title: Medical ethics

paragraphs: Medical ethics is the set of ethical rules that doctors follow. These ideas tell doctors how they should treat patients.

paragraphs: The earliest set of ethical ideas in medicine was the "Hippocratic oath". (An oath is a special promise.) It was supposed to be written by Hippocrates but probably was not written by him.

paragraphs: There are 6 major principles (important ideas):

paragraphs: Here are some kinds of medical ethics questions:


title: Sperm

paragraphs: Sperm are the male reproductive cells. Most animals and plants use sperm to reproduce. They have different ways of making and releasing the sperm. In all cases the sperm meets with the egg of the female and grow into a new organism.

paragraphs: The name sperm is taken from the Greek word "sperma" meaning "seed".

paragraphs: An animal sperm cell is capable of movement, as it has to get to the uterus to meet with the ovum. Animal sperm cells (including humans) have small 'head' and a long tail called a "flagellum". The flagellum acts like a motor to propel the sperm cell through the female reproductive system.

paragraphs: Human sperm is made in the testicles of a man. Human sperm contains 23 chromosomes. A human needs 46 chromosomes, so a sperm cell is called a "haploid" as it only has half. The other half is contained within the ovum or egg of a female. During sex, semen is shot out of the man's penis during ejaculation.

paragraphs: Semen carries the sperm into the woman's vagina and down to the ovum in the uterus. During ejaculation millions of sperm cells are released, but only one hundred or so reach the egg.

paragraphs: The egg can merge with one sperm cell that reaches it. Because it now has 46 chromosomes, it is called a "diploid", like ordinary cells of the body. This diploid is called a zygote, and it can grow into a fetus and eventually a baby.

paragraphs: Some plants such as ferns and mosses have sperm that move. Flowering plant sperm cells cannot move by themselves. The flowering plant sperm cells are contained within pollen grains.

paragraphs: Thus, they rely on "transportation" to take their sperm cells to other plants. For example, a bee lands on a plant to collect the nectar. Some pollen will get stuck to the bee. The bee moves on to another plant and the pollen falls onto that plant. The sperm is moved down a "pollen tube" until it reaches the ovule at the bottom of the flower.


title: Semen

paragraphs: Semen () is the fluid that comes out from the end of a man's penis when he has an orgasm (the height of sexual excitement) and ejaculates. It is usually a white or yellowish, sticky substance made up of sperm (male cells for sexual reproduction) floating in a fluid called seminal plasma that has water and different chemicals in it. Normally, an ejaculation makes between 1.5 and 5 millilitres (up to one teaspoonful) of semen.

paragraphs: Some scientists think that semen that is taken into a woman's body causes her not to feel depressed or sad. On the other hand, if semen touches another person's body, it can pass on sexually transmitted infections (STIs). In a few cases, it can also make the other person's immune system weaker, or cause the person to have an allergic reaction. The risks of these health problems happening can be reduced if the man wears a condom when having sex.

paragraphs: Many cultures around the world once thought or still think that semen has special or even magical qualities. Showing semen in forms of popular culture such as art and movies has for a long time been taboo, that is, not generally accepted by society. However, since the late 20th century, artists and moviemakers have done so more often.

paragraphs: The English word "semen" comes from the Latin word "sēmen", which means "seed". In fact, "seed" was an old-fashioned name for semen. The Latin word "sēmen" itself came from another Latin word, "serěre", which means "to plant (a plant into the ground) or to sow (seeds in the earth)". It was once thought that semen was like a seed that grew into a baby after being "planted" inside a woman's body.

paragraphs: Another name for semen is "ejaculate". Some slang words for semen are "cream", "cum", "jism", "jizz", jazz "load", "spooge", "spunk", "nut", or "wad".

paragraphs: Semen is the fluid that comes out from the end of a man's penis when he has an orgasm (the height of sexual excitement) and ejaculates. It is usually white, but may also be slightly grey or yellow. If there is blood in the semen, it can look pink or reddish. This is a condition called hematospermia, and may be because of some blockage, inflammation, infection or injury to some part of the male sex organs, such as the urethra, epididymis, prostate or testicles. A doctor should be seen if the pink or reddish colour does not go away after a few days.

paragraphs: Men ejaculate different amounts of semen. Normally, an ejaculation makes between 1.5 and 5 millilitres (up to one teaspoonful) of semen. More semen usually comes out if a man has not ejaculated for many days, or if he has been stimulated (made sexually excited) for a long time. Older men make less semen. If a man ejaculates an unusually small amount of semen, this is a medical condition called hypospermia.

paragraphs: After a man has ejaculated, semen first becomes slightly thick and sticky, and may feel a bit like jelly and clump together in globs. Scientists think that semen does this so that if the man has had sex with a woman and has ejaculated inside her vagina, the semen stays in her vagina for longer and does not leak out. Between five and 40 minutes after this, semen becomes more liquid and watery. This probably allows the sperm in the semen to move through the vagina and into the woman's uterus and Fallopian tubes to try and fertilize an ovum (egg cell). If semen is ejaculated outside the body, after becoming watery it eventually dries up.

paragraphs: Semen is made up of sperm (male cells for sexual reproduction) floating in a fluid called seminal plasma. Sperm, also called spermatozoa, are made by a man's testicles and mature (grow up) in the epididymis. The fluids in seminal plasma come from different glands in the man's body: the seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral glands (also called the Cowper's glands). (Glands are special organs in the body that make chemicals.) The table below shows the substances that make up semen and the glands that produce them:

paragraphs: Seminal plasma protects and provides food for sperm as they travel inside a woman's body. The inside of a woman'a vagina does not suit sperm cells as it is acidic. To protect the sperm from the acid, seminal plasma is alkaline. A woman's immune system also tries to kill organisms (living things) that are not part of her body. Seminal plasma has chemicals called prostaglandins in it to stop the woman's body from killing the sperm.

paragraphs: Semen that does not have any germs in it (see below) is not harmful if it is swallowed, for example after a person has had oral sex with a man and the man ejaculates in that person's mouth.

paragraphs: "Semen quality" refers to how well the sperm in a man's semen can fertilize a woman's ova. The better a man's semen quality is, the better chances he has to make a woman pregnant. A 1992 World Health Organization book said that an ejaculation of normal human semen has:

paragraphs: The number of sperm in an ejaculation of semen depends on many things. There may be more sperm if:

paragraphs: If there are an unusually low number of sperm in an ejaculation, this is called oligospermia. If there are no sperm at all, this is called azoospermia. A man with oligospermia or azoospermia is usually infertile, and cannot or finds it very hard to make a woman pregnant by having sex with her.

paragraphs: If the semen does not have infections, it is okay to swallow semen. A woman cannot get pregnant from swallowing semen in her mouth. It is okay if a man swallows his own semen. Two doctors say it is good if a woman swallows semen often. They say women get breast cancer less if they swallow semen. The doctors don't know why. Other doctors must do more tests.

paragraphs: Studies seem to say that semen is an anti-depressant. This means that it causes women not to feel depressed or sad. The studies found that when men had sex with women without using condoms, and the men's semen was taken into the women's vaginas, the women had better moods and felt happier. Scientists do not yet know if the same thing happens when semen is swallowed after oral sex, but some of them think it may.

paragraphs: If a man has a sexually transmitted infection or STI (an infection that is passed from one person to another by sex), the germs that cause the disease can appear in his semen. If the person that the man has sex with touches the semen, he or she can become infected by the germs and pick up the disease. HIV, chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepatitis B, herpes and syphillis are examples of STIs. One of the ways for a man to lower the chance of passing on an STI to his sexual partner is to wear a condom on his penis when having sex. Getting semen in the mouth can be bad if the penis or semen has infections.

paragraphs: If semen gets in the eye, the eye will hurt. Wash the eye with warm water. Wash the eye for a few minutes. Some doctors say to get tested for infections.

paragraphs: Some scientists think that parts of semen, such as sperm and seminal plasma, can make another person's immune system weaker. Experiments show that when substances in a man's semen enter another person's body, that person's body makes antibodies. Antibodies are large Y-shaped proteins used by the body's immune system to stop foreign objects from harming the body. However, the antibodies made in response to substances in semen attack one of the body's own cells, called T lymphocytes. This weakens the body's immune system.

paragraphs: In a very small number of cases, people have experienced allergic reactions when they touched semen. This is called human seminal plasma hypersensitivity. The symptoms (signs of the medical problem) can either be near the part of the body which touched the semen, or all over the body. They may include itching of the vagina, redness, swelling or blisters within 30 minutes of contact. They may also include itching and hives (large, red, itchy patches) all over the body, and even difficulty breathing.

paragraphs: The best way to test for human seminal plasma hypersensitivity is for a man to use a condom when having sex. When a condom is used, after ejaculation the man's semen stays inside the condom and does not touch the body of the person he is having sex with. If the man's sexual partner usually has allergic symptoms to semen but does not have any when a condom is used, this may show that his partner's body is extra-sensitive to semen. A person can often get over a mild semen allergy by coming into contact with semen often. If the allergic reaction is very bad, the person should see a doctor, especially if she is a woman trying to get pregnant. In such cases, it may be necessary for the woman to have a baby through artificial insemination. This is a medical way of fertilizing a woman's ova using a man's sperm without the man and the woman having sexual intercourse.

paragraphs: Many cultures around the world once thought or still think that semen has special or even magical qualities. Some examples are set out below:

paragraphs: Displaying semen in forms of popular culture such as art and movies has for a long time been taboo, that is, not generally accepted by society. However, since the late 20th century artists and moviemakers have done so more often.

paragraphs: The American photographer Andres Serrano sometimes takes photographs of body fluids and displays them as artworks. One example is "Blood and Semen II" (1990), which is a picture of blood and semen mixed together. Some people are shocked by such pictures and think it is wrong of him to make them, while others think that as an artist he is free to create such works. Another of Serrano's pictures, "Blood and Semen III", was featured on the cover of the 1996 music album "Load" by the American heavy metal band Metallica.

