title: The Internationale

paragraphs: "The Internationale" (, ; , , , ) is a very well known communist, socialist, and social democratic/democratic socialist song. While it was originally written in French, it was translated into many other languages, including English. The most famous versions, however, are those in Russian and Chinese.

paragraphs: The French words, written by Eugene Pottier, were originally supposed to be sung to the tune of "La Marseillaise", but a separate tune was created for it by a Belgian named Pierre Degeyter.

paragraphs: The Russian version, written by Arkady Yakolevich Kots () in 1902, was adopted as the national anthem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR) in 1918 and as that of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the Soviet Union) in 1922. It stayed like this until 1944, when it was replaced by the State Anthem of the Soviet Union written by Alexander Alexandrov.

paragraphs: The Chinese lyrics were written by Qu Qiubai ().

paragraphs: The song is known by its tune, and its chorus, which in French begins with "" (meaning "It's the final battle").


title: Hartley, Kent

paragraphs: Hartley is a village in Kent, England. It is 6 miles south of Gravesend and Dartford. The old church is called All Saints.

paragraphs: Hartley has many new buildings and some old houses, it now joins Longfield, the place in the north. In 2001 there were 5,395 persons living here. There are also woods and a farm near the houses. Most of the 2,145 houses in Hartley are owned by the persons who live in them.

paragraphs: The name Hartley means "place in the wood where the deer are". It was a very small place, but now is like a town. No great events happened here, and not many famous persons lived in Hartley.

paragraphs: In the Cretaceous time, much of England was under the sea. In the deep waters, the chalk of the North Downs of Kent was made. Then the sea made the clay which is over the chalk. Then the Ice Age froze the chalk and there were rivers which made the "dry valley" at Hartley Bottom.

paragraphs: In the year 1086, 15 families and 3 slaves lived in Hartley. Before the Black Death (1348) about 150 persons lived here. 53 persons made tax payments in 1377, which means about 85 lived here then. In 1392 a paper tells us that there was a chief house, where a manager lived. He farmed land for the owner. This land was called Hartley Court. Other persons who owned land in Hartley, had to go to the court of the owner and do some other work for him.

paragraphs: There was a fight at Hartley Wood in 1554, between supporters and opponents of Queen Mary I of England. Her supporters won. Hartley in 1650 was like the place in 1850, because almost all the buildings were there then. In 1770 the writer Edward Hasted said not many persons go to Hartley.

paragraphs: Some buildings were made in the 1700s (like Hartley House and Yew Cottage). In 1841 there were 224 persons living in Hartley. Almost all worked on the farms. There was also a wheel maker, metal worker and drink sellers.

paragraphs: The growth of Hartley started after the railway came to Longfield in 1876, and water by pipe came in 1902. Next two companies – Payne, Trapps and Co Ltd, and Small Owners Limited sold land for houses and small farms. After 1945 there were many new houses and roads.


title: Stephanie McMahon

paragraphs: Stephanie Marie McMahon-Levesque (born September 24, 1976), better known as Stephanie McMahon, is the "Executive Vice President of Talent and Creative Writing" for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). She is married to Paul "Triple H" Levesque. They have three daughters together. She is the daughter of WWE founder, Vince McMahon. She is the sister of Shane McMahon and daughter of Linda Mcmahon.


title: Cienfuegos

paragraphs: Cienfuegos is the capital city of the Cienfuegos province, Cuba. It has a population of about 150,000.


title: Gribble

paragraphs: A gribble is any species of marine isopod from the family Limnoriidae. They are mostly pale white and small (1-4  mm long) crustaceans.

paragraphs: The term gribble was originally used for the wood-boring species, especially the first species described from Norway by Rathke in 1799, "Limnoria lignorum". The Limnoriidae have species which bore into seaweed and sea grass, as well as wood borers.

paragraphs: There are three genera, "Paralimnoria", "Limnoria" and "Lynseia". "Limnoria" has species in most seas. Those gribbles able to bore into living marine plants are thought to have evolved from a wood (dead plant) boring species.

paragraphs: Gribbles bore into wood and plant material for food. The cellulose of wood is digested. The most destructive species are "Limnoria lignorum", "L. tripunctata" and "L. quadripunctata". According to an expert, they are the only animals able to make a cellulase to dissolve plant cell walls. Other animals that eat plant fibres make use of bacteria in their gut to produce the enzyme. Gribbles do not. This has led some biologists to think of biofuels.


Veronica


title: Tuatara

paragraphs: The Tuatara are reptiles which look like lizards. However, they are the only surviving member of an order of reptiles which flourished 200 million years ago.

paragraphs: There is now only the genus Sphenodon, with two species of Tuatara. Both are endemic to (only live in) New Zealand. Lizards and snakes are the closest living relatives of the tuatara.

paragraphs: Tuatara are green-brown, and measure up to 80 cm from head to the end of their tail. They have a spiny crest along the back: the Maori word "tuatara" refers to this.

paragraphs: The crest is more pronounced in males. Tuatara are special in many ways. One of these is the pattern of their teeth. They have two rows of teeth in the upper jaw overlap one row on the lower jaw. This is unique among living species.

paragraphs: Tuatara are also unusual because they have a third 'eye'. They have two normal eyes. The third eye is on top of their head, in between their other eyes. It does not see like a normal eye. The parietal eye, as it is called, is only visible in hatchlings. They have a translucent patch at the top centre of the skull. After four to six months this becomes covered with opaque scales and pigment.

paragraphs: The function of the parietal eye is unknown, but it may be useful in absorbing ultraviolet rays to manufacture vitamin D. It may also do other things. Of all living tetrapods, the parietal eye is most obvious in this animal. The parietal eye is part of the pineal system. The animal's pineal gland secretes melatonin at night. Some salamanders use their pineal body to perceive polarised light, which helps navigation. Unlike lizards they have no eardrums or external male sexual organ.

paragraphs: Tuataras do not have ears, but they can hear. They have a number of unique features in their skeleton (bones), some of them shared through common descent with fish.

paragraphs: The tuatara has been classified as an endangered species since 1895. The second species, "S. guntheri", was not discovered until 1989.

paragraphs: Tuatara, like many of New Zealand's native animals, are threatened by habitat loss and the introduced Polynesian Rat "Rattus exulans". They were extinct on the mainland, with the remaining populations confined to 32 offshore islands, until the first mainland release into the heavily fenced and monitored Karori Wildlife Sanctuary in 2005.


title: Dinosaur Jr

paragraphs: Dinosaur Jr is an American rock band. The band was formed in 1984 in Massachusetts. The band stopped playing in 1997 but came back together in 2007. The people in the band right now are J Mascis, Lou Barlow and Murph. The band has recorded many albums over the years that were very important to rock music. Some of these albums are "You're Living All Over Me", "Green Mind" and "Beyond".

paragraphs: The band is famous for J Mascis' good guitar sounds and his powerful guitar solos.


title: Band Aid (band)

paragraphs: Band Aid was a British and Irish charity music supergroup. It was started in 1984 by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure. The purpose was to raise money for famine relief in Ethiopia by making the record "Do They Know It's Christmas?" The single was very successful. It was Number One on the music charts during Christmas. Two re-recordings of the song were done. They raised more money and also finished Number One on the charts.

paragraphs: Band Aid II re-recorded the song in 1989, and Band Aid 20 did the same in 2004.


title: Hüsker Dü

paragraphs: Hüsker Dü was an American hardcore punk and later alternative rock band from the 1980s. The band formed in 1979 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The people in the band were Bob Mould who sang and played electric guitar, Greg Norton who played bass guitar and Grant Hart who sang and played drums. The band stopped playing together in 1987.

paragraphs: The band's sound changed very much over the years they were together, but it was always very loud and powerful. The band began as a hardcore band. They played extremely loud and very fast and often screamed their vocals instead of singing. As time went on, the songs began to get slower and more melodic. By the time the band had stopped playing together, their music was no longer punk rock and had changed to alternative rock.

paragraphs: Hüsker Dü always had more than one singer. This is because the band decided early in their time together that whoever wrote the lyrics of a song would sing that song. This meant that many of the songs were be very different from each other, but it also caused fights within the band. In 1987, the band stopped playing together because of these fights.


title: Deir el Qamar Synagogue

paragraphs: The Deir el Qamar Synagogue is a synagogue in Deir el Qamar, Lebanon; it is the oldest synagogue in Mount Lebanon. The synagogue was built in the 17th century to serve the local Jewish Lebanese population. Some of them were under the rule of Emir Fakhreddine II.


title: Interstate 75

paragraphs: Interstate 75 (often shortened to I-75) is an Interstate Highway in the midwest and southeastern United States that runs north and south. It travels from State Road 826 (Palmetto Expressway) and State Road 924 (Gratigny Parkway) in Hialeah, Florida (just west of Miami) to Sault St. Marie, Michigan, at the Ontario, Canada, border. The route is long.


title: Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael

paragraphs: Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael applied the "Daubert" standard to expert testimony from non-scientists.

paragraphs: Patrick Carmichael was driving his minivan on July 6, 1993, when the right rear tire blew out. One of the passengers in the vehicle died, and others were severely injured. Three months later, the Carmichaels sued the manufacturer of the tire, claiming that the tire was defective and the defect caused the accident. The Carmichaels' case rested largely on testimony from a tire failure expert.

