title: Star

paragraphs: A star is a very large ball of bright glowing hot matter in space. That matter is called plasma. Stars are held together by gravity. They give out heat and light because they are very hot.

paragraphs: The amount of material in a star (its mass) is so huge that it starts a nuclear reaction going. The reaction changes hydrogen to helium and gives off heat.

paragraphs: Stars like the Sun are hot because this nuclear reaction happens inside them. The reaction is called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion makes light and heat and makes bigger chemical elements. In the Sun (but not all stars) the change which takes place is the production of helium, with minute (very small) amounts of heavier elements.

paragraphs: Stars have a lot of hydrogen. Nuclear fusion changes hydrogen into helium. Fusion makes a lot of energy. The energy makes the star very hot. The energy produced by stars moves (radiates) away from them. Much of the energy leaves as light. The rest leaves as other kinds of electromagnetic radiation.

paragraphs: When a star like the Sun gets old, it will expand in size and become a red giant star. That will happen in about a billion years' time (10 years).

paragraphs: The star nearest to Earth is the Sun. The energy from the Sun supports almost all life on Earth by providing light for plants. Plants turn the light into energy in a process called photosynthesis. The energy from the Sun also causes weather and humidity on Earth.

paragraphs: We can see other stars in the night sky when the Sun goes down. Like the Sun, they are made mostly of hydrogen and a little bit of helium plus other elements. Astronomers often compare those other stars to the Sun. For example, their mass is given in solar masses. A small star may be 0.2 solar masses, a big one 4.0 solar masses.

paragraphs: The Earth and other planets move around ("orbit") the Sun. The Sun and all things that orbit the Sun are called the Solar System. Many other stars have planets orbiting them: those planets are called exoplanets. If you were on an exoplanet, our Sun would look like a star in the sky, but you could not see the Earth because it would be too far away.

paragraphs: Proxima Centauri is the star that is closest to our Sun. It is 39.9 trillion kilometres away. This is 4.2 light years away. This means that light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach Earth.

paragraphs: Astronomers think there is a very large number of stars in the Universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (10) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth). That is, 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars, which is many times more than the few hundred billion stars in the Milky Way (our galaxy).

paragraphs: Most stars are very old. They are usually thought to be between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. The oldest stars are 13.7 billion years old. That is as old as the Universe. Some young stars are only a few million years old. Young stars are mostly brighter than old ones.

paragraphs: Stars are different sizes. The smallest stars are neutron stars, which are actually dead stars. They are no bigger than a city. A neutron star has a large amount of mass in a very small space.

paragraphs: Hypergiant stars are the largest stars in the Universe. They have a diameter over 1,500 times bigger than the Sun. If the Sun was a hypergiant star, it would reach out to as far as Jupiter.

paragraphs: The star Betelgeuse is a red supergiant star. Although these stars are very large, they also have low density.

paragraphs: Some stars look brighter than other stars. This difference is measured in terms of apparent magnitude. There are two reasons why stars have different apparent magnitude. If a star is very close to us it will appear much brighter. This is just like a candle. A candle that is close to us appears brighter. The other reason a star can appear brighter is that it is hotter than another cooler star.

paragraphs: Stars give off light but also give off a solar wind and neutrinos. These are very small particles of matter.

paragraphs: Stars are made of mass and mass makes gravity. Gravity makes planets orbit stars. This is why the Earth orbits the Sun. The gravity of two stars can make them go around each other. Stars that orbit each other are called binary stars. Scientists think there are many binary stars. There are even groups of three or more stars that orbit each other. Proxima Centauri is a small star that orbits other stars.

paragraphs: Stars are not spread evenly across all of space. They are grouped into galaxies. A galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars.

paragraphs: Stars have been important to people all over the world for all of history. Stars have been part of religious practices. Long ago, people believed that stars could never die.

paragraphs: Astronomers organized stars into groups called constellations. They used the constellations to help them see the motion of the planets and to guess the position of the Sun. The motion of the Sun and the stars was used to make calendars. The calendars were used by farmers to decide when to plant crops and when to harvest them.

paragraphs: Stars are made in nebulae. These are areas that have more gas than normal space. The gas in a nebula is pulled together by gravity. The Orion nebula is an example of a place where gas is coming together to form stars.

paragraphs: Stars spend most of their lives combining (fusing) hydrogen with hydrogen to make energy. When hydrogen is fused it makes helium and it makes a lot of energy. To fuse hydrogen into helium it must be very hot and the pressure must be very high. Fusion happens at the center of stars, called "the core".

paragraphs: The smallest stars (red dwarfs) fuse their hydrogen slowly and live for 100 billion years. Red dwarfs live longer than any other type of star. At the end of their lives, they become dimmer and dimmer. Red dwarfs do not explode.

paragraphs: When very heavy stars die, they explode. This explosion is called a supernova. When a supernova happens in a nebula, the explosion pushes the gas in the nebula together. This makes the gas in the nebula very thick (dense). Gravity and exploding stars both help to bring the gas together to make new stars in nebulas.

paragraphs: Most stars use up the hydrogen at their core. When they do, their core becomes smaller and becomes hotter. It becomes so hot it pushes away the outer part of the star. The outer part expands and it makes a red giant star. Astro-physicists think that in about 5 billion years, the Sun will be a red giant. Our Sun will be so large it will eat the Earth. After our Sun stops using hydrogen to make energy, it will use helium in its very hot core. It will be hotter than when it was fusing hydrogen. Heavy stars will also make elements heavier than helium. As a star makes heavier and heavier elements, it makes less and less energy. Iron is a heavy element made in heavy stars.

paragraphs: Our star is an average star. Average stars will push away their outer gases. The gas it pushes away makes a cloud called a planetary nebula. The core part of the star will remain. It will be a ball as big as the Earth and called a white dwarf. It will fade into a black dwarf over a very long time.

paragraphs: Later in large stars, heavier elements are made by fusion. Finally the star makes a supernova explosion. Most things happen in the universe so slowly we do not notice. But supernova explosions happen in only 100 seconds. When a supernova explodes its flash is as bright as a 100 billion stars. The dying star is so bright it can be seen during the day. Supernova means "new star" because people used to think it was the beginning of a new star. Today we know that a supernova is the death of an old star. The gas of the star is pushed away by the explosion. It forms a giant cloud of gas called a planetary nebula. The crab nebula is a good example. All that remains is a neutron star. If the star was very heavy, the star will make a black hole. Gravity in a black hole is extremely strong. It is so strong that even light cannot escape from a black hole.

paragraphs: The heaviest elements are made in the explosion of a supernova. After billions of years of floating in space, the gas and dust come together to make new stars and new planets. Much of the gas and dust in space comes from supernovae. Our Sun, the Earth, and all living things are made from star dust.

paragraphs: Astronomers have known for centuries that stars have different colors. When looking at an electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet waves are the shortest, and infrared are the longest. The visible spectrum has wavelengths between these two extremes.

paragraphs: Modern instruments can measure very precisely the color of a star. This allows astronomers to determine that star's temperature, because a hotter star's black-body radiation has shorter wavelengths. The hottest stars are blue and violet, then white, then yellow, and the coolest are red. Knowing the color and absolute magnitude, astronomers can place the star on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, and estimate its habitable zone and other facts about it.

paragraphs: For example, our Sun is white, and the Earth is the perfect distance away for life. If our Sun was a hotter, blue star, however, Earth would have to be much farther away or else it would be too hot to have water and sustain life.


title: Drunk driving

paragraphs: Drunk driving (Drink driving in the UK and Australia) is the act of driving a motor vehicle (car, truck, etc.) while under the effects of alcohol. Drunk driving is illegal in most areas of the world. In some places, driving a motorless vehicle such as a bicycle while drunk is also illegal.

paragraphs: Most "areas that make laws" ("jurisdictions") started with DWI (driving while intoxicated) laws, banning just alcohol. Later, most changed them to DUI (driving under the influence) laws, adding other drugs to those banned while driving. The most common blood alcohol content (BAC) limit in the United States is 0.08% for the legal meaning of drunk. Only three states still use the more lax, original standard of 0.10%. Many jurisdictions add extra penalties (more jail time and/or a longer DUI program) in cases where the driver's BAC is over 0.20%.

paragraphs: The first place in the United States to adopt laws against drunk driving was the state of New York in 1910, with California (1911) and others doing the same later. Early laws simply banned driving while drunk, with no mention of what BAC was banned (which means how drunk the person is). The state of Georgia was one of the last states to make laws against drunk driving. One of the years with the most alcohol related crashes was 1982. The year 1982 had 26,173 alcohol related deaths due to drunk driving.

paragraphs: In the US, most of the laws were greatly tightened in the early 1980s, largely due to pressure from groups like Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) and Young Adults Educating Responsible Drinking.


title: Creative Commons

paragraphs: The Creative Commons is a non-profit organisation that tries to make creative work available for others to use and share.

paragraphs: Their website allows copyright holders to give some of their rights to any other people. They still keep some other rights. They do this through licenses and contracts. Some of these make the work public domain or open content. They do this because copyright law can stop people sharing information.

paragraphs: The project has different free licenses. A person who has copyright can choose which one they want to use when they publish their work. They also provide RDF/XML metadata. These say what the licenses are and make it easier to automatically sort out and find work that has these licenses. They also provide a 'Founder's Copyright' contract. This aims to give the same effects as the original US Copyright did.

paragraphs: Creative Commons was officially started in 2001.

paragraphs: Lawrence Lessig is the founder and chairman of Creative Commons. Lessig started it as a way of reaching the goals of his Supreme Court case, Eldred v. Ashcroft.

paragraphs: The "iCommons" (International Commons) is one of the Creative Commons projects. They improve the wording of the licenses and make them usable in other countries. The first ones dealt with US law only. As of February 4, 2004, Canada, the People's Republic of China, Finland, France, Italy, Japan, the Republic of China (Taiwan), the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom have joined this project.