paragraphs: The United Kingdom-based artists Gilbert Proesch and George Passmore, better known as Gilbert and George, have also used semen and other body fluids to create artworks.

paragraphs: Apart from pornographic movies showing people having sex, semen is usually not shown in movies as many people think that doing so is obscene (not decent). However, some movies that have shown semen are the American comedy movies "There's Something about Mary" (1998), "American Pie" (1999), "Scary Movie" (2000) and "Scary Movie 2" (2001). In the Spanish movie "Y tu mamá también" ("And Your Mother Too", 2001), there is a scene where two high-school boys who are friends lie on diving boards over a swimming pool and masturbate (make themselves sexually excited). Semen is later shown floating on the water. Such movies are usually not thought to be suitable for children to watch.


title: Bilbao

paragraphs: Bilbao is a city in the Basque Country, in the North of Spain. There are 350,000 people living in Bilbao.

paragraphs: In Bilbao is the Nervión river, which ends in the Bay of Biscay. Bilbao has an oceanic climate ("Cfb" in the Koeppen climate classification).

paragraphs: Bilbao was an industrial city, but today it is a tourist city. There are many things to see in Bilbao:


title: Middle school

paragraphs: In the United States, a middle school is a school between elementary school (grades 1-5, 1-7, 1-6, 1-4 or 1-8) and high school (grades 9-12 or 10-12). Depending on location, middle school contains grades 6-8, 7-8, or 7-9. Middle school is also sometimes called an intermediate school, junior high school or just "junior high".

paragraphs: The school day is often very different in elementary, middle, and high schools. Unlike elementary schools, where students often stay with one or two teachers for most of the school day, middle school is usually the first time in which students change teachers after each class of usually about one hour. Students often study 6 subjects. They will be taught by a different teacher for each subject.

paragraphs: The change from a one teacher-all subjects way of teaching helps create more independence for the pupil. They no longer have the guidance of just one main teacher. Also, students will often have more of a choice in what classes they take. This is mainly in dealing with subjects which are taken in addition to the basic subjects such as mathematics, English, history and general science.

paragraphs: In general, middle school acts as a transition between the elementary school structure where most people are all treated the same and the high school structure were most people are treated as individuals. However, some critics see middle schools as having gone "soft," overemphasizing self-esteem building at the expense of academic rigor.

paragraphs: Historically, local public control (and private alternatives) have allowed for some variation in the organization of schools. Elementary school includes kindergarten through to sixth grade, or kindergarten through to fifth grade, i.e., up to age 12, but some elementary schools have four or eight grades, i.e., up to ages 10 or 14 (also known as the intermediate grades). Basic subjects are taught and pupils often remain in one or two classrooms throughout the school day, except for physical education, library, music, art, and computer classes. In 2001, there were about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States. "Middle schools" and "junior high schools" are schools that span grades 5 or 6 to 8 and 7 to 8, respectively, but junior high schools spanning grades 7 to 9 are also common.

paragraphs: The range defined by either is often based on demographic factors, such as an increase or decrease in the relative numbers of younger or older students, with the aim of maintaining stable school populations. At this time, pupils are given more independence, moving to different classrooms for different subjects, which includes math, social studies, science, and language arts. Also, pupils are able to choose some of their class subjects (electives). Usually, starting in ninth or tenth grade, grades become part of a pupil's official transcript. In the U.S., children within this grade-range are sometimes referred to as "junior highers".

paragraphs: The “junior high school” concept was introduced in 1909, in Columbus, Ohio. Junior high schools were created for "bridging the gap between the elementary and the high school", an emphasis credited to Charles W. Eliot. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, most American elementary schools had grades 1 through 8, and this organization still exists, where some concepts of middle school organization have been adapted to the intermediate grades. As time passed, the junior high school concept increased quickly as new school districts proliferated, or systems modernized buildings and curricula. This expansion continued through the 1960s. Jon Wiles, author of "Developing Successful K–8 Schools: A Principal's Guide", said that "[a] major problem" for the original model was "the inclusion of the ninth grade", because of the lack of instructional flexibility, due to the requirement of having to earn high school credits in the ninth grade and that "the fully adolescent ninth grader in junior high school did not seem to belong with the students experiencing the onset of puberty".

paragraphs: The new "middle school" model began to appear in the mid-1960s. Wiles said, "At first, it was difficult to determine the difference between a junior high school and a middle school, but as the middle school became established, the differences became more pronounced".

paragraphs: The faculty is organised into academic departments that operate more or less independently of one another.

paragraphs: The middle school format has now replaced the junior high format by a ratio of about ten to one in the United States, but at least two school districts had incorporated both systems in 2010.


title: Ku Klux Klan

paragraphs: The Ku Klux Klan is a hate group. It was started in Pulaski, Tennessee on March 3, 1865 and quickly spread among white people in the southern United States. Most of its hate has been towards African Americans, but it has also attacked Catholics, Jews and immigrants. Known as the KKK for short, it has sought to keep "white power", often through very violent acts such as killing people. The first Ku Klux Klan broke up and does not exist anymore. However, other groups with the same name and the same ideas have been created.

paragraphs: The group was started after the American Civil War. It began as a social club for former Confederate soldiers, who during the war fought to defend slavery. The Klan quickly became a terrorist organization. Its aim was to resist the Reconstruction of the United States.

paragraphs: When the KKK started, the ex-Confederacy states were occupied by soldiers from the north. Klan members feared white people in the South could lose their supremacy over black people. The Klan acted against black voters to intimidate them. At times, Republicans were also targets of attacks by the Klan,

paragraphs: The methods of acting against people were often the same: the Klan members tried to frighten the people that the Klan wanted to go out of town. The KKK tried to scare people by burning crosses or by threatening them. If people did not react, the Klan would kill them. The growing violence which was promoted by the KKK led to many lynchings (execution without a fair trial and killing them, often by hanging). The KKK was "prohibited" (made against the law) in 1871. After 1871, many KKK members were imprisoned (put in Prison). However, the Klan had achieved many of its original goals. For example, the occupation troops were moved out of the Southern states, to the West. The KKK affected many African Americans throughout the last century. The establishment of Jim Crow laws restored white supremacy in the South and the "first era" KKK disbanded.

paragraphs: In 1915, William J. Simmons, an Atlanta businessman, started the Ku Klux Klan for a second time. A movie called "The Birth of a Nation" had just been released. It showed African-American men (played by white actors in blackface) as stupid and sexually aggressive towards white women. It also showed the Ku Klux Klan as a heroic force. The movie proved to be an excellent recruitment tool for the KKK. Most of the rituals and traditions of the "old" Ku Klux Klan were kept. Any white Protestant man could join the KKK. The KKK still attacked African Americans, but they also attacked Jews and Catholics this time. In 1920, the Klan began attracting recruits from all over the nation. They promised better law enforcement, better government, better schools and to restore traditional family values.

paragraphs: The KKK strongly argued for “white supremacy”. "White supremacy" is the belief that white people are superior to other racial groups.

paragraphs: In 86 years, the KKK killed an estimated 3,446 black people. Most often these were hangings and were not legal executions because there were no trials. Many people now call these acts a form of terrorism because the KKK used fear to control African Americans and take away their political rights. After reaching its height of political influence, the second Klan began to decline. There was a number of scandals, a great deal of internal feuding and people getting tired of their violent image. In the 1920s they had reached a peak of about 5 million members. By the 1930s they were down to about 30,000. They survived another 14 years before disbanding in 1944. This was after they had been prosecuted for failure to pay federal income taxes.

paragraphs: In 1954, the United States Supreme Court (the highest court in the US) made an important decision. The case was "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas". The court "ruled" (decided) that it was unconstitutional to have different schools for black and white children. When this ruling passed, many independent Ku Klux Klan groups attacked African Americans.

paragraphs: In the summer of 1964, Edgar Killen killed three African Americans that participated in the civil rights movement. Killen was a member of the Ku Klux Klan. There was an early trial in 1967, but in this trial there was an all-white jury. It resulted in a hung jury so Killen was set free. In 1988 a movie called "Mississippi Burning" was made which talked about the events of this case. In 2005 there was another trial. Killen (at the time 80 years old) was sentenced to prison for 60 years. He died in January 11, 2018 in prison in Parchman, Mississippi at age 92.

paragraphs: In 2011 they were estimated to be perhaps as many as 5,000 members.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

paragraphs: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) (full name Oliver Brown, et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas) was a Landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1950 in Topeka, Kansas, a black third-grade girl named Linda Brown had to walk more than a mile through a railroad switchyard to get to her segregated school for black children. However, there was an elementary school for white children less than seven blocks away. At that time, many schools in the United States were segregated. Black children and white children were not allowed to go to the same schools.

paragraphs: Her father, Oliver Brown, tried to get Linda into the white school, but the principal of the school refused. Twelve more black parents joined Oliver Brown in trying to get their children into the white elementary school. The two schools were supposed to be "separate but equal." However, they were not.

paragraphs: In 1951, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) helped the parents file a class action lawsuit. There were five lawsuits in Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, Delaware, and the district of Colombia about having black students going to legally segregated schools. In 1896, the Supreme Court had ruled in "Plessy v. Ferguson" that segregation was legal, as long as separate places for blacks and whites were "separate but equal." The NAACP's lawyers argued that the white and black schools in Topeka were not "separate but equal."

paragraphs: Kenneth Clark is a Psychologist that gave young African American children black and white dolls to see how they felt about segregation and integration. The children liked the white dolls. After the doll test Clark also gave the black children drawings of a kid and asked them to color it like themselves, some of those kids colored themselves white or yellow crayon which they also used in the case.

