title: Eocene

paragraphs: The Eocene was the second geological epoch in the Palaeogene. It began 56 million years ago, and ended 33.9 million years ago. Before it was the Palaeocene and, after it, the Oligocene.

paragraphs: The Eocene, like the Palaeocene before it, had a climate much warmer than today. At the start of the Eocene the "Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum" was reached. This lasted for 100,000 years, and caused a large extinction event. The land was heavily forested, with temperate forests into arctic and antarctic regions, and the many herbivorous mammals were browsers, not grazers.

paragraphs: The end of the Eocene was the beginning of the Oligocene (33.9 million years ago). Many plant and animal species went extinct. This was the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event. The extinction event was probably caused by meteorite strikes in Siberia and Chesapeake Bay.


title: Islam in Pakistan

paragraphs: Islam is the official religion of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. In 2007, 97% of the population were Muslims, with 75% being Sunni and 20% Shi'a. There are about 175,376,000 Muslims in Pakistan which is the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. The Shi'a Muslim population is the second largest in the world after Iran, more than 50 million.

paragraphs: In 644 A.D. an Arab Army under the command of Hakam defeated the combined forces of Makran and Sindh. The period of Arab rule brought the religion of Islam to the Indus Valley. The Baloch tribes gradually embraced Islam, replacing their centuries-old Zoroastrian religion. Islam arrived in the area of modern Pakistan in 711 AD, 79 yrs after the of death of the prophet Muhammad. The Umayyad dynasty sent a Muslim Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi against the ruler of Sindh, Raja Dahir. Raja Dahir had given refuge to many Zoroastrian Princes who had fled the Islamic conquest of Iran. Muhammad Bin Qasim's army was defeated in his first three attempts. The Muslim army conquered the northwestern part of Indus Valley from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea.

paragraphs: The arrival of the Arab Muslims to the provinces of Sindh and Punjab, along with subsequent Muslim dynasties, set the religious boundaries of South Asia. This would lead to the development of the modern state of Pakistan as well as forming the foundation for Islamic rule across much of South Asia. Following the rule of various Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals controlled the region from 1526 until 1739. Muslim technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to Islamic Sultanate and Mughal Empire in South Asia.


title: Kashmir Smast

paragraphs: The Kashmir Smast caves are a series of natural limestone caves, artificially expanded from the Kushan Empire to the Shahi periods, in the Babozai mountains in the Mardan Valley in Northern Pakistan.


title: Lower Cretaceous

paragraphs: The Lower Cretaceous is the first geological epoch in the Cretaceous. It began 145 million years ago, and ended 100.5 million years ago.

paragraphs: Lasting for about 46 million years, this is the longest stage in the Phanerozoic eon. It is longer than some of the geological periods in the Phanerozoic.

paragraphs: The Lower Cretaceous is best displayed in England, where it is composed of two series of rocks. Between the two is a major rise in sea level.

paragraphs: The two parts of the Cretaceous represent the sea level where the divisions were first defined. In the Lower Cretaceous, the sea level was much lower than in the Upper Cretaceous. In the Wealden, Southern England was a huge tropical river delta; in the Greensand the same areas were just offshore. However, in the Upper Cretaceous the deposits were made in deeper water, on what was then the continental shelf. Sea level then stood at its highest level in the Mesozoic.


title: Trio sonata

paragraphs: A trio sonata is a type of music for four instruments which was very popular during the 17th century and early 18th century: the period known as the Baroque period.

paragraphs: A trio sonata is written for three voices (three parts), in other words, it can be played by three different instruments. The two upper voices share the same musical themes. They often imitate one another. They are of equal importance. The third part, the lowest part, is played by basso continuo, which means the accompaniment. This continuo is usually played by two instruments: typically a cello or bass viol and a keyboard instrument such as the harpsichord. That makes four players, of course. However, the harpsichord player’s left hand notes are the same as the cello’s notes. This is the “third” part of the trio.

paragraphs: Some of the best trio sonatas are those by Arcangelo Corelli. His collection of trio sonatas numbered opus 1 and 3 are sonata da chiesa: four movements (slow-fast-slow-fast) finishing with a fugue. His op 2 and 4 sonatas are sonata da camera type: each movement is a kind of dance. Corelli’s trio sonatas are for two violins and continuo.

paragraphs: Johann Sebastian Bach wrote a trio sonata in "The Musical Offering" for violin, flute and continuo.

paragraphs: Bach also wrote six trio sonatas for organ. These are played by one player. The organist’s two hands each play on different manuals (keyboards) so that they sound like two different instruments. The organist’s feet play the third part on the pedals. Each part is strictly a single line (no chords, never more than three notes at a time) so that these works can also be played by other instruments (e.g. two violins and cello with harpsichord).

paragraphs: Bach also wrote sonatas for one melodic instrument and harpsichord. These pieces are really trio sonatas, although he does not call them trio sonatas. The melodic instrument (normally violin or flute) plays the top part, the harpsichordist plays the second part with his right hand, and the third part is the lowest part of his left hand notes.

paragraphs: Some other composers who wrote trio sonatas are Tomaso Albinoni, Henry Purcell, Dieterich Buxtehude, George Frideric Handel, Georg Philipp Telemann, Johann Pachelbel and Antonio Vivaldi.


title: Entraigues-sur-la-Sorgue

paragraphs: Entraigues-sur-la-Sorgue is a commune of 6,612 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Entrechaux

paragraphs: Entrechaux is a commune of 869 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Vaucluse department in south France.


title: Faucon

paragraphs: Faucon is a commune of 380 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Flassan

paragraphs: Flassan is a commune of 341 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. It is at the bottom of Mont Ventoux.


title: Fontaine-de-Vaucluse

paragraphs: Fontaine-de-Vaucluse is a commune of 610 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Gargas, Vaucluse

paragraphs: Gargas is a commune of 196 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Gignac, Vaucluse

paragraphs: Gignac is a commune of 48 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Gigondas

paragraphs: Gigondas is a commune of 648 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Gordes

paragraphs: Gordes is a commune of 2,092 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Goult

paragraphs: Goult is a commune of 1,285 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Grambois

paragraphs: Grambois is a commune of 1,113 people (as of 1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Grillon

paragraphs: Grillon is a commune of 1,686 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue

paragraphs: L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue is a commune of 16,971 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Jonquerettes

paragraphs: Jonquerettes is a commune of 1,236 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Jonquières, Vaucluse

paragraphs: Jonquières is a commune of 3,926 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. It is also very slippy.


title: Joucas

paragraphs: Joucas is a commune of 317 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lacoste, Vaucluse

paragraphs: Lacoste is a commune of 408 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lafare

paragraphs: Lafare is a commune of 97 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lagarde-d'Apt

paragraphs: Lagarde-d'Apt is a commune of 26 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lagarde-Paréol

paragraphs: Lagarde-Paréol is a commune of 297 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lagnes

paragraphs: Lagnes is a commune of 1,674 people (2007). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lamotte-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Lamotte-du-Rhône is a commune of 416 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lapalud

paragraphs: Lapalud is a commune of 3,267 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in south France.


title: Lauris

paragraphs: Lauris is a commune of 3,102 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lioux

paragraphs: Lioux is a commune of 248 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Loriol-du-Comtat

paragraphs: Loriol-du-Comtat is a commune of 1,871 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Lourmarin

paragraphs: Lourmarin is a commune of 1,119 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Malaucène

paragraphs: Malaucène is a commune of 2,669 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Malemort-du-Comtat

paragraphs: Malemort-du-Comtat is a commune of 1,203 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. During the time of the Roman Empire, the village was called "Calvia." The name Malemort means "bad death" and was probably used after the destruction of the village by the Franks. Comtat means "county", the land belonging to a count. Wine making has been carried out in region for at least 2,400 years. When wine making started again in medieval times, the Archbishop of Carpentras gave his monks a vineyard in Malemort du Comtat in 882.

paragraphs: The village is in the mountains, surrounded by olive and cherry trees. The city was protected by high walls and eleven towers which were built in the 12th century. Three of the gateways in the wall are still standing. The church, Notre Dame de l’Assomption, was built in the 13th century.


title: Maubec, Vaucluse

paragraphs: Maubec is a commune of 1,581 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Mazan

paragraphs: Mazan is a commune of 4,943 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Ménerbes

paragraphs: Ménerbes is a commune of 1,157 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Mérindol

paragraphs: Mérindol is a commune of 1,923 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France. The town has a Mediterranean climate with hot and dry summers and mild winters. It does not rain very often and snow is rare. Protected by the Luberon, a mountain range, the town is sheltered from the mistral, a cold dry wind that blows from the north. The town was first built on a hill which was easy to defend. After the town was destroyed in 1545, it was rebuilt on the plain, near the river.