paragraphs: Projects that use Creative Commons licenses include LOCA Records, Magnatune, Opsound, Opcopy, Wikitravel, iRATE radio and the fiction of Cory Doctorow.


title: HTML

paragraphs: Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a markup language for creating a webpage. Webpages are usually viewed in a web browser. They can include writing, links, pictures, and even sound and video. HTML is used to mark and describe each of these kinds of content so the web browser can display them correctly. HTML also adds meta information to a webpage. Meta information is usually not shown by web browsers and is data "about" the web page, e.g., the name of the person who created the page. Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is used to style HTML elements while JavaScript is used for website behavior and also changing the HTML and CSS.

paragraphs: HTML was made by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). There are several versions of HTML. As of September 2018, the current standard of HTML is dubbed HTML 5 and is specifically at version 5.2.

paragraphs: HTML uses "elements" to let the browser know how a webpage is made of. Elements are shown as "tags" in the code, written with angle brackets: . Tags "usually" come in pairs: an opening tag defines the start of a block of content and a closing tag defines the end of that block of content. There are many different kinds of tags, and each one has a different purpose. See Basic HTML Tags below for tag examples.

paragraphs: Some tags only work in certain browsers. For example, the codice_1 tag, which is used to make something appear when the person presses the right button of the mouse, only works on the Mozilla Firefox browser. Other browsers simply ignore this tag and display the writing normally. Many web page creators avoid using these "non-standard" tags because they want their pages to look the same with all browsers.

paragraphs: Here is an example page in HTML with "Hello world!".

paragraphs: The text between and describes the web page, and the text between and is the page content. defines the browser page title.

paragraphs: Making a web page is easy.All you need to remember is the tags and the order to make a web page.

paragraphs: First, you need to find a place to type in the HTML Tags (I recommend notepad) and type down the tags.

paragraphs: Here is another example of a HTML Tag page.

paragraphs: Once your done, save in this in this format: helloworld.htm

paragraphs: And you're done! Once you save it in your computer, if you press it, it will send you to your web page in google!


title: Leg

paragraphs: A leg is something used to support things; to hold them up. Birds and humans have two legs. Some objects, for example tables and chairs, also have legs to hold them up.

paragraphs: Animals normally have 2 or 4 legs (vertebrates, which are animals with a backbone), or 6, 8, or 12 (arthropods, for example insects and spiders). Centipedes and millipedes have a lot more legs, but not exactly a hundred or a thousand as their names make people who do not know them think. Humans have 2 legs, complete with feet.

paragraphs: "Biped" is an animal with two legs and "quadruped" is an animal with four legs.

paragraphs: People also use the word "leg" in idioms, for example:


title: Economic sector

paragraphs: Economic sectors are large groups of the economy, grouped according to their place in the production chain, by their kind of work (product or service) or ownership.

paragraphs: One method is by the three-sector hypothesis:


title: Yellow

paragraphs: Yellow is a color. It is the color of the color of amber.


title: Plymouth Argyle F.C.

paragraphs: Plymouth Argyle Football Club, is an English football club. The club is nicknamed "The Pilgrims". The team usually plays in green, white and black.

paragraphs: The club is called "The Pilgrims" because the people that left Plymouth for America were the first people to be called Pilgrims. The ship on the badge is called The Mayflower. The first pilgrims travelled on the Mayflower.

paragraphs: The club's stadium is called Home Park. It was ruined by German aeroplanes in World War II. Home Park was repaired after the war. In 2001 and 2002, Home Park was made into a better stadium. Some parts of the stadium were not used while the work was being done. The stadium is now fully open.

paragraphs: The club was made in 1886, but it was called Argyle Athletic Club. The club changed its name to Plymouth Argyle Football Club in 1903.

paragraphs: Plymouth Argyle has never won a match by more than 7 goals. They have beaten Hartlepool United and Millwall 8-1. On 3 January 2004, they beat Chesterfield 7-0. The club lost 9-0 to Stoke City in 1960. Luke McCormick is a goalkeeper. He played seven games in a row for Plymouth Argyle without letting the other teams score a single goal.

paragraphs: In the 1990s, Peter Shilton, Neil Warnock, and John Gregory all managed the club.

paragraphs: The club won Division Three in 2001/02, won Division Two in 2003/04 and now plays in the newly named Championship, the second tier of English football. When the club won Division Three they scored 102 points. No other team had ever scored that many points.

paragraphs: 2003/04 is the club`s 100th season since becoming Plymouth Argyle in 1903. The club has set up many events, while the team has won many awards.

paragraphs: "A list of things that happened in the 2003/04 season:"

paragraphs: 1 Romain Larrieu Goalkeeper (on loan to Gillingham)

paragraphs: 5 Krisztián Timár Defender (on loan from Ferencvaros)

paragraphs: 6 Hasney Aljofree Defender (on loan to Oldham)

paragraphs: 16 Péter Halmosi Midfielder (on loan from Debrecen)

paragraphs: 17 Kevin Gallen Striker (on loan from QPR)

paragraphs: 25 Ryan Dickson Midfielder (on loan to Torquay)

paragraphs: 26 Scott Sinclair Midfielder (on loan from Chelsea)

paragraphs: 27 Reuben Reid Midfielder (on loan to Torquay)

paragraphs: These are the team managers of Plymouth Argyle and the dates they took over.


title: Football

paragraphs: Football is a word which could mean one of several sports. The best-known type of football is association football. This is called "soccer" in North America, South Africa, and Australia to avoid confusion with other types of football that are commonly played there.

paragraphs: The name "football" comes from the two words 'foot' and 'ball'. It is named football because the players of the game walk and often run (on their feet) while playing, as opposed to (for example) polo where the players ride horses. Football is played using a ball, also called a 'football', that is usually shaped like a sphere or an ellipsoid. The ball is often kicked with the foot, but depending on the game, it can also be hit using other parts of the body (in association football) and handling the ball is a part of some other sports known as 'football'.

paragraphs: Some elements of football have been seen in many countries, dating back to the second and third century AD in China. The modern games of both rugby football and association football comes from 19th-century England. Kicking a ball goes back to the Middle Ages. Association football spread to many other parts of Europe, and was brought to the rest of the world with colonization. Today, it is the most popular sport in the world and many people watch it on television, especially the FIFA World Cup that happens every four years.

paragraphs: Every year there is a Football Club Competition called as Champions League. All the qualified big teams take part. At the end, we have one winner who takes the prestigious UEFA trophy. All big players play for their own teams. Some big players who take part every year are Mbappe, Ronaldo, Messi, Dybala, Neymar and many more


title: Poland

paragraphs: Poland is a country in Central Europe. It is on the east of Germany (along Oder and Lusatian Neisse). The Czech Republic and Slovakia are to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania, and the Russian exclave Kaliningrad to the north. The total land area of Poland is about 312,679 km (120,728 mi), slightly larger than Oman. This makes Poland the 77th largest country in the world with over 38.5 million people. Most Polish people live in large cities, including the capital, Warsaw (Polish: "Warszawa"), Łódź, Cracow (Polish: "Kraków"), the second capital of Poland (first was Gniezno), Szczecin, Gdańsk, Wrocław and Poznań.

paragraphs: The word "Poland" was written officially for the first time in 966. In 1569, Poland formed a strong union with Lithuania called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At some point in its history, it was the largest state in Europe and became very influential. Much of the territory that now makes up Central European states used to belong to that Commonwealth. Eventually, after a slow decline, the Commonwealth collapsed in 1795. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I. In 1921, Poland defeated Soviet Russia in the Polish-Soviet War that started in 1919.

paragraphs: However, Poland lost independence again not long after the beginning of World War II, after suffering a defeat by both the USSR and Nazi Germany. More than six million people died during the war, including 3 million Jews in the Holocaust. The Polish Government in Exile, Polish forces in the West, and Polish underground fought on during the occupation. However, following the Soviet defeat of Germany in the Eastern front, Poland became a communist country within the Eastern Bloc.

paragraphs: In 1989, Poland ceased being a communist country and became a liberal democracy. Its change of government was the first in a series of events that led to the states of Eastern and Central Europe regaining their independence and the fall of the USSR in 1991. After the democratic consolidation, Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. Poland is also a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization.

paragraphs: The first sign of humans in Polish lands was 500,000 years ago. The Bronze Age started around 2400-2300 BC. The Iron Age started around 750-700 BC. At that time the Polish lands were under the influence of the Lusatian culture. About 400 BC Celtic and Germanic tribes lived there. Those people had trade contacts with the Roman Empire.

paragraphs: Over time, Slavs came to Polish lands. Some of those Slavs, now commonly referred to as Western Slavs (though in reality a diverse group of tribes with shared ethnic and cultural features), stayed there and started to create new nations. The most powerful tribe was called the Polans, who united all of the other Slavic tribes living there, and this is where the name "Poland" comes from.

paragraphs: Poland began to form into a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. In 966, Prince Mieszko I became a Christian, and so the Polish people also became Christians. The next king was Bolesław I of Poland (called Bolesław the Brave). He conquered many lands and he became the first King of Poland. Casimir I of Poland changed the Polish capital from Gniezno to Kraków. In the 12th century Poland broke into some smaller states after the death of King Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138 because of his will. Those states were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241, which slowed down the unification of the small states into the big country of Poland. This happened eighty years later, in 1320, when Władysław I became the King of the United Poland. His son Casimir III the Great reformed the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Ruthenian Dukedom. Many people emigrated to Poland, becoming a haven for emigrants . Many Jewish people also moved into Poland during that time. The Black Death, which affected many parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351, did not come to Poland.

paragraphs: After the death of the last Piast on the Polish throne, Casimir III, Louis I of Hungary and his daughter Jadwiga of Poland began their rule. She married the Lithuanian prince Jogaila. Their marriage started a new dynasty in Poland: the Jagiellon dynasty. Under the Jagiellon dynasty, Poland made an alliance with its neighbor Lithuania.

