title: Muhammad Hashim Gazdar

paragraphs: Muhammad Hashim Gazdar () was a prominent politician of Pakistan. He was mayor of Karachi and a former member of the Bombay Legislative Council from Sindh constituency.

paragraphs: He was originally from Rajputana and led the Marwari group in Karachi politics. He was born in 1895 in Jaisalmer (present day India). His ancestral roots linked to Rajput Clans of Rajisthan from where his father immigrated and settled in Karachi after the Sindh was amalgamated in British empire since 1843. He completed his intermediate from Sindh Madressah-tul-Islam, Karachi in 1911. Later, he went to Maharashtar to study engineering in Pune. Later he shifted to Bombay where he joined the project to uplift the lower caste in Bombay but after it was unsuccessful, he resigned along with a number of others from the project.

paragraphs: After he retired from the project, he returned to Karachi and worked as an engineer at the then District Local Board, Karachi. However, he later resigned from the job due to differences on policy matter with G. M. Syed, who was then the president of the Board.

paragraphs: Later, he joined politics and was elected a member of the Bombay Legislative Council from the constituency of Sindh in the 1934 election. Meanwhile he remained active in politics through the platform of the Sindh Ittehad party. He was also elected Mayor of the Municipality of Karachi for the term from May 1941 to May 1942. Afterwards, he joined Jinnah's All India Muslim League; that was launching a movement for establishment of an independent state for Muslim population of India within the sub-continent (which emerged as Pakistan later). Quaid e Azam led this movement and Hashim Gazdar was a friend of Muhammed Ali Jinnah on the platform of All India Muslim League to achieve the goal of a separate Muslim state. During this course, he was again elected a member of Legislative Assembly from Sindh; and remained the Deputy Speaker thereof.

paragraphs: Muhammed Hashim Gazdar was among the people who represented Sindh in the first session of Pakistan's initiating Constituent Assembly that was convened four days prior to the emergence of Pakistan, i.e. 10 August 1947 at Sindh Assembly Building, Karachi. Other members to represent Sindh were Muhammed Ayub Khoro, J. Ram Das Doulat Ram, and Pirzada Abdul Sattar Abdul Rehman.

paragraphs: As a former politician, the role played by Hashim Gazdar during the pre-partition and post partition era is highly acknowledged. Being an honest legislator, a veteran Muslim League politician, his role was significant as an ideological prominent figure on the scenario of Pakistan politics since its genesis. Being a commendable parliamentarian, he is highly appreciable with a view to transiting politics to the new stream in accordance with the changing necessities of times.

paragraphs: He died in 1966 and is buried in Muslim Marwari Graveyard Mewashah, Karachi.


title: Jaisalmer

paragraphs: Jaisalmer, nicknamed "The Golden City", is a town in the Indian state of Rajasthan. The town is located on a ridge of yellowish sandstone which contains a palace and temples. It lies in the middle of the Thar Desert and has a population of about 78,000. It is the capital of Jaisalmer District. The city is named after Rawal Jaisal.


title: Treaty of Lahore

paragraphs: The Treaty of Lahore was signed on 9 March 1846 after the First Sikh War. After the defeat of the Sikhs at the Battle of Sobraon the British were able to march into Lahore without any further battles. After the British reached the city of Lahore the treaty was signed.

paragraphs: The Sikhs (who had been defeated) were forced to sign the treaty with the British. As part of the treaty the Sikhs agreed to handover Kashmir and Hazara and Jalandhar Doab to the British. The treaty also resulted in the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond falling into British hands.

paragraphs: Gulab Singh, an Indian prince, negotiated between the British and the Sikhs over how the Sikhs would surrender. As well as handing over land to the British, the Sikhs had to allow a British Resident and a British army contingent at Lahore and troops in other cities.

paragraphs: Also, under the treaty, the Sikhs had to pay 1.2 million pounds to the British. As they were unable to pay Gulab Singh was able to take Kashmir from the Punjab government by paying 750,000 pounds to the East India Company. The Sikhs were also forced to give up the territory between the Satluj and the Beas rivers to the British. The Sikh army was also reduced. Maharaja Duleep Singh was recognised as the new ruler of Punjab. The new rulers were forbidden to employ any European without the permission of the British.


title: Treaty of Amritsar

paragraphs: The Treaty of Amritsar was signed on March 16, 1846 to settle a dispute over territory in Kashmir after the First Sikh War with the United Kingdom. The treaty was signed in the city of Amritsar. As part of the treaty land was given to Maharaja Gulab Singh Dogra. Gulab Singh was then able to rule over the lands to the west of the Ravi River including Chamba. Gulab Singh paid money to the British Government to get this land. The Treaty of Amritsar marked the beginning of Dogra rule in Kashmir, which was to end in 1948 after India got independence from Britishers.


title: Amritsar

paragraphs: Amritsar (, meaning: "The Lake of the Holy Nectar",) is the capital of the Amritsar District in the state of Punjab, India. According to the 2001 Indian census, over 1,500,000 people lived in the city.

paragraphs: Amritsar is in the state of Punjab, India, 32 km east of Lahore, Pakistan. The Harimandir Sahib, also known as the Golden Temple, is there. The temple is the centre of the Sikh religion.

paragraphs: The city has been famous for many events in history. In the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919 under British Rule a large number of people were killed by British troops. The city is also famous for Operation Bluestar, a military operation in 1984 that was ordered by the Prime Minister of India of the time, Indira Gandhi. Many Sikhs were angered, as the holy Golden Temple of the Sikhs was damaged.


title: Amritsar District

paragraphs: Amritsar district (Doabi:ਤਾਲੁਕਾ ਅੰਮ੍ਰਿਤਸਰ) is one of 19 districts in the state of Punjab in West India. It has a population over 3,000,000 and covers an area of 5075 km². The city of Amritsar is headquarters of this district.

paragraphs: During British Rule Amritsar was part of Lahore Division and was subdivided into 3 tehsils, there were - Amritsar taluka, Tarn Taran taluka and Ajnala taluka. However, as part of the partition of India in 1947 Amritsar district was separated from the rest of the division and given to India. During the partition period, the Muslim population of the district, some 46%, left for Pakistan while Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan settled in the district.

paragraphs: The Principle Jatt Sikh clans according to 1911 census are Aulakh, Bhangu, Bhullar, Chahal, Chhina, Deo, Dhariwal, Dhillon, Shergill, Hanjra, Hayer, Hundal, Khaira, Kang, Mahal, Maan, Pannu, Randhawa, Sandhu, Sidhu, Sohal, Virk, Waraich.


title: Lahore Division

paragraphs: Lahore Division () was a former division of the Punjab Province of Pakistan. In 2000 the government of Pakistan ended divisions.

paragraphs: Lahore Division was also an administrative division of Punjab Province of British India. It extended along the right bank of the Sutlej River from the Himalaya to Multan, and was made up of the six districts of Sialkot, Gujranwala, Montgomery, Lahore, Amritsar, and Gurdaspur. With the Partition of British India into the independent states of India and Pakistan in 1947, Lahore Division was divided among the two countries.


title: Divisions of Pakistan

paragraphs: Pakistan, including the disputed territory of Kashmir, originally had 37 political divisions during the United Pakistan period, that was inherited by British India, then from 1971-2000 it was reduced to 33 since four were lost to the independence of Bangladesh"

paragraphs: The Divisions of Pakistan () used to be a subdivision of Pakistan's provinces. Pakistan's four provinces were split into divisions and the divisions were split into districts. However after the year 2000, the government of Pakistan abolished divisions.

paragraphs: In August 2000, local government reforms abolished the "Division" as an administrative tier and introduced a system of local government councils, with the first elections held in 2001. Following that there was radical restructuring of the local government system to implement "the principle of subsidiarity, whereby all functions that can be effectively performed at the local level are transferred to that level". This meant devolution of many functions, to districts and tehsils, which were previously handled at the provincial and divisional levels. At abolition, there were twenty-six divisions in Pakistan proper - five in Sindh, six in Balochistan, seven in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and eight in Punjab. Abolition did not affect the two divisions of Azad Kashmir, which form the second tier of government.


title: Former subdivisions of Pakistan

paragraphs: The former subdivisions of Pakistan are states, provinces and territories of Pakistan. Most of which existed between 1947 and 1975.

paragraphs: Pakistan's subdivisions originate from those of British India, during their rule the British had established provinces and chief commissioners. After 1947 Pakistan and India became independent when British India was divided.

paragraphs: From 1947 to 1971, Pakistan was split into two areas (East and West Pakistan) that were 1600 kilometres apart separated by India in the middle. The eastern wing had one province - East Bengal which included the Sylhet District from the former Indian province of Assam, and also the former district of East Pakistan province. The western wing was formed from three Governor's provinces (North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sind (historical), one Chief Commissioner's Province (Baluchistan), several Princely states and parts of occupied Kashmir.


title: Kalat Division

paragraphs: Kalat Division () originally it was called Baluchistan States Union, until the merger with West Pakistan in 1955 and was also an administrative division of the Balochistan Province of Pakistan, until the reforms of 2000 abolished it.


title: Makran Division

paragraphs: Makran Division () was an administrative division of the Balochistan Province of Pakistan, until the reforms of 2000 abolished it.


title: Nasirabad Division

paragraphs: Nasirabad Division () was an administrative division of the Balochistan Province of Pakistan, until the reforms of 2000 abolished it. The capital was Nasirabad town.


title: Makran

paragraphs: Makran () is a partly-desert coastal strip in the south of Balochistan, in Iran and Pakistan. It is along the coast of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman. The Persian phrase "Mahi khoran", fish-eaters ("Mahi" = fish + "khor" = eat) is believed to be the origin of the modern word "Makran".

paragraphs: The narrow coastal plain rises very rapidly into several mountain ranges. The coastline is 1,000 km, 750 km of this is in Pakistan. The climate is very dry with very little rainfall.

