title: Wildfire

paragraphs: Wildfire is a general term which includes forest fires, grassland fires, bushfires, brush fires and any other vegetation fire in countryside areas.

paragraphs: Wildfires occur in every continent except Antarctica. They can occur naturally and spontaneously, but many are caused by humans, accidentally or deliberately. Fossil records and human history show that wildfires do occur at intervals. The Great Oxygenation Event and the spread of land plants made Earth a planet of fire.

paragraphs: Wildfires can cause extensive damage to property and human life, but they also have some beneficial effects on wilderness areas. Some plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction, although large wildfires may also have negative ecological effects.

paragraphs: Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection, and suppression have varied over the years. One of the more controversial methods is controlled burn: People permit or light small fires to burn away some of the fuel for a potential wildfire. While some wildfires burn in remote forested regions, they can cause extensive destruction of homes and other property in the zone between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness.

paragraphs: Plants in wildfire-prone ecosystems often have adaptations to their local conditions. Such adaptations include physical protection against heat, increased growth after a fire event, and flammable materials that encourage fire and eliminate competition. For example, plants of the genus "Eucalyptus" contain flammable oils that encourage fire and hard sclerophyll leaves that resist heat and drought. This makes them dominant over less fire-tolerant species. Dense bark, shedding lower branches, and high water content in external structures may also protect trees from rising temperatures. Fire-resistant seeds and reserve shoots that sprout after a fire encourage species preservation, as in 'pioneer' species that specialize in restarting ecological succession after a fire.

paragraphs: Smoke, charred wood, and heat can stimulate the germination of seeds. Smoke from burning plants promotes contains orange butenolide, which induces germination of seeds.

paragraphs: Grasslands in Western Sabah, Malaysian pine forests, and Indonesian "Casuarina" forests are believed to have resulted from previous periods of fire. The deadwood litter of Chamise (Californian greasewood shrub) is low in water content and flammable, and the shrub quickly sprouts after a fire. "Sequoia" relies on periodic fires to reduce competition, release seeds from their cones, and clear the soil and canopy for new growth. Some have adapted to, and rely on, low-intensity surface fires for survival and growth. The optimum fire frequency for Caribbean pine in Bahamian pineyards is every 3 to 10 years. Too frequent fires favour herbaceous plants, and infrequent fires favour other tree species.


title: Bipod

paragraphs: "Bipod" comes from the Latin and Greek words "bi" and "pod". "Bi" means "two" and "pod" means "foot", or "feet". A bipod is sometimes attached to a firearm to help support it. It also makes it more stable. It gives the best stability along two axes of motion: side-to-side and up-and-down.

paragraphs: On firearms, bipods are often used on rifles and shotguns to allow the gun to rest and stop it from moving. They can also be seen on long-barrelled weapons. The bipod allows the gunner to rest the weapon on the ground, a short wall or other object. This allows for more accuracy. Different types of bipods are set up in different ways. Some bipods are a specific length that can not be changed, but some bipods' length can be changed. Mostly, when bipods are not being used, they are folded forwards, not back towards the gunner. Some types of bipod can fold into grips for the gunner to hold to keep the weapon steady.

paragraphs: When firing a weapon without a bipod, it is harder to aim and keep the weapon steady.

paragraphs: The good thing about having a bipod is that it makes weapons more accurate. At first, the bipod was only used on long-barreled rifles, such as snipers. However, light and heavy machine guns now use them, as well as small pistols.


title: Emperor Jomei

paragraphs: The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

paragraphs: Jomei was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and a great-grandson of Emperor Kimmei.

paragraphs: Suiko did not make it clear who was to succeed her after her death.

paragraphs: The actual place of Jomei's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Jomei's mausoleum. It is formally named "Osaka no uchi no misasagi".

paragraphs: Some short poems are believed to have been written by Emperor Jomei. For example,


title: Lawson Inada

paragraphs: Lawson Fusao Inada (born 1938 in Fresno, California) is an American poet and was the fifth poet laureate of the U.S. state of Oregon.

paragraphs: Inada is a third-generation Japanese American ("Sansei"). As a child, Inada and his family were interned during World War II.

paragraphs: Inada became a jazz musician, and this affected his writing. Inada cites jazz and his time in the internment camps as his chief influences as a poet. He studied writing at the University of California, Berkeley, the University of Oregon, and the University of Iowa.

paragraphs: He joined the faculty of Southern Oregon University in 1966.

paragraphs: In 1994, Inada's "Legends from Camp" won an American Book Award; and he was awarded poetry fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts.

paragraphs: In 2006 Inada was named Oregon's poet laureate.


title: Nobushige Hozumi

paragraphs: Hozumi was appointed to the House of Peers in 1890.

paragraphs: In 1915, he was ennobled with the title of "danshaku" (baron) under the "kazoku" system.

paragraphs: In 1916, Horzumi was named to the Emperor's Privy Council in 1916.

paragraphs: The people of Uwajima city named a bridge in his honor. He was also honored by a Japanese commemorative postage stamp in 1998.


title: Sport Relief

paragraphs: Sport Relief is a charity event from Comic Relief that happens every two years. It is held in association with BBC Sport. The event brings together the worlds of sport and entertainment to raise money to help vulnerable people in both the UK and the world's poorest countries. At the heart of the campaign is the Sport Relief Mile.


title: Pope Gregory I

paragraphs: Pope Gregory I (; c. 540 – 12 March 604), better known in English as Gregory the Great, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 64th Pope from 3 September 590 to his death in 604.

paragraphs: Gregory was born in Rome, but the date of his birth is not certain. He was the son of a noble Roman family.


title: Casino Marina del Sol

paragraphs: The Casino Marina del Sol is the largest casino in Chile. It is in the city of Talcahuano. It opened in 2005 under a Chilean law allowing casinos. It contains a casino, hotel, gym, spa, disco, museum and car park.


title: Functional magnetic resonance imaging

paragraphs: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) is a special type of MRI that makes it possible to watch different areas of a person's brain while they do different tasks.

paragraphs: A functional MRI shows the use of oxygen in different brain areas. The Deoxyhemoglobin in blood absorbs a radiowave signal and later emits it (sends it back out). Oxyhemoglobin does not. When an area of the brain is active, the blood flow to that area increases and more oxyhemoglobin is delivered to supply the active cells with oxygen. This means less of the signal is absorbed. An active area of the brain absorbs and emits less energy than a less active area. This can be seen live as it is happening when different areas of the brain 'light up' on the images as they become less active.


title: My Prerogative

paragraphs: "My Prerogative" is a song first released in 1988 in the United States and then recorded again in 2004. The earlier version was by Bobby Brown. The 2004 version was by Britney Spears. Other people have covered the song since then. It has been sampled in other songs.


title: Cultural icon

paragraphs: A cultural icon can be a symbol, logo, picture, name, face, person, building, or other image. It is easily recognized and generally represents an object or idea with great cultural significance to a wide cultural group. It has a special status as representing, or important to, or loved by, a particular group of people, a place, or a period in history.

paragraphs: In the media, many well-known examples of popular culture have been called "iconic". Some writers say that the word is overused.

paragraphs: Brands can show social values and changes, but many people have become tired of them. Many brands want to be cultural icons, but fail. Cultural icons are often timeless, imprinted in our consciousness. They can go through several stages, from "rumblings, undercurrents" via "catharsis, explosion" and "mass acceptance, ripple effect" to "glorification, representative value". While brands are rational and driven by features, cultural icons are emotional, free, driven by feeling, and creating emotional bonds. An example of "branding" might include the wearing of a consistent fashion look by such music stars as Michael Jackson or Elvis Presley, making them instantly recognizable. Royal or church clothing could also be understood as a form of emotional iconography.

paragraphs: Examples include: Andy Warhol, Budweiser, BMW, Chanel, Coca-Cola, Guinness, Harley-Davidson, LEGO, Martha Stewart, Nike, Norman Rockwell, Vuitton, Škoda Auto...

paragraphs: Cultural icons may be national, regional or about a city. And they can be symbols for a nation, or can show the values held by that state. For example, France uses Marianne as a symbol of the French Revolution. Bruce Lee is a symbol for the martial arts and philosophical culture of insight and knowledge in the entire world. Charlie Chaplin symbolises comical action while Clint Eastwood is a symbol for strength and masculinity. Jackie Chan is a global icon of comical stunts and martial arts based action. Salvador Dalí is the worldwide icon for the bizarre and eccentric.

paragraphs: Some writers say that the terms "icon" and "iconic" have been overused. A writer in "Liverpool Daily Post" calls "iconic" "a word that makes my flesh creep", a word "pressed into service to describe almost anything". The "Christian Examiner" added "iconic" and "amazing" to its list of overused words. It found over 18,000 "iconic" references in news stories alone, with another 30,000 for "icon", including use of it for SpongeBob SquarePants.


title: Sciadopitys

paragraphs: Sciadopitys, the Japanese umbrella-pine, is a unique conifer. It is endemic to Japan, and the sole surviving member of the family Sciadopityaceae. It is a living fossil with no close relatives: its fossils date from 230 million years ago.

paragraphs: It is an evergreen tree that can grow 15-27m tall. Its brown main shoots have whorls of 7–12 cm long flexible green "cladodes". These look like, and perform the function of, leaves but are actually composed of stem tissue. Occasionally, a cladode will fork and produce a bud in the 'v' of the fork, just like a normal stem.

paragraphs: The cones are 6–11 cm long, mature in about 18 months, and have flattish scales that open to release the seeds.

paragraphs: It is a very attractive tree and is popular in gardens, despite its slow growth rate and high cost. Koyamaki was chosen as the Japanese Imperial crest for Prince Hisahito of Akishino, currently third in line to the Chrysanthemum Throne.

paragraphs: The plant was first introduced to Europe by John Gould Veitch in September 1860.

paragraphs: Infrared microspectroscopy has identified conifers of the family Sciadopityaceae as the principal source of Baltic amber.


title: General-purpose machine gun

paragraphs: A general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) is a machine gun which gets its ammunition from a belt. It can be used in many different roles: it can support infantry from a bipod or tripod or be put onto a helicopter or armoured vehicle. It can provide fire support for vehicles or infantry from a variety of mounts.

