title: Data integrity

paragraphs: Data integrity is a term used in computer science and telecommunications that can mean:

paragraphs: Simply, data integrity is to make sure that data is "consistent" and "correct".


title: Cryptosystem

paragraphs: There are two different meanings of the word cryptosystem.

paragraphs: In this meaning, the term cryptosystem is used as shorthand, or as an abbreviation for "cryptographic system". A cryptographic system is any computer system that involves cryptography. Such systems include for instance, a system for secure electronic mail which might include methods for digital signatures, cryptographic hash functions, key management techniques, and so on.

paragraphs: In this meaning, a cryptosystem refers to a set of algorithms needed to implement a method of encryption and decryption.

paragraphs: Typically, a cryptosystem consists of three algorithms:

paragraphs: The term "cipher" (sometimes "cypher") is often used to refer to a pair of (encryption/decryption) algorithms. Therefore, the term "cryptosystem" is most often used when the key generation algorithm is important. For this reason, the term "cryptosystem" is commonly used to refer to public key techniques; however both "cipher" and "cryptosystem" are used for symmetric key techniques.

paragraphs: The "Internet Security Glossary" RFC 2828 advises against using the term "cryptosystem", giving the following definitions.


title: Serpent (cipher)

paragraphs: Serpent is a symmetric key block cipher which was the second finalist in the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) contest after Rijndael. Serpent was designed by Ross Anderson, Eli Biham, and Lars Knudsen.

paragraphs: Serpent has a block size of 128 bits and supports a key size of 128, 192 or 256 bits. The cipher is a 32-round substitution-permutation network operating on a block of four 32-bit words. Each round applies one of eight 4-bit by 4-bit S-boxes 32 times in parallel. Serpent was designed so that all operations can be executed in parallel, using 32 1-bit slices. This maximizes parallelism, but also allows use of the extensive cryptanalysis work performed on DES.

paragraphs: Serpent was widely viewed as a more traditional approach to security than the other AES finalists choosing a larger security margin: the designers estimated 16 rounds to be sufficient against known types of attack, but specified 32 rounds as insurance against future progress in cryptanalysis.

paragraphs: The Serpent cipher has not been patented. It is completely placed in the public domain and can be freely used by anyone.

paragraphs: The 32 rounds make Serpent more secure than Rijndael; however, Rijndael with 10 rounds is faster and easier to implement for small Block ciphers and on embedded system. For that reason, Rijndael was selected as the winner in the AES competition.

paragraphs: The XSL attack, if effective and would weaken Serpent (though not as much as it would weaken Rijndael, which became AES). However, many cryptanalysts believe that if implementations considered to overcome the XSL attack, the XSL attack would be more difficult than a brute force attack.


title: Pretty Good Privacy

paragraphs: Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is a computer program that provides cryptographic and authentication. PGP is often used for signing, encrypting and decrypting electronic mails (e-mails) to increase the security of e-mail communications. It was originally created by Phil Zimmermann in 1991.

paragraphs: PGP and other similar products follow the OpenPGP standard (RFC 4880) for encrypting and decrypting data.

paragraphs: OpenPGP is on the Internet Standards Track; the current specification is RFC 4880 (November 2007). OpenPGP is still under development and the successor to RFC 2440, which is RFC 4880, has been made a proposed standard. Many e-mail clients provide "OpenPGP-compliant" email security as described in RFC 3156.

paragraphs: The Free Software Foundation has developed its own "OpenPGP-compliant" program called GNU Privacy Guard (abbreviated GnuPG or GPG). GnuPG is freely available together with all source code under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and is maintained separately faraway from several Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) that interact with the GnuPG library for encryption, decryption and signing functions (see KGPG, Seahorse, MacGPG). Several other vendors have also developed "OpenPGP-compliant" software.


title: Weak key

paragraphs: In cryptography, a weak key is a key which when used with a specific cipher, makes the cipher behave in some undesirable way, and simplifies breaking (cracking) the ciphertext.

paragraphs: Weak keys usually represent a very small fraction of the overall key space, which means that if someone generates a random key to encrypt a message, it is a rare condition that weak keys will cause a security problem. However, it is considered a good design for a cipher to have no weak keys ("quality chiper"). A cipher with no weak keys is said to have a "flat", or "linear", key space.


title: XSL attack

paragraphs: In cryptography, the XSL attack is a method of cryptanalysis for block ciphers. The attack was first published in 2002 by researchers Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk. It was claimed that it may break the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) cipher faster than a brute force attack.

paragraphs: AES is already widely used in commerce and government for the transmission of secret and classified information. Finding a technique that can decrease the amount of time it takes to break the secret message without having the key could cause wide damage.

paragraphs: In 2004 it was shown by one of the cryptanalysts, that the algorithm does not perform as described in its published paper. In addition, the method requires long effort. Unless shortened, the technique does not reduce the effort to break AES in comparison to a brute force attack. Therefore, it does not affect the real-world security of block ciphers in the near future. However, the attack has caused some experts to insert complexities in the algebraic simplicity of the current AES.

paragraphs: The XSL attack relies on first analyzing the "internal design" of a cipher then deriving a system of quadratic simultaneous equations. These systems of equations are typically very large, for example 8000 equations with 1600 variables for the 128-bit AES. Several methods for solving such systems are known. In the XSL attack, a specialized algorithm, termed XSL (eXtended Sparse Linearization), is then applied to solve these equations and compute the key.

paragraphs: The attack is well-known and famous for requiring only a handful of known plaintexts to perform. Previous methods of cryptanalysis, such as linear and differential cryptanalysis, often require unrealistically large numbers of known or chosen plaintexts, which make them impossible to realize.


title: Sound the Alarm

paragraphs: Sound the Alarm is the fifth studio album by the emo band Saves the Day. It was released by Vagrant Records on April 11, 2006. It was produced by Steve Evetts who also produced Saves the Day's first two albums, "Can't Slow Down" and "Through Being Cool". All of the album's lyrics were written by Chris Conley. It is their darkest album, and Chris wrote it about the black clouds in his life, and things that were eating him alive. This album was welcomed by many as something of a return to the band's classic sound, after the sonic departure of "In Reverie" in 2003.

paragraphs: "Sound the Alarm" reached number 67 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart.

paragraphs: "Sound the Alarm" is part one of a three part concept that Conley described in an interview with Punknews.org. It is their trilogy about self discovery.

paragraphs: The "Head for the Hills" track is used on the soundtrack of the football video game "Madden NFL 07".


title: Ennis

paragraphs: Ennis is a town in the Republic of Ireland. It has about 25,000 people living in it. There are people from eastern Europe, Africa and the United Kingdom living in Ennis.

paragraphs: The town was once small but has grown much because of an economic boom, which has now ended.


title: Trey Parker

paragraphs: Randolph Severn "Trey" Parker III (born October 19 1969) is an American animator, screenwriter, film director, voice actor, actor, musician and Academy Award nominated lyricist. He and Matt Stone worked on the animated series "South Park".


title: Matt Stone

paragraphs: Matthew Richard "Matt" Stone (born May 26, 1971) is an Academy Award- nominated Emmy Award- winning American animator, screenwriter, director, producer, voice actor, musician and actor. He and Trey Parker created the animated television series, "South Park".


paragraphs: Tibet and Mongolia signed a treaty called the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet on February 2, 1913, at Urga (now Ulaanbaatar). Today, we are not sure if the treaty can be used or not.

paragraphs: The Qing Dynasty ended in 1911. After this, both Tibet and Mongolia were independent. Both had a lamaist head of state. The Republic of China did not see them as independent. In the treaty, both Mongolia and Tibet said they would see each other as independent, and help each other in war.

paragraphs: The people who signed for Mongolia were foreign minister Da Lama Ravdan and General Manlaibaatar Damdinsüren. Those who signed for Tibet were Agvan Dorjiev, Chijamts, and Gendun-Galsan, who lived in Tibet. Dorjiev was a Buryat, a citizen of Russia. For this reason, the treaty may not be legal. The 13th Dalai Lama denied that he had let Dorjiev sign a treaty with Mongolia. More importantly, neither the cleric nor the Tibetan government has ever signed any treaty. The Russian government said that Dorjiev was Russian. He could therefore not act as a diplomat for the Dalai Lama. The Mongolian text of the treaty has been published by the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in 1982.

paragraphs: Most other people still did not see Mongolia or Tibet as independent. They said that these areas belonged to China. Western powers had made treaties with the Qing Dynasty, and China had said it would honour these treaties. If they had recognised either Tibet or Mongolia, these treaties would have become invalid. The main Western powers were the United Kingdom and Russia. Both feared that if they saw the countries as independent, they could come under the influence of the other western powers. In their opinion, that situation was worse than if China controlled both of them, because China was weak.

paragraphs: British negotiators at the Simla Convention heard about the treaty and got very suspicious. They feared that Russia might use the treaty to gain more influence in Tibet. In the end, China did not sign the Simla Convention. Instead, a very similar treaty was signed by Mongolia, China, and Russia on 25 May 1915. This treaty was called the tripartite Treaty of Kyakhta. The agreement stated that Mongolia was completely autonomous in internal matters and that Russia had certain privileges in Mongolia. At the same time it said that Mongolia was in fact a part of China.


title: Waterford

paragraphs: Waterford City is a city in Ireland. The population in 2006 was nearly 50,000 people. It is the county town of County Waterford. Waterford is the fifth largest city in Ireland. It is also the oldest city in Ireland.

paragraphs: Waterford is home to the Waterford Crystal glass factory, which exports crystal all around the world. This glass factory has made many famous pieces, including the New Years Eve glass ball used in Times Square in New York. The factory closed in 2009 leading to over 1,500 job losses. The factory reopened again in the city centre in June 2010 and is now a popular tour. Tourists also come to Waterford to visit the Waterford Viking Triangle.

