title: Ornamental plant

paragraphs: An ornamental plant is a plant that is grown for how it looks, and not for its commercial or other value. The term is often shortened to ornamental (usually as a noun) when used in the context of plants.

paragraphs: Ornamental plants are usually grown in the flower garden, or as house plants. They are usually grown for the display of their flowers. Other common ornamental features include leaves, scent, fruit, stem and bark. In all cases, their purpose is the enjoyment of gardeners and visitors. Or to show their beauty. Ornamental plants may also be used for landscaping, and for cut flowers. The cultivation, called floriculture, is a major branch of horticulture.

paragraphs: Ornamental plants come in a range of shapes, sizes and colours suitable to a broad array of climates, landscapes, and gardening needs. They are also often chosen for specialised looks or feels in landscape gardening.


title: Celts

paragraphs: The Celts were a large group of Caucasian tribes in Europe. They first appeared in the early Iron Age, around 1200 B.C. in Austria. The name 'Celt' comes from the Greeks. The Romans called them "Gauls". They came from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Their culture and genes spread through much of Europe, and by the time the Greeks and later the Romans started emerging, the British Isles and parts of western, southern and eastern Europe were Celtic - the most prominent Celtic tribes were in Gaul. The Celts spoke Celtic languages. Today, the Celtic languages that remain are the Breton, Cornish, Welsh and Gaelic languages.

paragraphs: Celtic society and technology, although not as advanced as the Romans, was far from being primitive for its time. The Celts lived a way of life based on ethical codes and honor codes and had developed a culture of their own, full of unique drawings, sculptures, jewellery, folklore, and building designs and techniques. They were also skilled in blacksmithing, farming and diplomacy.

paragraphs: Celtic warriors would wear war paint and try to scare their enemies by shouting war cries. Tribes had different dress standards for battle; some warriors wore chainmail and/or leather armor, some wore only clothes and some were known to fight fully naked. They also had their own type of sword that was very strong and a shield that was very protective.

paragraphs: When the Roman Republic started expanding, the Gauls and the Romans became very hostile towards each other and clashed on many occasions; however, the Romans were eventually able to defeat them and ended up conquering most of the Celtic tribes in Europe and ruled them until the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Celtic tribes also fought among each other. After winning a battle, the Celts would cut off the heads of their enemies and take them home.

paragraphs: During the fall of the Roman Empire most of the old Celtic land ended up being ruled by migrating Germanic tribes and they merged with Romano-Celtic stock (people with both Roman and Celtic ancestry) to eventually form several European nations of today e.g. Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg as well as Southern and Western Germany. Territories that are still considered Celtic are Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Isle of Man, Cornwall and Brittany.


title: Free good

paragraphs: In economics free good means a good that is available without production, and therefore not scarce. It is available in as much quantity as desired, with zero opportunity cost to society.

paragraphs: A good that is made available at zero price is not necessarily a free good. For example, a shop might give away its stock in its promotion, but for the production of these goods, resources were needed, so this would not be a free good in an economic sense.

paragraphs: There are three main types of free goods:

paragraphs: Intellectual property laws have the effect of converting some goods to scarce goods by law.

paragraphs: Although these goods are free goods (in the economic sense) when they have been produced, they did require scarce resources, such as artistic skill, to create them in the first place. Thus, intellectual property laws such as copyrights and patents are sometimes used to give exclusive rights to the creators of such "intellectual property", to make sure that people are interested in these activities.

paragraphs: Many futurists theorize that advanced nanotechnology with the ability to automatically turn any kind of material into any other combination of equal mass, will make all goods essentially free goods, since all raw materials and manufacturing time will become perfectly interchangeable.


title: Hoist

paragraphs: A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use chain, fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium. The load is attached to the hoist by means of a lifting hook.

paragraphs: A "hoist" normally is used for lifting (near vertical) and a winch is normally used for pulling (near horizontal).

paragraphs: Construction sites, especially for buildings of more than five floors in height, often employ hoists to lift workers and building materials.

paragraphs: The basic hoist has two important characteristics to define it: Lifting medium and power type. The lifting medium is either wire rope, wrapped around a drum, or load-chain, raised by a gear-like wheel. The power type can be either electric motor or air motor. Both the wire rope hoist and chain hoist have been in common use since the 1800s.


title: Eugene Onegin (opera)

paragraphs: Eugene Onegin ("Евгений Онегин" in Russian) is an opera by Pyotr Tchaikovsky. It is usually thought to be his greatest opera and one of the best of all Russian operas. Tchaikovsky finished composing it in 1878 and it was first performed in Moscow in 1879.

paragraphs: The story of "Eugene Onegin" was written by Alexander Pushkin. He was Russia’s most famous writer and Tchaikovsky made several of his stories into operas. He was careful not to make the opera too long, and chose several chapters from Pushkin’s original book so that the story sometimes jumps from one time to a time much later. Russian operas are quite often like this: they are a series of “tableaux”, i.e. scenes from a story. Sometimes the audience has to imagine what happens between the acts.

paragraphs: Tatyana is a young girl who comes from a rich family. She is with her younger sister Olga. Tatyana is reading a novel, but her mother, Madame Larina, tells her that real life is very different from what it is in books. Visitors arrive: Olga’s fiancée Lensky who is a young poet, and his friend Eugene Onegin. Onegin is a rather lazy man who likes to go to parties and socialize. Tatyana immediately feels attracted to him.

paragraphs: Back in her room Tatyana tells her nurse that she is in love. When she is alone she writes a letter to Onegin saying how she loves him. When the nurse returns Tatyana asks her to make sure the letter is sent to Onegin.

paragraphs: Onegin returns to give Tatyana an answer to her letter. He says very politely that he is not really suited to marriage. Tatyana is very upset.

paragraphs: It is Tatyana's name-day party. Onegin is annoyed that people are gossiping about him and Tatyana. He is cross with Lensky for making him come. He decides to make Lensky cross by dancing with his fiancée Olga. Olga likes this, and Lensky is very jealous. A singer entertains the party by singing a song in honour of Tatyana. Lensky is now furious and tells everyone in a loud voice that he is no longer Onegin’s friend. He challenges Onegin to a duel which Onegin has to accept to keep his honour.

paragraphs: In the next scene Lensky is waiting for Onegin, and sings a famous song about his fate and his love for Olga. Onegin arrives. Onegin shoots Lensky dead.

paragraphs: The next act takes place several years later. A rich nobleman in St Petersburg is having a ball. Onegin is thinking about his empty life and how bad he feels about Lensky’s death. Prince Gremin enters with his wife, Tatyana, who is now older and still very beautiful and wealthy. Gremin sings how happy he is with Tatyana and introduces Onegin to her (he does not know anything about how Tatyana used to love him). Onegin desperately wants her to love him again.

paragraphs: In a reception room Tatyana has had a letter from Onegin. Onegin enters and begs her to love him. Tatyana wonders why he is now in love with her. She says she loves him but that she wants to be faithful to her husband. Onegin keeps begging her but in the end she leaves him. Onegin is left in despair.

paragraphs: "Eugene Onegin" is often described as a “lyrical” opera. The melodies are very beautiful and romantic. Two of the most famous arias in the opera are the aria that Tatyana sings when she writes the letter to Onegin, and Lensky’s aria which he sings just before the duel. Tatyana is sung by a soprano, Lensky is a tenor and Eugene Onegin is a baritone.


title: Basingstoke

paragraphs: Basingstoke is a large town in Hampshire, England. It is southwest of London, northeast of Southampton, southwest of Reading and northeast of Winchester. In 2008 it had an estimated population of 82,913. It is part of the borough of Basingstoke and Deane. Basingstoke is often nicknamed "Doughnut City" or "Roundabout City" due to the number of roundabouts.

paragraphs: Often mistaken for a "new town", Basingstoke is an old market town expanded in the 1960s as part of a plan of London County Council, Hampshire County Council and Basingstoke Borough Council. It was developed fast to accommodate part of the London 'overspill' as seen in the Greater London Plan, 1944.


title: Flerovium

paragraphs: Flerovium is a chemical element. It is also named eka-lead. It has the symbol Fl. It has the atomic number 114. It is a superheavy element. Flerovium is radioactive.

paragraphs: Flerovium does not exist in nature. It has to be made. It is a synthetic element. It is made from a nuclear reaction between plutonium and calcium. The reaction that happens is a fusion reaction.

paragraphs: The discovery of Flerovium in December 1998 was reported in January 1999 by scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia. The same team of scientists made another isotope of Uuq three months later and made it again in 2004 and 2006.

paragraphs: In 2004 in the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research checked it was made by another method. They found the final products of radioactive decay.

paragraphs: After its discovery, the "new" element was named "Ununquadium". The named changed on May 30th, 2012 to "Flerovium". The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry named it so.

paragraphs: Not enough Flerovium has been made to measure its physical or chemical properties. It is thought that it would be a soft, dense metal that changes colour in air. It may have a low melting point of about 200 °C.

paragraphs: Flerovium can be made by bombarding a plutonium-244 target with calcium-48 as a beam of ions.


title: Brontosaurus

paragraphs: Brontosaurus is a genus of sauropod dinosaur.

paragraphs: "Brontosaurus" was originally named by its discoverer Othniel Charles Marsh in 1879. "Brontosaurus" had long been considered a junior synonym of "Apatosaurus". Its only species was reclassified as "A. excelsus" in 1903.

paragraphs: However, an extensive study published in 2015 concluded that "Brontosaurus" was a valid genus of sauropod distinct from "Apatosaurus".

paragraphs: "Brontosaurus" is a member of the family Diplodocidae, a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth, including "Diplodocus", "Supersaurus", and "Barosaurus". "Brontosaurus" is closely related to "Apatosaurus" in the subfamily Apatosaurinae.


title: Fate

paragraphs: Fate or destiny is the idea that the future is already planned even if people do not know what their fate is (what is going to happen to them). Humans in nearly all cultures have had ideas about their fate being “predetermined” (fixed in advance).

paragraphs: People who live unhappy lives may believe that their misery is because of their fate and that they can do nothing about it. This is called being “fatalistic”. Other people may believe that they can control their fate by being brave and trying to “overcome” fate by improving themselves and their lives.

