title: Ring

paragraphs: A ring is a piece of jewelry that is usually worn on the finger.

paragraphs: It is usually made of metal such as gold, silver, platinum, but can be made of other things, for example, bone or glass. Many rings have gemstones on them, for beauty and decoration on your finger. It is a fashion accessory and sometimes a sign of importance (status). The Lord Chancellors of England were given a ring when taking office, and returned it when leaving the position. The ring identified them as the second most important person in the kingdom.

paragraphs: In most religions, senior clergy have rings of their office. It is standard practice for members of a church to kneel and kiss the ring as a sign of faith and obedience.

paragraphs: Rings have been used for engagements and weddings since prehistoric times.The engagement ring is meant to be a sign of luck and happiness. Both men and women used to wear an engagement ring to show that they were going to be married, but more recently only women have worn them. A diamond ring is seen as being especially lucky, as the sparkle of the diamond is said to come from the fires of love. A pearl in a ring is unlucky, as the pearl is a sign of tears. Because the ring is round and does not have an end, it is seen as a symbol of love which never ends. These are, of course, superstitions. However, a wedding ring is a public symbol of a legal relationship, and in many societies rings have that kind of function.


title: Descendant

paragraphs: The term descendant or descendent has several meanings, some of which


title: Gallo-Romance languages

paragraphs: The Gallo-Romance are a branch of Romance languages. It includes French and several other languages spoken in modern France and northern Italy and Spain. According to certain linguists, it also includes Occitan and Catalan; others group these two together as a separate Occitano-Romance branch, or place Catalan within the Ibero-Romance group. The Gallo-Romance languages, along with the Ibero-Romance and Rhaeto-Romance groups, form Western Romance.


title: Capital accumulation

paragraphs: Capital accumulation means the gathering of objects of value; the increase in wealth; or the creation of wealth. In this context capital can be understood as assets used for profit.

paragraphs: In economics capital accumulation is often seen as the same as investment.

paragraphs: But capital accumulation can refer as well to

paragraphs: Non-financial capital accumulation is an essential factor for economic growth, since additional investment is essential to enlarge the scale of production and increase employment opportunities.

paragraphs: Rosa Luxemburg insisted that capital accumulation is the cause of the imperialism on her essay ""The Accumulation of Capital".


title: Investment

paragraphs: Investment or investing means that an asset is bought, or that money is put into a bank to get a future interest from it. Investment is total amount of money spent by a shareholder in buying shares of a company. In economic management sciences, investments means longer-term savings.

paragraphs: It is a term used in business management, finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption. Literally, the word means the "action of putting something in to somewhere else" (perhaps originally related to a person's garment or 'vestment').

paragraphs: There are two major uses of the term investment between the economics field and the finance field. Economists refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market which may then be used to buy a real asset. Advisors, who tell people how to manage their investments, might say that even when an investment is losing money because of bad times, not to give up and withdraw it. Instead, wait for the situation to improve. This is a risk for each person to decide.

paragraphs: The investment decision (also known as "capital budgeting") is one of the fundamental decisions of business management.


title: Battle of Bannockburn

paragraphs: The Battle of Bannockburn, fought on 23 and 24 June 1314, was an important Scottish victory in the Wars of Scottish Independence. A smaller Scottish army defeated a much larger and better armed English army.

paragraphs: When King Alexander III of Scotland died in 1286, his heir was his granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway. King Edward I of England arranged to have his son, Edward II of England, become her husband and share the crown of Scotland in 1289. But Margaret died on her way from Norway to Scotland in 1290. This began a period in Scotland called the First Interregnum (1290–1292). Scotland was without a monarch. Edward I was invited to choose who would be king from among the candidates who had any claim to be king. He chose John of Scotland. But Edward now claimed power over the Scottish king. Balliol could do nothing without Edward's approval. In July 1295 the Scottish Parliament met and took most of the power away from John Balliol and gave it to a group of men they elected called the "Council of Twelve." This group made an agreement with King Philip IV of France called the Auld Alliance. King Edward gathered his army at Newcastle and prepared to invade Scotland. He brought his army to Berwick and captured the town and castle. John Balliol sent King Edward letters refusing to recognize Edward's right to rule Scotland. After Edward had captured all the castles in Scotland, John Balliol surrendered to him. John Balliol was sent to prison in London, then later Edward allowed him to live in France. In 1296 Edward made every man in Scotland who owned land promise to be loyal to him. Scotland remained without a king of their own until 1306 when Robert the Bruce declared himself king of Scotland defying Edward I. Just before doing this Robert the Bruce had been involved in a dispute with John Comyn. The two met before the altar in Greyfriars Church in Dumfries in 1306 and in a fight John Comyn was killed. Robert the Bruce was crowned king three weeks later at Scone. Accused of murdering Comyn, Bruce was excommunicated by the Pope. Edward sent his men after Bruce but was unable to capture Him. A series of border skirmishes and wars went on. In 1310 Edward again invaded Scotland but with little effect. Between 1310 and 1314 a large number of castles were captured from the occupying English soldiers by Bruce and his followers.

paragraphs: In the Spring of 1313 Edward Bruce, brother of the Scottish King began a siege of Stirling Castle, which was held by Sir Philip Mowbray for the English king. By the middle of summer the Scots were still not able to defeat the castle. Edward Bruce made an agreement with the castle commander, Mowbray. It said that if the castle was not relieved by the English by 24 June the following year it would be surrendered to Bruce. Edward Bruce went to his brother to tell him the good news. But the Robert Bruce saw this as a mistake. It gave King Edward II of England a year to get ready an army to march into Scotland. Up to this point the king of Scotland had avoided pitched battles with the English army. All King Robert could do is prepare for what was sure to come. In October 1313 King Robert made everyone in Scotland take an oath of loyalty to him or lose their lands. The English king was now in danger of losing everything in Scotland. On 28 November 1313 Edward II announced he would assemble an army to be in Scotland before 24 June 1314.

paragraphs: Edward's first aim was to bring needed food, weapons, and fresh soldiers to Sterling Castle before they had to surrender. He began gathering the largest army a king of England had ever led. He had 2,500 heavy cavalry each followed by one or more mounted squires. Edward brought 3,000 of his best Welsh longbowmen. Finally he had 15,000 foot soldiers each with a sword, shield and spear. His army numbered over 20,000 and began marching from Berwick on 17 June 1314 and formed ten divisions. He had reached Edinburgh on 21 June where the army was re-supplied by Edward's ships. By 22 June the army made an exhausting march to Falkirk, only 10 miles from Sterling Castle. Edward's army moved on the old Roman road, which ran through an ancient forest known as the Tor Wood, over the Bannock burn and into the New Park, a hunting preserve enclosed at the time of Alexander III.

paragraphs: Bruce's army, like William Wallace's before him, was chiefly composed of infantry armed with 18-foot long pikes. It was divided into three main (infantry) battalions, and a fourth larger battalion commanded by the king himself serving as the reserve unit. The second battalion was commanded by Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray. The third was led by Edward Bruce, the king's brother. The fourth division was commanded by Sir James Douglas and his cousin Walter the Steward. The light cavalry of 500 strong was commanded by Robert Keith, Marischal of Scotland. Each infantry division formed into a Schiltron formation. Each man carried the pike upright and the outside ranks would lower theirs to form a lethal wall of sharp metal points. The schiltron could withstand an attack by knights on horses. But Bruce also trained them to attack.

paragraphs: Bruce's army had been gathering in the Tor Wood, an area that gave good natural cover. Bruce then moved his army just to the north to the New Park. This was more heavily wooded area where his movements could be concealed. It could also provide cover for a retreat if needed. The Scottish king chose his ground very carefully. The Bannock burn (or stream), which the English army had to cross on the way to Stirling was a natural obstacle. Parts of it were too deep for infantry or cavalry to cross. The area was also covered with marshy boggy ground difficult to ride over. Sir Thomas Gray called it "an evil, deep, wet marsh". On the east side was a sharp drop of 50 feet or more. The trees of the New Park were on the west side. Also, pits were dug as traps to break a cavalry charge. No matter which way the English cavalry tried to go they would be tangled up and be easy targets for the Scottish infantry.

paragraphs: The only approach was over the old road from Falkirk to Sterling. This route was the only solid ground on which heavy cavalry could be moved.

paragraphs: Bruce's three main divisions numbered about 1,000 strong each. His own reserve division was at double strength or about 2,000 strong. The Marischal's light cavalry was about 500 horse and there was a small group of archers. Together the Scottish army numbered between 5,000 and 6,000 men. This was about one-fourth the size of Edward's force.

paragraphs: The English army reached Tor Wood on June 23rd and stopped. They were met by Sir Philip Mowbray, the English commander of Stirling Castle. He told the king there was no need for battle. Edward had fulfilled his obligation to relieve the castle by coming within three leagues. Also he had seen Bruce's preparations and warned of trying to attack the Scots with heavy cavalry. Like Edward II and his commanders, Mowbray thought the Scots would retreat when they saw the size of Edward's great army. The vanguard of Edward's forces under Gloucester had already crossed the ford over the Bannockburn towards the Scottish lines. An English knight Henry de Bohun was riding ahead of his companions when he caught sight of

paragraphs: the Scottish king inspecting some of his lines. De Bohun lowered his lance and charged. Robert the Bruce was mounted on a small palfrey and armed with a battle-axe He could have simply moved behind his men and let them repel the charging warhorse and rider. Instead he turned his horse and rode towards de Bohun. At the last moment Bruce swerved his horse to one side, missing de Bohun's lance. He then rose in his stirrups and brought down his axe with such force he cut through de Bohun's helmet killing him instantly. There was a stunned silence by both armies then a great cheer rose among the Scottish soldiers. Then the highlanders of Bruce's own division charged the English cavalry who were still lining up. The horses of the Earl of Gloucester and several others stumbled as they fell into the hidden pits. The earl was rescued but the English cavalry fled from the charging Scots. King Robert stopped their charge and they returned to their lines. This showed how well-disciplined the Scottish soldiers had become.

