title: Infrastructure

paragraphs: Infrastructure is the term used to describe the facilities which support modern human life.

paragraphs: These are the main items: water supply, sewage plants, housing, roads, cable networks, food supply facilities, schools, hospitals, airports, community meeting places, business and government buildings, bridges, railways. In fact, everything that modern life needs in the way of built facilities.

paragraphs: Infrastructure is closely connected with standard of living and overpopulation. More people will want more roads, water pipes and other infrastructure. Poor countries tend to have fast population growth and cannot provide the needed infrastructure. Standard of living drops and this may lead to other problems like worsening health, exposure to plague and difficult access of emergency units to those that need it.


title: Ceremony

paragraphs: A ceremony is an activity performed at a special time usually with according seriousness. Ceremonies may be done to celebrate an event or rite of passage.

paragraphs: A ceremony may mark a rite of passage in a person's job or life, showing how important it is. Examples:

paragraphs: Sometimes, a ceremony may only be done by certain people. A wedding is done by a priest or a Civil Celebrant. The President of the United States is sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States at his or her inauguration. The British monarch is usually made king or queen by the Archbishop of Canterbury at his or her coronation.

paragraphs: Other ceremonies may mark yearly events like:

paragraphs: In Asian cultures, ceremonies are also important, for example the tea ceremony.


title: Kirk Kerkorian

paragraphs: Kerkor "Kirk" Kerkorian (June 6, 1917 – June 15, 2015) was an Armenian-American

paragraphs: billionaire, and president/CEO of Tracinda Corporation, his private holding company based in Beverly Hills, California.

paragraphs: Kerkorian is known as one of the important figures in shaping the city of Las Vegas, Nevada.


title: Chemical property

paragraphs: In chemistry, a property is any aspect of a substance which is only seen by means of a chemical reaction. Simply speaking, chemical properties cannot be determined just by viewing or touching the substance. This is different from a physical property, which can be discovered without changing the substance's chemical structure.

paragraphs: Usually a chemical property is discovered by changing the substance's internal structure. When a substance goes under a chemical reaction, the properties will change drastically, resulting in chemical change. However, a catalytic property would also be a chemical property.

paragraphs: Chemical properties can be used for building chemical classifications. They can be used to identify an unknown substance or to separate or purify it from other substances.


title: Bass drum

paragraphs: A bass drum is a type of musical instrument called a drum. It is a large drum, makes low sounds, and is frequently used in the common drum kit.


title: Drum kit

paragraphs: A drum kit (or drum set or trap set) is a collection of drums, cymbals, and other percussion instruments that is used by a drummer in a musical group.

paragraphs: A normal drum kit consists of the following:

paragraphs: Other cymbals and drums can be added to the setup for a wider range of sounds like the Splash, a small cymbal around 10"/25 cm giving a distinct crash sound with a quick decay, or a China cymbal, that gives an "oriental feel" to beats, rhythms, solos and fills. The latter is much like a crash cymbal popped inside out with the screw and sponge holding it to the stand inside it, so it has a shallow bowl shape.

paragraphs: The drummer can do other things to the kit, such as attach a tambourine to the spine of the hi-hat, so when he/she puts his/her foot down on the pedal or hits it with a drumstick, the drummer gets the tambourine sound at the same time. Cymbals can also have rivets inserted into them to give them a 'sizzling' sound, or a cowbell can be attached to the top of the bass drum between the snare and floor tom to use in fills, solos, grooves, etc.


title: Drum stick

paragraphs: A drum stick or drumstick is a wooden stick that is used to hit percussion instruments to make sound.

paragraphs: There are many kinds of drumsticks. Some sticks are made for certain instruments. For instance, a drum kit stick may look very different from a snare drum stick. Weight, length, and tip size are all altering factors in a stick.

paragraphs: Some drums, such as bongo drums, use no drumstick.


title: Khachkar

paragraphs: A Khachkar or Khatchkar ("Խաչքար" in Armenian, meaning ""cross-stone"", pronounced as ) is a carved memorial stone found in Armenia.

paragraphs: It has a crucifix or cross, with a rosette or sun circle below it. Other parts can be filled with patterns of leaves, grapes or knots. Sometimes it has a ledge at the top with saints' or characters from the bible.

paragraphs: Much of the time a khachkar is put up for religious reasons such as the salvation of the soul of a living or a dead person. They have also been removed for other reasons, such as to show a military win, building of a new church, or as a protection from natural disasters.

paragraphs: Most Khachkars are in graveyards. But Armenian gravestones take many other forms, and only a small are khatchkars.


title: Back Dorm Boys

paragraphs: Back Dorm Boys () are two Chinese people who have made several well known spoof music videos in 2006. Their name comes from their lip sync video of the Backstreet Boys' song "As Long As You Love Me". They are often called the "Back Dormitory Boys". Their spoof music videos have been selected by Motorola China to promote mobile phones. The two members of the Back Dorm Boys are 韦炜 (Wei Wei) and 黄艺馨 (Huang Yi Xin). They were university students at Guangzhou Arts Institute (广州美术学院) majoring in sculpture. Their videos were very famous in China. The became very famous around the world after the videos were shown on YouTube.


title: Nattō

paragraphs: Natto ( (hiragana), 納豆 (kanji); "nattō" or "nattou") is a traditional Japanese food made by fermenting soybeans. Natto is known for its strong musty smell and unusual slimy texture, which yields mucous-like (or sticky) strings when stirred and eaten. Its taste has been described as being a 'bit funky.' In order to mediate some of the strong flavors, it is usually eaten on top of rice with , a soy sauce-based condiment, or Japanese mustard to their liking. Eating Natto as a custom is not so popular in Kansai area. Whether it is popular or not depends on regions in Japan.

paragraphs: There are many kinds of Natto. First, Natto is classified under two types of Natto, Itohiki Natto and Ji Natto. Also Itohiki Natto has three kinds of Natto, Marudaizu Natto, Hikiwari Natto, and Goto Natto. We usually eat Marudaizu Natto and Hikiwari Natto.

paragraphs: Natto may be bought in stores in Styrofoam boxes. Sometimes, they come with a mustard packet and a packet of "tsuyu" to eat with the natto.

paragraphs: Although it is not customary to cook natto, natto may be prepared in food items like sushi or "donburi". "Donburi" is any Japanese dish served with rice in a bowl. Natto can be made into a donburi by adding natto and other items like tuna or egg to rice inside a bowl. "Nattojiru" is what people add natto to miso soup as a seasoning. Also Natto is used for topping when we eat Soba, Udon, Spaghetti, Okonomiyaki and so on.

paragraphs: In general, Soy sauce, tsuyu, mustard, but some people use egg, leek, Japanese ginger, Grated radish, Laver, Okra, and etc.


title: Kichijōji

paragraphs: Kichijōji also has some famous landmarks. Inokashira Park, for example, is in the south part of the district, and is a favorite place for springtime "hanami", or to see cherry-blossoms. The Kanda River (神田川) begins to flow from this park. The Seikei University (成蹊大学), one of Tokyo's biggest private universities, is in the northwestern area of the neighborhood.


title: Udon

paragraphs: Udon is most often served hot as a noodle soup in a mild, salty broth. Its simplest form is called "kake udon". This consists only of dashi stock, soy sauce ("shōyu"), mirin, and "udon" noodles. Different things can be put on top of the soup as toppings. Often thinly cut scallions are used, along with other common toppings such as kamaboko, prawn or vegetable tempura, some spices, and wakame.

paragraphs: The flavor of the broth and toppings, as well as even noodle texture and thickness, is different from region to region. Usually, dark brown broth made from dark soy sauce ("koikuchi shōyu") is common in eastern Japan. Light brown broth made from light soy sauce ("usukuchi shōyu") is common in western Japan. However, many other regional types exist outside of just broth color and mainly vary in toppings used.

paragraphs: Kagawa Prefecture is famous for using udon as a staple food.

paragraphs: According to JAS (Japanese Agricultural Standard), to be udon, a round noodle's diameter has to be over 1.7 mm and a flat noodle's width over 1.7 mm. Udon dough is made from wheat flour and salt.


title: Hachiōji, Tokyo

paragraphs: The city is the 8th biggest city around the Tokyo metropolitan area. It is the 24th largest city in Japan.

paragraphs: Hachiōji officially became a city on September 1, 1917, but it has been an important point on the Kōshū Highway, the main road that connected Edo (the old name of Tokyo) with Western Japan since before modern times, especially during the Edo period. For a short period of time, a castle, Hachiōji Castle (八王子城; Hachiōji-jō) was in the area. It was made in 1584 by Hōjō Ujiteru (北条氏照), but was soon broken in war by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1590. In the Meiji period, Hachiōji grew larger because of silk and silk textiles. However, the industry became less popular in the 1960s. Today, Hachiōji is home for many Tokyo workers.

paragraphs: In Hachioji, there are about 20 colleges and universities, including Takushoku University.


title: Nerima, Tokyo

paragraphs: Nerima is one of the 23 special wards in Tokyo, Japan.

paragraphs: The municipality calls itself "Nerima City" in English.

paragraphs: Nerima is called "the town of animation" because the earliest anime businesses started up in the area.

paragraphs: On 1 August 1947, the ward of Nerima was formed by separating from the ward of Itabashi.

paragraphs: Nerima is a western ward. It borders Nakano and Suginami on the south. Musashino and Nishitokyo are on the ward's western border. Saitamo Prefecture is on the northern border. Itabashi and Toshima are on the west.


