title: Anubis

paragraphs: Anubis is the protector of the gates to the Underworld, Osiris replaced him as the god of the dead. He looks like a man with the head of a jackal (an animal, native to Africa, similar to wolves).

paragraphs: Anubis, as the god of death and the afterlife, was closely associated with mummification and burial rites. Egyptian jackals had an association with the dead, as well. They were often found digging up buried bodies and eating them, which may be why Anubis was depicted as part jackal. The priests who mummified the dead kings (called pharaohs) wore costumes to make them appear like jackals.

paragraphs: The Egyptian people believed that Anubis helped decide the fate of the dead in the afterlife. The heart of the dead was weighed against the feather of truth (representing the goddess Ma'at), to see if the deceased was worthy of entering the afterlife. If the person had lived an evil life, his or her heart would be heavy with evil, and he or she would be eaten by Ammit (the Devourer). If a person was kind and good, the heart would be light, he or she could continue on to the afterlife safe and sound to meet Osiris.

paragraphs: In later times, during the Ptolemaic period, as their functions were similar, Anubis came to be identified as the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis. The centre of this cult was in "uten-ha"/"Sa-ka"/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name simply means "city of dogs". In Book XI of "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, it was revealed that Hermanubis also appeared in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

paragraphs: Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in heaven, and Cerberus in the underworld.


title: Atum

paragraphs: Atum was the creator of everything in ancient Egyptian mythology. He represented the very first history; nothing existed yet except for him. According to the myth, he rose up out of the chaotic waters of Nu and used his own female side to create Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture). For a while, his two children were lost at sea. Atum sent his removable eye, the Udjat Eye, to go look for them. When they returned, Atum cried tears of joy. Where these tears hit the ground is where men formed. Out of the two elements water and air, the other gods and goddesses were born. The Egyptians believed he was the father of all the gods.

paragraphs: Atum was first the partner of the earth then the partner of the setting sun.


title: Antisemitism

paragraphs: Antisemitism is the hatred of or prejudice against Jews. Antisemitism has a long history, but the most well known act of anti-semitism is the Holocaust perpetrated by Germany, also known as the Final Solution, a genocide which happened between 1933 and 1945. The plan was to totally get rid of the Jewish people in Europe, and up to 60-75% of them were killed. Around six million European Jews were killed because of the Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. He said that Jews were a racial group with naturally bad features.

paragraphs: Antisemitism is still common today. In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled had very bad opinions of Jews. Only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a good view of Jews. In a 2013 survey of 5,847 Jewish people in Europe, 76% thought that antisemitism has increased in the past five years and 29% had thought about moving countries because they felt unsafe. Some related words include Judeophobia and Israelophobia. In the United States, antisemitic views are common as well. A 2017 survey showed that 14% of Americans had antisemitic feelings.

paragraphs: The New Testament has anti-Semitic contents.


title: Esteban Huertas

paragraphs: Esteban Huertas López (1876-1943) was a Colombian military leader from Panama.

paragraphs: He was born in Boyacá, Colombia. When he was 8 years old he ran away from home and he joined the army. He won many medals and in 1902 he became general. In 1900 he lost an arm when he fired a cannon.

paragraphs: In 1903 he was one of the people who made Panama independent. A year later president Manuel Amador forced Huertas to retire because he was afraid Huertas wanted to become dictator. Huertas died in Panama City in 1943.


title: Panama

paragraphs: Panama is a country in Central America. Its official name is the Republic of Panama, and it is most famous for the Panama Canal. Countries bordering Panama are Costa Rica in the Northwest and Colombia in the Southeast. Panama is between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Most of the people in Panama are Roman Catholic (about 80%).

paragraphs: The Caribbean has many good natural harbors. However, Cristóbal, at the Caribbean of the , had the only important port facilities in the late 1980s. The many islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, near the beaches of Costa Rica, made an natural roadstead and shield for the port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near Colombia, are spread out for more than 160 km along the sheltered Caribbean coastline.

paragraphs: The population of Panama is about 3,405,813 in May 2010. The ethnic makeup of Panama is:

paragraphs: The information there **Other** is likely including Arabs, East Indians, and some Russian.

paragraphs: For ships, Panama is a flag of convenience.

paragraphs: In 2011 Panama had an unemployment rate of 2.7%. Panama also had a food surplus in August 2008. Panama was ranked at number 60 on the Human Development Index in 2008.

paragraphs: Panama's economy has experienced an economic boom in recent years. Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth was over 10.4% from 2006–2008. The Panamanian economy has been one of the fastest growing and best managed in Latin America. Latin Business Chronicle has predicted that Panama will be the fastest growing economy in Latin America in the five-year period of 2010–14.

paragraphs: Panama is impacted by the global financial crisis. It threatens to damage the social gains made in the past few years.

paragraphs: The expansion project of the Panama Canal and the free trade agreement with the United States is expected to boost and extend the economy.

paragraphs: Panama is divided into nine provinces. Also, there are five "Comarcas" (literally: "Shires") populated by a variety of indigenous groups.


title: Spanish language

paragraphs: Spanish (Spanish: "español", pronounced "Eh-span-yole", IPA: /espaɲol/), also called Castilian, is a Romance language. It is the most spoken Romance language in the world. As of November 2015, over 360 million people in the world spoke Spanish as their first language.

paragraphs: Spanish is used by many people in the world today, partly because Spain traveled and colonized many different parts of the world and created many new countries and new governments. The countries with Spanish as an official language are called the Hispanic countries. Most of them are in the Americas, which make up Latin America. They include the following:

paragraphs: In North America, Central America, and the Caribbean Islands:

paragraphs: In the United States and Belize, most people use English, but Spanish is the second-most common language.

paragraphs: Many Brazilians learn Spanish as a second language even though Brazil's official language is Portuguese.

paragraphs: The Spanish language was originally the language of Castile. When the Western Roman Empire collapsed, Latin changed in different ways in different provinces. The Latin spoken in the Iberian Peninsula developed into the Ibero-Romance language in the 6th century. Castilian and Portuguese became separate languages around the 12th century.

paragraphs: In Spain, there are other languages that also came from Latin that are connected to Spanish, like Catalan, and Galician. Basque, also called Euskera or Euskara, is spoken in the Basque region of northern Spain and the southern region of France. Very different from Spanish, Basque is a language isolate since it is not known to have descended from any language family.

paragraphs: Catalan is not a dialect of Spanish and is actually more closely related to French.

paragraphs: Spanish is sometimes called Castilian because Castile is the region in Spain that is the origin of the language. Castile is the region that is considered to speak the most proper form of Spanish.

paragraphs: The Spanish word for Spanish is "español", and the Spanish word for Castilian is "castellano". In the other Romance languages spoken on the Iberian Peninsula, such as Galician, Catalan, Asturian, and others, Spanish is usually called "Castellán" or "Castellà" instead of "Spanish". In Spain, the name of the subject in schools is "lengua castellana" (Castilian language). However, in the regions of Spain in which people speak only Spanish, people call their language Spanish.

paragraphs: In Portuguese, the word "castelhano" is common to mention Spanish, however, in informal language, the most preferred name for the language is "espanhol". Portuguese, which is spoken in Portugal and Brazil, has many similarities to Spanish.

paragraphs: In 2009, for the first time in history, Spanish was the most common "mother tongue" language of the western world, more than English. It was also the second most common language on Earth, after Chinese. As of 2016, the three most common languages in the world are:


title: Nahuatl

paragraphs: The Nahuatl language is a language spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in Mexico.

paragraphs: Nahuatl has existed since the 7th century CE.

paragraphs: The first people to speak Nahuatl were indigenous peoples in central Mexico. The Aztecs and the Toltecs spoke an early form of Nahuatl.

paragraphs: The people of Teotihuacan may have spoken Nahuatl.

paragraphs: Nahuatl has changed since the end of the Aztec Empire. Over time, many different dialects of Nahuatl have developed. Today, people who speak different Nahuatl dialects do not always understand each other.

paragraphs: The words "Mexico," "Guatemala," and "Nicaragua" all come from Nahuatl.

paragraphs: Today, most people who speak Nahuatl live in central Mexico. but A few live in other parts of Mexico or in the United States.

paragraphs: Nahuatl is one of the official languages of Mexico. However, most people who speak Nahuatl now also speak Spanish.

paragraphs: Many phrases that are unique to Mexican Spanish come from Nahuatl, according to John Lipski. The unique phrases are called "Mexicanisms." An example is "ándale, "which often means "let's go." Another example is the word "Bueno?" and is used by many Spanish-speakers when they answer the telephone.

paragraphs: Some English words from Nahuatl origin are:


title: Stephen Hawking

paragraphs: Stephen William Hawking (8 January 1942 – 14 March 2018) was a British theoretical physicist and mathematician. He was born in Oxford. In 1950, he moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire. He was one of the world's leading theoretical physicists. Hawking has written many science books for people who are not scientists.

paragraphs: Hawking was a professor of mathematics at the University of Cambridge (a position that Isaac Newton once had). He retired on 1 October 2009.

paragraphs: Hawking had a motor neurone disease related to his dyslexia, and because of that he could not move or talk very well. The illness worsened over the years and he was almost completely paralysed. He used a wheelchair to move, and an Intel computer to talk for him. He died on 14 March 2018.

paragraphs: Hawking went to St Albans School, a local public school in Hertfordshire. At 17, he passed an exam to study at Oxford. He studied physics and chemistry there. Because he found it really easy at the beginning, he didn't study a lot for the final exams.

paragraphs: In October 1962 he started his graduate course at Trinity Hall. It was at this time that his illness started to show up. He had difficulties in rowing and then even simply in walking. However, he finished his PhD and wrote about black holes in his thesis. He then got a fellowship (a job as a university teacher) at Gonville and Caius College in 1965.

paragraphs: Hawking was a cosmologist—someone who studies the structure of the universe (stars and space). He invented important theories about the Big Bang (the start of the universe), black holes and how they work.