paragraphs: A ferry was in use to cross the Durance River in the year 1240. Mérindol was abandoned, probably because of plague, in the 15th century.

paragraphs: In the late Middle Ages, Louis II of Provence sold the land to the lords of Abacus-Cental and Rocca Sparviera. They moved in farming families from Piedmont. The farmers were followers of Pierre Vaudes (Peter Waldo). They were part of a group, known as the Vaudois or Waldensians, who had separated from the Catholic Church in 1170. They believed in a simple life based on a line in the Gospel of Matthew. This put them in opposition to the rich and powerful church. In 1530, a Dominican priest, Jean de Roma, began a campaign against the Vaudois because he said they were heretics. His gangs attacked the town and burnt many houses and killed many of the people.

paragraphs: In 1540, de Roma arrested a flour miller from Mérindol, took his mill, and then burned the man at the stake. On November 18 1540, 19 more people were sentenced to death by burning at the stake, and the town was ordered to be completely destroyed. A group from the town went to the king to save the people and the village. He gave them until 1545 AD to give up their religion and rejoin the Catholic Church. On April 18 1545, the village was completely burned and about 12 of the Vaudois still living there were killed. Over one week there were attacks on 11 other small villages, and it is thought that about 3000 people were killed. Many of the Vaudois from Mérindol were able to escape and ran away to Switzerland.

paragraphs: In 1977, members of Vaudois organizations in Germany, France and Italy built a path in memory of the people who had been killed for their religious beliefs. The path leads to the ruins of the Vaudois church.


title: Méthamis

paragraphs: Méthamis is a commune of 397 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Mirabeau, Vaucluse

paragraphs: Mirabeau is a commune of 907 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Voice over Internet Protocol

paragraphs: Voice over Internet protocol (or VoIP) is a term used for a number of protocols that are used to carry "voice data" over packet switched networks. Beforehand, telephony used a dedicated line, that was only for calls. This was known as PSTN (or "public switched telephony network"). Using VOIP will reduce costs, as the "dedicated line" for telephony (and fax) is no longer needed.

paragraphs: There are a number of technical problems that must be solved first, though:


title: Vaucluse

paragraphs: The Vaucluse () is a department in the southeast of France in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. Its prefecture is Avignon.

paragraphs: It is named after a famous spring, in the "commune" Fontaine-de-Vaucluse. The name Vaucluse comes from the Latin "Vallis Clausa" ("closed valley") as the valley here ends in a cliff from which rises a spring.

paragraphs: Vaucluse was not one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created on 12 August 1793 with four districts: Apt, Orange, Ouvèze (Carpentras), Vaucluse (Avignon); its capital was Avignon.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the districts were changed into "arrondissements": Avignon, Apt, Carpentras and Orange.

paragraphs: After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), the department was occupied by the Austrian army from June 1815 to November 1818.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Orange was eliminated and the subprefecture of Apt was moved to Cavaillon but went back to Apt in 1933.

paragraphs: Vaucluse is part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, in southeast France, with an area of . The department has an exclave to the north, the canton of Valréas, surrounded completely by Drôme department.

paragraphs: The department borders with 3 regions and 6 other departments:

paragraphs: The are several chains of mountains in the Vaucluse department, mainly in the eastern half; from northeast to southeast, they are:

paragraphs: The highest mountain in the department is "Mont Ventoux" () that is high. It stands alone to the north of the Luberon range, separated by the Vaucluse Mountains, and just to the eastern base of the Dentelles de Montmirail.

paragraphs: There are several valleys and plain in the department. The main important plain is the plain of Comtat where is most of the population of the department. It is to the south and the west of the Mont Ventoux and has the Rhône river to the west, the Durance river to the south and the Vaucluse Mountains to the east.

paragraphs: The main rivers are the Rhône and the Durance, tributary of the Rhône. Other rivers are tributaries of those two rivers.

paragraphs: The climate in Avignon, at an altitude of , is of the subtype Csa (Mediterranean climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Avignon is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Avignon is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is January with an average of .

paragraphs: Vaucluse is part of the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Vaucluse" in Avignon.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 17 "cantons" and 151 "communes" (municipalities) in Vaucluse.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 17 cantons of the Vaucluse department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Vaucluse are known, in French, as "Vauclusiens" (women: "Vauclusiennes").

paragraphs: Vaucluse has a population, in 2014, of 554,374, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Avignon, with 296,303 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Carpentras and Apt, have respectively 129,623 and 128,448 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The city with more people living in it is the capital, Avignon (92,209). The subprefectures of Carpentras and Apt have, respectively, 28,447 and 11,885 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The 12 most important cities in the department are:

paragraphs: Vaucluse has been always a rural department where farming is the main economic activity. The most important produces in the department are fruits (melons, cherries, strawberrys, apples, grapes and others) and vegetables (tomatoes).

paragraphs: Another important product of the region is wine, mainly those wines known as "Côtes-du-Rhône".


title: Diffie-Hellman key exchange

paragraphs: The Diffie-Hellman key exchange (sometimes called an Exponential key exchange) is a protocol used to secretly share information with keys.

paragraphs: In 1976, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman invented a way for people to encrypt data and send it over an open channel. The idea was based on a concept by Ralph Merkle.

paragraphs: Diffie and Hellman wanted to make Transport Layer Security (TLS), a secure way of computers communicating, more safe to perform. For example, while you can use a password to keep a file safe, if you need to tell the password to somebody there is a risk of the password being seen by third parties. Diffie-Hellman key agreement itself is an "anonymous" (non-"authenticated") key-agreement protocol: people involved in the trade do not need to prove who they are, but both people need to use their secret keys to fully decrypt the data.

paragraphs: Alice and Bob both start at the same number ("10") and both do half of a sum, which means they both get the same result without seeing what the other person added (15 and 30). This is useful in cryptography because Alice and Bob do not share their private numbers, which means a third party cannot spy on the result (55) unless they can find both private numbers; even if a third party knows Alice sent "10" + 15 = 25, they don't know the result is 55 unless they also know Bob sent 30.

paragraphs: Since only Alice and Bob know their private numbers, this is a good way of sending secure information if the numbers are very big and the calculations are difficult. Since computers can use very complicated math to encrypt things, this stops people from trying a brute force attack to guess the numbers until it works. One example of how big calculations are made this way is the original version of Diffie-Hellman, which used both multiplicative group of integers modulo n and primitive root modulo n.

paragraphs: While very useful, Diffie-Hellman is at risk of a man-in-the-middle attack. Alice and Bob do not need to prove who they are to swap their information, which means there is a risk that Charlie can look at the information while it is being swapped, and can even pretend to be Alice or Bob to try and figure out their keys. One way this is avoided is to use authentication, where people perform extra steps to prove who they are.


title: British royal family

paragraphs: The British royal family is the group of close relatives (family) of the monarch, currently Elizabeth II, of the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: HRH The Duke of Edinburgh (Prince Philip)

paragraphs: HRH The Duke of Gloucester (Prince Richard)<br>

paragraphs: HRH The Duchess of Gloucester (born Birgitte van Deurs)<br>

paragraphs: HRH The Duke of Kent (Prince Edward)<br>

paragraphs: HRH The Duchess of Kent (born Katharine Worsley)<br>

paragraphs: HRH Princess Michael of Kent (born Marie-Christine von Reibnitz)<br>

paragraphs: HRH Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy


title: MQV

paragraphs: MQV (Menezes-Qu-Vanstone) is an authenticated protocol for key agreement based on the Diffie-Hellman scheme. MQV provides protection against an active attacker.


title: Cher (department)

paragraphs: Cher is a department in the centre of France in the Centre-Val de Loire region. It is named after the Cher river, the most important river in the department.

paragraphs: The department is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. The department was created from part of the former province of Berry.

paragraphs: The new department had seven districts: Aubigny, Sancerre, Sancoins, Saint-Amand, Châteaumeillant, Bourges and Vierzon. The capital (now prefecture) was Bourges.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the seven districts were changed into three "arrondissements": Bourges, Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond and Sancerre.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Sancerre was eliminated. In 1984, a new "arrondissement" was created: Vierzon.

paragraphs: Cher is part of the Centre-Val de Loire region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The highest point of the department is "Le Magnoux" (), in the south end of the department in the "commune" of Préveranges, and that is above sea level.

paragraphs: The department is bordered by 6 departments in 4 regions:

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Bourges is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Marine West Coast Climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Bourges is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Bourges is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departmental Council of the Cher" in Bourges. Cher is part of the region of Centre-Val de Loire.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 19 "cantons" and 290 "communes" (municipalities) in Cher.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 19 cantons of the Cher department, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Cher are known, in French, as "Chériens" (women: "Chériennes") or "Berrichons" (women: "Berrichonnes").

paragraphs: Cher has a population, in 2014, of 310,270, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Bourges, with 173,889 inhabitants, is by far the largest.


