title: Tiberius

paragraphs: Tiberius (Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD) was the second Roman Emperor. He ruled from 14 to 37 AD. He was the step-son of Caesar Augustus.

paragraphs: Tiberius was one of Ancient Rome's greatest generals, whose campaigns protected the northern frontier. He reigned for 22 years, and the first part of his imperial work was excellent. Later, he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive, and somber ruler. After the death of his son Drusus in 23, the quality of his rule declined and ended in terror.

paragraphs: In 26, Tiberius moved from Rome to the Isle of Capri, and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefect Sejanus. Sejanus became the effective ruler of Rome, and plotted against Tiberius, murdering people who opposed him. When alerted, Tiberius counter-plotted to remove Sejanus from his official positions, and eventually executed him. More executions followed of people who had committed crimes under Sejanus' rule.

paragraphs: Caligula, Tiberius' grand-nephew and adopted grandson, succeeded the Emperor upon his death.

paragraphs: Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers as of 6 BC, but soon went into retirement in Rhodes. He was reported as wanting no further role in politics. After the early deaths of Augustus' young grandchildren-turned-sons, Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his own brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus. This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs.

paragraphs: In the same year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of "imperium" with that of Augustus. Tiberius duly assumed the titles of Augustus when the old man's long reign came to an end in AD 14.

paragraphs: Problems soon arose. The northern legions had not been paid, and rebelled. Germanicus and Tiberius's son, Drusus, were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line. Germanicus rallied the mutineers and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, stating that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus. Germanicus's forces smashed across the Rhine and quickly occupied all of the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe. So Germanicus dealt a significant blow to Rome's enemies, and quelled an uprising of troops, actions that increased his fame with the Roman people.

paragraphs: After being recalled from Germania, Germanicus celebrated a triumph in Rome in AD 17, the first full triumph that the city had seen since Augustus's own in 29 BC. As a result, in AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, just as both Agrippa and Tiberius had received before, and was clearly the successor to Tiberius. But tragedy struck once again, as Germanicus died after a year, apparently poisoned.

paragraphs: Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD 15. The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus. Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city, and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberius's withdrawal to Capri in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.

paragraphs: Sejanus's position was not quite that of successor. The presence of Livia (the third wife and advisor of Augustus) seems to have checked his power for a time. Her death in AD 29 changed all that. Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators in Rome. Germanicus's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances.

paragraphs: In response, Tiberius manoeuvered cleverly. He knew an immediate condemnation of Sejanus might not succeed. Since he and Sejanus were then joint Consuls, Tiberius resigned his post of Consul, which forced Sejanus to do likewise. This removed much of Sejanus' legal powers and protection. Then, in AD 31, Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Macro was appointed Praetorian Prefect, with the specific job of removing Sejanus. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week.

paragraphs: More treason trials followed. Tacitus writes that Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the start of his reign, but now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. However, Tacitus' portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by several modern historians. The prominent ancient historian Edward Togo Salmon notes in his work, "A history of the Roman world from 30 B.C. to A.D. 138":

paragraphs: The last years of Tiberius were notable for his complete absence from Rome, and his inactivity as Emperor. He was now an old man in his 70s, and left decisions to the officials in Rome. He did nothing to prevent the rise of his grandnephew Caligula, who was now popular with the people (as the only surviving son of germanicus) and who had the support of the Prefect Macro.

paragraphs: In 35, Tiberius would make both caligula and his own grandson Gemellus joint heirs, before dying two years later, in his 78th year. Some speculate Macro and Caligula hastened the old emperor’s death. Regardless, Caligula would succeed Tiberius as emperor.


title: Ray Bradbury

paragraphs: Ray Douglas Bradbury (August 22, 1920 - June 5, 2012) was an American writer. His most famous works are "The Martian Chronicles" and "Fahrenheit 451". He also wrote big collections of short stories such as "Driving Blind."

paragraphs: He was born in Waukegan, Illinois to a Swedish mother. He graduated from a high school in Los Angeles, California. Many of his works are based on real life, such as "Dandelion Wine," a book about growing up in small-town Illinois. His other work includes movies, and screenplays. He won many awards. He died in his Los Angeles home.

paragraphs: He also wrote the short stories "Dark They Were and Golden Eyed" and "A Sound of Thunder."


title: Porpoise

paragraphs: Porpoises are mammals that live in the ocean. They are in the order "Cetacea". They form the family Phocoenidae. There are six species of porpoise.

paragraphs: Porpoises look much like dolphins, but they are different in some ways: They are smaller and more stout. They have spade-shaped teeth, rounded heads, blunt jaws, and triangular dorsal fins.


title: Cetology

paragraphs: Cetology is a type of science. It is the study of the cetaceans. It includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises.

paragraphs: Cetology is the branch of marine mammal science which studies approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea. The term was created in the mid-19th century from the Greek cetus ("whale") and -ology ("study").

paragraphs: Cetologists, or those who study it, seek to understand and explain cetacean evolution, distribution, morphology, behavior, community dynamics, and other topics.


title: Primatology

paragraphs: Primatology is a type of science that is part of zoology, that studies primates (monkeys, apes, lemurs, and humans). Primatology is a part of physical anthropology.


title: Orangutan

paragraphs: The orangutan ("Pongo") is a great ape. There are two species of orangutan. They are from Southeast Asia. There are very few of them left, because loss of the jungle has reduced their habitat. There are orangutans on view at the Singapore zoo.

paragraphs: The name orangutan comes from two Malay words, "orang" which means "person", and "hutan" which means "forest"; so orangutan means "person of the forest".

paragraphs: Orangutans have red-brown hair. They have long arms. They can be strong like chimpanzees and gorillas. They also have hands that are good for climbing. The "Sumatran Orangutan" is smaller and has longer hair than the "Bornean Orangutan". Orangutans have suffered from forest loss and are on the very edge of extinction.

paragraphs: Orangutans are from the rainforests on the islands Borneo and Sumatra in Southeast Asia. They mostly live up in the trees. They eat fruit, leaves and bark, but also insects, bird eggs and small vertebrate animals. They drink water from rain that has been collected in leaves. Orangutans are not comfortable on the ground since they have to push themselves along with fists. Heavy adults move carefully through the trees, using their flexible feet to grasp the tree branches. Smaller orangutans swing with more ease.

paragraphs: An orangutan's diet consists mainly of fruit, they like ripe fruit. If they cannot find fruit they will eat bark, leaves and termites, rather than move to somewhere else to get food. About 60% of an orangutan's diet is fruit, 25% is leaves, 10% is bark and flowers, and 5% is termites and other insects.

paragraphs: After a pregnancy of 230–260 days the female gives birth to usually one baby, but sometimes two, every eight to nine years. The little ones stay with their mother for years, riding on their mother's back and learning to move through the forest. Like human babies, the young orangutans are playful and affectionate. When they are five or six years old, they become more independent and eventually go off on their own.


title: Greeting

paragraphs: Greetings are nice things to say when people meet each other. Greetings may be different from culture to culture. These are some greetings used a lot in the English language:

paragraphs: There are also ways to greet without talking, such as these:


title: Sunlight

paragraphs: Sunlight is the light and energy that comes from the Sun. When this energy reaches the earth's surface, it is called insolation. What we experience as sunlight is actually solar radiation. It is the radiation and heat from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic waves.

paragraphs: The atmosphere affects the amount of solar radiation received. When solar radiation travels through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by the atmosphere (16%). Some of it is scattered to space (6%). Some of it is reflected by clouds (28%). About 47% of it reaches the Earth's surface.

paragraphs: Without sunlight, there could not be life on the Earth. Plants need sunlight for the process of photosynthesis. During photosynthesis the plants use the energy of the sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, to create glucose (sugar). The glucose can later be used by the plant for energy or animals eat the plant and the glucose in it. Plants need sunlight to grow green. Without enough sunlight but with enough water, the plant grows very tall very quickly, but looks yellow and dehydrated, although when touched, the leaves are very moist.

paragraphs: Solar radiation can be both good and bad for a person's health. When in the light, the human body uses the ultraviolet part of sunlight to make its own Vitamin D. Without sunscreen too much ultraviolet light can cause sunburn and skin cancer. Sun angle makes difference in seasons on Earth as well as in the length of day and night. A high angle makes the tropics hot, and a low angle makes the arctic cold.

paragraphs: Different bodies of the Solar System receive sunlight of different intensities. The table compares the amount of light received by each planet on the Solar System follows:

paragraphs: Solar energy is used in many different ways by people all over the world both in its traditional way for heating, cooking or drying and to make electricity where other power supplies are absent, such as in remote places on Earth or in the space. Sometimes, it is cheaper to make electricity from sunlight than from coal or oil.


title: Theism

paragraphs: Theism is the religious belief that at least one god exists while rejecting the existence or importance of polytheistic gods or goddesses. In a broader definition it can also be the belief in God or gods in general, including all types of god-belief. Polytheism is the belief in several gods, while monotheism is the belief in just one god. For example, a theistic religion is Christianity. The opposite to a theist is an atheist. An atheist, is a person who denies or disbelieves the existence of a supreme being or beings.

paragraphs: All of these are rough definitions of the theisms; they are almost always different. We can split them all into different groups:

paragraphs: Gnosticism and agnosticism can be combined with other forms of theism. For example, it is possible to be an agnostic atheist, or a gnostic theist. In common usage, some people group atheism and agnosticism together under the group of nontheism — absence of clear belief in any deity.

paragraphs: This is another way to group different theisms, based on the nature of the gods.


title: Plesiosaur

paragraphs: The plesiosaurs were an order of large, carnivorous marine reptiles. They flourished from 245 million years ago (mya) to 65 mya.

paragraphs: In 1719, William Stukeley described the first partial skeleton of a plesiosaur. The great-grandfather of Charles Darwin, Robert Darwin of Elston told him about it.

paragraphs: Mary Anning was the first to discover a fairly complete plesiosaur. She found it on the 'Jurassic Coast' of Dorset, England in the winter of 1820/21. The fossil was missing its skull, but in 1823 she found another one, this time complete with its skull. The name "Plesiosaurus" was given to it by the Rev. William Conybeare.