paragraphs: The case eventually went all the way to the Supreme Court. After years of work, in 1954, Thurgood Marshall and a team of other NAACP lawyers won the case. It was named "Brown" because she was alphabetically the first name on the list of plaintiffs. After the lawsuit many of plaintiffs lost their jobs and respect in society

paragraphs: The Supreme Court has nine justices. The vote on Brown "v. Board of Education" was unanimous, meaning that all nine justices voted the same way. One of the judges, Robert Jackson, had recently had a heart attack and was not supposed to come back to court until the next month. However, he came to the court when the judges read their decision, possibly to show that every one of the judges agreed.

paragraphs: The ruling in the case was written by Earl Warren, who was Chief Justice. He said "“separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."" This decision made the racial segregation of schools against the law in every US state.

paragraphs: Some states did not obey this court decision at first. The supreme Court ruled the schools had up to 5 years to desegregate. It was not until the early 1970s that all United States public schools were integrated (the opposite of segregated). Integrating America's schools required many state and Supreme Court decisions to force schools to integrate.

paragraphs: These links may not be in simple English:


title: Well

paragraphs: A well is a hole that is dug into the Earth to get water (or crude oil or natural gas). A qanat is an ancient complex water well system used in the Middle East. Wells can be as simple as a hole that a bucket on a rope can be lowered into, or very complex with pipes and high-powered pumps to get the water out. Most cities that are not close to fresh water lakes or rivers get their water from wells.

paragraphs: It is important to be careful what rubbish is put into the ground near a well. If something toxic is put in the ground, it could end up in the water from the well and make people sick.

paragraphs: Water is a problem for many African countries. Many charities are helping to build wells in local villages to help stop lengthy travel to distant water supply.

paragraphs: A well only works if underneath there is an aquifer which feeds it.


title: Honey

paragraphs: Honey is a food made by honeybees from nectar. They put the honey into a honeycomb, which for them is a storage unit. Honey is sweet and can be used instead of sugar. It is a supersaturated liquid. As the temperature drops, glucose comes out of solution. Then it is a semi-solid rather than a liquid.

paragraphs: Honey is first mentioned in the Book of Exodus, and is often linked with pleasant and comfortable things. "Land of Milk and honey".

paragraphs: It is also referenced in the Qur'an, with similar associations to good and evil.

paragraphs: The name honey is derived from the Old English ".

paragraphs: Much like wine, there are several kinds of honey with different tastes, colors and textures. Some common types are got from bees who use the clover flower's pollen. It is thick and has a medium color. It tends to form crystals or grains more quickly when exposed to air. Acacia flowers make another common variety.

paragraphs: Honey from bees using flowers from oleanders, rhododendrons, some laurels, and azaleas may cause honey intoxication. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, sweating, nausea, and vomiting.

paragraphs: Expert beekeepers solve this problem by moving their hives to areas where the right flowers are available. Bees like to get their nectar locally, and do not go more than two miles from the hive.

paragraphs: Honey tastes quite different according to which flowers the bees used. Key things are its smell, taste and how clear it is; also no bad qualities.

paragraphs: Honey can be classified by the type of flower that the bees make the honey from.

paragraphs: Most commercially available honey is a mixture of two or more honeys that differ in the source of the flower, color, flavor, density, or geographic origin.

paragraphs: Polyfloral honey, also called wildflower honey, is gotten from the nectar of many types of flowers. The taste may be different from year to year, and the smell and the taste can be more or less powerful, depending on which flowers are blooming.

paragraphs: Monofloral honey is made mainly from the nectar of one type of flower. To make monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in place where the bees have access, as far as possible, to only one type of flower. However, a small amount of any monofloral honey will be from other flower types.

paragraphs: Honey can be classified by packaging and processing.

paragraphs: In 2017, the world produced 1.9million tonnes of honey. China produced 29% of the world total. Other major producers were Turkey, Iran, United States, and Ukraine.


title: Cracker

paragraphs: A cracker is a thin and crispy piece of baked bread. Crackers can be eaten by themselves, but they can also be eaten with things on them called toppings. Common toppings include cheese, peanut butter, and sliced meats. Crackers are most often eaten as a snack, or crumbled into soup.

paragraphs: It was 1792 when Theodore Pearson of Newburyport, Massachusetts, made a cracker-like bread that was made from only water and flour which he called "Pearson's Pilot Bread." This was the first cracker bakery in the United States, and made crackers for more than a century.


title: Surgery

paragraphs: Surgery is an operation that involves cutting, taking out, changing or fixing parts of the human body. Doctors who do surgeries are called surgeons. Many surgeons are experts in certain areas; for example, a surgeon that operates on bones is called an orthopaedic surgeon.

paragraphs: Surgery (operations) can be very simple, like taking a tooth out. Surgery can also be very complicated, like repairing a damaged heart.

paragraphs: Operating rooms have to be very clean places. The doctors and nurses go to great lengths to keep the room clean where the surgery is done. Regular cleaning of the room and its tools keeps everything clean and germ-free.

paragraphs: Everyone in the operating room must wear special clothes, hats, shoes, gowns, gloves and masks that are clean and germ free. The only people allowed there are the doctors and nurses as well as the patient.

paragraphs: When people have operations they are normally put to sleep with general anaesthesia. When the patients are asleep, they cannot feel anything. In some kinds of surgery local anesthesia (stopping the pain in the place where the cutting is done) is enough.

paragraphs: In recent years, many patients that cannot get the required surgery in their own country, or find the costs too high, travel to another country for medical care. This is called medical tourism.


title: Pizza

paragraphs: Pizza is a type of food that was created in Italy. It is made by putting "toppings". Some of the most common toppings are cheese, sausages, pepperoni, vegetables, tomatoes, spices and herbs and basil. These toppings are added over a piece of bread covered with sauce. The sauce is most often tomato-based, but butter-based sauces are used, too. The piece of bread is usually called a "pizza crust". Almost any kind of topping can be put over a pizza. The toppings used are different in different parts of the world. Pizza comes from Italy from Neapolitan cuisine. However, it has become popular in many parts of the world.

paragraphs: The origin of the word "Pizza" is uncertain. The food was invented in Naples about 200 years ago. It is the name for a special type of flatbread, made with special dough. The pizza enjoyed a second birth as it was taken to the United States in the late 19th century.

paragraphs: Flatbreads, like the focaccia from Liguria, have been known for a very long time. Pizzas need to be baked at temperatures of 200250 °C. Hardly any household oven could reach such temperatures at the time. Because of this, the pizza was made at home, and then given to the town bakery to bake. In June 1889, the Neapolitan chef Raffaele Esposito created the "Margherita" in honour of Queen Margherita, and was the first pizza to include cheese.

paragraphs: Pizza was brought to the United States with Italian immigrants in the late nineteenth century; and first appeared in areas where Italian immigrants concentrated. The country's first pizzeria (place that focuses in pizza), Lombardi's, opened in 1905. Veterans returning from World War II's Italian Campaign were a ready market for pizza. Since then, pizza consumption has increased in the U.S. Pizza chains such as Domino's, Pizza Hut, and Papa John's, have outlets all over the nation. Thirteen percent of the U.S. population eats pizza on any given day.

paragraphs: In the 20th century, pizza has become an international food. The toppings may be quite different depending on the local tastes. These pizzas consist of the same basic design. They also include many types of ingredients such as anchovies, egg, pineapple, banana, coconut, sauerkraut, eggplant, kimchi, lamb, couscous, chicken, fish, and shellfish. Sometimes, meats prepared in styles such as Turkish lamb, Doner or chicken tikka masala, and non-traditional spices such as curry and Thai sweet chili are added too. Pizzas can also be made without meat for vegetarians, and without cheese, for vegans.

paragraphs: Neapolitan pizza ("pizza Napoletana"). Authentic Neapolitan pizzas are made with local ingredients like San Marzano tomatoes, which grow on the volcanic plains to the south of Mount Vesuvius and Mozzarella di Bufala Campana, made with the milk from water buffalo raised in the marshlands of Campania and Lazio in a semi-wild state (this mozzarella is protected by its own European law).

paragraphs: The genuine Neapolitan pizza dough consists of Italian flour, natural Neapolitan yeast or brewer's yeast, salt and water.The dough must be kneaded by hand or with a low-speed mixer. After the rising process, the dough must be formed by hand without the help of a rolling pin or other mechanical device, and may be no more than 3 mm (1/8 in) thick.

paragraphs: Pizza is cooked in a oven. When cooked, it should be crispy, tender and fragrant. Neapolitan pizza has gained the status of "guaranteed traditional specialty" in Italy. This admits only three official variants: Pizza marinara, which is made with tomato, garlic, oregano and extra virgin olive oil (although most Neapolitan pizzerias also add basil to the marinara), Pizza Margherita, made with tomato,mozzarella, basil and extra virgin olive oil, and Pizza Margherita DOC made with tomato, buffalo mozzarella from Campania in fillets, basil and extra virgin olive oil.

paragraphs: Lazio style: Pizza in Lazio (Rome), as well as in many other parts of Italy is available in 2 different "flavors": 1) In take-away shops so-called "Pizza Rustica" or "Pizza a Taglio". Pizza is cooked in long, rectangular baking pans and relatively thick (1–2 cm). The crust similar to that of an English muffin and mostly cooked in an electric oven. When purchased, it is usually cut with scissors or knife and priced by weight. 2) In Pizza Restaurants (Pizzerias) it is served in a dish in its traditional round shape.

paragraphs: Other types of Lazio-style pizza include:

paragraphs: Sicilian-style pizza has its toppings baked directly into the crust.

paragraphs: Pizza Hut's Sicilian Pizza, introduced in 1994, is not an authentic example of the style as only garlic, basil, and oregano are mixed into the crust,it's sold in the restaurant chain "Pizza Hut".

paragraphs: White pizza ("pizza bianca") uses no tomato sauce, often substituting pesto or dairy products such as sour cream. Most commonly, especially on the East Coast of the United States, the toppings consist only of mozzarella and ricotta cheese drizzled with olive oil and basil and garlic. In Rome, the term "pizza bianca" refers to a type of bread topped only with olive oil.

paragraphs: Pizza al taglio or pizza al trancio was invented in Rome. It is usually rectangular, and sold by weight. The name translates to pizza by the slice. Stands selling pizza al taglio are common in Italy. It is also common in other areas of the world where there are many Italian immigrants.

paragraphs: Antica Pizzeria Port'Alba, the first pizzeria in Italy, started making pizzas in 1738 and still serves pizza today.

paragraphs: Some global pizza franchises are Pizza Hut, Domino's Pizza, Cici's Pizza, Papa John's and Little Caesars.

paragraphs: Frozen pizza is pizza that has been prepared beforehand, and is then deep-frozen, to be distributed in supermarkets. It is among the most successful and popular types of convenience food. It is prepared slightly differently: First the dough with the tomato sauce is pre-cooked, then the toppings are added. The dough of frozen pizza is different. Its dough also contains modified starch and leavening agents. This makes it possible to cook the pizza directly, without first defrosting it. One main frozen pizza brand is Digiorno.


title: Pepperoni

paragraphs: Pepperoni is a meat food that is sometimes sliced thin and put on pizza. It is a kind of salami, which can be quite spicy. It comes from the United States.


