title: Triceratops

paragraphs: Triceratops was a huge herbivorous ceratopsid dinosaur from the late Cretaceous. Its name came from having three horns on its head. They were mainly found in North America. As adults, they grew up to 30 feet long by 9 feet tall (), and probably weighed around 5,400 kg (12,000 lb).

paragraphs: "Triceratops" was a low browser with a bony beak in front of its jaws. The jaws had close-set grinding teeth. Its defence had to stand up to attacks from taller theropods, hence the bony shield which covered its neck. Holes made by teeth have been found on the bony frill behind the horns, and on the sacrum (the part of the spine above the pelvis).

paragraphs: Many fossils of "Triceratops" have been collected since the genus was first described in 1889. There is at least one complete individual skeleton. Paleontologist John Scannella observed: "It is hard to walk out into the Hell Creek Formation and not stumble upon a "Triceratops" weathering out of a hillside". Forty-seven complete or partial skulls were discovered in just that area during the decade 2000–2010. Specimens showing life stages from hatchling to adult have been found.

paragraphs: Individual "Triceratops" were about 7.9 to 9.0 m (26.0–29.5 ft) in length, 2.9 to 3.0 m (9.5–9.8 ft) in height, and 6.1–12.0 tonnes (13,000–26,000 lb) in weight.

paragraphs: The most distinctive feature is their large skull, among the largest of all land animals. The largest known skull (specimen BYU 12183) is estimated to have been in length when complete, and could reach almost a third of the length of the entire animal. It bore a single horn on the snout, above the nostrils, and a pair of horns approximately 1 m (3 ft) long, with one above each eye. Most other ceratopsids had large holes (fenestrae) in their frills, while those of "Triceratops" were noticeably solid.

paragraphs: "Triceratops" species were sturdy, with strong limbs and short three-hoofed hands and four-hoofed feet.

paragraphs: The posture of these dinosaurs has long been the subject of some debate. Originally, it was believed that the front legs of the animal had to be sprawling at angles from the thorax, in order to better bear the weight of the head. This stance can be seen in paintings by Charles Knight and Rudolph Zallinger. However, evidence of trackways, and reconstructions of skeletons show that "Triceratops" and other ceratopsids had an upright stance during normal locomotion, with the elbows flexed and slightly bowed out. The stance was intermediate between fully upright and fully sprawling, similar the modern rhinoceros.

paragraphs: Although "Triceratops" are commonly portrayed as herd animals, there is little evidence that they lived in herds.

paragraphs: In 2012, a group of three "Triceratops" in relatively complete condition, each of varying sizes from a full-grown adult to a small juvenile, were found in Wyoming, near Newcastle. The remains are currently under excavation by paleontologist Peter Larson and a team from the Black Hills Institute. It is believed that the animals were traveling as a family unit, but it remains unknown if the group consists of a mated pair and their offspring, or two females and a juvenile they were caring for. The remains also show signs of predation or scavenging from "Tyrannosaurus", particularly on the largest specimen, with the bones of the front limbs showing breakage and puncture wounds from "Tyrannosaurus" teeth.

paragraphs: For many years, "Triceratops" finds were known only from solitary individuals. These remains are very common: one palaeontologist reported having seen 200 specimens of "T. prorsus" in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana, U.S. Similarly, Barnum Brown claimed to have seen over 500 skulls in the field. "Triceratops" teeth, horn fragments, frill fragments, and other skull fragments are abundant fossils in the latest Upper Cretaceous of western North America. It was the most dominant herbivore of the time. In 1986, Robert Bakker estimated it as making up 5/6ths of the large dinosaur fauna at the end of the Cretaceous.

paragraphs: "Triceratops" was one of the last ceratopsian genera to appear before the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The related "Torosaurus", and the more distantly related diminutive "Leptoceratops", were also present, though their remains are rarely found.

paragraphs: "Triceratops" were herbivorous, and because of their low head, their primary food was probably low growth, although they may have been able to knock down taller plants with their horns, beak, and bulk. The jaws were tipped with a deep, narrow beak, good for grasping and plucking.

