title: Escobedo v. Illinois

paragraphs: Escobedo v. Illinois, , was a landmark United States Supreme Court case decided in 1964. The Court ruled that suspects in crimes have the right to have a lawyer with them while they are being questioned by the police. This case was decided just a year after the Court ruled in "Gideon v. Wainwright", , that indigent (poor) criminal defendants had a right to be assigned free lawyers at trial.

paragraphs: Danny Escobedo's brother-in-law, Manuel Valtierra, was shot and killed on the night of January 19, 1960. Escobedo was arrested without a warrant early the next morning and interrogated. However, Escobedo did not admit anything to the police, and was let go that afternoon.

paragraphs: Another man named Benedict DiGerlando had also arrested, and the police thought he was another suspect. DiGerlando told the police that Escobedo's brother-in-law, Valtierra, treated Escobedo's sister badly. Because of this, Escobedo had shot and killed Valtierra, said DiGerlando.

paragraphs: On January 30, 1960, the police again arrested Escobedo, as well as his sister, Grace. While driving them to the police station, the police explained that DiGerlando had told them Escobedo was guilty. The police urged him and Grace to confess. Escobedo again refused.

paragraphs: Escobedo asked to speak to his lawyer, but the police refused. They said that although he was not formally charged with a crime yet, he was in police custody and could not leave. Escobedo's lawyer went to the police station and asked many times to see Escobedo, but was not allowed to.

paragraphs: Police and prosecutors interrogated Escobedo for fifteen hours. They made Escobedo stand, handcuffed, for the entire time. Escobedo continued to ask to speak with his lawyer, and they continued to refuse. Escobedo later said that the police promised him he could go free, and would not be charged with murder, if he just confessed to the crime. Finally, after "becoming more emotional," Escobedo said something about being connected with the crime. The police took this as an indirect confession.

paragraphs: At his murder trial, the prosecution used Escobedo's 'confession' as its most important evidence against him. A jury convicted Escobedo of murder and sentenced him to 20 years in prison.

paragraphs: Escobedo appealed his conviction to the Illinois Supreme Court. His trial lawyer refused to help him, so Escobedo wrote the appeal himself. However, after the Supreme Court got his appeal, he did receive a volunteer lawyer named Barry Kroll. Together, they argued that Escobedo's right to a lawyer had been violated and that his confession had been coerced (made because of pressure, lies, and threats).

paragraphs: At first, the Illinois Supreme Court agreed, and decided to give Escobedo a whole new trial. But later, it reversed its decision. The members of the court had changed their minds and decided Escobedo was guilty after all. They refused to reverse or change the original trial court's sentence.

paragraphs: Finally, Kroll and Escobedo appealed to the United States Supreme Court. The Court agreed to hear the case.

paragraphs: The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to ... the Assistance of Counsel for his defence."

paragraphs: The Court had already decided that people had the right to a lawyer during "trials". However, the Court had always thought that the Sixth Amendment's right to a lawyer applied to people only "after" they were "accused," once they were already "in... criminal prosecutions," as the Amendment itself says.

paragraphs: The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) helped Kroll argue before the Court. They argued that the police violated not only Escobedo's Sixth Amendment rights, but also his Fourteenth Amendment rights.

paragraphs: The Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws." Escobedo's team argued that the police took away his freedom without due process or equal protection of the laws by:

paragraphs: Lawyers for Illinois argued that the police officers did the right thing when they refused to let Escobedo have a lawyer. According to the law and past Supreme Court cases, the right to a lawyer was not guaranteed until a person had actually been charged with a crime.

paragraphs: Illinois also argued that if the Court ruled in favor of Escobedo, the results for law enforcement could be terrible. If lawyers had to be at every interrogation, it would be almost impossible to get confessions.

paragraphs: The "Escobedo" case divided the Supreme Court. By a vote of 5-4, the Court ruled in favor of Escobedo. They threw out his conviction, and he went free.

paragraphs: The Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment does apply to police interrogations. In other words, people have the right to a lawyer when they are being questioned by the police.

paragraphs: Specifically, the Court ruled that the right to a lawyer begins before a person is charged with a crime. It begins when the police start treating a person like a suspect.

paragraphs: Justice Arthur J. Goldberg wrote the Court's majority opinion. He rejected the state of Illinois' argument that having lawyers around would be terrible for law enforcement. He wrote:

paragraphs: The "Escobedo" decision affected every police department, prosecutor, and court in the country:

paragraphs: "Escobedo" also added extra protections for suspects. It allows them to use their Sixth Amendment right to a lawyer as soon as they become a suspect, not just after they are charged with a crime.


title: Caldwell catalogue

paragraphs: The Caldwell catalogue is an astronomical catalogue of 109 objects. It includes star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies for observation by amateur astronomers. The list was compiled by English astronomer Patrick Moore as a complement to the Messier catalogue.

paragraphs: The Messier catalogue is used by amateur astronomers as a list of deep-sky objects for observation. However, it was not compiled for that purpose. It does not include many of the sky's brightest deep-sky objects, such as the Hyades, the Double Cluster (NGC 869 and NGC 884), and the Sculptor Galaxy (NGC 253). The Messier catalogue was compiled as a list of known objects that might be confused with comets. As Messier got his list from observations in Paris, it did not include bright deep-sky objects visible in the Southern Hemisphere, such as Omega Centauri, Centaurus A, the Jewel Box, and 47 Tucanae.

paragraphs: So Moore compiled a list of 109 objects – to match the accepted number of Messier objects. The list was published in "Sky & Telescope" in December 1995.


title: Sunflower galaxy

paragraphs: The Sunflower galaxy (Messier 63 or NGC 5055) is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Canes Venatici. It is about 37 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 6334

paragraphs: NGC 6334 is an emission nebula and star-forming region in the constellation of Scorpius. It is about 5,500 light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 1291

paragraphs: NGC 1291 is a ring galaxy in the constellation of Eridanus. It is about 33 million light-years away.


title: Ring galaxy

paragraphs: A ring galaxy is a kind of galaxy that has a ring shape. Hoag's Object and NGC 1291 are two examples. The ring is made up of many massive, young blue stars, which are extremely bright. The middle of the galaxy contains far less luminous matter.

paragraphs: Some astronomers believe that ring galaxies are formed when a smaller galaxy passes through the center of a larger galaxy. Because galaxies are mostly made up of empty space, a collision rarely happens between stars. However, the gravitational disruptions could cause a wave of star formation to move through the larger galaxy. Other astronomers think that rings are formed around some galaxies when an accretion disc is formed. Star formation would then result from the shocks and compressions in the newly formed disc.


title: United States district court

paragraphs: The United States district courts are the trial courts of the federal court system.

paragraphs: United States district courts hold trials, like state courts do. However, the Constitution only gives federal courts the power to hear certain kinds of cases. For example, federal courts can hear cases about:

paragraphs: Each trial is heard by a judge and decided by a jury.

paragraphs: There are 94 U.S. district courts in the United States. Every district court also includes a bankruptcy court.

paragraphs: Each state (and Washington, D.C.) has at least one district court. So do four U.S. territories: Puerto Rico, Guam, the Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands.

paragraphs: The next-most powerful federal courts are the United States Courts of Appeals. They are also called "appellate courts." There are 13 Courts of Appeals. The 94 district courts are organized into 12 larger areas, called "circuits." Each Court of Appeals deals with appeals filed in their circuit.

paragraphs: For example, the Districts of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, Rhode Island, and Puerto Rico are grouped together into the "First Circuit." If, for example, somebody wanted to appeal a decision made by the District Court of Massachusetts, they would write an appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit.

paragraphs: The last choice for appealing a court decision is to file an appeal asking the United States Supreme Court to hear the case.

paragraphs: Here is a map that shows which circuit each United States District Court is in. States that are the same color are in the same circuit. Each circuit has a number on it for example, Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi are in the 5th Circuit.

paragraphs: The dotted lines on the map also show the areas which the District Courts cover. On the map, some states have no dotted lines in them. This means there is only one District Court in that state. For example, Alaska has only one District Court: the District Court of Alaska. This court covers the entire state of Alaska.

paragraphs: Other states are divided into more than one district. The dotted lines on the map show where one district ends and another begins. For example, on the map, Washington is divided down the middle by a dotted line. Washington has two District Courts: the District Court for the Western District of Washington, and the District Court for the Eastern District of Washington.

paragraphs: Here is a list of information about all of the United States District Courts. Just like with the map, districts that are in the same circuit are the same color. The colors are the same as the map (for example, districts in the 8th Circuit are orange on the map and on the list). To sort this table, click on the little triangle on the top row of the table, in the column you want to sort by.


title: Swazi language

paragraphs: Swati (also known as Swazi) ( "SiSwati") is part of the Nguni group of Bantu languages. It is spoken by about 1.5 million people in Eswatini and South Africa. It is one of the eleven official languages in South Africa. It is taught in the schools of Eswatini, and in some South African schools. Swati is closely related to Phuthi, a language spoken in Lesotho, and to Zulu, Ndebele and Xhosa.

paragraphs: Swati has four main varietes: Shiselweni, Hhohho, Manzini and Shiselweni. They correspond with the four administrative regions of Eswatini.


title: Trusty system (prison)

paragraphs: The trusty system was a system that Mississippi State Penitentiary and other prisons used to control prisoners. In the trusty system, some prisoners were given more power than others. These trusties guarded the other prisoners.

paragraphs: The trusty system worked out well for prison officials because they did not have to pay civilian (non-prisoner) guards to control the prisoners. However, the trusties kept the other prisoners under control through physical abuse, torture, fear, and humiliation. Finally, in 1974, a federal court ruled that the trusty system, and the whole prison, were violating the United States Constitution by giving out cruel and unusual punishments. This ruling ordered the trusty system to be shut down.

paragraphs: Mississippi State Penitentiary was built in 1901. It was originally called Parchman Farm. Mississippi law said that the prison had to pay for itself "and" make a profit for the state. In other words, the prison had to pay for everything it needed itself, "and" make money for the state.

paragraphs: Basically, this meant Parchman was like a business for the state of Mississippi. It was like a business that used slave labor the state made money without having to pay for anything, including workers' salaries. In fact, one year, Parchman earned $180,000 for the state of Mississippi not including what it had to spend on itself. The Governor of Mississippi, James K. Vardaman, even said the prison was run “like an efficient slave plantation.” This hurt other local businesses, which did have to pay their workers and other costs.

