title: Gregorian calendar

paragraphs: The Gregorian calendar is the calendar that is used throughout most of the world. It began being used in 1582. It replaced the previous Julian calendar because the Julian calendar had an error: it added a leap year (with an extra day every four years) with no exceptions. The length of the Julian year was exactly 365.25 days (365 days and 6 hours), but the actual time it takes for the Earth to go around the Sun once is closer to 365.2425 days (about 365 days, 5 hours and 49 minutes). This difference is about eleven minutes each year.

paragraphs: This made the seasons get out of track, since the real first day of spring in western Europe (the equinox - day and night the same length) was happening earlier and earlier before the traditional March 21 as the centuries went by. By the 1500s, it was starting around March 11, ten days 'too early' according to the calendar. So what they did was to move the calendar forward ten days in 1582, and at the same time to make sure it did not happen again. To do this, they made an exception to the previous 'leap year rule' (add February 29 every four years). There would be no February 29 for every year that ends in 00 - unless it could be divided by 400. So the year 2000 was a leap year, because it could be divided by 400, but 1700, 1800, and 1900 would be common years, with no February 29.

paragraphs: It was first suggested by the Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and was made official by Pope Gregory XIII, for whom it was named, on February 24, 1582. The official change took place the following October, when Thursday, 4th was followed by Friday, 15th.

paragraphs: The months of the Gregorian calendar year are, in order:

paragraphs: If February has 28 days, then the year is 365 days long.

paragraphs: If February has 29 days, then the year is called a "leap year" and it is 366 days long. A leap year usually happens once every four years. Some examples of leap years are 2004, 2008, and 2012. The next leap year is 2020.

paragraphs: Not every country started using the new calendar immediately. Spain, Portugal, and Italy started to use the new calendar on Friday, October 15, 1582, following Julian Thursday, October 4, 1582. In Europe's Protestant countries, people feared that the new calendar was an attempt by the Catholic Church to silence their movement. The England and the rest of the British Empire adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752; by which time it was necessary to correct by "eleven" days (Wednesday, September 2, 1752 being followed by Thursday, September 14, 1752).

paragraphs: In the USSR, the October Revolution of 1917 was celebrated in November. In 1917 the Russian Empire still used the old Julian calendar. Changing the calendar meant 365 days after the revolution started was now in November 1918.

paragraphs: In 1923 some Eastern Orthodox Churches changed to the Gregorian calendar. Christmas Day is the same as the Catholic and Protestant churches, but the date of Easter continues to be worked out differently.

paragraphs: The Russian Orthodox Church, as well as some other Eastern Orthodox Churches such as Georgian and Serbian, did not want this change, so Russian Christmas Day is about two weeks after the rest of Europe.

paragraphs: Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar's way of working out leap years on January 1, 1873, but the months have numbers instead of names. Japan also starts year one with each new reign, but uses reign names not the name an emperor might be best known by in the west. For example, the reign names "Meiji" year 1=1868, "Taisho" 1=1912, "Showa" (Emperor Hirohito) 1=1926, "Heisei" (Emperor Akihito) 1=1989, and so on. The "Western calendar" (西暦, "seireki") using western year numbers, is also widely accepted by civilians and to a lesser extent by government agencies.

paragraphs: Some old dates in Britain were written and documented with two different years. This is because Britain did not start a new year until March 25, so for a few months it was one year in Britain and the next year in other countries.

paragraphs: The letters OS (for "Old Style") and NS (for "New Style") were used to help determine the year being used. For example, King Charles I died on January 30, 1649. In "Old Style" it is correct to say that Charles I died "January 30, 1648 (OS)". Using "New Style", as we determine dates now, the correct date and year would be February 9, 1649.

paragraphs: In the old calendar the year started on March 25. This became April 5, and was used as the first day of the year for working out taxes and rents. Taxes and rents went on using the old way of working out leap years so in 1800 the year started on April 6. But it was not changed in 1900, so the tax year in the United Kingdom still begins on April 6.

paragraphs: People sometimes use the term N.S. or New Style to mean the Gregorian calendar, with Old Style (or O.S.) meaning the Julian calendar.


title: Southern hemisphere

paragraphs: The Southern hemisphere is the half of Earth that is south of the equator. It has about 10 percent of world's population and only a small part of the world's land. A very small part of Asia, one-third of Africa, 90 percent of South America and all of Australia are in this hemisphere.


title: Sufism

paragraphs: Sufism (also known as Tassawuf) is a group or branch in Islam with a mystic path or system. Someone who practices Sufism is called a Sufi, and may be a "Dervish" or a "Fakir".

paragraphs: At first, Sufism only meant making Islam more personal and internal. Some say it first came from constantly reciting the Qur'an, meditating, and through experience. Others believe that Sufism is trying to live as the Islamic prophet Muhammad did, to be closer to God. This is how the Prophet taught his disciples. Additionally, the Muslim conquests had brought large numbers of Christian monks and hermits, especially in Syria and Egypt, under Muslim rule. They believed in a deeply spiritual and mystical (even 'Platonic') way of life and many of their ways became part of early Sufism.

paragraphs: Some of these teachings were summarized in texts (in Arabic initially). Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as among the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam. Harith al-Muhasibi was the first one to write about moral psychology. Rabia Basri was a Sufi known for her love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry. Bayazid Bastami was among the first theorists of Sufism.

paragraphs: Sufism already had a long history when some teachers began to set up formal schools or orders ("Tarika" or "Tariqah") in the early Middle Ages. Almost all existing Sufi orders today trace their roots and chain of transmission ("silsila") back to Muhammad, via one of these orders.

paragraphs: The main idea in Sufism is that people can have 'personal knowledge' or oneness with God in their lives. In order to be one with God, you have to destroy your idea of yourself, or your ego. This is known as "fanaa" (annihilation). Apart from saying Sufi prayers, that vary according to different orders, you should be humble, considerate, and only act in order to control your desires.

paragraphs: After "fanaa" is achieved, the you are reborn to live with, in, through and for God, ("baqaa", permanency). This is the state where you have achieved the divine love of God, and come ever closer to a unity with God. You should now strive to be one with God. A person who has crossed the various Sufi 'stages' and achieved this sort of mystic union with Allah, is called a "Wali" (a saint or friend of God) and the state is termed "Wilayat" (friendship/union).

paragraphs: In Sufism there exist many different orders ("tarikas"), that were founded from the 12th and 13th centuries until today/contemporary times. Some of the major Sufi orders are:

paragraphs: Some of the major, notable Sufis in history, from the 'classical age' of Sufism, include:

paragraphs: Modern practitioners, who have achieved the degree of "sheikh" (Master/Preceptor) and are accounted to have a high spiritual status, are still found in various places.

paragraphs: Sufi practices are usually defined within the basic tenets of Islam, the "Sharia" (or "Shariah") although some orders include singing and dancing in the love of God, something some Muslims frown on. Hence some Muslims of a more orthodox mind-set believe that any actions outside the scope of "Sharia", or Sufi activities practised by non-Muslims are 'wrong'. However the underlying message and aim of the quest for the love of God is true for all humanity. For a non-Muslim the most important ideas in Sufism are love for fellow human beings (which reflects one's love of God) and living ones life in such a way where all actions are against the self. This automatically starts him on the path of "fanaa". In terms of discipleship and training, almost all the major Sufi orders are themselves quite willing to take students who are not Muslims.

paragraphs: There are some Muslim schools of thought, such as the Wahhabi for example, who oppose Sufism because they feel it obliterates the difference between God and man and bypasses the common method of salvation as prescribed by their interpretations of "Sharia". Although there are non-Islamic versions of Sufism too (generally defined as 'Universal Sufism') puritanical and rigid people in Islam tend to view them with considerable hatred and anger. As a result, we often see a great deal of misunderstanding and conflict regarding Sufism and Sufic practices.

paragraphs: Historically speaking, orthodox Islam, especially fundamentalist groups like the Wahhabi and Salafi have been the most intolerant and violent against what they think of as 'Deviant Sufism'. In the past centuries, severe persecution has been carried out by them against the Kharijites, the Ismaili Shia cult (sometimes termed the 'Assassins'), the Ahmadiyya movement and several other groups and individuals with Sufi-like mystical tendencies and practices. During the time of the later Mughal Empire in India, even the early "gurus" of Sikhism were persecuted by orthodox Islamic "mullahs" (theologians) since they had chosen to incorporate some of the ideas and poetic verses of the Sufi saint Baba Farid into their holy scriptures. In more recent times, over the last two decades, considerable persecution has been made of the spiritual reformer and sage Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi and his followers in Pakistan. He was opposed and threatened and forced to flee the country and his books banned there, and anyone publicly supporting him is liable to immediate arrest.

paragraphs: Even proper, formal Sufi orders have suffered persecution for various reasons. In recent times the most notorious example was the outright banning of Sufism in Iran. This happened in spite of the famous "Amman Message", a joint declaration made by over 200 of the most noted moderate Islamic scholars in a conference in Amman, Jordan, in 2005, stressing that Sufism is very much 'part' of Islam.

paragraphs: Some volumes for further reading on Sufism include:


title: Dove

paragraphs: Pigeons or doves are the bird family Columbidae.

paragraphs: The common names "pigeon" and "dove" are often used interchangeably. In ornithology, "dove" tends to be used for smaller species and "pigeon" for larger ones. The feral domestic pigeon is often called the "rock dove": it is common in many cities.

paragraphs: There are more than 300 species in the family. They usually make nests of sticks, and their two white eggs are incubated by both the male and the female parent. Doves feed on seeds, fruit and plants.

paragraphs: Unlike most other birds, the doves and pigeons produce a type of milk. It is produced in their crop, and called crop milk. Both sexes have this highly nutritious milk to feed their young.

paragraphs: Pigeons and doves are distributed everywhere on Earth, except for the driest areas of the Sahara Desert, Antarctica and its surrounding islands and the high Arctic. They have colonised most of the world's oceanic islands. They are in eastern Polynesia and the Chatham Islands in the Pacific, Mauritius, the Seychelles and Réunion in the Indian Ocean, and the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: The family has adapted to most of the habitats available on the planet. Doves may be arboreal or terrestrial or partly terrestrial. Species live in savannas, grasslands, deserts, temperate woodlands and forests, mangrove forests, and even the barren sands and gravels of atolls. Some species have large natural ranges.

paragraphs: The largest range of any species is that of the rock dove. This species lives in Britain and Ireland, northern Africa, across Europe, Arabia, Central Asia, India, the Himalayas and up into China and Mongolia. The range of the species increased dramatically after it was domesticated, because the species went feral in cities around the world. It lives in cities across most of North America, South America, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, Japan, Australia and New Zealand.

paragraphs: The species is not the only pigeon to have increased its range due to the actions of man; several other species have become established outside of their natural range after escaping captivity. Other species have also increased their natural ranges due to habitat changes by humans.

paragraphs: The dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire are two famous flightless birds on the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar. They are extinct, but were alive before sailors found the islands. They had no fear of humans, whom they had never seen. The sailors hunted them, and killed them for food. Both species are now extinct. Animals introduced by man may also have hunted them. Their anatomy (osteology) and DNA sequence analyses show they were are in the Columbidae.

paragraphs: In the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, doves were used as symbols for the Canaanite mother goddess Asherah, the Phoenician goddess Tanit, and the Roman goddesses Venus and Fortunata.

paragraphs: The Christian symbol of a dove with an olive branch in its beak represents peace and comes from Genesis 8:6 - 12, also John 1:32–34. The Christian stories came after very similar myths from earlier cultures.The Chaldean myth the "Epic of Gilgamesh", Utnapishtim releases a dove and raven to find land; however, the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.

paragraphs: Several species of pigeons and doves are used as food, and probably any might be. The powerful breast muscles of the family make excellent meat. Domesticated or hunted pigeon were used as food in Mesopotamia, Ancient Rome and medieval Europe. It is familiar meat within Jewish, Arab, Assamese and French cuisines. According to the Tanakh, doves are kosher, and they are the only birds that may be used for a "korban" (offering). Other kosher birds may be eaten, but not brought as a "korban". It is also eaten in Asian cuisines, such as Chinese and Indonesian cuisine. Young pigeons in cuisine are known as "squabs".

paragraphs: In Europe, the wood pigeon is commonly shot as a game bird. Rock pigeons were originally domesticated as a food species, and many breeds were developed for their meat-bearing qualities. The extinction of the passenger pigeon in North America was partly due to shooting for food. Mrs Beeton's "Book of Household Management" has recipes for roast pigeon and pigeon pie, a popular, inexpensive food in Victorian industrial Britain.


title: Antonio Prohias

paragraphs: Antonio Prohias (January 17, 1921 – February 24, 1998) was a Cuban-born cartoonist. He is best known as the creator of Spy vs. Spy. The running gag is of two incompent spies-one in black clothing-one in white clothing-who consisity try to outdo each other in comic mayhem. Although one comic only identies their countries as Black/White another one tells their nationalities are given in an International border cartoon in which the Black Spy from the "East" tries to sneak over to the "West" [Guarded by the "White Spy."]-although a later cartoon identies their countries as "Black SpyLand" (and presumedly "White Spyland") Likewise the Spys parents and their Children are cloathed as Black/white Miniature copies of their fathers Even in childhood and old age the two spys began their mayhem against one another-although their feuding goes back to Caveman times and the Roman Empire In the Spy Vs Spy World even innocenet human bystanders toys and the Spys animals are cloathed in Black/White They even have their own Spy Cemeteries [ID only as Agent Number but no names]; and Fan Clubs; their newspapers are called "Spy News" The Spys weopons could be anything-from antique Biplanes to Jets Each spy would be attached to either their own embassy or their respective Spy Hq-a running gag is that each spy would try to steal secrets from the enemy spy embassy On occasion Prohias would introduce a variation in which one Spy would embaress -but not kill-the enemy spy Other variations-more than One spy of the same color vs enemy Spy; and occasionally the introduction of a third Spy..the femme fatalee female "Grey Spy" would always trick the two love struck bumblers to their doom. In Honor of St Patricks Day another Spy was introduced the "Green Spy". When "Mad Magazine" had its own TV Show they would show 3D Cartoons of Spy Vs Spy shorts. After Prohias demise the Cartoon has been drawn by Kupper


title: Chancellor

paragraphs: Chancellor is the leader of the government in Germany or Austria. The title "Chancellor" means the same thing as "Prime Minister".

paragraphs: For example, Italy has a Prime Minister while Germany has a Chancellor. They have the same job but a different title.

paragraphs: In the United Kingdom, the Chancellor means the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the person in charge of the country's finances (taxes and spending). Also in the United Kingdom, there is a Lord Chancellor.

paragraphs: Chancellor is also a title given to public officials in some other countries. For example, "Daijō-daijin" or Chancellor of the Realm was a government position in Japan in the late Nara and Heian periods.


title: MUD

paragraphs: In terms of computer games, a MUD (short for Multi-User Dungeon, Multi-User Dimension or Multi-User Domain) is a multiplayer online game that is usually completely text-based.


title: Ulysses S. Grant

paragraphs: Ulysses S. Grant (April 27, 1822–July 23, 1885), born Hiram Ulysses Grant, was an American general who helped the Union Army of the United States win the American Civil War. He later became the 18th President of the United States (1869-1877).

paragraphs: Hiram Ulysses Grant was born on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. He was the oldest of six children born to Jesse and Hannah Grant. Jesse Grant was a tanner. It was hard smelly work but he made a good living at it. Young Grant worked for his father in the tannery but hated the work. He went to local schools. In 1838 he attended the Presbyterian Academy in Ripley, Ohio. In 1839 he was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point. He was not the best student though he was good at math. When he graduated, he was placed in the infantry.

paragraphs: When Grant arrived at West Point and discovered that the Academy had him registered under the wrong name as "Ulysses S. Grant". He was told that it didn't matter what he or his parents thought his name was, the official government application said his name was "Ulysses S." and that application could not be changed. If "Hiram Ulysses Grant" wanted to attend West Point, he would have to change his name.

paragraphs: Before becoming the president, Grant was an officer in the Union Army (North). He fought in the Mexican War and became a general at the start of the American Civil War. He served as head of the Army of Tennessee and won victories at Shiloh, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga. He became the top general in the Union Army from 1864 to 1865, and fought several battles against Robert E. Lee.

paragraphs: Since he was able to do well fighting in the American Civil War, he gained popularity which helped him to become the candidate for president of the Republican party. The Republicans were then the strongest party. Even though he was a respected general and supported civil rights for African Americans, historians criticize his presidency because he appointed his friends into high political positions and tolerated their corruption (even though Grant himself was innocent). Grant was the youngest president, only 46 years old, and the first to have both his parents attend his inauguration. He was also the first elected because of African American voters, who could vote then, although there was a big fight about it, which ended with many Black voters losing the right to vote. In his election, he won about 500,000 votes from African Americans, while the majority of white voters supported the Democratic candidate, who was called Horatio Seymour. Grant supported the right of Black men to vote because of this, but also because he thought it was right.

paragraphs: In 1872, Republican reformers split the party and nominated Horace Greeley to be president. The Democratic Party also nominated him. Greeley wanted Civil Service reform and amnesty for all former Confederates. Grant won the election by a landslide.

paragraphs: Very soon into Grant's second term the Panic of 1873 started a depression in the United States that spread to Europe. In 1873, Republicans in Congress were caught in a bribery scandal by newspapers. They had collected large bribes to give large federal Grants to the railroads. The bribes had taken place before Grant was president, but the news came out during his presidency making it seem even more corrupt. Also in 1873, Grant signed a bill that gave himself and congressmen a pay raise. The press attacked him for it calling it a money grab. Republicans were getting a bad reputation in the press. Mid-term, the Democrats won a majority of votes in the House. They started a number of congregational investigations. Grant's Secretary of the Treasury had to resign after being caught in a fraud scheme involving taxpayer kickbacks.

paragraphs: The Whiskey Ring was the largest scandal and involved widespread fraud. Grant had appointed an army friend John MacDonald as an Internal Revenue Service supervisor for the St. Louis area. In return for bribes, whisky distillers paid taxes only on a small portion of the whiskey they produced. They were cheating the U.S. government out of millions of dollars a year. MacDonald kept some of the money while some of it went to the Republican Party. The Whiskey Ring was paying some officials a regular salary to keep them from talking. Benjamin Bristow, the Secretary of the Treasury at the time, had no idea this was going on. Each time he sent inspectors on a raid to check out suspected cheaters, their records were always in good order. Bristow had no idea someone in his office was telling them in advance who was to be inspected. Meanwhile, Grant accepted expensive gifts from MacDonald not suspecting he was running a fraud scheme. MacDonald even told his friends in St. Louis that Grant was in on the scheme. In 1875, MacDonald and more than 350 distillers and government officials were indicted. This included Grant's personal secretary Orville Babcock. He was the one keeping ring members informed of any inspections. At his trial, witnesses lied and even President Grant wrote a letter stating Babcock was of good character. As a result, Babcock was exonerated of the charges, but the scandal prevented him from going back to his job in Washington. Of those accused, 60 paid fines while MacDonald and two others went to prison. The Whiskey Ring proved to most Americans that Grant's administration was filled with corruption.

paragraphs: After his presidency, Grant was suffering from throat cancer. He made a long trip to Europe and tried to become president again in 1880. Nobody had been elected three times before and it was seen as wrong by many because George Washington had refused to. In the end, the Republican party agreed to nominate (propose) congressman James Garfield instead. But Grant kept many supporters in the party. One of them shot Garfield the same year, and killed him. Grant never became president again, however, and only one man has been elected three times (actually four), Franklin Roosevelt. Grant was the first one to try, however.

paragraphs: Despite the problems during his second term, Grant was immensely popular, much like a modern-day movie star, and wrote a book about his life that sold millions of copies. He died three days after he finished writing it. He is buried with his wife Julia in Grant's Tomb, New York City, New York.


title: Grenada

paragraphs: Grenada is an island nation in the Caribbean Sea that received its independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. Its capital is St. George's.

paragraphs: The island was invaded by the American military in 1983 because of Cuba's presence there. In 2004, a hurricane named Ivan destroyed most of the island's resources.

paragraphs: Grenada is called the Spice Island on account of its most famous export, the nutmeg.


title: Accrington

paragraphs: Accrington is a town in Lancashire, England. It is in North West England. The town had a population of 35,203 in the 2001 census. The Accrington Stanley Football Club play here.


title: Yateley

paragraphs: Yateley is a suburban town in England in the county of Hampshire. It had a population of 21,011 according to the 2001 census.

paragraphs: It is on the borders with Berkshire and Surrey. It lies some 35 miles (56 km) west-south-west of London and 15 miles (24 km) south of Reading. Other local towns and villages include Eversley, Finchampstead, Hartley Wintney, Blackwater, Camberley, Sandhurst, Crowthorne, Farnborough and Fleet.

paragraphs: Yateley mainly serves as a dormitory town for workers in London, Reading, Guildford, Farnborough and Camberley.

paragraphs: Public transport in Yateley is limited to a bus that serves Blackwater, Camberley and Aldershot. There is no train station.

paragraphs: There are two secondary schools in the town, Yateley School and Frogmore School, and many infant and primary schools.


title: Stratford-upon-Avon

paragraphs: Stratford-upon-Avon is a town in England. It is famous as the birthplace of William Shakespeare. It lies on the River Avon, 22 miles (35 km) south east of Birmingham and 8 miles (13 km) south west of the county town, Warwick.


title: Pune

paragraphs: Pune is the 8th largest metropolis in India. It is in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The city is famous for the great "Maratha" king "Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj". The game of badminton was invented there in the 19th century. It is also the birthplace of spiritual teacher Meher Baba. Mula and Mutha are the two rivers that flow through the city. It has also been referred to as the ""Queen of the Deccan"", ""Oxford of the East"", ""Detroit of India"" by some.

paragraphs: It has a major Information Technology (IT) center. This city is managed by the Pune Municipal Council (PMC).

paragraphs: Pune is a city of knowledge and often known as the Oxford of the east. In Marathi, it is known as "vidyeche maherghar." It means the hometown of education. The population of Pune was 8,242,142 by 2015.

paragraphs: The name Pune comes from the Sanskrit word - "". It means "city of virtue". Pune is known for its educational facilities, having more than hundred educational institutes and nine universities. Pune has well-established glass, sugar and metal forging industries since the 1950s. Pune is also known as the "Oxford of the East." Pune was once the centre of power for the Maratha Empire. It is known to have existed as a town since 847 AD. Pune was the first capital of Shivaji Maharaj.

paragraphs: It is the cultural capital of Maharashtra. There are many historic places like Shaniwar Wada, Lal Mahal and many museums like the Aga Khan Palace, Raja Kelkar Museum, and the National War museum.

paragraphs: The climate of Pune is suitable to reside in, so many people settled there. Today, Pune has many complexes, shopping malls and multiplexes. There are many research centres present in Pune.

paragraphs: Students not only from other cities and States come here to study, but international students from various countries are also found here. There are many clubs for different sports activities in this city. The main attraction of the city is the Ganesh Festival which is celebrated with great joy.

paragraphs: There are many educational institutions like Symbiosis, SP and Fergusson. Many people in Pune are food lovers, there are many famous Bhelpuri and Vada pav centres.


title: Beer (Devon)

paragraphs: Beer is the name of a village in Devon, South West England. It is famous for underground quarries started by the Romans which have supplied stone for many of England's Historic buildings. Fishing was also a large industry with smuggling connections and the ladies of Beer made the lace for Queen Victoria's wedding dress.


title: Fly

paragraphs: A fly (plural: "flies") is an insect of the order Diptera. The Diptera is a large order of advanced flying insects.

paragraphs: Their most obvious distinction from other insects is in their flight. A typical fly has two flight wings on its thorax and a pair of halteres. The halteres, which evolved from the hind wings, act as flight sensors: they are balance organs. Also flies have large eyes with excellent wide-angle vision.

paragraphs: With the help of their eyes and halteres, flies are exceptional fliers. They can avoid most predators, and are the most difficult insects to capture by hand. Their jinks, dives and turns to avoid their predators is their main adaptation. "These flies do a precise and fast calculation to avoid a specific threat and they are doing it using a brain that is as small as a grain of salt"... "And they can fly like an ace at birth. It's like putting a newborn baby in the cockpit of a fighter aircraft and it knowing what to do".

paragraphs: The only other order of insects bearing two true, functional wings plus any form of halteres are the Strepsiptera, a small order of insects. In contrast to the flies, the Strepsiptera evolved their halteres from their front wings and their flight wings are their rear wings.

paragraphs: The presence of a single pair of wings distinguishes true flies from other insects with "fly" in their name, such as mayflies, dragonflies, damselflies, stoneflies, whiteflies, fireflies, sawflies, caddisflies, butterflies or scorpionflies.

paragraphs: Some true flies have become secondarily wingless, including some that live in social insect colonies.

paragraphs: Flies are also holometabolous, with complete metamorphosis.

paragraphs: There are an estimated 1,000,000 species, although only about 150,000 species have been described.

paragraphs: There are many different kinds of flies. Scientists have named 85,000 kinds (species).

paragraphs: Some flies do not have the word "fly" in their name, so people may not know they are flies.

paragraphs: Some insects have the word "fly" in their names, but they are not flies at all.


title: Dhikr

paragraphs: The Arabic word Dhikr means "remembrance". Another word is Dhikrullah ("remembrance of God").

paragraphs: Dhikr is a kind of worship to God. It is often performed by the Sufis in congregation, and each Sufi order has its special kind of Dhikr.

paragraphs: However all Muslims must do dhikr.There are many benefits of doing Dhikr according to Islamic theology.Such as the fact that it is a polisher of the heart, a way of gaining closeness to Allah, one can even gain trees in Paradise for it.


title: Jockey

paragraphs: A jockey is a person who rides horses in horse races. Most jockeys have to be under a certain weight and/or height, so they would not be too heavy on the horse.


title: George Lazenby

paragraphs: George Lazenby (born September 5, 1939) is an Australian-born model and actor. He was born in Goulburn, New South Wales. He is best known for his role as James Bond in the movie "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" (1968). He is the only actor to play the role of Bond only once in an official James Bond movie.


title: Cone

paragraphs: In common speaking and geometry, a cone is a solid object that one gets when one rotates a right triangle around one of its two short sides, the cone's axis. The disk made by the other short side is called the base, and the point of the axis which is not on the base is the cone's "apex" or "vertex". An object that is shaped like a cone is "conical".

paragraphs: In more technical terms, a cone is formed by a set of line segments, half-lines, or lines connecting a common point, the apex, to all of the points on a base that is in a plane that does not contain the apex. Depending on the author, the base may be restricted to be a circle, any one-dimensional quadratic form in the plane, any closed one-dimensional figure, or any of the above plus all the enclosed points. If the enclosed points are included in the base, the cone is a solid object; otherwise it is a two-dimensional object in three-dimensional space. In the case of a solid object, the boundary formed by these lines or partial lines is called the lateral surface; if the lateral surface is unbounded, it is a conical surface.

paragraphs: In the case of line segments, the cone does not extend beyond the base, while in the case of half-lines, it extends infinitely far. In the case of lines, the cone extends infinitely far in both directions from the apex, in which case it is sometimes called a double cone. Either half of a double cone on one side of the apex is called a nappe.volume formula_1 of a cone is one third of the product of the area of the base formula_2 and the height formula_3


title: Ice cream

paragraphs: Ice cream is a frozen dessert made from cream and ice, with added flavors and sweeteners. This mixture is quickly frozen while it is stirred continuously in a mixer,so that large ice crystals do not form. Some ice cream is made with carrageenan, a gum found in seaweed so that it is not sticky and easily eatable.Nowadays, ice cream comes with different flavors, shapes, colours and textures.

paragraphs: Ice cream was first eaten as early as 500 B.C in Persia. In the Achaemid Empire, an ancient Persian empire, ice cream was made of ice combined with flavorings. Just like modern ice cream, this type of ice cream is eaten during summer. In 400 BC, the Persians invented a special type of ice cream reserved to the royalty during summers. This type of ice cream is made of rose water and vermicelli. The ice in this particular ice cream was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavors.

paragraphs: In 200 BC, the Chinese used a frozen mixture of milk and rice to make ice cream.

paragraphs: Ice cream became very popular in the Mediterranean in the 1800s. Mediterranean people during the 1800s could easily afford ice cream. People started to make lots of recipes for ice cream.

paragraphs: From the 1950s onward, ice cream became a lot more popular. Refrigeration was easily affordable because many people owned fridges that could store ice cream for a very long time without melting.

paragraphs: There are lots of ways to make ice cream. Most people don't make ice cream, because it is easier to buy ice cream.

paragraphs: Shops make ice cream by mixing cream and other things like milk, sugar, and eggs. Then they add flavoring (something that adds flavor to a food). Then they freeze it.

paragraphs: You can also make ice cream by putting cream, milk, and sugar in a plastic bag. Then put ice and salt in a bigger bag. If you put the smaller bag inside the bigger bag, then shake it for 5-10 minutes, you get ice cream.

paragraphs: People sell ice cream through many ways. You can buy ice cream in ice cream containers from supermarkets. You can also buy ice cream on a cone from an ice cream truck.

paragraphs: There are many different flavors of ice cream. Ice cream often has things added to it for flavor, like chocolate chips, nuts, fruit, cookie dough, sweets, sauces or small candies.

paragraphs: Many ice cream parlors, such as Cold Stone Creamery, allow people to make something called a sundae, which is at least one flavor of ice cream mixed with things such as nuts, dark or white chocolate chips, bananas, cherries, pineapples, candies, cookies, marshmallows, and various syrups such as hot fudge, maple and butterscotch. Also, ice cream is often placed on a piece of pie, which is called "pie a la mode".


title: Grace Coolidge

paragraphs: Grace Anna Coolidge (née Goodhue; January 3, 1879 – July 8, 1957) was First Lady of the United States. She was the wife of United States President Calvin Coolidge. She acted as the First Lady of the United States from 1923 to 1929.

paragraphs: Her parents were Andrew and Lemira B. Goodhue. She was their only child. She spent her childhood at Burlington, Vermont. She graduated from the University of Vermont in 1902. She then started teaching at a school for the deaf children. The name of that school was the Clarke School for the Deaf, Northampton, Massachusetts. There she met Calvin Coolidge. They married in October 1905. The name of their first son was John Coolidge. The name of their second, born in 1908, son was Calvin, Jr.

paragraphs: During all these years, her husband was working as a lawyer. Then, he became the governor. During all these years, Grace Coolidge helped her husband actively. By 1921, her husband has become the Vice President. They moved to Washington. Grace Coolidge soon became very popular in the high society of Washington.

paragraphs: President Warren G. Harding died in 1923, and Calvin Coolidge became the President of the United States. Suddenly, their second son aged only 16 years died. She did not allow her personal sadness to disturb her work as the First Lady.

paragraphs: In 1929, the president retired, and the couple left Washington. They went to Northampton (Massachusetts) to live.

paragraphs: USA’s National Institute of Social Sciences awarded her a gold medal. In 1931, many people of America selected her as one of America’s living women.

paragraphs: In 1933, her husband died, but she lived for many decades. She died in 1957 at the age of 78. She lived a private life. In between, she took her first airplane ride and a trip to Europe.


title: Blacksmith

paragraphs: A blacksmith is a person who works with iron and steel. The blacksmith hammers hot iron on an anvil to change its shape. Blacksmiths make iron and steel tools.

paragraphs: A smith is a person who works in metal. A blacksmith works with iron and steel. A thousand years ago, people only knew about seven metals (iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and mercury). By color: gold is yellow; copper is red; and silver, tin, lead, and mercury are different gray colors. Iron is also a gray color if you shine it, but usually its surface is covered with a black oxide, which is a kind of rust. This black color forms very fast in a blacksmith's fire. The other metals have light colors, but iron is a dark color, so it is called the black metal in English. A smith who works the black metal is a black-smith.

paragraphs: A farrier works with iron like a blacksmith. The only ironwork a farrier does is to make horseshoes.

paragraphs: Iron must be very hot to shape with a hammer. Hot iron becomes cold very soon. A blacksmith has only a few seconds to hammer a piece of iron, before it must be put back in the fire to become hot again.

paragraphs: A forge is a special oven for metalworking. It burns coal or charcoal in a very hot fire. A bellows pushes air into the forge, to make the fire burn hotter. The blacksmith puts pieces of iron in the fire to make them hot and to keep them hot until they use it.

paragraphs: There are a few ways to change a piece of iron's shape with hammer and heat. Here are the most important ways that a blacksmith uses:

paragraphs: A punch is a tool like a short stick of iron. The end of the punch is flat.

paragraphs: A chisel is a tool like a short stick of iron. The end of the chisel is sharp to cut.

paragraphs: Steel is iron with a little carbon in it (0.3% to 1.7% carbon by weight).

paragraphs: All metals get harder when a smith hammers or bends them. This is called "work-hardening". If a smith hammers or bends a piece of metal that is already work-hardened, it will crack and break. To make work-hardened metal soft again, so that a smith can hammer and bend it more, the smith anneals the metal.

paragraphs: To "anneal" iron or steel, a blacksmith heats the metal until it no longer pulls a magnet, and then makes the metal become cold very slowly. Blacksmiths can cover the hot metal with sand, so that it takes hours to become cold. This makes iron or steel very soft.

paragraphs: Steel acts just like iron, until a blacksmith "heat-treats" the steel. This is a special way to make the steel hot and then cold, so that the steel will become hard enough to keep a cutting edge (blade). A blade made from a piece of iron (instead of steel) will very soon become dull and will not cut. Good blades (for knives, chisels, axes, and other tools with cutting edges) are always made of steel, then heat-treated, and then sharpened.

paragraphs: To heat-treat steel, a blacksmith heats the steel until it no longer pulls a magnet, then makes the steel become cold very quickly. A blacksmith does this by putting the hot steel into a bucket of water and moving it around until it is cold. This is called "quenching". When this is finished, the steel will be as hard as it can be. This hardness can make it brittle, so if someone hits or drops it, it can break like glass.

paragraphs: The next step is to "draw the temper" or "temper" the steel, so that it will not break like glass. To temper steel, a blacksmith polishes a part of the steel so that it is smooth and shiny. The blacksmith then slowly heats the steel in the fire. When the steel is between , the polished steel will turn different colors. These colors do not glow in the dark; they look like dye on the polished steel. As the steel gets hotter from 300 to 650 degrees F, it will turn through the colors: yellow, then brown, then purple, then blue. Yellow means the steel will still be harder, blue means the steel will be softer (but still hard). When the steel turns the color that the blacksmith wants, he puts the steel into a bucket of water to stop the change. Different tools are tempered to different colors, but it also depends on how much carbon there is in the steel. Usually, stone chisels are tempered to yellow, and axes for trees are tempered to blue, but the blacksmith has to decide.

paragraphs: A blacksmith does not hammer a blade edge thin. A blacksmith hammers the steel so that the edge stays thick. After the "heat-treat" and "temper", stones are used to grind the blade edge to make it sharp.

paragraphs: If a blacksmith has a piece of iron or steel, but does not know which one it is, the blacksmith can heat-treat it like steel. If it does not become hard, then it is not steel. Iron will show the same temper colors as steel, but it will not be hard.

paragraphs: If a blacksmith has an old steel tool, and wants to hammer it into a new different tool, the blacksmith anneals the steel. The steel will then be very soft like iron. The blacksmith can then hammer it into a new tool, and heat-treat and temper it, to make a new, hard steel tool.

paragraphs: A blacksmith must be careful when hammering hardened steel or work-hardened iron, because small pieces can break off and fly, and these can hurt his or her eyes. Many blacksmiths wear plastic safety glasses to keep their eyes safe.

paragraphs: The first blacksmiths were Hittites. They started working iron to make tools around 1500 BC. The ways that tools are made by blacksmiths have changed very little since then.

paragraphs: Around 1850, countries like the United States of America and the United Kingdom made new ways to make steel and tools in factories. Factories now make tools faster, and for less money than blacksmiths. There are now very few blacksmiths in countries that have a lot of factories.

paragraphs: The few blacksmiths that are still in countries with a lot of factories, make iron that is art. These blacksmiths make gates, stair rails, and chairs and tables for outdoors. People buy this iron as art, because each piece is different from the other pieces.


title: Caracas

paragraphs: Caracas is the capital city of Venezuela. Santiago de Leòn de Losada founded the city in 1567. It is where Simon Bolivar was born. The city has nearly 6 million people, who live in the metropolitan area. Caracas is the center of the economical activity of the country and also hosts the main government offices of Venezuela.

paragraphs: After WW2 the city has experienced a huge growth, thanks to the oil revenues of the country. Nearly half a million Europeans immigrated to the city in the 1950s ( that had in those years only one million inhabitants) and so Caracas developed a typical western-European look in the new modern areas.

paragraphs: All the best teams of the sports done in Venezuela are concentrated in the metropolitan area of Caracas. Between those teams we have:

paragraphs: Many beautiful modern buildings can be seen in the city. Here there are some of them:


title: Homestar Runner

paragraphs: Homestar Runner, also called H*R, is an Internet cartoon that was made using Macromedia Flash. It usually gets updated every Monday (but, except for an update on April Fools' Day of 2014 and a few cartoons since, it has not been actively updated since December 2010) with a cartoon, a game, or a Strong Bad Email. The people that made the website are Mike Chapman and Matt Chapman. They are brothers and are called The Brothers Chaps. The cartoons on the website normally show Homestar Runner or Strong Bad, who are the main characters on the cartoon.

paragraphs: Telltale Games, the makers of video games based on the Sam & Max comic book, made a game called "Strong Bad's Cool Game for Attractive People" for Windows and the Wii's WiiWare. It's an episodic game with five episodes, and it is made with 3 dimensions instead of 2 dimensions like Homestar Runner is. The first episode was called "Homestar Ruiner", and ended with "8-Bit is Enough".


title: Horst Köhler

paragraphs: Horst Köhler (born 22 February 1943) is a German politician of the Christian Democratic Union. He was President of Germany from 2004 to 2010. He was the candidate of the two Christian Democratic sister parties, the CDU and the CSU, and the liberal FDP, for becoming President. Köhler was elected to his first five-year term by the Federal Assembly on 23 May 2004. He was reelected to a second term on 23 May 2009. About one year later, on 31 May 2010, he resigned from his office in a controversy over his comment on the role of the Bundeswehr in light of a visit to the troops in Afghanistan.

paragraphs: Köhler is an economist by profession. Prior to his election as President, Köhler had a career in politics, the civil service and as a banking executive. He was President of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from 1998 to 2000. He also served as the head of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) from 2000 to 2004.

paragraphs: Although the office of President is less influential than that of the Chancellor and is mostly concerned with ceremonial matters, Köhler was a highly popular politician during his term. He has called for more influence for the President and has suggested the President should be directly elected. This was the case under Germany's Weimar Constitution.

paragraphs: Köhler was born in Skierbieszów (later named Heidenstein), in the General Government area of German-occupied Poland. He was the seventh child of Elisabeth and Eduard Köhler. His family were Bessarabian Germans from Rîşcani in Romanian Bessarabia (near Bălţi, present-day Moldova). Horst Köhler's parents had to leave their home in Bessarabia in 1940. As part of the Generalplan Ost, they were resettled in 1942 at Skierbieszów. This was a village near Zamość, Poland (then part of the General Government). When the Wehrmacht was pushed back during World War Two, the Köhler family fled to Leipzig. In 1953, they left the Soviet Zone to escape from the communist regime. The family lived in refugee camps until 1957. Then, they settled in Ludwigsburg. Horst Köhler hence spent most of his first 14 years as a refugee.

paragraphs: A teacher proposed that the refugee boy should apply for the Gymnasium. Köhler took his "Abitur" in 1963. After a two-year military service at a Panzergrenadier battalion in Ellwangen, he left the Bundeswehr as reserve officer. He studied and finally earned a doctorate in economics and political sciences from University of Tübingen. There, he was a scientific research assistant at the Institute for Applied Economic Research from 1969 to 1976.

paragraphs: Köhler joined the civil service in 1976, when he was employed in the Federal Ministry of Economics. In 1981, he was employed in the Chancellery of the state government in Schleswig-Holstein. He served there under Prime Minister Gerhard Stoltenberg. In 1982, Köhler was made head of the Ministers office in the Federal Ministry of Finance. He rose to head of department in 1987, with responsibility for financial policy and federal industrial interests. In 1989, he became head of the department for currency and credit.

paragraphs: He is a member of the CDU since 1981. He was Secretary of State in the Federal Ministry of Finance from 1990 to 1993. In that capacity, he served as a "sherpa" (personal representative) for Chancellor Helmut Kohl, preparing G7. He also served as the primary German negotiator in the Maastricht Treaty negotiations.

paragraphs: Between 1993 and 1998 he served as President of the association of savings banks in Germany. In 1998, he was appointed president of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. He settled in London, where the headquarters of the bank is located.

paragraphs: Köhler was appointed managing Director and Chairman of the Executive Board of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2000. The government of Gerhard Schröder nominated him. This was because their first nominee, Caio Koch-Weser, was rejected by the United States.

paragraphs: He lived in Washington, D.C., from 2000 to 2004.

paragraphs: On 4 March 2004, Köhler resigned his positions, because he was nominated as presidential candidate. Köhler defeated Gesine Schwan on the first ballot by 604 votes to 580. 20 votes were cast for minor candidates, while one elector was absent because of a heart attack. Köhler succeeded Johannes Rau as President on 1 July 2004, for a five-year term. Germany's presidency is a largely ceremonial office. However, it is also invested with considerable moral authority. From 2004 until early 2006, Charlottenburg Palace was the seat of the President of Germany. This was because Schloss Bellevue has been renovated.

paragraphs: Upon his election, Köhler said that "Patriotism and being cosmopolitan are not opposites". Presenting his visions for Germany, Köhler also said that "Germany should become a land of ideas".

paragraphs: In July 2005, he suspended the Bundestag at Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's request. Schröder had lost a motion of confidence in the Bundestag. This led to early election for the Bundestag in September 2005.

paragraphs: In October 2006, he made a far-reaching decision by vetoing a bill. It would transfer Germany's Air Safety Administration Deutsche Flugsicherung into private ownership. The Bundestag passed this legislation but as President, Köhler was authorized to not sign it into law if, in his opinion, it contravenes the constitution. In December 2006, he did not sign the Consumer Information Law, because the constitution does not allow the federal government to instruct municipal authorities. This can only be done by the German states. There had only been six previous occasions when Germany's president had chosen to reject bills. In most instances less important legislation was involved. His vetoes were the first notable examples in recent German history.

paragraphs: In his 2007 Christmas address to the nation, Köhler urged the government to push ahead more quickly with reforms. He was also critical of the introduction of the minimum wage in the postal sector, stating that "a minimum wage that can not be paid by competitive employers destroys jobs".

paragraphs: On 22 May 2008, Köhler said, that he wants to be the candidate for a second term as president. On 23 May 2009, he was re-elected by the Federal Assembly, and was sworn into office for a second term on 1 July 2009.

paragraphs: In November 2009, Köhler refused to sign the "Zugangserschwerungsgesetz" (Access Impediment Act) into law without further information. The law, which aims to make it more difficult to access sites on the World Wide Web with child pornography, is considered by many legal experts to be unconstitutional.

paragraphs: On 31 May 2010, Köhler announced his resignation as President of Germany. This came after German politicians criticised comments made by Köhler in relation to overseas military deployments:

paragraphs: He came under criticism for his statement that Germany’s military missions abroad also served to secure trade. He afterwards stated that his comments referred to piracy off the coast of Somalia. Köhler stated that there was no substance to accusations that in the interview he had overstepped his formal role by favouring an unconstitutional position. After getting no support in the dispute, Köhler stepped down on 31 May 2010. He made a statement saying "I declare my resignation from the Office of President, with immediate effect." The resignation was considered a "surprise". The following days he was criticized for not being able to handle criticism while being a rigorous critic himself. His unprecedented act of immediate resignation was also considered showing a lack of respect for his position.

paragraphs: As written down in the German constitution, the powers of the vacant office were executed by the current President of the Bundesrat, Jens Böhrnsen, until Christian Wulff was elected president on 30 June 2010.

paragraphs: Horst Köhler is married to Eva Köhler, a teacher. They have two children, a daughter Ulrike (born in 1972) and a son Jochen (born in 1977). His daughter, who suffers from retinitis pigmentosa, became blind as a teenager. Horst Köhler is a member of the Evangelical Church in Germany.


title: John Williams

paragraphs: John Towner Williams (born February 8, 1932) is an American composer and conductor. He has composed many soundtracks for blockbuster movies such as "Star Wars", "Superman", "Jaws", "Jaws 2", "Indiana Jones", "Home Alone", "", "Jurassic Park", "", "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets", "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban", and "Lincoln".

paragraphs: William was born in Long Island, New York on February 8, 1932. He studied at the University of California, Los Angeles and at the Julliard School. His parents were Esther and Johnny Williams.

paragraphs: He is best known for his scores (soundtracks) for movies such as "Jaws", "Jaws 2", "Star Wars", "Superman", "E.T.", "Indiana Jones", "Home Alone", "", "Schindler's List", "Jurassic Park", "", "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets", "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban", and "Lincoln". He conducted the Boston Pops Orchestra and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and conducts for them a few times each year especially around Christmas time.

paragraphs: Williams has composed music for all but two of Steven Spielberg's movies ("Duel" and "The Color Purple").

paragraphs: For Barack Obama's presidential inauguration on January 20, 2009, John Williams made a special arrangement of the Shaker hymn "Air and Simple Gifts". It was performed by four musicians: the violinist Itzhak Perlman, the cellist Yo-Yo Ma, the clarinetist Anthony McGill and the pianist Gabriela Montero.

paragraphs: Williams also created the theme music for four Olympic Games, NBC Sunday Night Football, the NBC Nightly News, the Statue of Liberty's rededication, the television series "Lost in Space" and "Land of the Giants", and the original, not as well known calypso-based theme song to "Gilligan's Island".

paragraphs: Williams is currently in the production of "Star Wars Episode VII" which will be released in December 2015.

paragraphs: Williams was married to actress Barbara Ruick from 1956 until her death from a cerebral hemorrhage in 1974. They had three children: Jennifer, Joseph and Mark. In 1980, he married Samantha Winslow. They live in Los Angeles, California.

paragraphs: Williams has received 49 Academy Award nominations throughout his career. He is the only living person to do so. He won five of them. Williams has received the most nominations for Academy Awards of any person except for Walt Disney.

paragraphs: Williams has also won 4 Golden Globe Awards, 7 British Academy Film Awards and 21 Grammy Awards. Williams was honored with the annual Richard Kirk award at the 1999 BMI Film and TV Awards, recognizing his contribution to movies and television music.

paragraphs: Williams is an honorary member of Kappa Kappa Psi, the national fraternity for college band members. Williams was inducted into the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame in 2000, and was a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors in 2004.


title: Superman

paragraphs: Superman is a famous comic book character, and is often known as the first modern superhero character. He was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in 1932, while they were still in high school. He first appeared in "Action Comics" issue #1 in 1938. Later, he appeared in movies, television series, cartoons, commercials, video games, and radio shows. Superman is one of the most popular superheroes, he is in the DC Comics and the deuteragonist in the DC Universe. As a superhero he does not want to kill anyone. But he was forced to kill his enemy general Zod as Zod was about to kill people. Like other characters in the DC Universe, there have been several alternative versions of Superman over the years. Several actors have played Superman in motion pictures and TV series including Bud Collyer, Kirk Alyn, George Reeves, Christopher Reeve, Dean Cain, Tim Daly, Tom Welling, Brandon Routh, Henry Cavill, and Tyler Hoechlin.

paragraphs: Mr. Siegel imagined an evil villain who read minds and dreamed of conquering the world. He went by the name of the Superman. In the 1930s, Hitler, the infamous nazi villain from real life, was talking about getting rid of the Jews and communists. This was because he believed that Germans he called Aryans were supermen. Mr. Siegel, who was Jewish, found this disgusting. But one night, Mr. Siegel tossed and turned in his bed, and had a horrible time getting to sleep. When he awoke, Superman became the superman we know today, and the evil version disappeared.

paragraphs: Superman was born on a planet called Krypton. His name was Kal-El. When his father, Jor-El, found out that their planet was going to explode, Jor-El sent his baby son to Earth in a spacecraft to save him. Kal-El was found and adopted by Jonathan and Martha Kent. They named him Clark Kent. The Kents raised him as their own son in a town called Smallville, Kansas in the United States. (There is a television series called "Smallville" about his time growing up there)

paragraphs: As he grows up, Clark finds out that he has special powers. He is almost invulnerable (most things cannot hurt him). He is strong enough to lift almost anything and he can fly. Superman can also run and move faster than a bullet. He has X-ray vision (he can see through walls, he is not able to see through lead), and heat vision (shooting heat from his eyes). He can freeze things with his frost breath and his super-breath (which allows him to blow super hard). He decides to use his special powers to fight crime and save people in danger. He wears a blue and red costume and cape to keep his alter ego (his real name) a secret. He saves the entire world many times.

paragraphs: Superman moves to a city called Metropolis, and becomes a reporter for the Daily Planet, a newspaper. He falls in love with another reporter, Lois Lane.

paragraphs: His weaknesses are radioactive rocks from his home planet that are called "kryptonite"; and magic. Sometimes his enemies use it to hurt him. Diffferent Kryptoinites have different effects on him, Blue Kryptonite makes people able to control him using hypnosis, green weakens his powers and slowly kills him, black makes him evil, and red has many different effects on him (each piece of red kryptonite affects him differently). There is also gold, white, and jewel kryptonite. Some of Superman's enemies use magic to hurt him.

paragraphs: His most well known arch enemy is a bald (hairless), evil genius named Lex Luthor. He has other deadly enemies too. Bizarro is a failed duplicate of superman. Darkseid is a very powerful enemy, and the ruler of the planet Apokolips. Another enemy includes General Zod who comes from the same planet as Superman.

paragraphs: Superman also founded the Justice League of America alongside Batman, Wonder Woman, Aquaman, Green Lantern, The Flash, Hawkgirl, Hawkman, and Martian Manhunter.


title: Camellia

paragraphs: Camellia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Theaceae, native to eastern and southern Asia from the Himalaya east to Japan and Indonesia. Scientists are still discussing how many species there are. The number of species varies between 100 and 250. Linnaeus named the genus inhonour of Fr. Georg Joseph Kamel, a Jesuit botanist. amel brought C. japonica from Manila to Spain.

paragraphs: They are evergreen shrubs and small trees from 2–20 m tall. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, thick, serrated, usually glossy, and 3–17 cm long. The flowers are large and conspicuous, 1–12 cm diameter, with (in natural conditions) 5–9 petals; colour varies from white to pink and red, and yellow in a few species. The fruit is a dry capsule subdivided into 1–5 compartments, each containing 1–8 seeds.

paragraphs: The genus is generally adapted to acidic soils, and does not grow well on chalk or other calcium-rich soils. Most species also have a high rainfall requirement and will not tolerate drought.

paragraphs: "Camellia" species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of butterfly species.

paragraphs: "Camellia sinensis" is very important commercially since tea is made from its leaves. Tea oil is a sweet seasoning and cooking oil made by pressing the seeds of "Camellia sinensis" or "Camellia oleifera".

paragraphs: Many other camellias are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers; about 3,000 cultivars and hybrids have been selected, many with double flowers, as in the gallery below. "Camellia japonica" (often simply called Camellia) is the most prominent species in cultivation, with over 2,000 named cultivars; next are "C. reticulata", with over 400 named cultivars, and "C. sasanqua", with over 300 named cultivars. Popular hybrids include "C. × hiemalis" ("C. japonica" × "C. sasanqua") and "C. × williamsii" ("C. japonica" × "C. salouenensis"). They are highly valued in Japan and elsewhere for their very early flowering, often among the first flowers to appear in the late winter. Late frosts can damage the flowers.

paragraphs: Camellias have a slow growth rate. Typically they will grow about 30 centimetres a year until mature although this varies depending on variety and location.

paragraphs: "Camellia japonica" is the state flower of Alabama as well as the city flower of the Chinese municipality Chongqing.


title: Sekhmet

paragraphs: In Egyptian mythology, Sekhmet was the goddess of the sun, fire plagues, healing and war. She had the head of a lioness and the body of a woman. She was married to Ptah, the god of healing. They balanced each other. It was believed that her breath created the desert.

paragraphs: Sometimes known as sister to Bastet/Bast, a goddess who protected pregnant women and children.

paragraphs: Sekhmet had the head of a lioness and the body of a woman. She was usually depicted with a sun disc on top of her head. Many historians argue that she was from Sudan, since lions were plentiful there. When she was seated, she usually held the ankh of life, but when she was standing, she held a papyrus scepter, the symbol of Lower Egypt.

paragraphs: Sekhmet's breath represented a hot desert wind, and her body was the glare of the midday sun. She was created when Hathor came down to earth to take vengeance on man. Sekhmet became the destructive eye of the sun, and a solar goddess, and was named “Eye of Ra.” The ancient Egyptians knew that the sun could bring life, (Hathor), but also death. (Sekhmet). Her name translates as "The Powerful One." Sekhmet used her power destructively and brutally

paragraphs: The ancient Egyptians believed that Sekhmet took over sun and then the next morning she gave birth to the moon.

paragraphs: People were afraid of Sekhmet because along with her healing and protective powers, she was also destructive and retaliating. The ancient Egyptians believed that the "Seven Arrows of Sekhmet" would bring bad luck, so they used many charms and spells to protect themselves. There was a "Book of the Last Day of the Year" which they recited over a piece of cloth and wore around their neck at the end of the year. This was considered to be a dangerous time. On the first day of the New Year (Wep Ronpet), people would exchange amulets in the form of Sekhmet to keep the goddess happy.

paragraphs: Sekhmet had an unusual form of worship. She was worshipped evenly with her husband, Ptah, and her son, Nefertem. Her main cult center was in Memphis. Many priests recited complicated prayers, used to avert the rage of Sekhmet. A well-known prayer was called "The Last Day of the Year," and it was chanted while wearing a piece of cloth around one's head. The last day of the year was considered to be a dangerous period for the people, because Sekhmet usually attacked then.

paragraphs: Sekhmet was the Egyptian goddess of war and destruction. She was bloodthirsty, out of control, and the Egyptians thought she represented natural disasters. Her husband, Ptah, and her son, Nefertem were closely worshipped. Sekhmet was known as the lady of life, and the lady of terror. In one myth, Sekhmet terrorized the country of Egypt, crazy and thirsty for blood. Ra, the sun god, sent many swift-footed messengers to outsmart her. She saw through all, and then saw love through everything, and Sekhmet in her happiness, embraced it. She lay back and later turned into Hathor, the goddess of love.

paragraphs: Sekhmet’s main cult center was located in Memphis. When Amenemhat officially moved the capital of Egypt to Itjtawy, her cult center moved too. Her large similarity to Hathor brought the special erection of dual temples where citizens could worship Sekhmet and Hathor. Hundreds of jahovas were set up during the reign of Amenhotep III. At their bases, they emphasize Sekhmet's savagery and brutal myths.

paragraphs: Ancient Egypt. Oakes, Lorna, & Gahlin, Lucia. 268-269


title: Heterodoxy

paragraphs: Heterodoxy means a position that is not within the standards of orthodoxy or to put it precisely "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position". As an adjective, "heterodox" is used to describe a subject as "characterized by departure from accepted beliefs or standards" ("status quo").

paragraphs: In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the term is used to refer to Christian churches not belonging to the Eastern Orthodox communion, but have no positions that are as different from those of Orthodox Christianity to thought to be as false as heresy.

paragraphs: Heterodoxy in the Roman Catholic Church in a similar way means views that differ from strictly orthodox views, but retain sufficient faithfulness to the original doctrine to avoid heresy.

paragraphs: Many Roman Catholics profess some heterodox views, either on doctrinal or social issues. For example, the orthodox Catholic position on unbaptized infants is that their fate is uncertain, and "the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1261). A heterodox Catholic might profess the belief that unbaptized infants are offered the option to accept or deny salvation by God at their judgment. The belief is not orthodox, as the Church does not profess a belief as to what happens to unbaptized infants; however, it is also not heresy, as the Church accepts that such a scenario "might" be possible. By contrast, a denial of the doctrine of "Original Sin" (thereby negating the necessity of baptism for children) or Papal Infallibility -- would be labeled heretical.

paragraphs: The term "heterodox" is occasionally used by some Christians to refer to themselves when they are in disagreement with orthodox understandings. The heterodox Christians remain in the tradition and attempt a constructive dialog around issues with which they disagree.


title: Isotherm

paragraphs: Isotherms are lines drawn around places with the same temperature range on isotherm maps. Each point on this line shows one temperature reading, or the average of many temperature readings. Isotherm maps also have scales that tell the signals or colors for the different temperatures. Isotherm lines are usually curvy and not straight lines.


title: Plate boundary

paragraphs: The major types of plate boundaries are:

paragraphs: All boundaries except the conservative ones are sites of major geological activity. We have plate boudaries on the earth.


title: Hourglass dolphin

paragraphs: The Hourglass dolphin, "Lagenorhynchus cruciger", is small and wide compared to other dolphins. It only lives in the very cold waters of the Antarctic. It was not known to science until a drawing was made of it in 1820. Only six Hourglass dolphins have been examined by scientists. Boats do not usually go where they live. The average water temperature they live in is 0.1-0.3 degrees Celsius.

paragraphs: The hourglass dolphin is black and white and for this reason was called the "sea skunk". On each side there is a white patch that looks a little like an hourglass shape. That is how it got its name.

paragraphs: An adult is about 1.8 m in length and weighs 90-120 kg. There is only one other dolphin that is as small in its area.

paragraphs: Hourglass Dolphins usually stay in groups of 5-10. Once a group of 60 was recorded. They like to ride the bow of boats. There are usually Fin whales with them. It is thought they eat small fish, crustaceans, and squid. They have conical teeth probably used to crack the shells of crustaceans.

paragraphs: The hourglass dolphin stays around the Antarctic. Some have been seen from the south of New Zealand and Chile.


title: Berberis

paragraphs: Berberis or Barberry is a genus of shrub, usually with spines and yellow flowers and red or blackish berries. It is used for medicines.


title: Magic: The Gathering

paragraphs: Magic: The Gathering is a trading card game. Players buy and trade cards, and build their own card decks. Decks must have at least 60 cards. Players can play in tournaments, and there are even professional "Magic" players. Most players of Magic: The Gathering simply call the game "Magic". The game is in a fantasy world involving magic. Richard Garfield made the game in 1993. It is said to be the first trading card game. The current Head Designer is Mark Rosewater, who also writes a weekly article about the game called "Making Magic."

paragraphs: 2 or more people play the game. Players attack each other causing them to lose life points. Each player starts at 20 life points. There are many kinds of cards that can be used to reduce another player's life. Players can attack another player with a creature or deal direct damage with a spell. You win the game by reducing your opponent's life to 0, when your opponent runs out of cards to draw, or when a card says that you win the game.

paragraphs: Richard Garfield started to make the game at University of Pennsylvania. In 1993 he showed the game to the game company Wizards of the Coast. The company liked the game, and started to produce it.

paragraphs: The first cards were made in 1993. The cards are produced in groups of cards called "sets". The first sets were very successful, so more sets were made. About four sets are produced each year. Cards made before 2003 look different than newer cards, but are still compatible with the modern game in most cases.

paragraphs: Professional "Magic" began in 1996. Professionals play in tournaments around the world in the . A player can win as much as $40,000 in one tournament.

paragraphs: Magic: The Gathering Online (MTGO) was made in 2002. "Magic" players can now play their favorite game on the internet. A new MTGO was released in 2008. Also, a new online version called MTG Arena was released in 2019.

paragraphs: Generally more males play the game than females.

paragraphs: A game of "Magic" is played by two or more players. A player starts the game with twenty "life points". A player loses when he or she has zero or fewer life points. There are different ways to lose life points: players play "creature" cards and attack other players with them, or players play spells on other players. There are also other ways for players to lose: they have no cards in their deck, they have 10 "poison counters", or a card is played that says they lose.

paragraphs: Players begin the game by shuffling their decks (mixing up their cards) and then taking up seven cards. Each card has a different power. Players takes one new card at the start of each turn, but the first player does not take a card on their first turn. There are many steps in each turn. Certain cards can only be played in certain steps. A player can have no more than seven cards at the end of their turn. If they do, they must put cards into their "graveyard" (next to their deck) till they only have seven.

paragraphs: There are two basic kinds of cards: "spells" and "lands". Lands give its player "mana" (magical energy). Mana is used to "cast spells". A player may only play one land each turn. More powerful spells take more mana to play. There are also different kinds of spells. "Sorceries" and "instants" are played, and go directly to the "graveyard" after their effects take place. "Permanents" stay in play after they are played, and their effects stay as well. "Creatures" are a special kind of permanent that can attack and damage other players.

paragraphs: legendary creatures and planeswalkers are a totally different matter.

paragraphs: Most spells are one of five colors: white, blue, black, red, and green. To play a spell, at least one mana that is the same color as the spell is needed. Players normally get this mana from "basic lands": "plains" for white, "island" for blue, "swamp" for black, "mountain" for red, and "forest" for green. Each color has strengths and weaknesses, with white magic dealing in protection and defense, blue magic dealing with manipulation and thinking, black magic dealing in death and greed, red magic dealing in fire and emotion, and green magic dealing in strength and nature.

paragraphs: Each card has a picture that gives an idea of the power of the card. Card sets are usually made along with stories, and the pictures on cards generally show actions, events or characters in the stories.

paragraphs: Richard Garfield and Donato Giancola have also won personal awards for "Magic".


title: Giant salamander

paragraphs: The giant salamanders are a family of large aquatic amphibia, the Cryptobranchidae.

paragraphs: They are the largest living amphibians. The Japanese giant salamander ("Andrias japonicus"), reaches up to , feeds on fish and crustaceans, and has been known to live for more than 50 years in captivity. The Chinese giant salamander ("Andrias davidianus") can reach a length of .

paragraphs: They live in brooks and ponds in the eastern United States (the hellbender), and in China and Japan.

paragraphs: Cryptobranchids are large, fat salamanders, with folds of skin along their flanks. These help increase the animal's surface area, allowing them to absorb more oxygen from the water.

paragraphs: Their metamorphosis from the larval stage is incomplete, so that the adults retain gill slits (although they also have lungs), and lack eyelids.

paragraphs: Chinese giant salamanders have lived as long as 75 years in captivity. It eats aquatic insects, fish, frogs and also crabs and shrimps.

paragraphs: They hunt mainly at night, and as they have poor eyesight, use sensory nodes on their head and body to detect tiny changes in water pressure, allowing them to find their prey.

paragraphs: During mating season, these salamanders will travel upstream. After the fertilization of the eggs, the male will guard them for at least six months. At this point, the offspring will live off their noticeable stored fat until they are ready to hunt. Once ready they will hunt as a group rather than individually.

paragraphs: Scientists at Asa Zoo in Japan have recently discovered that the male salamander will spawn with more than one female in his den. Sometimes the male "den master" will also allow a second male into the den, but the reason for this is unclear.


title: Manfred von Richthofen

paragraphs: Manfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen (2 May 1892 - 21 April 1918) was a German fighter aircraft pilot in World War I. His nickname was the "Red Baron". He is considered the ace-of-aces of the war, being officially credited with 80 air combat victories. The "Red Baron" is one of the most famous aviators in history and the subject of numerous representations in music, film and other media. He already received numerous honors and award for his exploits.

paragraphs: Richthofen was born in Breslau, Germany.

paragraphs: In August 1914, Richthofen became a cavalry officer in World War I. In May 1915, he joined the air service and became an observer. He did that because the training course was shorter and would get him to fighting faster. In October, he began training as a pilot. In March 1916, he entered combat. He had his first victory in April. In 1917, he was in command of a squadron nicknamed the "flying circus". He painted his airplane red so his fellow Germans could see him. Richthofen’s sixteenth victory flying a plane made him the best pilot in Germany in 1917.

paragraphs: On April 21, 1918, Richthofen was fatally wounded, whilst flying low above the Somme Valley, near Amiens while fighting in France. He was 25 years old. He was chasing an enemy plane when a bullet passed through his chest. He then made a smooth landing, in a field on a hill near the Bray-Corbie road, just north of Vaux-sur-Somme. His Fokker Dr.I was not damaged by the landing. One witness, Gunner George Ridgway, said that Richthofen was still alive when he and other Australian soldiers reached the plane, but he died moments later. Another eyewitness, Sergeant Ted Smout, said that Richthofen's last word was "kaputt" ("finished"), immediately before he died.

paragraphs: Canadian fighter pilot Arthur Roy Brown was officially credited with killing Richthofen. However, it is now generally agreed that the bullet that hit Richthofen was fired from the ground. The enemy buried Richthofen's body with full military honors.


title: Fokker Dr.I

paragraphs: The Fokker Dr.I was a World War I fighter airplane. It was designed by Reinhold Platz and built by Fokker-Flugzeugwerke.

paragraphs: The Dr.I was used only in small numbers and it had many problems. It is well known as the plane flown by the "Red Baron", Manfred von Richthofen.


title: Butch Hartman

paragraphs: Elmer Earl "Butch" Hartman IV (Born January 10, 1965, Highland Park, Michigan) is an American Christian conservative animator, creator of "The Fairly OddParents" and "Danny Phantom".

paragraphs: Hartman was born in Highland Park, Michigan to Elmer Earl Hartman III and Carol Davis. He received the nickname "Butch" as a youth and continues to use the name professionally as an adult. Hartman spent his childhood in Roseville, Michigan and his teen years in New Baltimore, Michigan.

paragraphs: He graduated from Anchor Bay High School in New Baltimore in 1983. He subsequently attended the California Institute of the Arts in Valencia, California.

paragraphs: While still attending the California Institute of the Arts, Hartman received the chance to intern as an in-between animator on the Don Bluth film, "An American Tail". Shortly after graduating for the California Institute of the Arts Hartman was hired as a character designer for the animated series "My Little Pony". Instead, they had him working on storyboards (which he had not done before) and as quickly as he was hired, he was fired.

paragraphs: Soon after Hartman found work with Ruby Slash, where he worked on "Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog", "Captain N: The Game Master" and "Gadget Boy & Heather".

paragraphs: He was also a video reference crew for the Disney movie Pocahontas.Later,he became a writer,television director and storyboard artist for several Hanna-Barbera shows, including "Dexter's Laboratory", "Cow and Chicken", and "Johnny Bravo".

paragraphs: After his contract with Hanna-Barbera finished up he went to work with former co-worker Fred Seibert on "Oh,Yeah!Cartoons".

paragraphs: He's also a friend of Seth MacFarlane and worked on MacFarlane's animated short "Zoomates" and "Dan Danger" with Steve Marmel. MacFarlane also has a character on Family Guy named after Hartman named Dr. Hartman.

paragraphs: His biggest success came in 1997, when he created "The Fairly OddParents". (The idea came to him during the drive from Hanna-Barbera to Nickelodeon to pitch an idea to Fred Seibert.) It was originally a series of made for TV shorts on the anthology show,"Oh Yeah!Cartoons". In 2001, Nickelodeon picked it up as a full series. "The Fairly OddParents" became a huge hit, second only in the ratings to "SpongeBob SquarePants". Due to the success of "OddParents", Hartman was asked to create another cartoon for Nickelodeon, (Hartman says the President of Nickelodeon asked him if he had an idea, and before he could say the title he was given a contract.) "Danny Phantom", in 2004. "The Fairly OddParents" ceased production in 2006, but it was announced on Hartman's website on February 2, 2007 that 20 more episodes will be produced. On July 11, 2007, The first new episode of Danny Phantom was aired on the Nicktoons Network. Danny Phantom ended production on August 24, 2007. The 7th Season of The Fairly OddParents aired on February 18, 2008, starting with the 1-hour special Fairly Odd Baby.

paragraphs: Hartman was asked to serve as executive producer and screenwriter of "Doogal", the Americanized dub of the British/French animated film "The Magic Roundabout". Butch Hartman revealed in an 2017 interview during the Weinstein scandal that the film was originally supposed to include a live-action frame story similar to The Princess Bride but it was scrapped due to budget costs and therefore replaced with Judi Dench's narration. Hartman even revealed that the original U.S. movie poster had his name and his production company Billionfold Inc. on it, until they were removed in later posters in copyright favor of both Pathé and Action Synthese's credits. He later expressed long-harbored remorse for his involvement where he revealed that most of his actual script was actually rewritten without his consent by producer Harvey Weinstein and his distribution and production company The Weinstein Company with a screenplay by Hoodwinked! co-director Cory Edwards; he also claimed that only 3% of his original script made it into the final film.

paragraphs: The film was then dubbed by The Weinstein Company, and was released on February 24, 2006. However, "Doogal" was poorly received by critics, and did poorly in the box-office, grossing only $7 million and getting 7% on Rotten Tomatoes.

paragraphs: Hartman is currently working on two new projects for Nickelodeon: one, a live-action series and the other, animated. It has also been stated that 20 more episodes of "The Fairly OddParents" are currently under production and if possible, he may decide to go ahead and work on a theatrical feature film "The Fairly OddParents Movie" as well. He also has a brand new cartoon series 'T.U.F.F. PUPPY' set to premiere on Nickelodeon in October, 2010. Hartman is the creator and it stars Jerry Trainor as the voice of the lead character, DUDLEY PUPPY.

paragraphs: His other TV work include voice actor|voicing various characters on the animated series "Family Guy" (the series' creator Seth MacFarlane even named the wacky family doctor Hartman after him), and playing the character Sean Masters on the short-lived series "Generations" in 1991. He was also a recurring character on the popular NBC soap opera "Days of Our Lives" (1988 - 1989; see ).

paragraphs: Hartman currently lives in Bell Canyon, California, with his wife, Julieann, and daughters, Carly and Sophia.

paragraphs: On an edition of "Nick Magazine", Butch Hartman posted FOP looks of "Nicktoons" and other Nick Shows such as "Zoey 101", "SpongeBob SquarePants", "Rugrats", "Drake & Josh",and "".


title: Modes of limited transposition

paragraphs: Modes of limited transposition are a kind of musical scale. They were used by the French composer Olivier Messiaen.

paragraphs: Major scales have twelve different transpositions. This means that a major scale can start on any of the twelve notes (C, C#, D, D# etc.). There are also twelve different transpositions of the minor scale. Each transposition (“each scale”) is a different combination of notes (in this case: all of them).

paragraphs: A chromatic scale (one which uses every note, i.e. using all white and black notes of a keyboard) only has one transposition. This means that a chromatic scale can start on any note: each time it is the same combination of notes.

paragraphs: Messiaen was fascinated by scales that only had a few (usually two or three) transpositions. For example: the whole tone scale, which rises by a whole tone each time, has two transpositions. It can start, for example, on a C, so that the notes are C, D, E, F#, G#, A#, C. It can start on a C# so that the notes are C#, D#, F, G, A, B, C#. Transposing this up another semitone, starting on D, would give D, E, F#, G#, A#, C, D which is exactly the same combination of notes as the first one (the starting note is not important). The whole-tone scale was used by many composers including Glinka, Liszt and, especially, Debussy. Messiaen called it the "first mode" of transposition.

paragraphs: Messiaen’s "second mode", also called the “octatonic scale”, rises by alternating semitone, tone, semitone, tone etc. Messiaen used this scale a great deal, not just in his tunes but in the chords that he used (i.e. melodically and harmonically).

paragraphs: The "third mode" rises by a pattern of tone, semitone, semitone. It has four transpositions.

paragraphs: The other four modes each have a total of six transpositions.

paragraphs: Messiaen liked these modes because there is no note which sounds like the starting note. All the notes sound equal. He described them as having "the charm of impossibilities."


title: Olivier Messiaen

paragraphs: Olivier Messiaen (born Avignon, 10 December 1908; died Clichy, near Paris, 27 April 1992) was a French composer and organist. He is the most famous French composer of the mid-20th century and one of the most important and original composers of his time. He was a brilliant organist and played the organ at the church of La Trinité in Paris for over 60 years. He wrote music for orchestra, piano and organ, most of which is very difficult to play. He was also a great music teacher who taught several young students who became well-known composers e.g. Pierre Boulez, Yvonne Loriod (who became his second wife), Karlheinz Stockhausen, George Benjamin and Iannis Xenakis.

paragraphs: Messiaen started to compose when he was seven years old. When he was given the score of Debussy’s opera "Pelléas et Mélisande" he could imagine the music in his head and he knew he wanted to be a composer. He went to the Paris Conservatoire when he was 11. His teachers included some famous composers such as Paul Dukas, Maurice Emmanuel, Charles-Marie Widor and Marcel Dupré. He was appointed organist at the church of La Trinité in Paris in 1930, a post he held until his death.

paragraphs: When World War II broke out Messiaen was made a prisoner of war in 1940. While he was held in a Silesian camp he composed a work which was to become a very famous piece of chamber music: the "Quatour pour la fin du temps" ("Quartet for the end of time") for piano, violin, cello, and clarinet. He composed for these instruments because they were the instruments available. The piece was first performed by Messiaen and fellow prisoners to an audience of 5000 inmates and prison guards.

paragraphs: When he was free again in 1941 Messiaen became professor of harmony at the Paris Conservatoire. He composed 20 pieces for piano which are called "Vingt regards sur l’enfant Jésus" ("Twenty visions of the child Jesus"). He wrote a book about the way he composed, called "Technique de mon langage musical" ("The Technique of my musical language").

paragraphs: Messiaen soon became famous for his teaching and was invited to teach in other countries such as Germany, Hungary and the United States. He became interested in the rhythms of Greek and Hindu music.

paragraphs: His first wife died in 1959 and he remarried in 1961. He also became very interested in birdsong and spent a lot of time with his wife in the country with a tape recorder recording birdsong. He imitated the birdsong in his music, especially in piano pieces called "Oiseaux exotiques" ("Exotic birds") and the "Catalogue d’oiseaux" ("Catalogue of birds").

paragraphs: Messiaen wrote a lot of organ music which he performed himself. One very popular work is called "Transports de joie" ("Outburst of joy"). It is one of four pieces called "L'Ascension" (The Ascension). A much longer work, consisting of nine movements, is the "La Nativité du Seigneur" ("The Birth of our Lord"). The last movement of this piece is a toccata called "Dieu parmi nous" ("God among us"). It has become a favourite piece for organists to play at recitals or after Christmas carol services.

paragraphs: Messiaen wrote a long piece for orchestra called the " Turangalîla " Symphony. It was first performed in Boston in 1949 with Bernstein conducting. The French government commissioned a piece called "Et exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum" ("And we expect the rising of the dead") which was dedicated to people who had died in the two world wars. It was performed in the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris and then in Chartres Cathedral in 1965 in the presence of General Charles de Gaulle. In 1966 Messiaen became professor of composition at the Paris Conservatoire.

paragraphs: His visit to the Grand Canyon inspired him to write a ten-movement orchestral piece called "Des Canyons aux étoiles" ("From the canyons to the stars"), which was first performed in 1974 in New York.

paragraphs: Messiaen had been asked in 1971 to write an opera for the Paris Opéra. At first he did not want to start such a large work, but in 1975 he was persuaded to accept the commission and began work on his "Saint-François d'Assise". It took him several years to compose. It was performed in 1983. Messiaen said that he preferred to call it a “spectacle” instead of an “opera”.

paragraphs: Messiaen retired from teaching at the Conservatoire in 1978. In 1987 he was given the highest rank: the Grand-Croix" of the "Légion d'honneur".

paragraphs: Messiaen was in a lot of pain near the end of his life. He needed operations on his back. He still managed to finish a piece called "Éclairs sur l'au delà", which was first performed by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra six months after the composer's death. Messiaen had also been composing a concerto for four musicians he felt particularly grateful to: his wife Loriod, the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, the oboist Heinz Holliger and the flautist Catherine Cantin. This was nearly finished when Messiaen died, and Yvonne Loriod orchestrated the last movement with advice from George Benjamin.

paragraphs: Messiaen said of himself that he was a “composer and rhythmician”. He meant by this that rhythm was very important in his music. He taught himself all about Greek metres although he did not speak the Greek language. He liked rhythms which use odd numbers. Very often a bar of his music may have one extra semiquaver so that there might be 17 semiquavers in a bar. He studied Hindu rhythms and found ways of changing the rhythms during the music. He was very influenced by the rhythms in Stravinsky’s famous piece "The Rite of Spring".

paragraphs: Messiaen’s harmonies are very individual. He was fascinated by scales which can only be transposed in two or three different ways. He called these scales “modes of limited transposition”.

paragraphs: Messiaen’s music is full of different sounds. He wrote extremely well for large orchestras and for the organ, using different instruments or organ sounds in very original ways, e.g. in "Chronochromie" (1960) for large orchestra and "Méditations sur le mystère de la Sainte Trinité".(1969), a work which uses styles from his earlier period together with birdsong. Messiaen had synesthesia which meant that music often made him think of particular colours. In his orchestra Messiaen often used an instrument called the ondes Martenot which was a kind of electronic keyboard instrument. His sister-in-law Jeanne Loriod was a famous player of the ondes Martenot. Messiaen was also influenced by Indonesian gamelan music. For a short time he experimented with total serialism.

paragraphs: In some of his later works such as the "La Transfiguration de notre Seigneur Jésus-Christ", for choir of 100 voices, seven instrumental soloists and large orchestra, composed in the late 1960s, he used a simpler musical language which has helped it to become very popular.

paragraphs: Messiaen was a devout Roman Catholic all his life. His religion was a very important influence on his life and music.

paragraphs: The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians; edited by Stanley Sadie


title: Simplified Chinese characters

paragraphs: Simplified Chinese characters are one of the two commonly used forms of Chinese characters. As its name shows, it is made of characters that have in part been "simplified" from the original written form, which are called traditional Chinese characters.

paragraphs: When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949, the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong wanted to help the Chinese people read and write. Before 1949, most Chinese people could not read. The government hoped that by using fewer strokes to write characters, along with many other changes in the education system, the Chinese language would become more standardized like Japanese. The Empire of Japan had brought changes to the Japanese writing system during the earlier Meiji Restoration to make literacy and education more widely available to all Japanese citizens. Mao also hoped that simplifying Chinese characters would begin to shift Chinese people away from using the character system itself and that eventually Chinese-speakers would only use a phonetic alphabet to write.

paragraphs: The first set of simplified Chinese characters were first put to public use in 1956. Over time, more characters became "simplified", or existing ones changed, once in 1964 and again in 1978 and 1984. Many people did not like these changes because too many characters with different meanings were merged.

paragraphs: In hopes of promoting phonetic writing, the CCP was also working creating a standard romanization to accurately represent the pronunciation of Standard Chinese, pinyin. It was first taught in primary schools in 1958.

paragraphs: Roughly 2,000 Chinese characters have been simplified.

paragraphs: Today, simplified Chinese characters are used throughout Mainland China. It is also taught and used in some countries in Southeast Asia, including Singapore, and Malaysia.

paragraphs: Since the Republic of China fled to Taiwan and became separated from the rest of China, the government there did not choose to simplify its writing system, and so it still uses the older traditional Chinese characters. The territories of Hong Kong and Macau have also kept using traditional characters, even though they are politically part of the rest of China, which switched to simplified characters.

paragraphs: It could not be proven that Simplified Chinese characters were able to help people with reading and writing. As places using Traditional Chinese characters did not have literacy problems, in 2009 Pan Qing-Lin, a Chinese official, suggested to stop using Simplified Chinese characters. This did not happen.

paragraphs: In multi-racial societies, like Singapore, students have been learning a second language for many years. Because of this, Simplified Chinese characters are welcomed by students. People who learned the simplified set had little problem changing over to the traditional set. Even to this day, there are many reasons for the need to use traditional Chinese characters, such as working in places that did not adapt the simplified Chinese characters or reading older books that have not yet been translated to Simplified Chinese characters.

paragraphs: Most simplified characters have far fewer strokes. For example, the traditional character 馬 has 10 strokes, while its simplified version 马 only has 3 strokes. However, there are some simplified characters with more strokes than their simplified versions. For example, the traditional character 強 has 11 strokes, while the simplified version 强 has 12 strokes.

paragraphs: Below is a list of simplified characters next to their traditional versions.

paragraphs: There are several ways to simplify characters.