title: Hart Memorial Trophy

paragraphs: The Hart Trophy is given to the most valuable player of the National Hockey League every year. It was given to the NHL by Dr. David Hart, father of NHL coach and manager Cecil Hart. It was first awarded in 1924.

paragraphs: Wayne Gretzky has won the most Hart Trophies with nine, followed by Gordie Howe with six and Eddie Shore with four. Howie Morenz, Bobby Orr, Bobby Clarke, and Mario Lemieux have won the award three times each.

paragraphs: The closest vote for the trophy was in 2002, when Jose Theodore and Jarome Iginla tied; Theodore won because he had more first-place votes. In 1999, Chris Pronger won by one point over Jaromir Jagr; and in 1990, Mark Messier won by two points over Ray Bourque.


title: Frankfurt

paragraphs: Frankfurt am Main, commonly referred to as "Frankfurt", is one of the biggest cities in Germany. The city of Frankfurt has a population of 700,000. The metropolitan area, called Rhine-Main after its two biggest rivers, has over four million people. Frankfurt is an important centre for traffic and for the financial business. The Frankfurt International Airport is the largest in Germany, and one of the largest in the world. Frankfurt's train station is one of the largest, and its highway crossing is the centre of Germany's street network. Frankfurt is the seat of the European Central Bank, the German Federal Bank (Bundesbank) and of the biggest German banks, and it has an important stock exchange where shares of German companies are traded.

paragraphs: Frankfurt is on the Main river. The city's name means "ford of the Franks" - a ford is a place in a river where it is so shallow that you can walk through it, and the Franks were a Germanic people which existed in the first millennium. So, this was a place where travellers could cross the river without a boat. The frankish kings built a palace and a church here. Over the centuries, this group of buildings grew to be a big city which was famous for international trade and fairs, like today. Frankfurt was one of the most important cities of the Holy Roman Empire, and its emperors were crowned here. In the 19th century, Frankfurt was the capital of the German Confederation which was founded after the Holy Roman Empire fell apart. During the revolution of 1848, the first freely elected German parliament worked in Frankfurt.

paragraphs: During the Industrial Revolution, many factories and railway lines were built in Frankfurt and its suburbs. In the city centre, a lot of big buildings were built, like an opera house, theatres, stock exchange, railway stations, department stores or museums. Tram lines were constructed to make travelling inside the growing city easier. In World War II, the old city was totally destroyed by airplane bomber attacks. After the war, Germany was divided into two parts, and Frankfurt became the economic capital of West Germany while Bonn was chosen to be the political capital.

paragraphs: Frankfurt is a very international city. Every third inhabitant is not German. Most immigrants come from southeastern Europe, Turkey and North Africa, but there are people from almost every country living in Frankfurt. There are also many international business companies here, and the big airport links Frankfurt with many countries in the world. Many banks are based in Frankfurt, which is why so many are offered there. Frankfurt has some of the tallest buildings in Europe, which is why the city is although called "Mainhattan".

paragraphs: The largest shopping street in Frankfurt is called the Zeil.

paragraphs: "Frankfurter" is also a name for a hot dog, or sausage, because they are said to have originated in the city.

paragraphs: Frankfurt has an oceanic climate ("Cfb" in the Köppen climate classification).

paragraphs: The first Wikimania conference was hosted in this city in 2005.


title: Hugh Capet of France

paragraphs: Hugh Capet (French: Hugues Capet) (941–996) was King of the Franks from 987 until his death in 996. The Capetian dynasty he started ruled France in an unbroken line for 300 years.

paragraphs: Hugh was born in the winter of 941 and was the son of Hugh the Great and Hedwige of Saxony. His grandfather was King Robert I. His grandmother was Beatrice of Vermandois. She was a Carolingian; a daughter of Herbert I of Vermandois. By this connection he was the fifth great-grandson of Charlemagne through Pepin of Italy.

paragraphs: While still a young man Hugh got the nickname "capet" from the cape he wore. These were tokens of the lay abbacies he held.

paragraphs: When King Louis V died with no heir Adalbero of Reims made a plea for electing Hugh Capet. He proposed the throne was not a hereditary right but that the king should be the best man for the job. The assembly at Senlis agreed and elected Hugh King of the Franks.

paragraphs: Capet is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.

paragraphs: He married Adelaide of Aquitaine. She was the daughter of William III of Aquitaine. Together they had:


title: Disney Channel

paragraphs: Disney Channel is a cable television network that is owned by The Walt Disney Company. The channel shows programs that are made for family audiences, mostly pre-teens and teenagers. The channel began on the morning of April 18, 1983. Its programs ran for 18 hours a day until December 1986. In 1983-1997, the channel was called The Disney Channel.

paragraphs: Disney Channel currently programs shows targeted at preschool-age children on Monday through Fridays from 6 a.m.-2 p.m. ET/PT and weekends from 6-9 a.m. ET, called Disney Junior. During the summer months, the Disney Junior block ends at 9 a.m. ET on weekdays. , the only programming featuring classic Disney characters is "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse" on the Disney Junior block. Other programming in this block includes "Mickey and the Roadster Racers, , Sofia The First," and "Elena of Avalor."

paragraphs: On May 26, 2010, it was announced that the Playhouse Disney block will be re-branded under the name Disney Junior starting on February 14, 2011 which later became its own digital cable and satellite channel on March 23, 2012, replacing SOAPnet. The Disney Junior channel is a direct competitor to Nickelodeon's Nick Jr. network and PBS and Comcast's PBS Kids Sprout.


title: Milli Vanilli

paragraphs: Milli Vanilli was a German musical group, formed in Munich. They consisted of Fab Morvan (born 1966) and Rob Pilatus (1965-1998). They were popular in the late-1980s. In 1990, people found out that the group never sang anything at all. Even at concerts, they pretended to sing (lip synching) while a recording was played.


title: Geology

paragraphs: Geology is the study of the nonliving things that the Earth is made of. Geology is the study of rocks in the Earth's crust. People who study geology are called geologists. Some geologists study minerals and the useful substances the rocks contain such as ores and fossil fuels. Geologists also study the history of the Earth.

paragraphs: Some of the important events in the Earth's history are floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, orogeny (mountain building), and plate tectonics (movement of continents).

paragraphs: Geology is divided into special subjects that study one part of geology. Some of these subjects are:

paragraphs: Rocks can be very different from each other. Some are very hard and some are soft. Some rocks are very common, while others are rare. However, all the different rocks belong to three categories or types, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

paragraphs: All three kinds of rock can be changed by being heated and squeezed by forces in the earth. When this happens, faults (cracks) may appear in the rock. Geologists can learn a lot about the history of the rock by studying the patterns of the fault lines. Earthquakes are caused when a fault breaks suddenly.

paragraphs: Soil is the stuff on the ground made of lots of particles (or tiny pieces). The particles of soil come from rocks that have broken down, and from rotting leaves and animals bodies. Soil covers a lot of the surface of the Earth. Plants of all sorts grow in soil.

paragraphs: To find out more about types of rocks, see the "rock (geology)" article.

paragraphs: To find out more about soil, see the "soil" article.

paragraphs: Geologists use some simple ideas which help them to understand the rocks they are studying. The following ideas were worked out in the early days of stratigraphy by people like Nicolaus Steno, James Hutton and William Smith:


title: Pisa

paragraphs: Pisa is a city in Tuscany, Italy. About 90,000 people live in the city. The city has a very long and turbulent history. The "Leaning Tower of Pisa" is a famous landmark of Pisa.


title: Cheshire

paragraphs: Cheshire is a county in England. It is the North West part of the country. It is most famous for making salt and cheese. Cheshire is made up of lots of little towns including the Borough of Macclesfield which covers a large area of plains the main attraction is in kerridge where there is the famous landmark 'White Nancy.'


title: Cayman Islands

paragraphs: The Cayman Islands are a territory of the United Kingdom in the Caribbean Sea. The three islands are Grand Cayman, Little Cayman, and Cayman Brac.

paragraphs: Its capital, George Town, is on the main island (Grand Cayman).


title: E-mail

paragraphs: Electronic mail (or e-mail or email) is an Internet service that allows people who have an e-mail address (accounts) to send and receive electronic letters. Those are much like postal letters, except that they are delivered much faster than snail mail when sending over long distances, and are usually free.

paragraphs: Like with regular mail, users may get a lot of unwanted mail. With e-mail, this is called spam. Some programs used for sending and receiving mail can detect spam and filter it out nearly completely.

paragraphs: To send or receive an email in the traditional way, one needs a device (computer, phone etc.) connected to the Internet and an e-mail program (simply called mailer). Several formats exist for email addresses. The most common, called RFC 2822, looks like user@domain.com. E-mail messages are sent mostly by text, and sometimes by HTML style.

paragraphs: Some companies let people send and receive emails for free from a remote website. Gmail, Hotmail and Yahoo! are among the many that do this kind of "web mail". Webmail does not follow the pattern below exactly because the webpage is a web application and takes care of many details by itself. The traditional way uses a mailer, as is usual with smartphones.

paragraphs: Microsoft invented its own "communication protocol" (or set of rules) for sending and receiving mail, called "Exchange". Exchange protocol works entirely differently from the traditional method and is not explained here.

paragraphs: This diagram gives an example of what happens when email is sent from one person to another using the traditional method. In this example, Alice is sending email to Bob.


title: The Dillinger Escape Plan

paragraphs: The Dillinger Escape Plan is an American Mathcore/metal music group. They formed in New Jersey. They are generally a heavy group, with punk roots and influences from punk bands like The Bronx and Bad Brains.


title: Queensrÿche

paragraphs: Queensryche is an American progressive heavy metal band. They formed in Bellevue Washington in 1981.


title: Midnight Oil

paragraphs: Midnight Oil is an New Zealand rock band. They formed in Auckland in 1976. The band became famous for its soft-rock sound and calming live performances. The band was politically active supporting environmentalist and indigenous causes.


title: Jon Bon Jovi

paragraphs: John Francis Bongiovi (born March 2, 1962 in Perth Amboy, New Jersey) better known as Jon Bon Jovi, is an American musician and actor. He is best known as the lead singer of the hard-rock, Bon Jovi.

