title: Abstraction

paragraphs: An Abstraction keeps only the most important information about something in order to make it easier to reuse.

paragraphs: Abstraction concerns the ways by which higher, less "real" concepts are derived from the usage and classification of literal ("real" or "concrete") data or other information.

paragraphs: Abstractions may be formed by reducing the information content of a concept or a phenomenon as viewed, often to keep only the information which is needed for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball will keep only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, leaving out the traits of that particular ball. Compare with word: "generalizing". The opposite of the adjective ""abstract"" is commonly the word ""concrete"".

paragraphs: The first symbols of abstract thinking in humans can be traced to fossil objects dating between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago in Africa.

paragraphs: In philosophical terminology, "abstraction" is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects.

paragraphs: Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, where formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient.

paragraphs: For example, many different things can be the color red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in "picture 1", to the right). The property of "redness" and the relation "sitting-on" are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram "graph 1" identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their six labels), whereas the "picture 1" shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.

paragraphs: "Graph 1" details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the "agent" and "CAT:Elsie" depicts an example of an "is-a" relationship, as does the arrow between the "location" and the "MAT". The arrows between the gerund "SITTING" and the nouns "agent" and "location" express the diagram's basic relationship; ""agent is SITTING on location""; "Elsie" is an instance of "CAT".

paragraphs: Although the description "sitting-on" (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in "Gödel, Escher, Bach" (1979):

paragraphs: An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.

paragraphs: Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, "happiness" (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.

paragraphs: Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be "multiply instantiated", in the sense of "picture 1", "picture 2", etc., shown above.

paragraphs: It is not sufficient, however, to define "abstract" ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define "abstraction" as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are "abstractions", they are not "abstract" in the sense of the objects in "graph 1" above.

paragraphs: We might look at other graphs, in a progression from "cat" to "mammal" to "animal", and see that "animal" is more abstract than "mammal"; but on the other hand "mammal" is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to "marsupial" or "monotreme".

paragraphs: A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered "concrete" (not abstract) if it is a "particular individual" that occupies a particular place and time.

paragraphs: Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like "God", "the number three", and "goodness" are real, abstract, or both.

paragraphs: An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use "predicates" as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. "good"). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the "graph 1" above, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.

paragraphs: Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept-formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space.

paragraphs: The way in which physical objects, like rocks and trees, have "being" differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have "being". For example, the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in "picture 1" exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in "graph 1" exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.

paragraphs: Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to "tropes" (instances of properties) as "abstract particulars". E.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an "abstract particular". Akin to qualia and sumbebekos.

paragraphs: If an abstract concept, such as "society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete object, that is a fallacy (an error). In linguistics, it may happen that abstract concepts are used as if they were nouns that signify concrete objects:

paragraphs: This is called "metonymy". It can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things.

paragraphs: An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object).

paragraphs: Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action".

paragraphs: This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.

paragraphs: A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts cause greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus, compared to concrete concepts when concrete concepts cause greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus.

paragraphs: Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres, of the brain, differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage.

paragraphs: Typically, "abstraction" is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freed from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs.

paragraphs: In music, the term "abstraction" can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized the exploration of internal numeric relationships.

paragraphs: Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, opposing complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these opposing functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. "Abstraction" is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of "Psychological Types".

paragraphs: There is an abstract "thinking", just as there is abstract "feeling", "sensation" and "intuition". Abstract thinking singles out the rational, logical qualities ... Abstract feeling does the same with ... its feeling-values. ... I put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts. ... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as opposed to sensuous "sensation" and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic "intuition". (Jung, [1921] (1971):par. 678).

paragraphs: Computer scientists use abstraction to understand and solve problems, such as organizing data to be stored in a database.

paragraphs: Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real-world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.

paragraphs: The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are:

paragraphs: The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.


title: Eye makeup

paragraphs: Eye makeup is a type of cosmetics which aims to make the eyes look noticeable and attractive. It is mostly used by females, and by stage performers of all types. Eye makeup is an important part of the fashion and cosmetic industries. The main types of eye makeup are:

paragraphs: The idea can be taken much further. The colour of the eye can be altered by using contact lenses. Glitter and other "appliqués" can be stuck on near the eye. Fake eyelashes or eyelash extensions are possible. Eyebrow plucking is quite common for brunettes.

paragraphs: Mascara is a cosmetic used to darken, colour, thicken, lengthen, or define eyelashes. Historically, it was (and still is) usually black, but now it also comes in many colours and tints. Mascara comes in three forms: liquid, cake, and cream. It is available in tubes with wand applicators. Ingredients in mascara include water, wax thickeners, film-formers, and preservatives.

paragraphs: Eye shadow is a cosmetic that is applied on the eyelids and under the eyebrows. The average distance between eyelashes and eyebrows is twice as big in women as in men. Pale eye shadow visually enlarges this area and has a feminising effect.

paragraphs: Eye shadow can be applied in a variety of ways depending upon the desired look. Typically application is done using sponges, fingers, and/or brushes. The most important aspect of applying eye shadow, and makeup in general, is blending well.

paragraphs: To remove eye shadow, a commercial eye makeup remover may be used, though a face wash will usually remove all traces of colour. Generally it is easy to remove, and simple water and soap can be used. Eye shadow, eyeliner, and mascara may also be removed using baby oil or olive oil. There are also makeup wipes that may be used.

paragraphs: Eye liner is a cosmetic used to define the eyes. It is applied around the contours of the eye, along and above the edges of the eyelids where the eyelashes grow. Often applied just on the outer half of the eye.

paragraphs: Depending on its texture, eyeliner can be softly smudged or clearly defined. There are four main types available on the market:

paragraphs: Kohl is an ancient black eye pigment which survives to the present day in the Mediterranean, the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. It was a dark-colored powder made of crushed galena (lead sulfide) and/or antimony, burnt almonds, lead, cupric oxide, ochre, ash, malachite, or any combination of them. It may be used as an eye liner, mascara or eyeshadow.

paragraphs: The upper and lower eyelids were painted in a line that extended to the sides of the face for an almond effect. In addition to reducing sun glare, it was believed that kohl eyeliner could restore good eyesight and reduce eye infection. Kohl was kept in a small, flat-bottomed pot with a wide, tiny rim and a flat, disk-shaped lid.

paragraphs: According to images of the time, the use of makeup was not limited to women. Highly polished silver and copper mirrors aided the application of makeup.


title: Indy Racing League

paragraphs: The Indy Racing League (IRL) is an American-based open-wheel auto racing sanctioning body. The League sanctions three racing series. The premier IZOD IndyCar Series (ICS), the two developmental series; Firestone Indy Lights and the U.S. F2000 National Championship. ICS is sometimes considered the same as the Indy Racing League. The Indy Racing League's centerpiece race is the Indianapolis 500.

paragraphs: The IRL is owned by Hulman and Co., which also owns the Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex and the Clabber Girl brand.

paragraphs: On September 10, 2010, the IRL announced that effective January 1, 2011, the Indy Racing League will simply be known as "IndyCar".

paragraphs: The "IndyCar Series" is the series name for the premier series sanctioned by the IRL. The name started being used in 2003. Izod was announced as the IndyCar Series title sponsor in 2010. The deal is expected to run for at least five years.

paragraphs: At first IndyCar only raced on oval tracks. In 2005, the series started adding road and street course events.

paragraphs: "Firestone Indy Lights" is the development series for the Izod Indycar series. It started in 2002, as the "IRL Infiniti Pro Series". "USF2000" is a series the IRL started sanctioning in 2010. It started in 1991 and ended in 2006. It then restarted in 2010.

paragraphs: "Indy car" is sometimes used as a name for any open-wheel auto racing in the United States. The Indy car name derived as a result of the link to the Indianapolis 500 Mile Race (often called to as the "Indy 500").

paragraphs: Beginning in 1980, the term Indy car was used for the race cars in CART races. CART had become the main governing body for open-wheel racing in the United States. The Indianapolis 500 was not controlled by CART. It remained sanctioned by USAC. CART recognized the Indy 500 on its schedule, and awarded points for finishers in the race from 1980–1995 despite not sanctioning it. The two entities operated separately, but used the same equipment.

