title: Hexacorallia

paragraphs: Hexacorallia is a large subclass of Anthozoa in the aquatic phylum Cnidaria.

paragraphs: It has about 4,300 species, all polyps, generally with 6-fold symmetry. It includes all the stony corals, most of which are colonial and reef-forming. It also contains the sea anemones, tube anemones, and zoanthids, in six living orders.

paragraphs: The Hexacorallia are distinguished from the other subclass of Anthozoa, the Octocorallia, because they have six or less axes of symmetry in their body structure and only single rows of tentacles. They are formed of individual soft polyps which in some species live in colonies and secrete a calcite skeleton. As with all Cnidarians, these organisms have a complex life cycle including a mobile planktonic phase and a later sessile phase.

paragraphs: Hexacorallia also include the extinct orders of the rugose corals and tabulate corals. They built the coral reefs of the Palaeozoic era. In fact, there are a total of eight extinct orders of the Hexacorallia, which shows it has always been an important group of marine organisms.


title: Antiprism

paragraphs: In geometry an antiprism is a polyhedron. It is made of two copies of a regular polygon. These polygons are connected using an alternating band of triangles. To connect an n-sided polygon, 2n triangles are needed. Antiprisms are similar to prisms, but prisms use parallelograms for the bands at the side.

paragraphs: A right antiprism uses a right angle to connect the base polygons to the band of triangles. A uniform antiprism uses equilateral triangles as base surfaces.


title: Chinx

paragraphs: Lionel Pickens (December 4, 1983 – May 17, 2015), better known by his stage name Chinx (formerly Chinx Drugz), was an American rapper from Queens, New York. He was a member of French Montana's Coke Boys group and record label. Other members are Cheeze, Flip, and Lil Durk. He was best known for his raps on the "Coke Boys" mixtapes and the "Cocaine Riot" mixtape series. He died from a fatal gunshot wound after a drive-by shooting in Jamaica, Queens on May 17, 2015.

paragraphs: On how he got started rapping, Chinx said: "I started rapping at the table in junior high school for fun with the homies and then by 9th grade is when I started taking music seriously. At that point is when I started investing my street money into my studio time and trying to find my sound."

paragraphs: On May 17, 2015, New York police officers (NYPD) went, after a 911 call, to Briarwood, Queens at about 4:00 a.m. There, they found Chinx and another victim in a car at Queens Boulevard and 84th Drive. Chinx was rushed to Jamaica Medical Center in Jamaica, Queens with gunshot wounds. There he was pronounced dead, at age 31.


title: Philatelic International

paragraphs: Philatelic International (Filintern) was an international philatelic society of collector-workers in the 1920s to 1940s.

paragraphs: The creation of the Filintern was set up at a conference in Moscow in 22 to 30 June 1924. Its formation was greeted by all branches of the All-Russian Society of Philatelists and at the same time by the Soviet Esperantists. At the conference opening, Feodor Chuchin, Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily, declared:

paragraphs: A program for the Filintern's central organ was developed that included:

paragraphs: Filintern facilitates the goals of philatelists, scripophilists and Esperantists. Within Filintern, they could:

paragraphs: Using philately, scripophily and Esperanto, the Soviet authorities also hoped for promoting communist propaganda among the foreign proletariat.

paragraphs: The Philatelic International's organ was the journal . Its Editor was a prominent Russian philatelist L. K. Eichfuss. The first issue of the journal appeared in January 1925.


title: Chinchorro mummies

paragraphs: The Chinchorro mummies are mummified remains of people from the South American Chinchorro culture, found in what is now northern Chile and southern Peru. They are the oldest examples of artificially mummified human remains. The oldest are 7,000 years old. The mummies continued to be made until about 1800 B.C.

paragraphs: They were first studied by the Andean archaeologist Max Uhle in 1914. Today, over 280 mummies have been found. About 120 of them are kept at the University of Tarapaca museum. Recently, scientist saw that some of the mummies are melting. This is because the increased humidity due to climate change has let microbes attack the skin.

paragraphs: Shell mounds and bone chemistry suggest that 90% of the diet of these people was seafood.

paragraphs: Uhle categorized the types of mummification he saw into three categories: simple treatment, complex treatment, and mud-coated mummies. Since then, other archaeologists refined his classification and now mostly use the following classification of Chinchorro mummification: natural, black, red, mud-coated and bandage mummies. The two most common techniques used in Chinchorro mummification were the brlack mummies and the red mummies.


title: Roger Mudd

paragraphs: Roger Mudd (born February 9, 1928) is an American broadcast journalist. He worked as the primary anchor for The History Channel.

paragraphs: Mudd was the weekend and weekday substitute anchor for the "CBS Evening News", the co-anchor of the weekday "NBC Nightly News", and the host of the NBC-TV "Meet the Press," and "American Almanac" TV programs.

paragraphs: Mudd is the winner of the Peabody Award, the Joan Shorenstein Award for Distinguished Washington Reporting, and five Emmy Awards.


title: Harry Martin (judge)

paragraphs: Harry Corpening Martin (January 13, 1920 – May 3, 2015) was an American judge. He served as the Associate Justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court, serving from 1982 to 1992. He was born in Lenoir, North Carolina.

paragraphs: Marin died on May 3, 2015 in Asheville, North Carolina, aged 95.


title: Moshe Levinger

paragraphs: Moshe Levinger () (born 1935 in Jerusalem - May 16, 2015 in Hebron) was an Israeli Religious Zionist and an Orthodox Rabbi.

paragraphs: Since 1967, he has been a leading figure in the movement to settle Jews in the territories occupied by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War. He was especially known for leading Jewish settlement in Hebron in 1968 and for being one of the principals of the now defunct settler movement Gush Emunim founded in 1974.


title: Yeung Kwong

paragraphs: Yeung Kwong, GBM (1926 – 16 May 2015) was a Hong Kong Communist trade unionist and activist. He was leader of the Hong Kong 1967 Leftist Riots against the British rule in Hong Kong.

paragraphs: Yeung died at a hospital in Yan Tin, Hong King from heart failure, aged 89.


title: Rosemarie DeWitt

paragraphs: Rosemarie DeWitt (born October 26, 1971) is an American actress. She played Emily Lehman in the Fox television series "Standoff". She played Amy Bowen in the 2015 remake movie "Poltergeist".

paragraphs: She was born in Flushing, Queens, New York. DeWitt married Ron Livingston in 2009. They have two children.


title: Poltergeist (2015 movie)

paragraphs: Poltergeist is a 2015 American horror, fantasy and thriller movie. It is a remake of Steven Spielberg's 1982 movie with the same name. This new version is produced by Sam Raimi. It stars Sam Rockwell, Rosemarie DeWitt, Jared Harris, and Jane Adams.

paragraphs: The movie was released on May 22, 2015 in North America. It will be screened in 3D.

paragraphs: This movie is about a family whose suburban home has an invasion of angry spirits. These frightening ghosts attack the family who live in a quiet wealthy neighborhood. They kidnap the youngest daughter. The family has to make a plan to rescue her.

paragraphs: The first trailer for the new movie was released on February 5, 2015. A "Slate Magazine" writer said that the trailer made the movie look too much like the first one. James Hibberd of "Entertainment Weekly" said that the trailer "retains and amplifies several elements from the original". He also gave praise that "the modernizing doesn’t result in, say, the family’s daughter being kidnapped by ghosts in Snapchat". Brad Miska of Bloody Disgusting said that "while every fiber of my being wants to reject it, [the film] actually looks pretty insane", and praised the trailer's last scene. A "Polygon" writer said that the trailer looked similar to the first movie, but that it "looks great, as a horror movie".

paragraphs: "Poltergeist" has not received good reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the movie got only a 34%, with 77 reviews. The audience rating was 34% who say they liked it. On Metacritic, the movie has a score of 47 out of 100, given by 25 critics. This means it has lower than average reviews. Roger Ebert said "Nothing about 'Poltergeist' feels fresh or new". He gave it one and a half stars. Ebert also said "See it in 2D if you choose to see it at all."


title: Get Hard

paragraphs: Get Hard is an American comedy movie. Alison Brie plays Alissa. Kevin Hart plays Darnell.

paragraphs: On December 7, 2012, it was announced that Warner Bros. was in talks to acquire the "Get Hard" comedy movie script. On September 17, 2013, Etan Cohen was set to direct. On February 24, 2014, Warner Bros. set the release date for 27 March 2015.

paragraphs: The movie was released on 27 March 2015 in the United States.

paragraphs: It got negative reviews by movie critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the movie 29%. Metacritic rates the movie 34 out of 100, meaning "generally unfavorable reviews".

paragraphs: "Get Hard" made over $105 million overall.


title: Woman in Gold

paragraphs: Woman in Gold is a 2015 British drama movie. The movie is based on the true story of Maria Altmann, who now lives in Los Angeles.

paragraphs: Altmann fought the government of Austria for almost ten years to get back Gustav Klimt's iconic painting of her aunt, "Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I". Altmann took her legal battle to the Supreme Court of the United States. It ruled in her favor in "Republic of Austria v. Altmann" (2004).

paragraphs: The movie was screened in the Berlinale Special Galas section of the 65th Berlin International Film Festival.

paragraphs: On May 15, 2014, Tatiana Maslany was cast in a principal role as the younger version of Helen Mirren's character, appearing in the WWII flashbacks. On May 29, Katie Holmes also joined the cast. Elizabeth McGovern, Charles Dance and Max Irons also joined. On July 9, 2014, Frances Fisher joined to play the mother of Ryan Reynolds' character.

paragraphs: This movie was released in April 2015. It got mixed reviews. It grossed over $35 million in the box office. Rotten Tomatoes rates the movie 52%. Metacritic gives the movie a 51% rating That means "mixed or average" reviews. The Roger Ebert website, RogerEbert.com, gave the movie two and a half stars. Rex Reed of "New York Observer" called "Woman in Gold" "an extraordinary love story turned into an exemplary motion picture about one German Jew".


title: The Longest Ride

paragraphs: The Longest Ride is a 2015 romantic-drama movie. It is about Luke Collins, a bull rider who is seriously injured one night while riding. One year later, he meets Sophia. Lolita Davidovich plays Linda Collins. Gloria Reuben plays Adrienne.

paragraphs: In April 2014, Fox 2000 Pictures set a movie adaptation to be released on April 10, 2015.

