paragraphs: The Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her" ("From Heaven above to Earth I come"), BWV 769 is a well-known piece of music for organ by Johann Sebastian Bach. An organ with two manuals (keyboards) and pedals is needed to play this work. There are five “variations”. All the music is based on a Christmas hymn called “Von Himmel hoch” which was very well known to the people who went to the Lutheran church where Bach was organist.

paragraphs: Bach composed the piece when he became a member of Mizler's Music Society in Leipzig in 1747. It was printed in 1747. Another version was published later. This was an autograph manuscript which also included other organ music: the six trio sonatas and the Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes. The most important difference Bach made in this version is that the fifth variation was moved to the middle.

paragraphs: In June 1747, Bach was allowed to become a member of the "Correspondierde Societät der Muscialischen Wissenschaften" ("Corresponding Society for the Musical Sciences"). There were 14 members when Bach joined. The society studied and encouraged people in Leipzig to compose music. To celebrate becoming a member, Bach gave to the society a version of the Canonic Variations and also a portrait of himself that had been painted by Elias Gottlob Haussmann. In the portrait Bach is seen holding up a copy of another composition which uses a lot of canon.

paragraphs: The five variations on “Von Himmel Hoch” are not variations in the usual musical sense. They are not five statements of the theme with ornamentation. They are five movements which all use canon to build up the music. During the last years of his life Bach composed several works which were based on canons. Several of his works from that period are canonic, including organ pieces from Parts III and IV of the Clavier-Übung, the Goldberg Variations for harpsichord, the Musical Offering and the Art of the Fugue.

paragraphs: The Canonic Variations are based on the Christmas Hymn "Von Himmel hoch, da komm ich her". The words and melody were composed in 1539 by Martin Luther. Bach had used the chorale (hymn tune) before. It comes in his Christmas Oratorio, in his Magnificat, and in several organ preludes including the short one from the Orgelbüchlein (Little Organ Book) which can be heard in Britain and other countries on radio and television each Christmas Eve at the end of the world-famous carol service from King’s College, Cambridge.

paragraphs: This is a two part canon between the right and left hand. It is a “canon at the octave” because the second part starts an octave lower than the first part. The hands play on different manuals so that they can produce a different sort of sound, like a duet between two instruments. The chorale tune (cantus firmus) is heard in the pedals. It is played in long notes with gaps of a bar and a half between each phrase. The music of the canon, played by the hands, sounds in parts like the shape of the chorale. It starts with six notes going down. Bach may have done this deliberately to suggest Christ coming down to earth. This sort of “symbolism” or “word-painting”, in which the actual notes of the music show the meaning of the words (or what were the words in the original hymn), is very common in Bach’s music and in a lot of other music of that time.

paragraphs: Again there is a canon between the hands and the chorale tune in the pedals. It is strict three-part writing (each hand only plays one note at a time, as if for a melodic instrument). This time it is a “canon at the fifth” (the right hand begins on C, the left hand imitates half a bar later starting on the F below). The canon is based on the first and second lines of the chorale. When the start of the canon comes back near the end, it is syncopated. At the very end the hands play a scale going up. Bach may have meant this to sound like angels going up to heaven, or the soul going up.

paragraphs: The canon this time is between the left hand and the pedals. The canon moves mostly in quavers and is based on the chorale tune. The right hand plays a free melody, and also the chorale tune in long notes at the top.

paragraphs: This variation has a new tune in the right hand (but some of its general shape comes from the chorale tune). It is very lively (there are often demisemiquavers, especially near the end), and is very syncopated. The bottom of the left hand plays the same tune in canon, but it only moves at half the speed of the upper part. This is called “augmentation”. The top of the left hand meanwhile has a freer part. The pedal has the chorale tune in long notes. Three bars before the end we hear the BACH motif in the left hand. These are the four notes that Bach often uses to represent his name.

paragraphs: The last variation becomes more and more grand and finishes in a big climax. It works well when it is played as the last variation (instead of the middle variation as in the autograph copy).

paragraphs: At the beginning of this variation, the canon is simply the melody of the chorale. It is played by the right and left hand, but this time the left hand plays it upside down (inversion). It is a “canon at the sixth” (the right hand starts on C, then the left hand starts on the E below). Later it becomes a canon at the third. The pedal simply plays a bass part (like a continuo instrument).

paragraphs: In the next section the right hand (marked “forte” (loud)) moves in fast notes while the pedal plays the chorale tune and the bottom part of the left hand plays it in canon upside down at the second (pedal starts on C, left hand canon imitates starting on B). Then the right and left hands swap round and there is a canon at the ninth.

paragraphs: In the last section, marked "forte", the pedal part plays the chorale tune upside down. At the very end, as the music rises to a climax, it repeats the last line of the chorale tune, finishing on the lowest pedal note: the bottom C. The hands meanwhile play on the same manual. There is a “stretto”: all the voices start the tune (or a version of the tune) quickly one after another. At the very end we hear the BACH motif again.

paragraphs: Bach is often said to be a “mathematical” composer. This set of variations are a good example of a piece of music in which Bach is trying to show different techniques of composing. A lot of skill is needed in order to compose complicated canons like this, making the music sound good at the same time. The description of the music may sound very complicated, but one can enjoy the music without understanding all the techniques used to compose it. However, it is always fascinating to see how Bach has put all these ideas together.


title: Voice (polyphony)

paragraphs: In music, voice refers to several melodic lines being sung or played at the same time. These lines are called "voices", even if they are not being sung but being played on instruments. Another word for the same thing is "part", but the word "part" can also mean a "section" of a piece, so it can be confusing.

paragraphs: The word "part" meaning "voice" is often used when describing polyphonic music. For example: a 3-part fugue would have three "voices". It might be sung by three people, or it might be played by three instruments, or just by one keyboard instrument playing all three parts.


title: Elf

paragraphs: An elf is a creature of various origins that is usually regarded as a good being that helps to make trees and nature good. It is therefore commonly associated with paganism and witchcraft (many modern witches today believe that elves are real creatures).

paragraphs: Elves are usually described as a taller human, but with more firmer touch to them. However, in "The Lord of the Rings", elves were described as human sized (and if anything taller), hence changing the description of elves. They are sometimes known to have long, pointy ears.

paragraphs: In most modern fantasy scenarios, elves are one of the 3 main races (elves, dwarves, and humans), although if these 3 are described as the good races, they then become one of 6 races, including orcs, goblins, trolls, and / or giants.

paragraphs: The word "elf" is found throughout the Germanic languages and seems originally to have meant "white being". Reconstructing the early concept of an elf depends largely on texts, written by Christians, in Old and Middle English, medieval German, and Old Norse. These associate elves variously with the gods of Norse mythology, with causing illness, with magic, and with beauty and seduction.

paragraphs: The elves of Norse mythology have survived into folklore mainly as females, living in hills and mounds of stones. The Swedish "älvor" were stunningly beautiful girls who lived in the forest with an elven king.

paragraphs: The elves could be seen dancing over meadows, particularly at night and on misty mornings. They left a circle where they had danced, which were called "älvdanser" (elf dances) or "älvringar" (elf circles), and to urinate in one was thought to cause venereal diseases. Typically, elf circles were fairy rings consisting of a ring of small mushrooms, but there was also another kind of elf circle. In the words of the local historian Anne Marie Hellström:

paragraphs: If a human watched the dance of the elves, he would discover that even though only a few hours seemed to have passed, many years had passed in the real world. Humans being invited or lured to the elf dance is a common motif transferred from older Scandinavian ballads.

paragraphs: Elves were not exclusively young and beautiful. In the Swedish folktale "Little Rosa and Long Leda", an elvish woman ("älvakvinna") arrives in the end and saves the heroine, Little Rose, on condition that the king's cattle no longer graze on her hill. She is described as a beautiful old woman and by her aspect people saw that she belonged to the "subterraneans".


title: Sterling Morrison

paragraphs: Holmes Sterling Morrison Jr. (born August 28, 1942, died August 30, 1995) was an American musician (guitar), known as a founding member of the Velvet Underground.

paragraphs: Morrison met Lou Reed, who also played guitar, at college. They met again later in New York City, where Reed was with John Cale. Morrison joined Reed and Cale in , and the three formed a band. The band gained the name "The Velvet Underground" when another college friend, Jim Tucker, brought them a book with that title. Tucker's sister Maureen became the band's drummer.

paragraphs: Morrison played lead guitar, and also rhythm and bass guitars, and sang backing vocals. When Doug Yule replaced John Cale, Morrison played lead guitar full-time. Yule sometimes pushed for the lead guitar role, and Morrison and Yule did not get along well.

paragraphs: Even though the Velvets were well known, their financial success was limited, and Morrison became unsure about the band's future. He quit college before the Velvets formed, with only a few credits to go, but went back to City College of New York during 1970. He completed his Bachelor's degree in English, while the band played Max's Kansas City, a restaurant and bar in New York.

paragraphs: After Lou Reed left the band late in 1970, Morrison continued to tour with them. He had sent his to different schools, hoping to get a job as a teacher or professor. When the band visited Texas, he phoned Texas A&M University, and learned they wanted him for a teaching job. He quit the band, and taught college through the 1970s and 1980s.

paragraphs: Morrison later returned to New York, and became a captain. He reunited with the Velvets during the 1990s, playing shows with them in Europe and America. He became ill in 1995, saw a doctor, and found out he had , a kind of cancer. He died only a few weeks later, and not long before the Velvet Underground were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


title: Vanilla Twilight

paragraphs: "Vanilla Twilight" is the second single on the album "Ocean Eyes" by electronica project Owl City. It was made into a music video that had several people, including Shaq, look at a sunrise after a snow fall.


title: Feather Falls

paragraphs: Feather Falls is a waterfall found on the Fall River. It is a tributary of the Middle Fork Feather River, in Plumas National Forest of Butte County, California. The falls were often said to be over 640 feet tall, however, they recently measured to stand 410 feet tall, which is what the USGS Brush Creek 7 1/2" quadrangle says. A town found nearby, Feather Falls, California, is named after this waterfall.


title: Feather Falls, California

paragraphs: Feather Falls is an unincorporated community in Butte County, California. It is found in the countryside. It lies at an elevation of 2982 feet (909 m).


