title: IPod shuffle

paragraphs: The iPod shuffle is an MP3 player made by Apple Inc. It is available with a 4GB memory which can hold roughly 1,000 songs, or 2GB memory holding roughly 500 songs. The iPod shuffle is Apple's smallest music player, it is 45.2mm tall, 17.5mm wide, and has a depth of 7.8mm.

paragraphs: The iPod shuffle's battery plays audio for 15 hours when fully charged. It can be charged to 80% of its capacity in 2 hours, and fully charged in 3 hours.

paragraphs: The iPod shuffle is the first music player that talks to you, using a feature called VoiceOver. When the button on the headphones is held down, VoiceOver will speak the song currently playing and its artist. If you continue holding it, it will tell you your playlists. Click the centre button to select a playlist. This feature is available in 20 languages.

paragraphs: The iPod shuffle is available in pink, blue, green, orange, black and silver. A polished stainless steel edition is available from the online store.

paragraphs: The first iPod Shuffle was released on January 11, 2005. Steve Jobs said that people were always putting their iPods on shuffle mode and taking them to the gym and using them while they were jogging and that the iPod Shuffle lets you do that in a much more simpler way. The iPod Shuffle relies on a feature from iTunes that lets you select random songs from the iTunes library and copy them onto the Shuffle. It doesn't have a screen and doesn't have most features the other iPods have and instead of having the click wheel, the iPod Shuffle has a more basic wheel with the up and down buttons being for volume, the left and right buttons being for switching between songs and the middle button for playing and pausing. The back has a clip and a light that tells you when the iPod has a low battery.

paragraphs: The second generation iPod Shuffle was released on September 12, 2006. It's size was changed to be even smaller being the size of a square ans Steve Jobs said it was the smallest MP3 player ever.

paragraphs: On January 30, 2007 Apple released four new colors blue, green, orange and pink as well as the normal silver color. Blue, green and pink are also the same colors used for the second generation iPod Nano and iPod Mini.

paragraphs: On September 5, 2007, Apple replaced the colors blue, green, orange and pink with four new colors turquoise, lavender, mint green, and Product Red.

paragraphs: On February 19, 2008, Apple released a 2GB iPod Shuffle for $69. On the same day Apple also lowered the price for the 1GB iPod shuffle from $79 to $49

paragraphs: On September 9, 2008, Apple replaced the colors from September 2007 with colors blue, green, pink and red. They are very similar to the colors from January 2007 except slightly brighter.

paragraphs: The 2GB iPod Shuffle was discontinued on March 11, 2009 and the 1GB iPod Shuffle was discontinued on September 9, 2009.

paragraphs: On March 11, 2009 Apple released the third generation iPod Shuffle and is said to be "jaw-droppingly small" and "the first iPod that talks to you" and it is also the first waterproof iPod. The 3G iPod Shuffle was available in black and white. The iPod Shuffle 3G featured VoiceOver technology, a personal assistant that lets you tell your iPod Shuffle to play a certain album, genre, artist or song. The iPod Shuffle 3rd generation no longer features controls on the device itself, but features controls on the earphones they come with.

paragraphs: On September 9, 2009 three new colors pink, blue and green were released and the Apple Store offered a 4GB iPod Shuffle made entirely out of stainless steel.

paragraphs: The fourth generation iPod Shuffle was released on September 1, 2010. The controls have been put back onto the device and it the design has been reverted to the iPod Shuffle second generation design and it now features VoiceOver in 29 languages: (Chinese (Cantonese, Mandarin), Czech, Danish, Dutch, English (Australia, UK, U.S.), Finnish, French (Canada, France), German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese (Brazil, Portugal), Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Spanish (Mexico, Spain), Swedish, Thai and Turkish).

paragraphs: For the first two years the iPod Shuffle was sold in five colors (silver with a black control pad, green, blue, orange and pink with a white control pad) but on September 12, 2012 Apple announced the iPhone 5 and a new iPod Touch and iPod Nano, but seven new colors were announced for the iPod Shuffle (silver or black with a black control pad or green, blue, pink, yellow, and purple with a white control pad) as well as a Product Red edition with a white control pad.


title: Nightshade

paragraphs: The nightshades (Solanaceae) are a family of flowering plants.

paragraphs: Many members of the family contain strong alkaloids, and some are very toxic. Well-known members of this family are chili peppers, petunias, deadly nightshade, mandrakes, potatoes, tomatoes, aubergines (eggplants) and tobacco.

paragraphs: Because it is thought that nightshades can cause or increase swelling and pain, many people do not eat them. The poisons in the plants are defence against animals that might eat them.


title: Woodworking

paragraphs: Woodworking is a skill. In woodworking, one can cut or sand (make wood smooth).

paragraphs: When one is doing woodworking, be careful of being hurt. Remember to wear safety goggles or a facemask (like safety goggles. but to protect ones face). Do not wear long clothing, because it can get stuck in a tool.

paragraphs: There are a lot of woodworking classes, many of them are offered in middle school.

paragraphs: In woodworking, the type of wood you get is very important. There are many kinds of softwood and many kinds of hardwood. The words hard and soft wood comes from the type of tree it came from. A hard pice of wood could be softwood.

paragraphs: There are a lot of tools that people use during woodworking, such as sandpaper (used to make wood smooth to touch), files, rasps (all used for trimming wood, cutting, etc.), saws (cutting wood), and automatic saws (saws that use electricity to run).


title: Chessmaster

paragraphs: Chessmaster is a series of chess-playing computer games. It is made by Ubisoft. It is the best-selling chess franchise in history, with more than five million games sold . The first version of the game, "Chessmaster 2000", was released in 1986. This first version and the next one, "Chessmaster 2100", were produced by the now-defunct Software Toolworks company.

paragraphs: The "Chessmaster" chess engine is called "The King". It is written by Johan de Koning of the Netherlands. It was introduced in "Chessmaster 4000". Earlier releases had a chess engine written by David Kittinger. One version of the game, "Chessmaster 9000", defeated Larry Christiansen, a well-known American chess grandmaster and former multiple U.S. champion.


title: Francis of Assisi

paragraphs: Saint Francis of Assisi (September 26, 1181 – October 3, 1226) is a Christian Saint. He is the founder of the Franciscan Order and patron saint of animals, the environment, merchants, Italy and Catholic Action. He was born in Assisi in Italy where a large basilica was built in his honor.

paragraphs: On his feast day, October 4, many churches have a ceremony for people to bring their pets and working animals to church.

paragraphs: Saint Francis was born to Pietro Bernardone, a wealthy cloth merchant, and his wife Pica. He was originally named Giovanni Francesco Bernardone. In his youth, he was first interested by French troubadours, known as wanderers who improvised songs on a stringed instrument. He later planned a career in military. When he was serving in the war between Assisi and Perugia in 1202, at the battle of Ponte Saint Giovanni, he was captured and imprisoned for a year.

paragraphs: When Francis returned to Assisi he had a religious conversion experience, including a reported message from Christ calling him to leave this worldly life. He began taking his Christianity faith seriously. He acted towards people as if the Gospels were his law, taking Jesus Christ as a literal example for loving one another. He dressed in rough clothes, ask and begged for his sustenance, and preached purity and peace. His family disapproved, and his father disinherited him, so Francis renounced his wealth and inheritance. After that Francis started visiting hospitals and caring for the sick including of leprosy.

paragraphs: In 1209 Francis started to attract followers, and with a blessing from the pope, he founded the Franciscans based on a simple statement by Jesus: “Leave all and follow me”. In 1219, he went to Egypt to convert the Sultan so the conflict of the Crusades could end.


title: Printing

paragraphs: Printing is putting words and images on paper by mechanical means. Books and newspapers are made by printing. Usually, the images are formed by ink. The ink is put on paper in machines called printing presses.

paragraphs: Printing is one of the technologies which has changed the world. It is an efficient way to multiply writing, so that copies may be made available to all people. Printing is therefore the continuation of writing by mechanical means.

paragraphs: Writing originated after people had settled in permanent dwellings. It dates from 3,300 , which is over 5000 years ago. A variety of writing systems were invented, long before paper was invented. Clay, papyrus, wood, slate and parchment (prepared animal skins) have all been used. The invention of paper by the Chinese was a step forward.

paragraphs: The earliest printing known was in 8th century China and Korea. Whole pages carved on flat wooden blocks were used. Covered with a carbon-based ink, they were pressed onto sheets of paper.

paragraphs: The second stage was to use separate characters by wood carving or casting. This was done in 11th century China and Korea. It failed to be really successful, because of the structure of the Chinese written language, shared at the time by Korea, which had thousands of characters. Because of this, the method was not significantly better than copying by scribes.

paragraphs: Printing was reinvented in 15th century Europe. Development was slow until Johannes Gutenberg made several improvements. In the following century print became the main means of communication between people who wished to record knowledge. With an alphabetic system of writing, print was much more economical than copying, and permitted many times as many copies to be available for readers. This revolution in information technology helped all aspects of life in Europe, at a time when Europe was becoming the dominant region of the world.

paragraphs: Along with a technology for printing words, there were various means for printing graphics. Carving on blocks of wood and engraving on copper were used up until about 1800. After that, a great many inventions arrived, including lithography and ways to print photographs.

paragraphs: Machines to speed printing, cheaper paper, automatic stitching and binding all arrived in the 19th century during the industrial revolution. What had once been done by a few men by hand was now done by limited companies on huge machines. The result was much lower prices, and a much wider readership.

paragraphs: The consequences of print have been considerable. It led to the spread of knowledge, and had many side-effects. Mainly, it took control out of a small class of clerks (scribes and monks) and put it in the hands of a newly educated readership. Many of the first books were in Latin; some in Greek. Later, almost all books were printed in the vernacular: the language ordinary people spoke. The Bible was one of the first books printed, and one of the first to be translated into the vernacular, against strong opposition from the church. Science was given a great boost by printing, and scientific ideas are still usually first published in print. Several scholars have thought that print even changed the way people thought.