paragraphs: The prison warden controlled the prison completely. Nobody from outside of the prison ever came in to see what was going on. Because of this, nobody outside the prison knew what Parchman was really like. For example, in 1911, the "New York Times" wrote an article congratulating the Mississippi prison system for figuring out how to keep people in prison and make money at the same time. Also, because no outsiders ever came into Parchman, the conditions and abuse at the prison changed very little from the time it opened in 1903 until the "Gates v. Collier" case forced it to change.

paragraphs: The prison had approximately of good farmland. Prisoners grew cash crops (crops which prison officials could sell to make money), like cotton. They also bred livestock.

paragraphs: As of 1973, there were about 1,900 inmates at Parchman. Two-thirds were black. Black and white inmates were kept apart. However, Mississippi law said that the prison could hire 150 staff members at most, so the prison would not cost too much. This meant there were about 13 inmates for every staff member. There just were not enough staff members to guard the prisoners, make the prison work every day, take care of the farm, and do everything else they needed to do.

paragraphs: With so few staff members, the inmates did all the farm work. Also, with so few guards, inmate trusties did most of the guardian and punishing other prisoners. Trusties also did most of the paperwork, office work, and cleaning. Basically, the trusties ran the prison system.

paragraphs: In the trusty system, some trusties had more power than others. The most powerful were the "trusty shooters." They were allowed to carry rifles and shoot at or around prisoners who made mistakes. Sometimes they hit them with their shots. They whipped prisoners who did not pick enough cotton in a day. They were in charge of the inmates' barracks, fields, and the farms. They could give punishment, and they could also suggest more punishment in the "special punishment area."

paragraphs: Very few people supervised what the trusty shooters did. For example, the farm's camps of black inmates were supervised by one white sergeant. Under him, black trusty shooters, who were serving sentences for murder, carried rifles and enforced discipline.

paragraphs: For years, there were protests over Parchman's abuse of prisoners' civil rights. Eventually, a civil rights lawyer named Roy Haber began to collect evidence of the abuse. With Haber as their lawyer, four prisoners filed a lawsuit in federal court, saying that conditions at the prison were cruel and unusual. They said that prison trusties punished and tortured prisoners in ways that were painful and humiliating on purpose.

paragraphs: A United States District Court, and then the more powerful Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, strongly agreed with the prisoners. Both courts ruled that Parchman was violating the prisoners' constitutional rights. Both courts found that trusties gave prisoners all kinds of cruel and unusual punishments, including:

paragraphs: The Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ordered Parchman to end its trusty program; racial segregation at the prison; and all other cruel, unusual, and unconstitutional practices immediately.

paragraphs: After the court decision, other states that used the trusty system had to stop using it too. These states included Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. However, some states, like Texas, continued to use trusty systems (renamed "building tenders") until the 1980s, when Federal Judge William Wayne Justice, in the case of "Ruiz v. Estelle", 503 F. Supp. 1265 (S.D. Tex. 1980), ordered Texas to end the system.


title: Ryan Drummond

paragraphs: Ryan Drummond (born January 10, 1973) is an American actor, voice actor, mime and comedian. He is best known for voicing Sonic the Hedgehog in several installments of the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series from 1998 to 2004. He is also known for being the bass vocalist in the A.Y.U. Quartet since 1991. He has been starring in a musical comedy in San Diego called "Forever Plaid".

paragraphs: Drummond married his wife, Lisa Drummond, on October 8, 2002. They live in San Francisco, California.


Instruction


paragraphs: The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit is one of the 13 appeals courts in the United States's federal court system. In case citations, the Court's name is abbreviated "5th Cir."

paragraphs: The Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit is the appeals court that has jurisdiction, or legal power, to review cases decided by less powerful courts in the 5th Circuit. These less powerful courts are called United States district courts. They are federal trial courts. If someone wants to appeal a decision that one of these courts made, they would have to appeal to the Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit.

paragraphs: These are the United States District Courts that are located in the 5th Circuit:

paragraphs: The Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit handles appeals from every one of these District Courts.

paragraphs: The Court has 17 judges. The main court building is located in the John Minor Wisdom United States Court of Appeals Building in New Orleans, Louisiana. The court clerk's office is at the Felix Edward Hébert Federal Building in New Orleans.

paragraphs: The Court met for the first time on June 16, 1891, in the Customs House in New Orleans.

paragraphs: The Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit decided a landmark case called "Gates v. Collier", which stopped the severe physical abuse of prisoners by "trustys" at Mississippi State Penitentiary (then called Parchman).


title: Steven Sample

paragraphs: Steven Browning Sample (November 29, 1940 – March 29, 2016) was the 10th president of the University of Southern California (USC). He became president in 1991 and was succeeded by C.L. Max Nikias on August 3, 2010.

paragraphs: Before he was president at USC, he held the same position at the University at Buffalo (UB) in the State University of New York (SUNY) system from 1982 to 1991. He was succeeded by William R. Greiner.

paragraphs: In 2001, Sample was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, but said he still felt able to serve as president of USC. On March 29, 2016, Sample died at the age of 75. He had lived in San Marino, California.


paragraphs: The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (in case citations, 9th Cir.) is the largest of the 13 appeals courts in the United States's federal court system. It hears cases from federal trials courts in nine western states and two Pacific Island jurisdictions.

paragraphs: It is a U.S. Federal court with appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following districts:

paragraphs: It also has appellate jurisdiction over the following territorial courts:

paragraphs: Headquartered in San Francisco, California, the Ninth Circuit is by far the largest of the thirteen courts of appeals, with 29 active judgeships. The court's regular meeting places are in Seattle, Portland, San Francisco and Pasadena. Panels of the court occasionally travel to hear cases in other locations within the circuit. Although the judges travel around the circuit, the court arranges its hearings so that cases from the northern region of the circuit are heard in Seattle or Portland, cases from southern California are heard in Pasadena, and cases from northern California, Nevada, Arizona, and Hawaii are heard in San Francisco. For lawyers who must come and present their cases to the court in person, this administrative grouping of cases helps to reduce the time and cost of travel.

paragraphs: The large size of the current court is due to the fact that both the population of the western states and the geographic jurisdiction of the Ninth Circuit have increased dramatically since the U.S. Congress created the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in 1891. The court was originally granted appellate jurisdiction over federal district courts in California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington. As new states and territories were added to the federal judicial hierarchy in the twentieth century, many of those in the West were placed in the Ninth Circuit: the newly acquired Territory of Hawaii in 1900, Arizona upon its admission to the Union in 1912, the Territory of Alaska in 1948, Guam in 1951, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in 1977.

paragraphs: The Ninth Circuit also had jurisdiction over certain American interests in China.

paragraphs: The Philippines were never under the Ninth Circuit's jurisdiction. Congress never created a federal district court in the Philippines from which the Ninth Circuit could hear appeals. Instead, appeals from the Supreme Court of the Philippines were taken directly to the Supreme Court of the United States.

paragraphs: In 1979, the Ninth Circuit became the first federal judicial circuit to set up a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel as authorized by the Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1978.

paragraphs: The cultural and political jurisdiction of the Ninth Circuit is just as varied as the land within its geographical borders. In a dissenting opinion in a rights of publicity case involving the "Wheel of Fortune" star Vanna White, Circuit Judge Alex Kozinski sardonically noted that "[f]or better or worse, we are the Court of Appeals for the Hollywood Circuit." Judges from more remote parts of the circuit note the contrast between legal issues confronted by populous states such as California and those confronted by rural states such as Alaska, Idaho, Montana, and Nevada.

paragraphs: Judge Andrew J. Kleinfeld, who maintains his judicial chambers in Fairbanks, Alaska, wrote in a letter in 1998: "Much federal law is not national in scope...It is easy to make a mistake construing these laws when unfamiliar with them, as we often are, or not interpreting them regularly, as we never do."


title: Action Comics

paragraphs: Action Comics is an current comic book series. Superman first appeared in it. It is one of the longest comic series in America. It started in 1938.


title: Ricardo Goulart

paragraphs: Ricardo Goulart Pereira or simply Ricardo Goulart (; born 5 June 1991), is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Guangzhou Evergrande Taobao in the Chinese Super League as an attacking midfielder.


title: Mitigating factor

paragraphs: When a person commits a capital crime, a mitigating factor is something that might help the person avoid getting the death penalty. ("To mitigate" means "to decrease." A "factor" is something that causes something else. So, in law, a mitigating factor is something that can cause punishment to decrease.)

paragraphs: Mitigating factors do not automatically result in decreased punishment. Judges and juries also think about aggravating factors things that are likely to cause a more severe punishment.

paragraphs: Also, mitigating factors are not an excuse for committing a crime. They may help explain what caused a person to commit a crime, but they do not mean the person did nothing wrong.

paragraphs: Sixteen countries in Africa have "abolished" the death penalty (made it illegal in the country). Another 22 countries have not used the death penalty in over 10 years, or have a moratorium (a temporary stop) on the death penalty.

paragraphs: According to Cornell University's Law School, as of 2015, only one of the countries in Africa that still uses the death penalty has laws about mitigating factors. That country is Botswana.

paragraphs: In Botswana, a person convicted of murder is given the death penalty unless they can show mitigating factors. However, the law in Botswana does not say what these mitigating factors could be, or give examples. This means it is up to each individual judge to decide whether something is a mitigating factor.

paragraphs: For example, in the past, judges have decided that mitigating factors include:

paragraphs: The law in Botswana does not allow judges to consider mitigating factors from "before" the murder. For example, if a person was abused as a child, or was abused by their victim, these could not count as extenuating circumstances. Only things that happened right at the time of the murder are considered as mitigating factors.

paragraphs: Nine countries in Africa that use the death penalty have mandatory death sentences for certain crimes. This means courts will not consider any mitigating factors, no matter what.

paragraphs: Only two countries in the Americas have executed a person in the past ten years: the United States and St. Kitts and Nevis. The rest have abolished the death penalty or have a moratorium in place.

paragraphs: St. Kitts and Nevis's last execution was in 2008.

