title: South Italy

paragraphs: South Italy ( or just ) is one of the five official statistical regions of Italy used by the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), a NUTS1 level region.

paragraphs: South Italy is defined only for statistical and for some elections. It should not to be confused with the "Mezzogiorno", or Southern Italy, which generally refers to all the southern half of the Italian State, including the island of Sicily and sometimes even Sardinia. The two islands form a distinct statistical region.region.

paragraphs: South Italy borders to the north with Central Italy (to the northwest with Lazio and to the northeast with Marche). The Adriatic Sea is to the east and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, and the Ionian Sea to the south.

paragraphs: The Apennines are mountain ranges that goes from north to south through South Italy. The highest point in the region is the Corno Grande () (part of the Gran Sasso) that is high.

paragraphs: Central Italy encompasses six of the 20 regions of Italy, including 24 provinces and 1,789 comuniː

paragraphs: The "comuni" with more than 100,000 persons living in them areː


title: Champdor-Corcelles

paragraphs: Champdor-Corcelles is a commune in the Ain department of eastern France. It was established on 1 January 2016. It is made of the former communes of Champdor and Corcelles.


title: Le Poizat-Lalleyriat

paragraphs: Le Poizat-Lalleyriat is a commune in the Ain department of eastern France. It was established on January 1, 2016. It is made of the former communes of Lalleyriat and Le Poizat.


title: Val-Revermont

paragraphs: Val-Revermont is a commune in the Ain department of eastern France. It was established on January 1, 2016. It is made of the former communes of Treffort-Cuisiat and Pressiat.


title: Schwendibach

paragraphs: Schwendibach was a municipality in Thun in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. On 1 January 2020 the former municipality of Schwendibach became part of of Steffisburg.


title: Seeberg

paragraphs: Seeberg is a municipality of the administrative district of Oberaargau in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. The lake Burgäschisee is on the border with Aeschi. On 1 January 2016 the former municipality of Hermiswil merged into Seeberg.


title: Laws of motion

paragraphs: In physics, a number of noted theories of the motion of objects have developed. Among the best-known are:


title: Interchangeable parts

paragraphs: Interchangeable parts is a basic concept of creating identical or nearly identical parts to be mass produced. These parts can then be put together to form a product. For example, cars, computers, furniture, almost all products used today, are made from interchangeable parts. These parts are made with precision machines so each part can fit in any product that uses this part. Since it is no longer necessary to make each part one at a time and by hand, assembling products takes fewer workers. This lowers the cost of the product. Interchangeability of parts also allows products to be repaired by replacing a broken part with an identical new part. Eli Whitney was the first to use interchangeable parts in manufacturing.

paragraphs: Several inventors have had the idea of interchangeable parts in the past. But their version of the idea revolved around parts that had very loose tolerances or were used only for very simple parts. In 1720 a Swedish inventor named Christopher Polhem used interchangeable parts for clocks in his workshop. But the idea was not used outside his shops.

paragraphs: About the middle of the 18th century, French gunsmith Honoré Blanc developed the concept of interchangeable parts for muskets. Blanc tried to interest other European gunsmiths, but they were not impressed by the idea. But he did interest the American Ambassador to France, Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson quickly saw that mass production of weapons parts would free America from dependence on European sources for parts. He could not get Blanc to move to the United States but he did convince President George Washington it was a good idea. It came at a critical time when Congress was preparing for a war with France. In 1798, Eli Whitney got the first contract for 10,000 muskets to be delivered within two years. Whitney used a large force of unskilled workers and machinery to produce standardized identical parts at a low cost. What he produced was the first smoothbore flintlock musket produced in the United States, the Springfield Model 1795 Musket. Whitney's idea of using machines to create interchangeable parts started what came to be known as the "American system" of mass production.

paragraphs: The concept of mass production depends on the use of interchangeable parts. One of the most famous inventors to use interchangeable parts, mass production and the assembly line was Henry Ford. Unlike other cars of the time, his Ford Model T used the same identical parts in each vehicle. Parts were created in large quantities and delivered to his assembly plant where workers built the cars on an assembly line. This allowed Ford to produce a quality vehicle ready to go in just 93 minutes. Ford raised workers' wages in 1914 to $5 a day. That was an excellent wage at the time, so much so that it allowed many of his workers to buy their own Model T. That same year Ford produced more cars than all other car manufacturers combined. His least expensive model in 1914, the Runabout, sold for $440. By 1925 he was able to sell a Model T for as little as $260.


title: Social media in the 2016 United States presidential election

paragraphs: In 2016, social media had the biggest effect ever on the United States presidential election. For the first time, social media created the change (of plans for Democratic and Republican primaries) rather than talking about it. Many journalists expected this.

paragraphs: Many presidential candidates benefited from the use of social media in the 2016 election.

paragraphs: Many people think social media is the reason Bernie Sanders did so well in the Democratic primaries. In May 2016, 450,000 people belonged to the pro-Sanders Facebook group "Bernie Sanders' Dank Meme Stash". Another pro-Sanders group, "Bernie or Hillary?", exists.

paragraphs: Social media is also thought by most people to be the reason Donald Trump did so well in the Republican primaries. Activity by Donald Trump supporters on social media was one of the things talked about at the first Republican debate. Trump mentioned that his social media accounts provided a tremendous platform for his election and helps keep people interested.

paragraphs: "Right Side Broadcasting Network" often uploads live footage of Donald Trump rallys on YouTube, causing their popularity to go way up.

paragraphs: In April 2016, Correct the Record, a pro-Clinton super PAC, started a program called "Barrier Breakers" that wants to compete with the mostly online volunteer efforts of Sanders and Trump supporters. With $1 million in funding, Correct the Record hired a paid staff of people that used to be reporters, bloggers, public affairs specialists, designers to post good things about Clinton.

paragraphs: On June 9, 2016, as a response to Donald Trump's tweet about Obama's endorsement to Clinton, she wrote with a three word tweet: "Delete your account". This tweet has become her most retweeted tweet of all time.

paragraphs: By the end of June 2016, this most retweeted tweet of all time got more than 1,000,000 interactions.

paragraphs: One form of social media being used in the 2016 election are memes. "The Guardian" compared Internet memes to political cartoons, saying, "For the first time in a US election cycle, community-generated (created) memes have grown to play a significant (important) role in political discourse (debate), similar to the classic printed cartoon. While an Internet meme is unlikely to destroy a political career, lots of memes targeting a candidate might." Many memes attacked Ted Cruz.


title: FN BRG-15

paragraphs: FN BRG-15 was a heavy machine gun. It was designed by Fabrique Nationale de Herstal to replace Browning M2HB .50 caliber heavy machine gun. However, the project was cancelled in the early 1990s.


title: Mettauertal

paragraphs: Mettauertal is a municipality of the district Laufenburg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

paragraphs: On 1 January 2010 the former municipalities of Etzgen, Hottwil, Mettau, Oberhofen and Wil merged into the new municipality of Mettauertal.


title: Münchwilen, Aargau

paragraphs: Münchwilen is a municipality of the district Laufenburg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.


title: Unterehrendingen

paragraphs: Unterehrendingen is a village and former municipality in the district of Baden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

paragraphs: On 1 January 2006 the former municipalities of Unterehrendingen and Oberehrendingen merged into the new municipality of Ehrendingen


title: Lodano

paragraphs: Lodano is a village and former municipality of the district of Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

paragraphs: On 4 April 2004 the former municipalities of Aurigeno, Coglio, Giumaglio, Lodano, Moghegno and Someo merged into the municipality of Maggia.


title: Honoré Blanc

paragraphs: Honoré Blanc (1736–1807) was a French gunsmith and inventor. He was one of the first to use the concept of interchangeable parts. Blanc was born in Avignon, France in 1736. At age 12 he became an apprentice to a gunsmith. He was an armorer at the Charleville armory in Charleville-Mézières, Ardennes, France. In 1763 he became the controller of gunlocks at the Saint-Étienne arms factory. Just before the French Revolution, he came up with the idea of interchangeable parts for gun locks.

paragraphs: By the 1760s, Blanc was making specialized machinery and tools to make gunlocks. His design for the Musket Model 1777 was accepted and he was made chief controller for three arms factories. In 1785, in an experiment, Blanc mixed parts from 25 gunlocks and assembled several models with ease. His demonstration showed the benefit of interchangeable parts and how it worked. He repeated the experiment for military policy makers in 1790. The French Academy of Sciences supported his idea in 1791. But the Legislative assembly would not fund his work. Blanc shifted his attention to setting up a private company to produce gunlocks using interchangeable parts in 1791. Even after receiving permission and s from the French government, he was very slow in getting started. He did not produce any gunlocks until 1796. His factory was still making gunlocks in 1807 when Blanc died.

paragraphs: While European gunsmiths were not impressed by the idea, he did interest the American Ambassador to France, Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson quickly saw that mass production of weapons parts would free America from dependence on European sources for parts. He could not get Blanc to move to the United States but he did convince President George Washington it was a good idea. In 1798, Eli Whitney got the first contract for 10,000 muskets to be delivered within two years. Whitney used a large force of unskilled workers and machinery to produce standardized identical parts at a low cost. This was the first time in the US Blanc's ideas of mass production were put to use. Congress had already decided to pattern the new musket after the 1763 French Charleville musket. This was one that Blanc had worked on early in his career. What resulted was the Springfield Model 1795 Musket, the first military musket made in the United States.


title: Seedorf, Bern

paragraphs: Seedorf is a municipality in the administrative district of Seeland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

paragraphs: Seedorf, Lobsigen, Wiler, Frieswil, Baggwil, Ruchwil, Dampfwil, Aspi, Grissenberg and Frienisberg.


title: Seehof, Switzerland

paragraphs: Seehof () is a municipality in the administrative district of Jura bernois in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. This is one of two German speaking cities in the majority French-speaking Bernese Jura (Jura bernois). The other is Schelten.


title: Long range shooting

paragraphs: Long range shooting is a relative term generally meaning accurate shooting at distances ordinary shooters with ordinary rifles could not hit. For example, Daniel Boone, using a flintlock rifle could probably hit a target at up to . Today, expert marksmen are hitting targets well over away. Modern long range shooting is more than just using modern machined actions and precision gun barrels. These produce a rifle that a decent shooter can hit targets at about 250 yards, ranges that were unheard of by black powder shooters.

