title: Bacteria

paragraphs: Bacteria (sing. bacterium) are very small organisms. They are prokaryotic microorganisms. Bacterial cells do not have a nucleus, and most have no organelles with membranes around them. Most have a cell wall. They do have DNA, and their biochemistry is basically the same as other living things. They are amongst the simplest and the oldest organisms. They function as independent organisms.

paragraphs: Almost all bacteria are so tiny they can only be seen through a microscope. Bacteria are made up of one cell, so they are a kind of "unicellular organism". They are among the simplest single-celled organisms on Earth, and were one of the earliest forms of life. They include a number of extremophiles which live in extreme habitats.

paragraphs: There are probably more individual bacteria than any other sort of organism on the planet. Most bacteria live in the ground or in water, but many live inside or on the skin of other organisms, including humans. There are about 1:1 bacterial cells as human cells in each of our bodies. Some bacteria can cause diseases, but others help us in everyday activities like digesting food (gut flora). Some even work for us in factories, producing cheese and yogurt.

paragraphs: The founder of bacteriology was a German biologist called Ferdinand Cohn (18281898). He published the first biological classification of bacteria, based on their appearance.

paragraphs: A bacterium reproduces (creates more bacteria) by dividing in half and creating two "daughter" cells. Each daughter is identical in shape to the parent, but is smaller.

paragraphs: Bacteria do not have sexes, but they do transmit DNA by several kinds of horizontal gene transfer. This is how they share resistance to antibiotics from one strain to another. The complete DNA sequence is known for many bacterial strains.

paragraphs: Bacteria vary widely in size and shape, but in general they are at least ten times larger than viruses. A typical bacterium is about 1 µm (one micrometer) in diameter, so a thousand bacteria lined up would be one millimeter long. There are about five nonillion (5×10) bacteria on Earth.

paragraphs: Bacteria are identified and grouped by their shapes. Bacilli are rod-shaped, cocci are ball-shaped, spirilla are spiral-shaped, and vibrio are shaped like a comma or a boomerang.

paragraphs: Pathogenic bacteria, the harmful kind, enter the human body from the air, water or food. Once inside, these bacteria attach themselves to or invade specific cells in our respiratory system, digestive tract or in any open wound. There they begin to reproduce and spread while using your body's food and nutrients to give them energy to help them reproduce.

paragraphs: Some bacteria are extremophiles. Some microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 meters below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometers of ocean off the Pacific Northwest of the United States. According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."

paragraphs: All modern ideas start with the sequence analysis of DNA and RNA. In 1987, Carl Woese, the forerunner of the molecular phylogeny revolution, divided bacteria into 11 divisions based on 16S ribosomal RNA (SSU) sequences:


title: Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas

paragraphs: Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas is one of the video games for the Grand Theft Auto game series. It was made by Rockstar Games. The game came out on the PlayStation 2 first and later on Xbox and PC. In this game, the player can do whatever they want, including hitting or killing people, damaging cars and properties and such violent things. That's one reason why the game is so famous. So in the U.S. and Canada it was rated mature (17+) by the ESRB.

paragraphs: The PlayStation 2 version became available on the PlayStation Network for PlayStation 4 on 5 December 2015.

paragraphs: It is set in "third-person" which means the player can see the person (in this case it is CJ) on the screen. He is controlled using the left and right analog sticks on the PlayStation 2 controller. CJ is the character who is used to play with and he can perform different moves. These are shooting, kicking/punching, jumping, crouching, and even swimming. He can attack other people by either using hand-to-hand combat or shooting them. Sometimes, the attacked person may fight back and try to kill the player. He can get into a nearby vehicle or steal one from another person if it is being driven. If the police see CJ doing crimes, however, they will chase him and try to stop him. If CJ gets caught by the police he loses all of his weapons and some money and he will appear at the nearest police station (the same happens when the player dies, except he appears at a hospital instead). If CJ loses his weapons, he can buy weapons from different gun shops (although he must pay for them).

paragraphs: There are many missions to be taken; the game as a whole has a plot, and the missions the player solves make the plot go on and help the player for his/her abilities (which are for example swimming, condition but also driving bicycles without falling from them and better shooting. Respect is also an important 'ability' players can earn, as they need it to go on in the plot of the game and take more missions), and helps the player to earn money, which can be spent on cars, food (to stop the player from getting hungry), weapons, and a lot of other things. Besides missions, however, the player can also do a number of different challenges, which are not needed for the story but can be used just to help CJ earn some extra money. The game takes place in a fictional state called San Andreas, which has three cities: Los Santos (Los Angeles), San Fierro (San Francisco), and Las Venturas (Las Vegas). Between the cities are also countryside, and the desert of Bone County, based on the real life Nevada desert.

paragraphs: CJ can drive all sorts of vehicles. He can fly planes, drive cars sail boats and now a jet pack which was not in the previous games. In some vehicles that have hydraulics (where the car 'hops') the analog sticks can be used. If 'nitrous' have been put on (by using a nearby garage) he can drive at incredible speeds which are a lot faster than normal driving. It is also possible to drive around with go-karts or tractors, which was not possible in the previous games; but these vehicles are quite slow and more for fun than for travelling around the map. The player has to be careful, however, not to damage the vehicle too much, because then it might explode, killing or hurting CJ, and causing the vehicle to be useless. Vehicles can also be destroyed by hitting, shooting, setting the vehicle on fire, or driving it into water.

paragraphs: San Andreas Multiplayer and Multi Theft Auto, often shortened to SA-MP and MTA respectively, are popular multiplayer edits of the original game San Andreas. They have thousands of servers online and runs game servers.

paragraphs: Like previous games in the series, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas has many radio stations that play songs. The player can listen to these radio stations when in most vehicles, or also from the "options" menu. The radio stations also have DJs and commercials to make them more realistic. There is even a talk radio station, where the player can listen to news within the game and entertainment programs. These radio stations include:

paragraphs: K-DST (Classic rock), Playback FM (Old school Hip-Hop), K-Rose (Country), Bounce FM (Funk), K-Jah West (Reggae and dub), Master Sounds 98.3 (Rare groove, jazz), CSR 103.9 (New Jack Swing and soul), Radio Los Santos (Gangsta Rap), SF-UR (House), and WCTR (News & entertainment).

paragraphs: Carl "CJ" Johnson comes back to Los Santos, San Andreas in 1992 for his mother's funeral after living in Liberty City for five years since 1987. On his return to the neighborhood, a couple of corrupt cops frame him for the death of a police officer. CJ is forced on a journey that takes him across the entire state of San Andreas, to save his family and to take control of the streets.


San Andreas


title: Barry Switzer

paragraphs: Barry Switzer (born October 5, 1937 in Crossett, Arkansas, USA) was an American football coach. He coached both professional and college football for 32 years. Switzer is one of only three head coaches to win both a college football national championship and a Super Bowl. He has one of the highest winning percentages in the history of college football.

paragraphs: After high school, Switzer went to the University of Arkansas. He played football there from 1956 to 1960. After graduation, Switzer join the US Army for a short time. After the Army, he returned to the University of Arkansas to work as an assistant coach.

paragraphs: After the 1966 season, Switzer became an assistant coach at the University of Oklahoma. He became head coach there in 1973. During his first two years as head coach, Oklahoma did not lose any games and won the national championship two time. They won the championship a third time in 1985. Switzer left Oklahoma in 1989. His record there was 157 wins, 29 losses and 4 ties.

paragraphs: In 1994, Switzer became the coach for the Dallas Cowboys. He led them to a win in Super Bowl XXX during the 1995 season. Switzer retired from coaching after the following season.

paragraphs: In 2001, Switzer was elected into the College Football Hall of Fame. On September 9, 2007, he began working with the FOX television network on its NFL pre-game show.


title: Constant

paragraphs: A constant is something that does not change. Constants (numbers) are used in maths and computer programming.

paragraphs: An important fact to remember in calculus is that the derivative of a constant is always zero.


title: Poker

paragraphs: Poker is a game which people play with a normal set (or "deck") of 52 cards. Poker is a gambling game which involves some luck, but also some skill. In poker, players make bets against each other depending on the value of their poker hand. Bets are usually made with plastic or ceramic discs called "chips". Bets may also be made with real money, but chips are more often used because they are easier to handle and count. At the end of the game, players either swap their chips for money, or the chips are counted to determine the order of winners.

paragraphs: There are many different kinds of poker. In draw poker, each player is dealt five cards. A player can decide to throw away a number of these cards and then take ("draw") new cards to replace them.

paragraphs: In stud poker (for example, seven-card stud), some of each player's cards are laid ("face-up") on the table so that the other players can see them. In community card poker (for example, Texas hold 'em), players share some of their cards in the center of the table.

paragraphs: The history of poker is a matter of some debate. The name of the game likely descended from the French "poque", which descended from the German "pochen" ('to knock'), but it is not clear whether the origins of poker itself lie with the games bearing those names. It closely resembles the Persian game of "as nas", and may have been taught to French settlers in New Orleans by Persian sailors. It is commonly regarded as sharing ancestry with the Renaissance game of "primero" and the French "brelan". The English game "brag" (earlier bragg) clearly descended from "brelan" and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time). It is quite possible that all of these earlier games influenced the development of poker as it exists now.

paragraphs: English actor Joseph Crowell reported that the game was played in New Orleans in 1829, with a deck of 20 cards, four players betting on which player's hand was the most valuable. Jonathan H. Green's book, "An Exposure of the Arts and Miseries of Gambling" (G. B. Zieber, Philadelphia, 1843), described the spread of the game from there to the rest of the country by Mississippi riverboats, on which gambling was a common pastime.

paragraphs: Soon after this spread, the full 52-card English deck was used, and the flush was introduced. During the American Civil War, many additions were made, including draw poker, stud poker (the five-card variant), and the straight. Further American developments followed, such as the wild card (around 1875), lowball and split-pot poker (around 1900), and community card poker games (around 1925). Spread of the game to other countries, particularly in Asia, is often attributed to the U.S. military.