paragraphs: When King Robert returned his brother and his commanders criticized the king (as much as they dared) for risking his life that way. Robert the Bruce did not answer them. He only stared at his now broken battle-axe. Looking around the king saw English cavalry moving around their left. He pointed out the cavalry and said to Thomas Randolph "a rose has fallen from your chaplet". Immediately Randolph rode to his men and moved the schildton onto the open ground in the path of the English knights. When their leader Sir Henry Beaumont saw the Scots approaching he said "let us wait a little; let them come on; give them room." Sir Thomas Gray replied "I doubt that whatever you give them now, they will have all too soon." Sir Henry said to Thomas Gray, "if you are afraid then be off!" Sir Thomas replied "it is not from fear that I shall fly this day" and along with several other knights charged the Scottish schiltron. Many were killed, being impaled on the spears. Sir Thomas himself was captured. The remainder of the English knights surrounded the schiltron and attacked the Scots from every angle. But the schiltron held and the English in frustration began throwing their weapons at the Scots. When Sir James Douglas, commanding the left schiltron saw his friend in trouble and begged Bruce to go to his rescue. But by the time he returned to his man Randolph was winning the day. Moving forward Randolph's schiltron split the English cavalry in two. Half of the remaining English fled back to the English lines while half fled to Sterling Castle. After losing just one Yeoman, the Scots took off their helmets to rest from the heat of the day.

paragraphs: Sir Alexander de Seton had secretly left the King of England's Army and came to Robert the Bruce that night. He wished to no longer serve the king of England and offered to join the Bruce. He pledged on his life that the English were discouraged and if Bruce attacked them tomorrow, he would win the battle.

paragraphs: The English moved from the bogs south and east of the burn to harder ground. They had to water all the warhorses, draft horses and oxen. By the time the move was finished it was nearly dawn. But the tidal rivers around them had risen and they could not cross them as they did earlier. The English were now cramped into a small space where they could not move freely.

paragraphs: Robert the Bruce saw where the English spent the night. Their narrow front gave the Scottish army an advantage if the English did not move before morning. Morning found the English had not moved. Not long after daybreak on 24 June, three Scots divisions came out of the woods and began moving towards the English. The English mounted their horses in great confusion. When the Scots schiltrons began attacking the English lines the knights and soldiers could not maneuver. They were so crowded men were being pushed into the Bannock burn behind them.

paragraphs: Overnight the Earl of Gloucester and Edward II had been in an argument. Gloucester thought the English soldiers should rest another day before doing battle. The king accused him of being disloyal. Gloucester was still angry when the trumpets sounded the signal to assemble. So without putting on his surcoat he mounted his horse and charged into the schiltron commanded by Edward Bruce. The Scots did not recognize him without his surcoat and so did not spare him. The Earl and several of those with him were killed trying to break through the wall of spears.

paragraphs: The other two Scottish divisions moved up to join Edward Bruce. Randolph moved up on Bruce's left side. James Douglas came up next to Randolph. Together all three schiltrons filled the narrow . They pushed forward into the confused English. Wounded horses without their knights were running back into the English lines. Edward's army was now so crowded they could hardly move. The Scots were pushing into them from the front. The back ranks were being pushed into the water and marshes.

paragraphs: Up to this point in the battle the English and Welsh longbowmen (archers) had not been used to their full advantage. They were moved to the right side of the English lines. From here they could fire arrows into the Scottish army with great effect. But Robert the Bruce had provided for this event. His 500 light horsemen led by Keith, the Marischal, quickly scattered the English and Welsh archers. many of the English and Welsh archers ran back to the English lines. This caused more confusion and the infantry also begin to run away. The Scottish king now sent in his reserve division behind Douglas. When the English saw another large force of Scots joining the battle they began . Everywhere King Edward looked his forces were losing the battle.

paragraphs: The Earl of Pembroke and sir Giles d'Argentan were guarding the English King. As the battle was now lost they needed to get the king to safety. They led him off the battlefield and towards Sterling Castle. At the same time several Scots recognized the king and tried to capture him. The king fought them off with his . He broke free and rode to Sterling Castle a short distance away. At the castle Sir Philip Mowbray did not allow King Edward to enter. He told the king he now had to surrender the castle and the king would be taken prisoner. But Mowbray gave Edward II a knight to guide the king and his party to safety. Edward, with 500 of his cavalry turned towards Linlithgow. Sir James Douglas got permission from Robert the Bruce to pursue the English king. With a group of Keith's Douglas kept close behind Edward as he fled south. As he pursued the English king, Douglas and his men encountered Sir Lawrence de Abernethy who with 80 men was on his way to join Edward at Bannockburn. On finding out the king had lost the battle he and his men joined Douglas in trying to capture Edward. The English tried to bait them into a fight at Winchburg but Douglas stayed on their flank (side).Even with Abernethy's men the Scots were not strong enough to take on Edward's knights. The chase continued all the way to Dunbar Castle. Loyalties on the border were very uncertain at this time. The local earl had sided with Edward. So the king was allowed to escape in a boat back to England with only a few of his closest followers. The rest of his 500 horsemen were left to find their way back to England as best they could.

paragraphs: Another large group of Edward's knights escaped to Bothwell Castle. There they were welcomed by the castle commander, Walter Gilbertson. But Gilbertson soon changed sides and took all the English prisoners. The remainder of Edward's large army scattered in every direction. In trying to escape the Scottish schildrons, many were drowned in the Bannockburn and the River Forth. A large number were taken prisoner and later ransomed. The English baggage train was left behind. It's silver, gold, and luxuries the noblemen brought with them was worth a fortune alone. Along with the ransoms paid for their prisoners this brought sudden wealth to Scotland.

paragraphs: The wars with England were still not over. It would be another 14 years until Scotland was free of English rule. But to the Scots the Battle of Bannockburn was a major victory. Before the battle Robert the Bruce was considered by many a usurper (pretender). He only had limited support in Scotland. After Bannockburn Robert the Bruce became a national hero. He had the support of most of Scotland. However his political rivals in Scotland suffered. Perhaps no one more than the Comyn family and supporters. Both John Comyn of Badenoch and Edward Comyn of Kilbride were killed at Bannockburn. With them died any hope of an English victory returning this family to power.

paragraphs: The English dead at Bannockburn were buried with honors according to their rank. There were over 500 returned to England in exchange for ransom. And Scottish prisoners in England were returned in exchange. Robert the Bruce's wife, daughter and sister were returned. The border wars continued but from 1314 to 1328 the focus shifted to the north of England. The purpose of all the raids was to get Edward II to recognize Robert the Bruce as king of Scotland. Also for England to give up their claims to Scotland and recognize their independence. The English learned their lesson from Bannockburn. The Scots apparently didn't. In the later Battle of Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill the same tactics that brought victory at Bannockburn brought them defeat. William Mackenzie wrote: "Never did the arms of England suffer so complete a disaster; never did the arms of Scotland repeat so remarkable a performance."


title: Wars of the Roses

paragraphs: The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) were a series of civil wars, fought over the throne of England, between supporters of the House of Lancaster (the Lancastrians) and supporters of the House of York (the Yorkists). Both houses were branches of the Plantagenet royal house, and were related through King Edward III.

paragraphs: The wars began for several reasons. Historians have different ideas over which was the most important. King Henry VI was seen as a poor ruler by many of his people, due to his lack of interest in politics and his mental illness (his French queen Margaret of Anjou often made key decisions instead). It was also caused by to England's defeat in the Hundred Years' War in France, money problems afterwards and problems with the feudal system of government.

paragraphs: The name of the Wars of the Roses comes from the white rose symbol for the House of York and the red rose symbol for the House of Lancaster. However, the red rose symbol was not used until after the wars ended, and most soldiers fought under the symbol of their local nobleman. The name was not used until the 19th century. In earlier years they were known as the "Civil Wars". The houses were named after the cities of Lancaster and York, but these cities played little role in the war. The two houses owned land all over England and Wales.

paragraphs: King Edward III had many sons, as shown in the family tree below. His oldest son, known by his nickname "The Black Prince" died first, and the throne passed to the Black Prince's son, Richard, who became King Richard II of England in 1377 at the age of only ten. He grew up to be a weak and unpopular king, and one of his actions was to send his cousin Henry into exile. Henry later returned, while Richard was away in Ireland, and took over the country. When Richard returned, Henry tricked him into giving himself up. Richard was put in prison, where he died. Henry became King Henry IV of England.

paragraphs: Henry IV reigned until his death, and was followed by his son, King Henry V (in 1413). Henry V died in 1422 and was followed by his son King Henry VI, who was only a baby at the time. Henry VI did not run the government until 1437. He then ruled until 1461, six years after the Wars of the Roses began. Henry VI was considered a poor ruler by some of his people, for several reasons. He was not interested in politics. He was shy and did not like war. He was easily led by a small number of friends, such as his French queen Margaret of Anjou and his advisor Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset.

paragraphs: Henry VI's reign also saw England's defeat in the Hundred Year's War. England had done well in the war while he was still a child and by 1428 they appeared to be close to defeating their House of Valois enemies. But after events like Joan of Arc's rebellions in 1429-30, Burgundy's decision to switch sides in 1435 and several other problems, England's control in France had already been weakened by the time Henry VI started to run the government in 1437. Henry VI tried to end the war by agreeing a draw, but his French enemies realised they could win a complete victory. In 1453, England had lost their last lands in France outside of Calais.

paragraphs: Also in 1453, Henry VI was overcome with mental illness and he was unable run the country. This would happen several times during the rest of his life. A powerful nobleman called Richard, Duke of York persuaded the other nobles to make him "Lord Protector". This meant that he would run the country until the king recovered. York was an enemy of Somerset. While running the country, he locked Somerset in the Tower of London. Henry recovered in 1454 and began to run the country again. He let Somerset out and gave him back his job. York and his supporters then became afraid that the king and Somerset would have them executed.