paragraphs: The city was founded in 914 by the Vikings. The Norman King Henry II of England landed at Waterford in 1171. Waterford and then Dublin were made royal cities and in the Middle Ages, Waterford was Ireland's second city after Dublin. As a result, King Henry VII gave the city its motto: "Urbs Intacta Manet Waterfordia (Waterford remains the untaken city)".

paragraphs: After the Protestant Reformation, Waterford remained a Catholic city and participated in an independent Catholic government from 1642 to 1649. This was ended by Oliver Cromwell, who brought the country back under English rule; his son-in-law Henry Ireton finally took Waterford in 1650 after a battle.

paragraphs: The 18th century was a period of wealth for Waterford. Most of the city's best buildings came during this time. A permanent military base was established in the city with the Waterford Barracks at the end of the 18th century.

paragraphs: During the 19th century, great industries such as glass making and shipbuilding started in the city.

paragraphs: Reginald's Tower is the oldest urban civic building in Ireland, and the oldest monument to retain its Viking name. It is Waterford's most recognisable landmark. It is believed to be the first building in Ireland to use mortar. Reginald's Tower is in the Viking Triangle, a favourite visiting area for tourists which contains three museums and the Waterford Crystal factory and showroom.

paragraphs: The River Suir, which flows through Waterford City, has provided a basis for the city's long maritime history. The place downriver from Waterford where the River Nore and the River Barrow join the River Suir is known in the Irish language as "Cumar na dTrí Uisce" ("The confluence of the three waters"). Waterford Port has been one of Ireland's major ports for over 1000 years. In the 19th century, shipbuilding was a major industry. The owners of the Neptune Shipyard, the Malcomson family, built and operated the largest fleet of iron steamers in the world between the mid-1850s and the late 1860s, including five trans-Atlantic passenger liners.

paragraphs: Waterford Airport is a regional airport. Waterford is also known for where of one of the biggest European airlines, Ryanair started from. The first flight was a 14-seat Bandeirante aircraft, flying between Waterford and Gatwick Airport.


title: Dissipation

paragraphs: In physics, dissipation includes the concept of a dynamical system where "important mechanical modes", such as waves or oscillations, lose energy over time, typically due to the action of friction or turbulence. The lost energy is converted into heat, raising the temperature of the system. Such systems are called dissipative systems.

paragraphs: For example, a wave that loses amplitude is said to dissipate. The dissipative nature depends on the nature of the wave: an atmospheric wave, for instance, may dissipate close to the surface due to friction with the land mass, and at higher levels due to radiative cooling.

paragraphs: In computational physics, a numerical dissipation is also known as "artificial dissipation" or "artificial diffusion" or "numerical diffusion". They all mean this: when the pure advection equation--which, by definition, "is free of dissipation"--is solved by a numerical approximation method that reduces the amplitude and changes the shape of the initial wave in a way analogous (similar) to a diffusional process, the method is said to contain 'dissipation'.

paragraphs: In Hydrology, dissipation is the process of converting mechanical energy of downward flowing water into thermal and acoustical energy. Various devices are designed in stream-beds (river-banks) to reduce the kinetic energy of flowing waters to reduce their erosive potential on banks and river bottoms. Very often these devices look like small waterfalls or cascades, where water flows vertically or over riprap to lose some of its kinetic force.


title: Galway

paragraphs: Galway is a port city in the western part of Ireland. It is in the historic province of Connacht. Over 70,000 people live there as of 2011. It is located on the Galway Bay.


title: Porta Alchemica

paragraphs: Porta Alchemica (English: "alchemical door"), or Alchemy Gate or Magic Portal, is an ancient monument built between 1678 and 1680 by "Massimiliano Palombara" marquis of Pietraforte (1614-1680) in his residence, Palombara villa, located in the east of Rome on the "Esquilino" hill in a position almost corresponding to "Piazza Vittorio", where today was placed. Porta Alchemica is the only survivor of the five gates of the Palombara villa, there was an lost door on the opposite side enabling to give it a date of 1680, there were also four other inscriptions lost on the walls of the mansion inside the villa.

paragraphs: According to a legend dated 1802 sent us by the scholar "Francesco Girolamo Cancellieri" , a pilgrim "stibeum" (from Latin: "stibium" = antimony) was hosted in the villa for a night. The "pellegrino", identifiable with the alchemist "Giustiniani Bono", stayed for a night in the gardens of the villa in search of a mysterious herb capable of producing gold, the next morning he was seen disappearing forever through the door, but left behind a few flakes of gold fruit of a successful alchemical transmutation, and a mysterious paper full of puzzles and magic symbols that would contain the secret of the Philosopher's Stone.

paragraphs: The marquis had engraved on the five gates of the villa Palombara and on the walls of the mansion, the content of the manuscript with symbols and riddles in the hope that one day someone would be able to understand them.

paragraphs: The interest of the Marquis Palombara for alchemy was born probably on his attendance since 1656, at the roman court of queen Christina of Sweden, at "Riario" palace (today "Palazzo Corsini") on the slopes of the "Gianicolo" hill. After the queen converted to Catholicism, she abdicated the throne of Sweden and he spent much of the rest of his life exiled in Rome from 1655 until her death in 1689.

paragraphs: Queen Christina had an alchemical laboratory in Riario palace attended by people like the esotericists "Giuseppe Francesco Borri", and the learned Athanasius Kircher possessor of the mysterious Voynich manuscript of enigmatic scripture full of magic symbols. According to a legend the same "Porta Alchemica" was built in 1680 as a celebration of a successful alchemical transmutation occurred in Riario laboratory.

paragraphs: Between 1678 and 1680 Borri aka "Giustiniani Bono", collaborated with Athanasius Kircher for construction of Porta Alchemica in Palombara villa. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, famous architect and Kircher friend, designed the door. On the door was transcribed the secret formula for producing gold discovery in those years in alchemical laboratory of queen Christina. Because of this revelation the Marquis Palombara, Bernini and Athanasius Kircher were murdered by poison at 28 November 1680, probably by the same Borri. The secret of the Philosopher's Stone was lost forever, or perhaps continued to be used by Borri. (It's amazing the similarity between portraits of Borri and the mysterious Count of St. Germain).

paragraphs: The particular drawing on the pediment of Porta Alchemica, with the two triangles overlap and inscriptions in Latin, appears almost exactly the same on the title of the book alchemical "Aureum Seculum Redivivum" of "Henricus Madatanus" aka "Adrian von Mynsicht" (1603-1638). The title page of the original of 1621 is very different, because the design that was inspired the Marquis Palombara appears exactly only in the posthumous edition of 1677. The same drawing appears in a bookmark possessed by "Berenger Saunière", who became the parish priest at Rennes-le-Château in 1885. The motto "Aureum Seculum Redivivum" recalled this "Novus Ordo Seclorum" in the Great Seal of the United States, motto also of the Bavarian Illuminati heirs of the 17th century Rosicrucianism.


title: Springfield, Massachusetts

paragraphs: Springfield is a city in Massachusetts, United States. In the year 2010, 153,084 people lived in the city and 700,000 people live in Metropolitan Springfield. Springfield is the largest city on the Connecticut River. It is at a natural crossroads where three rivers flow into the Connecticut River. One of Springfield's nicknames is "The City of Firsts" because many famous inventions came from there, like:

paragraphs: Springfield is near Hartford, Connecticut. The two cities are only 24 miles (38 km) apart. Airline service to Springfield and Hartford is provided from Bradley International Airport. Bradley is 12 miles (19 km) away from Springfield, and 12 miles (19 km) away from Hartford.

paragraphs: Many famous people are from Springfield: Dr. Seuss, the author, is from there. John Brown, the abolitionist, started his abolitionism here. James MacNeill Whistler, the famous painter, lived there too. Timothy Leary, the LSD activist was born there. Milton Bradley, the game-maker made his games, like "The Game of Life," and "Chutes and Ladders" there. Charles Goodyear, the man who invented vulcanized rubber, first made it in Springfield.

paragraphs: Springfield's other nicknames are "The City in a Forest," because it has a lot of trees in it, and "The City of Homes" because it has many big Victorian houses.

paragraphs: Springfield has two professional sports teams, the Springfield Falcons AHL ice hockey team, and the Springfield Armor NBA D-League basketball team. Both teams play home games at the MassMutual Center on Main Street in Springfield.

paragraphs: Many trains and buses meet in Springfield, because it is close to big cities like New York City, Boston, Montreal, and Albany. It is also next to New England's largest river, the Connecticut River. Springfield has always been a city that has welcomed immigrants.

paragraphs: If you visit Springfield, you can go to the Basketball Hall of Fame, or The Quadrangle museums - a group of art, science, and history museums around the Dr. Seuss sculptures. You could go to the Club Quarter, where there are many restaurants, bars, and discos. You could go to Forest Park, where there is a zoo, different sports fields, and a lake.


title: Global apartheid

paragraphs: Global apartheid is a term used to mean the worldwide control of resources, the economy, and government by an ethnic minority. The term comes from apartheid, a governmental system that ruled South Africa in which the Afrikaners, or "whites", controlled most of the resources and where non-whites were denied access to these resources. Apartheid or 'separate development' was introduced by the National Party after the 1948 election to protect European interests and identity by enforcing separation between the 'races'. The term is often used to describe the gap between whites and nonwhites, and global socioeconomic inequality, the existence of which has been proven by statistics. As in South Africa, there is a hierarchy of group rights in the world:

paragraphs: Although not explicitly classified by race, this hierarchy is banded by colour. Nationality laws of most countries, and the European Union, explicitly enshrine this ‘classification'.

paragraphs: European countries control most of the world's technology and weapons, and 20% of the global population, the richest percentage, take in 71.3% of income. Although most people of the world are not white, thereby making whites a minority, this minority often holds power in society. Most Western countries have laws against racial discrimination and active anti-racist movements, however much Western thought, law and action are exclusive, operating through institutional and indirect discrimination rather than overt racism. Their system of exclusion are more sophisticated, this prevents the West from exercising unconditional power in international affairs.