paragraphs: The game and jargon of poker have become important parts of American culture and English culture. Such phrases as "ace in the hole", "beats me", "blue chip", "call the bluff", "cash in", "pass the buck", "poker face", "stack up", "up the ante", "when the chips are down", "wild card", and others are used in everyday conversation even by those unaware of their origins at the poker table.

paragraphs: Modern tournament play became popular in American casinos after the World Series of Poker began in 1970. It was also during that decade that the first serious strategy books appeared, notably "The Theory of Poker" by David Sklansky (), "Super System" by Doyle Brunson (), and "The Book of Tells" by Mike Caro ().

paragraphs: Poker’s popularity has experienced an unprecedented spike in recent years, largely due to the introduction of online poker and the invention of the hole-card camera which finally turned the game into a spectator sport. Viewers can now follow the action and drama of the game, and broadcasts of poker tournaments such as the World Series of Poker and the World Poker Tour have brought in huge audiences for cable and satellite TV distributors.

paragraphs: The game of poker is played in hundreds of variations, but the following overview of game play applies to most of them.

paragraphs: Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt. These are called forced bets and come in three forms: antes, blinds, and bring-ins.

paragraphs: Like most card games, the dealer shuffles the deck of cards. The deck is then cut, and the appropriate number of cards are dealt face-down to the players. In a casino a "house" dealer handles the cards for each hand, but a "button" (any small item used as a marker, also called a "buck") is rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in certain games. In a home game, the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, but a "button" may still be used.

paragraphs: After the initial deal, the first of what may be several betting rounds begins. Between rounds, the players' hands "develop" in some way, often by being dealt additional cards or replacing cards previously dealt. During a round of betting, there will always be a "current bet amount", which is the total amount of money bet in this round by the player who bet last in this round. To keep better track of this, it is conventional for players to not place their bets directly into the pot (called "splashing" the pot), but rather place them in front of themselves toward the pot, until the betting round is over. When the round is over, the bets are then gathered into the pot.

paragraphs: After the first betting round is completed (every participating player having called an equal amount), there may be more rounds in which more cards are dealt in various ways, followed by further rounds of betting (into the same central pot). At any time during the first or subsequent betting rounds, if one player makes a bet and all other players fold, the deal ends immediately, the single remaining player is awarded the pot, no cards are shown, no more rounds are dealt, and the next deal begins. This is what makes it possible to bluff.

paragraphs: At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a showdown in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards and evaluate their hands. The player with the best hand according to the poker variant being played wins the pot.

paragraphs: The following are poker hands, from best to worst:

paragraphs: Poker chips are small disks. They made by various materials including molded plastic, colored metal  molded clays. They are used in table games as play money. Modern poker traces its roots towards the 1800s, and in those days, players used what you could to help keep a tally. Coins, gold dust and nuggets were used until they considered replacing with something which would indicate them. Thus, the casino chips happen to be introduced within the gambling business.

paragraphs: Poker rooms started using casino chips to simply manage the cash and then collect charges. In those days, casino chips were created of ivory, bone, paper  wood. However, the most generally used chips were created of composite clay. One problem made an appearance due to the developing casino chips which was cheating. Some players considered sneaking some chips in their hands. To avoid this, manufacturers created differentiated disks. Consequently, a range of styles was created. With time, other manufacturers could use many other materials for making casino chips, for example, plastic and metal.


title: El Salvador

paragraphs: El Salvador () is the smallest and most densely populated country in Central America. The country's capital and largest city is San Salvador. Other important cities are: Santa Ana and Sonsonate. El Salvador borders the Pacific Ocean on the south, and the countries of Guatemala to the west and Honduras to the north and east.

paragraphs: In 2010 El Salvador ranked in the top 10 Latin American countries in terms of Human Development Index. It was in the top 3 in Central America (behind Costa Rica and Panama). Also, tropical forests and overall forests have expanded by nearly 20% from the year 1992 to 2010, making it one of the few countries experiencing reforestation.

paragraphs: In El Salvador there are only two seasons. The dry season starts in mid-October and it lasts until mid May. During the dry season, it hardly ever rains. The wet season starts in mid-May and ends in mid-October. In this season it rains every day. The dry season is called summer and the rainy season is called winter.

paragraphs: Most of the population is mestizo, a mixture of European and American people.

paragraphs: The civilization of El Salvador began around 1500 B.C., leaving an evidence that would be the Tazumal Ruins and Chalchuapa Ruins. The first habitants were Pocomanes, Lencas and Pipiles; they stayed in the middle and east zone of El Salvador until about the eleventh century. The Spaniard Andrés Niño led an expedition from Central America and arrived in Meanguera Island in the Gulf of Fonseca on May 31, 1522. That was the first Salvadoran territory visited by Spaniard men.

paragraphs: In June of 1524, Pedro de Alvarado began a war of conquest against Cuzcatlán (Land of beautiful things) that was populated by native tribes of the country. During 17 days of bloody battles many natives and Spaniard men died, including the native Atlacatl. Pedro de Alvarado, deterred and injured, left the battle and set off to Guatemala, leaving his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue the conquest of Cuzcatlan. After this, their cousin, Diego de Alvardo established the San Salvador Ville on April 1525 in a site named La Bermuda, near Suchitoto City. In 1546, Carlos I from Spain named San Salvador a city.

paragraphs: During the following years, the country grew under Spaniard control. In 1810 a feeling of freedom formed between the countries of Central America. On the morning of November 5th, 1811, the priest José Matías Delgado rang the bells of La Merced Church in San Salvador, calling for an uprising. After many internal conflicts, the Declaration of Independence of Central América was signed in Guatemala on September 15th, 1821. That day is the Independence day all around Central America.

paragraphs: El Salvador has a total area of . As the smallest country in continental America, El Salvador is sometimes called "Pulgarcito de America" (the "Tom Thumb of the Americas"). The highest point in El Salvador is Cerro El Pital, at , on the border with Honduras.

paragraphs: El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The capital San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and it suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors. El Salvador has over twenty volcanoes. Two of them, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years.

paragraphs: El Salvador has over 300 rivers. The most important is the Rio Lempa. Important lakes are Lake Ilopango (70 km²) and Lake Coatepeque (26 km²).

paragraphs: There are eight species of sea turtles in the world. Of these six nest on the coasts of Central America, and four make their home on the Salvadoran coast: the leatherback turtle, the hawksbill, the Galapagos green turtle and the olive ridley sea turtle.

paragraphs: It is estimated that there are 500 species of birds, 1,000 species of butterflies, 400 species of orchids, 800 species of trees, and 800 species of marine fish in El Salvador.

paragraphs: There are 4 national parks in El Salvador: El Imposible, Los Volcanes, Montecristo, and San Diego y San Felipe Las Barras.

paragraphs: El Salvador is divided into 14 departments ("departamentos"). These are divided into 262 municipalities ("municipios").

paragraphs: Department names and abbreviations for the 14 Salvadoran Departments:


title: Isabelle of Hainaut

paragraphs: Isabelle of Hainaut (5 April, 1170 - 15 March, 1190) was a Queen of France. She was born in Lille on 5 April 1170. Her father was Baldwin V of Hainaut and her mother was Margaret I of Flanders. She married Philip II of France in 1180.


title: Fragaria

paragraphs: ' is a Latin word for the group of "strawberry-like" plants, formed by putting ' ("strawberry") together with the ending ", which here means something close to the English "-like".

paragraphs: People have eaten different kinds of wild strawberries for thousands of years. In Europe, people usually grew the woodland strawberry. Dutch people learned how to eat them through most of the year by planting their seeds at different times, letting them harvest for 9 months out of 12. The Alpine strawberry became popular around the 1650s because it was a little bigger and could grow in places with less strong sunlight, like the British islands in the late fall. Today's bigger "garden" strawberry was first made around Brest in Brittany (northwest France) in the 1750s. It was made by joining the Virginia strawberry from eastern North America to the European Hautbois and the Chilean strawberry from western South America.

paragraphs: The real fruit of the strawberries are the achenes, which people usually think of as the little seeds around the outside of the larger red "fruit". What people think is the "fruit" is really the swollen stems between these fruit. This kind of fruit, where different ovaries grow into a single larger fruit, is called an "aggregate fruit".


title: Paul Simon

paragraphs: Paul Simon (born October 13, 1941) is an American musician and songwriter. He is of Jewish descent and became famous as a member of Simon and Garfunkel, with his friend, Art Garfunkel. He wrote their songs. The two went their separate ways in the early 1970s and since then Simon has become a successful solo artist.

paragraphs: Paul Simon had his first success in 1958 when his song "Hey Schoolgirl" got to Number 49 on the US charts. He was performing with his friend Art Garfunkel in an act called "Tom and Jerry". His next success was in 1965 with "Sounds of Silence" which went to Number 1. This was also performed with Garfunkel under the name "Simon and Garfunkel.

paragraphs: Some of Simon's most famous songs include "Slip Sliding Away", "American Tune", "Late in the Evening", "Still Crazy After All These Years", "Me and Julio Down By the School Yard" and "50 Ways to Leave Your Lover". His 1986 album "Graceland" is very well-known. He is still producing music. His newest album is called "Surprise".

paragraphs: Simon has received three honorary doctorates in music, including one from Yale University and one from Berklee College of Music. In 2006, "Time" said that he was one of the 100 "people who shape our world".


title: Shirley Jones

paragraphs: Shirley Jones (March 31, 1934) is an American and singer and actress. She appeared in movie musicals, singing a leading role in movies such as "Oklahoma!", "The Music Man", and "Carousel".

paragraphs: Jones had a supporting role in the movie "Elmer Gantry", starring actor Burt Lancaster. She is also famous for her role as Shirley Partridge on the television series "The Partridge Family".

paragraphs: She was married to Jack Cassidy, from 1956 to 1977, and had three sons with him, Shaun, Patrick, and Ryan. Her stepson is David Cassidy who co-starred with her on "The Partridge Family". After she divorced Cassidy she married Marty Ingels on November 13, 1977. Their marriage would last until Ingels' death in October 2015.


title: DeForest Kelley

paragraphs: Jackson DeForest Kelley (January 20, 1920 – June 11, 1999) was an American actor.

