title: Separate but equal

paragraphs: Separate but equal was a legal doctrine that existed in the United States for 58 years. It was based on the United States Supreme Court decision "Plessy v. Ferguson". Here the Court ruled that racial segregation was not in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, as long as the racially separate facilities were equal. The Court also said segregation was not discrimination. Segregation in public accommodations, transportation and schools was legally justified by "Plessy" until it was overturned in 1954 by "Brown v. Board of Education".

paragraphs: After the American Civil War, the Republican controlled Congress passed three amendments to the Constitution called the Reconstruction Amendments. The first was the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution which abolished slavery in the United States. The second was the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution which provided equal protection of the laws to all citizens. The third was the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution that gave voting rights to African American men.

paragraphs: After the passage of the reconstruction amendments, things began to get worse for black people in the South. Many whites would not accept the new changes. The economy in the south was stagnant and taxes were high. There was a good deal of corruption which was made worse by carpetbaggers from the north and southern supporters of reconstruction called scalawags. Out of fear and hatred, white supremacy groups such as the Ku Klux Klan were born. Through the use of violence including lynching, rape, murder and terrorism, they sought to control African Americans and keep them from using their new rights.

paragraphs: Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1875. It guaranteed African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prevent being excluded from jury duty. The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in "Civil Rights Cases" (1883) that sections of the act were unconstitutional. The Court's reasoning was the Fourteenth Amendment prohibited discrimination by states not by individuals. As a result Congress could not protect against individual cases of discrimination.

paragraphs: Florida was the first to pass a law requiring railroads to provide “equal but separate accommodations for the white, and colored, races”. Soon, Texas, Mississippi and other states had the same or similar laws. In 1890, when Louisiana passed a similar law, blacks began resisting. In 1892 it was agreed Homer Plessy would challenge the laws in order to form a test case. Plessy "passed" for white and while riding on an East Louisiana train in the "white section" announced he was black and refused to move to the "colored" section. Plessy was arrested and 1896 his case reached the Supreme Court. The case was "Plessy v. Ferguson", Fergusson being the name of the Judge who first ruled against him in the New Orleans Criminal District Court.

paragraphs: In 1896, the Supreme Court heard the case. Plessy's lawyers argued Louisiana's Separate Car Act violated the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments. The Court, in a 7-1 decision decided against Plessy and that the law was constitutional. Writing the majority opinion, Justice Henry Brown wrote:

paragraphs: The lone dissenter, Justice John Harlan, saw terrible consequences in the judicial opinion rendered by the court. He wrote:

paragraphs: Beginning in 1890, Southern Democrats began to pass state laws that took away the rights African Americans had gained. These racist laws became known as Jim Crow laws. "Plessy" caused Jim Crow laws to go unchallenged by the federal government for 58 years. They included laws that made it impossible for blacks to vote. Since they could not vote, blacks also could not be on juries. Other laws required racial segregation so blacks could not go to the same schools, restaurants or hospitals as whites. They could not use the same bathrooms or drink from the same drinking fountains. They could also not sit in front of whites on busses or trains. Many southern Christian ministers taught that whites were the chosen people and blacks were cursed by God. Lynchings were designed to instill fear in blacks and keep them in their place. Between 1882 and 1968, 3,440 black men and women were lynched. Others were burned at the stake, castrated, beaten or murdered. The Jim Crow era began to end after the Supreme Court’s unanimous Brown v. Board of Education decision overruled Plessy.


title: Berber calendar

paragraphs: The Berber calendar is a calendar used most often in the region of North Africa, to control seasonal agricultural works.


title: Address bus

paragraphs: An address bus is a computer bus architecture. It is used to transfer data between devices. The devices are identified by the hardware address of the physical memory (the physical address). The address is stored in the form of binary numbers to enable the data bus to access memory storage.

paragraphs: Address buses are made up of a collection of wires connecting the CPU with main memory that is used to identify particular locations (addresses) in main memory. The width of the address bus (that is, the number of wires) determines how many unique memory locations can be addressed. Modern personal computers and Macintoshes have as many as 36 address lines. This theoretically allows them to access 64 gigabytes of main memory. However, the actual amount of memory that can be accessed is usually much less than this theoretical limit due to chipset and motherboard limitations.

paragraphs: An address bus is part of the system bus architecture, which was developed to decrease costs and enhance modular integration. However, most modern computers use a variety of individual buses for specific tasks.

paragraphs: An individual computer contains a system bus, which connects the major components of a computer system and has three main elements, of which the address bus is one, along with the data bus and control bus.

paragraphs: An address bus is measured by the amount of memory a system can retrieve. A system with a 32-bit address bus can address 4 gigabytes of memory space. Newer computers using a 64-bit address bus with a supporting operating system can address 16 exbibytes of memory locations, which is virtually unlimited.


title: 2015–16 La Liga - Results of second round

paragraphs: This is the Results of the second round of 2015–16 La Liga.


title: Avolar

paragraphs: Avolar was a Mexican low-cost airline. Its headquarters and largest hub were in Tijuana. It started on September 7, 2005 with one Boeing 737-500 airplane. It was one of the first low-cost airlines in Mexico. By 2008, the airline had 10 Boeing 737 airplanes. It flew to 21 cities throughout Mexico. Avolar suspended flights for 3 days in August 2008 and for 1 day in October 2008. This was due to large debts. Avolar asked to fly to the United States on October 28, 2008. Avolar finally stopped flying on that same day - October 28, 2008. The airline has never flown again since then.


title: Drag king

paragraphs: Drag kings are female performance artists who dress in male clothes. They play male gender roles as part of an individual or group routine. Drag kings may be straight, lesbian or transgender. They often perform as macho male characters, like construction workers and rappers.

paragraphs: In the late 1800s/early 1900s, several drag kings became British music hall stars. British pantomime has preserved the tradition of women in male roles. Starting in the mid 1990s, drag kings started to have the fame and attention for which drag queens are known.

paragraphs: The term "drag king" was first used in print in 1972.

paragraphs: Drag kings are mostly a part of lesbian culture. They can be most often seen at lesbian festivals or bars. However, not all drag kings are lesbians.


title: Controlled Substances Act

paragraphs: The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) is a United States federal law. It controls what drugs American people and companies can have, make, import, and use. It also controls what drugs doctors can prescribe.

paragraphs: "Controlled substances" include illegal drugs, chemicals that are used to make illegal drugs, and some medications. If a government has rules or laws about a certain drug, then that drug is called a controlled substance.

paragraphs: The United States Congress passed the law as part of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. President Richard Nixon signed the bill into law on October 27, 1970.

paragraphs: The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) sets laws about:

paragraphs: The CSA does not include alcohol or tobacco as "controlled substances."

paragraphs: The CSA divides controlled substances up into five groups, called Schedules. Drugs are put into these categories based mostly on:

paragraphs: Since the CSA was created in 1970, many new illegal drugs and medications have been developed. Because of this, the Act has been amended many times to add on new types of drugs.

paragraphs: For example, since 1970, the CSA has been amended:

paragraphs: There are five different Schedules of controlled substances, numbered IV (one through five in Roman numerals). The CSA describes the different Schedules based on three things:

paragraphs: This table gives a summary of the differences between the different Schedules.

paragraphs: The CSA says that no doctor in the United States can write a prescription for a Schedule I drug. Some states have passed laws allowing doctors to prescribe marijuana for diseases like cancer and AIDS. Even though those prescriptions are legal in those states, they are still illegal under the CSA.

paragraphs: Here are some examples of Schedule I drugs:

paragraphs: Schedule II drugs are the most-controlled type of drugs that a doctor can write a prescription for. Some drugs that are usually illegal are on Schedule II. They are on Schedule II instead of Schedule I because sometimes, they can be used for medical reasons. For example, Schedule II includes cocaine, because it can stop bleeding and kill pain in the mouth, throat, and nose. Schedule II also includes methamphetamine, because it is sometimes used to treat Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and severe obesity.

paragraphs: The CSA puts limits on prescriptions for Schedule II drugs. For example, prescriptions for these drugs cannot be refilled. The patient cannot get more of the medication at the pharmacy without getting a new prescription. Also, the doctor must write the prescription they cannot call or fax the prescription to the pharmacy. The pharmacy needs an original copy of the prescription.

paragraphs: Schedule III drugs are less controlled than Schedule II drugs. Doctors can send these prescriptions to a pharmacy by fax or phone. These prescriptions can be refilled five times in six months without the patient needing a new prescription.

paragraphs: Schedule IV drugs have the same rules for prescriptions and refills that Schedule III drugs do. Examples of Schedule IV drugs include:

paragraphs: Schedule V drugs are the least strictly controlled of all the controlled substances. A doctor can call or fax the prescription to the pharmacy. There is no limit on the number of times a prescription can be refilled.

paragraphs: The United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is in charge of enforcing the CSA. The DEA is part of the United States Department of Justice.

paragraphs: Usually, only two government agencies can add or remove drugs from a Schedule. These agencies are the (DEA) and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, sometimes Congress passes special laws to add a drug to the CSA.

paragraphs: Anyone can ask the DEA to add a drug, remove a drug, or change a drug to a different Schedule in the CSA. Even a regular person can petition the DEA for a change. After it gets a petition, the DEA starts an investigation of the drug.

paragraphs: During these investigations, the DEA gathers a lot of information, talks to different government agencies, gets the FDA's opinion, and does research. Because all of this takes time, a federal law allows the Attorney General of the United States to put a drug on Schedule I for a year. The law only allows this when there is "an imminent hazard" (an immediate threat) "to the public safety." For example, in 2011, the Attorney General used this law to put synthetic cannabinoids on Schedule I.


title: Pop Goes the Weasel

paragraphs: "Pop! Goes the Weasel" is an English nursery rhyme and singing game.

paragraphs: There are many different versions of this song.

paragraphs: American versions include the following words:

paragraphs: There are many other American and English versions.


title: Nursery rhyme

paragraphs: A nursery rhyme is a traditional poem for young children. The term has been used since the 18th century or early 19th century. In North America, the term Mother Goose Rhymes, first used in the mid-18th century, is often used.