paragraphs: A general-purpose machine gun is generally a medium machine gun. It also fires rifle cartridges like the 7.62×51mm NATO or 7.92x57mm Mauser. It is usually used from a bipod, tripod or on a vehicle. This is because it is usually too powerful and heavy to be fired well on foot or while moving.

paragraphs: Some examples of general-purpose machine guns are:


title: Yamashiro Province

paragraphs: Kyoto is in the former Yamashiro Province.

paragraphs: In 794, the capital of Japan was in Yamashiro. It remained in the province until the Imperial court moved to Tokyo in the 1870s.

paragraphs: During the Muromachi Period, the administrative seat of the Ashikaga Shogunate was in this province.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Yamashiro Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: The Kamo Shrines were the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") of Yamashiro. These are the Kamigamo Shrine and the Shimogamo Shrine.


title: Symphyla

paragraphs: Symphyla are soil-dwelling arthropods in the subphylum Myriapoda.

paragraphs: They are relatives of centipedes. Symphylans look like centipedes, but are smaller and translucent. They move through the pores between soil particles. They are found from the surface down to a depth of about 50 cm. They eat decaying vegetation, and can do harm in agriculture by eating seeds, roots, and root hairs in cultivated soil.


title: Pauropod

paragraphs: Pauropods are a type of myriapod. They form the only order in the class Pauropoda. About 500 species in four families are found worldwide, living in soil and leaf mold.

paragraphs: Pauropoda are tiny soil myriapods, 0.5-1.5mm in length, with 8-11 body segments. The body appears to have fewer segments when viewed from above, because the dorsal shields (tergites) are fused in pairs. The true segments can be seen from the ventral side, each segment bearing a single pair of walking legs. A characteristic feature of pauropods is their branched antennae.


title: Defence against herbivory

paragraphs: Defence against herbivory describes plant defences to avoid being eaten. There are many adaptations which improve the survival and reproduction of plants by reducing the impact of herbivores.

paragraphs: Many plants produce chemicals which change the behaviour, growth, or survival of herbivores. These chemical defences can act as repellents or toxins to herbivores, or reduce plant digestibility. Some plants, known as hyperaccumulators, specialise in storing heavy metals which are toxic to animals.

paragraphs: Some plants encourage the presence of natural enemies of herbivores, which in turn protect the plant. Some plants provide a home for ants which defend the plant strongly.

paragraphs: Other defensive strategies used by plants include escaping or avoiding herbivores in time or in place. They may grow where plants are not easily found or got at by herbivores. They may grow when herbivores are not around. Herbivores may get diverted towards non-essential parts, or a plant may be able to recover from the damage caused by herbivory.

paragraphs: Each type of defence can be either "constitutive" (always present in the plant), or "induced" (produced in reaction to damage or stress caused by herbivores). Plants can and do react to damage.

paragraphs: Historically, insects have been the most significant herbivores, especially the larvae of insects. The evolution of land plants is closely associated with the evolution of insects. While most plant defences are directed against insects, other defences have evolved that are aimed at vertebrate herbivores, such as birds and mammals.

paragraphs: The study of plant defences against herbivory is important, not only from an evolutionary viewpoint, but also because these defences can be used in agriculture, including human and livestock food sources.

paragraphs: Plant chemicals have evolved to affect insects. Some of these biochemical pathways exist in vertebrates, including humans. Many pharmaceuticals are got from the chemicals plants use to protect themselves from herbivores. Examples are opium, aspirin, cocaine, and atropine.

paragraphs: Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are produced by plants as a defence mechanism against insect herbivores. More than 660 PAs and PA N-oxides have been identified in over 6,000 plants. About half of them exhibit hepatotoxicity, that is, they attack liver function.

paragraphs: The earliest land plants evolved from aquatic plants around 450 million years ago (mya) in the Ordovician period. These early land plants had no vascular tissue and needed free water for their reproduction. Vascular plants appeared later and their diversification began in the Devonian era (about 400 mya). They had adaptations such as protective coatings to reduce evaporation from their tissues.

paragraphs: Reproduction and dispersal of vascular plants in these dry conditions was achieved through the evolution of specialized seed structures. The diversification of flowering plants (angiosperms) during the Cretaceous period is associated with the sudden burst of speciation in insects. This diversification of insects represented a major selective force in plant evolution, and led to selection of plants that had defensive adaptations. Early insect herbivores bit or chewed vegetation; but the evolution of vascular plants lead to the co-evolution of other forms of herbivory, such as sap-sucking, leaf mining, gall forming and nectar-feeding.

paragraphs: Our understanding of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources:

paragraphs: Long thought to be a Mesozoic phenomenon, evidence for herbivory is found almost as soon as fossils which could show it. Within under 20 million years of the first fossils of sporangia and stems towards the close of the Silurian, around 420 mya, there is evidence that they were being eaten. Animals fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the Rhynie chert also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique. Many plants of this time are preserved with spine-like growths, which may have had a defensive role.

paragraphs: During the ensuing 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs – from roots to seeds. There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between each organ evolving, and it being fed upon. Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early Permian, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.

paragraphs: Herbivores depend on plants for food, and have evolved mechanisms to get this food despite the evolution of many plant defences. Herbivore adaptations to plant defence have been likened to "offensive traits". They are adaptations which allow increased feeding and use of a host plant. Relationships between herbivores and their host plants often results in reciprocal evolutionary change, called co-evolution.

paragraphs: When a herbivore eats, it eats plants that do not mount a sufficient defensive response. This creates the opportunity for plants which "can" mount a defence. So plants with defences become the more common. In cases where this relationship demonstrates "specificity" (the evolution of each trait is due to the other), and "reciprocity" (both traits evolve), the species are thought to have co-evolved.

paragraphs: The "escape and radiation" mechanism for co-evolution is the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants have been the driving force behind speciation. The adaptations have played a role in the radiation of insect species during the age of angiosperms. Some herbivores have evolved ways to hijack plant defences to their own benefit, by sequestering (keeping) these chemicals and using them to protect themselves from predators.

paragraphs: Most of the plants which defend their leaves so vigorously nevertheless do need animals. Up to 98% of flowering plants in tropical lowland rain forests rely on animals for pollination and seed dispersal.


title: Wheeling Tunnel

paragraphs: The Wheeling Tunnel is a pair of tunnels in Wheeling, Ohio County, West Virginia. The tunnels allow Interstate 70 and U.S. Route 250 to go through Wheeling Hill. Each tunnel has two lanes of each road.

paragraphs: The tunnel is run by the West Virginia Division of Highways. Opened in 1966, the Wheeling Tunnel cost $6.9 million to build. It was rebuilt between 2007 and 2010 for $13.7 million. In 2009, an average of 59,600 cars used the tunnel every day.

paragraphs: The Wheeling Tunnel is between exits 1A and 1B on Interstate 70 and U.S. Route 250. These two highways use the same road through the city of Wheeling to go through Wheeling Hill. People who need to use exit 1A at the western end of the tunnels use the tunnels' right lanes as acceleration (speeding up) and deceleration (slowing down) lanes. Changing lanes is not allowed inside the tunnel.

paragraphs: Several accidents involving semi-trailer trucks caused local politicians to try to ban trucks from the tunnel. Their plan would have the trucks use the nearby I-470.

paragraphs: A total of 13,000 square feet (1,200 m) of industrial tile was used to cover the inside of the tunnels. The tunnels cost $6.9 million (which is the same as $ million in 2021) to build. The then-governor of West Virginia, William Wallace Barron, and the state roads commissioner started construction on the tunnel on August 22, 1963. Barron said it was the largest single building project in the state's Interstate Highway program. The state gave the construction contract to C.J. Langenfelder & Son, Inc. in Baltimore, Maryland. During construction, several workers became sick after breathing a lot of carbon monoxide. As a result, the company stopped construction in 1964 until fans were installed. The tunnel officially opened to traffic on December 7, 1966.

paragraphs: The West Virginia Division of Highways began planning to rebuild the tunnel in 2005. Rebuilding began in January 2007. The plan allowed three months for the work. However, rebuilding of the eastbound tunnel took over eleven months. There were problems with the glue that attached the tiles to the tunnel wall. Problems with drains in the tunnel also caused delays. Workers found a coal mine in the tunnel. This also delayed the project.

paragraphs: Local officials suggested closing the tunnels because of these problems. They planned to just build a road over Wheeling Hill instead. Building the new road would have removed at least fifty families from their homes. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was against this plan because those people's houses would be destroyed. The state canncelled the plan for the new road. Rebuilding of the eastbound tunnel started again in July 2008.

paragraphs: During this rebuilding of the eastbound tunnel, the westbound tunnel was only closed overnight for rebuilding. New guard rails, fire sprinklers, and security cameras were added. The whole tunnel was also cleaned very well. Workers put a new road surface in the tunnel. A German tile maker replaced the tiles. The German company got the contract because no other company could finish the work on time. The company finished rebuilding the eastbound tunnel on October 31, 2008. The state closed the westbound tunnel in February 2010. It opened a month ahead of schedule in September 2010. The total cost of the project was over double the original plan. It totaled $13.7 million because of the delays.


title: Postgenderism

paragraphs: The word is used to describe the idea, the social current or the evolution that fades or gets rid of gender and/or sex in humans and society.

paragraphs: It is also used to describe a set of social norms or a persons identity that goes beyond classical gender and sex-determinations and places them in the past, let them fade or dissapear.

paragraphs: Postgenderism argues that marking people into different sex of gender groups and gender roles is not needed and results in a limitation on the possibilities of people and what they can achieve in life.

paragraphs: It foresees that gender will disappear with humans that don't want this, as a result of always changing ways the human species organises their lives and as a result of new technology advances.


title: Kawachi Province

paragraphs: Kawachi province was established in the 7th century. In the 8th century, Izumi was separated from the older province during the reign of Empress Genshō.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Kawachi Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Hiraoka jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Kawachi.


title: Karl Friedrich Schinkel

paragraphs: Karl Friedrich Schinkel (13 March 1781 – 9 October 1841) was a Prussian architect, city planner, and painter. He also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most importat architects of Germany and designed both neoclassical and neogothic buildings.

paragraphs: Schinkel was born in Neuruppin, Brandenburg. When he was six, his father died in Neuruppin's disastrous fire. He became a student of architect Friedrich Gilly (1772–1800) (the two became close friends) and his father, David Gilly, in Berlin. He made a trip to Italy in 1805. Then he started to earn his living as a painter.He worked for the stage and created in 1816 a star-spangled backdrop for the appearance of the "Königin der Nacht" in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera "The Magic Flute". When he saw Caspar David Friedrich's painting "Wanderer above the Sea of Fog" at the 1810 Berlin art exhibition he decided that he would never reach such mastery of painting and turned to architecture. After Napoleon's defeat, Schinkel worked at the Prussian Building Commission. In this position, he was not only responsible for reshaping the city of Berlin into a representative capital for Prussia, but also had to work projects in the expanded Prussian territories from the Rhineland in the west to Königsberg in the east.

paragraphs: From 1808 to 1817 Schinkel renovated and reconstructed "Schloss Rosenau", Coburg, in the Gothic Revival style.

paragraphs: Schinkel's style was more influenced by Greek than by than Imperial Roman architecture. His most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin. These include Neue Wache (1816–1818), the Schauspielhaus (1819–1821) at the Gendarmenmarkt, which replaced the earlier theater that was destroyed by fire in 1817, and the Altes Museum (old museum, see photo) on Museum Island (1823–1830).

paragraphs: Later, Schinkel moved away from classicism altogether and preferred the Gothic Revival style.

paragraphs: Schinkel, however, is famous as well for his theoretical work and his architectural drafts. Some of his merits are best shown in his unexecuted plans for the transformation of the Athenian Acropolis into a royal palace for the new Kingdom of Greece and for the erection of the Orianda Palace in the Crimea. These and other designs may be studied in his "Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe" (1820–1837) and his "Werke der höheren Baukunst" (1840–1842; 1845–1846). He also designed the famed Iron Cross medal of Prussia, and later Germany.


title: Hey, Soul Sister

paragraphs: "Hey, Soul Sister" is a hit song under the musical group Train. The single was released in August 2009 as the lead single on Train's fifth album "Save Me, San Francisco". This song peaked at number 3 on Billboard Hot 100 and is Train's highest and its most commercially successful song, though the single was not eligible for any Grammy Award in the General Field.


title: Hardwood

paragraphs: Hardwood is wood from deciduous trees and broad-leaf evergreen trees. All hardwoods are angiosperms (flowering plants), the largest group of land plants.

paragraphs: Hardwood is contrasted to softwood, which comes from conifers, cone bearing seed plants. Hardwoods are not always harder than softwoods, balsa wood being an example of this. Hardwood trees are more varied than softwoods and there are about 100 times more species of hardwood than there are softwoods. Hardwoods usually have broad leaves. Hardwoods all have enclosed nuts or seeds, where softwoods are gymnosperms, naked seed plants.leis

paragraphs: Each species of hardwood has its own set of properties, however they have some properties in common. Hardwoods normally have broad leaves and come from deciduous or broad-leafed evergreen trees. Hardwoods grow slower than softwoods. Evergreen softwoods grow faster than deciduous hardwoods, and can grow to a larger size. Some hardwoods are excellent for carving. One of the hardest hardwoods is black ironwood which is recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the heaviest wood. Ironwoods are so dense that they sink in water rather than float as other woods do.

paragraphs: The properties of the wood are caused by its structure. Hardwoods have a denser structure, which is the reason they are usually harder and heavier. Hardwood has xylem vessels which are used to transport water. Their cell walls are strongly lignified: lignin is a hard material used to support plants above the surface. The quantity of lignin is probably the main factor in their hardness.

paragraphs: Softwoods have a vascular structure which looks similar to a bunch of drinking straws held together. They also have lignin, but of a slightly different type, and less of it than most hardwoods.

paragraphs: Common species of hardwood found in the USA, and Europe. Many species are also found in other areas of the world. This is not a complete list of all hardwood trees.

paragraphs: The use of hardwood is much reduced in the modern world. The destruction of tropical and temperate forests has made it expensive and scarce. Many things once made of hardwood are now made of ceramics, plastic or softwood.

paragraphs: Hardwoods are often used to make items that get used a lot because of their density. These items include furniture, flooring, and utensils. They are also used in construction. Hardwoods are also less likely to decay or rot than softwoods. Furniture made by hardwood joinery is more expensive than that made from softwoods.

paragraphs: Utensils for use in preparing food can include things such as the vessel in the gallery below used by the Ede people to grind corn and grains for food. Other utensils include: spoons, chopsticks, bowls, plates and cups. Because of the dense nature of the wood used such a vessel can be used for many years without breaking. Other examples include the handle of the Luzon knife seen in the gallery. Because of the nature of sound transmission provide a good wood for musical instruments such as violins, guitars, pianos and hand drums such as the Djembe drum pictured in the gallery below.

paragraphs: Flooring is often made of hardwood because it can stand up to years of people walking on it with their shoes. An example is the flooring made from tiger-wood seen in the gallery below. Hardwoods are also used to make wood veneers to glue over other, cheaper woods, making them less expensive than solid hardwood while still giving them the appearance of a particular species of wood. This has become a common way of using tropical hardwoods that have a limited supply of trees due to deforestation occurring in many tropical countries. In Europe, hardwoods account for 29% and softwoods 71% of wood consumption. Hardwood has very short fibers about 1mm in length and is so also used to make fine paper such as writing paper, tissue, and printing paper. Paper with longer fibers such as paper bags, cardboard and shipping containers is made of softwoods.

paragraphs: A variety of objects made from different types of hardwood.


title: HM Prison Pentridge

paragraphs: HM Prison Pentridge was an Australian prison built in 1850 in Coburg, Victoria. The first prisoners arrived in 1851. The prison was closed on 1 May 1997.

paragraphs: Pentridge was often known by the nicknames "The Bluestone College", "Coburg College" or the "College of Knowledge". The grounds were originally landscaped by renowned landscape gardener Hugh Linaker. Since closing, much of the prison has been pulled down to make way for a housing development. Large buildings have been built and a 16 floor modern apartment block is being planned.

paragraphs: The northern section of the prison being developed by Valad Property Group and the other areas by Pentridge Village. The National Trust does not like the development plans approved by Heritage Victoria. These plans include taking down sections of the outside walls and building apartments between the historic prison buildings.

paragraphs: The prison was split into many divisions, named using letters of the alphabet.

paragraphs: Jika Jika, opened in 1980 at a cost of AU$7 million. It was a 'gaol within a gaol', designed to hold Victoria's toughest and longest serving prisoners. It was awarded the 'Excellence in Concrete Award' by the Concrete Institute of Australia. It was closed after the deaths of five prisoners in 1987.

paragraphs: Jika Jika had six separate units each at the end of radiating spines. It had electronic doors, closed-circuit television and remote locking. This meant it could use less staff but still have maximum security. The furnishings were sparse and prisoners exercised in escape proof yards.

paragraphs: In 1983 four prisoners escaped from ‘escape proof’ Jika Jika. When two prison officers were disciplined in relation to the Jika Jika escape a week-long strike occurred.

paragraphs: Inmates Robert Wright, Jimmy Loughnan, Arthur Gallagher, David McGauley and Ricky Morris - from one side of the unit - and Craig 'Slim' Minogue and three other inmates on the other side sealed off their section doors with a tennis net. Mattresses and other bedding were then stacked against the doors and set on fire. They covered windows in the day room with paper so the prison officers could not see which prisoners caused the damage.

paragraphs: Prisoners Robert Wright, Jimmy Loughnan, Arthur Gallagher, David McGauley and Ricky Morris died in the fire. Convicted Russell Street bomber Craig Minogue and three other inmates survived as they were evacuated when the fire started.

paragraphs: The graves of executed prisoners were unmarked in a corner of the prison. In 1929, 32 bodies were moved from the Melbourne Gaol during the building of the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. These graves were found in 2008. The skeleton of bushranger Ned Kelly was among those discovered.

paragraphs: There were 11 executions at Pentridge. The gallows beam and the trapdoor were moved from the Melbourne Gaol and put into "D" Division in 1924.

paragraphs: When the gaol was closed, the beam and the trapdoor were taken back to the Melbourne Gaol to be part of its historical display.

paragraphs: Ronald Ryan was the last man executed at Pentridge Prison and in Australia. Ryan was hanged in "D" Division at 8.00 on 3 February 1967. He had been convicted of murdering a prison officer during an escape from the same prison. Later that day, Ryan's body was buried in an unmarked grave within the "D" Division. There is still debate about his hanging.


title: Michael Chabon

paragraphs: Michael Chabon is an American author. His first novel was called "The Mysteries of Pittsburgh" and published in 1988. Chabon was 25 years old. The book made him famous among writers. He has also written genre fiction. Chabon published "The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay" in 2000. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2001.

paragraphs: Michael Chabon was born in Washington, DC to Robert Chabon, a physician and lawyer, and Sharon Chabon, a lawyer. He knew he wanted to be a writer when he was a child. He studied at Carnegie Mellon University for a year before transferring to the University of Pittsburgh. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree there in 1984. Then Chabon went to graduate school at the University of California, Irvine and earned a Master of Fine Arts in creative writing.

paragraphs: In 1987, Chabon married the poet Lollie Groth. They divorced in 1991, and he married the writer Ayelet Waldman in 1993.


title: Amit

paragraphs: Amit is a common given name. It is common in India, Nepal, Israel, Pakistan, Iran, Middle East, and Bangladesh.

paragraphs: In Hindi and Bengali, Amit () means infinite or immeasurable or boundless. It is part of Amitabh Bachchan. It is one of the 108 names of the Hindu God Shri Ganesha. It also means an eternal friend of everyone in Hindi, Nepali and Sanskrit.

paragraphs: In Hebrew, Amit () means colleague, friend.

paragraphs: In Arabic, Amit () means being highly praised, beloved and victorious. In Islam Amit refers to the traditional Arabian gesture. During battles the Muslim army yelled "Yā manṣūr Amit!" and attacked.


title: Izumi Province

paragraphs: Izumi Province was created during the reign of Empress Genshō.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Izumi Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Ōtori Shrine" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Izumi.