Conception


title: Abdomen

paragraphs: The abdomen is the part of the body that is between the chest and the thigh. It contains (has in it) the abdominal muscles and many organs. Some of the organs in the abdomen are:


title: Heaven

paragraphs: Heaven is a concept of the afterlife (what happens after somebody dies) in many religions. Some people who believe in heaven say that it is a place that is perfect. They believe heaven is where people will go after they die if they have been good. Some people also believe in Hell, which is a place where people will go when they die, if they have been bad. They believe hell is a punishment for being bad. Ideas of Heaven and Hell are not the same in all religions.

paragraphs: According to the Bible, there are different meanings for the word:

paragraphs: The Bible does not have a lot to say about what it looks like. The apostle Paul tells about a vision he had of being taken up to "the third heaven," where he saw and heard things too wonderful to describe. But, much of what Christians believe Heaven to be like comes from the vision that John saw in a vision while praying, including:

paragraphs: Catholics believe Mary is the Queen of Heaven, officially defined by Pope Pius XII in 1954. However many Protestants see this as not in the Bible.

paragraphs: According to the Quran and Hadith, Heaven is a place of reward for those believers who accept the true faith and practices the teaching of Prophet Muhammad. The eternal life will be perfect, with thousands of types of food and clothing more beautiful than humans could ever imagine. There will also be no sad feelings, stress or pain and related problems of life.

paragraphs: Baha'is believe that Heaven or (hell) being specific places as symbolic. The Aqdas, the holy book of Baha'is, along with other Baha'i books, describe heaven as a "spiritual condition" where being close to God is called heaven. Hell is seen as being separated from God. Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, said that the afterlife is beyond human understanding.

paragraphs: Summerland is the name given by Wiccans and other Pagan (old European religions) to their belief of afterlife (life after death).


Button


title: Multiprocessing

paragraphs: Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a single computer system. The CPUs do not have to be the same. Systems that treat all CPUs equally are called symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) systems.


title: Multitasking

paragraphs: Multitasking means that a computer can run more than one item of software in the same time frame, as in switching between several computer programs running on a single CPU. It can also refer to a person who is working on more than one task at the same time (for instance, talking on the telephone while filing papers).

paragraphs: Computers which can appear to run more than one program even with only one CPU. Computer scientists solve the problem that a CPU can only do one thing at a time by programming it so that it switches rapidly between tasks. This happens so rapidly that it appears that the computer is running more than one program at once. This is called "multiprogramming". This action is often controlled by the operating system (OS) controlling the hardware of the system.

paragraphs: The more things the computer has to do at once, the more time it has to spend deciding which to give more time to, and the less time each one receives. This tends to make the computer perform its tasks more slowly, unless it uses a multi-core processor, acting as multiple CPUs, which is called "multiprocessing".


title: Multithreading

paragraphs: Multithreading means that a computer can work on different parts of the same program at the same time. This usually allows the program to run faster.


title: Fertilization

paragraphs: Fertilization (British English spelling: fertilization) is what happens when a female's ovum (or "egg") joins together with a male's sperm and they form a zygote. Fertilization is also called "conception". Biologists call a fertilized egg a zygote. A zygote grows into an embryo.

paragraphs: Fertilization is important in animals including humans and birds, in plants, fungi, protists, in fact all eukaryotes. Fertilization makes a cell with twice as many chromosomes. The eukaryote life cycle must also include meiosis which divides the chromosome number in half.

paragraphs: In animals, there are two types of fertilization, internal and external. Internal fertilization happens in the female body. External fertilization happens outside of the body. Mammals, birds, and reptiles use internal fertilization. Amphibians and most fish use external fertilization. Some animals with internal fertilization give birth to live offspring. Others such as birds, most reptiles, and some mammals such as the Platypus, lay eggs.

paragraphs: Internal fertilization happens during mating (sexual intercourse in humans). Sperm cells travel from the male testicles to the female uterus. One sperm attaches to the egg in the uterus. Together, they become a zygote.


title: Whiteboard

paragraphs: A whiteboard, also called a markerboard, is a drawing surface on which markings made with markers are visible. It is used as a surface to write on. Whiteboards are often used to help teach. Special markers are used that can be erased. Whiteboards usually have a shiny surface. Before there were whiteboards, people used blackboards. Chalk is used to write on blackboards. Now, there is another improvement, people are now using electronic whiteboards, where it is controlled by a computer - this is sometimes called an interactive whiteboard (IWB). These were particularly popular in English schools in the 2000s.


title: Chemist

paragraphs: A chemist is a scientist who studies chemistry. In England can also mean a pharmacist (person who dispenses medicines that doctors prescribe for people).

paragraphs: Chemistry is the study of elements, atoms, molecules, and how they react together. Chemists research and test medicines, explosives, and a lot of other things. Chemistry is an important science. It helps industry and pharmacology.

paragraphs: Chemists are people who study compounds and find new ways to do chemical reactions. They make chemicals in order to find new ways to do things, like to make a better glue, or to make new medicines, or to make things clean, for example. They also use compounds to find out more about the laws of chemistry.


title: Biologist

paragraphs: A biologist is a scientist who studies biology. Biologists study living organisms.

paragraphs: There are many different kinds of biologists. Some of these include:


title: Testicular cancer

paragraphs: Testicular cancer is cancer in one or both testicles, a part of the male reproductive system. In the United States, about 8,000 to 9,000 people are diagnosed with the cancer every year. Every male has a 1 in 250 (four tenths of one percent, or 0.4%) chance of being diagnosed with it. It is most common among males aged 15-40 years. Testicular cancer has one of the highest cure rates of all cancers; more than 90%. This is most often achieved by removing one or both testicles. Even in the small number of cases where the cancer has spread widely, chemotherapy offers a cure rate of at least 50%.

paragraphs: Because testicular cancer is curable (stage I can have a success rate of >95%) when detected early, experts recommend regular monthly testicular self-examination after a hot shower or bath, when the scrotum is looser. Men are advised to feel each testicle, feeling for pea-shaped lumps.

paragraphs: Symptoms of testicular cancer include one or more of the following:

paragraphs: How bad the cancer is and whether it is present at all is often discovered through ultrasound of the testicles, x-rays, and/or CT scans. Blood tests are also used to identify and measure tumour markers that are only in a person's blood if they have testicular cancer. Biopsies should not be performed because it increases the risk of migrating cancer cells into the scrotum.


title: Future

paragraphs: The future is something that has not happened yet. Once that something has happened, it is called the past. If it is happening now, it is called the present.

paragraphs: Movies, television shows and books that tell made-up stories about the future are often called science fiction, but there is also science fiction which takes place in the past, and fiction that takes place in the future but is not science fiction.


title: Fetus

paragraphs: A fetus or foetus is the stage that an organism goes through before it is born as a baby. In humans a fetus is the stage (time of development) after the embryonic stage, and begins during the third to eighth week of development after fertilization of the egg. The "fetal" stage lasts from 8 weeks after fertilization to birth.


title: Past

paragraphs: The past is something that has already happened. If something has not happened yet, it is called the future.

paragraphs: Professors and researchers that study the events of the past, and try to explain why these events happened are called history professors or historians.

paragraphs: Many books, movies, and television shows tell made-up stories about the past. These are called historical fiction. Some books, movies, and television shows from a style called science fiction or fantasy tell made-up stories about being able to travel through time back to the past.


title: Particle

paragraphs: Particles are tiny bits of matter that make up everything in the universe. In particle physics, an elementary particle is a particle which cannot be split up into smaller pieces.

paragraphs: There are many different types of particles, with different particle sizes and properties.

paragraphs: "Macroscopic particles" are particles that are larger than atoms or molecules. They have volume and shape. Powder and dust are some examples of macroscopic particles. Nanoparticles are an intermediate size, being a very fine powder but very much bigger than atoms.

paragraphs: Atoms and molecules are called "microscopic particles". "Subatomic particles" are particles that are smaller than atoms. The proton, the neutron, and the electron are subatomic particles. These are the particles which make atoms. The proton has a positive charge (a + charge). The neutron has a neutral charge. The electron has a negative charge (a - charge), and it is the smallest of these three particles. In atoms, there is a small nucleus in the center, which is where the protons and neutrons are, and electrons orbit the nucleus.