paragraphs: Principal photography began on June 16, 2014 in Wilmington and Winston-Salem, North Carolina. On July 28, filming began in Jacksonville.

paragraphs: The movie was released on April 10, 2015.

paragraphs: Critics gave negative reviews to the movie. Rotten Tomatoes has given a rating of 29% to "The Longest Ride". RogerEbert.com gave the movie one and a half stars in its reviews. Variety magazine gave mixed reviews for this movie. Metacritic rates the movie 29%, meaning "generally unfavorable" reviews.

paragraphs: It took in more than $51 million. The movie is rated PG-13.


title: Châtellerault

paragraphs: Châtellerault is a "commune" in the Vienne department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region in western France. It is a subprefecture of the Vienne department. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of the same name.

paragraphs: Châtellerault is in the centre of the Vienne department. The Vienne river flows through the city. Several tributaries of the Vienne river join the river in Châtellerault or near it: Clain, Ozon and Envigne.

paragraphs: Châtellerault is at about from Bordeaux, from Paris, from Marseille and from Toulouse.

paragraphs: The "commune" has an area of . Its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

paragraphs: The "commune" of Châtellerault is surrounded by the "communes":

paragraphs: The climate of Châtellerault, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Châtellerault are known, in French, as "Châtelleraudais" (women: "Châtelleraudaises").

paragraphs: With a population of 31,722, Châtellerault has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Châtellerault

paragraphs: Châtellerault forms, with three other "communes", the urban area of Châtellerault with a population of 40,124 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Châtellerault, formed by 32 "communes", with a population of 69,645 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .

paragraphs: Châtellerault is a subprefecture of the Vienne department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Châtellerault and the administrative centre () of three cantons

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Le Pays Châtelleraudais" ().

paragraphs: This is a list of people of interest who were born or resided in Châtellerault :


title: Uptown Funk!

paragraphs: "Uptown Funk!" is a song by British DJ/producer Mark Ronson, featuring American singer Bruno Mars. This song was heavily influenced by Minneapolis sound from the early 1980s. The song was released on November 10, 2014. It reached #1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It was Mars' sixth #1 song on that chart. The song also hit #1 on other charts.

paragraphs: The song samples "Bye Bye" by Chimbala featuring Liro Shaq and Mozart La Para and "I Don't Believe You Want to Get Up and Dance (Oops!)" by The Gap Band. It was written by Mars, Ronson, Jeff Bhasker, Philip Lawrence, Devon Gallaspy, Lonnie Simmons, Rudolph Taylor, and Robert, Ronnie, and Charlie Wilson. Mars, Ronson, and Bhasker produced the song.

paragraphs: The song finished as the #1 song of the 2010s decade on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Romorantin-Lanthenay

paragraphs: Romorantin-Lanthenay is a commune in the Loir-et-Cher department. About 17,000 people live there. Every year during the last weekend in October, a cuisine festival is held; First held in 1978, "Les Journées Gastronomiques de Sologne" now attracts around 13,000 visitors.


title: Parthenay

paragraphs: Parthenay is a "commune", an ancient fortified town, in the Deux-Sèvres department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region in western France. It is a subprefecture of the Deux-Sèvres department. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Parthenay.

paragraphs: Parthenay is considered the capital of the "Gâtine poitevine" (or "Gâtine de Parthenay"), a region with bocages that is found in the central third of the department of Deux-Sèvres. It is at to the southeast of Bressuire, the other subprefecture of the department.

paragraphs: The city is at about from Bordeaux, from Paris, from Marseille and from Toulouse.

paragraphs: The "commune" of Parthenay is surrounded by the "communes":

paragraphs: The Thouet river, a left tributary of the Loire river, flows through the city.

paragraphs: The climate of Parthenay, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Parthenay are known, in French, as " Parthenaisiens" (women: "Parthenaisiennes").

paragraphs: With a population of 10,367, Parthenay has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Parthenay

paragraphs: Parthenay is a subprefecture of the Deux-Sèvres department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Parthenay and the administrative centre () of the canton of Parthenay.

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Parthenay-Gâtine" ().


title: Narbonne

paragraphs: Narbonne () is a French commune, a "subprefecture" in the Aude department. It is in the Occitanie region. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Narbonne.

paragraphs: It was a wealthy port and major city in Roman times but now is at about from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: The "commune" of Narbonne has an area of . The lowest point in the "commune" is 0 m along the Mediterranean coast and the highest point is ; its average altitude is and the city hall is an altitude of .

paragraphs: The "commune" of Narbonne is surrounded by the "communes":

paragraphs: The climate of Narbonne, in the Köppen climate classification, is Csa - Mediterranean climate with hot summers.

paragraphs: The inhabitants of this city are known, in French, as "Narbonnais" (women: "Narbonnaises").

paragraphs: With a population of 52,855, Narbonne has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Narbonne forms the urban area of Narbonne with a population of 52,855 inhabitants (2014) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Narbonne, formed by 24 "communes" with a population of 91,825 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .

paragraphs: Narbonne is a subprefecture of the Aude department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Narbonne and the administrative centre () of three cantons

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Le Grand Narbonne" ().


title: Fréjus

paragraphs: Fréjus is a commune located on the Mediterranean Sea in the Var department. About 53,000 people live there. It is a famous seaside resort.


title: Loop (graph theory)

paragraphs: In graph theory a loop is an edge that connects a vertex to itself.


title: Truncated icosahedron

paragraphs: A truncated icosahedron is an Archimedean solid. A regular icosahedron is made of 20 faces. When a regular icosahedron is truncated, this means that each "corner" (or vertex) is replaced by a pentagon, as there are five edges at each corner.

paragraphs: A truncated icosahedron is made of 12 regular pentagons and 20 hexagons. It has 60 vertices, and 90 edges.

paragraphs: The molecule Fullerene is made of 60 carbon atoms and looks like a truncated icosahedron.

paragraphs: Most soccer balls are truncated icosahedra.


title: Truncated octahedron

paragraphs: A truncated octahedron is an Archimedean solid. It has 14 faces: 8 are hexagons, 6 are squares. It is obtained by cutting the edges of an octahedron. Each corner of the octahedron has four connections. Cutting the corner will therefore replace it with a square.


title: Soviet Philatelist

paragraphs: Soviet Philatelist or Sovetskii Filatelist was a Soviet central philatelic magazine published in 1922–1932. In 1925 and in 1928–1932, its name was changed to Soviet Collector or Sovetskii Kollektsioner.

paragraphs: By 1922, shortly after the Civil War, a number of magazines and pamphlets for collectors appeared in Soviet Russia:

paragraphs: However, centralisation of collectors' organisations and periodicals was wanted:

paragraphs: By 1924, these local magazines eventually closed down. In September 1922, the new magazine, "Soviet Philatelist", first saw print in Moscow. Its founder and editor was F. G. Chuchin, Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily.

paragraphs: In 1925, the magazine name was changed to "Sovetskii Kollektsioner". The magazine was published biweekly. It was edited by V. A. Bessonov at that time.

paragraphs: In 1926 three magazines, "Sovetskii Filatelist", "Sovetskii Kollektsioner" and "Radio de Filintern", were combined. They began to be published under one cover. Their individual lineal numeration was preserved. The last combined issue came out in December 1927.

paragraphs: In the first half of 1928, the cover of the combined issues was only under one title, "Sovetskii Filatelist". In July 1928, the magazine was renamed to "Sovetskii Kollektsioner". It was published by the Soviet Philatelic Association and the All-Russian Society of Philatelists. The last issue appeared in December 1932.


title: Academic journal

paragraphs: An academic or scholarly journal contains articles written by experts in a particular subject. Academic journals are often forums for discussing new research, and the critique of existing research. They usually contain articles presenting original research, review articles, and book reviews. The purpose of an academic journal is to give researchers a place to exchange knowledge. Academic journals can be traced back to the 17th century.

paragraphs: The term "academic journal" applies to scholarly publications in all fields. Scientific journals and journals of the social sciences vary in form and function from journals of the humanities. A particular type of academic journal is the peer reviewed journal. Articles are sent out anonymously to other experts in the same field. In this way they won't know the author's name and can remain impartial. Experts review the article before it is published.


title: Paul Eisler

paragraphs: Paul Eisler (1907 - 26 October 1992) was an Austrian inventor. He invented the modern circuit board. He also invented fish fingers (also called "fish sticks").

paragraphs: Eisler was born in Vienna, Austria. He was a student at Vienna University of Technology. German nationalists would not let Eisler get a job in Vienna, because he was Jewish. He got a job with an English company (Gramaphone Company, EMI from March 1931). He removed interference from music broadcast on trains. He moved to England but was sent to an internment camp during WWII. Eventually, his circuit boards for the Americans helped defeat German V-1 flying bombs.

paragraphs: He invented the modern circuit board. He created a pizza warmer, and the rear window defroster. He also invented fish fingers.


title: Ziegfeld Follies

paragraphs: The Ziegfeld Follies were a series of elaborate theatrical productions on Broadway in New York City from 1907 through 1931, with renewals in 1934 and 1936. The Ziegfeld Follies were inspired by the Folies Bergère of Paris. They were conceived and mounted by Florenz Ziegfeld. The show producers were Klaw & Erlanger, the top turn-of-the-twentieth-century showmen.

paragraphs: The Follies were lavish variety shows, something like music hall or high class Vaudeville. Many of the top entertainers of the era appeared in the shows. The list includes W. C. Fields, Eddie Cantor, Josephine Baker, Fanny Brice, Ann Pennington, Bert Williams, Eva Tanguay, Bob Hope, Will Rogers, Ruth Etting, Ray Bolger, Helen Morgan, Louise Brooks, Marilyn Miller, Ed Wynn, Gilda Gray, Nora Bayes, Sophie Tucker. The Ziegfeld Follies also were famous for many, beautiful chorus girls commonly known as Ziegfeld girls, usually wearing elaborate costumes by designers such as Erté, Lady Duff Gordon or Ben Ali Haggin. The first "Follies" was produced in 1907 at the roof theatre "Jardin de Paris".

paragraphs: The Ziegfeld girls "paraded up and down flights of stairs as anything from birds to battleships." The "Tableau vivants" were designed by Ben Ali Haggin from 1917 to 1925. Joseph Urban was the scenic designer for the "Follies" shows starting in 1915.