title: Salween River

paragraphs: Salween River is a major river in Southeast Asia. It flows through parts of China, Thailand, and Burma for 2,815 km (1,749 mi). The river originates in the Qinghai Mountains and flows west. But then it turns east and south, flowing into the Andaman Sea at Mawlamyaing, Burma.


title: Tal Ben Haim

paragraphs: Tal Ben Haim (; born 31 March 1982) is an Israeli football player. He plays for Portsmouth and Israel national team.


title: Hugo Viana

paragraphs: Hugo Viana (born 15 January 1983) is a Portuguese football player. He has played for the Portuguese national team.


title: Bruno Vale

paragraphs: Bruno Vale (born 8 April 1983) is a Portuguese football player. He has played for Portugal national team.


title: Fábio Santos Romeu

paragraphs: Fábio Santos Romeu (born 16 September 1985) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for Corinthians.


title: Haminu Draman

paragraphs: Haminu Draman (born 1 April 1986) is a Ghanaian football player. He plays for Lokomotiv Moscow and Ghana national team.


title: Saša Drakulić

paragraphs: Saša Drakulić (born 28 August 1972) is a Serbian football player. He plays for Proleter Novi Sad.


title: Alen Avdić

paragraphs: Alen Avdić (born 3 April 1977) is a Bosnia and Herzegovinan football player. He has played for the Bosnia and Herzegovina national team.


title: Mickaël Landreau

paragraphs: Mickaël Landreau (born 14 May 1979) is a French football player. He plays for Lille.


title: Oleg Pashinin

paragraphs: Oleg Pashinin (born 12 September 1974) is a former Uzbekistani football player. He has played for Uzbekistan national team.


title: Škoda Fabia

paragraphs: The Škoda Fabia is a automobile produced by Škoda Auto in two generations since 1999. It is currently in its third generation which launched in late 2014.

paragraphs: The first generation launched in late 1999 and launched in the UK in Spring 2000 with estate and saloon versions added in 2001 and got a facelift in 2004.

paragraphs: The second generation model launched in Spring 2007 and continued with hatchback and estate models, the saloon was dropped due to poor sales, it was facelifted in 2010 and got a minor update in 2013. The car was launched in the UK with a memorable advert with the car made entirely of cake and used the song My Favourite Things from The Sound Of Music.


title: Škoda Superb

paragraphs: Škoda Superb is a car produced by Škoda Auto from 2001 to the present day. The first generation was made from 2001 to 2008 and got a facelift in 2006. The second generation was made from 2008 to 2015 with a facelift in 2013. It entered its third generation in 2015. It comes as a hatchback or an estate.


title: Škoda Octavia

paragraphs: The Škoda Octavia is a automobile produced by Škoda Auto in three generations since 1996. The first generation arrived in 1996 and launched in the UK in 1998 with a facelift in 2000. The second generation was launched in 2004 with a facelift in early 2009 but the first generation still continues until 2010. It entered its third generation in 2013 with a facelift in early 2017, it received some criticism for being a bit too big for some buyers. The fourth generation launched in June 2020.


title: Volkswagen Vento

paragraphs: Volkswagen Vento was a car made by Volkswagen from 1992 through 1998. It is the European version of the Third Generation Volkswagen Jetta.


title: Akmal Shaikh

paragraphs: Akmal Shaikh (5 April 1956 – 29 December 2009) was a British citizen, originally from Pakistan, who was executed in Urumqi, China, by lethal injection. Shaikh was the first EU national to be executed in China in 50 years. The father of five smuggled heroin to China in a suitcase on a plane. China defended its decision to put Shaikh to death and stated it had acted according to Chinese law.


title: John Coltrane

paragraphs: John William "Trane" Coltrane (September 23, 1926 – July 17, 1967) was an American jazz saxophonist and composer.

paragraphs: Coltrane played the bebop and hard bop styles of jazz early in his career, and helped start the use of modes in jazz and later was a very important part of free jazz. He made about fifty recordings as a bandleader, and appeared on many other albums, for example with trumpeter Miles Davis and pianist Thelonious Monk. As his career progressed, Coltrane's music became more spiritual. he died of liver cancer. His second wife was pianist Alice Coltrane, and their son Ravi Coltrane is also a saxophonist.

paragraphs: He influenced many musicians, and is one of the most important tenor saxophonists in jazz history. He got many awards, including Special Citation from the Pulitzer Prize Board in 2007 (many years after his death) for his "masterful improvisation, supreme musicianship and iconic centrality to the history of jazz."


title: Fela Kuti

paragraphs: Fela Anikulapo Kuti (15 October 1938 – 2 August 1997), or just Fela, was a Nigerian musician and composer who was very important in a genre called afrobeat. He played the saxophone, guitar, drums, keyboards and trumpet, and he sang. He was also a human rights activist. The American singer James Brown said that Kuti was one of the originators (starters) of the funk genre.

paragraphs: Kuti died in 1997 of Kaposi's sarcoma, an illness caused by AIDS. In 2008 a musical production called "Fela!" was created, about Kuti's life and career.


title: Requiem for a Dream

paragraphs: Requiem for a Dream is a 2000 American psychological drama movie. It was directed by Darren Aronofsky. It stars Ellen Burstyn, Jared Leto, Jennifer Connelly, and Marlon Wayans. The movie is about people with different drug addictions in Brooklyn, New York City.


title: Home Alone 3

paragraphs: Home Alone 3 was the third movie in the "Home Alone" movie series. It is an American criminal comedy movie. Macaulay Culkin, who was in the last two movies, as Kevin McCallister, was too old for this movie. The movie instead features a different household and villains. The director was Raja Gosnell, who was the editor of both original movies and the star actor was Alex D. Linz as Alex D. Pruitt. It was released on December 12, 1997 by 20th Century Fox. The movie grossed $79,082,515 worldwide.

paragraphs: In this movie, Alex is sick at home with the chicken pox. He recovers and must defend his home from four burglars.

paragraphs: A made-for-television sequel, "Home Alone 4: Taking Back the House", followed in 2002 and "" followed in 2012.


title: Stripes (movie)

paragraphs: Stripes is a 1981 American comedy movie starring actor Bill Murray. His character is in the military.


title: Justin.tv

paragraphs: JustinTv or JTV was a free account broadcasting website. It was founded by Justin Kan in Los Angeles, California.


title: Harvey Milk

paragraphs: Harvey Bernard Milk (May 22, 1930 – November 27, 1978) was an American politician and a member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. He was the first openly gay man to be elected to public office in California. He did not focus on homosexuality or gay activism at first, but did later on in his career.

paragraphs: Milk moved from New York City to live in San Francisco in 1972. This was a time when lots of gay men moved to live in the Castro District of San Francisco. Milk became a city supervisor in 1977.

paragraphs: Milk served 11 months in office and helped gay rights in the city. On November 27, 1978, Milk and Mayor George Moscone were assassinated (murdered) by Dan White in San Francisco. White was another city supervisor who had recently resigned but wanted his job back.

paragraphs: Milk became an icon in San Francisco and "a martyr for gay rights", according to University of San Francisco professor Peter Novak. In 2002, Milk was called "the most famous and most significantly open LGBT official ever elected in the United States". Anne Kronenberg, his final campaign manager, wrote of him: "What set Harvey apart from you or me was that he was a visionary. He imagined a righteous world inside his head and then he set about to create it for real, for all of us." Milk was posthumously given the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama on August 12, 2009.

paragraphs: Popular quotes include "If a bullet should enter my brain, let that bullet destroy every closet door", "The fact is that more people have been slaughtered in the name of religion than for any other single reason. That, that my friends, that is true perversion!".


title: John Blow

paragraphs: John Blow (born Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, baptised 23 February 1649; died Westminster, London, 1 October 1708) was an English composer and organist. He had a great deal of influence on English music. His best pupil was Henry Purcell who was the greatest English composer of his time.

paragraphs: Blow was born in Newark-on-Trent. As a boy he sang in the choir the Chapel Royal (the king’s church choir). He was still very young when he started composing anthems. One of these anthems, known as the “Club Anthem” was written by Blow together with three other choirboys: Pelham Humfrey, Michael Wise and William Turner, all of whom were to become well-known composers when they grew up. The diarist Samuel Pepys heard him sing once, but Blow’s voice was breaking by then, and Pepys wrote in his diary that he made an “unpleasant sound”.

paragraphs: In 1668 he became organist of Westminster Abbey. In 1674 he was made a gentleman of the Chapel Royal. When Pelham Humfrey died, Blow took over two of his jobs. He was in charge of a small choir at the king’s court (he was called “composer-in-ordinary”). He also became Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal. He stayed in that job for the rest of his life. Many of the boy choristers he taught later became great composers. They include William Croft, Jeremiah Clark and Daniel Purcell. Henry Purcell’s voice had already broken by this time, and he became an apprentice to Blow.

paragraphs: In September 1673 he married Elizabeth Braddock. Ten years later she died when giving birth to a child.

paragraphs: In 1676 Blow became one of three organists at Westminster Abbey. In 1677 he was given the title of “Doctor of Music”. In 1680 he seems to have resigned from his job as organist at Westminster Abbey so that his young pupil Henry Purcell could take his place. By 1685 he was one of the private musicians of James II. He composed a long anthem "God spake sometime in visions" for King James’s coronation.

paragraphs: In 1687 he became choirmaster at St Paul's Cathedral. The choir was just being reformed after the rebuilding of the cathedral following the Great Fire of London. Michael Wise had been appointed as choirmaster, but then he died, so Blow was given the job. In 1695 he became organist of St Margaret's, Westminster, and he also took his old job at Westminster Abbey again when Henry Purcell died.

paragraphs: In 1699 he became Composer to the Chapel Royal. This was the first time anyone had been given this title. However, he does not seem to have composed much after 1700.

paragraphs: Blow died on 1 October 1708 and was buried in the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, close to Henry Purcell.

paragraphs: Blow composed a large amount of music. He wrote the same sort of music as Henry Purcell, except that Purcell also wrote trio sonatas as well as a lot of music for the theatre. Blow wrote a large amount of church music. We know fourteen services and more than a hundred anthems by Blow. He also wrote other vocal music such as odes, and music for harpsichord and just one piece of music for the stage: "Venus and Adonis".


title: Diary

paragraphs: A diary is a book which a person writes about what they have seen or heard or what they have been doing. Diaries are usually handwritten. People like to keep diaries (meaning: write a diary) for a variety of reasons: they may want to keep a record for themselves about what they have done during their life. They may sometimes want to publish it so that other people can read it. Some diaries may be important for business or military purpose. Children in schools are often asked to write a diary. This helps them to write about what they have been doing and expressing their thoughts.

paragraphs: Some people, such as Samuel Pepys, have become famous as a diarist. Pepys lived at an interesting time (he was alive at the time of the Great Fire of London). We know a lot about what London was like by reading his diary. Anne Frank wrote a diary while she was hiding from the Nazis.

paragraphs: In modern times people write blogs on the internet. This is a modern kind of diary.

paragraphs: The word diary can also be used for a pocket diary: a small book in which people can write down their appointments so that they can remember what they are supposed to be doing each day.


title: Classical economics

paragraphs: Classical economics is the first modern school of economic thought. Its main developers include Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus and John Stuart Mill.

paragraphs: Adam Smith's book "The Wealth of Nations" (1776) was the beginning of classical economics. Smith said that if everyone did what was best for themselves, the result would be best for society. Before that, economics was about the king's personal interests, and the wealth of a nation was measured by the king's treasury. Smith said what's important is what's best for the whole nation, and that wealth should be measured by the yearly income of the nation. He wanted to discover how wealth can grow, and how people could do things to support that growth. Smith's book said land, labor, and capital were the three "factors of production" and the main contributors to a nation's wealth.

paragraphs: Prices naturally adjust to having more or less of something: supply and demand. If there is too much of something (more supply), prices go down so that people have more reason to buy it. If a lot of people want something (high demand), there may not be enough of it (scarcity); there will be a competition among the people who want to buy it, and some people will agree to pay more to get what they want, and prices go up.

paragraphs: Smith said markets should be free. At the time, some big companies (like the East India Company) were controlled by the government. Sometimes the rulers made laws that were good for themselves but not for workers or customers. For example, in the American colonies, colonists could grow cotton but were not allowed to make clothing from it. They had to ship it to England to be made into clothing, then buy it back after it was finished. Smith said this was bad for individuals and for society. He thought it was better for money to flow freely and naturally between buyers and sellers without outside interference. Money would naturally go to the sellers who made the best product at the best price. This way if people did what was best for them, it would end up being best for society as a whole, almost like an "invisible hand" was guiding everything.


title: Jeff Probst

paragraphs: Jeffrey Lee "Jeff" Probst (born November 4, 1962) is an American game show host, executive producer and reporter. He was born in Wichita, Kansas, but mostly grew up in Bellevue, Washington. He is best known for being the host of the American version of the reality show "Survivor".

paragraphs: On September 21, 2008 Probst won the first Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Host for a Reality or Reality-Competition Program. On September 20, 2009 he won the same award again.

paragraphs: Probst currently hosts the talk show "The Jeff Probst Show", which started on September 10, 2012.


title: Survivor (American TV series)

paragraphs: Survivor is an American reality television game show. It came from the Swedish show "Expedition Robinson", made in 1997 by Charlie Parsons, and first shown in May 2000. Mark Burnett produces the American show. It is hosted by Jeff Probst. So far, there have been 34 seasons, with a 35th season on its way.

paragraphs: Each season has a group of people who have never met each other, living in a far away place. They are divided into two to four groups called "tribes". Each tribe must find food and water, make fire, and make homes for themselves, while taking part in challenges to get a reward, or (where they become safe from getting voted off). Sometimes a player will have to be removed from the game due to an injury or infection. The last two or three players face a jury, the last seven or more players voted off. The jury asks the final few questions, and then votes for the winner of the title of "Sole Survivor" and a million dollar prize.

paragraphs: An idol may be used up until 4 players are left in the game, once there is 3 an idol can’t be used.

paragraphs: Each season, the 16 to 20 strangers are divided into two to four teams called "tribes". The tribes are usually given some tools to survive with, such as a machete, a pot, and water canteens to hold water. The tribes are encouraged to build shelters to protect themselves. In some seasons the tribes started with some food, such as rice, given by the show, and in other seasons, the tribes have no help in the beginning. Early seasons allowed players to bring one luxury item with them. Others seasons have brought players into the game unprepared, making them start with only the clothes they are wearing and the tools that are provided.

paragraphs: The tribes have been divided in many different ways. Early seasons divided tribes so that they have equal numbers of people from different ages and genders. Some seasons divided the tribes, by age, gender, and/or race. Usually the tribes are divided before the show starts, but some seasons have had one or more players choose the tribes after the game starts.

paragraphs: Tribes are given different names and colors which are used on the tribe flags, challenge courses, on-screen text, and other items. Each player is given a buff, an elastic ring of material patterned with the logo for their season, that can be worn around the arm, the head. Players have to wear the buff where it can be seen at all times, so the audience can tell who is on which tribe. When the tribes are switched, the players must give up their old buff and get a new one for their new tribe.

paragraphs: In each season, the tribes have to compete in challenges, where the players will use strength, teamwork and problem solving. For the first half of the game, the tribes compete against each other in challenges. For the second half, after the merge, each player usually competes against each other in challenges.

paragraphs: Sometimes there can be a combined reward/immunity challenge.

paragraphs: In seasons which start with more than two tribes, there is a dissolve of the tribes, where the players will be re-divided into two tribes after one to four Tribal Councils.

paragraphs: In many seasons, the tribes have been switched before the merge. The members of each tribe are swapped around. Sometimes the tribes are switched by doing a random shuffle to a schoolyard pick, where two players ("captains") would start picking players for their tribe. There has also been a Tribe Switch which is done by allowing players to join the other tribe. This process usually defeats many early alliances and strategies, and can cost a player the game early, or save them from being voted off early.

paragraphs: When there are 8 to 12 players left in the game, the two tribes merge. When they merge, the two tribes come together to make one new tribe. From this point, Challenges are won by one person. The merged tribe also chooses a new tribe name and makes a new tribe flag with materials given by production. There was no merge in "". The Koror tribe had won every immunity challenge, and members of the other tribe, Ulong, were being voted off one by one. When there was one Ulong member left, they simply joined Koror.

paragraphs: In the later seasons, hidden immunity idols have been made available. These idols, usually a small object that fits with the theme of the "Survivor" location, are hidden near camp or on Exile Island, with clues on its location given, usually to a chosen player (in "Guatemala") or to exiled or kidnapped players. Once found, the player with an idol may keep it or give it to another player before the start of Tribal Council, and it may not be stolen from that player. The player doesn't have to show this idol to other players, though may use it to join alliances and for voting purposes. Other players may find out that someone has the idol by peeking into other player's personal items. In the first few seasons of the twist, only one idol was ever in play, but in "Survivor: Fiji", "Survivor: China", "Survivor: Tocantins" and "Survivor: Samoa", two hidden immunity idols were made available to the players (one at each camp). The hidden immunity idol can only be used up until and including the Tribal Council of the final four or five players, depending on the season.

paragraphs: The use of the idol by a player to become immune has changed through the seasons:

paragraphs: During "Guatemala", the hidden immunity idol was not returned to the game after its use. Since then, if the idol is played, or the player with the idol leaves the game without playing it, the idol is replaced at a new spot to be found, and new clues are given out. During "Gabon", the players all decided to throw a hidden immunity idol into the sea. In this case it was not replaced at a new spot. In some seasons, fake hidden immunity idols have been made by contestants; these idols don't work if played.

paragraphs: The idea of Exile Island was started in "", when a player had to stay alone on a beach due to losing the Immunity Challenge. The idea was later used again in "" and was used in every season after that, except "" and "". A chosen player is sent ("exiled") to a small island away from the main tribe camps, usually for at least a day after a reward challenge and returning at the next immunity challenge. The player chosen may be the first loser of a challenge (as was the case in ""), or a person chosen by either the winning or losing tribe while the players are divided in tribes, or an individual challenge winner in the individual phase, after the merge. In "Micronesia" and "Tocantins", one person from each tribe was sent to Exile Island. Unless stated otherwise, players who win the right to choose who goes to Exile Island may also choose to go themselves.

paragraphs: Also, whenever the number of players is uneven when tribes are being made (in division or switching, but not merging), the player without a tribe will be "tribeless" and sent to Exile Island after formation ("", "", and ""). In this case, the player will return and join the tribe which loses a member at the next Tribal Council.

paragraphs: Once chosen, the exiled player is taken to the island by boat (or given a map to the "island"). On the island, there are few tools to survive with, usually a water canteen, a machete, a pot, and a small amount of shelter. The little amount of food on Exile Island can make a player weaker, causing them to perform worse in challenges. The separation from other players can cause a player to become on outcast on their tribe. Players are often sent to Exile Island for one or both of these strategic reasons.

paragraphs: The person exiled gets a clue to the hidden immunity idol, which may or may not be located on the island, an "instant comfort" (as in ""), or (as in "") the right to change tribes. If the exiled player is asked to return after the Tribal Council (whether they belong to a tribe or not), they will also be safe from being voted out at that Tribal Council.

paragraphs: Tribal Council is held at the end of each episode. Here, the tribe votes one person out of the tribe. The first time any player visits Tribal Council, they are asked to take a torch and light it from a fire pit. They say that "this is part of the ritual of Tribal Council because fire represents life. As long as you have fire, you are still in this game. When your fire's gone, so are you". If the Jury has already been started, they are asked to enter and watch. Probst then asks the players questions about details and events since the tribe's last Tribal Council. Before the vote, if a player has been awarded individual immunity through an immunity challenge, he is then asked if he wants to give it to another player. Whoever has the immunity after this possible switch cannot be voted out.

paragraphs: The players then vote for another player in secret, and the player who gets the most votes must leave the game. Players cannot vote for themselves. Players also have to write neatly, and avoid using of uncommon nicknames. If the number of votes for one player is above half of the total votes, Probst will stop reading, and that player is eliminated, keeping the rest of the votes in secret to the players themselves.

paragraphs: As said earlier, the player(s) with the Hidden Immunity Idol(s) get the chance to play the idol at certain points at Tribal Council.

paragraphs: The eliminated player's fire is put out, and Probst tells them "The tribe has spoken" and "It's time for you to go." The player then leaves the Tribal Council area and says some last words that are shown at the end of the episode. The rest of the tribe members are then told to return to camp with their torches; in some seasons, this has allowed a tribe access to a source of fire, while in other seasons, the tribe is not allowed to return to camp with their torches lit if they do not yet have their own source of fire or a way of starting one.

paragraphs: When there is a tie (where two or more players have the same number of votes) before there are four players left, the non-tied players will vote once again, where the only possibilities for elimination are the tied players. If the second vote does not break the tie, a two minute discussion will start where the non-tied players must come to a decision as to who should be voted off. If a decision is not reached in two minutes, the tied players are safe from being voted off and the non-tied players (except anyone who has won individual immunity) choose rocks out of a bag without looking. The player who chooses the differently colored rock is eliminated.

paragraphs: In the event of a tie at the final four, there will be a revote (However in "Survivor: Gabon", there was no revote in the final four and it went straight to the fire-making tie breaker challenge), but if the revote does not break the tie, the tied players will compete in a challenge. In "Palau", "Panama", "Cook Islands" and "Gabon", this challenge was a fire-making contest. In "Marquesas", the random rock tiebreaker was used at the final four, which host Jeff Probst later said was a mistake.

paragraphs: In the very rare case that a tribe is down to two players before the merge, as in "Palau", those two will also face off in a challenge to decide who is to leave the game. This has only happened once to date.

paragraphs: Very rarely, a player may choose to quit the game. The player's wish is granted, for whatever reasons. If a player quits at Tribal Council, as was the case in "Pearl Islands" and "Palau", that player's torch is "laid down". Depending on the player's reasons for quitting, they may or may not get to say their final words.

paragraphs: In very rare cases when players have to leave the game due to injury, or completely leave the game on their own terms outside of Tribal Council, Tribal Council is usually not held, with the other tribe(s) being informed of the player leaving if still before the merge. However, there have been occasions where, after a player is removed, an immunity challenge and a Tribal Council are still held. This usually happens when the game starts with more than eighteen players.

paragraphs: All eliminated players except, usually, the Final 9 (in later seasons this number has changed), leave the game entirely. The rest of the players who leave the game, except the final two or three who will go on to the final vote, are the jury, a group of people who vote to decide the winner of the game. Once the Jury starts to form, the members are at every Tribal Council, but are not allowed to speak or talk to the players still in the game; they are only there to watch the questioning and voting that occurs. Jury members are there until the end of the final Tribal Council, and are not allowed to talk about their voting or issues with the remaining players, with other jury members, or the final players. This rule continues through the game and up until the winner is announced.

paragraphs: The last two challenges (starting on the third to last day of the game) before the Final Tribal Council have always followed a similar pattern:

paragraphs: Before to the second-to-last challenge, the players are usually given a small food reward (a hearty breakfast or similar meal) for making it this far. The second-to-last immunity challenge is usually a very hard, multi-part challenge, and usually is the most complex challenge of the entire season, often combining elements from previous challenges. A Tribal Council is then held to vote off one player.

paragraphs: Before the last challenge, the remaining players partake in a memorial activity appropriate for the theme of the show, where they pay respect to the players who have been eliminated before them. (Torches of the eliminated players are usually included in this part.) This usually leads right into the last immunity challenge, which usually focuses on balance or endurance and which can last from minutes to almost half a day. In most seasons, with three players in the challenge, winning immunity on this challenge allows that player to choose whom he or she wants to go with to the Final Tribal Council, raising their chance at winning the game. Because of this, the challenges can allow players to talk and try to make last-minute deals, giving up immunity for assurance of being taken to the Final Two. A Tribal Council is then held to vote off the last eliminated player. Only the person with Immunity votes since the other two votes would cancel each other out. At this point, the game is no longer in the remaining players' control, as the next day they face the Final Tribal Council where their fate will be decided.

paragraphs: A similar pattern has been used in newer seasons in which three players go to the Final Tribal Council. The final challenges and rituals take place one vote earlier in the game. The last immunity challenge is held amongst the final four players, and the winner, while assured a place in the final three, does not choose his or her competition for the prize.

paragraphs: On the last day of the competition, the surviving players usually either clean up, tear down, or burn down their camp as a tribute to surviving to the end of the game. They then make their way to the final Tribal Council.

paragraphs: During the final Tribal Council, the following events usually occur:

paragraphs: After this vote, the container with the votes is taken away by the host. The players are told that the vote will be revealed during the live finale, and the votes are secured until the live finale of the show when the votes are revealed and the winner is announced. Sometimes the final tribal council and finale are changed so they look like one event, until moments later the camera shows the studio audience. This is possible by re-creating on a studio the Tribal Council set from the location of filming.

paragraphs: Before the use of a Final 3, the jury has always been odd-numbered, ensuring that no tie would be possible. However, with every Final 3 jury, or as in the case of "Micronesia" of an even-numbered jury for a Final 2, a tie may be possible; it is unknown what tie-breaker is used to break a tie if it happens. During the finale of "Micronesia", the host had a white envelope that he said held the tie-breaker, but its contents were not revealed as there was no tie.

paragraphs: The player chosen as Sole Survivor gets a cash prize of $1,000,000 (prior to taxes). The Sole Survivor also gets a car given by the show's sponsor, except in "Survivor: Cook Islands". In a few seasons, the final players have also agreed to play for the tribe flag or other representative object from camp.

paragraphs: In addition, the final five or six contestants may have the chance to compete for a car. The winner of this challenge has never won the game, leading to the idea of a "Survivor car curse".

paragraphs: Every player gets a prize for being on Survivor depending on how long he or she lasted in the game. In most seasons, the runner-up gets $100,000, and third place wins $85,000. Sonja Christopher, the first player voted off in "Survivor: Borneo", got $2,500. The prize was raised for "". The known prizes for "Survivor: All-Stars" were as follows: 2nd = $250,000; 3rd = $125,000; 4th = $100,000. Tina Wesson, the first player voted off in "Survivor: All-Stars", got $25,000. In "", the first season with tied runners-up, the two runners-up got US$100,000 each, and Yau-Man Chan got US$60,000 for his 4th place finish. The prizes for other seasons with more than sixteen contestants are unknown.

paragraphs: All players also get an additional $10,000 for being on the reunion show.

paragraphs: There have also been additional prizes given out, outside of the usual mechanics of the show:

paragraphs: The United States version is produced by Mark Burnett and hosted by Jeff Probst. It is shown on Thursdays on CBS. The first season of Survivor was broadcast as a summer replacement show in 2000. Since then the show has been broadcast each U.S. television season. Each competition is called a season, but each season has a different name, and lasts from 13 to 15 episodes. Starting with "" there have been two Survivor seasons shown during each U.S. television season.

paragraphs: The American version of "Survivor" has been shot in many locations around the world since the first season, in warm, tropical climates.


title: Kris Allen

paragraphs: Kristopher Neil "Kris" Allen (born June 21, 1985) is an American singer-songwriter. He was the winner of season 8 of American Idol.


title: PGA Championship

paragraphs: The PGA Championship is a golf tournament, which is the last out of the men's golf Major Championships.


title: Invisible ink

paragraphs: Invisible ink is a type of liquid that cannot be seen or read unless it is first activated. Chemical reactions, heat, ultraviolet light or special glasses are used to make invisible ink visible.

paragraphs: It is used to send secret messages or for entertainment. Invisible ink pens are sometimes sold or used for prizes, usually with an ultraviolet light.


title: Pee-Wee's Big Adventure

paragraphs: Pee Wee's Big Adventure is a movie starring Pee Wee Herman. He travels across the US to get back his stolen bicycle. The 1985 movie was directed by Tim Burton from a screen play by Paul Reubens, Phil Hartman and Michael Varhol. The music was composed by Danny Elfman.


title: Bad Kreuznach

paragraphs: Bad Kreuznach is a town in Germany, in Rhineland-Palatinate. It has about 40,000 inhabitants.


title: Asamoah Gyan

paragraphs: Asamoah Gyan (born 22 November 1985) is a Ghanaian football player. He plays for Stade Rennais and Ghana national team.


title: Dean Ashton

paragraphs: Dean Ashton (born 24 November 1983) is a former English football player. He has played for England national team.


Tadanari Lee


title: Takahiro Shimotaira

paragraphs: Takahiro Shimotaira (born 18 December 1971) used to be a Japanese football player. He has now retired.


title: Sandro Cardoso dos Santos

paragraphs: Sandro Cardoso dos Santos (born 22 March 1980) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for Changsha Ginde.


title: Raymond Domenech

paragraphs: Raymond Domenech (born 24 January 1952) is a French football player and manager. He played for France national team.


title: Acritarch

paragraphs: Acritarchs are early microfossils, the remains, probably, of eukaryote cells. It is the resistant single-layered cell walls, or perhaps a cover secreted by cell walls, that we see in early rocks of the Proterozoic era. These structures are organic in their chemical composition, not calcium carbonate. Their precise nature is not known, but they look like the resting stages of modern dinoflagellates (the 'red tide' organisms).

paragraphs: Acritarchs appear in quantity in organic-rich shales and siltstone strata 1.4 to 1.6 billion years old. They include a wide range of forms, so it is not clear whether or not they are monophyletic. At about 1 billion years ago they started to increase in abundance, diversity, and especially size and number of spines. Their populations crashed during the Cryogenian period 860 million years ago (the Snowball Earth episodes). They proliferated in the Cambrian explosion and reached their highest diversity in the Palaeozoic. They survived at least until the Ordovician period.

paragraphs: The increased spininess possibly resulted from the need for defence against predators large enough to swallow them or tear them apart. Other groups of small organisms from the Neoproterozoic era also show signs of anti-predator defences.

paragraphs: A recent discovery has greatly extended our knowledge of acritarchs. Large (50μm) acritarchs have been found in silica-based rocks of Archaean age in South Africa. These rocks date to 3,200 million years ago, which makes them the second oldest life to be found as fossils. The earliest are cyanobacteria found in stromatolites.

paragraphs: The significance of this is that acritarchs are eukaryotes. This means that eukaryotes were present at least 1.5 billion years earlier than had been supposed.


title: Issey Nakajima-Farran

paragraphs: Issey Morgan Nakajima-Farran (born 16 May 1984) is a Canadian soccer player who plays as a winger for Toronto FC in Major League Soccer.


title: Sediment

paragraphs: Sediment is made of small particles deposited in water or on land. After deposition, sediments may stay in their new place a long time and be covered by newer sediments. Pressure may slowly transform sediment into sedimentary rocks.

paragraphs: The word sediment is also used for material transported by wind or water, and deposited on the surface. Sediments are often eroded again and deposited in a new place. The study of how sedimentary rocks are formed is called sedimentology.

paragraphs: In more general use, sediment is any matter which falls to the bottom of a liquid, such as beer.


title: Barcelona Metro line 3

paragraphs: Line 3, (L3) currently known as Zona Universitària - Trinitat Nova, coloured green and often simply referred to as "Línia verda" ("Green line"), is a metro line in Barcelona operated by TMB.

paragraphs: Station or line names shown in italics are under construction.


title: Albert Szent-Györgyi

paragraphs: Albert Szent-Györgyi (Albert Szent-Györgyi de Nagyrápolt, 16 September 1893 22 October 1986) was an Hungarian scientist. He won the 1937 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his discoveries about Vitamin C.

paragraphs: He was commonly known for discovering a vitamin that our bodies cannot make, vitamin C


title: Barcelona Metro line 4

paragraphs: Line 4, currently known as Trinitat Nova – La Pau, usually called "línia groga" (yellow line), is a line in the Barcelona Metro network operated by TMB.

paragraphs: Stations or lines shown in italics are under construction.


title: Barcelona Metro line 5

paragraphs: Line 5 (L5), currently known as Cornellà Centre - Horta, its termini, and often simply called "Línia Blava" (Blue line) is line belonging to the Barcelona Metro network operated by TMB, and part of the ATM fare-integrated transport network.

paragraphs: It first opened in 1959. Line 5 is currently 16.6 km. long and has 23 stations, from Cornellà to Horta in the northern part of Barcelona, where it's going to be extended towards Vall d'Hebron, meeting L3.

paragraphs: Station and line names in italics are under construction.


title: Barcelona Metro line 6

paragraphs: Line 6, coloured navy blue, (currently known as Plaça Catalunya - Reina Elisenda) is the name of a metro-like commuter train service in Barcelona operated by FGC, and part of the ATM fare-integrated transport system. It links Plaça Catalunya, the city centre, with Sarrià-Sant Gervasi. This Barcelona Metro and Metro del Vallès line shares three stations with FGC L7.

paragraphs: Prior to the "integration" with the TMB network, L6 covered as an underground commuter train line the distance from downtown Barcelona to Sarrià, pretty much the same as nowadays. It has its origins in 1876, with the Barcelona-Sarrià train. It's going to be extended towards Sant Boi, through Hospital Sant Joan de Déu.


title: Coccolith

paragraphs: Coccoliths are the microscopic plates which form chalk. They are made by one of the most important eukaryote phytoplankton. These are single celled protists whose full name is coccolithophorids or coccolithophores. The spherical skeleton of coccoliths is a "coccosphere".

paragraphs: Chalk makes up much of the marine strata in the Upper Cretaceous period, and is 95% to 99% made up of coccoliths, the calcium carbonate (CaCO) plates which coccolithophorids produce.

paragraphs: Coccoliths were first examined by Cristian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795–1875), who thought they were inorganic products. They were named, and identified as made by living organisms by Thomas Henry Huxley, who realised they were a major part of the rock we call chalk. The story of how the tiny cell produces its coccosphere is told by Westbroek:

paragraphs: Coccolithophores are a major contributor to the carbonate in deep sea sediments. In the Northeast Atlantic during the last glacial-interglacial cycle (ice age), coccoliths make up 70-80% of the total carbonate during the warm periods, and less during glacial times.

paragraphs: Coccoliths are first seen at the end of the Triassic period, 200 million years ago. It is interesting that another group of tiny algae, the diatoms, make their entry into the fossil record at almost the same time. The coccolith all-time peak was in the warm inland and continental shelf seas of the Cretaceous period. They are still of huge ecological and geological importance.

paragraphs: "Emiliania huxleyi" ("Ehux" for short) is one of the most important planktonic algae on the planet today. It is the most common coccolithophore in the oceans of the world. It dominates in the northeast Atlantic, in the northeast Pacific and in the eastern Mediterranean. Its gigantic algal blooms are easily seen on satellite imagery. This blooming life-style started between ~80,000 and 50,000 years ago, and marks the start of the so-called "Ehux Acme zone" in the fossil record.

paragraphs: Ehux is only seen in relatively young sediments, and must have evolved fairly recently. The first appearance of Ehux in the sediment is used as a biostratigraphic marker. This appearance was dated to ~270,000 years ago. Later, Weaver dated it at ~242–268,000 years ago.


title: Haptophyte

paragraphs: Haptophytes are a phylum of algae, sometimes called the Prymnesiophyta. All or most of them are single-celled photosynthetic phytoplankton.

paragraphs: The cells typically have two slightly unequal flagella and a unique organelle called a haptonema. This is superficially similar to a flagellum, but differs in its arrangement of microtubules, and in its use. The name comes from the Greek "hapsis" = touch, and "nema" = thread.

paragraphs: Molecular and morphological evidence places them in five orders; coccolithophores make up the "Isochrysidales" and "Coccolithales". Other groups include phytoplankton which produce the toxic algal blooms.


title: Crush 40

paragraphs: Crush 40, formerly known as Sons of Angels, is a Japanese-American hard rock band formed in 1997. The primary lineup from 1998 to 2009 consisted of guitarist Jun Senoue and vocalist Johnny Gioeli. They became known for game soundtracks for Wave Master Entertainment, including the Sonic the Hedgehog series.


title: Macedonia (Greece)

paragraphs: Macedonia is a historical and geographical region in northern Greece. It is the second most populous region of Greece and usually it is referred as "Northern Greece" along with Thrace. It is situated between the Pindus Mountains and river Nestos and it borders west with Epirus and Thessaly, northwestern with Albania, north with North Macedonia, northeastern with Bulgaria and east with Thrace. Its south coasts are washed by the Aegean Sea. Macedonia is separated in three smaller peripheries: West Macedonia, Central Macedonia and East Macedonia and Thrace. It has a total population of 2,424,765 inhabitants according to the 2001 census and its total area is 34,177 km². The capital of Macedonia is Thessaloniki and has a population of about 1,000,000 inhabitants. Macedonia's national anthem is "Μακεδονία Ξακουστή" which means "Famous Macedonia".

paragraphs: Macedonia has many mountains and the tallest is Mount Olympus which has a high of 2,917 meters. There are also many valleys that are some of the biggest in the whole Greece. Rivers such as Aliakmon, Axios, Nestos, and Strymonas cross these valleys and drain into the Aegean Sea.

paragraphs: Macedonia consists 13 prefectures and sometimes it is said to be 14 because there is also a monastery region, Mount Athos, which is autonomous.

paragraphs: And the population of the largest towns:


title: Holocene

paragraphs: The Holocene is the present geological epoch. It started around 11,000 years ago after the last ice age. We are currently going through a non-ice age warm stage in Earth's history.

paragraphs: The Holocene climatic optimum (HCO) was a warm period from about 9,000 to 5,000 years BP. The interesting thing about this is, despite recent global warming, we are still below this warm period (see diagram).

paragraphs: This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about two millennia ago.

paragraphs: The Holocene is also called the Recent epoch. It is the second stage in the Quaternary period.

paragraphs: The Holocene marks the end of the previous series of ice ages in the Pleistocene. It started about 11,700 years ago when the temperatures rose quickly from the previous level.

paragraphs: During the early Holocene, there were many extinctions amongst larger mammals. This is because of human hunting and climate change.

paragraphs: At this time the Bering bridge connecting Russia and Alaska melted. Also the land bridge between China and Japan melted (starting the Jōmon period), as well as many land bridges between islands in Southeast Asia.


title: Benthos

paragraphs: Benthos: the flora and fauna found at the bottom of the sea or lake. Covers quite a wide range of uses, for instance, animals in rock pools are benthic, though only a few inches below the surface. In the ocean, used to contrast organisms in the sea depths (though not actually on the bottom), with plankton, living in the upper pelagic zone. The problem is addressed by extending the pelagic zone down below the light to the "bathypelagic" and "abyssopelagic" zones. These terms, however, are mostly not used.


title: Cleidopus gloriamaris

paragraphs: The pineapplefish, "Cleidopus gloriamaris", is a species of fish. It is also known as the knightfish or the coat-of-mail fish, due to the scales on its body. Some people call it the port-and-starboard light fish, as it has a pair of bright spots that are like a ship's lights. "Gloriamaris" is from the Latin language "gloria" and "maris", means "glory of the sea".

paragraphs: The pineapplefish is found near Queensland, New South Wales, and Western Australia. It lives at a depth of 6-200 meters (20-660 ft).

paragraphs: The pineapplefish is a member of the Pinecone fish family. The pineapplefish is the largest Pinecone species, reaching up to in length.


title: Naousa

paragraphs: Naousa, former Naoussa, is a city in the region of Macedonia in Greece. It is in the west part of Imathia prefecture. Its population is 22.288 inhabitants and its area is 300,89 km². Naousa is surrounded by orchards, producing peaches, apples, cherries and other fruits. It has a long and rich history because there are many archaeological places there. There is also the site of the ancient School of Aristotle where Alexander The Great studied moral philosophy, philosophy and politics.


title: Polygyros

paragraphs: Polygyros is a city in the area of Macedonia in Greece. It is the capital of the Chalkidiki prefecture and of the homonym municipality. It is found on the foothill of mountain Cholomon. It has a population of 6,232 people and it has a total area is 470.933 square kilometers.


title: Broşteni, Suceava

paragraphs: Broşteni is a town that is found in Suceava County in the country of Romania. It has a population of about 11,900 people that live within a seven kilometer area of the city.


title: Jack Benny

paragraphs: Jack Benny (born Benjamin Kubelsky; February 14, 1894 - December 26, 1974) was an American comedian and actor. He was born in Chicago and grew up in Waukegan, Illinois. His mother was a Lithuanian immigrant; his father was a Jewish immigrant from Poland. From 1932 to 1955, Benny had a radio show. The first title of the show was "The Canada Dry Ginger Ale Program", but it was later called "The Jack Benny Program". His television program was broadcast from 1950 to 1965.

paragraphs: Benny died of pancreatic cancer in Beverly Hills, California.


title: Southam

paragraphs: Southam is a small town in Warwickshire, England. It is often mistaken for a village, but has been a town since medieval times.

paragraphs: There is an ancient stone wall, called "The Holy Well".

paragraphs: The first battle in the English Civil War was in Southam. In August 1642, small groups of soldiers from the opposing sides accidentally met at Southam, and in the fight some were killed. They were on their way to Edge Hill, where the first big battle took place. History books usually say Edge Hill was the first fight. Later, King Charles I rode through the town and fined the people because they did not ring the church bells for him. Later still, Oliver Cromwell, who slept in the Manor House (now a pharmacy).

paragraphs: In the 1600s, Southam was an important resting place for horse-drawn carriages, and even in recent times had an unusually large number of inns and public houses. (Several have close in the past 20 years.) A main road that Welsh sheep farmers ('drovers') used to travel to London passed through Southam. The town was also at an important junction between Birmingham, Coventry, Daventry, Northampton, Banbury, Oxford, Leamington Spa and Warwick.

paragraphs: Southam never had a canal or railway built through it. This meant that it remained a small town, while other places with canals and railways grew rapidly in the 1800s. In recent years, a lot of new houses have been built, increasing the population from 2000 in 1950 to 8000+ in 2010.

paragraphs: There is a fine church, which dates from 1200. It was extensively restored in Victorian times, but still has lots of medieval stone work. The Manor House (now a pharmacy) is in the centre of the town. In 2008, during routine maintenance, fine wood carvings were discovered under the plaster. The carvings are of hearts and arrows, and are at least 300 years old. The company that owns the building paid for the beautify work to be fully restored.

paragraphs: There are small industrial estates around the town, some with important businesses, including the computer games company . There are plans for a large supermarket (Tesco or Sainsburys) to be built in the town. While this would change the character of the town even more, it could benefit people who find the current small shops and supermarkets too expensive, and provide more people with work. Some people do not want a supermarket, saying that other shops would close.


title: Rob Reiner

paragraphs: Rob Reiner (born March 6, 1947) is an American actor, director, producer, and activist.

paragraphs: He acted in the "All in the Family" television series. He directed movies, such as "This Is Spinal Tap", "The Princess Bride", "When Harry Met Sally" and "The Bucket List".

paragraphs: Reiner was born to a Jewish family. He is the elder son of Carl Reiner (1922-2020) and Estelle Reiner (née Lebost, 1914-2008). He was born in the Bronx, New York City. He lived in New Rochelle, New York during his childhood. When he was 13, he moved to Los Angeles, California, where he attended high school and university.

paragraphs: Reiner is a Democrat and attended the 2012 Democratic National Convention in support of President Obama's re-election.


title: Survivor: Borneo

paragraphs: Survivor: Borneo was the first season of the American reality show "Survivor". When it was first being shown, it was simply called "Survivor" but its official name has been changed to "Survivor: Borneo", so viewers can tell which season they are watching. Before the change to "Survivor: Borneo", the season was known as "Survivor: Pulau Tiga", but it was changed again to its current name so viewers would not get this season confused with the tenth season, "". The show began filming on March 31, 2000 and ended on April 20, 2000. It was shown later that year on CBS. It was set in the South China Sea on the Malaysian island of Pulau Tiga in the state of Sabah, about off the north coast of Borneo, Malaysia. The show became available on DVD on May 11, 2004.

paragraphs: At the beginning, the sixteen players were divided into two tribes, an orange tribe, Tagi, and a yellow tribe, Pagong, which the producers named after their beaches. When ten players were left, the two tribes merged, becoming one tribe. Players Sean Keniff and Jenna Lewis named the new tribe "Rattana". After 39 days of playing, Richard Hatch was named the Sole Survivor, winning against Kelly Wiglesworth in a 4–3 jury vote. In 2006, it was revealed that Hatch did not declare his winnings, among other earnings, in his tax return and was sentenced to 51 months in prison.

paragraphs: The "Survivor: Borneo" finale (last episode) got the highest ratings of any "Survivor" episode to date. Richard Hatch, Jenna Lewis, Rudy Boesch, Susan Hawk and Colleen Haskell were asked to return in the eighth season of "Survivor", "". Haskell was the only one who did not return, while Hatch, Lewis, Boesch and Hawk placed 14th, 3rd, 17th and 13th.

paragraphs: The game had sixteen players, divided into two tribes, Pagong and Tagi. After six players were voted off, the tribes were combined, or merged, to make one tribe, Rattana. Seven players made up the jury, who chose who would win the game, and the $1 million prize.


title: Vermont, Wisconsin

paragraphs: Vermont is a town of Dane County in the state of Wisconsin in the United States. 839 people were living in Vermont as of 2000. Vermont has a total area of 35.8 square miles, according to the United States Census Bureau.


title: Rastacap

paragraphs: The rastacap (also called a rastafar or toppa) is a tall, knitted, round cap, which is often brightly coloured. It comes from Jamaica and Barbados and is commonly thought of as a Rastafarian hat.


title: Amphicoelias

paragraphs: Amphicoelias was a genus of sauropod dinosaur, which may have included the largest dinosaur ever discovered ("A. fragillimus"). If it truly existed, "A. fragillimus" would be the longest vertebrate by a considerable margin, and it would have a mass that rivals the heaviest animal known, the blue whale. However, because the only fossil evidence for its existence was lost shortly after being discovered in the 1870s, evidence survives only in drawings, and doubt has been expressed about their accuracy.

paragraphs: The fossil was found in the Morrison Formation.


title: Corneille Heymans

paragraphs: Corneille Jean François Heymans (March 28, 1892 - July 18, 1968) was an Belgian doctor. He won the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his discoveries about how breathing is regulated.


title: Christina Applegate

paragraphs: Christina Applegate (born November 25, 1971) is an American actress. She was born in Hollywood, California, the daughter of record producer Robert Applegate and singer-actress Nancy Priddy (born 1941). Many people know her from playing the role of Kelly Bundy in the television series "Married... with Children" between 1987 and 1997. She has appeared in the television series, "Samantha Who?", and in the movie .

paragraphs: In summer 2008, Applegate was diagnosed with breast cancer and a BRCA1 gene mutation, for which she had a double mastectomy.


title: Hayato Yano

paragraphs: Hayato Yano (born 29 October 1980) is a former Japanese football player.


title: Osmar Aparecido de Azevedo

paragraphs: Osmar Aparecido de Azevedo (born 23 July 1980) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for Ipatinga.


title: Kim Dong-Hyun

paragraphs: Kim Dong-Hyun (born 20 May 1984) is a South Korean professional athlete. He is best known as an association football player. He was a member of the Korean national team.


title: Fábio José dos Santos

paragraphs: Fábio José dos Santos (born 26 June 1973) is a former Brazilian football player.


title: Erikson Noguchipinto

paragraphs: Erikson Noguchipinto (born 27 January 1981) is a Brazilian-Japanese football player. He plays for Samut Songkhram.


title: Toshiaki Haji

paragraphs: Toshiaki Haji (born 28 August 1978) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Tokushima Vortis.


Shinichi Muto


title: Tatsuya Yazawa

paragraphs: Tatsuya Yazawa (born 3 October 1984) is a Japanese football player. He plays for JEF United Ichihara Chiba.


title: Kenji Kikawada

paragraphs: Kenji Kikawada (born 28 October 1974) is a former Japanese football player.


title: Tomoaki Seino

paragraphs: Tomoaki Seino (born 29 September 1981) is a Japanese football player.


title: Mitsunori Yabuta

paragraphs: Mitsunori Yabuta (born 2 May 1976) is a Japanese football player.


title: Hiroshi Miyazawa

paragraphs: Hiroshi Miyazawa (born 22 November 1970) is a former Japanese football player.


title: Kunihiko Takizawa

paragraphs: Kunihiko Takizawa (born 20 April 1978) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Bangkok Glass.


title: Aleksandar Živković

paragraphs: Aleksandar Živković (born 28 July 1977) is a Serbian football player. He has played for Serbia national team.


title: Barcelona Metro line 8

paragraphs: Line 8 or L8, coloured pink (termini: Plaça Espanya - Molí Nou-Ciutat Cooperativa) and ran by FGC, is part of the Barcelona Metro network. It joins Plaça Espanya, in the Sants-Montjuïc district of Barcelona with the metropolitan area cities of L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Cornellà de Llobregat and Sant Boi.


title: Barcelona Metro line 7

paragraphs: Line 7 or L7 coloured brown (currently known as Plaça Catalunya - Avinguda Tibidabo), is a metro in the Barcelona Metro network that is ran by FGC. It is also called Línia de Balmes, because it climbs Carrer de Balmes uphill into Tibidabo. It shares three stations with L6.

paragraphs: 1: L9 and L10 under construction in this station.


title: Nea Moudania

paragraphs: Nea Moudania (sometimes referred simply as Moudania) is a Greek city in the region of Macedonia located in Chalcidice and it is also the capital of Nea Moudania Municipality. The city's population is 6.475 inhabitants and the municipality's population is 17.032 inhabitants according to the 2001 census. It is a very important city because it is one of the most powerful cities in fishing with Nea Michaniona in Central Macedonia.

paragraphs: Nea Moudania was built in 1922 by some emigres of Asia Minor (Anatolia). These people used to live in the city of "Moudania" (Turkish: Mudanya) and started being farmers or fishers. They were forced to leave their homes after the Treaty of Lausanne. They first came in 1923 and they developed their town quickly and became a big turistic place.


title: Whyte notation

paragraphs: The Whyte notation for classifying steam locomotives by wheel arrangement was devised by Frederick Methvan Whyte, and came into use in the early twentieth century encouraged by an editorial in "American Engineer and Railroad Journal".


title: Alexandreia

paragraphs: Alexandreia, or Alexandria, is a historical Greek town in the Imathia Prefecture in the region of Macedonia. There were 19,283 people living there according to the 2001 census.


title: Ptolemaida

paragraphs: Ptolemaida, former Kailaria, is a Greek town in the Kozani prefecture in the region of Macedonia. The city is best known for its coal mines of lignite and power station. It has been also called by Greek people "The Socket of Greece" because it has very strong power stations. Its population is 28.679 inhabitants according to the 2001 census. Ptolemaida is the biggest industrial, trade, and rural city of the prefecture and one of the most developed cities in industry in Greece.


title: Aridaia

paragraphs: Aridaia is a Greek town in Pella Prefecture in the region of Macedonia. It is found in the middle of a valley north of Edessa. It has a population of 5,600 inhabitants according to the 2001 census. During Byzantine era, its name used to be "Moglena" and during the Ottoman Empire its name used to be "Subotsko". It was first founded by the emigres of Asia Minor (Anatolia) in 1923.

paragraphs: Η ιστορία της Πέλλας, Αριδαία, pages 139-141, Ψάρια publications, 2004.


title: Soft palate

paragraphs: The soft palate is a part of the mouth, at the roof of the back of the throat, above the uvula (also called Palatine uvula). When something touches there, it creates a gag reflex.


title: Squirrel monkey

paragraphs: Squirrel monkeys live in Central and South America. They grow to 25 to 35 cm, and their long tail is 35 to 42 cm. long. Squirrel monkeys are small enough to go on the smallest branches to get food. They eat fruits and insects. When fruit is scarce, they will drink nectar. Large falcons and snakes eat them so they have lots of different warning calls.


title: Survivor: The Australian Outback

paragraphs: Survivor: The Australian Outback was the second season of the United States reality show "Survivor". It was filmed at Goshen Station in northern Queensland during 2000 and was shown on TV from January 28, 2001 to May 3, 2001 on CBS. The location used was within a three hour drive from the city of Cairns and was in a wet, sub-tropical area. Nielsen Ratings says it was the highest rated show of 2001.

paragraphs: Fourteen episode were shown, one every week. The winner, Tina Wesson, was announced on May 3, 2001 where she won against Colby Donaldson by a vote of 4-3.

paragraphs: The entire season was made available on DVD on April 26, 2005.

paragraphs: Although the first episode was shown right after Super Bowl XXXV, the late hour made CBS want to show the first episode again later that week.

paragraphs: The elimination of player Michael Skupin during the sixth episode is well known for being the first case where a "Survivor" player has had to be removed because of an injury. While trying to start a fire, Skupin breathed in smoke and fainted, falling into the fire getting really bad burns to his hands. After being cared for by medical personnel, a helicopter was brought in and Skupin was removed from the game. Because of his removal, there was no Immunity Challenge, so there was no Tribal Council. Because of this, the Ogakor and Kucha tribes merged (combined) with the same number of tribe members, instead of the possible six to four (which would have happened if Ogakor lost the Immunity Challenge and gone to Tribal Council). At the first merged Tribal Council, Jeff Varner was voted off after a tie vote between the two old tribes.

paragraphs: During a reward trip, player and future runner-up Colby Donaldson broke an Australian law by breaking off coral from the Great Barrier Reef which could have gave him a fine of AU$110,000. The helicopter pilot in the reward trip also broke an Australian law as he flew over sea bird rookeries. Survivor's producer Mark Burnett said sorry on behalf of Colby and the production team after the season had been shown.

paragraphs: The game lasted 42 days, instead of 39 days. This seson also started the Survivor tradition of showing who won live, so that none of the players would know who won until the finale (last episode).

paragraphs: During a reward on Day 34 where the five players left were allowed to talk with their family members, old Ogakor member Keith Famie asked his girlfriend to marry him, and she said yes.

paragraphs: After the show, fourth-place finisher Elisabeth Filarski went on to co-host talk show "The View". She, Tina Wesson, Colby Donaldson, Jerri Manthey, Alicia Calaway and Amber Brkich were asked to return in "Survivor: All-Stars". Filarski was the only one who didn't return in the "All-Stars" season. She wanted to focus on hosting "The View", while Wesson, Donaldson, Manthey, Calaway, and Brkich placed 18th, 12th, 10th, 7th, and 1st. Brkich won against fellow player and future husband Rob "Boston Rob" Mariano who had played before in the series' fourth season, "" in a 4-3 vote. Donaldson and Manthey would return again in the "Heroes vs. Villains" season where they placed 5th, and 4th. Michael Skupin returned in the "Philippines" season, where he tied for 2nd. Wesson would return in the "Blood vs. Water" season, where she played with her daughter, Katie Collins, and placed 4th. Jeff Varner and Kimmi Kappenberg were voted into the "Cambodia" season, where they finished 16th, and 6th. Varner later played in the "Game Changers" season.


title: Pelham Humfrey

paragraphs: Pelham Humfrey (also: "Humphrey") (born London 1647; died Windsor 14 July 1674) was an English composer in the Baroque period. Although he died at the age of 26 he had an important influence on English composers such as William Turner and Henry Purcell. He lived at the time of the Restoration, when England was ruled by a king once more after two decades of republican rule, during which music had not been allowed in churches.

paragraphs: We do not know much detail about his early life. He seems to have been a choirboy in the Chapel Royal by 1660. During this time he was obviously becoming a very gifted composer. Other boys in the choir included John Blow and William Turner. As a young man he travelled to France where he heard music by French composers such as Lully and Italians such as Carissimi. This helped him to form his own style. He became a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He wrote some fine anthems, although the diarist Samuel Pepys thought that he was showing off. This may be because Pepys did not like the new kind of music. He married the daughter of his old choir master Henry Cooke. He became Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal. This meant that he was in charge of the children in the king's chapel choir. He was also a court composer.

paragraphs: He became ill and died at the age of 26. He was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.

paragraphs: Humfrey composed a lot of music during his very short life. It helped to form the English Baroque style. He mostly wrote church music, but he also wrote some music for the theatre.

paragraphs: Humfrey liked to compose music which excited people's emotions. Some of his melodies jump around in unexpected ways. There is a lot of chromaticism. Some of his best anthems include: "O Lord my God", "By the waters of Babylon" and "Like as the hart". He wrote 27 songs. Five of them are religious songs, and they are some of the best songs of that time.


William Turner


title: William Turner (composer)

paragraphs: "This page is about the composer William Turner. For other people called William Turner see William Turner (disambiguation page)."

paragraphs: William Turner (born Oxford 1651; died London 13 January 1740) was a composer and singer in the Baroque period. He lived at the same time as English composers such as Pelham Humfrey and Henry Purcell, although he lived a lot longer than they did. He is remembered today as a composer of about 40 verse anthems. As a singer, he was a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal from 1669 until his death.

paragraphs: Turner started being a choir boy at Christ Church, Oxford. Then he became a choir boy in the Chapel Royal in London. He wrote an anthem together with John Blow and Pelham Humfrey, known as the "Club Anthem". When his voice broke in 1666 he had three years out of the choir, but returned in 1669 and sang as a countertenor in the Chapel Royal for another 71 years until his death. He became a member of the King's Private Musick. Besides his work at the king's court he was also a vicar-choral of St Paul's Cathedral and later a lay vicar of the choir of Westminster Abbey. In 1696 he was given a doctorate of music by Cambridge University. After that he was known as "Dr Turner".

paragraphs: Most of his music was written before 1700. It is nearly all church music, but he did write a few pieces for the theatre. He wrote 40 anthems, three service settings and a motet. One of his best anthems is "God standeth in the congregation of Princes". It includes a very dramatic solo for bass to the words "God reigneth over the heathen".


title: Survivor: Africa

paragraphs: Survivor: Africa was the third season of the United States reality show "Survivor". It was filmed in 2001 and was shown on TV from October 11, 2001 - January 10, 2002 on CBS. It was set in Kenya's Shaba National Reserve on the African continent.

paragraphs: The two starting tribes were Boran and Samburu (named after the real-life Borana and Samburu tribes). In the fifth episode, after 12 days, three members from each team were sent to the other team, in what became known as the first twist in the Survivor series. The players then knew that they must be ready for the most sudden changes; future seasons would have similar twists. Later on, the two tribes merged (combined) into a new tribe, which the players named "Moto Maji" (Kiswahili for 'fire' and 'water').

paragraphs: This season was also the first to have a tiebreaker challenge: in , the person that had most votes against them in earlier Tribal Councils was voted out in such a situation, but in Samburu's first tribal council, Carl Bilancione and Lindsey Richter each had four votes. The two competed in a nature quiz tiebreaker, the loser of which was eliminated.

paragraphs: During the finale (last episode), the producers made it look like the votes were being read at the Final Tribal Council right after the votes were cast. Jeff Probst went to get the voting urn and, when he returned, it appeared he had returned to the Tribal Council site to read the votes. However, he was actually on a CBS sound stage in Hollywood (with a live audience) that was made up to look like the site. This was told after he read the votes and said who won. The players were told to try to make themselves look like they were at the last Tribal Council and the audience was told to hold any cheering or clapping until after they said who won.

paragraphs: There were thirteen episode, plus a mid-season recap, a live reunion/interview with Bryant Gumbel after the finale, and a "where are they now" show. The winner, Ethan Zohn, was revealed on January 10, 2002, where he won against Kim Johnson by a vote of 5-2.

paragraphs: Ethan Zohn, Lex van den Berghe, and Tom "Big Tom" Buchanan returned in "," where they placed 11th, 9th, and 5th.

paragraphs: There was some controversy about an immunity challenge in the last episode. In a "Fallen Comrades" challenge, where the players were asked questions about players in the game who had been voted out, the last question was "Which female contestant has no piercings?" The official answer, given by Kim Johnson to earn the win, was Kelly Goldsmith. Lex van den Berghe answered the question with Lindsey Richter's name, who also had no piercings, but the producers did not know this. After the producers were told about mistake, both third place finisher van den Berghe and fourth place finisher Tom Buchanan were awarded the $100,000 runner-up prize instead of the usual third and fourth place earnings.


title: Montehermoso

paragraphs: Montehermoso ("Montelmosu" in Extremaduran language) is a municipality in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain.


title: Jediism

paragraphs: Jediism is a religious movement based on the "Star Wars" franchise of movies.


title: Sangerhausen

paragraphs: Sangerhausen is the capital of the Mansfeld-Südharz rural district in Germany. It is between Magdeburg and Erfurt. The river Gonna flows through it.


title: Miley Cyrus

paragraphs: Miley Ray Cyrus (formerly Hemsworth; born Destiny Hope Cyrus; November 23, 1992) is an American singer and musician. She has starred in a television series ("Hannah Montana") and in four movies. She has released five albums and has written an autobiography.

paragraphs: Cyrus played minor roles in television series "Doc" and movie "Big Fish". She then appeared in "Hannah Montana" in 2006. Her debut studio album "Meet Miley Cyrus" was released in 2007. As of 2017, Cyrus has released six albums: "Meet Miley Cyrus" (2007), "Breakout" (2008), "Can't be Tamed" (2010), "Bangerz" (2013), "Miley Cyrus and Her Dead Petz" (2015), and "Younger Now" (2017).

paragraphs: Cyrus was born Destiny Hope Cyrus in Franklin, Tennessee. Her parents are Billy Ray Cyrus and Letitia "Tish" (Finley) Cyrus. Miley was a childhood nickname. Cyrus changed her legal name to Miley Ray Cyrus in 2008.

paragraphs: In 2008, Cyrus dated Australian actor Liam Hemsworth. The two became engaged before breaking off their engagement in 2013. They reconciled and were later married on December 23, 2018.

paragraphs: In August 2019, it was announced that Cyrus and Hemsworth had separated.

paragraphs: Cyrus was eleven years old when she starred in the television series, "Hannah Montana". In 2012 and 2013, Cyrus played Missi in the series "Two and a Half Men". In August 2013, Cyrus twerked on singer Robin Thicke at the MTV Video Music Awards program. It was the most tweeted about event in history. There were 360,000 tweets per minute.

paragraphs: In September 2016, Cyrus co-starred in Amazon Studios' "Crisis in Six Scenes".

paragraphs: In 2006, Cyrus released the first "Hannah Montana" soundtrack album. It has sold 4.5 million copies. It reached number one on the US "Billboard" 200. In 2007, she released a double album, "Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus". The first CD was a soundtrack album for "Hannah Montana", and the second CD was Cyrus' first studio album. She starred in the Best of Both Worlds Tour.

paragraphs: Her second album was "Breakout" (2008) and third album was "Can't be Tamed" (2010).

paragraphs: Her fourth album "Bangerz" was released on October 4 by RCA Records. So far three singles have been released from "Bangerz". "We Can't Stop" was released in June 2013. It reached number 2 in the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100. In September 2013, Cyrus released the nude music video for her next single, "Wrecking Ball". It racked up more than 19.3 million views on Vevo in 24 hours, which was a record at the time. It reached number one in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. "Wrecking Ball" was her first number-one single in the United States. In 2014, Cyrus embarked on The Bangerz World Tour.

paragraphs: On October 5, 2013, Cyrus presented "Saturday Night Live" for the second time.

paragraphs: Cyrus was a featured artist on rapper Future's November 2013 single, "Real and True". The single reached number 32 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.

paragraphs: In December 2013, MTV chose Cyrus as the best artist of the year. The video for the third single from "Bangerz", "Adore You", was posted on Vevo on December 26, 2013.

paragraphs: Cyrus released her fifth album, "Miley Cyrus and Her Dead Petz", on the music-sharing site Soundcloud on August 30, 2015, following the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards, which she hosted.

paragraphs: Cyrus released the lead single "Malibu" from her sixth album, "Younger Now", on May 11, 2017.

paragraphs: In 2008, Cyrus voiced the part of "Penny" in the Disney computer-animated movie "Bolt". In 2009, she starred in "". In 2010, she starred in "The Last Song" and had a brief appearance in "Sex and the City 2". In 2012, she starred in "LOL" and in "So Undercover".

paragraphs: In 2008, Cyrus posed nude for snaps that appeared in "Vanity Fair" magazine. This adventure did not damage Cyrus's career. In early 2009, Cyrus released the autobiography, "Miles to Go". The book is a collection of family photographs, stories, and memories.


title: Survivor: Marquesas

paragraphs: Survivor: Marquesas was the fourth season of the United States reality show "Survivor". Hosted by Jeff Probst, it was shown on TV from February 28 - May 19, 2002 on CBS. There were thirteen episodes, plus a mid-season recap and live interview with Rosie O'Donnell after the finale (last episode). The winner, Vecepia Towery, was revealed on May 19, 2002, where she won against Neleh Dennis by a vote of 4-3.

paragraphs: In the beginning, the players were divided into two tribes: Maraamu and Rotu (Marquesan for 'Southern Wind' and 'Rain'). They later merged (combined) into one tribe. Kathy Vavrick-O'Brien and Rob "Boston Rob" Mariano named the new tribe "Soliantu", a name they made up that means "Sacred Allegiance to the Sun".

paragraphs: The Marquesas Islands were actually chosen as a backup location for "Survivor". This season was going to take place in Jordan, but they switched location due to the September 11, 2001 attacks and the political situation in the Middle East.

paragraphs: This was the first season where the players were not given any supplies at the beginning, such as food, water, or matches. Also, the rules of the Individual Immunity Idol were changed so that a player who won the idol in a challenge was able to give it to another player. Finally, earlier votes against a player were not counted in future Tribal Councils. As this used to be the way of deciding if a contestant was eliminated in case of a tie, a new tiebreaker was made. The controversial Purple Rock tiebreaker was used in this season alone, and resulted in the elimination of Paschal English, then with no votes against him. A small rise in the average number of viewers was seen for the season compared to the last season, "".

paragraphs: Vavrick-O'Brien and Mariano were chosen from this season to return in "," where they placed 8th and 2nd. Mariano returned once again in "," placing 13th.

paragraphs: No reward challenge took place due to tribal switch.

paragraphs: Paschal's elimination marked a big controversy in the game of Survivor. In the Episode Thirteen Tribal Council, Neleh and Kathy each got two votes while Vecepia had immunity. In earlier tie situations, where a re-vote did not decide who would be voted off, votes from past tribal councils were used, and the player with the most earlier votes was eliminated. In "Marquesas", the earlier votes rule was no longer used; instead players who did not have immunity would pull rocks colored yellow and purple from a bag. The player with the purple rock would be eliminated. In this situation, Kathy and Neleh drew yellow rocks, and Paschal pulled the purple rock. Although he never got any votes in the entire game, he was eliminated due to chance. Probst later said that using the purple rock tie-breaker was a mistake at this point in the game, because the formula behind it was impossible to apply fairly with only four survivors left.

paragraphs: No tie happened on the show until six seasons later on "". It was during that season that the tie-breaker was revealed to be a fire-making challenge. However, Survivors who took part in the show between the "Marquesas" and "" seasons thought that the Purple Rock challenge would still be used. As a result, many players would change alliances so they're wouldn't be another tie and another chance of drawing the Purple Rock.

paragraphs: Since Palau, there have been four tie situations that were solved with fire-making challenges, all of which were at the Final Four stage of the game. In "", it was suggested by Cirie Fields that the purple rock tiebreaker is the tiebreaker for all ties except in the Final Four, when a challenge is used instead.


title: Survivor: Thailand

paragraphs: Survivor: Thailand was the fifth season of the United States reality show "Survivor". It was filmed in the summer of 2002 and was shown on TV from September 19 – December 19, 2002 on CBS. It was set on the island of Ko Tarutao in Thailand. There were fourteen episodes, one being shown each week. The season started with two tribes; an orange tribe, Chuay Gahn (Thai: "to help one another") and a purple tribe, Sook Jai ( "happy heart" ). Later, they merged (combined) into one tribe, which the players named "Chuay Jai", made by mixing the names Chuay Gahn and Sook Jai. On December 19, 2002, Brian Heidik won against Clay Jordan by a vote of 4-3 to become the sole survivor.

paragraphs: The season had many new gameplay twists. The first happened on Day 1, when the two oldest players, Jake Billingsley and Jan Gentry, were given the power to pick their own tribes. This was the first time in "Survivor" history that the two starting teams were not chosen by the producers. The second was an offer of mutiny on Day 14, which means that the twelve players that were left could join the opposite tribe if they wanted to. No one took the offer. (The twist was used again during "", with two players switching tribes.)

paragraphs: The biggest twist of the season was the fake merge. When only ten players were left, the usual time for a merge, the two tribes moved onto one beach, with a feast waiting for them. The two tribes thought they were merging, and Shii Ann Huang tried to align herself with members of the other tribe. At the next challenge they went to, however, the two tribes were told that they were living on one beach, but were not merged yet. That day, Shii Ann's tribe lost immunity, and she was voted off.

paragraphs: Host Jeff Probst said that he didn't like this season, and called it his least favorite. He said the season was mean-spirited and had a lot of hostility and ugliness, even calling Brian, Clay, Helen, and Jan "the least likable final four ever."

paragraphs: Shii Ann was the only player this season to return in "", where she placed 6th.

paragraphs: For the first time, the players would be bidding for items as tribes. Sook Jai and Chuay Gahn each got $1000 in American money.


title: Cryptoclidus

paragraphs: Cryptoclidus was a plesiosaur, an aquatic reptile up to 13 feet (4 m) long. It had curved, interlocking teeth, a wide skull, and large, flexible, paddle-like flippers. The fragile head and teeth could not deal with large prey. That suggests a diet of small, soft-bodied animals such as squid and small shoaling fish.

paragraphs: "Cryptoclidus" fossils have been found in England, France, Russia and possibly South America.

paragraphs: "Cryptoclidus" was named by Seeley in 1892. The type species is "C. eurymerus".