paragraphs: In 1992, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway tradmarked the "IndyCar". They licensed CART to use the name. CART renamed its championship the "IndyCar World Series". The name "CART" was no longer used. The series did not want fans to think they were go-karts.

paragraphs: The IRL was founded in 1994 by Tony George and began racing in 1996. George designed the IRL as a lower-cost open-wheel alternative to CART. CART was dominated by a few rich multi-car teams, much like Formula One. The split between IRL and CART was very unfriendly. Both series greatly suffered because of it.

paragraphs: In February 2008, Indy Racing League founder and CEO Tony George and owners of the Champ Car World Series completed an agreement to join together the sport for 2008. The Champ Car World Series was suspended except for the Long Beach Grand Prix. Many of the former Champ Car teams moved to the IndyCar Series using equipment provided by the League.

paragraphs: Driver safety has also been a major concern. A number of drivers injured, mostly in the early years of the series. Several of those injuries were serious or fatal. Unlike road racing, the higher speed and lack of runoff areas on oval tracks, allowed for less margin for error. Car design was a leading cause of early injuries.The series made improvements to chassis design to address those safety concerns.

paragraphs: The IRL was also the first race series to adopt the new SAFER barrier soft wall safety system. First at the Indianapolis 500 and now installed at almost all major oval racing circuits.


title: Open wheel car

paragraphs: Open-wheel car describes cars with the wheels outside the car's main body and, in most cases, one seat. Other names include formula car, single-seater car in British English, or Indy car in the United States. Open-wheel cars are different from street cars, sports cars, stock cars, and touring cars. These car have their wheels below or inside the body or fenders. Open-wheel cars are usually built just for racing. Often, they have a higher amount of technological sophistication than in other forms of motor racing.

paragraphs: A typical open-wheeler has a small cockpit. It is only large enough for the driver's body. The head is exposed to the air. In modern cars the engine is often located directly behind the driver, and drives the rear wheels. Depending on the rules of the class, many types of open-wheelers have spoilers or wings. They are very low and have an almost flat bottom. These help add aerodynamic downforce. This pushes the car on to the road and makes it handle better.

paragraphs: Some races, such as the Monaco Grand Prix are held on temporary street circuits. Most open-wheel races are on dedicated road courses, such as the Nürburgring in Germany. In the United States some top-level open wheel events are held on ovals, both short track and superspeedways. The most famous the annual Indianapolis 500 (Indy 500)

paragraphs: Driving an open-wheel car is very different from driving a car with fenders. Open-wheel vehicles, are light weight, have good aerodynamics, and powerful engines. Wheel-to-wheel contact is dangerous. If the forward edge of one tire contacts the rear of another tire, the vehicle my be flipped into the air and upside down.


title: Speech and language therapist

paragraphs: A speech and language therapist is a health care professional who specialises in communication and swallowing difficulties. The main part of their work involves assessing people and planning therapy. They work with people of all ages across different settings such as nurseries, schools, day centres, care homes, clinics and hospitals.

paragraphs: These can include difficulties with fluency (stuttering), making sounds and words, making sentences,

paragraphs: understanding what others say, and using language socially. These difficulties fall into two main areas:

paragraphs: There are two types of language difficulties:

paragraphs: People with receptive language difficulties have problems understanding spoken and written language. Because of this they usually also have expressive language difficulties although this is not always the case.

paragraphs: People with expressive language difficulties are able to understand but cannot say the words and sentences they want to. This may be because of word finding difficulties or problems making sentences.

paragraphs: In children language difficulties are divided up into

paragraphs: Where language difficulties occur with no other difficulties the child may be diagnosed with Specific Language Impairment.

paragraphs: In adults acquired receptive and expressive language impairments are known as aphasia. There are many different types of aphasia depending on which areas of the brain are damaged and what symptoms they show.

paragraphs: Speech therapists can help people with swallowing difficulties (dysphagia). They help patients through changing their diets to different textures and consistencies, or they may recommend non-oral feeding.


title: Semi-automatic shotgun

paragraphs: A semi-automatic shotgun is a kind of gun. It fires one shotgun shell every time the trigger is pulled. Most shotguns, such as pump-action shotguns, lever action shotguns, and break barrel shotguns, use no energy from the last fired shell to load the next one. A person using a semi-automatic shotgun has to load the first shell themselves. The rest of the shells are loaded by the gun using part of the energy used to fire each shell.

paragraphs: Some shotguns can work as semi-automatic, pump-action, or fully automatic. The SPAS-12, for example, can fire in semi-automatic mode or it can use a pump action. Pump action allows less deadly projectiles such as bean bags or gas canisters to be used. Some shotguns, such as the AA-12, can be fully automatic or it can be switched to semi-automatic mode.

paragraphs: Semi-automatic shotguns are commonly used by special forces, military, and for other uses where shells need to be fired quickly, without reloading.


title: Macintosh Classic

paragraphs: The Macintosh Classic is a computer made by Apple Inc. in late October 1990 and sales ended September 1992. It has a Motorola 68000 at 8MHz (how fast the CPU is).


title: IndyCar Series

paragraphs: The Verizon IndyCar Series is the premier level of American open wheel racing. The current series was founded by Indianapolis Motor Speedway owner Tony George. It began in 1996 as a competitor to CART known as the Indy Racing League (IRL). In 2008, the IndyCar Series merged with the Champ Car World Series (formerly CART). The series continues to be sanctioned by the Indy Racing League, which has taken the name IndyCar.

paragraphs: The IRL was unable to utilize the name "IndyCar" until the beginning of the 2003 for legal reasons. For 1996-1997, the series was simply called the "USAC Indy Racing League". For 1998-1999, the series received its first title sponsor, and was known as the "Pep Boys Indy Racing League". In 2000, the series sponsor became the Internet search engine Northern Light. The series was named the "Indy Racing Northern Light Series". This only lasted two of the planed five year contract.

paragraphs: The league went back to the "Indy Racing League" name for the 2002 season. The IndyCar Series name was adopted in 2003. For the 2008 season, DirecTV served as a presenting sponsor, and the series was briefly advertised as the "IndyCar Series in DIRECTV HD".

paragraphs: IZOD was announced as the series title sponsor beginning on November 5, 2009. The contrace runs for at least 5 years. In 2014, Verizon replaced IZOD as the series sponsor.

paragraphs: The IndyCar Series is not an open formula, where teams build their own cars. Chassis and engine manufacturers provided products only to the league in three-year cycles. Currently, Dallara provides the chassis to all teams and Honda is the sole engine supplier. The series basically a one-make or "spec" series.

paragraphs: In the series' first season in 1996 used older CART chassis. Any chassis built by Lola and Reynard from 1992 to 1995 could be used. The current Indycar started in 1997. Tony George defined rules for less expensive cars and production-based engines. This outlawed the CART chassis and turbocharged engines. These had been the type of race car used at the Indianapolis 500 since the late 1960s.

paragraphs: Dallara began producing Indycars for the 1997 season. The G Force chassis was introduced in 1997. It won the 1997 and 2000 Indy 500 races. In 2002, Élan Motorsport Technologies bought G Force. The chassis was re-named "Panoz G Force", and then shortened to "Panoz" in 2005.

paragraphs: Riley & Scott produced IndyCar chassis from 1997-2000.

paragraphs: From the outside, IndyCars resemble those of other open-wheeled formula racing cars. They have front and rear wings and large air intakes.

paragraphs: At its inception, the IRL used methanol racing fuel. Methanol has been the standard choice in American open wheel racing since a fiery crash at the 1964 Indianapolis 500. Methanol provided a safer alternative to gasoline. It does not start burning as quickly as gasoline. A methanol fire can be put out with water. A methanol fire cannot be seen in daylight, which is a problem. Material was added to the fuel so it would burn with a color.

paragraphs: For the 2006 season, the fuel was a 90%/10% mixture of methanol and ethanol. Starting in 2007, the league advertised using 100% Fuel Grade Ethanol. The mixture was actually 98% ethanol and 2% gasoline. The additives satisfied the U.S. government's requirement that the alcohol be unfit for human consumption. It also adds a visible color in case of a fire.