paragraphs: In the 17th century Sweden attacked almost all of Poland (this was called “the Deluge”). Many wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ended in 1699. For the next 80 years, the government and the nation were weak, making Poland dependent on Russia. Russian tsars took advantage of this by offering money to dishonest members of the Polish government, who would block new ideas and solutions. Russia, Prussia, and Austria broke Poland into three pieces in 1772, 1793 and 1795, which dissolved the country. Before the second split, a Constitution called "The Constitution of 3 May" was made in 1791. The Polish people did not like the new kings, and often rebelled (two big rebellions in 1830 and 1863).

paragraphs: Napoleon made another Polish state, “the Duchy of Warsaw”, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was split again by the countries at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar.

paragraphs: During World War I all the Allies agreed to save Poland. Soon after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland became the Second Polish Republic ("II Rzeczpospolita Polska"). It got its freedom after several military conflicts; the largest was in 1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War.

paragraphs: On September 1, 1939, World War II started when Nazi Germany attacked Poland. The Soviet Union attacked Poland on September 17, 1939. Warsaw was defeated on September 28, 1939. Poland was split into two pieces, one half owned by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. More than 6 million Polish people died, and half of these people were Jewish. Most of these deaths were part of the Holocaust, in which 6 million Jews were killed. At the war's end, Poland's borders were moved west, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line. The western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland became 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometers (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced millions of Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews to move.

paragraphs: After these events Poland gradually became a communist country. It was supposedly an independent country. But in reality the new government was appointed by Joseph Stalin. It was also under the control of the Soviet Union. The country was then renamed the People's Republic of Poland. There are many Poles in the neighboring countries Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania (these three countries were part of the Soviet Union until 1991), as well as in other countries. The most Poles outside of Poland are in the United States, especially in Chicago. Germany and the United Kingdom are also home to a large Polish diaspora. The most recent mass emigration of Poles to western countries began after 1989.

paragraphs: In 1989 Solidarity - a trade union led by Lech Wałęsa - helped defeat the communist government in Poland. Even before that event, Lech Wałęsa was given a Nobel Prize for leading the first non-communist trade union fighting for democracy in the Communist Block. When Communism ended in Poland there were many improvements in human rights, such as freedom of speech, democracy, etc. In 1991 Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined NATO in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Polish voters then voted to join the European Union in a vote in June 2003. The country joined the EU on May 1, 2004.

paragraphs: Currently, the Prime Minister is Mateusz Morawiecki. On 10 April 2010 the President Lech Kaczyński died in a government plane crash in Smolensk in Russia. The president is elected directly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and confirmed by the "Sejm". The Sejm is the lower chamber of Parliament legislature for the country. It has 460 deputies elected every four years.

paragraphs: Poland's territory is a plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Carpathian Mountains in the south. Within that plain, the land varies from east to west.

paragraphs: The Polish Baltic coast is mostly smooth but has natural harbors in the Gdańsk-Gdynia region and Szczecin in the far northwest. This coast has several spits, dunes and coastal lakes. Coast lakes are former bays that have been cut off from the sea. These areas are sometimes called lagoons. Szczecin Lagoon is on the western border with Germany. The Vistula Lagoon is on the eastern border with Kaliningrad, province of Russia. The longest river in Poland, the Vistula river, empties into the Vistula Lagoon and also directly into the Baltic Sea.

paragraphs: The northeastern region is densely wooded, sparsely populated and lacks agricultural and industrial resources. The geographical region has four hilly districts of moraines and lakes created by moraines. These formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four districts and covers much of northeastern Poland.

paragraphs: Poland has many lakes. In Europe only Finland has more lakes. The largest lakes are Śniardwy and Mamry. In addition to the lake districts in the north, there are also many mountain lakes in the Tatras mountains.

paragraphs: South of the northeastern region is the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by broad ice age river valleys. Silesia region has many resources and people. Coal is abundant. Lower Silesia has large copper mining. Masovian Plain is in central Poland. It is in the valleys of three large rivers: Vistula, Bug and Narew.

paragraphs: Further south is the Polish mountain region. These mountains include the Sudetes and the Carpathian Mountains. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra mountains which is along Poland’s southern border. The tallest mountain in Poland, Rysy at 2,503 m (8,210 ft), is in the High Tatras.

paragraphs: Poland is made of sixteen regions known as voivodeships ("województwa", singular - "województwo"). They are basically created from the country's historical regions, whereas those of the past two decades (till 1998) had been focused on and named for separate cities. The new units range in areas from under 10,000 km (Opole Voivodeship) to over 35,000 km (Masovian Voivodeship). Voivodeships are controlled by voivod governments, and their legislatures are called voivodeship sejmiks.

paragraphs: The sixteen voivodeships that make up Poland are further divided into "powiaty" (singular "powiat"), second-level units of administration, which are about the same as to a county, district or prefecture in other countries.

paragraphs: Almost no Polish literature remains before Christianisation in the 10th century. Polish literature was written in the Latin language during the Middle Ages. The Polish language was accepted as equal to Latin after the Renaissance for literature.

paragraphs: Jan Kochanowski was a leading poet of European Renaissance literature in the 16th century. Other great Polish poets include Adam Mickiewicz who wrote "Pan Tadeusz" epic in 1834.

paragraphs: Several Polish novelists have won the Nobel prize. Henryk Sienkiewicz won in 19 dramatized versions of famous events in Polish history. Władysław Reymont won a Nobel prize in 1924. He wrote the novel Chłopi. Two polish poets won Nobel prize as well. One is Wisława Szymborska (1996) and the second Czesław Miłosz (1980).

paragraphs: Stanisław Lem is a famous science fiction author in the modern era. His "Solaris" novel was made twice into a feature film.

paragraphs: In the past, Poland was inhabited by people from different nations and of different religions (mainly Catholics, Orthodox and Judaism). This changed after 1939, because of the Nazi Holocaust which killed many Polish Jews. After World War II, the country was changed into a communist country, by the Warsaw Pact which included most central European countries and Russia Russia.

paragraphs: Today 38,038,000 people live in Poland (2011). In 2002 96.74% of the population call themselves Polish, while 471,500 people (1.23%) claimed another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. Nationalities, or ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language is part of the West Slavic section of the Slavic languages. It is also the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken.

paragraphs: In the past few years, Poland's population has gone down because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a very small rise on the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, many Polish people have moved to work in Western European countries like the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Some organizations state people have left because of high unemployment (10.5%) and better opportunities for work somewhere else. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to about 300,000 people and estimates predict about 65,000 Polish people living in the Republic of Ireland. However, in recent years strong growth of Polish economy and increasing value of Polish currency (PLN) makes many Polish immigrants to go back home. In 2007, the number of people leaving the country was lower than people who are coming back. Poland became an attractive place to work for people from other countries (mainly Ukraine).

paragraphs: A Polish minority is still present in neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries. The largest number of ethnic Poles outside of the country can be found in the United States.

paragraphs: The lists below show the population count of Poland's largest cities based on 2005 estimates.


title: England

paragraphs: England is a country in Europe. It is a country with over sixty cities in it. It is in a union with Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. All four countries are in the British Isles and are part of the United Kingdom (UK).

paragraphs: Over 55 million people live in England (2015 estimate). This is 84% of the population of the UK. The capital city of England is London, which is also the biggest city in the country. Other large cities in England are Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds.

paragraphs: The English flag is a red cross on a white background. This cross is the cross of Saint George, who is the patron saint of England. Some other symbols used for England are a red rose and three lions.

paragraphs: England is the largest part of the island of Great Britain, and it is also the largest constituent country of the United Kingdom. Scotland and Wales are also part of Great Britain (and the UK), Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. To the east and south, and part of the west, England is bordered by sea. France is to the south, separated by the English Channel. The Channel Tunnel, (Chunnel) under the English Channel, connects England to northern France (and the rest of mainland Europe). Ireland is a large island to the west, divided into Northern Ireland which is part of the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland.

paragraphs: London is the largest city and the capital. The longest river in England is the River Severn. Other large rivers are the Thames (which runs through London), the Trent and the Humber.

paragraphs: England was named after a Germanic tribe called the "Angles", who settled in Central, Northern, and Eastern England in the 5th and 6th centuries. A related tribe called the "Saxons" settled in the south of England. That is why that period of English history is called "Anglo-Saxon". For the majority of this time, England did not exist as a united country. The Anglo-Saxons lived in many small kingdoms, which slowly united. The later countries of England and Wales were formed from the earlier Roman Britain.

paragraphs: The English kingdoms fought both the Scots,who were also uniting into one kingdom, and Danish invaders, who formed their own country in the East and North. Many villages and towns in this area (particularly in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire) have Danish names, and use some Danish-based words. At one time Wessex (in the West of England) was the only English kingdom left. After many battles, King Alfred the Great of Wessex became king of the whole of England, and the old kingdoms (Mercia, Northumbria, etc.) just became provinces, called "Earldoms" governed by an "Earl". By 927 Alfred's grandson Athelstan was the king of all of England not controlled by the Danes.

paragraphs: War with the Danes continued and from 1016 to 1042, the king of Denmark (Knut or Canute,who died in 1035,and then his sons) ruled England.

paragraphs: When King Edward the Confessor died, Harold Godwinson (the Earl of Wessex) became king. William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy (today part of northern France), said that Harold had promised to make William the king. He invaded England and fought King Harold at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. William won, and became king of England.

paragraphs: The kings of England spoke French for the next 300 years. England took over the country of Wales in the 13th century. There were many wars, often against France and Scotland.

paragraphs: For several centuries the religion of England was Roman Catholicism. The bishops (church leaders) of England and all their churches obeyed the Pope and the church in Rome, Italy. During the Protestant Reformation many did not agree with this. In the 1530s, the Pope told King Henry VIII that he could not divorce his wife. King Henry VIII created the Church of England (a "Protestant" church) partly so that he could divorce his wife. He made Protestantism the official church in England. For the next 200 years, there was struggle over whether the King (or Queen) of England should be "Roman Catholic" or "Protestant".

