title: Algae

paragraphs: Algae (one alga, but several algae) are a type of plant-like living things that can make food from sunlight by photosynthesis. The study of algae is called phycology or algology.

paragraphs: The term covers a range of photosynthetic organisms, and many are not closely related. They are a polyphyletic group.

paragraphs: The term lumps together many different kinds of organisms. They have in common only that they are autotrophic: they use natural sources of energy and simple inorganic materials to build their forms. As non-vascular plants they do not have the kind of cell and tissue structure of land plants. They are a convenient but very loose term. Only in recent years has it become clear how different the many kinds of algae are.

paragraphs: Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms. Some have one cell and others have many cells. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds. They are like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct organs found in land plants. For that reason they are "not" classified as plants.

paragraphs: Though the prokaryotic "cyanobacteria" (formerly referred to as "blue-green algae") were included as "algae" in older textbooks, it is not now. The term "algae" is now used for eukaryotic organisms. All true algae have a nucleus within a membrane and chloroplasts inside one or more membranes. However, algae are definitely "not" a monophyletic group, as they do not all descend from a common algal ancestor. Modern taxonomists propose splitting them up into monophyletic groups, but not everyone agrees how to do this.

paragraphs: Algae do not have the same structures that land plants do, such as leaves, roots, and other organs. Nearly all algae have parts that do photosynthesis the same way as cyanobacteria. They make oxygen, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as "purple" and "green" bacteria. Some unicellular species use only external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic parts.

paragraphs: Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.

paragraphs: Below are some important kinds of algae. The list is not complete.

paragraphs: Algae are usually found in damp places or water, and are common on land and water. However, algae on land are usually inconspicuous and are far more common in moist, tropical regions than dry ones. Algae do not have vascular tissues and other adaptations to live on land, but they can endure dryness and other conditions in symbiosis with a fungus as lichen.

paragraphs: The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column are called phytoplankton. They provide the food base for most marine food chains. Kelp grows mostly in shallow marine waters. Some are used as human food or harvested for agar or fertilizer. Kelp can grow in large stands called kelp forests. These forests prevent some of the damage from waves. Many different species live in them, including sea urchins, sea otters, and abalone.

paragraphs: Some algae may harm other species. Some algae may reproduce a lot, and make an algal bloom. These algae may make protective toxins which kill fish in the water. Dinoflagellates make a compound that turns the flesh of fish into slime. Then the algae eats this nutritious liquid.

paragraphs: Algae have evolved a number of symbiotic partnerships with other organisms. The most famous is the plant-like lichen, which are each formed by a fungus with an alga. It is a highly successful life-form, and twenty thousand 'species' are known. In all cases the lichen are quite different in appearance and life-style from either constituent; it is possibly the most complete symbiosis known. Both constituents gain from their access to niches with low nutrient value, which is where lichen are found.

paragraphs: Less well known are the algal relationships with animals. Reef-building corals are basically social Cnidarian polyps. Corals are dependent on light, because the algae are important partners, and they require light. Corals have evolved structures, often tree-like, which offer the algae maximum access to light. The coral weakens the algal cell walls, and digests about 80% of the food synthesised by the algae. The corals' waste-products provide nutrients for the algae so, as with lichen, both partners gain from the association. The algae are golden-brown flagellate algae, often of the genus "Symbiodinium". A curious feature of the partnership is that the coral may eject the algae in hard times, and regain them later. The ejection of the algal partner is called "bleaching", because the coral loses its colour.

paragraphs: Other types of Cnideria, such as sea anemones and jellyfish, also contain algae. Jellyfish with algae behave so that their partners get the best light during the day, and descend to depths at night, where the water is rich in nitrates and brown with decay. Sea slugs and clams are also well known for harbouring algae. Both groups are molluscs. The sea slugs graze on coral, and are the same colour as the coral they graze. They are able to separate the algae from the polyp tissues they digest. The algal cells are moved to its tentacles, where they continue to live. The otherwise defenceless slug gains both camouflage and nutrition. The giant clam keeps algae in its mantle, which is revealed when the clam is open. The coloured mantle has places where the skin is transparent, and acts like a lens to concentrate light on the algae beneath. When the algae get too numerous, the clam digests them.

paragraphs: Various other marine invertebrate groups have members which symbiose with algae. Flatworms (Platyhelminths) and Polychaete worms (Annelids) are two such groups.


title: Alga (Korday district)

paragraphs: Alga (; ) is a hamlet in the Korday District of Kazakhstan. It is one of several communities in Kazakhstan with this name. The A-2 highway from Bishkek to Almaty runs through the town. A significant architectural feature is its mosque.


title: Kelp forest

paragraphs: Kelp forests are a type of marine ecosystem that is present around colonies of kelp; they contain rich biodiversity. Kelp can stretch 2-30 meters or more (up to 60 m in "Macrocystis pyrifera") from their anchors on the sea floor to the surface. It provides a vertical infrastructure that is home to many fish and invertebrate species. Kelp forests also often attract mammalian visitors, including whales, sea lions, sea otters, and SCUBA-diving humans.

paragraphs: Kelp forests draw their name from an analogy to forests on land.

paragraphs: In some places, sea urchins eat so many kelp plants that the kelp forest becomes an urchin barren.


title: Symbiosis

paragraphs: Symbiosis (pl. symbioses) means living together. It describes close and long-term relationships between different species. The term was

paragraphs: used by Anton de Bary in 1879, as "the living together of unlike organisms".

paragraphs: A symbiont is an organism living in a relationship with another species in which one or both get benefits. When one species lives inside another species, or a microscopic symbiont lives inside the cells of a host, it is called an endosymbiont.

paragraphs: The relevance of symbiosis is its frequency and its evolutionary significance. There appear to be no higher plants or animals without symbionts. Those symbionts are of great importance to the larger organisms, who in most cases would be unable to live as they do without their symbionts. Mycorrhiza in higher plants, and gut flora in insects and vertebrates are examples. Humans are no exception.

paragraphs: Furthermore, most of these associations are between organisms not just from different species, but from different kingdoms. And lastly, the cells of all eukaryotes contain organelles which are descendants of symbiotic relationships which began at least a billion years ago. Mitochondria and plastids are examples. The conclusion must be that symbiosis has been highly significant in the evolution of life.

paragraphs: The definition of symbiosis has been controversial. Some believe symbiosis should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others believe it should apply to all kinds of lon-term biological interactions.

paragraphs: After 130 years of debate, current biology and ecology textbooks now use the latter "de Bary" definition or an even broader definition (where symbiosis means all species interactions). The restrictive definition (where symbiosis means mutualism only) is no longer used.

paragraphs: The widest definition includes parasitism (in which one organism is helped and the other organism is hurt), mutualism (in which both organisms are helped), commensalism (in which one organism is helped and the other is not affected), and competition (in which both organisms are hurt).

paragraphs: Symbiosis does not always benefit both partners. This is what may happen:

paragraphs: This kind of symbiosis is called endosymbiosis. Examples are:

paragraphs: Almost for certain, this happened to form the eukaryote cell. That's the type of cell all animals and plants are made of. The organelles inside the cell, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, contain some DNA. This DNA is the remnant of a once separate bacterium. The theory is that the eukaryote cell evolved by the fusion of several bacteria or archaea organisms.


title: Al Ain

paragraphs: Al Ain (Arabic: العين) is a city in the United Arab Emirates. The city name literally means "the spring" or "the eye" in Arabic. This name come from the water sources in the area. The city is in the emirate of Abu Dhabi, right next to the border with Oman. It is often called the 'Garden City of the Persian Gulf' because of the many parks, tree-lined avenues and decorative roundabouts within the city. Al Ain, Abu Dhabi and Dubai form a kind of geographic triangle in the center of the country. Each city is around 150 kilometers from the other two.

paragraphs: Al Ain is the fourth largest metropolitan area by population in the Emirates, with a population of 348,000 (2003 census estimate). There are more Emirati nationals in Al Ain than other places in the country, but most who live there are people who left other countries, particularly from the Indian sub-continent. There are fewer Western people than in the larger centers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. This gives Al Ain a more 'Arabic' look and feel, compared to the larger cities of the Emirates.

paragraphs: The area has been lived in for more than 4000 years, and Al Ain is central to the cultural heritage of the country. There are many underground water springs in the area. This explains why people wanted to live there. Traces of its past remain, including camel racing and breeding. The ancient "falaj" system of irrigation is still in use in some areas. The system brings underground water to people by a network of tunnels that come out into open channels. The flow of water in the channels can be controlled.

paragraphs: Al Ain is becoming a place that tourists visit, with attractions such as Jebel Hafeet, a 1340 metre high mountain that dominates the surrounding area. Many tourists like to visit the mineral springs at the base and drive to the top of this mountain for sunset. Al Ain regularly records the highest summer temperatures in the country, but the dry desert air makes it a welcome escape from the coastal humidity of the larger cities. Other attractions include the Al Ain Oasis in the city centre, and other oases around the area, cool places to escape the summer heat, a zoo, amusement park named "Fun City", many well kept parks, popular with families in the summer evenings, a heritage village, as well as malls and other modern sites. Important buildings include United Arab Emirates University, Higher Colleges of Technology, well-equipped medical facilities, including the teaching hospital at Tawam, military training areas and Al Ain International Airport.