paragraphs: Stephen Hawking predicted that black holes eject some radiation (energy), even though they normally swallow everything. That kind of radiation is named "Hawking Radiation."

paragraphs: Hawking also worked on the problem of quantum gravity. Quantum gravity tries to explain how gravity works with quantum mechanics (physics of tiny things.) That is a hard problem that scientists have not solved yet.

paragraphs: Hawking also wrote popular books about science for non-scientists. His first book, "A Brief History of Time," sold over ten million copies. Hawking had many other jobs as well. They were Actor, Mathematician, etc. More info on the official site

paragraphs: Hawking died on 14 March 2018 in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire of complications from motor neuron disease at the age of 76. His ashes are buried in Westminster Abbey in London near Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton.


title: Czech Republic

paragraphs: The Czech Republic (, ) is a country in Central Europe. As of 2 May 2016 the official short name of the country is Czechia (). The capital and the biggest city is Prague. The currency is the Czech Crown ("koruna česká" - CZK). €1 is about 25 CZK. The president of Czechia is Miloš Zeman. Czechia's population is about 10.5 million.

paragraphs: The local language is the Czech language, a Slavic language related to languages like Slovak and Polish.

paragraphs: Czechia has no sea; its neighbour countries are Germany, Austria, Slovakia, and Poland.

paragraphs: Its history dates from the 9th century AD, for a long time it was one of the most powerful countries in Central Europe. Later on it was the biggest, most populated and richest country of the First Reich, where many Emperors started their career. Under the conditions of the Treaty of Vienna 1515 parts of Czechia, then in the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, came under Habsburg rule after the death of Louis the Jagiellon in 1526. They stayed a part of the Habsburg dynasty rule until 1918.

paragraphs: The area of the today's Czechia was a part of Czechoslovakia (current area of Czechia and Slovak republic) from 1918 to 1992. Czechoslovakia became independent in 1918 from Austro-Hungarian Empire. The first Czechoslovakian president was Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. In February 1948 the Communist party took over the country and for the next 41 years Czechoslovakia was a Socialist state with a rule of one (Communist) party. In 1968 there was a reformation movement (Prague Spring) within the Communist party, but reforms were stopped by the invasion of Warsaw pact armies. In November 1989 Czechoslovakia returned to democracy through the peaceful "Velvet Revolution".  Czechoslovakia peacefully split into two countries (Czechia and Slovakia) in 1993.

paragraphs: Czechia has been a member of the European Union since May 1 2004, and a member of NATO since March 12, 1999.

paragraphs: The highest point in the country is Sněžka at .

paragraphs: There are four national parks in Czechia. The oldest is Krkonoše National Park. The others are Šumava National Park, Podyjí National Park, Bohemian Switzerland.

paragraphs: In 1949 the communist government created 13 centralized regions instead of historical countries. In 1960 the regions changed leaving only 8 regions. In 2000 14 regions were formed with their own regional self-government.

paragraphs: Czechia has one of the least religious populations in the world. According to the 2011 census, 34.2% of the population stated they had no religion, 10.3% were Roman Catholic, 0.8% were Protestant (0.5% Czech Brethren and 0.4% Hussite), and 9.4% followed other forms of religion both denominational or not (of which 863 people answered they are Pagan). 45.2% of the population did not answer the question about religion.


title: Flag

paragraphs: A flag is a piece of coloured cloth with a special design that is put on a pole as a symbol.

paragraphs: Flags first appeared more than 2000 years ago in China, and in Europe under the Roman Empire.


title: Karaite Judaism

paragraphs: Karaite Judaism is a kind of Judaism that accepts only the Hebrew Bible as authoritative, and rejects any religious authority in Mishnah and Talmud, which are explanations of the Bible by rabbis in the first few centuries of the Common Era. Karaite Jews believe that each person should be able to explain the Torah for themselves, instead of following the explanations of the rabbis. Today the largest communities of Karaites are in Israel and San Francisco.

paragraphs: The list of main beliefs to Karaite Judaism are called the "Tuv Taam." It is called this because those are the first two words in Hebrew of the beliefs. These beliefs are:


title: Warship

paragraphs: A warship is a ship carrying weapons, which is used by the navy. Some warships also carry naval aircraft.

paragraphs: Warships are made in many different sizes. Here is a list of different kinds of warships, from the largest to the smallest of World War II:

paragraphs: Modern warships come in the same "class" of ship as they did in World War II, but the sizes are different. From largest to smallest:

paragraphs: Support warships are used to supply ammunition, food, and other supplies to the larger warships. Some warships exist to carry powerful radio receivers and computers to detect and analyze transmissions from nearby ships. Usually these kinds of ships are smaller, and do not have many guns or missiles themselves.


title: Coast guard

paragraphs: A Coast Guard is an organization that protects people at sea. The role of a coastguard varies greatly by country. The coast guard is sometimes part of a military, or a semi-military organization, or else is a law enforcement (policing) agency. However, the coast guard is always separate from the Navy.

paragraphs: For example, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) is a branch of the military. Their duties include searching for people, ships and boats in danger at sea, rescuing those in danger and law enforcement to protect people from terrorism and crimes at sea. It can also become part of the Navy in a time of war.

paragraphs: By contrast, Her Majesty's Coastguard in the United Kingdom is neither a military force nor a law enforcement agency. Its only job is to lead searches and rescues for those in danger at sea, while the Royal National Lifeboat Institution launch most of the rescue boats.


title: Equilibrium market price

paragraphs: An equilibrium market price is the price at which there is no tendency for it to change.

paragraphs: When price is lower than the equilibrium price, quantity demanded will be greater than quantity supplied. There will be a tendency for the price to increase.

paragraphs: When price is higher than the equilibrium price, quantity supplied will be greater than quantity demanded. There will be a tendency for the price to decrease.

paragraphs: Equilibrium market price is attained when the quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. It is sometimes called market clearing price.


title: Samba

paragraphs: Samba is a kind of music, dancing, and singing, originally from Brazil. It began as a music/dance movement in the 1920s.

paragraphs: Samba is a lively, rhythmical dance of Brazilian origin in 2/4 time. In ballroom dance there are three steps to every bar, making the samba feel something like a 3/4 timed dance. The timing is one, a-two, with the values about one beat, 1/4 beat, 3/4 beat.

paragraphs: There are two main types of samba that differ from each other: the modern ballroom samba, and the traditional samba of Brazil. Traditional Brazilian samba includes the samba which is danced solo at Carnival. In that case, the dancers take just one step on each beat.

paragraphs: The ballroom samba has its origins in Brazil at the beginning of the 20th century. Many steps can be traced back to the Maxixe danced in 1910s. A book published in France in 1928 already described how to perform the samba. The modern ballroom dance was created in England, mostly with steps adapted from those seen in Brazil. This version is now danced all over the world in international competitive dancing as regulated by the World Dance Council.

paragraphs: Ballroom samba, like other ballroom dances, is a form adapted for its suitability as a partner dance. The dance movements, which do not change depending on the style of samba music being played, borrows some movements from Afro-Brazilian traditional dances such those used in candomblé rituals.

paragraphs: The ballroom samba is danced to music in 2/4 time. The basic movements are counted either 1-2 or 1-a-2, and are danced with a slight bouncing action. This action is created through the bending and straightening of the knees, with bending occurring on the beats of 1 and 2, and the straightening occurring on the "a". Samba is notable for its constantly changing rhythms however, with cross-rhythms being a common feature. Thus, common step values (in beats are):

paragraphs: The following applies to the type of samba done during street carnivals where the musicians will move along with the dancers, sometimes on foot, sometimes on a motorized 'float' or platform.

paragraphs: The music is played with different instruments – bass drums (a surdo drum, used for keeping a steady beat), snare drums, a whistle (called an apito [a-peet-oh], used for beginning and ending sections of music), other types of untuned percussion, and different varieties of bells.

paragraphs: Other sections are when the apito blasts one rhythm, and all other instruments respond using another rhythm (that lasts the same amount of time as the first), named a call and response section; and a Samba piece can have instrument solos, when one instrument is playing an exciting rhythm. The apito caller signals the end of one section and the beginning of the next by blasting a short call. Pieces always have clear beginnings and ends.

paragraphs: Ballroom sambas are usually played by standard ballroom dance bands with one or two extra percussion instruments.


title: Nuclear weapon

paragraphs: A nuclear weapon, also known as a nuclear bomb or a nuke, is a weapon that suddenly releases the energy in the nucleus of certain types of atoms. When triggered, these devices release a huge amount of energy in the form of a nuclear explosion.

paragraphs: Nuclear explosions can destroy a city and kill most of its people. They also make nuclear fallout that may also make people very sick. Nuclear weapons are the most damaging weapons to have been created.

paragraphs: The first nuclear weapons were built by the United States during World War II. Two nuclear weapons were used to attack cities in Japan. These were the only times when nuclear weapons were used in war.

paragraphs: Today, the United States and Russia have the most nuclear weapons. The other countries that have nuclear weapons are: China, France, United Kingdom, India, Israel, North Korea, and Pakistan. South Africa used to have nuclear weapons, but they decided to destroy them.

paragraphs: There are two ways to make nuclear weapons: fission weapons (also called atomic bombs or A-Bombs) and fusion weapons (also called hydrogen bombs, H-Bombs or thermonuclear weapons). The way they make energy for the nuclear explosion is different. Fusion weapons make bigger explosions. Fission weapons use a special isotope of uranium or plutonium. Fusion weapons use a special isotope of hydrogen.

paragraphs: In the years after 1895, people studying physics begin to understand how atoms are made. Around 1915, people began to have the idea that breaking special atoms can release large quantities of energy and can be used to make a bomb.