paragraphs: Queen Elizabeth I was Henry's second daughter. She was a powerful queen who ruled for more than 40 years. When Queen Elizabeth I died, she had no children, and in 1603 James VI of Scotland (the son of Mary, Queen of Scots) became King James I of England. He called his two countries "Great Britain", but they were still separate countries with their own parliaments and laws, even though they were in personal union. They shared the same monarch.

paragraphs: James' son, Charles I and the English Parliament fought each other in the English Civil War (Scotland and Ireland were involved as well, but the story is complicated!). Oliver Cromwell became leader of the Parliamentary Army (the "Roundheads") and defeated the Royalist Army (the "Cavaliers"). King Charles was beheaded in 1649 and Oliver Cromwell became dictator ("Lord Protector"). When Cromwell died, his son Richard was not strong enough to rule, and Charles II, the son of Charles I, was invited to come to England and be king in 1660.

paragraphs: When King Charles II died, his brother James II was the next king. A lot of people did not like James because he was Roman Catholic. William of Orange was invited to invade England. He was the ruler of part of the Netherlands and husband of Mary, the daughter of King James. Many people welcomed William because he was a Protestant. James left the country without a fight and Parliament asked William and Mary to become King and Queen together. When Mary II of England died, William ruled alone. Queen Mary's sister Anne became the next queen. While she was queen, England and Scotland were officially joined as one country. This was called the Acts of Union 1707. It also merged their separate parliaments. The parliament in London now included Scottish Members of Parliament ("MPs"), and was called the Parliament of Great Britain.

paragraphs: After this, the history of England becomes the history of Great Britain and United Kingdom.

paragraphs: The United Kingdom was formed in 1800, when the Irish Parliament merged with the British one. later on, many in Ireland fought against this merger. The result was the separation of the Republic of Ireland. This is not the whole island of Ireland. The rest of the island, Northern Ireland, is now the only part of Ireland still in the UK. England is the only country of UK not to have its own government, Parliament or Assembly, but is governed by Parliament of the United Kingdom. Seats in Parliament are decide by the number of electors in the various parts of the UK.

paragraphs: The English language is a West Germanic language spoken in many countries around the world. With around 380 million native speakers, it is the second most spoken language in the world, as a native language. As many as a billion people speak it as a second language. English is an influence on, and has been influenced by many different languages. Some people in England speak other languages, such as Welsh.

paragraphs: All of Great Britain has an oceanic climate. There can be a temperature difference of 5-10°c between the north and the south (the north is generally colder), and there is often snow in the north before there is in the south.

paragraphs: The prevailing wind for most of the year is from the Atlantic, to the west of England. Therefore, there is more rain on the western side of the country. The east is colder and drier than the west. The country usually has a mild climate because the Gulf Stream to the western side is warm water. The climate is warmer than it was 200 years ago, and now ice and snow are rare in the southern part of the country. Occasionally, air from the Arctic Circle comes down the eastern side of the country and the temperature can drop below 0C.

paragraphs: The English football team won the World Cup in 1966. They came close in Italy 1990, closely losing in the semi-final against West Germany on penalties. In the 2006 World Cup they got to the quarter finals, then lost to Portugal after penalty kicks. In the 2018 FIFA World Cup, they came close again only to be knocked out in the semi-final, losing 2-1 to Croatia.

paragraphs: There are many well known English people. Here are just a few of them:


title: Wales

paragraphs: Wales (;  [ˈkəm.rɨ] (come-ree) is a country on the island of Great Britain. It is one of the four countries that make up the United Kingdom. It is west of England, and east of the Irish Sea and Ireland.

paragraphs: Wales is one of the six Celtic nations. The native people of Wales, the Welsh, have their own culture and traditions. They have their own Celtic language, Welsh. Although not all Welsh people can speak Welsh, it is a real living language for about 20% of Welsh people. Nearly all Welsh people can speak English. Some of them speak only English. The Welsh language has official status in Wales.

paragraphs: Three million people live in Wales. Most of them live in the southern and eastern parts of the country. In this area is the capital and largest city of Wales, Cardiff, and the next largest city, Swansea.

paragraphs: People have lived in Wales for at least 29,000 years. The Romans first entered Wales in 43 AD, and took it around 77 AD.

paragraphs: The English words "Wales" and "Welsh" come from the old Germanic word "Walh" (plural: "Walha"). "Walh" itself came from a Celtic tribe, called the "Volcae" by the Romans. That was eventually used for the name of all Celts and later to all people who lived in the Roman empire. The Anglo-Saxons who lived in England and who spoke Old English called the people living in Wales "Wælisc" and the land itself "Wēalas". Other names that come from these origins Wallonia, Wallachia, and Vlachs.

paragraphs: In the past, the words "Wales" and "Welsh" were used to mean anything that the Anglo-Saxons associated with the Celtic Britons. That included Cornwall, Walworth, and Walton, as well as things associated with non-Germanic Europeans like walnuts.

paragraphs: The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru which is the Welsh name for Wales. These words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning "fellow-countrymen"

paragraphs: After Llywelyn ap Gruffudd died in 1282, Edward I of England finished his conquest of Wales, which made it a part of England. Owain Glyndŵr was a Welsh leader who fought against English rule in the early 15th century. However, after he was defeated by the English, the whole of Wales was taken over by England, with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542.

paragraphs: In the 16th century, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 were passed in England while Henry VIII was king there. These added Wales to England. They also said that people who spoke Welsh instead of English could not hold public office.

paragraphs: At the start of the Industrial Revolution, the mining and metal industries transformed the country from an agricultural society into an industrial country. The new jobs created from the coalfields in South Wales caused a quick rise in the number of people living in Wales. This is the reason why two-thirds of the population live in South Wales, mainly in the capital Cardiff ("Caerdydd"), as well as Swansea ("Abertawe"), Newport ("Casnewydd"), and in the nearby valleys. Now that the coal industry has become a lot smaller, Wales' economy depends mostly on the public sector, light and service industries and tourism. In 2010, the Gross Value Added of Wales was £45.5 billion - £15,145 per head, 74.0% of the average for the UK, and the lowest GVA per head in Britain.

paragraphs: It took until the 19th Century for Welsh-centric politics to return to Wales. Liberalism in Wales, which was introduced in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was overtaken by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. However, Welsh pride got stronger, and in 1925 Plaid Cymru was made, which was the first political party to campaign for Welsh independence. In 1962, the Welsh Language Society was made to encourage the Welsh language, which had nearly disappeared during the take over by England. A big change was made in 1998, when the first Government of Wales for the country since its addition to the United Kingdom under the Government of Wales Act (1998). This created an Assembly for Wales, known in Welsh as the senedd. The Senedd has responsibility for a range of laws which have been devolved from the main UK government in Westminster. This means the members of the Assembly can change certain laws in Wales to be different to the rest of the UK.

paragraphs: Wales has a coastline which is 1680 miles long, and the country itself is 20,779 kmlarge. The highest mountains in Wales are in Gwynedd, in the north-west, and include Snowdon (""), which is the highest peak in Wales at 1085 m (3,560 ft). There are three National Parks in Wales: Snowdonia (), Brecon Beacons (), and Pembrokeshire Coast ().

paragraphs: Wales is divided into 22 council areas. These areas are responsible for local government services, such as education, social work, environment and roads services.

paragraphs: "The list to the right of the map shows counties, unless they are marked *, meaning they are cities, or † for County Boroughs. Welsh-language forms are given in parentheses."

paragraphs: Welsh people are very proud of their country. The first people in Wales to call themselves 'Welsh' were the Celts. The Celts lived in Wales after the Romans left in the 5th century. The national emblems of Wales are leeks and daffodils.

paragraphs: Although Wales is very close to the rest of Great Britain, and despite most people speaking English, the country has always had a distinct culture. It is officially bilingual in English and Welsh. Over 560,000 people in Wales speak the Welsh language. In some parts of the north and west of the country, particularly in small, rural communities, the majority of people speak Welsh.

paragraphs: From the late 19th century, Wales became famous as the "land of song", and for its Eisteddfod culture festival. At many international sport events, for example the FIFA World Cup, the Rugby World Cup, and the Commonwealth Games, Wales competes on its own, as a separate country. However, at most international events, such at the Olympics, Wales competes with the rest of the Great Britain, and sometimes as the United Kingdom with Northern Ireland included. Rugby Union is strongly associated with Wales as a national sport.

paragraphs: The main road on the coast of South Wales is the M4 motorway. It links Wales to southern England, and London. It also connects the Welsh cities of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea. The A55 road is the main road along the north Wales coast, and connects Holyhead and Bangor with Wrexham and Flintshire. It also links to north-west England, including Chester. The main road between North and South Wales is the A470 road, which goes from the capital Cardiff to Llandudno.

paragraphs: Cardiff International Airport is the only large airport in Wales. It has flights to Europe, Africa and North America and is about southwest of Cardiff, in the Vale of Glamorgan. Flights between places in Wales run between Anglesey (Valley) and Cardiff, and are operated by the Isle of Man airline called Manx2 Other internal flights operate to northern England, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

paragraphs: Cardiff Central is Wales' busiest railway station. The area around Cardiff also has its own rail network. Trains from north to south Wales go through the English towns of Chester and Shrewsbury on the Welsh Marches Line. All trains in Wales are powered by diesel, as there are no electric rail lines. However, the South Wales Main Line which is used by trains going from London Paddington to Cardiff and Swansea, is currently being changed to electric.

paragraphs: Wales has four ferry ports. Regular ferries to Ireland go from Holyhead, Pembroke and Fishguard. The Swansea to Cork ferry which was stopped in 2006, but then opened again in March 2010, and closed again in 2012.