paragraphs: The ability to hit a target at (or 10 football fields away) requires the shooter to become an expert in ballistics. First, the shooter has to know exactly how far away target is. They have to be able to compensate for windage (the effects of wind on a bullet). Next, the shooter has to compute the "elevation". This is how far "above" the target the shooter must aim to compensate for the force of gravity on the bullet at a given distance. Shooters have to compensate also for shots uphill or downhill from their position.

paragraphs: Other factors include "bullet Drift". This means a bullet that fired out of the barrel with a muzzle velocity (speed at the muzzle) of 2800 FPS that exits a barrel with 1:12 rifling is spinning at 168,000 RPMs. At just the bullet will drift about in the direction it was spinning. If the rifle has a right-hand twist, the bullet will go to the right of the target.

paragraphs: Long range shooters, and especially snipers, operate as a team. As difficult as long range shooting is, it would be even harder without a spotter. Spotters are also trained snipers or long range shooters. The spotter has a number of jobs. He helps locate the target. He does most of the calculations for elevation, windage, and hitting a moving target. With several targets, the spotter decides which to hit first. Spotters also measure the humidity, temperature, and the angle of the shot. He then tells the sniper/shooter what adjustments to make to the rifle scope. Finally, the spotter tells the shooter where the round hit—on target or a miss—and what adjustments to make to get back on-target.


title: Battle rifle

paragraphs: A battle rifle is a select fire rifle that fires a powerful bullet such as 7.62×51mm NATO. The FAL, G3, and M14 are the most common battle rifles used in the Cold War. They are more powerful than assault rifles. Assault rifles shoots a 5.56×45mm NATO which is less powerful than a 7.62×51mm NATO.


title: Ofanto

paragraphs: The Ofanto () is a river in South Italy that flows through the regions of Campania, Basilicata, and Apulia, and into the Adriatic Sea.

paragraphs: The Ofanto river has a length of , and a drainage basin with an area of approximately .

paragraphs: The Ofanto river starts in the Apennines mountains, within the "Irpinia" (a historical region of the southern Apennines around Avellino), at an elevation of about , in the "comune" of Torella dei Lombardi, Province of Avellino, Campania. From there it runs southeast flowing into "Lago di Conza", a man-made reservoir.

paragraphs: The river forms the border between the province of Avellino and the province of Potenza and then turns to the north, forming the border between the province of Foggia and the province of Potenza. It then turns to the northeast and forms the border between the province of Foggia and the province of Barletta-Andria-Trani.

paragraphs: Finallly, the river flows, in the community of "Fiumara" between Margherita di Savoia and Barletta, into the Adriatic Sea near the Gulf of Manfredonia.

paragraphs: The Ofanto flows through 3 regions, 4 provinces and 33 "comuni", all in South Italy:

paragraphs: Most tributaries of the Ofanto river are small streams. Some of them are:


title: Apple Maps

paragraphs: Apple Maps is a mapping service. It is an app that comes with every iPhone, iPad, iPod touch, Mac, and Apple Watch, but not available on the web. It gives information about local businesses and their ratings, and reads driving directions as you are driving; or on an Apple Watch, it will vibrate when you need to turn. Apple Maps is also known for its 3D views of many major metro areas, which has been compared favorably to Google Earth.

paragraphs: It started in 2012, but when it started many users did not trust it and went back to using Google Maps. Apple has been busy fixing it so users can trust it, and nowadays Apple Maps is used 3.5 times as much as Google Maps on devices Apple Maps is supported. At first, Apple Maps was only on iOS, but Apple has made it so Apple Maps can also be used on Macs and Apple Watches.


title: Ajamu Baraka

paragraphs: Ajamu Baraka (born October 25, 1953) is an African American human rights activist. He is the Green Party's presumptive nominee for Vice President of the United States, in the 2016 election running with Jill Stein. Baraka has taught political science at Clark Atlanta University, Spelman College, and other academic institutions.


title: The Parent Trap (1998 movie)

paragraphs: The Parent Trap is a 1998 American romantic comedy movie co-written and directed by Nancy Meyers, and produced and co-written by Charles Shyer. It is a remake of the 1961 movie of the same name.

paragraphs: Dennis Quaid and Natasha Richardson star as a divorced couple who separated shortly after their identical twin daughters' birth; Lindsay Lohan stars (in her movie debut) as both twins.


title: Seftigen

paragraphs: Seftigen is a municipality in the administrative district of Thun in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.


title: Signau

paragraphs: Signau is a municipality in the administrative district of Emmental in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

paragraphs: Signau, Schüpbach, Höhe, Mutten and Häleschwand.


title: Frutigen-Niedersimmental (administrative district)

paragraphs: The administrative district of Frutigen-Niedersimmental in the Swiss canton of Bern has 13 municipalities in an area of 774 km².


title: Interlaken-Oberhasli (administrative district)

paragraphs: The administrative district of Interlaken-Oberhasli in the Swiss canton of Bern has 29 municipalities in an area of 1,229 km².


title: Tonia Sotiropoulou

paragraphs: Tonia Sotiropoulou (born on 28 April 1987 in Glyfada, Athens, Greece) is a Greek actress and model. She left Greece to begin her international career when she was 21 years old. She is best known for being in the 2012 film "Skyfall". She also played in the 2014 film Hercules with Dwayne Johnson and Ian McShane.


title: Shermine Shahrivar

paragraphs: Shermine Shahrivar (; born on 20 November 1982) is a German model and beauty pageant titleholder who won Miss Europe in 2005. She was born in Tehran, Iran.

paragraphs: She became Miss Germany in 2004 and then won the overall title of Miss Europe in 2005 while competing in France. She then participated in the Miss Universe 2004. Shermine currently lives in New York City where she is studying acting at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute.

paragraphs: She was born to Iranian parents. Her family moved to Germany when she was one year old. Her mother and brothers live in Germany. She was raised speaking German and Persian, and she is also fluent in French and English. Shahrivar has a university degree in social sciences. She was chosen to be the host of a Nowruz celebration in Oberhausen, Germany on March 19, 2005. She hosted Traumpartner TV in Germany from December 2004 to August 2005. She was also in an October edition of the German "Playboy".

paragraphs: She dated German actor Thomas Kretschmann in 2008 and then Australian actor Xavier Samuel in 2010. She is now dating Lapo Elkann.


title: Sigriswil

paragraphs: Sigriswil is a municipality in the administrative district of Thun in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

paragraphs: Aeschlen ob Gunten, Gunten, Meiersmaad, Merligen, Ringoldswil, Schwanden, Sigriswil, Tschingel ob Gunten, Wiler, Endorf, Reust and Justistal.


title: Social structure

paragraphs: Social structure is the framework of a society founded by a distinct tradition of hierarchy by birth in the social group and by occupation or tradition of work as a distinct social class.


title: Social Investment

paragraphs: Social Investments are resource inputs in any social groups or society that may bring about a social change.


title: Siselen

paragraphs: Siselen () is a municipality in the administrative district of Seeland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.


title: Sonceboz-Sombeval

paragraphs: Sonceboz-Sombeval is a municipality in the administrative district of Jura bernois in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.


title: Sonvilier

paragraphs: Sonvilier is a municipality of the administrative district Jura bernois in the Swiss canton of Berne.


title: Combat boot

paragraphs: Combat boots are military boots designed to be worn by soldiers during combat or combat training. They are not intended for wear during parades and other ceremonial duties.

paragraphs: Modern combat boots are designed to provide a combination of grip, ankle stability, and foot protection suitable for a rugged environment. They are traditionally made of hardened and sometimes waterproofed leather. Today, many combat boots incorporate technologies originating in civilian hiking boots, such as Gore-Tex nylon side panels, which improve ventilation and comfort. They are also often specialized for certain climates and conditions, such as jungle boots, desert boots, and cold weather boots as well as specific uses, such as tanker boots and jump boots.


title: Jump boot

paragraphs: Jump boots are the combat boots worn by paratroopers. They have calf-length lacing and hard toes. During World War II, many countries came up with their own type of jump boots. The uppers are usually made of smooth black leather that is easy to shine. It is also a paratrooper tradition to lace jump boots in a ladder or cobweb style which increases ankle support during a parachute jump.


title: Vogue (Madonna song)

paragraphs: "Vogue" is a 1990 dance-pop song by Madonna. The song is about Hollywood fashion. The song's rap section talks about 16 stars from the 1920s to the 1950s, such as Greta Garbo, Katharine Hepburn and Marilyn Monroe.

paragraphs: The song hit #1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in May 1990. The song also hit #1 on several other charts worldwide.

paragraphs: The song won awards for Best Single and Best Video in the Rolling Stone Reader's Poll Awards.

paragraphs: The song comes in many remixes. One of them is eight minutes/twenty five seconds long.


title: Assassination of Orlando Letelier

paragraphs: The Assassination of Orlando Letelier is a related case with the death of Orlando Letelier, a Chilean socialist political figure when Salvador Allende was still president of Chile in those years. It all starts when he was based in the United States as an activist but Letelier was assassinated in Washington, D.C. with mainly his American assistant, Ronni Karpen Moffitt and her husband Michael (who worked for Letelier) by some Chilean DINA agents in September 21, 1976. Until 9/11, it was known as the most infamous act of international terrorism situated in the capital of the US.

paragraphs: Declassified U.S. intelligence documents shows and confirms that Pinochet ordered the killing.


title: Beauty of Loulan

paragraphs: The Beauty of Loulan (楼兰美女) or Loulan Beauty (Other aliases: "Loulan middle-aged woman(楼兰長女)") is the preserved dead body of a woman who lived about 4000 years ago, during the Bronze Age. She was found on April 1, 1980 near the Silk Road by Chinese archaeologists Mu Sun-ing (穆舜英) and members of the Archaeological Institute of the Xinjiang Academy of Social Sciences. She was found in Xinjiang in China. She is called the Loulan Beauty because of her wonderfully preserved, stately facial features that people think are still beautiful. She is one of the , named after where they were found, the .

paragraphs: Unlike , which were preserved on purpose, the Loulan Beauty was preserved almost by accident. She was buried near a salt lake in a desert, and the salt and dryness preserved her. Even her eyelashes are still there.

paragraphs: The Loulan Beauty surprised people because she had red hair and features like a European. Today, we would call her white ("Caucasian"). This was important because the , who live in that part of China, like to say they were the original inhabitants of Xinjiang Province and some of them think of the Han Chinese as invaders. Because the Uighurs look more like Europeans than other Chinese citizens do, many would call the Loulan Beauty "ancestor" and thought she proved they were right.