title: Corrèze

paragraphs: Corrèze () is a department in south-western France, named after the Corrèze river. It is in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region and its capital is the city of Tulle.

paragraphs: Corrèze is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created from parts of the old province of Limousin (the "Bas Limousin").

paragraphs: The new department had four districts: Uzerche, Ussel, Tulle and Brive. The capital (now prefecture) was Tulle.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the four districts were changed into three "arrondissements": Tulle, Brive and Ussel.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Ussel was eliminated but, on 6 December 1943, it became again an "arrondissement".

paragraphs: Corrèze is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region; it is to the west of the Massif Central. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department is surrounded by 6 departments in 3 regions:

paragraphs: The highest point of the department is the Mont Bessou, high; the lowest point is in the valley of the Vézère river and is high.

paragraphs: The main rivers in the department are the Dordogne, the Vézère and the Corrèze that gives its name to the deparment.

paragraphs: The climate in Brive-la-Gaillarde is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The annual rainfall in Brive-la-Gaillarde is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Brive-la-Gaillarde is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departmental Council of the Corrèze" in Tulle. Corrèze is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 19 "cantons" and 283 "communes" (municipalities) in Corrèze.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 19 cantons of the Corrèze department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Corrèze are known, in French, as "Corréziens" (women: "Corréziennes").

paragraphs: Corrèze has a population, in 2014, of 241,340, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Brive-la-Gaillarde, with 130,034 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Tulle and Ussel, have respectively 78,408 and 32,898 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The city with more people living in it is Brive-la-Gaillarde (46,961) and not the capitalː Tulle (14,325).


title: Runtime

paragraphs: In computer science, runtime or run time describes the operation of a computer program, the duration of its execution, from beginning to termination.

paragraphs: The term runtime can also refer to a virtual machine to manage a program written in a computer language while it is running.

paragraphs: Run time is sometimes used to mean runtime library, a library of basic code that is used by a particular compiler but when used in this fashion, runtime library is more accurate.

paragraphs: A runtime environment is a virtual machine state which provides software services for processes or programs while a computer is running.

paragraphs: Runtime activities include loading and linking of the classes needed to execute a program, optional machine code generation and dynamic optimization of the program, and actual program execution.

paragraphs: For example, a program written in Java calls for services from the Java Runtime Environment by issuing commands from which the expected result is returned by the Java Runtime. By providing these services, the Java Runtime Environment is considered the runtime environment of the program. Both the program and the Java Runtime Environment request services from the operating system. The operating system kernel provides services for itself and all processes and software running under its control. The Operating System may be considered as providing a runtime environment for itself.


title: Java virtual machine

paragraphs: A Java virtual machine (JVM) is a set of computer software programs and data structures which use a virtual machine model for the execution of other computer programs and scripts. The model used by a JVM accepts a form of computer intermediate language commonly referred to as Java bytecode.

paragraphs: Java virtual machines operate on Java bytecode, which is normally (but not necessarily) generated from Java source code; a JVM can also be used to implement programming languages other than Java.

paragraphs: The JVM is an important component of the Java Platform. Because JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms, Java can be both middleware and a platform in its own right – hence the expression "write once, run anywhere." The use of the same bytecode for all platforms allows Java to be described as "compile once, run anywhere", as opposed to "write once, compile anywhere", which describes cross-platform compiled languages.


title: Station-to-Station protocol

paragraphs: The Station-to-Station (STS) protocol is a cryptographic (information-hiding) key agreement scheme based on the classic Diffie-Hellman key exchange that provides mutual key and entity (party) authentication.

paragraphs: In addition to protecting the established key from an attacker, the STS protocol uses no timestamps and provides perfect forward secrecy. It also requires two-way explicit key confirmation, making it an "Authenticated key agreement with Key Confirmation" (Acronym: AKC) protocol.

paragraphs: STS was originally presented in 1987 in the context of ISDN security , finalized in 1989 and generally presented by Whitfield Diffie, Paul C. van Oorschot and Michael J. Wiener in 1992.


title: Internet Key Exchange

paragraphs: Internet Key Exchange (IKE or IKEv2) is the protocol used to set up a security association (SA) in the IPsec protocol suite. IKE uses a Diffie-Hellman key exchange to set up a shared session secret, from which cryptographic keys are derived. Public key techniques or, alternatively, a pre-shared key, are used to mutually authenticate the communicating parties.

paragraphs: IKE was originally defined in November 1998 by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in a series of publications (Request for Comments) known as RFC 2407, RFC 2408, and RFC 2409.

paragraphs: IKE was updated to version two (IKEv2) in December 2005 by RFC 4306. IKEv2 has been further expanded by RFC 4301 (Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol) through RFC 4310 (DNS Security Extensions Mapping for the EPP). More RFCs are being added all the time as the need arises to further develop the features of the protocol.

paragraphs: The parent organization of the IETF, The Internet Society (ISOC), has maintained the copyrights of these standards as being freely available to the Internet community.

paragraphs: The following Open Source implementations of IKEv2 are currently available:


title: Shared secret

paragraphs: In cryptography, a shared secret is a piece of data only known to the parties involved in a secure communication. The shared secret can be a password, a passphrase, a big number or an array of randomly chosen bytes.

paragraphs: The shared secret is either shared before parties start to communicate; in this case it can also be called a pre-shared key. Or it is created at the start of the communication session by using a key-agreement protocol, for-instance using public-key cryptography such as Diffie-Hellman or using symmetric-key cryptography such as Kerberos.

paragraphs: The shared secret can be used for authentication (for instance when logging in to a remote system) using methods such as challenge-response or it can be fed to a key derivation function to produce one or more keys to use for encryption and/or MACing of messages.

paragraphs: To make unique session and message keys the shared secret is usually combined with an initialization vector (IV). An example of this is the derived unique key per transaction method.


title: Styphnolobium japonicum

paragraphs: Pagoda Tree or Chinese Scholar Tree ("Styphnolobium") is a genus of flowering plants in the "Fabaceae" family. After the segregation of Sophora, this genus comprises 9 species.


title: Horsforth

paragraphs: Horsforth is a town near Leeds. It used to be the biggest village in England until it became a town.


title: Pre-shared key

paragraphs: In cryptography, a pre-shared key or PSK is a shared secret which was previously shared between the two parties using some secure channel before it is used. Such systems almost always use symmetric key cryptographic algorithms.

paragraphs: The characteristics of this secret or key are determined by the system which uses it; some system require that such keys be in a specific format. It can be a password like 'bret13i', a passphrase like 'Idaho hung gear id gene', or a hexadecimal string like '65E4 E556 8622 EEE1'. The secret is used by all systems involved in the cryptographic processes used to secure the traffic between the systems.

paragraphs: The term is used in Wi-Fi encryption such as WEP or WPA, where both the wireless access points (AP) and all clients "share" the same key.

paragraphs: Since one weakpoint of the crypto system is the encryption algorithm's key, the key strength is important, and since the strength of a key is in part dependent on the key length, it is important to choose a key whose length is cryptographically secure (see password strength). There are several tools available to help one choose a strong key. The Diceware method is one example.


title: Corse-du-Sud

paragraphs: Corse-du-Sud is a department in the south of France. Its prefecture is Ajaccio. As of 2006, about 125,000 people live there.


title: Haute-Corse

paragraphs: Haute-Corse is a department in the south of France. Its prefecture is Bastia. Haute-Corse has a population of about 148,000 (2006 estimation).


title: Côte-d'Or

paragraphs: Côte-d'Or (literally, "Slope of Gold", "Golden Slope") is a department in the eastern France. It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution and one of the eight departments of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

paragraphs: Its prefecture (capital) is the city of Dijon. The inhabitants of the department are called "Costaloriens" (women:"Costaloriennes") or "Côte-d'Oriens" (women:"Côte d'Oriennes").

paragraphs: Côte-d'Or is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was formed from part of the old province of Burgundy. It was divided in seven districts: Arnay-le-Duc, Beaune, Châtillon-sur-Seine, Dijon, Is-sur-Tille, Saint-Jean-de-Losne and Semur-en-Auxois.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the seven districts were changed into four "arrondissements": Dijon, Beaune, Châtillon-sur-Seine and Semur-en-Auxois.

paragraphs: After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), the department was occupied by the Austrian army from June 1815 to November 1818.

paragraphs: In 1926, the "arrondissement" of Montbard was made with the "arrondissements" of Châtillon-sur-Seine and Semur-en-Auxois.

paragraphs: Côte-d'Or is the only French department who was not named after a geographical feature: a river, a mountain, and so on. The name was chosen by Charles-André-Rémy Arnoult, member of the National Constituent Assembly of 1789, who suggested the name, inspired by the golden hue that took the vineyards of the region in the autumn.

paragraphs: The French word "" means, in this case, a slope that geologists usually name with the Spanish word "".

paragraphs: Côte-d'Or is part of the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. The department borders with 7 departments that are part of 2 regions:

paragraphs: The department has an area of . The highest point of the department is Mont de Gien (), high; it is in the "commune" Ménessaire. The lowest point of the department, high, is where the river Saône leaves the department, in the "commune" Chivres.

paragraphs: A chain of hills called the Plateau de Langres runs from north-east to south-west through the department to the north of Dijon and continues south-westwards as the Côte d'Or escarpment, which takes its name from that of the department (without the hyphen). It is the south-east facing slope of this which is the site of the celebrated Burgundy vineyards. To the south-east of the plateau and escarpment, the department lies in the broad valley of the middle section of the river Saône.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Dijon is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype "Cfb".