title: Scotland

paragraphs: Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: "Alba") is one of the four countries that make up the United Kingdom. It is the northern half of the island of Great Britain, along with many other islands, with about five million people living there. To the south of Scotland is England, the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Irish Sea to the south-west.

paragraphs: Scotland was once an independent country and had its own monarch, but is now in a union with England, Wales and Northern Ireland, which is called the United Kingdom. In 1603, the King of Scotland, James VI, became King of England too, because Queen Elizabeth I of England died and had no son or daughter to take her place as king or queen. In 1707, the parliament of Scotland joined with the parliament of England to become the Parliament of Great Britain.

paragraphs: Even though Scotland is not independent, throughout history it has had its own legal system, church, schools and culture. Since 1999, Scotland has had its own parliament, the Scottish Parliament. It was devolved from the British parliament, which still controls many things regarding Scotland.

paragraphs: On 18 September 2014, a referendum on independence from the United Kingdom took place. A majority (55%) voted to stay in the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: The Flag of Scotland is blue with a white diagonal cross. This is the cross of Saint Andrew, who is the patron saint of Scotland. Some other symbols used for Scotland are a thistle, and a lion rampant.

paragraphs: The capital city of Scotland is Edinburgh on the east coast, but the biggest city is Glasgow on the west coast. Other cities in Scotland are Aberdeen, Dundee, Inverness, Perth and Stirling.

paragraphs: The main part of Scotland makes up ⅓ of the size of the British Isles, and is to the northwest of mainland Europe.

paragraphs: The size of the land of Scotland is 78,772km² (30,414 sq mi). Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for 96 kilometres (60 mi) across. The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east. The island of Ireland is only 30 kilometres (20 mi) from the southern part of Kintyre, Norway is 305 kilometers (190 mi) to the east and the Faroe Islands are 270 kilometres (168 mi) to the north. Scotland's land also includes several islands, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides off the west coast and the archipelagoes of Orkney and Shetland to the north of the mainland.

paragraphs: Compared to the other areas of the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, Scotland is sparsely populated, most especially the northwestern half of it. The main geographical feature that dictates this is the Highland Boundary Fault which roughly splits the country in half from the southwest to the northeast.

paragraphs: To the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault are the more mountainous Scottish Highlands and islands, and this half of the country contains less than 5% of the total population. To the south and east of the Highland Boundary Fault is the Scottish Lowlands, which contain the vast majority (about 75%) of the Scottish population, and 3 of the 4 biggest cities (Glasgow which is 1st, Edinburgh which is 2nd, and Dundee which is 4th). Below the lowlands are the Southern Uplands which are hilly, but not as hilly at the Highlands. They are less densely populated than the lowlands, but still a lot more dense than the highlands and islands.

paragraphs: Located within the central part of the lowlands is the “Central Belt”, a rectangle of land roughly 88 kilometers (55 miles) from West to East and 48 kilometers (30 miles) North to South. About half of the population of Scotland lives within these roughly 4,530 square kilometers (or 1,750 square miles), which is a little more than 2% of the total land area of Scotland. This is the area between Scotland’s two largest cities - Glasgow, at the Central Belt’s Western end, and Edinburgh, at the Central Belt’s Eastern end. This area is geographically bound by two bays of water – the Firth of Clyde to the West and the Firth of Forth to the East. It is the most fertile Earth in Scotland, which is why it is so population-dense, compared to the rest of the country.

paragraphs: The tallest mountain in Scotland is Ben Nevis, which is also the tallest mountain in the British Isles.

paragraphs: The history of Scotland begins when humans first began to live in Scotland after the end of the last ice age. According to myths and legends, Mary of Guise's mothers haunts Linlithgow Palace her name is also The White Lady. It is believed, John Brown haunts Balmoral castle . Of the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age civilization that existed in the country, many fossils remain, but no written records were left behind. These people did not have writing.

paragraphs: The written history of Scotland begins when the Roman Empire came to Britain, and the Romans invaded what is now England and Wales, calling it Britannia. To the north was "Caledonia", land not fully owned by the Romans. Only the southern Caledonia was conquered by the Romans, who founded cities like Edinburg when created the Antonine wall. Its people were the Picts. This meant the Scottish were not affected by the Romans in the same way the English were. The sea was very important for trade reasons.

paragraphs: Because of where Scotland is in the world and its strong reliance on trade routes by sea, the nation held close links in the south and east with the Baltic countries, and through Ireland with France and Europe. Following the Acts of Union and Industrial Revolution, Scotland grew to be one of the largest commercial, intellectual and industrial states in Europe.

paragraphs: The Wars of Scottish Independence were many military campaigns fought between Scotland and England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

paragraphs: The First War (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion of Scotland by Edward Balliol and the 'Disinherited' in 1332, and ended around 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick.

paragraphs: The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most important moments in the nation's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland still was a free and independent country, which was its main aim throughout the conflict. The wars were also important for other reasons, such as the invention of the longbow as an important weapon in medieval warfare.

paragraphs: A series of deaths in the line of succession in the 1280s, followed by King Alexander III's death in 1286 left the Scottish crown in crisis. His granddaughter, Margaret, the "Maid of Norway", a four-year-old girl, was the heir.

paragraphs: Edward I of England, as Margaret's great-uncle, suggested that his son (also a child) and Margaret should marry, stabilising the Scottish line of succession. In 1290 Margaret's guardians agreed to this, but Margaret herself died in Orkney on her voyage from Norway to Scotland of sea sickness before she was made Queen, or her wedding could take place.

paragraphs: Because there was no clear heir to the throne anymore, the Scottish people decided to ask Edward I of England to choose their king. The strongest candidate was called Robert Bruce. Robert Bruce had castles all around the country, and had a private army. But Edward wanted to invade Scotland, so he chose the weaker candidate, who was John Balliol. He had the strongest claim to the throne, and became king on 30 November 1292. Robert Bruce decided to accept this decision (his grandson and namesake later took the throne as Robert I).

paragraphs: Over the next few years, Edward I kept trying to undermine both the authority of King John and the independence of Scotland. In 1295, John, on the recommendation of his chief councillors, entered into an alliance with France. This was the beginning of the Auld Alliance.

paragraphs: In 1296, Edward invaded Scotland. He removed King John from power, and put him in jail. The following year William Wallace and Andrew de Moray raised an army from the southern and northern parts of the country to fight the English. Under their joint leadership, an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as Guardian of the realm.

paragraphs: Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. Wallace escaped but resigned as Guardian of Scotland. John Comyn and Robert the Bruce were put in his place. In 1305 Wallace was captured by the English, who executed him for treason. Wallace claimed he did not commit treason as he was not loyal to England.

paragraphs: In February 1306 Robert Bruce murdered John Comyn, a leading rival, in a church. Bruce went on to take the crown, but Edward's army overran the country yet again after defeating Bruce's small army at the Battle of Methven. Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by Pope Clement V, his support slowly strengthened; and by 1314, with the help of leading nobles such as Sir James Douglas and the Earl of Moray, only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling were still under English control.

paragraphs: Edward I died in Carlisle in 1307. His heir, Edward II, moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and again take control. Robert defeated that army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, securing temporary independence. In 1320, a letter to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland (the Declaration of Arbroath) went part of the way towards convincing Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and cancel the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland's independence could be recognised by other European countries.

paragraphs: In 1326, the first full Parliament of Scotland met. The parliament was made from an earlier council of nobility and clergy around 1235, but in 1326 representatives of the burghs—the burgh commissioners—joined them to form the Three Estates.

paragraphs: In 1328, Edward III signed the Treaty of Northampton which declared Scottish independence under the rule of Robert the Bruce. Four years after Robert's death in 1329, England invaded Scotland yet again, looking to put the "Rightful King"—Edward Balliol, son of John Balliol—to the Scottish throne, starting the Second War of Independence. In the face of tough Scottish resistance, led by Sir Andrew Murray, attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed. Edward III lost interest in Balliol after the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France. In 1341 David II, King Robert's son and heir, was able to return from temporary exile in France. Balliol finally resigned his empty claim to the throne to Edward in 1356, before retiring to Yorkshire, where he died in 1364.

paragraphs: Most of the Scottish islands were ruled by the Norse (and then by Norwegians and Danes) for over four hundred years. This includes the Hebrides to the west and Orkney and Shetland to the north. The islands still have a culture of their own. St Kilda, Heart of Neolithic Orkney and Skara Brae are all World Heritage Sites, as are the Antonine Wall and New Lanark on the mainland.

paragraphs: In 1603, Queen Elizabeth I of England died and, because she did not have any children, James VI of Scotland (son of Mary, Queen of Scots) also became King James I of England. In 1707, Scotland and England were joined in the Act of Union to make one big Kingdom, the Kingdom of Great Britain. When Ireland joined in 1801, the United Kingdom was created.

paragraphs: In 1997, a majority of voters in Scotland chose to have their own Scottish Parliament, which was set up in 1999. Former First Minister of Scotland Alex Salmond led the Scottish National Party to government in Scotland in 2007 and won an overall majority in 2011, taking 69 out of 129 seats. The Scottish independence referendum, 2014 ended in a majority (55%) voting against independence from the United Kingdom. Alex Salmond resigned shortly after and was succeeded by Nicola Sturgeon on 19 November 2014.

paragraphs: The Scottish National Party won 56 out of the 59 Scottish seats in the House of Commons in the United Kingdom general election, 2015, while the Conservatives won an overall majority. Scotland had traditionally voted for the Labour Party in general elections before then.

paragraphs: The official languages of Scotland are English, Scots and Gaelic. English is spoken by most people in Scotland, while only a small number, mostly in the Western Isles, speaks Gaelic. Gaelic began declining in the late Middle Ages when Scottish kings and nobles preferred English.

paragraphs: Football is the most popular sport in Scotland. Three of the big cities, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Dundee, have two or three big football teams, and most cities have at least one team. The two most famous teams in Scotland are known as the "Old Firm". These are Celtic and Rangers. These two Glasgow clubs have a lot of history, and are fierce rivals, often causing fights, riots and even murders between the fans. Rangers are world record holders, having won the most amount of league titles of any football team, currently 54.