title: Settsu Province

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was Osaka.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Settsu Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Sumiyoshi taisha" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Settsu.


title: Chloris

paragraphs: Chloris ("Khloris" or Χλωρίς, from "Khloros" or χλωρός, meaning "greenish-yellow," "pale green," "pale," or "fresh") refers to several figures in Greek mythology. Some stories refer to different characters. Others refer to the same Chloris, but have different details.

paragraphs: Chloris was a Nymph. She represented spring, flowers and new growth. Her Roman equivalent was the goddess Flora. She was kidnapped by and later married Zephyr.

paragraphs: Meliboea was one of Niobe and Amphion's fourteen children, and the only one not killed when Artemis and Apollo killed the children as revenge. Meliboea was so scared by this that she turned permanently pale. She changed her name to Chloris ("pale one").

paragraphs: She later married Neleus and became queen in Pylos.

paragraphs: Chloris married the seer Ampyx (son of Elatus). She had a child called Mopsus, who also became a famous seer and later joined the Argonauts.


title: Portable Network Graphics

paragraphs: Portable Network Graphics is a bitmapped image format that uses lossless data compression.

paragraphs: Their most common use is within transparent images, as it does support so.


title: Curaçao

paragraphs: Curaçao is an island in the Caribbean Sea, it is a part of the ABC islands and is just a short distance north of the Venezuelan Paraguaná Peninsula, and it forms a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Willemstad is the capital of Curaçao.

paragraphs: The largest ethnic group belongs to the Afro-Caribbean group with about 85% of the entire population (also includes mulattos). The remaining 15-20% are people of mainly European (mainly Dutch) descent, but there is also Asians, Arabs, and others.

paragraphs: Papiamentu, Dutch, and English are the three official languages of Curaçao. Papiamentu is by far the most spoken language while sizable minorities speak the other two official languages.

paragraphs: Curaçao has a tropical climate. The temperatures are usually constant. The trade winds bring cool breeze during the day and the same trade winds bring warmth during the night. The coolest month is January with an average of 26°C in temperature and the warmest month is September with an average temperature of 28.9 °C (84 °F). The year's average maximum temperature is 31°C. The year's average minimum temperature is about 25°C.

paragraphs: The island broke off from the Netherlands Antilles in 2010. It has a very long history set all the way back to the 1800s


title: Ox Mountain

paragraphs: Ox Mountain () is a story by the Chinese philosopher Mencius. In his time this mountain was in very bad shape, and everybody knew how it looked. Here is the story:

paragraphs: Mencius said, "The woods on Ox Mountain were once beautiful! On account of its being on the edge of a large country, it had been attacked with axes and hatchets, and then how could it remain beautiful? The refreshing breezes of day and night, and the moisture provided by rain and fog, did not fail to give rise to sprouts of vegetation. But cows and sheep have been repeatedly pastured there, and for that reason it has remained desolate. People observe its denuded state and assume that it never had any good resources. But how could this state be the true nature of this mountain?" — "Mencius", 6A:8

paragraphs: Mencius argued that "bad" human natures were produced just as the bad condition of Ox Mountain had been produced, so the answer to "bad" humans was to protect and nurture them from birth. He also thought that punishment does not do much good. It does not cure the root of the problem.


title: Human zoo

paragraphs: A human zoo was an exhibition that showed people from other cultures. Very often, this was done in similar ways than animals are shown in zoological gardens today. Most such exhibitions were done between 1870 and 1940. Human zoos attracted many people in Europe. They were often based on the idea of unilinealism, scientific racism and social Darwinism. Unilinealism or unilineal evolution is the idea that evolution happens only in one direction; some animal will be "at the peak" of evolution. Because of these ideas, some human zoos placed indigenous people (particularly Africans) in a continuum somewhere between the great apes and humans of European descent. Ethnographic zoos have since been criticized as highly degrading and racist.


title: Rye Beach, New Hampshire

paragraphs: Rye Beach is a community in the U.S. state of New Hampshire. It used to be called Pannaway. It is along the Atlantic Ocean. It is in Rye, New Hampshire, United States. It is along New Hampshire Route 1A, near the south of a town named "Rye".

paragraphs: In the community, there is a hostel. It is called the "Ocean house" and it was built in 1884. When it was built, it was small, but over time, it reached 4 stories and it had room for 250 guests. It was called the Philbrick Hotel when it was first built, but an Admiral called David Farragut visited the hotel, so it sometimes was called "Farragut House".


title: Dan Wheldon

paragraphs: Daniel Clive Wheldon (22 June 1978 – 16 October 2011) was a British motor racing driver. He was the 2005 Indy Racing League IndyCar Series champion. He was also the winner of the Indianapolis 500 in 2005 and 2011. He was killed at the age of 33, in a 15-car crash at the IZOD IndyCar World Championship.

paragraphs: Wheldon was born in Emberton, near Olney, Buckinghamshire, England. He started go-kart racing at the age of four. At the beginning of his career in open wheel racing, he had a rivalry with Jenson Button before he left the United Kingdom to start racing in the United States. He moved to the U.S. because he thought the chance for success there were greater than in the UK. He moved to the United States in 1999. He spent many years racing in lower open-wheeled circuits like the U.S. F2000 Championship Series, the Toyota Atlantic series and the Indy Lights series before moving to a higher series.

paragraphs: In 2002, Wheldon moved up to the IRL IndyCar Series for two races. He drove for Panther Racing with his teammate Sam Hornish Jr. In 2003, he joined Andretti Green Racing, winning the Rookie of the Year award. In 2004, he won his first IRL race at Twin Ring Motegi in Japan. He finished the 2004 season second in points with three wins.

paragraphs: In 2005, Wheldon won the Indianapolis 500. He finished the season first in points winning the IndyCar Series championship. He won six races during the season, breaking the record for most victories in one season. In November 2005, it was made known that Wheldon would be driving for Chip Ganassi Racing in the IndyCar Series in 2006. He went on to drive for Chip Ganassi Racing in the 24 Hours of Daytona, winning the race with Ganassi teammates Scott Dixon and Ganassi NASCAR driver Casey Mears.

paragraphs: Wheldon began the 2006 IndyCar season by winning the race at Homestead–Miami Speedway. This was a sombre race, as Paul Dana had died earlier while practising for the race. At the end of the 2006 IndyCar season, he and Sam Hornish Jr. were tied for the lead in the points. They both had 475 points. Hornish had four wins for the 2006 season, and Wheldon only had two. Because Hornish had more wins than Wheldon, he was made the 2006 Indy Car Champion.

paragraphs: The BMW Sauber Formula One team gave Wheldon the chance to drive for them, but he turned down their offer. They could not give him a ride for the whole season, so he decided to continue to focus on Indy.

paragraphs: On 22 June 2008, Wheldon won his 15th IndyCar Series race in the Iowa Corn Indy 250. He donated all of the money he won to help the victims of the tornadoes and flooding which had just happened in Iowa.

paragraphs: On 2 September 2008, Wheldon left Chip Ganassi Racing. He was replaced by Dario Franchitti. He had chosen to return to Panther Racing. He finished second in the 2009 Indianapolis 500. However, Wheldon did not finish in the top 10 in seven of the last eight races of the year. The next year, he ran well again at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, finishing second. He finished the 2009 season 9th in the series points. He ran well with Panther racing in 2009 but he did not win a race during his time with the team. Panther Racing decided to replace Wheldon with J. R. Hildebrand. He raced in the 2011 Indianapolis 500 with Bryan Herta Autosport, winning the race after J. R. Hildebrand crashed going into the final turn. He was very emotional after winning the race. He did not have a ride for the rest of the season. He was also worried about his mother who had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. He dedicated his win to his mother. It was his first series win in three seasons.

paragraphs: On 16 October 2011, Wheldon was part of a 15-car wreck on lap 11 of the IZOD IndyCar World Championship at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. His car went into the air and hit the catch fence. He was taken by helicopter to the hospital. When he was taken to the hospital, he was declared dead from blunt force trauma to the head. He was 33. He is buried at the Calvary Catholic Cemetery in Clearwater, Florida.

paragraphs: Wheldon was a guest star in the voice cast for the TV series "Hot Wheels Battle Force 5".

paragraphs: Wheldon married his long-time personal assistant, Susie Behm, in 2008. The couple had two sons, Sebastian (born 1 February 2009) and Oliver (born 19 March 2011). His family lives in St. Petersburg, Florida.


title: Ise Province

paragraphs: The province had borders with Iga, Kii, Mino, Ōmi, Owari, Shima, and Yamato.

paragraphs: When the province was created in 646, its capital city was Uji-Yamada.

paragraphs: Before Nara period, Ise Shrine, the holiest Shinto shrine is established in this Province and here is introduced by a word "Kamukaze" in waka rhetorics in Nara periode. In the Edo period, the Tōkaidō road was the main route between the Imperial capital at Kyoto and the main city of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The road passed through Ise.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Ise Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: The World War II Japanese battleship "Ise" was named after this province.

paragraphs: "Tsubakiōkamiyashiro" ("Tusbaki jinja/Nakato jinja") was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") for the province.


title: Iga Province

paragraphs: The province had borders with Ise, Ōmi, Yamato, and Yamashiro.

paragraphs: The capital city of the province was Ueno, also called Iga-Ueno.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Iga Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: Iga is a small mountain ringed basin (the Ueno basin) in the center of the Kansai region.

paragraphs: "Aekuni jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Iga.


title: Curing salt

paragraphs: Curing salt (or pink salt or Prague powder #1) is mixture of salt and sodium nitrate that is used to preserve or cure meats or in the making of sausages. It contains 93.75% table salt and 6.25% sodium nitrite. The sodium nitrite in curing salt is used to stop the growth of "Clostridium botulinum" in order to prevent botulism. Curing salt may be dyed pink preventing it from being confused with table salt.


title: Ferdinand VI of Spain

paragraphs: Ferdinand VI (Fernando; 23 September 1713 – 10 August 1759) was a King of Spain July 1746 until his death in 1759 aged 49 He was the fourth son of the previous monarch Philip V and his first wife Maria Luisa of Savoy. The third Bourbon to rule Spain, he died childless and his half brother Charles became king.