paragraphs: St. Kitts and Nevis allows the death penalty for murder or treason. One of the country's Supreme Court decisions said that the death penalty must only be used with "the most exceptional and extreme cases of murder." However, the law does not seem to define what makes a murder "exceptional" and what mitigating factors might prevent the death penalty.

paragraphs: St. Kitts and Nevis does have a law against executing people who were under age 18 when they committed their crime.

paragraphs: In the United States, mitigating factors are very important in death penalty cases. Mitigating factors can help prosecutors decide whether to ask for the death penalty. Also, the United States Supreme Court has ruled several times that judges and juries must think about mitigating factors before deciding on a sentence.

paragraphs: The United States Supreme Court has made the mandatory death penalty illegal. To be fair, the Court ruled, each judge or jury has to think about whether an individual defendant deserves the death penalty.

paragraphs: Here are some examples of the most common mitigating factors in federal and state laws:

paragraphs: Fourteen of the countries in the Asia-Pacific region that use the death penalty have the mandatory death penalty for certain crimes.

paragraphs: In 1968, a 19-year-old named Norio Nagayama murdered four people in Japan. The Japanese Supreme Court sentenced him to death. In the same ruling, the Supreme Court set out nine different things that Japanese courts needed to think about before sentencing a person to death:

paragraphs: However, these nine things are not all equal. For example, a person could have five mitigating factors (they were young, they felt terrible about the crime, and so on). However, if the victim's family very much wanted the killer to get the death penalty, the judge might order the death penalty anyway. In this Japanese system, mitigating factors do not "outweigh" aggravating factors.

paragraphs: In the late 1990s, China started working on making punishments fit the crime, instead of requiring the death penalty automatically for many crimes. For example, in 1999, China's Supreme People's Court ruled that the death penalty should not be used if there were mitigating circumstances for example, if a murder victim did something to cause the crime or make the situation worse.

paragraphs: In 2012, China wrote new rules for sentencing criminals. They include stricter rules for sentencing, so judges have a few specific choices for sentences. Then they can think about mitigating factors (and aggravating factors) to decide which of these choices fits the crime the best. Examples of mitigating factors under these new rules include surrendering and confessing to police.

paragraphs: In its own words, the Supreme People's Court said in a 2004 report that they had worked as hard as they could to make sure "that the death penalty shall only be applied to a very small number of criminals who have committed extremely serious crimes."

paragraphs: Political scholar Benjamin MacQueen writes that some Middle Eastern countries, like Algeria, give "mitigated sentences" to people who belong to terrorist groups or the insurgency (groups fighting against different governments in the Middle East. These people get they death sentences cancelled, and their prison sentences cut by years or even decades, he says. This way, the state and prison officials can look like they were doing nothing wrong; they were just letting people out early for behaving well in jail. At the same time, the terrorists and insurgents could go back to fighting, and the states could support them without looking like they really were.

paragraphs: As of January 2016, Belarus is the only country in Europe or Central Asia that still uses the death penalty. Some other countries still have death penalty laws, but they have not used the death penalty in over 10 years, or they have a moratorium (a temporary stop) on the death penalty. Outside of Belarus, nobody has been executed in Europe since 1997.

paragraphs: The European Union is strongly against the death penalty, and fights for this punishment to be ended throughout Europe. Any country that wants to be in the European Union must first end the death penalty in their country.

paragraphs: The law in Belarus allows the death penalty for murder, terrorism that causes death, treason, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide.

paragraphs: The only mitigating factor listed in Belarus's laws is mental illness. If a person becomes mentally ill after being sentenced, and they cannot understand or control their behavior, they are not given the death penalty. However, if they recover, they are executed, no matter how long it has been.

paragraphs: The law in Belarus also lists some groups of people that cannot be executed, no matter what. These groups include:

paragraphs: Since the end of the Nuremberg Trials after World War II, the major international courts in the world have outlawed the death penalty in their courts. For example, in 1993, the United Nations set up an International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (which is still prosecuting people as of 2016). In 1994, the United Nations Security Council set up the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, to look into and punish crimes committed during the Rwandan Genocide. Neither of these courts were allowed to hand out death sentences.

paragraphs: In 1998, the International Criminal Court was created as a permanent international. Its job is to look into and try war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide, wherever in the world they happen. However, no matter how bad these crimes are, the ICC is not allowed to use the death penalty as a punishment.


title: Selkirk Transit

paragraphs: Selkirk Transit is a public transit system based in Selkirk, Manitoba. The operators are Selkirk and District handi bus.

paragraphs: New Flyer XE40 {Part of the rapid transit commuter line owned by Winnipeg}

paragraphs: In 2011, Selkirk Transit started with a cutaway bus.

paragraphs: In 2020 they will get an XE40 from New flyer as part of the Rapid transit commuter line owned by Winnipeg


title: Selkirk, Manitoba

paragraphs: Selkirk is a Town in Manitoba. It is west of Winnipeg. It was named after the 5th Earl of selkirk. It was incorporated as a Town in 1882 and as a CITY in 1998 and as a Town again in 2018

paragraphs: At the 2016 census, Selkirk's population was 10,278.

paragraphs: The Town of Selkirk has 2 taxi services: Wills Taxi and First Rate Taxi.

paragraphs: It also has Selkirk Transit and Selkirk Mobility.

paragraphs: Selkirk has many businesses. These include McDonald's, Dairy Queen, and A&W. It also has Sterling Press and International Pipe.

paragraphs: Selkirk is home to The MJHL Selkirk Steelers and the KJHL Selkirk Fishermen.


title: Dan Green

paragraphs: James Hadley "Jay" Snyder (born February 7, 1975) also known by his stage name as Dan Green, is an American voice actor, voice director and script adapter who is known for his work with 4Kids Entertainment, DuArt Film and Video, NYAV Post and Central Park Media. He is best known for his voice work as Yugi Mutou in the "Yu–Gi–Oh!" franchise and as Knuckles the Echidna in "Sonic X" and in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" video game franchise from 2005 to 2010.

paragraphs: He married his wife Michal Lura Friedman, a singer and fellow voice actress in 2008. they were married for four years until her death in 2011, from complications during childbirth. They have two children, Jackson James Snyder and Reverie Vivian Snyder.


paragraphs: The United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit is one of the 13 appeals courts in the United States's federal court system. In case citations, the Court's name is abbreviated "1st Cir."

paragraphs: The Court of Appeals for the 1st Circuit is the appeals court that has jurisdiction, or legal power, to review cases decided by less powerful courts in the 1st Circuit. These less powerful courts are called United States district courts. They are federal trial courts. If someone wants to appeal a decision that one of these courts made, they would have to appeal to the Court of Appeals for the 1st Circuit.

paragraphs: These are the United States District Courts that are in the 1st Circuit:

paragraphs: The Court is based at the John Joseph Moakley Federal Courthouse in Boston, Massachusetts.

paragraphs: The First Circuit is the smallest of the thirteen United States courts of appeals. As of 2016, the Court has six full-time judges and six judges on senior status. Senior status is like being partly retired. Three of the Senior Judges do not hear any cases. The others may hear cases if they choose to.

paragraphs: Since he retired from the United States Supreme Court, Justice David Souter regularly sits on the First Circuit "by designation." This means he is a visiting judge who comes to hear cases at the First Circuit, to add his knowledge and experience.

paragraphs: The Court usually "sits" (meets at the Courthouse and hears cases) for one week a month, eleven months per year. Court sittings are held in the mornings, usually between 9:30 AM and 1:00 PM (EST). For one month out of the year either July or August the Court takes a summer break and does not meet.

paragraphs: On March 3, 1891, the United States Congress created the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. Congress approved two judgeships for the Court (it allowed two judges to sit on the Court).

paragraphs: On January 28, 1915, Congress passed a law that added the District of Puerto Rico to the First Circuit. The law said that the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit would hear appeals from Puerto Rico's district court.

paragraphs: Over time, Congress approved more full-time judgeships for the Court:


title: Zomi Baptist Church

paragraphs: The Zomi Baptist Church is a christian believer church. In India the Zomi Baptist Church (ZBC) was established in 1982.

paragraphs: The ZBC headquarters is at Champhai, India. In Myanmar the ZBC is known as ZBCM (Zomi Baptist Church in Myanmar). Nowadays the ZBC is also present in the United States (Tulsa) and other countries in the world.


title: Browder v. Gayle

paragraphs: Browder v. Gayle, 142 F. Supp. 707 (1956), was a case heard before a three-judge panel of the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama on Montgomery and Alabama state bus segregation laws. The District Court ruled 2-1, with one dissenting, on June 5, 1956 that bus segregation was unconstitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment protections for equal treatment.

paragraphs: The state and city appealed, and the decision was upheld by the United States Supreme Court on November 13, 1956. A motion for clarification and for rehearing was denied on December 17, 1956.

paragraphs: About two months after the Montgomery Bus Boycott began, civil rights activists reconsidered the case of Claudette Colvin. She was a 15-year-old girl who had been the first person arrested in 1955 for refusing to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus. Black leaders had been looking for a test case to test the constitutionality of the segregation laws of the state of Alabama and the city of Montgomery. One of the attorneys, Clifford Durr, was concerned that an appeal of Mrs. Rosa Parks' case would get tied up in the Alabama state courts. They needed a way to get directly to the federal courts. Colvin and several others who were discriminated against on Montgomery busses, agreed to become plaintiffs in a federal civil action lawsuit, thus bypassing the Alabama court system. The bus company said segregation was valid on "privately owned busses" which operated according to the laws of the city and state.

paragraphs: On February 1, 1956, the case of "Browder v. Gayle" was filed in U.S. District Court. Browder was a Montgomery housewife; W. A. Gayle was the mayor of Montgomery.

paragraphs: On June 13, 1956, the District Court ruled that "the enforced segregation of black and white passengers on motor buses operating in the City of Montgomery violates the Constitution and laws of the United States," because the conditions deprived people of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment. The court further enjoined the state of Alabama and city of Montgomery from continuing to operate segregated buses.

paragraphs: The case was not completed until it was heard later that year by the US Supreme Court, as the state and city appealed the decision. On November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court upheld the District Court's ruling and ordered the state of Alabama (and Montgomery) to desegregate its buses. One month later on December 20, after Mayor Gayle was handed official written notice by federal marshals, the Montgomery buses were desegregated.


