title: Johann Christian Bach

paragraphs: Johann Christian Bach (born Leipzig, 5 September 1735; died London, 1 January 1782) was a composer of the Classical period. He was the eleventh and youngest son of the great composer Johann Sebastian Bach. He is often called 'the London Bach' or 'the English Bach', because he spent many years living in London. He became internationally famous, both as a composer and as a performer. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart liked his music, and learned a lot about how to write good concertos by looking at the concertos of J. C. Bach.

paragraphs: Johann Christian Bach’s parents were Johann Sebastian Bach and Anna Magdalena Bach. He was born in Leipzig, Germany. His famous father was one of the last composers of the Baroque period. His father was already 50 when J. C. Bach was born, so it is not surprising that by the time Johann Christian had grown up the style of music had changed a lot since Johann Sebastian had been writing his great works. Johann Christian belonged to the Classical period. He was 15 when his father died. He moved to Berlin and his half-brother Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, who was already a famous composer, gave him more music lessons.

paragraphs: Johann Christian lived in Italy for many years from 1756, first studying counterpoint with Padre Martini in Bologna and later with Giovanni Battista Sammartini. He became an organist at the cathedral in Milan in 1760. However, he soon started to become successful as an opera composer and he left his cathedral job so that he could work in the theatre and travel more in Italy.

paragraphs: Johann Christian had been brought up in the Lutheran church, but in Italy he became a Catholic. He married the Italian soprano Cecilia Grassi. She was about eight years older than Johann Christian and, perhaps because of this, they never had children.

paragraphs: In 1762 he moved to London. He was very successful there, and earned plenty of money to live comfortably. He knew the royal family and many important aristocratic people as well as famous people such as the painter Gainsborough and the musician and writer Charles Burney. King George III and Queen Charlotte went to hear his first London opera "Orione" in 1763. He gave the Queen music lessons.

paragraphs: He lived at a time when the piano was becoming a popular instrument and the harpsichord was becoming old-fashioned. J. C. Bach wrote a lot of music for the piano and gave the very first concert of piano music in London in 1768. He wrote 6 keyboard concertos and dedicated them to the Queen. The last movement of Concerto no 6 was a set of variations on "God Save the King". This became a very popular piece of music at the time. He wrote many songs that became popular in his time. They were often performed in Vauxhall Gardens, a park where many people went to be entertained.

paragraphs: He gave many concerts together with Carl Friedrich Abel, a well-known player of the viola da gamba. Abel and Bach may have known one another as children because both their fathers had worked together in Cöthen in Germany. In April 1764 J. C. Bach met the 8-year-old Mozart who visited London with his father Leopold. They played duets on the harpsichord together.

paragraphs: He composed cantatas, chamber music, keyboard and orchestral works, operas, symphonies and songs. He had many works published in London and Paris.

paragraphs: During his last years he lost a lot of money. The Bach-Abel concert series lost money, and one of Bach’s servants stole £1000 from him which was a very large sum on those days. His health started to become bad and, when he died, he left his wife with a lot of debt. Queen Charlotte helped to pay a lot of the debt, and his widow went back to Italy.

paragraphs: He was buried in St Pancras churchyard, London.


title: Pelycosaur

paragraphs: Pelycosaurs (meaning "basin lizards") were the earliest synapsids. They were not dinosaurs or reptiles. They are an informal group, meaning all synapsids except the therapsids and their descendants.

paragraphs: These tetrapods appeared during the Pennsylvanian and went extinct at the end of the Permian period. They were the dominant land animals for some 40 million years, and were almost wiped out by the P/Tr extinction event. A few survived until the lower Triassic to form the therapsids, a group which led to the mammals. Because the term does not include their descendants, it is not used much now.

paragraphs: Pelycosaur fossils have been found mainly in Europe and North America, although some small, late-surviving forms are known from Russia and South Africa.

paragraphs: At least two pelycosaur clades independently evolved a tall sail, consisting of elongated vertebral spines: the edaphosaurids and the sphenacodontids. In life, this would have been covered by skin, and possibly functioned as a thermoregulatory device and/or a mating display.

paragraphs: Unlike lepidosaurian reptiles, pelycosaurs lacked epidermal scales. Fossil evidence from some ophiacodonts shows that parts of the skin was naked, but that the belly was covered in dermal scutes. These scutes looked like the scutes present in reptile groups, but they are of a different type of structure.

paragraphs: In 1940 the group was reviewed in detail and every species known at the time described (and many illustrated) in an important monograph.

paragraphs: Well-known pelycosaurs include the genera "Dimetrodon", "Sphenacodon", "Edaphosaurus", and "Ophiacodon".


title: Therapsid

paragraphs: Therapsids, previously known as the mammal-like reptiles, are an order of synapsids.

paragraphs: The clade includes the mammals, which are descended from the cynodont therapsids.

paragraphs: The jaws of therapsids had frontal incisors for nipping, large lateral canines for puncturing and tearing, and molars for shearing and tearing, and molars for shearing and chopping food.

paragraphs: Therapsid legs were positioned more vertically beneath their bodies than were the sprawling legs of Sauropsids and Pelycosaurs.

paragraphs: The therapsids were seriously affected by the P/Tr extinction event. The successful gorgonopsians died out, and the remaining groups were much reduced.

paragraphs: The dicynodonts, now represented by a single family of large stocky herbivores, the Kannemeyeridae, and the medium-sized cynodonts (including both carnivorous and herbivorous forms), flourished worldwide, throughout the early to middle Triassic. They died out across much of Pangea before the end of the Upper Triassic, although they continued for some time longer in the wet equatorial band and the south.

paragraphs: At least three groups of eucynodonts survived. They appeared in the Upper Triassic. The extremely mammal-like family, the Tritylodonts, survived into the Lower Cretaceous. Another group, "Morganucodon" and similar animals, were mammaliaformes or the "stem-mammals" for the mammals.


title: Toccata

paragraphs: Toccata is the title that was often given to pieces of music for solo instruments from the Renaissance onwards. The word comes from the Italian for "to touch", also meaning "to play a musical instrument". These pieces were often quite difficult, with a lot of fast notes which showed off how well the person could play.

paragraphs: The first toccatas were written in northern Italy by composers such as Claudio Monteverdi and Giovanni Gabrieli. They are pieces for the keyboard (harpsichord or organ) with lots of running scales in the right hand and accompanying chords in the left hand.

paragraphs: Toccatas became popular in Germany with composers such as Hans Leo Hassler who had studied in Venice with Gabrieli. Many German Baroque organ composers wrote toccatas: Sweelinck (who was Dutch), Pachelbel, Buxtehude and Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach wrote a "Toccata and Fugue in D minor", which is one of the most famous pieces of Baroque organ music, and perhaps the most famous toccata ever written.

paragraphs: After the Baroque period composers did not often write toccatas. The toccata became popular again in the late 19th century with the French organ composers such as Charles-Marie Widor whose Toccata from his "Symphony No. 5" is very popular today, especially at weddings. It has lots of quick notes in the right hand (and occasionally in the left) and a big tune in the pedals. Another famous organ toccata is by Louis Vierne. It is the last movement of his "Symphony No. 1" (at this time French composers wrote organ works called "symphonies").

paragraphs: In the 20th century several composers wrote toccatas for piano including Prokofiev, Khachaturian, Ravel (part of "Le Tombeau de Couperin") and Claude Debussy (part of "Suite: Pour le Piano").


title: Taylor Swift

paragraphs: Taylor Allison Swift (born December 13, 1989) is an American singer-songwriter, record producer, music video director, philanthropist, and actress. As one of the world's leading contemporary recording artists, she is known for narrative songs about her personal life, which have received widespread media coverage. Having sold more than 50 million albums—including 37 million in the US, Swift is one of the world's best-selling music artists and the highest-earning female musician of the 2010s. She has won 10 Grammy Awards, an Emmy Award, six Guinness world records and is the most-awarded act and woman at the American Music Awards (29 wins) and "Billboard" Music Awards (23 wins), respectively.

paragraphs: She released her debut single, "Tim McGraw", in 2006 at the age of 16. That same year she released her debut self titled album. In 2008, she sold more albums than anyone else that year.

paragraphs: She won Country Music Television's (CMT) "Breakthrough Video of the Year" award in 2007 for "Tim McGraw". She was also nominated by the Academy of Country Music for "Top New Female Vocalist".

paragraphs: Swift’s second studio album, "Fearless", was released in 2008 and reached Platinum about a year later, on September 10, 2009, becoming her first ever album to sell 1 million copies. On October 25, 2010 she released her third album, "Speak Now".

paragraphs: The lead single from Swift's fourth album, "Red", "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together", became her first number-one song on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The single "I Knew You Were Trouble" reached number two on the chart while becoming her first chart-topper on "Billboard"'s Mainstream Top 40/Pop Songs chart. In 2012 Swift voiced the character Audrey in the movie "The Lorax".

paragraphs: Swift performed "Shake It Off", the lead single from her fifth album, "1989", at the 2014 MTV VMAs. "1989" was released on October 27, 2014. "Shake It Off", along with the singles "Blank Space", and "Bad Blood", all reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100. These singles, along with "Style" and "Wildest Dreams", have also topped the Mainstream Top 40/Pop Songs chart.

paragraphs: In 2016 she featured on the single, "I Don't Wanna Live Forever" with English singer Zayn Malik (former member of One Direction). It was released as a single for the soundtrack of the film "Fifty Shades Darker" (2017). It reached number two on the Hot 100 in the US and Canada.

paragraphs: On June 8, 2017, Swift restored her music on streaming sites such as Spotify and Apple Music after previously removing it from being streamed. On August 25, 2017, Swift released the single "Look What You Made Me Do", which topped the "Billboard" Hot 100 and broke YouTube's streaming record after garnering 43 million views within 24 hours. It also became her first UK chart-topper. Swift announced that her sixth studio album, "Reputation", would be released on November 10, 2017. The album included singles such as "...Ready for It?" and "End Game" featuring American rapper Future and English singer Ed Sheeran.

paragraphs: On April 26, 2019, Swift released the single "ME!" featuring Brendon Urie as the lead single from her seventh studio album, "Lover". On June 14, 2019, Swift released "Lover"’s second single "You Need to Calm Down". Both of these songs reached number two on the US Hot 100.

paragraphs: On August 16, Swift released Lover as the third single from "Lover" and released a duet version of the song with Canadian recording artist Shawn Mendes.

