title: Ken Livingstone

paragraphs: Kenneth Robert Livingstone (born 17 June 1945) is a British socialist politician. He has twice held the leading political role in London local government. First, he was leader of the Greater London Council from 1981 until the council was abolished in 1986. Secondly, he was the first Mayor of London, from its creation in 2000 until 2008. He also served as Labour Party Member of Parliament for Brent East between 1987 and 2001.

paragraphs: He was elected Mayor of London as an Independent candidate after the Labour Party decided not to nominate him as their candidate in the first mayoral elections. In January 2004, he was re-admitted to the Labour Party. As the official Labour Party candidate for Mayor in the June 2004 elections, he won with a total of 828,380 first- and second-preference votes. On 1 May 2008 Livingstone was defeated in his second re-election bid by Conservative candidate Boris Johnson, and his term as Mayor of London ended on 4 May 2008.

paragraphs: Livingstone was born in Lambeth, London, England, the son of Ethel Ada (Kennard), a professional dancer, and Robert Moffat Livingstone, who was of Scottish descent and worked as a ship's master in the Merchant Navy. Livingstone has described his parents as "working class Tories".

paragraphs: Livingstone attended Tulse Hill Comprehensive School. He did not pass the eleven-plus examination in 1956 but still managed to obtain a few O-levels. He worked for eight years as a cancer research technician, between 1962 and 1970. He also trained as a teacher, qualifying in 1973, but was never active in the profession. Livingstone joined the Labour Party in 1968 at a time when party membership was falling and few new young members were joining, and rose rapidly in the local party. He was elected to the Lambeth Borough Council in May 1971 and served as Vice-Chair of the Housing Committee from 1971 to 1973 (succeeding John Major in the job).

paragraphs: At the Greater London Council Election in 1973 elections Livingstone won the Norwood seat on the Greater London Council (GLC) and served as Vice-Chair of Housing Management in 1974-1975. He was dismissed when he opposed spending cuts urged by council leader Sir Reg Goodwin. He also served on the movie censorship committee and urged the abolition of censorship. Coming up to the Greater London Council Election of 1977, Livingstone realised that it would be difficult to retain his seat and managed to be selected for Hackney North and Stoke Newington, a safe seat, following the retirement of Dr David Pitt, Baron Pitt of Hampstead. This ensured that he was one of the few left-wing Labour councillors to remain on the council.

paragraphs: Livingstone had been selected as the Labour Parliamentary candidate for the Hampstead constituency. He moved to Camden just before the deadline to stand for the council in 1978, and was elected there. Livingstone's performance in Hampstead in the United Kingdom 1979 general election was good, although he did not come close to winning what was at that time a safe Conservative seat.

paragraphs: He married Christine Pamela Chapman in 1973 and the marriage ended in divorce in 1982. Around that time he became involved with Kate Allen (Amnesty International UK), now director of Amnesty International in the UK, but the couple separated in November 2001.

paragraphs: Livingstone and his current partner Emma Beal, also his office manager, have a son, Thomas, born 14 December 2002 at the University College Hospital, London, and a daughter, Mia, born on 20 March 2004 at the Royal Free Hospital in Hampstead. He also has three other children from previous relationships, whose existence was only publicly revealed during the London mayoral election in 2008. Livingstone is a noted "bon vivant", having twice worked as a food critic for London's "Evening Standard" newspaper and various magazines.

paragraphs: He is known for his enthusiasm for keeping and breeding newts.

paragraphs: Livingstone again stood for Parliament in the 1987 general election, winning a seat in the north-west London constituency of Brent East. He replaced Labour MP Reg Freeson who was a committed left-winger, but his relatively moderate ("sensible left") views made him vulnerable to the hard left in the early 1980s. Freeson was able to retain his seat at the 1983 general election, but was deselected in 1985 after a bitter struggle, described as "political 'murder'" in his Guardian obituary, and replaced as Labour candidate in Brent East by Livingstone.

paragraphs: In his maiden speech to Parliament in July 1987, Livingstone used Parliamentary privilege to raise a number of allegations made by Fred Holroyd, a former MI6 operative in Northern Ireland. Despite the convention of maiden speeches being non-controversial, Livingstone alleged that Holroyd had been mistreated when he tried to expose MI5 collusion with loyalist paramilitaries in the 1970s and the part Captain Robert Nairac is alleged to have played. He also voiced Colin Wallace's allegations of MI5 dirty tricks levelled at Harold Wilson, part of what became known as the "Wilson plot".

paragraphs: As a Labour backbencher, Livingstone lost the public platform he possessed as head of the GLC; furthermore, his brand of radical socialism was increasingly out of step with the Labour leadership, which had moved sharply towards the centre under the leadership of Neil Kinnock who now blamed left-wingers like Livingstone for Labour's 'unelectability.' Over the long term, though, it was Livingstone rather than Kinnock who was to achieve electoral success. In September 1987 he was elected to the party's National Executive Committee, although he lost this position two years later; he regained it in 1997 beating Peter Mandelson in what some interpreted as a rebuke to Tony Blair. He was re-elected MP in the general election of 1992, with a 6% swing to Labour in his Brent East constituency. Besides serving in the Commons, Livingstone held a number of other 'odd jobs' during this period, including game show contestant and host, after-dinner speaker, and restaurant reviewer for the "Evening Standard". In 1987 he published an autobiography-cum-political tract, "If Voting Changed Anything They'd Abolish It".

paragraphs: As a politician comfortable in light-hearted and satirical situations, in 1990, Livingstone made the first of seven appearances on the topical panel show "Have I Got News For You". For a long time, his first six appearances would stand as the show's record; his current tally of seven - the last being in 2002 - fall one short of the record for guest appearances currently held by Germaine Greer and Will Self.

paragraphs: In 1995, Livingstone appeared on the track "Ernold Same" by the band Blur, taken from the album "The Great Escape". Livingstone provided spoken word vocals and was listed as 'The Right On Ken Livingstone.'

paragraphs: Livingstone appeared in one of a series of advertisements extolling the virtues of cheese in the 1980s, appropriately endorsing red Leicester. On the other side of politics, Edward Heath advertised Danish Blue. Their respective choices are down to the colour red being associated with the Labour Party, and blue with the Conservative Party.

paragraphs: Livingstone was again re-elected in the 1997 general election, in which Labour was returned to power under the leadership of Tony Blair. Among Labour's proposals was the establishment of a Greater London Authority which was to be a strategic body: unlike the GLC the Greater London Authority would not provide any services to Londoners directly. The new Greater London Authority would be headed by a directly-elected mayor, who would be watched over by a 25-member Assembly.

paragraphs: Despite having earlier criticised the specific proposals for a new London-wide authority, Livingstone was widely tipped for the new post of Mayor. The mayoral election was scheduled for 2000, and in 1999, Labour began the long and trying process of selecting its candidate. Despite Blair's personal antipathy, Livingstone was included on Labour's shortlist in November 1999, having pledged that he would not run as an independent if he failed to secure the party's nomination. William Hague, then Leader of the Opposition taunted Blair at Prime Minister's Question Time: "Why not split the job in two, with Frank Dobson as your day mayor and Ken Livingstone as your nightmare?"

paragraphs: Labour chose its official candidate on 20 February 2000. Although Livingstone received a healthy majority of the total votes, he nevertheless lost the nomination to former Secretary of State for Health Frank Dobson, under a controversial system in which votes from sitting Labour MPs and MEPs were weighted more heavily than votes from rank-and-file members. On 6 March, Livingstone announced that he would run against Dobson as an independent, confirming speculation that he would renege on his earlier pledge. He was suspended from the Labour Party the same day and expelled on 4 April. Tony Blair said that Livingstone as mayor would be a "disaster" for London; he later said he was wrong in that prediction.

paragraphs: The result of the election – held on 4 May – was a foregone conclusion: Dobson, who it was alleged, had been pressured into running by the party leadership, unsuccessfully based his campaign on claims that Livingstone was an egomaniac, and the Conservatives remained becalmed after their catastrophic national defeat in 1997. Livingstone came out ahead in the first round of balloting with 38% of first-preference votes to Conservative Steven Norris's 27%; Dobson finished third, with 13% of all first-preference votes – just ahead of Liberal Democrat Susan Kramer, with 12%. Under the modified instant-runoff voting system employed for the election, only the votes cast for Livingstone and Norris were considered in the second round, where Livingstone won with 58% of first- and second-preference votes, versus 42% for Norris.

paragraphs: Livingstone continued to sit in parliament, as an independent having had the Labour whip withdrawn, until standing down at the 2001 General Election.

paragraphs: Livingstone applied for readmittance to the Labour Party in 2002 but was rejected. In November 2003, however, rumours emerged that the Labour Party would allow Livingstone to rejoin, just ahead of the 2004 London mayoral election. Opinion polls consistently gave a poor showing to Labour's official candidate, Nicky Gavron, and many in the party leadership (including Tony Blair himself) feared that Labour would be humiliated by a fourth-place finish. In mid-December, Gavron announced she would stand down as the Labour candidate in favour of a 'unity campaign,' with Gavron as Livingstone's deputy, with Labour's National Executive Committee voting 25-2 to pave the way for Livingstone's readmittance. The deal hinged on a 'loyalty test' administered by a special five-member NEC panel on 9 January. The panel recommended that Livingstone be allowed back in the party. The move towards readmittance came amid considerable opposition from senior party members, including Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown, Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, and former party leader Neil Kinnock. In a ballot of Labour Party members in London, Livingstone was overwhelmingly endorsed as the Labour candidate for the 2004 Mayoral election.

paragraphs: Livingstone was re-elected Mayor of London on 10 June 2004. He won 36% of first preference votes to Conservative Steven Norris's 28% and Liberal Democrat Simon Hughes's 15%. Six other candidates shared the remainder of the votes. When all the candidates except Livingstone and Norris were eliminated and the second preferences of those voters who had picked neither Livingstone or Norris as their first choice were counted, Livingstone won with 55% to Norris's 45%.