paragraphs: In 1939, people studying physics began to understand the theory of nuclear fission weapons, but no country knew how to build one. When World War II started, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States wanted to build nuclear weapons. Germany did not finish building them, partly because many of the best people studying physics fled Germany after Nazi rule started. The United Kingdom started working in 1939, but it took too much money, so they gave up in 1942. Later that year, the United States started a very large program to build nuclear weapons. It built upon the work done in the United Kingdom. The program was called the "Manhattan Project".

paragraphs: By August 1945, the Manhattan Project built three nuclear fission weapons. Two of these bombs were used by the United States to attack the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. People from the Manhattan Project believe that around 105,000 people were killed and 94,000 were hurt when the bombs were used. Medical professionals later came to believe that more than 225,000 people died when everyone affected after long periods of time are counted. Japan announced its surrender after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

paragraphs: After World War II, the Soviet Union also began working to create nuclear weapons.

paragraphs: One way that nuclear weapons release energy is by breaking atoms apart. This is called nuclear fission and is the basis for atomic bombs. Specific isotopes of uranium or plutonium are typically used in these weapons. These elements can be made to undergo nuclear fission and have a nuclear chain reaction.

paragraphs: Another process can be used to create nuclear weapons that create even bigger explosions and release much more energy by fusing atoms together. This process is called nuclear fusion, and weapons based on this process are called hydrogen bombs or thermonuclear weapons. Specialized isotopes of hydrogen are typically used in these weapons.

paragraphs: Nuclear weapons produce a very large amount of energy and radiation, which can kill people or animals within several kilometers. Most of the radiation is X-rays, which heats the air to produce a huge nuclear fireball. The rapid expansion of the fireball creates a dangerous shock wave that can destroy houses or buildings several kilometers away. The radiation can cause radiation poisoning and also has the potential to cause mutations in the DNA, which can cause cancer.

paragraphs: Nuclear bombs also release fallout, which is nuclear material and dust that has been irradiated and become radioactive. Over time the radioactive fallout can potentially kill people farther away, depending on how much was released. Fallout from a nuclear explosion can be blown by the wind over large distances from where the explosion occurred, and can remain dangerous for long periods of time.

paragraphs: A hydrogen bomb, also known as a fusion bomb, is a nuclear weapon which utilizes hydrogen isotopes (deuterium and tritium) in addition to uranium or plutonium. Hydrogen bombs have the potential to be much more powerful than fission bombs. Despite the name, a typical hydrogen bomb only has enough hydrogen to produce additional neutrons to detonate a casing made of natural uranium. The fuel in hydrogen bombs is thus mostly unrefined uranium.

paragraphs: Nuclear weapons are difficult to build because they need special isotopes of uranium or plutonium, as well as specialized technology. This is why few countries have nuclear weapons. When countries without nuclear weapons create their own, this is commonly referred to as nuclear proliferation.

paragraphs: Getting a nuclear weapon to its target can be as hard as making one. The explosive material can be placed in a bomb or artillery shell, or into a missile. When a nuclear device is placed on a missile it will commonly be called a nuclear missile. Nuclear missiles can be carried by airplanes, submarines, or trucks, or they can be placed into underground missile silos. Some kinds of airplanes like the B-29 Superfortress, B-36 Peacemaker, B-52 Stratofortress and B-2 Spirit have carried nuclear weapons.

paragraphs: They are also carried by missiles, such as intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) or submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Some missiles travel to the border of space, and then launch a number of separate nuclear weapons back toward the ground, with each weapon travelling to a different target. This is called a MIRV Warhead, or Multiple Independent Reentry Vehicles. Very large nuclear bombs have been produced, but in practice a weapon with multiple warheads can produce much more damage by attacking more targets.

paragraphs: Nuclear weapons take many resources to make, because the materials they are made of are very rare and it takes many scientists to make them. But several countries have managed to create nuclear weapons and many have them today. The countries that possess nuclear weapons are listed here in the order that they were invented: United States (1945), Russia (1949), United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), China (1964), India (1974), and Pakistan (1998). Other countries are believed to secretly have nuclear weapons or develop them. Some countries used to have nuclear weapons, but have since then said that they had gotten rid of their nuclear weapons.

paragraphs: Some countries have lost nuclear weapons while transporting them. There are 92 known instances of atom bombs being lost at sea by all the countries known to posses them. Bombs have been lost in 15 different cases. However, there could be more lost bombs.

paragraphs: This is a list is of the main nuclear explosions which have happened. As well as the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first nuclear test of a given weapon type for a country is included, and tests which were otherwise notable (such as the largest test ever). All yields (explosive power) are given in their estimated energy equivalents in kilotons of TNT.

paragraphs: Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were done at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980. As public awareness and concern grew over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to nuclear fallout, various studies were done. A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study says that nuclear fallout might have led to 11,000 excess deaths, most caused by thyroid cancer linked to exposure to iodine-131.

paragraphs: Notable individuals who have been associated with nuclear weapons and related issues include:


title: Chojnów

paragraphs: Chojnów is small city in Poland. As of the year 2000, 14,900 people live in the city. The city is on the river Skora. The city belongs to the county Legnica. It is in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. The average height of the city is 170 meters above sea level.

paragraphs: Chojnów is first mentioned in a note dated 1272 as a Haynow settlement. In 1288 it's called city (civitas) in documents of Prince of Legnica Henryk V Gruby. In 1333 in gained the status of a city (civitas).

paragraphs: Every year in first days of June, Days of Chojnów (Dni Chojnowa) are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race Masters has been organized in Chojnów once a year for the past few years.

paragraphs: Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural city. Among products produced in Chojnów are: paperware, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, clothing for infants, children and adults.

paragraphs: The most interesting monuments of Chojnów are prince of Legnica's castle from the 13th century (currently used as a museum), two old churches, Baszta Tkaczy (Weavers' Tower) and preserved fragments of city walls.

paragraphs: The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest Park Piastowski (Piast's Park), named after Piast dynasty as part of Communist anti-German propaganda.

paragraphs: Wild animals that live around Chojnów are roe-deers, foxes, rabbits and wild domestic animals, especially cats.


title: Comics

paragraphs: In Comics, stories or information are given using pictures, or pictures and words together. In comics, a story is told with many pictures, mostly in panels. The first panel is supposed to be read first, and takes place earlier in time than the panels that follow it.

paragraphs: There are many kinds of comics. Comic strips are short comics which are often found in newspapers. Comic books are thin comics magazines. Graphic novels are books of comics. In Japan, comics are very popular, and Japanese comics are popular around the world. The Japanese word for comics is manga, and people use this word for Japanese comics in English and other languages.

paragraphs: The first comic strips in the United States were funny. "Comic" is another word for "funny", so they were called "comic strips". The first comic books were collections of comic strips. Today, many comics are serious, but they are still called "comics".

paragraphs: In comics, speech is usually shown through word balloons. There are many different kinds of word balloons, such as the "speech balloon", the "thought balloon" and the "scream balloon".


title: Diamond

paragraphs: A diamond (from the ancient Greek αδάμας – adámas "unbreakable") is a re-arrangement of carbon atoms (those are called allotropes).

paragraphs: Diamonds have the highest hardness of any bulk (all one type) material. Because of this, many important industries use diamonds as tools for cutting and polishing things. Many of them are clear, but some of them have colors, like yellow, red, blue, green and pink. Diamonds of a different color are called "fancies".

paragraphs: Big diamonds are very rare, and are worth a lot of money. Only 20% of diamonds are fit for jewellery. The other 80% are of lower quality. Those lower quality diamonds are called industrial diamonds, and are used to make things like drill bits and diamond saws. Even if a diamond is not of gem quality, it still has a value because It is very hard.

paragraphs: Cut and faceted diamonds can be attractive hence their use in jewellery. Diamonds are very effective electrical insulators, but also very good conductors of heat. On Mohs scale of mineral hardness, diamonds are scored as 10 (the highest score possible).

paragraphs: There are natural and synthetic diamonds. The Earth makes natural diamonds, and people make synthetic diamonds. Diamonds are the hardest natural substance known to man. Diamonds are made of pure carbon, the same chemical element as graphite, fullerene, and coal. But diamonds are very hard and in crystalline form. It is commonly believed that diamonds are formed from coal, but this is not true.

paragraphs: Diamonds are made deep in the Earth where there is an intense amount of pressure and heat. The formation of natural diamonds needs specific conditions. These are exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively low temperature, between about . These conditions are found in two places on Earth: in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike.

paragraphs: People find diamonds where volcanoes were a long time ago. They sometimes find tiny ones at the site of a meteorite strike. Sometimes people find diamonds on the top of the ground. But in places like South Africa, they must dig deep down into a diamond mine to get diamonds. Diamonds were first found in India.

paragraphs: Small synthetic diamonds are made for abrasives. Large synthetic ones are even more expensive to make than to find and dig up, so people don't make large synthetic diamonds.

paragraphs: For many decades the trading of diamonds was controlled by the De Beers group of companies, who controlled most of Africa's rich diamond mines. However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, new diamond mines opened in Canada and Australia that De Beers wasn't able to control. When the USSR collapsed in 1991, many cheap Russian diamonds entered the market, overwhelming De Beers and their efforts to control it. De Beers still runs most of Africa's diamond mines, but their mines now only produce about one third of the world's diamonds.


title: Thanksgiving

paragraphs: Thanksgiving is a holiday in the United States and Canada when people give thanks. In the United States, it is on the fourth Thursday of November. In Canada, it is on the second Monday of October.

paragraphs: In 1863, Abraham Lincoln said the last Thursday of November would be a national Day of Thanksgiving for the United States. American immigrants brought the customs and practices of the American Thanksgiving to Canada, beginning on April 5, 1872. The United States Congress permanently made the fourth Thursday of each November as a national holiday in the year 1941. In 1957, Canada made the second Monday of each October a national holiday. Thanksgiving was first celebrated to give thanks for the harvest.

paragraphs: The event that Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first feast in the New World in October 1621. This feast lasted three days. Edward Winslow, who was there, said that 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims were there. More people in the United States celebrate Thanksgiving than Christmas and New Year. Americans eat 46 million turkeys or more each Thanksgiving.


title: Nobel Prize

paragraphs: Every year, the Nobel Prizes () are given to people and institutions around the world. These prizes are for the study of science and for world peace. The science prizes include Literature, Science, and Medicine. The Nobel Prize was started by Alfred Nobel. His 1895 testament gave money for the Prizes. The Nobel Foundation now controls the money. The Foundation asks different committees or academies to decide who receives the prizes. For many people, a Nobel Prize is a very great honor. People who receive a Nobel Prize are called "Nobel laureates".

paragraphs: Each prize winner gets a medal, a diploma and a sum of money. In 1901, the winners of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK. This is same as 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007. In 2008, the winners were awarded a prize of 10,000,000 SEK. The awards are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, in a ceremony on December 10. This day is the anniversary of Nobel's death.

paragraphs: These are the committees and institutions who decide which people receive a Nobel Prize:

paragraphs: The "Nobel Prize in Economics" was not a part of Nobel's will. It was started in 1969 by Sveriges Riksbank, the Bank of Sweden. The bank donated money to the Nobel Foundation for the Economics Prize in 1968. The Economics Studies Prize is in the memory of Alfred Nobel. It is awarded each year with the other Nobel prizes.

paragraphs: Some people have received more than one Nobel Prize. They are:

paragraphs: Some families have received multiple laureates.


title: Graph

paragraphs: A graph is a picture designed to express words, particularly the connection between two or more quantities. You can see a graph on the right.

paragraphs: A simple graph usually shows the relationship between two numbers or measurements in the form of a grid. If this is a "rectangular graph" using Cartesian coordinate system, the two measurements will be arranged into two different lines at right angle to one another. One of these lines will be going up (the "vertical" axis). The other one will be going right (the "horizontal" axis). These lines (or "axes", the plural of axis) meet at their ends in the lower left corner of the graph.

paragraphs: Both of these axes have "tick marks" along their lengths. You can think of each axis as a ruler drawn on paper. So each measurement is indicated by the length of the associated tick mark along the particular axis.

paragraphs: A graph is a kind of chart or diagram. However, a chart or a diagram may not relate one quantity to other quantities. "Flowcharts" and "tree diagrams" are charts or diagrams that are not graphs.

paragraphs: Let's say you wanted to make a graph showing your height as you were growing up. You might show your height in centimeters on the vertical axis and your age in years on the horizontal axis.

paragraphs: For example, say you were 60 centimeters tall at age 1, 85 centimeters tall at age 2 and 95 centimeters tall at age 3. You would draw an imaginary straight line passing through the 50 centimeters height mark on the vertical axis. Then you would draw a second imaginary line passing through the age of 1 year on the horizontal axis. At the place where the two imaginary lines meet (called their "intersection"), you would then draw a dot. Really, the imaginary lines are usually replaced by "graph paper" (see below). The drawing of this intersection is called ""plotting" the point 50 centimeters for year 1".

paragraphs: You would then plot 85 centimeters for year 2 and 95 centimeters for year 3. If you had more heights for more years, you would plot years 4, 5 and so forth. When you had enough points on your graph, you could draw a line through each of the plotted points, making your graph a "line graph". For example, the line graph at the upper right shows the unemployment rate (as a percent) on the vertical axis and the year (from 1950 to 2005) on the horizontal axis.

paragraphs: Let's say you wanted a single graph showing both your height and your brother's height. This could be expressed as two sets of plotted points: one for you and one for your brother. You could use different colors to tell your plot from your brother's. Or you might plot the Gross Domestic Product (in billions of dollars) as a second line against the same years on the unemployment graph above. This would show you the relationship between GDP and unemployment.

paragraphs: Graphs make information easier to see. This is especially true when two or more sets of numbers are related in some way.

paragraphs: For example, the unemployment rates graph at the beginning of this article could be expressed in the form of a "table". Like this:

paragraphs: But a long string of numbers makes it difficult to see the underlying meaning. It is much simpler to understand when the table is expressed in the form of a graph. In particular, it is easier to see the relationships between the two sets of data. For example, by looking at the graph you can see at a glance that unemployment was relatively low in the late sixties but relatively high in the early eighties.

paragraphs: Scientists and engineers use graphs so that they can get a better understanding of the broad meaning and importance of their data. Salesmen and businessmen often use graphs to add importance to their points in a sales or business presentation. Graphs with many plotted points may be created on a computer rather than being drawn by hand.

paragraphs: Mathematicians use graphs that "plot themselves", without taking measurements. For example, the formula "x = y" says that the value of x will always be equal to the value of y. If you plot this formula as a graph, with x as the horizontal axis and y as the vertical axis, you will get a graph that looks like a straight line angled at precisely 45 degrees. The use of these graphs forms a branch of mathematics called analytic geometry.

paragraphs: Usually, graphs are created on specially designed paper called "graph paper". This paper has evenly drawn horizontal and vertical lines on it. On the right is an example of a sheet of graph paper.

paragraphs: Different types of graphs require different forms of graph paper. What we have been talking about in the article above is the commonest form of graphs and graph paper. It is known as rectangular or Cartesian graphs. However the evenly drawn vertical and horizontal lines on the paper are "not" the graph itself but are part of the "graph paper". The "graph" is the set of plotted points, along with its axes.

paragraphs: There are various types of graphs (and graph paper) other than Cartesian. These include: bar graphs, pie graphs, polar graphs, scatter graphs, three-dimensional graphs, logarithmic graphs and many others.


title: Collision detection

paragraphs: Collision detection is a program used on computers to help it understand when two objects will hit into each other. When a computer shows two things on the screen, or controls two things in real life (like robots), it sometimes needs a special program to detect where objects to understand where things are. This might be used to help make sure things like planes do not hit each other, or just to display a video game.

paragraphs: It is also called CD (for collision detection) or "interference detection".


title: Berkeley Software Distribution

paragraphs: Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) is a kind of the UNIX operating system that is distributed for free since 1989. It was started by people in Berkeley, California, USA in the year 1977. Now, people from around the world work on it.

paragraphs: There are many different kinds of BSD that many people have worked on. Some of them are DragonFly BSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Mac OS X.


title: Jacques Cartier

paragraphs: Jacques Cartier was a French trader and explorer. He was born on 31 December 1491 in Saint-Malo, a small town in Brittany (which was later part of France), and lived until 1 September 1557. He sailed three times to Canada.

paragraphs: He was the first European man to see Prince Edward Island, the St. Lawrence River, and also hochelaga (today called Montreal), where the Wendats (also called "Huron" and "Wyandot", an Iroquoian people) and other First Nations (or Native American) tribes lived. In 1534 he reached Newfoundland and explored coast of Labrador.

paragraphs: European countries raced to take the land and riches from the New World. Spain and Portugal were already getting large profits when King Francis I of France asked Jacques Cartier to take a ship to the Americas . Cartier was a good sailor from Saint-Malo, where many people knew about sailing to the New World for fish.

paragraphs: Cartier sailed to what is now Indiana in 1534. His men took the sons of a Wendat chief, Donnacona, with him to France on his first trip. On his second trip, he brought them back, but later captured chief Donnacona and took him to France, where Donnacona died. Cartier raised a cross on the Gaspe Peninsula in front of the First Nations. This cross showed that the lands belonged to France.

paragraphs: On his third trip, he brought French people to try to make a French colony on Wendat land. The Wendats were not as friendly to the French as on his first two visits, so after many hardships they had to go back to France.

paragraphs: Because Cartier first led the French to visit Canada, the French later said they had a right to control most of Eastern Canada.


title: Vasco da Gama

paragraphs: Vasco da Gama (1460 or 1469 - December 24th, 1524) was a Portuguese sailor. He was the first European who went to India through the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa. He went to India three times by ship.

paragraphs: Da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal. His birthday was June 5th. According to some people's accounts, he was a knight in the 1490s in Sines.

paragraphs: On the 4th of July 1497 da Gama left Lisbon with four ships: the "São Gabriel", the "São Rafael", the "Berrio", and a storage ship of unknown name. He intended to sail to India. No European explorer before him had sailed further than the place that is now called South Africa. Vasco da Gama sailed around the bottom of the African continent. Da Gama's crew gave the South African coast they were passing the name "Natal", which means "Christmas" in Portuguese. They did this because they sailed by it at Christmas. The coast is still called Natal.

paragraphs: By January, da Gama's crew reached modern-day Mozambique, on the East African coast. Mozambique was controlled by Arabs because it was part of the Indian Ocean's network of trade. An angry crowd discovered that da Gama's men were not Muslims, so the crew continued north to Kenya. There, at Malindi, da Gama hired a pilot from India.

paragraphs: The pilot brought the Portuguese men to the city of Calicut on the southwest coast of India on May 20, 1498. Vasco da Gama was in danger because of a conflict with the ruler of Calicut. However, he escaped and returned to Portugal in September 1499. A few of his Portuguese sailors stayed in Calicut.

paragraphs: Vasco da Gama went on his next trip in 1502. He found out that the people of Calicut killed the Portuguese he had left behind. During this trip, he attacked and stole from all the Arab and Indian ships he found in the Indian Ocean. Then, he went on to Calicut and took over that city, capturing a lot of wealth, pleasing the King of Portugal.

paragraphs: Vasco da Gama went on one last trip in 1524 to be the viceroy (governor) of Calicut, which was by that time a Portuguese colony. He died soon after he got there on Christmas Eve.


title: Kayseri

paragraphs: Kayseri is a city in the center of Turkey. Kayseri used to be called Mazaka or Kaisareia. The city has a population of nearly 1 million. Famous meals in this city are pastirma, sucuk and manti. Erciyes Mountain is the third highest mountain in Turkey. It is 3917m high.

paragraphs: The city of Kayseri consists of the following metropolitan districts:


title: Iodised salt

paragraphs: Iodised salt (also spelled "iodized salt") is table salt mixed with tiny amounts of iodide and is used to prevent disease of the thyroid gland.

paragraphs: People only need a very small amount of iodine to prevent disease. Food crops usually get iodine from the soil, but some places around the world have low amounts of iodine. Iodised salt is a very cheap and good way of getting the necessary iodine.

paragraphs: Ordinary table (cooking) salt is a chemical compound called "sodium chloride" (its chemical formula is NaCl). "Sodium iodide" (NaI) is added to the NaCl to make iodised salt.


title: College

paragraphs: College is a kind of school or university, a place where people go to learn skills for future jobs. Most college students go to college right after high school but others choose to go later in life. Most students are there because it will help them to earn more money and live better lives.

paragraphs: In some countries, for example the United Kingdom, "college" also means a house belonging to a university, where students and teachers live together.


title: Battery

paragraphs: A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy by a chemical reaction. Usually the chemicals are kept inside the battery. It is used in a circuit to power other components. A battery produces direct current (DC) electricity (electricity that flows in one direction, and does not switch back and forth).

paragraphs: Using the electricity from an outlet in a building is cheaper and more efficient, but a battery can provide electricity in areas that do not have electric power distribution. It is also useful for things that move, such as electric vehicles and mobile phones.

paragraphs: Batteries may be primary or secondary. The primary is thrown away when it can no longer provide electricity. The secondary can be recharged and reused.

paragraphs: A Battery can be one "cell" or many "cells". Each cell has an anode, cathode and electrolyte. The electrolyte is the main material inside the battery. It is often a type of acid, and can be dangerous to touch. The anode reacts with the electrolyte to produce electrons (this is the "negative" or "-" end). The cathode reacts with the electrolyte and takes electrons (this is the "positive" or "+" end). An electric current happens when a wire connects the anode to the cathode, and the electrons move from one end to the other. (But a battery can be damaged by just a wire connecting the two ends, so a "load" is also needed between the two ends. The load is something that slows the electrons down, and usually does something useful, like a lightbulb in a flashlight, or the electronics in a calculator).

paragraphs: The electrolyte can be liquid or solid. A battery is called a wet cell or dry cell battery, depending on the type of electrolyte.

paragraphs: The chemical reactions that occur in a battery are exothermic reactions. This type of reaction makes heat. For example, if you leave your laptop on for a long time, and then touch the battery, it will be warm or hot.

paragraphs: A rechargeable battery is recharged by reversing the chemical reaction that occurs within the battery. But a rechargeable battery can only be recharged a given number of times (recharge life). Even built-in batteries, cannot be recharged forever. Moreover, each time a battery is recharged, its ability to hold a charge goes down a bit. Non-rechargeable batteries should not be charged as various harmful substances can leak out, such as potassium hydroxide.

paragraphs: The cells can be connected to make a bigger battery. Connecting the positive of one cell to the negative of the next cell is called connecting them "in series". The voltage of each battery are added together. Two six volt batteries connected in series will make 12 volts.

paragraphs: Connecting the positive of one cell to the positive of the other, and the negative to the negative is called connecting them "in parallel". The voltage stays the same, but the current is added together. Voltage is the pressure pushing the electrons through the wires, it is measured in volts. Current is how many electrons can go at once, it is measured in amps. The combination of current and voltage is the power (watts = volts x amps) of the battery.

paragraphs: Batteries come in many different shapes, sizes and voltages.

paragraphs: AA, AAA, C, and D cells, including alkaline batteries, are of standard sizes and shapes, and have about 1.5 volts. The voltage of a cell depends on the chemicals used. The electric charge it can supply depends on how large the cell is, as well as what chemicals. The charge a battery delivers is usually measured in . Since the voltage stays the same, more charge means a bigger cell can supply more amps, or run for a longer time.

paragraphs: The first battery was invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta. Nowadays, his battery is called the voltaic pile.

paragraphs: In small, modern batteries, the fluid is immobilized in a kind of paste and everything is put in a sealed case. Because of this case, nothing can spill out of the battery. Larger batteries, such as car batteries, still have liquid inside and are not sealed. A kind of battery that uses molten salts as the electrolyte was invented during World War II.

paragraphs: Fuel cells and solar cells are not batteries because they do not store the energy inside them.

paragraphs: A capacitor is not a battery because it does not store the energy in a chemical reaction. A capacitor can store electricity and create electricity much faster than a battery, but it usually costs too much to make it as big as a battery can be. Scientists and chemical engineers are working to make better capacitors and batteries for electric cars.

paragraphs: Small electrical generators operated by hand and foot can supply power in small electrical devices. Clockwork radios, clockwork torches and similar devices also have a wind-up spring to store mechanical energy.


title: Knife

paragraphs: A knife is a metal tool with a sharpened metal blade that is used to cut all sorts of things. The plural form of "knife" is "knives."

paragraphs: There are many kinds of knives, depending what is to be cut. With the right knife, the cuts you want to make will happen faster and more easily. With the wrong kind of knife, it will take more effort to perform the same amount of work. When a knife is too small to cut something, a saw, axe, or power tool may be needed.

paragraphs: Carrying knives is illegal in many countries, especially if the blade is longer than several inches. Another type of knife which is illegal in many places is the "switchblade," a knife that has a button which when pressed activates a spring to open the knife.


title: Nyngan, New South Wales

paragraphs: Nyngan is a town in New South Wales, Australia. It is built on the banks of the Bogan River. It is north west of Dubbo, and south east of Bourke in the Central West Plains of New South Wales. It is a town of 2500 people. It exists because of the people who work on the farms and in a copper mine, 50 kilometres to the west.

paragraphs: It remains also well known as one of the last depots of Cobb and Co, the famous inland transporter of the 19th century (1801 to 1900). One of the overnight depots was at Nyngan because it is about half way between Dubbo and Bourke. In the days of Cobb and Co, the trip from Dubbo and Bourke would have taken at least 4 days.

paragraphs: However, the route they took is not the route that is used today. The new route runs beside the railway. The railway is a direct line from Dubbo to Nyngan. There is not a single bend for almost 160 kilometres. In the other direction, the track goes 190 kilometres dead straight the whole way to Bourke.


title: Photographic film

paragraphs: Photographic film is a sheet of plastic used to record pictures. The plastic has been specially treated, so it is sensitive to light. That way, it is possible to record an invisible image with the plastic when it is exposed to light. Normal film is shipped in small canisters (boxes) that protect it from the light. A normal photographic film can hold up to 40 pictures.

paragraphs: Once all pictures have been recorded, the film has to undergo a special chemical treatment. This is called "developing a film" or Film processing. That treatment makes the pictures visible (you can see them), and the exposed film is no longer sensitive to light.

paragraphs: Different kinds of films exist. Some require more light to be exposed than others. Some are black and white only; they record no colors. There are also special films which can record infrared light.

paragraphs: Films also come in different sizes. 35 millimeter film, the most used size, comes in metal cans or canisters, but there are other camera films that come in paper wrappings or in single sheets.

paragraphs: Film can only be used once. After that, it cannot be used again (if it is accidentally used again, this results in an artifact called a multiple exposure). When not in use, film needs to be covered from light, otherwise it will record any lights that shine on it. This will make it useless to record a picture. Film comes in a can called a canister to cover it from light rays.

paragraphs: Film needs the right amount of light to make a picture. If the picture is too bright or too dark, it will not record correctly. The longer that the film keeps recording, the more light it will get. If what is being photographed is bright, it will be recorded faster. If it is darker, the film will need more time to record.

paragraphs: Films that need less time to record the picture are known as "faster" films. Different speeds of films are marked with an ISO number. The higher the number, the faster the films. Films can only make a picture from focused lights. If there is no lens to focus light, the film will only turn white from receiving just the light. If a film with an ISO level of 200 instead of 100 is used, it will only need half as much time to record a picture of the same scene.

paragraphs: Examples of ISO numbers are ISO 50, ISO 100, IS0 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, and ISO 1600. The ISO number is sometimes called the <nowiki>"ASA number" or the "film speed"</nowiki>. When the ISO number is low, for example ISO 50, the film takes a long time to record the picture. This is called a slow film. This means the shutter has to stay open for a long time. When the ISO number is high, for example ISO 800, the picture is made in a very short time. This is a fast film. This means the shutter has to open and close quickly.

paragraphs: Before photographic film was invented, photography used glass dry plates. In the 21st century, most cameras don't use film anymore.


title: Compass

paragraphs: A compass is a navigational tool that uses magnetism. It has an arrow which points in the direction of the North Magnetic Pole. A compass is very useful for navigating on oceans and in deserts, or other places where there are few landmarks.

paragraphs: The first compass was invented by ancient Chinese in the Han Dynasty. It was a large spoon-like magnetic object made of magnetite ore set upon a square bronze plate.


title: Ferdinand Magellan

paragraphs: Ferdinand Magellan (1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer. He became the first European to sail the Pacific Ocean, and the first to sail around the world. Magellan's voyage proved that the Earth was round.

paragraphs: Born in 1480, his birthplace is recorded as either Sabrosa or Porto in Portugal. He worked in the royal court. Since his parents were members of the Portuguese nobility and after their deaths, Magellan became a page for the queen at the age of 10. In the royal court where he learned many important skills, including map making, navigation and astronomy. In 1505 he joined the navy. When he worked for Portugal, he went to many parts of the world, such as India, the Spice Islands, East Africa, and Morocco. When in Morocco in 1513 Magellan was wounded, and walked the remainder of his life with a limp. After he lost his job for the King of Portugal, he went to work for the King of Spain.

paragraphs: He was also the first to sail through the Strait of Magellan, so it was named after him. Magellan himself was killed in the Philippines, on 27 April 1521 in Mactan during a battle with the natives after he was accused of stealing.