paragraphs: According to the book Documents on the Persian Gulf's name " and ENCYCLOPEDIA Iranika Makran also Mekran and Mokrān historically in persian and Arabic text was a vast area from Hormuz strait to the Sind River some mentioned as far as gujarat region.also the body of water in that region was called Macran Sea.The name Makrān has found a popular etymology in māhi-ḵᵛorān “fish eaters,” but more probable is a connection with the name Magan,or Maka of the Old Persian.

paragraphs: Until the early Islamic period, eastern Makrān at least must have been within the sphere of Indian religion and culture.

paragraphs: On his way homewards from the Far East in 1290, Marco Polo (II, pp. 334-35) sailed along the Makrān coast, calling it KisMacoran (i.e. Tiz Makrān), considering it as the last province of India and attributing to it a ruler of its own. In the early 14th century, Ebn Baṭṭuṭa (II, pp. 341-2) records that, after the death of the Il-Khanid sultan (i.e. after 736/1335), a certain Malek Dinār took power in Makrān. It was during these centuries that Makrān was colonized by Baluch tribesmen moving southeastwards from Persia, so that it is today mostly Baluch-speaking. The boundary between Persian Makrān and that part coming within the British Indian province of Baluchistan (the easternmost part forming the Native State of Las Bela) and after 1947 within Pakistan, was demarcated by an Anglo-Persian Boundary Commission in 1870-72.


title: Geography of Iran

paragraphs: The Geography of Iran contains mountains, rivers as well as plain land. Iran is a country of Southwest Asia, it borders the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, and the Caspian Sea, between Iraq and Pakistan. Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries.

paragraphs: Iran has an area of 1,648,000 square kilometres and is the sixteenth largest in size. Iran is bordered to the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan. The border with these countries are more than 2,000 kilometres long and includes nearly 650 kilometres of water along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea.

paragraphs: Iran's western borders are with Turkey in the north and Iraq in the south, ending at the Shatt al Arab (which Iranians call the Arvand Rud). The Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman littorals form the southern border (1,770 kilometres). To the east lie Afghanistan on the north and Pakistan on the south. The distance from the Iran's border with Azerbaijan in the north-west to the border with Pakistan in the south-east is about 2,333 kilometres.


title: Administrative units of Pakistan

paragraphs: Pakistan is a country in Asia. It is divided into five provinces and two territories. Pakistan also administers part of Kashmir. This part is divided into two separate areas. The rest of Kashmir is administered by India.

paragraphs: Each province of Pakistan is divided into "zillas" - zillah is an Urdu word () meaning district. There are 105 districts in Pakistan.

paragraphs: A district is divided into tehsils (). A tehsils is similar to a county. Tehsils are used in all provinces except in Sindh province where the word taluka () is used instead. Tehsils may contain villages or towns and cities.

paragraphs: Each tehsil is further divided into union councils. A union council is the smallest part of local government in Pakistan. They are sometimes made up of a few villages.

paragraphs: There are over 5,000 local government areas in Pakistan. Since 2001, these have been led by democratically elected local councils, each headed by a Nazim (the word means "supervisor" in Urdu, but is sometimes translated as mayor). Women have been allotted a minimum of 33% seats in these councils; there is no maximum limit to the number of women in these councils.

paragraphs: In the 1960s, Pakistan was simply divided into two "units" these were East Pakistan and West Pakistan. Shortly before East Pakistan became independent as Bangladesh, West Pakistan reverted to a system with four provinces. The provinces consisted of subunits called "divisions", which were further subdivided into districts, tehsils, and villages or municipalities.

paragraphs: In August 2000, Pervez Musharraf's local government reforms abolished the "division" as an administrative tier. A system of local government councils was established, with the first elections being held in 2001. Since then Pakistan has had greatly changed the local government system. The government had a plan to allow devolution. This plan according to the government "follows the principle of subsidiarity, whereby all functions that can be effectively performed at the local level are transferred to that level."

paragraphs: This means mean that decisions are made locally by people who live in the area and not in far away cities.


title: Subsidiarity

paragraphs: Subsidiarity is an idea that things should be handled by the smallest, lowest or least centralised authority.

paragraphs: The idea is that the top authority should only do things which cannot be properly done at a lower or local level. It applies to many areas of life.


title: Just Dance

paragraphs: “Just Dance” is a 2008 song by American singer Lady Gaga, from her debut album, "The Fame". Gaga sang this song with Colby O'Donis. The song was nominated for Best Dance Recording at the 2009 Grammy Awards. It reached #1 in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and the Netherlands.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

paragraphs: Rose Marion Tyler is a character in the British television series "Doctor Who". She was played by Billie Piper. Rose was a companion of the Doctor.

paragraphs: The character was created by series producer Russell T Davies. When "Doctor Who" was returned to television in 2005, Rose was introduced in the show as a new "companion" of series protagonist the Doctor, in his Ninth and later Tenth bodies. A regular companion of the Doctor for all of series one and series two, Rose also returned in the programme's fourth series having Changed in the gap between them.

paragraphs: When first seen, Rose is 19 years old and working in a shop named Henrik's. She has a boyfriend named Mickey Smith, and lives in a apartment with her mother Jackie Tyler in the Powell Estate in London. Rose left school without taking her A-levels but won the bronze medal in an under-sevens gymnastics competition at her school. Her father, Pete Tyler died in 1987 in a car accident, the year after Rose was born. When she was twelve, she received a red bicycle for Christmas, which was given to her by the Doctor after meeting Rose in the future.

paragraphs: Ninth Doctor saves her from aliens named Autons then he destroy the building. She helps the Doctor to defeat the autons then decides to travel with him.

paragraphs: While they are travelling, the Doctor and Rose realise that the words "Bad Wolf" follow them around. They discover that Rose herself is the Bad Wolf, and that the words are a message. They tell Rose that she must travel to the future to absorb the energies of the time vortex, to save the Doctor and the Earth from the Daleks. By absorbing the power of the TARDIS, she destroy the Daleks, brings Captain Jack back to life and leaves the words "Bad Wolf" through the universe as clues that are seen throughout the series.

paragraphs: Soon the energies she absorbed begin to destroy her body. The Doctor, through a kiss, absorbs the power, sacrificing his ninth incarnation and regenerating before Rose's eyes into the Tenth Doctor.

paragraphs: At the beginning of season 2, Rose and the Doctor travel "farther than we've ever gone before" to New New Earth. There they meet the Face of Boe again and help defeat some cat-nurses. Over the course of season two, we learn that Rose has a crush on the Doctor, a point that is made strongly in 2.03 (when she competes for the Doctor's affections with former companion, Sarah Jane Smith) and 2.04 (when the Doctor falls for Madame de Pompadour). Toward the end of the season, the Doctor starts to return affection for Rose, ending in the finale where Rose is trapped in a parallel universe (that looks just like ours) with her mother, Jackie, Mickey, and her parallel-universe father, Peter Tyler.

paragraphs: Rose makes a number of little, non-speaking appearances throughout series four.

paragraphs: In "Turn Left", when a Time Beetle causes Donna to change the past and change the universe, Rose continually appears to her and helps her to set things right by sending her back in time. She also gives Donna the message "Bad Wolf" to deliver to the Doctor, which tells him that it is the end of the universe. Rose is reunited with the Doctor in "The Stolen Earth", but as the two run towards each other, the Doctor is shot down by a Dalek. A sad Rose, reunited with Jack Harkness for the first time since she resurrected him in "The Parting of the Ways", is forced to watch the Doctor begin to regenerate again.

paragraphs: In "Journey's End" the Doctor regenerates just enough to heal himself, moving the rest of his 'Time Lord' regenerative energy into his hand that was cut off in the series two episode "The Christmas Invasion". Donna later touches the hand, and the energy that flows into her creates a weird event called a 'biological metacrisis'. This metacrisis causes the hand to develop into a part human, part time lord version of the Doctor, complete with the Doctor's memories, personality and knowledge, but exhibiting traits of Donna's personality. This mixed version of the Doctor also has only one heart, and he can't regenerate. The original Doctor returns Rose to her alternate universe's Bad Wolf Bay. Between themselves, the original Doctor and the half-human Doctor have decided that the half-human Doctor will stay with Rose; this Doctor can give Rose a romantic relationship, as he will age and die as a human rather than greatly outliving her like his Time Lord counterpart would. The Doctor tells Rose that his half-human self needs her as he was "born of blood and fire and revenge" much like his previous body was after the Time War. He believes Rose can help turn him into a "better man". When the half-human Doctor seemingly completes the sentence the original Doctor started at the end of "Doomsday" they kiss each other. And although we do not hear what the half-human Doctor had whispered to Rose, executive producer Julie Gardner confirmed in Doctor Who Confidential that "even though we don't hear it, of course he's saying 'I love you'."

paragraphs: The Doctor then leaves Rose and her Doctor in their parallel universe, the walls once again sealed.


title: Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)

paragraphs: Kashmir and Jammu was a princely state in the Himalayas next to the territories of British India in the north. It was ruled by a Hindu Maharaja.

paragraphs: The state was created in 1846 after the defeat of the Sikhs. The East India Company annexed the Kashmir valley and wanted to recover some of the cost of the Anglo-Sikh war. The Muslim majority Kashmir was sold to the Dogra ruler of Jammu under the Treaty of Amritsar. The area of the state were set by the Treaty of Amritsar of 1846 "situated to the eastward of the Indus and westward of the Ravi River it covered an area of 80,900 km2.

paragraphs: After the British left India the princely state was divided between Pakistan and India as war took place between the neighbours.

paragraphs: Before the creation of the princely state, Kashmir had been ruled by the Durrani Empire it was then taken over by the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh. During Sikh rule Jammu had been a tributary of the Sikh Empire in the Punjab region, but after the death of its Raja, Kishore Singh, Dogra, in 1822 his son Gulab Singh was recognised by the Sikhs as being his heir. He then began expanding his kingdom.

paragraphs: As Ruler Jammu Gulab Singh took over Bhadarwah then Kishtwar. Taking over Kishtwar meant that Singh had now gained control of two of the roads which led into Ladakh which allowed him to take control of that territory. Although there were huge difficulties, due to the mountains and glaciers, the Dogras under Gulab Singh's officer, Zorawar Singh managed to conquered the whole of Ladakh.