paragraphs: In Greek mythology there were three Fates. They were three goddesses who determined when every person was going to be born, how they would live and when and how they would die. Human beings in many cultures had lots of ways in which they would try to “read” their fate (know what would happen to them). Sometimes they would try to read their fate in the stars (this is called astrology). In other cultures they might ask a person with powers of magic like a shaman. The Ancient Greeks often went to Delphi to ask the oracle.

paragraphs: There are lots of references to fate in literature from almost every country and period, from Greek tragedy (e.g. Oedipus Rex) to Shakespeare (e.g. Macbeth) and Russian literature.

paragraphs: Composers may express fate in music. Beethoven was thinking about Fate when he wrote his Fifth Symphony, and Tchaikovsky when he wrote his Sixth Symphony just before he committed suicide.


title: Hoffmann von Fallersleben

paragraphs: August Heinrich Hoffmann (April 2, 1798 - January 19, 1874), who used Hoffmann von Fallersleben as his pen name, was a German poet. He is best known for writing "Das Lied der Deutschen", which is now the national anthem of Germany, and a number of popular children's songs.


title: Lake Peipus

paragraphs: Lake Peipus (Estonian: "Peipsi-Pihkva järv", German: "Peipussee", Russian: "Чудско-Псковское озеро") is a large fresh water lake. It is between Estonia and Russia in Northern Europe. Lake Peipus is the fourth largest lake in Europe. The lake covers 3,500 square kilometres. It has an average depth of 7m. At its deepest point, Lake Peipus is 15m deep. The lake is used for fishing and recreation.


title: Tanto

paragraphs: The Tantō is a Japanese short sword or dagger.

paragraphs: The tantō's traditional overall length was 11.93 in (1 shaku, about 30 cm). The blade's length was about 5in to 12in (12 1/2 cm to 30 cm). Blades that were bigger (13 to 14 inches) were called ko-wakizashi, meaning "small short sword." The tantōs which varied from the traditional size were called O-tantō or Sunobi tantō.

paragraphs: The tantō was a weapon with a single-edged blade and a curved shape. It was designed for soft targets and was thought to be a hidden weapon of the samurai. It was extremely effective in close fighting.

paragraphs: The tantō appeared during the Heian Period (795-1192 A.D.) and developed as a weapon during the Kamakura Period (1192-1333 A.D.). At that time the tantō was not just a weapon but also a work of art. It was richly decorated using the most spread styles: hira-tsukuri and uchi-sori. Later, in the Nambokucho period (1336-1392 A.D), tantōs become longer than 15.75 inches (37 cm). Blades become thinner and broader and thus even more dangerous. Different styles developed and the shape changed. During the Muromachi Period (1336–1573 A.D.) the tantō becomes once more narrow-bladed.

paragraphs: By this time the quality of the blade was better. It was the time when professional smiths appeared and there were several styles of tantō making. The best known smiths were: Sukesada and Norimitsu (Bizen-den); Kanemoto and Kanesada (Mino-den); Muramasa and Masashige (Ise). The beginning of Edo period (1603-1867 A.D.) was a period of relative peace after Japanese unification and, although not so many were made, they were of good quality. The heat treated blade's edge (hamon) becomes more waved and so more beautiful.

paragraphs: A great number of tantōs were made in the last 700 to 800 years. Some of them were for civil use. Others were made especially for samurai. One of the classifications is based on the hand guard type:

paragraphs: The most popular of the three tantōs were aikuchi and hamadashi. This was because of the fact that these two types had a small guard and they were easier to hide and carry. The tantō was not widely used on the battlefield, so the guard was mostly unnecessary.

paragraphs: Other styles of tantō differed by the shape of the blade. The best known are:

paragraphs: When the tantō was used on the battlefield it was supposed to go through the armor of the opponent when he was close. The best tantōs for this were those with a long, narrow blade and with a thick spine. The blow was applied with the point directed under or through the armor. The tantō was usually carried in a wide cloth belt (obi) with the edge up and the handle turned to the right. In the samurai house the tantō was often placed with the wakizashi (short sword). Samurai women were taught to use the tantō in case they needed to defend themselves or, if violated, to take their own life.

paragraphs: It is also considered that tantōs of different type were used for suicide ritual (seppuku, also hara-kiri). Still, it was mainly used by women samurai whose suicidal ritual was to cut their own throat. The men samurai had a different ritual: they used a wakizashi sword for disembowelment.


title: Clint Dempsey

paragraphs: Clint Dempsey (born March 9, 1983) is an American footballer from Texas. He plays for Sounders F.C.and is number 2 and, has also played for Fulham F.C. and was number 8. He played for the New England Revolution in the United States before Fulham gave them money (a "transfer fee") to get him to play for them, but then was put on Sounders F.C. Dempsey is a good player who is well liked by many people in the United States and England for his hard work and desire to win.

paragraphs: Clint also has taken an interest in rapping. Known as Deuce, he has produced compilations with Big Hawk and XO. He also once defeated Peter Crouch in a freestyle battle.


title: Runaway Brain

paragraphs: Runaway Brain is an animated short movie released on September 22, 1934 by MGM/United Artists. It was produced by Walt Disney and directed by Burton Gillett. The movie is 7 minutes long. It has Peter Penguin, Polly Penguin, Gosalyn Mallard, Honker Muddlefoot, Bubba the Caveduck, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, Magica De Spell, and Poe De Spell.


title: Maltese language

paragraphs: Maltese is the language of Malta, and a language of the European Union. Maltese sounds similar to the Phoenician language that was spoken in areas around the ancient Mediterranean. It is written in the Latin alphabet like English. The language has borrowed many words from Sicilian, Italian, and English. Around 393,000 people speak Maltese. Most of them live in Malta.

paragraphs: Many people from Sicily settled in Malta after the Muslims conquered it in 870 AD. They spoke a Sicilian-Arabic language from the Maghreb. In later centuries their language changed into Maltese. The oldest known document in Maltese is "Il Cantilena," a poem from the 15th century written by Pietro Caxaro. For centuries, Maltese was mainly a spoken language.

paragraphs: Maltese became an official language of Malta in 1934, alongside English. Before that year, the only official language of Malta was Italian. Italian, however, is still used a lot in the media.

paragraphs: Italian and English words are being taken in by the language more and more. This sometimes causes words to form that are not found in Maltese, Italian, or English, but instead are a mix of the three. At schools, English is taught as a second language. Maltese is usually used in the standardized jobs and when people talk to each other. Most of the television, radio, and literature in Malta is also in Maltese.


title: Persuasion

paragraphs: Persuasion is a form of influence. It is the way to get people to agree with an idea, attitude, or action by rational and emotional means. It is a problem-solving strategy and relies on "appeals" rather than force.

paragraphs: Dissuasion is the process of convincing someone "not" to believe or act on something.

paragraphs: Other techniques, which may or may not work:

paragraphs: Coercive techniques, some of which are highly controversial and/or not scientifically proven to be effective:


title: Ögedei Khan

paragraphs: Ögedei (1186-1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, after his father. He continued to make his father's empire bigger. Like all of Genghis' sons, he helped to conquer Western China and Central Asia. Ögedei was thought to be his father's favorite son, ever since his childhood. As an adult, Ögedei was known to be persuasive in debates he was involved because he had a strong personality. Although less schooled than his father, and despite his drinking habits, he was intelligent and steady in character.

paragraphs: He was selected as the supreme khan in 1229 because of the kuriltai, the meeting for important leaders, was held after Genghis' death, but it was never doubted that Genghis wanted Ögedei to rule after him. During his reign, the Mongols ended the Jin Dynasty (in 1234) and fought against the Southern Song Empire. In 1235, under the khan's direct command, the Mongols began a war of conquest that would not end for forty-five years, and would result in the addition of all of China. Mongol armies established permanent control of Persia (commanded by Chormagan) and expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan to take over Russia.


title: Heligoland

paragraphs: Heligoland (; ) is a small German group of islands in the North Sea..

paragraphs: It has been controlled by Denmark and between 1807 and 1890 by the British. The islands have a population of 1,650. They are the only German islands not nearby to the mainland and are about two hours' sailing time from Cuxhaven at the mouth of the River Elbe.

paragraphs: Heligoland is located 70 km (44 miles) from the German coast line and actually consists of two islands: the populated triangular-shaped 1 km² (0.4 sq mi) main island () to the west and the island of "Düne" (Heligolandic: "de Halem") in the east.

paragraphs: Düne is the smaller of the two islands(0.7 km²). It is also lower, surrounded by sand beaches and no-one lives on the island throughout the year.

paragraphs: Often when people talk about "Heligoland" they only mean Hauptinsel.


title: Cooperation

paragraphs: Cooperation is when people work together to make their lives better, even though they are free to not work together, and receive little if any money for working together. Organizations made for cooperation are known as cooperatives.


title: Robert F. Kennedy

paragraphs: Robert Francis "Bobby" Kennedy (November 20, 1925 – June 6, 1968), also called RFK, was a brother of former U.S. President John F. Kennedy. He ran for president in 1968, but was shot dead in California during the presidential primaries.


title: Umbilical cord

paragraphs: The umbilical cord is the tube that connects the unborn child and the mother together. It allows the baby to get what it needs, for example, blood, oxygen and glucose.


title: Josef Mengele

paragraphs: Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979) was a German SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz.

paragraphs: During the first years of World War II Mengele served as a medical officer in the Waffen-SS. After being wounded and recovered in 1942, he went working at the Race and Resettlement Office in Berlin. In 1943 he volunteered for concentration camp Auschwitz.

paragraphs: He conducted medical experiments on the people in the camps. Many people died as a consequence of these experiments. The experiments included freezing and placing subjects under heat lamps.

paragraphs: Mengele was also known for his studies and fascination with twins. Mengele was known as the "Angel of Death."

paragraphs: After the war, he first hid in Germany, then escaped and lived in South America, until he drowned in Brazil.

paragraphs: Mengele wrote a thesis, which he finished in 1936. His advisor was Theodor Mollison. His assumption was that is was possible to determine the race of a human being by looking at the jawbone. He wrote another thesis, in a related area in 1938. In 1960 and 1961, his title was revoked, because of the crimes he had committed in Auschwitz.


title: Francis I of Austria

paragraphs: Francis I, Emperor of Austria (February 12, 1768 – March 2, 1835) also was Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (in German language: Franz II, Heiliger Römischer Kaiser).