paragraphs: In 1983, Jon was one of the founding members of Bon Jovi. Earlier he sang in bands "Starz" and "Atlantic City Expressway".

paragraphs: In 2006, Jon was ranked in 31st place out of 100 the best vocalist in history.

paragraphs: He starred in 18 films, last time in 2011.


title: Maxi Priest

paragraphs: Maxi Priest (born Max Alfred Elliot on June 10, 1962) is a English reggae singer.


title: On the Waterfront

paragraphs: On the Waterfront is a 1954 American movie about mob violence among longshoremen (people who unload ships) in New Jersey. Directed by Elia Kazan, it stars Marlon Brando, Eva Marie Saint and Karl Malden.

paragraphs: The movie won eight Academy Awards: for Best Picture, Best Actor (Brando), Best Supporting Actress (Saint), Best Art Direction, Best Director (Kazan), Best Cinematography (Boris Kaufman), Best Film Editing (Gene Milford) and Best Original Screenpaly (Budd Schulberg). The catchphrase, "I could've been a contender", is said by Terry Malloy. In 2005, it ranked third on AFI's list of the one hundred most famous quotes in movie history . Five years earlier, it was the eighth most popular movie on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.


title: Faith No More

paragraphs: Faith No More is an alternative metal band. They formed by bassist Billy Gould, drummer Mike Bordin, and keyboarder Roddy Bottum in San Francisco, California, USA, in 1981 and broke up on April 20, 1998. However, they got back together in 2009 and have continued playing since.

paragraphs: They became successful with singer Mike Patton in the early 1990s. Their biggest hits were "Epic" and the cover song "Easy", originally from Lionel Ritchie.

paragraphs: So far, Faith No More has released six studio albums, which include:


title: The Pretenders

paragraphs: The Pretenders are an English rock and punk rock band. They formed in Hereford in 1978.


title: Schindler's List

paragraphs: Schindler's List is a 1993 American movie set in World War II, and directed by Steven Spielberg. It is based on "Schindler's Ark", a 1982 book by Thomas Keneally. The movie and the book owe their names to the list of over a thousand Jews who worked in the title character's factory.

paragraphs: It is about businessman Oskar Schindler who saves thousands of Jews from being killed in the Holocaust by putting them to work in a factory. His list was the list of Jews he wanted to save.

paragraphs: The movie was nominated for 12 and won seven Academy Awards, including one for Best Picture. Spielberg won another for Best Director.

paragraphs: Among others such as "Citizen Kane" and "Sunset Boulevard", it has been called one of the greatest movies ever. In 1998, the American Film Institute selected it as the ninth most popular of all time in their 100 Years... 100 Movies list.

paragraphs: In February 1997, NBC aired a version without cuts of the movie (in two parts), much to the upset of many viewers. It was the first time a television broadcast had ever received the TV-M rating (soon to be called TV-MA).


title: Chlorofluorocarbon

paragraphs: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are gases used for various purposes including solvents, refrigerants and aerosol sprays. They are organic chemicals and contain carbon, (sometimes hydrogen,) chlorine, and fluorine. They were much used in the middle 20th century, replacing chemicals that were toxic or flammable or had other problems. In 1978, Sweden became the first country that banned CFC products. Later, the US and Canada did the same. Now, CFC products are not allowed in most countries, because they cause ozone depletion. CFCs are also greenhouse gases. An alternative is hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). These do not destroy the ozone layer or increase global warming.


title: Singin' in the Rain

paragraphs: Singin' in the Rain is a 1952 American movie musical romantic comedy movie starring Gene Kelly. It was directed by Kelly and Stanley Donen. It is set in Los Angeles, California in 1927. It gives an amusing look at Hollywood's change from silent movies to "talkies".

paragraphs: It is considered to be among the best movie musicals ever made.

paragraphs: Shooting on the movie began on June 18, 1951, and ended on November 21.


title: North and South

paragraphs: North and South is a novel by John Jakes. It is the first of three books about two friends who must fight against each other during the American Civil War.

paragraphs: "North and South" had two sequels. They are called "Love and War" and "Heaven and Hell". The books were written in 1982, 1984, and 1987.

paragraphs: There were also TV versions made. Three miniseries were done in 1985, 1986, and 1994. The two main characters were played by James Read and Patrick Swayze (Swayze's character does not appear in the third part).


Apparatus


title: Internet Movie Database

paragraphs: The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) is an online database of information (facts) about actors, movies, TV shows, and video games. The IMDb website started in October 1990, and has been owned by Amazon.com since 1998.


title: Chicago Blackhawks

paragraphs: The Chicago Blackhawks are an ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL). They were formed in 1926, named after the 333rd Machine Gun Battalion of the 86th Infantry Division during World War I which was nicknamed the "Blackhawk Division". The division was named after Chief Black Hawk, a native American leader. The team has won the Stanley Cup Championship six times, in 1933, 1937, 1961, 2010, 2013 and in 2015. The current captain of the Blackhawks is Jonathan Toews.

paragraphs: The Regina Capitals were a team in the Western Canada Hockey League until 1925, when they moved and became the Portland Rosebuds. One year later, the league folded. Most of the Portland players then played for the new Chicago team in the NHL.

paragraphs: In the 1930s, Charlie Gardiner was a star goaltender for the team. Players on the Blackhawks won four scoring titles (Art Ross Trophy) in the 1940s: Doug Bentley in 1943, his brother Ben in 1946 and 1947, and Roy Conacher in 1949. Max Bentley also won the Hart Trophy as the league's most valuable player in 1946. Goalie Al Rollins won the Hart Trophy in 1954. By 1960, however, the team had only made the Stanley Cup final four times, winning the Cup in 1934 and 1938, and losing in 1931 and 1944.

paragraphs: The team was much stronger in the 1960s. Bobby Hull led the NHL in goals seven times, more than any other player. He also won three Art Ross and two Hart Trophies. Stan Mikita won four Art Ross and two Hart Trophies. Between them, they led the NHL in scoring seven times in nine years. Star goaltender Glenn Hall was an all-star many times; and Pierre Pilote won the Norris Trophy as best defenceman three times. The Blackhawks won the Stanley Cup in 1961, and also made the finals in 1962 and 1965. Goalie Tony Esposito led them to the finals in 1971 and 1973.

paragraphs: Since that time, they have had many star players such as Doug Wilson, Steve Larmer, Jeremy Roenick, and Tony Amonte; but they have not won the Cup since 1961, the longest wait of any NHL team. They won the Presidents' Trophy as the top team in the regular season in 1991, and made the finals again in 1992, partly due to Ed Belfour (who won two Vezina Trophies as best goaltender) and Chris Chelios (who won two Norris Trophies on Chicago). As of 2006, however, they have only made the playoffs once in the last eight years.

paragraphs: The mascot of the Chicago Blackhawks is named Tommy Hawk. He was introduced in the 2001–02 NHL season. He wears the Blackhawks' four feathers on his head and also wears a Blackhawks jersey and hockey pants. Tommy Hawk sometimes participates in the T-shirt toss and puck chuck with the fans.

paragraphs: The Blackhawks have their own official fight song called, "Here Come the Hawks!" which is also an introduction for them. A song that was called "Keys to the City" was given to the Blackhawks organization as a gift by Ministry & Co Conspirators. After the Blackhawks score a goal at the United Center they play the song "Chelsea Dagger" by The Fratellis.

paragraphs: In 1985, during the Campbell Conference playoff game, a tradition was started where the Blackhawks fans would cheer and applaud loudly during the singing of the national anthem. This is still done today.

paragraphs: Jonathan Toews was named the team's captain prior to the 2008-09 season opener which made him the third-youngest captain at the time. The Blackhawks led the NHL in home attendance with a total of 912,155, averaging 22,247 fans per game during to the 2008-09 season. The number of attendance also included the Winter Classic at Wrigley Field which had 40,818 fans in attendance.

paragraphs: The Blackhawks acquired forward Marián Hossa and signed him to a 12-year contract which was worth 62.8 million dollars. The deal also included Tomas Kopecky, John Madden, and Richard Petiot. Due to the salary cap, the Blackhawks were forced to give up a bunch of their players.

paragraphs: On June 9, 2010 The Blackhawks won their first Stanley Cup in 49 years when Patrick Kane scored the game-winning overtime goal as they defeated the Philadelphia Flyers in game 6 of the best-of-7 series.

paragraphs: On June 24, 2013, the team won their fifth Stanley Cup after they defeated the Boston Bruins 4 games to 2 in the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals. They were down 2–1 and scored two goals from Bryan Bickell and Dave Bolland 1:16 and 0:58.3 (17 seconds apart) to win 3-2.

paragraphs: On June 15, 2015, the Blackhawks won their third Stanley Cup championship in six years after they defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning 4 games to 2 in the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals. It was their first Stanley Cup win on home ice since 1938.


title: Cape Verde

paragraphs: Cape Verde (), also known as Cabo Verde and officially as the República de Cabo Verde ("Republic of Cape Verde/Cabo Verde"), is an island country in Africa. It is a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Western Africa. The islands Cover a combined area of slightly over . The are of volcanic origin.

paragraphs: Cape Verde is one of Macaronesia's group of islands.

paragraphs: The Portuguese explorer Dinis Dias (or Denis Fernadez) discovered in 1445 a peninsula along the coast of Senegal that he named Cap-Vert (Dias named it "Cabo Verde", "verde" being Portuguese for "green", a reference to the vegetation in the area). Dias did not discover the "Cape Verde Islands", but rather the actual cape.

paragraphs: This peninsula is the westernmost point of the African continent.

paragraphs: The first Europeans to arrive in Cape Verde were the Portugueses Diogo Gomes and Antonio da Noli in 1460. The islands were uninhabited, and the first settlement was founded in 1462 on the island of Santiago (the main Island) which was divided into two “capitanias”, Alcatrazes and Ribeira Grande. The first one failed and the main activity in Ribeira Grande was the exploitation of cotton farms. Ribeira Grande served also as a slave trade post and as post of slave Christianization before they were sent to the New World.