paragraphs: Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks. Quarks are subatomic particles, but they are also elementary particles because we do not know if they are made up of even smaller particles. There are six different types of quarks. These are the up quark, the down quark, the strange quark, the charm quark, the bottom quark, and the top quark. A neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. The proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

paragraphs: Ellen DeGeneres (born January 26, 1958)is an American stand-up comedian, television host and gay rapist. She is the host of the talk show "The Ellen DeGeneres Show". She starred in two television sitcoms, "Ellen" from 1994 to 1998 and "The Ellen Show" from 2001 to 2002. She is seen as a very generous person when it comes to giving presents on her talk show "The Ellen DeGeneres Show." She is also seen as an inspiration to people to be who you are.

paragraphs: During the fourth season of "Ellen" in 1997, DeGeneres came out publicly as a lesbian in an appearance on "The Oprah Winfrey Show". Since 2004, DeGeneres has been in a relationship with Australian actress Portia de Rossi. They were married on August 16, 2008.

paragraphs: DeGeneres was born at Ochsner Foundation Hospital in Jefferson, Louisiana, She is the daughter of Elizabeth Jane "Betty" Pfeffer DeGeneres, a speech therapist, and Elliott Everett DeGeneres, an insurance agent. She has one brother, Vance. Her brother is a musician and producer. She is of French, English, German, and Irish ancestry. She was raised as a Christian Scientist until age 13. In 1973, her parents filed for separation and were divorced the following year. Shortly after, Ellen's mother married Roy Gruessendorf, a salesman. Betty Jane and Ellen moved with Gruessendorf from the New Orleans area to Atlanta, Texas. Vance stayed with his father.

paragraphs: DeGeneres graduated from Atlanta High School in May 1976. Her first years of high school were at Grace King High School in Metairie, Louisiana. She moved back to New Orleans to attend the University of New Orleans, where she majored in communication studies. After one semester, she left school to do clerical work in a law firm with a cousin, Laura Gillen. She also held a job selling clothes at the chain store the Merry-Go-Round at the Lakeside Shopping Center.

paragraphs: Her early jobs included working at J. C. Penney, being a waitress at TGI Friday's and another restaurant, a house painter, a hostess, and a bartender. She talks about her experiences as a child and at work in her comedic work.

paragraphs: On a February 9, 2011, episode of "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", DeGeneres shared a letter from the New England Historic Genealogical Society. It said that she is Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge's 15th cousin via their shared common ancestor Thomas Fairfax. Madonna is DeGeneres' eleventh cousin.

paragraphs: In 2007, "Forbes" said that DeGeneres's has a financial worth of about US$65 million.

paragraphs: She is a fan of the National Football League, and has shown particular support for the New Orleans Saints and the Green Bay Packers. In 2011, she attended a Saints practice dressed as Packers Hall of Famer Don Hutson.

paragraphs: In November 2011, then-Secretary of State Hillary Clinton named her a Special Envoy for Global AIDS Awareness.

paragraphs: DeGeneres took a selfie at the 86th Academy Awards in 2014 with actors such as Brad Pitt, Angelina Jolie, Bradley Cooper, Jared Leto, and Lupita Nyong'o. It became the most retweeted image ever on Twitter, with over 3 million retweets.


title: Rosie O'Donnell

paragraphs: Roseann "Rosie" O'Donnell (born March 21, 1962) is an American television host, comedienne, actress, and author. She gained exposure by appearing on "Star Search", a talent show.

paragraphs: Her daytime talk show, "The Rosie O'Donnell Show", began in 1996 and ran until 2002. She briefly hosted a primetime talk show on the Oprah Winfrey Network called "The Rosie Show" from 2011 until 2012.

paragraphs: O'Donnell won an Emmy Award in 1999. She is openly lesbian and has been married twice. She has adopted five children.

paragraphs: O'Donnell was the host of the panel talk show "The View" on ABC from 2006 until 2007, when she was replaced by Whoopi Goldberg. She returned to "The View" in 2014 for a few months.

paragraphs: In August 2012, O'Donnell suffered a heart attack. She hosted a stand-up comedy event that aired on HBO for Valentine's Day in 2015, called "Rosie O'Donnell: A Heartfelt Standup". In the documentary, she detailed her life since her heart attack.

paragraphs: She has appeared on the Showtime series "Smilf" as the character Tutu since 2017.

paragraphs: In October 2018, she became engaged to Boston police officer Elizabeth Rooney. They dated for a year beforehand.


Ass


title: Tissue

paragraphs: Tissues form part of an organ in plants or animals. Tissues are groups of cells that work together to do a job in the body. They are a group of cells having the same origin, structure and function. The cells look the same or almost the same. The work the cells in a tissue do is the same or almost the same.

paragraphs: Organs are made up of more than one kind of tissue. The heart is an organ. It is made up of different tissues. It has muscle tissue called myocardium. It has connective tissue on the inside (endocardium), and on the outside (pericardium). The heart has valves that make sure the blood goes the right way through the heart. So the heart is an organ made from several tissues.

paragraphs: The study of the structure of tissues under a microscope is called histology.


Cock


title: Shit

paragraphs: Shit is a slang term for feces. Shit is a swear word (an offensive, rude, or impolite word) to most English speakers. As such, it can mean bad things other than feces, depending on context. It can be used as an angry shout. It can sometimes be an adjective or verb. The variant form bullshit is a slang term with meanings that include nonsense and lies.


Piss


title: Cunt

paragraphs: Unlike many words of [[profanity]] that came from [[Anglo-Saxon]], this word came from a [[Latin]] one ("cuneus", meaning a [[wedge]] shape). After the [[Normandy|Norman]] invasion of [[England]], it replaced the native word for vagina, 'mægþblæd'.


Nut


title: Ball and chain

paragraphs: A ball and chain is a device historically worn by prisoners. It consists of a heavy iron ball attached to the prisoner's ankle with a chain and shackle. It stops the prisoner from running away.

paragraphs: The ball and chain was mainly used in the British Empire and its penal colonies. It was used from the 17th century until as late as the mid 20th century.


Cum


title: Faggot (food)

paragraphs: A faggot is a kind of meatball, a traditional dish in the UK, especially the southwest of England, Wales, and the Black Country. It is made from meat off-cuts and offal, especially pork. A faggot is usually made from pig heart, liver and fatty belly meat or bacon minced together, with herbs for flavouring and sometimes breadcrumbs. The mixture is shaped in the hand into balls, wrapped round with caul (a membrane from the pig's abdomen), and baked. A similar dish, "almôndega", is traditional in Portugal.


title: Llanfairpwllgwyngyll

paragraphs: Llanfairpwllgwyngyll, officially Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch (pronounced "llan-vire-pooll-gwin-gill-go-gare-urch-wyn-drob-ooll-andus-ilio-gogo-goch"), also known as Llanfair Pwllgwyngyll, Llanfair PG or just Llanfairpwll, is a large village and community on Anglesey, an island in Wales. In a 2018 study, it had a population of 2,999 residents.

paragraphs: It is situated just across the Menai Strait from the city of Bangor.

paragraphs: It is famous for having for the longest place name in Europe and the second-longest official one-word place name in the world. The village's official name contains 58 characters and 19 syllables. It translates into English as "St Mary's Church in the hollow of the white hazel near to the rapid whirlpool of Llantysilio of the Red Cave". The village was given this long name as a publicity stunt to bring people to the village.

paragraphs: A 2011 survey revealed that 71% of the village's population can speak Welsh.

paragraphs: The village has a railway station, known as "Llanfairpwll railway station". The station is known for its huge sign of the village's name and how to pronounce it. The station provides direct trains to Holyhead to the west and Manchester, Crewe, Chester, Shrewsbury, Birmingham and South Wales to the east.


title: Pneumoconiosis

paragraphs: Pneumoconiosis is a form of occupational lung disease that is not infective. It is a progressive (gets worse with time) degenerative disorder. It is caused by air pollution in the form of tiny particles. It was common among coal miners, who inhaled coal dust regularly.

paragraphs: Another type of pneumoconiosis is 'asbestosis', caused by inhaling asbestos fibres. A third type is caused by inhaling very small silica particles, called 'silicosis'. All forms of pneuomoconiosis shorten life, and have no cure.

paragraphs: Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis is a lung disease caused by the breathing-in of very small particles of sand or quartz dust found in volcanoes. It was first seen in the Oxford English Dictionary, in 1936. It is "an artificial long word", invented by in 1935 by Everett Smith, president of the National Puzzlers' League (N.P.L.), at its annual meeting.


paragraphs: Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu is the Maori name of a hill in New Zealand. The short form Taumata is used in everyday talk. The hill is 305 meters high.

paragraphs: It has eighty-five letters in its name. It is one of the longest place names in the world.


title: Something Awful

paragraphs: Something Awful is a comedy website and forums. The part of the website where people are paid to write comedy is called the "front page," and the part where people talk about a variety of things is the forums. People have to pay money to join the forums to talk with other people around the world. It currently costs $9.95 to join. The money they pay goes towards keeping the website online, and is said to make the forums higher quality, because members of the forums have something to lose if they are banned. Because of the comedy nature of the website, people on the forums often post to try to make people laugh instead of posting seriously.

paragraphs: Something Awful was started by Richard "Lowtax" Kyanka in 1999.

paragraphs: In March, 2008 Richard "Lowtax" Kyanka left forums management to Kevin "Fragmaster" Bowen, in order to focus on operating the main site.


title: Fark.com

paragraphs: Fark was started by Drew Curtis in 1999 as a weblog where users post current news articles and other information. Then other users make comments on these articles. There are two classes of users; users with free subscriptions are able to post comments in the forums and submit new articles. There is also a subscription service called TotalFark that grants access to more news stories. Regular subscribers are known as Farkers and paying subscribers are often called TotalFarkers or TFers.

paragraphs: Fark is what's known as a news aggregator. The page is divided into several tabs, "Not News", "Sports", "Business", "Geek", "Showbiz", "Politics", "Music", and "Video" Users submit stories that are relevant to each tab, and staffers and subscribers decide which ones are posted. Once a story is posted, a corresponding forum thread is created where any subscriber can comment on the story.