paragraphs: After Ziegfeld's death, his widow Billie Burke, authorized use of his name for Ziegfeld Follies in 1934 and 1936 to Jake Shubert, who then produced the "Follies". When later it toured, the 1934 edition was recorded in its entirety, from the Overture to Play-out music. First issued as a series of 78 rpm discs, the recording was later released as a compact disc (1997).

paragraphs: They became a radio program in 1932 and 1936 as "The Ziegfeld Follies of the Air". The 1936 Academy Award Best Picture winner was M-G-M's "The Great Ziegfeld", starring William Powell as the master showman and co-starring Myrna Loy (as Ziegfeld's second wife Billie Burke),


Casualty


title: Mississippian culture

paragraphs: Mississippian culture is the culture of the Mississippian people. They were Native Americans who lived in the Mississippi River Valley. Around 900–1450 AD, the Mississippian culture developed and spread through the Eastern Woodlands. Mississippian people were most often farmers who settled into river valleys and grew the "three sisters" of corn, beans and squash.

paragraphs: The Mississippian peoples lived throughout the Southeast and Midwest, an area from the Florida panhandle westward into Oklahoma, northward to Minnesota and eastward to Ohio.


title: Pan-Arabism

paragraphs: Pan Arabism is a political movement and belief system that promotes the idea that all Arabs should unite to form one country or state. The idea of Pan Arabism was first created during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Pan Arabism’s popularity grew throughout the early 1900s, and in the 1950s Middle Eastern leaders, including Egypt’s President Gamal Abdel Nasser, became major supporters of the Pan-Arab movement.  Pan Arabists generally believe that all countries with Arab populations should come together or unify and that Western powers, like the United States or Great Britain, should not have any political power or influence in North Africa or the Arabian Peninsula.

paragraphs: During the late 1800s, the Ottoman Empire controlled most of the Middle East. The Middle East, at the time, was very diverse. Many different ethnic and cultural groups of people lived in the region. By 1900, the Ottoman Empire was in decline and many of the different groups of people living in the Empire wanted to form independent governments managed by people living within their own communities.

paragraphs: One group that began to form their own ideas about a self-governed or self determined community were Arabs. Many educated Arab students and professors working at universities, like Al-Azhar University, began to publish magazines and form clubs promoting the idea of a unified Arab community or nation. These ideas became very popular across Arab regions of the former Ottoman Empire. By 1913, Arab organizations from all around the Middle East met to form the first Arab Congress in Paris, France. At the Congress, Arabs from around the Ottoman Empire discussed the possibility of freeing themselves from the Ottoman Empire and establishing Arab-governed countries.

paragraphs: The Ottoman Empire responded to the Arab Congress by punishing Arab nationalists. In some territories of the Ottoman Empire, Arab nationalists were put in jail and even killed for their activities.

paragraphs: During World War One, many Arab groups support the Allied powers’ military campaign against the Ottoman Empire. At the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and the Allied Powers met together to decide what would happen to the territory formerly under Ottoman control. Despite supporting the Allies during the war, many Arab countries were not granted their freedom by the Allies. Still eager to gain Independence, Arabs living in occupied countries began to form ideas about what a free Arab state would look like. These ideas would eventually become the backbone of Pan Arabism.

paragraphs: After World War One, many Arab-speaking scholars and students in the former Ottoman Empire began to write about the history of the Arab people. One of these writers, Darwish-Al Maqdidi, wrote a school textbook that outlined the beliefs of the early Pan-Arab movement . The textbook was used in many schools all across the Arab Middle East, and it suggested that the Arab homeland was not restricted to the Arabian peninsula, but extended to wherever Arabs lived . Moreover, Miqdadi, as well as other Arab scholars, believed that a free and unified Arab nation could only exist if western influence was removed from the Arab Middle East. Generally, the core of Miqdadi’s beliefs, and others like his, became the philosophy of Pan Arabism .

paragraphs: Pan Arabism’s popularity began to grow after many Arab countries gained independence in the 1940s and 1950s. Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser (1956-1970) was a big supporter of Pan Arab nationalism. Nasser believed that the Arab world in both Northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula should be unified, since many of these countries shared a common culture, religion, and language, During his presidency, Nasser helped establish the United Arab Republic with Syria. The republic lasted three years. Its collapse was largely due to Nasser’s efforts to rapidly change the Syrian and Egyptian economies; also, many Syrians disliked that Nasser wanted to centralize government power and operations in Egypt.

paragraphs: After the fall of the UAR, Nasser attempted to rally other Arab countries to the Pan-Arabist cause. During the Six Days War in 1967, Nasser led an Arab coalition (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq) to battle Israel. Israel won the war, and the Arab coalition and Nasser’s efforts to create a unified Arab Middle East suffered a major setback.

paragraphs: After the Six Day's War, Egypt's role, as the leader of the Pan-Arab movement, was severely weakened. Other Arab nationalist organizations started to branch out on their own, independent of Egypt and other Arab countries. The Palestinians, in particular, began to form their own organization that was centered on Palestinian nationalism, and not a Pan-Arab one. Furthermore, Gamal Nasser's sudden death in 1970, left the Pan-Arab movement without a clear leader.

paragraphs: Since the late 1970s, many professors and Middle East experts have claimed that Pan Arabism no longer exists Fouad Ajami suggests that Pan Arabism collapsed because Gamel Nasser, the clear leader of the movement, lost momentum after the Arab defeat in the Six Day War. Moreover, other Arab groups, most notably the Palestinians, lost faith in the Pan-Arab movement and tried to branch out on their own . More recently, though, after the events of the Arab Spring of 2011, many scholars and journalists argue that Pan Arabism is coming back in different ways. Susan De Muth suggests that the Pan Arabism of the Arab Spring is different than it was thirty years ago. She suggests that the Pan Arabism of Gamel Nasser’s era was tied to the idea of keeping the Arab World free of foreign and western influence, while today’s Pan Arabism is mostly led by young people who are dedicated to reforming or making governments in Arab countries less oppressive or controlling . This new form of Pan Arabism has been strengthened by technology, like social media. According to De Muth, protesters from different countries have been able to strengthen their cause and even coordinate protests with movements in other Arab countries using social media . Other scholars are not as optimistic as De Muth; Marc Lynch suggests that the protests of the Arab Spring were long overdue, and that the political movements in the Arab Middle East have been slowly building strength for the last thirty years .


title: National School Lunch Program

paragraphs: The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is a government-funded program that helps provide free and reduced-price lunches to students in American schools.

paragraphs: The National School Lunch Program was created to fight hunger and bad nutrition that existed during World War I. One-third of the young men called to be soldiers in World War I were turned down from service. This was due to poor nutrition-related problems such as being underweight. After the war, teachers, parents, doctors, and scientists began to fight poor nutrition in children . ‘Hot Lunch Clubs’ opened up all over the country to give healthy meals to schoolchildren. This program started as a volunteer-run school lunch program in the 1920s. However, in the 1930s, this program received public support and some state funding .

paragraphs: During the Great Depression, many farmers were paid record low prices for their food. This was because there was more farm-grown food than people needed. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) tried to solve the problem by giving the extra food to schools. The USDA was allowed to use government money to buy extra food and give it to the schools. In order to receive the food donations, school lunch programs had to run on a non-profit basis. This meant that the meals needed to be served to poor students at free or reduced rates . School cafeterias began to pop up around the country. Both the schools and the USDA began to depend on the relationship.

paragraphs: As World War II began, the government wanted to focus on good health so that the soldiers would be ready for war . Government officials asked health professionals to create standards (rules) for the amount of vitamins, calories and other things needed to stay healthy. These became known as the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDAs). School lunch programs had to use the standards when planning their menus. In 1946, President Truman signed the law that would provide long-term funding to the National School Lunch Program. The USDA continued to manage the school lunch program.

paragraphs: Today the National School Lunch Program serves more than 31 billion meals a day. In 2012 this equaled more than $11 billion dollars spent on the program . Additionally, more than 100,000 schools participated in the program nationwide in 2012. Although the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is federally funded, it is managed at the state level.  In order to receive money, schools in the program must serve meals that meet the federal nutrition standards. The amount of money the school gets depends on the number of meals served.

paragraphs: Students can buy lunch at three cost levels—free, reduced-price, or paid lunch. The amount the student pays for lunch depends on the family income. The amount of money that the school receives depends on how closely they follow the federal nutrition standards.

paragraphs: Meal planning is done by each school district, which are also called “School Food Authorities” (SFAs). The SFAs decide what food to buy, and how to create a menu that meets the NSLP nutrition standards.

paragraphs: In 2010 Congress passed the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act, which was the first update to the nutrition standards in schools since 1995.  It helped create new nutritional rules for the National School Lunch Program. These changes were to start in schools beginning in the 2012-2013 school year. Meal planning is left up to each school—but in order to receive federal money participating schools must follow the nutritional standards.  The new standards in the HHFKA created the most strict standards for child nutrition programs in over 30 years.


title: First derivative test

paragraphs: In calculus, the first derivative test is used to determine local of a function. Furthermore, the first derivative test can be used to determine of increase and intervals of decrease.

paragraphs: Critical points are values in the of a function where its is 0 or (formula_1 or formula_2 doesn't exist).

paragraphs: To find the critical points of a function, compute the first derivative of the function and set it equal to zero. Solve for the of this . Similarly, if you have a (formula_3, where formula_4) find what values will cause the to be equal to 0 because this will make the function undefined, and therefore not at this point. These are all of your critical numbers.

paragraphs: Plug these numbers into your original function to find the exact of these critical points.

paragraphs: So the two critical points are formula_13 and formula_14.

paragraphs: To determine whether these points are local maximas, minimas, or neither, we need to consider the intervals between each of the points. Plug in a value from each interval into the first derivative of the function. If the value is positive, then that is an interval of increase. If the value is negative, then that is an interval of decrease. Finally, if two neighboring intervals change sign then that point is either a local maxima or minima. If the first interval is positive and the second interval negative, then the critical point is a local maxima. If the first interval is negative and the second interval positive, then the critical point is a local minima. If both intervals are positive or both intervals are negative, then the critical point is neither a local maxima or minima.

paragraphs: The first derivative test is used in calculus optimization problems.