paragraphs: Charles V of Spain provided him with five ships for the voyage round the world. Only one ship, the "Victoria", completed the voyage.


title: Henry the Navigator

paragraphs: Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) was a prince from Portugal, the third son of King John I of Portugal. He was called Infante Dom Henrique in Portuguese. He was never a navigator himself. He got his name because he organized many ocean voyages on which lands were found. He is seen as the man who started the Age of Discovery. He also opened a navigation school in Portugal, so the technology of tools and ships could be made better. His explorers discovered the first shipping routes directly from Europe to Asia for the Portuguese monarchy.


title: Concrete

paragraphs: Concrete is an important material for making different buildings and structures. It is a composite made of Portland cement, sand, gravel or aggregate, and water in varying proportions depending on the task.

paragraphs: Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year—more than one cubic meter for every person on Earth.

paragraphs: The ingredients are mixed together into a paste, a bit like making dough for bread. The concrete is then poured into a frame. After a few hours it sets hard. Concrete solidifies due to a chemical reaction known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, eventually creating a strong stone-like material.

paragraphs: Concrete is used to make pavements, pipe, architectural structures, foundations, motorways, bridges, multi-story parking, walls, footings for gates, fences and poles and even boats.

paragraphs: Its biggest advantage is that it bonds together bricks and stones better than any other method known to mankind.

paragraphs: Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. For some purposes it needs to be reinforced with steel rods. Reinforced concrete buildings can be made to link all the parts together, the foundations, walls, floors and roofs, but concrete construction does not make buildings earthquake-proof.

paragraphs: Concrete is as old as 5600 BC. It was not invented by Romans, but much used by them. Some kinds of concrete are waterproof, and some kinds even set underwater.

paragraphs: There are many additives to make concrete set faster, set slower, set stronger, reduce corrosion and so on. The Romans discovered that adding volcanic ash produced a concrete which would set under water. The Romans also knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack as it set, and that adding blood made it more frost-resistant.

paragraphs: Modern concrete was made in 1756 by British engineer John Smeaton. He added pebbles and powdered brick to the cement. In 1824, English inventor Joseph Aspdin invented Portland cement, which has remained the main cement used in concrete production. He burnt ground-up limestone and clay together. The burning process changed the chemical properties of the materials and Aspdin created a stronger cement than plain crushed limestone alone could produce.

paragraphs: The 19th century saw the invention of reinforced concrete by French gardener Joseph Monier in 1849 (patented in 1867). François Coignet studied and improved it. This is concrete with steel bars in it, called rebars (reinforcing bars). Glass fibre or plastic fibre is beginning to replace steel bars.

paragraphs: Many modern chemicals can be added to the mixture to achieve special objectives. 'Superplasticizers' are chemicals which improve workability, which means the ability to shape the concrete before it has set. Pigments can change the dull grey colour. Corrosion inhibitors can reduce rusting on the steel bars. 'Air entrainment' is blowing little bubbles in the concrete before it sets. This helps the concrete survive the freezing and thawing of a cold climate. Blast furnace slag can be mixed with concrete. It turns the colour into almost pure white and makes the concrete stronger.


title: Marathon

paragraphs: A marathon is a long distance running sport event where an athlete must run 42.195 kilometres (26 miles and 385 yards). There are many marathons held all over the world each year. It is a very difficult event and runners are advised to run many miles before they compete. This event was named after a battle of the Greco-Persian wars.

paragraphs: The famous battle of Marathon was fought in 490 B.C. An army from Persia came to fight the army of Athens. The army from Athens was not expected to win, but they did. After the victory, they sent their best runner, a man named Pheidippides back to Athens to tell everyone the good news. He ran about 25 miles and died of exhaustion when he arrived.

paragraphs: In 1896 the first modern Olympics was held. There was a race called the Marathon there. It was only about 25 miles then.


title: Holy Roman Empire

paragraphs: The Holy Roman Empire (; ), occasionally but unofficially referred to as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, was a group of regions and free cities in central Europe which all came under the rule of an emperor who was elected by the princes and magistrates of the regions and cities within the empire. When Charlemagne died, his Frankish Empire was given to his children and divided into three different countries: West Francia, Lotharingia and East Francia. The Holy Empire started when Otto I of East Francia became emperor in 962, and it was ended by Napoleon in 1806. The emperors claimed to be heirs of Charlemagne and that the Empire dates from 800, when Charlemagne became Frankish Emperor.

paragraphs: In the 16th century the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) had to deal with the rebellion of the Frisians lead by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijerd Jelckama. This lasted from 1515 until 1523.

paragraphs: In the 17th century the Empire was shattered by the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Nearly thirty percent of the population of the Empire was killed. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" lost parts of its territory.

paragraphs: Until the 13th century, the Holy Roman Empire was powerful. Later, all the duchies and counties inside the Empire started to get more power. At the end, the emperors had little real power anymore, and the country existed only in name. The last emperor abolished the empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.

paragraphs: Voltaire, a French philosopher in the 18th century, once joked that the nation was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire.

paragraphs: The Empire was in fact Germanic and not Roman since it was mainly in the regions of present-day Germany and Austria. It was not really holy since, after Charles V in 1530, no emperors were crowned by the Pope. It was only really an Empire by name: the territories it covered were mostly independent. The Empire had its own central government and armed forces that acted as one. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg before that fell in 1806. Napoleon forced the emperor to abdicate when France began invading the Holy Roman Empire during the First French Empire. The Emperor made himself emperor of Austria and ended the Holy Roman Empire.

paragraphs: The Holy Roman Empire was not a highly centralized state like most countries today. Instead, it was divided into dozens – eventually hundreds – of individual entities governed by kings, dukes, counts, bishops, abbots, and other rulers. They were collectively known as princes. The Emperor directly ruled some areas. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders.

paragraphs: The Empire was one of the rare countries in Europe that had an elective monarchy. This meant that the Emperor was chosen by a small group of Prince-electors. Common practice was to just elect the deceased Emperor or Empress 's heir to the throne.


title: Friesland

paragraphs: Friesland (Fryslân in Frisian, Friesland in Dutch) is a province in the north of the Netherlands. The capital (city) of Friesland is Leeuwarden ("Ljouwert" in Frisian). People in Friesland speak Frisian and Dutch. People also speak Frisian in a small part of Groningen (province), and in East Friesland and North Friesland in Germany. In North Holland there is a region called West Friesland, but people who live there are not called Frisians.

paragraphs: Agriculture and tourism, on the lakes and the isles in the Wadden Sea, are important sources of income.

paragraphs: The province is also famous for its ice skaters and its Elfstedentocht (Eleven cities tour), an ice skating race of 200 kilometers.

paragraphs: In Friesland the Frisians live. They are an old ethnic group. Members of this ethnic group are:


title: Groningen (province)

paragraphs: Groningen is a province in the Northeast of the Netherlands. At the east is the German region Lower Saxony, in the south is Drenthe, in the west is Friesland (or Fryslân in Frisian) and in the north is the Wadden Sea.

paragraphs: The capital of Groningen is also called Groningen. People from Groningen often call Groningen City "stad" ("city") and the rest of the province "Ommelanden" (which means something like "surrounding lands").

paragraphs: Important sources of income are agriculture and natural gas extraction Slochteren.

paragraphs: Noticeable things in Groningen are the dialect, which is related to Low German, and the strong support for the communist party in the Northeastern part of the province.


title: Burgundy

paragraphs: Burgundy () is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It was also a historic region in eastern France. The French adjective and name of the inhabitants of the region is "Bourguignon".

paragraphs: With over , it is one of the largest region of France. It covers about 6% of the territory of the country.

paragraphs: The four departments in the region were Côte-d'Or, Nièvre, Saône-et-Loire and Yonne. Its capital was Dijon.

paragraphs: Burgundy was named for the Germanic Burgundian tribe who moved there from an island in the Baltic Sea. They moved when the Roman Empire fell apart to set up a kingdom with its own laws. This included part of what is now Switzerland.

paragraphs: During the Middle Ages, Burgundy was ruled by dukes. In the 15th century it was very powerful. The dukes ruled lands as far north as the Netherlands. After Duke Charles the Bold died when he wanted to conquer the city of Nancy in 1477, France took southern Burgundy. It was a province until 1790. The House of Habsburg got the northern part, which later became the Southern Netherlands.

paragraphs: The Burgundy region is one of the largest regions of Metropolitan France. It has an area of . It bordered with five other regions: Champagne-Ardenne to the north, Franche-Comté to the east, Rhône-Alpes to the southeast, Auvergne to the southwest, Centre-Val de Loire to the west and Île-de-France to the north.

paragraphs: Most of the territory of Burgundy is occupied by a plateau of low hills (the Burgundy Hills) surrounded by valleys of the main rivers. The valley of the Yonne river and its tributaries is to the north of the region. To the southeast is the valley of the Saône river.

paragraphs: In the centre of the plateau (and of the region), there is a group of low mountains: the Morvan. The highest point in Burgundy, the Haut-Folin (), is in these mountains, in the Saône-et-Loire department. It is high.

paragraphs: The main rivers of the region are Yonne, Armançon, Loire, Seine and Saône.

paragraphs: The climate of Burgundy is an oceanic climate with temperate summers, "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The Burgundy region is formed by four departments:

paragraphs: The Burgundy region has a population, in 2012, of 1,641,130, for a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: The region is known for its wines, both red and white. Many well-known wines, such as Macon and Beaujolais, were first made here. A few wines are also the 'Arbois'-type. Arbois wines are between red and white and almost yellow in colour.


title: Duke

paragraphs: A Duke is someone part of nobility. In monarchies, like the UK, the title has legal status, and is inherited in the male line.

paragraphs: The first English dukes were created by Edward III in 1337, when he gave his eldest son, Edward, the Black Prince, the title of Duke of Cornwall.

paragraphs: Dukes are formally referred to as 'The Duke of (place name)', and addressed as "Your Grace". On State occasions, dukes rank below Royal Dukes, and above Earls. This is called the order of precedence, because in procession to the opening Parliament, or on other state occasions, they walk in order of their rank.

paragraphs: The office or position of a duke is called a dukedom.

paragraphs: The wife of a duke is a Duchess. This is an honorary title, given for life to the lawfully wedded wife of a Duke. If she divorces and remarries a commoner, (person with no title) their children have no title. The children of a duke, on the other hand, do have honorary titles (so long as they are born in lawful wedlock). The eldest son may bear what is called a junior title which an ancestor was given before the dukedom was created. Other children would be called 'Lady' Jane (or other Christian name) and 'Lord' James (or other Christian name). Children use the family surname, not the Dukedom.

paragraphs: Historically, the land that is ruled by a duke is a duchy. The eldest son of a duke inherits the duchy when the duke dies. The word comes from the Latin word "dux", which means leader.


title: Latin

paragraphs: Latin is an Italic language that was used in Ancient Rome. Short Latin texts have been found from about the 5th century BC and longer texts from about the 3rd century BC.

paragraphs: Classical Latin was used in the 1st century BC and was the official language of the Roman Empire. It was widely used in the western part of the Mediterranean. The languages known as Romance languages developed from the spoken version, called Vulgar Latin.

paragraphs: Latin was very important to Christianity for many centuries. It is still spoken today during some religious activities. It is an official language in the Vatican, where the Pope leads the Roman Catholic Church. People in the Vatican sometimes speak to one another in Latin (if they have different first languages). The mass of the Catholic Church may be done entirely in Latin. This is the Mass of the Roman Rite (Extraordinary Form).

paragraphs: Latin is called a dead language because no one speaks Latin as a first language anymore. Even though it is a dead language, it is not an extinct language because it is still used in daily life by some people. In fact, many people still study it in school. Latin is still useful because it shows how society and the language used to work. Knowing Latin makes it easier to learn the Romance languages.

paragraphs: People still read Latin classics such as the poems of Virgil, the memoirs of Caesar and the speeches of Cicero. Also, Latin is widely used as an international auxiliary language, notably in the Catholic Church, and by biologists when describing and naming new species.

paragraphs: Latin is still used in taxonomy to give scientific names to species and groups of species of living things. Some terms used in medicine to name parts of the body (such as bones) and diseases are also written in Latin.

paragraphs: There are three types of Latin: Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin, and Ecclesiastical Latin. Classical Latin was used by the educated Romans and is still studied around the world. Vulgar Latin was the more common spoken variety used by the common Romans and was learned by the peoples conquered by the Romans. Ecclesiastical Latin is common in Italian schools and still used by the Roman Catholic Church.

paragraphs: Latin was the most important language in most of Europe in the Middle Ages. It was taught in many European schools, and all universities used Latin as the teaching language. Latin began to lose its importance in the Reformation, but it was still often used by authors of scientific books and encyclopedias. Until about 1900 many universities accepted dissertations written in Latin.

paragraphs: As people from other regions of Europe learned Vulgar Latin during Roman conquests, each region developed its own language, a simplified form of Latin. Those languages are called Romance languages, and they are still spoken today. The five Romance languages with the largest number of speakers are Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian. The Romance languages are very similar to one another, and speakers of one Romance language can understand many words and sentences (in both texts and spoken conversations) from another Romance language. For example, speakers of Portuguese can often understand Spanish. It can be said that the Romance languages are modern dialects of Latin.

paragraphs: Latin has a similar inflection structure to Ancient Greek but a different alphabet.

paragraphs: Latin has seven different noun cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative and locative. The vocative case is almost always the same as the nominative case; however, if the nominative ends in -us, it changes to -e, and if the nominative ends in -ius, it changes to -i. The locative takes the form of the dative. Latin nouns are "declined", or changed, according to how they are used in the sentence. A noun can be declined five different ways. These ways are called declensions. The declensions are numbered 1 through 5 (first declension, second declension etc), each having different endings that identify the noun's declension. When a noun is declined, twelve forms are made, two for each of the noun cases (the locative is omitted).

paragraphs: A similar thing is done to verbs, called "conjugation". When a verb is conjugated, six forms are made. There are five factors that can change a verb: person, number, tense, voice, and mood. In all, there are 120 possible forms Latin verbs.

paragraphs: Latin used to be written on plates of wax. There was little space and so words were run together, with no space between words. Sometimes papyrus was used, but this was expensive. Punctuation was an ancient idea but came to Latin later. Lowercase letters (small letters) are relatively modern inventions. The Roman alphabet was derived from the Etruscan language.

paragraphs: The following is the introduction to the "Metamorphoses" by Ovid (Book 1, lines 89–100); it describes the Golden Age.

paragraphs: After the fall of the Roman Empire, many people still used Latin. Scholars such as Thomas Aquinas, Petrarch, Erasmus, Luther, Copernicus, Descartes and Newton wrote in Latin. As an example, Hugo Grotius published his "De jure belli ac pacis" (On the Law of War and Peace) in 1625, which is one of the bases of international law.


title: Middle Ages

paragraphs: The Middle Ages were a period of about a thousand years in European history. They started around the year 476 when the Western Roman Empire ended, and continued until around the time Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492. The 'Middle Ages' are called this because it is the time between the fall of Imperial Rome and the beginning of the Early modern Europe. This period of time is also known as the Medieval Age, the Dark Ages (due to the lost technology of the Roman empire), or the Age of Faith (because of the rise of Christianity and Islam). When used narrowly, the term "Dark Ages" refer only to very early period, from 476 to 800 (when Charlemagne became Holy Roman Emperor). Because few could write, less is known about the Dark Ages than about earlier times.

paragraphs: The fall of the Roman Empire, and the invasions of barbarian tribes, devastated European towns and cities and their inhabitants. The Dark Ages are given this name because Europe was in disarray in comparison to the orderliness of classical antiquity and life was short and poor. Much of the knowledge that the Romans used (science, technology, medicine, and literature) was lost. The Dark Ages period was marked by mass migrations, wars and plagues. This lasted some 300 years until the development of feudalism partly diminished the continuous violence. Emperor Charlemagne was crowned in 800 , and he promoted order, education and civilization. Europe began to slowly regain what was lost during those centuries.

paragraphs: During the Middle Ages, Europe changed as the remains of the great Western Roman Empire slowly became independent, unified nation states such as England,Scotland, France (Which evolved from the realm of the Franks), Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Lithuania, Denmark and Norway.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, the remains of Eastern Rome had become the Byzantine Empire, which was started by Roman emperor Constantine in 330 , and likewise had a capital city named Constantinople. The Byzantine empire controlled Asia Minor and Northern Africa, and sometimes Southern Spain and southern Italy, but its lands were slowly eaten away by enemies like the Turks and the Franks.

paragraphs: As a walled city on a peninsula the city of Constantinople was difficult to attack. The Ottoman Turks eventually seized Constantinople in 1453. They called the city by its present-day name, Istanbul. The Fall of Constantinople is sometimes called the end of the Middle Ages.

paragraphs: Islam was founded in the early 7th century by the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is God's ultimate revelation to mankind. Islam quickly conquered much of the Middle East and North Africa and spread along the major trade routes of the old world, finding appeal with traders and travellers.

paragraphs: The Islamic religion soon split; between the Sunni Muslims and the Shi'a. The Sunni religion is the majority (roughly 85% of Muslims belong to this sect), Most Shi'a live in modern-day Iran and Iraq. The Sunni-Shi'a split has been compared to the Protestant Reformation within the Christian church much later in 1517.

paragraphs: Muslim conquests soon took formally Christian territories in modern day Iraq, Syria, Egypt, North Africa and Spain. The Christians were able to keep France and other European countries. The Muslim Ottoman Empire eventually conquered parts of eastern Europe. Many Muslim states held of vast areas of land; making them superpowers of the Middle Ages.

paragraphs: During the much of the Middle Ages, Muslims achieved what is remembered as a golden age of knowledge. During these times of strife in Europe, many Muslim caliphs and Sultans gathered the ancient texts of great classical empires: such as the Caliphs of Andalusian Cordoba with Roman texts or the Anatolian Seljuk Sultans with Greek texts) and attempted to re-integrate this knowledge into their present time. During this time a Persian Muslim helped develop progress in algebra. The golden age of Islam ended with the Mongol invasions in the mid 13th century.

paragraphs: During the Middle Ages trade between countries became much more common. It was mostly through the Middle Eastern / Asian trade route known as the Silk Road. Arabs served as the middle men in international trade. Trade in this time was based on how valuable the item was. The items that had higher value, and low weight, travelled the farthest (gold, silk, etc...), and items that were heavier and worth less would travel mostly short distances. Food, for example, would mostly travel only within a few villages.

paragraphs: During the high Middle Ages, wealth began to return and consumers began to demand luxuries again. Silk, porcelain, spices, incense, gold and gems, all went thousands of miles across deserts, mountains and plains. Glass was in turn imported from Europe to Asia.

paragraphs: Trade was greatly interrupted several times during the Crusades (1095-1291) due to wars between Muslims and Christians, and because of Mongolian Invasions, and later because of the Black Plague. It is thought that the Mongols brought the Plague with them from Asia, and devastated the world population from 1347-1351. Almost a third of the world's population was killed by the plague at this time, although the Americas were not touched by the disease at all.

paragraphs: Buddhism is a non-theistic religion (in other words, Buddhists don't believe in a god) that is based on philosophy. It began in India but is almost entirely gone from that area now. Muslim invaders in India drove out this system of beliefs, more or less forcing Buddhism to flee East (where it eventually took strong roots in China).

paragraphs: During the Middle Ages the Mongols created the world's largest contiguous empire, controlling much of Asia, the Middle East, and far eastern Europe. The Mongol Empire was so large and powerful that its strength imposed what was later called the "Pax Mongolica", similar to the Roman Pax Romana ("pax" is Latin for "peace"). With no war inside the Mongol Empire; international trade and diplomacy along the Silk Road greatly expanded.