paragraphs: York decided the only way he could protect himself was to defeat the king in battle. He raised an army of many people who were unhappy with Henry and Margaret. This led to the First Battle of St Albans in 1455. It was the first to be fought between the Yorkists (who supported York) and the Lancastrians (who supported Henry). York won with the help of the Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. Henry was found hiding in a leather shop and taken prisoner. He was again overcome with mental illness. Somerset and some of the king's other key supporters were killed in the battle. York was again made Lord Protector.

paragraphs: The next year, Henry recovered. York let him go back to running the country and was put in charge of running Ireland. Henry and Margaret knew that they could not get rid of Richard easily. For the next few years, both sides wanted to stop a war from breaking out. But they could not agree on several things. York wanted to be the next king after Henry died, rather than Henry and Margaret's newborn son Edward. Margaret would not allow this. Henry moved to Coventry, where he had more support.

paragraphs: A more serious war broke out in 1459. It started because Warwick had attacked other country's ships during his time in charge of Calais. Henry asked Warwick to meet to explain what he doing, but Warwick refused. Soon enough, York and Warwick started putting together an army. They were stopped at the Battle of Ludford Bridge and fled England. Henry and the Lancastrians now had control. They ordered York and Warwick to be executed if they were found.

paragraphs: It did not last long. York and Warwick returned and raised an army. They won the Battle of Northampton. For the second time, Henry was captured after being overcome with mental illness. York was made Lord Protector for a third time. York then announced that he wanted to take the throne for himself. Many of his supporters thought this was a step too far. So instead, they agreed that Henry would still be king but York (and not Henry's son) would be the next king.

paragraphs: York then travelled to the north of England to attack the remaining Lancastrians. This led to a disaster. York lost the Battle of Wakefield at the end of 1460 and was killed. His son Edward the became leader of the Yorkists. The next year saw mixed results for both sides. Edward defeated a Lancastrian army at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross, but the Lancastrians won the Second Battle of St Albans where Henry escaped. In London, Edward was met with lots of support. He announced he wanted to take the throne. He then defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton. This was the bloodiest battle to have ever been fought on British soil.

paragraphs: After Towton, Edward was in control of England. He was crowned as Edward IV in June 1461. Over the next few years, he and his allies put down small Lancastrian rebellions. Henry was again captured in 1465.

paragraphs: Fighting broke out again in 1469 when Edward's most powerful supporter, the Earl of Warwick, switched sides. Warwick was furious that Edward had married Elizabeth Woodville, a common woman. Many people also thought this was wrong. At the time, kings were expected to marry the daughters of noblemen or other kings. Warwick led a rebellion against the king. The country was left in confusion. At one point Warwick captured Edward, meaning that he had "two" kings captured. He soon let Edward go.

paragraphs: Warwick then supported making Henry king again. He believed he could run the country while Henry was on the throne. He also arranged for Henry's son to marry Warwick's daughter Anne Neville. Edward could not raise an army to fight, so he fled the country in 1470. Henry VI then became the ruler again. Warwick's role in bringing Edward and then Henry to power led to him being nicknamed "Kingmaker".

paragraphs: Henry's return did not last long. Warwick planned to help France invade Burgundy, so Burgundy helped Edward find soldiers. Edward returned in 1471. He then won two big victories over the Lancastrians. The first was the Battle of Barnet, where Warwick was killed. The second was the Battle of Tewksbury, where Margaret was taken prisoner and her son was killed. Edward IV took the throne again and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London. He died one month later. Historians think Edward had him murdered. This left the Lancastrians without a leader. There was little fighting for the next 12 years. Margaret was released in 1475 and went back to France. She died in 1482.

paragraphs: Edward IV ruled until his sudden death in 1483. Just before dying, Edward had said that his 12-year old son should become king as Edward V, while Edward's brother Richard would be "Lord Protector". Richard would run the country until Edward V became an adult.

paragraphs: Edward V was the king for 78 days before Richard took the throne for himself. He was crowned as Richard III. The young Edward and his brother disappeared a few months later while living in the Tower of London. Many people thought Richard had ordered the boys to be killed (some historians agree). This caused many Yorkists to turn against Richard III.

paragraphs: Richard managed to win against a rebellion by his old friend, the Duke of Buckingham. Henry Tudor, a distant relative of Henry VI, then returned to England. He became the leader of the rebellions, creating a new Lancastrian army. In the Battle of Bosworth Field, Richard III was killed and his army was defeated. Henry took the throne as King Henry VII, the first king of the House of Tudor.

paragraphs: The Battle of Bosworth Field is often seen as the end of the war. However, there was another big battle two years later when Henry VII stopped a rebellion. Despite this, Henry was able to bring peace to the country.

paragraphs: Henry told people that he was bringing the two houses together. To show this, he married Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth of York. He also invented the Tudor rose symbol, with a red rose and white rose joined together.


title: Matchbook

paragraphs: A matchbook is a small cardboard container that holds a quantity of matches inside and has a coarse striking surface on the exterior.

paragraphs: A flap on the front is lifted to access the matches, which are attached to the interior base in a comb-like pattern and must be torn away before use. (In the matchbox, by contrast, the matches are arranged loosely in the interior tray.)

paragraphs: Matchbooks are often covered with advertising logos or various artistic decorations, and they have served as collector's items and free souvenirs.


title: Friedrich Kellner Diary

paragraphs: The Diary of Friedrich Kellner is a journal written during the Second World War. The author, August Friedrich Kellner, was a justice inspector in the courthouse in Mainz. He was also a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany between 1918 and 1933. After Hitler banned the party, the family moved to Laubach.

paragraphs: When Hitler ordered the invasion of Poland in September 1939, Kellner began his secret diary. He named his diary "Mein Widerstand," which means "My Opposition." In the diary, he wrote down what he saw and heard about what happened in Nazi Germany. He wrote it so that people later would know about it.

paragraphs: The diary has ten volumes, with a total of 861 pages. There are 676 dated entries. Included in the diary are more than 500 newspaper clippings.

paragraphs: The English translation of the diary was published in 2018 by Cambridge University Press under the title, "My Opposition: The Diary of Friedrich Kellner -- A German against the Third Reich".

paragraphs: At the end of World War Two, most Germans said they knew nothing about the mass murders of the Jews. But as early as October 28, 1941, Kellner wrote the following entry in his diary:

paragraphs: A soldier on vacation here said he witnessed a terrible atrocity in the occupied parts of Poland. He watched as naked Jewish men and women were placed in front of a long deep ditch and upon the order of the SS were shot by Ukrainians in the back of their heads and they fell into the ditch. Then the ditch was filled with dirt even as he could still hear screams coming from people still alive in the ditch. These inhuman atrocities were so terrible that some of the Ukrainians, who were used as tools, suffered nervous breakdowns. All the soldiers who had knowledge of these bestial actions of these Nazi sub-humans were of the opinion that the German people should be shaking in their shoes because of the coming retribution. There is no punishment that would be hard enough to be applied to these Nazi beasts. Of course, when the retribution comes, the innocent will have to suffer along with them. But because ninety percent of the German population is guilty, directly or indirectly, for the present situation, we can only say that those who travel together will hang together.

paragraphs: There is not much in the diary about the Kellners’ personal lives. Instead, Friedrich Kellner wrote about the political atmosphere of a country run by terrorists. He also wrote about the leaders and people in other nations who remained indifferent to what Hitler and Mussolini were planning. Kellner was very angry that millions of people had to die because a few politicians in the democracies failed to confront Hitler and his allies. Kellner was also angry at the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh, and the car manufacturer Henry Ford, and at others who blindly expressed admiration for Adolf Hitler. “The whole world let themselves be fooled by this man,” Kellner wrote on May 3, 1942.

paragraphs: Friedrich Kellner expected America and England to come to the rescue. On June 25, 1941, he wrote:

paragraphs: When will this insanity be brought to an end? When will the intoxication of victory turn into a terrible hangover? Now is a unique chance for England and America to take the initiative, but not only with empty promises and insufficient measures. If America had the will to throw its entire might into the fray, it could tip the balance for a return of peace. Only a tremendous force and the commitment of all war material can bring the German wild steer to reason. Up until now the statesmen–through unbelievable shortsightedness–have neglected or failed their duty. Mankind awake! Attack together with all your might against the destroyers of peace! No reflections, no resolutions, no speeches, no neutrality. Advance against the enemy of mankind!

paragraphs: Friedrich Kellner wrote the diary to expose the crimes of the Third Reich. He believed his diary could serve as a warning for future generations to oppose dictatorships and their totalitarian ideology.

paragraphs: After the war, Friedrich Kellner helped to reestablish the Social Democratic Party. He became chairman of the Laubach branch. He retired from politics in 1960, at the age of seventy-five.

paragraphs: In 1968, he gave his diary to his American grandson, Professor Robert Scott Kellner, to take to America for safekeeping. He told him:

paragraphs: The day will come when the same kind of anti-democratic and anti-Semitic hatred will bring intense misery to the world. Use the diary as a weapon against dictatorships and terrorism. There will always be people of bad will, therefore people of good will must be prepared to oppose them.


title: My Opposition: The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner

paragraphs: My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner is a 2007 documentary movie by Abella Entertainment Ltd. of Toronto, Canada. It is produced and directed by Fern Levitt and Arnie Zipursky. Leonard Asper is an executive producer. The movie is distributed by CCI Entertainment.

paragraphs: The documentary tells the story of Chief Justice Inspector Friedrich Kellner ( ) who wrote a secret diary during World War II. The diary records the crimes of the Nazis. The movie uses interviews, historical footage, and re-enactments of events to tell how Friedrich Kellner risked his life to write the diary. The story is also about Kellner’s American grandson, Robert Scott Kellner, who was abandoned as a child but later found his grandfather in Germany. Part of the movie is about the grandson’s attempt to bring the Friedrich Kellner diary to the attention of the public.