paragraphs: For years, the Chinese government did not let anyone test the Loulan Beauty's DNA to see if she was European or just looked European after becoming a mummy. In 1993, and Paolo Francalacci, an Italian , were able to some tissue samples. They found that the Loulan Beaty was probably European but also probably came from Siberia. Later, in 2007 and 2009, scientists from China's Jilin University and Fudan University both tested the Loulan Beauty's DNA too. They found she was at least part European, but her people might have lived in Siberia before coming to Xinjiang. But they all found that the Loulan Beauty was not a Uighur woman, which meant there was less reason for people to argue about her. In 2015, the Chinese government let the Loulan Beauty and other mummies tour foreign museums as an exhibit about the Silk Road.

paragraphs: Her ancestry on her father's side was Indo European. The hair on her head is red. The woman was 40~48 years old at the time of her death. Her height was 152~155 cm, and her blood type was O.

paragraphs: Scientists learned things about her life by looking at her body and clothes. Her shoes and clothing having been worn out and fixed repeatedly. Her hair was infested with lice. She had inhaled a great deal of sand, dust and charcoal. She may have died of lung failure. She lived around B.C 1900~B.C 1800.

paragraphs: The mummy is wrapped in a wool cloth, cowhide leather, and linen. She is wearing leather shoes. Several items made out of clay and some grain were found with her.

paragraphs: In 1980, she was restored by Japanese painter Yamaguchi Terunari(山本耀也). Her ancestry on her father's side was of European origin, but her mother seems to have been at least of mixed-Asian heritage. The mummy is displayed on the second floor of the , "Mummy Hall"(古尸馆). She was possibly an ancestor of .


title: Orlando Letelier

paragraphs: Orlando Letelier del Solar (April 13, 1932 – September 21, 1976) was a Chilean socialist politician during the presidency of Salvador Allende.

paragraphs: Looking for a refuge from the military regime of General Augusto Pinochet, Letelier accepted academic positions in Washington, D.C. He was assassinated by agents of the Pinochet regime's secret police (DINA) in 1976, in collaboration with members of the "Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations".


title: 2015 Rugby World Cup

paragraphs: The 2015 Rugby World Cup was the 8th Rugby World Cup tournament. It was played in England from 18 September to 31 October. Scotland won the tournament over Australia to win their 3rd title. 20 nations competed in the tournament.

paragraphs: On 28 July 2009, the International Rugby Board chose England as the host for the 205 tournament, and Japan for the 2019 competition. Italy, Japan and South Africa all wanted to host the tournament.

paragraphs: The final venues and schedule were all confirmed on on 2 May 2013.

paragraphs: 12 of these teams qualified just from playing well in the last tournament, and the other 8 played in regional tournaments to qualify.


title: Qarabağ FK

paragraphs: Qarabağ Futbol Klubu (usually just called Qarabağ) is a professional association football club from Baku, Azerbaijan. The club was originally from Agdam, but moved to Baku because of the Nagorno-Karabakh War. The club plays in the Azerbaijan Premier League.

paragraphs: Qarabağ was formed in 1951, and were the founding members of the Azerbaijan Premier League in 1992. A season later they won their first league championship, which made them the first non-Baku based club to win the Azerbaijan Premier League title.

paragraphs: The clubs plays at the Tofiq Bahramov Republican Stadium, which has a capacity of around 31,200. The Azerbaijan national football team also uses that stadium. They used to play at the Imarat Stadium, but it was destroyed by the Armenian military during the Nagorno-Karabakh War.

paragraphs: The club won their first league title in 21 years in 2014. Qarabağ have won the Premier league four times and Azerbaijan Cup five times. In the same year, Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani team to advance to the group stage of a European competition after they beat Twente in the play-off round of the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League.


title: Maryam Zakaria

paragraphs: Maryam Zakaria (Persian: مریم زکریا; born on 27 September 1985 in Tehran) Swedish-Iranian actress. She has worked in Bollywood and the South Indian Cinema. She is best known for her work in the 2012 film "Agent Vinod".

paragraphs: In Sweden, Zakaria worked as model, dance teacher, choreographer and established a Bollywood Dance School called the Indisk Dans Studio. She moved to Mumbai in 2009 and began to model in ads for Set Wet, Layz and Coke. She performed an item number in the film "Nagaram" (2010), after the director saw a video of her dancing on YouTube. The film was a big breakthrough for Zakaria.


title: Sornetan

paragraphs: Sornetan is a former municipality in the administrative district of Jura bernois in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

paragraphs: On 1 January 2015 the former municipalities of Sornetan, Châtelat, Monible and Souboz merged into the new municipality of Petit-Val.


title: Fusil de chasse

paragraphs: The French-made Fusil de chasse ("fu-zi dee chā-se"), originally meant "gun of the hunt”, was a light smoothbore flintlock musket designed for hunting. They were an elegant flintlock with a distinctive "cow's foot" shape to the buttstock that softened recoil. This "La Peid" stock shape is typical of long guns made at Tulle. The Fusil de Chasse was made at the Tulle (France) arms factory. The fusils were very similar to the Charleville musket, also made at Tulle. Fusils were typically lighter and shorter than the Charleville muskets. The name fusil is phonetically pronounced "fusee" in English." The French name Fusil is a corruption of the Italian "fucile" meaning flint. Both the French and the British had versions of the officer's fusil. The British fucils were based on the Brown Bess musket. Also from the name fusil comes the term fusilier. A very similar but cheaper version was the fusil de traite (trade gun). The officer's fusil is fitted for a sling and the stock is shorter than the barrel in order to fit a socket bayonet. The officer's fusil was much better made. But there is some confusion between the two versions. At 20 gauge (.62 caliber) the fusil was also used as a fowling gun (early predecessor of the shotgun). Fusils were a common musket in 18th century Colonial America and were used by Americans during the American Revolution.

paragraphs: In France, the manufacturing of arms got its start as a large industry in Saint-Étienne in about 1535. The first armory was set up in 1669. By 1646, arms manufacturing had started up at Tulle nearby. In 1690 an armory was set up there as well. The flintlock was adopted by France for her armies in 1630. Both Tulle and Saint-Étienne furnished flintlocks for the French troops in America. The typical musket in 1690 was about long and had a barrel of about . Until about 1718, captains were responsible to make sure each soldier had a working firearm, but other than that the captain allowed his soldiers to choose which musket they would use. Often, that meant there was no standard musket in use in a company let alone an army. This was a common failing of all armies of the time. That changed with the Model 1717 fusil which standardized the muskets and ammunition used by the French army. It was longer than the British muskets of the time giving French troops an advantage. At and with a barrel of it allowed troops to fire from three ranks at the same time. With the bayonet, it had the advantage of being longer. The combination of a longer barrel and a front sight to aim the weapon also made it slightly more accurate than British muskets. A few improvements were made with the M1728 model but it was otherwise the same musket. More improvements were made in 1746 when the wood ramrod was replaced with a metal one. The French muskets shot 18 bullets to the pound which translates to .69 caliber. A fourth model was issued in 1754 with a shorter lighter version for officers. The officers model weighed about and was in length. All officers, including generals, carried an officer's model fusil. These were used during the French and Indian War and many were used by Americans during the American Revolution.

paragraphs: The fusil de chasse was designed for hunting. Generally the muskets made at Tull were defined by models, but some hunting fusils were made to order. Differences were based on their intended purpose and market. In 1695 and 1696 contracts for muskets from the Tulle factory each called for "five hunting muskets for the Indian Chiefs". These models would later be called a Fusil fin (chief's grade musket). These muskets were to be caliber 28 balls to the pound (approximately .56 caliber), long, "well filed and well polished with fine mountings and a flat lock". These gifts to Indian chiefs were elegant hunting muskets.

paragraphs: In New France, the Indians allied to the French carried French fusils. These were either Fusils de chasse or de traite. At the Battle of the Monongahela, British General Edward Braddock led his troops directly into an ambush by native american and French troops in July of 1755. Braddock was killed, no doubt, by a .62 caliber ball fired from a French fusil. The smoothbore Tulle musket was carried by most, if not all, the Indians who attacked Braddock at the Monongahela River. Native warriors took very good care of their muskets and strongly preferred the French fusils over guns made elsewhere. Although the fusil de traite was designed as a less-expensive trade gun, many Indians knew the difference and preferred the fusil de chasse. While there were a number of different models of fusils sent to the Americas, the light musket de chasse was designed for those who hunted for a living. So many were needed that the factory at Saint-Étienne had to handle the extra demand. Most of these were shipped to New France where trading was the main activity between Native Americans and the French. Both varieties were made with either iron or brass fittings and most were .62 caliber. Both were marked "Tulle" (earlier spelling was "Tvlle") on the lock plate. This makes archaeological finds harder to tell apart over two centuries later. Many of the reproductions made today are marked "Tulle".

paragraphs: The various flintlocks produced at Tulle had the following costs in 1750:


title: Sorvilier

paragraphs: Sorvilier is a municipality of the administrative district Jura bernois in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

paragraphs: The municipality is in the Tavannes valley on both sides of the Birs river.


title: Sun Myung Moon

paragraphs: Sun Myung Moon (25 February 1920 – 3 September 2012) was a Korean religious leader, businessman and political activist. He believed he was the second coming of Jesus Christ. He founded the Unification Church. He was an ardent anti-communist and advocate for Korean reunification. He was recognized by the governments of North and South Korea. His business interests included New World Communications, an American news group that owned "The Washington Times".

paragraphs: Moon was born in what is now North Korea. He moved to the United States in 1971. He became well-known after giving a series of public speeches based on his beliefs.

paragraphs: Critics called Moon a cult leader because he made high demands on his followers. He was criticized for his relationships with political and religious people, such as Presidents of the United States Richard Nixon, George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush. His wedding ceremonies drew criticism, especially when they involved members of other churches, such as the Roman Catholic bishop Emmanuel Milingo.

paragraphs: Moon died on 3 September 2012 of pneumonia and its complications.


title: The Dream Job

paragraphs: The Dream Job (Chinese: 绝世好工) is a Singaporean drama television series. It is produced and shown on Mediacorp Channel 8. It began its run from 28 June 2016. There are 30 episodes. It stars Hugo Ng, Shaun Chen, Jeanette Aw, Rebecca Lim, Zhang Zhenhuan and Ian Fang as the main characters.

paragraphs: A vast fortune and inheritance is at stake when a mysterious man offers three young candidates a dream job at his horticulture estate. They are eventually discovered to be his illegitimate children from the many affairs he had during his younger days. In the beginning, revenge and family politics are at play, but when one of them gets falsely accused of committing murder, the "siblings" finally overcome differences and band together.