paragraphs: Born at the Royal Alcazar (Royal Palace) of Madrid, he was the youngest son of Philip V of Spain and his wife Queen Maria Luisa. His parents enjoyed a loving relationship, Ferdinand being their fourth child. However, his mother died in 1714 and the king married again, this time to Elisabeth Farnese, a niece of the Duke of Parma. Queen Elisabeth was a domineering woman who ruled her husband. As such, the new queen would have a further seven children including Ferdinand's own successor Charles III. Ferdinand was by temperament melancholy, shy and distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented on his shooting, he replied, "It would be hard if there were not something I could do." Shooting and music were his only pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous singer Farinelli, whose voice soothed his melancholy. As the younger son, his brother Louis, Prince of Asturias was heir to the throne. However, Louis died aged sixteen in 1724 having reigned for a mere eight months. As such Ferdinand became Prince of Asturias and heir to the throne.

paragraphs: On 20 January 1729, Ferdinand married Barbara of Portugal, daughter of John V of Portugal and Maria Anna of Austria. This marriage further cemented a union with Portugal who had engaged Barbara's brother to Ferdinand's half sister. The very homely looks of his wife were thought by observers to cause the prince a visible shock when he was first presented to her. Yet he became deeply attached to his wife, and proved in fact nearly as adoring of her as his father was of Queen Maria Luisa.

paragraphs: When he came to the throne, Spain found itself in the War of the Austrian Succession which ended without any benefit to Spain. He started his reign by getting rid of the influence of the widow Queen Elisabeth and her Italian courtiers. As king he followed a firm policy of neutrality in the war between France and Britain, and refused to be tempted to join the war by the offers of either. The most important tasks during the reign of Ferdinand VI were carried out by the Marquis of Ensenada, the Secretary of the Treasury, Navy and Indies. He suggested that the state help modernise the country. To him, this was necessary to maintain a position of outward strength so that France and Great Britain would consider Spain as an ally without supposing Spain's renunciation of its claim to Gibraltar. Plans for modernising Spain included a new Treasury; the stimulation of commerce in the Americas; modernising the Navy; improving relations with the church and ensuring cultural progress.

paragraphs: The death of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between the date of her death in August 1758 and his own in August 1759, he fell into a state of prostration in which he would not even dress, but wandered unshaven, unwashed and in a nightgown around his park. He was buried at the Convent of the Salesas Reales, Spain.


title: Neue Wache

paragraphs: The "Neue Wache" (New Guard House) is a building in central Berlin, the capital of Germany. It is located on the north side of the Unter den Linden. The Neue Wache was designed by the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, was built in 1816 and is a leading example of German neoclassicism. Originally it was built as a guardhouse for the troops of the Crown Prince of Prussia, the building has been used as a war memorial since 1931.

paragraphs: King Frederick William III of Prussia ordered the construction of the Neue Wache as a guard house for the nearby Palace of the Crown Prince, to replace the old Artillery Guard House. He commissioned Schinkel, the leading exponent of neoclassicism in architecture, to design the building: this was Schinkel's first major commission in Berlin.


title: Transitivity (grammar)

paragraphs: Transitivity in grammar is about whether a verb has an object or not. A transitive verb has an object; an intransitive verb does not. Examples:

paragraphs: A transitive verb is an action verb. It expresses something doable (something possible to do). The direct object is something or someone who is the receiver of the action (verb). In the first two examples above, the 'trip' and the 'book' are the direct objects. 'Enjoyed' and 'read' are the transitive verbs.


title: Audio description

paragraphs: Audio description is an additional track of narration. It is targeted at visually impaired or blind consumers of television, dance, opera, movies or other visual art. In these tracks, a narrator talks through presentation and makes a description about what's happening during natural pauses in audio. Descriptive video service (DVS) is used for the DVDs of certain movies as part of the audio description.


title: Teak

paragraphs: Teak is the common name for the tropical hardwood tree species Tectona grandis and its wood products. "Tectona grandis" is native to south and southeast Asia, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Burma, but grows in many countries, including those in Africa and the Caribbean. Burma produces nearly one third of the world's total teak.

paragraphs: The word teak comes from the Malayalam (in the Malabar Coast region) word "theka" or "tekka". This tree is mentioned in the seventh-century literature of Tamil popularly known as the Tevaram.

paragraphs: "Tectona grandis" is a large, deciduous tree that is dominant in mixed hardwood forests. It has small, fragrant white flowers and papery leaves that are often hairy on the lower surface.


title: Reel-to-reel tape recorders

paragraphs: Reel-to-reel tape recorders (often called R2R, Open reel decks, etc.) were used during the 20th century, mostly in professional studios from the 1940’s and quickly spread into people’s homes in the 1950s and 1960s. The biggest popularity was in the 1970s, probably because people needed higher quality recordings. This technology was like a revolution, because everyone could record any kind of sound (vinyl records, radio broadcast, voice and music), then play it many times without the quality getting worse, and they could overwrite it many times. This technology has some weak points though: size of reels, sensibility, durability; but still, it has certain advantages over today’s “digital media formats.” Also, some famous bands and artists used reel to reel technology as a musical instrument or even as a separate band.

paragraphs: These reel to reel decks are usually analogue sound devices using a magnetic tape of ¼ inch (i.e. 6.25 cm) width. This plastic tape is covered by a special magnetic substance which is being made into magnetic domains when it is being recorded. The tape recorder must have a record, playback and an erase head which transfer the signal onto the tape. The more expensive tape decks have three or six separate heads. Tape recorders combine knowledge both on mechanics and electronics. There must be very precise motors and moving parts, but also a complicated circuit board. It has to contain transistors, amplifiers etc.

paragraphs: The usual functions of tape recorders are:

paragraphs: These functions can be handled mechanically (system of rubber belts and metal levers), or electronically (magnets, coils, integrated circuits).

paragraphs: The tape speed is one of the things that finds out the playback time. This table gives information on tape speed and the playback time with an 18 cm reel.

paragraphs: There were many producers during the era of tape recorders, such as Sony, Akai, Revox, Teac, Pioneer, Technics, Tesla and many others. These producers usually had several product series', which were different in price and functions. The best ones had digital programmable counters, reverse mechanic, electronic buttons, they could use big reels (such as 26.5 cm). There was also a big selection of tape producers – Maxell, Basf (Emtec), Quantegy, Agfa, etc.

paragraphs: There were only a few producers of tape recorders in Czechoslovakia. The most important was Tesla, n.p. The main development was realized in Tesla Pardubice, but the mass production was held in Tesla Přelouč. Product numbers were in thousands pieces and tens of model lines. One of the most popular decks was monophonic Tesla Sonet Duo (1959). It was compact, portable and reliable. The collectors of Tesla decks agree that probably the most progressive model was Tesla B73 Hi-Fi Stereo (1978) which provided the principles to the later models. The supreme models were Tesla B115, B116 (1981) and Tesla CM130, CM160 (1986) which were able to compete with similar models made by world’s producers. Still, there were (political) restrictions, so the best ideas and solutions could not be realized. The manufacture finished in 1990 as this technology turned out to be out-of-date.

paragraphs: Tape recorders were one of the ways that you could store digital data. Those with TTL control interface could be handled by special devices and data could be recorded as a sequence of tones of certain frequency. Nowadays, this method is not very good, because the capacity of a reel is usually low.


title: Gym Class Heroes

paragraphs: Gym Class Heroes are an American hip hop band from Geneva, New York. They are associated with other musicians, including but not limited to Patrick Stump and Adam Levine of Maroon 5. On their album "As Cruel as School Children" is the song "Cupid's Chokehold", which samples "Breakfast in America" by Supertramp. The band's lead singer is Travie McCoy.


title: Artificial cranial deformation

paragraphs: Artificial cranial deformation, also known as head flattening or head binding is when the skull of a human is changed forever, and on purpose. It is done by changing how a child's skull grows by putting force on the skull. Flat shapes, long shapes and round shapes can be used to do this. It is done on young children. This is because the skull is easier to shape at this time. Usually, the shape that will be used to change the skull is attached about a month after the baby is born. It stays on for around six months after this.

paragraphs: The practice has been most often used in native societies in the Americas, but there are examples from Asia and Europe. The Toulouse deformation was caused by wrapping the head of the newborn, possible to protect it from damage. In pre-modern societies the practice was surprisingly common.

paragraphs: In most cases the reasons for the practice is not known.


paragraphs: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is an international treaty (agreement between countries) against racism and racial segregation as one of the series of international human rights law. The United Nations adopted the convention on 21 December 1965 in response to the apartheid policy of South Africa at that time. It came into effect on 4 January 1969. As of April 2019, 88 countries agreed to follow the rules of the Convention, and 190 countries agree in principle.

paragraphs: The Convention defines what racial discrimination is, so that every country in the treaty can agree on how to define discrimination. In Article 1 (the first agreement in the treaty) that racial discrimination is: "any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying ["getting rid of"] or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life."

paragraphs: Article 4 of the Convention forbids encouraging any type of racism including hate speech and discrimination. If a country agrees to the Convention, they must make hate speech and participation in hate groups illegal. To make sure that countries follow this rule, the Convention also introduced Article 14, which allows complaints of discrimination to be heard by a committee. Article 14 gives a person, or group of people, from any country who have suffered any discrimination against them because of their race, the right to submit a claim to a committee of the United Nations. These complaints can influence the law in the countries of the people making complaints.

paragraphs: The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination is a body of human rights experts who monitor the implementation of the Convention. Eighteen independent human rights experts are members. They are elected for four-year terms, with half the members elected every two years. Nations that joined the treaty elect members by secret ballot. Each nation is allowed to nominate someone from its nation to run for election to the Committee.

paragraphs: Nations that have joined the treaty must submit regular reports to the Committee telling the legislative [l"ega"l], judicial ["court-based"], policy and other measures they have taken to give effect to the Convention. The first report is due within a year of the Convention being used in a country; afterwards, reports are due every two years or whenever the Committee requests. The Committee carefully reads each report and discusses its concerns and recommendations to the nation in the form of "concluding observations."

paragraphs: The Committee typically meets every March and August in Geneva.