title: Suginami, Tokyo

paragraphs: The municipality calls itself "Suginami City" in English.

paragraphs: Suginami is in the western part of Tokyo's special wards. It is next to Setagaya to the south. Its western neighbors are the cities of Mitaka and Musashino. Nerima is on the northern border. Nakano is to the east.


title: Higashi-Nagasaki Station

paragraphs: Higashi-Nagasaki Station is the railway station of the Seibu-Ikebukuro line in Toshima Ward, Tokyo, Japan.

paragraphs: The station is near the "Ikebukuro" station that is center of Tokyo. Only local train stops this station. Limited express, rapid express, semi express and rapid train pass this station. The next station of this station to east is "Shinamachi". The next station of this station to west is "Ekoda".

paragraphs: The area near the Higashi-nagasaki station is named "Nagasaki", but Nagasaki and Nagasaki Prefecture in Kyushu are not related. "Nagasaki" in Toshima Ward is located in east Japan. So this station's name have "Higashi"(means "east") to distinguish between this station and Nagasaki station in Kyushu.


title: Sagamihara, Kanagawa

paragraphs: Sagamihara (, Sagamihara-shi?) is a city in Japan. It is in north central Kanagawa Prefecture, bordering Tokyo, Japan. It is the third most populous city in the prefecture, after Yokohama and Kawasaki.

paragraphs: The main areas of commercial activity in Sagamihara are around Hashimoto Station on the JR Yokohama Line and Keio Sagamihara Line, Sagamihara Station on the JR Yokohama Line, and Sagami-Ōno Station on the Odakyu Odawara Line.


title: Aomori, Aomori

paragraphs: Aomori (青森市, Aomori-shi) is the capital city of Aomori Prefecture. It is southwest of the town of Hiranai. It is a coastal city, and is near the Mutsu-wan (陸奥湾). It has been recognized as a core city since 2006.

paragraphs: The Nebuta festival is one of the most famous festivals in Japan. It takes place at the beginning of August. More than 300,000 people come and see this festival every year.

paragraphs: This festival is called both “Nebuta” and ”Neputa”. In Aomori city, they use the word “Nebuta”, and in Hirosaki city, they use the word “Neputa”.


title: HM Land Registry

paragraphs: Land Registry or Her Majesty's Land Registry is a United Kingdom government office which started in 1862. It publicly records interests in land in England and Wales. It answers to the Ministry of Justice.

paragraphs: The office records the owner of land and legal rights over land. It has recorded about half of the land in England and Wales, and they request owners to record the rest.

paragraphs: Persons make payments to the Land Registry to record land or for copies of the records. The British Government does not make payments to the Land Registry.

paragraphs: The Land Registry has 24 offices in England and Wales and a head office at Lincoln’s Inn Fields in London, England. It wants to shut the offices in York and Harrow.

paragraphs: The head of the Land Registry is called the Chief Land Registrar and Chief Executive.

paragraphs: In 1857 a government committee said there should be a record of land. The Land Registry started after the Land Registry Act 1862. The failure of this law led to a new law in 1875. But this law was also a failure because persons could decide if they wanted to record their land, and most persons decided not to. In 1897 a new law forced persons in London to record their land when they sold it. Step by step this law was applied to the rest of England and Wales by 1990. A new law – the Land Registration Act 2002 – modernised the law and made possible the electronic sale of land.


title: Yamuna

paragraphs: The Yamuna (), sometimes called Jamuna (, , ) or Jumna, is a major river in North India. It is the largest branch of a bigger river called the Ganges. It is 1370 km long. It begins at the Yamunotri, which is in the Himalayas. It goes through the Indian states of Delhi, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. At the end, it flows into the Ganges. Rivers that come out of the Yamuna include the Tons (the largest of the ones that come out of it), Chambal, Betwa, and Ken.


title: Ahmedabad

paragraphs: Ahmedabad is the largest city in the Gujarat state, situated in Western India. The city is the administrative centre of Ahmedabad district, and was the capital of Gujarat from 1960 to 1970. The city is located on the banks of the Sabarmati River, and it shares proximity with the Gandhinagar, the newly built state capital.

paragraphs: The city's area is approximately 8,087 sq.k.m and it's total population of District is 7,486,573 (2014).

paragraphs: The city was founded by Sultan Ahmed Shah in 1411 A.D. But, the area around the city has been inhabited since the 11th century when it was known as "Ashaval". The city was built on an elevated plain known as "Bhadra" on the eastern bank of Sabarmati River.

paragraphs: In 1487, the city was fortified with an outer wall 10 km (6.2 mi) in circumference by Mahmud Begada, the grandson of Sultan. The fortification consisted of twelve gates, 189 bastions and over 6,000 battlements.

paragraphs: In 1573, the city was annexed by the Mughal Empire. But, in the year 1758, Mughals surrendered the city to Marathas after the brief joint-rule from 1739-44.

paragraphs: Since July 1950, the city is governed by Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) in urban area and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) in suburbs area. Both, provides a number of urban services such as water supply, roads construction, sanitation, primary education, city transport etc. In totality, the administration pf the city is divided into 14 talukas which includes 556 villages, 1 corporation, 1 cantonment area, and 7 municipalities.

paragraphs: For a long time, the city has been known for its textile mills and have been dubbed as ""Manchester of the East"". In 1861, the first textile mill was opened and gradually, the whole sector grew through city's own traditional culture and passion for entrepreneurship. Besides textile, Ahmedabad is also known for being automotive and pharmaceutical manufacturing hub.

paragraphs: The city is connected with pan-India railway network. It has three stations - Kalupur Station, Maninagar Station and Sabarmati Station. The Kalupur station is situated in the heart of the city which will be convergence point for Ahmedabad Metro, Ahmedabad BRTS, and upcoming high-speed rail system.

paragraphs: The city is well connected to the major cities in the state and the country through several national and state highways.

paragraphs: The city is served by Sardar Vallabbhai Patel International Airport. The airport is located 9 km from city center and also caters the state capital Gandhinagar. It was started in the year 1937 with the inaugural flight Bombay-Ahmedabad-Karachi, piloted by J. R. D. Tata.


title: Dachau

paragraphs: Dachau is a city in the south of Germany, about north-west of Munich. It has about 40,000 inhabitants. The town contains a historic town centre with an 18th century castle.

paragraphs: Dachau was founded in the 8th century. In 1933, a concentration camp was built in Dachau. It was the first camp of the Nazis and became the prototype for all other camps. More than 30,000 prisoners died, or were killed.


title: Odonata

paragraphs: The Odonata are an order of flying insects, the dragonflies and damselflies.

paragraphs: Like most of the flying insects (flies, beetles, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera), they evolved in the early Mesozoic era. Their prototypes, the giant dragonflies of the Carboniferous, 325 mya, are no longer put in the Odonata. These are now called Protodonata or Meganisoptera.

paragraphs: The two suborders are easily distinguished:

paragraphs: All Odonata have aquatic larvae called 'nymphs', and all of them, larvae and adults, are carnivorous. The adults can land, but rarely walk. Their legs are specialised for catching prey. They are almost entirely insectivorous.

paragraphs: These insects characteristically have large rounded heads covered mostly by big compound eyes, legs that catch prey (other insects) in flight, two pairs of long, transparent wings that move independently, and long abdomens. They have two ocelli (eye spots) and short antennae. The mouthparts are on the underside of the head and include simple chewing mandibles in the adult.


title: Chordophone

paragraphs: A chordophone is any musical instrument which produces sound commonly by vibrating a string or strings stretched between two points.

paragraphs: What most westerners would call string instruments are classified as chordophones (for example, violins, guitars and harps).


title: Will Ferrell

paragraphs: Jonathan William "Will" Ferrell (; born , 1967) is an American Comedian, Impressionist, Actor, Producer, and Writer. He began his successful career as a cast member of "Saturday Night Live". He has since appeared in many different movies, such as "Blades of Glory", "Elf", "", "", and "Old School".

paragraphs: Ferrell was born in Irvine, California on July 16, 1967. He is the son of Betty Kay (nee Overman), a teacher who taught at Old Mill School elementary school and Santa Ana College, and Roy Lee Ferrell Jr., a musician with The Righteous Brothers. His parents were both natives of Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina, and moved to California in 1964. He has a younger brother named Patrick. When he was 8, his parents divorced. Ferrell said of the divorce: "I was the type of kid who would say, 'Hey, look at the bright side! We'll have two Christmases'."


title: Tritium

paragraphs: Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen, the lightest element. Tritium has one proton and two neutrons, making it heavier than ordinary hydrogen or its isotope deuterium. Hydrogen does not have any neutrons, only a proton. The chemical symbol for Tritium is H or T.

paragraphs: In nature, tritium is made when cosmic rays hit nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere. Tritium has a half-life of a little more than eight years, so there is not much in the atmosphere. People make much more tritium in nuclear reactors, so that they can make things from it.

paragraphs: Tritium is important for nuclear fusion power. Tritium is added to nuclear bombs to make them more powerful when they explode.

paragraphs: Tritium is often used with phosphors to make glow in the dark key-rings, and sights on rifles. Tritium makes the phosphors glow because it is radioactively unstable and gives energy to the phosphor so it can make light. Before lots of tritium could be made, people used radium to make things light up but this gave people cancer.

paragraphs: Radioactive decay produces tritium. High levels of tritium were found in 2013 in the Pacific near the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant two years after the Fukushima nuclear disaster.


