title: Tübingen

paragraphs: Tübingen is a city in the German state Baden-Württemberg. It has about 83,000 people (2007). Tübingen is a traditional university town. About one in ten people living in Tübingen is a student.

paragraphs: Between 1470 and 1483, St. George's Collegiate Church was built. The collegiate church offices provided the opportunity for what soon afterwards became the most significant event in Tübingen's history: the founding of the Eberhard Karls University by Duke Eberhard im Bart of Württemberg in 1477, thus making it one of the oldest universities in Central Europe. The University of Tübingen became soon renowned as one of the most influential places of learning in the Holy Roman Empire, especially for theology. A Protestant faculty, Tübinger Stift, was established in 1535 in the former Augustinian monastery.


title: Salenstein

paragraphs: Salenstein is a municipality of the district of Steckborn in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

paragraphs: Salenstein was the home village of Napoleon III who passed there his youth at Castle Arenenberg.


title: Salmsach

paragraphs: Salmsach is a municipality of the district of Arbon in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.


title: Schlatt bei Diessenhofen

paragraphs: Schlatt bei Diessenhofen is a municipality of the district of Diessenhofen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.


title: Schönholzerswilen

paragraphs: Schönholzerswilen is a municipality of the district of Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.


title: Bong

paragraphs: A bong or a water pipe is a special pipe. When a person smokes with a bong, they pull the smoke through the water in it. This makes the smoke not as hot. Most often, either tobacco or cannabis are smoked with it.


title: Sirnach

paragraphs: Sirnach is a municipality in Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.


title: Sommeri

paragraphs: Sommeri is a municipality in Arbon in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.


title: Stettfurt

paragraphs: Stettfurt is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.


title: Sulgen

paragraphs: Sulgen is a municipality of the district of Bischofszell in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.


title: Violin Concerto (Berg)

paragraphs: Alban Berg's Violin Concerto was written in 1935. It is one of the most famous concertos for the violin written in the 20th century. It is also probably Berg's best known and most often performed piece.

paragraphs: Berg was asked to write a violin concerto for the violinist Louis Krasner. At the time he was working hard on his opera "Lulu", which took him several years to write. He stopped working on the opera for four months in the summer of 1935 so that he could write the violin concerto. He had probably already started the concerto when he heard the sad news of the death of a girl called Manon Gropius, the daughter of Alma Mahler (who had once been Gustav Mahler's wife) and Walter Gropius. Berg decided to dedicate the concerto to Manon. He wrote at the top of the work: "To the memory of an angel."

paragraphs: When Berg died on 24 December 1935 he had not finished "Lulu". It is possible he might have finished it if he had not spent time writing the violin concerto. The work was first performed after the composer's death, with Krasner playing the solo part, on 19 April 1936 in Barcelona.

paragraphs: The instruments in the orchestra for the Violin Concerto are: 2 flutes (both doubling as piccolo), 2 oboes, (one doubling as a cor anglais), alto saxophone (doubling as a clarinet), 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 2 trombones, tuba, timpani, percussion, harp piano and strings.

paragraphs: The concerto has two movements. Each movement is also divided into two sections. The first movement begins with an Andante in classical sonata form, followed by the Allegretto, a dance-like section. The second movement starts with an Allegro which uses a small rhythmic idea. The solo part is very difficult to play here. The orchestra plays very loudly and comes to a big climax. The work ends quietly. The first two sections are meant to be about life, the last two sections are about death.

paragraphs: Berg composed music using the twelve tone technique that he had learned from his teacher Arnold Schoenberg, but his music also sounds at times as if it is an ordinary major or minor key. A piece of music using twelve tone technique starts with twelve notes in which each of the 12 pitches (C, C sharp, D etc.) is used before it can be repeated.

paragraphs: Here is Berg's tone row in the Violin Concerto:

paragraphs: This tone row does not sound as random as many tone rows are because parts of it sound quite tonal. This is because the first three notes are a G minor triad; notes three to five are a D major triad; notes five to seven are an A minor triad; notes seven to nine are an E major triad; and the last four notes together make up part of a whole tone scale. The first notes of each group of triads together form G, D, A and E, which are the open strings of the violin. The opening of the concerto makes this very obvious.

paragraphs: The last four notes of the row, rising whole tones, are also the first four notes of the chorale melody, "Es ist genug" ("It Is Enough"). Berg quotes this chorale in the last movement of the piece, using the harmony composed by Johann Sebastian Bach.

paragraphs: There is also another quotation in the piece: a Carinthian folk song. It is unusual to have a simple folk song in the middle of a concerto. Berg wanted it to describe Manon Gropius, a simple young girl.

paragraphs: Many people find twelve tone music hard to listen to, but this concerto is easier than most serial works to understand. This is partly because some of the music is tonal, but also because of the programme: the idea behind the music (Manon, life and death).


title: Portia (moon)

paragraphs: Portia is a closer moon to Uranus. It was found from the images taken by "Voyager 2" on 1986-01-03, and was given the designation S/1986 U 1. The moon is named after Portia, the heroine of William Shakespeare's play "The Merchant of Venice". It is also designated Uranus XII.

paragraphs: Portia is the second biggest closer moon of Uranus after Puck. The Portian orbit, which lies inside Uranus' synchronous orbital radius, is slowly shrinking due to tidal deceleration. The moon will one day either break up into a planetary ring or hit Uranus.

paragraphs: It heads a group of moons called Portia Group, which includes Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Juliet, Rosalind, Cupid, Belinda and Perdita. These moons have similar orbits and photometric properties.

paragraphs: Little is known about Portia beyond its size of about 140 km, orbit, and geometric albedo of about 0.08.

paragraphs: In the Voyager 2 images, Portia appears as a stretched object whose major axis points towards Uranus. The ratio of axises of the Portia's prolate spheroid is 0.8 ± 0.1. Its surface is grey in color. Observations with Hubble Space Telescope and large terrestrial telescopes found water ice absorption features in the spectrum of Portia.


title: Tom and Jerry Tales

paragraphs: Tom and Jerry Tales is an animated television series which began production in 2005. It was on The CW's "Kids WB" block. The series stars the well-known title characters from the "Tom and Jerry" shorts, and is the first made for TV cartoon to emulate the theatrical shorts. It grew from dircet-to-video movies "" (2001),


title: Ragıp Zarakolu

paragraphs: Ragıp Zarakolu (born 1948) is a Turkish publisher who has long faced legal problems for publishing books on controversial things in Turkey, especially on minority and human rights in Turkey.

paragraphs: Ragıp Zarakolu was born in 1948 on the island of Büyükada close to Istanbul. His father, Remzi Zarakolu, was the district governor on that island. Ragıp Zarakolu grew up with members of the Greek and Armenian minority in Turkey and began writing for "Ant" and "Yeni Ufuklar" magazines in 1968.

paragraphs: In 1971, the Turkish government was overthrown. Ragıp Zarakolu was tried on charges of secret relations to Amnesty International. He spent five months in prison before being declared innocent. In 1972 Ragıp Zarakolu was sentenced to 2 years in prison for his paragraph in the journal "Ant" (Oath) on "Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnam War". He stayed in Selimiye Prison (in Istanbul) and was set free in 1974 after a general amnesty. On his release Zarakolu refused to abandon his work for freedom of thought, because he wanted different thoughts and cultures to be available in Turkey.

paragraphs: The Belge Publishing House, established in Istanbul in 1977 by Zarakolu and his wife Ayşenur, has been a focus for Turkish censorship laws ever since. The couple was imprisoned and the books confiscated and destroyed.

paragraphs: In 1979 Ragıp Zarakolu was one of the founders of the daily newspaper "Demokrat" and took responsibility for the news desk on foreign affairs. The paper was banned and Ragıp Zarakolu was shortly imprisoned in 1982 because of his link to "Demokrat". He was banned from leaving the country between 1971 and 1991. In 1986 he became one of 98 starters of the Human Rights Association in Turkey (HRA or in Turkish IHD). For some time Ragıp Zarakolu chaired the Writers in Prison Committee of International PEN in Turkey. Currently (beginning of 2007) he chairs the Committee for Freedom of Publication in the Union of Publishers.

paragraphs: Until the military coup of 12 September 1980, "Belge" Publishing House mostly published academic and theoretical books. Afterwords "Belge" started to publish books written by political prisoners. The series of 35 books consisted of poems, shorts stories, novels. The list of publications (see a list of selected publications below) include more than 10 books (translations) of Greek literature, 10 books on the Armenian Question and five books related to the Jews in Turkey. There are also a number of books dealing with the Kurds in Turkey.

paragraphs: He also published several books on the Armenian Genocide – such as George Jerjian's book "History Will Free All of Us/Turkish-Armenian Conciliation" and Professor Dora Sakayan's "An Armenian Doctor in Turkey: Garabed Hatcherian: My Smyrna Ordeal of 1922" – which brought new criminal charges in 2005.

paragraphs: In 1995 the Belge Publishing House offices were firebombed, forcing it to be housed in a cellar. Since his wife's death in 2002, Zarakolu continues to face further prosecutions.


title: Aska Yang

paragraphs: Aska Yang (born April 4, 1978) is a popular Taiwanese singer and a member of Million Star Gang (星光幫).

paragraphs: Aska Yang is listed in "Taiwan Who is Who 2007-2008" and he is also ranked the 2nd place of Yahoo! Taiwan Person of the Year 2007, the 2nd place of United Daily Star News of the Year 2007, the 1st place of Apple Daily Person of the Year 2007 and one of the Top Five Newcomers 2007 chosen by SinaNet.

paragraphs: On November 17, 2007, Aska Yang was invited to perform at the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall for the 42nd Golden Bell Awards (金鐘獎) in Taipei. He sang a medley of eleven classic TV drama theme songs from the past century.

paragraphs: Aska Yang was born on April 4, 1978 in Taoyuan, Taiwan. He graduated from Naili Primary School in 1990, Tzu-Chiang Junior School in 1994, and National Chungli Senior High School in 1996. During his college time at the National Changhua University of Education (NCUE), Aska attended numerous singing competitions at or out of the campus and won several championships. In 2007, he was a contestant on the show One Million Star, a singing competition that was broadcast on CTV. Later that year, he graduated from the Department of Guidance & Counseling at the National Changhua University of Education. In 2009, he started his master's degree program in the Sports Psychology Department at the National Taiwan Sport University, NTSU.