paragraphs: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is a treaty made by the United Nations. It is to help civil rights get better.

paragraphs: The rights are listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is one of the most important treaties in international human rights law. The Covenant was adopted in 1966 with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It was put into force in 1976. The United Nations set up the Committee on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR) to carry out the treaty.

paragraphs: This Covenant has two optional protocols. One of them is to allow a citizen whose rights have been violated to claim before the CCPR. The other is to prohibit the death penalty. There are countries which ignore, or do not agree with, the optional protocols.


paragraphs: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is a treaty made by the United Nations to ensure that the

paragraphs: economic, social and cultural rights are affirmed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is one of the most important treaties on the international human rights law. This Covenant was adopted in 1966 together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and entered into force in 1976.


title: Economic, social and cultural rights

paragraphs: Economic, social and cultural rights are a part of human rights. In an important United Nations treaty called The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the countries in the United Nations agreed that every person in the world should have these rights. Some examples of these rights include:

paragraphs: These rights were already listed in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights. However, they were included again in the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights to make sure that giving people these rights would be the law all across the world.

paragraphs: A separate Covenant specifically on economic, social, and cultural rights was done for a reason. These rights were not included in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. These two Covenants were kept separate because civil rights are thought to be protected strongly than economic, social and cultural rights. A separate Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights was done to make it clear how important these rights are.

paragraphs: As the Vienna Declaration says, all human rights must be protected equally because "all human rights are universal and cannot be divided."


title: Vickers machine gun

paragraphs: The Vickers machine gun (also known as the Vickers gun) was a machine gun that was used by the British Army from 1912 to 1968. It was made by Vickers Limited. The gun was very reliable. It was one of the most commonly used weapons in the first world war.


title: Albania at the Olympics

paragraphs: Albania at the Olympics is a history which began in 1972.

paragraphs: The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Albania is ALB.

paragraphs: The Albanian team did not take part in the next games between 1976 and 1988. They returned for the 1992 games in Barcelona. They have took part in all Olympic Games since then. They first took part in the Winter Olympic Games in 2006.

paragraphs: Albania usually takes part in events that have swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. Albania has won an Olympic medal at the 1972 Olympics in weightlifting (gold, ).


title: American Samoa at the Olympics

paragraphs: American Samoa at the Olympics is a history which includes 8 games in 8 countries and 20+ athletes. Since 1988, American Samoa has contributed to the growth of the "Olympic Movement".

paragraphs: The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for American Samoa is ASA.

paragraphs: The National Olympic Committee for American Samoa was formed in 1987; and it was recognized by the International Olympic Committee the same year.

paragraphs: Teams from American Samoa have take part in Summer Olympic Games. Samoan athletes went to only one of the Winter Olympic Games.


title: Andorra at the Olympics

paragraphs: Andorra at the Olympics is a history which includes 20 games in 25 countries and 50+ athletes. Since 1988, Andorra has contributed to the growth of the "Olympic Movement".

paragraphs: The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Andorra is AND.

paragraphs: The National Olympic Committee for Andorra ("Comitè Olímpic Andorrà") was formed in 1971; and it was recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1975.

paragraphs: Athletes from Andorra first took part in the Olympic Games in 1976. They have taken part in all Olympic Games since then.

paragraphs: Andorra have never won a medal before. They usually take part in events like cycling, swimming, athletics, shooting, and judo.


title: Tori Spelling

paragraphs: Victoria Davey "Tori" Spelling (born on May 16, 1973) is an American actress, television writer and producer.

paragraphs: From 2004 to 2006 Tori was married to actor and playwright Charlie Shanian (b.1965).

paragraphs: Tori has been married to actor (b.1966) since May 7, 2006 after they were dated for 8 months. The spouses have four children together: son Liam Aaron McDermott (b.March 13, 2007), daughters Stella Doreen McDermott (b.June 9, 2008) and Hattie Margaret McDermott (b.October 10, 2011), and another son — Finn Davey McDermott (b.August 30, 2012). Spelling also has a step-son Jack Montgomery McDermott (b.1998) from McDermott's 1st marriage to actress .


title: Royal Standard of Scotland

paragraphs: The Royal Standard of Scotland, (), also known as the Banner of the King of Scots, or more commonly the Lion Rampant of Scotland, is the Scottish Royal Banner of Arms. Used historically by the King of Scots, the Royal Standard of Scotland differs from Scotland's national flag, the Saltire, in that its correct use is restricted by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland to only a few Great Officers of State who officially represent the Sovereign in Scotland. It is also used in an official capacity at royal residences in Scotland when the Sovereign is not present.

paragraphs: The earliest recorded use of the Lion rampant as a royal emblem in Scotland was by Alexander II in 1222; with the additional embellishment of a double border set with lilies occurring during the reign of Alexander III (1249–1286). This emblem occupied the shield of the royal coat of arms of the ancient Kingdom of Scotland which, together with a royal banner displaying the same, was used by the King of Scots until the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI acceded to the thrones of the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Ireland. Since 1603, the Lion rampant of Scotland has been incorporated into both the royal arms and royal banners of successive Scottish then British monarchs in order to symbolise Scotland; as can be seen today in the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom. Although now officially restricted to use by representatives of the Sovereign and at royal residences, the Royal Standard of Scotland continues to be one of Scotland's most recognisable symbols.

paragraphs: The Flag of Scotland, also known as the Saint Andrew's Cross or more commonly The Saltire, is the national flag of Scotland. The Saltire is the correct flag for everyone to fly in order to show both their loyalty and Scottish nationality. It is also, where possible, flown from Scottish Government buildings every day from 8am until sunset, with certain exceptions; for example United Kingdom "National Days".


title: Flower of Scotland

paragraphs: Flower of Scotland () is a Scottish song, used mostly at special occasions and sporting events. Although Scotland has no official national anthem, "Flower of Scotland" is one which is used, along with the older "Scots Wha Hae", "Scotland the Brave" and "Highland Cathedral". It was written by Roy Williamson of the folk group The Corries, and presented in 1967, and refers to the victory of the Scots, led by Robert the Bruce, over England's Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.

paragraphs: And autumn leaves lie thick and still<br>


title: Thistle

paragraphs: Thistle is a group of flowering plants which have sharp prickles on around the flower and are in the Asteraceae family. The prickles often all over the plant – on the stem and flat parts of leaves. This protects the plant against herbivorous animals, stopping them from eating the plant.

paragraphs: The term thistle is sometimes taken to mean exactly those plants in the group Cynareae (synonym: Cardueae), especially the genera "Carduus", "Cirsium", and "Onopordum". However, plants outside this group are sometimes called thistles, and if this is done thistles would form a polyphyletic group.

paragraphs: Thistle is the floral emblem of Scotland.

paragraphs: Genera in the Asteraceae with the word thistle often used in their common names include:

paragraphs: Plants in families other than Asteraceae which are sometimes called thistle include:

paragraphs: The thistle has been the national emblem of Scotland since the reign of Alexander III (1249–1286) and was used on silver coins issued by James III in 1470. It is the symbol of the Order of the Thistle, a high chivalric order of Scotland. It is found in many Scottish symbols and as the name of several Scottish football clubs. The thistle, crowned with the Scottish crown, is the symbol of seven of the eight Scottish Police Forces (the exception being the Northern Constabulary). The thistle is also the emblem of Encyclopædia Britannica, which originated in Edinburgh, Scotland. Carnegie Mellon University features the thistle in its crest.

paragraphs: According to a legend, an invading Norse army was attempting to sneak up at night upon a Scottish army's encampment. During this operation one barefoot Norseman had the misfortune to step upon a thistle, causing him to cry out in pain, thus alerting Scots to the presence of the Norse invaders. Some sources suggest the specific occasion was the Battle of Largs, which marked the beginning of the departure of King Haakon IV (Haakon the Elder) of Norway who, having control of the Northern Isles and Hebrides, had harried the coast of the Kingdom of Scotland for some years. Which species of thistle is referred to in the original legend is disputed. Popular modern usage favours Cotton Thistle "Onopordum acanthium", perhaps because of its more imposing appearance, though it is unlikely to have occurred in Scotland in mediaeval times; the Spear Thistle "Cirsium vulgare", an abundant native species in Scotland, is a more likely candidate. Other species, including Dwarf Thistle "Cirsium acaule", Musk Thistle "Carduus nutans", and Melancholy Thistle "Cirsium heterophyllum" have also been suggested.

paragraphs: Maud Grieve recorded that Pliny and medieval writers had thought it could return hair to bald heads and that in the early modern period it had been believed to be a remedy for headaches, plague, canker, sores, vertigo, and jaundice.


title: Football in Scotland

paragraphs: Association football is the most popular sport in Scotland. Scotland has the second oldest national Football Association in the world (behind England's FA), and the trophy for the national cup, the Scottish Cup, is the oldest sporting trophy in the world.

paragraphs: Scottish football club Rangers F.C. have won a world record 54 league titles.

paragraphs: Scotland and Scottish football clubs hold many records for football attendances;

paragraphs: The highest ever attendance for a UEFA competition match was in the 1969-70 European Cup semi-final at Hampden Park, Scotland's national stadium. A record 136,505 people attended that Cup semi-final played between Celtic and Leeds United

paragraphs: The attendance of 149,415 for the Scotland vs. England match of 1937 at Hampden Park is also a European record.

paragraphs: The attendance of 146,433 for the 1937 Scottish Cup final between Celtic and Aberdeen at Hampden Park is a European record for a club match.

paragraphs: Rangers' record attendance of 118,567 is a British record for a league match.

paragraphs: Professional football in Scotland is split into four leagues. The winners of the league move up into the league above it, and those who finish last in the league move down into the league below it. The leagues are:


title: Micrograph

paragraphs: Micrographs are photographs taken through microscopes to show magnified versions of items. They are used for forensic engineering and forensic science to record trace evidence. Micrographs are also used for scanning electron microscopy so the sample areas selected for analysis are visible.


title: Felix Adjei

paragraphs: Felix Adjei ( born 17 December 1990) is a football player from Ghana. He plays for F. C. Liefering, the second team of F.C. Red Bull Salzburg, in the SKY GO Erste Liga (2nd level in Austrian football) as midfielder.