paragraphs: Livingstone sought re-election in 2008, but was defeated by Conservative candidate Boris Johnson on a night that saw the Labour Party suffer its worst electoral defeats for forty years. Once first and second votes were taken into account Johnson had 1,168,738 votes, Livingstone 1,028,966 - a margin of 139, 772 votes or just over 6% of those who voted.

paragraphs: Speaking immediately after the count, Johnson paid public tribute to his defeated rival, praising "the very considerable achievements of the last mayor of London" and describing Livingstone as "a very considerable public servant". Johnson went on to say "You shaped the office of mayor. You gave it national prominence and when London was attacked on 7 July 2005 you spoke for London."

paragraphs: Johnson also spoke of Livingstone's "courage and the sheer exuberant nerve with which you stuck it to your enemies" and expressed a desire that the new Conservative administration could "discover a way in which the mayoralty can continue to benefit from your transparent love of London".

paragraphs: Livingstone's greatest challenge as Mayor of London has been dealing with the city's ageing transportation infrastructure. Despite conflict over appropriate funding schemes and engineering challenges to modernising both the London Underground and the city's bus system, an Association of London Government survey, conducted by MORI towards the end of Livingstone's first term in 2004, suggested growing public satisfaction with public transport, with buses in particular being seen as more frequent and reliable.

paragraphs: In accordance with his pre-election pledge, bus fares were frozen for four years, but then the standard single cash fare on buses more than doubled. Further, and contrary to his pledge during his first election campaign, when he said "only a de-humanised moron would get rid of the Routemaster", Livingstone removed the famous Routemaster buses from routine service on 9 December 2005, claiming it was because the new buses were wheelchair-accessible, although several of the old buses are used on shortened "heritage routes". There was some question over the legality of using the old Routemaster under the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 as the Routemasters effectively banned wheel chair users.

paragraphs: In tandem with the removal of Routemaster buses, Livingstone oversaw the introduction of bending articulated buses. These buses have faced criticism for allegedly being fire-prone, dangerous to cyclists, and unable to navigate some winding streets; see London articulated bus controversy.

paragraphs: Livingstone has been a strong proponent of the Oyster card smartcard ticketing system for London's public transport network introduced in 2003. In late 2005, Livingstone proposed large fare increases for on-the-spot tickets across the Tube and bus network to encourage regular travellers to use the automated Oyster system to reduce queuing at Underground stations and avoid delays in conductorless buses as drivers issue tickets. The plans, although ratified by the GLA and introduced in January 2006 were condemned by those who argued that the increases would increase the cost of travelling in London to tourists and others who do not travel regularly. Civil liberties groups have expressed concern over the way in which Transport for London is able to track the movements of passengers using the Oyster card system. Livingstone moved to make all bus journeys free for passengers under the age of 18 enrolled in full-time education who travel with an Oyster card and introduced initiatives to enable visitors to buy an Oyster card before arriving in London.

paragraphs: One of the key points of conflict between Livingstone and the Labour Party had been the proposed 'Public-Private Partnership' for the London Underground. Livingstone had run in 2000 on a policy of financing the improvements to Tube infrastructure by a public bond issue, which had been done in the case of the New York City Subway. However the Mayor did not have power in this area at the time as the Underground operated independently of Transport for London. The PPP deal went ahead in July 2002, but it did not diminish Livingstone's desire to re-join Labour. Metronet, one of the winners of the contract for PPP, subsequently went into administration in July 2007.

paragraphs: Livingstone introduced the London congestion charge with the purpose of reducing traffic congestion in central London. Since being introduced the charge has proved to be controversial, though Transport for London maintains that traffic has fallen by 20% within the charge zone since the scheme began. One reason for the controversy is that whilst the scheme has been lucrative for its private-sector operator, Capita, some people argue it has not made enough money for public transport because the money has been spent on other things.

paragraphs: However, its apparent success in reducing congestion has led to similar schemes being proposed in other major cities such as New York.

paragraphs: In November 2003, Livingstone was named 'Politician of the Year' by the Political Studies Association, which said his scheme was 'bold and imaginative'.

paragraphs: The United States Embassy for many years has refused to pay the charge because they argue it is a tax and not a charge on congestion.

paragraphs: Ken Livingstone has been called “an environmentalist, a leftist, a lover of newts," and has made a significant effort to reduce London’s impact on the environment. He began by creating the London Hydrogen Partnership and the London Energy Partnership in his first term as Mayor of London. The Mayor’s Energy Strategy, “green light to clean power,” commits London to reducing its emissions of carbon dioxide by 20%, relative to the 1990 level, by 2010. However, he does support the Thames Gateway Bridge in East London that Friends of the Earth say "would bring few benefits to the local people and lead to more traffic, more noise and air pollution and an increase in climate-changing emissions". In October 2007, London Councils stated Livingstone had gone back on his promise to help chair the developing London Waste and Recycling Board, and to provide £6 million of funding for the project, because "the government had failed to provide him with absolute control of the Board."

paragraphs: In June 2007, Livingstone criticised a planned £200 million desalination plant at Beckton, which would be the United Kingdom's first, calling it "misguided and a retrograde step in UK environmental policy", and that "we should be encouraging people to use less water, not more."

paragraphs: In 2001 Livingstone set up Britain's first register for same-sex couples; while falling short of legal marriage rights, the register was seen as a "step towards" such rights. Legal status was later passed by the government through the Civil Partnership Act 2004.

paragraphs: After rejecting the idea for a couple of years, Livingstone hosted a Jewish Hanukkah ceremony at City Hall in December 2005. He said he intended this to be an annual occurrence. On 17 March 2002 Livingstone introduced an annual Saint Patrick's Day festival to London to celebrate the contributions of the Irish to London, with around 250,000 people annually turning out for this. On 28 October 2006 he helped organise the first ever ""Eid in the Square"" in Trafalgar Square, in commemoration of the Eid ul-Fitr festival which marks the end of Ramadan, the Muslim month of fasting.

paragraphs: After the 7 July 2005 London bombings Livingstone, from the 117th IOC Session in Singapore, where it had recently been announced London would host the 2012 Olympic Games, delivered a speech.

paragraphs: Finally, I wish to speak directly to those who came to London today to take life. I know that you personally do not fear giving up your own life in order to take others - that is why you are so dangerous. But I know you fear that you may fail in your long-term objective to destroy our free society and I can show you why you will fail. In the days that follow, look at our airports, look at our sea ports and look at our railway stations and, even after your cowardly attack, you will see that people from the rest of Britain, people from around the world will arrive in London to become Londoners and to fulfill their dreams and achieve their potential. They choose to come to London, as so many have come before because they come to be free, they come to live the life they choose, they come to be able to be themselves. They flee you because you tell them how they should live. They do not want that and nothing you do, however many of us you kill, will stop that flight to our city where freedom is strong and where people can live in harmony with one another. Whatever you do, however many you kill, you will fail.

paragraphs: Livingstone defended the police after the mistaken killing of a Brazilian man, Jean Charles de Menezes, who police believed was a suicide bomber.

paragraphs: In 2001 Livingstone revived the free anti-racism Music festival now called . He believes that this, along with other anti-racist policies, is why London has seen a 35% decrease in racist attacks.

paragraphs: In September 2005 Livingstone came out in support of placing a statue of Nelson Mandela, the former President of South Africa, on the north terrace of Trafalgar Square. Livingstone said "There can be no better place than our greatest square to place a statue of Nelson Mandela so that every generation can remind the next of the fight against racism." He was highly critical of the Planning and City Development Committee of Westminster City Council who refused planning permission.

paragraphs: In 2008 Livingstone's race advisor Lee Jasper resigned after being accused of corruption and inappropriate behaviour. Simon Woolley of Operation Black Vote has said the 2008 Mayoral campaign has seen a "wholly disproportionate" focus on Jasper, Doreen Lawrence (Livingstone supporter and mother of Stephen Lawrence), and others.

paragraphs: On 23 August 2007, at 12pm, Mayor Ken Livingstone formally apologised for London's role in the transatlantic slave trade. In a bicentennial day memorial event, he also called for the 23 August to be named as a national day for remembrance in the UK for the "horrific crime against humanity of the transatlantic slave trade." He went on to make the following tearful speech and formal apology:

paragraphs: "It is because it is the anniversary of the biggest slave revolt in history, that UNESCO officially marks this day, the 23 August, the anniversary of that outbreak in Haiti, as slavery's official remembrance day. This is why we, in London, call for it to be the annual slave memorial day. We are therefore here to initiate London's annual slavery memorial day, and call for the establishment of a national, annual memorial day. In 1999, Liverpool became the first major British slaving city to formally apologise. The Church of England soon followed suit. In March I invited representatives of London's institutions to join the City of Liverpool and the Church of England for formally apologising for London's role in this monstrous crime. As Mayor, I offer an apology on behalf of London and its institutions for their role in the transatlantic slave trade."

paragraphs: Rejecting the idea that it is not possible to "meaningfully apologise for something a former generation did," Livingstone emphasised that London and by implication the rest of the developed world still profited enormously from the assets accumulated in the slave era, adding "It was the racial murder of not just those who were transported but generations of enslaved African men, women and children. To justify this murder and torture black people had to be declared inferior or not human. We live with the consequences today."

paragraphs: In March 2002, while still independent, Livingstone was accused of "cronyism" by some Labour party members in the London Assembly after he had appointed six officials as special advisers at a salary level which seemed to them excessive, and a manoeuvre to help his chances of being re-elected. Livingstone denied the allegations and stated the appointments were a "necessary efficiency drive."

