title: Titanic

paragraphs: The RMS "Titanic" was a British passenger ship. It was built by Harland and Wolff ship builders, in Belfast, for the White Star Line company. She sank during her first trip at sea.

paragraphs: Before she sailed, many people thought it would be almost impossible for ships of this design to sink.

paragraphs: At 11:40 on 14 April 1912, during the "Titanic"'s first trip, she hit an iceberg in the Atlantic Ocean. The iceberg broke the "Titanic"'s hull (bottom), letting water into the ship. The "Titanic" sank two hours and forty minutes later at 2:20 on 15 April.

paragraphs: As she sank, the "Titanic" split in two. The wreck killed over 1,500 people. Only around 705 people survived. It was one of the worst shipwrecks that was not during a war.

paragraphs: One reason why so many people died was that the ship did not have enough lifeboats for everyone on board. The "Titanic" had 20 lifeboats with room for 1,178 passengers, only a third of the number of passengers the ship could carry. It actually had more lifeboats than was needed by law (it needed 16 with room for 990 passengers). This was because the laws in the UK were out of date. They did not say that a ship needed enough lifeboats for all passengers. They only said that a ship weighing more than 10,000 tons needed 16 lifeboats (the Titanic weighed 46,000 tons). Furthermore, the White Star Line believed that the lifeboats on the "Titanic" would only be needed to take passengers a short distance to a rescue ship.

paragraphs: Higher class women and children were allowed on the lifeboats first, and passengers who sailed in first class (which meant that they paid for better rooms on the ship) were allowed on before other passengers. Few of the poorer people who had paid less (called second class and third class passengers) got out safely.

paragraphs: Another reason so few people survived was that the radio was off on the "SS Californian", the ship closest to the "Titanic". The "Californian" crew did not hear about the accident. Also,the "Titanic" did have flares but they were white.Back then(and still now),red meant emergency and other colors were used for identification (White=White Star Line).The Californian and other ships saw the flares but they didn't think of the flares as distress signals. Another ship, the "SS Carpathia", did hear about the accident and collected all 705 survivors.

paragraphs: Many of those who died didn't die because they couldn't leave the ship before it sank. They died of hypothermia, while they were floating in the cold water (which was only a bit over the freezing point at that time). When the MS. Carpathia arrived, at 4.10 ship's time, they were floating dead bodies in the water. Many lifeboats rowed away flrom those who were in the water shouting for help. The people in the lifeboats were afraid the lifeboat would capsize when peopel entered it from the water. Only lifeboat Number four returned to the shouting people in the water. Five people could be rescued, but two of them died in the lifeboat. Around 3 am ship's time, 40 minutes after the sinking, the last calls for help ceased. After three am, lifeboat number 14, commanded by Officer Harold Lowe returned. He could save another three people. He had emptied the lifeboat and let the people in the boat enter other boats beforehand.

paragraphs: The following table gives a listing of those who died and those who survived, gropued by age, gender and ships class. Children are those up to age 12. It is taken from a report to British parliament of 1912. There are other lists, with slighly different numbers.

paragraphs: The last survivor of the 'Titanic disaster to die was a woman named Millvina Dean. She was the youngest passenger on board, as she was then a baby of only nine weeks old. She died in Ashhurst, Hampshire, England on 21 May 2009 aged 97.

paragraphs: The "Titanic" disaster changed many maritime ship laws. Because so many people died, authorities felt that laws should be put into place to make ship travel safer. Changes included requiring all ships to carry enough lifeboats for everyone on the ship, and emergency materials such as flares. Someone must be at the ship's radio all the time.

paragraphs: Alexander Brehm, a German physicist, was shocked when he heard about the disaster. He wanted to invent a technology that would be able to detect icebergs. He wasn't able to achieve that goal until his death, but he was granted patents relating to the measurement of the depth at sea, using sound. Today, this is known as echo sounding.

paragraphs: The wreck was found by a French and American team, led by Robert Ballard, on September 23, 1985 at 1:02 in the morning.

paragraphs: In 1986, Ballard returned to the wreck with a submarine. He took many photos and made lots of films.

paragraphs: In 1987, a French team salvaged 900 objects and took them to the surface.

paragraphs: The story of the sinking has been made into several movies. The most popular film version is a 1997 film starring Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio called "Titanic". It won 11 Academy Awards, tying "Ben-Hur" for the record for the most Academy Awards won by one movie.

paragraphs: Other movie versions of the story include the 1958 film "A Night to Remember", the 1953 film "Titanic", the 1979 film "S.O.S. Titanic "and the 1996 movie "Titanic".

paragraphs: In the 1980 film Raise the Titanic, salvagers raise the shipwreck from the bottom of the ocean to the surface. However, this is impossible to do in reality. The "Titanic" broke in two, and the wreck is partially stuck in the bottom, buried under more than three feet (1 m) of mud in some spots. The ship has been on the ocean floor for more than 100 years, and would shatter into many more pieces if disturbed. Worms and other animals have eaten away much of the wood and many other parts.


title: Steel

paragraphs: Steel is iron mixed with carbon and perhaps other metals. It is harder and stronger than iron. Iron with more than 1.7% percent carbon by weight is named cast iron. Steel is different from wrought iron, which has little or no carbon.

paragraphs: Steel has a long history. People in India and Sri Lanka were making small amounts of steel more than 2,500 years ago. It was very expensive and was often used to make swords and knives. In the Middle Ages, steel could be made only in small amounts since the processes took a long time.

paragraphs: In the time since, there have been many changes to the way steel is made. In about the year 1610 steel started to be made in England, and the way it was made got better and cheaper over the next 100 years. Cheap steel helped start the Industrial Revolution in England and in Europe. The first industrial Converter (metallurgy) for making cheap steel was the Bessemer converter, followed by Siemens-Martin open-hearth process.

paragraphs: Today the most common way of making steel is the basic-oxygen process. The converter is a large turnip-shaped vessel. Liquid raw iron called "pig iron" is poured in and some scrap metal is added in to balance the heat. Oxygen is then blown into the iron. The oxygen burns off the extra carbon and other impurities. Then enough carbon is added to make the carbon contents as wanted. The liquid steel is then poured. It can be either cast into molds or rolled into sheets, slabs, beams and other so-called "long products", such as railway tracks. Some special steels are made in electric arc furnaces.

paragraphs: Steel is most often made by machines in huge buildings called "steel mills". It is a very cheap metal and is used to make many things. Steel is used in making buildings and bridges, and all kinds of machines. Almost all ships and cars are today made from steel. When a steel object is old, or it is broken beyond repair, it is called "scrap". It can be melted down and re-shaped into a new object. Steel is "recyclable" material; that is, the same steel can be used and re-used.

paragraphs: Steel is a metal alloy which includes iron and often some carbon.

paragraphs: Every material is made up of atoms which are very small parts. Some atoms hold together quite well, which is what makes some solid materials hard. Something made of pure iron is softer than steel because the atoms can slip over one another. If other atoms like carbon are added, they are different from iron atoms and stop the iron atoms from sliding apart so easily. This makes the metal stronger and harder.

paragraphs: Changing the amount of carbon (or other atoms) added to steel will change those things that are interesting and useful about the metal. These are called the properties of the steel. Some properties are:

paragraphs: Steel with more carbon is harder and stronger than pure iron, but it also breaks more easily (brittle).

paragraphs: There are thousands of steel types. Each type is made of different chemical elements.

paragraphs: All steels have some elements that have a bad effect, such as phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). Steel makers take out as much P and S as possible.

paragraphs: Plain carbon steels are made only of iron, carbon, and undesired elements. They fall into three general groups. Plain carbon steel with 0.05 to 0.2% carbon does not harden when cooled quickly. Welding it is simple, so it is used for shipbuilding, boilers, pipes, fence wire and other purposes where low cost is important. Plain steels are used for springs, gears, and engine parts. Plain carbon steel with 0.45 to 0.8% carbon is used for very hard items such as shears and machine tools.

paragraphs: Alloy steels are plain carbon steel with metals such as Boron (B), manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and cobalt (Co) added. These give other properties than plain carbon steel. Alloy steels are made for specialized purposes. For example, chromium can be added to make stainless steel, which does not rust easily, or boron can be added to make very hard steel that is also not brittle.

paragraphs: There are a huge number of things that people make from steel. It is one of the most common and useful metals.

paragraphs: A lot of items made from iron in the past are now made of steel. Some of them are:


title: Luftwaffe

paragraphs: The Luftwaffe (pronounced ) is the name for the air force of Germany.

paragraphs: This was the name for the air force of Germany during the Third Reich when Adolf Hitler was in power (between 1933 and 1945). It has also been the name for the air force since it was re-established in 1955 during the era of the Cold War. Luftwaffe means Air weapon in English.

paragraphs: Germany first had aeroplanes in its army in 1910, four years before the start of World War I in 1914. At that time, aeroplanes had no guns. They were being used for reconnaissance duties, that is, they would fly over the battlefield to see what the enemy was doing and fly back so that the pilots could tell their generals what they knew. The generals used that information to plan the fighting. Before aeroplanes, balloons had been used.

paragraphs: During World War I, Germany created the "Luftstreitkräfte and" used a few kinds of aeroplane to fight its war, such as fighters, bombers and reconnaissance aeroplanes, but the fighter aeroplanes became very famous because of its brave pilots. The most famous German pilot of World War I was Manfred von Richthofen, also known as "The Red Baron" of Jasta 11. When he died in combat, Hermann Goering replaced him.

paragraphs: Germany also used airships called "Zeppelins". They were named after Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who had built the first airships in 1900, but he had wanted them to carry cargo and passengers, not bombs. He died in 1917, but people still use his name when they remember the German airships of World War I. (In fact, the Zeppelin company is still making airships today, but these are much smaller now.)

paragraphs: In November 1918, the "Allies of World War I" (which included Britain and France) won the war, and Germany had to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty said that Germany could not have any military aeroplanes at all because it was blamed for starting the war in 1914. Germany therefore had to destroy all its military aeroplanes as a punishment, so until 1933 it had no air force at all.