paragraphs: The city suffered several pirate raids and for this reason in 1712, after a French attack, the authorities were forced to move the capital to Praia, where it is located until now. Cape Verde had the status of Portuguese colony until 1951 when Portugal changed its status to Overseas Province and in 1961 Portugal gave full citizenship to all Cape Verdeans.

paragraphs: Cape Verde has been independent of Portugal since 5th July 1975. The fight for independence was led by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) and headed by Amilcar Cabral, the national hero of both countries, Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau.

paragraphs: The Cape Verde archipelago is in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately off the coast of West Africa, near Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania, and is a part, together with the Azores, Madeira, Savage Islands and Canary Islands, of the Macaronesia ecological region. It lies between the latitudes 14°N and 18°N, and the longitudes 22°W and 26°W.

paragraphs: The country is an archipelago with a total area of . It is formed by ten islands (nine inhabited) and several very small islands (islets) divided into two groups, arranged according to the prevailing wind direction:

paragraphs: The largest islands are, to the southeast, Santiago, where lies Praia, the capital and largest city of the country, and the island of Santo Antão, in the extreme northwest. Praia is also the main population centre of the archipelago, followed by Mindelo on the island of São Vicente.

paragraphs: The sun shines 350 days a year and temperatures range between . The breeze (a gentle to moderate wind) blows constantly from the ocean at a relatively low average humidity of 40% to 60%.

paragraphs: The Cape Verde Islands only have two seasons: The "Tempo das Brisas" ("Time of the winds") from October to mid-July and the "Tempo das chuvas" ("Rainy season") from August to September, when there may be heavy tropical rainfall. The coolest months are January and February (average temperature of 21 °C), where temperatures can drop down to 16 °C; the warmest is the month of September (up to 36 °C) with an average temperature of 27 °C.

paragraphs: Otherwise, the islands of Barlavento (Santo Antão, São Vicente, São Nicolao, Boa Vista, Sal, Santa Luzia, Branco and Razo) are always somewhat cooler than those of the Sotavento (Maio, Santiago, Fogo and Brava), where summers can be quite hot.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate of Praia (Cabo Verde) is Bwh (Tropical and Subtropical Desert Climate).

paragraphs: Cape Verde's isolation has resulted in the islands having a number of endemic species, particularly birds and reptiles, many of which are endangered by human development. Endemic birds include Alexander's Swift ("Apus alexandri"), Bourne's Heron ("Ardea purpurea bournei"), the Raso Lark ("Alauda razae"), the Cape Verde Warbler ("Acrocephalus brevipennis"), and the Iago Sparrow ("Passer iagoensis"). The islands are also an important breeding area for seabirds including the Cape Verde Shearwater. Reptiles include the Cape Verde Giant Gecko ("Tarentola gigas").

paragraphs: Cape Verde is divided into 22 municipalities ("concelhos") and subdivided into 32 parishes ("freguesias").

paragraphs: Cape Verde is a representative parliamentary republic. The constitution —adopted in 1980 and revised in 1992, 1995 and 1999— defines the basic principles of its government. The president is the head of state and is elected for a 5-year term; the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Prime Minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the President.

paragraphs: The economic resources of Cape Verde are largely dependent on agriculture and fishing. Agriculture frequently suffers the effects of droughts. The most important crops are coffee, bananas, sugar cane, tropical fruits, corn, beans, sweet potato, and cassava. The industrial sector is incipient but is based on the production of “aguardente” (spirits from sugar cane), clothing and footwear, paints and varnishes, tourism, fishing and canned fish, and salt extraction. Banana, canned fish, frozen fish, lobsters, salt, and clothes are the main exports. The national currency is the Cape Verdean escudo. Remittances from emigration are another important source of resources for the State of Cape Verde.

paragraphs: In Cape Verde, the annual rate of population growth and mortality are low, compared to average rates of other middle-income countries. The average life expectancy is 66 years and 71 years respectively for men and women. The resident population in the country is estimated at 500,000 inhabitants. There are an estimated additional one million Cape Verdeans living abroad, mainly in the United States, Western Europe, and Africa. Cape Verde has a young population with an average age of 23 years.

paragraphs: Cape Verdean culture is a unique mixture of European and African elements. Corn is the staple food of Cape Verde. The national or traditional dish is "cachupa", which is a stew of hominy (dried maize kernals), beans, and whatever meat or vegetables may be available. Other common foods include rice, beans, fish, potatoes and manioc. A traditional breakfast is a steamed cornbread, eaten with honey and milk or coffee. Grogue, or sugar cane liquor, is manufactured on the islands and is a popular drink, particularly among the men. Cape Verdean music incorporates Portuguese, Caribbean, and African influences. Popular genres include morna, funaná, batuque, coladeira, and cola san jon.

paragraphs: In Cape Verde, other than private clinics, the government guarantees a public health system which comprises several healthcare centers and three central hospitals (Hospital Agostinho Neto, in Praia, Hospital Baptista de Sousa, in São Vicente, and Hospital Regional de Santiago Norte, in Assomada). The cost of public health is supported by the government, but users must pay a fee which varies in accordance with the capacity of the user to afford it.

paragraphs: After independence, the different governments of Cape Verde invested massively in education and illiteracy has been reduced drastically. Today almost one hundred percent of school-age children attend school. Attendance to primary schooling, which comprises 6 years, is compulsory and free of any charge. Education is guaranteed by a network of public schools that span from nursery school to university. There are also several private schools in all levels of education.


title: Madeira Islands

paragraphs: Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union.

paragraphs: The archipelago comprises the major part of one of the two autonomous regions of Portugal (the other being the Azores located to the northwest), that includes the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo, and the Desertas, administered together with the separate archipelago of the Savage Islands.

paragraphs: The name Madeira could be used for the autonomous region, the geographical group of islands or just the island of Madeira. These islands are part of the Macaronesia.

paragraphs: Madeira's official written history began in 1418, when two captains under service to Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were pushed by a storm to an island which they named Porto Santo (English: "holy harbour"). The following year, an organised expedition was sent to this new land to take possession of the island on behalf of the Portuguese crown. Later, the new settlers saw an island to the southwest, and so the larger island of Madeira was discovered.

paragraphs: The islands were found to be completely uninhabited, and their colonization by the Portuguese began around 1420 or 1425. To get the minimum conditions for the development of agriculture, they had to cut part of the dense forest and to construct a large number of canals ("levadas") to carry water, since in some parts of the island there was excess water, while in others water was scarce. During this period, fish constituted about half of the settlers' diet, together with vegetables and fruits cultivated from small pieces of land. Initially, these colonists produced wheat for their own subsistence, but later the quantity cultivated was sufficient to begin sending wheat to continental Portugal.

paragraphs: On the 23 September of 1433, the name "Ilha da Madeira" (English: "Madeira Island", or literally "island of wood") began to appear in the first documents and maps. The name given to the islands corresponded to the large dense forests of native trees that covered the island.

paragraphs: However, when wheat production began to fall, the crisis forced to plant other commercial crops. They brought from Sicily plants of sugarcane to produce sugar. After the 17th century, as sugar production went to Brazil, São Tomé and Príncipe and elsewhere, Madeira's most important product became its wine.

paragraphs: As other islands of the Macaronesia, the Madeira islands are of volcanic origin and with a subtropical climate.

paragraphs: The archipelago is in the African plate, in the Atlantic Ocean between the latitudes 30° and 33° north, southwest of Lisbon and, about west of the African coast, almost at the same latitude as Casablanca.

paragraphs: The Madeira islands have a total area of . Their individual areas vary between of the largest island (Madeira) to of the Savage Islands.

paragraphs: Of the eight islands, only the two largest (Madeira and Porto Santo) are inhabited, having as main accesses, the Madeira Airport in Funchal and the one in Porto Santo. By sea, Funchal has a port that receives different ships, especially cruise ships. The remaining islands are nature reserves.

paragraphs: The territory of the archipelago contains two main islands: the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo; besides these, there are two groups of uninhabited islands, the Desertas and Savages.

paragraphs: The island of Madeira has a very irregular and uneven terrain, being the highest points the peaks "Pico Ruivo" (1862 m), "Pico das Torres" (1851 m), "Pico do Ariero" (1818 m) and "Pico do Juncal" (1800 m). The northern coast is dominated by high cliffs.

paragraphs: The island of Porto Santo, on the other hand, has a completely different geomorphological formation of the island of Madeira. It is very flat where only small plants grow and the soils are poor and not very good for agriculture. This island has some peaks, particularly in the north, and the " Pico do Facho" (517 m) is the highest point of elevation in the island, followed by "Pico Branco" (450 m).

paragraphs: The highest point of Desertas Islands is "Pedregal" (442 m) in Deserta Grande, and of Selvagens Islands is "Pico da Atalaia" (153 m), in Selvagem Grande.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Funchal, Madeira island, is 19°C (66.2°F). The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of 22.6°C (72.7°F). The coolest month on average is February, with an average temperature of 16.1°C (61.0°F).

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Funchal is 596.9 mm (23.5"). The month with the most precipitation on average is December with 109.2 mm (4.3") of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of 2.5 mm (0.1"). There are an average of 87 days of precipitation, with the most precipitation occurring in December with 13 days and the least precipitation occurring in July with 1 days.

paragraphs: For the Villa de Porto Santo, Porto Santo island, the average temperature for the year is 17.8°C (64.0°F). The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of 21.7°C (71.0°F). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 15°C (59.0°F).

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Villa de Porto Santo is 375.9 mm (14.8"). The month with the most precipitation on average is January with 61 mm (2.4") of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of 2.5 mm (0.1").