paragraphs: He was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until August 6, 1806, when the Empire was no longer a unit. He then became Francis I, first Emperor of Austria (from 1804 to 1835).


title: Wilhelm I of Germany

paragraphs: Wilhelm I of the family of the Hohenzollern, was a king of Prussia (January 2, 1861 – 9 March 1888) and the first German Emperor (18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888). His name was Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig von Hohenzollern. He was born March 22, 1797 and died March 9, 1888. In English his name means "William".

paragraphs: When Wilhelm was king he and his prime minister, Otto von Bismarck, Prussia united a large group of smaller German countries. They won the Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire started.

paragraphs: His grandson Wilhelm II ordered the Kaiser Wilhelm Gedächtniskirche to be built to honour his life and achievements.

paragraphs: His official title was German Emperor and King of Prussia; Margrave of Brandenburg; Burgrave of Nürnberg, Count of Hohenzollern; Sovereign and highest Duke of Silesia as of the county of Glatz; Grand Duke of the Lower Rhine and of Posen; Duke of Saxony, Wesphalia, and Angaria, of Pomerania, Lüneburg, Holstein and Schleswig, of Magdeburg, Bremen, Gelders, Cleves, Jülich and Berg, as well as of the Wendes and Kaschubs, of Krossen, Lauenburg, Mecklenburg; Landgrave of Hesse and Thuringia, Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of Orange, Prince of Rügen, of East Frisia, of Paderborn and Pyrmont, of Halberstadt, Münster, Minden, Osnabrück, Hildesheim, of Verden, Kammin, Fulda, Nassau and Moers; Princely Count of Henneberg; Count of the Mark and of Ravensberg, of Hohnstein, Tecklenburg and Lingen, of Mansfeld, Sigmaringen and Veringen, Lord of Frankfurt" .


title: Amami Islands

paragraphs: The is a group of islands in Kagoshima prefecture in the Kyūshū region of Japan. It is also known as the .

paragraphs: The name of the islands comes the mythological figure of "Amamiko".

paragraphs: It was attacked by the Ryūkyū Kingdom in 1570, but was invaded by Satsuma Domain in 1609.

paragraphs: Amami was occupied by the United States from 1945 to 1953.

paragraphs: The native people of the Amami Islands are the Amami people, who are a subgroup of a larger Ryukyuan ethnicity.

paragraphs: The Amami language belongs to the Ryukyuan languages, all of which are endangered because in the past, Japan suppressed them. This is also why most younger Amamians speak Japanese instead, as it was enforced in schools.

paragraphs: The largest island in the group is Amami Island. Other islands include Kikai Island, Tokunoshima, Okinoerabu Island, Yorontou and some small islands make up the Amami Islands.


Kagoshima


title: Formal

paragraphs: Formal is a word used to describe anything that has form or structure. So it is something which is used or done in accordance with rules or ceremonies.

paragraphs: Formal events have rules. 'Formal clothes' or 'formal attire' is a way of dressing to meet the rules for an event, such as a party or wedding. 'Formal attire' can be a suit, a tuxedo or a dress. People from all over the world have their own ideas about 'formal attire'. Most of the time "formal attire" clothes are the most beautiful or the best clothes a person owns. The opposite of "formal" is informal. Informal clothes are comfortable clothes for general use, e.g. T shirt and jeans. An informal ceremony might be a ceremony which is very relaxed instead of following an exact plan. An informal way to greet a friend might be: "Hi, John!"


title: Kyūshū

paragraphs: Kyūshū is the third largest island of Japan.

paragraphs: Kyūshū region is made up of the entire island.

paragraphs: The name Kyūshū literally means "nine countries" in Japanese. Kyūshū was made of nine old "countries" or provinces that are now prefectures. In other words, each prefecture has a modern name and sometimes more than one old provincial name. The old names are still used sometimes, especially for foods, music, or art.

paragraphs: The original nine provinces in Kyushu were Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma.

paragraphs: Today, Kyushu is made up of seven prefectures.

paragraphs: Parts of Kyūshū have a warm climate, like the Miyazaki and Kagoshima regions. Major crops grown there are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and soy; silk is also made. The island is known for many types of porcelain like Arita, Imari, Satsuma and Karatsu.

paragraphs: Under the Gokishichidō system, the island of Kyūshū was a part of the region known as Saikaidō. It was a part of this region from the 7th century until the middle of the 1800s. Around 1905, it was made into its own region. In the modern system, Kyūshū and the small islands around it are a part of the Kyūshū region.


title: Presentation

paragraphs: Presentation is the process of presenting the content of a topic to an audience. Presentation software, such as OpenOffice.org Impress, Beamer, Apple Keynote or Microsoft PowerPoint, is often used to generate the presentation content. As a form of communication, a presentation is usually 10-30 minutes long, but can take longer in special cases.


title: Keynote (software)

paragraphs: Keynote is a presentation software application made by Apple for its Mac OS X operating system.

paragraphs: Keynote was a software program that Steve Jobs, the chief executive officer of Apple used for his own presentations only. It was later sold to everyone as Keynote 1.0, competing against other presentation software, especially Microsoft PowerPoint. Unlike PowerPoint, Keynote can use all image types, and the design uses more pictures, making it easier to use. Because Keynote uses Mac OS X's built-in graphics technologies, it can produce slides with many graphics very easily.


title: Claymore

paragraphs: The claymore is a Scottish sword. It is double-edged. The word itself is of Gaelic origins and means “great sword”. The Claymore is indeed a big sword and was held only with two hands. In some sources the broad claymore sword is called “claidheamh da lamh”, which means “two-hand sword”. It was very popular in the 16th century when Scottish warriors (highlanders) used it against the Englishmen.

paragraphs: The claymore sword was in average about - overall length, the blade was about long. It weighed around . It possessed a very broad blade and a slim channel, called a fuller, to slightly reduce its weight.

paragraphs: There also existed a version of Claymore that had a single-edged blade and a basket-shaped handle. The basket of the handle was used as protection for the hand. The blade was very long, so the basket was designed for balance too. The making of these swords was widespread especially during the mid-1600s . The places where the claymore swords were made were: Edinburgh, Canongate, Stirling and Glasgow.

paragraphs: Beginning around 1350, very long claymore swords were used. The handles and the blades became longer. This was because of the heavy armour, that was almost impossible to penetrate. The Scottish Claymore was one of the two swords which could cut through the armour. The second was the Germanic Landsknecht sword.


title: Tamahagane

paragraphs: Tamahagane {tah-mah-ha-ga-nay} is a high quality metal (steel) made in the Japanese tradition. The word "tama" means "round and precious", like a gem or jewel. The word "hagane" means "steel". On the market, it costs 50 times more than ordinary steel. Tamahagane steel is used to make Japanese swords, knives, and other kinds of tools.

paragraphs: Good tamahagane contains around 1% of carbon and should not go over 1.5%.

paragraphs: Tamahagane is made of iron sand (called "satetsu" in Japanese). There are 2 main types of iron sands: "akome satetsu" and "masa satetsu". Akome is of lower quality and masa is of better quality. The man who decides the amount of the mixing parts is called the "murage". Depending on the desired result, the murage mixes one or more types of sands.

paragraphs: The iron sand is put in a clay tub (furnace) called a "tatara". The clay tub measures about 4 feet tall, 12 feet long, and 4 feet wide. The tub is then dried and heated. The clay tub is heated to a high temperature, about 1000 ºC (1.832 ºF). Then, it is mixed with charcoal to give tamahagane hardness.

paragraphs: The process of making tamahagane continues for 36 to 72 hours, depending on how many people work and how much metal is to be obtained. The iron sand is added every 10 minutes and the mixture is frequently turned over.

paragraphs: When the tamahagane is finished, the clay tub is broken and the steel is removed. The best steel is on the edges of metal block, because this is the where the oxidation process is stronger. The quality of tamahagane is determined by its color: bright silver pieces are very good for making blades.


title: Graviton

paragraphs: A graviton is a hypothetical particle that 'transfers' gravitation's force (particles like this are known as gauge bosons) from its field. Gravitons have never been observed, directly or indirectly, however, there have been several theories that use gravitons to explain certain phenomena. For example, a theory that describes black holes by combining quantum mechanics and gravity, has been advanced by Georgi Dvali and Cesar Gomez, which suggests a black hole is "an overpacked bucket of gravitons". There are some theories that suggest that gravitons would make up a new group of particles, "attraction particles". CERN is currently smashing more particles using the Large Hadron Collider to try to find this particle.

paragraphs: The graviton applies a tiny force as it impacts the nuclei of atoms.

paragraphs: All atoms themselves have these graviton particles in orbit around them. If you gather a lot of atoms together the population of orbiting gravitons increases proportionately. As a result, a large asteroid for example will have more gravity than a small one.

paragraphs: Because the graviton is a particle that has force (gravity), it is classed as a gauge boson. Other gauge bosons include the photon, the gluon, and the W and Z particles.

paragraphs: If someone found one, it could lead to a theory which would join together the four main physical forces: electromagnetism, gravity, strong force and weak force.


title: Presentation software

paragraphs: A presentation software is a computer software package used to show information, normally in the form of a slide show. It mostly includes three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system to display the content.

paragraphs: The most commonly known presentation program is Microsoft PowerPoint, but there are alternatives such as OpenOffice.org Impress, Apple's Keynote, LaTeX Beamer and WPS Office (Free and complete office suite, includes writer, spreadsheet, presentations, enjoys the features of small-size, easy-to-use and compatible, covering multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, Android, iOS and Mac).

paragraphs: Originally these programs were used to generate 35 mm slides, to be presented using a slide projector. As these programs became more common in the late 1980s, several companies set up services that would accept the shows on floppy disk and create slides or print transparencies. In the 1990s, dedicated LCD-based screens that could be placed on the projectors started to replace the transparencies, and by the late 1990s they had almost all been replaced by video projectors.


title: Liqueur

paragraphs: A liqueur is a sweet-tasting alcoholic drink. It is often flavored with fruits, herbs, spices, flowers, seeds, roots, plants, barks, and sometimes cream. The word "liqueur" comes from the Latin word "liquifacere" which means "to dissolve." This is because the flavors are dissolved to help make the liqueur. In some parts of the world, liqueurs are sometimes called cordials.