paragraphs: The city is home to the successful association football (soccer) club, Al Ain FC.


title: Jutland

paragraphs: Jutland (Danish: "Jylland"; German: "Jütland") is a peninsula in northern Europe. It forms the mainland part of Denmark and a northern part of Germany. It separates the North Sea from the Baltic Sea. Its terrain is relatively flat, with low hills and peat bogs. It has an area of 29,775 km² (11,496 square miles), and a population of 2,491,852 (2004).

paragraphs: The northern two thirds of the peninsula are occupied by the westernmost portion of the Kingdom of Denmark. There is no separate name for the Danish portion of the peninsula, so it is simply called the same name.

paragraphs: The northernmost part of Jutland became an island following a flood in 1825; the Limfjord now separates it from the mainland. This island is called "Vendsyssel-Thy or Nørrejyske Ø" ("North Jutlandic Island") and is still commonly reckoned as part of the peninsula; it is also partly coterminous with the county and future region called North Jutland.

paragraphs: The southern third is made up of the German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, with the duchies of Schleswig (also Sønderjylland/Southern Jutland) and Holstein. Both duchies have passed back and forth between the Danes and various German rulers. In the last border movement, Denmark regained North Schleswig ("Nordslesvig" in Danish) by plebiscite in 1920. Southern Schleswig remained German.

paragraphs: The River Elbe forms the southern border of Jutland with the city of Hamburg on its shore. The Danish Wadden Sea Islands and the North Frisian Islands stretch along the southwest coast of Jutland in the German Bight.

paragraphs: There are two bridges which link the central part ofJutland to the island of Funen to the east. They are the Little Belt Bridge and the New Little Belt Bridge. The roads which use these bridges are part of the European road network.

paragraphs: The largest cities on the Jutland Peninsula are:


title: Plebiscite

paragraphs: A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. Others define it as the opposite. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.

paragraphs: It usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum/plebiscite is used. In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling.

paragraphs: In the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions. The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception. It "was" legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate. It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.

paragraphs: An example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a €130 billion bailout package from the European Union. The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a "no" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone. However, the vote was cancelled.

paragraphs: Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. The vote took place in some countries. France and The Netherlands had a "referendum" on the subject. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made.

paragraphs: The separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote. The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.

paragraphs: Many political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people. However:


title: Dubai

paragraphs: The city of Dubai is the largest and most populated city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital city of the emirate of Dubai, UAE. The city is sometimes called "Dubai City" to prevent it from being mixed up with the emirate.

paragraphs: There are records of the town of Dubai from 1799. The city was a dependent of Abu Dhabi until 1833. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen (chiefly Indians), who settled in the town. Until the 1930s, the town was known for its pearls.

paragraphs: Dubai has a hot desert climate. Summers are extremely hot, windy, and humid. The highest recorded temperature in the UAE is 52.1 °C (126 °F), recorded in July 2002.

paragraphs: According to the UN, about 14 percent of the world population will face water scarcity by the year 2025. This shortage of water is expected to be worse in arid countries like the UAE. The UAE cloud seeding initiative is part of the government’s attempt to deal with the existing and future water needs of the country’s growing population.


title: Exclave

paragraphs: An exclave is strip of land that belongs to an entity (like a country or a region) but that is not connected to it by land (islands are not counted). The strip of land is surrounded by other political entities. A good example is Kaliningrad Oblast (the region around the Russian city Kaliningrad). It belongs to the Russian Federation, but is separated from the rest of that country by territory belonging to Lithuania and Poland.

paragraphs: Although both meanings are close, an exclave might not be an enclave. An enclave is completely surrounded by one other country. For example, Kaliningrad is surrounded not by one state, but by two: Lithuania and Poland. It also borders the Baltic Sea. It is not an enclave. On the other hand, the Spanish exclave of Llivia is an enclave in France.

paragraphs: Many exclaves today have some of idea of becoming independent, especially if the exclave is far away from the mainland.

paragraphs: A much more obscure use means, in medical discussion, a detached part of an organ, as of the pancreas, thyroid, or other gland.

paragraphs: The lists below are of various types of exclaves that are not enclaves.

paragraphs: Exclaves of administrative divisions below the national level.

paragraphs: Some territories are not geographically detached from their motherland. Nevertheless, they are more easily reached by entering a foreign country. Very often, this is because of their location in a hilly area. It may also be because the only road enters that foreign place before coming back to the mother country. These territories may be called "practical exclaves," "pene-exclaves" or "quasi-exclaves" and can be found along many borders, particularly those that are not heavily defended. They will only be attached to the motherland via an extremely small or thin slice of land.

paragraphs: later became part of Poland and Russia (see Kaliningrad above).


title: Enclave

paragraphs: In general use, an enclave can be any special area of a bigger area of land, such as a part of a city that has different taxes than the rest of the city.

paragraphs: In political geography, an enclave is a piece of land which has a different country totally around it. If another country has sovereignty over it, it is also called an "exclave" of that other country. It is usually landlocked, meaning it is completely encased by the surrounding country

paragraphs: Exclaves can also exist within a country. This is when some administrative regions have "holes" (of other such regions) in them.

paragraphs: The word "enclave" is a relatively new word in the language of diplomacy: Diplomats are used to speaking French. The word comes from late Latin "inclavatus", which can be translated as "shut in, locked up" (with a key, from Latin "clavis", key). The word got in the English language in the year 1868. "exclave" (with a similar meaning) followed 3 decades later.

paragraphs: Enclaves may be created for a variety of historical, political or geographical reasons. Some areas have been left as enclaves simply because a river changed its course.

paragraphs: Since living in an enclave can be very inconvenient and many agreements have to be found by both countries over mail addresses, power supply or passage rights, enclaves tend to be eliminated and many cases that existed before have now been removed. Sometimes it is the case, that enclaves are traded for one another.

paragraphs: In English Church history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also Royal Peculiar).

paragraphs: Some enclaves are countries that are not part of any other country, and therefore not exclaves. Three such countries exist:


title: Panhandle

paragraphs: A panhandle is a word used in geography. What people mean when they talk about panhandles is a narrow strip of land, that is surrounded on all sides except one, by one or more countries or regions. The strip of land is connected to the country or region it belongs to on one side only. This looks like the handle of a frying pan.


title: New town

paragraphs: A new town, planned community, or planned city is a kind of city that is designed by architects and engineers before it is built. Most cities and towns just develop over the years, without a clear plan. Urban planning is only used for later expansion.

paragraphs: Planned communities are designed with separate districts of the city for parks, stores, homes, and offices. Many planned communities have a transportation system for commuters.


title: Park

paragraphs: A park is an open place in a city or town for nature. There are often trees, benches, statues, and ponds in a park. Some parks built in big cities are very large. These can have fountains or picnic areas.

paragraphs: A park is an open area,often found with trees,benches,statues,etc.

paragraphs: There is also lots of nature around, such as flowers, animals, trees, and much more.

paragraphs: It is mostly used for recreational activities such as walking, exercising, cycling, playing,etc.

paragraphs: A play park can even have swings,slides and some adventurous activities.

paragraphs: Sometimes, countries or regions set up "national parks". These are usually large areas of land. Those areas are made to protect the habitats of animals. Very often, a special permit is necessary to enter. Building things in the park is usually forbidden, or needs a special permit.

paragraphs: An example of a national park is Yellowstone National Park.


title: Pond

paragraphs: A pond is a body of water smaller than a lake. Ponds support wide range of wildlife: ducks, turtles, swans, small fish, and frogs can live in a pond. Usually, in most ponds sunlight can reach to bottom. In some cases ponds do not last all year round. This type of pond is called a vernal pond, or ephemeral, seasonal, or temporary wetlands. These types of ponds do not have any fish. Some ponds are now getting polluted because of humans.


title: Swan

paragraphs: A swan ("Cygnini") is a kind of water bird, from the genera "Cygnus" and "Coscoroba". They are in the subfamily Anserinae, in the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and ducks.

paragraphs: Many swans live in colder places, such as northern Europe, Asia and North America. They live on water. They swim on top of the water and eat plants off the bottom of ponds, lakes, or oceans. They also eat insects and other small animals. A baby swan is called a cygnet.

paragraphs: Swans are tough, strong birds who will stand no nonsense from dogs or cats. They may open their wings as a warning, but from then on a person is advised to keep clear. Swans are highly protective of their nests. They will attack anything they see as a threat to their chicks, including humans.

paragraphs: The swans are some of the largest flying birds. They are large in size and have large feet and long necks. The males are usually bigger and heavier than females. The mute swan, trumpeter swan, and whooper swan are the largest swans. They can be over 1.5m (60 inches) long. They can weigh over 15kg (33 pounds). Their wingspans (this means the length of both wings) can be almost 3m (10 ft).

paragraphs: Most swans are white. They are found in the Northern Hemisphere. This means they are found in Europe, Asia and North America. However, the black swan is black with a red beak. It lives in Australia. The black necked swan has white flight feathers, and black outer feathers. It lives in South America. They also have a small area of skin between the eyes and beak that has no feathers. This area can be different colors, such as yellow (for example, on a Bewick's swan) or orange (for example, on a mute swan).