title: Grace Poe

paragraphs: Grace Poe (born September 3, 1968) is the adopted daughter of Filipino actors Susan Roces and Fernando Poe, Jr. She served as chairperson of the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) from 2010 to 2012 and in the Philippine Senate since 2013.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

paragraphs: Miriam Defensor Santiago (born June 15, 1945, died September 29, 2016) is a Filipino politician, notable for having served in all three branches of the Philippines government – judicial, executive, and legislative.


title: Leni Robredo

paragraphs: Leni Robredo (born April 23, 1965) is a Filipina lawyer and politician. She is the 14th and current Vice President of the Philippines since June 30, 2016 serving under Rodrigo Duterte.

paragraphs: Robredo is the widow of the Philippines Interior Secretary Jesse Robredo. She served as Member of the House of Representatives from Camarines Sur's Third District. She is a member of the Liberal Party.


title: Risa Hontiveros

paragraphs: Risa Hontiveros (born February 24, 1966) is a Filipino socialist activist and journalist, who was the representative of Akbayan in the House of Representatives of the Philippines from 2004 to 2010. She is the older sister of journalists and television hosts Gringgay and Pia Hontiveros.


title: Leila de Lima

paragraphs: Leila de Lima (born August 27, 1959) is a Filipino lawyer. She was appointed by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo as Chairperson of the Commission on Human Rights on May 2008 and served until June 30, 2010 when she resigned and appointed by President Benigno Aquino III as Secretary of the Philippine Department of Justice. She resigned October 12, 2015 to focus on her candidacy for the Senate in the 2016 election.


title: Reconstruction Amendments

paragraphs: The Reconstruction Amendments are the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution, adopted between 1865 and 1870, the five years immediately following the Civil War. The amendments were important in carrying out the reconstruction of the southern states after the war. Many northern politicians saw them as changing the United States from a country that was (in Abraham Lincoln's words) "half slave and half free" to one in which the constitutionally guaranteed "blessings of liberty" would be extended to all the people, including the former slaves and their descendants.

paragraphs: The Thirteenth Amendment (proposed and ratified in 1865) abolished slavery. The Fourteenth Amendment (proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868) created the privileges and immunities clause, applicable to all citizens; and made the due process and equal protection clauses applicable to all persons. The Fifteenth Amendment, (proposed in 1869 and ratified in 1870) prohibits discrimination in voting rights of citizens on the basis of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

paragraphs: The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. It was passed by the U.S. Senate on April 8, 1864. The U.S. House of Representatives passed it on January 31, 1865. The measure was swiftly ratified by all but three Union states (the exceptions were Delaware, New Jersey, and Kentucky), and by a sufficient number of border and "reconstructed" Southern states. It was ratified by December 6, 1865. On December 18, 1865, Secretary of State William H. Seward proclaimed it to have been incorporated into the federal Constitution. It became part of the Constitution 61 years after the Twelfth Amendment. This is the longest interval between constitutional amendments to date.

paragraphs: The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was proposed by Congress on June 13, 1866. By July 9, 1868, it had received ratifications by the legislatures of the required number of states in order to officially become the Fourteenth Amendment. On July 20, 1868, Secretary of State William Seward certified that it had been ratified and added to the federal Constitution. The amendment addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws. It was proposed in response to issues related to treatment of freedmen following the war. The amendment was bitterly opposed, particularly by Southern states, which were forced to ratify it in order for their delegations to be able to return to Congress. The Fourteenth Amendment, particularly its first section, is one of the most litigated parts of the Constitution. It formed the basis for landmark decisions such as "Roe v. Wade" (1973), regarding abortion, and "Bush v. Gore" (2000), regarding the 2000 presidential election.

paragraphs: The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a male citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude". It was ratified on February 3, 1870, as the third and last of the Reconstruction Amendments.

paragraphs: By 1869, amendments had been passed to abolish slavery and provide citizenship and equal protection under the laws. But the narrow election of Ulysses S. Grant to the presidency in 1868 convinced a majority of Republicans that black voters would be important for the party's future. After rejecting more sweeping versions of a suffrage amendment, Congress proposed a compromise amendment banning restrictions on the basis of race, color, or previous servitude on February 26, 1869. The amendment survived a difficult ratification fight and was adopted on March 30, 1870. After blacks gained the vote, the Ku Klux Klan directed some of their attacks to disrupt their political meetings and intimidate them at the polls, to suppress black participation. In the mid-1870s, there was a rise in new insurgent groups, such as the Red Shirts and White League, who acted on behalf of the Democratic Party to violently suppress black voting. While white Democrats regained power in southern state legislatures, through the 1880s and early 1890s, numerous blacks continued to be elected to local offices in many states, as well as to Congress as late as 1894.

paragraphs: From 1890 to 1910, all the states of the former Confederacy passed new constitutions and other laws that found new methods to get around the Fifteenth Amendment, such as poll taxes, residency rules, and literacy tests administered by white staff, sometimes with exemptions for whites via grandfather clauses. When challenges reached the Supreme Court, it interpreted the amendment narrowly, ruling based on the stated intent of the laws rather than their practical effect. The results in voter suppression were dramatic, as voter rolls fell: nearly all blacks, as well as tens of thousands of poor whites in Alabama and other states, were forced off the voter registration rolls and out of the political system, effectively excluding millions of people from representation. Democratic state legislatures passed racial segregation laws for public facilities and other types of Jim Crow restrictions. During this period of political struggle, the rate of lynchings in the South reached an all-time high.

paragraphs: In the twentieth century, the Court interpreted the amendment more broadly, striking down grandfather clauses in "Guinn v. United States" (1915). It took a quarter century to finally dismantle the white primary system in the "Texas primary cases" (1927–1953). With the South having become a one-party region after the disfranchisement of blacks, Democratic Party primaries were the only competitive contests in the states. But Southern states reacted rapidly to Supreme Court decisions, often devising new ways to continue to exclude blacks from voter rolls and voting; most blacks in the South did not gain the ability to vote until after passage of the mid-1960s federal civil rights legislation and beginning of federal oversight of voter registration and district boundaries. The Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964) forbade the requirement for poll taxes in federal elections; by this time five of the eleven southern states continued to require such taxes. Together with the US Supreme Court ruling in "Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections" (1966), which forbade requiring poll taxes in state elections, blacks regained the opportunity to participate in the American political system.

paragraphs: These amendments were intended to guarantee freedom to former slaves and to prevent discrimination in civil rights to former slaves and all citizens of the United States. The promise of these amendments was lessened by state laws and federal court decisions over the course of the 19th century. In 1876 and later, some states passed Jim Crow laws that limited the rights of African-Americans. Important Supreme Court decisions that undermined these amendments were the "Slaughter-House Cases" in 1873, which prevented rights guaranteed under the Fourteenth Amendment's privileges or immunities clause from being extended to rights under state law; and "Plessy v. Ferguson" in 1896 which originated the phrase "separate but equal" and gave federal approval to Jim Crow laws. The full benefits of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments were not realized until the Supreme Court decision in "Brown v. Board of Education" in 1954 and laws such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.


title: Adrienne Corri

paragraphs: Adrienne Corri (13 November 1930 – 13 March 2016) was a British actress. She was known for her role as Mrs. Alexander in Stanley Kubrick's "A Clockwork Orange".

paragraphs: Corri died at her home in London on 13 March 2016 from coronary artery disease at the age of 84.


title: Shozo Awazu

paragraphs: Shozo Awazu (18 April 1923 – 17 March 2016) was a Japanese master of judo. He won the rank of Kōdōkan 9th Dan. He led the development of judo in France. He was born in Kyoto, Japan. Awazu was considered to be one of the top experts in ne waza (grappling techniques), kata and tandoku-renshu.

paragraphs: Awazu died in Paris, France on 17 March 2016 at the age of 92.


title: Miguel Hernández Agosto

paragraphs: Miguel Hernández Agosto (April 5, 1927 – March 18, 2016) was a Puerto Rican politician. He worked with the Popular Democratic Party (PPD). He started his political career as a Cabinet member, but eventually became a Senator at-large. Hernández Agosto served as President of the Senate of Puerto Rico for 12 years (1981-1993).

paragraphs: Agosto died in San Juan, Puerto Rico on March 18, 2016 at the age of 88.


title: Richard Bradford (actor)

paragraphs: Richard Bradford (October 31, 1934 – March 22, 2016) was an American actor. He was known for his lead role as former CIA agent turned private eye McGill in the British TV adventure series "Man in a Suitcase", made by ITC in 1967. He was born in Tyler, Texas.

paragraphs: Bradford died on March 22, 2016 at the age of 81.


title: Maggie Blye

paragraphs: Maggie Blye (October 24, 1942 – March 24, 2016) was an American actress. She was born in Houston, Texas. She was in the 1967 Paul Newman movie "Hombre" and the 1969 version of "The Italian Job". Her later television roles included "The Rockford Files", "Hart to Hart" and "".

paragraphs: Blye died on March 24, 2016 from cancer at her home in West Hollywood, California, aged 73.


title: Roger Cicero

paragraphs: Roger Marcel Cicero Ciceu (6 July 1970 – 24 March 2016) was a German jazz and pop musician. He was born in Berlin, Germany. Cicero represented Germany at the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki his song "Frauen regier'n die Welt" (Women rule the world). He finished 19th. Cicero made his movie debut in "Hilde" (2009) as musician Ricci Blum.

paragraphs: Cicero died of a stroke in Hamburg, Germany on 24 March 2016, aged 45.


title: Esther Herlitz

paragraphs: Esther Herlitz (, 9 October 1921 – 24 March 2016) was an Israeli diplomat and politician. She served as a member of the Knesset for the Alignment between 1973 and 1977 and again from 1979 until 1981. She was also Israel's first female ambassador, having been appointed as the country's ambassador to Denmark in 1966.

paragraphs: Herlitz died on 24 March 2016 in Tel Aviv at the age of 94.


title: Marie-Claire Kirkland

paragraphs: Marie-Claire Kirkland-Casgrain (September 8, 1924 – March 24, 2016) was a Canadian lawyer, judge and politician. She was the first woman elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. She was the first woman appointed a Cabinet minister in Quebec, the first woman appointed acting premier, and the first woman judge to serve in the Quebec Provincial Court.