paragraphs: For many years, Germany pretended to have no army pilots. The German army generals did not like the idea of not having any aeroplanes, so they acted secretly and used tricks. At first, pilots would pretend to be training to become airline pilots but this was not much use because they really needed to fly fighters and bombers. The Treaty of Versailles did not allow Germany to have them, so Germany had to ask for help from Russia, its former (and future) enemy.

paragraphs: In 1924, German army pilots started to fly Russian fighters and bombers at a secret training school near the Russian city of Lipetsk. These pilots would then become the first ones to fly for the new German air force, the Luftwaffe, when Hitler said that it now existed. The training school closed in 1933.

paragraphs: In 1935, Adolf Hitler finally told the world that Germany had a new air force, even if the Treaty of Versailles forbade it. Hitler was defying the Allies, who had won World War I, but they did not do anything about this, because many people still remembered the war in 1914-1918. They were frightened by the idea of war and did not want another one.

paragraphs: The Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939 gave the Germans the opportunity to test its new aircraft, pilots and weapons in battle. Hitler sent many aeroplanes and pilots to Spain because he wanted to support Francisco Franco, who wanted to get rid of the Spanish government. The aeroplanes included fighter aircraft called the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and dive bombers called the Junkers Ju 87 ‘Stuka”.

paragraphs: During the war. German bombers attacked the city of Guernica in the Basque region of northeast Spain, and many civilians (people who were not soldiers) died in the attack. Many governments and people around the world were horrified by the attack. The artist Pablo Picasso made a painting called "Guernica" that has become very famous. People see the painting as a symbol of the horror of war. A copy of the painting hangs in the United Nations Headquarters in New York City.

paragraphs: The German air force was the strongest in the world when World War II broke out in September 1939. It supported the army on the ground and the aircraft were very effective at defeating all opposition, since the German armed forces, the "Wehrmacht", had practised a very new and very fast way to defeat their enemies. This was called Blitzkrieg or Lightning War. The French and the British were prepared for a trench war. It was impossible to fight back.

paragraphs: Within a year, Germany had conquered Poland, Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, and France. Britain supported the countries attacked by Germany but found herself on her own by June 1940 when Germany had conquered most of western Europe.

paragraphs: As the war went on, things began to go badly wrong for the "Luftwaffe". The leadership of the Luftwaffe began to become quite bad, as generals were arguing about what the air force should be doing and blaming each other when the Luftwaffe was unable to stop the British from attacking German aircraft factories and other industrial targets in large numbers during the night. The RAF had lost many planes when attacking by day.

paragraphs: Not only that, but Germany was suffering a shortage of materials needed to build the aeroplanes. Things got worse for the Germans when the USA joined the war in December 1941, because the Americans brought thousands of bombers to the United Kingdom, and they attacked Germany from there. Soon, hundreds of American and British bombers were attacking Germany every day and night.

paragraphs: Germany could not hope to win the war on the ground. Since Russia was so huge, the government set up factories hundreds of miles away from the fighting in order to build aeroplanes, tanks, guns and other weapons for the Russian Army. This meant that the Russians would eventually start to push the Germans back west, especially after they defeated the Germans in great battles near the city of Kursk and in the city of Stalingrad itself. The Germans had failed to conquer the city of Leningrad, too.

paragraphs: On January 1 1945 the Luftwaffe launched a desperate plan called operation 'Bodenplatte' (Baseplate), a dawn air attack aimed at multiple Allied air bases in Belgium & Holland. Over 800 German aircraft were rounded up with many veteran pilots retired from combat duty pressesd back into service.

paragraphs: The plan cost more than it was worth, with over 280 German planes lost and 213 irreplaceble pilots killed or captured. As with the fog of war, over 100 German planes were shot down by their own ground fire who were not in on the plan.

paragraphs: Germany became famous as the country, which flew the first jet aeroplanes. In 1944, the Luftwaffe started to use the world’s first operational jet fighter plane, the Messerschmitt Me-262, even if the engines sometimes did not work properly. Once again, the shortage of materials needed to build the plane as well as the continuing bombing of Germany meant that not as many Me-262s were built as Germany would have liked. Even so, Germany also built and flew the world's first jet bomber, the Arado Ar 234, the world’s first fighter plane powered by a rocket, the Messerschmitt Me-163, the world’s first "cruise missile", the V-1, and the world’s first ballistic missile, the V-2.

paragraphs: After the war the allies were quite impressed with Germany's technical know how & gleaned all they could from the vast array of Luftwaffe aircraft strewn across Germany.

paragraphs: Once again, the Allies prohibited Germany from having an air force. The Russians were in the eastern half of Germany, and this half became East Germany. The British, French and Americans were in the western half, and this half became West Germany. These became countries in their own right, and East Germany became a Russian puppet state. In case a new war started with Russia and East Germany as enemies, the Western Allies finally allowed West Germany to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), an organization of western countries which wanted there to be peace throughout the world. NATO allowed West Germany to have an air force because the country was right next to East Germany.

paragraphs: Germany used military aircraft in war for the first time since 1945 when they supported British aircraft in the war in Kosovo in 1999, but many people still believed that Germany should never again go to war because of what had happened in the two world wars.


title: The Velvet Underground

paragraphs: The Velvet Underground was an American rock band, (not bebop). It was founded in 1964.

paragraphs: The original line-up was Lou Reed, John Cale, Sterling Morrison and Maureen Tucker. They were discovered by the famous artist, Andy Warhol, who produced and designed the cover for their first album "The Velvet Underground and Nico", which paired them with another discovery of his, German model/singer, Nico. The album was never really a hit, but it is now considered a classic.

paragraphs: Later, the group broke up with Warhol and Nico after being a part of Andy Warhol's Factory for a while. The group released several more albums, "White Light/White Heat" (1967), "The Velvet Underground" (1969), "Loaded" (1970), and "Squeeze" (which features none of the original members, 1973), before finally breaking up. Lou Reed later had a successful solo career and is considered one of the founders of the "punk" movement.


title: John F. Kennedy

paragraphs: John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often called JFK and Jack, was the 35th President of the United States. He was in office from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the youngest President elected to the office, at the age of 43. Events during his presidency included the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the building of the Berlin Wall, the Space Race, the Civil Rights Movement, and early stages of the Vietnam War. He was the youngest President of the United States to die in office.

paragraphs: Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts on May 29, 1917. He was the second of nine children of Joseph P. Kennedy (1888–1969). His father was a businessman and later US ambassador in the United Kingdom from 1938 until 1940. His mother was Rose Fitzgerald (1890–1995).

paragraphs: Kennedy graduated from Harvard University with a Bachelor's Degree in International Relations. Before World War II began, he tried joining the U.S. Army, but was rejected because he had back problems; he instead joined the Navy. When his PT boat was sunk by a Japanese destroyer in 1943, he seriously injured his back. He still saved his surviving crew, for which he was later rewarded with a medal for his bravery.

paragraphs: He was elected to the US Congress in 1946, and the US Senate in 1952. He married Jacqueline Bouvier on September 12, 1953. The couple had four children; a stillborn daughter (b. 1956), Caroline (b. 1957), John (1960–1999) and Patrick, who was born prematurely in August 1963 and lived only for two days.

paragraphs: Kennedy was a member of the United States Democratic Party. He beat his Republican Party opponent, Richard Nixon, in the 1960 presidential election. Kennedy was the youngest president ever elected. He was also the first Roman Catholic President and the first president to win a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was a very good speaker and inspired a new generation of young Americans.

paragraphs: In the beginning of his term, he approved the CIA's plan to invade Cuba. After the invasion turned out to be a failure, the Cuban Missile Crisis began. During the crisis, Cuba ordered a lot of nuclear missiles from the Soviet Union. It was the closest the world was to having a nuclear war. Kennedy ordered US Navy ships to surround Cuba. He ended the crisis peacefully by making an agreement with the Soviet Union. They agreed that the Soviet Union would stop selling nuclear weapons to Cuba. In return, the U.S. would take its missiles out of Turkey and promise to never invade Cuba again.

paragraphs: He also created a plan called the New Frontier. This was a series of government programs, such as urban renewal, to help poor and working class people. He created the Peace Corps to help poor countries all over the world. He agreed to a large tax cut to help the economy. He also called for the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which would make discrimination and segregation illegal. Kennedy intended to reach a détente with Cuban Premier, Fidel Castro, and to withdraw all US military advisers from Vietnam.

paragraphs: Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas. He was being driven through the city in an open-top car, along with John Connally, the Governor of Texas. As the car drove into Dealey Plaza, shots were fired. Kennedy was shot once in the throat and once in the head. He was taken to Parkland Memorial Hospital away. At 1:00 p.m., Kennedy was pronounced dead.

paragraphs: Lee Harvey Oswald, a former U.S. Marine, was the prime suspect in the murder, and he was arrested on the same day for the murder of a policeman called J. D. Tippit. Oswald denied shooting anyone and was killed two days later on November 24 by Jack Ruby.

paragraphs: Kennedy had a state funeral on November 25, three days after his murder, near to the White House. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.

paragraphs: After Kennedy died, Lyndon Johnson (his Vice President) took over and put many of Kennedy's ideas into law (see Great Society).

paragraphs: Kennedy was a very popular president and still is today. He is considered one of the greatest presidents, ranking highly in public surveys and opinion polls.


title: Jyväskylä

paragraphs: Jyväskylä is the capital of the Finnish province Central Finland by the northern end of lake Päijänne. There are almos about 135.000 inhabitants in Jyväskylä in April 2014. Neighbouring municipalities are Joutsa, Toivakka, Jämsä, Luhanka, Muurame, Petäjävesi, Laukaa and Uurainen.

paragraphs: The University of Jyväskylä is popular and respected.


title: Alfred Hitchcock

paragraphs: Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was a British movie director who later became an American citizen but still kept his British citizenship. He mostly made mystery and suspense movies. Despite having a successful career, Hitchcock never won an Academy Award.