paragraphs: A few years later, in 1840, General Zorawar Singh invaded Baltistan and captured the Raja of Skardu who had sided with the Ladakhis, and took over his country. The following year (1841) Zorawar Singh tried to invade Tibet, however due to the winter weather and by being attacked by the Tibetians. He along with almost all of his army died.

paragraphs: In the winter of 1845 war broke out between the British and the Sikhs. Gulab Singh remained neutral until the battle of Sobraon in 1846, when he became a trusted adviser of Sir Henry Lawrence. This allowed him to gain land for himself - all the hilly or mountainous land to the east of the Indus and west of the Ravi River.

paragraphs: Kashmir itself was not easy for the Maharaja to take over. The Maharaja's army had to fight Imam-ud-din - the Sikh governor. Imam-ud-din was aided by the Bambas from the Jhelum valley. They managed to defeat Gulab Singh's troops near to Srinagar, killing Wazir Lakhpat. However Imam-ud-din was later persuaded by Sir Henry Lawrence to stop fighting and Kashmir passed without further fighting to the new ruler.

paragraphs: Not long afterwards the Hunza Raja, attacked Gilgit territory. Nathu Shah on behalf of Gulab Singh responded by leading a force to attack the Hunza valley; he and his force were destroyed, and Gilgit fort fell into the hands of the Hunza Raja, along with Punial, Yasin, and Darel. The Maharaja then sent two armies, one from Astor and one from Baltistan, and after some fighting Gilgit fort was taken back. In 1852 the Dogra troops were defeated by Gaur Rahman of Yasin, and for eight years the Indus formed the boundary of the Maharaja's territories.

paragraphs: Gulab Singh died in 1857, his successor, Ranbir Singh, sided with the British during the Indian Rebellion. After the rebellion had been defeated by the British Ranbir decided to take back Gilgit. In 1860 a force under Devi Singh crossed the Indus, and moved towards Gaur Rahman's strong fort at Gilgit. Gaur Rahman had died just before the arrival of the Dogras. The fort was taken and held by the Maharajas until 1947.

paragraphs: Although Ranbir Singh was tolerant of other religions his control over the country was weak, between 1877-1879 a dreadful famine took place in Kashmir.

paragraphs: Jammu was the southernmost part of the state and was next to the Punjab districts of Jhelum, Gujrat, Sialkot, and Gurdaspur.

paragraphs: There used to be a route from Kohala to Leh, it was possible to travel from Rawalpindi via Kohala and over the Kohala Bridge into Kashmir. The route from Kohala to Srinagar was a cart-road 132 miles in length, from Kohala to Baramulla the road was close to the Jhelum River. At Muzaffarabad the Kishenganga River joins the Jhelum and at this point the road from Abbottabad and Garhi Habibullah meet the Kashmir route. The road carried heavy traffic and had to be repaired main times by the authorities.

paragraphs: In 1893 very serious floods took place in the Jhelum because of rain that fell for 52 hours, and much damage was done to Srinagar. However the floods of 1903 was much more severe.

paragraphs: In 1947 the Indian Independence Act was passed, this meant that British India would become two independent states - Pakistan and India. Also each of the princely states would be free to join India or Pakistan - or remain independent. All of princely ended up becoming part of Pakistan or India.

paragraphs: However the ruler of Kashmir wanted to remain independent, neither joining Pakistan or India, this led to war between the two neighbouring countries in which Kashmir became divided between them. Each considered that "all" of the former princely state belongs to them. This has led to several wars. The Kashmir conflict between the two nuclear neighbours remains one of the hardest and longest running disputes that the United Nations Security Council has been trying to solve.


title: Automatix (software)

paragraphs: Automatix was a computer program to install software on Ubuntu in an easy way.

paragraphs: Automatix allowed the menu-driven installation of 56 different “capabilities”, including commercial closed source programs such as the Flash plugin, Acrobat Reader, multimedia codecs (DivX, MP3, Windows Media Audio) and fonts, and programming compilers.


title: Jallianwala Bagh massacre

paragraphs: The Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre, also known as the Amritsar Massacre was a massacre that happened in Amritsar, in 1919. It is named after the Jallianwala Bagh [Temple] in the northern Indian city of Amritsar. On April 13, 1919, British Indian Army soldiers started shooting at an unarmed crowd of men, women and children. The person in charge was Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, the military commander of Amritsar.

paragraphs: The shooting lasted about ten minutes. According to official British Raj sources, 379 people were killed. According to other sources, there were over 1,000 deaths, with more than 2,000 hurt badly, and Civil Surgeon Dr. Smith said that there were 1,526 casualties.

paragraphs: World War I began with large support and friendliness towards the United Kingdom from the leaders of India. This was not expected by the British, who thought there may be a revolt. India helped a lot to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and workers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition.

paragraphs: However, Bengal and Punjab were areas where people still did not like the British. Terrorist-style attacks in Bengal were connected with the unrest in Punjab. Also, from the beginning of the war, the overseas Indian population (mainly from Canada, Germany, and the United States) tried to start a rebellion in India similar to the 1857 uprising. With Irish Republican, German and Turkish help, a large conspiracy was made called the HinduGerman Conspiracy. This conspiracy also tried to make Afghanistan not support British India.

paragraphs: After World War I, the high number of dead and wounded, inflation, heavy taxation and other problems greatly affected the people of India. Indian soldiers smuggled weapons into India to get rid of British rule. Different groups joined together to demand independence from Britain. In 1916, the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact, agreeing to build a border dividing Punjab (India) and Pakistan.

paragraphs: The worsening civil unrest throughout India, especially amongst the Bombay millworkers, led to the Rowlatt committee in 1919. The Rowlatt committee was named after Sydney Rowlatt, an English judge. The job of the committee was to understand German and Bolshevik links to the militant movement in India, especially in Punjab and Bengal.

paragraphs: The committee asked for an extension of the Defence of India act of 1915 The act gave the Viceroy's government with great power, that included silencing the press, including detaining the political activists without trial, arrest without warrant of any individual suspected of treason. This act sparked huge anger within India.

paragraphs: The events that followed the Rowlatt Act in 1919 were also influenced by the events linked to the Ghadar conspiracy. At the time, British Indian Army troops were returning from the battlefields of Europe and Mesopotamia to an economic depression in India. There were many attempts to mutiny in 1915 and the Lahore conspiracy trials were still in public attention. News of young Mohajirs who fought on behalf of the Turkish Caliphate and later for the Red Army during the Russian Civil War was also beginning to reach India. The Russian Revolution had also started to influence India. It was at this time that Mahatma Gandhi, until then relatively unknown on the Indian political scene, began emerging as a mass leader.

paragraphs: Gandhi's call for protest against the Rowlatt act got an expected response - of furious unrest and protests. The situation especially in Punjab became bad very quickly. Rail, telegraph and communication systems were all disrupted. A huge crowd of 20,000 marched through Lahore.

paragraphs: In Amritsar, over 5,000 people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh. Michael O'Dwyer is said to have believed that this was part of an attempt to rebel against the British. James Houssemayne Du Boulay is said to have ascribed a direct relationship between the fear of a Ghadarite uprising in the midst of an increasingly tensed situation in Punjab, and the British response that ended in the massacre.

paragraphs: On April 10, 1919, a protest was held at the residence of the Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar, a city in Punjab, a large province in the northwestern part of what was then undivided India. The demonstration was held to demand the release of two popular leaders of the Indian Independence Movement, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, who had been earlier arrested on account of their protests. The crowd was shot at by British troops, the shooting stated more violence. Later in the day, several banks and other government buildings, including the Town Hall and the railway station were attacked and set on fire. The violence continued to increase, and resulted in the deaths of at least 5 Europeans, including government employees and civilians.

paragraphs: For the next two days, the city of Amritsar was quiet, but violence continued in other parts of the Punjab. Railway lines were cut, telegraph posts destroyed, government buildings burnt, and three Europeans were killed. By April 13, the British government had decided to place most of the Punjab under martial law. The legislation placed restrictions on a number of civil liberties, including freedom of assembly, banning gatherings of more than four people

paragraphs: On April 13, 1919, thousands of people gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh (garden) near the Golden Temple in Amritsar. The date was for the Baisakhi festival which was also the Sikh new year. For more than two hundred years, this festival had drawn thousands from all over India. People had travelled for days to get to Amritsar.

paragraphs: The Jallianwala Bagh was surrounded on all sides by houses and buildings and had few narrow entrances, most of which were kept locked. Unable to escape people tried to climb the walls of the park. Many jumped into a well inside the compound to escape from the bullets. A plaque in the monument says that 120 bodies were plucked out of the well.

paragraphs: As a result of the shooting, hundreds of people were killed and thousands were injured. In a telegram sent to Dyer, British Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, Sir Michael O'Dwyer wrote: ""Your action is correct. Lieutenant Governor approves.""

paragraphs: O'Dwyer asked for martial law to be imposed upon Amritsar and other areas; this was allowed by the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, after the massacre.

paragraphs: Dyer was initially applauded by some, but in July 1920 he was censured and forced to retire by the House of Commons.


title: British Indian Army

paragraphs: The British Indian Army, officially called simply the Indian Army (IA), was the army in British India during British rule (1858–1947). The Indian Army served as a security force in India itself and fought in battles overseas, particularly during the two World Wars.

paragraphs: The term "Indian Army" was used to describe the presidency armies, especially after the Indian Mutiny. However, the first army officially called the "Indian Army" was raised by the government of India in 1895. In 1903 the Indian Army absorbed the three presidency armies (the Bengal Army, the Madras Army and the Bombay Army).

paragraphs: Between 1903 and 1947 the Army of India consisted of two separate parts: the Indian Army and the British Army in India. The first consisted of Indian Army regiments from India, while the second were British Army regiments from the United Kingdom which were sent to India.

paragraphs: The Army of India defeated the Ottoman Empire and conquered Iraq in the Mesopotamian Campaign of World War I.