paragraphs: The movie begins with Friedrich Kellner as a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany before the war. He campaigns against Adolf Hitler and the Nazis. The re-enactments show Kellner trying to stop the riots against the Jews during Kristallnacht. Kellner is brought before a tribunal, and he is threatened with imprisonment in a concentration camp. The movie shows Kellner’s active and passive resistance against the Third Reich. One scene shows him distributing leaflets that had been dropped from American planes. When World War II comes to an end, Kellner helps to restore the SPD. He becomes the chairman of the party in his region. Interwoven in the story about Friedrich Kellner is the story of his grandson.

paragraphs: The documentary was filmed on location in Mainz and in Laubach, Germany, and in Texas.


title: Lindsey Jacobellis

paragraphs: Lindsey Jacobellis (born August 19, 1985 in Danbury, Connecticut) is an American snowboarder. She competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics and won the silver medal.


title: Axis of Evil

paragraphs: Axis of Evil is a term first used by US President George W. Bush in his State of the Union speech on January 29, 2002 to describe the governments of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea and later Cuba, Libya, and Syria. He used this term because he believed that they backed terrorism and were trying to buy weapons of mass destruction.


title: State of the Union Address

paragraphs: The State of the Union Address is a speech the president of the United States of America gives every year, usually in January. In the speech the president talks about how the country is doing and what plans he will be proposing for that year.

paragraphs: According to tradition, president speaks with its appeal annual. The US Constitution it does not set clear terms such appeals. Article II, Section 3 of the US Constitution reads «He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient».

paragraphs: Before the president enters the congressional chamber of the United States Capitol, the Sergeant at Arms always yells: "Mister/Madam Speaker, the President of the United States".


title: Ninja

paragraphs: A Ninja is a kind of spy or assassin who lived in Japan beginning in the 14th century.

paragraphs: Ninja (or shinobi) were a mystery in the History of Japan. The correct Japanese word for these warriors was shinobi-no-mono, which literally means "people who survive/endure". Ninja is easier to say; this is why it is more widely used. Shinobi-no-mono is the native Japanese word for ninja, while ninja is the Sino-Japanese word. Ninja warriors created secret associations and took part in many political killings. Their mystery comes from two ideas: 1) they always participated in secret spy operations and political killings; 2) ninja were hired by heads of armies as paid warriors (mercenaries). The art of fighting which was used by ninja was called ninjitsu, which was a combination of shinobi-no-jitsu and shinobi-jitsu.

paragraphs: Many people though ninja were not normal people. People thought they could fly and had supernatural skills. Ninja existed during the entire history of Japan, but ninja only became specially trained people at the beginning of the 15th century. They mainly trained in the regions of Iga and Koga.

paragraphs: Ninja were involved in samurai wars and were hired by samurai for different missions, but at the same time samurai did not accept them as noble warriors because most of the ninja came from lower social classes. They were dangerous and could not be controlled. Their methods of fighting did not fit the samurai code. The samurai code was a code of honor. For example, the samurai warrior would show his rank and would only fight a samurai of equal or higher rank. Japanese land lords (daimyo) widely used the services of the Iga and Koga ninja in the period of 1485-1581. But in 1581, one of the three daimyo who united Japan – Oda Nobunaga attacked ninja from Iga province. The ninja remained alive and ran to the provinces Kii and Mikawa, where Tokugawa Ieyasu protected them. Later, Oda Nobunaga was killed by a samurai named Akechi Mitsuhide, who later became an enemy to Tokugawa Ieyasu.

paragraphs: The art of ninja fighting was passed down from father to son, or from master ("sensei") to their best students. But in the middle of 17th century, Nakagawa Sosuntzin created a ninja school in the Mutsu Province. It was called Nakagawa-ryu and taught the ninjitsu method of fighting. Nakagawa Sosuntzin himself trained a group of 10 men, which he called Hayamiti-no-mono (men of the short hit). Ninja were taught many more things than a samurai. They had to be skilled at handling swords, spears, bows and many other weapons; but also they had to know about explosive and poisonous substances, to be a good path finder and to survive in different situations. Usually they were trained from young age and had to keep a very specific physical shape. Ninja were not allowed to be too light or too heavy. A ninja who could read and write was very appreciated.

paragraphs: It tends to be thought that a ninja usually wore black clothes which helped him to hide in the dark, however, they wore dark blue, red, or brown clothes, which are more quiet than black at night. In usual days, a ninja never wore showy dress and pretended to be another job, for example, a merchant, a traveling monk, a monkey showman and so on. If they had to fight on the battlefield, they put on a light armor, which protected them, but also allowed easy movement. On their feet they wore Japanese socks which separated the big toe (the socks were called tabi). The ninja outfit had many pockets for helpful gear. Chain armor was normally beneath their cloak in-case danger came their way like an ambush.

paragraphs: The diversity of ninja weapons and attributes is much wider than that of the samurai. The main weapon of ninja was the sword. Ninja swords were usually shorter than samurai katana and had a straight blade. When they climbed, the sword was put on the left shoulder, putting the handle of the sword was close to the left ear. Ninja also used different types of throwing knives, and a weapon for their fists called tagaki. They used metallic claws on their feet which helped them to climb and made their kicks more dangerous.

paragraphs: They are also very close to the other form of Japanese killer, a samurai.

paragraphs: As with Robin Hood or King Arthur, the ongoing presence of ninja in pop culture movies and manga often differs widely from their true origins.


title: USS Arizona Memorial

paragraphs: The USS "Arizona" Memorial is in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. It is to remember the sailors killed when Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941 by the Japanese. During the attack 1,177 sailors were killed on the USS "Arizona". The memorial is located on top of the sunken USS "Arizona". People can walk over the ship to look at it.


title: USS Arizona (BB-39)

paragraphs: The USS "Arizona" (BB-39) was an American battleship from the Pennsylvania Class. The building of the ship was started in 1913 and it was commissioned in 1916. It fought in World War I. The USS "Arizona" is best known for its sinking during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The attack was the event that caused the United States to join the fighting in World War II. The wreck is still at the floor of the harbor. It is the site of a memorial to those who died that day.

paragraphs: USS "Arizona" (BB-39) was one of three ships in the history of the United States Navy to be named USS "Arizona". It was the only one of the three to be named that after Arizona became a U.S. state.


title: War crime

paragraphs: A war crime is a crime that happens in context of or associated with war. There are international laws of war that say what people can do during wars and what they cannot do. A war crime breaks these rules.

paragraphs: Today, these rules are international laws called the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Convention.

paragraphs: To be a war crime, a crime must be part of a plan, or the crime has to be committed against many people.

paragraphs: The idea of what a "war crime" is has changed over time. For example, during World War I, using poison gas in combat was not thought of as a war crime. Now it is.

paragraphs: In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was created. Its goal is to look into and, if possible, punish people for war crimes. When the ICC was created, it came up with a longer list of war crimes. For example, its list was the first one to include types of sexual abuse like forcing women into sexual slavery.

paragraphs: Here are some examples of crimes that the ICC lists as war crimes.

paragraphs: These are war crimes whether they are committed against enemy soldiers or civilians or neutral persons.

paragraphs: War crimes against enemy soldiers include:

paragraphs: War crimes against neutral persons include:

paragraphs: This table shows some examples of war crimes.


title: Senate

paragraphs: In a modern democracy, a senate is a group of people who are part of a legislature. A legislature passes or changes laws for their country, state, or other area. Members of a senate are called senators. Some legislatures are bicameral, meaning they have two groups of people (working in separate places) called "houses". A senate can be called a "House of Senators".

paragraphs: The senate of some such legislatures is weaker than the other house. The other house is called a "House of Representatives", House of Commons, or Assembly. In bicameral legislatures, both houses must pass the same bill to make it a law. Modern democratic systems having legislatures with senates include the United States of America (U. S.), Canada, Australia and many states in the United States.

paragraphs: The first ever senate was the Roman Senate. The name comes from their word for "elder".

paragraphs: Senate is also the name of the ruling body of some universities.


title: Kano

paragraphs: Kano is a city in Nigeria. It is the center of the Kano State. Kano is the third largest city in Nigeria, after Ibadan and Lagos. About 3,626,204 people live in Kano.

paragraphs: It has long been the economic centre of northern Nigeria, and a centre for the sale of groundnuts. Kano is known for the Bayero University and a railway station with trains to Lagos, moving through Kaduna, while Kano International Airport can be found nearby. Kano has long been a centre for Nigeria's Islamic culture; one of the country's finest mosques lies in the city.

paragraphs: It is also the site where the Kano river project was developed. This is a large irrigation scheme.

paragraphs: The city of Kano was founded around A.D. 1000 as an Hausa city of its own. Kano remained a big emirate, or Muslim kingdom, until the making of the country, Nigeria, in 1903. Kano became known for its trade in gold, leather, ivory, salt and slaves within the area. This perhaps is the reason for the city's wealth and power in the 14th century, when Islam gained a growing following. By the 15th century, the first Central Mosque had been built in the city.


title: Battle of Bosworth Field

paragraphs: The Battle of Bosworth or Bosworth Field was an important battle during the Wars of the Roses in 15th century England. It was fought on 22 August 1485 between the Yorkist King Richard III, the last of the Plantagenet dynasty, and the Lancastrian Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond, who wanted to become king. It ended in the defeat and death of Richard and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. Historically, the battle is thought to have marked the end of the Wars of the Roses, although smaller battles were fought in the years that followed as Yorkists unsuccessfully tried to become king again.

paragraphs: The place of the battle is not precisely known. Memorials have been built in some of the possible locations.

paragraphs: The Battle of Bosworth is an important part of William Shakespeare's play "Richard III". The action of the play ends with this battle.