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Dijon is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month, on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Dijon is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: In the Plateau de Langres, winters are long and cold with frequent frosts.

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departmental Council of Côte-d'Or" in Dijon. Côte-d'Or is part of the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 23 "cantons" and 704 "communes" (municipalities) in Côte-d'Or.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 23 cantons of the Côte-d'Or department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: Côte d'Or has a population, in 2014, of 531,380, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Dijon, with 373,574 inhabitants, is by far the one with more inhabitants. The other two, Beaune and Montbard, have respectively 97,107 and 60,699 inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Côte-d'Or


title: Côtes-d'Armor

paragraphs: Côtes-d'Armor is a department found in the west of France. Its prefecture is Saint-Brieuc and its population is about 561,000 (). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.

paragraphs: Côtes-d'Armor has also 3 subprefectures: Dinan, Guingamp and Lannion.


title: Creuse

paragraphs: Creuse () is a department in central France in the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is named after the Creuse river that flows through the department.

paragraphs: Creuse is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created mainly with lands of the old province of County of La Marche.

paragraphs: The new department had seven districts: La Souterraine, Guéret, Boussac, Évaux, Felletin, Bourganeuf and Aubusson. The capital (now prefecture) was Guéret alternating with Aubusson, but soon only Guéret remained as capital.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the seven districts were changed into four "arrondissements": Guéret, Aubusson, Bourganeuf and Boussac.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissements" of Bourganeuf et Boussac were eliminated.

paragraphs: Creuse is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department is surrounded by 6 departments in 3 regions:

paragraphs: The department is in the northwestern part of the Massif Central; the "Millevaches" plateau is in the southeastern part of the department. The highest point is in "Forêt de Châteauvert" (), "commune" of Saint-Oradoux-de-Chirouze, southeastern of the department and in northeastern Massif Central; it is high; the lowest point is in the valley of the Creuse river, high.

paragraphs: The main river in the department is the Creuse, a tributary of the Vienne river and that gives its name to this the deparment; it flows through the department from the southeast to the northwest.

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Creuse" in Guéret. Creuse is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

paragraphs: There are 2 "arrondissements" (districts), 15 "cantons" and 258 "communes" (municipalities) in Haute-Vienne.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 15 cantons of the Creuse department (with their INSEE codes), in France, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Creuse are known, in French, as "Creusois" (women: "Creusoises").

paragraphs: Creuse has a population, in 2014, of 120,581, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Guéret, with 83,458 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other "arrondissement", Aubusson, has 37,123 inhabitants.


title: Dordogne

paragraphs: Dordogne () is a department in the southwest of France. It is named after the Dordogne river that runs through the department.

paragraphs: The department is in the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is between the valley of the Loire river and the Pyrenees. Its prefecture (capital) is Périgueux.

paragraphs: Dordogne was formed during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790 with parts of the old province of Périgord. It was divided into nine districts: Belvès, Bergerac, Excideuil, Montignac, Montpon, Nontron, Périgueux, Ribérac and Sarlat.

paragraphs: Bergerac, Périgueux and Sarlat-la-Canéda were alternatively the capital of the department but later it was decided that only Périgueux would be the capital.

paragraphs: Dordogne is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It is the third largest department of Metropolitan France, after Gironde and Landes. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department is bordered by seven departments in two regions:

paragraphs: The main river in the department is the Dordogne that gives its name to the department. It runs from east to west through the department. Other rivers are the Isle and the Vézère, both tributaries of the Dordogne.

paragraphs: The highest point in the department is the southwestern summit of the "Forêt de Vieillecour" (), in northwestern Massif Central near the border with the Haute-Vienne department, with an altitude of . The lowest point is in the valley of the Dordogne river and is high.

paragraphs: Dordogne is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is managed by the "Departamental Council of Dordogne" in Périgueux.

paragraphs: There are 4 "arrondissements" (districts), 25 "cantons" and 520 "communes" (municipalities) in Dordogne.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 25 cantons of the Dordogne department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Dordogne are known, in French, as "Dordognais" (women: "Dordognaises"). They are also known as "Périgordins" or "Périgoudins".

paragraphs: in 2014, the department of Dordogne had a population of 416,350, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Périgueux, with 189,301 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other three, Bergerac, Nontron and Sarlat-la-Canéda, have respectively 111,875, 40,508 and 74,666 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The cities in the department with more of 5,000 inhabitants are:


title: Doubs

paragraphs: Doubs is a department in eastern France. It is in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. It is named after the Doubs river.

paragraphs: The largest city in the department, and its prefecture (capital), is the city of Besançon.

paragraphs: Doubs is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790 with Besançon as its capital. It was formed from part of the old province of "Franche-Comté".

paragraphs: It was divided in six districts: Besançon, Baume-les-Dames, Saint-Hippolyte, Pontarlier, Quingey and Ornans. In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the six districts were changed into four "arrondissements": Besançon, Baume-les-Dames, Pontarlier and Saint-Hippolyte. In 1816, the subprefecture of Saint-Hippolyte is moved to Montbéliard.

paragraphs: After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), the department was occupied by the Austrian army from June 1815 to November 1818.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Baume-les-Dames was eliminated.

paragraphs: Doubs is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department borders with 3 departments of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region (Jura, Haute-Saône and Territoire de Belfort) and 3 cantons of Switzerland (Vaud, Neuchâtel and Jura).

paragraphs: The Doubs department is partially on the Jura Mountains, mainly the eastern part of the department on the border with Switzerland. The highest point in the department is Mont d'Or (), high; it is on the border between the "communes" Jougne and Longevilles-Mont-d'Or at about to the south of the city of Pontarlier. The lowest point is where the Ognon leaves the department, high.

paragraphs: The main rivers in the department are the Doubs, that gives its name to the department, the Ognon and the Loue (tributary of the Doubs).

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Besançon is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Marine West Coast Climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Besançon is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month, on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Besançon is . The month with the most precipitation on average is September with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: Doubs is managed by the "Departmental Council of Doubs" in Besançon. The department is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 19 "cantons" and 578 "communes" (municipalities) in Saône-et-Loire.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 19 cantons of the Doubs department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Doubs are known, in French, as "Doubistes", or "Doubiens" (women: "Doubiennes").

paragraphs: Doubs had a population, in 2014, of 534,710, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Besançon, with 248,199 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants.

paragraphs: The cities with more than inhabitants in the department are:


title: Drôme

paragraphs: Drôme () is a French department in southeastern France in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region and named after the Drôme river. Its prefecture is the city of Valence.

paragraphs: Drôme is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790; it was made with part of the old French province of Dauphiné. It was divided in 6 districts: Romans, Valence, Die, Buis, Montélimar,and Crest. The capital was Chabeuil but in the same year the capital was moved to Valence.

paragraphs: With the creation of the "arrondissements", the 6 districts became four "arrondissements": Valence, Die, Montélimar and Nyons. In 1926, the "arrondissement" of Montélimar was eliminated.

paragraphs: Drôme is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, in southeastern France, with an area of .

paragraphs: The department borders with 5 other departments in 2 regions:

paragraphs: There are 5 natural regions in Drôme; they are, from north to south:

paragraphs: The highest point in the department is "Rocher Rond", (). It is high it is on the border with the Hautes-Alpes department.

paragraphs: The climate of the Drôme department, in the city of Valence, is an oceanic climate, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Valence, at an altitude of , is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Valence is . The month with the most precipitation on average is September with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: Drôme is part of the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Drôme" in Valence.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 23 "cantons" and 353 "communes" (municipalities) in Drôme.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 19 cantons of the Drôme department (with their INSEE codes), in France, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Drôme are known, in French, as "Drômois" (women: "Drômoises").

paragraphs: Drôme has a population, in 2014, of 499,159, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Valence, with 314,233 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Nyons and Die, have respectively 141,971 and 42,955 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The city with more people living in it is the capital, Valence (62,150 inhabitants). The subprefectures of Nyons and Die have, respectively, 6,641 and 4,516 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The 10 most important cities in the department are:


title: IPsec

paragraphs: Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is a way of making Internet communications more secure and private.