paragraphs: The Indian Army was formed after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 when the government of Britain took over rule from the British East India Company. Before that the Company had their own army units, paid for by their profits and these joined with British Army units.

paragraphs: The army of the British East India Company recruited mostly Muslims in the Bengal Presidency (which consisted of Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh), and high caste Hindus mainly from the rural plains of Oudh. These troops rebelled against the British in 1857.

paragraphs: After the rebellion, the British started recruiting what the British called the "martial races," particularly Punjabi Muslims, Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs, Gurkhas, Pashtuns, Garhwalis, Mohyals, and Dogras.

paragraphs: After World War II, the British formations and units that had been part of the British Army of India were divided between India and Pakistan.

paragraphs: Soon after the Partition of India, both the newly formed armies fought each other in the First Kashmir War from 1947 - '48 which begun the bitter rivalry that has continued into the 21st century.


title: Presidency armies

paragraphs: The presidency armies were the armies of the three presidencies of British India. The presidency armies, like the presidencies themselves, belonged to the East India Company until the Indian Mutiny, when the British government took over all three presidencies. Eventually all three presidency armies were merged into the Indian Army.

paragraphs: The presidency armies were named after the presidencies, these were:

paragraphs: From the mid-eighteenth century, the East India Company began to keep armies at each of its three main stations, or ‘Presidencies’, in India at Calcutta (Bengal), Madras and Bombay. The Bengal Army, Madras Army, and Bombay Army were quite different, each with its own list of Regiments and European officers. All three armies had both European regiments in which both the officers and men were Europeans, and a larger number of ‘Native’ regiments in which the officers were Europeans and the ordinary soldiers were Indians.

paragraphs: Also from the mid-eighteenth century the British government began to send regiments of the regular British Army to India to reinforce the Company’s armies. These troops are often referred to as ‘H.M.’s Regiments’ or ‘Royal regiments’.

paragraphs: Following the Indian rebellion of 1857-58 and the end of the East India Company, its European regiments were joined in 1860 with the British Army, but its ‘Native’ regiments were not. The three separate Presidency Armies continued to exist, and their European officers continued to be listed as members of the Bengal, Madras or Bombay Army rather than the British Army. However, the Presidency Armies began to be described as the Indian Army. Also after the rebellion artillery was only to be used by the British Army and not by Indian troops.

paragraphs: In the 1890s, the separate Presidency Armies were joined together to form the Indian Army.


title: Bombay Presidency

paragraphs: The Bombay Presidency was a former province of British India. It began in the 17th century as trading posts of the British East India Company, but later grew to include much of western and central India, as well as parts of Pakistan and the Arabian Peninsula.

paragraphs: At its greatest extent, the Bombay Presidency was made up of the present-day state of Gujarat, the western two-thirds of Maharashtra state, including the regions of Konkan, Desh, and Kandesh, and northwestern Karnataka state of India; It also included Pakistan's Sindh province and the British territory of Aden in Yemen. It consisted partly of districts, which were directly under British rule, and partly of native or princely states, which were ruled by local rulers under the administration of a governor.

paragraphs: The first British settlement in the Bombay Presidency was in 1618, when the East India Company established a factory at Surat. The British were protected by a charter from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Bombay at the time was under the control of Portugal. In 1661 Bombay was given to the British government, as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza when she married Charles II of England. In 1668 Bombay was given to the East India Company for a yearly payment of £10. In 1687 Bombay became the capital of the Company's territories in India. However, in 1753 Calcutta was in charge of the Government of Bombay.

paragraphs: During the 18th century, the Maratha Empire grew quickly, conquering Konkan and much of eastern Gujarat from the Mughal Empire. In western Gujarat, including Kathiawar and Kutch, the weakening Mughal control allowed lots of local rulers to become independent. The first battle between the British and the Marathas was the First Anglo-Maratha War which began in 1774 and resulted in the 1782 treaty of Salbai. The treaty meant that the island of Salsette, next to Bombay island, was given to the British. The British took over Surat in 1800. British territory became bigger in the Second Anglo-Maratha War which ended in 1803.

paragraphs: In 1803 the Bombay Presidency included only Salsette, the islands of the harbour (since 1774), Surat and Bankot (since 1756); but 1803 and 1827 the presidency grew even more. The Gujarat districts were taken over by the Bombay government in 1805 and made larger in 1818. The small states of Kathiawar and Mahikantha were organised into princely states under British control between 1807 and 1820.

paragraphs: After the Revolt of 1857, the British East India Company rule ceased, and India came under the direct control of the British government. In 1932, Aden was separated from Bombay and made a separate province, and Sind became a separate province on April 1, 1936.

paragraphs: The Bombay Presidency had a large and diverse population. The census of 1901 gave a total of 25,468,209 people. By religion the population was 19,916,438 Hindu, 4,567,295 Muslim, 535,950 Jain, 78,552 Zoroastrian, and about 200,000 Christian.

paragraphs: In Sindh Islam had been the main religion since the Arab conquest in the 8th century. In Gujarat the main religion is Hinduism, although Muslim kingdoms have left their influence in many parts of the province. The Deccan is the home of the Marathi, who were 30% of the population. The Konkan had various Christian castes, because of the rule of the Portuguese.

paragraphs: The main languages of the Presidency were Sindhi in Sindh, Kutchi in Kutch, Gujarati and Hindustani in Gujarat, Marathi in Thana and the central division, Gujarati and Marathi in Khandesh, and Marathi and Kannada in the southern division. There were also Bhil (120,000) and Gipsy (30,000) dialects.

paragraphs: In 1947 Bombay Province became part of newly-independent India, and Sindh Province became part of Pakistan. In 1950 Bombay Province was reorganised into Bombay State, which included the princely states.


title: Maharaja

paragraphs: The word Mahārāja (also spelled maharajah) is Sanskrit for "great king" or "high king". Many languages of India have borrowed the word 'maharaja', there languages include Punjabi, Bengali, Hindi and Gujarati. Its use is mainly for Hindu rulers. A female ruler is known as Maharani (or Maharanee) or great queen. She can be the wife of a Maharaja or a ruler herself.

paragraphs: British India contained more than 600 princely states each with its own ruler. Some states called the ruler Raja or Thakur (if the ruler were Hindu) or Nawab (if he was Muslim); there were many other titles as well. Originally only rulers of large empires such as the ancient Gupta Empire were Maharajas but in later centuries even rulers of small kingdoms used the title. In 1971, the government of Indira Gandhi abolished the titles and money for all Indian rulers. However some people still claim such titles.


title: Jallianwala Bagh

paragraphs: Jallianwala Bagh is a public garden in Amritsar city in Punjab province of India. It has a memorial to remember those people who were killed in the Massacre of 13 April, 1919. This date was also the Punjabi New Year 2,000 peaceful demonstrators had gathered in the garden.

paragraphs: The memorial is managed by "Jallianwala Bagh National Memorial Trust", which was established as per "Jallianwala Bagh National Memorial Act" passed by Government of India in year 1951.


title: Almaty

paragraphs: Almaty (; formerly known as "Alma-Ata" (Алма-Ата), also "Verniy", (Верный)) is the largest city in Kazakhstan. It has a population of over 1,700,000 people (as of 2015). Eight percent of the population of the country live in Almaty. It was the capital of Kazakhstan from 1927 to 1998. Although it is not the capital today, Almaty is still the major commercial center of Kazakhstan.

paragraphs: The city is close to China, and was once on the northern silk route between China and the Middle East. Its name derives from the Turkic languages.

paragraphs: The city is in an earthquake zone. There have been three quite serious earthquakes in the last 150 years.

paragraphs: On 4 February 1854 the Russian Empire decided to build a fort Verniy on the west bank of the Malaya Almatinka river. Later Russian settlers arrived. In 1922 the Soviet Union renamed the city to Alma-Ata. In 1927 Alma-Ata became the capital of the Kazakh SSR.

paragraphs: Almaty has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa in the Koeppen climate classification).

paragraphs: Almaty TV tower is the highest TV tower above sea level (1130 m.). The tower is the highest building in the city (372 m.). This building able to withstand 10.0 magnitude.

paragraphs: The name "Almaty" comes from the Kazakh word for "apple" (алма). The name is often translated as a city "rich with apples". The older Soviet-era Russian name for the city, Alma-Ata, comes from a mistake (the name literally means "Grandfather of apples"). In the area around Almaty, there are many different species of the wild apples. The region is thought to be the ancestral home of the apple. A local species of apple, the wild "Malus sieversii", may be the ancestor of the modern domestic apple.


title: Banjo-Kazooie

paragraphs: Banjo-Kazooie is a video game made by Rare for the Nintendo 64 in 1998. The name of the game comes from the names of the two main characters, a bear called "Banjo" and an orange bird called "Kazooie", who lives in Banjo's backpack. The story follows Banjo and Kazooie as they set out on a quest to rescue Banjo's sister who has been kidnapped by an evil witch named Gruntilda Winkybunion. It was released on the Xbox 360's Xbox Live Arcade service in December of 2008.


title: Halo Wars

paragraphs: Halo Wars is a real-time strategy video game for the Xbox 360. It was developed by Ensemble Studios. The game was released by Microsoft. It was released in Japan and Australia on February 26, 2009, in Europe on February 27, and in North America on March 3. It is based on the popular, award winning "Halo" series of video games, and is set in the year 2531, 21 years before the events of "". It's the first "Halo" game that is not a first person shooter.


title: Project Gotham Racing (series)

paragraphs: Project Gotham Racing often known as PGR is a series of driving video games published by Microsoft for the Xbox and Xbox 360 consoles.


title: Bydales School

paragraphs: Bydales School is a secondary school in Marske-by-the-Sea, England which has about 750 students. A new school building was opened on 2 November 2006. It is rated as 'outstanding' by Ofsted. It is a technology college. The school has a small wind turbine, solar panels and a hydrogen fuel cell.


title: In Love with a Girl (song)

paragraphs: "In Love with a Girl" is the #1 single by Gavin DeGraw on the album "Gavin DeGraw". "In Love with a Girl" was released February 2008.


title: Vinje

paragraphs: Vinje is a municipality in Norway. It is in the county of Telemark. The administration of this place is done from Åmot.

paragraphs: Vinje is the home of folk musician Myllarguten. His home there is now a small museum. A monument of Myllarguten is located near Kosi. Myllarguten was a 19th-century musician. He who played for kings and inspired Edvard Grieg.

paragraphs: Vinje was established in 1838 as a municipality. It is on the Hardangervidda and on the Setesdalsheiane Mountains plateaus.

paragraphs: Arabygdi lies in the western part of Rauland. IT is on Lake Totak. The largest stone scree in Northern Europe, with huge boulders lying on the floor of the valley is here. "Urdbøuri", is the name of this famous place.

paragraphs: The municipality Vinje (originally the parish) is named after the old farm Vinje (Norse "Vinjar"), since the first church was built here. The name is the plural form of "vin" f 'meadow, pasture'.


title: 1979–80 NHL season

paragraphs: The 1979–80 NHL season was the 63rd season of the National Hockey League. Twenty-one teams each played 80 games. This season saw the addition of four teams from the collapse of the World Hockey Association (WHA) the previous season as expansion teams. The Edmonton Oilers, Winnipeg Jets, New England Whalers (later renamed "Hartford Whalers" at the insistence of the Boston Bruins), and Quebec Nordiques joined the NHL bringing a new total of 21 teams. The other two WHA teams (Birmingham Bulls and Cincinnati Stingers) were paid to disband.

