title: Mantle (mollusc)

paragraphs: The mantle is a significant part of the anatomy of molluscs: it is the dorsal body wall which covers the organs of digestion, reproduction and movement.

paragraphs: In many, but not all, species of molluscs, the epidermis (skin) of the mantle secretes calcium carbonate and conchiolin, and creates a shell.

paragraphs: The word "mantle" means cloak or cape, and does often resemble a cloak. The edges of the mantle may extend far beyond the main part of the body, forming flaps, double-layered structures adapted for many different uses, including for example, the "siphon".

paragraphs: The "mantle cavity" is a central feature of molluscan biology. This cavity is formed by the mantle skirt, a double fold of mantle which encloses a water space. This space contains the mollusc's gills, anus, and organs for taste, excretion and reproductive organs.

paragraphs: The mantle cavity functions as a respiratory chamber in all molluscs. In bivalves it is usually part of the feeding structure. In some mollusks the mantle cavity is a brood chamber, and in cephalopods and some bivalves such as scallops, it is a locomotory organ.

paragraphs: The mantle is highly muscular. In cephalopods the contraction of the mantle is used to force water through a tubular "siphon", and this propels the animal rapidly through the water. In other molluscs, it is used as a kind of "foot" for locomotion.


title: Carboniferous

paragraphs: The Carboniferous was the geological period after the Devonian and before the Permian. It lasted from about 359 to about 299 million years ago.

paragraphs: In the U.S.A. the Carboniferous is divided into the Mississippian (lower part, 359–323.2 mya) and the Pennsylvanian (upper part, 323.2–299 mya). In Europe the terms lower, middle and upper are used.

paragraphs: The early tetrapods split first into two major groups: the amphibians, which laid their eggs in water, and the amniotes, who laid their cleidoic eggs on land. The amniotes gave rise to two groups both of which became dominant at different times. They were the synapsids, which eventually gave rise to the mammals, and the sauropsids, which gave rise to the dinosaurs and other reptiles. These momentous events took place in the lower part of the Carboniferous, the Mississippian.

paragraphs: The Carboniferous is named after the "coal measures", the remains of peat formed by dense tropical wetland forests. New kinds of vascular plants with thick bark grew in the forests. Much of the coal came from this bark. This biota occurred in the upper part of the period, the Pennsylvanian, from 315–300 million years years ago.

paragraphs: These forests were on the equator, and the wetlands, which are always low-lying, stretched across the supercontinent of Laurussia. This included what is now North America in the west, through what is now Europe to China in the east. The river plain which was the heart of the wetland stretched 5000 km from eastern Canada to the Ukraine, and was 700 km wide.

paragraphs: This kind of climate and geography has no exact parallel today, but the peat swamp forests in Indonesia and Malaysia, the Amazon Basin, the Mississippi River system and the Okefenokee swamp give some idea. The swamps were dominated by giant clubmosses, including "Lepidodendron". They were the earliest trees, later replaced by conifers and flowering plants. Sometimes other plants from the levee got swept down by the river, such as horsetails, ferns and tree-like pteridosperms.

paragraphs: The wetland forests ended when the land level was raised by the pressure of the Gondwana continent against Laurussia. This caused the zone of contact to rise. The end of the coal measures marks the end of the Carboniferous period. China was too far away to be affected. There, the wetland forests continued for another 50 million years, into the Permian.


title: Mesozoic

paragraphs: The Mesozoic was the geological era in which dinosaurs lived, as well as the first birds and mammals. It lasted about 186 million years, starting 252.2 mya (million years ago) with the P/Tr extinction and ending 66 mya with the K/T extinction (the one that killed dinosaurs).

paragraphs: Dinosaurs appeared around 231 mya (21 million years after the beginning of the Mesozoic). They evolved from early reptiles called the archosaurs (a group of which modern birds and crocodiles are still part).

paragraphs: The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras that make up the Phanerozoic eon. Before the Mesozoic was the Palaeozoic era. The K/T extinction in 66 mya also marks the beginning of the Cenozoic era, the one we live in.


title: Palaeozoic

paragraphs: The Palaeozoic (or Paleozoic) era is the earliest of the three eras of the Phanerozoic. Its name means "early life". It lasted from about 541 to 252 million years ago (mya), and ended with the greatest extinction event, the Permian–Triassic extinction event.

paragraphs: The Palaeozoic began with an explosion of life forms. The Cambrian explosion marks the era with thousands of new life forms in the ancient seas. The era saw many important events, including the development of most invertebrate groups, life's conquest of land, the evolution of fish, reptiles, insects, and plants, the formation of the supercontinent of Pangea, and at least two distinct ice ages. The earth rotated faster than it does today so days were shorter, and the nearer moon caused stronger tides.


title: Blackjack

paragraphs: Blackjack (Twenty-one, pontoon or "Vingt-et-un") is a kind of card game which usually involves gambling. It is often played in casinos. There is a dealer, who deals cards from a special device called a 'dealer's shoe' or a 'shuffling machine'. The dealer has one to eight decks. When there are one or two decks, the dealer usually holds the decks instead of dealing from a shoe.

paragraphs: It is a 'dealer versus players game'. Each player has their own game against the dealer. Cards are dealt in succession, and bets placed for each hand. Players win if their cards add up to more than the dealer's hand to a limit of 21. Hands which add up to more than 21, called busted hands, lose. Face cards count as 10. Aces can count as one or eleven.

paragraphs: 'Blackjack', an ace and a face card or ten, is the top scorer. Blackjack usually pays a bonus. Five cards adding to 21 or fewer is the next ranking hand. Apart from that, unbusted hands rank by total add-up. Hands below the dealer's hand lose unless the dealer goes over 21 (busts). Hands equal to the dealer's keep their chips. If both the player and dealer bust, the dealer wins.

paragraphs: Players have a choice whether or not to get extra cards. Stand means to get no more cards and hit means to ask for another card. To stand, wave your hand back and forth. To ask for another card, wave your hand toward you. You can ask for any number of cards unless you bust. The dealer has rules as to when he takes extra cards for himself (or herself). In the UK, the dealer must stand on 16. These rules are set by the casino and cannot change after the game has started. In some states or countries, the rules are set by the government.

paragraphs: There is some skill in blackjack, because the odds change as the cards are dealt. The critical information is the numbers of tens (including face cards) which have been dealt. This is because they are the common cause of 'busting' the dealer hand and because they are needed for a blackjack. Aces are also important because they are needed for a blackjack. Keeping track of the cards is called 'card counting'. It is legal if done without a device like a computer. But, many casinos tell players to leave if they think are counting the cards.

paragraphs: Over the years the origin of Blackjack, like many other games, has eluded researchers for a long time and which continues to be hotly debated to this day. Till date there has been no clear consensus, but most agree it probably originated in French casinos around 1700, where it was called Vingt-et-Unwhich, translated, means twenty-one. Most believe it was probably derived from the French card games, Chemin de Fer, and French Ferme, which were in vogue at that time. Another of its version was prevalent in Spain, which was called 'One and Thirty'. The basic rule of the Spanish version was to reach 31 with a minimum of three cards.A theory that's also doing the rounds is that Blackjack was an invention by the Romans. It is believed that Romans used to play this game with wooden blocks of different numerical values. This theory holds some weight as Romans loved gambling, but that by no means confirms the theory. Among the various versions of the game, 'Vingt-et-Un' or '21' continued to grow in popularity and reach. It gradually spread to North America thanks to French colonists and soon after it was played throughout the continent. The rules of Blackjack were then different from those of modern or contemporary Blackjack. Just to elaborate, in this form of Blackjack, only the dealer was permitted to double. Also, a betting round was there between each of the playing cards dealt.The game was still termed '21' when it gained popularity in Nevada in 1931 as the State first chose to make gambling legal. Its origin is disputed, but it is certainly related to several French and Italian gambling games. In Britain since World War I, the informal game has been called pontoon. To draw more people to the game, some casinos then offered a special bet: A hand featuring either of the black jacks (the Jack of Spades or that of Clubs) plus the Ace of Spades would pay 10-to-1 odds on the lucky player's bet. Although casinos later discontinued this peculiar payout, the name 'blackjack' or 'black jack' remained, as the game is known today.

paragraphs: Five of Clubs: "Watson’s card". The name has nothing to do with Sherlock Holmes but refers to a famous gambler who is supposed to have won £10,000 at Faro through his wager in connection with this card.Blackjack was not conceived by any one person at one definite point of time. On the contrary, blackjack has evolved over centuries; it continues to evolve and grow even today, thanks to the Internet. Fuelling its popularity the online casino industry has developed various versions of the game which has truly revolutionized it.

paragraphs: Now a few reputed casino operators have started an innovative and far more enjoyable concept of this game: live blackjack game with real dealers. Live Blackjack is the most advanced way to play your favourite casino game right in the comfort of your home, without having to go a long way to a field-based casino.

paragraphs: This is an example of a Blackjack game. Players are named by gambling chip colour: white, brown, blue and black.

paragraphs: The dealer has given two cards each to the four players who are betting. One of the dealer's two cards is face-up so all the players can see it (an Ace), and the other is face down.

paragraphs: The dealer turns their card over and gets a 6, together with the Ace takes them to 17, and stands because the dealer must stand on 17. (In this case the dealer must stand on a "soft" 17). Results:


title: Phanerozoic

paragraphs: The Phanerozoic eon is the current eon on the geologic timescale. It is the one in which abundant animal life has existed. It covers about 541 million years, and goes back to the time when hard-shelled animals first appeared. It was once thought that life began in the Cambrian, the first period of this eon.

paragraphs: The time before the Phanerozoic, formerly called the "Precambrian", is now divided into the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons.

paragraphs: The exact time of the boundary between the Phanerozoic and the Proterozoic is slightly uncertain. In the 19th century, the boundary was set at the first abundant metazoan fossils. But several hundred kinds of Proterozoic metazoa have been discovered in the Ediacaran. Study of the Ediacaran biota started in the 1950s. There are three dividing points at the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic boundary. It might be where the first trilobites and archaeocyatha appear; or at the first appearance of signs of burrowing; or at the first appearance of the 'small shelly fauna'. The three different dividing points are within a few million years of each other.

