title: Internet Protocol

paragraphs: The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying data across network boundaries. It essentially establishes the Internet. In the past, IP did not provide the connectivity; It only specified how packets are supposed to be created. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) allowed this functionality. Since one could not perform its task without the other, they earned the name TCP/IP to show how they depend on each other.

paragraphs: Think of IP as something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it into the system, but there is no actual direct "link" between you and the recipient. Instead, there is a "web" of links interconnecting with each other. This is where IP and TCP come in. IP tells packets what their destination is and how to get there; TCP ensures a reliable connection, checking packets for errors, requesting a "re-transmission" if it detects one.

paragraphs: The Internet Protocol gets information from a source computer to a destination computer. It sends this information in the form of packets.

paragraphs: There are two versions of the Internet Protocol currently in use: "IPv4" and "IPv6," with "IPv4" being the version most used. IP also gives computers an IP address to identify each other, much like a typical physical address.

paragraphs: IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite, which is a set of communications protocols consisting of seven abstraction layers (see OSI model),

paragraphs: The main purpose and task of IP is the delivery of datagrams from the source host (source computer) to the destination host (receiving computer) based on their addresses. To achieve this, IP includes methods and structures for putting tags (address information, which is part of metadata) within datagrams. The process of putting these tags on datagrams is called encapsulation.Think of an anology with the postal system. IP is similar to the U.S. Postal System in that it allows a package (a datagram) to be addressed (encapsulation) and put into the system (the Internet) by the sender (source host). However, there is no direct link between sender and receiver.

paragraphs: The package (datagram) is almost always divided into pieces, but each piece contains the address of the receiver (destination host). Eventually, each piece arrives at the receiver, often by different routes and at different times. These routes and times are also determined by the Postal System, which is the IP. However, the Postal System (in the transport and application layers) puts all the pieces back together before delivery to the receiver (destination host).

paragraphs: Note: IP is actually a connectionless protocol, meaning that the circuit to the receiver (destination host) does not need be set up before transmission (by the source host). Continuing the analogy, there does not need to be a direct connection between the physical return address on the letter/package and the recipient address before the letter/package is sent.

paragraphs: Originally, IP was a connectionless datagram service in a transmission control program created by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974. When format and rules were applied to allow connections, the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol was created. The two together form the Internet Protocol Suite, often referred to as TCP/IP.

paragraphs: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) was the first major version of IP. This is the dominant protocol of the Internet. However, iPv6 is active and in use, and its deployment is increasing all over the world.

paragraphs: Addressing and routing are the most complex aspects of IP. However, intelligence in the network is located at nodes (network interconnection points) in the form of routers which forward datagrams to the next known gateway on the route to the final destination. The routers use interior gateway protocols (IGPs) or external gateway protocols (EGPs) to help with making forwarding route decisions. Routes are determined by the routing prefix within the datagrams. The routing process can therefore become complex. But at the speed of light (or nearly so) the routing intelligence determines the best route, and the datagram pieces and datagram all eventually arrive at their destination

paragraphs: IP packets or datagram has two parts. The first part is the header, which is like a label on an envelope. The second part is the payload, which is like the letter inside an envelope. The header contains the source and destination IP addresses, and some extra information. This information is called metadata, and is about the packet itself. Putting data in a packet with a header is encapsulation.

paragraphs: Every computer on a network does some kind of routing. Dedicated computers talk with each other to figure out where to send packets. These computers are called routers, and talk using routing protocols.

paragraphs: Along every hop in a packet's journey, a computer reads the header. The computer sees the destination IP address and figures out where to send the packet.

paragraphs: ARPANET, the early ancestor of the internet, was designed to survive a nuclear war. If one computer was destroyed, communication between all the other computers would still work. Computer networks still follow this same design.

paragraphs: Computers talking to each other handle the "smart" functions to simplify computer networks. The end nodes will check for errors instead of a central authority. Keeping the "smart" things on the end computers or nodes follows the end-to-end principle.

paragraphs: The Internet Protocol sends packets out without ensuring they arrive safely. This is "best-effort delivery", and is unreliable. Packets could get messed up, lost, duplicated, or received out of order. Higher level protocols like the Transmission Control Protocol ("TCP") ensure packets are delivered correctly. IP is also "connectionless", so it does not keep track of communications.

paragraphs: Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) uses a checksum to check for errors in an IP header. Every checksum is unique to a source/destination combination. A routing node generates a new checksum when it gets a packet. If the new checksum is different from the old one, the routing node knows the packet is bad and throws it out. IPv6 assumes another protocol will check for errors and leaves out the checksum. This is to improve performance.

paragraphs: In 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers published a paper called "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication". The paper described a way for computers to talk to each other using Packet Switching. A big part of this idea was the "Transmission Control Program". The Transmission Control Program was too big, so it split into TCP and IP. This model is now called the "DoD" "Internet Model" and "Internet Protocol Suite", or the TCP/IP Model.

paragraphs: Versions 0 to 3 of IP were experimental, and used between 1977 and 1979.

paragraphs: IPv4 addresses will run out, because the number of possible addresses is finite. To fix this, the IEEE made IPv6 which had even more addresses. While IPv4 has 4.3 Billion addresses, IPv6 has 340 undecillion of them. This means we will never run out of IPv6 addresses. IPv5 was reserved for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was only used experimentally.


title: Akihito

paragraphs: Akihito became emperor after the death of his father in 1989, who was Emperor Shōwa. The current emperor's official reign name is "Heisei" (establishing peace).

paragraphs: The Japanese government announced in December 2017 that Akihito would abdicate on 30 April 2019. He then did so in a brief ceremony on that date.

paragraphs: The emperor has many duties and responsibilities. For example, he regularly

paragraphs: As a personal interest, Akihito studies fish.

paragraphs: Akihito directly addressed his subjects in a television broadcast after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. This was the first time any emperor used television in this way.


title: Aero Space Museum

paragraphs: The Aero Space Museum is an airplane museum in Calgary in Canada. The museum, founded in 1975, is near the Calgary Airport.

paragraphs: Some things at the museum are war-time airplanes: a Sopwith Triplane from World War I and an Avro Lancaster from World War II.

paragraphs: There are also peace-time airplanes made by Cessna and de Havilland, and a helicopter made by Sikorsky. The museum also has a large library of flying information available for people to read and look at.


title: Canadian Museum of Flight

paragraphs: The Canadian Museum of Flight is an aircraft museum at the Langley Airport in Langley, British Columbia, Canada. The museum has about 20 peace-time and war-time motor airplanes, gliders, and helicopters to see, six of which can still fly.


title: Olympic Flight Museum

paragraphs: The Olympic Flight Museum is an aircraft museum at the Olympia Airport in Olympia, Washington, USA. The museum has more than 20 airplanes and helicopters to see, most of which can still fly.


title: San Diego Aerospace Museum

paragraphs: San Diego Aerospace Museum is an aircraft and space exploration museum in San Diego, California, USA. It contains many original and copies of old aircraft and spacecraft, including:


title: Pearson Air Museum

paragraphs: The Pearson Air Museum is an airplane museum at Pearson Field Airport in Vancouver, Washington, USA. The museum and Pearson Field, and the Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, are all part of the Vancouver National Historic Reserve.

paragraphs: The Pearson Air Museum shows different kinds of unusual, special, and historic airplanes. For example, an experimental and one-of-a-kind aircraft known as the "flying pickle" originally based at Watts Airport (or Bernard's Airport), is shown at the Pearson. Alley reports on this special airplane based at Watts Airport in 1929, that was an experimental one-of-a-kind model. In this aircraft the pilot sits in an open air compartment, behind a roomy enclosed passenger cabin.


title: Newfoundland and Labrador

paragraphs: Newfoundland and Labrador () is a province on the East Coast of Canada, and is the farthest east of all Canadian provinces and territories. The capital of Newfoundland and Labrador is St. John's. In 2001, 533,800 people lived in Newfoundland and Labrador.

paragraphs: Newfoundland is an island, while Labrador is within the mainland of Canada and on a border with Quebec.

paragraphs: The province of Newfoundland and Labrador was originally called Newfoundland and joined Canada in 1949, becoming the newest province of Canada, after being a colony of the United Kingdom. Until an agreement was reached in 1927, Quebec also claimed Labrador.

paragraphs: In 2001, the name of Newfoundland changed to its new official name, Newfoundland and Labrador, while the postal code abbreviation changed from NF to NL. The island of Newfoundland, and part of Labrador, are in a time zone that is a half hour off from any other part of North America.


title: Greenfinch

paragraphs: The Greenfinch, "Chloris chloris", is a small passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae.

paragraphs: This bird is widespread throughout Europe, north Africa and southwest Asia. It is mainly resident, but some northernmost populations migrate further south. The Greenfinch has also been introduced into both Australia and New Zealand.

paragraphs: Woodland edges, farmland hedges and gardens with relatively thick vegetation are favoured for breeding. It nests in trees or bushes, laying 38 eggs. This species can form large flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes mixing with other finches and buntings. They feed largely on seeds, but also take berries.


title: St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador

paragraphs: St. John's is the capital of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is also the largest city in the province, with 108,860 people living there and 205,955 people in the St. John's Metropolitan Area.