title: Ara Gevorgyan

paragraphs: Ara Gevorgian (Gevorgyan) (born April 19, 1960, Yerevan) is an Armenian musician, composer and musical producer. In 2004 he was awarded by the "Honorary Artist of the Republic of Armenia" title by the President Robert Kocharyan.

paragraphs: Gevorgian is the son of well-known Armenian folk-singer Valya Samvelyan. He studied at #31 school of Yerevan and at the A. Tigranyan musical school at the same time. During the two years he studied at Yerevan #8 college of Fine Arts. From 1983 to 1987 he studied at Armenian pedagogical institute after Khachatur Abovyan at the faculty of wood wide instruments and pop music department.

paragraphs: In 1987-1989 Gevorgian taught conducting at the same Institute, then he worked at Armenian Television ("3-Aliq" TV program).

paragraphs: In 1983 he founded the "Rally" Armenian pop-rock band, the participant of "Song - 85" festival.

paragraphs: He participated in the Opening Ceremony of the Cultural Year of Armenia in Russia hosted at the Moscow Kremlin Music Hall and honored by the presence of the presidents of Armenia and Russia Robert Kocharyan and Vladimir Putin respectively and the famous singer Charles Aznavour.

paragraphs: Ara Gevorgian co-operates with Jivan Gasparyan, Ian Gillan, Demis Roussos, Pedro Eustache, Daniel Decker and others. Among his most popular songs are "Adana", "Artsakh", "Ov Hayots Ashkharh" and "Ovkyanosits ayn koghm".


title: Heidi Klum

paragraphs: Heidi Klum Kaulitz (born 1 June 1973) is a German model, actress and singer. She hosts "Project Runway" and "Germany's Next Top Model". She also models for "Victoria's Secret".

paragraphs: Heidi was born in Bergisch Gladbach, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Her father was a company leader and her mother was a hair stylist. She won a modelling competition. She beat over 25,000 other people. She got $300,000 from it, and modeled in the United States. She has been on the cover of many magazines. These include "Vogue Magazine", "Elle", and "Marie Claire". She became famous for being in "Sports Illustrated".

paragraphs: She is now the host and a judge on Project Runway. It is a show where clothing designers compete to win $100,000 to make designs. She had chances to win Emmys for the first three seasons of the show. She also is the host of "Germany's Next Topmodel". It is similar to "America's Next Top Model" which is hosted by Tyra Banks.

paragraphs: Heidi married Ric Pipino in 1997. Ric was a hair stylist for famous people. They separated in 2002. After the separation, Klum was with race car businessman Flavio Briatore. She became pregnant with his baby. They separated after he was with another woman. Her daughter was born on 4 May 2004 in New York City. Her name is Helene 'Leni' Klum.

paragraphs: She was in a relationship with Seal, a musician, while pregnant with Leni. They were married 10 May 2005 in Mexico. They have two sons, Henry Günther Ademola Dashtu Samuel, born 12 September 2005 in Los Angeles, California, and Johan Riley Fyodor Taiwo Samuel born 22 November 2006 in Los Angeles. They also have a daughter together named Lou born 9 October 2009. Briatore is not in Leni's life. Seal acts as Leni's father and has adopted her. The couple divorced in 2015.


title: Ceratosauria

paragraphs: Ceratosaurs are a group of theropod dinosaurs. They are defined as "all theropods sharing a more recent common ancestry with "Ceratosaurus" than with birds".

paragraphs: Ceratosauria includes the Upper Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous theropods "Ceratosaurus", "Elaphrosaurus", and "Abelisaurus", found mainly in the southern hemisphere.

paragraphs: The earlies known Ceratosaur is from the Middle Jurassic of Patagonia, "Eoabelisaurus". This predates the oldest "certainly known" known member of the lineage by more than 40 million years. The almost complete skeleton of "Eoabelisaurus" shows the earliest evolutionary stages of the distinctive abelisaurid modification of the forelimb.

paragraphs: Originally, Ceratosauria included the above dinosaurs plus the Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic "Coelophysis" and "Dilophosaurus". This implied a much earlier divergence of ceratosaurs from other theropods. However, recent studies have shown that coelophysoids and dilophosaurids do not form a natural group with other ceratosaurs, and so they are excluded from this group.


title: Rosalind (moon)

paragraphs: Rosalind is a closer moon to Uranus. It was found from the images taken by "Voyager 2" on January 13, 1986, and was given the designation S/1986 U 4. It was named after the daughter of the banished Duke in William Shakespeare's play "As You Like It". It is also designated Uranus XIII.

paragraphs: Rosalind belongs to Portia Group of moons, which also includes Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Portia, Juliet, Cupid, Belinda and Perdita. These moons have similar orbits and photometric properties. Unfortunately, other than its orbit, radius of 36 km and geometric albedo of 0.08 almost nothing is known about it.

paragraphs: At the Voyager 2 images Rosalind appears as an almost spherical object. The ratio of axises of the Rosalind's prolate spheroid is 1.0-0.8. Its surface is grey in color.


title: Cupid (moon)

paragraphs: Cupid is an inner moon (which makes it one of the closer moons) of Uranus. It was found by Mark Showalter and Jack J. Lissauer in 2003 using the Hubble Space Telescope. It was named after a character in William Shakespeare's play "Timon of Athens".

paragraphs: It is the smallest of the closer Uranian moons, estimated to be only about 18 km in diameter. This and the dark surface made it too dim to be detected by the "Voyager 2" cameras during its Uranus flyby in 1986.

paragraphs: The orbit of Cupid is only 863 km from the orbit of the bigger moon Belinda. Amazingly, compared to Mab and Perdita, the recently found Uranian moons, it does not seem to be perturbed.

paragraphs: Following its discovery, Cupid was given the designation S/2003 U 2. It is also designated Uranus XXVII.

paragraphs: It should not be confused with the asteroid 763 Cupido.


title: Uzi

paragraphs: The Uzi is a type of submachine gun (SMG). It is famous for being very small and easy to carry, much more easily than any SMG made in World War II. It does this by loading magazines inside the grip, much like a pistol. It was not the first submachine gun to do this, but the Uzi was the first used on a large scale.

paragraphs: There are different kinds of Uzis: Mini Uzi, which is a smaller version of the Uzi; Micro Uzi, which is only slightly larger than a standard pistol; Para Micro Uzi, which was made for Counter Terrorist Units; and the Uzi Pistol, which is semi-automatic (it fires one bullet every time you pull the trigger). All of these kinds of Uzis are still in use by the special forces today. It is slowly being replaced by the MP-5.

paragraphs: Uzis were invented by an Israeli army officer, Uziel Gal. This gun was first used in 1956. Uzis were used in the 1967 Six Day War by Israel. They are made by Israel Military Industries and also by the Belgian weapon company, FN.

paragraphs: Even though Uziel Gal told his manufacturers not to name the weapon after him, they ignored his request and did so anyway.


title: Escape the Fate

paragraphs: Escape the Fate is an American post-hardcore band from Las Vegas, Nevada.

paragraphs: The band was formed in 2004, in 2005 they won a radio competition to open for My Chemical Romance which led to a signing to Epitaph Records. In the year 2006 the band released debut album, "Dying Is Your Latest Fashion". With the new frontman Craig Mabbitt (Former Blessthefall vocalist) the band released the album "This War Is Ours" in October 2008. In 2010, the band released the third album, "Escape The Fate", in November.

paragraphs: The lead vocalist Ronnie Radke left the band in 2008 due to legal issues. Radke left the jail in December 2010 and is currently a vocalist in the post-hardcore band Falling in Reverse. In 2012, founding member Max Green was kicked out due to drug abuse and missing shows and he was permanently replaced by Thomas "TJ" Bell, formerly of Motionless In White and Micheal Money, brother of Bryan "Monte" Money was introduced as official rythmn guitarist.


title: Post-hardcore

paragraphs: Post-hardcore is a musical genre that evolved from hardcore punk, itself a part of the broader punk rock movement. One of the main influences on this genre is the band Fugazi.

paragraphs: Post-hardcore uses elements of hardcore, along with emo, metal, alternative rock or whatever, to create a more experimental sound. It can be more melodic than normal hardcore, but sometimes is heavier.


title: Tropical Storm Olga (2007)

paragraphs: Tropical Storm Olga was the fifteenth named storm of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. In the second week of December, after the official end of the hurricane season, a low formed east of the northernmost Lesser Antilles. It slowly gained tropical characteristics, and late on December 10, the NHC declared it "Subtropical Storm Olga" while just north of Puerto Rico. It is the first post-season storm since Tropical Storm Zeta in the 2005 season, making this season one of the few with activity both before and after the official bounds of the hurricane season. The storm made landfall on December 11 on the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic. Later that evening, Olga transitioned into a tropical storm just after making landfall. Olga tracked over Hispaniola and emerged in the Caribbean Sea. Strong wind shear and dry air caused Olga to weaken into a remnant low early on December 13.

paragraphs: The storm impacted many areas affected by Tropical Storm Noel a month earlier. In Puerto Rico, moderate rainfall caused one death. 37 fatalities were confirmed in the Dominican Republic, including twenty deaths due to the release of floodgates at a dam in Santiago Province. Two deaths were also reported in Haiti.

paragraphs: In the first week of December, a westward-moving upper-level low led to the formation of a broad surface trough well to the east of the northern Lesser Antilles. With a strong ridge to its northeast, the trough tracked slowly westward, creating scattered convection and some cyclonic turning. On December 8 convection began to persist in association with the trough and an upper-level low. Early on December 9, officials at the Tropical Prediction Center began classifying the system using the Hebert-Poteat technique, and several tropical cyclone forecast models expected its development of tropical characteristics. The system, which included of a sharp trough with an area of gale force winds to its north, continued westward through an area of moderately warm sea surface temperatures. On December 10 a low-level circulation developed within the system, though its convection had become disorganized and well-removed from the center. Southerly wind shear left the structure asymmetric, and convection steadily increased closer to the center. With an upper-level low situated just south of the center, the National Hurricane Center classified it as Subtropical Storm Olga at 0300 UTC on December 11 while located about 55 miles (85 km) east of San Juan, Puerto Rico.