paragraphs: He started playing football for Red Bull Ghana where he was at the academy which is run by Red Bull. In 2009 he was invited to Salzburg where Nico Kovac, then coach of the second team, was impressed by his skills. He became the first player who came to F.C. Red Bull Salzburg from the Ghana academy. He became part of the second team, the Red Bull Juniors. On October 15th he played his first match in the first team against Wacker Innsbruck. He was in the starting team and played till minute 62.


title: Wolfgang Köhler

paragraphs: Wolfgang Köhler (21 January 1887 – 11 June 1967) was a German psychologist who, like Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka, helped create Gestalt psychology. He was the first to show that apes could solve problems by thinking.

paragraphs: In 1910–13, he worked with fellow psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka. He and Koffka were subjects for Wertheimer’s studies, which led them to conclusions about the inherent nature of vision. They collaborated on the founding of a new holistic attitude toward psychology called Gestalt theory, from the German word for “whole". This was influenced by some earlier work of Stumpf (Köhler’s teacher) and Christian von Ehrenfels. Wertheimer had attended Ehrenfels' lectures at the University of Prague.

paragraphs: Köhler’s famous quote, “the whole is different from the sum of its parts” is usually quoted differently. Though perhaps a simple error made in translation, many lectures in textbooks of modern-day psychology quote Gestalt theory by saying “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”. It is difficult to imagine that a translation error occurred here, especially when considering that ‘greater’ is ‘größer’ and ‘different’ is ‘unterschiedlich’ in German, respectively.

paragraphs: In 1913, Köhler left Frankfurt for the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands, to be the Director of the Prussian Academy of Sciences anthropoid research station. Here, Köhler observed how chimpanzees solved problems, such as that of retrieving bananas when placed out of their reach. They stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders, in order to get the food. If the bananas were placed on the ground outside the cage, they used sticks to lengthen the reach of their arms.

paragraphs: Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrived at these methods through trial-and-error (which American psychologist Edward Thorndike claimed to be the basis of all animal learning, through his law of effect). Rather, they had an insight (also sometimes known as an “aha experience”). They saw the answer mentally, then they got the bananas in a way which was, in Köhler’s words, “unwaveringly purposeful”.

paragraphs: So, he concluded that the animals were capable of problem-solving and that they did "not" arrive at their methods through trial and error. This is one of the most important findings from the research done on apes. Köhler’s work on the mentality of apes was a turning point in the psychology of thinking. In the book "The mentality of apes", Köhler explains that he was inspired to work with the chimpanzees for two main reasons. The first was because the “structure of their brains is more closely related to the chemistry of the human body and brain-structure than to the chemical nature of the lower apes and their brain development” Köhler (1925). The fact that human traits can be observed in the everyday behaviours of this animal was very intriguing for Köhler. Kohler also wanted to gain knowledge of the nature of intelligent acts.

paragraphs: Köhler recognized that, like humans, there is a great deal of individual differences in the intellectual field. Chimps demonstrated that they were able to grasp the objects around them in a variety of fashions. This is incorporated in their everyday playing behaviours. For this reason, it was not necessary to use experimental tests to introduce chimps to handle matter. In his book, Köhler describes how the apes use their hands: “large, powerful and flexible hands are natural links between himself and the world of things, and he attains the necessary amount of muscular force and co-ordination at an earlier age than the human child” Köhler (1925).


title: Gluten-free diet

paragraphs: A gluten-free diet is a diet that excludes foods containing gluten. Gluten is a protein found in wheat, barley, rye, and possibly oats. Most breads, cakes, pastas/noodles, beers and pizzas are made with gluten. Gluten is used as a food additive in the form of a flavoring, stabilizing or thickening agent. It is often called "dextrin". Some non-foods, such as medications and vitamin supplements, especially those in tablet form, may contain gluten as a binding agent.

paragraphs: A gluten-free diet is the only medically accepted treatment for wheat allergy and coeliac disease (in North America, it is usually spelled "celiac disease").

paragraphs: Some gluten-free diets also exclude oats. Doctors do not agree on whether oats affect coeliac disease sufferers.

paragraphs: Many alcoholic beverages are gluten free, but many types of whiskey and beer contain gluten, because using grains is a necessary part of their production.

paragraphs: Gluten-free diets have become popular worldwide. Some say that such a diet can cause problems with Vitamin B and magnesium intake by the body, because wheat improves the rate in which humans body can use them.

paragraphs: Gluten-containing ingredients sometimes are used as colorants, preservatives and thickeners in products such as ice cream and ketchup.

paragraphs: Even some cosmetics like lip-balm and lipsticks can contain gluten, so persons wanting to follow such a diet need to learn about which products contain wheat and its byproducts.


title: Little Havana

paragraphs: Little Havana () is a section of Miami, Florida, where many Cuban immigrants and refugees have settled. The high number of Cuban refugees Florida receives is due to its proximity to Cuba. It is called Little Havana because Cuba's capital is Havana. There is also a smaller Little Havana in Tampa, Florida.

paragraphs: In recent years, increasing numbers of Honduran, Nicaraguan, and Guatemalan immigrants have moved into the neighborhood. At the same time, increasing numbers of Cubans left the area for the suburbs in western Miami. Part of Little Havana is now called Little Managua named after the Nicaraguan capital.

paragraphs: The Calle Ocho Festival is held in Little Havana.


title: Howard Stern

paragraphs: Howard Stern (born January 12, 1954) is an American radio and television personality known for shocking his audiences.

paragraphs: Stern was born in Jackson Heights, Queens, New York City.

paragraphs: He originally started as a disc jockey for a New York station playing rock music. He discovered a talent for comedy, and developed a wide-ranging confrontational style that encouraged listeners to call in. Eventually, in the 1990s, his show was widely distributed. As an example, in one of his most infamous episodes, he persuaded a female caller to have phone sex with him on the air. He made deep buzzing noises into his microphone, and had her sit on a speaker with the volume turned up.

paragraphs: Stern's crude style of entertainment (which many listeners support) has earned him the title "King Of All Media" -- at least in the eyes of his fans. His show is frequently the subject of complaints by various listeners (and occasionally ethnic groups) who find his shows offensive. Radio stations airing his show have occasionally been subjected to fines for violating FCC requirements due to the content of the show, but the parent conglomerate (Infinity Broadcasting) that hosts Stern's show seems to consider these fines a necessary price to pay, in order to support Stern's continuing popularity. In 1994 Stern ran for Governor of the state of New York.

paragraphs: Stern is the most popular and well-known of a variety of offensive radio hosts known generally as "shock jocks." In spite of the crude content of his show, many radio listeners consider Stern's delivery to be far from the worst quality radio aired today. His popularity has given rise to a number of imitation "shock jocks" who attempt to outdo Stern in terms of offensiveness and rudeness...but these imitators have found themselves with more troubles to worry about than listener ratings. In 2002 rival radio hosts Opie and Anthony were fired from their popular radio show after they encouraged a couple to engage in sexual intercourse at Saint Patrick's Cathedral in New York City, then airing a running commentary of the act on their show. Stern, his supporters note, has not gone out of his way to offend the general public in this manner.

paragraphs: On January 15, 1998 Lance Carvin, who had been stalking Stern, was sentenced to two and a half years in prison for threatening to kill Stern and his family.


title: Myra (singer)

paragraphs: Mayra Caryl Ambrosia Quintana — better known under the mononym, Myra — was born on April 21, 1987 in Los Angeles,California. to Salvador Ambrosia and Consuelo Quintana, Myra is an American singer, dancer and choreographer of Mexican descent. She is the first Latina artist to have been signed to Hollywood Records, Walt Disney Records, and Avex Trax. She rose to prominence in 2001 after recording a cover of Martha and the Vandellas' "Dancing in the Street" for the soundtrack to the 2001 film Recess: School's Out (which she would then re-record in 2002 in Spanish for the Disney Channel original movie, Gotta Kick It Up!). However, her first album released before being signed to Disney -released in 1997, was the Mariachi album Mensajera del Amór, released by Briaz Promotions. At the time of its release, Myra was then known as Mayra Caról. During her Disney-era portion of her career, she contributed her vocals to the song "Miracles Happen (When You Believe)" to the film The Princess Diaries, and it received a 2002 ALMA Award nomination for Outstanding Song in a Motion Picture Soundtrack. Her debut album Myra included these two tracks and were released as singles and both included a music video. The album "Myra" was released in four different formats.

paragraphs: The self-titled album Myra was released in the US and other English-speaking countries in June 8, 2001 It was also released in Japan in 2001 under the title with three additional bonus remixed tracks of the single "Lie, Lie, Lie.", and re-packaged and re-released in 2002 titled Myra + More including those same three remixes, and a bonus track "You’re the Dream" replacing "Wishing on the Same Star." "You’re the Dream" was the Anthem for The Special Olympics hosted by Walt Disney Records. The album was re-recorded in Spanish and titled Milagros which was released on October 16, 2001. The Spanish version of "Miracles Happen (When You Believe" which is titled "Siempre Hay Milagros" was included on the Spanish Version of The Princess Diaries. The Spanish Version of "Dancing in the Streets, (or "Bailando en la Ciudad") was released as a promotional single for the Disney Channel Original Movie Gotta Kick It Up!

paragraphs: Myra made an appearance in the film Max Keeble's Big Move as Chelsea (opposite Brooke Ann Smith) as Jenna, Max Keeble's (Alex D. Linz) love interest. It was around this time she was on tour with Aaron Carter opening for his 2000-2001 "Party Tour." Both of the then Teen Pop artists joined the line up of the 2001 Radio Disney Live! 2001 World Tour which included the artists Hoku, A*Teens, Baha Men, Jump5, Krystal (Super Girl, The Princess Diaries) and others. Myra can also be found on several compilation albums released by Disney.

paragraphs: Since then, Myra has worked with other artists, being featured on a single, "Back to You" by Chicano Rapper, Veze Skante which was accompanied by a music video and is a part of the compilation set "La Costa Nuestra." "La Costa Nuestra is available on iTunes. Myra has also independently released songs via-MySpace which can be found on YouTube and her Official Facebook account in video format. After an extended hiatus, Myra is currently working on her latest project(s) to date and is due for a tremendous return to the music world!