paragraphs: Kelley is most famous for his role as Dr. Leonard McCoy of the USS "Enterprise" in the television series "Star Trek" and the six movies that followed.

paragraphs: Also known as well as an older Admiral Dr. Leonard McCoy, Star Fleet Surgeon General Emeritus, in the "" television pilot, "Encounter at Farpoint".


title: Scott Bakula

paragraphs: Scott Bakula (October 9, 1954) is an American actor. He is best known for his roles on the television shows, "Quantum Leap" and "".


title: Forestry

paragraphs: Forestry means working to take care of forests. Someone who has a job looking after forests is called a forester.

paragraphs: Forests are very important for the world today. Much of the water cycle and carbon cycle goes through forests. Many of them are disappearing because people destroy them for firewood or to make farms. A forester makes sure the forest and all the animals that live there are healthy. Foresters also make sure the forest is in good condition for people to use. They makes sure that forests are not destroyed by wildfires before they are ready to use for timber production (cutting down trees to use the wood).

paragraphs: Forests are important for recreation (letting people enjoy them). They are very important today because humans produce a lot of carbon dioxide and the trees in forests help to turn this back into oxygen, which we breathe to live. Foresters also help the government figure out what to do about artificial forestry. Many universities offer forestry courses. Forestry students also study zoology and botany.


title: Oregon

paragraphs: Oregon is a state in the United States. Salem is the capital (where most of the state government works), and Portland is the city with the most people. Oregon was the 33rd state to join the United States, in 1859.

paragraphs: The state of Washington is to the north of Oregon. California and Nevada are to the south. Idaho is to the east. The Pacific Ocean is to the west.

paragraphs: The Columbia River flows along most of the border with Washington. The Snake River flows along much of the border with Idaho. The highest mountain is Mount Hood ( high), part of the Cascade Range of mountains. Another famous Cascade Mountain in Oregon is Mount Mazama, better known as Crater Lake.

paragraphs: Oregon was a long way from the United States of America, which was east of the Mississippi river in the 1830s and 1840s. To get to Oregon, settlers had to cross the Great Plains, which were empty except for a few forts and groups of Native Americans. Most people thought that it was impossible to farm there. They called it the "Great American Desert", because crossing it was long and dangerous; however, thousands did anyway.

paragraphs: Mountain men (people who knew a lot about living in mountainous places) had found a passway over the Rocky Mountains, and they named it the South Pass. This path helped many wagons to reach the west coast. In 1836 a missionary named Marcus Whitman crossed through the pass with his wife to Oregon. This proved that it was possible for others with women and families to go too, and because of this, Oregon suddenly became the place pioneers wanted to make a trip to.

paragraphs: Most of the settlers that came by the Oregon Trail had a very difficult trip. The Trail began in Missouri, and they went in covered wagons pulled by animals like bulls. They could only travel 100 miles in one week, and so the whole trip would take half a year. But still, lots of pioneers traveled so much that it is still possible to see the wagon ruts in some places today.

paragraphs: Life on the trail was very hard for the pioneers. Every day, they would break up and camp, travel all day, and set up camp again. Food was usually beans and coffee, for every single day of the trip. The travelers always searched for water, wood for fires, and something to catch and eat fresh. But these were hard to find, and so sometimes they got mad at each other and fought with fists and guns.

paragraphs: The Trail was also dangerous. Rivers could flood, washing away people and other things. Native Americans could attack, oxen or horses could die, and diseases and injuries could strike.

paragraphs: By 1840, due to all the hard work of the pioneers, there were thousands of Americans in Oregon. Towns and farms had been set up. The area was part of British North America at the time. But the British, however, only had a few hundred settlers in Oregon. Because of this, the Americans began to plan to take over the whole land.

paragraphs: Many Americans wanted this as well. They made up the slogan, "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" and wanted all of Oregon up to latitude 54 or they would go to war with Britain to get it. They were so eager to have Oregon all for themselves, they supported James Polk as president because he claimed to have similar thoughts with them as well.

paragraphs: However, after President Polk was elected, he began to be more sensible. He did not want to wage war with Britain, if it could be avoided. The British also realized that the Americans would soon have enough settlers in Oregon to easily drive out the British defenders. In 1846 the British offered to divide Oregon by giving most of the border land between the USA and what is now Canada. President Polk accepted this, and so now the Americans had power over Oregon as well as the other states.

paragraphs: There are a number of colleges and universities in Oregon. The four-year universities with the most students are Portland State University, Oregon State University, and the University of Oregon.


title: Arkansas

paragraphs: Arkansas, nicknamed the "Land of Opportunity" or "The Natural State", is a state in the United States of America. Its capital and largest city is Little Rock. It has been estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 that around 2,978,204 people live in Arkansas.

paragraphs: Arkansas became the 25th state to enter the Union in 1836. During the American Civil War, Arkansas was one of the Confederate states, however, it was the second state to be put back in to the U.S. in the Reconstruction.

paragraphs: Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, and Tennessee and Mississippi on the east. The United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state. The Mississippi River forms most of Arkansas's eastern border, except in Clay and Greene counties. There the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the Missouri Bootheel.

paragraphs: Arkansas has many rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Arkansas has few natural lakes but many reservoirs such as Bull Shoals Lake, Lake Ouachita, Greers Ferry Lake, Millwood Lake, Beaver Lake, Norfork Lake, DeGray Lake, and Lake Conway.

paragraphs: Arkansas is home to many caves, such as Blanchard Springs Caverns. More than 43,000 Native American living, hunting and tool making sites have been catalogued by the State Archeologist. Arkansas is currently the only U.S. state in which diamonds are mined. This is done by members of the public with primitive digging tools for a small daily fee, not by commercial interests.

paragraphs: Arkansas is home to a bunch of Wilderness Areas totaling around . These areas are set aside for outdoor recreation and are open to hunting, fishing, hiking, and camping. No vehicles are allowed in these areas.

paragraphs: Arkansas, like most other Southern states, is part of the Bible Belt. It is mostly Protestant. The largest denominations by number of followers in 2000 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 665,307; the United Methodist Church with 179,383; the Roman Catholic Church with 115,967; and the American Baptist Association with 115,916.

paragraphs: Education in Arkansas has been an issue. Part of the problem has been low teacher salaries and small budgets for spending on students. Other problems have been not wanting to integrate, and poor school facilities.

paragraphs: Arkansas has two university systems: Arkansas State University System and University of Arkansas System. Some other public institutions are Arkansas Tech University, Henderson State University, Southern Arkansas University, and University of Central Arkansas. It is also home to 11 private colleges and universities. One of them being Hendrix College, one of the nation's top 100 liberal arts colleges, according to U.S. News & World Report.

paragraphs: Arkansas is notable for its bauxite mines. Arkansas was also the first U.S. state where diamonds were found. Notable Arkansans include Bill Clinton, who was governor of Arkansas before he became the President of the United States, Sam Walton, the founder of Wal-Mart, Johnny Cash, a famous guitarist known as "The Man In Black", and Rodger Bumpass, Who voices Squidward Tentacles on the Nickelodeon show SpongeBob SquarePants.

paragraphs: Arkansas is home to many areas protected by the National Park System. These include:


title: Robert Englund

paragraphs: Robert Englund (born June 6, 1949 in Glendale, California) is an American actor. He is most famous for playing Freddy Krueger in the "A Nightmare on Elm Street" movies.


title: Henry IV of France

paragraphs: Henry IV (13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), "Henri-Quatre", was King of France from 1589 to 1610 and King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610. He was part of the Capetian dynasty and the first king of the Bourbon family in France.

paragraphs: Henry IV was born in Pau. He was the son of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne of Navarre. He was baptised in a Catholic ceremony, but as he grew up, his mother led him to become a Protestant. On 18 August 1572, Henry married Margaret of Valois. She was the sister of Charles IX. He became the King of Navarre in the same year.

paragraphs: Since 1562, there had been a a series of wars in France which were mostly fought between Catholics and Protestants, and sometimes with more than one groups of Catholics fighting each other. In 1584, Henry became the heir to the throne of France. Most people in France were Catholics, and many of them did not want a Protestant king. This led to the War of the Three Henrys between Henry of Navarre, the existing Catholic king Henry III and Catholic League leader Henry, Duke of Guise. Although both Henry III and Guise were Catholics, they did not get on with each other. Guise was murdered in 1588 and Henry III was murdered the following year.

paragraphs: Henry of Navarre could now be crowned King of France, but he still faced opposition from the Catholic League. After four years of fighting, he decided to convert to being Catholic. He supposedly said "Paris is well worth a Mass." After this, the opposition to Henry died down. In 1598, Henry made the Edict of Nantes. This law allowed people in France to be Protestant, even though most people were Catholic. In Europe at the time, a policy like this was unusual. Most countries forced people to be either Catholic or Protestant. However, the Edict did not make the Protestants fully equal.

paragraphs: Henry's children were Louis XIII and Henrietta Maria of France, who married Charles I and became the Queen of England. He was a friend of Michel of Montaigne.

paragraphs: During his reign, he built the Grande Galerie onto the Louvre. Two landmarks in Paris were started during his reign: the Pont Neuf and the Place des Vosges.

paragraphs: Henry was murdered by a Catholic fanatic on a street in Paris on 14 May 1610.

paragraphs: At first, many people in France did not want Henry to be king, because he was a Protestant. Although this mostly ended once he joined the Catholic Church, some Catholics called him a liar, while some Protestants called him a traitor. It was only after his death that he became known as "Good King Henry" (in French, "le bon roi Henri") and one of France's most popular kings. During the early years of the French Revolution, Henry IV was celebrated as an example of what a king should be. He was also celebrated during the Bourbon Restoration.

paragraphs: Henry IV is remembered for being the king who ended the French Wars of Religion, and for his policy of allowing more than one church in his country, which was unusual in those days. He was also known for trying to make sure that poor people had enough to eat. He once said he wished that there could be "a chicken in every pot on a Sunday."

paragraphs: In 2010 scientists found part of his embalmed head and used forensic tests to prove that it was his. It had been stolen from the tombs of the French kings and queens in Saint Denis in 1793 at the time of the French Revolution.


title: Margaret of Valois

paragraphs: Margaret of Valois (May 14, 1553 – May 27, 1615) was a Princess of France and a member of the house of Valois.

paragraphs: Her father was Henry II of France and her mother was Catherine of Medici. She was also the sister of Francis II of France, Charles IV of France and Henry III of France. Margaret was then married to Henry IV of France.

paragraphs: The author Alexandre Dumas, père wrote a book about Margaret called "Queen Margot".


title: Queen Margot

paragraphs: Queen Margot is a book written in 1845 by Alexandre Dumas, père. It is a story about Margaret of Valois and Henry IV of France. The same author wrote many other books including "The Man in the Iron Mask", "The Count of Monte Cristo" and "The Three Musketeers".


title: Henrietta Maria of France

paragraphs: Henrietta Maria of France (November 25, 1609 - September 10, 1669) was the youngest daughter of Henry IV of France and Marie de' Medici. She was born in the Louvre Palace in Paris on November 25, 1609. She was a Roman Catholic.

paragraphs: Henrietta Maria married Charles I and became the Queen of England.


title: Madonna (entertainer)

paragraphs: Madonna Louise Ciccone, commonly known as Madonna (born August 16, 1958) is an American singer-songwriter, actress, author, director and philanthropist. Madonna was born in Bay City, Michigan, but she moved to New York City in 1977 to pursue a career in modern dance.

paragraphs: During her career, she has sold over 300 million records worldwide and is the top-selling female artist of all time. Some of her most famous albums are "Like a Virgin", "True blue", "Like a Prayer", "Ray of Light" and "Confessions On a Dance-Floor". She has won seven Grammy awards. Madonna is considered the "Queen Of Pop" due to her extremely successful career on music and for being the most selling female singer in history. She has been in many movies; she received positive reviews for her role in "Desperately Seeking Susan" (1985). Her later movies received mixed reviews. She received critical acclaim and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for "Evita" (1996). She got harsh feedback for other performances.

paragraphs: After the release of some dance hits she released her first album, "Madonna", in 1983. The album was a great success. Her next album, "Like a Virgin" (1984), sold over 6 million copies in the United States only and overall 10 million copies worldwide. Her album "True Blue" has sold 25 million copies. Her album "Like a Prayer" caused controversy, as it had to do with Christianity but the album sold over 15 million records worldwide. During the 1980s, Madonna was a huge fashion icon and was an idol for millions of girls and boys. Songs like "Like a Virgin", "Material Girl", "Into the Groove", "Papa Don't Preach", "Holiday", "Lucky Star", "La Isla Bonita", and "Like a Prayer" are believed to be classics.

paragraphs: In 1990, she released her best selling greatest-hits album "The Immaculate Collection" which sold over 30 million copies, and this album became the most-sold greatest-hits album in music history. She released a book of naked pictures called "SEX" in that year. Her album "Erotica" was a big hit but was criticized by some, the album sold 5 million copies. Madonna starred in the film "A League of Their Own", alongside American actor Tom Hanks and comedienne Rosie O'Donnell. In 1994, her album "Bedtime Stories" was released. She also performed in the movie "Evita", which was very successful and released a soundtrack album of the same name. She also received the Golden Globe for Best Actress. Her 1998 album "Ray of Light" is considered to be a masterpiece and sold over 18 million copies worldwide. Some of her most famous and classic songs of the '90s are "Vogue", "This Used to Be My Playground", "Erotica", "Take a Bow", "Don't Cry for Me Argentina", "You Must Love Me", "Frozen" and "Ray of Light".

paragraphs: In 2000, her album "Music" sold over 15 million copies worldwide, helped by the global hit song of the same name. "Music" became her twelfth number-one song on the "Billboard" Hot 100. She also released a successful greatest hits album titled "GHV2". Madonna acted in the film "The Next Best Thing", along with "Swept Away", which got bad reviews. On October 22, 2002, a single called "Die Another Day" was released. The music video for the single was the second most expensive music video ever to make. The single reached number one in several countries. Her 2003 album, "American Life," reached #1 in many countries but it was criticized by some, as it was against war in Iraq and sold 5 million copies. In 2005, her album "Confessions on a Dance Floor", helped by the singles "Hung Up" and "Sorry" that reached #1 in 45 countries, sold 12 million copies. In 2008 she released her album "Hard Candy" which reached #1 in almost every country in the world and has sold over 4 million copies worldwide. The first single from the album, "4 Minutes", had Justin Timberlake singing in it.

paragraphs: In 2011, "W.E.", the second movie directed by Madonna, was released. It got bad reviews.

paragraphs: Madonna performed at the 46th Super Bowl on February 5, 2012. She released her twelfth album, "MDNA", in April of that year. The album debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 album chart. Trinidadian-born American rapper Nicki Minaj was featured on the lead single, "Give Me All Your Luvin"', which reached the top ten in the United States and reached number one in Canada. Minaj also raps on the album track "I Don't Give A".

paragraphs: Madonna's thirteenth studio album, "Rebel Heart", was released in March 2015. It featured the singles "Living For Love" and "Bitch I'm Madonna" featuring frequent collaborator Nicki Minaj. The Rebel Heart World Tour made $169.8 million.

paragraphs: Her fourteenth studio album, "Madame X", was released on June 14, 2019, and became her ninth number-one album in the US. It featured collaborations with Maluma, Quavo, Swae Lee & Anitta. It has sold 90,000 copies in the US so far. She will be going on a theatre-only tour to promote it.

paragraphs: Her tours during the 80's ("Who's That Girl Tour," "Blond Ambition Tour," etc.) were very successful. Her 1993 "The Girlie Show Tour" was very controversial—some thought of it as bad—but was a great success. The "Drowned World Tour" and the "Re-Invention World Tour" were the most successful tours of their years. The "Confessions Tour" was very successful and the "Sticky & Sweet Tour," with over $408 million earned, became the most successful tour of all time for a solo artist.

paragraphs: Madonna has had 12 number-one songs on the "Billboard" Hot 100. They are:

paragraphs: Madonna is the third of six siblings and was named after her mother, Madonna Fortin, who died of breast cancer when Madonna was only five years old.

paragraphs: Both Madonna's marriages ended in divorce. She was married to Sean Penn from 1985 until 1989 and to Guy Ritchie from 2000 to 2008. She has a daughter, Lourdes (born 1996), and son, Rocco (born 2000). She adopted a Malawian son, David Banda, and a daughter, Mercy.

paragraphs: In February 2017, it was announced that she had adopted two more Malawian children, twin girls Esther and Stella.


title: Tortilla

paragraphs: A tortilla is a flat bread used in Mexican cuisine. They are used in burritos, enchiladas, and mainly as a wrap called taco. They are normally made of maize (corn), but can also be made of wheat or potatoes.

paragraphs: In Spanish cuisine, tortillas are very different; they are closer to an omelette based on potatoes, usually mixed with other ingredients like onions, pork sausages or other vegetables; they can be baked or cooked in a frying pan. Also many Latin-American countries call omelettes tortillas, and the ingredients can be different in every country, using their local ingredients and by choice of the chef.

paragraphs: In Turkish cuisine a tortilla is known as lavash which is a type of flat bread.


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title: EastEnders

paragraphs: EastEnders is a British drama season TV soap opera in the United Kingdom. It has been running since February 1985, and has had over 5700 episodes. The programme is a rival of "Coronation Street" and "Emmerdale". It is usually shown on BBC One.

paragraphs: The programme is in a pretend area of East London, called Walford. It is filmed in Elstree, a village in Borehamwood. Like "Coronation Street", most action is around a local pub. The pub in "EastEnders" is called The Queen Vic.

paragraphs: There are many story lines, including drug abuse, rape, racism, domestic violence, murder, kidnapping, prostitution, theft, senile dementia, arson, and runaway children.

paragraphs: Arguments between members of one family, or between different families, are often in the storyline.


Genetic


title: Philip II of Spain

paragraphs: Philip II of Spain (May 21, 1527 – September 13, 1598) was, starting in 1556, king of Spain, and Burgundy, the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, and overseas Spanish America. He was born in Valladolid, and was the only son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his wife to live until he was an adult. He was Catholic. His rule was filled with troubles. His war against the Dutch Republic was expensive and unsuccessful and his Spanish Armada was defeated and destroyed. This caused him to be harsh on his people.

paragraphs: For the first seven years of his life, Philip moved between different castles with his mother. In 1534 he moved into a private house in Salamanca to start his schooling. His mother died in 1539 and he took her body to Granada, where his great-grandparents Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella were buried. He left Spain in 1547 and moved to the Netherlands, where his father's family was from. His father wanted him to become more European but the people there thought he was too cold and serious.

paragraphs: Phillip II obtained most of his titles from his parents, he had obtained some other titles to like King of Portugal

paragraphs: In Castile he was: King of Castile, Leon, Grenada, Toledo, Seville, Cordoba, Murcia, Jaen, Algarves, Gibraltar, Algeciras, Canary Islands, of the Indias, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea, and Lord of Molina.

paragraphs: In Aragon he was: King of Aragon, Majorca, Menorca, Sardinia and Corsica, Naples, Sicily, Valencia, Navarre, Jerusalem, Margrave of Oristano, Count of Goceano, Count of Barcelona, Count of Roussillon, Count of Cerdanya, Duke of Athens, Duke of Neopatria.

paragraphs: In Portugal he was: King of Portugaleither side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India, etc.

paragraphs: In England he was: King of England and France (titular) and Ireland.

paragraphs: Hapsburg Titles: Duke of Milan, Imperial vicar of Siena, Archduke of Austria, Princely Count of Habsburg and of Tyrol, Prince of Swabia.

paragraphs: In Burgundy: Lord of the Netherlands, Duke of Lothier, of Brabant, of Limburg, of Luxemburg, of Guelders. Count of Flanders, of Artois, of Hainaut, of Holland, of Zeeland, of Namur, of Zutphen. Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Lord of Frisia, Salins, Mechelen, the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht, Overyssel, GroningenCount Palatine of Burgundy from 10 June 1556; Count of Charolais from 21 September 1558

paragraphs: Knight of the Golden Fleece: 1531 – 13 September 1598

paragraphs: Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece:[75] 23 October 1555 – 13 September 1598

paragraphs: Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598

paragraphs: Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598

paragraphs: Grand Master of the Order of Santiago: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598

paragraphs: Grand Master of the Order of Montesa: 8 December 1587 – 13 September 1598


title: William II of England

paragraphs: William II of England (c. 1056–2 August 1100) was the second son of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders. He was King of England from 1087 until 1100. He was a harsh ruler and was not very liked. He did not have a wife or any children. He died on 2 August 1100 in the New Forest when he was shot by an arrow while hunting with his brother-in-law, Walter Tirel (Tryyel) and other friends.


title: Mary I of England

paragraphs: Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), also known as Mary Tudor, was Queen regnant of England and Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death. She was the oldest daughter of Henry VIII, and the only child of Catherine of Aragon who survived childhood.

paragraphs: Mary succeeded her short-lived half-brother, Edward VI, to the English throne. She was the fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Mary is remembered for briefly re-making England a Roman Catholic country.

paragraphs: Mary had almost 300 disagreeing religious people burned at the stake, which are recorded in John Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Due to this, many called her "Bloody Mary". When her half sister on her fathers side Elizabeth I, came to the throne after Mary's death, she made England Protestant again. She burned anyone who refused to renounce their faith back to Roman Catholicim at the Stake.

paragraphs: Mary Tudor was born on 18 February 1516, in the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich. Unlike the other children of Catherine, she lived to be an adult. Her godfather was the famous Cardinal Thomas Wolsey.

paragraphs: Although she was not the heir Henry VIII was looking for, she was loved by her parents. When she was about 11, Henry decided to divorce Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, so he could marry Anne Boleyn.

paragraphs: After Anne Boleyn had a daughter, Henry VlII distrusted Mary and thought that her behavior came from her mother. So he purposefully separated Mary and Catherine of Aragon. He also banished them both from court and he removed Mary from the line of succession. Mary had to become one of her servants. After Anne Boleyn was killed by the King, Mary's half-sister also became a servant. A month later, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane gave birth to Edward, Prince of Wales. 9 days later, Queen Jane died.

paragraphs: Mary lost a faithful friend and also her pride. She had acknowledged her parents' marriage as invalid and herself an illegitimate daughter. The rest of Mary's life with Henry VIII gave her a quick succession of stepmothers. Henry VIII died soon after marrying his last wife, Catherine Parr.

paragraphs: Henry had decided that the young prince was to succeed him. If he had no heirs then his older half-sister, Mary, was to be Queen.

paragraphs: If Mary did not produce a child, then Mary's half-sister, Elizabeth, was to be Queen. After Elizabeth and her heirs, would come Henry's sister Mary Tudor's side of the family.

paragraphs: Edward succeeded to the throne as King of England and Ireland. Edward began to show signs of a coughing disease.

paragraphs: Edward did not want Mary to succeed him. Edward went ahead with a plan to let his Protestant cousin Lady Jane Grey become Queen after he died. Lady Jane Grey was only queen of England for nine days. Mary executed Jane Grey and married Philip II of Spain.

paragraphs: Mary had two phantom pregnancies, but had no child. The phantom pregnancies were cancer in her liver. After Mary died Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, becoming the new Queen Elizabeth I of England.


title: Edward VI of England

paragraphs: Edward VI (12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553) was King of England and Ireland, from 28 January 1547, until his death on 6 July 1553.

paragraphs: Edward was the son of Henry VIII of England and Jane Seymour. His mother died 12 days after his birth. He became king at the age of 9 when his father died.

paragraphs: When their father died, Edward's half-sister Elizabeth was 13 years old. His other half sister, Mary was 31. Despite being the youngest, Edward was the heir apparent because he was male. Because he was such a young king, the realm was governed by a Regency Council. He died when he was 15 and a half years old. His successor was his cousin, Lady Jane Grey.

paragraphs: He had two advisers (or regents). The first was his uncle, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, who became Lord Protector. For the first two-and-a-half years of Edward's reign, Lord Somerset advised and guided the young king. Somerset was replaced by John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. Both men wanted major changes made to the Church of England.

paragraphs: As a result of their advice and his beliefs, Edward's reign is mainly remembered for the changes made to religion while he was king. Though his father, Henry VIII, had removed the Pope as Head of the Church in England, he had not changed much else. Most of the major changes to the Church of England happened during Edward's reign.

paragraphs: In July 6th 1553, at age 15 he died, probably from tuberculosis. Before he died, he and his Council wrote a "Devise for the Succession". This was an attempt to prevent the country returning to Catholicism. Edward named his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir and excluded his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. However, this was disputed after his death; Jane was deposed by Mary within 13 days. Mary I reversed Edward's Protestant reforms, which nonetheless became the basis of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559.

paragraphs: Laws were passed to make churches more plain. Catholic churches were rich in decorations and colour. Now under Edward, stained glass windows and icons were removed from churches; the furniture within churches became very basic and plain.

paragraphs: The actual services became more plain and the common person could now understand what was being said at services – now called Holy Communion – were in English rather than Latin. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer wrote the Book of Common Prayer also in English. Priests did not have to dress in the bright clothing associated with the Catholic Church and under Edward. They were also allowed to marry. The king remained as Head of the Church.

paragraphs: All of these changes were a major break from the traditions of the Catholic Church. In parts of Germany and Switzerland, religious groups had also broken away in protest against the wealth and corruption of the Catholic Church. They became known as Protestant, and England under Edward, became a Protestant country with an independent Church of England.

paragraphs: Edward had never been a healthy boy and his health failed in 1553. After the nine-day reign of Lady Jane Grey, his Catholic half-sister Mary became queen of England and the country went through another period of religious changes.


title: Richard I of England

paragraphs: Richard I of England (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was the king of England from 1189 to 1199. He is sometimes called Richard the Lionheart. Richard was the son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. As the third son and not expected to inherit the throne, he was a replacement child. In 1168 he became Duke of Aquitaine.

paragraphs: Richard was one of the leaders of the Third Crusade against Saladin, which never actually succeeded. During his journey, he conquered Sicily and Cyprus. He fought in the Battle of Acre and the Battle of Arsuf. In the end, as he was unable to win back Jerusalem from the Muslims, he decided to return home to England. On his way back from the Crusade, Richard was captured by the Austrian Duke, Leopold I. The English people had to pay a huge ransom to set him free. He was considered a very brave and noble king, but he did not spend a lot of time in England - only six months of his eleven-year reign were spent in his country.

paragraphs: He died after being shot with a crossbow while besieging a castle in Limousin. His remains were buried at different places. His body was buried at Fontevraud Abbey near Saumur in France, as are his father and mother. His internal organs were buried at Chalus, near Limoges in central France. His heart was buried in the Notre Dame Cathedral at Rouen. It was found in 1838 and was examined by scientists in 2012. They did tests for poisons, as one medieval story claimed Richard had died from a poisoned arrow. There is no evidence to support this idea, and he probably died from gangrene or septicaemia from the arrow wound.

paragraphs: Richard was succeeded by his younger brother, John.


title: Jane Seymour

paragraphs: Jane Seymour (c.1508 – 24 October 1537) was the third wife of King Henry VIII of England and queen consort from 1536 until 1537. She was the mother of Edward VI of England, who died a the age of 15. Edward was the only male child of King Henry VIII to survive infancy.

paragraphs: Jane Seymour was the child of John Seymour and Margaret Wentworth. She was not educated as much as King Henry's wives before her, for example, Catherine of Aragon or Anne Boleyn. She could read and write a little but was much better at needlework and managing the house. These were considered much more necessary for women. Jane's needlework was said to be beautiful and complex. Some of her work was kept till 1652, where it is recorded to have been given to the Seymour family. After her death, it was noted that Henry was an "enthusiastic embroiderer".

paragraphs: She was a lady-in-waiting to Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of Henry VIII. When Henry divorced his first wife and married Anne Boleyn, Jane continued to be a lady-in-waiting. Henry VIII noticed Jane at court and had already fallen in love with her by the time Anne Boleyn was executed. He became engaged to Jane on the day after the execution, and they were married ten days later, on May 30, 1536. When Jane became queen, she ran the royal court in a strict and formal way, and her only close friends were Anne Stanhope and Elizabeth Seymour.

paragraphs: In early 1537, Jane became pregnant and developed a craving for quail. In October of 1537, she gave birth to the son that Henry VIII wanted so much. They named him Edward and he was later to be King Edward VI of England. Soon, Jane became very ill with fever, and she died on October 24, 1537. Jane never had a coronation, and was married to Henry for only a year and a half before she died (May 30, 1536-October 24, 1537). Henry had loved Jane the most of all his wives, because she was the one who gave him a son. Even though he was married another three times after Jane's death, he always grieved for her. Before Henry died, he asked to be buried next to Jane.


title: Elizabeth of York

paragraphs: Elizabeth of York (11 February 1466-11 February 1503) married King Henry VII of England in 1486. This marriage united the House of Plantagenet and the House of Lancaster, the two sides of the Wars of the Roses. She was the mother of King Henry VIII. When she was only 17, her father died of pneumonia.


title: Catherine of Aragon

paragraphs: Catherine of Aragon (Spanish: Catalina) (16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was the daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. Catherine was the wife of Arthur, Prince of Wales and later married his brother, Henry VIII.

paragraphs: When Catherine was three years old, it was decided that she would marry Arthur, Prince of Wales. Catherine and Arthur were married on 14 November 1501. They were sent to Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, to take control of the Council of Wales. Months later, Catherine and Arthur became ill, possibly from a sickness which was sweeping the area at the time. Prince Arthur died on 2 April 1502, leaving after Catherine a widow at the age of 16.

paragraphs: Henry VIII married Catherine in 1509, shortly after he became king. She was extremely popular with the people of England. In 1513, when Henry VIII invaded France, she ruled as his regent.

paragraphs: Despite Catherine's popularity, she did not produce a surviving son. Her only surviving child was a daughter, Mary I of England. Henry's need for a son caused him to try and divorce his wife.

paragraphs: At first, Henry tried to convince Anne Boleyn to be his mistress in 1527. Anne refused, so Henry decided to marry her. Divorce was not allowed in the Catholic faith. Henry claimed that, as Catherine had been married to his elder brother Arthur, his was an invalid marriage. He quoted a verse in Leviticus which states that "a man may not marry his brother's wife and such a union would be without the blessing of God and fruitless", and used this as his case. It became referred to as the kings "secret matter" and a special court was held with Cardinal Wolsey leading it.

paragraphs: An official from Rome was brought over and a trial was held. The official stated that he could not come to a conclusion and the case would have to be referred to Rome for the Pope to make a decision. The matter dragged on for quite some time, as the Pope would not agree to an annulment.

paragraphs: In 1532, Anne Boleyn became pregnant with the king's child. She was married to Henry on 25 January 1533 so that the baby could be a legitimate heir. Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon was finally annulled in the following May by Archbishop Cranmer, thus ending the first of Henry's 6 marriages. The divorce went against the Roman Catholic belief system, so Henry created his own church, the Church of England. This was the beginnings of protestantism in England, with the King as the head of the church instead of the Pope.

paragraphs: Until the end of Catherine's life, Catherine believed that she was the true wife of Henry VIII. Her servants called her their queen, but Henry called her the "Dowager Princess of Wales".

paragraphs: In 1535, Catherine was transferred to Kimbolton Castle and was not allowed to see her daughter Mary. Henry VIII told her that if they declared Anne their queen, they would be able to see each other. They never did.

paragraphs: Catherine died, most likely of heart cancer, in January of 1536, just five months before the execution of Anne Boleyn.


title: Gregory Peck

paragraphs: Eldred Gregory Peck (April 5, 1916 – June 12, 2003) was an American actor and producer who was born in La Jolla, California.

paragraphs: One of 20th Century Fox's most popular movie stars from the 1940s to the 1960s, Peck continued to play important roles well into the 1990s. His most famous role was that of Atticus Finch in the 1962 movie "To Kill a Mockingbird", for which he won his Academy Award.

paragraphs: President Lyndon Johnson awarded Peck the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 for his lifetime humanitarian efforts. In 1999, the American Film Institute named Peck among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time, ranking at number 12.


title: Sin City

paragraphs: Sin City is the title of a number of stories by Frank Miller, written in a comic book-style and the name of a movie that is based on the books.

paragraphs: A movie version of the "Sin City" books was released in 2005. It starred a number of famous actors, including Jessica Alba, Brittany Murphy, Bruce Willis, and Elijah Wood. The movie was directed by Frank Miller, Robert Rodriguez, and Quentin Tarantino.

paragraphs: The movie is based on four stories from the "Sin City" books: "The Customer is Always Right", "The Hard Goodbye", "The Big Fat Kill" and "That Yellow Bastard".


title: Brittany Murphy

paragraphs: Brittany Murphy-Monjack (born Brittany Anne Bertolotti; November 10, 1977 – December 20, 2009) was an American actress and singer. She appeared in many movies and was the voice of Luanne on the American television show "King of the Hill". Murphy was married to British moviemaker Simon Monjack (1970-2010) from 2007 until her death on December 20, 2009. She died of pneumonia. An overdose of legal drugs also played a part in her death.


title: Evershot

paragraphs: Evershot is a village in the county of Dorset. It is in the West Dorset District. In 2001 there were 206 people living in Evershot.


title: Copyleft

paragraphs: Copyleft is a name for a type of a license for free content or free software. It is not the opposite of copyright, but its purpose is the opposite of the purpose of the frequently seen copyright type of license (which uses copyright to "forbid" changing, giving, or selling something). A copyleft license uses copyright to "forbid forbidding" changing, giving, or selling something.

paragraphs: Both copyleft and non-copyleft ("permissive") licenses for free content or free software can be used for things like documents (for example books, art, music and software); they always allow people to change the works, and to give or sell them to other people. It should be noted that, although people might think that copyleft content is not copyrighted, that's a myth. Copyleft is a form of licensing: it is not just another name for public domain.

paragraphs: However, in a copyleft license, when a person gives or sells a work (changed or not changed) to a friend, the person must allow the friend to do the things which the author of the original work has allowed in the license to the person. This often means, for example, that if another person licensed a book under a copyleft license, and you changed it into a new book, you would have to license your new book under the same license.

paragraphs: Some copyleft licenses that are used a lot are the GNU General Public License and the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license.


title: Uruguay

paragraphs: Uruguay (officially Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country in South America. The language spoken there is Spanish. Its capital and largest city is Montevideo. Uruguay is bordered by two large neighbors, Brazil and Argentina. The only country in South America that is smaller than Uruguay is Suriname. The land is mostly flat, and there are many farms in the countryside.

paragraphs: The area around Uruguay was fought over by the Portuguese and Spanish Empires in the 18th century. In the 1810s it was the center of a Federal League of states in the Río de la Plata region. Argentina and Brazil took the majority in wars, leaving Uruguay as independent.

paragraphs: Uruguay is divided into 19 different Departments.

paragraphs: The highest point in the country is the Cerro Catedral whose peak reaches to .

paragraphs: There are nine National Parks in Uruguay. Five in the wetland areas of the east, three in the central hill country and one in the west along the Rio Uruguay.

paragraphs: According to FAOSTAT, Uruguay is one of world's largest producers of: soybeans (9th); greasy wool (12th); horse meat (14th); beeswax (14th); quinces (17th); natural honey (19th); cattle meat (20th). On December 20, 2013, Uruguay was the first country in the world to legalize the cultivation, sale, and use of cannabis.

paragraphs: Uruguayans are mostly of European origin. 88%, or 88 of 100 people, are from European descent.

paragraphs: Football is the most popular sport in Uruguay. The Uruguay national football team has won the FIFA World Cup on two occasions.


title: Minnesota

paragraphs: Minnesota is a state in the Upper Midwest of the United States of America. Part of the state has a border with the country of Canada.

paragraphs: The capital of Minnesota is Saint Paul. The largest city is Minneapolis. Over 3 million people live in the two cities and the suburbs that surround it, which are separated by the Mississippi River. They are known as the Twin Cities.

paragraphs: Minnesota became a state on May 11, 1858. It was the 32nd state in the United States of America. The name Minnesota is Dakota (a Native American language) for "sky-tinted water". Eagle Mountain is the highest point in Minnesota. The state bird is the Common Loon.

paragraphs: Minnesota has a humid continental climate. The winters in Minnesota are long and severe. Hence the state has a short growing season. During the summer, the south of the state is hot; the north is warm.


title: Colorado

paragraphs: Colorado is a state located in the western United States. Its capital and largest city is Denver. Other large cities include Colorado Springs and Aurora. Colorado became the 38th state admitted to the union on August 1, 1876.

paragraphs: The state was named after the Colorado River by Spanish explorers. US Army officer and amateur explorer Zebulon Pike was recruited by the United States government in 1806 to locate the source of the Mississippi River and to check out Spanish settlements in New Mexico. Even though his recorded location for the source of the Mississippi was extremely inaccurate and allegedly got lost in his expedition, he did explore much of what would become the American Southwest. When he reached what is now Colorado Springs, he named a mountain after himself, Pikes Peak, which remains a symbol for the city as well as the state to this day. Colorado has a long history of mining and digging for gold. It is the place where the Pike's Peak Gold Rush took place. When gold in California was becoming harder and harder to find, people came to Colorado in large numbers when gold was discovered there in 1859, ten years after the California Gold Rush began. Many mining camps set up in Colorado would later become cities, such as Denver City and Boulder City. The motto for the gold rush was "Pike's Peak or Bust". In 1971, the Libertarian Party was formed in the state.

paragraphs: The State of Colorado is shaped like a rectangle. The borders are latitude and longitude lines. The four borders are at 37°N, 41°N, 102°03'W, and 109°03'W. (The east and west borders are 25°W and 32°W from the Washington Meridian.) Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah are the only three U.S. states that have only lines of latitude and longitude for boundaries and that have no natural borders. When government surveyors made the border markers for the "Territory of Colorado", minor surveying mistakes made many small kinks along the borders, most seen along the border with the "Territory of Utah."

paragraphs: The tip of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,401 m) elevation in Lake County is the state's highest point and the highest point in the entire Rocky Mountains. Colorado has more than 100 mountain peaks that reach over 4,000 meters (13,123 ft) in height. Colorado is the only U.S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) in height. Colorado has the highest average elevation of any state at 6,800 ft. It borders New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming.

paragraphs: The land area of Colorado is roughly the same size as New Zealand.

paragraphs: The weather and temperatures in Colorado are quite different compared to most of the United States. In most other states, the southern part is warmer than the northern part, southern Colorado is not noticeably warmer than northern Colorado. Mountains and surrounding valleys greatly affect local climate. As a normal rule, with an increase in height comes a decrease in temperature and an increase in rain. There exists a phenomenally severe change in climate in Colorado between the Rocky Mountains on the west and the Great Plains on the east, both of which are separated by a lesser range known to Colorado citizens and primarily Boulderites as "the Foothills".

paragraphs: The state's largest city, and capital, is Denver. The "Denver-Aurora-Boulder Combined Statistical Area", is home to 2,927,911 people, it has more than two-thirds of the state's population.

paragraphs: As of 2005, Colorado has an estimated population of 4,665,177, which is an increase of 63,356, or 1.4%, from the last year and an increase of 363,162, or 8.4%, since the year 2000. This has a natural increase since the last census of 205,321 people (that is 353,091 births minus 147,770 deaths) and an increase because of migration of 159,957 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States makes a net increase of 112,217 people, and migration within the country made a net increase of 47,740 people.

paragraphs: Colorado's most common religion is Christianity, and its most common denomination is Catholicism. Colorado, and mostly the city of Colorado Springs, serves as the headquarters of many Christian groups, many of them Evangelical. "Focus on the Family" is a big conservative Christian organization headquartered in Colorado Springs.

paragraphs: Major religious affiliations of the people of Colorado are:

paragraphs: The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that the total state product in 2007 was $236 billion. Per capita personal income in 2007 was $41,192, ranking Colorado eleventh in the United States. Early companies were based on the extraction and getting minerals and agricultural things. Today's agricultural things are cattle, wheat, dairy products, corn, and hay. On January 1 2014 Colorado became the first state to make marijuana legal. In the first week of this $5 million of marijuana was sold. The marijuana industry is expected to make Colorado's economy $359 million by the end of 2014.


title: Cairo

paragraphs: Cairo (, usually transliterated as Al-Qāhirah) is the capital and largest city in Egypt. The city name can be translated as "the one who won". Cairo is sometimes called "Mother of the World" ("Um al Dunya").

paragraphs: Cairo has 7,947,121 people. About 17,290,000 people live in its urban area. This makes it the biggest city of the Arab World. It also is the city with the biggest urban area in Africa

paragraphs: The city of Cairo has a hot desert climate (BWh), meaning it has a hot, sunny and dry climate a year long. The city, however, has more humidity than other cities with the hot desert climate (BWh).

paragraphs: The area around the city was an important focal point of Ancient Egypt.

paragraphs: In 968, the Fatimids entered Egypt and they made Cairo the capital of their caliphate.

paragraphs: The Al Azhar mosque and university was made in 972. This became the world's oldest university. It is the most widely known seminary in the Islamic world.

paragraphs: In 1992, Cairo was devastated by a 5.8 magnitude earthquake that caused 545 deaths, injuring 6,512, and made 50,000 people homeless, the most destructive since 1847.

paragraphs: The great pyramids of Giza and the step pyramid of Sakkara are just outside of the city.

paragraphs: The Egyptian Museum holds the world’s largest collection of antiquities from the time of the ancient Pharaohs. Many treasures from the tomb of King Tutankhamun are in this museum.

paragraphs: People from Cairo are called 'Cairenes'.


Bush


title: Aerospace engineering

paragraphs: Aerospace engineering is a field of engineering that specializes in designing vehicles that move through air and/or space, namely aircraft or spacecraft. Aerospace engineering is a culmination of design, development and testing to produce top-notch civilian and military aircrafts and space crafts.

paragraphs: As with other fields of engineering, aerospace engineers (who design and oversee the repair of vehicles) must study for several years at a university or college and earn a degree that specializes in aerospace engineering. The course curriculum is designed to ensure critical thinking and inculcate problem-solving thinking for designing and testing aircrafts, missiles and space crafts. Aerospace engineer is responsible for devising project proposals to ensure financial and technical feasibility, ensuring effective progress of various phases in hardware development, integration and evaluation, testing and analyzing new applications for implementation in aerospace systems. Vet projects to ensure they meet the quality benchmark. Assess ongoing projects in terms of safety and feasibility to match desired objectives. Apart from the technical aspects, the job also has some managerial elements that are: Preparing risk assessment plans and elaborate strategic solutions and working on insightful and attractive presentations for prospective business contacts, clients and various stakeholders. Aerospace technicians (those who repair and construct vehicles) will complete a shorter technical course with 'on the job' training that equips them with the skills required to construct and repair said vehicles. Aerospace jobs include astronauts, pilots, and other professionals.


title: Karnataka

paragraphs: Karnataka is a state in the Republic of India. It has an area of . It is bigger than Syria but smaller than Senegal. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the South n zone. It has 30 districts. According to the Census of 2011,it has a population of approximately 6.11 crores. The present Chief Minister of the state is B. S. Yeddyurappa from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

paragraphs: Bangalore, also known as Bengaluru, is the capital city of Karnataka. It is also known as the IT capital of India. Mysore, Mangalore, and Hubli-Dharwad are the other big cities in Karnataka. Places to see in Karnataka are Bangalore, Mysore, Hampi, Bijapur, Belur/Halebid, Shimoga and Shravanabelagola. the Lalbhag Botanical Garden, Badami and the Jog water are some of the well-known tourist attractions in Karnataka.

paragraphs: The Kannada language is the official language of the state and the most prominent language spoken by the people in Karnataka . Telugu, Tamil, Marathi, Hindi and Malayalam are also spoken in Karantaka. Kannada is declared as one of the official languages of India. It has won the most number of Gnanpith Awards - 8, which is awarded to writers .

paragraphs: Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea in the west, Goa in the northwest, Maharashtra in the north,Telangana in the northeast, Andhra Pradesh in the east, Tamil Nadu in the south and Kerala in the southwest. Topographically, Karnataka consists of the Arabian Sea Coast, Western Ghats, Deccan Plateau, and Eastern Ghats.

paragraphs: Karnataka's history dates back to the 3rd century BC. The succession of able administrators from the Hoysalas, Chalukyas and the mighty Vijayanagara rulers, to the arrival of the Mughals in the 17th century and the British in the 18th century have contributed to the mix of culture and heritage that is as rich as it is ancient.


title: Norrland

paragraphs: Norrland is the northernmost region of Sweden. The other two regions are Götaland and Svealand. Norrland includes the Swedish counties Gävleborg County, Västernorrland County, Jämtland County, Västerbotten County and Norrbotten County. By "Upper Norrland" people usually mean Norrbotten and Västerbotten counties.

paragraphs: Historically parts of northern Finland have also been parts of Norrland.

paragraphs: Even though 59% of Sweden's area is within Norrland, only 12% of its population live there. The biggest town of Norrland is Umeå.

paragraphs: Norrland is famous for its landscape, and for phenomena such as the Midnight sun, Polar night and Aurora also called the Northern lights.


title: Calgary

paragraphs: Calgary is the biggest city in Alberta, Canada. More than 1,000,000 people live in Calgary. The city is in the southern half of Alberta near the Rocky Mountains.

paragraphs: There are many oil and gas businesses in Calgary. There are many skyscrapers in the City.

paragraphs: Around Calgary there are many farms where cows are raised.

paragraphs: Calgary has a humid continental climate ("Dfb" in the Koeppen climate classification). It has long, cold, dry winters. The summers are warm with moderate rainfall. Sometimes a wind called a Chinook blows through Calgary. This wind can make some days in winter less cold.

paragraphs: Calgary has a famous event called The Calgary Stampede every year. They rent many rides and have a huge festival for the city to join. The Calgary Stampede is the largest rodeo in the world. At the Stampede, cowboys can win a lot of money. Cowboys also race with chuckwagons at the Stampede. Chuckwagons are carts with four wheels pulled by horses. In 1988, the Winter Olympics were held in Calgary.

paragraphs: Calgary has many museums, such as the Glenbow Museum and the Aero Space Museum. The Calgary Flames (an NHL ice hockey team) play in Calgary at Scotiabank Saddledome.


title: Nova Scotia

paragraphs: Nova Scotia ( ); ) is a small province found on the east coast of Canada. The name "Nova Scotia" is Latin for "New Scotland". The capital and biggest city is Halifax.

paragraphs: People who live in Nova Scotia are called Nova Scotians. There are over 900,000 of them; over 400,000 of whom live in Halifax.

paragraphs: What is now Nova Scotia used to be controlled by the Mik'maq Indians. The French settled among them at Port Royal after 1600, and called the land part of Acadia, with Port Royal as its capital. In 1710, after a war, the British captured Port Royal and went on to capture the rest of the peninsula. It was the first time that the British had captured and held a French colony.

paragraphs: On 6 December 1917, about 2,000 people were killed in the Halifax Explosion.

paragraphs: Nova Scotia's government is a democracy. Stephen McNeil is the premier and John James Grant is the lieutenant governor.


title: Absolute zero

paragraphs: Absolute zero is the temperature at which the particles of matter (molecules and atoms) are at their lowest energy points. Some people think that at absolute zero particles lose all energy and stop moving. This is not correct. In quantum physics there is something called zero point energy, which means that even after all the energy from particles has been removed, the particles still have some energy. This is due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that the more that is known about a particle's position, the less that can be known about its momentum, and vice versa. Therefore, a particle cannot be completely stopped because then its exact position and momentum would be known.

paragraphs: Some people have created temperatures very close to absolute zero: the record temperature was 100 pK (one hundred picokelvin, equal to 10 kelvin) above absolute zero. Even getting close to absolute zero is difficult because anything that touches an object being cooled near absolute zero would give heat to the objects. Scientists use lasers to slow atoms when cooling objects to very low temperatures.

paragraphs: The kelvin and Rankine temperature scales are defined so that absolute zero is 0 kelvin (K) or 0 degrees Rankine (°R). The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are defined so that absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F.

paragraphs: At this stage the pressure of the particles is zero. If we plot a graph to it, we can see that the temperature of the particles is zero. The temperature cannot go down any further. Also, the particles cannot move in "reverse" either because as the movement of particles is vibration, vibrating in reverse would be nothing but simply vibrating again. The closer the temperature of an object gets to absolute zero, the less resistive the material is to electricity therefore it will conduct electricity almost perfectly, with no measurable resistance.

paragraphs: The Third Law of Thermodynamics says that nothing can ever have a temperature of absolute zero.

paragraphs: The Second Law of Thermodynamics says that all engines that are powered by heat (like car engines and steam train engines) must release waste heat and can not be 100% efficient. This is because the efficiency (percent of energy the engine uses up that is actually used to do the engine's job) is 100%×(1-T/T), which only is 100% if the outside temperature is absolute zero which it cannot be. So, an engine cannot be 100% efficient, but you can make its efficiency closer to 100% by making the inside temperature hotter and/or the outside temperature colder.


title: Cylinder

paragraphs: A cylinder is one of the most basic curved geometric shapes, with the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given line segment, known as the axis of the cylinder. The shape can be thought of as a circular prism. Both the surface and the solid shape created inside can be called a "cylinder". The surface area and the volume of a cylinder have been known since ancient times.

paragraphs: In differential geometry, a cylinder is defined more broadly as any ruled surface which is spanned by a one-parameter family of parallel lines. A cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively.

paragraphs: In common use a "cylinder" is taken to mean a finite section of a right circular cylinder, i.e., the cylinder with the generating lines perpendicular to the bases, with its ends closed to form two circular surfaces, as in the figure (right). If the cylinder has a radius and length (height) "h", then its volume is given by:

paragraphs: Therefore, without the top or bottom (lateral area), the surface area is:

paragraphs: With the top and bottom, the surface area is:

paragraphs: For a given volume, the cylinder with the smallest surface area has . For a given surface area, the cylinder with the largest volume has , i.e. the cylinder fits in a cube (height = diameter).

paragraphs: Having a right circular cylinder with a height units and a base of radius units with the coordinate axes chosen so that the origin is at the center of one base and the height is measured along the positive x-axis. A plane section at a distance of units from the origin has an area of square units where

paragraphs: An element of volume, is a right cylinder of base area square units and a thickness of units. Thus if "V" cubic units is the volume of the right circular cylinder, by Riemann sums,

paragraphs: Using cylindrical coordinates, the volume can be calculated by integration over

paragraphs: Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes. For a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder, meets the cylinder in a single straight line. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two parallel lines. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, in a circle.

paragraphs: An elliptic cylinder, or cylindroid, is a quadric surface, with the following equation in Cartesian coordinates:

paragraphs: This equation is for an elliptic cylinder, a generalization of the ordinary, circular cylinder (). Even more general is the generalized cylinder: the cross-section can be any curve.

paragraphs: The cylinder is a "degenerate quadric" because at least one of the coordinates (in this case ) does not appear in the equation.

paragraphs: An oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another.

paragraphs: There are other more unusual types of cylinders. These are the "imaginary elliptic cylinders":

paragraphs: In projective geometry, a cylinder is simply a cone whose apex is at infinity.

paragraphs: This is useful in the definition of degenerate conics, which require considering the cylindrical conics.


title: Vacuum

paragraphs: A vacuum is a place where there is no matter. Sound cannot move in a vacuum. Outer space is not a perfect vacuum, because there is a very small number of particles there.

paragraphs: Vacuum is needed for some kinds of industrial production. Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of the vacuum chamber. In the real world it is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum. This is called "hard vacuum". Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum; 0.001% is good enough.

paragraphs: Vacuum chambers are also used in many experiments in laboratories. Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum.


title: Catherine Howard

paragraphs: Catherine Howard (c. 1521 – 13 February 1542) was the Queen of England from 1540 until 1541, as the fifth wife of Henry VIII of England.

paragraphs: Catherine Howard (also spelled "Katherine") was born in about 1521, but the exact date is unknown. She was the tenth child of Lord Edmund Howard and Joyce Culpepper. Her father was the second son of the Duke of Norfolk. She was a cousin to Anne Boleyn, who was the second wife of Henry VIII.

paragraphs: Catherine's family was poor so they sent her to live with her step-grandmother, Agnes Tilney. Agnes Tilney, the Duchess of Norfolk, had a large household, but it was not very strict. Catherine could read and write, but she was the least-educated of Henry VIII's wives.

paragraphs: Catherine became a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne of Cleves in 1539 or 1540, when she was about 18 years old. Anne of Cleves was the fourth wife of Henry VIII. The king did not like Anne, and said she was not as pretty as he had hoped for and also called her a Flanders mare (horse). He soon fell in love with Catherine.

paragraphs: In July 1540, after Henry had annulled his marriage with Anne of Cleves, Henry and Catherine got married at Oatlands Palace, which is in Surrey.

paragraphs: Henry VIII loved his young bride and gave her lots of rich presents. He called her his 'rose without a thorn' and the 'very jewel of womanhood'. Her motto was ""Non autre volonté que la sienne"" (French) or "No other wish but his". However, Catherine was not happy in her marriage. Her husband was very fat (he was about at the time), much older than she was, and had an ulcer on his legs. She began falling in love with a man named Thomas Culpepper.

paragraphs: Rumors that Catherine was unfaithful began to be repeated at court. Then Francis Dereham told

paragraphs: people about the affair which he had had with Catherine, and officials started to ask questions about what she was doing in private. Many of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting, who had also lived with her in Lambeth, were brought forward to bring evidence against Catherine. Soon, her past was uncovered, and more scandal was brought to her name; enough to have her charged with treason. Catherine then, in 1541, was arrested and charged with high treason. Henry was very upset. He drew his sword and threatened to kill Katherine himself. At last, he made up his mind that Catherine was to be executed, just like her cousin, Anne Boleyn.

paragraphs: In February of 1542, Catherine was told that she was to die. She was being kept a prisoner at Syon Abbey. She was so fearful she grew filled with hysteria, crying as if she was a madwoman. She asked to see the executioner's block so she might know how to put her head on it. She practiced laying her head on the block all night long before her death.

paragraphs: There is a popular story that before Catherine died, she said, "I die a Queen, but I would rather have died the wife of Culpepper." This story is not true. Instead, she cried out "God have mercy on my soul. Good people, I beg of you, pray for me."

paragraphs: The executioner chopped her head off with one blow. She was buried in St. Peter Ad Vincula, the parish church of the Tower of London.


title: Anne of Cleves

paragraphs: Anne of Cleves (22 September 1515 – 16 July 1557) was the fourth wife of Henry VIII of England from January 1540 to July 1540.

paragraphs: She was the daughter of John III, Duke of Cleves and Maria of Julich Berg. She was born in Düsseldorf on 22 September 1515.

paragraphs: She was betrothed to Francis, the Duke of Lorraine, but she ended up marrying Henry VIII in January of 1540. When the couple met for the first time, they were disappointed in each other. Henry started complaining about Anne's appearance and said that he could not love her because she had "bad breath" and smelled. Anne's previous engagement to the Duke of Lorraine was used as an excuse for a divorce, and Anne agreed to it. In July 1540 Henry divorced Anne and married Catherine Howard, who was younger and prettier.

paragraphs: After the divorce, Henry made Anne his "sister" and gave her money and land for the rest of her life. She was the last of Henry's six wives to die, as she outlived his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, by nearly nine years. Anne died in 1557 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.


title: Mary Tudor, Queen of France

paragraphs: Mary Tudor (28 March 1495 – 25 June 1533) was the youngest daughter of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was princess of England, and was Queen of France for three months. After being Queen of France, she married someone else, and became Duchess of Suffolk until her death.

paragraphs: Mary Tudor was born on 28 March 1495 in Richmond Palace. Her older brothers were Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Prince Henry, and her older sister was Princess Margaret. Henry and Mary were close as children. Later in life, when Henry became King Henry VIII of England, he even named his ship, the Mary Rose, after her. His first daughter, Mary (later known as Queen Mary I of England), was probably also named after her.

paragraphs: Mary's father was anxious for all his children to make good marriages, and many of the other kings and queens of Europe wanted Mary as a wife for one of their sons. She was first betrothed to Charles of Castile, later the Holy Roman Emperor. This betrothal was broken later, and she did not get married until after her brother Henry became king. When Mary was 18 she married King Louis XII of France, who was 52 years old. She was married in Abbeville, France, on 9 October 1514. Mary did not want to marry King Louis, but agreed when her brother said that she could marry anyone she wanted after Louis died. Louis died on 1 January 1515, and Mary soon married Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.

paragraphs: Mary did not have any children while married to Louis, but she did when she was married to Charles. Her children's names were Henry, Frances and Eleanor. Frances went on to be the mother of Lady Jane Grey, who was the Queen of England for only nine days.

paragraphs: After suffering failing health for some years, Mary Tudor died on 25 June, 1533 at the age of thirty eight at Westhorpe Hall, Westhorpe, Suffolk, possibly of cancer. Her husband then married Catherine Willoughby.


title: Louis XII of France

paragraphs: Louis XII of France (June 27, 1462 – January 1, 1515) was the son of Charles, Duke of Orleans and Mary of Cleves. He was born on June 27, 1462 in the Chateau de Blois, France.

paragraphs: Louis's first wife was Jeanne of France, who was the daughter of Louis XI of France. At the time, Louis was not expected to become King of France. The King, Charles VIII, was a young man and could still have had children, but Charles had an accident and died suddenly. Charles was Jeanne's brother. Louis was Charles's cousin and next in line to the throne. When he became king, he had to end his marriage to Jeanne, partly because she was disabled and could not have children.

paragraphs: Louis's second wife was Anne of Brittany, who was the daughter of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Anne had been married to King Charles VIII until his death, but all of their children had died. As a result of her marriage to Charles, the dukedom of Brittany had become part of the kingdom of France. Louis wanted to keep Brittany, but in order to do so he had to marry Anne. After her marriage to Louis, Anne had two daughters, who were called Claude and Renee.

paragraphs: In France, women were not allowed to rule the country, so Louis still wanted a son to become king after him. After Anne died, Louis married for a third time. His last wife was Mary Tudor, the sister of Henry VIII of England. She was many years younger than he was. Louis only lived for three months after their marriage. Because Louis had no sons, the throne went to Francis, the husband of his daughter Claude.


title: Louis XIII

paragraphs: Louis XIII (27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 to 1643. He was the son of Henry IV and Marie de' Medici. He lived during the time of the Thirty Years War and had to deal with many rebellions. He was proud of his country, and tried to encourage French artists to stay in France instead of going off to Italy. He did this by giving them work in the Louvre.

paragraphs: Although he was married, many people thought that he would never produce an heir. Then, after 23 years of marriage, his wife Anne gave birth to a baby boy. He was to become King Louis XIV of France.

paragraphs: He died of Crohn's disease in 1643 and was later buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis, France. His oldest son would succeed him on the throne.


title: Claude of France

paragraphs: Claude of France (October 14, 1499 – July 20, 1524) was the daughter of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany. Claude had no brothers, but was not allowed to be the Queen of France in her own right after her father died because of the Salic Law. Instead she became the Queen consort of France by marrying the next King of France, Francis I of France.

paragraphs: After she got married Claude spent the rest of her life having babies. She died when she was only 24.


title: Lady Eleanor Brandon

paragraphs: Lady Eleanor Brandon (1519-27 September 1547) was the daughter of Mary Tudor, Queen of France and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Her maternal grandparents were King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was the sister of Lady Frances Brandon therefore she was the aunt of Lady Jane Grey.

paragraphs: Eleanor was married to Henry Clifford in 1537. She then became the Countess of Cumberland.