture, Economy and Sports. There are also regional editions for Munich and Bavaria featuring local news. There are 6 newspapers a week. It has the second most readers in Germany after the tabloid newspaper Bild-Zeitung. There are about 442,000 papers sold each day, reaching over 1.1 million readers daily.

paragraphs: The Süddeutsche Zeitung was published for the first time on October 6, 1945. It was the first newspaper in Bavaria to get a licence from the U.S. military government after World War II.


title: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung

paragraphs: The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is a conserative newspaper in Germany.

paragraphs: The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is the leading conservative newspaper in Germany.

paragraphs: There are 6 newspapers a week and supplementary the Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung on Sundays.

paragraphs: There are about 360,000 newspapers sold every day.

paragraphs: It is the German newspaper with the widest circulation abroad. It is sold to 148 countries every day.

paragraphs: The first edition of the FAZ published on November 1, 1949. Its founding editor was Erich Welter. Some editors had worked for the Frankfurter Zeitung, which was banned in 1943.


title: Frankfurter Rundschau

paragraphs: The Frankfurter Rundschau is a nationwide newspaper in Germany.

paragraphs: The <nowiki>"</nowiki>Frankfurter Rundschau is a left-wing liberal newspaper in Germany. Its position is often similar to the positions of the trade unions.

paragraphs: It has a regional part for Hesse and a local part for Frankfurt am Main, too.

paragraphs: There are about 180,000 newapapers sold daily.

paragraphs: The <nowiki>"Franfurter Rundschau"</nowiki> is the first newspaper in Germany in the tabloid format.

paragraphs: The Frankfurter Rundschau<nowiki>"</nowiki> was the second newspaper starting in Germany after the World War II on the 1st of August 1945.

paragraphs: And it was the first newspaper in the U.S. sector.

paragraphs: The licence was handed over to the first team of editors consisting of Emil Carlebach, Hans Etzkorn, Wilhelm Karl Gerst, Otto Grossmann, Wilhelm Knothe, Paul Rodemann and Arno Rudert.

paragraphs: There were social democrats, political katholics and communists, who had spent years in the resistance and nazi concentration camps or in exile.


title: Die Zeit

paragraphs: Die Zeit is a nationwide weekly newspaper in Germany.

paragraphs: "Die Zeit" (the title means: "The Time") is read by about 2 million people. It sells about 480.000 copies every week. It is well known for its good articles which are well-written and often detailed. It is read by well-educated people. It is a liberal newspaper.

paragraphs: It includes articles about politics, economics, knowledge, the sciences, art, literature, education, life (style) and travel. It has many advertisements for jobs at universities.

paragraphs: The first copies of "Die Zeit" were published on the 21 February 1946 in Hamburg.

paragraphs: Since that day it has been published in Hamburg every week.


title: Der Spiegel

paragraphs: Der Spiegel is a weekly political magazine in Germany.

paragraphs: It was set up in 1947 as a copy of "Time magazine". It is now one of Europe's largest weekly magazines.

paragraphs: Der Spiegel is a liberal magazine. It has long, detailed articles.

paragraphs: It has a circulation of more than one million per week. It now has an on-line version, "Spiegel Online".

paragraphs: The first edition of the Spiegel magazine was published in Hanover on 4 January 1947. Later it was published in Hamburg.

paragraphs: Rudolf Augstein was the publisher from the very first issue until his death in 2002.

paragraphs: There was an affair which became known as the "Spiegel affair" in the early 1960s, when Defense Secretary Franz-Josef Strauß arrested writers and publishers of the Spiegel, because he was angry about a critical report on the Germany army (the Bundeswehr).

paragraphs: Many political affairs in Germany were first made known by Der Spiegel, e.g. the Flick affair. "The magazine is renowned for its aggressive, vigorous, and well-written exposes of government malpractice and scandals".


title: Oliver Wolcott

paragraphs: Oliver Wolcott (December 1, 1726– December 1, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and also the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Connecticut.

paragraphs: Oliver Wolcott was born in Windsor, Connecticut as the youngest of fourteen children of the Royal Governor Roger Wolcott. He attended Yale College, graduating in 1747. He was commissioned to raise a militia company to fight in the French and Indian War, and he served the King as Captain in this unit on the northern frontier. At the end of the war, Wolcott studied medicine, then was appointed sheriff of the newly created Litchfield County, Connecticut, serving from about 1751 to 1771.

paragraphs: He participated in the American Revolutionary War as brigadier general and then major general in the Connecticut militia. The Continental Congress appointed him Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and he was elected to the Congress in 1775. He became seriously ill in 1776 and did not sign the Declaration of Independence until some time later. He was engaged in military affairs between 1776-78, and served again in Congress from 1778-1784.