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: "Note: Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold"

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points"


title: Viola d'amore

paragraphs: The viola d'amore is a string instrument which was popular in the 17th and 18th century. It is a kind of viola. The name is Italian and means “viola of love”. It can have 6 or 7 strings. It is held under the chin and bowed like a violin. Sometimes it is used today to play music from the 17th and 18th centuries. Occasionally some modern composers have also written music for it.

paragraphs: The viola d'amore is about the same size as a modern viola. However, the shape is more like the shape of a viol. Like viols, it has a flat back, a wide rib (the sides), sloping shoulders and a carved head at the top of the peg box. It does not have any frets (markings on the fingerboard) like a viol or a guitar. The sound-holes are often in the shape of a flaming sword.

paragraphs: The viola d'amore usually has six or seven playing strings which are played with the bow, just as with a violin. In addition, it has the same number of sympathetic strings. These are strings which vibrate when the other strings are played, making the sound richer and sweeter.

paragraphs: The viola d'amore was often tuned to whatever notes were best for the piece it was to going to play. This is a kind of scordatura (changing the way the strings are tuned). Towards the end of the 18th century the usual tuning became: "A, d, a, d', f#', a', d"" (see music example. Notice the example uses the "viola clef")

paragraphs: The viola d’amore became very popular during the 17th century. However, after a time it became less popular because the instruments of the viol family were not used much while the instruments of the violin family took over. The viola d’amore was too quiet and sweet to play with the modern violin family. However, in the 20th century some composers have written for the instrument again, e.g. Paul Hindemith.

paragraphs: The viola d'amore can regularly be heard today in groups who play Baroque music on period instruments. It can be heard, for example in Bach’s St John Passion.


title: Sœur Emmanuelle

paragraphs: Sœur Emmanuelle (born Madeleine Cinquin, November 16, 1908 – October 20, 2008) was a Belgian-born French nun.

paragraphs: She was born in Brussels, Belgium, the daughter of a family that made lingerie. At the age of six she saw her father drown. She learned at the Sorbonne, earning a degree in philosophy. In 1929 she made a religious promise and became a nun.

paragraphs: She worked in Notre-Dame de Sion high school in İstanbul in 1930s.

paragraphs: In 1971 she saw how poorly trash collectors in Cairo, Egypt were doing, and decided to live with them. She stayed until 1993, when she went back to France. After she went back, she became very famous in France and was liked by audiences and talk-show hosts.

paragraphs: Besides her work with the poor, she is also known for having had views that are not like how religion normally is, such as being for the use of birth control and being for the idea of priests to marry. She has been voted one of the most popular people in France, and has been compared to Mother Teresa. (Although she does not agree with this comparison). In 2003, French television broadcast "Soeur Emmanuelle: An exceptional woman".

paragraphs: "Les Amis de Soeur Emmanuelle" (The Friends of Sister Emmanuelle) is a charitable organization based in Brussels.


title: 1978–79 NHL season

paragraphs: The 1978–79 NHL season was the 62nd season of the National Hockey League. The 17 teams of the league played an 80-game season.

paragraphs: The Montreal Canadiens beat the New York Rangers in the Stanley Cup finals four games to one for their fourth Cup in a row.

paragraphs: "GP = Games Played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals For, GA = Goals Against, PIM = Penalties In Minutes"

paragraphs: "Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold"

paragraphs: "GP = Games Played, G = Goals, A = Assists, Pts = Points, PIM = Penalties In Minutes"

paragraphs: Vancouver Canucks vs. Philadelphia Flyers

paragraphs: "Philadelphia wins best-of-three series 2 games to 1"

paragraphs: "NY Rangers win best-of-three series 2 games to 0"

paragraphs: "Toronto wins best-of-three series 2 games to 0"

paragraphs: "Pittsburgh wins best-of-three series 2 games to 1"

paragraphs: Chicago Black Hawks vs. New York Islanders

paragraphs: "NY Islanders win best-of-seven series 4 games to 0"

paragraphs: Toronto Maple Leafs vs. Montreal Canadiens

paragraphs: "Montreal wins best-of-seven series 4 games to 0"

paragraphs: "Boston wins best-of-seven series 4 games to 0"

paragraphs: New York Rangers vs. Philadelphia Flyers

paragraphs: "NY Rangers win best-of-seven series 4 games to 1"

paragraphs: "NY Rangers win best-of-seven series 4 games to 2"

paragraphs: "Montreal wins best-of-seven series 4 games to 3"

paragraphs: As of 2008, it is the last time two Pre-war clubs met in the Finals.

paragraphs: "Montreal wins best-of-seven series 4 games to 1"


title: 1934–35 NHL season

paragraphs: The 1934–35 NHL season was the 18th season of the National Hockey League. Nine teams each played 48 games. The Montreal Maroons were the Stanley Cup winners as they swept the Toronto Maple Leafs in three games in the final series.

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: "Note: Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold"

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, G = Goals, A = Assists, PTS = Points, PIM = Penalties in minutes"


title: David Paterson

paragraphs: David Alexander Paterson (born May 20, 1954) is an American politician and the 56th Governor of New York. He is the first black governor of New York and the first legally blind governor of any state. He became governor when Eliot Spitzer resigned. Due to Paterson becoming governor, two black governors are serving at the same time for the first time in more than 100 years; as Governor Deval Patrick of Massachusetts is also African American. He chose not to run for governor in February 26, 2010.


title: 1972–73 NHL season

paragraphs: The 1972–73 NHL season was the 56th season of the National Hockey League. Sixteen teams each played 78 games. For the first time since the collapse of the Western Hockey League in 1926, the National Hockey League had serious competition. A new professional hockey league, the World Hockey Association, made its season debut with 12 new teams, many of which were based in the same cities as NHL teams. Unlike the Western Hockey League, though, the new World Hockey Association would not challenge for the Stanley Cup. In response to the new league, the NHL hastily added two new teams in an unplanned expansion, the New York Islanders and Atlanta Flames, in an attempt to exclude the WHA from newly constructed arenas in those markets.

paragraphs: The first thing the WHA did was sign Bobby Hull, and the Chicago Black Hawks sued, claiming

paragraphs: a violation of the reserve clause in NHL contracts. Others soon followed Hull to the

paragraphs: WHA, including Bernie Parent, J.C. Tremblay, Ted Green, Gerry Cheevers and

paragraphs: Johnny McKenzie. In the expansion draft, the New York Islanders and Atlanta Flames made their picks and eleven Islander players skipped off to the WHA. The California Golden Seals, chafing under the unorthodox ownership of the unpopular Charlie Finley, were

paragraphs: also a victim of the WHA, losing eight key players.


title: Justified (album)

paragraphs: Justified is the debut album by pop entertainer Justin Timberlake. The album has famous singles like "Rock Your Body", "Cry Me A River", and "Like I Love You". The album was released in November of 2002. The album also has various guest appearances featuring in Timberlake's songs.


title: Rock Your Body

paragraphs: Rock Your Body is the 3rd single off the debut album by pop singer Justin Timberlake called Justified. It was written by Timberlake and The Neptunes. He performed the single at the Super Bowl XXXVIII with Janet Jackson.


title: 1947–48 NHL season

paragraphs: The 1947–48 NHL season was the 31st season of the National Hockey League. Six teams each played 60 games. The Toronto Maple Leafs were the Stanley Cup winners. They defeated the Detroit Red Wings four games to none. This season saw the introduction of a new trophy – Art Ross Trophy – that would be handed out to the player who scored the most points during the regular season.

paragraphs: "GP = Games Played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals For, GA = Goals Against, PIM = Penalties In Minutes"

paragraphs: "Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold"

paragraphs: "GP = Games Played, G = Goals, A = Assists, Pts = Points, PIM = Penalties In Minutes"

paragraphs: "GP = Games Played, TOI = Time On Ice (minutes), GA = Goals Against, SO = Shutouts, GAA = Goals Against Average"

paragraphs: "Toronto wins best-of-seven series 4 games to 1"

paragraphs: "Detroit wins best-of-seven series 4 games to 2"

paragraphs: Detroit Red Wings vs. Toronto Maple Leafs

paragraphs: "Toronto wins best-of-seven series 4 games to 0"

paragraphs: "GP = Games Played, G = Goals, A = Assists, Pts = Points"


title: Duffy

paragraphs: Amiee Ann Duffy (born 23 June 1984), usually known as just Duffy, is a Welsh singer, songwriter and actress from Bangor, Gwynedd. Her first album, "Rockferry", sold more than 6.5 million copies. "Rockferry", and a song from the album, "Mercy", both reached number one on the UK music charts. Her second album did not sell very well, with only 200,000 sold in the UK. In 2009 she made an advertisement for Diet Coke. The ad caused problems because she is shown riding a bicycle at night without a helmet or lights. Journalist Luke Lewis described the ad as "...blank, sterile and mildly unsettling."