paragraphs: In August 2020, Swift revealed that she was releasing a surprise album called "folklore", after it was announced her Loverfest stadium tour was canceled due to the coronavirus pandemic. Its lead single, "cardigan", entered at number one on the US Hot 100, becoming her sixth US number-one. "folklore" became her seventh US number-one album. She became the first artist to enter at number one on both the Hot 100 singles chart and "Billboard" 200 album chart in the same week.

paragraphs: Swift was born at Reading Hospital in West Reading, Pennsylvana, Her presents is Scott Swift and Andrea Swift, and was raised in Wyomissing, Pennsylvania on a Christmas tree farm.

paragraphs: Swift has three cats. One is named "Meredith" after the doctor on "Grey's Anatomy". The second is named "Olivia" after the detective, now captain, on "". The third one is "Benjamin".

paragraphs: Swift has a brother by the name of Austin Swift, who is an actor.

paragraphs: Swift has a boyfriend by the name Joesph ‘Joe’ Alwyn, who is an actor. They have been dating since 2016. They have kept their relationship out of the public eye.

paragraphs: In Nashville, Swift worked with experienced Music Row songwriters such as Troy Verges, Brett Beavers, Brett James, Mac McAnally, and the Warren Brothers, and formed a lasting working relationship with Liz Rose


title: Internal medicine

paragraphs: Internal medicine is the branch and specialty of medicine concerning the diagnosis and nonsurgical treatment of diseases in adults, especially of internal organs.

paragraphs: Doctors of internal medicine, also called "internists", are required to have included in their medical schooling and postgraduate training at least three years dedicated to learning how to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases that affect adults.

paragraphs: Internists are trained to solve puzzling diagnostic problems and handle severe chronic illnesses and situations where several different illnesses may strike at the same time.

paragraphs: Internists can choose to focus their practice on general internal medicine, or may take additional training to "subspecialize" in one of 13 areas of internal medicine, generally organized by organ system. Cardiologists, for example, are doctors of internal medicine who subspecialize in diseases of the heart. The training an internist receives to subspecialize in a particular medical area is both broad and deep. Subspecialty training (often called a "fellowship") usually requires an additional one to three years beyond the standard three year general internal medicine residency. (Residencies come after a student has graduated from medical school.)

paragraphs: In the United States, there are two organizations responsible for certification of subspecialists within the field, the American Board of Internal Medicine, and the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine.

paragraphs: The following are the subspecialties recognized by the American Board of Internal Medicine.

paragraphs: The ABIM also recognizes additional qualifications in the following areas

paragraphs: Internists may also specialize in allergy and immunology. The American Board of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology is a conjoint board between internal medicine and pediatrics.

paragraphs: The American College of Osteopathic Internists recognizes the following subspecialties.


title: City status in the United Kingdom

paragraphs: City status in the United Kingdom is granted by the British monarch to some communities. There are 69 cities in the United Kingdom (see list below) – 51 in England, six in Wales, seven in Scotland and five in Northern Ireland.

paragraphs: Becoming a city is not automatic. Many people think that any town that has a cathedral is a city. This is because Henry VIII built cathedrals in six English towns and made them cities by letters patent.

paragraphs: A city council does not have any more powers than a borough or district council. Some city councils (like Ripon) are only parish councils, and have few little powers at all.

paragraphs: Officially there are 69 cities in the United Kingdom (UK). Sunderland was made a city to mark Elizabeth II's Ruby anniversary (40 years as Queen). Eight others have been created in competitions to celebrate the new millennium and Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee.

paragraphs: A city does not automatically have a Lord Mayor or Lord Provost in Scotland. There are 69 cities in the UK but only 30 Lord Mayors.

paragraphs: Of the 69 cities: (including 30 Lord Mayoralties or Lord Provostships) in the UK:

paragraphs: On April 1, 1974 the city council was abolished, and new letters patent were issued to the new Medway Borough Council to carry on the city name in the old city area.

paragraphs: In 1979, Medway was renamed Rochester-upon-Medway and new letters patent made the whole of the new area a city.

paragraphs: On April 1, 1998, Rochester-upon-Medway and Gillingham joined together to became the new unitary authority of Medway. Rochester upon Medway City Council did not appoint appoint Charter Trustees to maintain the existence of the city and the mayoralty so the city simply ceased to exist, because the council forgot.

paragraphs: City Status confirmed by Letters Patent issued under the Great Seal dated April 1, 1974.

paragraphs: Letters Patent dated October 28, 1905, which also granted the title of Lord Mayor.

paragraphs: Declaration that the Chief Magistrate and Officer of the City to bear the style and title of Lord Mayor due to "the city's high position in the roll of ports of [the] kingdom" June 26, 1914

paragraphs: Declaration that the Chief Magistrate to bear the honorary title of Lord Mayor July 11, 1906.

paragraphs: Declaration that the Chief Magistrate of the City to bear the style and title of Lord Mayor July 10, 1928 "in consideration of its antiquity and importance"

paragraphs: Letters Patent dated May 10, 1935, "in commemoration of his Majesty's silver jubilee"

paragraphs: Style of "Right Honourable" conferred on Lord Mayor by Letters Patent dated October 26, 1956. The city was designated the capital of Wales at that date.

paragraphs: The first Lord Mayor was appointed June 3, 1896.

paragraphs: Letters Patent dated September 16, 1907.

paragraphs: The Lord Mayoralty of Bristol was granted as part of the Birthday Honours in 1899

paragraphs: The Lord Mayoralty was granted in 1910 "in view of the position occupied by that city as the chief city of East Anglia and of its close association with his Majesty"

paragraphs: The Lord Mayoralty was granted July 12, 1897.

paragraphs: The Lord Mayoralty was granted July 10, 1928.

paragraphs: Warrant issued 28 January 1889 that Letters Patent be issued under the Seal appointed by the treaty of union to be used in place of the Great Seal of Scotland, ordaining and declaring that the Burgh of Dundee shall be a City, and shall be called and styled "The City of Dundee"

paragraphs: Burghs of Old Aberdeen and Woodside and the district of Torry incorporated as the City and Royal Burgh of Aberdeen by the Aberdeen Corporation Act 1891 (1891 c.cxxiv)

paragraphs: The present council areas are designated "cities" by virtue of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, which also reserves the post of Lord Provost for the convener of the four councils. The previous local government districts and district councils created by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 enjoyed the same privileges.


title: Lockheed P-38 Lightning

paragraphs: The P-38 Lightning is a World War II fighter aircraft made by Lockheed. It was mainly used by the United States Air Force. It first flew in 1939. It was different from other fighters because it had two engines instead of one, and was twice the size of other fighters. The plane fought in the Pacific and in Europe. It could carry 4 50-caliber machine guns and a 20mm cannon. With a top speed of over 400 miles per hour the P-38 was one of the fastest fighters of its time. The P-38 is also accounted for capturing 90% of all aerial footage over Europe. By 1944, it was replaced by the faster P-51 Mustang in Europe. The P-38 was the only American fighter being built at the beginning and the end of the war. The Germans called it the "fork tailed devil."


title: Messerschmitt Bf 109

paragraphs: The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was a fighter aircraft usually called the Me 109. It was a German World War II aircraft.

paragraphs: Made by Messerschmitt, it first flew in 1935, and was used by the Luftwaffe during the Spanish Civil War and throughout World War II. It was one of the first modern fighters of the time. It had an all-metal construction, a closed cockpit, and retractable landing gear. It was powered by a liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine.

paragraphs: There were many variations designed for special purposes. Overall, the Me 109 was the most produced fighter aircraft in history, with a total of 33,984 airframes produced from 1936 up to April 1945.

paragraphs: The design of the plane caused some problems on the ground, and with take-off and landing. At least 10% of all Bf 109s were lost in takeoff and landing accidents, 1,500 of which occurred between 1939 and 1941. A new fixed tailwheel helped correct the problem.

paragraphs: Bf 109 was used by Luftwaffe together with FW 190. The Messerschmitt had two machine guns and one cannon while FW 190 had two machine guns and four cannons. Bf 109 was much lighter than FW 190, by 1500 kg. Despite that Bf 109 was almost as fast as FW 190 (Fw 190 A-8 was only 16kph faster than Bf 109 G-6) and climbed at 17 m/s, 2 m/s faster than FW 190.


title: Messerschmitt Me 262

paragraphs: The Me 262 was a German fighter aircraft flown during late World War II. It was the first jet to be used in war. It began test flights in 1942, but was not used in combat by the German air force, the Luftwaffe, until 1944. Very few were built because Germany's enemies were bombing factories. It saw little action because the war was nearly over. The jet engines of the new machine often caused problems, that's why a lot of machines had deathly accidents.


title: Osmosis

paragraphs: Osmosis is the movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, tending to equalise the concentrations of the water. Osmosis is passive transport, meaning it does not require energy to be applied. What causes osmotic pressure is different concentrations of solutes on the two sides of the membrane.

paragraphs: When osmosis happens, water moves from the side of the membrane with a Higher amount of osmotic pressure to the side of the membrane with the lower amount. An important example of osmosis is the movement of liquid (solvent) molecules across a cell membrane into a cell with a higher solute concentration. Osmosis is a fundamental part of cell biochemistry, but also has mechanical applications and usages.

paragraphs: Solutions may have more or less solute per unit of solvent. The one with less is called "Hypotonic." When the two solutions have equal concentration, they are "isotonic." The one with more is "Hypertonic". When the hypotonic solution is outside the cell,and hypertonic solution inside, the cell becomes swollen and distorted.

paragraphs: The plasma membrane of a cell is semi-permeable, which means it allowed the entry of certain molecules in or out, it lets small molecules pass through, but blocks larger molecules. The membrane also has ports or gateways which get certain macromolecules through. This is active transport, which uses energy and is selective. It is outermost covering of the animal cell. It is made up of proteins and lipids. Example:- Exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.


title: Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17

paragraphs: The MiG-17 Fresco is a fighter aircraft made by Mikoyan, a Russian company. It first flew in 1950, and was supposed to replace the MiG-15 in the Korean War, but it did not arrive fast enough. It was used by the North Vietnamese in the Vietnam War. It carried 3 guns on it, and later versions carried missiles. Today, it is used as a trainer in other air forces.