paragraphs: He served again as an Indian Commissioner, and was elected Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut in 1786, assuming the Governorship on the death of Samuel Huntington in 1796, and was reelected to the position, dying in office at the age of seventy-one in Farmington, Connecticut. He is buried in East Cemetery in Litchfield, Connecticut.

paragraphs: The town of Wolcott, Connecticut was named in honor of Oliver and his son, Oliver Jr. His home in Litchfield was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971.

paragraphs: His son, Oliver Wolcott, Jr., served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents George Washington and John Adams and as Governor of Connecticut.


title: Thomas Paine

paragraphs: Thomas Paine (29 January 1737 – 8 June 1809) was an English pamphleteer, revolutionary, inventor, and intellectual. Born in Norfolk, he lived and worked in Britain until he was 37, when he emigrated to the British American colonies during the American Revolution. His main contribution was the powerful, widely-read pamphlet "Common Sense" (1776). It promoted the idea of colonial America's independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain. He also wrote "The American Crisis" (1776–1783), a pro-revolutionary pamphlet series.

paragraphs: Thomas Paine went to France after the American Revolution to join the French Revolution. He wrote "The Age of Reason" while in prison there. This pamphlet was critical of organized religion. Paine along with other American founders such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison liked to apply reason to religion instead of revelation. This was part of the greater Age of Enlightenment movement that dated back to about the early 17th century. Paine died at the age of 72, at 59 Grove Street in Greenwich Village, New York City, on the morning of June 8, 1809.


title: Richard R. Schrock

paragraphs: Richard Royce Schrock (born on January 4, 1945) is an American Professor of Chemistry. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 2005 for his work on the metathesis reaction used in organic chemistry.

paragraphs: Professor Schrock was born in Berne, Indiana, and went to Mission Bay High School in San Diego, California. He was given a B.A. degree in 1967 from the University of California, Riverside and a Ph.D., in 1971, from Harvard University. At Harvard he was a student of J. A. Osborn. Between 1971 and 1972, he studied at the University of Cambridge with Lord Jack Lewis. In 1972, he began working for George Parshall in the Experimental Station of the E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company in Wilmington, Delaware. He joined the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1975 and became a professor in 1980.

paragraphs: Schrock now works as the Frederick G. Keyes Professor of Chemistry, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He has worked there since 1989. Schrock is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Academy of Sciences and was elected to the Board of Overseers of Harvard University in 2007.

paragraphs: He married Nancy Carlson in 1971 and has two children, Andrew and Eric. Nancy Schrock is the Thomas F. Peterson, Jr. Conservator of Special Collections for the MIT Libraries. The family live in Winchester, Massachusetts.

paragraphs: In 2005 Professor Schrock received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with Robert H. Grubbs and Yves Chauvin, for his work on olefin metathesis, which is a method of organic synthesis. Schrock was the first scientist to make sense of 'black box' olefin metathesis. Olefin Metathesis is used when making petroleum and reduces the amount of dirty waste.

paragraphs: Professor Schrock's work is continuing with metathesis as well as projects such as dinitrogen fixation and single molecule catalysts which make ammonia from dinitrogen, similar to nitrogenase enzymes in biology.

paragraphs: Schrock carbenes are named after Schrock.


title: All your base are belong to us

paragraphs: "All your base are belong to us" (often shortened to "All Your Base", "AYBABTU", or simply "AYB") is a broken English phrase that began an internet phenomenon in 2001 and 2002, with the use of a Flash animation. The phrase is taken from the first part of a European Sega Mega Drive version of the video game "Zero Wing", made in Japan by Toaplan. The words in the game were translated into English so quickly that they did not make very much sense. The words "All your base are belong to us" were at first popular on the Something Awful message forums.

paragraphs: The phrase and similar phrases from the game has been shown in articles, books, comics, clothing, movies, radio shows, songs, television shows, video games, webcomics, and websites.


title: Gall

paragraphs: Galls are growths on the surface of plants and other lifeforms. They are caused by various parasites, such as fungi, bacteria, insects and mites.

paragraphs: Plant galls are abnormal growths of plant tissues similar to benign tumors or warts in animals.

paragraphs: What causes a plant gall can often be known without the actual agent being there. Many types of gall have typical structures. This is true of many galls produced by insects and mites.

paragraphs: Insect galls on plants give some herbivorous insects their own microhabitat. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect. Galls are the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The gall may contain nutritious starch and other tissues. Galls often give the insect physical protection from predators.

paragraphs: Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae or the adults of the insects into the plants. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. In order to form galls, the insects must seize the time when plant cell division occurs quickly. The growing season, spring in temperate climates, is longer in the tropics.

paragraphs: Galls can be used by humans, and have been since ancient times. One use is to collect the pigment which many galls make. The galls are rich in resins and tannins, from which dyes and inks can be made. Galls can be used to make a mordant for dyeing: mordants make the dye on the cloth permanent. Also, permanent black ink can be made from galls, and that has been done for a long time.