title: Funeral for a Friend

paragraphs: Funeral for a Friend (often known as FFAF) is a Welsh post-hardcore band. They have released five studio albums. The band was formed in 2001.


title: Chicago Spire

paragraphs: The Chicago Spire is a very large skyscraper that was being built in Chicago, Illinois. Because of financial problems, the project has not been finished.

paragraphs: As of May 2013, however, interest in the Chicago Spire site has risen, drawing in at least a half-dozen offers for the property. The developer is also considering a bid to take back control of the property, reigniting hope that the 2,000 ft. skyscraper may actually be built. In 2014, a Chicago court ruled in favor of not building the skyscraper thus abandoning plans of it being constructed.

paragraphs: The Gateway Tower, a proposed tall condo, is proposed to be built on the site of where the Spire would have been built.


title: Rickrolling

paragraphs: Rickrolling is an internet meme that involves playing a trick on someone by tricking them into listening to Rick Astley singing his 1987 song, "Never Gonna Give You Up". It was first seen on 4chan and is called a "bait and switch". A "bait and switch" happens when the prankster gives a website to someone saying that the website address (which is somehow hidden) is about something else. When the victim clicks the link, they see the music video and have been "rickrolled" or "rickroll'd".

paragraphs: As rickrolling has grown in popularity, two of the many videos online have been watched over 13 million times each.

paragraphs: On October 27, 2008, at the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, Astley himself performed a live rickroll. He came out during the singing of "Best Friends" by the cast of "Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends" and sang "Never Gonna Give You Up". At the end of the song, one of the characters said "I love rickrolling!"

paragraphs: On February 23, 2010, the most viewed Rickroll video was deleted.

paragraphs: Astley recorded "Never Gonna Give You Up" in 1987 on his album "Whenever You Need Somebody". This song was his debut single and was a Number One hit for him on many international charts like the Billboard Hot 100, Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks and UK Top 40 charts. It was also Astley's first music video which features him performing the song while dancing.

paragraphs: Rickrolling is said to have begun as a spin-off of an earlier prank called "duckrolling"., which was when a link was supposed to lead to a picture or news story but would really link to an edited picture of a duck on wheels. The victim was then said to have been duckrolled. The first instance of rickrolling happened in May 2007 on the 4chan video game board, where a link to the video was said to be a copy of the first trailer for Grand Theft Auto IV. The joke was confined to 4chan for a short time.

paragraphs: By May 2008, Rickrolling had become an internet hit or phenomenon and very soon rickrolling was being covered on mainstream media. A poll in April 2008 by SurveyUSA guessed or estimated that at least 18 million American adults had been rickrolled.

paragraphs: On April Fools' Day 2008 and the weeks after, many instances of Rickrolling showed up on the internet, and news media. All of the featured videos on Youtube's main page hyperlinked to the Rickroll. The prank showed up on international YouTube portals before showing up on the main page.


title: Stable

paragraphs: A stable is a building for livestock animals such as horses or cows to live in.

paragraphs: A stable often has a loft where food such as hay can be kept to feed the animals in the winter. The stable may be divided into enclosures or stalls to keep the animals separate.

paragraphs: A stable is most likely to be built near a farmhouse.

paragraphs: According to the Christian Bible, the baby Jesus was born in a stable. He was wrapped up and put to sleep on the straw in the feed bin (the "manger").


title: Dagne Groven Myhren

paragraphs: Dagne Groven Myhren (19 September 1940) is a Norwegian writer, folk musician and a professor of Scandinavian studies at the University of Oslo. She has written about Norwegian literature, science and folk music. She is outspoken in protecting Norwegian culture, places and music.

paragraphs: She has helped J.P.Ekgren with writing a book in English about the poetry style called Stev. The book is "Aslak Brekke og visune hans".


title: Aslak Brekke

paragraphs: Aslak Brekke (October 6, 1901 – 1978) was a Norwegian vocalist of stev (a type of Scandinavian poetry which is sung). He was also a singer of folksongs. Brekke was born in Vinje, Telemark. He was the first folksinger to sing on a radio broadcast to all of Norway.

paragraphs: In 1945, Brekke sang at an important concert in the ceremonial hall (the "Aula" ) at the University of Oslo. He also made a recording of the song "Ståle Storli", together with Eivind Groven ( harmonium ).


title: Mutiny

paragraphs: Mutiny is a when a group of people get together to openly oppose, change, or remove the people or person in authority. It usually means a group of soldiers trying to remove their officers, or a group of sailors on a ship trying to remove the captain. The group of people that mutiny are called mutineers.

paragraphs: During the Age of Discovery, mutiny meant open rebellion against a ship’s captain. This happened during Magellan’s journey and one mutineer was killed. Another mutineer was executed and 2 others were put on land and left there. After a mutiny on Henry Hudson’s "Discovery", Hudson and several others were left in the ocean in a small boat.

paragraphs: Mutiny is still treated as a very bad crime. Mutineers are punished and may even get the death penalty.


title: Printmaking

paragraphs: Printmaking is making art by printing pictures, normally on paper. The advantage of printmaking is that lots of the same picture can be printed. This is called a print. Each print is not a copy, but an original, since it came from the same source (not like painting or drawing).You can also use different types of techniques to start the print.

paragraphs: Pictures for prints can be cut into plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching; stone, used for lithography; blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing. Prints may also be published in books by the artist.


title: Old master print

paragraphs: An old master print is a work of art made by a printing process. Most of the old master prints were made by 1830 and no new ones came after. The main techniques used to make an old master print are woodcut, engraving and etching. Sometimes, old master prints are printed on paper, but rarely.

paragraphs: Many great European artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, Rembrandt, and Francisco Goya, were printmakers.


title: Web color

paragraphs: Web colors are colors used in designing webpages, and the ways for describing and listing those colours.

paragraphs: There are several ways to chose colors for parts of webpages. Colors may be listed as an RGB "triplet" (a set of three numbers) in hexadecimal format (a "hex triplet"). RGB triplet can make 16,777,216 different colors. Many common colors can also be chosen by their common English names. Often a color tool or other graphics software is used to create color values.

paragraphs: The first versions of Mosaic and Netscape Navigator used the X11 color names as the base for their color lists. This was because they both started as X Window System applications.

paragraphs: Each web color has its own definition, sRGB. This relates to the chromaticities of a single phosphor set, a given transfer curve, adaptive whitepoint, and viewing conditions. These have been chosen to be similar to many real-world monitors and viewing conditions. Even without color management, the colors created are fairly close to the given values. However, user agents can be different in the fidelity with which they show the colors. Better user agents use color management to create better color fidelity. This is important for Web-to-print applications.

paragraphs: A hex triplet is a six-digit, three-byte number used in HTML, CSS, SVG, and other computer programs, to represent colors. The bytes represent the red, green and blue parts of the color. One byte represents a number in the range 00 to FF, or 0 to 255 in decimal notation. This represents the least (0) to the most (255) intensity of each of the color components. The hex triplet is formed by concatenating three bytes in hexadecimal notation, in the following order:

paragraphs: For example, consider the color where the red/green/blue values are decimal numbers: red=36, green=104, blue=160 (a greyish-blue color). The decimal numbers 36, 104 and 160 are similar to the numbers 24, 68 and A0 respectively. The hex triplet is obtained by combining the 6 hexadecimal digits together, 2468A0 in this example.

paragraphs: Formulated in 1997, there were originally 16 colors. Orange was added later to make a total of 17. The original 16 were part of something called the "Windows VGA template", meaning that they are the colors that can be used for actions like highlighting.

paragraphs: These are called "X11 web colors" since the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991.

paragraphs: This chart shows selected HTML and X11 colors as well as selected unofficial consensus web colors developed by web designers since 2002. When entering code using the unofficial colors, the hex code of the color must be specified instead of writing the name of the color.


title: Warner Music Group

paragraphs: Warner Music Group is a record label from New York City. It is one of the "big three" record labels; the others are Sony and Universal. It started as Warner Music Group in 2003, but several Time Warner companies had existed before then.

paragraphs: Warner Music owns a few record labels, including Atlantic Records, Elektra Records, Parlophone, Roadrunner Records, Warner Bros. Records, and Reprise Records.

paragraphs: In late 2008, Warner Music group had big legal troubles with video site YouTube. They had wanted more money for the music videos they had on the site, but YouTube said no, and Warner Music Group took off all their music videos. In September 2009, both Warner Music Group and YouTube decided on a new amount of money.


title: Aslak Brekke og visune hans

paragraphs: They were performed (or sung / recited) by Aslak Brekke, a master of the artists of "kveding" (the art of performing stev)


title: OpenOffice Base

paragraphs: OpenOffice Base is the database module released with OpenOffice version 2.0 and later. Currently it is based on the HSQLDB database engine written in Java.

paragraphs: The HSQLDB developers have suggested only 76% of the target has been met in the 1.8.0 release, which is the version that was integrated (merged) with OOo 2.0. They have been asking for contributions to complete all the feature targets, since the inner database engine is an independent project with no outside funding.

paragraphs: OpenOffice users, however, can choose to connect to an external full-featured SQL database such as MySQL, PostgreSQL and even Oracle through ODBC or JDBC drivers. OpenOffice Base can then act as a GUI frontend for SQL views, table design and query. In addition, OpenOffice has its own Form wizard to create dialog windows for form filling and updates.

paragraphs: Starting with version 2.3, Base will offer report generation based on Pentaho software.

paragraphs: Released under the terms of the Apache License, Base is free software.


title: Mozilla

paragraphs: It can also refer to the platform (“Gecko” and other things) on which these programs are built:


title: Mammary intercourse

paragraphs: Mammary intercourse (also titfuck or tittyfuck) is a sexual activity. People may do it during foreplay. It is also done as a safe sex alternative to anal or vaginal sexual intercourse (fucking). It is non-penetrative sex. It involves exciting the penis using the breasts of the partner.

