title: Interferometer

paragraphs: Interferometers are for measuring the interference properties of light waves. One of their purposes is to measure things precisely, for example in the Michelson interferometer.


title: Chris Terreri

paragraphs: Christopher Arnold Terreri (born November 15, 1964 in Warwick, Rhode Island) is a American former professional ice hockey goaltender who played for four professional teams of the NHL. He won the Stanley Cup two times with the New Jersey Devils. He is currently the goaltending coach of the New Jersey Devils of the NHL.


title: Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy

paragraphs: Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy is a 2004 American comedy movie set in San Diego in 1975. It was produced by Judd Apatow and directed by Adam McKay. The movie is number 100 on "Bravo's 100 funniest movies", and 113 on "Empire's 500 Greatest Movies of All Time". It was narrated by Bill Kurtis. It was released on July 9, 2004. A sequel, "" was released on December 18, 2013.


title: Tic

paragraphs: A tic is a sudden body movement that a person can't control. It might be a jerking movement of the hand, or blinking a lot, or a throat sound. Even if the person is told that they are doing it, they usually can't stop. Sometimes if they try really hard, they can make the tic go away for a little bit, but they can't make it go away all the time. It's kind of like when you have something in your throat, eventually you just have to cough.

paragraphs: Tics can be either "motor tics" or "phonic tics." If they are "motor tics" it means they're movements, like blinking or shrugging shoulders. If they are "phonic tics" it means they're sounds, like clearing your throat, sniffing, or yelling.

paragraphs: Tics are common in childhood, four to twelve percent of all children have from tics. Very often they are transitory, they rarely last longer than six months. Boys have tics more often than girls. About three times more boys than girls have tics. Sometimes, people can have a "tic" in the family.

paragraphs: Some tics can be treated, usually with behaviour therapy. In cases where the tic is difficult to treat, antipsychotics are sometimes used.


title: Boards of Canada

paragraphs: Boards of Canada (commonly abbreviated BoC) are a Scottish electronic music duo of two brothers Mike Sandison (born June 1, 1970) and Marcus Eoin (born July 21, 1971). They are signed with Warp Records and have released several works on that label with little advertising and few interviews, while also having a secret, privately-released back-catalogue of albums on their self-run Music70 label. They have also recorded four tracks under the alias Hell Interface.

paragraphs: Boards of Canada's music is part like the warm, analog sounds of 1970s media and contains themes of childhood, nostalgia and the natural world. Mike and Marcus have mentioned the documentary movies of the National movie Board of Canada, from which the group's name is derived, as a source of inspiration.

paragraphs: Growing up in a musical family, brothers Mike and Marcus Eoin began playing instruments at a young age. They experimented with recording uses at around the age of 10, using tape machines to layer cut-up samples of found sounds over compositions of their own. In their teens they went in a number of amateur bands; however, it was not until 1986 when Marcus was invited to Mike's band that Boards of Canada was born. By 1989, the band had gone down just to Sandison and Eoin. In the early 1990s, a number of collaborations took place and the band put on small shows among the ""Hexagon Sun"" collective.

paragraphs: In early 2000, the website for the band, Music70.com, removed the early discography of Boards of Canada, although some information has been preserved by fans. Early tape releases by Boards of Canada include "Play By Numbers", "Acid Memories", "Hooper Bay", and the earliest known release by the band is titled "Catalog 3". None of the material from those days is readily available, and since official Boards of Canada sources deny the existence of these albums, there seems to be little chance for this early material ever to be seen publicly.


title: Jon Cryer

paragraphs: Jonathan Niven "Jon" Cryer (born April 16, 1965 in New York City, New York) is an American actor, screenwriter and film producer. He is the son of Donald David Cryer and Gretchen Cryer (née Kiger, born 1935). He is currently playing "Alan Harper" in the sitcom "Two and a Half Men". He has won an Emmy Award and has three Emmy nominations for "Two and A Half Men".

paragraphs: Cryer went to London to study acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts.


title: Owl City

paragraphs: Owl City is an American pop music project by Adam Young.

paragraphs: He had a hit with a song called Fireflies in 2010. It was the number one song in United States of America for two weeks. He has written several songs, including Vanilla Twilight. In 2012 he had a hit song with Carly Rae Jepsen, called Good Time.

paragraphs: While Young writes, composes, records, and produces all of Owl City's music (not including The Midsummer Station, which was mostly written by other people), during live performances he is accompanied by a group of supporting musicians:


title: William Bateson

paragraphs: William Bateson (Yorkshire, 8 August 1861 – 8 February 1926) was a British zoologist, a Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge University. He was the first person to use the term genetics to describe the study of heredity, and the chief populariser of the ideas of Gregor Mendel, after their rediscovery in 1900 by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns.

paragraphs: Bateson became famous as a mutationist who believed evolution took place by jumps. Later, Ronald Fisher and J.B.S. Haldane showed that discrete mutations were compatible with gradual evolution: see the modern evolutionary synthesis.

paragraphs: Bateson was the first to suggest the word "genetics" to describe the study of inheritance, in a letter to Adam Sedgwick, dated April 18, 1905. Bateson first used the term "genetics" publicly at the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. Although this was three years before Wilhelm Johannsen used the word "gene" to describe the units of hereditary information, De Vries had introduced the word "pangene" for the same concept already in 1889 and etymologically the word genetics finds its origin in Darwin's concept of pangenesis.

paragraphs: Bateson co-discovered genetic linkage with Reginald Punnett, and he and Punnett founded the "Journal of Genetics" in 1910. Bateson also coined the term "epistasis" to describe the genetic interaction of two independent traits. So important from 1900 to 1910, he was almost a bystander for the next ten years because he refused to accept the role chromosomes played in genetics. At last, in 1921, a visit to T.H. Morgan's fly lab convinced him, but by then he could no longer recover his influence.


title: Beretta 92

paragraphs: A Beretta 92 is a pistol and is one of the most famous pistols of the Italian company Beretta. It fires 9x19mm cartridges and it can hold 15 of them. It is the standard side-arm of many police and military units and the United States Army. In the US Army, the pistol got the name M9.

paragraphs: After the US military ended its ban on foreign-made weapons, its allies in NATO pressured the US to adopt a 9mm handgun to replace the M1911 because NATO has a rule that all NATO countries must use weapons with the same kinds of ammunition.


title: Ice Climbers

paragraphs: The Ice Climbers are a series of video games produced and developed by Nintendo. The series is about Popo and Nana, also known as the "Ice Climbers". The games were first produced in 1985. The plot of the game was to get stolen vegetables back from a giant condor on 32 ice-covered mountains. Popo and Nana have also appeared in the Super Smash Bros. series.


title: Ray J

paragraphs: William Raymond Norwood, Jr. (born January 17, 1981), better known by his stage name Ray J, is an American singer, record producer and actor. He is the son of gospel singer Willie Norwood and Sonja Bates-Norwood, the cousin of rapper Snoop Dogg and the younger brother of R&B singer Brandy.

paragraphs: Ray J was born William Raymond Norwood, Jr. in McComb, Mississippi and grew up in Carson, California. At age eight, he began auditioning for and appearing in television commercials; he played the foster son in "The Sinbad Show."

paragraphs: Norwood was signed to Elektra Records in 1995 and recorded his debut album "Everything You Want" the next year. "Let It Go" appeared on the "Set It Off" soundtrack (Brandy also appeared on the soundtrack; and her song "Missing You" with Tamia, Chaka Khan and Gladys Knight peaked also at number 25). It peaked number 25 in the U.S. and number 11 in New Zealand. The second single peaked at number 54 on the U.S. R&B chart. In 1997, he performed in a television special with his sister Brandy but was dropped from the label. According to Bradley Torreano of allmusic, "his easygoing image and boyish looks appealed to the producers of Brandy's television show, "Moesha"", giving him a role on the UPN series starting in 1999 as Brandy's little cousin, D-Money. He produced, putting together the music for several commercials and a few of the demos for his second record.

paragraphs: Ray J recorded "Another Day In Paradise" with Brandy, which was a Top Ten success in Austria, UK, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Belgium, Norway, Ireland, the Netherlands and number 11 in Australia and France. The song was the lead single of the R&B/Hip Hop tribute "Urban Renewal", in which he co-produced and performed songs. Norwood also worked with The Neptunes, Rodney Jerkins and Lil' Kim, and several other producers and singers for his second studio album "This Ain't A Game". The album was released in 2001. The lead single "Wait A Minute" peaked at #30 on the U.S. Hot 100 chart and #8 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. "Formal Invite" followed at #54 on the R&B chart.

paragraphs: In 2002, Norwood appeared in the video for his sister's "What About Us", which was produced by Jerkins, and was released as her third album, "Full Moon"'s lead single during the first quarter of 2002 (see 2002 in music). While "What About Us?" entered the Top 20 on the majority of the charts it appeared on, it reached the Top 10 in Australia, Denmark, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, the UK, and the United States.

paragraphs: After a two year break, Ray J returned to recording studios, adding the finishing touches on his third studio album "Raydiation" with help from producers such as Rodney Jerkins, Timbaland, and R. Kelly. A joint venture by Sanctuary Records and Ray-J's own label, independent Knockout Entertainment, the album was finally released on September 27, 2005 in North America after several delays, debuting at number forty-eight on the "Billboard" 200 chart, selling 18,321 copies in the first week. Boosted by the album's lead single "One Wish," a top 20 success in Ireland, New Zealand, the UK, the U.S.. "Raydiation" eventually sold over 400,000 copies domestically.

paragraphs: In 2005, Norwood joined the cast of UPN's "One On One", where he played the character of D-Mack for the final season.

paragraphs: Recently, Knockout Entertainment announced a multi-million dollar album deal with Koch Records and Shaquille O'Neal's "Deja 34" entertainment company. The first album for this deal is Ray J's fourth album "All I Feel", which features The Game and Yung Berg among others. It was released on April 1, 2008. The album's first single is "Sexy Can I" featuring rapper Yung Berg peaked at number three on the Top Singles (Hot 100) for six weeks. A video for the track, directed by R. Malcolm Jones, was shot in December 2007.

paragraphs: In 2007, a sex tape was released of Norwood and then-girlfriend Kim Kardashian.

paragraphs: Norwood recently starred in his own VH1 reality dating show, For the Love of Ray J.

paragraphs: The show premiered on February 2, 2009. For his show on March 24, 2009 he released the soundtrack/studio album called "For The Love Of Ray J". He dated Cocktail for several months before they split, partly due to rumors of Ray J dating Tila Tequila. On November 2, 2009 a second season of the show, For the Love of Ray J (season 2), premiered.


title: Wat Phrasri Rattana Sasadaram

paragraphs: Wat Phrasri Rattana Sasadaram or Wat Phra Kaew, the "Temple of the Emerald Buddha", is one of the most sacred Buddhist temples in Thailand. It is in the grounds of the Grand Palace. It is the only temple in Bangkok that does not have monks. This temple is famous for the statue of Buddha, which is really made from jade, not emerald. The king of Thailand is the only person allowed to go near the Emerald Buddha. The king changes the clothes on the Buddha three times every year. In summer the Buddha is dressed in a crown and jewelry; in winter he wears a golden shawl, and in the rainy months he wears a gold robe and headdress.

paragraphs: The temple was started in 2325 B.E. during the reign of King Rama I and finished in 2327 B.E. The temple was built to hold the Buddha statue which is believed to have been made in Thailand in the 14th century. Captured by the Cambodians in 1552, the statue was kept in Laos for 214 years until King Rama I recaptured it. He brought it with him when he moved his capital to Bangkok in 1784. The design of this temple was copied from Wat Phrasrisanphet in the Ayudhaya period. Because Wat Phrasri Rattana Sasadaram is important, it is renovated every 50 years.


title: Colossal squid

paragraphs: The colossal squid, "Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni", is the biggest squid in the world, 9–10 metres (30–33 feet) long.

paragraphs: The colossal squid is bigger than a giant squid. Its body is reddish brown and it lives up to 2000m below the surface of the Southern Ocean. It is the main food eaten by sperm whales. The colossal squid has ammonium chloride in its body, so it tastes bad for humans.

paragraphs: It is believed to feed on prey such as chaetognatha, large fish like the Patagonian toothfish and other squid in the deep ocean using bioluminescence.

paragraphs: The colossal squid is thought to have a slow metabolic rate, requiring only around 30 g of prey daily. Estimates of its energetic demands suggest that it is a slow-moving ambush predator, using its large eyes primarily for predator detection rather than active hunting.

paragraphs: The eye is 27 cm (10.63 in) wide, with a lens 12 cm across. This is the largest eye of any known animal. These measurements are of the partly collapsed specimen: when living the eye was probably 30 to 40 cm (12 to 16 in) across.

paragraphs: The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa is displaying this specimen in an exhibition which opened in 2008. A website on the squid specimen is also available.


title: James Morrison

paragraphs: James Morrison, born November 11, 1962, is famous Australian jazz musician. He has played with people such as B. B. King and Ray Charles.

paragraphs: He was born Boorowa, New South Wales. He started playing trumpet at the age seven. He also plays trombone, euphonium, flugel horn, tuba, saxophones, and piano. In 1979, aged 16, he performed at the Monterey Jazz Festival, and graduated from the New South Wales Conservatorium of Music the next year. He was given the Mo Award, for the Australian Performer of the Year in 1990. In 2000 he played the opening fanfare for the Sydney Olympic Games.


title: I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!

paragraphs: I'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here! is a television show like "Big Brother" where a group of celebrities get together as they sky dive down to the jungle. For a few weeks, they have to cope with jungle creatures such as snakes, spiders, cockroaches and more. The UK version of the show takes place in Queensland, Australia and airs every November-December on ITV1 in the UK. The presenters are Anthony McPartlin and Declan Donnelly.

paragraphs: Evey day, someone has to do a task known as a "bush trucker trial". The public has to vote on which celebrity has to do it apart from in the first two or three days. Sometimes, near the end of the series the celebrities decide who participates in the trail. To make the trials more challenging, they put some creepy crawlies with them. All trials have stars, and they earn stars for meals back at the camp.

paragraphs: Like "Big Brother", the show has a lot of cut scenes. One of them has a spider which catches a bug and spins it around and makes an amusing sound.


title: Crossing over

paragraphs: Crossing over is a basic concept of genetics and cell biology, often called recombination. It occurs during meiosis.

paragraphs: Crossing over is the exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister chromatids during the production of gametes. The effect is to assort (shuffle) the alleles on parental chromosomes, so that the gametes carry "combinations" of genes different from either parent. This has the overall effect of increasing the variety of phenotypes present in a population.

paragraphs: The process can be seen directly in stained cells, and indirectly if there are genetic markers or not on the chromosomes. The visible crossovers are called chiasma (plural: chiasmata), which is Greek for a cross. F. A. Janssens was the first to suggest what chiasmata meant.

paragraphs: The large-scale effect of crossing over is to spread variation through a population. This is the main result of sexual reproduction compared to non-sexual modes of reproduction.

paragraphs: The main advantage to the parents is the greater variety in their offspring. This, it is thought, increases the chance that some of the offspring will survive and reproduce. This has been the subject of much investigation and discussion.


title: Chromatid

paragraphs: Chromatids are the daughter strands of a duplicated chromosome which are joined by a single centromere. When the centromere divides, the chromatids become separate chromosomes.

paragraphs: Each of the two daughter chromatids contains the same DNA and chromatin protein as its original chromosome. But in meiosis, crossing over (exchanges) take place between two of the non-sister chromatids. This has profound consequences: it produces genetic recombination, and increases the variability of gametes.


title: Wat Pho

paragraphs: Wat Pho (more fully "Wat Phracheatupon Vimonmungkraram") is the "Temple of the Reclining Buddha". It is the one of the most important Buddhist temples in Thailand. With 99 pagodas, this temple has the most pagodas in Thailand. It is the largest and oldest Buddhist temple in Bangkok, and home of Thailand's largest Buddha. It is the temple where the art of Thai massage was developed.

paragraphs: The important pagodas are the pagodas of King Rama I, King Rama II and King Rama IV. This temple was rebuilt from the old Wat Photaram from the Ayudhaya period by King Rama I in 1788. It took seven years and five months and 18 days to finish. King Rama I changed the name from “Photaram” to “Phracheatupon Vimonmungkrawat”. King Rama III (1824—1851) did a lot of repairs to the building. King Rama IV renamed this temple "Wat Phracheatupon Vimonmungkraram". Wat Phracheatupon Vimonmungkraram is a popular place for tourists.

paragraphs: The "Reclining Buddha" (Phra Buddhasaiyas) is long and high. It was made during Rama III's work on the temple. His body is covered in gold, his eyes and feet have mother-of-pearl decorations. The bottom of his feet have 108 scenes made from the shells on them in both Chinese and Indian style.


title: Habbo

paragraphs: Habbo, or Habbo Hotel, is a virtual game on the Internet which is for teenagers. It is played by lots of people at once so is a Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game. The chain of websites is owned by the Sulake Corporation and has been online since 2000. Habbo has services in many countries and have over 10 million unique visitors every month.

paragraphs: Habbo is a popular online community for teens to chat with each other, and establish their own creative world. This site was founded and launched in Finland, the main location in the gaming system is known as a hotel lobby.

paragraphs: Habbo money is known as a “credit” which was be purchased in numerous ways, and in different currencies from other countries and can be paid for using a credit card, or registering with a mobile phone.

paragraphs: This gaming site became popular in a few international countries, not online including the United States but also in the UK, Finland, Japan, Switzerland, Spain, Italy and Sweden.


title: Kay Jewelers

paragraphs: Kays is an American jewelry company that is all around the world. Its slogan is, "Every kiss begins with Kay". The tag line was written in 1997 by a Senior Art Director named Randall Herrera working for an agency called Stern Advertising in Pepperpike Ohio. It was one of several lines offered up to Kay Jewlers and is still going strong to this day.


title: Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard

paragraphs: Marshal of the Royal Air Force Hugh Montague Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard GCB OM GCVO DSO (3 February 1873 – 10 February 1956) was a British Army officer who commanded the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) from August 1915 to January 1918. The RFC was followed by the Royal Air Force (RAF), which was founded in March 1918.

paragraphs: Trenchard, who learnt to fly in 1912, eventually became Chief of the Air Staff in 1919. In that position he reorganised the Air Ministry, and laid the foundations of the Royal Air Force.

paragraphs: Trenchard was Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police from 1931 to 1935. The Commissioner is the highest ranking police officer in the United Kingdom, despite the fact that his authority is generally confined to Greater London.

paragraphs: As a boy Trenchard found learning difficult. He failed many tests and only just got into the British Army as an officer. Trenchard first went to India with the Army and he then asked to go to South Africa because he wanted to fight in the Boer War. During the fighting, Trenchard was shot in the chest and became unable to walk properly because of damage to his back. He returned to England where a doctor told him to go to Switzerland because the air was better than in England. Trenchard became bored and started to bobsleigh. After crashing on a fast bend, Trenchard was able to walk properly - because his back was fixed. After his health got better still, Trenchard returned to the war in South Africa.

paragraphs: In 1912, Trenchard learned to fly and joined the Royal Flying Corps. He became the second most important man at the Central Flying School in England and had several important jobs in the Royal Flying Corps during World War I. Trenchard was the man in charge of the Royal Flying Corps in France from 1915 to 1917. In 1918, he was the first man in charge of the Royal Air Force for a short time. He then went back to France to take over the Royal Air Force bombing attacks on Germany. Winston Churchill put him back in charge of the Royal Air Force in 1919. Over the next 10 years, Trenchard started Air Force training bases and made sure that it was used to enforce the law in parts of the British Empire. In the 1930s Trenchard was in charge of the London's police force (the Metropolitan Police) and as an older man he argued for keeping a big RAF. In modern times, some people say that Trenchard was one of the first people to argue for strategic bombing.


title: Danaus (genus)

paragraphs: Danaus is a genus of butterflies. "Danaus" is in the family Nymphalidae. Species in this genus are commonly known as Tigers or Monarchs.


title: Harold Lloyd

paragraphs: Harold Clayton Lloyd, Sr. (April 20, 1893 – March 8, 1971) was an American actor and producer. Along with Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, Lloyd is remembered as one of the most popular and influential comedians of the silent movie years.

paragraphs: Harold Lloyd made nearly 200 movies. Many were without sound but later movies had sound.

paragraphs: His movies usually had "thrill" sections where Lloyd would be in fast chases and performed his own stunts. Lloyd did these dangerous stunts himself even though a movie accident had caused the loss of his right thumb and index finger.

paragraphs: Although Lloyd's movies were not as commercially successful as Chaplin's, Lloyd made a lot more money than Chaplin during their movie years. ($15.7 million to Chaplin's $10.5 million).


title: Marc-Antoine Charpentier

paragraphs: Marc-Antoine Charpentier (born near Paris, 1643; died Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 24 February 1704) was a French composer. He lived in the period known as the Baroque period. His most famous music is his "Te Deum". This work begins with a prelude which today is extremely popular. It was the signature tune for the European Broadcasting Union where it was used to introduce programmes such as the Vienna New Year's Concert and the Eurovision Song Contest. It is often used as a voluntary for weddings.

paragraphs: We do not know much for certain about his early life. He went to Italy where he learned a lot by studying the music of Italian composers. He studied with the composer Giacomo Carissimi for several years.

paragraphs: When he returned to France he got a job as musician to the Duchess of Guise who was a rich lady who employed several musicians. He worked for her for many years, both as a singer (he had a high tenor voice known in French as an “haute-contre”), and as a composer. When the great playwright Molière stopped working with Lully he asked Charpentier to work with him. He wrote music for several plays by Molière including "Le malade imaginaire". After Molière's died in 1673, Charpentier continued to write for other playwrights such as Thomas Corneille and Jean Donneau de Visé. He often used more musicians than he was allowed (only Lully, the king’s composer, was allowed to use lots of musicians for his performances). In the end Charpentier stopped writing music for plays.

paragraphs: In 1679, Charpentier was invited to compose for the king’s son, the Dauphin. The Dauphin had a private chapel and Charpentier wrote religious music for him. In 1683 he was given a royal pension. In April of that year he became very ill and could not work for a time.

paragraphs: From late 1687 to early 1698, Charpentier was "maître de musique" to the Jesuits, Soon he stopped composing big works such as oratorios and concentrated on smaller works for church worship which were sometimes played by a large number of players. He also was music teacher to the Duke of Chartres.

paragraphs: In 1698 he was made maître de musique at the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris. This was one of the top musical jobs in France (the only better job in sacred music in France was director of the royal chapel at Versailles). He kept this job until his death in 1704. After his death nearly all the works he wrote for the Chapel were destroyed. This was the usual procedure when a maître de musique died. His famous Mass "Assumpta Est Maria" has survived. Perhaps that is because it was not composed for the Chapel.

paragraphs: Charpentier’s compositions include oratorios, masses, operas, and many smaller works. He also wrote a lot of music for plays. Many of his smaller works for one or two voices and instruments he called "air sérieux" or "air à boire" if they are in French, but "cantata" if they are in Italian.

paragraphs: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980;


title: Geneviève Bujold

paragraphs: Geneviève Bujold (born 1 July 1942) is a Canadian actress. She is best known for her portrayal of Anne Boleyn in the 1969 movie "Anne of the Thousand Days".

paragraphs: Bujold was born in Montreal, Quebec, into a Catholic French Canadian working-class family. She received a strict convent education for twelve years. After that, she entered Montreal's Conservatoire d'art dramatique. There she was trained in the great classics of French theatre. She made her stage debut as Rosine in Beaumarchais' "Le Barbier de Séville" in 1962.

paragraphs: Bujold got her first major break in 1965, while on a theatrical tour in Paris. She was noticed by French director Alain Resnais, who offered her a role in his movie "La guerre est finie", opposite Yves Montand. This led to her staying in France for a time. There she appeared in two other movies: Philippe de Broca's "Le Roi de Coeur", opposite Alan Bates, and Louis Malle's "Le voleur", opposite Jean-Paul Belmondo.

paragraphs: Back in Canada, Bujold married screenwriter/director/producer Paul Almond in 1967. She starred in three of his movies; "Isabel" (1968), "The Act of the Heart" (1970) and "Journey" (1972). She won the Canadian Film Award for best actress for the first two. The couple divorced in 1973, but worked again together in "Final Assignment" (1980) and "The Dance Goes On" (1991). The latter also featured their son Mathew Almond (born in 1968).

paragraphs: Bujold appeared in Michel Brault's "Entre la mer et l'eau douce" (1967). She appeared in Claude Jutra's "Kamouraska" (1973), and won her third Canadian Film Award for best actress for that role.

paragraphs: Bujold made notable appearances on American television ("Hallmark Hall of Fame", NBC) in George Bernard Shaw's classic plays; "Saint Joan" in 1967, and "Caesar and Cleopatra" in 1976, the later opposite Sir Alec Guinness. She also appeared in Jean Anouilh's "Antigone" in 1974 (Great Performances, PBS).

paragraphs: International recognition came in 1969, when Bujold portrayed Anne Boleyn in Charles Jarrott's movie "Anne of the Thousand Days", opposite Richard Burton's Henry VIII. Her performance won her the Golden Globe Award for best actress in a leading role and an Academy Award nomination in the same category. The following year, she played Cassandra in Michael Cacoyannis's movie version of "The Trojan Women", opposite Katharine Hepburn, Vanessa Redgrave and Irene Papas.

paragraphs: Bujold is fluent in both French and English. She has worked steadily in the United States, Canada and France. Notable movies have included; "Earthquake" (1974), "L'incorrigible" (1975), "Swashbuckler" (1976), "Obsession" (1976), "Another man, another chance" (1977), "Coma" (1978), "Murder by Decree" (1979), "Monsignor" (1982), "Tightrope" (1984), "Choose Me" (1984), "Dead Ringers" (1988), "The Moderns" (1988), "Les noces de papier" (1989), "Mon amie Max" (1994), "The House of Yes" (1997), "Eye of the Beholder" (1999), "Finding Home" (2003), etc.

paragraphs: In 1994, she was chosen to play the lead character in the popular television series "". She made headlines when she quit after the first episode, finding the shooting schedule too demanding.

paragraphs: Geneviève Bujold has lived in Malibu, California, since 1974. She has a second son, Emmanuel (born in 1980), with companion Dennis Hastings.


title: Andris Nelsons

paragraphs: Andris Nelsons (born November 18 1978) is a Latvian conductor. He is particularly known as the conductor of the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra.

paragraphs: Nelsons was born in Riga, Latvia. His parents were both musicians. His mother started the first early music group in Latvia. His father plays the cello and conducts choirs.

paragraphs: Nelsons learned to play the trumpet. He played the trumpet with the Latvian National Opera. He had always wanted to be a conductor. The conductor Mariss Jansons taught him to become a good conductor. In 2003 Nelsons became principal conductor of the Latvian National Opera. He stayed with them for five years. In 2006, he became chief conductor of the Nordwestdeutsche Philharmonie of Herford, Germany, for three years.


title: FourCC

paragraphs: FourCC (Four Character Code, 4CC) is identifier of length of four bytes used to identify type of data format (e.g. video codec used in AVI multimedia container).

paragraphs: The same video format can be (in dependency to used codec) denoted by several different FourCC codes. Even there is no exception to the rule to use more FourCC codes for that format by same codec. For example, some different DivX codec versions denote MPEG-4 ASP format by codice_1 and codice_2 codes. Therefore, selection of this code depends on used codec and thus on used multimedia framework.


title: Fred Penner

paragraphs: Frederick Ralph Cornelius Penner, CM (born November 6, 1946) is a Canadian TV host who is famous as a children's entertainer. Penner does concerts and lectures across North America. From 1985 to 1997 he had his own television show called ""Fred Penner's Place."" It was shown on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation television network. It was co-produced and shown on Nickelodeon in 1989 and 1990.

paragraphs: Fred Penner was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba. He began writing songs when he was only four years old. He taught himself how to play guitar. He learned that he could use his music to communicate and educate his sister who had Down Syndrome.

paragraphs: After he graduated from university he worked with mentally and physically challenged children by using music to comfort and entertain them. Penner recorded an album of the music he used to educate his mentally challenged students. The album was called ""The Cat Came Back."" He also recorded a song of the same name which became a very famous children's song.

paragraphs: He sang "The Cat Came back" on the popular children's TV show ""Sharon, Lois & Bram's Elephant Show"" in 1984. The following year the CBC network gave Penner his own TV show.

paragraphs: In 1991 he was made a Member of the Order of Canada. He was given this honour for his years of "using music and song to entertain and educate his young audience".


title: Frasin

paragraphs: Frasin is a town in Suceava County, Romania. The Suceava River is 2 nautical miles to the northwest of Frasin, and Vama is 3.5 nautical miles west of Frasin.


title: MyWikiBiz

paragraphs: MyWikiBiz is a wiki directory that lets people write about themselves. It began as a service creating Wikipedia articles for paying corporations. The site was founded by Gregory Kohs, a market researcher.

paragraphs: Gregory Kohs and his sister started the MyWikiBiz venture in Pennsylvania in July 2006, first as a paid editing service, writing content for Wikipedia and other sites. The legitimacy of the idea was supported by the English Wikipedia’s Reward Board, where interested parties would offer cash rewards or gifts to create or improve Wikipedia articles.


title: Topiary

paragraphs: Topiary is the art of creating sculptures by clipping trees and bushes (shrubs). The shrubs used in topiary are evergreen, have small leaves, and produce dense foliage. Common plants used in topiary include bay laurel, holly bushes, myrtle and privet hedges. Shaped wire cages are sometimes used in modern topiary but traditional topiary depends on using special scissors with patience and a steady hand.

paragraphs: The word derives from the Latin word for an ornamental landscape gardener. A friend of Julius Caesar introduced Rome to the topiary. In Japan and China they have “cloud pruning” where they cut bushes into the shapes of clouds and “Karikomi”, where they cut large shrubs into curved shapes and objects. Bonsai is a form of topiary. During the 16th century in Europe typical traditional topiary included geometric shapes: balls, pyramids, cones, and spirals. In the 20th century Walt Disney used topiaries in the form of his cartoon characters to decorate his theme parks.


title: Aldwych tramway station

paragraphs: Aldwych tramway station was a tram stop that was underneath Kingsway. The tramway station should not to be confused with Aldwych tube station. The stop is part of the Kingsway tramway subway.

paragraphs: Services running from Angel Islington to Aldwych started on 24 February 1906. Services from Highbury & Islington station to Tower Bridge and Kennington Gate started on 10 April 1908.

paragraphs: The Strand Underpass, which opened in 1964, comes to surface level part way through the former location of the Aldwych tramway station. No sign of the former station is visible on the surface or from the road tunnel however.


title: 1969–70 NHL season

paragraphs: The 1969–70 NHL season was the 53rd season of the National Hockey League (NHL). Twelve teams each played 76 games. The Boston Bruins were the Stanley Cup winners as they swept the St. Louis Blues four games to none in the final series.

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: "Note: Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold"

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, G = Goals, A = Assists, PTS = Points, PIM = Penalties in minutes"


title: 1970–71 NHL season

paragraphs: The 1970–71 NHL season was the 54th season of the National Hockey League (NHL). Fourteen teams each played 78 games. The Montreal Canadiens were the Stanley Cup winners as they swept the Chicago Black Hawks in seven games in the final series. The Buffalo Sabres and the Vancouver Canucks made their NHL debuts this season.


title: Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor

paragraphs: Francis I (Francis Stephen; 8 December 1708 – 18 August 1765) was Holy Roman Emperor and Grand Duke of Tuscany, though his wife effectively executed the real power of those positions. With his wife, Maria Theresa of Austria, he was the founder of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. From 1728 until 1737 he was Duke of Lorraine, but lost Lorraine when he had to give it to France. He was the father of Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France.

paragraphs: He married Maria Theresa of Austria for love. with the input of the Prince of Craon. They had sixteen children who are named here:


title: Alexander Selkirk

paragraphs: Alexander Selkirk, (1676 - 13th December 1721) also known as Alexander Selcraig, was a Scottish sailor. He became famous for his amazing story of survival and is likely to have inspired Daniel Defoe to write the book "Robinson Crusoe".

paragraphs: He was on an expedition when the captain of the ship, Captain Stradling, left him on an island off the coast of Chile. Selkirk's job on board was the navigator. He controlled where the ship needed to go and where it was at that point in time. He had an important job. He tried to warn the captain about certain repairs that were needed but the captain ignored Selkirk and carried on sailing. Selkirk knew the ship was to drown at any given moment and tried to demand the repairs were taken care of but nobody listened. They had stopped at an island to restock fresh water and supplies. Selkirk said he would rather stay on the island than continue to ride on a dangerous, leaky ship. So there he was left. He had last minute second thoughts and tried to get back onto the ship but Stradling refused. Selkirk was marooned on that island for about four years and had to rely on himself and his skills for survival.

paragraphs: At the time of his rescue, he had been gone for about four years. He was very familiar with crafting things himself out of resources on the islands and having to use his survival skills. He heard noises and when he went to find out what it was, he saw ships on the horizon. He didn't know if they were on his side or enemies but he knew he had to try. He got their attention and so they sailed over to his island. Once they had beached on the shore, Selkirk came out from the bushes with his hands up. It turned out they were English and on his side. They let him aboard their ship and they were at sea for another year, stopping off at a few places, before returning to England.

paragraphs: When he returned, his story was written down by a person in his town and has been made into a slightly different version by Daniel Defoe who named it Robinson Crusoe. 'Robinson Crusoe' has been rewritten many times by lots of different people. There were some differences like how Crusoe was stranded for over twenty years and Selkirk, four. Even though this story was based off Selkirk, the exact island he was deserted on was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island after previously being called Juan Fernández Island.

paragraphs: The book is a major piece of literature which is important in the history of English and the beginning of the popularity of novels.


title: Robert Gould Shaw

paragraphs: Robert Gould Shaw (October 10, 1837 in Boston, Massachusetts – July 18, 1863 in Morris Island, South Carolina) was a colonel during the American Civil War. He led the all African American 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment.

paragraphs: Shaw died leading his troops attacking Fort Wagner in 1863, aged 25.


title: Robinson Crusoe Island

paragraphs: Robinson Crusoe Island is the largest of three islands in the Juan Fernández archipelago, belonging to Chile. The island is also known as Isla Más a Tierra or Aguas Buenas. More than 800 people live on the island, which is from the coast of South America. In 1966, Chile renamed it Robinson Crusoe Island, because Alexander Selkirk had spent about four years alone there. Selkirk may have been the person who inspired Daniel Defoe to write the book "Robinson Crusoe".


title: Buster Keaton

paragraphs: Joseph Frank "Buster" Keaton VI (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966) was an American actor and movie director. He is most famous for his silent films which showed his skill at physical comedy.

paragraphs: The magazine "Entertainment Weekly" listed Keaton at number seven on their list of ""The Greatest Directors of All Time."" And in 1999 the American Film Institute placed Keaton at 21 on their list of ""The Greatest Male Actors of All Time.""

paragraphs: Famous movie critic Roger Ebert wrote that Keaton's ""extraordinary period from 1920 to 1929, he worked without interruption on a series of movies that make him, arguably, the greatest actor-director in the history of the movies.""

paragraphs: In a 2002 worldwide poll by ""Sight & Sound"" Keaton's 1927 movie titled ""The General"" was number 15 on their ""Best movies of All Time"" list. Three other Keaton movies were also added to the magazine's survey.


title: Russian roulette

paragraphs: Russian roulette is a deadly game played with a revolver. In the game, there is only one bullet in one of the six cylinder slots of the revolver. The person then closes the cylinder, spins it, places it against their head or sometimes inside their mouth and pulls the trigger. The person therefore has a one-in-six chance of killing themselves.

paragraphs: It is done either for bravado, boredom, suicide or other reasons. It sometimes used in fiction as part of interrogations, where the interrogator asks the suspect if he wants to play a game of Russian roulette and palms the bullet.


title: Nude beach

paragraphs: A nude beach is a place where people can swim, without having clothes on. There are many nude beaches found around the world.

paragraphs: For example, there is a public nude beach called Haulover Beach near Miami, Florida. There is a public nude park usually called Hippie Hollow Park (but officially called McGregor Park) on a lake near Austin, Texas. There is an admission charge and children are not allowed. There are several nude beaches in California. People are nude at one end of a public nude beach called Crystal Crescent Beach near Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. There is a public nude beach called Hanlan's Point Beach on an island near downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. There is a public nude beach called Wreck Beach in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. There is a public nude beach close to New York City called Gunnison in Sandy Hook, New Jersey.

paragraphs: There are many nude beaches in Europe and Australia.


title: Undercroft

paragraphs: An undercroft is traditionally a cellar or storage room, often brick-lined and vaulted, and used for storage in buildings since medieval times.


title: Buddha Bar

paragraphs: Buddha Bar is a Parisian bar and restaurant. It is in Boissy-d'Anglas street, in the 8th district of Paris, famous for its atmosphere. The franchise has expanded with similarly themed Buddha Bar venues in Prague, Kiev and London, among others.

paragraphs: October 2012 saw the launch of Buddha-Bar London and Parisians, Tarja Visan has brought her expertise across the channel and into the heart of Knightsbridge.

paragraphs: Buddha-Bar London aims to push culinary boundaries and the menu blends Far Eastern cuisine with Western tastes and influences. Chinese, Japanese, Thai and other Eastern flavours are stylishly entwined to spearhead a new-wave Pacific Rim cuisine. Dishes created especially for London include Venison Tataki, Smoked Duck and Foie Gras Gyoza, Dragon Scallop and Pan-fried Seabass with Shiso Butter.


title: Edwards syndrome

paragraphs: Trisomy 18, also known as Edwards syndrome is a trisomy. It is a genetic disorder. People with trisomy 18 have three copies of chromosome 18. "Normal" people have two copies of the chromosome. It is named after John H. Edwards, who first described the syndrome in 1960. It is the second most common autosomal trisomy, after Down Syndrome, that carries to term.

paragraphs: It is estimated that about one in 3,000 live births are affected. The incidence increases as the mother's age increases. The syndrome has a very low rate of survival. People with Edwards syndrome often have heart abnormalities, kidney malformations, and other internal organ disorders.

paragraphs: About 95% of the babies with Edwards syndrome die before they are born. About half of all babies born with the condition will reach two months of age, and only 5-10% will survive for a year. The median life span is five to fifteen days. One percent of children born with this syndrome live to age ten, typically in cases of the less severe mosaic Edwards syndrome.


title: Thames Embankment

paragraphs: The Thames Embankment is a major feat of 19th century civil engineering. It reclaimed marshy land next to the River Thames in central London.

paragraphs: The Embankment now runs on the northern side of the river from Parliament in Westminster to the City of London. It is a continuous four-lane road (mostly a double carriageway). It connects with all the bridges along the route from Westminster Bridge to Blackfriars Bridge.

paragraphs: It was built in two parts, the Victoria and the Chelsea Embankment, but it is now unified. Londoners regard it as a single road, the Embankment. There is a much smaller road on the south side of the river, called the Albert Embankment.


title: London Transport Executive

paragraphs: The London Transport Executive (LTE) was the organisation responsible for public transport in the Greater London area, England, United Kingdom, between 1948-1963. In common with all London transport authorities from 1933 to 2000, the public name and operational brand of the organization was London Transport.


title: The Strand

paragraphs: The Strand is a street in the City of Westminster, London. It links the City of London with the centre of London at Charing Cross and Trafalgar Square. The Strand is the southern boundary of the Covent Garden district. Covent Garden is the space once occupied by a famous fruit and vegetable market, and is now a huge pedestrian precinct with many and varied commercial outlets.

paragraphs: The Strand passes Aldwych, and joins directly with Fleet Street at Temple Bar. The street is just over three-quarters of a mile long. It includes many commercial premises, two theatres, and hotels. The most notable hotel is the Savoy Hotel, one of the grand London hotels.


title: Parnassiinae

paragraphs: Parnassiinae is a subfamily of butterflies. It belongs in the family Papilionidae. They are commonly known as Apollos and Parnassians. The butterflies in this subfamily are only found in the Holarctic Region (the Holarctic Region is the northern part of North America and Eurasia).

paragraphs: The caterpillars and adults are poisonous to vertebrates. The caterpillars are thought to be Müllerian mimics with millipedes. The adult butterflies are thought to be Müllerian mimics with adult Whites.

paragraphs: After mating, the male glues a structure to the end of the female's abdomen. This keeps the female from mating again. This structure is called a sphragis.

paragraphs: The two species listed here are extinct. They are also of uncertain placement.


title: Milot

paragraphs: Milot, (Kréyòl: "Milo") is a town in northern Haiti, in the "arrondissement" (part of a Haitian department) Acul-du-Nord, Nord department; the town is on the northern foothills of the "Massif du Nord" mountain range.

paragraphs: The most important economic activity in Milot is farming. Some crops are sugar cane, cacao, tobacco and citrus fruits like orange.

paragraphs: After the Haitian independence, the country was divided in two parts and the northern part was made a kingdom by Henri Christophe and he made Milot the capital of his kingdom.

paragraphs: Christophe built a palace in Milot where he and his family lived; the palace was named "Sans-Souci". He also built a fort, "Citadelle Laferrière", high in the mountains at about 8 km from Milot, and some smaller forts in Ramiens, on the road to the "Citadelle". These buildings are now part of the Natural History Park - Citadel, Sans Souci, Ramiers, a World Heritage Site designated by the UNESCO in 1982.


title: Islam in Austria

paragraphs: Islam is a minority religion in Austria with 4.22% of the population in the 2001 census. Most Muslims came to Austria after 1960. They were migrant workers from Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. There are also communities of Arab and Pakistani origin.

paragraphs: The westernmost Bundesland Vorarlberg has the highest share of Muslims in the country with 8.36%. There is a lot of industry there. It is followed by the capital Vienna with 7.82%. The central Bundesländer Salzburg, Upper Austria, Tyrol and Lower Austria have an average Muslim population. The south-eastern states of Styria, Carinthia as well as Burgenland in the east have fewer Muslims than the average.

paragraphs: Austria is unique among Western European countries. It is until now the only country that has granted Muslims the status of a recognized religious community. They were first recognised after Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878. Austria has regulated the religious freedoms of the Muslim community with the so called "Anerkennungsgesetz" ("Act of Recognition"). This law was reactivated in 1979 when the Community of Muslim Believers in Austria ("Islamische Glaubensgemeinschaft in Österreich") was founded. This organization has the right to give lessons of religious education in state schools. It could also collect "church tax", but so far it has not exercised this privilege. It does not build, finance or administer mosques in Austria.

paragraphs: Parallel structures exist within the Islamic religious group. The religious life takes place in mosques belonging to organisations. These organisations represent one of the currents of Turkish, Bosnian and Arab Muslims. Among the Turkish organisations, the "Federation of Turkish-Islamic Associations" is controlled by the Directorate for Religious Affairs, whereas the other groups, such as the "Süleymancı"s and "Milli Görüş" can be seen as branches of the pan-European organisation centered in Germany.


title: Clever Hans

paragraphs: Clever Hans (in German, der Kluge Hans) was a horse that was supposed to be able to do lots of difficult mathematical sums and solve complicated problems. Later, it was discovered that the horse was giving the right answers by watching the reactions of the people who were watching him.

paragraphs: Hans was a horse that lived in Germany in the early 20th century. He belonged to a man called Herr Wilhelm von Osten. Von Osten was a teacher who taught math at a local school. He was an amateur horse trainer.

paragraphs: This was a time when people were becoming interested in how intelligent animals were. This was largely because of what Charles Darwin had been writing about.

paragraphs: Von Osten taught Hans to add, subtract, multiply, divide, work with fractions, tell the time and date, read and spell and to understand German. If he asked the horse a question such as: "What is 12 plus 12", the horse would tap its hoof 24 times. Von Osten traveled round the country with Hans, showing off his clever horse to the public.

paragraphs: Scientists became interested in Clever Hans. The psychologist Carl Stumpf got a group of people together to study what was happening. His assistant Oskar Pfungst was the main investigator. The horse almost always gave the right answer when he could see his owner. He also gave the right answer if someone else asked him a question. This showed that Von Osten was not deliberately giving him secret signs.

paragraphs: Pfungst provided the horse with blinders, which meant the horse could see only straight ahead. If he could see the person asking him the question, he got the answers right 89% of the time. If the person asking the questions was standing to the side, where the horse could not see, the answers were right only 6% of the time. Also, the horse did not get the answer right if the person asking the question did not know the answer himself.

paragraphs: When the horse could answer the question, it started to tap more slowly when it got near to the right answer. Then it stopped when it got to the right answer. This showed that the horse was watching the person asking the question, and could sense when the person was expecting him to stop. Von Osten probably did not realize that he was giving the horse signals just by looking at him. The horse was, indeed, clever to guess what was wanted of him, but of course it did not understand the mathematics. The final proof was that Pfungst discovered how to signal to the horse, by slightly raising his eyebrows. Then he could get the horse to give any response he wanted.

paragraphs: This effect is often called the "Clever Hans effect". It is used in psychology to describe when an animal or a person senses what someone wants them to do, even though they are not deliberately being given signals. It is important to take this effect into account when testing animals' intelligence or human intelligence. An animal may need to be separated from its trainer if their true intelligence is to be observed. On the other hand, an animal may be upset when it cannot see its trainer, so it might not give the right answer. This problem can often be solved by creating a situation in which the trainer does not know the right answer.

paragraphs: The Clever Hans effect is famous, and has been used in popular culture. For example, there is an episode of "The Simpsons" ("Smart and Smarter"), in which Lisa Simpson becomes jealous of her baby sister Maggie because Maggie seems to be even more intelligent than Lisa. Then it is discovered that Maggie has been watching Lisa so carefully that she could sense what the answers were. Lisa is relieved to discover this.


title: Rick Mercer

paragraphs: Richard Vincent "Rick" Mercer (born October 17, 1969) is a Canadian comedian who has been on shows like "This Hour Has 22 Minutes" and his own show "The Rick Mercer Report".


title: London Passenger Transport Board

paragraphs: The London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) was the organisation responsible for public transport in London, England, United Kingdom, and its environs from 1933 to 1948. In common with all London transport authorities from 1933 to 2000, the public name and operational brand of the organisation was London Transport.

paragraphs: Historically, bus routes run by London Transport were grouped by the type of service that they provided.

paragraphs: The 1924 London Traffic Act imposed a numbering scheme known as the Bassom Scheme, named after Chief Constable A.E. Bassom of the Metropolitan Police who made it. Changing and short lines used letter suffixes. The numbers were grouped also by the company that operated the route.

paragraphs: The numbering was revised in 1934 after London Passenger Transport Board was formed:


title: County of London

paragraphs: The County of London was a county of England from 1889 to 1965, corresponding to the area today known as Inner London. It was created as part of the general introduction of elected county government in England, by way of the Local Government Act 1888.


title: Brockley

paragraphs: Brockley is an area and electoral ward of the London Borough of Lewisham in England. It is about south east of Charing Cross, it is covered by the London postcode district SE4.


title: Downham

paragraphs: Downham is a district occupying much of the boundary between the London Borough of Lewisham and the London Borough of Bromley; it is the name of an electoral ward covering much of the area on the Lewisham side. Downham was named in honour of Lord Downham, who was chairman of the London County Council between 1919-20.


title: Archway, London

paragraphs: Archway is an area of north London in the London Borough of Islington.


title: Howie Morenz

paragraphs: Howard William Morenz (June 21, 1902 – March 8, 1937) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player. He played centre for three National Hockey League (NHL) teams: the Montreal Canadiens (in two stints), the Chicago Black Hawks, and the New York Rangers. Before joining the NHL, Morenz was a very good player in the junior Ontario Hockey Association, where his team played for the Memorial Cup, the championship for junior ice hockey in Canada. In the NHL, he was one of the best players in the league and set several league scoring records. A strong skater, Morenz was called the "Stratford Streak" and "Mitchell Meteor" because he was very fast.

paragraphs: Considered one of the first stars of the NHL, Morenz played 14 seasons in the league. He was a member of a team that won the Stanley Cup three times, all of them being the Canadiens. During his NHL career he was in the top 10 leading scorers ten times. For seven seasons in a row Morenz led the Canadiens in both goals scored and points. Three times in he was named the most valuable player of the league, and he led the league once in goals scored and twice in points scored. He was named to the NHL All-Star Team three times.

paragraphs: Morenz died from problems with a broken leg, an injury he suffered in a game. After his death, the Canadiens stopped using his jersey number, the first time the team had done so for any player. When the Hockey Hall of Fame opened in 1945, Morenz was one of the first 12 people to be added. In 1950, the Canadian Press named him the best ice hockey player of the first half of the 20th century.


title: Norbury

paragraphs: Norbury is a town in the London Borough of Croydon, on the border with the London Borough of Lambeth and the London Borough of Merton. It shares the postcode London SW16 with nearby Streatham. Norbury is south of Charing Cross.


title: Waterloo station

paragraphs: Waterloo station, also known as 'London Waterloo', is a major railway terminus in London. It is owned and operated by Network Rail. It is near the South Bank in the London Borough of Lambeth, and in Travelcard Zone 1.


title: Highbury

paragraphs: Highbury is an area in the London Borough of Islington.


title: Leyton

paragraphs: Leyton is an area of East London and part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest, northeast of Charing Cross. It borders Walthamstow and Leytonstone; Stratford in Newham; and Homerton and Lower Clapton in the London Borough of Hackney.

paragraphs: There is a professional football team based in Leyton called Leyton Orient F.C.


title: Tooting

paragraphs: Tooting is a suburb in the London Borough of Wandsworth in south London. It is south south-west of Charing Cross. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.


title: Atomic radius

paragraphs: The atomic radius of an element is the distance between the nucleus and the edge of the electron cloud.

paragraphs: The atomic radius is rather hard to define, because it is impossible to know where all of the electrons are at a given time.

paragraphs: In the periodic table of the elements, the atomic radius tends to increase as you move down a group because the number of electrons is greater, and so the radius of the circle of electrons in the element is bigger. As you move to the right across a period, the atomic radius tends to decrease due to the shielding effect.


title: Dale Davis

paragraphs: Dale Davis (born 1969) is a retired NBA basketball player who played the positions of center and power forward. When he played in the NBA, he played with the Indiana Pacers, the Portland Trail Blazers, the Golden State Warriors, and the Detroit Pistons. He played college basketball at Clemson University.


title: Underpinning

paragraphs: In construction, underpinning is the process of strengthening and stabilizing the foundation of an existing building or other structure. Underpinning may be needed for a many of reasons:


title: Epistasis

paragraphs: Epistasis is the interaction between genes at different loci. It was a term invented by William Bateson in 1909.

paragraphs: When Gregor Mendel did his experiments on the sweet pea, he chose seven traits, such as round vs wrinkled peas, and tall vs short plants. He found the plants had pairs of 'factors' (genes) which controlled their appearance (phenotype). However, one pair of factors "never affected the other pairs". But with epistasis, the action of one gene does affect another gene, even one on a different chromosome.

paragraphs: Use of the term has varied somewhat. Its original meaning was quite narrow: for instance, a gene for "no wings" in "Drosophila" will obviously mask genes for any other aspect of the wings. In general, however, epistasis denotes any departure from independence of the effects of different genetic loci.


title: Holborn tramway station

paragraphs: Holborn tramway station (not to be confused with Holborn tube station) was a tram stop underneath Kingsway in central London. It was part of the Kingsway tramway subway route. When the station opened opened it was named "Great Queen Street".

paragraphs: Services from Angel Islington to Aldwych started on 24 February 1906. Services rom Highbury station to Tower Bridge and from Highbury station to Kennington Gate started on 10 April 1908.

paragraphs: The station closed just after 12.30am on 6 April 1952. Much of the station remains in the disused tunnel but there is no public access.


title: Epigenetics

paragraphs: Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene activity which are "not" caused by changes in the DNA sequence. It is the study of gene expression, the way genes bring about their phenotypic effects.

paragraphs: These changes in gene activity may stay for the remainder of the cell's life and may also last for many generations of cells, through cell divisions. However, there is no change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism. Instead, non-hereditary factors cause the organism's genes to behave (express themselves) differently. Epigenetics works by specific mechanisms, such as DNA methylation.

paragraphs: Epigenetic factors may last into adulthood.

paragraphs: A general definition is "the study of... gene activity during the development of complex organisms". Thus "epigenetic" can be used to describe anything other than DNA sequence that influences the development of an organism.

paragraphs: A stricter or narrower definition is "the study of mitotically and/or meiotically heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in DNA sequence".

paragraphs: The term "epigenetics" has been used to describe processes which are not heritable. An example is histone modification. So some definitions do not require heritability. Adrian Bird defined epigenetics as "the structural adaptation of chromosomal regions so as to register, signal or perpetuate altered activity states". This definition includes DNA repair or cell division phases, and stable changes across cell generations. It excludes others such as prions unless they affect chromosome function.

paragraphs: The NIH Roadmap Epigenomics Project uses the definition: "...For purposes of this program, epigenetics refers to both heritable changes in gene activity and expression (in the progeny of cells or individuals) and also stable, long-term alterations in the transcriptional potential of a cell".

paragraphs: In 2008, a consensus definition of the epigenetic trait, "stably heritable phenotype resulting from changes in a chromosome without alterations in the DNA sequence", was made at a Cold Spring Harbor meeting.

paragraphs: A reliable and readable account is from "The Guardian" newspaper.

paragraphs: The best example of epigenetic changes in eukaryotes is the process of cell differentiation. During morphogenesis, generalised stem cells become the cell lines of the embryo which in turn become fully differentiated cells. In other words, a single fertilized egg cell – the zygote – divides and changes into all the many cell types: neurons, muscle cells, epithelium, blood vessels etc.

paragraphs: As the embryo develops, some genes get switched on, while others are switched off or moderated. This process is called gene regulation. There are many molecules inside the cell nucleus which do the job of adjusting the genes' output.

paragraphs: DNA and histones make up what is called chromatin. Epigenetic modifications to the chromatin are copied during cell division. This produces a line of cells, all of which are alike. This is called a tissue.

paragraphs: Meiosis cancels epigenetic changes, and resets the genome to its baseline state, so the process unfolds in each new generation. There are some exceptions to this rule, but none of these exceptions involve changes to DNA base pair sequences.

paragraphs: This process is different from mutations of the DNA. Genetic mutations change the primary DNA sequence, and mutations can happen in any cell. However, only mutations in cells involved in reproduction can affect the offspring.


title: Cell differentiation

paragraphs: Cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. It is part of developmental biology. Different tissues have different kinds of organelles inside the cells.

paragraphs: Differentiation occurs many times during the development of a multicellular organism. The organism changes from a single zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation is also a common process in adults: adult stem cells divide to make fully-differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover.

paragraphs: Differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to changes in gene expression. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. It does involve switching off many genes not needed in a particular tissue. Thus, cells in different tissues may have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome.

paragraphs: "Cell potency" is a cell's ability to differentiate into other cell types. A cell that is able to differentiate into many cell types is known as "pluripotent". Such cells are called stem cells in animals and meristematic cells in higher plants. A cell that is able to differentiate into all cell types is known as "totipotent". In mammals, only the zygote and early embryonic cells are totipotent, while in plants many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques.


title: Morphogenesis

paragraphs: Morphogenesis (meaning the "beginning of shape"), is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape.

paragraphs: It is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation.

paragraphs: The process controls the organized spatial distribution of cells during the embryonic development of an organism. Morphogenetic responses may be induced in organisms by hormones, by substances produced by other organisms, or by mechanical stresses induced by spatial patterning of the cells. Morphogenesis can take place in an embyro, a mature organism, in cell culture or inside tumor cell masses.


title: Gastrulation

paragraphs: Gastrulation is a phase early in the development of most animal embryos. In it the embryo is dramatically restructured by cell migration.

paragraphs: Gastrulation varies in different phyla. It is followed by "organogenesis", when individual organs develop within the newly formed "germ layers".

paragraphs: The gastrula is the double-walled stage of the embryo. During gastrulation, some of the cells of the blastula migrate inwards to make an inner layer, the "endoderm". In some animals another cell layer forms, the "mesoderm", between the endoderm and the "ectoderm".

paragraphs: Among animals, sponges show the simplest organization, having a single germ layer. Cnidaria and ctenophores show an increase in complexity, having two germ layers, the "endoderm" and "ectoderm". All higher animals (from flatworms to humans) possess a "mesoderm" as well as ectoderm and endoderm.

paragraphs: The purpose of gastrulation is to position the 3 embryonic germ layers, the endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. These layers later develop into certain bodily systems.


title: Wat Phra-sri Rattana Mahathat

paragraphs: Wat Phra-sri Rattana Mahathat or Wat Yai is the most important monastery of Phitsanulok. It was built in the reign of Phra Maha Thamma Racha I in 1357 BCE. In the temple, there is a Buddha image called Phra Buddha Chinnaraj. The pearl inlaid wooden doors of the temple were built by King Borommakot in 1756 as tribute to Phra Buddha Chinnaraj. Behind the temple, there is a large pagoda high with a staircase leading up to the niche containing the Buddha relics. In front of the pagoda, there is Phra Attharos, a standing Buddha image.


title: Jikji

paragraphs: Jikji is the oldest extant movable metal type book in the world.

paragraphs: "Jikji" is the short title of a Korean book whose full title can be translated as "Anthology of the Great Priests' Zen Teachings". It is a Buddhist document, and was printed during Korea's Goryeo era in 1377.

paragraphs: "Jikji" is a book about Zen Buddhism published in Heungdeok temple. It was written by the Buddhist monk Baegun who died three years before this edition was printed. Baegun was the chief priest of the Anguk and Shingwang temples in Haeju.

paragraphs: "Jikji" was published 78 years before Johannes Gutenberg's "42-Line Bible". "Jikji" consists of two volumes. Only the second volume is extant. This volume is held in the National Library of France. UNESCO confirmed "Jikji" as the world's oldest metalloid type book in September 2001, and includes it in the "Memory of the World" program.


title: Bibliothèque nationale de France

paragraphs: The Bibliothèque nationale de France is the National Library of France in Paris.

paragraphs: The National Library of France was founded at the Louvre by Charles V in 1368. It grew under Louis XIV and opened to the public in 1692.

paragraphs: Following a series of regime changes in France, it became the Imperial National Library and in 1868 it moved to new buildings on the Rue de Richelieu. In 1896, the library was the largest collection of books in the world.

paragraphs: In 1988, President François Mitterrand agreed to build a new modern library. It now contains more than twenty million volumes.

paragraphs: The library has 5,000 Greek manuscripts and the Jikji (the oldest printed document with movable type).


title: Fitness

paragraphs: Fitness in biology is the relative ability of an organism to survive and pass on its genes to the next generation. It is a central idea in evolutionary theory. Fitness is usually equal to the proportion of the individual's genes in all the genes of the next generation.

paragraphs: Like all terms in evolutionary biology, fitness is defined in terms of an interbreeding population, which might or might not be a whole species. If differences in individual genotypes affect fitness, then the frequencies of the genotypes will change over generations; the genotypes with higher fitness become more common. This is the process called natural selection.

paragraphs: An individual's fitness is caused by its phenotype, and passed on by its genotype. The fitnesses of different individuals with the same genotype are not necessarily equal. It depends on the environment in which the individuals live, and on accidental events. However, since the fitness of the genotype is an averaged quantity, it reflects the reproductive outcomes of "all" individuals with that genotype.

paragraphs: Fitness measures the number of the "copies" of the genes of an individual in the next generation. It doesn't really matter how the genes arrive in the next generation. For an individual, it is equally "beneficial" to reproduce itself, or to help relatives with similar genes to reproduce, "as long as similar number of copies of individual's genes get passed on to the next generation". Selection which promotes this kind of helper behaviour is called kin selection.

paragraphs: Our closest relatives (parents, siblings, and our own children) share on average 50% (half) of our genes. One step further removed are grandparents. With each of them we share on average 25% (a quarter) of our genes. That is a measure of our relatedness to them. Next come first cousins (children of our parents' siblings). We share 12.5% (1/8) of their genes.

paragraphs: William Hamilton added various ideas to the notion of fitness. His rule suggests that a costly action should be performed if:

paragraphs: Fitness costs and benefits are measured in fecundity.

paragraphs: Inclusive fitness is a term which is essentially the same as fitness, but emphasises the group of genes rather than individuals.

paragraphs: Biological fitness says how well an organism can reproduce, and spread its genes to its offspring. The theory of inclusive fitness says that the fitness of an organism is also increased to the extent that its close relatives also reproduce. This is because relatives share genes in proportion to their relationship.

paragraphs: Another way of saying it: "the inclusive fitness of an organism is not a property of itself, but a property of its set of genes". It is calculated from the reproductive success of the individual, plus the reproductive success of its relatives, each one weighed by an appropriate coefficient of relatedness.

paragraphs: The British social philosopher Herbert Spencer coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" in his 1864 work "Principles of biology" to mean what Charles Darwin called natural selection. The original phrase was "survival of the best fitted".


title: Cilla Black

paragraphs: Cilla Black (27 May 1943 – 1 August 2015) was a English television personality, singer and actress. Her birth name was Priscilla Maria Veronica White and she was born in Liverpool. She became known for her songs "Anyone Who Had A Heart" and "You're My World" as well as her long-running TV shows "Blind Date" (1985-2003) and "Surprise Surprise" (1984-2001).

paragraphs: In the early 1960s, young Cilla worked at the Cavern Club in Liverpool, where the Beatles often performed, as a hat check girl. She also sang onstage at the Cavern sometimes, backed by the band that was playing at the time. "Swinging Cilla" was well-liked by the Cavern's members and guests.

paragraphs: One day Brian Epstein visited the Cavern to meet the Beatles, and ask about a record they made, so he could sell copies at his family's music store. Stories rose later that Cilla was working, and she first met Epstein when he gave her his hat and coat. Neither one remembered this later, though, and each believed the story was not true.

paragraphs: Epstein's getting to know the Beatles led to his becoming their manager, and with his help, they won a recording contract. The Beatles' talent and work with music producer George Martin led to hit records. Epstein decided to manage other Liverpool musicians. Along with the bands and male singers he signed up, Epstein chose Cilla as his only female performer. He suggested her stage name (changing White to Black), so she and her family could keep their privacy. Martin also agreed to record her, helping choose songs that would showcase her voice.

paragraphs: Cilla became popular first in England and Europe, then in America as the Beatles' music started the "British Invasion" there in 1964. One of her first hits, "Anyone Who Had A Heart", was recorded earlier by American singer Dionne Warwick. The two records sounded similar, even though Cilla had not heard Warwick's version, and a few people believed she had copied it. Both women later also recorded the theme song for the movie "Alfie", but they sounded different.

paragraphs: Cilla had other hit records, including "You're My World" and a television theme song, "Step Inside, Love". Epstein enjoyed working with her, even helping her choose wardrobe for performances and looking after her backstage, but personal problems later took away his attention. He died in 1967, after a drug overdose.

paragraphs: In time, Cilla Black stopped having hits. She remained popular in England, though, and was a welcome hostess and guest on television. She also made appearances from time to time, to sing the songs from the time she was most popular.

paragraphs: In later years, her health became poor. Arthritis made walking painful, and she was nearly deaf. She admitted that she did not want to live past 75 years old, because she enjoyed her life less and less as she aged.

paragraphs: Black died of a stroke after a fall at her holiday home near Marbella, Spain, on 1 August 2015, aged 72. Her funeral took place in Liverpool on 20 August 2015.


title: Paulista Avenue

paragraphs: Paulista Avenue (in Portuguese: "Avenida Paulista") is the most important avenue and one of the main financial centers of the city of São Paulo, Brazil.


title: Didcot

paragraphs: Didcot is a town in Oxfordshire about south of Oxford. Until 1974 it was part of Berkshire.

paragraphs: During the Roman Empire the Romans dug a ditch that runs north through what is now known as the Ladygrove area north of the town near Long Wittenham.

paragraphs: Didcot first appears in historical records in the 13th century as Dudcotte, Berkshire. Parts of the original village still exist in the Lydalls Road area and part of All Saints' Church dates back to the 11th century.

paragraphs: The Great Western Railway, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, reached Didcot in 1839. In 1844 the Didcot railway station was opened. The original station burnt down in the later part of 19th century.

paragraphs: Didcot is junction of the routes to London, Bristol and Oxford. It was formerly a junction for Southampton via the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway but that closed in the 1960s.

paragraphs: The traffic to Southampton meant that the town had strategic importance to military logistics, in particular during the First World War campaign on the Western Front and the Second World War preparations for D-Day.

paragraphs: The Didcot Power Stations (which are next to each other, and actually in "Sutton Courtenay") supply electricity to the National Grid. The power station has also proved a popular man-made object for local photographers. One power station was closed in 2013 and has been demolished. The other is still operating in 2018.


title: Horsepower

paragraphs: Horsepower is a unit of power that is approximately how much work one horse can do. It is equal to 746 watts. The idea of horsepower was originated by James Watt, who invented the steam engine. Because people used horses to pull carts, it was an amount of energy that could be understood by most people at that time. A human can only maintain about , but an engine can maintain much higher than that. Small motors can create while a jet engine can create more than .


title: Mason Raymond

paragraphs: Mason Evan Raymond (born September 17, 1985) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger. He currently plays for the Calgary Flames of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks and Toronto Maple Leafs. He was drafted 51st overall by the Vancouver Canucks in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft.

paragraphs: On June 28, 2014, Raymond was signed as a free agent by the Calgary Flames to a three-year, $9.5 million contract.


title: Pavol Demitra

paragraphs: Pavol Demitra (November 29, 1974 – September 7, 2011) was a Slovak professional ice hockey centre who last played for the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL). He first played in the NHL in 1993, having previously played with the Ottawa Senators, who selected him in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft, St. Louis Blues, Los Angeles Kings and Minnesota Wild. Before he joined the NHL, Demitra played in Slovakia, as well as the American Hockey League (AHL) and International Hockey League (IHL), minor professional leagues in North America. In Demitra's NHL career spanning 16 years, he has achieved the 300-goal mark and won the Lady Byng Trophy for sportsmanship in 2000. On September 7, 2011, at 4:02 PM local time, Demitra died when a Yakovlev Yak-42 passenger aircraft, that was carrying the entire hockey team of Lokomotiv Yaroslavl crashed near Yaroslavl, Russia. The plane was on its way to Minsk, Belarus, to start the 2011-12 KHL season.


title: Kevin Bieksa

paragraphs: Kevin Francesco Bieksa (born on June 16, 1981 in Grimsby, Ontario) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who currently plays for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League (NHL). After playing junior hockey in Ontario, Bieksa was awarded a scholarship to Bowling Green University, where he spent four years. While at university, Bieksa was selected by the Canucks in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft, and joined their minor league partner, the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League (AHL), after graduating. After spending time with the Moose, he joined the Canucks. A physical defenceman, Bieksa has increased his scoring totals in each of the full seasons he has played in the NHL.


title: 1992 United States presidential election

paragraphs: The United States presidential election of 1992 was on November 3, 1992 in the United States. The three main people running were: George H. W. Bush, a Republican from Texas and the President; Bill Clinton, who was a Democrat and Governor of Arkansas; and Ross Perot an Independent candidate.

paragraphs: Bill Clinton was the winner of the election. Clinton got 370 Electoral votes, Bush got 168, and Perot got 0. A person running for president will need to get 270 to win.

paragraphs: George H.W. Bush could have lost the election for several reasons. He broke his promise of "Read my lips: no new taxes" by increasing taxes during his term. Some of his most well-known accomplishments during his presidency came from his foreign policy, and because of the Cold War and Gulf War being over, foreign policy became a smaller issue, as the economy became a bigger issues, since the economy was bad.

paragraphs: As of 2020, this was the last election where a candidate won the presidency without carrying Florida.


title: Meliaceae

paragraphs: Meliaceae is a family of dicotyledonous plants in order Sapindales, most of which have spirally pinnate leaves.

paragraphs: The family includes about 50 genera and 550 species, with a pantropical distribution; one genus ("Toona") extends north into temperate China and south into southeast Australia, and another ("Melia") nearly as far north.


title: South Jakarta

paragraphs: South Jakarta () is a city in Jakarta, Indonesia. It is the second largest administrative city in Jakarta after East Jakarta.

paragraphs: South Jakarta is divided into five subdistricts: Kebayoran Baru, Kebayoran Lama, Pesanggrahan, Setiabudi, Cilandak, Pasar Minggu, and Jagakarsa.


title: Alexandre Bolduc

paragraphs: Alexandre Bolduc (born June 26, 1985 in Montreal, Quebec) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who currently plays for the Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League (NHL).

paragraphs: Bolduc was selected by the St. Louis Blues with the 127th pick in the 2004 NHL Draft but never played for them. He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks. He signed a contract with the Coyotes on July 2, 2011.


title: Manitoba Moose

paragraphs: The Manitoba Moose are a professional ice hockey team that play in the American Hockey League (AHL). They play in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, at the MTS Centre. They are the farm team of the Winnipeg Jets.

paragraphs: The team originally played as the Manitoba Moose from 1996 until 2011. They were relocated to St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador and became the St. John's IceCaps, which is the AHL farm team of the Winnipeg Jets. The team played in St. John's for four seasons.

paragraphs: In May 2015, it was announced that the team would be returning to Winnipeg and would be once again be called the Manitoba Moose.


title: Stickleback

paragraphs: Sticklebacks are fish of the Gasterosteidae family. FishBase currently recognises sixteen species in the family, grouped in five genera. Several of the species have a number of recognised subspecies, and the taxonomy of the family is thought to be in need of revision.

paragraphs: An unusual features of sticklebacks is that they have no scales, although some species have bony armour plates. They are related to pipefish and seahorses. Stickleback species are found in fresh water environments in Europe, Asia and North America. They feed on small crustaceans and fish larvae.

paragraphs: Sticklebacks have strong separated spines in the dorsal fin. All species show similar mating behaviour, with co-operation between the sexes, and protection of the eggs. The males construct a nest from vegetation held together by secretions from their kidneys. The males then attract females to the nest. The females lay their eggs inside, where the males fertilise them. The males then guards the eggs until they hatch.


title: Mikhail Bulgakov

paragraphs: Mikhaíl Bulgakov ( – 10 March 1940) was a Soviet Russian writer and playwright active in the first half of the 20th century.

paragraphs: He is best known for his novel "The Master and Margarita", which has been called one of the masterpieces of the 20th century.

paragraphs: Much of Bulgakov's work is best described as magic realism, where fantasy intrudes into what seemed at first to be a straightforward everyday scene.

paragraphs: Mikhail Bulgakov was born in Kiev on May 15 1891. Two of his grandparents were priests and his father was an assistant professor. At school Bulgakov developed an interest in Russian writing, European writing, the theatre and the opera.

paragraphs: In 1913 Bulgakov married Tatiana Lappa. When the First World War started he volunteered with the Red Cross as a doctor. Bulgakov was sent to an area where fighting was heavy, and he was badly injured at least twice. In 1916, he graduated from the Medical School of Kiev University. Bulgakov then joined the White Army with his brothers. They fought against the communists who were taking control of Russia. Bulgakov also fought in the Ukrainian People's Army.

paragraphs: After the Russian Civil War, Mikhail and his brothers went to the Caucasus in Western Russia. Mikhail worked as a journalist. Many members of Bulgakov's family left Russia for Western Europe. Bulgakov was not allowed into other countries, however, as he had a disease: typhus.

paragraphs: The injuries Bulgakov received in the First World War continued to cause him a lot of pain. To ease the pain, he started injecting himself with morphine. He eventually became addicted. He wrote a book about this period called "Morphine", which was finally released in 1926.

paragraphs: Bulgakov left medicine behind as he was now sure he wanted to be a writer. He moved to Moscow with his wife Tatiana in 1921. Bulgakov eventually divorced Tatiana, and married Lyubov' Belozerskaya in 1924. He published a number of works in the early 1920s. By 1927, however, he was criticised by people who said he was writing against the Soviet government. By 1929, Bulgakov's writing career was in ruins. Government censorship stopped his work and plays being released in the USSR.

paragraphs: In 1931, Bulgakov got married again, to Yelena Shilovskaya. Yelena inspired one of the main characters in Bulgakov's most famous novel, "The Master and Margarita". In the last ten years of his life, Bulgakov continued to write novels, plays and translate works in other languages. Many could still not be published in the USSR of the 1930s. Those that were published were often heavily criticised.

paragraphs: Bulgakov did not like the way Soviet system prevented his works being published. He wrote a letter to the Soviet government asking permission to leave the country. He even spoke directly to Stalin on the telephone, asking to be allowed to leave the USSR. Stalin's reply implied that if Bulgakov attempted to leave, he would be killed.

paragraphs: Stalin did allow Bulgakov to work at a small theatre in Moscow, however. Bulgakov eventually worked at the Moscow Art Theatre, but the Soviet system still did not allow him to write as he really wanted. This, and the fact that he was not allowed to go abroad to see his family, made Bulgakov very unhappy.

paragraphs: Bulgakov died from problems with his kidneys on March 10, 1940. He was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.

paragraphs: The novel is a satire on the Soviet society. It is covered by a plot in which two apparently unrelated stories alternate chapter by chapter. The first plot theme is the Devil in modern Moscow; the second is the story of Pontius Pilate. Connecting these two themes are Satan himself, and the Master with his devoted lover Margarita. The Master is an embittered author, whose historical novel about Pontius Pilate had been rejected by the Soviet literary committee .

paragraphs: By means of the plot, Bulgakov deals with some of the deepest issues in life: the interplay of good and evil, innocence and guilt, courage and cowardice.

paragraphs: Bulgakov started writing the novel in 1928. He burnt the first manuscript of the novel in 1930, seeing no future as a writer in the Soviet Union. The work was restarted in 1931. The second draft was completed in 1936 by which point all the major plot lines of the final version were in place. The third draft was finished in 1937. Bulgakov continued to revise the work, helped by his wife, but was forced to stop work on the fourth version four weeks before his death in 1940.

paragraphs: A censored version (12% of the text removed and still more changed) of the book was first published in "Moscow" magazine (#11, 1966 and #1, 1967). The text of all the omitted and changed parts, with indications of the places of modification, was published on a samizdat basis. In 1967 the publisher "Posev" (Frankfurt) printed a version produced with the aid of these inserts.

paragraphs: In the Soviet Union, the first complete version, prepared by Anna Saakyants, was published in 1973, based on the version of the beginning of 1940 proofread by the publisher. In 1989 the last version was prepared by literature expert Lidiya Yanovskaya based on all available manuscripts.

paragraphs: The novel is autobiographical. Bulgakov is the Master, and his trials and difficulties are very similar to those the Master faces. Margarita is Yelena Shilovskaya, his long-term girlfriend who became his third wife. The burning of the Master's manuscript is just what Bulgakov did, and for the same reasons of despair and frustration. Of course a state literary committee prevented its publication, just as did in the novel. And Bulgakov was fascinated with the confrontation between Christ and Pontius Pilate.

paragraphs: Bulgakov never lived to see the manuscript published, nor to enjoy his post-war fame. He died from nephrosclerosis (an inherited kidney disorder) on 10 March 1940. His father died of the same disease, and Bulgakov had long expected his fate.

paragraphs: The novel has been the basis of films, stage productions, opera, ballet, and television versions.


title: J.B.S. Haldane

paragraphs: John Burdon Sanderson Haldane FRS (3 November 1892 – 1 December 1964), known as Jack (but who used 'J.B.S.' in his printed works), was a British geneticist and evolutionary biologist who emigrated to India towards the end of his life. He was one of the founders (along with Ronald Fisher and Sewall Wright) of population genetics.

paragraphs: Jack Haldane was a communist, atheist and a writer of popular science books, and articles for the "Daily Worker". His major professional work was his contribution of mathematical papers on the theory of evolution, which assisted the modern evolutionary synthesis.

paragraphs: Between 1919 and 1922 he was a Fellow of New College, Oxford University, then moved to Cambridge University, where he accepted a Readership in Biochemistry at Trinity College and taught there until 1932. During his nine years at Cambridge, Haldane worked on enzymes and genetics, particularly the mathematical side of genetics. Haldane wrote many popular essays on science that were eventually collected and published in 1927 in a volume entitled "Possible Worlds".

paragraphs: He then accepted a position as Professor of Genetics and moved to University College London where he spent most of his academic career. Four years later he became the first Weldon Professor of Biometry at University College London.

paragraphs: Haldane's move to India, initially to the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) was influenced by a number of factors. Officially he stated that his chief political reason was in response to the Suez Crisis. He wrote: "Finally, I am going to India because I consider that recent acts of the British Government have been violations of international law."

paragraphs: His interest in India was also because of his interest in biological research, belief that the warm climate would do him good and that India offered him freedom and shared socialist dreams. At the ISI, he headed the biometry unit and spent time researching a range of topics and guiding other researchers around him.


title: Lost Generation

paragraphs: The "Lost Generation" is a term used to describe a number of American writers and artists who went to live in Europe after the First World War. People associated with the Lost Generation include Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Sherwood Anderson and John Steinbeck.

paragraphs: The term has also been used more recently to describe those unable to find work after the global financial crisis of 2008-2009.

paragraphs: The writer and poet Gertrude Stein is often considered to have come up with the term She supposedly heard her French garage owner speak of his unskilled young workers as "une generation perdue" (a generation lost). Ernest Hemingway then used the term in the introduction to his novel "The Sun Also Rises".

paragraphs: The term is generally used for the period from the end of the First World War to the beginning of the Great Depression.

paragraphs: After the First World War, members of the "Lost Generation" decided that they did not want to live a normal life in America. They went to Europe, often Paris. Away from America, the "Lost Generation" often drank heavily, had affairs and tried to find meaning in life. The "Lost Generation" produced some of the finest writing of all time, and arguably created a new style of writing.


title: W.D. Hamilton

paragraphs: William Donald Hamilton FRS (1 August 1936 – 7 March 2000) was an English evolutionary biologist whom Richard Dawkins praised as one of the greatest evolutionary theorists of the 20th century.

paragraphs: Hamilton became famous through his theoretical work on kin selection and altruism. He explained its genetic basis, and this was a key part of the gene-centered view of evolution. In doing this, he became one of the forerunners of sociobiology, as popularized by E.O. Wilson. Hamilton was certainly a big influence on Dawkins. He also published important work on sex ratios and the evolution of sex. From 1984 to his death in 2000, he was the Royal Society Research Professor at Oxford University. He died of malaria contracted in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

paragraphs: Hamilton's equation describes whether or not a gene for altruistic behaviour will spread in a population. The gene will spread if rxb is greater than c:

paragraphs: Hamilton started to publish his collected papers starting in 1996, with short essays giving each paper context. He died after the preparation of the second volume, so the commentaries for the third volume came from his coauthors.


title: John Maynard Smith

paragraphs: John Maynard Smith, FRS (6 January 1920 – 19 April 2004) was a British theoretical evolutionary biologist and geneticist. Originally an aeronautical engineer during the Second World War, he then took a second degree in genetics under the well-known biologist J.B.S. Haldane. Maynard Smith was instrumental in the application of game theory to evolution and theorized on other problems such as the evolution of sex and signalling theory.

paragraphs: He won most of the awards available to scientists:

paragraphs: Maynard Smith has an Erdős number of four.


title: Kawasaki Station

paragraphs: Kawasaki Station (川崎駅,かわさきえき) is a railway station of JR East, in Kawasaki, Japan.