paragraphs: Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN) has two campuses in St. John's and College of the North Atlantic (CNA) also has two (and a third in Seal Cove, within the St. John's Metropolitan Area). MUN and CNA are the only two public higher education institutions in Newfoundland. Given this, there are many students living in St. John's to pursue studies.

paragraphs: Close to St. John's is Cape Spear, the easternmost point in North America.

paragraphs: St. John's is home to the Newfoundland Growlers who play in the ECHL. St. John's is also home to the St. John's Edge who play in the NBL


title: Nest

paragraphs: A nest is place animals build to hold their eggs or provide a place to raise their babies. They are most typical of birds, but many other vertebrates do make nests.

paragraphs: Nests may be composed of organic material such as twigs, grass, and leaves. They may be a simple depression in the ground, or a hole in a rock, tree, or building. Nests can be found in all types of habitat.


title: Egg (biology)

paragraphs: An egg results from fertilization of an ovum. The egg is a container for the zygote. It protects the zygote, and feeds the embryo.

paragraphs: The animal embryo develops until it can survive on its own, at which point the egg hatches. Most vertebrates, arthropods and molluscs lay eggs outside the mother's body. They are always in some kind of container, a shell or covering.

paragraphs: Reptiles, birds and monotremes lay cleidoic eggs: bird eggs are an example. These are a special kind of egg with a good supply of food and water. They have an outside covering which lets through gases so that carbon dioxide can get out, and oxygen can get in it.

paragraphs: Fish, amphibia, insects and arachnids lay simpler eggs in greater numbers, but with much less protection and nourishment.

paragraphs: Some animals, mostly mammals, keep the zygote inside their body where the embryo grows until it is ready to be born. These are also cleidoic eggs, but all the development is done inside the mother's body, as with humans.

paragraphs: Most mammals, and a number of marine reptiles, give live birth. Also, there are some invertebrates, such as scorpions, where the eggs develops inside the mother. They also give birth to live young.

paragraphs: The ostrich has the largest eggs of all living animals. Eggs, mostly bird eggs, are often eaten as food. The shell of an egg is a hard calcareous (CaCO) material. The shell of an ostrich egg can support the weight of a fully grown human.


title: Javan tiger

paragraphs: The Javan tiger ("Panthera tigris sondaica") is 1 of 3 extinct types of tigers. It lived on the island of Java in Indonesia. It became extinct in the 1970s-1990s. The last known sighting of one was in 1972.


title: Abacus

paragraphs: An abacus is a very old tool used for math. It is still used in some parts of the world. Sometimes blind people will use an abacus, because they can feel the numbers easily. The most common abacuses work by moving beads on rods.

paragraphs: Abacuses can do addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and people can use them to find the square root of whole numbers. Expert, or very good, abacus users can sometimes do math quicker than basic calculators. There is a common Chinese abacus. This abacus is split into two kinds of basic rows, the top is for the "5"s, and the bottom is for the "ones". There are one or two beads in the top rows, and four or five beads in the bottom ones. For example, 8 is one bead on top and 3 below, because 5 + 3 = 8. Every column represents a different digit.


title: Accordion

paragraphs: An accordion is a musical instrument that has keys similar to a piano, but is small enough for a person to hold. It makes sounds using air pushed and pulled through reeds using a bellows. The accordion can also have buttons instead of keys. The 6-plus-6-system with three rows has the same fingering in all twelve scales.

paragraphs: The accordion was invented in 1822 in Germany by Friedrich Buschmann.


title: Georg Agricola

paragraphs: Georg or Georgius Agricola (1494-1555) was a German scholar and scientist. He was one of the first people to study mining and minerals (stones and gems), that is the father of mineralogy.


title: Amiga CD32

paragraphs: The Amiga CD32 was a game console made by Commodore International release in 1993. It was based around the Amiga A1200 Computer.

paragraphs: Using third party devices, it is possible to upgrade the CD32 with keyboard, floppy drive, hard drive, RAM and mouse, turning it into the equivalent of an Amiga 1200 personal computer.

paragraphs: In the Christmas period of 1993, the CD32 accounted for 38% of all CD-ROM drive sales in the UK, exceeding sales of the Mega-CD; however, it was soon overshadowed by CD-ROM based games consoles from other companies, and was discontinued as Commodore went into bankruptcy in 1994.

paragraphs: 175 known game discs were released for the Amiga CD32


title: GX4000

paragraphs: The GX4000 was a console made by Amstrad in 1990. At first, it was successful. But it did not continue its early success. The GX4000 games could be used with other Amstrad computers. Only 40 games were made for it. Soon it disappeared into the mist of history. These days it is very rare to see one that is still in working condition.


title: ApeXtreme

paragraphs: ApeXtreme is a console created by Apex Digital Inc. It was released January 9, 2004.

paragraphs: It can do many things, like play computer games, DVDs, CDs, VCDs and use the Internet.


title: New Year's Day

paragraphs: New Year's Day is a holiday in many countries. It was created to welcome the new year. In most countries, New Year Day is celebrated on 1 January.

paragraphs: The new year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have new year celebrations.

paragraphs: In Christmas Style dating, the new year started on 25 December. This was used in Germany and England until the thirteenth century, and in Spain from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century.

paragraphs: In Annunciation Style dating the new year started on 25 March, the feast of the Annunciation. This was used in many parts of Europe in the Middle Ages. The style was started by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525. Annunciation Style was used in the Kingdom of Great Britain until 1 January 1752, except Scotland which changed to Circumcision Style dating on 1 January 1600. The rest of Great Britain changed to Circumcision Style on 1 January after the change in Great Britain from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar on 3/14 September 1752.


title: Coagulation

paragraphs: A coagulation, also known as clot is a semi-solid substance that blood forms, especially when it is in air. When a person bleeds, the blood turns into a clot at the injury.

paragraphs: A blood clot is also called a "thrombus". The process is called "coagulation".

paragraphs: If a person gets a cut on their body, that person may bleed. To stop the bleeding, the human body does several things. First, the brain orders the liver to produce chemicals that will help the clot to form. When the chemicals released by the liver arrive at the injury, the coagulation begins. In the mean time, the brain also lessens the blood flow near the injury (by tightening the veins and arteries in that area), so that not as much blood is lost.

paragraphs: There is a limit to how quickly a clot can form. If the cut is very deep and the person bleeds too much, a clot may not be able to form and a lot of blood may be lost.

paragraphs: Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining the vessel. When blood is exposed to proteins such as tissue factor it starts changes to blood platelets and the plasma protein fibrinogen, which is a clotting factor. Platelets immediately form a plug at the site of injury. Proteins in the blood plasma, called "coagulation factors" or "clotting factors", respond in a complex cascade to form fibrin strands. These strengthen the platelet plug.

paragraphs: Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology; that means its genetics is almost the same in all mammal species. In all mammals, coagulation involves both a cellular (platelet) and a protein (coagulation factor) component. The system in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood.

paragraphs: Fibrin is a white insoluble fibrous protein formed by the action of thrombin on fibrinogen when blood clots. it forms a network that traps red cells and platelets.

paragraphs: Vitamin K is an essential factor in blood clotting. Then, vitamin K is oxidized. Another enzyme, Vitamin K epoxide reductase, (VKORC) reduces vitamin K back to its active form. This reactivation is important as a target of anticoagulant drug warfarin. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.


title: Wlazł kotek na płotek

paragraphs: Wlazł kotek na płotek (in English: "a kitten climbed a fence") is a popular Polish children's song.

paragraphs: A kitten sits on the fence and it blinks.

paragraphs: It’s a very pretty song, and it’s not a long one.

paragraphs: Not a long one, not a short one, but just right.


title: Asthma

paragraphs: Asthma (or Asthma bronchiale) is a disease that hurts the airways inside the lungs. It causes the tissue inside the airways to swell. Asthma also causes the bands of muscle around the airways to become narrow. This makes it hard for enough air to pass through and for the person to breathe normally. Asthma also causes mucus-making cells inside the airways to make more mucus than normal. This blocks the airways, which are already very narrow during an asthma attack, and makes it even more difficult to breathe.

paragraphs: A person having an asthma attack often makes wheezing sounds when trying to breathe. This is the sound of air trying to pass through the very narrow airway. They also have shortness of breath, which means they cannot take a full deep breath. Chest tightness may happen which feels like their chest is being squeezed. They may also cough a lot.

paragraphs: Asthma attacks can be a medical emergency because they can be "fatal" (cause a person to die). There is no cure for asthma. There are treatments such as different kinds of medicines to help people with asthma. There are also things that people with asthma can do to help themselves to keep their asthma from getting worse.

paragraphs: There are a lot of risk factors for getting asthma. The exact reasons for each is not yet clearly understood. Some of the factors are believed to come from genetics. A person inherits genetic mutations from one or both of their parents that may increase the chances of developing asthma. "Epigenetics", which are changes in the way a gene acts, may also increase their chances of getting asthma. These epigenetic changes may also be inherited. They may happen when a baby is still growing inside its mother, or during childhood.

paragraphs: "Socioeconomic status" (SES) is also believed to play a part in developing asthma. A person's socioeconomic status is based on such things as how much money their family makes, where they live, and their education level. Race and ethnicity also may play a part. It also is related to access to medical care, personal beliefs, and dietary habits. People of lower socioeconomic status suffer higher rates of asthma, have worse outcomes, and also have higher asthma-related death rates than people of higher economic status.