paragraphs: In most instances, this sexual activity involves the man placing his penis between his partner's breasts. He then thrusts while the breasts are squeezed around the penis for more excitement. Mammary intercourse is sometimes combined with oral sex (blowjob). Sometimes mammary intercourse continues to the point of ejaculation. The semen can land on the breasts, face, or in the mouth of the partner.

paragraphs: Several slang terms refer to mammary intercourse. These slang terms include "titfuck" or "titty fuck" in the United States. "Tit wank" or "French fuck" are slang terms used in the United Kingdom.


title: Shams-ud-din Iltutmish

paragraphs: Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (died 1236) was the third Muslim Turkic sultan of the Sultanate of Delhi. He was the third ruler of the Mamluk dynasty (or Slave dynasty). He was married to the daughter of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. He became the ruler after fighting against Qutb-ud-din's son. He is said to be the greatest ruler of the slave kings. He was a member of the Ilebar tribe. The first thing he did after becoming a sultan was make his kingdom larger. He also shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi. He had to defend his empire against Mongol invasions. He also had to deal with Rajputs. Iltutmish stopped the Mongol attack in 1221 A.D led by Chenghiz Khan. He completed the Qutb Minar which was started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak. He also built the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi.He died in 1236 A.D. He did not think his sons would be good rulers. He was succeeded by his daughter, Razia Sultan (also called Radiyya or Raziyya), as the next ruler of Delhi.


Lightweight


title: 1951–52 NHL season

paragraphs: The 1951–52 NHL season was the 35th season of the National Hockey League. Six teams each played 70 games. The Detroit Red Wings won the Stanley Cup by sweeping the Montreal Canadiens four games to none.

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, G = Goals, A = Assists, PTS = Points, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: In the playoffs, Detroit finished 8–0, the first time a team had gone undefeated in the playoffs since the 1934–35 Montreal Maroons. The Wings scored 24 goals in the playoffs, compared to a combined 5 goals for their opponents.


title: Chris Osgood

paragraphs: Christopher John Osgood (born November 26, 1972 in Peace River, Alberta) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey goaltender that played a career total of 18 seasons in the NHL most notably with the Detroit Red Wings. He spent the first part of his career with Detroit, and then played for the New York Islanders and the St. Louis Blues during his 14-year NHL career before returning to Detroit in 2005. He has won three Stanley Cup championships in his career, all with the Red Wings, two of them while he was the starting goaltender. He announced his retirement on July 19, 2011 but will remain with the Red Wings organization.


title: Darren Middleton

paragraphs: Darren Middleton (born 4 October 1971 in Sydney, Australia) is the guitarist in the band "Powderfinger". He is also the lead singer for "Drag".

paragraphs: Middleton began playing guitar in high school where he enjoyed music by bands like Twisted Sister and AC/DC. He began playing in clubs around his hometown of Brisbane with his first band, "Sonic Tapestry". He formed his second band, "Pirate", with friends from high school. He met "Powderfinger" at a "Pirate" show and they asked him to play with them. Middleton played on all of "Powderfinger's" recordings. While playing and recording with them, he was also writing and recording with "Drag". They have released an EP and studio album.


title: Lochee

paragraphs: Lochee is a district of Dundee. Dundee is a city in Eastern Scotland. Lochee used to be a separate town but was surrounded by Dundee.


title: 2008 Atlantic hurricane season

paragraphs: The 2008 Atlantic hurricane season is when many of the tropical cyclones formed in the Atlantic Ocean in 2008. The season started on June 1 and ended on November 30. Tropical Storm Arthur formed two days early on May 30, 2008. During the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season there was a total of sixteen named storms: 16 tropical storms, 8 hurricanes and 5 major hurricanes.

paragraphs: Tropical Storm Arthur formed near the Belize coast late on May 30, forming out of the interaction between a tropical wave and what was left of Tropical Storm Alma, which was a tropical storm in the East Pacific. Arthur made landfall in Belize on May 31. The system moved over Yucatán Peninsula slowly and dissipated on land early on June 2. When Arthur made landfall on Belize, it caused about $78 million USD worth of damage and killed 5 people.

paragraphs: Arthur is the first reported tropical storm to form in May since Tropical Storm Arlene in 1981. Other systems have formed (such as Subtropical Storm Andrea in the previous year), but were subtropical. Some forecasters question whether Arthur's very short lifespan would have been reported and named in the years prior to today's technology. The formation of Arthur also marks the first time that a "named" storm formed in May for two consecutive years. It was also the third time in over 150 years of record.

paragraphs: Early on July 1, a strong and big tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa. By early the next day, a surface low developed and the wave became more organized. The National Hurricane Center upgraded the system to Tropical Depression Two in the morning hours of July 3 after the system was able to keep convection over its center for at least 12 hours. The depression organized further and developed two distinct bands of convection. Six hours after becoming a depression, it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bertha, the second named storm of the season. The National Hurricane Center said that this tropical cyclone was predicted by up to a week in advance by many global computer models.

paragraphs: After some strengthening on July 6, Bertha was upgraded to a hurricane early on July 7 as satellite and microwave imagery indicated an eye feature had formed. It continued to strengthen that morning. Fast strengthening continued that afternoon and Bertha strengthened into a major hurricane with 125 mph (195 km/h) winds and a well-defined eye. The strengthening trend stopped early on July 8, due to wind shear, and Bertha quickly weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane that afternoon.

paragraphs: Bertha again began to quickly strengthen on July 9 as a new eye had formed and the system became more symmetrical. The NHC upgraded Bertha to a category two hurricane with winds of 105 mph (170 km/h) and stated that Bertha could strengthen further to a major hurricane again, but instead weakened into an 85 mph (135 km/h) category 1 hurricane. Bertha has become the longest-lived pre-August Atlantic tropical cyclone on record. On July 12, Bertha slowed in movement, and was close to becoming still and by July 13 this slow movement weakened the storm to tropical storm strength. On July 18, Bertha strengthened back to a hurricane as its forward motion increased. As it moved over cooler waters, it weakened a bit to a tropical storm late on July 19. It finally became extratropical on July 20 southwest of Iceland.

paragraphs: A disturbance off the Georgia coast slowly organized itself, and became Tropical Depression Three late on July 18. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Cristobal the next day. It continued to be near and parallel to the Carolina coast, though never making landfall. It became extratropical on July 23.

paragraphs: Dolly formed on July 20 from a tropical wave, which was located north of Honduras. Since it became a tropical storm right away it never became a depression while forming. Early on July 21 Dolly made landfall in the Yucatán Peninsula. The day after that it became a hurricane. Dolly moved northwest and for a little while it was a category 2 hurricane. Dolly weakened a little, back to a category 1 later that day. Very shortly after weakening Dolly made landfall in South Padre Island, Texas. Dolly died over in a very northwestern area of Texas on July 27.

paragraphs: Dolly killed a few people in Mexico and the United States, but in Guatemala Dolly killed at least 17 people. Damage was a little bit more than $1 billion.

paragraphs: A shear line stalled in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico in early August as troughing aloft dug into the northeast Gulf of Mexico. This energy aloft helped to organize a surface low along the shearline early on August 2, which slowly organized over the following day. It strengthened into Tropical Depression Five before gaining strength and being named Tropical Storm Edouard on August 3. The storm made landfall in Southeast Texas near Port Arthur on the morning of August 5 as a strong tropical storm. As it moved inland, the system weakened into a tropical depression by afternoon. The depression weakened into a remnant low on August 7 while on land over Texas.

paragraphs: A strong tropical wave moved into the northeastern Caribbean in mid-August. It caused heavy rain across the Leeward Islands and into Puerto Rico before tracking westward, while unable to develop a low-level circulation although it was producing tropical storm-force winds. On August 15, a closed circulation was found and the system was named Tropical Storm Fay. Later that day Fay caused heavy rains on the island of Hispaniola causing a major flash flood threat. Fay crossed Hispaniola, Cuba, and hit south Florida beginning late on August 18, slowly tracking northeastward across the peninsula. High amounts of flooding happened in much of eastern Florida, along with some wind damage. After crossing into the Atlantic, Fay turned westward again and crossed northern Florida on August 22. As it zigzagged from water to land, it became the first storm in Florida recorded history to make landfall four times. Fay weakened into a tropical depression along the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Fay eventually weakened into a remnant low around noon on August 26 while located over Alabama.

paragraphs: A disturbance formed in the deep tropical Atlantic in the fourth week of August. It tracked westward into the Caribbean Sea where it encountered better conditions for cyclone development, and became a tropical depression on the morning of August 25, west of the Windward Islands. It quickly strengthened into Tropical Storm Gustav early that afternoon and into Hurricane Gustav early on August 26. It then weakened into a tropical storm on the evening of August 27. It re-organized further south into a strong tropical storm once again on August 28 before speeding up and hitting Jamaica. Gustav has killed 78 people in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica, while 7 are still missing in Haiti. On August 29, it strengthened back into a hurricane. On the morning of August 30, it was upgraded to a Category 3 major hurricane. After strengthening slowed for a few hours, another round of quick strengthening happened and Gustav was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane during a hurricane hunter flight around 1pm (EDT), with 145 mph winds. Continuing to intensify, it became a 150 mph storm that afternoon near 5 P.M. EDT. Soon after Gustav made landfall in Cuba, firstly on the island of Isla de la Juventud and later on the mainland near Los Palacios in Pinar del Río Province, causing severe damage, although it is difficult to predict how much damage it caused. It then emerged into the Gulf of Mexico weakening into a minimal 115 mph. It was expected to hit Louisiana so the mayor of New Orleans evacuated the city. At 8 a.m. CDT on the 2nd September it was reported to have weakened to category 2.

paragraphs: Hurricane Gustav made landfall in Louisiana on September 1, and quickly weakened over land. After weakening to a tropical depression September 4, Gustav was sucked into a cold front. Gustav was responsible for 138 deaths and up to $18 billion in damage.