title: Mikoyan

paragraphs: Mikoyan is a Russian company that designs fighter airplanes. The company was first formed in December 1939 as a design office called Mikoyan-Gurevich or MiG, this was because its designers were Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich. Mikoyan will join other Russian airplane companies in a new company called United Aircraft Corporation.

paragraphs: In 1939 Russia was part of the Soviet Union and was communist. In the Soviet communist system there were two types of airplane companies, companies that designed aircraft known as design offices or OKB, and companies that made airplanes called zavods. Artom Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich had been designers in another design office helping a designer called Nikolai Polikarpov. One airplane design that Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich worked on at Polikarpov was called the I-200. When Nikolai Polikarpov lost the trust of the Soviet leader Stalin, Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich were given the I-200 design to finish. This airplane was given a new name and was called the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1. As it was being made, ways to make the MiG-1 into a better airplane were found and airplanes with these changes became known as the MiG-3 and later the MiG-7. However even with changes the MiG fighter airplanes were not as good as the fighter airplanes designed by the design offices of Lavochkin or Yakovlev.

paragraphs: After World War II Mikoyan-Gurevich designed jet aircraft. In the Soviet system the airplane designs of the design offices would compete to see which was the best. When the best design had been found the design would be built by the airplane manufacturing company. Even though Mikoyan-Gurevich airplanes in World War II had not been as good as airplanes by Lavochkin or Yakovlev. Mikoyan-Gurevich jet aircraft won more of the competitions to be sent to the zavods and in the time of the Cold War Mikoyan-Gurevich, together with another design office called Sukhoi, became one of the two most important design offices of fighter planes in the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: In the Soviet system decisions were made to protect the government from its own soldiers. In many countries there is only one airforce, the Soviet Union had five airforces. Two of these airforces were the main users of Soviet fighter airplanes. One airforce was called "PVO Strany", this airforce was used to defend the cities and land of the Soviet Union. One airforce was called "Frontal Aviation", this airforce was used to defend the Soviet Union's ground soldiers against enemy fighter airplanes, and to attack enemy ground forces. Mikoyan-Gurevich became the main designer of aircraft for "Frontal Aviation".

paragraphs: Mikoyan has designed the following airplanes:


title: Neptune (mythology)

paragraphs: Neptune (Latin: "Neptūnus") is the god of water and the sea in ancient Roman religion and mythology. His Greek equivalent is the god Poseidon. The Roman conception of Neptune was mainly influenced by the Etruscan god Nethuns. Neptune was associated with fresh water as well as the sea, while Oceanus was the god of the world-ocean. Like his Greek equivalent, Neptune was also worshipped by the Romans as the god of horses, and, under the name "Neptune Equester", he was a patron god of horse-racing.

paragraphs: The planet Neptune is named after this Roman god.


title: Sol Invictus

paragraphs: Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun") or, more fully, Deus Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun God") was a religious title applied to at least three distinct deities during the later Roman Empire: El Gabal, Mithras, and Sol.

paragraphs: The earlier cult of Sol Indiges ("the native sun" or "the invoked sun") was agrarian. The title "Deus Sol Invictus" was formed similar to the imperial titulature "pius felix invictus" ("dutiful, fortunate, unconquered").

paragraphs: The Romans held a festival on December 25 called "Dies Natalis Solis Invicti", "the birthday of the unconquered sun." The use of the title Sol Invictus allowed several solar deities to be worshipped together, including Elah-Gabal, a Syrian sun god; Sol, the patron god of Emperor Aurelian (AD 270-274); and Mithras, a soldiers' god of Persian origin. Emperor Elagabalus (218-222) introduced the festival, and it reached the height of its popularity under Aurelian, who promoted it as an empire-wide holiday that was a possible inspiration of Christmas.


title: Optical printer

paragraphs: An optical printer is a device. It can be used to copy rolls of movies. It is made of one or more movie projectors, which are linked to a movie camera. It allows filmmakers to re-photograph one or more strips of movie. The optical printer is used for making special effects for motion pictures or for copying and restoring old movie material.

paragraphs: Common optical effects include fade outs and fade ins, dissolves, slow motion, fast motion, and matte work. More complicated work needs dozens of elements, all combined into a single scene. Ideally, the audience in a theater should not be able to notice any optical printers work, but this is not always the case. For economical reasons, especially in the 1950s, and later in TV series produced on movie, printer work was limited to only the actual parts of a scene needing the effect, so there is a clear change in the image quality when the transition occurs.

paragraphs: The first, simple optical printers were constructed in the early 1920s. Linwood G. Dunn expanded the concept in the 1930s. The development continued well into the 1980s, when the printers were controlled with minicomputers.

paragraphs: Sice the late 1980s, digital compositing began to replace optical effects. Since the mid nineties the conversion to digital effects has been almost total. Optical printing today is used most widely by artists working exclusively with movie. As a technique, it proves particularly useful for making copies of hand painted or physically manipulated movie.


title: Lares

paragraphs: Lares (pl.) were ancient Roman deities who protected the house and the family - household gods. See also Genius, Larvae, Di Penates, Manes.

paragraphs: Lares are presumed sons of Mercury and Lara, and deeply venerated by ancient Romans through small statues, usually put in higher places of the house, far from the floor, or even on the roof.

paragraphs: In the early Roman times, in every house there was at least one little statue. Later, a sort of confusion connected their figure with those of Manes, deities of Hades (and the most virtuous dead persons of the family). Finally the confusion included the Penates (other minor deities) as well.


title: Charter Trustees

paragraphs: Charter Trustees are the English district councillors for an area that used to be a city.

paragraphs: They are allowed by the "Charter Trustees Act 1985", so that some of the privileges and dignities of former city can be carried on.


title: Quirinus

paragraphs: In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, Quirinus was also a name of Janus, as "Janus Quirinus".

paragraphs: Quirinus was originally most likely a Sabine god. The Sabines had a settlement near the site of what was to become Rome, and erected an altar to Quirinus on the "Collis Quirinalis", the "Quirinal Hill", one of the "Seven Hills of Rome". When the Romans settled there, they absorbed the cult of Quirinus into their early belief system — previous to direct Greek influence — and he was said to be the deified Romulus.

paragraphs: In later times, however, Quirinus became far less important, losing his place to (Juno and Minerva and Mars' place).


title: Kreisfreie stadt

paragraphs: The name kreisfreie Stadt (plural: "kreisfreie Städte") is used for German towns that have their own government. This town government is independent of the government of the next-higher level of authority, the "Landkreis". Today, most of the cities that have this statute, are big cities, with 100.000 people living there, or more. The concept grew historically. That means that there are big cities, with more than 100.000 people that do not have the statute. There are also some cities who have only taken a part of the responsibilities of a Landkreis (or Kreis). The smallest city with the statute is Zweibrücken. About 35.000 people live there. The biggest of these cities is Munich, with about 1.3 million people. Hamburg and Berlin are bigger. They are city states, though. The city state of Bremen (state) is made of two "kreisfreie Städte", the city of Bremen, and the city of Bremerhaven, about 60 km to the north. About half a million people live in Bremen (1.5 million in the agglomeration), about 117.000 people live in Bremerhaven.

paragraphs: But not every big city with more than 100.000 inhabitants is a "kreisfreie Stadt". Some of them, for example Recklinghausen or Göttingen (both more 120.000 inhabitants) are part of a "Landkreis".

paragraphs: There are very few cities, who only took part of the paperwork from the Landkreis. Some of these are called "Große selbständige Stadt" (Translates to "Big sovereign city"). They only seem to exist in Lower Saxony. They are:

paragraphs: Celle, Cuxhaven, Goslar, Hameln, Hildesheim, Lingen, and Lüneburg. Things like hunting permits cannot be delegated to the cities. Other things, like what to do with the trash have sometimes been delegated.

paragraphs: Similar concepts to that of the "kreisfreie Stadt" are Unitary authorities in the United Kingdom, or that of "independent city" in the United States.


title: Jet aircraft

paragraphs: Jet aircraft are aircraft with jet engines. Unlike propeller-powered aircraft, jet aircraft normally fly at altitudes as high as 100 to 1,5 meters, about 33 to . At these altitudes, jet engines can achieve maximum efficiency over long distances. The engines in propeller powered aircraft achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower altitudes.


title: Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty

paragraphs: The Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty was a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. It was signed by both countries in 1979, at the end of the Camp David Accords. It was the first treaty with Israel from a Middle-Eastern Arabic nation. After signing it, Egypt was removed from the Arab League.


title: Downtown

paragraphs: Downtown (called a city centre in British English) is a word used in North America which refers to the main part of a city. It is usually the central business district where most commercial and office areas are; many of them being in skyscrapers. Tourism also concentrates there.


title: IEEE 802.11

paragraphs: IEEE 802.11 is a series of protocols for wireless networking. Often these are called Wireless LAN, "WLAN", or Wi-Fi. Such a protocol allows computers that have the needed radio parts to communicate with each other, without a cable. There are many types of Wi-Fi standards, known as 802.11 a, b, g, n, and recently ac & ad. These specifications are different in terms of speed and how far away you can use them.

paragraphs: The first Wi-Fi standard was made in 1997. It is called IEEE 802.11. It allows communication with 1-2 MBit per second. Today it is outdated, and rare. Later standards add a letter to the name. They are labelled IEEE 802.11a to IEEE 802.11g. There are plans for ones labeled h, i, j, n, p and s. They are all compatible with each other.

paragraphs: Newer standards have a Bit rate of 54 MBit/s. About 40-50% of this is usable in real-life situations. As of 2007, the standards most widely used are IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11b.

paragraphs: Data communication is either done in the 2.4 GHz band or in the 5 GHz band. The 2.4 GHz band is a general use band. Microwave ovens and Bluetooth are among the things that emit radio waves in this band. The 2.4 GHz band has the problem that there are only very few channels that can be used at the same time, without the signals interfering. There are three usable channels there. When more than three networks operate in the same place, signals still get to the user correctly, but interference slows them.

paragraphs: The 5 GHz band can solve some of these problems, but it introduces others. That band has 19 usable channels. Overall the band is less used. However there are more regulations. Most devices need to be able to choose their channel to minimize interference. Some channels require that those participating can do Transmitter Power Control. This means they adapt the strength of the signal to what is actually needed. This helps reduce the amount of interference between different networks.