title: Escherichia coli

paragraphs: Escherichia coli or E. coli is a bacterium that can be found in human intestines. Scientists have studied "E. coli" a lot, and know more about how "E. coli" cells work than any other organism. "E. coli" is not always harmful. In fact, the only known harmful strand is O157. E.coli is a prokaryotic organism.

paragraphs: "E. coli" normally grow in soil and in the large intestines of many mammals, including humans. Most strains of "E. coli" do not cause disease, but instead help animals get vitamins and digest food. Some strains of "E. coli" cause sickness in people. "E. coli" are not usually in food or water. When food has not been prepared with clean equipment, "E. coli" can grow in the food. When "E. coli" are found in water, this may mean that the water has touched sewage.

paragraphs: It is named after Theodor Escherich, who discovered it in 1885. It was officially named after him in 1919.

paragraphs: The following signs and symptoms of an "E. coli" infection normally happen within three days; however, some people may carry the infection and show no signs at all.

paragraphs: The best treatment for "E. coli" is plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration.


title: Borg (Star Trek)

paragraphs: The Borg are a fictional race of cyborgs in the Star Trek universe. The Borg use nanoprobes to assimilate others, like humans or vulcans, into their group consciousness. The Borg's group consciousness is led by the Borg queen, who's role is similar to that of a queen bee in a bee hive.


title: House of Plantagenet

paragraphs: The House of Plantagenet ruled England in some form or another from the reign of Henry II, beginning in 1154, until the House of Tudor came to power when Richard III fell at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.

paragraphs: It goes back to the Angevin counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou. Three dynasties belong to it: Angevins, House of Lancaster (Lancastrians) and House of York (Yorkists). Lancastrians and Yorkists fought against each other the Wars of the Roses to get the crown for their dynasty alone.


title: Angevin

paragraphs: Angevin is the name of the residents of Anjou, a former province of the Kingdom of France, as well as to the residents of Angers. It is also used for three different medieval dynasties which go back to counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou (of which "angevin" is the adjectival form), but later came to rule far greater areas including England, Ireland, Hungary, Croatia, Poland, "Kingdom of Naples and Sicily", and Kingdom of Jerusalem ("see Angevin Empire").

paragraphs: The first of these Angevin dynasties, the House of Plantagenet, ruled England in some form or another from the reign of Henry II, beginning in 1154, until the House of Tudor came to power when Richard III fell at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.


title: Count

paragraphs: A count is a nobleman in most of European countries, equivalent in rank to a British earl, whose wife is also still a "countess" (for lack of an Anglo-Saxon term). The word "count" comes from French "comte" which in turn comes from the Latin "comitas", "companion" (of the emperor). In feudalism the territory ruled by a count was a county.

paragraphs: A woman having this title or the wife of a count is called countess.


title: Budgerigar

paragraphs: The Budgerigar (nicknamed budgie) is a small parrot. It belongs to the tribe of the wide-tailed parrots (Platycercini). Budgerigars are often called "parakeets", especially in American English. The term "Parakeet" refers to many types of small parrots with long flat tails. The budgerigar is found in the drier parts of Australia. It has lived there for over 5 million years. It is commonly kept as a pet. Budgies are intelligent birds and can be taught to mimic human speech.


title: Endocarditis

paragraphs: Endocarditis is an inflammation of the inner layer of the heart. Endocarditis most often affects the heart valves. The heart valves are a part of the human body that does not get blood. This is odd because they are a part of the heart itself. Because of this, if one of the valves gets infected with bacteria or protozoa, the body can not defend itself against those bacteria. This can cause the valve to not work the way it should.


title: Tetracycline

paragraphs: Tetracycline is a family of antibiotics discovered as natural products in 1945. It is a broad-spectrum antibiotic because it works against a range of bacteria.

paragraphs: Tetracyclines was first prescribed in 1948. It is produced naturally by the "Streptomyces" genus of Actinobacteria. It is a protein synthesis inhibitor.

paragraphs: In 1950, Harvard University professor Robert Burns Woodward worked out the chemical structure of the related oxytetracycline (Terramycin). The patent protection for its production was also first issued in 1950.

paragraphs: Tetracycline is an antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections. It is commonly used to treat acne and rosacea. Historically it was important in reducing the number of deaths from cholera. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Hemoglobin

paragraphs: Hemoglobin (or haemoglobin) is a protein in red blood cells which contains iron. It is used to transport oxygen around the human body. Hemoglobin is found in the red blood cells of all vertebrates apart from white-blooded fish. It also occurs in some invertebrates. Some other invertebrates use other chemicals such as hemocyanin

paragraphs: Hemoglobin is involved in the transport of other gases. It carries some of the body's respiratory carbon dioxide (about 20-25% of the total).

paragraphs: Red blood cells get their colour from hemoglobin, which is red. There are millions of hemoglobin molecules in each red blood cell and millions of red blood cells in the human body. When hemoglobin has oxygen attached, it is called oxyhemoglobin.

paragraphs: The most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits. Each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein (globin) with a heme group inside it. Each heme group has one iron atom. This binds one oxygen molecule. So the complete hemoglobin molecule has four globin chains, four heme molecules, and four iron atoms. When hemoglobin is in the lungs, it picks up oxygen in its hemes, and carries it to the rest of the body.

paragraphs: Its structure took years to work out. Max Perutz and John Kendrew worked out the structure of myoglobin first. That muscle globin is smaller, with only one heme group.


title: Cornea

paragraphs: The cornea is the front part of the eye. It is the clear transparent section of the eye. The cornea covers the iris, pupil, and the eye chamber. It is a special form of tissue. The cornea is clear and has no blood vessels. It has nerves, but with no myelin sheaths on them.

paragraphs: The cornea, with the lens, refracts light. The cornea and the lens bend light so the image strikes the retina. The cornea does about two-thirds of this refraction.

paragraphs: Dua's layer is a newly discovered layer of the cornea. It was described in June 2013. It is the sixth layer of the cornea to be discovered. Despite its thinness, the layer is very strong, and air does not get through it.


title: WASSCE

paragraphs: The West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) is a type of exam in West Africa. It is made by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC). It is only given to students who live in the five English-speaking West African countries: Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and Liberia.

paragraphs: There are two different types of the exam:

paragraphs: The grades below are given on the WASSCE certificates for the students who finished their exams. They also depend on how well the students did in their exams.


title: Sergei Prokofiev

paragraphs: Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev () (born Sontsovka, Ukraine 23 April 1891; died Moscow 5 March 1953) was a Russian composer and pianist who came from Ukraine. During his lifetime, Ukraine was part of Russia. Together with Dmitri Shostakovich he is one of the greatest Russian composers of the 20th century. Children all over the world love to listen to his musical story "Peter and the Wolf" and the music for "Lieutenant Kije", but he wrote many other great works including symphonies, concertos, piano sonatas, ballets and operas.

paragraphs: Prokofiev was born into an educated family, and his mother recognized very early her son's musical gifts. His father was a college-educated agronomist who managed the farm-site of his employer in the Ukrainian steppe. His mother played the piano reasonably well in her son's opinion. The young Sergei started composing at a very early age. By the time he was eleven he had written two operas and a series of small piano pieces he would later call "little puppies". Soon he was writing music with unusual time signatures and in unusual changes of key.

paragraphs: Prokofiev's formal musical education began when, as a young boy, he started taking lessons from Reinhold Glière. In 1904 he went to study at the Conservatory in St Petersburg. He was a brilliant student, but he often disagreed with the way the professors were teaching. He was bored with the lessons in orchestration from Rimsky-Korsakov and the counterpoint lessons from Liadov although he could have learned more from these great men. His main friends were the composers Nikolai Myaskovsky and Boris Asafiev. He often showed them his latest piano compositions which sounded very modern. Many of St. Petersburg's newspaper critics did not like his music, while others felt he showed great promise and was sure to be a "futurist".

paragraphs: Prokofiev spent the summer of 1909 back at home in the small Russian farming village of Sontsovka in what is now Ukraine where his father was an estate manager. He worked in a way that was to be typical of him all his life: he carefully kept a diary until the middle 1930s, was an excellent chess player and writer, kept making changes to a number of his earlier works. He often borrowed music from one composition and put it in another, or used unfinished works in new compositions.

paragraphs: When he returned to St Petersburg he took piano lessons from a teacher at the St. Petersburg Conservatory called Anna Esipova. She worked hard to discipline him in his playing although he did not appreciate her efforts. He also took conducting lessons from Nikolai Tcherepnin who taught him to like late-Romantic composers such as Scriabin and Debussy. He wrote some music himself in this style, but most of the music he wrote at this time sounded very harsh and dissonant and, although he was becoming quite famous, many people hated it. When he finished his studies at the Conservatoire he won its top prize (the Rubinstein Prize) with his "First Piano Concerto", although the examiners had found it hard to agree and Rimsky-Korsakov said that Prokofiev was "gifted but immature".

paragraphs: Prokofiev travelled to London where he met many famous people including Diaghilev who had a very skilled ballet group called Ballets Russes. The composer Igor Stravinsky had been writing ballet music for Diaghilev’s dancers. Prokofiev particularly loved Stravinsky’s "Rite of Spring" and it influenced his music. He wrote an opera "The Gambler" based on the novel by Brusilov but the singers and the orchestra did not understand his music and refused to perform it. One of the first works of Prokofiev to become known all over the world was his First Symphony known as the "Classical Symphony". He made the music sound like that of composers from the Classical period such as Haydn. This symphony is still very popular today.

