title: British Raj

paragraphs: The British Raj is a term of history. "Raj" is a word in the Hindi language which means "rule", so "British Raj" means rule by the British in India. This rule was before 1947 and was over parts of what are now four countries, the Republic of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar At that time, these four countries were all part of the British Indian Empire, known at the time as the Indian Empire and sometimes now spoken of as the "British Raj".

paragraphs: The "British Raj" is used to talk of the direct British rule over areas which had been conquered by the British, known as British India, and also the British influence over hundreds of independent "princely states" ruled by their own Indian rulers, under the overall authority of the British crown.

paragraphs: Undivided India is another term which is used to mean the whole area of British rule, but it does not take in Burma, which from 1937 was a British colony on its own. The colony of Aden came under the same government in India from 1858 to 1937, and so did British Somaliland (now part of Somalia) from 1884 to 1898 and Singapore from 1858 to 1867.

paragraphs: British rule in Pakistan and the East Bengal region ended on 14 August 1947, while British rule in the rest of what had been British India ended on 15 August 1947, however the boundaries came into effect on the 18th of that month as two countries.

paragraphs: Jammu and Kashmir, like the other princely states, had not been under direct British rule. India and Pakistan have gone to war over this area, and it is now divided between them.


title: Lever

paragraphs: A lever is a simple machine. It is something that can be used in a lot of ways. One way is by measuring things, or by seeing which weighs more. A lever is supported by a fulcrum which it uses to lifts weights. It is one of six simple machines. There are three types of levers: first-class, second-class and third-class.

paragraphs: The earliest remaining writings about levers are from the 3rd century BC. They were written by Archimedes. ""Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the earth."" is a famous quote from Archimedes who stated the correct mathematical principle of levers (quoted by Pappus of Alexandria).

paragraphs: There are three kinds of levers. The difference between them is where the is and where the forces are.

paragraphs: A first-class lever is a lever where the fulcrum is in between the effort and resistance (the load). Seesaws and crowbars are examples of first class levers.

paragraphs: A second-class lever is where the resistance is between the effort and the fulcrum. Wheel barrows and wrenches are examples of second class levers.

paragraphs: A third class lever is where the effort is between the resistance and the fulcrum. Staplers and your forearm are examples of third class levers.


title: Pulley

paragraphs: A pulley is a simple machine that is used to lift heavy objects. Block and tackle system is a modified form of a pulley. Pulleys are usually used in sets designed to make the amount of force needed to lift something smaller.

paragraphs: Pulleys are useful in construction sites.


title: Józef Piłsudski

paragraphs: Józef Klemens Piłsudski (December 5, 1867 – May 12, 1935) was an important leader of Poland.

paragraphs: From 1795 to 1918, Poland was not an independent country. It was divided into three parts between Russia, Prussia (Germany) and Austria-Hungary. Piłsudski was born in the Russian part. The government tried to make Poles become Russian but Piłsudski was born in family of patriots. In 1887 he got into trouble, because he helped people who tried to kill the Tsar. He was sent to Siberia. When he came back from there he got more and more involved in politics.

paragraphs: Later Piłsudski became a soldier and wanted to make Poland independent again. At the beginning of World War I, most people, who agreed with Pilsudski, helped Austria-Hungary, because they preferred it to Russia. When they stopped helping Austria-Hungary and Germany, Piłsudski was arrested. When the War was over, he was freed. He came to Warsaw in November 1918 and helped to organize Poland. Then, for a short time, he became its leader (not president). Gabriel Narutowicz became Poland's first president, but he was shot by his enemy a few days later and Stanisław Wojciechowski became the next president. Poland's situation was not good and the politicians argued a lot. Many people, especially the soldiers, wanted Piłsudski back, so he told Wojciechowski to resign. When Wojciechowski said no, Piłsudki took over with the help of the Army. Parliament elected Ignacy Mościcki to be the new president, but he had to do what Piłsudski wanted him to do. Together, they changed the Polish constitution and made a lot of other changes.

paragraphs: Joseph Piłsudski, was born in 5 December 1867 in Zułowo in Lithuania, into a patriotic family. His father, Joseph Wincenty (1833-1902), had fought in the January 1863 Uprising against the Russian rule of Poland-Lithuania. His mother - Maria (1842-1884) - came from a famous family. He had a daughter, Jadwiga Piłsudska (1920-2014).


title: Isaiah Berlin

paragraphs: Sir Isaiah Berlin OM, FBA (6 June 1909 – 5 November 1997) was a British philosopher. He was born in Riga, Latvia, which at the time was a part of the Russian Empire. He was Jewish, and was the first Jew to win the prize of a fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford University.

paragraphs: Isaiah Berlin was an important person of the 20th century. People see him as an important thinker of Liberalist ideas. He was made a member of the Order of Merit and was a professor at the University of Oxford. He made a distinction between positive liberty and negative liberty. His most famous work is probably "Two Concepts of Liberty" (where he introduced this distinction.) He died 5 November 1997.


title: Guru Granth Sahib

paragraphs: The Guru Granth Sahib , also called Adi Granth, is the holy book of the religion Sikhism. It contains prayers, and hymns of Sikh religion. Sikhs believe the Guru Granth Sahib to be a living Guru, hence the Guru Granth Sahib has its own place also commonly known as 'Sach Khand' (the Heaven).

paragraphs: The name of the book is made up of three words. The first word is Guru, and a Guru in Sanskrit language means a teacher. Granth is a word of Hindi, and this means a book. The third word Sahib is a word of Urdu language and it means master. Thus, the Guru Granth Sahib means "a Master Book by the Teacher". The Guru Granth Sahib, is a collection of hymns of the first five "Sikh Gurus", the "Ninth Guru", and various saints, or "bhagats" Sikhs and others such as Baba Farid.

paragraphs: But what makes it so significant is that it has the solution to every problem in the World. The Granth teaches us how we should live, and promotes a modern ideology. This is why it makes it so important to Sikhs.

paragraphs: The book is usually placed in the centre of the temple, high up under a roof.

paragraphs: It is written in the language called Gurmukhi. The first composition in the Guru Granth Sahib is Mool mantar by Guru Nanak Dev Ji.


title: Zeno of Elea

paragraphs: Zeno of Elea was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy. He was born about 490 BC and died about 430 BC: the exact dates are not known.

paragraphs: Zeno a member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides. Aristotle called him the inventor of dialectic. He is best known for his paradoxes, which Bertrand Russell has described as "immeasurably subtle and profound".

paragraphs: Although many ancient writers refer to the writings of Zeno, none of his writings survive intact.

paragraphs: Plato says that Zeno's writings were "brought to Athens for the first time on the occasion of" the visit of Zeno and Parmenides

paragraphs: According to Proclus in his "Commentary on Plato's Parmenides", Zeno produced "not less than forty arguments revealing contradictions", but only nine are now known.

paragraphs: Zeno's arguments are perhaps the first examples of a method of proof called "reductio ad absurdum", literally meaning "to reduce to the absurd". This destructive method of argument was used by him to such an extent that he became famous for it.


title: Zeno of Citium

paragraphs: Zeno of Citium (sometimes called Zeno Apathea) (333 BC264 BC) was a philosopher. He was the student of Carates of Thebes, who was the most famous cynic at that time. He started the Stoic school of philosophy.


title: Iron Curtain

paragraphs: The Iron Curtain is a term related to the Cold War. It means the border between the states that were members of the Warsaw Pact (in Eastern Europe), and those that were not (then called "The West").

paragraphs: This border was between East Germany and West Germany, between Czechoslovakia and Austria, and between Hungary and Austria.

paragraphs: At the end of World War II Austria, Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones. In 1955, a treaty was signed. The treaty said that the Allied forces must leave Austria. In return, the Austrian government promised to do certain things, like not form a territorial union with Germany and recognise certain minorities, amongst others. The whole of Europe was separated into a Soviet Union zone in the East and a neutral or US-dominated zone in the West. The splitting of Europe, Germany and especially Berlin into two political blocks was part of the Cold War between the United States of America and other western countries on one side and the Soviet Union and its allies on the other. The wartime Allied Forces split after their common enemy, Nazi Germany, was defeated in May 1945.

paragraphs: The idea of the Iron Curtain was referring to the separation of the communist Europe compared to the democratic west, it was the idea that what was happening in the "satellite states" and in Russia was secret to the rest of the world. Satellite state refers to a country being controlled by another, in this case Russia was controlling countries such as Hungary, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and others which were previously controlled by Germany in WW2.

paragraphs: The idea of the Iron Curtain was first made public by Winston Churchill, a famous Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during WW2, when invited to speak at American University by Harry S. Truman (the American president at the time). Churchill's speech was seen by Nikita Khrushchev; leader of the USSR from 1958 until 1964 as a declaration of war, as Churchill urged a struggle against the Soviet Union.


title: Indus Valley civilization

paragraphs: The Indus Valley civilization was a Bronze Age civilization(3300–1300 BC; mature period 2700-1700 BC)

paragraphs: The civilization was in the subcontiet. It was discovered by archaeologists in the 1880s.

paragraphs: It developed along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River and even that areas are now in modern Pakistan, north-west India and Afghanistan. The civilization started during the Bronze Age and the height of its development was between 2500 BC and 1500 BC. Including the civilizations directly before and after, it may have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th century BC.

paragraphs: The Indus Valley civilization covered a large area from Balochistan (Pakistan) to Gujarat (Republic of India). The first city to be discovered by excavation (digging up) was Harappa and therefore this civilization is also known as 'Harappan Civilization'.

paragraphs: They were good builders. The ruins of the site shows skillful design. Their buildings had two or sometimes more stories. The bathrooms were attached to the rooms. One of the unique features of the city was its elaborate drainage system. A brick-lined drainage channel flowed alongside every street. Removable bricks were placed at regular intervals for easy cleaning and inspection.

paragraphs: The harappan traders used seals on the knots of the sacks to be transported to make sure that they were not opened during the journey. Nobody knows how to read their writing system.

paragraphs: In 1842 Charles Masson wrote a book that mentioned the sites of Indus Valley Civilisation. Few people paid attention. Later, in 1921-22, John Marshall organised the first archaeological dig at Harappa.