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate of Funchal (Madeira) and Villa de Porto Santo (Porto Santo) is Csb (Mediterran Climate).

paragraphs: The climate of Desertas islands and partes of Porto Santo is semi-arid (Bs) and in the Savage islands is a desert climate (Bw).

paragraphs: In 1976 Madeira became one of the two autonomous regions of the Republic of Portugal (Azores is the other) under the Portuguese name "Região Autónoma da Madeira", with its own executive and a regional legislature. The current president of the regional government is Alberto João Jardim. The main offices of the regional government are in Funchal, making this city the capital of the region.

paragraphs: Administratively, the Autonomous Region of Madeira (with a population of 267,785 inhabitants in 2011 and covering an area of ) is organised into 11 "municípios", of which 10 are in the island of Madeira and one in Porto Santo. Municipalities are further divided into 54 "freguesias", 53 in Madeira and 1 in Porto Santo.

paragraphs: According to the 2011 Census, the total population in the Autonomous Region of Madeira was 267,785: 126,268 men and 141,517 women. The density for the whole region is persons/km; calculating the density taking in account only the inhabited islands (Madeira and Porto Santo), the density would be inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: The region of Madeira is home to a great and important biodiversity, with an estimated 7,571 terrestrial species for the whole archipelago. The total number of endemic species and subspecies is about 1,419 (1,286 species and 182 sub-species), which represents 19% of the overall species diversity.

paragraphs: The most known environment of the archipelago is its Laurel forest (laurisilva) which still extends over 15,000 hectares or 20% of the archipelago. These forests, very rich in biodiversity, are the largest and best-preserved Laurel forests in the entire Macaronesia region. They are home to unique plant and animal species, including the famous Trocaz Pigeon or Madeira Laurel Pigeon ("Columba trocaz"), and the Madeira Kinglet ("Regulus madeirensis"). The most threatened bird of Europe, the Madeiran or Zino’s Petrel ("Pterodroma madeira") inhabits the highest cliffs in the Central Mountainous Massif of the Madeira island.

paragraphs: In the sea around Madeira there are numerous species of marine mammals, including 28 species of cetaceans and the critically endangered Mediterranean Monk Seal ("Monachus monachus").

paragraphs: There are 6 protected areas in the Madeira Archipelago, including the Madeira Natural Park. This park, which covers over 2/3 of Madeira Island and includes the entire Laurel forest, is a European Council Biogenetic Reserve since 1992, and a UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site since 1999. Additionally, 11 sites in the whole archipelago are part of the Natura 2000 network and 11 other sites are designated Important Bird Areas.

paragraphs: The local economy is based mainly on agriculture and tourism, the main resource. Agriculture produces bananas, flowers, and Madeira wine which is exported. The industrial area is not very diverse and they are relationated with food, beverages, tobacco and construction.


title: Cameroon

paragraphs: Cameroon (officially called the Republic of Cameroon) is a country in west Africa. Its capital is Yaoundé. The largest city in Cameroon is Douala. The population of Cameroon is about 20 million. Cameroon's president is Paul Biya. They speak nearly 250 languages in Cameroon. French and English are the official languages.

paragraphs: At , Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country. It is about the size of Papua New Guinea. The country is in Central and West Africa on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. The country's neighbours are Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south.

paragraphs: The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 regions. On 12 November 2008, the President changed the divisions from provinces to regions. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.

paragraphs: The regions are divided into 58 divisions. These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers.

paragraphs: Some of the largest cities in Cameroon are:

paragraphs: The official languages of Cameroon are French and English. It is part of both the British Commonwealth and La Francophonie. Most people speak French.


title: Guinea-Bissau

paragraphs: Guinea-Bissau is a country in Africa. The official language is Portuguese, and the capital is Bissau. About 1,442,000 people live in Guinea-Bissau as of 2006. The country was a Portuguese colony in the 19th century. At that time is was called Portuguese Guinea. It became independent in 1973. In 1974, the name of the country's capital was added so that it would not be confused with the neighboring country Guinea.

paragraphs: Guinea-Bissau is divided into 8 regions and one autonomous sector. These are divided into thirty-seven sectors. The regions are:


title: Mauritius

paragraphs: The Republic of Mauritius is an island nation in the Mascarene Islands. It includes Rodrigues, Agaléga and St. Brandon as well as Mauritius. It was formerly ruled by the European countries Portugal, France and the United Kingdom, but is now independent.

paragraphs: Port Louis is its capital. In the 2000 census, the country had a population of 1,178,848 people. The country is prosperous, and trades mainly with South Africa and India.

paragraphs: The island of Mauritius was the home of the dodo.

paragraphs: The island is in the southwest Indian Ocean. It is about east of Madagascar. The country includes the island of Mauritius as well as the islands of St. Brandon, Rodrigues and the Agalega Islands. Mauritius is part of the Mascarene Islands along with the French island of Réunion to the southwest.

paragraphs: The Mauritian flag is made up of four colours of equal width.

paragraphs: Mauritius, an island of volcanic origin sheltered by barriers of coral reefs forming natural, safe, crystal clear lagoons, has long been a dream destination. Known to the Arabs as early as the 10th century, but officially explored by the Portuguese in the 16th century and subsequently settled by the Dutch in the 17th century. The Dutch were the ones who named the island in honor of Prince Maurits van NASSAU.

paragraphs: Mauritius was occupied successively by the Dutch (1598-1712) and later by the French (1715-1810). The French assumed control in 1715, developing the island into an important naval base overseeing the Indian Ocean trade, and establishing a plantation economy of sugar cane.

paragraphs: The British captured the island in 1810, during the Napoleonic Wars through the Treaty of Paris. Mauritius remained a strategically important British naval base, and later on, an air station playing an important role during World War II for anti-submarine and convoy operations, as well as the collection of signals intelligence. On 12 March 1968, Mauritius became Independent.


title: It's a Wonderful Life

paragraphs: It's a Wonderful Life is a 1946 movie. It was directed by Frank Capra. It stars James Stewart, Donna Reed, and Lionel Barrymore.

paragraphs: George Bailey wishes he had never been born and becomes suicidal. Clarence, an angel (2nd class) helps him change his mind.


title: Djibouti

paragraphs: Djibouti (officially called the Republic of Djibouti) is a country on the eastern coast of Africa. The capital city is also called Djibouti.

paragraphs: Djibouti gained its independence from France on June 27, 1977. The country was created out of the French Somaliland (later called the French Territory of the Afars and Issas), which was created in the 1800s as a result of French colonialism in Africa.

paragraphs: In 2020, about 920,000 people lived there. It is one of the least populous countries in Africa. Two ethnic groups, the Somali and the Afar people, account for most of the people living in the country.

paragraphs: Djibouti joined the United Nations on September 20, 1977. It is also a member of the Arab League, as well as the African Union and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD).

paragraphs: The history of Djibouti goes back thousands of years when it was part of the Sabean Empire (Ethiopia) to a time when Djiboutians traded hides and skins for the perfumes and spices of ancient Egypt, Pakistan, and China. Through close contacts with the Arabian peninsula for more than 1,000 years, the Somali and Afar tribes in this region became among the first on the African continent to accept Islam. Djibouti is a Muslim country which regularly takes part in Islamic as well as Arab meetings.

paragraphs: The country is close to a narrow part of the Red Sea so it is considered an important area from a military viewpoint.

paragraphs: Djibouti is near to the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Awdal of Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east.

paragraphs: In the Great Rift Valley the rift between the African Plate and the Somali Plate meet the Arabian Plate. This makes a geologic tripoint that is the lowest place in Africa.

paragraphs: Djibouti has eight mountain ranges with peaks of over 1,000 m (3,281 ft). The Mousa Ali range is the country's highest mountain range.

paragraphs: The Grand Bara desert covers parts of southern Djibouti.

paragraphs: Most species of wildlife are found in the northern part of the country, in the ecosystem of the Day Forest National Park. This forest area is the main habitat of the endangered and endemic Djibouti francolin (a bird).

paragraphs: Djibouti is divided into six administrative regions, with Djibouti city representing one of the official regions. It is further subdivided into twenty districts.

paragraphs: The people of Djibouti are mostly Muslim. Islam is observed by 94% of Djibouti's population (about 740,000) (2010 estimate). The remaining six percent follow Christianity.

paragraphs: The Republic of Djibouti names Islam as the only state religion. The Constitution of 1992 provides for the equality of citizens of all faiths as well as the freedom to practise any religion.

paragraphs: Association football is the most popular sport in Djibouti. The country became a member of FIFA in 1994. They have only played in qualifying rounds for both the African Cup of Nations and FIFA World Cup.

paragraphs: The country is linked to Ethiopia by way of the Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway.


title: Mauritania

paragraphs: Mauritania is a country in northwest Africa. The capital city, which is also the biggest city in the country, is Nouakchott. It is on the Atlantic coast. Its president is General Mohamed Oueld Abdel-Aziz.

paragraphs: At 1,030,700 km² (397,929 mi²), Mauritania is the world's 29th-largest country (after Bolivia). It is similar in size to Egypt. The land is flat in most places.


title: Lake Huron

paragraphs: Lake Huron is one of North America's five Great Lakes. It is the third one up from the mouth. Like Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, and Lake Superior, it is also part of the boundary between the USA and Canada. The Huronian glaciation, billions of years ago, is named for the lake.

paragraphs: Lake Huron is more than 200 miles (325 km) long and is as much as 750 feet (230 m) deep. Many boats and ships go back and forth on Lake Huron, carrying useful things such as iron ore.

paragraphs: Lake Huron borders the Canadian province of Ontario and the American state of Michigan. There are no large cities on Lake Huron, but there are some small cities such as Sarnia, Ontario and Bay City, Michigan.

paragraphs: The water that flows out of Lake Huron goes through a river that flows past Detroit, Michigan. The water then flows into Lake Erie on its way to the ocean.

paragraphs: On 1996 an hurricane-like storm appeared on Lake Huron, while the National Hurricane Center was not sure to call it a hurricane or not. Because the storm formed over Lake Huron and that it did not get a name from the NHC, many people nicknamed the storm, "Hurricane Huron".


title: Réunion

paragraphs: Réunion () is an island of France. It is also a region of France and an overseas department of France, meaning France owns the island nation. It is in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar, about 200 km (125 miles) southwest of Mauritius. Its capital is Saint-Denis. The highest point in La Reunion is La piton des neiges. The island is also famous for its black beaches, even though people think that there are white beaches. The island is 63 kilometres (39 mi) long; 45 kilometres (28 mi) wide; and covers 2,512 square kilometres (970 sq mi). It is similar to the island Hawaii as both are above hotspots in the Earth's crust.