title: Wood fibre

paragraphs: Wood fibres are made of cellulose got from the xylem vessels in plants, especially trees. Other plants providing fibres include straw, bamboo, cotton, hemp, and sugar cane.

paragraphs: Products made from processed plant fibres include paper and textiles.


title: Christian theology

paragraphs: Christian theology is the study of Christian belief. Christian theologians use analysis and argument to understand, explain, test, critique, defend, or promote Christianity.

paragraphs: Christian theology starts with the New Testament. Saint Paul, in his letters, and his speeches (Acts of the Apostles), draws upon his training as a rabbi and on his experience of Christ. He started outside Damascus to explain to Jews and Gentiles the meaning of the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. In the History of Christianity, later writers such as Luther and John Calvin have stressed the Bible as the basis of theology. The bible as a source is not without controversy. Catholic and Orthodox theologians have also stressed the importance of Church tradition for the faith. Thomas Aquinas and Saint Augustine are among the most important writers within the Roman Catholic Church.

paragraphs: Differences in theology have led to the many denominations within Christianity. This started with the separation of Jesus' followers from Judaism. Later came the Great Schism and the Reformation. After Luther's quarrel with the Pope, Reformed churches like the Lutherans and Baptists are established. Calvinism is very important within Protestantism, although the followers of Jacob Arminius do not accept it. Attempts at compromise in England between the Catholics and Puritans lead to the establishment of the Church of England.

paragraphs: Later movements include Methodism, Liberal Christianity, Pentecostalism, and Liberation theology.

paragraphs: Most scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed. There is no indication that writers in antiquity who opposed Christianity questioned the existence of Jesus.

paragraphs: However, there is no physical or archeological evidence for Jesus, and all the sources we have are documentary. The sources for the historical Jesus are mainly Christian writings, such as the gospels and the letters of the apostles. All sources that mention Jesus were written after his death. The New Testament represents sources from the wide variety of writings in the first centuries AD that are related to Jesus. The authenticity and reliability of these sources have been questioned by many scholars, and few events mentioned in the gospels are universally accepted.

paragraphs: Strauss' "Life of Jesus" was the book which raised all these issues to the surface. In its 451 pages Strauss argued that:


title: Professional wrestling

paragraphs: Professional wrestling, pro wrestling is wrestling done as performance art. It is different from other sports because it is a fixed sport. It is sometimes known as sports entertainment.

paragraphs: Like other athletes, most wrestlers train each day to maintain their physical condition. They practice for years to learn to execute moves safely while still making them look dangerous. They suffer many injuries, sometimes severe.

paragraphs: Professional wrestling is done as a show, like a play. Many wrestlers will wrestle in many fights, called matches. They wrestle inside a 'wrestling ring', which is a place with ropes around it. The best wrestlers can win belts, called 'championship titles', to show that they are the best.

paragraphs: Famous stars of the ring include "Gorgeous George" Wagner, Ric Flair, Hulk Hogan, André the Giant, Sting, "Macho Man" Randy Savage, Bret "The Hitman" Hart, Shawn Michaels, The Undertaker, Triple H, Brock Lesnar, Goldberg, Mick Foley, Stone Cold Steve Austin and John Cena.

paragraphs: The United States, Canada, Mexico, and Japan and the United Kingdom are countries that have a lot of professional wrestling events. The biggest company of professional wrestling is WWE (World Wrestling Entertainment). Once a year, they have a big wrestling event called WrestleMania. Professional wrestling can be seen both in the audience of an arena or on television.


title: Monaco-Ville

paragraphs: Monaco-Ville is the original fortified town of Monaco.


title: Hıdırlık Tower

paragraphs: Hıdırlık Tower is a landmark tower of tawny stone in Antalya, Turkey, where Kaleiçi meets Karaalioglu Park.

paragraphs: The tower is at the south side of the place, where the land walls of the city join the sea walls. The 14m high tower consists a circular tower rising on a quadratic pedestal. The tower's gate at the eastern side goes to a small room, from where a narrow staircase goes up. There are some restoration work on the upper part done in the Seljuk and Ottoman eras.

paragraphs: Around the Hıdırlık Tower is many cafés and restaurants also a view of the Gulf of Antalya.


title: Mesa, Arizona

paragraphs: Mesa is a city in Maricopa County, Arizona and part of the Phoenix-Mesa-Scottsdale Metropolitan Area. It is the 38th largest city in the United States of America. It was settled by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in January 1878.


title: Tucson, Arizona

paragraphs: Tucson is a city in Arizona, United States. It is the seat of Pima County. It is 118 miles (188 km) southeast of Phoenix and 60 miles (98 km) north of the Mexican border. It is where the shooting of senator Gabrielle Giffords took place. Arizona has many deserts. It is visited by many people to escape cold weather. Tucson has a population of 531,641 as of 2015 and is the second populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix. The city has a mean elevation of 2,400 feet. The climate of Tucson is a arid desert climate with very hot summers and mild winters. The monsoon occurs in mid June and ends around late September in the Tucson area.


title: Arlington, Texas

paragraphs: Arlington is a city in Tarrant County, Texas, United States. It is in the Dallas-Fort Worth-Arlington metropolitan area.

paragraphs: Arlington has AT&T Stadium, Globe Life Field, Texas Live, Six Flags, the United States Bowling Congress Nuclear Regulatory Commission Region IV and American Mensa.


title: Tarrant County, Texas

paragraphs: Tarrant County is a county in the U.S. state of Texas. In 2010, 1,809,034 people lived there. The county seat is Fort Worth, and in 2012, 777,992 people lived there, making it the largest city in the county. The second largest city in the county is Arlington, where 375,600 people live.

paragraphs: The county has a total area of 902 square miles.


title: Spectrophotometer

paragraphs: Spectrophotometry is the quantity based study of electromagnetic spectra. A spectrophotometer measures either the amount of light reflected from a sample object or the amount of light that is absorbed by the sample object.

paragraphs: In short, the sequence of events in a modern spectrophotometer is as follows:

paragraphs: There are two kinds of spectrophotometers: single beam and double beam. A double beam spectrophotometer compares the light intensity between two light paths. One path containing a reference sample, the other holding the test sample. A single beam spectrophotometer measures the relative light intensity of the beam before and after a test sample is inserted. A double beam machine makes comparison readings easier and more stable. But a single beam machine can have measure a wider range of light frequencies. Single beam machines have simple optical systems and are more compact. When the spectrophotometer is built into another device (like microscopes or telescopes) only single beam machines will work.

paragraphs: Many older spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as "zeroing." The absorbancy of a reference substance is set as a baseline value, so the absorbancies of all other substances are recorded relative to the initial "zeroed" substance. The spectrophotometer then displays % absorbancy (the amount of light absorbed relative to the initial substance).

paragraphs: Spectrophotometers can also measure luminescence. For example, the machine can shine ultraviolet light of one frequency on the sample. This will excite the sample and make it glow. The detectors can then measure the light glowing from the sample at a different frequency.


title: Russian Orthodox Church

paragraphs: The Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate are Christians who are united under the Patriarch of Moscow, who in turn is in communion with the other patriarchs and primates of the Eastern Orthodox Church.


title: Form

paragraphs: Form (Lat. "forma" Eng. "mould"), refers to the external three-dimensional outline, appearance or configuration of some thing - in contrast to the matter or content or substance of which it is mainly composed (compare with shape).


title: Martiros Saryan

paragraphs: Martiros Saryan (, February 28, 1880 – 5 May 1972 ) was a Russian-born Armenian painter.

paragraphs: He was born into an Armenian family in Nor Nakhijevan (now part of Russia). In 1895, he was 15, he finished the Nakhichevan school and from 1897 to 1904 learned at the Moscow School of Arts, also in the workshops of Valentin Serov and Konstantin Korovin. He was heavily influenced by the work of Paul Gauguin and Henri Matisse. He showed his works in various shows.

paragraphs: "Nature's ways are wonderful and unfathomable. The grain swells in the soil, the sprout grows and flowers when the time comes and then it bears new fruit and so does not die. We are like grain. We never die because we are One with Nature. To understand this is to comprehend Immortality--the Apotheosis of the Human Race. It is with this conviction that I have lived my Life. My Life is a store of my experience, a Life of aspirations, sorrows, joys and triumphs." (M. Saryan)


title: Library of Congress

paragraphs: The Library of Congress is the "de facto" national library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress.

paragraphs: The head of the Library is the Librarian of Congress Carla Hayden.

paragraphs: The primary function of the Library of Congress is to serve the Congress. ... The Library welcomes public use of its general reference facilities and endeavors to offer the widest possible use of its collections consistent with their preservation and with its obligation to serve the Congress and other government agencies.The Library of Congress is the largest library in the world, with millions of books, recordings, photographs, newspapers, maps and manuscripts in its collections. The Library is the main research arm of the U.S. Congress and the home of the U.S.Copyright Office.Libraries are important cornerstones of a healthy community. ... College students often use the library when they are home for the weekend or for holidays. And the reference resources in public libraries are usually unavailable elsewhere in the community. The library is a unique and valuable resource.


title: Forest, Ontario

paragraphs: Forest, Ontario is a town in Lambton County, Ontario, Canada. About 3,000 people live in the town. It the biggest town in Lambton Shores. The town was an important lumber town. It even had its own train stop. Forest is now a tourist attraction. It has trails and camp facilities.

paragraphs: Forest is located on land that was once dense forest. When the Grand Trunk Railway was built, the station for the town was named for the dense forest. In 1859, the first post office was then named Forest.

paragraphs: The industry of the town was first based on the large amount of fruit growing in the area. There was once a canning factory and a basket factory in Forest. In more recent years, the town has become a dormitory community for the city of Sarnia and, to a lesser extent, London, Ontario. The large tourism area along the shores of nearby Lake Huron also helps local businesses. Several small manufacturing plants supporting the automobile industry have also opened in the past few years.

paragraphs: In 2001, the last year that Forest was a national census unit, the town had a population of 2,857. The average age of the people who live in Forest was about 42. This is five years older than the average for the entire province. The average earnings of the people living in Forest was $27,902 (CAD) in the year 2000. In 2006, the local census unit was changed to the town of Lambton Shores. Information for Forest itself is not available.

paragraphs: Forest has a high school, North Lambton Secondary School. The school has a large gymnasium and cafeteria. It also has access to washroom and meal preparation facilities. Forest has two separate school systems. It has a public school system, Kinnwood Central Public School, and a private school system, St. John Fisher. Both systems have elementary schools.

paragraphs: There are many recreational facilities in the town. These include an enclosed arena/community center with baseball and soccer fields, a lawn bowling club and public tennis courts. There is also an agricultural society with grounds used for a fall fair and campsites. A privately owned golf course is located in the town, Forest Golf and Country Hotel. There are also more than a dozen other golf courses within a drive.

paragraphs: Forest has a natural amphitheatre in the conservation area in the south part of the town. Each year the people of the town act in a religious play called "The Promise" in this amphitheatre. They have done the play since 1995. The stage of the amphitheatre is on a small island. The audience sits on the surrounding hillsides.


title: Soul music

paragraphs: Soul music is a kind of music that mixes rhythm and blues, gospel music and pop music. It started in the 1960s in the United States. Features of Soul Music are call and response, hand claps, body movement and a tense vocal sound.

paragraphs: Ray Charles is said to be inventor of Soul with his song "I Got a Woman".

paragraphs: Soul is energetic music with main subjects of lyrics being love, dance and life.

paragraphs: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame states that soul is "music that arose out of the black experience in America through the transmutation of gospel and rhythm & blues into a form of funky, secular testifying."

paragraphs: Recently, singers like Christina Aguilera, Amy Winehouse and Adele are known as Blue Eyed Soul singers.

paragraphs: In some variations of soul brass and saxophones are used a lot.


title: Garni

paragraphs: Garni ("Գառնի" in Armenian) is a village in the Armenian province of Kotayk'.


Greater Armenia


title: Irredentism

paragraphs: Irredentism is the desire of a state, or of some people in a state, for annexation of land that another state has. The ones who want the land say it really belongs to them because the other state stole it, or because they wish to liberate people of the same ethnicity or other connection who live there. The term was invented in the 1870s when the unification of Italy left some Italian people in places ruled by someone else.


title: Greater Armenia (political concept)

paragraphs: Greater Armenia or United Armenia is an Armenian irredentist political goal aimed at uniting all territories perceived as "historically or ethnically Armenian" to the Republic of Armenia.


title: Fume hood

paragraphs: A fume hood or fume cupboard is a large piece of scientific equipment common to chemistry laboratories. Fume hoods stop a person coming into contact with hazardous fumes. They contain an air pump that sucks fumes away from the person using them.

paragraphs: Fume hoods have a large glass window that is opened when a scientist needs to get inside. The window protects the scientist from splashes of chemicals or explosions that could harm them. Most chemical reactions are done inside a fume hood.


title: Ghevont Alishan

paragraphs: Father Ghevont Alishan () (1820–1901; also spelled Ghevond Alishan) was an ordained Armenian Catholic priest, historian and a poet. In 1885, Alishan created the first modern Armenian flag.


title: Armenian Catholic Church

paragraphs: The Armenian Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic church "sui juris" within the Catholic Church. Its headquarters are in Bzoummar, Lebanon. The union was established in the Council of Florence, in 1439. During the Armenian Genocide, 1915-1918, its followers were scattered, mainly to Syria and Lebanon. Many Armenians also fled to Georgia and Ukraine. In 1991, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, Pope John Paul II merged the churches in Georgia and Ukraine with those in Armenia. He created a new eparchy of Armenia and Eastern Europe. There is a seminary in Gyumri, the largest city in Armenia. At the same time Catholic Armenians in Georgia de facto entered this newly formed diocese.The city of Gymuri was chosen because most Catholic Armenians live in the north of the country.

paragraphs: Many Armenians emigrated to the United States and Canada, mainly in the 1970s. For this reason, Pope Benedict XVI created a diocese for these people. It is responsible for about 35.000 people in the US, and about 10.000 in Canada.

paragraphs: The church uses the Armenian Rite and the Armenian language for its services.

paragraphs: The current Patriarch of the church is Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni.


title: Armin T. Wegner

paragraphs: Armin T. Wegner (October 16 1886 – May 17 1978) was a soldier in World War I, a writer and a co-creator of German Expressionism, a political activist for Armenian and Jewish human rights, and a victim of Nazi persecution.

paragraphs: He was a war reporter for several German newspapers at the same time. While staying in Turkey, he saw the genocide of Armenians with his own eyes.

paragraphs: After Hitler came to power, Wegner was against the fascists, and spoke against the treatment of Jews. After writing a letter to Hitler, he was arrested and tortured. Wegner survived and escaped and was based in England, and in Italy after the end of World War II.


title: Activism

paragraphs: Activism is action to make a change, or stop a change, in society. It can be trying to make a government change its laws, or trying to make people change what they do. There are many forms of activism. Activism is most associated with protests.

paragraphs: When activism is linked to art, the action, in street art is called artivism. Chinese artist and activist Ai Weiwei is a typical example.


title: Assyrian people

paragraphs: Assyrians, also known as Syriacs-Arameans and Chaldeans, are an ethnic group whose origins remain in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria, but who have gone to the Caucasus, North America and Western Europe during the past century. Hundreds of thousands more live in Assyrian diaspora and Iraqi refugee communities in Europe, the former Soviet Union, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon.


title: Uncertainty principle

paragraphs: The Uncertainty principle is also called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Werner Heisenberg stumbled on a secret of the universe: Nothing has a definite position, a definite trajectory, or a definite momentum. Trying to pin a thing down to one definite position will make its momentum less well pinned down, and vice-versa. In everyday life we can successfully measure the position of an automobile at a definite time and then measure its direction and speed (assuming it is coasting along at a steady rate) in the next few moments. That is because the uncertainties in position and velocity are so small that we could not detect them. We assume, quite correctly, that the trajectory of the automobile will not be noticeably changed when we drop a marker on the ground and click a stopwatch at the same time to note the car's position in time and space.

paragraphs: We may bring that experience to the world of atomic-sized phenomena and incorrectly assume that if we measure the position of something like an electron as it moves along its trajectory it will continue to move along that same trajectory, which we imagine we can then accurately detect in the next few moments. We need to learn that the electron did not have a definite position before we located it, and that it also did not have a definite momentum before we measured the trajectory. Moreover, we may justifiably assume that a photon produced by a laser aimed at a detection screen will hit very near to its target on that screen, and confirm this prediction by any number of experiments. Next we will discover that the more closely we try to pin down some location for the electron on its way toward the detection screen, the more it and all others like it will be likely to miss that target. So pinning down a location for an electron makes the trajectory more indefinite, indeterminate, or uncertain. If the trajectory were made more clear and then we were to try to locate that electron along an extension of the trajectory we just staked out, then we would find that the more precise we made our knowledge of the trajectory, the less likely we would be to find the electron where ordinary expectations would lead us to believe it to be. If pitchers threw electrons instead of baseballs, and an overhead camera and side-facing camera were placed somewhere between the pitcher's mound and home plate so that the exact position of the electron could be determined in mid flight, then without the cameras being turned on, the pitcher would throw straight balls, and with the cameras turned on his pitches would start out straight but gyrate wildly after their pictures were taken. The more clearly we know where the ball was halfway toward home place, the more trouble the batter will have in getting ready to hit it with his bat.

paragraphs: Unexpected consequences of the uncertainty feature of nature support our understanding of such things as nuclear fission, the control of which gave humans a new and very powerful source of energy, and quantum tunneling, which is an operating principle of the semiconductors that are so important to modern computer and other technologies.

paragraphs: In technical discussions one almost always talks about position and momentum. Momentum is the product of velocity and mass, and in physics the idea of velocity is the speed that something is going in a certain direction. So sometimes one can also talk about the velocity of the thing in question and ignore its mass, and sometimes it is easier to understand things if we talk about the trajectory or path that something follows. That idea also includes the ideas of speed and direction. In the following diagrams we will show the main features of uncertainty in concrete terms, in the world of real things. Later we will use a little math to be able to give a clear idea of how much wiggle room there is between position and momentum.

paragraphs: Very shortly after Werner Heisenberg created the new quantum physics something unexpected came right out of his mathematics, the expression:<br>

paragraphs: These symbols put into math form what you have already seen in the pictures above. The symbols say, in a clear way, that you cannot be perfectly certain about where something is and where it is going. If you get clearer on where it is at any time then you have less of an idea on where it is going and how fast. If you get clearer on where it is going and how fast at any time, then you have less of an idea of where it is right now.

paragraphs: Scientists had already learned why certain substances give off characteristic colors of light when they are heated or otherwise excited. Heisenberg was trying to explain why these colors each have a characteristic brightness. It would not have been good enough if he and the other scientists had just said, "Well, that's just the way it is." They were sure that there had to be a good reason for these differences, and for the fact that the ratios among the bright line strengths were always the same for each sample of an element.