paragraphs: For the 1996 season, the old CART specification engines were used. They were also used for the first two races of the 1996-97 season. They were V8 engines with 45 inches of turbocharger boost. The Menard-Buick V6 engine was used in 1996 with 55 inches of boost was also used.

paragraphs: Ford-Cosworth provided support to teams running their older-spec engines. The Ilmor Mercedes V8 engine, was allowed. It was only used once at the 1996 Indy 500.

paragraphs: Starting in 1997, IRL cars were powered by 4.0 L V8, methanol burning engines. They were production-based and normally-aspirated engines. They were produced by Oldsmobile under the Aurora label, and Nissan under the Infiniti label. They produced around 700 horsepower. The engine rules changed in 2000. The displacement was dropped from 4.0L to 3.5L. The block no longer needed to be production-based. In 2004, the displacement was further reduced to 3.0L to curb top speeds.

paragraphs: When General Motors' ended the Oldsmobile name, the engine label was changed to Chevrolet starting with the 2002 season. In August 2003, Chevrolet announced its "Gen IV" motor, a rebadged Cosworth motor for competition. At the time, Cosworth was owned by Ford. On November 4, 2004, Chevrolet stated that it would be ending its IRL engine program at the end of the 2005 season.

paragraphs: In 2003, Toyota came to the IRL. In November 2005, Toyota company officials announced the company's withdrawal from American open-wheel racing and the immediate discontinuation of its IRL program. This was the same time they entered into NASCAR's Craftsman Truck Series.

paragraphs: Honda also came to the IRL in 2003. By 2005 was clearly the dominant engine manufacturer. Starting in 2006, they became the only engine manufacturer in the IndyCar Series, and will continue in that capacity until 2010. The Honda engine is designed and produced by Ilmor Engineering, which is part owned by Roger Penske.

paragraphs: IndyCar Series engines are rev-limited to 10,300 Revolutions per minute (rpm) and produce approximately 650 hp. The valve train is a dual overhead camshaft configuration with four valves per cylinder. The crankshaft is made of alloy steel, with five main bearing caps. The pistons are forged aluminum alloy, while the connecting rods are machined alloy steel. The electronic engine management system is supplied by Motorola, firing a Capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) ignition system. The engine lubrication is a dry sump type, cooled by a single water pump.

paragraphs: Following the merger of CART/Champ Car into the Indy Racing League in 2008, the IRL acquired all intellectual property and historic records.

paragraphs: 1996: Scott Sharp and Buzz Calkins were tied in the final standings, and were declared co-champions. Calkins had one win, as opposed to Sharp being winless, but no tiebreakers were in place.

paragraphs: 2006: Sam Hornish, Jr. and Dan Wheldon tied in the final standings for first place. Hornish clinched the championship based on a tiebreaker of most victories during the season.

paragraphs: 2008: Although no report was officially released about it in 2008, IndyCar.com confirmed in 2009 that Danica Patrick being named Most Popular Driver was her "fifth consecutive" win of the award.


title: Clint Bowyer

paragraphs: Clint Bowyer (born May 30, 1979) is an American racing driver. He drives the No. 14 Ford Mustang for Stewart-Haas Racing. He won the 2008 NASCAR Nationwide Series championship.

paragraphs: Clint Bowyer started racing when he was five years old. When he was five, his main interest was motocross racing. In 2000, Bowyer won the Modified Championship at Thunderhill Speedway in Mayetta, Kansas. Bowyer also won the 2001 Modified championship at Lakeside Speedway in Kansas City, Kansas. Bowyer won the 2002 NASCAR Weekly Racing Series Midwest Championship.

paragraphs: In 2003, Bowyer raced a full season in the NASCAR AutoZone Elite Division Midwest Series. Bowyer was seen by Richard Childress after leading 47 laps and finishing second in a race at Nashville Superspeedway. Bowyer started racing in the NASCAR Sprint cup Series in 2006. He raced for Richard Childress Racing from 2006 until 2012, earning the team's 100th Sprint Cup Series win at Talladega Superspeedway in late 2011.

paragraphs: At the end of 2011 Bowyer left Richard Childress Racing and joined Michael Waltrip Racing. He drove for Waltrip from the 2012 season to the 2015 season. Bowyer then drove for HScott Motorsports in 2016 and joined Stewart-Haas Racing in 2017.


title: Space opera

paragraphs: Some people have a negative opinion of Space opera. They use the name as an snsult. They do not like these stories because they have several problems. The action may be impossible to believe. The science may be silly. The characters may be simple and boring.

paragraphs: But, other people have a feeling of nostalgia for space opera. They think these stories from the golden age of science fiction have a special feeling of wonder and excitement. Edward E. (Doc) Smith may be the first important writer of this type of SF. He wrote two series called "Skylark" and "Lensman". These are important early examples of space opera novels. Flash Gordon is an early example of this genre from radio, TV, and film.

paragraphs: Modern examples include: Alastair Reynolds' "Revelation Space" series, Peter F. Hamilton's "The Dreaming Void", "The Night's Dawn", and "Pandora's Star" series. The very popular Star Wars movies and books are also examples of this sort of SF.


title: Inland taipan

paragraphs: The Inland Taipan ("Oxyuranus microlepidotus"), also called the fierce snake or western taipan, is a snake in Australia. It is the most venomous snake on Earth. It belongs to the Elapidae family. Although it is venomous, the snake is rather shy, and prefers to escape from trouble.

paragraphs: A bite from the inland taipan is fatal to most creatures. One bite from the snake contains enough venom to kill about 100 people at once, and it can kill someone in just 30 to 45 minutes.


title: Cosmological argument

paragraphs: The cosmological argument is an attempt to prove the existence of God by the fact that things exist. It assumes that things must have a cause, and that the chain of causes can only end by a supernatural event. Other names for the argument are argument from universal causation, argument from first cause, causal argument and argument from existence.

paragraphs: The universe exists, so there must be something that caused the universe. The first cause is claimed to be God. Thomas Aquinas said that God is the only thing that was not caused by something else, and that God created the cause of existence. The idea has been popular with many theologians and philosophers.


title: Charles Worth

paragraphs: Charles Frederick Worth (Bourne, Lincolnshire, 13 October 1825 – Paris, 10 March 1895), widely considered the Father of Haute Couture, was an English fashion designer of the 19th century, whose works were produced in Paris. The Parisien "Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture" was his conception. It has the legal authority to decide who may use the term "haute couture".

paragraphs: Worth made his mark in the French fashion industry. He worked at several prosperous London drapery shops before moving to Paris in 1846. He was hired by Gagelin and Opigez, well-known Parisian drapers. While working in their shop, he married one of the firm's models, Marie Vernet. Worth made a few simple dresses for his wife and customers started to ask for copies of the dresses as well.

paragraphs: Worth, by now a junior partner in the firm, urged his partners to expand into dressmaking, but they hesitated. Worth found a rich Swede, Otto Bobergh, who was willing to bankroll the venture and opened the dressmaking establishment of Worth and Bobergh in 1858. Worth was soon patronized by the French Empress Eugénie, and after that by many titled, rich, and otherwise notable women. He also dressed actresses such as Sarah Bernhardt and singers such as Nellie Melba. Many of his customers travelled to Paris from other countries, coming from as far away as New York and Boston.

paragraphs: He removed excessive ruffles and frills and used rich fabrics in simple, but flattering, outlines. He is credited as the first designer to put labels onto the clothing he manufactured.

paragraphs: Worth gave his customers luxurious materials and exact fit. Rather than let the customer dictate the design, as had previously been dressmaking practice, four times a year he displayed model dresses at fashion shows. This was the start of the fashion show as we know it.

paragraphs: His patronesses would pick a model, which would then be sewn in fabrics of their choice and tailored to their figure. Worth was sufficiently fashionable that he had to turn away customers. This only added to his fame. He completely revolutionized the business of dressmaking. He was the first of the couturiers, dressmakers considered artists rather than mere artisans.

paragraphs: Worth and Bobergh shut down during the Franco-Prussian War and re-opened in 1871, without Bobergh, as the House of Worth. Worth took his sons, Gaston and Jean-Philippe, into his business and the couture house continued to flourish after his death in 1895.

paragraphs: The great fashion dynasty finally came to an end in 1952 when Charles Frederick Worth's great-grandson, Jean-Charles (1881–1962), retired from the family business. In 1954, the House merged with Paquin. Then in 1956 it was closed.