paragraphs: "Triceratops" teeth were arranged in groups called batteries, of 36 to 40 tooth columns, in each side of each jaw with 3 to 5 stacked teeth per column, depending on the size of the animal. This gives a range of 432 to 800 teeth, of which only a fraction were in use at any given time (tooth replacement was continuous and occurred throughout the life of the animal). The great size and numerous teeth of "Triceratops" suggests that they ate large volumes of fibrous plant material, such as palms and cycads.

paragraphs: There has been much speculation over the functions of "Triceratops"' head adornments. The two main theories have revolved around use in combat, or display in courtship, with the latter thought now to be the most likely primary function.

paragraphs: "Triceratops" were long thought to have used their horns and frills in combat with predators such as "Tyrannosaurus". The idea was discussed first in 1917 and again 70 years later by Robert Bakker. There is evidence that "Tyrannosaurus" did have aggressive head-on encounters with "Triceratops", based on partially healed tyrannosaur tooth marks on a "Triceratops" brow horn and squamosal; the bitten horn is also broken, with new bone growth after the break. Since the "Triceratops" wounds healed, the "Triceratops" survived the encounter. "Tyrannosaurus" is also known to have fed on "Triceratops". Evidence for this includes a heavily tooth-scored "Triceratops" ilium and sacrum.

paragraphs: In addition to combat with predators using horns, "Triceratops" are classically shown engaging each other in combat with horns locked. While studies show that such activity would be feasible, if unlike that of present-day horned animals, there is disagreement about whether they did so.

paragraphs: The large frill also may have helped to increase body area to regulate body temperature. A similar theory has been proposed regarding the plates of "Stegosaurus", although this use alone would not account for the bizarre and extravagant variation seen in different members of the Ceratopsidae. This observation is highly suggestive of what is now believed to be the primary function, display.

paragraphs: The theory of their use in sexual display was first proposed by Davitashvili in 1961 and has gained increasing acceptance since. Evidence that visual display was important, either in courtship or in other social behavior, can be seen in the fact that horned dinosaurs differ markedly in their adornments, making each species highly distinctive. Also, modern living creatures with such displays of horns and adornments use them in similar behavior. A 2006 study of the smallest "Triceratops" skull, ascertained to be a juvenile, shows the frill and horns developed at a very early age, predating sexual development and thus probably important for visual communication and species recognition in general.

paragraphs: One skull, assigned to "Triceratops", has a hole in the jugal bone. It looks like a puncture wound sustained while the animal was still alive. This is supported by signs of healing that are present in the bone around the supposed wound. When examined closely, the hole in the bone has a diameter that is very similar to diameter of the distal end of a "Triceratops" horn. This is evidence of competition between individual dinosaurs.


title: Border

paragraphs: The border between two regions is a line, where one region is next to the other. If the regions are countries, the border can only be crossed at certain points. To cross the border, a passport or a visa might be necessary; such as the Wagah border between Pakistan and the Republic of India.


title: Genus

paragraphs: A genus is a rank in the biological classification (or taxonomy). It stands above species, and below families. A genus can include more than one species. When biologists talk about a genus, they mean one or more species of animals or plants that are closely related to each other.

paragraphs: As with other taxa, the plural is different from other English words because it is a Latin word. 'Genus' is the singular, and 'genera' is the plural form of the word.

paragraphs: When printing the scientific name of an organism, the name is "always in italic". A name of species has two parts, with the genus first. For example, in ""Felis silvestris"", "Felis" is the genus. The genus name always begins with a capital letter. In ""Felis silvestris catus"", the third word is the subspecies, which is not often used.

paragraphs: In writing, genus names in Latin may be 'anglicised' to form a common name. For example, the genus "Pseudomonas" is "pseudomonad" (plural: "pseudomonads"). In practice, most really common animals and plants already have a common name. So instead of saying 'felids', or 'felines', one says 'cats' both for the family pet, and for all the cat family (Felidae).


title: Cretaceous

paragraphs: The Cretaceous period was the longest period in the Phanerozoic eon, lasting 80 million years from 145 to 66 million years ago (mya). It followed the Jurassic period, and is the latest period of the Mesozoic era. After it came the Cainozoic era.