title: Sumer

paragraphs: Sumer is the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (in modern-day southern Iraq). They may have been one of the first civilizations in the world, as were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley.

paragraphs: Sumer started around 3500 BC. The Sumerian civilization grew along the Tigris and Euphrates. This land was good for growing food. Sumerian culture is famous for its written cuneiform script - where letters were formed by pressing a triangle shaped reed into wet-clay tiles. They are also credited with creating the wheel, and dividing a day into 24 hours, and each hour into 60 minutes.

paragraphs: The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC. Early cuneiform script writing emerged in 3000 BC.

paragraphs: Sumerian communities were organized into city-states, each ruled by a priest or king, until Akkad conquered them in the third millennium BC. One of the most famous Sumerian cities was Ur (not the same city as Uruk, but near it).

paragraphs: During the 3rd millennium BC, a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism.

paragraphs: The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, may have been the world's first city.

paragraphs: The Sumerians lost their identity with their language around 2000 BC, because a large group of different people, the Amorites, moved into their region. The Sumerian language continued as a religious language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, for as long as cuneiform was used.

paragraphs: The Sumerians made their clothing by using the natural resources that were available to them. Clothing was made from wool or flax which Sumerians could raise and harvest. How thick or how coarse the clothing was related to the season in which it was worn. Heavier clothing was worn in the winter, lighter clothing in the summer.

paragraphs: Men were bare-chested and wore skirt-like clothes that tied at the waist. Women usually wore dresses that covered them from their shoulders to their ankles. The right arm and shoulder were left uncovered. Men were either clean shaven or had long hair and beards. Women wore their hair long, but they usually braided it and wrapped it around their heads. When entertaining guests, women placed headdresses in their hair.

paragraphs: Although both rich and poor Sumerians wore the same style of clothing, the richer Sumerians wore clothing that was made out of expensive and luxurious materials. Rich women and princesses also wore clothing that was colorful and bright.

paragraphs: Both men and women wore earrings and necklaces. During celebrations, even more jewelry was worn. The wealthier Sumerians often wore beautiful gold and silver bracelets and earrings. Sumerians also wore necklaces with bright, precious stones. Some of these stones were lapis lazuli and carnelian.


title: Cingular Wireless

paragraphs: Cingular Wireless was a mobile phone company from United States. Cingular is now owned by AT&T. AT&T Mobility LLC (usually called AT&T) is fully owned by AT&T and provides wireless service to more than 120 million users in the United States, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. AT&T Mobility is the second largest mobile phone company in the United States behind Verizon Wireless, which has more than 130 million users.


title: Diogenes

paragraphs: Diogenes (Διογένης) is a Greek name. It can refer to different people:


title: Mystery Science Theater 3000

paragraphs: Mystery Science Theater 3000 (MST3K) was a comedy television series. It was made in the U.S. state of Minnesota from 1988 to 1999. The series was at first made for a local station in Minnesota. It was later moved to Comedy Central, and then The Sci-Fi Channel. The series was about a man (originally Joel Robinson, played by Joel Hodgson, the show's creator, and later Mike Nelson, played by Michael J. Nelson, the show's head writer), who is put in a spaceship by an evil scientist. He was forced to watch some of the worst movies ever made. Joel makes some robots to keep him company. Two of the robots, named Crow T. Robot (played by Trace Beaulieu and, later Bill Corbett) and Tom Servo (played by Josh Weinstein and later Kevin Murphy), watch the movies with him. While the movie is shown, the three make jokes and comments about the movie they watch.


title: Blaze Starr

paragraphs: Blaze Starr (born Fannie Belle Fleming; 10 April 1932 – 15 June 2015) was an American stripper and burlesque star. In the 1950s, she became well known in the United States. Besides her burlesque dancing, her affair with Governor Earl Long of the state of Louisiana got her more popularity.

paragraphs: Starr was born in rural Wayne County, West Virginia. She lived in Washington, D.C. and in Baltimore, Maryland during her youth.

paragraphs: When Blaze Starr first met Governor Long in 1958, her first feeling was fear. She was afraid she was going to jail when the Governor of Louisiana walked in with the police during a dance. When the Governor and the police gave Blaze a standing ovation, she was dumbfounded. Blaze had never known a politician who went to a show bar for any reason other than to cause the dancers trouble. After her show, the Governor asked for her to come to his table. They became friends.

paragraphs: Their relationship quickly grew into a love affair. Soon coworkers, reporters, and voters all knew of the affair. Mrs. Blanche Long, the Governor's wife, told hospital people that Earl was crazy and had him put away. She thought this would make Earl end the affair with Blaze. The affair continued until the day Earl died in 1960.

paragraphs: Her life was exciting and full of adventures. In the 1950s, stripping was more of an art form. It was not just women taking off their clothes to get men into bed. Blaze was close to her family. Blaze met her perfect match when she met Earl. He accepted her life style and she accepted his. They fulfilled each other's needs for companionship, compassion, and love.

paragraphs: Starr died on June 15, 2015 at her home in Wilsondale, West Virginia. She was 83 years old. She had been worried about the health of her dog, whom she adopted as a stray. Her sister, Cathy Fleming, believed this stress, along with a "severe heart condition", killed her. Her dog died hours later.


title: Zip drive

paragraphs: The Zip drive is a data storage device. The company Omega published it in late 1994.

paragraphs: Originally it only supported 100 MB disks, but later versions began to support 250 MB and 750 MB disks. Now capacities have reached 1GB and 2GB disks.

paragraphs: Higher capacity Zip disks must be used in a drive with at least the same capacity ability. Generally, higher capacity drives also handle all lower capacity media. However, it is slower to write data on a 100 MB disk with a 250 MB Zip drive than with a 100 MB Zip drive.

paragraphs: Zip drives can transmit data to the computer in various ways. Internal drives have been made with IDE and SCSI interfaces. External drives can use SCSI, parallel port or USB interface.

paragraphs: Zip disks are thicker than 3.5" (9 cm) floppy disks. Nevertheless, zip disks are quite similar in appearance to regular floppy disks. This means the Zip drive slot is large enough to accept such a floppy disk.


title: Cosmetics

paragraphs: Cosmetics (also called makeup, make up, or make-up) are products used to make the human body look different. Often cosmetics are used to make someone more attractive to one person, or to a culture or sub-culture. In Western culture, women are the main users of cosmetics. Their use by men is less frequent, except on stage, television and movies. Cosmetics are widely used in the world of acting.

paragraphs: All cosmetics are temporary. They need to be renewed after a certain time. Cosmetics include lipstick, powders (e.g. blush, eyeshadow), and lotions as well as other things.

paragraphs: Most cosmetic products and methods are intended to improve the look of the face. There are two categories: those which improve the basic quality of the skin, and those which sit on the skin during active social life.

paragraphs: The purpose here is to clean the skin, improve its basic quality, and prepare it for the application of make-up. Products are of these types:

paragraphs: These are the cosmetics which the viewer actually sees on the face (or other parts of the body). They are some or all of these:

paragraphs: The word "cosmetics" comes from the Greek κοσμητικός ("kosmētikos"), "skilled in ordering or arranging".

paragraphs: Archaeological confirms use of cosmetics in ancient Egypt and Greece. Cosmetics used included:

paragraphs: The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics. Cosmetics are mentioned also in the Old Testament. Men who think makeup is dishonest sometimes call makeup "fakeup".


title: Etruscan mythology

paragraphs: The Etruscans were people in Central Italy who became part of Rome. Many of the Gods below became part of the Roman pantheon.

paragraphs: Very little Etruscan writing has survived: Only two short, incomplete texts, and some grave inscriptions (writing on stone). No-one can read or write the Etruscan language very well now. Roman people wrote about the Etruscans but what they wrote is now lost.

paragraphs: The main three gods were Tinia, Uni and Menrva.


title: Cantata

paragraphs: A cantata is a type of singing which is done accompanied by an instrument(s). By contrast, a cappella specifically refers to unaccompanied singing. The word(cantata) etymologically comes from the Italian word “cantare” which meant “to sing”. The word “cantata” was used mainly in the 17th and 18th century to describe music with religious words that were sung by a choir or by soloists or both, accompanied by instruments. The most famous cantatas are those by Johann Sebastian Bach. Nearly all his cantatas are sacred(written for church services). Very often he used Lutheran hymn tunes (chorales) for the first and last movements. In between there are movements for solo singers: recitatives and arias. A famous example is Bach's cantata no 80 which is based on the chorale “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott(“A safe stronghold our God is still”). The whole work is about being safe in the hands of God. This is what the sermon would have been about. The congregation would join in singing the chorale towards the end of the cantata.

paragraphs: Other composers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) wrote cantatas which were secular(not religious). The word “cantata” has also been used in the 20th century by composers such as Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Benjamin Britten (1913-1976).

paragraphs: Thus the term came to apply to any and all forms of accompanied songs.


title: Clavichord

paragraphs: A clavichord is a musical instrument like a small keyboard. It was very popular for many years, especially in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

paragraphs: The clavichord is a very quiet instrument. It was not suitable for playing with other instruments because it was so quiet. But it sounds very beautiful in slow, expressive music. It was used as a practice instrument by harpsichord players, or by organists who wanted to practise at home instead of in a (often very cold) church. They were so small that they could be lifted up and put on a table. They could be put one on top of another so that an organist could practise music written for a two-manual organ. Sometimes they even had pedals for organists to practise this skill.

paragraphs: Many German composers like Johann Sebastian Bach wrote music for the “Clavier”. This meant any keyboard instrument: harpsichord, clavichord or organ. The player could choose which they wanted to use.

paragraphs: When the piano suddenly became popular – in the 1760s and 1770s – people started to forget about harpsichords and clavichords. Today a few people make harpsichords and clavichords again so that people can play Renaissance and Baroque music - the music from when the clavichord was popular.


title: Harmony

paragraphs: Harmony means playing several notes together to make “chords”. The word comes from the Greek "harmonia" meaning "to join things up" . A tune by itself can sound nice, but it can be “harmonized” by adding an accompaniment of chords. Studying how to do this is called harmonization. Music students learn which chords sound nice after one another. These are called “chord progressions”. Many music theorists have written books about harmony.