paragraphs: The exact cause of asthma is not yet known. It is believed that it may be because of a of many different reasons:

paragraphs: "Genetics": When changes happen in a person's genes (called "mutations") these changes are passed on to their children. One or both parents may have these changes or "mutations" in their genes, and some or all of their children may be born with them, which means they "inherited" them. These mutations, once they happen, run in families from one generation to the next and are permanent mutations, they change the gene in the "DNA". These changes can make a person more likely to get certain diseases like asthma. In some diseases it may be only one change in one gene that may make a person get that disease, in asthma it may be changes in many different genes that may make a person more likely to get asthma.

paragraphs: "Epigenetics changes" or "modifications" cause different kind of changes that affect how a person's genes work or 'express themselves' in three different ways (called "epigenetic mechanisms"), but do not change the gene in the DNA. These epigenetic changes may be inherited, or they may happen "in utero" which is when a baby is still inside its mother. They may also happen in childhood, because of different reasons, like a respiratory infection, being exposed to chemicals or drugs, diet etc. These changes can be passed from one generation to the next but are not permanent and might only be passed down one or two generations. Even though epigenetic changes affect how a person's genes work they do not permanently change a person's genes. It is believed epigenetic changes may also make a person more likely to get certain diseases like asthma.

paragraphs: "Environmental factors" are things that affect a person; which can be either healthy or unhealthy. Unhealthy environmental factors are things like living in an area where there is a lot of air pollution, or living somewhere where there are lots of bugs in the house, or being around cigarette smoke.

paragraphs: If a person who has genetic or epigentic changes in their genes that makes them have a bigger chance of getting asthma ("genetic predisposition"), also has unhealthy environmental factors in their life, like living in a home that has a lot of "dust mites", then it is more likely that they will get asthma.

paragraphs: "Atopy" is when there are changes in some of the genes a person is born with ("genetic inheritance"). These genetic changes make their body produce more Immunoglobulin E (IgE), a type of "antibody". They are also more sensitive to things things like chemicals, smoke and dust ("environmental antigens"). This "hypersensitivity" means they are more sensitive or "allergic" to things in the environment than people who do not have these changes in their genes and are not hypersensitive or "allergic".

paragraphs: This "hypersensitivity" causes their body to react in certain ways. Usually a person who is atopic develops "allergic rhinitis" which affects the "nasal passages" which are behind the nose and they are also more likely to get "atopic dermatitis" which causes skin rashes and "atopic asthma". Up to 40% of people with allergic rhinitis also have asthma. These three medical problems, "allergic rhinitis", "atopic dermatitis" and "atopic asthma" are called the "Atopic Triad" (a "triad" is when there is three of something). People who are atopic may also have other medical problems including food and drug allergies, stinging-insect hypersensitivity, hives ("urticaria"), Quincke's edema ("angioedema"), and contact dermatitis.

paragraphs: If a person has one parent who is atopic they have a chance of being atopic too. If they have two parents who are atopic they have an even bigger chance of being atopic.

paragraphs: There have been studies that show a link between acetaminophen (Tylenol) and asthma. For instance a 2008 analysis of information collected from a very large study called the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood, or the "Isaac study" for short, showed that children who had taken acetaminophen for a fever during the first year of their life had a 50% higher risk of getting asthma later on. The more acetaminophen children took the higher their risk of getting asthma. Children who took it once a month had threefold increase in their risk of getting asthma. An increase in asthma rates in multiple countries corresponded with increased sales of drugs which contained acetaminophen. Previously the American College of Physicians reported a link between non-atopic asthma and acetaminophen use based on results of The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Not all doctors are convinced of the link between acetaminophen and asthma.

paragraphs: "Children with asthma or at risk for asthma should avoid the use of acetaminophen." (McBride JT, 2011).

paragraphs: "Atopic" asthma is the most common form of asthma.

paragraphs: Cough-variant asthma is a type of asthma in which a cough is the main, and sometimes only sign. Cough-variant asthma usually does not cause wheezing or breathlessness and causes a dry, scratchy, mostly nonproductive cough (this means little or no phlegm is coughed up). About 30% of people who have cough-variant asthma will develop typical asthma.

paragraphs: Work related asthma are types of asthma that are caused or made worse by irritants in the environment at a person's place of work. The kind of jobs that may cause work related asthma are usually those in which there is a lot of smoke or chemicals are used. There are different types of work-related asthma (WRA):

paragraphs: 1. Occupational asthma with latency: this asthma type is when the signs and symptoms of asthma occur after a period of time ("latency") after being exposed to the environmental irritants. e.g.: John starts working at a factory where chemicals are used the first week of January. At the end of March he starts developing the signs and symptoms of asthma. The period of time from when he started the job in January to when the signs and symptoms of asthma started in March is the "latency period".

paragraphs: 2. Irritant-Induced Asthma (IIA) is occupational asthma without latency: this is an asthma type is when the signs and symptoms of asthma can occur immediately ("without latency") after being exposed to the environmental irritants. e.g. Frank starts a new job working as a janitor where he uses ammonia to clean. After opening the bottle of ammonia and breathing the fumes Frank starts finding it difficult to breath, his chest tightens up and he develops other signs and symptoms of asthma.

paragraphs: 4. Work-aggravated asthma: this is when a person already has asthma and environmental triggers at their place of work makes it worse.

paragraphs: Exercise induced asthma (EIA) - also called exercise induced bronchospasm - is the term used to describe asthma cases in which exercise is the main, and many times the only trigger for an asthma attack. If a person already has a form of asthma or they are "atopic" there is more of a chance of getting EIA.

paragraphs: Nocturnal asthma: is the term used to describe asthma cases that get worse at night ("nocturnal").

paragraphs: Premenstrual asthma (PMA): is when asthma symptoms get worse during the premenstrual period. This condition may affect up to 40% of female asthma sufferers. For a diagnosis of PMA to be made it is necessary to have a detailed history of the timing of menstrual cycles along with asthma symptoms experienced, and the peak expiratory flow rate (PMA may cause the PEF to be lowered in the premenstrual period). It is helpful in making a diagnosis to keep a diary of symptoms and peak expiratory flow (PEF) rates.

paragraphs: Status asthmaticus is a severe form of asthma in which an asthma attack gets worse as it goes along and the medicines that are usually used to treat asthma do not work. Status asthmaticus can be fatal.

paragraphs: Signs and symptoms in medicine are the way a medical condition affects a person's body. Sometimes the signs and symptoms of asthma may be "mild" which does not bother the person too much. At other times they may be "severe" which may make the person feel very sick.

paragraphs: Not every person with asthma has all the signs and symptoms of asthma all the time. A person may have some signs and symptoms during one asthma attack and have different symptoms during another asthma attack. Some people with asthma may have long periods of time between asthma attacks where they show no signs and experience no symptoms of asthma, while others may have some or all of the signs and symptoms everyday which become more severe during an attack. It also depends on what type of asthma a person has and whether they have a mild, moderate or severe case.

paragraphs: There are also some people with asthma who might only have signs and symptoms during certain times, such as those with exercise induced asthma, where the exercise triggers the symptoms. For some the signs and symptoms of asthma may be triggered or made worse ("exacerbated") when they have viral respiratory tract infections, often the type casued by human "rhinoviruses".

paragraphs: Early warning signs of an asthma attack are physical changes in health that a person with asthma has before they have the attack. By knowing the early warning signs a person may be able to take steps to keep from having an asthma attack or if they do have one, to keep it from getting worse.

paragraphs: The early warning signs of asthma may include:

paragraphs: A "trigger factor" or "trigger" for short, is something that causes the signs and symptoms of a medical condition to begin in a person who already has that medical condition. Common triggers for asthma are:

paragraphs: The best way to deal with asthma triggers is to learn what they are and avoid them if possible, and if not totally avoidable then adjust one's behavior to deal with them. Example: running on a cold winter day right up to the doorstep of a warm house and going immediately inside; the sudden temperature change can cause an attack and could have been avoided. In general but especially with a medical condition such as asthma it is necessary to be aware of one's environment and what's in it, both indoors and outdoors. Most often the Asthma is triggered by allergens. One big source of allergens is the carpet. Totally replace it with a tiles floor reduce the possibility to create a good environment for the allergens and it is more simple to clean and disinfect.

paragraphs: An asthma attack is when, after a period of time when aperson has had only a few or no symptoms of asthma, the asthma gets worse all of a sudden, usually because of being exposed to one or more triggers. When the asthma attack happens, the tissue inside the airways swell because of "inflammation" - which is how the body tries to protect itself from harmful things, like germs and irritants. When the tissues swell the opening (called the "lumen") in the airway gets very narrow.

paragraphs: The "smooth muscles" (which are the kind of muscles in the body that do not "contract" voluntarily, like the ones in the arm) around the bronchi and bronchioles begin to "spasm" or contract which makes the opening in the airway even narrower. This is called a "bronchospasm".

paragraphs: Inside the lining of the airways are glands called, "submucosal glands", and above them, closer to the opening in the airway are cells called "goblet cells" - because they are shaped kind of like a goblet, which is a type of cup. The submucosal glands and the goblet cells make mucous which helps protect the inside of the airways. The mucous in the airways of healthy lungs is a thin film which traps irritants such as dust particles and pollen so they do not damage the airways and keep them from entering the air sacs (alveoli).