paragraphs: The earliest plesiosaur remains are from the Middle Triassic period, and the group was important through the Jurassic and Cretaceous. They had two large pairs of paddles, short tails, short or long necks, and broad bodies. They died out at the K/T extinction event, 65 million years ago.

paragraphs: Plesiosaurs had many bones in their flippers, making them flexible. No modern animal has this four-paddle anatomy: modern turtles use their forelimbs for swimming. They were mainly piscivorous (fish-eaters).

paragraphs: The pliosaurs were a group of mostly large submarine predators with short necks and large heads. Their sizes ranged from two to 15 metres, and they were predators of large fish and other reptiles. Their streamlined body shape suggests they swam and ate under water.

paragraphs: There were three families of long-necked plesiosaurs, who evidently had a different life-style from the pliosaurs. It was suggested by D.M.S. Watson that their method was as surface swimmers, darting down to snatch smaller fish which were feeding on plankton. It is hard to see the benefit of a long neck under water; aquatic mammals operating under water all have a streamlined torpedo-shape, as did pliosaurs and ichthyosaurs. All the longer-necked familiers were, from the setting of the teeth and jaws, eaters of small fish. However, some at least were bottom-feeders, consuming various prey. Digestion of shellfish was aided by gastroliths.

paragraphs: Plesiosaurs have been found with fossils of belemnites (squid-like animals), and ammonites (giant nautilus-like molluscs) associated with their stomachs. But plesiosaurs could not crack shells. Instead, they probably swallowed them whole. In the belly of a plesiosaur were "stomach stones", which are called "gastroliths." These stones moved around in the plesiosaur's stomach and cracked or crushed the shells of the animals it ate. One plesiosaur fossil found in South Dakota had 253 gatroliths weighing a total of 29 pounds.

paragraphs: Live birth has been proved for ichthyosaurs, but is uncertain for plesiosaurs.


title: Midland, Texas

paragraphs: Midland is a city in the American state of Texas. It is called Midland, because it is the midway point between two bigger cities in Texas, Fort Worth and El Paso. Oil was discovered in the region in 1923 and is still a larger part of the economy.

paragraphs: Midland is also famous as the hometown of former First Lady Barbara Walker Bush. She and her husband, former president George H. W. Bush lived there, with their children including the later US President George W. Bush and his wife Laura, and his brother Jeb Bush, the former Governor of Florida.


title: Sardinia

paragraphs: Sardinia (, Sardinian: "Sardigna") is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous region of Italy. It was formerly the Kingdom of Sardinia.

paragraphs: The official name is, in Italian, Regione Autonoma della Sardegna.The capital and largest city is Cagliari.

paragraphs: The island of Sardinia has an area of and, after Sicily, is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is long from North to South, and wide from West to East. It lies between 38° 51' and 41° 15' latitude north and 8° 8' and 9° 50' longitude east.

paragraphs: The island is on the western Mediterranean Sea, between the island of Corsica to the north and Tunisia to the south. The Tyrrhenian Sea part of the Mediterranean is directly east of Sardinia, between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula.

paragraphs: The Strait of Bonifacio (, , Gallurese: "Bocchi di Bunifaciu", ) is the strait between Corsica and Sardinia, named after the Corsican town Bonifacio. It is wide and divides the Tyrrhenian Sea from the western Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: Sardinia has few major rivers, the largest being the Tirso, long, which flows into the western Mediterranean Sea, the Coghinas () and the Flumendosa ().

paragraphs: The highest peak is Punta La Marmora (), part of the Gennargentu group of mountains in the centre of the island. Other mountain chains are Monte Limbara () in the northeast, the Chain of Marghine and Goceano () running crosswise for towards the north, the Monte Albo (), the Sette Fratelli massif in the southeast, and the Sulcis Mountains and the Monte Linas ().

paragraphs: The mountain chains of the island are separated by wide valleys; the main ones are Campidano in the southwest between Oristano and Cagliari, and the Nurra in the northwest.

paragraphs: There are many small islands around the main island of Sardinia. Some of them are:


title: Nuclear reactor

paragraphs: A nuclear reactor is a machine that uses fission to generate heat. There are different designs which use different fuels. Most often, uranium-235 or plutonium-239 are the main components of these fuels.

paragraphs: Most nuclear reactors are used to make electricity. In nuclear power plants heat from the fission reactions in the reactor changes water into steam. The steam is then used to power electric turbines which make electricity. As with other steam engines, the turbines take energy from the movement of the steam.

paragraphs: Some reactors are used for other purposes. Some reactors make neutrons for science research and others make radioactive isotopes. Some universities have small nuclear reactors to teach students how reactors work.

paragraphs: The first nuclear reactor was built in 1942 by a team of scientists led by Enrico Fermi. This was a part of the Manhattan Project which needed the fuel from the reactor to make the atomic bomb. The first nuclear reactor to make electricity was a small experimental reactor built in Idaho in 1951. It made just enough electricity for four light globes.

paragraphs: Nuclear reactors are expensive to build because of the many safety features they need to have. There is also a problem with the huge amount of radioactive waste from the reactors. However they produce electricity cheaply, and do not pollute the air. There have been serious accidents at several nuclear reactors: Windscale (UK) 1957, Mayak (USSR) 1957, Three Mile Island (USA) 1979, Chernobyl (USSR) 1986 and Fukushima (Japan) 2011. Concerns about safety have limited the growth of nuclear power. There are about 437 reactors around the world which provide about 5% of the world's electricity.


title: Samobor

paragraphs: Samobor is a city in Zagreb County, Croatia, population 36,206 It is west of Zagreb, between the eastern slopes of Samoborsko gorje (Samobor hills, the eastern part of the Žumberak Mountains), in the Sava river valley. It is part of the Zagreb metropolitan area.

paragraphs: Samobor has been there since 1242, according to a document of endowment by King Bela IV. It is one of the earliest tourist resorts in the region, with the first tourist facilities dating back to 1810, oriented towards anglers, hunters and hikers.


title: Frankfurt (Oder)

paragraphs: Frankfurt (Oder) or Frankfurt an der Oder is a town in Germany. It lies on the Oder river, which marks the current border between Germany and Poland (The so-called Oder-Neisse line). It's in the east of the state of Brandenburg.

paragraphs: Since January 1999, the town added a prefix "Kleiststadt" to refer to Heinrich von Kleist, who was born there in 1777. Today, about 65,000 people are living in Frankfurt an der Oder.


title: Cook Islands

paragraphs: The Cook Islands are a group of islands in the southern Pacific. They form an independent state, but have strong ties with New Zealand. The 15 small islands have a total land surface of 240 square kilometers. About 18.000 people live on the islands, most of them from tourism. The largest island, Rarotonga, also holds the territory's capital, Avarua.

paragraphs: The nation also has a distinctive Polynesian language known as Cook Island Maori, which is closely related to the Maori language of New Zealand and to the Tahitian language.


title: Punishment

paragraphs: Punishment is when something is done to a person (or animal) that they do not like. It may be because they broke a rule. There are many kinds of punishment, from a death penalty for very bad crimes, to things that parents may do to punish children, like spanking them or taking away their toys.

paragraphs: Punishment can be seen as good in society to prevent people from doing bad things. It can also seen as cruel and unnecessary. It can also be seen to do more harm than good.


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title: Blue whale

paragraphs: The blue whale ("Balaenoptera musculus") is a marine mammal of the suborder of baleen whales (called Mysticeti). They grow to be about 30 meters long. The biggest blue whale found was 190 tons and measured 98 feet long. Larger specimens have been measured at 110 feet, but never weighed. This makes blue whales the largest animals ever to be on Earth, even bigger than the largest dinosaurs.

paragraphs: The blue whale eats mostly very tiny creatures, like krill. These inch-long, shrimp-like crustacean swim in swarms. In the Antarctic summer, there are so many of these krill that they turn the waters orange. A blue whale can eat eight to ten tons of krill every day.

paragraphs: The blue whale's body is long and slender. It can be various shades of bluish-grey above and somewhat lighter underneath. There are at least three distinct subspecies: "B. m. musculus" of the North Atlantic and North Pacific, "B. m. intermedia" of the Southern Ocean and "B. m. brevicauda" (also known as the pygmy blue whale) found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean. "B. m. indica", found in the Indian Ocean, may be another subspecies. As with other baleen whales, its diet consists almost exclusively of small krill.

paragraphs: Blue whales were once abundant around the world. In the nineteenth century, they were hunted almost to extinction by whalers. They were finally protected by the international community in 1966. A 2002 report estimated there were 5,000 to 12,000 blue whales worldwide, located in at least five groups. More recent research into the Pygmy subspecies suggests this may be an underestimate. Before whaling, the largest population was in the Antarctic, numbering approximately 239,000 (range 202,000 to 311,000). There remain only much smaller (around 2,000) concentrations in each of the eastern North Pacific, Antarctic, and Indian Ocean groups. There are two more groups in the North Atlantic, and at least two in the Southern Hemisphere.


title: Cetacea

paragraphs: The order Cetacea are marine mammals that live in oceans, seas, and even a few rivers around the world. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises are part of this group. These common name refer to size: whales are the largest, porpoises the smallest. How and what they eat is a better guide to their relationships. The study of cetaceans is called cetology.


title: Scottish Gaelic language

paragraphs: Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig, pronounced "Gah-lick") is a Celtic language. It is commonly called just Gaelic in English. It is a sister language of Irish Gaelic and Manx Gaelic; all three are Goidelic languages. These are related to the Welsh language, Cornish language and the Breton language (these three are Brittonic or Brythonic languages).

paragraphs: In past times, the language was spoken across all of Scotland except for the Northern Islands (Orkney and Shetland). In the later part of the Middle Ages, the kings of Scotland began to speak English and looked down on the Scottish Gaelic. After the union of England and Scotland, the language was snubbed and looked down on even more, and English took over.

paragraphs: Scottish Gaelic today is basically that of the Gaelic spoken in the Outer Hebrides and on Skye. Generally speaking, the Gaelic spoken across the Western Isles is similar enough to be classed as one major dialect group, but there is some regional variation.

paragraphs: A census in the United Kingdom in 2001 showed that a total of 58,652 (1.2% of the Scottish population aged over three years old) in Scotland could speak some amount of Gaelic at that time. Only the Western Isles of Scotland have more people who can speak the language than not (61% of the people here speak Gaelic). The place in Scotland with the biggest percentage of Scottish Gaelic speakers is a village called Barvas on the Isle of Lewis. There, 74.7% of the people there speak the language.

paragraphs: Children in Scotland do not have to learn the language in schools, though it is becoming a more popular subject as Gaelic is an important part of their Scottish culture.

paragraphs: Scottish Gaelic is also used overseas. It is estimated that 1,000–2,000 in Nova Scotia, Canada can speak some Gaelic.


