title: Morocco

paragraphs: Kingdom of Morocco (Berber: Tagldit n Murakuc, Arabic: المملكة المغربية) is a country in North Africa.

paragraphs: Morocco (; Arabic: المغرب "al-Maghrib", lit. "The West"; Berber: ⵍⵎⴰⵖⵔⵉⴱ "Lmaɣrib"; French: Maroc), officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco (Arabic: المملكة المغربية "al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyah", lit. "The Western Kingdom"; Berber: ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵖⵔⵉⴱ"Tageldit n Lmaɣrib"), is a sovereign country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized by a rugged mountainous interior, large tracts of desert, and a lengthy coastline along the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of 446,550 km(172,410 sq mi). Its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, and Nador. A historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Since the foundation of the first Moroccan state by Idris I in 789, the country has been ruled by a series of independent dynasties, reaching its zenith under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasty, spanning parts of Iberia and Northwestern Africa. Marinid and Saadidynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, and Morocco remained the only North African country to avoid Ottoman occupation. The Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1666. In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanishprotectorates, with an international zone in Tangier, and regained its independence in 1956. Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, and European influences.

paragraphs: Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco annexed the territory in 1975, leading to a guerrilla war with indigenous forces until a cease-fire in 1991. Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock.

paragraphs: Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy and religious affairs. Executive power is exercised by the government, while legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister and the president of the Constitutional court.

paragraphs: Morocco's predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. The Moroccan dialect, referred to as "Darija", and French are also widely spoken. Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa.

paragraphs: The Berber Roman client King Ptolemy of Mauretania.

paragraphs: The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, resembling a savanna more than today's arid landscape. Twenty-two thousand years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the Iberomaurusian "Mechta-Afalou" burials and European Cro-Magnon remains. The Iberomaurusian was succeeded by the Beaker culture in Morocco.

paragraphs: Mitochondrial DNA studies have discovered a close link between Berbers and the Saami of Scandinavia. This supports theories that the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers who repopulated northern Europe after the last ice age.

paragraphs: North Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by the Phoenicians, who established trading colonies and settlements in the early Classical period. Substantial Phoenician settlements were at Chellah, Lixus and Mogador.Mogador was a Phoenician colony as early as the early 6th century BC.

paragraphs: Morocco later became a realm of the North African civilisation of ancient Carthage as part of its empire. The earliest known independent Moroccan state was the Berber kingdom of Mauretania under king Baga. This ancient kingdom (not to be confused with the present state of Mauritania) dates at least to 225 BC.

paragraphs: Mauretania became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 33 BC. Emperor Claudius annexed Mauretania directly as a Roman province in 44 AD, under an imperial governor (either a"procurator Augusti", or a "legatus Augusti pro praetore").

paragraphs: During the crisis of the 3rd century, parts of Mauretania were reconquered by Berber tribes. Direct Roman rule became confined to a few coastal cities (such as Septum (Ceuta) in Mauretania Tingitana and Cherchell in Mauretania Caesariensis) by the late 3rd century.

paragraphs: The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, that started in the middle of the 7th century, was achieved early into the following century. It brought both the Arabic language and Islam to the area. Although part of the larger Islamic Empire, Morocco was initially organized as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya, with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan.

paragraphs: The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their customary laws. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration. The first independent Muslim state in the area of modern Morocco was the Kingdom of Nekor, an emirate in the Rif Mountains. It was founded by Salih I ibn Mansur in 710, as a client state to the Rashidun Caliphate. After the outbreak of the Berber Revolt in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as the Miknasa of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata.

paragraphs: According to medieval legend, Idris ibn Abdallah had fled to Morocco after the Abbasids massacre of his tribe in Iraq. He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788. The Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of Muslim learning and a major regional power. The Idrissids were ousted in 927 by the Fatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa allies. After Miknasa broke off relations with the Fatimids in 932, they were removed from power by the Maghrawa of Sijilmasa in 980.

paragraphs: The Almohad realm at its greatest extent, c. 1212

paragraphs: From the 11th century onwards, a series of powerful Berber dynasties arose. Under the Almoravid dynasty  and the Almohad dynasty, Morocco dominated the Maghreb, much of present-day Spain and Portugal, and the western Mediterranean region. From the 13th century onwards the country saw a massive migration of Banu Hilal Arab tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Merinids held power in Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads by military campaigns in Algeria and Spain. They were followed by the Wattasids. In the 15th century, the Reconquista ended Muslim rule in central and southern Spain and many Muslims and Jews fled to Morocco.

paragraphs: Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing further afield inland.

paragraphs: On another note and according to Elizabeth Allo Isichei, "In 1520, there was a famine in Morocco so terrible that for a long time other events were dated by it. It has been suggested that the population of Morocco fell from 5 to under 3 million between the early sixteenth and nineteenth centuries."

paragraphs: Former Portuguese fortress of Mazagan in El Jadida

paragraphs: In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Islamic prophet, Muhammad: first the Saadi dynasty who ruled from 1549 to 1659, and then the Alaouite Dynasty, who remained in power since the 17th century.

paragraphs: Under the Saadi Dynasty, the country repulsed Ottomanincursions and a Portuguese invasion at the battle of Ksar el Kebir in 1578. The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a large expedition to West Africa inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhay Empirein 1591. However, managing the territories across the Sahara proved too difficult. After the death of al-Mansur, the country was divided among his sons.

paragraphs: In 1666, Morocco was reunited by the Alaouite Dynasty, who have been the ruling house of Morocco ever since. Morocco was facing aggression from Spain and the Ottoman Empire allies pressing westward. The Alaouites succeeded in stabilising their position, and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. Against the opposition of local tribes Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727) began to create a unified state.With his Jaysh d'Ahl al-Rif (the Riffian Army) he seized Tangier from the English in 1684 and drove the Spanish from Larache in 1689.

paragraphs: Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution, American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attack by the Barbary pirates. On December 20 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship, signed in 1786, stands as the U.S's oldest non-broken friendship treaty.

paragraphs: Death of Spanish general Margalloduring the Melilla War. Le Petit Journal, November 13 1893.

paragraphs: Main articles: French Morocco and Spanish Protectorate in Morocco

paragraphs: As Europe industrialised, North Africa was increasingly prized for its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830, not only to protect the border of its Algerian territory, but also because of the strategic position of Morocco on two oceans. In 1860, a dispute over Spain's Ceuta enclave led Spain to declare war. Victorious Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In 1884, Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco.

paragraphs: In 1904, France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco. Recognition by the United Kingdom of France's sphere of influence provoked a strong reaction from the German Empire; and a crisis loomed in 1905. The matter was resolved at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. The Agadir Crisis of 1911 increased tensions between European powers. The 1912 Treaty of Fezmade Morocco a protectorate of France, and triggered the 1912 Fez riots. Spain continued to operate its coastal protectorate. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and southern Saharan zones.

paragraphs: Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land, others organised the exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco a control which was also made necessary by the continuous wars among Moroccan tribes, part of which had taken sides with the French since the beginning of the conquest. Governor general, Marshall Hubert Lyautey, sincerely admired Moroccan culture and succeeded in imposing a joint Moroccan-French administration, while creating a modern school system. Several divisions of Moroccan soldiers (Goumiers or regular troops and officers) served in the French army in both World War I and World War II, and in the Spanish Nationalist Army in the Spanish Civil War and after ("Regulares"). The institution of slavery was abolished in 1925.

paragraphs: Tangier's population included 40,000 Muslims, 31,000 Europeans and 15,000 Jews.

paragraphs: Between 1921 and 1926, a Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim, led to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif. The rebellion was eventually suppressed by French and Spanish troops.

paragraphs: In 1943, the Istiqlal Party (Independence Party) was founded to press for independence, with discreet US support. That party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement.

paragraphs: France's exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar and his replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. The most notable violence occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets. France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year. In March 1956 the French protectorate was ended and Morocco regained its independence from France as the "Kingdom of Morocco". A month later Spain ceded most of its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves (Ceuta and Melilla) on the Mediterranean coast. Sultan Mohammed became king in 1957.

paragraphs: Upon the death of Mohammed V, Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. Morocco held its first general elections in 1963. However, Hassan declared a state of emergency and suspended parliament in 1965. In 1971, there was a failed attempt to depose the king and establish a republic. A truth commission set up in 2005 to investigate human rights abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10,000 cases, ranging from death in detention to forced exile. Some 592 people were recorded killed during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission.

paragraphs: The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was returned to Morocco in 1969. The Polisario movement was formed in 1973, with the aim of establishing an independent state in the Spanish Sahara. On 6 November 1975 King Hassan asked for volunteers to cross into the Spanish Sahara. Some 350,000 civilians were reported as being involved in the "Green March". A month later, Spain agreed to leave the Spanish Sahara, soon to become Western Sahara, and to transfer it to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control, despite the objections and threats of military intervention by Algeria. Moroccan forces occupied the territory.

paragraphs: Moroccan and Algerian troops soon clashed in Western Sahara. Morocco and Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In 1983, Hassan cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis. In 1984, Morocco left the Organisation of African Unity in protest at the SADR's admission to the body. Polisario claimed to have killed more than 5,000 Moroccan soldiers between 1982 and 1985.

paragraphs: Algerian authorities have estimated the number of Sahrawi refugees in Algeria to be 165,000. Diplomatic relations with Algeria were restored in 1988. In 1991, a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire violations are reported. The following decade saw much wrangling over a proposed referendum on the future of the territory but the deadlock was not broken.

paragraphs: Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in 1997 and Morocco's first opposition-led government came to power in 1998.

paragraphs: Protestors in Casablanca demand that authorities honor their promises of political reform.