paragraphs: Hitchcock started his career in England, starting with silent movies in the 1920s. In the 1930s, he made some successful movies like "The Man Who Knew Too Much" (1934), "The 39 Steps" (1935) and "The Lady Vanishes" (1938). He then moved to the United States, to work in Hollywood. His first American movie was "Rebecca" (1940), which won an Academy Award.

paragraphs: Some of his best known movies from the 1940s are "Spellbound" (1945) and "Notorious" (1946), which were inspired by psychoanalysis. His first movie in color was the experimental "Rope" (1948). "Strangers on a Train" (1951) was based on a novel by Patricia Highsmith. In the 1950s, he made three popular movies with Grace Kelly: "Dial M for Murder" (1954), "Rear Window" (1954) and "To Catch a Thief" (1955). In 1956 he made a new version of "The Man Who Knew Too Much", starring James Stewart and Doris Day. He returned to black-and-white, briefly, with "The Wrong Man" (1957). Then came "Vertigo" (1958), which some consider his best suspense movie. It was followed by three more successful movies: "North by Northwest" (1959), "Psycho" (1960) and "The Birds" (1963). After that he only made 5 more movies: "Marnie" (1964), "Torn Curtain" (1966), "Topaz" (1969), "Frenzy" (1972) and "Family Plot" (1976). In 1971 he became the very first winner of the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award. This is an award for lifetime achievement.

paragraphs: In 1945 Hitchcock made a documentary about the Holocaust. It will be shown on British television in 2015.

paragraphs: Hitchcock appeared very quickly in small roles in most of his movies.

paragraphs: He also hosted a TV show, "Alfred Hitchcock Presents".

paragraphs: Hithcock was born in Leytonstone, Essex. He was a Roman Catholic. He was married to Alma Reville, who helped write some of his movies. They had a daughter, Patricia. He died in Bel Air, Los Angeles.


title: Black comedy

paragraphs: Black comedy (also known as dark comedy or dark humor) is getting humor (something funny or comical) from something serious. It is known for its use of very sensitive subjects, such as war, tragedy, disease, death and suffering of the innocent. Black comedy is also a form of satire that uses irony and mocking. It may cause a wide variety of emotional reactions.

paragraphs: The term "black humor" (from the French "humour noir") was coined by the surrealist André Breton in 1935.

paragraphs: Some famous examples of black comedy include:


title: Elliott Gould

paragraphs: Elliot Gould (born as Elliott Goldstein August 29, 1938) is an American actor. He was born in Brooklyn, New York City. He is mostly known for his roles in many films including "M*A*S*H" (1970), "Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice" (1970), and "Ocean's Eleven" (2001). He has also made guest appearances on many television such as Jack Geller in "Friends".

paragraphs: Gould's parents were Jewish; Gould says he has a very deep Jewish identity. He married singer and actress Barbra Streisand in 1963. The couple separated in 1969 and divorced in 1971. Their son is actor Jason Gould (born 1966).


title: Equation

paragraphs: A mathematical equation is an expression containing two mathematical objects connected by an equals sign (=) . The equals sign says that both sides are exactly equal, or of the same value. An equation can be as simple as x=0, or as complex as formula_1 or harder.

paragraphs: There are two kinds of mathematical equations:

paragraphs: The second kind is often used to solve problems in which finding the value of some variables is involved. For example, if

paragraphs: The second kind of equation is used in algebra. For example, to solve the equation 2x = 8 for x, one would follow an algebraic rule to find that x = 4.

paragraphs: Equations can be classified by the types of operations and quantities involved. For example:


title: Beadle

paragraphs: A beadle is someone who works at a church or a Jewish synagogue and helps the clergy. A beadle's main job is to show people to their seats and to keep order during church services.

paragraphs: Like many words that describe a person's job, the word beadle can also be used as a last name.


title: Vegetable

paragraphs: Vegetables are parts of plants that are eaten by humans as food as part of a meal. This meaning is often used: it is applied to plants collectively to mean all edible plant matter, including the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds. The alternative definition of the term 'vegetable' may exclude foods derived from some plants that are fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but include fruits from others such as tomatoes and courgettes and seeds such as pulses.

paragraphs: Carrots and potatoes are parts of the root systems of the plants, but since they are eaten by humans, they are vegetables. They are not in the same category as a fruit, nut, herb, spice, or grain. Though tomatoes are often thought of as vegetables, but because they have seeds, they are, botanically, fruits. Vegetables are an important part of people's daily diet. Vegetables and fruits are sometimes called produce. Vegetables have vitamins A, B, C, D, minerals and carbohydrates.

paragraphs: The word "vegetable" can also be used to mean plants in general, such as when people say "Animal, Vegetable, or Mineral."

paragraphs: However, in an Asian context, 'vegetable' may mean any plant produce, apart from grain and nuts, that is consumed cooked, while only the fruits consumed raw are considered as 'fruits'. For example, an artichoke is therefore considered a vegetable, while a melon qualifies as a fruit.

paragraphs: "See" List of vegetables "for longer list."


title: Olivine

paragraphs: Olivine (or chrysolite) is a silicate mineral made of magnesium iron silicate with the formula (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.

paragraphs: It ranges in colour from chartreuse green to pale olive. In its gem form, it is called peridot.

paragraphs: Dunite is a rock of 90%+ olivine. Dunite and other peridotite rocks are major constituents of the Earth's mantle above a depth of about 400 kilometers. Dunite is rarely found on land, except where slabs of mantle rock from a subduction zone have been thrust onto continental crust.

paragraphs: Olivine has also been found at several extraterrestrial locations, such as the moon and many passing space rocks - as well as the outer layers of dust orbiting young stars.


title: Economy

paragraphs: An economy is a system of making and trading things of value. It is usually divided into goods (physical things) and services (things done by people). It assumes there is medium of exchange, which in the modern world is a system of finance. This makes trade possible. The alternative systems of barter – exists only on a very small scale.

paragraphs: To better understand how the economy works, it can be discussed in three sections. These are:

paragraphs: The term 'real economy' is sometimes used to mean the part of the economy concerned with goods and services. This is contrasted with the 'paper economy', the financial side of the economy, which buys and sells on the financial markets.

paragraphs: The word 'economy' comes from the Greek word "οἰκονόμος". This means "person who manages the house".


title: Bonar Law

paragraphs: Andrew Bonar Law (16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923), commonly called Bonar Law (), served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: Law was elected to Parliament in 1900 as a member of the Conservative Party. He became leader of the Party in 1911. He was Lloyd George's Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons while Lloyd George served as Prime Minister during World War I.

paragraphs: Law became Prime Minister in October 1922. He found out he had throat cancer and resigned in May 1923. He died in October 1923.


title: Pulmonary artery

paragraphs: The pulmonary artery is a blood vessel that connects the heart to the lungs. The pulmonary artery carries blood that does not have much oxygen. The blood from throughout the body is taken into the heart by the right atrium into the right ventricle. The blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery and into the lung capillaries. When the blood passes through the capillaries slowly to absorb the oxygen from the lungs. The oxygenated blood is taken through the pulmonary vein back into the heart through the left atrium and the left ventricle. It is then pumped throughout the body.


title: Artery

paragraphs: An artery is a blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to other parts of the body. Almost all arteries carry blood with a lot of oxygen in it. The only arteries that do not carry oxygen-rich blood are the pulmonary artery, and (in a fetus) the umbilical artery.

paragraphs: Every artery has three layers. The outer layer is a thick covering made of stretchy tissue. The middle layer is made of muscle, so the artery can get wider or get smaller when the body needs it to. The inner lining is made of the same cells that line the heart.

paragraphs: Arteries are deep under the skin. They do not have valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards. Instead, every time the heart beats, the arteries stretch out so the blood has room to go through. Once the walls have completely stretched out, the muscles in the arteries make them shrink back to their normal size. This pushes the blood through.

paragraphs: Arteries split down into small vessels called "arterioles".

paragraphs: The aorta is the main artery in the human body. It starts in the left ventricle of the heart, which is full of blood that just picked up oxygen in the lungs. (This is called "oxygenated" blood - meaning it has a lot of oxygen in it.) The left ventricle pumps this oxygen-rich blood out through the aorta. The aorta brings this blood to every organ in the body.

paragraphs: The aorta runs all the way from the heart to the bottom of the abdomen. Along the way, smaller arteries split off the aorta, like branches on a tree, to bring blood to different parts of the body. The aorta finally ends by splitting off into the two arteries that bring blood to the legs.

paragraphs: Except for the pulmonary artery, every artery in the body is connected to the aorta. Some other important arteries include:

paragraphs: The pulmonary artery is the only artery in the adult body that:

paragraphs: The body uses the oxygen carried in the other arteries to make energy. The blood in these arteries becomes "deoxygenated" - it does not have much oxygen left in it. This blood then travels through capillaries to get from the arteries to the veins. The veins' job is to carry the "deoxygenated" blood back to the right side of the heart. The pulmonary artery carries this blood from the heart's right ventricle to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood can pick up more oxygen.

paragraphs: After picking up more oxygen, the blood travels back to the left side of the heart and is pumped out to the body by the aorta. This cycle continues, over and over again.

paragraphs: Because the heart pumps blood right into the arteries, the arteries are under a lot of pressure. Unlike the veins, the arteries are always stretching and then squeezing to push blood through them to the body. Because of this, an "arterial bleed" - bleeding from an artery - can be a medical emergency, especially if the artery is big. Arterial bleeding can happen very quickly. For example, if a person's femoral artery is cut, they can bleed to death.

paragraphs: If an artery in the brain starts bleeding, the bleeding can cause a stroke.

paragraphs: When a person has arteriosclerosis, the walls of their arteries get harder, stiffer, and less stretchy. This makes it more difficult for blood and oxygen to get through the arteries to the body's important organs.

