title: Jackie Robinson

paragraphs: Jack Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was the first African-American Major League Baseball (MLB) player of modern times. Robinson broke the baseball color barrier when he debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947. He was the first black man to openly play in the major leagues since the 1880s. He had a big role in bringing an end to racial segregation in professional baseball. Up to that point, African-Americans could only play in Negro leagues for six decades. His character and skills challenged the usual basis of segregation. At the time, this basis was part of many other pieces of American life. Robinson and his abilities contributed a lot to the civil rights movement.

paragraphs: Apart from his cultural impact, Robinson had an overall good baseball career. Over ten seasons, he played in six World Series and helped in the Dodgers' 1955 World Championship. He was selected for six consecutive All-Star Games from 1949 to 1954. Robinson received the first MLB Rookie of the Year Award in 1947. He also won the National League Most Valuable Player Award in 1949. He was the first black player to win this award. Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962. In 1997, Major League Baseball retired his uniform number, 42, across all major league teams.

paragraphs: Robinson was also known for his activities outside of baseball. He was the first African-American television analyst in Major League Baseball. He was also the first African-American vice-president of a major American company. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned/controlled financial business based in Harlem, New York. In honor of his achievements on and off the field, Robinson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal after his death.

paragraphs: Robinson was born on January 31, 1919. His family were sharecroppers in Cairo, Georgia. He was born during a Spanish flu and smallpox epidemic. He was the youngest of five children, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed "Mack"), and Willa Mae. His middle name was in honor of former President Theodore Roosevelt, who died twenty-five days before Robinson was born. After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved to Pasadena, California. The Robinson family lived on a plot with two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked different odd jobs to support the family. Robinson grew up somewhat poor in a fairly rich community. Because of this, Robinson and his minority friends were left out of many sports activities. As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang. However, his friend Carl Anderson made him leave it.

paragraphs: In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School. He then entered Muir Tech (now called John Muir High School). Seeing that Robinson was good at sports, his older brothers Mack (himself a good athlete and silver medal winner at the 1936 Summer Olympics) and Frank inspired Jackie to follow his interest in sports. At Muir Tech, Robinson played several sports at the varsity level. Robinson lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track, and baseball. He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, quarterback on the football team, and guard on the basketball team. With the track and field team, he won awards in the broad jump. He was also part of the tennis team.

paragraphs: In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the yearly Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament. He also won a place on the Pomona baseball tournament all-star team. That team included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon. In late January 1937, the "Pasadena Star-News" newspaper wrote that Robinson "for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball and tennis."

paragraphs: After Muir, Robinson went to Pasadena Junior College (PJC). There he continued his sports career by playing basketball, football, baseball, and track. Jackie Robinson was one of the best athletes at Pasadena Junior College. On the football team, he played quarterback and safety. He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team. He broke school broad jump records held by his brother, Mack. As at Muir Hugh School, most of Jackie's teammates were white. While playing football at PJC, Robinson fractured his ankle. Issues from this would later delay his deployment status while in the military. Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers. They were a student-run police group who patrolled various school activities. In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball. He was also selected as the region's Most Valuable Player. That year, Robinson was one of ten students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger ("Omicron Mu Delta"). This was awarded to students performing "outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition."

paragraphs: An event at PJC shown Robinson's impatience with people he felt were racist. This character trait that would come up several times in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after he argued against his black friend being taken away by police. Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence. The incident – along with other possible run-ins between Robinson and police – gave Robinson a reputation for getting upset in the face of racial problems. Toward the end of his PJC career, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family.

paragraphs: After graduating from PJC in spring 1939, Robinson transferred to UCLA. There he became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track. He was one of four African-Americans on the 1939 UCLA Bruins football team. The others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players. This made UCLA college football's most integrated team. Even though it would be his future career, baseball was Robinson's "worst sport" at UCLA. He hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twice stole home.

paragraphs: While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum. She was a UCLA freshman who knew Robinson's sports career at PJC. In the spring semester of 1941, against his mother's and Isum's doubts, Robinson left college before graduation. He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government's National Youth Administration (NYA) in Atascadero, California.

paragraphs: After the government stopping running the NYA, Robinson traveled to Honolulu in fall 1941 to play football. He played for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu Bears. After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941. There he tried for a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League. By that time, however, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place. The attack made the United States enter World War II. This ended Robinson's football career.

paragraphs: In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit in Fort Riley, Kansas. Having the necessary requirements, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for entrance to an Officer Candidate School (OCS) then located at Fort Riley. Although Army policy had allowed black applicants to enter OCS since July 1941, the applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months. After protests by boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War), the men were accepted into OCS. This shared military experience created a friendship between Robinson and Louis. Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943. Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were engaged.

paragraphs: After receiving his commission, Robinson was moved to Fort Hood, Texas. There he joined the 761st "Black Panthers" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (now Huston-Tillotson University) in nearby Austin, Texas. Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC.

paragraphs: An event in July 1944 stopped Robinson's military career. While waiting for results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson got on an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife. Although the Army had its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus. Robinson refused. The driver backed down. However, after reaching the end of the line, he got the military police, who took Robinson into custody. Robinson later talked to the duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant. The officer then recommended Robinson be court-martialed. After Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to allow this legal action, Robinson was moved to the 758th Battalion. The commander there quickly allowed Robinson to be charged with several offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness – even though Robinson did not drink.

paragraphs: By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination (going against someone in charge of him) during questioning. Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers. Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial stopped him from going with them. He never saw fighting action in the war. After his acquittal, he was moved to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky. There he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944. While there, Robinson met an ex-player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League. The player encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout. Robinson took the ex-player's advice and wrote Monarchs' co-owner Thomas Baird.

paragraphs: After he left the army, Robinson returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs for a short time. Robinson then took an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Sam Huston College in Austin. The school was part of the Southwestern Athletic Conference at the time. The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season. As a starting program, few students tried out for the basketball team. Robinson even had to play in some of the practice games. Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a coach who made his players work really hard. He received the respect of, among others, Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes, a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters.

paragraphs: In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues. Robinson accepted a contract for $400 ($ in 2021 dollars) per month. This was a big deal for him at the time. He played well for the Monarchs, but Robinson was upset with the experience. He had grown used to having a structure while playing in college. The Negro leagues' lack of organization and acceptance of gambling interests bothered him. The travel schedule also placed stress on his relationship with Isum. The two could now communicate only by letter. In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs. He hit .387 with five home runs and had 13 stolen bases. He also played in the 1945 Negro League All-Star Game (where he had no hits in five at-bats).

paragraphs: During the season, Robinson tried for a possible major league interest. The Boston Red Sox held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16, 1945. The tryout, however, was an act held mostly to make powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore Muchnick happy. Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial comments. Robinson left the tryout humiliated. More than fourteen years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the last major league team to integrate its roster.

paragraphs: Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey, club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of African-American players. He interviewed Robinson for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals. Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual hire could put up with the racial abuse that he would receive. In a famous three-hour discussion on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial hatred without reacting angrily. This was a worry because of Robinson's past arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military. Robinson was shocked: "Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?" Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player "with guts enough not to fight back." After receiving a vow from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to racial taunts, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month.

paragraphs: He made Robinson keep the agreement a secret for the time being. Rickey committed to officially signing Robinson before November 1, 1945. On October 23, it was announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season. On the same day, with officials of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson signed his contract with the Royals. In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment", Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s. Robinson was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues. Black players Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first.

paragraphs: Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave the Monarchs and their long bus rides behind. He went home to Pasadena.

paragraphs: That September, he signed with Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals. This was a post-season barnstorming team in the California Winter League. Later that off-season, he toured South America with another team. His fiancée Isum worked as a nurse in New York City while he was away. On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, Rev. Karl Downs.