paragraphs: IPsec is a collection of protocols for securing Internet Protocol (IP) communications by authenticating (and optionally encrypting) each of a data stream. IPsec also includes protocols for establishing mutual authentication between agents at the beginning of the session and negotiation of cryptographic keys to be used during the session. IPsec can be used to protect data flows between a pair of hosts (e.g. computer users or servers), between a pair of security gateways (e.g. routers or firewalls), or between a security gateway and a host. RFC 2406

paragraphs: IPsec is an end-to-end security solution and operates at the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite, comparable to Layer 3 in the OSI model. Other Internet security protocols in widespread use, such as SSL, TLS and SSH, operate in the upper layers of these models. This makes IPsec more flexible, as it can be used for protecting all the higher level protocols, because applications do not need to be designed to use IPsec, whereas the use of TLS/SSL or other higher-layer protocols must be built-in the application.

paragraphs: The term "IPsec" is officially defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). This definition includes the form of capitalization used for the term; it is often incorrectly spelled "IPSec".


title: Eure

paragraphs: Eure is a department found in the northwest of France in the Normandy region. Its prefecture is Évreux. Eure has a population of about 557,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.


title: Eure-et-Loir

paragraphs: Eure-et-Loir is a department in north-central France in the Centre-Val de Loire region. It is named after the two main rivers that flow through the department: Eure and Loir.

paragraphs: Its prefecture is Chartres and there are three subprefectures: Châteaudun, Dreux and Nogent-le-Rotrou.

paragraphs: The department is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. The department was created mainly from parts of the former provinces of "Orléanais" (Beauce) and "Maine" (Perche), but also parts of the old "Île-de-France".

paragraphs: The new department had six districts: Chartres, Châteaudun, Châteauneuf-en-Thymerais, Dreux, Janville and Nogent-le-Rotrou. The capital (now prefecture) was Chartres.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the six districts were changed into four "arrondissements": Chartres, Châteaudun, Dreux and Nogent-le-Rotrou.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Nogent-le-Rotrou was eliminated but in 1943 Nogent-le-Rotrou became again an "arrondissement" of the department.

paragraphs: Eure-et-Loir is part of the Centre-Val de Loire region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department is bordered by the 7 departments in 4 regions:

paragraphs: The highest point of the department is the "Butte de Rougemont" (), in the "commune" of Vichères, and that is above sea level.

paragraphs: The rivers in the department are in two watersheds:

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Chartres is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Marine West Coast Climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Chartres is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Chartres is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departmental Council of the Eure-et-Loir" in Chartres. Eure-et-Loir is part of the region of Centre-Val de Loire.

paragraphs: There are 4 "arrondissements" (districts), 15 "cantons" and 375 "communes" (municipalities) in Eure-et-Loir.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 21 cantons of the Eure-et-Loir department, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Eure-et-Loir are known, in French, as "Euréliens" (women: "Euréliennes").

paragraphs: Eure-et-Loir has a population, in 2014, of 433,762, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Chartres, with 207,869 inhabitants, is by far the largest.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Eure-et-Loir


title: Key-agreement protocol

paragraphs: In cryptography, a key-agreement protocol is a cryptographic protocol by which two or more parties can agree on a key in such a way that both have an effect on the results.


title: Finistère

paragraphs: Finistère is a department found in the west of France in the Brittany region. Its prefecture is Quimper. Finistère has a population of about 874,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.


title: 1800–1809 Atlantic hurricane seasons

paragraphs: The decade of 1800s featured the 1800–1809 Atlantic hurricane seasons. While info for every storm that happened is not available, some parts of the coastline were had enough people to give info of hurricane happenings. Each season was an ongoing event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation in the Atlantic basin. Most tropical cyclone formation is between June 1 and November 30.

paragraphs: I. A minimal hurricane that passed through the Leeward Islands on August 10 moved through the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico to strike southeast Louisiana on August 18.

paragraphs: II. On August 27 and August 28, a hurricane struck Exuma in the Bahamas.

paragraphs: III. During September 9 and September 10 a hurricane impacted Bermuda. (from Beware the Hurricane)

paragraphs: IV. Between October 2 and October 5, a hurricane lingered across South Carolina.

paragraphs: V. The ship, Galgo, was sunk during a hurricane on October 9 over the southwest Atlantic. All 25 crew members were rescued.

paragraphs: VI. On October 31, a hurricane struck Jamaica before moving onward to Cuba and the southwest Atlantic. During November 4 and November 5, Bermuda experienced this hurricane. A lighthouse begun in 1795 on Wreck Hill was abandoned after this storm, as it was then determined to be an unsuitable site. (from Beware the Hurricane)

paragraphs: I. Nassau, Bahamas experienced a hurricane on July 22. 120 sails were wrecked onshore. The system moved westward into the Gulf of Mexico.

paragraphs: II. On August 15 and August 16, this hurricane made landfall near Mobile, Alabama.

paragraphs: A hurricane was spotted west of Jamaica between October 6 and October 10.

paragraphs: I. In August, a hurricane hit the West Indies. It continued through Jamaica, moved northward, and eventually hit England later in the month. It caused 121 deaths.

paragraphs: II. A hurricane hit near the Chesapeake Bay on August 29, causing at least one death.

paragraphs: III. In addition, a minimal hurricane right on its heels hit near New Bern, North Carolina on August 31 and September 1. This type of tropical cyclone succession up the coast is similar to the Connie/Diane East coast landfalls of 1955.

paragraphs: IV. During October 2 and October 3, a hurricane reportedly impacted Norfolk, Virginia.

paragraphs: I. During August 18 and August 19, a hurricane was noted in Jamaica.

paragraphs: II. A hurricane was first spotted near the Leeward Islands on September 3. It moved northwestward, and hit Georgia as a major hurricane on September 7. It continued slowly through South Carolina and North Carolina, leaving the mainland on the 9th before striking New England on September 12. The hurricane caused 500 deaths.

paragraphs: III. Between September 22 and September 24, a tropical storm tracked from Cuba northward to South Carolina.

paragraphs: IV. Later in the season, a major hurricane moved northwestward across the Western Atlantic to the north of Puerto Rico. It hit near Atlantic City, New Jersey on October 9, and turned northeastward. As it crossed New England, cool air was entrained in the circulation, and it became extratropical. The storm brought heavy snow across the Northeast, in some areas up to 2–3 feet, and killed 8 people. This was the first observation of snow from a landfalling hurricane, but not the last.

paragraphs: I. Between July 27 and August 1, a hurricane tracked through the southwest Atlantic east of Bermuda.

paragraphs: II. On September 30, a hurricane struck Mantanzas, Cuba then moved northward into Maine by October 3.

paragraphs: I. A tropical cyclone was noted near the northeastern Lesser Antilles on August 17. Moving west-northwest, the cyclone strengthened into a major hurricane which hit the southern North Carolina coast on August 23 and led to 42 deaths. It moved out to sea, disrupting British and French ships involved in the Napoleonic Wars.

paragraphs: II. A tropical cyclone moved through the Mona Passage on August 26 before moving just offshore the East Coast of the United States through September 3.

paragraphs: III. A hurricane hit Dominica on September 9, resulting in 457 casualties. The cyclone subsequently moved through the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, striking Mississippi by September 18.

paragraphs: IV. On September 15, a hurricane hit northeast Florida, destroying several houses but leading to no deaths.

paragraphs: V. On September 20, another hurricane hit Dominica, causing an additional 165 deaths.

paragraphs: VI. On September 28, a minimal hurricane hit the Outer Banks of North Carolina, destroying one ship.

paragraphs: VII. During October 2, a tropical cyclone was witnessed at Jamaica. Moving northward, it struck South Carolina by October 9.

paragraphs: I. A tropical storm moved through the Lesser Antilles on July 25.

paragraphs: II. On September 1, another tropical cyclone moved through the Lesser Antilles, striking Trinidad de Cuba on September 5.

paragraphs: III. Between October 16 and October 20, this hurricane moved from the extreme southeastern Caribbean Sea to the west of Jamaica.

paragraphs: A minimal hurricane hit the Outer Banks on September 12, damaging the lighthouse there.

paragraphs: I. A tropical cyclone struck Dominica, Guadeloupe, Tortola, and Montserrat between August 1 and August 3, killing 62 people.

paragraphs: II. Another hurricane hit Puerto Rico on August 17. It drifted over the island, and caused a "Great death toll".

paragraphs: III. A tropical storm affected the northern Leeward Islands between October 9 and October 13.