paragraphs: Music which is made of a tune with harmony underneath is called “homophonic”. In a way it is the opposite of polyphonic which means that each part (each voice) is a tune in itself. However, even polyphony needs to make pleasant harmony. Harmony as we know it in European music had become fully developed by the Baroque period (17th century).

paragraphs: One can play a chord with three notes using the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of the scale of whatever key the music is in. This gives a chord which sounds like the “home chord”. This means that at least three notes are needed for harmony. In most homophonic music there are four: for example a choir will normally divide into soprano, alto, tenor and bass, or a string quartet will divide into violin 1, violin 2, viola and cello.

paragraphs: Harmony which uses just the notes of the key (e.g. just using white notes for C major) is called “tonal harmony”.

paragraphs: Harmony which adds lots of extra sharps and flats is called “chromatic harmony”.

paragraphs: If music is not in any key at all, like in some music by Arnold Schoenberg, it is “atonal”. Harmony can be atonal.


title: Bow (weapon)

paragraphs: A bow is a weapon used to shoot arrows. It is used in hunting, sport, and a long time ago, war.

paragraphs: Using a bow is called archery. A person who uses a bow is an archer and a person who makes bows is a bowyer.

paragraphs: A bow is a long curved stick and a string which is tied to both ends. Ancient bows were made of natural materials like wood or bone and sinew, but today they are often made of plastic and similar materials.

paragraphs: To shoot a bow, the arrow is put on the bow, with one end to the string, which is pulled back. When the string is let loose, it throws the arrow forwards.

paragraphs: There are many different types of bows, for example the longbow or the automatic crossbow

paragraphs: There are many different ways that people protect themselves from arrow attacks. The Roman Army, for instance, had the testudo formate, or tortoise formation. They first made the shields lock into a somewhat tortoise like formation, which provide a shell that was make out of shields. The arrows would eventually run out, and the Romans would charge.


title: Nuclear physics

paragraphs: Nuclear physics is the part of physics that studies the nucleus of the atom. Everything on the earth is made up of atoms; they are the smallest part of a chemical element that still has the properties of that specific element. When two or more atoms combine they create what we know as the molecule, which is the smallest part of a chemical compound which still has the properties of that specific compound. Understanding the structure of atoms is key in studies such as physics, chemistry, biology, etc.

paragraphs: Atoms are made up of electrons, neutrons, and protons. The protons and neutrons are in the center of the atom, which is called the nucleus. The protons and neutrons are the heaviest part of the atom and make up most of its mass. The electrons move around the nucleus very quickly, making what is called an electron cloud. The electron cloud has a very small mass, but it makes up most of the space of the atom. The electrons have a negative charge, and the protons have a positive charge. Due to the charges in the atom, that is how the atom stays together, by attraction of the electric charges present in the atom.

paragraphs: Atoms have different features that single out one atom from another, and show how each atom can change in different conditions. These properties include atomic number, mass number, atomic mass and weight, and isotopes.

paragraphs: In an atom there are three fundamental forces that keep atoms together. electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force. The electromagnetic force keeps the electrons attached to the atom. The strong nuclear force keeps the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus. The weak nuclear force controls how the atom decays.

paragraphs: In the early 20th century, scientists had trouble explaining the behavior of atoms using their current knowledge of matter. So to deal with this they made a brand new way to view matter and energy, and they called it quantum theory. Quantum theory explains how matter acts both as a particle and a wave.

paragraphs: Atoms emit radiation when their electrons lose energy and drop down to lower orbitals. The difference in energy between the orbitals determines the wavelength of the given radiation. This radiation can be shown by visible light or shorter wavelengths.


title: Seljuk Empire

paragraphs: Not to be Confused with Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm

paragraphs: The Seljuk Empire was an empire of the Seljuk Turks and a Muslim dynasty. It ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to the 14th centuries. It was founded by Tughril Beg in 1037. The Seljuk Empire stretched from Anatolia to Pakistan. It was replaced by the Khwarezmian Empire in 1194.

paragraphs: The Seljuk Empire united the eastern Islamic world, and fought in the Second Crusade. The Seljuk Empire made several long lasting changes. These affected the region even after the empire was gone. Among them was making Farsi the language for history and events. They also shifted the center for the Arabic language culture from Baghdad to Cairo.


title: Central Asia

paragraphs: Central Asia is a region in Asia. The countries in Central Asia are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and parts of China and Mongolia. The United Nations also includes Afghanistan as part of Central Asia.

paragraphs: People have lived in the region of Central Asia since prehistoric times. Most of the region was part of the Silk Road. It was a part of the Persian Empire until Alexander The Great captured it. When he died, the land was given to his general Seleucus. Seleucus slowly lost it to the Parthians. When the Parthians (the Parthians were Persians) lost power, the Sassanids added it to their own Persian empire. However, a couple years later, during about the 600's A.D, Arab armies spreading the faith of Islam quickly captured it. A while later, an Iranian dynasty got semi- autonomy under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. They were known as the Samanids. The Samanids controlled most of Central Asia and Northwestern Iran. They had power over this area during the 10th century. With them, Central Asian cities, such as Bukhara and Samarkand, grew in culture.

paragraphs: However, Turkish armies from this area took the region away from them. They were known as the Seljuk Turks. At the same time, Timur captured it. After his death, the Timurids ( the name of the people of the dynasty Timur founded) could not hold unto their empire. They lost it to the Mongols. When the Mongols captured it, burned it to the ground. A while later, some rulers decided to make their own empires under that of the Mongols. These empires were known as Khanates. During the 19th century the Russian Empire conquered these lands. Many years later, in 1991, all of the countries of Central Asia declared independence.

paragraphs: Uzbekistan has much cotton. Kazakhstan is rich because it has sold oil, gas and metals to Europe and China. Turkmenistan has adjusted better to independence from the Soviet Union than the other Central Asian countries, but it has been run by a dictatorship. Other than Kazakhstan, most of Central Asia are mostly underdeveloped.


title: Turkestan

paragraphs: Turkestan (Turkish: Türkistan, Kazakh: Түркістан, Uzbek: Turkiston, Turkmen: Türküstan, , Chinese: 突厥斯坦, literally « Land of Turks ») is a region of Central Asia around Caspian Sea and Aral Sea. Much of it is in China; much of it was in the Soviet Union during the 20th century.

paragraphs: The main ethnic groups are Turks, Chinese, Mongols and Persians.


title: Mesoamerica

paragraphs: Mesoamerica (literally, "central America") is a geographical region. It begins from around the Tropic of Cancer in central Mexico and ends near Costa Rica. The term is especially used to mean the native peoples and cultures that were there before the Spanish took over that region.


title: Cathode ray tube

paragraphs: The cathode ray tube or CRT was invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun. It was the most common type of display for many years. It was used in almost all computer monitors and televisions until LCD and plasma screens started being used.

paragraphs: A cathode ray tube has an electron gun. The cathode is an electrode (a metal that can send out electrons when heated). The cathode is inside a glass tube. Also inside the glass tube is an anode that attracts electrons. This is used to pull the electrons toward the front of the glass tube, so the electrons shoot out in one direction, making a cathode ray. To better control the direction of the ray, the air is taken out of the tube, making a vacuum.

paragraphs: The electrons hit the front of the tube, where a phosphor screen is. The electrons make the phosphor light up. The electrons can be aimed by creating a magnetic field. By carefully controlling which bits of phosphor light up, a bright picture can be made on the front of the vacuum tube. Changing this picture 30 times every second will make it look like the picture is moving. Because there is a vacuum inside the tube (which has to be strong enough to hold out the air), and the tube must be glass for the phosphor to be visible, the tube must be made of thick glass. For a large television, this vacuum tube can be quite heavy.

paragraphs: The cathode ray tube was invented in 1897, and used as an oscilloscope (a machine to show waves). Later, along with other inventions and improvements, it was used for the first modern electronic television by Philo T. Farnsworth in the 1920s. The CRT was the main type of television screen until the liquid crystal display became popular in the early 2000s.


title: Recitative

paragraphs: Recitative (Italian: “recitativo”) is music which is telling a story quite quickly, as if it were being spoken, "talky". The word means: “to recite” i.e. to tell a story.

paragraphs: Recitative is used in opera, oratorio and cantatas. When opera was invented around 1600 the composers needed to tell the story in music. In recitative the story is sung quickly, with maybe just a harpsichord playing a few chords. After a while, the situation in the story has changed, and the singer can sing an aria which is more interesting musically.

paragraphs: When recitative is just accompanied by a keyboard instrument it is called “recitativo secco” (dry recitative). Sometimes the orchestra joins this. This is called “recitativo accompagnato” (accompanied recitative). There are no bar lines in recitative because there is no regular beat.

paragraphs: Recitative is simple musically, it can sometimes describe the words being sung in quite interesting or amusing ways. Sometimes this might be improvised by the harpsichordist.

paragraphs: In the 19th century the difference between aria and recitative gradually disappeared. Wagner wrote operas where everything had musical interest and the various sections flowed into one another.


title: Ancient India

paragraphs: Ancient India had a long-lived civilization and culture. It covered several countries including modern-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

paragraphs: The Indus Valley Civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. It marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. It was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries. The civilization is famous for its cities that were built of brick, had a road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses.

paragraphs: During the Maurya Empire, founded in 321 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Ashoka the Great who in the beginning sought to expand his kingdom, then followed a policy of ahimsa (non-violence) after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and under Ashoka Buddhist ideals spread across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia.

paragraphs: Gupta, an important ruler during the Gupta period, was known as a wise and noble person.


title: Partition of India

paragraphs: The partition of India split British India into the countries of India and Pakistan (East and West Pakistan) in 1947. This partition was part of the end of British rule over the Indian subcontinent, called British Raj. The partition was caused in part by the two-nation theory presented by Choudhary Rehmat Ali, due to presented religious issues. Pakistan became a Muslim country, and India became a majority Hindu but secular country. The main spokesperson for the partition was Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He became the first Governor-General of Pakistan.