paragraphs: King Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI. He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social liberalisation.

paragraphs: Mohammed VI paid a controversial visit to the Western Sahara in 2002. Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United Nations in 2007. The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own proposal. Morocco and the Polisario Front held UN-sponsored talks in New York but failed to come to any agreement. In 2010, security forces stormed a protest camp in the Western Sahara, triggering violent demonstrations in the regional capital El Aaiún.

paragraphs: In 2002, Morocco and Spain agreed to a US-brokered resolution over the disputed island of Perejil. Spanish troops had taken the normally uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents and a flag. There were renewed tensions in 2005 as hundreds of African migrants tried to storm the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta. Morocco deported hundreds of the illegal migrants. In 2006 the Spanish Premier Zapatero visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories. The following year, Spanish King Juan Carlos I visited Ceuta and Melilla, further angering Morocco which demanded control of the enclaves.

paragraphs: During the 2011–12 Moroccan protests, thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and a new constitution curbing the powers of the king. In July 2011, the King won a landslide victory in a referendum on a reformed constitution he had proposed to placate the Arab Spring protests. Despite the reforms made by Mohamed VI demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms. Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May 2012. Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms.

paragraphs: Morocco is a constitutional monarchy. The political powers are shared between the king Muhammad VI (the sixth) and the Head of the Government. The King is the head of state (Person in charge of the country) and the most important person.

paragraphs: The people of Morocco vote for Members of Parliament to speak for them and to help make laws for them. The Council of Ministers defines what must be done. He makes all the important decisions. Today, the Head of Government is Abdelilah Benkirane.

paragraphs: Since the constitutional reform of 1996, the bicameral legislature consists of two chambers. The Assembly of Representatives of Morocco ("Majlis an-Nuwwâb/Assemblée des Répresentants") has 325 members elected for a five-year term, 295 elected in multi-seat constituencies and 30 in national lists consisting only of women. The Assembly of Councillors("Majlis al-Mustasharin") has 270 members, elected for a nine-year term, elected by local councils (162 seats), professional chambers (91 seats) and wage-earners (27 seats).

paragraphs: The Parliament's powers, though still relatively limited, were expanded under the 1992 and 1996 and even further in the 2011 constitutional revisions and include budgetary matters, approving bills, questioning ministers, and establishing ad hoc commissions of inquiry to investigate the government's actions. The lower chamber of Parliament may dissolve the government through a vote of no confidence.

paragraphs: The latest parliamentary elections were held on November 25, 2011, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair. Voter turnout in these elections was estimated to be 43% of registered voters.

paragraphs: Morocco is next to the countries of Algeria to its east and Mauritania to its south. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the north of Morocco, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

paragraphs: Morocco has a diverse geography from fertile plains, to forests, cold mountains, dry lands, and deserts. Most people live in areas close to the coast, or in fertile farms. Morocco has an area of 446,550 km². Morocco also controls most of the Western Sahara which is 266.000 km² big.Morocco has a coast by the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Spain to the north (a water border through the Strait and land borders with three small Spanish-controlled exclaves, Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera), Algeria to the east, and Western Sahara to the south. Since Morocco controls most of Western Sahara, its "de facto" southern boundary is with Mauritania.

paragraphs: The internationally recognised borders of the country lie between latitudes 27° and 36°N, and longitudes 1° and 14°W. Adding Western Sahara, Morocco lies mostly between 21° and 36°N, and 1° and 17°W (the Ras Nouadhibou peninsula is slightly south of 21° and west of 17°).

paragraphs: The geography of Morocco spans from the Atlantic Ocean, to mountainous areas, to the Sahara desert. Morocco is a Northern African country, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and the annexed Western Sahara. It is one of only three nations (along with Spain and France) to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines.

paragraphs: A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the centre and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by the Berber people. At 446,550 km(172,414 sq mi), Morocco is the fifty-seventh largest country in the world (after Uzbekistan). Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast, though the border between the two countries has been closed since 1994.

paragraphs: Spanish territory in North Africa neighbouring Morocco comprises five enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, the Chafarinas islands, and the disputed islet Perejil. Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese. To the north, Morocco is bordered by the Strait of Gibraltar, where international shipping has unimpeded transit passage between the Atlantic and Mediterranean.

paragraphs: The Rif mountains stretch over the region bordering the Mediterranean from the north-west to the north-east. The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the northeast to the south west. Most of the southeast portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south lies the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony that was annexed by Morocco in 1975 (see Green March). Morocco claims that the Western Sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as its Southern Provinces.

paragraphs: Morocco's capital city is Rabat; its largest city is its main port, Casablanca. Other cities include Agadir, Essaouira, Fes, Marrakesh, Meknes, Mohammedia, Oujda, Ouarzazat, Safi, Salé, Tangier and Tétouan.[Br.-Bl. “Vegetatio.” "Vegetatio", vol. 11, no. 5/6, 1963, pp. 405–405., www.jstor.org/stable/20034938.]

paragraphs: The country's Mediterranean climate is similar to that of southern California, with lush forests in the northern and central mountain ranges of the country, giving way to dryer conditions and inland deserts further southeast. The Moroccan coastal plains experience remarkably moderate temperatures even in summer, owing to the effect of the cold Canary Current off its Atlantic coast.

paragraphs: In the Rif, Middle and High Atlas Mountains, there exist several different types of climates: Mediterranean along the coastal lowlands, giving way to a humid temperate climate at higher elevations with sufficient moisture to allow for the growth of different species of oaks, moss carpets, junipers, and Atlantic fir which is a royal conifer tree endemicto Morocco. In the valleys, fertile soils and high precipitation allow for the growth of thick and lush forests. Cloud forests can be found in the west of the Rif Mountains and Middle Atlas Mountains. At higher elevations, the climate becomes alpine in character, and can sustain ski resorts.

paragraphs: Southeast of the Atlas mountains, near the Algerian borders, the climate becomes very dry, with long and hot summers. Extreme heat and low moisture levels are especially pronounced in the lowland regions east of the Atlas range due to the rain shadow effect of the mountain system. The southeastern-most portions of Morocco are very hot, and include portions of the Sahara Desert, where vast swathes of sand dunes and rocky plains are dotted with lush oases.

paragraphs: In contrast to the Sahara region in the south, coastal plains are fertile in the central and northern regions of the country, and comprise the backbone of the country's agriculture, in which 95% of the population live. The direct exposure to the North Atlantic Ocean, the proximity to mainland Europe and the long stretched Rif and Atlas mountains are the factors of the rather European-like climate in the northern half of the country. That makes from Morocco a country of contrasts. Forested areas cover about 12% of the country while arable land accounts for 18%. Approximately 5% of Moroccan land is irrigated for agricultural use.

paragraphs: In general, apart from the southeast regions (pre-Saharan and desert areas), Morocco's climate and geography are very similar to the Iberian peninsula. Thus we have the following climate zones:

paragraphs: "Oceanic:" Determined by the cooler summers, where highs rarely go above 27 °C (80.6 °F) and in terms of Essaouira region are almost always around 21 °C (69.8 °F). The medium daily temperatures can get as low as 19 °C (66.2 °F), while winters are chilly to mild and wet. Annual precipitation varies from 400 to 700 mm. Notable cities that fall into this zone are Rabat, Casablanca, Kénitra, Salé and Essaouira.

paragraphs: "Continental:" Determined by the bigger gap between highs and lows, that results in hotter summers and colder winters, than found in typical Mediterranean zones. In summer, daily highs can get as high as 40 °C (104.0 °F) during heat waves, but usually are between 32 °C (89.6 °F) and 36 °C (96.8 °F). However, temperatures drop as the sun sets. Night temperatures usually fall below 20 °C (68.0 °F), and sometimes as low as 10 °C (50.0 °F) in mid-summer. Winters are cooler, and can get below the freezing point multiple times between December and February. Also snow can fall occasionally. Fès for example registered 8 °C (17.6 °F) in winter 2005. Annual precipitation varies between 500 and 900 mm. Notable cities are Fès, Meknès, Chefchaouen, Beni-Mellal and Taza.

paragraphs: South of Agadir and east of Jerada near the Algerian borders, arid and desert climate starts to prevail.

paragraphs: Note: Due to Morocco's proximity to the Sahara desert and the North Sea of the Atlantic Ocean, two phenomena occur to influence the regional seasonal temperatures, either by raising temperatures by 7–8 degrees Celsius when sirocco blows from the east creating heatwaves, or by lowering temperatures by 7–8 degrees Celsius when cold damp air blows from the northwest, creating a coldwave or cold spell. However, these phenomena don't last for more than 2 to 5 days on average.

paragraphs: Countries or regions that share the same climatic characteristics with Morocco are California(USA), Portugal, Spain and Algeria.

paragraphs: Annual rainfall in Morocco is different according to regions. The northwestern parts of the country receive between 500 mm and 1200 mm, while the northeastern parts receive between 350 and 600 mm. North Central Morocco receives between 700 mm and up to 3500 mm. The area from Casablanca to Essaouira, on the Atlantic coast, receives between 300 mm and 500 mm. The regions from Essaouira to Agadir receive between 250 mm and 400 mm. Marrakesh region in the central south receives only 250 mm a year. The southeastern regions, basically the driest areas, receive between 100 mm and 200 mm only, and consist basically of arid and desert lands.

paragraphs: Botanically speaking, Morocco enjoys a great variety of vegetation, from lush large forests of conifer and oak trees typical of the western Mediterranean countries (Morocco, Algeria, Italy, Spain, France and Portugal), to shrubs and acacias further south. This is due to the diversity of climate and the precipitation patterns in the country.

paragraphs: Morocco's weather is one of the most pristine in terms of the four-season experience. Most regions have distinct seasons where summer is usually not spoiled by rain and winter turns wet, snowy and humid with mild, cool to cold temperatures, while spring and fall see warm to mild weather characterised by flowers blooming in spring and falling leaves in autumn. This type of weather has affected the Moroccan culture and behaviour and played a part in the social interaction of the population, like many other countries that fall into this type of climate zone.presented in the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical encoding standard by the symbol "MA". This code was used as the basis for Morocco's internet domain, ma.

paragraphs: The capital of Morocco is Rabat. About 1.2 million people live in Rabat. The biggest city in Morocco is however Casablanca, with nearly 4 million people living there. Both Rabat and Casablanca have large ports and industrial zones. The third biggest city is Marrakesh from which the word "Morocco" is made. Tekken, Vera, et al. “Increasing Pressure, Declining Water and Climate Change in North-Eastern Morocco.” "Journal of Coastal Conservation", vol. 17, no. 3, 2013, pp. 379–388. www.jstor.org/stable/42657030.

paragraphs: The population of Morocco is about 34 million. People from Morocco are called Moroccans. Moroccans are Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African and European.

paragraphs: The official languages of Morocco are Arabic and Berber. French is also very used in companies, universities, and in some TV channels. Morocco was part of the French colonial empire for 44 years. Some people in the north (close to Spain) speak Spanish as well. Spain also occupied parts of Morocco before leaving them in 1956 and in 1975.

paragraphs: Most educated Moroccans do not speak English well, or do not know it at all. In the 21st century English is being taught to students in an increasing number of schools.

paragraphs: Most Moroccans follow Islam as their religion. There are very small numbers of Christians, Jews, and non-believers. Morocco is home to the oldest university in the world, the University of Karaouine.

paragraphs: Mohammed VI, a FREMM multipurpose frigate of the Royal Moroccan Navy.

paragraphs: Compulsory military service in Morocco has been officially suspended since September 2006, and Morocco's reserve obligation lasts until age 50. Morocco's military consists of the Royal Armed Forces this includes the Army (the largest branch), the Navy, the Air Force, the Royal Guard, the Royal Gendarmerie and the Auxiliary Forces. Internal security is generally effective, and acts of political violence are rare (with one exception, the 2003 Casablanca bombings which killed 45 people).

paragraphs: The UN maintains a small observer force in Western Sahara, where a large number of Morocco's troops are stationed. The Saharawi group Polisario maintains an active militia of an estimated 5,000 fighters in Western Sahara and has engaged in intermittent warfare with Moroccan forces since the 1970s.

paragraphs: Morocco is a member of the United Nations and belongs to the Arab League, Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Non-Aligned Movement and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN_SAD). Morocco's relationships vary greatly between African, Arab, and Western states. Morocco has had strong ties to the West in order to gain economic and political benefits. France and Spain remain the primary trade partners, as well as the primary creditors and foreign investors in Morocco. From the total foreign investments in Morocco, the European Union invests approximately 73.5%, whereas, the Arab world invests only 19.3%. Many countries from the Persian Gulf and Maghrebregions are getting more involved in large-scale development projects in Morocco.

paragraphs: Morocco claims sovereignty over Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla.

paragraphs: Morocco was the only African state not to be a member of the African Union due to its unilateral withdrawal on November 12 1984 over the admission of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic in 1982 by the African Union (then called Organisation of African Unity) as a full member without the organisation of a referendum of self-determination in the disputed territory of Western Sahara. Morocco rejoined the AU on January 30 2017.

paragraphs: A dispute with Spain in 2002 over the tiny island of Perejil revived the issue of the sovereignty of Melilla and Ceuta. These small enclaves on the Mediterranean coast are surrounded by Morocco and have been administered by Spain for centuries.

paragraphs: Morocco has been given the status of major non-NATO ally by the US government. Morocco was the first country in the world to recognise US sovereignty (in 1777).

paragraphs: Morocco is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.

paragraphs: Morocco annexed Western Sahara in 1975. The Polisario Front control the territory east of the Moroccan "berm"(wall).

paragraphs: Due to the conflict over Western Sahara, the status of the Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro regions is disputed. The Western Sahara War saw the Polisario Front, the Sahrawi rebel national liberation movement, battling both Morocco and Mauritania between 1976 and a ceasefire in 1991 that is still in effect. A United Nations mission, MINURSO, is tasked with organizing a referendum on whether the territory should become independent or recognised as a part of Morocco.

paragraphs: Part of the territory, the Free Zone, is a mostly uninhabited area that the Polisario Front controls as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Its administrative headquarters are in Tindouf, Algeria. As of 2006, no UN member state has recognised Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara.

paragraphs: In 2006, the government of Morocco has suggested autonomous status for the region, through the Moroccan Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS). The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007. The proposal was encouraged by Moroccan allies such as the United States, France and Spain. The Security Council has called upon the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution.

paragraphs: Morocco is divided into 12 regions. The regions are divided into 62 prefectures and provinces.

paragraphs: Morocco is divided into 37 provinces and 2 wilayas : Agadir, Al Hoceima, Azilal, Beni Mellal, Benslimane, Boulemane, Casablanca, Chefchaouen, El Jadida, El Kelaa of Sraghna, Errachidia, Essaouira, Fez, Figuig, Guelmim, Ifrane, Kenitra, Khemisset, Rommani, Khenifra, Khouribga, Laayoune, Larache, Marrakech, Meknes, Nador, Ouarzazate, Oujda, Rabat, Sale, Settat, Safi, Sidi Kacem, Tangier, Tan-Tan, Taounate, Taroudant, Tata, Taza, Tetouan, Tiznit. Three additional provinces of Dakhla (Oued ed Dahab), Boujdour, and Es-Smara as well as parts of Tan-Tan and Laayoune fall within Moroccan-claimed Western Sahara.

paragraphs: Mining, agriculture, fishing, and tourism are the 4 main parts of Morocco's national economy. Also, Moroccans working in Europe (about 2 million) send billions of Euros of money home to their families every year.

paragraphs: Tourism is becoming very important too. Many Americans and Europens come to see the historical places of Morocco, live the Berber countryside life, or enjoy the warm sun and the long and clean beaches. Marrakesh is the most liked city by tourists.

paragraphs: The currency of Morocco is called the Dirham, its code is MAD.


title: Andrew Johnson

paragraphs: Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 16th Vice-President and 17th President of the United States. He was the first president to be impeached, but he was not removed from office. The impeachment happened because he fired the Secretary of War after Congress had made it illegal. This was also considered strange, as it is usually up to the president to appoint and fire his secretaries. However, Congress disliked him because he was a Democrat and did not want to help former slaves.

paragraphs: Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina in 1808, in a house with one room. His family was very poor and he never went to school. He was apprenticed as a tailor and held by a tailor named Selby as an indentured servant, a sort of slave. The contract stated Johnson should work for Selby until he was 21, but Johnson did not like the work and ran away with his brother. The tailor put out wanted posters but Johnson never returned. In the end he started a business of his own in Greeneville in Tennessee, where he met and married Eliza McCardle. She was very ill because of tuberculosis, a sickness of the lung, but Johnson loved her very much. She taught him to read properly and helped him study, which helped him enter politics. He became mayor of Greeneville in 1834, aged 25. In 1843, he was elected to the House of Representatives in Washington D.C. In 1853, he became Governor of Tennessee, the most powerful position in the state. After serving two terms, he was instead elected Senator (in this time, the Tennessee General Assembly elected both these positions, not the people) and returned to Washington D.C. Johnson was very wealthy then and owned several slaves himself. It was a time when the country was at a breaking point because of slavery and other conditions.

paragraphs: When Tennessee and ten other Southern slave states declared they were no longer part of the United States, he was the only member from among them to not quit his seat. Instead, he went to the U.S. and helped the North in the war, a so-called "Union Democrat". Despite being a Democrat, he was elected as Abraham Lincoln's Vice President on a "National Union" ticket in 1864, which thought the war should be ended and the south welcomed back into the union. Lincoln chose Johnson because he had been loyal but also thought it would be good to have a Democrat on the election ticket to show it was not a matter of party politics. Johnson freed his slaves in 1863, shortly before the law made it illegal. In 1865, Congress banned slavery in the entire U.S. just before the war ended.

paragraphs: He became president in 1865 after Abraham Lincoln was killed. Congress was then run by Republicans, and after Lincoln's assassination, they wanted stricter terms than Johnson did for the Reconstruction of the Southern states that had rebelled. Congress was also more friendlier to African Americans who had recently been slaves, and many Republicans wanted them to vote and be given land. Johnson, who was a Democrat, thought it would hurt white people in the South and was strongly opposed to these policies. As a result, he vetoed 29 bills passed by Congress, and is the president to have the most vetoes overridden. This can happen if Congress passes the law a second time with a 2/3-majority, meaning twice as many people supports the law as opposes it. If this happens the veto fails and the law passes anyway. It is very unusual but happened 15 times to Johnson, which is a record.

paragraphs: He was also the first President to be impeached in 1868, but was later acquitted in the Senate. When a president is removed by Congress, the House of Representatives must vote to impeach him, and then the Senate to convict, by a 2/3-majority. Although the Republicans had that many senators, the conviction failed by one vote. Several Republicans thought it was not their job to replace the president, and that the charges against Johnson were made up. So Johnson could keep his job for the last year. There would be another 130 years before another president was impeached, Bill Clinton in 1998. Johnson was the only U.S. president never to have gone to school, and was taught to read by himself and by his wife, Eliza McCardle Johnson. He also taught himself law and politics by reading himself. The U.S. purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million (the price was 2 cents per acre) while he was president, but it was Secretary of State William Seward who arranged the buy. It is now considered a very wise move and the natural resources in Alaska today are worth many billions.

paragraphs: After his term ran out, Johnson left Washington. In 1875, he returned after being again elected senator for Tennessee. He died the same year. He remains the only president of the U.S. to have served as a senator after being president. One former president, John Quincy Adams, has served in the House of Representatives after his presidency, however.


title: Starfish

paragraphs: Starfish, or sea stars, are Echinoderms of the Class Asteroidea.

paragraphs: All live in the ocean, on the sea floor. Many starfish live in deep water, others in shallow water. Some live in the intertidal zone, between low and high tide. They have five or more arms and can be quite large. The Sunflower sea star ("Pycnopodia helianthoides") is the largest: fully grown, its arm-span is about a metre. This is a bit larger than the famous Crown-of-thorns starfish, which lives on coral polyps.

paragraphs: Although starfish are invertebrates, they do have a kind of skeleton. The bodies of starfish are composed of calcium carbonate plates, known as 'ossicles'. These form the endoskeleton, which takes on a variety of forms such as spines and granules.

paragraphs: They have a primitive nervous system, but not a brain. They also do not have blood, instead they use sea water to pump things around their bodies.

paragraphs: There are over 1500 different species of sea star. Most sea stars are predators. They eat mussels, clams, and other bivalves. Occasionally, they catch small fish.

paragraphs: Most starfish have five arms, called "rays" that come out from a center circle (disk). If a starfish has more than five rays, it will often have rays in multiples of five; there could be 10, 15, 20, or even 30 rays on one starfish. This is called pentameral (five-fold) symmetry.

paragraphs: The degree of protection offered by the skeleton differs between species. If the skeleton becomes more rigid, it offers better protection against predators. However, this will tend to limit its feeding alternatives. Great flexibility is required for the process of external digestion used by many species to eat bivalves. The less well armoured species may adopt a life in places where they are not so open to predation. The heavily armoured ones can tough it out in the most competitive habitats:

paragraphs: The movement of starfish is guided by their senses of touch and sight. There are five 'eyes', light-sensitive cushions, one at the end of each arm. These and the tube feet are connected to nerve fibres, so these animals are more complex than might appear.

paragraphs: Although starfish started off as filter-feeders, they evolved to become major predators of shell-fish (the brachiopods and bivalves). They can also eat small crustacea and fish. Their tube feet developed suckers, perhaps originally to improve movement. Later, they were used to open shell-fish.

paragraphs: The shells of brachiopods and bivalves are held together by strong muscles. What the starfish does is clamp hold of them on either side with its tube feet, and apply a steady pull. The starfish, with its muscles and hydraulic system, can pull for much longer than any bivalve muscle can withstand. Apparently, ten minutes are usually enough to open the shell a bit. Then the starfish slips its stomach inside the shell. The stomach can get through a slot as narrow as 0.1mm. The starfish then dissolves the mollusc where it lives, absorbing the nutrients. This digestion process takes much longer than opening the shell, perhaps a couple of days.

paragraphs: Some species swallow the shell whole, and dissolve the contents inside their stomach, then push out the shell afterwards.

paragraphs: The ability of starfish to eat brachipods and bivalves developed in the Mesozoic, especially in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. This was part of the "Mesozoic marine revolution", which transformed the sea-floor fauna. Weakly defended and static shellfish disappeared, and more heavily armoured or more mobile shellfish flourished.

paragraphs: Starfish, like many sea creatures, are able to "regenerate" (grow back) parts of their bodies. Starfish are better at regeneration than most other creatures. Not only can a new ray grow when a ray is torn off, but if the torn off ray has even a small piece of the central disk still attached, a whole new starfish can grow from the one ray.

paragraphs: Because starfish like to eat clams and oysters, fishermen who gather shellfish have tried for years to get rid of them. To kill the starfish, fishermen would catch them, slice them right in half, and throw them back in the ocean. However, because starfish can grow back parts of their bodies, they were actually increasing the number of starfish.


title: Jellyfish

paragraphs: Jellyfish are animals of the phylum Cnidaria. They are a monophyletic clade, the Medusozoa. Most of them live in the oceans, in salt water, where they eat small sea animals like plankton and little fish, and float in the sea. Only a few jellyfish live in fresh water.

paragraphs: They have soft bodies and long, stinging, venomous tentacles that they use to catch their prey, usually small plankton animals or small crustaceans or tiny fish. Some jellyfish hunt othected by stinging cells called "nematocysts". A jellyfish is 97% water.

paragraphs: Most jellyfish have a bell-shaped body and long tentacles at the underside of the body. Tentacles are long "arms" with special stinging cells called nematocysts. They move by contracting their bodies, but they do not have much control over where they go: most of the time, they drift with the water current. The largest type of jellyfish is the Lion's mane jellyfish, which has tentacles that can be as long as 60 meters, but most jellyfish are much smaller.

paragraphs: The Medusozoa are four classes of the Cnidaria:

paragraphs: There are many types of jellyfish. The smallest jellyfish are just a few centimetres across. The largest jellyfish is the Lion's mane ("Cyanea capillata"), whose body can be over 3 feet (1 m) across, with much longer tentacles. Some jellyfish glow in the dark (this is called phosphorescence). Some of the most dangerous jelly fish include the box jelly (Genuses "Chironex", "Chiropsalmus" and "Carybdea") and the tiny, two-cm-across Irukandji jelly ("Carukia barnesi"); the venomous sting of these jellyfish can kill a person.

paragraphs: Many animals eat jellyfish, including sea turtles and some fish (including the sun fish). Humans eat jellyfish too; especially in Asia jellyfish are considered a delicacy. Jellyfish spoil very quickly after they are caught. Sometimes they are dried to preserve them. There is a different process in which they are cleaned, which can take up to 40 days. They are often eaten in a kind of salad, with soy sauce or vinegar.

paragraphs: Most jellyfish undergo two distinct life history stages (body forms) during their life cycle. The first is the polypoid stage, when the animal takes the form of a small stalk with feeding tentacles. Very often, this polyp is attached to the sea floor, or to another hard surface; it rarely moves around. A polyp that lives that way is called sessile. In some cases, the polyp is free-floating. Polyps generally have a mouth surrounded by upward-facing tentacles. Polyps may be on their own or in groups, and some bud asexually, making more polyps. Most are very small, measured in millimeters.

paragraphs: In the second stage, the tiny polyps asexually produce jellyfish, each of which is known as a medusa. Tiny jellyfish swim away from the polyp and then grow and feed in the plankton. Jellyfish reproduce both sexually and asexually. Well-fed adult jellyfish spawn daily. In most species, spawning is controlled by light, so the entire population spawns at about the same time of day, often at either dusk or dawn. Jellyfish are usually either male or female (with occasional hermaphrodites). In most cases, adults release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water, where the (unprotected) eggs are fertilized and mature into new organisms.

paragraphs: Medusae have a radially symmetric, umbrella-shaped body called a bell, which is usually supplied with marginal tentacles that capture prey. A few species of jellyfish do not have the polyp portion of the life cycle, but go from jellyfish to the next generation of jellyfish through direct development of fertilized eggs. Jellyfish at the medusa stage usually lives only up to six months, after which it dies.

paragraphs: Jellyfish eat plankton and small fish, which they catch using their venomous tentacles. Jellyfish may live in symbiosis with algae. The jellyfish transports them into sunlight and get nutrients from the algae's photosynthesis. Both forms of jelly fish have small tentacles with nematocysts (stinging cells) that sting and can hurt people on contact.

paragraphs: Medusozoans differ from anthozoans in having a medusa stage in their life cycle. Their mitochondrial DNA molecules are linear rather than circular as in anthozoans and almost all other animals. The cnidae, the explosive cells of the Cnidaria, are of a single type. There are nematocysts but no spirocysts or ptychocysts.

paragraphs: A group of jellyfish is called a "smack"; an occurrence of many jellyfish simultaneously is sometimes called a "bloom".


title: Tilapia

paragraphs: Tilapia is a fish that is often farmed for food, or kept as pets in aquariums. They live in warm, fresh water, but some species live in brackish water. The fish are found in Africa, North and South America, India, and Sri Lanka.

paragraphs: They are listed as one of the worlds worst introduced species. They can quickly take over from native fish in rivers. This has happened in places like in the Endeavour River, in Queensland, Australia. These fish are thought to have been released into the river from an aquarium.


title: Sardine

paragraphs: Sardine is a name of several kinds of fish, especially oily fish. Another name for these fish is Pilchard. All of those fish are quite small and are related to the herring. The Latin name of the family of these fish is Clupeidae. However, the naming is not precise. Fishbase, a database about all kinds of fish, has six species just named "pilchard". There are over a dozen with the name of "sardine". Many more exist, with the basic names qualified by adjectives.

paragraphs: The fish are named after the Island of Sardinia. In the past, they could easily be fished there.

paragraphs: Many shops and supermarkets sell canned (or tinned) "sardines". Very often, those fish are not sardines, but rather sprats or round herrings.


title: Bone

paragraphs: Bones are parts of the skeleton of vertebrates. They also protect organs inside our body.

paragraphs: The bones are the framework of the body. Without them we would be a pile of organs on the ground and would not be able to move.

paragraphs: Bones also protect. The skull protects the brain and the ribs protect the heart and lungs. The jaw and cheekbones support the facial muscles, which help us eat and smile. The pelvis protects the reproductive organs, and vertebrae protect the spinal cord.

paragraphs: Bone is living tissue, and must be maintained by taking regular exercise and by having calcium from foods like milk, and dark leafy greens such as spinach. The bone marrow in the middle of the bigger bones makes our red blood cells.

paragraphs: Long bones are hollow, with a central core which is not strong like the rest of the bone. It contains the bone marrow, one of the most important tissues in the vertebrate body. It produces blood cells for the blood system, and lymphocytes for the immune system.

paragraphs: Osteons are the small units of which the hardest parts of human bones are made. They are roughly cylindrical, and about 0.2mm wide and a few millimeters long. They are found in the bone in most mammals, and many reptiles, birds and amphibians. Inside the osteons are bone cells called osteocytes, each living in its own small space. Osteocytes make contact with each other by cytoplasmic processes through a network of tiny canals. This allows the exchange of nutrients and metabolic waste. Collagen fibers in each ring of cells ('lamellae') give them structure.

paragraphs: Osteons have a hole down the middle, called the haversian canal. This canal contains the bone's blood supply. It also contains capillaries, and nerve fibres.

paragraphs: The details of osteon structure varies between bones and parts of bones, from species to species, between sexes, and by age and environmental factors.


title: Anteater

paragraphs: Anteaters are mammals of the family Myrmecophagidae and the suborder Vermilingua. Anteaters live in South America and Central America.

paragraphs: Anteaters eat ants and termites. They have long, sharp claws and a long, sticky tongue. The tongue can be up to 60 cm long, as long as a person's arm. The anteater opens an ant nest with its claws. Then it licks up the ants with its tongue.

paragraphs: Large anteaters that move on the ground knuckle-walk, bending their front toes under when they move the way gorillas do. Small anteaters that live in trees do not do this.


title: Sorghum

paragraphs: Sorghum is a genus in the grass family "Poaceae". The plants are grown in warmer climates. Species grow naturally in tropical and subtropical regions of all continents in addition to Oceania and Australasia. Because many species of Sorghum are resistant to drought and high temperatures, it is a very important food source in the desert areas of Africa.


title: Polar bear

paragraphs: The polar bear ("Ursus maritimus") is a large bear which lives in the Arctic. It is also called white bear or northern bear. It has black skin under the white fur. They are strong and fast, and can run as fast as 25 miles (40 km) an hour for a short distance.

paragraphs: Polar bear fur is made up of a layer of dense underfur and an outer layer of "guard hairs", which appear white to tan but are actually translucent. The fur keeps them very warm. The skin is not white; it is black. Therefore, they can absorb sunlight efficiently. They are strong and can swim very well. Polar bears are similar in size to a normal bear but have a slimmer neck, longer legs and fur.

paragraphs: They are mostly carnivorous. Polar bears are apex predators. They eat mostly seals and fish. They also eat sea lions, walruses, reindeer, arctic hares, penguins, seagulls, small whales, lemmings, crabs and carrion. When Polar bears hunt, they often wait at holes in the ice, where the seals come up to breathe. They can live off of one seal for many days, but it will make them hungry if they do.

paragraphs: Polar bears live alone. Polar bears are black with clear fur, so in daylight, they appear white; at night, they are invisible.

paragraphs: Young Polar bears stay with their mothers for 1–2 years, and they become mature when they are 5–6 years old. People think Polar bears can become 25–30 years old in nature, but in captivity (for example, in zoos), they can become up to 45 years old.

paragraphs: Polar bears live in countries in the Arctic Circle, including these:

paragraphs: The breeding time is 8 months. The babies are born six weeks after their mother mates. At birth, a baby cub weighs less than 2 pounds (0.9 kilograms).

paragraphs: The mother feeds the babies milk, which makes them grow fast, and after 10 weeks, the cubs weigh about 20 to 25 pounds (9.1 to 11.4 kilograms).

paragraphs: Young polar bears wrestle in the snow to build their strength and skills. They practice using their strong paws, and they show off their big, sharp teeth.

paragraphs: Mother polar bears will do anything to protect their young. They can kill a predator with just one swat of their powerful front paws. Scientists have even seen a mother polar bear stand up and leap at a helicopter to keep it away from her cubs.

paragraphs: During the first year, the cubs begin to eat solid food but still nurse from their mother. They begin to learn to hunt and swim. But they cannot live on their own.

paragraphs: By the time they are two years old, the cubs have grown into large bears. They leave their mother and strike off into territory of their own. They hunt and live alone. But they play with other bears they meet.

paragraphs: Polar bears are ready to mate when they are five or six years old. They are adults by this time and weigh 330 to 660 pounds (150 to 300 kilograms).

paragraphs: Both male and female polar bears live to be as much as 30 years old (in a zoo). Polar bears have 42 teeth.

paragraphs: As adults, male bears fight with each other over a female each male fluffs out his coat of fur to make himself look bigger. Then, he swaggers along, growling, to scare off his rival. Polar bear scientists call this "the cowboy walk."

paragraphs: The polar bear eats seals, fish and fruits (berries).

paragraphs: They can be up to 250cm long and 160cm tall and weigh up to 600kg.

paragraphs: When two polar bears meet, they have a special way of greeting each other. They circle around each other for a while, grunting. Then they come closer and touch noses.

paragraphs: The polar bear was the most dangerous animal to hunt. It was also greatly respected for its strength and spirit. The bear's blubber, meat, and fur all help the Inuit survive. The Inuit gave thanks and respect in turn. After a hunt, they held a celebration that lasted for several days. Then, a polar bear dance was held. Finally, the bear's skull was set on an ice floe to release its spirit back into the Arctic.

paragraphs: A polar bear's paws are perfect snowshoes for them. The bottoms are wide and covered with fur to help keep the bear from slipping. The sharp claws help grip the ice.

paragraphs: A polar bear can crawl across ice too thin for a human to walk on. They spread out their legs and lay their bellies flat on the ice. Then they use their claws to slowly push themselves across the ice.

paragraphs: Polar bears mate in April or May. The cub is born in December, when the mother is hibernating. The cub stays in the den with the mother until March, then, they all come out. They eat immediately after hibernating. Sometimes, because of global warming, this is impossible and the cubs die before they have had a chance to live. The cub leaves its mother in 2-3 years.

paragraphs: The polar bear's liver contains a lot of vitamin A. Inuit people knew that eating the liver could cause sickness and death. Several groups of European polar explorers were seriously ill after eating livers. The symptoms included drowsiness, wanting to sleep, being irritable, headaches, and vomiting. After 24 hours, people's skin began to peel off.


title: The Blues Image

paragraphs: The Blues Image was a late 1960s rock band formed in Tampa, Florida in 1966, and their only hit was the song "Ride, Captain, Ride". Members are singer and guitarist Michael Pinera, drummer Manuel Bertematti, and drummer Joe Lala. They were later joined by bassist Malcolm Jones and keyboardist Frank "Skip" Konte.


title: Drummer

paragraphs: A drummer is a person who plays the drums as a job or as a hobby. This can be someone who plays drums in the military, in a band or as a session musician. A session musician is someone who plays an instrument in a band when no one else is available. A drummer keeps the beat so their role is a hard and important job. Without a drummer, the band would find it hard to keep in time.


title: Singer

paragraphs: A singer is a person who sings. Anyone who is singing is a singer. Some people do it as a job (professional singer), others may sing without being paid (amateur singer). Singers may sing anything: songs, opera etc. They may be accompanied by an instrument or an orchestra. Some singers also play a musical instrument such as piano, guitar or harp while they sing (they accompany themselves). Singing is important in movies and in the theatre.Example : ( cherian george XI A )

paragraphs: The lead vocalist (lead vocal or lead singer) is the member of a band who sings the main solo vocal portions of a song. The lead vocalist may also play one or more instruments, and is usually the "leader" of their group, often the spokesperson in interviews and before the public. The lead vocalist is sometimes referred to as the frontman. For example, Jerry Garcia was the lead singer and frontman for the Grateful Dead.

paragraphs: A good singer will have to think of a lot of different things in a performance. Good vocal technique, a large vocal range, as well as "feeling the song" through emotional language and breathing, and also acting to provide a song with meaning. A good singer may be able to learn a song quickly, but it may take some time before they really feel it has become "part of them". A lead singer has to be a strong singer since other vocalists must sing accordingly.

paragraphs: Singers can sing as a solo, or in a group or a choir. Choirs can include gospel music, church music and even pop songs where there are usually two groups of singers, soprano and alto. Sopranos have a higher range and altos have a lower range. Combining these two can create various harmonies which add textures to songs and make them more interesting to listen to.

paragraphs: People who want a career in singing should start young. This means having lots of experience in music, including being able to read music and learning to perform music with other people. Serious vocal training should only begin when the body is more mature (mid- or late teenager).

paragraphs: People may feel like singing for various reasons. They may want to share their feelings with other people. They may be feeling happy about something, or sad, or excited, frustrated or angry. Singing is an art in which mood is expressed through the voice.


title: Keyboardist

paragraphs: A keyboardist is a musician who plays one or more of the musical instruments called keyboard instruments, such as the piano, organ, or electronic synthesizer. A person who plays piano is also called a pianist. A person who plays organ is called an organist. Many types of music use keyboardists, such as rock, pop, funk, and classical music.


title: Mao Zedong

paragraphs: Mao Zedong (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Communist leader. He is most notable for having more deaths attributed to his leadership than any other person in history. Between 1958 and 1962, his Great Leap Forward project led to the deaths of approximately 45 million Chinese, by far the largest mass murder ever recorded.

paragraphs: Mao Zedong is the Latin-alphabet version of Mao's name now used by most people. In the romanization common in his lifetime, it was spelled ""Mao Tse-tung"". "Mao" is his family name - in China, family names are placed first. Mao is also called Chairman Mao, because he was the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party.

paragraphs: In the 1950s, Mao Zedong had many plans for how China could move forward in technology very quickly and catch up with countries like the United Kingdom and United States. Mao was responsible for the Five Year Plan. The Second Five Year Plan included the Great Leap Forward, which was a disaster for the Chinese people. Poor farming practices led to significant crop failure, and cities did not make many of their daily items like clothes and machines. The famine that came as a result killed millions of people by starvation.

paragraphs: About the same time Mao became the leader in China, Nikita Khrushchev became the leader in the Soviet Union. Before this, Joseph Stalin was the leader in the Soviet Union, Mao liked Stalin and respected the way he led, and China and Russia became allies with each other. Khrushchev thought Stalin was a criminal dictator, and led the country very differently. Mao and Krushchev did not like each other, so the Soviet Union was no longer allies with China. China now had only a few allies like Albania, North Korea, Democratic Kampuchea, and Pakistan. This change of friends was called the Sino-Soviet split. "Sino" is another way to say "Chinese".

paragraphs: During the 1970s, Mao became more friendly with the United States. In 1972, American president Richard Nixon visited the People's Republic of China and met Mao. Mao died in 1976, and the "Cultural Revolution" ended that year. Mao's supporters were jailed, and Deng Xiaoping, who followed Mao, changed Mao's policies so that Chinese people could have more private ownership.

paragraphs: Mao Zedong was afraid that Liu Shaoqi would overthrow him, and take over the CCP. As in the result, Mao blamed Liu Shaoqi for being a capitalist, and placed him in jail. Liu Shaoqi died in prison from brutal treatment, hunger, and terrible conditions.

paragraphs: After Liu had been removed from leadership, the defense minister Lin Biao was ranked second in the party and hoped to succeed Mao.

paragraphs: In 1971, Lin Biao and his wife died in a plane crash after reportedly trying to assassinate Mao and seize power.

paragraphs: Mao had been in poor health for several years and had declined visibly for at least six months prior to his death. There are unconfirmed reports that he possibly had ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease. Mao's last public appearance was on 27 May 1976, where he met the visiting Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto during the latter's one-day visit to Beijing.

paragraphs: At around 5:00 pm on 2 September 1976, Mao suffered a heart attack, far more severe than his previous two and affecting a much larger area of his heart. Three days later, on 5 September, Mao's condition was still critical. On the afternoon of 7 September, Mao's condition completely deteriorated. Mao's organs failed quickly and he fell into a coma shortly before noon where he was put on life support machines. He was taken off life support over 12 hours later, quarter to midnight and was pronounced dead at 12:08 am on 9 September 1976.

paragraphs: His body lay in state at the Great Hall of the People. There was a three-minute silence observed during this service. His body was later placed into the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, even though he had wished to be cremated and had been one of the first high-ranking officials to sign the "Proposal that all Central Leaders be Cremated after Death" in November 1956.

paragraphs: Many Chinese mainlanders still believe Mao Zedong was a great leader, but they also knew that he did many unwise and bad things. According to Deng Xiaoping, Mao was "seven parts right and three parts wrong" and his "contributions are primary and his mistakes secondary." Supporters praise him for having unified China and for ending the previous decades of civil war. He is also praised for having improved the status of women in China and for improving literacy and education. Some people think Mao Zedong made China lose its important ally, or friend, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were two of the things that Mao did that many people disliked. Some historians, people who study history, think that tens of millions of people died because of Mao's bad ideas and neglect. Some people disliked Mao because he did not support family planning, and this caused too many babies to be born, making too rapid population growth in too small places. Leaders of China after Mao had to make a new rule called one child policy.

paragraphs: Mao Zedong also made several changes to the Chinese language, such as switching from the Wade Giles system of Romanization to Pinyin. For this reason, Nanking is now called Nanjing on modern maps. Taiwan still uses Wade Giles, so its capital is called Taipei instead of the pinyin Taibei. He also simplified the Chinese characters, in theory it would make them easier to read and write so that more people would be literate.


title: Opus Dei

paragraphs: Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei (more commonly known as Opus Dei) is an organization of the Roman Catholic Church. ("Opus Dei" means "Work of God" in Latin.) Opus Dei says that the Catholic Church gave them a special job: to tell everyone that God wants them to be close to him. This means that everyone is called by God to become a saint.

paragraphs: Opus Dei was started by St. , a Roman Catholic priest, in 1928. It was approved by Pope Pius XII in 1950. Now, Opus Dei has around 85,000 members in 80 different countries.

paragraphs: In 1982, Pope John Paul II decided to make Opus Dei into a personal prelature. Usually, in the Catholic Church, there are separate dioceses in different areas. Each area has its own bishop who is in charge of just that diocese. But because Opus Dei is a personal prelature, its bishop is not limited to any specific area. He is in charge of members of Opus Dei wherever they are, around the world.

paragraphs: Opus Dei was started by a Roman Catholic priest, Josemaria Escrivá, on 2 October 1928 in Madrid, Spain. He said that God showed him what to do. On that day he "saw Opus Dei."

paragraphs: Escrivá said that the goals of Opus Dei are:

paragraphs: Opus Dei gives classes, talks, and other help so that people can practice these teachings.

paragraphs: Pope John Paul II has said that Escrivá was led by God when he started Opus Dei.

paragraphs: In 2002, Pope Benedict XVI said that Opus Dei is God's work, not Escrivá's. He said that God just used Escriva as a tool to start his own work.

paragraphs: Escrivá and Opus Dei teach that a person can get close to God by doing these things:

paragraphs: Escrivá said that the basis of a Christian life is being a child of God. If people are aware of this, then they will always be very happy. He wrote that joy comes from knowing we are children of God.

paragraphs: According to the Catholic Church, people can find God in their daily work and activities. There they can be very close to him. They do not have to become priests or monks to become a saint. God wants them to become a saint by doing their ordinary duties and activities well. The Catholic Church gave Opus Dei the job of spreading this knowledge, and teaching people that they can be real saints just by doing ordinary things and offering them to God.

paragraphs: Pope John Paul II praised Opus Dei and said that its aim of bringing God into the place of work is something great. Cardinal Albino Luciani, who later became Pope John Paul I, said that Escriva brought about a big change in how people deal with God. Before, people saw prayers as the only way to be close to God. Luciani said that Escriva also gave importance to work. The work one does can become prayer.

paragraphs: But when Escriva started teaching this, some Jesuits in the 1940s did not understand him. They said his beliefs were against the Catholic faith, because at that time Catholics thought that only priests and nuns could become holy. Some Jesuit leaders started saying that Opus Dei had secrets which it did not want the world to know, and that Opus Dei was dangerous. In fact, they said, Opus Dei just wanted to become very powerful and to control the world.

paragraphs: All these accusations were cleared up by the Popes and Catholic officials. These officials say that Opus Dei is doing something good for the world, by teaching people how to practice good habits, like telling the truth, working hard, keeping promises, loving people, and being concerned with those who are in need.

paragraphs: However, since the Jesuits are well-respected, a lot of people in the world believed what they said. Opus Dei has gotten a lot of criticism from Catholics and non-Catholics. They say that the members develop a strong drive to gain influence, and that the behaviour resembles that of a sect. Critics of Opus Dei also say there is a lot of gender inequality in the organization. They say Opus Dei has a very traditional view of the role of women in a Christian society. According to these critics, for Opus Dei the duty of the woman is to busy herself about the house and to raise the children of the family.

paragraphs: In 2005, a writer named John L. Allen, Jr. wrote a book which argued against these accusations. He said that these claims are mainly based on not understanding Opus Dei. He argued that:

paragraphs: Another writer, Massimo Introvigne, said that Opus Dei is now being attacked by people who do not believe in God and people who think that God should not be present in the world of human beings. These people, he says, do not want religion to come back to the lives of many people in society.


title: Superhero

paragraphs: A superhero is a fictional character who protects innocent people and fights for good.

paragraphs: Modern superheroes usually have superhuman powers, for example have better senses, are stronger and faster than normal humans. Usually a superhero is courageous and noble. They usually have a colorful name and costume.

paragraphs: Some well known superheroes include Batman (as DC's flagship character), Spider-Man (as Marvel's flagship character), Superman, Captain America, Wonder Woman and Iron Man.

paragraphs: Some superheroes do not actually have super powers but are merely strong individuals who want to do good in the world. For example, Batman does not have any superpowers, but has been through years of training to be physically and mentally stronger than his enemies.

paragraphs: Most superheroes keep their identities a secret by wearing masks or helmets. This protects the superheroes' friends and family from being hurt by villains. Also, because superheroes do not fight within the regulations of the law like police officers do, they would have to be arrested for vigilantism if they revealed their identities.

paragraphs: Also, many superheroes have tragic backstories that play into why they're superheroes in the first place. Batman, for example, saw both of his parents murdered in front of him and dedicated himself to fighting crime to prevent things like that happening to other people. Another example of this is Spider-Man who let a thief go that he could've easily stopped; that same thief later broke into his home and killed Spider-Man's uncle. After this, Spider-Man realized that he had to be responsible with his power and use it to help others.


title: Paul Karrer

paragraphs: Paul Karrer (21 April 1889 18 June 1971) was a Swiss biochemist best known for his work on vitamins. He and Norman Haworth won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937.


title: Smush Parker

paragraphs: William "Smush" Parker (born 1 June 1981 in New York, New York) is a professional player in the American National Basketball Association.

paragraphs: Parker was not selected in the NBA player draft after a college career at Fordham University, and has played for the Cleveland Cavaliers, Detroit Pistons and Phoenix Suns, signing a contract with the Los Angeles Lakers during the 2005 offseason.

paragraphs: He last played in the NBA for the Los Angeles Clippers in 2010.


title: Half-Life (video game)

paragraphs: Half-Life is a science fiction first-person shooter computer game developed by Valve Software and published by Sierra Entertainment in 1998, based on a very changed "Quake" game engine. It was first published for PCs running Microsoft Windows, and was later ported to Sony's PlayStation 2 video game console. It is the first game in the Half-Life series.

paragraphs: "Half-Life", often shortened to "HL", has been thought to be very great by computer game critics for its gripping in-depth storyline, which has influenced the development of many other first-person shooters after it. It became very popular after it was released and still has many fans.

paragraphs: The story of the game takes place in a science research facility in New Mexico named Black Mesa. In the game, you play as Gordon Freeman, a scientist who works at Black Mesa. A test that Gordon helps with goes wrong, and causes a "resonance cascade." This causes portals to appear all over Black Mesa. Aliens from a different dimension come through the portals and kill many of the scientists and workers. The dimension that the aliens come from is called Xen. After that, the United States Military is ordered to kill all the scientists and aliens in Black Mesa because they didn't want people to know about the accident. Gordon must fight aliens and marines on his way through Black Mesa, then teleport to Xen so he can kill the alien leader.

paragraphs: "Half-Life: Opposing Force" is the first expansion for Half-Life, which was made by Gearbox Software instead of Valve. It was released on November 1, 1999. Half-Life: Opposing Force happens during the same time as Half-Life and in the same setting. In the expansion, you play as Adrian Shepard, a United States marine. He was sent to Black Mesa, and must escape after the helicopter he was riding was shot down.

paragraphs: "Half-Life: Blue Shift" is the second Expansion for Half-Life, which was also made by Gearbox Software, and was released on June 12, 2001. "Half-Life: Blue Shift" happens during the same time as Half-Life and in the same setting, just like "Opposing Force." In this expansion, you play as Barney Calhoun, a security guard who works at Black Mesa during the resonance cascade.

paragraphs: "Half-Life: Decay" is the final expansion for Half-Life. Only the PlayStation 2 version of Half-Life has it. A few years after it was released, though, some fans of "Decay" made a version of it for the computer, and released it as a mod. The expansion is a cooperative multiplayer campaign, where two players have to work together to win.

paragraphs: The G-Man is a mysterious figure in the Half-Life series. Not much is known about him, other than he has control over space-time and can control reality.

paragraphs: Half-Life has 2 sequels. Half-Life 2 and its episodes and Half-Life: Alyx.


title: Anonymity

paragraphs: Anonymity means "namelessness" and comes from Greek words meaning "without name". It is when a person's identity or name is unknown. If a person is called anonymous, nobody knows who he or she is, or the anonymous person does not want to be found out.

paragraphs: The concept of anonymity has some important uses. It is vital for a democracy that votes cast in an election are anonymous. In that way, no-one can find out how a person voted in an election.


title: Spectroscopy

paragraphs: Spectroscopy is the study of light as a function of length of the wave that has been emitted, reflected or shone through a solid, liquid, or gas. To be analyzed the chemical is heated, because hot things glow and each chemical glows differently. The various wavelengths of the glow make a color spectrum that differs in some detail from other chemicals. Spectroscopy separates and measures the brightness of the different wavelengths. It can identify the chemicals in a mixture, and determine some other things, such as how hot the thing is.

paragraphs: Spectroscopy allows scientists to investigate and explore things that are too small to be seen through a microscope, such as molecules, and the even smaller subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons. There are special instruments to measure and analyze these light waves.

paragraphs: Infrared spectroscopy measures light in the infrared electromagnetic spectrum. The highlight of IR spectroscopy is that it is very useful in identifying functional groups of organic molecules. The absorption of infrared light by organic molecules causes molecular vibrations. The vibrational frequencies are unique to the individual functional groups. IR spectra is given graphically by transmittance(%) vs. wavenumber (cm-1)

paragraphs: X-ray crystallography can look at the structure of a crystalline molecule. The electron cloud of each atom diffracts the X-rays thus revealing the positions of the atoms. Various inorganic and organic molecules can be crystallized and used in this method including DNA, proteins, salts and metals. The sample used for analysis is not destroyed.

paragraphs: Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy uses visible and ultraviolet light to look at how much of a chemical is in a liquid. The colour of the solution is the basis for how UV-Vis works. The color of the solution we are working with is colored because of its chemical composition. So the solution absorbs some light colors and reflects other colors, the light it reflects is the color of the solution. UV-Vis spectroscopy works by passing light through a sample of your solution then determining how much light gets absorbed by the solution.

paragraphs: Nuclear magnetic resonance can look at nuclei. It uses the magnetic properties of certain nuclei, the most common being C and H. The NMR instrument generates a large magnetic field that makes the nuclei act like tiny bar magnets. The nuclei either align with the instruments magnetic field or against it. At this point we have two possible orientations the nuclei could be in α or β. Next the nuclei are exposed to radio waves that make α go to the β orientation. When this change occurs energy is given off and detected. The data is interpreted graphically (Intensity vs. chemical shifts in ppm) by a computer system. NMR does not destroy the sample you use for analysis. Below is a 900 MHz NMR system.


title: Equestrianism

paragraphs: Equestrianism is the sport of horseback riding. It is a popular sport in countries like the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom and other countries in Europe. Horses are used in many different competitions.

paragraphs: Within the sport, there are several types of riding, such as English and Western. In English riding, there are three Olympic events: cross country, dressage and show jumping (in which competitors ride horses over obstacles). There are no forms of Western riding in the Olympics.

paragraphs: In show jumping, a rider rides a horse over a set course of horse jumps while being timed. Riders win by having the fastest time without mistakes. There are many types of horse jumps such as the vertical oxer (over two rails), and combinations (2 or 3 jumps put right after each other).

paragraphs: Not every type of horse can jump well, just like not all horses are able to do well at horse racing or farm work. Most horses seen in show jumping competitions are warmbloods and throughbreds, horses that were bred for equestrian sports. The riding has been popular since 1900.

paragraphs: Dressage is an event where horses do not jump, but must be very obedient to their riders. There is usually a sequence that the horse and rider must complete. Letters are placed around an arena to show where movements should happen. In dressage the horse and rider can also perform a freestyle, which is also known as "Dancing on Horseback". Dressage riders usually wear tight pants called breeches, as well as a blouse, a top coat and a top hat. The moves of the horse are very graceful and people like to watch them. Horses that compete at the Olympics in dressage have had many years of training to learn all the moves they must do for the competition.

paragraphs: Eventing combines dressage, show jumping, and the horse version of cross country into one sport. This combined training is based on the old military tests of the cavalry where the rider's life depended on the horse listening to what the rider told it to do. Cross country makes this sport different from the other equestrian sports. It requires the horse to canter at a high speed over solid and interesting jumps. These jumps may be logs, stone walls, water, ditches, or banks. The cross country course is very long, and at the Olympics it may take as long as 10 minutes to complete the course.

paragraphs: The dressage test makes sure that the horse is listening to the rider. It tests that the horse is very well trained. The cross-country course makes sure that the horse is fast and brave, since cross-country fences may be very scary. The show jumping makes sure that the horse is in good shape, since he must do it the day after running over the long cross country course. If the horse is too tired, he will hit the show jumps and make it harder for the rider to win.

paragraphs: In Hunter-jumpers, people ride horses in various classes. Some of those are Show jumping or Hunter-under-saddle. They are judged on the rider, not the horse. Any type of horse or pony can compete.

paragraphs: Stock work began when horses were ridden on a ranch to round up cows, sheep, or other animals. Today, horse shows also have competitions for horses to show these skills. These include Cutting, Reining, Barrel Racing, Cattle Penning, Calf Roping, Campdrafting, and Pole Bending.

paragraphs: Driving in the horse world means that a horse is pulling a type of wagon. It knows where to go by a person sitting on the wagon that tells them which direction they should turn. A horse used to pull a wagon is usually bigger and heavier than most other horses. The hooves are also much larger than a racing horse. Large horses are calm, trustworthy and good-natured. Types of heavy horses are: Belgians, Shires, Clydesdale, Friesian horse, and Gypsy Vanners. Also a beginner is able to communicate with these well tempered horses.

paragraphs: Races of horses pulling carts are called harness racing. The horses are smaller.

paragraphs: Horse racing tests the speed of a horse. Different breeds do different types of races. The most popular type in the U.S. is Thoroughbred racing, where only horses of this breed can participate in galloping around a track. There are also endurance races, trotting races and steeplechases (horses galloping around a track with jumps). Most horses that are used for racing are ridden by professional riders called jockeys. Usually the people that own or train the horse do not ride it in the races.

paragraphs: Barrel racing is a sport where the rider rides the horse in a pattern around three barrels. The rider must be able to turn the horse very quickly around the barrels. The horse that does the pattern the fastest is the winner.

paragraphs: Pleasure riding is riding for enjoyment, not for awards. People ride horses on trails in the forest, along quiet roads, or in an arena near their homes or barns. Horse back riding lessons could be considered pleasure riding. Pleasure riding can be called trail riding. Pleasure riding does not have to be for any specific reason, just for fun and enjoyment. Riding in a horse carriage may also be for pleasure.

paragraphs: Endurance riding is an equestrian long-distance race. There are two main types of endurance rides which are competitive trail riding and endurance rides.


title: United States Virgin Islands

paragraphs: The United States Virgin Islands are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. They are currently owned and under the authority of the United States Government. They used to be owned by Denmark (and called "Danish West Indies"). They were sold to the U.S on January 17, 1917, because of fear that the Germans would capture them and use them as a submarine base in World War I. They are the only part of the U.S. where vehicles drive on the left hand side of the road.


title: Chester A. Arthur

paragraphs: Chester Alan Arthur (October 5, 1829 – November 18, 1886) was an American politician and the 21st President of the United States. Before becoming president, he was most noted as the Collector of Customs for the port of New York, a job he got from his political friendships. Arthur was the first President of the United States to take oath of office at his own house.

paragraphs: Arthur was a lawyer in New York City. Two of his cases were famous. One confirmed that any slave brought to New York was automatically set free. The other ended the racial segregation of streetcars in the city.

paragraphs: After President James A. Garfield died, vice-president Chester Arthur replaced him. The man who killed him expected the new President to pardon him. This did not happen.

paragraphs: During Arthur's term a major problem was that people were appointing their friends (such as himself) into high political offices instead of people who were most qualified to do the job. The problem was solved after he passed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act which required people to pass tests before they could be appointed to a public job.


title: Wizardry

paragraphs: Wizardry is a series of computer role-playing games that were popular in the 1980s. First, made for the Apple II, they were later moved to other platforms. The latest game in the series, "Wizardry 8", is only for Windows.

paragraphs: "Wizardry" began as a simple dungeon crawl by Andrew C. Greenberg and Robert Woodhead. It was written when they were students at Cornell University and then published by Sir-Tech.

paragraphs: David W. Bradley took over the series after the fourth game.

paragraphs: Ultimately the single game became a series:

paragraphs: The first and last three games were trilogies (Three parts of one story).

paragraphs: "Wizardry" inspired many games which were almost exactly like it. Some notable series that are very much like "Wizardry" include "The Bard's Tale" and "Might and Magic".


title: United States Army

paragraphs: The United States Army is a branch (or section) of the United States Armed Forces. An army mainly deals with land based missions, while other parts of the military deal with air and sea missions.

paragraphs: The United States Secretary of the Army, a civilian, leads the army with the help of the Army Chief of Staff, a general. Officially, a person (or member) in the army is called a soldier. The soldier must take orders from a person in charge known as a CO or commander. When a person joins the Army, they must serve for a certain amount of time or a "tour of duty". A new soldier or recruit must go through training called Basic Training to become a soldier. Each soldier is trained in a variety of weapons and equipment to carry out commands.

paragraphs: The army started as the Continental Army from 1775 to August 7, 1789 when the War Department (now known as the Department of Defense) was formed. The Army fought wars against the British and many indigenous peoples in its early years. It also rented slaves from slaveowners to build forts, and many officers brought their own slaves with them on assignments.

paragraphs: The United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U.S. Military.

paragraphs: Traditionally, the US Army has had three different combat arms:


title: Charlemagne

paragraphs: Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus, English: Charles the Great, German: Karl der Große, Dutch: Karel de Grote) (c.2 April 748 – 28 January, 814) was the king of the Franks and the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He was crowned as the Emperor on Christmas Day, 800. He was the older son of King Pippin III of the Carolingian dynasty. When Pippin died, Charlemagne and his brother Carloman ruled together. When Carloman died in 771 Charlemagne became the only ruler of the Franks.

paragraphs: The Franks—one of the Germanic peoples who had moved their homes over the River Rhine into the Roman Empire as it was falling apart—were, by the year 700, the rulers of Gaul, and a lot of Germania east of the Rhine. They also protected the Papacy and the Roman Catholic faith. When their king Pepin the Short died, his sons, Charlemagne and Carloman were chosen to share the kingdom. They divided it into two parts: one half for Charlemagne, and the other for Carloman. Carloman died on December 4, 771, leaving Charlemagne as the leader of the whole Frankish kingdom.

paragraphs: He was king of the Franks from 768, and king of the Lombards from 774. He was crowned Imperator Augustus (Emperor) in Rome on Christmas Day by Pope Leo III in 800, starting the Holy Roman Empire, that they hoped would be a kind of second Western Roman Empire (while the Byzantines in Constantinople were still keeping up the Eastern Roman empire). With many wars, Charlemagne spread his empire across much of Western Europe.

paragraphs: Charlemagne fought in many wars over the course of his reign. He is known for using his sword, “Joyeuse”, in each of the thirty years of war and the 18 battles he fought in. He also finally managed to conquer Saxony, something the Roman Emperor Augustus could not do 800 years earlier. He was able to convert the Saxons to Catholic Christianity. He also had many schools built so his people could learn. However, he also killed thousands of those who failed to convert.

paragraphs: Charlemagne's politics and plans failed, which led to low self-esteem. His last years were spent in bed in deep depression. He died in 814, leaving his kingdom to his only son, Louis the Pious. The descendants of Charlemagne are called "Carolingians". His family line died out in Germany in 911 and in France in 987.


title: Marlow, Buckinghamshire

paragraphs: Marlow is a town on the banks of the River Thames, on the southern tip of Buckinghamshire, England.


title: Italian unification

paragraphs: Italian unification (), also known as the Risorgimento (meaning "the Resurgence"), refers to the Italian movement that united the Italian states in the 19th century. The movement began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna. It ended in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, through the efforts of Count of Cavour, the Piedmontese prime minister, as well as Giuseppe Garibaldi - an Italian national hero, who united the South. That allowed king Victor Emmanuel to become the first king of Italy.

paragraphs: Napoléon Bonaparte invaded Italy in 1796 and later controlled it. When he was defeated in 1815, in the battle of Waterloo, it became possible for the now free states to join together.

paragraphs: After the fall of Napoléon, the Congress of Vienna (1814–15) restored the Old Regime. The Austrian Empire and the Habsburgs controlled most of the Italy.

paragraphs: Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont-Sardinia had a great vision of a unified Italy. He wanted Piedmont-Sardinia to be a model for the unification of Italy. To do so, he started many public works, projects, and political reforms. Piedmont-Sardinia was soon recognized as an emerging power. The next step for Piedmont-Sardinia 's conquest was to get Austria out of the Italian Peninsula. With the Crimean War breaking out between France and Britain on one side, and Russia on the other, Piedmont-Sardinia had a chance to earn some respect and make a name for itself. Britain and France proved victorious, and Sardinia was able to attend the peace conference. As a result of this, Piedmont-Sardinia gained the support of Napoléon III.

paragraphs: In 1858, Sardinia and France secretly plotted a plan of attack against Austria. The following year, Sardinia put its plan into action. Instead of attacking, Sardinia's encouraged nationalist revolts in Austrian-held territories in Italy. This provoked Austria into starting the war. Following the battles of Magenta and Solferino, France drove Austria out of Lombardy, but Austria still held onto Venetia.

paragraphs: At this point, France dropped out of the war, fearing a unified Italy might be a threat, as well as realising that Austrian strength would eventually crush them. This ended the war, with Austria keeping Venetia.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi led a nationalist uprising, combining the states and territories into a full Republic. As Sardinia ended the war, Garibaldi gave most of the provinces to Sardinia. In March 1861, a parliament of all of Italy except Rome and Venetia, agreed on unifying Italy with Victor Emmanuel as its first king. When Prussia defeated Austria in a war in 1866, Italy struck a deal with Berlin, forcing Vienna to turn over Venetia, leaving Rome as the last missing Italian city.

paragraphs: Because of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, France sent her army away from Rome. Without protection, the Pope could not resist, and Rome finally became the capital of Italy.


title: Meditation

paragraphs: Meditation tries to get past the "thinking" mind, and into a deeper state of relaxation or awareness.

paragraphs: Meditation is a practice where an individual trains attention and awareness to get a clear and emotionally calm and stable state. Scholars have found meditation difficult to define, as practices vary both between traditions and within them.

paragraphs: Meditation is a common practice in many religions including Buddhism, Christianity (sometimes), Taoism, Hinduism (where Yoga is important)

paragraphs: and other religions. Meditation has now become a modern trend, showing many health benefits.

paragraphs: The initial origin of meditation is from the vedic times of india.

paragraphs: In Buddhism, three things are very important: being a good person, making the mind stronger, and understanding (Insight or Wisdom) about why people are in pain (Dukkha). For Buddhists, meditation is used to calm the mind so that the mind can better see the cause of pain. Buddhists believe that this type of seeing can end pain.

paragraphs: Buddhist meditation is not just used for spiritual reasons. Research shows that Buddhist meditation lowers stress, anxiety and depression.

paragraphs: Most types of Buddhist meditation focus on something. The most popular things to focus on include breath, metta or Loving-Kindness towards all, other recollections, situational mindfulness and religious images and sounds.

paragraphs: Christians sometimes meditate by thinking about small parts of the Bible, or by saying the words of a prayer to themselves over and over. Meditation is an expression of Christian prayer. In the Catechism of the Catholic Church is specified that by means of meditation "The mind seeks to understand the why and how of the Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking"; also it is pointed out that "meditation engages thought, imagination, emotion, and desire. This mobilization of faculties is necessary in order to deepen our convictions of faith, prompt the conversion of our heart, and strengthen our will to follow Christ".

paragraphs: Meditation is principally made on the Sacred Scriptures with the Gospels, liturgical texts, writings of the spiritual fathers, and meditative devotions.

paragraphs: Meditation is a significant part of the devotion of the Rosary; "by virtue of its meditative character, with the tranquil succession of Hail Marys, the Rosary has a peaceful effect on those who pray it, disposing them to receive and experience in their innermost depths, and to spread around them, that true peace which is the special gift of the Risen Lord (cf. Jn 14:27; 20.21)."

paragraphs: Meditation has a long tradition in Hinduism. It comes in many different styles. Here is a short list:

paragraphs: Meditation in Hinduism is used for different reasons. Some of the reasons are:


title: Celtic Park

paragraphs: Celtic Park is a football stadium in Parkhead, Glasgow, Scotland. It is the home ground of Celtic Football Club.