title: Wireless LAN

paragraphs: In computing, Wireless LAN or Wireless local area network is a term to refer to a Local Area Network that does not need cables to connect the different devices. Instead, radio waves and IEEE 802.11 are used to communicate.

paragraphs: Today, most technologies used for WLANs use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. This means that several frequencies are used at the same time. Signals that are close to each other, but that belong to different channels do not disturb each other, as they use different coding schemes. Depending on the material used, it is possible to cover between 30 metres and 100 metres indoors; outdoors, the range is about 100-300m, if there are no obstacles.


title: Bluetooth

paragraphs: Bluetooth is a protocol for wireless communication over short distances. It was developed in the 1990s, to reduce the number of cables. Devices such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras and video game consoles can connect to each other, and exchange information. This is done using radio waves. It can be done securely. Bluetooth is usually only used for relatively short distances, like a few metres. Some signals can be up to 100 metres.

paragraphs: There are different standards. Data rates vary. Currently, they are at 1-3 MBit per second. Typical Bluetooth applications are to connect a headset to a mobile phone, or to connect a computer mouse, keyboard or printer.

paragraphs: Bluetooth devices use the ISM Band around 2.4 GHz. This can be used worldwide, without the need to pay license fees, but many other devices, like DECT telephones (wireless phones), smart tags with RFID, baby phones use it too. Bluetooth uses the same bands as some WLANs, but the modulation technique is different. Bluetooth uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum.

paragraphs: There are many situations today where either Bluetooth or Wireless LANs can be used. Examples include setting up networks, printing or transferring files and data from a PDA to a computer. Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. WLANs can span bigger distances and offer higher throughput. Bluetooth does not require expensive hardware. It also needs less power to operate.

paragraphs: Both use the same radio frequency range, but their modulation techniques are different. Both have been developed to replace cabling. Bluetooth wanted to get rid of the peripheral equipment cables, WLANs wanted to get rid of the cables needed to set up a LAN.

paragraphs: Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, the Wii or PlayStation 3. It has recently been built into some electronic watches, modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files).

paragraphs: Bluetooth uses protocols that make it easy to discover devices that are nearby, and to set up a connection between these devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all the services they offer. Using services becomes easier; a lot of the setup related to security, networking or permissions is automatic.

paragraphs: WLANs are more like traditional LANs. More configuration is needed to set up the network, and to make resources accessible by other devices in the network. WLAN devices also consume more power than Bluetooth ones.

paragraphs: Sometimes WLANs are called wireless Ethernet. WLAN needs more resources to be set up, but it also offers faster transfer speeds. The security is also better than that offered by Bluetooth.


title: Noraduz

paragraphs: Noraduz (or Noratus) is a site in the region of Gegharkunik in Armenia near Lake Sevan. It was formed a church dedicated to Sainte-mère-de-Dieu (built in the ninth century), and an exceptional site of medieval tombs. The tombstones are called Khachkars. Noraduz is the most important place for Khachkars in Armenia.


title: 1921 New York Yankees season

paragraphs: The New York Yankees during 1921 (the 1921 season) was the 19th season for the Yankees in New York, and overall it was their 21st season. The season ended in the team having a record (the number of wins and losses) of 98-55 (98 wins, 55 losses). This was the first pennant won in Yankees history. They won the American League game pennant, replacing the previous winners, Cleveland Indians. The manager of their team was Miller Huggins. The Yankees home games were played on the Polo Grounds.


title: Hominidae

paragraphs: The hominids are members of the biological family Hominidae (the great apes). This includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. "Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label and there are differences in usage. Sometimes it seems to exclude humans ("humans and the great apes"); at other times it includes them ("humans and non-human great apes"). "Homo sapiens" is definitely a hominid, as judged by all modern reference works.

paragraphs: Hominids range in weight from 48 kg to 270 kg. Males are larger than females. Hominids are primates with no tails, robust bodies and well-developed forearms. Their thumbs (and big toes, except in humans) oppose the fingers, and form a grip. All digits have flattened nails.

paragraphs: At present, the Hominidae includes four genera and five species. Its nonhuman members are restricted to rain forests in equatorial Africa, Sumatra and Borneo. However, if fossil hominids are included, then all the Australopithecines and the genus "Homo" are included. Hominid fossils date from the Miocene. They are known from Asia, and from Europe. Neanderthals were in Europe and western Asia for a long time (at least half a million years) before the emergence of our species. Asia had a huge version of the orangutan: "Gigantopithecus".

paragraphs: Details of the classification are not universally agreed at present.

paragraphs: A more recent classification underlines the Australopithecines and humans as distinct from the rainforest apes. It has the support of two major reference works.


title: Acropolis of Athens

paragraphs: The Acropolis of Athens is the most famous acropolis. It is a large hill in the center of Athens, on which the Parthenon and other Greek buildings were built. It is often known as "The" Acropolis.


title: Toki Pona

paragraphs: Toki Pona (in Toki Pona it means "good language" or "simple language") is a constructed (made-up) language. Sonja Lang (in past time "Sonja Elen Kisa"), a Canadian translator and linguist, made the language. It is based on simple ideas that are known to all cultures. It is not created to be an international auxiliary language (a language for communication between people speaking different languages). It is meant to test ideas about minimalism and pidgins. It is influenced by Taoist ideas. It has only 120 root words, although there is over 50,000 different possible combinations. Toki Pona relies very heavily on expressing ideas by using root words together. For example, "jan pona" means "friend" in Toki Pona (literally it means: "good person").

paragraphs: Normally Toki Pona uses the Latin alphabet, but many Toki Pona speakers create other systems of writing for this language. There are some attempts to create a writing system based on pictograms, but they have not been very successful.

paragraphs: Lord's Prayer (translated by Pije/Jopi):

paragraphs: jan o pali e wile sina lon sewi kon en lon ma.

paragraphs: o pana e moku pi tenpo suno ni tawa mi mute.

paragraphs: o weka e pali ike mi. sama la mi weka e pali ike pi jan ante.

paragraphs: tenpo ali la sina jo e ma e wawa e pona.


title: Canadian Hurricane Centre

paragraphs: The Canadian Hurricane Centre (CHC) is a Canadian agency that is responsible for monitoring and tracking tropical cyclones that come near or affects Canadian territory. The agency warns people about on-coming tropical cyclones and makes hurricane advisories when needed. Its headquarters are in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.

paragraphs: CHC usually works together with its United States counterpart, the National Hurricane Center in Miami, to coordinate the tracks and positions of all storms that show a possible threat to Canada.

paragraphs: While Atlantic hurricanes are normally uncommon in Canada, they do approach or strike from time to time. Among recent events are Hurricane Bob, which struck New Brunswick, in 1991, Hurricane Luis which struck Newfoundland in September 1995, Hurricane Hortense which struck Nova Scotia in September 1996, Hurricane Michael which struck Newfoundland in October 2000, and Hurricane Juan, which struck Nova Scotia in September 2003.


title: V-type asteroid

paragraphs: V-type asteroids or Vestoids are asteroids that are similar to 4 Vesta, by far the largest asteroid in this class (hence the name).


title: Vulcan (Star Trek)

paragraphs: Vulcans are a humanoid species in the fictional "Star Trek" universe who hail from the planet Vulcan, and are noted for their attempt to live by reason and logic with no interference from emotion. They were the first

paragraphs: extraterrestrial species encountered by Humans, and later became one of the founding members of the United Federation of Planets. Vulcans are featured in all six Star Trek series, four of which featured a Vulcan as a main character.


title: Keck Observatory

paragraphs: The W. M. Keck Observatory is a pair of two large, ground-based telescopes located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Sitting four km (more than two miles) above sea level, the paired telescopes are used to examine light from distant stars in great detail. The primary mirrors of each of the two telescopes are 10 meters (33 feet) across, making them slightly smaller than the Gran Telescopio Canarias primary mirrors.

paragraphs: However, all of the light collected by the Keck Observatory primary mirrors (75.76m2) is sent to the secondary mirror and the instruments, compared to GTC's primary mirror, which has an effective light-collection area of 73.4m2, or 25.4 square feet less than each of the Keck Observatory primary mirrors. Because of this fundamental difference in design, Keck Observatory's telescopes arguably remain the largest steerable, optical/infrared telescopes on Earth.


title: HED meteorite

paragraphs: The HED meteorites are a grouping of achondrite meteorite types, the:

paragraphs: These are all thought to have originated from the crust of the asteroid 4 Vesta, their differences being due to different geologic histories of the parent rock. Their crystallization ages have been determined to be between 4.43 and 4.55 billion years from radioisotope ratios.


title: Metamorphic rock

paragraphs: A metamorphic rock is a type of rock which has been changed by extreme heat and pressure. Its name is from 'morph' (meaning form), and 'meta' (meaning change).

paragraphs: The original rock gets heated (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) and pressured (1500 bars). This causes profound physical and/or chemical change. The original rock may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock.

paragraphs: There is always more pressure and higher temperature under the Earth's surface. In the root of a mountain chain or a volcano these forces will be enough to change shape of the strata and the minerals it is made of. Sedimentary rock which has been near such forces often looks as if a giant had twisted it and heated it over a fire. Examples of metamorphic rock:

paragraphs: The recrystallisation of minerals after heating generally causes the destruction of any fossils the rocks might have contained. These rocks are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to extreme heat and pressure as result they undergo a complete change in their form and characteristics. Such form rocks are called metamorphic rocks.

paragraphs: Regional metamorphism, or dynamic metamorphism, occurs in great masses of rock. Rocks can be metamorphosed just by being at great depths below the Earth's surface. There they get high temperatures and the great weight of the rock layers above.

paragraphs: Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions. Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create orogenic belts. High temperature, pressures and deformation occurs along these belts. If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and exposed by erosion, they are seen as long belts or other large areas at the surface.

paragraphs: Contact metamorphism occurs when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock). The changes that occur are greatest where the magma comes into contact with the rock. The temperatures were highest there and decreased with distance from it.

paragraphs: Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at the high temperatures and pressures of metamorphism. These minerals, known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet.

paragraphs: Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz may be found in metamorphic rocks. They are not necessarily the result of the process of metamorphism. These minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks. They are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process.


title: Extrusion

paragraphs: Extrusive means to the mode of igneous volcanic rock formation in which hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes) onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics or tuff. This is opposed to intrusive rock formation, in which magma does not reach the surface.