paragraphs: The Piton de la Fournaise, a shield volcano on the eastern end of Réunion Island, rises more than 2,631 metres (8,632 ft) above sea level and is sometimes called a sister to Hawaiian volcanoes because of the similarity of climate and volcanic nature. It has erupted more than 100 times since 1640 and is under constant monitoring. It most recently erupted on 2 January 2010. Before that, the most noticeable was during April 2007, when the lava flow was estimated at 3,000,000 cubic metres (3,900,000 cu yd) per day. The Piton de la Fournaise is created by a hotspot volcano, which also created the Piton des Neiges and the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues.

paragraphs: The Piton des Neiges volcano, the highest point on the island at 3,070 metres (10,070 ft) above sea level, is northwest of the Piton de la Fournaise. Collapsed calderas and canyons are southwest of the mountain. Like Kohala on the Big Island of Hawaii, the Piton des Neiges is an extinct volcano. Despite its name, snow (French: neige) practically never falls on the summit.


title: Lake Erie

paragraphs: Lake Erie is one of the Great Lakes in North America. It is the second to the last in the Great Lake system before water flows into the St. Lawrence River. Like Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and Lake Ontario, Lake Erie is part of the boundary between the USA and Canada. In 1813 a naval battle was fought on the lake.

paragraphs: Most of the water that flows into Lake Erie flows through a small river, the Detroit River, that moves water down from Lake St. Clair past Detroit, Michigan. Some more water flows into Lake Erie from other rivers, including the Maumee and the Cuyahoga. At the foot of the Maumee is Toledo, Ohio. At the bend of the Cuyahoga is Cleveland, Ohio.

paragraphs: Water that flows out of Lake Erie flows past Buffalo, New York, and into the Niagara River. The river pours over Niagara Falls, one of the largest waterfalls in North America, and then into the lowest of all the Great Lakes, Lake Ontario.


title: Mali

paragraphs: Mali is a landlocked country (a country entirely surrounded by land) in West Africa. Mali is bordered by Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Physical features of Mali include the Sahara desert in the north, with the Niger River and Sénégal River in the southern part of the country. As of a July 2011 estimate, Mali has a population of approximately 14,000,000 people. Mali has a total area of . Most of the people live in the southern part of the country, with Mali's capital and most populated city being Bamako.

paragraphs: The Mandé people founded several kingdoms in the Sahel. This was a big area that included Mali. These kingdoms included the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, and the Songhai Empire. Timbuktu was an important city in these empires because a lot of trade across the Sahara Desert went there. Timbuktu was also a good place for learning. The Songhai Empire became much smaller after a Moroccan attack in 1591.

paragraphs: France invaded Mali in 1880. After that, France owned Mali. France gave Mali the names "French Sudan" and the "Sudanese Republic". At some times it also included other nearby countries. In early 1959, Mali and Senegal united and they became the Mali Federation. They became independent from France on June 20, 1960. Senegal left the Mali Federation a few months later. The Republic of Mali, with Modibo Keïta as the first president, left the French Community on September 22, 1960.

paragraphs: There was a coup in Mali in 1968. Modibo Keïta lost his job and was put in prison. Mali was then ruled by Moussa Traoré until 1991. He treated the country badly, and so there was another coup in 1991 after protests against the government, and a new constitution was made. The leader of the country was then Amadou Toumani Touré.

paragraphs: In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic election. President Konaré won again in 1997 and he made big political and economic changes. In 2002, Amadou Toumani Touré won the election and he started his second term as head of state. He was a retired general and was the military leader of the 1991 coup. Today, Mali is one of the least stable countries in Africa.

paragraphs: Mali is divided into 8 regions and 1 district. The country is further divided into 49 cercles, containing 288 "arrondissements" and 703 communes.

paragraphs: Mali is the world's 24th-largest country. The area of the country is 1,240,000 km² (478,734 mi²). Mali and South Africa are about the same size. It is two times bigger than Texas.

paragraphs: Most of Mali is part of the Sahara Desert. Mali is does not have any sea coast. It is landlocked. Mali does not have many mountains. Flat areas in the north are covered by sand. Savanna is around the Niger River in the south. The climate is dry. The dry season is hot and dusty. There are many natural resources in Mali, including gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt, and limestone.

paragraphs: Mali is one of the poorest countries in the world. 65% of its land area is desert or something similar. There have been several long droughts over the last hundred years. Therefore, most economic activity is near the Niger River.

paragraphs: About 10% of the people are nomads and 80% of workers have jobs in farming and fishing. Industry is mainly to process farm products. Women also do pottery and the pots are bought and taken to markets. Many foreign tourists like the traditional methods which the women use to make the pots.

paragraphs: Mali's main export is cotton, so if the price of cotton changes, Mali's economy is affected a lot. Mali also receives a lot of financial help from other countries.

paragraphs: In 1997, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) recommended a programme for changing the economy and the government followed this. Several international companies started exploring for larger amounts of gold in 1996-1998, and the Malian government thinks that Mali will become an important gold exporter soon.

paragraphs: There are several ethnic and religious groups in Mali.

paragraphs: About 90% of people from Mali follow Sunni Islam, but they do not always forget their traditional religions. Muslims have their own schooling system. The number of Muslims from Mali who go to Mecca is increasing and some study in Arab countries. About 1% of the people are Christians. When Mali was under French control, Christian teachers were sent to Islamic areas.

paragraphs: The language of Mali under French rule was French, but now not many people outside towns can read or write this language. However, about 60% of the people use other languages well. Many people can read and write in Bamanakan (the most popular spoken language). This language has its own alphabet, called N'Ko. Other people can read and write in Arabic, after going to an Islamic school. One of the oldest universities in the world is Sankore University in Timbuktu. It began in the 1400s.

paragraphs: Famous musicians from Mali include kora player Toumani Diabaté, and the guitarist Ali Farka Touré, who has died.


title: Chief Joseph

paragraphs: Chief Joseph (1840 – September 21, 1904; whose real name was Hinmaton-Yalaktit) was the chief of the Nez Perce Native Americans, a tribe that lived in what is now the Pacific Northwest of the United States.

paragraphs: His father was the leader of the Nez-Perce before him, and his mother was a member of this tribe too.

paragraphs: When Joseph was young, his father always told him not to trust white men, he actually had problems with settlers. When his father died, Joseph became chief of the tribe, who resided in plateaus in Northeast Oregon, Southeast Washington and Western Idaho.

paragraphs: The turning point in their relationship to white men was the gold rush in 1863. It gave the US Government the opportunity to reduce their reservation to a small area in Idaho. Then, with the new waves of white men settling in the West, the Government wanted to drive Nez-Perces away from their territory.

paragraphs: Chief Joseph was extremely sad: this place was the tribe's territory where their ancestors were buried. In spite of that, he wanted to avoid conflict and remain in peace. In 1873 he decided to negotiate with the US Government. He travelled all the way to Washington D.C. and spoke to President Ulysses S. Grant. But he only got mean looks and little attention.

paragraphs: So a war began in 1877. The living conditions of Chief Joseph's tribe were awful: they had no food and no blankets. Some people were freezing to death. But the Nez-Perces impressed their enemy thanks to all the battles they won. Many men died on both sides. That's why Joseph decided to surrender. He gave up fighting in 1877.

paragraphs: He was destroyed by the death of his people, and also extremely disappointed: he felt betrayed by white people. He knew he could not trust them anymore. He was tired of being considered a savage. He felt it was not fair for people who were born on the same land to be treated differently. He delivered a lot of speeches on this subject, which are still really good examples of eloquence. But he did not feel listened to, and when he died in his reservation in 1904, the doctor said he "died from sadness". He was buried in Colville Native American Burial Ground, in Washington State.


title: Seychelles

paragraphs: Seychelles is an African country in the Indian Ocean. Its capital city is Victoria. The official languages are Creole, English, and French.

paragraphs: The country is to the east of the African continent. The islands of Madagascar and Mauritius lie to the south. The republic is made up of 115 islands. The biggest part of the population is a mix of freed slaves from the African Continent and Madagascar and European settlers. They make up about 90%. There are small minorities of immigrants from Europe, China and India. Most people are Roman Catholics, about 90% of them. About 8% are Protestants.

paragraphs: Other nearby island countries and territories include Zanzibar to the west, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agalega and Réunion to the south, and Comoros and Mayotte to the southwest. Seychelles has an estimated population of 86,525. It is the smallest population of any African state.

paragraphs: Seychelles is to the northeast of Madagascar and about east of Kenya. The number of islands in the archipelago is often given as 115 but the Constitution of the Republic of Seychelles lists 155.

paragraphs: According to the president of Nauru, the Seychelles has been ranked the ninth most endangered nation due to flooding from climate change.

paragraphs: Some of the districts in Seychelles include: Anse Boileau, Takamaka and Cote D’Or.

paragraphs: Seychelles is divided into twenty-five administrative regions. Eight of the districts make up the capital of Seychelles. They are called Greater Victoria. Another 14 districts are considered the rural part of the main island of Mahé. There are two districts on Praslin and one on La Digue which also include satellite islands. The rest of the Outer Islands are not considered part of any district.

paragraphs: During the plantation era, cinnamon, vanilla, and copra were the main exports. In the 1960s, about 33% of the working population worked at plantations, and 20% worked in the public or government sector. In 1971, with the opening of Seychelles International Airport, tourism became a serious industry.

paragraphs: Like many fragile island ecosystems, the Seychelles had loss of biodiversity during early human history. This included the disappearance of most of the giant tortoises from the granitic islands. There was also the extinction of species such as the chestnut flanked white eye, the Seychelles Parakeet, the Seychelles Black Terrapin and the saltwater crocodile. However, extinctions were far fewer than on islands such as Mauritius or Hawaii. This was partly due to a shorter period of human occupation being only since 1770. The Seychelles today is known for success stories in protecting its flora and fauna. The rare Seychelles Black Parrot, the national bird of the country, is now protected.

paragraphs: The granitic islands of Seychelles are home to about 75 endemic plant species. There are a further 25 or so species in the Aldabra group. Particularly well-known is the Coco de Mer, a species of palm that grows only on the islands of Praslin and neighbouring Curieuse. The jellyfish tree is to be found in only a few locations on Mahe. This strange and ancient plant is in a genus of its own (Medusagynaceae). Other unique plant species include the Wright's Gardenia "Rothmannia annae" found only on Aride Island Special Reserve.