paragraphs: There are tiny hairs lining the airway called "cilia". The cilia wave back and forth like a liitle whips, and help push the mucous and the trapped particles up the airways to the "pharynx". From there the mucous, the trapped particles from the lower airways can be coughed up (this is called "sputum").

paragraphs: During an asthma attack the submucosal glands and the goblet cells start making much more mucous than normal, and the mucous is also thicker than normal. This makes it very hard for the cilia to do their job, and bring the mucous up out of the airways. So now there is too much mucous being made, and not enough being brought up by the cilia. The airways are already to narrow to breathe properly because of the tissue swelling caused by inflammation and the constriction caused by the bronchospasms, so the extra mucous blocks the airway even more. This makes breathing very difficult. In fatal asthma attacks the airways can become so constricted and/or plugged with mucous that no air can get through at all.

paragraphs: There are other signs of breathing difficulty as in an asthma attack, which are important to learn, and knowing them can help tell if someone who cannot talk is having breathing problems. People who may not be able to let somebody know they are having breathing problems include babies and young children.

paragraphs: Some of the other signs of asthma include:

paragraphs: A diagnosis of asthma is based on a person's:

paragraphs: There is no specific test that can tell if a person has asthma, however there are tests that can help in the diagnosis when the results are considered along with the medical and family history and physical exam

paragraphs: "Differential diagnoses" are different medical disorders which may cause the same symptoms. Before a doctor makes a "final diagnosis", which means they are sure of what medical disorder is causing the problem, they think of what other medical conditions have the same or almost the same symptoms, and make sure it's not one of them.

paragraphs: The differential diagnoses of asthma include:

paragraphs: Airway remodeling is when there are permanent physical changes to the airways that also affects how they work. This may happen after chronic long-term asthma. After cycles of inflammation, damage and repair to the airways. permanent remodeling of the airways may occur. This is when the physical structure of the airway changes. This will cause permanent airway narrowing (they are always more narrow than normal and get narrower during an asthma attack), bronchospasms are more easily triggered (bronchial hyperresponsivenes), airway edema (fluid in the airway), and mucus hypersecretion (too much mucous is made) as well as the build-up of collagen around the airway which is called fibrosis. Airway remodeling has been observed in chldren as young as six.

paragraphs: Not managing asthma properly can lead to airway remodeling and this can increase the risk of dying from an asthma attack. One of the main problems which cause poor asthma management is not using the asthma inhaler correctly. One of the main reasons for improper inhaler use is the asthma patient not having the proper knowledge in using the inhaler due to not receiving proper instruction.

paragraphs: Goblet cell and submucosal gland hyperplasia: Among the physical changes that may happen in airway remodeling is "goblet cell hyperplasia" and "submucosla gland hyperplasia". Submucosal glands and goblet cells make mucous which helps to protect the airways by trapping harmful particles like dust and pollen. The mucous is normally a thin film which lines the airways. The mucous and whatever particles they trap are brought up to the "pharynx" by tiny (microscopic) hairs on the inside of the airway that move back and forth called "cilia".

paragraphs: During an asthma attack the submucosal glands and goblet cells make too much mucous, and it is thicker than normal which makes it harder for the cilia to bring the mucous up. When airway remodeling happens the body may make many more submucosal glands and goblet cells than normal, which means even more mucous is made. There may be too much mucous for the cilia to bring up and the airway may become blocked. This is one of the reasons that people with airway remodeling often have more severe asthma. In fatal cases the airway may have become totally plugged causing "asphyxia".

paragraphs: Regular Breastfeeding sessions are a proven benefit to airway reconstruction. While previous studies have shown a similar effect between breastfeeding and asthma risk, this research is the first that showed a link between the length of breastfeeding and the number of wheezing episodes. Also, this study found evidence that the first asthma-related symptoms occur earlier in life if children were breastfed for shorter lengths of time or not exclusively. The study shows it’s not the nutritional benefit from the liquid, it’s the pull on lung of which dilates the smooth muscles of the air passage. Dry-nursing has actually proven to had been more beneficial in this study for strengthening airway health in both children and adults. Dilating the airways will strengthen them and the lungs themselves.

paragraphs: Asthma can be controlled most often by avoiding contact with triggers and by using certain drugs. Most asthma sufferers carry special medicines around with them. These are called inhalers. The medicine inside the inhaler opens the tubes that go to the lungs. The inhaler is usually used to prevent an asthma attack, or to stop an attack that is already happening.

paragraphs: Rescue medicine — A rescue medicine is an inhaler ("puffer") that is used if a person thinks they are having an asthma attack.

paragraphs: Controller medicine — A controller medicine is a medicine in either a pill or an inhaler taken every day to prevent asthma attacks.

paragraphs: Hospitals have other options they can use in an emergency when the regular treatments don't work:

paragraphs: Unconventional Treatments / At Home Remedies

paragraphs: There are certain types of drugs that make asthma worse or that can trigger such an attack. Certain types of drugs should only be used in very specific situations. Some of these drugs are:

paragraphs: Managing comorbid asthma, depression and/or anxiety

paragraphs: Depression and anxiety have a negative impact on asthma. Comorbid anxiety with asthma is particularly confusing because of the similarity of symptoms and interference in perception and treatment of asthma. The National Asthma Council Australia recommends treatment for comorbid psychological symptoms. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) is one recommended treatment for anxiety and depression. There is tentative research evidence suggesting that a program of CBT amended for asthma, delivered in conjunction with medical treatment and in close liaison with your medical team, can improve anxiety, asthma and quality of life. Clinicians intending to deliver CBT for comorbid asthma, anxiety or depression should refer to and the research reviewed by for guidance on safe and effective intervention.

paragraphs: The global Initiative for Asthma (GINA), launched in 1993, is a collaborative effort between the World Health Organisation (WHO), the National Institutes of Health USA (NIH), and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Its aims include; to increase public awareness of asthma, encourage research into the causes for the increasing prevalence of asthma worldwide, encourage research into the links between asthma and environmental factors, improve the effectiveness of asthma management practices, reduce the mortality and morbidity rates associated with asthma, and make treatments for asthma more readily available.

paragraphs: One of the ways in which GINA fulfils these aims is by producing medical guidelines on the management of asthma, which based on a systematically conducted review of the most recent-worldwide literature. These guidelines are free and available to all patients and clinicians from the GINA website. The GINA main report is updated annually and aims to reflect evolving best practice as it highlights changes in asthma management strategies.

paragraphs: GINA established ‘World Asthma Day’ in 1998, with the first event organised in Barcelona, Spain. It is held annually on the first Tuesday of May, and includes the participation of more than 35 countries.

paragraphs: Often, having one medical problem makes it more likely a person will also have one or more other medical or psychiatric problems. These other disorders are the "comorbid problems" or "comorbidities". There are various comorbid medical and psychiatric conditions associated with asthma.

paragraphs: In medicine "epidemiology" is the study of what causes diseases and medical conditions, how often they happen, where they happen and who they happen to.

paragraphs: It is more common in developed countries than developing countries. The United States and Canada have some of the highest asthma rates in the world even though they are not poor countries. In Africa the country of South Africa has the highest asthma rate on the whole continent even though it is one of the richest countries.

paragraphs: More than 80% of the people who die from asthma are usually from low and middle income countries, but not always, as South Africa has the fourth highest death rate in the world even though it is one of the richer countries in the world. In the United States the death rates are higher for females, adults and people of African descent.

paragraphs: As of 2011, 235–300 million people worldwide are affected by asthma, and approximately 250,000 people die per year from the disease. Rates vary between countries with prevalences between 1 and 18%.

paragraphs: The amount of asthma cases reported each year has gotten much higher between the 1960s and 2008 Rates of asthma have plateaued in the developed world since the mid-1990s with recent increases primarily in the developing world. Asthma affects approximately 7% of the population of the United States and 5% of people in the United Kingdom. Canada, Australia and New Zealand have rates of about 14–15%.


title: Bochum

paragraphs: Bochum is a city in the Ruhr area of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It is part of the Arnsberg Government Region

paragraphs: The city is formed by the traditional industry of coal mining in the Ruhr area, but today there is no mining in Bochum anymore.

paragraphs: Today the most important institution in Bochum is the Ruhr-University Bochum, one of the biggest German universities.

paragraphs: It has an extremely wide spectrum of subjects, beginning with mathematics and science, social sciences, economy, engineering, laws, philosophy, historical subjects, theology, medicine, and languages even including Chinese and Polish.

paragraphs: Bochum has a rich cultural life and its theatre is one of the most prominent in Germany. Next to Bochum are the cities Essen and Hattingen


title: Progressive rock

paragraphs: Progressive rock is a type of rock music with complicated musical technique and composition. This means that the tempo, time signature, and style can change many times in a single song.

paragraphs: Most normal rock songs follow a very simple pattern in the way they are arranged. This pattern is a verse followed by a chorus, then a different verse, and then the same chorus. Progressive rock is more complicated than this, and can require more skill to play.