paragraphs: In the Phanerozoic biodiversity increased hugely:

paragraphs: During the period covered, continents drifted about, eventually collecting into a single landmass known as Pangea and then splitting up into the current continental landmasses.

paragraphs: The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic.


title: Skip-Bo

paragraphs: Skip-Bo is a children's card game. You try and match numbers, colours, etc. It is similar to the card game Uno.


title: Ordovician

paragraphs: The Ordovician is the second period of the Paleozoic era. It lasted from about 485.4 million years ago (mya) to 443.4 mya. It follows the Cambrian period and is followed by the Silurian period.

paragraphs: The Ordovician was named after the Welsh tribe of the "Ordovices". It was defined by Charles Lapworth in 1879. He recognized that the fossils in the disputed strata were different from those of the Cambrian or the Silurian. Therefore, he reasoned, they should be placed in a period of their own.

paragraphs: Recognition of the Ordovician period was slow in Britain, but elsewhere it was quickly accepted. In 1906 it was adopted as an official period of the Paleozoic era by the International Geological Congress.

paragraphs: The Ordovician ended with a series of extinction events that, together amount to the second greatest extinction of the Phanerozoic. This was the EndOrdovician extinction event.

paragraphs: Sea levels were high during the Ordovician. Shallow (<50 metres) inland seas were the greatest for which evidence is preserved in the rocks.

paragraphs: During the Ordovician, the southern continents collected into a single continent called Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician, the continents Laurentia (present-day North America), Siberia, and Baltica (present-day northern Europe) were still independent continents.

paragraphs: The Ordovician was a time of calcite sea geochemistry in which low-magnesium calcite was the main marine precipitate of calcium carbonate.

paragraphs: For most of the Ordovician, life continued to flourish, but near the end of the period the EndOrdovician extinction event seriously affected planktonic forms like conodonts, graptolites, and some groups of trilobites. Brachiopods, bryozoans and echinoderms were also heavily affected, and the cone-shaped nautiloids died out completely, except for rare Silurian forms.

paragraphs: The extinctions may have been caused by an ice age that occurred at the end of the Ordovician period: the end of the Ordovician was one of the coldest times in the last 600 million years of earth history.

paragraphs: On the whole, the fauna that emerged in the Ordovician set the scene for the rest of the Palaeozoic. The fauna was dominated by suspension feeders, mainly with short food chains. The ecological system reached a new level of complexity far beyond that of the Cambrian fauna.

paragraphs: Though less famous than the Cambrian explosion, the Ordovician featured an adaptive radiation, which was no less remarkable. Marine genera increased fourfold, resulting in 12% of all known Phanerozoic marine fauna. Another change in the fauna was the strong increase in filter feeding organisms. The articulate brachiopods, cephalopods, and crinoids took over. Articulate brachiopods, in particular, largely replaced trilobites in shelf communities. This illustrates the greatly increased biodiversity of carbonate shell-secreting organisms in the Ordovician compared to the Cambrian. Although solitary corals date back to at least the Cambrian, reef-forming corals appeared in the early Ordovician.

paragraphs: Molluscs, which appeared during the Cambrian or even the Ediacaran, became common and varied, especially bivalves, gastropods, and nautiloid cephalopods. Now-extinct marine animals called graptolites thrived in the oceans. Some new cystoids and crinoids appeared.

paragraphs: It was long thought that the first true vertebrates (fish — Ostracoderms) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in China show they probably originated in the Lower Cambrian. The very first Gnathostomata (jawed fish) appeared in the Upper Ordovician.

paragraphs: During the Middle Ordovician there was a large increase in bioeroding (shell and rock-boring) organisms. This is known as the Ordovician Bioerosion Revolution. It is marked by a sudden abundance of hard substrate trace fossils.

paragraphs: In the Lower Ordovician, trilobites were joined by many new brachiopods, bryozoans, planktonic graptolites and conodonts, and many types of molluscs and echinoderms, including the ophiuroids ("brittle stars") and the first sea stars. Nevertheless the trilobites remained abundant, with all the Late Cambrian orders continuing, and being joined by the new group Phacopida. The first evidence of land plants also appeared.

paragraphs: Trilobites in the Ordovician were very different from their predecessors in the Cambrian. Many trilobites developed bizarre spines and nodules to defend against predators such as primitive sharks and nautiloids. Other trilobites evolved to become swimming forms. Some trilobites even developed shovel-like snouts for ploughing through muddy sea bottoms. Some trilobites such as "Asaphus kowalewski" evolved long eyestalks to assist in detecting predators whereas other trilobite eyes in contrast disappeared completely.

paragraphs: The renowned Burgess Shale fauna disappears in the Middle Cambrian. It is now known that it did not go extinct, but survived, and thrived where the circumstances were right. A recently discovered lagerstätte (a deposit of exceptionally preserved fossils) has been found in the Fezouata Formation, Morocco. The site contains remarkable fossils of soft-bodied animals from a muddy ocean floor. The fauna also includes some hard-bodied animals such as horseshoe crabs. Probably low oxygen conditions kept predators and scavengers to a minimum.


title: Silurian

paragraphs: The Silurian was the period from the end of the Ordovician, about 443.4 million years ago (mya) to the beginning of the Devonian period, about 419 mya.

paragraphs: As with other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but the exact dates are uncertain by several million years. The base of the Silurian is set at a major extinction when 60% of marine species were wiped out, the End-Ordovician extinction event.

paragraphs: The Silurian was the first period to see macrofossils of biota on land, in the form of moss forests along lakes and streams as well as millipedes and scorpions colonizing the land later in the period. The fossil record of Sea Scorpions reached its greatest extent in the middle Silurian, about 430 million years ago.

paragraphs: The first fossil records of vascular plants, appeared in the second half of the Silurian period. The earliest known representatives of this group are the "Cooksonia" (mostly from the northern hemisphere) and "Baragwanathia" (from Australia). A primitive Silurian land plant with xylem and phloem but no differentiation in root, stem or leaf, was much-branched "Psilophyton". This plant reproducied by spores and respired through stomata on every surface, and probably photosynthesized in every tissue exposed to light.

paragraphs: Some evidence suggests the presence of primitive predatory arachnids and myriapods in later Silurian rocks. Predatory invertebrates would indicate that simple food webs were in place which included non-predatory prey animals.


title: Devonian

paragraphs: The Devonian is the period of the Paleozoic era from about 419 million years ago (mya) to about 359 mya. It is named after Devonshire, England, where rocks from this period were first studied.

paragraphs: Sea levels were high, and there was a great variety of fish and other marine organisms. The Devonian fish included the Agnatha (jawless fish), the Acanthodii (spiny fish), the Placoderms (armoured fish), the Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish), and the early Osteichthyes (bony fish). The Devonian strata are divided into lower, middle and upper subdivisions.

paragraphs: During the Devonian the evolution of fish into tetrapods occurred. Various terrestrial arthropods also became established. The first seed-bearing plants spread across dry land, forming huge forests.

paragraphs: Tectonic and volcanic activity was high. A series of extinction events occurred towards the end of the Devonian, including a major event at the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in the Late Devonian, about 364 mya. The supercontinent Pangaea was just starting to form.


title: Proterozoic

paragraphs: The Proterozoic eon comes before the Phanerozoic. It was a period before the first abundant complex life on Earth. The name Proterozoic comes from the Greek "earlier life". The Proterozoic Eon extended from 2500 million years ago (mya) to 541 mya. It is the most recent part of the former Precambrian.

paragraphs: The Proterozoic consists of 3 geologic eras, from oldest to youngest:

paragraphs: Study of these rocks shows that the eon featured massive, rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and mountain building.


title: Cainozoic

paragraphs: The Cainozoic (Cenozoic) is the current geological era. It began 66 million years ago and continues today. Before it was the Mesozoic.

paragraphs: During the Cainozoic the continents moved into their present positions. The climate started warm, but cooling continued steadily. Finally ice ages occurred.

paragraphs: The word Cainozoic is derived from Greek "kainos" = "new", and "zoe" = "life". 'Cainozoic' may be spelled 'Cenozoic'. It has three periods, and the periods are split into stages.

paragraphs: Previously, what is now the Cainozoic was divided into two periods, the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The Tertiary corresponded to the Palaeogene+Neogene. Now, the term 'Tertiary' is not used. Officially, it is 'deprecated'.

paragraphs: On land, the Cainozoic is the era of mammals, and of birds and flowering plants. Grassland became a major habitat. Aquatic mammals took over the roles of predatory reptiles like the mosasaurs and plesiosaurs. As a result, the ecological landscape of the Cainozoic has become quite different from the Mesozoic.


title: Bill Elliott

paragraphs: William Clyde Elliott (born October 8, 1955) is an American racecar driver. He drove in the Sprint Cup Series He won the 1988 Sprint Cup, and was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2007. In 2014, Elliot was voted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame. He was inducted into the Hall of Fame in January of 2015.


title: Dolhasca

paragraphs: Dolhasca is a town in southeastern Bukovina, in Suceava County, Romania. 11,000 people were living in Dolhasca as of 2002. It became a town in 2004.


title: Siret

paragraphs: Siret is a town of Suceava County in northeast Romania. The town is found on the right bank of the Siret River. Ukraine borders Siret to the north. 9,358 people were living in Siret as of 2002.


title: Default gateway

paragraphs: A default gateway is the IP address used to get out of your network.


title: Token passing

paragraphs: Token passing is a communication protocol used in telecommunications. The system uses a signal called a "token" to limit when a device can transmit on the network. Only the device with the token can transmit. When that device is done, the token is sent to the next device. With large transmissions, the token may move to the next station before the transmission is finished. The device has to wait until it gets the token back before it can continue to send data. The most well known examples of token passing are token ring and ARCNET.

paragraphs: The rules of the system say how long a device may keep the token, how long it can transmit for and how to create a new token if there is not one in use.


title: Carrier sense multiple access

paragraphs: Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a Media Access Control (MAC) protocol. When transmitting on a medium that is shared by many transmitters, the transmitter first checks to see that nothing else is already transmitting. Examples of shared transmission medium include an electrical bus, or part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

paragraphs: "Carrier Sense" means that a transmitter uses feedback from a receiver to know if the medium is already in use before trying to send. That is, it tries to find a signal from another station before trying to transmit. If a signal is found, the station waits for that transmission to end before starting its own transmission.