paragraphs: In December 2007, the "Evening Standard" published news of an investigation into grants worth £2.5 million paid to organisations in which Ken Livingstone's adviser Lee Jasper was involved. It is confirmed that some of these grants were paid directly by the mayor's office.

paragraphs: Following Mr. Livingstone’s defeat in the 2008 Mayoral Elections, "The Daily Mail" reported that “Eight 'cronies' of Ken Livingstone are to receive £1.6 million in pay-offs following his defeat in the London mayoral elections.” Mr. Livingstone changed the rules for political appointees who would otherwise not have been eligible for severance packages, which paved the way for the eight City Hall advisors to receive an average of £200,000. Liberal Democrat Leader Dee Doocey stated that the payments were “completely inexcusable” and added that “It seems like there's one law for the ordinary working person and one law for the political class.” Tony Travers, local government expert at the London School of Economics, said: “I think most people will be shocked. You could do quite a lot about knife crime with £1.6 million. It is odd indeed that the full benefits of labour laws designed to protect the vulnerable are being claimed by courtiers who knew they would lose their jobs if their master lost the election.”

paragraphs: Mr Livinstone refuted the comments by stating that 'It's a question of what the law requires. Either there's a legal responsibility or there is not.'

paragraphs: Ken Livingstone was publicly criticised in February 2005 for remarks made to an "Evening Standard" reporter, comparing him to a Nazi concentration camp guard, after the reporter had tried to interview him following a reception marking the 20th anniversary of Chris Smith's coming out as gay. The reporter, Oliver Finegold, was in fact Jewish and said he took offence at the remarks, but Livingstone refused to withdraw the remark and was subsequently accused of antisemitism. Finegold had an audio recorder running. "The Evening Standard" decided not to run the story at first but the following transcript of the conversation was published by "guardian.co.uk":

paragraphs: The epithet "German war criminal" and Livingstone's subsequent jibes refer to the Standard's owners, the Daily Mail and General Trust, which endorsed Oswald Mosley's Fascists in 1934 and supported Nazism until 1939. Livingstone also claimed the "Standard" was guilty of "harassment of a predominantly lesbian and gay event". Gay rights campaigner Peter Tatchell suggested in the Evening Standard that this explanation "came across as patronising. Gay people don't need the Mayor's protection to fend off a journalist asking simple questions."

paragraphs: After listening to the recording supplied by Finegold, the London Assembly voted unanimously to ask Livingstone to apologise. Livingstone responded by saying "the form of words I have used are right. I have nothing to apologise for." Deputy Mayor Nicky Gavron, herself the daughter of a Holocaust survivor, said of Livingstone: "These were inappropriate words and very offensive, both to the individual and to Jews in London." Some two dozen complaints were referred to the Standards Board for England, the body responsible for English local government standards, which passed it to the Adjudication Panel for England, which has the power to ban individuals from public office for five years.

paragraphs: The Adjudication Panel addressed the case over two days on the 13 & 14 December 2005 and adjourned the hearing for two months. On 24 February 2006, Ken Livingstone was found guilty of bringing his office into disrepute and suspended from office for four weeks, stating that he seemed "to have failed... to have appreciated that his conduct was unacceptable". Livingstone attacked the decision on the grounds that the Adjudication Panel members ought not to suspend a democratically elected official from power, describing their actions as "striking at the heart of democracy". The ban was due to begin on 1 March 2006, but on 28 February, a High Court judge postponed it pending an appeal by Livingstone.

paragraphs: The decision was later quashed by the High Court of Justice when on 5 October, Mr Justice Collins overturned the suspension, regardless of the outcome of Livingstone's appeal concerning the breach of standards. The final judgment upheld Livingstone's appeal and stated that the Adjudication Panel had misdirected itself, although the judge stated that the Mayor should have apologised.

paragraphs: On 7 December 2006, at a City Hall reception marking the launch of the London Jewish Forum, Livingstone apologised for any offence that he had caused the Jewish community.

paragraphs: Criticism of Livingstone by the Evening Standard intensified during the 2008 campaign, with daily front page articles attacking him, under the direction of editor Veronica Wadley who originally urged Johnson to stand and who is closely linked to Tory leadership. According to articles in The Guardian and Time Out London, she is strongly influenced by the need to renew Associated Newspaper's multi-million pound contract to deliver the Metro free paper in London Underground stations in 2010, a decision within the gift of the Mayor.

paragraphs: In 2004 Livingstone said "I just long for the day I wake up and find that the Saudi Royal Family are swinging from lamp-posts and they've got a proper government that represents the people of Saudi Arabia."

paragraphs: In a March 2005 commentary in "The Guardian" he accused Israel's prime minister Ariel Sharon of being a "war criminal", citing his alleged personal responsibility for the Sabra and Shatila massacre in 1982 and accusations of ethnic cleansing. Accusations that Sharon was implicated are frequently made by other organisations and leading politicians including the official Israeli Kahan Commission investigation into the massacres in 1982.

paragraphs: On 20 July 2005, Livingstone made the following comments in a BBC interview about the role of foreign policy as a motivation for the London bombings of two weeks earlier:

paragraphs: "I think you've just had 80 years of western intervention into predominantly Arab lands because of the western need for oil. We've propped up unsavoury governments, we've overthrown ones we didn't consider sympathetic. And I think the particular problem we have at the moment is that in the 1980s ... the Americans recruited and trained Osama Bin Laden, taught him how to kill, to make bombs, and set him off to kill the Russians and drive them out of Afghanistan. They didn't give any thought to the fact that once he'd done that he might turn on his creators. A lot of young people see the double standards, they see what happens in Guantanamo Bay, and they just think that there isn't a just foreign policy."

paragraphs: Later in the interview he stated, about the Palestinians of the West Bank and Gaza Strip:

paragraphs: "Under foreign occupation and denied the right to vote, denied the right to run your own affairs, often denied the right to work for three generations, I suspect that if it had happened here in England, we would have produced a lot of suicide bombers ourselves."

paragraphs: Commentator Mark Steyn described the interview as Livingstone "artfully" attempting "to draw a distinction between Muslim terrorists blowing up his own public transit (which he didn't approve of) and Muslim terrorists blowing up Israeli public transit (which he was inclined to be sympathetic to)."

paragraphs: In November 2003, Livingstone made headlines for referring to US President George W. Bush as 'the greatest threat to life on this planet,' just before Bush's official visit to the UK. Livingstone also organised an alternative 'Peace Reception' at City Hall 'for everybody who is not George Bush,' with anti-war Vietnam veteran Ron Kovic as the guest of honour. In 2004 he referred to Bush as "the most corrupt American president since Harding in the Twenties". In July 2007 Livingstone suggested that Prime Minister Gordon Brown needed to explain to Bush "that US governments need to return to a realistic view of the world. The US is the world's single most powerful country, but much weaker than the rest of the world put together. The attempt by one country to unilaterally impose itself on the rest of the world is not only undesirable but simply won't work."

paragraphs: In February 2007, Ken Livingstone signed a deal with Venezuela to provide cheaper oil for London buses. In return, the Greater London Authority advises Venezuela on recycling, waste management, traffic and reducing carbon emissions. This deal came under criticism from the London Assembly Conservatives including Richard Barnes, who stated that the "money would be better directed at the poor of Venezuela," and journalist Martin Bright, who said that the deal "effectively takes from the poor of Latin America to give to one of the richest cities in the world." Prices have been slashed by 20%; following this, half-price bus travel became available to Londoners on income support. Livingstone stated the plan "rises on the suggestion of President Hugo Chávez and builds on the work his government is doing around the world in tackling the problems of poverty," and also said, "This will make it cheaper and easier for people to go about their lives and get the most out of London. The agreement... will also benefit the people of Venezuela, by providing expertise in areas of city management in which London is a world leader."

paragraphs: The deal was discontinued by incoming mayor Boris Johnson (effective from September 2008), a decision criticized by Livingstone.

paragraphs: A dispute with the US Embassy in London over payment of the London Congestion Charge escalated on 27 March 2006 when Livingstone criticised the Embassy's decision not to pay. The Embassy argued that the charge is a form of taxation, not a charge for a service, and diplomats and their staff are therefore exempt under the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. Embassy officials have never paid the charge, which was instituted in 2003. Livingstone, however, alleged that the decision was made by Robert Tuttle, who took up the post of Ambassador in July 2005. Livingstone described Tuttle as "one of George Bush's closest cronies and a big funder of his election campaign" and said he was trying to "skive out of [paying] like some chiselling little crook". The group Liberty and Law reported this remark to the Standards Board for England as a breach of its code, but the board chose not to investigate it.

paragraphs: Germany stopped paying the charge in 2005, Japan followed in 2006, and in 2007 France, Russia, Belgium, and 50 other missions followed suit when the zone extended to their missions' locations (Iran, Sweden and Syria continue to pay the charge). Asked about Japan's refusal to pay in a March 2007 interview on LBC Radio, Livingstone responded, "I think there are several problems with Japan that we could go on about here. Admitting their guilt for all the war crimes would be one thing. So if they've not got round to doing that, I doubt they're too worried about the congestion charge." London's Japanese embassy responded that their government had already apologised for previous war crimes.

paragraphs: Livingstone acted as a stand-in presenter on London talk radio station LBC 97.3's Jeni Barnett for a week beginning on 30 June 2008. In July 2008 he announced his intention to run again for the office of Mayor of London at the next mayoral elections and signalled his intent to organise a "progressive alliance" of political parties (such as the Labour Party and the Green Party), trade unions and interest groups to defend the progress which was made during his terms as Mayor and to prepare for the next mayoral elections.