paragraphs: One type of arteriosclerosis is atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a disease where the arteries get narrower because they are clogged up with things like cholesterol and fat. Like a clog in sink pipes makes it harder for water to get through the pipes, clogs in arteries make it more difficult for blood to get through. This makes the heart have to work harder to push blood through the arteries. Atherosclerosis is a big risk factor for high blood pressure and heart disease.

paragraphs: When atherosclerosis happens in the coronary arteries, it can cause coronary heart disease. If these arteries get too clogged, the heart will not get the blood and oxygen it needs to survive. This can cause angina, a heart attack, heart failure, or even sudden death.

paragraphs: When atherosclerosis happens in one of the arteries in the brain, it can cause a stroke.

paragraphs: An aneurysm is a bulge in the wall of an artery. It is like a little balloon, filled with blood, coming off the artery. As the aneurysm gets bigger, it is more likely to break. If the aneurysm breaks ("ruptures"), the artery will start bleeding. If the artery is big, a person could bleed to death. Also, if an artery is bleeding, blood cannot get through it. The part of the body that the artery is supposed to feed will not get the blood and oxygen it needs. A ruptured aneurysm is a medical emergency.


title: Jönköping

paragraphs: Jönköping is a city in Sweden. About 90,000 people live there. It is in southern Sweden near the lake Vättern.

paragraphs: Jönköping was actually 3 towns that grew into one large town. The 3 towns were, "Jönköping (55.000)", "Huskvarna (22.000)" and "Norrahammar (9.000)".

paragraphs: Jönköping is the 9th biggest city in Sweden.


title: Warwickshire

paragraphs: Warwickshire (pronounced //, //, or //) is a county in central England. The county town is Warwick. The shape of the administrative area Warwickshire differs considerably from that of the historic county. Commonly used abbreviations for the county are Warks or Warwicks.

paragraphs: Warwickshire is perhaps best known for being the birthplace of William Shakespeare from Stratford-upon-Avon. The county has also produced other literary figures such as George Eliot (from near Nuneaton), Rupert Brooke (from Rugby), and Michael Drayton from Hartshill.

paragraphs: Warwickshire is bounded to the northwest by the West Midlands metropolitan county, and Staffordshire, by Leicestershire to the northeast, Northamptonshire to the east, Worcestershire to the west, Oxfordshire to the south, Gloucestershire to the southwest.

paragraphs: The majority of Warwickshire's population live in the north and centre of the county. The market towns of northern and eastern Warwickshire were industrialised in the 19th century, and include Atherstone, Bedworth, Nuneaton, and Rugby. Major industries included coal mining, textiles, engineering, and cement production, but heavy industry is in decline. Of the northern and eastern towns, only Nuneaton and Rugby (as the birthplace of Rugby football) are well-known outside of Warwickshire. The rich towns of central and western Warwickshire include Leamington Spa, Stratford-upon-Avon, Kenilworth, Alcester, and Warwick. They have light to medium industries, services, and tourism as major employers.

paragraphs: The south of the county is largely rural and has little population, and includes a small area of the Cotswolds. The only town in the south of Warwickshire is Shipston-on-Stour. The highest point in the county, at 261 m (856 ft), is Ebrington Hill on the border with Gloucestershire, GR SP187426 at its southwest extremity.

paragraphs: There are no cities in Warwickshire since both Coventry and Birmingham were incorporated into the West Midlands county in 1974. The largest towns in Warwickshire as of 2004 are: Nuneaton (pop. 77,500), Rugby (62,700), Leamington Spa (45,300), and Bedworth (32,500). Stratford, Warwick, and Kenilworth all house populations with more than 20,000 inhabitants, the smaller towns of Atherstone, Alcester, Coleshill, Southam, Bulkington, Polesworth, Kingsbury, Henley-in-Arden, Studley, Shipston and Whitnash have populations between 5,000 and 12,000.

paragraphs: Historically much of western Warwickshire, was covered by the ancient Forest of Arden (although most of this was cut down to provide fuel for industrialisation in the 17th to 19th centuries). For this reason, the names of a number of places in the northwestern part of Warwickshire end with the phrase "-in-Arden".

paragraphs: Areas historically part of Warwickshire include Coventry, Solihull, and most of Birmingham. These became part of the West Midlands metropolitan county following local government re-organisation in 1974.

paragraphs: Since 1986 Birmingham, Coventry, and Solihull have been effective unitary authorities, but they still remain legally part of the West Midlands.

paragraphs: Some organisations, such as Warwickshire County Cricket Club, which is based in Edgbaston, in Birmingham, still observe the historic county boundaries.

paragraphs: Coventry is effectively in the centre of the Warwickshire area, and still has strong ties with the county. Coventry and Warwickshire are sometimes treated as a single area and share a single NHS trust and ambulance service as well as other institutions.

paragraphs: The town of Tamworth was historically divided between Warwickshire and Staffordshire, but since 1888 has been fully in Staffordshire.

paragraphs: In 1931, Warwickshire got the town of Shipston-on-Stour from Worcestershire and several villages, including Long Marston and Welford-on-Avon, from Gloucestershire.

paragraphs: This is a list of the main settlements in Warwickshire, including towns, or villages with a population of over 5,000. For a complete list see List of places in Warwickshire.


title: Doppler effect

paragraphs: Doppler effect is a change in frequency and wavelength of a wave. It is caused by the change in distance between the thing creating the wave (causer) and whatever is measuring seeing or hearing the wave (watcher or observer).

paragraphs: Another word for "causer" is "sender". Another word for "change in distance" is "speed" or "relative velocity".

paragraphs: A common example is sitting in a car while another car goes by the watcher. The watcher will hear a change in pitch, while the sender will not.

paragraphs: For waves read all the waves that can send out or reflected by an object. And for reflection read change of direction of a wave.

paragraphs: If observer and creator of the wave get closer, the frequency is higher and the wavelength is shorter.

paragraphs: If the distance between the observer and creator gets longer, the frequency is lower and the wavelength is longer.

paragraphs: Lightwaves can also be read, examples are:

paragraphs: An extreme example of the doppler effect is an airplane flying at a faster speed than the speed of sound and how the wall of sound is heard on the ground.


title: Monagas Sport Club

paragraphs: Monagas Sport Club is a club of football from Maturín, Venezuela.


title: Vättern

paragraphs: Vättern is the second biggest lake in Sweden. The lake's total surface area is about . The deepest known point is . The average depth of the lake is .

paragraphs: Vättern is famous for the quality of its transparent water. Many of the people living in the area get their drinking water directly from Vättern. The lake water does not need to have many things done to it before it is used in nearby cities and towns. The water can be safely drunk from almost any point in the lake. It has been said that Vättern is the largest body of potable water in the world.

paragraphs: Vättern is also noted for its fishing. Tourist sport fishermen and people on vacation are allowed to fish in the lake as long as they do not use nets.


title: Uppsala

paragraphs: Uppsala is a city in Sweden. It is the 4th biggest city in Sweden, and the center of the Church of Sweden.

paragraphs: The city is home to the well-known student residential area of Flogsta. It is the largest student residence in the city. It is also known for the 'Flogsta scream'. At 10 pm every evening, students scream their frustrations from windows and balconies.


title: Summer of Love

paragraphs: The Summer of Love is the name for the summer of 1967 in the United States, especially in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco, California. Thousands of young people from all over the world went to San Francisco to help create a hippie counterculture. The Summer of Love made the rest of America much more aware of the hippie movement. The Human Be-In is often called the start of the Summer of Love, although it happened in January of that year.

paragraphs: During the Summer of Love, as many as 100,000 young people from around the world travelled to San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district, Berkeley, California, and other cities in the San Francisco area. Once there, they joined in a popular version of the hippie experience. The people who were a part of the Summer of Love are sometimes called "Flower Children". When these new Flower Children returned home at the end of summer, they brought their new clothing, ideas and behaviors to most major cities in the U.S., Canada, Britain, Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand.


title: Appenzell Innerrhoden

paragraphs: Appenzell Innerrhoden is one of the twenty-six cantons of Switzerland. It is the smallest canton by population and the second smallest by area.

paragraphs: The 6 (districts) of Appenzell Innerrhoden are:


title: Cataphile

paragraphs: A cataphile, also known as an urban explorer or "kata", is a person who illegally explores the catacombs underneath Paris, France. The catacombs go on for approximately 186 miles. The cataphiles carry maps, usually made by hand.


title: Staffordshire

paragraphs: Staffordshire (abbreviated Staffs) is a county in the West Midlands region of England. The county town is Stafford. Part of the National Forest is there. It is next to the counties of Cheshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Warwickshire, West Midlands, Worcestershire and Shropshire.

paragraphs: The largest city in ceremonial Staffordshire is Stoke-on-Trent.


title: Upper Cretaceous

paragraphs: The Upper Cretaceous is the last geological epoch in the Cretaceous. It began 100.5 million years ago, and ended 66 million years ago.

paragraphs: The Cretaceous is traditionally divided into Lower Cretaceous (early), and Upper Cretaceous (late), because of the different rocks. The rocks reflect the conditions in which they were formed. From lowest to highest, it is subdivided into the Cenomanian, Turonian, Coniacian, Santonian, Campanian, and Maastrichtian ages.

paragraphs: The Upper Cretaceous is the time of chalk. Chalk is composed of countless millions of calcareous (CaCO) plates called coccoliths. They are so small they can only just be seen with a light microscope; details require an electron microscope. The plates are formed by single-celled planktonic algae called coccolithophores, and were laid down in the off-shore seas.

paragraphs: The only other rock found in chalk is the flint, which is siliceous (silica, SiO). This derives from those algae and animals which have skeletons of silica.

paragraphs: The Cretaceous was the last period when dinosaurs were the dominant land animals. "Triceratops", "Tyrannosaurus" and "Velociraptor" lived at this time. The huge "Mosasaurus" was the dominant marine predator. In the Cretaceous period, birds became more diverse. Flowering plants developed more, and became the dominant plants on land. The Upper Cretaceous ended with the K/T extinction event.