paragraphs: He composed the music in peter and the wolf

paragraphs: In 1917 the Russian Revolution took place. The country was in a chaotic state so Prokofiev went to the United States. After a journey which took four months via the Transsiberian railway, Tokyo and San Francisco, he arrived in New York. His first real success came from his connections with Cyrus McCormik in Chicago. His first major commission was the opera "The Love for Three Oranges" for the Chicago Lyric Opera. It was popular in Chicago but not in New York City where he really wanted to make his reputation. He soon traveled to Paris to see Diagalev again whom he had met earlier in London. His first ballet for him was "Ala and Lolly" which Diagalev did not like and would not perform. This ballet later became Prokofiev's "Scythian Suite". His next ballet was more successful, "The Tale of the Buffoon". He also wrote his "Third Piano Concerto" which is his most popular concerto for piano. Prokofiev lived off and on in Paris for fourteen years, but he often went on tour, performing his works on the piano. In 1928 his "Third Symphony" was first performed, much of which was based on music from his opera " The Fiery Angel" which was never performed completely in his lifetime. In the late-1920s he was invited back to Russia. Although many Soviet people tried to persuade him to stay there he decided to remain in the West where he was starting to have a very successful career. It was not until 1936 that he finally decided to move back to Russia. Life was not easy in the Soviet Union for all types of creative people such as musicians, poets, writers and film makers. Composers were expected to write music which would make ordinary people happy and make them feel proud of their country and of the communist revolution. Any music that did not do this was called “decadent” or “formalist”. Many artists where punished for creating works that did not do what the socialist politicians expected of them. Prokofiev had never been interested in politics, and he thought the politicians would leave him in peace so that he could write the kind of music he liked.

paragraphs: Back in Russia Prokofiev settled in Moscow. He wrote several children’s pieces including "Peter and the Wolf". He was asked to write music for two important jubilees: the 20th anniversary of the Revolution and the centenary of Pushkin’s death. He took great care over this music. Much of what he wrote was to be directed by Meyerhold, but Meyerhold was arrested, later tortured and murdered so the whole project never happened. Some of the music written for the Pushkin centenary was later used in his opera "War and Peace", the "Stone Flower" ballet and Symphonic Waltzes. He also wrote a very large piece called "Cantata for the Twentieth Anniversary of the October Revolution", using words by Marx, Lenin and Stalin for a total of 500 performers. The music included realistic effects such as gun shots, machine-gun fire and sirens. However, many critics said that the music was vulgar, and it was not performed until 1966, long after Prokofiev’s death. He tried to make the soviet authorities pleased by writing a "safe" opera called "I am the Son of the Working People" but the politicians stopped it during its early auditions. The opera was going to be produced by Meyerhold, but again it never happened because Meyerhold was arrested and executed.

paragraphs: The World War II was a time of change for Prokofiev for several reasons. In 1941 his marriage to Lina Llubera came to an end and his new companion Mira Mendelsohn, and later wife, saw him through his last years. Lina was a foreigner and marriage to foreigners was made illegal (forbidden) at that time. In 1948 she was arrested, charged with being a spy, and sent to a labour camp. On the other hand, Mira had lived her entire life within the Soviet system and was much more aware of how to survive in the politacally-charged times. In 1945, shortly after the premier of his Fifth Symphony, he had a stroke which was the beginning of a period of bad health. He spent a lot of time away from Moscow where it was unsafe. The first signs that his health was to be poor occurred in Alma-Ata in 1943 when he had a fainting spell. He was an workaholic and this, plus the pressures placed upon him by the Soviet system, forced him to withdraw from an active social life in Moscow. Prokofiev lived with Mira for the rest of his life. Lina was freed from the labour camp after Stalin’s death. Later she left the Soviet Union and she died in London in 1989.

paragraphs: During the war Prokofiev composed a lot of his best music. He wrote his last piano sonatas as well as working on his operas "Betrothal in a Monestary" after Sherican, and "War and Peace" (based on the novel by Tolstoy) and writing his film music for both Eisenstein’s "Alexander Nevsky" and "Ivan the Terrible" and composing his Fifth Symphony. The first performance of this symphony, given on 13 January 1945, was the last time he conducted in public. He spent the rest of his life in a house in the country to the west of Moscow, although during his last winters he lived in Moscow close to his doctors. Even in these last years he was not to find peace. Stalin’s rule of terror had serious effects on all Soviet artists. In 1948 a committee of the Communist Party spoke out against several Soviet composers including Prokofiev. They said that his music was “formalist” and “alien” to the Soviet people. His opera “War and Peace” was not allowed to be performed because it was neither lyrical nor patriotic enough. The works he wrote in his last years were mostly ones which the politicians officially approved. His last great work of this period is the "Symphony-Concerto" for cello and orchestra which used a lot of music from the unsuccessful "Cello Sonata", and greatly revised with the help of the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich.

paragraphs: Prokofiev died of a brain haemorrhage on 5 March 1953. His death was hardly mentioned in the newspapers because the dictator Josef Stalin died on the same day.


title: Arab Christians

paragraphs: Arab Christians are people who speak Arabic or of Arabic-speaking origin and have the religion of Christianity.

paragraphs: Most Christian Arabs live in the Middle East, where Islam is the biggest religion. The largest number of Arab Christians are in Egypt (around 8 millions). Many Arabs have emigrated from the Middle East in modern times. In some places such as the Americas, a big number of these Arabs are Christians. In Brazil, there are more than 12 million Arabs, and most of these people are Christian.

paragraphs: Arab Christians faced significant persecution with the Muslim conquests of Christian countries after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Conversion was often required for those who could not pay a substantial tax known as the 'jizya'. Furthermore, during various periods in the history of the Islamic world, Arab Christians were subject to at times brutal and humiliating persecution. Despite this, many Christians chose not to change their religion to Islam. Instead, they kept Christianity as their belief. Muslims call them the "People of the Book" (with Jews).

paragraphs: In the early 21st century, persecution of Christians area increased. In most countries they are required to obey Islamic "Shari'ah" law. In some countries, notably Egypt, political approval is required for the construction or renovation of a church - such restrictions are not present in the construction of Mosques. Countries in the Arabian Gulf, most notably Saudi Arabia, do not allow for the construction of churches or the public practice of Christianity - although that is slowly changing in progressive areas like the UAE. Coptic Christians in Egypt continue to face significant discrimination in the workplace and have a hard time reaching to the upper echelons in universities, corporations, and government offices.

paragraphs: Arab Christians have been around before Arab Muslims. This is because there were many Arab tribes that became Christians since the first century. They were the Nabateans (whose ancestors were Aramean) and the Ghassanids (who were of Qahtani origin and spoke Yemeni-Arabic and Greek). They protected the south-eastern parts of the Byzantine Empire in north Arabia.

paragraphs: Arab Christians made important contributions to the Arab world, and they still do. Some of the best poem writers at certain times were Arab Christians, and many Arab Christians were doctors, writers, government staff, and people who knew a lot about literature.


title: Synthesizer

paragraphs: A musical synthesizer is an instrument that uses electricity to make musical sounds. They are the main instrument for making electronic music. Many synthesizers have a keyboard like that of a piano. When playing a piano keyboard, sounds are made by hitting soft hammers against strings pulled very tight. When playing a synthesizer keyboard, sounds are made by turning electrical oscillators on and off. Since "synthesizer" is such a big word, the word is usually shortened to "synth".

paragraphs: An oscillator is something that "vibrates", or repeats the same pattern. The pendulum of a clock, for example, is a very slow oscillator. A piano string "oscillates" when struck by a hammer.

paragraphs: Electric oscillators might be made using transistors. They turn electricity into electrical patterns, or signals, that repeat over and over. When different keys are pressed, different notes are heard. This is done by making the signal from the oscillator repeat at different rates.

paragraphs: The signal can be boosted in strength and sent straight to a loudspeaker. But the sound of a simple signal can be boring after a while. Sounds can be made more interesting in many ways.

paragraphs: By combining many of these methods, synths can now sound very much like older instruments. For one example, special synths called "drum synths" are used just to make the sounds a drummer might make. Synths can also make many new sounds never heard before.

paragraphs: In the early 2000s, computers got fast enough so "software synths" could be made. These are computer programs designed to look and work like a synth. They tend to be less expensive, so more can be used. Most of these programs can be downloaded for free, however this may be illegal.

paragraphs: There are special tools available to play synths. For example, a thing called a "wind controller" lets players of wind instruments use their special skills. But there is still a need for more ways to control synths to make them more expressive.


title: John Foxe

paragraphs: John Foxe (1516 – 8 April 1587) is remembered as the author of "Foxe's Book of Martyrs".

paragraphs: Foxe was born in Boston, Lincolnshire, England into a prominent family. In 1535 Foxe was admitted to Magdalen College School. He became a fellow in July 1539.

paragraphs: Foxe resigned from his college in 1545, after referring to it as "a prison." During his time at Oxford he became an evangelical, meaning that he converted to Protestant beliefs not accepted by the Church of England under Henry VIII. As he wanted to leave Oxford, Foxe looked to other evangelicals for help but received only advice and a little money. Foxe married Agnes Randall on February 3, 1547.

paragraphs: With the death of Henry VIII in January of 1547 Foxe's prospects (and those of the evangelical cause generally) changed for the better. Foxe was ordained deacon by Nicholas Ridley on June 24, 1550.

paragraphs: In the fall of 1554 Foxe moved to Frankfurt, where he lived with Anthony Gilby in the English colony of Protestant refugees.

paragraphs: Foxe then removed to Basel where he lived and worked with John Bale and Lawrence Humphrey.

paragraphs: In 1559, when Mary I had died Foxe returned to England. He lived for some time at Aldgate, London, in the house of his former pupil, Thomas Howard. Foxe started publishing works of religious controversy and worked on a new martyrology, which would become the "Foxe's Book of Martyrs".

paragraphs: Foxe was ordained priest by Edmund Grindal, now Bishop of London, on January 25, 1560, and he moved to Norwich to live with its bishop, John Parkhurst. On March 23 of the following year the first edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs was published.

paragraphs: Foxe was one of the earliest students of Anglo-Saxon, and he and Day published an edition of the "Saxon gospels" with the help of Archbishop Parker.

paragraphs: Foxe died on 8 April 1587 and was buried at St. Giles's, Cripplegate.


title: Evangelicalism

paragraphs: The word evangelicalism refers to a type of Christian belief and practice in conservative Protestant Christianity, although some Catholic Christians would also call themselves evangelicals.

paragraphs: Evangelicals believe in spreading their faith, (evangelism), the need to be converted, also called being born again, believing what is in the Bible and the need to live a moral life both personally and in society. In the past 200 years, people, churches and social movements have often been called "evangelical". This is different from Protestant liberalism although they may share some of the same goals.

paragraphs: Outside the United States, the word evangelical can mean different things. In Europe and Latin America the word evangelical is often used to simply mean Protestant, as different from Roman Catholic religion. Some Christian denominations

paragraphs: have the word evangelical as part of their official name. This may indicate that they are more conservative than other denominations with a similar name.

paragraphs: In 2016, there were thought to be about 619 million evangelicals in the world, meaning that one in four Christians would be an evangelical. The United States has a large number of evangelicals. American evangelicals are about one fourth of the nation's population and its largest religious group. There are also many evangelicals in Latin America, Africa, China and Korea. Evangelicals make up most of the Baptist churches, Pentecostals, a portion of Methodists, Presbyterians and other older denominations, and many independent Christian churches that don't belong to any larger group.

paragraphs: Billy Graham was probably the best known evangelical of the last 100 years. He preached all around the world and brought millions of people to the Christian faith.


title: 940s

paragraphs: Below are some of the important events that happened from 940 to 949.


title: Canopic jar

paragraphs: Canopic jars were used to store the internal organs of a mummy in Ancient Egypt. The lid had the head of a baboon, human, falcon or a jackal—representing the sons of Horus. These jars were used to store organs which were removed from a dead person, these were the stomach, the intestine, the liver and the lungs, because they were thought to be use less in the afterlife.They only did the mummyfication process to important people. The jars were placed in the tombs with the bodies.

paragraphs: Names: imesty the (human), Duamutef (Jackal), Hapi (Baboon), Qebehsenuf (Falcon) .


title: Fellow

paragraphs: A fellow is a member of a group of learned people who work together at university or other academic institutions. However, there are no precise rules for how the title is used, and each academic institution grants the title as it sees fit.


title: Millipede

paragraphs: Millipedes are a very long type of arthropod. Millipedes are segmented. Most have between 20 and over 100 segments, and have flattened bodies. Except for the first few segments, each segment has 2 pairs of legs, as a result of each segment being the fusing (coming together) of two.

paragraphs: So far, about 12,000 different species of millipedes have been described. with 10,000 identified, and there is an estimated 80,000 total species of millipede on Earth. The animals are detrivores, they eat what is left over from plants.

paragraphs: Most of the time, their food is decaying leaves and other dead plant matter. Millipedes are not poisonous, but many species have glands capable of producing irritating fluids that may cause allergic reactions in some individuals. This protects them from being constantly eaten because of their slow movement. Generally, they are not a pest, although young seedlings in greenhouses can be sometimes eaten by these creatures. "Xenobolus carnifex "is known for its common infestation of thatched roofs in India. Several species swarm houses and farms, causing damage.

paragraphs: Some millipedes have fangs that allow them to directly prey on plants.

paragraphs: The primary defense mechanism of millipedes is to roll up into a spiral-shaped circle, protecting their more delicate organs from being hurt by an armor-like skin. Millipedes can secrete liquids that can burn their predators for protection.

paragraphs: Bristly millipedes lack armor-like skin, and instead have bristles (small spiky hairs) that protect them from insects, like detaching a bristle when it goes through the body of an ant.

paragraphs: They can easily be told apart from centipedes because centipedes move faster, have only have one pair of legs per segment, and eat animals instead of just plants, although a very small amount of millipede species are omnivores, feeding on insects, earthworms, or snails.

paragraphs: Scientists who study millipedes are called diplopodologists, and the scientific study (like astronomy or biology) of millipedes is known as diplopodology.

paragraphs: A millipede species," Pneumodesmus newmani," was the first animal species to live constantly on land that lived 428 million years ago.

paragraphs: Millipedes are the most common in temperate, wet deciduous forests, but are also often found in coniferous forests and high-altitude alpine environments, some species live in deserts, and even fewer in caves. Many live under stones, fallen leaves, and in woodpiles, plus other dark damp locations in forests.

paragraphs: Some species of bristly millipedes have been known to live in the common small cracks of tree bark.

paragraphs: Millipedes, due to their herbivore (plant-eating) and, with some species, limited omnivore capabilities, do not bite humans, although some of the defensive liquids that they give out might cause minor irritation and burns on human skin. On the eyes, these can be much worse, and direct exposure can lead to very bad problems.

paragraphs: They also appear in various folklore, remedies, and traditional usages around the world.


title: Edwy of England

paragraphs: Edwy All-Fair or "Eadwig" (941? – 1 October 959) was the King of England from 955 until his death. Edwy was the eldest son of King Edmund I and Saint Elgiva. Edwy was chosen in 955 to succeed his uncle Edred as King.

paragraphs: His short reign as King was marked by conflict. He had problems within his family, the Thanes, and the Roman Catholic Church, under the leadership of Saint Dunstan and Archbishop Odo. Edwy died at the age of eighteen or nineteen, and was succeeded by his rival brother, Edgar, who re-unified the kingdom.


title: Oda the Severe

paragraphs: Saint Oda or Odo, called the Good or the Severe (d. 958) was a 10th century Archbishop of Canterbury in England.


title: Magdalen College School, Oxford

paragraphs: Magdalen College School is an independent school for boys. It is on the edge of central Oxford, England. It was founded as part of Magdalen College, Oxford by Thomas Becket in 1480

paragraphs: The school was originally founded by William Waynflete to educate the sixteen boy choristers of Magdalen College, Oxford University who sang in the college's chapel. Important Old Waynfletes include William Tyndale, Sam Mendes, Alex Lennox, Tim Hunt, and Ben Goldacre.


title: Edward V of England

paragraphs: Edward V (2 November 1470– 1483) was the King of England from 9 April 1483 until he was removed two months later, on 25 June 1483.

paragraphs: Edward was born at Westminster while his father, King Edward IV of England, was in exile in Burgundy. The King, Henry VI, said his mother and his sisters would be safe if they stayed at the abbey. When Edward IV came back and took over the throne again, Edward became his heir and was given the title "Prince of Wales". Edward IV thought it would be right for the Prince of Wales to rule Wales, so he sent little Prince Edward to live in Ludlow Castle, where the Council of Wales met. The prince was helped by his uncle, Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, and began to learn how to be a ruler. His mother, Queen Elizabeth, was often with him, and his father, the king, also visited.

paragraphs: The prince spent most of his time at Ludlow until he was twelve, when his father the king suddenly died. The prince had to go straight to London to take the throne, and his uncle, Earl Rivers, went with him. On the way, they were met by another of his uncles, Richard, Duke of Gloucester. The Duke was a younger brother of King Edward IV, and the king had given him the title of "Lord Protector" in the hope that he would look after Prince Edward until he was old enough to be the real king.

paragraphs: Instead of arranging a coronation for the new king, Duke Richard decided to take the throne for himself, and became King Richard III. He sent Prince Edward to live in the Tower of London and wait for his coronation. He also got Edward's younger brother, Prince Richard, Duke of York, to come and live at the Tower. Earl Rivers was executed by Richard. Gloucester was able to convince people that the two young princes were not the legal heirs to the throne. On 25 June 1483, the Parliament said that Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was the legal king.

paragraphs: This was because Edward and his other brothers and sisters was declared illegitimate. After Edward IV had died, it was revealed that he had been engaged to a woman named Eleanor Butler, so Edward IV's marriage to his mother Elizabeth Woodville was seen as bigamy.

paragraphs: After a few months, the two boys disappeared, and what happened to them is still a mystery today. Most people think that the two boys were murdered. They became known as the Princes in the Tower. It is most likely they were killed by their uncle, Richard III. It is also possible that they were killed by Henry VII, who became king two years later.

paragraphs: In 1674, during building work at the Tower, a wooden chest was found under a staircase in the White Tower. It contained the bones of two young boys. It has never been proved that these are the missing princes, but King Charles II had the bones buried in Westminster Abbey. In 1933 the bones were looked at again by scientists who believed that they were the two princes.


title: Lincolnshire

paragraphs: Lincolnshire ( or ; abbreviated Lincs) is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Rutland, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, South Yorkshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, and (for just 19 metres or 20 yd, England's shortest county boundary) Northamptonshire. Its county town is the ancient city of Lincoln.


title: Norfolk

paragraphs: Norfolk is a low-lying county in East Anglia in the east of southern England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and with Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast, including The Wash. The county town is Norwich. Norfolk is home to the Norfolk Broads, a famous tourist and wildlife spot.


title: ISO 3166-2

paragraphs: ISO 3166-2 is part of the ISO 3166 standard. It was made by the International Organization for Standardization. For each country listed in ISO 3166-1, ISO 3166-2 defines its provinces with two or three letter codes, or numbers.

paragraphs: Below is a full table of the ISO 3166-2 codes for each country, with three columns:


title: Leicestershire

paragraphs: Leicestershire (abbreviated Leics) is a county in central England. It takes its name from the heavily populated City of Leicester, its traditional administrative centre, although the City of Leicester is today administered separately from the rest of Leicestershire. The county borders onto Lincolnshire, Rutland, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire.

paragraphs: Leicestershire was recorded in the Domesday Book.


title: Northamptonshire

paragraphs: Northamptonshire (abbreviated Northants or N'hants) is a county in central England with a population of 629,676 (2001 census). It has borders with Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, Cambridgeshire, Peterborough, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire (including the Borough of Milton Keynes), Oxfordshire, and Lincolnshire (England's shortest county boundary: 19 metres). The county town is Northampton.

paragraphs: Northamptonshire has often been called the county of "squires and spires" due to its wide variety of historic buildings and country houses.