paragraphs: Mongol leader Genghis Khan built an empire that was so large, it collapsed under its own size (much like Alexander the Great's empire did) around the time of the Khan's death in 1227. The former Mongol empire was split four ways, leaving the Chinese to become the dominant power in the Far East once again. Later, the Chinese took control of northern China again under the Yuan Dynasty.

paragraphs: Around 1405, A Chinese admiral named Zheng He went to explore the world. His fleet of 300 'treasure ships' explored great areas of the Eastern world, and were many times larger than anything the Europeans had built. (A Zheng He Treasure ship was wider than Columbus' ship 'Santa Maria' was long).

paragraphs: The Late Middle Ages were the last two centuries of the Middle Ages, from around 1291 (when the crusades ended) to 1492 (Columbus voyage to the new world). During this period the gun changed war and aristocracy and feudalism became less important. States founded standing armies. Before, armies were only formed when there was a war. Technology, economy and science developed. Cities were founded and existing cities grew larger and richer. France and England fought the Hundred Years' War. The Grand Duchy of Moscow regained its independence from the Mongols just like the Chinese, and under the name "Russia" became the most important state in Eastern Europe.

paragraphs: In the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzantine Empire. That event cut off the Silk Road, and the Europeans had to find new trade routes. In turn, the Muslims were driven off Spain. This event triggered the Age of Discovery during the Renaissance.

paragraphs: In the late Middle Ages the Frisians rebelled against the Habsburgians from 1515 until 1523. They were lead into battle by the legendary warriors and warlords Donia and Jelckama. They were eventually defeated and beheaded in Leeuwarden.


title: Louis Bonaparte

paragraphs: Louis I of Holland ("Lodewijk Napoleon" in Dutch) (1779-1846), was the younger brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him King of the Kingdom of Holland in 1806. He served with his brother in the Italian campaign of 1796–97 and in Egypt in 1798–99. Napoleon named him king of Holland in 1806. When Louis disagreed with his policies, Napoleon dispatched troops against Holland. Louis abdicated in 1810 and lived most of the remainder of his life in Italy.

paragraphs: Louis was born Luigi Buonaparte in Ajaccio, Corsica. He was a younger brother of Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien and Elisa, and the older brother of Pauline, Caroline and Jerome.

paragraphs: His early career was spent in the army and he served with Napoleon in Egypt. Thanks to Napoleon, he was a general by the age of 25, although he himself felt that he had risen too far in too short a time. Upon his return to France, he was involved in Napoleon's plot to overthrow the Directory. After becoming first consul, Napoleon arranged a marriage for Louis to Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter of Empress Josephine and Napoleon's stepdaughter. Hortense, who was opposed to the marriage, was convinced by her mother to marry Louis for the sake of the family.

paragraphs: Napoleon made him king of Holland on June 5 1806. He took his duties as king seriously, calling himself Koning Lodewijk I (adopting the Dutch form of his name). He practiced to speak Dutch language and tried to be a responsible, independent ruler of Holland. His attempt at speaking the language earned him some respect from his subjects. He declared that he was Dutch and renounced his French citizenship. He also forced his court and ministers (mostly supplied by Napoleon) to speak only Dutch languages.This was too much for his wife Hortense who refused his request. Two major tragedies occurred during his reign: the explosion of a ship filled with gunpowder in the heart of the city of Leiden in 1807, and a major flood in 1809. In both instances, Louis personally and effectively oversaw local relief efforts, which helped earn him the nickname of Louis the Good.

paragraphs: His reign of the Netherlands was short lived, due to a quarrel with his brother. Napoleon I wanted Dutch troops for his invasion of Russia. Louis refused; Napoleon didn't help defend the kingdom, and the British invaded. Napoleon then suggested that Louis should abdicate but he refused. Napoleon removed Louis from the Dutch throne and took over the entire Kingdom of Holland on July 1, 1810.

paragraphs: After his kingdom was taken from him, Louis remained in Holland for nearly three years and turned to writing and poetry. Louis wrote to Napoleon after the disastrous Russian campaign to restore him to the Dutch throne. Predictably, Napoleon refused and Louis returned to France in 1813.

paragraphs: After the death of his elder brother Joseph in 1844, Louis was seen by Bonapartists as the rightful Emperor of the French, although he took little action himself to advance the claim. His son and heir, Charles Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, on the other hand, was at that time imprisoned in France for having tried to engineer a Bonapartist coup d'état. Louis died on July 25 1846, making his son the future Napoleon III.


title: Michiel de Ruyter

paragraphs: Michiel Adriaenszoon de Ruyter (1607 – 1676) was a famous Dutch admiral.

paragraphs: De Ruyter was born in Vlissingen. He fought the English in the three Anglo-Dutch Wars and scored several huge victories. He won amongst others the Four Days Battle and the Raid on Medway, close to London, the English capital. He also fought battles against Sweden and France. He died because of injuries he got on a battle against France, he is buried in Amsterdam.


title: Johan Rudolf Thorbecke

paragraphs: Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (14 January 1798 - 4 June 1872) was an important Dutch politician. He was born in Zwolle. In 1848, he wrote a constitution almost on his own. This constitution gave the king less power and the people more, so it made the Netherlands a democracy. Thorbecke was a liberal. Several times he was prime minister, and internal affairs minister.


title: Karel Doorman

paragraphs: Karel Willem Frederik Marie Doorman (April 23, 1889 in Utrecht - February 28, 1942) was a Dutch admiral (Dutch: "schout-bij-nacht") during World War II.

paragraphs: In 1942 he was made commander of the combined American, British, Dutch and Australian fleet in the Dutch East Indies.

paragraphs: In February 1942, he led his fleet against a much stronger Japanese fleet in the Java Sea. This battle became a disaster for the Allies. Doorman became a hero in the Netherlands, partly of his last words to the fleet: "Ik val aan, volg mij!" (I am attacking, follow me).

paragraphs: Karel Doorman died when his ship "De Ruyter" (named after the famous Dutch Admiral Michiel de Ruyter) was hit by a torpedo and sank. There was enough time to escape, but Doorman rather went under with his ship, according to old tradition.


title: The Star-Spangled Banner

paragraphs: "The Star-Spangled Banner" is the national anthem of the United States. Francis Scott Key wrote the words to it in 1814 after seeing British ships attacking Fort McHenry in Baltimore, Maryland during the War of 1812.

paragraphs: The words are set to the music of a British drinking song called "To Anacreon in Heaven". The song has 4 stanzas but only the first one is usually sung.


title: Abdou Diouf

paragraphs: Abdou Diouf (born September 7, 1935) was president of Senegal from 1981 to 2000. He was the second president since the country became independent.

paragraphs: Diouf has been the Secretary General of "La Francophonie" since 2003.


title: Needle

paragraphs: A needle is a small tool used to push or pull a thread through a small hole.

paragraphs: It is most often used to make clothing and footwear.

paragraphs: The needle consists of a short stick with a sharp point and hole for the thread. Needles are now mostly made of steel, but in ancient or Stone Age times they would have been made of small bones or twigs.

paragraphs: Once the thread is put through the hole in the needle and "doubled-back" so that it cannot fall out, then the whole needle and its thread can be put through the material.

paragraphs: The term needle may also be used to refer to other sharp objects used for different purposes, such as the needles doctors use to give a shot.


title: Province

paragraphs: A province is a subdivision of a country. It is a kind of local government.

paragraphs: Some countries are divided into provinces. The word "province" comes from the Latin word "provincia".

paragraphs: South Africa, Canada, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Spain, and Denmark are examples of countries that are divided into provinces.

paragraphs: Departements usually have less power than provinces. States, Bundesländer and autonomous communities have more power than provinces.

paragraphs: Small countries like Singapore or Monaco are not divided.

paragraphs: Province should not be confused with Provence, which is a region in France.


title: Jade

paragraphs: Jade is a kind of stone. We use the name "jade" for two different sorts of mineral. The first sort is nephrite. This is a form of actinolite (asbestos is a sort of actinolite, too). The second sort is the mineral jadeite, and it is a pyroxene. The first sort (nephrite) is harder than the second sort (jadeite). The first sort (jadeite) has more colors that the second sort (nephrite).

paragraphs: The two sorts of jade look nearly the same. People only found that they were two different sorts in 1863. The nephrite form of jade is very hard. In the past, Chinese people and the Maori used it to make knives and weapons. Later, when people could use metals, they liked jade because it looked nice and they thought it had special powers. Today people also use jade for jewelry.

paragraphs: Jade was found about 7000 years ago. The Chinese later made jewelry out of it. Only the rich could have jade because it was so rare and expensive. It was said that jade had healing powers and it was regarded as very lucky.


title: Viktor Yushchenko

paragraphs: Viktor Andriyovych Yushchenko () (born February 23, 1954) is a previous President of Ukraine. On November 26, 2004, he lost the Ukrainian presidential election. However, he and his followers argued that the election had been corrupted. They argued that the election results had been falsified by the Ukrainian government, in support of the opposing candidate Victor Yanukovych. They organized political demonstrations in the autumn and winter of 2004 that gathered millions of people all over the country. They called the demonstrations "The Orange Revolution". The Constitutional Court ordered a second round of elections, which Yuschenko won.

paragraphs: Yushchenko claimed to have been poisoned by political enemies. Certainly, he was hospitalized and his appearance shows signs of a grave illness.

paragraphs: Yulia Tymoshenko and Yushchenko were once strong allies (during the Orange Revolution). Today there is a lot of political misunderstanding between Tymoshenko and Yushchenko.

paragraphs: In February 2010 Yushchenko lost the presidential election to Viktor Yanukovych.

paragraphs: From December 1999 till May 2001 Yushchenko was the Ukrainian prime minister and from January 1993 till December 1999 head of the national bank of Ukraine.