paragraphs: Extruded when talking about an artificial material like soft metals like aluminium, plastic or glass means that it is pushed out of a nozzle when the material is in a soft state. The shape of the nozzle will vary depending on the shape required in the finished product


title: Intrusion

paragraphs: An intrusion is magma (melted rock) which cools and becomes solid under the Earth's surface. It occurs when there are lines of weakness such as faults, joints, or bedding planes in the crust. Then magma enters these lines of weakness. By contrast, an extrusion is magma which cools into rock above the surface of the crust. Both intrusive and extrusive rocks are classed as igneous rocks.

paragraphs: The process of forming intrusive rocks may take millions of years. As the rock slowly cools into a solid, the different parts of the magma crystallize into minerals. The crystals are usually larger than in extrusive rocks. Many mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada in California, are formed mostly by intrusive rock. Often they are huge granite (or related rock) formations.

paragraphs: Intrusions vary widely, from mountain range sized batholiths to thin vein-like fracture fillings. When exposed by erosion, these cores called batholiths may occupy huge areas of Earth's surface. Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called plutons.

paragraphs: Intrusive structures may go between bedding planes of earlier 'country' rock. A sill is an intrusion which makes a table along bedding planes. A dyke is an intrusion which moves up, crossing older strata.


title: Radiation pressure

paragraphs: Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation. If absorbed, the pressure is the energy flux density divided by the speed of light. If the radiation is totally reflected, the radiation pressure is doubled. This happens because the waves that make up electromagnetic radiation carry momentum with them and pass that momentum on when they reach a surface.

paragraphs: For example, the radiation of the Sun at the Earth has an energy flux density of 1370 W/m, so the radiation pressure is 4.6 µPa (absorbed).


title: Kirkwood gap

paragraphs: Kirkwood gaps are areas of the asteroid belt where asteroids are unusually scarce, as seen in the . They are caused by orbital resonances with Jupiter.

paragraphs: The gaps were first noticed in 1857 by Daniel Kirkwood, who also correctly explained their origin in the orbital resonances with Jupiter while a professor at Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania.


title: Ca-Al-rich inclusions

paragraphs: Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) are centimeter-sized light-coloured calcium and aluminium rich inclusions found in carbonaceous chondrites. CAIs contains high-temperature minerals and are among the first solids which solidified from the cooling protoplanetary disk. CAIs were formed at much higher temperatures than the associated chondrules, and may have survived many high-temperature events, whereas most chondrules are the product of a single transient melting event.

paragraphs: The isotopic anomalies of CAIs give valuable clues about the solar system's formation, suggesting that the solar nebula collapsed shortly after a nearby supernova. Radiometric dating shows that the CAIs formed about 2 million years before the chondrules formed.


title: Eucrite

paragraphs: Eucrites are achondritic stony meteorites that originate from the surface of the asteroid 4 Vesta, and as such are part of the HED meteorite group. They are the most common achondrite group with well over 100 distinct finds at present.

paragraphs: Eucrites consist of basaltic rock from the crust of 4 Vesta. They are mostly made up of Ca-poor pyroxene, pigeonite, and Ca-rich plagioclase (anorthite).

paragraphs: Eucrites are named from a Greek word meaning "easily distinguished".


title: 81P/Wild

paragraphs: Comet 81P/Wild, also known as Wild 2, is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild (pronounced "Vilt"), who discovered it in 1978.

paragraphs: It is believed that for most of its 4.5 billion-year lifetime, Wild 2 had a more distant and circular orbit. In 1974, it passed within only about one million kilometers of the planet Jupiter, whose strong gravitational pull altered the comet's orbit and brought it into the inner solar system. Its orbital period changed from 40 years to about 6 years, and its perihelion is now about 1.59 AU (astronomical unit).


title: Barrel (weapons)

paragraphs: A barrel is a part of a gun. It is a long metal tube that the bullet or projectile goes through after it is fired. Guns can have many different sizes of barrels. Usually, longer barrels make it easier for the bullet to hit the target more often. Barrels usually have spiral grooves on the inside called rifling. Barrels with grooves spin the projectile around faster as it exits the gun. This makes the projectile more stable in flight and more accurate.


title: Shell (projectile)

paragraphs: A shell is a type of projectile used in weapons. It is filled with explosive or other substances. It is similar to a bomb but is made to be shot out of a gun. Shells are usually large caliber projectiles fired by artillery, armored vehicles (including tanks), and warships. A fuze detonates the explosive or releases whatever else the shell may be carrying.

paragraphs: Anti-tank guns fire thick shells without much explosive inside. Shells usually have the shape of a cylinder but taper towards the front end to form a point. However, special shells may use other shapes.


title: Ion thruster

paragraphs: An ion thruster is a kind of spacecraft engine. It works by using static electricity or magnetism to push ions (electrically charged atoms) out the back of the spacecraft. It takes a very long time to speed up, but its fuel lasts much longer than a rocket engine. It has to be carried into outer space by a regular rocket, because the ions don't push hard enough for it to escape the Earth's gravity, but after it gets to outer space it can travel a very long way. An ion thruster needs electricity to run, so the spacecraft has to also carry solar panels or a nuclear reactor.

paragraphs: In 2011 the NASA space probe called Dawn used an ion thruster to get to the asteroid Vesta. In 2015 the thruster brought it to the dwarf planet Ceres.


title: Pistol

paragraphs: A pistol is a handgun. The word may be used broadly to mean any handgun, or narrowly to mean only a magazine pistol, as distinct from a revolver.

paragraphs: In a magazine pistol, the cartridges are in a magazine, which is a metal or plastic box. The magazine is usually inside the handle of the pistol. When the pistol is fired, the empty cartridge pops out, and the next one comes up into position. The magazine is spring-loaded so it pushes the next bullet into place as the empty cartridge is ejected. For that reason pistols are sometimes called "semi-automatic". When the magazine runs out of cartridges, it can be reloaded by inserting more cartridges.

paragraphs: The term has long been variously used. For example, in the American Old West revolvers were used but were then (and even today by some) called pistols. The word "pistol" entered English before 1600, from the French. At that time it usually meant a single-shot handgun.

paragraphs: One of the most important rules of gun safety is to keep guns out of the hands of children. Guns should be locked up and kept away from children and others who do not appreciate how deadly they are. Pistols like all guns should always be handled carefully. Always keep the gun pointed in a safe direction. A shooter should keep their fingers away from the trigger until the moment they intend to shoot. Always respect guns as a tool that can cause harm if used incorrectly. Always assume a gun is loaded until you are certain it is not.

paragraphs: A bullet is not the only part of a gun that can cause injury. Hearing protection will protect the eardrums of the shooter and those nearby. These can be inexpensive foam earplugs or more costly hearing protectors that have a Noise Reduction Rating or NRR. The higher the NRR number the better. Eye protection should be worn at all times while shooting or observing other shooters. Their impact-resistant lenses protect against bullet fragments, stray bits of gunpowder, and other debris.

paragraphs: The advantage of pistols over revolvers lies in the somewhat faster reloading of magazines that carry more bullets that a revolver's five or six rounds. This is why most police and military organizations use pistols. Also, pistols are often thinner and can be worn concealed better than revolvers. Pistols are generally regarded as being safer than revolvers. A revolver can fire accidentally if dropped. A pistol rarely fires if dropped. A common feature of pistols is a lever called a safety. The safety prevents the pistol from firing even if the trigger is pulled. To fire a pistol, first remove (turn to the off position) the safety.

paragraphs: Pistols have a few disadvantages when compared to revolvers. They are more complicated and have more moving parts. A pistol may use heavier springs that younger and elderly shooters may find difficult to use.

paragraphs: Modern pistols usually only fire one shot every time you pull the trigger. Some special pistols, called machine pistols, can fire more than one shot at a time. Some famous pistols are the Colt M1911 and the Beretta 92.

paragraphs: Pistols were not often used in the western United States during the 1800s. They used revolvers. The first successful pistol being used then was the Borchardt C-93. It was designed in 1893, and became available in 1894.


title: Submachine gun

paragraphs: A submachine gun is a type of gun that shoots many bullets, usually pistol bullets, when one holds down the trigger. A submachine gun is smaller than a machine gun and can easily be carried by one person. They are often used where people need to defend themselves in small areas, or people need to fire many bullets quickly. The first submachine guns were invented in the early 1900s. They are often used by the police.

paragraphs: In the early 20th century, experiments were made by converting pistols from semi to fully automatic firearms. Stocked (with handle) automatic weapons firing pistol rounds were developed around the same time during World War I, by Italy, Germany, and the United States. The first dedicated designs were developed in the latter stages of World War I both as improvements on earlier stocked pistols, and to offer an advantage in trench warfare.

paragraphs: They were popularized in the 1920s and '30s as weapon of choice of American gangsters and police, in the form of the famous Thompson submachine gun, commonly referred to as the "Tommy Gun". Submachine guns rose to prominence as a frontline close-quarters combat weapon and commando firearm during World War II. They are now widely used by police SWAT, military commando, paramilitary, and counter-terror team members for a variety of situations.

paragraphs: Submachine guns are highly effective in close quarters; their lower-powered pistol cartridges make them generally more controllable in fully-automatic fire compared to assault rifles, while their small size and light weight grant maneuverability. However, pistol bullets often are stopped by body armor or cover, and are short-ranged compared to intermediate and rifle cartridges.

paragraphs: World War II developments were many and interesting. In Germany the development of machine carbines ("Maschinenkarabiner") was notable. From 1939 onwards the German Army analyzed combat conditions and developed new tactics and equipment requirements. The existing 7.92x57mm rifle cartridge was more powerful and long ranged than needed. Most combat took place at ranges less than 400 m (440 yards). A less powerful round (bullet) could be used. This meant a soldier could carry more ammunition, the weapon could be shorter, lighter and with less recoil. The gun could be an automatic.

paragraphs: Achieving this took time. Work in 1941 and 1942 led at last to a reliable weapon, the StG 44 (Sturmgewehr 44) "assault rifle 44". This was then produced in large numbers (over 600,000). It came too late to effect the Second World War, but was later adapted as the Soviet AK 47.


title: Elena V. Pitjeva

paragraphs: Elena Vladimirovna Pitjeva is a Russian theoretical physicist at the Institute of Applied Astronomy, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. She is noted for her work on ephemerides and is currently head of the Laboratory of Ephemeris Astronomy at the Institute of Applied Astronomy. Pitjeva is a member of the International Astronomical Union Commission 4: Ephemerides.