title: Frankenstein's monster

paragraphs: Frankenstein’s monster is a fictional character from Mary Shelley’s 1818 novel "Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus". He is created by another character in the novel called Victor Frankenstein. The creature has no name in popular culture, but is sometimes called "creature", "monster", "fiend", "wretch", "vile insect", "daemon", "being", and "it".

paragraphs: In the novel, Victor creates the human-like monster in the upstairs room of his apartment at the University of Ingolstadt. He creates it by putting together body parts from graveyards and butcher shops. He uses a method that is not clearly explained involving chemistry and galvanism to make the creature come alive. Victor leaves the creature in horror the minute it is awake. It leaves his apartment in the middle of the night.

paragraphs: In the novel, the monster looks as though:

paragraphs: He is 8 feet tall because Victor believed that it would be easier to make a human body if all the body parts were bigger. In popular media and culture, he is shown with green skin. In the novel, his skin is actually more of a yellow hue. The green portrayal of the creature with electricity bolts in his neck came from Boris Karloff’s movie portrayal of the monster.

paragraphs: In the beginning, Frankenstein’s monster is like a baby. He is unable to talk. He discovers the world through sensing and observing. The monster develops understanding of simple things such as temperatures of hot and cold, sounds of birds chirping, and the differences between the sun and the moon. He eats roots, nuts, and berries when he is hungry. He finds a coat and some books while out in the wilderness.

paragraphs: He is described as sensitive, emotional, intelligent, prone to anger and violence, and very good at speaking. He learns how to speak from a family that he observes. He teaches himself how to read the books that he found. He has a severe sense of rejection from Victor and from every human he encounters. He has bad experiences with people. That makes him feel as though he is hated and unwanted. He resents humans and even feels hateful towards them because of how he has been treated. As a response, he kills several people, including Victor's younger brother William, Victor's best friend Henry Clerval, and later Victor's wife Elizabeth Lavenza.

paragraphs: Many movie adaptations have him mute and like a child instead of being intelligent.

paragraphs: The creature has a complex relationship with Victor. He was rejected by Victor in the beginning, but he still wants to have a “father-like” figure. Victor is the only real human connection that the monster has. He demands that Victor take responsibility for his happiness.

paragraphs: In the novel, the creature refers to himself as “Adam”. This makes Victor a sort of God-like figure.

paragraphs: After the monster learns how to read and speak, he goes on a journey to find Victor. He meets him in the mountains and tells him his story. After telling Victor about his difficult journey, he asks Victor to make a female monster for him so that he does not have to be alone anymore.


title: Tabassum Adnan

paragraphs: Tabassum Adnan (Urdu: تبسم عدنان) (born 1977) is a women's rights activist from Pakistan. In 2015, she won the U.S. State Department's International Women of Courage Award because of her work for justice for Pakistani women.

paragraphs: Tabassum Adnan was born in 1977. She grew up in the Swat Valley of Pakistan.

paragraphs: Tabassum was married when she was 13 years old. She had four children. She was a victim of domestic violence. After she was married for 20 years, she divorced her husband.

paragraphs: Tabassum did not have a home or money, so she went to a local group for women. The group gave her the idea to work for more participation for women. First, she went to the Swat Qaumi Aman Jirga, a group with only men, but they refused her. A jirga is an informal court that enforces "qisas" (retribution laws). It is not a formal court, but many times the formal courts will listen to their decisions.

paragraphs: In May 2013, Adnan started her own jirga. It was the first women's jirga in Pakistan.

paragraphs: In Pakistan, women are used as chattel, or property, to settle disagreements between men. They are traded in marriage to pay debts and claims of honor, and to pay for crimes. Because women have little power, Adnan knew that her group needed to get the police and the courts to act. Her jirga has 25 women. It works to pressure the police and the traditional court system, and it gives legal help to the victims. The "Khwendo Jirga", or Sister’s Council also works for free education for girls, good health for women and girls, training in both home skills and work skills, loans for small business, and voting. The jirga also works for laws to stop violence against women, especially honor killings, dowry harassments, acid attacks, and torture.

paragraphs: At first, the men's jirgas did not like the "Khwendo Jirga". Women's rights activists did not like it either. Then, in 2014, that changed. A child was raped, and the authorities did nothing. "Khwendo Jirga" had a protest walk, to attract the attention of the public. The police made arrests. Then, for the first time in Pashtun history, a woman, Adnan, was asked to sit on the men's jirga and help decide the case. After the first protest, the women had more success. In July, 2014, Adnan and Khwendo Jirga worked to pass a law against child marriage. Although some religious groups were not happy, the Sindh Assembly passed a law against marriages for anyone under the age of eighteen. In December, 2014 the Punjab Assembly voted to change the present law.


title: Margaret Dunning

paragraphs: Margaret Isabel Dunning (June 26, 1910 – May 17, 2015) was an American philanthropist. She was the benefactor of the Plymouth (Michigan) Historical Museum. She was born in Redford, Michigan.

paragraphs: Dunning died at the age of 104 from complications from a fall while on a trip in Santa Barbara, California.


title: Jerome Cooper

paragraphs: Jerome Cooper (December 14, 1946 – May 6, 2015) was an American free jazz musician. He was known as a multi-dimensional drummer. Cooper played balafon, chirimia and electronic tonal activator in addition to trap drums. He was born in Chicago, Illinois.

paragraphs: Cooper died in Brooklyn, New York City from multiple myeloma, aged 68.


title: Dean Potter

paragraphs: Dean S. Potter (April 14, 1972 – May 16, 2015) was an American free climber, alpinist, BASE jumper, BASEliner, and highliner. He was known for hard first ascents, free solo ascents, speed ascents, and enchainments in Yosemite National Park and Patagonia.

paragraphs: On May 16, 2015, Potter and Graham Hunt were killed while attempting a wingsuit flight from Taft Point above Yosemite Valley. While attempting to maneuver through the cliffs, each in turn collided with the rocks. Their bodies were discovered by a helicopter searching for the two men. Neither had deployed their parachute.


title: Flora MacNeil

paragraphs: Flora MacNeil, MBE (1928 – 16 May 2015) was a Scottish Gaelic singer. MacNeil was born in 1928 on the island of Barra. She was known for signing "Mo Run Geal Og" (“My Fair Young Love”), one of the greatest of the "Orain Mor", or “Big Songs”. She was known as the "Queen of Gaelic singers".

paragraphs: MacNeil died after a short-illness, aged 86.


title: The Thrill Is Gone

paragraphs: "The Thrill Is Gone" is a 1969 slow minor-key blues song written by West coast blues musician Roy Hawkins and Rick Darnell in 1951. Hawkins' recording of the song reached number six in the Billboard R&B chart in 1951. In 1970, "The Thrill Is Gone" became a major hit for B.B. King. Afterwards, many blues and other artists have recorded their versions of the song.


title: Wind of Change

paragraphs: "Wind of Change" is a 1990 rock ballad by the Scorpions. The song is about the ending of the Cold War and hope when tense conditions came up.

paragraphs: The song was released in January 1991. It became a worldwide hit single during 1991. The song has sold millions of copies worldwide since then. It hit #4 on the American "Billboard" Hot 100. notable soundtrack includes is featured in the films "The Powerpuff Girls Movie" unused trailer, "In Search of a Midnight Kiss" (2007), "Gentlemen Broncos" (2009), "The Interview" (2014), and "Love Island (2014)" "The Spy Who Dumped Me" (2018), and the video game "SingStar Rocks!" (2006). The song is also featured in television shows "Melrose Place", "Chuck", and "Car Share" and "Nutri Ventures" as a international parody version.

paragraphs: There is also a Russian language version of the song.


title: Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology

paragraphs: The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology in London is part of University College London Museums & Collections. With over 80,000 objects, it is one of the world's best collections of objects from Egypt and the Sudan.

paragraphs: The museum started in 1892 to help with the teaching of Egyptian Archaeology and Philology. The collection began with objects given to the museum by the writer Amelia Edwards. William Flinders Petrie led many important archaeological digs. In 1913 he sold his collection to University College. He had found objects at major sites, such as the Roman Period cemeteries at Hawara. These were famous for the beautiful mummy portraits in classical Roman style. He found objects at Amarna, the city of king Akhenaten, the first king to believe in one God. At Meydum, the site of the first true pyramid Petrie found some of the earliest examples of mummification.

paragraphs: The collection and library were in rooms at the university. A book about the collection was printed in 1915. At first the museum was only for people studying and not open to the public. After Petrie retired in 1933, other archaeologists added objects to the collection. These had been found in other parts of Egypt and the Sudan. During the Second World War (1939–1945) the collection was packed up and moved out of London for to keep it safe. In the early 1950s it was moved into an old stable, beside the science library.

paragraphs: The museum has one of the oldest pieces of linen from Egypt, made about 5000 BC. There are two lions from the temple of Min at Koptos. These were part of the first group of monumental sculpture from about 3000 BC. There is a small piece from the first king list or calendar written about 2900 BC. The museum has some iron beads, the earliest example of metal from Egypt. There is the earliest example of glazing. The collection includes the earliest 'cylinder seal' in Egypt made about 3500 BC. It also has a collection of writings on papyrus, which are the oldest wills, the oldest medical writing, the only veterinary writing from ancient Egypt; and the largest architectural drawing, showing a shrine (about 1300 BC).

paragraphs: The collection also includes a number of costumes. It has the 'oldest dress', there is a beadnet dress of a dancer from the Pyramid Age (about 2400 BC) and two long sleeved robes of the same date. There is a suit of armour from the palace of Memphis, as well as socks and sandals from the Roman period. The collection contains works of art from Akhenaten’s city at Amarna. There are: colourful tiles, carvings and frescoes, from Egyptian and Nubian settlements and burial sites. The museum has the world’s largest collection of Roman period mummy portraits. These were made in the first to second centuries AD. The collection also includes objects from the Coptic and Islamic periods.

paragraphs: The museum has three rooms. The main room has many of the museum's small objects, as well as tablets of writing, mummy portraits and cases. The first room has mainly pottery. Some parts of the collection are not lit to protect the objects from light and visitors use torches to see inside the cases.

paragraphs: The collection has been digitised and the catalogue can be viewed online.


title: Automeris io

paragraphs: Automeris io is the North American Io moth. It has anti-predator defences common in the Lepidoptera. The adults have a two-stage defence system: first they are cryptic with their wings closed. If predators get too near, they flash their vivid eye markings. This startles the predator, and the moth has time to fly off and hide. The adults are nocturnal, they only fly at night, and during the day they sit on tree trunks or branches.