paragraphs: Scotland were the winners of the Homeless World Cup in 2007 and are the current champions after they won in August 2011. They defeated Mexico 4–3 in Paris, France.

paragraphs: The other main clubs in Scotland are Aberdeen, Hearts, Hibs and Dundee United. These teams are in the Premier League right now, and usually take the most places in the top six of the league.

paragraphs: Some other Scottish clubs include Gretna, who won three titles in a row, moving from the Third Division, to the SPL in only three seasons. Gretna ran out of money, and they were shut down. Also, Raith Rovers, who famously played UEFA Cup Winners, Bayern München. Raith Rovers were knocked out by Bayern München, but managed to lead 1-0 at half time. Queen of the south also reached the europa league, after reaching the 2008 Scottish cup final. they lost 3 -2 to Rangers.

paragraphs: The top division of Scottish Football is called the "Scottish Premier League" (or SPL), and is currently sponsored by the Clydesdale Bank, a large Scottish Bank. In 2013, its name was changed to "Scottish Premiership".

paragraphs: In 1925, 1984 and 1990, Scotland were winners of the Five Nations' Gran Slam, having beaten all four other teams - England, Wales, Ireland and France.

paragraphs: Golf is a popular sport in Scotland. It is unique, as Scotland is the birthplace of golf, and there are many public golf courses where people can play for small fees. Everywhere else in the world, golf is a game for the rich.

paragraphs: Sandy Lyle was the first Scottish golfer to win a major title in modern times. Colin Montgomery is one of the best players never to have won a major championship after finishing second five times.

paragraphs: Scotland is also involved with motorsports. Former F1 driver David Coulthard is a thirteen time Grand Prix winner. Jackie Stewart is a 3-time F1 World Champion and regarded as one of the best drivers ever. Jim Clark was a 2-time F1 World Champion and regarded as one of the best ever with Fangio, Schumacher and Senna. Paul di Resta, born in Livingston, is a current F1 driver for the Force India team. Colin McRae was also the 1995 World Rally Champion.

paragraphs: Scotland were the world champions of the unusual sport of Elephant Polo in 2004. Elephant Polo, registered as an Olympic sport with the Nepal Olympic Committee, was invented by Scotsman Nathan Mochan in 1983.

paragraphs: Andy Murray, originally from Scotland, is currently the United Kingdom's best tennis player, having won singles titles at the US Open, and Wimbledon, where his 2013 win ended a 77-year wait for a British man to win the competition. He also won Olympic Gold in the men's singles at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. His brother, Jamie Murray, is a successful doubles player.

paragraphs: Traditional Scottish musical instruments include: the bagpipe, accordion, the fiddle, the harp and tin whistle.


title: Northern Ireland

paragraphs: Northern Ireland (, Ulster ) is a constituent country of the United Kingdom, which is on the island of Ireland.

paragraphs: The whole island of Ireland used to be a kingdom, called the Kingdom of Ireland but after the Act of Union in the year 1800, it became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. This stayed until 1922, after a civil war, when Ireland was divided into the Republic of Ireland, the sovereign state that takes up the southern part of the island, and Northern Ireland, which stayed as part of the UK.

paragraphs: About 1.8 million people live in Northern Ireland, which has the capital and largest city is Belfast. The historic administrative roles of its 6 counties have since 1972 been replaced by 26 unitary authorities Counties of Northern Ireland.

paragraphs: Sometimes people use other names for Northern Ireland. Some call it Ulster, even though some parts of Ulster are actually in the Republic of Ireland. Others call it "the North" or "the Six Counties", because they do not want to recognize that a part of the island of Ireland is not fully independent and the north of it is actually in the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland is the smallest part of the United Kingdom at 5,345 sq mi.

paragraphs: The only official flag in Northern Ireland is the Union Flag of the United Kingdom. The Ulster Banner, however, is still used as the by loyalists and unionists, and to represent Northern Ireland internationally in some sporting competitions.

paragraphs: English is spoken by almost everyone in Northern Ireland. Another important language is Irish (sometimes called "Irish Gaelic") and a language known as Ulster Scots, which comes from Eastern Ulster and Lowland Scotland. The Irish language became less widely spoken in the 20th century, but a revival has led to increased usage, especially in Belfast, the Glens of Antrim and counties Tyrone and Fermanagh. This revival has been driven largely through the creation of Irish-language schools. The Irish language is spoken by some nationalists (whether Catholic or Protestant) people. Ulster Scots is almost exclusive to areas of North Antrim and the Ards Peninsula.

paragraphs: Some languages like Chinese, Urdu or Polish are becoming more common in Northern Ireland as people from other countries move to Northern Ireland.

paragraphs: Christianity is the largest religion in Northern Ireland, with over 80% of the population identifying themselves with a Christian denomination at the 2011 census. Almost 42% of these people identify as Protestant, 41% as Roman Catholic, and just over 17% as nothing or another religion. The largest Protestant churches are the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Church of Ireland and the Methodist Church in Ireland.

paragraphs: Since the Belfast Agreement (sometimes called the Good Friday Agreement) of Friday, 10 April 1998, there has been mainly peace between the two communities in Northern Ireland, the Protestants and Catholics. This agreement was agreed by most of the people in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, as well as the Irish and British governments. It allows for the self-government of Northern Ireland and greater North-South co-operation and co-operation between Britain and the Republic of Ireland. Additionally, it makes clear the right of the people of Northern Ireland to decide their constitutional future and select whether they are British citizens, Irish citizens or both.

paragraphs: The most popular sports in Northern Ireland are association football, gaelic football and rugby union. Athletics, boxing, cricket, golf, hockey, hurling, snooker and motor sports are also common. Most sports are organised on an all-Ireland basis, and in international competitions, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland compete together as Ireland (e.g. Ireland national rugby union team, Ireland national cricket team). The main exception is football.

paragraphs: Football in Northern Ireland is governed by the Irish Football Association (IFA). In international competitions Northern Ireland has its own team - the Northern Ireland national football team. The Northern Ireland team has qualified for three FIFA World Cups (in 1958, 1982 and 1986). Perhaps the most famous player from Northern Ireland was George Best.

paragraphs: Track and field athletes from Northern Ireland can choose to compete either with athletes from Great Britain (as the team "Great Britain & Northern Ireland"), or with athletes from the rest of Ireland (as "Ireland").

paragraphs: Belfast is home to the Ulster Rugby team (which competes in the Pro 12 league and Heineken Cup), and the Belfast Giants ice-hockey team.

paragraphs: Trains are run by NI Railways which run from Belfast to Portrush, Londonderry, Bangor, Larne, Portadown and Newry. The Enterprise is run by both NI Railways and Irish Rail and links Belfast to Dublin.


title: Great Britain

paragraphs: Great Britain is an island in the northwest part of Europe. It is the biggest island on the continent, located off the northern shore of France (across the English Channel) and to the west of Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and Norway (across the North Sea).

paragraphs: Great Britain is not the name of a country. The island is part of the sovereign state called the United Kingdom, and contains nearly all of three of its four countries: England, Scotland, and Wales. England is the biggest part of the island and its capital city is London (which is also the capital of the United Kingdom). Scotland is to the north of England, and its capital is Edinburgh. Wales is to the west of England, and its capital is Cardiff. Wales is separated from South West England by the Bristol Channel.

paragraphs: West of Great Britain is a smaller island called Ireland. The island of Ireland contains nearly all of the Republic of Ireland, which is a sovereign state, as well as nearly all of Northern Ireland. No part of Northern Ireland is on the island of Great Britain, but it is all part of the United Kingdom. Many people call the United Kingdom "England" or "Great Britain", and people from other parts of the United Kingdom may not like it when people make this mistake.

paragraphs: Together with many other smaller islands, Ireland and Great Britain form the British Isles. Because most of the island of Ireland is not British, many people find this name inaccurate and even offensive. There is no more accurate term in common use but "Great Britain and Ireland" is often preferred.

paragraphs: Great Britain is the largest island of the United Kingdom. Politically, Great Britain means England, Scotland, and Wales in combination, but not Northern Ireland. It does include islands such as the Isle of Wight, Anglesey, the Isles of Scilly, the Hebrides, and the island groups of Orkney and Shetland.

paragraphs: It does not include the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, which are self-governing dependent territories.

paragraphs: Great Britain is usually represented using the same flag as the United Kingdom, the union jack. However, the island does not officially have a flag of its own.

paragraphs: The political union that joined the kingdoms of England and Scotland happened in 1707 when the Acts of Union ratified the 1706 Treaty of Union and merged the parliaments of the two nations, forming the Kingdom of Great Britain, which covered the entire island.

paragraphs: Before this, a personal union had existed between these two countries since the 1603 Union of the Crowns under James VI of Scotland and I of England. That union was called the "Kingdom of Great Britain".

paragraphs: In 1801, Ireland joined up with Great Britain, which made one country called the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". The Irish Free State left the United Kingdom in 1922.

paragraphs: The national currency of Great Britain is the pound sterling.


title: Scottish Football League

paragraphs: These are the Scottish football (soccer) teams and the leagues they played in for the 2005/06 season.

paragraphs: It was founded in 1903. They play at the Pittodrie Stadium in Aberdeen.

paragraphs: In the 1980s Sir Alex Ferguson was the manager of Aberdeen F.C. and they won the European Cup Winners Cup in 1983.

paragraphs: They were started in 1888. They play at Celtic Park in Glasgow. They are rivals with Rangers F.C..

paragraphs: Celtic were the first British team to win the European Champion Clubs' Cup. Celtic did this in 1967. The final of the European Champion Clubs' Cup was in Lisboniure6f4y68uy746ghuthguyfu43678hgdjhdfuiy8974yrtouihdshfjhy

paragraphs: Hibernian Football Club were founded in 1875. They play in the Scottish capital of Edinburugh at Easter Road Stadium. Hibernian or, "The Hibees" play in green and white shirts with white shorts and stokings. A traditionally Catholic team, they play in the Scottish Premiere League, or SPL.