paragraphs: He had no idea that he was going to stumble over a hidden secret of nature when he set off to discover the explanation for the intensities of the colored lines characteristic of each of the elements. The study of quantum mechanics had already shown why hydrogen has four bright lines in the part of the spectrum that humans can see. It must have seemed that the next thing to learn would simply be how to calculate their brightness. Hydrogen seemed to be the obvious place to start since hydrogen has only one electron to deal with, and only four lines in the visible part of the spectrum. Surely there must be a good reason for their not being equally bright. The explanation for the brightness of the different-colored lines of neon and the other elements could wait.

paragraphs: Heisenberg started working on quantum physics by adapting the classical equations for electricity, which are very complicated to begin with, so the math behind his 1925 paper was very hard to follow.

paragraphs: He was trying to find the right way to calculate the intensity of bright lines in the hydrogen lamp spectrum. He had to find a related quantity called "amplitude" and multiply amplitude by amplitude (or in other words he had to square the amplitude) to get the intensity he wanted. He had to figure out how to express amplitude in a way that took account of the fact that hydrogen lamps do not radiate at all frequencies, and do not radiate across a continuous range of frequencies in the part of the spectrum that people can see. Heisenberg found a remarkable new way of calculating amplitude.

paragraphs: The strange equation|equation that Heisenberg discovered and used to do the multiplication of one quantum quantity (e.g., position) by another (e.g., momentum) was published in what has been called "Heisenberg's 'magical' paper of July 1925." <br>

paragraphs: The math above looks very hard, but the math leading up to it is very much harder and is extremely hard to understand. It is given here just to show what it looked like. Heisenberg's paper is a historical landmark. Many of the physicists who read his paper said that they could not disagree with his conclusions, but that they could not follow his explanation of how he got to those conclusions. The beginning equations that Heisenberg used involved Fourier series, and involved many factors. We will come back to the equation above because it is a kind of recipe for writing out and multiplying matrices.

paragraphs: The new equations had to be so strange and unusual because Heisenberg was describing a strange world in which some things, such as the orbits of electrons, do not slowly get larger or smaller. The new kinds of changes involve jumps and large gaps between jumps. Electrons can only jump between certain orbits, and the energy gained or lost in changing between orbits is produced when a photon of the right energy is absorbed or a new photon of the right energy is produced. If electrons in hydrogen atoms most frequently jump down (fall) between two particular orbits, then more photons will be emitted at that energy level, and so the light produced at that level will be the most intense.

paragraphs: It was difficult to make equations built for continuous spectra (what you see when you put the sun's light through a prism) fit spectra that just have a few peak frequencies between which there is nothing. Almost everything that had already been learned about light and energy had been done with large things like burning candles or suns, and those large objects all produce continuous spectra. Even though these ordinary-sized things were easy to do experiments with, it had still taken a long time to figure out the law (physics)laws that govern them. Now physicists were dealing with things too small to see, things that did not produce continuous spectra, and were trying to find a way to at least get clues from what they already knew that would help them find the laws of these small and gapped-out light sources.

paragraphs: The original equations dealt with a kind of vibrating body that would produce a wave, a little like the way a reed in an organ would produce a sound wave of a characteristic frequency. So there was motion back and forward (like the vibrating of a reed) and there was an emitted wave that could be graphed as a sine wave. Much of what had earlier been figured out about physics on the level had to do with electrons moving around nuclei. When a mass moves in an orbit, when it rotates around some kind of a hub, it has what is called "angular momentum." Angular momentum is the way that something like a merry-go-round will continue to rotate after people have stopped pushing it. The math used for phase calculations and angular momentum is complicated. On top of that, Heisenberg did not show all of his calculations in his 1925 paper, so even good mathematicians might have trouble filling out what he did not say.

paragraphs: Even though many physicists said they could not figure out the various math steps in Heisenberg's breakthrough paper, one recent article that tries to explain how Heisenberg got his result uses twenty math-filled pages. Even that article is not easy to understand. The math started with some really hard stuff and would eventually produce something relatively simply that is shown at the top of this article. Getting the simpler result was not easy, and we are not going to try to show the process of getting from an outdated picture of the universe to the new quantum physics. We need just enough detail to show that almost as soon as Heisenberg made his breakthrough a part of how the universe works that nobody had ever seen before came into view.

paragraphs: Heisenberg must have been very excited but also very tired when, late at night, he finally made his breakthrough and started proving to himself that it would work. Almost right away he noticed something strange, something that he thought was an annoying little problem that he could make go away somehow. But it turned out that this little nuisance was a big discovery.

paragraphs: Heisenberg had been working toward multiplying amplitudes by amplitudes, and now Heisenberg had a good way to express amplitude using his new equation. Naturally he was thinking about multiplication, and about how he would multiply things that were given in terms of complicated equations.

paragraphs: Heisenberg realized that besides squaring amplitude he would eventually want to multiply position by momentum, or multiply energy by time, and it looked like it would make a difference if he turned the order around in these new cases. Heisenberg did not think it should matter if one multiplied position by momentum or if one multiplied momentum by position. If they had been just simple numbers there would have been no problem. But they were both complicated equations, and how you got the numbers to plug into the equations turned out to be different depending on which way you got started. In nature you had to measure position and then measure momentum, or else you had to measure momentum and then measure position, and in math the same general situation prevailed. (See the English Wikipedia article if you want to learn the fussy details!) The tiny but pesky differences between results were going to remain, not matter how much Heisenberg wished they would go away.

paragraphs: At the time Heisenberg could not get rid of that one little problem, but he was exhausted, so he handed his work in to his immediate supervisor, Max Born, and went on vacation.

paragraphs: Max Born was a remarkable mathematician who soon saw that the equation that Heisenberg had given him was a sort of recipe for writing a matrix. Dr. Born was one of the few people at that time who was interested in this odd kind of math that most people figured was not good for very much. He knew that matrices could be multiplied, so doing all the calculations for accounting for one physics problem could be handled by multiplying one matrix by another. Just being able to put a complicated procedure into a standard and acceptable form would make it easier to work with. It might also make it easier for other people to accept.

paragraphs: Born was such a good mathematician that he almost immediately realized that switching the order of multiplying the two matrices would produce a different result, and the results would differ by a small amount. That amount would be h/2πi. In everyday life, that difference would be so small that we could not even see it.

paragraphs: It took a couple of years, but Heisenberg was able to prove the Uncertainty Principle, which says that Δx × Δp = h/2, which is the number that comes out of the original equations but leaves out the π and the i that have to do with phase changes. Heisenberg explained that he derived his uncertainty principle from this earlier result when he wrote a paper in 1927 introducing this theory.

paragraphs: The constant written h, called the Planck constant, is a mysterious number that often occurs, so we need to understand what this tiny number is. Numerically, it is usually given as 6.62607×10^-34 J s (joule seconds). So it is a quantity that involves energy and time.

paragraphs: It was discovered when Planck realized that the energy of a perfect radiator (called a black-body radiator) is emitted in units of definite size called "quanta" (the singular of this word is "quantum"). Radiated energy is emitted as photons, and the frequency of a photon is proportional to the "punch" it delivers. We experience different frequencies of visible light as different colors. At the violet end of the spectrum, each photon has a relatively large amount of energy; at the red end of the spectrum each photon has a relatively small amount of energy. The way to calculate the amount of energy of a photon is given by the equation E = hν (energy equals the Planck constant times "nu" or frequency).

paragraphs: The Heisenberg uncertainty principle Δx × Δp ≥ h tells us that whenever we try to pin down certain pairs of numbers we can only get so close, and that if we try to get clearer on one of them, i.e., if we try to make Δx smaller so we have a better idea of the position of something, then we will have to get handed back a bigger number for the other number of the pair, and that the amount the two are off by is closely related to h.

paragraphs: Another pair of physical quantities goes according to the uncertainty relationship: ΔE × Δt ≥ h, and that pair indicates, among other things, that if we look in interstellar space, some place where we would not expect to find anything at all, and we reduce Δt closer and closer to 0, then to keep the balance shown in the equation ΔE has to get larger and larger — and suddenly something with momentum can pop into existence just for that brief period of time.

paragraphs: How is this indeterminacy (lack of certainty) to be explained? What is going on in the Universe? It is often said that a new theory that is successful can provide new information about the phenomena under investigation. Heisenberg created a math model that predicted the correct intensities for the bright-line spectrum of hydrogen, but without intending to do so he discovered that certain pairs of physical quantities disclose an unexpected uncertainty. Up until that moment nobody had any idea that measurements could not be forever made more and more precise and accurate. The fact that they could not be made more certain, more definite, was a stunning new discovery. Many people were not willing to accept it.

paragraphs: Bohr and his colleagues argued that photons, electrons, etc. do not have either position or momentum until they are measured. This theoretical position grew out of the discovery of uncertainty, and was not just some personal preference on what to believe. Bohr said that we know nothing about something like a photon or electron until we observe it. In order to observe such a small thing we need to interact with it somehow. In everyday life it is possible to do something like walking alongside an automobile while marking down the times it crosses points on a grid drawn on the pavement. Perhaps the weight of the automobile itself will depress little levers in the pavement that turn off clocks attached to each of them and record the automobile's weight. In the end we would have a clear record of where the car was at various times, and also could compute its direction of progress and weight. We could then know, at any time on the clock, both its position and its momentum (its velocity multiplied by its mass). We would not even imagine that the force required to move the little levers would have any influence on the progress of the car. We would also not imagine that the automobile had no location or trajectory between the points on the pavement where there are levers, or that the car exists in a kind of three-dimensional blur during those times and only settles down while it is depressing a lever. The world that we are familiar with does not reveal these strange kinds of interactions.