paragraphs: Worth was one of the first couture houses to give its name to a luxury perfume. In 1924 Les Parfums Worth launched the first fragrance, "Dans La Nuit" and Rene Lalique, the world renowned glass-maker, designed the bottle. Between the wars, the House produced five perfumes: "Dans La Nuit" (1924), "Vers le Jours" (1925), "Sans Adieu" (1929), "Je Reviens" (1932), and "Vers Toi" (1934).

paragraphs: "Je Reviens" remains the most famous of Worth's perfumes. The perfume became a favoured gift from soldiers to their sweethearts during WWII. The top London store Harrods offers the perfume in its classic blue ridged bottle, which dates back to the perfume’s original launch.

paragraphs: The House of Worth has re-emerged. Dilesh Mehta (perfumes) and Martin McCarthy (fashion) recently combined their intellectual properties for Worth perfume and apparel. This meant, for the first time since the 1920s, the House is reunited and restored.

paragraphs: The House of Worth resumed in January 2010 with a revival couture collection by Giovanni Bedin. The spring/summer collection was unveiled in Paris at "Les Salons France-Amêriques" and the winter collection in Milan. Bedin's exquisite corsets and tutus with clouds of tulle and antique lace echo Worth's ideas. Customers include Scarlett Johansson, Kylie Minogue and Charlize Theron.

paragraphs: The spectacle of couture is just one aspect of the restored House of Worth. Complementing this is a presentation of "Le Prêt-a-Porter" (ready-to-wear). Worth’s "Je Reviens" perfume will be relaunched, followed in 2011 by the House of Worth’s lingerie and accessories, such as couture jewelry and made-to-measure gloves.


title: Stagecoach

paragraphs: A stagecoach is a type of horse drawn coach for passengers and goods. They were one of the first forms of organized public transport and originated in the 1600s in Great Britain. Before railways were invented in the first part of the nineteenth century they were the fastest way to travel long distances. Stage coaches were operated across Europe and North America.

paragraphs: The coach would travel between stops called "stages" at which passengers could obtain food and drink and the horses that pulled the coach would be changed for fresh ones. Regularly changing horses meant the coach could travel much faster than other vehicles. They were mostly of light weight construction which also allowed them to go faster. Their speed meant they were used to carry mail and often called a mail coach.

paragraphs: The name is sometimes shortened to simply a "stage".


title: Firestone Tire and Rubber Company

paragraphs: The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company is a tire company founded by Harvey Firestone in 1900. They supplied air filled tires for wagons, buggies, and other forms of wheeled vehicles common at the time. Firestone soon saw the possibility for increasing sales by making tires for automobiles. The company was a early leader in the mass production of tires. Firestone become the original equipment supplier of Ford Motor Company automobiles. They also sold a lot of replacement tires.

paragraphs: In 1988, the company was sold to the Japanese Bridgestone Corporation. It is now known as Bridgestone Firestone.

paragraphs: Firestone was originally based in Akron, Ohio. That was also the home of its rival, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company. The company initiated operations in 1900 with 12 employees. Together, Firestone and Goodyear were the largest suppliers of automotive tires in North America for over three-quarters of a century. In 1906 Firestone was chosen by Henry Ford for the Model T.

paragraphs: At one point, the company had a rubber plantation in Liberia that covered more than 4,000 square kilometers (1 million acres).

paragraphs: During World War II the company make artillery shells, aluminum kegs for food transport and other rubberized military products. In the 1940s, Firestone was given a defense contract to produce plastic helmet liners.

paragraphs: In 1951, Firestone was given the defense contract for the MGM-5 Corporal missile. In 1961, Firestone acquired the Dayton Tire division from the Dayco Corporation.

paragraphs: In late 1979, Firestone brought in John Nevin as president. He was the former head of Zenith Electronics. Firestone was more than a billion dollars in debt at the time, and losing 250 million dollars a year. Nevin closed nine of the company's seventeen manufacturing plants. He moved the company from Akron to Chicago. He split the non-tire related businesses from the main company. In 1988 Nevin negotiated the sale of the company to the Japanese company Bridgestone. Bridgestone Corporation Japan was able to buy the company for much less than it had been worth a decade and a half earlier. The combined Bridgestone Firestone North American operations are now based in Nashville, Tennessee.

paragraphs: Firestone has been a major tire supplier for Formula One teams. From to they supplied tires to a number of teams, including Ferrari, Team Lotus, and Honda. They had 121 cars start the race on their tires, winning 49 of those races. They were on the winning car of every Indianapolis 500 race from 1950 to 1960. These years, the Indy 500 was part of the Formula One world championship series. Their last win came in the 1972 Italian Grand Prix. Firestone has four Drivers World Championships and three Constructors World Championships with teams using their tires.

paragraphs: In 1950, Firestone along with General Motors and Standard Oil were charged and convicted of criminal conspiracy for their part in the "Great American streetcar scandal". The scandal included buying streetcar systems all across the United States. They would shut them down, and replacing them with buses.

paragraphs: Radial tires were introduced to the US market by rivals Goodrich and Michelin in the late 1960s. Firestone lacked a radial. The first radial tire design and built by Firestone was the Firestone 500 Radial. Manufacturing of the new tire was done on equipment designed to build bias-ply tires.

paragraphs: During the 1970s, Firestone had major problems with the Firestone 500 radial. At high speeds, the steel-belted radials started showing signs that the tread was coming apart from the tire. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) investigation found that the tread separation problem was most likely a design defect affecting all Firestone 500's.

paragraphs: In 1977 Firestone recalled of 400,000 tires produced at the Decatur plant. Firestone blamed the problems on the consumer. They said the problems were caused by under inflation and poor maintenance. On October 20, 1978, Firestone recalled over 7 million Firestone 500 tires. Congressional hearings took place in 1978. The tire was found to be defective and the cause of 34 deaths. In May 1980 NHTSA fined Firestone $500,000 USD. At that time was the largest fine imposed on any U.S. corporation. Several lawsuits were settled out of court. The bad publicity hurt the company's sales and share price badly.

paragraphs: In 1926, Firestone opened one of the world's biggest rubber plantations in Liberia, West Africa. The International Labor Rights Fund said about Firestone, Firestone's management denied these claims. They said the corporation provided employment, pensions, and health care to thousands of Liberians. The company also provides education and training opportunities to employees and their children.

paragraphs: In May 2006, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) released a report on the state of human rights on Liberia's rubber plantations. According to the report, Firestone did not monitor child labor very well. UNMIL found that several problems. They included pressure to meet company quotas, incentive to support the family financially, and lack of access to basic education. The report also said that the workers' housing provided by Firestone has not been renovated. They had been built in the 1920s and 1930s.

paragraphs: Dan Adomitis, President of Firestone Natural Rubber Company, talked to CNN about the production quotas and child labor. He said that a worker will tap about 650 trees a day, and spend a couple of minutes at each tree. CNN pointed out the 650 trees, at two minutes per tree, is 1,300 minutes. That is more than 21 hours of work a day.

paragraphs: In response to the claims, Dan Adomitis said:

paragraphs: In 1996, several state agencies in Arizona began having big problems with Firestone tires on Ford Explorers. Firestone conducted an investigation of the complaints, tested the tires and asserted that the tires had been abused or under-inflated.

paragraphs: According to Joan Claybrook of the group Public Citizen, Ford also played a large part. They said Ford told Firestone to add a nylon ply to the tires it manufactured in Venezuela for additional strength. Ford changed the suspension to Explorers available in Venezuela. Ford did not ask for the nylon ply for U.S.-made Firestone tires. And they did it change the Explorer suspension on US models.

paragraphs: There was a very high failure rate in Firestone's "Wilderness AT", "Firestone ATX", and "ATX II" tires. Several lawsuits were filed. There was a mandatory recall of the tires. In 2001 Bridgestone Firestone stopped working with Ford because they did not trust Ford. They said Ford had not listened to warnings by Bridgestone Firestone about the design of the Ford Explorer. In 2006, Firestone announced a new effort to recall the same tires recalled in 2000. More of the tires had been linked to recent deaths and injuries. Firestone estimates 97% of the tires were replaced in the 2000 recall. They are still concerned over spare tires that owners did not think to replace.