paragraphs: On March 24, 2016, she died at the age of 91.


title: Tibor R. Machan

paragraphs: Tibor Richard Machan (; 18 March 1939 – 24 March 2016) was a Hungarian-born American philosopher. He was the professor emeritus in the department of philosophy at Auburn University. Machan held the R. C. Hoiles Chair of Business Ethics and Free Enterprise at the Argyros School of Business & Economics at Chapman University in Orange, California until December 31, 2014.

paragraphs: On 24 March 2015, he died at the age of 77.


title: In re Gault

paragraphs: In re Gault, , was a landmark case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1967. The Court ruled that juveniles (children and teenagers) have the same rights as adults when they are accused of a crime. For example, they have due process rights, like the right to have a lawyer, when they are being questioned by the police, and when they are on trial.

paragraphs: The Court's ruling in this case was so important for children's rights that Justice Earl Warren said it would become "the Magna Carta for juveniles."

paragraphs: In the four years before the Supreme Court decided "In re: Gault", the Court also decided some other very important cases about due process rights the rights people have when they are accused of a crime. However, these rulings did not apply to children who were being tried in juvenile courts. The case was argued by Norman Dorsen in favor of the juveniles.

paragraphs: The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to ... the Assistance of Counsel for his defence." ("Counsel" is a legal word for "lawyer.")

paragraphs: Also, the Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws."

paragraphs: Based on these two amendments, the Supreme Court decided these landmark cases:

paragraphs: These decisions, however, only applied to adult courts. While the Constitution never says that its rights are only for adults, American courts had never given juveniles the same due process rights as adults.

paragraphs: In the United States' court system, there are separate courts for children who are accused of committing crimes or having behavior problems. These are called "juvenile courts."

paragraphs: Every state has its own laws about their juvenile courts. However, usually, if the judge rules that the child is "delinquent," the judge can make that child a "ward of the court." This means the judge is putting the court in charge of the child, and taking that power away from the child's parents. For the worst crimes, the court can decide to put the child in a special school, juvenile prison, or other program away from home, and keep them there until they turn 21.

paragraphs: At the time that Gerald Gault was arrested, juveniles had very few rights in the juvenile justice system. For example, they could be put in jail without a trial, or without even knowing what crime they were being charged with.

paragraphs: On June 8, 1964, a police officer arrested Gerald Gault, a fifteen-year-old. The sheriff did not tell Gault's parents that he had been arrested. He was arrested after a neighbor named Ora Cook who complained that she received an obscene, vulgar phone call. At the time, Gault was on probation. He had been put on probation for six months, starting February 25, 1964, for being with another boy who stole a woman's wallet.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, Gault's mother came home and realized he was missing. She eventually found him at the county Children's Detention Home, but was she not allowed to take him home. Without being charged with a crime, Gault had been put in a juvenile jail.

paragraphs: Gault has always said that his friend Ronald Lewis made the call to Cook from the Gault family's trailer. In 2007, Gault said that once he heard what Lewis said, he kicked Lewis out.

paragraphs: The next morning, Gault had his first court hearing, in front of Judge McGhee. Judge McGhee usually worked in the Gila County Superior Court (an adult court), but was working in the juvenile court that day.

paragraphs: At the end of the hearing, Judge McGhee said he would think about what to do, and sent Gault back to jail. Gault was kept in jail for a few more days, then was sent home. Nobody ever explained why he was kept in jail or why he was let go. The day he came home, his mother got a note saying that Judge McGhee had ordered another hearing.

paragraphs: At the second hearing, McGhee ruled that Gault was "a delinquent child." This meant Gault had broken a state law. McGhee ordered Gault to be sent to the State Industrial School until he turned 21, unless the court decided to let him out before then. This punishment was based on a charge of "Lewd Phone Calls." If Gault had been convicted of the same crime as an adult, the Arizona laws would have allowed a maximum punishment of two months in prison and a fine of $5 to $50.

paragraphs: Gault's accuser, Mrs. Cook, was not at either hearing, even though Mrs. Gault had asked for her to come so she could identify whether Gerald or his friend had made the phone calls. Judge McGhee had said "she didn't have to be present." Judge McGhee had never told Gault's parents that they could bring a lawyer to the hearings or call witnesses to defend Gerald.

paragraphs: Also, nobody wrote a transcript (a record of exactly what was said) during either hearing. Because of this, there was no proof of what Gault or Judge McGhee said during these hearings. Later, Judge McGhee said Gault admitted to saying something "lewd" to Mrs. Cook. Both of Gault's parents insisted that Gerald never admitted to doing anything wrong.

paragraphs: At the time, Arizona law did not allow juvenile cases to be appealed. Gault's parents hired a lawyer named Amelia Lewis, who petitioned the Arizona Supreme Court for a writ of habeas corpus. This means they asked the Supreme Court to let Gerald go because his imprisonment was unfair. The Supreme Court sent the case to the Arizona Superior Court, a regular trial court, for a habeas corpus hearing. This hearing would decide whether Gault was sent to juvenile prison unfairly.

paragraphs: The hearing was held on August 17, 1964. The Gaults' lawyer questioned Judge McGhee about the legal reasons for his actions. She asked McGhee to explain what laws he had used to find Gerald "delinquent."

paragraphs: Judge McGhee also said that Gerald was already on probation. This played a part in his decision, he said.

paragraphs: The court dismissed the habeas corpus petition. It ruled that Judge McGhee had enough evidence and legal reasons to send Gault to jail.

paragraphs: Next, Amelia Lewis and the Gaults appealed to the Arizona Supreme Court (99 Ariz. 181 (1965)). They had two main arguments. They argued that Gerald's conviction was not legal because he was not given the due process rights in the Constitution. They also argued that the state's set of juvenile laws, the Arizona Juvenile Code, was unconstitutional because it did not include these due process rights.

paragraphs: The Arizona Supreme Court ruled against the Gaults. They said that neither the Juvenile Code or Gerald's conviction violated due process.

paragraphs: Under United States law, the Gaults had only one legal option left. This option was to appeal to the United States Supreme Court, but to do this, they would need more lawyers, and that would be expensive. However, lawyers from the Arizona chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) got involved and worked with Amelia Lewis on the Supreme Court appeal. On December 16, 1966, they went before the Supreme Court.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court had to answer three important legal questions in this case: a specific question, a general question, and a question that would affect every juvenile and court in the country.:

paragraphs: On May 15, 1967, the Supreme Court voted 81 in favor of the Gaults. They ruled that Gerald's due process rights "were" violated.

paragraphs: Justice Abe Fortas wrote the Court's majority opinion. He wrote:

paragraphs: Justice Fortas pointed out that if Gerald were over 18, and were tried in adult court, he would have had many different rights, including the ones in this table.

paragraphs: However, because he was 15 and in juvenile court, Gerald got none of these rights.

paragraphs: In the Court's opinion, Justice Fortas wrote that without these due process rights, a person cannot get a fair trial, no matter what age they are. The Fourteenth Amendment says that "no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws." Since juvenile courts could take away children's freedom by sending them to juvenile prisons, they needed to give juvenile defendants full due process rights. They also needed to give them "equal protection of the laws" the same protections an adult at risk of going to jail would get.

paragraphs: The Court threw out Gerald's conviction and ordered him to be set free. He had spent three years in the Industrial School: two years and ten months longer than he could have possibly spent in prison if he was convicted as an adult.

paragraphs: The Court also ruled Arizona's Juvenile Code unconstitutional. They ruled that Juvenile Codes had to include due process rights.

paragraphs: Before "In re Gault", juveniles accused of crimes had very few rights. "In re Gault" gave due process rights, which juveniles had never had, to children and teenagers being accused of crimes. These protections apply to all juveniles in the United States, not just Arizona. After this decision, by law, all juveniles being accused of crimes must be given the rights in the Fourteenth Amendment. For example:

paragraphs: In other words, "In re Gault" ruled that every juvenile court in the country had to follow the Fourteenth Amendment.


title: Deaths in April 2016

paragraphs: The following is a list of notable deaths in April 2016. For notable deaths before the current month, please see "Months". Names under each date are reported in alphabetical order by last name or pseudonym. Deaths of non-humans are reported here also if notable.


title: Leonard L. Northrup Jr.

paragraphs: Leonard "Lynn" L. Northrup Jr. (March 18, 1918 – March 24, 2016) was an American engineer. He created the commercialization of solar thermal energy. He was inspired by John Yellott, Dr. Maria Telkes, and Harry Tabor.

paragraphs: Northrup's company designed, patented, developed and manufactured some of the first commercial solar water heaters, solar concentrators, solar-powered air conditioning systems, solar power towers and photovoltaic thermal hybrid systems in the United States.

paragraphs: he company he founded became part of ARCO Solar, which in turn became BP Solar, which became the largest solar energy company in the world.


title: Paolo Poli

paragraphs: Paolo Poli (May 23, 1929 – March 25, 2016) was an Italian theatre actor. He has also acted in movies and on television. He starred in many famous operas such as "Aldino mi cali un filino", "Rita of Cascia", "Caterina de Medici", "L'asino d'oro", "Gulliver's Travels", "La leggenda di San Gregorio", "Il coturno della ciabatta", and "La nemica'


title: Imre Pozsgay

paragraphs: Imre András Pozsgay (26 November 1933 – 25 March 2016) was a Hungarian Communist politician.

paragraphs: He played a key role in Hungary's fight for democracy after 1988. He served as Minister of Culture (1976–1980), Minister of Education (1980–1982) and Minister of State (1988–1990). He was also a Member of Parliament from 1983 to 1994.


title: David Snellgrove

paragraphs: David Llewellyn Snellgrove (29 June 192025 March 2016) was a British Tibetologist. He was known for his pioneering work on Buddhism in Tibet as well as his many travelogues. He was born in Portsmouth, Hampshire.

paragraphs: In 1950, after having finishing his studies at Cambridge, he was invited to teach a course in elementary Tibetan at the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London. He was Professor of Tibetan at SOAS until his retirement in 1982.


title: Alain Decaux

paragraphs: Alain Decaux (23 July 1925 − 27 March 2016) was a French writer and historian. He was born in Lille, France. He was elected to the Académie française on 15 February 1979.