paragraphs: Very widespread, the moth ranges from southern Canada to Mexico and Costa Rica. In between, it is found widely in the USA.

paragraphs: They do not eat, and live only about a week: all they do is reproduce. This is typical of Saturniid moths. They have sexual dimorphism as can be seen from the illustrations, and fly at night. The females come out of the cocoon with ready-made eggs, and the males pick up the female pheromones with their extra-big antennae.

paragraphs: The caterpillars live together (are gregarious), and travel in single file all over the food plant. They start off orange in colour, and eventually turn bright green. As they grow in size they become covered with stinging spines. The spines deliver a very painful venom which is released at the slightest touch.


title: Charlotte Motor Speedway

paragraphs: Charlotte Motor Speedway is a motorsports complex in Concord, North Carolina, United States. It is from Charlotte, North Carolina. The complex features a quad oval track that hosts NASCAR racing. It is best known for the Coca-Cola 600 on Memorial Day weekend. The All-Star Race, as well as the Bank of America Roval 400 also run here. The speedway was built in 1959 by Bruton Smith. It is considered the home track for NASCAR with many race teams located in the Charlotte area. The track is owned and operated by Speedway Motorsports Inc. (SMI) with Marcus G. Smith (son of Bruton Smith) as track president.

paragraphs: The complex also features a state-of-the-art quarter mile (0.40 km) drag racing strip, ZMAX Dragway. It is the only all-concrete, four-lane drag strip in the United States. It hosts NHRA events. Alongside the drag strip is a modern clay oval that hosts dirt racing including the World of Outlaws finals.


title: Socks (cat)

paragraphs: Socks Clinton (1989 – February 20, 2009) was the pet cat of U.S. President Bill Clinton and his family while he was in the White House.

paragraphs: Socks was an adopted stray cat and the only pet of the Clintons during the first years of Clinton's presidency. A picture of Socks was always on the children's White House website. After Clinton left office, Socks went to live with Clinton's secretary, Betty Currie and her husband. This was because Socks fought a lot with the Clinton family dog Buddy. Socks never got along with the dog.

paragraphs: Socks became the pet cat of the Clintons in 1991 after he jumped into Chelsea Clinton's arms at her piano teacher's home in Little Rock, Arkansas. Socks was playing with his sibling, Midnight, who was later adopted by another family.

paragraphs: When Bill Clinton became President, Socks moved with the family from the governor's mansion in Arkansas to the White House. Even though he was the official 'first pet', he shared his food and water with a stray tabby cat, named Slippers. Socks was often taken to schools and hospitals to visit. Children visiting the White House website would be shown around by a cartoon version of Socks.

paragraphs: In December 2002, Socks was part of the Little Rock, Arkansas Christmas parade.

paragraphs: Things changed for the worse for Socks in 1997. The Clintons got a pet dog named Buddy, a Labrador Retriever. Socks hated this dog. Hillary Clinton said Socks "despised Buddy from first sight, instantly and forever." Bill Clinton said, "I did better with ... the Palestinians and the Israelis than I've done with Socks and Buddy." When the Clintons left the White House in 2001, they took Buddy to their new home, but left Socks with Betty Currie. Buddy died within a year, being hit by a car in 2002.

paragraphs: In June 2008, Socks was still living with Currie and her husband in Hollywood, Maryland, about 60 miles from Washington. But Socks was losing weight and losing his fur. In December 2008, Socks was again reported to be in failing health from cancer. Socks was euthanized on February 20, 2009, in Hollywood, Maryland. He had cancer in his jaw.

paragraphs: First Lady Hillary Clinton wrote a children's book called "Dear Socks, Dear Buddy: Kids' Letters to the First Pets" in 1998. It included more than 50 letters written to the First Pets by children. It had more than 80 photos of Socks and Buddy.

paragraphs: A Republican Representative in the United States Congress, Dan Burton once argued against the use of White House employees, postage, and stationery being used to answer mail that was written to the cat.


title: Egyptian chronology

paragraphs: Egyptian chronology is the study of events in ancient Egypt, and trying to date to when they took place. There is a general agreement about this chronology among Egyptologists. The Old Kingdom began in the 27th century BC, the Middle Kingdom in the 21st century BC and the New Kingdom in the mid-16th century BC.

paragraphs: But there are details which are still being argued about. The dates for the Early Dynastic Period can vary by up to 300 years, up to 30 years in the New Kingdom, and a few years for the Late Period.

paragraphs: Some individual Egyptologists have come up with "alternative chronologies". For example the "New Chronology" proposed in the 1990s, changes the New Kingdom dates by 350 years, or the "Glasgow Chronology" (proposed 1978–1982), which changes the New Kingdom dates by 500 years.

paragraphs: Agreement about the general chronology used in Egyptology has not changed much over the last 100 years. For the Old Kingdom, there have been changes by as much as a few centuries. The Middle and New Kingdoms dates have only changed by a few decades. These changes can be seen by comparing the chronology of two Egyptologists, the first from 1906, the second in 2000 (all dates in the table are BC).

paragraphs: There are differences between the two sets of dates. This is because of new discoveries, and a better understanding of what is already known. For example, in Breasted's 1906 list, he added a ruler in the Twentieth dynasty that further research showed did not exist. Using Manetho writings, Breasted also believed each new dynasty followed the old one in a sequence. Now we know that several dynasties existed at the same time. These changes have changed the chronology by 400 years at the beginning of Dynasty I.

paragraphs: The main way to work out the chronology is to use the ancient Egyptian lists of kings. The number of years each king ruled, regnal years, can be added up. However there are problems with these lists. Some, such as the "Turin King List", are quite detailed but they are not complete. The whole of "Abydos King List" has survived, but it does not have a complete list of rulers. Sometimes different versions of the same text are different. For example, Manetho's history of Egypt has not survived. Later writers such as Eusebius and Sextus Julius Africanus used Manetho's work for their histories, but their dates for the same ruler are often very different.

paragraphs: The dates for king's rule can be pieced together from inscriptions. These often give a date in the form of the regnal year of the ruling pharaoh. They may or may not include any coregencies with a predecessor or successor. Some Egyptian dynasties may have overlapped, with different pharaohs ruling in different regions at the same time. This may lead to widely different chronologies.

paragraphs: Egyptologists have two other ways to find the total number of years. For the Old Kingdom, they can use the number of cattle censuses. For later periods, they can use the celebration of a sed festival. In the Old Kingdom, there was a regular census where the number of cattle was counted. At first this was believed to have taken place every two years. There were 24 cattle censuses during the rule of Sneferu, who therefore ruled for 48 years. However new research has shown the census was sometimes held every year, or at gaps of more than two years. The sed festival was held on the 30th anniversary of the Pharaoh's rule. A ruler with one sed festival recorded would have ruled at least 30 years. However, this may not be the usual practice in all cases.

paragraphs: A useful way to work around these gaps in knowledge is to find links to other known events. This can lead to a precise date. A number of these have been found, although they are of varying degrees of usefulness and reliability.

paragraphs: This is using archeaology to put events in order, or a sequence. This does not fix a person or event to a exact year. A series of events can provide evidence to provide or support a precise date. For example, a number of stone vessels of the rulers of the first two dynasties were placed in rooms under the Step Pyramid of Djoser. These were sealed off by during the building of the pyramid during the Third Dynasty. Another example are stone blocks from the Old Kingdom with the names of several kings. These stones were later used to build the Middle Kingdom pyramid-temples at Lisht. The third pylon at Karnak, built by Amenhotep III had "fill" material from the kiosk of Sesostris I, as well as stelae of the Second Intermediate Period and the Eighteenth Dynasty of the New Kingdom.

paragraphs: The chronologies of other cultures can be used to find links to Egypt. The most important are the Assyrian and Babylonian chronologies. Chronologies of the Hittites, ancient Palestine, and ancient Greece are also used. For example in the 18th century BC a stela of the Governor of Byblos Yantinu says that pharaoh Neferhotep I was ruled at the same time as kings Zimri-Lim of Mari and Hammurabi of Babylon. In the 15th century BC, during the Amarna Period, there are letters between the Egyptian Kings Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, and various Near Eastern monarchs.

paragraphs: Inscriptions on objects often provides clues. The burial of Apis bulls began in the reign of Amenhotep III. The bulls were killed in a sacrifice and placed in tombs. The details of each bull were included, as well as details of the rulers. It is possible to estimate dates of regnal years using this information. The bulls were still being buried in Ptolemaic times. There is a significant gap in the record between Ramesses XI and the 23rd year of Osorkon II. Poor documentation of these finds in the Serapeum also makes it difficult to use these records.

paragraphs: Astronomy can also provide clues for dates. The best known of these is the Sothic cycle. A study of this led Richard A. Parker to argue that the dates of the Twelfth dynasty could be fixed exactly. New research does not agree with some of the information used in to work out dates this way For example, Donald B. Redford, in attempting to fix the date of the end of the Eighteenth dynasty, did not use the Sothic evidence. Instead he used, links between Egypt and Assyria (by way of the Hittites), and help from astronomical observations.

paragraphs: Radiocarbon dating is another way to work out dates. This is useful for the Early Dynastic period where other methods have dates as different as 400 years. A 2013 study put the start of the First Dynasty in the 32nd or 31st century. This matches other information which placed it in between the 34th and 30th centuries.

paragraphs: The Thera eruption is a problem for both Egyptian and Aegean (Minoan) chronology. The radiocarbon date for the eruption is between 1627 and 1600 BC. The date used in archaeology is c. 1500 BC. This date is important in the study of the civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean. Since 2012, there have been suggestions that the answer would be to change both dates towards a "compromise" date in the mid 16th century BC. As of 2014 the problem has not been satisfactorily resolved.

paragraphs: Dendrochronology uses patterns found in tree growth rings to work out a date. It is possible to do this for Egyptian chronology. For example there is the Uluburun shipwreck from the New Kingdom. Using both dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating, tree rings can be dated as far back as the Middle Kingdom. This was used for the coffin of Ipi-ha-ishutef (dated 2073±9 BC) and the funerary boat of Senusret III (dated 1887±11 BC; conventional reign date 1878 BC–1839 BC).