paragraphs: "Where the Rubber Meets the Road" is an advertisement jingle (short song) that was frequently used in the 1960s and 1970s, especially on televised sporting events.


title: Conservatives in the United States

paragraphs: Conservatives in the United States support American traditions, Christianity, republicanism, businesses, anti-communism, American exceptionalism (the US is unique and special). They think America's enemies are socialism and authoritarianism.

paragraphs: Below is a list of people considered "conservative".

paragraphs: Only a few politicians in the 19th century called themselves "conservative" but later scholars sometimes say the Federalist Party was conservative.


title: High heels

paragraphs: High heels are shoes where the heels are much higher than the toes. They are a fashion item for women, and may also be worn by men. Both cowboy boots and 'Cuban heels' are shoes worn by men with higher heels.

paragraphs: It matters a great deal how high the heels are. Heels of 2½ inches (6 cm) are standard for ballroom dancing and certainly quite safe for wear once the user has experience with them. A ballroom dance competition may last, with intervals, for ten hours and is physically very demanding. Any ill effect on a girl's performance would be noticed. These lower heels are safe. The standard style for ballroom dancing is the "court shoe", soled in reverse (chamois) leather, with heels wider than 0.4 inches, wider than the typical stiletto heels.

paragraphs: Mid-height heels are from 2½ to 3½ inches (8.5 cm). They are an intermediate between standard high heels and "stiletto heels", which are from 4 to 10 inches, made of steel, and very narrow at the base: 0.4 inches or less. They have been widely criticised for the health risks regular wear would bring. They have also been criticised by feminists. If the soles of the shoes are also raised, then they are a quite different kind of shoe: the "platform shoe". Some women wear them to appear sexy.

paragraphs: Wedgies or, more properly, shoes with wedge heels, are a compromise type. They raise the heels, and are much more stable than standard high heels.

paragraphs: Wedges for women were popularized by Salvatore Ferragamo who introduced the design to the Italian market in the late 1930s.

paragraphs: Reasons for wearing high-heels, which are almost exclusively aesthetic, include:

paragraphs: Reasons against wearing high-heels, which are almost exclusively health and practicality reasons, include:

paragraphs: There are so many types of shoe, and so many differences between people that no type will suit everyone. It is obvious that the higher the heel, the riskier the shoe. The more sensible versions are quite safe; the extreme versions seen on fashion show catwalks are not for everyday wear. A lot depends on their use. Nurses tend to wear flat shoes; office staff may prefer high heels. Despite the critics, high heels have been around for a long time, and are probably going to stay.


title: Garage Days Re-Revisited

paragraphs: Garage Days Re-Revisited is an album produced by Metallica. They recorded it at A&M Conway, in Los Angeles, California. The album was released on August 21, 1987.


title: Leontyne Price

paragraphs: Leontyne Price (born February 10, 1927) is an American soprano. She is particularly associated with Verdi roles, notably in the operas "Il trovatore" and "Aida". She was one of the first black singers to enjoy an international career in opera.

paragraphs: Price was born in Laurel, Mississippi. She studied at Central State College, Wilberforce, Ohio, and with Florence Kimball at the Juilliard School of Music in New York City. She began her professional career in 1952, when she appeared as Bess in George Gershwin's "Porgy and Bess" on Broadway, followed by an international tour. She made her recital debut in New York City in 1954, and appeared in a television production of "Tosca" for NBC in 1955.

paragraphs: Her actual operatic debut took place in San Francisco in 1957, as Mme Lidoine in Poulenc's "Le dialogue des carmélites", followed by her first "Aida". The role of Aida would quickly become her signature role and the vehicle for her debuts in 1958 at the Vienna State Opera, the Royal Opera House in London and at La Scala in Milan both in 1960. She also appeared at the Salzburg Festival as Donna Elvira in "Don Giovanni" and Leonora in "Il trovatore".

paragraphs: She made her debut at the Lyric Chicago Opera in 1959, and at the Metropolitan Opera in 1961, as Leonora in "Il trovatore". She was to sing at the Met for twenty-four consecutive seasons. Amongst her greatest roles are the female lead in operas such as Verdi's "Ernani", "Un ballo in maschera", "La forza del destino", Mozart's "Don Giovanni" and "Cosi fan tutte", Puccini's "Manon Lescaut", "Madame Butterfly", "La fanciulla del West", Richard Strauss's "Ariadne auf Naxos", etc.

paragraphs: She created the role of Cleopatra in Samuel Barber's "Anthony and Cleopatra" for the opening of the new Metropolitan Opera at Lincoln Center in 1966.

paragraphs: Leontyne Price was one of the outstanding lyric-dramatic sopranos of her generation, she had a rich, warm and luscious voice enhanced by a fine stage presence. She retired from the stage in 1985.


title: Il trovatore

paragraphs: Il trovatore ("The Troubadour") is an Italian opera in four acts. The music was written by Giuseppe Verdi. The story and words were written by Salvatore Cammarano. It is based on a play by Antonio Garcia Gutiérrez called "El trovador". The opera was first performed in Rome on January 19, 1853. It was an instant hit.


title: Gangrene

paragraphs: Gangrene is a serious medical condition that causes the decay and death of body tissue, usually in the extremities such as the fingers, hands, toes, and feet. The two main types of gangrene are dry gangrene and wet gangrene. A third less common type is a form of wet gangrene known as gas gangrene. A very rare type which affects the internal organs is known as internal gangrene.

paragraphs: Dry gangrene is usually caused by a loss of blood supply to the affected area, such as may happen following an injury which damages the blood vessels to the affected area. Wet gangrene usually occurs when a wound becomes infected with various types of bacteria. Gas gangrene is usually caused by "clostridium" bacteria and mainly affects the muscles. Internal gangrene affects the internal organs, usually the intestines, gallbladder, or appendix.

paragraphs: There are a number of risk factors which increase a person's chances of getting gangrene. These includes advanced blockage of the arteries in medical conditions such as diabetes.


title: Dirk Hartog

paragraphs: Dirk Hartog (30 October 1580, Amsterdam–buried 11 October 1621, Amsterdam) was a Dutch sailor and explorer. Dirk Hartog's trip was the second European group to land on Australia.

paragraphs: In 1985, he was put on a postage stamp by the Australia Post, which showed one of his ships.


title: Hair follicle

paragraphs: A hair follicle is a part of the skin, which grows a hair by packing old cells together. Attached inside the top of the follicle are sebaceous glands, which are tiny sebum-producing glands in almost all skin except on the palms, lips and soles of the feet. The thicker the hair, the more the number of sebaceous glands there are.

paragraphs: Also attached to the follicle is a tiny bundle of muscle fiber, called the "arrector pili", which is responsible for causing the follicle lissis to become more upright the surface of the skin. The muscle area can also cause the follicle to stick up slightly above the nearby skin (piloerection) with a pore incased with skin oil. This process results in goose bumps (or goose flesh). Stem cells are at the junction of the arrector and the follicle, and are principally responsible for the ongoing hair production during a process known as the Anagen stage.

paragraphs: The average growth rate of healthy hair follicles on the scalp is nearly per month.

paragraphs: At the base of the follicle is a structure that is called the papilla. The papilla is made up mainly of connective tissue and a capillary loop. Cell division in the papilla is either rare or non-existent.

paragraphs: Around the papilla is the hair matrix, a collection of epithelial cells often mixed with the pigment-producing (color) cells, known as melanocytes. Cell division in the hair matrix is responsible for the cells that will form the major structures of the hair fiber and the inner root sheath. The hair matrix epithelium is one of the fastest-growing cell areas in the human body, which is why some forms of chemotherapy which kill dividing cells or radiotherapy may lead to temporary hair loss. The papilla is usually oval or pear-shaped, with the matrix wrapped almost totally around it, except for a short stalk-like connection to the surrounding connective tissue that provides access for the capillary.

paragraphs: The root sheath is composed of an external (outside) and internal (inside) root sheath. The external root sheath appears empty with cuboid cells when stained with H&E stain. The internal root sheath is composed of three layers, Henle's layer, Huxley's layer, and an internal cuticle that is continuous with the outer layer of the hair fiber.

paragraphs: The hair fiber is composed of a cuticle that is continuous with the root sheath, an intermediate cortex, and an inner medulla.

paragraphs: The bulge is in the outer root sheath at the insertion point of the arrector pili muscle. It houses several types of stem cells, which supply the entire hair follicle with new cells, and take part in healing the epidermis after a wound.

paragraphs: Other structures associated with the hair follicle include arrector pili muscles, sebaceous glands and apocrine sweat glands. Hair follicle nerve receptors sense the position of the hairs.

paragraphs: Before a baby is born, the epithelium and underlying mesenchyma interact to form hair follicles.

paragraphs: Hair grows in cycles of various phases: anagen is the growth phase; catagen is the involuting or regressing phase; and telogen, the resting or quiescent (still) phase. Each phase has several morphologically and histologically distinguishable sub-phases. Prior to the start of cycling is a phase of follicular morphogenesis (formation of the follicle). There is also a shedding phase, or exogen, that is independent of anagen and telogen in which one of several hairs that might arise from a single follicle exits. Normally up to 90% of the hair follicles are in anagen phase while, 10–14% are in telogen and 1–2% in catagen phase. The cycle's length varies on different parts of the body. For eyebrows, the cycle is completed in around 4 months, while it takes the scalp 3–4 years to finish; this is the reason eyebrow hairs have a much shorter length limit compared to hairs on the head. Growth cycles are controlled by a chemical signal like epidermal growth factor.

paragraphs: Anagen is the color phase of hair follicles. The color of your hair will start to fade because the cell only last a couple months.

paragraphs: The catagen phase is a short transition stage that occurs at the end of the anagen phase. It signals the end of the active growth of a hair. This phase lasts for about 2–3 weeks while a club hair is formed.

paragraphs: The telogen phase is the resting phase of the hair follicle. The club hair is the final product of a hair follicle in the telogen stage, and is a dead, fully keratinized hair. Fifty to one-hundred club hairs are shed daily from a normal scalp.


title: Pirelli

paragraphs: Pirelli & C. SpA is a diverse (it does many things) company based in Milan, Italy. It operates in many countries.

paragraphs: Pirelli was founded 1872 in Milan by Giovanni Battista Pirelli. Pirelli initially worked in rubber and related processes. The company used to make scuba diving rebreathers (a special type of underwater breathing machine). Pirelli's activities are still focused on the building of tyres and cables (for energy and telecommunications). In 2005, Pirelli sold its cable division to Goldman Sachs, which changed the new group's name to "Prysmian".

paragraphs: In the 1950s, Alberto Pirelli had the famous Milanese skyscraper built. It is in the same area as the first Pirelli factory in the 19th century.

paragraphs: In 1974, Pirelli invented the "wide radial tyre". This was at the request from the Lancia rally racing team. They needed a tyre strong enough for their new Stratos.

paragraphs: Later, Porsche started using the same tyres with the Porsche 911 Turbo.

paragraphs: Today, the wide tyres are still the standard in sport & racing cars.

paragraphs: The "Pirelli Calendar" is published once a year. It often features famous actresses and fashion models. The calendar also features the work of many well respected fashion photographers.

paragraphs: The "Pirelli Internetional Award" is given annually for the best international multimedia involving the communication of Science & Technology conducted entirely on the Internet.

paragraphs: "Power is nothing without control" is the slogan of Pirelli Tyre Company.

paragraphs: Pirelli is the long time main sponsor of Italian football club "F.C. Internazionale Milano".

paragraphs: Pirelli has a history of sponsoring football teams. Pirelli is known for its long term primary sponsorship of the Italian football team Internazionale Milano F.C. Pirelli also supports rally. Pirelli Star Driver is an project to support young rally drivers. It is organised by Pirelli and the FIA.

paragraphs: Since 2007, Pirelli is the only tyre brand used in the FIM World Superbike Championship. The tyres are also used in the support classes.

paragraphs: Pirelli has the contract for the control tyre supply in the British Superbike Championship. This contract started in 2008 and will last until 2010 at least.

paragraphs: Pirelli is the official tyre supplier of the World Rally Championship. They replaced BF Goodrich for the 2008 season.

paragraphs: Pirelli competed in Formula One in three distinct periods. The first time was between and . The second time was between and . The third time was between and . They started 200 Grands Prix races, and won 44 of them.

paragraphs: Pirelli will return to the sport in as the sole tyre supplier. Bridgestone decided to withdraw as the supplier at the end of .

paragraphs: To test the new F1 tyre, Pirelli signed Nick Heidfeld. A 2009 version of a Toyota Racing chassis is being used to test the tyres. The testing is taking place during the second half of the season. In September 2010, Heidfeld was signed by Sauber to race the remainder of the season. Pirelli then hired former GP2 and Renault F1 driver Romain Grosjean to test for them.


title: Ball (dance)

paragraphs: A ball is a formal dance occasion. By formal is meant: people were invited, wore their best clothes ('evening attire'), and the ball was held in a splendid ballroom. In former times everyone danced, but only the wealthy went to balls. Girls had dance cards: men had to sign up to dance with them. Older people sat around the sides and watched the younger people dance. It was a society occasion.


title: Robin Warren

paragraphs: John Robin Warren AC (born 11 June 1937 in Adelaide) is an Australian pathologist, Nobel winner and researcher. In 1979, he discovered the bacterium "Helicobacter pylori", together with Barry Marshall.

paragraphs: He received his MBBS degree from the University of Adelaide, having completed his high school education at St Peter's College, Adelaide. In 1967 he was became a member the Royal College of Pathologists of Australia and became a senior pathologist at the Royal Perth Hospital where he spent most of his career. At the University of Western Australia with Barry J. Marshall, Warren proved that the bacterium is the cause of stomach ulcers. Warren helped develop an easy diagnostic test (C-urea breath-test) for finding "H. pylori" in ulcer patients. In 2005, Warren and Marshall were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine.

paragraphs: He married Winifred Theresa Warren and together they had five children. Winifred Warren is a psychiatrist.

paragraphs: An Australian documentary was made in 2006 about Warren and Marshall's road to the Nobel Prize, called "The Winner's Guide to the Nobel Prize". He was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia in 2007.


title: University of Western Australia

paragraphs: The University of Western Australia (UWA) was opened in February 1911. It is the oldest university in the state of Western Australia. The law that set up the university was the University of Western Australia Act 1911. The Act sets out how the University is to be managed by a Senate, which can make rules and regulations. These are included in the University Calendar.

paragraphs: One of the best and most respected universities in Australia, UWA is also highly ranked internationally. To date UWA has close to 100 Rhodes Scholars and one Nobel Prize winner, Barry Marshall. The University joined the "Matariki Network of Universities" as the youngest member, being the only established university from the 20th century.

paragraphs: The University was first set up in Irwin Street, in the centre of Perth. It was housed in several buildings between Hay Street and St George's Terrace. Irwin Street was also known as "Tin Pan Alley" because many of the buildings had corrugated iron roofing. These buildings were the university campus until 1932, when the campus moved to its present-day site in Crawley ().

paragraphs: In the 1910s the founding Chancellor, Sir John Winthrop Hackett, gave over £425,000 to the University. This allowed the building of its magnificent main buildings at the present-day campus. Many buildings and landmarks within the University are named after him, including Winthrop Hall and Hackett Hall.

paragraphs: A part of the original buildings is still in use, called the "Irwin Street Building". In the 1930s it was moved to the new campus. In 1987 it was repaired and moved to James Oval. Recently, the building was the Senate meeting room and is now used as a cricket pavilion and storage space for the University Archives. The building has been heritage-listed by both the National Trust and the Australian Heritage Commission.

paragraphs: UWA is one of the largest landowners in Perth, though government grants and private gifts. Recent developments include the $22 million University Club, opened in June 2005, the UWA Watersports Complex, opened in August 2005, the $64 million Molecular and Chemical Sciences building opened in September 2005 and a $30 million Business School building opened in May 2009. A new $360 million medical research facility is due to begin in early 2009 and be completed by the end of 2011.

paragraphs: The 65-hectare Crawley campus is next to the Swan River, and located 5 km from the Perth central business district. Many of the buildings are made from limestone, including the Winthrop Hall with its Romanesque architecture. These buildings are built amongst large lawns and thickets of trees such as the Sunken Garden and the Tropical Grove. The beauty of the grounds and rich history of the campus make it a popular spot for weddings.

paragraphs: The Arts Faculty building includes the New Fortune Theatre. This is a copy of the original Elizabethan Fortune Theatre and the only one of its kind in the southern hemisphere. Since 1995 the open air theatre has had regular performances of Shakespeare's plays, put on by the Graduate Dramatic Society and the University Dramatic Society. The theatre is also home to a family of peafowl given to the University by the Perth Zoo.

paragraphs: The Berndt Museum of Anthropology, on the ground floor of the Social Sciences Building, holds the finest collection of Aboriginal art in the world according to the Collections Australia Network (CAN). Its Asian and Melanesian collections are also of strong interest. Begun in 1976 by Ronald and Catherine Berndt, it works in close collaboration with Aboriginal communities.

paragraphs: The University of Western Australia has seven main subject libraries on campus. This includes the architecturally recognised Reid Library building, the largest library on campus with four publicly accessible levels. Five of the libraries are located on campus, with the other two being located within walking distance.

paragraphs: Several residential colleges are located close to the campus, including Currie Hall, St George's College, St Catherine's College, Trinity and St Thomas More College.

paragraphs: The University started a UWA Albany Centre in 1999 to meet rural education needs. In 2005, Curtin University of Technology joined UWA in Albany to offer extra courses. UWA Albany has postgraduate coursework and research programs through the Institute for Regional Development and the Centre of Excellence in Natural Resource Management. The UWA Rural Clinical School sends fifth-year medical students to study for a year in Albany, Derby, Broome, Port Hedland, Karratha, Geraldton, Bunbury, Narrogin, Esperance, or Kalgoorlie. The University is also involved in the Combined Universities Centre for Rural Health in Geraldton.

paragraphs: The University has other buildings across Stirling Highway in Nedlands. These are linked by pedestrian underpasses beneath the highway, and paths in front of the residential colleges. The University also has buildings in Claremont, purchased in 2005 from Edith Cowan University. The University calls this "UWA Claremont". The University remains a single campus institution. UWA Claremont is approximately 5 km west of the main Crawley campus. Further west still, the University also has staff in central Claremont.

paragraphs: Overseas, the University has links with institutions in Malaysia and Singapore, where students can study for The University of Western Australia qualifications.

paragraphs: UWA's students are mainly from Western Australia, and mostly from Perth. In recent years, numbers of full-fee paying foreign students, mainly from Southeast Asia, have grown. In 2008, the University had 3,958 international students, part of a total of 19,000 students.

paragraphs: The University of Western Australia has formal agreements with 44 international institutions. It encourages staff and student exchanges, collaborative research and exchange of teaching materials and methods. The University also teaches several of its programmes in Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.

paragraphs: In May 2010 University joined the Matariki Network of Universities (MNU) together with Dartmouth College (USA), Durham University (UK), Queen’s University (Canada), University of Otago (New Zealand), University of Tübingen (Germany) and Uppsala University (Sweden).

paragraphs: The University has over 80 research centres, including the Crime Research Centre, the Centre for Forensic Science, the Centre for Water Research and the Centre for Oil and Gas Engineering.

paragraphs: A new project is the Zadko Telescope. A local businessman, James Zadko, and his family gave money to buy a robotically controlled 1-metre modified Ritchey-Chrétien telescope (F/4 equatorially mounted flat field). The telescope will built at the UWA's Gravity Discovery Centre and Southern Cross Cosmos Centre 70 km north of Perth on Wallingup Plain, near the town of Gingin. Working together with the European Union's satellites, it will be used to find major supernovas.

paragraphs: The University of Western Australia, with $20 million from the state government, will build an international radio astronomy research centre on UWA's Perth campus. UWA is behind Australia's bid to be the site of the Square Kilometer Array, a very large internationally funded radio astronomy installation capable of seeing the early stages of the formation of galaxies, stars and planets.

paragraphs: The UWA Student Guild is the main student group on campus. It is part of the National Union of Students. The Guild provides many services to students, including running cafes and financial help. There are also over 80 clubs and societies paid for by the Guild. The Guild publishes the student newspaper, Pelican, as well as several other publications.

paragraphs: UWA Sports has a recreation centre, a fitness centre, aquatic centre (Human Movement) as well as a watersports complex (on the Swan River), a boat shed, a sports shop and physiotherapy. Off campus they run the UWA Sports Park (MacGillivray Oval) with athletics, baseball, cricket, football, hockey, rugby, soccer and ultimate frisbee fields. The UWA Tennis Centre is next to Challenge Stadium & UWA Sports Park. UWA Shenton Recreation Park also has a gym, indoor sports hall, tennis courts and a hockey turf.

paragraphs: UWA has many famous students, particularly in politics and government. The list includes many premiers of Western Australia including Geoff Gallop, Richard Court and Alan Carpenter; former Deputy Prime Minister Kim Beazley, and his father Kim Edward Beazley, and 23rd Prime Minister of Australia Bob Hawke.

paragraphs: The University also many famous science and medicine students, including Nobel prize winner Barry Marshall, the Australian of the Year for 2003 Fiona Stanley and the Australian of the Year for 2005 Fiona Wood.

paragraphs: The former head of Ansett Airlines and British Airways, Sir Rod Eddington, is a graduate of the UWA School of Engineering.

paragraphs: Sports alumni include former Kookaburras Captain and Hockeyroos Coach Ric Charlesworth.

paragraphs: UWA set up a publishing section in 1935, when the University was the only university in Western Australia.

paragraphs: UWA started a Second Life project in mid-2009. (Second Life is a 3D online virtual world open to the public, free of charge.) By early 2010 it was the most active Second Life project of any Australian university. The UWA site covers three islands (projected to expand), with several models of historic buildings from the Crawley campus, a virtual lecture hall which is used to run real lectures, and a facility where the capabilities of Second Life are being explored for use in scientific visualisation research. During 2009-2010, UWA in Second Life is running a monthly art contest, attracting around 70 artists and many visitors from around the world. Every month a new set of artworks are submitted and the community, together with a judging panel, select winners in a number of categories, who are then awarded cash prizes.


title: Glycogen storage disease type II

paragraphs: Glycogen storage disease type II (Pompe's Disease) is a disease that causes glycogen to accumulate in lysosomes. It I done of the rarest diseases in India.


title: Nobel Foundation

paragraphs: The Nobel Foundation () is a private institution started on 29 June 1900. Its job is to manage the money and organize the Nobel Prizes. The Foundation is based on the last will of Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite.


title: Gastritis

paragraphs: Gastritis is an inflammation of the lining of the stomach. It has many possible causes. The main causes are drinking too much alcohol, or using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (also known as NSAIDs) such as aspirin or ibuprofen for too long. Sometimes gastritis starts after major surgery, serious injury, burns, or infections. People who have had weight loss surgery may also get gastritis. Long term causes are infection with bacteria, mainly "Helicobacter pylori". Certain diseases, such as pernicious anemia, chronic bile reflux, stress and certain autoimmune disorders can cause gastritis as well. The most common symptom is abdominal pain. Other symptoms are indigestion, abdominal bloating, nausea, and vomiting. Some may have a feeling of fullness or burning in the upper abdomen. A gastroscopy, blood test, complete blood count test, or a faeces test may be used to diagnose gastritis. Treatment includes taking antacids or other medicines, such as proton pump inhibitors or antibiotics, and avoiding hot or spicy foods. For those with pernicious anemia, B injections are given.


title: Susan Greenfield

paragraphs: Susan Greenfield, Baroness Greenfield, (born Hammersmith, London, 1 October 1950) is a British scientist, writer and broadcaster. She specializes in studying how the human brain works and has done a lot of research into diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease which are common in older people. She has written several books and appeared frequently on radio and television. She is very good at explaining what she does to the wide public, using words that ordinary people (non-scientists) can understand. In 1994 she gave the series of Christmas lectures on television for young children.