paragraphs: After being classified as a subtropical cyclone, Olga kept an organized outflow, and located to the southeast of a strong ridge over the western Atlantic Ocean, the cyclone moved west-southwestward. The storm strengthened a little bit while moving right along the north coast of Puerto Rico, and after an increase in convection near the center, Olga made landfall near Punta Cana, Dominican Republic at 1800 UTC on December 11. A Hurricane Hunters flight into the storm reported a tighter wind gradient and peak winds of 60 mph (95 km/h), and at 0000 UTC on December 12 the National Hurricane Center reclassified Olga as a tropical cyclone while it was still inland. Convection quickly weakened as the storm crossed central Hispaniola, and after reaching the Caribbean Sea the system lacked the convection required for the classification of a tropical cyclone; rainbands well to its northeast had stronger winds, though the center became very disorganized with dry air and strong wind shear. Late on December 12, convection increased a little bit over the center, though by that time the cyclone weakened to tropical depression status. As a certain amount of convection failed to exist, the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Olga earlier on December 13 while located about 80 miles (130 km) northwest of Kingston, Jamaica. Its remnants continued west-northwestward with a clear low-level circulation, creating scattered thunderstorms over Cuba and the Cayman Islands with its moisture extending northward into southern Florida.

paragraphs: On December 10, the Tropical Prediction Center gave out a gale warning for waters north of the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic, in association with the disturbance that would later become Olga. Right after it being classified as a subtropical cyclone, the government of the Dominican Republic gave out a tropical storm warning from Cabo Engaño along the north coast to its border with Haiti; a tropical storm watch was also issued along the southern coastline to near Santo Domingo. Because winds were well to the north of its center, a tropical storm warning was not issued for Puerto Rico. Just before the storm moved ashore, the government of Haiti issued a tropical storm warning for its northern coastline, and later a tropical storm warning was issued for the Turks and Caicos Islands, as well as the southeastern Bahamas.

paragraphs: The San Juan National Weather Service office issued a flood watch for all of Puerto Rico, including the islands of Culebra and Vieques. Continued periods of heavy rainfall also resulted in flash flood warnings for areas across the island. Ferry service between Fajardo and the islands of Culebra and Vieques was temporarily stopped during the passage of the storm. In the Dominican Republic, officials opened shelters in 15 provinces, with citizens in low-lying areas recommended to stay elsewhere during the passage of the storm; citizens in 22 communities were evacuated.

paragraphs: The cyclone dropped light to moderate precipitation across Puerto Rico, with the maximum rainfall amount at 9.54 inches (242 mm) in Villalba. The rainfall increased levels along several rivers across the island, including the Arecibo Big River which was reported at several feet above flood stage. Its passage left about 79,000 people without power and 144,000 without water. In the northern portion of the island, the rainfall caused a mudslide that buried an automobile, which killed its driver.

paragraphs: Heavy rainfall fell across the Dominican Republic, with isolated totals of 10 inches (250 mm) expected. The rainfall caused flooding along the River Yaque del Norte, and at first there appeared to be a threat that the Tavera Dam along the river would fail, potentially killing thousands in Santiago Province. Officials instead chose to open all six floodgates at 0400 UTC on December 12, which released about 1.6 million gallons (6.1 million liters) of water into the river every second. It formed a 66 foot (20 m) wave of water is a result that caught many off guard due to the time of night and only about 15 minutes to prepare, according to eyewitnesses who criticized the decision; the flooding killed at least 20 people and left homes seven towns flooded. Two other deaths were reported elsewhere in the country, and more than 34,000 people fled their homes due to the storm; more than 7,500 houses were damaged. In neighboring Haiti, two deaths were reported in the northern portion of the country.

paragraphs: On December 11, a station in the Turks and Caicos Islands recorded sustained winds of 36 mph (58 km/h).


title: Santiago Province (Dominican Republic)

paragraphs: Santiago is a Dominican province in the north central part of the country. Its capital city is Santiago de los Caballeros, the second largest city in the country, and the province takes its name from that city.

paragraphs: The province is in the eastern part of the "Yaque del Norte Valley" and the River Yaque del Norte runs through the province. The Yaque del Norte Valley, also named "Línea Noroeste" ("Northwestern Line"), is the western section of the "Cibao Valley".

paragraphs: The province has been an important administrative territory since colonial times. Because it was an important centre, its capital city was occupied by French and Haitian armies that came from the northwest border.

paragraphs: It was one of the original five provinces created by the first Dominican Constitution in 1844; its territory was the northwest of the country and part of the north coast (Puerto Plata), from Monte Cristi and Dajabón to the west to Moca to the east. Moca was made part of the La Vega province in 1854.

paragraphs: Several provinces were created with part of its original territory: Puerto Plata in 1865, Monte Cristi in 1879, Dajabón in 1938, Santiago Rodríguez in 1950 and, last, Valverde in 1959.

paragraphs: San José de las Matas is a municipality of the province since 1844; later, other municipalities were created: Jánico in 1881, Tamboril in 1907, Bisonó in 1961, Licey al Medio in 1984, Villa González in 1991, Puñal in 2006 and Sabana Iglesia in 2007.

paragraphs: The municipal districts of the province were created in:

paragraphs: The Santiago province is bordered to the northwest by the province of Valverde, to the north by Puerto Plata, to the east by the Espaillat and La Vega provinces, to the south by San Juan and to the west by Santiago Rodríguez.

paragraphs: In (last national census), there were people living in the Santiago province, and 728,484 () living in towns and cities. The population density was persons/km².

paragraphs: Its population represents of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 3rd (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

paragraphs: , the total estimated propulation of the province is 1,015,397 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The largest city of the province is Santiago de los Caballeros, its head municipality or capital, with an urban population (in ) of 550,753 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The population of Santiago is composed of blacks, mixed, and whites.

paragraphs: The Santiago province has a total area of . It has of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is ranked as the 3rd (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province.

paragraphs: The altitude of the provincial capital, Santiago de los Caballeros, is above sea level.

paragraphs: The province of Santiago is divided in three regions: the "Cordillera Septentrional" ("Northern mountain range") in the north, the "Yaque del Norte Valley" in the centre, and the "Cordillera Central" ("Central mountain range") in the south.

paragraphs: The Cordillera Septentrional mountain range runs across the north of the province; the highest mountain of this range, "Pico Diego de Ocampo", high, is in this province, on the border with the Puerto Plata province. The range is covered with rainforests because it rains a lot there; the trade winds (winds that come from the northeast, from the Atlantic Ocean) bring a lot of water that falls on the mountains.

paragraphs: South of the Cordillera Septentrional is the Yaque del Norte Valley; from the city of Santiago de los Caballeros to the west, this is a very dry valley because the trade winds cannot go over the Cordillera Septentrional and so it does not rain enough over the valley. But people here uses the water of the Yaque del Norte river for farming.

paragraphs: The Cordillera Central is in the southern half of the province. The highest mountains of the country, the island and the Caribbean are here, on the border with the San Juan province: "Pico Duarte", , and others above . This mountain range is covered with pine forests, except close to rivers where there are rainforests.

paragraphs: The most important river is Yaque del Norte which crosses the province from south to north, first, and then it turns to the northwest. All the other rivers in the province are tributaries of the Yaque del Norte except the Licey river that comes from the Cordillera Septentrional and flows to the east; Licey is a tributary of the Yuna river.

paragraphs: The climate of the province is a tropical climate, hot most of the year, but it is cooler in the mountains.

paragraphs: There are 9 municipalities and 16 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province.

paragraphs: The economy of the province is based on farming and industry; because there is not a coast, tourism is not so important as in other parts of the country.

paragraphs: It is the second economic centre of the country, after the Greater Santo Domingo (Distrito Nacional and the Santo Domingo Province). It has a significant commerce and many industries, especially textiles, food and cement. Most of these industries are in Santiago de los Caballeros and Tamboril; the tobacco industry is also important in Villa Bisonó.

paragraphs: Farming is very important in the province. Poultry and pigs are raised in Licey al Medio. Cattle are raised in the south central and western parts of the province.

paragraphs: Coffee is grown in the mountains, plantain and cassava in Licey al Medio and rice, fruits and vegetables in the western part of the province. Tobacco is grown in all the lowlands of the province but the best types are grown around the cities of Bisonó and Villa González.


title: Outflow (meteorology)

paragraphs: Outflow is a term for the air that flows away from a thunderstorm. Lots of outflow show that a storm is "healthy".

paragraphs: The "edge" of the outflow boundary can often be detected by weather radar. Convergence occurs along the leading edge of the downdraft. Convergence of dust, aerosols, and bugs at the leading edge will lead to a higher clear air signature. The signature of the leading edge is also influenced by the density change between the cold air from the downdraft and the warm environmental air. This density boundary will increase the number of echo returns from the leading edge. Clouds, hydrometeors and new thunderstorms can also develop along the outflow's leading edge. This makes it possible to locate the outflow boundary when using precipitation mode. The image to the right depicts a particularly strong ouflow boundary ahead of a line of storms. Often, the outflow boundary will bow in the direction it is moving the quickest.


title: Mellotron

paragraphs: The Mellotron is a musical instrument, which appeared in the 1960s. It was the world's second sampled keyboard after the Chamberlin. Mellotrons contained loops made from the sounds of other musical instruments. Instead of sounding exactly like the original instruments, the Mellotron had a unique sound.

paragraphs: Mellotrons did not travel well, and had to be carefully set up every time they were moved. They became popular in recording studios, and with musicians who could leave them in one location.

paragraphs: The Beatles liked the sound of the Mellotron, and used it in many of their songs, like "Strawberry Fields Forever". John Lennon, a member of the Beatles, owned a Mellotron that he kept in his home studio. Paul McCartney and George Harrison, also members of the band, owned Mellotrons and used them in their solo recordings. Harry Nilsson also used a Mellotron on some of his recordings.

paragraphs: Mellotrons are largely obsolete but are still being made in small quantities. Today, digital instruments have mostly taken their place. Digital keyboards are portable, and can be used to make similar sounds anywhere. While digital keyboards have been used since the 1980's to replicate the sounds of many other instruments, they cannot accurately replicate the nuances and idiosyncrasies of the Mellotron because of complex physics involved in the tape playback system. This acknowledged drawback has led to the production of new Mellotrons since 1999.


title: Punta Cana

paragraphs: Punta Cana, named after a local cape, is a region in the easternmost tip of the Dominican Republic. Covering about 4,200,000 m (about 1,100 acres), the region is home to a coastline of sandy white beaches and to a town of the same name. A region once named "Punta de Borrachón" was merged with Punta Cana by the founding investors in 1969.


title: Bayernliga

paragraphs: The Bayernliga (English Bavaria League) is the highest level of soccer in Bavaria.