paragraphs: Wild swans migrate. They spend the cold part of the year eating and getting fat in one place and move to a warmer place to lay eggs and raise chicks, called cygnets.

paragraphs: The coscoroba swan is different to the other swans. Some scientists think it is more like a duck or a goose. It is the smaller than the other swans. This swan lives in South America.

paragraphs: Bewick's swans used to spend a lot of time in Ireland and Britain and the Netherlands, but scientists say they have been moving east into Germany. They spend less time in their winter feeding grounds than they did in 1970. Scientists say they are following the changes in temperature in Europe. The scientists found that individual swans do not change where they like to go during their own lifetimes. Instead, different generations of swans go to different places from their parents and grandparents.


title: Pupa

paragraphs: A pupa (plural: pupae or pupas) is part of becoming an adult for some insects, like some butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and bees. The pupal stage comes after being a larva; the next stage is adulthood.

paragraphs: The pupa stage of a butterfly, called a chrysalis (plural "chrysalids"), is a well-known example of a pupa because they are often found in the open.


title: Goose

paragraphs: Goose (plural gooses) is the general a male group of gooses is called ganders and a group of female gooses is called gaggle.English name for many long-necked birds, belonging to the family "Anatidae".

paragraphs: This family also includes the swans, which are mostly larger than geese, and the ducks, which are smaller and have short necks.

paragraphs: Both as chicks and as adults, geese show collective animal behaviour. Geese migrate in groups in the spring and fall, flying together in a V-shape.

paragraphs: A male goose is called a "gander" and a baby goose is called a "gosling". A group of geese is called a "gaggle".


title: Ovary

paragraphs: Ovaries (Singular: Ovary) are organs found in female organisms. Ovaries are part of the reproductive system needed to reproduce sexually.

paragraphs: Most vertebrates have ovaries. Usually animals have two ovaries. Birds usually have only one working ovary; snakes have one ovary in front of the other. The ovaries are similar to testicles in men.

paragraphs: Ovaries are shaped like eggs and are around 3 cm by 1.5 cm by 1.5 cm. The ovary is found in the side walls of the pelvis.

paragraphs: Each ovary is attached to the Fallopian tube. Usually each ovary takes turns releasing eggs every month.

paragraphs: During menstruation, an ovum is released from the ovary and enters one of the Fallopian tubes. There, the ovum can be fertilised. Ovaries have a certain number of eggs in them, so when eggs stop being released, this is the start of the menopause. During this time, female hormones stop being produced.


title: Axe

paragraphs: An axe (or ax) is an ancient tool. It is used to shape, split and cut wood.

paragraphs: The hand axe was probably the first tool in the Stone Age. It did not have a handle.

paragraphs: In the past, axes were used as weapons by soldiers. Today, axes are usually related to woodcutters and firemen.

paragraphs: Axes are simple machines. They are in the category of wedges. They are usually made of some sort of metal, mainly steel or iron. They can have a metal or wooden handle.


title: Rhinoceros

paragraphs: A rhinoceros (rhino for short) is any animal in the family Rhinocerotidae. They are in the order Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates. There are five living species. Two of these species are native to Africa. Three of these species are also native to Southern parts of Asia.

paragraphs: All five rhinoceros species are native to Africa or Asia. The two species in Africa are the White rhinoceros and the Black rhinoceros. The three species in Asia (including islands of Indonesia) are the Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Indian rhinoceros.

paragraphs: The rhinoceros is a herbivore. Its favourite food is plants, branches and bushes (if it is a browser species), or grass (if it is a grazer species).

paragraphs: Rhinoceroses have a large horn on the nose. Their horns are not like those of other horned mammals: the rhinoceros' horn is made of keratin packed together very tightly.

paragraphs: The rhinoceroses can weigh up to and be up to tall.

paragraphs: Only the white rhinoceros is not in critical danger of becoming extinct. They are protected, but hunted mainly by poachers, for their horns. The horns are used in Asian medicine, similar to elephants and tigers, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman. Loss of habitat is also a danger to rhinos. Governments have made logging their habitat and poaching illegal.


title: Alcoholic proof

paragraphs: Alcoholic proof is a measure of how much ethanol there is in an alcoholic drink. It is commonly used the world over, on the basis that 100 degrees proof is the equivalent of 50 % alcohol by volume (ABV or Alc/Vol). In the United States, it is double the percentage of ABV.

paragraphs: This system was introduced in the 18th century. The British claim that this term has a nautical background. Every evening, sailors would line up for their daily quota of grog/rum. This had to first be proved to be as strong as promised and not watered down. The spirit was tested with gunpowder: a mixture of water and alcohol "proved" itself when it could be poured on a small amount of gunpowder and still light up the wet powder. If the powder did not ignite, the mixture had too much water in it and the grog was considered below proof. It might have happened earlier, as the Americans claim that this definition came about in the 17th century when European traders began making a large quantity of distilled spirits and wine available to American Indians. The very same process led to the nickname "firewater", this time given by Native Americans. There is no record of the finite strength of the distilled spirits in the context of its sale to or consumption by Native Americans.

paragraphs: A "proven" solution was defined as 100 degrees proof (100°). People have found out that this takes 57.15% ethanol. This value is still used as the British definition. A simpler ratio to remember is "seven to four": 70° proof is 40% alcohol by volume.

paragraphs: A hydrometer can be used to measure the precise proof of a spirit. This test has gone through many formal changes.

paragraphs: The European Union member nations have broadly adopted the recommendation of the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) which measures percentage of alcohol by volume at 20 °C.

paragraphs: In Britain, this replaced the Sikes hydrometer system (based on proof spirit) which was used since 1816, although officially the "Customs and Excise Act of 1952" defined "spirits of proof strength" (or proof spirits):

paragraphs: Previously, Clarke's hydrometer had been used since the 1740s when Customs and Excise and London brewers and distillers began to use Clarke's hydrometer.

paragraphs: In the definition of the United States, the proof number is twice the percentage of the alcohol content measured by volume at a temperature of 60°F (15.5°C). Therefore, "80 proof" is 40% alcohol by volume (most of the other 60% is water). If a 150 proof beverage is mixed half-and-half with water, the drink is 75 proof.

paragraphs: US Federal regulation (CFR 27 5.37 Alcohol Content) requires that liquor labels state the percentage alcohol by volume (sometimes abbreviated ABV). The regulations permit (but do not require) a statement of the degrees proof as long as it is right next to the percentage alcohol by volume.

paragraphs: Alcohol is produced by yeast during the process of fermentation. The other product of fermentation is carbon dioxide, which is the gas that can make beer bottles explode or blow their tops off. The amount of alcohol in the finished liquid depends on how much sugar there was at the beginning for the yeast to convert into alcohol. In beer, the alcohol is generally 3% to 12% (6 to 24 proof) and usually about 4% to 6% (8 to 12 proof). Depending on the strain of yeast, wines top out at about 14% to 16% (28 to 32 proof), because that is the point in the fermentation process where the alcohol concentration denatures the yeast. Since the 1990s, a few alcohol-tolerant 'superyeast' strains have become commercially available, which can ferment up to 20%.

paragraphs: Very few microorganisms can live in alcoholic solutions. The main three are yeast, "Brettanomyces", and "Acetobacter". In what is essentially disinfection, yeast keeps multiplying as long as there is sugar to "eat", gradually increasing the alcoholic content of the solution and killing off all other microorganisms, and eventually themselves. There are "fortified" wines with a higher alcohol concentration than that because stronger alcohol has been mixed with them.

paragraphs: Stronger liquors are distilled after fermentation is complete to separate the alcoholic liquid from the remains of the grain, fruit, or whatever it was made from. The idea of distillation is that a mixture of liquids is heated, the one with the lowest boiling point will evaporate (or "boil off") first, and then the one with the next lowest boiling point, and so on. The catch is that water and alcohol form a mixture (called an azeotrope) that has a lower boiling point than either one of them, so what distills off first is that mixture of 95% alcohol and 5% water. Thus a distilled liquor cannot be stronger than 95% (190 proof); there are other techniques for separating liquids that can produce 100% ethanol (or "absolute alcohol"), but they are used only for scientific or industrial purposes. 100% ethanol does not stay 100% for very long, because it is hygroscopic and absorbs water out of the atmosphere.


title: Acetobacter

paragraphs: Acetobacter is a kind of bacteria. These bacteria are

paragraphs: known by their ability to change alcohol to acetic acid in the presence of air. There are several species within this genus, and there are other bacteria that can form acetic acid under different conditions; but all of the "Acetobacter" are known by this ability.

paragraphs: "Acetobacter" are important to people, because:

paragraphs: Sometimes, "Acetobacter" is not wanted. It can be killed by adding preservatives like Sulfur dioxides, or by getting rid of the air when the wine is stored.


title: Archbishop of Canterbury

paragraphs: The Archbishop of Canterbury is the spiritual leader of the Church of England and in the Anglican Communion the leader of its mother church. He is the head of the Church, and lives in the English city of Canterbury. The Archbishop is chosen by the English monarch (the church's "supreme governor"), under guidance from senior bishops, acting in cooperation with the prime minister of the UK.