paragraphs: Pitjeva earned her undergraduate degree from the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics at A. A. Zhdanov Leningrad State University in 1972 in the specialty of astronomy. She earned an M.A. in theoretical physics in 1994 and a Ph.D. in theoretical physics in 2005. She was a student of Professor G.A. Krasinski.


title: Socialist Reich Party

paragraphs: The Socialist Reich Party of Germany (German: "Sozialistische Reichspartei Deutschlands") was a political party in West Germany. It was formed in 1949.

paragraphs: It was openly Neo-Nazi and admired Hitler. It split from the German Empire Party. Leaders included Otto Ernst Remer, a former Major General, and Fritz Dorls.

paragraphs: The SRP claimed West Germany's first Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer only did what the United States told, and that Karl Dönitz was the last legal of Germany.

paragraphs: The SRP also said that the Holocaust never happened, and that the ovens of the Dachau concentration camp were built by the United States after 1945. The SRP also wanted Europe to be led by a reunited German Reich, and that it would not be capitalist or communist.

paragraphs: The SRP never criticised the Soviet Union because the Russians funded the SRP because it was anti-American. The only other party modern in postwar Germany was the Communist Party of Germany. It did not get Soviet funds because the Russians thought it was useless. SRP leader Remer once said that if the USSR ever did invade Germany, he would "show the Russians the way to the Rhine".

paragraphs: The SRP had its own paramilitary organisation, the Reichsfront.

paragraphs: The SRP had about ten thousand members and it won 16 seats in the Lower Saxony Landtag election, and 8 seats Bremen.

paragraphs: It was banned in 1952 by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, the only court with the power to do so.


title: International Fight League

paragraphs: The International Fight League was an American mixed martial arts (MMA) league and is the world's first MMA league. It was founded on January 7, 2006 and closed on July 31, 2008.

paragraphs: Instead of the established norm for MMA events, where matchups are strictly one-on-one affairs, each IFL card was a showdown between two teams of five fighters, each fighter fighting one match against another on the opposing team. The IFL was shown in the United States on Fox Sports Net and MyNetworkTV.


title: Anton Chekhov

paragraphs: Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (January 29, 1860 - July 15, 1904) was a Russian writer who wrote short stories and plays.

paragraphs: Anton Chekhov was born in Taganrog, which is a city in Russia. His father, Pavel, was the owner of a grocery store. His mother, Yevgeniya, sometimes told Anton stories about her childhood.

paragraphs: In 1876, Chekhov's father went bankrupt. From then on, Chekhov's family was very poor. Anton Chekhov had to pay for his own education. He paid for it by tutoring (teaching) other students, catching birds and selling them, and writing short stories for newspapers. When he had extra money, he sent it to his family. While he was at school, he read many books by famous authors, for example Miguel de Cervantes and Arthur Schopenhauer.

paragraphs: In 1879, Chekhov went to Moscow University.

paragraphs: While he was at Moscow University, Chekhov wrote many short stories to pay for his schooling and to help his family. In 1886, one of the most famous newspapers in Russia, "New Times", asked him to write stories for them. Soon, his stories started to get famous, and other writers read his work and liked it. He wrote a book of stories called "At Dusk" that won the Pushkin Prize, an award for good writing.

paragraphs: In 1887, Chekhov wrote a play called "Ivanov". Chekhov did not like the play, but critics loved it.

paragraphs: In 1890, Chekhov went to Sakhalin Island, a penal colony (prison). He talked to many prisoners and found out that they were treated very badly. The prisoners were often beaten. There were also children there. He was angry, and wrote about it in a book called "The Island Of Sakhalin" and in a short story called "The Murder".

paragraphs: In 1892, he bought a house and some land near Moscow called Melikhovo. While he was there, he helped the people who lived nearby. He brought them food and clothing, and medicine when they were sick. Since he was trained as a doctor, he knew how to take care of them.

paragraphs: While at Melikhovo, he started to write a play called "The Seagull". When it was first performed, it went very badly, and the audience did not like it. Later, it was performed at another theater, the Moscow Art Theater, where the performances went better. Soon after this, he had another play performed, called "Uncle Vanya". He later wrote two more great plays: "Three Sisters" and "The Cherry Orchard". All four plays are still often performed today.

paragraphs: In 1897, he became sick. Doctors told him that he had tuberculosis, a lung disease, and that he should change his life to be healthier. He moved to Yalta and bought a house there. In 1901 he married a woman named Olga Knipper. At Yalta, he wrote some of his most famous stories, including a story called "The Lady With The Dog".

paragraphs: By 1904, Chekhov was very sick. He died on the 15th of July in Germany. Thousands of people were very sad when he died. He was buried in Novodevichy Cemetery.

paragraphs: Chekhov influenced many important writers, including George Bernard Shaw, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf. His short stories are still read by many people around the world.


paragraphs: Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative ( or WASG) was a German political party founded in 2005 by people who did not like the Social Democratic-Green government.

paragraphs: On June 16, 2007 it merged with The Left Party.PDS to form the a party The Left ("Die Linke") party. At the time of its merger with The Left Party.PDS about 11,600 people were members.


title: Deutsche Reichspartei

paragraphs: The Deutsche Reichspartei (DRP) ("German Reich Party", "German Imperial Party" or "German Empire Party") was a nationalist political party in West Germany. It was a merger of the German Conservative Party - Deutsche Right Party (DKP-DRP) and the old Hessian Nationaldemokratischen Partei (NDP).

paragraphs: Some of the DRP's founders were: Alexander Andrae, Oskar Lutz, Hans Bernd von Grünberg, Wilhelm Meinberg, Otto Heß, Hans Schikora, Heinrich Kunstmann, Adolf von Thadden.

paragraphs: In 1949 the Sozialistische Reichspartei (SRP) split from the DRP. This was because the Empire Party was not neo-Nazi, and did not want to be associated with Adolf Hitler. Instead the party preferred to say how good the Second German Empire (1870-1919) was.

paragraphs: The Deutsche Reichspartei did become more national socialist after 1952. This is when the Sozialistische Reichspartei was banned by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany and a lot of its members re-joined the Empire Party.

paragraphs: The party was not very successful in the 1950s, but seemed to be getting more popular after the state elections of 1959. But the success did not last, and the party held its final conference in 1964 when it was dissolved. It was quickly replaced by the new Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands.


title: Fukuoka Prefecture

paragraphs: The area of Fukuoka Prefecture includes the old provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen.

paragraphs: Fukuoka Prefecture faces the sea on three sides. The prefecture borders Saga, Ōita, and Kumamoto prefectures. Fukuoka is near Yamaguchi Prefecture across the Kanmon Straits.

paragraphs: Fukuoka includes the two largest cities on Kyūshū, Fukuoka and Kitakyūshū. Small islands are near the north coast of the prefecture.

paragraphs: These are the towns and villages in each district of the prefecture

paragraphs: National Parks are established in about 18% of the total land area of the prefecture.

paragraphs: "Kōra taisha", "Sumiyoshi-jinja", "Hakosagi-gū" and "Usa-jinjū" are the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") in the prefecture.


title: Evening Prayer (Anglican)

paragraphs: Evening Prayer (often called Evensong), in the Anglican Church, is the traditional service when people come to church to worship in the late afternoon or early evening. In cathedrals in Britain and in some of the old university chapels it is a service that is sung by a choir nearly every day of the week (there is usually one day of the week when there is no choir and everything is spoken). In cathedrals it is usually just the choir and the priests who sing, while the congregation listen. There is sometimes one hymn at the end in which the congregation can join in. Evensong in churches will have more singing for the congregation to join in.

paragraphs: The form of Evensong used today was developed by Thomas Cranmer in the 16th century. There were two kinds of services, called "vespers" and "compline" that used to be sung every day by monks in monasteries. Cranmer took some of the words that were used in both these services and made today's form of Evening Prayer (Evensong).

paragraphs: The main idea in Evensong is the celebration of the incarnation of Christ: this is the story about Christ coming to the world in the form of a person and living among people. The words of the Magnificat and the Nunc Dimittis are always used in the service. The Magnificat is the song that Mary sang when she was told that she was going to have a baby who would be God’s son. The Nunc Dimittis is the song that was sung by the priest Simeon who had been promised by God that he would live long enough to see Jesus. Both these sets of words are from the New Testament.

paragraphs: Many churches now use the words from "Common Worship" or some other modern prayer book for their services. However, when Evensong is sung by a choir the words used are usually from the old traditional "Book of Common Prayer" (1662). This is because, for more than four centuries, so much great music has been composed that uses these words.

paragraphs: Because there is no communion at evensong, the service can be led by a layperson (someone who is not a “qualified” priest).

paragraphs: An evensong service will consist of the following:

paragraphs: The organist usually plays some organ music before and after the service. On Sundays there may be a sermon.

paragraphs: In churches the Magnificat and the Nunc dimittis (canticles), like the psalm, are often sung to a chant. This is a tune which repeats itself for every verse or every two verses and is sung to the natural rhythm in which it would be spoken. In cathedrals, or in churches with a good choir, the two canticles are sung to special music (like an anthem) composed by some well-known composer. There is usually an organ accompaniment.

paragraphs: Many composers, especially Anglican church composers, wrote settings (music) for these two canticles (which choir members often called “Mag and Nunc”). Such composers include Edward Bairstow, Herbert Brewer, Orlando Gibbons, Herbert Howells, Henry Purcell, Charles Stanford, Herbert Sumsion, Thomas Tallis, Thomas Weelkes, Samuel Wesley and many others. Some of the composers wrote several settings. This is why different settings are often identified by the key they are in, e.g. Stanford in G, Stanford in C etc. Sometimes they can be identified by the cathedral for which they were written. Herbert Howells, for example, wrote Mag and Nunc settings for several cathedrals and chapels. These can be identified by calling them: Howells’ Gloucester Service, Collegium Regale (=King’s College, Cambridge) etc.

paragraphs: In a sung evensong the choir will also sing an "introit" which is a very short piece at the beginning of the service. They will sing a psalm to a chant, and there will also be an anthem.


title: Regierender Bürgermeister

paragraphs: The Regierender Bürgermeister () of Berlin is the head of government of the city. The Governing Mayor is the equivalent of the Minister President of the bigger States of Germany.