paragraphs: FC Augsburg is the most successful team. It has won the league seven times. Before 1969, it was called BC Augsburg. The next best teams are SpVgg Bayreuth with six titles and 1860 München with five titles, although two were won by the second team, TSV 1860 München Amateure.


title: Gavialidae

paragraphs: Gavialidae is a family of reptiles within the order Crocodilia. There are only two surviving species, the Gharial ("Gavialis gangeticus") and the False Gharial ("Tomistoma schlegelii"), which are each the sole living representatives of the two Gavialidae genera.


title: Gharial

paragraphs: The gharial ("Gavialis gangeticus"), sometimes called the Indian gharial,common gharial or gavial, is one of two surviving members of the family Gavialidae. They are a group of crocodile-like reptiles with long, narrow jaws.

paragraphs: The gharial is the second-longest of all living crocodilians: a large male can be nearly six meters in length. Only saltwater crocodiles and the Nile crocodile can grow larger.

paragraphs: The fossil history of the Gavialoidea is quite well known. The earliest examples split from the other crocodilians in the late Cretaceous. The feature of the group that is easiest to recognise is the very long, narrow snout. This is an adaptation to a diet of small fish. Gharials have sacrificed the great mechanical strength of the robust skull and jaw that most crocodiles and alligators have. For this reason, and they cannot prey on large creatures. But they also have reduced weight and water resistance of their lighter skull and very narrow jaw. This gives gharials the ability to catch rapidly moving fish. They catch them with a side-to-side snapping motion.

paragraphs: The earliest Gavialoidea may or may not have been related to the modern types: some died out at the same time as the dinosaurs (at the end of the Cretaceous), others survived until the early Eocene (about 35 million years ago). The modern forms appeared at much the same time. They evolved in the estuaries and coastal waters of Africa. They crossed the Atlantic to reach South America as well. At their peak, the Gavialoidea were numerous and diverse, they occupied much of Asia and America up until the Pliocene. One species, "Rhamphosuchus crassidens" of India, is believed to have grown to an enormous 15 metres or more.

paragraphs: Northern Indian subcontinent: Bhutan (almost extinct), Bangladesh (close to extinction), India (present in small numbers and increasing), Myanmar (possibly extinct), Nepal, Pakistan (close to extinction). Usually found in the river systems of Indus (Pakistan) and the Brahmaputra (Bangladesh, Bhutan & North eastern India), the Ganges (Bangladesh, India & Nepal), and the Mahanadi River (in the rainforest biome) (India). Small numbers are in Kaladan and the Ayeyarwady in Myanmar. It is sympatric, in respective areas, with the mugger crocodile ("Crocodylus palustris") and the saltwater crocodile ("Crocodylus porosus").

paragraphs: Gharials live in rivers. They are best adapted to the calmer areas in deep fast moving rivers. Their physical attributes do not make the animals very suited to walk on land. In fact the only reasons the gharial leaves the water is to either bask in the sun or to nest on the sandbanks of the rivers.

paragraphs: The Gharial has a long, narrow snout. This is the feature that is most different from most other Crocodilia. The only other species who has such a snout is the False gharial ("Tomistoma schlegelii"), which is closely related. The shape of this snout changes when the animal grows older. The snout becomes progressively thinner the older the gharial gets. There is a bulbous growth on the tip of the male's snout. This is called a 'ghara' (after the Indian word meaning 'pot'). It is only present in mature animals. It is used for different activities, such as making a resonant hum during vocalization. It is also used for attracting females. The mating ritual includes a section where the male uses this ghara to make bubbles.

paragraphs: The long jaws are lined with many interlocking, razor-sharp teeth. This is an adaptation to the diet (predominantly fish in adults). This species is one of the largest of all crocodilian species, approaching the saltwater crocodile ("Crocodylus porosus") and the Nile crocodile in maximum size - males reach at least 5 metres in length, and often approach 6 metres. Reports of 7 metre animals exist, but are unconfirmed. The leg musculature of the gharial is not suited to enable the animal to raise the body off the ground (on land) in order to achieve the high-walk gait - being able only to push its body forward across the ground ('belly-sliding'), although it can do this with some speed when required. However, when in water, the gharial is the most nimble and quick of all the crocodiles in the world. The tail seems overdeveloped and is flattened on the side, more so than other crocodiles. This enables it to achieve the excellent swimming abilities.

paragraphs: The gharial has 27 to 29 upper and 25 or 26 lower teeth on each side. These teeth are not received into interdental pits; the first, second, and third mandibular teeth fit into notches in the upper jaw. The front teeth are the largest. The gharial's snout is narrow and long, with a dilation at the end and its nasal bones are comparatively short and are widely separated from the pre-maxillaries. The nasal opening of a gharial is smaller than the supra-temporal fossae. The gharial's lower anterior margin of orbit (jugal) is raised and its mandibular symphysis is extremely long, extending to the 23rd or 24th tooth. A dorsal shield is formed from four longitudinal series of juxtaposed, keeled and bony scutes.

paragraphs: The length of the snout is 3.5 (in adults) to 5.5 times (in young) the breadth of the snout's base. Nuchal and dorsal scutes form a single continuous shield composed of 21 or 22 transverse series. Gharials have an outer row of soft, smooth or feebly-keeled scutes in addition to the bony dorsal scutes. They also have two small post-occipital scutes.

paragraphs: The outer toes of a gharial are two-thirds webbed, while the middle toe is one-third webbed. Gharials have a strong crest on the outer edge of the forearm, leg and foot. Typically, adult gharials are of a dark olive hue while young ones are pale olive, with dark brown spots or cross-bands.

paragraphs: Young gharials eat insects, larvae, and small frogs. Adults feed almost only on fish, although some individuals have been known to eat dead animals. Their snout morphology is ideally suited for piscivory; their long, narrow snouts afford very little resistance to water in swiping motions to snap up fish in the water. Their numerous needle-like teeth are perfect for holding on to struggling, slippery fish.

paragraphs: The Gharial is not a man-eater. Despite its immense size, its thin, fragile jaws make it physically incapable of devouring any large animal, including a human being. The myth that gharials eat humans may come partly from their similar appearance to crocodiles and because jewelry has been found in the digestive system. However, the gharial may have swallowed this jewelry while scavenging corpses or because used to aid digestion or buoyancy management.

paragraphs: The mating season is during November through December and well into January. The nesting and laying of eggs takes place in the dry season of March, April, and May. This is because during the dry season the rivers shrink a bit and the sandy river banks are available for nesting. Between 30 and 50 eggs are deposited into the hole that the female digs up before it is covered over carefully. After about 90 days, the juveniles emerge, although there is no record of the female assisting the juveniles into the water after they hatch (probably because their jaws are not suited for carrying the young due to the needle like teeth). However the mother does protect the young in the water for a few days till they learn to fend for themselves.

paragraphs: In the 1970s the gharial came to the brink of extinction and even now remains on the critically endangered list. The conservation efforts of the environmentalists in cooperation with several governments has led to some reduction in the threat of extinction. Some hope lies with the conservation and management programs in place as of 2004. Full protection was granted in the 1970s in the hope of reducing poaching losses, although these measures were slow to be implemented at first. Now there are 9 protected areas for this species in India which are linked to both captive breeding and 'ranching' operations where eggs collected from the wild are raised in captivity (to reduce mortality due to natural predators) and then released back into the wild (the first being released in 1981). More than 3000 animals have been released through these programs, and the wild population in India is estimated at around 1500 animals - with perhaps between one and two hundred animals in the remainder of its range.

paragraphs: Recently this species has moved from Endangered to Critically Endangered on the 2007 Red List of endangered species of animals and plants issued by the World Conservation Union, and qualifies for protection under the CITES (Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species) Appendix II.

paragraphs: The gharial and its extinct relatives are grouped together by taxonomists in several different ways:

paragraphs: Janke "et al." (2005), using molecular genetic evidence, found the gharial and the false gharial ("Tomistoma") to be close relatives, and placed them together in the same family.

paragraphs: Common names include: Indian gharial, Indian gavial, Fish-eating crocodile, Gavial del Ganges, Gavial du Gange, Long-nosed crocodile, Bahsoolia, Nakar, Chimpta, Lamthora, Mecho Kumhir, Naka, Nakar, Shormon, Thantia, Thondre, Garial.


title: Franck Ribéry

paragraphs: Franck Ribéry (born 7 April 1983) is a French football player. He plays for Fiorentina and France national team.


title: False gharial

paragraphs: The false gharial or Malayan gharial ("Tomistoma schlegelii") is a fresh-water reptile. It looks like a crocodile with a very thin and long snout, like that of the gharial. That is where the name of the species is from.

paragraphs: It has long been classed in the family "Crocodylidae". However, recent immunological studies show it is more closely related to the gharial than was originally thought. So now classed in the family "Gavialidae", after all.

paragraphs: The animal is native to six river systems in Sumatra and Malaysia. It can also be found in Borneo, Java, Vietnam, Thailand (not seen since 1970), and possibly Sulawesi. Fossils finds in southern China indicate that, at some point in the past, the species occurred there.

paragraphs: The false gharial, like all other crocodilians, lays eggs. It is a mound nester. Females usually mature at 2–3 m. Mated females will lay a clutch of 30-60 eggs in a mound of dry leaves or peat. Once the eggs are laid, and construction of the mound is completed, she abandons her nest. Unlike most other crocodilian species, the young receive no parental care and are at risk of being eaten by predators like wild boar, mongooses, big cats such as tigers and leopards, civets, and wild dogs. The young hatch after 90 days and are left to look after themselves.

paragraphs: The false gharial is threatened with extinction throughout most of its range. The drainage of its freshwater swamplands and clearance of surrounding rainforests removes its habitat. The animal is hunted frequently for its skin and meat and the eggs are often taken for human consumption. However, positive steps have been taken by the Malaysian and Indonesian governments to prevent its extinction in the wild.


title: Prime lens

paragraphs: A Prime lens is a lens which has a fixed "zoom" or focal length. It is easier to make fixed focal lenses than to include them in a variable focus lens. Therefore, fixed focal lenses usually have a larger opening, known as an aperture, than comparable variable focus lenses. They are usually also of a higher optical quality.


title: Aperture

paragraphs: In Optics (and also photography) an Aperture is a hole where light can pass through.

paragraphs: The aperture of a photographic lens is a hole that can be adjusted to different sizes, using the aperture ring. This ring is behind the lens, but in front of the shutter. The aperture ring is a flat circle with a small hole in the centre. The small hole is called the "aperture". The size of the aperture can be changed. When the aperture is very small only a small amount of light can enter the camera. When the aperture is big, a lot of light can get in.