paragraphs: Northampton is by far the largest town in the county, with a population of 194,122. This is followed by Corby (53,174), Wellingborough (48,428), Kettering (47,000), Rushden (25,849) and Daventry (22,367). Most of the county's population is concentrated in a central north-south.

paragraphs: Cherwell Edge in Northamptonshire () is near the River Cherwell, north-west of Banbury, England. The once heavily wooded hill and valley was mostly cleared many years ago. The area now also covers the nearby Cherwell Edge Golf Club that was recently built by it too. The golf club is used by various local residents.

paragraphs: These are the main settlements in Northamptonshire with a town charter, a population over 5,000, or otherwise notable.

paragraphs: Two major canals - the Oxford and the Grand Union — join in the county at Braunston.

paragraphs: A branch of the Grand Union Canal connects to the River Nene in Northampton.

paragraphs: Two trunk railway routes, the West Coast Main Line and the Midland Main Line traverse the county.

paragraphs: Before nationalisation of the railways in 1948 and the creation of British Railways, Northamptonshire was home to three of the "Big Four" railway companies; the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, London and North Eastern Railway and Great Western Railway. Only the Southern Railway was not represented.


title: Earl

paragraphs: An Earl (or Jarl) was a title for nobility used by Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians. It originally meant "chieftain" and it referred especially to chieftains set to rule a territory in a king's stead. In Scandinavia, it stopped being used in the Middle Ages, whereas, in Britain, it became synonymous with the continental count.

paragraphs: In Anglo-Saxon times the title was similar to that of Ealdorman.

paragraphs: Today, an earl is a member of the British peerage, and is below a Marquess, but above a Viscount. A British Earl is the same as a continental Count. Since there is no feminine form of Earl, the wife of an Earl has the rank of Countess (the continental equivalent).


title: Lobster

paragraphs: Lobsters are large crustaceans that live in the sea. They form the family of Nephropidae, which is sometimes also called Homaridae. People make a lot of money from catching lobsters and selling them to make seafood.

paragraphs: Lots of different kinds of animals that live in the sea are called lobsters. When people talk about lobsters, most of the time they mean "clawed lobsters". One kind of clawed lobster is the American lobster. Lots of animals that we call lobsters are not actually "clawed lobsters". Squat lobsters, spiny lobsters or slipper lobsters, are all different kinds of animal. Some kinds of crayfish which live in fresh water and reef lobsters are very similar to "clawed lobsters".

paragraphs: Smaller kinds of lobsters are sometimes called "lobsterettes". Lobsters do not have bones. They have hard shells which protect them. This hard shell is made from a material called chitin. The shell is so hard that lobsters must climb out of them before they can grow bigger. This is called "moulting". When lobsters moult they are weak and easy to attack. If they hide for long enough they will grow a new hard shell and the lobster will be bigger. Some lobsters change color when they grow a new shell. Lobsters can grow new parts of their body when they lose them. Every time they moult the body part will get a little bit bigger and stronger until it is back to normal.

paragraphs: Lobsters live in the sea between the shore and the edge of the continental shelf. They live underwater on rocky, sandy, or muddy ground. They usually live alone in cracks or under rocks.

paragraphs: Lobsters usually eat live food like fish, molluscs, other crustaceans, worms, and some plants. Lobsters sometimes scavenge (eat dead plants and animals). Lobsters also eat other lobsters (cannibalism) when they are put together in small spaces where they cannot get out. Lobsters do not usually eat other lobsters in the oceans. People have found lobster skin in the stomachs of some lobsters. This is because lobsters eat the skin they shed when they moult. Lobsters grow all their lives. Some lobsters live for over 100 years, and some become very big. The Guinness World Records says that the largest lobster was from Nova Scotia, Canada and weighed 20.14 kg (44.4 lb).

paragraphs: Lobsters are usually the same on the left and right sides. Lobsters have claws on their front legs, and one claw can be bigger than the other. One reason they are different sizes is because they do different jobs. Big strong claws can grab food, and little sharp claws can cut the food up so they can eat it. When a fisherman catches a lobster, they like to keep them if the claws are big. People like to eat lobsters with big claws because there is more good tasting meat in them. The head end of the lobster is called the cephalon. The middle part of the lobster is called the thorax. These parts of a lobster are stuck together and can not move, so we put the words together and call them both the cephalothorax. The bottom end of the lobster is called the abdomen, where the tail is. At the end of the tail is a fan. Lobsters have long thin body parts called antennae under their eyes which they can move around. Lobsters use these to feel what is near them, and they also help them find food. Lobsters have eyes but they cannot see very well. Lobsters have three pairs of jaws. All legs of a lobster have claws apart from the ones at the back. Only the front two legs have big claws. The little claws on the other legs help pick up food they find and put them in the jaws so the lobster can eat.

paragraphs: Lobsters usually move slowly by walking on the bottom of the sea floor. When they are in danger and need to escape, they swim backwards quickly by bending their tail down and up. The fan on the tail helps them to swim faster. Lobsters can move at a speed of 5 metres every second when they do this.


title: Spiny lobster

paragraphs: Spiny lobsters, also known as rock lobsters are a family (Palinuridae) of about 45 species of crustaceans, in the Decapoda Reptantia. Spiny lobsters are also called "crayfish", "sea crayfish" or "crawfish".

paragraphs: Although they superficially resemble true lobsters in terms of overall shape, and that they also have a hard carapace and exoskeleton, the two groups are not closely related. Spiny lobsters can be easily distinguished from true lobsters by their very long, thick, spiny antennae, and by their complete lack of claws ("chelae"); true lobsters have much smaller antennae and claws on the first three pairs of legs, with the first being particularly enlarged. Like true lobsters, however, spiny lobsters are edible and are an economically significant food source; they are the biggest food export of the Bahamas .

paragraphs: Spiny lobsters are found in almost all warm seas, including the Caribbean and the Mediterranean Sea, but are particularly common in Australasia, where they are referred to commonly as crayfish or sea crayfish ("Jasus novaehollandiae" and "Jasus edwardsii"), and South Africa ("Jasus lalandii"). A new species, "Palinurus barbarae" was described in 2006.

paragraphs: The largest spiny lobster on record was over 1 m (3 ft) long and weighed over 11.8 kg (26 lb).

paragraphs: Spiny lobsters tend to live in crevices of rocks and coral reefs, only occasionally venturing out at night to seek snails, clams, crabs, sea urchins or carrion to eat. Sometimes, they migrate "en masse", in long files of lobsters across the sea floor. Potential predators may be deterred from eating spiny lobsters by a loud screech made by the antennae of the spiny lobsters rubbing against a smooth part of the exoskeleton . Spiny lobsters usually exhibit social habit by being together. However recent studies indicate that healthy lobsters move away from infected ones and leaving the diseased lobsters to fend for itself .

paragraphs: The furry lobsters ("e.g." "Palinurellus") are sometimes separated into a family of their own, the Synaxidae, but are usually considered members of the Palinuridae. The slipper lobsters (Scyllaridae) are their next closest relatives, and these two or three families make up the Achelata. Genera of spiny lobsters include "Palinurus" and a number of anagrams thereof: "Panulirus", "Linuparus", "etc." (Palinurus was also a helmsman in Virgil's Æneid.)


title: Bromeliad

paragraphs: Bromeliads are a family of tropical plants which includes the pineapple and several colourful houseplants. They are nearly all from Latin America and the Caribbean islands, except for Spanish moss from the southern United States, and a single kind from Africa.

paragraphs: Pineapples (Latin name: "Ananas"). See Pineapple.

paragraphs: Air plants (Latin name: "Tillandsia") are very curious because they do not need any roots to stay alive. Instead they soak up moisture from the air around them through tiny, silvery scales on their leaves. They have so many of these scales that the whole plant can look grey. In the wild they grow on tree banches in rainy and misty areas. In the Caribbean there is a kind that grows on telephone wires!

paragraphs: Urn plants (Latin name: "Aechmea") are easy to keep. They grow to about 60 cm across, but because the stiff, green-and-grey leaves have spiny edges, they need to be out of the way. Urn plants got their name because they have a hole in the middle made by the ring-shaped arrangement of their leaves. This central urn fills up with rainwater in the wild and is often home to insects and frogs. Its flowers are held high on a single stem, and protected by a globe of small, pink leaves which lasts for several months.

paragraphs: Vriesias (Latin names: "Vriesia" and "Guzmania") are like urn plants, but they have no spines and their leaves are softer. They are often sold in flower shops (and sometimes in supermarkets) and are very easy to look after. Their flowers grow on a single stem, protected by flattened, colourful leaves. It is better not to fill the central space with water, as these soft-leaved plants might rot. instead their soil should be watered.

paragraphs: Spanish moss (Latin name: "Tillandsia usneoides") is a grey plant found hanging from trees in the swamps of the southern United States, especially in Louisiana but as far east as coastal Virginia. To the south it spreads as far as Chile and Argentina. It gained its current name from Spanish and French colonisers in the Gulf of Mexico. The French called it "Barbe Espagnole" ("Spanish beard") to insult their rivals, and the Spanish in turn called it "Cabello francés" ("French hair"). Today "Spanish moss" survives as a mild version of the French taunt, although some call the plant "Graybeard".

paragraphs: Bromelia, the plant which gives its name to the family, is the only other bromeliad with edible fruit. Its berries taste a bit like pineapple, but are less tasty, and there are not very many on each plant.

paragraphs: Fascicularia is the only bromeliad that can be grown in frosty areas. It is not killed by frost if it is kept dry in the winter.

paragraphs: Pitcairnia is the only wild bromeliad outside the Americas. One species, "Pitcairnia feliciana", was discoved living in West Africa. It is probably descended from seeds carried by migrating birds.

paragraphs: Puya is the largest bromeliad. It can grow up to nine metres tall. It lives in the Andes mountains, and is sometimes eaten by bears for its nectar. In Chile the young leaves of some puyas are eaten in salads.