paragraphs: The freshwater crab genus "Seychellum" is endemic to the granitic Seychelles. There are a further 26 species of crabs and 5 species of hermit crabs that live on the islands.

paragraphs: The Aldabra Giant Tortoise now lives on many of the islands of the Seychelles. The Aldabra population is the largest in the world. These unique reptiles can be found even in captive herds.

paragraphs: There are several unique varieties of orchids on the Islands.

paragraphs: The marine life around the islands, especially the more remote coral islands, can be spectacular. More than 1,000 species of fish have been recorded. Since the use of spearguns and dynamite for fishing was banned in the 1960s, the wildlife is unafraid of snorkelers and divers. Coral bleaching in 1998 has damaged most reefs, but some reefs show healthy recovery.

paragraphs: The main natural resources of the Seychelles are fish, copra, cinnamon, coconuts, salt and iron.


title: Square mile

paragraphs: A square mile (sometimes written "mi²" ) is an American unit of measurement of area. It is the area inside a square that has each side equal to one statute mile (5,280 feet or 1,760 yards). This way of talking about area is often used to say how much land there is on a farm, or in a city or country, for example.

paragraphs: One square mile is just less than 2.6 square kilometres.


title: Regions of Peru

paragraphs: A Region is the name for one of 25 areas into which the land is divided in Peru.


title: Ica Region

paragraphs: Ica is one of 25 regions of Peru. The capital of the region is Ica.


title: Togo

paragraphs: Togo is a small country in West Africa. It is bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. The capital city Lomé is located along the Gulf of Guinea. In 2016, about 7.5 million people lived there. The official language is French. Togo was a hub of the Atlantic slave trade for Europeans. Togo was apart of the Slave Coast. Many Togolese descendants live in the Americas. The country is known for Voodoo. Togo is known for it’s flora and fauna. Monkeys, snakes, and lizards are numerous in many areas in Togo.

paragraphs: From the 11th century to the 16th century, various tribes entered the region from all directions: the Ewé from the east, and the Mina and Guin from the west; most of them settled in coastal areas. The Portuguese explored the area in the late 15th century. As Togoland, it became a protectorate of Germany in 1884. After World War I, Togo was ceded to the French. Togo gained independence from French rule in the 1960s. General Gnassingbé Eyadéma became the military leader in 1967. When Eyadéma Resigns in 2002 and later died in 2005, his son, Faure Gnassingbe became president.

paragraphs: The economy of this small African country is based on agriculture. Agriculture provides jobs for 65% of the labor force according to the CIA Factbook. Agricultural products include coffee, cocoa, cotton, yams, cassava (tapioca), corn, beans, rice, millet, and sorghum. Industries include phosphate mining, agricultural processing, cement, handicrafts, textiles, and beverages. Togo's economy is primarily agricultural.

paragraphs: The president of Togo is elected for 5 years. The president is also the commander of the armed forces. The president also has the right to begin legislation and dissolve parliament.

paragraphs: After Togo's independence from France, General Gnassingbé Eyadéma became the military leader. When Eyadéma died in 2005, his son Faure Gnassingbe became president.

paragraphs: Togo is divided into 5 regions. The regions are divided into 30 prefectures and 1 commune. From north to south the regions are Savanes, Kara, Centrale, Plateaux and Maritime.

paragraphs: About 51% of the population has local beliefs, 29% is Christian, and 20% Muslim.

paragraphs: The Togolese enjoy many foods including tropical fruits, pastries, and many different products made from peanuts. Major drinks include tea, coffee, and wine. Togolese often snack on plantains and French donuts or beignets.


title: Bad Religion

paragraphs: Bad Religion is an American band that plays punk rock music. They were created in Southern California in 1979 by Jay Bentley (bass), Greg Graffin (vocals), Brett Gurewitz (guitars) and Jay Ziskrout (drums). People think that they brought back punk rock and helped pop-punk bands during the late 1980s. Since they were created 30 years ago, Bad Religion has had a lot of members come and go. Greg Graffin is the only person that's been in the band the whole time but today there are three of the four members that were in the group when it started.

paragraphs: Today, Bad Religion has fourteen studio albums, two EPs, three compilation albums, one live recording, and two DVDs. Some critics think that their 1988 album "Suffer" is one of the most important punk rock albums of all time. People began to notice Bad Religion after their 1993 album "Recipe for Hate", which was number 14 on Billboard's Heatseekers chart. Their next album, "Stranger Than Fiction", had the band's well-known hits "21st Century (Digital Boy)" and "Infected", did well and was the only Bad Religion album to get gold status in the US. Brett Gurewitz left in 1994. Bad Religion was not as well known after that and did not sell many albums until "The Process of Belief" in 2002. Brett Gurewitz came back in 2001, and worked with them on their four most recent albums. The band is planning to make another album in 2012.

paragraphs: They are known for their smart use of style, comparisons, word choice, imagery, and voice harmonies (which they call "oozin aahs.) Lyrics sometimes have to do with their emotions or their opinion of society.

paragraphs: Most of Bad Religion's lyrics are written by Greg Graffin or Brett Gurewitz. Sometimes, but often, they will co-write a song. Other band members, such as Jay Bentley, also write songs, but very rarely.

paragraphs: Brett Gurewitz says he tried to copy The Germs singer Darby Crash early on in Bad Religion's career. "He wrote some intelligent stuff, and didn't shy away from the vocabulary, which I thought was cool." Bad Religion also uses voice harmonies. The Adolescents influenced them with their three-part voice harmonies. Bassist Jay Bentley says, "Seeing The Adolescents live, it was so brilliant. So, in a way, the Adolescents influenced us into saying we can do it too, because look, they're doing it."

paragraphs: Many of Bad Religion's songs are about what they think are social problems, but they do not blame causes of these problems to any single person or group. Greg Graffin thinks that the politics in the United States can make it hard to talk about the problems.

paragraphs: The band is sometimes direct about the things they want to say. Brett Gurewitz said he was angry at former U.S. president George W. Bush and that "The Empire Strikes First" is about him. "Our whole album is dedicated to getting Bush out of office. I'm not a presidential scholar but I don't think you'll find a worse president in the history of the United States. He's probably one of the worst leaders in the history of world leaders. I just hate the guy."

paragraphs: Despite the name of the band, the members say they are not anti-religious. Greg Graffin says that more often than not, the band likes to use religion to represent anything that does not let a person be free. Their songs are more about being against everyone being the same than against religion or God. But Greg Graffin is an atheist. He helped write the book 'Is Belief in God Good, Bad or Irrelevant?' The band's bassist Jay Bentley has stated that he has spiritual beliefs. Brett Gurewitz is a "provisional deist."


title: Meat Puppets

paragraphs: The Meat Puppets are an alternative/punk rock group from Scottsdale, Arizona, USA. They were formed in 1980 by Curt Kirkwood (vocals, guitars), his brother Cris (bass) and Derrick Bostrom (drums). The band is probably best known for their 1994 radio hit "Backwater".

paragraphs: The band went on indefinite hiatus in 2001 as Curt formed two band projects Eyes Adrift (with Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic and Sublime drummer Bud Gaugh) and Volcano (also with Sublime drummer Bud Gaugh). He also released a solo album. His brother Cris was in prison from August 2004 to 21 months.

paragraphs: In 2006, the Meat Puppets reformed and released a new album, "Rise to Your Knees" in 2007.

paragraphs: As of November 2009, Shandon Sahm is back as the drummer in the Meat Puppets. He replaces Ted Marcus, who was a member from 2006.

paragraphs: The band was chosen by Animal Collective to perform their album "Up on the Sun" live at the All Tomorrow's Parties music festival in May 2011.


title: Ted Bundy

paragraphs: Theodore Robert "Ted" Bundy (November 24, 1946 - January 24, 1989) was an American serial killer, kidnapper, and rapist. He confessed to killing 30 women, although the actual number of murders committed is unknown.

paragraphs: Ted Bundy was born in 1946 in Burlington, Vermont, USA. He lived with his mother Louise Cowell and grandfather Sam Cowell when he was a child. Bundy and his mother moved to Washington where she married a man named John Culpepper Bundy. As a child in Washington, Bundy was a good student and went to church often, yet he found it hard to make friends and he began stealing. As a young man Bundy became involved in politics and got together with a woman named Diane Edwards, known better by the pseudonym Stephanie Brooks. She left him, and he went on his own for a while. After seeing that he had improved, she got back together with him; but he proposed and then left her a few days later. This is when the murders began. The people that Bundy would murder were much like this lady: young, white skinned (Caucasian) and with long dark hair parted in the middle.

paragraphs: Bundy's first known murders were in 1974 with his first known violent attack on January 4 when he crept into the room of an 18-year-old girl called Joni Lenz and beat her with a crowbar while she was asleep. He then sexually assaulted (raped) her with a metal rod that he took from the bed. She was found the next morning in a pool of blood. She was not killed but would remain in a coma (a permanent sleep) and suffered brain damage (damage to the brain that stop the body from working properly). A few weeks later on January 31 Bundy broke into another woman's basement and beat her over the head. He then dressed her, wrapped her in blankets and carried her away. She was found a year later in Seattle, Washington with no head. In between this time and June, 1974 he killed eight more women in Washington. In June he kidnapped Janice Ott and Denise Naslund from a park near Seattle. These attacks, unlike the attacks before, were in 'broad daylight'; in front of other people.

paragraphs: In the autumn Bundy moved to Utah to begin studying law at the University of Utah. He began killing again in October. Bundy kidnapped and killed three girls in October of 1974, one of them was the daughter of a police officer. On November 8 Bundy told a girl that he was a police officer and he told her to get in his car. She did, believing he really was a police officer. He then tried to handcuff her but she would not let him and she jumped out of the car and escaped. Bundy was angry that she had got away and so a few hours later he kidnapped another girl and killed her. Her body was never found. Bundy was still living in Utah in 1975 and was still attending law school but he began only killing people in Colorado. Bundy kidnapped and killed four women from Colorado and one more from Utah in the first half of 1975 (January to June).