paragraphs: This lets the photographer control the amount of light reaching the film or image sensor. The aperture is changed along with the shutter speed to control the amount of light that enters the camera. This amount of light is called the exposure. Typically, a fast shutter speed will not let much light in (meaning the picture could come out too dark), so the photographer will use a larger aperture to correct for this. A slow shutter speed will need a smaller aperture to stop the picture coming out too bright.

paragraphs: The size of the aperture is described as an "f-stop." This is a number that describes the size of the hole in relation to the focal length of the lens. A low number (such as f1.4 or f2.8) means the aperture is wide open, and lets in a lot of light. A high number (such as f8 or f11) means that the aperture is small, and does not let in as much light.


title: Zoom lens

paragraphs: A variable focus lens (also called zoom lens) is a camera lens that can vary its focal length.

paragraphs: In general, such lenses have a lower aperture than comparable fixfocus lenses. Depending on the manufacturer common zoom lenses (in the 30–100mm focal range, for film photography) usually have a varying aperture, from 4 to 5.6, perhaps 3.3 to 5.6. There are also some zoom lenses with a fixed maximal aperture (to take the example from before: of 2.6 or 2.8, maximum). In contrast, fix-focus lenses in that range have maximum apertures of 1.4 to 2.

paragraphs: Digital cameras sometimes have a function called "digital zoom". This is a mathematical method which simply enlarges a part of the picture. The result is not as sharp as that of the optical zoom. When an optical zoom changes its focal length, this will also change the angle of view. Digital zooms simply make a small part of an image bigger, without changing the angle of view.


title: Belinda (moon)

paragraphs: Belinda is a closer moon to Uranus, a planet in the solar system. Belinda was found from the images taken by "Voyager 2" on 1986, and it was given the designation S/1986 U 5. It is named after the heroine of Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock". It is also designated Uranus XIV.

paragraphs: Belinda belongs to Portia Group of moons, which also includes Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Portia, Juliet, Cupid, Rosalind and Perdita. These moons have similar orbits and photometric properties. Other than its orbit, radius of 45 km and geometric albedo of 0.08 almost nothing is known about it.

paragraphs: At the Voyager 2 images Belinda appears as a stretched object, the major axis pointing towards Uranus. The moon is very stretched, with its short axis 0.5 ± 0.1 times the long axis. Its surface is grey in color.


title: Normal lens

paragraphs: In photography the word normal lens is used for camera lenses that have a focal length which is roughly the diagonal of the image projected inside the camera. Camera lenses with a shorter focal length are called "wide-angle lenses", those with a longer one "telephoto lenses".


title: Vyankatesh Madgulkar

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar (1927-2001) was one of the most popular and well-known Marathi writers of his time. He became well-known mainly for his realistic writings about village life in a part of southern Maharashtra called Maandesh. These writings about Maandesh are set in a period of 15 to 20 years before and after India's Independence.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar was a man of many interests. He also read a lot of books on different subjects. He was lovingly called Tatya (“old man”, or “grand old man” in Marathi) by his admirers, friends and family members.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar was born in Madgul, a village in Sangli district of Maharashtra. The Madgulkar family had probably come from the neighbouring state of Karnataka a few centuries back. They were one of the eight Brahmin families Madgul, which had a population of over a thousand.

paragraphs: The family owned some land. Vyankatesh Madgulkar's grandfather and the earlier generations had lived off the land. However, in Vyankatesh Madgulkar's father’s time, the land could not feed the family. The family was large. Apart from Vyankatesh Madgulkar, there were seven children, one of whom died early.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar's father took a job in the government of the Aundh princely state, which ruled over Madgul and the region around it known as Maandesh . The job took him to various villages and small towns of Maandesh. For some time, the family moved with him. In this way, Vyankatesh Madgulkar got to see life in many parts of Maandesh.

paragraphs: Although his mother was an old-fashioned woman who believed Brahmins should not mix with people of 'lower' castes, Vyankatesh Madgulkar freely mixed with children of other castes and communities. From them he learnt how to climb trees, how to identify birds, how to trap fish, how to hunt.

paragraphs: Madgul had no electricity, bus service or shop. But it had a primary school. Vyankatesh Madgulkar studied there and later in a secondary school in a small town nearby. But he was not a good student. Some of his teachers told him he had no future.

paragraphs: When he was a teenager, he left home and joined a group of people fighting for India’s freedom. For two years he was considered a criminal by the British government.

paragraphs: After India got Independence, Vyankatesh Madgulkar returned home. His elder brother (“Anna”), Gajanan, had already left home and become a writer for Marathi films.`GaDiMa’ (Gajanan Digambar Madgulkar), as he was called, went on to become a famous poet, song and screenplay writer, and a well-known name in Maharashtra.

paragraphs: GaDiMa’s success might have helped Vyankatesh Madgulkar to also think of becoming an artist. However, he had his own personality, different from that of his brother.

paragraphs: As he said often, he had always had the feeling he was “different”. He first wanted to be a poet. He also loved sketching and painting. And though he did not complete school education, he developed an enormous love for reading. He learnt and read English books the hard way, with the help of a dictionary. He read books by the American novelist John Steinbeck, the famous British writer George Orwell and the Irish writer Liam O’ Flaherty, and several other Western writers.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar first tried to become a painter. He went to the city of Kolhapur in western Maharashtra to learn painting. However, he lost interest in becoming a painter and turned to writing. He wrote his first short story when he was 19 years old. It won a literary prize. This encouraged him to become a writer.

paragraphs: In 1948, when he was 21, he took up a job as a journalist. Two years later he moved to the capital of Maharashtra, Mumbai, to write scripts for Marathi films.

paragraphs: In 1955 he took up a job in Pune, in the rural programming department of the government's All India Radio (AIR) station . He worked here till he retired in 1985. All this time, he continued to write.

paragraphs: He visited Australia and the island of Tasmania while he was in the service of All India Radio and wrote stories based upon his experiences there.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar died in August 2001 at the age of 73. He died of complications from diabetes.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar wrote in many different ways. He wrote nearly 40 screenplays for films. He wrote several folk plays. He attempted a Marathi version of "Fiddler on the Roof".He translated books, especially wild life books, from English to Marathi. He wrote essays on his travels, nature and interesting people he had read about, like Richard Burton, the British traveler.

paragraphs: However, he is most fondly remembered for his short stories and novellas (long stories). He wrote 8 novellas and over 200 short stories.

paragraphs: His first book, "Maandeshi Manse" (People of Maandesh), was published when he was only 22 years old. "Maandeshi Manse" is about different kinds of people Vyankatesh Madgulkar had met during his childhood in Maandesh. The descriptions of these people are realistic. However, Vyankatesh Madgulkar explained later that the descriptions were are not fully true. The people in "Maandeshi Manse" are creations of the author, based on real people he knew.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar mixed the real world with his own imagination in the same way in all his Maandeshi stories. He also did not change his style of writing.

paragraphs: That style is generally of a person telling a story to people sitting in front of him.

paragraphs: Many of the stories told in this way are about poor people. Some stories are about things that had happened during Vyankatesh Madgulkar's childhood. Some stories are about family members. Only a few stories have a plot. Most stories have one central character. But a few stories are about happenings rather than on people.

paragraphs: The most famous of Vyankatesh Madgulkar's writing is his novella called "Bangarwadi" (1954). It is about the experiences of a young schoolteacher in a village of shepherds in Maandesh. The story begins with the schoolteacher walking alone towards the village called Bangarwadi, in the night, across a landscape with few trees. When the teacher reaches Bangarwadi, he finds that the school is not working. Over the next months, the schoolteacher successfully runs the school. However, at the end of the story, lack of rainfall forces all the people of Bangarwadi to leave the village. The school again has no students.

paragraphs: Within this story, Vyankatesh Madgulkar gives us an unforgettable and detailed picture of a way of living. One reviewer, Taya Zinkin reviewing the English translation of the book in "The Economic Weekly" in 1958 said, “(it) is perhaps the most important book written by an Indian about India to appear in English since [Jawaharlal] Nehru’s "Discovery of India".”

paragraphs: "Bangarwardi" was translated in several languages. The great German scholar on India Gunther Sontheimer translated it in German. Bookstores in Pune and other Maharashtra cities still sell the original book in Marathi. It has been reprinted over 15 times.

paragraphs: "Bangarwardi" was also make into a film by Amol Palekar.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar wrote stories about Maandesh for around 20 years, from the mid-1940s to the mid-1960s. Later, he wrote about his family and then about nature. His last novella, "Sattantar" (1981), about a community of monkeys, won him the central government’s Sahitya Parishad award for best Marathi book published in that year.

paragraphs: Vyankatesh Madgulkar has been translated in several languages. Brief details of translation in English with year of publication are as below:

paragraphs: The following are brief details of translation of his work in languages other than English with year of publication:


title: The Ren & Stimpy Show

paragraphs: The Ren and Stimpy Show is an American cartoon created by John Kricfalusi, which aired from 1991 to 1996. The main characters are Ren Höek, a dog, and Stimpson J. Cat 6 (Stimpy for short).

paragraphs: The show premiered on Nickelodeon on Sunday, August 11, 1991 and aired new episodes on the channel from 1991 to 1996.

paragraphs: The series ended on October 20, 1996 with "Sammy and Me" and "Last Temptation".

paragraphs: It is shown around the world on MTV, and was originally shown on Nickelodeon in countries such as America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and in most of Europe.

paragraphs: People who make cartoons think that "Ren and Stimpy" is famous because John Kricfalusi got fired after only one year of working on his show. He did not do his work on time and often fought with his friends at Nickelodeon. So they fired him. He made other shows but none were as popular as "Ren and Stimpy".

paragraphs: Reruns of "Ren and Stimpy" currently air on the Nicktoons Network.


title: Perdita (moon)

paragraphs: Perdita is a closer moon to Uranus. Perdita's discovery was not simple. The first pictures of Perdita were taken by the "Voyager 2" spacecraft in 1986, but it was not seen on the photographs for more than ten years. In 1999, the moon was noticed and reported.

paragraphs: Because no further pictures could be taken to confirm its existence, in 2001 it was thought to be non-existent. However, in 2003, pictures taken by the Hubble Space Telescope managed to pick up an object where Perdita was supposed to be. This proved its existence at last.