paragraphs: Examples of nursery rhymes are "Three Blind Mice", "Jack and Jill" and "Hey Diddle Diddle".


title: Amicus curiae

paragraphs: An amicus curiae (literally, friend of the court; plural, amici curiae) is someone who is not a party to a case and offers information that affects the case but who has not been asked by any of the parties to assist a court. This may take the form of legal opinion, testimony or learned treatise (the "amicus" brief). It is a way to introduce concerns that might be overlooked by the parties directly involved in the case. The decision on whether to admit the information lies at the discretion of the court. The phrase "amicus curiae" is legal Latin.

paragraphs: The "amicus curiae" practice was found in Roman law. It played an important part in both English common law and the American legal system. Later, it was introduced in international law, in particular, concerning human rights. Today, it is used by the European Court of Human Rights. It is also used in the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the Court of Justice of the European Union and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon.

paragraphs: The situation most often noted in the press is when an advocacy group files a brief in a case before an appellate court to which it is not a litigant. Appellate cases are normally limited to the factual record and arguments coming from the lower court case under appeal. Usually attorneys focus on the facts and arguments most favorable to their clients. Where a case may have broader implications, "amicus curiae" briefs are a way to introduce those concerns, so that the possibly broad legal effects of court decisions will not depend solely on the parties directly involved in the case.

paragraphs: In prominent cases, "amici curiae" are generally organizations with sizable legal budgets. In the United States, for example, non-profit legal advocacy organizations, such as the American Civil Liberties Union, the Landmark Legal Foundation, the Pacific Legal Foundation, and others, frequently submit such briefs to advocate for or against a particular legal change or interpretation. If a decision could affect an entire industry, companies other than the litigants may wish to have their concerns heard. In the United States, federal courts often hear cases involving the constitutionality of state laws. Hence states may file briefs as "amici curiae" when their laws are likely to be affected, as in the Supreme Court case "McDonald v. Chicago," when thirty-two states under the aegis of Texas (and California independently) filed such briefs.

paragraphs: "Amici curiae" who do not file briefs often present an academic perspective on the case. Newspaper editorials, blogs, and other opinion pieces arguably have the capability to influence Supreme Court decisions as "de facto amici curiae". They are not, however, technically considered "amicus curiae," as they do not submit materials to the Court, do not need to ask for leave, and have no guarantee that they will be read.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court of the United States has special rules for "amicus curiae" briefs sought to be filed in cases pending before it. Supreme Court Rule 37 states, in part, such a brief should cover "relevant matter" not dealt with by the parties which "may be of considerable help". The cover of an "amicus" brief must identify which party the brief is supporting, or if the brief supports only affirmance or reversal. The Court also requires that, "inter alia", all non-governmental amici identify those providing a monetary contribution to the preparation or submission of the brief. Briefs must be prepared in booklet format, and 40 copies must be served with the Court.

paragraphs: In the United States Supreme Court, unless the "amicus" brief is being filed by the federal government (or one of its officers or agents) or a U.S. state, permission of the court (by means of motion for leave) or mutual consent of the parties is generally required. Allowing an "amicus curiae" to present oral argument is considered "extraordinary".

paragraphs: The role of "amicus curiae" briefs in the World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement system is controversial. The controversy arises due to the governmental nature of WTO disputes. As only WTO members have access to the system, any non-members such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are excluded and have no right to be heard. Thus the only way for them to contribute to a WTO decision is through "amicus curiae" briefs.


title: Henderson v. United States (1950)

paragraphs: Henderson v. United States, 339 U.S. 816 (1950) , was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court that abolished segregation in railroad dining cars.

paragraphs: In the early part of the 20th century, railroads did not provide dining facilities for African-Americans. But public pressure in the 1930s and 1940s forced railroads to provide some kind of dining arrangement for black passengers. In response, they set up one or two tables for African-Americans. No matter how many needed to eat, there were only a few chairs available to them.

paragraphs: On May 17, 1942, Elmer W. Henderson, an African-American passenger, was travelling first-class on the Southern Railway from Washington, D.C. to Atlanta, Georgia. He was a lawyer traveling as part of his duties for President Roosevelt's Fair Employment Practice Committee.

paragraphs: At about 5:30 pm, while the train was in Virginia, the first call to dinner was announced and he went promptly to the dining car. Under practices then in effect, the two end tables nearest the kitchen were to be reserved initially for Negroes. As the tables were partly occupied by white passengers (with at least one seat at them unoccupied) the dining-car steward would not seat Henderson in the dining car. Instead, the steward offered to serve him at his pullman seat. Henderson said no and the steward agreed to send him word when space was available. No word was sent and he was not served, although he twice returned to the diner before it was closed at 9 pm.

paragraphs: Henderson filed a complaint with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) in October 1942. He alleged this conduct violated provisions of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. While the Commission agreed that he had suffered undue and unreasonable prejudice and disadvantage, it dismissed the occurrence as a casual incident brought about by the bad judgment of an employee.

paragraphs: A three-judge United States District Court for the District of Maryland found the practice was in violation of the Interstate Commerce Act but remanded the case on February 18, 1946 back to the ICC. On March 1, 1946, the company announced a change in their rules for dining cars. Ten tables would be exclusively for white passengers and one table of four seats would be exclusively for black passengers with a curtain drawn between this and the other tables. White passengers could no longer be seated at the black table. This satisfied the ICC and the federal court. However, Henderson was not satisfied and, with the backing of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) appealed the decision to the Supreme Court.

paragraphs: The US Supreme Court did not rule on the constitutionality of "separate but equal" in this instance, but did find that the railroad had failed to provide the passenger with the same level of service provided to a white passenger with the same class of ticket. The Court found this violated the Interstate Commerce Act, which made it illegal for a railroad in interstate commerce “to subject any particular person… to any undue or unreasonable prejudice or disadvantage in any respect whatsoever.”

paragraphs: With the permission of the Court, Sam Hobbs, a member of the United States House Committee on the Judiciary filed a brief as "amicus curiae" in support of the lower court decision. Several other amicus curiae briefs were filed in support of Henderson, the appellant.


title: Plaque (biology)

paragraphs: A plaque in biology is a flat growth-form. The term is used for


title: New York International Auto Show

paragraphs: The New York International Auto Show is an annual auto show that is held in Manhattan in late March or early April. It is held at the Jacob Javits Convention Center. It usually opens on or just before Easter weekend and closes on the first Sunday after Easter. In 2016 the show started on March 25 and ended April 3.

paragraphs: The show has been held annually since 1900.

paragraphs: The show was held at the New York Coliseum from 1956 to 1987 when the show moved to the Javits Center.


title: Santali language

paragraphs: Santali is the official language of the Santal community. Most Santal people live in Jharkhand, Odisha, or West Bengal.


title: Chiang Mai Province

paragraphs: Chiang Mai (Thai เชียงใหม่) is the second-largest province ("changwat") of Thailand. It is in the country's north. It is bordered by Chiang Rai to the northeast, Lampang and Lamphun to the south, Tak to the southwest, Mae Hong Son to the west, and Shan State of Burma to the north. The capital, Chiang Mai, is 685 km north of Bangkok.

paragraphs: Chiang Mai Province is about from Bangkok. The highest mountain in Thailand, Doi Inthanon at , is in Chiang Mai Province.

paragraphs: Several other national parks are also in the province: Doi Suthep-Pui, Ob Luang, Sri Lanna, Huai Nam Dang, Mae Wang, and Pha Daeng.

paragraphs: The city of Chiang Mai was capital of the Lanna Kingdom after its founding in 1296.

paragraphs: In 1599, the kingdom lost its independence and became part of the Ayutthaya Kingdom.

paragraphs: In 1932, the province Chiang Mai moved up to the second level subdivision of Thailand when the administrative unit of "Monthon Phayap", the remains of the Lanna Kingdom, was dissolved.

paragraphs: 13.4% of the population in the province are members of hill tribes, among them the Hmong, Yao, Lahu, Lisu, Akha, and Karen.

paragraphs: Chiang Mai has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen "Aw"), tempered by the low latitude and moderate elevation, with warm to hot weather year-round, though nighttime conditions during the dry season can be cool and are much lower than daytime highs. The maximum temperature ever recorded is 42.4 °C in May 2005.


title: East Brunswick, New Jersey

paragraphs: East Brunswick is a township in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. The suburban community is part of the New York City metropolitan area and is located on the southern shore of the Raritan River. It is adjacent to the city of New Brunswick.

paragraphs: The general area of central New Jersey was once occupied by the Lenape Native Americans.


title: Maria Teresa Felicitas d'Este

paragraphs: Maria Teresa Felicitas d'Este (October 6, 1726 – April 30, 1754) was born a princess of Modena. By marriage, she was the Duchess of Penthièvre. She was the mother-in-law of Philippe Égalité and a grandmother to the future Louis Philippe I.

paragraphs: One of nine children, she was the first daughter of the family but her mother eventually returned to France to live. In France she was eventually engaged to the hugely wealthy Duke of Penthièvre, who was a distant cousin of hers. In France she was known as "Marie Thérèse Félicité".

paragraphs: in 1744 at the Palace of Versailles she was married to a second cousin, the French Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre. A very happy marriage the couple had seven children in total but only two of them survived childhood.

paragraphs: Marie Thérèse Félicité died in childbirth in 1754 giving birth to a son who also died. Her husband refused to remarry and died in 1793. Her daughter Marie Adélaïde moved Marie Thérèse Félicité's body to the Royal Chapel, in Dreux.


title: Gonzales v. Oregon

paragraphs: Gonzales v. Oregon was a landmark case decided by the United States Supreme Court in 2006. In 2001, Attorney General John Ashcroft tried to stop Oregon's Death with Dignity Act. This law allowed terminally ill people to get a prescription for a medication that they could take to kill themselves. (This is called "physician-assisted suicide.")

paragraphs: Ashcroft tried to stop doctors from prescribing medicines for physician-assisted suicide. He threatened to use a federal anti-drug law to punish them.

