title: Gödel number

paragraphs: In formal number theory a Gödel numbering is a function which assigns to each symbol and formula of some formal language a unique natural number called a Gödel number (GN). The concept was first used by Kurt Gödel for the proof of his incompleteness theorem.

paragraphs: A Gödel numbering can be interpreted as an encoding where a number is assigned to each symbol of a mathematical notation, and a stream of natural numbers can then represent some form or function. A numbering of the set of computable functions can then be represented by a stream of Gödel numbers (also called effective numbers). Rogers' equivalence theorem states criteria for which those numberings of the set of computable functions are Gödel numberings.

paragraphs: Given a countable set "S", a Gödel numbering is an injective function

paragraphs: with both "f" and formula_2 (the inverse of "f") being computable functions.

paragraphs: One of the simplest Gödel numbering schemes is used every day: The correspondence between integers and their representations as strings of symbols. For example, the sequence 2 3 is understood, by a particular set of rules, to correspond to the number twenty-three. Similarly, strings of symbols from some alphabet of "N" symbols can be encoded by identifying each symbol with a number from 0 to "N" and reading the string as the base "N"+1 representation of an integer.


title: Formal language

paragraphs: In mathematics, computer science and linguistics, a formal language is one that has a particular set of symbols, and whose expressions are made according to a particular set of rules. The symbol formula_1 is often used as a variable for formal languages in logic.

paragraphs: Unlike natural languages, the symbols and formulas in formal languages are syntactically and semantically related to one another in a precise way. As a result, formal languages are completely (or almost completely) void of ambiguity.

paragraphs: Some examples of formal languages include:

paragraphs: A formal language can be specified in a great variety of ways, such as:


title: Alphabet (computer science)

paragraphs: In computer science, an alphabet is a finite non-empty set. The elements of an alphabet are called the letters or symbols of the alphabet.

paragraphs: An example of an alphabet is formula_1 which may be used for Morse code or "{begin, if, else, for, while}" which may be the keywords of a Programming language.

paragraphs: The set of natural numbers is not an alphabet because as it is not finite.

paragraphs: The alphabet which is used the most in computer science is "{0,1}". It is called the binary alphabet because it contains two symbols. An alphabet can be used to make a string (or word). This is a finite Sequence of letters from the alphabet. For example, a string of length 5 over "{0,1}" is "01101".

paragraphs: The empty string is the string containing no letters (it is often written as formula_2). The empty string is a string over any alphabet.

paragraphs: If we have an alphabet called formula_3. Then we write the set of "all" strings that can be made from formula_3 as formula_5. This is called the Kleene star (or Kleene closure) of formula_3. It is named after the mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene.

paragraphs: The Kleene star of the binary alphabet is formula_7. The three dots after 001, show that we cannot write the Kleene star of an alphabet in full because it is an infinite set.

paragraphs: Alphabets are important because they are used in studying formal languages, finite automata and very difficult questions in computer science about what can be computed and what can not.


title: Empty string

paragraphs: The empty string is the unique string of no characters over some alphabet Σ. It is written as "ε" or "λ". The length of this empty string is 0.

paragraphs: In simple words, given some characters of an alphabet, the empty string is the "word" that can be made if no letters are used. There is of course only one such word.

paragraphs: Under concatenation, the empty string is the identity element of the free monoid on Σ. That is, for any string "s", "s"ε = ε"s" = s.

paragraphs: In many programming languages, the empty string is written with two double quotes: """". The empty string is also sometimes noted by the Greek letter λ.

paragraphs: In C, the empty string is represented by a character array with a null character in the zeroeth position. Note that all strings in C are terminated by a null character.


title: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

paragraphs: Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats is a book of poems about cats. The cats in these poems act like humans. It is by T. S. Eliot. It was first sold in 1939. Andrew Lloyd Webber used most of the poems in his musical "Cats".

paragraphs: Contents of "Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats" by T. S. Eliot:


title: Concatenation

paragraphs: Concatenation is a simple concept from computer science. It is a way of making a new word (or String), by putting together two other Strings. Given the words "foo" and "bar", the two new words "foobar" and "barfoo" can be made that way.


title: Identity element

paragraphs: In mathematics, the identity element (or neutral element) of a set is a special element of that set. It is special because if it is combined with another element of that set, it does not change the other element.

paragraphs: With addition, the identity element is 0, because adding 0 to some number does not change the number. With multiplication, it is 1. In a group (an algebraic structure in mathematics), the identity element is sometimes denoted by the symbol formula_1.


title: Inverse function

paragraphs: An inverse function is a concept of mathematics. A function will calculate some output formula_1, given some input formula_2. This is usually written formula_3. The inverse function does the reverse. Let's say formula_4 is the inverse function of formula_5, then formula_6. Or otherwise put, formula_7. An inverse function to formula_5 is usually called formula_9. It is not to be confused with formula_10, which is a reciprocal function.

paragraphs: If formula_11 over real formula_2, then formula_13

paragraphs: To find the inverse function, swap the roles of formula_2 and formula_1 and solve for formula_1. For example, formula_17 would turn to formula_18, and then formula_19. This shows that the inverse function of formula_17 is formula_21.

paragraphs: Not all functions have inverse functions: for example, function formula_22 has none (because formula_23, and formula_24 cannot be both 1 and -1), but every binary relation has its own inverse relation.

paragraphs: In some cases, finding the inverse of a function can be very difficult to do.


title: Countable set

paragraphs: In mathematics (particularly set theory), a countable set is a set whose elements can be counted. A set with one thing in it is countable, and so is a set with one hundred things in it. A set with all the natural numbers (counting numbers) in it is countable too. This is because even if it is infinite, someone who counts forever would not miss any of the numbers. The sets which has the same size as the natural numbers are therefore called countably infinite. The size of these sets are then written as formula_1(aleph-null)—the first of the aleph numbers. Sometimes when people say 'countable set' they mean countable and infinite. Georg Cantor coined the term.

paragraphs: Countable sets include all sets with a finite number of members, no matter how many.

paragraphs: Countable sets also include some infinite sets, such as the natural numbers. Since it is impossible to actually count infinite sets, we consider them countable if we can find a way to list them all without missing any. The natural numbers have been nicknamed "the counting numbers", since they are what we usually use to count things with.

paragraphs: You can count the natural numbers with formula_2

paragraphs: You can count the whole numbers with formula_3

paragraphs: You can count the integers with formula_4

paragraphs: You can count the square integer numbers with formula_5

paragraphs: The rational numbers are also countable, but its counting becomes tricky. We can't just list the fractions as (0/1, 1/1, -1/1, 2/1, -2/1...) since we will never get to 1/2 this way. However, we can list all of the rational numbers in the form of a table. The horizontal rows are the numerators, while the vertical columns are the denominators. We can then zigzag through the list, starting at 1/1, then 2/1, then 1/2, then 1/3, then 2/2, then 3/1, then 4/1, then 3/2, then 2/3, etc. If we keep this up, we will get to all of the numbers on the table in due time. Each time we hit a new rational number that is new, we add it to the list of counted numbers. We don't want to count numbers twice, so when we hit 3/6, for example, we can skip it, because we already counted the rational number 1/2. In this way, we produce an infinite list with all the rational numbers. Therefore, the rational numbers are countable.

paragraphs: Suppose the integers are counted differently, as

paragraphs: This does not prove that the integers are uncountable, but it does illustrate what one might call a "failed" effort to count a set, because it is never possible to reach formula_7. Not all sets are countable. For example, the interval formula_8 and the set of real numbers can be proven to be uncountable.


title: Computable function

paragraphs: A computable function is an idea from computer science. A function is computable if there is an algorithm that can work out its result in a finite number of steps.

paragraphs: Computability theory is all about such functions.


title: Pharmacist

paragraphs: A pharmacist is a person who works in a pharmacy. Pharmacists have to be trained to work there, and have knowledge about the drugs package. Pharmacists interact with customers, give the prescribed medication and telling them about the drugs.


title: Thoosa

paragraphs: In Greek mythology, Thoosa was the name of the mother of the cyclops Polyphemus.


title: Perch

paragraphs: Perch is a type of fish. Perch are the fish in the genus "Perca".

paragraphs: Perch have "rough" scales. When looking through a microscope, the scales look like a plate with growth rings and spikes on the top edges. On the top side of the fish, there is a mouth, a pair of nostrils, and two lidless eyes. On the bottom sides are the "operculum", which are used to protect the gills. Also perch have a lateral line system, which a set of sense organs that are sensitive to vibrations in the water. They have a pair of pectoral and pelvic fins. On the front end of the fish, there are two dorsal fins. The first one is spiny and the second is soft. There is also an anal fin, which is also considered spiny, and a caudal fin.


title: Puce

paragraphs: Puce is a medium grayish red-violet colour.

paragraphs: "Puce" colours may be pale grayish red-violet, grayish red or brownish-purple colours.

paragraphs: Basically, puce colours are reddish purple colours mixed with gray or brown. A wide range of tones of puce are shown below.

paragraphs: Chinese dried plums, a favorite snack among Chinese people worldwide, can be said to be puce coloured.

paragraphs: The name is from the French word "puce" which means "flea". Some people say that the colour name comes from the colour of a squashed flea or the colour of a flea full of blood. Other people say that colour name comes from the flea's droppings of digested blood, which spread out in deep red stain when water contacts them. Still others say that the colour name means the colour of the belly of a flea.

paragraphs: On the other hand, the colour name may refer to blue-lavender of the Pennyroyal flower, also named "puce" in French. The name may come from the use of strong-smelling Pennyroyal to ward off fleas.

paragraphs: The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) dates the use of "puce" (in "couleur puce")in English from 1787. The first recorded use of "puce" as a color name was in the 14th century, in the French language.


title: Scarlet

paragraphs: Scarlet is a slight brilliant red colour. It is a colour of the rainbow. It is redder than vermilion. The colour's name comes from the Persian "saqirlat".

paragraphs: An early recorded use of "scarlet" as a color name in the English language dates to 1250.


title: League

paragraphs: The word league can mean one of the following:


title: Worship

paragraphs: Worship is a word often used in religion. It means to have much respect. If someone prays or says thank to God, people say that they are worshipping God. Worship can also be used as the name for a church service or similar event. This can be called an act of worship.

paragraphs: The Quran talks about worshipping Allah.


title: Claudius

paragraphs: Claudius ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54 AD) was the fourth Roman Emperor. He ruled from 24 January 41 to his death in 54 . His great-uncle was the first Emperor Augustus, and his uncle was the second Emperor Tiberius. His nephew was the third Emperor, Caligula. His maternal grandfather was Mark Antony.

paragraphs: Claudius had some kind of disability, in speech and walking, and his family kept him from public office until he was 38. Claudius' infirmity may have saved him from the purges of Tiberius' and Caligula's reigns; enemies did not see him as a serious threat. He was declared Emperor at the insistence of the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination. He was then the last adult male of his family.

paragraphs: Despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved a good administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the Empire, and the conquest of Britain. He took a personal interest in the law, and he presided at public trials. Claudius suffered setbacks in his personal life, one of which may have led to his murder. He married four times, and the marriages did not turn out well. Claudius' relative and adopted son Nero succeeded him as Emperor, and undid much of his good work.

paragraphs: On 24 January 41 , Caligula was assassinated by a broad-based conspiracy. There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including some of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him Emperor. A section of the guard may have planned to seek out Claudius, perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the groups looking for revenge. He was put under their protection.

paragraphs: The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government. When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval. He refused, sensing danger. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly all the assassins.

paragraphs: Under Claudius, the empire expanded for the first time since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Judea and three other provinces were annexed during his term. The annexation of Mauretania, begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, and divided into two provinces. The most important new expansion was the conquest of Britannia.

paragraphs: In 43 , Claudius sent four legions to Britain ("Britannia"). Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its wealth – particularly mines and slaves. It was also a haven for Gallic rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants.

paragraphs: The Senate granted him a Roman triumph for his efforts: in the Roman Empire only members of the imperial family were allowed such honors. Claudius later lifted this restriction for some of his generals. When the British general Caractacus was captured in 50, Claudius granted him his life. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander.

paragraphs: Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens, an increase of about a million since the census conducted at Augustus' death.

paragraphs: Claudius married four times. His first marriage, to Plautia Urgulanilla, occurred after two failed betrothals. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Unfortunately, Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to Junilla, the daughter of Sejanus. Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was one of his own freedmen.

paragraphs: Soon after (possibly in 28 ), Claudius married Aelia Paetina, a relative of Sejanus, if not Sejanus's adoptive sister. During their marriage, Claudius and Paetina had a daughter, Claudia Antonia.

paragraphs: Some years after divorcing Aelia Paetina, in 38 or early 39 , Claudius married Valeria Messalina, who was his first cousin once removed and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter Claudia Octavia. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as Britannicus, was born just after Claudius' accession. This marriage ended in tragedy. Messalina was regularly unfaithful to Claudius and manipulated his policies in order to amass wealth. In 48 Messalina married her lover Gaius Silius in a public ceremony while Claudius was at Ostia. The result was the execution of Silius, Messalina, and most of her circle. Claudius made the Praetorians promise to kill him if he ever married again.

paragraphs: Despite this declaration, Claudius did marry once more, his niece Agrippina the Younger.

paragraphs: The attempted coup d'état by Silius and Messalina had probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position since he did not have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina's son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the Emperor Nero) was one of the last males of the imperial family. Future coup attempts could rally around the pair, and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina, and later adopted the newly mature Nero as his son.

paragraphs: Nero was made joint heir with the underage Britannicus, married to Octavia and heavily promoted. Nero was popular with the public as the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus.

paragraphs: The consensus of ancient historians was that Claudius was murdered by poison, and died in the early hours of 13 October, 54 . Accounts vary greatly, but nearly all implicate his last wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power.

paragraphs: Claudius was described as physically repulsive, weak, and easily manipulated by his wives and companions by Suetonius, but this historian cannot be entirely trusted. The surviving works of Claudius present a different view. They paint a picture of an intelligent, scholarly, well-read, and conscientious administrator with an eye to detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the discovery of his letter to the Alexandrians in the last century, much work has been done to rehabilitate Claudius and determine where the truth lies.

paragraphs: Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. Besides the history of Augustus' reign, his major works included an Etruscan history and eight volumes on Carthaginian history, as well as an Etruscan dictionary and a book on dice playing. Claudius is the last person known to have been able to read Etruscan. His first wife was Etruscan. Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography.

paragraphs: Unfortunately, none of these major works survive. They do live on as sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once, and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of Pliny's "Natural History". Pliny credits him by name in Book VII 35.

paragraphs: Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested by Julius Caesar. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies.

paragraphs: The best known fictional representation of the Emperor Claudius were the books "I, Claudius" and "Claudius the God" (published in 1934 and 1935) by the poet Robert Graves. They were both written in the first-person, as if they are Claudius' autobiography. Graves' plot suggested there were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius' writings. Claudius' genuine surviving letters, speeches, and sayings were incorporated into the text (mostly in the second book, "Claudius the God") in order to add authenticity.

paragraphs: Graves's two books were the basis for an "I, Claudius" TV series by the BBC. The series starred Derek Jacobi as Claudius and was broadcast in 1976 on BBC2. It was a substantial critical success, and won several BAFTA awards. The series was later broadcast in the United States on "Masterpiece Theatre" in 1977. The DVD release of the television series contains "The Epic that Never Was" documentary.

paragraphs: Claudius has been portrayed in movies on several occasions. "I, Claudius" (1937, Director Josef von Stromberg), unfinished; Charles Laughton as Claudius was a great performance. The surviving reels were featured in the BBCtv documentary "The Epic that never was" (1965), revealing some of Laughton's most accomplished acting. Also, minor portrayals in "Demetrius and the Gladiators" (1954) and "Caligula" (1979).


title: Nero

paragraphs: Nero ("Nerō Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus"; 15 December 37 AD – 9 June 68 AD) was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.

paragraphs: Nero was the adopted son of his grand-uncle Claudius. He became emperor on 13 October 54, after Claudius died. Claudius was probably assassinated by Nero's mother Agrippina the Younger. Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus (Claudius' natural son) could gain power.

paragraphs: During his reign, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and improving the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games.

paragraphs: His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire, the suppression of a revolt in Britain, and the beginning of the First Roman–Jewish War.

paragraphs: In 64, most of Rome was destroyed in the Great Fire of Rome. In 68, the rebellion of Vindex in Gaul and later the acclamation of Galba in Hispania (Spain) drove Nero from the throne. Facing assassination, he committed suicide on 9 June 68.

paragraphs: Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance. He is known for a number of executions, including those of his mother and stepbrother.

paragraphs: Nero is known as the emperor who played a fiddle while Rome burned. Actually the violin had not been invented, Nero wasn't in Rome at the time, and when he heard of the fire he returned to direct relief efforts.

paragraphs: He also persecuted Christians. However, some ancient sources show that Nero was popular with the common people during and after his reign.


title: Trades union

paragraphs: A trades union (U.S: "trade union") is an organization or group of workers who join together to negotiate pay, hours, benefits, and working conditions. Union members and supporters of unions claim that they are necessary because the people that run companies want to pay as little as possible. In the United States, they are often called labor unions.

paragraphs: The term as used in Great Britain is trades union (plural: "trades unions") because they were a joining of men "working in different trades". For example: on the engine of a steam locomotive were two men: a driver and a stoker shovelling the coal into the oven. The driver was a skilled man, and paid much more than the stoker. They were two different trades. When they joined into the Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen (ASLEF), their negotiations with management was done together. A quite different union, the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR) looked after other employees of the railway compaies. That was a whole collection of different trades.

paragraphs: Unions do many things for their members. This includes:

paragraphs: Article 8 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ensure the right to form and join trade union and use strikes.

paragraphs: If collective bargaining does not work, unions often use strikes to get their demands. However, the threat of a strike is usually enough: over 98% of union contracts are renewed without a strike.

paragraphs: Trades unions are the descendants of the trade guilds of mediaeval times. These guilds were made up of independent skilled workers (or artisans) who had been apprenticed and qualified by a guild.

paragraphs: A trades union is a collection of people from different trades who want to keep and improve their jobs and their working and living conditions. Member of a trades union will usually working in the same industry.

paragraphs: Trade unionism eventually became accepted as a fact of life by British governments and employers – but with much struggle. The acceptance of trades unions was no coincidence; it took place when British industry was at its most confident, steady economic growth had dampened revolutionary enthusiasm. At the same time providing the means whereby employers could buy off discontent with higher wages and improved conditions of work.

paragraphs: This did not mean that unions were will liked by the Establishment. In fact, trades unions had to take care to create a good image in mid-Victorian terms in order to win tolerance and acceptance. However, in the early part of the nineteenth century the future of Trade Unionism was not certain.

paragraphs: Trades unions developed slowly in Britain but they can be traced right back to the Middle Ages. In medieval towns and villages, trade guilds started to develop. With both the master and the employees assigned to the guild of their particular craft.

paragraphs: In 1563 The Statute of Artificers was passed by Elizabeth 1’s government. The Statute had some negative effects such as not allowing apprentices to look for work outside of their parish but it had positive effects as well such as requiring justices of the peace to maintain living standards and to monitor apprentices in their district. This meant that craftsmen received some protection from the state.

paragraphs: By the 19th century attitudes had changed. People now hated government interference in their businesses. As the population increased so did the size of businesses and it was no longer possible for employers to have a personal relationship with each employee. Due to this in 1813 the Statute was repealed. Now workers began to form trade clubs and associations to protect industrial and personal interests.

paragraphs: Early trades unions were only for skilled “artisan” trades. These craft trade unions or “societies” were mainly formed amongst cobblers, printers and mechanics.

paragraphs: Craft trade unions were distinctive because they had:

paragraphs: Craft societies had only a few members and were restricted to a certain trade in a certain town. Members were usually literate and rationalist. The actual society was usually based on a public house, with meetings etc. convened there.

paragraphs: These were different from trades unions but had some functions in common. Friendly societies were “self help” organisations. In exchange for a subscription fee, they would provide financial support to workers in the event of, for example, death or illness.

paragraphs: They were usually locally based; Tyneside in the 1820s had 165 societies with a total of 10,000 members.

paragraphs: Gradually the societies or groups of workers were formed into larger bodies called “combinations”. Instead of just paying out benefits, they became more militant and begun to lobby for better conditions and better pay etc.

paragraphs: Workers were also able to petition parliament when they had a particular grievance over working conditions or wages for instance.

paragraphs: Over the 18th century, these trade clubs became more aggressive and powerful. Small groups joined together into “combinations” and campaigned to improve working conditions and demanded higher wages. Some combinations organised local strikes.

paragraphs: The government realised that something had to be done about combinations. The Aristocracy were worried about the number and power of combinations. The French Revolution only scared them more. As a result of the above-mentioned situation, the Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 were introduced. The acts forbade Labour Unions from combining to campaign for better working conditions and for an increase in wages. If workers broke this new law they could be sent to prison for up to 3 months. This act was strictly enforced.

paragraphs: The combination acts had little success, trades union simply carried on in secret. E.P. Thomson claimed that the number of trade unions had even increased. Some unions called themselves “friendly societies” and thus continued to work. In 1823 a London tailor called Francis Place led the movement for repeal. With the support of MP Joseph Hume the government was convinced to set up a parliamentary committee to look into the issue of repeal. The government no longer feared revolution, combinations and peaceful bargaining now seemed acceptable. The committee recommended the repeal of the Combination Acts and parliament acted accordingly. The combination acts were repealed in 1824. Trades unions were now legal.

paragraphs: Strikes quickly occurred across the country. The government then decided to bring in the Amending Combination Act in 1825 which allowed the existence of trades union but refused them the right to stage protests.

paragraphs: Trades unionism faced quite a few problems in their creation and organisation:

paragraphs: 1. Preventative legislation (laws etc.) most notably the Combination Acts 1799–1800

paragraphs: 2. The prevalence of the domestic system of working.

paragraphs: 3. an identity of interest between employer and the domestic employee (domestic employees only had contact with their employer and not with their fellow employees – employers adopted a “paternalistic” approach to their workers)

paragraphs: 4. Factory works was undeveloped in the early 19th century. As soon as factories had taken off the ‘working classes emerged. The traditional bond of trust between employer and employees were later eroded and working people began to club together.

paragraphs: 5. Government fears. The government believed that all working people could club together and react en masse to social change scared the government. The ruling classes associated ‘combinations’ with revolution. The many Combination acts of 1700–1800 aimed to prevent trade unions from being formed.

paragraphs: In the 1820s the idea of creating a national union was spreading.

paragraphs: A cotton spinner from Manchester named John Doherty summoned a conference on the Isle of Man in 1829 to discuss the idea of a national trade union. He then formed the Grand General Union of Operative Spinners of Great Britain and Ireland. The following July he formed National Association for the Protection of Labour which was to be made of most trades. In 1831 the association had disintegrated; mainly due to poor communication links which made it impossible to organise events.

paragraphs: In February 1834, the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union was formed, largely as a result of Robert Owen. Owen dreamed of a socialist society, he hoped that a national union would help this happen.

paragraphs: Robert Owen was an important figure in the formation of the GNCTU. Owen and Doherty were associates and the GNCTU was based on Doherty’s Grand General Union. The union was heavily influenced by Owenite socialism.

paragraphs: The objectives of the GNCTU were straightforward and traditionalist, thus strike action was to be used:

paragraphs: It is disputed whether of not his union succeeded. It lasted just six months (February to August 1834). Owen claimed that there was around half a million members, but other estimates put the figure at around 16,000 members.

paragraphs: The union failed for a number of reasons. Owen did not really understand or empathise the suffering of the workers, who had genuine and immense concerns. The general body or workers favoured militant action but Owen preferred a steady, more legalistic approach. The size of the GNTCU also made any strikes difficult to organise. A further problem was the fact that many employers forbade their employees from joining the GNTCU, and refused to let them work if they had not signed a document which renounced the organisation.

paragraphs: In February 1834 six workers for Tolpuddle in Dorset formed a union. 13 shillings was what the average family need to survive but the men were being paid just 9 shillings. Led by George Loveless the farm labourers fought for increased wages. James Frampton, the landowner, was determined to stop industrial action; he reported the group to the Home Secretary Lord Melbourne. The men were arrested, tried and sentenced to seven years transportation. The judge said that he made he did this to make an example of them for the sake of the stability of the nation. The men became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs, and the judge's wishes were carried out. Support for the GNCTU fell dramatically and by August 1834 it had collapsed.

paragraphs: The orthodox view is that trade unionism virtually stopped for the next 15 years after the collapse of the GNCTU, with many workers becoming involved in the alternative reforms adopted by Chartism. However, in the skilled trades unions were flourishing, with trade unions having an estimated 100,000 memberships in the early 1840s.

paragraphs: Unions have been criticized for increasing the cost of workers. Because of this, it is said that fewer people will be hired. A union might also protect workers an employer feels are not productive enough. For example, many unions protect workers who have worked for a job for a long time from being punished or fired, even if new workers are faster.

paragraphs: Some unions are also tied to organized crime, political corruption, or even tied to the employers of the workers they represent.


title: Officer

paragraphs: An officer is a person who holds a high rank in a uniformed organisation like the military or police. A military officer has a commission, a state document saying others must obey him. Some examples of officer ranks would include captains, majors, and lieutenants, but not sergeants, who are sometimes called non-commissioned officers, or NCOs.

paragraphs: People who are in a position of importance in an organization or company may be a corporate officer, for example:


title: Consul

paragraphs: A consul could mean one of the following:


title: Tachi

paragraphs: The tachi is a Japanese sword, which has a strongly curved blade and is longer than a katana. It was used on the battlefield before katana was, so it is considered to be older. The word Tachi translates as "the soul of bushi" (soul of samurai).

paragraphs: When the katana began to be widely used the tachi sword became a court sword for ceremonies. It looks very richly decorated with traditional cord wrappings and a specially designed handle. The length of a tachi blade was around 30.70 inches (about 75cm) Because of its length the tachi was a cavalry sword and was mainly worn by horsemen. The strongly curved blade also made it easy to make slicing blows. Even if the tachi is a very long sword it is light enough to be handled with one hand. The tachi had a long enough hilt to hold it with two hands. It was especially useful for warriors who were not riding.

paragraphs: The tachi was worn hung to the belt with the cutting-edge down, unlike the katana which was worn with the cutting-edge pointing upwards. Not all tachi were the standard size. Small ones were called ko-dachi. If the sword was longer than the standard one it was called o-dachi.

paragraphs: The tachi that can be seen in museums have one or more chips along the back of the sword, while the cutting edge looks almost untouched and mirror polished. The experts explain that Samurai made the smallest possible moves with their tachi to kill the enemy. Thus when both swords were about to collide, the samurai both turned their swords and let only the blunt back (mune) of the blades hit one another. The cutting edge was used for finish touches, namely for cutting the human body.


title: Western

paragraphs: Apple bottom jeans, boots with the fur, everybody in the club be looking at her because she got low low low low.


title: Machaira

paragraphs: Machaira was a rare mythic sword used in the Basileus cult. Basileus cult is the cult of the king, because in ancient Rome the word basileus was translated as "king". To get a Basileus title a person should kill a lion with a special weapon. So this weapon was called - Machaira.

paragraphs: Machaira had a very curved blade, which reminded a sickle. The shape of a machaira is often compared to a lion claw. The cutting edge was on the inside part of the blade. The legends say that it has a length from about . The blade was secured in a wooden cage (sheath). This sword was kept by ancient priests called sacerdotes. They used to decorate the sheath with golden ornaments. The sword was kept in special places and used in important rituals.

paragraphs: The meaning of machaira sword was ideological. A king who was at the same time a sacerdotus and owned a machaira, made rituals before the battle. Its power showed to the army the right path and saved from enemies' traps. It was supposed that the sword kept the troubles away. It was very important that the machaira to be used only by a sacerdotus, otherwise it was only a beautiful but powerless weapon.

paragraphs: The well known king Macedonian Alexander Hephaistion was a sacerdotus. He belonged to the lion cult and used machaira for rituals. Later in 324 B.C. happened the official burial of the machaira sword and Alexander the Great left his sacerdotal powers. The cult of machaira sword and the cult of Basileus were restarted in 301 B.C.


Policy


title: Lucerne

paragraphs: Lucerne () is a city in Switzerland. It is the capital of the Canton of Lucerne and seat of the district with the same name. The city has a population of about 60,000. Lucerne is the most populous city in Central Switzerland and focal point of the region. The city's metropolitan area consists of 17 municipalities in three cantons. It has an overall population of nearly 200,000 people.

paragraphs: Due to its location on the shore of Lake Lucerne ("") within sight of the mountains Pilatus and Rigi, Lucerne is mainly a tourist destination. One of the city's famous landmarks is Chapel Bridge (Kapellbrücke), a wooden bridge from the 14th century.


title: Eastern hemisphere

paragraphs: The Eastern hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of the Earth that is east of the Prime Meridian and west of the 180th Meridian. It is the opposite of the Western hemisphere. It can be also used to describe Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and Oceania.


title: Hertfordshire

paragraphs: Hertfordshire is a county in England. It is one of the so-called Home Counties, those counties that border or surround Greater London. The county is also surrounded by Essex, Cambridgeshire, Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire. The county town is Hertford; the oldest city is St Albans.

paragraphs: Hertfordshire has 26 independent schools and 73 state secondary schools.

paragraphs: The state secondary schools are entirely comprehensive, although seven schools in the south and southwest of the county are partially selective (see Education in Watford).

paragraphs: The University of Hertfordshire, formerly the Hatfield Polytechnic, is a modern university. It is mostly in Hatfield, and has more than 23,000 students.

paragraphs: Some of the most notable secondary schools are:

paragraphs: Hertfordshire has been home to many famous people, including George Michael and Geri Halliwell. Victoria Beckham, born in Essex, was raised near Broxbourne in Hertfordshire. The Beckhams bought a £2.5 million house in Sawbridgeworth when they married in 1999. They sold it last year to insurance entrepreneur Neil Uttley for £11.4 million.

paragraphs: The richest person in Hertfordshire is Mike Ashley, a retailing tycoon. His fortune is estimated as £3,650 million. He owns Newcastle United F.C. and has an 8.9% share in owning Glasgow Rangers F.C.


title: Lower Jurassic

paragraphs: The Lower Jurassic is the first geological epoch in the Jurassic that began 201.3 million years ago, and ended at 174.1 million years ago.

paragraphs: The Jurassic period is divided into Lower, Middle and Upper. The Lower Jurassic started after the end-Triassic extinction event at 201.3 million years ago (mya). Its rocks form in Europe the "Lias" group of marine strata consisting mostly of limestone, with some clays and siltstone. It was in this formation on the Dorset Jurassic Coast that Mary Anning did much of her work. The mudstones of the earliest Jurassic (Blue Lias) give way to carbonate rocks as the water deepens in the Middle Jurassic.

paragraphs: The Jurassic period was one of the time periods when dinosaurs were on the Earth. By this time, many groups of the Triassic period had become extinct.

paragraphs: At the start of the Jurassic, Britain was warm temperate to subtropical, between 30° and 40° north of the equator. Temperature would have been in the range of 12–29°C.

paragraphs: Shallow seas were over southern England; higher ground like the Mendip Hills were a string of islands stretching westwards South Wales.

paragraphs: The Lower Jurassic in western North America is quite different. It is continental in origin, sandstones laid down in shifting streams and rivers. These sandstones were laid down over a long period from the later Permian to the Lower Jurassic.


title: Congress

paragraphs: In politics, a congress is a political meeting of leaders or representatives of groups of people. Until the 19th century it was usually a meeting of kings or their representatives, for example the Congress of Vienna. Today it often means the main legislature that makes the laws for a state. The word congress can also mean a meeting of associations, as in the Trades Union Congress (TUC), of the United Kingdom, a meeting of trade unions.


title: Personal digital assistant

paragraphs: A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a handheld computer. Personal digital assistants were designed to replace non-electronic day planners. Many PDAs can work as an address book, a calculator, a clock, and a calendar. Some also have games on them. Newer PDAs are now called smartphones and have Wi-Fi, touch screens, can read e-mail, record video, play music and make phone calls.

paragraphs: PDA's processor is a chip which makes the device work. PDAs can have different processors depending on their speed. If access to the Internet, GPS, or video recording are needed, the PDA needs to have a fast processor.

paragraphs: PDA stores data and applications on RAM memory(Random Access Memory). It is a memory card inside the device. PDAs can also use SD (Secure Digital), SDIO and MMS cards. These are easy to remove and are called flash memory cards. USB flash drives can be used to add more memory.

paragraphs: Most PDAs have touch screens. This means that the device has less buttons or has no buttons at all. Usually PDAs come with removable 'pen' (stylus) with which the screen is touched. The pen acts like a mouse for desktop PCs or like a touch pad for laptops. For other PDAs a finger is used instead of the pen.

paragraphs: PDAs are powered by batteries. There are two types of batteries: removable and fixed. Older PDAs used alkaline batteries which the user would have to take out and replace when they ran out. Most new PDAs have Li-ion batteries. These batteries are rechargeable. PDAs use more battery power when playing video, accessing Internet or transferring data using Bluetooth. Large and bright screens also take more power. This makes the battery run out faster.

paragraphs: A PDA can communicate with other devices, PDAs, PCs, etc. This is made with the help of infrared (IrDA) port or with Bluetooth. With this ability the devices can transfer data, download music, images, video, games, etc.

paragraphs: Synchronization means having the same data on both the PDA and PC or other device. When changes are made on either the PDA or the PC, when they are synchronized, these changes made to data on one of them are also made the data on the other. The synchronization also prevents the loss of the stored information.

paragraphs: Customization is adding more memory, miniature keyboards, etc. to the PDA. Customization also can be putting other software (download Internet programs) on the PDA device.


title: Iberian Peninsula

paragraphs: The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is the southwest part of Europe. Like all peninsulas, it is mostly surrounded by sea. To the south and east of the peninsula is the Mediterranean Sea. To its north and west is the Atlantic Ocean. It is the third largest peninsula of Europe with an area of 582,860 km². The name Iberia is the Ancient Greek name for the area which the Romans called "Hispania". The word Hispania is now used for Spain, while the word Iberia is used for the whole area.

paragraphs: The word Iberia was also used by the Ancient Greeks and Romans for another territory at the opposite side of Europe - Caucasian Iberia which is near the Black Sea.


title: Kim Kardashian

paragraphs: Kimberly Noel "Kim" Kardashian West (born October 21, 1980) is an American socialite. She started her career as a model. She is one of three daughters of Robert Kardashian. Their family has a reality television series named "Keeping up with the Kardashians". Kim and her sister Kourtney Kardashian have their own spin-off "Kourtney and Kim Take New York".

paragraphs: Kardashian first got media attention because of her close friendship with Paris Hilton. She became better known after appearing in a sex tape. Kim is most popular for her role in the TV series "Keeping Up With The Kardashians". Kim married Damon Thomas in 2000, They divorced in 2004. She then married Kris Humphries in August 2011. Humphries is an NBA player on the New Jersey Nets. After 72 days of marriage, she filed for a divorce on October 31, 2011, because of differences.

paragraphs: She became engaged to Kanye West in 2013. The couple lives in Calabasas, California. They have four children: daughter North West (b. 2013), son Saint West (b. 2015), daughter Chicago West (b. 2018), and son Psalm West (b. 2019).

paragraphs: In 2013 Kardashian was in West's music video for "Bound 2". She has caused controversies after posting nude selfies (nelfies).

paragraphs: Kardashian is a Democrat. She attended the 2012 Democratic National Convention in support of President Obama's re-election. She also supports Armenian political issues such as the proclamation of the Christian Genocide of 1914.

paragraphs: In 2018, Kardashian met with President Donald Trump and helped bring forth the release from prison of Alice Marie Johnson, who was given a life prison sentence for nonviolent drug charges. She is studying to become a lawyer and hopes to sit for the bar exam in the year 2022.


title: Ilham Aliyev

paragraphs: Ilham Heydar oglu Aliyev (born December 24, 1961) is the current President of Azerbaijan and has been serving since 2003.

paragraphs: Aliyev succeeded his father Heydar Aliyev who was president of Azerbaijan from 1993 to 2003. On August 4, 2003, two months before the presidential elections, he was made prime minister by his father who was very ill and dying. In October he easily won the presidential elections and became president on October 31, 2003. He also functions as the head of the New Azerbaijan Party.

paragraphs: He has been married to Mehriban Aliyeva since 1983. They have three children.


title: Flag of Armenia

paragraphs: The national flag of Armenia, the Armenian Tricolor, has three horizontal bands of equal width, red on the top, blue in the middle, and orange on the bottom.

paragraphs: The first modern national flag of Armenia was created in 1885 by Ghevont Alishan. The Armenian Supreme Council adopted the current flag on August 24, 1990. On June 15, 2006, the Law on the National Flag of Armenia was passed by the Armenian Parliament.


title: Lake Sevan

paragraphs: Lake Sevan is a lake in Armenia. The entire lake is inside the eastern Armenian province of Gegharkunik. It is fed by 28 rivers and streams.

paragraphs: Sevan was one of the three great lakes of the historical Safavid Empire, collectively referred to as the Seas of Armenia, and it is the only one within the boundaries of today's Republic of Armenia. Sevanavank is the historic area near the lake. "Sevan" translation to Azerbaijan language "Goycha".


title: Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia

paragraphs: The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was a state formed in the Middle Ages by Armenian refugees fleeing the Seljuk invasion of Armenia. It was near the Mediterranean Sea in what is today southern Turkey. The country was independent from around 1078 to 1375.

paragraphs: The Armenians were the most important of the Crusaders' allies, from the local troops recruited in the Crusader States. Many Armenian mercenaries became available in the early 12th century.

paragraphs: Thoros II was a powerful Armenian prince who offered the transfer of 30,000 Armenian warriors with their families to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The king and barons were interested.


title: Jean Genet

paragraphs: Jean Genet ( in French) (December 19, 1910 – April 15, 1986), was a French writer and later political activist. Early in his life he was a vagabond (homeless person) and petty criminal. Later in life, Genet wrote novels, plays, poems, and essays, including "Querelle", "The Thief's Journal", "Our Lady of the Flowers", "The Balcony", "The Blacks" and "The Maids".

paragraphs: Genet's mother was a young prostitute who put him up for adoption. After committing small crimes as a child, he was sent to the youth prison of Mettray. In the 1940s, he was a vagabond, petty thief and prostitute across Europe.

paragraphs: In the mid-1940s, Genet met Jean Cocteau. Cocteau helped Genet to publish his novel. By 1949 when liberated from prison through petitions of many persons including Jean Conteau and Jean-Paul Sartre, Genet had completed five novels, three plays and numerous poems. His books were banned in the United States.

paragraphs: Between 1955 and 1961 Genet wrote three more plays. In 1964, Genet entered a period of depression and attempted suicide. In the late 1960s, Genet became politically active. Jean Genet was gay (homosexual).

paragraphs: Genet developed throat cancer and died on 15 April 1986 in Paris.

paragraphs: The first novel, "Our Lady of the Flowers" (1944), is an about the life in prison. His novels "The Miracle of the Rose" (1946) and "The Thief's Journal" (1949), describe his experiences in youth prison and as a male prostitute. The novel "Querelle de Brest" (1947) is about murder and the novel "Funeral Rites" (1949) is about love and betrayal. His last novel, "A Prisoner of Love" published in (1986), is different from his other books.

paragraphs: Genet's plays were considered to be "Theater of the Absurd" plays. These plays had ideas which were similar to the ideas in existentialist ways of thinking. His plays include "The Maids" (1949); "The Balcony" (1956); "The Screens" (1963); "The Blacks", which was staged in New York in the Off-Broadway theater.

paragraphs: In 1950, Genet directed a film called Un Chant d'Amour, which showed fantasies about prison life.

paragraphs: Jean Genet, "Œuvres completes" (Paris: Gallimard, 1952-)


title: Lisa Loeb

paragraphs: Lisa Anne Loeb (born March 11, 1968 in Bethesda, Maryland) is an American singer. She sings the song "Stay (I Missed You)".


title: Mountain Time Zone

paragraphs: The Mountain Time Zone subtracts seven hours from UTC during standard time (UTC−7) and six hours during daylight saving time (UTC−6).

paragraphs: This time zone is called Mountain Standard Time (MST) during standard time (Winter). It is called Mountain Daylight Time (MDT) during daylight saving time (Summer). In the United States and Canada, this time zone is often just called Mountain Time (MT).

paragraphs: The zone is one hour ahead of the Pacific Time Zone and one hour behind the Central Time Zone.

paragraphs: In Canada, this time zone includes all of Alberta, the Northwest Territories (except for Tungsten), the Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut, part of southeastern and northeastern British Columbia, and the area of Saskatchewan around the city of Lloydminster.

paragraphs: In the United States, the time zone includes the entire area of the states of New Mexico, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Montana. It also includes parts of Idaho, Oregon, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Texas, Kansas, and Nevada.

paragraphs: These states are part of the Mountain Time Zone: Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Nayarit, Sinaloa, Sonora.

paragraphs: Daylight saving time occurs from early April to late October. During daylight saving, Central Time Zone is only 6 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time (UTC−6). Most of the locations in Mountain Time Zone observe daylight saving time. A few places do not. These include Sonora and all of Arizona that is not in the Navajo Nation. These places stay on standard time all year.


title: Data structure

paragraphs: In computer science, a data structure is the organization and implementation of values and information. In simple words data structure is the way of organizing data in efficient manner. Data structures are different from abstract data types in the way they are used. Data structures are the implementations of abstract data types in a concrete and physical setting. They do this by using algorithms. This can be seen in the relationship between the list (abstract data type) and the linked list (data structure). A list contains a sequence of values or bits of information. A linked list also has a “pointer” or “reference” between each node of information that points to the next item and the previous one. This allows one to go forwards or backwards in the list. Furthermore, data structures are often optimized for certain operations. Finding the best data structure when solving a problem is an important part of programming. Data structure is a systematic way to store data

paragraphs: The simplest type of data structure is a linear array. Also known as a one-dimensional array. An array holds several values of the same type (Integer, Floats, String, etc.). Accessing elements within the array is very fast. An array is normally of fixed size. After the size of the array is defined at the start, it may not be possible to increase the size of the array without creating a new larger array and copying all values into the new array. In computer science, an array data structure or simply an array is a data structure consisting of a collection of "elements" (values or variables), each identified by at least one "array index" or "key". An array is stored so that the position of each element can be computed from its index tuple by a mathematical formula.

paragraphs: For example, an array of 10 integer variables, with indices 0 through 9, may be stored as 10 words at memory addresses 2000, 2004, 2008, 2036, so that the element with index "i" has the address 2000 + 4 × "i."

paragraphs: As the mathematical concept of a matrix can be represented as a two-dimensional grid, two-dimensional arrays are also sometimes called matrices. In some cases the term "vector" is used in computing to refer to an array, although tuples rather than vectors are the more correct mathematical equivalent. Arrays are often used to implement tables, especially look up tables; the word "table" is sometimes used as a synonym of "array".

paragraphs: Arrays are among the oldest and most important data structures, and are used by almost every program. They can also be used to implement many other data structures, such as lists and strings. They effectively exploit the addressing logic of computers. In most modern computers and many external storage devices, the memory is a one-dimensional array of words, whose indices are their addresses. Processors, especially vector processors, are often optimized for array operations.

paragraphs: Arrays are useful because the element indices can be computed at run time. Among other things, this feature allows a single iterative statement to process arbitrarily many elements of an array. For that reason, the elements of an array data structure are required to have the same size and should use the same data representation. The set of valid index tuples and the addresses of the elements (and hence the element addressing formula) are usually, but not always, fixed while the array is in use.

paragraphs: The term "array" is often used to mean array data type, a kind of data type provided by most high-level programming languages that consists of a collection of values or variables that can be selected by one or more indices computed at run-time. Array types are often implemented by array structures; however, in some languages they may be implemented by hash tables, linked lists, search trees, or other data structures.

paragraphs: A linked data structure is a set of information/data linked together by references. The data are often called "nodes". The references are often called "links" or "pointers". From here on, the words "node" and "pointer" will be used for these concepts.

paragraphs: In linked data structures, pointers are only dereferenced or compared for equality. Thus, linked data structures are different than arrays, which require adding and subtracting pointers.

paragraphs: Linked lists, search trees, and expression trees are all linked data structures. They are also important in algorithms such as topological sort and set union-find.

paragraphs: A stack is a basic data structure that can be logically thought as linear structure represented by a real physical stack or pile, a structure where insertion and deletion of items takes place at one end called top of the stack. The basic concept can be illustrated by thinking of your data set as a stack of plates or books where you can only take the top item off the stack in order to remove things from it. This structure is used all throughout programming.

paragraphs: The basic implementation of a stack is also called a “Last In First Out” structure; however there are different variations of stack implementations.

paragraphs: There are basically three operations that can be performed on stacks. They are:

paragraphs: A queue is an abstract data type or a linear data structure, in which the first element is inserted from one end (the “tail”), and the deletion of existing element takes place from the other end (the “head”). A queue is a “First In First Out” structure. "First In First Out" means that elements put in the queue first will come out first, and elements put in the queue last will come out last. An example of a queue are lines of people waiting. The first person in the line goes first, and the last person in the line goes last.

paragraphs: The process of adding an element to a queue is called “enqueuing” and the process of removing an element from a queue is called “dequeuing”.

paragraphs: A graph is an abstract data type that is meant to implement the graph and hypergraph concepts from mathematics.

paragraphs: A graph data structure consists of a finite (and possibly mutable) set of ordered pairs, called edges or arcs, of certain entities called nodes or vertices. As in mathematics, an edge ("x","y") is said to point or go from "x" to "y". The nodes may be part of the graph structure, or may be external entities represented by integer indices or references. A graph data structure may also associate to each edge some edge value, such as a symbolic label or a numeric attribute.

paragraphs: The tree is one of the most powerful advanced data structures. It often appears in advanced subjects such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and design. Surprisingly, the tree is important in a much more basic application - the keeping of an efficient index.

paragraphs: When a tree is used there is a high chance that an index is used. The simplest type of index is a sorted list of key fields. A tree normally has a defined structure. In the case of a binary tree, you can use a binary search to locate any item without having to look at every item.

paragraphs: The tree data type is a type of graph meaning that many algorithms made to traverse a graph also work with a tree however, the algorithms can be much similar and must have a dedicated start node, that is the node with no other nodes linking to it.

paragraphs: The problem with a simple ordered list occurs when you start adding new items and have to keep the list sorted - it can be done reasonably efficiently but requires some modifications. Additionally, a linear index is not easy to share because the whole index needs to be “locked” when one user edits it, whereas one “branch” of a tree can be locked, leaving the other branches editable by other users (as they cannot be affected).

paragraphs: A hash table is an array where each index points to a linked list based on a hash value. A hash value is a value determined by a hash function. A hash function determines a unique value based on the data it is storing. This allows for access of data in constant time because the computer always knows where to look.


title: Alex Lifeson

paragraphs: Alex Lifeson, OC (born Aleksandar Živojinović; August 27, 1953) is a Canadian musician. He is best known as the guitarist and co-founder for the Canadian rock band Rush. Lifeson has been a member of the band since 1968.

paragraphs: In Rush, Lifeson plays electric and acoustic guitars. He also plays other instruments including: mandola, mandolin and bouzouki.

paragraphs: Along with his music career, Lifeson is part owner of a Toronto restaurant called "The Orbit Room." He is also a licensed airplane pilot.


title: Hepatitis C

paragraphs: Hepatitis C is an infection that mostly affects the liver. The hepatitis C virus (HCV) causes this disease. Often, a person with Hepatitis C does not have any symptoms (health problems or signs that he has the disease). However, chronic infection can scar the liver. Many years of infection may cause cirrhosis. Sometimes, people with cirrhosis also have liver failure or liver cancer. They can also have very swollen veins of the esophagus and stomach. The blood loss from this problem can kill.

paragraphs: Hepatitis C is usually spread by blood-to-blood contact (when blood from a person with Hepatitis C contacts (touches or gets into) another person's bloodstream). The most common ways that this happens are through intravenous drug use (when a person shoots drugs into one of their veins, with a needle that was already used by a person infected with Hepatitis C); nonsterile medical equipment (medical tools that were not cleaned well enough after being used on an infected person); and blood transfusions (when a person is given blood that came from an infected person).

paragraphs: Around the world, about 130–170 million people have Hepatitis C. Scientists began studying the Hepatitis C virus in the 1970s, and in 1989 they proved that the virus exists. As far as scientists know, this virus does not cause disease in any animals other than humans.

paragraphs: The medications that are normally used to treat Hepatitis C are called peginterferon and ribavirin. Between 50-80% of people who are treated (or 5 to 8 out of every 10) are cured. However, if a person's Hepatitis C has progressed (or gotten worse) so much that the person has cirrhosis or liver cancer, the person might need a liver transplant (they might need to have surgery where they are given another person's liver, or part of another person's liver). This makes it possible for the person to survive, but the Hepatitis C virus usually comes back after the transplant. There is no vaccine that works to prevent people from getting Hepatitis C.

paragraphs: Hepatitis C causes acute symptoms (symptoms that begin quickly or last only a short time) in just 15% of people with the disease. More often, infected people have symptoms that are mild (not serious) and vague (not very specific), like a decreased appetite (not feeling like eating), fatigue (feeling tired), nausea (feeling like throwing up), pain in the muscles or joints, and losing weight. Every once in a while, an infected person may get jaundice (where a person's skin turns yellow, a sign that their liver is not working quite right). If it is not treated, Hepatitis C goes away by itself in 10-50% of infected people (1 to 5 out of every 10). This happens more often in young women than in other infected people.

paragraphs: Eighty percent (or 8 out of every 10) of people exposed to the Hepatitis C virus get a chronic infection (one that does not get better and lasts for a long time). Most experience very few or no symptoms during the first decades of the infection, although chronic Hepatitis C can cause fatigue (feeling tired). But in people who have been infected for many years, Hepatitis C can cause serious problems, like cirrhosis and liver cancer. Hepatitis C leads to cirrhosis in 10–30% (between 10 and 30 out of every 100) of people who have been infected over 30 years. People with Hepatitis C are more likely to get cirrhosis if they are men; if they are alcoholics; or if they also have Hepatitis B or HIV. Cirrhosis can cause serious problems on its own, but it also makes people more likely to get other serious illnesses. For example, people who get cirrhosis are twenty times more likely to get liver cancer (with about 1-3% getting liver cancer every year). People with Hepatitis C who are alcoholics are even more likely - 100 times more likely - to get liver cancer. Among people in general, 27% of all cases of cirrhosis, and 25% of all cases of liver cancer, are caused by Hepatitis C.

paragraphs: Cirrhosis of the liver can cause many different symptoms. Some of these symptoms are high blood pressure in the veins that travel to the liver; a buildup of fluid in the abdomen, called ascites; easy bruising or bleeding; veins becoming larger than normal, especially in the stomach and esophagus; jaundice (a yellowing of the skin); and brain damage.

paragraphs: Hepatitis C can also cause some rare problems (problems which do not happen very often), which affect parts of the body outside of the liver. One rare problem that Hepatitis C can cause is Sjögren's syndrome, an autoimmune disorder (or a disorder where the body's system of defenses attacks itself). Hepatitis C can also cause a lower-than-normal number of blood platelets (the part of the blood which causes blood to clot; without enough platelets, a person can have bleeding problems, or can start bleeding and be unable to stop. Other rare problems that Hepatitis C can cause are chronic (long-lasting) skin disease; non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (a type of cancer); and diabetes (where a person's body does not make or use enough insulin, an important hormone that controls the level of sugar in the blood).

paragraphs: Hepatitis C is caused by the Hepatitis C virus (HCV). In the scientific system that names and organizes viruses, the Hepatitis C virus is part of the "hepacivirus" genus in the family "Flaviviridae". There are seven major types of HCV, called "genotypes". In the United States, the first genotype of HCV causes 70% of all cases of Hepatitis C (or 7 out of every 10); the second genotype causes 20% (or 2 out of every 10); and each of the other genotypes causes 1% (or 1 out of every 100 cases). Thr first genotype is also the most common in South America and Europe.

paragraphs: In the developed world, the most common way that people get Hepatitis C is through intravenous drug use (by shooting drugs into a vein, using a needle that was already used by a person who has Hepatitis C). In the developing world, most people get Hepatitis C through blood transfusions (being given blood that was taken from a person with Hepatitis C) or by getting medical care with tools that were not cleaned enough after being used on a person with Hepatitis C. In 20% of all cases of Hepatitis C (or 1 in every 5 cases), it is not known what caused the infection, but many of these cases are thought to have been caused by intravenous drug use.

paragraphs: In many parts of the world, intravenous (IV) drug use (shooting drugs into a vein using a needle) is a major risk factor for Hepatitis C (meaning that it makes people more likely to get the disease). One study that looked at 77 countries showed that in 25 of these countries (including the United States), between 60% and 80% (or 6 to 8 out of every 10) of all IV drug users had Hepatitis C. and China. In twelve of the countries in the study, more than 80% of all IV drug users had Hepatitis C. Across the world, as many as ten million IV drug users are thought to have Hepatitis C; the highest totals are in China (1.6 million), the United States (1.5 million), and Russia (1.3 million). Studies have also shown that in places where there are high numbers of IV drug users, people are more likely to have Hepatitis C. For example, prisoners in the United States are ten to twenty times more likely than the general population (people in general) to have Hepatitis C. This is thought to be because prisoners are more likely to things that put them at high risk for getting Hepatitis C, like using IV drugs and getting tattoos with tools that have not been cleaned properly.

paragraphs: Peoples are at risk for getting Hepatitis C if they get blood transfusions (where a person is given blood from another person), blood products (which have blood or parts of blood in them), or organ transplants (where a person who needs a new organ is given an organ from another person), if these things have not been screened (or tested) for the Hepatitis C virus. In the United States, there has been universal screening - meaning that all blood and organs are tested before being given to another person - since 1992. Before then, about one out of every 200 units of blood carried the Hepatitis C virus; since 1992, only one in 10,000 to 10,000,000 units of blood carry the virus. The reason that there is still a low risk, instead of no risk at all, is that a person's blood does not test positive for the Hepatitis C virus until about 11–70 days after they get the disease. So every once in a while, the screening tests may not pick up on a person's infection if the person got Hepatitis C less than 11–70 days before giving blood. While Hepatitis C screening works very well, some countries still do not screen blood and organ donations for the disease because of the cost.

paragraphs: Sometimes, a healthcare worker will accidentally get stuck with a needle that was used on a person with Hepatitis C. If this happens, the healthcare worker has a small chance - about a 1.8% chance - of becoming infected. The worker is more likely to get infected if the needle they were stuck with was hollow, or if the needle stuck deeply into their skin It is also possible for the Hepatitis C virus to spread if an infected person's mucus touches another person's blood; however, the risk of this happening is low. The virus cannot be spread if an infected person's mucus touches another person's intact skin (skin that is whole and not damaged, with no wounds).

paragraphs: Hepatitis C can also be transmitted (or spread) through hospital equipment that has not been cleaned enough after being used on an infected person. Hepatitis C can be spread through needles, syringes, and medication vials (or containers) that are re-used; through infusion bags (which are used to pump medications into a person's body; and through surgical equipment that is not sterile (or clean and free of germs). In Egypt, which has the highest rate of infection in the world, medical and dental facilities with poor standards of care and cleanliness are the most common reason that Hepatitis C spreads.

paragraphs: Scientists do not know whether Hepatitis C can be transmitted (or spread) through sex. Hepatitis C is more likely in people who have high-risk sexual activity (sexual actions which make them much more likely to get Hepatitis C). However, it is not known whether this is because of these people's sexual behavior, or because these people were also using IV drugs. There does not seem to be any risk that Hepatitis C can be spread through sexual contact between a heterosexual couple (a man and a woman; commonly called a "straight" couple) if neither person has sex with anyone else. There does seem to be a risk of Hepatitis C spreading if one person already has a sexually transmitted infection, like HIV or genital ulceration; or if two people have sex in a way that causes wounds to the lining of the anal canal (like anal penetration - one person putting his penis into another person's anus). The United States government says that most people need to use condoms to protect themselves from getting Hepatitis C only if they have more than one sexual partner.

paragraphs: People who get tattoos are about two to three times more likely to get Hepatitis C. This can be because of tools that are not sterile (not clean or free of germs), or because the dyes used for tattooing are contaminated (the Hepatitis C virus has gotten inside of them).

paragraphs: Tattoos or body piercings that were done before the mid-1980s or by people who are not professionals (not experts) are especially likely to spread Hepatitis C, since they are more likely to have used tools that were not sterile. Bigger tattoos also seem to put a person at more risk of getting Hepatitis C. The risk of getting Hepatitis C is very high in prisons; in the United States, almost half of all prison inmates share tattooing tools that are not sterile. However, if a tattoo is done in a licensed place of business (which has to follow rules about cleaning tools and preventing diseases from spreading), there is almost no risk of getting Hepatitis C from the tattoo.

paragraphs: Because Hepatitis C is spread by blood-to-blood contact, personal-care tools which come into contact with blood - like razors, toothbrushes, and manicure or pedicure equipment or any other kind of blood to blood contact - can spread the disease if they are shared. To prevent the spread of Hepatitis C, people should be careful with cuts, sores, or anything else that causes bleeding. Hepatitis C does not spread through casual contact, such as hugging, kissing, or sharing eating or cooking utensils.

paragraphs: Although this does not happen very often, a pregnant woman who has Hepatitis C can give the disease to her baby when it is born, or to her fetus while she is pregnant. This happens in less than 10% of all pregnancies (less than 1 out of every 10 pregnancies). If a pregnant woman has Hepatitis C, nothing can be done to make her less likely to give her baby the disease. If the woman is in labor (the process of delivering her baby) for a long time, there is more of a chance that the baby will become infected during the birth. Breastfeeding does not seem to spread the disease. However, doctors say that an infected mother should not breastfeed if her nipples are cracked and bleeding, or her viral loads (the amount of the Hepatitis C virus in her blood) are high.

paragraphs: There are a few different tests that can diagnose Hepatitis C (or say for sure that a person has the disease). These tests are called HCV antibody, ELISA, Western blot, and quantitative HCV RNA tests. A technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can show that a person has Hepatitis C virus RNA (part of the virus's genetic blueprint) one to two weeks after the person becomes infected. Tests that look for Hepatitis C antibodies (which the body makes to fight the disease) cannot be done this quickly after infection, because the antibodies can take much longer to form and show up.

paragraphs: A person has chronic Hepatitis C if he has been infected with the Hepatitis C virus for more than six months. Because people with chronic Hepatitis C often have no symptoms for decades, doctors often diagnose it through liver function tests (which test how well the liver is working) or by doing routine (regular) screening of high-risk people. Tests cannot tell whether an infection is acute or chronic.

paragraphs: Hepatitis C testing usually begins with blood tests that look for antibodies to the Hepatitis C virus, using a technique called an enzyme immunoassay. If this test is positive (showing that the body is making antibodies to fight the Hepatitis C virus), the person will be tested a second time to make sure that the results are correct and to see how serious the infection is. The results are confirmed using a technique called a recombinant immunoblot assay, and an HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction shows how serious the infection is. If the immunoblot is positive, but there are no Hepatitis C virus RNA, this shows that the person had an infection, but it cleared up either with treatment or on its own. If the immunoblot is negative, this shows that the immunoassay (the first test) was wrong, and the person does not have Hepatitis C. It takes six to eight weeks after a person gets infected before the immunoassay will test positive.

paragraphs: During the first part of a Hepatitis C infection, a person's liver enzymes may change; on average, they begin to rise seven weeks after infection. A person's liver enzymes usually do not affect how severe their infection is.

paragraphs: A test called a liver biopsy can show whether a person's liver has been damaged, or how badly it has been damaged, by Hepatitis C. However, there are some risks from the procedure. In a biopsy, a doctor takes a small piece out of the patient's liver so that he can test it. There are three major changes to the liver that a biopsy usually shows. One is that lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) show up in the liver tissue. Another is that lymphoid follicles (small masses or swellings) show up in the portal triad, a part of the liver. The third is changes to the bile ducts (these carry bile, which is made in the liver and is needed to help a person digest their food, to other parts of the body). Many blood tests are available which try to measure how much damage there is to a patient's liver, in order to avoid the need for a biopsy and its risks.

paragraphs: As few as 5–50% of infected people in the United States and Canada (or 5 to 50 out of every 100) know that they have Hepatitis C. Doctors suggest that people who are at high risk for the disease, including people with tattoos, should get tested. Screening is also suggested for people with elevated (high) liver enzymes, since this is often the only sign that a person has chronic hepatitis. Routine screening (testing everyone) is not recommended in the United States.

paragraphs: As of 2012, there is no vaccine that works to prevent Hepatitis C. Researchers are working on vaccines, are some are making progress. The spread of Hepatitis C can be prevented by using a combination of strategies, like needle exchange programs (where IV drug users can get clean needles which will not spread the virus) and treatment for drug abuse. If these strategies are used together, the risk of IV drug users getting Hepatitis C drops by about 75%. At a national level - within each country - screening blood donors is important for preventing the spread of Hepatitis C. So is using universal precautions in healthcare facilities. (This means that healthcare workers treat every patient as if he has Hepatitis C, and they always wear gloves, clean their equipment properly, and keep things sterile so that diseases cannot be spread.) In countries that do not have enough sterile syringes to use a new needle for every patient, healthcare providers should give medications orally (by mouth) rather than via injection (using a needle) so that needles do not have to be re-used.

paragraphs: The Hepatitis C virus causes chronic infection in 50–80% of infected persons (or 5 to 8 out of every 10). About 40-80% of these cases (or 4 to 8 out of 10) clear up with treatment. Although this almost never happens, chronic Hepatitis C can sometimes clear up on its own, without treatment. Doctors suggest that people with chronic Hepatitis C should avoid drinking alcohol and taking medications that can be toxic (or poisonous) to the liver. They also suggest that people with chronic infections should be given vaccines for Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B. People with cirrhosis should also have ultrasound tests for liver cancer.

paragraphs: If a person has liver abnormalities (changes in the liver that are not normal) due to Hepatitis C virus infection, the person should get treatment. The first treatment that is used is a drug called pegylated interferon given together with the antiviral (virus-killing) drug ribavirin. These medications are given for 24 or 48 weeks, depending on what type of Hepatitis C virus the person has. About 50–60% of people who are treated improve. For people with Hepatitis C virus genotype 1, treatment may work even better if another medication - either boceprevir or telaprevir - is given along with ribavirin and peginterferon alfa. Side effects with treatment are common; half of people treated get flu-like symptoms, and a third have emotional problems. Treatment works better if it is given during the first six months than after Hepatitis C becomes chronic. If a person gets a new infection and it has not cleared up after eight to twelve weeks, doctors usually suggest giving pegylated interferon for another 24 weeks. For people with thalassemia (a blood disorder), ribavirin appears to be a helpful treatment, but it makes it more likely for patients to need blood transfusions (where they need to be given blood from another person).

paragraphs: Some supporters of alternative medicine say that alternative therapies like milk thistle, ginseng, and colloidal silver can be helpful for Hepatitis C. However, there is no proof that any alternative therapy has any effect on the Hepatitis C virus.

paragraphs: People respond differently to treatment, depending on which of the Hepatitis C virus genotypes they have. About 40-50% in people with genotype 1 have a good, stable response with 8–48 weeks of treatment. In people with genotypes 2 and 3, about 70-80% have a good, stable response with 24 weeks of treatment. About 65% of people with genotype 4 have a good, stable response with 48 weeks of treatment. There is not much evidence about how well treatment works for people with genotype 6 disease is currently sparse. The evidence that does exist looks at results after 48 weeks of treatment at the same medication doses as people with genotype 1.

paragraphs: Between 130 and 170 million people, or about 3% of all of the people in the world, are living with chronic Hepatitis C. Between 3–4 million people get infected per year. More than 350,000 people die every year from diseases caused by Hepatitis C. The numbers of people getting Hepatitis C have increased a lot in the 20th century for a few different reasons. More people are using IV drugs. Also, more people are getting medical care with medical equipment that is not sterile, and it is more common for medications to be given intravenously.

paragraphs: In the United States, about 2% of people have hepatitis C, with 35,000 to 185,000 new cases a year. Rates have decreased in the West since the 1990s due to improved blood screening before transfusion. Annual deaths from HCV in the United States range from 8,000 to 10,000. Expectations are that this mortality rate will increase as people infected by transfusion before HCV testing become ill and die.

paragraphs: Infection rates are higher in some countries in Africa and Asia. Countries with very high rates of infection include Egypt (22%), Pakistan (4.8%) and China (3.2%). The high rate in Egypt is linked to a now-discontinued mass-treatment campaign for schistosomiasis, using improperly sterilized glass syringes.

paragraphs: In the mid-1970s, Harvey J. Alter, Chief of the Infectious Disease Section in the Department of Transfusion Medicine at the National Institutes of Health, and his research team demonstrated that most post-blood transfusion hepatitis cases were not due to hepatitis A or B viruses. Despite this discovery, international research efforts to identify the virus failed for the next decade. In 1987, Michael Houghton, Qui-Lim Choo, and George Kuo at Chiron Corporation, collaborating with Dr. D.W. Bradley from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, used a new molecular cloning approach to identify the unknown organism and develop a diagnostic test. In 1988, Alter confirmed the virus by verifying its presence in a panel of non A non B hepatitis specimens. In April 1989, the discovery of HCV was published in two articles in the journal "Science". The discovery led to significant improvements in diagnosis and improved antiviral treatment. In 2000, Drs. Alter and Houghton were honored with the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research for

paragraphs: "pioneering work leading to the discovery of the virus that causes hepatitis C and the development of screening methods that reduced the risk of blood transfusion-associated hepatitis in the U.S. from 30% in 1970 to virtually zero in 2000."

paragraphs: Chiron filed for several patents on the virus and its diagnosis. A competing patent application by the CDC was dropped in 1990 after Chiron paid $1.9 million to the CDC and $337,500 to Bradley. In 1994, Bradley sued Chiron, seeking to invalidate the patent, have himself included as a coinventor, and receive damages and royalty income. He dropped the suit in 1998 after losing before an appeals court.

paragraphs: The World Hepatitis Alliance coordinates World Hepatitis Day, held every year on July 28. The economic costs of hepatitis C are significant both to the individual and to society. In the United States the average lifetime cost of the disease was estimated at 33,407 USD in 2003, with the cost of a liver transplant approximately 200,000 USD as of 2011. In Canada the cost of a course of antiviral treatment was as high as 30,000 CAD in 2003, while the United States costs are between 9,200 and 17,600 in 1998 USD. In many areas of the world people are unable to afford treatment with antivirals because they lack insurance coverage or the insurance they have will not pay for antivirals.

paragraphs: As of 2011, about one hundred medications are in development for hepatitis C. These medicines include vaccines to treat hepatitis, immunomodulators, and cyclophilin inhibitors. These potentially new treatments have come about due to a better understanding of the hepatitis C virus.


title: Michel Foucault

paragraphs: Michel Foucault (October 15, 1926 – June 25, 1984) was a French philosopher and historian. He wrote about many topics, and influenced many other thinkers.

paragraphs: Foucault studied institutions such as psychiatric wards, hospitals, schools, and prisons, to figure out how they affected the people living in them. He was gay. He also studied the history of sexuality and, later in his life, wrote about homosexuality.

paragraphs: He is often called a postmodernist or post-structuralist philosopher. Some philosophers claim that some of his ideas were influenced by existentialism. However, Foucault rejected all of these labels.

paragraphs: Foucault was born in 1926 in Poitiers, France. His father, Paul Foucault, was a surgeon. He attended the Jesuit Collège Saint-Stanislas. After World War II Foucault studied at the École Normale Supérieure. While attending university, he became depressed, and tried to kill himself.

paragraphs: Foucault became very interested in psychology. He got a degree in philosophy and a degree in psychology. Foucault joined the French Communist Party from 1950 to 1953. He left the Communist Party because he was sad about all of the people that Stalin was killing in the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: In the early 1950s, he taught at the École Normale. Then he began teaching psychology at the University of Lille. In 1954 Foucault published his first book, "Maladie mentale et personnalité". In the mid-1950s, he worked at Warsaw University and at the University of Hamburg.

paragraphs: He returned to France in 1960 to become a philosophy professor at the University of Clermont-Ferrand. In the mid-1960s, Foucault moved with his lover to Tunis (in North Africa), and got a job teaching at the University of Tunis. In 1966 he published "Les Mots et les choses" (The Order of Things), which was very popular. In 1968 he returned to France, where he published "L'archéologie du savoir" (The Archaeology of Knowledge).

paragraphs: In the late 1960s, after France had huge student protests and riots, the French government created a new experimental university at Vincennes. Foucault became the first head of its philosophy department. Foucault joined students in occupying administration buildings and fighting with police.

paragraphs: In 1970, Foucault became a Professor of the History of Systems of Thought at the Collège de France. His political involvement now increased. His male lover Defert joined the ultra-Maoist Gauche Proletarienne (GP). Foucault then wrote "Surveiller et Punir" (Discipline and Punish), about prisons and schools.

paragraphs: In the late 1970s, Foucault wrote books about the history of sexuality. Foucault began to spend more time in the United States, at the University at Buffalo. In 1978 Foucault toured Iran to support the new revolutionary Islamic government. Foucault died of an AIDS-related illness in Paris on 26 June 1984.

paragraphs: The major collections of Foucault's writing translated into English are:


title: XHTML

paragraphs: XHTML stands for eXtensible HyperText Markup Language. It is markup used to design websites and webpages.

paragraphs: XHTML is much more strict than ordinary HTML, and is based on both XML and HTML. Due to the lax nature of HTML, different web browsers can sometimes display websites incorrectly since there is more than one way to interpret poorly written HTML. The strict and formal nature of XHTML, once fully adopted will allow for web browsers to display the same page correctly between them. Proper XHTML is also easier to read for humans.

paragraphs: For example, the below code shows one of the differences between HTML and XHTML:

paragraphs: The line break tag in HTML does not have a closing tag, you just type it once and it creates a line break. In XHTML the rule is that tags that do not have an closing tag must close themselves within the initial tag. These tags are called "empty tags." Another empty tag is <hr /> which inserts a "horizontal rule" or dividing line.

paragraphs: In XHTML, using codice_1 is not "allowed".

paragraphs: XHTML also should not be used together with the JavaScript codice_2 command.


title: Suspension bridge

paragraphs: A suspension bridge is a type of bridge that has been made since ancient times as early as 100 AD. Some simple suspension bridges, for use by pedestrians and livestock, are still constructed, based upon the ancient Inca rope bridge.

paragraphs: Suspended from two high locations over a river or canyon, simple suspension bridges follow a shallow downward arc and are not suited for modern roads and railroads.

paragraphs: The design of the modern suspended-deck suspension bridge was developed in the early 19th century. It can cross a longer span than other kinds of bridges.

paragraphs: The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge is the world's longest suspension bridge.


title: Sangria (colour)

paragraphs: Sangria is a dark slightly purplish red. It is the colour of Sangría wine. It is named after this wine. Sangria can also be called a burnt red.


title: Coulomb

paragraphs: The coulomb (sometimes written C) is the SI unit of electric charge. It is named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.

paragraphs: A coulomb is a quantity of electric charge. The movement of electric charge is called current in an electric circuit. For example, a flashlight bulb that has a current of one ampere will pass one coulomb of charge every second. So in ten seconds, ten coulombs have passed through the light bulb.

paragraphs: In an electric wire the charge that moves is in a particle called the electron. Each electron has a very small electric charge of negative one elementary charge. The elementary charge is the smallest electric charge found in a stable particle. A coulomb is equal to 6,241,509,629,152,650,000 elementary charges. The coulomb was named in honor of Charles-Augustin de Coulomb who worked on understanding electric charge in the late 1700s.

paragraphs: 1 coulomb is the amount of electric charge carried by a current of 1 ampere flowing for 1 second.


title: Leonhard Euler

paragraphs: Leonhard Euler (pronounced "Oiler") (April 15, 1707 – September 7, 1783) was a Swiss mathematician and physicist. He spent most of his adult life in Russia and Germany.

paragraphs: Euler made important discoveries in calculus and topology. He also created many of the words used in math today. He introduced the notation we use to write mathematical functions. He is also known for his works in mechanics, optics, fluid mechanics, astronomy and music theory.

paragraphs: Euler is considered to be the most important mathematician of the 18th century, one of the greatest mathematicians of all time and one of the most prolific writing mathematicians. His collected works fill around 80 volumes. The famous mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace advised, "Read Euler, read Euler, he is a master for us all.”

paragraphs: Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10-franc bill and on numerous Swiss, German, and Russian postage stamps. The asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honor. He is also celebrated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on May 24.

paragraphs: Euler was born in Basel to Paul Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church. His mother was Marguerite Brucker, a pastor's daughter. He had two younger sisters, Anna-Maria and Maria Magdalena. Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, where Euler spent most of his childhood. Euler started school back in Basel, where he lived with his grandmother. At the age of thirteen he went to the University of Basel. In 1723, he received his Master of Philosophy. At this time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupil's extraordinary talent for mathematics.


title: Burgundy (colour)

paragraphs: Burgundy is a deep shade of red. It is named after Burgundy wine. This wine is named after the Burgundy region of France.

paragraphs: Because of this people give them the nickname "Red Wine".


title: Pigment

paragraphs: A pigment is something that is added to something else to give it color. Natural pigments can come from just about anything. Pigments can be made from animals, plants, rocks and minerals or even the ground itself, for example clay plus salts. Pigments can also be created by people.

paragraphs: An example of a pigment is ultramarine. It is a powder found in nature. It adds a blue color to paints and dyes.

paragraphs: The first synthetic dye was aniline. Aniline is an organic chemical compound produced in two stages from benzene. It gives a mauve color which was much used for dyeing clothes in the 19th century. It was invented in 1856 by William Henry Perkin. Apparently, it gave a brilliant fuchsia color when first applied, but fades rapidly to mauve.


title: Sierra Nevada

paragraphs: Sierra Nevada, meaning "snowy range" in Spanish, is the name of at least three mountain ranges:

paragraphs: There are also two single mountains named Sierra Nevada in the Andes which are volcanoes:

paragraphs: Sierra Nevada may also refer to beer produced by Sierra Nevada Brewing Company, a California brewery.


title: Anarchy in the U.K.

paragraphs: "Anarchy in the U.K." is a punk rock song by the Sex Pistols. It was first released as a single in 1975. In 1976, it was released as part of the album "Never Mind the Bollocks Here's the Sex Pistols". The song's lyrics espouse a nihilistic and violent concept of anarchy. It has been covered by various other bands, including Megadeth.