paragraphs: "Multiple Access" means that many stations send and receive on the medium. Transmissions are usually received by all other stations using the medium.


title: Archaean

paragraphs: The Archaean (or Archean) eon is the geological period after the Hadean and before the Proterozoic. It is one of the four main time periods (eons) of Earth history. The Archaean lasted from 4,000 million years ago (mya) to 2,500 mya. It contains the first sedimentary rocks, and the first fossil life forms, which were cyanobacteria, and acritarchs.

paragraphs: Most of the rocks which survive are volcanic (igneous) and metamorphic in origin. Volcanic activity was everywhere. When the Archaean began, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today. It was still twice the current level when the Archaean ended, 2,500 mya. This high level of heat flow may have made plate tectonics more vigorous than today. The question of when plate tectonics began is a major research area. The large supercontinent Vaalbara formed in the Archaean. There were oceans already, before the Archaean.

paragraphs: The atmosphere almost entirely lacked free oxygen, and instead, it was mostly methane and CO.

paragraphs: Fossil bacterial mats, called stromatolites, are found throughout the Archaean after about 3,500mya. These were formed by cyanobacteria, which used photosynthesis and gave off oxygen as a by-product. Initially, this oxygen was absorbed by combining with iron ions in solution. Not until much later did oxygen build up in the atmosphere.

paragraphs: Fossil raindrop marks have been found in the later Archaean, 2,700 mya. The rocks were discovered in Ventersdorp in the North West Province of South Africa in the 1980s.


title: Barcelona Metro line 1

paragraphs: Line 1, shortened to L1 and known as "Hospital de Bellvitge - Fondo", coloured red and often simply called "Línia vermella" ("Red Line"), is the second oldest metro line in Barcelona, after L3. It is operated by Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB).

paragraphs: Stations or lines shown in italics are under construction.


title: Hadean

paragraphs: The Hadean is the geological eon before the Archaean. It began at the Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, and ended 4 billion years ago. The name "Hadean" comes from Hades, Greek for "Underworld", due to the conditions on the Earth at the time. The geologist Preston Cloud first used the term in 1972. Meteorite bombardment, volcanism and high temperatures were very widespread on the early Earth.

paragraphs: There are no sedimentary rocks from the Hadean at all. The earliest geological objects on Earth are some zircons, dated to about 4,400 million years ago (mya). Oceans would probably have formed as soon as the temperature allowed. It is thought that constant bombardment kept the Earth in a molten state until about the end of the eon.

paragraphs: Early in Earth history, the Moon was torn out by a massive collision with a proto-planet. The evidence for this giant impact hypothesis is:

paragraphs: An explanation for the general lack of Hadean rocks (older than 3800 mya) is the large amount of rocky and icy debris present in the early Solar System. After the eight planets formed, large numbers of leftover protoplanets, asteroids, and comets pursued eccentric orbits throughout our system, bombarding the early Earth and the other planets and moons until approximately 3800 mya. This activity may have prevented any large crustal fragments from forming by literally shattering the early protocontinents. A barrage of particularly large impacts known as the Late Heavy Bombardment represents the climax of this violent era.

paragraphs: No life forms are known from this eon. The early atmosphere contained carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen, but almost no oxygen.


title: Permian

paragraphs: The Permian is a geological period which started about 299 million years ago (mya), and ended about 252 mya. It is the last period of the Paleozoic era, and ended in the largest mass extinction known to science.

paragraphs: The climate in the Permian was quite varied. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still at the grip of an Ice age from the Carboniferous. Glaciers receded around the mid-Permian period as the climate gradually warmed, drying the continent's interiors. In the late Permian period, the drying continued although the temperature cycled between warm and cool cycles.

paragraphs: During the Permian, tetrapod life, (amphibians, Sauropsids and Synapsids) which evolved in the Carboniferous, became widespread and diverse. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.

paragraphs: The Permian was also a period of adaptive radiation in insects. Beetles (Coleoptera) appeared; so did flies (Diptera). 22 out of a total of 36 known orders of insects are known from the Permian. Some became extinct in the end-Permian event, but more radiation followed in the Mesozoic. Insects were probably, by the end of the Permian, the largest phylum, in terms of number of species.

paragraphs: Early relatives of cockroaches (Blattopterans) were the most common insects. and dragonflies ruled the air. True Odonata appeared in the Permian.

paragraphs: All the major land masses were collected together in the super-continent Pangaea. At the end of the period, the greatest flood basalt lava flows in the Phanerozoic raised world temperatures, and damaged the environment. These formed the extensive "Siberian traps". The causes of the Permian/Triassic extinction event are not yet agreed between scientists. Trilobites, once a dominant life-form in the ocean, became extinct, together with 90% of all marine species.


title: Circus

paragraphs: A circus is a special kind of entertainment that can be enjoyed by children and adults. Circuses are a group of performers that may include acrobats, clowns, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers and other artists who perform stunts. Circuses usually travel about to different parts of the country or to different countries. They perform in a huge tent called the “Big Top”. There may be room for hundreds of people in the audience. The seating is tiered (the seats at the back are higher than those in front). In the middle is the circular area where the artists perform. This area is called the “ring”. The person in charge of the whole show is the “ringmaster”. Not all circuses travel about. A few circuses perform in their own building.

paragraphs: There are many different acts in circuses. Some people do acrobatics and gymnastics. Often a group of gymnasts will finish up standing on top of one another in a pyramid. The gymnasts may also do jumping acts on trampolines. Some people are jugglers, throwing things in the air and catching them. There may be people who walk on stilts or who ride on unicycles. They may perform magic which may include swordswallowing, knife throwing or fireeating. There are always clowns who do funny things to make people laugh. They trip over things and fall over, throw buckets of water over one another or put custard pies into one another’s faces. Sometimes these clowns are also very skilful acrobats, musicians or jugglers. They may pretend to be stupid at first, but they often show that they are very clever.

paragraphs: During the last two centuries, and until recently, the modern circus used many kinds of animals. There were wild animals such as lions, tigers or bears. There may also have been camels, horses, elephants, sea lions and domestic animals such as dogs. In recent years people have changed their ideas. They think that it is unkind to make wild animals perform tricks that are unnatural to them. Many of their trainers used cruel methods to teach these animals to do tricks, e.g. hitting the animals, giving them electric shocks or causing pain in other ways. The animals were always touring around, living in tiny cages. Many countries now do not want to see wild animals in circuses.

paragraphs: In Ancient Rome the circus was a round or oval building for showing horse and chariot races, horse shows, staged battles, acts with animals, jugglers and acrobats. The Roman circus had tiered seats. The important people sat at the bottom, near the action. The Latin word "circus" comes from the Greek word "kirkos", meaning “circle" or "ring”.

paragraphs: The first circus in Rome was the Circus Maximus, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills. At first it was made of wood. It was rebuilt several times; the last building of the Circus Maximus could seat 250,000 people.

paragraphs: After the period when Rome was powerful, Europe did not have a circus tradition. In China there were shows with acrobatic performances, but they did not influence the Western circus, which started to be popular towards the end of the 18th century. In London there were circuses with horse-riding. These were started in 1768 by Philip Astley. A “Royal Circus” was set up in Lambeth, London by John Hughes. Circuses grew in size and had lots of animals. They were a bit like a zoo. They had wild animals such as lions and elephants. In 1793 a circus building was opened in Philadelphia, USA. Circuses became popular in the USA, especially the circus of Dan Rice. In 1840 Thomas Cooke brought his circus with horses from the USA to England. The circus started to become popular in many countries all over the world. The Barnum & Bailey Greatest Show On Earth toured from 1897 to 1902. They showed animal acts and human acts. There were even shows with freaks (people who were physically unusual, e.g. dwarfs and giants). During most of the 20th century this is what circuses were mostly like.

paragraphs: In 1919, Lenin, head of the USSR, said he wanted the circus to be treated as a serious art form, just like opera and ballet. The Moscow Circus School, which was started in 1927, is still one of the best circuses today. The artists are very skilful acrobats, gymnasts etc. Chinese circuses also have artists who are some of the world’s best gymnasts.


title: Markham, Ontario

paragraphs: Markham, Ontario is a city in Regional Municipality of York, in the Greater Toronto Area of Southern Ontario, Canada. There are twice as many people there as in 1990. 261,573 people live in Markham. It is the 4th largest town in the Greater Toronto Area, after Toronto, Mississauga, and Brampton.


title: Matt Stajan

paragraphs: Matthew Stajan ( ; born December 19, 1983) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre.

paragraphs: Before playing in the NHL, Stajan played 3 seasons with the Belleville Bulls of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). He was drafted with the 57th overall pick by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft. On January 31, 2010, the Maple Leafs traded Stajan along with Niklas Hagman, Ian White and Jamal Mayers in exchange for Dion Phaneuf, Fredrik Sjöström and Keith Aulie.

paragraphs: He is married to his wife Katie and they live in Calgary. Their first child named Emerson, died on March 3, 2014 shortly after birth.


title: Cajvana

paragraphs: Cajvana is a town of Suceava County in the southern part of Bukovina in Romania.


title: Mount Athos

paragraphs: Mount Athos is a mountain in the Greek province of Macedonia. It is also commonly referred to as the Self-governed Monastic State of the Holy Mountain, which is an autonomous part of Greece. There are twenty Eastern Orthodox monasteries inside this state.

paragraphs: Spiritually, Mount Athos comes under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.

paragraphs: The peninsula is the easternmost "leg" of the larger Halkidiki peninsula. It protrudes into the Aegean Sea for some at a width between 7 to 12 km and covers an area of , with the actual Mount Athos and its steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to . The seas around the end of the peninsula can be dangerous.

paragraphs: The peninsula is only accessible by boat. There is a limit on the number of visitors. People visiting need to get a special permit. Only men are allowed to enter. Monks call Mount Athos the "Garden of the Virgin"-. Orthodox Christians take precedence in the permit issuing procedure. Only males over the age of 18 who are members of an Eastern Orthodox Church are allowed to live on Athos (?). A large number of Albanian Muslims work in the Holy Mountain. There is a small number of unarmed, religious guards (Σερδάρηδες), who are not monks, for keeping order. Police and Coast Guard presence is very discreet. Any other people not monks are required to live in the peninsula's capital, Karyes (?) Most workers live at the place where they work. Small low class hotels exist at Karyes (administrative center) and Dafni (main port). The 2001 Greek national census recorded a population of 2,262 inhabitants.