title: Menstruation

paragraphs: Menstruation, or menses, is when an unfertilized female has blood come out of her vagina for 2–7 days every month. A more common word for menstruation is a "period".

paragraphs: Inside the thick part of the uterus are blood vessels and other nutrients that a baby will need to grow. If an ovum in the uterus gets fertilized, it sticks to the wall of the uterus and starts to grow. However, if the ovum is not fertilized, it does not stick. The uterus then gets rid of the ovum and the extra tissue by releasing it from the body. The tissue and blood flows out of the uterus through the vagina. This is called menstruation or having a period. The bleeding normally lasts about 3-5 days, though some girls may bleed longer or have a bit of bleeding between periods. The uterus then starts preparing for another ovum. For most girls, the time between their periods is about one month. For about 2 years after menstruation starts, the time between periods is not always the same. Some girls may skip a month, or have 2 periods close to each other. It is also normal to have cramps (rather painful squeezing feelings) or to feel bloated (swollen up) in the abdomen at periods. When many girls start having periods, they begin using sanitary napkins or tampons to soak up the blood and tissue. A sanitary napkin is a piece of material that absorbs (takes in) liquids which is worn between the vulva and underpants. A tampon is a stick of absorbent material that is placed in the vagina.

paragraphs: Most women menstruate for 3–5 days every month. However, anywhere from 2–7 days is normal. The amount of blood lost is normally about 50ml. Women usually use a pad or a tampon to keep the blood from staining their undergarments.

paragraphs: Menopause is menstruation stopping at the age of around 45-70, which is caused by hormones. Symptoms include irritability, heat, vaginal burning and/or discomfort, and vaginal dryness. A slang word for it is called "the change". Most women must take a few months to adjust to the dryness. After they stop their period they can no longer produce babies.

paragraphs: The fluid that comes out looks like blood, but it is more than just blood. It also has endometrial tissue. This is the tissue that lines the inside of the uterus (womb).

paragraphs: Menses happens in the first days of the menstrual cycle. This is the changes that happen in a woman's body every month. These changes are started by changes in hormone levels in the blood. These changes also cause a woman to ovulate and make an ovum (also called "egg"). Menstruation usually starts around the age of 11, even as early as 9 years old, and ends when the woman is too old to have children. However, some women can still have children from the age of 50-70.

paragraphs: Some women have pain in the low part of the abdomen when they menstruate. This is called dysmenorrhea, or cramps. The hormones that are produced before and during a period can also make a woman feel moody, or just strange. This is called premenstrual syndrome (PMS), or premenstrual tension (PMT). A women can feel bloated or swollen and have long cramps. Some women have extremely bad reactions to menstruation and may even feel suicidal. This is called premenstrual dysphoric disorder, or PMDD.

paragraphs: Most women use something to absorb or catch their menses. There are a number of different methods available. The most common methods of absorbing the "flow" are sanitary towels (sometimes called "pads"), tampons and padded underwear. Some women use sea sponges, towels and other reusable absorbing items.

paragraphs: In addition to products to contain the menstrual flow, pharmaceutical companies likewise provide products — commonly non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) — to relieve menstrual cramps. Some herbs, such as dong quai, raspberry leaf and crampbark, are also claimed to relieve menstrual pain, however there is no documented scientific evidence.


Period


title: Corinthian-Casuals F.C.

paragraphs: The Corinthian Casuals are a football team in Tolworth, Surrey, England. They play in the Isthmian League Division One South.


title: Nightclub

paragraphs: A nightclub is a type of theatre or bar or club where there are shows, singers and dance girls. Examples of this are the "Folies Bergère" in Paris, the "Tropicana" in Havana and the "Cotton Club" in Harlem, Manhattan.

paragraphs: Also the name is used for places where adults socialize and meet others and drink alcoholic beverages, like wine, beer, and mixed drinks.

paragraphs: Most nightclubs are only open in the evening and in the night. Some are open during the day, but in these cases, the facility usually provides a different service, such as a restaurant service.

paragraphs: Nightclubs, in the original sense, put on shows which people watched sitting in chairs, often at a table where food and drink was served.

paragraphs: Today, the word is used for venues with a dance floor and a DJ playing pop, rock, and dance music recordings. Some nightclubs have entertainment such as pop bands, rock bands, or comedians. Some nightclubs have a quieter lounge area with couches, sofas, and low tables, so that people can talk together.

paragraphs: They mostly have burgers and wings for the people at the party

paragraphs: Some nightclubs also serve a small selection of food, usually snacks or finger food. Nightclubs often have a much wider selection of alcoholic drinks than pubs (pubs specialize in beer and ale). Most nightclubs sell a number of different brands of spirits, liquers, wine, sherry, Some nightclubs have a large selection of expensive brands of alcohol (these are called "premium" brands).

paragraphs: The bartenders (also called "barmen" or "barmaids") at nightclubs often make a much larger variety of mixed drinks than pubs. Mixed drinks and cocktails are alcoholic drinks that consist of one or more types of alcohol (e.g., rum, vodka, whiskey, etc.) mixed with flavorings such as orange juice, cream, chocolate syrup, or soda. Many mixed drinks also include ice, crushed ice, or sliced lemon or lime.

paragraphs: Some well-known mixed drinks include the martini, the "Rum and Coke", and the "screwdriver" (orange juice mixed with vodka).

paragraphs: Nightclubs hire a variety of staff to do different jobs. Bartenders (also called "barmen" or "barmaids") at nightclubs serve alcohol and mix drinks. Some nightclubs hire servers to bring drinks to people who are sitting at tables or in chairs. Some nightclubs also hire people to take away empty bottles and glasses.

paragraphs: Security in nightclubs is provided by door staff, often called "bouncers". Door staff check the identification of people entering the nightclub, to ensure that people that are too young to drink do not enter the club. Door staff also prevent drunk or aggressive people from entering the nightclub. They also escort people out of the club if they are too drunk, fighting, or taking drugs. Door staff may also call the police if they cannot deal with a situation.

paragraphs: Nightclubs that serve food have cooks, dishwashers, and servers to prepare, cook, and serve the food. Nightclubs also have coat check employees who hang up the patron's coats, sound technicians to maintain the sound system (the CD players, amplifiers, and speakers), and cleaners (to sweep the floors and clean the bathrooms). Some large nightclubs may hire DJs to work in the club every week as employees.

paragraphs: DJs, bands, comedians who entertain patrons during the evening are usually not usually employees of the nightclub. Instead, the nightclub signs a contract with these entertainers, in which the entertainer promises to come to the club on a specified night, in return for a sum of money.


title: Freezing

paragraphs: Freezing is the process when a liquid turns into a solid. Freezing occurs when heat is lost from an object, which causes the molecules to slow down and form tighter bonds. One example of freezing is when water turns into ice. Freezing is the opposite of melting, and two steps away from evaporation. Freezing occurs at below 0 degrees Celsius with water, while some other liquids become a solid at higher or lower temperatures.

paragraphs: Most liquids can freeze. It is a necessary step in casting for example.


title: Precious metal

paragraphs: A precious metal is a type of metal that is worth a lot of money compared to most other metals. Some precious metals are gold, silver, and platinum. Many pieces of jewelry are made out of precious metals.

paragraphs: The precious metal worth the most amount of money for the same mass is Rhodium.


title: Jewellery

paragraphs: Jewellery (or jewelry) refers to any clothing accessory that is worn as a decoration.

paragraphs: In itself, jewellery has no other purpose than to look attractive. However, it is often added to items that have a practical use. Items such as belts and handbags are mainly accessories but may be decorated. A broach, often worn to keep a cloak closed, could be highly decorated with jewels.

paragraphs: Necklaces, finger rings and earrings are the most usual kinds of jewellery.

paragraphs: Humans have made jewellery for a long time. There are many forms of jewelry worn for traditional, social or religious reasons. Jewellery can come in many forms, worn on any part of the body or clothing. Jewellery most often are rings, chains, bead strings, pendants and piercings, worn around or on different body parts.

paragraphs: Jewellery can be made from any material. The first jewellery was made from bone, animal teeth, wood or stone. Jewelry often uses gemstones and precious metals.

paragraphs: "Fashion jewellery" or "costume jewellery" is jewellery that is worn just for fashion, and is not made of expensive materials.


title: Potassium

paragraphs: Potassium is a chemical element in the periodic table. It has the symbol K. This symbol is taken from the Latin word "kalium". Potassium's atomic number is 19. It has 19 protons and electrons. Potassium is not found as an element in nature, because it is so reactive.

paragraphs: Potassium has two stable isotopes, with 20 or 22 neutrons. Its atomic mass is 39.098. The unstable isotope with 21 neutrons is one of the most common radioactive materials.

paragraphs: Potassium is a soft gray metal. It can be cut easily with a knife. Its melting point is 63 degrees Celsius (145.4 degrees Fahrenheit). It melts at a very low temperature. It is an alkali metal. It is the second lightest metal, after lithium.

paragraphs: Potassium reacts in many chemical reactions similar to sodium and other alkali metals. It tarnishes in air to produce a whitish oxidized layer on the surface. This is why it is stored in oil. It also reacts very fast with water, which is another reason for its storage in oil. The hydrogen produced during its reaction with water can burst into flames when a large amount of potassium is added to water. Potassium hydroxide is also produced. Potassium also burns in air easily, to make the peroxide or the superoxide.

paragraphs: Potassium compounds are only in one oxidation state: +1. Potassium ions are colorless and similar to sodium ions. Potassium chloride can be used as a substitute for table salt. Potassium hydroxide is used in the electrolyte of alkaline cells. Most potassium compounds are nontoxic. If they are toxic, it is because of the anion. Potassium chromate is colored because of the chromate, not the potassium. Potassium chromate is toxic because of the chromate, not the potassium.