paragraphs: Tropical Depression Eight formed on August 28 from a low pressure area east-northeast of the northern Leeward Islands. It was upgraded to a tropical storm later that day and named Hanna. On September 1, while Hanna was moving very near to the island of Mayaguana in the Bahamas, it was upgraded to Category 1 hurricane status. Hanna wandered around the southeastern Bahamas, weakening to a tropical storm while also dumping heavy rain on already-devastated Haiti. Hanna moved rapidly northeastwards along the east coast of the United States as a tropical storm. Hanna changed into an extratropical cyclone as it moved offshore from Massachusetts early on September 7. At least 537 deaths have been blamed on Hanna, most in Haiti.

paragraphs: A tropical disturbance formed off the coast of Africa near the end of August. It moved south of Cape Verde and slowly strengthened. On September 1, It became Tropical Depression Nine while west of the Cape Verde islands and strengthened into a tropical storm later that day, when it was given the name "Ike". Ike developed an eye late on September 3 as it did explosive intensification, as it strengthened from a tropical storm to a Category 4 hurricane in twelve hours with an guessed pressure drop of 43 mbars, from 991 to 948 mbar; and a 24-hour pressure drop of 61 mbar, from 996 to 935 mbars. Ike weakened back to a Category 2 hurricane before re-intensifying back to a Category 4. It ripped across Great Inagua Island and Grand Turk Island, where 80% of the buildings on Grand Turk were seriously damaged or completely destroyed. It weakened to a strong Category 3 late in the afternoon of September 7 as it headed for landfall on the northeastern coastline of Cuba that evening. In addition, the storm killed at least 74 people in Haiti and 1 person in the Dominican Republic.

paragraphs: As Ike crossed Cuba on September 8, It weakened to a Category 1 hurricane and emerged into the Caribbean Sea, where it moved along or just off of the southern coast of Cuba. Ike killed 7 people as it effected nearly the whole county of Cuba. It made landfall on Galveston Island on September 13 as a strong category 2 hurricane, Its big size brought storm surge of over 12 feet from Galveston Island eastward into southern Louisiana. The Bolivar Peninsula was worst affected by the surge, while Galveston Island (where waves topped the seawall) and the Port Arthur areas also saw a lot of damage. Power was knocked out to most of the Houston area and windows were blown out of skyscrapers in downtown Houston. As Ike moved inland, it brought moderate flooding and wind damage during the Midwest and as far north as Pennsylvania. It became extratropical on September 14. At least 82 deaths have been blamed on Ike in the U.S., with 44 of them caused directly.

paragraphs: Damage from Ike is guessed at $31.5 billion (2008 USD), the third most damaging hurricane in U.S. history, behind Katrina in 2005 and Andrew in 1992. At least 166 deaths have been blamed on Ike, of which 82 were in the United States. It was the most damaging hurricane in Texas history. Ike was an extremely big and strong storm. At one point, the diameter of Ike's tropical storm and hurricane-force winds were 550 and 240 miles (885 and 390 km) making Ike one of the biggest Atlantic hurricane recorded. Ike also had the second highest IKE (Integrated Kinetic Energy) of any Atlantic storm in the past 40 years. Integrated Kinetic Energy is a measure of storm surge damaging potential, similar to the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, though the IKE is more complex and in many ways more accurate. On a scale that ranges from 1 to 6, with 6 being highest destructive potential, Ike earned a 5.2.

paragraphs: A tropical disturbance formed off the coast of Africa near the end of August. It tracked south of Cape Verde and slowly developed. On September 2, it became Tropical Depression Ten while south-southeast of the southernmost Cape Verde islands. The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm later the same day as it passed to the south of the Cape Verde islands. A few days later it weakened back to a tropical depression. On September 6 it dissipated in the open waters of the Atlantic.

paragraphs: A strong tropical disturbance tracked across the northeastern Caribbean Sea in the third week of September. It meandered around Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, dumping lots of rain across those islands causing a significant amount of damage, despite never developing a closed circulation. By September 24, it began to track northward away from the islands and into the open Atlantic water, and became a tropical storm on September 25. Kyle was upgraded to a hurricane during the afternoon of September 27. It continued northward and maintained hurricane strength until landfall near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia in Canada late on September 28. A few hours later, Kyle became extratropical as the cold waters of the Bay of Fundy took effect. In general, Maritimers were spared of the expected damage.

paragraphs: In the last week of September, a very large non-tropical system over the north-central Atlantic slowly moved westward away from the Azores. As it entered warmer waters, it slowly gained tropical characteristics and was declared Subtropical Storm Laura early on September 29. It became fully tropical the next day and was reclassified as Tropical Storm Laura. On October 1 it became "post-tropical" (in the forecaster's words) as it moved over cooler waters.

paragraphs: Tropical Depression Thirteen formed from a very small but well-organized low in the Bay of Campeche on October 6. It quickly strengthened into Tropical Storm Marco with 65 mph (100 km/h) winds that afternoon. Marco made landfall near Veracruz, Mexico the next morning at the same intensity. Marco dissipated that night as the small circulation moved inland. At one point, tropical storm-force winds were estimated to extend only 10 miles from the center, which makes it the smallest tropical cyclone on record, beating Cyclone Tracy.

paragraphs: Tropical Storm Nana formed on October 12 from a disturbance which had been drifting toward the northwest over the previous couple days in the middle of the tropical Atlantic Ocean roughly halfway between the west coast of Africa and the Lesser Antilles. The storm weakened into a remnant low on October 14. This is the first use of the name "Nana" since 1990.

paragraphs: A tropical disturbance in the eastern Caribbean Sea was in an area not expecting any development in the second week of October. While drifting across the region, upper-level winds calmed down enough for the tropical disturbance to strengthen and to develop into Tropical Depression Fifteen on October 13. It strengthened to Tropical Storm Omar the next day. Omar quickly strengthened into a 70 mph (110 km/h) storm that afternoon, and became a hurricane that night. It remained a hurricane through that night and it changed little in intensity through the next day, but that evening Omar intensified quickly and became a 115 mph Category 3 storm, and became a 125 mph (205 km/h) storm the next morning. Omar became a weak Category 4 early that morning. However, wind shear and dry air quickly weakened Omar to a minimal hurricane that afternoon as it raced towards the northeast at 26 mph (41 km/h). After dropping to tropical storm strength it became a hurricane again on October 17. It degenerated to a remnant low on October 18.

paragraphs: Tropical Depression Sixteen slowly formed off the coast of Nicaragua. It was not till October 14 that it was then called Tropical Depression Sixteen. After hugging the northern coast of Honduras (which did not let it strengthen), Tropical Depression Sixteen made landfall near midday on October 15. It dissipated inland that evening, never becoming a tropical storm. This storm caused up to $150 million in damage (2008 USD), and may have caused at least 75 deaths.

paragraphs: An area of low pressure stopped moving in the Caribbean Sea without showing tropical development for the first few days at the beginning of November. On November 5, the low pressure system became Tropical Depression Seventeen while just east of Nicaragua. The next day it became Tropical Storm Paloma. It was the first tropical storm to receive this female name. Paloma then made landfall in Cuba and moved slowly and quickly dissipated on November 9. The remains of Paloma were tracked till they came ashore of the Florida Panhandle. Paloma caused up to $315 million (2008 USD) in damage in the area Paloma affected.

paragraphs: The table on the right shows the ACE for each storm in the season. ACE is a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. ACE is only officially released for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots (39 mph, 63 km/h) or tropical storm strength. Subtropical storms are not included in season totals.

paragraphs: This is the list of names used for named storms that form in the North Atlantic in 2008. The list is the same as the 2002 list except for Ike and Laura, because Isidore and Lili were bad storms in 2002, and their names were retired.

paragraphs: On April 22, 2009, World Meteorological Organization retired the names "Gustav", "Ike", and "Paloma" from its rotating name lists. The names were replaced with "Gonzalo", "Isaias", and "Paulette".


title: Eruca sativa

paragraphs: Eruca sativa (syn. "E. vesicaria" subsp. "sativa" (Miller) Thell., "Brassica eruca" L.), also known as arugula or rocket, is a plant that can be eaten. It is a leaf vegetable with dark green, spiky, dandelion-like leaves and a strong, spicy, peppery flavor.


title: Edward Emerson Barnard

paragraphs: Edward Emerson Barnard (December 16, 1857 – February 6, 1923) was an American astronomer. He found Amalthea, a moon of the planet Jupiter. Barnard's star and Barnard's galaxy were named after him.

paragraphs: Barnard made a list of dark nebulae, the "Barnard Catalogue of Dark Markings in the Sky", or the Barnard Catalogue for short. The nebulae listed by Barnard have become known as 'Barnard objects'.


title: Solar wind

paragraphs: The solar wind is wind from the sun. It is a stream of charged protons, electrons and plasma shot out of the Sun. The wind is shot out at hypersonic speed, so fast that it can travel the whole length of the Solar System, nearly 1 light year and create the heliosphere. The particles are dangerous to astronauts and spacecraft. The Earth's magnetic field absorbs or soaks up a lot of the solar wind causing the aurora, the Northern lights and Southern lights.

paragraphs: At a distance of more than a few solar radii from the Sun, the solar wind reaches speeds of 250 to 750 kilometers per second and is supersonic.

paragraphs: A disturbance in the solar wind is called a "solar storm". Sometimes it causes a geomagnetic storm. Such a storm in 1989 brought down the Quebec electric power grid and put the entire province in darkness. The largest recorded geomagnetic storm was in September 1–2, 1859. If we were to have another as strong as that one it might cause up to 2 trillion dollars damage.

paragraphs: Solar wind also causes the tail of a comet. When the comet is close enough to the sun that the heat evaporates some of the comet's ice, the motion of the solar wind causes the resulting water vapor and space dust to stream away from the comet. Because it is blown by the solar wind, the comet's tail does not trail behind it, but always points directly away from the sun.

paragraphs: The Solar Wind Composition Experiment of the Apollo program studied the atoms in the solar wind.