title: Barcelona Metro line 9

paragraphs: Line 9 (Línia 9 in Catalan) is the newest line in the Barcelona Metro network, currently under construction, with only five complete stations, all in Santa Coloma de Gramenet. These first five stations opened on 13 December 2009. The complete line is a railway project to build a subway line with two branches spanning a good deal of the metropolitan area of Barcelona through Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Badalona, l'Hospitalet de Llobregat and El Prat de Llobregat. TMB is the company operating the line and handled by the division line in two: Line 9 and Line 10.


title: Barcelona Metro line 10

paragraphs: Line 10 (Zona Franca ZAL - Gorg) is the name of one of the two branches of the Barcelona metro extension line 9, currently under construction and to be operated by TMB.

paragraphs: It links the Zona Franca with Badalona, through Barcelona proper, sharing a good deal of the area covered by L9. L9/10 will be the deepest line in the network, and the longest line in Europe. Originally expected to be ready by 2008, ongoing problems with its construction are going to delay its completion until as late as 2013.


title: Barcelona Metro line 2

paragraphs: Line 2, also known by the names of its termini, currently Paral·lel - Pep Ventura, is a metro line in Barcelona operated by TMB, coloured purple and sometimes simply called "línia lila".

paragraphs: Station and line names shown in italics are planned or under construction additions.


title: Sam Cooke

paragraphs: Sam Cooke (January 22, 1931–December 11, 1964) was an American soul singer and songwriter. He was born Sam Cook but later changed the spelling of his name. He was very important in the beginning of soul music. He had many hit songs in America. Some of his most famous songs were "You Send Me", "A Change Is Gonna Come", "Chain Gang", "Wonderful World", and "Bring It on Home to Me".

paragraphs: Cooke started his own record label and publishing company. He was an important part of the Civil Rights Movement, helping African-American people to get civil rights.

paragraphs: Cooke died in 1964. He was shot and killed by a hotel manageress called Bertha Franklin. She told the police that she shot Cooke in self-defense. He was buried in Glendale, California.


title: Catherine Morland

paragraphs: Catherine Morland is the principal character in Jane Austen's book "Northanger Abbey". She enjoys reading the mysterious and frightening gothic novels that were popular in her time. She often has a tendency to blur the lines between fiction and reality, which causes her a great deal of trouble. She is the neighbor of Mr. Allens, a rich man, and goes with him to Bath, a city in Northeastern Somerset, England. Jane Austen used her to mock the obvious classics where the perfect heroes fall in love with the heroines, and they marry and live "happily ever after".

paragraphs: Jane Austen, in the beginning of Chapter Two, describes her as having a heart that "was affectionate (loving)", a "disposition (character) cheerful and open, without conceit (pride) or affectation".

paragraphs: The book "Northanger Abbey" begins with, "No one who had ever seen Catherine Morland in her infancy, would have supposed her born to be an heroine." Her father, Richard, is a clergyman (pastor) who, even though he is not rich, is not poor; her mother is "a woman of useful plain sense, with a good temper, and, what is more remarkable, with a good constitution." Catherine is called "plain" when she is young, with "a thin awkward figure, a skin without colour, dark hair, and strong features..." She likes to play boy's games more than playing with dolls, and does not like lessons, though she does like stories and fables. Catherine likes "tinkling the keys of the old spinnet (piano)," but she hates learning music, and "the day which dismissed (sent away) the music-master was one of the happiest in Catherine's life." She does not draw well; she did not like writing, or accounts, or French. However, she is usually nice to her brothers and sisters, and listens to her parents.

paragraphs: Catherine becomes "almost pretty" at 15, when she grows plumper, cleaner, and more . She begins reading better books, like those that Pope, Gray, Thompson, and Shakespeare's. Mrs. Allen invites her to come to Bath with her, and she agrees. There, she is always very polite to Mrs. Allen, and is humbly satisfied when a few men call her a "pretty girl." She falls in love with Henry Tilney, and even though they misunderstand each other some times, they quickly become good friends. She also becomes friends with Eleanor Tilney, and she is invited to Northanger Abbey. General Tilney, Henry's father, is kind to her, and she is happy. But sometimes she is too imaginative: for instance, she thinks General Tilney murdered his wife. Henry's gentle talk with her soon makes her more clear-sighted. The sudden rudeness of General Tilney makes her very sad until Henry comes and proposes to her; he also explains the General's first attentions, and later rudeness: the General had at first thought Catherine was very rich, and later thought Catherine was really poor. Actually, Catherine is neither - she lives quite comfortably. At the end of the book, they marry happily.


title: Child abuse

paragraphs: Child abuse is the abuse, mistreatment or hurt done by adults to children. It often means abuse done by a child's parents or another caregiver. Injuries to the skin like bruises are one of the signs of child abuse.

paragraphs: Talking about these things and helping children who suffer from child abuse is very important, but some people do not believe it could happen in their country, neighbourhood or family. They like to think these crimes are far away and so they cannot see if a child nearby is in danger.

paragraphs: The World Health Organization (WHO) defines "child abuse" and "child maltreatment" as "all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment [...] or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power." In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses the term "child maltreatment" to refer to both acts of absue and neglect. According to the WHO, the term abuse includes "words or overt actions that cause harm, potential harm, or threat of harm to a child"; neglect means "the failure to provide for a child's basic physical, emotional, or educational needs or to protect a child from harm or potential harm". The United States federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act defines "child abuse and neglect" as, at minimum, "any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation" or "an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm".


title: Revised Julian calendar

paragraphs: The Revised Julian calendar is a variation of the Julian calendar. It is mainly used by Eastern Orthodox churches. Some Eastern Orthodox churches introduced it in 1923.

paragraphs: Until the year 2800, this calendar will be in sync with the Gregorian calendar; From 2800 to 2900, the Gregorian calendar will be 1 day off.


title: Hakha-Chin language

paragraphs: Hakha Chin is a language spoken in southern Asia by 446,264 people. The total figure includes 2,000 Zokhua, and 60,100 Lai speakers. The speakers are largely concentrated in eastern India in addition to Myanmar/Burma and Bangladesh.


title: Rajbanshi language

paragraphs: Kamtapuri, also called Rajbanshi is a Tibeto-Burman cum Indo-Aryan language spoken in India, Bhutan Bangladesh, and Nepal. Rajbanshi belongs to combined language family of Tibeto-Burman cum Indo-Aryan language family. According to a 1991 census, it was spoken by 5 million people. This language is not a dialect of Bengali language or Assamese Language. It has her own identity. "Kamtapuri" language would be included soon under eighth schedule of constitution of India.

paragraphs: This is the native language of people of Cooch Behar, Lower Assam, Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur, Terrai of Darjeeling, Upper Maldah, a portion of Bihar, Some parts of Bhutan, Bangladesh & Nepal.

paragraphs: Other names of the language are Rajbangsi, Rajbansi, Rajbanshi, Tajpuri, Surjyapuri, Kamrupi, Deshi Bhasha.

paragraphs: Recently "Kamtapuri Bhasha Academy" (2017) is formed by West Bengal Government.


title: Teen idol

paragraphs: A teen idol is a celebrity or famous person who is very popular with teenagers. Teen idols are often young, but are not always teenagers themselves. They are often pop singers or actors. People started to call celebrities teen idols in the 20th century. Some early teen idols were Rudolph Valentino, Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, Elvis Presley and James Dean.

paragraphs: In the 1960s and 1970s some pop singers became known as teen idols, like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Monkees, Donny Osmond and David Cassidy. In the 1990s, bands like New Kids on the Block and Backstreet Boys were very popular with teenagers. In the 21st century, some teen idols have been Britney Spears, Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers.


title: Hachinohe, Aomori

paragraphs: It has been recognized as a special city since 2001.

paragraphs: Hacnihone is in a part of Japan called the Tohoku region. It faces the Pacific Ocean. Two rivers run through Hachinohe. One is the Mabechi River which runs from the south to the east, and flows into the Pacific Ocean. The other is the Nida River which runs from the south to the north.

paragraphs: Hachinohe means "the 8th area" in north of Tohoku region from the Middle Ages era. There was "the places of 8th" for making horses for a war in Hachinohe.

paragraphs: Hachinohe has a famous industrial area in Tohoku region, and has a bigger fishing port more than most of other cities.

paragraphs: There is a Tohoku Shinkansen station and the Tohoku Expressway in Hachinohe.

paragraphs: The main industries in Hachinohe are manufacturing and services. Most of people in Hacnihohe work in manufacturing. In Hachinohe, the fishing industry is famous. Hachinohe brings in the most squid and saba in Japan.


title: Gerbstedt

paragraphs: Gerbstedt is a little town at the Mansfeld-Südharz rural district, Saxony-Anhalt in Germany. It is north of Eisleben. The little river Lobach flows through it.

paragraphs: Gerbstedt is about 30 km northwest of Halle, Saxony-Anhalt. It was first mentioned in 985 as Gerbizstidi. In the area of Gerbstedt, there is copper schist. It is mined since 1730.


title: Miles Davis

paragraphs: Miles Dewey Davis III (May 26, 1926 – September 28, 1991) was an American jazz trumpeter, bandleader and composer. He was very important to 20th century music. He helped to develop several different styles of jazz, like cool jazz, hard bop, free jazz, and fusion. As a bandleader he worked with other famous musicians like John Coltrane, Herbie Hancock, Bill Evans, Wayne Shorter, Chick Corea, John McLaughlin, Cannonball Adderley, Gerry Mulligan, Tony Williams, George Coleman, J. J. Johnson, Keith Jarrett, John Scofield and Kenny Garrett.

paragraphs: In 1959 he released an album called "Kind of Blue". That album became very famous and popular. In 2008, it had sold 4 million copies. In 2006 Davis was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and described as "one of the key figures in the history of jazz".

paragraphs: Davis was born in 1926 in Alton, Illinois. His father, Miles Dewey Davis, Jr., was a dentist. In 1927, the family moved to East St. Louis. They also owned a big ranch in northern Arkansas, where Davis learned to ride horses.