paragraphs: In 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida, for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League. Robinson's being there upset people in racially sensitive Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his teammates at the team hotel. Instead he lived at the home of a local black politician. Since the Dodgers team did not own a spring training complex, the schedule was controlled by the towns in the area. Some of these towns did not allow any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers in January. In Sanford, Florida, the police chief said he would cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not stop training there. Because of this, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach. In Jacksonville, the stadium was locked without warning on game day. This was ordered by the city's Parks and Public Property director. In DeLand, a day game was canceled, supposedly because of bad electrical lighting.

paragraphs: After a lot of talking to local officials by Rickey, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach. Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946. It was an exhibition game against the Dodgers. With the game Robinson became the first African-American to openly play for a minor league team and against a major league team since the baseball color line had been put in place in the 1880s. Later in spring training, after some somewhat poor performances, Robinson was moved from shortstop to second base. This allowed him to make shorter throws to first base. Robinson's performance soon improved. On April 18, 1946, Roosevelt Stadium hosted the Jersey City Giants' season opener against the Montreal Royals. This game was the first professional game for the Royals' Jackie Robinson. In his five trips to the plate, Robinson had four hits, including a three-run home run. He also scored four runs, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 win. Robinson went on to lead the International League that season with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage. He was named the league's Most Valuable Player. Although he often faced hatred while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern tour, for example), the Montreal fans supported Robinson. Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's being on the field helped attendance. More than one million people went to games that Robinson played in 1946. The number was an amazing amount for the International League. In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the Los Angeles Red Devils.

paragraphs: The following year, six days before the start of the 1947 season, the Dodgers brought Robinson up to the major leagues. Eddie Stanky was playing second base for the Dodgers. So Robinson played his first major league season as a first baseman. On April 15, 1947, Robinson played his first major league game at Ebbets Field in front of a crowd of 26,623 spectators. More than 14,000 black fans attended the game. He did not get a base hit, but the Dodgers won 5–3. Robinson became the first player since the 1880s to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began coming to see the Dodgers when they came to town, ignoring their Negro league teams.

paragraphs: Robinson's rise to the major leagues met a generally positive, although mixed, reception from newspapers and white major league players. However, there was racial tension in the Dodger clubhouse. Some Dodger players implied they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The possible problem ended when Dodgers bosses defended Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher told the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded."

paragraphs: Robinson was also taunted by opposing teams. Some, notably the St. Louis Cardinals, said they would strike if Robinson played. National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler said that any striking players would be suspended. Robinson became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). Once he received a seven-inch cut in his leg. On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players called Robinson a "nigger" from their dugout. They yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields". Rickey later recalled that Phillies manager Ben Chapman "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men."

paragraphs: Robinson received major support from several major league players. Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them." In 1948, Reese put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Cincinnati. A statue by artist William Behrends, first displayed at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, shows this event by representing Reese with his arm around Robinson. Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with racial slurs during his career, also encouraged Robinson. After colliding with Robinson at first base on one occasion, Greenberg whispered a few words into Robinson's ear. Robinson later said they were "words of encouragement." Greenberg had told him that the best way to go against the slurs from the opposing players was to beat them on the field.

paragraphs: Robinson finished the season with 12 home runs, a league-leading 29 steals, a .297 batting average, a .427 slugging percentage, and 125 runs scored. His performance earned him the first Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).

paragraphs: After Stanky was traded to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base. There he had a .980 fielding percentage for year (second in the National League at the position behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season. In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, , he hit for the cycle – a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game. The Dodgers moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948 for a short time, but they finished third at the end of the season. The Braves went on to win the league title and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series.

paragraphs: Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 as a number of other black players entered the major leagues. Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians. The Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract with the Dodgers. While a big amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season. He had a vaudeville tour where he answered pre-set baseball questions, and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he had surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off-season events, Robinson went to training camp thirty pounds overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak while hitting.

paragraphs: In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. On Sisler's advice, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to look for a fastball. His theory was that it is easier to then adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that "Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second". The teaching helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949. In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and had 124 runs batted in with 122 runs scored. For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player award for the National League. Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Game. This was the first All-Star Game to include black players.

paragraphs: That year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?", reached number 13 on the charts. Count Basie recorded a famous version. That year, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series.

paragraphs: Summer 1949 had a distraction that Robinson did not want. In July, he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) about things said in April by African-American athlete and actor Paul Robeson. Robinson did not want to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so. He was afraid it might affect his career if he did not testify.

paragraphs: In 1950, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133. His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($ in 2021 dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases. The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life, "The Jackie Robinson Story". Robinson played himself in the movie and actress Ruby Dee played Rachael "Rae" (Isum) Robinson. The project had been delayed when the film's producers did not listen to the demands of two Hollywood studios. The studios wanted the movie to scenes of Robinson being taught how to play baseball by a white man. "The New York Times" wrote that Robinson, "doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star."

paragraphs: Robinson's Hollywood acting, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley. He called Robinson "Rickey's prima donna". In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Bothered by a lot of disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team. This left O'Malley in full control of the team. Rickey then became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure. In it he said, "Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it."

paragraphs: Before the 1951 season, O'Malley offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals starting at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in the "Montreal Standard" as saying, "Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post." But, reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.

paragraphs: During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137. He also kept the Dodgers close to the lead for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game, and then won the game with a home run in the 14th. This forced a playoff against the New York Giants, which the Dodgers lost.

paragraphs: Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run, known as the Shot Heard 'Round the World, on October 3, 1951. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was." He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases.

paragraphs: Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952. He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career-high on-base percentage of .436. The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. That year, on the television show "Youth Wants to Know," Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager, George Weiss, on the racial record of his team. The Yankees had yet to sign a black player. Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson called a "bigot", said, "If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness." The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of coaching a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by coaching in the Puerto Rican Winter League. But, according to the "New York Post", Commissioner Happy Chandler did not allow the request.

paragraphs: In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals. He led the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). Robinson's continued success led to a string of death threats. He was not stopped, however, from talking about racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for "Our Sports" magazine. This was a magazine that focused on Negro sports issues. Contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend Joe Louis. Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization. A number of these places integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.

paragraphs: In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles. The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers beat the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series. Although the team enjoyed success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman. They did this because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base. Robinson, then 37 years old, missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series. Robinson missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. That season, the Dodgers' Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year.

paragraphs: In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals. By then, he had begun to show the effects of diabetes. He also lost interest in playing or managing professional baseball. After the season, Robinson was traded by the Dodgers to the arch-rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash. The trade, however, was never completed. Unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company. Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to "Look" magazine two years before. His retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization.

paragraphs: Robinson's major league debut brought an end to almost sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as the baseball color line. After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks. This included more African-Americans moving to the North, where their political influence grew. President Harry Truman's desegregation of the military occurred in 1948. Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these bigger changes and showed that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter. Martin Luther King, Jr. said that he was "a legend and a symbol in his own time", and that he "challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration." According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's "efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... [His] accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities."

paragraphs: Beginning his major league career at the somewhat older age of twenty-eight, he played only ten seasons. All of his career was for the Brooklyn Dodgers. During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games. In 1999, he was named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team after his death.

paragraphs: Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–"long ball" era in baseball, in which a need for power-hitting was replaced with balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through baserunning. Robinson showed both hitting ability and speed which was part of the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and had more walks than strikeouts (740 to 291). Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to have at least 125 steals while having a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñoso was the other). He had 197 stolen bases in total, including 19 steals of home. None of the steals of home were double steals (in which a player stealing home is helped by a player stealing another base at the same time). Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as "the father of modern base-stealing."

paragraphs: Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at almost every position he played. After playing his rookie season at first base, Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman. He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951. Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield and did well at both.

paragraphs: Robinson said about himself, "I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being." Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, "Ya want a guy that comes to play. This guy didn't just come to play. He come to beat ya. He come to stuff the goddamn bat right up your ass."