paragraphs: The larvae inside the galls may be used as food or as fishing bait, and some galls have medicinal uses.


title: Zeroth law of thermodynamics

paragraphs: The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics says that if a change to the temperature(T) from one object (for example 'A') changes the temperature of another object ('B'), and a change to the temperature of 'B' changes the temperature of 'C' (a third object), then a change to the temperature of 'A' will mean a change to the temperature of 'C'. Heat naturally flows from areas that are hot to areas that are cold.

paragraphs: It is called the zeroth (0) law of thermodynamics because it was discovered after the others, but scholars thought it was more important so they wanted to give it a number before the other laws.


title: Peach (color)

paragraphs: Peach is a color that represents the color of the peach fruit.

paragraphs: Peach paint can be made by mixing orange paint and white paint.

paragraphs: The first written use of "peach" as a color name in English was in 1588.

paragraphs: The word "peach" comes from the Middle English "peche", from Middle French, in turn from Latin "persica", i.e., "the fruit from Persia". In actuality, the origin of the peach fruit was from China.


title: Third law of thermodynamics

paragraphs: The definition is: at absolute zero , the entropy of a perfectly crystalline substance is zero.

paragraphs: Experimentally, it is not possible to obtain −273.15°C, as of now. It is found that most of the gases either liquify or solidify before reaching such a temperature, gaseous molecules no longer remaining. So far, scientists have been able to get close to, but not exactly, absolute zero. This may change in the future.


title: Dion Dublin

paragraphs: Dion Dublin is an English former footballer. He has played for England national team.


title: Danny Murphy

paragraphs: Danny Murphy (born 18 March 1977) is an English footballer. He plays for Fulham.


title: Stéphane Henchoz

paragraphs: Stéphane Henchoz (born 7 September 1974) is a former Swiss football player. He has played for Switzerland national team.


title: Milan Baroš

paragraphs: Milan Baroš (born 28 October 1981) is a Czech football player. He plays for Galatasaray and Czech Republic national team.


title: Gabriel Batistuta

paragraphs: Gabriel Batistuta (born 1 February 1969) is a former Argentine football player. He has played for Argentina national team.


title: Bentley

paragraphs: Bentley is a British car maker. It is based in Crewe, Cheshire.

paragraphs: Bentley is famous for their fast, luxury vehicles. In 1998, the German Volkswagen Group purchased Bentley for £430 million.


title: Chloe O'Brian

paragraphs: Chloe O'Brian is a character in the television series "24". She works at the Counter Terrorist Unit as an analyst. O'Brian is a close friend of Jack Bauer.


title: Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department

paragraphs: There are 119 communes in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in France, all included in the following list:


title: Allauch

paragraphs: Allauch is a commune of 19,400 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Alleins

paragraphs: Alleins is a commune of 2,368 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Aubagne

paragraphs: Aubagne is a commune of 42,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Aureille

paragraphs: Aureille is a commune of 1,463 people (2007). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Auriol, Bouches-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Auriol is a commune of 11,057 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Aurons

paragraphs: Aurons is a commune of 515 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: La Barben

paragraphs: La Barben is a commune of 649 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Barbentane

paragraphs: Barbentane is a commune of 3,660 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Ehrenbreitstein

paragraphs: Festung Ehrenbreitstein is a fortress. It was built on a mountain called Ehrenbreitstein on the right side of the Rhine opposite to the town of Koblenz in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate.

paragraphs: It was built as part of the "Festung Koblenz" (Fortress Koblenz), by Prussia between 1817 and 1832 and guarded the middle Rhine region. This area had often been invaded by French. The fortress was never attacked.


title: Les Baux-de-Provence

paragraphs: Les Baux-de-Provence is a commune of 381 people (2006). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.


title: Beaurecueil

paragraphs: Beaurecueil is a commune of 568 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Belcodène

paragraphs: Belcodène is a commune of 1,731 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Berre-l'Étang

paragraphs: Berre-l'Étang is a commune of 14,300 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Bouc-Bel-Air

paragraphs: Bouc-Bel-Air is a commune of 13,700 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Jeep

paragraphs: Jeep is a brand of American automobiles that is a division of FCA US LLC (formerly Chrysler Group, LLC), a wholly owned subsidiary of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. The former Chrysler Corporation acquired the Jeep brand, along with the remaining assets of its owner American Motors, in 1987. Jeep's current product range consists solely of sport utility vehicles and off-road vehicles, but has also included pickup trucks in the past.

paragraphs: The original Jeep was the prototype Bantam BRC. Willys MB Jeeps went into production in 1941 specifically for the military. Arguably that makes them the oldest four-wheel drive mass-production vehicles now known as SUVs. The Jeep became the primary light 4-wheel-drive vehicle of the United States Army and the Allies during World War II. It remained so in the postwar period. The term became common worldwide in the wake of the war. Doug Stewart notes:

paragraphs: The first civilian models were produced in 1945. It inspired a number of other light utility vehicles, such as the Land Rover. Many Jeep variants serving similar military and civilian roles have since been designed in other nations. In 2007 Jeep began manufacturing crossover SUVs with its Compass and Patriot models. This led to the 2013 Jeep Cherokee midsize crossover.


title: La Bouilladisse

paragraphs: La Bouilladisse is a commune of 4,904 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Boulbon

paragraphs: Boulbon is a commune of 1,510 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Cabannes

paragraphs: Cabannes is a commune of 4,119 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Cabriès

paragraphs: Cabriès is a commune of 8,073 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Cadolive

paragraphs: Cadolive is a commune of 2,087 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Carnoux-en-Provence

paragraphs: Carnoux-en-Provence is a commune of 7,042 people (1999). It is Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.


title: Carry-le-Rouet

paragraphs: Carry-le-Rouet is a commune of 6,355 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Cassis

paragraphs: Cassis is a commune of 7,766 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Ceyreste

paragraphs: Ceyreste is a commune of 4,034 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Charleval, Bouches-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Charleval is a commune of 2,080 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Filipino language

paragraphs: Filipino is a form of the Tagalog language. It is the national language of the Philippines. About one third of the people in the Philippines speak Tagalog as a first language.

paragraphs: "Filipino" is used as the formal name of Tagalog. Sometimes it even means the same thing. It is usually called Tagalog in the Philippines and among Filipinos to show that it is different from other Philippine languages.


title: Châteauneuf-le-Rouge

paragraphs: Châteauneuf-le-Rouge is a commune of 2,070 people (as of 2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Châteauneuf-les-Martigues

paragraphs: Châteauneuf-les-Martigues is a commune of 11,900 people (). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Châteaurenard

paragraphs: Châteaurenard is a commune of 14,817 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: La Ciotat

paragraphs: La Ciotat is a commune of 32,126 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Cornillon-Confoux

paragraphs: Cornillon-Confoux is a commune of 1,327 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Coudoux

paragraphs: Coudoux is a commune of 3,352 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Cuges-les-Pins

paragraphs: Cuges-les-Pins is a commune of 4,708 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: La Destrousse

paragraphs: La Destrousse is a commune of 2,736 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Éguilles

paragraphs: Éguilles is a commune of 7,544 people (2007). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Ensuès-la-Redonne

paragraphs: Ensuès-la-Redonne is a commune of 5,096 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Eygalières

paragraphs: Eygalières is a commune of 1,900 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Eyguières

paragraphs: Eyguières is a commune. It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 6,312 people lived there in 2007.


title: Eyragues

paragraphs: Eyragues is a commune of 4,179 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: La Fare-les-Oliviers

paragraphs: La Fare-les-Oliviers is a commune of 6,334 people (1999). It is located in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Fos-sur-Mer

paragraphs: Fos-sur-Mer is a commune of 15,700 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Fuveau

paragraphs: Fuveau is a commune of 8,558 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Gardanne

paragraphs: Gardanne is a commune of 20,700 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Gémenos

paragraphs: Gémenos is a commune in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France. As of 1999, 5,481 people lived there.


title: Gignac-la-Nerthe

paragraphs: Gignac-la-Nerthe is a commune. It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 9,140 people lived there in 2004.


title: Grans

paragraphs: Grans is a commune of 4,078 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Graveson

paragraphs: Graveson is a commune of 3,836 people (2008). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.

paragraphs: The village is very attractive for holidaymakers, because it is located between Arles and Avignon. Neighbour villages are Châteaurenard, Maillane and Rognonas.

paragraphs: Graveson is birthplace of the painter Auguste Chabaud.


title: Gréasque

paragraphs: Gréasque is a commune of 3,705 people (2004). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Istres

paragraphs: Istres is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the south of France. About 45,000 people live there.

paragraphs: La fête des bergers (The shepherds' festival) is held at the end of November and beginning of December.


title: Jouques

paragraphs: Jouques is a commune of 3,321 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Lamanon

paragraphs: Lamanon is a commune of 1,713 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France. It's known because of the archaeological site of Grottes de Calès, a cave dwelling from prehistoric to medieval times.


title: Lambesc

paragraphs: Lambesc is a commune of 7,934 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Lançon-Provence

paragraphs: Lançon-Provence is a commune of 7,674 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Maillane

paragraphs: Maillane is a commune of 2,013 people (2004). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Mallemort

paragraphs: Mallemort is a commune of 5,501 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Marignane

paragraphs: Marignane is a commune of 33,700 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.