paragraphs: Liqueurs have been around for many centuries. They are related to the herbal medicines that monks used to make. Liqueurs were made in Italy as early as the 13th century, and were used during signings of treaties during the Middle Ages.

paragraphs: Most liqueurs have 15 to 30% alcohol content but may have an alcohol content as high as 55%.

paragraphs: Types of liqueurs include: fruit liqueur, cream liqueur, coffee liqueur, chocolate liqueur, schnapps liqueur, brandy liqueur, anise liqueur, nut-flavoured liqueur, and herbal liqueur.

paragraphs: Liqueurs can be enjoyed many ways. They are commonly drank by themselves, poured over ice, with coffee, or mixed with cream or other mixers to create cocktails. They are often served with dessert or as a dessert. Liqueurs may also be used in cooking.


title: Militarism

paragraphs: Militarism or militarist ideology is a view on society.

paragraphs: It says society should be like the military.

paragraphs: This means that society should follow concepts that can be found in the culture, system and people of the military. People that say militarism is good are called "militarists".

paragraphs: Most important to militarists is discipline. Discipline means to follow a set of rules.

paragraphs: It also means training that follows such rules. A strong military is good for discipline.

paragraphs: There are many areas where moral goals and the culture of the military can be applied. Most notable are private business, government, education and entertainment.

paragraphs: Militarism is related to militarization.

paragraphs: Militarist countries often have a strong military.

paragraphs: Sparta in Ancient Greece, Prussia in the 19th century was militarist, for example. North Korea is a good example in modern times. In militarised societies the military either run the government, or have heavy military influence. Often the head of state is a military person, though that does not always mean the society is militarised.


title: The Queen of Spades (opera)

paragraphs: The Queen of Spades (, pronounced "Pi-KO-va-ya DA-ma") is an opera by Tchaikovsky. It is based on a short story by Alexander Pushkin. Sometimes it is known by its German title "Pique Dame".

paragraphs: When Tchaikovsky went to Paris in 1876, he saw Bizet’s opera "Carmen". He liked the story's themes of love and bad fate. The idea of fate is important to the opera "Carmen" and also to Tchaikovsky’s "The Queen of Spades". Tchaikovsky wrote some of his greatest music in this opera. Some of it is very graceful, and is similar to Mozart. In other places it is very romantic, with harmonies that he had learned by studying the operas of Wagner.

paragraphs: Hermann, a young officer, sees a beautiful girl in the park and falls in love with her even though he does not know her. His friend tells him that the girl’s name is Lisa, and that her grandmother is an old countess who used to gamble (play cards for money) when she was young. He says that people used to call the grandmother the "Queen of Spades", and that she knows a secret: she knows about the three cards which will always win the card game.

paragraphs: Hermann can only think of one thing: he wants to find out the secret of the three cards so that he can gamble and win lots of money. Then he will be able to marry Lisa. He hides himself in the grandmother’s bedroom. When the grandmother goes to bed, he jumps out in front of her and tells her he wants to know the three cards. She is so scared that she dies before she can speak.

paragraphs: Later, the ghost of the grandmother comes to Hermann and tells him the three secret cards: Three, Seven, Ace. Hermann’s mind is now on one thing: he must go and play cards and win. Lisa drowns herself. Hermann gambles all his money, saying "The life is only game and the sure is only death". The first two cards are the Three and the Seven, but the third card is not the Ace, it is the Queen of Spades. The old grandmother’s ghost comes again to Hermann. Hermann kills himself.

paragraphs: Tchaikovsky’s brother Modest helped him to prepare the libretto (words) for the opera. They changed some of Pushkin’s story, making the love scenes important because he thought they would be good with emotional music. They also made it very dramatic by making Lisa drown herself in a canal and Hermann die at the gaming table. This is different to what happens in Pushkin’s story.

paragraphs: Tchaikovsky wrote the opera very quickly. It took him just six weeks to sketch it (write the basic ideas). Then he spent a short time in Rome and when he returned, he wrote it out for orchestra in another six weeks.

paragraphs: Some of the music is quite Classical (Rococo) in character. At other times it can sound very Russian. In the supernatural scenes, Tchaikovsky uses the whole-tone scale like Glinka did in his operas.

paragraphs: The opera was first performed at the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg on 19 December 1890.


title: Growth-share matrix

paragraphs: The growth-share matrix (aka B.C.G. analysis, B.C.G.-matrix, Boston Consulting Group analysis) is a chart that had been created by Bruce Henderson for the Boston Consulting Group in 1970 to help corporations with analyzing their business units or product lines. This helps the company allocate resources and is used as an analytical tool in brand marketing, product management, strategic management and portfolio-analysis.


title: Microsoft PowerPoint

paragraphs: Microsoft Office PowerPoint is a presentation program developed for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS computer operating systems. Businesspeople, educators, and trainers use it often. It is a component of the Microsoft Office system.

paragraphs: In PowerPoint, as in most other presentation software, text, graphics, movies, and other objects are positioned on individual pages or "slides". The "slide" analogy is a reference to the slide projector. Slides can be printed, or (more often) displayed on-screen and navigated through at the command of the presenter. Slides can also form the basis of webcasts.

paragraphs: "Note: There is no PowerPoint 5.0 or 6.0, because the Windows 95 version was launched with Word 7. All of the Office 95 products have OLE 2 - moving data between many programs - and PowerPoint 7 shows that it was as new as Word 7."


title: Qi Xi

paragraphs: Qi Xi, sometimes called Chinese Valentine's Day, Magpie Festival, or the Double Seventh Festival is a traditional romantic festival in China. It take places on the 7th day of the 7th lunar month and often goes into August on the Gregorian calendar.

paragraphs: In late summer, two bright stars can be seen on opposite sides of the Milky Way. These stars are Altair ("the cowherd", Niulang) and Vega ("the weaver girl", Zhinü). The following story is told about the two:

paragraphs: Long, long ago, there was an honest and kind-hearted fellow named Niulang (Cowherd). His parents died when he was a child. Later, he was driven out of his home by his sister-in-law. So he lived by himself herding cattle and farming. One day, a fairy from heaven named Zhinü (Weaver Girl) fell in love with him. She secretly came down to earth and married him. Niulang farmed in the field and Zhinü wove at home. They lived a happy life and gave birth to a boy and a girl. Unfortunately, the God of Heaven soon found this out and ordered the Queen Mother of the Western Heavens to bring Zhinü back.

paragraphs: With the help of celestial cattle, Niulang flew to heaven with his son and daughter. When he was about to catch up with his wife, the Queen Mother took off one of her gold hairpins and scratched a river in the sky to separate the lovers. Niulang and Zhinü have been separated on the two banks ever since. Once a year all of the magpies in the world come to build a bridge for Niulang and Zhinü to meet each other. This meeting happens on the 7th day of the 7th lunar month. Because of this, their meeting is called "Qi Xi" (Double Seventh).

paragraphs: Scholars have shown the Double Seventh Festival originated from the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). Historical documents from the Eastern Jin Dynasty (AD 371-420) mention the festival, while records from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) depict the grand evening banquet of Emperor Taizong and his concubines. By the Song (960-1279) and Yuan (1279-1368) dynasties, special articles for the Qi Xi were seen being sold on markets in the capital. The bustling markets demonstrated the significance of the festival.

paragraphs: Today some traditional customs are still observed in rural areas of China, but have been weakened or diluted in urban cities.

paragraphs: In the past, Qi Xi was not only a special day for lovers, but also for girls. It has been known as the "Begging for Skills Festival" or "Daughters' Festival."

paragraphs: In the past, girls would conduct a ceremony to beg Zhinü for wisdom, dexterity and a satisfying marriage in the future.

paragraphs: In some parts of the Shandong Province, young women offered fruit and pastries to pray for a bright mind. If spiders were seen to weave webs on sacrificial objects, it was believed the Weaving Girl was offering positive feedback.

paragraphs: In other regions, seven close friends would gather to make dumplings. They put into three separate dumplings a needle, a copper coin and a red date, which represented perfect needlework skills, good fortune and an early marriage.

paragraphs: Girls also held weaving and needlework competitions to see who had the best hands and the brightest mind, both important to being a good wife and mother in ancient China. Young women in southern China used to weave small handicrafts with colored paper, grass and thread. Afterwards, they competed to pass a thread through the eyes of seven needles in a single breath.

paragraphs: The Japanese version of Qi Xi is called "Tanabata". It is held on July 7th. On the evening of the 7th, slips of paper are hung on bamboo trees. The notes contain desires that the person hopes will be fulfilled.


title: Anna Nicole Smith

paragraphs: Anna Nicole Smith (November 28, 1967 – February 8, 2007) was an American model, actress and celebrity. She first became popular as "Playboy" magazine's 1993 Playmate of the Year.

paragraphs: She was born Vicki Lynn Hogan in Houston, Texas.

paragraphs: On February 8, 2007, Smith was found in a hotel room in Hollywood, Florida. At 1:38 p.m. (18:38 UTC) a nurse called 911. At 1:45 p.m. a bodyguard gave her CPR before she was taken to a local hospital and pronounced dead at 2:49 p.m. Her death was caused by an accidental overdose.

paragraphs: Smith was addicted to prescription medications. A psychiatrist said in court in 2010 that she was a member of hospital staff in 2006, when Smith was a patient. The psychiatrist said Smith had borderline personality disorder.


title: Sorting algorithm

paragraphs: A sorting algorithm is an algorithm that puts the elements of a collection into a certain order. Most commonly, numbers are sorted by their value, and words are sorted by their lexicographic order (as they would appear in a dictionary or phone book). Efficient sorting is important for other things: finding an element in a sorted collection is easier, and merging a new element may also be easier if the collection is sorted.

paragraphs: Sorting needs to take different into account that in some cases, the data can only be read sequentially, like on a tape.


title: Ciao

paragraphs: The word "ciao" is a greeting in Italian. It is used for both "hello" and "goodbye". It is less formal than other greetings in Italian, such as "buongiorno" or "salve".

paragraphs: The word originally comes from the Venetian language. It is also sometimes used by English speakers and speakers of other languages around the world. Other words that mean both "hello" and "goodbye" are "shalom" in Hebrew, "salaam" in Arabic, "annyeong" in Korean, and "aloha" in Hawaiian. In Vietnamese, the word "chào" also means "hello" or "goodbye". It sounds similar, but is not related to the Italian word.