paragraphs: Susan Greenfield was born in Hammersmith, West London. Her parents were of Russian and Austrian origin. She studied at the University of Oxford and also got a doctorate degree from the College de France in Paris. She is Professor of Pharmacology at the University of Oxford and fellow of Lincoln College. She is the head of a group of 18 scientists who study degenerative brain diseases. Until recently she was director of the Royal Institution.

paragraphs: Susan Greenfield is very well known to the wider public through the books she has written and the lectures she has given on radio and on television. In 1994, she was the first woman to give the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures which were sponsored at that time by the BBC. She called those lectures "Journey to the centre of the brain".

paragraphs: Greenfield frequently lectures about the future of the brain and, in particular, the effect that computers are having in the way we think. She says that computer could be very useful for old people because it keeps their minds active. On the other hand she is worried that young people are using computers too much. Although activities such as video games are good for developing certain skills (such as quick reactions), there are many other skills that we need in life (such as the ability to communicate with people and understand other people’s emotions) that they do not teach us.

paragraphs: Baroness Greenfield sits in the United Kingdom Parliament in the House of Lords as a crossbencher. She does not belong to any particular party.

paragraphs: She has been given many awards, including the CBE for helping the public to understand science. a Chevalier Légion d'Honneur by the French Government. She has been given several honorary degrees and in June 2001, she was made a Life peer, as Baroness Greenfield, of Ot Moor in the County of Oxfordshire.

paragraphs: Greenfield was married to an Oxford University Professor of Physical Chemistry, Peter Atkins; they divorced in 2005.


title: Sébastien Bourdais

paragraphs: Sébastien Olivier Bourdais (born 28 February 1979 in Le Mans) is a French race car driver. He is one of the most successful drivers in the history of the Champ Car World Series. He won four championships in a row, from 2004 to 2007.

paragraphs: He drove in Formula One for the Toro Rosso team during the 2008 and 2009 seasons. He was unable to repeat his past successes. Bourdais currently drives for Peugeot Sport in the Le Mans Series and for French football club Olympique Lyonnais in the Superleague Formula series.

paragraphs: Born into a racing family, Bourdais began his racing career at age 10 in kart racing. Bourdais progressed to single-seater racing in 1995, finishing 9th in the Formula Campus Championship. He then spent two years in the French Formula Renault Championship. He finished second in points in 1997. In 1998, he won five races to become Rookie of the Year (6th overall) in French F3. He won the series outright in 1999, with eight wins and three poles.

paragraphs: In 2000, Bourdais joined the Prost Junior Team in the International F3000 Championship. He finished ninth in the series. In 2001, he moved to the DAMS team and took his first win in the series. He changed teams again for 2002, joing Super Nova Racing. Bordais had three victories and seven pole positions. He won the championship by two points.

paragraphs: Bourdais moved to Champ Car racing in the United States. He and joined Newman-Haas Racing for the 2003 CART World Series season. At St. Petersburg, Florida, Bourdais became the first rookie since Nigel Mansell to claim pole position for his first race. His first Champ Car victory came at Brands Hatch.

paragraphs: For 2004, Bourdais dominated the Champ Car series. He had seven wins and eight poles in his Lola. His won his first championship. Bourdais won a fourth consecutive Champ Car title in 2007 with victory at Lexmark Indy 300 on October 21.

paragraphs: On 16 March 2008 Bourdais competed in his first Formula One Championship race, the Australian Grand Prix in Melbourne. He finished the year in 17th place with four points.

paragraphs: Bourdais tested for the Toro Rosso team during the winter. On 6 February 2009 he was confirmed as a Toro Rosso driver for a second year. He had two points finishes in at the Australian Grand Prix and the Monaco Grand Prix.

paragraphs: On 16 July 2009, Toro Rosso announced that Bourdais would no longer be driving for the team. It was reported that Bourdais was thinking about sueing Toro Rosso, claiming that the team breached his contract. It was then reported that Toro Rosso paid him $2.1 million to avoid legal action.

paragraphs: Bourdais has frequently raced the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans. He entering for the first time in 1999, at the aged of 20. He drove a Porsche 911 GT2 run by Larbre Competition. He returned in 2000, finishing fourth with Emmanuel Clerico and Olivier Grouillard for the Pescarolo team behind the three dominant Audis.

paragraphs: His next three appearances did not go so well. In 2001 his car retired after 271 laps. The next year, he finished ninth in the LMP900 class. He missed the 2003 race and returned in 2004, but his car retired after 282 laps.

paragraphs: Bourdais' next race at Le Mans would come in 2007. He drove a factory-backed Peugeot 908. The car he shared with Stéphane Sarrazin and Pedro Lamy finished the race second. In 2009 he drovr for the Peugeot factory team again. He finished in second place, one lap behind the winning Peugeot. Bourdais was to drive the pole-winning #3 Peugeot in 2010. A suspension failure halted the car before Bourdais could turn a lap in the race

paragraphs: After leaving Formula One, Bourdais signed up to drive the Sevilla FC car in the Superleague Formula series. He won on his debut weekend at the 2009 Estoril round in the Super Final. Bourdais won again at the next round, winning race 1 of the 2009 Monza round. He returned for the 2010 season racing for Olympique Lyonnais.

paragraphs: Bourdais made several appearances in other championships. He won the Spa 24 Hours in 2002 in a Larbre Compétition Chrysler Viper GTS-R. He also won his class at the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring in a Panoz Esperante. In 2005 he also competed in the International Race of Champions, winning his first stock car race at Texas Motor Speedway. In 2009, he set the official lap record at Sebring International Raceway, during the 12 Hours of Sebring. In 2010, Bourdais raced in a Level 5 Motorsports prepared Daytona Prototype in Rolex 24 at Daytona, held at Daytona International Speedway in Florida.

paragraphs: Did not finish the race but was classified as he completed more than 90% of the race


title: W. Edwards Deming

paragraphs: William Edwards Deming (October 14, 1900 – December 20, 1993) was an American engineer who improved how companies manage making products. He was a statistician, professor, author, lecturer, and consultant. He is perhaps best known for his work in Japan. Starting in 1950, he taught top Japanese business managers how to improve design, product quality, testing and sales. He taught the importance of using Statistical Process Control (SPC), to manage quality by measuring, or counting, many steps of complex manufacturing and services, in order to reduce the variation in results. This should reduce defects and errors. Deming described periodic monitoring, by repeating the steps of Plan-Do-Check-Act, known as the Deming Cycle.

paragraphs: he went to triton central highschool. He entered the University of Wyoming at Laramie in 1917 and graduated in 1921. He earned a BSc in electrical engineering. He then went to graduate school. In 1925, he received an M.S. from the University of Colorado. In 1928, he received a Ph.D. from Yale University. Both graduate degrees were in mathematics and mathematical physics.


title: Yo-yo

paragraphs: The yo-yo is a popular toy made with of a length of string tied at one end to a flat spool. It is used by holding the free end of the string (usually by inserting one finger in a slip knot) and pulling at it so as to cause the spool to turn while it is hanging in mid-air, either winding or unwinding the string. It first became popular in the 1920s.

paragraphs: In the simplest play, the string is wound on the spool by hand. The yo-yo is then thrown downwards, so that it goes down and unwinds the string. It then (by inertia) climbs back, winding the string up. Finally the yo-yo is grabbed, ready to be thrown again. Many other trick plays exist, most based on the basic "sleeper" trick.

paragraphs: One of the most famous tricks on the yoyo is "walk the dog". This is done by throwing a strong sleeper and allowing the yoyo to roll across the floor.

paragraphs: English historical names for the yo-yo include "bandalore" (from French) and "quiz". French historical terms include "bandalore", "incroyable", "de Coblenz", "emigrette", and "joujou de Normandie" ("joujou" meaning little toy).

paragraphs: The earliest surviving yo-yo dates to 500 BC and was made using terra cotta (clay) disks. A Greek vase painting from this date shows a boy playing yo-yo(see right). Greek records from this time describe toys made out of wood, metal, or painted terra cotta. The terra cotta disks were used to ceremonially offer the toys of youth to certain gods when a child came of age. Disks of other materials were used for actual play.

paragraphs: Philippine historical records show that 16th century hunters hiding in trees used a rock tied to a string up to 20 feet in length to throw at wild animals beneath them. The string meant they could get the rock back without having to come down from the tree.