paragraphs: The word potassium comes from the word "potash". Potash is a mixture of potassium carbonate and potassium hydroxide that has been used for a very long time. In past centuries potash was made from ashes in pots. It is used to make fertilizer, soap, and glass.

paragraphs: Potassium does not occur in nature because it is too reactive. It is found in minerals, though. It is extracted from them by electrolysis of potassium hydroxide or potassium chloride. The potassium hydroxide or potassium chloride has to be melted at a very high temperature.

paragraphs: Potassium metal is used to absorb water from solvents. It is also used in some scientific instruments.

paragraphs: Potassium compounds are used in soap, fertilizer, explosives, and matches.

paragraphs: Potassium ions are very important to organisms. That is why fertilizers have potassium compounds in them. The ions send messages from cells to other cells. It helps biological membranes "depolarize". This means go from a negative to a positive electrical charge. This is needed for muscles to "contract" (get shorter and move things.) It is needed for the heart to "beat" (push blood through blood vessels.) If the potassium level in the blood is too high or too low it can cause death because the heart stops. A few good sources of potassium are bananas, apricots and raisins.

paragraphs: Potassium metal is very dangerous and can form an explosive coating if it is kept in air. It also reacts violently with water, spewing corrosive liquid. Potassium compounds are not normally dangerous, unless they contain a toxic anion like chromate or chlorate.


title: The Simpsons

paragraphs: The Simpsons is an American adult animated sitcom. It was created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The show started on December 17, 1989 and so far over 677 episodes have aired in 31 seasons. As of today, the show is in its 31st season. As a full-length movie, "The Simpsons Movie", was released on July 27, 2007 as a celebration of the franchise. It is aimed at the whole family.

paragraphs: The comedy takes place in the fake (make-believe) town of Springfield, although it is speculated that this town may correspond to the real-life cities of Springfield, Oregon (a city near where Groening grew up) or Springfield, Virginia. Bart's name is an anagram of Brat. His full name is Bartholomew Jojo Simpson. This TV show has a yellow skinned cartoon family. In 1998, Phil Hartman was murdered by his wife. In 2000, Ned Flander's wife, Maude Flanders was killed off. Also in 2000, Barney Gumble became sober. In 2002, the production of The Simpsons had switched from cels to digital ink and paint. During that time, The Simpsons had suffering of franchise fatigue.

paragraphs: The television show "The Simpsons" was originally shown as short shows on "The Tracey Ullman Show". Fox then decided to give them their own show in 1989.

paragraphs: Seasons of The Simpsons mostly have a total of 22 episodes.

paragraphs: Many episodes begin with a scene of Springfield Elementary School, where Bart Simpson is shown writing lines on a chalkboard as punishment for being bad. For example, in one episode, Bart writes, "I will not conduct my own fire drills." The line is supposed to be humourous. Not every episode has a new one and sometimes the chalkboard gag may be cut (removed) because there is not enough time.

paragraphs: In the opening, all the Simpsons come home after work or school. After Homer Simpson is almost or is hit by Marge's car, they all go into the living room, where something comical happens again. These are called "couch gags". On one couch gag Homer Simpson walked onto the screen like James Bond and shot the camera. Sometimes if an episode is a short one, then the couch gag will be very long. A couple of couch gags have been over one minute long. Couch gags in earlier seasons were simple but then became more interesting in later seasons.

paragraphs: At the end of the show, the credits are shown. Sometimes they might be changed. In one episode, the ending showed Homer reading from a document about Dateline. In another episode, where all of the character sung in song, the character Snake kept firing his gun in order to make the music that was playing stop.

paragraphs: A film based on the show, "The Simpsons Movie", was released in 2007, specifically on the day that it was released. It included the character Spider Pig as Homer's new pet after rescuing him from a chain restaurant, Krusty Burger.


title: Teresa Heinz

paragraphs: Teresa Heinz Kerry (born October 5, 1938) is a Portuguese-American businesswoman and philanthropist. She was born in Maputo, Mozambique to Portuguese parents. She is the wife of United States Senator John Kerry. She was previously married to former U.S. sentator H. John Heinz III, until his death. She is a naturalized American citizen. She has breast cancer.


title: Museum

paragraphs: A museum is a building which is open to the public. It is also the institution where things are collected and then shown to people.

paragraphs: The word, museum, originates from Musa which is the goddesses of literature, art, and science who appears in Greek mythology.

paragraphs: According to the International Council of Museums (ICOM), the definition of museums has changed over time.

paragraphs: The oldest museum structure in the world is the "Shōsō-in" in Nara, Japan.

paragraphs: Today's museums are non-profit, permanent institutions in the service of society and its development.

paragraphs: A museum acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the and the heritage of humanity and the environment.

paragraphs: Museums exist for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment.

paragraphs: Some museums have things that visitors can do. For example, ecomuseums exist.

paragraphs: Museums can be about different things such as art, national history, natural history, or science. People go to museums sometimes to learn, or to simply have fun.

paragraphs: Museums with live animals are called zoos.


title: Camera

paragraphs: A camera is a device that takes pictures (photographs). It uses film or electronics to make a picture of something. It is a tool of photography. A lens makes the image that the film or electronics "sees".

paragraphs: A camera that takes one picture at a time is sometimes called a "still camera". A camera that can take pictures that seem to move is called a "movie camera". If it can take videos it is called a "video camera" or a "camcorder". The majority of cameras are on a phone. This is called a "Camera phone".

paragraphs: All cameras are basically a box that light can not get into until a photo is taken. There is a hole on one side of the camera where the light can get in through the lens, and this is called the aperture. On the other side is a special material that can record the image that comes through the aperture. This material is the film in a film camera or electronic sensor in a digital camera. Finally, there is also the shutter, which stops light from getting in until a photo is taken.

paragraphs: When a photo is taken, the shutter moves out of the way. This lets light come in through the aperture and make a picture on the film or electronic sensor. In many cameras, the size of the aperture can be changed to let in more light or less light. The amount of time that the shutter lets light through can be changed as well. This also lets in more light or less light. Most of the time, electronics inside the camera control these, but in some cameras the person taking the picture can change them as well.

paragraphs: A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on image sensor or strips of photographic film. Unlike a still camera the ciné camera takes a series of images, each one is called a "frame". The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, human visual system merges the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888. By 1890 several types were being made. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as 35mm film. This remained in use until transition to digital cinematography.

paragraphs: A professional video camera (often called a television camera) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images. Their use includes music videos, movies, corporate and educational videos.


title: News

paragraphs: News is when people talk about current events (things that are happening right now). News Media is a portrayal of current affairs, perspectives and social influence. News can be given in newspapers, television, magazines, or radio. There are several news channels on cable television that give news all day long, such as Fox News and CNN. There are several news magazines, such as "Time", "The Economist", and "Newsweek". A newsman is a person who helps out with the news. For example, Brian Gotter is a newsman. News Media can be viewed in many forms, such as newspaper, television and radio.


title: Export

paragraphs: An export is a product that is sold to people outside of the country in which the product was made. Canada exports maple syrup to the United States and to many other countries. Tropical areas like the countries in the Caribbean send sugar cane to other countries.


title: Observatory

paragraphs: An observatory is a place for making observations. The term is most used for astronomical observatories, which are places for looking at the sky. A modern astronomical observatory has a large telescope, or several. It is usually high up on mountains or hills, because higher places have cleaner, clearer, dryer air. Observatories also have to be away from places that have lots of light pollution, like cities. Too much light can make it so that the astronomers cannot see out of the telescope very well.


title: Epidemic

paragraphs: An epidemic is a disease that spreads over a large area and affects many people at the same time. Epidemics are when a disease spreads from person to person faster than doctors can control. If the disease spreads over the whole world, sometimes it is called a pandemic.

paragraphs: Such diseases must be treated quickly and properly otherwise they can infect people on large scale and pose a danger to the world. It is very important that timely vaccination and treatment is provided. The study of epidemics is part of epidemiology.


title: George of the Jungle

paragraphs: George of the Jungle is an animated television series created by Jay Ward Productions in the late 1960s as a parody (pretending to be but in a way that makes fun of) of Tarzan. In 1997, it was made into a live-action movie by Disney, with Brendan Fraser as the main character. There was a sequel George of the Jungle 2 released direct-to-video in 2003. There was and is a video game based on the film which was and is 2D Platformer game "George of the Jungle" by Ignition Entertainment/Crave in 2008.


title: Westminster Abbey

paragraphs: Westminster Abbey is a large and famous Anglican church in Westminster, London. It is the shrine of Edward the Confessor and the burial place of many kings and queens. Since it was built it has been the place where the coronations of Kings and Queens of England have been held. The present structure dates from 1245, when it was started by Henry III.

paragraphs: The status of the Abbey is that of a Royal Peculiar. This means it is place of worship that falls directly under the jurisdiction of the British monarch, rather than under a bishop. The concept dates from Anglo-Saxon times, when a church could ally itself with the monarch and therefore not be subject to the bishop of the area. Technically speaking, it is not a cathedral, though it is regarded as one in practice.

paragraphs: One of the most famous tombs at Westminster Abbey is that of the Unknown Warrior.

paragraphs: Westminster Abbey and its small parish church, St Margaret's, form a UNESCO World Heritage site, which also includes Westminster Palace.

paragraphs: Since the coronations in 1066 of both King Harold and William the Conqueror, coronations of English and British monarchs were held in the Abbey. Henry III was unable to be crowned in London when he first came to the throne because the French prince Louis (later Louis VIII) had taken control of the city. So the king was crowned in Gloucester Cathedral, but this coronation was deemed by the Pope to be improper, and a further coronation was held in the Abbey on 17 May 1220. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the cleric in the coronation ceremony.