paragraphs: Rangers Football Club were formed in 1873 and are the most successful football team in world football history reaching an unprecedented fifty one league titles in the 2004/2005 season. Rangers achieved European success in 1972; they won the European Cup Winners Cup. Overall they have won over a hundred major trophies throughout their history. Ranger's play their rivals Celtic F.C. in the famous "Old Firm Derby".

paragraphs: Rangers home ground is Ibrox Stadium which is in Glasgow, Scotland.

paragraphs: In June 1893, Dundee Football Club was formed by an amalgamation of two city teams, Our Boys and East End. Dundee have played at Dens Park Stadium since 19th August 1899. Dundee became the Champions of Scotland on 28th April 1962 for the first and only time to date. Dundee have also won the Scottish Cup once, in 1910.


title: Welsh League

paragraphs: The Welsh League is a football league in Wales. Some large Welsh clubs play in England's Football League.

paragraphs: These are the Welsh football (soccer) teams that played in the Welsh League for the 2003/04 season:


title: Arsenal F.C.

paragraphs: Arsenal Football Club is an English football club based in London that currently plays in the English Premier League.

paragraphs: The club was founded in 1886 and was originally called Dial Square F.C. named after a sundial on the side of a factory. The team plays in a traditional red and white kit. They played at Highbury in North London from 1913 - 2006, but now they play at the Emirates Stadium. The current captain of the side is Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang. Their biggest rivals are Tottenham Hotspur, and the two play against each other in what is called the North London Derby.

paragraphs: Arsenal won the First Division and Premier League 13 times and the FA Cup 10 times. They are the only British club to have been the subject of a feature film.

paragraphs: In 2003/04 season Arsenal broke the record for the longest unbeaten run in all competitions spanning over a season with over 38 games. They were hailed as the 'New Invincibles'.

paragraphs: The Evelina approach was the main reason Arsenal were able to achieve this, first implemented by manager Arsene Wenger.

paragraphs: Arsenal are also the team who have gone the longest in the Premier League without being relegated. They were last relegated during WW1 over 90 years ago.

paragraphs: The current manager of Arsenal is Mikel Arteta. The assistant manager is Fredrik Ljungberg. Their new Emirates Stadium was opened on the 27th of October 2006, by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Arsenal also has a women's team called Arsenal Ladies F.C.. The ladies team is the only team in women's football history to have ever won four trophies in one season. The most famous, and successful, Arsenal manager before Wenger is thought to be Herbert Chapman. Chapman won the First Division with Arsenal twice and the FA Cup once.


title: Aston Villa F.C.

paragraphs: Aston Villa Football Club (nicknamed Villa), is an English football club based in Birmingham. They have played at Villa Park, in Aston, since 1897. They were one of the teams that started the English Football League in 1888. They were also one of the teams that started the Premier League in 1992. They are one of five English clubs to have won the European Cup. They won this in 1982. They have also won the Football League First Division seven times, the FA Cup seven times, the League Cup five times, and the European Super Cup once.

paragraphs: Villa have a large rivalry with nearby team Birmigham City. This is called the Second City Derby, and they have been playing against each other since 1879. The team's main home colours are claret and light blue. Their badge is a yellow lion. The club is owned by the NWSE group (owned by Egyptian Nassef Sawiris) and American Wes Edens.

paragraphs: Aston Villa have won European and domestic league trophies. The club's last English trophy was in 1996 when they won the League Cup, and most recently they won the 2001 UEFA Intertoto Cup.


title: Birmingham City F.C.

paragraphs: Birmingham City Football Club, is an English football club.

paragraphs: The club play in the Championship, their current manager is Gary Monk. Their home ground is St.Andrews


title: Blackburn Rovers F.C.

paragraphs: Blackburn Rovers F.C. is an English football club. They play at Ewood Park, which is in Blackburn, Lancashire. The manager of the club is Tony Mowbray.

paragraphs: Blackburn Rovers won the FA Premier League once in the 1994/1995 season. However, in 1999, they were relegated.


title: Bolton Wanderers F.C.

paragraphs: Bolton Wanderers F.C. is an English football club. It is based 15 miles north of Manchester. The club plays in the Championship, the second highest league in England. Their home is the Reebok Stadium. It holds around 28,723 people. Their manager is Dougie Freedman. At home they play in a white shirt, navy blue shorts & white socks. Away they play in a navy blue shirt, white shorts and navy blue socks.


title: Charlton Athletic F.C.

paragraphs: Charlton Athletic Football Club, is an English football club.

paragraphs: The club plays in the Football League One.


title: Chelsea F.C.

paragraphs: Chelsea F.C. is an English football club that plays in the English Premier League. Their home stadium is Stamford Bridge in Fulham, London.

paragraphs: Chelsea is considered to be one of the most successful clubs of England, having won many trophies, including 6 Premier League, 1 UEFA Champions League, 2 UEFA Europa League, 5 League Cup, 8 FA Cup, 1 UEFA Super Cup and 2 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup titles. Their all-time highest goalscorer is Frank Lampard and their most successful goalkeeper (on the basis of clean sheets and titles statistics) is Petr Čech. Chelsea is owned by the Russian billionaire businessman Roman Abramovich.

paragraphs: Chelsea started in 1905 and played the second division of the league. They won their first trophy in 1955, when they became Champions of the First Division. They won the FA Cup in 1970, 1997, 2000 and 2007. They won the League Cup in 1965, 1998, 2005 and 2007. In 1970s Chelsea failed to maintain their position of the first division, due to the financial difficulties. In 1990s they challenged the title of Premier League. They came close but did not win it until 2005 and 2006.

paragraphs: In 2003 the Russian billionaire, Roman Abramovich, purchased Chelsea and invested lots of capital to employ new football players. He also employed Luiz Felipe Scolari, as the manager of the club. Abramovich also employed Peter Kenyon as the chief executive to be responsible for the commercial strategies of the club. This made Chelsea more and more powerful, and they won the Premier League in consecutive years. A third straight FA Premier League title slipped through Chelsea's fingertips after their failure to defeat Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium meant that Manchester United had won their ninth league title in fifteen tries.

paragraphs: On September 20, 2007, the very successful manager José Mourinho left the club by "mutual consent". This exit came just days after a shockingly poor performance which saw them barely scrape out a 1-1 draw in a Champions League tie against Norwegian side Rosenborg B.K.. Following Mourinho's exit, Chelsea made Director of Football Avram Grant, the former manager of Israel from 2002 to 2006, the new manager of the club, until May 2008. Grant took over with Chelsea trailing in the Premier League "title race" behind Manchester United and Arsenal, and managed to keep Chelsea in the hunt for the league until the last game of the season. He got Chelsea into the Champions League Final for the first time as well as the Carling Cup Final, but he was sacked at the end of the season, along with assistant Henk ten Cate. Grant was sacked from the job after he lost in the final in a 5-6 penalty shootout loss to Manchester United and replaced by Luiz Felipe Scolari, the then-Portugal coach, in August. However, after a poor run of results Scolari was sacked on February 9, 2009. Guus Hiddink took over the club until the rest of the season. In early June they played in the FA Cup final against Everton, where Chelsea won 2-1, after Frank Lampard and Didier Drogba scored goals. In that final, Louis Saha of Everton scored the fastest goal in FA Cup history, in 25 seconds. A week later, the former Milan manager Carlo Ancelotti was named as the new manager of Chelsea. Antonio Conte was their manager until July 2018 and helped them win the 2016/17 league title. Frank Lampard, former Chelsea player, is Chelsea F.C.'s, current manager.


title: Everton F.C.

paragraphs: Everton Football Club are an English football club from the city of Liverpool. The club currently competes in the Premier League and have played more seasons in the top league of English football than any other team.

paragraphs: Everton were founded in 1878. They have a long rivalry with Liverpool, whose ground is nearby. When they play each other the match known as the "Merseyside derby". In the 1890s Everton played at Anfield, which later became Liverpool's stadium. The owner of the stadium put the rent up by so much the club decided to stop paying and leave and build their own instead. Everton were then based at a new stadium called Goodison Park. They still play there today.

paragraphs: Everton started out in 1878 with the name St Domingo's FC. At first it was only for people who went to St Domingo's church, but so many people were interested they let people from the local area join as well. A year later the club was renamed Everton Football Club, after the area. Everton Football Club's first ever match was against a team called St Peter's in 1879. Everton won 6-0.

paragraphs: Everton entered the FA Cup in the 1886/87 season. They were beaten 1-0 by Rangers in the first round. As football became more and more popular around England, the clubs realised they needed an organised league. In 1888 the Football League was founded. Everton were one of the 12 founding members. Preston North End won the first two leagues and Everton won the third in 1891. They won their second ever trophy, the FA Cup, in 1905 but did not win another until 1916. It was not until 1927 that Everton had their first period of long success. In 1925 they signed Dixie Dean and in 1927 he scored 60 goals in 39 games, setting a new world record and taking Everton to another league title. Everton were relegated to the the second division in 1930/1931. Within a year they were promoted again, and the club has not been relegated again since, apart from in 1950/51 (which resulted in three seasons in the second tier). This makes them the English football team with the most consecutive seasons in the top league of English football, apart from Arsenal who have been in the top flight continuously since 1919/20.

paragraphs: Everton's second successful period came after 1961 when Harry Catterick was appointed manager. With Catterick in charge Everton won two league titles and four cups between 1961 and 1970. This success did not last however, and after three years of low league finishes Catterick quit his job. The club finished in mid-table positions for the rest of the 1970s with a line of unsuccessful managers. In 1981 the club appointed Howard Kendall to be the new manager. He turned Everton around and eventually became the most successful manager in the clubs history, winning two league titles and three cups between 1981 and 1987. This era also brought Everton's one and only European title, the Cup Winners Cup in 1985. They won the final 3-1 against Rapid Vienna of Austria. The semi final saw Everton beat German champions Bayern Munich 3-1, a match voted the greatest of all time at Goodison Park.