title: 1810–1819 Atlantic hurricane seasons

paragraphs: The decade of 1810s featured the 1810–1819 Atlantic hurricane seasons. While info for every storm that happened is not available, some parts of the coastline were had enough people to give info of hurricane happenings. Each season was an ongoing event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation in the Atlantic basin. Most tropical cyclone formation is between June 1 and November 30.

paragraphs: I. On July 30 and 31, this tropical storm impacted Jamaica.

paragraphs: II. On August 12 a hurricane hit Trinidad, causing heavy damage. The system apparently moved to Jamaica by the 15th.

paragraphs: III. A tropical storm hit near Charleston, South Carolina between September 11 and 13, causing minor damage.

paragraphs: IV. A tropical cyclone impacts eastern Cuba on September 28.

paragraphs: V. The "Salty Storm" strikes Cuba on October 24 and 25 before continuing onward into the southwest Atlantic. The pressure at Havana falls to 29.35"

paragraphs: I. A minor hurricane that impacted Cuba continued onward to Charleston, South Carolina on September 10, causing many deaths, tornadoes, and crop damage as it moved across the state.

paragraphs: II. On October 4 a major hurricane hit near St. Augustine, Florida. Many homes were destroyed, and 35 people drowned in the sinking of a U.S. Gunboat.

paragraphs: III. On October 11 a hurricane impacts Pensacola, Florida and Fort Stoddard, Alabama.

paragraphs: IV. A hurricane moved through the western Caribbean west of Jamaica to Cuba between October 20 and 25. On October 26 a Spanish ship is lost at Elliot Key from a hurricane.

paragraphs: I. Between June 5 and 11, a tropical storm moved through the northwest Caribbean Sea.

paragraphs: II. A tropical cyclone impacted Puerto Rico on July 23.

paragraphs: III. On August 8, a tropical storm moved into South Carolina.

paragraphs: IV. A tropical cyclone was sighted east of Jamaica on August 14. By August 19, it struck southeast Louisiana as a major hurricane after raking the Caribbean Islands. It passed just to the west of New Orleans, almost destroying the levee north of town. The hurricane caused severe flooding, damaged 53 boats, caused $6,000,000 in damage, and 100 deaths. The British fleet in the War of 1812 was disrupted.

paragraphs: V. There is record of another hurricane affecting Puerto Rico on August 21.

paragraphs: VI. Later in the season, a hurricane hit Jamaica on October 12, affecting the island into the 14th. It continued northwestward, hitting Cuba on the 14th before moving into the southwest Atlantic east of Bermuda by October 17. It destroyed 500 houses and many ships.

paragraphs: I. On July 22, a hurricane hit Barbados, killing 18 there. It continued through the islands, affecting Puerto Rico on the 23rd, causing more damage and deaths along its path. This is likely the same storm that struck the Bahamas as a major hurricane on July 26 and recurved west of Bermuda by July 29.

paragraphs: II. After moving through the Leeward Islands on July 29, this storm struck Jamaica from July 31 – August 1, leading to many lives lost. The hurricane was last seen moving into Belize on August 3.

paragraphs: III. Between August 3 and 7, a tropical cyclone passed nearby Bermuda, with a bulk of the impact occurring on August 4 and early August 5. It was the worst hurricane to impact the island since 1793 and forced the construction of a breakwater to prevent a similar harbor disaster from recurring; more than 30 ships were driven ashore by the "violent gale." Winds were estimated at during the cyclone's passage. (from the book Beware the Hurricane)

paragraphs: IV. A powerful hurricane hit Dominica and Martinique beginning August 25, causing 3000 deaths. The cyclone moved south of Jamaica by August 28.

paragraphs: V. A system that affected the Caicos Islands on August 24 moved northwest to strike as a compact major hurricane near Charleston, South Carolina on August 27, causing many deaths due to drowning. The system passed northward through the Mid-Atlantic States by August 29.

paragraphs: VI. Northeast Florida/Southeast Georgia was hit by a major hurricane on September 16, causing strong storm surge and 50 casualties.

paragraphs: I. A minimal hurricane hit South Carolina on July 1, causing 1 tornado.

paragraphs: II. A hurricane impacted Dominica and Puerto Rico between July 22 and 24.

paragraphs: III. A hurricane made landfall near Washington, D.C., including a tornado that "tore through the center", curtailing the Burning of Washington by the British.

paragraphs: III. A hurricane affected Bermuda for four days around October 10. (from Beware the Hurricane)

paragraphs: I. Cape Lookout, North Carolina was hit by a major hurricane on September 3. It moved northeastward across the state, reaching the Atlantic Ocean near Maryland. It weakened over land to a tropical storm, but still brought gusty winds to New England. It caused at least 4 deaths.

paragraphs: II. Three weeks later, another major hurricane was located off the coast of Virginia moving northward. It hit Long Island, New York on September 23, causing damage and destruction throughout New England. At least 20 deaths occurred, though "The loss of life was so heavy that the newspapers did not have space enough to give all the details of the marine disasters."

paragraphs: III. A tropical storm was located off the coast of South Carolina on September 28, but did not make landfall.

paragraphs: IV. From October 17 until October 19 Jamaica was hit by a hurricane. It drifted over the island, causing 100 deaths.

paragraphs: V. A minor hurricane hit Saint Bartholomew on October 18. It turned northwestward, and moved up the Chesapeake Bay on October 24, delaying ships' arrivals.

paragraphs: Records from ship logs have determined both 1815 and 1816 were active hurricane seasons, with at least 12 tropical cyclones ascribed to 1816 alone. This is some evidence that a northward-displaced Intertropical Convergence Zone appears to be partially responsible for the increased 1816 tropical cyclone activity.

paragraphs: I. June 5–8: A hurricane brushed the Florida Keys, causing the loss of 5 ships. Interestingly, it appears to have been lured northward by an unusual June snowstorm across New England

paragraphs: II. Haiti, around Port-au-Prince, was struck by a hurricane on August 18

paragraphs: III. Martinique, eastern Cuba, and South Carolina were impacted by a hurricane between September 3 and 11.

paragraphs: IV. A tropical storm affected Virginia on September 18 before moving northeast into New York. The tropical storm caused heavy flooding in the James River area.

paragraphs: V. There is record of a hurricane moving by Dominica and Barbados on September 15 before devastating Puerto Rico on September 18. The cyclone then recurved between the United States East coast and Bermuda by September 25.

paragraphs: VI. On October 16–17, a severe gale was experienced in Dominica and Martinique. During the storm, an earthquake shook the region.

paragraphs: I. A hurricane was first observed near Tobago on August 1 before continuing through the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico by August 6. It crossed over Florida, and when it reached the western Atlantic, it paralleled the coastlines of Georgia and South Carolina. It moved inland over southern North Carolina, and brought heavy rain to the Norfolk, Virginia area, delaying mail delivery and causing flooding through the mid-Atlantic as it moved northward into Pennsylvania by August 9. Its track appears similar to that of Hurricane Charley of August 2004.

paragraphs: II. Barbados was struck by a hurricane on October 21, causing 250 deaths as it moved through the Lesser Antilles. The hurricane subsequently moved into Nicaragua by October 26.

paragraphs: I. A hurricane passed through the central Atlantic east of Bermuda to south and east of the Azores between August 26 and September 5. It reportedly silted at Hamilton Harbor on Bermuda. (from Beware the Hurricane)

paragraphs: II. A hurricane passed by the Cayman Islands in early September. It crossed the Yucatán Peninsula, and turned northwest when it reached the Bay of Campeche. The hurricane intensified to a Category 2-3 before hitting Galveston, Texas on September 12 and continuing onward to Mississippi. The hurricane was "quite severe", destroying all but six houses on Galveston Island.

paragraphs: III. A tropical cyclone seriously affected Puerto Rico on September 22. It possibly recurved sharply offshore the Eastern Seaboard, as the frigate Macedonian encountered a hurricane on the 26th and 27th to the east-northeast of Bermuda. The breeze freshened that afternoon as the ship lay near 35.6N 55.7W. By sunset, waves increased to nine feet, and southeast gales lashed the system after midnight on the 27th. Winds continued to increase into that afternoon, as seas increased to . One man fell overboard by 5 p.m. and drowned. The hurricane reached its full violence by 10 p.m., splitting the storm staysails, and making the rigging useless. The main mast cracked under the strain by 2 a.m. on the 28th, and the mizzenmast followed suit by 4 a.m.. Seawater poured into the ship from all sides, as the wooden hull twisted under the force of the waves. The ship finally cleared the storm without capsizing by noon, and finally got to see a sunset by the evening of the 29th (from Chronicles of the Frigate Macedonian 1809-1922 p. 129-139).

paragraphs: IV. An October 12–14 hurricane affected Jamaica and the central Bahamas.

paragraphs: V. Between November 6 and 13, another hurricane moved across the southwest Caribbean Sea into Jamaica and Cuba.