paragraphs: A number different chronologies have been presented during the 20th century:


title: Earthrise

paragraphs: "Earthrise" is a photo of the Earth from the Moon taken on the Apollo 8 mission. It was taken by astronaut William Anders on December 24, 1968. It was a very important picture, because it helped people realize how fragile the Earth looks. It started making a large amount of people want to pass laws and create government programs that help the environment. It also became the symbol for Earth Day because of how powerful it was, and it started the environmental movement of the 1970's. Earthrise's most notable use is as the symbol of Earth Day.


title: Daewoo Motors

paragraphs: Daewoo Motor was a South Korean automotive company owned by General Motors. The company started in 1937 as National motors in Bupyeong-gu, Incheon, South Korea. In 1965 it became Shinjin Motor after becoming affiliated with Toyota. In 1972 Toyota withdrew. The same year Shinjin became General Motors Korea, a joint venture with General Motors. The company was renamed Saehan Motors in 1976. In 1982 the company was bought by the Daewoo group. Daewoo was known for its affordable cars many of which were made in partnership with GM until the mid '90s. The Daewoo Group ran into financial trouble in the late 1990s. It was then put up for sale and acquired by General Motors in 2001. It was renamed GM Daewoo, and began to produce GM vehicles again. This included the Chevrolet Aveo which is based on Daewoo's Kalos model. In 2011 GM Daewoo was renamed GM Korea.


title: Robert S. Wistrich

paragraphs: Robert Solomon Wistrich (April 7, 1945 – May 19, 2015) was a British-Israeli academic and author. He was a leading scholar of antisemitism in Europe. He was also the Neuburger Professor of European and Jewish history at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He wrote and edited at least 30 books.

paragraphs: Wistrich was born in Lenger, Kazakh SSR (now Kazakhstan). His parents were leftist Polish Jews who moved to escape antisemitism. He later moved to France with his family, and grew up in England.

paragraphs: Wistrich died from a heart attack on May 19, 2015 in Rome, Italy. He was 70.


title: John Templeton Jr.

paragraphs: John Marks "Jack" Templeton Jr. (February 19, 1940 – May 16, 2015) was an American medical doctor. He served as the Chairman and President of the John Templeton Foundation until his death, and also worked as a pediatric surgeon. He was a Republican.

paragraphs: Templeton was born in New York City. He was the elder son of Judith (Folk) and the American-born British stock investor, businessman and philanthropist John Templeton. He studied at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut and at Harvard Medical School. He was married to Josephine and had three daughters.

paragraphs: Templeton was an Evangelical. He gave large sums of money to conservative organizations, like those opposing same-sex marriage.

paragraphs: Templeton died from brain cancer on May 16, 2015 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. He was 75.


title: John Mahaffy

paragraphs: John Mahaffy (July 18, 1918 – May 2, 2015) was a Canadian professional ice hockey centre. He played 37 games in the National Hockey League for the New York Rangers and Montreal Canadiens.

paragraphs: Mahaffy was born in Montreal, Quebec. He was married to Angie Péloquin. He died on May 2, 2015, aged 96.


title: Ahmad Alasgarov

paragraphs: Ahmad Latifovich Alasgarov (, ; born 5 October 1935 – 19 May 2015) was an Azerbaijani footballer and manager. He played as a defender from 1955 until 1965. He managed nine teams between 1966 and 2006, including the Azerbaijan national football team. He was born in Baku.

paragraphs: Alasgarov died after a long illness on 19 May 2015 in Odessa, Ukraine, aged 79.


title: Trajan's Column

paragraphs: Trajan's Column is a Roman triumphal column in Rome, Italy. It was built to remember Roman emperor Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. It was probably built by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus at the order of the Roman Senate. It is in Trajan's Forum, near the Quirinal Hill, north of the Roman Forum. It was completed in AD 113. It has a spiral bas relief, which shows the wars between the Romans and Dacians (101–102 and 105–106). Its design has inspired numerous victory columns, both ancient and modern.

paragraphs: The column is about 30 metres (98 ft) in height, 35 metres (125 ft) including its large pedestal. It is made from a series of 20 hollow Carrara marble pieces. Each one weighs about 32 tons, with a diameter of 3.7 metres (11 ft). The 190-metre (625 ft) frieze winds around the column 23 times. Inside the column, a spiral staircase of 185 steps gives access to a viewing platform at the top. The capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a height of c. 34 m.

paragraphs: Ancient coins show plans to put a statue of an eagle on top of the column. However it was built with a statue of Trajan. This statue disappeared in the Middle Ages. On December 4, 1587, the top was crowned by Pope Sixtus V with a bronze figure of St. Peter. When it was built the column was next to two libraries, which perhaps held the soldier-emperor's account of the Roman-Dacian Wars.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

paragraphs: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau (11 February 1805 – 16 May 1866) was the son of Toussaint Charbonneau and Sacagawea. He was a fur trapper and guide. He was an important figure in the Mexican-American War. Charbonneau and his mother are pictured on a one-dollar coin.


title: A. J. Allmendinger

paragraphs: Anthony James "A. J." Allmendinger (born December 16, 1981) is an American open-wheel and stock car racing driver. He currently competes full-time in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series while also competing part-time in the Xfinity Series.

paragraphs: Allmendinger earned five wins and a third championship place in the 2006 Champ Car season. Afterwards, he began competing in NASCAR. He has competed in the 24 Hours of Daytona, finishing first in 2012, second in 2006 and third in 2013.


title: Regan Smith

paragraphs: Regan Smith (born September 23, 1983) is an American stock car racing driver.

paragraphs: He currently competes full-time in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. He drives the No. 7 Chevrolet SS for Tommy Baldwin Racing. He also races part-time in the Xfinity Series. There he drives the No. 88 Chevrolet Camaro for JR Motorsports, and the No. 2 Chevrolet Camaro for Richard Childress Racing.


title: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety

paragraphs: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) is a non-profit organization funded by at least 75 insurance companies. IIHS was started in 1959 with their headquarters in Arlington, Virginia. Their goal is to reduce deaths, injuries and property loss from automobile es on US highways. It researches and rates popular passenger vehicles. IIHS also rates consumer products such as child safety seat. They also research road design and traffic regulations.

paragraphs: It carries out research and produces ratings for popular passenger vehicles as well as for certain consumer products such as child safety seats. It also conducts research on road design and traffic regulations, and has been involved in promoting policy decisions. According to their own bylaws IIHS does not lobby the United States Congress and other lawmaking bodies to change laws. They educate lawmakers and by invitation.

paragraphs: The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety was established by insurance companies in 1959 to advise other organizations about highway safety. In 1966 the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act was enacted by Congress. It set up what is now called the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. In 1968 when Richard Nixon became president, William Haddon, Jr., was replaced as head of the agency. He was hired by the IIHS to reorganize and set up a crash testing program. In the 1970s the IIHS was involved in the then controversial airbag standard.

paragraphs: Two organizations in the US perform destructive testing to establish crash test ratings. The other is the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), a government agency. Both test new cars and issue ratings, but the tests are different. They also use different rating systems.

paragraphs: The NHTSA uses three tests. The first is a 35 mph frontal crash test. It determines what injuries a driver or passenger might experience in that type of accident. The second is a side-impact test (made up of two tests using different weights). The third test is not an actual test. It is a rating based on a mathematical formula based on the car's width and center of gravity. NHTSA uses a five star rating system. A single star is poor while five stars is the best rating.

paragraphs: The IIHS uses five tests. They do two frontal tests. A small-overlap is set up with 25% of the front of the car hitting a barrier at 40 mph. A moderate overlap test allows more of the front of the car to hit the barrier. In a side-impact test a movable barrier hits the car side at 31 mph. A roof test involves a flat piece of metal pushed down against the roof to see at what point it collapsed. It is not an actual roll-over test. The last test is on the seats and head restraints. The IIHS classifies its rankings as Poor, Marginal, Acceptable or Good.

paragraphs: IIHS also gives out two awards each year. They are "Top Safety Pick" and "Top Safety Pick+". Vehicles that have good results all five tests and have Collision avoidance systems win the top award. The Top Safety Pick award goes to vehicles that pass the five tests alone.

paragraphs: Not every model of car is tested. Both agencies test the most widely sold vehicles. Convertibles and other limited production cars are often not tested. In 2007 the IIHS did test 10 models. Test results often appear months after a car goes on sale. Both agencies buy their vehicles from car dealerships. The IIHS has only begun to mention upcoming (to be tested) models while the NHTSA has noted this for some time.


title: Sudha Shivpuri

paragraphs: Sudha Shivpuri (14 July 1937 – 20 May 2015) was an Indian stage, movie and television actress. She was known for her role as "Baa" in the Hindi TV serial "Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi" (2000–2008).

paragraphs: Shivpuri died from multiple organ failure on 20 May 2015 in Mumbai, India, aged 78.


title: Academy of Urbanism

paragraphs: The Academy of Urbanism is a non-profit academic research organization dedicated to urban planning and urban development. The institute is located in London. It has branches in Europe and other places in the world. The Academy employs 500 professionals engaged in various subjects related to the field of urban planning and the chief of the Mossad motto is: "to recognize, encourage, and celebrate great places".

paragraphs: National workshops, lectures, an internet site and spend magazine. In addition, the Academy maintains Festival prizes and conducting congresses in the UK each year and operates a voluntary activity.


title: World Community Grid

paragraphs: World Community Grid (WCG) is a large public computing grid to work on scientific research projects that help people. People donate time on their personal computers to the project. The software can be set up to run only when the computer is not being used for other work.

paragraphs: WCG began operation on November 16, 2004. It is coordinated by IBM to use their Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software. Software for the grid of personal computers is available for Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, and Android operating systems.

paragraphs: World Community Grid's research projects have performed analysis of aspects of the human genome, HIV, dengue, muscular dystrophy, cancer, influenza, rice crop yields and renewable energy.

paragraphs: Open projects running as of May 2015 are looking for drug treatments for the Ebola virus and HIV, seeking new materials for the next generation of solar cells, comparing genomes of many organisms, and investigating cancer genes. As of May 2015, the organization has partnered with 467 other companies and organizations to help its work, and has over 65,000 active registered users.


title: Raymond Gosling

paragraphs: Raymond Gosling (15 July 1926 – 18 May 2015) was a British biophysicist. He was known for doing X-ray diffraction studies on DNA. These studies were the first step in understanding the 3-D structure of DNA. He did these studies as a doctoral student in the research group headed by Maurice Wilkins at Kings College London.