title: Thai language

paragraphs: The Thai language is the national and official language of Thailand. It is the first language of the Thai people, Thailand's main ethnic group. Thai is closely related to the Lao language. In fact, some dialects of Thai and Lao are mutually intelligible, meaning that speakers of one language can talk with and understand speakers of the other language without knowing the other's language.


title: New England Patriots

paragraphs: The New England Patriots is an American football team in the National Football League or the NFL. They are in the American Football Conference or the AFC. Their starting quarterback is Cam Newton. Cody Kessler plays the second string quarterback. The Patriots play in Gillette Stadium on Foxborough, midway between Boston, Massachusetts and Providence, Rhode Island.

paragraphs: In the 2007 season, the Patriots have won all 16 games and became the first team with 16 wins and no losses. They would win 2 more playoff games and enter the Super Bowl at 18-0. However, they did not complete a historic 19-0 season, because they lost to the Giants. The Giants scored 17 points when David Tyree made a helmet catch and the Patriots scored 14 points.

paragraphs: The New England Patriots won the Super Bowl in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2014, 2016, and 2018. They play in Foxboro, Massachusetts. They lost to the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLVI on February 5, 2012 in a rematch of Super Bowl XLII which their perfect season got spoiled. This time, the Giants scored 21 points and the Patriots scored 17 points.

paragraphs: The Patriots also won Super Bowl XLIX against the Seattle Seahawks when Russell Wilson threw an interception on the final play. The Patriots scored 28 points and the Seahawks scored 24 points.

paragraphs: The Patriots were originally called the "Boston Patriots", and played in Fenway Park. Their name comes from the city of Boston's importance in the American Revolution.


title: Digenea

paragraphs: Digenea are a type of flatworms. They are parasites. They have two suckers, usually. One of them is ventral ("on the belly"), and the other is oral (where the mouth is).


title: Aspidogastrea

paragraphs: The Aspidogastrea (gr. "aspid" - shield, "gaster" - stomach/pouch) is a small group of flukes. There are about 80 species.

paragraphs: The group is a subclass of the Trematoda, and sister group to the Digenea. Species are between approximately one mm to several cm long. They are parasites of freshwater and marine molluscs and vertebrates (cartilaginous and bony fishes and turtles). Maturation may occur in the mollusc or vertebrate host.

paragraphs: None of the species has any economic importance, but the group is of very great interest to biologists because it has several characters which appear to be basal.


title: Theropod

paragraphs: Theropods ('beast foot') are a group of bipedal saurischian dinosaurs.

paragraphs: Although they were primarily carnivorous, a number of theropod groups evolved herbivory, omnivory and insectivory.

paragraphs: Today, they are represented by the 9,300 living species of birds, which evolved in the Upper Jurassic from small feathered coelurosaurian dinosaurs.

paragraphs: Among the features linking theropods to birds are bipedalism, the three-toed foot, a furcula (wishbone), air-filled bones, feathers and brooding of the eggs.

paragraphs: Theropods first appear in the earliest part of the Upper Triassic about 230 million years ago. They were the sole large terrestrial carnivores from the Lower Jurassic until the close of the Cretaceous, about 65 million years ago.

paragraphs: The earliest and most primitive of the theropod dinosaurs were:


title: Iwasawa theory

paragraphs: In number theory, Iwasawa theory is a Galois module theory of ideal class groups, started by Kenkichi Iwasawa, in the 1950s, as part of the theory of cyclotomic fields. In the early 1970s, Barry Mazur thought about generalizations of Iwasawa theory to Abelian Varieties. Later, in the early 90s, Ralph Greenberg has suggested an Iwasawa theory for motives.

paragraphs: The first thing Iwasawa noticed was that there are towers of fields in algebraic number theory, having Galois group isomorphic with the additive group of p-adic integers. That group, usually written Γ in the theory and with multiplicative notation, can be found as a subgroup of Galois groups of infinite field extensions (which are by their nature pro-finite groups). The group formula_1 is the inverse limit of the additive groups formula_2, where "p" is the fixed prime number and formula_3. We can express this by Pontryagin duality in another way: Γ is dual to the discrete group of all formula_4-power roots of unity in the complex numbers.

paragraphs: Let formula_5 be a primitive formula_4-th root of unity and look at the following tower of number fields:

paragraphs: where formula_8 is the field generated by a primitive formula_9-th root of unity. This tower of fields has a union formula_10. Then the Galois group of formula_11 over formula_12 is isomorphic with formula_1; because the Galois group of formula_14 over formula_15 is formula_16. In order to get an interesting Galois module here, Iwasawa took the ideal class group of formula_8, and let formula_18 be its formula_4-torsion part. There are norm mappings formula_20 when formula_21, and so an inverse system. Letting formula_22 be the inverse limit, we can say that formula_23 acts on formula_24, and it is good to have a description of this action.

paragraphs: The motivation here was undoubtedly that the formula_4-torsion in the ideal class group of formula_15 had already been identified by Kummer as the main obstacle to the direct proof of Fermat's last theorem. What Iwasawa did that was new, was to go 'off to infinity' in a new direction. In fact, formula_22 is a module over the group ring formula_28. This is a well-behaved ring (regular and two-dimensional), meaning that it is quite possible to classify modules over it, in a way that is not too coarse.

paragraphs: From this beginning, in the 1950s, a good-sized theory has been built up. A basic connection was noticed between the module theory, and the p-adic L-functions that were defined in the 1960s by Kubota and Leopoldt. The latter begin from the Bernoulli numbers, and use interpolation to define p-adic analogues of the Dirichlet L-functions. It became clear that the theory might be able to move ahead finally from Kummer's century-old results on regular primes.

paragraphs: The main conjecture of Iwasawa theory was formulated as an assertion that two ways of defining p-adic L-functions (by module theory, by interpolation) should coincide, as far as that was well-defined. This was eventually proved by Barry Mazur and Andrew Wiles for Q, and for all totally real number fields by Andrew Wiles. These proofs were modeled upon Ken Ribet's proof of the converse to Herbrand's theorem (so-called Herbrand-Ribet theorem).

paragraphs: More recently, also modeled upon Ribet's method, Chris Skinner and Eric Urban have announced a proof of a "main conjecture" for GL(2). An easier proof of the Mazur-Wiles theorem can be found by using Euler systems as developed by Kolyvagin (see Washington's book). Other generalizations of the main conjecture proved using the Euler system method have been found by Karl Rubin, amongst others.


title: Ring (mathematics)

paragraphs: In mathematics, a ring is an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with two operations: addition (+) and multiplication (•). These two operations must follow special rules to work together in a ring.

paragraphs: Mathematicians use the word "ring" this way because a mathematician named David Hilbert used the German word "Zahlring" to describe something he was writing about. The integers, the rational numbers, the real numbers and the complex numbers are all famous examples of rings. There are other, more unusual examples of rings, however they all obey the special rules below.

paragraphs: The operations are used to combine two elements to form a third element. There are a few rules the set and the operations must obey to qualify as a ring. These are called ring axioms:

paragraphs: Some rings have additional properties from those mentioned above, these rings get special names:

paragraphs: Commutative Ring: If "x" • "y" = "y" • "x" holds for every "x" and "y" in the ring, then the ring is called a "commutative ring".

paragraphs: Ring with Unity: If there is a multiplicative identity element, that is an element e such that for all elements a in R, the equation e • a = a • e = a holds, then the ring is called a ring with unity. This element is usually written as 1.

paragraphs: Division Ring: If every element of the ring has a multiplicative inverse, that is for each a in R, there exists an element a in R such that a • a = 1, where 1 is the multiplicative identity element, then the ring is called a division ring.

paragraphs: Integral Domain: In a ring, it may be possible to multiply two things which are not zero and get zero as a result. If this is impossible in a certain ring, then the ring is called an "integral domain".

paragraphs: Field: A ring with all of the above properties is called a field.


title: Pablo Neruda

paragraphs: Pablo Neruda (July 12, 1904 – September 23, 1973) was a Chilean poet. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1971. He wrote in Spanish. Most of his works have been translated into many other languages.

paragraphs: Neruda was born in the City of Parral in Chile on July 12, 1904 born under the name Ricardo Neftali Reyes. Neruda’s mother died shortly after he was born, but the child, Neruda came to love his stepmother (Dona Trinidad Candia Malverde) as if she had been his real mother. Neruda started to write poetry as a young boy against the wishes of his father who wanted him to focus on mathematics - so he could become a teacher. In his youth he became a great admirer of the poetry of Jan Neruda and Paul Verlaine and chose the pen name of Pablo Neruda after Paul Verlaine (Pablo is the Spanish version of Paul) and Jan Neruda.

paragraphs: Neruda was mainly interested in literature and writing poems, which he would mail out to magazines; to prevent his parents from discovering that he was doing this he changed his name to Pablo Neruda. In 1920 Neruda moved to Santiago to study French at the University of Chile, which he did to please his parents who wanted him to become a teacher. Soon Neruda became deeply involved in his poetry and in 1923 he published his first book: Crepusculario(Twilight Book).

paragraphs: After a number of years Neruda became a very famous person in his country and the world and was assigned diplomatic posts in various countries for long periods of time, such as Indonesia, Spain and France.

paragraphs: Neruda was suffering from cancer when he died of heart failure in hospital at the age of 69 on September 23, 1973 about a fortnight after the overthrow of Salvador Allende by military forces led by Pinochet. Many people today believe Neruda may have been poisoned by Pinochet's secret police, DINA, who feared Neruda's prominence and influence in creating an opposition to the military dictatorship. Neruda had a number of siblings, he had a sister that was stillborn when he was 3 or 4 years old and from his father's second marriage, a stepbrother, Ricardo Reyes Candia, and a stepsister, Laura Reyes Candia, - both children from his "mother" Trinidad Candia and his father DonReyes.

paragraphs: Some of Neruda’s dog and also Tierney poetry is very difficult to understand because they are about events of World history such as the colonization of America, the Spanish Civil War, Nazi Germany and other conflicts. Neruda also references (mentions) important figures of World history. In some of his poetry Neruda tends to link historical events from different eras (periods of history) and different parts of the world into one major conflict as in his "Canto General" (1950).