paragraphs: On 28 August 2008, it was announced that Livingstone will be an adviser on urban planning to Caracas, Venezuela. He will act as a consultant on the capital's policing, transport and other municipal issues. As a friend of Hugo Chávez, Livingstone was appointed personally by him to advise officials and mayoral candidates in Caracas, in order to help transform the city, which journalist Rory Carroll described as suffering from, "Gridlocked traffic, a crumbling centre, hillside slums, horrific murder rates, corrupt police and inept local government". Livingstone reckoned that in twenty years a "first-world city" can be made out of Caracas, stating, "I have a very extensive network of contacts both domestically and internationally which I will be calling on to assist in this." No decision on a salary for the ex-mayor has been made, although he mentioned that, "The whole cost of this trip has been paid for by the government of Venezuela and as an unemployed citizen I would not be able to pay for my own fare otherwise." The appointment follows on from the controversy surrounding the deal brokered by Livingstone in February 2007 for the Greater London Authority and Transport for London to provide advice to Venezuela in exchange for cheap fuel to help with bus subsidies. The deal was later overturned by new mayor Boris Johnson, and Livingstone offered his services to Chávez so that Venezuela gets the "advice that we promised". Livingstone played down any accusations that his close relationship with the Venezuelan President was controversial, "unless you believe American propaganda", while a spokesperson for Johnson said, "Ken Livingstone is free, as a private individual, to offer his advice and services to whomever he wants." Livingstone is now being touted as a key asset for Chávez in the upcoming November elections in the country.


title: Vatnajökull

paragraphs: Vatnajökull (English: Glacier of Lakes) () is the largest glacier in Iceland. It lies in the south-east of the island, covering more than 8% of the country.

paragraphs: The average thickness of the ice is 400 m, with a maximum thickness of 1,000 m. Iceland's highest peak, Hvannadalshnúkur (2,110 m), is located at the southern tip of Vatnajökull, near Skaftafell National Park. It is classified as an ice cap glacier.

paragraphs: Vatnajökull has been shrinking for some years now, possibly because of climatic changes and recent volcanic activity. Until 1930 it was growing.

paragraphs: According to Guinness World Records Vatnajökull is the object of the world's longest sight line, 550 km from Slættaratindur, the highest mountain in the Faroe Islands. GWR state that ""owing to the light bending effects of atmospheric refraction, Vatnajökull (2119m), Iceland, can sometimes be seen from the Faroe Islands, 340 miles (550 km) away"". This may be based on a claimed sighting by a British sailor in 1939. The validity of this record is analysed/undermined in mathematical and atmospheric detail by J.C. de Ferranti


title: InterCity 225

paragraphs: The InterCity 225 is an electric train operating in the United Kingdom. Its top speed is 225km/h, hence its name. From 2017, some will be replaced by the British Rail Class 800.


title: British Rail

paragraphs: British Rail (BR) was the national railway company of Great Britain, from 1948 to 1997. It was created by nationalization under the Transport Act 1947. Britain's railways were returned to private ownership by privatization in 1997.

paragraphs: After the smaller firms were merged in 1923 under the Railways Act 1921, there were four large regional railway companies. The Big Four were the Great Western Railway (GWR), the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) and the Southern Railway (SR). The Transport Act 1947 made provision for the nationalisation of the network.

paragraphs: The Second World War had caused damage to all the railways. They had lost a large part of their trains, buildings and equipment.

paragraphs: The Transport Act 1947 set out the nationalisation of the rail network, as part of a plan by Clement Attlee's Labour Government to nationalise public transport. The London Underground, some industrial lines and some remaining light railways like Shropshire and Montgomeryshire Railway were again excluded. For a short time, during World War II, the Shropshire and Montgomeryshire Railway line was taken over by the military. After the war the line re-opened to public use in 1946. The Bicester Military Railway had been built by the government in 1941.

paragraphs: The Transport Act 1947 took effect on 1 January 1923. By that date most of the mergers had taken place, some from the previous year. The "Railway Magazine" in its issue of February 1923 dubbed the new companies as "The Big Four of the New Railway Era".

paragraphs: See also a list of railway companies involved in the 1923 grouping.

paragraphs: The nationalised Ulster Transport Authority (UTA) ran the railways in Northern Ireland from 1948 until 1966. They were then taken over by Translink and called "NI Railways," also known as "Northern Ireland Railways" ().

paragraphs: The government of Northern Ireland and Ireland ran the former Great Northern Railway jointly under a Great Northern Railway Board until 1958. Most of the lines in the west of Northern Ireland were closed in the 1960s.

paragraphs: In 1955, a major modernisation programme costing £1.2 billion was authorised by the government. The period of nationalisation saw sweeping changes occur as steam trains were scrapped 1968, in favour of diesel trains and electric trains. One third of the network was closed by the highly critical Beeching report of the 1960s.

paragraphs: A major railway survey in April 1961 was used in the writing of a government report on the future of the network. This report was called "The Reshaping of British Railways". It was published by the British Railways Board (BRB) in March 1963. A third of all passenger trains would be scrapped and more than 4,000 of the 7,000 stations would be closed.

paragraphs: InterCity (or, in the earliest days, the hyphenated Inter-City) was introduced by British Rail in 1966 as a brand-name for its long-haul express passenger services (see British Rail brand names for a full history).

paragraphs: Passenger levels fell steadily from the late 1950s to the late 1970s, but experienced a sharp increase after the introduction of the high-speed Intercity 125 trains in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

paragraphs: Between 1934 and 1975 the Northern line ran the Northern City Line as its Highbury Branch. London Underground gave it to British Rail in 1975,

paragraphs: Before the sectorization of BR in 1982 the system was split into regions. Working around London, they were London Midland Region (Marylebone, Euston, St Pancras and Broad Street), Southern Region (Waterloo, Victoria, Chairing Cross, Holborn Viaduct, Cannon Street and London Bridge), Western Region (Paddington) and Eastern Region (King's Cross, Moorgate, Broad Street, Liverpool Street and Fenchurch Street). This was perceived to be a source of inefficiency, so sectorization made the regions into a single organisation covering all commuter services. At the same time InterCity took over express services and Regional Railways took over regional services. The group was originally called "Provincial".

paragraphs: BR built 2537 steam locomotives from 1948 to 1960, some to pre-nationalisation designs and some to its own, new, standard designs. Eventually BR chose to end the use of steam trains in 1968.

paragraphs: The official report known as the "Modernisation Plan" of December 1954 was intended to bring the railway system into the 20th century. The aim was to increase speed, reliability, safety and line capacity, by making the railways more attractive to passengers and freight operators. The important areas were:

paragraphs: Long-distance trains from Marylebone began to be cut back from 1958 after the line was given from BR Midland Western to the BR Midland Region. Then BR Midland Region thought it was an unnecessary rival of their Midland Main Line. By 1960 there were no daytime trains running to destinations north of Nottingham and only a few still ran at night. Many Express services were cut. By 1963, local stopping services beyond Aylesbury were cut. In 1965 freight services were ended. Between 1963 and 1966 only a few remaining long distance services stayed in use. A large part of the former Great Central Railway was closed as part of the 'Beeching axe'. This meant that Marylebone was now used only by local trains to Aylesbury and High Wycombe. After the 1960s, lack of investment meant the station itself became run down.

paragraphs: Some of the early models were of poor quality and design, but many later kinds proved their worth in time.

paragraphs: British Rail Class 127 diesel trains were chosen to operate on the services from Marylebone usually to places such as High Wycombe, Aylesbury and Banbury which are on the Chiltern Main Line and Great Central Main Line (now the London to Aylesbury Line). Strangely, the 115 were under Table 115 in the British Rail timetable. They were similar to British Rail Class 127, but were superior as the class had larger windows, better seats, lights and wall surfaces. Both classes were made in the early 1960s.

paragraphs: The British Rail Class 47 (originally "Brush Type 4") is a class of British railway diesel-electric locomotive that was developed in the 1960s by Brush Traction. Their reliable and trusted service lasted well in to the 2000s. Some are still working in 2018.

paragraphs: British Rail gave Class 52 to the class of 74 large diesel-hydraulic locomotives built for the Western Region of British Railways between 1961 and 1964. All were given two-word names, with the first word being "Western", and so the type was nicknamed "Westerns".

paragraphs: The British Rail Class 207 (or 3D) versatile diesel-electric multiple units were built by BR at Eastleigh in 1962.

paragraphs: The British Rail Class 423 (or 4Vep) electric multiple units were built by BR at York Works from 1967 to 1974. They feature manually opening doors next to every seating row and mostly found working outer suburban services in South London, and rural services in Kent and Sussex, up to replacement in 2005.

paragraphs: The British Rail Class 303 is a type of electric multiple unit. They are also known as "Blue Train" units, since they were originally painted blue all over. They were first used in 1960 for the electrification of the North Clyde and the Cathcart Circle lines in Strathclyde.

paragraphs: The British Rail Class 73 electro-diesel locomotives are very unusual in that they can operate from a 750 V DC third-rail supply, but also have a diesel engine to allow them to work on non-electrified routes.

paragraphs: The British Rail Class 86 was the standard electric locomotive built during the 1960s. It was made after the repeated testing of the earlier classes like the 81 and 85. The tests led to a much improved loco design.

paragraphs: The British Rail Class 312 is a type of alternating current (AC) electric multiple unit (EMU) built in 1966–1974 intended for use on outer-suburban passenger services. It was the last class of multiple unit to be constructed to the British Rail Mark 2 body shell, and also the last with slam doors. Their passenger seats were an improvement on former types.

paragraphs: British Rail Class 313 electric multiple units were built by BREL at York Works from 1976 to 1977, thus the first second-generation EMUs to be constructed for British Rail. They were capable of both drawing power via 25 kV AC overhead, or 750 V DC third-rail. They were the first units in Britain to have fully automatic couplers which allowed both physical coupling and also the connection of control electric and air supplies to be carried out without the driver's need to leave the cab. Their passenger seats were also an improvement on former types.

paragraphs: During the late 1950s, railways continued to worsen, and in 1959 the government acted, limiting the amount the British Transport Commission (BTC) could spend on British Rail.

paragraphs: The government proposed that many services could be provided more cheaply by buses, and said that most abandoned rail services would have their places taken by bus services. Only main lines would be untouched. Many other minor lines would be cut back or scrapped.

paragraphs: The business man Lord Beeching saw South Wales as a failing industrial region. So it lost the majority of its network. Since 1983 it has experienced a major rail revival, with new stations such as Llanharan reopening. Four lines reopened within 20 miles (32 km) of each other: Abercynon–Aberdare, Barry–Bridgend via , Bridgend–Maesteg and the Ebbw Valley Line via Newbridge.

paragraphs: The station at Laurencekirk on the mainline between Arbroath and Aberdeen was shut in 1967, but 42 years later in May 2009 it reopened. Other reopened stations include , and – all closed in the mid-1960s.

paragraphs: Haddenham in Buckinghamshire lost its little-used station in 1963, but a more popular station opened in 1987 as the town grew.

paragraphs: A major part of the report proposed that British Rail electrify some major main lines and the use of containerised freight traffic instead of outdated and uneconomic wagon-load traffic. Some of these plans were eventually adopted, however, such as the creation of the Freightliner concept and further electrification of the West Coast Main Line from Crewe to Glasgow in 1974. Also the staffs' terms and conditions were improved over time.

paragraphs: Since the Beeching cuts of the 1960s, road traffic levels grew heavily in some areas. This has come close to gridlock. Furthermore, in recent years there have been record high levels of passengers on the railways. A modest number of the railway closures have therefore been reversed.

paragraphs: In addition a small but significant number of closed stations have reopened, and passenger services been restored on lines where they had been closed or removed. Many of these were in the urban metropolitan counties and towns where Passenger Transport Executives have a role in promoting local passenger rail use.

paragraphs: A notable reopening was the Robin Hood Line in Nottinghamshire, between Nottingham and Worksop via Mansfield, which reopened in the early 1990s. Before the line reopened, Mansfield had been the largest town in Britain without a railway station.

paragraphs: Profits from the railways began to fall in the early 1980s. In 1983, the civil servant Sir David Serpell wrote what became known as the Serpell Report. He wanted even more cutbacks.

paragraphs: In the early 1980s there was a proposal to close Marylebone and divert British Rail services via High Wycombe into nearby Paddington. There was also a plan to extend the Metropolitan Line to Aylesbury, so London trains via Amersham would be sent to Baker Street. Marylebone station was to be converted into a bus and coach station. London Underground said the Metropolitan Line could not cope with any more trains and was full up. However these plans were deemed stupid and clumsy, and were quietly dropped.

paragraphs: The funding of BR was reduced so they created the cheaper Pacer trains. The British Rail Class 143 is a diesel multiple unit, part of the Pacer family of trains introduced between 1985 and 1986. They originally worked around North East England but were later transferred to Wales. It was made out of bus parts put on to lorry chassis and train wheels. Earlier units proved to be unreliable, but later units were of a better design.

paragraphs: The British Rail Class 156 "Super-Sprinter" diesel multiple units were built from 1987 to 1989 to replace elderly First Generation "Heritage" DMUs (like the Class 127 units) and locomotive-hauled passenger trains.

paragraphs: As funding increased before privatisation the successful British Rail Class 158 "Express Sprinter" was made. It is a type of diesel multiple unit (DMU) train. They were built for British Rail between 1989 and 1992 by BREL at their Derby Works.

paragraphs: On 12 December 1988, three commuter trains crashed, just south-west of Clapham junction station, in London. 35 people died and more than 100 were injured. British Rail's 30-year-old vintage Mark 1 carriages were found out to be dangerous and the broken signalling equipment was fixed and improved.

paragraphs: The British government under John Major said that privatisation would help passenger services, but this did not happen until much later.

paragraphs: The Scottish Assembly Government have re-opened the lines between Hamilton and Larkhall, Alloa and Stirling and is working on a link from Airdrie to Bathgate. The biggest line-reopening project is the former Waverley railway Edinburgh to Borders line.

paragraphs: The Welsh Assembly Government has re-opened the Vale of Glamorgan Line between Barry Bock and Bridgend in 2005. The Ebbw Valley Line reopened between Ebbw Vale and Cardiff in the year 2008. It will later go on to services to Newport in Gwent in 2011. The Barry–Bridgend route was closed after the Beeching report of March 1963. The line's passenger service was officially shut down in June 1964, but freight continued until the late 1990s.

paragraphs: Some English stations like Corby and Mansfield were reopened after privatisation.

paragraphs: Yet more stations were reopened by British Rail in Scotland, England and Wales before privatisation when the railway was run properly.

paragraphs: Train fares cost more than under British Rail.

paragraphs: Regional Railways was one of the three passenger sectors of British Rail. It was created in the year 1982. It finished operation in 1996, two years after privatisation. In the privatisation of British Rail, InterCity trains were divided up into several franchises. The Caledonian Sleeper are transferred to ScotRail, now First ScotRail.

paragraphs: Since privatisation, the number of companies has changed a number of times as rules have changed and the areas covered altered. The companies that took over passenger rail services include:

paragraphs: "Six sub-brands also occurred in the early 2000s:"

paragraphs: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Wales and Borders, now part of Arriva Trains Wales.

paragraphs: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Wessex Trains, now part of First Great Western.

paragraphs: <nowiki>**</nowiki> Silverlink Metro, now London Overground.

paragraphs: <nowiki>**</nowiki> Silverlink County, now part of London Midland.

paragraphs: <nowiki>***</nowiki> West Anglia, now part of National Express East Anglia.

paragraphs: <nowiki>***</nowiki> Great Northern Electrics, now part of National Express East Anglia.

paragraphs: The British Rail "double arrow" logo was said to show direction of travel on a double track railway on a railway map and was nicknamed "the arrow of indecision". It is now employed as a general symbol on street signs in Great Britain, but not in Northern Ireland, denoting railway stations, and as part of the Association of Train Operating Companies (A.T.O.C.)'s joint-managed National Rail brand, still being printed on railway tickets.

paragraphs: Sometimes strikes happened among British Rail staff, over staff pay, safety, working hours and alike. There were several strikes in the late 1970s, but decreased after privatisation. There were also several other strikes in the late 1970s. Other firms like the UK's coal mines also struck at this time.


title: Cobra

paragraphs: Cobra is a name of a snake and a girl cobra is called 'cobra Kai.' In English it is the common name for various venomous snakes. Most of those species are in the family Elapidae, and most of them can spread their neck ribs to form a flattened, widened hood.

paragraphs: The name "cobra" is short for "cobra de capelo" or "cobra-de-capelo", which is Portuguese for "snake with hood", or "hood-snake".

paragraphs: Cobras usually live in tropical and desert regions of Asia and Africa. When feeling threatened, cobras can tilt back and flatten their heads into their warning posture. The rest of the time their heads are symmetrical and they look much like any other snakes.

paragraphs: Most so-called, and all "true", species of cobras belong to the family Elapidae.


title: Cape Cobra

paragraphs: The Cape Cobra ("Naja nivea") is a cobra inhabiting the regions of South Africa. It averages 4 feet (120 cm) long but may grow to be 6 feet (180 cm) long. The color varies from location to location, and those from the Kalahari are normally yellow with brown speck uniformly all over the body.


title: Kalahari Desert

paragraphs: The Kalahari Desert is a large arid to semi-arid sandy area in southern Kgalagadi Africa extending 900,000 km² (362,500 sq. mi.), covering much of Botswana and parts of Namibia and South Africa. It has huge tracts of excellent grazing after good rains.

paragraphs: The Kalahari Desert is the southern part of Africa, and the geography is a portion of desert and a plateau. The Kalahari supports some animals and plants because most of it is not a true desert. There are small amounts of rainfall and the summer temperature is very high. The driest areas usually receive of rain per year, and the wettest just a little over .

paragraphs: The surrounding Kalahari Basin covers over 2.5 million km² extending farther into Botswana, Namibia and South Africa, and encroaching into parts of Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The only permanent river, the Okavango, flows into a delta in the northwest, forming marshes that are rich in wildlife. Ancient dry riverbeds—called omuramba—traverse the Central Northern reaches of the Kalahari and provide standing pools of water during the rainy season. Previously havens for wild animals from elephant to giraffe, and for predators such as lion and cheetah, the riverbeds are now mostly grazing spots, though leopard or cheetah can still be found.

paragraphs: The Kalahari has a number of game reserves—the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR, the world's second largest protected area), Khutse Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Animals that live in the region include brown hyenas, lions, meerkats, giraffe, warthogs, jackals and several species of antelope (including the eland, gemsbok, springbok, hartebeest, steenbok, kudu, and duiker), and many species of bird and reptiles. Vegetation in the Kalahari consists mainly of grasses and acacias but there are over 400 identified plant species present (including the wild watermelon or Tsamma melon).

paragraphs: The Bushmen of the Kalahari were hunter/gatherers. They hunted for meat and gathered the food of the desert to eat. They did not keep animals. They moved from place to place to find food and water. They owned very few things because they had to carry everything themselves. Very few people still live this way anywhere in the world.


title: Silverstein

paragraphs: Silverstein is a Canadian post-hardcore band formed in Ontario, Canada, in 2000. Their name come from a children-book writer, Shel Silverstein.

paragraphs: After the several changes in the band's line up, Billy Hamilton joined the band. He found out about they needed a bass player while online. In the autumn of 2002, the band signed to their record label - Victory Records. They left Victory Records in 2010 and joined Hopeless Records.

paragraphs: In January 2003, their first (debut) album was released. The title was When Broken Is Easily Fixed.

paragraphs: In 2005, Silverstein performed on the "Never Sleep Again" tour along with fellow emo band Hawthorne Heights. The next year, 2006, they toured on the "Vans Warped" tour. This is an event in the United States taking place in the summertime. The second album, Discovering the Waterfront contains the singles "Discovering the Waterfront" and "Smile in Your Sleep".

paragraphs: Summertime last year, 2007, Silverstein released their third album, Arrivals and Departures. It includes the new single "Still Dreaming". On MySpace, a social networking site, they posted a new song called "Broken Stars". Singer Shane Told has been trained by a vocal coach named Melissa Cross.

paragraphs: In Spring 2009, Silverstein released their fourth full length album, Shipwreck in the Sand.

paragraphs: In Spring 2011, Silverstein released their fifth album, "Rescue".


title: Discovering the Waterfront

paragraphs: Discovering the Waterfront is the second full-length album by the band Silverstein. The album has three singles; "Smile In Your Sleep", "Discovering The Waterfront", and "My Heroine". All of the singles had music videos.

paragraphs: All songs written by Shane Told and Neil Boshart, except for where noted.


title: Pakistan State Oil (PSO)

paragraphs: Pakistan State Oil (PSO) is the oil market leader in Pakistan. The well established infrastructure, built at par with international standards, representing 82% of country’s storage, provides PSO an edge over its competitors.


title: Mahmud I

paragraphs: Mahmud I () (August 2, 1696 – December 13, 1754) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754. He was the son of Mustafa II (1695–1703). His mother Emetullah Sultan, (born as Evemia) was of Greek ethnic descent. Mahmud I was the older brother of Osman III (1754–57).


title: Mahmud II

paragraphs: Mahmud II (Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) (July 20, 1785 – July 1, 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 1808 until his death. Mahmud was the son of Sultan Abdül Hamid I. His time as sultan is notable mostly for the major legal and military changes he caused.

paragraphs: Mahmud II was born in Istanbul. He was 23 years old wheb he came to the throne. He was a calligraphy artist, composer and poet. He wrote poems under the pseudonym "Adli". He was a brave, strong will, patient and prudent temperament. He replaced the old military organization maintained by the governors of irregular auxiliaries (sekban - I Cedid). When the soldiers shortly after arose, he defeated them with this. The 1808 revolting insurgents killed Alemdar Mustafa Pasha.

paragraphs: In 1812 the peace treaty was signed in Bucharest with the Russians. In 1813, with the help of Muhammed Ali Pasha, he defeated the Wahhabis, who desecrated the holy places and shrines in Mecca and Medina.

paragraphs: In July of 1839 the Sultan Mahmud II died as the ill effects of life experienced by him calamitous events he was afflicted with tuberculosis and died.

paragraphs: His body was buried in the Türbe in Divanyolu.

paragraphs: Mahmud II was devoted to many works of the highest degree in any field.

paragraphs: He opened many new schools, and ordered to build large buildings.

paragraphs: All the great mosques of Istanbul were repaired in his time.

paragraphs: The bridge was built in Unkapani his time.

paragraphs: In Mecca, he had built a madrasa and mend the Great Mosque (Mescid-i Aksa) in the holy city of Jerusalem.

paragraphs: The poet and Sümbülzâde Vehbi Kececizâde Izzet Molla died at this time.

paragraphs: His sons: Abdülmecid I *, * Abdulaziz, 4 Sehzades names Ahmet, Bayezid, veliaht Abdulhamid, Suleyman, 2 Sehzades called Mehmed Murad Nizameddin, Abdullah Osman.

paragraphs: His daughters: Emine Sultan, Sultan Hamide, Hayriye Sultan, Sultan Saw, * Saliha Sultan, Ayse Sultan, Sultan Atike *, 2 Fatma Sultan, Sultan Münire, Mihrimah Sultan *, * Adile Sultan.


title: Mahmud II of Great Seljuk

paragraphs: Mahmud II ("Kabızlık"; died 1131) proclaimed himself the Seljuk sultan of Baghdad in 1118 after the death of Mehmed I (probably Mahmud's father). Mahmud fought against the Seljuk Sultan of Khorasan, Ahmed Sanjar, whom Mehmed I had revolted against in 1105. Mahmud was succeeded by Dawud.


title: Mahmud of Ghazni

paragraphs: Mahmud of Ghazni (, ; (2 November 971 – 30 April 1030) was the ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire from 997 until his death. He turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into the rich capital of an extensive empire which included modern-day Afghanistan, most of Iran, and parts of north-west India including modern-day Pakistan. He was also the first ruler to carry the title Sultan, signifying his break from the power of the Islamic Caliph.

paragraphs: Mahmud of Ghazni was known as Yāmīn al-Dawlah Maḥmūd (in full: Yāmīn al-Dawlah Abd al-Qāṣim Maḥmūd Ibn Sebük Tegīn). He was the eldest son of Emir Subuktigin. When he was young, Mahmud helped his father gain land through military campaigns against Turk nobles. In 997, he overthrew his younger brother, Ismail, who had been nominated for the throne after his father’s death. As soon as he had the throne, he went out to conquer territory.

paragraphs: Between 1000 and 1026, he invaded India at least 17 times. He was the first major Muslim army to invade India. His raid of Punjab was the last invasion where he increased his territory in India. From then on, most of Mahmud’s raids were to gain wealth. Mahmud's last and most famous raid was on Somnath. This is a temple city on the Gujarati coast that was also a pilgrimage site. The temple had many riches: heavy golden chains and thousands of jewels. The battle was violent, and more than 50,000 people died. Mahmud's army won.

paragraphs: With all his riches, Mahmud founded a university, a library, and a museum, a grand mosque and richened his capital. When Mahmud was about to die, he ordered all of his riches to be placed before him. Mahmud died on 30 April 1030. His empire then fell apart.


title: Ghaznavid Empire

paragraphs: The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Turkish Sunni Muslim state, which existed from 975 to 1187. It was centered in Ghazni, a city in present Afghanistan, and ruled much of Persia, Transoxania, and the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.


title: Mahmud Shah (Sultan of Malacca)

paragraphs: Sultan Mahmud Shah (died 1528) ruled Malacca from 1488 to 1528. He was the son of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah.


title: Mahmud Shah Durrani

paragraphs: Mahmud Shah Durrani (1769 - 1829) was the ruler of the Durrani Empire between 1801 and 1803, again between 1809 and 1818. He was the son of Timur Shah Durrani and half-brother of his predecessor, Zaman Shah. On July 25, 1801, Zaman Shah was deposed, and Mahmud Shah ascended to rulership. He then had a chequered career; he was deposed in 1803, restored in 1809, and finally deposed again in 1818. He died in 1829. Between his two stints, the country was ruled by Shoja Shah, another of his half-brothers.


title: Durrani Empire

paragraphs: The Durrani Empire (actually Afghan Empire) was established in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani at Kandahar, Afghanistan. It included the land that is now called Afghanistan, Pakistan, eastern Iran and western India. The Durrani Empire is considered the foundation of the modern state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad Shah Durrani (Ahmad Shah Baba) being the "Father of the nation".

paragraphs: The Durrani dynasty diminished in the early 19th century when Afghanistan was fighting defensive wars with Persia on one side and British India on the other side. The Barakzai dynasty took over control of the kingdom but lost many of Afghanistan's territories by the end of the 19th century. It became to what is now Afghanistan after the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 when the state became officially recognized by all the major countries in the world.


title: Cognitive psychology

paragraphs: Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at basic actions of the mind. These are aspects of the higher brain, such as thought, feeling, problem solving, memory, and language. Cognitive psychologists often look at mental changes that happen after a stimulus (things that can be felt by the five senses) and before a behavioral response (what a person does after sensing something).

paragraphs: The general idea of cognitive psychology was surveyed in several 19th century works:

paragraphs: Cognitive psychology had its beginnings in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who came up with a theory of "stages" or "phases" that describe children's cognitive development.


title: Celâl Bayar

paragraphs: Mahmut Celâl Bayar (16 May 1883 – 22 August 1986) was a Turkish politician, statesman and the third President of Turkey. At the time of his death, he was the longest lived former head of state, living over 103 years (he was surpassed in 2008 by Chau Sen Cocsal Chhum).


title: Perceptual psychology

paragraphs: Perceptual psychology is a subfield of cognitive psychology that is concerned specifically with the pre-conscious innate aspects of the human cognitive system or perception. A pioneer of this field was J. J. Gibson.


title: Mahmoud Abbas

paragraphs: Mahmoud Abbas () (born November 15, 1935), also known by the Kunya Abu Mazen (), was elected President of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) on January 9, 2005. He took office on January 15, 2005.

paragraphs: Abbas is a leading politician in Fatah. He served as the first Prime Minister of the Palestinian Authority from March to October 2003. He resigned because of a lack of support from Israel and the United States as well as "internal incitement" against his government. Before becoming Prime Minister, Abbas led the Negotiations Affairs Department of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). He has served as Chairman of the PLO Executive Committee since November 11, 2004, after Yasser Arafat's death. Abbas is said to the an example of moderation in Palestine by Israel and the west.


title: Abid Hamid Mahmud

paragraphs: Abid Al-Hamid Mahmud al-Tikriti (born c. 1957; died June 7, 2012) was an Iraqi lieutenant general under Saddam Hussein's deposed regime, and he was Saddam's bodyguard. He was executed on June 7, 2012.


title: Social psychology

paragraphs: Social psychology is the study in psychology of how people and groups interact. Researchers in this field are often either psychologists or sociologists. All social psychologists use both the individual and the group as their unit of analysis.

paragraphs: Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology. They also favor separate academic journals and professional groups. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II. Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines.


title: Mahmoud an-Nukrashi Pasha

paragraphs: Mahmoud Fahmi an-Nukrashi Pasha (1888 - 1948) (Arabic: محمود فهمي النقراشي باشا) was an Egyptian political figure. He was the Prime Minister of Egypt from 1945 to 1946 and again from 1946 to 1948. He was assassinated by the Muslim Brotherhood while he was Prime Minister.


title: Neuropsychology

paragraphs: Neuropsychology is the scientific study that studies the function and structure of the brain related to more common psychological processes and overt behaviors. The term has been applied to lesion studies in humans and animals. It has also been applied to efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human patients).


title: Abnormal psychology

paragraphs: Abnormal psychology is a part of psychology. People who study abnormal psychology are psychologists. They are scientists that investigate the mind using the scientific method. Different cultures tend to have different ideas of how strange (abnormal) any behaviour is considered. This tends to change over time within cultures, so people that live in a country at one time in history might consider abnormal what people who live in the same country consider normal years before or years later.

paragraphs: Abnormal psychology is often used to understand or to treat people with mental disorders to make life better for them. This is because abnormal behaviour is often defined as when someone is not able to change how they behave to fit different settings. This is often also used to define some mental disorders. When someone cannot change their behaviour to fit the people and situations around them when they need to, it can cause suffering, and the person may be uncomfortable when around people. Their behaviour can be unreasonable and hard to understand. Their behaviour can even be dangerous.

paragraphs: Not everyone with a mental disorder is unable to adjust to their surroundings. People who can change to fit their the environment around them more easily than most people can also have behaviour that is considered abnormal and might also have an easier life with the help of a psychologist.

paragraphs: A supernatural belief is a belief in a force that is beyond scientific understanding. There are a lot of cultures that believe in supernatural events. These cultures include religious cultures, as well as the Ancient Chinese, Ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, and Ancient Greeks. These cultures have writings that say abnormal behaviour in the form of supernatural events created demons or Gods that would take over a person and act through those people. This was called possession. In the Roman Catholic Church, exorcisms were done to make these demons leave the body of the individuals they possessed. Exorcism involved prayer, noises and potions. People who had abnormal behaviour were often told they were possessed.

paragraphs: In some cultures, trepanation was often used. This was when a hole was made in someone's head to release the "bad spirit".

paragraphs: "Lunatic asylums" were buildings that kept patients that had abnormal behaviour. They became popular in Europe with the Madhouse Act of 1774, although they did exist before the Act. Asylums were meant to look after people who could not take care of themselves. But they were known for being cruel and abusive to their patients. The buildings were often dirty and not looked after very well.

paragraphs: During the late 1700s, William Tuke made a religious retreat for patients. This was a turn away from the horrors of mental asylums. Also, in the late 1700s, Philippe Pinel started to encourage better treatment of the mentally insane.

paragraphs: Today the 18th-century lunatic asylum does not exist. Most of the asylums were closed in the late 1900s because of the invention of antipsychotic medicines. Today, there are psychiatric hospitals for people with mental illness. This includes Broadmoor Hospital, which houses some of Britain's the most dangerous criminals with mental illnesses.

paragraphs: In the 1800s, Dorothea Dix fought against the bad treatment of patients in mental asylums. She started a "mental hygiene" group to encourage politicians to change the treatment of mental patients in the United States. When people became aware of the wrongdoing in mental asylums, money was raised to improve the treatment of patients and the asylums. Dix is thought to have helped to create 32 mental hospitals. By 1940 there were more than 400,000 patients living in mental asylums.

paragraphs: Most treatments were still cruel to patients and were not effective. The asylums were quickly becoming overcrowded. Mary Jane Ward wrote a book in 1946 called "The Snake Pit" that raised awareness of the inhumane treatment of mental patients.

paragraphs: The National Institute of Mental Health was created the same year. The organisation provided training and support for mental patients and workers that cared for them. The Hill-Burton Act was passed to give money to the mental health hospitals.

paragraphs: Later, the Community Health Services Act of 1963 was passed. This law which created outpatient buildings for patients to live at home rather than in hospitals. Rehabilitation and community care centers were also built under this act.

paragraphs: During the late 1900s, mental asylums were less accepted. The cruel treatment of patients and the overcrowding and ways of living were seen as not needed. Less money was being given to asylums. So many closed all around the world. The closing down of mental hospitals became known as deinstitutionalization. The movement from asylum to community was meant to help patients' development and recovery. The lack of good support programs meant that patients felt abandoned and found it hard to fit into normal life. This led to many becoming homeless.

paragraphs: In the past there were three ways to explain abnormal behaviour. These were supernatural, biological, and psychological explanations. Western medicine no longer uses supernatural explanations. Instead we use biological and psychological explanations. Biological explanations use genetics and neuroscience to explain abnormal behaviours. The biological explanation is based on how the brain works and how genes change the way it works. Psychological explanations use how the mind works to explain abnormal behaviours.

paragraphs: Early cultures believed that abnormal behaviour was from demons, spirits and astrology. Trepanation was when a hole was drilled in a person's head. This was done to let the spirits or demons out of the person's head.

paragraphs: Exorcism was practiced mainly by the Catholic Church. Exorcism was believed to ward the spirits out of the person that they possessed.

paragraphs: These practices were normal during the Middle Ages. This was when abnormal behaviour was thought to be a religious issue rather than a psychological one. Some abnormal behaviour was thought to be witchcraft. People accused of witchcraft were almost always punished for the acts. In many cases, the punishment was to be murdered.

paragraphs: The Biological approach to explaining abnormal behaviour assumes that the behaviour can be explained by physical factors. Hippocrates was a man who lived during the 5th century and is thought by many to be the father of modern medicine. He did not accept that evil spirits or astronomy were the causes of psychological disorders. Hippocrates believed that there were natural causes for the disorders and appropriate treatments could be found. He focused on the "four humors" of the brain. He believed that the four humours must be balanced for healthy mental states and when one humour was stronger, various disorders would appear. To balance the humors, Hippocrates would tell patients to change their lifestyles. There are now new ideas when talking about the biological explanations of psychological disorders. But, Hippocrates' focus on mental processes and clinical practice was a revolutionary concept.

paragraphs: Another Greek physician called Galen also took a scientific approach to the causes of psychological disorders. He divided them into physical and mental categories. Among Galen's causes were head injuries, alcohol abuse, and life experiences. During the 18th century, Galen's concepts influenced the medical industry. Galen's focus was on the biological causes for mental disorders.

paragraphs: Psychological explanations for abnormal behavior sometimes take a behavioral approach in which the positive behaviors are reinforced and negative ones are not. This approach is more focused on changing the actual behavior of a person than the true cause of it.

paragraphs: Sigmund Freud was one of the most popular psychological theorists of the 20th century. The method he used to study and treat patients was known as psychoanalysis. Methods of hypnosis by were used by Freud, but also by Franz Mesmer and physicians in the Nancy School. However, Freud attempted to have his patients confess their deepest, truest emotions, which was referred to as a catharsis. He would have his patients speak freely about themselves, in free association. Also he would conduct dream analysis where patients would record and discuss their dreams. Freud's work led to other great psychoanalytic theorists such as Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Harry Stack Sullivan. Wilhelm Wundt and William James were credited for opening up the first experimental psychology laboratories. This led to many studies and psychological methods, such as classical conditioning led by Ivan Pavlov and John B. Skinner, while Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner were the leaders of the study of operant conditioning.

paragraphs: The North American reference book used by psychiatrists and psychologists to diagnose and treat psychological disorders is known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). It is produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The most recent version was released in May of 2013 and is known as the DSM-5. The DSM is relied upon by clinicians, health insurance companies, medicine companies, and the legal system as a reference for understanding and identifying mental disorders. The DSM divides mental disorders into groups and provides descriptive signs and symptoms that define each disorder. In addition, it lists statistics for each disorder ranging from its frequency in the general population to the most effective form of treatment.

paragraphs: Before diagnosing an individual with a "specific" mental disorder, a professional must first determine whether that individual does in fact suffer from a mental disorder. The DSM defines a mental disorder as a condition that:

paragraphs: When using the DSM, a complete psychiatric diagnosis is split up into five dimensions, called "axes", that relate to different characteristics of disability or disorder:

paragraphs: The separate axes of the DSM are often linked together in the development of mental disorders.

paragraphs: The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) was created by the World Health Organization (WHO) and is the universal diagnostic system for mental disorders. The ICD is approved by health officials from 193 WHO member countries, and is available for free on the internet. Its purpose is to help countries reduce the problems associated with mental disorders. The coding system used in the DSM is designed to be compatible with the system used in the ICD; however, some codes may not match because the two publications get revised at different times. The ICD-10 was made public in 1994; its most recent update occurred in 2010. Chapter 5 of the ICD-10 covers over 300 mental and behavioral disorders which are divided into the following categories:

paragraphs: "The Online ICD-10 can be found in its entirety here"

paragraphs: Psychoanalysis is a form of therapy based on psychoanalytic theory. This theory states that human behavior is controlled by unconscious forces such as instinct and that there is no such thing as free will. Many ideas found in the Psychoanalytic theory can be traced back to the famous psychologist Sigmund Freud. Freud believed mental disorders are a result of repressed memories and emotions from childhood; psychoanalysis is designed to search for these hidden memories and emotions and bring them to the patient's attention. Techniques such as hypnosis are used to tap into the unconscious mind with the hopes that the source of the disturbance is found. Freud also believed dreams had hidden meanings, and often asked patients to record their dreams for analysis. Because of the lack of scientific evidence supporting most Freudian ideas, psychoanalysis is rarely used by clinical psychologists and has been replaced by more effective forms of therapy.

paragraphs: Behavior therapy is based on the theory of behaviorism, which states that all human behavior is a result of a stimulus and reinforcement. Famous behaviorists include James Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Joseph Wolpe. The goal of this therapy is to increase one's positive or socially reinforcing behavior. Behavior therapy can be broken down into three areas:

paragraphs: Humanistic therapy is a method taken from Carl Rogers, which aims to focus on a client as a human rather than the problem that they have. A therapist can adjust the environment and mood of a session in a way that mimics normal conversation. This often helps the patient realize the issues they have, and share them with the therapist more successfully than in a traditional counseling session. Humanistic therapy creates an effective means of getting to the source of a problem and treating it properly.

paragraphs: Roger's own term was "client-centered therapy", which has the idea that the therapist is helping the client to become a genuine psychological adult.


title: John B. Watson

paragraphs: John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878–September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist. He established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior. This school was extremely influential in the middle of the 20th century, when B.F. Skinner developed it further.

paragraphs: Watson was forced to resign his chair at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, because his affair with a graduate student became a public scandal. After this, Watson worked for many years for J. Walter Thompson, a leading American advertising agency. He is credited with popularizing the "coffee break" during an ad campaign for Maxwell House coffee.

paragraphs: Watson founded behaviorism in the spring of 1913 with his paper "Psychology as the behaviorist views it". In this article, Watson outlined the major features of his new philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism". The first paragraph of the article concisely described his position:

paragraphs: Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.

paragraphs: In 1913, Watson viewed Ivan Pavlov's conditioned reflex as primarily a physiological mechanism controlling glandular secretions. He had already rejected Edward Thorndike's "Law of Effect" (a precursor to B.F. Skinner's principle of reinforcement) because of what Watson believed were 'unnecessary subjective elements'. The article is also notable for its strong defense of the objective scientific status of applied psychology, which at the time was considered to be much inferior to the established experimental psychology.

paragraphs: With his behaviorism, Watson put the emphasis on external behavior of people and their reactions on given situations, rather than the internal, mental state of those people. In his opinion, the analysis of behaviors and reactions was the only objective method to get insight in the human actions. This outlook was thought to be extreme or radical behaviorism.

paragraphs: Watson wrote the book "Psychological care of infant and child" in 1928, with help from his mistress, turned wife, Rosalie Rayner. Rosalie later entitled a self-penned article "I am a mother of behaviorist sons". In the book, Watson explained that behaviorists were starting to believe psychological care and analysis was required for infants and children.

paragraphs: His slogan was "not more babies but better brought up babies". Watson argued for the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, claiming that the world would benefit from extinguishing pregnancies for twenty years while enough data was gathered to ensure an efficient child-rearing process. Watsons’ description of a "happy child" was rather detached. It included ideas such as that the child can occupy himself through his problem-solving abilities, should only cry when in physical pain, and that the child stray from asking questions. Behavior analysis of child development as a field may have begun with the writings of Watson.

paragraphs: Watson carried out controversial science experiments known as the "Little Albert experiments"; in these experiments, Watson studied fear in infants.

paragraphs: Watson's views and life have been the subject of a number of works.


title: Indian English

paragraphs: Indian English or South Asian English is several dialects or varieties of English. It is spoken mainly in India, and by first-generation members of the Indian diaspora.

paragraphs: The dialect evolved during and after the British colonial rule of India. English is the co-official language of India, with about 90 million speakers, but with fewer than quarter of a million calling it a first language.

paragraphs: In 19th century India, Britain first faced the need to teach English to a body of people who were important to Britain.

paragraphs: There were a number of schools which taught and used English in India. They were mostly run by missionaries. Many taught European and Eurasian children and orphans. The products of these schools provided the first generation of teachers.


title: Ivan Pavlov

paragraphs: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (14 September 1849 – 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician.

paragraphs: He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research about the digestive system. Pavlov is widely known for first describing classical conditioning.

paragraphs: The son of a priest, and a theology student, Pavlov turned to science after being influenced by progressive ideas. He took natural sciences at the University of St Petersburg, and got a doctorate in 1878.

paragraphs: In the 1890s, Pavlov was investigating the gastric function of dogs by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing "The work of the digestive glands" in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.

paragraphs: The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" he developed with his assistant Ivan Tolochinov in 1901.

paragraphs: As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology, and the general approach to psychology called behaviourism.

paragraphs: The British philosopher Bertrand Russell was an enthusiastic advocate of the importance of Pavlov's work for philosophy of mind.

paragraphs: Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking. Pavlovian conditioning was a major theme in Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, "Brave New World", and also to a large degree in Thomas Pynchon's "Gravity's Rainbow".

paragraphs: It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signalled the food by ringing a bell. However, his writings also record the use of many stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles, metronomes, tuning forks, and a range of visual stimuli. Catania did not believe Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his famous experiments. Littman tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov’s contemporaries Vladimir Bekhterev and John B. Watson, until Thomas found several references that clearly said Pavlov did, indeed, use a bell.

paragraphs: It is less widely known that Pavlov's experiments on the conditional reflex included children, some of whom apparently underwent surgical procedures, similar to the dogs, for the collection of saliva.


title: Hamilton College

paragraphs: Hamilton College is a private, independent, liberal arts college in Clinton, New York. In 2007, U.S. News & World Report ranked Hamilton the 17th best liberal arts college in the United States.

paragraphs: The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. The school was founded in 1793, chartered as Hamilton College in 1812, and has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with Kirkland College.

paragraphs: Starting in 1996 "the Sacerdote Great Names Series" has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included concerts by B. B. King and Aretha Franklin.

paragraphs: To date the speakers that have been part of this series are:


title: Jon Stewart

paragraphs: Jon Stewart (born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz; November 28, 1962), is an American comedian, actor, writer, and producer. He is best known as the host of Comedy Central's "The Daily Show" and for his political satire. Stewart started as a stand-up comedian, but later branched out to television, hosting "Short Attention Span Theater" for Comedy Central. He went on to host his own show on MTV, called "The Jon Stewart Show" and then hosted another show on MTV called You Wrote It, You Watch It.” Stewart is Jewish.

paragraphs: In 2014, Stewart directed his first movie, a drama about Iran called “Rosewater.”


title: Quagga

paragraphs: The Quagga ("Equus quagga quagga"), also Cape Quagga, is a recently extinct zebra.

paragraphs: It was one of the six subspecies of plains zebra. It was a yellowish-brown zebra with stripes only on its head, neck and forebody, and looks similar to an Okapi. The Quagga was native to dry grassy plains in the south of the African continent. It was found as far north as the Orange River. It is believed to have separated from other plains zebras between 120,000 and 290,000 years ago. The name "Quagga" comes from the noise that they made. (kwa-ka-ka) (qua-ga-ga).

paragraphs: The Quagga was hunted for food, for their skin and also because farmers did not want it to eat the grass they needed for their sheep and goats. The last wild Quaggas died during a drought in 1878. The last captive Quagga died in the Amsterdam Zoo on 12 August 1883. Her body is now in a museum. There are 23 Quagga specimens in museums, seven skeletons, and some skulls and other bones.

paragraphs: A foundation in Africa is trying to bring Quaggas back to life by taking zebras that have very light stripes and breeding them. They began in 1987 and the first Quagga foal was born in 2005.


title: Przewalski's horse

paragraphs: Przewalski's horse ("Equus przewalskii" or "E. ferus przewalskii"), the Mongolian wild horse, is a close relative of the domestic horse. The two are the only equids that can cross-breed and produce fertile offspring. Przewalski's horse is a rare and endangered subspecies of the wild horse, "Equus ferus". It is native to the steppes of central Asia, especially Mongolia.

paragraphs: At one time extinct in the wild, it has been reintroduced to its native habitat in Mongolia from stock in zoos. It is now in several nature reserves and national parks. As of 2002, the world population of these horses was about 1,000.

paragraphs: Most "wild" horses today, such as the American mustang or the Australian brumby, are feral horses descended from domesticated animals which escaped and adapted to life in the wild. In contrast, Przewalski's horse has never been successfully domesticated, and remains a truly wild animal today.

paragraphs: Przewalski's horse is one of three known subspecies of "Equus ferus", the others being the domesticated horse, "Equus ferus caballus" and the extinct tarpan, "Equus ferus ferus". Przewalski's horse is the only remaining truly wild "horse" in the world. There are still a number of other wild equines, including three species of zebra and various subspecies of the African wild ass, onager (including the Mongolian wild ass) and kiang.

paragraphs: Although Przewalski's horse can hybridize with domestic horses to produce fertile offspring, it has an extra pair of chromosomes.

paragraphs: According to ISIS, about 480 Przewalski's were reported in captivity.


title: Nation state

paragraphs: The nation state is a certain form of state that has a territory where mainly one nation is located. The state is a political entity (the government, etc.); the nation is a cultural and/or ethnic entity. The term "nation state" means that the two are on the same territory, and this distinguishes the nation state from the other types of state, which existed before.

paragraphs: Clear examples of nation states include:

paragraphs: In Europe, in the eighteenth century, the classic non-national states were empires of many ethnicities, (the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the French Empire, the British Empire).


title: Joseph McCarthy

paragraphs: Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician. He was a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period of intense anti-communist suspicion inspired by the tensions of the Cold War.

paragraphs: He made claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government and elsewhere. The term "McCarthyism," coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, was soon applied to similar anti-communist pursuits.

paragraphs: During World War II he was a captain in the United States Marine Corps.

paragraphs: McCarthy died of hepatitis at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center.


title: Poet laureate

paragraphs: A poet laureate is a poet officially appointed by the government of a country. He or she is responsible for writing poems for special occasions in that country, for example a coronation or military victory.

paragraphs: The first official Poet Laureate was Ben Jonson in 1619. There are also Poets Laureate in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand.

paragraphs: The Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom is Carol Ann Duffy. She was appointed Poet Laureate on 1 May 2009 to take the place of Andrew Motion. She is the first British woman Poet Laureate.