paragraphs: Davis's mother, Cleota Mae (Henry) Davis, wanted him to learn to play the piano. She was a good blues pianist but did not tell her son this. Davis started to learn music when he was 13, when his father gave him a trumpet and arranged for him to have lessons with local musician Elwood Buchanan. Buchanan taught Davis to play the trumpet without vibrato, and Davis always played like this. Buchanan was said to slap Davis's knuckles every time he started using heavy vibrato. Davis later said "I prefer a round sound with no attitude in it, like a round voice with not too much tremolo and not too much baseline bass. Just right in the middle. If I can’t get that sound I can’t play anything."

paragraphs: When he was 16, Davis played the trumpet professionally when he was not at school. At 17, he played in bandleader Eddie Randle's band for a year. Saxophone-player Sonny Stitt tried to persuade Davis to join the Tiny Bradshaw band, but Davis's mother wanted Davis to finish his final year of high school.

paragraphs: In 1944, the Billy Eckstine band visited East St. Louis. Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker were in the band, and Davis joined them as third trumpet player when trumpeter Buddy Anderson was out sick. When the band left to finish the tour, Davis' parents still wanted him to finish his studies.

paragraphs: After he graduated from high school in 1944, Davis moved to New York City to study at the Juilliard School of Music.

paragraphs: When he arrived in New York, he spent most of his time trying to get in contact with Charlie Parker, even though some people had told him that he should not. When he found Parker, Davis became involved in jam sessions that took place every night in two of Harlem's night clubs, Minton's Playhouse and Monroe's. Other famous musicians like Thelonious Monk and Kenny Clarke also tookpart in these sessions.

paragraphs: Davis left Juilliard early, having first asked permission from his father. He did not like the classes at Juilliard because he thought they focused too much on classical European and "white" music. He also said that his Juilliard classes helped him to understand music theory.

paragraphs: He began playing professionally in many jazz groups, performing in several 52nd Street clubs with Coleman Hawkins and Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis. In 1945, he went into a recording studio for the first time, as a member of the group of Herbie Fields. In 1946 he made his first recording as a bandleader, with a group called "Miles Davis Sextet plus Earl Coleman and Ann Hathaway". He did not make many recordings as a bandleader at this time.

paragraphs: Around 1945, Dizzy Gillespie stopped working with Parker and Parker hired Davis as Gillespie's replacement in his quintet. Also in the group were Max Roach at the drums, Al Haig (replaced later by Sir Charles Thompson and Duke Jordan) at the piano, and Curley Russell (later replaced by Tommy Potter and Leonard Gaskin) as bass player.

paragraphs: With Parker's quintet, Davis recorded several times. He had a solo on Parker's signature song, "Now's the Time". This solo led to the beginning of a style of jazz called "cool jazz". The group also toured the United States. During a tour in Los Angeles, Parker had a nervous breakdown and went to the Camarillo State Mental Hospital for several months. Davis found himself stuck in L.A. He stayed with, and played music with jazz musician Charles Mingus. Later he got a job with Billy Eckstine on a California tour that brought him back to New York. In 1948, Parker returned from Los Angeles, and Davis joined his group again.

paragraphs: The musicians in Parker's group were not getting on very well. Parker's behavior was unpredictable because of his drug addiction. Davis and Roach did not agree with Parker hiring Duke Jordan as a pianist and would have preferred Bud Powell). In December 1948, Davis left the group after an argument with Parker at the "Royal Roost". He began to work more independently with different groups in New York.

paragraphs: In 1948 Davis grew close to the Canadian composer and music arranger Gil Evans. Davis used to meet other musicians at Evans' house, like Roach, the pianist John Lewis and the baritone saxophone player Gerry Mulligan. Evans had been the arranger for the orchestra of Claude Thornhill and it was the sound of this group, as well as Duke Ellington's example, that inspired the creation of a large group including a french horn and a tuba.

paragraphs: Davis took a very active role in the project, and it soon became "his project". They tried to achieve a sound similar to a human voice, over carefully arranged compositions.

paragraphs: The group first played in the summer of 1948 at the Royal Roost. They were active to the end of 1949 and had several changes of musician. There were many white musicians in the group and this made some African American jazz players angry. Many of them were unemployed at the time. Davis did not listen to them.

paragraphs: The group got a recording contract with Capitol Records and they had several recording sessions between January 1949 and April 1950. This music was released on an album called "Birth of the Cool". This album gave its name to a new style of jazz called "cool jazz". Davis knew how important his project was and even turned down a job with Duke Ellington's orchestra. This group also led to the beginning of the lifelong friendship between Davis and Gil Evans.


title: Bandleader

paragraphs: A bandleader is the leader of a group of musicians. Bandleaders often lead large groups that play genres like big band, jazz, blues, rhythm and blues and rock and roll. The bandleader directs the other musicians in the group. Bandleaders often perform in their groups as well. Sometimes bands are named after their bandleaders.


title: Neglect

paragraphs: Neglect is a kind of abuse where a person harms another person by not giving them the things they need to live. For example, a parent or caregiver may neglect a child by not giving them enough food, clothing, hygiene, medical care, affection or education; this is a form of child abuse. Victims of neglect are those that need looking after, like children, physically or mentally disabled adults, elderly people, medical patients, animals or plants.


title: Josef Mysliveček

paragraphs: Josef Mysliveček (born Prague, 9 March 1737; died Rome, 4 February 1781) was a Czech composer in the classical music period. Although his music is not often performed these days he composed a lot of attractive music which often sounds like Mozart. During the 1770s he was a good friend of the Mozart family.

paragraphs: Josef Mysliveček was born near Prague. He was a twin. His father was a miller who had quite a lot of money. After he left school he became a miller in the family business. He also studied music. He had already been a chorister in the choir of St Michal’s church where Felix Benda was choirmaster. From 1760 he studied counterpoint with František Habermann and organ with Josef Seger. He started to compose. He wrote six sinfonias which were called after the first six months of the year (in the Czech language the months have names which are about the seasons).

paragraphs: When his father died Mysliveček decided to become a composer. He left the family business to his younger brother. He wanted to learn more about composing so, in 1763, he travelled to Venice to study with Giovanni Pescetti. In Italy he became known as "Il Boemo" ("the Bohemian") and also "Venatorini", "the little hunter," which is what his name means literally. Most composers in those days were employed by rich nobles or rulers, but Mysliveček earned his living through teaching, performing, and composing music. He often got sums of money from rich people who liked his music. Although he came from a rich family he was careless with his money. When he died he was very poor.

paragraphs: Mysliveček stayed in Italy for the rest of his life. He only revisited Prague once (in 1767-68). Several of his operas were performed there. He also went to Vienna in 1773 and Munich from 1776-1778. He composed operas for several Italian theatres. He met Mozart in Bologna in 1770. Mozart was only 14 at the time. He was good friends with the Mozart family until 1778 when the Mozarts broke off their friendship because Mysliveček promised, but then did not arrange for Mozart to write an opera for the theatre in Naples.

paragraphs: Mysliveček had many sexual relationships during his life, although we do not know the names of his lovers. In the end he became ill with syphilis. He was very ill during the last part of his life. His face became a very strange shape, apparently because he was operated on by a bad surgeon. Mozart was very upset when he saw him looking so ill.

paragraphs: A lot of his music sounds like some of the early works of Mozart. Mozart, in return, uses several musical themes from compositions by Mysliveček. He also made an arrangement of an operatic aria by Mysliveček's: "Il caro mio bene". Mozart changed the words and wrote "Ridente la calma," KV 152 (K⁶ 210a) for soprano with piano accompaniment.

paragraphs: He wrote twenty-six opera seria, more than any other composer at that time. They are full of da capo arias in which the singers can show off their technique. His orchestral music does not sound Czech, it is much more Italian in style. However, some of his chamber music has some Czech folk tunes.

paragraphs: His other pieces include oratorios, symphonies, concertos, and chamber music, including some of the earliest known string quintets composed with two violas. He was also one of the first composers to write good music for wind ensemble. He wrote some excellent violin concertos.

paragraphs: Freeman, Daniel E. "Josef Mysliveček, "Il Boemo": the Man and His Music". Sterling Heights, Mich.: Harmonie Park Press, 2009.


title: Ainaži

paragraphs: Ainaži is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1926.


title: Aizkraukle

paragraphs: Aizkraukle is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1967.


title: Aizpute

paragraphs: Aizpute is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1378.


title: Aknīste

paragraphs: Aknīste is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Aloja, Latvia

paragraphs: Aloja is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1992.


title: Alūksne

paragraphs: Alūksne is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1920.


title: Ape, Latvia

paragraphs: Ape is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Auce

paragraphs: Auce is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1924.


title: Baldone

paragraphs: Baldone is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Baloži

paragraphs: Baloži is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Balvi

paragraphs: Balvi is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Bauska

paragraphs: Bauska is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1609.


title: Broceni

paragraphs: Brocēni is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1992.


title: Cēsis

paragraphs: Cēsis is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1206. Its population was 17,170 in 2016.

paragraphs: The Gauja River flows through the city. The river and the city are located in the heart of the Gauja National Park.


title: Cesvaine

paragraphs: Cesvaine is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Dagda, Latvia

paragraphs: Dagda is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1992.


title: Dobele

paragraphs: Dobele is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1917.


title: Durbe

paragraphs: Durbe is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1893.


title: Grobiņa

paragraphs: Grobiņa is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1695. It is approximately eleven kilometers east of Liepāja.


title: Gulbene

paragraphs: Gulbene is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Ikšķile

paragraphs: Ikšķile is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1992.


title: Ilūkste

paragraphs: Ilūkste is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1917.


title: Jaunjelgava

paragraphs: Jaunjelgava is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1647.


title: Jēkabpils

paragraphs: Jēkabpils is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1670.


title: Kalnciems

paragraphs: Kalnciems is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Kandava

paragraphs: Kandava is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1917.


title: Kārsava

paragraphs: Kārsava is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Krāslava

paragraphs: Krāslava is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1923.


title: Kuldīga

paragraphs: Kuldīga is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1378.


title: Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach

paragraphs: Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach (8 December 1723 – 21 January 1789) was a French-German author, philosopher and encyclopedist. He was an important figure in the French Enlightenment. He was born Paul Heinrich Dietrich in Edesheim, near Landau in the Rhenish Palatinate. He spent most of his life in Paris, where he kept a "salon". He is best known for his atheism. He wrote a lot. Most of his writings are against religion. His best-known book is the "System of Nature".


title: Ķegums

paragraphs: Ķegums is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1993.


title: Lielvārde

paragraphs: Lielvārde is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1992.


title: Līgatne

paragraphs: Līgatne is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1993.


title: Limbaži

paragraphs: Limbaži is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1385.


title: Līvāni

paragraphs: Līvāni is a town in Latvia. It has had town rights since 1926.


title: Lubāna

paragraphs: Lubāna is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1992.


title: Ludza

paragraphs: Ludza is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1777.


title: Madona

paragraphs: Madona is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1926.


title: Mazsalaca

paragraphs: Mazsalaca is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Ogre, Latvia

paragraphs: Ogre is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1929. It is the principal town of Ogre District in Central Latvia. It is where the Daugava and Ogre rivers come together.


title: Olaine

paragraphs: Olaine is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1967.


title: Pāvilosta

paragraphs: Pāvilosta is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Piltene

paragraphs: Piltene is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1557.


title: Pļaviņas

paragraphs: Pļaviņas is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1927.


title: Preiļi

paragraphs: Preiļi is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Priekule, Latvia

paragraphs: Priekule is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Rūjiena

paragraphs: Rūjiena is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1920.


title: Sabile

paragraphs: Sabile is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1917.


title: Salacgrīva

paragraphs: Salacgrīva is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Salaspils

paragraphs: Salaspils is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1993. It is situated nearby the river Daugava and 18 kilometers from Riga.


title: Saldus

paragraphs: Saldus is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1917.


title: Saulkrasti

paragraphs: Saulkrasti () is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Seda, Latvia

paragraphs: Seda is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Sigulda

paragraphs: Sigulda is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Skrunda

paragraphs: Skrunda is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1996.


title: Smiltene

paragraphs: Smiltene is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1920.


title: Staicele

paragraphs: Staicele is a town in Latvia. It has had town rights since 1992.


title: Stende

paragraphs: Stende is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Strenči

paragraphs: Strenči is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Subate

paragraphs: Subate is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1917.


title: Talsi

paragraphs: Talsi is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1917.


title: Tukums

paragraphs: Tukums is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1795. In 2019, half of Latvia's tires were being recycled in the town. It has the second largest tire recycling plant in the Baltic country.

paragraphs: In 2020, Latvian president Egils Levits praised the region's leaders for its COVID-19 efforts and offering counselling to its residents.


title: Valdemārpils

paragraphs: Valdemārpils is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1917.


title: Valka

paragraphs: Valka is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1584.


title: Valmiera

paragraphs: Valmiera (; ) is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1323, it is the largest city of the historical Vidzeme region, Latvia, with a total area of . It is the center of the Valmiera District. As of 2002, Valmiera had a population of 27,323, and in 2008 – 27,569.

paragraphs: It lies at the crossroads of several important roads, to the north-east from Riga, the capital of Latvia, and south of the border with Estonia. Valmiera lies on both banks of the Gauja River.


title: Vangaži

paragraphs: Vangaži is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1991.


title: Varakļāni

paragraphs: Varakļāni is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Viesīte

paragraphs: Viesīte is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Viļaka

paragraphs: Viļaka is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1945.


title: Viļāni

paragraphs: Viļāni is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.


title: Zilupe

paragraphs: Zilupe is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1931.


title: Frederick Sanger

paragraphs: Frederick Sanger (; 13 August 1918 – 19 November 2013) was an English biochemist.

paragraphs: Sanger is a two-time Nobel laureate in chemistry, the only person to have been so. Sanger is the fourth person to have been given two Nobel Prizes, either individually or in tandem with others.

paragraphs: In 1958 he was given a Nobel prize in chemistry "for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin".

paragraphs: In 1980, Walter Gilbert and Sanger shared half of the chemistry prize "for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids". The other half was given to Paul Berg "for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA".

paragraphs: Sanger retired in 1983 to his home, "Far Leys", in Swaffham Bulbeck outside Cambridge.

paragraphs: In 1992, the Wellcome Trust and the Medical Research Council founded the Sanger Centre (now the Sanger Institute), named after him. The Institute is on the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus near Hinxton, only a few miles from Sanger's home. John Sulston, the founding director, asked Sanger if the centre could be named in his honor. Sanger agreed but warned, "It had better be good". It was opened by Sanger himself on 4 October 1993, with a staff of less than 50 people. The Institute now has a leading role in the sequencing of the human genome. The Institute now has over 900 people and is one of the world's largest genomic research centres.

paragraphs: Although he retains his dislike of violence, he has lost his Quaker religious faith and calls himself an agnostic. In an interview published in the Times newspaper in 2000 Sanger is quoted as saying: "My father was a committed Quaker and I was brought up as a Quaker, and for them truth is very important. I drifted away from those beliefs – one is obviously looking for truth but one needs some evidence for it. Even if I wanted to believe in God I would find it very difficult. I would need to see proof".

paragraphs: He declined the offer of a knighthood as he did not wish to be addressed as "Sir" but later accepted the award of an Order of Merit.

paragraphs: In 2007 the British Biochemical Society was given a grant by the Wellcome Trust to catalogue and preserve the 35 laboratory notebooks in which Sanger recorded his remarkable research from 1944 to 1983. In reporting this matter, "Science" journal noted that Sanger, "the most self-effacing person you could hope to meet", was now spending his time gardening at his Cambridgeshire home.

paragraphs: Sanger died on 19 November 2013 in his Cambridge, England home, aged 95. His scientific biography is currently being written for publication in 2014.


title: Mats Sundin

paragraphs: Mats Johan Sundin (born February 13, 1971) is a Swedish retired professional ice hockey player. Sundin played a career total of 18 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). He played for the Quebec Nordiques, Toronto Maple Leafs, and Vancouver Canucks. Sundin served as the team captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs for 11 seasons. When the 2007–08 NHL season ended, Sundin became the longest serving non-North American born captain in NHL history. He last played 41 games with the Vancouver Canucks in the 2008–09 NHL season before he announced his retirement on September 30, 2009.

paragraphs: On November 12, 2012, Sundin along with Joe Sakic, Adam Oates and Pavel Bure was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame.


title: Khorasan Province

paragraphs: Khorasan (Persian: خراسان) was the largest province of Iran until it was divided into three provinces on September 29, 2004:

paragraphs: Khorasan is famous worldwide for its saffron and zereshk which are produced in the southern cities of the province. It is also known for its famous rugs.

paragraphs: Khorasan is the birthplace of Ferdowsi, the famous Iranian poet who wrote the Shahnameh (Shāhnāme), the national epic of Persian people and of the Iranian World.

paragraphs: Imam Reza Shrine (the shrine of the 8th shi'a Imam), the center of Razavi Khorasan Province.


title: Geoffrey Prior

paragraphs: Sir Geoffrey Prior (1896-1972) was the first Chief commissioner of Balochistan (Pakistan) from 15 August 1947 to 3 October 1947.


title: Ambrose Dundas Flux Dundas

paragraphs: Sir Ambrose Dundas Flux Dundas KCIE, CSI (b.1899-d.1973) was the second chief commissioner of Balochistan (Pakistan) from 4 October 1947 - 8 April 1948, and the second governor of the North West Frontier Province from 9 April 1948 - 16 July 1949.

paragraphs: Dundas was Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man from 1952 to 1959.


title: Frederick Chalmers Bourne

paragraphs: Sir Frederick Chalmers Bourne (12 August 1891 – 1977) was an English colonial administrator. He served in British India. He began his service in the Royal Army. He then served in the civil service from 1920. He worked in Lahore for several years, and held several high positions for the government of Punjab. Bourne was appointed acting Governor of the Central Provinces and Berar from May to October 1945, and as the acting Governor of Assam in 1946. He then served as the last Governor of the Central Provinces and Berar, from 1946 until independence of India in 1947. Bourne was then appointed the first governor of East Bengal, United Pakistan. He was governor from 15 August 1947 to 5 April 1950.


title: Francis Mudie

paragraphs: Sir Francis Mudie (1890–1976) was the first governor of the Punjab in Pakistan from 15 August 1947 to 2 August 1949.


title: George Cunningham (governor)

paragraphs: Sir George Cunningham (1888 - 1964) was the first governor of the North-West Frontier Province province in Pakistan. He was governor from 15 August 1947 to 8 April 1948.


title: 1899 Atlantic hurricane season

paragraphs: The 1899 Atlantic hurricane season was during the summer and fall of 1899. Nine storms were seen during this time, five of them were hurricane and the other four were tropical storms. Hurricane Three or the Hurricane San Ciriaco was the longest lived Atlantic hurricane. It also killed about 3433 people, making it the tenth deadliest Atlantic hurricane.

paragraphs: Tropical Storm One was a weak tropical storm in late June. One started in the northwest corner of the Gulf of Mexico. It made landfall in Texas and quickly died, the same day.

paragraphs: This storm was seen about 2 days before it hit Hispaniola. It later hit Florida in the Panhandle on August 1. Two died the next day. This storm killed 6 people and caused almost $600,000 in damage.

paragraphs: Hurricane Three, which was called the Hurricane San Ciriaco, was the longest lived hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean. The hurricane affected about six countries. This hurricane lived from August 3 to September 4, nearly a month. It killed about 3,433 people.

paragraphs: Hurricane Four was a category 2 hurricane that struck Haiti in early September. The hurricane caused no damage or deaths.

paragraphs: Hurricane Five was a category 3 hurricane that mostly stayed at sea. But before it died, it hit Newfoundland as a weak hurricane.

paragraphs: Six was a strong tropical storm in early October, 1899. It died not very long after making a landfall near Gainesville, Florida.

paragraphs: Tropical Storm Seven was a weak tropical storm. It lasted during the middle of October, 1899. Seven did not affect any land.

paragraphs: This category 2 hurricane struck Cuba and South Carolina. It was a category 1 when it struck both of those places.

paragraphs: Tropical Storm Nine was the last storm in 1899. It lasted during early to mid November in 1899. This storm also struck Cuba.


title: 1890 Atlantic hurricane season

paragraphs: The 1890 Atlantic hurricane season was one of the least active hurricane seasons, with only 4 storms. This season got an early start, as Tropical Storm One started in May. There were also only 9 deaths in 1890.


title: Paul Cézanne

paragraphs: Mr. Paul Cézanne (19 January 1839 - 22 October 1906) was a French painter. He was born in Aix-en-Provence, in the south of France, and died of pneumonia there.

paragraphs: The artistic career of Paul Cézanne lasted more than forty years, from roughly 1860 to 1906. A busy artist, he produced more than 900 oil paintings and 400 watercolours, including many incomplete works.

paragraphs: Cézanne's work is broadly post-impressionist. His work helped change the 19th century idea of art to the very different world of art in the 20th century. Cézanne's work is the bridge between late 19th century Impressionism and the early 20th century Cubism. The line attributed to both Matisse and Picasso that "Cézanne is the father of us all" is significant.

paragraphs: Cézanne's work shows a mastery of design, colour and composition. His brushstrokes are clearly recognizable. He used planes of colour and small brushstrokes that build up to form complex fields. The paintings reveal Cézanne's intense study of his subjects, a searching gaze, and a struggle to deal with the complexity of human visual perception.

paragraphs: Cézanne's "The Card Players" (1882) is at present the world's most expensive painting. It was sold for more than $250 million in 2011 to the royal family of Qatar. What makes this all the more remarkable is that there are four other Cézanne 'Card Players'. They are in the collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Musée d’Orsay, the Courtauld, and the Barnes Foundation.His best friend was Emile Zola.

paragraphs: In Paris, Cézanne met the Impressionist Camille Pissarro in the mid-1860s. Initially the friendship was that of master and disciple, with Pissarro having an influence on the younger artist. Over the course time their landscape painting trips, in Louveciennes and Pontoise, led to a working relationship between equals.

paragraphs: Cézanne's early work is often concerned with the figure in the landscape, imaginatively painted. Later in his career, he became more interested in working from direct observation and gradually developed a light, airy painting style that was to influence the Impressionists enormously. In Cézanne's mature work we see the development of a solidified, almost architectural style of painting. He ordered whatever he saw into simple forms and colour planes. His statement "I want to make of impressionism something solid and lasting like the art in the museums", and his contention that he was recreating Poussin "after nature" proved his desire to unite observation of nature with the permanence of classical composition.

paragraphs: Many of his paintings show people bathing, with the Montagne Sainte-Victoire in the background. These mountains are situated east of Aix-en-Provence. He also painted many still lifes, and portraits of his wife, with these mountains.

paragraphs: His colleagues included Pissarro, Monet and Renoir. Ambroise Vollard, an art critic with a gallery, was among the first people who bought Cézanne's artworks. In 1895, Vollard had the first exhibition showing Cézanne's works in his gallery, in Paris.

paragraphs: Cézanne's work influenced other artists, especially Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, who started Cubism, as well as Henri Matisse. Paul Cézanne can also be seen as a post-impressionist, who helped shape modernism in painting. Paul Cézanne painted over 900 oil paintings and 400 watercolours, over 200 of them being still life paintings.


title: Alice DeeJay

paragraphs: Alice DeeJay was a Dutch electronic music group, who achieved success from 1999 to 2002. The group consisted of record producers Pronti (born Sebastiaan Molijn), Kalmani (born Eelke Kalberg) and DJ Jurgen, with lead singer Judith Anna Pronk. The groups best known song is "Better Off Alone" from their 2000 album, "Who Needs Guitars Anyway?".


title: Myriapoda

paragraphs: The Myriapoda is a subphylum of arthropods. It contains the millipedes, centipedes, and others. The group has 13,000 species, all of which are terrestrial. Their name suggests they have many legs. In fact one has over 750 legs ("Illacme plenipes"), but some have fewer than ten legs.

paragraphs: The fossil record of myriapods goes back into the late Silurian, though molecular evidence suggests they diversified in the Cambrian period. Cambrian fossils do exist which look like myriapods.

paragraphs: Myriapods have a single pair of antennae and, in most cases, simple eyes. The mouthparts lie on the underside of the head,

paragraphs: . There is an "epistome" and labrum forming the upper lip, and a pair of maxillae forming the lower lip. A pair of mandibles lie inside the mouth. Myriapods breathe through spiracles that connect to a tracheal system similar to that of insects.

paragraphs: There has been much debate as to which arthropod group is most closely related to the Myriapoda. Under the Mandibulata hypothesis, Myriapoda is the sister taxon to Pancrustacea, a group comprising the Crustacea and Hexapoda. Under the Atelocerata hypothesis, Hexapoda is the closest, whereas under the Paradoxopoda hypothesis, Chelicerata is the closest. This last hypothesis, although supported by few morphological characters, is supported by a number of molecular studies.

paragraphs: There are four classes of living myriapods, Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda (millipedes), Pauropoda and Symphyla. There is a total of around 12,000 living species. While each of these groups of myriapods is believed to be monophyletic, relationships among them are less certain.

paragraphs: Centipedes make up the class Chilopoda. They are fast, predatory and venomous, hunting mostly at night. There are around 3,300 species, ranging from the diminutive "Nannarup hoffmani" (less than half an inch in length,  mm) to the giant "Scolopendra gigantea", which may exceed .

paragraphs: Millipedes are the class Diplopoda, where most segments appear to have two pairs of legs. This happened because each pair of body segments fused (joined) into a single unit, which gives them the appearance of having two pairs of legs per segment.

paragraphs: They are slower than centipedes, and feed on leaf litter and detritus. Around 8,000 species have been described, which may represent less than a tenth of the true global millipede diversity. One species, "Illacme plenipes" has the greatest number of legs of any animal, with 750. Millipedes typically have between 36 and 400 legs. Pill millipedes are much shorter, and are capable of rolling up into a ball, like pillbugs.

paragraphs: About 200 species of symphylans are known worldwide. They resemble centipedes but are smaller and translucent. Many spend their lives as soil infauna, but some live arboreally. Juveniles have six pairs of legs, but, over a lifetime of several years, add an additional pair at each moult so that the adult instar has twelve pairs of legs.

paragraphs: Pauropoda is another small group of small myriapods. They are typically 0.5–2.0 mm long and live in the soil on all continents except Antarctica. Over 700 species have been described. They are believed to be the sister group to millipedes, and have the dorsal tergites fused across pairs of segments, similar to the more complete fusion of segments seen in millipedes.


paragraphs: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, more commonly referred to as TENS (or sometimes TeNS), is defined by the American Physical Therapy Association as application of electrical current through the skin for pain control.


title: Fenwick Island, Delaware

paragraphs: Fenwick Island is a town in Sussex County, which is in the state of Delaware in the United States. There were about 357 people in the town in 2006. Fenwick Island is part of the Seaford, Delaware Micropolitan Statistical Area. Fenwick Island is on the Atlantic Ocean north of Ocean City, Maryland.


title: General American

paragraphs: General American (GA) is a major accent of American English. Within American English, General American and accents approximating it are contrasted with Southern American English, several Northeastern accents, and other distinct regional accents and social group accents like African American Vernacular English.


title: Thomas Linley the younger

paragraphs: Thomas Linley (born Bath, England, 5 May 1756; died Grimsthorpe, Lincs 5 Aug 1778) was an English composer and violinist. He was born in the same year as Mozart and, like Mozart, he was an astonishing child prodigy. He would almost certainly have been one of England’s greatest composers if he had not died at the age of 22.

paragraphs: Thomas came from a musical family. His father, also called Thomas Linley, was a composer, singing teacher and harpsichord player. His young son was soon showing exceptional musical skills. We do not know who taught him the violin in his early years, but people writing at the time all say he was a brilliant player. He went to Italy to study the violin and composition with Nardini in Florence. He met Mozart there in 1770 and he also met Charles Burney in the same year. Burney wrote that Linley was the most promising genius of the time.

paragraphs: In 1771 Linley went back to England. He was the leader of the orchestra in the theatre in Drury Lane. He often played concertos between the acts of oratorios.

paragraphs: During the last five years of his life he composed a large amount of excellent music. Unfortunately a lot of it has been lost. Gainsborough twice painted a portrait of him.

paragraphs: He died in a boating accident when he was on holiday with his family in Lincolnshire.


title: Kaiane Aldorino

paragraphs: Kaiane Aldorino won Miss World 2009 on December 12, 2009. She was born July 8, 1986 in Gibraltar.


title: Thomas Linley the elder

paragraphs: Thomas Linley (born Badminton, Gloucestershire, England, 17 January 1733; died London 19 November 1795), was an English composer, harpsichordist and singing teacher. He studied with Thomas Chilcot, organist of Bath Abbey, and later with William Boyce and possibly also with Paradies, the Italian harpsichordist who had come to live in England.

paragraphs: He soon became well known as a singing teacher and composed a lot of music for the Drury Lane theatre, London.

paragraphs: He married a girl called Mary Johnson and the couple had twelve children. Several of them were gifted musicians, especially Thomas who died at the age of 22 in a boating accident.

paragraphs: Thomas Linley was chosen to be a member of the Royal Society of Musicians in 1777. He is buried in Wells Cathedral.


title: Hypothetical imperative

paragraphs: A hypothetical imperative is a rule of the form "If you want x, then do y". Moral theories may generally have this structure. This means that only those who want x, must do y. Another view is that moral values are not relative to some objective, but are the same for all, that is they are unconditional, or categorical.

paragraphs: The term was coined by Immanuel Kant. Kant said that moral values had to be unconditional, categorical; he wrote a categorical imperative.


title: William Boyce

paragraphs: William Boyce (born London, 11 September 1711; died Kensington, 7 February 1779) is one of the most important English composers of the 18th century. He was composing during the last years of the Baroque period and the early years of the Classical Period. He is famous for his church music as well as music for the theatre and orchestral music.

paragraphs: Boyce was born in the City of London. His father was a cabinetmaker. His house was known by the sign of a Naked Boy which hung outside.

paragraphs: Boyce was a choirboy at St Paul's Cathedral and then studied music with Maurice Greene after his voice broke. When he had finished his studies he got a job as organist at the Earl of Oxford’s chapel in Cavendish Square. Two years later he went to St Michael’s Cornhill. He was still studying music, now his teacher was Pepusch.

paragraphs: Boyce wrote songs for Vauxhall Gardens. Many people would have heard these songs. He became composer to the Chapel Royal in 1736. This was a great honour. He wrote several big works, although we do not know much about them or about their performances. Some time during the 1740s he composed a theatre work called "The Secular Masque". The words were by John Dryden. In 1749 he was given the title of Doctor of Music after a performance of his anthem "O be joyful".

paragraphs: Boyce was very famous by now. He went to live in a large house in Chancery Lane. He seems to have married and started a family. He was asked to compose for the theatre in Drury Lane. It is surprising he had not been asked to write theatre music before. It may be because he was going deaf. This would have made it difficult for him to rehearse his music with the orchestra.

paragraphs: Boyce wrote a good deal of music for the theatre. There seems to have been some rivalry with the composer Thomas Arne. Probably the composers themselves did not want this rivalry, it was encouraged by their supporters.

paragraphs: In 1755, when Maurice Green died, William Boyce was made Master of the King's Music in his place. He was expected to compose odes for every New Year and for the King’s birthday. He did this for the rest of his life.

paragraphs: Not much of Boyce’s works were published during his lifetime. He wrote eight symphonies. The earlier ones are in a Baroque style. Later his style started to change to become more Classical, but by the time he was very deaf he could not hear new music that was being composed by other people, so his style did not develop any more. He spent a lot of his time putting together a collection of church music called

paragraphs: "Cathedral Music". It included music from two centuries of English church music, especially music by John Blow, Henry Purcell, Pelham Humfrey and Orlando Gibbons. He encouraged singers to sing with a score in front of them (music which shows all the singing parts) instead of just the part that they sing, so that they could see how their part fitted in with the others. This is normal today, but it was a new idea at the time. He had to spend a lot of his time writing unimportant music for the king which was unlikely ever to be performed more than once.

paragraphs: Boyce is best known for his eight symphonies, his anthems and his odes. He also wrote the masque "Peleus and Thetis" and songs for John Dryden's "Secular Masque", incidental music for William Shakespeare's "The Tempest", "Cymbeline", "Romeo and Juliet" and "The Winter's Tale", and a lot of chamber music including a set of twelve trio sonatas. He also composed the British and Canadian Naval March "Heart of Oak". The lyrics were later written by David Garrick. His music is always skilfully written, especially his fugues and dances.

paragraphs: Boyce was largely forgotten after his death. In the 19th century he was known mainly for editing "Cathedral Music". Today some of his orchestral and instrumental pieces are often played.


title: The Starry Night

paragraphs: The Starry Night is a famous painting of a moonlit sky with stars in it by Vincent van Gogh. It was painted in 1889. It was one of the last paintings he made.


title: Money Talks

paragraphs: Money Talks is a 1997 action/comedy movie directed by Brett Ratner and starring Chris Tucker and Charlie Sheen. It was released to theaters by New Line Cinema


title: Kalgan River

paragraphs: The Kalgan River is in Western Australia near Albany. It is one of the oldest rivers in the world and has seen dinosaurs on its banks. It is about in length.

paragraphs: The river was named the 'Riviere des Francais' by the French Scientific Expedition in 1803 led by Nicolas Baudin. Early settlers called it the 'French River'. The explorer Dr Alexander Collie wrote down the name of the river as 'Kal-gan-up' in April 1831. The name Kalganup is thought to be the Noongar word for 'place of many waters'. Kalganup is also thought to mean 'place of fishes' and there are still the remains of Aboriginal fish traps to prove the point.


title: Gas mask

paragraphs: A gas mask is a kind of mask that fits over the face area and nose. It protects from poison gases and many other hazards in the air. During World War II gas masks were sent all over England. They were worn everywhere, even to sleep, in case of surprise attack. However, the Germans didn't attack with gas bombs. Gas masks have a filter, a type of material which lets good air in.


title: George Whipple

paragraphs: George Hoyt Whipple (August 26, 1878 - February 1, 1976) was an American Medical doctor and scientist. He won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with George Minot and William P. Murphy, for their discoveries about how eating liver could cure anaemia.


title: Milişăuţi

paragraphs: Milişăuţi is a town in Suceava County, Romania. In 2011, 4,958 people lived there according to the census.


title: Fălticeni

paragraphs: Fălticeni is a city in Suceava County, Romania, capital of the former Baia County (1929-1950). As of 2003 the population is 28,899, and the city covers an area of 28,76 km², of which 25% are orchards and lakes. The city is 25 km away from Suceava, the capital of the county.


title: Vicovu de Sus

paragraphs: Vicovu de Sus () is a town in northern Suceava County, Romania. It is on the border with the Ukraine.


title: George Minot

paragraphs: George Richards Minot (December 2, 1885 - February 25, 1950) was an American doctor. He won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with George Whipple and William P. Murphy, for their discoveries how eating liver could cure anaemia.


title: Tertiary

paragraphs: The Tertiary was an official geological period, but it is no longer used. It included the first part of the Cainozoic. This is now divided into the Palaeogene and the Neogene.

paragraphs: The previous use of the term "Tertiary" explains why the last period of the Cainozoic is called the Quarternary. There was a big debate about that. These decisions are made by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). This organisation runs an International Commission on Stratigraphy, which decides how we should name geological strata and stages.

paragraphs: In 19th and 20th century scientific literature, Tertiary is used where geologists now use Palaeogene and Neogene.


title: Quaternary

paragraphs: The Quaternary is the current geological period. It is the most recent of the three periods of the Cainozoic era. The Quaternary follows the Neogene, which is the second period of the Cainozoic.

paragraphs: The Quaternary began about 2.6 million years ago, and continues today. A great deal of information is considered when geologists discuss the timing of periods. The status of the Quaternary as a period is confirmed by the "International Commission on Stratigraphy" (ICS).

paragraphs: In the Quarternary were the glaciations known as the Ice Age. Also, anatomically modern humans evolved. During the Quaternary, many large mammalian species became extinct. This was due to climate change and hunting by humans.

paragraphs: The Quaternary includes two geologic epochs:


title: ICal

paragraphs: iCal is a personal calendar application made by Apple Inc. that runs on the Mac OS X operating system. iCal was the first calendar application for Mac OS X to offer support for multiple calendars and the ability to publish/subscribe calendars to WebDAV server.

paragraphs: Originally released as a free download for Mac OS X v10.2 on September 10 2002, with the release of Mac OS X v10.3 it was bundled with the operating system as iCal 1.5. Version 2 of iCal was released as part of Mac OS X v10.4, Version 3 with Mac OS X v10.5 and Version 4 as part of Mac OS X v10.6.

paragraphs: Apple licensed the iCal name from Brown Bear Software, who have used it for their iCal application since 1997.

paragraphs: iCal development is quite different from other Apple software because it was designed independently by a small French team working "secretly" in Paris, led by Jean-Marie Hullot, a friend of Steve Jobs. iCal's development has since been transferred to Apple US headquarters in Cupertino.

paragraphs: It has been reported that some users of iCal who have their calendar on a CalDAV server can not view or add events to their calendar. This issue is specific to Google Calendar users.

paragraphs: The release of Snow Leopard introduced several bugs into Snow Leopard, with regard to iCal alarms. These problems include alarms not firing; all alarms being set to one fixed date and time in the past, preventing them from firing; alarms from repeat events being fired for all historic occurrences of that repeated event, resulting in dozens of alarms for one event. Updates to Snow Leopard 10.6.1 and 10.6.2 have not addressed these problems.

paragraphs: iCal supports times zones, i.e.: if the function is enabled, and the computer's time zone changes, all the events in iCal are shifted to compensate for the time zone difference. The bug is that this function also occurs when it is turned off, therefore, whenever the computer's time zone changes, all the events in iCal shift as well. As of today, there is still no fix for this bug.


title: Palaeogene

paragraphs: The Palaeogene is the first geological period of the Cainozoic. It began 66 million years ago, and ended 23 million years ago. Before it was the Cretaceous. The Palaeogene was followed by the Neogene.

paragraphs: The Palaeogene had three stages: Palaeocene, Eocene and Oligocene.


title: Neogene

paragraphs: The Neogene is the second geological period of the Cainozoic. It began 23 million years ago, and ended about 2.6 million years ago.

paragraphs: Before the Neogene was the Palaeogene. The Neogene has two stages: Miocene, and Pliocene. It is followed by the Quaternary.


title: Palaeocene

paragraphs: The Palaeocene is the first geological epoch in the Palaeogene. It started after the end of the Cretaceous, and lasted for about 10 million years. It was followed by the Eocene epoch.

paragraphs: The Palaeocene began and ended with an extinction event, each of quite a different character. The epoch began with the K/T extinction event, caused by a combination of a meteorite strike (Chicxulub crater) and a huge volcanic flood basalt eruption which produced the Deccan Traps in what is now India. This caused the extinction of many groups, including the dinosaurs and many other reptiles. The epoch ended with the "Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum", a deep ocean anoxic event (DOAE). This means that the ocean depths were lacking oxygen, so no higher forms of life could survive. This produced a mass extinction of between 35–50% of deep water forms such as benthic foraminifera, and coincided with a major change of mammalian types on land.

paragraphs: After a cooler start, the climate grew warmer during the epoch, far warmer than today, and the world was heavily forested. There were no ice caps at the poles. Warm seas circulated throughout the world, including the poles. The earliest Paleocene featured a low diversity and abundance of marine life, but this trend reversed later in the epoch. Tropical conditions gave rise to abundant marine life, including coral reefs. With the demise of marine reptiles at the end of the Cretaceous, sharks became the top predators. At the end of the Cretaceous, the ammonites and many species of foraminifera became extinct.

paragraphs: Marine faunas also came to resemble modern faunas, with only the marine mammals and an important family of sharks, the Carcharhinidae, are missing.

paragraphs: Non-avian dinosaurs may have survived to some extent into the early Danian stage of the Paleocene Epoch circa 66 mya. The controversial evidence for such is a hadrosaur leg bone found from Paleocene strata in New Mexico; but such stray late forms may be derived fossils. This means they were fossilised, then erosion uncovered them, then they were buried again in a younger layer of rocks.

paragraphs: The Palaeocene is divided into three stages:


title: Byron Moreno

paragraphs: Byron Moreno (born 23 November 1969) is a former Ecuadorian football referee. He has been suspended for his job, because he showed illegal red cards. He was also arrested in New York for the possession of the illegal drug heroin and was fined for drunk driving.