title: Adelaide Cup

paragraphs: The Adelaide Cup is a horserace, held in Adelaide, South Australia. It has been held at the Morphettville Racecourse since 2001.


title: David Lynch

paragraphs: David Lynch (born January 20, 1946) is an American movie director. His movies include "", "Blue Velvet", "" and "". He was also responsible for a television series called "Twin Peaks", his overall most famous work. "Eraserhead", his first movie, is still his most famous theatrical movie. It was recently deemed socially important by the United States Library of Congress. He has done much work with , who has appeared been in all but two of his movies. He has said that all his movies will be done using from now on.

paragraphs: He is also famous for his early short movies. "" and "" are two of his best known. "The Alphabet" is about fear of education. "The Grandmother" is about a lonely boy who grows a grandmother like a plant from a seed.

paragraphs: Over his career, Lynch has received three Academy Award nominations for Best Director and a nomination for best screenplay. Lynch has twice won France's , as well as the at the Cannes Film Festival. He also won a award for lifetime achievement at the Venice Film Festival.


title: The Dark Side of the Moon

paragraphs: The Dark Side Of The Moon is an album by the band Pink Floyd. The album has sold over 45 million copies. It is believed to be the second best-selling album ever after "Thriller" by Michael Jackson. It is widely considered one of the greatest albums of all time.

paragraphs: It was released in 1973 and is their ninth album. It is one of the most famous albums of all time, frequently placing in the top five whenever a rock music authority makes a list of the greatest albums of all time.

paragraphs: Its cover, which features a ray of white light going through a prism, is also one of the most famous album covers of all time. Analysts say that statistically, "Dark Side Of The Moon" is always playing somewhere on planet Earth. It is one of the most famous concept albums (albums where all the songs are about a central theme. Some concept albums tell a specific story), and used to be the best-selling album of all time. There is an album-pressing plant in Germany that does nothing but create copies of "Dark Side Of The Moon".

paragraphs: Some say that when synchronized with the movie "The Wizard of Oz", there are many similarities between the two.

paragraphs: "The Dark Side of the Moon" became one of the best-selling albums of all time. It is in the top 25 of a list of best selling albums in the United States. It held the number one spot in the US for only a week. But, it remained in the "Billboard" album chart for a total of 778 weeks (nearly 14 years). This is the longest any album has spent on the "Billboard" charts. The album came back on the "Billboard" charts when the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart was introduced in May 1991. It has stayed there since then. In the UK it is the sixth-best-selling album of all time.


title: Arthur Fadden

paragraphs: Sir Arthur William Fadden (13 April 1895 – 21 April 1973) was the 13th Prime Minister of Australia. He was leader of the Country Party when Robert Menzies resigned in 1941. He became Prime Minister but lost to John Curtin in an election held only one month after he became Prime Minister. When Menzies became Prime Minister again in 1949, Fadden was the Treasurer for eight years.


title: John Curtin

paragraphs: John Joseph Curtin (8 January 1885 – 5 July 1945) was Prime Minister of Australia from 1941-1945. He went to St Abrose's School. His background is Irish


title: Australian Capital Territory

paragraphs: The Australian Capital Territory or "ACT" is a small territory in Australia. It was created as the home for the Australian capital city, Canberra, because of fighting between New South Wales and Victoria over where the capital city should be. The Jervis Bay Territory was created at the same time so that the ACT would have a harbour without relying on one of the states.


title: Governor-General of Australia

paragraphs: The Governor-General of Australia is the representative in Australia of Australia's head of state, Queen Elizabeth II. The current Governor-General is David Hurley.

paragraphs: The Governor-General of Australia is a powerful person in the country. The Governor-General is leader of the Executive Council and Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Defence Forces.

paragraphs: there are six living former Governors-General of Australia. The most recently deceased governor-general, Sir Ninian Stephen (1982–1989), died on 29 October 2017.


title: Michael Jeffery

paragraphs: Major-General Philip Michael Jeffery (born 12 December 1937) was the 24th Governor-General of Australia from 11 August 2003 until 5 September 2008. He was appointed by John Howard. Before this he was Governor of Western Australia. He quit the army in 1993 when he became Governor.

paragraphs: Jeffery was born in 1937 in Wiluna, Western Australia, and he was educated at Cannington, East Victoria Park State Schools, and Kent Street High School. When he was 16 years old, he left Perth to go to the Royal Military College, which was Duntroon. After he graduated there in 1958, he went to Malaya in 1962 for a special service with the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment. In 1965, he was seconded to go to the British SASR (Special Air Service Regiment) for a tour in Borneo. Then he returned to Australia as the leader of the SASR in Perth. From 1966 to 1969, he worked in Papua New Guinea with the 1st Battalion. He married Marlena Kerr, who lived in Sydney during this work. After that, in 1972, he was chosen to go to the British Army Staff College at Camberley. Then he was chosen as the person to help with the 2nd Battalion in Wewak PNG. In 1976, he became the commander of the SASR and was appointed as the member of the order in Australia. He was also chosen to attend the Royal College of Defence Studies in London in 1985.

paragraphs: From 1986, he became the commander of the Army's 1st Division. In June 1988, he even became the Officer of the Order of Australia for his services to the Army, and in 1989, he became the Assistant Chief of the General Staff.

paragraphs: In January 1990 he became the Chief of the General Staff, and he was responsible for the Army. Later in 1991 he became appointed as the Assistant Chief of the General Staff for Material, which also included taking care of the Army equipment and building projects. On the first of November 1993, he was sworn in as the 27th governor of Western Australia, and he also became a Companion of the Order of Australia, until 2000. General Jeffery's interests were about young people, education, environment, and national security. Also, the Queen made him the Prior for Australia, and a Knight of Justice of the Order.

paragraphs: He and his wife Marlena have seven grandchildren, three sons, and a daughter. His hobbies are listening to music, reading, golf, and fishing.


title: Nanny

paragraphs: A nanny is someone hired to take care of the children in a family. They are usually female but there are also male nannies. Many nannies can begin their employment in their late teens. Many nannies live in their employers' home most of the days in the year. Some employers require their nanny/nannies to wear a uniform.


title: Frank Forde

paragraphs: Francis Michael Forde (18 July 1890 – 28 January 1983) was the 15th Prime Minister of Australia. He was Prime Minister for only a week after John Curtin died. He lost a leadership contest to Ben Chifley. He was prime minister for only eight days, less than any other Prime Minister from Australia. He also lived longer than any other Prime Minister, until Gough Whitlam, who passed Forde's age on January 21, 2009. He died at 92 years old.

paragraphs: Forde was from the Australian Labor Party. He was the Minister for Trade and Customs in the Scullin government (1929–1931). When Scullin retired in 1935, Forde tried to become the leader of the Labor Party, but he lost by one vote to John Curtin. When Labor won the 1941 elections and Curtin became Prime Minister, Forde was made Minister for the Army. On 5 July 1945 Curtin died; because he was Deputy Leader, Forde was then made Prime Minister until the Labor Party chose a new leader. At the leadership election on 13 July, Ben Chifley was voted leader, and Forde was made Deputy Leader again.


title: Ben Chifley

paragraphs: Joseph Benedict Chifley (22 September 1885 – 13 June 1951) was the 16th Prime Minister of Australia. He won the leadership after the death of John Curtin in 1945. His government tried to take over of all Australia's banks. This was not popular and the High Court said that it would not be allowed. Opposition leader Robert Menzies said that Chifley and the Labor Party were not strict against Communism. This is one of the main reasons why Chifley lost the 1949 election. He died soon after losing the 1951 election to Menzies.


title: High Court of Australia

paragraphs: The High Court of Australia is the most powerful court in Australia. It was created in 1903. It currently has seven judges who are called "Justices". It mainly hears appeals by people who are not happy with the decision of another court.


title: Harold Holt

paragraphs: Harold Edward Holt (5 August 1908 – 17 December 1967) was the 17th Prime Minister of Australia. He became Prime Minister after the retirement of Robert Menzies. He supported the United States in the Vietnam War. He disappeared while swimming at a beach in Victoria in December 1967. His body was never found. Many urban Australian myths surround his disppearance.

paragraphs: On the day of his disappearance, the guards at the gate of Point Nepean told Percy Cenulty, who held a camp that day at Point Nepean, that Harold Holt wasn't in the car that went through the gate. Theories state that Harold never went to the beach that day. The second night, the Springvale Necropolis was surrounded by military For the whole night. This has not happened ever before and since.

paragraphs: Harold Edward was born on 5 August 1908 in Stanmore,Sydney . Holt completed his schooling from Nubba State School . After one year of schooling at Nubba State School he went to Abbotsholme College, a private school in Killara where he studied for three years . In 1920, Holt went to Wesley College, Melbourne. He won a scholarship in his final year and graduated second in his class


title: Biosphere

paragraphs: The biosphere includes everything living on Earth. Currently the biosphere has a biomass (or amount of living things) at around 1900 gigatonnes of carbon. It is not certain exactly how thick the biosphere is, though scientists predict that it is around 12,500 meters. The biosphere extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere, including birds and insects.

paragraphs: In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems. This includes artificial biospheres such as Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons.


title: Drum and bugle corps

paragraphs: A drum and bugle corps is similar to a marching band but it only has brass instruments, percussion instruments, and color guards. Armies used signal drums and bugles as signals for centuries. The modern drum and bugle corps came from military drum and bugle units coming back from World War I and the wars after it. Early drum and bugle corps was a year-round activity, where musicians performed at shows all the time. Now, most drum and bugle corps schedule tours during the summer, where they travel around the country, performing a new show every year, with different music and movements.