paragraphs: The office of Archbishop of Canterbury was founded in the year 597. In that year, Saint Augustine came to England, to the area called Kent. He had been sent by the Pope to convince the local people to become Christians. The people accepted him and Christianity when their King (Ethelbert of Kent) became a Christian. Augustine became the first bishop in the kingdom of Kent and was later recognised as archbishop when a second diocese was created. Since then, there has been an Archbishop at Canterbury in Kent.

paragraphs: The Archbishop of Canterbury used to be head of the Roman Catholic Church in England, but in the early 16th century the English church broke away from the Roman church. The new church called itself the Church of England, and now the Archbishop is the leader of that church. The current Archbishop is Justin Welby (from 2013).

paragraphs: The archbishop oversees the Province of Canterbury that is all the Church of England dioceses in the south and midlands of England. The dioceses of Wales were also within the Province of Canterbury until 1920 when the Church in Wales became independent. In the north of England another archbishop has the Diocese of York and other northern dioceses (including the diocese of Sodor and Man) to oversee. Both archbishops are members of the House of Lords and rank very high in the official English order of precedence. When a new monarch is crowned the placing of the crown on his head is done by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The principal home of the archbishops is at Lambeth Palace in the south of London rather than at Canterbury itself. Within the Diocese of Canterbury (which consists of eastern Kent and a small enclave in Surrey) the archbishop has at least two assistant bishops.

paragraphs: Justin Welby (formerly the Bishop of Durham) became Archbishop on 21 March 2013.


title: Ethanol

paragraphs: Ethanol, also known as marks formula, ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol or just alcohol, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CHOH, also written as CHO. It is the active part of alcoholic drinks, which are drunk in most cultures worldwide. It is also used as a solvent because it can dissolve many other chemicals and is not very toxic. Yeast makes most of the ethanol that people use.

paragraphs: Ethanol fuel can be used instead of gasoline in cars and other engines. Engines can use pure ethanol or ethanol mixed with gasoline.

paragraphs: In Brazil, ethanol fuel made from sugar cane provides 18 percent of the country's fuel for cars. Because of this, Brazil does not have to buy oil from other countries.

paragraphs: To do this, Brazil cut down much of the rain forests to grow more sugar cane, which is then fermented into Ethanol.

paragraphs: Most cars in the U.S. can run on fuels that have of up to 10% ethanol in them. Car makers like Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM also make vehicles specifically designed to run on higher ethanol blends. Some of their engines can run on up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were about six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.


title: Boiling point

paragraphs: The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance boils, or enters a state of rapid evaporation. For pure water this is 100° Celsius or 212° Fahrenheit. This is measured at one atmosphere, that is, the air pressure at sea level

paragraphs: Boiling points can be changed in several ways. The addition of solutes or other substances usually changes the boiling point. Additionally, changing the pressure on a liquid changes its boiling point.

paragraphs: The boiling point of a liquid depends on the pressure of the surrounding air. An increase in air pressure increases the boiling point; a decrease decreases the boiling point. In the low pressure environment at the top of Mt Everest for example, water boils at only 69 °C. (156.2 °F).

paragraphs: It can also be defined in terms of vapour pressure as the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure

paragraphs: Sugar, salt or other non-volatile solutes in water will usually make the boiling point higher. Alcohol, in contrast, is a volatile chemical that lowers the boiling point of water. Even a large amount dissolved in the water will usually make only small changes in the boiling point.


title: Platonic solid

paragraphs: A platonic solid is a kind of polyhedron. It has the following characteristics:

paragraphs: The following Platonic solids exist; there are only 5:

paragraphs: There are a lot more uses for Platonic Solids, but some of the main reasons are:the shapes are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair. 6-sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games. Such dice are commonly referred to as D followed by the number of faces (d8, d20 etc.).

paragraphs: The tetrahedron (4 sided), cube (6 sided), and octahedron (8 sided), are found naturally in crystal structures. The dodecahedron (12 sides) is combinatorially identical to the pyritohedron (in that both have twelve pentagonal faces), which is one of the possible crystal structures of pyrite. However, the pyritohedron is not a regular dodecahedron, but rather has the same symmetry as the cube.

paragraphs: In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which use grids that are based on an icosahedron (20 sides,refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used longitude/latitude grid. This has the advantage of better spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty.

paragraphs: Geometry of space frames is often based on platonic solids.


title: Euclidean algorithm

paragraphs: The Euclidean algorithm is an algorithm. It can be used to find the biggest number that divides two other numbers (the greatest common divisor of two numbers).

paragraphs: Euclid solved the problem graphically. He said

paragraphs: Start out with two positive integers "m" and "n".

paragraphs: Note: This pseudocode uses modular arithmetic instead of subtraction. It does the same thing as above, but gets the answer faster.

paragraphs: Precondition: two positive integers "m" and "n"

paragraphs: Postcondition: the greatest common integer divisor of "m" and "n"


title: Eukaryote

paragraphs: A eukaryote is an organism with complex cells, or a single cell with a complex structures. In these cells the genetic material is organized into chromosomes in the cell nucleus.

paragraphs: Animals, plants, algae and fungi are all eukaryotes. There are also eukaryotes amongst single-celled protists. In contrast, simpler organisms, such as bacteria and archaea, do not have nuclei and other complex cell structures. Such organisms are called prokaryotes.

paragraphs: The eukaryotes are often treated as a superkingdom, or domain.

paragraphs: Eukaryotes evolved in the Proterozoic eon. The oldest known probable eukaryote is "Grypania", a coiled, unbranched filament up to 30mm long. The oldest "Grypania" fossils come from an iron mine near Negaunee, Michigan. The fossils were originally dated as 2100 million years ago, but later research showed the date as about 1874 million years ago. "Grypania" lasted into the Mesoproterozoic era.

paragraphs: Another ancient group is the acritarchs, believed to be the cysts or reproductive stages of algal plankton. They are found 1400 million years ago, in the Mesoproterozoic era.

paragraphs: The classification of the Eukaryota is under active discussion, and several taxonomies have been proposed. All modern versions have five kingdoms, but disagree about which groups go into each kingdom.

paragraphs: Eukaryotic cells are usually much bigger than prokaryotes. They can be up to 10 times bigger. Eukaryote cells have many different internal membranes and structures, called organelles. They also have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules and microfilaments. Those parts are very important in the cell's shape. Eukaryotic DNA is put in bundles called chromosomes, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during cell division. Most eukaryotes have some sort of sexual reproduction through fertilisation, which prokaryotes do not use.

paragraphs: Prokaryotes do not have sexes, but they can pass DNA to other bacteria. Their cell division is asexual. Bacterial conjugation is when bacteria move a genetic element (often a plasmid or transposon) from one to another.

paragraphs: Eukaryotes have sets of linear chromosomes located in the nucleus and the number of chromosomes is usually typical for each species.

paragraphs: In eukaryotic cells, there are many things with membranes around them. All of them together are called the endomembrane system. Simple bags, called vesicles or vacuoles, are sometimes made by budding off other membranes, just like how children make bubbles with their toys. Many cells take in food and other things using something called endocytosis. In endocytosis, the membrane closest to the outside bends inwards and then pinches off to make a vesicle. Many other organelles that have membranes probably started off as vesicles.

paragraphs: The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes membrane that has holes in it so things can go in and out. The nuclear envelope has things sticking out of it that look like tubes and sheets. These are called the endoplasmic reticulum which is often shortened to ER. The ER is works with moving proteins around and allowing them to mature.

paragraphs: The ER has two parts, the rough ER and the smooth ER. The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it. The proteins made by the ribosomes attached to the rough ER go to the inside the rough ER, called the lumen. After that, they usually go into vesicles, which grow and pinch off from the smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, the vesicles with proteins inside fuse with piles of flattened vesicles called the Golgi bodies, where the proteins inside are changed again.

paragraphs: Vesicles are sometimes changed so they can do one thing very well. This is called specialization, or differentiation. For example, lysosomes have enzymes inside them that break down the food the comes from food vacuoles, and peroxisomes have enzymes that break down peroxide, a poison, so it is not poisonous anymore.

paragraphs: Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which are vacuoles that can fuse or pinch off from the outer membrane. Contractile vesicles are often used to get and get rid of unneeded water. Extrusomes shoot out stuff that make predators go away or catch food. In multicellular organisms, hormones are often made in vesicles. In the complicated plants, most of the inside of a plant cell is taken up by a central vacuole. That central vacuole is the main thing that keeps osmotic pressure so the cell can hold its shape.

paragraphs: Because the cell organelles of eukaryotes have different (polyphyletic) origins, the question arises as to whether the group is a unified clade or not. It is certain that the protists are not. Cell organelles are specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids. It is fairly clear now that all or most of these organelles have their origin in once-independent prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea), and that the eukaryote cell is a 'community of micro-organisms' working together in 'a marriage of convenience'. The first such events took place between ancient bacteria to produce the double-membrane class known as gram-negative bacteria. Since the gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, this was the first of several such events in the history of the eukaryotes.

paragraphs: Recent research shows that "the known repertoire of ‘eukaryote-specific’ proteins in Archaea [indicate] that the archaeal host cell already contained many key components that govern eukaryotic cellular complexity".

paragraphs: "Protista" is a group of different single-celled organisms. More accurate taxonomies have been proposed, but scientists are still discussing them. For this reason, Protista is still useful for talking about these organisms. One modern scheme for the classification of the Eukarya is as follows:

paragraphs: However, in 2005, doubts were expressed as to whether some of these supergroups were monophyletic, particularly the Chromalveolata, and a review in 2006 noted the lack of evidence for several of the supposed six supergroups.

paragraphs: The Eukarya may only be unified in the sense that the cells are a community derived from bacteria and archaea; opinions vary. Like the Protista, the Eukarya may be a polyphyletic assembly, though a useful one. However, as mentioned above, all branches of the Eukarya have sexual reproduction. That, and the general organisation of the nucleus, are the defining features. These two points are the main evidence for monophyletic origin.


title: Unicellular organism

paragraphs: Unicellular organisms are organisms that have one cell. They are divided into two quite different types, from different classification kingdoms.

paragraphs: The differences between the prokaryota and eukaryota are significant. Eukaryotes possess a nucleus and various subcellular organs called organelles, and prokaryotes do not.

paragraphs: Almost all unicellular organisms are microorganisms but you can observe eukaryotes and many prokaryotes by using a compound microscope. Bacteria just appear as dark dots. To gather unicellular organisms for observation, one can place a cover slip on the surface of pond water, and leave it overnight. By the next morning, numerous unicellular organisms will have grown entire colonies on the bottom of the slip. They multiply fast: colonies can double their size in between 30 minutes and a few hours.

paragraphs: Unicellular organisms can be found everywhere. The oldest forms of life existed 3.8 billion years ago, if not longer. They pursue a variety of strategies for survival: photosynthesis (cyanobacteria), chemotrophy (many archaea), and heterotrophy (amoeba). Some unicellular organisms have flagella, little tails they use for locomotion, or lobopods, extensions of the cellular skeleton (cytoskeleton), which appear as bloblike arms. The flagella of our unicellular ancestors occurs all the way up into the animals, where it makes an appearance as flagellated sperm.

paragraphs: Of all the six eukaryote supergroups, four are exclusively composed of unicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms vary in size, with the smallest bacteria measuring only a third of a micron (300 nanometers) across, ranging up to the titanic plasmodial slime molds, which can grow to 20 cm (8 in) across. The largest unicellular organisms may have millions of nuclei scattered throughout the cellular envelope. To observe some of the smallest unicellular organisms requires an electron microscope, while the very largest can be seen with a microscope or anything that enhances images.


title: Multicellular organism

paragraphs: Multi-cellular organisms are organisms with more than one cell. This is the case for animals, plants and most fungi. In such organisms, cells are usually specialised. All the cells with the same function work together. Such a group of cells is then called a tissue.

paragraphs: Multi-cellular organisms have a set of cells that specialize in reproduction. Reproduction in such organisms is usually sexual. The sex cells are either sperm or ovum (also named "egg") cells. If they are sperm cells, the organism is male, if they are egg cells it is female. If both are present, the organism is a hermaphrodite.

paragraphs: We know, from their cell structure, that multicellularity has evolved independently many times in Earth history, for example in plants and animals.

paragraphs: The earliest forms of life in the fossil record are cyanobacteria from the Archaean era at 3.5 billion years ago. They grew as single cells but lived in colonies as stromatolites.

paragraphs: The first multicellular fossils have been found in 2.1 billion years old Palaeoproterozoic rocks from the Gabon in Africa. These are eukaryotic cells which live colonially. The fossils are visible to the naked eye, and hence much larger than bacteria. The authors comment that one advantage of multicellularity is larger size, and that an adequate level of oxygen is required to support this kind of life.

paragraphs: To reproduce, multicellular organisms must solve the problem of regenerating a whole organism from germ cells (i.e. sperm and egg cells), an issue that is studied in developmental biology.

paragraphs: Multicellular organisms, especially long-living animals, also face the challenge of cancer, which occurs when cells fail to regulate their growth within the normal program of development.


title: Hexahedron

paragraphs: A hexahedron (plural: hexahedra) is any polyhedron with six faces. A cube, for example, is a regular hexahedron with all its faces square, and three squares around each vertex.

paragraphs: There are seven topologically distinct "convex" hexahedra, one of which exists in two mirror image forms. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)

paragraphs: There are three further topologically distinct hexahedra that can only be realised as "concave" figures:


title: Kazan State University

paragraphs: Kazan (Volga region) Federal University (, "Kazanskiy (Privolzhskiy) federalnyy universitet"; ) is a university in Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia. It was founded in 1804. The famous Russian mathematician Lobachevsky was its headmaster from 1827 till 1846. The post is now being held by Myakzyum Salakhov (Mäğzüm Säläxev).

paragraphs: Kazan University is also known as "the birthplace of organic chemistry" because of the works of Aleksandr Butlerov, Vladimir Markovnikov, Aleksandr Arbuzov, and others.


title: New World

paragraphs: The New World is a name used for the Western Hemisphere. It specifically refers to the Americas. It can also refer to certain Atlantic and Pacific islands (like Bermuda) and sometimes Oceania, (Australasia). The name started in the early 16th century, shortly after America was colonized. The people of the European Middle Ages thought the world was only Europe, Asia, and Africa. These continents are called the Old World. The Americas were also referred to as the "fourth part of the world".

paragraphs: The continent (North and South America) was named America after Amerigo Vespucci.

paragraphs: Oceania, which was colonized some centuries later, is refered to as "The Newest World".


title: Rabbit

paragraphs: Rabbits are mammals of the order Lagomorpha. They were classified as rodents, but are now in the Lagomorpha, with pikas and hares.

paragraphs: Domestic rabbits are European in origin, but now they live in many parts of the world. They live in family groups, and eat vegetables, sometimes grass, hay and carrots. In the wild, these rabbits live in burrows, often called a warren. Rabbits are often kept as domestic pets.Cottontail rabbits are native to North America.

paragraphs: A male rabbit is called a buck, and a female is called a doe. A baby rabbit is called a kit. Kit is short for kitten. Rabbits have a gestation period of around 31 days. The female can have up to 10-12 kits, very rarely litters as big as 16 and as small as one.

paragraphs: Some people have rabbits as pets. Rabbits are also raised for their meat. Rabbits are considered the same as hares by biological classification.

paragraphs: Since rabbits are prey animals, they are careful in open spaces. If they sense danger, they freeze and watch. Rabbit vision has a very wide field, including overhead scanning. Their enemies are foxes, wolves, coyotes, lynx, cougars, eagles, domesticated dogs, bears, raccoons, skunks, badgers, owls, minks, weasels and snakes. People are also known to shoot rabbits. Their escape method is to run for their burrow, where they are better protected.

paragraphs: Rabbits have a complex social structure and, like dogs, they have a hierarchy. Rabbit ears probably have several functions. The main function is to give warning of predators, but they may be used for signaling, and temperature regulation.…

paragraphs: Rabbits can make great pets and tend to bond very closely with their owners. They can be extremely social, and love being around people, making them loyal companions. They also have a tendency to be very independent, which makes caring for them less stressful compared to other pets. Being very social and playful mammals, rabbits are easily distracted by toys. Training a rabbit can be quite easy, using similar techniques as one would train a dog.

paragraphs: In order to successfully own a rabbit, there are essential items that are needed. First, it is important to have an area that the rabbit can call home. It is recommended that this area is no smaller than 8 square meters, and somewhere that the rabbit can live comfortably and relax. It is important that this area is bunny proofed, so it is recommended to buy cable protecors and hide all electrical cords. Secondly, it is important to have a water bottle or, preferably, a water bowl that is replenished with fresh water daily. A water bottle can easily collect bacteria, and it's harder for the bunny to drink from these: whereas a water bowl will allow the rabbit to drink as they do in nature. A litter box is a great purchase because it can help potty-train the rabbit, and can easily be cleaned on either a daily basis or every other day. It is also essential to have chew-toys for a rabbit. Since they are very social and playful animals, it is important for them to have toys to play with while their owners are not able to be with them. Better yet, two neutered bunnies can be bonded and live together. That way their social needs are met and they can entertain one another.

paragraphs: After purchasing essential housing items for a rabbit, a new owner needs to purchase bedding for litterbox. Having newspaper handy makes cleaning the cage extremely easy and (hopefully) a little less messy.

paragraphs: Grooming a rabbit is essential for their health and wellbeing. Purchasing a brush at a local pet shop comes in handy when grooming. It is important to groom a rabbit on a weekly basis because they tend to groom themselves obsessively, but it becomes dangerous to their health due to the fact that they swallow so much of their fur.

paragraphs: Rabbits are extremely easy pets to feed. It is important to make sure that they are being fed unlimited fresh hay on a daily basis. As rabbits are grazing animals, it's important they have a constant supply of hay to graze on as they please. Rabbits teeth never stop growing so their daily grazing routine helps control this growth and support healthy teeth. Providing a rabbit with fresh, well-washed vegetables every day is essential for a balanced diet and digestion. Fruits can be given to rabbits every once in a while as a snack, but it is important to keep a rabbits’ fruit intake limited due to all of the sugars. The best snack to give your bunny is leafy greens, branches and dried roots, dandelion roots and apple branches are great examples of good snacks for your bunny.

paragraphs: In order for rabbits to live happy and healthy lives, it is important for them to exercise on a daily basis. Hopping around the rest of the house for a couple of hours a day will allow a rabbit to explore its surroundings and stay healthy, if it does not already have access to the whole home. You can also train your rabbit to go on a leash, and take it for walks outside. It is recommended to do this often.

paragraphs: Bunny-proofing a rabbit owners’ home is vital. These curious critters could to be drawn towards electrical wires, wood, shoes, furniture – basically everything within a normal household. The one thing they will not be able to stay away from is electrical wires, as they look like roots. You should not scold your bunny, but distract them with toys, roots or branches that they are allowed to chew on instead. It is important to ensure its safety, or have an area for your bunnies to hop around in that does not have any dangerous items.

paragraphs: Sometimes rabbits will get sloppy poos. If they do, you need to contact a qualified veterinarian immediately. Your rabbit should always have access to fresh water and good hay no matter what. This is especially true when rabbit is kept with other animals. Several other animals have bacteria like salmonella which can infect your rabbit


title: Louis Pasteur

paragraphs: Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist.

paragraphs: He and his wife, Marie, are best known for their experiments supporting the germ theory of disease, and he is also known for his vaccinations, most notably the first vaccine against rabies.

paragraphs: He made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry (different shapes) of crystals. He is also well known for his way of keeping milk and wine from going sour for longer periods of time. That process is called pasteurization. It is when the milk and or wine is put under about 161 Fahrenheit (72 Celsius) for fifteen seconds

paragraphs: Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, Pasteur noticed how a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled, and it failed to induce the disease in some chickens, which he was infecting, with the disease.

paragraphs: Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the family of a poor tanner. Louis grew up in the town of Arbois. He gained degrees in Letters and in Mathematical Sciences before entering the École Normale Supérieure, an elite college.

paragraphs: After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector, in 1849.

paragraphs: Louis Pasteur and Marie were married on May 29, 1849, and together had five children. Only two survived to adulthood; his other three children had died of typhoid fever. These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseases, such as typhoid.

paragraphs: In 1895 at Marnes-la-Coquette, a commune in Paris, Pasteur died after several strokes.


title: Akrotiri and Dhekelia

paragraphs: Akrotiri and Dhekelia are two British overseas territories that borders the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus. It’s used as military bases of the United Kingdom the bases were kept by the UK after Cyprus changed from being a colony in the British Empire, to being an independent republic. The United Kingdom kept them because of the important location of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Transcontinental country

paragraphs: A transcontinental country is a nation that is in more than one continent. Examples:

paragraphs: Most of the other examples are contentious, based on the possession of small islands in another region. For example, Spain controlling the Canary Islands which is geologically located in Africa. A few are undoubtedly intercontinental:


title: Kurów

paragraphs: Kurów is a village in south-eastern Poland, near Puławy and Lublin, on the Kurówka River. It is the main village of a gmina within the Lublin Voivodship and has 2826 people living there (as of 2010). The village was built before 1185 and made bigger between 1431 and 1442 with city rights based on the Magdeburg Law. The former President of Poland, Wojciech Jaruzelski was born in Kurów in 1923.


title: Scorpion

paragraphs: Scorpions are eight legged venomous arachnids. They have a long body with an extended tail with a sting. The average adult scorpion is about 3 inches in length. The longest scorpion is the African scorpion, which can be 9 inches long. There are about 1,750 species of scorpions worldwide.

paragraphs: The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the Silurian, 430 million years ago. They have adapted to a wide range of environments, and live on all continents except Antarctica. There are 13 living families. Only about 25 species have venom which can kill a human being.

paragraphs: They have eight legs and a pair of grasping pedipalps (like claws). The tail is narrow, with segments. It usually has a forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger.

paragraphs: Their body is in three parts. The front section is the "cephalothorax"; the abdomen is called the "mesosoma", and the tail is the "metasoma". The body is covered by an exoskeleton which gives them good protection.

paragraphs: Scorpions have many ways to survive in the desert. They can slow down their metabolism. This allows them to survive on as little as one insect per year. This ability also allows them to shelter from the sun and heat for extended periods of time, using only little amounts of oxygen.

paragraphs: Many people also believe that their claws, or pincers, were once front legs that have turned into what they now are by going through evolution. Nevertheless, the scorpions' claws play a crucial part in their hunting and mating rituals.

paragraphs: Scorpions also possess a special, feather-like pair of organs, called pectines that they use to sense even the smallest of movements around them. This allows them to effectively track down and hunt their prey, either above or below the surface. This also warns them of possible dangers, such as other bigger hunters.

paragraphs: The scorpion’s most feared and recognized feature is its sting. The sting contains a neurotoxin, which the scorpion uses to paralyze the victim, so it would be easier to kill and eat. They also stay hidden under rocks and that makes their body temperature cool.

paragraphs: The mating ritual of scorpions begins when the male and female connect claws. After this they verify that the other scorpion is of the same species, and is the opposite gender. After this, the male leads the female around until it finds a suitable spot to deposit its spermatophore. Once the male has found a suitable spot, he guides the female over it, where it enters her and fertilizes her. The mating ritual can take anywhere between 1 and 26 hours, depending on the male’s ability to find a suitable spot. Only a scorpion that has reached maturity may go through the mating ritual. A scorpion reaches maturity after it has gone through 5 to 7 moults.


title: John Schlesinger

paragraphs: John Richard Schlesinger, CBE (16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was a British movie director. He was born into a Jewish family in London. He was openly gay. He died of a stroke in Palm Springs, California, United States.

paragraphs: Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s. He started to direct in 1956. By the 1960s he was not acting so he could just direct. His documentary "Terminus" (1961), got a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award. "A Kind of Loving" won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962. Schlesinger's movie, "Midnight Cowboy" (1969), made in the United States, was internationally successful. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first movie shot in the U.S. It won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. In 1996 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award.


title: Landjäger

paragraphs: Landjäger (or Landjaeger) is a type of German sausage. The name stands for "hunter's sausage". It is smoked, so it does not need refrigeration. Usually, some of the water has also been taken out (they are dehydrated).


title: Gilbert and Ellice Islands

paragraphs: The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were a British protectorate from 1892 and colony from 1916. They are formed from two groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. On 1 January 1976 the islands were split into two different colonies that became independent states. The Gilbert Islands have been the biggest part of the nation of Kiribati since 1979, and the Ellice Islands became Tuvalu in 1978.


title: Casablanca

paragraphs: Casablanca (classical Arabic name: الدار البيضاء, "the white house"; Spanish:Casablanca, "whitehouse") is a city in western Morocco, on the Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: With 2.95 million people (September 2004 census), Casablanca is Morocco's biggest city.

paragraphs: Casablanca has a Mediterranean Climate with hot dry summers and wet rainy winters.


title: Flatulence

paragraphs: Flatulence is when intestinal gas leaves the anus. This often happens with a sound that can be embarrassing to some people, but in some cultures it is treated like humor. The word flatuence comes from the Latin word "flatus", which means blowing or breath, but people today usually call it farting.

paragraphs: In mammals like humans, the gases come from two sources: swallowed air (for example, while eating, talking or drinking) and gases naturally created by bacteria in the body during digestion. Of the gases that come out during flatuence, most of it is nitrogen (which has the chemical formula N and makes up between 20% to 90% of all the gases), followed by hydrogen (H), carbon dioxide (CO), oxygen (O) and methane (CH).


title: Computability theory

paragraphs: Computability theory is part of computer science. Scientists want to know what can be computed, and what can not.

paragraphs: There is a model of a computer that is used for this. It is called the Turing machine. A Turing machine basically is a special typewriter with an endless ribbon. The machine is named after the mathematician Alan Turing.

paragraphs: A problem is "computable" if it can be expressed in such a way that a Turing machine can solve it.

paragraphs: One of the best known examples is the Halting problem. The task is to write a program which says for all programs whether they will finally stop. This is impossible to decide. Mathematicians say the problem is undecidable.


title: Batman (city)

paragraphs: Batman is a city in southeast Turkey. It is the capital (city) of the province with the same name. In 2010, 325,000 people lived there. There are many Kurds in that area. The area has much oil and gas.

paragraphs: There is a railway track at Kurtalan, near this city. The track runs all the way to Istanbul. There is also an airport near Batman. The name is short for the Bati Raman mountains.


title: Typewriter

paragraphs: A typewriter is a machine that is for typing on a piece of paper instead of writing by hand. It has keys for typing letters, numerals, and symbols one at a time. Typewriters were created in 1829. Typewriters were originally invented to make writing faster and printing. The earliest typing was done on stone, clay, or metal sheets by inscribing them.

paragraphs: A typewriter does not have computer memory. As with writing with a pen, it is difficult to correct mistakes. One advantage is that many of them are not electrical, so you do not need to plug them in. Hackers cannot see what you have typed. On many typewriters, a separate type element (called a typebar) corresponds to each key. The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874. They did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s.

paragraphs: Typewriters quickly became a necessary tool for almost all writing other than personal handwritten letters. They were used a lot by professional writers, in offices, and for business correspondence in private homes. Typewriters were common in most offices up to the 1980s. After that, computers often replaced them. Nevertheless, typewriters are still common in some parts of the world. They are needed for a few specific applications, and they are popular in certain subcultures. Early typewriters, and later cheap ones, were "manual" typewriters. This means they were powered completely by the user. After the mid-20th century, electric typewriters with a motor became most common.


title: Nocturnal animals

paragraphs: Nocturnal (Latin: "nox" - night, darkness) animals are animals that are mainly active during the night. They hunt or feed during the night, and sleep during the day. Diurnal animals do it the other way around.

paragraphs: Scientists sometimes use the word "crepuscular" to describe nocturnal animals that are not active when it is very dark at night; they are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the moon makes a lot of light.

paragraphs: Many nocturnal animals have good night vision. Their large eyes may also be highly reflective when a bright light flashes them.


title: Censorship

paragraphs: Censorship is when an authority (such as a government or religion) cuts out or suppresses communication.

paragraphs: This has been done widely. All countries, religions and societies have their limits as to what can be said, or written or communication by art or nowadays by computer.

paragraphs: Certain facts are changed or removed on purpose. This may be done because it is considered wrong, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or other authority. This can be done for different reasons.

paragraphs: A censor is a person whose job is to look at all types of media and remove material. There are many reasons to censor something, like protecting military secrets, stopping immoral or anti-religious works, or keeping political power. Censorship is almost always used as an insult, and there is much debate over what censorship is and when it is okay.

paragraphs: When there is freedom of speech and freedom of the press, most information can published. However, even in developed countries with much freedom of the press, there are some things that cannot be published. For example, journalists are usually not allowed to publish many secrets about the military, like where troops will be sent on a mission. Pornography is censored in some countries because it is seen as not moral. For these reasons, the government might arrest anyone who publishes it.

paragraphs: Most often things are censored for one or more of the following reasons:

paragraphs: There is much debate about when censorship should be allowed. For example, U.S. President Richard Nixon censored the New York Times when they tried to publish articles about the Pentagon Papers, a group of classified military documents that showed that Nixon and the military lied about the Vietnam War. The Supreme Court in New York Times Co v. United States overturned the censorship, saying that Nixon had not shown it would be dangerous to the military, just embarrassing. In other countries, journalists and bloggers (who are usually not seen as journalists) are sometimes arrested for saying bad things about the government. In Egypt, Kareem Amer was famously arrested for insulting Islam and calling the president of Egypt, Hosni Mubarak, a dictator.

paragraphs: Governments are not the only ones who censor information. For example, when the history department at Middlebury College did not allow professors to accept Wikipedia as a source in papers, some said it was censorship. This was because the department was telling professors (who usually have academic freedom) what works they should or should not accept. Sometimes, a group or a website will not allow some facts, articles, and pictures that they do not think should be seen. There is much debate over the difference between censorship and editing, that is, deciding what should or should not be published.

paragraphs: Sometimes there is censorship of knowledge because it is believed that the average person can be harmed by access to it.

paragraphs: Slate Magazine wrote that in the 18th century the French king’s council stopped the distribution of Encyclopédie because it was “destroying royal authority and encouraging a spirit of independence and revolt,”

paragraphs: The Chinese government has blocked the Chinese-language Wikipedia since June 2015.

paragraphs: On July 16, 2019 the National Post ran an article about a woman who was banned fromTwitter. Lindsay Shepherd who is described as a Free speech advocate claimed that twitter has been too eager to censor right-wing public figures. Shepherd was a teaching assistant at Wilfrid Laurier University.


title: Czestochowa

paragraphs: Częstochowa is a city in south Poland on the Warta River. It has 248,894 residents. It has been in the Silesian Voivodeship (administrative division) since 1999, and was once the capital of Częstochowa Voivodship (1975-1998).

paragraphs: The town is known for the famous monastery of Jasna Góra Monastery, which is the home of the Black Madonna painting, a shrine of the Virgin Mary. Every year, thousands of people from all over the world come to Częstochowa to see it.

paragraphs: The name Częstochowa means Częstoch's place, and comes from the name of a person, Częstoch. It is mentioned in medieval documents also as Częstobor and Częstomir. Częstochowa is also known as Czestochowa, Czenstochov, and Chenstochov.

paragraphs: Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions in the area. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year.

paragraphs: The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, kept at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a very popular attraction.


title: Voivodeships of Poland

paragraphs: A Voivodeship is one of 16 different divisions of land in Poland. The word comes from the Polish ""wojewoda"" meaning a governor.


title: 50s

paragraphs: "This is an article about the years 50 AD to 59 AD. Sometimes, "the 50s" is used for the 1950s".


title: Volleyball

paragraphs: Volleyball is a team sport. The teams are separated by a large net. It has six players on each side of the net. Each team is allowed twelve substitution players. The game starts when the captain from each team decides which side of the court they will play on, by the toss of a coin, which also determines who will serve (hit) the ball first. The point of the game is to keep the ball in the air. The ball can be played with any part of the body, with a maximum of three strokes a team. If at any point the ball hits the floor, the side that the ball landed on it is a point for the other team.

paragraphs: In 1895, William G. Morgan invented a new game called "Mintonette". However, when an observer named Alfred Halstead saw the game being played, he noticed the volleying action used to get the ball over the net, so he decided to change the name to "volleyball".

paragraphs: Morgan wanted to create a skilled activity, which required more players, less space, and less exertion than basketball. The first net was a “rope” and the first ball was a basketball air bladder. Until 1960, men and women played with different rules. Now the rules are the same except for the height of the net, the men’s net is higher.

paragraphs: A player cannot hit the ball twice. A point is gained when a team plays the ball in the opposition's court and the ball is not defended, therefore it lands within the court. The ball must be served (hit) from outside the court, otherwise it will be regarded as a foul. The game is played in sets of 25 points (sometimes 21). The team that reaches 25 (or 21) points first, wins the set. Each game consists of 3-5 sets (or the first one to 3 in middle school). The fifth set is played to 15 points.

paragraphs: A player usually wears knee pads to protect their knees from becoming bruised during dives for the "volleyball". In order to win the game, the winners must be ahead by 2 points or the game goes on until you win by 2 points.

paragraphs: The sports governing body is the (FIVB). Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground. Usually, the player is diving (throwing themselves towards the ground) to be the barrier to block the ball from hitting the court.In many aspects, this skill is similar to passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to distinguish between defensive actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms.

paragraphs: Some specific techniques are more common in digging than in passing. A player may sometimes perform a "dive", i.e., throw his or her body in the air with a forward movement in an attempt to save the ball, and land on his or her chest. When the player also slides his or her hand under a ball that is almost touching the court, this is called a "pancake". The pancake is frequently used in indoor volleyball. Besides being one of the best-known sports in the world, and being a favorite to millions of people, it is in the Olympics.

paragraphs: The positions in volleyball are separated into 6 areas, the first being Position 1 which is the back right side on the side that you are. Position 2 is on the right side of the court closest to the net, Position 3 is in the middle of the front part of the court right beside the net, Position 4 is on the left side of the court right beside the net, Position 5 is in the back left side of the court, and Position 6 is in the middle of the back of the court.

paragraphs: The court is . A net is stretched tightly in the middle. The height of the net is for middle and high schools and college women, 7,11 feet (2.43 m) for college men.

paragraphs: The objective of the game is to legally return the ball over the net in such a manner that the opponent’s team cannot make a legal return. The main causes of illegal plays are: holding, carrying, or lifting with the palm of the hands, four touches on one side, and two consecutive touches by one player. A regulation game is played with six players on the court. They are to rotate to serve in a clockwise direction when facing the net. The server will come from the right front position, serve, then play the right back position.

paragraphs: Rally scoring is used in volleyball, which means a point will be awarded to one of the two teams when a rally ends or a mistake is made. A regulation game is played to 25 points and the winners must be ahead by 2 points. A middle and high school game is played best out of three games. If the games are tied at 1-1, the 3rd game is played to 15 points and the winners must be ahead by 2 points.

paragraphs: Serving: may be underhand or overhand. If the serve touches the net and goes to the opponent’s side, it must be played. The server is not allowed to step on or over the end line when serving. In class, the server must say the score before serving.

paragraphs: Float: Similar to a knuckle ball in baseball, the server stands flat footed and contacts the ball with a stiff wrist and does not swing through after contact. This causes no spin to be on the ball, allowing it to catch any air current and causes the ball to change directional course throughout the whole air course.

paragraphs: Top Spin: This serve is executed by snapping hard on the ball during contact. This puts a forward spin on the ball, which causes it to drop faster than a float.

paragraphs: Jump Serve: A jump serve is used to assist the server get more height. By jumping they have a better angle to put the ball down into the court, and are less likely to be underneath the ball. This can be a float or topspin ball depending on the contact, arm swing, and approach.

paragraphs: Pass or Bump (underarm pass): This is a pass used when the ball approaches a player below their shoulders. You are to hold your fingers together, elbows straight, and contact the ball with the forearms with shoulders facing the net on impact. Defined as a dig when passing a hard driven hit. Also pancaking is a form of passing. This is when the player has sprawled out to the floor in a last hope type of decision for the ball to land on their hand and it pop straight up.

paragraphs: Set or volley: (overhead pass) direct the ball to a place specifically. Hands high, flex wrist, contact the ball with the finger pads, and elbows bent. Use your legs and arms to project the ball into the air.

paragraphs: Hit: A hard hit ball from a height above the net, straight to the opponent’s side. Contact the ball with the cupped fingers and a long arm swing.

paragraphs: Block: (defensive hit) Two hands above the head, jumping with arms reaching for a ball that has been spiked. A block is used to prevent a volley from crossing the net.

paragraphs: Dig: Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground.

paragraphs: Serve: to put the ball into play from the end line.

paragraphs: Side out: the team that served made a mistake, ball now goes to the opponent’s for service.

paragraphs: Set: overhead pass that allows a player to spike

paragraphs: Bump: an underhand pass performed when a ball is below the shoulders

paragraphs: Spike: a hard driven ball aimed at the opponents.

paragraphs: Block: a defensive play to prevent the ball from crossing the net.

paragraphs: Double: Contacting the ball twice typically while settings

paragraphs: Kill: Any hit, rollshot, or tip that automatically results in a point.


title: Twilight

paragraphs: Twilight means either dawn (in the morning) or dusk (in the evening).

paragraphs: In the morning, dawn is when it is not dark any more, and the light of the sun is just starting to appear.

paragraphs: In the evening, it is the other way around and that phenomenon is called dusk. The sun has disappeared, and darkness is setting in. Light fades away.

paragraphs: For all these definitions, the horizon is at the sea which is flat.


title: Great Depression

paragraphs: The Great Depression was the great economic crisis that started after the U.S. stock market crash in 1929. The prices on the Wall Street stock market fell a lot from October 24 to October 29, 1929. Many people lost their jobs. By 1932, 25–30% of people lost their jobs. They became homeless and poor. This ended the wealth of the Roaring Twenties. Many people think that the Great Depression started on Tuesday, October 29, but economists think Black Tuesday was just one of the causes.

paragraphs: From 1929-1932, the depression worsened. Many suspect that increased taxes on American citizens and the increased tariffs (taxes on countries which trade with the United States) worsened it. Economist Milton Friedman said that the Great Depression was worsened because the Federal Reserve printed out less money than usual.

paragraphs: When the Great Depression started, Herbert Hoover was the president of the United States, and as a result, he was blamed for it. People voted for a new president in 1932. His name was Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt got the government to pass many new laws and programs to help people who were hurt by the Great Depression. These programs were called the New Deal.

paragraphs: One of these programs was the Civilian Conservation Corps, or CCC. The CCC put many young men to work in the outdoors. The men were paid thirty dollars a month, of which twenty five dollars was sent home to support their families, to work, and they got free food and shelter. Another program was called Social Security. Social Security gave old people a small income so they had money for things they needed. The Great Depression was really bad, but with everyone's help, it would get better. Between 1939 and 1944, more people had jobs again because of World War II, and the Great Depression came to an end.

paragraphs: The Great Depression followed a decade of rapid economic growth and urbanization. After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, business declined as it had after previous stock market crashes. However, people still had hope. John D. Rockefeller said that "These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come and gone. Prosperity (wealth) has always returned (come back) and will again." But soon the bad effects of the depression grew worse and worse. More people lost jobs, money, and homes. There were reports that in Germany and the United States, there were great hunger, disease, and even starvation. Nations used protectionism more than in recent decades. This diminished international trade.

paragraphs: Farmers were usually safe from the severe effects of previous depressions because they could at least feed themselves. During the Great Depression, the Great Plains were also hit hard with a drought and dust storms. This was called the Dust Bowl.

paragraphs: Years of overgrazing combined with drought caused the grass to disappear. With topsoil exposed, high winds picked up the loose dirt and carried it over long distances. The dust storms destroyed crops, leaving farmers without food or something to sell.

paragraphs: Small farmers were hit especially hard. Even before the dust storms hit, the invention of the tractor drastically cut the need for manpower on farms. These small farmers were usually already in debt, borrowing money for seed and paying it back when their crops came in. When the dust storms damaged the crops, not only could the small farmer not feed himself and his family, he could not pay back his debt. Banks would then foreclose on the mortgage and the farmer's family would be homeless, unemployed and poor.


title: Delhi

paragraphs: Delhi (; "Dillī"; "Dillī"; "Dēhlī"), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a territory in India. It includes the country's capital New Delhi. It covers an area of . It is bigger than the Faroe Islands but smaller than Guadeloupe. Delhi is a part of the National Capital Region, which has 12.5 million residents. The governance of Delhi is like that of a state in India. It has its own legislature, high court and a council of executive ministers.

paragraphs: Delhi is on the banks of the Yamuna River. Historians have evidence that people have been living in this region since at least the 6th century BC. People also believe that the legendary city of Indraprastha was here. This city has many remains and monuments of historic importance.

paragraphs: The India Gate is a war memorial in Delhi. On the India gate there are names of some of the people who fought for India during 1914 until 1921.


title: European Central Bank

paragraphs: The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world's most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union (EU) listed in the Treaty on European Union (TEU). The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, and former managing director of the Goldman Sachs international division (2002–2005). The bank primarily occupied the Eurotower prior to, and during, the construction of the new headquarters.

paragraphs: The primary objective of the ECB, mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone. Its basic tasks, set out in Article 3 of the Statute, are to set and implement the monetary policy for the Eurozone, to conduct foreign exchange operations, to take care of the foreign reserves of the European System of Central Banks and operation of the financial market infrastructure under the TARGET2 payments system and the technical platform (currently being developed) for settlement of securities in Europe (TARGET2 Securities). The ECB has, under Article 16 of its Statute, the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand.

paragraphs: The ECB is governed by European law directly, but its set-up resembles that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital. Its capital is €11 billion held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders. The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the states' population and GDP, but the capital key has been adjusted. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral.

paragraphs: The European Central Bank is the main bank of the European Union. The European Central Bank is in Frankfurt am Main. The main goal of the European Central Bank is to maintain price stability, in other words make sure inflation is below 2%. This is done by e.g. controlling the interest rates. It is also the only bank allowed to issue euro banknotes (€), used by 16 of the 28 member states of the European Union (EU).


title: Friendship

paragraphs: Friendship means familiar and liking of each other's mind.

paragraphs: People who are friends talk to each other and spend time together. They trust one another and also help each other when they are in trouble or are hurt. Friends are people that can be looked up to and trusted. Usually friends have similar interests. A friend is one who admires a person's skill and helps or encourages them to make the right choices and do not get into any trouble at all.

paragraphs: The strength of the bond of friendship between two people can vary. If the bond is very strong, they are called best friends. This can usually be achieved by possessing the elements of friendship, by being kind, generous, loyal, honest and by having fun. With these qualities you can truly enjoy the bliss of friendship.

paragraphs: There are expectations, demands and complaints in friendship too. If friends don't match with your expectations, it does not mean you will break the friendship. It is all about understanding, realizing and helping whenever possible.

paragraphs: Friendship is both good and necessary. Man cannot live all alone. He is a social being. He needs someone to share his joys and sorrows. Generally, it is only people of similar age, character and background, mentality, etc., who can understand him and his problems. Friends are needed for support and for sharing.

paragraphs: There are many different types of friendships. Most people find friends at a very young age however it is harder for others. Many movies are based off of a group of friends. An example of a friendship would be that of Sierra, Olivia, Emma, Langli, and Mallory's in the movie Eight grade Whittier.

paragraphs: The word "Friendship" is also the official motto of Texas.


title: Clitoris

paragraphs: The clitoris is a female genital organ. It includes erectile tissue, glands, muscles and ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels. In an embryo there is a small raised point that grows into a clitoris in girls or a penis in boys. Inside, the penis there is the urethra, but there is no urethra in the clitoris. In women, the urethra is hidden behind the clitoris and in front of the vagina. Penises with male urethras are used daily for urination, and can be used for sex: semen passes out of the body through the male urethra.

paragraphs: Although the parts are placed differently, the clitoris is a match to the male penis. The clitoris causes females sexual pleasure, arousal and orgasm. Rubbing or applying other consistent pressure to it is usually needed to help the female have an orgasm.

paragraphs: During sexual arousal, erectile tissue fills with blood. This causes the clitoris to grow. It grows until orgasm happens. Also during arousal, touching the clitoris and other sensitive areas of the female genitals makes a woman's vagina change shape and release a lubricant. The lubricant and change of shape makes it easier for a man to enter a woman and for sex to occur. Most of the clitoris is hidden inside the body. Only a small part of it is seen outside the body. Adding the outside and inside parts, the clitoris is about the same size as the penis. The clitoris and penis grow from the same tissue in the womb; they bear many similar parts.

paragraphs: The parts of the clitoris that can be seen from the outside are located from the "clitoral junction" (the point where the outer lips meet at the base of the pubic mound) to the "fork" (where the lower edges of the inner lips meet below the vaginal opening). The outside parts include:

paragraphs: The parts of the clitoris inside the body include erectile tissue, glands, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. In both the clitoris and the penis, there are two types of erectile tissue. These are "corpus cavernosum" (cavern-like body) and vestibular bulbs. These tissues fill with blood during sexual arousal. This causes an erection. The clitoral shaft is connected to the glans. It is just underneath the surface of the skin. The shaft is a round spongy erectile tissue. It is very sensitive like the glans. It feels like a hard ridge. The shaft is about long. It moves toward the pubic mound for a short distance, then bends sharply and divides. This forms two thin legs. These legs are also made of spongy tissue. The legs spread out like the wishbone of a chicken.