paragraphs: The exact origin of this hurricane is unknown, but it likely formed off the coast of Cuba before heading on a west-northwest track towards the Gulf Coast. A small hurricane, it reached an estimated Category 3-4 strength before making landfall on July 27 in southeastern Louisiana, bringing heavy winds and a 5–6 ft storm surge. The hurricane continued northeastward, making a second landfall in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi before dissipating inland. Known as one of the most destructive hurricanes to affect the United States during the first half of the 19th century, the Bay St. Louis Hurricane caused severe damage across Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi, leaving behind the remains of shattered buildings and uprooted trees. Several vessels (from small boats to 60-ton brigs) were driven ashore by the hurricane's storm surge. One of them was the capsizing of the U.S. warship Firebrand, drowning 39 sailors. Several U.S. solders were caught off guard by the hurricane and died in its midst. There were also reports of people being attacked by alligators, snapping turtles, and snakes, which further added to the death toll. The hurricane caused over $100,000 dollars (1819 US dollars) in damage, and killed between 43 and 175 people, some of them later found washed up across the Gulf Coast.

paragraphs: II. A tropical storm hit between New Orleans and Apalachicola in September.

paragraphs: III. Between September 19 and 26, a hurricane tracked through the northeast Lesser Antilles and southwest of Bermuda. During September 21 and 22, this hurricane hit the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, causing heavy damage and loss of life.

paragraphs: IV. From October 13 to 15, a hurricane passed through the Leeward Islands.

paragraphs: V. A hurricane is recorded to have impacted Cuba on October 27 before moving onward to the Bahamas on October 28.


title: 1820–1829 Atlantic hurricane seasons

paragraphs: I. A minimal hurricane moved from Florida on September 8 northward to hit near the border of North Carolina and South Carolina on September 10. It caused only minor damage.

paragraphs: II. A hurricane was sighted at Dominica on September 26 before moving west-northwest through Hispaniola, then across the southwest Atlantic to South Carolina on October 1.

paragraphs: I. A tropical storm moved westward across the Caribbean, from Guadeloupe on September 1 to western Cuba on September 9.

paragraphs: The Norfolk and Long Island Hurricane was a deadly hurricane that rapidly moved up the Atlantic coast during the first few days of September. It included a hurricane landfall within the modern borders of New York City, the only recorded case of a hurricane eyewall moving directly over the city. It caused 200 deaths, and is estimated to have been a Category 4 hurricane.

paragraphs: III. Later in September, from the 15th-17th, a strong hurricane hit Mississippi. This was a very large storm, bringing storm surge flooding from Mobile to what is now Wakulla and Taylor Counties, Florida. 11 of the 13 vessels in the harbor at Pensacola Bay were lost, causing 35 deaths.

paragraphs: I. A hurricane struck the central Gulf coast between July 7 and July 9.

paragraphs: II. This hurricane moved north-northwest from the Bahamas on September 25 to hit Charleston, South Carolina on September 27. It claimed the lives of hundreds of slaves who found themselves trapped in the low-lying Santee Delta, miles from higher ground and with no shelter. It caused 300 (or more deaths), but managed to break a drought in the Richmond area.

paragraphs: III. From October 20 to the 22nd, a hurricane hit Virginia, causing heavy damage and winds in the Richmond area.

paragraphs: IV. A rare December hurricane moved through the eastern Caribbean Sea and eventually into Venezuela between December 13 and December 22.

paragraphs: I. A tropical storm moved from Curaçao on July 8 to near Jamaica on July 10.

paragraphs: II. A tropical storm moved south of Jamaica on August 2 and August 3.

paragraphs: III. A hurricane which formed in the west-central Gulf of Mexico on September 11 moved slowly northeast, striking the central Gulf coast on September 14.

paragraphs: I. A severe hurricane was sighted at Guadeloupe on September 7 and moved across the northeast Lesser Antilles and the southwest Atlantic to hit Georgia and South Carolina on September 14, causing 100 deaths. It washed out all bridges between Darien and Savannah. Moving northward, it hit Savannah and South Carolina before going out to sea. Because hurricanes were somewhat frequent, residents were used to evacuating the area. Those who did not evacuate saw the destruction caused by this strong hurricane. This is likely one of the strongest hurricanes to hit Georgia in its history.

paragraphs: II. Between September 26 and September 27, a tropical storm moved south of Jamaica.

paragraphs: I. A tropical storm formed south of Santo Domingo on May 28. It moved across Cuba on the 1st, and while moving across Florida it caused heavy winds. When it reached the western Atlantic it rapidly strengthened, hitting Charleston as a hurricane, but it lost strength over the northwestern Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: II. On July 6, a moderate hurricane hit Puerto Rico, destroying 6 villages.

paragraphs: III. Two weeks later, on July 26, a powerful hurricane hit near Guadeloupe. It continued west-northwestward to hit Puerto Rico, causing 1,300 deaths, before tracking to the west of Bermuda by August 2.

paragraphs: IV. A hurricane struck Haiti on September 28 and moved northwestward into northeast Florida by October 3.

paragraphs: V. A late season hurricane hit North Carolina on November 17, killing at least 5.

paragraphs: I. A hurricane hit the Cayman Islands and western Cuba on August 27, causing 33 deaths.

paragraphs: II. A tropical storm spotted near Dominica on August 31 moved west-northwest to Jamaica before moving northward to the Grand Banks by September 10.

paragraphs: I. A hurricane struck Antigua on August 17 and moved westward to Jamaica before continuing westward to Vera Cruz, Mexico.

paragraphs: II. A hurricane formed over the Windward Islands on August 18. It moved northwest through the Bahamas on the 21st, and hit Cape Hatteras on August 24. It moved up the Chesapeake Bay, causing higher than normal tides, and eventually through New England by August 27. This is known as the St. Kitts Hurricane.

paragraphs: III. This hurricane moved through the northern Leeward Islands a week after the last storm on August 27 before continuing westward into the eastern Gulf of Mexico, recurving northward to strike northwest Florida by September 5.

paragraphs: IV. A tropical storm moved through the southwest Atlantic between the West Indies and Bermuda from August 29 to September 8.

paragraphs: A hurricane moved from the northern Lesser Antilles on September 15 northward by Bermuda on September 19, where it caused a "severe gale" and sank 3 ships, before moving into the north Atlantic shipping lanes. and from "Beware the Hurricane!"

paragraphs: I. A tropical storm moved through the Gulf of Mexico between July 9 and July 13.

paragraphs: II. A strong tropical storm moved through South Carolina and the Outer Banks of North Carolina before moving northwest of Bermuda during the last week of August.

paragraphs: III. On September 10, a hurricane hit the mouth of the Rio Grande. Port Isabel and Brazos Santiago saw great destruction, while other towns had higher than normal tides.

paragraphs: IV. A hurricane hit Saint Barthemelow on October 26, possibly sinking one ship.

paragraphs: Terry Tucker. Beware the Hurricane! The Story of the Gyratory Tropical Storms That Have Struck Bermuda. Bermuda: Hamilton Press, 1966, p. 87-89.


title: 1830–1839 Atlantic hurricane seasons

paragraphs: I. A hurricane moved from Trinidad to western Cuba between August 3 and August 9.

paragraphs: II. First noted in the Leeward Islands on August 11, a hurricane moved into the Caribbean in the middle of August. It moved west-northwestward, and approached the coast of Florida. It came close to present-day Daytona Beach on August 15, but recurved northeastward before landfall, although land was not spared from effects. It made landfall near Cape Fear on the 16th and went out to sea that night, eventually well to the north of Bermuda just offshore the Canadian Maritimes. The hurricane broke a three-month drought, but caused heavy crop damage in the process.

paragraphs: III. A hurricane tracked north of the Leeward Islands on August 19 through the southwest and western Atlantic by August 26.

paragraphs: IV. A hurricane moved from north of Puerto Rico on September 29 to well northeast of Bermuda on October 1.

paragraphs: V. A tropical storm struck South Carolina on October 6.

paragraphs: I. A tropical storm made landfall in northeast Florida on June 10.

paragraphs: II. A hurricane moved from south of Barbados to the Yucatán Peninsula between June 22 and June 28.

paragraphs: III. The Great Barbados Hurricane was an intense Category 4 hurricane that left cataclysmic damage across the Caribbean and Louisiana in 1831. It left 2,500 people dead and $7 million (1831 dollars) in damage.

paragraphs: IV. A strong tropical storm/hurricane struck western Louisiana between August 27 and August 30.

paragraphs: V. A hurricane hit near the mouth of the Rio Grande, causing heavy rain over Texas and Mexico.