paragraphs: Millions of people moved across the new Radcliffe Line between the two newly formed states. The population of undivided India in 1947 was about 570 million. After partition, there were 370 million people in India, 170 million in West Pakistan, and 30 million people in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

paragraphs: Once the lines were established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the safety of their religious majority. The 1951 Census of Pakistan showed the number of displaced people in Pakistan at 7,226,600. They were presumably Muslims who had entered Pakistan from India. Similarly, the 1951 Census of India showed 7,295,870 displaced people, apparently Hindus and Sikhs who had moved to India from Pakistan. The two numbers add up to 14.5 million. Other people came from China as they took advantage of the open border.

paragraphs: The newly formed governments were unable to deal with forced migration of such huge numbers. Massive violence occurred on both sides of the border. Hundreds of thousands died; some estimates are in the millions.

paragraphs: The partition caused a lot of uncertainty in many parts of the new nations; especially in the region of Jammu and Kashmir.


title: World Heritage Site

paragraphs: World Heritage Sites are places in the world which are very important from the cultural or natural point of view. These places are selected by UNESCO, a part of the United Nations.

paragraphs: The World Heritage Convention ("Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage") is a United Nations treaty. It governs the selection and protection of these sites. The nations that have agreed to the treaty elect 21 nations to the UNESCO World Heritage Committee. That committee sets the site list.

paragraphs: The sites are places (such as a forest, mountain, lake, desert, monument, building, complex, or city). , 1007 sites in 161 different countries are listed. There are 779 cultural sites, 197 natural sites, and 31 mixed properties. Italy has 50 sites on the list, which is the most for any country.

paragraphs: Each World Heritage Site remains part of the legal territory of the nation where the site is located. UNESCO wants everyone in the world to work to protect each site. Sometimes UNESCO provides funds to help protect a site. Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant have destroyed some sites.

paragraphs: Until the end of 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so that there is only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of "outstanding universal value" and meet at least one of the ten criteria. If a site meets criteria in both cultural and natural, it is called a "mixed site".

paragraphs: UNESCO designation as a World Heritage Site provides "prima facie" evidence that such culturally sensitive sites are legally protected pursuant to the Law of War, under the Geneva Convention, its articles, protocols and customs, together with other treaties including the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and international law.

paragraphs: Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates:

paragraphs: "Article 53. PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. Without prejudice to the provisions of the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of 14 May 1954,' and of other relevant international instruments, it is prohibited:


title: Tail

paragraphs: A tail is the section at the rear end of an animal's body. Most animals have tails, like cats, dogs, whales, fish, cheetahs, and monkeys.


title: Ganesha

paragraphs: Ganesha or (Ganesh) is the elephant-headed god in Hinduism. He is the son of Shiva and Parvati.

paragraphs: Ganesha is a very popular god in Hinduism, and was one of the most worshipped. Hindu tradition states that Ganesha is a god of wisdom, success and good luck. He is also the giver of different types of favors. The Hindu tradition calls Ganesha as the Vighneshvara. "Vighneshvara" in Sanskrit language means one who was the lord of obstacles or difficulties. Thus, the Hindu tradition states that by worshiping Ganesha, one can remove all obstacles and difficulties.

paragraphs: There are many temples (mandirs) of Ganesha, however in many Hindu temples there are statues and carvings. But, in most of the temples of Hindus, people worship Ganesha. Hindu Tradition gives Ganesha an important place. The tradition says that Hindus should worship their religious functions and ceremonies because he is the god of all obstacles. Generally, many Hindus also worship Ganesha before starting any new thing. Thus, for example, before occupying a new household

paragraphs: There are many stories of lord Ganesha's birth. The popular and widely-held version is as follows:

paragraphs: A story says that one day, Goddess Parvati was taking a bath at home. She did not want anyone to disturb her. She created a boy with her powers, and told him to guard and not let anyone in. When Lord Shiva came home, he wanted to come inside but the boy would not let him. Lord Shiva asked his army to make him go away, but his army failed. Finally, Shiva just cut the boy’s head off. When Parvati had heard what had happened, she was angry. She pleaded with Shiva to save him. Lord Shiva sent his army to go find a head for Ganesha. His army came back with an elephant head.

paragraphs: Any picture, image or portrayal in any form of Ganesha generally has the following characteristics or features:

paragraphs: He is often different in each picture, unlike most Hindu gods.

paragraphs: Ganesha has several other names. Some of his names are:


title: Indie (music)

paragraphs: Indie is a word that is short for independent. When people talk about indie in music, they mean music that is made by people independently from major record labels (mainly rock and roll groups and artists). Indie music could also be very experimental, meaning that people try out things like new or different sounds. The styles can range from rock music to house music to pop music.

paragraphs: Examples of what could be described as indie music include indie rock and indie pop.

paragraphs: The group of stereotypical teens who tend to listen to indie music are called indie kids.


Half-life


title: C.D. Chivas USA

paragraphs: Club Deportivo Chivas USA was an American football (soccer) team that played in Major League Soccer (MLS) in Carson, California. They began play in 2005, and played at the home of the Los Angeles Galaxy.

paragraphs: When the team was formed, it was planned to be a ""little brother"" to the very popular Mexican team C.D. Guadalajara. ""Chivas"", the Spanish word for ""goats"", is the nickname of C.D. Guadalajara. The team was originally owned by two Mexican businessmen, one of whom also owned C.D. Guadalajara. Due to falling attendance and ownership failures, MLS bought the team back in February 2014, with plans to sell it to new owners who would give the team a new name. In September 2014, the team was sold to a new group. As part of the sale, Chivas USA was dissolved at the end of the 2014 season. A new team, Los Angeles FC, will start play in 2017 replacing the old Chivas USA.


title: Abu Musab al-Zarqawi

paragraphs: Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (October 30, 1966 - June 7, 2006) was the leader of the Iraq branch of al-Qaeda, a terrorist group in the Middle East. He was born in Zarqa, Jordan. He was killed by a bomb that was fired by the USAF into the house he was in at the time in Hibhib, Iraq.


title: Salta Province

paragraphs: Salta is a province in the north of Argentina. It has a population of 1,000,000.

paragraphs: It is famous for its wonderful natural views and the old architecture in the provincial capital, Salta City.


title: Fermat's primality test

paragraphs: Fermat's primality test is an algorithm. It can test if a given number "p" is probably prime. There is a flaw however: There are numbers that pass the test, and that are not prime. These numbers are called Carmichael numbers.

paragraphs: Fermat's little theorem states that if "p" is prime and formula_1, then

paragraphs: If we want to test if "n" is prime, then we can pick random "a"'s in the interval and see if the equation above holds. If the equality does not hold for a value of "a", then "n" is composite (not prime). If the equality does hold for many values of "a", then we can say that "n" is probably prime, or a pseudoprime.

paragraphs: It may be in our tests that we do not pick any value for "a" such that the equality fails. Any "a" such that

paragraphs: when "n" is composite is known as a "Fermat liar". If we do pick an "a" such that

paragraphs: then "a" is known as a "Fermat witness" for the compositeness of "n".

paragraphs: "formula_5" is the modulo operation. Its result is what remains, if p is divided by n. As an example,

paragraphs: The RSA algorithm for public-key encryption can be done in such a way that it uses this test. This is useful in cryptography.


title: Hash function

paragraphs: The Hash function is a function. When a computer program is written, very often, large amounts of data need to be stored. These are normally stored as hash tables. In order to find the data again, some value is calculated. This is like when someone reads a book, and to remember, they put what they read into their own words. Hash values are much the same, except that care is taken that different sets of data do not get the same hash value (this is called a "hash collision").

paragraphs: A cryptographic hash function is a kind that is used in cryptography. Its hash value is a fixed-size, alphanumeric string, and may also be called a 'message digest', 'digital fingerprint', 'digest' or 'checksum'.


title: Trinity

paragraphs: In the Christian religion, the Trinity is an idea used to explain that three different "persons" are called God: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit (who is sometimes called the "Holy Ghost"). Trinity states that these three all form the same God.

paragraphs: The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology".

paragraphs: Before the idea was made dogma, at the First Council of Nicaea, there were also other ideas on how to solve the problem. These included:

paragraphs: The English word "Trinity" comes from Latin "Trinitas", meaning "the number three". This abstract noun is formed from the adjective "trinus" (three each, threefold, triple), as the word "unitas" is the abstract noun formed from "unus" (one).

paragraphs: The corresponding word in Greek is "" ("Trias"), meaning "a set of three" or "the number three."

paragraphs: The first recorded use of this Greek word in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about 170. He did not speak about the Trinity of god. He wrote: "In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries, are types of the Trinity [], of God, and His Word, and His wisdom. And the fourth is the type of man, who needs light, that so there may be God, the Word, wisdom, man."

paragraphs: Tertullian, a Latin theologian who wrote in the early third century, was the first to use "Trinity" "person" and "substance" to explain that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit are "one in essence – not one in Person."

paragraphs: About a century later, in 325, the First Council of Nicaea established the doctrine of the Trinity as orthodoxy and adopted the Nicene Creed that described Christ as "God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance ("homoousios") with the Father."

paragraphs: Many but not all Christians worship God in the form of the Trinity. In the Old Testament there are several places where there seems to be evidence for a Trinity. Genesis 1:26 states that God said "Let us make man in our image". Deuteronomy 6:4 states that “The Lord our God is one Lord”. The word that has been translated as "one" can also be translated as "united".

paragraphs: The Trinity is also implied in the New Testament, though that term is not used. Jesus never explained it fully in his teaching to people, but made a number of claims to be God. The disciple John was one of Jesus' best friends on Earth, so understood Jesus better than many other people. He starts his gospel by saying "In the beginning was the Word. The Word was with God, and the Word was God." He calls Jesus 'the Word' because Jesus was how God told people about himself. In John 8:58, Jesus said "before Abraham was even born, I AM!" I AM is what God said his name was to Moses, meaning that he is always there anywhere in time or space. In John 10:30 and 10:38, he tells people "The Father and I are one." and "the Father is in me, and I am in the Father." Lastly, he forgave people for sins, which only God can do.

paragraphs: When Jesus came the early Christians had to make sense of the fact that God had come among them through the power of the Holy Spirit. Matthew wrote in his gospel: “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit (Matthew 28:19). Several things in the gospel of John are often thought to point to a God who is more than just one being. The three persons of God are also mentioned in the second book of Corinthians.

paragraphs: It was several hundred years after the life of Jesus before many Christians accepted the idea that God was a Trinity. It was a difficult idea, because the Hebrew scriptures talk about God being One. The Greeks and the Romans could only understand Christ as a person who was bringing God’s Word. It was not until the 4th century that the three were recognised as being the three parts of one whole God. This was decided by the Council of Nicaea in 325. By the end of the century many Christians had been swayed to believe in God as a Trinity.

paragraphs: In the 5th century Saint Patrick brought Christianity to Ireland. There is an old Irish legend which says that Patrick used the shamrock to explain the idea of the Trinity. The shamrock has three small leaves. Patrick told the people that the three leaves represented God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. He said that the whole plant represented God.

paragraphs: In Christian churches the Sunday after Pentecost (the 50th day after Easter) is called the “Feast of the Holy Trinity”. This feast probably started in the 10th century. In 1334 Pope John XXII made it official for the whole church. In the Anglican and Lutheran Churches the weeks that follow The Feast of the Trinity are dated according to how many weeks after Trinity they are (e.g. the 20th Sunday after Trinity). In the Roman liturgy these Sundays are dated “after Pentecoste” (e.g. the 21st Sunday after Pentecoste).

paragraphs: Islam teaches that God is indivisible (can not be divided). For this reason, several verses of the Qur'an teach that the doctrine of Trinity is blasphemous (against God).


title: Mošovce

paragraphs: Mošovce is one of the biggest villages in the Turiec Region of Slovakia.

paragraphs: Mošovce has existed for 770 years. In this time people built many old and beautiful buildings. King Andrew II wrote about the village for the first time in 1233.

paragraphs: At first, "Mošovce" had two parts: The first one, "Machyuch", was in the area of today’s "Starý Rad" Street. The village took its today's name from the second part, "Terra Moys", which was in the place of the present day "Vidrmoch" Street. Because of the name of the second part, which means "The Land of Mojš", we believe that all the village was the property of a certain Mr. "Mojš". His name could be a short form of a longer Slavic name "Mojtech", similar to the names "Vojtech" or "Mojmír". In the history the name of the village changed from "Mossovych", "Mosocz", "Mossowecz", "villa regia Mayos alio nomine Mossovych", "oppidioum Mayus sue Mosocz", "Mosocz olim Mayus" to the present-day "Mošovce".

paragraphs: The name of a separate very old part of "Mošovce", "Chornukov", chaged to the modern form of "Čerňakov".

paragraphs: Mošovce was at first a royal village, and in about 1350 changed into a privileged town, which belonged to the royal castle of Blatnica. In 1527 the Révay family became its owners, and they took away the town privileges of "Mošovce" for almost 400 years.

paragraphs: In the past, Mošovce was an important craft center of the Turiec region. Crafts were very successful, and there were around 15 guilds in the town; the bootmaker and the most famous furrier guild existed for the longest time. The present-day Mošovce is an important tourist area with many interesting places.

paragraphs: One of the most interesting buildings is a small Rococo-Classical Palace with a big English park. People built the palace in about 1750-1800 . Other places in the town are: The birthplace of Ján Kollár, a Neo-gothic Catholic church with a valuable altar built on the place of an older church, a Lutheran church built in 1784, a Mausoleum, an Art-Nouveau greenhouse and a pavilion from 1800. In the Mausoleum there is now a Museum of Crafts.

paragraphs: The nature around Mošovce is really beautiful. A system of old roads with trees and small forests create a nice landscape. This landscape looks nice with the forests of the Veľká Fatra Mountains. This mountain range is one of the nicest ones in Slovakia. People from all parts of the world come visit the beautiful Limestone and dolomite rocks, and the beautiful nature in the Blatnická and Gaderská Valleys, which are not far away.

paragraphs: Many important people were born in Mošovce. The greatest ones are Frico Kafenda (1883-1963), composer; Anna Lacková-Zora (1899-1988), writer; Štefan Krčméry (1892-1955), literary critic, historian, and poet; Júr Tesák Mošovský, Baroque playwright; and Miloslav Schmidt, the founder of the amateur fire brigades in Slovakia.

paragraphs: Probably the most important person born in Mošovce is the great Slavic poet, philosopher, and Lutheran priest, Ján Kollár (1793-1852), who was very active in the literature of at least two nations. He wrote a book of poems called Slávy Dcera. His work was very important for the patriots and national activists, who lived at the same time as Kollár. People translated the book into many Slavic and non-Slavic languages.


title: South Ossetia

paragraphs: South Ossetia (Ossetian: Хуссар Ирыстон, "Xussar Iryston"; Russian: Южная Осетия, "Yuzhnaya Osetiya"; Georgian: სამხრეთ ოსეთი, "Samkhret Oseti" ) is a "de facto" independent, disputed place in South Caucasus. It declared independence from Georgia in 1990.

paragraphs: South Ossetia was a Soviet oblast (region) with some self-rule and controlled big parts of the region. When it declared its independence in 1990, Georgia tried to take back the region by force and it led to the 1991-1992 South Ossetia War. Georgia tried to retake South Ossetia again in 2004 and in 2008. In 2008, Ossetia's fighters were backed by Russian troops and they gained full control of the region, but its separation from Georgia has only been recognized by three other countries (Russia, Nicaragua and Venezuela) and Abkhazia (a similar place), and it is de jure (officially) a part of the Georgian region (mkhare) of Shida Kartli.

paragraphs: The rebels were supported by Russian and Cossack forces but, Georgia itself refuses to recognize rebel South Ossetia as an independent state; the government calls it by the medieval name of Samachablo or, more recently, Tskhinvali region (after the republic's capital).

paragraphs: South Ossetia relies heavily on Russian aid.

paragraphs: Sometimes, South Ossetia, Transnistria, Artsakh, and Abkhazia are named collectively as post-Soviet "frozen conflict" zones.

paragraphs: South Ossetia is situated at central Caucasus, a border between Asia and Europe. It occupies a part of Greater Caucasus range and the foothills of Kartalin Valley. South Ossetia is a very mountainous region.


title: Soprano

paragraphs: A soprano is a female singer with a high voice. Young boys who sing, and also girls, are usually called trebles. The word “soprano” can also refer to the top line of choir music. This would be sung by sopranos or trebles. Soprano is also used as a name for high pitched instruments, such as a soprano saxophone.

paragraphs: In opera there are different kinds of soprano voices:


title: Alto

paragraphs: The word alto can mean: someone who sings lower than a soprano. Usually females with lower voices are called contraltos. A male alto is a man who sings in a special way called falsetto. In England male altos sing in church and cathedral choirs. In some countries like Germany it is tradition to have boy altos in cathedral choirs. These will probably be boys whose voices will soon be breaking and are starting to get lower.

paragraphs: One of the most famous contraltos was Kathleen Ferrier. There are not so many female singers who call themselves contraltos these days. It has become more fashionable to be a mezzo-soprano. It is partly because it has become fashionable to use men for the alto parts in music by Bach and other Baroque composers, like it would have been performed in those days.

paragraphs: Operatic roles which need a contralto include Lucretia in Britten's "Rape of Lucretia" and Erda in Wagner's "Der Ring des Nibelungen.

paragraphs: The word "alto" can also mean: the second line down in 4 part choir music. In old music the alto line was written in a special clef called the “alto clef”, which is the same as the “viola clef” (a C clef in which the middle line is middle C).


title: Tenor

paragraphs: A tenor is a man with a high singing voice. In opera the role of the young male is usually sung by a tenor. Depending on characteristics such as: volume, color and style, the tenor voice is classified in following groups:

paragraphs: A “Heldentenor” (German for “hero tenor”) is someone with a big tenor voice. This is suitable for heroic parts like the heroes in most of Wagner's operas. Lauritz Melchior, Max Lorenz and Jonas Kaufmann are famous heroic tenors.

paragraphs: The Mozart tenor with characteristics including all of the previous mentioned must be able to perform within the strict borders which are laid out by the Mozart style. Anton Dermota, Fritz Wunderlich and Francisco Araiza are the three leading people as Mozart tenor.

paragraphs: When writing four-part choir music the tenor line will be the third line down, between alto and bass. It is usually written in the treble clef, but will sound an octave lower than written. Sometimes, it is written in the "C-clef", which is also called a tenor clef.

paragraphs: In barbershop singing, the tenor part is a harmony part sung predominantly higher than the melody.


title: Bass (sound)

paragraphs: Bass is a low or deep tone (low end frequency) in music. Low or deep tones are also called "low-pitched" tones, because the pitch is low. It is usually made by a bass guitar or an acoustic bass (a double bass). It can also be a deep, rumbling electronic sound made by a synthesizer, a deep singing voice, a baritone sax, or a deep bass drum. Bass gives the well-rounded depth to music. Bass almost always is used with treble sounds made by instruments such as a guitar, piano, a high singing voice, trumpet, or harmonica.


title: Baritone

paragraphs: A baritone is a man with a voice range between that of a tenor (high male voice) and bass (low male voice), typically ranging from the second F below middle C to the F above middle C. It is the most common male voice type.

paragraphs: Famous baritone roles in opera include: Papageno in Mozart's "The Magic Flute" and Figaro in Rossini's "The Barber of Seville".

paragraphs: Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau is often thought of as the greatest baritone of the later 20th century. He was famous as a Lieder singer as well as on the concert stage and in opera.

paragraphs: Some musical instruments are also called "baritone" because they create similar frequencies to a baritone singer.


title: Sappho

paragraphs: Sappho was an Ancient Greek lyrical poet. She was probably born around 630 BC on the island of Lesbos. In the ancient world, Sappho's poetry was highly thought of. Today, most of it has been lost. Sappho presumably wrote about 10,000 lines of poetry, but only around 650 lines survive today. Little is known for certain about Sappho's life.

paragraphs: Sappho's poetry centers on passion and love for both men and women. The narrators of her poems often speak of infatuations and love for various women. Descriptions of physical acts between women are few and open to debate. Whether these poems are meant to be autobiographical is not known, although elements of other parts of Sappho's life do make appearances in her work. It would be like her style to have these intimate encounters expressed poetically.

paragraphs: Little is known for certain about Sappho's life. What is known comes from three sources: Sappho's surviving poetry, other ancient writings about her, and evidence about archaic Greece in general. She was born on the Greek island of Lesbos around 630 BC, in either Eresos or Mytilene. Her parents' names are not known for certain, though her mother is often called Kleïs. Ancient tradition gave at least eight possible names for her father. One ancient story, which might be based on a now-lost poem by Sappho, says that her father died when Sappho was still a child. Sappho was said to have three brothers, called Charaxos, Larichos, and Eurygios. The "Brothers poem", discovered in 2014, talks about Charaxos and Larichos.

paragraphs: Sappho might have had a daughter called Kleïs (the same as her mother). Two of Sappho's poems talk about her. Not all historians agree that the Kleïs in Sappho's poems was Sappho's daughter. Some have suggested that she was Sappho's lover instead. But ancient sources call Kleïs Sappho's daughter, and some modern historians have argued that she must have been Sappho's daughter, not her lover. Sappho's husband, the father of Kleïs, was said to be a rich trader named Kerkylas of Andros. If Sappho was married, however, this was definitely not her husband's name: it is a joke from a comedy about Sappho's life.

paragraphs: Sappho is best known for writing lyric poetry, a type of poetry which was sung and accompanied by the music of a lyre. Most of her poetry focusses on the lives of women. Much of this was love poetry, but she also wrote hymns, wedding songs, and poetry about her family. Some ancient sources say that Sappho wrote epigrams, elegiacs, and iambics (three other types of poetry with different metres to lyric poetry) as well as lyric poetry. However, none of these survive, and probably Sappho did not write in these styles. Three epigrams attributed to Sappho survive, but they were written much later, probably in the Hellenistic period.

paragraphs: Ancient texts of Sappho's poems survive from as early as the third century BC, and as late as the seventh century AD. By the medieval period, Sappho's poetry had been lost, until in the sixteenth century newly printed editions of ancient authors such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who had quoted Sappho's "Ode to Aphrodite", began to be produced. Since the second half of the nineteenth century, archaeologists have discovered many fragments of ancient copies of Sappho's poetry, and the amount of her work known has almost doubled.


paragraphs: Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the fifth book in the "Harry Potter" series by J.K. Rowling. The book was released on 21 July 2003. It is about Harry's his fifth year at Hogwarts school of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Lord Voldemort has come back. Except for Albus Dumbledore, most people do not believe him. A movie based on the book was released in 2007.

paragraphs: The fifth book deals with Harry trying to make everyone else realise that Lord Voldemort has come back. Dumbledore, the Order, and Harry's friends are the only people that believe that he has returned. At the end of the book, Harry, Ron Weasley, Hermione Granger, and some of their friends go to the Ministry of Magic (the headquarters of the people who lead the magical world) because Harry thinks his godfather is in danger. It turns out it was a trick using mind magic, and his godfather (Sirius Black), is murdered by Bellatrix Lestrange. They are attacked by some of their enemies. At the end, Voldemort comes, but Dumbledore saves Harry from him, and all the other wizards see Voldemort and know Harry is telling the truth. Harry is then returned to Hogwarts where Dumbledore tells him everything that he needs to know about the prophecy and why Voldemort tried to murder him when he was a child.


title: Pleiades

paragraphs: The Pleiades (also known as M45 or the Seven Sisters) are a group of stars in the night sky. You can see them in the constellation Taurus, the bull. Charles Messier gave it the name M45. They are named after the Pleiades in Greek mythology.

paragraphs: This an open star cluster of middle-aged hot B-type stars in the constellation of Taurus. It is one of the nearest star clusters to Earth, and is the cluster most obvious to the naked eye in the night sky. The cluster is dominated by hot blue and extremely luminous stars that have formed within the last 100 million years.


title: Nicomachus of Gerasa

paragraphs: Nicomachus (c. 60-c. 120, born in Gerasa, Roman Syria, now Jerash, Jordan). He was one of the most important mathematicians of the ancient world.

paragraphs: He was strongly influenced by Aristotle and is best known for his works "Introduction to Arithmetic" (Arithmetike eisagoge) and "The Manual of Harmonics" in Greek. He was a Pythagorean. In "Introduction to Arithmetic", Nicomachus writes extensively on number, especially on the significance of prime numbers and perfect numbers and argues that arithmetic is the starting point that makes it possible to do the other mathematical sciences: geometry, music, and astronomy.


title: Deimos (moon)

paragraphs: Deimos (or Mars II) comes from the Greek word for terror. It is the smaller moon of Mars. Its orbital period is 30.3 hours, which is 1.263 days.

paragraphs: Deimos is only 15 kilometers in diameter. It is covered with craters, as Earth's moon and other bodies without an atmosphere are.

paragraphs: Deimos was discovered by Asaph Hall at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C. on 12 August 1877.

paragraphs: It is named after the god Deimos in Greek mythology, who was one of Mars' sons, and means Panic.

paragraphs: Deimos is not spherical with triaxial dimensions of 15 × 12.2 × 11 km. Deimos is made up of rock rich in carbonaceous material. It is has lots of craters. Escape velocity from Deimos is 5.6 m/s. The apparent magnitude of Deimos is 12.45.

paragraphs: The Soviet Phobos program sent two probes to Phobos. In case "Phobos 1" succeeded, "Phobos 2" could have been sent to Deimos. Both probes launched successfully in July 1988.

paragraphs: In 1997 and 1998, the proposed "Aladdin" mission was selected. The plan was to visit both Phobos and Deimos, and launch projectiles at the satellites. The probe would collect the dust kicked into space as it made a slow flyby. These samples would be returned to Earth for study three years later.

paragraphs: Also, the sample-return mission called "Gulliver" to Deimos, in bringing 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) of material from Deimos to Earth.

paragraphs: Another concept of sample-return mission from Phobos and Deimos is "OSIRIS-REx 2", which would use heritage from the first "OSIRIS-REx".

paragraphs: In March 2014, a mission was proposed to place an orbiter on Mars orbit by 2021 and study Phobos and Deimos. It is called "Phobos And Deimos & Mars Environment" (PADME).


title: Phobos (moon)

paragraphs: Phobos (or Mars I) is one of Mars' moons. The other is Deimos.

paragraphs: Phobos is the larger of the two moons, and is only 27 kilometers in diameter. This is about as far as a car can travel on the highway in 15 minutes. It is covered with craters, as Earth's moon is.

paragraphs: It is named after the god Phobos in Greek mythology. Its name means "fear".

paragraphs: Phobos is trapped in tidal drag, with its orbit lowering roughly 1.8 meters per century. In about 50 million years, Phobos will reach the Roche limit, where it is likely to be torn apart. Some fragments will fall on Mars and some will form a planetary ring or rings around Mars.

paragraphs: The other moon, Deimos, is the smaller of the two.

paragraphs: The Soviet Union sent at least two space craft to this moon, Phobos 1 and Phobos 2. Both failed or lost contact with Earth, but Phobos 2 managed to take some pictures of the moon in 1989 before dying.

paragraphs: There is one large crater on Phobos called Stickney. It is formula_1 the size of the moon itself.


title: Charon (moon)

paragraphs: Charon is a moon of the dwarf planet Pluto. It is half as wide as Pluto and is much like the dwarf planet itself. It was discovered many years after Pluto.

paragraphs: It is named after Charon in Greek mythology, a boatman who would carry the souls of dead people across the river Acheron to the underworld.

paragraphs: Charon was found by astronomer James Christy on June 22, 1978, when he was looking at highly blown up picture of Pluto on a photographic plate that taken a couple of months before. Christy noticed that a slight bulge was able to be seen every now and then. This finding was made public on July 7, 1978. Later, the bulge was confirmed on plates dating back to April 29, 1965.

paragraphs: Later observations of Pluto were able to figure out that the bulge was due to a smaller body. The orbit of the bulge fit in with Pluto's rotation period, which was already known from Pluto's light curve.

paragraphs: Any final doubts were erased when Pluto and Charon entered a five-year period of mutual eclipses between 1985 and 1990. This happens when the Pluto-Charon orbital plane is edge-on as seen from Earth, which only happens at twice in Pluto's 248-year orbital period. It was very lucky that one of these intervals happened to occur so soon after Charon's discovery.

paragraphs: Pictures showing Pluto and Charon as separate disks were taken for the first time by the Hubble Space Telescope in the 1990s. Later, after a new technology called adaptive optics was discovered, it was possible to see Pluto and Charon as separate disks using ground-based telescopes.


title: Charon (mythology)

paragraphs: In mythology, Charon was the ferryman of Hades. He was the son of Erebos and Nyx.

paragraphs: Charon took the newly dead people across the river Acheron or Styx to the Greek underworld, if they paid him three obolus (a Greek silver coin). Because of this, people in Ancient Greece were always buried with a coin under their tongue and one on each eye to pay Charon. Those who could not pay him had to wander the banks of the Acheron until they found a pauper's entrance to Hades.

paragraphs: The largest moon of the planet Pluto is named Charon after this mythological person.


title: Chaos (mythology)

paragraphs: Chaos was the nothingness at the beginning of the world, described in the creation myths of Classical mythology. It was the state the universe (or cosmos) was in before it was created. Because early Christians did not understand how to use the word "chaos" properly, the word's meaning changed to "disorder" or random and not normal. It is the opposite of order.

paragraphs: Chaos is often identified as a god, who filled the gap between Heaven and Earth. Born out of chaos were the first beings:


title: Eros

paragraphs: Eros is the god of love, lust, and sex in Greek mythology.

paragraphs: According to Hesiod's "Theogony", Eros came from the Chaos. Later it was said that he was the son of Ares and Aphrodite.

paragraphs: Eros has a bow and golden arrows with whom he can shoot at people so they will fall in love, but he has also leaden arrows which make people hate others.

paragraphs: There is a famous statue which many people think is to Eros, but is actually to Anteros in London in Piccadilly Circus.

paragraphs: From the name Eros we get the word erotic, meaning: to do with sexual love (passionate and physical). There is also a noun: eroticism.

paragraphs: Eros' main myth is: "the myth of Eros and Psyche" in which Eros and Psyche fall in love after psyche is put through tasks by Aphrodite.


title: Wheelwright

paragraphs: A wheelwright is someone who builds or repairs wheels. In the olden days there were lots of carts. The wheels were made of wood. It was a difficult job to make them, so the cartwright made the cart and the wheelwright did the specialized job of making the wheels. In ancient times some wheels were made of bone in order to look beautiful.

paragraphs: The word wheelwright is not often used for people who make wheels today. Wheels are made in factories and lots of people on the production line each have their bit to do.


title: Rotterdam

paragraphs: Rotterdam is the second largest city in the Netherlands. About 650,000 people live there. In the urban area, there are about 1.1 million people. Rotterdam also has one of the biggest ports in the world. It is the biggest port in Europe. The city is on several rivers, most notably the Maas. Rotterdam, like all of the Netherlands, has an oceanic climate ("Cfb" in the Koeppen climate classification).

paragraphs: It hosts also a university: the Erasmus University Rotterdam.

paragraphs: On 18 March 2010, Rozenburg became a part of the municipality of Rotterdam.

paragraphs: A dam was built in 1260 across the river Rotte where the Hoogstraat is now. The name "Rotterdam" comes from this dam. The settlement was a regular fishing village at first, but became a thriving trading port pretty soon. The city got city rights in 1340 and city walls in 1360. Rotterdam became an important city in Holland in the middle of the 15th century when it won little wars against Delft and Gouda. From 1449 until 1525 a Gothic church ("Laurenskerk") was built. The city then hold about 10,000 people. The city revolted against Spanish occupation in 1573, becoming one of the main city's of the Eighty Years' War. The port of Rotterdam grew a lot in the late 16th century and early 17th century. In the end of the 17th century the city hold almost 50,000 people. But the city had not built outside of the city walls. The city became very crowded.

paragraphs: The port of Rotterdam became bigger and bigger in the 19th century when several new canals were dug. These were: "Nieuwe Waterweg" (lit: New Waterway), and "Voornse Kanaal". The city grew quickly due the enormous amount of work in the port. Population grew from 160,000 people in 1880 to 315,000 in 1900. Various new districts were built, including "Cool", "Crooswerk", and "Nieuwe Westen". Neighbouring places also became part of Rotterdam. In 1920, the city held more than 500,000 people for the first time in its history

paragraphs: Nazi Germany attacked the Netherlands in May 1940. The Battle of the Netherlands brought heavy fighting in Rotterdam. In the Blitz of Rotterdam, the Germans bombarded Rotterdam on May 14, 1940. The damage was huge; 24,000 buildings were destroyed in only 15 minutes, and there was virtually nothing left of the old centre of Rotterdam. 800 people died instantly, and 80,000 were homeless. The bombardment also destroyed the Willemsbrigde, one of the two brigdes across the Maas at that time. The Germans repaired the bridge quickly, as it was of vital importance for the city. During the German occupation, the neighbouring places of Hillegersberg, Schiebroek, Overschie, Kralingseveer and Ijsselmonde are annexed (put by) by Rotterdam. On November 11th, 1944, a large razzia took place. About 50,000 men from 17–40 years old from Rotterdam were deported into working camps. The city also lost many people in the famine of 1944 ("hongerwinter" (lit: Winter of hunger)).

paragraphs: Rotterdam was quickly rebuild after the war, but modernization led to the fact that many old buildings were not repaired, but replaced by totally new ones. The has led to the fact that the centre of Rotterdam is composed of new buildings, a thing not common in European city's. The ports of Rotterdam grow even more during the latter part of the 20th century. New area's, build right in the sea are "Botlek", "Maasvlakte", and "Europoort". The Euromast (185 m high) becomes an icon of Rotterdam. De metro of Rotterdam is opened in 1968, which then is the first metro in the Netherlands. The 1990s saw an increase of skyscrapers. The "Delftse Poort" which was ready in 1991 was the highest skyscraper in the Netherlands, with 151 m high, until the "Maastoren" became the highest building in 2009 with 165 m. The new Erasmusbridge which was ready in 1996 gave Rotterdam a new symbol.

paragraphs: The city of Rotterdam is split up into 14 districts, each with a number of neighbourhoods. The districts are:


title: Throne

paragraphs: A throne is the official chair or seat upon which a monarch (royal ruler) is seated on state or ceremonial occasions. The word "throne" can also refer to the monarchy itself.


title: Altar

paragraphs: An altar is a place, often a table, where a religious event happens. Altars are used in Christianity and in other religions.

paragraphs: In some old religions, the event was a sacrifice, which means a holy work. Usually the priest would use this item.


title: Donald Bradman

paragraphs: Sir Donald 'Don' Bradman AC (27 August 1908 – 25 February 2001), often called The Don, was an Australian cricketer. He was a batsman. When he played his last Test match, he only needed to score four runs to have a batting average of 100 runs over the whole of his Test Match career. But he was "out for a duck" (out before he scored any runs) after facing only two balls so his average was 99.94, which was still much higher than any other batsman's average. Most cricket experts think he was the best batsman of all time. He was a great hero in Australia, and he was voted the greatest Australian of the 20th century.

paragraphs: The Don's command over the game showed as a batsman, as a captain, as a selector, as a writer and as an administrator. Jeff Thomson remarked that bowling to Don was one of his "greatest moments". This happened in 1977–78 in Adelaide during India's tour to Australia. In Thomson's words

paragraphs: Before the first match of the tour, England had not told Australia what they were going to do, but when England named 5 fast bowlers (including Harold Larwood and Bill Voce). It was not usual to have so many fast bowlers in one team, so Bradman knew that England were about to try something new. The new way of bowling was first tried in a warm-up match which Bradman played in, and as expected Bradman struggled. Bradman did not play in the first Test Match of the tour, which led some people to think this was because his had suffered a nervous breakdown. England still tried their new way of bowling, and won the match but the Australian team were not happy.

paragraphs: Australian newspapers described this way of bowling as "bodyline", because the balls were often aimed fast at the body. They felt that this bowling was unfair and dangerous, as in 1930s batsman did not wear helmets. Despite this, the tour carried on and in the second Test Match Bradman returned. In the first Australian innings, Bradman was bowled first ball. Bradman guessed that the ball was going to be bounced high, so he moved to one side and swung the bat so he could score a boundary. The ball did not bounce as high as Bradman thought, and it hit the stumps. This was the first time he had been out on the first ball (called a duck) in his career at that point. The crowd were shocked, as they were used to seeing Bradman easily score hundreds. Bradman had a better second innings and scored 103 runs. With good bowling from Australian bowlers Bill O'Reilly and Bert Ironmonger, this score helped Australia win the second match. Australia were happy, as they thought that they had beaten what they felt was unfair bowling.

paragraphs: England won the last 3 test matches, still bowling "bodyline". Bradman changed the way he batted a lot to try to score runs. In bodyline, England put a lot of fielders on the leg side, so Bradman had the idea of moving backwards to hit the ball on the off side, where there were few fielders. This was not a normal way of playing but this helped him to get 56.57 runs on average per innings in the tour. Jack Fingleton (Australian batsman) thought that this tour changed Bradman's way of batting for the rest of his career.

paragraphs: Bradman was married to Jessie Martha Menzies for 65 years, until Jessie died in 1999. Bradman said on many occasions how important his wife was, once saying "I would never have achieved what I achieved without Jessie". Don and Jessie Bradman had 3 children, but family life was difficult. Their first child died young in 1936. Their second child (John, born in 1939) caught a serious virus disease called polio. and their third child (Shirley, born 1941) had cerebral palsy since birth.

paragraphs: Bradman died of pneumonia on 25 February 2001, aged 92, in Kensington Park, South Australia.


title: Ian Botham

paragraphs: Sir Ian Terence Botham (born 24 November 1955) is an English retired cricketer. He also played football. He was an all-rounder, being good at both batting and bowling. He was also very good at catching the ball when he was fielding. He played over 100 test matches for England. He is a very popular man in England. One reason for this is that he helped England to beat Australia in a series of test matches called "The Ashes" in 1981. This series is sometimes called "Botham's Ashes". Now he works on television. He has done some long walks to raise money for charity. He was knighted in 2007.


title: Daphne (mythology)

paragraphs: Daphne (, meaning "laurel") was a dryad in Greek mythology, daughter of the river god Peneus.

paragraphs: According to Greek mythology, the god Apollo insulted Eros, otherwise known as Cupid, the god of love. Becoming angry, Eros shot a golden arrow at Apollo, causing him to fall in love with the nymph Daphne the virgin. Eros then shot Daphne with a leaden arrow so she could never love Apollo back. So Apollo followed her while she ran away, until she came to the river of her father, Peneus. Apollo became jealous and puts it into the girl's mind to stop to bathe in the river Ladon; there, as all strip naked, the ruse is revealed, as in the myth of Callisto. There she wanted help from her father who turned her into a laurel tree so she would be safe from Apollo. Apollo then began to be sad. Some versions say that when Daphne saw Apollo sad, taking pity she made him a laurel wreath (a circle made of laurel that is worn like a crown) from her leaves. Other accounts state that Apollo made the laurel himself, taking from the tree. The laurel tree became sacred of Apollo and is used by emperors within the culture. After the crown was used for all the winners at his games and great heroes in the years to come would be crowned with laurel leaves. He also vowed that she, like him, would have eternal youth where her leaves would never turn brown or fall but would always stay lush and green. Some even say that he created this laurel wreath to remind him of the prize he can never win still Apollo loved that laurel with all his heart.

paragraphs: See Ovid. "Metamorphoses". Book I: 452-567.


title: Massively multiplayer online role-playing game

paragraphs: A massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) is a massively multiplayer online game (MMOG) that is a role-playing game (RPG). It is an RPG which is played online (on the internet) by a very large number of people at the same time.


title: Middle English

paragraphs: Middle English is an older type of the English language that was spoken after the Norman invasion in 1066 until the middle/late 1400s. It came from Old English after William the Conqueror came to England with his French nobles and stopped English from being taught in schools for a few hundred years. Over this time, English borrowed several French words.

paragraphs: In the 1470s, the "Chancery Standard," a type of English spoken in London, started to become more common. This was partly because William Caxton brought the printing press to England in the 1470s. The type of English that people spoke in England between then and 1650 is called Early Modern English. There were many different dialects of Middle English.

paragraphs: Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales in Middle English.


title: Patroclus

paragraphs: Patroclus (Ancient Greek: Πάτροκλος, Pátroklos - "glory of the father") was a central figure in Homer's "Iliad". He was the son of Menoetius, and is most famous as being the lover of Achilles.

paragraphs: During the Trojan War, Achilles refuses to fight after a quarrel with Agamemnon, leader of the Greek forces. Patroclus, with Achilles' permission, then dons Achilles' armor and leads the Myrmidons into battle. The Greeks, thinking him to be Achilles, are roused into a frenzy as they begin to beat the Trojans back. He managed to kill Sarpedon when he charged into battle. However, the ruse is discovered as Patroclus is soon killed by the Trojan prince Hector. The death of Patroclus is a key event in the "Iliad", as it serves as the catalyst of Achilles' legendary rage.


title: James I of England

paragraphs: James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James I. He was the first monarch to be called the king of Great Britain. He ruled in Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 until his death and he ruled in England and Ireland from 24 March 1603 until his death.

paragraphs: His reign was important because it was the first time England and Scotland had the same monarch. He was the first monarch of England from the House of Stuart. The previous English monarch had been Elizabeth I. She had died without any children, so the English agreed to have a Scottish monarch because James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, thus the closest relative Elizabeth had. By being king of both, he created a personal union.

paragraphs: James fought often with the Parliament of England. In addition, he did not use the kingdom’s money well. While James was ruling, the Scottish and English governments were quite stable. After James died, his son Charles tried to rule in the same way as James, but caused the English Civil War. At the end of the war in 1649, Charles was executed.

paragraphs: James was very well educated and good at learning. He helped people in England and in Scotland to study things such as science, literature, and art. James wrote "Daemonologie" in 1597, "The True Law of Free Monarchies" in 1598, "Basilikon Doron" in 1599, and "A Counterblaste to Tobacco" in 1604. He sponsored the Authorized King James Version of the Bible.

paragraphs: James was a target of the Gunpowder Plot. A group of Catholics planned to blow up the Houses of Parliament on 5 November 1605 during a ceremony while James was in the building. The plot was stopped when a member of the group, Guy Fawkes, was found in a basement with barrels of gunpowder. The event is remembered every year on 5 November, also known as Bonfire Night,where many people decide to celebrate and light bonfires and fireworks.

paragraphs: James believed in witchcraft. When he read "The Discoverie of Witchcraft", he ordered all copies of the book to be burnt. The king had an importance with the first English settlers.

paragraphs: The first permanent English established settlement in North America was made under the charter granted by James to Sir Thomas Gates and other in 1606.


title: Hesiod

paragraphs: Hesiod ("Hesiodos", ) was an Ancient Greek poet. He is probably the second Greek poet whose work has survived; like Homer, his dates are not known for certain. As with Homer, there are numerous legends, none of which are supported by hard evidence. He may have lived around 700 BC in Askra in Boeotia, as a farmer. Today his writings are one of the main sources for Greek mythology, and everyday life in Ancient Greece, such as farming techniques, astronomy and ancient time-keeping. The complete surviving works were published in 1493, and by Aldus Manutius in 1495.


title: Fu Xiancai

paragraphs: Fu Xiancai is a Chinese farmer and civil rights activist. He started to be political in 1994, after his village was in danger, because the Three Gorges Dam was built. In 1997 he had to leave his home, after it was flooded by the water of the dam. Since that time he tries to get together with other people fair damages from the Peoples Republic of China. On 19 May 2006 he had an interview with the German television station ARD. After this one he was arrested by police and hit so he cannot move since that time and is crippled. He did not get any medical help, because he cannot pay it. The German government protested against this situation. In June 2006, the German embassy paid for the life-saving medical treatment. The Chinese government said they did not hit him, so he must have hit himself.


title: Phoebus

paragraphs: Phoebus (means "shining-one") was originally a name of the Greek god Helios. But later, it also became a name of Apollo, because in later times, both gods were merged (became one).


title: Overture

paragraphs: An overture is a piece of music for the orchestra to play at the beginning of an opera or ballet. The word comes from the French word for "opening" because it "opens" the show.

paragraphs: Overtures usually have tunes which are going to be heard during the opera or ballet. In this way it prepares the audience for what is to come.

paragraphs: Many overtures in the 18th century were simply background music to get the audience's attention (people used to chatter during performances). Some composers like Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868) used the same overture again and again for his next operas, or just changed bits of it.

paragraphs: Composers like Christoph Willibald Gluck and later Richard Wagner (1813-1883) were very careful to make the overture a dramatic beginning which prepared the audience for the story. Wagner often called his overtures "Vorspiel" (Prelude).

paragraphs: Not all composers wrote overtures to their operas. Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) and Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) often go straight into the first act or they just have a very short prelude.

paragraphs: In the 19th century many Romantic composers wrote concert overtures. These pieces did not belong to any opera or ballet, they were just written to be heard at concerts. They often had a descriptive title because they told some sort of story, e.g. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) wrote an overture "Fingal's Cave" which describes the sea coming into the cave in the Inner Hebrides islands. Sometimes these descriptive pieces were much longer than an overture (which is usually just a few minutes), so they were called tone poems.

paragraphs: Overtures are usually played in sonata form.


title: Luthier

paragraphs: A luthier is a person who repairs guitars, violins, violas, cellos, double basses, and other wooden stringed instruments. These instruments need regular adjustments and minor repairs, especially straightening the bridge. As well, sometimes instruments are damaged in accidents, and a luthier has to use wood glue, broken pieces, and clamps to repair the instrument. Luthiers also have the ability to create wooden stringed instruments, mostly classic string family instruments.

paragraphs: The French word lutherie is referred to the art to build wooden instruments. The word luthier comes from the French word luth, luth comes from the Arabian word al-`ūd (العود), this last word means lute, although its generic meaning is the wood. The German word for luthier is luther, that word has became also in a name (Martin Luther King) and in a last name (Martin Luther)


title: Moss, Norway

paragraphs: Moss is a coastal town in the Norwegian county of Østfold. It served an important role in the declaration of independence from the union with Sweden. The city used to have a lot of heavy industries, like shipyards and paper mills. Today it has mostly service sector businesses (shops, banks etc.)

paragraphs: The city is also the centre of Moss Municipality which is 63 km² (square kilometers) large and has 28,000 people as of 2006.


title: Dorset

paragraphs: Dorset is a county in south England which is by the sea. The biggest towns in it are Bournemouth and Poole. There are other smaller towns, some by the sea, like Weymouth, Swanage, West Bay, the Isle of Portland, Dorchester, Wareham, Lyme Regis, Blandford and Wool.

paragraphs: Dorset is next to Devon, Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire.

paragraphs: There is a lot of countryside in Dorset, so there are quite a few farmers. Other people work in offices, shops or the holiday business. There are not many factories or industry in Dorset.

paragraphs: People come on holiday to Dorset because the countryside and sea is peaceful and pretty, and there are not many big towns and no cities at all. Bournemouth, Poole, Weymouth, Swanage and Lyme Regis are quite famous seaside towns, where most holidaymakers go when they come to Dorset.

paragraphs: The Dorset coast is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Jurassic Coast. This includes famous fossil sites where Mary Anning collected, and famous landforms such as Chesil Beach.


title: Poole

paragraphs: Poole is a town in Dorset, England. It is the second biggest town in Dorset after Bournemouth. In 2001, 138,299 people lived there. Lots of tourists visit Poole because of its nice beaches and sunny weather. It has a very big natural harbour. Lots of people in Poole work for Barclays Bank, Hamworthy Engineering, Poole Packaging, Sunseeker, RNLI and Ryvita.

paragraphs: Poole's harbour is the second biggest natural harbour in the world after Sydney in Australia but the water in Poole is very shallow which means that very big ships cannot go into Poole Harbour. It was used in World War II for some ships to set off for France on D-Day. The harbour entrance is also the home to many millionaires being in the top 5 most expensive places to live in the world.

paragraphs: People have lived in Poole for 2,000 years. There were lots of Celtic people there. Archaeologists found a boat in the harbour which they think was made in 295 BC. When the Romans invaded Britain in the 1st century, they landed in Poole. In the Norman Conquest in 1066, Poole was used mostly for fishing but then became a port for trading things like wool. In the 18th century, Poole was one of the biggest ports in England.

paragraphs: The harbour stopped being so useful because big boats could not get in, so they went to places like Liverpool, Southampton and Plymouth. Even though the harbour can not be used that well, due to the shallowness of the sea, it is very beautiful and peaceful for people.


title: Gorilla

paragraphs: Gorillas may be aggressive when attacked or provoked, but they are naturally gentle. They are vegetarians, eating leaves and grass as well as insects.

paragraphs: A gorilla's lifespan is between 35 and 40 years, although zoo gorillas may live for 50 years or more because they have more food.

paragraphs: Gorillas are large apes. They can be strong like chimpanzees and orangutans. An adult male gorilla can weigh up to 225 kilograms and stand 1.8 meters in height. Gorillas live in family groups called troops. They have a broad chest, wide shoulders, short legs, and long strong arms. They have black skin and hair. Adult male gorillas' hair becomes silver/grey on their backs as they become older. Because of that, older males are called "silverbacks".

paragraphs: Gorillas live in the rainforests in central Africa. They mostly live on the ground, but they can also climb. When on the ground, they walk on their feet and finger knuckles. Troops of gorillas wander slowly through the forests of Central Africa. For about half of their day they search for leaves, vines, and bamboo shoots to eat. Sometimes they also eat ants or termites. For the rest of the day, they lay in the sun and play with their children. If another gorilla threatens them, the troop's leader, the silverback, protects them by rearing up and beating his chest. Although mostly vegetarian, they have long canine teeth or fangs that the adult males sometimes use to fight each other for the troop leadership.

paragraphs: Gorillas sleep in nests that they build on the ground. At the end of each day, each adult gorilla spends a few minutes putting together a soft, flat bed made of leaves, branches, and moss. The young gorillas sleep with their mothers.

paragraphs: The gestation period (when a baby grows inside the mother) of a gorilla lasts between eight and ten months. Gorillas almost always produce one offspring - twins are rare. Gorilla babies begin to hang onto their mothers when they are only a few hours old and will continue to do so for the next three years. Gorillas live up to 50 years in the wild and up to 54 years in captivity.