paragraphs: But Neruda also wrote poetry that can be easily appreciated by all, such as his odes which Neruda wrote on all sorts of common things, such onions, lemons, and the common cat.

paragraphs: Neruda was very concerned in how his poetry sounded, he liked rhythm and many claim he had a “musical intelligence” i.e. he wrote with music in his mind. He would record many of his poems on a tape recorder and many of his recordings were sold like records in the Spanish speaking world.

paragraphs: Many academics and scholars consider Neruda to be one of the most important and widely read poets of the 1900s. Many go as far as to place him alongside Shakespeare and Dante. This is probably because Neruda wrote poems on all sorts of topics, appealing to people of all ages and interests: poems about love, on historical events (like wars), he wrote about native people, about nature and about simple things.

paragraphs: Neruda was also an avid collector of all sorts of things. He had one of the largest collections of seashells in the world and collected bottles, model ships, water taps - among other odd objects.

paragraphs: Many of Neruda’s poems have been used in movies and in music, such as in the classical music of the Greek composer Mikis Theodorakis, and in the movies, such as "Il Postino" or "Patch Adams". Many famous people have also recorded narrations (spoken word) of his poems, such as Julia Roberts, Madonna, Andy Garcia, and Glen Close. Also, he fought his whole life for the freedom of others.


title: The Truth about Nanjing

paragraphs: The Truth about Nanjing is a Japanese movie from 2007. It is thought to be made by fundamental Japanese nationalists. In this movie they want to deny the fact of the Nanjing Massacre.


title: Nanjing Massacre

paragraphs: The Nanjing Massacre was a massacre (an unjust killing of many people) that happened in Nanjing, China, in December of 1937 and January of 1938. It was part of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which was the part of World War II between China and Japan. At the time, Japan was trying to take over China and Nanjing was the Chinese capital. The Japanese Army reached Nanjing on 13 December 1937 and began killing thousands upon thousands of men and boys and raping thousands upon thousands of women and girls.

paragraphs: Some Japanese claim the fighting in Nanjing was the same or not much worse than fighting in other places and in other wars. That is simply untrue. There is a lot of evidence from the Chinese, from outsiders who were there, from outsiders who have studied it, and from the Japanese themselves that things were much worse. There were many, many war crimes: soldiers without weapons were killed; people who were not soldiers were killed; many were tortured (hurt very badly), mutilated (hurt ways that can never be fixed), or killed in very cruel ways; many were raped (forced to have sex) or forced to work and treated like things. We have the orders from the soldier's leaders telling them to do these kinds of things and not to follow rules against them. The Nanjing Massacre was so bad that some even think of it as a kind of genocide (trying to wipe out an entire group of people).

paragraphs: The memory of the Nanjing Massacre—and anger at attempts to deny that it happened or to honor the soldiers who led it at the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo—still cause difficulty between the Chinese and Japanese governments and between Chinese and Japanese people.

paragraphs: The Nanjing Massacre is also known as the . It was known at the time as the or the . The name of Nanjing has not changed: it was then and now, but people have changed the way they spell the sounds of Chinese names using the Latin alphabet. "Nanking" was the Postal Map spelling, which usually tried to spell words the way local people said them around the year 1900. "Nanjing" is the pinyin spelling, which spells words the way they should sound in Mandarin Chinese.

paragraphs: The Mandarin Chinese name for the Nanjing Massacre is the "Nánjīng Dàtúshā", which means the same thing. (Part-by-part, "dàtúshā" could mean "a big butchering and killing" but, taken all together, it is just the Chinese word for "massacre".) It is written in traditional Chinese writing and in the easier Chinese writing now used by mainland China and Singapore.

paragraphs: The Japanese can use similar names but often prefer to call it the "Nankin Jiken", which just means "The Thing that Happened in Nanjing". It is written in Japanese writing.

paragraphs: The Nanjing Massacre lasted over six weeks. During this time, soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army:

paragraphs: During the six weeks of the Nanjing massacre, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) massacred between 40,000 and 300,000 people. It is difficult to know exactly how many people were killed in this mass murder, because the IJA burnt many bodies, buried others in mass graves, and dumped others in the Yangtze River. Because of this, scholars and historians do not agree on exactly how many civilians were killed.

paragraphs: However, historians agree that the Imperial Japanese Army began massacring Chinese civilians the day they entered Nanjing. On that day, John Rabe, a German businessman, wrote in his diary: "We come across corpses every 100 to 200 yards. The bodies of civilians that I examined had bullet holes in their backs. These people had ... been [running away] and were shot from behind."

paragraphs: In another massacre, Japanese soldiers shot thousands of Chinese people with machine guns. They left their bodies in a trench they named the "Ten-Thousand-Corpse Ditch." Most historians think that more than 12,000 people were killed in this massacre. The IJA also massacred about 100 Hui people (a minority group in China who are mostly Muslim).

paragraphs: For the entire six weeks of the Massacre, the Imperial Japanese Army kept killing Chinese civilians. They killed in cruel, brutal ways and often tortured their victims before killing them.

paragraphs: For example, in 1984, ex-IJA soldier Kozo Tadokoro admitted:

paragraphs: Another ex-soldier named Nagatoni admitted that Japanese soldiers tortured people to death by doing things like:

paragraphs: In 2010, a Japanese woman named Tamaki Matsuoka made a documentary film about the Nanjing Massacre. In the film, former IJA soldiers admit that they often raped Chinese women and massacred Chinese civilians. However, out of the 250 former soldiers that Matsuoka interviewed, only three felt bad about what they had done. One former solder, Sho Mitani, said:

paragraphs: During the Massacre, the Japanese soldiers raped about 20,000 women including children and the elderly. Soldiers would go from door to door, searching for girls. When they found one, they would take her and rape her as a group. If anyone tried to stop the soldiers, the soldiers would shoot them.

paragraphs: Right after they raped the women, the Japanese soldiers would often kill them, sometimes by mutilating their sex organs.

paragraphs: One survivor of the massacre said that sons were forced to rape their mothers, and fathers were forced to rape their daughters. One group of soldiers gang-raped a pregnant woman, who gave birth only a few hours later (the baby did not seem to be hurt). Japanese soldiers also raped Buddhist nuns and forced monks to rape women.

paragraphs: On 19 December 1937, the Reverend James M. McCallum wrote in his diary:

paragraphs: Another witness to the rapes in Nanjing was Robert O. Wilson. He was a surgeon at an American hospital in Nanjing. On December 15 and 18, 1937, he wrote to his family:

paragraphs: Starting in 1931, an international law called the Third Geneva Convention said it was illegal to treat prisoners of war in certain ways. It said these prisoners had rights for example, the right to have a trial before being executed. However, in August 1937, Hirohito, the Emperor of Japan, had decided that neither he nor the army would not follow any international laws about how Chinese prisoners of war had to be treated.

paragraphs: Right after the IJA took over Nanjing, they started searching for ex-Chinese soldiers. They took thousands of young men as prisoners. Some of these men were never soldiers; the IJA just assumed they were. Without any trials, the IJA took many of these young men to the Yangtze River and killed them with machine guns.

paragraphs: According to confessions made by former IJA soldiers, on December 13 and 14, 1937, a unit of IJA soldiers had taken 14,777 Chinese prisoners of war. In the next few days, they took another 2,0003,000 prisoners. In two days, the IJA massacred every one of these prisoners of warover 15,000 people. In their confessions, the former IJA soldiers said their military leaders had ordered them to do this.

paragraphs: Over the six weeks of the massacre, the IJA killed a total of about 30,000 Chinese prisoners of war.

paragraphs: The Japanese Army left most of the buildings in Nanjing destroyed by looting and arson. They destroyed newly built government buildings as well as many civilians' homes. Soldiers also stole whatever they wanted. Because the Imperial Japanese Army was so much stronger than the Chinese soldiers and civilians in Nanjing, the Chinese could not fight back. This meant the Japanese could take all of the city's valuable things for themselves.

paragraphs: In January 1938, the Imperial Japanese Army announced that Nanjing was in "order" again. In the first week of February, it created a government that would obey all of Japan's needs. After that, the IJA left. The massacre was over.

paragraphs: On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allied Powers. This ended World War II.

paragraphs: Soon after this, the Allied Powers began creating international military courts. To try Japan's leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity, they created the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE).

paragraphs: Three of the Japanese Imperial Army's leaders in Nanjing were put on trial at the IMTFE:

paragraphs: All three of these men were found guilty of "Class A" war crimes. This meant they had been found guilty of planning and being in charge of the war. All three were sentenced to death and were executed.

paragraphs: In 1946, the Chinese government created the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal. This court tried General Matsui's lieutenant, Tani Hisao, for his part in the Nanjing Massacre. It found him guilty and sentenced him to death.

paragraphs: The Nanjing Massacre is still very controversial in Japan. Only a small number of Japanese writers say the Massacre never happened at all. Most of the argument over the massacre has to do with how many Chinese people died. Some scholars say that many fewer Chinese people died than most historians say. For example, Japanese writer Tanaka Masaaki says that only a few hundred civilians died in Nanjing.

paragraphs: As of 2014, Japan still honored fourteen "Class A" war criminalsincluding the three who were in charge of the Nanjing Massacreat a national shrine.

paragraphs: There is a lot of proof that the Nanjing Massacre happened the way most historians and survivors say it did. This proof includes:


title: Neoliberalism

paragraphs: Neoliberalism is a term for different social and economic ideas. Originally the term was used by a group of liberals who helped shape social market economy in the mid 20th century. Neoliberalism is characterized by free market trade, deregulation of financial markets, mercantilism and the shift away from state welfare provision.

paragraphs: Alexander Rustow was the first economist to develop this concept, looking after a Social Democracy system rather than a Laissez Faire Capitalist Society.

paragraphs: In the application of neoliberal ideals, the state might also intervene and regulate, for example, to prevent exploitation, or to ensure social fairness and equality.