paragraphs: I. Early in the season, a hurricane moved through the Bahamas around June 5, causing 52 deaths. The gale began June 6 at 8 p.m. at Bermuda from the northeast, with the center passing quite close to the island as the wind shifted to southwest at 10:30 p.m. The storm lasted until 3 a.m. on June 7. Two schooners were damaged during the system. (from Beware the Hurricane)

paragraphs: II. On August 12, this hurricane was noted near Key West. The cyclone moved across the eastern Gulf of Mexico striking northwest Florida, then recurving through the Southeast to move through South Carolina by August 18.

paragraphs: III. On August 21 a tropical storm was witnessed to the west-southwest of the Cape Verde Islands in the eastern tropical Atlantic.

paragraphs: IV. Between August 23 and August 27, a hurricane moved from the central Leeward Islands to the east of Jamaica.

paragraphs: V. On October 14, a tropical storm moved into South Carolina.

paragraphs: A hurricane passed offshore of Norfolk in late August, keeping ships at harbor but causing no damage.

paragraphs: I. On September 4 a hurricane hit South Carolina, causing 37 deaths. It moved through North Carolina and Virginia, capsizing the ship "E. Pluribus Unum". The crew made it safely to shore.

paragraphs: II. A hurricane struck the island of Dominica on September 20, bringing heavy winds and a 12 ft storm surge that devastated the capital of Roseau; 230 people are believed to have been killed by the hurricane's onslaught. Then the hurricane made its second landfall at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic on the 23rd. About 170 sailors died when their ships sank in the Ozama River. On land the hurricane disrupted the funeral service of Padre Ruiz, a Roman Catholic priest. A total of 400 people were killed from the hurricane.

paragraphs: III. Also in September, a hurricane hit south Texas, causing heavy damage.

paragraphs: A hurricane was first detected near Antigua on August 12. It moved over Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and Cuba, causing at least 3 casualties. It moved across the Florida Straits and the Gulf of Mexico, hitting near the mouth of the Rio Grande on August 18. There, it destroyed small villages, caused strong storm surge, and killed 18 people.

paragraphs: Jay Barnes in "Florida's Hurricane History" pg 56, noted a hurricane, possibly the same, that smashed Cape Florida and Key Biscayne, creating the Norris Cut and knocking over the Ponce de Leon lighthouse. From there, the storm entered the Gulf of Mexico and took a hard northeast tack, damaging Fort Brooke in Tampa, terrorizing the city, and then ambling northward into Georgia and the Carolinas, making the trip "all the way into New England."

paragraphs: A hurricane hit the Cayman Islands during this season.

paragraphs: I. On July 26 a storm hit Martinique. It caused 57 deaths.

paragraphs: II. On August 2, a hurricane hit Puerto Rico, causing 141 deaths.

paragraphs: III. A tropical system was observed east of the West Indies on August 13. It moved through the islands, and passed the Bahamas on the 16th. As it was recurving, it hit the North Carolina coast on the 18th. It slowly moved over land, causing 48 hours of strong winds, and moved offshore on the 20th. This is known as the Calypso Hurricane.

paragraphs: IV. The 10th known tropical storm in the 1837 season, nicknamed Racer's Storm, was first observed in the Western Caribbean during late September. It moved across the Yucatán Peninsula and the western Gulf of Mexico, where it hit Brownsville, Texas on October 2. It remained over land for 3 days before recurving to the east, hitting near Louisiana and Pensacola before moving out to sea. This hurricane caused 105 deaths.

paragraphs: I. On September 7, a hurricane hit near Cape Florida, causing 38 deaths.

paragraphs: II. A late season hurricane hit the east coast of Mexico on November 1, sinking 2 U.S. ships.

paragraphs: I. A hurricane hit Charleston, South Carolina on August 28. It passed over North Carolina and Virginia before going out to sea on the 30th.

paragraphs: II. This cyclone is known as Reid's Hurricane. The system moved from east of the West Indies into the southwest Atlantic. Swells were noted as early as September 9 at Bermuda. During late on the September 11 and early on September 12, this hurricane struck Bermuda. The storm tide was measured as 11 feet/3.3 meters. Thousands of trees were downed. The tower on Tower Hill was levelled. Damage done to private property totalled 8000 pounds sterling (1839 pounds). This cyclone later swept western Ireland as an extratropical storm, which they called The Great Wind of 1839. This was one of the first hurricanes to be studied by William Reid in person, in this case as governor of the island the year after his publication of "The Law of Storms". (from Beware the Hurricane)

paragraphs: III. During the middle of September, a hurricane approached the coast of Louisiana. It struck near Lake Charles, then known as Charley's Lake, on September 15.

paragraphs: IV. A late season hurricane hit Galveston, Texas on November 5.


title: Jigglypuff

paragraphs: Jigglypuff, known in Japan as Purin (プリン), is one of the fictional species of Pokémon from the "Pokémon" media franchise owned by Nintendo and Game Freak. Since it was introduced early in the "Pokémon" anime, it has become one of the most famous Pokémon.

paragraphs: Jigglypuff is perhaps most famous for the song it sings which puts everyone who hears it into a deep sleep. Jigglypuff then becomes upset because it assumes everyone is very bored by the song, and it draws all over their faces with a marker.

paragraphs: Jigglypuff is a small Pokémon, slightly shorter than Pikachu. It is shaped like a balloon and has a pink body with blue eyes, catlike ears, and a strange tuft of fur on its forehead.

paragraphs: In the "Pokémon" video games, Jigglypuff is famous among players because it learns the move Sing, which puts enemy Pokémon to sleep. This often causes them to lose the battle, and many players find it very annoying.

paragraphs: Jigglypuff was introduced in "Pokémon Red and Blue", the first "Pokémon" games. It has appeared in most of the games since then. It evolves into Wigglytuff, an "upgraded" form of Jigglypuff. Starting with "Pokémon Gold and Silver", Jigglypuff has a pre-evolved evolutionary form, Igglybuff. Igglybuff was one of the 100 new Pokémon introduced in "Gold" and "Silver". Previously there were only 151.

paragraphs: Jigglypuff has also appeared in "Super Smash Bros.," "Super Smash Bros. Melee", "Super Smash Bros. Brawl", and "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U". It is a light and fast character who is great in the air. Its attacks include Rollout, Pound, Sing, Rest, and its Final Smash, Puff Up.

paragraphs: Jigglypuff is one of the most famous Pokémon, alongside Pikachu, Bulbasaur, Charmander, and Mewtwo, mostly because it has appeared many times in the still-running "Pokémon" anime. It usually appears unexpectedly and puts Pokémon and humans near it to sleep for a few minutes by singing its trademark song. It has a black permanent marker, similar to a Sharpie, with which it often draws on people and Pokémon's faces while they are asleep. This is an act of revenge because everyone falls asleep when they hear Jigglypuff's song and Jigglypuff assumes it's because they are very bored by it. Since people are upset when Jigglypuff puts them to sleep, and Jigglypuff is upset when they fall asleep, it is a vicious circle.

paragraphs: In episode "Beach Blank-Out Blastoise", Jigglypuff somehow got stuck in Blastoise's hydro cannon. When it was finally freed, it put everyone to sleep and then drew on their faces.


title: Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah

paragraphs: Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah (893 - 17 May, 946) () was the second Caliph of the Fatimids in Ifriqiya and ruled from 934 to 946. He is the 12th Imam according to Isma'ili Faatemi faith.

paragraphs: Al-Qaim (sometimes also spelled Ka'im) was born in Salamya in Syria in 895 with the name Abd ar-Rahman. After his father Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (910-934) seized power in Ifriqiya he was named heir to the throne in 912, and helped put down several revolts. But campaigns into Egypt failed because of the resistance of the Abbasids (914-915 and 919-921).

paragraphs: In 934 Al-Qaim succeeded his father as Caliph. The Fatimid realm became an important power in the Mediterranean. After the re-conquest of Sicily the Byzantine province of Calabria and the coast of Italy and France were .

paragraphs: But from 944 to 947 there was a crisis by the revolt of Abu Yazid, who had united the Kharijite Berber tribes of eastern Algeria and overrun Ifriqiya. Imam Al-Qaim was able to hold out in Mahdia with the help of the navy for over a year, but died (17 May 946) before the revolt could be put down.

paragraphs: He was succeeded by his son Ismail al-Mansur (946-953).

paragraphs: He died on 13 th Shawwal 334 AH (Mahdiyya)/ 17th May 946 AD


title: Victoria Falls

paragraphs: Victoria Falls is a waterfall in south central Africa in the Zambezi River between southeast Zambia and northwest Zimbabwe. It is 108.3 m high and 1,703 m wide.

paragraphs: The falls were discovered by David Livingstone in November 1855, where he viewed it on what is now known as Livingstone Island. He named it after Queen Victoria. The Chitonga name for the Falls is Mosi-oa-Tunya. That word means "the smoke that thunders." They call it that because the Falls are very misty.

paragraphs: It is listed as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.