paragraphs: Progressive rock was first made in the late 1960s, but became most popular in the 1970s. It continues to be popular today, too. Progressive rock began in England and spread throughout Europe. It remains most popular in Europe, but there are several notable American and Canadian progressive rock bands. This genre was influenced by classical music and jazz fusion. Over the years, different sub-genres of progressive rock have been created, such as symphonic rock, art rock, math rock, and progressive metal.

paragraphs: Progressive rock artists wished to create music that was not limited to the structures of common popular rock and pop music. They wanted to make rock music that "progressed" to the complexity of jazz and classical music by creating a more serious, complex and sophisticated type of rock music. Progressive rock bands may have influences from psychedelic rock, folk music, traditional music, world music, and jazz or jazz fusion. It is also referred to as "prog rock" as an abbreviation, or as "Hobbit rock" because of frequent medieval or fantasy themes in the lyrics.

paragraphs: Progressive rock bands write and play songs that have many changes during each song. Regular rock songs have verses and a chorus, but progressive songs can have many different sections. For example, instead of having verses and choruses, progressive rock songs may have many different musical themes, solos, and musical moods. A typical progressive song might have a form such as: Introduction-Verse-Chorus-instrumental section-New verse-New chorus-Instrumental section-Ending.

paragraphs: Because of their depth and complexity, progressive rock songs are not played on pop music radio very often.

paragraphs: Some of the important progressive rock bands from the late 1960s and early 1970s include The Moody Blues, Jethro Tull; Yes, Genesis; Pink Floyd; Emerson; Lake & Palmer; Rush; Gentle Giant; Happy The Man; Van der Graaf Generator, and King Crimson.

paragraphs: Progressive rock is difficult to define, because progressive rock bands often play different types of progressive rock music which sound different. There are some common elements that are in most progressive rock band music, such as long, complex songs, unusual time signatures, unusual instruments or ways of using them, and use of improvisation, which means making up or inventing music while playing on stage.

paragraphs: Albums by progressive rock groups are often concept albums. In a concept album, the songs have a common theme, are arranged in a certain order and often tell a story or represent a larger concept.


title: San Juan, Puerto Rico

paragraphs: San Juan is the capital and largest city of Puerto Rico. The city's population is 433,733. It is the 42nd-largest city and the oldest European settlement in United States territory. Today, San Juan is Puerto Rico's most important seaport.

paragraphs: San Juan was founded in 1521. It was named after San Juan Bautista, or St. John the Baptist (name given by Christopher Columbus). San Juan is also known as "La Ciudad Amurallada". This means the "walled city". San Juan has many old buildings still standing today. Many Spanish explorers came during the Age of Discovery and built forts, churches, and other historical buildings. An example of a very old fort is "La Fortaleza". It is also known as "Palacio de Santa Catalina". In the sixteenth century, it was a Spanish fortress against Caribs. These were the people native to the Caribbean islands and Central America. Another old building is the oldest residence in Old San Juan, Casas de los Contrasfuertes (House of Buttresses).


title: Kashmir

paragraphs: Kashmir (, ), previously spelled Cashmere, is a region in South-central Asia. Historically, the name Kashmir referred to the valley just to the south of the western end of the Himalayan mountain range. Today, Kashmir refers to a much larger area that includes the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (which includes the Kashmir Valley, Jammu region and Ladakh), Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan (part of Pakistan), and Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract (part of China). The main "Valley of Kashmir" is a low fertile area surrounded by mountains and fed by many rivers. People like it for its natural beauty and simple lifestyle. The region is part of a border dispute between India and Pakistan.

paragraphs: In total it has an area of 230,166.1 square kilometres or (89,106 square miles). The population of the region is more than the individual populations of 127 UN member nations and its area is larger than that of 97 nations.

paragraphs: The Nilamata Purana describes the Valley's origin from the waters, a fact corroborated by prominent geologists, and shows how the very name of the land was derived from the process of desiccation - Ka means "water" and Shimir means "to desiccate". Hence, Kashmir stands for "a land desiccated from water". There is also a theory which takes Kashmir to be a contraction of Kashyap-mira or Kashyapmir or Kashyapmeru, the ""Sea or Mountain of Kashyapa"", the sage who is credited with having drained the waters of the primordial Lake Satisar, that Kashmir was before it was reclaimed. The Nilamata Purana gives the name Kashmira to the (Kashmir Valley includes the Wular Lake) Mira" which means the sea lake or the mountain of Sage Kashyapa. Mira in Sanskrit means Ocean or boundary, considering it to be an embodiment of Uma and it is the Kashmir that the world knows today. The Kashmiris, however, call it "Kashir", which has been derived phonetically from Kashmir. The Ancient Greeks called it as "Kasperia". Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44); In classical literature Herodotus also called it "Kaspatyrol". Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria. Xuanzang, the Chinese monk who visited Kashmir in 631 AD called it "Kia-shi-mi-lo", the Tibetans called it Khachal, meaning "snowy mountain". It is and has been a land of rivers, lakes and wildflowers. "Cashmere" is an archaic spelling of present-Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way. A tribe of Semitic origin, named Kash (which means a deep slash in the native dialect), is believed to have founded the cities of Kashan and Kashgar, not to be confused with the Kashyapi tribe from Caspian. The land and the people were known as 'Kashir' from which 'Kashmir' was also derived from therein.

paragraphs: The Kashmir conflict has existed since India and Pakistan became independent states. At first, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, wanted his state to remain independent of both India and Pakistan. On 20 October 1947, tribesmen supported by Pakistan invaded Kashmir. Singh fought back at first, but on 27 October, he asked the Governor-General of India, Louis Mountbatten, for help. He agreed, but made Singh turn over Jammu and Kashmir to India. Once the papers of accession to India were signed, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir with orders to stop any further occupation, but they were not allowed to expel anyone from the state. Pakistan claimed that it was illegal for Singh to give Kashmir to India, and the First Kashmir War was started. India took the matter to the United Nations. The UN resolution asked Pakistan to vacate the areas it had occupied and asked India to assist the U.N. Plebiscite Commission to organize a plebiscite to determine the will of the people. Pakistan refused to vacate the occupied areas.

paragraphs: In 1953, as the US-Pakistan Mutual Defence Pact was being formed, Nehru declared an ultimatum. Pakistan would have to choose between a plebiscite with the possibility of winning control over Kashmir, or their pact with the US. As the alliance formed and was concluded in 1954, Nehru withdrew the offer of plebiscite. Kashmir remains an area of conflict until today.

paragraphs: India and Pakistan have fought several wars over Kashmir. In 1949 and 1972 they agreed on a border for most of the Territories (except for the Siachen Glacier). This demarcation line which marks the border between India and Pakistan is known as the Line of Control. It is guarded by Indian and Pakistani troops.

paragraphs: The border between Aksai Chin (held by China) and Jammu and Kashmir (held by India) is known as Line of Actual Control.

paragraphs: The Kashmir border between the Punjab (Pakistan) and Indian-administered Kashmir is called the working boundary, but is not recognised by Pakistan. India has built a fence along part of this border.

paragraphs: The Siachen Glacier and the bordering Saltoro Range first saw military action in 1984 when the Indian Army occupied the glacier and the Saltoro range to prevent Pakistan from occupying the area. This operation was codenamed Operation Meghdoot. There have been several minor changes to the held positions. However, the Indian Armed forces have held onto the heights on the plateau, preventing the Pakistani soldiers from climbing up the Saltoro range.

paragraphs: The Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) refers to the current position that divides Indian and Pakistani troops in the Siachen Glacier region. The line extends from the northernmost point of the LOC (Line of Control) to Indira Col. This line runs across the edge of the Saltoro Range, which is a mountainous plateau with peaks that are over 8,000 meters tall. The current position of the AGPL follows the general line:

paragraphs: Indira Col - Sia La pass - Saltoro Kangri 1 - Bilafond La pass - K12 - Gyong La pass - NJ9842

paragraphs: The Disputed territory of Kashmir is divided into five administrative Divisions, namely:

paragraphs: A group of Districts forms a Division, which is administered by a 'Divisional Commissioner'. Kashmir is now divided in twenty-one districts, grouped under five divisions jointly controlled by Pakistan and India respectively:

paragraphs: Kashmir's economy is centred around Agriculture, like that of Pakistan. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was Rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like Asparagus, Artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar (National tree of Pakistan), firs and Pines, chenar (State tree) or plane, Maple, birch and Walnut, apple, cherry.

paragraphs: Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from Western China). Kashmiris are well adept at Knitting and making Pashmina Shawls, silk carpets, rugs, Kurtas, and Pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as Organic foods mainly to the Greater Middle East region which it forms an integral part. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, Papier mache, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk.

paragraphs: The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Pakistan earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian controlled kashmir.

paragraphs: The Indian-held portion of Kashmir is believed to have potentially rich rocks containing hydrocarbon reserves.

paragraphs: The economy of the region is focused on agriculture. People grow rice there. In the Indian part they also grow corn, such as wheat and barley. Its climate is different from that of most of the Indian subcontinent: It is milder. Therefore, crops like artichoke, cauliflower, cabbage and certain kinds of beans are also grown.

paragraphs: Cashmere wool is well-known almost anywhere in the world. Cashmere wool is wool from Cashmere goats. Because of conflicts over the territory, however, most Cashmere wool no longer comes from Kashmir.

paragraphs: Kashmir is home to the finest saffron in the world.

paragraphs: Tourism has been important in Kashmir for many years. Many people call the region "Paradise on Earth". Tourists from all over the world visit Kashmir. In the last ten years, fewer people have visited Kashmir because of terrorism, but it still remains one of the most sought after tourist destinations.

paragraphs: 78% of the people in Kashmir are Muslims and Islam is the majority religion of the territory.


title: Rural area

paragraphs: Rural areas are areas which are not towns or cities. They are often farming or agricultural areas. These areas are sometimes called "the country" or "countryside". People who live "in the country" often live in small villages, but they might also live somewhere where there are no other houses nearby.

paragraphs: Rural is the opposite of urban, which means places such as cities where buildings and places where people work and live are all close together.

paragraphs: Many people who live in cities like to go to the country to relax. They go there for recreation, often for their holidays, or to read.

paragraphs: In the U.S. and Angola the term "rural area" technically describes a place that has less than 500 inhabitants per square mile.


title: Stephen Crane

paragraphs: Stephen Townley Crane (November 1, 1871 - June 5, 1900) was an American writer. He was born on November 1, 1871 in Newark, New Jersey to Jonathan Townley Crane, a clergyman, and Mary Helen Peck Crane. He attended Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York, but did not graduate. He moved to New York City in 1892 to write about the slum life of Manhattan. His major works include the novella "Maggie: A Girl of the Streets" (1893), the war novel "The Red Badge of Courage" (1895), and the short story "The Open Boat" (1897). After the success of "Badge", his literary reputation declined. His health was poor. In May 1899, he entered a sanitarium in Badenweiler, Germany. On June 5, 1900, he died of tuberculosis. He is buried in the Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside, New Jersey.


title: Lawrence's goldfinch

paragraphs: The Lawrence's Goldfinch, "Carduelis lawrencei", is a small songbird of North America. Bigger than the Lesser Goldfinch, and smaller than the American Goldfinch, with less yellow markings than either.

paragraphs: It lives from central California and its southern coast in the United States, to Baja California in Mexico. Females have less yellow and do not have the black cap and chin of the males.

paragraphs: This bird is named after the American "ornithologist" (bird expert), George Newbold Lawrence.


title: George Newbold Lawrence

paragraphs: George Newbold Lawrence (October 20, 1806 - January 17, 1895) was an American businessperson and amateur ornithologist (bird expert).

paragraphs: Lawrence counted birds for Spencer Fullerton Baird and John Cassin, and the three men wrote "Birds of North America" in 1858.

paragraphs: Lawrence left his 8,000 bird skins to the American Museum of Natural History. The Lawrence's Goldfinch "Carduelis lawrencei" was named for him by Cassin.


title: Santa Claus

paragraphs: Santa Claus or Father Christmas, commonly associated with Christmas, is a historical person who is a big and cheerful white-bearded man wearing a red suit with white trim. In some countries, he is thought to live at the North Pole with his wife Mrs. Claus, elves who build his toys, and reindeer who pull his sleigh through the sky.

paragraphs: Father Christmas, the Nordic version, is said to reside in Lapland, Finland, but some think he is from the North Pole.

paragraphs: Santa is best known for bringing gifts to small, good children (and children-at-heart) worldwide on Christmas (usually) by sliding down fireplace chimneys (or opening doors with a special key) and reindeer pulling his sleigh.

paragraphs: Santa was most likely created from different traditions from European and Christian culture, such as St. Nicholas, the Dutch Sinterklaas, and others. There are many popular culture items about Santa. He is known as Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, Kristingle, Christingle, Father Christmas, Santy, and many other names.

paragraphs: In the Nordic version, Santa is said to live in a small hill called Korvatunturi in Lapland, Finland. There is a theme park in Rovaniemi, which is near Korvatunturi, called Santa Claus Village.

paragraphs: The saint who inspired the legend of Sinterklaas (and thus, Santa Claus) is Saint Nicholas, who lived in the 4th Century AD and had a reputation for secret gift-giving, especially to the poor and needy, such as putting coins in the shoes of those who left them out for him.

paragraphs: He is said to reside at the top of the world at the North Pole with his wife Mrs. Claus, elves, and reindeer.

paragraphs: As his home and workshop are historical, there is no definite geographical location as to where the home or workshop is located.

paragraphs: Over the years, there have been a number of websites created by various organizations that have purported to track Santa. Some, such as NORAD Tracks Santa, the Airservices Australia Tracks Santa Project, the Santa Update Project, and the MSNBC and Bing Maps Platform Tracks Santa Project have endured. Others, such as the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport's Tracks Santa Project, the Santa Retro Radar – Lehigh Valley Project, and the NASA Tracks Santa Project, have fallen out of use.

paragraphs: The origins of the NORAD Tracks Santa program began in the United States in 1955, when a Sears Roebuck store in Colorado Springs, Colorado gave children a number to call a "Santa hotline." The number was mistyped, resulting in children calling the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) on Christmas Eve instead. Colonel Harry Shoup, the Director of Operations, received the first call for Santa and responded by telling children there were signs on the radar that Santa was indeed heading south from the North Pole. A tradition began which continued under the name NORAD Tracks Santa when in 1958, the United States and Canada jointly created the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD). This tracking can now be done through the Internet and NORAD's website.

paragraphs: In the past, many local television stations in the United States and Canada likewise claimed they tracked Santa in their own metropolitan areas through the stations' meteorologists. In December 2000, the Weather Channel built upon these local efforts to provide a national Christmas Eve Santa tracking effort called SantaWatch in cooperation with NASA, the International Space Station, and Silicon Valley-based new multimedia firm Dreamtime Holdings. In the 21st century, most local television stations in the United States and Canada rely upon outside established "Santa tracking" efforts, such as NORAD Tracks Santa.

paragraphs: Many other websites became available year-round, devoted to Santa and purport to keep tabs on his activities in his workshop. Many of these websites also include email addresses which allow children to send email to Santa. Most of these websites use volunteer living people as "elves" to answer email sent to Santa. However, some websites, such as Santa's page on Microsoft's Windows Live Spaces, have used or still use "bots" to compose and send email replies, with occasional unfortunate results. One particular website called emailSanta.com was created when a 1997 Canada Post strike prevented a man named Alan Kerr (credited as the "Head Elf")'s young niece and nephews from sending their letters to Santa; in a few weeks, over 1,000 emails to Santa were received and had received 1,000 emails a day one year later. Now celebrating close to two decades on-line, emailSanta.com receives roughly 1 million emails a year.

paragraphs: In addition to providing holiday-themed entertainment, "Santa tracking" websites raise interest in space technology and exploration, serve to educate children in geography. and encourage them to take an interest in science.

paragraphs: By the end of the 20th century, the reality of mass mechanized production became more fully accepted by the Western public. Elves had been portrayed as using assembly lines to produce toys early in the 20th century. That shift was reflected in the modern depiction of Santa's residence—now often humorously portrayed as a fully mechanized production and distribution facility, equipped with the latest manufacturing technology, and overseen by the elves with Santa and Mrs. Claus as executives and / or managers. An excerpt from a 2004 article, from a supply chain managers' trade magazine, aptly illustrates this depiction:

paragraphs: In the cartoon base, Santa has been voiced by several people, including Ed Asner, Stan Francis, Mickey Rooney, John Goodman, and Keith Wickham.

paragraphs: Santa has been described as a positive male cultural icon:

paragraphs: Many television commercials, comic strips and other media depict this as a sort of humorous business, with Santa's elves acting as a sometimes mischievously disgruntled workforce, cracking jokes, making riddles, and pulling pranks on their boss. For instance, a "Bloom County" story from December 15, 1981 through December 24, 1981 has Santa rejecting the demands of PETCO (Professional Elves Toy-Making and Craft Organization) for higher wages, a hot tub in the locker room, and "short broads," with the elves then going on strike. Ronald Reagan steps in, fires all of Santa's helpers, and replaces them with out-of-work air traffic controllers (an obvious reference to the 1981 air traffic controllers' strike), resulting in a riot before Santa vindictively rehires them in humiliating new positions such as his reindeer. In an episode of "The Sopranos" titled "...To Save Us All from Satan's Power," Paulie Gualtieri says he "used to think Santa and Mrs. Claus were running a sweatshop over there... The original elves were ugly, traveled with Santa to throw bad kids a beatin', and gave the good ones toys."

paragraphs: In Kyrgyzstan, a mountain peak was named after Santa, after a Swedish company had suggested the location be a more efficient starting place for present-delivering journeys all over the world, than Lapland. In the Kyrgyz capital Bishkek, a Santa Claus Festival was held on December 30, 2007, with government officials attending. 2008 was officially declared the Year of Santa Claus in the country. The events are seen as moves to boost tourism in Kyrgyzstan.

paragraphs: The Guinness World Record for the largest gathering of Santa Clauses is held by Thrissur, Kerala, India, where on December 27, 2014, 18,112 Santas came overtaking the current record of Derry City, Northern Ireland. On September 9, 2007, where a total of 12,965 people dressed up as Santa or Santa's helpers which previously brought down the record of 3,921, which was set during the Santa Dash event in Liverpool City Center in 2005. A gathering of Santas in 2009 in Bucharest, Romania attempted to top the world record, but failed with only 3,939 Santas.


title: Cinnamon

paragraphs: Cinnamon is a spice got from the inner bark of "Cinnamomum verum".

paragraphs: The spice is used in both sweet and savoury foods. It is very aromatic. People usually put cinnamon in sweet baked goods (such as cinnamon rolls), hot wine or liquors.

paragraphs: Cinnamon was used to make the spiced wine, claret, in the Middle Ages. In India, cinnamon is commonly used in making flavoured tea. It is either directly added as small pieces or put in powdered form during the preparation of tea. It is known as "Daal-Cheeni" in Hindi.

paragraphs: The Sinhalese name is "kurundu". Cinnamon is grown as an export crop in Sri Lanka.

paragraphs: There is a literature which suggests that cinnamon spice may have positive effects on diabetes type II. This is not the view of the U.S, National Institutes of Health.