paragraphs: Gosling's first supervisor was A.R. Stokes of the Physics Department. By 1950, Gosling's diffraction photographs were described by Wilkins at the time as "much better than Astbury's, and almost like single crystals".

paragraphs: Gosling was re-assigned to Rosalind Franklin when she joined Wilkins' group in 1951. For the next two years, they worked closely together to improve the X-ray diffraction photography of DNA and get a sharper image. Gosling made the X-ray diffraction image of DNA known as "Photo 51". This work led directly to the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine being awarded to Francis Crick, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins. Gosling was the co-author with Franklin of one of the three DNA double helix papers published in "Nature" in April 1953.

paragraphs: Gosling died in London at 88 on 18 May 2015.


title: Donald Caspar

paragraphs: Donald L. D. Caspar (born January 8, 1927) is an American structural biologist. He is known for his works on the structures of biological molecules such as tobacco mosaic virus. He is an emeritus professor of biological science at the Institute of Molecular Biophysics, Florida State University, and an emeritus professor of biology at the Rosenstiel Basic Medical Sciences Research Center, Brandeis University.


title: Roscoe Bartlett

paragraphs: Roscoe Gardner Bartlett, Jr. (born June 3, 1926) is an American politician and physiologist. He is a former U.S. Representative for , serving from 1993 to 2013.

paragraphs: He is a member of the Republican Party and was a member of the Tea Party Caucus. At the end of his tenure in Congress, Bartlett was the second-oldest serving member of the House of Representatives, behind only fellow Republican Ralph Hall of Texas.


title: Pack hunter

paragraphs: A pack hunter or social predator is a predator belonging to the animal kingdom, which has evolved to hunt its prey by working together with other members of its species. Normally animals hunting in this way are closely related. Except where only males normally hunt (humans and chimpanzees), all individuals in a family group will contribute to hunting. The most commonly known pack hunter is the gray wolf. The wolf is the closest wild relative of all breeds of domesticated dog. Humans and their closest-living relatives chimpanzees are also pack hunters. Other pack hunting mammals include dolphins, lions and spotted hyenas. A number of avian social predators exist. These include the Harris's hawk, butcherbirds, three of four kookaburra species and many helmetshrikes. There are a few cold-blooded pack hunters. Forexample, simple arthropods such as army ants. Another example is the yellow saddle goatfish Occasionally crocodiles are pack hunters. Hunting in packs allows smaller predators to hunt larger prey.


title: Abu Simbel temples

paragraphs: The Abu Simbel temples are two very large rock temples built by the ancient Egyptians, at Abu Simbel. This is a village in Nubia, southern Egypt, near the border with Sudan. The temples are on the western bank of Lake Nasser, about 230 km southwest of Aswan. They are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Nubian Monuments." The temples were cut into solid rock in side of a cliff during the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II in the 13th century BC. It was a lasting monument to himself and his queen Nefertari, to remember his victory at the Battle of Kadesh.

paragraphs: The complete temples were moved in 1968, to a place high above the Aswan High Dam reservoir. They would have been flooded by water from Lake Nasser which was formed by the building of a dam on the Nile River.

paragraphs: Work on the temples began about 1264 BC and lasted for about 20 years. It was called the "Temple of Ramesses, beloved by Amun". It was one of six rock temples built in Nubia by Ramesses II. The temple was meant to impress Egypt's southern neighbours. It also helped to strengthen Egyptian religion in the area. Historians say that the design of Abu Simbel shows Ramesses II's ego and pride.

paragraphs: Over time people stopped using the temples which became covered with sand. In the 6th century BC, the sand covered the statues of the main temple up to their knees. The temple was forgotten until 1813, when Jean-Louis Burckhardt saw the top frieze of the main temple. He told Italian explorer Giovanni Belzoni, who went to the site, but was unable to dig out an entry to the temple. Belzoni went back in 1817, and was able to enter the temples. Details of the temples, with drawings, are in Edward William Lane's "Description of Egypt" (1825-1828).

paragraphs: Tour guides at the temples tell a story that "Abu Simbel" was a young local boy who took Burckhardt and Belzoni to see the buried temple. He had seen the temples from time to time in the shifting sands. Eventually, the temples were named after him.

paragraphs: In 1959 an international campaign was started to raise money to save the temples from being flooded by water from the new Aswan High Dam.

paragraphs: One plan put forward was to build a dam around the temples to keep the water at the same level as the river. It was thought that raising the temples would put them in danger of being eroded by the wind. This plan was rejected.

paragraphs: The moving of the temple began in 1964, with archaeologists, engineers and workers coming from all over the world as a UNESCO project. It cost $40 million at the time. Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks. Some blocks weighed up to 30 tons, with most around 20 tons. These blocks were lifted and put back together on a new site 65 meters higher, and 200 meters further back from the river.

paragraphs: This was one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history. Some parts had to be saved from under the waters of Lake Nasser. Today hundreds of visitors come to the temples every day. Buses and cars leave twice a day from Aswan, the nearest city. Many visitors also come by plane, to an airfield that was specially built near the temples.

paragraphs: There are two temples. The larger one was built for the gods Ra-Harakhty, Ptah and Amun. It has four large statues of Ramesses II on the facade. The smaller temple was built for the goddess Hathor, who is shown as Nefertari, Ramesses's favourite of his many wives. The temple is open to the public.

paragraphs: The Great Temple at Abu Simbel took about 20 years to build. It was completed in the 24th year of the rule of Ramesses the Great (about 1265 BC). It was built for the gods Amun, Ra-Horakhty, and Ptah, as well as for Rameses himself, who was treated as a god. It is one the grandest and most beautiful temples from the time of Rameses II, and one of the most beautiful in Egypt.

paragraphs: The facade of the temple has four 20 meter tall statues of the pharaoh with the double Atef crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The facade is 35 meters wide. Across the top is a frieze with 22 baboons. The baboons have their hands raised to welcome the rising sun at dawn. These huge statues were carved into solid rock. All statues show Ramesses II, seated on a throne and wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The statue on the left of the entrance was damaged in an earthquake soon after it was built. The head and body are on the ground at the statue's feet.

paragraphs: Next to the legs of the large statue, there are others no higher than the knees of the pharaoh. These show Nefertari, Ramesses's chief wife, and queen mother Mut-Tuy, his first two sons Amun-her-khepeshef, Ramesses, and his first six daughters Bintanath, Baketmut, Nefertari, Meritamen, Nebettawy and Isetnofret.

paragraphs: Above the entrance is a bas-relief with two images of the king praising the falcon-headed Ra Harakhti. This god is holding the hieroglyph meaning "user" and a feather in his right hand, with Ma'at, the goddess of truth and justice, in his left. This is a really just a large puzzle with the answer being Ramesses II's throne name, User-Maat-Re. A stele on the facade records the marriage of Ramesses with a daughter of king Hattusili III, which sealed the peace between Egypt and the Hittites.

paragraphs: Like most Egyptian temples it has a triangle shaped layout inside. The rooms become smaller in size from the entrance to the sanctuary. The temple has a complicated and unusual structure with many side chambers. The hypostyle hall (sometimes also called a pronaos) is 18 meters long and 16.7 meters wide. It is supported by eight huge Osirid pillars. These show Ramesses as a god, with Osiris, the god of the Underworld. This shows the unending nature of the pharaoh. The big statues along the left-hand wall have the white crown of Upper Egypt, while those on the opposite side are wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (pschent). The bas-reliefs on the walls of the pronaos show battle scenes from Ramesses's many wars. They show the Battle of Kadesh, on the Orontes river, in present-day Syria, where Ramesses fought against the Hittites. The most famous image shows the king on his chariot shooting arrows against his enemies, who are being taken prisoner. Other scenes show Egyptian victories in Libya and Nubia.

paragraphs: From the hypostyle hall, one enters the second pillared hall. This has four pillars covered with beautiful scenes of offerings to the gods. Ramesses and Nefertari are seen with the sacred boats of Amun and Ra-Harakhti. This hall leads to another room which is the way in to the sanctuary. On a back wall are rock cut sculptures of four seated figures: Ra-Horakhty, Ramesses (as a god), and the gods Amun Ra and Ptah. Ra-Horakhty, Amun Ra and Ptah were the main gods during this time and their cult centers were at Heliopolis, Thebes and Memphis respectively.

paragraphs: It is believed that the temple was positioned so that on October 22 and February 22, light from the sun would reach the sanctuary. This would light up the sculptures on the back wall, except for the statue of Ptah, the god linked with the Underworld, who always remained in the dark.

paragraphs: These dates could be the king's birthday and coronation day. However, there is no evidence to support this. It makea sense that these dates had some relation to a great event, such as the 30th anniversary of the pharaoh's rule. October 22 is 60 days before the solstice and February 20 is 60 days after the Solstice.

paragraphs: The image of the king would get energy from the sun, and Ramesses the Great could take his place next to Amun Ra and Ra-Horakhty.

paragraphs: People gather at Abu Simbel to see this remarkable sight, on October 21 and February 21. The dates have changed by one day because of the movement of the Tropic of Cancer in the last 3280 years.

paragraphs: The Small Temple was built about 100 meters northeast of the Great Temple. It was built for the goddess Hathor and Ramesses II's favorite wife, Nefertari. The facade is cut into solid rock, with two groups of very large statues on either side of the large gateway. The statues, slightly more than ten meters high, are of the king and his queen. On the sides of the entrance are two statues of the king, one wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt and the other with double crown. On sides of these are statues of the queen and the king.

paragraphs: This is the only example in Egyptian art where the statues of the king and queen are equal size. Usually the statues of the queens stand next to those of the pharaoh, but were never taller than his knees. Ramesses went to Abu Simbel with his wife in the 24th year of his rule. There are small statues of princes and princesses next to their parents. On the south side they are (facing them from left to right), princes Meryatum and Meryre, princesses Meritamen and Henuttawy, and princes Rahirwenemef and Amun-her-khepeshef. On the north side the same figures are in reverse order.