paragraphs: After its discovery in 1999, Perdita was labelled S/1986 U 10. she was the daughter of Leontes and Hermione in William Shakespeare's play "The Winter's Tale". The moon is also called Uranus XXV.

paragraphs: Perdita belongs to Portia Group of moons, which also includes Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Portia, Juliet, Cupid, Rosalind and Belinda. These moons have similar orbits and photometric properties. Unfortunately, other than its orbit, radius of 15 km, and geometric albedo of 0.08, almost nothing is known about it.


title: 135 film

paragraphs: 135 film is the official name of the photographic film that is most used today. It is specified by ISO Standard 1007. It was introduced by Kodak in 1934 It was made for making pictures, rather than films. It is 35mm wide; that is why it is often also called 35mm film.

paragraphs: It quickly grew in popularity. It became more popular than 120 film by the late 1960s. Since then, it has been the most popular photographic film format. Despite competition from formats such as 828, 126, 110 and APS, it remains so today.

paragraphs: Individual rolls of 135 film are enclosed in single-spool, light-tight, metal cassettes. This allows cameras to be loaded in daylight. The film is clipped or taped to a spool and exits via a velvet-covered slot. The end of the film is cut on one side to form a leader, which is to be inserted into a corresponding slot in the camera take-up spool. It has the same dimensions and perforation pitch as 35 mm movie print film.


paragraphs: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) is a European treaty that was adopted in 1992.

paragraphs: It was designed by the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe. It applies only to languages traditionally used by the nationals of the State Parties that are very different from the majority or official language. The treaty does not protect languages that are used by recent immigrants from other countries. Also, the treaty does not protect local dialects of the official or majority language.

paragraphs: To be protected, a language must be spoken either by the people living in a region or area of the country or by a minority in the country as a whole (languages such as Yiddish and Romani are covered by the treaty even if there is no "Romani region").

paragraphs: National official languages are not covered by the treaty, but some regional official languages are. For example, Catalan is official only in a region of Spain and so can benefit from the treaty. However, Irish cannot because it is an official language in Ireland even if it is a minority language. However, Irish is protected in Northern Ireland because it is not an official or national language of the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: France has signed the treaty, but the French constitution does not allow the government to support a language other than French.

paragraphs: There are two levels of protection. Every country that signed the treaty must give all qualifying languages the lower level of protection. Countries may decide to give some languages the higher level of protection. Countries then must do 35 things.

paragraphs: Here are the countries that have ratified the Charter and the languages for which the ratification was made:


title: Finger Eleven

paragraphs: Finger Eleven is a Canadian rock band. it was formed in 1989. They are from Burlington, Ontario. There they had achieved minor success as a cover band, then as a full fledged band.


title: Nefertiti

paragraphs: Nefertiti (pronounced at the time something like *nafratiːta) (c. 1370 BC c. 1330 BC) was the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten. She was the mother-in-law and may have been stepmother of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun. After her husband died, Nefertiti may have also ruled as pharaoh under the name Neferneferuaten. However, some archaeologists do not think Nefertiti was Neferneferuaten.

paragraphs: Her name in English means "the beautiful (or perfect) woman has come". Nefertiti was one of the most powerful queens in Ancient Egypt.

paragraphs: Nefertiti was the first and most loved wife of Ramses. He had a total of eight wives, but she was different from the rest. Ramses was devoted and obsessed with her beauty. Nefertiti reigned beside the pharaoh toward the eighteenth dynasty. While she reigned she was known as Ankhkheperure Neferneferuatan. Nefertiti was such an educated woman, she was able to read and write hieroglyphs. It was a rare skill that barely anyone had. While being married she had six daughters, and no matter how old Nefertiti was, Ramses still loved her deeply.

paragraphs: There are many tales about Nefertiti being born as a royal and her father being pharaoh Ay, but they are not confirmed. So it would be unlikely that she did become a pharaoh without royal blood. Her daughter Meritaten was born a royal, so she had more of a chance of becoming a pharaoh. Her parenthood is still a mystery. The only detail known is that they were nobles.

paragraphs: Two of her daughters became queens of Egypt. In the 12th year of Akheneaton rule many of the princesses died, but what was more confusing was that Nefertiti vanished. So everyone assumed that she died like the other princesses. There was no record of Nefertiti’s death and no evidence that she was ever buried.

paragraphs: She is best known for her bust, which is in the Altes Museum in Berlin, Germany. This bust is considered to be a beautiful example of Egyptian art.

paragraphs: A man called Ludwig Borchardt with a team of people discovered a portrait bust of Queen Nefertiti. This bust captured all her beauty even though one of the eyes was damaged. The famous bust that everyone began knowing Nefertiti was displayed at the museum of Berlin in the 1920’s. The queen's bust became very known around the world. This caused Nefertiti to become one of the most recognized and beautiful queens in ancient Egypt before Cleopatra.


title: Wide-angle lens

paragraphs: A wide-angle lens is a lens that has a focal length that is shorter than that of the normal lens. Normal lenses have an angle of view of between 40° and 50°. Wide-angle lenses have an angle of view that is bigger.

paragraphs: For the 135 film format (the most popular photographic film type), normal lenses are 50mm focal length. 35mm (with an angle of view of 63 degrees) and 28mm (75°) are slight wide-angle lenses.

paragraphs: 24mm (84°), 20mm (94°), 17mm (104°) and 14mm (114°) offer more extreme views (for 35mm film).

paragraphs: This is different for digital photography. Many digital cameras use smaller sensors. This means that the focal lengths have an angle of view that is smaller. That way, an 18mm lens mounted on a digital camera of this type gives an angle of view of the 28mm wide-angle lens, namely 75 degrees, for a multiplier of 1.5.

paragraphs: One kind of wide-angle lens is a fish eye lens.

paragraphs: Telephoto lens is the opposite. It has a long focal length, and a narrow angle of view.


title: Grand Duchy of Hesse

paragraphs: The Grand Duchy of Hesse () was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany. It was formed in 1806 after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire as a result of the actions of Napoleon, who then elevated the former Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt to the level of grand duchy. For this reason, this state was occasionally known simply as Hesse-Darmstadt.

paragraphs: Because Hesse-Darmstadt was a member of Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine, it was forced to give up a considerable amount of territory at the 1815 Congress of Vienna. The territory of the Duchy of Westphalia, which Hesse-Darmstadt received from the 1803 "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss", was given to the Kingdom of Prussia. However, it received some territory on the western bank of the Rhine, including the important federal fortress at Mainz.

paragraphs: The Grand Duchy changed its name to the Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine () in 1816.

paragraphs: The Grand Duchy of Hesse was divided into three provinces:


title: Puck (moon)

paragraphs: Puck is a closer moon to Uranus. Puck was found from the images taken by "Voyager 2" on December 30, 1985, and was given the designation S/1985 U 1.

paragraphs: In Celtic mythology and English folklore, a "Puck" is a mischievous sprite, imagined as an evil demon by Christians; the moon is named after the Puck who appears in Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream", in which he travels around the globe at night with the fairies. It is also designated Uranus XV.

paragraphs: Puck is the biggest of the small closer moons to Uranus. It is in the middle in size between Portia and Miranda, the smallest of the five bigger moons. Puck's orbit is also located between these two moons. Little is known about it aside from its orbit, its radius about 81 km, and its geometric albedo approximately 0.11.

paragraphs: Of the moons found by the "Voyager 2" imaging team, only Puck was found early enough that the probe could be programmed to take pictures of it in some detail. Images showed that Puck has a shape of a slightly prolate spheroid (ratio between axises is 0.97 ± 0.04). Its surface is heavily cratered and is grey in color. There are three named craters on the surface of Puck. Observations with Hubble Space Telescope and large terrestrial telescopes found water ice absorption features in the spectrum of Puck.


title: Schinus

paragraphs: "Schinus" a large genus of Anacardiaceae, many tree. It prefers tropic subhumid zones.

paragraphs: Californian pepper tree "S.areira" native from Mexico to South America. Various species grown as ornamental, e.g. "S.areira", and Brazilian pepper "S.terebinthifolius".


title: Mab (moon)

paragraphs: Mab is a closer moon to the planet Uranus. It was found by Mark R. Showalter and Jack J. Lissauer in 2003 using the Hubble Space Telescope. It was named after Queen Mab, a fairy queen from English folklore who is noted in William Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet".

paragraphs: Because the moon is small and dark, it was not seen in the images taken by "Voyager 2" during its Uranus flyby in 1986. However, it is brighter than another moon, Perdita, which was discovered from "Voyager's" photos in 1997. This led scientists to look at the old photos again, and the moon was finally found in the images.

paragraphs: If it is as dark as Puck, then it is about 24 km in diameter. On the other hand, if it is brightly coloured like the neighbouring moon Miranda, then it would be even smaller than Cupid and comparable to the smallest farther moons.

paragraphs: Mab is heavily perturbed, meaning its movement is not only caused by the gravity of another large thing. The actual source for perturbation is still unclear, but is probably one or more of the nearby orbiting moons.

paragraphs: Following its discovery, Mab was given the code name S/2003 U 1. The moon is also known as Uranus XXVI.


title: Telephoto lens

paragraphs: In photography, a telephoto lens is a lens. There are two different uses of the word. The less specific use is to mean a lens that has a longer focal length than a normal lens. Their angle of view is smaller than that of a normal lens. With telephoto lenses things look closer than they really are.

paragraphs: The other meaning of telephoto lens applies to lenses that are constructed in a special way so they can be shorter than their focal length.

paragraphs: For 35 mm film, 50 mm is a normal focal length. Typical telephoto lenses are 85 mm (28°50') and 100 mm (24°). They are used for portraits mostly. Other telephoto lenses that are used often are 135 mm (18°), 180 mm and 200 mm. Many are zoom lenses.

paragraphs: Longer focal lengths (300 to 1200 mm) are used in sports and nature photography.

paragraphs: Effect of different focal lengths on photographs taken from the same place:

paragraphs: The above photos were taken using a 35 mm camera, using lenses of the given focal lengths.


title: Umbriel (moon)

paragraphs: Umbriel is a moon of Uranus found on October 24, 1851 by William Lassell. It was found at the same time as Ariel.

paragraphs: The name "Umbriel" and the names of all four moons of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell. Lassell had earlier supported Herschel's 1847 naming scheme for the seven then-known moons of Saturn and had named his newly-found eighth moon Hyperion in accordance with Herschel's naming scheme in 1848. Umbriel is the 'dusky melancholy sprite' in Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock", and the name suggests the Latin "umbra", shadow. The adjectival form of the name is "Umbrielian".