Scottish language


title: Germanic languages

paragraphs: The Germanic languages are a branch of Indo-European languages. They came from one language, "Proto-Germanic", and were originally spoken in Northern, Western and Central Europe.

paragraphs: The Germanic languages are separated into the East Germanic languages (all extinct), the North Germanic languages and the West Germanic languages.


title: Killer whale

paragraphs: Killer whales, or Orcas ("Orcinus orca") are toothed whales in the oceanic dolphin family. They are the largest dolphins. Orcas have mostly black skin with white patches. They are found in all the world's oceans, from the cold of the Arctic to the tropical seas. They are easy to identify because of their distinctive white and black colouring. They live in pods.

paragraphs: Like all toothed whales, they are carnivores. Killer whales are apex predators and they hunt in family groups called 'pods'. Members of the pod work together to surround their prey. Killer whales eat many different kinds of prey, such as small sharks, seals, sea lions, dolphins, whales, penguins, seagulls, squid, octopuses, stingrays, crabs and sea turtles. In 1997, the first known killer whale attack on great white sharks was documented off the coast of San Francisco. There are several different types of "Orca", each of which has different living and prey habits. They do not interbreed and seems to be subspecies or even separate species. Their behaviour and hunting techniques also differ.

paragraphs: Killer whales are the largest living members of the dolphin family. Males typically range from 6 to 8 metres long and weigh in excess of 6 tonnes. Females are smaller, generally ranging from 5 to 7m and weighing about 3 to 4 t. The largest male killer whale on record was 9.8 metres, weighing over 10 tonnes, while the largest female was 8.5m, weighing 7.5 t. Calves at birth weigh about and are about long. The killer whale's large size and strength make it among the fastest marine mammals, able to reach speeds in excess of .

paragraphs: Killer whales have the second-heaviest brains among marine mammals. They can be trained in captivity and are often described as intelligent, although defining and measuring "intelligence" is difficult in a species whose life is very different from ours.

paragraphs: Killer whales imitate others, and seem to deliberately teach skills to their young. This is most strikingly seen when killer whales deliberately beach themselves to catch seals. Off Península Valdés, adults sometimes pull seals off the shoreline and then release them again near juvenile whales, allowing the younger whales to practice the difficult capture technique on the now-weakened prey. Off the Crozet Islands, mothers push their calves onto the beach, waiting to pull the youngster back if needed. Some orcas have discovered that flipping sharks upside down can paralyze them.

paragraphs: People who have interacted closely with killer whales offer numerous anecdotes demonstrating the whales' curiosity, playfulness, and ability to solve problems. For example, Alaskan killer whales have not only learned how to steal fish from longlines, but have overcome a variety of techniques designed to stop them, such as the use of unbaited lines as decoys. Once, fishermen placed their boats several miles apart, taking turns retrieving small amounts of their catch, in the hope that the whales would not have enough time to move between boats to steal fish as it was being retrieved. A researcher described what happened next:

paragraphs: In other anecdotes, researchers describe incidents in which wild killer whales playfully tease humans by repeatedly moving objects that the humans are trying to reach, or suddenly start to toss around a chunk of ice after a human throws a snowball.

paragraphs: The killer whale's use of dialects and the passing of other learned behaviours from generation to generation have been described as a form of culture.

paragraphs: The dorsal fin of the orca can extend up to six feet above its body. That's taller than most grown men. And because a killer whale swims close to the surface, the dorsal fin can often be seen gliding through the surface of the water. This causes some people to mistake killer whale for sharks. In captivity, dorsal fins often collapse for many reasons, but in the wild, dorsal fin collapse happens in less than one percent of wild orcas.

paragraphs: Female killer whales are often tamed and can be trained to do tricks for audiences in marine shows, like in Sea World. Sometimes, killer whales have even starred in movies, such as the movie titled "Free Willy". Orcas can be dangerous, and have been known to kill their attendants on rare occasions. Some marine parks now require trainers to stay outside the pool when they work with orcas. Unlike wild killer whales, captive killer whales are reported to have made nearly two dozen attacks on humans since the 1970s, some of which have been fatal.


title: Pac-Man

paragraphs: Pac-Man is an arcade video game that was made by Namco and designed by Toru Iwatani. It was released in 1980, and became very popular in the history of games.

paragraphs: In "Pac-Man", the player makes a Pac-Man, a yellow disc, move around a maze. The goal is to eat every yellow pellet (circles) while not getting caught by the ghosts/monsters. For extra points, fruits that appear can also be eaten. When Pac-Man eats a big pellet, the ghosts turn blue and can be eaten. Even though the game has 256 stages, the last level can not be finished due to a problem with the creation of the game.

paragraphs: The game is called Puck Man in Japan. The game was named "Pac-Man" in the United States so that nobody could change the "P" to "F". There were many sequels and remakes based on the game. Hanna-Barbera made a animated TV show airing on ABC in the early 1970s. The game was also part of "Namco Museum" games. There is a "Namco Museum Remix" for the Wii.

paragraphs: Pac-Man was one of the first games to have Cutscenes. It has 3 cutscenes in total.


title: Shooting star

paragraphs: A shooting star is the common name for the visible path of a meteoroid as it enters the atmosphere. A shooting star is also broken pieces of meteors that have become broken off in space.


title: Pot Noodle

paragraphs: Pot Noodle is a type of cup noodle sold in the United Kingdom. They contain noodles, soya pieces, vegetables, and seasoning powder with a packet of sauce that can be added to taste.

paragraphs: Pot noodles are available in several varieties:


Greenlandic


title: Superman (1978 movie)

paragraphs: Superman is a 1978 movie based on the popular Superman superhero comic book. It was directed by Richard Donner, produced by Ilya Salkind, and the music was provided by John Williams. The movie starred Christopher Reeve, Margot Kidder, Marlon Brando, Gene Hackman, Ned Beatty, Phyllis Thaxter, Glenn Ford, and Jackie Cooper. It was very successful at the box office and with critics, and inspired three sequels along with the 2006 movie, "Superman Returns".


title: Domestic violence

paragraphs: Domestic violence means that in a relationship or marriage, one or both of the partners uses physical, sexual or psychological violence to try to get power or control over the other or due to losing their temper. Domestic violence can occur in heterosexual and same-sex relationships. There is often a predictable pattern or cycle of violence in a relationship and the abuse tends to get worse over time. Domestic violence can be also a factor to be homelessness, as pointed out by Principles 15 of the Yogyakarta Principles.

paragraphs: In any culture or community, there are beliefs and attitudes that support domestic violence and beliefs and attitudes that do not support domestic violence. In most countries, laws exist to protect the victim of such violent acts. There are also organisations that can help in such situations.

paragraphs: Domestic violence sometimes does not get reported to the police. Estimates say that only a third of domestic violence cases (or even less) get reported to the authorities.

paragraphs: Many people who use violence against their partners have mental disorders, especially antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality disorder.


title: Emersons Green

paragraphs: Emersons Green is an area with lots of houses, just to the north of Bristol, in England.

paragraphs: It used to be just farming land between Mangotsfield and Downend, but in the 1990s houses, schools and shops were built.

paragraphs: Emersons Green is in South Gloucestershire.

paragraphs: There is a large shopping area in Emersons Green, including Sainsbury's, Boots, Lidl and Argos. There are also restaurants, three pubs and some cafés.


title: Archaeopteryx

paragraphs: Archaeopteryx is one of the most important fossils ever discovered. It is a bird from the Upper Jurassic, about 150 million years ago. It shows the evolutionary link between non-avian theropod dinosaurs and birds. The first "Archaeopteryx" was found in 1860 near Solnhofen in Bavaria, Germany. Today, ten skeletons and one feather of "Archaeopteryx" have been found.

paragraphs: "Archaeopteryx" looked like a small carnivorous dinosaur with wings and feathers. It had a mouth with teeth, claws on the hands and a long tail. Today, it is known that dromaeosaurs, and possibly most theropods, looked like birds and that many had feathers. When they are born, today's South American hoatzin have claws on their wings when they are young, just like "Archaeopteryx".

paragraphs: Thomas Henry Huxley ("Darwin's bulldog"), who was a comparative anatomist, made a study of this nearly 150 years ago. He compared "Archaeopteryx" with a small theropod dinosaur, "Compsognathus". These two fossils came from the same place: Solnhofen in Bavaria, Germany. The strata come from the end of the Jurassic period, about 144 million years ago. He showed that the two were very similar, except for the front limbs and feathers of "Archaeopteryx".

paragraphs: Huxley's study showed the basic relationship between birds and reptiles. He united them under the title of "Sauropsida". His papers on "Archaeopteryx" and the origin of birds were of great interest then and still are. Huxley concluded that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs.

paragraphs: Only one dinobird has been found from a time before "Archaeopteryx". It is called "Anchiornis huxlei", from 160 to 155 million years ago. It had feathers on both front and rear legs, and could certainly glide. It may or may not have had some ability to fly. This discovery means we cannot say "Archaeopteryx" is the first known bird, but its contribution to science has been huge. We now know for sure that a whole group of small theropod dinosaurs had feathers, and that flight was a later, secondary, use of feathers. The first use of feathers was temperature regulation, and probably also signalling (see "Epidexipteryx").

paragraphs: It may be that "Archaeopteryx" is not directly ancestral to all birds, but it is still a fine transitional fossil.


title: Mosel-Saar-Ruwer

paragraphs: Mosel-Saar-Ruwer is a German wine-growing-region in the valleys of the rivers Moselle, Saar and Ruwer near Koblenz and Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate. It is famous for its wines of Riesling, Elbling and Müller-Thurgau grapes.

paragraphs: There are the following six sub-regions with 19 large vineyards:


title: Snail

paragraphs: A snail is a common name for a kind of mollusc. The term is used for a gastropod with a coiled shell. Their fossil records extends back into the Carboniferous period.

paragraphs: Land snails and slugs breathe with a kind of lung. They used to be put together in a group, the Pulmonata. This was a well-known order in traditional taxonomy. However, the Pulmonata is polyphyletic. This means the same life-style evolved in a number of different lines. This is called convergent evolution. Therefore, the Pulmonata is no longer an official term in biological classification.

paragraphs: The term "snail" is also sometimes used for aquatic snail-like gastropods, which usually have gills. Actually, most snail species are marine snails. There are more species of them, and they are far greater in numbers. Many kinds of snails can also be found in fresh water habitats.

paragraphs: Most land snails and slugs are herbivorous. Aquatic snails and slugs are usually omnivores or predatory carnivores.

paragraphs: In many countries around the world, people eat snails as a delicacy. In France, snails are called "escargots", which is also the name of the dish. In French cuisine, the snails are cooked in salt water and then served with a garlic sauce.

paragraphs: The biggest snail is the giant African snail. Their foot is up to 35 cm long.

paragraphs: The fastest snail is the "Helix aspersa". It can reach speeds up to 0.047 kmh.

paragraphs: There are known more than 43000 species of snails all over the world.

paragraphs: Snails are invertebrates, which are animals with no backbones. The shell on the snail helps protect it, and also reduces the loss of water by evaporation. Shells have many different shapes, sizes, and colors. Snails do not breathe through their mouths, instead they have a breathing hole under their shells.

paragraphs: A snails "foot" is a muscle which allows it to move slowly across the ground. The foot puts out ('exudes') slime, which eases the snail's movement, leaving a trail. Snails can absorb mineral nutrients through their foot by simply sitting on a rock.

paragraphs: The head is attached to the foot. On the head there are 15 mm stalks. At the end of the stalks are snail’s eyes.

paragraphs: Snails are found all over the world. Generally speaking, land snails live in damp habitats. They live in caves and dark places. Snails can be found in dark places such as in a garden under plant's foliage leaves. Some species live in cold places like the Arctic and a few are found in warm places like beaches and deserts.

paragraphs: Land snails eat vegetables and fruits, such as lettuce, carrots, cucumber and apples. Aquatic snails are often carnivorous. Snails use their radula to cut food. The radula is a hard, rough plate in the mouth. Radula teeth are like little pieces of sandpaper. They are good for cutting up plants and if the snail eats meat they are good for tearing the meat apart.

paragraphs: Many animals eat snails. Fireflies, snakes, beetles, fish, insects, turtles and people eat snails too. To defend themselves, snails pull back into their shells.


title: Ruwer River

paragraphs: The Ruwer is a river in Germany with a length of , a tributary of the Mosel River. The valley of the Ruwer is a part of the wine-growing region Mosel-Saar-Ruwer near Trier in Rhineland-Palatinate. It is famous for its Riesling wines.

paragraphs: At the lower Ruwer valley are the villages Waldrach, Kasel, Mertesdorf, Eitelsbach and Ruwer.

paragraphs: Tributaries are Alkenbach, Altbach, Altweiherbach, Apfelbach, Avelbach, Bausbach, Benninger Bach, Bingelbach, Burg Heider Bach, Burkelsbach, Eitelsbach, Enterbach, Eschbach, Eselsbach, Flonterbach, Gimpelbach, Gondersbach, Grindelbach, Großbach, Hinzerter Bach, Kittelbach, Klinkbach, Kreidbach, Kundelbach, Labach, Lehbach, Misselbach, Moertschelbach, Mühlscheider Bach, Pehlbach, Rauruwer, Rimperterbach, Riveris, Rothbach, Siebenbornbach, Thielenbach, Waldbach, Waschbach, Weiherbach, Wenigbach, Wenzelbach and Weschbach.


title: Slug

paragraphs: Slug is a general term for a gastropod mollusc which has no shell, or just a small internal shell.

paragraphs: Slugs belong to several different families which also include snails with shells. Snails are gastropods with a coiled shell large enough for the animal to pull back inside. The families of land slugs are not very closely related, despite looking similar. The shell-less slug type is an example of convergent evolution, and so the category "slug" is not a taxonomic category.

paragraphs: The name "slug" is used for air-breathing land slugs, while the marine forms are usually known as sea slugs. Land gastropods with a shell that is too small to hide the body are sometimes called "semislugs".

paragraphs: Like land snails, most slugs have four 'feelers' or "tentacles" on their head. The upper two (the "optical tentacles") see light and have eyespots at the ends, while the lower two (the "sensory tentacles") are used for smelling. The tentacles are retractable, and can regrow if lost.

paragraphs: On top of the slug, behind the head, is a body part called the "mantle," and under this are the genital opening and anus. On one side (almost always the right side) of the mantle is a breathing hole, which is easy to see when open, but difficult to see when closed. Inside the mantle in some species is a very small, flat shell.

paragraphs: The bottom of a snail is called a "foot". Like other snails, a slug moves by rhythmic waves of muscle contraction on the bottom of its foot. At the same time, it secretes a layer of mucus on which it travels, which helps prevent damage to the foot. Around the edge of the foot is the 'foot fringe'.

paragraphs: Some slug species hibernate underground during the winter in places with cold winters, but in other species, the adults die in the autumn.


title: Ruwer (municipality)

paragraphs: Ruwer is a municipality (a convention community called "Verbandsgemeinde" Ruwer) on the River Ruwer. The administrative offices are in the town of Waldrach, and it should not be confused with the nearby town of Ruwer, which is for administrative purposes a part of the city of Trier.


title: Gunpowder

paragraphs: Gunpowder (or gun powder) is a mix of chemical substances (75% saltpeter, 15% charcoal and 10% sulfur). It is used primarily in firearms, burns very quickly, and creates gases. Those gases use up more space than the gunpowder they come from, so they push outward. If the gunpowder is in a small space, the gases will push on the walls of the space, building up pressure. In a gun, the pressure pushes against a bullet, causing it to fly out at high speeds. If the pressure became too high, it could destroy the gun barrel.

paragraphs: Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese. The first references of black powder, the original form of gunpowder, date to the 9th century. According to legend, Chinese alchemists were looking for a formula to create the elixir of life, or the mythical potion that causes whoever drinks it to become immortal, when they accidentally created gunpowder. Because the powder was highly flammable, or burned very easily, they decided to call it "fire medicine" (Simplified Chinese: 火药 / Traditional Chinese: 火藥). The Chinese soon weaponized the substance, or made weapons out of it. In later centuries they made many weapons using gunpowder, including rockets, bombs, flamethrowers, and land mines, before making cannons and guns. The oldest weapon that uses gunpowder dates back to a bronze handheld cannon made in northeastern China in 1288. The first mention in Europe was in the 13th century when Roger Bacon described the formula of black powder. Gunpowder was extremely valuable to the Chinese civilization. There were so valuable that sometimes it was traded for gold.


title: Mayor

paragraphs: The mayor is a person who is in charge of the administration of a city. Some mayors are elected by the people who live in that city. For other cities, a central government body may choose the mayor. Some large cities have a Lord Mayor.

paragraphs: In federal countries like Germany the mayor can also be head of the government of a city state. The Mayor of Hamburg runs the government just like the Minister President of Bavaria runs the Bavarian government. In some big cities such as Tokyo the Mayor is a Governor.

paragraphs: In many countries, such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the mayor is not in charge of the daily functions of a city or town. That job is done by a Town Clerk or Chief Executive, who is appointed to a full-time paid job. The mayor works part-time, usually without payment, and represents the city at events and civic functions.


title: Churning of the Ocean

paragraphs: Churning of the Ocean is a mythical story of Hinduism and Hindu mythology. It is described in many Hindu scriptures, especially in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The story tells about the churning of the ocean by the gods and the demons. From this churning of the ocean, several things came out of the ocean. Some of them were:

paragraphs: The Hindu scriptures and the Hindu mythology tell that all the above things came out of the ocean for the good of human beings.


title: Martha Washington

paragraphs: Martha Dandridge Custis Washington (June 2, 1731 – May 2, 1802) was the wife of George Washington, the first president of the United States. Although people only started using the term decades after her death, Martha Washington is considered to be the first First Lady of the United States.

paragraphs: She was born on June 2, 1731, at Chestnut Grove Plantation near Williamsburg, Virginia. Her parents were  John Dandridge, an immigrant from England, and his wife Frances Jones. Her education consisted of the womanly arts such as needlework and playing musical instruments. Later in life, she would learn to manage a plantation.

paragraphs: At 18, she married Daniel Parke Custis, a tobacco planter 20 years older than her. She bore him four children. Only two, John "Jacky" and Martha "Patsy", survived to young adulthood. She was widowed in 1757 at age 26. In 1759, she married George Washington, a colonel in the British Army. Their marriage was one of mutual affection and respect, but not one of passion. The Washingtons had no biological children.

paragraphs: During the American Revolutionary War, Martha visited the cold and starving Continental troops spending the winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. She donated as much food as possible, and sewed clothing for the soldiers. She nursed those who were ill or dying. She urged local women to do the same. Her commitment to the welfare of the veterans of the Revolution would remain lifelong. They addressed her as "Lady Washington."

paragraphs: Washington was unanimously elected president in 1789. Martha served as First Lady from April 30, 1789 to March 4, 1797. She found the job unpleasant. She complained of the journalists who followed her everywhere (even to the circus with her grandson), and of the many restrictions placed upon her as First Lady (she was not allowed to accept dinner invitations, for example).

paragraphs: She set many of the customs and standards that were observed by future First Ladies. She retired to Mount Vernon with her husband after serving her country.

paragraphs: She died in Mount Vernon on May 22, 1802. Her obituary (death notice) was widely printed in regional newspapers. She is buried in the vault at Mount Vernon. She was the first historical female figure to be depicted by the United States government on postage stamps and currency.


title: Abigail Adams

paragraphs: Abigail Smith Adams (November 11, 1744–October 28, 1818) was the wife of John Adams, the second President of the United States. Later on, people started to address the wife of the president as the First Lady. So, she became the second First Lady of the United States. She was born in Weymouth, Massachusetts. She belonged to a famous family of Massachusetts (the Quincy Family).

paragraphs: In 1801, the couple retired and lived in Quincy. Abigail died in 1818, at age 74 of typhoid fever.

paragraphs: Abigail Adams advocated for an equal education in public schools for boys and girls. In her earliest years, she was often in poor health. She spent most of her time reading. In addition to that, she corresponded to family and friends before getting married.

paragraphs: Adams did not get any formal education in any school or college. Her father had a big library, so she studied many books and became smart that way. She married John Adams in 1764. In the next ten years, she had five children (a sixth was stillborn). One of her children was John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States.

paragraphs: Adams was a vital confidant and adviser to her husband John Adams. She opposed slavery and supported women's rights. In 1776, her husband participated in the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. There, Adams wrote her most famous letter to the Founding Fathers "remember the ladies".

paragraphs: In 1784, Adams joined at her husbdat his 's diplomatic post in Paris. She became interested in the manners of the French. After 1785, she filled the difficult role of wife of the First US Minister to Great Britain. She did so with dignity and tat.


title: Martha Jefferson Randolph

paragraphs: Martha Washington Jefferson Randolph (September 27, 1772 – October 10, 1836) was the daughter of Thomas Jefferson and his wife Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States. Because her father was a widower, Martha Washington Jefferson Randolph acted as the First Lady of the United States from March 4, 1801 to March 3, 1809.

paragraphs: Martha was born in Monticello, near Charlottesville, Virginia. She was named Martha Washington in honor of Martha Washington, the wife of the first President of the United States, George Washington. She was educated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Paris.

paragraphs: In 1790, Martha married Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. They had twelve children. Shortly before her death, she and her husband developed differences. She died in 1836 in Albemarle County, Virginia at the age of 64.


title: Aracaju

paragraphs: Aracaju is the modern capital city of the state of Sergipe in the northeastern region of Brazil. It has about 470.000 inhabitants (estimate 2003) and lies between the cities of Salvador and Maceio, also in the northeast of Brazil. It was planned and built to be the state capital in 1855.


title: A Midsummer Night's Dream

paragraphs: A Midsummer Night's Dream is a play by William Shakespeare. The exact date the play was written is unknown. It is generally accepted that the play was written in 1595 or 1596. It was first printed in 1600. In 1623, the play was printed in the First Folio, a collection of all of Shakespeare's plays.

paragraphs: Shakespeare's sources include works by Plutarch, Apuleius, Ovid, Geoffrey Chaucer, and Edmund Spenser. He found a description of Puck in Reginald Scot's "The Discoverie of Witchcraft" (1584). It is generally believed that the play was written for the festivities surrounding the aristocratic marriage of either Elizabeth Vere, Lord Burghley’s granddaughter, in 1595, or Elizabeth Carey, daughter of Sir George Carey, in 1596.

paragraphs: The play is about four confused young lovers, a group of clumsy workmen, the royal court of Duke Theseus, and the royal fairy court of King Oberon and Queen Titania. The play is set mostly at night in the woods near Athens.

paragraphs: The play has been made into movies on numerous occasions. One movie stars Mickey Rooney as the fairy Puck. Benjamin Britten wrote an opera based on the play, George Balanchine and Frederick Ashton have both made ballets about it, and Felix Mendelssohn wrote many pieces of music for the play which include an "Overture" and a "Wedding March".

paragraphs: Egeus wants his daughter Hermia to marry Demetrius. Hermia does not want to marry him. She loves another man named Lysander. Hermia and Lysander decide to run away. Demetrius follows them. Helena, Hermia's best friend, is in love with Demetrius. She follows him. All four become lost in the woods near Athens.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, Oberon and Titania are having an argument. Oberon decides to teach Titania a lesson. He puts a love potion into her eyes while she is asleep. This potion will make her fall in love with the first thing she sees when she wakes.

paragraphs: Oberon finds Helena and Demetrius. He tells Puck to give Demetrius some of the love potion so that he will love Helena. Puck makes a mistake and puts the potion in Lysander's eyes. When Lysander wakes up, he loves Helena instead of his real sweetheart Hermia!

paragraphs: The workmen are practising a play in the woods for the upcoming marriage of Theseus and Hippolyta. Puck plays a trick on Nick Bottom by giving him donkey ears. The other actors run away, so Bottom goes to sleep. He is sleeping near Titania. She wakes up and falls in love with him.

paragraphs: Oberon realises everything is all mixed up. He gives some of the love potion to Demetrius. Now Demetrius and Lysander both love Helena. Sad and confused, all the lovers fall asleep. At last, Puck rights all the wrongs. He makes Lysander love Hermia again, and makes Demetrius love Helena. Everyone is happy.

paragraphs: The workmen perform their play after the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta. Oberon has stopped Titania being in love with Bottom. They are happy with each other again. The fairies use their magic to bless all the lovers.


title: Vodka

paragraphs: Vodka is an alcoholic drink that is usually about 40% alcohol. It is clear (but can be flavoured), though it is sometimes mixed with other liquids before people drink it. It was first popular in the Slavic countries of Eastern Europe then it came to the Turkic countries like Kazakhstan or Turkmenistan, after being invented in Poland or in Russia.

paragraphs: Vodka can be made from different things:

paragraphs: Unlike cognac or whisky, vodka is not usually matured in barrels, but bottled immediately. Some Scandinavian vodkas called "akvavit" (Latin "aqua vitae", "water of life") are matured in oak barrels before they are bottled. When the vodka is bottled, it is ready for drinking.

paragraphs: Most people think the name "vodka" comes from the Slavic word for water in its diminutive form, "little water". The earliest mention of Vodka in Poland is in 1405. The Russians are known to have first used the word in June 8, 1751. It is not known if it was the Russians or the Poles who made the first drinks that could be classified as vodka, as sources provide various views on this topic (though it's important to remember that the first mention of the word "vodka" in Cyrillic refers to a medicinal drink bought by the merchants of Kievan Rus from Poland). It is also worth noting that vodka was first used as medicine. When it became a popular drink, it was first known in Polish as "gorzałka" - from the Old Polish word "gorzeć", meaning burn. At first, gorzałka was a people's drink, but in the Slavic countries it soon became common among the nobility as well. it is worth noting that the common Ukrainian word for vodka is "horilka" which bears an extremely close resemblance to the Polish gorzalka. Both words roots have the same meaning ("hority" - to burn; "gorzeć", also to burn)

paragraphs: There are two basic kinds of Vodka: clear vodka and flavored vodka. Some types of vodka have plants or herbs added to the unflavored vodka to make it taste better. Contrary to popular belief, flavoured vodka is not new - it has been a part of Polish drinking tradition for centuries. It is only relatively recently in history that clear and flavoured vodkas have found their way to Western countries such as the UK or US.

paragraphs: Vodka is either drunk pure, or cocktails are made with it. The simplest form of cocktail is to mix it with orange or lemon juice. Usually, vodka is drunk during a longer meal. Usually salty or sour things (not sweets) are served. In Poland and Russia (as well as some of their neighbours, such as Ukraine or Lithuania), vodka is drunk from glasses that can hold about 100 grams (0,1 litres) of vodka. The glass is usually emptied in one draught, while holding the breath. Directly afterwards something small is eaten. In most Eastern European countries it is consumed with pickled cucumbers. Before drinking, a toast is given.

paragraphs: Vodka is a key element of Slavic tradition in some countries of Eastern Europe (especially Poland, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia). It has also spread to become a part of national culture in Baltic countries like Lithuania and Nordic countries like Sweden. It's traditional in Russia and other Slavic countries (as well as some Roma communities in Eastern Europe) to put a glass of vodka with a slice of bread (usually black bread) on top on graves or near photos of the deceased in their memory. This is similar to what people in Western countries do with flowers.


title: Sexual reproduction

paragraphs: Sexual reproduction is how most animals and plants reproduce. Some protists and fungi also reproduce this way. Organisms that reproduce sexually have two different sexes: male and female.

paragraphs: In sexual reproduction, offspring are produced when sperms fertilise eggs from the female. Various steps are involved in this process.

paragraphs: The cells of an animal or higher plant have two sets of chromosomes: they are diploid. When gametes (sex cells) are produced, they have only one set of chromosomes: they are haploid. They have undergone a process of cell division called meiosis. Two things happen during meiosis, each of which makes the offspring more variable. That means they are different from the parents and from each other.

paragraphs: Assortment is when the double set of chromosomes becomes a single set in each gamete. Of each pair of chromosomes, "which one goes into a single gamete is random". Because the gene alleles on each chromosome are not always the same, this means that there is genetic variation between gametes. This process was Mendel's 'first law', the law of segregation.

paragraphs: Because crossing over occurs during meiosis, this increases the variety of the chromosomes. This makes recombination possible.

paragraphs: The consequence of assortment and crossing over makes it certain that no two offspring of the same mother and father are identical. Identical twins are the exception. They are identical genetically because they developed from the same fertilised egg.

paragraphs: There are advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction, compared to asexual reproduction. The main issues are:


title: Leprosy

paragraphs: Leprosy is a contagious disease. It has been known for a very long time. Today, it is mostly called Hansen's disease, named after the person who discovered the bacterium, Gerhard Armauer Hansen. It is caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium leprae. A person with leprosy is called a leper.

paragraphs: As of 2004, the estimated number of new infections was about 400,000.

paragraphs: Getting the disease is hard, since it requires close contact with someone who has it, over a long period of time. In addition, about 95% of people seem to be naturally immune to it.

paragraphs: Most cases of leprosy occur in India, and other developing countries. It has known to have been in the US before. There are practically no cases of leprosy in the developed world. This is because there are excellent drugs and people regularly take antibiotics which will kill the leprosy bacteria.

paragraphs: In former times, leprosy was seen as a divine punishment for sins committed.

paragraphs: The symptoms of leprosy are irregular spots and patches on the skin. These are either lighter colored than the surrounding skin, or reddish in color. On those patches, hair will fall out, and they will feel numb to the patient. Nerves will form knots there.

paragraphs: With the illness progressing the sense of touch will become less and less (until the patient feels completely numb). So called leptomes and ulcers will eat away the skin, the flesh and the organs on the patches.

paragraphs: Usually people do not die of leprosy, but of secondary infections and diseases they get.

paragraphs: For many years there was a leprosy colony on the Hawaiian Island of Molokai called Kalaupapa. Tens of thousands of people from the United States that had the disease were sent there.


title: Dolley Madison

paragraphs: Dolley Payne Todd Madison (May 20, 1768 – July 12, 1849) was the wife of US President James Madison. James Madison was president from 1809 to 1817 while Dolley Madison was the First Lady of the United States. She is best known for saving Washington's portrait when the British burned the White House in the War of 1814. Though she is also a famous entertainer, the first to serve ice cream in the White House.

paragraphs: Dolley was born in New Garden. Now the place is known as Guilford County. It is in North Carolina. Some other account tells that she was born in a village named Payne’s Tavern. It is in Person County, North Carolina.

paragraphs: Her father’s name was John Payne. As an unsuccessful farmer, he always faced shortage of money. Dolley’s mother was Mary Coles.

paragraphs: Dolley spent her teenage years in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. On January 7, 1790, she married John Todd, Jr. (1764-1793). Todd was a lawyer. They had two sons. Their names were John Payne (1792-1852) and William Temple (born and died in 1793). William died in a yellow fever epidemic. In the same year, her husband also died of the same yellow fever epidemic.

paragraphs: Dolley Todd married James Madison on September 14, 1794. They had no children, but they raised Dolley's son from her first marriage, John Payne Todd. John Payne Todd was a notorious drunkard and gambler, which caused his mother many financial problems, especially after Madison died.

paragraphs: In 1814, the British army had burnt the White House. Fleeing from her burning home, Dolley saved many records and papers. Legend states she also saved a painting of George Washington, though had to break it out of its frame.

paragraphs: On the National First Lady Library she says, "There is one secret, and that is the power we have in forming our own destinies."


title: Elizabeth Monroe

paragraphs: Elizabeth Kortright Monroe (1768 - September 23, 1830) was the wife of James Monroe. James Monroe was the fifth President of the United States.

paragraphs: Elizabeth Monroe was born in an old family of New York. When she was a girl of 17 years, she married James Monroe. At that time, Monroe was a lawyer. He was aged 27 years. Once, the government sent Monroe as an envoy to Versailles. She also went along with her husband.

paragraphs: During her last years, Elizabeth Monroe became very sick. She could not take part in social functions. She became more distant from people. Some persons thought her to be a snob. But, her husband always understood her problems. After a long illness, she died on September 23, 1830 at her home in Oak Hill at age 62.


title: Celestia

paragraphs: Celestia is a free 3D astronomy program for Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It was created by Chris Laurel and is licensed under the GPL.

paragraphs: The program is based on the Hipparcos Catalogue (120,000 Stars) and allows users to display objects from artificial satellites to entire galaxies in three dimensions in OpenGL. Different from other planetarium software, the user is free to travel in the universe.

paragraphs: NASA and ESA have used Celestia, but it is not to be confused with Celestia 2000, ESA's own program.


title: Bill Cullen

paragraphs: Bill Cullen (February 18, 1920 – July 7, 1990) was an American television game show host. His full name was William Lawrence Cullen.

paragraphs: Cullen was originally from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He suffered from polio as a child. He had a limp for the remainder of his life.

paragraphs: Cullen was best known for hosting the original version of "The Price is Right" on the television networks NBC and ABC. That show is now on CBS and hosted by Drew Carey. He also hosted a version of "The $25,000 Pyramid", "Child's Play", and "Blockbusters".

paragraphs: Bill Cullen died in Bel Air, California in 1990 from lung cancer after smoking for most of his life.


title: Rudi Carrell

paragraphs: Rudi Carrell (real name Rudolf Wijbrand Kesselaar) was a very successful comedian, singer and television presenter. He was born on December 19, 1934 in Alkmaar, in the Netherlands. He died of lung cancer on July 7, 2006 in Bremen, Germany. He was very popular in Germany, for shows like "Die Rudi Carrell Show".

paragraphs: He was awarded various prizes, amongst others the "Goldene Kamera" for a lifetime of good work, in February of 2006 (which was his last public appearance) as well as the Bundesverdienstkreuz (the only award given by the Federal Republic of Germany, for extraordinary achievements in politics or culture) in 1985.


title: Lung cancer

paragraphs: Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in one or both of the lungs. Cigarette smoking causes most lung cancers when smoke gets in the lungs. Lung cancer kills 1.8 million people each year, more than any other cancer. It is currently the leading cause of cancer death in men, and the second leading cause of cancer death in women.

paragraphs: The large majority of people who get lung cancer have smoked for many years. However, there are types of lung cancers that appear in otherwise healthy patients who have never smoked.

paragraphs: There are two main types of lung cancer, small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. Small cell lung cancer typically responds well to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and non-small cell lung cancer is more commonly treated with surgical removal of the lung tumor.

paragraphs: Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) account for about 85% to 90% of lung cancer cases. There are three types of non-small cell lung cancer:


title: Whitchurch, Shropshire

paragraphs: Whitchurch is a small market town in the north of the county of Shropshire, England. It is the oldest town inhabited in Shropshire. The town lies 2 miles (3 km) east of the Welsh border. As of 2011, the town has a population of 9,781.

paragraphs: The town was founded by the Romans and there are still some Roman artefacts that can be visited in a Museum.

paragraphs: The town has a railway station on the Welsh Marches Line.


title: Panthera

paragraphs: Panthera is a genus of the family Felidae.

paragraphs: It has five living species, which are the biggest cats in the Felidae. The tiger is the largest "Panthera" species, and the largest of all cats. The leopard is the smallest "Panthera" species.

paragraphs: Results of genetic analysis indicate that the snow leopard also belongs to the "Panthera", a classification that was accepted by IUCN assessors in 2008. The genus "Neofelis" is also closely related.


title: Superpower

paragraphs: A superpower is a country that is one of the most powerful countries in the world. It is more powerful than a major power. And right now, only the United States is a superpower, however, China is quickly becoming a superpower.

paragraphs: In the years following World War II, the United Nations was formed. The 5 countries that would later have nuclear bombs – those who would be able to start a nuclear war – were all given "permanent" seats on the Security Council. This means they are on the Security Council forever. They were also all given equal veto power over decisions in the Security Council. These five countries were: United States, United Kingdom, China, France, and the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: For most of the 1900s, the Soviet Union was a superpower. After the Soviet Union split into a lot of smaller countries in 1991, it was not a superpower anymore. Russia got most of the Soviet Union's nuclear weapons, and also its permanent seat in the Security Council. Some other countries also have nuclear weapons now, and can also start a nuclear war just as well, but they are not permanent members with veto power. The Republic of India, North Korea and Pakistan are a few countries like this.


title: Snow leopard

paragraphs: The snow leopard ("Panthera uncia") is a feline, which lives in central Asia. It used to be thought not to be closely related to the smaller leopard, which is why they were put in different genera before. However, recent research has discovered this is not correct. The cat is closely related to the other big cats in the genus "Panthera".

paragraphs: Snow leopards are about 2-5 meters long in the body, and have a 90-100 centimeter long tail. They weigh up to 75 kilograms. They have grey and white fur with dark rosettes and spots, and their tails have stripes. Its fur is very long and thick to protect it against the cold. Their feet are also big and furry, which helps them to walk on snow more easily. They use their long tails for balance and as blankets to cover sensitive body parts against the severe mountain chill.

paragraphs: They are one of the cats which cannot purr: "In five cat species (lion, tiger, jaguar, leopard and snow leopard) the epihyoideum is an elastic ligament, whereas in all other species of the Felidae the epihyal is completely ossified (bony)... those felids with an elastic epihyoid are able to roar but not purr, while species with a completely ossified hyoid are able to purr but not to roar". Despite this, it seems now that snow leopards cannot roar, though they can make a number of other sounds.

paragraphs: Snow leopards are well camouflaged, and are crepuscular (most active at dawn and dusk). They stalk and eat medium-sized prey like Ibex, bharal (mountain sheep) and wild goats. It can survive on a single sheep for two weeks.

paragraphs: Snow leopards prefer to ambush prey from above, using broken terrain to conceal their approach. They try and land on the sheep, and kill it directly. If the sheep runs, they pursue it down steep mountainsides, using the momentum of their initial leap to chase prey for up to .

paragraphs: They kill with a bite to the neck, and may drag the prey to a safe location before feeding. They consume all edible parts of the carcass, and can survive on a single bharal for two weeks before hunting again. Annual prey needs is 20–30 adult blue sheep (bharal).

paragraphs: In summer, snow leopards usually live above the tree line on mountainous meadows and in rocky regions at altitudes from . In winter, they come down into the forests to altitudes around . Snow leopards prefer broken terrain, and can travel without difficulty in snow up to deep, although they prefer to use existing trails made by other animals.

paragraphs: They live alone. After a pregnancy of about a hundred days the female gives birth to 2 or 3 cubs. Snow leopards are protected in most of the countries they live in. However, people do still kill them for their fur, or to protect their cattle.

paragraphs: The snow leopard has a huge range in central Asia. It is in Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kashmir, Kunlun, and the Himalaya to southern Siberia, Mongolia, and Tibet.

paragraphs: Its numbers are quite low, though difficult to estimate. Many estimates are rough and outdated. The total wild population of the snow leopard was estimated in 2008 as 4,510 to 7,350 individuals.

paragraphs: The snow leopard was not thought closely related to the "Panthera" or other living big cats. However, recent molecular studies put the species firmly in the genus "Panthera": its closest relative is the tiger ("Panthera tigris"). MSW3 still refers to the snow leopard as "Uncia uncia", but the more recent IUCN classifies it as Panthera uncia.

paragraphs: The snow leopard is an official symbol of Kazakhstan.


title: Yonkers, New York

paragraphs: Yonkers is the 4th largest city in the American state of New York. It is the southwestern part of Westchester County

paragraphs: Yonkers borders the New York City borough of The Bronx and is 2 miles (3 km) north of Manhattan. Broadway runs through all three, and railroads also connect them to Grand Central Terminal. The Bronx River separates Yonkers from Mount Vernon, New York on the east. The Hudson River is on the west. The city's best-known attraction is Yonkers Raceway, a harness racing track. There is a large shopping area along Central Park Avenue. It is sometimes called "Central Avenue" by area residents.


title: Louisa Adams

paragraphs: Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams (February 12, 1775 – May 15, 1852) was the wife of US President John Quincy Adams. As the wife of the US President, she was the First Lady of the United States from 1825 to 1829.

paragraphs: She was born in London. Her mother, Catherine Nuth Johnson was an English lady. Her father, Joshua Johnson, was from the USA and a citizen of the USA. Louisa Adams was then the only First Lady not born in the United States. John Adams, the second president of the USA, was her father-in-law.

paragraphs: In 1794, John Quincy Adams met Louisa in London. At that time, Adams was a US diplomat. After about three years, they married. The couple also lived in Berlin where Adams got a posting. Louisa along with her husband arrived to the USA in 1801. They lived in different places before her husband became the President.She went to school in London and France.

paragraphs: She died in 1852, aged seventy-seven. She is buried in the United States Parish Church, Quincy, Massachusetts.


title: Angelica Van Buren

paragraphs: Angelica Singleton Van Buren (February 13, 1818 - December 29, 1877) acted as the First Lady of the United States. She was the daughter-in-law of Martin Van Buren, the 8th president of the USA. Angelica Singleton had married the President's son, Abraham Van Buren. She took over the role of the First Lady, as the president's wife had died 17 years earlier.

paragraphs: Angelica Singleton belonged to a high society. She was also related to Dolley Madison, wife of US President James Madison. Angelica brought a special style to her role as the First Lady.

paragraphs: She and Abraham Van Buren married in 1838. After marriage they took a long tour of Europe. When they came back to the USA in 1839, she took up the role of the First Lady during the presidency of her father-in-law. In 1841, Martin Van Buren was defeated, she and her husband shifted to Kinderhook, Lindenwald. During the winter, they lived in their family home in South Carolina. From 1848 until her death in 1877, she lived in New York City.

paragraphs: Angelica was from the cream of southern society and was the great-granddaughter of Gen. Richard Richardson and Mary Cantey (Richardson). Gen. Richardson was the progenitor of six South Carolina governors, three Manning and three Richardson governors. One descendant, Elizabeth Peyre Richardson, was so closely related to all of these governors that she appears in Ripley's Believe it or Not. Angelica's sister, Marion, has a bio that, although sad, is actually more interesting than hers. See "A Tale of Two Sisters," by Joseph C. Elliott, Sandlapper: The Magazine of South Carolina.


title: Jane Irwin Harrison

paragraphs: Jane Irwin Harrison (July 23, 1804 – May 11, 1846) was the First Lady of the United States for a very brief period. She was married to William Henry Harrison Jr. William was the son of William Henry Harrison, ninth President of the United States. As the daughter-in-law of the president, she acted as the First Lady for about a month in 1841. She acted as his official hostess during his brief tenure in office, which lasted for a month in 1841. President’s wife Anna Harrison was very ill, and she could not go out of their home in Ohio, when her husband moved to take up the presidency.


title: Mary Todd Lincoln

paragraphs: Mary Ann Todd Lincoln (née Todd; December 13, 1818 – July 16, 1882) was the wife of the sixteenth President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, and was First Lady of the United States from 1861 to 1865.

paragraphs: She was born in Lexington, Kentucky. Her father was Robert Smith Todd and her mother was Eliza Parker. Her parents were prominent residents of the city. Mary's paternal great-grandfather, David Levi Todd, was born in County Longford, Ireland, and emigrated through Pennsylvania to Kentucky. Her great-great maternal grandfather Samuel McDowell was born in Scotland, and emigrated to Pennsylvania. Other Todd ancestors came from England. When she was around twenty years old, Mary came to Illinois where her sister Elizabeth lived. There she met Abraham Lincoln. He was a young lawyer at that time.

paragraphs: She married Abraham Lincoln on November 4, 1842.

paragraphs: The Lincolns loved one another very much. But, at times, their relationship became troubled. The Lincolns had four children:

paragraphs: The last person known to be of direct Lincoln lineage, Robert's grandson "Bud" Beckwith died in 1985.

paragraphs: Mary Lincoln was well-educated lady. She was also interested in public affairs. She also shared her husband’s ambition. At times, she became touchy and irritated. The newspapers sometimes criticized her for spending the government’s money to buy new furniture for the White House. She went to the hospitals during this time, to help wounded soldiers.

paragraphs: After the assassination of her husband in 1865, the death of her two sons, Willie and Thomas, had made her very sad. She became very depressed. His son Robert wanted to take control of his mother's money. He sent his mother to an insane asylum. After three months, she was freed. She never forgave her son. She spent about four years in France in a city named Pau. She also traveled to many parts of Europe.

paragraphs: During her last years, her health became very weak. In 1879, she suffered spinal cord injuries when she fell from a stepladder. She also got cataracts and her eyesight became weak.

paragraphs: During the early 1880s, Mary Lincoln was confined to the Springfield, Illinois residence of her sister Elizabeth Edwards. She died there on July 16, 1882, at age 63. She was interred in the Lincoln Tomb in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield alongside her husband.


title: Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis

paragraphs: Jacqueline Lee Bouvier "Jackie" Kennedy Onassis (July 28, 1929 – May 19, 1994), was the wife of President John F. Kennedy and First Lady of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. She subsequently married Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis. In later years, she enjoyed a successful career as a book editor.

paragraphs: Jacqueline Bouvier was born at Stoney Brook Southampton Hospital in Southampton, Long Island, New York, the daughter of wealthy Wall Street stockbroker John Bouvier III (1891-1957) and his wife Janet Norton Lee (1907-1989). She had a younger sister, Caroline Lee Bouvier, born in 1933, later known as Lee Radziwill. She was of Irish, French, Scottish, and English ancestry. Her maternal great-grandfather emigrated from Cork, Ireland, and later became the Superintendent of the New York City Public Schools.

paragraphs: Her early years were spent in New York City and East Hampton, Long Island, at the Bouvier family estate called "Lasata". She became at a very early age an accomplished equestrienne, a sport that would remain a lifelong passion. As a child, she also enjoyed drawing, reading and writing poems.

paragraphs: Her parents divorced in 1940, and her mother married Standard Oil heir Hugh D. Auchincloss in 1942, with whom she had two children: Janet (1945-1985) and James Auchincloss (b. 1947). She and her sister moved in with their mother's new family, and divided their time between their stepfather's two vast estates: "Merrywood" in McLean, Virginia, and "Hammersmith Farm" in Newport, Rhode Island.

paragraphs: She was educated at selective schools such as Chapin's, Miss Porter's and Vassar College. She spent one year (1949-50) in Paris, France, studying at La Sorbonne, before graduating from George Washington University in 1951, with a Bachelor of Arts in French literature. Other interests included art, history and languages.

paragraphs: After graduation, she worked as an "inquiring-photographer" for the Washington Times-Herald and was sent to London in June 1953 to cover the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.

paragraphs: Jacqueline Bouvier and then congressman John F. Kennedy belonged to the same social circle and were introduced by a mutual friend at a dinner party in May 1952. Kennedy was then busy running for the US Senate, but after his election in November, the relationship grew more serious and led to a proposal.

paragraphs: The wedding took place on September 12, 1953, at St Mary's Church, in Newport, Rhode Island, and was considered the social event of the season with an estimated 800 guests at the ceremony and 1000 at the lavish reception that followed at "Hammersmith Farm".

paragraphs: Behind all the glamor, however, the couple had to face several personal setbacks. John Kennedy had serious health problems unknown to the public. He suffered from Addison's disease and from chronic and debilitating back pain due to a war injury. During the fall and winter of 1954, he underwent two delicate spinal operations which almost killed him. Jacqueline Kennedy suffered a miscarriage in 1955, and gave birth to a stillborn baby girl in 1956.

paragraphs: The couple eventually became parents to a daughter Caroline (b. 1957) and a son John (1960-1999). A second son, Patrick, was born prematurely in August 1963 and died two days later.

paragraphs: When John Kennedy became the 35th president of the United States, on January 20, 1961, Jacqueline Kennedy became, at age 31, one of the youngest First Ladies in American history. Young, attractive and cultivated, she quickly became extremely popular both at home and abroad and was often simply known as "Jackie" by the public.

paragraphs: After moving into the White House, she was dismayed at the state the official residence was in. She established a Fine Arts Committee to help her restore the house to its original splendor with American furniture, paintings and "objets d'art" of historical significance. She had a booklet on the history of the house published to help finance the restoration and hosted an immensely popular televised tour of the White House, on February 14, 1962, to show the progress of the work. She also redesigned the White House East Garden, which now bears her name, and through her intervention, historic buildings were saved from demolition in Lafayette Square.

paragraphs: On the international scene, she accompanied President Kennedy on state visits to Canada, Europe, Central and South America, where her knowledge of art and history and her skill at languages served her well. She made a very successful and highly publicized goodwill trip to India and Pakistan in March 1962, accompanied by her sister Lee Radziwill.

paragraphs: On November 22, 1963, while on a pre-electoral visit in Dallas, Texas, with President Kennedy, she was seated next to him in an open limousine driving through the city when he was shot in the head by a sniper. The courage and dignity she displayed in the aftermath of that tragedy won her international admiration.

paragraphs: After leaving the White House, Jacqueline Kennedy lived for a time in Georgetown, Washington, D.C., but moved to New York City with her children in late 1964. She attended occasional memorials for her late husband and helped supervise the plans for the John F. Kennedy Library in Boston. She made semi-official trips to England, Ireland and Cambodia.

paragraphs: On October 20, 1968, she married Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis, 23 years her senior. After his death in 1975, she once more settled in New York City where she worked as a book editor for the last two decades of her life, first for Viking Press and later for Doubleday. She also took an active part in a campaign to preserve New York City's Grand Central Terminal.

paragraphs: Her last years were spent quietly mostly in the company of her family and longtime companion Maurice Templesman.

paragraphs: Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis died of cancer (lymphoma) at her home in New York City, at the age of 64. She was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, next to President Kennedy, their stillborn daughter and infant son.


title: Missile

paragraphs: In general, missile may refer to anything thrown or launched object at a target like a javelin or darts. Nowadays, it means, mostly, a self-propelled guided weapon system. Missiles are used in war to destroy military targets. Missiles can carry explosives or other destructive loads. The loads a missile may carry are called a "payload". This payload is not always harmful to people. For example, cruise missiles have carried "graphite bombs" to destroy electrical power systems without much collateral damage.

paragraphs: The two main kinds of missiles are simple "rockets" and "guided missiles". A rocket is no longer controlled once it has been launched. Most guided missile are also propelled by a rocket engine but can be controlled after it has been launched. Some missiles used in anti-aircraft warfare, such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder, guide themselves with temperature. Others guide themselves by radar or are under radio control.

paragraphs: The V-1 flying bomb was an early cruise missile, a little airplane with a bomb, propelled by a jet engine instead of a rocket.


title: Salford

paragraphs: Salford is a city in England. It was made a free borough by Ranulf, Earl of Chester in about 1230. and was granted city status in 1926. Salford is unusual because it borders the city of Manchester at its center, rather than its outskirts. The two cities are divided by the River Irwell.

paragraphs: Salford shares the industrial history of its neighbour Manchester. It hosts several museums and art centres, chiefly: The Lowry and the Imperial War Museum, both on Salford Quays.


title: The Nightmare Before Christmas

paragraphs: The Nightmare Before Christmas is a 1993 movie directed by Henry Selick and produced/co-written by Tim Burton. It is a 31st movie. It tells the story of Jack Skellington, a skeleton from "Halloween Town" who opens a portal to "Christmas Town".This new town makes Jack realize he wants to do something different than Halloween every year. Jack tries Christmas out but soon realizes that Christmas may not be for him. Danny Elfman wrote the music to the movie and provided the singing voice of Jack, as well as other characters. Other voices in the movie include Chris Sarandon, Catherine O'Hara, William Hickey, Ken Page and Glen Shadix.


title: Crumple zone

paragraphs: Crumple zones in a car help to reduce the impact of force on the people in the car when the car crashes into a solid object or another vehicle. The car is designed to crumple in a way so it absorbs energy to decelerate for longer and so reduce the force and severity of the crash on the people in the car.


title: Harriet Lane

paragraphs: Harriet Rebecca Lane Johnston (May 9, 1830 – July 3, 1903), niece of lifelong bachelor United States President James Buchanan, acted as First Lady of the United States from 1857 to 1861. She was one of the few women to hold the position of First Lady while not being married to the President.

paragraphs: Her parents were Elliot Tole Lane and Jane Buchanan Lane. When she was 9 years old, her mother died. Two years later, her father also died. She became an orphan. She requested that her uncle, James Buchanan, be made her guardian. Thus, Buchanan became her guardian. He arranged for her education. She received a very good education.

paragraphs: In 1854 she went to London to live with her uncle, James Buchanan. There she attracted the attention of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. She gave her the title of “dear Miss Lane”.

paragraphs: In 1857, her uncle became the President of the United States. She became the First Lady. She was a popular First Lady, and was very active. Women of that time even copied her hair style and style of dressing. People describe her as the first of the modern first lady.

paragraphs: After her uncle retired, they went to live in his big home at, Wheatland near Lancaster, Pennsylvania. From her young age, she had met many persons.

paragraphs: Within next 18 years, she saw many deaths: her uncle, her husband, and her two young sons.

paragraphs: After this, she moved to Washington to live. She gifted a large collection of her art works to the government. An official of the Smithsonian Institute once described her as the First Lady of the National Collection of Fine Arts. She also donated a large amount to build a facility for invalid children at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore.

paragraphs: She married when she was 36. Her husband was Henry Elliot Johnston. Her husband was a banker from Baltimore.

paragraphs: After her death, she was buried at Baltimore, Maryland.


title: Afelia

paragraphs: Afelia is a Greek food. It is popular in the island nation of Cyprus. Afelia is made from pork, red wine, mushrooms, potatoes and coriander seed.


title: President of Ireland

paragraphs: The President of Ireland (Irish: Uachtarán na hÉireann ) is the head of state of Ireland. It is mostly ceremonial and elections are held every seven years, a person can be elected for up to two terms. The current President of Ireland is Michael D. Higgins.

paragraphs: The functions of the President were exercised by the Presidential Commission from the coming into force of the Constitution on 29 December 1937 until the election of Douglas Hyde in 1938, and during the vacancies of 1974, 1976, and 1997.


title: Normandy

paragraphs: Normandy () is a region in the northern part of France. People from Normandy are called Normans. The name Normandy comes from the conquest and subsequent settlement of the area by the "Northmen" () also called Vikings. The group of people that settled at Rouen and became the Normans was led by Rollo. It is also famous for being the location of the Allied invasion of France during World War II (See D-Day). The Battle of Normandy was the beginning of the Allied invasion and liberation of Europe from Nazi Germany.

paragraphs: Archaeological evidence, such as cave paintings, show that people lived in Normandy in prehistoric times. The Gouy and Orival cave paintings also show people lived in Seine-Maritime. Many megaliths can be found in Normandy, most of them built in the same way.

paragraphs: Groups of Belgae and Celts, known as Gauls, invaded Normandy in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Much of our knowledge about this group comes from Julius Caesar’s book "de Bello Gallico". Caesar wrote about many groups among the Belgae who lived different areas in towns surrounded by walls. In 57 BC the Gauls worked together and tried to fight Caesar’s army. They were led by Vercingetorix. The Normans lost an important fight at Alesia. They did not stop fighting until 51 BC, when Caesar finished his conquest of Gaul. Normandy was part of Armorica when it was ruled by Romans.

paragraphs: The duchy of Normandy began in the year 911. Charles the Simple, King of France gave land near Rouen and the lower Seine to Rollo, leader of a band of Vikings. This treaty is often called St. Clair-sur-Epte. More land was given in 924 and 933.

paragraphs: The Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, invaded England in 1066 after King Edward the Confessor died. William the Conqueror thought he should be King of England. But King Harold II had crowned himself king. King Harold's Saxon army and William's Norman army fought at the Battle of Hastings on October 14 1066. King Harold was killed in the battle. On December 25 1066 William was crowned King of England as 'William I'.

paragraphs: The historic duchy is made of two regions of France: Upper Normandy and Lower Normandy. The Channel Islands are part of the duchy of Normandy. But they are not part of France. The whole duchy was not part of France for a long time. In 1205 Philip II of France took away all the French land from King John of England. After, Normandy was a region in France.

paragraphs: During the Second World War (1939–1945) Normandy was part of the German occupied France. The town of Dieppe was the site of the unsuccessful Dieppe Raid by Canadian and British armed forces. The Allies (Britain, the United States, and Canada) launched the D-Day landings on 6 June 1944 under the code name 'Operation Overlord'. This invasion from the sea involved nearly 160,000 Allied soldiers in about 7,000 ships and landing craft. About 12,000 planes dropping paratroopers preceded the amphibious assault by several hours.

paragraphs: The Germans were defending their fortifications above the beaches. Caen, Cherbourg, Carentan, Falaise and other Norman towns endured many casualties in the Battle of Normandy. The German defenders fought aggressively but constantly pushed back by overwhelming force. The battle for Normandy continued until the closing of the Falaise pocket. The liberation of Le Havre followed. What followed was the breakout of Allied forces into France and finally Germany. This was a significant in the war. It led to the restoration of the French government in France. The remainder of Normandy was liberated only on 9 May 1945 at the end of the war, when the German occupation of the Channel Islands effectively ended.

paragraphs: The historical duchy of Normandy occupied the lower Seine area, the Pays de Caux and the region to the west through the Pays d'Auge as far as the Cotentin Peninsula. The region is bordered along the northern coasts by the English Channel. There are granite cliffs in the west and limestone cliffs in the east. There are also long stretches of beach in the center of the region. The unique bocage hedges are typical of the western areas of Normandy. The highest point is the Signal d'Écouves at in the Massif armoricain. Normandy is lightly forested. Eure has the most wooded areas with about 20% being forest. The population of Normandy today is around 3.45 million.


title: Sarah Childress Polk

paragraphs: Sarah Childress Polk (September 4, 1803 - August 14, 1891) was the wife of the US President James K. Polk. She was the First Lady of the United States from March 4, 1845 to March 3, 1849.

paragraphs: She was born in Murfreesboro, Tennessee. She was the elder daughter of her parents, Captain Joel and Elizabeth Childress. As a child, she lived on a plantation near Murfreesboro, Tennessee. She got a good education and studied at Salem College in Winston-Salem, North Carolina.

paragraphs: On 1 January 1824, she married James K. Polk. At the time of her marriage, she was 20 years old. Polk was aged 28 years. At the time of this marriage, Polk had just begun his first year's service in the Tennessee legislature.

paragraphs: The Polk couple did not get any children of their own. They raised a nephew, Marshall Polk (1831-1884). After her husband’s death, Sarah Polk raised a niece, Sarah Polk Jetton (1847-1924).

paragraphs: She also helped privately her husband in preparing his speeches and in his correspondence. During her term as the First Lady, the functions at the White House were famous for their calmness and soberness. One of the reasons being her young age when she became the First Lady. She became the First Lady when she was only 41. The other reason that she was having a good health.

paragraphs: Her husband died just after three months of her retirement as the President. At that time the couple was living at their new home named Polk Place in Nashville. After her husband’s death she always dressed in black. She lived in that house for about 42 years, the longest retirement and widowhood of any former US First Lady.

paragraphs: Only three other First Ladies, namely, Anna Harrison, Edith Bolling Wilson, Lady Bird Johnson and Bess Truman had lived longer than Sarah Polk. Sarah Polk, as the First Lady of the United States, even outlived several of her successors. She lived longer than Margaret Taylor, Abigail Fillmore, Jane Pierce, Mary Todd Lincoln, Eliza McCardle Johnson and Lucy Webb Hayes.

paragraphs: She died in Nashville, Tennessee just three weeks before her 88th birthday.

paragraphs: As the First Lady, and even after her retirement as the First Lady, she earned a lot of respect from all section of the society.