paragraphs: In 2005, he was, with others authors as Frédéric Beigbeder, Richard Millet and Jean-Pierre Thiollet, among the Beirut Book Fair's guests in the Beirut International Exhibition & Leisure Center, commonly BIEL.

paragraphs: Decaux died on 27 March 2016 in Paris, France at the age of 90.


title: Antoine Demoitié

paragraphs: Antoine Demoitié (16 October 1990 – 27 March 2016) was a Belgian cyclist. He last rode for Wanty–Groupe Gobert in 2016. He joined the team in 2016 after leaving Wallonie-Bruxelles at the end of the 2015 season. He was born in Liège, Wallonia, Belgium.

paragraphs: Demoitié died on 27 March 2016 after he crashed and went down in a pile-up of several cyclists. He was then hit by a motorcycle in the Gent–Wevelgem road race. He died that evening in hospital in Lille, Hauts-de-France, France, aged 25.


title: Cerebrovascular disease

paragraphs: Cerebrovascular disease, stroke or cerebrovascular accident, is a vascular disease of the cerebral circulation. Arteries supplying oxygen to the brain are affected resulting in one of a number of cerebrovascular diseases. Most commonly this is a stroke or mini-stroke and sometimes can be a hemorrhagic stroke. Any of these can result in vascular dementia.

paragraphs: Causes of cerebrovascular disease can be divided into: atherosclerosis, embolism, aneurysms, low flow states, and other rare causes. Major modifiable risk factors include:

paragraphs: Treatment for cerebrovascular disease includes medication, lifestyle changes and surgery.


title: James Noble (actor)

paragraphs: James Wilkes Noble (March 5, 1922 – March 28, 2016) was an American actor. He was best known for his role of the sweet-natured but naive Governor on ABC's 1980s sitcom "Benson". He was born in Dallas, Texas. He retired from acting in 2010.

paragraphs: Noble died from complications of a stroke at his home in Norwalk, Connecticut on March 28, 2016, aged 94.


title: Jean-Pierre Coffe

paragraphs: Jean-Pierre Coffe (March 24, 1938 – March 29, 2016) was a French radio and television presenter, food critic and author. Coffe then began a career in television in the early 1980s. He joined Canal+ in 1984. In 1992 and 1993, he made his first appearances in "La Grande Famille" hosted by Jean-Luc Delarue. He then joined the French public television channels where he hosted a cooking program with children titled "Comment c'est fait ?" ("How is it done?") from 1992 to 1993 on France 3.

paragraphs: On 29 March 2016, Coffe died at his home in Lanneray, France, aged 78.


title: Béla Biszku

paragraphs: Béla Biszku (13 September 1921 – 31 March 2016) was a Hungarian communist politician. He served as Minister of the Interior from 1957 to 1961. He was charged of suspicion of committing war crimes during the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He became the first and to date only former top-official in Hungary who has been prosecuted because of political role in the communist era.

paragraphs: Biszku died in Budapest on 31 March 2016 at the age of 94.


title: Georges Cottier

paragraphs: Georges Marie Martin Cottier O.P., (25 April 1922 – 31 March 2016) was a Swiss Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, Archbishop, Dominican, Theologian emeritus of the Pontifical Household.

paragraphs: Cottier was born in Carouge, Switzerland. He joined the Dominican Order in 1945. Cottier studied theology and philosophy at the Pontificium Athenaeum Internationale Angelicum, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Angelicum" until 1952. While at the "Angelicum" he was ordained a priest in 1951.

paragraphs: He was a professor at the Universities of Geneva and Fribourg. He became secretary of the International Theological Commission in 1989. He was nominated Pro-Theologian of the Pontifical Household in 1990. He was appointed Titular Archbishop of Tullia in 2003 and consecrated on 20 October 2003.

paragraphs: He was named Cardinal-Deacon of Santi Domenico e Sisto, the University Church of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Angelicum" by Pope John Paul II in the Consistory of October 21, 2003. He served 10 years as a cardinal-deacon. He was promoted to cardinal-priest by Pope Francis on June 12, 2014.

paragraphs: Cottier died on 31 March 2016 at the age of 93.


title: Zaha Hadid

paragraphs: Dame Zaha Mohammad Hadid, DBE RA, ( "Zahā Ḥadīd"; 31 October 1950 – 31 March 2016) was an Iraqi-born British architect. She was born in Baghdad.

paragraphs: Hadid was elected a Royal Academician in 2005. She became the first woman to receive the Pritzker Prize (2004). She received the Stirling Prize in 2010 and 2011. In 2012, she was created a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire and in 2015 she became the first woman to be awarded the RIBA Gold Medal.

paragraphs: Hadid's buildings are neo-futuristic, characterized by curving forms with "multiple perspective points and fragmented geometry to evoke the chaos of modern life".

paragraphs: On 31 March 2016, Hadid died of a heart attack in a Miami hospital, where she was being treated for bronchitis, aged 65.


title: Gianmaria Testa

paragraphs: Gianmaria Testa (17 October 1958 – 30 March 2016) was an Italian singer-songwriter. In the early 1990s, Testa won two consecutive top prizes at the Recanati Festival. He was born in Cavallermaggiore, Italy.

paragraphs: Testa died in Alba, Piedmont on 30 March 2016, aged 57.


title: Bernard Lamarre

paragraphs: Bernard Lamarre (6 August 1931 – 30 March 2016) was a Canadian engineer and businessman. He was born in Chicoutimi, Quebec in 1931.

paragraphs: Lamarre received a Bachelor of Appled Sciences in Civil Engineering from the École Polytechnique de Montréal in 1952. He received a Master of Science degree from Imperial College of Science and Technology in 1955. He started work as a soil mechanics engineer with the firm of Lalonde & Valois eventually becoming president and chief executive officer of the firm now called Lavalin Group. He was president of "Ordre des ingénieurs du Québec" from 1993 to 1997.


title: Jim Harrison

paragraphs: James "Jim" Harrison (December 11, 1937 – March 26, 2016) was an American author. He was known for his poetry, fiction, reviews, essays about the outdoors, and writings about food. He was best known for his 1979 novella "Legends of the Fall". He has been called "a force of nature", and his work has been compared to that of William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway.

paragraphs: Harrison died of a heart attack on March 26, 2016, aged 78.


title: Benedict of Nursia

paragraphs: Bedenict of Nursia was the founder of the Benedictine order. He was born around 480, in Nursia (in Perugia, south of Italy), and died on the 24th of March 547, in Montecassino, about south of Rome. Around 521, he founded the monastery at Montecassino which became the first Benedictine abbey.


title: Executive Order 9066

paragraphs: Executive Order 9066 was a presidential executive order. It was signed and issued during World War II by the President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, authorizing the Secretary of War to prescribe certain areas as military zones. The order cleared the way for the deportation of Japanese Americans to internment camps. As a result, tens of thousands of Japanese Americans and Japanese nationals were interned during the war. The same order was also applied to numbers of American residents of Italian or German descent.

paragraphs: After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States was very suddenly at war. Fear, outrage and hatred of the Japanese over the surprise attack was aimed at the Japanese Americans living in the U.S. It became a common belief that the amount of destruction, including most of the U.S. Naval fleet, was because Japanese Americans helped plan the attack. There was also the immediate fear that with the Pacific fleet severely damaged, the Japanese would invade the West Coast of the United States.

paragraphs: President Franklin Roosevelt issued the order on February 19, 1942. It ordered the evacuation of all persons who could be considered a threat to national security from the West Coast to relocation centers further inland. Over 100,000 Japanese American men, women and children were moved to assembly areas. From there they were moved to camps which were isolated and guarded.


title: David Baker (composer)

paragraphs: David Nathaniel Baker Jr. (December 21, 1931 – March 26, 2016) was an American symphonic jazz composer. He worked at the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music in Bloomington.

paragraphs: He has more than 65 recordings, 70 books, and 400 articles to his credit. He was born in Indianapolis, Indiana. Baker was nominated for the 1973 Pulitzer Prize. He has also been nominated for a Grammy Award (1979).

paragraphs: Baker died in Bloomington, Indiana on March 26, 2016, aged 84.


title: Igor Pashkevich

paragraphs: Igor Anatolyevich Pashkevich (; 1 July 1971 – 26 March 2016) was a Russian figure skating coach and competitor. He was the 1990 World Junior champion for the Soviet Union and the 1996 European silver medalist for Russia. He competed at the 1994 Lillehammer Olympics for Russia and the 1998 Nagano Olympics for Azerbaijan.

paragraphs: Pashkevich died on 26 March 2016 in Miami, Florida at the age of 44.


title: Norm Hadley

paragraphs: Norman "Norm" Hadley (2 December 1964 – 26 March 2016) was a Canadian professional rugby union player. He was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba.

paragraphs: He played professionally first for London Wasps and then Bedford Blues in the 1990s. He played for James Bay and UBCOB Ravens (British Columbia Rugby Union). He earned an M.B.A. degree from UBC in 1991. He played for Western Suburbs in Wellington, New Zealand. He played for quarter-finalist Canada in the 1991 Rugby World Cup. In total he earned 15 caps for Canada between 1987 and 1994.

paragraphs: Hadley died in Japan on 26 March 2016, aged 51.


title: Anne Aasheim

paragraphs: Anne Aasheim (22 April 1962 – 30 March 2016) was a Norwegian editor. She was born in Porsgrunn, Norway. She started her journalist career in the neighboring city's largest newspaper "Varden" in the late 1970s. She worked in "Dagen" and "Bergens Arbeiderblad" before being hired in NRK Hordaland in 1988.

paragraphs: Aasheim died of lung cancer in Oslo, Norway on 30 March 2016, aged 54.


title: Bill Rosendahl

paragraphs: William Joseph "Bill" Rosendahl (May 15, 1945 – March 30, 2016) was an American politician. He served on the Los Angeles City Council. He represented Council District 11 from 2005 to 2013. He was a member of the Democratic Party.

paragraphs: Rosendahl was openly gay. Rosendahl died at his home in Mar Vista, Los Angeles of ureteral cancer on March 30, 2016 at the age of 70.