paragraphs: Before 1971, most American drum and bugle corps, or "corps," performed in shows run by the American Legion. In 1971, 5 important corps founded a new group, called the "Midwest Combine." Other eastern and western corps did the same thing with their respective regions. These corps formed these organizations because they did not like the rules of the American Legion, which many believed prevented creativity. The corps also believed that they did not give enough of the money from ticket sales to the corps who performed. The different groups decided that they would all perform together in shows, one after another, and never separately in different shows. This strategy went very well for the corps, and in 1972, all the groups, plus a few other corps formed a big group called "Drum Corps International," or DCI. This group gave the corps a lot of money from shows and artistic freedom. DCI's leadership are the corps that perform in DCI, allowing the competing members to change rules whenever they need to, rather than having someone not familiar with drum corps make those changes.

paragraphs: DCI has two classes corps can compete within. The first, and greater one is "World Class." in World class, all of the corps must have no more than 154 members, although how those members are divided is up to the leaders of that corps. The corps in world class also get more money from DCI, and are allowed to vote on big decisions in DCI, like show times, rules, and money. the corps in world class also spend a lot of time touring the country, and go to a lot of places. The second, and lesser class is "Open Class." in Open class, the corps can have any number of members between 1 and 154. These corps do not get as much money as world class corps, and do not have as much say in decision making. They also spend less time on tour, and they also stay closer to where their headquarters is. Sometimes, corps can move from open class to world class if they performed very well the previous year. If a group wants to start a corps, they will always start out in open class.

paragraphs: The classes in DCI did not always look this way. there once was 3 classes called divisions, I, II, & III. There also used to be a "greater" Open class, "A" class, and "A60" class (where corps could only have a maximum of 60 marching members). There also used to be an All-Girls class, for corps that were all girls. before 1983, most corps were all male.

paragraphs: Before 2000, most drum corps played brass instruments with two buttons, or "valves". These play a "G" note when no valves are pressed. These "bugles" give drum and bugle corps its name. Bugles are very similar to other brass instruments, but bugles are not usually made well, and they can be very difficult to play well when you want them to. Now, most drum corps play instruments that sound a bit higher; they play a B-flat when no buttons are pressed. These are called marching instruments, and sound and play very similar to the instruments played in concert halls.

paragraphs: Remember, drum corps perform on football fields outside. In a concert hall, the sound from the instruments bounces everywhere, but the walls are carefully shaped to direct the sound to the audience. Outside the sound still bounces everywhere, but the sound that is not pointing directly forward flies away and is wasted. Because of that, marching instruments are shaped differently; the big "bell" points towards the audience, so it is as loud as possible for them.  The four most common brass instruments in corps are the trumpet, mellophone (like a French horn), baritone, and contrabass (like a tuba). For a long time, DCI rules have banned all other brass instruments besides the ones listed above. Now, DCI have changed the rules and have allowed more brass instruments, like the trombone and euphonium. These other instruments are used in a manner that only one or a couple people play them in the corps. As a result, the instruments need microphones and speakers, or else the audience would not hear them over the dozens of marching instruments on the field.

paragraphs: All drum corps use three different types of drums. These are the snare, tenors, and basses. together, with the cymbals, make up the "drumline."

paragraphs: The snare drum is the smallest of the three. It has a short, loud, crunchy sound when hit. Corps can have between 6-10 people playing these.

paragraphs: Tenor drums, or "tenors" are actually a set of 4 or 5 drums attached together, designed to be played all by one person. The different drums have different pitches that can be played in sequences to produce crude melodies. This instrument has a sound like "oh" and a noticeable pitch, and the sound quality can change depending on the type of stick used to hit the instrument. Corps can have between 3-5 musicians playing these.

paragraphs: The bass drum is a very large drum held sideways against player's body, so that the musician uses two hands and sticks to hit either drum head. It is the deepest pitched of the drums, and they have a low, round, closed sound when hit, with a less defined pitch. Corps have about 5 basses of different sizes played by 5 people, so, like the tenors, they can also play crude melodies.

paragraphs: Modern drum corps not only have marching drummers, but also have 'front ensembles," who play instruments that cannot be marched with. These include timpani sets, or kettle drums, vibraphones, marimbas, tubular bells, xylophones, and various "auxiliary" percussion that would be inconvenient to march with. Front ensembles can also have suspended cymbals, especially if the corps has no marching cymbals.

paragraphs: Drumlines can also have cymbals, who hold two identical crafted metal solid cymbals in both hands in front of their bodies, and slam them together to get a sustained crash sound. Many modern drum corps have opted to eliminate cymbals from their drumlines, as they can be expensive to maintain. Cymbal lines need at least one additional staff member to teach, as they are very different from the other drums. In addition, a corps may have limited members, and deem that a musician is more valuable in the front ensemble, where they can play other instruments simultaneously.


title: Piccolo

paragraphs: The piccolo is a small flute that plays one octave higher than the normal flute. It sounds an octave higher than written. It is the highest instrument in the orchestra. Sometimes it sounds like a birdcall.


title: Double reed

paragraphs: Double reeds are a group of musical instruments in the woodwind family. Instead of a mouthpiece, the player blows air through a pair of reeds that vibrate against each other.

paragraphs: Examples of double reed woodwinds are the bassoon, oboe and Cor anglais (English horn).


title: Alto flute

paragraphs: The alto flute is a flute that plays a fourth (half an octave) lower than the regular flute. It is longer than the regular flute. Sometimes alto flutes have a bent part at the top end.

paragraphs: The alto flute is a transposing instrument. This makes it easy for someone who plays the flute to play on the alto flute. The fingering for the note C on the flute will give a G on the alto flute.

paragraphs: The alto flute is not very often used, and only in very large orchestras. Maurice Ravel wrote a beautiful tune for alto flute in "Daphnis et Chloé". Igor Stravinsky used one in "The Rite of Spring". In "The Planets" by Gustav Holst there is a passage with three flutes and alto flute playing 4 part harmony.

paragraphs: The alto flute must not be confused with a bass flute which is even bigger and lower and very unusual indeed.


title: Stevenage

paragraphs: Stevenage is a town in Hertfordshire in England. It is between the towns of Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City.

paragraphs: In 1801, 1,430 people lived in Stevenage. In 1901, 4,049 people lived in Stevenage. In 2001, 79,724 lived in Stevenage. The town grew the most in the 1950s and 1960s, when it became the first new town in the world.

paragraphs: The name Stevenage may come from an Old English word meaning "place at the stiff oak". Stevenage started as a village and people have lived there since Roman times. Some Roman remains were found when the New Town was being built. There are also six Roman round barrows, which is where a local family was buried.

paragraphs: In 1281, Stevenage was allowed to have a market twice a week and a fair every year. The fair still takes place every year.

paragraphs: Stevenage became the first New Town on 1 August 1946, and was planned with six neighbourhoods.

paragraphs: The town centre was the first shopping area in Britain with no traffic. It was opened in 1959 by Queen Elizabeth II. In the town centre there is a clock tower, fountain and a statue called "Joyride", which is a statue of a mother and child. It was made by Franta Belsky.

paragraphs: In 1999, a millennium countdown clock was put up on the town centre clock tower, which showed how much time was left until the year 2000. In 2005, plans were made for the town centre to be made more modern. The changes could take 10 years.

paragraphs: Next to the town centre is the town gardens, a modern church and a museum.

paragraphs: Stevenage has lots of roundabouts and not very many traffic lights. There are also lots of cycle tracks for people to ride on. Stevenage has some of the tallest street lights in the country. The town is a very green town, with lots of trees and grass. Fairlands Valley is a large park in the middle of Stevenage. There are also many playing fields. The schools in Stevenage all have large fields.

paragraphs: Many schools were built in the 1950s and 1960s because a lots of people from London were moving to Stevenage. The town has around 23 primary schools and several secondary schools.

paragraphs: Stevenage has a leisure centre and a theatre in the town centre. There is a leisure park with a large cinema, and lots of clubs and restaurants. Stevenage also has two industrial areas.

paragraphs: Stevenage Borough F.C. is the town's football team, which plays in League One and is based at Broadhall Way.

paragraphs: Stevenage holds a number of events every year including Stevenage Day, Rock in the Park and Stevenage Carnival. The Carnival ended in 2003 but it is returning 6th June 2010.

paragraphs: Stevenage has lots of places of worship for people of several different religions. Many of the Christian churches work together for town-wide projects.

paragraphs: Stevenage is twinned with the following places around the world:

paragraphs: Stevenage has been twinned with Shymkent since 1990

paragraphs: Stevenage has been twinned with Kadoma since 1989 and recently celebrated its 20th anniversary. [www.skla.org.uk]

paragraphs: Stevenage has been twinned with Ingelheim since 1963 [www.tsiaa.org.uk]

paragraphs: Stevenage has been twinned with Autun since 1975. It was incorporated into the Stevenage-Ingelheim Association as Ingelheim and Autun were already twinned. see Stevenage-Ingelheim-Autun Association.


title: Yu-Gi-Oh!

paragraphs: Yu-Gi-Oh! is a manga series, two anime series, and a trading card game (the books came first, then the cards and then the series) based on the two anime series. The series follows the adventures of Yugi Mutou, a high school student who plays a game called Duel Monsters. It has a spin-off called "Yu-Gi-Oh! GX". Japan has an exclusive anime based on the first seven volumes of the manga.

paragraphs: "Yu-Gi-Oh cards" are a trading card game that uses monsters that Yugi and other characters on the show use. This trading card game is very popular with young children, teenagers, and even adults in Hong Kong and Taiwan.

paragraphs: The series is about having hope and faith in for the characters and Duel Monsters on each cards. Yugi's grandfather Sugoroku Mutou (Solomon Muto) owns a game shop. One day, Yugi finds a strange puzzle at the back of the shop, and tries to solve it. He tries to solve the puzzle for 8 years. When he is 16, he solves it. When he finishes the puzzle, he gets an extra soul. The soul is Dark Yugi (Yami Yugi), an Egyptian Pharaoh. Yami Yugi successfully recovers his lost memory. Yugi defeats Dark Bakura (Yami Bakura), Dark Yugi's worst enemy.