paragraphs: The Regierender Bürgermeister is elected by the Abgeordentenhaus (). He then appoints up to eight Senators. The Senators are ministers in charge of the departments of the city government. Two of the senators are also Mayors. The Mayors are the deputies of the Governing Mayor.


title: Alice in Chains

paragraphs: Alice in Chains is a popular alternative rock band that formed in Seattle, Washington in 1987. They have sold an estimated 15 million albums in the US alone. Alice in Chains is sometimes thought of as a heavy metal band, but is mostly considered a grunge band.

paragraphs: The band's first lead singer, Layne Staley, became addicted to drugs. He often wrote about drug addiction in his lyrics. He died in Seattle in April 2002 after a fatal drug overdose. William DuVall took over as the lead singer in 2006.


title: Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk

paragraphs: Ricardo Stiehl (22 August 1887 – 4 March 1977) was a German politician.

paragraphs: Johann Ludwig von Krosigk was born in Rathmannsdorf, in the Kingdom of Saxony. His father was from a noble family in Anhalt, his mother was a daughter of one of the Counts ("Graf") von Schwerin. He studied law and politics in Halle, in Lausanne and, as a Rhodes Scholar, at the University of Oxford.

paragraphs: He became a Lieutenant in the German Army during World War I, and he won the Iron Cross. In 1918, Krosigk married Baroness Ehrengard von Plettenberg. They had four sons and five daughters.

paragraphs: Schwerin von Krosigkut was a conservative, but not a member of any political party when was appointed Minister of Finance by Franz von Papen in 1932. President Paul von Hindenburg asked him to stay in office under Kurt von Schleicher. Hitler kept him as finance minister throughout the period of Nazi Party rule, even though several members of his family took part in attempts to kill Hitler.

paragraphs: On 1 May 1945, Schwerin von Krosigk was asked to be the Chancellor ("Reichskanzler") of the Acting Government by new President ("Reichspräsident") Karl Dönitz.

paragraphs: On 7 May 1945, Dönitz allowed the German Army to surrender at Rheims before General Eisenhower.

paragraphs: Winston Churchill recognised the Flensburg Government de facto because he said the surrender was allowed by "Grand Admiral Dönitz the designated Head of State". The government was dissolved when its members were captured by British forces on 23 May 1945, at Flensburg.

paragraphs: Schwerin von Krosigk was tried at Ministries Trial at Nuremberg along with other leading members of the Nazi Government. Schwerin von Krosigk was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment but was released during an amnesty in 1951.

paragraphs: In later years Schwerin von Krosigk wrote several books about economics policy and two versions of his memoirs.

paragraphs: He was one of the first to talk about an "Iron Curtain" coming down across Europe, in a broadcast to the German people on 2 May 1945, a phrase which he had picked up from an article by Joseph Goebbels, and later used by Winston Churchill in a speech that made the phrase famous.

paragraphs: Schwerin von Krosigk died in 1977 in the town of Essen, Germany, aged 89.


title: Cockney Rejects

paragraphs: The Cockney Rejects is an Oi! punk rock band that formed in the East End of London in 1979.


title: East End of London

paragraphs: The East End of London, known locally as the East End, generally refers to the area of central London, England, east of the medieval walled City of London and north of the River Thames. It is cheaper to live in than the West End, so it has had many immigrants over the years, including Huguenot, Irish, Jews and more recently Bengalis.


title: Suidae

paragraphs: Suidae is the family to which pigs and their relatives belong. Several species are currently recognised, including the domestic pig. In addition to numerous species of wild pig, the family includes the babirusa and the warthog.


title: Trdat of Iberia

paragraphs: T'rdat (Georgian: თრდატი), sometimes Latinized as "Tiridates", of the Chosroid Dynasty, was the king of Iberia (Kartli, eastern Georgia) from c. 394 to 406.

paragraphs: Georgian chronicles have said that he is the son of Rev, son of Mirian III, the first Christian king of Iberia. He is reported to have succeeded by his relative and son-in-law, Varaz-Bakur II, and to have been forced to pay tribute to the Sasanids of Iran. The chronicles praise his piety and credit Trdat with the construction of churches at Rustavi and Nekresi.


title: The Nutcracker

paragraphs: The Nutcracker is a classical ballet in two acts. It is based on E.T.A. Hoffmann's 1816 fairy tale "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King". It tells the story of a little girl who goes to the Land of Sweets on Christmas Eve. Ivan Vsevolozhsky and Marius Petipa adapted Hoffmann's story for the ballet. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky wrote the music. Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov designed the dances. "The Nutcracker" was first performed at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia, on 18 December 1892 to a modest success and rarely seen the next years.

paragraphs: In 1940, Walt Disney used some of the "Nutcracker" music in his animated movie "Fantasia", which led to an interest in the ballet. Interest grew when George Balanchine's "The Nutcracker" was televised in the late 1950s. The ballet has been performed in many different places since then. Before the first performance, Tchaikovsky took some numbers from the ballet to form the "Nutcracker Suite". This work was a great success on the concert stage, and is still played today.

paragraphs: The origin of "The Nutcracker" has its roots in the great success of "The Sleeping Beauty" ballet. This ballet was staged at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1890. It was the work of the director of the Imperial Theatres in St. Petersburg, Ivan Vsevolozhsky; the composer, Tchaikovsky; and the choreographer, Marius Petipa. Vsevolozsky thought another ballet based on a children's story would be just as successful as "The Sleeping Beauty".

paragraphs: He picked Hoffmann's 1816 fairy tale "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King" as the subject for the new ballet. This story was loved by Russians. He wrote an adaptation of Hoffmann's story based on the Alexandre Dumas translation. He dropped much of the original. Petipa adapted Vsevolozsky's story to the requirements of ballet. Vsevolozsky then pressured Tchaikovsky into writing the music for the ballet. Tchaikovsky did not like the adaptation of Hoffmann's story, but he agreed to write the music.

paragraphs: Petipa designed the dances. He gave Tchaikovsky special directions about how the music was to be written. For example, he wanted a great "crescendo" of 48 bars as the Christmas tree rose higher and higher in Act 1. He wrote that the music for the "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" should sound like drops of water splashing in a fountain.

paragraphs: In March 1892 the music was almost complete. Tchaikovsky took the "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy", the "Waltz of the Flowers", and other numbers from the ballet to form the 20-minute "Nutcracker Suite". It was first played for the Russian Musical Society. The organization's members loved it. "Nutcracker Suite" is still played today.

paragraphs: Tchaikovsky completed the music for the ballet in April 1892. Rehearsals started in September 1892. Petipa fell ill and his assistant Lev Ivanov completed the dances. The ballet was first performed on 18 December 1892 at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg. Tchaikovsky's one-act opera "Iolanta" was played before the curtain rose on "The Nutcracker". The run ended in January 1893 after eleven performances.

paragraphs: In 1919, choreographer Alexander Gorsky staged a production. He cut out the Sugar Plum Fairy and her Cavalier, and gave their dances to Clara and the Nutcracker Prince. They were now played by adults instead of children. A shortened version of the ballet was first performed outside Russia in Budapest's Royal Opera House in 1927.

paragraphs: In 1934, Vasili Vainonen, choreographer of the Kirov Ballet, staged a version of the work which was also influenced by the criticisms of the original production. He also cast adult dancers in the roles of Clara and the Prince, as Gorsky had. The Vainonen version influenced several later productions. Knowledge of the choreography spread because many dancers went to the west after the Russian Revolution.

paragraphs: The first complete performance outside Russia took place in England in 1934. It was staged by Nicholas Sergeyev at the Vic-Wells Ballet. It used a version of Petipa's original choreography. Annual performances of the ballet have been staged there since 1952.

paragraphs: The ballet takes place in Germany in the early 19th century. The curtain rises on a Christmas Eve party in the Silberhaus home. Guests arrive. The children get their presents, then dance about the room.

paragraphs: The door opens. A strange little man named Drosselmeyer comes into the room. He is a toy-maker. He is also Clara Silberhaus's godfather. He has four dancing dolls for the children and a special surprise for Clara. It is a nutcracker. She loves it, but her brother Fritz breaks it. She puts the Nutcracker in her doll bed to get well.

paragraphs: The party ends and everyone leaves. Clara and her family go to bed. Clara creeps back to the room. She needs to be certain her Nutcracker is resting quietly. All of a sudden, mice start running about the room. The dolls, the tin soldiers, and all the other playthings come to life to fight the mice.

paragraphs: The Christmas tree rises higher and higher. The Nutcracker jumps out of the doll bed to fight the Mouse King. When the Nutcracker is in danger, Clara saves his life by throwing her slipper at the Mouse King. The Mouse King runs out of the room with all the other mice.

paragraphs: The Nutcracker becomes a human prince. Clara and the Nutcracker Prince set off through the snowy woods for the magical Land of Sweets. The beautiful Sugar Plum Fairy rules this land. She welcomes the two children then orders her subjects to dance for them. Dances about Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate are presented. Many other dances are presented. The ballet ends with everyone dancing a waltz.

paragraphs: Criticism of the ballet was mixed. A portion thought of it to be a noble composition, with exemplary themes and emotion, however many thought otherwise. Russian balletomanes liked expert adult dancers and the large cast of children was critically attacked. One person complained that the ballet was "produced with children for children." Even the adult dancers came under fire. One person, for example, thought the dancer playing the doll in Act 1 was "nice" while another person thought she was "insipid".

paragraphs: One critic complained that the ballet was in bad taste because characters in Act 2 looked like food from a pastry shop. Another complained that Ivanov's "Waltz of the Snowflakes" was taken from ballets by Petipa. Tchaikovsky however thought that the staging was very beautiful, so much so that his eyes grew tired looking at it.

paragraphs: Some people were surprised that Tchaikovsky had anything to do with the ballet. They thought "The Nutcracker" was foolish. They were embarrassed that the great composer had had a hand in it. On the first night however, Czar Alexander III called Tchaikovsky before him in the royal box to congratulate him on the music.

paragraphs: The newspapers were divided on the ballet's value. The "St. Petersburg Gazette" wrote "this ballet is the most tedious thing ever seen ... a long way from what ballet music should be." The "St. Petersburg News-sheet" wrote, "It is hard to say which number is the greatest, for everything from start to finish is beautiful." "The New Age" wrote that Tchaikovsky's orchestral writing was the work of genius. A ballet lover thought "The Nutcracker" was the greatest of the three ballets Tchaikovsky had written.