paragraphs: On August 16, 1975 Bundy was arrested for not stopping his car when ordered to by a police officer. When they searched his car they found a ski mask, a crowbar, handcuffs, trash bags and other items that they thought he must have been using to burglarize houses. The police then noticed that his car was the car the girl who escaped had told them about. Bundy was sentenced on March 1, 1976, to fifteen years in prison for kidnapping her. Bundy escaped from the police twice in 1977 before he could be sentenced for the murders he had committed. By early 1978 he had made his way to Florida where he killed two more women and injured three others. After that he murdered a 12-year-old girl called Kimberley Leach. She was the last girl murdered by Bundy as he was stopped by a police officer on February 15, 1978.

paragraphs: Bundy had antisocial personality disorder. He went on trial on June 25 until July 31 for the murders he had committed. He was sentenced to death by the electric chair. In the time he was in prison and waiting to be executed he helped the police investigate other murders and in 1988 he admitted to having killed eight more women than he was tried for. Bundy was executed by electric chair in Florida State Prison on January 24, 1989. He was 42 years old.


title: Longboarding

paragraphs: Longboarding is a form of skateboarding. Instead of using a "normal"-sized board, the longboarder uses a board that is generally longer than a skateboard, hence the name; longboards can range from 33.5" all the way up to 42" (there are some cases in which boards can be a lot longer all the way up to 60+"). Longboarding was invented by Milterz.Instead of skating on ramps and half-pipes, the longboarder can skate down long and steep hills, turning ("carving") back and forth across the hill's face to slow down, as a skier would. The longboard is also much more efficient for "cruising", or, simply getting around, as longboards typically are faster, more stable, and less tiring to propel than short ("freestyle", i.e., trick) boards. Unlike a bicycle, a longboard is less vulnerable to theft, as one's board may be carried under one's arm, or stashed in a coat closet at work.

paragraphs: Advanced longboarders may be seen "sliding" (skidding sideways) to slow their boards on really steep hills. Special gloves incorporating a hockey-puck-like friction pad velcroed to the palm may be worn, which assists in both balance and braking, allowing one hand to be dragged on the ground. A lot of longbarders just make their own gloves, from sections of sliced-up cutting board epoxied to the palm and fingers of work gloves. On narrow, terribly steep hills (such as in San Francisco, for example), there's not enough room to carve back and forth to keep one's speed down, and "bombing" (dashing downhill) similarly could result in an accident or uncontrollably high speed, and so sliding was invented by a California surfer. sliding is a difficult and advanced method of slowing a board, though. While learning the slide, full pads and a helmet are a must. During more ordinary city commuting, the easiest (and first) braking skill one learns is simply to drag the toe or heel of one's rear foot on the ground. The trucks (swivelling axles) of a longboard turn far more freely than that of a freestyle board.

paragraphs: One good way to learn how to ride a longboard is to find a roomy, smooth flat area, a plaza or parking lot, say, and to just cruise around. Once the longboarder is feeling good and loose, warmed-up, then he should take that rear foot been pushing with, and try coasting without placing it back on the rear of the deck. Just coast, and notice how he actually can steer the board with one foot. Notice, too, that one can go much faster if one keeps his body's weight balanced above the foot that remains on the board. By pumping with the arms and pushing only with the ball of the driving foot, one go much faster (and prevent ankle injuries). If one finds himself slamming his driving foot down on the pavement, he will probably be in need of a rest. Now he is ready to carve. Carving is an action in which the rider leans back and forth slowing them down.

paragraphs: most longboarders go down mountains and hills. unlike skateboarding, longboarding aren't to good for tricks all though one can still do them.


title: Graffiti

paragraphs: Graffiti is marks, scratching or drawings made on a surface on a public place. It is often created with paint or spray paint (paint that is sprayed from a can). A single mark could be called a graffito but the word graffiti is usually used, meaning that there is more than 1 mark.

paragraphs: Graffiti can take the form of art, drawings or words. When done without a property owner's permission it is considered vandalism. Sometimes it is just a person's name or a rude word. Sometimes it is a public political protest because Graffiti is illegal without permission.

paragraphs: Graffiti has been found in very old cities. For example, in the Roman Empire, people wrote messages and drew caricatures on walls. Graffiti is also found in many places. Some people do murals of graffiti rather than just writing one mark in a location. It was used for good instead of vandalism. Probably the simplest graffiti is when a person cuts (or carves) the name of a lover on a tree with a knife.

paragraphs: Today, many graffiti are very complicated mixtures of writing and pictures. They are sometimes made by gangs and applied with spray-paint to buildings, bridges, street signs, and other areas. These are often signed with a "tag" (in graffiti slang, a signature), which is a shape special.

paragraphs: Graffiti can be thought of as a part of hip hop or street protest. It is often but not always illegal. Some cities have small areas where graffiti can be made. Sometimes graffiti are very beautiful. Some people consider graffiti as not only something bad, but something good, like art. Some people pay graffiti artists to do graffiti on their buildings. In the 1980s, some graffiti artists like Keith Haring became very famous.

paragraphs: Modern graffiti was made famous in New York City in the early 1970s by the children of the working class. They called it "writing," and called themselves "writers." In a 1971 New York Times article, the term "graffiti" was first used to refer to the new urban art explosion that was becoming popular in New York City. This period of the early 1970s is known as the "Original School." Later in the 1980s, the next generation of graffiti artists is known as "Old School."


title: Appellation d'origine contrôlée

paragraphs: Appellation d'origine controlée (AOC, "controlled designation of origin") is a French phrase which shows that a product comes from a certain area.

paragraphs: Some products must come from a certain area and be made in a certain way in order to have the name of the product. The most famous example is champagne, which must be fermented in the bottle and be made in the Champagne region of France.

paragraphs: The French government set up the "Institut national des appellations d'origine et de la qualité" (INAO, "National institute of controlled designation of origin") in 1935 to oversee the system. Although usually linked with wines, the start of the system of protecting the name of goods started in the 15th century when the French parliament defined what could be called Roquefort cheese.

paragraphs: AOCs are most often found in connection with:


title: Distillation

paragraphs: Distillation is a process where a mixture made of two or more liquids (called "components") with different boiling points can be separated from each other. The mixture is heated until one of the components boils (turns to a vapor). The vapor is then fed into a condenser, which cools the vapor and changes it back into a liquid that is called "distillate". What remains in the original container is called the "residue". This is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction. Fractional distillation (using a distillation column with more than two outlets) can be used to improve the separation. An oil refinery uses fractional distillation to purify crude oil, separating several different liquids for different uses.

paragraphs: This has been used for a long time, to distill alcohol and produce alcoholic drinks. Distillation is a commonly used operation in many industries.

paragraphs: Distillation can be done anywhere, whether it's in a house or a laboratory, but in most countries it is illegal to distill alcohol without a license. Illegally distilled alcoholic drinks are in some places called "moonshine".

paragraphs: Distillation is also the main way of desalination of water. In this case the salt is a solid that is in solution with the water. In alcohol distillation or petroleum distillation, the things to be separated from their solution are two or more distillation liquids.


title: Lawyer

paragraphs: A lawyer (also called an "advocate", "attorney", "barrister", "counsel", "counsellor", or "solicitor") is someone who practices law. A lawyer has earned a degree in law, and has a license to practice law in a particular area.

paragraphs: If people have any problem regarding the law, they can contact a lawyer for advice. A legal problem is referred to as a case. A person can hire a lawyer to start a case against someone else, or to help with a case that has been started against them. If the case goes to court, the lawyer will represent their client in court. The lawyer will use their knowledge of the law to convince the court that the client is on the right side of the argument. Lawyers also help people "settle out of court," which means that both sides of the argument agree to resolve the dispute ahead of time so that they will not have to go to trial.

paragraphs: When a person is accused of a crime, the person has a defense lawyer to try to show they have not committed a crime. The lawyer arguing that they did do the crime is called the "prosecutor".

paragraphs: Lawyers also prepare legal documents for their clients. Examples: buying or selling property or making a will (testament). Certain lawyers (called "commissioners of oaths" in England) can take legally binding witness statements which can be presented to the court.

paragraphs: Lawyers work in different settings. Some work by themselves, while some work in law firms. Some lawyers work for hospitals and private companies. Lawyers who work for private companies are usually called in-house counsel.

paragraphs: Lawyers generally charge a fee for the work that they do, but sometimes advice is offered freely, which is called "pro bono," meaning "for the public good." In many countries, if a person is accused of a crime and unable to pay for a lawyer, the government will pay a lawyer to represent them using tax money.

paragraphs: [SEE TALK PAGE. This page has uncorrected misinformation on it from 10 years ago]


title: Loreto Region

paragraphs: Loreto is Peru's most northern region. Covering almost one-third of Peru's territory, Loreto is the nation's biggest region. It is also one of the least populated ones, because of its remote location in the Amazon rainforest. Its capital is the city of Iquitos.

paragraphs: The region is divided into eight provinces ("provincias", singular: "provincia"), which are composed of 53 districts ("distritos", singular: "distrito"). The provinces, with their capitals in parenthesis, are:


title: Iquitos

paragraphs: Iquitos is the capital city of the Loreto Region in northern Peru. It is on the banks of the Amazon River. Iquitos is the biggest city in the rain forest of Peru, with about 400,000 residents. It is a major port on the Amazon.

paragraphs: Excluding towns on islands, Iquitos is thought to be the largest city in the world that can not be reached by road. One can only get to Iquitos by boat, or by airplane. It is very remote, in the middle of the Amazon rainforest.

paragraphs: Iquitos was founded in 1747 by Jesuit José Bahamonde. Originally it was the home of the Iquito native tribe. About 100 years ago, Iquitos was a very rich town, because of the rubber industry. Today Iquitos relies mostly on tourism, wood industry and local trade.


title: Apple juice

paragraphs: Apple juice is the juice from apples. It does not have alcohol, and it tastes sweet from the natural fruit sugars. Many companies making apple juice like to say that they do not add more sugar into the drink, and there is only natural sugar.

paragraphs: The apple tree came from the same era as Elizabethan in the late 1500s and early 1600s ("Pyrus malus"), and is native to Britain. Even in the Old Saxon papers, apples and cider are mentioned a lot. The fruit is thought to have come in the Caucasus, a place with many mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas.