title: LaTeX

paragraphs: LaTeX is a computer program used for making articles, books and mathematical formulas more aesthetically pleasing. LaTeX is well-suited for expressing mathematical formulas on electronic devices in a more human readable format, by allowing them to be shown in a format similar to how they would be written in many textbooks or by hand.

paragraphs: LaTeX is used for making mathematical formulas for some articles on Wikipedia, in addition to being used within academic circles.

paragraphs: The writer types his article into a plain text document. A plain text document cannot have styled text, like bold or italic. When the writer wants to write styled text, they use computer commands. For example, the command for bold text is <nowiki>\textbf{This text is bold}</nowiki>.

paragraphs: After the writer is finished writing the article, they tell LaTeX to read the document. After LaTeX is done, LaTeX makes a file that can be printed. The command <nowiki>\textbf{This text is bold}</nowiki> would print as This text is bold.

paragraphs: LaTeX was first made in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport at SRI International, who published its first manual in 1986. The current version is LaTeX2e (styled ), which has been active since 1994.

paragraphs: The example below shows the LaTeX input and its corresponding output:

paragraphs: In order to support mathematical typesetting, the American Mathematical Society (AMS) has made the AMS-LaTeX package. AMS also founded MathJax, a Javascript extension to display mathematical formulas on web browsers, with the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.


title: First War of Scottish Independence

paragraphs: The First War of Scottish Independence lasted from the outbreak of the war in 1296 until the 1328.

paragraphs: The Scots were defeated at Dunbar on 27 April 1296. John Balliol abdicated in Montrose castle on 10 July 1296. John was imprisoned in the Tower of London at first, but then released into the custody of Pope Boniface VIII on condition that he remain in a papal residence. He was later released around the summer of 1301 and lived the rest of his life on his family's estates in Picardy.

paragraphs: But his supporters argued that he was still the rightful King of Scotland. Therefore, the Scots rose in rebellion in 1297 under William Wallace and Andrew de Moray and said they were acting on behalf of King John. But in fact Scotland had no monarch until the accession of Robert the Bruce in 1306.


title: John of Scotland

paragraphs: John King of Scots (1248-1314) is usually known as John Balliol or, correctly, John de Balliol. He was born in 1248, probably at Barnard Castle, but is not entirely clear.

paragraphs: After the death of Margaret of Scotland in 1290, John Balliol was one of three major competiters for the throne. King Edward concluded that he was going to pick Balliol as king of Scotland at Scone, 30th November, 1292, St. Andrew's Day.

paragraphs: Edward I steadily undermined the authority of King John. He treated Balliol like a 'Puppet King' and the Scots were not happy. At the Battle of Dunbar King Edwards men slaughtered and wiped out the town of Berwick killing around 8000 people in the brutal killing.

paragraphs: He was stripped of his authority as king and was sent away to France by King Edward. He later died there.


title: Soul patch

paragraphs: A soul patch is a style of facial hair in which hair is only found below the lower lip and above the chin.


title: Wars of Scottish Independence

paragraphs: The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between Scotland and England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

paragraphs: The First War (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion of Edward Balliol and the 'Disinherited' in 1332, and ended around 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick.

paragraphs: The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most important moments in the nation's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland still was a free and independent nation, which was her main aim throughout the conflict. The wars were also important for other reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in mediaeval warfare.

paragraphs: The Battle of Bannockburn (23–24 June 1314) was an important Scottish victory. It was the decisive battle in the First War of Scottish Independence. In this battle, the Scottish king Robert the Bruce defeated the English king Edward II.


title: Autotroph

paragraphs: An autotroph (from Greek "autos" = self and "trophe" = nutrition) is an organism that makes organic compounds from simple molecules.

paragraphs: Autotrophs are needed in every food chain in all ecosystems. They take energy from the environment (sun light or inorganic sources) and use it to make other organic molecules that are used to carry out various biological functions such as cell growth or repairing broken tissue.

paragraphs: Plants and other organisms that carry out photosynthesis are phototrophs (or photoautotrophs). Bacteria that use inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulfide, phosphorus or iron are called chemoautotrophs. Other organisms, called heterotrophs, eat autotrophs.

paragraphs: There are some species that need organic compounds as a source of food, but are able to use light as a source of energy. These are not autotrophic, but heterotrophic. A mixotroph is a (micro)organism that can use a mix of different sources of energy and carbon.


title: Air France

paragraphs: Air France is one of the largest airlines in the world. It is based in France. It is owned by Air France-KLM. Before it merged with KLM, it employed 71,654 people. Its headquarters are at Charles de Gaulle International Airport near Paris.

paragraphs: The airline can be traced back to 1933, when four other French airlines were combined to create "Air France". Air France hired its first flight attendants in 1946. The airline started flying between Paris and New York City on July 1, 1946. In 1957, the airline bought its first jet aircraft. Air France was one of 4 airlines that flew the Concorde. It used it from 1976 until 2003. In 1988, the airline became the first to fly the Airbus A320. In 2003, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines and Air France announced they were going to be combining. The combination ended in 2004. As of 2016, Air France is going through many financial problems.


title: Air Dolomiti

paragraphs: Air Dolomiti L.A.R.E. S.p.A is a regional airline from in Verona in Italy. It is named after a section of the Alps known as The Dolomites. It is part of Lufthansa Regional connecting medium-size Italian airports to other European cities through Munich and Frankfurt am Main airports. The airline employs 550 people


title: Hampshire

paragraphs: Hampshire is a county in the south of the UK. The county has an area of 1,455 square miles (3,769 km²). At its widest points, the county is about 55 miles (90 km) east-west and 40 miles (65 km) north-south. The county town is Winchester. About 1.6 million people live in Hampshire.


title: Manuel Pereira da Silva

paragraphs: Manuel Pereira da Silva (7 December 1920 – 2003) was a Portuguese sculptor. He was born in Oporto, Portugal.

paragraphs: The workmanship of Manuel Pereira da Silva has an abstract formal orientation inspired in the human figure, in particularly the man and the woman. In 2000, the Medal of Cultural Merit was attributed to Manuel Pereira da Silva for the City Council of Vila Nova de Gaia.

paragraphs: In 1939, he entered the Oporto University's College of Arts. In 1953, he finished his coursework with the final classification of 18 values. During his coursework he was distinguished with two awards, "Teixeira Lopes" and "Soares dos Reis".

paragraphs: In 1946 and 1947, he studied in Paris, France, at the Paris College of Arts.


title: Yeti

paragraphs: The Yeti (also called the abominable snowman) is an animal said to live in the Himalaya mountain range made of ice. People say they have seen it, but none have ever been caught. It is supposed to look like an ape that walks upright. Some body parts, said to be of a yeti, are kept in a few monasteries in the area. There no real evidence that it exists, but there have been reports of footprints in the snow which could have been made by a yeti.

paragraphs: The yeti has been described as having white shaggy fur and a lean muscular body like an ape. This "creature" could also live in the Asian mountains near the Himalayan snow line. Stories about the Yeti and another similar creature, Bigfoot, suggest that if they are real, they could be the same, or similar species. The yeti can stand at least 6 – 10 foot tall, not as tall as the Bigfoot. It has also been said the Yeti can weigh at least 200 - 400 pounds. The yeti is shy, which is why it has never been found. In 2010 an unsuccessful exhibition, some hunters found a hairless four legged creature, they said was a Yeti. It was a small hairless cat that lost it's hair from a disease.

paragraphs: The yeti has been shown in couple of movies including Monsters, Inc. The Yeti has also been a WWE wrestler name. Toys and games using creatures like yetis have been made including Lego Cards (Lego).


title: Primality test

paragraphs: A primality test is a method (or algorithm) to find out if a certain number is a prime number. Cryptography uses prime numbers, and needs to test if a certain number is prime. The official proof of a prime is through its primality certificate.


title: Padding (cryptography)

paragraphs: Padding is a term used in cryptography. Very often, messages (to be encrypted) start or end in a well-known way ("Dear Bob, ..., Yours, Alice"). This is a problem, because that knowledge could be used to break (or start to break) encryption. To prevent this, a number of random characters are added at the beginning or the end of the message.

paragraphs: This procedure may also be necessary because many cryptographic methods operate on blocks of code. If a block is not full, additional characters need to be filled in. Filling in random text has proven very useful.


title: Dictionary attack

paragraphs: A dictionary attack is a method used in cryptography to find a key (or username, or password). A large number of words are tried. These words usually come from a special collection, called a "dictionary".

paragraphs: The attack is based on trying all the strings in a pre-arranged listing. The listing is usually derived from a list of words, such as in a dictionary (hence the phrase "dictionary attack").


title: Rocky Marciano

paragraphs: Rocco Francis Marchegiano, better known as Rocky Marciano (September 1, 1923 – August 31, 1969), was an American boxer. Marciano was the World Heavyweight Boxing Champion from 9/23/1952 until 11/30/1956. He had the shortest reach of any heavyweight champion at only 68 inches (173 cm). He was also short for a champion, standing 5'11" (180.3 cm). Marciano is the only heavyweight champion in professional boxing history who never lost or drew (tied) in a professional match. He won 43 fights by a way of knockout or technical knockout, an 87.76% knockout rate.

paragraphs: Before becoming a professional fighter, Marciano had an amateur record of 11-3. Marciano's first professional fight was in March 1947. He won the championship from Jersey Joe Walcott on September 23, 1952.

paragraphs: Marciano was named fighter of the year by Ring Magazine three times. His three championship fights between 1952-54 were named fights of the year by that magazine. Marciano's last title fight was against Archie Moore on September 21, 1955. Marciano was knocked down in the fight, but he got up and knocked out Moore in the 9th round. Marciano announced his retirement in a press conference on April 27, 1956.

paragraphs: Marciano considered a comeback in 1959 when Ingemar Johansson won the heavyweight championship from Floyd Patterson on June 26, 1959. However, Floyd Patterson's contract demanded a rematch with Ingemar within one year. After a period in training and thinking about a comeback, Marciano decided against it and never seriously considered a comeback again.

paragraphs: In 1969, on the eve of his 46th birthday, Marciano was a passenger in a small private plane, a Cessna 172, headed to Des Moines, Iowa. It was at night and bad weather set in. The pilot tried to land the plane on a small airfield outside Newton, Iowa, but the plane hit a tree two miles short of the runway. The passengers died almost instantly. He is entombed in a crypt at Forest Lawn Memorial Cemetery in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. His widow, who died exactly five years after him at the age of 46, is entombed next to him.


title: Exponentiation by squaring

paragraphs: Exponentiating by squaring is an algorithm. It is used for quickly working out large integer powers of a number. It is also known as the square-and-multiply algorithm or binary exponentiation. It uses the binary expansion of the exponent. It is of quite general use, for example in modular arithmetic.

paragraphs: The algorithm is believed to have first been documented in the Sanskrit book "Chandah-sûtra", about 200 BC.

paragraphs: The following recursive algorithm computes "x" for a positive integer "n" where n > 0:

paragraphs: This algorithm is much faster than the ordinary method to compute such a value. Multipliying x by itself, n operations are needed to calculate "x ". With the method shown above, only log2(n) operations are needed.


title: Smart card

paragraphs: A smart card is a card with a microchip in it. Such cards are used as a method of identification and authentication.

paragraphs: Plastic cards that allow to take out money from a automated teller machine (ATM) often are smart cards nowadays (Some of them still have a magnetic stripe which holds the same information). Very often the user is identified with a PIN. If the PIN is entered correctly, money can be withdrawn. If the PIN is not entered correctly, the card is blocked (after a number of false attempts).

paragraphs: At first, smart cards were used in public telephones in France, in 1983. There, the card simply stored a pre-paid credit. This credit was reduced when calls were made. Another way to solve the problem is that the balance is stored in a remote database. To make calls, a (usually toll-free number) is first called. From there, additional calls can be made. This eliminates the need for cards with chips on them.

paragraphs: Smart cards also have many other uses, such as for making payments. These kinds of cards are used a lot in Japan, Singapore, and the Octopus card in Hong Kong.

paragraphs: There are two basic kinds of smart cards:

paragraphs: Both kind of cards contain a controller for managing the I/O.

paragraphs: Many smart cards have RFID technology that allows them to be used without inserting them into a machine. They just need to be placed on a reader. These are called "contactless smart cards" and many credit and debit cards in the 21st century are this kind.


title: Coprime

paragraphs: In mathematics, two integers ("a" and "b") are co-prime (or relatively prime) if they share no common factors. This is sometimes written as formula_1. In other words, there is no number, other than 1, that divides both a and b evenly. In which case, the greatest common divisor (GCD, or highest common factor) of these numbers is 1.

paragraphs: As an example, 6 and 35 are coprime, because the factors of 6, 2 and 3, do not divide 35 evenly. On the other hand, 6 and 27 are not coprime, because 3 divides both 6 and 27. Another example is 4 and 5:

paragraphs: 5 = 5*1 (Prime). The only common factor is 1, so they are coprime.

paragraphs: 5 = 5*1 (Prime). The common factors are 5 and 1, so they are not coprime.

paragraphs: Prime numbers are always coprime to each other.


title: Euler's totient function

paragraphs: In number theory, the totient of a positive integer "n" is the number of positive integers smaller than "n" which are coprime to "n" (they share no factors except 1). It is often written as formula_1.

paragraphs: For example, formula_2, because there are four numbers (1, 3, 5 and 7) which do not share any factors with 8.

paragraphs: The function formula_3 used here is the totient function, usually called the Euler totient or Euler's totient, after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who studied it.

paragraphs: The totient function is also called Euler's phi function or simply the phi function, since the Greek letter Phi (formula_3) is so commonly used for it. The cototient of "n" is defined as formula_5.

paragraphs: The totient function is important mainly because it gives the size of the multiplicative group of integers modulo "n". More precisely, formula_6 is the order of the group of units of the ring formula_7. This fact, together with Lagrange's theorem, provides a proof for Euler's theorem.

paragraphs: A common use of the totient function is in the RSA algorithm. The RSA algorithm is a popular method of encryption used worldwide.


title: Key (cryptography)

paragraphs: In cryptography, a key (or cryptographic key) is a piece of information that allows control over the encryption or decryption process.

paragraphs: There are two basic types of cryptographic algorithms.

paragraphs: For symmetric algorithms, a minimum key size of 128 bits is recommended. For applications that need extreme security, such as top secret documents, 256 bits is recommended. Many older ciphers used 40, 56, or 64-bit keys—these have all been cracked by brute force attack because the key was too short.

paragraphs: Asymmetric (public key) algorithms need much longer keys to be secure. For RSA, at least 2048 bits is recommended. The largest publicly-known key that has been cracked was a 768-bit key.


title: Hollywood, Florida

paragraphs: Hollywood is a city in Broward County in Florida in the United States. In 2005 there were 145,629 people living in Hollywood, based on United States Census Bureau figures.


title: Magnetic stripe card

paragraphs: A Magnetic stripe card is a plastic card which has a magnetic stripe on it. Different kinds of information can be stored on the magnetic stripe. Such stripes are usually made of small particles of iron (or another metal). Information is stored by changing the magnetism of the particles, as with magnetic tape

paragraphs: There are different ways in which the data is stored on the card. But all of them are read in much the same way, by "swiping" (sliding the card through a slot) on a machine called a reader. These readers can be separate from or built into other machines such as a payment terminal in a cash register or point of sale system.

paragraphs: Similar cards, which can also do calculations themselves, are called smart cards.

paragraphs: The standard ISO 7811 specifies the format in which information is stored on these cards. A magnetic stripe holds about 1024 bits of information, which is arranged in three tracks. The first track holds 76 alphanumeric characters, encoded in 7 bit per character. The two other tracks hold 37 and 104 numeric characters, encoded with 5 bits per character. The first two tracks can only be read, the third track can also be written to.

paragraphs: Cards that are used for banking used to store the PIN as a hash value on the magnetic stripe. Today, the ATM calculates the hash value, and transmits it to the server of the bank, which does the comparison. Storing the PIN in the ATM is no longer allowed.

paragraphs: In many payment cards around the world, magnetic stripes are being replaced with a more secure technology called EMV. Most of these cards, though, still have magnetic stripes to be used in places which do not yet work with EMV.


title: Payphone

paragraphs: A payphone is a telephone that lets the public make phone calls if they pay for them first. Many payphones accept coins, but some can accept credit cards, debit cards, and phone cards as well. In the 20th century they were very often used, especially in cities. When people used more mobile phones, payphones quickly became rarer in small towns, and later also in cities.


title: Sami people

paragraphs: The Sami people, also spelled as Saami are an ethnic group of people living in Sápmi, an area in the far north of Europe. It is a part of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. There are 80,000 to 135,000 Sami people in the world. The Sami are sometimes called Lapps, but this is insulting and has a negative meaning. In English the area is sometimes still called Lapland.

paragraphs: There are 10 different Sami languages. Six of the languages can be written. The other four have very few speakers.

paragraphs: "Archaelogical research indicates that a culture identified as Sami arose in the Scandinavian peninsula between 1500 and 1000 B.C."

paragraphs: The first written mention of the Sami", was made about 98 A.D. by Tacitus

paragraphs: One account (or description) from 896 was told to Alfred the Great, by Ohthere of Hålogaland (a Norwegian chieftain). Oh there had some connection to the English king's court.

paragraphs: Old Norse stories, such as the Icelandic sagas, tell about the Sami. "Olav Tryggvason's Saga says "that the king killed a big man who was "troll-wise" and "there followed him a great number of Finns whenever he had need of them". ("Finns" is a name that sometimes meant "Sami people".)

paragraphs: In the 19th century, Russia stopped allowing reindeer farmers and their reindeer herds, to come travel over the Norway-Russia border. Some of the Sami reindeer farmers, moved to another Nordic country, and took their reindeer herds into Russia (but not through the Norway-Russia border); later another country's border with Russia, was closed to herds from reindeer farming (coming into Russia).

paragraphs: During the 16th century there was more farms in Finland. Farmers from the province of Savonia went to Middle Finland, and the original Sami people often had to leave.

paragraphs: At Dovrefjell when Harald Hardrada was king, there was profit from the keeping of herds of reindeer, and the business was very popular

paragraphs: In regard to Sami (in Norway) that had reindeer herds; when these Sami moved their herds (every year), then they would interact with people who lived permanently on the coast; the interaction also included "verdde": a friendship of convenience; for example, Sami needed milk and fish after having been on a plateau (or highland) for some weeks; Sami might need repair of equipment; trade was done: People from the coast traded fish for meat from reindeer.

paragraphs: Regarding getting the Sami to change their religion to Christianity: In the 18th century Thomas von Westen , a pietist, led missionary work (among the Sami), that has been called a concerted (or special) effort. "About a century later, Niels Vibe Stockfleth worked among the Sami and translated [the Bible's] New Testament into" [one of the Sami languages].

paragraphs: People living permanently on the coast in North Norway, were [largely] Sami; these Sami had permanent housing, and it became easier for these Sami to stop behaving like Sami; in some areas one was not allowed to own land, if one was Sami; some Sami changed names, to names that might sound more Norwegian (and family names such as Sæter, Strømeng, and Kalvemo became new family names).

paragraphs: Sami language [largely] disappeared among the Coastal Sami. Sami that did reindeer farming, and Coastal Sami slowly lost the close contact [between the two groups].

paragraphs: "There were organized attempts to eradicate [or make to disappear ] the Sami language and culture[,] as a step in assimilating the Sami into Norwegian society". Policies to "Norwegianize", Samis - were in place from the late 1840s,

paragraphs: "From the late 1840s to the 1950s, missionaries, agricultural experts and schoolteachers" tried "to "Norwegianize" the Sami"; the "first formal act of Parliament regarding the Norwegianization of the Sami people was made in 1848: 'The government is requested to investigate ... [find out if, and how far] there should be opportunity to bring the Norwegian Lapps, especially those living in coastal areas , instruction in the Norwegian language for the enlightenment of these people, and that the result of their findings be reported to the next Parliament'".

paragraphs: Norway's authorities made "a language directive (or rule) in 1880, which" was "made more forceful in 1898. It" said "that 'Teachers in those districts where the Lappish ... and Finnish ("kvænsk") languages are permitted for the sake of facilitating instruction in the public schools shall do their utmost to spread knowledge of the Norwegian language and seek to promote its use in the circles where they work'". Furthermore, the "government had a major objective for the schools: Not a single Sami word was to be heard on the school grounds" or in school buildings.

paragraphs: "The authorities also" used "economic measures to carry out the work of Norwegianization, including the Land Act. A regulation [or part of the law] from 1902" says that "Sale [of land] may only be made to Norwegian citizens ... who can speak, read, and write the Norwegian language and use it on a day-to-day basis".

paragraphs: A report by the "Parliamentary School Commission, appointed in 1922" said, without being able to show [ evidence], "that that the Sami are less educable [or able to learn] than others"; the report also said that the Sami population is less gifted and the "Sami culture does not lend itself to development".

paragraphs: From around 1850, a government policy of "Fornorskning" [tried to remove Sami culture]. An article in Klassekampen said that the policy was very rough [to Sami persons]. Into the 1980s, the policy of "Fornorskning" lasted in some places.

paragraphs: [Possibly the first] Sami association (in Norway) was started during the New Year's weekend in 1911: "Buolbmag Same Særvve", in Polmak municipality.

paragraphs: The first Sami association in Sweden, seems to have been started in 1903: "Tärnaby lappeforening".

paragraphs: In 1826, Russia has not allowed reindeer herds and their Sami owners, to travel from Norway to Russia.

paragraphs: Since 1852, Russia has not allowed reindeer herds and their Sami owners, to travel from Norway to Russia.

paragraphs: Reindeer farming, which is a type of animal husbandry, is done by Sami, between the White Sea and towards the west and the south, across Russia's Kola peninsula, Finland, Sweden and Norway, into Norway's county of Hedmark.

paragraphs: In reindeer farming, "the Sami travel with their flocks (of reindeer) according to an established cycle"; the cycle makes sure "that the" [reindeer] can eat properly during the various [or different] seasons of the year. For example, the spring migration to summer pastures, which have a rich variety of grasses and herbs, takes place just before new calves are born in May. Summer is a time when the calves grow and the adult animals regain their strength following a long, hard winter".

paragraphs: Among the Sami people are nomads that do reindeer farming. They lived in their cold environment by domesticating the reindeer. They were able to get everything they needed from the deer. They ate mostly meat, milk, and cheese. Their clothing was made from reindeer skins and wool. Their tents were also made from raindeer skins. The wool clothes were beautifully decorated.

paragraphs: The Sami protected the herds, moving with them as they migrated from summer to winter pastures. They used reindeer to pull sleds carrying their supplies. During the winter, the herds moved south of where the trees grew. The Sami lived nearby in homes made of logs or sod.

paragraphs: Winter clothing was made from layers of reindeer skin. The inside layer would be worn with the fur facing in toward the person's skin. The second layer was worn with the fur facing out. Boots were also made of fur and lined with grass that had been gathered during the short summer. Every evening the grass would be taken out and dried by the fire, so it would be ready to use again the next day. This way, a Sami could be warm and comfortable in even the coldest weather.

paragraphs: Today only a few of the Sami people still follow the herds. Those few use modern tools on their ancient migration. They use snowmobiles to herd the reindeer and rifles to kill the wolves that chase them. Even helicopters and radios are used to locate and move the reindeer. Most of the Sami now live on small farms in one of the four nations of Lapland. They raise crops and animals, including a few reindeer, to meet their needs. The sale of reindeer meat is an important source of income for the Sami people.

paragraphs: The Sami did not waste anything they got from the reindeer. The milk was used to drink or make cheese. Meat was taken for food. The blood was frozen and later used for soup and pancakes. Knives and belt buckles were carved from the bones and antlers. The sinews (tendons) were used as sewing thread. Cleaned-out stomachs were used to carry milk or cheese. Every part of a dead reindeer was used.

paragraphs: Sami crafts are called "duodji" . The men make knives, drums and 'guksi' (burl cups) from wood, bone, and antlers. The women use leather and roots to make 'gakti' (clothing). Women also use birch and spruce to weave baskets.

paragraphs: Sami clothing is called 'gakti' and was originally made from reindeer leather, but now it is usually made from wool, cotton, or silk. Usually, there are different types of clothing for men and women.

paragraphs: Sami shamanism is the main religion of the Sami people. These beliefs are connected to the land, animism, and the supernatural. There is some practice of bear worship. It is a polytheistic religion with many gods. The Sami shaman are called the 'Noadi'. There are some 'wise men' and 'wise women' who try to heal people who are sick. They use rituals and herbal medicine. Some Sami people have changed their beliefs to Christianity and joined either the Russian Orthodox Church or the Lutheran.

paragraphs: Publications by Snorri Sturluson(1178-1241) say that a Sami woman, Snøfrid, married Harald Fairhair; furthermore, none of her children or grandchildren became kings; first when Harald Hardrada became a king, then her blood became part of the blood of the royal family.

paragraphs: The character Kristoff in the 2013 Disney film "Frozen" is Sami. The song that plays in the movie's first scene, "Frozen Heart", was written by the South Sami composer Frode Fjellheim and is in a traditional Sami style called Vuelie. Some viewers complained that Kristoff was not a good way to show Sami because he is light-skinned and blond. This is called whitewashing. Although some Sami look like Kristoff, most have darker skin and hair. When making the 2019 sequel, "Frozen II", Disney signed a contract with Sami leaders and hired Sami experts to make sure the culture would be shown respectfully.


title: Lapland

paragraphs: Sápmi (as its name is in Northern Sami languge), in English commonly known as Lapland (), is the most northern part of Fennoscandia. Fennoscandia is a peninsula in northern Europe.

paragraphs: The area of Lapland is shared between four countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. In Norway, as far south ased Hedmark county, there are areas with many Sami people.<ref name=</ref>

paragraphs: The original people of Lapland are the Sami people. The Sami people are also called Lapps. They are now a minority there.

paragraphs: The weather of Lapland is cold. Summer is short. There are big hills with no trees on top of them. Reindeer live in Lapland. You can see northern lights in the sky.


title: Judah

paragraphs: The Kingdom of Judah was an ancient Jewish kingdom that existed in the southern part of the Levant. It was on the western shore of the Dead Sea. Its main cities were Jerusalem and Hebron. It existed from the 9th or 8th century BC, up until 586 BC.

paragraphs: After the death of Saul, Israel picked David to rule them. (1 Chronicles 11:1) After the death of King Solomon, son of David, ten of the twelve of the tribes of Israel did not want Solomon's son, Rehoboam to lead them. This caused the kingdom to split the Northern Kingdom, the Kingdom of Israel and the Southern Kingdom, the Kingdom of Judah. Jerusalem was the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.

paragraphs: In 586 BC, the king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar II, took over Jerusalem and destroyed Judah.


title: Gantt chart

paragraphs: A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart. It is a tool of project management invented by the engineer Henry L. Gantt in the 1910s. The chart illustrates a project schedule.

paragraphs: Gantt charts show the start and finish dates of the elements of a project. Gantt charts show the "dependency" between activities. What this means is that some activities can only begin after other activities are finished. Other activities can go on in parallel. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical "TODAY" line as shown here.

paragraphs: They are now a common charting technique, but Gantt charts were thought revolutionary when first introduced. The charts are also used in information technology to represent data that has been collected.


title: Mind map

paragraphs: A mind map is a drawing used to show words, ideas, tasks or other things. Everything is written around a word or idea in the middle. This word or idea is the main topic of the mind map, and the things linked to it are related to the main idea. It is used to store and order ideas, and is very useful for study, ordering things, solving problems, and making choices.


title: Dia

paragraphs: Dia is open source software that is used to make diagrams. It lets people draw many different types of technical drawings, for example flow charts and circuit diagrams. Technical diagrams are needed when doing work in subjects such as electronics and resistant materials. A flow chart can also be used to show how to plan out how to solve a problem, for example, how to bake a cake.


title: Talent

paragraphs: A talent (or "gift", or "aptitude") is the skill that someone has to do something very well that people usually like and that is difficult. Someone who has talent is called "talented". Talented people may have more than one talent. Talent is sometimes learned, but in some cases is natural born. People often value talents that are entertaining, beautiful, or impressive for a different reason like Music, dancing, acting or sports.

paragraphs: Even if someone has talent they may still have to work very hard if they want to perform well. Some people become quite good at something even if they do not have much talent, but if they are willing to work very hard at the skill for a period of time.

paragraphs: The word "talent" used to mean a weight and a piece of money in Assyria, Greece and Rome. This is the sense in which it is used in the Bible in the parable of the five talents (Matthew, xxv, 14-30).


title: Cathay Pacific

paragraphs: Cathay Pacific Limited is an airline based in Hong Kong. It transports passengers and cargo to over 120 cities world-wide. Its main base and hub is at Hong Kong International Airport. It is one of the six airlines in the world to get a five star rating from Skytrax. It won "Airline of the Year" award from Skytrax in 2003, 2005 and 2009. Its sister airline is Dragonair which serves destinations in mainland China and Asia.


title: Talent (weight)

paragraphs: A talent (Latin: "talentum", from Ancient Greek: "scale, balance") is an ancient unit of mass. It corresponded generally to the mass of water in the volume of an amphora, i.e. a one-foot cube.

paragraphs: The Babylonians and Sumerians had a system in which there were 60 shekels in a mina and 60 minas in a talent (in Ancient Greece one talent was 26 kg of silver). The Roman talent consisted of 100 libra (pounds) which were smaller in magnitude than the mina.

paragraphs: When used as a measure of money, it refers to a talent-weight of gold or of silver. The gold talent is reported as weighing roughly the same as a person, and so perhaps 50 kg (>110 lb avoirdupois). Some authorities say that the talent typically weighed about 33 kg (>72 lb) varying from 20 to 40 kg. In June, 2018, the international price of gold was about US $41,155.69 per kilogram. One gram costs about $38. At this price, a talent (33 kg) would be worth about $1,400,116.57. Similarly, in February 2016, the price of silver was about $15 per troy ounce or about 50 cents per gram, so a 33 kg silver talent would be worth about $16,500. Thus when we read that King Auletes of Egypt paid Gaius Julius Caesar the sum of 6,000 talents of gold to grant him the status of a "Friend and Ally of the Roman People," this amount would be worth about $8,400,699,422.80 USD today! These estimates are only rough values, because they are based on modern estimates.The value of silver in comparison to gold drastically changed. This is because of the output of the Spanish silver mines in the New World. In ancient times the same amount of silver was often worth more than gold. The estimates do not account for the less technical mining ability of the time, nor that there were still native deposits available. Later in Roman history, during the medieval Byzantine period, the emperor Basil II was said to have stockpiled the legendary amount of 200,000 talents of gold which, in modern terms, would be worth approximately $280,023,314,760 USD. At any rate, he did save enough money that the Byzantine government was able to remit all taxes paid during the final two years of his reign.

paragraphs: Another way to calculate the modern equivalent to a talent is from its use in estimating military pay. During the Peloponnesian war in Ancient Greece, a talent was the amount of silver needed to pay the crew of a trireme for one month. Hellenistic mercenaries were commonly paid one drachma for every day of service, which was a good salary in the post-Alexander (III) days. 6,000 drachma made a talent.

paragraphs: The talent as a unit of coinage is mentioned in the New Testament in Jesus' . One talent was an incredible amount of money.


title: Bede

paragraphs: Bede (also Saint Bede, or the Venerable Bede) (673–735), was a monk and an early historian of the Church in England. He was a member of the sister Northumbrian monasteries of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. He spent a great deal of time at Jarrow with its large library. Both were in the English county of Durham (now Tyne and Wear). He is well known as an author and scholar, whose best-known work, "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum" ("The Ecclesiastical History of the English People") gained him the title "The father of English history".

paragraphs: Bede became respectfully known as "Venerable Bede" soon after his death, but this was not linked to consideration for sainthood by the Roman Catholic Church. Bede himself said he was born in 673 and on the lands of the monastery of Wearmouth. At age seven he was presented by his family to the Abbot of Wearmouth, Benedict Biscop, to be educated. Bede doesn't say if his family was noble or not. Bede was ordained a deacon when he was nineteen and at age thirty he was ordained a priest. While he was active in his community Bede found study, writing and teaching his favorite activities. He studied the Bible and Latin. He learnt Latin because that was the language of the Bible and other books in the monastery library. His teaching would have been very basic and his opinions were very conventional (not radical in any way).

paragraphs: At the end of his life, Bede became ill and had difficulty breathing. He went about the tasks of finishing some writings and giving away the few things that he owned. Bede died on Ascension Day, 26 May 735.

paragraphs: Bede wrote many scientific, historical and theological works in his time. Many were copied and used by other monasteries in England and Western Europe. He had one work in particular that he is famous for. One of the most valuable and important sources on Anglo-Saxon history is Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation". Bede spent most of his life at Jarrow and this is where he wrote his history. The History is made up of five books and about 400 pages written in Latin. It contains 800 years of the history of England from the time of Caesar to the date of its completion (731). The last chapter is about Bede himself.

paragraphs: One man who made Bede's work possible was Benedict Biscop. He founded the Wearmouth and Jarrow monasteries. More importantly he created the library that Bede's got most of his information from. By the time of his death in 689 he had completed four trips to Rome and the south and brought back large collections of books each time. Bede's work would still not be possible if not for Ceolfrid, the fourth abbot. He doubled the size of the library left by Benedict Biscop. Bede himself traveled no farther than York and Lindisfarne. There is no record of his ever visiting libraries in distant places. Bede says the following about his sources:


title: Phototroph

paragraphs: Phototrophs ("photo" = light, "troph" = nutrition) or photoautotrophs are organisms which carry out photosynthesis.

paragraphs: With their plastids and the help of energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are converted into sugar by photosynthesis. Sugar is then converted into other organic molecules which can be used in cellular functions. Such a function might be, for example, respiration.


title: NTFS

paragraphs: NTFS is a file system developed by Microsoft. NTFS stands for New Technology File System. A file system is a way of storing computer files. Microsoft introduced it with the Windows NT operating system.

paragraphs: It was made to replace the old file-system used by earlier versions of Windows, like Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 98SE. That file system was also used by MS-DOS and is called FAT.

paragraphs: A newer version of NTFS (v3.1) was used in Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, and the most recent version of operating system, Windows 10. NTFS can be accessed from non-Windows operating systems such as Linux using the NTFS-3G driver.


title: File system

paragraphs: A File system (or filesystem) is a way of storing all data on a data storage device. The data is usually organized in computer files in directories. Below the file system there is usually a physical device where the files are stored. This might be a hard disk, USB flash drive, compact disc, or DVD. The file system might also talk to a remote server over a network where the file is stored. The file system might also only use RAM to store the files.

paragraphs: The underlying storage mechanism usually has no concept of a file. A hard disk knows of disk blocks, which are numbered in a certain way. These disk blocks contain binary data (usually: large numbers).

paragraphs: The file system does the "translation" between the large numbers, and the view the users see, that is that of files, organized in a certain way.

paragraphs: More recently, concepts from databases have been used to develop file systems. That way, there are two different kinds of data:

paragraphs: It then becomes possible to always keep the file system in a consistent state. With databases, this is known as ACID. That way, an operation on a file is either done, or it is not done. There are however, no states in between. The file being written to the filesystem is no longer visible. This is usually done using transactions. But with filesystems, it is called "journaling".


title: David II of Scotland

paragraphs: David II (5 March 1324 – 22 February 1371) King of Scots, son of King Robert the Bruce by his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was born at Dunfermline Palace, Fife.

paragraphs: He was married on 17 July 1328, aged only four, to Joan of the Tower (d. 1362), daughter of Edward II of England and Isabella of France.

paragraphs: At the age of five, David became King of Scotland after the death of his father on 7 June 1329. He was crowned at Scone in November 1331.

paragraphs: Edward Balliol, with support from Edward III of England fought against David, so that he could become king. He defeated David at the Battle of Dupplin on 12 August 1332. Balliol was crowned king, and in July 1333, the nine year old David and his queen were sent to France for their safety. In June 1341 he came back and began to rule. In 1346 he invaded England, but was defeated and taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346, and remained in England for eleven years, living mainly in London and at Odiham in Hampshire. In October 1357 he was allowed to go back to Scotland for a payment of 100,000 marks. The money was never paid completely.


title: Lied

paragraphs: Lied (pronounced “leed”) is the German word for “song” (the plural is Lieder – pronounced “leader”).

paragraphs: The word Lied is used in music to describe the songs that were written by German-speaking composers of classical music. Songs composed by classical composers are sometimes called “art songs”.

paragraphs: Lieder are normally songs for a singer with piano accompaniment. They were mostly composed in the 19th century which was the period known as the Romantic period. The most famous composers of Lieder were Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf and Richard Strauss.

paragraphs: In German culture the Lied as an art song goes back to the Middle Ages. Walther von der Vogelweide was a 12th-13th century minnesinger who composed and sang songs for important people at the royal court. Like most minnesinger, he was a poet as well as a composer, writing words for his own songs.

paragraphs: The Lied in the Romantic period was usually written by two different people: the poet wrote the words and then the composer “set the words” to music. 19th century composers mostly took great care to choose good poetry for their songs. The poetry was often by famous poets such as Goethe and Schiller.

paragraphs: Although most Lieder were composed in the Romantic period, the beginnings were there in the Classical music period. Mozart wrote a song called "Das Veilchen" ("The Violet") and Beethoven wrote several songs.

paragraphs: It was Schubert who was to be the greatest of all Lieder composers. Schubert wrote over 600 songs. Very often he wrote in a form which had been used by Walther von der Vogelweide: three verses of which the first two have the same music (A-A-B, or as von der Vogelweide called them: “Stollen, Stollen, Abgesang”). Other songs of his are what is known as “durchkomponiert” (“through composed”). Here each verse is different, so that the composer can express the words of each verse with different music. The wonderful thing about Schubert’s songs is the way in which the piano accompaniments help the voice and show the meaning of the words. The piano was a fairly new instrument at the time and could do things that would have been impossible on the harpsichord. One of his earliest songs is the famous "Erlkönig" ("Erlking"). The piano accompaniment is very difficult to play because the right hand has continuous repeated octaves which describe the galloping of the horse in the wild, stormy night. "Grettchen am Spinnrade" is a song which sets a poem from "Goethe's Faust". The young girl is sitting at the spinning-wheel thinking of her lover. The piano has a rippling accompaniment which sounds like the gentle clatter of the spinning-wheel. At the moment when the girl imagines her lover's kiss the piano part comes to a stop, then gradually starts up again as the girl wakes up to the world around her.

paragraphs: Composers often composed groups of songs which belong together. These are called a “song cycle” (“Liederkreis” in German). Schubert wrote two long ones: "Die Winterreise" ("The Winter Journey") and "Die schöne Müllerin" ("The Miller’s beautiful daughter"). Both are about love affairs which end sadly.

paragraphs: Robert Schumann wrote many fine songs. He was a pianist before he became a composer, so it is not surprising that the piano parts of his songs are at least as important as the voice part. His song-cycle "Dichterliebe" ("Poet’s love") contains some of his best songs. They often have a dream-like atmosphere. He especially liked setting words by the poets Joseph von Eichendorff and Heinrich Heine.

paragraphs: Johannes Brahms always made the singer’s part more important than the piano part. He learned a lot by studying Schubert’s songs and wrote some very famous Lieder. One of his best is the humorous "Vergebliches Ständchen" ("Serenade in vain"). His "Four Serious Songs" are very powerful. His famous "Wiegenlied" ("Lullaby"), a tune which everybody knows, is one of his songs.

paragraphs: Hugo Wolf is known almost only for his songs. They are very dramatic and he used some unusual harmonies which he had learned by listening to Wagner’s music. Some of Wolf’s songs are very short, he says a lot in a short space of time. His "Italian song book" and "Spanish song book" have some of his best songs.

paragraphs: Richard Wagner and Gustav Mahler both wrote wonderful Lieder, although they are mostly with orchestral accompaniment. Mahler’s songs are inspired by folksong. He even uses them in his symphonies. "Das Lied von der Erde" is a song cycle for two singers (mezzo soprano and tenor) and orchestra.

paragraphs: Richard Strauss is one of the last great Lieder composers. His "Four last songs" (with orchestra) seem to be saying “goodbye” to a great period of music history.