paragraphs: So far the only close-up images of Umbriel are from the "Voyager 2" probe, which made observations of the moon during its Uranus flyby in January, 1986. During the flyby the southern hemisphere of the moon was pointed towards the Sun so only it was studied.

paragraphs: Umbriel's surface is the darkest of the Uranian moons, and reflects only about half as much light as Ariel, Uranus' brightest moon. It has far more and bigger craters than do Ariel and Titania and is also the least geologically active. It is mostly made of water ice, with the balance made up of silicate rock, and other ices such as methane. Methane can break down and form reddish-black organic compounds such as tholins when bombarded by high-energy particles. Near-IR spectra of Ariel and Umbriel clearly show that water ice dominates the spectra of these objects.

paragraphs: Craters on Umbriel are named after many different demons from various mythologies.


title: Titania (moon)

paragraphs: Titania is the biggest moon of Uranus and the eighth biggest moon in the Solar System.

paragraphs: Titania was found on January 11, 1787 by William Herschel. He reported it and Oberon the same year. He later reported four more moons, which turned out to be spurious.

paragraphs: The names of Titania and the other four moons of Uranus then known were suggested by Herschel's son John Herschel in 1852 at the request of William Lassell, who had found Ariel and Umbriel the year before. Lassell had earlier supported Herschel's 1847 naming scheme for the seven then-known moons of Saturn and had named his newly-found eighth moon Hyperion in accordance with Herschel's naming scheme in 1848.

paragraphs: All of the moons of Uranus are named for characters from Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. Titania was named after Titania, the Queen of the Faeries in "A Midsummer Night's Dream".

paragraphs: Shakespeare's character's name is pronounced , but the moon is often pronounced , by analogy with the familiar chemical element titanium.

paragraphs: So far the only close-up images of Titania are from the "Voyager 2" probe, which photographed the moon during its Uranus flyby in January, 1986. At the time of the flyby the southern hemisphere of the moon was pointed towards the Sun so only it was studied.

paragraphs: Although what its interior is made up of is uncertain, one model suggests that Titania is made of about 50% water ice, 30% silicate rock, and 20% methane-related organic compounds.

paragraphs: Surface features on Titania are named for characters from plays by William Shakespeare. Chasms on Titania are called chasmata. Escarpments here are called rupes. They are named after the places where plays by Shakespeare happen. craters on Titania are named after female characters in the plays.

paragraphs: A major surface feature is a huge canyon that dwarfs the scale of the Grand Canyon on Earth and is in the same class as the Valles Marineris on Mars or Ithaca Chasma on Saturn's moon Tethys.

paragraphs: On September 8, 2001, Titania occulted a faint star; this was a chance to both refine its diameter and ephemeris, and to detect any extant atmosphere. The data revealed no atmosphere to a surface pressure of 0.03 microbars; if it exists, it would have to be far thinner than that of Triton or Pluto.


title: The 20 Hunchakian gallows

paragraphs: The 20 Hunchakian gallows (or "Ksan Gakhaghan", also "The 20 Martyrs", "The 20s") is the common name for the group of Hunchakian activists who were hanged in the Sultan Bayazid square of Constantinople in June 15, 1915.

paragraphs: The 7th General Convention of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party which was held in Constanţa, Romania, in 1913, had a unique and great importance not only for the Hunchaks, but in the history of the Armenian people as a whole. During the Convention, members stressed their concern of the Ittihad (Young Turk) government's blatant disregard of the Armenian lives who resided in Historic Armenia. The Hunchaks feared that this disregard would only escalate as time past. The Hunchaks also stressed the importance of a United Independent Armenia which would be impossible under the racist and dictatorial Young Turk government's rule of the Ottoman Empire.

paragraphs: Thus the convention adjourned with two main objectives:

paragraphs: I - As stated in its original program, the party was to move from licit to illicit activities, thus becoming once again a covert organization.

paragraphs: II - To plan and assassinate the leaders of the Ittihad (Young Turk) party, the same leaders that carried out the Adana massacres of 1909, and thus the same leaders who at that moment were planning the annihilation of the Armenian people.

paragraphs: Unfortunately, these secret objectives were passed on to the Turks by an Armenian agent for the government; consequently as soon as the delegates arrived in Constantinople, they were arrested. By the end of the year a total of one hundred and forty Hunchak leaders were arrested.

paragraphs: After spending two years in terrible conditions in Turkish prisons, and undergoing lengthy mock trials, twenty prominent figures - Paramaz, Dr. Benne, Aram Ach'ekbashian, Vanig and others were sentenced to death by hanging. A few weeks after the beginning of the Armenian Genocide on June 15, 1915, all twenty men were hanged in the central square of Constantinople, known as Sultan Bayazid Square. Paramaz's last words before his hanging were, "You can only hang our bodies, but not our ideology. ...You will see tomorrow on the Eastern horizon a Socialist Armenia."

paragraphs: Since their execution, the Twenty Martyrs have been a source of inspiration for thousands of young Armenians throughout the world.

paragraphs: In 2001 the monument of Paramaz and his 19 Hunchakian comrades was opened in Meghri town, Armenia.

paragraphs: Two other prominent Hunchakian activists, Stepan Sabah-Goulian and Varaztahd, were condemned to death "in absentia".


title: Allowance

paragraphs: An allowance is usually an amount of money that a parent gives to his/her child.

paragraphs: Possible reasons why allowance is given:


title: Social Democrat Hunchakian Party

paragraphs: The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (SDHP) (), also known as Hentchak is one of the oldest political parties in Armenia and the first Socialist party in the Ottoman Empire and in Persia in the 1880s. It was founded in 1887 by Avetis Nazarbekian, Mariam Vardanian, Ruben Khan-Azat and others, who studied in Geneva, Switzerland, with the goal to gain Armenia's independence from the Ottoman Empire, which is part of Armenian national liberation movement. Its name, taken from its newspaper "Hunchak," means "Bell" in English, and is taken by party members to represent "awakening, enlightenment, and freedom."

paragraphs: All of the 7 founders of Hunchakian party were Russian-Armenian Marxist students who had left Russia to continue their higher education in universities of Western Europe. They were young persons, in their twenties, and were from well‑to‑do bourgeois families who were financially supporting them. For the purpose of furthering revolutionary activity in Turkish Armenia, they formed the Hunchakian Revolutionary Party in August, 1887.

paragraphs: Hunchak party fought many battles against the Ottoman Empire, to free the Armenian people from Turkish rule. One of Armenia's famous national heroes Andranik Ozanian, at first, joined the Hunchak party, but disagreement with party policies led Andranik to leave the Hunchak ranks and join the Dashnak party.

paragraphs: The party also played role in establishment of Democratic Republic of Armenia, as party members took part in the Battle of Sardarapat, during the World War I at Caucasus Campaign, which defended the Armenian capital of Yerevan from Army of Islam of Ottoman Empire.

paragraphs: In the 1950s, it clashed, sometimes violently, with the Dashnak Party, due to tensions that escalated when the ARF elected Bishop Zareh as Catholicos of Cilicia, a move that was rejected by the Hunchaks. In the midst of increasing sectarian strife in the late 1960s and early 1970s, however, Lebanon's Armenian community began to close ranks, and in 1972, the Hunchakian Party ran a joint ticket with the Dashnaks. In 2000, the Hunchakian Party joined forces with Rafik Hariri's Dignity party, which swept the city of Beirut.

paragraphs: In the early 1990s, the party took part in the Nagorno Karabakh conflict. The party today forms part of the opposition "Justice" bloc.

paragraphs: This party is also active in Lebanon, where it competes for the six National Assembly seats reserved for ethnic Armenians. The party subscribes to a socialist ideology and advocates a planned economy for Lebanon.

paragraphs: The Hunchakian party has established affiliate organizations such as the AEBU which is an organization that helps with educational, health and social care, the Armenian Dkhrouhi Youth Association and HMM (Homenmen) which is a sporting organization (not to be confused with Homenetmen).


title: Inverter

paragraphs: An inverter is an electric apparatus that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). It is not the same thing as an alternator, which converts mechanical energy (e.g. movement) into alternating current.

paragraphs: Direct current is created by devices such as batteries and solar panels. When connected, an inverter allows these devices to provide electric power for small household devices. The inverter does this through a complex process of electrical adjustment. From this process, AC electric power is produced. This form of electricity can be used to power an electric light, a microwave oven, or some other electric machine.

paragraphs: An inverter usually also increases the voltage. In order to increase the voltage, the current must be decreased. So, an inverter will use a lot of current on the DC side when only a small amount is being used on the AC side.

paragraphs: Inverters are made in many different sizes. They can be as small as 150 watts, or as large as 1 megawatt (1 million watts). Smaller inverters often plug into a car's cigarette lighter socket and provide 120 or 240 volt AC power from the car's 12 volt supply.

paragraphs: The earliest inverters consisted of a DC motor connected mechanically to an AC generator. A later design often used with vacuum tube car radios consisted of a rapidly switching relay. Modern inverters are based on MOSFET or IGBT transistors.


title: 1998 FIFA World Cup

paragraphs: The 1998 FIFA World Cup was a football sporting event that was held in France from 10 June to 12 July 1998. 32 teams took part from many countries. France won the trophy after beating Brazil in the final 3-0.

paragraphs: A win would earn the team 3 points, a draw would earn them 1 point, and a loss earns them no points.


title: 1994 FIFA World Cup

paragraphs: The 1994 FIFA World Cup was a football sporting event that was held in USA from June 17 to July 17, 1994. 24 teams took part from many countries. Brazil won the trophy after Roberto Baggio from Italy famously missed the last penalty in a penalty shootout.


title: 1990 FIFA World Cup

paragraphs: The 1990 FIFA World Cup was a football (soccer) sporting event that was held in Italy from 8 June to 8 July 1990. 24 teams took part from many countries. Germany won the trophy after beating Argentina in the final.

paragraphs: The 1990 FIFA World Cup had the lowest amount of goals, and had 16 red cards handed out. However, the 1990 FIFA World Cup was one of the most watched sporting events of all time. This was also the last World Cup that had 2 points for a win in the Group Stage.

paragraphs: 24 teams qualified for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. Costa Rica, Republic of Ireland and the United Arab Emirates qualified for the first time.

paragraphs: Hosts Italy won Group A with a 100 percent record. They beat Austria 1–0 thanks to substitute Salvatore 'Totò' Schillaci, who had played only one international before but would become a star during the tournament. A second 1–0 victory followed against a United States team already thumped 5–1 by Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovaks ended runners-up in the group, while the USA's first appearance in a World Cup Finals since 1950 ended with three consecutive defeats.

paragraphs: Cameroon defeated reigning champions Argentina. Despite ending the match with only nine men, the African team held on for a shock 1–0 win, with contrasting fortunes for the brothers Biyik: François Omam scoring the winning goal, shortly after seeing Andre Kana sent off for a serious foul. In their second game the introduction of Roger Milla was the catalyst for a 2–1 win over Romania, Milla scoring twice from the bench (making him the oldest goalscorer in the tournament). With progression assured, Cameroon slumped to a 4–0 defeat in their final group game to a Soviet Union (in what would be their last World Cup due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union) side striving to stay in the tournament on goal difference after successive 2–0 defeats. A 1–1 draw between Romania and Argentina sent both through, the latter as one of the best third-placed teams.

paragraphs: Costa Rica beat Scotland 1–0 in their first match, lost 1–0 to Brazil in their second, then saw off Sweden 2–1 to claim a place in the second round. Brazil took maximum points from the group. They began with a 2–1 win over Sweden, then beat both Costa Rica and Scotland 1–0. Scotland's 2–1 win over Sweden was not enough to save them from an early return home as one of the two lowest-ranked third-placed teams.

paragraphs: Group D featured the most goals of all the groups, due in part to the defensive inadequacies of a United Arab Emirates team that lost 2–0 to Colombia, 5–1 to West Germany and 4–1 to Yugoslavia. West Germany topped the group after a 4–1 opening victory over group runners-up Yugoslavia.

paragraphs: The winners of Group E were Spain, for whom Michel hit a hat-trick as they beat South Korea 3–1 in an unbeaten group campaign. Belgium won their first two games against South Korea and Uruguay to ensure their progress; Uruguay's advance to the second round came with an injury time winner against South Korea to edge them through as the weakest of the third-placed sides to remain in the tournament.

paragraphs: Group F, featured the Netherlands, England, the Republic of Ireland and Egypt. In the six group games, no team managed to score more than once in a match. England beat Egypt 1–0, thanks to a 64th-minute goal from Mark Wright – and that was enough to win the group.

paragraphs: The Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands finished with identical records. With both teams assured of progressing, they were split by the drawing of lots to determine second and third place.

paragraphs: The knockout stage involved the 16 teams that qualified from the group stage of the tournament. There were four rounds of matches, with each round eliminating half of the teams entering that round. The successive rounds were: round of 16, quarter-finals, semi-finals, final. There was also a play-off to decide third/fourth place. For each game in the knockout stage, any draw at 90 minutes was followed by 30 minutes of extra time; if scores were still level there would be a penalty shoot-out (at least five penalties each, and more if necessary) to determine who progressed to the next round. Scores after extra time are indicated by (aet), and penalty shoot outs are indicated by (p).

paragraphs: Two of the ties – Argentina vs Brazil and Italy vs Uruguay – pitted former champion countries against each other, and West Germany met the Netherlands in a rematch of the 1974 World Cup Final.

paragraphs: The all-South American game was won for Argentina by a goal from Claudio Caniggia with 10 minutes remaining after a run through the Brazilian defence by Diego Maradona and an outstanding performance from their goalkeeper Sergio Goycochea. It would later come to light that Branco had been offered water spiked with tranquilisers by Maradona and Ricardo Giusti during half time, to slow him down in the second half. Initially discredited by the press, Branco would be publicly proven right years later, when Maradona confessed the episode in a TV show in Argentina. As for Italy, a strong second half showing saw the hosts beat Uruguay 2–0, thanks to another goal from Schillaci and one from Aldo Serena.

paragraphs: The match between West Germany and the Netherlands was held in Milan, and both sides featured several notable players from the two Milanese clubs (Germans Andreas Brehme, Lothar Matthäus and Jürgen Klinsmann for Internazionale, and Dutchmen Marco van Basten, Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard for Milan). After 22 minutes Rudi Völler and Rijkaard were both dismissed after a number of incidents (including Rijkaard spitting on Völler) between the two players left the Argentine referee with no option but to send them both off. As the players walked off the pitch together, Rijkaard spat on Völler a second time. Early in the second half, Jürgen Klinsmann put the West Germans ahead and Andreas Brehme added a second with eight minutes left. A Ronald Koeman penalty for the Netherlands in the 89th minute narrowed the score to 2–1 but the Germans saw the game out to gain some revenge for their exit to the Dutch in the previous European Championship.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, the heroics of Cameroon and Roger Milla continued in their game with Colombia. Milla was introduced as a second-half substitute with the game goalless, eventually breaking the deadlock midway in extra time. Three minutes later he netted a second after Colombian goalkeeper, René Higuita was dispossessed by Milla while well out of his goal, leaving the striker free to slot the ball into the empty net. Though the deficit was soon reduced to 2–1, Cameroon held on to become the first African team ever to reach the World Cup quarter-finals. Costa Rica were comfortably beaten 4–1 by Czechoslovakia, for whom Tomáš Skuhravý scored the tournament's second and final hat-trick.

paragraphs: The Republic of Ireland's match with Romania remained goalless after extra time, and the Irish side won 5–4 on penalties. David O'Leary converted the penalty that clinched Ireland's place in the quarter-finals. Ireland thus became the first team since Sweden in 1938 to reach the last eight in a World Cup finals tournament without winning a match outright. Yugoslavia beat Spain 2–1 after extra time, with Dragan Stojković scoring both the Yugoslavs' goals. England were the final qualifier against Belgium, as midfielder David Platt's swivelling volley broke the stalemate with the game moments away from a penalty shoot-out.

paragraphs: The first game of the last 8 saw Argentina and a Yugoslav side, reduced to 10 men after only half an hour, play out a goalless stalemate. The holders reached the semi-finals after winning the penalty shoot-out 3–2, despite Maradona having his penalty saved. A second Argentine miss (by Pedro Troglio) looked to have eliminated them until goalkeeper Sergio Goycochea – playing because first choice Nery Pumpido broke his leg during the group stage – rescued his side by stopping the Yugoslavs' final two spotkicks.

paragraphs: The Republic of Ireland's World Cup run was brought to an end by a single goal from Schillaci in the first half of their quarter-final with hosts Italy. West Germany beat Czechoslovakia with a 25th minute Lothar Matthäus penalty.

paragraphs: The most intriguing match of the quarter-finals was between England and Cameroon. Apart from anything else, it was the only quarter-final to produce more than one goal. Despite Cameroon's heroics earlier in the tournament, David Platt put England ahead in the 25th minute. At half-time, Milla was brought on. In the second half, the game was turned on its head during a five-minute stretch: first Cameroon were awarded a penalty from which Emmanuel Kunde scored the equaliser; then in the 65th minute Eugene Ekeke put Cameroon ahead. Cameroon came within eight minutes of reaching the semi-finals before then they conceded a penalty, which Gary Lineker converted. Midway through extra time, England were awarded another penalty, and Lineker again scored from the spot. England were through to the semi-finals for the first time in 24 years.

paragraphs: The first semi-final featured the host nation, Italy, and the world champion, Argentina in Naples. 'Toto' Schillaci scored yet again to put Italy ahead in the 17th minute, but Claudio Cannigia equalised midway through the second half, breaking Walter Zenga's clean sheet streak throughout the tournament. There were no more goals in the 90 minutes or in extra time despite Maradona (who played for Naples in Serie A at the time) in showing glimpses of magic, but there was a sending-off: Ricardo Giusti of Argentina was shown the red card in the 13th minute of extra time. Argentina went through on penalties, winning the shoot-out 4–3 after more heroics from Goycochea.

paragraphs: The semi-final between West Germany and England at Juventus's home stadium in Turin was goalless at half-time. Then, in the 60th minute, a shot from Andreas Brehme was deflected by Paul Parker into his own net. England equalised with 10 minutes left, Gary Lineker was the scorer. The game ended 1-1. Extra time yielded more chances and Klinsmann was guilty of two glaring misses while both sides struck a post. England had another Platt goal disallowed for offside. The match went to penalties and West Germany went on to win the 4-3.

paragraphs: The game saw three goals in a 15-minute spell. Roberto Baggio opened the scoring after a rare mistake by England's goalkeeper Peter Shilton, in his final game before international retirement, presented a simple opportunity. A header by David Platt levelled the game 10 minutes later but Schillaci was fouled in the penalty area five minutes later, leading to a penalty. Schillaci himself got up to convert the kick to win him the tournament's Golden Boot for his six-goal tally. Nicola Berti had a goal ruled out minutes later, but the hosts claimed third place. England had the consolation prize of the Fair Play award, having received no red cards and the lowest average number of yellows per match.

paragraphs: The final between West Germany and Argentina has been cited as the most cynical and lowest quality of all World Cup Finals. In the 65th minute, Argentina's Pedro Monzon was sent off for a foul on Jürgen Klinsmann, the first player ever to be sent off in a World Cup Final.

paragraphs: Argentina, weakened by suspension and injury, offered little attacking threat throughout a contest dominated by the West Germans, who struggled to create many clear goalscoring opportunities. The only goal of the contest arrived in the 85th minute when Mexican referee Edgardo Codesal awarded a penalty to West Germany, after a foul on Rudi Völler by Roberto Sensini. Andreas Brehme, who later said there was no foul, converted the spot kick to settle the contest. In the closing moments, Argentina were reduced to nine after Gustavo Dezotti received the second yellow card of the game when he hauled Jürgen Kohler to the ground during a stoppage in play. The 1–0 scoreline provided another first: Argentina were the first team to fail to score in a World Cup Final.

paragraphs: With its third title (and three second-place finishes) West Germany – in its final tournament before national reunification – became the most successful World Cup nation at the time. West German manager Franz Beckenbauer became the only man to both captain (in 1974) and manage a World Cup winning team, and only the second man (after Mário Zagallo of Brazil) to win the World Cup as a player and as team manager. It was also the first time a team from UEFA won the final against a non-European team.


title: Francisco (moon)

paragraphs: Francisco is the closest non-spherical moon of Uranus.

paragraphs: Francisco was found by Matthew J. Holman, et al. and Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2003 from pictures taken in 2001 and given the designation S/2001 U 3.

paragraphs: Confirmed as Uranus XXII, it was named after a lord in William Shakespeare's play "The Tempest".