title: Georgia (country)

paragraphs: Georgia is a country in Eastern Europe. It is on the coast of the Black Sea. During 1991-1995 its full name was the Republic of Georgia. Since 1995 it is Georgia as written in the Constitution. Before, it was part of the Soviet Union, but now it is an independent republic. The capital city is Tbilisi. Its population is almost 4 million.

paragraphs: The Georgians are an ancient people. Their capital Tbilisi was founded around AD 400, after the end of the Roman Empire . Western Georgia was part of the Roman Empire before then. The Arabs captured it in 635 AD. The culture continued and they flourished through trade.

paragraphs: In the 900s Arabs influence diminished in Caucasia significantly. In 1008 Kingdom of Georgia was formed. It was the major country in the region until the Mongols invaded in 1223. Georgia was part of the Mongolian empire for a century on and off until 1334, when King Giorgi V took over. In the 1400s Georgia dissolved into several principalities. In the 1500s the Persians invaded Eastern Georgia four times from 1541-1544. In 1555 the Kings of Kartli ruled through the will of the Persian Shahs.

paragraphs: In 1783 The treaty of Georgievsk was signed between Catherine the Great of Russia and King Heraclius II, giving Russia the power to protect Georgia. Then, in 1798 the Persians burned Tbilisi to the ground.

paragraphs: From 1811 to 1918 Georgia was under the Tsar of Russia. Their culture survived intact. From 1918 to 1921 Georgia was independent, and then was part of the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: In 1991 Georgia declared their independence from the Soviet Union. Newly established Republic of Georgia saw bloody Civil War resulting in downfall of first-ever president of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia. Georgia was also involved in War in Abkhazia. There was a rough patch between 1994 and 1995 when the economy was poor, although Georgia saw significant improvements in last few years. Now Georgia is applying to NATO and European Union.

paragraphs: In 2008 Georgia was involved in the 2008 South Ossetia war.

paragraphs: Georgia is next to the countries of Russia, Turkey, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It also has a coast on the Black Sea. It is at the edge of Europe and Asia.

paragraphs: Georgia has many mountains. Its highest point is 5,193 m above sea level. The mountains running through Georgia are called the Caucasus Mountains.

paragraphs: The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at 5,193 m. The coastline of Georgia is 310 km long. Georgia has about 25,000 rivers. The largest river is the Mtkvari.

paragraphs: Georgia is divided into 9 regions, 1 city, and 2 autonomous republics. These in turn are divided into 67 districts and 12 self-governing cities.

paragraphs: The region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999. South Ossetia is officially known by Georgia as the Tskinvali region. Georgia considers both regions as occupied by Russia.

paragraphs: The population of Georgia is about 4 million. About 1.2 million of these live in Tbilisi. People from Georgia are called Georgians. Most of them speak Georgian as their first language, though some people also speak Azerbaijani, Armenian, Russian or other languages.

paragraphs: Georgians have their own unique three alphabets. They were invented by King Pharnavaz I of Iberia.

paragraphs: The most famous person to have come from Georgia is Josef Stalin.

paragraphs: Most Georgians are Christians, but there are some Muslims and Jews as well.

paragraphs: The currency of Georgia is called the "lari".


title: First-person shooter

paragraphs: A first-person shooter (FPS) is a type of video game. In a first-person shooter, a player sees through the eyes of a character. The character uses a gun to shoot objects or enemies. The character travels and shoots in a three-dimensional world.

paragraphs: The first first-person shooters were made in the 1970s and 1980s.  In the 1970s, schools like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Illinois made "Maze War" and "Spacism." These games were not sold. In 1980, arcades got a tank game called "Battlezone." In 1983, home computers got "Battlezone." It was the first successful first-person shooter sold to many people.

paragraphs: In the 1990s, first-person shooters were very popular. Many people played the first-person shooters "Wolfenstein 3D" and "Doom" because they were shareware. In 1998, "Half-Life" was made. "Half-Life" was different because it had a strong narrative.


title: Random-access memory

paragraphs: Random-access memory (or simply RAM) is the memory or information storage in a computer that is used to store running programs and data for the programs. Data (information) in the RAM can be read and written quickly in any order. Normally, the random access memory is in the form of computer chips. Usually, the contents of RAM are accessible faster than other types of information storage but are lost every time the computer is turned off. Non-volatile random-access memory (NVRAM) keeps its data without using power, which is more expensive but works slower, so it is used in smaller amounts.

paragraphs: Since the late 20th century, RAM uses transistors, usually MOSFETs, to store data. Before that, magnetic memory was the usual kind.

paragraphs: Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the majority in computers. Modern computers use several types of DRAM. Before 2002, most computers used single data rate (SDR) RAM. Most computers made since then use either double data rate (DDR), DDR2, DDR3, or RAM. The later types allow stored data to be moved and used more quickly, so that the computer's processor can keep working quickly without having to wait for data as long or as often.

paragraphs: Different kinds of RAM usually will not work together in the same computer. Most computers can only use one kind of RAM. Some can use a small number of different kinds. Different kinds of RAM often have differently shaped connectors. This limits which RAM chips a particular computer model can use.

paragraphs: Static RAM (SRAM) needs power to keep its data, but does not need the computer to be active. Some SRAM chips are battery-backed. This type has a built-in battery to make sure no data is lost if the computer is turned off. Some computers have a little SRAM and mostly DRAM.

paragraphs: RAM is usually used to store information of running programs inside computers. RAM may also be used for different things.

paragraphs: Using virtual memory, a computer can combine permanent storage with RAM to create a bigger pool of storage. This is useful when the RAM does not have enough space to store anymore information. The extra data is then placed in the permanent storage instead of the RAM. The method has a limitation which is that permanent storage is often slower than RAM, which can slow down a computer.

paragraphs: A computer can use a part of the RAM to store permanent files. This is called a RAM disk. When the computer is turned on, files are copied to the RAM disk. This allows the files to open faster because RAM is faster than permanent storage. When the computer is turned off, the information on the RAM disk is lost, which is why the files need to exist on permanent storage as well.

paragraphs: Information that the computer always needs, that cannot be changed or deleted (unless it is EEPROM), is normally kept in read-only memory (ROM), which does not lose its contents when the computer is turned off. Such items include the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), which stores the most basic commands for the computer, telling it how it should start up. The BIOS also tells the computer how to input and output information. The BIOS can be compared to the part of your brain that tells your heart how to beat. This is an important part.


title: Read-only memory

paragraphs: Read-only memory (or simply ROM) is a type of computer memory. Unlike RAM, it keeps its contents even when the computer or device is turned off. Usually, ROM cannot be written to when the computer runs normally. ROM is used for the BIOS which tells the computer how to start, or important programs like the firmware of certain devices, which usually does not need to be modified. Usually, ROM comes on computer chips.


title: Integrated circuit

paragraphs: An integrated circuit (more often called an IC, microchip, silicon chip, computer chip, or chip) is a piece of specially prepared silicon (or another semiconductor) into which an electronic circuit is etched using photolithography. Silicon chips can contain logic gates, computer processors, memory and special devices. The chip is very fragile and so is normally surrounded by a plastic package to protect it. Electrical contact with the chip is provided through tiny wires that connect the chip to larger metal pins that stick out of the package.

paragraphs: An IC has two main advantages over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low, because millions of transistors can be put onto one chip instead of building a circuit with single transistors. Performance is higher since the components can operate more quickly and use less power.

paragraphs: ICs are designed for different purposes. A chip may be designed just for a calculator, which can only work as a calculator. Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip).

paragraphs: A semiconductor such as silicon can be controlled to allow (or not allow) current to flow. This allows making transistors that can control each other. They are found in many household items such as radios, computers, and telephones, and many others. Other semiconductor devices include solar cells, diodes, and LEDs (light emitting diodes).

paragraphs: In 1958 and 1959, two people had the idea for an integrated circuit at almost exactly the same time. Transistors had become an everyday thing used in household devices such as radios. They affected everything from radios to phones and at the time manufacturers needed a smaller replacement for vacuum tubes. Transistors were smaller than vacuum tubes, but for some of the newest electronics, for example missile guidance, they were not small enough.

paragraphs: One day in July, Jack Kilby was working at Texas Instruments when it occurred to him that all parts of a circuit, not just the transistor, could be made out of silicon. At the time, nobody was putting capacitors and resistors into ICs. This would change the future and make it easier to produce and sell integrated circuits. Kilby's boss liked the idea, and told him to get to work. By September 12, Kilby had built a working model, and on February 6, Texas Instruments filed a patent. Their first ""Solid Circuit"" was the size of a fingertip.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, in California, another man had the same idea. In January of 1959, Robert Noyce was working at the small Fairchild Semiconductor startup company. He also realized a whole circuit could be put into a single chip. While Kilby had worked out the details of making individual components, Noyce thought of a much better way to connect the parts. The design was called a ""unitary circuit"." All that detail paid off because on April 25, 1961, the patent office awarded the first patent for an integrated circuit to Robert Noyce while Kilby's application was still being analyzed. Today, both men are acknowledged as having independently conceived of the idea.

paragraphs: Soon there were two kinds of integrated circuit: hybrid (HIC) and monolithic (MIC). Hybrids died out late in the 20th century.

paragraphs: ※ The difference between VLSI and ULSI is not well defined.

paragraphs: Integrated circuits can be packaged as DIP (Dual in-line package), PLCC (Plastic leaded chip carrier), TSOP (Thin small-outline package), PQFP (Plastic Quad Flat Pack) and other chip package types. Some small ones are packaged for surface-mount technology. The transistors inside can be bipolar transistors in unusual circuits, such as those needing very high switching speeds. Most, however, are MOSFETs.