paragraphs: Neoliberalism is antithetical to the protection of group - rather than individual - interests, for example, that might be achieved through lobbying of groups, or state interventions that protect national interests via tariffs or subsidies.

paragraphs: Neoliberalism has moved away from a centrally governed economy.

paragraphs: Since the 1990s the term has been consistently used in academia to imply the move from welfare state to laissez faire economic management, particularly associated with the promotion of free market ideals in the late 1980s by Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the US.


title: Cartel

paragraphs: In economics, a cartel is a group of formerly independent companies who overtly agree to work together. The objectives of cartels are to increase their profits or to stabilize market sales. They do this by fixing the price of goods, by limiting market supply or by other means. Monopolies are not cartels, because in a monopoly there is only one independent company. Cartels are bad for the economy in general and for their customers who are overcharged. Cartels usually occur in oligopolies, where there are a small number of players that control the majority of supply in a market.

paragraphs: Besides the sellers' cartel just described, buyers may also form cartels to suppress the price of a purchased input. Another type of cartel is the bidding ring. In bid rigging potential suppliers form an agreement as to which of them will win a supply contract at a price above the competitive price and, if one of them wins, then agree to a rule for sharing the extra profits among themselves. Bid rigging is most common among construction firms trying to get a government building project.

paragraphs: A survey was done of hundreds of published economic studies and legal decisions of antitrust authorities. It found that the median price increase achieved by cartels in the last 200 years is 25%. Private international cartels (those with participants from two or more nations) had an average price increase of 28%. Domestic cartels averaged 18%. Less than 10% of all cartels in the sample failed to raise market prices.

paragraphs: In general, cartel agreements are difficult to negotiate because potential members typically have different ideal collusive prices. Once formed, cartels tend to be economically unstable, primarily because there is a profit incentive for members to cheat by selling at below the agreed price or selling more than the production quotas set by the cartel (see also game theory). Cheating on prices is difficult for cartel members to observe, so more successful cartels often agree to fix their market quotas, share verifiable information about those shares, and agree in advance on some mechanism to punish members that exceed their quotas. This has caused many cartels that attempt to set product prices to be unsuccessful in the long term. Empirical studies of 20th century cartels have determined that the mean duration of discovered cartels is from 5 to 8 years. However, once a cartel is broken, the incentives to form the cartel return and the cartel may be re-formed. Publicly-known cartels that do not follow this cycle include the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).

paragraphs: Price fixing is often practiced internationally. When the agreement to control price is sanctioned by a multilateral treaty or protected by national sovereignty, no antitrust actions may be initiated. Examples of such price fixing include oil whose price is partly controlled by the supply by OPEC countries. Also international airline tickets have prices fixed by agreement with the IATA, a practice for which there is a specific exception in antitrust law.

paragraphs: International price fixing by private entities can be prosecuted under the antitrust laws of more than 100 countries. Examples of prosecuted international cartels are lysine, citric acid, graphite electrodes and bulk vitamins.


title: Oligopoly

paragraphs: In economics, an oligopoly is a market form in which the market or industry is controlled by a small number of sellers. Usually, the market has high barriers to entry, which prevents new firms from entering the market or even be able to have a significant market share.

paragraphs: As there are only a few sellers in the market, each seller would take note of the actions made by one another, and thinks about how the other sellers will respond when making decisions As such, there is a possibility in which an oligopoly can come together to make a common decision that allows them to have less competition and charge higher prices for consumers.

paragraphs: In many countries, some country-held companies were privatized. Very often, this privatization lead to oligopolies. In many countries, there are only a handful of companies providing networks for mobile phones. They control the prices for accessing the network. That is why using a mobile phone is often much more expensive than using a land line one.

paragraphs: Trains run by private sectors are much costlier than those run by a government. As a government gives rights to private sectors to get a hold of some other sectors, they take advantage of it.


title: Market forms

paragraphs: In economics, market structure (also known as market form) describes the state of a market with respect to competition.

paragraphs: Most market forms given below talk about a "homogeneous product". This simply means that they all make the same . They simply want to get the cheapest one, since all kinds of sugars (or soaps) look the same anyway.

paragraphs: The imperfectly competitive structure is quite identical to the realistic market conditions where some monopolistic competitors, monopolists, oligopolists, and duopolists exist and dominate the market conditions.

paragraphs: These somewhat abstract concerns usually determine some but not all details of a specific concrete market system where buyers and sellers actually meet and commit to trade.

paragraphs: The correct sequence of the market structure from most to least competitive is perfect competition, imperfect competition, oligopoly, and pure monopoly.

paragraphs: The main criteria by which one can distinguish between different market structures are: the number and size of producers and consumers in the market, the type of goods and services being traded, and the degree to which information can flow freely.


title: Perfect competition

paragraphs: In economics, perfect competition is a type of market form in which there are many companies that sell the same product or service and no one has enough market power to be able to set prices on the product or service without losing business. As the conditions for perfect competition are strict, there are only a few markets that are considered to be perfectly competitive and this market form only exists to compare with the other market forms.

paragraphs: Generally, a perfectly competitive market exists when every firm in the market are price takers and no one is able to charge a different price without losing business. Specific characteristics of perfect competition includes:

paragraphs: These characteristics are largely impossible to achieve in reality and there are not many markets that are perfectly competitive. For example, it is unlikely that there are absolutely no barriers to entry and exit as there are always costs involved in setting up a new firm. Also, information is always imperfect and it is not possible for buyers to know exactly the price set by all sellers, and sellers are not willing to share their production methods with their competitors. However, the study of perfect competition is important as it is used to compare with the other market forms.

paragraphs: In the short run, a perfectly competitive firm is not productively efficient as the output will not be at where the marginal cost equals to the average cost (MC = AC). However, a perfectly competitive firm will be allocatively efficient as the firm will be producing at the profit-maximising output where MC = MR, which is coincidentally the allocatively efficient point. In the long run, a perfectly competitive firm will be both allocatively and productively efficient.

paragraphs: A model can be used to show the perfectly competitive firm's price and output level for a given product. In the diagram shown, the cost curves of a perfectly competitive market is shown in its long run equilibrium.

paragraphs: For a perfectly competitive firm, the marginal cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the MC curve "(in blue)" whereas the average total cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the ATC curve "(in red)". As stated above, a perfectly competitive market has a large number of buyers and sellers and the demand does not change with output. Hence, the demand curve, the average revenue and marginal revenue curves are horizontal "(in green)". The point in which the demand curve intersects the vertical axis is the price of the product sold by the firm.

paragraphs: As firms are assumed to be profit-maximising, the firm will thus produce at the output level where the marginal cost equals to the marginal revenue (MC = MR). Hence, the firm will be producing an output of Q in the diagram. As the average total cost curve also meets at this point, the firm is thus earning normal profits in the long run.


title: Monopolistic competition

paragraphs: Monopolistic competition is a market form. Like with Perfect competition, there are many buyers and sellers. But the market is not perfect. This is because the products are not homogeneous, or because the buyers have explicit or implicit preferences.

paragraphs: This market form is quite common. As an example, take a bakery. There are many bakeries in the town, but one of those bakeries can demand a slightly higher price for bread, because it is the only one in a certain part of the town.

paragraphs: Monopolistically competitive firms are able to gain a greater degree of market share and as a result, increase prices. If a particular bakery is known for selling the best pies and pasties in town, they can increase their prices for pies and pasties as they know consumers will pay slightly more for a superior product. This is known as establishing a brand name and brand loyalty.


title: Supply and demand

paragraphs: Supply and demand is a model of microeconomics. It describes how a price is formed in a market economy. There are two determining factors on such a market, the number of things made available, called supply, and the number of things consumers want, called demand. Supply and demand shows how producers and consumers interact with each other. This relationship will fix the price for a certain type of good. In perfect competition, the quantity demanded (demand) and the quantity supplied will be equal. This happens at the equilibrium market price.

paragraphs: For normal goods, and a normal market, there are four basic laws that determine the change in the market, if either supply or demand changes:

paragraphs: When there is more supply, this will cause prices to fall because people will not want to pay more for items that can be found easily. When there is more demand, prices will go up because many people want to buy the same item but there is not enough supply for it.

paragraphs: When demands for new goods and services go up, new markets come into being. The greater the demand, the faster this happens. This greater number of providers makes the supply go up, which forces the price down toward the cost of production and distribution.

paragraphs: One of the first to see this was Adam Smith. In his book "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), he says that the demand was dependent on the price of a good. He did not see the inverse, that the demand also influences the price. David Ricardo published the book "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" in 1817, where he explained market equilibrium as it is explained above. Others who are known for this model are Alfred Marshall and Léon Walras.

paragraphs: There are certain goods which violate the model above

paragraphs: The rules above are only valid for a perfect competition market: In such a market, there are many buyers and sellers, and no single buyer or seller can directly influence the price. If either the buyers or the sellers can influence this price, the market will react differently. Sometimes there is only one supplier (a monopoly). When this happens, the supplier chooses the price and the demand only determines how much is bought. The supplier will probably raise the price very high as long as people are still willing to buy at that price. If there is only one buyer, the market is called monopsony, and that buyer is able to fix the price.


title: Elasticity (economics)

paragraphs: In economics, people talk about elasticity of an economic variable, usually supply or demand, in relation to another economic variable such as income or price. The elasticity of a variable is a measure of how much the variable changes in response to a change in a second variable.

paragraphs: If the price for a good with a price-elastic demand goes up, the demand for it will go down. For example, people will buy fewer DVDs if DVDs get more expensive − DVDs have a price-elastic demand.

paragraphs: If a good has a completely price-inelastic demand, the demand for it will not be affected by the price of it. For example, if the price of salt increases, people will not buy less of it. They need their daily salt intake. The demand of salt is therefore price-inelastic.

paragraphs: Elasticity is often measured in percents. If a 2% increase in price causes people to buy 1% fewer of a product, it has a price elasticity of demand of -0.5.