paragraphs: The term apartheid was famously used by Thabo Mbeki, the then-President of South Africa, in a 2002 speech, drawing comparisons the modern-day status of the world's people, economy, and access to natural resources to the apartheid era. Mbeki got the term from the book Unravelling Global Apartheid (1996) by Titus Alexander, initiator of Charter 99, a campaign for global democracy, who was present at the UN Millennium Summit.


title: Baccara

paragraphs: Baccara was a Spanish pop group. They were formed in 1977. It had two members: Mayte Mateos and María Mendiola. They were successful with their first song, "Yes Sir, I Can Boogie". Baccara represented Luxembourg in the Eurovision Song Contest in 1978. They performed "Parlez-vous français?". In 1981, Baccara split. Both Mateos and Mendiola then began work on music by themselves.


title: The Big Bang Theory

paragraphs: The Big Bang Theory is an American television sitcom. It was created and executive produced by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady. It was first shown on CBS on September 24, 2007.

paragraphs: The show starts by being centred on two male Caltech scientists who share an apartment in Pasadena, California. They are in their twenties and are both single for the first two seasons. One is an experimental physicist from New Jersey (Leonard Hofstadter). The other is a theoretical physicist from Texas (Sheldon Cooper). Sheldon has Asperger syndrome and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder and has a very low sex drive. They live across the hall from an attractive, bottle-blonde waitress from Nebraska (Penny). She is single and lives on her own for most of the show's run. She tried to become an actress, but only got a role in a television advertisement and a role in a B-movie called Serial Apeist as well as its sequel.

paragraphs: Leonard and Sheldon's geekiness and intellect are contrasted with Penny's social skills, popularity and lively sex life for comedic effect. Two equally geeky, single friends of Sheldon and Leonard's, Jewish Howard and Indian Rajesh, are also main characters. Howard lived with his mother during the first few seasons. Raj lives on his own. The show is produced by Warner Bros. Television and Chuck Lorre Productions. In March 2014, it was announced that "The Big Bang Theory" would continue for at least three more seasons on CBS.

paragraphs: The show began as a sitcom about four geeky, male scientists and their fun-loving, under-educated, socially successful waitress neighbour. Much of the humor revolved around the differences between scientists and the rest of the characters, especially Penny. From season 3 onwards, the show changed greatly into being a show about couples and families. Bernadette Rostenkowski was brought in during season 3 and started a relationship with Howard. The couple later married and had a daughter. Amy Farrah-Fowler was also brought in during season 3 and started a relationship with Sheldon; they later got engaged. Leonard and Penny became a couple and married. The show frequently shuffles between romantic comedy and relationship drama.

paragraphs: Eleven seasons have been shown. The show's twelfth season was its last.

paragraphs: A prequel series, "Young Sheldon", began in 2017.

paragraphs: The show was first developed for the 2006-2007 television season. At that time, it was very different from the show that was later broadcast. Only Jim Parsons & Johnny Galecki were part of the original pilot. The character now played by Kaley Cuoco was much meaner to the geeks. CBS did not pick the show up, but gave Bill Prady and Chuck Lorre a second chance. They brought in Kaley Cuoco, Simon Helberg and Kunal Nayyar. They retooled the show.

paragraphs: The second pilot of "The Big Bang Theory" was directed by award-winning television directing veteran James Burrows. He decided not to stay with the show. This reworked pilot led to a 13-episode order by CBS on May 14, 2007. Before its airing on CBS, the pilot episode was distributed on iTunes free of charge. The show premiered September 24, 2007. It was picked up for a full 22-episode season order on October 19, 2007.

paragraphs: Production on the show was halted on November 6, 2007 by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. When the strike ended, the show was picked up for a second season for the 2008-2009 television season.

paragraphs: The show returned on March 17, 2008 . It had an earlier time slot and nine new episodes. The second season premiered, in the same slot, on September 22, 2008. During that season, the show's ratings grew. That led to a

paragraphs: two-year renewal through the 2010-11 season.

paragraphs: David Saltzberg, a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, checks scripts and provides dialogue, math equations and diagrams used as props. He says he is more consultant than contributor. Executive producer/co-creator Bill Prady said, "In fact, we're working on giving Sheldon an actual problem that he's going to be working on throughout the [first] season so there's actual progress to the boards ... We worked hard to get all the science right."

paragraphs: Barenaked Ladies wrote and recorded the theme song, which describes developments the universe has undergone since the dawn of time. On October 9, 2007, a full-length (1 minute and 45 second) version of the song was released.

paragraphs: In the following summary, "rating" is the percentage of all households with televisions that tuned to the show, and "share" is the percentage of all televisions in use at that time that are tuned in. "18-49" is the percentage of all adults aged 18–49 tuned into the show. "Viewers" is the number of viewers, in millions, watching at the time. "Rank" is how well the show did compared to other TV shows aired that week.

paragraphs: Seasonal ratings based on average total viewers per episode of "The Big Bang Theory" on CBS:

paragraphs: The show made its UK debut on Channel 4 on February 14, 2008 bringing in an average audience of 1.0 million viewers. The second episode, shown the following week, also received 1.0 million. For the third episode an average of 1.1 million tuned in. The show is also shown as a 'first-look' on Channel 4's digital offshoot E4 the preceding evening, and brings in 400,000 viewers on average. The 5th episode received 880,000 viewers. After the first 5 episodes, the average number of viewers continues to hover around the 1 million mark. Episode 13 was watched by 1.3 million viewers and was the most watched episode.

paragraphs: In December 2008, Virgin Media made the first nine episodes of the first season available to watch on its TV Choice On Demand service, and the rest of Season 1 was made available in January 2009.


title: Smilodon

paragraphs: Smilodon was a genus of saber-toothed cat. There were three species. "Smilodon gracilis" (or "S. fragilis") was the ancestral, smaller, species (2.5 to 0.5 million years ago).

paragraphs: "Smilodon populator" (1 mya to 10 kya) was a large, heavy species from eastern South America. It was 1.2 m high at the shoulder, 2.1 m (83 in) long on average. With an estimated weight of 220 to 400 kg, it was among the heaviest known felids. Its upper canines reached 28 cm (11 in) and protruded up to 17 cm (6.7 in) out of the upper jaw.

paragraphs: "Smilodon fatalis" (or "S. californicus"; 1.6 mya to 10,000 years ago) was the famous cat known from the Rancho La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles. The tar, a bit like asphalt, has yielded about a million bones of late Pleistocene mammals, of which 162,000 bones are from "Smilodon", representing perhaps 1200 individuals. The cat was about the size of a female lion, but weighed more, perhaps 200 kg. It was about 1 metre tall at the shoulders.

paragraphs: "Smilodon" is most famous for its relatively long canines, which are the longest found in the saber-toothed cats, at about long in the largest species "Smilodon populator". Those of "S. fatalis" reached their full size in 18 months at a growth rate of 7 mm/month. These canine teeth were slender and had fine serrations. They were fragile and could not have bitten into bone. Therefore, the cats did not use their long teeth to take down prey. Only when their prey was subdued did they use their teeth.

paragraphs: The front limbs on these cats were longer and stronger than modern cats, and from that, and its teeth, its method of attack must have been different. An educated guess would be: they were ambush predators, which clung on round the neck of their prey, and slashed at the underside of the throat. This contrasts with the method of the modern lion, which brings down its prey by weight of numbers, and clamps its jaws over the prey's nose and mouth. The prey dies of suffocation.

paragraphs: "Smilodon"'s gape could have reached almost 120 degrees, while that of the modern lion reaches 65 degrees. This makes the gape wide enough to allow "Smilodon" to slash the throats of their victims without closing their jaws in a bite.

paragraphs: "Smilodon"'s niche was closer to a leopard's, which is also an ambush predator. They both need cover to get close to prey.

paragraphs: "Smilodon" had relatively short legs and a short, bobbed tail. Its front legs were especially powerful. Its body was adapted for springing onto prey, but it was not a very fast runner.

paragraphs: During the last ice age, there were many possible prey species from the La Brea location: mammoths, bison, horse, camel, ground sloth, pronghorn, tapir, deer,(elk and others). Most of these were extinct by 5 to 10,000 years ago. The pressures of a major climate change and human hunting were thought to be the main causes.

paragraphs: There was more plant cover at that time. Juniper, oaks, ragweeds, cedars, redwoods, sagebrush, sycamore, thistle and walnut grew in the environs. "Smilodon" survived so long as its prey had vegetation.


title: The Clash (Album)

paragraphs: The Clash is the first album-length recording made by the English punk band The Clash. It was released twice. Both releases are still in print: the original version in 1977 and the changed U.S. version in 1979 (with several post-1977 single sides added to the album).

paragraphs: All tracks were written by Joe Strummer and Mick Jones, except where noted.

paragraphs: Tracks 1, 3–4, 6–8 are sung by Joe Strummer. Tracks 2 and 5 are sung by Joe Strummer and Mick Jones.


title: Give 'Em Enough Rope

paragraphs: Give 'Em Enough Rope is the second album by The Clash. It was released in 1978. In the United States, this was their first official album because it was released before the U.S. version of "The Clash". The album was well liked and got to number 2 in the UK chart, and number 128 in the U.S.

paragraphs: All songs were written by Joe Strummer and Mick Jones, except where noted. All songs were arranged by The Clash. All lead vocals were by Strummer, except "Stay Free" by Jones.


title: The Daily Show

paragraphs: The Daily Show (known currently as The Daily Show with Jon Stewart) is an Emmy Award winning news parody television program. It airs each Monday through Thursday on Comedy Central in the United States. The half-hour long program was first shown on Monday, July 22, 1996. It was first hosted by Craig Kilborn. Kilborn acted as its anchorman until December 1998. Jon Stewart took over as host in January 1999. Many changes were made to the program at that time. Stewart retired in 2015. The show will be hosted by South African comedian Trevor Noah in September 2015.

paragraphs: Under Stewart, "The Daily Show" has become more strongly focused around politics and the national media. It is much different to the more character-driven comedy which was shown more during Kilborn's time on the program. Stewart's final broadcast aired on August 6, 2015.

paragraphs: There have been many other on-air contributors to "The Daily Show" with some called "correspondents", including Dave Attell, Stephen Colbert, Steve Carell, Ed Helms, Rob Corddry, Susie Essman, Olivia Munn, Buck Henry, Lewis Black, Kristen Schaal, Larry Wilmore, and John Oliver.


title: Ritchie Neville

paragraphs: Richard Neville Dobson known professionally as Ritchie Neville (born 23 August, 1979, in Solihull, Birmingham, England) is an English singer. He is best known for being a member of UK boy band Five. Neville attended the private Bromsgrove School in Worcestershire and was taught by Mike Perry.


title: Five (band)

paragraphs: Five were a British boy band formed in 1997 by the same team that formed the Spice Girls, Bob Herbert and his son Chris. Signed by Simon Cowell, they enjoyed success worldwide, but particularly in the UK, parts of Europe, Russia, parts of Asia, Brazil, Israel, Australia, New Zealand and USA. They broke up on 27 September 2001, after selling almost 20 million records, and having 11 top ten singles and 4 top ten albums in the UK. The five members were Scott Robinson, Ritchie Neville, Jason 'J' Brown, Richard 'Abs' Breen and Sean Conlon. Four of the five original members briefly reformed the group on September 27, 2006, but only 7 months after announcing a comeback, Five made an announcement by their official website they would again disband. They reformed in 2012.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

paragraphs: Secret Diary of a Call Girl (also known as Secret Diary) is a British television drama broadcast on ITV2 starring Billie Piper as "Belle", a high-class London-based call girl. The story is based on the blogs of Belle de Jour.

paragraphs: The first 8 part series began on 27 September 2007 at 10pm. The second 8 part series began on 11 September 2008 at 10pm.


title: ITV2

paragraphs: ITV2 is a 24 hour a day free-to-air entertainment television channel in the United Kingdom owned by ITV Digital Channels Ltd, a part of ITV plc. It was Released on 7 December 1998, and is available on digital television by satellite, cable, IPTV and terrestrial Avago platforms. It is also available by analogue Virgin Media television.


title: Belle de Jour (writer)

paragraphs: Belle de Jour is the "pen name" of a former London call girl, Brooke Magnanti (born 5 November 1975). Under this name she maintains a successful blog, "Belle de Jour: Diary of a London Call Girl" which by 2003 had been selected by "The Guardian" as its blog of the year and has had two books published in both the UK and US.

paragraphs: Magnanti was born and raised in Clearwater, Florida. Her father is Italian American; her mother is Jewish American. Magnanti became a British citizen in 2013. She is married and lives in Lochaber in the Scottish Highlands. She is a former prostitute.

paragraphs: The name recalls the 1928 novel "Belle de Jour" by Joseph Kessel and the 1967 movie, "Belle de Jour", starring Catherine Deneuve, directed by Luis Buñuel.

paragraphs: In French "Belle de Jour" means "beauty of [the] day," as opposed to "femme de nuit" or "belle de nuit," women of the night (common euphemisms for prostitutes).


title: Cloth mill Offermann

paragraphs: In the 18th century, the cloth mill Offermann was a brass factory in the German city of Stolberg. It was later changed to cloth mill and then to a restaurant and apartment building. The changes show the change of economical needs in that city.

paragraphs: The building was founded as a brass factory. In the 18th century, it was one of many brass factories in the city.

paragraphs: At the end of the 18th century, the brass industry in Stolberg lost importance. The building was sold to a clothier of the nearby village of Imgenbroich. He produced cloth for more than 60 years.

paragraphs: At the beginning of the 19th century, the building was used as a restaurant. Some parts of the building were greatly in need of repair.

paragraphs: At the end of the 20th century, major repairs were done to the building. Currently, it is used as an apartment building.


title: St. Anger

paragraphs: St. Anger is the 8th studio album by American thrash metal band Metallica. It was released on June 5, 2003. It was their last album released by Elektra Records. Four singles were released from the album. In 2004, the album's lead single, "St. Anger", won a Grammy Award for "Best Metal Performance". A lot of people did not like the style of this album and the way the drums sounded. It also has a free DVD that has the band playing the entire album in a studio.


paragraphs: Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! is the first studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth. The album was released on June 12, 1985. It was released through Combat Records.

paragraphs: Early in 1985, the band was given $8,000 by Combat Records to record and produce the band's first album. The money proved not to be enough and the band was given $4,000 more. Most of the budget was spent on drugs, alcohol, and food, which forced the group to fire their original producer and produce the record by themselves.


title: Dalek

paragraphs: The Daleks are a made-up alien race of mutants from the British science fiction television series "Doctor Who". Daleks are aliens from the planet Skaro, integrated within a tank-like metal casing. The creatures are a powerful race who always wanted universal conquest and control, they have no pity, feelings or guilt (as all of their emotions were removed except hate).

paragraphs: The Daleks are one of the most powerful races ever in "Doctor Who" history and are the Doctor's worst enemies. They cry "EX-TER-MIN-ATE!" when they are about to kill someone. They come in different colours, like bronze, black, red, white, gold, and silver. They first appeared in the first season episode of the series (in "The Daleks") and they were last seen in the Series 7 episode "Asylum of the Daleks" (2012). They are not robots, but horrible aliens kept in a metal casing, because they became mutated during a war on their planet, Skaro. They were created by an evil scientist named Davros. They can not be easily hurt by guns as their casing reflects the bullets that come from the gun and a shield melts bullets shot at them.

paragraphs: Daleks were created by writer Terry Nation and designed by BBC designer Raymond Cusick. They were introduced in December 1963 in the second "Doctor Who" serial. From their first appearance they became very popular with viewers. They appeared in many later serials and two 1960s motion pictures.

paragraphs: The word "Dalek" has been put into the "Oxford English Dictionary" and other major dictionaries; the "Collins Dictionary" defines it rather broadly as "any of a set of fictional robot-like creations that are aggressive, mobile, and produce rasping staccato speech". Although there is no meaning to their name, "Dalek" sounds like the Norwegian word "dårlig", which means "bad" or "evil". It is also a trademark, having first been registered by the BBC in 1964 to protect its range of Dalek merchandise.

paragraphs: The Daleks were on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by Lord Snowdon.

paragraphs: On the outside, Daleks resemble human-sized salt and pepper shakers who are five to six feet (152 to 183 cm) tall. On the top, they have a rotating dome with a telescope for seeing. They have two arms. One arm has an energy weapon (or "death ray"), which looks like an long egg beater or the framework of a paint roller. In some episodes, this could also fire a gas or projectiles. Their other arm is a telescope with a plunger on the end, which they use as a hand. The actual Dalek creature inside the metal casing is very rarely seen. It looks like an octopus or a squid.

paragraphs: Early versions of the Daleks were rolled around on castors or moved by wheels connected to hand cranks by bicycle chains.

paragraphs: Later versions of the prop had more efficient wheels (from shopping carts, according to a Blue Peter episode) and were simply moved by the seated operators' feet, but they remained so heavy that when going up ramps they often had to be pushed by stagehands out of where the camera could not see. The difficulty of operating all the prop's parts at once contributed to the occasionally jerky movements of the Dalek. The latest model of the costume still has a human operator within, but the movement of the dome and eyestalk are now remotely controlled so that the operator can concentrate on the smooth movement of the Dalek and its arms.

paragraphs: The Daleks have appeared on the show many times and their design has seen many changes. This means that it can be difficult to make sure that the storylines line up. When the Daleks first appeared in "The Daleks", they were presented as the descendants of the Dals, mutated after a brief nuclear war between the Dal and Thal races. However, in 1975, Terry Nation revised the Daleks' origins in "Genesis of the Daleks", where the Dals were now called Kaleds (of which Daleks is an anagram), and the Dalek design was attributed to one man, the crippled Kaled chief scientist Davros.

paragraphs: Instead of a short nuclear exchange, the Kaled-Thal war was portrayed as a thousand-year-long war, fought with nuclear and other weapons causing widespread mutations among the Kaled race. Davros experimented on living Kaled cells to find the ultimate mutated form of the Kaled species and placed the subjects in "travel machines" whose design was based on his own life-support chair.

paragraphs: "Genesis of the Daleks" marked a new era for the depiction of the species, with most of their previous history either forgotten or barely talked about again.

paragraphs: A single Dalek appeared in "Dalek", written by Robert Shearman, which was broadcast on BBC One on 30 April 2005. This Dalek appeared to be the sole Dalek survivor of the last Time War that had destroyed both the Daleks and the Time Lords.The Doctor had guessed that this Dalek had "fallen" out of the time war.

paragraphs: The Dalek Emperor returned at the end of the 2005 series, having rebuilt the Dalek race with human subjects; it saw itself as a god, and the new Daleks were shown worshipping it. This terrified the Doctor as "Daleks have no concept of blasphemy." These Daleks and their fleet were erased from time itself in "The Parting of the Ways".

paragraphs: The 2006 series finale "Army of Ghosts"/"Doomsday" saw another squad of Dalek survivors from the old Empire, known as the Cult of Skaro, led by a black Dalek named "Dalek Sec", that had survived the Time War by escaping into the Void between dimensions. They emerged, along with a Time Lord prison containing millions of Daleks, at Canary Wharf due to the actions of the Torchwood Institute and Cybermen from a parallel world, leading to a Cyberman-Dalek clash in London. Eventually, the Tenth Doctor caused both factions to be sucked back into the Void. However, the Cult members (Sec, Caan, Jast, and Thay; it is unusual for a Dalek to have a name) survived by "temporal shifting" away. The two-part story "Daleks in Manhattan"/"Evolution of the Daleks" revealed they had escaped to 1930 New York, setting up base in the Empire State Building, which was being built at the time. Experiments led by Sec attepted to force a Dalek evolution by combining their DNA with that of humans, and he is the first of the new "Human-Daleks". However the three remaining Daleks rebelled and destroyed him because he was not a pure dalek. The Cult also attempted to create a Human/Dalek hybrid (fully human in appearance but with Dalek minds). This attempt failed after the Doctor interfered. Caan escaped via another temporal shift.

paragraphs: The Daleks returned in the 2008 series' two-part finale, "The Stolen Earth"/"Journey's End", accompanied once again by their creator Davros (now played by Julian Bleach). It is revealved that Dalek Caan had forced himself back into the Time War, even though it was "time-locked" or prevented from entering by any means (the effort rendered him insane), where he rescued Davros; Davros then created a new army of Daleks from his own flesh. The new Dalek army was led by a Supreme Dalek, who kept Davros imprisoned in a "Vault"; Davros said that he and the Supreme Dalek had reached "an arrangement". Davros and the Daleks planned to destroy all creation with a 'reality bomb', which failed due to the interference of the Doctor and his companions, and due to Caan himself who had been manipulating the events unknown to either side. Though the Daleks were destroyed, the fate of Davros and Dalek Caan is unknown. 3 Daleks from this episode came back in Series 5 (Victory of the Daleks). They created 5 new, different colored daleks. These new Daleks escaped into space. Later, they showed up in "The Pandorica Opens" and trapped the Doctor in the Pandorica, the ultimate prison. After they were erased from time by the cracks, a stone Dalek showed up, which was an echo of the Dalek race. It was brought alive by the Pandorica light, which could restore thing which had been erased by the cracks. It was later shot in the eye by River Song. Their race, along with the rest of the universe, was brought back by the Doctor.


title: Rust in Peace

paragraphs: Rust in Peace is the fourth album by American thrash metal band, Megadeth. It was released on September 24, 1990. It has been called one of the best thrash metal records of all time by publications such as "Decibel" and "Kerrang!".


title: Fable II

paragraphs: Fable II is a fantasy role-playing videogame released for Microsoft's Xbox 360 console in 2008. It is the sequel to the original Xbox game, "Fable". In "Fable II" you begin as a poor orphan child who has a sister. You are invited into the King's palace where he kills your sister. The rest of the game you go through various quests where your ultimate goal is to gain revenge on the King.


title: Aveyron

paragraphs: Aveyron () is a French department found in the northeast of the Occitanie region of southern France and named after the Aveyron river. Its prefecture is Rodez.

paragraphs: Aveyron is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created with most of the territory of the old province of Rouergue; in fact, the present flag of the department was the flag of Rouergue.

paragraphs: The first known historical inhabitants of the region were the Rutenii tribe but, before them, the area was inhabited by people that built many prehistoric ruins including over 1,000 dolmens - more than any other department in France.

paragraphs: In 1808, the old canton of "Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val" was transferred from Aveyron to the new department of Tarn-et-Garonne.

paragraphs: Aveyron is part of the Occitanie region, in southern France, and is the 6th French department in area with .

paragraphs: The department borders with 7 other departments:

paragraphs: Aveyron is in the southern half of the central plateau ("Massif Central") of France. The mountainous areas (the Aubrac mountains, Palanges Levezou and Lacaune) cover little more than a third of the territory, with the highest point in "Signal de Mailhe-Biau" (the northwest peak, ) that is high and is in the region called "Cazalets"; the remaining two thirds are occupied by hills and plateaus (Ségala, Viadène, Lagast and Grands Causses), with a few valleys.

paragraphs: The territory is crossed, among others, by the rivers Lot and Tarn, both tributaries of the Garonne river. The Aveyron river, which gives its name to the department, is a tributary of the Tarn river.

paragraphs: The main rivers of Aveyron are the Lot in the north, the Aveyron in the centre and the Tarn in the south, all tributaries of the Garonne. They flow from east to west, following the general slope of the department, and divide it into four zones.

paragraphs: The climate of the Aveyron is subtropical with dry-summer, Csb (Mediterranean Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Millau is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Millau is . The month with the most precipitation on average is September with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of .

paragraphs: Aveyron is part of the region of Occitanie. The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Aveyron" in Rodez.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 23 "cantons" and 286 "communes" (municipalities) in Aveyron.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 23 cantons of the Aveyron department (with their INSEE codes), in France, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Aveyron are known, in French, as "Aveyronnais" (women: "Aveyronnaises").

paragraphs: Aveyron has a population, in 2014, of 278,644, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Rodez, with 143,841 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Millau and Villefranche-de-Rouergue, have respectively 70,995 and 63,808 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The city with more people living in it is the capital, Rodez (24,088). The subprefectures of Millau and Villefranche-de-Rouergue have, respectively, 22,064 and 11,822 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The 10 most important cities in the department are:


title: Bouches-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Bouches-du-Rhône (, lit. "Mouths of the Rhône") is a department in the south of France named after the mouth of the Rhône River. It is the department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region with more people living in it.

paragraphs: Bouches-du-Rhône is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was made with part of the old province of Provence and was divided in six districts: Tarascon, Apt, Aix, Marseille, Salon and Arles, with Aix as is capital.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the six districts were changed into three "arrondissements": Marseille, Aix and Tarascon. The prefecture was moved from Aix to Marseille.

paragraphs: After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), the department was occupied by the Austrian army from June 1815 to November 1818.

paragraphs: In 1817, the subprefecture of Tarascon was moved to Arles. The "arrondissement" of Istres was created in 1981.

paragraphs: The Bouches-du-Rhône department is part of the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department is surrounded by the 3 departments in 2 regions:

paragraphs: The Mediterranean Sea is to the south and there is of coast.

paragraphs: The highest mountain in Bouches-du-Rhône is Bertagne () in the eastern part of the department, near the border with the Var department in the "massif de la Sainte-Baume"; it is high.

paragraphs: The department is bordered by the Rhone river to the west and the Durance river to the north. The Rhone divides into the Grand Rhone and Petit Rhone south of Arles; the area between forms the "Camargue", a large wetland.

paragraphs: The Frioul archipelago is a group of 4 islands in the Mediterranean Sea approximately at from Marseille.

paragraphs: The area around Marseille, at an altitude of about , is characterized by climates with dry summers. The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Marseille is a "Mediterranean climate" and of the subtype "Csa".

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Marseille is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Marseille is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: Bouches-du-Rhône is managed by the "Departmental Council of Bouches-du-Rhône" in Marseille. The department is part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region.

paragraphs: There are 4 "arrondissements" (districts), 29 "cantons" and 135 "communes" (municipalities) in Bouches-du-Rhône.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 29 cantons of the Bouches-du-Rhône department, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of the Bouches-du-Rhône department are known, in French, as "Buccorhodaniens" or (women: "Buccorhodaniennes"),

paragraphs: Bouches-du-Rhône had a population, in 2014, of 2,006,069, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Marseille, with 1,058,615 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Bouches-du-Rhône

paragraphs: The 10 "communes" with more inhabitants in the Bouches-du-Rhône department are:


title: Vocal cords

paragraphs: The vocal cords or vocal folds are two sets of tissue stretched across the larynx. They can vibrate when air passes through the larynx. This produces sounds. Humans use them to produce language.

paragraphs: Men and women have different vocal fold sizes. Adult male voices are usually deeper: males have thicker cord. The male vocal folds are between 17 mm and 25 mm in length.""

paragraphs: The female vocal folds are between 12.5 mm and 17.5 mm long.

paragraphs: The difference in vocal fold size between men and women means that their voices have a different pitch. Each person's voice is different and has a slightly different pitch. This is caused by genes that influence how the larynx is made.

paragraphs: The vocal cords are sometimes called 'true vocal cords' to distinguish them from the false vocal cords. These are a pair of thick folds of mucous membrane. They sit directly above the true vocal folds, to protect them. They have a very small role in normal speech , but are often used in musical screaming and the death grunt singing style. They are also used in Tuvan throat singing.

paragraphs: The false cords are also called vestibular folds and ventricular folds. They can be seen on the diagram above as "ventricular folds".

paragraphs: Unlike the true vocal cords, the false ones grow back completely when they are removed by surgery.


title: Parallel computing

paragraphs: Parallel computing is a form of computation in which many instructions are carried out simultaneously (termed "in parallel"), depending on the theory that large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, and then solved concurrently ("in parallel").

paragraphs: There are several different forms of parallel computing:

paragraphs: It has been used for many years, mainly in high-performance computing, with a great increase in its use in recent years, due to the physical constraints preventing frequency scaling. Parallel computing has become the main model in computer architecture, mainly in the form of Multi-core processors. However, in recent years, power consumption by parallel computers has become a concern.

paragraphs: Parallel computers can be classified according to the level at which the hardware supports parallelism—with multi-core and multi-processor computers having multiple processing elements inside a single machine, while clusters, blades, MPPs, and grids use multiple computers to work on the same task.

paragraphs: Parallel computer programs are more difficult to program than sequential ones, because concurrency introduces several new classes of potential software bugs, of which race conditions and dead locks are the most common. however many parallel programming languages have been created to simplify parallel computers programming. But still communication and synchronization between the different subtasks is difficult while achieving good parallel program performance.


title: WrestleMania IV

paragraphs: WrestleMania IV was the fourth annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). It took place on March 27, 1988 at the Trump Plaza in Atlantic City, New Jersey.


title: Cantal

paragraphs: Cantal is a French department in south-central France in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region. Its prefecture is Aurillac.

paragraphs: It is named after the Mounts of Cantal, a group of mountains in the Massif Central.

paragraphs: Cantal is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created with part of the territory of the old province of Auvergne in south central France. It was divided in four districts: Aurillac, Mauriac, Murat and Saint-Flour; its capital in Saint-Flour, alternating with Aurillac.

paragraphs: In 1794, Saint-Flour became the only capital but, in 1795, the capital was moved to Aurillac.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the districts were changed into "arrondissements": Aurillac, Mauriac, Murat and Saint-Flour. On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Murat was eliminated.

paragraphs: Cantal is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, in south central France, with an area of .

paragraphs: The department borders with 3 regions and 7 other departments:

paragraphs: Cantal is in the middle half of the central plateau ("Massif Central") of France where is the Mounts of Cantal mountain range, a group of extinct volcanoes. The highest point in the Cantal mountains, and in the department is "Plomb du Cantal" () that is high. Other high mountains near Plomb du Cantal in the Cantal department are:

paragraphs: The lowest point of the department, , is in the valley of the Lot river where it leaves the department.

paragraphs: The main rivers are the Alagnon, a tributary to the Allier; the Célé and Truyère rivers, tributaries to the Lot river; and the Cère and Rhue rivers, tributaries to the Dordogne river.

paragraphs: The climate of Cantal has with few extremes of temperature and ample precipitation in all months. It belongs to the subtype Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Aurillac, at an altitude of , is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Aurillac is . The month with the most precipitation on average is December with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is June with an average of .

paragraphs: Cantal is part of the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Cantal" in Aurillac.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 15 "cantons" and 255 "communes" (municipalities) in Cantal.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 15 cantons of the Cantal department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Cantal are known, in French, as "Cantaliens" (women: "Cantaliennes") or "Cantalous" (women: "Cantalouses").

paragraphs: Cantal has a population, in 2014, of 146,618, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Aurillac, with 82,347 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Saint-Flour and Mauriac, have respectively 38,079 and 26,192 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The city with more people living in it is the capital, Aurillac (26,135). The subprefectures of Saint-Flour and Mauriac have, respectively, 6,643 and 3,682 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The 10 most important cities in the department are:


title: WrestleMania V

paragraphs: WrestleMania V was the fifth annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). It took place on April 2, 1989 at the Trump Plaza in Atlantic City, New Jersey.


title: Charente

paragraphs: Charente (Saintongeais: "Chérente", ) is a department in southwestern France, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region.

paragraphs: It is named after the Charente river, the most important river in the department. The two largest towns of the department, Angoulême and Cognac, are along this river.

paragraphs: Charente is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created from the old province of "Angoumois" with lands around Angoulême.

paragraphs: The new department had six districts: Ruffec, Confolens, La Rochefoucauld, Angoulême, Barbezieux and Cognac. The capital (now prefecture) was Angoulême.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the six districts were changed into five "arrondissements": Angoulême, Barbezieux, Cognac, Confolens and Ruffec.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissements" of Barbezieux and Ruffec were eliminated.

paragraphs: Charente is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The highest point of the department is "Rocher aux Oiseaux", high, in the "commune" of Montrollet; the lowest point is in the valley of the Charente river, "commune" of Merpins, and is high.

paragraphs: The department is bordered by the departments: Deux-Sèvres, Vienne, Haute-Vienne, Dordogne and Charente-Maritime.

paragraphs: The main river in the department is the Charente that gives its name to the department. Other rivers are the Dronne and the Vienne.

paragraphs: The climate of Cognac is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Cognac is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Cognac is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departmental Council of the Charente" in Angoulême. Charente is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 19 "cantons" and 383 "communes" (municipalities) in Charente.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 19 cantons of the Charente department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Charente are known, in French, as "Charentais" (women: "Charentaises").

paragraphs: Charente has a population, in 2014, of 353,853, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Angoulême, with 197,377 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Cognac and Confolens, have respectively 92,224 and 64,252 inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Charente-Maritime

paragraphs: The 10 main cities in the department are:

paragraphs: The cognac is an alcoholic drink, a kind of brandy. It is made from grapes. It is made mainly around the city of Cognac.


title: Charente-Maritime

paragraphs: Charente-Maritime (Saintongeais: "Chérente-Marine") is a department on the west coast of France in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It is named after the Charente river, the most important river in the department, and its position along the coast.

paragraphs: Its prefecture is the city of La Rochelle.

paragraphs: The department, as "Charente-Inférieure" ("Lower Charente" because it was in the lower part of the Charente river), is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790.

paragraphs: It was created from parts of the old provinces of Saintonge and Aunis and small parts of Poitou and Angoumois.

paragraphs: The new department had seven districts: La Rochelle, Rochefort, Saint-Jean-d'Angély, Saintes, Pons, Montlieu and Marennes. The capital (now prefecture) was Saintes alternating with La Rochelle and Saint-Jean-d'Angély but soon was changed and Saintes was kept as the only capital.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the seven districts were changed into six "arrondissements": Saintes, Jonzac, Marennes, Rochefort, La Rochelle and Saint-Jean-d'Angély and in 1810 the capital was moved to La Rochelle.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissements" of Marennes and Saint-Jean-d'Angély were eliminated. In 1943, Saint-Jean-d'Angély was made again an "arrondissement".

paragraphs: On 4 Septembre 1941, the name of the department was changed from "Charente-Inférieure" to the present name of Charente-Maritime.

paragraphs: Charente-Maritime is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The highest point in the department is in the woods of Chantemerlière, near the commune of Contré in the northeast, and that is high.

paragraphs: The department is bordered by the departments: Vendée, Deux-Sèvres, Charente, Dordogne and Gironde.

paragraphs: The main rivers are the Charente and its tributaries, the Boutonne and the Seugne, along with the Sèvre Niortaise, the Seudre, and the Garonne in its downstream part, which is the estuary of the Gironde.

paragraphs: The climate of La Rochelle is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in La Rochelle is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in La Rochelle is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departmental Council of the Charente-Maritime" in La Rochelle. Charente-Maritime is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

paragraphs: There are 5 "arrondissements" (districts), 27 "cantons" and 469 "communes" (municipalities) in Charente-Maritime.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 27 cantons of the Charente-Maritime department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Charente-Maritime are known, in French, as "Charentais maritimes" (women: "Charentaises maritimes").

paragraphs: Charente-Maritime has a population, in 2014, of 637,089, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Rochelle, with 210,151 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other four, Rochefort, Saintes, Jonzac and Saint-Jean-d'Angély, have respectively 187,843, 128,786, 56,973 and 53,336 inhabitants.


title: Optimization (computer science)

paragraphs: In computing, optimization is the process of modifying a system to make some features of it work more efficiently or use fewer resources. For instance, a computer program may be optimized so that it runs faster, or to run with less memory requirements or other resources (see Space-time tradeoff), or to consume less energy. This is a branch of software engineering.

paragraphs: The optimization can have sense at different levels, from the lowest (development of circuits, writing of machine code designed especially for the architecture) up to the highest levels of making of implementation, use or design of algorithms.

paragraphs: The optimization is generally recommended to leave until the end of the process of development, since the premature optimization can introduce new errors (generally more difficult to detect for being of algorithmic nature).

paragraphs: The optimized system may be a single computer program, a collection of computers or even an entire network such as the Internet.


title: Pilgrimage of Grace

paragraphs: The Pilgrimage of Grace was a revolt in York, Yorkshire in 1536. People protested against England's break with Rome and the Dissolution of the Monasteries. There were also other specific political, social and economic issues they did not like. Technically the term "Pilgrimage of Grace" only refers to the uprising around York, but sometimes it is used in relation to the risings in general which took place around Northern England; first from Lincolnshire, twelve days before the actual "Pilgrimage of Grace".

paragraphs: The revolt was caused by Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries, which caused problems with around 500,000 monks and nuns.


title: Embedded system

paragraphs: An embedded system is a computer that has been built to solve only a few very specific problems and is not easily changed. The word "embedded" means it is built into the system. It is a permanent part in a bigger system. It usually does not look like a computer, often no keyboard or monitor or mouse. But like any computer it has a processor, software, input and output.

paragraphs: For example, the controller embedded in an elevator tells the motor to move the elevator to different floors, based on buttons that are pushed. A decoder is embedded in a satellite television set-top box (called STB) to read a signal from the dish and send something that a TV understands. Often this type of system must do its work in a specific amount of time. This is called real-time computing. If a set-top box got interrupted to do another task, you would see a bad picture on the TV, for example. A general purpose computer will often have short pauses while it does something else, it is not real-time.

paragraphs: Embedded systems control many of the common devices in use today, such as card readers in hotel door locks or several things in a car. They can control small things like an MP3 player or a digital camera, and large things like traffic light systems, airplanes, or assembly lines in a factory.

paragraphs: Embedded systems are used in many kinds of electrical devices, including:

paragraphs: Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Sometimes they are built as a set, like the various parts of a car - the radio, the throttle control, the pollution control, etc. Sometimes they can communicate to the internet or a cell-phone network and they may have a USB reader or other connections.

paragraphs: Embedded systems range from no user interface at all — only sending and receiving electric signals — to a full graphical user interface like on a modern computer. Quite often they will have a few push-buttons and a small display and some LEDs. A more complex system may have a touch screen, allowing the meaning of the buttons to change with each screen as in smart phones.

paragraphs: Hardware includes the chips, wires, circuit boards, buttons and displays.

paragraphs: The most important chip is the central processing unit or CPU. This runs the software instructions. It can be a standard microprocessor or a microcontroller. Microcontrollers include the microprocessor as well as simple peripheral equipment so the system can be smaller and cheaper. They have less flexibility because those parts cannot be changed. Usually these parts include Flash memory and support for serial ports, USB, etc.

paragraphs: Unlike a microprocessor for a general-purpose computer, bigger and faster is not always better. Many embedded processors are very small. Sometimes this is to use less space or less power, sometimes it is to be cheaper. General-purpose computers will use microprocessors that read 32-bit or 64-bit words and run at speeds measured in GHz, but embedded processors are usually 4 to 32 bits and run at speeds usually measured in tens of MHz (a hundred times slower). (But the programs are also smaller and do not check for things that are not used).

paragraphs: There are ""ready-made"" computer boards that can be used in some embedded systems. These often use Windows CE, Linux, NetBSD, or an embedded real-time operating system.

paragraphs: Sometimes it may be easier to use a circuit board that is already made. These usually share many components with general purpose computers, but are smaller than one in a general purpose computer. Boards such as the VIA EPIA can run Microsoft Windows. The advantage is that it saves some electrical engineering time and can use the same software development tools used for PC-type software development. Examples of such embedded devices are the ATMs or displays in casinos. This works well if the real-time requirements are not real strict (it doesn't matter much if a job takes eight seconds instead of five, for example).

paragraphs: If the device needs to be very small or will be sold in very big numbers (""high-volume""), it makes sense to make a custom or specialized chip that does exactly what is needed. This is a system on a chip (SoC) which holds a complete system - processor, floating point unit, memory cache and interfaces on a single integrated circuit. SoCs can be made as a special-order application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or by using a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) which is programmed by the people building the embedded system.

paragraphs: Embedded systems talk with the outside world or other components using peripherals such as:

paragraphs: Embedded systems often do not need a full operating system. Some use specially-built small and simple operating systems that start very quickly, others do not need one at all. Embedded systems are not adapted as easily, but they are built to perform their tasks much more reliably. Because the hardware is simpler, it is also often cheaper to build and runs faster.

paragraphs: In contrast to this, a general-purpose computer needs to be ready for new device drivers and software to run hardware it doesn't know about yet, like new printers or hard drives. It needs to run different application programs.

paragraphs: As embedded systems get bigger, things that used to be only on general-purpose computers or even mainframes are now becoming common on embedded systems. This includes protected memory space, and open programming environment including Linux, NetBSD, etc.

paragraphs: Some examples of operating systems, from simple to complex:

paragraphs: Real-time operating systems include products like MicroC/OS-II, Green Hills INTEGRITY, QNX or VxWorks. Unlike MacOS or Windows 7, these operating systems are not known very well by most people. But they are used in many places where time and safety is very important. People use them every day and do not realize it.

paragraphs: Common examples of larger kernels are Embedded Linux and Windows CE. Although these do not have the tight time limits needed for a strict real-time system, they are becoming more common, especially for more powerful devices such as Wireless Routers and GPSs. They allow re-use of code in the public domain for Device Drivers, Web Servers, Firewalls, and other code. Software developers that are more comfortable writing applications for PCs will find this more familiar as well. If needed, an FPGA or other special hardware can be used for things that do need tight time limits.

paragraphs: Like other software, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers, and debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they may also use some more specific tools:

paragraphs: Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run software through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its operation. The view of the code may be as assembly code or source-code. Some integrated systems (like VxWorks or Green Hills) have special features, like keeping track of how much space the software takes as it runs, what tasks are running, and when things happen.

paragraphs: Depending on what kind of embedded system is being made will affect how it can be debugged. For instance, debugging a single microprocessor system is different from debugging a system where processing is also done on a peripheral (DSP, FPGA, co-processor).

paragraphs: Embedded systems are often in machines that are expected to run for years without errors, and in some cases recover by themselves if an error occurs. This means the software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives and fans are avoided.

paragraphs: Places where safety and reliability are important:

paragraphs: Ways to recover from errors — both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the hardware:


title: WrestleMania VI

paragraphs: WrestleMania VI was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Federation (WWF). It was held on April 1, 1990 at SkyDome in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was the sixth WrestleMania event held by the WWF. It was the first WrestleMania to be held outside of the United States. It was up from the last WrestleMania's attendance which was 18,946.

paragraphs: The event was known for "The Ultimate Challenge", a match where Hulk Hogan (WWF Champion) faced The Ultimate Warrior (WWF Intercontinental Champion), in which both championship titles were on the line.


title: Real-time computing

paragraphs: Real-time computing is a field of Computer science. The idea is to design systems that have a "real-time constraint". Real time systems will guarantee to give a result within a specified time. There are two kinds of real-time systems:


title: AVN Award

paragraphs: The AVN Awards are movie awards sponsored by and presented by the adult video industry magazine AVN. They began in January 1984.


title: WrestleMania IX

paragraphs: WrestleMania IX was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Federation (WWF). It was held on April 4, 1993 at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. It was the ninth WrestleMania event held by the WWF.

paragraphs: The main event saw Yokozuna defeat Bret Hart to win the WWF Championship. Yokozuna won the match by pinfall after Yokozuna's manager Mr. Fuji threw salt in Hart's eyes. After the match, Hulk Hogan came down to the ring to check on Hart. Mr. Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna in a impromptu match and Hogan accepted. Hogan won the match and the championship in 22 seconds after he hit Yokozuna with the leg drop and pinned him.

paragraphs: WrestleMania IX received negative criticism and was called a poorly booked event. John Powell of SLAM! Wrestling said that other than the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring, the rest of the pay-per-view was not good. He also did not like some of the outfits that were worn at the event, most notably Jim Ross's toga and Giant Gonzalez's spray-painted suit.


title: Airbag

paragraphs: An airbag is a part of the safety restraint system in cars. Airbags are bags that rapidly fill with air when an accident happens. That way they can prevent injuries that occur when the driver hits a hard object.

paragraphs: An airbag is a useful vehicle safety device. Airbags are used in the world increasingly because in accidents, it can help passengers reduce shock.

paragraphs: When the sensor feels a strong shock, the gas device explodes. This gas fills the bag immediately.

paragraphs: An American inventor, Dr. Allen S. Breed, invented and developed a key component for automotive use. Breed Corporation then marketed this innovation first in 1967 to Chrysler. A similar "Auto-Ceptor" crash-restraint, brandon, developed by Eaton, Yale & Towne Inc. for Ford was soon offered as an automatic safety system in the USA. The Italian Eaton-Livia company offered a variant with localized air cushions.

paragraphs: All cars used the airbag nowadays was originally invented by a Japanese man Mr. Kobori and he took the world patents.

paragraphs: The first patent on an inflatable crash-landing device for airplanes was filed during World War II. In 1973, the first commercial airbags appeared in a run of 1,000 Chevrolet Impalas. Since model year 1998, all new cars sold in the United States have been required to have airbags on both driver and passenger sides. To date, statistics show that airbags reduce the risk of dying in a direct frontal crash by about 30 percent. Today, some cars have six or even eight airbags.

paragraphs: First, moving objects have momentum (the product of the mass and the velocity of an object). If no outside force acts on an object, the object will continue to move at its present speed and direction (because of inertia). Cars consist of several objects, including the vehicle itself, loose objects in the car and, of course, passengers. If these objects are not restrained, they will continue moving at whatever speed the car is travelling at, even if the car is stopped by a collision.

paragraphs: Stopping an object's momentum requires force acting over a period of time. When a car crashes, the force required to stop an object is very great because the car's momentum has changed instantly while the passengers' has not (there is not much time to work with). The goal of any supplemental restraint system is to help stop the passenger while doing as little damage to them as possible.

paragraphs: What an airbag wants to do is to slow the passenger's speed to zero with little or no damage. The constraints that it has to work within are huge. The airbag has the space between the passenger and the steering wheel or dashboard and a fraction of a second to work with. Even that tiny amount of space and time is valuable, however, if the system can slow the passenger evenly rather than forcing an abrupt halt to their motion.

paragraphs: In 2006 the airbag was set up for a motorcycle. This was in the Gold Wing by Honda.

paragraphs: The second airbag device for motorcyclist is an inflatable airbag jacket was invented by Tamás Straub in 1976.


title: Darkly Dreaming Dexter

paragraphs: Darkly Dreaming Dexter is a 2004 book written by Jeff Lindsay. It won the 2005 Dilys Award.

paragraphs: The television show "Dexter" was based on the book.


title: Dearly Devoted Dexter

paragraphs: Dearly Devoted Dexter is a 2005 book written by Jeff Lindsay. It is a sequel to the 2004 book "Darkly Dreaming Dexter" which the television show "Dexter" is based on.


title: Dexter in the Dark

paragraphs: Dexter in the Dark is a 2007 book written by Jeff Lindsay. It is the third book in Lindsay's "Dexter" series.


title: Fucking, Austria

paragraphs: Fucking ( ) is an Austrian village in the municipality of Tarsdorf, in the Innviertel region of western Upper Austria.

paragraphs: The village is 33 kilometres north of Salzburg, four kilometres east of the German border and can be travelled to in half an hour by car from the town of Petting, in Bavaria.

paragraphs: Fucking has existed since at least 1070 and is named after a man from the 6th century called "Fuko". In old Germanic, "-ing" is used to describe people as belonging to their leader; so "Fucking" means "(place of) Fuko’s people."

paragraphs: Although the village has a population of 104 , it has drawn attention in the English-speaking world for its name, which is spelled the same as the continuous form of the profane English-language verb "fuck".

paragraphs: Fucking's most famous feature is a traffic sign with its name on it, which tourists often photograph. This street sign is often stolen. Significant public funds have been spent on replacing the stolen signs.

paragraphs: In 2004, because many signs had been stolen, a vote was held to change the village name, but the villagers voted not to change. In August 2005, the road signs were welded to a very strong pole. This made it more difficult to steal them.


title: Susan Featherly

paragraphs: Susan Featherly (February 5, 1963) is an American actress. She is best known for her appearances in Cinemax television programs and adult movies such as "Kama Sutra" and "Corporate Fantasy". Featherly was born in Syracuse, New York.


title: Ravenscraig

paragraphs: Ravenscraig is an area of land in North Lanarkshire, Scotland. It used to be the site for steelworks. Ravenscraig used to have the largest steel mill in Western Europe. Ravenscraig was closed in 1992, and is now almost completely gone.

paragraphs: Ravenscraig is now at the start of a big redevelopment by Wilson Bowden Developments Ltd, Scottish Enterprise and Corus, to create a full new town.

paragraphs: Ravenscraig is very easy to get to. More than two—thirds of Scotland’s population live within 90 minutes drive.

paragraphs: Located in North Lanarkshire, Ravenscraig is between the towns of Wishaw and Motherwell, who house a population of over 60,000.

paragraphs: Ravenscraig lies only a few minutes drive from both the M74 and the M8 motorways which lead to Glasgow and Edinburgh, Scotland's two biggest cities.

paragraphs: Another steel maker, Colvilles, decided to expand their business in July 1954. They were the largest steel manufacturer before World War II.

paragraphs: In 1954, Colvilles began the first stages of development in Ravenscraig, that turned Ravenscraig from an empty field into a site for steelworks. By 1957 most of the machinery was built and by 1959 the full building work was complete.

paragraphs: When Ravenscraig closed in 1993, that was the end of most steel making in Scotland. 770 jobs were lost, along with another 10,000 jobs, both directly and indirectly linked.

paragraphs: In its current state, Ravenscraig is one of the largest derelict sites in Europe measuring over 1125 acres in size. Ravenscraig is the same size as an area of 700 football pitches and double the size of Monaco.

paragraphs: After many years of planning, Ravenscraig will be rebuilt by three equal companies: Wilson Bowden Developments Ltd, Scottish Enterprise and Corus and will be one of the largest regenerations in Europe, with 400 acres being developed.

paragraphs: Ravenscraig will have lots of new facilities:

paragraphs: Part of the development will be to make new habitats for the wildlife that live in the area, such as deer, foxes, hares, otters, badgers, watervoles, butterflies and many birds. An "Ecological Clerk of Works" has been appointed to make sure the building works do not harm the wildlife.

paragraphs: It is hoped that the £29million sports complex will be used as a training camp for the 2012 London Olympics and the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow.

paragraphs: There are many people who disagree with the building work. Many local residents and small businesses think that it will take jobs and customers from other towns.

paragraphs: As part of the changes, the transport to Ravenscraig will get better. There will be new transport within walking distance of the new town centre, with buses going to Glasgow, Lanark and many other towns. There will be easy access to public transport throughout Ravenscraig that will include business routes, that will link to the public transport network with roads to the Motherwell and Carfin rail stations.

paragraphs: Local press have said that the Scottish Premier League football team, Motherwell Football Club could buy some land in Ravenscraig to build a new football stadium, leaving behind their home of 113 years, Fir Park. Motherwell Chairman, John Boyle has said ""No decisions have been taken and we are simply exploring realistic options at this stage.""


title: Ron Wilson

paragraphs: Ron Wilson (b. May 28, 1955) is a former ice hockey player. He was the head coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs from 2008 to 2012. He also was the coach for the San Jose Sharks, Washington Capitals, Vancouver Canucks, and Anaheim Mighty Ducks of the NHL. Wilson was born in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. He is a citizen of both Canada and the United States.


title: Earth's inner core

paragraphs: The inner core is the very center of the Earth, and the hottest part of the planet. It is a mainly a solid ball with a radius of about , according to seismological studies. It is believed to consist mostly of an iron–nickel alloy and to be about the same temperature as the surface of the Sun: about 5700 K (5400 °C).

paragraphs: The inner core was discovered by Inge Lehmann in 1929, using seismology. Lehman was studying a large New Zealand earthquake. An earthquake makes vibrations which move through the inside of the Earth. The vibrations Lehmann studied seemed to be moving across something solid in the center of the planet. She called this the "inner core". She wrote about it for many years, but it was not proved to exist until 1970.

paragraphs: The inner core is more than 5,000 kilometers below the earth's surface. The pressure in Earth's inner core is about 3,500,000 atmospheres. Iron can only be solid at such high temperatures because its melting temperature increases dramatically at such pressures.


title: Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?

paragraphs: Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? is the second studio album by thrash metal band Megadeth. It was released on September 19, 1986. Dave Mustaine wrote all of the songs except for "I Ain't Superstitious".

paragraphs: All songs written by Dave Mustaine, except where noted.


title: A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules from the Centre of the Ultraworld

paragraphs: "A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules From the Centre of the Ultraworld" is a mix of a song by the ambient house group The Orb. The song is about being in love with a beautiful person. The song was at first a Minnie Riperton song called Lovin' You. The Orbs version was first sold in October 1989 and was in the UK Singles Chart in 1990, at number 78. In April 1991, it was sold as part of the album "The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld". The name is taken from a sound effects track from "Blake's 7" on "BBC Sound Effects No. 26 - Sci-Fi Sound Effects" called "The Core, A Huge Evergrowing Pulsating Brain which Rules from the Centre of Ultraworld".

paragraphs: In 1989, The Orb, with Martin "Youth" Glover, developed the musical style of ambient house using samples. The best of their musical work came when The Orb recorded music for John Peel on BBC Radio 1. The song, then known as "Loving You", was made quickly with many sound effects and samples from science fiction radio plays, nature sounds, and Minnie Riperton's "Lovin' You". Before the song was sold by record company Big Life, The Orb changed the name to "A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules From the Centre of the Ultraworld". After the first week of sale Minnie Ripertons record company forced Big Life to remove her voice from the song. After the first week another singer sang the song.

paragraphs: The Orbs version of the song was 19 minutes long and became number 78 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Hermann Carl Vogel

paragraphs: Hermann Carl Vogel (born April 3 1841, died August 13 1907) was a German astronomer. He was born in Leipzig, Kingdom of Saxony.

paragraphs: Vogel was one of the first astronomers to use a spectroscope in astronomy. He used it to read the chemicals on planets far away and to measure the time it takes the Sun to spin. He could read it by measuring the Doppler effect.

paragraphs: In 1882, Vogel became the Director at the Astrophysical Observatory Potsdam and he is best known for some work there in 1890. Vogel found that the colour of some stars changed over time, becoming red and then later becoming blue. His idea was that the star was moving toward and then away from the Earth, and that the colour changes were the because of that movement. These stars seemed to be orbiting around a hidden star as if they were double-stars but the second star could never be seen, only known by the colour changing Doppler effect.

paragraphs: Volgel proved that Algol was a double star that could not be seen (spectroscopic binary star) and it was one of the first of these double stars proven to exist.


title: Algol

paragraphs: Algol, also known as the Demon Star, is a bright star in the Perseus constellation. It is one of the best known double stars that can only be seen in spectroscopes, the first star of its type discovered, and one of the first variable stars to be discovered before it explodes. Algol is made of three stars (Beta Persei A, B and C) and the brightest is Persei A. These stars partly eclipse each other every 2 days, 20 hours and 49 minutes for 10 hours.


title: So Far, So Good... So What!

paragraphs: So Far, So Good... So What! is the third studio album by thrash metal band Megadeth. It was released on January 19, 1988.


title: Lissamphibia

paragraphs: The subclass Lissamphibia includes all living amphibians. They are classified in three orders:

paragraphs: Although the ancestry of each group is controversial, all share certain common characteristics, which indicates they evolved from a common ancestor and so form a clade.


title: NRG Stadium

paragraphs: NRG Stadium is a football stadium in Houston, Texas. The NFL's Houston Texans play their home games here. It was called Reliant Stadium from 2002 until 2013. The stadium hosted WWE's WrestleMania 25 on April 5, 2009. On March 19, 2014, the stadium's name was changed to NRG Stadium, after NRG Energy, the parent company of Reliant Energy.


title: Bop It

paragraphs: Bop It is a series of battery-powered games made by Hasbro. The aim of the game is to respond quickly to the directions that come out of the game's speakers. These directions are given in a way that requires the player do use different devices on the machine, such as pull handles, twist cranks, spin wheels, or toggle switches. A beat is played during the game and the beat will get faster as the player scores more points, making it harder for the player to respond.

paragraphs: "Bop It" can be played by one to four people at a time and has been very popular as a children's game. It was designed by Dan Klistner and developed by other Hasbro designers, including Bob Welch. The original version was released in 1996, and there have been several versions made since then. The current classic version was released in 2016 to mark the 20th anniversary of the original game. It was demonstrated at the New York Toy Fair in 2016 before the game was released in June 2016. It is called "Bop It! New Moves".

paragraphs: Since 2008, the voice in the games has been Buddy Rubino. He has recorded the voice for "Bop It!", "Bop It! XT", "Bop It! Smash!, Bop It! Tetris and Bop It! New Moves."

paragraphs: "Zing It" is a yo-yo version of "Bop It". It tells commands that the player must follow along with. Like the original "Bop It", there are three commands that may be said: "Bop it!" (requiring the player to press the purple button), "Zing it!" (requiring the player to drop the yo-yo downward and send it back up again), and "Loop it!" (requiring the player to do the "'round the world" yo-yo trick). "Zing It" has 3 modes: "Vox Bop" (as with Bop It), "Beat Bop" (again, as with Bop It), and "Vox Bop Challenge" (where the game will tell a series of commands which must be done in correctly). As with "Bop It" and "Bop It Extreme", "Zing It" announces the score musically by sound effects. Different tones represent different point values. There is a maximum score of 250.

paragraphs: In 2009, EA Games made a video game called "Hasbro Family Games Night 2". It had "Bop It" as one of the games that could be played. It is available for the Nintendo DS and the Nintendo Wii. In 2011, EA Games made an iPhone application which played exactly like the handheld game. It has the same commands from the handheld games and added extra commands which were never invented on the handheld game.