title: Moss

paragraphs: Mosses are bryophytes, a group of plants without tissue to move water. Mosses evolved from liverworts.

paragraphs: Moss tissue does not have cells that move water. This means that they are non-vascular plants. Water must soak into mosses like a sponge. A patch of moss is made of many tiny moss plants packed together so that they can hold water for as long as possible. They do not have roots. Because mosses cannot find water, they live in two ways. They can live in places that are always wet like near a spring, a river, or in a place where there is a lot of fog. They can also pause their natural processes when they dry up. Mosses can survive months in this paused state. However, they eventually need water to live. This means they can never live in dry places like deserts.

paragraphs: Mosses cannot grow very large because they could not move water to the top of their growth. The largest moss grows in New Zealand. It is about 30 cm tall.

paragraphs: A moss does not make seeds. A moss does not have fruit. The green fuzzy part of a moss that is always there has only one set of DNA. Moss waits until there is lots of food and enough water. Then it produces spores that leave the parent plant and float away. The spores are like dust. They will make more moss. Each spore is male or female. It grows into the green fuzzy part of the moss called the gametophyte. Male gametophyte make sperm. Female gametophyte make eggs. Water moves the sperm from the male moss to the female moss. Then the sperm and the egg join to make a cell with two sets of moss DNA. This cell grows into a different shape called a sporophyte. The sporophyte gets all of its food from the green fuzzy female gametophyte. When the sporophyte grows up, it makes a tiny box with spores inside instead of seeds. The lid on the box falls and the spores float away to repeat the cycle again. This process is called alternation of generations.

paragraphs: Scientists divide the mosses into eight groups. Five of these groups are small, with just a few species; most mosses are in the group called Bryopsida.


title: Function (mathematics)

paragraphs: In mathematics, a function is a mathematical object that produces an output, when given an input (which could be a number, a vector, or anything that can exist inside a set of things).

paragraphs: So a function is like a machine, that takes values of "x" and returns an output "y". The set of all values that "x" can have is called the "domain", and the set that contains every value that "y" can have is called the "codomain". A function is often denoted by italic letters such as formula_1, formula_2, formula_3.

paragraphs: If this happens, then we say that "y" is a function of "x, "and we write formula_4. Here, "formula_1" is the name of the function, and one writes formula_6 (function from X to Y) to represent the three parts of the function: the domain (x), the codomain (y), and the pairing process (the arrow).

paragraphs: An example of a function is formula_7. One gives a natural number formula_8 (0,1,2,3...) as the input, and gets a natural number formula_9, which is formula_8 +1 (1,2,3,4...) The idea of a function has been set up to cover all sorts of possibilities. The function doesn't have to be an equation. The main idea is that inputs and outputs are paired up somehow—even if the process might be very complicated.

paragraphs: The inputs and outputs can be put in a table like the picture; this is easy if there is not too much data.

paragraphs: In the picture, one can see that both 2 and 3 have been paired with c; this is not allowed in the other direction, as 2 could not output c and d at the same time (each input can only have one output).

paragraphs: All of the formula_11 (c and d in the picture) are usually called the "image" set of formula_1, and the image set can be the entire codomain or one of its subset. One can say that the image set of a subset A of the domain is f(A).

paragraphs: If the inputs and outputs have an order, then it is easy to plot them on a graph:

paragraphs: In that way, the image comes on the image of the set A.

paragraphs: In the 1690s, Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli used the word "function" in letters between them, so the modern concept began at the same time as calculus.

paragraphs: In 1748, Leonhard Euler gave the following definition for function:"A function of a variable quantity is an analytic expression composed in any way whatsoever of the variable quantity and numbers or constant quantities."and then in 1755:"If some quantities so depend on other quantities that if the latter are changed the former undergoes change, then the former quantities are called functions of the latter. This definition applies rather widely and includes all ways in which one quantity could be determined by other. If, therefore, x denotes a variable quantity, then all quantities which depend upon x in any way, or are determined by it, are called functions of x."Usually, Peter Dirichlet is credited with the first modern definition of function (formulated in 1837). It is often used in schools until the second half of the 20th century:"y is a function of a variable x, defined on the interval a < x < b, if to every value of the variable x in this interval there corresponds a definite value of the variable y. Also, it is irrelevant in what way this correspondence is established."In 1939, the Bourbaki generalized the Dirichlet definition, and gave a set-theoretic version of the definition as a correspondence between inputs and outputs; this was used in schools from about 1960.

paragraphs: Finally in 1970, Bourbaki gave the modern definition as a triple formula_13, with formula_14 (i.e. formula_15 and formula_16).


title: Miami

paragraphs: Miami is a city in the U.S. state of Florida. It is a known tourist stop and it is well known for its Cuban, Puerto Rican and Haitian culture. Miami is the county seat (and largest city) of Miami-Dade County.

paragraphs: Miami is nicknamed "The Magic City" because of its rapid growth.

paragraphs: Miami has a tropical monsoon climate. Summers have average temperatures of during the day and at night, with average monthly rainfall around . Winters have average temperatures of during the day and at night, with average monthly rainfall around .

paragraphs: Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the school district for public schools in Miami. There are also some private schools there. There are many colleges and universities in and around Miami. A few of these include: Florida International University, University of Miami, Miami Dade College, and Florida Atlantic University.

paragraphs: There are several professional sports teams that play in and around Miami, including the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball, the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association, the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League, the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League, and Miami FC of the North American Soccer League.

paragraphs: Also, three universities in and around Miami are members of NCAA Division I, the top division of college sports in the U.S.:

paragraphs: The population of Miami, Florida as of 2011 is 1.3 Million, with 41.4% suffering from poverty. According to the DNA North American Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of Miami is:

paragraphs: <nowiki>**</nowiki>Others** includes Asians, Arabs, and among others.


title: Grunge music

paragraphs: Grunge music or Seattle sound (as it is called sometimes) is a style of rock music that has elements of punk rock and heavy metal. It started in the mid- 1980s in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, especially in the states of Washington and Oregon. It became more popular in the early 1990s. Grunge songs often had lyrics with nihilism, depression, unhappiness, or apathy as themes. The widespread use of heroin as a recreational drug found its way into the lyrics and careers of numerous grunge rockers, notably Kurt Cobain and Layne Staley of "Alice in Chains".

paragraphs: The songs often had light (or clean) guitar sounds in the verses, and the high energy boost of distorted (or dirty) guitars in the choruses. The line-up for these bands was the typical rock band of guitars, bass, drums and vocal.

paragraphs: Although grunge as a movement became less popular by the last 1990s, its influence is still heard in many bands. Grunge musical sounds were copied by post-grunge bands such as Foo Fighters and Nickelback and nu metal bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit.

paragraphs: Grunge music uses music from punk rock and heavy metal. Grunge guitar players use distorted electric guitar. Like punk and heavy metal, grunge bands use electric guitar, bass guitar, a drummer and a singer.


title: Carly Simon

paragraphs: Carly Simon (born June 25, 1945) is an American singer-songwriter and occasional children's book author. She was born in New York City to businessman Richard L. Simon (1899-1960) and Andrea Heinemann Simon (1909-1994). She was raised in Riverdale, The Bronx. She has two sisters: singer Joanna Simon (born 1940) and composer Lucy Simon (born 1943). She also has a brother, photographer Peter Simon.

paragraphs: Simon's songs include: "You're So Vain", "Nobody Does It Better", "Coming Around Again" and "Let the River Run".


title: Toto (band)

paragraphs: Toto is a soft rock group that formed in Los Angeles in 1978, that was popular in the early 1980's. Their best known song is "Africa" (1981).

paragraphs: The current band members are Joseph Williams, Steve Lukather, David Paich, and Steve Porcaro.

paragraphs: The former band members were David Hungate, Fergie Frederiksen, Mike Porcaro, Jeff Porcaro, Simon Phillips, Greg Phillinganes, Jean-Michel Byron, Bobby Kimball, and Keith Carlock.


title: Jim Jones

paragraphs: James Warren "Jim" Jones (May 13, 1931 – November 18, 1978) was an American preacher and religious leader. His church was called the "People's Temple". It began as a Christian church (a member church of the Disciples of Christ), but over time became a cult. Jones and most of the members of his group died on November 18, 1978 in Guyana. Jones died when he shot himself on that day after forcing most of the members of his group to drink poison.

paragraphs: In November 1978, U.S. Congressman Leo Ryan led a fact-finding mission to Jonestown to investigate allegations of human rights abuses. Ryan's delegation included relatives of Temple members, Don Harris, an NBC network news reporter, an NBC cameraman and reporters for various newspapers. The group arrived in Georgetown on November 15. On November 17, Ryan's delegation traveled by airplane to Jonestown.

paragraphs: The delegation left hurriedly the afternoon of November 18 after Temple member Don Sly attacked Ryan with a knife. The attack was thwarted, and the visit ended. Congressman Ryan and his people took with them fifteen People's Temple members who had expressed a wish to leave. At that time, Jones made no attempt to prevent their departure.

paragraphs: As members of Ryan's delegation boarded two planes at the airstrip, Jones' "Red Brigade" armed guards arrived in a tractor-pulled trailer and began shooting at the delegation. The guards killed Congressman Ryan and four others near a twin engine Otter aircraft. At the same time, one of the supposed defectors, Larry Layton, drew a weapon and began firing on members of the party that had already boarded a small Cessna. An NBC cameraman was able to capture footage of the first few seconds of the shooting at the Otter. The five killed at the airstrip were Congressman Ryan; Don Harris, a reporter from NBC; Bob Brown, a cameraman from NBC; San Francisco Examiner photographer Greg Robinson; and Temple member Patricia Parks. Surviving the attack were future Congresswoman Jackie Speier, then a staff member for Ryan; Richard Dwyer, the Deputy Chief of Mission from the U.S. Embassy at Georgetown; Bob Flick, a producer for NBC News; Steve Sung, an NBC sound engineer; Tim Reiterman, a "San Francisco Examiner" reporter; Ron Javers, a "San Francisco Chronicle" reporter; Charles Krause, a "Washington Post" reporter; and several defecting Temple members.<

paragraphs: Later that same day, 909 inhabitants of Jonestown, 303 of them children, died of apparent cyanide poisoning, in and around a pavilion. This was the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a non-natural disaster until the September 11, 2001 attacks. No video was taken during the mass suicide, though the FBI did recover a 45-minute audio recording of the suicide in progress.

paragraphs: On that tape, Jones tells Temple members that the Soviet Union, with whom the Temple had been negotiating a potential exodus for months, would not take them after the Temple had murdered Ryan and four others at a nearby airstrip. The reason given by Jones to commit suicide was consistent with his previously stated conspiracy theories of intelligence organizations allegedly conspiring against the Temple, that men would "parachute in here on us," "shoot some of our innocent babies" and "they'll torture our children, they'll torture some of our people here, they'll torture our seniors". Parroting Jones' prior statements that hostile forces would convert captured children to fascism, one temple member states "the ones that they take captured, they're gonna just let them grow up and be dummies".

paragraphs: Jones and several members argued that the group should commit "revolutionary suicide" by drinking cyanide-laced grape-flavored Flavor Aid. However, later released video made to show the best of Jonestown shows Jones opening a storage container full of Kool-Aid in large quantities. This may have been what was used to mix the "potion" (as was referred to in several statements on the tape recordings) along with a sedative.

paragraphs: One member, Christine Miller, dissents toward the beginning of the tape. When members apparently cried, Jones counseled, "Stop this hysterics. This is not the way for people who are Socialists or Communists to die. No way for us to die. We must die with some dignity". Jones can be heard saying, "Don't be afraid to die," that death is "just stepping over into another plane" and that it's "a friend". At the end of the tape, Jones concludes: "We didn't commit suicide; we committed an act of revolutionary suicide protesting the conditions of an inhumane world". According to escaping Temple members, children were given the drink first and families were told to lie down together. Mass suicide had been previously discussed in simulated events called "White Nights" on a regular basis.

paragraphs: Jones was found dead in a deck chair with a gunshot wound to his head that Guyanese coroner Cyrill Mootoo stated was consistent with a self-inflicted gun wound. However, Jones' son Stephan believes his father may have directed someone else to shoot him. An autopsy of Jones' body also showed levels of the barbiturate Pentobarbital which may have been lethal to humans who had not developed physiological tolerance. Jones' drug usage (including LSD and marijuana) was confirmed by his son, Stephan, and Jones' doctor in San Francisco.


title: Saludemos la Patria orgullosos

paragraphs: "Saludemos la Patria orgullosos" ("Salute the Motherland Proudly") is the national anthem of El Salvador.


title: Eritrea

paragraphs: Eritrea is a country on the eastern coast of Africa. Its official name is The State of Eritrea.

paragraphs: Eritrea is located on the coast on the Red Sea. It is north of the Bab-el-Mandeb and the Horn of Africa. Eritrea has borders with the countries of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. The land area of Eritrea is 101,000 km², and it is one of the smallest countries in Africa.

paragraphs: Eritrea became an independent country on 24 May 1993. It is one of the newest countries in the world.

paragraphs: Many different countries have ruled the land that is now called Eritrea. Between 1885 and 1941 it was a colony of Italy. Between 1941 and 1952, the United Nations put it under the protection of United Kingdom. After 1952, Eritrea became a part of Ethiopia. This was the reason for a long civil war between the Eritreans and the government of Ethiopia.

paragraphs: Eventually, in 1993, Eritrea became an independent country after a vote by its people.

paragraphs: Eritrea is known for being the most oppressive country in Africa, sometimes considered to be the "North Korea of Africa". The nation has been accused of many human rights violations, severely limited freedoms, and many arbitrary (made-up) arrests.

paragraphs: Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are then divided into 58 districts.

paragraphs: The population of Eritrea is about 5.6 million. About 0.5 million people live in Asmara. People from Eritrea are called Eritreans. Most of them speak "Tigrinya" or "Tigre" as their first language. The people usually use Tigrinya or Arabic for official business.

paragraphs: Eritrea has nine ethnic groups. These are the Afar people, the Bilen people, the Hedareb people, the Kunama, the Nara, the Rashaida, the Saho, the Tigre, and Tigray-Tigrinya.

paragraphs: The currency of Eritrea is called the Nakfa. Eritrea is a very poor country. Almost half of Eritrea's economy comes from Eritreans who live abroad. They send money home to their families. Most of the rest comes from farming.

paragraphs: Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena.


title: Sanford Dole

paragraphs: Sanford Dole (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was an American politician. Dole was a part of a group of businessmen who first forced a new Hawaiian national constitution on the country during King David Kalakaua's reign and then after his death removed Queen Liliuokalani from the throne and took control of the country in 1893. They removed the queen by threatening to use the warships of the U.S. Navy had in Honolulu harbor.

paragraphs: Queen Liliuokalani did not want her people to be harmed so she agreed to do what the revolutionists wanted. The Queen went to Washington and talked to the American President, Grover Cleveland. Cleveland decided that this had been an act of war against the Hawaiian Kingdom. Cleveland ordered Sanford Dole, the President of the newly formed republic, to make Liliuokalani the queen again.

paragraphs: Dole refused to do this. He said that President Cleveland was interfering. Dole remained the president of Hawaii from 1894 until 1900 after Cleveland was elected out of office. The newly elected American president William McKinley signed the Newsland Resolution. The Newsland Resolution made Hawaii a territory of the United States. This ended any legal or military chance of restoring the Queen and the Hawaiian Kingdom.

paragraphs: Dole served as governor of Hawaii from 1900 until 1903, he was the first when he accepted a position as United States District Court judge. He remained a judge until 1915.


title: Ancient Egypt

paragraphs: Ancient Egypt, or the Kingdom of Kemet, was a society that began about 3150 BC, and lasted until 20 BC when it was invaded by the Roman Empire.

paragraphs: Egypt grew along the River Nile and was at its most powerful in the second millennium BC. Its land went from the Nile delta to Nubia, a kingdom which today is mostly in the Sudan.

paragraphs: For most of its history, Egypt was prosperous, since the water from the Nile made sure that the Egyptians would have good crops. Crops were grown after the Nile flood water went down.

paragraphs: The Egyptians created a way of writing using hieroglyphs, built huge temples and tombs, traded with other areas, and had a powerful army. Their religion had many gods, and its priests were powerful and rich. Their rulers, called Pharaohs, were thought to be close to the gods.

paragraphs: Archaeologists, who study objects left by ancient people, have found that people have lived along the Nile for a very long time. The fertile flood plains of the Nile allowed people to begin farming. By the 10th millennium BC, the people in Egypt had begun growing cereal grains like wheat and barley. Because they were farming, they stayed in one place, and because they were settled, their society became more complex. This was an important step in the history of human civilization.

paragraphs: This period in Egyptian history is called "predynastic", as it happened before the large dynastic kingdoms were formed.

paragraphs: By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures. Each had begun farming crops and animals. Each had their own types of pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. In Upper Egypt, the south part of the country, the Badarian was one of the earliest cultures. It is known for its high quality pottery, stone tools, and its use of copper. They were followed by the Amratian and Gerzian cultures.

paragraphs: The different periods of ancient Egyptian history are:

paragraphs: The Intermediate periods included times when the traditional system broke down, the country was split, or invaded by foreign rulers. Egypt's culture and climate was relatively stable, compared to other parts of the Middle East. Nevertheless, they had some periods when their government was challenged and sometimes overthrown.

paragraphs: Ancient Egypt was split up into many different districts called "sepats". The first divisions were created during the Predynastic Period, but then, they were small city-states that ruled themselves. When the first pharaoh came to power, the sepats remained and were much like the counties in many countries today. They stayed basically the same for a long time – there were 42 of them, and each was ruled by a governor chosen by the pharaoh. In later years the districts were called nomes and the governor was called a nomarch.

paragraphs: Ancient Egypt had a lot of different taxes, but there was no real money, so people paid each other with goods or work. The person who watched the tax collection was a "scribe", and every tax collector in Egypt had to tell him every day how many taxes they had collected. Each person paid different taxes based on the work that they did: craftsmen paid in goods, hunters and fishermen paid with food, and every single household in the country had to pay a labour tax every year by helping with work for the country like mining or for canals. A lot of rich Egyptians paid poorer people to do this for them.

paragraphs: The language can be divided into six time periods:

paragraphs: Egypt had writing called hieroglyphics, which is one of the two oldest written languages (the other is Sumerian cuneiform).

paragraphs: Hieroglyphic writing dates to c. 3200 BC, and is composed of some 500 symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative (which makes clear what the sign means). The same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were for public purposes, used on stone monuments and in tombs. It was art, and often it was political propaganda.

paragraphs: The script used by priests for everyday writing on "papyrus", wood or cloth.

paragraphs: In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows.

paragraphs: The script used by ordinary people. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the main writing style. It is this form of writing and formal hieroglyphs which accompanies the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.

paragraphs: The Coptic script is a modified Greek alphabet. The Coptic language is the last stage of the Egyptian language (modern Egyptians speak a dialect of Arabic).

paragraphs: Some ancient Egyptian literature has survived to the present day. There are teaching texts, such as the "Maxims of Ptahhotep", the "Instructions of Amenemope", and the Ebers papyrus. The Ebers papyrus is one of the earliest medical texts ever found.

paragraphs: Religion was very important to Ancient Egyptians. To Egyptians, animals were holy and were worshipped. Because of this, Egyptians domesticated, or made pets of, animals very early and took very good care of them. The centre of any Egyptian town was the temple, and this building was used for everything from the town hall to a university in addition to its religious services.

paragraphs: Because they were so religious, Egyptians created a lot of art of their gods. This art shows all different kinds of divine, or holy, creatures including the pharaoh, who was thought to be a god.

paragraphs: The afterlife was also very important to Egyptians and they are known for mummifying their dead. These mummies are important to scientists today because they tell them about how the Egyptians lived.

paragraphs: All the gods were important but some were more important than others. An example of a goddess is Isis who is the goddess of the sky. Another example of a major god is Ra who was the god of the sun. The less well known god of The Nile and the crocodiles was named Sobek, which is a rather unusual name. Bastet was the goddess of cats, so the Ancient Egyptians mummified cats in honour of her, she was also the goddess of protection, joy and families.

paragraphs: The rich fertile soil came from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. In ancient Egypt taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.

paragraphs: Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: "Akhet" (flooding), "Peret" (planting), and "Shemu" (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the "growing season" lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

paragraphs: Flax plants were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.

paragraphs: Most animals were kept as food. Some animals were kept as pets. All kinds of animals were important to Egypt. Ancient Egyptians understood the animals. Animals they kept were goats, pigs, ducks, cows and geese.

paragraphs: Ancient Egyptians had some advanced medical knowledge for their time. They performed surgery, set broken bones and even knew about medicines. Some medicines the Ancient Egyptians used are honey and breast milk or gazelle's milk. Not only did they have medicinal values, they also are believed to have been used to ward off evil spirits and demons. The easiest way to see how good they were at medicine is to look at the medical papyri which have survived to the present day. The Edwin Smith papyrus is the world's oldest surviving surgical document, from about 1600 B.C. The text describes anatomy, and the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of 48 types of medical problems in detail.

paragraphs: Ancient Egyptian pyramids are shaped stone masonry structures. They are the best known pyramid structures, and are some of the largest ever buildings. Over 130 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. Most were built on the western side of the River Nile in desert areas. Egyptian pyramids are often contain chambers and passages. The pyramids were built as the burial places of the Egyptian kings before the start of the old kingdom until the end of the middle kingdom. Because the Egyptians kept written records, we know about the building of some pyramids.

paragraphs: The Great Pyramid at Giza is the largest and most famous pyramid. It was built for Pharaoh Khufu. It is over 140 metres high and took 20 years to build. It is listed as one of the seven wonders of the world. The step pyramid at Saqqara is the earliest pyramid which is still standing today. This was built in 2630 BC. It was a burial place of the Pharaoh Djoser. The architect of the step pyramid was Imhotep.

paragraphs: Engineering was an important activity in Egypt. Engineers were able to measure and survey the distance between two points. They designed and made the pyramids, which are nearly perfect geometrically. They could make cement, and developed large irrigation networks.

paragraphs: Science was also important. Mathematics was used in Egypt, and the golden ratio was used in the construction of the Pyramids.

paragraphs: Another ability of the Egyptians was glass making. Archaeologists have found many pieces of beads, jars, figures and ornaments in tombs across the nation. In 2005, the remains of an ancient glassmaking factory was found.


title: Alexander the Great

paragraphs: Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedonia) was King of Macedonia , from 336 BC until his death in 323 BC. He was one of the greatest military leaders of all time. Alexander was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia.

paragraphs: Alexander was the son of Philip II, King of Macedonia, and Olympias, the princess of neighboring Epirus. Alexander spent his childhood watching his father turn Macedonia into a great military power, and watching him win victory on the battlefields in the Balkans.

paragraphs: When he was 13, Philip hired the Greek philosopher Aristotle to be Alexander’s personal tutor. During the next three years, Aristotle gave Alexander a training in rhetoric and literature, and stimulated his interest in science, medicine, and philosophy, all of which became important in Alexander’s later life.

paragraphs: In 340 BC, Philip assembled a large Macedonian army and invaded Thrace. He left 16 year old Alexander with the power to rule Macedonia in his absence as regent. But as the Macedonian army advanced deep into Thrace, the Thracian tribe of Maedi bordering north-eastern Macedonia rebelled and posed a danger to the country. Alexander assembled an army, led it against the rebels, and with swift action defeated the Maedi, captured their stronghold, and renamed it Alexandropolis.

paragraphs: Alexander became king of Macedonia in 336 BC when his father was assassinated. A meeting was held to the of Greek cities made him "strategos" (General or supreme commander). He used this authority to launch his father's military expansion plans. In 334 BC, he invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor. He began series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the entire Persian Empire. He married the king's daughter to symbolize the unity of his new empire. At that point, Alexander's empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.

paragraphs: He attacked India in 326 BC, and defeated King Porus, who ruled a region in the Punjab. Afterwards they became allies. India at that time was divided into hundreds of kingdoms. The army refused to cross the Indus and fight the kings on the other side, so Alexander led them out of India.

paragraphs: Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, of unknown causes. Poison, murder, or a fever after a battle have all been suggested. At his death, he was planning a series of campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart. Several states were then ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs. They fought and conquered each other. The largest surviving piece was the Seleucid Empire.

paragraphs: Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion of Greek ideas and language. He started some twenty cities that were named after him, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Macedonian colonists resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization. Signs of this can be seen in the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD. There were Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the 1920s.

paragraphs: When Alexander died he was only 32 years old. He was never defeated in battle.


title: Brisbane

paragraphs: Brisbane (local nickname "Brissie") is the seaport capital city and biggest city of Queensland in Australia. It has a population of 2.2 million people and is the third biggest city in Australia, after Sydney and Melbourne.

paragraphs: The central city is on the Brisbane River, inland from Moreton Bay.

paragraphs: Brisbane is named after the Brisbane River, which is named after Sir Thomas Brisbane who was Governor of New South Wales from 1821 - 1825.

paragraphs: A penal colony was founded at Redcliffe, to the north, in 1824. It was moved to North Quay in 1825. The first free settlers moved to Brisbane in 1842. Brisbane became the capital city when Queensland became a separate colony from New South Wales in 1859.

paragraphs: Brisbane has more than 50 skyscrapers more than tall.

paragraphs: Brisbane has a humid subtropical climate. Summers are hot and wet. Winters are warm and quite dry.

paragraphs: Thunderstorms happen a lot from November to March every year. Very heavy thunderstorms caused big floods and a lot of damage in February 1893, January 1974, January 2011 and January 2013.

paragraphs: The warmest recorded temperature in Brisbane was on 26 January 1940 and the coldest was on 2 July 1896.

paragraphs: Sunshine hours are not typical for a location in the southern hemisphere. While the sunniest month, November sees over 250 bright hours, the dullest month, February, equivalent of August in the northern hemisphere, has less than 200 hours.

paragraphs: The City of Brisbane, run by Brisbane City Council, covers a big part of the suburbs close to the city. The outer suburbs are part of Logan City to the south, Moreton Bay Region to the north, the City of Ipswich to the south west, Redland City to the south east, with a small part in the Scenic Rim Region to the west.

paragraphs: Brisbane has many universities and colleges including University of Queensland, Queensland University of Technology and Griffith University. The Australian Catholic University, Central Queensland University, James Cook University, University of Southern Queensland and the University of the Sunshine Coast each have a campus in Brisbane.

paragraphs: There are three big vocational school in Brisbane - Brisbane North Institute of TAFE, Metropolitan South Institute of TAFE and Southbank Institute of TAFE.

paragraphs: Most primary schools and secondary schools are run by the Queensland Government. There are also private, Catholic and other Christian schools.

paragraphs: Brisbane hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games, the 1988 World Exposition (called World Expo 88), and some games at the 1987 Rugby World Cup and 2001 Cricket World Cup.

paragraphs: Big sports stadiums include the Brisbane Cricket Ground, Lang Park, Ballymore Stadium and the Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre.

paragraphs: Brisbane has teams in all Australian sports competitions.


title: Hawaiian language

paragraphs: The Hawaiian language () is the language of native Hawaiians. "Aloha" and "mahalo" are probably its most recognized words. The word "lanai" is also used in English. (That is different from "Lanai", the name of one of Hawaii's islands.)

paragraphs: There are related languages in the Marquesas, Raratonga, Samoa, some islands of what is now Fiji and New Zealand. Their languages have changed a lot over the last two thousand years or so. However, native speakers of all these languages can still understand each other.

paragraphs: The language has only 12 letters (A, E, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, U, W). There are 13 if you count the okina. The okina is a real letter and came from some "K" sounds in old Polynesian languages. The okina is pronounced as a glottal stop, like the break in the middle of the word "Uh-oh". The okina is written as a backward apostrophe (small numeral 6 above and before a vowel).

paragraphs: The Niihau dialect still uses some T, S, R and "hints" of B sounds. People who live on that island are the only people who still speak Hawaiian only and their dialect is the most true to its roots.

paragraphs: Every Hawaiian syllable ends with a vowel. There are some who think that makes the language sound "musical". Some think that final vowels helped the speakers remember chanted traditional stories and genealogies. Most linguists, however, think it's because of internal phonological processes.

paragraphs: There are two forms of each of the five vowels. One is regular, where the vowel is pronounced as a Spaniard would say it. The other is extended, in written form, where a horizontal bar called a kahako is over the vowel. The meanings (and pronunciations) of words spelled the same but with or without the appropriate kahakos or okinas can be very different, sometimes even embarrassing.

paragraphs: One might think that learning the language would be relatively easy, but that only applies to na keiki (children) who have never learned the 26 letters that English speakers use. There is a children's rhyme that goes on for a couple minutes (and written, probably a couple dozen lines) that consists of nothing but both versions of the letters a, i and the okina. It talks of him (ia) eating (ai) his (iaia) fish (ia).

paragraphs: When the missionaries made a written form of Hawaiian Language, they did not write the kahakos or okinas; leaving it to the context to make the meanings evident.

paragraphs: Since the intent was to translate the Bible ("Paipala"), natives forgave some of the confusion created. They still learned how unintended "double entendres" could be funny in written form. When Hawaiian language newspapers started, native-speaking writers and editors were careful to avoid these (the type that was available to "set" did not include such "specialty" characters).


title: Skinhead

paragraphs: Skinheads, named after their short haircuts, are members of a subculture that originated in Britain in late 1960s, where they were closely tied to the Rude Boys and the Mods. They shave their heads, because originally most of them were workers in factories and they had to be bald, so their hair could not get caught in the machines.

paragraphs: Traditional skinheads identify with the original skinhead movement ("The Spirit of '69") in music, style, and/or working class pride. Skinheads listen to ska, rocksteady, reggae, Oi! and punk music.

paragraphs: People who are not part of the group often see Skinheads as being politically close to the Neo-Nazi (or White Power) movement. Often Skinheads are seen as part of that movement. This is wrong, given that there are many young people in the movement who have no political views at all. Many Skinheads are also not violent, unless they are provoked.


title: Anime

paragraphs: Anime (アニメ) is Japanese for 'animation' or 'cartoon'. In Japan, anime is the word used for all animation. Outside of Japan, the term anime refers to Japanese animation, which this article is about.

paragraphs: Some anime is drawn by hand, but anime can also be made with CGI computer animation. There are many types of anime; you can find anime about sports, magic, or romance. These are just some examples. Anime are shown on television, on DVD and VHS, and are used in video games. Also, some anime cartoons are just movies, but they have cartoon characters and animation instead of real people and places. Anime is often based on Japanese comics that are called manga and graphic novels. Sometimes live action (not animation) movies and television series are based on an anime.

paragraphs: The history of anime begins around 1900, when Japanese filmmakers tried out ways of animation at the same time as the United States, Russia, Germany and France.

paragraphs: The filmmakers in Japan did not have a lot of money to make their movies and not a lot of places where they could film their movies. The people that the filmmakers could use as actors in their movies was also a problem for making Japanese movies. Japanese people look different from people in other places in the world (e.g. If the movie's theme were about Vikings, Ancient Rome or the Black Death pandemic in Medieval Europe, for example), and it was hard for filmmakers to make a movie about places other than Japan with Japanese actors. Movie makers liked animation because then they could have animator draw other places and people that could not be filmed in a normal movie, and the animators could be very creative with the cartoons they made.

paragraphs: During the 1970s, more and more people started to like manga. At the same time, manga were used as the starting point to make anime with the same characters and stories. Animators would take the drawings done by a manga artist and the stories the manga artist wrote, and turn them into the stories and characters of a similar anime. At that time Osamu Tezuka became very popular. Now he is called a "legend" and the "god of manga". Tezuka and other pioneers of anime made a lot of types of stories and styles that are common to anime today. The giant robot genre (known as "mecha" outside Japan) began with manga and anime from Tezuka's ideas. Robot anime like Gundam and Macross became classics in the 1980s. Today, the robot genre is still very popular in Japan and worldwide. In the 1980s, anime became very popular in Japan, and saw an increase in production. (Manga is much more popular than anime in Japan). There are a lot of different kinds of anime that many different kinds of people like besides Mecha, and there are types of anime based on the age of the people (e.g. "seinen" or "shōnen") who might like it or the subject of the anime.

paragraphs: Very popular stories in anime and manga are often translated into other languages, and the words used in the anime or manga will be put into another language where they mean the same thing. That way, people who live outside of Japan and who do not understand Japanese (the language used for dialogue in anime and manga in Japan) can also understand the stories. If a manga or anime is not translated by a company in another country, sometimes people in that country will translate the story to share with other people for free before a company translates it for the general public. This is good because it allows more people to watch animes, but some companies think it is stealing.

paragraphs: In the late 1980s, lots of people in countries other than Japan started to like anime too. In the United States, giant robot anime became popular. In Europe, anime for children became popular. Today, many different kinds of anime are popular all around the world. Anime helped spread in popularity thanks to the internet.

paragraphs: Anime Expo is a convention all about anime. It has mostly cosplay but attendees can also meet anime creators and voice actors.


title: Sudan

paragraphs: Sudan is a country in Africa. The official name of Sudan is The Republic of the Sudan. Its capital and largest city is Khartoum.

paragraphs: Sudan borders by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. Sudan has a sea to the northeast called the Red Sea.

paragraphs: Sudan used to have the largest area of all the countries in Africa. However, on July 9, 2011, the southern part of the country left and became a new country, South Sudan. Sudan now has an area of . It is the third largest country in Africa by area. The Nile flows through Sudan, providing water to crops. There are many different tribal and ethnic groups, though the country is mainly divided between the north, which has more Arabic people, and the south, which has more people of African descent.

paragraphs: People from Sudan are called Sudanese. About 45 million people live in Sudan. About 4 million of these live in Khartoum or in towns that are joined to it.

paragraphs: Arabic is the official language of Sudan, but people also speak "Nubian", "Nilotic" and English. Many other languages are spoken in different parts of the country as well.

paragraphs: Most Sudanese people have Islam as their religion. A small number are Christian. Some people have other religions that are called tribal (local) beliefs.

paragraphs: The currency of Sudan is called the Sudanese Pound (Jinneh).

paragraphs: The current leader of Sudan is Acting President Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf.

paragraphs: For several years, the Darfur conflict has been going on in Sudan. Over 400,000 people have died in it.


title: OpenBSD

paragraphs: OpenBSD is a secure, free computer operating system. It can run on many types of computers, including Intel PCs and Apple Computer's PowerPCs.

paragraphs: Like the other open source BSDs and unlike with most Linux operating systems, the whole operating system is developed by the same group of people with OpenBSD. Programmes from other sources are available separately.

paragraphs: OpenBSD is often the first to add new security tools to make it harder to break, developers have also carefully read through the programming code to check for mistakes more than once. The project is led by Theo de Raadt from Calgary, Alberta, Canada and is released under conditions which put few restrictions on people that use the source code, the BSD licence.

paragraphs: OpenBSD releases new versions every six months, each version is supported for one year after release. OpenBSD 4.4 was released November 1, 2008.

paragraphs: OpenBSD's first mascot was a BSD daemon with a halo, it was replaced with Puffy, a pufferfish, on June 15th, 2000, with the release of OpenBSD 2.7.

paragraphs: The operating system's developers add in many new technologies to make the system more secure, technologies like W^X, Stack Protection, malloc reconfigurations and ssh to replace telnet and rlogin.

paragraphs: Because it is so secure, OpenBSD is often used as a firewall and for other security-related jobs. It is also usable for on a desktop computer, it can act and look like one of several other operating systems like Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, and others.


title: Civil war

paragraphs: A civil war is a war that takes place between two or more groups in one country. While civil wars can take place for many of reasons, there are two common reasons.

paragraphs: The first is because the different groups disagree about who should be in charge, or how the country should be run. If two political parties disagree about the result of an election, this might lead to a war if the two sides cannot or would not come to an agreement.

paragraphs: The second is because one group of people does not want to be part of the country anymore. This is known as a war of secession. Lots of people living in a certain area might decide that they want independence to make their own country. Very few national leaders would be happy to give up land that is part of that country, and a war could result.

paragraphs: Sometimes the people who want to break away do not necessarily want to form a whole new country, but they might want more autonomy over their affairs. This happens sometimes when different ethnic groups belong to the same nation.

paragraphs: Civil wars can go on for many years and be just as destructive and damaging as international wars. Civil wars tend to become complicated very quickly. A civil war might start between two sides, but groups might break up and the new, different sides could start fighting each other. Groups who were not involved at the beginning can easily be sucked in, as they fight to defend themselves against both sides. Civil wars with many different sides all fighting each other have occurred. Sometimes foreign countries help one side, or different countries help different sides. This can become a proxy war.


title: Crocodile

paragraphs: A crocodile is a large amphibious reptile. It lives mostly in large tropical rivers, where it is an ambush predator. One species, the Australian saltie, also travels in coastal salt water. In very dry climates, crocodiles may aestivate and sleep out the dry season.

paragraphs: The modern type of crocodile appeared first in the Eocene period. Its ancestors go much further back to the Upper Triassic. The name "Crocodile" is also used for any member of the order "Crocodilia". They are basically Archosaurs, a group which also includes the dinosaurs. There are many species of Crocodiles including the American, slender-snouted and Orinoco crocodile.

paragraphs: The crocodile can snap its jaw shut quickly and with much power. But crocodiles have very little strength opening their jaws and a person could hold the jaw shut with their hands.

paragraphs: Crocodiles range in size from African dwarf crocodiles that measure rarely over 5 feet (1.5 m) to saltwater crocodiles which can approach 23 feet (7 m).

paragraphs: Crocodiles live in rivers, lakes and dams in parts of America, Asia, Africa and Australia. Some of the crocodiles from Australia live in salt water. These saltwater crocodiles are normally bigger than the ones that live in fresh water. While crocodiles spend most of their time in water, they can come out and move around on the land.

paragraphs: Crocodiles cannot breathe underwater: they breathe air, just like people. When they are not active, they can hold their breath for a maximum of about two hours underwater before drowning. Normally, when underwater, they are active and can hold their breath for a maximum of 20 minutes to one hour.

paragraphs: The crocodile looks like it is a log, and hides beneath the surface of the water. When an animal comes down to the water to drink, the crocodile lunges out of the water, grabs the animal in its jaws, and pulls it underwater, where it drowns. After the animal is dead, the crocodile will grab a piece of meat in its jaws and spin around in a "death roll".

paragraphs: Their colors range from brown to grey and have different patterns covering them.They have many shapes and they differ in color. They have sharp claws and teeth. They can also be a greenish-brownish color.Crocodile tongues are not free. They are held in place by a membrane that can not move. Crocodiles are unable to stick out their tongues.

paragraphs: Although there is not much difference in their life-style, biologists put alligators in a separate family. Gharials are also in a separate family, and Caimans are a sub-family of alligators.

paragraphs: The difference between an alligator and a crocodile is that one can not see the fourth tooth in the lower jaw of an alligator when the alligator's mouth is closed. One can see the fourth tooth in the lower jaw of a crocodile when its mouth is closed.

paragraphs: According to scientists, some ancient crocodiles walked on two legs like dinosaurs. The scientists found preserved footprints in South Korea. They found hind foot prints but no front foot prints or marks from a tail dragging behind.

paragraphs: They were able to tell that these ancient crocodiles walked on their hind legs with their front legs and tails off the ground. They used the whole foot, the way a human or bear does, not just the toes, the way a dinosaur, bird or dog does.

paragraphs: Sixteen extant species of crocodile have been discovered. They are:


title: ZZT

paragraphs: ZZT is a computer game made by Tim Sweeney. People can make other games with this game's engine.


title: Centre

paragraphs: Centre (British spelling) or center (U.S. spelling) means the middle of something.

paragraphs: The word "centre" often means places or buildings where an activity takes place. Common examples are:


title: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky

paragraphs: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (, "Pëtr Il’ič Čajkovskij"; ) (born Kamsko-Votkinsk, 7 May 1840; died St Petersburg, 6 November 1893; pronounced chai-KOV-skee) was a Russian composer who lived in the Romantic period. He is one of the most popular of all Russian composers. He wrote melodies which were usually dramatic and emotional. He learned a lot from studying the music of Western Europe, but his music also sounds very Russian. His compositions include 11 operas, 3 ballets, orchestral music, chamber music and over 100 songs. His famous ballets ("Swan Lake", "The Nutcracker " and "Sleeping Beauty") have some of the best known tunes in all of romantic music. He is widely regarded as the greatest composer of ballets.

paragraphs: Tchaikovsky’s father was a Ukrainian who worked as a mining engineer. His mother’s grandfather was a Frenchman who had moved to Russia. She was a nervous woman and Tchaikovsky may have gotten his nervous character from her. Tchaikovsky was only five when he started taking piano lessons. He was soon better than his teacher. The family had an orchestrion (a kind of musical box) which played some tunes from classical music by Mozart, Bellini, Donizetti and Rossini.

paragraphs: In 1848 the family moved to St. Petersburg. Tchaikovsky was unhappy and unsettled as he was often separated from his family who moved several times. In 1854 his mother died. He tried to comfort himself by playing music. He spent nine years at the School of Jurisprudence. When he left school, he had to get a job. For four years he worked as a clerk in the Ministry of Justice. Then the composer and pianist Anton Rubinstein helped him to become a music student at the newly opened conservatory in St. Petersburg. He learned to play the flute and the organ as well as the piano and learning all about composition. In 1866 he moved to Moscow where Nikolai Rubinstein, the brother of Anton, encouraged him to write music with a Russian character. He worked very hard, and was often exhausted, but he managed to finish his First Symphony, which was performed in 1868.

paragraphs: Tchaikovsky met some famous musicians including the French composer Berlioz who was visiting Moscow. He also became friendly with the Russian composer Mily Balakirev who was very helpful and persuaded him to rewrite one of his works several times until it was very good. he result was a piece for orchestra called "Romeo and Juliet" which soon became internationally known. Balakirev had four friends who were composers. This circle of friends is often called “The Five” or “The Mighty Handful”. They were interested in using Russian folktunes in their music. Tchaikovsky was never a member of the group, although he liked their ideas. Tchaikovsky was different to them: he had learned music at the Conservatoire where he had studied Western music. The harmonies that he used in his works were often not suitable for Russian folktunes. He wrote many songs which are romantic in character. One of them, "None But the Lonely Heart", is especially well known in English.

paragraphs: By now, Tchaikovsky was writing works which were to make him very famous. He wrote two more symphonies, and his First Piano Concerto, one of the most popular of all piano concertos, was given its first performance in Boston. He was also writing operas and chamber music.

paragraphs: In 1875, Tchaikovsky began making a long tour of Europe. He liked Bizet’s opera "Carmen", but Wagner’s operas from the "Ring cycle "bored him. In 1877 he finished "Swan Lake", the first of his three ballets. The audience did not like it at first because the dancers were not very good.

paragraphs: Tchaikovsky was a closeted homosexual. In the summer of 1877 Tchaikovsky decided to marry. His wife was called Antonina Milyukova. The marriage was a disaster. A few weeks after the marriage, he ran away and never lived with her again.

paragraphs: Another woman was to become important in his life, but in a very different way. It was to be a very unusual relationship. Her name was Nadezhda von Meck. She was the wife of a rich man. She loved Tchaikovsky’s music and promised him that she would pay him a lot of money every month so long as he promised her that he would never try to meet her. Tchaikovsky no longer needed to work. He was able to give up his teaching job at the Conservatory. For several years he spent the winters in Europe and the summers in Russia. Nadezhda and Tchaikovsky wrote long letters to one another, often quite passionate and dreamy they talked about love, life and how they wanted it to change, but they never saw one another. He had plenty of time to write music: he wrote several operas including "Eugene Onegin" and his Fourth and Fifth Symphonies, the Violin Concerto, the Serenade for Strings, "Capriccio Italienne" and the "1812 Overture". Tchaikovsky loved Nadezhda very much but never actually told her his true feelings.

paragraphs: By 1885, Tchaikovsky had tired of travelling around. He rented a country house in Klin, just outside Moscow. He lived a regular life, reading, walking in the forest, composing during the day and playing music with his friends in the evenings. He started to have more confidence as a conductor and toured Europe twice, conducting in Leipzig, Berlin, Prague, Hamburg, Paris and London. In 1889 he finished his second ballet, "The Sleeping Beauty" and the next year, while staying in Florence, he wrote his famous opera "The Queen of Spades" based on a story by Pushkin. Later that year Nadezhda von Meck wrote to him that she had lost nearly all her money and could not continue to support him.

paragraphs: In the spring of 1891 he was invited to conduct in New York where the Carnegie Hall was being opened. He also conducted concerts in Baltimore and Philadelphia. When he returned to Russia he wrote his last ballet "The Nutcracker" and his Sixth Symphony, known as the “Pathétique” which was dedicated to his nephew with whom he was passionately in love. This work is often considered his best. It was performed in St Petersburg on October 16 1893. Five days later he suddenly became ill with cholera, a disease many people were catching in the city. Tchaikovsky died four days later. Many people think that he committed suicide by deliberately drinking contaminated water. He may have wanted to (or even been forced to) commit suicide in order to avoid a scandal because he was having a relationship with a nephew of an important aristocratic man. Exactly what happened is still a mystery.


title: BBC Radio 1

paragraphs: BBC Radio 1 (often known as Radio 1) is an international radio station that is based in the United Kingdom. It is owned by BBC and BBC Radio. Radio 1 started broadcasting at 7.00 am on September 30, 1967. Tony Blackburn presented the first (later known as Breakfast) programme on the station. The station is meant to be listened to mainly by people aged 15–29.

paragraphs: Before the launch of Radio 1, the BBC ran three radio stations (the BBC Light Programme, the BBC Home Service and the BBC Third Programme), but these were considered old fashioned and were closed down in 1967. They were replaced with Radio 1, 2, 3 and 4.

paragraphs: The launch of Radio 1 in 1967 was because of the popularity of pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline. They had been outlawed by Act of Parliament, and the BBC needed to provide alternative radio stations.

paragraphs: Radio 1 also has a sister station, BBC Radio 1Xtra.

paragraphs: The daytime shows (Monday-Thursday 4.00 - 19.00, Friday 4.00 - 18.00, Saturday 6.00 - 16.00 and Sunday 6.00 - 19.00) are very speech-focused and use an extensive playlist to introduce unknown and emerging material alongside more established, "top 40" hits from the recent past (usually in a 5-year cycle).

paragraphs: The nighttime shows focus specifically on new music, with each show devoted to a particular genre. These genres include electronica, dance, hip-hop, rap and rock. All programs during this time are playlisted and presented by the DJs without any influence of the station's music editor.


title: Sea level

paragraphs: The sea level is the average height of the ocean (informally called the "sea"). The word 'average' must be used because the height of the sea changes with the tides. The height of mountains, countries, and so on, is almost always given as "above sea level".

paragraphs: Sea level is generally used to refer to mean sea level (MSL). This is the average level for the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans.

paragraphs: MSL is a type of standardised geodetic reference point. It is used, for example, as a geodetic datum in cartography and marine navigation. In aviation it is the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured. This is used to calibrate altitude, which influences aircraft flight levels. A common mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular place.

paragraphs: Sea levels can be affected by many factors. They have varied greatly over geological time scales. The careful measurement of variations in MSL offers insights into ongoing climate change. The present slight rise in sea levels is offered as proof of ongoing global warming.

paragraphs: In Earth's long history, the continents and sea floor have changed due to plate tectonics. This affects global sea level because it alters the depths of various ocean basins, and also changes the distribution of glaciers.

paragraphs: Over most of geologic time, the long-term mean sea level has been higher than today (see graph). Only at the Permian-Triassic boundary ~250 million years ago was the long-term mean sea level lower than today. This included the PermianTriassic extinction event, though this may not be relevant to the concept of sea level.

paragraphs: Long term changes in the mean sea level are the result of changes in the oceanic crust, with a downward trend expected to continue in the very long term.

paragraphs: Rapid changes may happen by huge lakes breaking through into seas. This has happened on a number of occasions. When the latest ice age was ending, melting caused huge lakes in central North America. This eventually broke through into the Atlantic. Melting ice in the North Sea are also broke through into the English Channel. The largest known example of marine flooding was when the Atlantic breached the Strait of Gibraltar about 5.2 million years ago. This restored Mediterranean sea levels, which had dried up.

paragraphs: The present rise in sea level is taken from tide gauges. It is about 1.8 mm/yr. Active research continues in this field.


title: Fear Factory

paragraphs: Fear Factory is an American death/industrial metal group. They were formed in Los Angeles, California in 1989 and disbanded in early 2002. They have reformed in the following year adding Byron Stroud (of Strapping Young Lad) as their current bass player. Their classic line-up was Burton C. Bell (vocals), Dino Cazares (guitars), Christian Olde Woblers (bass) and Raymond Herrera (drums) between 1994 and break up time.


title: Sublime

paragraphs: Sublime was a popular punk/ska rock band. The band was formed in 1988 in Long Beach, California. They have released popular hit singles like "Date Rape", "Doin' Time", "Santeria" and "What I Got".

paragraphs: Sublime broke up 1996, because singer, guitarist and songwriter Bradley Nowell died. He died in a hotel room in San Francisco, California on May 25th of the same year from a heroin overdose. He was 28 years old. Their third and final album "Sublime" was released two months after Nowell's death. The album's song "What I Got" was what made Sublime famous.

paragraphs: Sublime has sold over 8 million albums around the world.

paragraphs: A few of Sublimes songs have been used in video games. "Santeria" was included in "Guitar Hero World Tour".

paragraphs: The song "Seed" was included in "Tony Hawk's Underground" and the song "What I Got" was included in "Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX".


title: Crass

paragraphs: Crass was one of the first anarcho-punk bands. The band was formed in Essex, England in 1977. The band split up in 1984.

paragraphs: The group was first of all made up of Penny Rimbaud (playing drums) and Steve Ignorant (who sang). Later they were joined by other people who also lived together in their shared house (or commune) called Dial House.

paragraphs: Crass did their first concert at a squatted festival in Huntley Street, North London. Soon after they played at the famous punk club The Roxy in London's Covent Garden area. However the group were made to come off of the stage because they were very drunk. They also did early concerts with punk band the UK Subs, but not many people went to watch these concerts.

paragraphs: After this members of Crass decided to be more serious about what they were doing. They decided to wear black clothes all of the time, whether or not they were on stage. This was so that no member of the band would be seen as the group 'leader'. They also made a banner that they hung up behind them when they were playing live. This had a logo on it that was made up of symbols like the Christian cross, the swastika and the British flag, as well as a snake with two heads that is eating itself. The meaning of this logo was the idea that "power will destroy itself".

paragraphs: Crass released their first record in 1978. It was called "The Feeding of the 5000". It was meant to have 18 songs on it, but one song was banned by the people who worked at the factory where the records were made. This was because they thought it was blasphemous. This song was called "Asylum". The band instead released the record with a 2-minute gap where that song had been, which they called "The Sound of Free Speech". After this they set up their own record label, Crass Records. This was so that they could control what was on their own records in the future. They re-recorded and released the song that had been banned as a single. They also re-released the first LP with the banned song put back on it.

paragraphs: The second LP released by Crass was the double album "Stations of the Crass". It was released in 1979. One side of this LP was a recording of a live concert that the band played at the Pied Bull pub in Islington, London on August 7, 1979.

paragraphs: Their next LP was released in 1981. It was called "Penis Envy". The band had deliberately changed their sound for this record. The lyrics and the record cover artwork had a strong feminist message. Steve Ignorant did not appear upon it. Instead only the women members of the band, Eve Libertine and Joy DeVivre sung the songs.

paragraphs: The Crass Records label also released many other records by other musicians and bands. These included Flux Of Pink Indians, Conflict, Poison Girls, Zounds, Honey Bane, Rudimentary Peni and others.


title: Black Flag

paragraphs: Black Flag was an American hardcore punk band. They formed in California in 1976 and broke up in 1986. There were many different members in the band, but the leader was Greg Ginn. Ginn was the guitarist and wrote many of the songs.

paragraphs: Black Flag was one of the groups that created the hardcore punk style. They toured the United States and Canada to play many live shows. They influenced many other musicians and fans to make their own hardcore bands. The band's first album, "Damaged" (1981), has been recognized as a classic punk album and one of the most influential punk records ever made.

paragraphs: After breaking up, the lead singer Henry Rollins formed a new band by himself, Rollins Band and guitarist Greg Ginn worked on a separate career in the early 90s.


title: Tarika

paragraphs: Tarika is the Arabic word for a Sufi order in Islam. The first Tarikas were founded in the 12th and 13th century and many of them still exist today. The head of a Tarika is called a "sheikh", the disciples are called "dervishes".


title: Crazy Frog

paragraphs: The Crazy Frog is a 3D animated creature, featured on music albums.

paragraphs: Before becoming a ringtone to download onto mobile phones, The Crazy Frog started as a TruboForce 3D animated creature. It was called “The Annoying Thing” in 2003 by its creator, Erik Wernquist of Sweden. With big eyes and a bigger mouth, the high resolution anthropomorphic “thing” is dappled grey-blue and nude save for a helmet, goggles and biker vest. All original videos and images also show small male humanoid genital in a relaxed state that move realistically. Some sources pixel out or remove the genitals.

paragraphs: Members of Bass Bumpers had a dance remix of Harold Faltermeyer’s “Axel-F” the Beverly Hills Cop theme, adding Daniel Maldemahl’s impression of a moped engine (Ring-a-ding-dong) and a Max Headroom, “What’s going on?” (among other dubbed words). In the music video for that remix the “Thing” says featured bites from Daniel’s bit (Ding, ding.) and zooms around on a mimed bike to escape a robot minion on a hover bike.

paragraphs: The internet and media dubbed it both a Frog and crazy. Erik went along with it.

paragraphs: First, it was simply a vocal imitation of a two stroke, internal combustion engine. Daniel Malmedahl of Sweden created a recording of his imitation in 1997 that eventually spread through peer to peer file sharing on the Internet.

paragraphs: The company that sells Crazy Frog ringtones (Jamba!) has made £14 million from it.


title: Surrey

paragraphs: "For the city in British Columbia, see Surrey, British Columbia."

paragraphs: Surrey is a county in southern England. The size of Surrey is about 1,663 km² and it has about 1,059,000 people (2002). It is near London. Surrey's largest town is Guildford. In Guildford there is also a university. The River Thames forms part of Surrey's north border.

paragraphs: Surrey is a setting of "War of the Worlds" by H. G. Wells (Woking, Leatherhead in particular).

paragraphs: Surrey is near London's Heathrow and Gatwick airports. It has access to major road routes (including the M25, M3 and M23). It has frequent rail services into Central London.


title: USB

paragraphs: The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is technology that allows a person to connect an electronic device to a computer. It is a fast serial bus.

paragraphs: It is mostly used on personal computers. USB is also used on other devices, such as smartphones and video game consoles. USB connects different devices using a standard interface.

paragraphs: Most people use USB for computer mice, keyboards, scanners, printers, digital cameras, and USB flash drives. There are over six billion USB devices around the world.

paragraphs: The standard was made to improve plug and play devices. This means that a device can be plugged into a free socket, and simply work. The computer will notice the device. The computer sometimes installs special software to use the device. The device can be removed after it stops being used. This technology is called "hot swapping". "Hot swapping" means it can be plugged and unplugged while the power is on. The computer does not need to be turned off for people to change the devices.

paragraphs: USB can provide a small amount of power to the attached device through the USB cord. Devices that only need a little power can get it from the bus, and do not need a separate electric power plug. That allows gadgets like USB battery chargers, lights, and fans.

paragraphs: As of 2015, USB has mostly replaced several older standards. Those include the parallel port, serial port and SCSI. These old standards are still used for a few jobs where USB cannot replace them.

paragraphs: The first version of the Universal Serial Bus was created in 1995. This new technology became an instant success. Since the introduction of USB, people that make electronic devices thought about how it could be used in the future. Today, USB connects a computer or other devices like laptops and MP3 players to peripheral devices.

paragraphs: The bus was introduced by seven companies which represent the leaders in the industry of information technology: Compaq, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, Northern Telecom, and Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).

paragraphs: Several years earlier, adopters and developers of USB held a meeting called "Plugfest" at a special hotel in California to test their devices. They selected a hotel that included rooms for sleeping and for testing. The meeting lasted three days. During the meeting, the representatives of about 50 companies connected their USB devices to one general host system.

paragraphs: The logo of the USB device also has its own history. The USB logo was in development for several months.

paragraphs: Currently, five different USB standards are used: USB 1.0, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, USB 3.0 and USB 3.1. USB 3.1 was released in 2016 and doubled the speed of 3.0. It optionally uses a different connector called USB Type-C, which is reversible (meaning you can plug it in both ways). USB 1.0 is now rarely used.

paragraphs: USB offers five different transfer speeds: 1.5 MBit per second (called "low speed"), 12 MBit per second ("Full Speed"), 480 MBit/second ("Hi Speed"), 5Gbit per second (called "super speed"), and 10 Gbit/s (“super speed+“). Hi speed is only available in USB 2.0 and later, and Super speed is only available in USB 3.0. These speeds are raw bit rates (in Million bits per second). The actual data rate is usually lower due to protocol overhead.

paragraphs: In order to use the "hi speed" transfer rate, the USB controller and the connected device both need to support it. USB is backwards compatible. Faster and slower USB devices and controllers can be connected together, but they will run at the slower speed.

paragraphs: Almost all computers sold today have USB ports, and most of them support USB 2.0 or later. The number of ports they have is usually limited, though. Between two and six ports are common. USB allows connecting USB hubs to add more USB ports.

paragraphs: The hubs themselves are also compliant to one of the USB standards. Devices connected to a USB 1.1 hub will only go as fast as USB 1.1 rates. Devices connected to a later controller can use different standards.

paragraphs: USB was designed to be easy to use. The engineers learned from other connectors before they designed USB connectors. There are 3 connectors.

paragraphs: A USB system has an asymmetric design. It is made of a host, several downstream USB ports, and multiple peripheral devices connected in a star topology. Additional USB hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching into a tree structure with up to five tier levels.

paragraphs: A USB host can have multiple host controllers. Each host controller provides one or more USB ports. Up to 127 devices, including the hub devices, may be connected to a single host controller.

paragraphs: USB devices are linked in series through "hubs". There is always one hub known as the root hub. The root hub is built into the host controller. There are special hubs, called "sharing hubs". These allow multiple computers to access the same peripheral devices. They work by switching the access between PCs, either manually or automatically. They are popular in small-office environments. In network terms, they converge rather than diverge branches.

paragraphs: A physical USB device can have several logical sub-devices that are referred to as "device functions". A single device may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function).

paragraphs: USB device communication is based on "pipes" (logical channels). Pipes are connections from the host controller to a logical entity on the device named an endpoint. The term "endpoint" is occasionally used to incorrectly refer to the pipe. A USB device can have up to 32 active pipes, 16 into the host controller and 16 out of the controller.

paragraphs: Each endpoint can transfer data in one direction only, either into or out of the device, so each pipe is uni-directional. Endpoints are grouped into "interfaces" and each interface is associated with a single device function. An exception to this is endpoint zero, which is used for device configuration and which is not associated with any interface.

paragraphs: When a USB device is first connected to a USB host, the USB device enumeration process is started. The enumeration starts by sending a reset signal to the USB device. The speed of the USB device is determined during the reset signaling. After reset, the USB device's information is read by the host, then the device is assigned a unique 7-bit address. If the device is supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating with the device are loaded and the device is set to a configured state. If the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices.

paragraphs: The host controller polls the bus for traffic, usually in a round-robin fashion, so no USB device can transfer any data on the bus without an explicit request from the host controller.

paragraphs: The computer hardware that contains the host controller and the root hub has an interface for the programmer. It is called "Host Controller Device" (HCD) and is defined by the hardware implementer.

paragraphs: For USB 1.0 and 1.1, there were two different HCD implementations, "Open Host Controller Interface" (OHCI) and "Universal Host Controller Interface" (UHCI). OHCI was developed by Compaq, Microsoft and National Semiconductor, UHCI by Intel.

paragraphs: VIA Technologies licensed the UHCI standard from Intel; all other chipset implementers use OHCI. UHCI relies more on software. This means UHCI is slightly more processor-intensive than OHCI but easier and cheaper to make. Because there were two different implementations, operating system vendors and hardware vendors needed to develop and test on both of them. This increased cost.

paragraphs: The USB specification does not specify any HCD interfaces and is not concerned with them. In other words, USB defines the format of data transfer through the port, but not the system by which the USB hardware communicates with the computer it sits in.

paragraphs: During the design phase of USB 2.0, the USB-IF insisted that there was only one implementation. The USB 2.0 HCD implementation is called the "Enhanced Host Controller Interface" (EHCI). Only EHCI can support hi-speed (480 Mbit/s) transfers. Most of PCI-based EHCI controllers have other HCD implementations called 'companion host controller' to support Full Speed (12 Mbit/s) and may be used for any device that claims to be a member of a certain class. An operating system is supposed to implement all device classes, so it can provide generic drivers for any USB device. Device classes are decided upon by the Device Working Group of the USB Implementers Forum.


title: Punk rock

paragraphs: Punk rock (or "punk") is a music genre related to rock music. It is often described as harder, louder, and cruder than other rock music. Many punk rock songs have lyrics (words) which tell angry stories or which use rude or controversial words.

paragraphs: Punk rock is a style of music. Many musicians and punk rock music listeners ("punk rockers") want to protest or rebel against the norms or rules of society. Punks say that people should "Do It Yourself", which means that people should try to accomplish their goals using the materials in their own communities. Many punk bands make their own music recordings and distribute them without using a major record company.

paragraphs: Many punks have strong political beliefs. Punk rock musicians are often mad at the government, the police, and laws. Many punk rock songs protest injustice, lies, and unfairness in countries. Almost all punks are leftists, who believe that a country should share the products and food that it produces with all the people in the country. Some punks are vegetarian or vegans, because they believe that animals should not be killed for food. Some punks are anarchists. Very few punks are conservative, libertarian, or Republican.

paragraphs: Many punk musicians put colored hair dye in their hair or put gel to make it stand up. They wear distinctive clothes as a form of protest or rebellion against the norms and rules of society.

paragraphs: Punk rock developed in New York City in the mid-1970s. Bands like The Ramones, Television, The Heartbreakers, Blondie, and Patti Smith played loud, angry songs. Many bands played at a club called CBGB's. The music soon spread to Australia and Britain, were bands started playing punk rock in 1976-1977. British bands like Buzzcocks, The Clash, The Damned, Generation X, The Jam, and Sex Pistols played punk rock music that was inspired by the music being played in New York, as well as by garage rock, pub rock, and other protopunk music.

paragraphs: These early "punks" rejected the excesses of mainstream 1970s rock. They created fast, hard-edged music, with short songs, stripped-down instrumentation, and often political, anti-establishment lyrics. They often did controversial things, such as saying bad words in public. Many newspapers wrote articles about the "bad" behavior of punk rock musicians.

paragraphs: In the 1980s, a new type of punk rock called "hardcore punk" or "hardcore" developed. It was louder, harder, and faster than the original punk rock. By the mid-1980s, hardcore punk rock began being mixed with Heavy Metal rock music. Many hardcore bands began playing in the United States and in the UK.

paragraphs: In the 1990s, punk rock began being mixed with pop music to create a new lighter style of music called pop-punk. Pop-punk bands include Green Day and Good Charlotte. Some pop-punk bands mixed punk rock stars

paragraphs: Pop-punk was still popular in the 2000s. Some people who like the 1970s-style punk rock criticize pop-punk because pop-punk is commercialized.

paragraphs: Some people say that punk rock is dead. But that is not true, because the spirit lives on and many punk rockers are around today.


title: Edip Yuksel

paragraphs: Edip Yüksel (who was born 1957) is an American thinker and activist. He has written many books on the Qur'an and is very an influential figure in modern Islamic reform. Yüksel was a student of Rashad Khalifa and was a member of his group United Submitters International. He sometimes works as a legal researcher and a community college teacher, but is mostly a supporter to change the Islamic religion. He lives in Tucson, Arizona.


title: Epididymitis

paragraphs: Epididymitis is a painful inflammation of the epididymis, usually resulting from bacterial infection, but also occasionally caused by injury or viral infection.


title: Perth, Western Australia

paragraphs: Perth is the capital city of the state of Western Australia. It is built on the banks of the Swan River. Almost 2,1 million people live in the city.

paragraphs: It is the fourth biggest city in Australia, behind Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Perth was founded in 1829 by Captain James Stirling.

paragraphs: Perth is famous for its beautiful white, sandy beaches. Popular local beaches include Cottesloe and Scarborough. These beaches are ideal for swimming and bodysurfing. A popular local tourist attraction is Rottnest Island, which is populated by small native mammals called Quokkas. Another famous attraction is , which is one of the biggest city parks in the world.

paragraphs: Perth is a sister city with many other cities. Sister cities can share students and business contacts. Perth is a sister city to these cities:

paragraphs: Perth also has some other agreements with Perth, Perth and Kinross in Scotland and formerly Grenoble, France.

paragraphs: Perth is home to four public and one private university. These are:

paragraphs: Perth has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. It is the windiest city in Australia. It is also considered to be the third windiest capital city in the world. Perth is also the sunniest city in Australia.