paragraphs: Some scenes of this drama were shot in Perth, Australia.


title: Souboz

paragraphs: Souboz was a municipality in the administrative district of Jura bernois in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

paragraphs: On 1 January 2015 the former municipalities of Souboz, Châtelat, Monible and Sornetan merged into the new municipality of Petit-Val.


title: Oberaargau (administrative district)

paragraphs: The administrative district of Oberaargau in the Swiss canton of Bern has 50 municipalities in an area of 354 km².


title: Sirkazhi

paragraphs: Sirkazhi is the major town in the Mayiladuthurai district, Tamil Nadu, India. The town covers an area of 13.21sq.km. The population according to 2011 census is 34,927. This city is the part of Cauvery delta region.

paragraphs: Sirkazhi is the motherland of the shaiva saint Thirugnanasambandhar, world renowned actor Sivaji Ganesan and many famous people.

paragraphs: The literacy rate of Sirkazhi population is 81.5%.87% of the population is Hindus, 9.5% are Muslim, 2.1% are Christians and 1% are others.

paragraphs: Famous temples here are the Bhrammapureeshwarar temple, also known as Sattainathar Temple,Vaitheeswaran temple and Kazheesirama Vinnagaram temple.


title: Gypsy Taub

paragraphs: Oxane "Gypsy" Taub (born 1970) is one of San Francisco's most well-known activists in naturism and "body freedom" of the past decade.

paragraphs: On June 18, 2015, Taub along with activist George Davis settled a lawsuit with the city of San Francisco with a one-time payment of $20,000 to the plaintiffs, who had hoped to overturn the city's 2013 ban on unregulated public nudity.

paragraphs: On September 25, 2015, a federal judge ordered San Francisco to issue a parade permit to Taub’s group for another naked march after the city had previously denied their applications.

paragraphs: In December 2015, Taub was characterized as San Francisco's most notorious nudist.

paragraphs: On August 7, 2016, Taub organized a four-hour nude "Summer of Love" event with a parade from Jane Warner Plaza to the edge of Golden Gate Park and back, followed by nude dancing at the Plaza.


title: E-flat major

paragraphs: E minor is a musical major scale starting on E. Its key signature has three flats.

paragraphs: Its relative major is C minor and its parallel major is E minor.


title: D-flat major

paragraphs: D major (or D-flat major) is a major scale based on D. Its key signature has five flats.

paragraphs: Its relative minor is B minor, and its parallel minor is D minor. This is usually replaced by C♯ minor because D♭ minor's eight flats (including the double-flat) make it generally impractical to use. Therefore, D♭ minor is often used as the parallel key of C♯ minor.

paragraphs: For example, Chopin's Prelude No. 15 in D-flat major ("Raindrop"), modulates from D-flat major to C-sharp minor for the middle section in the parallel minor, and in his Fantaisie-Impromptu, primarily in C-sharp minor, Chopin switches to D-flat major for the middle section for the opposite reason. Claude Debussy also switches from D-flat major to C-sharp minor in the significant section in his famous Clair de lune. Antonín Dvořák's New World Symphony likewise switches to C-sharp minor for a while for the significant section in the slow movement.


title: C-flat major

paragraphs: C-flat major is a major scale based on C-flat. Its key signature has seven flats.

paragraphs: Its relative minor is A-flat minor, and its parallel minor is C-flat minor. This is usually replaced by B minor because C♭ minor's three double-flats make it generally impractical to use.

paragraphs: Most composers prefer to use the enharmonic equivalent B major because it has just five sharps.


title: Rafida Bonya Ahmed

paragraphs: Rafida Bonya Ahmed, better known as Bonya Ahmed, (Bengali: রাফিদা আহমেদ বন্যা, b. 1969), is a Bangladeshi-American author, humanist activist, and blogger.

paragraphs: On February 26, 2015, Bonya and her husband Avijit Roy were attacked by machete wielding Islamic extremists while they were visiting Dhaka, Bangladesh, on a book signing trip. They were attacked in the middle of the street at a very crowded book fair. Avijit died after he was taken to the hospital, and Bonya was seriously injured.

paragraphs: Bonya was born in Dhaka, Bangladesh. She completed her undergraduate degree in Computer Information Science at Minnesota State University in Mankato.

paragraphs: Bonya met Avijit through their writing on Mukto-Mona, the first online platform for Bengali speaking freethinkers, atheists, and secular bloggers and writers founded by Avijit. This group started the first celebration of Darwin Day in Bangladesh. Mukto-Mona was internationally recognized in 2015 and received The BOBS jury award.

paragraphs: Bonya wrote one of the first popular science books in Bangladesh about biological evolution, named "Bibortoner Path Dhore" ("Along the Evolutionary Path", 2007). She is one of the moderators of Mukto-Mona.

paragraphs: Bonya has a daughter, Trisha Ahmed, from her first marriage. Trisha wrote an article with her stepfather Avijit for the "Free Inquiry" magazine about imprisoned secularist bloggers. Ahmed has been diagnosed with thyroid cancer.

paragraphs: Bonya decided to take a leave of absence from her job as a Senior Director at a credit bureau in the USA after the attack on her and Avijit. She started working with the humanist associations in Europe and the USA to raise awareness about the attacks on the secular intellectuals in Bangladesh by Islamic fundamentalists. She is currently doing research work on Islamic fundamentalism as a visiting research scholar at University of Texas, Austin. A week after her husband's death, Bonya started meeting with humanist associations in Europe, and working to get other activists out of Bangladesh, before they could be killed.

paragraphs: In 2016, Bonya received the Freedom From Religion Foundation's "Forward" award. She is on the jury of Deutsche Welle's The BOBS Best of Online Activism Award.


title: Hayes School

paragraphs: Hayes School is a mixed secondary school in Hayes, Bromley. This school is an academy. The head teacher is Mr. Whittle, as of July 2016. This school has an Ofsted rating of "Outstanding". This school has some of the highest GCSE and A-Level results in the country. In 2016, the school was announced as one of the top 100 schools in England for its GCSE results. Hayes School has a long waiting list and is very popular.

paragraphs: The school became independent from the local Parish school in 1956. In 1956, the only building in the school was a Victorian-style mansion named Gadsden. Today, the Gadsden holds the main reception, the student reception, a few offices, and other things. As soon as it became independent from the Parish school, it started accepting both genders. By then, most of the school was relocated to A Block, which had 3 floors.


title: Petit-Val

paragraphs: Petit-Val is a new municipality of the administrative district of Jura bernois in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

paragraphs: On 1 January 2015 the former municipalities of Châtelat, Monible, Sornetan and Souboz merged into the new municipality of Petit-Val.


title: Obersimmental-Saanen (administrative district)

paragraphs: The administrative district of Obersimmental-Saanen in the Swiss canton of Bern has 7 municipalities in an area of 575 km².


title: Spiez

paragraphs: Spiez is a town and municipality in the administrative district of Frutigen-Niedersimmental in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.


title: Recoil

paragraphs: Recoil or kick (sometimes incorrectly called kickback) is the tendency of a firearm to move backwards and at the same time the muzzle of the gun to rise when fired. This is a reaction to the explosive force of a bullet leaving the barrel of a firearm. A handgun shooter feels the recoil in the hands and arms. A rifle or shotgun shooter feels most of the recoil in his or her shoulder.

paragraphs: Recoil is explained by Newton’s third law of motion. It is usually paraphrased as: "to every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction". In simpler terms, when a projectile and the hot gasses go forward, the firearm goes backwards. There are a number of factors that determine the amount of backward force.

paragraphs: For example, a .22 Long Rifle (the designation of the bullet not the gun) has very little recoil. For this reason it is a caliber recommended for beginning shooters and, because the rounds are cheap, it is good practice ammunition for more experienced shooters. It is a favorite ammunition for target shooting. By comparison, the .500 S&W Magnum handgun round has very heavy recoil. Also, the recoil from the .500 magnum round is more sharply felt since the recoil speed is much greater.

paragraphs: One of the first things new shooters want to know is if a gun will kick them. New shooters learn to hold the gun firmly to reduce and control recoil. If firing a handgun, use both hands. If firing a shotgun or rifle, press it firmly against the shoulder and press your cheek on the gunstock. But, instructors often tell new students that recoil is 80% mental and only 20% physical. In other words, no matter how well you hold the weapon, recoil anticipation can ruin every shot.

paragraphs: Recoil anticipation, or more commonly known as "flinching", is the unintended (not intended or planned mental and physical response to firing a gun. The shooter knows the loud noise and shock of firing the weapon is coming and at the last moment flinches. This often causes an inexperienced shooter to hit low of the intended target. Another form of recoil anticipation is when new shooters unconsciously move the gun forward while pressing the trigger. This is very difficult for instructors to see until the shooter presses the trigger on an empty chamber. Only then can the instructor see the shooter moving the gun forward.

paragraphs: Another problem is jerking the trigger. Instead of smoothly pulling the trigger while concentrating on the target, an inexperienced shooter often "jerks" the trigger. If shooters are consistently hitting low and to the left (right handed shooters) they are usually jerking the trigger. Shooters probably don't understand that quickly yanking the trigger back ruins the shot.

paragraphs: All forms of recoil anticipation are eliminated or reduced through practice. Good instruction in safe firearms practices is also very important.


title: Lego Ninjago

paragraphs: Lego Ninjago is a line of sets (video games, television series, and toys) produced by Lego. It is based on the sets of six Ninja: Lloyd, Kai, Jay, Nya, Zane, and Cole, and many other characters from the television series.

paragraphs: The television series is about all characters in the land of Ninjago. The television series first aired in 2011. It was a major success and airs on Cartoon Network

paragraphs: The animated television series is based on The Ninja (Lloyd, Kai, Jay, Zane, Nya and Cole) fighting with every villain who wants to take over Ninjago

paragraphs: There are many toys of Lego Ninjago which all are based on a certain character. The toys are Lego Ninjago's first success.

paragraphs: Lego Ninjago video games are usually based on the television series. Lego Ninjago games are produced by Lego System A/S. Most Lego Ninjago video games are placed in Google Play.


title: Ceratonia

paragraphs: Ceratonia is small genus of flowering trees in the pea family, Fabaceae, endemic to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East. Its best known member, the carob tree, is cultivated for its fruits (called s) and has been widely introduced to regions with similar climates.

paragraphs: It belongs to the subfamily Caesalpinioideae.