title: Ureteral cancer

paragraphs: Ureteral cancer is cancer of the ureters, muscular tubes that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. It is also known as ureter cancer, renal pelvic cancer, and rarely ureteric cancer or uretal cancer. This kind of cancer is very rare.

paragraphs: Ureteral cancer is usually transitional cell carcinoma. Transitional cell carcinoma is "a common cause of ureter cancer and other urinary (renal pelvic) tract cancers."


title: Artur Górski

paragraphs: Artur Cezary Górski (30 January 1970 – 1 April 2016) was a Polish politician. He was elected to the Sejm on September 25, 2005, getting 2850 votes in 19 Warsaw district. He was a member of the Law and Justice ticket. He was re-elected in 2007 and was in office until his death. Górski was also the first chairman of the Conservative-Monarchist Club.

paragraphs: Górski died in Warsaw, Poland from leukemia on 1 April 2016, aged 46.


title: Denise Robertson

paragraphs: Denise Robertson MBE, DL (9 June 1932 – 31 March 2016) was a British writer and television broadcaster. She made her television debut as the presenter of the "Junior Advice Line" segment of the BBC's "Breakfast Time" programme in 1985. She was best known as the resident agony aunt on the ITV show "This Morning" from its first ever broadcast on 3 October 1988 until her death in 2016.

paragraphs: Robertson died from pancreatic cancer at Royal Marsden Hospital in London, England, aged 83.


title: Clodomir Santos de Morais

paragraphs: Clodomir Santos de Morais, PhD (30 September 1928 – 25 March 2016), was a Brazilian sociologist. He worked with the Organization Workshop (OW) and the associated Activity-based Large Group Capacitation Method (LGCM).

paragraphs: In the 1940s and 1950s de Morais worked as a trade unionist and a journalist. He became a member of the Pernambuco State Assembly and co-founder of the Ligas Camponêsas (Peasant Leagues). After the 1964 coup he was forced into exile, first in Chile, and, as ILO Regional Advisor on Agrarian Reform for Central America, he later worked as Agrarian Reform consultant in Latin America, Portugal and Africa.

paragraphs: After the end of military rule de Morais returned to Brazil in 1988, answering a call from the University of Brasilia to help in the 'hidden civil war' of unemployment.


title: Adam Żurowski

paragraphs: Adam Roman Żurowski (3 March 1929 – 25 March 2016) was a Polish surveyor. He was the professor of technical sciences at the Gdansk University of Technology. He was also Dean of the Faculty Hydrotechnics from 1990 through 1993. He was Head of the Department of Geodesy from 1985 through 1999.


title: Vince Boryla

paragraphs: Vincent Joseph Boryla (March 11, 1927 – March 27, 2016) was an American basketball player, coach and executive. His nickname was "Moose".

paragraphs: Boryla was born in East Chicago, Indiana. He studied at East Chicago Washington High School in 1944. He played basketball at the University of Notre Dame and the University of Denver. Boryla was part of the U.S team that won the gold medal at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London.

paragraphs: Boryla played for the New York Knicks in the early 1950s. In 1951, Boryla scored nine points in the 1951 NBA All-Star Game. He played in the NBA Finals in 1951 and 1953. Boryla was not in the 1952 playoffs. He later became the Knicks' coach from 1956 to 1958, and had an 80-85 record with them.

paragraphs: Later in his career, Boryla became the general manager of the American Basketball Association's Denver Nuggets early in their history when they were first the Kansas City ABA team and then the Denver Larks. He was also the general manager of the ABA's Utah Stars. Boryla later rejoined the Nuggets when the franchise joined the NBA. He won the NBA Executive of the Year Award with the Nuggets in 1984.

paragraphs: Boryla died in Denver, Colorado on March 27, 2016 from complications of pneumonia, aged 89.

paragraphs: Boryla was added into the Indiana Basketball Hall of Fame, and in 1984 into the National Polish-American Hall of Fame.


title: Spahn Ranch

paragraphs: Spahn Ranch, also known as the Spahn Movie Ranch, was a large movie ranch in Los Angeles County, California. It was used for filming mostly old Western movies and television programs. With its mountains and western scenery, the ranch was ideal for cowboy and Indian type shows. Some of the well known TV shows which were made at Spahn were episodes of Bonanza, The Lone Ranger, and Zorro.

paragraphs: The ranch is no longer in use. The entrance was at 12000 Santa Susana Pass Road but the street number has changed. The ranch was very popular due to its being a home for Charles Manson and his followers. They lived there during 1968 and 1969. It was owned and named after a dairy farmer named George Spahn.

paragraphs: George Spahn, an old man whom lived and owned the ranch decided to allow Charles Manson and his 'family' to move in, rent-free, in exchange for helping out on the ranch. Manson and his family did daily chores and helped run the horse rental business, which had become Spahn's main source of income.. One of the Manson girls, Lynette Fromme, would take care of George Spahn, who was half blind, needed and appreciated the assistance. George Spahn was never accused of any involvement in the crimes for which members of the Family were later convicted, the most infamous being the Tate-LaBianca murders committed on August 9th and 10th, 1969. In the months after, a documentary film creator named Robert Hendrickson began filming the Manson Family at the ranch for his documentary film "Manson". There he filmed George Spahn, Lynette Fromme, Nancy Pittman, Catherine Share, Sandra Good, Paul Watkins and many others. It is the place where the 'family' lived while committing the 1969 Tate-LaBianca murders in Los Angeles. A wildfire destroyed all of the Spahn Movie Ranch film set and building on September 26, 1970. The owner, George Spahn died on September 22, 1974.

paragraphs: The Spahn Movie Ranch site is empty, abandoned and now part of California's Santa Susana Pass State Historic Park with the historic section along Old Santa Susana Stage Road, on the park's northern side. Many hiking trails give access to the natural beauty and the panoramic views of the San Fernando Valley. Today, the only physical remains of what was once the Manson residence is known as the Manson Family Cave, so called from a popular photo which has circulated over the years which still is intact and exactly how it appeared back then.


title: Daan Myngheer

paragraphs: Daan Myngheer (13 April 1993 – 28 March 2016) was a Belgian cyclist. In 2015, he was a member of the Verandas Willems cycling team and in 2016 he was a member of the Roubaix–Lille Métropole. He was born in Roeselare, Belgium.

paragraphs: Myngheer died in a hospital in Ajaccio, France after suffering a heart attack during the Criterium International, aged 22.


title: Khuzaima Qutbuddin

paragraphs: Khuzaima Qutbuddin (5 June 1940 – 31 March 2016) was a claimant to the title of 53rd Da'i al-Mutlaq of the Dawoodi Bohras. It is a subgroup within the Mustaali, Ismaili Shia branch of Islam. Qutbuddin was appointed "Da'i Madhun" (mazoon mola) by the Syedna Muhammad Burhanuddin in 1965.

paragraphs: Qutbuddin died on 31 March 2016 in Bakersfield, California from cancer, aged 75.


title: Howard Cable

paragraphs: Howard Reid Cable (December 15, 1920March 30, 2016) was a Canadian conductor, arranger, music director, composer, and radio and television producer. He was born in Toronto, Ontario. He received an Associate diploma (ATCM) from The Royal Conservatory of Music in Toronto in conducting and bandmastership 1939. Cable composed and arranged the original theme for the "Hockey Night in Canada" television broadcast, "The Saturday Game" which opened the broadcast from 1952 until 1968.

paragraphs: Cable died from complications of pneumonia at his home in Toronto, Ontario on March 30, 2016, aged 95.


title: Miranda warning

paragraphs: A Miranda warning is a list of rights that people in the United States have when they are being questioned by the police or arrested. These rights are called Miranda rights. Because of a United States Supreme Court decision in a case called "Miranda v. Arizona", , the police have to give a person this list of rights before they start questioning them.

paragraphs: One goal of the Miranda warning is to make sure that suspects' rights under the Fifth and Sixth Amendments to the Constitution are protected. Another goal is to make sure suspects know about their rights, and know that they can use them.

paragraphs: In "Miranda v. Arizona", a man named Ernesto Miranda confessed to raping and murdering a 17-year-old girl. Miranda was convicted and sent to prison. However, he and his lawyers appealed his conviction all the way to the Supreme Court. They argued that Miranda's confession should not have been used as evidence because:

paragraphs: The Sixth Amendment protects the right to a lawyer, but the Supreme Court had also just recently made two landmark decisions about this right. In 1963, the Court ruled in "Gideon v. Wainwright", , that anyone being tried for a crime had the right to a lawyer. If the person could not pay for a lawyer, the state had to assign them a free lawyer. The next year, the Court ruled in another landmark case called "Escobedo v. Illinois", , that anyone suspected of a crime had the right to have a lawyer with them while the police questioned them.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court decided the police got Miranda's confession by ignoring his rights, and they threw out Miranda's conviction. (Miranda was re-tried, and even without the confession as evidence, he was convicted again.)

paragraphs: The Court also ruled that police have to make sure suspects know and understand their rights before being interrogated. Specifically, police have to give a "Miranda warning" that tells suspects they have these rights:

paragraphs: An example of a Miranda warning often used in the United States is:

paragraphs: Many people from all over the world know these words from television and think of this as ""the" Miranda warning." However, there is no one version of the Miranda warning. Different people, police departments, and states use different words. The Supreme Court has said the words can change, as long as the four basic parts of the warning are there. In Simple English, they are:

paragraphs: There are at least 945 different versions of the Miranda warning just in English. Some versions warn non-citizens of their right to consult their nation's consulate before questioning continues. Some try to make the warning easier for juveniles or people with learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, or mental illnesses to understand. Some may ask the suspect to confirm that he or she understands the warning. However, studies have shown that in fact, people in these groups often have even "more" trouble understanding the 'simpler' versions.

paragraphs: The Miranda warning has also had to be translated into many different languages. Many different police departments carry cards that show the warning in different languages. Others use translators to give the warning.

paragraphs: The law says the police have to give a suspect a Miranda warning before they start questioning them. If they do not, and the suspect gives a confession, that confession could later be thrown out in court. This means a court could rule that the confession cannot be used as evidence in a trial. A confession can also be thrown out if the police gave a Miranda warning, but gave it the wrong way, or did not make sure the suspect understood it. (This is discussed more in the "Problems" section.)