paragraphs: The tire failure expert relied on features of tire technology that the manufacturer did not dispute, as well as background facts about the particular tire on the Carmichaels' van. The expert's conclusion that a defect in the tire caused the accident rested on certain observations about the tire that Kumho Tire vigorously disputed. Kumho also disagreed with certain aspects of the tire expert's methodology, and asked the federal district court hearing the case to exclude it under Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence.

paragraphs: The district court took its cue from Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, which had solidified a gatekeeping role for trial judges in admitting expert testimony. Under Daubert, certain factors contribute to the reliability, and hence the admissibility, of expert testimony, one of which is the general validity of the expert's methods. The district court found the tire expert's methods not to be scientifically valid, and hence excluded his testimony. This meant that Kumho Tire would prevail. The Carmichaels appealed to the Eleventh Circuit.

paragraphs: The Eleventh Circuit reversed the district court's ruling in favor of Kumho Tire. It reasoned that Daubert was expressly limited only to scientific expert testimony and did not apply to "skill- or experience-based observation." The tire expert's testimony rested on observation and experience, and so the Eleventh Circuit reasoned the district court should have made a different ruling based on Rule 702 without the Daubert gloss. Kumho Tire asked the Supreme Court to review whether Daubert applied solely to scientific evidence.


title: Deodorant

paragraphs: Deodorant is anything that takes away an odor, or bad smell. Often, it means something people put on their bodies so their sweat does not smell as bad. The most commonly used deodorants are for use on the armpits. These are also anti-perspirants because they reduce the production of sweat. There are deodorants for other places on the body as well. Deodorant can be sold in the form of sprays, bottles, or sticks that are rolled onto the body.


title: Silesia

paragraphs: Silesia (; ; ; Silesian: "Ślůnsk") is a historical region of Poland. Between 1742 – 1945, it was the eastern part of Germany and was a Prussian province. In 1945, all of Poland country was occupied by the Soviet Red Army. In the following years, the occupant enacted laws that in effect chased away the remaining all of owners (communism).

paragraphs: Silesia is along the upper and middle Oder River, upper Vistula River, and along the Sudetes mountains and the Carpathian Mountains.

paragraphs: The highest point of Silesia is the Śnieżka - in the Sudetes mountains.

paragraphs: The largest cities of Silesia (Population of 1939):

paragraphs: Other Cities are: Brzeg, Boleslawiec, Kozle, Zabkowice Slaskie, Klodzko, Głogów, Strzelce Opolskie, Zielona Gora, Zlotoryja, Jelenia Gora, Glubczyce, Nysa, Swidnica, Trzebnica

paragraphs: There are many famous people who were born in Silesia:


title: Josh Holloway

paragraphs: Josh Holloway (born July 20, 1969 in San Jose, California) is an American actor most known for his role as James "Sawyer" Ford on ABC's Emmy award-winning show "Lost".


title: Levon Mkrtchyan

paragraphs: Levon Mkrtchyan, (, ; born 25 February 1953, in Gyumri) is an Armenian movie director known for his documentaries "The Muses", "Paruyr Sevag", "Hovhannes Shiraz", "Mashtoc", "And There Was Light", "A Transcript for Independence", and many more.

paragraphs: He studied in the Directing Department of the Yerevan Fine Arts and Theater Institute.

paragraphs: In 1978, he released his debut short movie "The Muses". In 1984, he graduated from the Directing Department of VGIK in Moscow. Since 1978, he has shot thirty-three documentaries. He filmed and has an incredible archive about well known Armenians, including the only film footage on Hovhannes Shiraz, incredible footage on Charles Aznavour visiting Armenia after the 1988 earthquake, the funeral of William Saroyan. Levon Mkrtchyan continues his contribution to the Armenian people by making more documentaries about the well known Armenians.1993 The Armenian Kingdom of Kilikia Footage includes the President of France - Francois Mitterand The President of Armenia - Levon Ter-Petrosyan.

paragraphs: “Hayk” Studio of Documental movies is currently working on a documentary about William Saroyan, dedicated to the renowned Armenian American writer’s 100th Anniversary.

paragraphs: The director of the movie is Levon Mkrtchyan, an accomplished and famous Armenian movie director who is known for his biographical documentaries about people who have had a great impact in the history of the Armenian nation (Jansem, Hovhannes Shiraz, Davit Anhaght, "My Komitas"). The filming will take place in the United States where William Saroyan was born and has lived most of his life. Additional filming will take place in France, Turkey, Russia and Armenia. Mr. Mkrtchyan already has an original footage from William Saroyan’s funeral ceremony which has taken place in Armenia. The narration of the movie is going to be offered to Al Pacino. “Hayk” Studio of Documental movies will collaborate with producers in the United States, to bring this exceptional project to life.


title: Manuel Fraga Iribarne

paragraphs: Manuel Fraga Iribarne (November 23, 1922 in Vilalba – January 15, 2012 in Madrid) was a Spanish and Galician politician. Fraga was a politician in Spain under Francisco Franco's dictatorial regime and in the democracy after Franco's death. He was the President of Galicia from 1990 to 2005 and governed the region strictly with a hard hand. He was loved by those who supported him, and loathed by his opponents.


title: Galicia (Spain)

paragraphs: Galicia or Galiza is a nationality in Spain that became a Spanish autonomous community in 1978. It is in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. It shares borders with Portugal to the South and the communities of Castile and León and Asturias to the east.

paragraphs: Galicia is a green country with Celtic features. Since re-gaining autonomy in 1978, Galicia has been governed by the Xunta de Galicia (government of Galicia). Galicia was strictly governed from 1990 until 2005, during the Manuel Fraga years. The Xunta de Galicia was then under a socialist president Emilio Perez Touriño, who had made Galicia more liberal than ever before, until 2009. From March 2009 Partido Popular (right-wing party) won power and the new president is Alberto Núñez Feijoo, who won a second term as President in 2012.

paragraphs: Galicia has one main language:"Galician" "galego". It has many similarities with Portuguese. Galego and Portuguese have the same origin. Spanish is also spoken in Galicia, but mainly as a second language.

paragraphs: Galicia is very famous for its fishing industry and seafood remains an important part of its cuisine. A very popular dish in Galicia is "polbo á feira", ("polbo" means octopus). There are many restaurants that serve seafood in Galicia.


title: Bilirubin

paragraphs: Bilirubin is a product that comes from the breakdown of haemoglobin. Its levels are higher in certain diseases and it causes the yellow color of bruises and the brown color of faeces. Its level usually measured to monitor liver or gallbladder problems.


title: Nelly Furtado

paragraphs: Nelly Kim Furtado (born December 2, 1978) is a Canadian singer-songwriter.

paragraphs: She can also play many musical instruments. She learned to play the trombone and the ukulele at the age of four. In later years, she learned to play the guitar and keyboard. She has released five albums. The first album was released in 2000 and was called "Whoa! Nelly". She become famous worldwide because the album was very popular. The first single released was "I'm Like a Bird" which earned her a Grammy Award. Her second album was "Folklore" released in 2003. It was not as popular as the previous album. Her third album in 2006 was "Loose" which spawned many hit songs including "Promiscuous", "Maneater", "Say It Right" and "All Good Things (Come to an End)". She then released a Spanish language album in 2009 titled "Mi Plan" and in 2010 released a greatest hits album. Her next English language album "The Spirit Indestructible" was released in 2012. Furtado's parents are Portuguese immigrants. She sings in English, Spanish and Portuguese.

paragraphs: On September 20, 2003, she gave birth to a daughter, Nevis.

paragraphs: Her parents named her Nelly Kim in reference to Kazakh gymnastics champion Nellie Kim who won 5 gold medals (3 in 1976 and 2 in 1980) and 1 silver (in 1976) at the Olympic Games.

paragraphs: She learned to play trombone, guitar and ukulele at the age of 9 and the synthesizer at age 11. Passionate about music from an early age, she knows from the age of 4 that she wants to become a singer. Nelly sang with her mother in a choir, especially during Portugal's National Day.

paragraphs: As a teenager, she began to write songs and was part of a Portuguese fanfare. During this time, she listened to R & B, hip-hop, alternative rock, alternative hip-hop, trip hop, fado, bossa nova, Indian music and variety. The artists that Nelly loved (and influenced her) include: Jeff Buckley, Caetano Veloso, Jennifer Lopez, Amalia Rodrigues, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Cornershop, Maryh Blige, Mariah Carey, TLC, Digable Planets, De The Soul, Aaliyah, Radiohead, Oasis, The Smashing Pumpkins, The Verve, U2, Kylie Minogue, Beck.


title: Anna Jurkiewicz

paragraphs: Anna Jurkiewicz (born February 9, 1984 in Oświęcim, Poland) is a Polish figure skater.

paragraphs: As a young girl, she was one of the best young skaters in the world. Then she had some health problems and was not able to skate. She returned in 2006 and has been competing internationally since autumn 2006.


title: Exmoor

paragraphs: Exmoor is a national park in England. The border of two counties, Devon and Somerset, runs through it. It is an area of sandstone hills which form tall cliffs on its north coast. The high ground of Exmoor is mostly rough grassland, but there are small woodlands on its lower slopes.

paragraphs: In Exmoor is an important water reservoir, Wimbleball Lake.


title: Barnstaple

paragraphs: Barnstaple is a town in Devon, a county in South West England. 20,724 people live there. It is found west southwest of Bristol, north of Plymouth and northwest of the county town of Exeter.


title: Bideford

paragraphs: Bideford is a town in north Devon, a county in South West England. It is on the River Torridge. 14,407 people live there. It is a port, and its main export is clay.


title: Tiverton

paragraphs: Tiverton is a town in Mid Devon, Devon, England. In 2001, it had a population of 18,621. It was once a centre of lace making, but this industry has now declined.

paragraphs: People have lived around the area since the Stone Age. There is a hillfort on a hill above the town. Roman fortifications have been found nearby.


title: Torbay

paragraphs: Torbay is a Unitary authority in England. 120,000 people live there. It is on the south coast and has over 20 beaches. Tourism is very important to the local economy.

paragraphs: Torbay is not a town. Rather, it contains three towns (Torquay, Paignton and Brixham) and a few villages, the largest of which is Galmpton.

paragraphs: Torbay was first created as a county borough in 1967, uniting the urban districts of its three towns. In 1974 it became a borough of Devon, its surrounding county. Then in 1993 It was given unitary authority status, having the powers of both a borough and a county. In 2007 a referendum led to the adoption of a directly elected Mayor.


title: Beyond (album)

paragraphs: Beyond is an album by the American alternative rock band Dinosaur Jr. It was released in April 2007. It was the band's first album since 1997's "Hand it Over". It was the first album since 1988's "Bug" to have all of the band's original members. The album is in the usual Dinosaur Jr style of very loud guitars with many skillful guitar solos. The album has been successful. It is generally well thought of by music critics.


title: Mitt Romney

paragraphs: Willard Mitt Romney (born March 12, 1947), usually called Mitt Romney, is an American businessman. Romney is the junior United States senator from Utah since January 3, 2019. He was the 70th Governor of Massachusetts serving from 2003 to 2007. He ran for the Republican Party nomination in the 2008 election, but lost the nomination to United States senator John McCain of Arizona.

paragraphs: Romney would run again for the nomination only this time winning the nomination beating former Pennsylvania Senator Rick Santorum and former Speaker Newt Gingrich. His running mate was U.S. Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin. He ran against the incumbent President Barack Obama. He lost the election winning 206 of the electoral college to Obama's 332.

paragraphs: In the aftermath of the election, Romney remained low in politics and in the 2016 presidential election, Romney was a critic of Donald Trump and would endorse former Governor Gary Johnson of the Libertarian Party. After the election of Trump, it was thought that Trump would pick Romney as Secretary of State, but the position went to businessman Rex Tillerson.

paragraphs: After the retirement of Utah Senator Orrin Hatch, on February 16, 2018, Romney became a candidate for the United States senate in the 2018 Senate election. In June 2018, Romney won the Republican nomination for the Senate seat. He won the general election in a landslide victory replacing retiring Senator Orrin Hatch.

paragraphs: Romney was born in Detroit. His father, George Romney, was an auto executive and Governor of Michigan and his mother Lenore Romney, was an actress and politician. When Mitt was young, he served a Mormon mission in France. Romney graduated from Brigham Young University, in 1971, and later went to Harvard Business School and Harvard Law School. In the 1980s, Romney was one of the leaders of Bain Capital, a company that bought other companies and tried to make them more profitable. In 1994, Romney ran for the United States Senate against Ted Kennedy, but lost. Romney was in charge of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee, which helped run the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah. Romney took over the committee after a scandal where some people were being bribed.

paragraphs: After success with the Olympics, Romney became Governor of Massachusetts. While Governor, he was one of the supporters of Massachusetts' health care plan though he now opposes Barack Obama's health care plan. Both plans are very similar.

paragraphs: He ran for President in 2008, but the Republican Party nominated John McCain instead. He ran again in 2012 and was nominated to be the main Republican candidate against President Barack Obama, but lost the election.

paragraphs: After winning the Republican Party presidential primaries in 2012, Mitt Romney took part of the United States presidential election. He won the primaries against its major rivals Ron Paul and Newt Gingrich. Right after his winning in the republican primaries and access to the 2012 presidential campaign, Mitt Romney has been critiqued by the Democratic Party (United States) for being part in the board of directors for the company Bain Capital Inc. from 1999 to 2002. During these three years, purchases of different companies by Bain Capital led to relocation of high-tech jobs in the United States to Mexico and China. In these uncertain economic times, this charge was unpopular with the average American. The Democratic Party (United States) also revealed with the help of the American Broadcasting Company that Mitt Romney has bank accounts in the Cayman Islands which would allow him to stare money over U.S. tax laws . About this guilt, Mitt Romney said during his campaign in New Hampshire :"{…} if there's an opportunity to save taxes, we like anybody else in this country will follow that opportunity.”.

paragraphs: During the first televised debate of the presidential campaign, Mitt Romney accused President Obama of having plunged America into the deepest economic crisis since the 1930s. He also suggests that President Barack Obama had not met its promises during his presidential previous mandate like increase the real income of the average American family. Mitt Romney made a provision to which pleased many American citizens during the debate that allowed him to gain some points to national survey and even surpass Barack Obama in the voting intentions of Americans.

paragraphs: After the first debate, an internet site named www.motherjones.com revealed on Monday September. 17, 2012 a YouTube video of Mitt Romney talking about some people of the United States who live at the expense of the state.

paragraphs: In this video he said: "There are 47 percent of the people who will vote for the president no matter what. All right, there are 47 percent who are with him, who are dependent upon government, who believe that they are victims, who believe the government has a responsibility to care for them, who believe that they are entitled to health care, to food, to housing, to you-name-it -- that that's an entitlement. And the government should give it to them. And they will vote for this president no matter what. ... These are people who pay no income tax. ... [M]y job is not to worry about those people. I'll never convince them they should take personal responsibility and care for their lives."

paragraphs: On the night of November 6, 2012, he announced that Barack Obama was re-elected as President of the United States of America and by extension Mitt Romney lost his chance to become president. He had received 206 votes against the 270 required to win.

paragraphs: His niece, Ronna Romney McDaniel, became the new Chair of the Republican Party after President Donald Trump nominated the then-Chairman Reince Priebus to White House Chief of Staff.

paragraphs: On January 2, 2018, after Orrin Hatch announced he would retire, Romney changed his Twitter location from Massachusetts to Holladay, Utah opening the long speculation of Romney running for the Senate seat.

paragraphs: On February 16, 2018, Romney formally launched his campaign through a video message posted on Facebook and Twitter. He won the Republican nomination on June 26, 2018.

paragraphs: Romney defeated Jenny Wilson in the general election in November 2018.


title: Laboratory glassware

paragraphs: Laboratory glassware refers to various items which are usually made of glass and used for scientific work in chemistry and biology laboratories. Some of these items are now made of plastic which is less expensive and more convenient.

paragraphs: Pipettes, petri dishes, and test tubes are examples of laboratory glassware. These items are used to store materials, to measure their volume, to mix and prepare solutions, or to contain a chemical reaction.


title: Volta (album)

paragraphs: Volta is a 2007 album by Icelandic rock singer Björk. She has claimed the album is about "returning to her roots". The style of the album is electronic pop. Five singles were released from it. The first single "Earth Intruders" was released April 2007. It was produced by Timbaland.


title: Mulatto

paragraphs: Mulatto (from Spanish "mulato", small mule) is a word referring to a person who is born to one Black parent and one Caucasian parent. The term may be considered offensive or rude to some, because of its origin. The term is also used to refer to a light brown color, because of a mulatto's skin color. Many people prefer terms such as "biracial" and "of mixed race" over "mulatto".


title: Water polo

paragraphs: Water polo is a sport played in water with a ball. It has similarities to basketball and soccer, although players are in the pool. Players try to get the ball into the goal more times than the opposing team, without using goggles.

paragraphs: Water polo is a team game. Two teams play a match. Each match has four periods called "quarters". The length of each period is usually between 5 and 8 minutes. Because the amount of time spent on fouls or out throws is not counted in the quarter time, an average quarter really lasts around 12 minutes.

paragraphs: Each team has six field players and one goalkeeper. Water polo players need to be good at swimming and ball handing. They need good reflexes and awareness.

paragraphs: Players must keep floating in a game. Players may not stand on the bottom of the pool.

paragraphs: Water polo is played in a pool : depth is above 2 m, a vertical line is 30 m and width is 20 m.

paragraphs: To play water polo, you need swimwear, caps, mouth guards, a ball and a goal.

paragraphs: The caps' design is unique. They are designed to protect head and ears.

paragraphs: The rules of water polo were originally developed in the mid-nineteenth century in Great Britain by William Wilson. The game originated as a form of rugby football played in rivers and lakes in England and Scotland with a ball constructed of Indian rubber, probably from the 1850s onwards.


title: Fishstick

paragraphs: Fishsticks or fish fingers are a type of food probably invented in the United Kingdom. They are made of a whitefish like cod that is battered and breaded. They are often eaten with tartar sauce, cocktail sauce, or ketchup. "Fishsticks" are popular with children and their parents as an easy-to-prepare finger food that is somewhat healthy for kids.

paragraphs: Fishsticks first came about as a result of the invention of the plate froster in 1929, the first quick freezer. To ensure rapid freezing, food needed to be in slim rectangular slabs. A suitable candidate for this freezing method was fishsticks, slivers (small, thin pieces) cut from large fish and dipped in bread crumbs for frying.

paragraphs: In Britain in the 1950s, most of the herring catch was pickled and exported to other North European countries. In an attempt to make herring more appealing on the home market, companies tried to present it in a new way, creating herring fishsticks called “herring savouries” and were tested on the market against a bland control product of cod sticks, sold as “fish fingers.” Shoppers in Southampton and South Wales, showed an overwhelming preference for the cod. Cod fishsticks were first produced in Great Yarmouth and introduced in Britain on 26 September 1955. They became immensely popular after television advertising began in 1956. To this day, fish sticks are a favorite food among children.

paragraphs: On modern production lines, headless fish are processed through a machine that removes a fillet from each side of the backbone. The fillets then pass over a wheel and a blade that separates the skin from the flesh. Machine filleting leaves a few pin-like bones in the fillet, so the flesh containing the bones is cut out.

paragraphs: Fillets are formed into frozen blocks. A conveyor sends the blanks through batter and breadcrumbs, doubling the thickness of the fishstick. Then each is passed through a hot vegetable oil bath for about one minute to seal the coating and allow the fishstick to be grilled or fried. Then the fishstick is frozen again, with the center reaching -4 °F/-20 °C in less than 20 minutes. After packaging, it is stored at -18 °F/-28 °C, ready for distribution.


title: Nelly

paragraphs: Cornell Iral Haynes Jr. (born November 2, 1974) is an American rapper, and singer. He is better known as his stage name Nelly. He won three Grammy Awards in 2003.


title: Boy band

paragraphs: A boy band is a type of musical group with three or more young male singers. Usually, the singers are able to perform as dancers as well. Most singers in boy bands do not play musical instruments. Boy bands usually perform pop or R&B music.

paragraphs: Despite negative critical reception, boy bands continue to be generally successful, with some notable ones managing to sell tens of millions of records, placing them among the world's best selling music artists. The best-selling boy bands based on sales figures are:

paragraphs: Some of the most popular boy bands include the following:


title: Solo (music)

paragraphs: In musical performance, a solo is a piece or a section of a piece that is played or sung by a single performer. This performer is called a "soloist". A soloist can be a singer or an instrumentalist.

paragraphs: Solos are common in classical music and jazz. In popular music, a "solo" is an improvised melody played by a single performer, such as a guitar solo. In the country music genre a solo is known as a "ride".


title: Antarctic krill

paragraphs: Antarctic krill ("Euphausia superba") is a species of krill that lives in the Antarctic waters of the Southern Ocean. They are shrimp-like and belong to the invertebrates.

paragraphs: They live in large groups, called swarms. Sometimes these swarms have a density of 10,000–30,000 individual animals per cubic meter.

paragraphs: They feed directly on very small phytoplankton, so they can use the energy that the phytoplankton originally got from the sun in order to sustain their life in the open ocean. They grow to a length of 6 cm, weigh up to 2 g, and can live for up to six years. They are a key species in the Antarctic ecosystem and are, in terms of biomass, probably the most successful animal species on the planet (approximately 500 million tonnes).

paragraphs: In aquaria, krill have been observed to eat each other.


title: Cubic metre

paragraphs: The cubic metre (symbol m³) is the SI unit of volume. It is a cube with a length, height, and width of one metre, with 1,000 litres of space.

paragraphs: In the many places it is spelled "cubic meter". Other names are stère and kilolitre or kiloliter.

paragraphs: A cubic metre of pure water at the temperature of maximum density (3.98 °C) and standard atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa) has a mass of 1000 kg, or one tonne. At 0 °C, the freezing point of water, it is slightly less, 999.972 kg.

paragraphs: It is sometimes abbreviated cu m, m3, m^3 or m**3 when superscript characters or markup are not available/accessible (i.e. in some typewritten documents and postings in Usenet newsgroups).

paragraphs: Abbreviated CBM in the freight business and MTQ (or numeric code 49) in international trade.


title: Food and Agriculture Organization

paragraphs: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger established on 16 October 1945.

paragraphs: It serves both developed and developing countries and acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals. FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.


title: Colorimeter

paragraphs: A colorimeter is a device used for measuring colours, or colorimetry. It measures the absorbance of different wavelengths of light in a solution. It can be used to measure the concentration of a known solute.

paragraphs: Different chemical substances absorb different wavelengths of light. When the concentration of the solute is higher, it absorbs more light in a specific wavelength. This is known as the Beer-Lambert law.

paragraphs: The most important parts of a colorimeter are:

paragraphs: Different filters are used to select the wavelength of light which the solution absorbs the most. This makes the colorimeter more accurate. Solutions are usually placed in glass or plastic cuvettes. The usual wavelengths used are between 400 and 700 nanometers. If it is necessary to use ultraviolet light (below 400 nanometers) then the lamp and filters must be changed.

paragraphs: The output of the colorimeter may be shown in graphs or tables, by an analogue or digital meter. The data may be printed on paper, or stored in a computer. The output may be shown as transmittance (a linear scale from 0-100%) or as absorbance (a logarithmic scale from zero to infinity). The useful range of the absorbance scale is from 0-2 but it is desirable to keep within the range 0-1 because, above 1, the results become unreliable due to scattering of light. A Transmittance-Absorbance conversion table may be seen here.


title: Valletta

paragraphs: Valletta is the capital city of Malta. It was founded by Jean Parisot de la Valette, the Grandmaster of the Order of Saint John on March 28, 1566. The city's population is 6,315 (in 2005) and it is currently decreasing as people move to the UK, Italy, or the newer areas of Malta.


title: Basketball Bundesliga

paragraphs: The Basketball Bundesliga (BBL) is the highest level of basketball competition in Germany. The BBL determines the national champion.


title: Butterfield, Missouri

paragraphs: Butterfield, Missouri is a village in Missouri, United States.

paragraphs: According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.1 km² (0.4 mi²), all land.

paragraphs: At the 2000 census, there were 397 people, 136 households, and 102 families living in the village. The population density was 365.0/km² (947.6/mi²). There were 149 houses at an average density of 137.0/km² (355.7/mi²). The racial mix of the village was 85.14% white, 0.50% African American, 0.50% Native American, 11.59% from other races, and 2.27% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 21.41% of the population.

paragraphs: There were 136 households out of which 43.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.6% were [married couples living together, 13.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.3% were non-families. 22.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 3.44.

paragraphs: In the village the population was spread out with 34.0% under the age of 18, 11.8% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 5.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 98.5 males.This is also the case for females over 18.

paragraphs: The median income for a household in the village was $24,706, and the median income for a family was $28,000. Males had a median income of $20,417 versus $18,750 for females. The per citizen income for the village was $9,460. About 19.8% of families and 19.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.2% of those under age 18 and 28.6% of those age 65 or over.


title: Andorra la Vella

paragraphs: Andorra la Vella is the capital city of the principality of Andorra and is one of the seven parishes of Andorra. It is in the southwestern part of the country.

paragraphs: The Andorra la Vella parish is in the southwestern part of the country at the confluence of two mountain streams, the "Valira del Nord" (Northern Valira) and the "Valira de l'Orient" (Eastern Valira), which join to form the Gran Valira that flows through the capital city.

paragraphs: The parish borders with the La Massana parish to the north, with the Escaldes-Engordany parish to the east, with the Sant Julià de Lòria parish to the south and with Spain to the west.

paragraphs: The highest mountain in the parish is "Pic d'Os" () with an elevation of above sea level; it is on the border with the Sant Julià de Lòria parish and Spain.

paragraphs: At 1023 m (3,356 ft) above sea level, it is the highest capital in Europe.

paragraphs: The parish had a population, in 2015, of 22,886 inhabitants, for a population density of persons/km².

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Andorra la Vella

paragraphs: Andorra la Vella is the country's commercial centre. The city is also the centre for many banks and businesses. The state is not a member of the European Union, but has a customs arrangement with the EU, and uses the euro.


title: Woodland

paragraphs: Woodland is a low-density forest with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. It forms an open habitat.

paragraphs: Woodlands have an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Woodlands grade into shrubland in drier conditions or in early stages of plant succession. Higher densities and areas of trees, with largely closed canopy, and nearly continuous shade and are often called forests.

paragraphs: "Woodland" in British forestry means any smaller area covered in trees, however dense. Forest in the British Isles means extensive wooded areas, regardless of density. Royal forests may not be wooded at all. The term ancient woodland is used in British conservation to mean any wooded land that has existed for a very long time (equivalent to the American term old growth forest).

paragraphs: Conservationist work hard to preserve woodlands. The woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes.


title: Limburg (Netherlands)

paragraphs: Limburg is the southernmost province of the Netherlands. Its capital is Maastricht. It is the only province in the Netherlands which has hills. It is a very old province; the capital city, Maastricht, is over 2000 years old. The Limburgish people do speak Dutch, but they also speak their own dialects. These dialects - especially the ones in the South of Limburg, the normal Dutch people find difficult to understand. These dialects have many influences from German and French. The Limburgish are renowned for their famous vlaai.

paragraphs: Limburger cheese comes from this region.


title: Mount Cayley

paragraphs: Mount Cayley is an eroded stratovolcano. It is 11 km southeast of Callaghan Lake and 24 west of Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. It is part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt which is a segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc.

paragraphs: A scenario of an eruption of Mount Cayley shows how western Canada is vulnerable to an eruption. The scenario is based on past activity in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt and involves both effusive and explosive eruptions. The scenario impact is largely a result of the concentration of vulnerable infrastructure in valleys.

paragraphs: In 2003, Catherine Hickson, a scientist with the Geological Survey of Canada, was one of the three scientists to report on the hypothetical eruption at Mount Cayley. The first signs of activity at the volcano would probably be enlarged seismic activity in and close to the mountain. Flooding would turn out to be a huge issue for the community of Squamish and could eventually overrun parts of Highway 99.

paragraphs: The Mount Cayley volcanic field is named after Mount Cayley.


title: Limburg (Belgium)

paragraphs: Limburg is the easternmost of the five provinces of modern Flanders, which is one of the three main political and cultural sub-divisions of modern Belgium. Its capital is Hasselt.

paragraphs: Limburg is located west of the Meuse (Dutch "Maas") river, upon which it borders the similarly named province Limburg of the Netherlands. It also borders on the Walloon province of Liège to the south, with which it also has historical ties. To the north and west are the old territories of the Duchy of Brabant, the Flemish provinces of Flemish Brabant and Antwerp to the west, and the Dutch province of North Brabant to the north.

paragraphs: The province of Limburg has an area of with a population of and a density of inhabitants per km². The province is divided into three arrondissements ("arrondissementen" in Dutch) with 44 municipalities. Among these municipalities are the current capital Hasselt, the early medieval capital Borgloon, Genk, Diepenbeek (home to Hasselt University), and Tongeren, the only Roman city in the province and regarded as the oldest city of Belgium.

paragraphs: The municipality of Voeren is geographically detached (an exclave) from Limburg and the rest of Flanders, with the Netherlands to the north and the Walloon province of Liège to the south. This municipality was established by the municipal reform of 1977.

paragraphs: The highest point of the province, , is in the town of Remersdaal, Voeren municipality.

paragraphs: The centre of Belgian Limburg is crossed east to west by the Demer river and the Albert Canal, which run similar paths. The Demer river's drainage basin covers most of the central and southern part of the province, except for the southeastern corner, where the Jeker (in French: "(le) Geer") runs past Tongeren and into the Maas river (in French: "(la) Meuse") at Maastricht.

paragraphs: The eastern border of the province corresponds to the western side of the Maas, which originates in France. It's drainage basin includes not only the Jeker but most of the northern part of Belgian Limburg.

paragraphs: The province of Limber is divided into 3 "arrondissements" (Hasselt, Maaseik and Tongeren) and a total of 44 municipalities.

paragraphs: Population on 1 January or on 1 July of each year.


title: Limbourg

paragraphs: Limbourg or Limburg is a medieval city in the Belgian province of Liège. It was founded in the 11th century.

paragraphs: It is located at 50° 37 North, 05° 56 East.


title: Limburg an der Lahn

paragraphs: Limburg an der Lahn (Limburg on the Lahn river) is a German town and the capital of the "Kreis" Limburg-Weilburg in the west of Hesse.


title: Illusion

paragraphs: An illusion is a distortion of perception. The brain arranges, sorts, and organises data from the senses. Normally the system works well. Sometimes it does not, and we see illusions. In general, they are shared by most people in the same situation.

paragraphs: Illusions can happen with all five senses (taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing), and some involve the way information from two senses is put together. Some illusions happen because of disorders, but generally, all normal people can sense the same illusion. An illusion is different from a hallucination; a halucination is sensing something which is not real, but an illusion is interpreting what we sense wrongly.

paragraphs: Optical illusions are the best known and understood. Because they are illusions common to most people, it follows that they are a product of the visual system. The visual system, from the retina to the visual cortex, is what is common to most humans.

paragraphs: These are illusions which are heard. The person listening hears sounds that aren’t really there, or sounds that can’t really happen. A Shepard tone is an auditory illusion.

paragraphs: They are when a person feels something that is not there, or something that should not be there but feels like it is. This happens sometimes when a person loses their arm. The person still feels like the arm is there. They might want to scratch the arm, or the arm might hurt them. This can happen with any limb of the body, and it is called the phantom limb.


title: Charcoal

paragraphs: Charcoal is a carbon-containing substance made from wood, naturally black and powdery. Charcoal is made from wood by heating it in an airless space at a high temperature. The wood will not burn, but instead turn into charcoal. The by-product of making charcoal is tar and turpentine.

paragraphs: People use it for different things such as cooking on a barbecue grill, and in painting.


title: Brose Baskets

paragraphs: Brose Baskets Bamberg (also Brose Baskets) is a basketball club in Bamberg, Germany. In 2005 (as GHP Bamberg), 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 it won the BBL. In 1992, 2010, 2011, and 2012 it won the German Cup.


title: Armenian Revolutionary Federation

paragraphs: The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or ՀՅԴ) (Armenian: – Hay Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutiun, Dashnaktsutiun, – Dashnak or Tashnag) is an Armenian political party founded in Tiflis (Tbilisi in modern-day Georgia) in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian, Stepan Zorian, and Simon Zavarian. The party works in Armenia and in countries where the Armenian diaspora is active, notably in Lebanon and the ethnically Armenian-dominated de facto Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh.

paragraphs: The Armenian Revolutionary Federation History Museum was created during an official ceremony Friday 2007 at Yerevan's Kristapor Mikaelian Center, with the party's leaders and supporters on hand to mark this momentous occasion.

paragraphs: Opened in 1946, the ARF History Museum was in Paris and during the years has collected more than 3,000 artifacts describing the party's history. After the ARF's return to Armenia, the museum and the ARF archives have been sent to Armenia.

paragraphs: Giro Manoyan is one of the leaders of ARF.


title: Christapor Mikaelian

paragraphs: Christapor Mikaelian (Armenian: ) also known by his "noms de guerre" Hellen (), Topal (), and Edward (), (1859-1905) was one of the three founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation along Stepan Zorian and Simon Zavarian, also part of Armenian national liberation movement.

paragraphs: Rosdom was born in the village of Agulis in Goghtn, now part of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. He graduated from the Professorial academy of Tiflis and also attended the University of Moscow, where he met Simon Vratsian, another co-founder of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation.


title: Varazdat

paragraphs: Varasdates or Varazdat (, Varazdat) was an Armenian prince who succeeded his uncle King Papes as King of Armenia in 374.

paragraphs: Following the murder of King Papes, Valens sent Varazdat, a nephew of Pap, a young man highly reputed for his mental and physical gifts, to hold the Armenian throne. Shapur II, having failed on the battlefield, now proposed to Valens in 375 that Armenia be divided between the two powers. The Emperor rejected the proposal, but sent Victor Magistrianus to the Persian King to discuss the question. This emissary was cozened into exceeding the bounds of his authority and agreeing to the Persian proposal. In the meantime, the internal condition of Armenia was imperiled through friction between King Varazdat and the nakharars, culminating in the assassination of Musel Mamikonian, the leader of the latters' party. Manuel, the son of Musel, took up arms against the King and compelled him to flee from Armenia in 378, after four years of reign. Varazdat's life was saved, but the country was thrown into confusion. The Persians took advantage of the turmoil and invaded Armenia; but their occupation was a short-lived one. Shapur II died in 379, and the Persians evacuated in haste. Manuel, the dynamic Mamikonian, had rallied a formidable national force for action.


title: Adana massacre

paragraphs: The Adana massacre happened in Adana Province, in the Ottoman Empire, in April 1909. A religious-ethnic clash in the city of Adana amidst governmental upheaval resulted in a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the district. Reports estimated that the massacres in Adana Province resulted in 20,000 to 30,000 deaths.


title: Adana

paragraphs: Adana (Greek Άδανα) (the ancient "Antioch in Cilicia" or "Antioch on the Sarus") is the capital of Adana Province in Turkey. According to the 2000 census, with 1,130,710 inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous city of Turkey (after İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir and Bursa). The 2006 estimate of Adana's population is 1,271,894.

paragraphs: For most Turkish people, the word 'Adana' associates with Kebab, şalgam, cotton, oranges and very hot weather, in the awareness that Adana also embodies more than just these.

paragraphs: Adana is also named among the 25 "European Regions of the Future" for 2006/2007 by Foreign Direct Investment Magazine. Chosen alongside Kocaeli for Turkey, Adana scored the most points for cost effectiveness against Kocaeli's points for infrastructure development, while Adana and Kocaeli tied on points for the categories of human resources and quality of life.

paragraphs: Adana has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa" in the Koeppen climate classification).


title: Parsley Massacre

paragraphs: In October 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina ordered the execution of the Haitian population living within the borderlands with Haiti. The violence resulted in the killing of 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian civilians over a span of approximately five days. This would later become known as the Parsley Massacre.

paragraphs: Trujillo had made his actions for the Haitian community clear in a short speech given at a dance held in his honor on October 2, 1937 in Dajabón, stating:


title: Heat pump

paragraphs: A heat pump is a machine that moves heat from a cold place to a hot place.

paragraphs: A refrigerator is a heat pump. It moves heat from the inside to the outside. This keeps the food inside cold, so it will not spoil.

paragraphs: An air conditioner is a heat pump. It moves heat from the inside of a building to the outside.

paragraphs: A Peltier device is a heat pump. It moves heat from one side to the other by means of an electric current.

paragraphs: Some buildings are heated with heat pumps, also. In the winter, the heat pump moves heat from the outside to the inside. Sometimes this works better than heating with a radiator.

paragraphs: Usually, heat flows from a hot place to a cold place, according to the second law of thermodynamics. Heat will not move from a cold place to a warmer place by itself. Because of this, a heat pump must use extra energy to move the heat. This is sort of like pumping water uphill.

paragraphs: Most heat pumps use electric motors to provide energy. Some heat pumps use heat energy, supplied by a flame or an electric heater.

paragraphs: Most heat pumps use a refrigeration cycle. A refrigeration cycle uses a fluid which moves through tubes and carries the heat. The fluid is called a refrigerant. During the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant changes from a liquid to a gas and back to a liquid.

paragraphs: When the refrigerant changes from a liquid to a gas, it gains (absorbs) heat energy. This is just like boiling. When the refrigerant changes from a gas back to a liquid, it loses heat energy.

paragraphs: The heat pump is set up so that the refrigerant gains heat from one place that will be cooled, and moves it to another place that will be warmed.

paragraphs: A heat pump forces the refrigerant to change from a gas to a liquid.

paragraphs: It uses a compressor to do this. Often, an electric motor drives the compressor. The compressor compresses the refrigerant, and this makes it change from a gas to a liquid. When the refrigerant changes from a gas to a liquid, it also gives up some of the heat that it has been carrying.

paragraphs: At the other end of the cycle, the refrigerant boils again. It changes from a liquid to a gas. But it needs heat to do this. When it takes up heat from its surroundings, it cools them down. So where the refrigerant is changing from a liquid to a gas, it feels cooler.

paragraphs: This is the complete cycle, from the cooling side to the heating side:

paragraphs: On the cooling side, heat is taken up to boil the refrigerant from a liquid to a gas. Then the fluid moves to the heating side.There, the compressor forces the refrigerant back to a liquid again. This makes it give up its heat. So heat has moved from the cooling side to the heating side. Then, the cycle repeats.

paragraphs: If the cooling side is the inside of a refrigerator, it gets cold.

paragraphs: If the cooling side is the inside of a building, and the warming side is the outside of the building, the inside of the building gets cold. This is how an air conditioner works.

paragraphs: If the cooling side is the outside of the building, and the warming side is the inside of the building, this is how a heat pump can heat a building during the winter.


title: Second law of thermodynamics

paragraphs: The second law of thermodynamics says that when energy changes from one form to another form, or matter moves freely, entropy (disorder) in a closed system increases.

paragraphs: Differences in temperature, pressure, and density tend to even out horizontally after a while. Due to the force of gravity, density and pressure do not even out vertically. Density and pressure on the bottom will be more than at the top.

paragraphs: Entropy is a measure of spread of matter and energy to everywhere they have access.

paragraphs: The most common wording for the second law of thermodynamics is essentially due to "Rudolf Clausius":

paragraphs: In other words, everything tries to maintain the same temperature over time.

paragraphs: There are many statements of the second law which use different terms, but all mean the same thing. Another statement by Clausius is:

paragraphs: Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body.

paragraphs: An equivalent statement by Lord Kelvin is:

paragraphs: A transformation whose only final result is to convert heat, extracted from a source at constant temperature, into work, is impossible.

paragraphs: The second law only applies to large systems. The second law is about the likely behavior of a system where no energy or matter gets in or out. The bigger the system is, the more likely the second law will be true.

paragraphs: In a general sense, the second law says that temperature differences between systems in contact with each other tend to even out and that work can be obtained from these non-equilibrium differences, but that loss of thermal energy occurs, when work is done and entropy increases. Pressure, density and temperature differences in an isolated system, all tend to equalize if given the opportunity; density and pressure, but not temperature, are affected by gravity. A heat engine is a mechanical device that provides useful work from the difference in temperature of two bodies.


title: Air conditioner

paragraphs: An air conditioner is a system or a machine that treats air in a defined, usually enclosed area via a refrigeration cycle in which warm air is removed and replaced with cooler air.

paragraphs: In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC. Whether in homes, offices or vehicles, its purpose is to provide comfort by altering the properties of the air, usually by cooling the air inside.The main function of air conditioner is to change adverse temperature.

paragraphs: In the 19th century British scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate.

paragraphs: In 1842, American physician Dr. John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients. He hoped eventually to use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings and even considered cooling entire cities with a system of centralized air conditioning units.

paragraphs: Air conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into "comfort" and "process".

paragraphs: Comfort applications aim to provide an indoor environment that remains relatively constant in a range preferred by humans despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.

paragraphs: Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for an industrial or a commercial process, regardless of internal heat loads and external weather conditions. Although often in the same comfort range, it is the requirements of  the process that determines conditions, not human preference. Process applications include:

paragraphs: In both comfort and process applications, the objective is not only to control temperature (although in some comfort applications this is all that is controlled) but also factors like humidity, air movement and air quality.

paragraphs: In the refrigeration cycle, a pump transfers heat from a lower temperature source into a higher temperature heat sink. Heat will naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning.

paragraphs: A refrigerated air conditioning system works in much the same way pumping heat out of the room in which it stands.

paragraphs: This cycle takes advantage of the universal gas law "PV" = "nRT", where "P" is pressure, "V" is volume, "R" is the universal gas constant, "T" is temperature, and "n" is the number of molecules of gas (1 mole = 6.022×10 molecules).

paragraphs: The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a compressor. In an automobile the compressor is driven by a pulley on the engine's crankshaft, with both using electric motors for air circulation. Since evaporation occurs when heat is absorbed, and condensation occurs when heat is released, air conditioners are designed to use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments, and actively pump a coolant around an enclosed system. The cooling liquid, or refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment (the evaporator coil). Low pressure then causes the refrigerant to evaporate taking the heat with it. In the other compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapour is compressed and forced through another heat exchange coil, condensed into a liquid which then rejects the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.

paragraphs: Air conditioning has as much influence on human health as any generic heating system.Poorly maintained air-conditioning systems (especially large, centralized systems) can occasionally promote the growth and spread of microorganisms such as "Legionella pneumophila," the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaire's disease. Air conditioning can have a positive effect on sufferers of allergies and asthma.

paragraphs: In serious heat waves, air conditioning can save the lives of the elderly. Some local authorities have even set up public cooling centers for the benefit of those without air conditioning at home.

paragraphs: One of the main conditions for the high-quality installation of HVAC equipment is the correct choice of the fixing location of the indoor and outdoor units. Each of the listed modules is distinguished by certain design characteristics, rules for future installation. To install an air conditioner, you need to take into account all the requirements thanks to which the equipment can be further operated in different modes.

paragraphs: You need to install an air conditioner, given the following nuances:

paragraphs: The installation of an air conditioner depends on certain criteria, it starts with finding the ideal site for mounting the outdoor unit. To do this, there are several recommendations:


title: First law of thermodynamics

paragraphs: The very first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can changed only from one form to another. The law forms the basis of the principle of conservation of energy. This means that anything that uses energy is changing the energy from one kind of energy to another. For example, exercising changes energy from food into kinetic (motion) energy. Another example: In the Sun (or any star), Nuclear Fusion changes mass into heat and light (Electromagnetic Radiation), which travels to Earth and is used by plants to create food (chemical energy) via photosynthesis, which can be eaten by animals allowing them to move (kinetic energy). Energy only ever changes its form; it is neither created nor destroyed. This is why Perpetual motion machines do not exist and could never exist; it would break a fundamental law of physics.

paragraphs: People can use the changes to do work that is useful. Examples of forms of energy in classical mechanics include heat, light, kinetic (movement) or potential energy. However, in modern physics it is considered that there are only two types of energy - mass and kinetic energy, although this may not be helpful to those not familiar with more complex physics.

paragraphs: The law means that the total energy of the universe (or any Closed system) is a constant. However, energy can be transferred from one part of the universe to another.

paragraphs: The most common wording of the first law of thermodynamics used by scientists is:

paragraphs: James Prescott Joule was the first person who found out by experiments that heat and work are convertible.

paragraphs: The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics was given by "Rudolf Clausius" in 1850: "There is a state function E, called 'energy', whose differential equals the work exchanged with the surroundings during an adiabatic process."

paragraphs: In thermodynamics and engineering, it is natural to think of the system as a heat engine which does work on the surroundings, and to state that the total energy added by heating is equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy plus the work done by the system. Hence formula_1 is the amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings. During the portion of the thermodynamic cycle where the engine is doing work, formula_1 is positive, but there will always be a portion of the cycle where formula_1 is negative, e.g., when the working gas is being compressed. When formula_1 represents the work done by the system, the first law is written:

paragraphs: People disagree whether energy is a positive or a negative number. So that formula_6 is the flow of heat out of the system, and formula_1 is the work into the system:

paragraphs: Because of this ambiguity, it is very important in any discussion involving the first law to explicitly establish the sign convention in use.


title: Conservation of energy

paragraphs: In physics, the conservation of energy is that energy can not be created or destroyed, it can only be changed from one form to another, such as when electrical energy is changed into heat energy. Formally, it says that the total amount of energy in an isolated system remains constant, although it may change forms, e.g. friction turns kinetic energy into thermal energy. In thermodynamics, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems.

paragraphs: From a mathematical point of view, the energy conservation law is a consequence of the shift symmetry of time; energy conservation is a result of the empirical fact that the laws of physics do not change with time itself. Philosophically, this can be stated as "nothing depends on time per se (time itself)".

paragraphs: Ancient philosophers as far back as Thales of Miletus had the idea that there is some underlying substance of which everything is made. But that is not the same as our concept of "mass-energy" today (for example, Thales thought the underlying substance was water).

paragraphs: In 1638, Galileo published his analysis of several situations. This included the famous "interrupted pendulum". This can be described (in modernized language) as conservatively converting potential energy to kinetic energy and back again. However, Galileo did not explain the process in modern terms and had not understood the modern concept either. The German Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz during 1676-1689 attempted a mathematical formulation of the kind of energy which is connected with "motion" (kinetic energy). Leibniz noticed that in many mechanical systems (of several masses, "m" each with velocity "v" ),

paragraphs: was conserved so long as the masses did not interact. He called this quantity the "vis viva" or "living force" of the system. The principle represents an accurate statement of the approximate conservation of kinetic energy in situations where there is no friction.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, in 1843 James Prescott Joule independently discovered the mechanical equivalent in a series of experiments. In the most famous, now called the "Joule apparatus", a descending weight attached to a string caused a paddle immersed in water to rotate. He showed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was approximately equal to the thermal energy (heat) gained by the water by friction with the paddle.

paragraphs: Over the period 1840-1843, similar work was carried out by engineer Ludwig A. Colding though it was little-known outside his native Denmark.

paragraphs: Assuming that formula_5 and that formula_6, then

paragraphs: Therefore, energy does not vary with time.


title: Differences between butterflies and moths

paragraphs: The Lepidoptera are the butterflies and moths. However, though the butterflies are a natural monophyletic group, moths are not. Butterflies are often put in the suborder Rhopalocera, which includes Papilionoidea (true butterflies), the Hesperiidae (skippers), and the Hedylidae (butterfly moths).

paragraphs: In Linnaean taxonomy, moths are usually put in the suborder Heterocera. This tends to cover up the fact that they are not a true natural monophyletic group. However, moths do look and behave rather different from butterflies, which explains why people came to call them by a different name.

paragraphs: Other taxonomic schemes have been proposed, but none of them is perfect. Both taxonomists and amateurs make use of the obvious differences between butterflies and moths.

paragraphs: The most obvious difference is in the feelers, or antennae. Most butterflies have thin slender filamentous antennae which are club shaped at the end. Moths, on the other hand, often have comb-like or feathery antennae, or filamentous and unclubbed. This distinction is the basis for the earliest taxonomic divisions in the Lepidoptera the Rhopalocera ("clubbed horn", the butterflies) and the Heterocera ("varied horn", the moths).

paragraphs: There are, however, exceptions to this rule and a few moths (the family Castniidae) have clubbed antennae. Some butterflies, like "Pseudopontia paradoxa" from the forests of central Africa, lack the clubbed ends. The "Hesperiids" often have an angle to the tip of the antenna.

paragraphs: Many moths have a "frenulum" or wing coupling physically attaching upper and lower parts of their wings together. The frenulum can be seen only when a specimen is in hand. There are various types. It may be a filament from the hindwing coupling with barbs on the forewing. Butterflies usually lack these structures. Their wing coupling is usually done by simple overlap of wing edges.

paragraphs: Most moth caterpillars spin a cocoon made of silk when they go into the pupal stage. Most butterflies on the other hand form an exposed pupa called a chrysalis.

paragraphs: There are many exceptions to this rule. Hawk moths form an exposed chrysalis which is underground. Gypsy moths sometimes form butterfly-style pupae, hanging on twigs or tree bark, although usually they create flimsy cocoons out of silk strands and a few leaves, partially exposing the chrysalis. A few Skipper butterfly larvae also make crude cocoons in which they pupate, exposing the pupa a bit. The "Parnassius" butterfly larvae make a flimsy cocoon for pupation and they pupate near the ground surface between debris.

paragraphs: Most butterflies have bright colours on their wings. Nocturnal moths on the other hand are usually plain brown, grey, white or black and often with obscuring patterns of zigzags or swirls which help camouflage them as they rest during the day. However many day-flying moths are brightly coloured, particularly if they are toxic. A few butterflies are quite plain, like the cabbage white butterfly.

paragraphs: Moths tend to have stout and hairy or furry-looking bodies. Butterflies on the other hand have slender and smoother abdomens. Moths have larger scales on their wings. These make them look more dense and fluffy. Butterflies on the other hand have fine scales. This difference is possibly due to the need for moths to conserve heat during the cooler nights whereas butterflies are able to absorb sunlight.

paragraphs: Most moths are nocturnal or crepuscular (active at night) while most butterflies are diurnal (active at daytime). There are however exceptions, including the diurnal gypsy moth and the spectacular "Uraniidae" or Sunset moths.

paragraphs: Moths usually rest with their wings spread out to their sides. Butterflies frequently fold their wings above their backs when they are perched although they will occasionally "bask" with their wings spread for short periods. However some butterflies, like the skippers, may hold their wings either flat or folded or even in-between (the so-called "jet plane" position) when perched. Most moths also occasionally fold their wings above their backs when they are in a certain spot (like when there is no room to fully spread their wings). A sometimes confusing family can be the "Geometridae" (such as the winter moth) because the adults often rest with their wings folded vertically. These moths have thin bodies and large wings like many butterflies but may be distinguished easily by structural differences in their antennae (e.g. bipectinate).


title: Monophyly

paragraphs: Monophyly means common descent from a single ancestor.

paragraphs: Biologists have introduced a kind of taxonomy called cladistics. The aim of this is to make biological classification fit what we know about the way organisms evolved.

paragraphs: If there is a group made of a common ancestor, and all its descendants, that group is monophyletic. (Greek: "of one race").

paragraphs: A group which contains organisms, without their common ancestor, is called polyphyletic. Convergent evolution is a usual cause of such groups. If a group contains the common ancestor, but leaves out some of its descendants, it is called paraphyletic. All living things on this planet are thought, on the basis of DNA analysis, to be monophyletic, that is, to have one origin, not many.

paragraphs: Example: all species in the genus "Homo" have come from the same ancestral form in the family Hominidae, and no other descendants are known. Thus the genus "Homo" is monophyletic.

paragraphs: If, on the other hand, it were discovered that "Homo habilis" had developed from a different ancestor from "Homo sapiens", and this ancestor were not included in the genus, then the genus would be polyphyletic. Since biologists by and large tend to prefer monophyletic groups, in this case, they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms.

paragraphs: Example of polyphyletic group: Sea slugs.

paragraphs: Sometimes taxonomists are frustrated fitting plant species into a monophyletic group because of polyploidy. There is clear evidence that some polyploid plant species are of multiple origins (the species has arisen more than once). For example, "Salsify", the hybrid goat's-beard, ("Tragopogon miscellus") has formed as many as 20 times in eastern Washington.

paragraphs: Also, it can happen that hybrids between two close plant species undergo polyploidy, and the polyploids continue as a new and distinct species. Situations like this are outside the normal rules of descent, and are dealt with by special decisions, guided by the International Commission of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).


title: Lepidoptera

paragraphs: The order Lepidoptera is the second biggest order of insects. It includes the moths and butterflies including the skippers. There is no common word for the group: ordinary people talk of "butterflies and moths".

paragraphs: The order has more than 180,000 species in 128 families and 47 superfamilies. They are 10% of all the described species of living organisms. The Coleoptera (the beetles) is the only order that has more species.

paragraphs: The name, Lepidoptera, comes from the Ancient Greek words "λεπίδος" (scale) and "πτερόν" (wing).

paragraphs: The earliest discovered fossils date to 200 mya or earlier. This early origin was long before flowering plants evolved. Earlier butterflies must have been adapted to a habitat of cycads and conifers, something which had not previously been suspected.

paragraphs: Lepidopterans go through complete metamorphosis. This means that they have a four parts to their lives. The first part is the egg. The second part is the caterpillar or larva. The third part is the pupa. The last part is the adult or imago.

paragraphs: The larvae have a tough head and a soft body. They have mouths that are made to chew. Some larvae are covered with hairs, or other body extensions. The larvae have three pairs of small legs on the thorax. These legs are called true legs. There are up to five pairs of bigger legs on the abdomen. These legs are called prolegs. Lepidopteran larvae can be confused with the larvae of sawflies. The difference between Lepidopteran larvae and sawfly larvae is that Lepidopteran larvae have tiny hooks on their prolegs. These hooks are called crochets. Most larvae are herbivores, but a few are carnivores and detritivores.

paragraphs: Adults have two pairs of wings. They are covered by small scales. In some species, the adults have very small wings or no wings at all. This is more common in females. Adults have antennae. Some moths have antennae that look like feathers. These feather-like antennae are larger in males than females. Adults have a mouthpart called a proboscis. It sucks nectar from flowers. Some adults do not have mouths and cannot feed. Others have different mouths that are made to pierce and suck blood or fruit juices.


title: Diurnal

paragraphs: Animals that are active during the day are called diurnal. They hunt or feed during the day and sleep during the night. Nocturnal animals do it the other way round.

paragraphs: Scientists sometimes use the word "crepuscular" to describe nocturnal animals that are not active when it is very dark at night; they are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the moon makes a lot of light.


title: Skipper (butterfly)

paragraphs: The skippers are a family of butterflies, the Hesperiidae. They are named after their quick, darting flight.

paragraphs: Skippers used to be classified in their own superfamily, Hesperioidea, because they have their antennae clubs hooked backward like a crochet while the other butterflies have club-like tips to their antennae. Skippers also have generally stockier bodies than regular butterflies, with stronger wing muscles.

paragraphs: There are about 3500 species of skippers. They are usually classified in the following subfamilies:

paragraphs: Many species of skippers look frustratingly alike. For example, some species in the genera "Erynnis", "Hesperia", and "Amblyscirtes" cannot currently be distinguished in the field even by experts. The only reliable method of telling them apart involving dissection and examination of the genitalia.


title: Energy conservation

paragraphs: Energy conservation is reducing the amount of energy used for different purposes. This may result in an increase of financial capital, environmental value, national and personal security, and human comfort.

paragraphs: Individuals and organizations that consume energy may conserve energy to reduce costs and promote economic, political and environmental sustainability. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit.

paragraphs: On a larger scale, energy conservation is an energy policy. In general, energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita. This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the methods of energy production.

paragraphs: By reducing emissions, energy conservation helps to prevent climate change. Energy conservation makes it easier to replace non-renewable resources with renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages.

paragraphs: The U.S. is the largest consumer of energy, although at current levels of growth, China may become the leading energy consumer. The U.S. Department of Energy categorizes national energy use in four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial.

paragraphs: Energy usage in the transportation and residential sectors (about half of U.S. energy consumption) is largely controlled by individual domestic consumers. Commercial and industrial energy usage are controlled by businesses. National energy policy has a significant effect on energy usage across all four sectors.

paragraphs: The transportation sector includes all vehicles used for personal or freight transportation. Of the energy used in this sector, about 65% is used by gasoline-powered vehicles, mostly personally owned. Diesel-powered transport (trains, merchant ships, heavy trucks, etc.) consumes about 20%, and air traffic consumes most of the remaining 15%.

paragraphs: The oil supply crises of the 1970s spurred the creation, in 1975, of the federal Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) program, which required auto manufacturers to meet progressively higher fleet fuel economy targets. The next decade saw dramatic improvements in fuel economy, mostly the result of reductions in vehicle size and weight. These gains eroded somewhat after 1990 due to the growing popularity of sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks and minivans, which fall under the more lenient "light truck" CAFE standard.

paragraphs: In addition to the CAFE program, the U.S. government has tried to encourage better vehicle efficiency through tax policy. Since 2002, taxpayers have been eligible for income tax credits for gas/electric hybrid vehicles. A "gas-guzzler" tax has been assessed on manufacturers since 1978 for cars with exceptionally poor fuel economy. While this tax remains in effect, it currently generates very little revenue as overall fuel economy has improved.

paragraphs: Another focus in gasoline conservation is reducing the number of miles driven. An estimated 40% of American automobile use is associated with daily commuting. Many urban areas offer subsidized public transportation to reduce commuting traffic, and encourage carpooling by providing designated high-occupancy vehicle lanes and lower tolls for cars with multiple riders. In recent years telecommuting has also become a viable alternative to commuting for some jobs.

paragraphs: A vehicle's gas mileage normally decreases rapidly at speeds above 55 miles per hour. A car or truck moving at 55 miles an hour can get about 15 percent better fuel economy than the same car going 65 mph. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), as a rule of thumb, each 5 mph you drive over 60 mph is similar to paying an additional $1.20 per gallon for gas (at $3.10 per gallon).

paragraphs: The residential sector refers to all private residences, including single-family homes, apartments, manufactured homes and dormitories. Energy use in this sector varies significantly across the country, due to regional climate differences and different regulation. On average, about half of the energy used in the U.S. homes is expended on space conditioning (i.e. heating and cooling).

paragraphs: The efficiency of furnaces and air conditioners has increased steadily since the energy crises of the 1970s. The 1987 National Appliance Energy Conservation Act authorized the Department of Energy to set minimum efficiency standards for space conditioning equipment and other appliances each year, based on what is "technologically feasible and economically justified".

paragraphs: Despite technological improvements, many American lifestyle changes have put higher demands on heating and cooling resources. The average size of homes built in the United States has increased significantly, from 1500 ft² in 1970 to 2300 ft² in 2005. The single-person household has become more common, as has central air conditioning: 23% of households had central air conditioning in 1978, that figure rose to 55% by 2001.

paragraphs: As a cheaper alternative to the purchase of a new furnace or air conditioner, most public utilities encourage smaller changes the consumer can make. Consumers have also been asked to adopt a wider indoor temperature range (e.g. 65 °F in the winter, 80 °F in the summer).

paragraphs: Energy usage in some homes may vary widely from these averages. In most residences no single appliance dominates, and any conservation efforts must be directed to numerous areas in order to achieve substantial energy savings. However, ground source heat pump systems are the more energy efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning systems available (Environmental Protection Agency). They can achieve reductions in energy consumptions of up to 70%.

paragraphs: Current best practices in building design and construction result in homes that are much more energy conserving than average new homes. See Passive house, Superinsulation, Self-sufficient homes, Zero energy building, Earthship, Straw-bale construction, MIT Design Advisor, Energy Conservation Code for Indian Commercial Buildings.

paragraphs: Smart ways to construct homes such that minimal resources are used to cooling and heating the house in summer and winter respectively can significantly reduce energy costs!

paragraphs: The commercial sector consists of retail stores, offices (business and government), restaurants, schools and other workplaces. Energy in this sector has the same basic end uses as the residential sector, in slightly different proportions. Space conditioning is again the single biggest consumption area, but it represents only about 30% of the energy use of commercial buildings. Lighting, at 25%, plays a much larger role than it does in the residential sector. Lighting is also generally the most wasteful component of commercial use. A number of case studies indicate that more efficient lighting and elimination of over-illumination can reduce lighting energy by approximately fifty percent in many commercial buildings.

paragraphs: Commercial buildings can greatly increase energy efficiency by thoughtful design, with today's building stock being very poor examples of the potential of systematic (not expensive) energy efficient design (Steffy, 1997). Commercial buildings often have professional management, allowing centralized control and coordination of energy conservation efforts.

paragraphs: Solar heat loading through standard window designs usually leads to high demand for air conditioning in summer months. An example of building design overcoming this excessive heat loading is the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, where fenestration was designed to achieve an angle with respect to sun incidence to allow maximum reflection of solar heat; this design also assisted in reducing interior over-illumination to enhance worker efficiency and comfort.

paragraphs: The industrial sector represents all production and processing of goods, including manufacturing, construction, farming, water management and mining. Increasing costs have forced energy-intensive industries to make substantial efficiency improvements in the past 30 years. For example, the energy used to produce steel and paper products has been cut 40% in that time frame, while petroleum/aluminum refining and cement production have reduced their usage by about 25%. These reductions are largely the result of recycling waste material and the use of cogeneration equipment for electricity and heating.

paragraphs: The energy required for delivery and treatment of fresh water often constitutes a significant percentage of a region's electricity and natural gas usage (an estimated 20% of California's total energy use is water-related.) In light of this, some local governments have worked toward a more integrated approach to energy and water conservation efforts.

paragraphs: Unlike the other sectors, total energy use in the industrial sector has declined in the last decade. While this is partly due to conservation efforts, it's also a reflection of the growing trend for U.S. companies to move manufacturing operations offshore.

paragraphs: The usage of telecommuting by major corporations is a significant opportunity to conserve energy, as many Americans now work in service jobs that enable them to work from home instead of commuting to work each day.


title: Cogeneration

paragraphs: Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a heat engine or a power station to make both electricity and useful heat at the same time.

paragraphs: Conventional power plants emit the heat created as a byproduct of electricity generation into the environment through cooling towers, as flue gas, or by other means. Combined heat and power captures the byproduct heat for domestic or industrial heating purposes, either very close to the plant, or - especially in Scandinavia and eastern Europe - for distribution through pipes to heat local housing.

paragraphs: Byproduct heat at moderate temperatures (100 to 180°C) can also be used in absorption chillers for cooling. A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is sometimes called regeneration or more generally: polygene ration plant.

paragraphs: Cogeneration is a thermodynamically efficient use of fuel. In separate production of electricity some energy is lost as waste heat, but in cogeneration this energy performs useful work (see energy).

paragraphs: Thermal power plants (including those that use fissile elements or burn coal, petroleum, or natural gas), and heat engines in general, do not convert all of their available energy into electricity. In most heat engines, a bit more than half is wasted as excess heat (see: Second law of thermodynamics). By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an efficiency of up to 70%, compared with at most 40% for the conventional plants. This means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the same amount of useful energy. Also, less pollution is produced for a given economic benefit.

paragraphs: An exact match between the heat and electricity needs rarely exists. A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat ("heat driven operation") or be run as a power plant with some use of its waste heat.

paragraphs: CHP is most efficient when the heat can be used on site or very close to it. Overall efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.

paragraphs: A car motor becomes a CHP plant in winter, when the reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. This example scores the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat uses in the neighbourhood of the heat engine.

paragraphs: Cogeneration plants are commonly found in district heating systems of big towns, hospitals, prisons, oil refineries, paper mills, wastewater treatment plants, thermal enhanced oil recovery wells and industrial plants with large heating needs.


title: Quakenbrück

paragraphs: Quakenbrück is a small town in Lower Saxony. It has about 13,000 inhabitants.


title: Dew point

paragraphs: The dew point is the temperature where water vapor condenses into liquid water.

paragraphs: All air holds different amounts of water vapor. The dew point shows the amount of moisture in the air. The higher the dew point is, the higher the level of moisture in the air at a given temperature. The dew point of humid air will be higher than the dew point of dry air.

paragraphs: Condensation of water vapor starts when the temperature of air is lowered to its dew point and beyond. The dew point, like other measures of humidity, can be found from measurement taken by a hygrometer.


title: Podgorica

paragraphs: Podgorica is the capital of Montenegro. It has about 135,000 inhabitants.


title: Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur

paragraphs: The Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur is an independent part of Nicaragua. It is often simply known as RAAS. Its capital is Bluefields. It was made when new regions were formed in Nicaragua in 1989. The old region was turned into Atlántico Sur and Atlántico Norte. The capital of Atlántico Norte is Puerto Cabezas. There is also a popular tourist place called Corn Island, which is about 45 km from the capital Bluefields


title: Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte

paragraphs: Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte is an autonomous region of Nicaragua. It was created in 1989. Its capital is Puerto Cabezas. Often the name is shotened to RAAN.


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