title: Worcestershire

paragraphs: Worcestershire (ˈwʊs.təˌʃə; abbreviated Worcs) is a county in the West Midlands region of central England. From 1974 to 1998 it was part of Hereford and Worcester.

paragraphs: The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, and Gloucestershire.

paragraphs: Worcestershire is a fairly rural county. The Malvern Hills, which run from the south of the county into Herefordshire, are made up mainly of volcanic rock, some of which date from before 1200 million years ago. For more on the geology of the Malvern Hills, see the other websites section below.


title: Zlín

paragraphs: Zlín (from 1949 to 1990 Gottwaldov) is a town in the Czech Republic. It is on the Dřevnice River. The Bata Shoes company has developed this city. It is now famous for urbanism.


title: Metamorphosis

paragraphs: Metamorphosis in biology means the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages. Good examples are insects and amphibians. Life for most insects begins as a larva or nymph then progresses to the pupa stage and ends as an adult.

paragraphs: There are two main types of metamorphosis in insects:

paragraphs: simple metamorphosis or "hemimetabolism", and complete metamorphosis or "holometabolism".

paragraphs: Insects who go through simple (or incomplete) metamorphosis have three life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are usually very small. When the egg hatches, a larva or nymph comes out. Nymphs are just baby insects. Most of the time, the nymph looks similar to the adult, but it is smaller, may have different colouration, and does not have wings. The nymph grows through stages called "instars", shedding its 'skin' ("epicuticle") at each stage ("ecdysis"). Finally, it changes into a mature adult with wings.

paragraphs: Some insect nymphs are aquatic, which means they live in water. These nymphs usually have gills and look very different from the adults they will turn into. Nymphs that live in water are called "naiads".

paragraphs: Some insects that have a life cycle of egg-nymph-adult are:

paragraphs: Insects that have complete metamorphosis have four life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are very small. The egg hatches and a larva comes out. The larva looks like a worm and eats and eats so that it can grow much bigger. When the larva has grown it changes into a pupa. The pupa usually can not move or eat. The pupa is a special time when the insect is changing into an adult that will look very different from the larva or the pupa. Moth pupae (plural of pupa) are inside cocoons. When the pupa opens, the adult insect comes out.

paragraphs: Many insects have a life cycle of egg-larva-pupa-adult. Some of these insects are:

paragraphs: The monarch butterfly goes through four stages of development. Life for a monarch butterfly begins as an egg hatched from an adult. This egg then develops into a worm-like larva caterpillar. In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on a twig or leaves and hangs from this pad by its last pair of prolegs. It hangs upside down in the shape of a "J" and then molts leaving it encased in a green exoskeleton. The mature butterfly emerges after about two weeks and feeds on a variety of flowers including milkweed flowers, red clover and goldenrod.

paragraphs: In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads, and newts all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Afterwards, newt larvae start a predatory lifestyle, while tadpoles mostly scrape food off surfaces with their horny tooth ridges.

paragraphs: Many marine species have evolved a system where they release their eggs and sperm into the water at the same time, and fertilisation takes place in the sea over one or two days. This increases their chance of reproductive success.

paragraphs: Then, larvae join the other plankton, eating and growing before metamorphosing into adults. Most marine invertebrates and many fish have a life cycle with pelagic larvae or even pelagic eggs. These have the capacity to be transported long distances, and so spread the species around to other places.

paragraphs: The need for metamorphosis is clear when the relative size of eggs and adults is understood. A mature Atlantic cod can reach two metres long, and weigh over 200 pounds (96 kg). The female will produce over 100,000 eggs in a single spawning, and the resulting larvae are quite tiny. There is no way they could live like the adults, which are more or less top predators. The larvae cannot even swim against the current. Therefore, they must live a different kind of life before they can live as the adults do.

paragraphs: Their development is packaged into stages, and each stage has adaptations to life at its stage. The sharp distinction between stages (best seen in insects) is presumably because a longer transition would leave the juvenile less fit, either at its younger or older ways of life.


title: Resilience

paragraphs: Resilience generally means the ability to recover from some shock or disturbance.

paragraphs: Resilience is a term used in psychology to describe the capacity of people to cope with stress and catastrophe. It is also used to indicate a characteristic of resistance to future negative events. This psychological meaning of resilience is often contrasted with "risk factors".

paragraphs: In physics and engineering, resilience is defined as the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. In other words, it is the maximum energy per volume that can be elastically stored. It is represented by the area under the curve in the elastic region in the Stress-Strain diagram.

paragraphs: Modulus of Resilience, formula_1, can be calculated using the following formula: formula_2, where formula_3 is yield stress, E is Young's modulus, and formula_4 is strain.

paragraphs: An example of a biomaterial which has a high resilience is articular cartilage, the substance lining the ends of bones in articulating joints such as the knee and hip.

paragraphs: In ecology, resilience has been defined in two competing fashions that emphasize two different aspects of stability.

paragraphs: One definition is the rate at which a system returns to a single steady or cyclic state following a perturbation. This definition of resilience assumes that behavior of a system remains within the stable domain that contains this steady state.

paragraphs: When a system can reorganize, that is shift from one stability domain to another, a more relevant measure of ecosystem dynamics is ecological resilience. It is a measure of the amount of change or disruption that is required to transform a system from being maintained by one set of mutually reinforcing processes and structures to a different set of processes and structures.

paragraphs: The second definition emphasizes conditions far from any steady-states, where instabilities can flip a system into another regime of behavior - i.e. to another stability domain. In this case resilience is measured by the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior. This type of resilience has been defined as ecological resilience.

paragraphs: Economic resilence is the ability of a local economy to retain function, employment and prosperity in the face of the perturbation caused by the shock of the loss of a particular type of local industry or employer.

paragraphs: Within the broad domain of industrial safety, the term resilience has come into use to emphasise that safety must be proactive as well as reactive. Whereas conventional risk management approaches emphasise calculation of failure probabilities, resilience engineering looks for ways to strengthen the ability of organisations to create processes that are robust yet flexible.

paragraphs: Resilience is the ability of the network to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the face of various faults and challenges to normal operation.

paragraphs: Resilient networks aim to provide acceptable service to applications:


title: St Andrews

paragraphs: St Andrews is a town, that has its name from Saint Andrew the Apostle and is a former royal burgh on the east coast of Fife, Scotland, and an important home of golf. It has a population of about 18 000, and stands on the North Sea coast between Edinburgh and Dundee. It is home to Scotland's oldest university, the "University of St Andrews".

paragraphs: The town is called "home of golf" for two reasons. First, the "Royal and Ancient Golf Club", founded in 1754,has authority over the game worldwide except in the USA and Mexico. Second, the beautiful "links" (acquired by the town in 1894) is the most frequent venue for The Open Championship, the oldest of the Men's major golf championships.

paragraphs: Visitors travel to St Andrews in great numbers for several courses ranked amongst the finest in the world, as well as for the sandy beaches.

paragraphs: The Cathedral of St Andrew was at one time Scotland's largest building. It was founded by Bishop Robert (1122 - 1159). It was not completed and consecrated until 1318 in the reign of Robert the Bruce (1306-29).

paragraphs: St Rule's tower stands in the Cathedral grounds but is older than the cathedral. Probably it was part of the Cathedral up to the early 12th century.

paragraphs: The ruins of "St Andrews Castle" stand on a rock at the sea. It is said that Bishop Roger erected the first stone castle on the site about the beginning of the 13th century as an episcopal residence.

paragraphs: The University of St Andrews owed its origin to a society formed in 1410 by Lawrence of Lindores, abbot of Scone and a few others.

paragraphs: The University library, which now includes the older college libraries, was founded about the middle of the 17th century, rebuilt in 1764, and improved in 1829 and 1889 - 1890.

paragraphs: The modern buildings, in the Jacobean style, were erected between 1827 and 1847. University College, Dundee, became in 1890 affiliated to the University of St Andrews.


title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica

paragraphs: The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is one of the most famous editions of the "Encyclopædia Britannica". Some of its articles were written by the best-known scholars of the time. The articles are still of value and interest to modern scholars as examples for the knowledge of the 19th and early 20th centuries. They contain, however, a number of problematic areas for the modern scholar using them as a source. The eleventh edition is no longer restricted by copyright and is available online, both in its original text and in part in other online encyclopaedias and works.

paragraphs: The 1911 eleventh edition was assembled under the leadership of American publisher Horace Everett Hooper, and edited by Hugh Chisholm. American marketing methods assisted sales. Some 11% of the contributors were American, and a New York office was established to run that side of the enterprise.

paragraphs: Some articles were written by the best-known scholars of the day, such as Edmund Gosse, J. B. Bury, Algernon Charles Swinburne, John Muir, Prince Peter Kropotkin, T. H. Huxley, G. K. Chesterton, Edmund Husserl and William Michael Rossetti, and others well known to that era.

paragraphs: The eleventh edition introduced a number of changes to the format of the "Britannica". It was the first to be published complete, instead of the previous method of volumes being released as they were ready. The content of the encyclopaedia was made up as follows:

paragraphs: The eleventh edition has become a commonly quoted source because of the reputation of the "Britannica" at that time and because it is now in the public domain and has been made available on the Internet. The "Encyclopædia Britannica" of 1911 has been used as a source for many modern projects, such as Wikipedia and the "Gutenberg Encyclopedia".

paragraphs: The "Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia" is actually the eleventh edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica", renamed to address Britannica's trademark concerns.


title: Pontiac

paragraphs: Pontiac was an automobile manufacturer, owned by General Motors. Pontiac was known for making affordable performance cars. It was established in 1926. In 2009 General Motors announced that it would shut down Pontiac.

paragraphs: Pontiac is named for Pontiac (Ottawa leader), an 18th-century war chief, and for the town of Pontiac, Illinois.


title: Buick

paragraphs: Buick is an automobile maker, owned by General Motors. It is known for making near-luxury cars with excellent performance and value. After the discontinuation of the Saturn brand GM announced Buick's styling would be based off the German Opel's.