Egg


title: Science fiction

paragraphs: Science fiction (often shortened to sci-fi or SF) is a kind of writing. Science fiction stories can be novels, movies, TV shows, video games, comic books and other literature.

paragraphs: SF is often about the future. It can be about imaginary new science and inventions such as spaceships, time machines, and robots. Science fiction stories are often in a world that is very different from the real world. They can have science and tools that do not exist in reality. Science fiction stories often take place on other worlds. There are often alien creatures.

paragraphs: Science fiction is drastically different from fantasy. Fantasy stories often have magic and other things that do not exist and are not science. Isaac Asimov was a famous science fiction writer. He once said that science fiction is possible, but fantasy is not.

paragraphs: Writers often use SF to explain everyday questions or problems by putting them in the future. Usually they invent a very different world to help people notice important ideas.

paragraphs: Science fiction changes over time. Some authors wrote SF books before this type of writing had a name. These writers and books were not called science fiction when they were published. But, they are often called science fiction today.

paragraphs: Two broad genres of science fiction are Hard SF and Soft SF. Although not everyone agrees on the exact definitions of these two types, the way they use science or the type of science used in the stories is different.

paragraphs: Hard science fiction, or "hard SF", is special because it uses true facts and theories from sciences. These sciences are very important in Hard SF: physics, astrophysics, and chemistry. Also, Hard SF can show worlds that more advanced technology may make possible. Many correct predictions of the future come from the hard science fiction subgenre. However, there have been many incorrect ideas about the future, too. Some hard SF writers have also worked as professional scientists. A few of these scientist/writers are Gregory Benford and Geoffrey A. Landis, while mathematician authors include Rudy Rucker and Vernor Vinge. Other noteworthy hard SF authors include Arthur C. Clarke, Hal Clement, Isaac Asimov, Greg Bear, Stanislav Lem, Larry Niven, Robert J. Sawyer, Stephen Baxter, Alastair Reynolds, Charles Sheffield, and Greg Egan.

paragraphs: Soft science fiction stories take ideas from social sciences such as psychology, economics, political science, sociology, and anthropology. Some important writers in this category include Ursula K. Le Guin and Philip K. Dick. Soft SF can be mostly about character and emotion. Ray Bradbury won a prize called the SFWA Grand Master and writes in this style. The Soviet Union produced social science fiction too. Some examples are Strugatsky brothers, Kir Bulychov and Ivan Yefremov.

paragraphs: Some Social SF and Soft SF can be types of speculative fiction, for example utopian or dystopian stories. George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four", Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World" and Margaret Atwood's "The Handmaid's Tale", are examples. Some people think that satirical novels in fantastic settings (places) such as "Gulliver's Travels" by Jonathan Swift are speculative fiction.

paragraphs: Within Hard or Soft SF, there are different types, or subgenres, of science fiction. Each subgenre is a group of stories that uses similar ideas or styles of writing. Publishing companies and critics put works of SF into different subgenres to help describe the work to help readers choose which books to read or movies to watch. Assigning genres is not simple. Some stories can be in two or more genres at the same time. Other stories may not fit any genre.

paragraphs: In Alternate (or alternative) history stories, writers imagine how the past might have been different. These stories may use time travel to change the past. Some set a story in a universe with a different history from our own. These are some important alternate history books:

paragraphs: The Sidewise Award is for the best works in this subgenre. The name Sidewise is taken from Murray Leinster's 1934 story "Sidewise in Time." Harry Turtledove is one of the most famous writers in the subgenre. He is often called the "master of alternate history".

paragraphs: Apocalyptic fiction is about the end of civilization. There are several types: through war ("On The Beach"), pandemic ("The Last Man"), astronomic impact ("When Worlds Collide"), ecological disaster ("The Wind From Nowhere"), or mankind's self-destruction ("Oryx and Crake"), or some other general disaster. Apocalyptic SF may also be about world or civilization after a disaster.

paragraphs: Cyberpunk began in the early 1980s. Bruce Bethke used this word as the title for a short story in 1980 by putting together two words: "cybernetics" and "punk". Soon, people used this word to describe William Gibson's book, "Neuromancer". Cyberpunk authors can put their stories in different settings. Stories usually take place in the near-future and the settings are often dystopian (characterized by misery). These are often societies with very advanced technology. A few huge corporations usually control the society. Another early cyberpunk novel that has become a classic is "Snow Crash" by Neal Stephenson.

paragraphs: Military science fiction stories happen during wars. These wars can be between different countries, different planets, or between different species. The stories are told by characters who are soldiers. They include detail about military technology, rules, and history. Some Military SF may be similar to real historical conflicts. Heinlein's "Starship Troopers" is an early example. Another is the Dorsai novels of Gordon Dickson. Joe Haldeman's "The Forever War" is a response to the World War II–style stories of earlier military SF authors. Haldeman was a soldier in the Vietnam War. Important military SF authors include John Ringo, David Drake, David Weber, and S. M. Stirling. Baen Books is known for cultivating military science fiction authors.

paragraphs: Superhuman stories are about humans who get special abilities that are not normal. Maybe the new powers come from nature. Two examples of this type are Olaf Stapledon's novel "Odd John" and Theodore Sturgeon's "More Than Human". Sometimes scientists give people special powers on purpose. one example is A.E. van Vogt's novel "Slan". Frederik Pohl's novel "Man Plus" is another good example from this category. In that book, government scientists make a man into a powerful cyborg (part human, part machine).

paragraphs: These stories usually have two main points. One is the feeling of loneliness and separation that these superhuman people feel. The other is society's reaction to them.

paragraphs: Space opera is adventure science fiction in outer space or on distant planets. Action is more important than the science or characters. There is usually a strong hero and a very big conflict. The action often moves to many different places. Edward E. (Doc) Smith was an early Space opera writer. Flash Gordon and Star Wars are also popular examples.

paragraphs: Some people may think that Space Western is a kind of Space opera. It takes ideas from books and movies about exploring the American Old West and moves them to space in the future. These stories are often on "frontier" colony worlds (colonies that have only recently been terraformed and/or settled) serving as stand-ins for the backdrop of lawlessness and economic expansion that were predominant in the American west. Some examples are "Firefly" and the movie "Serenity" by Joss Whedon. Anime programs like "Cowboy Bebop" and "Outlaw Star" are also Space Westerns. Han Solo from "Star Wars" is an important Space Western character.

paragraphs: The first important time travel novel was Mark Twain's "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court". The most famous is H. G. Wells's 1895 novel "The Time Machine". Well's book uses a machine that allows an operator to travel to an exact time. Twain's time traveler is struck in the head and wakes up in the past. The term ""time machine"" was invented by Wells. Now it is the name for any vehicle that can take a rider to another time. Ray Bradbury's 1952 short story called "A Sound of Thunder" is a more recent and very famous example of this genre. Time travel stories can be complicated. They have logical problems such as the grandfather paradox. Time travel is a popular subject in modern science fiction, in print, movies, and television.

paragraphs: Science fiction fandom is the "community of the literature of ideas... the culture in which new ideas emerge and grow before being released into society at large". Members of this community, "fans", are in contact with each other at conventions or clubs, through print or online fanzines, or on the Internet using web sites, mailing lists, and other resources.

paragraphs: SF fandom emerged from the letters column in "Amazing Stories" magazine. Soon fans began writing letters to each other, and then grouping their comments together in informal publications that became known as fanzines. Once they were in regular contact, fans wanted to meet each other, and they organized local clubs. In the 1930s, the first science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area. Conventions, clubs, and fanzines were the main fan activities, or "fanac", for decades, until the Internet improved communication among a much larger population of interested people.

paragraphs: There are two very important science fiction awards: the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award. The Hugo is presented by the World Science Fiction Society at Worldcon each year. The Nebula is presented by SFWA and voted on by the community of authors. One important award for science fiction movies is the Saturn Award. The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror movies gives this award each year..

paragraphs: There are national awards, like Canada's Aurora Award and the UK Arthur C. Clarke Award, regional awards, like the Endeavour Award presented at Orycon for works from the Pacific Northwest, special interest or subgenre awards like the Chesley Award for art or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines may organize reader polls, notably the Locus Award.

paragraphs: Conventions (in fandom, shortened as "cons"), are held in cities around the world, catering to a local, regional, national, or international membership. General-interest conventions cover all aspects of science fiction, while others focus on a particular interest like media fandom, filking, etc. Most are organized by volunteers in non-profit groups, though most media-oriented events are organized by commercial promoters. The convention's activities are called the "program", which may include panel discussions, readings, autograph sessions, costume masquerades, and other events. Activities that occur throughout the convention are not part of the program; these commonly include a dealer's room, art show, and hospitality lounge (or "con suites").