paragraphs: To locate a ship on the sea during the darkest night we could use a searchlight, and that light would not disturb the position or direction of travel of the ship, but locating an electron with light would require hitting it with one or more photons each having enough momentum to disturb the position and trajectory of the electron. Locating the electron with other means would involve holding it in some kind of physical restraint that would also terminate its forward movement.

paragraphs: To locate a photon, the best that can be done without terminating its forward movement is to make it go through a circular hole in a barrier. If one knows the time at which the photon was emitted (by a laser, for instance) and the time that the photon arrives at a detection screen such as a digital camera, then it is possible to compute the time required to travel that distance and the time at which the photon was passing through the hole. However, to permit the photon to pass through it, the circular hole must have a diameter greater than the size of the photon. The smaller the circular hole is made, the closer we come to knowing the exact position of the photon as it goes through it. However, we can never know whether the photon is off-center at that time. If the hole is exactly the same size as the photon it won't pass through. As the diameter of the hole is decreased, the momentum or the direction of the photon as it leaves the hole is more and more greatly changed.

paragraphs: Niels Bohr and his colleagues argued that we get into big trouble if we assume to be true of the things that are too small to be seen even with a microscope anything that we have proof for only on the scale of everyday life. In everyday life, things have a definite position at all times. On the atomic scale, we have no evidence to support that conclusion. In everyday life, things have a definite time at which they occur. On the atomic scale, we have no evidence to support that conclusion. In everyday life, if one observes a factory from the night shift of day one to the day shift of day two and one sees a finished automobile rolled out to the shipping dock it would make no sense to say that it is impossible to tell whether it was delivered during the night shift or during the day shift. But on the atomic scale, we can show instances when we have to count a single photon as having been produced at two times. (If that is not bad enough, we can also show instances where a single photon is produced from two adjacent lasers.)

paragraphs: Part of the difficulty with finding out what is happening on the atomic scale is that we would like to know both where something is and what its trajectory is, and to know both things for the same time, but we cannot measure both position and trajectory at the same time. We either measure the momentum of a photon or electron at one time and then without any more delay than necessary measure its position, or we switch things around and measure position first and momentum second. The problem is that in making the first one take on a pretty definite form (by squeezing down on it in some way) we increase the uncertainty involved in the next measurement. If our initial measurements were so crude that lots of error was introduced in each, then we could improve things by using a lighter touch to do each of them, but we could never get beyond a certain limit of accuracy.

paragraphs: We know from everyday life that trying to weigh something on a bathroom scale placed on a washing machine in spin cycle will produce inaccurate results because the needle on the scale will jiggle badly. We can turn off the washing machine. But for very accurate measurements we find that trucks going by in the neighborhood make the needle jiggle, so we can put the scale on a something to insulate it from the outside disturbances. We believe that we can eliminate vibrations enough to give us results just as accurate as we want. We never consider that the thing on the scale is itself vibrating or that it possesses an indefinite momentum.

paragraphs: Arguing backwards from the Uncertainty Principle, it looks as though there is in fact no definite position and no definite momentum for any atomic scale thing, and that experimenters can only force things into definiteness within the limit stated by the Uncertainty Principle. Bohr and his colleagues only argued that we could not know anything without making measurements, and when measurements were made we can push things in the direction of more definite position or more definite momentum, but that we can't get the absolute definiteness or certainty that we would like. But others took the possibility seriously, and argued that if the math is right then there cannot be definiteness or certainty in the world of the ultra small. The nature of science is that the math is only a model of reality, and there is no guarantee that it is a correct model.

paragraphs: The math and the practical consequences of the things that the math predicts are so reliable that they are very hard to disagree with, but what the math says about the real world has produced several different ideas. Among the scientists who worked with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, the uncertainty principle was taken to mean that on an elementary level the physical universe does not exist in a deterministic form. Rather, it is a collection of probabilities or potentials.

paragraphs: Counter to the story woven around the math by the Copenhagen group, there are other stories such as the "multiple universes interpretation" that says that every time there are multiple possible outcomes according to quantum theory, each outcomes occurs in its own new universe. Einstein argued that there are no multiple possible outcomes, so there is only one universe and it is determinate, or, as he put it, "God does not play dice."

paragraphs: Albert Einstein saw that the new quantum mechanics implied a lack of position and momentum in the time prior to measurements being made, and he objected strongly. He firmly believed that things had definite positions and definite momentums before they were measured, and that the fact that measuring one of a pair of things and disturbing the possibility of accurately measuring the other does not argue for there being a lack of either of them beforehand. He and two of his colleagues wrote what has come to be known as the "EPR paper." That paper argues that there must be characteristics that do determine position and momentum, and that if we could see them, or if we can get information about them, then we can mathematically know and predict position and momentum. For a long time people thought that there was no way to prove or disprove what was for Einstein an article of faith. The argument was very productive because it led to all the modern developments in entanglement.

paragraphs: Mathematically, Einstein has been proven wrong. In 1964 John Stewart Bell developed a math method to distinguish between the behavior of two particles that have determinate states that are merely unknown to the two individuals that investigate them, and two particles that have entangled states that are indeterminate or uncertain until they are measured. His method shows that the probabilities for getting certain results are different under the two different assumptions. His work is called Bell's theorem or Bell's Inequality. Experiments have shown that nature behaves as Bell describes it.

paragraphs: The initial discussions of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle depended on a model that did not consider that particles of matter such as electrons, protons, etc. have a wavelength. In 1926 Louis de Broglie showed that all things, not just photons, have their own frequency. Things have a wave nature and a particle nature, just as photons do. If we try to make the wave of a thing like a proton narrower and taller, that would make its position clearer, but then the momentum would get less well defined. If we try to make the momentum part of a wave description clearer, i.e., make it stay within a narrower range of values, then the wave peak spreads out and its position becomes less definite.

paragraphs: The wave that is part of the description of a photon is, in quantum mechanics, not the same kind of thing as a wave on the surface of the ocean or the regions of compressed air and rarefied air that make up sound waves. Instead, these wave have peaks or high amplitude regions that have to do with probability of finding something at that point in space and time. More precisely, it is the square of the amplitude that gives the probability of some phenomenon showing up.

paragraphs: The wave that applies to a photon might be a pure sine wave. In that case, the square of the value of every peak would give the probability of observing the photon at that point. Since the amplitudes of the sine waves are everywhere the same, the probability for finding the photon at each of them would be the same. So, practically speaking, knowing the wave for one of these photons would not give a clue about where to look for it. On the other hand, the momentum of a photon is mathematically related to the amplitude of its wave. Since in this case we have a pure sine wave, the amplitude of every cycle of the wave is the same and therefore there is only one momentum value associated with this wave. We would not know where the photon would hit, but we would know exactly how hard it would hit.

paragraphs: In beams of light that focus on some point on a detection screen, the waves associated with the photons are not pure sine waves. Instead, they are waves with high amplitude at one point and much lower amplitudes on either side of that highest peak. Mathematically it is possible to analyze such a wave into a number of different sine waves of different wavelengths. It is a little easier to visualize the reverse of this process by looking at an initial sine wave of one frequency to which is added a second sine wave of a different wavelength, then a third, then a fourth, and so on. The result will be a complex wave showing one high peak and containing a large number of waves of different wavelengths and therefore of different momentums. In that case, the probability that the photon will appear at a certain point is extremely high, but the momentum it delivers can turn out to be related to the wavelength of any one of the component waves. In other words, the value of p = ħ/λ is no longer a single value because all the lengths of the assembled "waves of different wavelength" have to be taken into account.

paragraphs: The simulation shows how to mathematically model the sharpening up of the location of a particle: Superimpose many different wave forms over the original sine wave. The center will form a higher and higher peak, and the rest of the peaks will be increased in number but decreased in height because they will interfere with each other. So in the end there are many different waves in the superposition, each with a different wavelength and (by p = ħ/λ) a different momentum, but only one very high peak, one that grows higher and narrower and gives us something closer and closer to a determinate position.

paragraphs: To make momentum more and more definite, we would have to take away more and more of the superimposed sine waves until we had only a simple sine wave left. In so doing we would progressively diminish the height of the central peak and progressively increase the heights of the competing places where one might find the particle.

paragraphs: So when we start with a wave picture of subatomic particles we typically will always deal with cases with relatively tall central peaks and relatively many component wavelengths. There never will be an exact position or an exact momentum predicted under these circumstances. If the mathematical model is an accurate representation of the real world, then no photon or other subatomic particle has either an exact position or a definite momentum. When we measure such a particle we can choose a method that further squeezes the peak and makes it narrower, or we can choose a method that lowers the peak and evens out the component wavelengths. Depending on what we measure and how we measure it, we can make our location come out more definite or we can make our momentum range narrower. We can take care in designing the experiment to avoid various ways of jiggling the apparatus, but we cannot get rid of the fact that there was nothing completely definite to begin with.

paragraphs: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle has greatly influenced arguments about free will. Under the theories of classical physics it is possible to argue that the laws of cause and effect are inexorable and that once the universe began in a certain way the interactions of all matter and energy to occur in the future could be calculated from that initial state. Since everything is absolutely the result of what came before it, they argued, every decision a human being makes and every situation into which that human being enters was predetermined since the beginning of time. We then have no choice in what we do.

paragraphs: People who believe in free will argue that the laws of quantum mechanics do not predict what will happen but only what is more and what is less likely to occur. Therefore every action is the result of a series of random "coin tosses" and no decision could be traced back to a set of necessary preconditions.

paragraphs: The expressions "quantum leap" and "quantum jump" have become ordinary ways of talking about things. Usually people intend to describe something as involving a huge change that occurs over a short period of time. The term actually applies to the way an electron behaves in an atom either when it absorbs a photon coming in from the outside and so jumps from one orbit around the atom's nucleus to a higher orbit, or when it emits a photon and so falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. The idea of Niels Bohr and his colleagues was that the electron does not move between orbits but instead it disappears from one orbit and instantaneously appears in another orbit. So a quantum jump is really not some earth shattering change, but a sudden tiny change.

paragraphs: When humans measure some process on the subatomic scale and the uncertainty principle manifests itself, then human action can be said to have influenced the thing that was being measured. Making a measurement intended to get a definite indication of a particle's location will inevitably influence its momentum and whatever is done to measure that momentum as soon as possible after measuring its position, the probabilities of what momentum will be discovered cannot fail to have been changed. So the uncertainty principle can explain some kinds of interference produced by investigators that influence the results of an experiment or an observation. However, not all observer effects are due to quantum effects or the uncertainty principle. The remainder are "observer effects" but not quantum uncertainty effects.

paragraphs: Observer effects include all kinds of things that operate at our ordinary human scale of events. If an anthropologist tries to get a clear idea of life in a primitive society but his or her presence upsets the community he or she is visiting, then the observations made may be very misleading. However, none of the relevant interactions occur at the level described by quantum mechanics or the uncertainty principle.

paragraphs: Sometimes the word "quantum" will be used for advertising purposes to indicate something new and powerful. For instance, the manufacturer of small gasoline motors, Briggs and Stratton, has one line of four-cylinder low horsepower motors for gasoline mowers and similar garden tools that it calls "Quantum."

paragraphs: Ian J. R. Aitchison, David A. MacManus, Thomas M. Snyder. https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0404009


title: Assyria

paragraphs: In the Middle Bronze Age,Assyria was a city state on the Upper Tigris river, named after its capital, the ancient city of Assur.

paragraphs: The Assyrians were just to the north of their rivals, the Babylonians. All the kingdoms of ancient Mesopotamia used the cuneiform writing system invented by the Sumerians.

paragraphs: Assyrians are an ethnic group whose descendents remain in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria, but who have gone to the Caucasus, North America and Western Europe during the past century. Hundreds of thousands more live in Assyrian Diaspora and Iraqi Refugees Communities in Europe, the former Soviet Union, The United States, Australia, New Zealand, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon.


title: Forum

paragraphs: Forum (plural "forums" or "fora") may mean:


title: Yuri Andropov

paragraphs: Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov (1914-1984) was a Soviet politician. He was born in Nagutskoye, Russian SFSR.

paragraphs: Andropov was Director of the KGB for an unusually long time: 19671982 (Jan-May). He was General Secretary of the CPSU from November 12, 1982 until his death fifteen months later. He had diabetes mellitus and died of renal failure in Moscow, Russian SFSR.


title: Van, Turkey

paragraphs: Van (Armenian ) is a city in eastern Turkey and the seat of Van Province, and is on the eastern shore of Lake Van. The city's population in 2005 was 284,464. According to the "Encyclopedia of the Orient", Kurds form the majority though no census based on ethnicity was ever held in Turkey.


title: Van Province

paragraphs: Van () is a province in eastern Turkey, between Lake Van and the Iranian border. It is 19,069 km in area and has a population of 1,035,418 at the end of 2010. Kurds form the majority.

paragraphs: In the 9th century BC, the Van area was the center of the Urartian kingdom. For centuries after that, the area was a major Armenian population center. After World War I Armenian population was forced to leave and was cleansed during the Armenian Genocide.


title: Urartian language

paragraphs: Urartian is the name for the language spoken by the people of the ancient kingdom of Urartu in northeast Anatolia (present-day Turkey), in the region of Lake Van.

paragraphs: Urartian was a language isolate, which was neither Semitic nor Indo-European, but a member of the Hurro-Urartian family.

paragraphs: There is a hypothesis that suggests that besides the cuneiform inscriptions of the Urartian language, Urartu had a native hieroglyphic writing system. Armenian scientist Artak Movsisyan published a partial attempt deciphering of Urartian hieroglyphs, saying that they were written in an early form of Armenian.


title: Yamaha Corporation

paragraphs: Yamaha is a Japanese company that makes different products, including musical instruments such as keyboards.

paragraphs: Yamaha was founded in 1887 by "Torakusu Yamaha". It was named Nippon Gakki Company, Limited and produced pianos and reed organs at that time. In October 1987, on the 100th anniversary, its name was changed to The Yamaha Corporation. Yamaha produces several musical instruments including keyboards, flutes, guitars and things in a band. Yamaha also produces motorbikes, as well as the voice synthesizer Vocaloid. Yamaha is a big corporation and was founded 125 years ago.

paragraphs: In 1989, Yamaha shipped the world's first CD recorder.


title: Grease (movie)

paragraphs: Grease is a 1978 American romantic comedy musical movie directed by Randal Kleiser and produced by Robert Stigwood. The movie tells the story of high-schoolers Rizzo, Kenickie, Danny, Frenchy and Sandy.

paragraphs: Danny Zuko and Sandra Dee meet in Los Angeles, California in summer 1959 and they fall in love. When Sandy has to leave to go back to Australia, they believe it is the end of their romance. However, Sandy gets transferred to his school and they meet again. When Danny sees Sandy again he acts as if he does not care about her. He does this to keep up his reputation, but Sandy does not know this and wishes she has never met him. She and Danny date on and off, but Sandy becomes frustrated with him because of the way he treats her. At the end of the movie, Sandy transforms herself into the kind of woman Danny could truly love forever and they get back together after much heartbreak and trivial matters.


title: Eastern Time Zone

paragraphs: Eastern Time Zone (ET) is the time zone for the eastern part of the Americas including the United States, Canada and parts of South America and the Caribbean. ET is five hours behind UTC in winter, which is called Eastern Standard Time (EST). It is four hours behind UTC during summer Daylight saving time, when it is called Eastern Daylight Time (EDT).

paragraphs: In Canada, the following provinces and territories are part of the Eastern Time Zone:

paragraphs: In the United States, the following states are part of the Eastern Time Zone:

paragraphs: Parts of several other states use Eastern Time as well:

paragraphs: The following countries that use Eastern Time Zone include:

paragraphs: In South America this time zone is observed in:


title: Armenian Legion

paragraphs: The Armenian Legion or Armenische Legion was the name given to the 812th Armenian Battalion which was a foreign unit comprised of several thousand men.

paragraphs: Leaders Kanayan and Garegin Njdeh counted the support of over 18,000 Armenians.

paragraphs: In addition to this exclusively Armenian unit, Nazi Armenians also served in the thirty eight other SS divisions, including the elite Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler.


title: Garegin Njdeh

paragraphs: Garegin Njdeh (, real name: Garegin Ter-Harutiunian, 1 January 1886 - late 1955) was an Armenian statesman, military, and political thinker. He was a native of Nakhchivan.

paragraphs: Njdeh fled Armenia after the triumph of Bolsheviks, and was involved in patriotic activities in Iran, Bulgaria and the United States. A controversial person, he was expelled from Dashnak party. Njdeh was very much against communism. He worked with Nazi Germans during the World War II. He was arrested in Sofia, Bulgaria in 1944 and sent to Moscow, then to Yerevan. He spent the rest of his life in prison in the Russian city of Vladimir, where he dide in 1955.


title: Wehrmacht

paragraphs: Wehrmacht was the name of the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. The "Wehrmacht" consisted of the "Heer" (army), the "Kriegsmarine" (navy) and the "Luftwaffe" (air force).

paragraphs: The "Waffen-SS", an initially small armed section of Heinrich Himmler's Allgemeine SS that grew to nearly a million strong during World War II, was not part of the Wehrmacht, but subject to its Supreme Command.

paragraphs: Before the rise of the NSDAP, the term "Wehrmacht" was used in a generic sense to describe armed forces of any nation, being utilized as the "home defence" version of the more general "Streitmacht". For example, the term "Britische Wehrmacht" would identify the British armed forces. Article 47 of the Weimar Constitution of 1919 declared "Der Reichspräsident hat den Oberbefehl über die gesamte Wehrmacht des Reiches" (meaning: "The "Reichspräsident" holds supreme command of all armed forces of the "Reich""). To make a distinction, the term "Reichswehr" was commonly used to identify the German armed forces.

paragraphs: In 1935, the "Reichswehr" was renamed "Wehrmacht". After World War II and under the Allied occupation of Germany, the "Wehrmacht" was abolished.

paragraphs: Today the term "Wehrmacht" refers to Germany's armed forces during the Nazi Germany era and World War II, both in German and English. Note: The "Wehrmacht" was not only the army ("Wehrmacht Heer"). Wehrmacht vehicles used by "Heer", "Luftwaffe" or "Kriegsmarine" had license plates with WH, WL or WM.

paragraphs: World War I ended with the armistice (ceasefire) of 11 November 1918. The armed forces were called "Friedensheer" (peace army) in January 1919. In March 1919, the national assemby passed a law founding a 420,000 strong preliminary army as "Vorläufige Reichswehr". The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were announced in May and, in June, Germany was forced to sign the contract. Among other terms, the army was limited to one hundred thousand men with fifteen thousand more in the navy. Tanks and heavy artillery were forbidden and the air force was dissolved. A new post-war military (the Reichswehr) was established on 23 March 1921.

paragraphs: Germany immediately found ways not to keep to these conditions. A secret collaboration with the Soviet Union began after the treaty of Rapallo. Germany helped the Soviet Union with industrialisation and Soviet officers were to be trained in Germany. German tank and air force specialists could exercise in the Soviet Union. German chemical weapons research and manufacture would be done there, plus other projects. Around three hundred German pilots received training at "Lipetsk", some tank training took place near "Kazan" and toxic gas was developed at "Saratov" for the German army.

paragraphs: After the death of President Paul von Hindenburg on 2 August 1934, Hitler assumed the office of Reichspräsident, and thus became commander in chief. All officers and soldiers of the German armed forces had to swear a personal oath of loyalty to the "Führer", as Adolf Hitler now was called. By 1935, Germany was openly breaking the military restrictions of the Versailles Treaty, and conscription was reintroduced on 16 March 1935.

paragraphs: The size of the standing army remained at about the 100,000-man mark decreed by the treaty, but a new group of conscripts equal to this size would receive training each year. The conscription law formalized the name "Wehrmacht". The existence of the Wehrmacht was officially announced on 15 October 1935 under Nazi authority. The insignia was a simpler version of the Iron Cross (the straight-armed so-called "Balkenkreuz" or beamed cross). This had been used as an aircraft and tank marking late in World War I.

paragraphs: The Wehrmacht entered the war with a minority of its formations motorized; infantry remained approximately 90% foot-borne throughout the war, and artillery primarily horse-drawn. The motorized formations received much attention in the world press in the opening years of the war, and were cited as the reason for the success of the German invasions of Poland (September 1939), Norway (April 1940), Denmark, Belgium, France and Netherlands (May 1940), Yugoslavia (April 1941) and the early campaigns in the Soviet Union (June 1941).

paragraphs: With the entry of the United States in December 1941, the Wehrmacht found itself engaged in ground campaigns against two major industrial powers. At this critical juncture, Hitler assumed personal control of the Wehrmacht high command, and his personal failings as a military commander arguably contributed to major defeats in the spring of 1943, at Stalingrad and Tunis in North Africa.

paragraphs: The German Air Force, led by Hermann Göring, contributed many units of ground forces to the war in Russia as well as the Normandy front. In 1940, the Fallschirmjäger paratroops conquered the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael and took part in the airborne invasion of Norway, but after suffering heavy losses in the Battle of Crete, large scale airdrops were discontinued. Operating as ordinary infantry, the 1st Fallschirmjäger Division took part in the Battle of Monte Cassino.

paragraphs: The German Navy (Kriegsmarine) played a major role in the Second World War as control over the commerce routes in the Atlantic was crucial for Germany, Britain and later the Soviet Union. In the Battle of the Atlantic, the initially successful German U-boat fleet arm was eventually defeated due to Allied technological advances like sonar, radar, and the breaking of the Enigma code. Large surface vessels were few in number due to construction limitations by international treaties prior to 1935. The "pocket battleships" Admiral Graf Spee and Admiral Scheer were important as commerce raiders only in the opening year of the war. No aircraft carrier was operational as German leadership lost interest in the Graf Zeppelin which had been launched in 1938. Following the loss of Bismarck in 1941, with Allied air superiority threatening the remaining battlecruisers in French Atlantic harbours, the ships were ordered to go back to German ports.

paragraphs: Although the Waffen-SS was not technically a part of the Wehrmacht, they were under the control of the Wehrmacht High Command during World War 2. They were considered as elite troops, and suffered heavy losses (more than the normal army).

paragraphs: The Wehrmacht was used as a tool of state policy in the Second World War, for both military and political aims. There is considerable controversy over the allegations that the Wehrmacht was found to be significantly rather than incidentally involved in the Holocaust, especially because the elements of the SS involved in the Holocaust were not the Waffen-SS and not under the control of the OKW or field commanders. The Wehrmacht ordered and participated in massacres of civilians for reprisals, executions of prisoners of war, summary executions of Soviet political officers and executions of military and civilian hostages as punishment for partisan activities in occupied territories.However, the oft-repeeated claim of breaking the Geneva convention by its treatment of Russian prisoners of war is not correct. Common Clause 2 of the Geneva Convention states that the treatment requirements apply where both parties are signatories of the Conventions. The Germans were signatories, The Russians refused to sign.


title: Drastamat Kanayan

paragraphs: General Drastamat Kanayan (May 31, 1884 – March 8, 1956) was an Armenian politician, revolutionary, and general. He was the commander of the Armenian Legion of the Wehrmacht, the armed forces of Nazi Germany and part of Armenian national liberation movement.

paragraphs: Drastamat Kanayan was born in Iğdır, Surmalu, Russian Empire (present-day Turkey) in 1884.


title: Jack White

paragraphs: Jack White (born John Anthony Gillis, July 9, 1975 in Detroit, Michigan) is an American singer, guitarist, composer and actor. He is best known as one half of The White Stripes with his ex-wife Meg White.

paragraphs: Because of his successful career with The White Stripes, he has gotten the chance to work many other famous musicians, including Bob Dylan and Loretta Lynn. He has performed many different genres of music, including blues music, folk music, alternative rock, garage rock, and indie music, among other music, in his songs.

paragraphs: He married model Karen Elson in 2005. They currently have two children, Scarlett Teresa White and Henry Lee White. As of today, they live in Nashville, Tennessee.


title: Meg White

paragraphs: Meg White was born on December 10, 1974 in Grosse Pointe Farms, Michigan. She is an American drummer and vocalist. She is one half of The White Stripes with her ex-husband Jack White.

paragraphs: Meg's playful yet simple style of drumming has drawn so much debate about her ability that is referenced in the movie "School of Rock". In reference to her simple approach to drumming, Meg said "That is my strength. A lot of drummers would feel weird about being that simplistic."


title: Adriatic Sea

paragraphs: The Adriatic Sea is a body of water and is a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula was sepatated by the sea. Countries that have a coastline in the Adriatic Sea are Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania.

paragraphs: The average width of the sea is about 160 km. The Strait of Otranto joins the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea and is only 85 to 100 km wide. The sea is very shallow. Its average depth is 240 m (133 fathoms). The sea is deepest east of Monte Gargano and south of Dubrovnik where it dips below 1,460 m (800 fathoms).


title: Time in Australia

paragraphs: Mainland Australia has three official time zones. The full names of the time zones are usually shortened by dropping the "Australian". Most Australian external territories are in different time zones. Many parts of Australia have daylight saving time.

paragraphs: The three official standard time zones were set up in February 1895.

paragraphs: Originally South Australia was nine hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) but in May 1899 they added another thirty minutes to that. Some people have disliked having this non-whole number of hours difference. In 1986 and 1994 they tried to take the thirty minutes away again or add another thirty minutes but they failed.

paragraphs: When the Australian Capital Territory separated from New South Wales they kept using Eastern Standard Time. When the Northern Territory separated from South Australia they kept using Central Standard Time.

paragraphs: Australia's many outside territories follow their own time zones. None follow daylight saving time.

paragraphs: South Australia, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and Tasmania use daylight saving time every year. In these regions daylight saving time begins on the first Sunday in October at 2:00 am local standard time, and ends on the first Sunday in April at 3:00 am local daylight saving time. The starting and finishing times are sometimes changed when there are special events, such as the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, in Australia.

paragraphs: The Northern Territory, Queensland and Western Australia do not have daylight saving time. People living in the northern parts of Australia tend not to be in favour of daylight saving.


title: Human sacrifice

paragraphs: Human sacrifice is the act of killing a human being as an offering to a deity or other, normally supernatural, power.

paragraphs: It was practiced in many ancient cultures. The practice was different in different cultures.

paragraphs: Some like the Mayans and Aztecs are notorious for their ritual killings, others have looked down on the practice as primitive.

paragraphs: Victims were ritually killed in a manner that was supposed to please or appease gods or spirits. Victims ranged from prisoners to infants to Vestal Virgins whose stomach's were cut open, with a dull,stone knife and their hearts were burned.

paragraphs: Over time human sacrifice has become less common around the world, and sacrifices are now very rare. Most religions condemn the practice and present-day laws generally treat it as a criminal matter. Nonetheless it is still occasionally seen today, especially in the least developed areas of the world where traditional beliefs persist.

paragraphs: The ancient Middle Eastern kingdom of Phoenicia practiced sacrifice of children to their god Moloch. It was believed to be evil by the Jewish authors of the Bible.

paragraphs: The Aztecs were particularly noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale; an offering to Huitzilopochtli would be made to restore the blood he lost, as the sun was engaged in a daily battle. Human sacrifices would prevent the end of the world that could happen on each cycle of 52 years. In the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan many prisoners were sacrificed.

paragraphs: Tlaloc would require weeping boys in the first months of the Aztec calendar to be ritually murdered.

paragraphs: A number of mummies of sacrificed children have been recovered in the Inca regions of South America.


title: Tomomi Kahala

paragraphs: Tomomi Kahala, sometimes spelled Kahara ( "Kahara Tomomi" born August 17, 1974 in Tokyo) is a Japanese female singer. Her nickname is "Tomochan", and special skill is Horse riding. Her most famous song is ""I'm Proud"", ""I Believe"".