title: 3LW

paragraphs: 3LW (Three Little Women) were an American girl group. The group consist of Naturi Cora Maria Naughton, born May 20, 1984, Adrienne Eliza Bailon, born October 24, 1983, Kiely Alexis Williams, born July 9, 1986. The band formed in 1999 in Newark, New Jersey.

paragraphs: In August 2002, Naturi Naughton announced that she had been forced out of 3LW. Before the year's end, the ladies held various auditions in Atlanta, Los Angeles and New York in search of a third member. Jessica Benson made the cut and joined 3LW in December. The group disbanded in 2007.


title: Nadia López

paragraphs: Nadia Yvonne López Ayuso (born June 21, 1983 in Oaxaca), is a Mexican singer. She was a finalist of the first season of "La Academia". Her passion for music began since she was a little girl, setting her to knock on doors by participating on contests, and festivals.


title: Diana Reyes

paragraphs: Diana Reyes (born November 18, 1979) is a Mexican singer. She records duranguense music. She was born in La Paz, Baja California Sur. She has released three gold records since 2004: "La Reina del Pasito Duranguense", "Las No. 1 de la Reina", and "Te Voy a Mostrar".


title: Ivy Queen

paragraphs: Ivy Queen (born Martha Ivelisse Pesante on March 4, 1972 in Añasco, Puerto Rico) is a composer and singer known as "The Queen of Reggaeton".

paragraphs: At a young age Ivy's parents moved to New York where she was raised. When she was in her teens, her parents returned to their hometown, Añasco. Ivy went to school and graduated from high school.

paragraphs: When Ivy was 18, she moved to San Juan and met rapper and producer, DJ Negro. DJ Negro helped her and introduced her to a group called "Noise". With "Noise" she wrote and performed her first song "Somos Rapperos Pero No Delincuentes" (We're Rappers, Not Delincuents). Soon, DJ Negro convinced Ivy to go "solo" and in 1997, she made her debut with the recording of the album "En Mi Imperio" (In My Empire) for the Sony International Records label which sold over 100,000 copies. In the same year, Ivy traveled to Panama where she represented Puerto Rico in "The Battle of Rap". She also did some presentations in the Dominican Republic, which were all "sold out" and later that year, she participated in "The First National Festival of Rap and Reggae". There, Ivy was proclaimed the "Rap Singer of the Year". Also, in 1997, Ivy was awarded the "Artista '97" award, naming her "The Peoples Favorite Rap Singer", by Artista magazine.

paragraphs: In 1998, Ivy recorded her second album, for the Sony Label, titled "Original Rude Girl" which carried the following hit songs "Interlude in the Zone", "Sabes Que Tu" (What Do You Know?) and "The King and The Queen". It sold more than her first album and was highly acclaimed by her growing fan base.

paragraphs: Ivy's third album "Diva", was released in 2003. The songs were originally written by her and performed with the participation of various artists.

paragraphs: Ivy Queen's style does not include the crude language so common in that genre. Instead she focuses on her lyrics which contain positive messages for her generation. Ivy usually speaks in her songs about Puerto Rico and about the abuse that many women suffer.


title: Fanny Lú

paragraphs: Fanny Lucía Martínez de Leeu (born February 8, 1973), more commonly known as Fanny Lú, is a singer from Cali, Colombia. Fanny Lu completed her studies in Colegio Bolivar and then went on later to study at Universidad de los Andes. In 1994, she became a television presenter. Afterward, she went into the music industry.

paragraphs: Fanny's debut album "Lágrimas Cálidas" (Warm Tears) was released in 2006. The album was an instant hit in Latin America. It was very popular in Colombia, where it spent five weeks at #1. The lead single "No Te Pido Flores" (I'm Not Asking for Flowers) also spent 7 weeks at #1 on the Hot 100 Billboard Charts in Latin America, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, and Mexico, and has received a numerous amount of airplay in Latin radio in the US. The song has also peaked at #16 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs. The second single from her debut album is the song called "Y Si Te Digo"(And If I Tell You) and it peaked at #1 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs.

paragraphs: Fanny Lu did the Spanish translated voice for Beth, a character in the Sony Pictures animated film "Open Season" or "Amigos Salvajes", which is the Spanish title.


title: Don Omar

paragraphs: Don Omar (born William Omar Landrón Rivera; February 10, 1978 in Puerto Rico ), is a reggaeton singer, composer, actor and producer, and a Puerto Rican businessman.. He is believed to be one of the best reggaeton artists in Puerto Rico and all of Latin America by many music critics and fans alike. Omar is best known for his songs "Dile" and "Dale Don Dale" from his first album "The Last Don" and "Reggaeton Latino". His songs are mostly about life and love; some examples of these would be "La Recompenza" ("The Reward") and "Aunque te Fuiste" ("Even Though You Left Me").

paragraphs: His musical debut began in the evangelical church Iglesia de la Restauración in Cristo en Bayamón, where he became the pastor for four years but he left because of a sentimental disappointment. At this time he continues to take part in several groups that sing during religious celebrations.

paragraphs: He began singing and composing at age 21, feeling very close to the reggaeton style, which began to develop in Puerto Rico in the early 1990s. He started in reggaeton with Yaga duo Yaga and Mackie Ranks in 1990 with the song Tha Cream in the album of the same name.

paragraphs: He started his career after many obstacles when Héctor Delgado (from the duo Héctor & Tito) gave him an opportunity to be a backup singer for them. After that, he sang in a live concert with Héctor & Tito in 2003, which was released later as a CD and DVD, which included the songs that became instant hits, Baila Morena and Amor de Colegio (School Love). He is currently signed to VI Music through Universal Music Latino.

paragraphs: In 2003 released The Last Don, his first album, which includes titles that will now be references to reggaeton as the songs Dale Don Dale, Dile and Pobre Diabla. He becomes one of the most emblematic representatives with Daddy Yankee (with whom he will duet) and his albums become true standards of the musical genre.

paragraphs: Don Omar then gives many concerts, the number of participants and staging make it a real hit with spectators. Following his tour, released in 2004 The Last Don Live.

paragraphs: Don Omar has been in trouble with the law for possession of drugs and firearms. He is often the subject of accusations for the content of the lyrics. He is accused of inciting violence and pornography. The strong rhythm, dancing and sensual characterizing also this musical genre, it is no exception, like many other reggaetoneros.

paragraphs: His contribution to the genre by the title Dale Don dale in The Last Don, was named the best Latin / hip-hop rap album of the year 2005 and voted best Latin pop artist by the Billboard.

paragraphs: In 2005, he produced Los Bandoleros. In this album he works with other artists for the title Los Bandoleros with Tego Calderon; for Como olvidar, with David Bisbal, for Ella y yo, with Romeo from Aventura, for My Space and Nadie Como Tú with Wisin y Yandel, for Hold You Down with Jennifer Lopez; and for La Traicionera, with Glory.

paragraphs: His compositions use little repetitive style commonly used in the reggaeton style, to tell stories he imagines.

paragraphs: Don Omar released an album King of King in 2006. He is the first sales of Hispanic language music records in the United States with this album as well as in some Latin American countries. With this album Don Omar is proclaimed "El Rey" ("king" in French) of reggaeton and official promoter of the musical genre. Upon release the album is first sales, and the first single Angelito is in the lead on the day of its release with about 500,000 sales, which is then a record for this style of music.

paragraphs: He composed the song Conteo for the film Fast and Furious: Tokyo Drift.

paragraphs: At the end of 2006, the special edition of the album King of Kings is released: the "Armageddon Edition" in which four additional titles are added.

paragraphs: In 2007 he produced the album El Pentagono, in which participate various artists of the musical genre. One of the songs on this album is Calm My Nerves featuring Don and Reel, a Hip-Hop singer from the United States; also participate in the album Easy con Tego Calderon ', Zion, Voltio, Eddie Dee and Costuleta.

paragraphs: In 2008 he married the weather presenter Jackie Guerrido (he has three children from a past relationship). The same year, Don Omar confronts legal proceedings: Nando Boom accuses him of plagiarism, the theme of My Space being the exact copy of that of Enfermo de amor.

paragraphs: Don Omar plays in Fast and Furious 4 and Fast and Furious 5 with Tego Calderon. The song Danza Kuduro is repeated at the end of the film Fast and Furious 5 and the song Taboo during the scene where Mia is at the market.

paragraphs: The album Don Omar Presents: Meet The Orphans was released on November 16, 2010. The album features the artists under Don Omar's Orfanato Music Group label and other reggaeton artists. The album includes the promotional single Hasta Abajo and the album's lead single Danza Kuduro featuring Portuguese-French singer Lucenzo, as well as collaborations from Orfanato Music Group artists including Kendo Kaponi, Syko, Plan B, Zion & Lennox, Yaga & Mackie and Danny Fornaris. Danza Kuduro appears on the Fast Five soundtrack and is the song played at the conclusion of the movie. He is signed to VI Music and Machete Music through Universal Music Latino.

paragraphs: The album Don Omar Presents MTO2: The New Generation was released on May 1, 2012. The album features newly signed to Orfanato Music Group Natti Natasha as well as many other signed artists and other reggaeton artists like Zion Y Lennox. The album includes the singles Hasta Que Salga El Sol, which won the award for Best Urban Song at the 2012 Latin Grammy Awards, and Dutty Love featuring Natti Natasha, which was also nominated. The album also features collaborations with Juan Magan, Mims, Syko, Vinny el Vendito, and Yunel Cruz. The album has been well received as it won the award for Best Urban Music Album at the 2012 Latin Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: After a decade's long rivalry feud with fellow artist Daddy Yankee for the "King of Reggaeton" title, in early 2016 Daddy Yankee and Don Omar announced in a Billboard press conference that they would perform together on stage in a concert series called The Kingdom World Tour. The tour announcement left many fans in disbelief, while selling out in minutes in cities like Las Vegas, Orlando, Los Angeles, New York. Discussing the tour and his rivalry with Daddy Yankee, Don Omar said “Let me clarify: I am not his best friend, and he is not my best friend, but we respect each other. That desire to be the best is what has pushed us to be better.”