paragraphs: The plan of the Small Temple is a simple copy of the Great Temple. The hypostyle hall or pronaos is supported by six pillars. They show scenes with the queen playing the sinistrum (an instrument sacred to the goddess Hathor), together with the gods Horus, Khnum, Khonsu, and Thoth, and the goddesses Hathor, Isis, Maat, Mut of Asher, Satis and Taweret. In one scene Ramesses is presenting flowers or burning incense. The capitals of the pillars have the face of the goddess Hathor; known as a Hathoric column. The bas-reliefs in the hall show Ramesses becoming a god. There are scenes of the king (with his wife) defeating his enemies. Another scene shows the queen making offerings to the goddess Hathor and Mut. Three large doors open into another room. On the south and the north walls of this room there are scenes of the king and his wife giving papyrus plants to Hathor. Hathor is shown as a cow on a boat sailing through papyri plants. On the west wall, Ramesses II and Nefertari are shown making offerings to god Horus and the gods of the Cataracts — Satis, Anubis and Khnum. This room leads to the sanctuary and two side rooms.

paragraphs: The sanctuary has bas-reliefs on the side walls with scenes of offerings to various gods made either by the pharaoh or the queen. On the back wall, there is a niche in which Hathor, as a divine cow, seems to be coming out of the mountain. Queen Nefertari is closely linked to this goddess.

paragraphs: Each temple has its own priest to represent the king in daily religious ceremonies. The Pharaoh should be the only celebrant in daily religious ceremonies performed in different temples throughout Egypt. In reality, the high priest also played that role. A priest, like the king, needed education in art and science. Reading, writing, engineering, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, space measurement, time calculations, were all part of this learning. The priests of Heliopolis, for example, became guardians of sacred knowledge and were seen as wise men.


title: Arch bridge

paragraphs: An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch. Arch bridges work by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust held by the abutments at either side. A viaduct (a long bridge) may be made from a series of arches. However other less expensive structures are typically used today.

paragraphs: The oldest existing arch bridge may be the Mycenaean Arkadiko bridge in Greece. It was built in about 1300 BC. The stone corbel arch bridge is still used. The well-preserved Hellenistic Eleutherna Bridge has a triangular corbel arch. The 4th century BC Rhodes Footbridge rests on an early voussoir arch.

paragraphs: Both the Etruscans and ancient Greeks knew about arches. But the Romans were the first to use arches for bridge construction.

paragraphs: Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular. A number were also segmental arch bridges (such as Alconétar Bridge), meaning it has a curved arch that is less than a semicircle. Such a ssegmental arch bridge allowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it. This would prevent the bridge from being swept away during floods. Also the bridge itself could be more lightweight. Generally, Roman bridges had wedge-shaped primary arch stones (called voussoirs) of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts. Their bridges featured flood openings in the piers.

paragraphs: In medieval Europe, bridge builders improved on the Roman structures by using narrower piers. They used thinner arch barrels and lower span-rise ratios on bridges. Gothic pointed arches were also introduced reducing lateral thrust. In particular the 14th century saw bridge construction reaching new heights. Spans of up to were previously unheard of in masonry arch construction.

paragraphs: In the 19th century steel became cheaper and allowed even longer bridges. Tied arch bridges became commonplace because they don't need such large, expensive foundations. Some in the late 20th century were made over .

paragraphs: Stone, brick and other similar materials are strong in compression. They are fairly strong in shear. But they cannot resist much force in tension. As a result, masonry arch bridges are designed to be constantly under compression. Each arch is constructed over a temporary falsework frame, known as a centring. In the first compression arch bridges, a keystone in the middle of the bridge bore the weight of the rest of the bridge. The more weight that was put onto the bridge, the stronger its structure became. Masonry arch bridges use fill material (typically compacted rubble) above the arch in order to increase this dead-weight on the bridge. This also prevents tension from occurring in the arch ring as loads move across the bridge. Unreinforced concrete was also used. When masonry (cut stone) is used, the angles of the faces are cut to minimize shear forces. Where random masonry (uncut and unprepared stones) is used they are mortared together. The mortar is allowed to set before the falsework is removed.


title: Striped hyaena

paragraphs: The striped hyaena ("Hyaena hyaena") is a widespread small carnivore. It is native to North and East Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. It is listed by the IUCN as near threatened, and the global population may be under 10,000 mature individuals. It is persecuted, and its prey base is declining.

paragraphs: It is the smallest of its genus and has many primitive viverrid characteristics which are lost in the larger species. For example, it has a smaller and less specialised skull.

paragraphs: It is mainly a scavenger, but large individuals may kill their own prey. Attacks on humans are rare, but do happen. The striped hyena is a monogamous animal, with both males and females assisting one another in raising their cubs. A nocturnal animal, the striped hyena only comes out in complete darkness, and is quick to return to its lair before sunrise. It has a habit of feigning death when attacked. It has also been known to stand its ground against larger predators such as leopards in disputes over food.

paragraphs: The striped hyaena features prominently in Middle Eastern and Asian folklore. It is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, where it is referred to as "tzebua" or "zevoa", though the species is absent in some English translations.


title: Béziers

paragraphs: Béziers () is a commune in the Hérault département in the Occitanie region in southern France. It is a subprefecture of the department and also the capital of the "arrondissement" of the same name.

paragraphs: Béziers is one of the oldest cities in France. Research shows that Béziers was built by Greeks in the 6th century BC. Some archaeologists think that Béziers could be the oldest town of France, even before Marseille.

paragraphs: The site where is Béziers has been occupied since Neolithic times, before the arrival of Celts. Roman "Betarra" was on the road that linked Provence with Iberia. The Romans refounded the city as a new place for veterans in 36–35 BC and called it "Colonia Julia Baeterrae Septimanorum". Stones from the Roman amphitheatre were used to construct the city wall during the 3rd century. The city was occupied by the Moors between 720 and 752.

paragraphs: Béziers was a Languedoc stronghold of Catharism, which the Catholic Church condemned as heretical and which Catholic forces exterminated in the Albigensian Crusade.

paragraphs: Béziers was the first place to be attacked. The crusaders got to the town on 21 July 1209 and burned the cathedral of Saint Nazaire. A few parts of the Romanesque cathedral survived, and repairs started in 1215. The restoration, along with that of the rest of the city, continued until the 15th century.

paragraphs: After the Louis Napoléon's coup d'état in 1851, troops killed protesters in Béziers. Others were condemned to death or taken to the Guiana.

paragraphs: The city is in the southeastern of the department, in the plain of Hérault (the "plaine héraultoise"). It is on a small cliff on the eastern side of the Orb river, a tributary of the Hérault river.

paragraphs: The "commune" has an area of , the largest "commune" in the department, and is at an altitude of about above sea level. Béziers is at to the southeast of the city of Montpellier and at from the Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: The "commune" of Béziers is surrounded by the "communes" Boujan-sur-Libron, Maraussan, Lignan-sur-Orb, Villeneuve-lès-Béziers, Corneilhan, Sauvian, Colombiers, Cers, Montady, Maureilhan, Bassan and Vendres.

paragraphs: The climate of Béziers, in the Köppen climate classification, is Csa - Mediterranean climate with hot summers.

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Béziers are known, in French, as "Biterrois" (women: "Biterroises"), from "Baeterrae", the Latin name of the city.

paragraphs: With a population of 75,701, Béziers has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Béziers forms with other four "communes" the urban area of Béziers with a population of 89,243 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Béziers, formed by 40 "communes" with a population of 168,960 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .

paragraphs: Béziers is a subprefecture of the Hérault department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Béziers and the administrative centre () of three cantons: Béziers-1, Béziers-2 and Béziers-3.

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Béziers Méditerranée" ().


title: Crépy-en-Valois

paragraphs: Crépy-en-Valois is a commune in the Picardy region in the Oise department in the north of France.


title: Fossa

paragraphs: The fossa ("Cryptoprocta ferox") is a cat-like, carnivorous mammal endemic to Madagascar. It is a member of the Eupleridae, a family of carnivorans closely related to the mongoose family (Herpestidae).

paragraphs: Its classification has been controversial because it looks like a cat. However, other traits suggest a close relationship with viverrids (most civets and their relatives). Its classification influenced thought about how many times mammalian carnivores had colonized Madagascar. Genetic studies now show that the fossa and all other Malagasy carnivores are closely related to each other: they are a clade, the family Eupleridae.

paragraphs: Carnivorans are now thought to have colonized the island once about 18 to 20 million years ago.

paragraphs: The fossa is the largest mammalian carnivore on the island of Madagascar and has been compared to a small cougar. Adults have a head-body length of and weigh between . The males larger than the females. It has semiretractable claws and flexible ankles that allow it to climb up and down trees head-first, and they can jump from tree to tree.

paragraphs: The species is widespread, although population densities are usually low. It is found only in forested habitat, and hunts by day and night. Over 50% of its diet consists of lemurs, the endemic primates of the island. Tenrecs, rodents, lizards, birds, and other animals are also prey. Mating usually occurs in trees on horizontal limbs and can last for several hours. Litters range from one to six pups, which are born blind and toothless (altricial). Infants wean after 4.5 months and are independent after a year. Sexual maturity occurs around three to four years of age, and life expectancy in captivity is 20 years. The fossa is listed as "Vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It is generally feared by the Malagasy people and is often protected by their taboo. The greatest threat to the species is habitat destruction.


title: Péronne, Somme

paragraphs: Péronne is a commune in the Picardy region in the Somme department in the north of France.

paragraphs: It is close to where the Battles of the Somme took place during World War I.

paragraphs: The Museum of the Great War (known in French as the Historial de la Grande Guerre) is located in the château.


title: Ottoman architecture

paragraphs: Ottoman architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire. It emerged in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries. The architecture of the empire developed from the earlier Seljuk architecture. It was influenced by the Byzantine, Iranian and Seljuk architecture. It was also influenced by Islamic Mamluk traditions after the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans. For almost 400 years Byzantine architectural artifacts such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques. Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as Ottoman architecture synthesized with architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.

paragraphs: The Ottomans achieved the highest level architecture in their lands. They mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seemingly weightless yet massive domes. Their work achieved harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious building, which until then was simple but with extensive decoration, was transformed by the Ottomans. They used vaults, domes, semi-domes and columns. The mosque was changed from being a cramped and dark chamber with arabesque-covered walls into a beautiful sanctuary.


title: Dole, Jura

paragraphs: Dole is a commune in the Jura department. It was the capital of the Free County until Louis XIV conquered the region, which from then on became Besançon.