paragraphs: The Lady apple, a kind of apple still grown today, is believed to be one of the oldest apple trees on record.

paragraphs: Apple juice is 88% water and 11% carbohydrates (including 9% sugars), with little amounts of protein or fat.

paragraphs: In both facts and stories, the apple appears to be very healthy. There are two types of apple juice. One is the clear apple juice, and the other is the cloudy apple juice. Pectin and starch are taken out during the production process to produce clear apple juice. Cloudy apple juice is cloudy because of evenly-distributed small pulp suspensions in the juice concentrate.

paragraphs: Also, in apple juice, the vitamin C, and other vitamins are contained inside, as well as mineral nutrients such as boron which helps build strong bones. Research from the University of Massachusetts Lowell shows that apple juice also increases acetylcholine in the brain, which gets you increased memory.

paragraphs: Apples can also be a main source of fiber, and is a powerful cleanser and an important necessity for the health of your body.

paragraphs: The compounds in apple juice called phytonutrients delay the break down of LDL or cholesterol. In history, the phrase from Benjamin Franklin "an apple a day keeps the doctor away" is very famous. New research is proving this phrase to be a fact. Researchers at UC Davis School of Medicine have recently found out that drinking apple juice seems to slow down the process that may lead to heart disease.

paragraphs: Researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands had studied and found that smokers who ate many fruits and vegetables, especially apples, had reduced their risk of getting the common diseases smokers would get. The risk was reduced by 50%.

paragraphs: For older people, drinking fruit juices should begin with apples, especially if they are suffering from arthritis and rheumatism. This is because apples carry a substantial amount of potassium. Because of this, eating apples or apple juice has been known to help. Drinking apple juice also removes some toxins from the liver and kidneys and is low in calories. Over time, this can reduce the chances of having liver or kidney disease.

paragraphs: Apple juice can be used to make cider and calvados. Some types of cider and all types of Calvados contain alcohol.

paragraphs: Addressed as one of the most popular fruits in the world, the apple is cultivated in around 7,500 different kinds in shape, color, texture, firmness, crispness, acidity, juiciness, sweetness, nutrition, and harvesting time.

paragraphs: Fresh apple juice needs refrigeration. Closed bottles of canned apple juice can be kept in a dark, cool place, such as a pantry or cupboard. It slows down the spoiling of the product. The way it looks, feels, or tastes could change over time.

paragraphs: Once the juice container is opened. Or if it was not closed and shipped without needing freezing by the producer, it must be closed again tightly and frozen to avoid contamination from microorganisms such as bacteria.


title: Calvados (drink)

paragraphs: Calvados is an alcoholic drink. It is made from distilling cider in Normandy, one of the oldest Provinces of France (created in 911). It got its name from the place called Calvados which is famous for making it (sometimes called 'le Pays d'Auge'). It is also made in the other places in Normandy including la Manche (Cotentin) and l'Orne (Domfront).

paragraphs: The way to make Calvados is to distil cider twice. The first time it is done, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. The second time it is done, the amount of alcohol is increased to about 40%.

paragraphs: Since 1942, the Calvados has its own "Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC)", which means it is from one place. The rules are:

paragraphs: The Calvados can be served either dry or with ice, as a cocktail, an aperitif, or as a digestif. It goes very well with cheese, chocolate, dessert or ice-cream. You can also eat your crepes with calvados.

paragraphs: The Calvados can also be added to coffee. People usually do this at the end of dinner.


title: Still

paragraphs: A still is a tool used to clean a liquid. It does this by first boiling the liquid and turning it into a gas. This gas is then cooled, changing it back into liquid. Stills get their name from the word di"still"ation. Distillation is the process of boiling and cooling a liquid to purify it. Stills are most often used to create alcohol, but they can also be used with any liquid. Some examples are medicines and perfumes.

paragraphs: There are two main types of stills: pot stills and reflux stills. In a pot still, the pot (like a large kettle) holding the liquid is heated. The hot gas is cooled in a simple neck, or tube, and collected. Pot stills are used for making alcohol like whisky. A reflux still is much more complex. It works with a continual flow of liquid going into the boiler, and a continual flow of distilled liquid coming out. The distilled liquid can also be put through the process several times, which is why it is called a reflux still. This allows for a more pure product, and the person working the still can control the level of purity. Reflux stills are used in the chemical and petroleum industries.


title: Ravioli

paragraphs: Ravioli is a type of Italian food pasta dish. It is usually two layers of pasta dough with a filling between the two layers. There are many different recipes, with different kinds of fillings. The most common fillings are meat, vegetables or blackboard cheese. People eat this kind of food with a sauce or melted butter.


title: The Bridge on the River Kwai

paragraphs: The Bridge on the River Kwai is a British 1957 movie from Columbia Pictures, based on Pierre Boulle's 1952 book "The Bridge over the River Kwai" (). The movie was mainly filmed in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and also in England.

paragraphs: In 1941 the Japanese Army invaded Thailand. They built a railway to link Bangkok to Rangoon. Thousands of Asian workers and POWs (prisoners of war) died while working on the project. Part of this project was building bridges over Thailand's Kwai Yai, at a place named Tamarkan, which is near a town named Kanchanaburi.

paragraphs: The deaths of the Asian workers and the prisoners were real events, but most of the book and the movie are not true. The British soldiers were slaves; they did not help the Japanese. Two bridges were built; one was made of wood, one was made of concrete and steel. Both bridges stood for two years and were destroyed by bombers in 1945.

paragraphs: In the movie the bridge is destroyed by commandos. A real train rode over the bridge as it blew up. (This can be compared to a scene in the 1927 movie, "The General", which starred Buster Keaton.)

paragraphs: The movie is best known for the "Colonel Bogey March", the song that is whistled by the POWs. It is also known as the "River Kwai March".

paragraphs: The movie won seven Academy Awards, one for Best Picture. It also won the BAFTA Award for Best British Screenplay.


title: Tannin

paragraphs: Tannins are bitter-tasting chemical compounds that bind proteins.

paragraphs: Tannins are also used in the treatment of leather, to make it more durable. Natural tannins for this purpose come from oak trees, but synthetic tannins are more used.


title: Cuisine

paragraphs: Cuisine refers to any style of cooking, including its practices, traditions and recipes. A cuisine is usually associated with a specific culture. It is mainly influenced by the ingredients that are available to that culture. Cooking methods, customs and ingredients together form meals that are unique to a particular region. When people talk about Italian cuisine, they are referring to the food that Italians are famous for. Cuisine is a French word that means "kitchen", but it originally comes from the Latin word "coquere", which means "to cook".

paragraphs: Traditionally, cuisines are shaped by a number of things. In some religious traditions, certain foods are forbidden by law (an example is in Judaism). Climate and trade affect the what ingredients are available. Climate may also affect the methods by which food is prepared. Before the exploration of Asia and America by Europeans, certain foods were not known to European cuisine. Tomatoes, maize, avocados and cacao, for example, did not enter European diets until merchants brought these ingredients back from the New World. In modern times, cuisines are becoming more and more multicultural. New cuisines continue to develop even today.


title: Hotel

paragraphs: A hotel or a guest-house is a large building with many rooms, where people can sleep when they are not at home. A motel is a hotel especially for motorists - people who drive cars - where the room door usually opens into the parking lot. Inn is sometimes used to mean a smaller hotel.

paragraphs: These places will rent a room for any number of days. They offer rooms to sleep, and want money for the service. There are also hotels where conferences are held.


title: Some Like It Hot

paragraphs: Some Like It Hot is a 1959 American comedy movie starring Marilyn Monroe, Tony Curtis, Pat O'Brien and Jack Lemmon with George Raft, and directed by Billy Wilder. It is seen by some as a remake of a German movie from 1951, called "Fanfaren der Liebe". (Michael Logan wrote the story for this version as well as the 1959 movie.)

paragraphs: "Some Like It Hot" is set in 1929. It has been remade for the stage twice (in 1972 and 2002).

paragraphs: The movie was ranked at Number One on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list and fourteen on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.


title: Yale University

paragraphs: Yale University is a private university in New Haven, Connecticut. It is in the Ivy League and considered by many people to be one of the best universities in the world. Yale is the third oldest university in the United States.

paragraphs: Yale was founded in 1701 in a town near New Haven by a group of church ministers. At first it was called "The Collegiate School" and was created to teach male church ministers in Connecticut. When Elihu Yale, a businessman with the East India Company, gave the school money and books in 1718, the school changed its name to Yale College. It moved into the center of New Haven in the same year. About fifty years later, the school began to teach other subjects like science and history. As the school became more liberal, it became one of the first American schools where extracurricular student groups were created, especially singing groups, sports teams, and student publications like the Yale Daily News.

paragraphs: In the beginning, Yale only taught undergraduate students. Over time, it created graduate schools for medicine, nursing, environmental science, law, music, drama, business, and other professions. In 1869, Yale became the first school in the United States to offer a PhD. Because it had grown to have many types of schools, degrees, and courses, Yale changed its name to Yale University in 1887. The undergraduate college began to accept women as students in 1969.

paragraphs: Yale has one of the largest libraries in the United States, with 19 library buildings and over 15 million books. The school's main library building, Sterling Memorial Library, is built to look like a cathedral. The Beinecke Library has one of the world's largest collections of rare books and old manuscripts.

paragraphs: The school's campus is known for its Gothic Revival architecture, which was built to look like older English universities like Oxford and Cambridge. On its main campus, Yale has two art museums, a natural history museum, and many theaters. The university also has a golf course near campus and owns five forests in New England.

paragraphs: Fifty-two Nobel Prize winners have been students or professors at Yale, and five U.S. presidents have graduated from Yale, including George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Other famous alumni include politicians Hilary Clinton and John Kerry, actors Meryl Streep and Edward Norton, inventors Eli Whitney and Samuel Morse, CNN anchors Fareed Zakaria and Anderson Cooper, FedEx founder Fred Smith and Pepsi CEO Indra Nooyi, and computer scientist Grace Hopper.

paragraphs: Yale's color is blue, and its mascot is a bulldog named "Handsome Dan." Its sports teams are called the Yale Bulldogs, and they play in the Ivy League.

paragraphs: Peter Salovey, a psychologist, is the current president of Yale.