paragraphs: The genus was created by Carl Linnaeus and published in "Species Plantarum" 2: 1026 en 1753. The type specimen is "Ceratonia siliqua".

paragraphs: The genus was long considered monotypic (with only one species), but a second species, "Ceratonia oreothauma", was identified in 1979 from Oman and Somalia.

paragraphs: Some photos of "Ceratonia siliqua" (the carob tree):


title: Carob tree

paragraphs: Carob tree is a species of flowering evergreen tree in the pea family, Fabaceae. Its scientific name is "Ceratonia siliqua" L.

paragraphs: It is widely grown for its edible s, and as an ornamental tree in gardens. The ripe, dried pod is often ground to carob powder, which is used to replace cocoa powder. Carob bars, an alternative to chocolate bars, are often available in health-food stores.

paragraphs: The tree is known in English as carob tree, St John's-bread or locust bean (not to be confused with the African locust bean).

paragraphs: The word carob, used commonly for the fruit, comes from Middle French "carobe" (modern ), which borrowed it from Arabic ("kharrūb", "locust bean pod").

paragraphs: Common names in some other languages are:

paragraphs: "Ceratonia siliqua", the scientific name of the carob tree given by Carolus Linnaeus to this plant, comes from the Greek "kerátiοn" κεράτιον 'fruit of the carob (from "keras" κέρας 'horn'), and Latin "siliqua" ", carob".

paragraphs: The carat, a unit of mass for gemstones, and of purity for gold, takes its name, indirectly, from the Greek word for a carob seed, "kerátion".

paragraphs: The carob tree grows up to tall. The crown (the upper part of tree) is broad and semispherical, supported by a thick trunk with brown rough bark and solid and firm branches. Leaves are long, alternate and compound.

paragraphs: Most carob trees are dioecious (with separate male an female plants) but some are hermaphrodite. The male trees do not produce fruit. The trees blossom in autumn. The flowers are small and in an inflorescence axis in racemes like catkins; the pollination is by both wind and insects.

paragraphs: The fruit is a legume (also known as a pod). The pods take a full year to develop and ripen. The sweet ripe pods eventually fall to the ground and are eaten by various mammals (goats, sheep, cows), and so the hard seeds are dispersed.

paragraphs: The carob tree is native to the Cyprus island, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey.

paragraphs: It is generally found within 30-45°N and 30-40°S and from sea level to an altitude of .

paragraphs: It has been introduced into regions with a similar Mediterranean climate.

paragraphs: Carob eaten by humans is the dried (and sometimes roasted) pod. The pod have 5 to 18 hard brown seeds (10% of the pod weight) within a sweet thick pulp substance.

paragraphs: Carob is mildly sweet and is used in powdered, chip, or syrup form as an ingredient in cakes and cookies, and as a substitute for chocolate. Carob bars are widely available in health food stores. A traditional sweet, eaten during Lent and Good Friday, is also made from carob pods in Malta.

paragraphs: Carob pod meal is used as an energy-rich feed for livestock, particularly for ruminants, though its high tannin content may limit its use.

paragraphs: In Cyprus, carob syrup is known as Cyprus's black gold, and is widely exported. In Malta, a syrup ("ġulepp tal-ħarrub") is made out of carob pods. Carob syrup is also used in Crete as a natural sweetener, and is considered a natural source of calcium. It contains three times more calcium than milk. It is also rich in iron, phosphorus, and natural fibers (Due to its strong taste, it can be found mixed with orange or chocolate).

paragraphs: Carob juice drinks are traditionally drunk during the Islamic month of Ramadan. Crushed pods may be used to make a beverage; , liqueur, and syrup are made from carob in Turkey, Malta, Portugal, Spain, and Sicily. Several studies suggest that carob may aid in treating diarrhea in infants.

paragraphs: "C. siliqua" is widely planted in the horticultural as an ornamental plant for planting in Mediterranean climate and other temperate regions around the world, as in California and Hawaii. The plant can be used as a dense and large hedge.

paragraphs: According to FAO, the top carob-producing countries are (in metric tonnes, 2012): "Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)"


title: 2016 Turkish purges

paragraphs: The 2014–2016 Turkish judicial purges were purges of the judicial system of Turkey that took place in January 2014 and July 2016 during the presidency of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. In January 2014, 120 judges and prosecutors were reassigned during a major corruption enquiry and on 16 July 2016, 2,745 judges were dismissed immediately following the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt.


title: Araucanía Region

paragraphs: The IX Araucanía Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions. Its capital and largest city is Temuco.

paragraphs: The "Auracanía" means "place where the "Araucanians" live". Araucanian () was the name given by the Spanish to the Mapuche people that live in the region.

paragraphs: It borders the Bío Bío region (Bío Bío and Arauco provinces), to the north, Argentina to the east, the Los Ríos region to the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

paragraphs: The two main rivers in the region are the Imperial and the Toltén rivers.

paragraphs: The highest mountain in the region is the "Lanín" volcano (), , on the border with Argentina (Neuquén Province); it is .

paragraphs: The Auracanía had a population of 869,535 inhabitants (2002 census) and its population density was .

paragraphs: The largest city in the region is its capital, Temuco, with 227,086 inhabitants (2002 census). The other provincial capital, Angol had 43,801 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The Auracanía region is further subdivided into two provinces: Cautín and Malleco.


title: Los Ríos Region

paragraphs: The XIV Los Ríos Region (, "Region of the Rivers") is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions. Its capital and largest city is Valdivia.

paragraphs: It began to operate as a region on 2007, having been created by subdividing the Los Lagos Region in southern Chile. It consists of two provinces: Valdivia and the new El Ranco province, that was part of the Valdivia province.

paragraphs: It borders the La Araucanía region to the north, Argentina to the east, the Los Lagos region to the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

paragraphs: The two main rivers in the region are the Valdivia river, in the northern part of the region, and the Bueno river, in the southern part of the region.

paragraphs: The highest mountain in the region is the Villarrica volcano () (), high, near the border with Argentina.

paragraphs: The Los Ríos had a population of 356,396 inhabitants (2002 census) and its population density was .

paragraphs: The largest city in the region is its capital, Valdivia, with 127,750 inhabitants (2002 census). The other provincial capital, La Unión had 25,615 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The Los Ríos region is further subdivided into two provinces: Valdivia and El Ranco.


title: Los Lagos Region

paragraphs: The X Los Lagos Region () is one of the fifteen regions of Chile. It has four provinces.

paragraphs: The capital city of the region is Puerto Montt. Other towns are Puerto Varas, Ancud and Frutillar.


title: Maule Region

paragraphs: The VII Maule Region () is one of Chile's 16 first order administrative divisions. Its capital is Talca.

paragraphs: The region is named after its main river: the Maule river.

paragraphs: The city of Talca was founded in 1692 by General Governor Tomás Marín de Poveda. On 17 February 1742 it got the name of "Villa San Agustín de Talca" by Governor José Antonio Manso de Velasco. Curicó followed in 1743, Linares and Parral in 1794.

paragraphs: In Talca is the house where Bernardo O'Higgins signed the proclamation of the independence of Chile on 12 February 1818. It is now a museum.

paragraphs: The Maule region borders the Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins region to the north, Argentina to the east, the Ñuble region to the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

paragraphs: The two main rivers in the region are the Maule and the Mataquito rivers.

paragraphs: , there were (estimated) 1,042,989 persons living in the region, for a population density of inhabitants/km².

paragraphs: People from this region are known as "Maulinos" (women: "Maulinas").

paragraphs: The largest city in the region is Talca, with 189,505 inhabitants (2002 census).

paragraphs: The Maule region is further subdivided into four provinces: Talca, Curicó, Linares and Cauquenes.


title: Hurricane Earl

paragraphs: Hurricane Earl was a tropical cyclone in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico in August 2016. The storm struck Belize and Mexico with wind of around 80 mph.

paragraphs: The storm caused 13 deaths in the Dominican Republic. More than fifty other deaths took place, mostly in Mexico. Damage totaled over $115 million.


title: Gwangju

paragraphs: Gwangju is the sixth largest city in South Korea. It is in the southwest of Korea and is the center of Honam's economy, culture, education and government.


title: Kerckhoffs's principle

paragraphs: Kerckhoffs's principle (axiom, or law) is an idea in cryptography. It was stated by Dutch cryptographer Auguste Kerckhoffs in the 19th century. It is:

paragraphs: Kerckhoffs's principle was more briefly stated by American mathematician Claude Shannon as "the enemy knows the system", that is, "one ought to design systems under the assumption that the enemy will immediately gain full familiarity with them". In that form, it is called Shannon's maxim. It is opposite to the idea of "security through obscurity".

paragraphs: Some are no longer relevant given the ability of computers to perform complex encryption. The second axiom, Kerckhoffs's principle, is still vitally important.


title: Charleville musket

paragraphs: The Charleville muskets were .69 caliber French smoothbore flintlock muskets used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Charleville was used during the American Revolutionary War by the Americans and was later copied and manufactured in the US as the Springfield Model 1795 Musket.

paragraphs: About 1630, Frenchman Marin le Bourgeoys (c.1550–1634) created the first "true" flintlock, also called the "French lock". Bourgeoys was in the service of King Louis XIII of France for whom he created the flintlock mechanism. Throughout the 17th century, flintlock muskets were produced in a wide variety of models.

paragraphs: In 1717, the original "Charleville" flintlock musket was made for the French military. This became the first standard flintlock musket to be issued to all troops. While it is more correctly called a French infantry musket or a French pattern musket, these muskets later became known as "Charleville muskets". They were named after the armory in Charleville-Mézières, Ardennes, France. The standard French infantry musket was also produced at Tulle, St. Etienne, Maubeuge Arsenal, and other sites. While technically not the correct name for these muskets, the use of the name Charleville dates back to the U.S. Revolutionary War, when Americans tended to refer to all of the musket models as Charlevilles. It should be noted that the naming of these muskets is not consistent. Some references only refer to Model 1763 and later versions as Charleville flint lock muskets, while other references refer to all models as the Charleville.

paragraphs: The Charleville musket's design was refined several times during its service life. Later models of Charleville muskets remained in service until 1840. This was when percussion lock systems made the flintlock mechanism obsolete.

paragraphs: Charleville muskets had a smoothbore barrel. Rifles were more accurate than muskets because of their rifling, but military commanders favored smoothbores on the battlefield. Both types used black powder which caused fouling. Because the bullet was a tighter fit in the barrel (weapons), Rifles became very difficult to load after a few shots. Early on, the longer range and better accuracy of the rifle was also considered to be of little value on a battlefield that was quickly obscured by black powder smoke. Like all smooth bore muskets, the Charleville flintlock musket was only accurate to about against a column of men, or against a single man-sized target.

paragraphs: The Charleville's .69" (17.5mm) caliber barrel was slightly smaller than its main competitor, the .75 caliber Brown Bess produced by the British. The smaller round was intentionally chosen to reduce weight in the field. But the .69 caliber ball round still had enough mass to be effective against enemy soldiers. The Charleville's stock was usually made out of walnut.

paragraphs: Charleville muskets were not used in battle like a modern rifle. Instead, Charleville muskets, like the Brown Bess muskets, were fired in mass formations. In modern warfare, bayonets are considered to be last-ditch weapons. But in the 18th century firing muskets only paved the way for a bayonet charge. Muskets with bayonets attached were used as a pike type weapon in close Hand-to-hand combat. This use as a pike dictated the Charleville's general length and weight. A shorter weapon could not be used as a pike, and its weight was a balance between being heavy enough to be used as a pike or club, but light enough to be carried and used by general infantrymen.

paragraphs: The rate of fire depended on the skill of the soldier, but was typically about three shots per minute. After 1728, the Charleville's barrel was held into place by three barrel bands making it much sturdier. In 1743 the wooden ramrod was replaced with a steel one. Additional improvements were made in the 1750s and 1760s. The 1763 model was determined to be too heavy. In 1766 it was replaced by a lighter version.


title: Kirchhoff's laws

paragraphs: There are several Kirchhoff's laws, all named after Gustav Kirchhoff:


title: Arrondissements of the Charente-Maritime department

paragraphs: There are 5 arrondissements in the Charente-Maritime department. The French departments, and in other countries, are divided into "arrondissements", which may be translated into English as districts (in some cases, as boroughs). The capital of an arrondissement is called a subprefecture.

paragraphs: If the prefecture (capital) of the department is in an arrondissement, that prefecture is the capital of the arrondissement, acting both as a prefecture and as a subprefecture.

paragraphs: Arrondissements are further divided into communes.

paragraphs: The 5 arrondissements of Charente-Maritime are:

paragraphs: Since its creation, the Charente-Maritime department has had some changes:


title: Arrondissement of Jonzac

paragraphs: The arrondissement of Jonzac is an arrondissement of France, in the Charente-Maritime department, Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Its capital is the city of Jonzac.

paragraphs: When the Charente-Maritime department was created on 1790, Jonzac was not one of the original districts but soon, in 1800, it was made one of the "arrondissement"s of the department with the territories of the Monlieu and Pons districts.

paragraphs: The "arrondissement" of Jonzac has an area of , and a population of 56,973 inhabitants for a density of inhabitants/km².

paragraphs: Jonzac is the southernmost "arrondissement" of the department. It is bordered to the north by the "arrondissement" of Saintes, to the east by the Charente department and to the southeast and east by the Gironde department. To the northwest of the department is the southern part the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary of France.

paragraphs: After the reorganisation of the cantons in France, cantons are not subdivisions of the "arrondissements" so they could have "communes" that belong to different "arrondissements".

paragraphs: In the "arrondissement" of Jonzac, there is only one canton where not all their "communes" are in the "arrondissement": the Thénac canton. The following table shows the distribution of the "communes" in the cantons and "arrondissements":

paragraphs: The "arrondissement" of Jonzac has 129 "communes"; they are (with their INSEE codes):

paragraphs: The "communes" with more inhabitants in the "arrondissement" are:


title: Atacama Region

paragraphs: The III Atacama Region Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions. The southern portion of the Atacama Desert is in the region; the rest of the desert is in the other regions to the north ("Norte Grande" natural region).

paragraphs: The capital of the region is the city of Copiapó; it is at north of Santiago, the capital of country.

paragraphs: From 1843, Atacama was a province of Chile but in 1974, with the creation of the Regions of Chile, it became one of those regions.

paragraphs: The Atacama region borders the Tarapacá region to the north, Argentina (provinces of Catamarca, La Rioja and San Juan), on the east, the Coquimbo region on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

paragraphs: The highest mountains of the region are: Nevados Ojos del Salado, high, and Nevado Tres Cruces, high; they are in the Andes, in the border with Argentina.

paragraphs: , there were (estimated) 312,486 persons living in the region, for a population density of inhabitants/km².

paragraphs: The largest city in the region is its capital, Copiapó, with 125,983 inhabitants (2002 census).

paragraphs: The Atacama region is divided in three provinces: Chañaral, Copiapó and Huasco.


title: Coquimbo Region

paragraphs: The IV Coquimbo Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions.

paragraphs: The capital of the region is the city of La Serena; it is at north of Santiago, the capital of the country. Other important cities include the seaport Coquimbo and the agricultural centre Ovalle.

paragraphs: From 1826, Coquimbo was a province of Chile but in 1974, with the creation of the Regions of Chile, it became one of the Chilean regions.

paragraphs: The Coquimbo region borders the Atacama region to the north, Argentina on the east, the Valparaíso region on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

paragraphs: The three main rivers are Elqui, Limarí and Choapa.

paragraphs: , there were (estimated) 771,085 persons living in the region, for a population density of inhabitants/km².

paragraphs: The largest city in the region is its capital, La Serena, with 160,148 inhabitants (2002 census). The port of Coquimbo had 148,438 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The Coquimbo region is divided in three provinces: Choapa, Elqui and Limarí.


title: Valparaíso Region

paragraphs: The V Valparaiso Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions.

paragraphs: The capital of the region is the city of Valparaiso, an important Chilean seaport. Other important cities are Viña del Mar, Quillota, Quilpué and Villa Alemana.

paragraphs: Valparaíso was made a province in 1842. In January 1928, Valparaíso was made part of the new province of "Aconcagua" but in 1936 was made again a province. In 1974, with the creation of the Regions of Chile, Valparaíso became one of the Chilean regions.

paragraphs: The Valparaíso region borders the Coquimbo region to the north, Argentina and Santiago Metropolitan Region on the east, the Santiago Metropolitan Region region on the south, the O'Higgins region on the southwestern and the Pacific Ocean on the west.

paragraphs: , there were (estimated) 1,825,757 persons living in the region, for a population density of inhabitants/km².

paragraphs: The largest city in the region is Viña del Mar, with 286, 931 inhabitants (2002 census). The capital of the region, Valparaíso, had in 2002 263,499 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The Valparaíso region is divided in eight provinces:


title: Arrondissement of Rochefort

paragraphs: The arrondissement of Rochefort is an arrondissement of France, in the Charente-Maritime department, Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Its capital is the city of Rochefort.

paragraphs: When the Charente-Maritime department was created on 1790, the "arrondissement" of Rochefort was part of that original department.

paragraphs: The "arrondissement" of Rochefort has an area of , and a population of 187,843 inhabitants for a density of inhabitants/km².

paragraphs: Rochefort is in the northern half of the department. It is bordered to the north by the "arrondissement" of La Rochelle, to the northeast by the Deux-Sèvres department, to the east by the "arrondissements" of Saint-Jean-d'Angély and Saintes. To the south is the upper part the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary of France, and the Atlantic Ocean is to the west.

paragraphs: After the reorganisation of the cantons in France, cantons are not subdivisions of the "arrondissements" so they could have "communes" that belong to different "arrondissements".

paragraphs: In the "arrondissement" of Rochefort, there are 12 cantons, some of them only partially. The following table shows the distribution of the "communes" in the cantons and "arrondissements":

paragraphs: The "arrondissement" of Rochefort has 82 "communes"; they are (with their INSEE codes):

paragraphs: The "communes" with more inhabitants in the "arrondissement" are:


title: Arrondissement of La Rochelle

paragraphs: The arrondissement of La Rochelle is an arrondissement of France, in the Charente-Maritime department, Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Its capital, and the prefecture of the department, is the city of La Rochelle.

paragraphs: When the Charente-Maritime department was created on 1790, the "arrondissement" of La Rochelle was part of that original department.

paragraphs: The "arrondissement" of La Rochelle is the smallest of the "arrondissements" of the Charente-Maritime department but the one with more people living in it. It has an area of , and a population of 210,151 inhabitants for a density of inhabitants/km².

paragraphs: La Rochelle is the northernmost "arrondissement" of the department. It is formed from the old province of "Aunis", with centre in La Rochelle, its historical capital.

paragraphs: It is bordered to the north by the Vendée department, to the east by the Deux-Sèvres department, to the south by the "arrondissement" of Rochefort, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

paragraphs: In the "arrondissement" of La Rochelle, there are only two cantons where not all their "communes" are in the "arrondissement": the Châtelaillon-Plage and La Jarrie cantons. The following table shows the distribution of the "communes" in the cantons and "arrondissements":

paragraphs: The "arrondissement" of La Rochelle has 58 "communes"; they are (with their INSEE codes):


title: St. Stephan

paragraphs: St. Stephan is a municipality in the administrative district of Obersimmental-Saanen in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.


title: Stettlen

paragraphs: Stettlen is a municipality in the administrative district of Bern-Mittelland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.


title: Studen, Bern

paragraphs: Studen is a municipality in the administrative district of Seeland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.


title: Sumiswald

paragraphs: Sumiswald is a municipality of the administrative district of Emmental in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.


title: Sutz-Lattrigen

paragraphs: Sutz-Lattrigen is a municipality in the administrative district of Biel/Bienne in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

paragraphs: It is on the southern shore of Lake Biel.

paragraphs: It is home to a number of Neolithic and Bronze Age lake shore archeological sites, including one that is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Tägertschi

paragraphs: Tägertschi is a former municipality of the administrative district Bern-Mittelland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. On 1 January 2017 the former municipality of Tägertschi merged into the municipality of Münsingen.


title: Siege of Petersburg

paragraphs: The Richmond–Petersburg Campaign was a series of battles around Petersburg, Virginia, fought from June 9, 1864, to March 25, 1865. Fought during the American Civil War, it is more popularly known as the Siege of Petersburg. But it was not a classic military siege, in which a city is usually surrounded and all supply lines are cut off. Nor was it strictly limited to actions against Petersburg. The campaign consisted of nine months of trench warfare in which Union forces commanded by Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant assaulted Petersburg unsuccessfully. Then the Union Army constructed trench lines that eventually extended over . They ran from the eastern outskirts of Richmond, Virginia, to around the eastern and southern outskirts of Petersburg. Petersburg was critical to the supply of Confederate Lieutenant General Robert E. Lee's army and the Confederate capital of Richmond. Numerous raids were conducted and battles fought in attempts to cut off the railroad supply lines through Petersburg to Richmond. Many of these caused the lengthening of the trench lines, overloading dwindling Confederate resources.

paragraphs: Lee finally gave in to the pressure and abandoned both cities on April 3, 1865. This led to Lee's final surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. The trench warfare of Petersburg became common in World War I, earning it a prominent position in military history. Of the 4,000 African American troops of the 4th Division, IX Corps, who fought at the Battle of the Crater on July 30, 1864, over half were killed, wounded or captured.

paragraphs: On March 10, 1864, Ulysses S. Grant was promoted to lieutenant general. He was given command of all Union troops. Grant planned a coordinated strategy to apply pressure on the Confederacy from many points. This was something President Abraham Lincoln had urged his generals to do from the beginning of the war. Grant put Major General William T. Sherman in immediate command of all forces in the West. He moved his own headquarters to be with the Army of the Potomac (still commanded by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade) in Virginia. Grant intended to maneuver Lee's army to a decisive battle. His secondary objective was to capture Richmond (the capital of the Confederacy). But Grant knew that the latter would happen automatically once the former was accomplished. His coordinated strategy called for Grant and Meade to attack Lee from the north, while Major General Benjamin Butler drove toward Richmond from the southeast. Major General Franz Sigel was to control the Shenandoah Valley. Sherman was ordered to invade Georgia, break up the Confederate Army of Tennessee, and capture Atlanta. Brigadier Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in Tennessee and Virginia. Finally, Major General Nathaniel P. Banks was assigned the task of capturing Mobile, Alabama.

paragraphs: Most of these initiatives failed. Many of the assignment of generals to Grant were for political rather than military reasons. Butler's Army of the James bogged down against inferior forces under Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard before Richmond in the Bermuda Hundred Campaign. Sigel was soundly defeated at the Battle of New Market in May. At Lincoln's request, Banks was sent to Louisiana for the Red River Campaign and his move on Mobile was cancelled. However, Crook and Averell were able to cut the last railway linking Virginia and Tennessee. Sherman's Atlanta Campaign was a success, although it dragged on through the fall.

paragraphs: Grant and Meade's Army of the Potomac crossed the Rappahannock River and entered the area known as the Wilderness. On May 5, 1864, Grant was met by an undersize Confederate force of 60,000 soldiers led by Lee. At the bloody but tactically inconclusive Battle of the Wilderness (May 5–7) and Battle of Spotsylvania Court House (May 8–21), Grant failed to destroy Lee's army. But, unlike his predecessors, Grant did not retreat after the battles. He repeatedly moved his army leftward to the southeast in a campaign that kept Lee on the defensive and moved ever closer to Richmond. Grant spent the remainder of May maneuvering and fighting minor battles with the Confederate army as he attempted to turn Lee's flank and lure him into the open. Grant knew that his larger army and base of manpower in the North could sustain a war of attrition better than the Confederacy could. This theory was tested at the Battle of Cold Harbor (May 31 – June 12) when Grant's army once again came into contact with Lee's near Mechanicsville. He chose to engage Lee's army directly, by ordering a frontal assault on the Confederate fortified positions on June 3. This attack was repulsed with heavy losses. Cold Harbor was a battle that Grant regretted more than any other and Northern newspapers thereafter frequently referred to him as a "butcher". Although Grant suffered about 45% casualties. Lee lost about 50% his forces. These were losses that Lee could not replace.

paragraphs: On the night of June 12, Grant again advanced by his left flank, marching to the James River. He planned to cross to the south bank of the river, bypassing Richmond, and isolate Richmond by seizing the railroad junction of Petersburg to the south. While Lee remained unaware of Grant's intentions, the Union army constructed a pontoon bridge and crossed the James River. What Lee had feared most of all was about to happen. Petersburg was the main supply base and rail depot for the entire region, including Richmond. The taking of Petersburg by Union forces would make it impossible for Lee to continue defending Richmond.

paragraphs: Also called the "Battle of Old Men and Young Boys", it was fought on June 9, 1864 just outside Petersburg. The armies of Lee and Grant were deadlocked just outside of Richmond in their Cold Harbor defenses. Butler knew Grant would probably soon attack Petersburg since it was the key supply point for Richmond. By way of intelligence from slaves and Confederate deserters and a captured Confederate map, Butler realized Petersburg was not well defended. In Petersburg, Confederate generals Beauregard and Wise had only 2,200 militiamen guarding the city. One Petersburg citizen called them a collection of "greyhaired men, and beardless boys." Some were not even equipped with rifles. Butler saw an opportunity and sent a force of 3,400 infantrymen along with 1,300 cavalry to attack Petersburg before Grant could get there. The Union infantry attacked from the east while the cavalry attacked from the south using the Jerusalem Plank Road. The infantry attack was intended as a diversion while the cavalry entered the city from the south. But the 2,500 Confederate defenders fought off both attacks. The infantry was stopped by the Dimmock Line which had been constructed to stop any such attacks. After the attacks failed, Butler withdrew.

paragraphs: Meade’s Army of the Potomac marched from Cold Harbor to support Butler. Meade's leading XVIII Corps crossed the Appomattox River and attacked Petersburg on June 15. The Confederate defenders were driven back to Harrison Creek. The Union XVIII Corps was then relieved by the II Corps. The next day, June 16, II Corps captured another part of the Confederate line. Beauregard moved more defenders to hold the Union troops while Lee, now aware of the situation at Petersburg, rushed troops to the city. On June 18, the Union II, XI, and V Corps attacked but were beaten back with heavy casualties. Now the Confederate fortifications were heavily defended and all hopes of an easy Union victory were lost. This was the beginning of the siege of Petersburg. Rather than a tactical siege with short term goals, it now became a strategic siege involving a number of battles.

paragraphs: Continuing their attacks, the Union Army under Grant began their third offensive against Richmond-Petersburg. General Winfield Scott Hancock's II Corps and two divisions of General Philip Sheridans cavalry crossed the James River at the "Deep Bottom" oxbow. They crossed at night to threaten Richmond. The plan called for the infantry to push the Confederates to the west. Then the cavalry could attack the railroad that connected Lee to the Confederate army under General Jubal Early still in the Shenendoah Valley. Sheridan's cavalry was then to attack Richmond if possible. But after breaking through the Confederate line, the Union offensive stalled. The Union cavalry was counterattacked by Richard H. Anderson's Confederate infantry. But the counterattack was defeated by the dismounted cavalry with their Spencer repeating carbines. But late on July 28, Hancock and Sherman withdrew back to Deep Bottom. The next night, July 29/30, they crossed the James River back to their own lines. They left a garrison to guard the crossing at Deep Bottom. Both sides could claim a victory. The Union forces defeated the Confederate infantry at Darby farm. But the withdrawal afterwards allowed the Confederates a victory. It was a Union victory strategically because their attack on the Virginia Peninsula caused Lee to move five and a half divisions north of James River. This weakened Petersburg leaving only four Confederate divisions to fight there. While Hancock and Sheridan were diverting Lee's attention, a mining operation was going on at Petersburg. A long tunnel was being dug by a regiment of Pennsylvania coal miners. It was dug right up to a Confederate strongpoint.

paragraphs: At this point in the siege, Lee's army had strengthened the Petersburg line. They dug breastworks out of rifle pits. At night, with pick and shovel, they then turned the breastworks into deep trenches. Pointed stakes turned outwards were designed to break up any frontal attacks. The area between the two lines became a no man's land. The summer that year was hot and dry. Streams and springs were quickly drying up causing a water shortage on both sides. The siege was quickly becoming a stalemate.

paragraphs: At a part of the Union line that was only from the Confederate line, the 48th Pennsylvania regiment was dug in. They were below the top of a ridge and part of their lines could not be seen by Confederates, blocked by the terrain. The 48th Pennsylvania regiment was made up of anthracite coal miners. Their commander heard his men remark, "We could blow that damned fort out of existence if we could run a mine shaft under it!" He passed the idea up to Burnside who agreed to the idea and digging started on June 25. Confederates on the ridge began to hear the sounds of picks and shovels under them. They dug several listening shafts. But when the digging sounds stopped on 23 July, they quit looking and dismissed any danger from mining. By the afternoon of July 28 the explosives were ready. Burnside's Fourth Division, including nine regiments of African American troops were trained to bypass the crater the explosion would cause and attack immediately after the explosion. These were fresh troops and their morale was high. At the last minute, Burnside's plan was changed by his commander General Meade to send in white troops. Meade said he did not want to be responsible for the "massacre" of colored troops.

paragraphs: Just before 5:00 am the explosion blew up a Confederate artillery battery and most of an infantry regiment. The blast killed at least 278 Confederates instantly. The crater caused by the explosion was more than long, across and deep. Following the explosion, the untrained Union troops were slow to leave their trenches. Instead of avoiding the crater they ran right into it. The walls of the crater exposed red clay making them too slippery to climb out of. The Confederates recovered quickly and began firing down directly on the Union troops who were unprotected. To try to save the situation, after four hours of fighting Burnside ordered the black troops to attack. At this point they could only follow the white soldiers into the crater. They had to force their way past the dead, wounded and demoralized white troops to get into the fight. As more Confederates joined in, they set up a tremendous crossfire into the crater. Mortar shells were dropped on the Union troops and the Confederate cannons were rolled up to the edge and fired canister shot at the soldiers trapped in the crater. The situation quickly turned from a one-sided battle into a race riot. As Union soldiers surrendered, black soldiers were given no quarter. Those who were allowed to surrender were murdered by Confederate troops as they were marched to the rear. Some Confederates later expressed regret that they could not kill them fast enough, as a few black troops made it to the rear alive.

paragraphs: The fighting went on for eight and a half hours. Burnside's IX Corps suffered 3,800 casualties. Lee's army lost about 1,500 who were killed, wounded or missing. But the black troops lost 1,327 men, 450 of whom surrendered. Most of these were murdered by Confederate soldiers as they were marched to the rear under guard. The failure and horror over what happened at the Battle of the Crater caused Burnside to be relieved of his command. He was placed on indefinite leave of absence with no orders to return to duty. This effectively ended his army career. He resigned from the army less than nine months later, on April 15, 1865.

paragraphs: General Grant was using a strategy of simultaneous operations on both sides of the James River during the summer of 1864. Grant was forcing Lee to use Confederate troops on two fronts. Lee, on the other hand, had General Early in the Shenandoah Valley. While Grant and Lee were engaged at Petersburg, Early launched an offensive into the North that was threatening Washington, D.C..

paragraphs: Grant learned that Lee was sending part of his force to support Early in the Shenandoah Valley. He thought the Confederate trenches between Petersburg and Richmond were now more lightly defended. The information was wrong. But Grant saw an opportunity to break the siege of Petersburg by attacking the trenches around Deep Bottom. The week-long campaign failed to defeat the Confederate defenses because Grant had miscalculated the situation. He sent General Hancock with Union II Corps, X Corps, and General David McMurtrie Gregg’s cavalry division across the James at Deep Bottom during the night of August 13-14. At first, the Union attacks were successful. But soon Confederate reinforcements arrived and the Union advance stalled. On August 17 a truce was called so both sides could take care of their dead and wounded. Lee ordered a counterattack the next day. But it was poorly organized and did not accomplish much. Hancock, however, began a withdrawal of the Union troops north of James. By August 20 the withdrawal was completed. The Union forces maintained their bridgehead at Deep Bottom. Overall the battle and skirmishes cost the Union 3,000 casualties against a loss to the Confederacy of about 1,500. Lee's thinly defended line some long remained intact. But he could not afford to send any troops to Early in the Shenandoah Valley.

paragraphs: While the Second Battle of Deep Bottom was going on, Grant had sent troops south of Petersburg to capture the Weldon Railroad. This was another of Grant's simultaneous operations. The Weldon Railroad was the only connection between Petersburg and the last Atlantic seaport at Wilmington, North Carolina. Grant had failed to capture the Weldon Railroad in June. The Union V Corps under General Gouverneur K. Warren was ordered to move west, destroy the tracks and, if possible, hold the rail line. Warren was successful in destroying tracks. But attacks and counterattacks went on for the next three days. The action cost the Union Army 4,279 casualties and the Confederates lost between 1,600 and 2,300 dead, wounded or missing. The Union was able to extend its lines west and built a fort named after Union General James S. Wadsworth, who was mortally wounded at the Battle of the Wilderness.

paragraphs: Hancock's II Corps moved against the Weldon Railroad on August 24. Tired from the battle at Deep Bottom, they were forced marched to the south of Petersburg to tear up more tracks. Gregg's cavalry cleared a path ahead of them. But on August 25, Confederate general Heath attacked the Union forces at Ream's Station. Confederates captured 9 cannon and took many Union prisoners. Hancock withdrew his forces back to the Union lines near the Jerusalem Plank Road.

paragraphs: By September 1864, the Confederate army was getting hungry. Supplies of everything were running low. Lee's army was feeling the effects of Grant's scorched earth policy in the Shenandoah Valley. On September 5 Lee learned that the Union Army had about 3,000 cattle being kept at Coggins Point, Virginia. This was only from Grant's headquarters. The herd was being lightly guarded by 250 men of the 1st D.C. Cavalry. There was also a detachment of about 150 men of the 13th Pennsylvania Cavalry. This entire area of the Union rear was picketed by one understrength cavalry division. Lee had been pressuring his cavalry commander, Major General Wade Hampton, to attack the Union rear area. Hampton saw this as a chance to both attack behind enemy lines and get cattle to feed the hungry Confederate soldiers at Petersburg. Lee approved but told Hampton he had one concern: “The only difficulty of importance I see to your project is your return.”

paragraphs: Wade put together a force of about 3,000 cavalry troops. It consisted of General W.H.F. "Rooney" Lee's cavalry division, and two brigades led by generals Thomas L. Rosser and James Dearing. It also included about 100 men from Pierce M. B. Young's and John Dunovant's brigades, along with a number of dogs to help herd the cattle. The plan was to ride a total of to steal the cattle then get them back to the Confederate lines. The herd designed to feed Union troops would now be used to feed Confederate troops.

paragraphs: On the morning of September 14, Hampton led his force southwest around the Union Army's left flank. They camped at Wilkinson’s Bridge on Rowanty Creek and early next morning moved to the bridge had once stood over Blackwater Creek. By midnight his forces had rebuilt the bridge and were now within of the cattle herd. Hampton divided his forces. Rooney Lee went to the left to screen against forces coming from Petersburg. Dearing's brigade went to the right to wait for the main attack, then protect the captured herd from any Union forces in the area. Rosser's brigade took the 1st D.C. Cavalry by surprise and captured 300 men. They also captured a number of the Union cavalry's new Spencer repeating rifles. The 13th Pennsylvania cavalry put up a stiffer resistance but were brushed aside by the larger Confederate force. Within a few hours the cattle had been captured and the Confederates were on their way back to their own lines. Once they discovered what had happened, Union forces in the area went after the cattle. All they got for their trouble was a few stray cattle. Once across the bridge over the Blackwater, Hampton's Confederates took it apart. In addition to the cattle, Hampton's men captured the civilian herders. The herders proved useful and seemed willing to go with the Confederate raiders. Hampton got 2,486 cattle losing just 10 men, 47 were wounded and four were missing. Hampton also kept one of the repeating rifles for himself.

paragraphs: Also called the Battle of Chaffin's Farm. On the night of September 20–29, General Butler and his Army of the James cross the James River to attack the outer defenses of Richmond. At dawn, his columns attacked the Confederates. Fort Harrison was the key to General Butler's plan. It was the strongest point in the Confederate line north of the James. On high ground, the fort had a view all the way to the James River. The fort was lightly held by only 200 Confederate troops as most were in Petersburg at the time. The fort's cannon were old and not considered battle worthy by the Northern artillerymen. The Union attack came unexpectedly and so quickly that there were few Union casualties. The Union Army was successful at both New Market Heights and at Fort Harrison. The Confederates then fought to contain the breakthrough. As Grant predicted, Lee weakened his Petersburg defenses to reinforce his lines north of the James River. Lee counterattacked on September 30 but his efforts were unsuccessful. The Union troops dug in forming trenches around the territory they just captured. The confederates built a new line of defenses that cut off the area captured by the Federal troops. The total casualties were 4,430 including Union General Hiram Burnham. The fort was renamed Fort Burnham in his honor.

paragraphs: Also called the Battle of Dabney’s Mill. On February 5, 1865, Gregg's Union cavalry division moved towards Ream's Station and the Dinwiddie Court House. Their mission was to raid and cut off Confederate supply trains. He was supported by Union General Warren's V Corps who took up a blocking position to stop any Confederate interference. Major General Andrew A. Humphreys's II Corps moved west to cover V Corps' right flank. That night, two more divisions reinforced the Union positions. But the raid was unsuccessful. As Gregg's cavalry was returning they were attacked by Confederate divisions led by Generals John Pegram and William Mahone. The Union advance was stopped although General Pelgram was killed in the battle. But the Union Army gained more territory as the line was now extended to Hatcher's run. Total casualties in the action were 2,700.

paragraphs: By March 25, 1865, the Siege of Petersburg had on for nine months. After initial battles the siege had settled into trench warfare. There were now a total of about 50 miles of trenches around Petersburg and Richmond. Lee was losing the war of attrition. Lee realized the Union Army around him was growing in size while his was getting smaller. He knew that as soon as Spring brought better weather, there would be a final attack by the Union Army. Lee ordered one of his most trusted generals, John Brown Gordon, to find a weak point in the Union line and attack it. Gordon thought Fort Stedman offered his best chance for success. While it had high walls and a moat, it formed a narrow gap in the Union line. Also, it was only from the Confederate line. Early in the morning, while it was still dark, Union pickets heard sounds coming from the corn field between the two lines. The sound was Confederate soldiers moving aside the "Cheval de frise" defenses in preparation for an attack. This was followed by 11,000 rebels who quickly captured of Union trenches. Union forces quickly arrived to turn back the Confederates to their own lines.

paragraphs: Union casualties were about 1,000. Confederate killed, wounded or captured numbered around 3,000. These were losses that Lee's army could not afford. Lee wrote Confederate President Jefferson Davis that he could not hold out much longer.

paragraphs: At the Battle of Five Forks, on April 1, 1865, Union General Sheridan's cavalry broke through and flanked the Confederate lines at Petersburg. This set the stage for the final attack. On the morning of April 2, Grant ordered all his troops south of the Appomattox River to charge the Confederate lines. The first success came at the same place where Sheridan had broken through the day before. Union General Horatio Wright's VI Corps quickly overran the Confederate pickets and began a brutal battle that lasted only 20 or 15 minutes. He lost some 2,200 Union solders during this short time period. But the larger numbers of the Union forces finally broke through the rebel line. Most of the Georgians and North Carolinans defending this section surrendered. The breakthrough by the VI Corps was the final straw for Confederate forces defending Petersburg. Lee wired Davis in Richmond that he had to evacuate both Petersburg and Richmond and retreat that night. This is also when Lee lost one of his best generals. Coming back from sick leave, riding to the front lines to rally his men, Lieutenant General A. P. Hill was killed by enemy gunfire.

paragraphs: The siege had lasted nine and a half months. There were a combined total of about 70,000 casualties. Richmond fell on April 3, 1865 and six days later, Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to General Grant at Appomattox Courthouse.


title: Arrondissement of Saintes

paragraphs: The arrondissement of Saintes is an arrondissement of France, in the Charente-Maritime department, Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Its capital is the city of Saintes.

paragraphs: When the Charente-Maritime department was created on 1790, the "arrondissement" of Saintes was part of that original department.

paragraphs: It was the centre of the old province of Saintonge.

paragraphs: It is the largest of the "arrondissements" of the Charente-Maritime department but the third by population. It has an area of , and a population of 128,786 inhabitants for a density of inhabitants/km².

paragraphs: Saintes is in the central part of the department. It is bordered to the north by the "arrondissement" of Saint-Jean-d'Angély, to the east by the "arrondissement" of Cognac (Charente department), to the south by the "arrondissement" of Jonzac, to the southwest by the Gironde department (through the Gironde estuary), to the west and northwest by the "arrondissement" of Rochefort.

paragraphs: After the reorganisation of the cantons in France, cantons are not subdivisions of the "arrondissements" so they could have "communes" that belong to different "arrondissements".

paragraphs: In the "arrondissement" of Saintes, there are only two cantons where all their "communes" are in the "arrondissement": the Saint-Porchaire and Saintes cantons. The following table shows the distribution of the "communes" in the cantons and "arrondissements":

paragraphs: The "arrondissement" of Saintes has 89 "communes"; they are (with their INSEE codes):

paragraphs: The "communes" with more inhabitants in the "arrondissement" are: