title: François Mitterrand

paragraphs: François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand (26 October 1916 - 8 January 1996) was a French politician who was the President of the French Republic from 21 May 1981 until 17 May 1995. He was born in Jarnac in the Charente department. He was a member of the Socialist Party. Before being elected president, he had held several positions in the French Cabinet. As President of France, he was also one of the Co-Princes of Andorra. Jacques Chirac was President of France and "ex officio" Co-Prince of Andorra after him. Mitterrand died of prostate cancer in Paris. He was laid to rest in his birthplace Jarnac.

paragraphs: From 1959 to 1981, Mitterrand was also mayor of Château-Chinon (Ville), a municipality in the Nièvre department.


title: Afonso IV of Portugal

paragraphs: Afonso IV (; 8 February 1291 – 28 May 1357), called the Brave (), was the seventh king of Portugal and the Algarve from 1325 until his death. He was the only son that King Denis of Portugal had with his wife Elizabeth of Aragon. Afonso married Beatrice of Castile (1293–1359) in 1309, daughter of Sancho IV, King of Castile and María de Molina, and had four sons and three daughters by her. He also had another daughter.


title: Burgenland

paragraphs: The Burgenland is one of the nine federal states of the Federal Republic of Austria. It is the youngest of the nine states and came to Austria after the First World War in 1921. The name Vierburgenland (Land of Four Castles) was created in 1919. It was derived from the name of the four vármegye of the Kingdom of Hungary (in German Komitate, 'counties') known in Hungarian as Pozsony, Moson, Sopron and Vas, or in German as Pressburg, Wieselburg, Ödenburg and Eisenburg. Because Pressburg was given to Czechoslovakia, the number was dropped. In 1922 the name was adopted by the province assembly.

paragraphs: Burgenland has an area of 3961.80 km². It is divided into 3 regions (districts):

paragraphs: Sometimes Mittelburgenland is seen as a part of southern Burgenland.

paragraphs: The highest point of the state is the Geschriebenstein at 884 m, the lowest point is near Apetlon at 114 m. Burgenland and Hungary share the Neusiedler See. Leitha, Pulka and Raab are important rivers.

paragraphs: Burgenland has Croatian (29,000 - 45,000) and Hungarian (5,000 - 15,000) populations. The Burgenland Croatian language is an 16th-century dialect which is different from standard Croatian. In former times there was also a Roma and Jewish population, but the Nazis destroyed them.

paragraphs: In 1043 a peace treaty between Henry III and King Samuel Aba of Hungary fixed the western border of the Kingdom of Hungary along the Leitha and Lafnitz rivers, among others. The territory of the present-day Burgenland became the western border-zone of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary until the 16th century. The majority of the population was Germanic. There was also immigration in the Middle Ages from the neighbouring Austria. During occupation of Hungary by the Ottoman Empire some parts of today's Burgenland stayed within Habsburg rule. After the Austro-Hungarian empire was formed in 1867 Burgenland was part of the Hungarian part of the monarchy. Because 74% of the inhabitants were of German origin the area came to the new formed Republic of Austria. In the time till the Second World War many people emigrated to the United States. It is said that Chicago is the largest town of the Burgenland.

paragraphs: During the Nazi occupation the state was part of Styria and Lower Danube. In addition to the oppression of the Jews, the ethnic groups Roma and Sinti also suffered under the Nazi regime. The Lackenbach concentration camp for Gypsies was in the area.

paragraphs: After the Second World War Burgenland was part of the Soviet occupation zone. After the Staatsvertrag it had a long border to the communist area in eastern Europe. The economic development was very slow. After joining the European Union this development became faster.

paragraphs: Burgenland's provincial assembly (Landtag) has 36 seats. The provincial government is a combination of Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) and the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP). The voting age for regional elections in Burgenland was reduced to 16 in 2003.

paragraphs: The area's main attractions are the Neusiedler See (the lake), the hot springs at Lutzmannsburg, Stegersbach and Bad Tatzmannsdorf. There is also over 500 km of bicycle tracks in Also.


title: Organometallic chemistry

paragraphs: Organometallic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. It combines aspects of inorganic chemistry (the study of non-carbon bonds) and organic chemistry (the study of carbon bonds).

paragraphs: Examples of organometallic compounds are tetraethyllead; it was used as a fuel (leaded gasoline) additive in the past. Also Methylcobalamin (Vitamin B) is a common organometallic compound.

paragraphs: Organometallic compounds are compounds that have chemical bonds between an one or more metal atoms and one or more carbon atoms of an organyl group (an organic ligand). They have the prefix "organo-" (for example, organopalladium compounds). Organometallic compounds include subgroups like the metalloproteins such as haemoglobin.

paragraphs: The term "metalorganics" usually refers to metal-containing compounds lacking direct metal-carbon bonds but which contain organic ligands which bind them to an organic compound. Metal beta-diketonates, alkoxides, and dialkylamides are members of this class.

paragraphs: In addition to the traditional metals, elements such as boron, silicon, arsenic, and selenium form organometallic compounds.

paragraphs: Many complexes have coordination bonds between a metal and organic ligands. The organic ligands often bind the metal through a heteroatom such as oxygen or nitrogen, in which case such compounds are called "coordination compounds".

paragraphs: Many organic coordination compounds occur in nature. For example, hemoglobin and myoglobin contain an iron center coordinated to the nitrogen atoms of a porphyrin ring; magnesium is the center of a chlorin ring in chlorophyll. The field of such inorganic compounds is known as bioinorganic chemistry. However, methylcobalamin (a form of Vitamin B), with a cobalt-methyl bond, is a true organometallic complex, one of the few known in biology.

paragraphs: The metal-carbon bond in organometallic compounds is half way between being ionic and covalent. Organometallic compounds with bonds that have characters in between ionic and covalent are very important in industry. They are both relatively stable in solutions but ionic enough to undergo reactions. Two important classes are organolithium and Grignard reagents.

paragraphs: Organometallics find practical uses in stoichiometric and catalytic processes, especially processes involving carbon monoxide and alkene-derived polymers. All the world's polyethylene and polypropylene are produced with organometallic catalysts. Acetic acid is produced using metal carbonyl catalysts in the Monsanto process and Cativa process. The bulk of the synthetic alcohols, at least those larger than ethanol, are produced by hydrogenation of hydroformylation-derived aldehydes. Similarly, the Wacker process is used in the oxidation of ethylene to acetaldehyde.

paragraphs: Organomettalic are highly basic and highly reducing. They catalyze many polymerization reactions. They are also useful stoichiometrically.

paragraphs: Organometallic compounds may be found in the environment. Environmentalists worry about organo-lead and organo-mercury compounds. They are toxic hazards.

paragraphs: Research is currently underway using organometallic catalysis. The energy crisis has initiated increased interest in more efficient ways of working with the remaining fossil fuels we have left. While many agree that lowering oil dependence is safer for the environment as well as politically wise. The new interest in “green” technologies has also helped increase research. Many examples of organometallic research can be found in the petrochemical and pharmaceutical industries. Some current methods of chemical production are wasteful and produce toxic waste, while many organometallic catalysts show promise to change that.

paragraphs: Louis Claude Cadet synthesized methyl arsenic compounds related to cacodyl. William Christopher Zeise made platinum-ethylene complex. Edward Frankland discovered dimethyl zinc. Ludwig Mond discovered Ni(CO). Victor Grignard worked with organomagnesium compounds. The abundant and diverse products from coal and petroleum led to Ziegler-Natta, Fischer-Tropsch, hydroformylation catalysis which employ CO, H, and alkenes as feedstocks and ligands.

paragraphs: Years ago, Tetraethyllead was added to gasoline as an antiknock agent. Because lead is toxic, it is no longer used in gasoline. Instead, other organometallic compounds such as ferrocene and methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) are now added to gasoline to prevent knocking.

paragraphs: The 1973 Nobel Prizes to Ernst Fischer and Geoffrey Wilkinson for work on metallocenes made organometallic chemistry more popular. In 2005, Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock shared the Nobel Prize for metal-catalyzed olefin metathesis.


title: Coniston Water

paragraphs: Coniston Water (usually called just Coniston) is a lake in Cumbria. It is the third largest lake in the Lake District. It is long and wide. The lake has an elevation of 143 feet (44 m) above sea level. It drains to the sea via the River Crake.

paragraphs: In the 20th century Coniston was the scene of many attempts to break the world water speed record. On August 19, 1939 Sir Malcolm Campbell set the record at 141.74 miles per hour (228.108 km/h) in Bluebird K4. Between 1956 and 1959 Sir Malcolm's son Donald Campbell set four successive records on the lake in Bluebird K7, a hydroplane.

paragraphs: In 1966 Donald Campbell decided that he needed to get over 300 miles per hour (483 km/h) to keep the record. On January 4, 1967 he achieved a top speed of over 320 miles per hour (515 km/h) in Bluebird K7 on the return leg of a record-breaking attempt. He then lost control of Bluebird, which somersaulted and crashed, sinking rapidly. Campbell was killed instantly on impact. The attempt could not be counted as a record-breaking run because the second leg was not completed.

paragraphs: In recent times, Coniston Water has become known for a controversial murder case. Mrs Carol Park was dubbed the ""Lady in the Lake"" after the Raymond Chandler novel of the same name.


title: Delirium tremens

paragraphs: Delirium tremens (often called DTs or "the DTs") is a medical emergency. It is the worst form of alcohol withdrawal, which can happen when a person who drinks a lot of alcohol suddenly stops drinking. "Delirium" means very bad confusion that comes on quickly; "tremens" means "shaking."

paragraphs: Scientists think the DTs happen because the autonomic nervous system gets too excited. It works too hard and will not shut off.

paragraphs: Most people who stop drinking alcohol do not get the DTs. But some people are more likely to get the DTs if they suddenly stop drinking. DTs are more likely in people who:

paragraphs: About 5% of people who have alcohol withdrawal symptoms get the DTs. About 5-10% of chronic (long-term) alcoholics get the DTs at some point in their life.

paragraphs: DTs cause symptoms that can be very bad and very dangerous. Even though not many people get DTs when they stop drinking, many people that do get DTs die from them. Others get permanent brain damage or other problems.

paragraphs: Symptoms usually start within 2 to 3 days after the person had their last drink. But in some people, DTs can happen up to a week or 10 days after their last drink.

paragraphs: Most people who die from DTs die from one or more of these symptoms:

paragraphs: Other body symptoms caused by DTs include:

paragraphs: DTs can cause changes to thinking and feelings that can be very scary for the patient:

paragraphs: DTs can cause major changes to the senses, especially what a person sees, hears, and feels. For example:

paragraphs: DTs always need to be treated in a hospital. If a person starts having symptoms of DTs at home, 9-1-1 (or their local emergency number) should be called for an ambulance right away.

paragraphs: Several types of medicines can be used to treat DTs:

paragraphs: People with DTs are also often given thiamine (vitamin B1), an important vitamin, because alcoholics often do not have enough thiamine. If thiamine levels are low enough, this can cause brain damage.


title: Brian Cox (physicist)

paragraphs: Brian Edward Cox (born 3 March 1968) is a British particle physicist. He is also a professor at the University of Manchester and a Royal Society University Research Fellow. He works on the ATLAS experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Cox presents some BBC science television programmes the most notable being "Stargazing Live" and "Wonders of Universe". He also presented some episodes of "Horizon".

paragraphs: Cox was born in 1968 in Chadderton, Oldham, Lancashire. His parents worked for Yorkshire Bank, his mother as a cashier and his father as a middle-manager in the same branch. He used to be a keyboard player for pop band D:Ream in the 1990s.


title: How to Win Friends and Influence People

paragraphs: How to Win Friends and Influence People is a self-help book. It was written by Dale Carnegie and first published in 1936. It is one of the best selling self-help books ever published. Since 1936, over 15 million copies have been sold worldwide.


title: Jemma Palmer

paragraphs: Jemma "Jem" Palmer (born 10 April 1986) is an English model and professional wrestler. She was briefly signed to World Wrestling Entertainment. She is also known by the name Inferno. She used this name in the 2008 British television series "Gladiators". In 2011, she became known for taking part in the twelfth series of "Big Brother".


title: Damien Sandow

paragraphs: Aaron Steven Haddad (born August 3, 1982) is an American professional wrestler. He is best known for his time in the WWE where he competed under the ring name, Damien Sandow.

paragraphs: He won the 2013 Money in the Bank for a World Heavyweight Championship Money in the Bank opportunity but became the first wrestler to outright lose his cash-in title match when he was defeated by John Cena on the October 28 episode of Raw.


title: Ulf von Euler

paragraphs: Ulf Svante von Euler (7 February 1905 – 9 March 1983) was a Swedish physiologist and pharmacologist. He won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1970 for his work on neurotransmitters.


title: The Fighting Temptations

paragraphs: The Fighting Temptations is a 2003 musical drama movie with Cuba Gooding Jr., and Beyoncé Knowles.


title: Titus O'Neil

paragraphs: Thaddeus Bullard (born April 29, 1977 in Boynton Beach, Florida) better known under the ring name Titus O'Neil, is an American professional wrestler and former American football player currently signed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE).

paragraphs: He is one half of the Prime Time Players along with Darren Young. He competed on the second season of NXT where he finished 5th and also competed on the fifth season of NXT called NXT Redemption. He played professional football in the Arena Football League for the Utah Blaze, Tampa Bay Storm, Las Vegas Gladiators and Carolina Cobras.


title: Paul Bearer

paragraphs: William Alvin "Bill" Moody (10 March 1954 - 5 March 2013) better known by his ring name “The Father of Destruction” and “The Fat Man (or Fatman)” Paul Bearer as well as Percival Pringle III, was an American professional wrestling manager and professional wrestler. He was best known for managing both The Undertaker as well as his on-screen brother, Kane in the WWF/WWE.

paragraphs: Moody was born on 10 April 1954 in Mobile, Alabama. He died on 5 March 2013 in Mobile, Alabama from a heart attack. Club board member of Cauliflower Alley Club "Cowboy" Bob Kelly said that during a reunion on 2 March, Moody was having trouble breathing and was also coughing. Moody said that he was going to be treated for respiratory problems and Kelly said that Moody was treated for a blood clot after the reunion.


title: Maury Povich

paragraphs: Maurice Richard "Maury" Povich (born January 17, 1939) is an American television talk show host. He hosts the tabloid talk show "Maury".

paragraphs: Povich graduated from the Landon School in 1957. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1962 with a degree in television journalism. He hosted the 2000 revival of the television game show "Twenty One".

paragraphs: Povich is married to former news anchor Connie Chung.


title: Darwinopterus

paragraphs: Darwinopterus (meaning "Darwin's wing") is a genus of pterosaur, discovered in China and named after Charles Darwin. It is the first known pterosaur to display features of both long-tailed (rhamphorhynchoid) and short-tailed (pterodactyloid) pterosaurs. "Darwinopterus" is a transitional fossil between the two groups.

paragraphs: Between 30 and 40 fossil specimens have been found, all collected from the Tiaojishan Formation, which dates to the Middle Jurassic, 160 million years ago (mya). The type species, "D. modularis", was described in February 2010.

paragraphs: Two additional species, "D. linglongtaensis" and "D. robustodens", were described from the same fossil beds in December 2010 and June 2011, respectively.

paragraphs: The specimens showed sexual dimorphism: the males had crests on their heads, and narrower hips than the females.

paragraphs: This genus, and its near relatives, show a combination of 'primitive' (basal) and 'advanced' (derived) pterosaurian features. This is characteristic of transitional fossils ('missing links'), and is called modular evolution or mosaic evolution.

paragraphs: "Darwinopterus" had long tails and other features of rhamphorhynchoids, they also had distinct pterodactyloid features, such as long vertebrae in the neck and a single skull opening in front of the eyes.

paragraphs: The specimen preserved along with an egg gave information on the reproductive strategies of "Darwinopterus" and pterosaurs in general.

paragraphs: Like the eggs of later pterosaurs and modern reptiles, the eggs of "Darwinopterus" had a parchment-like, soft shell. In modern birds, the eggshell is hardened with calcium carbonate, completely shielding the embryo from the outside environment. Soft-shelled eggs are permeable to water, and allow significant amounts to be absorbed into the egg during development. Eggs of this type are more vulnerable to the elements and are typically buried in soil.

paragraphs: David Unwin, a co-author of the paper, suggested that "Darwinopterus" probably laid many small eggs at a time and buried them. Juveniles could fly upon hatching, and required little to no parental care.

paragraphs: These results imply that reproduction in pterosaurs was more like that in modern reptiles and significantly differed from reproduction in birds.


title: Rubén Sierra

paragraphs: Rubén Sierra (b. October 6, 1965) is a retired Puerto Rican Major League Baseball player. Sierra was an outfielder.


title: Matt Clement

paragraphs: Matthew Paul Clement (born August 12, 1974, in Butler, Pennsylvania) is a former Major League Baseball starting pitcher. Clement played for the San Diego Padres, Florida Marlins, Chicago Cubs and Boston Red Sox. While on the Red Sox active roster, he was injured all of the 2007 season. He batted and threw right-handed.

paragraphs: On April 5, 2009, Clement said he was no longer going to play baseball.


title: Tarkovsky

paragraphs: Tarkovsky () is a Russian surname. The feminine form is Tarkovskaya (). A well-known person with this name was Andrei Tarkovsky, a Soviet movie director.


title: Marin County, California

paragraphs: Marin County, California is a county in the US state of California. It is north of the San Francisco Bay.


title: Dolce & Gabbana

paragraphs: Dolce & Gabbana, often called D&G, is an Italian fashion label. They make and sell clothes including shirts and underwear. The company was founded in Milan in 1985 by Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana.


title: Transitional fossil

paragraphs: Transitional fossils (or missing links) are the fossilised remains of lifeforms that show features typical of two distinct groups. It may be a rare fossil, such as "Archaeopteryx", which shows early features of a group which later becomes widespread.

paragraphs: The rarity of transitional forms is interesting. It suggests the new forms are not yet dominant in the ecology of their time, and their populations are relatively small. It follows that their fossils would be scarce. In the Solnhofen limestone where "Archaeopteryx" was found, there are more examples of pterosaurs of several genera than there are of the proto-bird. In the Jurassic, the pterosaurs were dominant in the air.

paragraphs: But in the Lower Cretaceous the situation is reversed. The pterosaurs are in decline, and large numbers of different bird species are found in the famous Chinese lagerstatten deposits such as the Jehol biota. The Lower Cretaceous birds are clearly more bird-like, and the features they developed enabled them to invade habitat niches which had been the preserve of pterosaurs, or maybe were not previously exploited at all.

paragraphs: Typical of transitional fossils is that some features are clearly basal or primitive. Other features are advanced ('derived'). With "Archaeopteryx", the front legs are derived, and show clearly the capacity for flight. Also, the feathers had the rachus (stem) off-centre, a feature of all bird flight feathers. The rest of the skeleton was just like any other small carnivorous dinosaur.

paragraphs: When transition takes place between one group and another, not all features change at the same time. This is called mosaic evolution. Transitions between higher groups would involve a series of transitional species, only a few of which may be found as fossils.


title: Jan Vyčítal

paragraphs: Jan Vyčítal (March 8, 1942 in Prague, Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia – March 1, 2020) was a Czech country music singer and songwriter. He was founding member of Greenhorns.

paragraphs: Vyčítal died on March 1, 2020 at the age of 77.


title: Period 3 element

paragraphs: A period 3 element is an element found on the third period (row) of the periodic table. The row has eight elements sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and argon.


title: Period 2 element

paragraphs: A period 2 element is an element in the second period (row) of the periodic table. It has eight elements: lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and neon.


title: Mariner 1

paragraphs: Mariner 1 was a NASA spacecraft. It was the first spacecraft in the Mariner program. Mariner 1 was planned to do a Venus fly-by. However, it was destroyed by the Range Safety Officer 293 seconds after launch. It was destroyed because the rocket moved off course and was a safety risk. Mariner 1 was followed by Mariner 2.

paragraphs: The Atlas-Agena rocket was controlled by a hand-written formula:

paragraphs: Which means "the th smoothed value of the time derivative of a radius R". However, for this mission, an overline (‾) was missing in the formula, which looks something like this:

paragraphs: Because the smoothing function was missing, the rocket became sensitive at minor changes. Then, the rocket became out of control and destroyed by the Range Safety Officer. Few years later, Arthur C. Clarke wrote that Mariner 1 was "wrecked by the most expensive hyphen in history".


title: Cornish cookery

paragraphs: Cornish cookery denotes the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with Cornwall. It has been heavily influenced by the geography of the county as well as its social history.

paragraphs: Being a peninsula, fish dishes form a major part of the historical and modern recipes in Cornwall, with the fishing industry playing a major part in its economy. The iconic dish of Cornwall, the pasty, has its roots in the mining industry.

paragraphs: Cornwall's cookery has influenced and been influenced by other British cuisine, as well as having similarities with the cuisine of its neighbour, Devon.

paragraphs: Much of Cornwall's farming land is suitable for milk production and one of the by products is clotted cream (cream thickened by cooking). This forms the basis for many local specialities including Cornish fudge and Cornish ice cream and is used in Cornish cream teas. Cornish clotted cream is protected under EU law, and cannot be made anywhere else.

paragraphs: Cornwall is perhaps best known for its pasties, a savoury baked dish made from pastry. Today's pasties usually contain a filling of beef steak, onion, potato and swede with salt and white pepper, but historically pasties had a variety of different fillings. Pasties are often locally referred to as "oggies".


National Gallery


title: Pedro Rodríguez Ledesma

paragraphs: Pedro Eliezer Rodríguez Ledesma or Pedro (born 28 July 1987) is a Spanish footballer who plays for Chelsea FC and the Spanish national team.


title: Sergio Busquets

paragraphs: Sergio Busquets i Burgos (born 16 July 1988) is a Spanish footballer who plays for FC Barcelona and the Spanish national team.


title: Edifício Itália

paragraphs: Edifício Itália is a skyscraper in São Paulo, Brazil. It is 165 meters (550 feet) tall and has 46 floors. It was built in 1965.


title: Start

paragraphs: The start is a beginning of an activity or the beginning of a race. It can also mean switching on an engine.


title: Ito Hirobumi

paragraphs: Ito was the first Japanese Governor General of Korea 1896–1909.

paragraphs: In 1874, Ito became the Interior Minister, and from 1878 to 1880, he served as the Second Interior Minister. From 1884 to 1887, Ito was Imperial Household Minister.

paragraphs: From 1885 to 1888, he was first Prime Minister of Japan, and also, in 1887, was the Adjunct Foreign Minister of Japan. He served again as Prime Minister from 1892 to 1896, and again in 1898, and his final term was in 1900-1901 as the 10th Prime Minister.


title: Complexity class

paragraphs: A Complexity class is a concept from theoretical computer science and mathematics: All problems that have the same complexity are in the same complexity class. This means, that for a given input, they need about the same amount of resources, such as compute time, or memory. The most often used models for complexity are time complexity, which measures the time needed to calculate a result, or space complexity, which looks at the amount of memory or storage needed. When talking about complexity classes, a "worst case scenario" is usually assumed.


title: Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi

paragraphs: Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi (born June 25, 1972) is one of the sons of Muammar al-Gaddafi. Saif studied architecture and political science. He holds a PhD from the London School of Economics. Saif presides the Gaddafi International Foundation of Charitable Associations. In 2011, the International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant against Saif. The court said that Saif may have committed crimes against humanity. According to the court, the Gaddafi regime used torture, killed people and raped women to incite the population to support the regime.

paragraphs: After the Libyan civil war, Gaddafi was arrested. He tried to flee but was caught. He was flown to Zintan and has stayed there.


title: Kim Jong-suk

paragraphs: Kim Jong-suk(김정숙, December 24, 1917 – September 22, 1949) was a Korean independence activist, and communist politician. She was the first wife of North Korean President Kim Il-sung, and the mother of Kim Jong-Il, North Korean Great Leader.


title: Pope Pius VI

paragraphs: Pope Pius VI (; 25 December, 1717 – 29 August 1799), born Giovanni Angelo Braschi, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 251st Pope from 1775 to 1799.

paragraphs: Pope Clement XIII named him treasurer of the Roman Church in 1766.

paragraphs: In 1775, Pope Clement XIV made Braschi a cardinal.

paragraphs: Cardinal Braschi was elected pope in 1775; and he chose to be called Pius VI.

paragraphs: Pope Pius was involved in Italian and European political disputes.


title: Mariner 2

paragraphs: Mariner 2 was a NASA spacecraft. It was the second spacecraft in the Mariner program. Mariner 2 was the first successful mission from Earth to another planet.

paragraphs: Mariner 2 was launched on August 27, 1962 aboard an Atlas-Agena B rocket at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The aim of the Mariner 2 mission was to fly-by the planet Venus and return information on the planet's atmosphere, magnetic field, charged particle environment, and mass. Mariner 2 was at its closest to Venus, at a distance of 34,773 km, on December 14, 1962. Orbital perihelion was on December 27, 105,464,560 km away. The last radio signal from Mariner 2 was received on January 3, 1963. Mariner 2 is still orbiting around the Sun today.

paragraphs: The spacecraft's design was exactly the same as that of Mariner 1. Mariner 1 was the first spacecraft in the Mariner program, but it had to be destroyed shortly after launch because its trajectory was wrong.

paragraphs: The spacecraft found out that the surface temperature on Venus was at least 425 °C (797 °F), on both the day and night sides. It discovered that Venus rotates in the opposite direction from most planets in the Solar System. The spacecraft also found that the atmosphere of Venus is mostly of carbon dioxide and that there is a very high pressure at the planet's surface. Continuous cloud cover was detected but no magnetic field was, however. It also found that solar wind is continuous and that the density of cosmic dust between planets is much lower than it is near Earth.


title: Period 1 element

paragraphs: A period 1 element is an element in the first period (row) of the periodic table. The periodic table is arranged in rows to show repeating properties of the elements. When the atomic number increases, the element have different properties. A new row begins when chemical properties repeat. It means that elements in the same group have similar properties. The first period has less elements than any other periods in the periodic table. There are only two elements in the first period: hydrogen and helium. We can explain why "there is less elements in the first row" in modern theories of atomic structure. This is because in quantum physics, this period fills up the 1s orbital. Period 1 elements follows the duet rule, they only need two electrons to complete their valence shell. These elements can only hold two electrons, both in the 1s orbital. Therefore, period 1 can have only two elements.

paragraphs: As period 1 only has two elements, there are no remarkable periodic trends.

paragraphs: Although both hydrogen and helium are in the s-block, they do not behaves similarly to other s-block elements. There is argument over where these two elements should be placed in the periodic table.

paragraphs: The position of hydrogen is sometimes above lithium, sometimes above carbon, sometimes above fluorine, sometimes above both lithium and fluorine (appearing two times), or float above the other elements and not belongs to any group in the periodic table.

paragraphs: The position of helium is almost always above neon (which is in the p-block) in the periodic table because it is a noble gas. However, sometimes the position of it is above beryllium because they have similar electron configuration.

paragraphs: Hydrogen (symbol:H) is a chemical element. Its atomic number is 1. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen has no color, no smell and no taste. It belongs to nonmetal, and it is highly flammable. It is a diatomic gas with the molecular formula H. Its atomic mass is 1.00794 amu, making hydrogen the lightest element.

paragraphs: Hydrogen is the most abundant of the chemical elements. The abundance of hydrogen is roughly 75%. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. However, there are less hydrogen on Earth. Therefore, hydrogen is industrially produced from hydrocarbons (e.g. methane). We use elemental hydrogen locally at the production site. The largest markets almost equally divided between fossil fuel upgrading, such as hydrocracking, and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market. Hydrogen may be produced from water using the process of electrolysis, but this process is significantly more expensive commercially than hydrogen production from natural gas.

paragraphs: The most common naturally occurring isotope of hydrogen, known as protium, has a single proton and no neutrons. In ionic compounds, it can take on either a positive charge, becoming a cation composed of a bare proton, or a negative charge, becoming an anion known as a hydride. Hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is present in water and most organic compounds. It plays a particularly important role in acid-base chemistry, in which many reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. As the only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be solved analytically, study of the energetics and spectrum of the hydrogen atom has played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics.

paragraphs: The interactions of hydrogen with various metals are very important in metallurgy, as many metals can suffer hydrogen embrittlement, and in developing safe ways to store it for use as a fuel. Hydrogen is highly soluble in many compounds composed of rare earth metals and transition metals and can be dissolved in both crystalline and amorphous metals. Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the metal crystal lattice.

paragraphs: Helium (He) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert monatomic chemical element that heads the noble gas series in the periodic table and whose atomic number is 2. Its boiling and melting points are the lowest among the elements and it exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions.

paragraphs: Helium was discovered in 1868 by French astronomer Pierre Janssen, who first detected the substance as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in light from a solar eclipse. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in the natural gas fields of the United States, which is by far the largest supplier of the gas. The substance is used in cryogenics, in deep-sea breathing systems, to cool superconducting magnets, in helium dating, for inflating balloons, for providing lift in airships, and as a protective gas for industrial uses such as arc welding and growing silicon wafers. Inhaling a small volume of the gas temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. The behavior of liquid helium-4's two fluid phases, helium I and helium II, is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics and the phenomenon of superfluidity in particular, and to those looking at the effects that temperatures near absolute zero have on matter, such as with superconductivity.

paragraphs: Helium is the second lightest element and is the second most abundant in the observable universe. Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is being created as a result of the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars. On Earth, helium is relatively rare and is created by the natural decay of some radioactive elements because the alpha particles that are emitted consist of helium nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations of up to seven percent by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation.


title: Peugeot 5008

paragraphs: The Peugeot 5008 is a MPV automobile produced by Peugeot since 2009. It is a longer version of the Peugeot 3008 and a MPV version of the Peugeot 308.


title: Fiat Multipla

paragraphs: The Fiat Multipla is a automobile produced by Fiat between 1998 and 2010. The original model became well known for its styling that divided opinion before it was facelifted in 2004. Fiat discontinued the model in 2010. It is a MPV version of the Fiat Bravo.


title: 2011 Virginia earthquake

paragraphs: The 2011 Virginia earthquake was a magnitude 5.8 (M) earthquake in the U.S. state of Virginia on August 23, 2011, at 1:51 PM EDT (17:51 UTC). The focus was northwest of Richmond and from the town of Mineral, Virginia. The earthquake was along the Spotsylvania Fault, an ancient fault line that now sits in the middle of the North American plate. Four aftershocks happened within twelve hours of the main earthquake. The aftershocks had magnitudes 2.8, 2.2, 4.2 and 3.4. About 35 hours after the main earthquake, a sixth aftershock of magnitude 4.5 occurred. As of August 30, there have been 19 aftershocks, most of them minor.

paragraphs: There are very few strong earthquakes east of the Rockies in the U.S. This was only the second magnitude 5.8 in the last last 114 years. The other was the 1944 quake on the New York-Ontario border.

paragraphs: Press reports show that the earthquake could be felt a long distance away from its center. To the south, the earthquake reached Atlanta, Georgia; and to the north, the earthquake reached Quebec City, Quebec. To the west, the earthquake reached Illinois and to the east, the earthquake reached Fredericton, New Brunswick. Damage was reported as far away as Burlington, New Jersey.

paragraphs: Many buildings in the eastern United States are not built strongly enough that earthquakes cannot damage them. In Washington, D.C., the White House, the Capitol building and other buildings were evacuated. In Arlington County, Virginia, a pipe in the Pentagon broke. The pipe flooded two corridors. The Pentagon used an emergency plan put into place after the September 11 attacks to evacuate. Other buildings were evacuated in Philadelphia, Boston and New York City.

paragraphs: Soon after the earthquake, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ordered airplanes to stop flying along the East Coast. The Air Traffic Control tower at John F. Kennedy International Airport was evacuated. Flights were late at several airports, including John F. Kennedy International Airport, Newark Liberty International Airport, Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, Dulles International Airport, and Philadelphia International Airport. At the National Airport, ceiling tiles in the airport terminal fell to the ground, and flights stopped. Washington Metro trains were delayed and run at reduced speeds of 15 miles per hour. This allowed engineers to see if the rails were damaged. Just after the earthquake, many people made cell phone calls. This tied up the AT&T and Verizon Wireless networks. People could not start phone calls for at least 20 minutes.

paragraphs: Buildings in the Washington, D.C. area were damaged, but not severely. The quake damaged three of the Washington National Cathedral's four pinnacles (corner spires) and cracked some of the Episcopal church's flying buttresses. However, buttresses that support the central tower, a prominent part of the city skyline, look normal. The National Park Service found cracks near the top of the Washington Monument. The monument is closed indefinitely. The earthquake knocked off four of the six spires atop the Washington D.C. Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The pieces fell to the ground along with several pieces of marble from the temple's outside wall.

paragraphs: The two nuclear reactors at the North Anna Nuclear Generating Station, from the epicenter, shut down automatically.

paragraphs: Damage in the northeastern United States was minor. In New York state, Governor Andrew Cuomo said the State Office of Emergency Management had no reports of damage to buildings or infrastructure. There were some disruptions, including building evacuations and delays at airports. Amtrak trains arriving and departing from Penn Station were also delayed.

paragraphs: In New Jersey, the state Emergency Management office reported two gas leaks in Gloucester County, with no reports of injuries from either leak. Buildings such a the Temple B'nai Israel in Burlington and a home in Camden were damaged. Government buildings were evacuated, and city workers could go home.

paragraphs: In Boston, the Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency reported no injuries or damage. The U.S. District Court in South Boston was evacuated and the University of Massachusetts Boston cut summer classes short and sent all workers home early.

paragraphs: In West Virginia, the Kanawha County Courthouse, the West Virginia State Capitol campus, and several other buildings in downtown Charleston were evacuated. Kanawha County dispatchers received more than 350 calls in 45 minutes but there were no reports of damage to buildings and infrastructure other than minor plaster cracking in the old . Part of a chimney collapsed at the county courthouse in Philippi in Barbour County. The West Virginia Office of Miners' Health Safety and Training stated that West Virginia coal mines were safe following the tremors.

paragraphs: In Delaware, the New Castle County Courthouse in Wilmington and Family Court in Georgetown were evacuated. The press said that blocks fell to the street from the steeple of St. Thomas the Apostle Church. DelDOT crews were sent to all parts of the state to inspect many bridges and roadways including interstate highways and the Indian River Inlet Bridge.

paragraphs: In Pennsylvania, people were told to get out of office buildings in Philadelphia. People were also told to get out of the Bucks County Courthouse in Doylestown. Also, SEPTA Regional Rail trains could only go while tracks were checked for damage and PATCO Speedline trains were also stopped for a short time even though there was no damage. The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation checked bridges for damage. There was no damage to the bridges over the Delaware River owned by the Delaware River Port Authority.

paragraphs: People in eastern Canada also felt the earthquake, mostly in Southern Ontario, as well as parts of Quebec and the Maritimes. A few buildings in Toronto were evacuated. No accidents or damage from the earthquake were reported in Canada.

paragraphs: According to Facebook, the word "earthquake" appeared in the status updates of 3 million users within four minutes of the quake. Twitter said users were sending up to 5,500 tweets per second. This rate of messages was faster than during the death of Osama bin Laden. It was almost the same rate as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.


title: TSV Hartberg

paragraphs: The Turn- und Sportverein Hartberg is a football club from Hartberg, Styria. The club is playing in the First league, the second division in Austrian football. Beside the football section the club has 14 others, like chess, Judo and gymnastics.

paragraphs: The club was founded on 29 April 1946. Then the club had two parts, football and handball. In the meantime there are 14.

paragraphs: After a long time in lower classes Hartberg was first promoted to the Landesliga, the highest class in Styrian football, in 1978. 1978/79 the club won the Landesliga, but failed in the relegation tournament for promotion. A year later the club reached the quarterfinals of the Austrian Cup. 1994/95 the club became champion again and was promoted to the Regionalliga Mitte (3rd division). 2006 the team became champion of the Regionalliga Mitte and was promoted to the Ersten Liga (2nd division). Due to reforms of the league Hartberg was relegated the same season. On the last day of the season 2008–2009, TSV Hartberg finished in first poisition of the Austrian third division and was promoted to the 2009–2010 second division where they play at the moment.

paragraphs: The second squad is playing together with FSC Eggendorf (TSV Hartberg Amateure/FSC Eggendorf ).

paragraphs: The club plays in the Hartberg stadium. It is a multi-purpose stadium for 6000 visitors.


title: Candidatus

paragraphs: Candidatus is a term in the taxonomy (scientific classification) of bacteria.

paragraphs: It is a label put before the name of a bacterium which cannot be grown on an agar plate or in any other bacteriology culture. An example would be ""Candidatus" Phytoplasma allocasuarinae". Candidatus status may be used when a species or genus is well studied but cannot be cultured. Nowadays much information is got by 16S ribosomal RNA sequence analysis.

paragraphs: For correct publication of a species, bacteria must be isolated, cultured, described, and deposited in a bacteriology culture collection. However, some bacteria require special tissue culture conditions and cannot be maintained in Bacteriology Culture Collections. This includes bacteria which live inside other organisms or cells. These include obligately intracellular pathogens and endosymbionts, insect symbionts, and populations from oceans or sludge.

paragraphs: In 1994, Murray and Schleifer published a taxonomic note. They recommended that the new category of indefinite rank (Candidatus) be established for certain putative taxa that could not be described in sufficient detail to warrant establishment of a new taxon. It was also recommended that a Candidatus list should be established in the "International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology".

paragraphs: According to the "IRPCM Phytoplasma/Spiroplasma Working Team – Phytoplasma taxonomy group" the abbreviation for Candidatus should be Ca.


title: Carsonella ruddii

paragraphs: Candidatus Carsonella ruddii is an endosymbiotic gamma proteobacterium. It has the smallest known genome of any bacterium.

paragraphs: The species is an endosymbiont that is present in all species of phloem sap-feeding insects known as psyllids. The endosymbionts occurs in a specialised structure known as the bacteriome.

paragraphs: In 2006 the genome of one strain of "Ca." C. ruddi was sequenced at RIKEN in Japan and the University of Arizona. The genome is a circular chromosome of 159,662 base pairs and has a high coding density (97%) with many overlapping genes and reduced gene length. The number of predicted genes was 182, also the lowest on record (NCBI-Genome). Numerous genes considered essential for life seem to be missing, suggesting that the species may have achieved organelle-like status.

paragraphs: In comparison, "Mycoplasma genitalium", which has the smallest genome of any free-living organism, has a genome of 521 genes.


title: French Civil Aviation University

paragraphs: The French Civil Aviation University (French: "École nationale de l'aviation civile"), also known as ENAC, is a French public aeronautical "grande école." It was created on 28 August 1949. It has locations in Biscarosse, Carcassonne, Castelnaudary, Château-Arnoux-Saint-Auban, Grenoble, Melun, Montpellier, Muret, Saint-Yan and Toulouse, in France. It is a member of the "Conférence des Grandes Écoles", the University of Toulouse, and of the Aerospace Valley. It is one of five founders of France AEROTECH.

paragraphs: ENAC provides training in civil aeronautics. The university has around 25 courses. These include aerospace engineering, Masters, "Mastères Spécialisés", and courses for technicians, airline pilots, air traffic controllers, managers and flight instructors (people who teach others to fly planes).

paragraphs: Air travel grew rapidly in France after World War II. Safe air transport required staff trained specifically for this activity. It also required people in different sectors of the aviation world to work together and understand each other. That is why ENAC was started. Max Hymans, the secretary general of civil and commercial aviation, was the chief organiser.

paragraphs: ENAC was created on 28 August 1949 (Decree 49-1205) in Paris. The university was located in Orly, south of Paris. René Lemaire considers ENAC as "a university of aviation safety".

paragraphs: A report of the "Inspection générale de l'aviation civile" said: "It was in the minds of the creators of the university, to develop between the crew and the ground staff a community of ideas, reciprocal knowledge, and esteem, that are essential for the teamwork required by air transport." Training courses were longer or shorter depending on specialty.

paragraphs: The decree of 13 October 1959 announced the first partner of the university: Air France. It resulted in a sharing of tasks. It also established recruitment for airline pilots students with no previous flight experience. In 1958, the university already welcomed the first airline pilots students, on an experimental basis.

paragraphs: ENAC cooperated with the "École nationale de la météorologie" (National School of Meteorology). It promoted the teaching of this subject for air traffic controllers. After World War II, ENAC helped the conversion of military aircrew. The "Service de l'aviation légère et sportive" (SALS), under the decree of 31 March 1951, provided free flight training for airline pilot candidates coming from the army.

paragraphs: From 1949 to 1959, the number of courses held increased from 6 to 64. The number of students increased from 49 to 800. In 1956, the navigation instructor rating was created. A training programme also started. In 1958, the airline pilot theoretical training course started.

paragraphs: It had rites such as a reception in full uniform by local authorities when university officials and students arrived at a new location.

paragraphs: ENAC Orly also held a yearly trip for all the students.

paragraphs: The university moved to Toulouse in 1968. The main campus is still there in 2020. It also changed from an external department of the French civil aviation administration to a public administration institution in 1970.

paragraphs: The French Civil Aviation University was started close to Paris-Orly Airport. This location was near the largest French airport at the time. It offered easy use of airplanes for a lot of activities such as navigation flights and promotional trips. It was also close to many airlines and aircraft manufacturers or businesses related to the aviation industry. The managers of these businesses often gave lectures and conferences at the university.

paragraphs: Traffic at Paris-Orly Airport grew rapidly at the beginning of the 1950s. In the mid-1950s plans began for a new location near to Parisian airports. The potential locations were all less than 150 km from Paris, for example Melun, Pontoise, Coulommiers, Étampes, Reims, Évreux, Chartres, and Orleans. A report dated 20 May 1959 lists the disadvantages of a location too far from Paris. René Lemaire gave a report on 14June 1960 in which he supported a transfer to Toulouse. The "École nationale supérieure d'ingénieurs de constructions aéronautiques" settled in Toulouse in 1961 and the "École nationale supérieure de l'aéronautique et de l'espace" was also going to move from Paris to Toulouse. On the 15 June 1961 Prime Minister Michel Debré accepted the transfer to Toulouse. His successor Georges Pompidou confirmed the transfer in a letter dated 23 July 1963.

paragraphs: The construction of new buildings on the campus of Rangueil began in April 1966. The project ended on 19 August 1968. The academic year started on 16 September 1968. 500 students started, including 325 who started their training. These trainees were as follows: 15 air navigation engineering student (mostly from the "École Polytechnique)", 70 engineering students in air navigation from two-years studies after the French Baccalaureate (the main end of school exams in France), 60 airline pilot students, 100 air traffic controller students, 40 electronics students, 20 commercial pilot students and 20 flight dispatcher students.

paragraphs: Before the university opened its doors to its new campus, the "Commission permanente" took into consideration the problem of an inadequate (not good enough) legal status. This problem was old. It was identified soon after the creation of the university. ENAC was supervised closely. There were many inspection reports. On average, these usually happened once every two years, sometimes more often. The management of the institution was judged severely (strictly). In the mid-1950s, some reports said the university was not allowed to exist, for example, the confidential report of Brancourt Controller on 12 March 1952. Some reports said that the university had "a lack of doctrine", and that "there is a certain tension with the training center of Air France", and even that "ENAC is madness".

paragraphs: The final decision is taken by Decree No. 70-347 of 13 April 1970. It was applied on 1 January 1971. ENAC received a board of directors when it became a public administrative institution. René Lemaire was the first president.

paragraphs: From 1975 a new thing is starting. It consists of an increase of the proportion of engineering students called "civilians" in opposition to the "officials" (civil servants) engineering students. ENAC is becoming a major player in the training for aerospace industry (civilian personnel), while its primary goal was only the training of officials for "direction générale de l'aviation civile". It is true that the existence of students for the private sector is not new at the university : it was in 1956 that are trained the first of them. At the end of 1950s, however, this recruitment affects only a minority of students. It is primarily done to compensate the disadvantage which consists of the highly different number of students to work in the administration and to prevent the size of successive promotions with a too great difference. However, this second source tends to become more and more important, to finally become the first one. This results in an revision of the teachings. ENAC engineering education, particularly that of the specialty called "facilities" - it focuses on electronics - seduce the industrial sectors of electronics and information technology. Without having particularly desired, the university has progressively the role of a National University of Engineers.

paragraphs: Industry oriented university, research appeared in 1984, following the law on Higher education which provides that "engineering education [...] has a research activity, basic or applied, " and is organized around four areas: electronics, automation, computer and air transport economy. The university then feels interest for future engineers to learn research methods: while the method of deductive reasoning, for a long time favored by teachers in the two-years studies after French high school diploma and universities, shows its limitations, the method of inductive reasoning, characteristic of research, appears progressively better adapted to the nature of functions performed by today's engineers. The most recent manifestation of the growing interest in research at ENAC is the creation of the air transport economics laboratory, which designation reflects the desire to study, in addition to air transport itself, certain related activities such as air navigation.

paragraphs: The mid 1980s saw the emergence of "mastères spécialisés" programs. They are born for most of them from an industrial demand, including the "groupement des industries françaises aéronautiques et spatiales", in order to support the export contracts by training. Indeed, while filling the needs of many French students or professionals, they can train in a relatively short period some foreign executives. The same period saw the diversification of continuing education at the university. The continuing education courses are organized in five main areas: air traffic systems, electronics, computer, aeronautics and languages/humanities.

paragraphs: The international dimension of the university grew in the 1990s. It is constrained, however, by the design and implementation of the new cycle for air traffic controllers. The effort required a specifically European component. It consists first in the participation in European projects such as EATCHIP (European Air Traffic control Harmonization and Integration Program), then in joining mobility programs for students such as Erasmus or Socrates. Under these programs, the university welcomes a growing number of foreign students. In doing so, it forges close relations with foreign universities, including those of Berlin and Darmstadt in Germany, as well as the one of Tampere in Finland. Since 1990, the university has new missions. Thus, ENAC negotiates new contracts for studies and research abroad. The 2000s are the years of the creation of courses entirely taught in English language and the development of activities focused on air navigation. In 2009, the university and its alumni association organize the first edition of the "salon du livre aéronautique" (aeronautical literary festival) in Toulouse. In December 2010, ENAC becomes an ICAO center for training in aviation security.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, the university develops new teaching facilities: the air traffic control simulator "CAUTRA", the aerodrome control simulator "AERSIM", an Airbus A320 flight management system simulator, a static model of the Airbus A321' s engine and the laboratory of telecom networks.

paragraphs: Since the 1st January 2011 and the merging of ENAC with the SEFA, the university is the biggest European aviation university.

paragraphs: In 2013, ENAC starts with the DGAC the consulting company France Aviation Civile Services.

paragraphs: The current head of the university is Olivier Chansou, after Marc Houalla who was SEFA director from 2006 till the 1th of January 2011. It is the eighth person to be director since 1949. He was elected the 27th of November 2017. The directors since 1949 are given in the following table.

paragraphs: As all the equivalent universities in France, ENAC is managed by a President elected by a board of directors. He is member of the three councils of the university :

paragraphs: In addition to these three councils, the university has a director's office which includes communication and cultural affairs, a division of information systems and a general secretariat dedicated to legal management, logistics, financial and human resources.

paragraphs: The university has spent for its operation 126 million euros in 2011. The budget is up 61.12% compared to 2010 as a result of its merger with the SEFA and consists of:

paragraphs: In consideration for several months, a corporate foundation has been established in September 2011. It aims to guide the training and research council on the changes to be made to the training "Ingénieur ENAC" (ENAC engineer) and to the corporate partnerships.

paragraphs: It consists of technical and human resources managers from aerospace companies such as Air France, Airbus, Aéroport de Paris, Rockwell Collins, Thalès, "Aéroconseil"...

paragraphs: ENAC has eight campuses and can provide accommodation. It also has a canteen, cafeteria, library, computer rooms, sports halls including a fitness room, a sports field, a rugby field, five tennis courts, a beach volleyball and a golf driving range. Its main campus is located at Rangueil (Toulouse).

paragraphs: Since its merger with the SEFA, ENAC has eight locations :

paragraphs: ENAC has a fleet of 130 aircraft of different types: CAP-10, Socata TB-10, Socata TB-20, Beechcraft Baron 58, Beechcraft 200, ATR 42, Diamond DA40 (to replace the Socata TB-20) and Diamond DA42 (to replace the Beechcraft Baron 58).

paragraphs: On its Toulouse campus, the university has flight simulator Robin DR400 and Socata TB-20, and also some static simulators of Airbus A320 and Airbus A340.

paragraphs: In the air navigation department, it has control tower simulators (at 120 or 360 degrees).

paragraphs: ENAC has four Bachelor's degree courses to train pilots and aerospace technicians.

paragraphs: ENAC provide theoretical training for pilot students in eight months in its campus of Toulouse. Practical training of 16 months is given in the other campuses of the university in Montpellier, Carcassonne, Saint-Yan or Muret. There is also training for various aviation technicians.

paragraphs: In addition, the university has seven Master's degree programs to train people for both aerospace industry and French civil aviation authority.

paragraphs: Courses of Air traffic controller and Air Traffic Safety Electronics Personnel are done by the university. The "Ingénieur ENAC" course trains aerospace engineer in three sectors : electronics and aeronautical telecommunications (L), computer systems and air traffic (S) and aeronautical engineering (T). The university has created in 2007 a Master's degree in International Air Transport Opération Management, in 2011 the course Master's degree in Global Navigation Satellite System supported by the European Commission and in 2012 the Master's degree in Air Traffic Management in partnership with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The Master's degree in Human–computer interaction (IHM) is realized in cooperation with the Paul Sabatier University.

paragraphs: Finally, the French Civil Aviation University provides nine "Mastères Spécialisés" courses in the fields : airport management, air transport management (in partnership with Toulouse Business School), communication - navigation - surveillance and satellite applications for aviation, aviation safety aircraft airworthiness (in partnership with other "grandes écoles"), air-ground collaborative systems engineering, aviation and air traffic management and aerospace project management (APM) (in partnership with other "grandes écoles").

paragraphs: The former students of the three Master programs, the "Ingénieur ENAC" course, as well as those of the Corps of Bridges and Roads and those of the "Mastères Spécialisés" courses was represented by an association, INGENAC, created in 1988, member of the CNISF (French scientific and engineer council) and in Toulouse. The 16th of March 2012, INGENAC decided to represent all the former students of the university and changes its name to « ENAC Alumni ».

paragraphs: Each course of the university has its own recruitment process.

paragraphs: By hosting each year more than 7,500 students who participate to more than 600 courses annually organized by the university, with a turnover of 15 million of euros, ENAC is now the largest organization in Europe for aeronautical continuing education. The continuing education of ENAC has been developed in areas which ENAC is well recognized : air traffic, electronics, computer science, aeronautical engineering, aircraft control, ...

paragraphs: Students of the aerospace engineer course can study at the two other "grandes écoles" members of the "groupement des écoles d'aéronautique", and also at the National Polytechnic Institute of Toulouse and at Nantes business school. Moreover, as part of France AEROTECH, an exchange of third year engineering students is under elaboration with the "grandes écoles" of this network.

paragraphs: In another country, students have access to the Erasmus programme and to Pegasus. In the aerospace engineer course, the university welcomes 8% of foreign students in 2011. Considering all the courses, this number is 46% in 2010.

paragraphs: The university has also agreements with : Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Florida Institute of Technology, University of California, University of Washington, "École africaine de la météorologie et de l'aviation civile". It also educates people of the "Agence pour la sécurité de la navigation aérienne en Afrique et à Madagascar".

paragraphs: Also, ENAC is a founder of the "Institut sino-européen d'ingénierie de l'aviation" of Tianjin. On this city, the university has four "Mastères Spécialisés" courses at the Civil Aviation University of China only for Chinese students : airport management, aviation safety management - airworthiness, aviation safety management - flight operations and aviation safety management - aeronautical maintenance.

paragraphs: Finally, in December 2011, the university has signed a partnership with the "École des Ponts ParisTech" and the "Académie internationale Mohammed VI de l'aviation civile" to start an Executive MBA in aviation management for aerospace people in March 2012 at Casablanca.

paragraphs: Research is a growing business at ENAC. Industry oriented university, it appears in 1984, following the law on higher education which provides that « engineer training...contains a research activity, pure or applied ». It was originally organized around four areas : electronics, automation, computer and air transport economy. Mid-2009, the research teams was in the following laboratories : automation - operational research (LARA), economy - air econometrics (LEEA), study - optimization of telecommunications networks architectures (LEOPART), electromagnetism for aeronautical telecommunications (LETA), interactive computer (LII), applied mathematics (LMA), air traffic optimization (LOTA) and signal processing for the aeronautical telecommunications (LTST).

paragraphs: ENAC also has, since 2005, a team specializing in UAVs that maintains and develops "Paparazzi", a free system for automatic control of UAVs, unmanned aerial vehicle laboratory. The infrastructure includes also a planetarium and an air traffic control simulator. ENAC is a founding member of the European academy for aviation safety (EAFAS), network of the key training organizations in the field of air safety.

paragraphs: During the Paris Air Show of 2005, the university announces a partnership with "Office National d'Études et de Recherches Aérospatiales" in the fields of air traffic management, air safety, satellite navigation, sustainable development and air transport economy.

paragraphs: End of 2011, the university has established a new research organization that are six transverse programs : UAVs and air traffic management, airports, aircraft and air operations, human-computer interaction, air/ground communications and sustainable development, everything is now based on four laboratories : applied mathematics - optimization - optimal control - control engineering operations research (MAIAA), signal processing - satellite positioning system - electromagnetism - networks (TELECOM), architecture - modeling - engineering of interactive systems (LII) and economics - air transport econometrics (LEEA).

paragraphs: Several famous pilots have studied at the French Civil Aviation University like Émile Allegret, soldier and member of the French Resistance during the World War II, Xavier Barral (Promotion 1966), former President of the "association des professionnels navigants de l'aviation" (Professional aircrew association), Noël Chevrier (Promotion 1970), antistress center manager at Air France, Gérard Feldzer (Promotion 1971), former President of the "Aéro-Club de France", Bernard Pestel (Promotion 1972), vice president of the "société française de droit aérien" (French Air Law company), Béatrice Vialle (Promotion 1981), one of the two female Concorde pilot and the first French female pilot on a supersonic airliner.

paragraphs: Particularly because of its status of a French civil servant university, some civil servant has been student at ENAC like Jean-Marc de Raffin Dourny (Promotion 1966), President of the "organisme pour la sécurité de l'aviation civile" (organization for the safety of civil aviation), Michel Bernard (Promotion 1967), former head of the "Agence nationale pour l'emploi" and former President of "Air Inter", Paul-Louis Arslanian (Promotion 1968), former head of the French "Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile", Jean-Paul Troadec (Promotion 1970), head of the "Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile", Patrick Ky (Promotion 1989), head of the EASA, Michel Wachenheim (Promotion 1975), French ambassador.

paragraphs: Some alumni of the university became managers like Yves Lambert (Promotion 1959), former head of Eurocontrol, Gérard Mestrallet (Promotion 1971), CEO of GDF Suez., Jean-Michel Vernhes (Promotion 1971), head of the Toulouse-Blagnac Airport, Jean-Charles Corbet (Promotion 1974), former head of "Air Lib", Olivier Colaïtis (Promotion 1977), President of Galileo, Lionel Guérin, founding President of Airlinair, Philippe Crébassa, head of Toulouse-Blagnac airport, Franck Goldnadel (Promotion 1990), former head of the Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport, Régis Lacote (Promotion 1997), head of the Orly Airport, Méziane Idjerouidène (Promotion 2003), general manager of Aigle Azur.

paragraphs: Few intellectuals graduate from the university like Jacques Villiers (Promotion 1948), founder of the "Centre d'études de la navigation aérienne" (French air navigation center), Jean Peyrelevade (Promotion 1961), politician and business leader, Hamza Ben Driss Ottmani (Promotion 1963), Moroccan economist and writer, Alain Lefebvre (Promotion 1970), Journalist, Solenn Colléter (Promotion 1993), novelist., Nicolas Tenoux (Promotion 2007), Philanthropist.

paragraphs: In science, personalities like Gabriel Weishaupt (Promotion 1948), founding member of the "Académie de l'air et de l'espace", Jean Robieux, Physicist, Georges Maignan (Promotion 1955), former director of the experimental center of Eurocontrol, Gérard Desbois (Promotion 1979), younger flight engineer graduate and crew member during the first flight of the Airbus A380, have studied at the university.

paragraphs: Some aerospace personalities teach at the university such as Hervé Hallot, meteorology teacher and co-author of "Météorologie aéronautique", Joel Laitselart (TAE 87), air operations teacher and former operations manager of Aeris airline, Patrick Lepourry, head of the engine department and co-author of "Propulseurs aéronautiques", "Instruments de bord" and "Initiation à l'aéronautique", Félix Mora-Camino, head of the control engineering department and co-author of "Avionique - Tome 2, Système de conduite automatique et gestion du vol", Yves Plays (IENAC S71), head of the specialized master in air transport and co-author of "Initiation à l'aéronautique"., or Frantz Yvelin, founder of two French airlines.


title: Institut Polytechnique des Sciences Avancées

paragraphs: The Institut polytechnique des sciences avancées, often called IPSA, is a private aeronautical university localized next to Paris, Lyon, Marseille and Toulouse in France, in the Île-de-France and Midi-Pyrénées,

paragraphs: The university is part of IONIS Education Group and has been created in 1961.

paragraphs: IPSA was founded in 1961 in Paris by Michel Cazin (private secretary to Louis de Broglie and teacher at the mechanical department of "Conservatoire national des arts et métiers"), Maurice Pradier (aerospace engineer) and Paul Lefort (engineer and professor of helicopter). Twenty students started the training. At that time, the course was in four years and the first promotion is graduated in 1965. The same year, the Alumni association is created in Paris by Maurice Ribonnet. In 1982, the first trip for students is organized in Guyana at the European Space Agency center. The year 1987 saw the university bought by Henri Hertert (IPSA 1976 and pilot at Air France). The institute moved in 1989 into the towers "Les Mercuriales" at Bagnolet, in which it stayed for ten years. Then, beset by financial difficulties, the university is bought by IONIS Education Group in 1999 and moved at Le Kremlin-Bicêtre close to the university EPITA.

paragraphs: In 2005, the Master issued by IPSA is recognized by French State at the higher level, after accreditation by the "Commission nationale de la certification professionnelle". The year 2006 sees the institute hosting the 6th European Congress of the Mars Society to promote the exploration of Mars. In 2007, IPSA opens a second campus in Toulouse, joins the Erasmus programme and concludes double degree agreements with foreign universities. Following its establishment in Toulouse, the university joins the "Institut au service du spatial, de ses applications et technologies" during the year 2008. The next year, IPSA joins Aerospace Valley and moved in Ivry-sur-Seine close to the university ESME-Sudria, before being recognized by the French State in 2010.

paragraphs: In 2011, the university is accredited by the "Commission des titres d'ingénieur". In January 2013, IPSA became member of the "Conférence des directeurs des écoles françaises d'ingénieurs".

paragraphs: The current director is Francis Pollet, who was director of "École de l'Air" university from 2007 to 2009. This is the eighth person to hold that function since 1961. He was appointed director of IPSA in March 2017.

paragraphs: Member of IONIS Education Group, the group President, assisted by a general manager, is the President of the university. He is a member of the four directorates of the university:

paragraphs: IPSA wants to be close to other universities with a strong theoretical training for research and development jobs in order to graduate engineer in aeronautical and space engineering with a good general knowledge in aerospace.

paragraphs: The course is in five years with five possibilities in the fourth year: "energy, spacecraft propulsion and engine", "mechanics and aircraft structure", "telecommunications, radar and radio navigation", "embedded system", "mechatronics". The students choose also one minor from ten: "Entrepreneurship", "business marketing", "association management", "Research Management", "Conduct of an international project", "project personnel development", "Board and consulting", " human resource management", "cultural management", "financial management".

paragraphs: In the fifth year, four options are available independently of the choice made in the fourth year: "Avionics", "Aeronautical Systems Design", " Space Systems Design" and "Management and Industrial Logistics".

paragraphs: The particularity of the university is to offer from the first year lessons relating to aeronautics in addition to basic scientific education and to provide a large part in project-based teaching throughout the curriculum.

paragraphs: Students also have the opportunity to attend a technical and managerial course sanctioned by a Master of Business Administration in "business and international negotiation" of the "Institut supérieur de gestion" in addition to the diploma of the university, or to make the last year of studies in a foreign university in partnership with IPSA. Eleven months of internship are planned in the curriculum.

paragraphs: After graduation, graduates are represented by the association "AAEIPSA" (IPSA Alumni association). They work, for 70% of them, in the aerospace industry, mainly in research and development (46%) and in the Île-de-France region (57%).

paragraphs: Admission to the university is possible after a "Baccalauréat" by succeeding to the competition "Advance" organized in partnership with EPITA and ESME-Sudria. In total, the three universities offer approximately 900 places. It is also possible to integrate the university in the second, third or fourth year studies for students coming from a two-years degree after the "Baccalauréat", Bachelor or Master.

paragraphs: Since 2017, IPSA has also some Bachelor's degree program in aerospace.

paragraphs: Partnerships allowing students to obtain a Master of Science with the degree of IPSA exist with Shenyang University in China, Cranfield University in UK, Moscow State University in Russia, the "Université Laval" in Canada and the National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan.

paragraphs: Students can also use the Erasmus programme.

paragraphs: The university has also other partnerships with Arizona State University, San Diego State University, University of California at Davis and Monash University.

paragraphs: Research at IPSA is realized in 2011 by three laboratories : 3D computer graphics - calculation, mechatronics and fluid mechanics applied to aerodynamics.

paragraphs: The laboratory of 3D computer graphics and calculation creating new algorithms to solve problems of processing and analysis of signals and images. It works in partnership with the "laboratoire des signaux et systèmes" (L2S) (signals and systems laboratory) (agreement signed in 2010), a laboratory of the French National Centre for Scientific Research based at "Supélec".

paragraphs: "IPS'action" association has launched in 2006 the « UNIV'air » challenge in order to present to people research projects in partnership with the "Association Aéronautique et Astronautique de France" and other universities such as the "École nationale supérieure de l'aéronautique et de l'espace" or EPF.

paragraphs: In 2008, an aircraft without pilot project named « Hélitronix » and realized by students and researchers of the mechatronics laboratory was selected during the « "Minidrone" » challenge funded by the General Directorate for Armament and organized by the "Office National d'Études et de Recherches Aérospatiales". The same laboratory works on the « Perseus project » which consists of the development of rockets from the "Centre national d'études spatiales", in partnership with « "AéroIPSA" » student association.

paragraphs: Moreover, IPSA participates to « "ASTech Paris Région" ». It contributes at its development in many sectors : aircraft engine, onboard energy, aircraft design, material, training and research, and maintenance.

paragraphs: In November 2011, the fluid mechanics applied to aerodynamics laboratory created in 2009 has adopted a new calculation tool allowing for the end of 2011 the commissioning of a digital wind tunnel.

paragraphs: Several managers have studied at the university, like Cyril Bourlon de Rouvre (1965), French businessman and politician, Philippe Harache (1976), former Executive Vice-President "customers" Eurocopter, Christian Gras (1983), Executive Vice-President "customers" Eurocopter or Éric Boullier (1999), Team principal McLaren.

paragraphs: Stéphane Gaillard (1997), Technical Assistant to Vice President development flight test Airbus, Gilles de Richemond (1997), head of IT of AccorHotels, Julien Simon-Chautemps (2002), race Engineer Marcus Ericsson Sauber, Nicolas Tenoux (2007), airline pilot and manager, and Maxime Cadé (2018), Fencer, are also alumni of IPSA.


title: Büsingen am Hochrhein

paragraphs: Büsingen am Hochrhein often just known as Busingen, is a German village. It is part of the German state "(Bundesland)" of Baden-Württemberg. The village belongs to the district "(Kreis)" of Konstanz. Büsingen has an area of about . About 1,350 people live there. The village is the only exclave of Germany. It is surrounded by territory that belongs to Switzerland.

paragraphs: A 680-metre wide strip of Swiss land separates the village from the rest of Germany. The village next to Büsingen is the Swiss village Dörflingen.

paragraphs: There are no border controls between Büsingen and Switzerland because Büsingen is in a customs union with this country. The two countries agreed this in 1964 and the treaty became law in 1967. At the same time another even small part of West Germany separated from the rest of the country by land belonging to Switzerland, called Verenahof became part of the Swiss village of Büttenhardt.

paragraphs: Because the village is completely surrounded by Swiss territory, but is politically German, many things exist twice there. Büsingen has for example two postal codes and residents may have phone numbers from two countries. The official currency is the Euro. However, most things like electricity and cable television come from Switzerland and have to be paid in Swiss francs. Büsingen depends heavily on Switzerland in economics.

paragraphs: Büsingen only has one elementary school. Pupils can attend the school there up to the fourth grade. After this, the parents have to decide whether the children should attend a German or a Swiss school.

paragraphs: A Swiss Postbus connects the village to the Swiss city Schaffhausen the Swiss villages Dörflingen, Buch and Ramsen and the German village Randegg.

paragraphs: Most people who live in Büsingen, work in Switzerland and earn their salary in Swiss francs.

paragraphs: Büsingen has a large proportion of residents who are retired people, many are Swiss, because they pay little or no tax on their pensions.

paragraphs: About 30% of the resident population of Büsingen hold a Swiss passport.

paragraphs: The oldest finds in the area of Büsingen date back to the Bronze Age. The village was first mentioned in historical documents in 1090. The area belonging to the village contains the sites of two abandoned villages.


title: CAE Global Academy Phoenix

paragraphs: CAE Global Academy Phoenix (formerly Sabena Airline Training Center) is a private flight school (airline pilot training) in Mesa, Arizona, USA. The school is located at Falcon Field airport and has 49 aircraft including 15 Diamond DA20-C1, 10 Diamond DA40, 4 Diamond DA42-L360, 11 Piper Archer, 8 Piper Arrow and one Beechcraft 90. The school has also three flight simulators.

paragraphs: In 1991, Belgian government gives the "École d’aviation civile" created in 1953 to Sabena airline. It is renowned first Belgian Aviation School and then Sabena Air Training Center. The same year, it was decided to carry out practical training in flight to Phoenix in U.S.A because the weather in Arizona allows flights 365 days per year in a high and complex air traffic. Following that decisions, the school is created as a subsidiary of Sabena Flight Academy and under the name of Sabena Airline Training Center.

paragraphs: In 2008, following the absorption of the Belgian school by CAE, the US subsidiary is also purchased. The school becomes part of the CAE Global Academy network and is renamed CAE Global Academy Phoenix.


title: Mastère Spécialisé

paragraphs: A Mastère Spécialisé (MS), also called Specialized Master or Advanced Master, is a French degree (created in 1986) that a person gets after completing a Master's degree and then continuing to study in a Grande École in some specific field. These students are considered to possess more advanced knowledge of the field that they study, as compared to those who only get a Master's degree.

paragraphs: The course takes one year to complete, including at least four months of practical internship.

paragraphs: The history of the Mastère Spécialisé starts in 1986. During the end of the 1980s, the "Commission des titres d'ingénieur" required that a student spend two years in a school to graduate with the French Master's degree. But a lot of foreign students sometimes came one entirely year in the French schools and came back to their own country without a degree. Also, the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System was not yet adopted by all the schools.

paragraphs: Otherwise, companies in France was looking for graduated students with specialized skills, for jobs in key sectors.

paragraphs: For these two reasons, the French "Conférence des Grandes Écoles" has created the Mastère Spécialisé.


title: Beaumaris Castle

paragraphs: Beaumaris Castle (, Literal translation: "beautiful marsh") was a castle built in Beaumaris, Anglesey, Wales by King Edward I of England. King Edward built the castle to help him take over North Wales. It was one of several castles built along the North Wales coast.

paragraphs: The castle was started in 1295 and work stopped in 1330. The castle was left unfinished. Small amounts of money were spent in the 1330s and 1400s to maintain (keep up) the castle. However, these payments were stopped. By 1609, the castle was a ruin. In 1642, money was spent on repairs. No more work was done and it became a ruin again. In 1925, Richard Williams-Bulkeley placed Beaumaris Castle in state care. Since then, it has been fixed and maintained. In 1986, the castle was placed on the World Heritage List. Today, Beaumaris is cared for by Cadw. It is open to visitors.


paragraphs: Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines is a French public university created in 1991, in the department of Yvelines and since 2002, in Hauts-de-Seine. It is mainly in the cities of Versailles, Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Mantes-en-Yvelines and Vélizy-Villacoublay and Rambouillet. It has eight campuses.

paragraphs: It has 19,000 students, 752 staff people and 1389 teachers and researchers. 285 teachers outside of the university come each year to give courses.

paragraphs: The subjects taught are the sciences, the social sciences, the political sciences, engineering, technology and medicine. It also has courses about the relationship between economy, ethics, natural environment and sustainable development.

paragraphs: Some Parisian universities had anticipated the decree of the French Ministry of National Education and had relocated part of their activities outside of Paris. In fact, experiencing a significant increase of their numbers, they begin to open new locations to alleviate their main campuses. Thus, an antenna of the Pierre and Marie Curie University is created in Versailles in 1987. Dedicated to Sciences, it joined in the Yvelines the law annex of Nanterre established two years earlier at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines.

paragraphs: In the mean time, the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research program as part of French higher education modernization plan called ""Université 2000"" the creation of new universities.

paragraphs: The Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University is officially created the 22th of July 1991 from these two centers of delocalized of the Pierre and Marie Curie University and Paris West University Nanterre La Défense.

paragraphs: At the end of 1996, the university changes its special status to join the regime of the law of 1984, as well as other French universities. UVSQ elects its instances and its first President, Michel Garnier, at the beginning of 1997. He sets up the final structure (board of directors, scientific council, student life council) which then proceeded to his election. It is then the turn of Dominique Gentile to be at the President of the university, from 1997 to 2002.

paragraphs: This period is marked by a strong evolution of the French higher education and the university took the opportunity to consolidate : creation of the Doctoral colleges and prefiguration of UniverSud Paris.

paragraphs: It is also during this period that of the college of Medicine of the Paris Descartes University is relocated at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, renamed «Paris-Île-de-France-Ouest» (PIFO).

paragraphs: In 2002, the university has a new President. Sylvie Faucheux is nominated. The university starts to delivers Bachelors, Masters and Doctorates in 2004.

paragraphs: The "CFA d'Alembert" is created at Guyancourt in 2006. The year 2007 shows the removal of the "Unité de formation et de recherche médicale Paris Île-de-France Ouest" (PIFO) to Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines and the creation, with Paris-Sud 11 University and "École Normale Supérieure de Cachan", of UniverSud Paris.

paragraphs: 2010 is also the year of the reorganization of the humanities and social sciences college of UVSQ. He disappears to make way for four new colleges : "institut des études culturelles" (cultural studies institute), "institut supérieur de management" (management institute), "institut de langues et études internationales" (languages and international studies institute) and social sciences research institute.

paragraphs: The university is entering a phase of expansion. The UVSQ becomes founding member of UniverSud Paris but also of the foundation for scientific cooperation. A partnership with Cergy-Pontoise University is studied in 2011. Thus, the Université du grand ouest parisien is created in February 2012. An political studies institute commons to both universities is also being studied.

paragraphs: Like all the other French universities, UVSQ is managed by a President elected by the Board of directors. He is member of the three councils of the university.

paragraphs: The current President is Alain Bui. He is the sixth person to be the Chairman since the creation of the university. He was elected in 2017, succeeding at Didier Guillemot.

paragraphs: The University has a budget of 166 millions of euros in 2011. In 2010, the University had a budget of 143 millions of euros, which is 13.1% more than the one of 2009.

paragraphs: In 2009-2010, the "Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines" employs 229 non-permanent teachers. The total number of permanent teachers is 464, including 121 university professors, 250 assistants, and 93 secondary school teachers.

paragraphs: A partnership foundation was prepared in autumn 2008 and opened the 13th of May 2010. It has nine founding members which have given a total of 2 million euros for the creation of the foundation.

paragraphs: Called "Mov’eoTec", it relates to transport and sustainable mobility.

paragraphs: According to the French educational law for the legal organization of public universities in France, the "Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines" is divided into several components. There are faculties and « graduate schools and institutes ».

paragraphs: The science faculty, located at Versailles and Le Chesnay, welcomes courses in biology, universe and earth science, physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science. The social science faculty, located at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, welcomes courses in economy, geography and social sciences. The law and political science faculty, located at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, welcomes courses in law and political science with 15 Master's degree, four research centers and a judicial studies institute. The Île-de-France West medical training and research faculty, located at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, is for the training of doctors and midwives. The institute of languages and international studies, located at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, is for the development of research and training, use of knowledge in languages, cultures and international studies. The institute of cultural studies, located at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, welcomes the courses in history, literature, English, Spanish. The higher institute of management, located at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, welcomes the courses in management, information science, communication and educational science.

paragraphs: UVSQ as a postgraduate school in engineering, called ISTY, created in 1992 and which delivers two Master's degree specialized in computer science or mechatronics, both recognized by "Commission des titres d'ingénieur".

paragraphs: It has also two University Institutes of Technology : one at Velizy and another one at Mantes-en-Yvelines, and also a training center for apprentices (called "CFA d'Alembert"), created in 2006 and located at Guyancourt.

paragraphs: UVSQ has a science of the universe observatory. Located at Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, it is where the natural environment, system science and social science courses are done. The university has a strong reputation in sustainable development.

paragraphs: The university has PhD graduate schools which take care of the PhD students and also of habilitation. There are five schools: Cultures, regulations, institutions and territories, Genome organizations, Environmental Science in Ile de France, Science and technology of Versailles, public health. 102 PhD has been delivered in 2009.

paragraphs: Its main library, opened in June 2002, has an area of  and 100,000 books. In 2005, the university opened the library of Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines with an area of  and 1,100 reading places. In September 2011, another one was opened on the sciences campus, located in Versailles. In total, the university has six academic libraries located, in addition to the campus already mentioned, on those of Velizy, Boulogne-Billancourt, Rambouillet and Mantes, consisting of about 200,000 books, 5,000 digital books and 26,000 magazines and newspapers.

paragraphs: The university has height campuses in total, on two departments and seven communes. In total, UVSQ has of buildings. Versailles campus welcomes the sciences college and the one of computer science. On the campus of Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines are located the law and political sciences, social sciences, medical research colleges and the sciences of the universe observatory. At Le Chesnay, another part of the sciences college is located. Vélizy-Villacoublay welcomes the University Institutes of Technology of Vélizy and Rambouillet an annex of it. On the campus of Mantes-la-Jolie is located the University Institutes of Technology of Mantes-en-Yvelines. Mantes-la-ville welcomes the mechatronics college.

paragraphs: In 2012, the "Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines" offers 50 Bachelor's degree, 10 e-learning courses, 95 Master's degree, 1 Doctor of Medicine degree and 1 Midwifery degree.

paragraphs: From the beginning, the university is part of Erasmus or other programmes.

paragraphs: The number of partners is about 230 in 2011. The university has welcomed 330 students from a foreign country in 2010.

paragraphs: The university also welcomes foreign students who wants to obtain a French degree. In 2010, they are about 2,400, which is 13,3% of the students. They are much more in the PhD courses, where they are almost half of the students (45%).

paragraphs: Research activities at the university are done in 35 laboratories. It is grouped in six departments: chemistry, physics, materials, renewable energy, environment and sustainable development, mathematics, computer science, engineering sciences, biology and health, cultures, humanities and sciences, institutions and organizations. It have a total of nearly 950 researchers and 715 PhD students.

paragraphs: In September 2011, 31 associations are approved by UVSQ. They are in science, social sciences and humanities, law, medicine, humanitarian-social-environment, communication, entertainment, thought and politics. A student house will open in 2013. It will have an area of 1,730 m2 ; this building must accommodate cultural activities, a multipurpose room, an art room, and also a cafeteria.

paragraphs: 14,226 students are at the university in 2004. 12.5% of students receive scholarships. Concerning the social origins, 49.2% of the students have a favored social origin, 30.6% have an average social origin and 20.2% a disadvantaged social backgrounds.

paragraphs: Several sociologists teach or have taught at the university like Roland Guillon, known for his work on the problem of employment and capital, Laurent Mucchielli, specialist in criminology, Philippe Robert, specialized in the study of delinquency, or also Étienne Anheim, Didier Demazière and Claude Dubar.

paragraphs: UVSQ also counts among its current or former teachers historians like Bernard Cottret, honorary member of the "Institut Universitaire de France", Christian Delporte, specialist of the twentieth-century of France, Bruno Laurioux, French Middle Ages historian, Jean-Yves Mollier and Loïc Vadelorge, both specialized in contemporary history.

paragraphs: In science, people like the creator of the ext2 file system Rémy Card, the specialist in photography Fabien Danesi, the vice director of the "École Normale Supérieure" Jean-Charles Darmon or the chemist and member of the French Academy of Sciences Gérard Férey teach or have taught at the university.

paragraphs: Valérie-Laure Bénabou, teacher of law, is also on the faculty.

paragraphs: During the honorary degree graduation ceremony the 18th of October 2011, Sylvie Faucheux awards six people: Andrew Abbott (sociology teacher at the University of Chicago), George Bermann (international law teacher at Columbia University), Amos Gitai (director and filmmaker Israeli), Robin Hartshorne (mathematics teacher at the University of California), Günther Lottes (history teacher at the University of Potsdam) and Seiji Miyashita (physics teacher at the University of Tokyo).

paragraphs: The university has a logo showing a white sunrise on a green earth referring to the sustainable development, major theme of the university.

paragraphs: Moreover, the university is the initiator of the European project « Europolytec » which purpose is to design a website for careers in computer science and mechatronics.


title: Cuthbert

paragraphs: Saint Cuthbert (c. 634 – 20 March 687) was an Anglo-Saxon monk, bishop and hermit associated with the monasteries of Melrose and Lindisfarne in the Kingdom of Northumbria, at that time including, in modern terms, northern England as well as south-eastern Scotland as far north as the Firth of Forth. Afterwards he became one of the most important medieval saints of England, his cult being centred at Durham Cathedral. Cuthbert is regarded as the patron saint of northern England. His feast day is 20 March.

paragraphs: In 676 he began the life of a hermit and retired to a cave on Lindisfarne. After a time he settled on one of the Farne Islands, south of Lindisfarne, and made his life more simple.

paragraphs: In 684, Cuthbert was chosen to be bishop of Lindisfarne, at a synod at Twyford (believed to be present-day Alnmouth), but was unwilling to leave his retirement and take up his charge. It was only after a visit from a large group, including King Ecgfrith, that he agreed to return and take up the duties of bishop. He was consecrated at York on 26 March 685. After Christmas, 686, however, he returned to his cell on Inner Farne Island, which was where he eventually died on 20 March 687 AD. He was buried at Lindisfarne, and his remains later moved to Durham Cathedral.


title: Durham Cathedral

paragraphs: The Cathedral Church of Christ, Blessed Mary the Virgin and St Cuthbert of Durham (usually known as Durham Cathedral) is a cathedral in the city of Durham, England, the seat of the Anglican Bishop of Durham. The Bishopric dates from 995, with the present cathedral being founded in AD 1093. The cathedral is known as one of the finest examples of Norman architecture. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

paragraphs: The present cathedral replaces the 10th century "White Church" built as part of a monastic foundation to house the shrine of Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne. The treasures of Durham Cathedral include relics of St Cuthbert, the head of St Oswald of Northumbria and the remains of the Venerable Bede.

paragraphs: Durham Cathedral occupies a strategic position on a promontory high above the River Wear. The cathedral is a major tourist attraction, the central tower of 217 feet (66 m) giving views of Durham and the surrounding area.

paragraphs: There are many famous people who are interred (buried) in the Cathedral and in the surrounding grounds including Bishop Alfred Tucker.