paragraphs: Conventions may host award ceremonies. Worldcons present the Hugo Awards each year. SF societies are a year-round base of activities for science fiction fans. They may be associated with an ongoing science fiction convention, or have regular club meetings, or both. Most groups meet in libraries, schools and universities, community centers, pubs or restaurants, or the homes of individual members. Long-established groups like the New England Science Fiction Association and the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society have clubhouses for meetings and storage of convention supplies and research materials.

paragraphs: The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) was founded by Damon Knight in 1965 as a non-profit organization to serve the community of professional science fiction authors, 24 years after his essay "Unite or Fie!" had led to the organization of the National Fantasy Fan Federation. Fandom has helped support related groups as they started to form, including media fandom, the Society for Creative Anachronism, gaming, filking, and furry fandom.

paragraphs: The first science fiction fanzine, "The Comet", was published in 1930. Fanzine printing methods have changed over the decades, from the mimeograph and the ditto machine, to modern photocopying. The number of copies was usually not enough to use commercial printing. Modern fanzines are printed on computer printers or at local copy shops, or they may only be sent as email. The best known fanzine (or "'zine") today is "Ansible". David Langford is the editor and it has won several Hugo awards. Artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field, including Brad W. Foster, Teddy Harvia, and Joe Mayhew; the Hugos include a category for Best Fan Artists. The earliest organized fandom online was the SF Lovers community, originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a text archive file that was updated regularly. In the 1980s, Usenet groups greatly expanded the circle of fans online. In the 1990s, the development of the World-Wide Web made the online fan community much, much larger. Fans created thousands and then millions of web sites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media. Most of these websites are small, ephemeral, or about very specific topics. Though sites like SF Site and Read and Find Out give readers a broad range of references and reviews about science fiction.

paragraphs: Fan fiction is non-commercial fiction created by people who love an SF story or world. Fans write stories that take place in the setting of an established book, movie, or television series. Some people call it "fanfic". In some cases, the copyright owners of the books, movies, or television series have instructed their lawyers to issue "cease and desist" letters to fans.


title: Blaise Pascal

paragraphs: Blaise Pascal (19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662) was a French mathematician. He was born in Clermont-Ferrand, France. His mother died when he was three years old. His father's name was Étienne. He had two sisters, Jaqueline and Gilberte. Pascal was completely educated by his father. Pascal was considered a child prodigy. Though best known for his works in mathematics, including the creation of Pascal's Triangle, which is named after him, and developments in the field of probability, Pascal was also a scientist. He wrote in support of the scientific method and also contributed to physics. Later he wrote two books about Christianity. Also, the Pascal unit was named after him.

paragraphs: Pascal died in Paris, France at 39. He had several illnesses; it is not known which of them caused his death.

paragraphs: Pascal invented a form of counting machine which helped inventors create the calculator in the 20th century.


title: Pascal's Triangle

paragraphs: Pascal's Triangle is a mathematical triangular array. It is named after French mathematician Blaise Pascal, but it was used in China 3 centuries before his time.

paragraphs: Pascal's triangle can be made as follows. On the first row, write only the number 1. Then, to get the numbers of following rows, add the number that can be seen above and to the left (if any) and the number above and to the right (if any) to find the new value. For example, the numbers 1 and 3 in the fourth row are added to make 4 in the fifth row.

paragraphs: The triangle has many uses in probability. It can also be used in binomial expansions. For example,

paragraphs: Notice the coefficients are the third row of Pascal's triangle: 1, 2, 1.

paragraphs: In general, when a binomial is raised to a positive integer power we have:

paragraphs: where the coefficients "a" in this expansion are precisely the numbers on row "n" + 1 of Pascal's triangle; in other words,

paragraphs: Formally speaking, the way of making the Pascal's Triangle uses Pascal's rule, which states that

paragraphs: for non-negative integers "n" and "k" where "n" ≥ "k" and with the initial condition

paragraphs: Pascal's triangle generalizes readily into higher dimensions. The three-dimensional version is called Pascal's pyramid or "Pascal's tetrahedron". A higher-dimensional analogue is generically called a "Pascal's simplex". See also pyramid, tetrahedron, and simplex.

paragraphs: The first and last number in each row is always 1.

paragraphs: The second number in each row is the row number. In a binomial expansion, this second number is equal to the power. (This makes the 'first' row, 1, actually the zero row).

paragraphs: The rows always read the same forward and backward.

paragraphs: The sum of the numbers in each row is double the sum of the numbers in the row before. The sum of each row is 2.


title: Antidisestablishmentarianism

paragraphs: Antidisestablishmentarianism is a political position. It means "to keep an established church". A official state church is called the "established" church, so a disestablishmentarian is a person who wants to stop the state church. These people say a state church hurts the freedom of religion. These people say the state should be secular, meaning religion and the country are separate. This idea is called disestablishmentarianism. So antidisestablishmentarianism wants to keep the state church.

paragraphs: It is famous because it is one of the longest words in the English language.

paragraphs: The word comes from England in the 1800s. In England, Ireland and Wales, there was an official state church called the Anglican Church. Ireland disestablished in 1871, and Wales disestablished in 1920. England still has the Anglican Church as the state church.

paragraphs: In 2014 Nick Clegg, who was the Leader of the Liberal Democrats at the time, said that he thought the Church of England should no longer be the established church. David Cameron, who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said the establishment helps the church and state.

paragraphs: Antidisestablishmentarianism is one of the longest words in the English language. It has 28 letters and 12 syllables. It is considered to be the longest word, if you do not count technical terms. For example, "pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis" is a technical term for a lung disease made by people who wanted it to be the longest word.

paragraphs: The word became famous because of a popular television show in the 1950s called "The $64,000 Question", where someone spelled it and won. Duke Ellington, a jazz artist, had a song called "You're Just an Old Antidisestablishmentarianismist". Eminem, a rapper, used the word in his song "Almost Famous".


title: Sarah McLachlan

paragraphs: Sarah McLachlan (born January 28, 1968) is a Canadian singer-songwriter who is known for her emotional music. She was adopted and raised in Halifax, Nova Scotia. She went to the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, then moved to Vancouver, British Columbia.

paragraphs: Her recording company, Nettwerk, released her first album in 1988. After recording several albums, she organized the all-female music festival Lilith Fair in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Some of the money made from these concerts went to women's charities. McLachlan received the Elizabeth Cady Stanton Visionary Award in 1998 for helping women's music.

paragraphs: She married her drummer, Ashwin Sood, in 1997. They have a daughter, India, born in 2002.

paragraphs: McLachlan has been written about in magazines such as Rolling Stone, Time, and Entertainment Weekly. She has won Grammy and Juno awards for her music.

paragraphs: She funds a Vancouver program that helps poor children learn music. She has played at charity concerts, such as for victims of the December 26, 2004 tsunami and at the 2005 Live 8 concert in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.

paragraphs: Some of McLachlan's best-known songs include "The Path of Thorns", "Into the Fire", "Possession", "Building a Mystery", "Sweet Surrender", "Adia", "Angel", and "World on Fire".

paragraphs: Live EPs (shorter albums) were released in 1992 and 2004.


title: Mark Twain

paragraphs: Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), more widely known as Mark Twain, was a well known American writer born in Florida, Missouri. He worked mainly for newspapers and as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River before he became a writer. He married in 1870, and raised his family in Hartford, Connecticut. In later life he invested and lost the money that his writing had made, and toured the world giving lectures that brought him enough money to pay his debt and recover his fortune.

paragraphs: Clemens was best known for his works in fiction, and especially for his use of humour. His first published story, in 1865, was "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County."

paragraphs: "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" is considered by many to be Clemens' best work. This story of a white boy who helps a black man escape slavery in the southern United States is known for its humanity.

paragraphs: Clemens's style was usually informal and humorous. This made him different from many important 19th century writers whose books he disliked. For example, he greatly disliked Jane Austen's works, such as "Sense and Sensibility" and "Pride and Prejudice", and famously remarked, "She makes me detest (hate) all her people, without reserve."

paragraphs: Actor Hal Holbrook plays Mark Twain on stage in a one-man show called "Mark Twain Tonight".

paragraphs: Halley's Comet appeared in the sky during the year Twain was born and the year he died. This periodic comet comes back every 74 years, which is how long he lived.


paragraphs: Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is the third book in the "Harry Potter" series by J. K. Rowling. The book was released on 8 July 1999. It covers Harry Potter's third year at Hogwarts. A movie based on the book was released on 31 May 2004. This is the only book where Lord Voldemort does not make an appearance.

paragraphs: After accidentally inflating his aunt Marge, Harry leaves the Dursleys, and catches a ride on the street on a magical bus called The Knight Bus. Before he begins his way back to Hogwarts, he learns of Sirius Black, a mass murderer, believed to have killed thirteen people with a single curse. Black has escaped from the wizard prison, Azkaban. Meanwhile, upon meeting the Weasleys, Harry learns that, despite accidentally using magic (which is illegal), he has not been expelled. Mr. Weasley tells Mrs. Weasley of Sirius Black's motive to kill Harry when Harry overhears this he is told not to go looking for Black. Later in the book, Harry soon realizes why.