paragraphs: The state of Oregon went to court to fight Ashcroft. Eventually, the Supreme Court ruled that Ashcroft did not have the power to stop doctors from prescribing legal drugs in a way that was legal in Oregon. This decision allowed physician-assisted suicide to continue in Oregon.

paragraphs: In 1994, the people of Oregon voted to pass the Death with Dignity Act. Under this law, if a terminally ill adult wants to, they can get a lethal prescription from a doctor. They can only do this if they are a competent adult (they are able to make decisions on their own). They must also meet many other requirements.

paragraphs: By the end of 2001, when Ashcroft got involved, 150 people had gotten prescriptions under the Death with Dignity Act. Ninety-nine of these people used their prescriptions to end their lives. The other 51 (about one out of every three people) chose never to use their prescriptions.

paragraphs: In 2001, Attorney General Ashcroft tried to stop Oregon's doctors from prescribing medicines for physician-assisted suicide by using the Controlled Substances Act.

paragraphs: The Controlled Substances Act is a federal law sets the United States' rules about legal and illegal drugs. It includes rules about what medicines doctors can and cannot prescribe. It also includes a list of medicines, called "controlled substances," which doctors cannot prescribe without a special license from the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).

paragraphs: DEA rules limit when doctors with this license can prescribe controlled substances:

paragraphs: This means that doctors can only prescribe controlled substances if their patients need them for real medical problems. Basically, the doctor has to be acting like a doctor, not a drug dealer.

paragraphs: The goal of this rule was to stop doctors who prescribed drugs to people who abused them. If doctors did this, they would be violating the Controlled Substances Act. The punishment for doctors who do this is to lose their DEA license to prescribe controlled substances.

paragraphs: In 1994, when Oregon first passed the Death with Dignity Act, Janet Reno was the Attorney General. She decided the Death with Dignity Act did not violate the Controlled Substances Act.

paragraphs: However, in November 2001, Attorney General Ashcroft put out a new rule (which became known as "The Ashcroft Directive"). He reversed Reno's position. He said the Death with Dignity Act "did" violate the Controlled Substances Act.

paragraphs: Ashcroft had decided physician-assisted suicide was not a "legitimate medical purpose" for any medication. Because of this, he said, any doctor in Oregon who wrote another prescription for physician-assisted suicide would be breaking the Controlled Substances Act. As punishment, the DEA could take away these doctors' licenses to prescribe controlled substances. This would make it impossible for those doctors to prescribe medicines for physician-assisted suicide. The DEA could also fine the doctors or even charge them with crimes.

paragraphs: The day after Ashcroft issued his Directive, the state of Oregon went to federal court to fight it. Doctors, other health care providers, and people with terminal illnesses joined Oregon's lawsuit against Ashcroft. On April 17, 2002, U.S. District Judge Robert Jones ordered an injunction a judge's order saying that Ashcroft's rule could not be enforced. However, the court did not have the jurisdiction to hear the whole lawsuit. It moved the case to a higher (more powerful) court: the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.

paragraphs: The Ninth Circuit agreed with Judge Jones's injunction. They ruled that Congress obviously did not mean for the Controlled Substances Act to be used to control physician-assisted suicide. They meant for it to control illegal drug dealing. They also ruled that Ashcroft did not have the power to control a state's medical practices. That was the state's own business to control, the Court said.

paragraphs: Ashcroft asked the Supreme Court to hear the case. By the time they did, there was a new Attorney General: Alberto Gonzales. However, Gonzales supported the Ashcroft Directive, and continued Ashcroft's fight against the Death with Dignity Act.

paragraphs: On January 17, 2006, the Supreme Court decided in favor of Oregon.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court did not rule on whether physician-assisted suicide, or the Oregon Death with Dignity Act, were legal. Instead, they made their decision based on the ideas of federalism the separation between the powers of the United States government and the individual states.

paragraphs: Like the Ninth Circuit, the Supreme Court ruled that the Controlled Substances Act was meant to fight drug use and drug dealing. Congress never meant for the law to deal with physician-assisted suicide.

paragraphs: The Court said that Congress "also" never meant for the Controlled Substance Act to control medical practices. The states had always had the right to control their own medical practices. Ashcroft decided that he could create a meaning of "legitimate medical practice" that every state would have to follow. The Court ruled that the Attorney General did not have this power to take away the states' rights to decide this for themselves. Also, since he was not a medical expert, he should not be deciding what "legitimate medical practice" was.

paragraphs: Finally, the Court ruled that under the Controlled Substances Act, the Attorney General had a very small role. He did not have the power to cancel a state law. He also did not have the right to punish doctors like criminals for acting in ways that were legal in Oregon. The Attorney General did not have the power to take these rights from Oregon.

paragraphs: Their ruling in "Gonzales" showed the states that the Supreme Court would not stop them from making physician-assisted suicide legal. As of 2016, four more states have made physician-assisted suicide legal: Washington, Montana, Vermont, and California. Now physician-assisted suicide is legal in five states 10% of the states in the country. If the Supreme Court had made a different ruling in "Gonzales", this never would have been possible.

paragraphs: A different ruling in "Gonzales" would have also given the Attorney General much more power over the states and their doctors. It would have taken away the states' rights in some important areas. Instead, it ruled in favor of states' rights and the separation of powers between the states and the federal government.


title: László Sárosi (footballer)

paragraphs: László Sárosi (27 February 1932 – 2 April 2016) was a Hungarian footballer and coach. He played as a defender for Vasas and Hungary between the 1940s and 1960s. He was born in Budapest.

paragraphs: Sárosi died on 2 April 2016 in Budapest, aged 84.


title: Gallieno Ferri

paragraphs: Gallieno Ferri (21 March 1929 – 2 April 2016) was an Italian comic book artist and illustrator. In 1960, he met writer Sergio Bonelli. His partnership with Bonelli lead to the creation of the comic books "Zagor" and "Mister No". He was born in Genoa.

paragraphs: Ferri died on 2 April 2016 in Genoa, aged 87.


title: Colobus

paragraphs: Colobus are a genus of monkeys native to Africa. The word "colobus" comes from Greek κολοβός which means "docked". This refers to their thumbs, which are just stumps.

paragraphs: Colobus are herbivorous. They eat leaves, fruit, flowers, and twigs. Their habitats include primary and secondary forests, riverine forests, and wooded grasslands. Their ruminant-like digestive systems help them occupy niches which other primates do not live in.

paragraphs: Colobus live in territorial groups of about nine individuals, with a single male with a number of females and their offspring. Newborn colobus are completely white. Mothering is shared: other members of the troop the biological mother care for an infant.

paragraphs: Colobus are eaten regularly by the common chimpanzee. Jane Goodall discovered that chimps hunt and eat smaller primates such as "Colobus" monkeys. She watched a hunting group isolate a colobus high in a tree, block all possible exits, then a chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the colobus. The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours. The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as "one-third of the colobus population" in the park each year. This was a major scientific find which challenged previous conceptions of chimp diet and behavior.


title: Cave nebula

paragraphs: The Cave nebula is an emission nebula in the constellation of Cepheus. It is about 2,400 light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 7538

paragraphs: NGC 7538 is a diffuse nebula in the constellation of Cepheus. It is about 9,100 light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 6946

paragraphs: NGC 6946, also known as the Fireworks galaxy, Arp 29, and Caldwell 12, is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Cepheus and Cygnus. It is about 22.5 million light-years away from Earth. It was discovered by William Herschel in September 9, 1798. It's highly obscured by interestellar matter, and it's very close to the galactic plane. It has a third of the Milky Way’s size.

paragraphs: Fireworks Galaxy has this name because of how many supernovae happened in the galaxy. The supernovae in this galaxy occur very frequently. In the last century a total of 9 supernovae were seen from this galaxy: SN 1917a, SN 1939c, SN 1948b, SNSN 1968d, SN 1969p, SN 1980k, SN 2002hh, SN 2004et, SN2008s.


title: Convict lease

paragraphs: Convict leasing was a form of forced labor used by prisons in the Southern United States. ("Convict" is a rude word for "prisoner"; leasing is like renting something.) Under the system, prisons leased prisoners out as free workers to corporations, business owners, and plantation owners. Basically, the prisons were selling prisoners like slaves, except that they were not sold forever.

paragraphs: This system made a lot of money for prisons and the contractors. The contractors got workers who they did not have to pay, and who they could treat however they wanted. The prisons got payments from the contractors. Also, they no longer had to pay for food, clothing, or housing for the prisoners who they leased out; the contractors did.

paragraphs: In 1898, for example, about 73% of Alabama's entire yearly state revenue came from convict leasing. For this reason, convict leasing lasted almost 100 years in the South.

paragraphs: The state of Louisiana leased out convicts as early as 1844. However, convict leasing began to spread throughout the South during the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877). This was just after the end of the American Civil War, which ended slavery. With no more slaves to work for them, Southern farmers and businessmen needed to find new workers. Southern legislatures passed laws called Black Codes to keep blacks from moving freely and to force them to work for whites. As historian Douglas Blackmon explains:

paragraphs: At this time, the Southern states did not have much money, and they found that convict labor gave them a big source of revenue. Contractors also made money off the system because they did not have to pay the prisoners the wages they would have to pay to white workers. The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had made slavery illegal except as punishment for a crime. So the states passed laws that would make it easy to convict innocent black people of crimes. Once they were prisoners, they could be treated like slaves. The states basically used this process as a way to continue slavery in the South.

paragraphs: Northern states sometimes contracted for prison labor. However, in the South, the state gave complete control of prisoners to contractors.

paragraphs: Also, according to historian Matthew Mancini, the Southern convict labor system was "one of the harshest and most exploitative labor systems known in American history." 'If one [prisoner] dies, get another' was the attitude of many contractors, Mancini writes. He says this was caused by corruption, racism, racial violence, and the fact that contractors could do whatever they wanted without getting into trouble.

paragraphs: Prisoners were often treated very badly. Unlike during slavery, the contractors had not paid very much for the prisoners, and they would not have them forever. For these reasons, contractors had very little Prisoners could be beaten or whipped if their bosses did not think they were working hard enough. They were abused by guards. One source says: "Mines and plantations that used convict laborers commonly had secret graveyards containing the bodies of prisoners who had been beaten and/or tortured to death. Convicts would be made to fight each other, sometimes to the death, for the amusement of the guards and wardens."

paragraphs: Almost all of the prisoners who were leased out were African Americans, mostly adult males. This was because laws were enforced much more against black people, and blacks usually got much more severe sentences for "crimes" because of racism.

paragraphs: U.S. Steel is one of the American companies which have admitted using African-American leased convict labor.

paragraphs: Convict leasing was most common around 1880. It was formally outlawed by the last state (Alabama) in 1928. However, it continued in different forms until President Franklin D. Roosevelt made it illegal on December 12, 1941.

paragraphs: Here are some examples of different states' convict leasing systems.

paragraphs: Once they stopped using the convict labor system, many states switched to the trusty system. This was also a way to save money, but it caused abuses just like the convict labor system did. Finally, in a landmark case called "Gates v. Collier", 501 F.2d 1291 (5th Cir. 1974), a federal court forced the states using the trusty system to stop.

paragraphs: Scholar Randall Shelden argues that the convict lease system created an incentive to convict black people. Because the convict lease system brought in so much money, the states and counties had a reason to want to convict African-Americans. This is why the people in Southern prisons became mostly African-American after the Civil War, Sheldon writes. For example, in Louisiana's main prison in Nashville:

paragraphs: During the times when Southern states used the convict leasing system, their prison populations grew across the South. For example:


title: NGC 7090

paragraphs: NGC 7090 is a spiral galaxy in the Indus constellation. It is about 30 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 7049

paragraphs: NGC 7049 is an elliptical galaxy in the Indus constellation. It is about 101 million light-years away from Earth. A dust ring surrounds the galaxy, and can be observed in silhouette. The galaxy's center in enveloped in a polar gas cloud.


title: Tadpole galaxy

paragraphs: The Tadpole galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy in the Draco constellation. It is about 420 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 5907

paragraphs: NGC 5907 is a spiral galaxy in the Draco constellation. It is about 50 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 6503

paragraphs: NGC 6503 is a dwarf spiral galaxy in the Draco constellation. It is about 17 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 6543

paragraphs: NGC 6543 is a planetary nebula in the Draco constellation. It is about 3.3 thousand light-years away from Earth.


title: Pelican nebula

paragraphs: The Pelican nebula (also known as IC 5067 or IC 5070) is an H II region in the Cygnus constellation. It is about 1,800 light-years away from Earth.


title: North America nebula

paragraphs: The North America nebula (also known as NGC 7000 or Caldwell 20) is an emission nebula in the Cygnus constellation. It is about 1,600 light-years away from Earth.


title: Sneaker Pimps

paragraphs: The Sneaker Pimps are a British trip hop group. They formed in Hartlepool, England in 1994. They are best known for their songs "6 Underground" and "Spin Spin Sugar".

paragraphs: Their song, "6 Underground", went to #7 on "Billboard" Modern Rock Tracks chart.

paragraphs: The band's founding members were Liam Howe and Chris Corner. They then hired Kelli Dayton as a singer, and longtime friend Ian Pickering to write lyrics. Dayton was the original singer of the Sneaker Pimps.

paragraphs: After the first album, the band felt that demos for the 1999 album "Splinter" was better for the voice of Corner. Following the tour for their first album, "Becoming X", they kicked Dayton out of the group. Dayton later had a solo career under the name "Kelli Ali".

paragraphs: The Sneaker Pimps broke up in 2005. They got back together in 2015.


title: Louis Alexandre, Prince of Lamballe

paragraphs: Louis Alexandre de Bourbon (Louis Alexandre Joseph Stanislas; 6 September 1747 – 6 May 1768) was the son and heir of Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV by the king's legitimised son, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, Count of Toulouse. He was known as the "Prince of Lamballe" from birth. He died before his father, and did not have children.

paragraphs: "Louis Alexandre" was born on 6 September 1747, at the "Hôtel de Toulouse" in Paris. The prince de Lamballe, as he was known all his life, was the couple's only surviving son. He was one of seven children.

paragraphs: His father chose his bride, the Italian born Princess "Maria Luisa" Teresa of Savoy ""Mademoiselle de Carignan"". The wedding celebration lasted from 17 January 1767, until 27 January with feasts in Turin and Nangis. Prior to the wedding, His father had arranged the marriage to try and get his son to settle down as he was a well known womaniser. However after three months of happiness, Louis Alexandre soon tired of his young wife and resumed his life of "débaucherie". He eloped with "Mademoiselle de La Chassaigne", an opera dancer, five months into his marriage. At one point, Louis Alexandre even sold his wife's diamonds to raise money to pay his debts.

paragraphs: After a dissipated short life, Louis Alexandre died on 6 May 1768, sixteen months after his marriage, of a venereal disease at the Château de Louveciennes in the arms of his wife. He died without any children. His wife inherited part of his considerable fortune. He was eventually buried at the Royal Chapel, Dreux, France by his younger sister Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon.


title: Iran men's national volleyball team

paragraphs: The Iran men's national volleyball team is the national men's volleyball team of Iran. It is managed by the Islamic Republic of Iran Volleyball Federation (I.R.I.V.F.). It joins international volleyball competitions.

paragraphs: They are currently the strongest team in Asia. They won the 2011 and 2013 Asian Volleyball Championships. They rank 10th in the FIVB World Rankings (as of September 2014). The team's home venues are Azadi Indoor Stadium and Azadi Volleyball Hall.


title: Emil Keres

paragraphs: Emil Keres (9 July 1925 – 1 April 2016) was a Hungarian actor and theatre director. He started his career in 1950. He starred in over 100 stage productions. He also appeared in over ten movies, including "Twenty Hours" (1965). He was awarded the Kossuth Prize in 1965. He was born in Szombathely.

paragraphs: Keres died on 1 April 2016 at the age of 90.


title: IC 2118

paragraphs: IC 2118, also known as the Witch head nebula, is a reflection nebula in the constellation of Eridanus. It is about 900 light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 1300

paragraphs: NGC 1300 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation of Eridanus. It is about 61 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 6302

paragraphs: NGC 6302, also known as the bug nebula or the butterfly nebula, is a planetary nebula in the constellation of Scorpius. It is about 3.4 thousand light-years away from Earth.

paragraphs: The spectrum of NGC 6302 shows that its central star is one of the hottest stars in the galaxy. Its surface temperature is over 250,000 degrees Celsius. This means the star from which it formed must have been very large.

paragraphs: The central star, a white dwarf, was only recently discovered by the upgraded Wide Field Camera 3 on board the Hubble Space Telescope.

paragraphs: The star now has a mass of about 0.64 solar masses. It is surrounded by a dense disc of gas and dust. This dense disc may have caused the star's outflows to form a bipolar structure like an hour-glass. This bipolar structure shows many interesting features seen in planetary nebulae such as ionization walls, knots and sharp edges to the lobes.


title: Messier 7

paragraphs: Messier 7, also known as NGC 6475 or the Ptolemy cluster, is an open star cluster in the constellation of Scorpius. It is about 980 light-years away from Earth.


title: Lagoon Nebula

paragraphs: The Lagoon nebula, also known as Messier 8 and NGC 6523, is an emission nebula, H II region and interstellar cloud in the constellation of Sagittarius. It is about 4,100 light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 1672

paragraphs: NGC 1672 is a barred spiral galaxy in the Dorado constellation. It is about 60 million light-years away from Earth.


title: Owl nebula

paragraphs: The Owl nebula is a planetary nebula in the constellation of Ursa Major. It is about 2,300 light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 4102

paragraphs: NGC 4102 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Major. It is about 69 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 4605

paragraphs: NGC 4605 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Major. It is about 15 million light-years away from Earth.


title: Messier 74

paragraphs: Messier 74, also known as NGC 628 and Phantom Galaxy is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Pisces. It is about 32 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 488

paragraphs: NGC 488 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Pisces. It is about 90 million light years away from Earth. Its diametre isn't more than 171000 light years. This galaxy is considered a prototype galaxy with multiple arms. It has a group, the NGC 488 Group and it's the unique galaxy of the group that it's insolated.

paragraphs: It was discovered by William Herschel on 13 December 1784. In NGC 488 appeared 2 supernovae.


title: NGC 520

paragraphs: NGC 520 is a pair of colliding spiral galaxy in the constellation of Pisces. It is about 90 million light-years away from Earth.


title: NGC 3521

paragraphs: NGC 3521 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Leo. It is about 26 million light-years away from Earth.


title: Oregon Ballot Measure 16 (1994)

paragraphs: In 1994, the people of Oregon voted to approve Oregon Ballot Measure 16. This measure created the Oregon Death with Dignity Act (ORS 127.800-995). The Death with Dignity Act made physician-assisted suicide legal in some cases. This means that if a competent adult with a terminal illness wanted to, they could get a prescription from a doctor. They could then use that prescription to kill themselves.

paragraphs: The Death with Dignity Act made Oregon the first state in the United States to made physician-assisted suicide legal. The law survived many legal challenges. The Attorney General of the United States even tried to stop the law. However, in 2006, in a case called "Gonzales v. Oregon", the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Oregon could continue to use the Death with Dignity Act. Over the next ten years, four more states made physician-assisted suicide legal for terminally ill people.

paragraphs: Some states, like Oregon, allow citizens to vote on whether a law should be created. This is called a ballot measure. In 1994, Ballot Measure 16 was added to the voting ballot (the voting ticket) in the state of Oregon. The ballot measure asked if Oregon should pass a law that "Allows Terminally Ill Adults to Obtain Prescription for Lethal Drugs." The vote was close, but most voters said "yes":

paragraphs: Since the voters had approved the ballot measure, the Oregon Death with Dignity Act (DWDA) was created. However, the law did not go into effect until 1997. This was because a judge ordered an injunction a judge's order blocking the law from being used. Eventually, on October 27, 1997, the injunction was removed.

paragraphs: In November 1997, the Oregon state legislature put another ballot measure on the voting ticket. They did this after the Supreme Court decided "Washington v. Glucksberg". In that case, the Supreme Court ruled in support of laws against physician-assisted suicide. This new ballot measure asked the voters if the Death with Dignity Act should be repealed. 60% of the voters said "no"; they wanted the Death with Dignity Act to stay:

paragraphs: The Oregon Death with Dignity Act (DWDA) allows a terminally ill person to get a prescription from a doctor that they can use to end their life. (The DWDA specifically says that people who use the DWDA are not committing suicide.) However, there are many requirements. For example:

paragraphs: In 2001, Attorney General John Ashcroft decided to try to stop the DWDA. He threatened to use a federal anti-drug law to punish doctors who wrote prescriptions under the DWDA. He threatened to take away their prescription licenses and even charge them as criminals. The state of Oregon, joined by a doctor, a pharmacist, and terminally ill patients, sued to stop Ashcroft. The case went all the way to the Supreme Court. The Court ruled in favor of Oregon. The Death with Dignity Act could continue.

paragraphs: Between 1998 and the end of 2015, 1,545 people have gotten prescriptions through the Death with Dignity Act. Of these people, 991 have chosen to use the medicine to end their lives. The other 554 (36%, or almost 2 in every 5 patients) chose never to use their prescriptions.

paragraphs: Of the 991 people who died from taking DWDA medications:

paragraphs: Many of the 991 people who used their medications had the same worries about dying. The most common were:

paragraphs: The law says that a person has to wait at least 15 days between asking to use the DWDA and getting a prescription. However, some people waited up to 1009 days (over two and a half years} before using their prescriptions.

paragraphs: After the Supreme Court's decision in "Gonzales v. Oregon", other states realized they could also legalize assisted suicide without getting into trouble with the federal government. Since the Death with Dignity Act was decided in 2006, four other states have made physician-assisted suicide legal: Washington, Montana, Vermont, and California.


title: Nikolai Bayev

paragraphs: Nikolai Bayev (, "Nikoghayos Gevorkovich Bayev"; October 6, 1875 – August 5, 1949) was an Armenian architect, who worked in Baku and in the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic.

paragraphs: Baev was born in Astrakhan in 1875. He was a relative and childhood friend of Mariinsky Theatre singer Nadezhda Papayan. He studied in local gymnasium and then attended the Saint Petersburg Institute of Civil Engineering, from which he graduated in 1901. From 1911 to 1918 he worked as the main architect of Baku. During this period he constructed more than 100 buildings in Baku, including the Great Theatre of the Mailov Brothers (modern days Azerbaijan State Opera Theatre, 1911), Sabunchi Railway Station, a residential sector in the former Armenikend area of Baku, and other buildings.

paragraphs: In 1927 Bayev moved to Yerevan and from 1929 to 1930 worked as the head of "ArmSelStroy" (Armenian agency for rural construction), where he constructed about 200 buildings, among them Pioneer's Palace of Yerevan, State Bank of Armenian SSR, Ministry of Justice, Yerevan Mechanical factory, old hall of Sundukyan Theatre, "Ararat" trust buildings, etc. In 1945 he was awarded by the Honorary diploma of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR.

paragraphs: He was a member of Armenian Union of Architects (1942). Bayev's personal archive (1896-1949) is a part of Yerevan State Archive.


title: The Sundays

paragraphs: The Sundays were an English alternative rock band. They formed in the late 1980s. They released three albums in the 1990s.

paragraphs: The band started when Harriet Wheeler and guitarist David Gavurin met.

paragraphs: The Sundays got a record deal with the Rough Trade Records. Their first single, "Can't be Sure", was released in 1989. Their first album, "Reading, Writing and Arithmetic", was released in 1990. The album got very positive reviews. It entered the UK chart at #4. Later in 1990, the album peaked at #39 in the United States. Its success came mostly from radio stations playing "Here's Where the Story Ends".

paragraphs: In late October 1992, the next album, "Blind", was released. This album was also successful when it peaked at #103 on the "Billboard" 200. "Blind" sold half a million copies. The reviews were positive. Some critics thought the album didn't have the quality songwriting of the first album.

paragraphs: In autumn 1997, after five years, their third record, "Static & Silence", was released. It got mixed reviews. "Summertime", the first song on the album, was their most successful song the UK Charts up to that time.

paragraphs: The Sundays took a break after the album "Static & Silence".


title: Mitigating factor (United States)

paragraphs: When a person commits a capital crime, a mitigating factor is something that might help the person avoid getting the death penalty. ("To mitigate" means "to decrease." A "factor" is something that causes something else. So, in law, a mitigating factor is something that can cause punishment to decrease.)

paragraphs: Mitigating factors do not automatically result in decreased punishment. Judges and juries also think about aggravating factors things that are likely to cause a more severe punishment.

paragraphs: Also, mitigating factors are not an excuse for committing a crime. They may help explain what caused a person to commit a crime, but they do not mean the person did nothing wrong.

paragraphs: In the United States, mitigating factors are very important in death penalty cases. Mitigating factors can help prosecutors decide whether to ask for the death penalty. Also, the United States Supreme Court has ruled several times that judges and juries must think about mitigating factors before deciding on a sentence.

paragraphs: Since 1972, the Supreme Court has tried to make capital punishment in the United States fairer and more consistent. The Court has ruled that state laws cannot say a person "must" get the death penalty if they commit a certain crime, no matter what. To be fair, the Court ruled, each judge or jury has to think about whether an individual defendant deserves the death penalty. As Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun wrote in a 1994 case:

paragraphs: As part of this process, the judge or jury has to think about mitigating factors that might make a less severe punishment fit better.

paragraphs: In "Lockett v. Ohio", , the Court ruled that state laws may not limit what mitigating factors judges and juries can consider. The Court added that mitigating factors should include:

paragraphs: In other words, as legal scholar Jeffrey Kirchmeier explains:

paragraphs: Each state has its own death penalty law. Each law gives a list of capital crimes in the state; aggravating factors that can make person more likely to get the death penalty; and specific mitigating factors. However, the mitigating factors listed in each state law are only examples of possible mitigating factors. Even if a state does not list a certain thing as a mitigating factor, a defendant can still bring up that factor in court.

paragraphs: The United States' federal courts can try people for federal crimes and can sentence them to death. Federal law includes a death penalty law, 18 U.S. Code § 3592. It says that when deciding whether or not to give a defendant the death penalty, the judge or jury must "consider any factor, including these:

paragraphs: While each state law is a little different, most of them list the same mitigating factors as the federal law. Examples of other mitigating factors in some of the states' laws include:

paragraphs: Oklahoma's sentencing law, Code Section OUJI-CR 4-78, just says that mitigating factors are:


title: Alessandro Moreschi

paragraphs: Alessandro Moreschi (11 November 1858 – 21 April 1922) was a castrato singer of the late 19th century and the only castrato to make solo recordings.

paragraphs: All of Moreschi's recordings were made in Rome in two recording sessions for the Gramophone & Typewriter Company. The first series of recordings were made on 3 and 5 April 1902 by Will and Fred Gaisberg. Eighteen usable sides by the members of the Sistine Chapel Choir were made on wax. Four of them were solos by Moreschi.

paragraphs: Many years later Fred Gaisburg remembered making these historic first recordings in the Vatican: "Selecting a great salon with walls covered with Titians, Raphaels, and Tintorettos, we mounted our grimy machine right in the middle of the floor."

paragraphs: The second set of recordings was made in Rome in April 1904.

paragraphs: Alessandro was a member of the Sistine choir until Easter 1913. He then retired and got a pension after thirty years' service.

paragraphs: In retirement, Moreschi lived in his apartment, a few minutes' walk from the Vatican. He died there at sixty-three, possibly of pneumonia. His funeral mass was a large and public affair in the church of San Lorenzo in Damaso.


title: Saga

paragraphs: Sagas are stories mostly about ancient Nordic and Germanic life. Some are entirely invented, and some have an historical basis.

paragraphs: They tell about early Viking voyages, the battles that took place during the voyages, about migration to Iceland and of feuds between Icelandic families. They were written in the Old Norse language, mainly in Iceland.

paragraphs: The texts are tales in prose which share some similarities with the epic, often with stanzas or whole poems in alliterative verse embedded in the text, of heroic deeds of days long gone, "tales of worthy men," who were often Vikings, sometimes pagan, sometimes Christian. They are sometimes romanticised and fantastic, but always dealing with human beings one can understand.

paragraphs: The best sagas are recognised as fine literature. "Njál's Saga", or the "Saga of Burnt Njál", is one of the most famous.

paragraphs: In Old English (Anglo-Saxon), Beowulf is a saga written in England, and so is the later Gawain and the Green Knight, written in a West Midlands dialect. These are both works of the imagination, but Layamon's "Brut" (about 1200 AD) is based on English history since the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle".

paragraphs: "The Icelandic sagas are the backbone of all ... literature" from the Nordic countries, says Roy Jacobsen , a translator of Sagas of Icelanders, and author.


title: Institut aéronautique Jean Mermoz

paragraphs: The Institut aéronautique Jean Mermoz (IAJM) is a French airline pilot school created in 1957. It is in Rungis, Ile-de-France

paragraphs: The school is famous for its aviation books, published in French and also in English since 2016, thanks to a cooperation with the French Civil Aviation University.

paragraphs: The school is member of the International Association of Aviation Personnel Schools and is in partnership with the aerospace university IPSA to offer a double-degree MSc in aviation / airline pilot.


title: Rosendale Trestle

paragraphs: The Rosendale Trestle is a bridge in Ulster County, New York. It was completed in 1872. It also was a railroad. It is 940 feet.


title: Least squares

paragraphs: Least squares is the name of a procedure in mathematics, to construct a function from a number of observed values. The basic idea is to construct the function in such a way that the sum of the difference between the observed value and its data point is minimized. Since the difference may go in either direction, the value of the difference is squared, for each value.

paragraphs: Carl Friedrich Gauss said he developed the method in 1795. He used it to recover the lost asteroid 1 Ceres and published it in 1807. He used ideas from Pierre-Simon Laplace. Adrien-Marie Legendre developed the same method independently, in 1805.


title: Assistance of Counsel Clause

paragraphs: The Assistance of Counsel Clause is a part of the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution. It says: "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right...to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense." This means that anyone being accused of a crime has the right to have a lawyer help defend them. ("Counsel" is a legal word for "lawyer.")

paragraphs: Since the Constitution was written, many questions have come up about what exactly the Assistance of Counsel Clause means. The Supreme Court of the United States has made many decisions to answer these questions. The Court has decided that Americans have five different rights under the Assistance of Counsel Clause:

paragraphs: The Supreme Court case "Brewer v. Williams", , answered the question of when a person's right to a lawyer begins. In this decision, the Court said a person has the right to have a lawyer's help "at or after":

paragraphs: After any of these things happen, a person has the right to a lawyer whenever they are interrogated.

paragraphs: In the case "Escobedo v. Illinois", , the Court also decided that suspects have the right to a lawyer when they are being interrogated by the police, even if they have not been charged with a crime yet.

paragraphs: People who go in front of grand juries do not have the right to have a lawyer with them. This is because the Supreme Court does not think of grand juries as "criminal prosecutions." (A grand jury cannot find someone guilty of a crime or punish anyone; they can only decide that a person should be charged with a crime.)

paragraphs: Every defendant has the right to a lawyer without a conflict of interest. Here is an example of a conflict of interest: a lawyer is defending two different people. A client named Smith wants to blame his crime on another client named Jones. A lawyer is supposed to do what is best for their clients. Here, the lawyer cannot do that for both clients. If the lawyer blames Smith's crime on Jones in court, he is hurting Jones. If he does not blame the crime on Jones, he is refusing to defend Smith the way Smith wants. This is not fair to either client. Also, the lawyer cannot do the best possible job for both clients at the same time.

paragraphs: To make sure they get a fair trial, every defendant has the right to a lawyer without a conflict of interest. It does not matter whether the defendant is paying the lawyer, or the lawyer was assigned for free. If a lawyer has a conflict of interest, and it hurts their defense of their client, an appeals court will automatically cancel the defendant's conviction.

paragraphs: Defendants being charged with a crime have the right to be represented by the lawyer they want. However:

paragraphs: If a court violates a defendant's right to counsel of their choice, and the defendant appeals, the appeals court will automatically cancel the defendant's conviction.

paragraphs: Defendants have the right to have a lawyer assigned (appointed) to them for free, if:

paragraphs: The Supreme Court has ruled that Americans have the right to an effective lawyer. For example, if a defendant is charged with a crime, a court cannot appoint just any lawyer. The defendant must be given a lawyer who can try a criminal case, and can defend their client effectively.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court explained what "ineffective assistance of counsel" means in a case called "Strickland v. Washington" (1984). In this case, a defendant was convicted. He appealed, saying that his lawyer did not do a good enough job defending him. The Court ruled that he could only have a new trial if he proved:

paragraphs: If a defendant can prove these things to an appeals court, they have proved that their lawyer was ineffective (not effective). This means they have proved their Sixth Amendment rights were violated. They will then get a new trial with a different lawyer.

paragraphs: In most cases, a defendant being charged with a crime has the right to defend himself.. This is called "pro se" representation. It means the defendant has given up their right to have a lawyer. The defendant has decided to act as their own lawyer.

paragraphs: However, a court can rule that the defendant will not be able to give himself a good enough defense. If that happens, the court can rule that the defendant has to have a lawyer.

paragraphs: Americans do not have the right to defend themselves in appeals courts. In these courts, a defendant must have a lawyer.


title: Rights of Englishmen

paragraphs: The Rights of Englishmen is an assumed group of rights that had its roots in the basic rights granted in the Magna Carta. The idea reached its peak during the British settlement of North America. By this time colonial Englishmen felt they were entitled to certain additional rights and liberties. These were over and above those already granted them by the English Monarchy. One of these perceived rights was the idea of no taxation without representation. This was a grievance of British colonists who believed that they were not directly represented in the British Parliament. They believed that any laws it passed affecting the colonists (such as the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act) were illegal under the Bill of Rights 1689, and were a denial of their rights as Englishmen. This led to the American Revolution and is expressed in the Declaration of Independence as "certain unalienable rights". They stopped thinking of themselves as Englishman and became Americans.


title: Sodomy laws in the United States

paragraphs: Sodomy laws in the United States were laws that made certain kinds of sexual activity illegal. In the past, there were federal laws against sodomy. Every state also had a sodomy law, even in the 20th century.

paragraphs: Starting in the 1960s, some states began to repeal (throw out) their sodomy laws. In 2003, in a case called "Lawrence v. Texas", the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that sodomy laws were unconstitutional. This means no sodomy law in the United States can be used to charge a person with a crime.

paragraphs: Most sodomy laws in the United States made both oral sex and anal sex illegal. However, state laws did not agree on "who" could not do these things.

paragraphs: Every state law made sodomy between homosexual couples illegal. Other state laws also made sodomy illegal between heterosexual couples, if they were not married. The strictest laws made sodomy illegal in every case, even between married couples.

paragraphs: Some sodomy laws also included bestiality in their definition of "sodomy."

paragraphs: The first sodomy laws in America were created when America was still a colony of the British Empire. In the Jamestown colony (the first permanent settlement in America), sodomy could be punished by execution.

paragraphs: Sodomy could be punished by execution in many of the other American colonies as well. In cases of rape or statutory rape, the victim was often punished also. Sometimes the victim was executed along with their rapist.

paragraphs: Historians are not sure exactly how many people were executed for sodomy in colonial America:

paragraphs: By the time the Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791, every state in the new United States had laws that treated sodomy as a crime.

paragraphs: Before 1963, every state in the United States had laws against sodomy. The states did change these laws so that sodomy was no longer a capital crime. However, punishments could be as severe as life in prison.

paragraphs: Ethics scholar Richard Weinmeyer writes:

paragraphs: According to the Mattachine Society, one of the oldest gay rights groups in the United States, these were the punishments for breaking sodomy laws in 1964:

paragraphs: In the 1960s, attitudes toward sex became much more liberal in the United States. As this happened, some states began to repeal their sodomy laws. Illinois was the first state to do this, in 1963. In the 1960s and 1970s, seventeen other states repealed their sodomy laws. Another seven states changed their laws to say that sodomy between heterosexual couples was not a crime. These seven states kept laws that made sodomy between homosexual couples a misdemeanor.

paragraphs: However, some states refused to change their laws. In 1986, the United States Supreme Court ruled that sodomy laws were constitutional, and that states could continue to use them.

paragraphs: By 2003, thirty-one of the fifty states had repealed their laws against sodomy. Fifteen states had laws left that made sodomy a crime. Four more had laws that made sodomy between same-sex couples a crime.

paragraphs: In 2003, the United States Supreme Court made a landmark decision in "Lawrence v. Texas". It ruled that Texas's sodomy law was unconstitutional. This ruling meant that no sodomy law in the United States was constitutional or could be used to charge a person with a crime. In other words, it made sexual activity between homosexuals legal in every state in America.

paragraphs: At this time, nineteen states still had sodomy laws that they had not repealed.

paragraphs: As of 2019, a total of 15 states had not repealed their sodomy laws, even though they cannot be used any more because of "Lawrence v. Texas". Twelve of these state laws make both heterosexual and homosexual sodomy illegal:

paragraphs: Three more of these state laws ban homosexual sodomy specifically: Kansas, Kentucky, and Texas.

paragraphs: Since the ruling, 4 states have repealed their sodomy laws:


title: Gulf War oil spill

paragraphs: The Gulf War oil spill happened in January of 1991 during the Gulf War when Iraq troops were retreating from Kuwait. Shortly after Coalition forces (made up of 39 countries) started the air campaign against Iraq, Iraqi soldiers opened the valves at the Sea Island oil terminal. This released between five and ten million gallons of oil into the Persian Gulf—the largest oil spill in history. The spill was an environmental disaster. It destroyed the coastal habitats and marine wildlife in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.


title: Hadizatou Mani

paragraphs: Hadizatou Mani (born 1984) is a human rights activist from Niger. In 2009, Mani received an International Women of Courage Award.

paragraphs: In 1996, Mani was sold as a slave for $500. She was 12 years old.

paragraphs: In 2003, slavery became illegal in Niger. Mani’s master did not tell her. Later, he said Mani was his wife, not his slave.

paragraphs: Mani received her "certificate of liberation" in 2005, and she got married. Her old master took her to court for bigamy. She got a prison sentence of six months.

paragraphs: Mani took the case to court. She worked with Timidria, a local NGO, and Anti-Slavery International, a British NGO. he brought the case to the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). In 2008, ECOWAS said that Niger did not protect her rights. They said Niger had to pay her a fine of 10 million CFA francs.


title: CFA franc

paragraphs: The West African CFA franc is the currency of eight countries in West Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Sénégal and Togo. CFA means Communauté Financière d'Afrique ("Financial Community of Africa") or Communauté Financière Africaine ("African Financial Community").

paragraphs: The Central African CFA franc has the same value as the West African CFA franc.


title: Reem Al Numery

paragraphs: Reem Al Numery is a children's rights activist in Yemen. In 2009 she received the International Women of Courage Award.

paragraphs: When Al Numery was 12 years old, she had to marry her 30-year-old cousin. She protested the wedding, but her father gagged her and tied her up. After the wedding, she tried to kill herself twice.

paragraphs: Al Numery's father would not let her have a divorce. A judge said she was too young to decide, and she could decide when she was 15 years old. Al Numery went to live with her mother. Her lawyer said she would appeal. Reem's father said he would kidnap her but Al Numery wanted to go to school. She got her divorce in 2010


title: Veronika Marchenko

paragraphs: Veronika Marchenko is a Russian activist. In 2009 she received the International Women of Courage Award.

paragraphs: Marchenko started the “Mother’s Right” Foundation in 1990 to bring attention to the problem of hazing in the Soviet military. The organization helps families of soldiers who die in peacetime, and works against corruption. Many of the deaths are called suicides, so the families have trouble getting money after the death.

paragraphs: In 2007, lawyers from Mother’s Right helped 132 families go to court for survivor's benefits. They also helped 5,323 families of men who died.

paragraphs: The organization now helps 5000 people a year. They helped a total of 80,000 people.


title: Pancuronium bromide

paragraphs: Pancuronium bromide is a type of medication called a muscle relaxant. Its brand name is Pavulon. It is used in medicine for many different things. It is also used in euthanasia.

paragraphs: In the United States, pancuronium bromide is used in executions. It is one of three drugs that are given to prisoners being executed by lethal injection.

paragraphs: Normally, the brain sends chemical signals to the muscles to get them to work. Pancuronium bromide stops these signals from getting to the muscles. Without signals from the brain telling them to work, the muscles cannot move. Because of this, a person who is given enough pancuronium bromide will be completely paralyzed until the drug wears off. No muscle in their body will be able to move.

paragraphs: A dose of pancuronium bromide takes about 3-6 minutes to paralyze a person. The drug's effects last for about 100 minutes. A healthy adult usually needs 120 to 180 minutes to get most of their muscle movement back. There are antidotes to pancuronium bromide that will help reverse the drug's effects more quickly.

paragraphs: Pancuronium bromide paralyzes the breathing muscles along with all of the other muscles. This means that pancuronium bromide will stop a person from breathing. In hospitals, a person who is given pancuronium bromide is then a tube is put down their throat to pump oxygen into their lungs. This gives the body the oxygen it needs until the medication wears off, the breathing muscles can work again, and they can breathe in oxygen on their own.

paragraphs: Because the brain is not a muscle, pancuronium bromide does not paralyze the brain. This means that pancuronium bromide is not a sedative (it will not put a person to sleep), and it does not kill pain. If a person is given "only" pancuronium bromide, their brain will keep working normally even while their body is paralyzed. They will be awake and aware of what is going on, but unable to move.

paragraphs: Doctors use pancuronium bromide during surgery. It keeps the patient's body from moving, and makes it easier to put a breathing tube down their throat. It is always given along with anesthesia so the patient is asleep and does not feel pain.

paragraphs: Pancuronium bromide's most common side effects are:

paragraphs: In Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, euthanasia is legal. Doctors are allowed to give medicines to terminally ill people who want to end their lives. In these three countries, pancuronium bromide is one of the medicines that doctors often use for euthanasia. First they give a sedative so the person goes into a deep sleep. Then they give pancuronium bromide, which stops the person's breathing.

paragraphs: In the United States, people sentenced to death by lethal injection have usually been executed using three different medications. Pancuronium bromide is the second medication. First, a sedative called sodium thiopenthal puts the prisoner into a deep sleep. Second, pancuronium bromide is given to keep the prisoner from moving and to stop their breathing. Third, potassium chloride is given to stop the prisoner's heart.

paragraphs: The use of pancuronium bromide in lethal injections is controversial. Some doctors and scientists say that potassium chloride is "extremely painful." They say that if not enough of the sedative medicine was given, nobody would be able to tell if the prisoner was in pain, because they would be paralyzed.

paragraphs: However, other doctors say that if the three drugs are given correctly, lethal injection should not cause pain. Because doctors are supposed to "do no harm", many executions are now done by people who are not doctors. Supporters of lethal injection say that prisoners have pain when these people make mistakes, not because of the drugs themselves.


title: Foreign national

paragraphs: A foreign national is a person who is visiting or living in a country where they are not a citizen.

paragraphs: The European Union has a different definition of "foreign national." In the European Union, a person is only thought of as a foreign national if they are not a citizen of any country in the European Union. These people are called "third party nationals," not "foreign nationals."

paragraphs: The United States Department of Homeland Security says that a foreign national as a person "who is a citizen of any country other than the United States."

paragraphs: In other words, a foreign national is a person who:


title: Aérocentre

paragraphs: Aérocentre is a French group of aerospace engineering companies and research centres. It is in the region of Centre-Val de Loire in the middle of France.

paragraphs: There are over 321 companies. About 20.000 people work there in the aviation and space flight industries.

paragraphs: The headquarters of Aérocentre is in Châteauroux. The chairman of the group is Jean-Michel Sanchez.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

paragraphs: The 2014–15 La Liga season (known as the "Liga BBVA" for sponsorship reasons) was the 84th season of the premier association football league in Spain. The campaign began on 23 August 2014 and ended on 24 May 2015.

paragraphs: Barcelona won its 23rd title on 17 May 2015 after defeating defending champions Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón Stadium.


title: Constitutional convention (political meeting)

paragraphs: A constitutional convention is a convention where an organization's constitution can be created, revised, or amended. A general constitutional convention is called to create the first constitution of a political unit or to entirely replace an existing constitution. An unlimited constitutional convention is called to revise an existing constitution. A limited constitutional convention is restricted to revising only a limited area of the current constitution. However, such conventions may decide to go beyond their original authority. For example, the United States Constitutional Convention of 1787 was supposed to be limited to amending the Articles of Confederation. Instead, they wrote an entirely new constitution.

paragraphs: The United States Constitution is silent regarding rules of how a constitutional convention would operate. There are no standards for states calling for a convention. Even calls for a constitutional convention made 50 to 100 years ago on an entirely different topic might be counted towards the required 34 states needed to call a constitutional convention. Oklahoma, for example, called for a convention in 1976 but then rescinded it in 2009. They were concerned that such a convention might make unforeseen changes in any area of the Constitution. Those in favor of a constitutional convention may want to count Oklahoma's call for a convention anyway.

paragraphs: Article Five of the United States Constitution provides "two" ways that constitutional amendments can be proposed:

paragraphs: Either way that amendments are proposed, they must then be ratified. Article Five gives two choices for how an amendment can be ratified. Congress chooses which way to use.

paragraphs: Congress has only used the second option once: after it proposed the 21 Amendment. (This amendment cancelled the 18 Amendment, which made alcohol illegal in the United States. The 21 Amendment made alcohol legal again.) At the time, Congress thought that this would be the more democratic option.

paragraphs: An organized body (when an organization already has a constitution, officers and by-laws) will usually have appointed a committee on credentials and a committee on program before the convention begins. The committee on credentials (also called registration) checks the identity of delegates and gives each one a name badge or card as evidence they belong there. A program committee should have copies of the program available to all delegates before the convention begins. Other committees may be appointed as necessary.


title: Convention (meeting)

paragraphs: A convention is a meeting of individuals who meet at an arranged place and time to discuss or engage in some common interest. The most common conventions are based upon industry, profession, and fandom. Trade conventions are usually about an industry or industry segment. They often include keynote speakers, vendor displays, and other information and activities of interest to the event organizers and those who attend the convention. Professional conventions focus on issues of concern to the profession. Fan conventions usually feature displays, shows, and sales based on pop culture and guest celebrities. Science fiction conventions are similar to both professional conventions and fan conventions. Conventions also exist for various hobbies, such as gaming or model railroads.


title: Ella Mitchell

paragraphs: Ella Mitchell (born August 15, 1937) is an American actress and comedienne, best known for portraying Big Momma in "Big Momma's House".


title: HMS Birkenhead

paragraphs: The HMS "Birkenhead" was a British troopship that sank on 25 February 1852 near Cape Town, South Africa. It was one of the first iron-hulled ships built for the Royal Navy. She was designed as a steam-powered frigate, but was converted to a troopship before being commissioned.

paragraphs: Many of the lifeboats could not be lowered because of poor maintenance and a thick layer of paint that kept the mechanisms from working. The soldiers famously stood aside and allowed the women and children to get into the working lifeboats safely. Only 193 of the 643 people on board survived. The chivalry shown by the soldiers gave rise to the "women and children first" protocol when abandoning ship. The "Birkenhead drill" is memorialized in Rudyard Kipling's poem "Soldier an' Sailor too":

paragraphs: The Birkenhead steamed out of Simon's Bay near Cape Town, South Africa on February 25, 1852 bound for Port Elizabeth, South Africa. The ship had been built by the famous Scottish John Laird family of Birkenhead, Merseyside, England. She was a 1400-ton ship that was just over 200 feet long. On board were 643 men, women and children as well as several officer's horses. Among the passengers were soldiers destined for the Queen's (second) Royal Regiment of Foot. They were commanded by Ensign Boylan, one corporal and 51 men.

paragraphs: The ship's captain, Robert Salmond, wanted to make the trip quickly so he hugged the South African coast staying about 3 miles (4.8 km) off the shore. That evening, everyone was resting in their hammocks below decks when the ship hit a hidden reef off a point now called "Point Danger". The impact ripped the ship open allowing the sea to pour in. The forward watertight compartment flooded immediately, drowning about 100 men in their hammocks. A second impact tore open the second of the two watertight compartments flooding it. The remaining officers and men assembled on the deck. Because the winches were not well maintained and clogged with paint, the two large lifeboats that could hold 150 people each could not be launched. The ship fired distress rockets but there were no other ships nearby. Two cutters and one gig (small boat) were launched. The order was given for the men to "stand fast" (remain where they were) allowing the women and children into the few boats available. The horses were freed so they could swim the approximately two miles (3.2 km) to shore. Twenty minutes after hitting the rock the ship broke up and sank. A few managed to swim to shore while most either drowned or were taken by sharks.

paragraphs: The schooner "Lioness" discovered one of the cutters the next morning and made it to the scene where they rescued as many people as they could. It was reported in The Times newspaper that there were 643 people on board the Birkenhead, but this was an estimate as the records were lost with the ship. The survivors included about 113 Army personnel of all ranks, 6 Royal Marines, 54 sailors, 7 women and 13 children. Eight horses made it to shore (a ninth broke its leg getting off the ship). The disaster was the start of the standard protocol of women and children first. The "Birkenhead Drill" became the best example of courage in the face of death.

paragraphs: A lighthouse was built at Danger Point in 1895 to warn ships of the dangerous reef. It is about 59 feet (18 metres) tall and can be seen for about 25 nautical miles out to sea. A memorial to the Birkenhead disaster is at the base and points to the rock where the ship sank.


Constitutional Convention


title: Petra Herrera

paragraphs: Colonel Petra Herrera, also known as "Pedro Herrera", was a Mexican "soldadera". She fought as a revolutionary in the Mexican Revolution.

paragraphs: Petra Herrera changed herself into "Pedro" Herrera and joined the revolutionary troops of Pancho Villa. She changed her looks and became more masculine. She invented tricks like saying she shaved at dawn before the other soldiers were awake. She was known for her courage, and for her specialty of blowing up bridges.

paragraphs: As "Pedro" Herrera, she was well-liked. She was accepted as a leader. She decided to reveal that she was a woman, but the revolutionary leaders would not give her a military rank.

paragraphs: Herrera decided to leave Pancho Villa's group. She created a group of women who, like her, wanted to fight at the front. Sources say there were tens of thousands of them.

paragraphs: Herrera was in the biggest fight of the war to that date, the second battle of Torreón in 1914. With 400 other women, she took the city on May 30, 1914. Cosme Mendoza Chavira, another follower of Villa, said ""Ella fue quien tomo Torreón y apago las luces cuando entraron en la ciudad"" (She was the one who took Torreón and turned out the lights when they entered the city.") Conventional history does not say anything about the participation of Petra Herrera. Villa gave the role of Petra Herrera in the revolution to an unknown woman.

paragraphs: At the end of the fighting, she asked to be a general and to continue to fight, but they only gave her a promotion to colonel. Later, the women under her command were disbanded. It is not clear how Herrera died. Some say she finished her military days as a spy. They say she was attacked by bandits and died from the wounds. Others say she died in the cross fire between the federal soldiers and the revolutionaries in Zacatecas. Others say she formed her own brigade of 25,000 women and lived in a camp where men could not enter without being attacked. Still others say she ended her existence as a waitress in the city of Juarez in Chihuahua.


title: 2014–15 La Liga - Results of first round

paragraphs: This is the Results of the first round of 2014–15 La Liga.


title: Bothriolepis

paragraphs: Bothriolepis is a genus of antiarch placoderms. It was widespread and diverse in the middle to late Devonian.

paragraphs: "Bothriolepis" lived in environments across every continent including near-shore marine and freshwater settings. Most species of "Bothriolepis" were small, benthic, freshwater detritivores. They got nutrients by eating decomposing plant/animal material. They were about in length. However, the largest species, "B. maxima", had a carapace about in length.

paragraphs: Over 70 species are found across the world, but this is also typical of modern bottom dwelling species around today.


title: Arthrodire

paragraphs: The Arthrodires (Arthrodira) are an order of extinct armoured, jawed fishes of the class Placodermi. They flourished in the Devonian period before their sudden extinction, surviving for about 50 million years and living in most marine ecological niches.

paragraphs: Greek for "jointed neck", the arthrodires had movable joints between armour plates surrounding the head and body. The mouth is interesting. As the lower jaw moved down, the head shield moved, allowing a large opening. Lacking distinct teeth, like all placoderms, they used the sharpened edges of a bony plate as a biting surface. The eye sockets are protected by a bony ring, a feature shared by birds and some ichthyosaurs.

paragraphs: Early arthrodires, such as the genus "Arctolepis", were well-armoured fishes with flattened bodies. The largest member of this group, "Dunkleosteus", was a true superpredator of the latest Devonian period, from 3 to 9 m in length. In contrast, the long-nosed "Rolfosteus" measured just 15 cm.

paragraphs: A common misconception is the arthrodires were sluggish bottom-dwellers that were outcompeted by more advanced fish. But during their reign, the arthrodires were one of the most diverse and numerically successful vertebrate orders of the Devonian. They occupied a vast spectrum of roles from apex predator to detritus-nibbling bottom dweller. The arthrodires were one of many groups eliminated by the mass extinctions of the late Devonian. This let other fish such as sharks diversify into the vacant ecological niches during the Carboniferous period.


title: Captain Forever

paragraphs: Captain Forever is the name for several space shooter indie games created by Jarred "Farbs" Woods. There are six total versions of the games in the series.

paragraphs: In "Captain Forever," the player is the pilot of a ship that can be expanded or upgraded using parts (such as blasters or boosters) found from other defeated ships. The goal is to stay alive for as long as possible. The game advances by defeating ships of progressive difficulty (represented by color) You lose the game after the pilot is destroyed.

paragraphs: "Captain Successor" was released in 2009, and included new parts.

paragraphs: "Captain Impostor" was released in 2010 for supporters of the game, and included some updates

paragraphs: "Captain Jameson" was a new project, but scrapped in 2013. This served as the framework for the next game, "Dawn Star."

paragraphs: "Dawn Star" updated the game with new aesthetics and mechanics. Originally called "Captain Jameson Reboot."

paragraphs: "Captain Forever Remix" was released in 2015 by Jarred "Farbs" Woods with Dean Tate and Brian Chan, working with Pixelsaurus games. "Captain Forever Remix" added many new parts to the ship, and, allowed for parts to be unlocked, and a series of definitive levels (represented by planets in the solar system). The game also styles the pilot as a young girl imagining the game, playing against her brother, the antagonist of the game. Progression through the planets is achieved by destroying ships of a certain level.

paragraphs: "Captain Forever" won the Best Game award at China's first Independent Games Festival in 2009.


title: Battle of the Atlantic

paragraphs: The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign in World War II to defeat the Germans in 1945. The British Royal Navy repeated the blockade of Germany of World War I, and Germany repeated its attempt to blockade Britain by using U-boats.


title: Paris Square (Jerusalem)

paragraphs: Paris Square (, "Kikar Pariz", also called: France Square = "Kikar Tzarfat)" is a square or plaza in Jerusalem. The name "France Square" was established in 1959. In 2007 the city of Paris gave Jerusalem a "French Fountain" that was built in the middle of the square. From that time the square has been called: "Paris Square".


title: Moscow Square (Jerusalem)

paragraphs: Moscow Square (, "Kikar Moskva," ) is a public square in Jerusalem, Israel. The square was dedicated in 2007 during the visit of the mayor of Moscow Yury Luzhkov in Israel. The square is the center of the Russian Compound next to the Russian church.


title: Rome Square (Jerusalem)

paragraphs: Rome Square (, "Kikar Roma", ) is a public square in Jerusalem, Israel. The square was dedicated in 2009 during the visit of the mayor of Rome Gianni Alemanno. The square in located next to the Italian Jews Museum and the Italian Synagogue in Jerusalem.


title: Võ Thị Sáu

paragraphs: Võ Thị Sáu (Đất Đỏ, 1933 – March 13, 1952) was a Vietnamese hero. She was a schoolgirl who fought against the French. (Vietnam was a French colony until 1954.) She was a guerilla fighter.

paragraphs: She was born Phước Thọ Commune, Đất Đỏ District in 1933. In 1948, she started helping the Viet Minh. Many of her friends and family were part of the Viet Minh. She was a contact for the guerillas and passed information to the fighters.

paragraphs: When she was 14, she attacked some French soldiers. She threw a grenade at them. A Captain was killed. Twelve soldiers were hurt. She was not caught.

paragraphs: In 1949, she made another attack. She threw a grenade at a man who was in charge of executions (a canton chief.) The attack did not work: the grenade didn't explode. The French police caught her after the attack. She was sent to prison.

paragraphs: Sáu went to three different prisons. The last prison she went to was Côn Sơn Prison in the Côn Đảo Islands. She was executed (killed) on 13 March 1952. She was 19 years old.

paragraphs: Today, she is considered a martyr. She is buried in Hàng Dương Cemetery on Côn Sơn Island. Many Vietnamese people come to worship at her grave.


title: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

paragraphs: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) is a condition where a person feels unwell, which people who have it believe it to be due to being near electromagnetic fields. Other names for it include electrohypersensitivity, electro-sensitivity, and electrical sensitivity (ES). Wi-Fi allergy is a form of EHS.

paragraphs: According to the World Health Organization, EHS is described by vague symptoms that are different in each person. The symptoms are real and can be weak or strong and can make some disabled. There is no specific list of features to diagnose someone, and there is no scientific link between electromagnetic fields and how people feel. EHS is not a medical diagnosis. People who claim to have EHS blame it for headaches, fatigue, stress, sleep disturbances, skin symptoms like prickling, burning sensations and rashes, pain and ache in muscles and many other health problems. Although electromagnetic fields can make the body hot, people who say they have EHS say they feel sick at very low levels.

paragraphs: Most experiments show that people who claim to have EHS can't correctly tell if they are near EM radiation or not, and the medical and scientific communities don't think its a real illness. Several double-blind experiments suggest that people who say they have EHS can't detect if electromagnetic fields are present, and are just as likely to report feeling sick after a phony exposure as they are after real exposure, making scientists think it is the nocebo effect.

paragraphs: In the TV show "Better Call Saul", Jimmy McGill's brother Chuck stays at home and believes he suffers from electromagnetic hypersensitivity.


title: Better Call Saul

paragraphs: Better Call Saul is an American television series created by Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould. It is a spin-off another show, "Breaking Bad", "Better Call Saul" is set in 2002 and follows the story of a lawyer "Jimmy" McGill (Bob Odenkirk), six years before he appeared on "Breaking Bad".

paragraphs: The first season consists of 10 episodes. The show's 10-episode second season premiered on February 15, 2016. On March 15, 2016, the series was renewed for a 10-episode third season.

paragraphs: Like the show that came before it, "Better Call Saul" has been praised by critics. It has been nominated for several awards, including four Primetime Emmy Awards, three Writers Guild of America Awards, two Critics' Choice Television Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Golden Globe Award. The first episode held the record for the highest-rated scripted series premiere in basic cable history.