paragraphs: Robinson retired from baseball on January 5, 1957. Later that year, after he complained about a lot of physical problems, his doctors diagnosed Robinson with diabetes. This disease had also affected his brothers. Robinson started an insulin injection schedule. However, the quality of medicine at the time could not stop his body from falling apart because of the disease.

paragraphs: In the first year he was able to be elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962, Robinson ask voters to think of only his on-field statistics and abilities. He did not want them to think of his cultural impact on the game. He was elected on the first ballot, becoming the first African-American inducted into the Cooperstown museum.

paragraphs: In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC's "Major League Baseball Game of the Week" telecasts. He was the first black person to do so. On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number, 42, along with those of Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32). From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o'Nuts. He was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American company. Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of African-Americans in business. Robinson also chaired the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People's (NAACP) million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957. He served on the organization's board until 1967. In 1964, he helped start, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Bank – an African-American-owned and operated bank based in Harlem. He also served as the bank's first Chairman of the Board. In 1970, Robinson started the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families.

paragraphs: Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He called himself a political independent. But he held conservative thoughts on several issues, including the Vietnam War (he once wrote Martin Luther King, Jr. to defend the Johnson Administration's military policy). After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy for his views on civil rights. He then supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in 1968. In 1964, Robinson became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller's Republican presidential campaign. He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966.

paragraphs: Robinson made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972. He threw the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series. He accepted a plaque honoring the 25th anniversary of his MLB debut, but also said, "I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball." This wish was fulfilled only after Robinson's death. After the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their coaching job to Frank Robinson (no relation), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to coach three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American players in Major League Baseball has gone down since the 1970s.

paragraphs: After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wife, Rachel Robinson, went for a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center. She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990. She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (born November 18, 1946), Sharon Robinson (born January 13, 1950), and David Robinson (born May 14, 1952).

paragraphs: Robinson's oldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood. He entered special education at an early age. He enrolled in the Army in search of a disciplined environment. He served in the Vietnam War. He was injured in action on November 19, 1965. After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut. He became a counselor at the institution. On June 17, 1971, at the age of 24, he was killed in an automobile accident. The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson, Sr. into someone who fought against drugs for the rest of his life.

paragraphs: Robinson did not live long after his son. Problems with heart disease and diabetes made Robinson weak. He was almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, he died of a heart attack at home in Stamford, Connecticut, aged fifty-three. Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, at New York City's Riverside Church had 2,500 people come. Many of his former teammates and other famous black baseball players served as pallbearers. The Rev. Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy. Tens of thousands of people lined the procession route that followed to Robinson's gravesite site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York. There he is buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum. Jackie Robinson Parkway also runs through the cemetery.

paragraphs: After Robinson's death, his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation, of which she remains an officer as of 2010. On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation will be opening a museum about Jackie in Lower Manhattan. Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father. His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania.

paragraphs: According to a poll conducted in 1947, Robinson was the second most popular man in the country, behind Bing Crosby. In 1999, he was named by "Time" magazine on its list of the . Also in 1999, he ranked number 44 on the "Sporting News" list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players. He was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team as the top vote-getter among second basemen. Baseball writer Bill James, in "The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract", ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time based on his performance on the field. James noted that Robinson was one of the top players in the league throughout his career. Robinson was among the 25 first members of UCLA’s Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984. In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three different postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000.

paragraphs: The City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson in several ways. Brookside Park, located next to the Rose Bowl, has a baseball field and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field. The city's Human Services Department owns the Jackie Robinson Center, a community outreach center that provides early diabetes detection and other services. In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge showing oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was put up at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall. A granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family.

paragraphs: MLB has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the "Jackie Robinson Award" in honor of the first to receive the award (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues). On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired by Major League Baseball. No future player on any major league team can wear it. The number was retired in ceremonies at Shea Stadium to mark the 50th anniversary of Robinson's first game with the Dodgers. A few players who wore number 42 as a salute to Robinson, such as the Mets' Butch Huskey and Boston's Mo Vaughn, were allowed to continue to use the number by means of a grandfather clause. The Yankees' Mariano Rivera is the last player in the major leagues to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis.

paragraphs: As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB has recently begun honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day. For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007. The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey, Jr.. He asked for Rachel Robinson's permission to wear the number. After receiving her permission, Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also gave an invitation to all major league teams to do the same. In the end, more than 200 players wore number 42, including everyone on the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates. The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's number 42. On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics. In 2009, all uniformed personnel (players, managers, coaches, and umpires) wore number 42 on April 15.

paragraphs: At the November 2006 groundbreaking for a new ballpark for the New York Mets, Citi Field, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009. It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade. It has a large statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that, along with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation, the Mets will create a Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center. It will be located at the headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square in lower Manhattan. The main purpose of the museum will be to fund scholarships for "young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals."

paragraphs: Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American. President Ronald Reagan awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom on March 26, 1984 after Robinson's death. On March 2, 2005, President George W. Bush gave Robinson's widow the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress. Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, after Roberto Clemente. On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.

paragraphs: A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium, which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis. City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida – the baseball field that became the Dodgers' spring training site in 1947 – was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1989. The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson. Dorsey High School plays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him. In 1976, his home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark. Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson. In 1997, the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five dollar gold coin.

paragraphs: (*) Note: The sacrifice fly (SF) as its own category did not exist in Major League Baseball from 1940 through 1953. Any pre-1954 sacrifice flies by Robinson would be listed in the sacrifice hit (SH) category.

paragraphs: (**) Note: Also, the intentional walk (IBB) category only became its own category beginning in 1955. Any intentional walks issued to Robinson before that year would be listed in the walk (BB) category.


title: George Fox

paragraphs: George Fox (July 1624 – 13 January 1691) was one of the people that left the Church of England. He was a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, also known as the "Quakers."


title: University of Michigan

paragraphs: The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (U of M, U-M, UM or simply Michigan) is a public university in the state of Michigan. The university was started in 1817 in Detroit, about 20 years before Michigan became a state, and moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. It is the state's oldest university and the main campus; there are two other campuses—the University of Michigan-Flint and the University of Michigan–Dearborn.

paragraphs: The university is known around the world, its students being famous people such as U.S. President Gerald Ford, Supreme Court Justices, as well as many heads of states around the world. It is now ranked 18th in the world by "The Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings," and 21st by the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Institute for Higher Education rankings. In its last survey in 1995, the National Research Council ranked UM 3rd in the United States and is called one of the first eight Public Ivys. The university also has one of the largest research budgets or spending money of any American university and the largest number of living alumni or former students, at 460,000. UM athletic teams are known as very good, especially in football, men's basketball, and ice hockey.

paragraphs: The University of Michigan was started in Detroit in 1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres (16 ha) that it hoped would become the site for a new state capitol, but it gave this land to the university when Lansing was chosen as the state capital. The university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837. The original 40 acres became part of today's Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen and a sophomore, taught by two professors or teachers. Eleven students graduated in the first class in 1845. By 1866, 1,205 students went to UM. Women were first allowed in 1870, making UM the first major university to allow women to go to school. James B. Angell, was the university's president from 1871 to 1909, made UM's teachings include subjects such as dentistry, architecture, engineering, government, and medicine. UM also became the first American university to teach in the seminar style.

paragraphs: From 1900 to 1920 many new buildings were built on campus, including buildings for the dental and pharmacy programs, a chemistry building, a building for the natural sciences, Hill Auditorium, large hospital and library buildings, and two residence halls. The university built up its reputation for research in 1920 by rebuilding the College of Engineering and making a group of 100 industrialists, or businessmen, to help guide research. UM's reputation as a very good national university also began to grow at this time. The university became a favorite other choice for Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s when the Ivy League schools made a limit to the number of Jews to be admitted. Because of this, UM gained the nickname "Harvard of the West," which became commonly joked about in reverse after John F. Kennedy called himself "a graduate of the Michigan of the East, Harvard University" in a speech.

paragraphs: In World War II, UM's research grew to include U.S. Navy projects like researching proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. By 1950, 21,000 students were at UM. As the Cold War and the Space Race started, UM got many government grants for research and helped to create peacetime uses for nuclear energy. Now, much of that work, as well as research into other energy types, is done by the Memorial Phoenix Project.

paragraphs: On October 14, 1960, Presidential candidate John F. Kennedy put out the idea of what became the Peace Corps on the steps of Michigan Union. Lyndon B. Johnson's speech about his Great Society program also occurred at UM. Also during the 1960s, UM saw many protests by student groups. On March 24, 1965, a group of UM faculty members and 3,000 students held the nation's first ever faculty-led "teach-in" to protest against American policy in Southeast Asia. Because of a series of sit-ins in 1966 by "Voice"–the campus political party of Students for a Democratic Society–UM's administration banned sit-ins. This led 1,500 students to have another one-hour sit-in the LSA Building, which then housed the administrative offices. Former UM student and important architect Alden B. Dow designed the current Fleming Administration Building, which was completed in 1968. The building's plans were drawn in the early 1960s, before student activism created a concern for safety. Nevertheless, the Fleming Building's narrow windows, all located above the first floor, and castle-like outside led to a campus rumor that it was made to be riot-proof. Dow denied the rumors, saying the small windows were made to be use less energy.

paragraphs: During the 1970s, large budget limits made it hard on the university's physical development; however, the 1980s saw a surge in money given to research in the social and physical sciences. At that time, the university's work in the anti-missile Strategic Defense Initiative and investments in South Africa caused anger on campus. During the 1980s and 1990s, the university used many resources to help rebuild its large hospital area and improve the academic buildings on the North Campus. The university also made computer and information technology on the campus important.

paragraphs: The university has 26,083 undergraduate and 14,959 graduate students in 600 academic programs, and each year about 5,400 new students go to UM. Students come from all 50 U.S. states and more than 100 countries. 98% of the university's class of 2006 had a high school GPA of 3.0 and higher, while the middle 50% of the class had a high school GPA of 3.60 to 3.90. The middle 50% of people applying had an SAT score of about 1920–2180 and an ACT score of 27–31, with AP credit given to over 3000 freshmen students. About 22% of newly undergraduates and 25% of all undergraduates are members of ethnic minority groups.

paragraphs: About 65% of undergraduate students go to the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts (LS&A), while the College of Engineering has about 20%. Less than 3% of undergraduate students go to the Ross School of Business. The rest of the undergraduate students go to the smaller schools, including the School of Kinesiology, School of Nursing, the School of Natural Resources and Environment, and the School of Art and Design. Most graduate students go to the Rackham Graduate School, the College of Engineering, the Law School, the Ross School of Business, and the Medical School. The Medical School works with the University of Michigan Health System, which makes up the University's three hospitals, a lot of the outpatient clinics, and many places for medical care, research, and education. Other academic units are the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning and the Schools of Dentistry, Education, Information, Music, Theatre & Dance, Natural Resources and Environment, Public Health, and Social Work, of which Social Work has been ranked first by the "U.S. News and World Report" every year since 1994.

paragraphs: The Ann Arbor campus is separated into four main areas: the North, Central, Medical, and South Campuses. There are more than 500 large buildings, with a more than 29 million square feet (664 acres or 2.69 km²). The Central and South Campuses are next to each other, while the North Campus area is separated from them by the Huron River. An East Medical Campus has been built on Plymouth Road, with some university-owned buildings.

paragraphs: Because more than 70% of UM's 200 program's and schools were listed as some of the best in their areas, the school was made one of Richard Moll's Public Ivies. UM has had 26 Rhodes Scholars go to the school.

paragraphs: People who have worked at the University of Michigan are:


title: Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary

paragraphs: Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (MBTS) is one of six official seminaries of the Southern Baptist Convention. It is in Kansas City, Missouri. It contains the full Spurgeon library.


title: Chemical relaxer

paragraphs: A chemical relaxer is used to straighten hair or loosen tight curls by use of chemicals to break the disulphide bonds the hair. It may have side effects such as burns and bald spots if used wrong.


title: Mountain Brook, Alabama

paragraphs: Mountain Brook is a city in Jefferson County, Alabama, United States. The city is a suburb of Birmingham, Alabama. In 2005, Mountain Brook had a population of 20,821, and is on several lists of the United States' richest communities.

paragraphs: Mountain Brook was created after an election was held on March 24, 1942, with 263 voting in favor of incorporation and 67 opposing. The area was founded by Robert Jemison, and the city was designed by Warren H. Manning. Mountain Brook was built around three villages: English Village, Mountain Brook Village, and Crestline Village.

paragraphs: Mountain Brook is the hometown of "Friends" actress Courteney Cox and missing person Natalee Holloway.


title: Trilobite

paragraphs: Trilobite ("three lobed") are extinct arthropods which were the first animals known to have eyes. They were very numerous during the early Palaeozoic era. Their distribution was worldwide, but only in salt water environments. They disappeared in the Permian–Triassic extinction event.

paragraphs: Trilobites had many lifestyles. Some moved over the sea floor as predators, scavengers, or filter feeders, Some swam, feeding on plankton. Most ecological niches of modern marine arthropods are seen in trilobites.

paragraphs: Their bodies were divided into three parts: the head (cephalon), the thorax (chest) made of up to 30 segments, and the tail (pygidium). Underneath, and rarely preserved, are three pairs of legs for the head. There are paired legs for each pleural groove.

paragraphs: Trilobites are the earliest known animal to have vision. The earliest trilobites had complex, compound eyes with lenses made of calcite. Some trilobites had small eyes or no eyes at all, and probably lived in dark environments.

paragraphs: Trilobites ranged in length from to , with a typical size range of . The world's largest trilobite, "Isotelus rex", was found in 1998 by Canadian scientists on the shores of Hudson Bay.

paragraphs: Trilobites appeared some 600 million years ago during the Cambrian period. They belonged (probably) to the phylum Arthropoda. This phylum includes the most successful (78%) of all animal life forms, including crabs, centipedes, spiders, shrimps and insects. The trilobites, living in shallow seas, flourished as swimmers, crawlers and burrowers for some 350 million years. Over time, they evolved rapidly into a wide variety of strange and beautiful forms.

paragraphs: They first captured man's eye some 25,000 years ago in France where two specimens were found in a Cro-magnon settlement, at a site called "La Grotte du Trilobite". One was found with a hole drilled into it and worn as an adornment. Others have been found in the tombs of Egypt, Greece and Rome. Trilobite fossils were sold on the street of 15th Century Europe and collected by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.


title: A Wizard of Earthsea

paragraphs: A Wizard of Earthsea, written in 1968, is the first of a series of books that are written by Ursula K. Le Guin and set in the fantasy world called Earthsea. The series is about a wizard named Ged. This book won the 1979 Lewis Carroll Shelf Award.

paragraphs: A mini-series based on "A Wizard of Earthsea" and "The Tombs of Atuan" was created on the Sci Fi Channel. Le Guin has said that she was not happy with the mini-series.


title: The Tombs of Atuan

paragraphs: The Tombs of Atuan is the second of a series of books that are written by Ursula K. Le Guin. The book was first published in 1971 and follows on from "A Wizard of Earthsea" and is continued in "The Farthest Shore". "The Tombs of Atuan" was a Newbery Honor book in 1972.


title: The Farthest Shore

paragraphs: The Farthest Shore is the third in a series of books that are written by Ursula K. Le Guin. The book was first published in 1972, and follows on from "The Tombs of Atuan". It inspired the Studio Ghibli animated movie "Tales from Earthsea". It won the 1973 National Book Award for Children's Books.


title: Tehanu

paragraphs: Tehanu was the fourth of Ursula K. Le Guin's "Earthsea" books. It was written in 1990, and won the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1990.


title: Tales from Earthsea

paragraphs: Tales from Earthsea, by Ursula K. Le Guin, written in 2001, is a collection of short stories from Le Guin's "Earthsea" series.


title: Canadian Arctic Archipelago

paragraphs: The Canadian Arctic Archipelago, also known as just the Arctic Archipelago, is an archipelago north of the Canadian mainland in the Arctic. There are about 36,563 islands which have much of the territory of Northern Canada – most of Nunavut and part of Northwest Territories.

paragraphs: The archipelago has 94 major islands (bigger than 130 km²), including three of the world's ten biggest islands, and 36,469 minor islands. The bigger islands of the archipelago (over 10,000 km²) are:


title: Victoria Island (Canada)

paragraphs: Victoria Island is an island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the border between Nunavut and the Northwest Territories runs through the island. It is the 9th biggest island of the world, and at is Canada's second largest island and nearly double the size of Newfoundland (or only slightly bigger than the size of the island of Great Britain). The western third of the island belongs to the Inuvik Region in the Northwest Territories and the rest is part of Nunavut's Kitikmeot Region.

paragraphs: As of 2006, 1,875 live on Victoria Island. Most of the people (1,477) live in its biggest city, Cambridge Bay.


title: Oswald Chambers

paragraphs: Oswald Chambers (1874-1917) was a famous early 20th century Scottish Protestant Christian minister and teacher. He is best known as the author of the devotional "My Utmost for His Highest".


title: John F. MacArthur

paragraphs: John F. MacArthur, Jr. (born June 14, 1939 in Los Angeles, California) is a United States Reformed evangelical Bible teacher, writer and pastor. He is known for his radio program called "Grace to You". He is the editor of the "MacArthur Study Bible", which won a Gold Medallion Book Award for Bibles.

paragraphs: MacArthur earned academic degrees from Talbot Theological Seminary. He is now the pastor-teacher of Grace Community Church, a megachurch in southern California, and the president of The Master's College and The Master's Seminary. He has written many books and has been a guest on Larry King's television talk show many times as a representative of conservative evangelical Christianity. His opinions about lordship salvation, church growth methods, and the use of psychology are controversial in Christian circles.


title: Jerry Falwell

paragraphs: Jerry Lamon Falwell, Sr. (August 11, 1933 – May 15, 2007) was an American evangelical Christian pastor and televangelist. He was the pastor of the Thomas Road Baptist Church, a megachurch in Lynchburg, Virginia. He founded Liberty University in 1971 and co-founded the Moral Majority in 1979. Fallwell was a member of the Southern Baptist Convention.


title: Martiniano Ferreira Botelho

paragraphs: Martiniano José Ferreira Botelho (1853 - 1939) was a leading figure in the municipality of Vila Pouca de Aguiar in the early 20th century. He was a doctor, druggist and Portuguese politician, known from his residence as "Lord of the House of the County".

paragraphs: His humanitarian character was shown by treating his patients without asking for payment. His wrote a doctoral thesis with the title "Breve estudo sobre as águas alcalino-gazósas das Pedras Salgadas". It was about the way water from the area was used as medicine to make people better.

paragraphs: Botelho' gave land to the community for the market Square which can be seen today, as well as for the municipal slaughter house and water mine.


title: Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)

paragraphs: Battlestar Galactica is an American science fiction television series filmed in Vancouver. It was created by Ronald D. Moore that first aired in a three-hour miniseries in December of 2003 on the Sci Fi Channel.

paragraphs: The series has gained a wide range of critical acclaim. It won a Emmy Award and Saturn Awards.


title: Ellesmere Island

paragraphs: Ellesmere Island is part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region of the Canadian territory of Nunavut.

paragraphs: It is in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, part of the Queen Elizabeth Islands. Cape Columbia is the most northerly point of land in Canada.

paragraphs: The area of Ellesmere Island is , the world's tenth biggest island and Canada's third biggest island. The Arctic Cordillera mountain system covers much of Ellesmere Island: it is the most mountainous island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The Arctic Willow is the only woody species to grow on Ellesmere Island.

paragraphs: In 2001, 168 people lived on Ellesmere Island. There are three settlements on Ellesmere Island including Alert, Eureka, and Grise Fiord.

paragraphs: Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert on Ellesmere Island is the northernmost settlement in the world.


title: Banks Island

paragraphs: Banks Island () is one of the bigger members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. It is in the Inuvik Region of the Northwest Territories, Canada. It is separated from Victoria Island to its east by the Prince of Wales Strait and from the mainland by Amundsen Gulf to its south. The Beaufort Sea lies to its west. To the northeast, McClure Strait separates the island from Prince Patrick Island and Melville Island.

paragraphs: It was named "Banks Island" in 1820 by Sir William Parry in honour of Sir Joseph Banks. However, during the exploration of the area by Robert McClure (1850-1854) the island was marked on their maps as "Baring Island".

paragraphs: The only permanent Inuvialuit settlement on the island, Sachs Harbour or Ikhuak, is on the southwest coast. Two federal Migratory Bird Sanctuaries were founded on the island in 1961. The island does not have any trees, with the tallest plant, the arctic willow, sometimes growing to about the height of a person's knee but usually standing no taller than 10 cm.

paragraphs: Banks Island covers an area 70,028 km² (27,038 sq mi) and it is the world's 24th biggest island and Canada's fifth biggest island.


title: Devon Island

paragraphs: Devon Island is one of the bigger members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. It is the second-biggest of the Queen Elizabeth Islands, Nunavut, Canada, the 27th biggest island in the world, Canada's 6th biggest island and the biggest island in the world where nobody lives on. Devon Island has an area of . The highest point is the Devon Ice Cap at 6,299 ft/1,920 metres which is part of the Arctic Cordillera. Devon Island has many small mountain ranges, such as the Treuter Mountains, Haddington Range and the Cunningham Mountains.

paragraphs: Devon Island is also notable for having the Haughton impact crater, made some 39 million years ago when a meteorite about 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter crashed into what were then forests. The impact left a crater about 23 km (14 mi) in diameter, which was a lake for several million years.


title: Axel Heiberg Island

paragraphs: Axel Heiberg Island is the 31st biggest island in the world and Canada's 7th biggest island. According to Statistics Canada, it has an area of 43 178 km² (16,671 square miles).

paragraphs: The Inuit people have lived on Axel Heiberg Island in the past, but no one has lived there by the time it was named by Otto Sverdrup, who explored it around 1900. He named it after Axel Heiberg, manager of the Norwegian Ringnes brewery which sponsored the expedition. Other explorers visited the island during the early 20th century, during which time it was claimed by Norway until 1930. It is now part of Nunavut, Canada.


title: Green Bay, Wisconsin

paragraphs: Green Bay is a city in the U.S. State of Wisconsin (USA). It is the third largest city in Wisconsin. Just over 100,000 people live there. It is named after Green Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan. Green Bay is home of the Green Bay Packers that play at Lambeau Field.


title: Ballista

paragraphs: The ballista (plural ballistae) was one of the first artillery weapons used by the Ancient Greeks. The ballista was invented around 400 BC in the Greek town of Syracuse. It was one of the first catapults, and shot very large and heavy spears far distances.

paragraphs: The ballista resembled a large crossbow. They were made in different sizes. Smaller ones threw smaller missiles such as scaled-up arrows and darts.

paragraphs: The steps to operating the ballista are:

paragraphs: Ballistae would be used if a weapon that fired light, narrow ammunition was needed.


title: Antioch, California

paragraphs: Antioch is a city in the U.S. State of California. It is a suburb of San Francisco. Just over 100,000 people live there.


title: Daly City

paragraphs: Daly City is a city in the U.S. State of California. It is a suburb of San Francisco. Many Filipino people live there. The Bay Area Rapid Transit train stops there.


title: Portsmouth, Virginia

paragraphs: Portsmouth is a city in the U.S. State of Virginia. Just over 100,000 people live there.


title: Banana bread

paragraphs: Banana bread is a sweet bread made with batter that is full of mashed bananas, ground cinnamon, and toasted nuts. Some may also have chocolate in them. It was first baked in the United States and became very popular because it was so easy to make. It is different from most breads because it is a quick bread, using baking powder to rise. There are many different kinds of banana bread. The dry ingredients are mixed together in one bowl, and the wet ingredients are mixed together in another bowl. The two are then put together, and baked, and then the making of a banana bread is done.


title: Saurophaganax

paragraphs: Saurophaganax ("lizard-eating master") is a genus of allosaurid dinosaur from the Morrison Formation of Upper Jurassic in Oklahoma. It lived about 151 million years ago).

paragraphs: "Saurophaganax" was a very large Morrison allosaurid. The maximum size of "S. maximus" has been estimated at anywhere from to in length, and around in weight. This means it was perhaps similar in size to "Tyrannosaurus" or "Carcharodontosaurus".

paragraphs: Some paleontologists think it is a species of "Allosaurus" ("Allosaurus maximus"). It has also been described as a separate genus. The most recent review of basal tetanurans accepted "Saurophaganax" as a distinct genus. New possible "Saurophaganax" material from New Mexico may clear up the status of the genus.


title: Sauroposeidon

paragraphs: Sauroposeidon is a genus of sauropod dinosaur found in Oklahoma. It is one of the biggest dinosaur yet found.

paragraphs: Sauroposeidon lived in what was then a river delta flowing into the Bay of Mexico. It was a plant-eater that probably ate leaves from the tops of trees, perhaps conifers and early flowering trees like magnolias, palms, and sycamores.

paragraphs: Estimates of "Sauroposeidons size are based on a comparison between the four "Sauroposeidon" vertebrae and the vertebrae of the HM SII specimen of "Giraffatitan" in the Humboldt Museum in Berlin. The HM SII is the most complete brachiosaur known. Comparisons to the other relatives of "Sauroposeidon" are difficult due to limited remains.

paragraphs: The neck length of "Sauroposeidon" is estimated at , compared to a neck length of for the HM SII "Giraffatitan". This is based on the assumption that the rest of the neck has the same proportions as "Giraffatitan", which is a reasonably good conjecture.

paragraphs: "Sauroposeidon" was probably able to raise its head above the ground, which is as high as a six-story building. In comparison, "Giraffatitan" could probably raise its head into the air.

paragraphs: "Sauroposeidon's" shoulder height has been estimated at based on an interpretation of the animal as a brachiosaurid. Estimates of its total possible length have ranged from to .


title: Power cut

paragraphs: A power cut, sometimes called a power outage or blackout, is a word for when the electric power does not work in an area. It is sometimes caused by a power line (or electricity cable) falling down, but may also happen due to routine maintenance. In poor countries, such as many in Africa, there are regular power cuts as more people try to use the electricity than there is to go around. An uninterruptible power supply can protect sensitive equipment such as computers or other electronics during a power cut, allowing it to be properly shut down.


title: Tim LaHaye

paragraphs: Timothy Francis "Tim" LaHaye (April 27, 1926 – July 25, 2016) was an American evangelical Christian minister, author, and speaker. He was best known for co-authoring the "Left Behind" series with Jerry B. Jenkins. He wrote over 50 books, both fiction and non-fiction. "Time" magazine named LaHaye ""one of the 25 most influental evangelicals in America"."

paragraphs: His wife was Beverly LaHaye, founder of Concerned Women for America.

paragraphs: LaHaye died of a stroke on July 25, 2016 in San Diego, California, aged 90.


title: Adrian Rogers

paragraphs: Adrian Pierce Rogers, Th.D. (September 12, 1931 – November 15, 2005) was an American pastor, author, and a three-term president of the Southern Baptist Convention (1979-1980 and 1986-1988). Rogers was born in West Palm Beach, Florida. He is the starter of Love Worth Finding ministries.


title: Charles Colson

paragraphs: Charles Wendell "Chuck" Colson (October 16, 1931, in Boston, Massachusetts - April 21, 2012) was the chief counsel for President Richard Nixon from 1969 to 1973. Colson was also a public speaker and author. Around 1974 he converted to Christianity, and became an Evangelical Christian.

paragraphs: In 1969 Colson was appointed Special counsel to the White House. President Richard Nixon quickly noticed him. In 1970 Nixon put Colson in charge of "dirty tricks" (performed against Nixon's opponents). He was a part of the Watergate scandal. He was the first of the Nixon White House assistants to be convicted of a crime.


title: Charles Stanley (evangelist)

paragraphs: Charles Frazier Stanley (born September 25, 1932 in Dry Fork, Pittsylvania County, Virginia) is the pastor of megachurch First Baptist Church Atlanta in Atlanta, Georgia. He is the starter and president of "In Touch Ministries". Stanley also served two terms as president of the Southern Baptist Convention from 1984 through 1986.


title: Espaillat Province

paragraphs: Espaillat is a province in the Dominican Republic. It is in the Cibao region, in the north central part of the country. Its capital is Moca.

paragraphs: The province was created on 1885. It was part of the La Vega province until it was made a province.

paragraphs: The province was named after "Ulises Francisco Espaillat" who was President of the Dominican Republic for a short period of time (April 1876 - October 1876).

paragraphs: The Espaillat province is bordered to the east by the province of Hermanas Mirabal, to the south by La Vega, to the west by the Santiago and Puerto Plata provinces. The María Trinidad Sánchez province is to the northeast of the Espaillat province and the Atlantic Ocean is to the north.

paragraphs: The Espaillat province has had many changes in its area. Before 1885, when the province was made, the southern part of the present province was part of La Vega province and the northern part was of the Puerto Plata province.

paragraphs: When the province was made in 1885, it had the land of the present provinces of Hermanas Mirabal, Duarte and María Trinidad Sánchez provinces and the southern part of the present Espaillat province. But when the Duarte province was made in 1896, the Espaillat province lost most of the land east of the Hermanas Mirabal province; in 1945, the land north of the "Cordillera Septentrional" was added to the Espaillat province.

paragraphs: In 1952, the Salcedo province (now Hermanas Mirabal province) was made and the Espaillat province kept the land that it has now, with some parts to the south of the Cordillera Septentrional and other parts to the north of it. The province had two municipalities: Moca, its capital, and Gaspar Hernández. Cayetano Germosén became a municipality of the province in 1987 and Jamao al Norte in 2001.

paragraphs: The municipal districts of the province were created in:

paragraphs: In (last national census), there were people living in the Espaillat province, and 105,187 () living in towns and cities. The population density was persons/km², one of the highest among the provinces of the country.

paragraphs: Its population represents of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 12th (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

paragraphs: , the total estimated propulation of the province is 237,169 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The largest city of the province is Moca, its head municipality or capital, with an urban population (in 2010) of 65,445 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The Espaillat province has a total area of . It has of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is one of the smallest provinces in the country, ranked as the 27th (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province. The altitude of Moca, provincial capital, is .

paragraphs: There are three geographic regions in the province. They are, from north to south: the Atlantic coastal plains close to the Atlantic Ocean, the Cordillera Septentrional and the Cibao Valley.

paragraphs: Three main roads go through this province. One goes along the Atlantic coast; it goes from Puerto Plata to Samaná.

paragraphs: A second road comes from the south, from La Vega province and, when it gets to Moca, turns to the west to Santiago de los Caballeros. This is the old "Carretera Duarte" (Duarte National Road) but from Concepción de la Vega to Santiago de los Caballeros the "Duarte Highway" is used by most people, without going through Moca.

paragraphs: The third road begins in Moca and goes to the provinces to the east.

paragraphs: The Cordillera Septentrional ("Northern mountain chain") is in the north central part of the province but the mountains here are not very high. The highest mountain in the province is the "El Mogote" () at above sea level.

paragraphs: There are only short rivers in the province. The most important river that flows into the Atlantic Ocean, and the longest of the province, is the Yásica river; it forms the limit with the Puerto Plata province. Other important rivers that flow to the north are the Jamao and Veragua rivers which are tributaries of the Yásica river.

paragraphs: In the southern part of the province, the rivers are very short and most of them are tributaries of the Licey river (a tributary of the Yuna river). Besides the Licey river, other rivers are Moca and Bacuí.

paragraphs: The climate of the province is a tropical climate, hot most of the year, but it is cooler on the mountains.

paragraphs: There are 4 municipalities and 11 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province. The municipalities and its municipal districts (M.D.) are:

paragraphs: The main economic activity of the province is agriculture and the main products are plantain, cassava, coffee and cacao.

paragraphs: Tourism is a very important activity on the Atlantic coast, with many hotels in the region.


title: Reggie White

paragraphs: Reginald Howard "Reggie" White (December 19, 1961 – December 26, 2004) was an American football player who is now in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. He is well known for being a Evangelical Christian minister. This led to his nickname, "the Minister of Defense."


title: Charley Patton

paragraphs: Charlie Patton (also known as Charley Patton) (May 1, 1891 - April 28, 1934) was an American Delta blues musician. He is thought to be the "Father of Delta Blues" and was one of the most popular of the early recorded blues musicians.

paragraphs: Musical releases and his gravestone spell his name “Charley” even though the musician himself spelled his name "Charlie."


title: Ammonite

paragraphs: Ammonites were marine cephalopod molluscs of the subclass Ammonoidea.

paragraphs: Their widely-known fossils show a ribbed spiral-form shell, in the end compartment of which lived the tentacled animal. These creatures lived in the seas from at least 400 to 65 million years ago. They became extinct at the K/T extinction event. Their nearest living relatives are the octopus, squid, cuttlefish and "Nautilus".

paragraphs: Nine orders are recognised in the Ammonoidea: five in the Palaeozoic and four in the Mesozoic.

paragraphs: Ammonites first appeared in the early Devonian period. They evolved from a small, straight shelled Bactridian, which was an early Nautiloid. They quickly evolved into a variety of shapes and sizes, including some shaped like hairpins. During their evolution the ammonites faced no fewer than four catastrophic events that would eventually lead to their extinction. The first event occurred in the Upper Devonian, and the second at the end of the Permian (250 million years ago), when only two lines survived the P/Tr extinction event. The surviving species radiated and flourished throughout the Triassic perod. At the end of this period (206 million years ago) they faced near extinction again, when only one genus survived. This event marked the end of the Triassic and the beginning of the Jurassic, during which time the number of ammonite species grew once more. The final catastrophe occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period when all species were annihilated and the ammonites became extinct.

paragraphs: The young ammonites lived in the plankton, near the sea surface. They ate mostly small fry as they were growing. This made them especially vulnerable to any event which upset the plankton zone.

paragraphs: Ammonites began life as tiny planktonic creatures less than 1mm in diameter. In their infancy they would have been vulnerable to attack from other predators, including mosasaurs and fish. However, their shell gave their soft parts some protection. The existence of sexual dimorphism, with larger females and smaller males, has been much discussed. The matter is still open, but at least in some species deposits are found with two sizes and no intermediates.

paragraphs: As the shell grew, the back compartments were sealed with a semi-permeable membrane. A single tube, the "siphuncle", passed through the centre of each septum and connected the chambers The animal could add or withdraw gas as it needed for buoyancy. On the inside of the shell, the compartments are marked by elaborate "sutures". These can be seen easily on those fossils which are "internal moulds", as most are. Ammonites were active predators, and they themselves were often eaten by fish and marine reptiles. The fossils are almost always found with the outer compartment broken off, probably as a result of just such an attack.

paragraphs: Ammonites swam by jet propulsion, as do most other cepalopods. Water would have come into the mantle cavity, passed over the gills, and was squirted out. "Nautilus" also has an escape mechanism, where a contraction of the branchial (gill) chamber causes the animal to jump out of the way of a predator. It would be reasonable to suppose that ammonites had a similar mechanism.


title: Drop

paragraphs: A drop is a small bit of liquid, such as water, which is held together by surface tension.

paragraphs: Something that is dropping can sometimes be called dripping.

paragraphs: Drops are often circular in shape, and sometimes when light is refracted through them, it makes a rainbow effect. Rain is an example of when drops fall. Drops are also like bubbles, except they hold liquid instead of a gas, like air.


title: Brindle

paragraphs: Brindle is a fur coloring in animals. It mainly appears on dogs, cats, cattle, and sometimes horses. The brindle color is similar to the stripes of a tiger, but much less visible. Animals with a brindle-colored coat are said to be brindled.


title: Interactive fiction

paragraphs: Interactive Fiction, usually abbreviated as IF, is a kind of computer game. In interactive fiction, the player types words with their keyboard, as an instruction to the main character of a story. One instruction might be:

paragraphs: Which would make the main character pick up a lamp.


title: Erie, Pennsylvania

paragraphs: Erie is a city in the U.S. State of Pennsylvania. It is named after Lake Erie. As of 2001, 103,717 people lived in Erie.


title: Richmond, California

paragraphs: Richmond is city in the U.S. State of California. It is a suburb of San Francisco. 103,818 people live in Richmond now. Chevron has an oil refinery here; in 2012 the refinery suffered a large fire.


title: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade

paragraphs: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade is a 1989 adventure movie directed by Steven Spielberg from a story co-written by executive producer George Lucas and starring Harrison Ford in the title role. It co-stars Sean Connery, Denholm Elliott, Julian Glover, Alison Doody, River Phoenix, and John Rhys-Davies.

paragraphs: The movie begins with a young Indiana Jones in 1912. He finds a rare artifact that he thinks belongs to a museum, but some men take it from him. In 1938, Jones is on a boat and yells, "This piece belongs into a museum!" the same thing he said before. This time he manages to get the piece and run away before the other men can take it back.

paragraphs: At Marshall College, where he works, someone tells him that the Nazis are after the Holy Grail.

paragraphs: He and Elsa go into the library, where they find a secret passage underground. They find a tablet, which is an important part of the puzzle. While they are there, some men who want to protect the Grail set the water on fire to try to kill them.


title: Jerry Rice

paragraphs: Jerry Lee Rice (born October 13, 1962 in Starkville, Mississippi) is an American retired football player. He was a wide receiver in the NFL, and is widely considered the greatest to ever play this position. He is often thought of as one of the best players in the history of the game. Most of his success was with the San Francisco 49ers.


title: Barry Sanders

paragraphs: Barry David Sanders (born ) is a Hall of Fame and Heisman Trophy winning American football running back. He played college football at Oklahoma State University, then spent all of his professional career with the Detroit Lions in the NFL.


title: William McGonagall

paragraphs: William McGonagall (born Edinburgh, March 1825 – died Edinburgh, 29 September 1902) was a Scottish poet. He thought he was good at writing poetry, but his poetry was often considered to be the worst poetry in the English language. He became famous because he was such a bad poet.

paragraphs: William McGonagall was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His family were originally Irish. McGonagall worked as a weaver in Dundee.

paragraphs: In 1877, when he was probably 52 years old, he suddenly found that he liked writing poetry. He wrote a poem about a local vicar and sent it to the Dundee Weekly News. The editor thought it was a joke, and he published it as a jokey poem.

paragraphs: McGonagall continued to write poetry. He read his poems in public and lots of people came to hear him. However, his audience had really come to laugh at him and throw rotten vegetables at him.

paragraphs: Mc Gonagall's poems have stupid rhymes, the words he uses are often silly and he mixes his imagery in clumsy ways. One of his most famous poems is about the Tay Bridge Disaster. It tells of a real event in 1879 when the bridge over the river Tay in Scotland collapsed and a train that was going over the bridge crashed, killing many people. Part of McGonagall's poem goes:

paragraphs: McGonagall did not seem to realise that people thought his poems were bad. He became disappointed that the town of Dundee did not recognize him as a great poet, so he went to Perth and then to Edinburgh. He continued to write poetry. He travelled to London because he had been given an invitation to meet the famous actor Sir Henry Irvine. However, someone had been playing a trick on him: the invitation was not a real one, and he was not let into the theatre.

paragraphs: McGonagall wrote some poetry about London while he was there. He wrote:

paragraphs: McGonagall was teetotal and often spoke against drinking alcohol. He thought that his audiences did not like his poetry because they had been drinking too much.

paragraphs: When he died in 1902 he was a very poor man.

paragraphs: People still remember McGonagall's poems today and continue to make fun of them. The comedian Spike Milligan had a character called McGoonagall in "The Goon Show". One episode of "The Muppet Show" had a character called Angus McGonagle. In the Harry Potter books, author J.K. Rowling chose the surname of the Professor of Transfiguration, Minerva McGonagall, because she had heard of McGonagall and loved the name.

paragraphs: There is a McGonagall Appreciation Society in McGonagall's home town of Dundee.


title: Gallimimus

paragraphs: Gallimimus (chicken mimic) was a fast-running dinosaur. It had a long, thin, flattened, toothless, horny beak, a small head, and a relatively large brain. "Gallimimus" lived in the Upper Cretaceous, about 75-70 million years ago.

paragraphs: The bottom front part of its beak was shaped like a shovel. It had large eyes positioned on opposite sites of its head, ruling out binocular vision (depth perception). It had a long neck, long tail, and long legs. Gallimimus was about 13-20 ft (4-6 m) long, was 6.3 ft (1.9 m) tall at the hips, and may have weighed about 970 pounds (440 kg).

paragraphs: These were were probably among the fastest of all dinosaurs. Like many other coelurosaurs, the ornithomimid hide was probably feathered rather than scaly.

paragraphs: The dinosaur appeared on-screen, in the motion picture Jurassic Park.


title: Jefferson County, Alabama

paragraphs: Jefferson County is a county in the U.S. state of Alabama.

paragraphs: The county was named after Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States. The county has the largest population of all other counties in Alabama. As of the 2000 U.S. census, 662,047 people lived there. The largest city in Jefferson County is Birmingham, Alabama.

paragraphs: Jefferson County was created by the Alabama legislature on December 13, 1819, 42 year before the American Civil War.

paragraphs: Jefferson County was spending more than its total revenue, so it sold bonds to finance its operating deficits. Normally, governments sell bonds to borrow money to build infrastructure. But Jefferson County borrowed money to put off tax increases or service reductions. Jefferson County worked with Wall Street banks (such as J.P. Morgan) to sell the bonds and to make interest rate swaps on its debt. These financial deals happened in 2002 and 2003 while the economy was healthy. People who purchase bonds want to know the source of the money to pay back the bonds. So, Jefferson County used its sewer system fees to back its bonds. The county sold $3.14 billion in sewer bonds. It also paid the banks millions of dollars of fees for their help in selling the bonds and setting up the county's debt.

paragraphs: By 2011, Jefferson County could no longer borrow additional money and its total revenues fell because of the bad economy. So, the county went to Wall Street and asked them to forgive $1 billion of the debt. After months of talking, the county and the banks were $130 million apart from a final agreement. The banks wanted the county to raise sewer rates to cover the missing money. The county wanted the banks to forgive more debt.

paragraphs: On November 9, 2011, the county gave up and filed for bankruptcy. Jefferson County became the subject of the most expensive municipal bankruptcy ever in the United States, at $4.1 billion, with debts of $3.14 billion relating to sewer work. This means that a court will unravel what the county owes. Under bankruptcy, people who loaned money to the county will not get all of their money back.


title: The Other Wind

paragraphs: The Other Wind is the sixth and last of a series of books that are written by Ursula K. Le Guin. It follows on from "Tehanu", the fourth book, and the short story "Dragonfly" from the fifth book "Tales from Earthsea".

paragraphs: The book won the World Fantasy Award for Best Book in 2002, and was also nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Book in the same year.


title: The Lathe of Heaven

paragraphs: The Lathe of Heaven is a 1971 science fiction book that was written by Ursula K. Le Guin. The story is about a character whose dreams change the world. It has been made into two television films. The book was put up for a Hugo Award and a Nebula Award, and won the Locus Poll Award for best book in 1972. It was first written in the magazine Amazing Stories.


title: The Eye of the Heron

paragraphs: The Eye of the Heron is a 1978 science fiction book by Ursula K. Le Guin.


title: Malafrena

paragraphs: Malafrena is a book by Ursula K. Le Guin that was published in 1979 . The novel takes place in the country of Orsinia, which is also the setting of Le Guin's 1976 story collection, "Orsinian Tales".


title: Jesse James

paragraphs: Jesse Woodson James (September 5, 1847 – April 3, 1882) was an American outlaw. He was the most famous member of the James-Younger Gang in 1875. He was shot in the back of the head and killed by Robert Ford, a member of his gang for a $10,000 bounty that was placed on James by then-Missouri governor Thomas T. Crittenden.


title: Pensacola Christian College

paragraphs: Pensacola Christian College (PCC) is an accredited, fundamentalist, Independent Baptist college in Pensacola, Florida. It was started in 1974 by Arlin Horton.

paragraphs: It is accredited by the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools since 2013.


title: Moody Bible Institute

paragraphs: Moody Bible Institute (MBI) is an institute in Chicago on the Near North Side. In 1886, it was started by evangelist and businessman Dwight Lyman Moody. MBI has three major ministries: education, broadcasting and publishing.


title: Florence Foster Jenkins

paragraphs: Florence Foster Jenkins (born July 19, 1868 in Pennsylvania, U.S.; died November 26, 1944) was an American soprano who became famous because she was such a bad singer. She sang out of tune, had a very poor sense of rhythm and she was very unmusical.

paragraphs: She was born Florence Foster in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. She had music lessons when she was a child. She wanted to go and study music abroad. Her father was very rich, but he refused to pay for her to travel, so she ran away with a man called Frank Thornton Jenkins who was a doctor. They married, although they divorced in 1902. Her husband did not want her to be a singer either.

paragraphs: In 1909, her father died so she inherited some money which she used to have singing lessons. Soon she started to give recitals. Her mother died in 1928 and this gave her even more freedom and money to sing.

paragraphs: From her recordings we can hear that Jenkins sang very out of tune and out of time. She even wobbled a lot on one note. Her piano accompanist can be heard trying to change the speed to fit in with her mistakes. Her words were unclear, especially when singing in a foreign language. However, she became tremendously popular in her unusual way. Her audiences seemed to love her in spite of her unmusicality. She always thought she was a good singer and compared herself to the great sopranos. She knew the critics wrote bad things about her, but she said: "People may say I can't sing, but no one can ever say I didn't sing."

paragraphs: Jenkins sang music from famous operas as well as classical songs (Lieder). She wore fancy costumes which she designed herself. She threw flowers into the audience and was always fanning herself.

paragraphs: In 1943, she was in a taxi that crashed. After the crash she found she could sing "a higher F than ever before." Instead of a lawsuit against the taxicab company, she sent the driver a box of expensive cigars.

paragraphs: In 1944, when she was 76, Jenkins performed at Carnegie Hall. Many people had wanted her to perform there. Tickets sold out weeks before the concert. Jenkins died in Manhattan of a heart attack a month later. She always seemed to have been quite certain that she was a great singer.