paragraphs: "Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters" is an animation based on Yu-Gi-Oh! comic.

paragraphs: "Yu-Gi-Oh! GX" The spin-off of "Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters". The story is set several years after the "Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters" story.

paragraphs: "Yu-Gi-Oh! 5DS" The story is set many years after the "Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters" story. A prominent new feature of the "Yu-Gi-Oh 5DS" series is the use of Synchro Monster.

paragraphs: "Yu-Gi-Oh! Zexal" An anime series. Relevance of previous work is not declared. Xyz Monsters are introduced.


title: Travelling salesman problem

paragraphs: The Traveling Salesman Problem (often called TSP) is a classic algorithmic problem in the field of computer science and . It is focused on optimization. In this context, "better solution" often means "a solution that is cheaper, shorter, or faster". TSP is a mathematical problem. It is most easily expressed as a graph describing the locations of a set of nodes.

paragraphs: The traveling salesman problem was defined in the 1800s by the Irish mathematician W. R. Hamilton and by the British mathematician Thomas Kirkman. Hamilton’s Icosian Game was a recreational puzzle based on finding a Hamiltonian cycle. The general form of the TSP appears to have been first studied by mathematicians during the 1930s in Vienna and at Harvard, notably by Karl Menger. Menger defines the problem, considers the obvious brute-force algorithm, and observes the non-optimality of the nearest neighbour heuristic:We denote by "messenger problem" (since in practice this question should be solved by each postman, anyway also by many travelers) the task to find, for ﬁnitely many points whose pairwise distances are known, the shortest route connecting the points. Of course, this problem is solvable by finitely many trials. Rules which would push the number of trials below the number of permutations of the given points, are not known. The rule that one first should go from the starting point to the closest point, then to the point closest to this, etc., in general does not yield the shortest route.Hassler Whitney at Princeton University introduced the name "traveling salesman problem" soon after.

paragraphs: The Travelling Salesman Problem describes a salesman who must travel between N cities. The order in which he does so is something he does not care about, as long as he visits each once during his trip, and finishes where he was at first. Each city is connected to other close by cities, or nodes, by airplanes, or by road or railway. Each of those links between the cities has one or more weights (or the cost) attached. The cost describes how "difficult" it is to traverse this edge on the graph, and may be given, for example, by the cost of an airplane ticket or train ticket, or perhaps by the length of the edge, or time required to complete the traversal. The salesman wants to keep both the travel costs, as well as the distance he travels as low as possible.

paragraphs: The Traveling Salesman Problem is typical of a large class of "hard" optimization problems that have intrigued mathematicians and computer scientists for years. Most important, it has applications in science and engineering. For example, in the manufacture of a circuit board, it is important to determine the best order in which a laser will drill thousands of holes. An efficient solution to this problem reduces production costs for the manufacturer.

paragraphs: In general, the traveling salesman problem is hard to solve. If there is a way to break this problem into smaller component problems, the components will be at least as complex as the original one. This is what computer scientists call NP-hard problems.

paragraphs: Many people have studied this problem. The easiest (and most expensive solution) is to simply try all possibilities. The problem with this is that for N cities you have (N-1) factorial possibilities. This means that for only 10 cities there are over 180 thousand combinations to try (since the start city is defined, there can be permutations on the remaining nine). We only count half since each route has an equal route in reverse with the same length or cost.


title: Capacity

paragraphs: Capacity is the ability to hold something, very similar to volume.


title: Creditor

paragraphs: A creditor is a person who loans money to another person. The person who gets the loan is called the borrower. Creditors are sometimes called "moneylenders". Creditors expect the borrower to pay the money back at a later time. The creditor usually gets extra money from the borrower. This extra money is called interest.


title: Anno Domini

paragraphs: Anno Domini (Latin : "In the year of (our) Lord"), shortened as AD or A.D., is used to refer to the years after the birth of Jesus. AD is also a shortening for Christian Era. Similarly, Before Christ, shortened as BC or B.C., is used in the English language to refer to all years before the start of the time period "Anno Domini". In past centuries, AD came before the year but comes after a century or millennium. For example, a person would write AD 2014 but 21st century AD or 3rd millennium AD. There is no zero year in this system. This means that the year A.D. 1 follows the year 1 B.C.

paragraphs: Some people mistakenly interpret “A.D.” as standing for “after death.” The abbreviation “A.D.” was originally placed before the year number (e.g. A.D. 145); then “B.C.” often placed after the year number (e.g. 145 B.C.). Nowadays it is more usual to put both abbreviations after the numbers (e.g. 145 AD; e.g. 145 BC).

paragraphs: This dating system was meant to signal the year of Christ's birth, but modern scholars have decided Jesus was actually born a few years earlier.

paragraphs: The system for working out the years was invented by Dionysius Exiguus in about AD 525. He fixed the point Anno Domini, which is used to number the years of both the Gregorian calendar and the Julian calendar. He used it to identify the several Easters in his Easter table. He did not use it to date any historical event. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year — he himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior [Flavius Probus]", which he also stated was 525 years "since the incarnation [conception] of our Lord Jesus Christ". How he arrived at that number is unknown. He invented a new system of numbering years to replace the Diocletian years that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.

paragraphs: The Anno Domini calendar era became dominant in Western Europe only after it was used by the Venerable Bede to date the events in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. The French emperor Charlemagne made it popular in mainland Europe. Some parts of Europe did not use the Anno Domini system until the 15th century. For example, Portugal used a different system called the "Spanish era" until 1422.


title: Haze

paragraphs: Haze is reduction in visibility due to dust or other particles in the air. It is often a problem in air quality with smoke covering the sky. The particles may also make it hard to breathe. Some people fall sick as well due to the polluted air.


title: Neighbours

paragraphs: Neighbours is an Australian soap opera. The show started in March 1985 on the Seven Network, but they cancelled it the same year. Rival network Network Ten decided to start making and broadcasting the show, and have done that since 1986. It was produced by Reg Watson. The show started with low ratings, and Network Ten did their best to get more people to watch. They got new characters, two of them were played by Kylie Minogue and Jason Donovan. These two characters became a couple known as "Scott and Charlene", and by the time they married in 1987, ratings were much higher.

paragraphs: The show is about the lives of people that live in a fictional street called Ramsay Street. Ramsay Street is in a fictional suburb, Erinsborough, in the real-life city Melbourne.


title: John McEwen

paragraphs: Sir John McEwen (29 March 1900 – 20 November 1980) was the 18th Prime Minister of Australia. He was leader of the Country Party when Harold Holt disappeared in 1967, and so was appointed Prime Minister until the Liberal Party elected a new leader. The Party elected John Gorton as the leader, and Gorton took over as Prime Minister on 10 January 1968. McEwen then served as Deputy Prime Minister until 1971.


title: John Gorton

paragraphs: Sir John Grey Gorton (9 September 1911 – 19 May 2002) was the 19th Prime Minister of Australia. He was elected Liberal Party leader after Harold Holt was drowned. He was a fighter pilot during the Second World War and had a battle scarred face. He said he was "Australian to the bootheels".

paragraphs: Bettina Brown married Gorton in 1935. She died in 1983. Then, in 1993, Gorton married Nancy Home.

paragraphs: As Prime Minister he said he wanted to help Australian movies and the arts. His government set up the Australian Council for the Arts, the Australian Film Development Corporation and the National Film and Television Training School. His government made men and women get equal pay for equal work. His government increased pensions and allowances and education scholarships and provided free health care to 250,000 poor people (but not universal health care). His private secretary was businesswoman Ainsley Gotto.

paragraphs: Gorton's government kept Australia in the Vietnam War but stopped replacing troops at the end of 1970 - the beginning of the end of Australia being in the war. He had good relations with U.S. President Richard Nixon and with Britain's Prime Ministers, but this was a time when Australia was starting to move closer to Asia.

paragraphs: Gorton was popular with lots of ordinary people, but not a good manager of other people in his party. State Liberal leaders did not like that he was moving more power to Canberra (the national capital) and some other Liberals did not like his policies or personal behaviour. The Liberals lost votes in the 1969 election and the half-senate election in 1970. In 1971, the Defence Minister, Malcolm Fraser, resigned and said Gorton was "not fit to hold the great office of Prime Minister". The Liberal party split 50/50 over a vote to replace him and he decided not to vote for himself and resigned as their leader. So he also stopped being Prime Minister. Gorton never forgave Malcolm Fraser.

paragraphs: William McMahon became Prime Minister and Gorton became Defence Minister from March to August, 1971. But Gorton wrote articles for the newspapers about his time in office - headed: "I did it my way" - and McMahon got him to resign. After Gough Whitlam's Labor Party won in 1972, Liberal leader Billy Snedden made Gorton the Opposition Spokesman for the Environment. Gorton then supported abortion and got Parliament to say that homosexuality should be legal.

paragraphs: When Malcolm Fraser became leader of the Liberal Party, Gorton walked out of the party room. A month later he resigned from the party. Then he tried to get elected an indepedent to the Senate in 1975. Gorton was unhappy with the way the Governor General sacked Gough Whitlam and the way Malcolm Fraser became Prime Minister, so he said people should vote Labor in 1975. He then retired from politics but worked in radio and supported things like drug law changes. With Fraser gone, John Howard's Liberal Party got Gorton back in the party and had a special gala dinner in Canberra in 1999. In 2001, a big party was held for his 90th birthday. It was organised by some of his old Liberal and National Party friends, but there were also messages from the Queen, U.S. and British leaders and all the Labor Prime Ministers of Australia.


title: William McMahon

paragraphs: Sir William McMahon (23 February 1908 – 31 March 1988) was the 20th Prime Minister of Australia. He was elected to the Australian parliament in 1949, and stayed as Member for Lowe, in Sydney, for 33 years. He challenged John Gorton for the leadership of the Liberal Party of Australia in 1971 and won. He was 63 years old. He lost the next election in December 1972 to Gough Whitlam of the Australian Labor Party. This made him the first Prime Minister not to win an election since Labor's Ben Chifley (who lost in 1949). McMahon was married to (Lady) Sonia McMahon from 1965 until his death from cancer. Actor Julian McMahon is their son.

paragraphs: The Liberal party had won lots of elections since 1949, but had some popularity problems by 1971. Australian soldiers were still in the Vietnam War. McMahon replaced John Gorton, then made him defence minister, but soon after made him resign for talking about problems in the Liberal Party. McMahon's government was the first to have a Minister for Aboriginal Affairs. Aboriginal land rights were an important topic of debate at this time. On foreign affairs, McMahon said the Opposition leader, Gough Whitlam, was wrong to visit communist China in 1972 - but soon after U.S. President Richard Nixon visited China and McMahon was embarrassed. The economy was not looking too good when the government went to the 1972 election.


title: IRC bot

paragraphs: IRC Bots are computer programs. They are used on Internet Relay Chat (IRC) to help control and protect chat rooms. They can do many of the things that a human user can do such as gather data, kick users out of the channel, ban users, or even send stats to other programs and websites.

paragraphs: IRC Bots/Chatroom bots are used in many things now, from sending RuneScape statistics, to keeping track of users who abuse the networks.

paragraphs: Popular IRC bots include Infobot, blootbot, Supybot.


title: Shawn Lane

paragraphs: Shawn Lane (March 21, 1963 – September 26, 2003) was an American musician. He was a solo guitarist.

paragraphs: At the age of 4, he began taking vocal lessons, cello lessons and piano lessons. By age ten, he picked up a guitar and found out he was better with a guitar than his other instruments. He joined a band at the age of fifteen and played in bars and clubs.

paragraphs: A few years later he started playing shows again. He began to tour with his own band, playing guitar and keyboard. In February 2003, Lane accomplished one of his life long dreams and toured over India with his band. When they left India, they were called "true rock heroes" by the people. In September 2003, when getting ready to make an album with the Swedish bassist Jonas Hellborg and drummer Ginger Baker, Lane had bad breathing problems. He was told by doctors that he would have to remain on medical oxygen for the rest of his life. On Friday, September 23, 2003, he died.


title: Greg Scott

paragraphs: Greg "Greggles" Scott (born March 6, 1969) is an English television presenter. He is best known for presenting Quizmania, a quiz show on ITV Play.


title: Twin Dragons

paragraphs: Twin Dragons (1992) (also known as Brother vs. Brother and When Dragons Collide)

paragraphs: Identical brothers, separated at birth, end up as a criminal and a U.S. pianist, then cross paths years later in Hong Kong.


title: Motorola

paragraphs: Motorola was a American company that made cell phones and other electronics. The company was based in Schaumburg, Illinois, a small town just outside of Chicago, Illinois. After losing $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, Motorola was divided in two separate companies on January 4, 2011; Motorola Mobility and Motorola Solutions.

paragraphs: They were listed in the New York Stock Exchange as MOT.

paragraphs: The company began with the name Galvin Manufacturing Corporation in 1928, and then later adopted the 'Motorola' name in 1947. They were the first developers of the walkie-talkie in World War II.

paragraphs: On August 15, 2011, Google said that it would buy Motorola Mobility for $12.5 billion.

paragraphs: On October 30, 2014, Lenovo finalized its purchase of Motorola Mobility from Google.


title: Extrasolar planet

paragraphs: An extrasolar planet (or exoplanet) is a natural planet in a planetary system outside our own solar system.

paragraphs: In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion to at least 144 billion. The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory. Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist. One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".

paragraphs: Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star. There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do. It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".

paragraphs: In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.

paragraphs: In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his "Principia". Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of "One"".

paragraphs: The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988. It was finally confirmed in 1992.

paragraphs: In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around another pulsar. These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation. Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.

paragraphs: On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi). This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the quick detection of many new exoplanets. These advances allowed astronomers to detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their parent stars. Additional extrasolar planets were eventually detected by watching occultations when a star becomes dimmer as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.

paragraphs: In May 2016 NASA announced the discovery of 1,284 exoplanets which brought the total number of exoplanets to over 3,000.

paragraphs: Extrasolar planets can have many different forms.

paragraphs: The nearest star with planets is Alpha Centauri. It is 4.3 light years away. Using standard rockets, it would take tens of thousands of years to get there. The nearest star similar to our Sun is Tau Ceti. It has five planets, one of which in the habitable zone, where liquid water may exist.

paragraphs: Some extrasolar planets might be Earth-like. This means that they have conditions very similar to that of the Earth. Planets are ranked by a formula called the Earth similarity index or ESI for short. The ESI goes from one (most Earth-like) to zero (least Earth-like). For a planet to be habitable it should have an ESI of at least 0.8. For comparison, the four solar terrestrial planets are included in this list.


title: Extratropical cyclone

paragraphs: An extratropical cyclone (also called a mid-latitude cyclone) is a type of cyclone. It is a large low-pressure weather area with clouds, rain and heavy wind. They occur in areas that are between latitudes 30° – 60° from the equator. They are not the same as tropical cyclones or low-pressure weather areas from polar zones. They are actually many masses of cold and warm fronts producing rain, heavy wind, and sometimes tornadoes and even hail.

paragraphs: An extratropical cyclone turns anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The shape is circular or oval. The usual size in diameter is about 1000 km. These cyclones are usually connected with fronts. A front is a system of changes in weather. It is caused by a very cold air mass meeting a very hot air mass. In the cyclone, there is a system of warm front and cold front. The center of a cyclone is cloudier. There is also a very high chance of precipitation. The wind is strong and changes its direction, as the warm front passes. The weather is stable and fog is usual. As the cold front passes, there is a change of wind, the temperature decreases and rain is also common.

paragraphs: Some extratropical cyclones are made from tropical cyclones that become weak but do not die when they move over cold water. Sometimes, these weather areas can become even stronger than before as they turn into extratropical cyclones. When made from tropical cyclones, they can still have an eye (a place in the middle of a tropical cyclone that is not as windy, cloudy, or rainy). European windstorms are sometimes made when wind from the northwestern part of the Atlantic carry them more east and north towards Europe. Nor'easters often hit northeastern North America, and are made when it is cold, most often in late fall. Wind from the west part of the Atlantic moves them north. They become stronger, and drop snow on the areas it moves into. When a nor'easter drops in pressure and become stronger, by more than one millibar every hour, it is called a weather bomb. Hurricane Hazel was extratropical but still hurricane-level when it hit Toronto, for example.

paragraphs: Cyclonal defects usually occur in series called "the families of the cyclones". Usually, there is a belt of 3 or 4 cyclones in different stages. The cyclone has several stages of evolution. First, there is a stage of the origin of a cyclone. Second stage means that the cyclone is strengthening. At that moment, both the warm and cold front are very large. The system is moving very fast. The cold front is generally faster, which means that it runs down the warm one. This causes an occluded front. The weather is similar to both types of fronts. The third stage ends with filling of the area with air. The pressure rises. Stage four means that the signs of cyclonal weather disappear.

paragraphs: A violent storm during the Crimean War on November 14, 1854, wrecked 30 vessels, and sparked initial investigations into meteorology and forecasting in Europe. In the United States, the Columbus Day Storm of 1962, one of many Pacific Northwest windstorms. Hurricane Sandy also became extratropical before it's landfall.


title: Small solar system body

paragraphs: A small solar system body (SSSB) is a term defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union to describe solar system objects which are neither planets, nor dwarf planets:

paragraphs: Therefore, it refers to these objects that can be further grouped based on their orbit or what they are made of:

paragraphs: Some of the larger "small solar system bodies" may be reclassified in future as dwarf planets, pending further examination to determine whether or not they are in hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly-round shape).


title: Frankenstein

paragraphs: Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by Mary Shelley. It is about a creature produced by a strange scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was nineteen. It was published when she was twenty-one. The first edition was published anonymously in London in 1818. Shelley's name appears on the second edition, published in France in 1823.

paragraphs: Shelley had travelled in the region of Geneva, Switzerland, where much of the story takes place. Ideas about occultism were topics of conversation among her travelling companions, especially her future husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley. Mary, Percy, Lord Byron, and his doctor John Polidori decided to have a competition to see who could write the best horror story. After thinking for weeks about what her possible storyline could be, Shelley dreamt about a scientist who created life and was horrified by the result. She then wrote "Frankenstein".

paragraphs: Since publication of the novel, the name "Frankenstein" is often used to refer to the monster itself. This usage is sometimes considered erroneous, but usage commentators regard the monster sense of "Frankenstein" as well-established and an acceptable usage. In the novel, the monster however is called "creature", "monster", "fiend", "wretch", "vile insect", "daemon", "being", and "it". Speaking to Victor Frankenstein, the monster refers to himself as "the Adam of your labors", and elsewhere as someone who "would have" been "your Adam", but is instead "your fallen angel."

paragraphs: Victor Frankenstein is a scientist who wants to create life itself. He stitches together parts from the dead bodies of criminals executed at the gallows. He brings his creation to life during an electrical storm. The monster scares Frankenstein. It begins to kill without reason or cause. Frankenstein chases the monster to the Arctic, and dies pursuing the creature. The monster vanish into the fog.


title: ESPN

paragraphs: ESPN is an American sports television network owned by ESPN, Inc., a joint venture between The Walt Disney Company which owns 80% and Hearst Corporation which ViacomCBS Domestic Media Networks 90% owns 20%. "ESPN" is an acronym for Entertainment and Sports Programming Network. The channel is headquartered in Bristol, Connecticut with other studios in Los Angeles, California. ESPN shows sporting events and games, and also has shows that show highlights of sporting events and that show people talking about sports. The network has also shown games or events other than sports, such as poker.


title: Advance Australia Fair

paragraphs: Advance Australia Fair is the official national anthem of Australia.

paragraphs: Peter Dodds McCormick (–1916) wrote the music and the words for the song. It was first performed in 1878, but it only became Australia's official anthem in 1984.

paragraphs: Between 1878 and 1984, the song was used inside of Australia as a patriotic song. For a time the song announced the news from the Australian Broadcasting Commission. When Australia became a Federation in 1901, the song was sung by a choir of 10,000 people.

paragraphs: In 1977 there was a vote for the national anthem between four songs during the 1977 Australian referendum. The other three songs were:

paragraphs: "Advance Australia Fair" received 43.29% of the vote, defeating the three alternatives: "Waltzing Matilda" (28.28%), "Song of Australia" (9.65%), and the existing national anthem "God Save the Queen" (18.78%). However, it was not until 1984 that the national anthem was changed to reflect the popular vote.

paragraphs: Other songs and marches have been influenced by Advance Australia Fair, such as the Australian Vice-Regal salute.


title: 2006 Winter Olympics

paragraphs: The 2006 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XX Olympic Winter Games, were held in Turin, Italy from 10 to 26 February 2006. This was the second time Italy hosted the Olympic Winter Games. The first time was the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo. Italy also had the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.

paragraphs: The President of Italy, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, opened the ceremony. Stefania Belmondo was the torch-bearer.

paragraphs: 1,548 men and 960 women were in the Olympics. There were 84 events. The official motto of the XX Olympic Winter Games was "Passion lives here".

paragraphs: Olympic events were mainly held in Turin. Other events such as skiing and snowboarding had to be held in mountain areas.

paragraphs: Many venues were located in the Olympic District in central Turin, including:


title: Dracula

paragraphs: Dracula is a horror novel written by the Irish writer Bram Stoker. Bram Stoker published the novel in England in 1897. Sir Henry Irving was an actor and friend of Bram Stoker. The character 'Dracula' may have been based in part on Irving, and on Vlad III the Impaler. The story begins with a journey from England to Transylvania in Romania in 1893.

paragraphs: The young solicitor (a type of lawyer) Jonathan Harker goes to the country Transylvania to sell a house to a nobleman named Dracula. He realizes that Dracula is a vampire (or devil). Dracula catches Harker in his castle and goes to England, then bites the young woman Lucy Westenra and turns her into a vampire. Then Dracula bites Jonathan's wife Mina. Because of this, the other characters in the book, including Abraham von Helsing and Jonathan Harker, try to defeat Dracula.

paragraphs: Here is a wel-known phrase in the story: “Do you not know that to-night, when the clock strikes midnight, all the evil things in the world will have full sway(=influence) ?”


title: United States Air Force

paragraphs: The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aerial warfare branch of the United States armed forces and one of the seven uniformed services. It was a part of the United States Army until September 18, 1947. The USAF is the largest and most of technologically advanced air force in the world. It has thousands of aircraft in service including bombers, fighter aircraft, transports and other kinds, and hundreds of Intercontinental ballistic missiles. Hundreds of thousands of men and women are on active duty in the Air Force and others are in the Reserves and the United States National Guard.

paragraphs: The Air Force warrant officer ranks, while authorized by law, are not used.


title: European Broadcasting Union

paragraphs: The European Broadcasting Union (EBU), known in French as <nowiki>L'</nowiki>Union Européenne de Radio-Télévision (UER), and unrelated to the European Union, was formed on 12 February 1950 by 23 broadcasting organizations from Europe and the Mediterranean at a conference in the coastal resort of Torquay in Devon, England. In 1993, the International Radio and Television Organisation ("OIRT"), an equivalent organisation of broadcasters from Central and Eastern Europe, was merged with the EBU.


title: Annular hurricane

paragraphs: An annular hurricane is a term used in the north Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean east of the International Dateline. An annular hurricane is a rare type of hurricane that has a big, circular eyewall, and thick, deep convection around it with no spiral rainbands. This structure allows the hurricane to maintain its strength for longer durations, and in worse conditions than typical hurricanes.


title: 2004 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: The 2004 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad, were held in Athens, Greece from August 13 2004, until August 29 2004. It was the first time since 1896 that the Olympics were held in Greece. 10,625 athletes took part. There were 301 medal events.

paragraphs: The four other candidate cities were Rome, Cape Town, Stockholm, and Buenos Aires. Six other cities had applied, but were turned down by the IOC in 1996. These cities were Istanbul, Lille, Rio de Janeiro, San Juan, Seville, and Saint Petersburg.

paragraphs: Athens won every round of voting and easily beat Rome in round 5, the final vote. Round 2 was to settle a tie break between Cape Town and Buenos Aires from round 1.

paragraphs: The ranking in this table is based on information provided by the International Olympic Committee.

paragraphs: The total number of bronze medals is greater than the total of gold or silver because in boxing and judo, two bronze medals were awarded in each weight class.

paragraphs: Countries are ranked firstly by the number of gold medals they have, then by the number of silver, and then by the number of bronze. Where countries have the same number of each type of medal, they are listed alphabetically and given the same ranking.

paragraphs: Medal numbers shown in bold are the highest in their section. Greece, the host nation is highlighted in lavender.


title: 1964 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: The 1964 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVIII Olympiad, were held in Tokyo, Japan from October 10 1964, through October 24 1964.


title: 1896 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: The 1896 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the I Olympiad, were held at Athens in Greece.

paragraphs: The games took place from April 6 to 15, 1896. It was the first international Olympic Games held in the Modern era. As Ancient Greece was the birthplace of the Olympic Games, Athens was an appropriate choice to stage the inaugural modern Games. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was also instituted during this congress.

paragraphs: The 1896 Olympics were regarded as a great success even though there were many obstacles and setbacks. The Games had the largest international participation of any sporting event to that date. The Panathinaiko Stadium, the only Olympic stadium used in the 19th Century, overflowed with the largest crowd ever to watch a sporting event. The highlight for the Greeks was the marathon victory by Spyridon Louis. The most successful competitor was German wrestler and gymnast Carl Schuhmann, who won four events.

paragraphs: After the Games, Rhys Coubertin and the IOC were petitioned by several prominent figures including Greece's King George and some of the American competitors in Athens, to hold all the following Games in Athens. However, the 1900 Summer Olympics were already planned for Paris and, except for the Intercalated Games of 1906, the Olympics did not return to Greece until the 2004 Summer Olympics, some 108 years later.

paragraphs: The stories about the events and people of these Games were in the 1984 NBC miniseries, "The First Olympics: Athens, 1896" – starring David Ogden Stiers as William Milligan Sloane and Louis Jourdan as Pierre de Coubertin.

paragraphs: In the 18th century, several small-scale sports festivals in Europe were named after the Ancient Olympic Games. The 1870 Olympics at the Panathenaic stadium had 30,000 people. Coubertin took Dr William Penny Brooke's idea to have a multi-national and multi-sport event—the ancient games were in a sense international, because various Greek city-states and colonies were represented, but only free male athletes of Greek origin were allowed to participate. In 1890, Coubertin wrote an article in "La Revue Athletique", which talked about the importance of Much Wenlock—a rural market town in the English county of Shropshire. It was here that, in October 1850, the local physician William Penny Brookes started the Wenlock Olympian Games, a festival of sports and recreations that included athletics and team sports, such as cricket, football and quoits. Coubertin also took inspiration from the earlier Greek games organized under the name of Olympics by businessman and philanthropist Evangelis Zappas in 1859, 1870 and 1875. The 1896 Athens Games was funded by the legacies of Evangelis Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas and by George Averoff who had been specifically requested by the Greek government, through crown prince Constantine, to sponsor the second refurbishment of the Panathinaiko Stadium. The Greek government did fix the stadium even though the cost of refurbishing the stadium in marble had already been funded in full by Evangelis Zappas forty years earlier.

paragraphs: On June 18, 1894, Coubertin put together a group at the Sorbonne, in Paris, to present his plans to representatives of sports societies from 11 countries. After his proposal's acceptance by the congress, a date for the first modern Olympic Games needed to be chosen. Coubertin suggested that the Games be held at the same time as the 1900 Universal Exposition of Paris. Concerned that a six-year wait might lessen public interest, congress members instead chose 1896. With a date established, members of the congress turned to the choice of a host city. Since Greece was the original home of the Olympics, all the congress approved the decision of Athens. Vikelas was then elected the first president of the newly established International Olympic Committee (IOC).

paragraphs: On April 6 (March 25 according to the Julian calendar then in use in Greece), the games of the First Olympiad were officially opened; it was Easter Monday for both the Western and Eastern Christian Churches and the anniversary of Greece's independence. The Panathinaiko Stadium was filled with an estimated 80,000 spectators, including King George I of Greece, his wife Olga, and their sons. Most of the competing athletes were aligned on the infield, grouped by nation. After a speech by the president of the organizing committee, Crown Prince Constantine, his father officially opened the Games:

paragraphs: "I declare the opening of the first international Olympic Games in Athens. Long live the Nation. Long live the Greek people."

paragraphs: Afterwards, nine bands and 150 choir singers performed an Olympic Hymn, composed by Spyridon Samaras, with words by poet Kostis Palamas. Thereafter, a variety of musical offerings provided the backgrounds to the Opening Ceremonies until 1960, since which time the Samaras/Palamas composition has become the official Olympic Anthem (decision taken by the IOC Session in 1958). Other elements of current Olympic opening ceremonies were started later: the Olympic flame was first lit in 1928, the first athletes' oath was sworn at the 1920 Summer Olympics, and the first officials' oath was taken at the 1972 Olympic Games.

paragraphs: At the 1894 Sorbonne congress, a large roster of sports were suggested for the program in Athens. The first official announcements regarding the sporting events to be held featured sports such as football and cricket, but these plans were never finalized, and these sports did not make the final list for the Games. Rowing and yachting were scheduled, but had to be canceled due to poor weather on the planned day of competition.

paragraphs: The athletics events had the most international field of any of the sports. The major highlight was the marathon, held for the first time in international competition. Spyridon Louis was the only Greek athletics champion and a national hero. Although Greece had been favored to win the discus or the shotput, the best Greek athletes finished just behind the American Robert Garrett in both events.

paragraphs: No world records were set, as few top international competitors had elected to compete. In addition, the curves of the track were very tight, making fast times in the running events hard. Despite this, Thomas Burke, of the United States, won the 100 meter race in 12.0 seconds and the 400 meter race in 54.2 seconds. was the only one who used the "crouch start" (putting his knee on soil), confusing the jury. Eventually, he was allowed to start from his "uncomfortable position".

paragraphs: The rules of the International Cycling Association were used for the cycling competitions. The track cycling events were held at the newly built Neo Phaliron Velodrome. Only one road event was held, a race from Athens to Marathon and back (87 kilometers).

paragraphs: In the track events, the best cyclist was Frenchman Paul Masson, who won the one lap time trial, the sprint event, and the 10,000 meters. In the 100 kilometers event, Masson entered as a pacemaker for his compatriot Léon Flameng. Flameng won the event, after a fall, and after stopping to wait for his Greek opponent Georgios Kolettis to fix a mechanical problem. The Austrian fencer Adolf Schmal won the 12-hour race, which was completed by only two cyclists, while the road race event was won by Aristidis Konstantinidis.

paragraphs: The fencing events were held in the Zappeion, which, built with money Evangelis Zappas had given to revive the ancient Olympic Games, was not used before. Unlike other sports (in which only amateurs were allowed to take part at the Olympics), professionals were allowed to compete in fencing, though in a separate event. These professionals were considered gentlemen athletes, just as the amateurs.

paragraphs: Four events were scheduled, but the épée event was cancelled for unknown reasons. The foil event was won by a Frenchman, Eugène-Henri Gravelotte, who beat his countryman, Henri Callot, in the final. The other two events, the sabre and the masters foil, were won by Greek fencers. Leonidas Pyrgos, who won the latter event, became the first Greek Olympic champion in the modern era.

paragraphs: Gymnastics was at the infield of the Panathinaiko Stadium. Germany sent an 11-man team, which won five of the eight events, including both team events. In the team event on the horizontal bar, the German team was unopposed. Three Germans added individual titles: Hermann Weingärtner won the horizontal bar, Alfred Flatow won the parallel bars; and Carl Schuhmann, who also competed successfully in wrestling, won the vault. Louis Zutter, a Swiss gymnast, won the pommel horse, while Greeks Ioannis Mitropoulos and Nikolaos Andriakopoulos were victorious in the rings and rope climbing events, respectively.

paragraphs: Held at a range at Kallithea, the shooting competition was five events—two using a rifle and three with the pistol. The first event, the military rifle, was won by Pantelis Karasevdas, the only competitor to hit the target with all of his shots. The second event, for military pistols, was dominated by two American brothers: John and Sumner Paine became the first siblings to finish first and second in the same event. In order to avoid embarrassing their hosts, the brothers decided that only one of them would compete in the next pistol event, the free pistol. Sumner Paine won that event.

paragraphs: The Paine brothers did not compete in the 25 meter pistol event, as the event judges determined that their weapons were not of the required caliber. In their absence, Ioannis Phrangoudis won. The final event, the free rifle, began on the same day. However, the event was not completed due to darkness and was finalized the next morning, when Georgios Orphanidis was crowned the champion.

paragraphs: The swimming competition was held in the open sea. Nearly 20,000 spectators lined the Bay of Zea off the Piraeus coast to watch the events. The water in the bay was cold, and the competitors suffered during their races. There were three open events (men's 100 metre freestyle, men's 500 metre freestyle, and men's 1200 metre freestyle), in addition to a special event open only to Greek sailors, all of which were held on the same day (April 11).

paragraphs: For Alfréd Hajós of Hungary, being on the same day meant he could only compete in two of the events. He won the two events in which he swam, the 100 and 1200 meter freestyle. Hajós later became one of only two Olympians to win a medal in both the athletic and artistic competitions, when he won a silver medal for architecture in 1924. The 500 meter freestyle was won by Austrian swimmer Paul Neumann, who defeated his opponents by more than a minute and a half.

paragraphs: Although tennis was already a major sport by the end of the 19th century, none of the top players turned up for the tournament in Athens. The competition was at the courts of the Athens Lawn Tennis Club, and the infield of the velodrome used for the cycling events. John Pius Boland, who won the event, was entered in the competition by a fellow-student of his at Oxford. In the first round, Boland defeated Friedrich Traun, a promising tennis player from Hamburg, who had been eliminated in the 100 meter sprint competition. Boland and Traun decided to team up for the doubles event, in which they reached the final and defeated their Greek and Egyptian opponents after losing the first set.

paragraphs: The sport of weightlifting was still young in 1896, and the rules differed from those in use today. Competitions were held outdoors, in the infield of the main stadium, and there were no weight limits. The first event was held in a style now known as the "clean and jerk". Two competitors stood out: Scotsman Launceston Elliot and Viggo Jensen of Denmark. Both of them lifted the same weight; but the jury, with Prince George as the chairman, ruled that Jensen had done so in a better style. The British delegation, unfamiliar with this tie-breaking rule, lodged a protest. The lifters were eventually allowed to make further attempts, but neither lifter improved, and Jensen was declared the champion.

paragraphs: Elliot won in the one hand lift event, which was held immediately after the two-handed one. Jensen had been slightly injured during his last two-handed attempt, and was no match for Elliot, who won the competition easily. The Greek audience was charmed by the Scottish victor, whom they considered very attractive. A curious incident occurred during the weightlifting event: a servant was ordered to remove the weights, which appeared to be a difficult task for him. Prince George came to his assistance; he picked up the weight and threw it a considerable distance with ease, to the delight of the crowd.

paragraphs: No weight classes existed for the wrestling competition, held in the Panathinaiko Stadium, which meant that there would only be one winner among competitors of all sizes. The rules used were similar to modern Greco-Roman wrestling, although there was no time limit, and not all leg holds were forbidden (in contrast to current rules).

paragraphs: Apart from the two Greek contestants, all the competitors had previously been active in other sports. Weightlifting champion Launceston Elliot faced gymnastics champion Carl Schuhmann. The latter won and advanced into the final, where he met Georgios Tsitas, who had previously defeated Stephanos Christopoulos. Darkness forced the final match to be suspended after 40 minutes; it was continued the following day, when Schuhmann needed only a quarter of an hour to finish the bout.

paragraphs: On the morning of Sunday April 12, King George organized a banquet for officials and athletes (even though some competitions had not yet been held). During his speech, he made clear that, as far as he was concerned, the Olympics should be held in Athens permanently. The official closing ceremony was held the following Wednesday, after being postponed from Tuesday due to rain. Again the royal family attended the ceremony, which was opened by the national anthem of Greece and an ode composed in ancient Greek by George S. Robertson, a British athlete and scholar.

paragraphs: Afterwards, the king awarded prizes to the winners. Unlike today, the first-place winners received silver medals, an olive branch and a diploma. Athletes who placed second received copper medals, a branch of laurel and a diploma. Third place winners did not receive a medal. Some winners also received additional prizes, such as Spyridon Louis, who received a cup from Michel Bréal, a friend of Coubertin, who had conceived the marathon event. Louis then led the medalists on a lap of honor around the stadium, while the Olympic Hymn was played again. The King then formally announced that the first Olympiad was at an end, and left the Stadium, while the band played the Greek national hymn and the crowd cheered.

paragraphs: Like the Greek king, many others supported the idea of holding the next Games in Athens; most of the American competitors signed a letter to the Crown Prince expressing this wish. Coubertin, however, was heavily opposed to this idea, as he envisioned international rotation as one of the cornerstones of the modern Olympics. According to his wish, the next Games were held in Paris, although they would be somewhat over-shadowed by the concurrently held Universal Exposition.

paragraphs: A total of 14 nations sent athletes to compete at the Athens games.


title: Olympic Stadium

paragraphs: Olympic Stadium is the name given to the main stadium of the Olympic Games.


title: 1390s

paragraphs: 1395 End of reign of Hungary by Capet-Anjou family


title: Captain Underpants

paragraphs: Captain Underpants is a popular series of children's books by Dav Pilkey. The books take place in Piqua, Ohio.


title: Makalani

paragraphs: Makalani is the name given to a certain palm tree, growing in northern Namibia (Southern Africa). The local Owambo people call a full grown palm tree "Omulunga" and a sapling "Oshivale." These palm trees grow very high and it takes many years for a Makalani sapling to grow into a full-grown tree.

paragraphs: The seeds look like small coconuts, and the local people, the Owambos and Himbas, peel the outer ginger looking skin and carve the inner hard core to certain objects of art. The inner core is white with a dark brown skin, the size of a golf ball, and it is hollow inside. The Makalani fruit (Ondunga/Onduga)is very useful to the local people. It can be eaten and can also be used to brew Ombike/Owalende: the Oshiwambo brew that looks and taste similar to Whiskey.

paragraphs: There are now also some hotels, restaurants, and guesthouses which have adopted the name Makalani (in Namibia). These include Makalani Sugar processors, Makalani Holdings and Makalani Airtime Distributors.


title: Trowbridge

paragraphs: Trowbridge is the county town of Wiltshire, a county in England. It is on the River Biss in the west of the county, 8 miles (13 km) south east of Bath, Somerset, separated by the Mendip Hills, which rise 3 miles (4.8 km) to the west. The town is also 38 miles (61 km) south of Gloucester and 20 miles (32km) south east of Bristol.

paragraphs: Trowbridge has been a market town for a long time. The Kennet and Avon Canal has been a very important part of the town's growth because it allowed coal to be moved from the Somerset Coalfield. This began steam-powered wool production in mills, which the town is famous for. The town was a very important producer of clothes and blankets in the south west of England. Because of this, in the late 18th century and early 19th century, it had the nickname of "The Manchester of the West".

paragraphs: The civil parish of Trowbridge had 33,108 people in the 2011 census. The parish goes over the areas of Longfield, Lower Studley, Upper Studley, Studley Green and Trowle Common. Parishes that are next to Trowbridge include Staverton, Hilperton, West Ashton, North Bradley, Southwick and Wingfield. Some towns close to Trowbridge are Bradford on Avon, Westbury, Melksham, Frome and Devizes.


title: Bow (music)

paragraphs: In music, a bow is a stick which is strung with hair. It is used to pull across the strings of a string instrument such as a violin, viola, cello or double bass.

paragraphs: The wood used for good quality bows is usually pernambuco wood from Brazil. Some bows nowadays are made from carbon fiber. They are often cheaper and still of very good quality. The bow has to be slightly curved so that it straightens out a bit as the hairs are tightened (this is like the bow of ‘bow and arrow’ where letting go of the tension of the bent bow makes the arrow fly off).

paragraphs: Horsehair is used for the hairs of the bow. These hairs gradually fall out when the bow is used a lot. When a lot of the hairs have fallen out the player can have the bow re-haired. When the bow is new, or when it has just been re-haired, it will not make any sound until the hairs have been well rubbed with rosin (also called “colophony”). The rosin makes the hair grip the string as it is drawn across. Every violinist needs to keep a piece of rosin (called a “cake of rosin”) in his or her violin case. They may need to rosin the bow for a short while each time they play. There is a screw at the end of the bow for tightening the hairs. After playing, the bow hairs should be slackened again before the bow is put away. This is to stop the wood from warping (bending out of shape).

paragraphs: The black bit near the heel of the bow (the end where the player holds it) is called the frog. This holds the hair in place. The frog may be made of ebony, but sometimes it is made of ivory or tortoiseshell. Near the frog is the grip, which is made of leather or sometimes snakeskin. Expensive bows sometimes have a tip made of silver.

paragraphs: There are other instruments which use bows. In the Renaissance the viols were played with a bow which was held with the palm upwards. Some double bass players still hold the bow in this way (this is called the German method. The overhand method is called the French method.)

paragraphs: The kind of bow in use today was developed by the bow-maker François Tourte in 19th century France.

paragraphs: There are other cultures which have bows with only one thick hair.

paragraphs: People who learn to play the violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass spend a very long time learning the technique of bowing. They have to learn to control the bow so that it makes a lovely sound on the string. They learn to control the bow with strong fingers, but never to hold the bow tightly. Sometimes they are asked to pluck the string instead of bowing it. This is called “pizzicato”.

paragraphs: The bow is held in the right hand. The left hand makes the different notes by putting the fingers firmly down on the fingerboard.

paragraphs: When string players talk about “putting in the bowing” they mean: writing in the music for each note whether it is played with an upbow or downbow. A downbow is when the player starts at the heel (the end that he is holding) and finishes at the tip. An upbow is when the bow travels in the direction tip to heel. A player does not always have to use “whole bows” (from the heel to the tip). In fast music he may only use a small part of the bow. A downbow feels stronger than an upbow, so it is usually used for the first beat of the bar. Downbows and upbows may be used for alternate notes, but often two or more notes are taken in one bow-stroke. This is shown in the music by a slur (a short curved line like a phrase mark over or under the notes to be slurred).

paragraphs: The bow generally should touch the part of the string mid-way between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge (see the article violin). To play quietly the bow should be nearer the fingerboard. To play loudly it should be nearer the bridge.

paragraphs: When the players have been plucking ("pizzicato") and they need to start bowing again, the word "arco" is put in the music. This is the Italian word for "bow".

paragraphs: Special effects can be made with the bow. These include:

paragraphs: The Chinese yazheng and "yaqin", and Korean ajaeng zithers are generally played by "bowing" with a rosined stick, which rubs against the strings without any horsehair. The hurdy-gurdy, an instrument known in medieval Europe, has strings which are bowed by a "rosin wheel," which is turned by a handle.


title: Bowing

paragraphs: Bowing means: taking a bow. A bow is when a person bends their body forward from the waist in order to greet someone or show respect for them. A bow is sometimes not much more than a quick nod of the head, but it can be a very deep bow from the waist. The exact way to bow and the situations in which people bow vary enormously between different cultures.

paragraphs: Bowing was originally a gesture (a movement of the body) which showed deep respect for someone. In European cultures bowing to someone is now only done in very formal situations, e.g. when meeting the Queen or someone very high and important.

paragraphs: In European history bowing was common at royal courts. Men were expected to "bow and scrape". This meant bowing and at the same time drawing back the right leg so that it scraped the floor. The man would hold his left hand over his waist while doing this. This is why we still talk about "bowing and scraping" meaning that someone is trying very hard and hypocritically to be unnecessarily polite. This kind of deep bow, which is never used nowadays, is sometimes called a “reverence” (a word meaning: “deep respect”).

paragraphs: Bowing was only done by men. Women would always curtsey to show respect.

paragraphs: Nowadays bowing in European cultures is mostly seen at performances. When people applaud (clap their hands) after a performance such as a concert on in the theatre the performer will take a bow. This is like saying “thank you” to the audience for saying “thank you” by clapping. Both men and women performers bow (although female ballet dancers will curtsey).

paragraphs: In Christian worship people in churches will bow to the altar to show respect to Jesus.

paragraphs: There are other special occasions in which people bow. In judo and some other martial arts the two contestants (people who are going to fight) will bow to one another to show that they respect one another and will obey the rules of the game.

paragraphs: In some Asian cultures bowing is far more common than in the West. It is especially important in Japan. Japanese people – both men and women - spend a lot of their time bowing. They bow to greet one another, to say goodbye, to say they are sorry, to say ‘thank you’, or to show that they are not as important as the person they are bowing to. There are different degrees of bowing, and it is very important in Japanese culture to know the right way to bow on different occasions. A bow of 15 degrees is very informal, a bow of 45 degrees is very formal. They keep their back (from the head to the hips) straight while doing this. The men have their hands by their sides, women have one hand over the other in front of their body. Typically a bow should last a count of eight: three to go down, one for a pause and four for returning to an upright position. If someone bows a little longer than the other person, that other person may bow again, and the other person then also bows again, and this can go on several times. Japanese mothers carry their babies on their backs, so that children learn to bow even before they can speak. Pupils and teachers at school bow to one another. The more important someone is, the deeper the other person has to bow.


title: Billie Jean King

paragraphs: Billie Jean King (born Billie Jean Moffitt on November 22, 1943 in Long Beach, California) is an American retired tennis player. She is considered one of the greatest female tennis players. She won many championships during her career, which started in 1959 and ended in 1983. She was known for speaking against sexism in sports and society. She started the Women's Tennis Association, World TeamTennis, and the Women's Sports Foundation. Her most famous match was in 1973. It was called "The Battle of the Sexes" and was with Bobby Riggs, who had been a champion in the 1930s and 1940s. She loved playing tennis but had to stop after an injury.

paragraphs: Her brother is baseball player Randy Moffitt.

paragraphs: Billie Jean King grew up poor. It was hard for her parents to support her. Her father was an engineer for a fire department. Her mother was a housekeeper. Her father had two jobs. Her mother sold Tupperware to pay for King’s tennis competitions. King’s family could not pay to join their local tennis club. Therefore, King learned at public tennis courts.

paragraphs: King was interested in fighting for the rights of women in tennis. When she was seventeen years old, King played doubles in Wimbledon. She and her partner, Karen Hantze, won the match. They became the youngest women players to win that match at Wimbledon. Even though she won this competition, she didn't want to focus on tennis completely yet.

paragraphs: King joined a community college and married Larry King. Later, she played tennis again and spoke against sexism. She is famous for winning a competition called the Battle of the Sexes against Bobby Riggs in 1973. This was one of the first tennis matches when a man played against a woman. Winning this match really helped her speak about sexism. She used tennis and the Battle of the Sexes to prove that women are as good at sports as men. She was important in tennis and helped the voice of women.


title: Fabio Cannavaro

paragraphs: Fabio Cannavaro (born 13 September 1973) is an Italian retired football player. He was the captain of Italy's winning FIFA World Cup squad in 2006. He is considered on of the best defenders in history.

paragraphs: Cannavaro had originally played several famous football club in Italy, such as Napoli, Parma, Internazionale Milano and Juventus. He won several champions of Italian Serie A in the past, and a UEFA Cup in 1999. In 2006, he turned to Spain to join the Spanish giant Real Madrid, as a defender of the team.

paragraphs: Cannavaro is a famous defender who represent Italy national team for over 100 times, joining three times of FIFA World Cup. In 2006 he led the national team to win the champion of World Cup, and then won the World Footballer of 2006. As few defenders can be very popular, some people comment that Cannavaro has excellent talent, just like German legend Franz Beckenbauer.


title: Toontown Online

paragraphs: Disney's Toontown Online, also called as Toontown Online or Toontown, was an online video game created by The Walt Disney Company. The game was an MMORPG, where a lot of people play at one time. It was released in 2003, and closed in 2013.

paragraphs: Players live life as a toon in Toontown. Players can make a duck, bear, mouse, rabbit, dog, cat, horse, pig, or monkey.

paragraphs: Players try to live life as a toon, play games on the Trolley and make new friends. But it's not all paradise. Evil robots called "Cogs" have taken over, and "gags" (cartoon fun) are used to defeat them. There is not a purpose that players have to go by. A player can choose to be the top racer or to have the most "laff points". Many people like it because of this. Some users even dare to become "ubers", toons with better gags but poor laff.