paragraphs: The ballet's initial run ended in January 1893. When the Russian Revolution broke out in 1917, many ballet dancers were put out of work. They went to Europe. They talked to their new friends in Europe about "The Nutcracker". Some selections were performed here and there. In 1940 Walt Disney used some of the music in his movie "Fantasia". In 1944 the Nutcracker was staged at the San Francisco Ballet by William Christensen, the 'very first full-length' on Christmas Eve. W.Christensen was called the grandfather of American Ballet, born (1902-2001) in Brigham City, Utah. He had established the San Francisco Ballet in 1938. Later he founded the ballet department to the University of Utah in 1951, the first of its kind, and Ballet West in 1963. Mr. C's creation has an 75th Anniversary during the 2019-2020 season. In 1954 George Balanchine staged "The Nutcracker" in New York City. People liked it. When it was aired on television in 1957 and 1958, the ballet became more famous than ever. Balanchine's television "Nutcracker" had enough fun in it for people who had not seen a ballet, and enough dancing in it to please the ballet lovers who watched it. In the 1960s small ballet companies started producing "The Nutcracker" because it could make a lot of money and, in doing so, keep the company in business.

paragraphs: Today, "The Nutcracker" has been staged and seen by many people all over the world. Jennifer Fisher points out that it is "the most popular and most often [staged] ballet in the world." In North America, it is a yearly event in many places. Parents and children take part in staging the ballet and dancing in it. Trained ballerinas dance side by side with children who are only learning to dance. Parents work on costumes and sets. Local celebrities take small walk-on parts.

paragraphs: There have been many adaptations of the ballet over the years. In the United States, for example, there are hula, tap dance, reggae, wheelchair, dance-along, ice, and drag versions. In Canada, there have been hockey adaptations. Products such as Nutcracker dolls, soaps, foods, and clothing are sold in theatres before the show.

paragraphs: Ballet lovers question the present day dumbing-down (oversimplification) of "The Nutcracker" to make it accessible to the masses. The reasons the ballet was originally disliked in Russia (the many child dancers, the uneven story) seem to be the reasons the ballet has become such a great success in North America. Americans like seeing their children on stage and the story is very much like the rags-to-riches stories Americans love. Some people though complain about the stereotypes of children in Act 1 (boys are naughty, girls are nice) and also about the stereotypes of Arabians and the Chinese in Act 2.

paragraphs: Tchaikovsky wrote "The Nutcracker" for an orchestra of strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. To this orchestra he added a "celesta" for the "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" in Act 2 and children's instrumentsdrums, trumpets, cymbals, bird calls, whistles, and a rattlefor the Christmas party in Act 1. The instruments were specially ordered and tuned to Tchaikovsky's orders. The rattle is heard in the orchestra pit when Fritz cracks nuts in Act 1, and the other instruments are heard when the boys make a lot of noise while Clara comforts the broken Nutcracker.

paragraphs: Tchaikovsky hoped that the children would play the instruments on the stage, but they had difficulty keeping together with the orchestra. Because of the difficulty the children had, Tchaikovsky made the decision that they could play freely. He did not ask them to keep with the written music. After the first night, Tchaikovsky sent his thanks and baskets of sweets to the children of the Imperial Ballet School.

paragraphs: The Sugar Plum Fairy is a character in "The Nutcracker". The Sugar Plum Fairy only dances in Act 2 of the ballet. Clara falls asleep, and the second act could be seen as Clara's dream. Roland John Wiley however, thinks that the second act is a reality shaped by Drosselmeyer. The Sugar Plum Fairy is the ruler of the Land of Sweets. She welcomes the Nutcracker Prince and his love Clara to her land and orders the festivities. The character is danced by a "prima ballerina" (principal dancer), though she has little dancing to do. She is joined by a male dancer for a "pas de deux" near the end of the ballet. Her number in this "pas de deux" is called "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy".

paragraphs: The "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy" is one of the most famous numbers in "The Nutcracker". It was written for the "celesta". This instrument was new at the time the dance was written. It looks like a small piano, but it sounds like bells. Tchaikovsky discovered the "celesta" in Paris in 1891 while making a journey to the United States. His publisher purchased one and promised to keep the purchase a secret. Tchaikovsky did not want Rimsky-Korsakov or Glazunov to "get wind of it and ... use it for unusual (different, strange) effects before me." Petipa wanted the Sugar Plum Fairy's music to sound like drops of water splashing in a fountain. Tchaikovsky thought the "celesta" was the instrument to do this. The original steps for the dance are unknown. Antonietta Dell'Era was the first to dance the part of the Sugar Plum Fairy. The character has very little dancing to do so Dell'Era put a gavotte by Alphonse Czibulka into the ballet. She then had something more to do.

paragraphs: In his biography about Tchaikovsky John Warrack points out that the ballet's greatest weakness is its story. It did not permit Tchaikovsky to musically develop the ballet in the manner of "Swan Lake" or "The Sleeping Beauty". What few symphonic passages exist in the ballet (mostly in Act 1) are not the best Tchaikovsky wrote. Warrack thinks that the "essential nature" of the ballet is found in the separate numbers. Tchaikovsky knew this when he put together the "Nutcracker Suite" to promote the complete ballet. Because the story was so weak and did not permit symphonic development, Tchaikovsky indulged his taste for "prettiness" in the separate numbers. This is what makes "The Nutcracker", according to Warrack, an "entertainment of genius".

paragraphs: In the biography "Tchaikovsky", writer David Brown points out that Tchaikovsky was not happy with "The Nutcracker" and complained to his friends about the difficulty of setting the tale to music. Brown asks why Tchaikovsky would ever let himself be persuaded to accept the story as the subject for a ballet. He points out that "Swan Lake" and "The Sleeping Beauty" were "dramatically meaty and deeply serious" while "The Nutcracker" was "trite ... [and] pointless." The ballet has no true culmination he writes. He then asks, "What was it all about anyway? "The Nutcracker" is meaningless in the profoundest sense." He decides that the ballet is the "most inconsequential" of all the composer's mature works for theatre, and "its dramatic structure the least satisfactory." While Brown never gives his approval to "The Nutcracker", he thinks Tchaikovsky did a remarkable job despite the "appalling limitations of the subject."


title: Kingdom of Sophene

paragraphs: The Kingdom of Sophene (Armenian: Ծոփքի Թագավորութուն) was an ancient Armenian kingdom. Found sometime around the 3rd century B.C. the kingdom stayed independent until 90's B.C. when Tigranes the great conquered these territories as part of his empire.

paragraphs: The first records show that it was part of Urartu, later it became a province of the Armenian Kingdom around 600 BC.


title: Lady Katherine Grey

paragraphs: Lady Katherine Grey (August 1540 – 26 January 1568) was the sister to Lady Jane Grey and Lady Mary Grey. Her mother was Lady Frances Brandon and Henry Grey, who were Marquess and Marchioness of Dorset and later Duke and Duchess of Suffolk.

paragraphs: Katherine (also spelled Catherine) was born in 1540 to Lady Frances Brandon and Henry Grey. Her parents were disappointed that she was a girl. However, Frances treated Katherine better than she treated her sister, Lady Jane Grey. Little is known about Katherine's early life before 1550.

paragraphs: Katherine was married at the age of twelve to Henry Herbert in May of 1553. It was the same day her elder sister, Jane, was married to Guildford Dudley. Katherine's sister Jane was queen of England for nine days before Mary became Queen. Because of this, Katherine's marriage to Herbert was annulled (or divorce).

paragraphs: Katherine was considered even more beautiful than her sister Jane. She was a little short, but she had a delicate appearance. She had shining red-gold hair and her grandmother Mary Tudor's blue eyes. She also had white skin and no freckles, unlike her sister Jane.

paragraphs: Unlike her sister Jane, Katherine was not as smart and did not like her studies as much. She preferred playing with her pet dogs and birds.

paragraphs: Katherine said that her life at Queen Mary's court was the best time of her life. She met her future husband during these years and received money from Mary every year. Mary's sister, Elizabeth, did not like Katherine much. She distrusted her and did not wish to see her married. Katherine had other plans.

paragraphs: In December 1560, she married Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford without Elizabeth I's permission. They planned to keep it a secret for a long time. However, Katherine became pregnant quickly and by July of the next year, she could not hold her secret any longer. She first tried to get help from Bess of Hardwick, but Bess screamed at Katherine and made her go away. Then she went to see Elizabeth's great favorite, Robert Dudley. He listened to Katherine but promised nothing. The next day he told Elizabeth everything. Elizabeth was angry with this and put both Edward and Katherine in prison. She gave birth to a son in the Tower of London. The child's name was Edward.

paragraphs: Later, she gave birth to another son, also in the Tower of London. This made Elizabeth even more angry since Katherine was not supposed to see Edward. The couple would not see each other again after the birth. Katherine soon got tuberculosis, and died in January 1568. She is buried in Cockfield Chapel.


title: Elongation

paragraphs: Elongation is an astronomical term that describes the angle between the Sun and a planet, as viewed from Earth.

paragraphs: When an inferior planet (Mercury or Venus) is visible after sunset, it is near its greatest eastern elongation. When an inferior planet is visible before sunrise, it is near its greatest western elongation. The value of the greatest elongation (west or east), for Mercury, is between 18° and 28°; and for Venus between 45° and 47°. This value varies because the orbits of the planets are elliptical, rather than perfect circles.


title: Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)

paragraphs: Conjunction is a word used in astronomy and astrology. It means that, as seen from some place (usually the Earth), two celestial bodies appear near one another in the sky. The event is also sometimes known as an appulse.

paragraphs: The astronomical and astrological symbol of conjunction is ☌(in Unicode x260c) and handwritten:


title: Opposition (astronomy and astrology)

paragraphs: Opposition is a word used in observational astronomy (and also astrology). It is used when two objects in the sky are on the opposite side of the sky when viewed from the Earth.

paragraphs: In particular, two planets are in opposition to each other when their ecliptic longitudes differ by 180°. When talking about a single object being in opposition, it is assumed to be opposite from the sun.

paragraphs: The Moon is in opposition to the Sun when it is a full moon.

paragraphs: A planet (or asteroid or comet) is said to be "in opposition" when it is in opposition to the Sun as seen from the Earth. This is the best time to observe a planet because: