title: Electrical engineering

paragraphs: Electrical engineers are engineers who develop (think and make) different things that use electricity in a helpful way. They fix or design new and better ways of using devices that use electricity.

paragraphs: Big subjects in electrical engineering include power generation, automation and control of robots, digital systems, and information technology (using radio and computers to move and use data). To meet new needs, electrical engineering produced new specialties, such as electronic engineering and software engineering.

paragraphs: Early universities taught philosophy and later science. As the industrial revolution began they had to start teaching new parts of these sciences to keep up with the demand for new items.

paragraphs: When the industrial era began, we needed to study mathematics, physics and chemistry to help support it. These subjects are "applied" (or, used in the real world) using engineering. In the late 19th century when electricity was used to make electric motors and to send messages to far away places, a new branch called electrical engineering was invented. When radio became important, many engineers worked at it, and their branch was later expanded to cover electronic engineering.


title: Design

paragraphs: Design is a visual look or a shape given to a certain object, in order to make it more attractive, make it more comfortable or to improve another characteristic. Designers use tools from geometry and art. Design is sometimes divided to sub-categories: graphic design, buildings and nature design, consumer goods design.

paragraphs: Design is also a concept used to create an object (virtual or not).

paragraphs: Design is picturing things using the imagination; as to using perception or memory.


title: Star Trek

paragraphs: In its broadest sense, Star Trek is a collection of science fiction video entertainments, owned by Paramount and CBS, as well as various spin-offs. Many of these types of collections are often known as franchises.

paragraphs: The main parts of the "Star Trek" franchise are:

paragraphs: Other parts of the franchise are: books (both fiction and non-fiction), magazines, comics, action figures, model toys and computer video games.

paragraphs: "Star Trek" was created as a TV series in 1966 by Gene Roddenberry. He and the other authors of "Star Trek" have, over time, developed a whole fictional universe set in the future. Following this fictional universe is the way they have chosen to maintain continuity between the various TV series and the movies.

paragraphs: "Trekkies" or "Trekkers" may refer to the many fans who love the series and support this "Star Trek Universe". Many conventions and newsletters exist to serve these fans. There are even amateur movies made by the fans.

paragraphs: In the 1960s, Gene Roddenberry created "Star Trek". He sold it as a western (a television genre about cowboys), but in space, and compared it to the television show "Wagon Train". He also based it on "Gulliver's Travels". After two pilots (test episodes), "Star Trek" was first shown on television in 1966.

paragraphs: In 2053, World War III ended on Earth. In 2063 Zefram Cochrane, invented the warp drive, a way to travel faster than the speed of light. Because of this invention, Vulcans came to Earth to meet the humans. This is shown in "". The Vulcans helped humans fight disease and hunger. In 2150 humans created a United Earth Government that combined all the old governments into one.

paragraphs: A war between Earth and the Romulans made species from different planets work together, and the Coalition of Planets was started in 2156. In 2161, the planets Vulcan, Earth, Andoria and Tellar started the United Federation of Planets.

paragraphs: "" is sometimes abbreviated to TOS. In it, the starship Enterprise travels through space to discover new places - "to boldly go where no man has gone before". The show was set in the 23rd century.

paragraphs: It was shown on television for three years, and was cancelled in 1969.

paragraphs: "" is also called "TAS". It is an animated version of "The Original Series". The crew are the same, and most are voice-acted by the same actors. Because it was animated, the planets and species could look more interesting.

paragraphs: Gene Roddenberry asked for the stories in "TAS" to be removed from "Star Trek"'s canon (the official history of "Star Trek" that is the same in all series). It is still argued about if they are part of canon or not, but usually agreed that they are not. The official Star Trek website has added some things from "TAS" to their library.

paragraphs: "" is also called "TNG". It is set 70 years after "The Original Series", in the 24th century. The crew travel on a new starship called the "Enterprise-D". The stories are also about exploring, and often about fighting hostile (violent or angry) ships. The crew has many different races.

paragraphs: It was shown on television for seven seasons, from 1987 to 1994.

paragraphs: "" is also sometimes called "DS9". It is set in the late 24th century, at the end of "The Next Generation"'s time line and the start of Voyager's. It is not like "TOS" and "TNG" because it is set on a space station and is not about exploring. This means it has more soap opera elements (lots of stories about the characters). Most of the stories are about the Cardassian race and the war with the Dominion.

paragraphs: It was shown on television for seven seasons, from 1993 to 1999.

paragraphs: "" is set in the late 24th century. It is different from the other series because it takes place in the Delta Quadrant. The ship Voyager was trapped there after a chase by the Maquis (Starfleet rebels). The stories are about them trying to find their way home. This is a long journey, and will take them 75 years.

paragraphs: It was shown on television for seven seasons, from 1995 to 2001. It was made to help start a new television channel, UPN.

paragraphs: "" is set in the 22nd century, which means it is before all the other series on the "Star Trek" timeline. It is about the humans and the Vulcans working together after first contact. The ship, Enterprise, was the first Warp 5 ship made by the humans (with some Vulcan assistance). The first season famously had many continuity errors (events and technology that did not match what happens in the other series).

paragraphs: It was shown on television for four seasons, from 2001 to 2005.

paragraphs: "Star Trek: Discovery" is the newest "Star Trek" series. It is set in the 23rd century, ten years before the original "Star Trek" series. The first season is about a war between the Federation and the Klingons.

paragraphs: The main characters of the first season are:

paragraphs: The first season was streamed online starting in 2017 on CBS' online streaming service in the United States, and on Netflix outside of the United States. There will be another season premiering in late 2018.

paragraphs: The "Star Trek" franchise is a multibillion-dollar industry (a very large business). It has influenced (affected) many things in real life.

paragraphs: "Star Trek" has a large following of fans who are very enthusiastic (care a great deal) about the show. They are usually called Trekkies. The word was first used by Arthur W. Saha when he saw people wearing fake Vulcan ears at a convention (an event where lots of people interested in the same thing organise to meet) in 1967. Some fans like to be known as Trekkers instead.

paragraphs: Two documentaries (factual television shows) have been made about them, called "Trekkies" and "Trekkies 2".

paragraphs: In 1976, NASA made a prototype (test) space shuttle. It was first going to be called "Constitution", but Star Trek fans wrote letters to NASA asking for it to be called "Enterprise" instead. "Enterprise" was used for flight tests, although it was never sent into space. It is now displayed (put on show) at the Smithsonian Institution.

paragraphs: The movie "Galaxy Quest" is a "Star Trek" parody, which means it was made to be like "Star Trek" in a funny way.

paragraphs: There have been parodies on television in the cartoons "Futurama", "The Simpsons" and "Family Guy".

paragraphs: The video games company Blizzard Entertainment puts references to "Star Trek" in many of its games, like "Starcraft" and "World of Warcraft".

paragraphs: Fans of the show made a new episode, "Pilgrim of Eternity", in 2013. The crew were also professional film and TV people.

paragraphs: "Star Trek" episodes often tell a moral story. philosophical and moral questions are common. In the "Star Trek: Voyager" episode "Tuvix", a transporter accident puts two characters, Tuvok and Neelix, into one body. This makes a new person, Tuvix, who has his own personality. The crew of the Voyager must decide what to do: they can kill Tuvix by separating him back into Tuvok and Neelix, or they can kill Tuvok and Neelix by letting Tuvix live. In the end, Captain Janeway decides to save Tuvok and Neelix, although the Doctor thinks this is wrong.

paragraphs: "Star Trek" episodes also often reflect (copy) what is happening in the real world. One example is the episode "A Private Little War" in "Star Trek: The Original Series". This is said to be like the Vietnam War. In the episode, the Klingons threaten innocent people. Captain Kirk has to decide whether to give the people guns so that they can defend themselves. The episode asks whether you can fight evil without doing evil yourself.

paragraphs: One focus of all the "Star Trek" franchises is a Federation law called "The Prime Directive." The Prime Directive states that advanced civilizations should not change more primitive ones; societies should be allowed to develop on their own. The Prime Directive often makes for a moral conflict—for example, the Prime Directive might forbid using advanced technology to save an intelligent race.


title: Tunnel

paragraphs: A tunnel is an underground passage. Some tunnels are used for cars, and others are used for trains. Sometimes, a tunnel is used for movement of ships. Some tunnels are built for communication cables and some are built for electricity cables. Other tunnels are built for animals.

paragraphs: Tunnels are dug in different kinds of grounds, from soft sand to hard rock. The way of digging is chosen by the type of ground. There are two additional ways of digging : quarry and 'cut and cover'. In quarry, the tunnel path is drilled in a horizontal way.

paragraphs: This system requires a deep tunnel that's built in a firm rock. In the 'cut and cover' system, a tunnel is dug in the ground and, afterwards, a roof is built above the tunnel. This system fits tunnels that are close to the ground like road tunnels and infrastructure.

paragraphs: Building tunnels is a large civil engineering project that could cost very high sums of money. The planning and building of a long tunnel may take many years.

paragraphs: The Channel Tunnel between France and England is one of the longest tunnels in the world. It is 50 kilometers long. The longest tunnel in the world, the "Gotthard Base Tunnel", is being dug in Switzerland.


title: The Salvation Army

paragraphs: The Salvation Army is a Protestant Christian organization William and Catherine Booth founded it in the East End of London, England in 1865. It was called the Christian Mission to start with, but in 1878, the name was changed. The Booths came from a Methodist tradition, but today the teachings of the movement are mainstream Protestant. They focus on preaching, and on helping those in need. They also actively help in disaster relief.

paragraphs: The Salvation Army operates in over 100 countries today. Its members devote themselves to teaching Christian morals, helping those in need, like the homeless, the sick, the poor, and others. It operates facilities like shelters, , orphanages, , and a , and offers Sunday church services. It is one of the largest charitable organisations in the world, which means that it relies on people to give it money to use.

paragraphs: People from theSwiss branch of the Salvavion army qualified for the Eurovidion Song Contest, 2013 in Malmö. At first, they were refused at the ESC. They could participate, but they had to change their name (to Takasa), and they also had to agree not to wear the typical uniforms on stage. They didn't qualify for the final round, though.


title: Orphanage

paragraphs: An orphanage is an institution that takes in and cares for orphans. It can also mean state of being an orphan. This is when a child is an orphan.

paragraphs: Historically it was very often the church or the state who cared for orphans. Children in orphanage may often suffer from child abuse or trauma to be left by parents. In some cases; some parents aren't able to house the children.


title: London Underground

paragraphs: The London Underground is a system of electric trains in London, UK. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the "Metropolitan Railway". After the opening the system was copied in many other cities, for example New York and Madrid. Even though it is called "the Underground" about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is a slang name for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are round tubes running through the ground. The Underground serves 270 stations and over 408 km of track. From 2006–2007 over 1 billion passengers used the underground.

paragraphs: Underground train systems in other cities may be called "metros" (like the Tyne and Wear Metro in North East England) or "subways" (Glasgow Subway in Scotland and in most of North America). "Subway" is also used across Britain to refer to underground walkways.

paragraphs: The Metropolitan Line was the first part of the Underground to be made. It was opened in 1863. It then ran between Paddington and Farringdon. It took 40,000 passengers per day. Later it was made longer. The District Line was built by a different company. In 1884, the Circle Line was finished. All these lines used steam engines at first.

paragraphs: In 1890, a line using electric trains was opened. It was much deeper below ground than the other lines. Now it is part of the Northern Line. More lines like this were opened. People liked them, so in 1905 the lines that used steam engines were changed to use electric trains.

paragraphs: Because the different lines were run by different companies, changing lines was difficult. Between 1900 and 1902 Charles Yerkes bought most of the companies and formed a company named Underground Electric Railways of London Company Ltd, short UERL.

paragraphs: In 1933 a company was formed of all the bus, tram and underground companies, called London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). It planned to make the network longer, but the Second World War stopped this. In the war, some Underground stations were used as shelters against bombs.

paragraphs: After the war more passengers used the underground. Minor changes were made: Victoria Line was opened in the 1960s, and currently the Piccadilly Line was extended to Heathrow Airport in 1977. The Jubilee Line was opened in 1979, and extended to Stratford 20 years later. Night Tube was introduced in 2016.

paragraphs: The system uses two kinds of trains, a big type - called sub surface trains and a smaller type - deep level trains. The big ones are used for the rectangular tunnels (District Line, Metropolitan Line, Circle Line), the small ones for the round tunnels. Most lines have different trains, although they fit into one of the two categories.

paragraphs: The Underground's trains usually drive to 270 stations. 14 Stations are outside of London.

paragraphs: The Underground uses zones to collect fares. There are 9 zones. Zone 1 is the most central zone. The only London Underground stations in Zones 7 to 9 are on the Metropolitan line beyond Moor Park, outside Greater London. Some stations are in two zones, and the cheapest fare applies.

paragraphs: Paper tickets or the contactless Oyster card can be used for travel. The Oyster Card is a plastic card which stores credit (money and Travelcards) which the owner uses to pay for Underground travel. The user must "charge" (put money onto) their card at a ticket machine. They then touch the card on a yellow reader to pay for their journey. Since its introduction in 2002 it has become very popular with regular travelers, as the prices are much cheaper if you use an Oyster card.

paragraphs: There are ticket offices, some open only in the rush-hour, and ticket machines, which can be used at any time. Some machines take coins only, other touch-screen machines take coins and English notes, and usually give change. These machines also take credit and debit cards: some newer machines accept cards only.

paragraphs: The following tickets are available from London Underground and TfL ticket offices to use on the Underground:

paragraphs: When most of the stations in the London Underground system were built, disabled and wheelchair access was not considered. While many above-ground stations have only a few steps to the platform, nearly all Underground stations have some of the systems's 410 escalators and 112 lifts (elevators). Newer stations include disabled access, and many older stations install disabled access when they are refurbished or rebuilt. Since 2004, maps inside the trains show which stations have step-free access from street level. Transport for London plan to have a network of over 100 fully accessible stations by 2020, which means that 75% of Tube journeys can be made with step-free access.

paragraphs: The escalators in the London Underground system are some of the longest in Europe. They run 20 hours a day, 364 days a year and are used by 13,000 people per hour, with 95% of them running at one time.

paragraphs: There have been relatively few accidents in the Underground's history. Most happen if people accidentally fall onto the tracks. In some stations there are pits in the middle of the track to stop people being injured if they fall onto the track. Newly rebuilt parts of the system, especially on the Jubilee line, have platform doors. These doors only open when a train stops and prevent people falling or jumping onto the tracks.

paragraphs: The below-ground Jubilee Line extension (Westminster to North Greenwich) stations have sliding platform doors installed to prevent people falling off the platform onto the tracks, and discourage/prevent suicides.

paragraphs: In the 30s, 70s and 90s the Underground was bombed many times by the IRA, and for this reason there have been no wastebins in or around stations until very recently, when clear plastic sacks were introduced in some parts of the system. On 7th July 2005 there were three attacks by radical Islamic terrorists on two Circle Line trains and on one Piccadilly Line.

paragraphs: Smoking is not allowed in any part of the underground. It was banned after a fire in King's Cross Station in 1987.

paragraphs: The commuters of London often complain about the Underground. Even newspapers, especially the Evening Standard, often criticise the system.

paragraphs: Usually the complaints are about delays, overcrowding and the fares. Sometimes strikes of London Underground staff occur.

paragraphs: London Underground fares are now the most expensive of any rail system around the world, including the luxurious Orient Express, and they continue to rise at very high levels. Concern has also been raised over the huge difference between oyster card fares and cash fares, with the criticism that the high cash fares will discourage tourists and day visitors to London from traveling around the City.

paragraphs: Because the underground is a very old system, engineering work is often needed and often causes delays. There can be other reasons as well, for example signal failures or other breakdowns. Customers can claim a refund if their tube journey is delayed for more than 15 minutes due to problems within the control of Transport For London.

paragraphs: Because many more commuters use the underground than planned, overcrowding often happens. This can cause stress and frustration with the underground system among commuters. According to a report by MPs, commuters face "a daily trauma" and are often forced to travel in "intolerable conditions".

paragraphs: Because so many passengers travel on the London Underground network every day, strikes or industrial actions on the Underground network have a very high impact on London's traffic and can impact on London's economy. London Underground and the rail unions claim to be under high pressure from the working public, private businesses and government departments.

paragraphs: Strike actions on the London Underground occur for a number of reasons, including health and safety, working conditions and pay levels. There were several such strikes in the late 1970s.


title: Democracy Now!

paragraphs: Democracy Now! is a radio and TV program. It is entirely paid for through donations from listeners, viewers, and foundations and does not accept advertisers, corporate underwriting, or government funding. It is one of the biggest independent news organizations in the United States.


title: Socialist Party (England and Wales)

paragraphs: The Socialist Party is a Socialist political party active in England and Wales and part of the Committee for a Workers' International. They publish a weekly newspaper entitled "The Socialist" and a monthly "Socialism Today". As an organisation, it has evolved from the Militant Tendency, who in the early 1980s started to be expelled from the Labour Party, for organising a mass campaign against the Poll Tax.

paragraphs: There was a debate with the Militant Tendency as to whether or not to cease working within the Labour Party and the majority of the group decided to do so, although a minority around Ted Grant broke away to form Socialist Appeal. This debate ran alongside a parallel debate on the future of Scottish politics. The result was that the experiment of operating as an "open party" was first undertaken in Scotland under the name of Scottish Militant Labour. This initiative would eventually lead to the foundation of the Scottish Socialist Alliance. The majority of Scottish members, after forming the Scottish Socialist Party, left the CWI in early 2001 as they moved away from traditional Trotskyist politics.

paragraphs: For a while, the party was known as "Militant Labour". In 1997, the group changed its name to the Socialist Party, but the ownership of this name has been contested by the much older Socialist Party of Great Britain. As a result, the new party is frequently known as "The Socialist Party of England and Wales". In elections, it has had to use the name "Socialist Alternative". They were one of the founders of the local Socialist Alliance groups, but they left in 2001.

paragraphs: Since ending their tenure in the Socialist Alliance, the Socialist Party has run candidates in elections as "Socialist Alternative". Following the UK local elections, 2006, it has three councillors in Coventry, one in Stoke, two in Lewisham, South London and one in Huddersfield. In February 2005, the Socialist Party announced plans to contest the 2005 parliamentary elections as part of a new electoral alliance called the Socialist Green Unity Coalition. Several former components of the Socialist Alliance that did not join Respect also joined the SGUC.

paragraphs: The Socialist Party is a smaller organisation than the Militant of the 1980s, but has influence in some trade unions. In 2005, 23 Socialist Party members are elected members of trade union national executive committees. Under the leadership of Peter Taaffe, their policies have remained close to the Trotskyist mainstream. Their demand for the nationalisation of the one hundred and fifty top British companies and their longstanding practice of running in elections has led some critics to label them as reformists though the party insists that their method is based on Trotsky's Transitional Programme.

paragraphs: The Socialist Party is affiliated to the Committee for a Workers International, and is indeed the largest of its forty members. The party participates also in the broader European Anticapitalist Left.

paragraphs: In November 2005 at its annual 'Socialism' event, the Socialist Party formally launched the 'Campaign for a New Workers' Party' with the aim of persuading individuals, campaigners and trade unions to help set up and back a new broad left alternative to New Labour that would fight for working class people. The National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT union) held a conference in January 2006 to address what it calls 'The crisis in working class representation', in which Dave Nellist was invited to speak. Most of the speakers were in favour of a broad left alternative to New Labour. The remaining speakers, such as MP John McDonnell, wished it well.


title: Socialist teachers

paragraphs: Socialist Teachers are a group of members of the Socialist Party (England and Wales) in the National Union of Teachers(NUT).

paragraphs: It is associated with CNWP teachers and its members work with other socialists and trade union activists in the STA (Socialist Teachers' Alliance) and CDFU (Campaign for a Democratic and Fighting Union).

paragraphs: Socialist Party teacher Martin Powell-Davies stood for the general secretary of the NUT in 2004 and polled 6,482 first-preference votes.


title: National Union of Teachers

paragraphs: The National Union of Teachers is the largest teachers' union in the United Kingdom. It has a policy of campaigning on educational issues as well as the conditions of service of its members.


title: Socialist Party

paragraphs: Socialist Party is the name of several different political parties around the world with a variety of different political views. These include:


title: Dave Grohl

paragraphs: David Eric "Dave" Grohl (born January 14, 1969) is an American rock musician and singer. He is best known as the lead singer of rock band Foo Fighters and the drummer of the grunge band Nirvana. He has also been part of thirty different bands in his life. These bands include Nine Inch Nails and Tenacious D.

paragraphs: Dave Grohl lived most of his early life in Springfield, Virginia. He played in many local punk bands, on guitar. By 15 years old he was a drummer in the hardcore punk band, Scream. Scream toured all over the United States and Europe but broke up in 1989. After they broke up he tried out to be a drummer in a small band called Nirvana.

paragraphs: Grohl joined Nirvana in 1990, along with Krist Novoselic and Kurt Cobain. They went on to be one of the most successful bands of the decade, selling over 50 million albums worldwide. Grohl joined shortly before the release of "Nevermind". "Nevermind" proved to be a classic album, one that is still a big influence on the alternative metal and alternative rock scene. The band only recorded one more studio album though, In Utero in 1993. On April 8, 1994, Kurt Cobain's body was found at his home in Seattle. He had shot himself in the head with a shotgun. This basically ended Nirvana and Grohl started his own band Foo Fighters in 1995.

paragraphs: The original Foo Fighters album was recorded entirely by Grohl himself. He recorded the parts for each instrument one at a time and then combined them. Foo Fighters are now a multi Grammy Award winning rock band and sell out huge arenas when they go on tour.


title: Embryo

paragraphs: An embryo is the earliest stage in the development of a fertilised egg (the zygote). It is the term used for any animal or plant, from the first cell division until birth, or hatching, or germination in plants.

paragraphs: In humans, it is called an embryo until about eight weeks after fertilization, and from then until birth it is called a foetus (US: fetus).

paragraphs: The development of the embryo is called embryogenesis, and the study of embryos is called embryology. The development of an embryo passes through various stages: the blastula, a hollow ball of cells; the gastrula, migration of cells; morphogenesis; tissue differentiation, and so on.

paragraphs: In organisms that reproduce sexually, once a sperm fertilizes an egg cell, the result is a cell called the zygote, which has DNA from each of the two parents. In plants, animals, and some protists, the zygote divides by mitosis to produce an embryo.


title: WordPad

paragraphs: WordPad is a word processor application. It is made by Microsoft. WordPad is a basic word processor. It has simple formatting functions. The software comes free with Microsoft Windows operating systems. WordPad is similar to Notepad but lets the user format text, something users cannot do in Notepad. However, WordPad is very basic compared to normal word processors like Microsoft Word or OpenOffice Writer. Wordpad saves documents in Rich Text Format, unlike Notepad's use of simple text files, allowing users to change the alignment and color of the font, and add things like bullets and font effects.


title: Microsoft Paint

paragraphs: Microsoft Paint, also called MS Paint or simply Paint is a computer program made by Microsoft. It allows people to create picture files as well as edit picture files saved on their computer. Microsoft Paint is also a program for adding texts to images saved on a computer. There are various tools to help people edit photos, including:

paragraphs: The program has a color palette displayed on the bottom left of the screen, as well as an "Edit Colors..." menu, allowing users to create all the shades they need.

paragraphs: Using the selection tools (the 2 tools at the top if the tools bar), users can select all or part of an image and then cut, copy, delete and paste it.

paragraphs: Many digital artists or editors prefer programs like Photoshop, but many on a tighter budget or with less time on their hands use Paint. Because of this, there are many Internet tutorials to help enhance the creative skill of every Microsoft Painter.


title: My Computer

paragraphs: My Computer is seen on the Microsoft Windows computers. My Computer allows the user to access the local drives, such as the local disk, also known as the C: Drive. The user can also access external drives. Examples of an external drive are a floppy disk drive (A: Drive) and the CD Drive (D:). My computer also lets the user access My Documents and other files.

paragraphs: Whenever any external drive is attached to the computer, the user can directly access that drive from My Computer menu. "My Computer" gives us an overview about different types of drives present in the computer. The My Computer folder is a gateway to all the data stored on the computer, attached devices, and the network -- as well as a shortcut to most of your system information.


title: Trilogy

paragraphs: A trilogy is a series with three parts. For example, The Godfather series of movies is a trilogy because there are three movies in the series: "The Godfather", "The Godfather Part II", and "The Godfather Part III".

paragraphs: The trilogy was originally a tradition of Ancient Greek theatre, where three plays and one satyr play would be played.


title: Series

paragraphs: A series is a group of similar things that are all related to the same topic.

paragraphs: In mathematics, a series is the adding of a list of (usually never-ending) mathematical objects (such as numbers). It is sometimes written as formula_1, which is another way of writing formula_2.

paragraphs: For example, the series formula_3 corresponds to the following sum:

paragraphs: Here, the dots mean that the adding does not have a last term, but goes on to infinity.

paragraphs: If the result of the addition gets closer and closer to a certain limit value, then this is the sum of the series. For example, the first few terms of the above series are:

paragraphs: From these, we can see that this series will have 2 as its sum.

paragraphs: However, not all series have a sum. For example. a series can go to positive or negative infinity, or just go up and down without settling on any particular value. In which case, the series is said to diverge. The harmonic series is an example of a series which diverges.


title: Synesthesia

paragraphs: Synesthesia, or synaesthesia, is a condition where the brain mixes up the senses. People who have synesthesia are called synesthetes.

paragraphs: Synesthesia is usually inherited (called congenital synesthesia), but exactly how people inherit it is unknown.

paragraphs: Synesthesia is sometimes reported by people using psychedelic drugs, after a stroke, or during an epileptic seizure. It is also reported to be a result of blindness or deafness. Synesthesia that comes from events unrelated to genes is called adventitious synesthesia. This synesthesia results from some drugs or a stroke but not blindness or deafness. It involves sound being linked to vision or touch being linked to hearing.

paragraphs: Synesthesia was investigated a lot in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but in the middle of the 20th century, it was less studied. Only recently has it been studied again in much detail.

paragraphs: Some musicians and composers have a form of synesthesia that allows them to "see" music as colors or shapes. This is called chromethesia. Mozart is said to have had this form of synesthesia. He said that the key of D major had a warm "orangey" sound to it, while B-flat minor was blackish. A major was a rainbow of colors to him. This may explain why he wrote some of his music using different colors for different music notes, and why much of his music is in major keys.

paragraphs: Another composer who had color-hearing was the Russian composer Alexander Scriabin. In 1907, he talked with another famous composer, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, who had synesthesia, and they both found that some musical notes made them think of certain colors. Scriabin worked with a man named Alexander Mozer who made a color organ.

paragraphs: The same type of synesthesia may have different effects (pronounced and less pronounced) on different people.

paragraphs: Synesthetes often say that they did not know their experiences were unusual until they found out that other people did not have them. Others report feeling as if they had been keeping a secret their entire lives. Most synesthetes consider their experiences a gift—a "hidden" sense. Most synesthetes find out in their childhood that they have synethesia. Some learn to apply it in daily life and work. For example, they might use their gift to memorize names and telephone numbers or do mental arithmetic. Many people with synesthesia use their experiences to help them be more creative, for example, in making drawings and music.

paragraphs: More than 60 types of synesthesia have been reported, but only a small number have been studied by scientists.


title: Moose

paragraphs: A moose ("Alces alces"; called elk in Europe) is a large deer. Some authorities put the American moose in a different species, "Alces americanus".

paragraphs: A male moose is called a "bull", a female moose is called a "cow", and a young moose is called a "calf". A group of moose is called a "herd". The plural form of moose is "moose”. Some people jokingly use the word “meese” based on “goose” and “geese”.

paragraphs: Moose live in northern Europe, Asia, and in North America. Moose usually live in areas with lakes, marshes and swamps. They also live in mountain ranges.

paragraphs: Moose live in North America and also range from northern Europe to Siberia. In Europe they live in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Poland and the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). In North America they live in Canada, Alaska and northern parts of the United States. In 2008 they were re-introduced to Scottish Highlands from Scandinavia.

paragraphs: The moose is widely distributed. Canada and Russia each have between 500,000 and 1,000,000 moose. Alaska has about 200,000 and there are some in the contiguous United States. There are about 115,000 moose in Finland, and about the same number in Norway.

paragraphs: Moose are active during the day. They live alone, but in winter they sometimes form small groups. Moose eat grass, leaves, twigs, willow, birch, maple shoots and water plants. After a pregnancy of 8 months, the female gives birth to one or two calves. Females can first become pregnant when they are between two and three years old. Young moose stay with their mother for a year; after one year they leave and live alone. Moose usually live to fifteen years old, but they can reach as old as twenty-seven years old. A mother moose will aggressively protect her young. Moose calves are hunted by bears and wolves.

paragraphs: A full-grown moose has few natural enemies. Siberian tigers prey on adult moose. Wolves also pose a threat, especially to females with calves. Brown bears are known to prey on moose, although bears are more likely to take over a wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own. American black bears and cougars can take moose calves and can sometimes kill adult cows. Wolverine are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when the moose are weakened by harsh winter conditions. Killer whales are the moose's only known marine predator. They have been known to prey on moose swimming between islands off North America's northwest coast.

paragraphs: Moose have been hunted by humans since the Stone Age.

paragraphs: Because of their dark coloured fur, moose are hard to see when they are crossing roads at night. They are sometimes hit by cars. In some countries like Canada, Finland and Sweden there are moose warning signs on roads and motorways are fenced.


title: Stanley Kubrick

paragraphs: Stanley Kubrick (July 26, 1928 - March 7, 1999) was an American movie director. Kubrick is thought to have been one of the great directors of the 20th century.

paragraphs: He was born in New York City but lived most of his life in England. His movies are respected for their great amount of detail and symbolism. Some of his movies were controversial when they were first shown. For example, the sex and violence in his movie "A Clockwork Orange" was very disturbing to many people who saw it when it was released in 1971. The reaction to the movie in the United Kingdom became so great that Stanley Kubrick stopped showing the movie there for over 25 years. Other famous movies that Kubrick made include "Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned To Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb", "" and "The Shining". Stanley Kubrick died from a heart attack on March 7, 1999.

paragraphs: Kubrick was born in the Bronx, New York City and lived there during his youth. Stanley was a poor student in school but his father, who was a doctor, taught Stanley how to play chess and gave him a camera. Kubrick finished high school in 1946 and could not get into a college. This was because of his poor grades in school and because colleges were full with many American soldier's who returned from World War II that same year. During this time, Kubrick played games of chess with people for money. He was a good chess player and won many games. He used the money he won from playing chess to buy food and photography equipment. Kubrick got a job at a magazine in New York City that was called Look Magazine. Kubrick also enjoyed watching movies and thought that he could make better movies than the movies that were being made at the time. He first made two small documentaries. One of them was about a boxer and was called "Day of the Fight". The other documentary was about a religious man and was called "Flying Padre". He then made two full-length movies (called feature films) that made other people interested in his work. The first feature film was called "Fear and Desire" and the other was called "Killer's Kiss." His third feature film, called "The Killing", was a success. The success of "The Killing" allowed Stanley to work on a bigger movie, called "Paths of Glory", that was about World War I and was made with the famous actor Kirk Douglas. At this time Kubrick became well known in the movie industry and had started to create his own style.

paragraphs: After Stanley Kubrick completed "Paths of Glory", he worked on a big Hollywood movie named "Spartacus" in 1960. The movie is about a gladiator who fights Rome. It made a lot of money and was a success but Kubrick did not enjoy working on it. He did not enjoy working on it because of problems he had with the other people working on the movie who controlled it. Kubrick desired to have a lot of control in making his movies, and after making "Spartacus" he only worked on movies that he had full control over.

paragraphs: Kubrick moved to the United Kingdom in 1962, to make his next movie, "Lolita". He liked the United Kingdom very much and decided to live there for the rest of his life. The movie "Lolita" was the first movie that Kubrick made that created a lot of controversy. The movie was based upon a book by the Russian author Vladimir Nabokov that was also very controversial at the time. The movie shows the relationship between a very young woman and an older man. This is a forbidden topic in the United States and most of the world.

paragraphs: For the movie "Lolita", Kubrick hired the talented and famous actor Peter Sellers. Kubrick respected Peter's acting and asked him to act as three different characters in Kubrick's next movie, "", which was released in 1963. "Dr. Strangelove" was a comedy but it was about very serious topics. These are called black comedies. The movie was about the Cold War and was very controversial but also very successful. The movie had a large cultural influence and created some images that became very famous in the years to follow. The most famous image from the movie was of an American pilot sitting on a nuclear bomb as it fell to earth from an airplane.

paragraphs: Kubrick's success with "Dr Strangelove" convinced the movie studios that he was talented and that he could be trusted to make good, popular movies. Kubrick entered into a positive relationship with the movie studio, Warner Brothers. Warner Brothers gave him almost full artistic control on all of the movies he was to make in the future. A director being given so much control is rare. Such directors are called "auteurs".

paragraphs: Kubrick took five years to develop and plan his next movie. It was a science fiction movie called "" and it was released in 1968. Kubrick based the movie on a short story called "The Sentinel" that was written by the science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke. Kubrick worked with Arthur C. Clarke to make the movie. The movie used many new ideas and techniques and had special effects that no other movie at the time had. The great special effects used in the movie won Kubrick his first and only Oscar award. "2001" was made during the end of the 1960s and was very popular with members of the Hippie Counterculture. This was because of the movies strange and dream-like visuals. When the movie was released it was both loved and hated by many movie critics. Many of the movie critics who did not like the movie when they saw it in 1968 have changed their opinions. Some of them have written a second, positive review of the movie many years later.

paragraphs: His next movie was one of his most famous and also his most controversial. The movie was titled "A Clockwork Orange" and was released in 1971. The movie was darker than "2001" and was originally released with an "X" motion picture rating in the US. The movie was based on a novel of the same title by the author Anthony Burgess. The novel and movie are about a criminal who is given a new and experimental 'cure' for his violent nature. The story asks questions about how society defines morality. The movie had an amount of sex and violence that was not often seen in big Hollywood movies at the time. The controversy of the movie increased when other people copied some of the acts that were committed by the characters in the movie. Kubrick and his family received violent threats from people, called death threats. These threats were serious enough that Kubrick took the movie out of theaters in Britain. The movie was not shown again in Britain until the year 2000, after Kubrick's death.

paragraphs: Kubrick's next movie was to going to be about Napoleon but he canceled it after another similar movie was released before his own. Kubrick worked very hard researching and learning about Napoleon and about the world at that time. Kubrick chose to make another movie set in that time that was titled "Barry Lyndon". The movie was based a book by William Makepeace Thackeray and was about an 18th-century gambler named Barry Lyndon. The movie was not as well liked as his previous movies but, like "2001: A Space Odyssey", it convinced people over time.

paragraphs: After "Barry Lyndon", Kubrick made movies at a much slower rate than before. He only made three more movies in the next twenty-five years. He was still very popular and respected. Each of the movies he released became an event that many people waited for and celebrated.

paragraphs: "The Shining" was Kubrick's next movie. It was based on the book of the same name by the American author, Stephen King and was released in 1980. It was a horror movie and starred Jack Nicholson and Shelley Duvall. The movie was one of Kubrick's most mainstream movies and was very popular. It was different from the other horror movies at the time and the catch phrase, "Here's Johnny!" (which was also used on the TV's The Tonight Show hosted by Johnny Carson at the time) was made very popular after Jack Nicholson's character said it during an important scene in the movie. The author of the book Stephen King hated the movie and did not like that Kubrick changed many things from the book. King made his own version, a TV mini-series in 1997, which was much more like the book.

paragraphs: "Full Metal Jacket" was Kubrick's next movie and was released in 1987. It was one of several movies that were made in the 1980s that were about the Vietnam War. The movie was most famous for its drill instructor character, played by R. Lee Ermey, who was very cruel to his soldiers. After the movie was released, the United States Armed Forces changed some of its rules about how their drill instructors should behave.

paragraphs: "Eyes Wide Shut" was Kubrick's last movie and was released in 1999. He completed editing the movie just before his death in March. The movie starred Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman, who were married to each other in real-life at the time. It was based on the novel "Traumnovelle" by the Austrian writer Arthur Schnitzler. The movie took over 16 consecutive months (a world record) to complete and was released in July 1999. According to R. Lee Ermey, of Full Metal Jacket Fame, Kubrick revealed to him that he was rather disappointed with his work. Kubrick supposedly went further, saying that both Kidman and Cruise "had their way with" him. Apparently a reference to a clashing of large-Hollywood personas to Kubrick's more reserved demeanor.

paragraphs: Just a few days after completing the editing of "Eyes Wide Shut", Kubrick died from a heart attack in Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

paragraphs: In the year 2001, the American movie director Steven Spielberg filmed "A.I.: Artificial Intelligence". "A.I" was a movie that Stanley Kubrick had worked on before "Eyes Wide Shut", but did not finish. Steven Spielberg based his movie on Kubrick's plans. The movie received a poor response from audiences and did not make as much money as expected. The movie was thought to be more Spielberg's movie than Kubrick's movie.

paragraphs: All of Stanley Kubrick's later movies, except for "The Shining", were nominated for Oscars or Golden Globes. "2001: A Space Odyssey" had many technical awards, including a BAFTA award for cinematographer and an Academy Award for best visual effects. As director of special effects on the movie, Kubrick got the award. This was Kubrick's only personal Oscar win among 13 nominations. Nominations for his movies were mostly in the areas of cinematography, art design, screenwriting, and music. Only four of his movies were nominated by either an Oscar or Golden Globe for their acting performances: "Spartacus", "Lolita", "Dr. Strangelove", and "A Clockwork Orange".

paragraphs: Kubrick received two awards from major film festivals: "Best Director" from the Locarno International Film Festival in 1959 for "Killer's Kiss", and ""Bastone Bianco" Award" at the Venice Film Festival in 1999 for "Eyes Wide Shut". The Venice Film Festival awarded him the "Career Golden Lion" in 1997. He received the D.W. Griffith Lifetime Achievement Award from the Directors Guild of America, and another life-achievement award from the Director's Guild of Great Britain, and the "Career Golden Lion" from the Venice Film Festival. In 2000 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award. After he died, the Sitges - Catalonian International Film Festival awarded him the "Honorary Grand Prize" for life achievement in 2008. He also received the Hugo Award three times for his work in science fiction.


title: Kyoto Protocol

paragraphs: The Kyoto Protocol is a plan created by the United Nations for the "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" that tries to reduce the effects of climate change, such as global warming. The plan says that countries that adopt (follow) the Kyoto Protocol have to try to reduce how much carbon dioxide (and other "greenhouse gases" that pollute the atmosphere) they release into the air.

paragraphs: The full name of the Kyoto Protocol is the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. It is called the "Kyoto" Protocol because it was made in Kyoto, Japan. The Kyoto Protocol was officially put into "full force" on February 16, 2005. On February 16, Russia began to follow (ratify) the Kyoto Protocol and it was decided to be put into "full force". As of February 2009, 183 countries have agreed to follow the Kyoto Protocol, who make up for more than 55% of the greenhouse gases released into our atmosphere.

paragraphs: There are still 29 countries which have not yet adopted it. Croatia and Kazakhstan have signed the treaty, but have not ratified it (made it a law they have to follow). Donald Trump and The United States of America has signed it but said that they will not ratify it. Australia has only recently ratified the Kyoto Protocol under the previous Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd. Both of these countries have said that the fact that China and India are using exceptions to the treaty (those countries believe parts of the treaty do not apply to them and they will not follow those parts) in the name of industrialization is unfair and that they will not ratify because of this, although it is believed that the U.S. and Australia are protecting their economic interests by not ratifying. The countries' leaders say that changing their use of greenhouse gases will make their people lose jobs. The twenty four other countries have neither signed nor ratified the treaty.


title: Movie director

paragraphs: A movie director is a person who leads the making of a movie (or "film"). They take care of the artistic things in the movie. They give instructions to the actors and direct the people that work on the movie.

paragraphs: Directors give many of their responsibilities to other members of their movie-making team (called a movie crew). For example, the person who is responsible for the lighting is told by the director what style of lighting he wants and he then creates the lighting for him. It is common for movie directors to work closely with a movie producer. Movie producers are people who control the non-artistic side of movie making. For example, they control all the money that is used for making the movie.

paragraphs: The amount of control a director has in creating their movie is different for each director. It is most common for directors to have some control, while the rest of the movie-making is controlled by the movie studio, and by the people who pay for making the movie. This was very common for American movies made in the 1930s to 1950s. There are a small number of directors who are given complete control over making their movies. For example, Stanley Kubrick, Jean-Luc Godard, Steven Spielberg and James Cameron all had a great amount of control in making their movie.


title: Jack Nicholson

paragraphs: John Joseph "Jack" Nicholson (born April 22, 1937) is an American actor, movie director, producer and writer. He started out as a writer and part-time actor. He became a star in 1969 when he had a small part in the movie "Easy Rider". He has won three Oscars, for "As Good as it Gets", "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest", and "Terms of Endearment". He is one of the fans for Los Angeles Lakers. Nicholson is one of only two actors who have been nominated for an Academy Award for acting in every decade from the 1960s to 2000s; the other is Michael Caine. Nicholson received the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1999. He has won seven Golden Globe Awards. He received a Kennedy Center Honor in 2001. Nicholson dropped out from the remake movie "Toni Erdmann".

paragraphs: Nicholson has been linked to many actresses and models, including Michelle Phillips, Bebe Buell and Lara Flynn Boyle. He had a intimate relationship with Anjelica Huston from 1973 to 1989. The relationship ended when the media reported Rebecca Broussard was pregnant with their child. Nicholson and Broussard had two children together, Lorraine (born 1990) and Raymond Nicholson (born 1992). Nicholson's other children are Jennifer (born 1963 with Sandra Knight) and Honey Hollman (b. 1981 with Winnie Hollman). Actress Susan Anspach says that her son, Caleb Goddard (born 1970), was fathered by Nicholson. He is not sure that he is the father. Nicholson describes himself as a "lifelong Irish Democrat", and is highly against abortion. He is Roman Catholic. In 2020, Nicholson endorsed Bernie Sanders's second presidential campaign for the 2020 nomination.


title: Autism

paragraphs: Autism is the name of a disorder affecting brain development. It is one of a group of disorders called autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Asperger syndrome, atypical autism and childhood autism are kinds of autism spectrum disorders. It is a form of mental retardation

paragraphs: ASD is a condition that affects the way a person relates to their environment. The word "spectrum" is used because not all people with autism have the same traits and difficulties. Some people find interacting more difficult than others. Autism may be very apparent in someone or they may show no outward signs of it. The main areas of difficulty are in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and restricted or repetitive behaviors and interests. In most cases of autism, motor communication {doing things} is affected. All these signs develop in the child's first two to three years of age.

paragraphs: People who have autism find it difficult to act in a way that other people think is "normal". They may find it difficult to talk to other people and to look at other people. Some people with autism do not like being touched. A person who has autism can seem to be turned inwards. They may talk only to themselves, rock themselves backwards and forwards, and laugh at their own thoughts. They might not like any type of change and may find it very difficult to learn a new behavior like going to school.

paragraphs: Autism is caused by the way that the brain develops, both before and after a baby is born. About one in every 160 children has an autism spectrum disorder.

paragraphs: The word “autism” comes from the Greek word “autos”, meaning “self.” The term describes conditions in which a person is removed from social interaction—hence, an “isolated self”. The term "autism" was first used by a psychiatrist named Eugen Bleuler in 1911 to describe one group of symptoms of schizophrenia. Sigmund Freud considered this idea and thought it was related to narcissism.

paragraphs: Three decades later, researchers in the United States began to use the term autism to describe children with emotional or social problems. Two researchers by the name of Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner were the pioneers of the research study for autism in the 1940s.

paragraphs: In 1943 Leo Kanner (a doctor from Johns Hopkins University) did a study of 11 children. The children were very intelligent. He found out that they had difficulties such as changing environments, being sensitive to certain stimuli, having speech problems and allergies to food. Later he named the children’s condition “early infantile autism”., now called "autism".

paragraphs: In 1944 Hans Asperger studied separately a group of children and found very similar conditions. The children in Hans Asperger's group did not repeat words and they had no speech problems like Kanner's did. However, the children did have problems with fine motor skills such as holding a pencil. The children he studied seemed to be clumsier than other children. They also had “[...] a lack of empathy, little ability to form friendships, one-sided conversation, intense absorption in a special interest and clumsy movements”. Hans Asperger described a "milder" form of autism, his discovery is now called Asperger syndrome.

paragraphs: In 1943 and 1949, Kanner described the children he studied in scientific papers. In these papers, he wrote that he thought the children's parents were not loving them enough. He wrote that this might be part of the reason why the children had autism. For example, in 1949 he wrote that the children's parents showed no warmth, or love, to their children. He thought the parents were so "cold" that he compared them to refrigerators:"“[The children] were left neatly in refrigerators which did not defrost. Their withdrawal seems to be an act of turning away from such a situation to seek comfort in solitude”."This idea became known as the "refrigerator mother theory". For decades parents were blamed for causing their children's autism by not loving their children enough. By now, we know this is not true.

paragraphs: Schizophrenia and autism were linked in many researchers’ studies. Only since the 1960s, medical professionals began to have a separate understanding of these two disorders. Since 1980, Kanner’s so called early infantile autism is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Precisely because of the vague distinction between schizophrenia and autism, the DSM came out with a more accurate definition of autism in 1987. Henceforth, early infantile autism is called autism disorder. Furthermore, for the first time the DSM introduced standardised criteria to diagnose autism. The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders expanded the definition of autism and included milder cases of autism. But especially the Asperger’s syndrome was added in 1994. With the release of the fifth edition of the DSM in 2013 the subtypes of autism are summarized into the general term Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Individuals are now diagnosed on an autism spectrum with varying levels of intensity (mild, moderate and severe).

paragraphs: Different studies resulted in different numbers of the frequency of autism spectrum disorders. One study stated ten cases of classical autism, 2.5 cases of Asperger's syndrome and 15 cases of mild autism (PDD-NOS) in 10,000 people - tendency: increasing. Other sources speak about 60 autism spectrum disorder cases in 10,000 people. However, the number of autism cases is not equal in men and in women. Here, the results of studies vary highly. Researchers in general say that 3-4 men are diagnosed for every woman that is diagnosed. This ratio decreases for severe cases to 1:1. It increases for high-functioning cases and in Asperger's syndrome reaches a ratio of 8:1. Recently, the awareness has increased that this ratio may be so high because studies are simply missing female autistic people. This could be because tests for autism typically focus on male autism traits. Another possible explanation is that autistic females may be better at adapting to social expectations and hiding their social problems. Studies have suggested that the brains of autistic females may rather be like neurotypical men’s (non-autistic men) brains of the same age. These could be reasons why it is not so easy to realise whether a woman is autistic - and therefore, why more men than women are diagnosed.

paragraphs: Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are seen or diagnosed more often in males than females. The ratio is near one female for every four males diagnosed. But there is evidence that females may be diagnosed later than males. Researchers have argued whether there may be a gender bias playing a role in girls and women being underdiagnosed or being diagnosed late. Although males may have autism spectrum conditions more often, females show different symptoms of autism than males. Autistic females also have different behaviors.

paragraphs: Over the past years, individuals have been using the terms "autism" and "autism spectrum disorder" like they mean the same thing. Autism is a spectrum disorder. This means that some people who have autism are only mildly affected. These people may go to regular schools, go to work, and have partners and families. Some people are affected worse than others. These people may be able to take care of most of their own needs at home like dressing and getting food, but not be able to have a regular job or travel alone. A person who has severe autism may need to be cared for all their life. Few people with autism are extraordinarily gifted or talented. These people are said to have savant syndrome. They are often very good at just one thing in particular, like mathematics, playing the piano or remembering football scores.

paragraphs: The overall category of the Autism Spectrum Disorder is called Pervasive Developmental Disorder. The name describes medical conditions with developmental problems in a number of fields. In most cases, when referring to the Autism Spectrum Disorder, we are referring to the most common disorders:

paragraphs: The different categories, the so-called “International Classification of Diseases” (ICD), are defined by the World Health Organization. As shown in the table, the diseases vary in several points. These are the age of onset, social interaction, communication and behaviour. An individual belongs to a certain category, depending on the areas of impairment. All three may seem similar in symptoms, yet are not the same. Still, people within one group show similar symptoms. The groups can be used to search for an underlying cause of the disease and to provide a better treatment.

paragraphs: Scientists do not know exactly what causes autism. There may be many different causes for the different types of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Scientists do know about some things that make a person more likely to have an Autism Spectrum Disorder.

paragraphs: The autism spectrum disorders are highly heritable disorders. This means that it is very likely (over 90%) that the child of an autistic person will also be on the autism spectrum. The reason for this are certain genes. These genes are linked to autism and are passed on from a parent to the child. Already Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger noticed that fathers of autistic children often preferred being on their own over being with people. Therefore, Kanner and Asperger suspected a genetic cause. Studies with families with a child on the autism spectrum were done to investigate this theory. They found that sometimes the children’s parents (fathers as well as mothers) also show social difficulties, shyness and problems with understanding contextual information when talking to someone. Some studies have found this in only 10 out of 100 families, some in as much as 45 out of every 100 families.

paragraphs: Other than the studies done on children who had autistic parents, recently a couple of studies were done on children who either had a sibling or a twin showing autistic signs. Similar to the outcomes in the autistic parents studies, most children having autistic siblings/ twins were found out to be showing autistic signs. According to a recent study, around fifty percent of infants with autistic siblings showed some kind of atypical behaviour, around one forth of them showed delays and deficits in achieving infancy milestones and around 17% of all were later diagnosed with ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder).

paragraphs: Moreover, twin studies showed that it is much more likely that identical twins are both on the autism spectrum than that non-identical twins are both on the autism spectrum. Identical twins have nearly the same DNA. Therefore, it is highly probable that they are either both autistic or both not autistic. Non-identical twins share only half of their genes which makes it less likely that they both have the disorder. Scientists have shown that the recurrence risk (the likelihood that a child is on the autism spectrum if it has a sister or a brother that is autistic as well) is 20 to 80 times higher than the probability for having the disorder in the average population.

paragraphs: However, it is not a single gene that increases the risk for autism spectrum disorders. Several genes have been linked to the disorder. All of the identified genes can in sum only explain one or two out of every ten autism cases. None of the genes that have been found to play a role in autism can explain more than one out of every 100 cases.

paragraphs: Researchers have not found a single neuronal correlate for autism spectrum disorders, i.e. no abnormal functioning of the brain is the only cause of autism. Nevertheless, scientists found some differences between the brains of autistic people and the typical human brain. These differences lie in the anatomy of the brain, the activity in certain brain regions as well as in the connections between brain regions. It is a general tendency that autistic people use the same brain regions as other people but show different activity. In some areas the activity is less, in others it is stronger. However, this may only be true for male autists. Throughout the last years, studies have shown that brains of autistic women might be like normal men's brains.

paragraphs: Some researchers grouped autistic people's difficulties into three main areas in order to investigate their neuronal basis.

paragraphs: Researchers say that building a Theory of mind is one of the main problems for autistic people. This makes it difficult for them to interact with others. Problems in social interaction are probably worsened by low preference for social stimuli, such as faces. This tendency has been found in studies tracking the person’s eye movements and in EEG studies. EEG studies showed lower than normal activity in the fusiform face area (FFA), a brain region that is usually active when seeing faces. However, the results of other studies could not show this.

paragraphs: Also, scientists measured brain activity of people on the autism spectrum with fMRI while they were thinking about their own emotions. They found activity in the same brain regions as in non-autistic people. The difference was that some regions which are important for thinking about oneself and emotions (especially the anterior insula) were less active in autistic people. Other brain regions were much more active. These findings may explain the difficulties people with autism experience when trying to understand complex facial expressions and emotions (such as shame, jealousy).

paragraphs: People on the autism spectrum show a lower ability for executive function. Executive function means physical, emotional and cognitive self-control. This includes planning actions, focusing, shifting attention and flexibility of behaviour and thinking. Autistic people's ability can improve but it will remain below non-autistic people's ability in executive function.

paragraphs: Problems with executive function are probably caused by large networks in the brain. Grey matter and white matter irregularities have a negative influence on the way different brain regions work together (functional integration). A smaller corpus callosum leads to abnormalities in working memory (an active process of keeping a memory until it is needed) and planning actions.

paragraphs: Central coherence is the ability to build wholes out of parts. It is weak in people with autism. This means that autistic people focus more on details. They cannot build wholes out of them. Not being able to pay attention to wholes results in difficulties with perception and language. Therefore, people with autism usually need more time for dealing with information coming from their surroundings. As a consequence, they typically also need more time for responding. However, performance varies between people on the autism spectrum. Moreover, the term central coherence may include many interacting aspects. This makes it difficult to find the cause for it in the brain. Neural correlates for central coherence are not yet known.

paragraphs: The risk for autism spectrum disorders can be increased if the mother uses thalidomide, valproic acid or drinks too much alcohol during pregnancy. The risk for autism also increases with the age of father and mother at the time of pregnancy.

paragraphs: Scientists know that parents do not cause their children's autism by not being loving enough.

paragraphs: Scientists do know for sure that vaccines do not cause autism. Vaccines do not even make a person more likely to have autism - even if they are already at a high risk for autism before they get their vaccines.

paragraphs: In 1997 A. Wakefield and others found autism signs one month after the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine was applied. They released a paper in which they claimed that autism is caused by the MMR vaccine. However, the study had several flaws:

paragraphs: Also, no plausible biological mechanism could explain how the MMR vaccine leads to autism. Since then many case-control studies have been done to investigate the relationship between vaccines and autism. This means, they compared a group which was vaccinated with a group that was not vaccinated but apart from that identical. They did not find MMR vaccines to be the cause of autism. Neither did they find an increased risk for autism by the vaccination.

paragraphs: Parents also worried that thiomersal (US: thimerosal - a substance that makes vaccines and other medicines usable for a longer time) might cause autism because it contains mercury. No harm from the amount of ethylmercury in vaccines was known. Yet, vaccines for infants containing mercury were taken from the market. Nevertheless, thiomersal as a cause for autism is biologically also not biologically. Mercury poisoning triggers clearly different symptoms than autism. Still, researchers did studies about this topic. They did not find a connection between thiomersal and autism.

paragraphs: Finally, a third theory was suggested. It was stated that many vaccines at the same time would weaken the immune system of infants. However, autism is not a disorder that is related to the immune system. Furthermore, single and also many vaccines do not weaken the immune system.

paragraphs: Diagnosing autism is difficult since there is no medical test like a blood test. Instead, an evaluation is made by a team of doctors and other health professionals who are experienced in autism and know the individual.

paragraphs: A reliable diagnosis can first be given at the age of two. At the age of 18 and 24 months, children should get a check-up. If anything wrong is noticed, a further evaluation is done. In this, a team of professionals will interview the child’s guardians about the child’s behaviour and see what they are like in different settings. This may also include behavioural or physical assessments as well as intelligence tests or developmental tests. A good, detailed, history of the child is often very useful in receiving a diagnosis.

paragraphs: Adults can be diagnosed in adults as well as children. This can be difficult because autism has symptoms that can overlap with other disorders, such as OCD, that may have appeared by adulthood. An expert will usually ask the adult about concerns, challenges in life (such as socially or behaviourally) as well as standardised testing in these areas. They also often ask for a developmental history.

paragraphs: In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association published the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V). In order to be diagnosed with autism, a person must fulfill two standardized criteria. It is important that individuals must show symptoms from early childhood, even if those symptoms are recognized later. These symptoms have to limit everyday functioning. Additionally, these symptoms cannot be explained by an intellectual disability or a developmental delay.

paragraphs: Autism Spectrum Disorder is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviours.

paragraphs: Autism spectrum disorder includes a wide range of symptoms, skills and levels of disability. Some autistic people also have learning disabilities, mental health issues or other conditions. This means that autism can also co-occur with other conditions and symptoms of the following disorders:

paragraphs: In the DSM-V, a diagnosis of autism excludes making a formal diagnosis of other psychiatric disorders. Therefore, other mental health conditions may be undiagnosed in an autistic person, because it is impossible to make a comorbid clinical diagnosis.

paragraphs: Since autism is a spectrum, every person with autism is different. Different treatments help different people. There are a few different categories of treatment. The main ones are medication, different therapies and diets. The treatment is fitted depending on what a person with autism needs.

paragraphs: It is still unclear what causes autism. There may be a few causes. At the moment, it is only possible to lower the symptoms of autism. A full recovery from autism is not possible. If therapies cannot reduce the symptoms of autism, medications are used additionally. Often, several medications are used at the same time to treat different symptoms of autism.

paragraphs: Serotonin is a chemical messenger that transports signals between cells and is very important for normal function, such as with sensory perception, memory, learning and sleep, all of which are impaired in autistic people.

paragraphs: Researchers have not yet found a link between autism and serotonin, although they have been successful in treating autism with SSRIs, which stop cells from absorbing serotonin, meaning more is used for signals.

paragraphs: They can be used to treat repetitive behaviour, aggression, hyperactive behaviour and outbursts of anger. The SSRIs can have many side-effects. Usually the medication is better tolerated by adults than by children. Examples of SSRIs are Clomipramine, Fluvoxamine, Sertraline, Venlafaxine, Trazodone and Mirtazapine.

paragraphs: Dopamine is a chemical messenger in the brain. It helps to do movements, release hormones and strengthen cognitive abilities. Researchers found that increasing the amount of dopamine in the brain will worsen the symptoms of autism. Substances that help to reduce symptoms of autism are the antipsychotic drugs. There are two types of antipsychotic medications. One of the types are typical antipsychotics. They block the sites where dopamine would bind to a cell. Atypical antipsychotic drugs on the other hand block the sites where dopamine or serotonin would bind to a cell. Antipsychotic medicine is the most successful treatment for excitability in autism. It can also help to reduce aggression, self-injury, hyperactivity and repetitive, although it may have many side-effects. Originally, antipsychotic medications were used to treat mental disorders like depression, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. Examples of antipsychotic drugs are Haloperidol, Clozapine, Risperidone and Paliperidone.

paragraphs: In the beginning, psychostimulants were only used for patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Researchers found out that they can also help patients with autism. The medication can reduce hyperactivity and inattention in people with autism. The medication can have many side-effects. Examples are Methylphenidate, Clonidine and Guanfacine.

paragraphs: People with autism often have problems with their digestive organs like the stomach or gut. These problems could be inflammations, abdominal pain, gas, diarrhea or bacterial overgrowth. The reasons may be malnutrition, food intolerances or allergies. Specific food products causing these problems are excluded from the diet. In many cases, products containing gluten or casein, the main protein occurring in dairy products, are excluded. In many cases vitamins, minerals as well as essential fatty acids are additionally provided. A big problem is that many autistic people cannot tell that they have pain. Therefore, many problems concerning the digestive organs stay undetected.

paragraphs: Therapy can be used to minimize distress caused by sensory overload. Individual therapy plans are created. The therapist tries to help the autistic person in many different aspects.

paragraphs: One part of this is sensory integration. The therapist will help the patient to make sense of different sensory inputs. For example, they may ask a child patient to play with finger paints or collect objects from a bad of dried beans.

paragraphs: Another part is the training of daily life activities. The therapist may help the patient to get used to things like getting dressed, eating, hygiene, shopping and financial management. These may be done one step at a time if the activity involves multiple steps, such as cooking.

paragraphs: Play therapy is also helpful, especially for children. It can be useful to learn about certain emotions, which can be hard for autistic people. This can also be used to help learn social conventions, such as shaking hands instead of hugging when meeting a stranger.

paragraphs: Often animals are used to help autistic people. Most often dogs or horses are used. The people diagnosed with autism can care for these animals, pet them and, in the case of the horse, even ride on them. Studies showed that the interaction between an autistic person and animals can increase communication, reduce stress, fear, aggression and reduce the severity of the symptoms of autism.

paragraphs: Music therapy consists of two parts: One is an active listening part. Here, the therapist is making music himself or playing music from a record. In the other part, the autistic person can make music himself like playing an instrument or singing. Music therapy will improve different aspects of communication.

paragraphs: Here, different materials and techniques are used to draw pictures. The aim of art therapy is to make the autistic person more flexible and relaxed and to improve communication skills, self-image and learning skills. The effects of the therapy can be long lasting and transferred to the school, work or home setting.

paragraphs: These are just little Workouts for the Left and Right Hemisphere based on whether your child is having Left or Right brain weakness. Bear crawls help develop body awareness, improve coordination and motor planning, and build strength in the trunk and upper body. Throwing weighted objects like medicine balls can increase core strength and balance and help improve coordination. It may also have therapeutic benefits and can stimulate brain centers responsible for short-term memory. In a study published in Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, the authors found that movements similar to those exhibited by those with autism may help provide needed feedback to the body. This may reduce repetitive behaviors such as arm flapping or clapping. Arm circles are a great upper-body exercise that helps increase flexibility and strength in the shoulders and back and can be done anywhere with no equipment.


title: Italian language

paragraphs: The Italian language is a Romance language spoken in Italy. Other countries that use Italian as their "official language" are San Marino, Vatican City and Switzerland. Slovenia, and Croatia also use Italian as an official language, but only in some regions. Italian is spoken by about 70 million people in several countries, including some parts of Monaco, Malta, Albania, Montenegro, Dodecanese (Greece), Eritrea, Libya, Ethiopia, Somalia, Tunisia. The standard version from Tuscany is used for most writing but other dialects are sometimes written.

paragraphs: It is mostly derived from Latin, with some words from Greek, Etruscan and elsewhere. It is called an inflected language - that means that the meaning of words can be changed by changing their endings. Italian nouns are either masculine or feminine in gender (these usually have little to do with natural genders).

paragraphs: Most singular masculine nouns end in -o, and most plural masculine nouns end in -i.

paragraphs: Most singular feminine nouns end in -a, and most plural feminine nouns end in -e.

paragraphs: The ending of verbs are quite complicated because of conjugation. The endings depend upon the "tense" of the verb (past, present, future and so on) and on the "person" of the verb (I, you, they etc.). Because Italian grammar uses endings for these inflections, the personal pronoun is not always needed (in the following example it is in parenthesis).

paragraphs: There are very many of these endings to learn - it is one of the more difficult parts of the Italian Grammar. But pronunciation is simple - there are just a few rules to learn, and hardly any difficult sounds.

paragraphs: Many Italian words for food have entered the English language, such as: pizza, spaghetti and ravioli. Many technical words in music are Italian, such as forte and allegro. Many musical instrument names are also Italian, such as cello and tuba. Mafia and vendetta come from the darker side of Italian culture .


title: Namibia

paragraphs: The Republic of Namibia is a country in southern Africa on the Atlantic coast. It is bordered by Angola, Zambia, and Zimbabwe to the north, Botswana to the east, and South Africa to the south. It gained independence from South Africa in 1990. Before that it was called South West Africa. Its capital is Windhoek.

paragraphs: Before World War I Namibia was a German colony. German is still widely spoken in the country, although English is the official language.

paragraphs: Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people.

paragraphs: The name of the country is from the Namib Desert. This is said to be the oldest desert in the world.

paragraphs: The dry lands of Namibia were lived in since early times by Bushmen, Damara and Nama. About the 14th century AD, Bantu came to the area from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Orlam clans from the Cape Colony crossed the Orange River. They moved into the area that today is southern Namibia. The nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries with the Orlams were well received by them, the right to use waterholes and grazing was given. On their way further north, the Orlams met clans of the Herero tribe. They were not as friendly. The Nama-Herero War started in 1880. They did not stop until Imperial Germany sent troops.

paragraphs: The first Europeans to explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486. Like most of Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not largely explored by Europeans until the 19th century. At this time traders and settlers arrived, mostly from Germany and Sweden.

paragraphs: Namibia became a German colony in 1884. This was to stop the British. The country was called German South-West Africa. From 1904 to 1907, the Herero and the Namaqua took up arms against the Germans. In the following , 10,000 Nama (half the population) and about 65,000 Hereros (about 80% of the population) were killed.

paragraphs: South Africa began to rule the land in 1915. They defeated the German force during World War I. It was a League of Nations mandate territory from 1919. In 1946 the League was replaced by the United Nations. South Africa would not give up their rule of the land. Many people thought the land should be independent from South Africa. In 1971 South Africa was told their hold on the country was illegal. They still did not leave.

paragraphs: The country officially became independent on 21 March 1990. Sam Nujoma became the first President of Namibia.

paragraphs: Namibia is divided into 14 regions and subdivided into 121 constituencies. Regional councillors are directly elected through secret ballots.

paragraphs: Tourism is a major contributor (14.5%) to Namibia's economy. It creates tens of thousands of jobs (18.2% of all employment). There are over a million tourists per year. The country is among the main tourist places in Africa. It is known for ecotourism which features Namibia's extensive wildlife.

paragraphs: There are many lodges and reserves for tourists. Sport Hunting is also a large, and growing part of the Namibian economy. It was 14% of total tourism in the year 2000. Namibia has numerous species wanted by international sport hunters. In addition, extreme sports such as sandboarding and 4x4ing have become popular. Many cities have companies that provide tours. The most visited places include the Caprivi Strip, Fish River Canyon, Sossusvlei, the Skeleton Coast Park, Sesriem, Etosha Pan and the coastal towns of Swakopmund, Walvis Bay and Lüderitz.

paragraphs: Namibia has required free education for 10 years between the ages of 6 and 16. Grades 1–7 are primary level, grades 8–12 secondary.

paragraphs: Most schools in Namibia are state-run. There are a few private schools. There are four teacher training colleges, three colleges of agriculture, a police training college, a Polytechnic at university level, and a National University.

paragraphs: The most popular sport in Namibia is football. The Namibia national football team qualified for the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations. They have yet to qualify for any World Cups. The Namibian rugby team has been in four separate World Cups. Namibia were participants in the 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2011 Rugby World Cups. Cricket is also popular. The national team played in the 2003 Cricket World Cup.

paragraphs: Inline Hockey was first played in 1995. It has become more and more popular in the last years. The Women's Inline Hockey National Team were in the 2008 FIRS World Championships. Namibia is the home for one of the toughest footraces in the world, the Namibian ultra marathon.

paragraphs: The most famous athlete from Namibia is certainly Frankie Fredericks, sprinter (100 and 200 m). He won four Olympic silver medals (1992, 1996). He also has medals from several World Athletics Championships. He is also known for humanitarian activities in Namibia and further.


title: Jubal Early

paragraphs: Jubal Anderson Early (November 3, 1816 – March 2, 1894) was a Confederate general in the American Civil War. He commanded a corps in Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. He invaded the north in 1864. After the war, he was one of the major defenders of the Confederate.


title: Lewis Carroll

paragraphs: Lewis Carroll was the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (Daresbury, Cheshire, 27 January 1832 – Guildford, Surrey, 14 January 1898). Dodgson was an Oxford don, a logician (mathematics expert), a writer, a poet, an Anglican clergyman, and a photographer. He is most famous for his story "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" which he told to a young friend, Alice Liddell, when he took the girl and two sisters on a boat trip. Alice enjoyed the story and asked Dodgson to write it down. Carroll then wrote a second story about Alice called "Through the Looking-Glass". Both stories are still popular all over the world.

paragraphs: Dodgson was a Fellow of Christ Church, Oxford, specialising in logic and mathematics. He wrote a number of books and pamphlets on the subject. He died of pneumonia in Guildford, Surrey.


title: Belize

paragraphs: Belize is a country in Central America. It used to be called "British Honduras", but changed its name in 1973. Long before that it was part of the Mayan Empire. Belize is the only English speaking country in Central America.

paragraphs: Some people in Belize speak Spanish or Kriol, but English is the official language and the most commonly spoken. This is because Belize is a former colony of the United Kingdom, while its neighbors were once colonies of Spain. Many people speak two languages. Belize is a melting pot of cultures.

paragraphs: More than three hundred and thirty thousand (374,681 (2017)) people live in Belize. Kriols make up about 21% of the Belizean people. Three Maya groups now live in the country: the Yucatec, the Mopan, and Kekchi. The Garinagu are a mix of African, Arawak, and Carib ancestry. There are also Mestizos.

paragraphs: Belmopan, which is near the centre of the country, is its capital. The first capital was Belize City. Other towns and cities include Belize City, Corozal Town, Orange Walk Town, Punta Gorda, Santa Elena/San Ignacio (known as the twin town) and San Pedro Town.

paragraphs: Belize is on the coast of the Caribbean Sea. There are about 450 islands. The largest island, Ambergris Caye, is forty kilometres long. Many other islands are very small. In the water around the islands are coral reefs.

paragraphs: The temperature along the coast is warm all year round. It typically ranges from 20 °C to 32 °C. Sometimes hurricanes hit, causing great damage.

paragraphs: Belize is on the Caribbean coast of northern Central America. It shares a border on the north with the Mexican state of Quintana Roo, on the west with the Guatemalan department of Petén, and on the south with the Guatemalan department of Izabal. To the east is the Caribbean Sea. The Belize Barrier Reef is along most of the of predominantly marshy coastline. Belize have the second largest living barrier reef in the world. The area of the country totals . There are many lagoons along the coasts and in the northern part of the country. This makes the actual land area smaller at .

paragraphs: The Hondo and the Sarstoon River make the northern and southern border.

paragraphs: The north of Belize is mostly flat, swampy coastal plains. In some places it is heavily forested. The south has the low mountain range of the Maya Mountains. The highest point in Belize is Doyle's Delight at . The Caribbean coast is lined with a coral reef and about 450 islets and islands. The islands are locally called cayes (pronounced "keys). Three of only four coral atolls in the Western Hemisphere are off the coast of Belize.

paragraphs: Over 60% of Belize's land surface is covered by forest. 20% is covered by cultivated land (agriculture) and human settlements. There are also important mangrove ecosystems across Belize's landscape.

paragraphs: Belize is divided into 6 districts. The districts are shown below with their areas (in km) and number of people at the 2010 Census:

paragraphs: Total areas and number of people 22,964 – 312,971

paragraphs: These districts are further divided into 31 constituencies.

paragraphs: The Belize Defence Force (BDF) is the military. It is responsible for protecting Belize. In 1997, the regular army had over 900 people, the reserve army 381, the air wing 45 and the maritime wing 36. This amounts to an overall strength of about 1400. In 2005, the maritime wing became part of the Belizean Coast Guard. In the same year, the government spent $1.2 million on the military. This is 1.87% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).

paragraphs: After Belize became independent in 1981 the United Kingdom kept some military in the country to protect it from invasion by Guatemala. The main British force left in 1994. This was three years after Guatemala said Belize was independent. The United Kingdom still keeps some military people in the country. In 2011 the base was only 10 soldiers due to British budget cuts. They hope to reopen the base later.

paragraphs: Belizean cuisine is inspired by British, Mexican and Western Caribbean cooking. Since Belize is a meting pot of culture, it has adopted dishes from many different countries. The basic ingredients are rice and beans. These are often eaten with chicken, pork, veal, fish or vegetables. Coconut milk and fried plantains are added to the dishes to create a truly tropical taste. Exotic ingredients include armadillo meat, venison, iguana, iguana egg, and fried paca. Conch soup is a traditional dish. It has a characteristic taste and thick consistency due to added okra, potatoes, yams, cassava flour and a touch of toasted habanero. Belizean food is almost always served alongside white rice in coconut milk.

paragraphs: The most common dishes that you will encounter in Belize are the following:

paragraphs: Mestizo- Tamales, Relleno, Escabeche, Empanades and many other corn food.

paragraphs: Creole- The famous Rice and Beans, sere, and other dishes with may include cassava and yam.

paragraphs: The major sports in Belize are football, basketball, volleyball and cycling. There are smaller followings of boat racing, track & field, softball and cricket. Fishing is also popular in areas of Belize. The Cross Country Cycling Classic is one of the most important Belize sports events. This one-day sports event is meant for amateur cyclists but has also gained a worldwide popularity.

paragraphs: On Easter day, citizens of Dangriga participate in a yearly fishing tournament. First, second, and third prize are awarded based on a scoring combination of size, species, and number. The tournament is broadcast over local radio stations. Prize money is awarded to the winners.

paragraphs: Belize's National Basketball Team is the only National Team to have major victories internationally.

paragraphs: The black orchid (Encyclia Cochleatum) is the National Flower of Belize. This orchid grows on trees in damp areas, and flowers nearly all year round. Its clustered bulblike stems vary in size up to six inches long and carry two or three leaves.

paragraphs: The black orchid flower has greenish-yellow petals and sepals with purple blotches near the base. The "lip" (one petal of special construction, which is the flower's showiest) is shaped like a valve of a clam shell (hence the name Encyclia Cochleatum) and is deep purple-brown, almost black, with conspicuous radiating purple veins.

paragraphs: The National Tree of Belize is the Mahogany Tree ("Swietenia macrophylla"), one of the magnificent giants of the Belize rain forest. It rises straight and tall to over a hundred feet. In the early months of the year, when the leaves fall and new red-brown growth appears, the tree can be seen from a great distance. The tree puts out a many small whitish flowers. The flowers blossom into dark fruits, which are pear-shaped capsules about six inches long. The mahogany tree matures in 60 to 80 years.

paragraphs: The Keel Billed Toucan ("Ramphastos sulfuratus") is the National Bird of Belize. It is noted for its great, canoe-shaped bill and its brightly coloured green, blue, red and orange feathers. There are toucans in open areas of the country with large trees. It is mostly black with bright yellow cheeks and chest, red under the tail and a distinctive white patch at the base of the tail. They make a monotonous frog-like croak. Toucans like fruits. They eat by cutting with the serrated edge of their bills.

paragraphs: The Tapir or Mountain Cow (Tapirello Bairdii) is the largest land mammal of the American tropics. The tapir is a stoutly built animal with short legs, about the size of a donkey and weighs up to 600 pounds. Its general color is dusty brown with a white fringe around the eyes and lips, white tipped ears and occasional white patches of fur on the throat and chest.

paragraphs: In spite of its local name, the tapir is not a cow. It is closely related to the horse and is also kin to the rhinoceros. The tapir is a vegetarian. It spends much of its time in water or mud shallows, and is a strong swimmer.

paragraphs: The National Animal is protected under the law thus the hunting of the tapir is illegal.


title: Michael Landon

paragraphs: Michael Landon (October 31, 1936 - July 1, 1991) was an American actor. He is best known for his roles on the TV shows, "Bonanza", "Little House on the Prairie", and "Highway to Heaven".