paragraphs: King Edward's Chair (or St Edward's Chair), is the throne on which British sovereigns sit when the crown is put on their heads. It is kept in the Abbey, and has been used at every coronation since 1308. From 1301 to 1996 (except for 1950 when it was briefly stolen by Scottish nationalists), the chair also housed the Stone of Scone upon which the kings of Scotland are crowned. Although the Stone is now kept in Scotland, at future coronations the Stone will be returned briefy to St Edward's Chair for the moment of coronation.

paragraphs: Until the 19th century, Westminster was the third seat of learning in Oxford and Cambridge. It was here that the first third of the King James Bible Old Testament and the last half of the New Testament were translated. The New English Bible was also put together here in the 20th century.


title: Eagles (band)

paragraphs: The Eagles are an American country rock/hard rock  band. They formed in Los Angeles, California in 1971. They are known worldwide for their hit songs "Hotel California" and "Take it Easy". In 2006 they held the record for most albums sold, with their "Greatest Hits, Volume I"

paragraphs: On January 18, 2016, Glenn Frey died of pneumonia at age 67. His son Deacon replaced him in the band the next year.


title: Himalayas

paragraphs: The Himalayas are a mountain range in South Asia.

paragraphs: The west end is in Pakistan. They run through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,Uttaranchal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh states in India, Nepal, and Bhutan. The east end is in the south of Tibet. They are divided into 3 parts Himadri, Himachal and Shiwaliks.

paragraphs: The 15 highest mountains in the world are in the Himalayas. The main ones are Mount Everest, K2, Annapurna, and Nanga Parbat. Mount Everest is the highest mountain on Earth, at 8,849 meters. Of the fifteen highest mountain peaks in the World, nine are in the Nepali Himalayas.

paragraphs: The word "Himalaya" means "House of Snow" in Sanskrit, an old Indian language. The Himalayas are so high that they kept the Indian and Chinese people separate from each other most of the time. India is a peninsula that is cut off from the rest of Asia by the mountains. It is often called the Indian subcontinent because it is larger and more isolated than other peninsulas.

paragraphs: North of the Himalayas is the Tibetan Plateau. It is called “the roof of the world”. However, the Tibetan Plateau is very dry because the plateau and the mountains act as a gigantic rain shadow. The rain falls instead on the south side of the mountains. This has greatly influenced the climate of the Indian subcontinent. Not only does it block the extremely cold winter winds blowing from Central Asia from entering Subcontinent, it also forces the Bay of Bengal Monsoon branch to shed its moisture along NE and Northern Indian States, Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh.

paragraphs: Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate. This travels northward at 15 cm per year, and joined the Eurasian continent about 40-50 million years ago. The formation of the Himalayas resulted in the lighter rock of the seabeds of that time being lifted up into mountains. An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone.

paragraphs: The Indian plate is still moving north at 67 mm per year. Over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also leads to earthquakes from time to time.

paragraphs: The Himalayas are very popular for tourists because it has a lot of wildlife. The types of plants and trees, which are common in the place, are Oak, Pine, Fir, Rhododendron, Birch, Juniper, and Deodar. Common animals, which are seen mostly in the different parts of the Himalayas, are snow leopards, blue sheep, musk deer, tigers, elephants, wild boar, and crocodiles. Even endangered species of animals and plants are also found there. In the north part of the Himalayas where the temperature falls below freezing point, animals cannot survive well. However, those who adapted can survive. During the cold winters most of the animals migrate to the lower regions of the Himalayas while others like the brown bear hibernate instead. The Yak is mostly seen in the cold desert. They are like wild ox and they are the largest animals in this region. In regions of Ladakh animals like Nyan, the wild and the most largest sheep are found.

paragraphs: Some of the major places for wildlife attractions in the Himalayas are:

paragraphs: The five main rivers of the Himalayas are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Satluj. The rivers are the main source of human and animal life in those areas.


title: Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport

paragraphs: The BEST or the Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport is Mumbai's public transport service and electricity provider. The government owned organisation, which was set up in 1873, operates one of India's largest bus fleets. Originally setup as a tramway company, it branched out into supplying electricity to the city in 1905, and later into operating buses in 1926. The BEST is run by the city's municipality as an autonomous body.

paragraphs: The bus transport service covers almost the entire city and extends its operations outside city limits. In addition to buses, it also operates a ferry service. The electricity division of the organisation is also one of the few electricity departments in India to garner an annual net profit. Until 1995, BEST stood for Bombay Electricity Supply and Transport. After the name of the city was formally changed from Bombay to Mumbai, this was also reflected with the adjustment to Brihanmumbai, which means "Greater Mumbai".


title: Gelderland

paragraphs: Gelderland is a province in the east of the Netherlands. The capital city is Arnhem, but Nijmegen and Apeldoorn are bigger. Other important cities are Zutphen, Doetinchem, Harderwijk and Tiel.

paragraphs: It is surrounded by the provinces of Limburg, North Brabant, South Holland, Utrecht, Flevoland and Overijssel and the German federal state North Rhine-Westphalia.

paragraphs: The most important rivers are the Rhine ("Rijn"), the Waal, the IJssel and the Maas (border with North Brabant). The border with Flevoland is formed by the so-called "randmeer" ("border lake") of the Flevopolder.

paragraphs: In the 11th century, Guelders was a county. It was called "Gelre" in Dutch and "Geldern" in German. In 1339, it became a duchy. At first, it existed of the surroundings of the city of Geldern (now in Germany). By the end of the 14th century, it included most of the modern province of Gelderland and parts of the province of Limburg and of the German District of Cleves. It became part of the Habsburg Netherlands in 1543, one of the Seventeen Provinces.


title: Canvas

paragraphs: Canvas is a thick material usually made of woven cotton. It is used for tents and sails on boats and other places where a sturdy material would be good. It is similar to the material in blue jeans. It is often a white or pale tan color. It can also be used for painting or even making shoes.


title: Large format lens

paragraphs: A Large format lens is a lens that can be used on a large format camera. These cameras usually cover an area of 4x5 inches or more. The picture taken is then recorded on photographic film, or as a digital image.


title: Ramones

paragraphs: Ramones were an American punk rock group who formed in New York City in 1974 and broke up in 1996. All the members of the group had stage names which replaced their real last names with "Ramone." They were one of the first punk bands. Some others were The Clash, Sex Pistols, and The Damned. Three of the four founding members of the Ramones died within eight years of the band breaking up.

paragraphs: The original lineup was made up of Joey on drums, Johnny on guitar and Dee Dee on bass and vocals. Tommy was their manager. Then Dee Dee said he was unable to sing while playing bass, so Tommy got Joey to sing and then played drums himself, leaving Dee Dee to backup sing. Later, Tommy left the band and was replaced on drums by a new member, Marky. Eventually Marky was fired and then replaced by another drummer, Richie. After that, Dee Dee left the band to produce his own rap album. C.J. joined the band as their new bassist.

paragraphs: Their first album "Ramones" is now a classic of early punk rock. The songs are short, the melodies simple and the text is often made up of 2 or three phrases only. Their live concerts were legendary, extremely loud and very short. They played song after song, only interrupted by Dee Dee's (and later, C.J.'s) shouts of "one, two, three, four!".

paragraphs: The Ramones never had big commercial success. Among their best-known songs today are "Blitzkrieg Bop" and "I Wanna Be Sedated." Now they are seen as one of the most important punk rock bands. Several rock bands, including Nirvana and Green Day were influenced by the Ramones.


title: Olivia Newton-John

paragraphs: Olivia Newton-John (born 26 September 1948) is an Anglo-Australian singer and actress. Her first successful song was "Let Me Be There". The song made the top 10 on the U.S. pop chart. She has since won four Grammy Awards. Her first big acting role was in Grease. It became the most successful movie of 1978.

paragraphs: Newton-John was born in Cambridge, England. Her father was Welsh. Her mother was from Berlin, the daughter of Max Born. Newton-John is the youngest of three children. In 1954, her family moved to Australia. At age 12, she won a contest at school with girl group "Sol Four". When she was 17 years old, she had her first appearance in a movie, "Funny Things Happen Down Under" (1965), where she sang "Christmas Time Down Under". Shortly after she was in a talent contest and won first prize, a trip to England. She got a record deal on Decca Records and released her first single, "Till You Say You'll Be Mine", in 1966.

paragraphs: Newton-John stayed in England and recorded a cover of the Bob Dylan song, "If Not For You". It was the song which first caused her to be well known. She released her first solo album, "If Not For You", in 1971. In 1973, her career began to do well. Her first successful song was "Let Me Be There". The song made the top 10 on the US pop chart. It also earned her a Grammy Award for Best Country Female. More successful songs followed: "If You Love Me Let Me Know," "I Honestly Love You", "Have You Never Been Mellow", "Please Mr. Please" and many more.

paragraphs: Her first big acting role was with John Travolta in Grease. It became the most successful movie of 1978.

paragraphs: Olivia has lived in California for decades. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. She had breast cancer in 1992, and recovered. She has been married twice. She has a daughter by her first husband.

paragraphs: She is also an activist for environmental and animal rights issues.

paragraphs: In May 2017, it was announced that Newton-John's breast cancer had returned and metastasized to her lower back. In August 2019, it was also reported that the cancer was at Stage IV and spread to her bones.


title: Kansas (band)

paragraphs: Kansas is an American rock band. They formed in Topeka, Kansas in 1970. They are best known for songs including "Carry on Wayward Son" and "Dust in The Wind".


title: Styx (band)

paragraphs: Styx was an American rock band. They were one of the most popular groups of the 1970s and early 1980s. They formed in Chicago in 1972. They were the first band to have four platinum albums in a row. They continued playing after reuniting in 1990.


title: Jethro Tull (band)

paragraphs: Jethro Tull is a rock band. They formed in Blackpool, England in 1967. The singer and leader is Ian Anderson. He also plays flute. This band was highly successful and sung songs such as "Aqualung", "Locomotive Breath", "Living in the Past" and "Thick as a Brick".