paragraphs: In 1985 several Liverpool and Juventus fans died when the crowd started fighting at a stadium in Heysel, Belgium. UEFA decided that Liverpool fans were mainly to blame. Because of this all English clubs were not allowed to play against European teams untl 1991. This denied Everton the chance to defend their European title and the team gradually broke up, selling many of their best players to other European clubs. The club did not do very well in the early 90s, nearly getting relegated twice and going through lots of money problems. However they still became one of the first members of the new English Premier League when it started in 1992. They were quite successful under manager Joe Royle,who took over in 1994. In his second season in charge he kept Everton clear of relegation and won the FA cup, the club's first trophy in seven years. The club had steady improvement under Royle, finishing 6th and 7th in the 1996 and 1997 seasons.

paragraphs: After two seasons however the club's performance went downhill and Kendall was sacked after barely avoiding relegation in the 1998-99 season. Former player Walter Smith took over for three seasons, but failed to perform well. He spent a lot of money but didn't bring the team to good league positions. David Moyes took over in 2002 and has been one of the club's most successful managers to date. Under his management the club has become a regular top 10 side, finishing 4th in 2005, their highest ever Premier League finish. The 4th place finish meant they qualified for the next season's UEFA Champions League. He left the team in 2013, after 11 years.

paragraphs: Under his management Wayne Rooney was brought into the first team and he was quickly sold to Manchester United for £28 million, a club record fee.

paragraphs: Since 2005 Everton have enjoyed regular top 8 finishes and reached the last 16 of the UEFA Cup in 2007 and were runnner-ups in the 2009 FA Cup final. Moyes also broke the transfer record again in 2008 with the signing of Marouane Fellaini.

paragraphs: At the end of the 2012–13 season Moyes left the club for Manchester United. He was replaced by Roberto Martínez. He led Everton to the semi-finals of the EFL Cup and the FA Cup in 2015-16. He was sacked with two games left in the season due to poor performances.

paragraphs: He was replaced in the summer of 2016 by Ronald Koeman. In his first season at the club, he guided them to the group stages of the Europa League, after finishing 7th in the previous Premier League season. He was sacked the following season after leaving the club in the relegation zone.

paragraphs: Everton usually wear Royal blue shirts with white shorts and white socks.

paragraphs: They wore many different kit colours in their first few years. At first they wore white shorts and white shirts with blue stripes. However many players who moved to Everton still wore the shirts of their old team, so things quickly got confusing. To solve this the club introduced an all black kit to the club, as black dye was cheap and easily available. However many fans thought this was boring and morbid so a red band was added across the chest.

paragraphs: It was not until the 1901/02 season that the colours of royal blue and white were first introduced. This kit has stayed, with a few small changes, almost exactly the same from then until the present day. In 1986, a white hoop was added to the chest, but the fans did not like this at all and it was quickly changed back again.

paragraphs: Everton's current shirt sponsor is SportPesa. They are an African online betting firm based in Nairobi, Kenya. Previous shirt sponsors included: Chang Beer (2004-17), Kejian (2002-04), mobile network operator One2one (1997-2002), Printer company Danka (1995-97), and electronics company NEC (1985-95). Everton were the first Premier League team to take off shirt sponsors from their child shirts because they did not like advertising alcohol to children.

paragraphs: Everton's current kit manufacturers are Umbro. They have been the club's kit manufacturer three times previously (1974–83, 1986–2000, and 2004–09). Other previous manufacturers are Le Coq Sportif (1983–86, 2009–12), Puma (2000–04) and Nike (2012–14).

paragraphs: Everton take their name from the district of Everton in Liverpool where it was originally formed.

paragraphs: Everton's nickname is the "Toffees", or sometimes the "Toffeemen". This comes from one of two toffee shops that were located in Everton village at the time the club was founded. Both Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House and Old Mother Nobletts Toffee Shop claim to have started off the nickname. At first Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House was very popular with fans because it was near to their stadium in the Everton district. Old Mother Nobletts Toffee Shop sold sweets called 'Everton mints', which proved even more popular. Faced with going out of business, Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House got a licence to throw free toffees to the crowd inside the ground before the match. This tradition continues even today. A teenage girl is chosen from the crowd to throw mints to the crowd before the match.

paragraphs: At other times in their history Everton have also been known as 'The Black Watch', 'The Blues' and, in the 1980s, 'The School of Science'.

paragraphs: Like many Premier League football clubs, Everton's players walk out onto the pitch to a particular song at the beginning of every match. With Everton it is the theme tune to a 1960s television series called Z-Cars. Z-Cars was about police working in a made up town, which many people believed was based on real life Liverpool.

paragraphs: When Everton were first created, they played at Anfield. The owner of the stadium put the rent up by so much the club decided to stop paying and leave and build their own instead. Everton then moved to their new stadium called Goodison Park, which was opened in 1892. They still play there today.

paragraphs: Everton are currently building a new stadium called Bramley-Moore Dock stadium, which is located at the Bramley-Moore Dock. It will have a capacity of 53,000, and will be completed in 2023 or 2024.


title: Fulham F.C.

paragraphs: Fulham Football Club is an English football club from London that currently plays in the Football League Championship. It plays in a white shirt and black shorts for home games. For away games, it played in red shirts and white shorts in 2013/14, but has played in colours such as green, yellow or black. The team's away kit in 2014 is navy with orange sleeves. Shahid Khan owns the club. He is from the United States, and also owns the Jacksonville Jaguars, a famous NFL team.

paragraphs: The club was made in 1879 as Fulham St. Andrews. Lots of famous players used to play for Fulham, like Johnny Haynes (1950s), Bobby Moore (1970s), George Best (1970s) and Edwin van der Sar (2000s). Fulham have won one international tournament; the Intertoto Cup in 2003. They also were runner-up of the 2009-10 UEFA Europe League. They lost to Atletico Madrid in the final.

paragraphs: When Mohamed Al-Fayed bought Fulham in 1997, it was in the 3rd division of English football (Football League One). He put lots of money into the club, and he made good choices about the club. The club won promotion two times, which means that in 2001 it was now in the top division of English Football, the Premier League.

paragraphs: Fulham's stadium is called Craven Cottage. It was built 100 years ago. It has a pretty building in one corner of the pitch, this is the "Cottage". The fans of Fulham like to call it "The Cottage", and it can have 27,000 people sitting in it.

paragraphs: From 2002 to 2004, Fulham had to play at Loftus Road, which is the ground of Queens Park Rangers, near the BBC headquarters. This was because the club needed to renovate Craven Cottage because of new rules. The rules said that nobody can stand at football games, so the club had to install new seats.

paragraphs: Some people who live near to Craven Cottage do not like having a big club near to them. They made it hard for the club to be allowed to make the changes. This is why the changes took a long time, even though it was easy work for the builders.

paragraphs: Because of the "Cottage", the club and its supporters are called "The Cottagers".

paragraphs: The club plays in the Premier League, the top football league in England. The club is managed by Scott Parker until the end of the 2018/2019 season.


title: Liverpool F.C.

paragraphs: Liverpool Football Club () is a professional association football club based in Liverpool, Merseyside, England. They play in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. The club has won 6 European Cups, an English club record, 3 UEFA Cups, 4 UEFA Super Cups, 19 League titles (Including 1 Premier League), 7 FA Cups, a record 8 EFL Cups, 15 FA Community Shield, title and 1 FIFA Club World Cup title. Liverpool's anthem is "You'll Never Walk Alone".

paragraphs: Liverpool won their first League championship in 1901, and their second in 1906. They played their first FA Cup final in 1914, losing 1–0 to Burnley. The last domestic trophy they won was the EFL Cup in February 2012, after beating Cardiff City. They have also won the Champions League six times, the most of any British side. Their 5th success was in Istanbul in 2005. The game was won after Liverpool tied 3–3 with A.C. Milan, after being down 3–0 at half-time. The Reds then won the penalty shootout, partly due to goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek's saves. Their 6th and most recent success was in 2019 when they beat fellow Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur 2-0 in Madrid. Liverpool F.C. have won England's top football league 18 times. The club won the 2019-20 Premier League title, thirty years after their last first division title win in the 1989-90 season.

paragraphs: Liverpool has had two tragedies in their history. The first was the Heysel Stadium disaster of 1985, which led to the death of 39 Juventus fans and the second was the Hillsborough disaster in 1989, which lead to the deaths of 96 Liverpool fans.

paragraphs: Since the establishment of the club in 1892, 45 players have been club captain of Liverpool F.C. Andrew Hannah became the first captain of the club after Liverpool separated from Everton and formed its own club. Alex Raisbeck, who was club captain from 1899 to 1909, was the longest serving captain before being overtaken by Steven Gerrard who served 12 seasons as Liverpool captain starting from the 2003–04 season. The present captain is Jordan Henderson, who in the 2015–16 season replaced Gerrard who moved to LA Galaxy.


title: Manchester City F.C.

paragraphs: Manchester City Football Club is an English football club. The club is coached by Pep Guardiola and currently play in the English Premier League.

paragraphs: The club plays in the Premier League and is owned by a royal family from Abu Dhabi. As of 1 September 2008 they are the richest club in the Premier League. They won the 2011–12 Premier League championship, their first in the top flight since the 1967–68 season. After finishing second in 2012–13, they won the Premier League championship again in 2013–14. Their current stadium is the Etihad Stadium (noncommercial name: City of Manchester Stadium). The stadium is part-owned by Manchester City Council, and could only be built on the understanding that Manchester City would take a tenancy after the 2006 Commonwealth Games, which the club agreed to do. The owner of Manchester City Sheik Mansour bought 200 million pounds.