paragraphs: For Miranda rights to be an issue at a trial, six things must be true:

paragraphs: If these six things are true, then the prosecution has to prove that:

paragraphs: If the prosecution cannot prove each of these things, the confession can be thrown out.

paragraphs: Studies of many different versions of the Miranda warning have shown that most of them are complex. The more complex the Miranda warning is, the harder it is to understand.

paragraphs: For example, one study from 2008 looked at how complex the sentences were in the average Miranda warning. They found a "sentence complexity" score of 48.96 which meant the sentences were as complicated as the instructions on United States tax forms. In some of the warnings, the information about Miranda rights was more complex than a college-level accounting textbook.

paragraphs: Some areas have "simplified" versions of the Miranda warning. However, researchers have found that these versions are not always easier to understand. A person would need high school-level reading and language skills to understand some of them.

paragraphs: In a study of 560 different English versions of the Miranda warning, researchers found that a person would need 7th-grade reading skills to understand the simplest versions. To understand the most complicated Miranda warnings, a person would need a doctoral-level education (the highest level of education you can get at a university).

paragraphs: According to the American Psychological Association, people are so used to hearing the Miranda warning on television that they think they understand their rights. However, a 2011 study by Richard Rogers says that many people do not understand their Miranda rights, or have wrong beliefs about them. For example, Rogers found that 31% of defendants waiting for trials in Texas and Oklahoma did not understand their right to remain silent. They believed that if they did not answer questions, the court would use that as evidence of their guilt. Rogers also found that 36% of college students believed the same thing.

paragraphs: Other studies have shown that most juveniles (children and teenagers) "and" many adults do not understand their rights well enough to decide when to use them and when to waive them (not use them). For example, in one study, a researcher asked juveniles and adults to repeat back the Miranda warning in their own words. The researcher also asked them to define six of the most important words in the Miranda warning, like "consult," "appoint," and "attorney." Finally, the researcher tested whether they could understand different versions of the Miranda warning. He found:

paragraphs: No Supreme Court ruling or federal law has ever said that children must have a parent or lawyer with them while being questioned. About 12 states have chosen to add extra protections for juveniles in their states, like not letting juveniles waive their Miranda rights without a parent or guardian there. However, most states have not done this. This means that in most states, juveniles can waive their rights on their own.

paragraphs: A famous study done by Richard Rogers and others in 2008 looked at Miranda warnings that were meant to be simplified versions for juveniles. He found that these warnings were longer than the non-simplified versions; some had as many as 526 words. Understanding them also required "higher" reading levels and abilities than the adult versions.

paragraphs: Another study, done in 2013, found that 16- and 17-year-olds charged with a felony almost always waived their Miranda rights. They waived their rights 93% of the time, while adults waived their rights 80% of the time. Especially when juveniles waive their rights and agree to talk to police without a lawyer, they are much more likely to confess to something they did not actually do. Looking at people who were proven to be innocent, studies found that one-third to two-fifths of untrue confessions came from juveniles. Police got almost 7 out of every 10 of these false confessions from children ages 15 and under.

paragraphs: A report from the American Bar Association suggests this version of the Miranda warning for juveniles:

paragraphs: Translating the Miranda warning into other languages brings up special problems. There have been many cases where suspects' confessions have been challenged and thrown out in court because of problems giving the Miranda warning in other languages. For example, since 1993, there have been lawsuits about:

paragraphs: The Miranda warning is also difficult to translate into some languages. Not all languages have words for the same ideas as English. For example, American Sign Language has no signs for legal words like "rights."


title: Douglas Wilmer

paragraphs: Douglas Wilmer (8 January 1920 – 31 March 2016) was an English actor. He was best known for playing Sherlock Holmes in the 1965 TV series. He also appeared in "Jason and the Argonauts", the Pink Panther movies "A Shot in the Dark" (1964) and "Revenge of the Pink Panther" (1978), "The Vampire Lovers" (1970), "The Golden Voyage of Sinbad" (1974), and "Octopussy" (1983).

paragraphs: On 31 March 2016, it was reported by Roger Moore by social media that Wilmer had died at the age of 96.


title: Pratyusha Banerjee

paragraphs: Pratyusha Banerjee (10 August 1991 – 1 April 2016) was an Indian movie and television actress. She started her career with "Balika Vadhu" as Anandi. She was also a contestant on "Bigg Boss 7". She had signed as a host with reality-based crime saga "Savdhaan India" for the special segment on "women against crime". She had worked in "Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya" in 2014 and was last seen in "Hum Hain Na".

paragraphs: Banerjee committed suicide by hanging herself on April 1, 2016. She was declared dead at Kokilben Ambani hospital in Mumbai after doctors failed to revive her. She was aged 24.

paragraphs: On 1 April 2016, Banerjee was found hanging in her Mumbai apartment, and according to the postmortem report the cause of death was asphyxia.


title: Grant Tinker

paragraphs: Grant Almerin Tinker (January 11, 1926 – November 28, 2016) was an American television producer and executive.

paragraphs: He was the former chairman and CEO of NBC from 1981 to 1986. He is the co-founder of MTM Enterprises. Tinker was the former husband of actress Mary Tyler Moore. After leaving NBC, Tinker tried to repeat his success with MTM Enterprises by forming GTG (Grant Tinker-Gannett) Entertainment but the business venture failed and the company closed in 1990.

paragraphs: Tinker was born in Stamford, Connecticut. His parents were Margaret (née Hessin) and Arthur Almerin Tinker. Tinker died on November 28, 2016 of natural causes in Los Angeles, California, aged 90.


title: Chris O'Dowd

paragraphs: Christopher "Chris" O'Dowd (born 9 October 1979) is an Irish actor and comedian. He was best known for his role as Roy Trenneman in the Channel 4 comedy "The IT Crowd".

paragraphs: O'Dowd created and starred in the Sky 1 television series "Moone Boy", which aired between 2012 and 2015. He had a recurring role on the drama series "Girls" and starred in the television series "Family Tree".

paragraphs: O'Dowd is also known for his movies, most notably "Bridesmaids" (2011), "This Is 40" (2012), "The Sapphires" (2012), "" (2013), "Calvary" (2014) and "St. Vincent" (2014). He will star as Tiger in the 2018 Disney movie "Christopher Robin".


title: State governments of the United States

paragraphs: In the United States, each of the 50 states has its own state government. This means there are 50 separate state governments of the United States.

paragraphs: The state governments are mostly set up in the same way as the federal government of the United States. However, the state and federal governments are not the same. Mostly, each state government controls things that have to do with its own state. The federal government controls things that affect the whole country.

paragraphs: The United States Constitution divides power between the state governments and the federal government. The Founding Fathers of the United States wrote the Constitution this way to make sure that neither the federal government or the states could get too powerful.

paragraphs: Every state has its own state legislature, which makes laws that affect that state only.

paragraphs: Each of the 50 states, except Nebraska, has a "bicameral" legislature. This means there are two different parts, called "houses," to the legislature. Usually, the two houses are called the Senate and the House of Representatives. Nebraska has a "unicameral" legislature, meaning it only has one house: the Senate.

paragraphs: Different states have different names for their legislatures:

paragraphs: These next two sections will talk about the bicameral state legislatures (the ones with two different parts (unlike Nebraska).

paragraphs: One of the two different houses of the state legislatures is called the Senate. Sometimes it is called the State Senate, to make it clear that it is different from the federal government's United States Senate.

paragraphs: Until 1964, state senators were often elected from districts that were based on county lines. Sometimes, many more people would live in one district than another. In almost all of the states, people in rural areas got much greater representation from their senators. In other words, an urban county and a rural county would have the same number of senators. However, the rural county would have far fewer people. This meant it was easier for these people to get attention from their senators, and get their senators to do what they wanted.

paragraphs: However, in the 1964 decision "Reynolds v. Sims", , the United States Supreme Court ruled that state senators had to cover districts that had about the same number of people in them. This is different than the United States Senate, where every state gets two United States Senators, no matter how many people live there.

paragraphs: The second house in the state legislatures is usually called the House of Representatives.

paragraphs: However, nine states use different names for this house:

paragraphs: Every state has a Governor, who is in charge of the state's executive branch of government. The people in that state elect the Governor.

paragraphs: In most states, the people also elect other important members of the executive branch. These people work for the Governor. For example, they may include:

paragraphs: In most state governments, "departments" are the most powerful part of the executive branch. The secretary of a department is usually a member of the Governor's cabinet (a group of people who give the Governor advice). The members of the cabinet also keep the Governor up to date on whatever is happening in all the different executive agencies.

paragraphs: Each department may include divisions, offices, and/or agencies. Every state government is allowed to organize its executive departments and agencies any way it wants. Because of this, each state government is organized in a different way.

paragraphs: The executive branch may also include many other organizations. These may include commissions, councils, offices, corporations, or many other things. A department or division might be in charge of these organizations, or they might be independent.

paragraphs: Arizona's government gives an example of how all these people, departments, commissions, and other options might be organized. Here is a very basic summary of Arizona's executive branch:

paragraphs: Each state has a few different kinds of state courts.

paragraphs: Trial courts are the first level of state courts. Here, people can file lawsuits. People charged with crimes are also tried here and found guilty or not guilty. There are also special kinds of trial courts, like:

paragraphs: In most states, appeals courts (also called "appellate courts") are the next level of state courts. If someone who went to a trial court thinks that court made the wrong decision, they can appeal to an appellate court. That court can decide to reverse the lower (less powerful) trial court's decision. The appeals courts can do this if the trial court made a legal mistake.

paragraphs: Finally, most states have a supreme court. This is the most powerful court in the state. If a person has already appealed to the appellate courts, and they still think the court's decision was wrong, they can appeal to the state supreme court. Once the state supreme court makes a decision, that decision becomes state law. The decision can only be changed or reversed by federal courts. That can only happen if the federal courts think the state supreme court made a decision that violated the Constitution.

paragraphs: Each state's constitution or legislature spells out what type of courts the state will have, how they will work, and how judges will be chosen. Like with state executive departments, state courts can be very different from state to state.


title: Kirtankhola

paragraphs: Kirtankhola () is a river that starts from Sayeshtabad in Barisal district and ends into the Gajalia near Gabkhan khal (canal). The total length of the river is about .