paragraphs: Though famous for its land fauna, the Cretaceous sea level rose much higher than today. North America was partly covered by an epicontinental inland sea, and half of Britain was under water.

paragraphs: In the Upper Cretaceous, chalk, a type of limestone, was laid down in warm shallow seas. Chalk is 95% to 99% made up of coccoliths, the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) plates which tiny single-celled algae (coccolithophorids) produce.

paragraphs: At its end came the famous meteorite strike which, with the volcanic flood basalts spewed out in the Deccan Plateau (India), ended so many of the dominant life-forms: see K/T extinction event.

paragraphs: The Cretaceous period has just two very long epochs:

paragraphs: The Lower Cretaceous at ~45 million years, is the longest epoch in the Phanerozoic eon.


title: Textbook

paragraphs: A textbook is a book used for the study of a subject. People use a textbook to learn facts and methods about a certain subject. Textbooks sometimes have questions to test the knowledge and understanding of the learner.

paragraphs: A workbook is a type of textbook that has only practice questions and exercises. Workbooks are designed not to teach but to provide practice and to highlight areas which need more learning. A revision guide is a type of textbook that is used to remind the learner about the subject and give him/her extra practice, especially before an examination.

paragraphs: A textbook is usually lent to students by a school to accompany a course the school is teaching. Sometimes, especially at university, students have to buy the textbooks they need themselves or borrow them from a library.

paragraphs: Most textbooks are only published in printed format. However, some are now available online as electronic books.


title: Axiom

paragraphs: An axiom is a concept in logic. It is a statement which is assumed to be true without question, and which does not require proof. It is also known as a postulate (as in the parallel postulate). The axiom is to be used as the premise or starting point for further reasoning or arguments, usually in logic or in mathematics.

paragraphs: This means it cannot be proved within the discussion of a problem. So inside some discussion, it is thought to be true. There are many reasons why it has no proof. For example,

paragraphs: Logic can be used to find theorems from the axioms. Then those theorems can be used to make more theorems. This is often how math works. Axioms are important because logical arguments start with them.

paragraphs: Euclid of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician. Around the year 300 BC, he made the earliest list of axioms which we know of. The following are just a few of them:


title: Set

paragraphs: A set is an idea from mathematics. A set has "members" (also called "elements"). A set is fixed by its members, so any two sets with the same members must be same (e.g., if set "X" and set "Y" have the same members, then "X = Y"). A set cannot have the same member more than once. Membership is the only thing that means anything. For example, there is no order or other distinction among the members. One particular set is the "empty set" (also called the "null set" and represented by the symbol formula_1). The empty set has "no" members. "Anything" can be a member of a set, including sets themselves (though if a set is a member of itself, paradoxes such as Russell's paradox can happen).

paragraphs: Most mathematicians use uppercase "italic" (usually Roman) letters to write about sets (such as formula_2, formula_3, formula_4). The things that are seen as elements of sets are usually written with lowercase Roman letters.

paragraphs: One way of showing a set is by a list of its members, separated by commas, included in braces.

paragraphs: Another way, called the set-builder notation, is by a statement of what is true of the members of the set, like this:

paragraphs: In spoken English, this reads: "the set of all "x" such that "x" is a natural number and "x" is less than four".

paragraphs: The empty set is written in a special way:

paragraphs: When object "a" is the member of set "A" it is written as:

paragraphs: In spoken English, this reads: ""a" is a member of "A"".

paragraphs: Various things can be put into a bag. Later on, a valid question would be if a certain thing is in the bag. Mathematicians call this "element of". Something is an element of a set, if that thing can be found in the respective bag. The symbol used for this is formula_8:

paragraphs: which measn that formula_10 is in the bag formula_11"

paragraphs: Like a bag, a set can also be "empty". The empty set is like an empty bag: it has nothing in it.

paragraphs: Two sets can be compared. This is like looking at two different bags. If they contain the same things, they are equal.

paragraphs: When mathematicians talk about a set, they sometimes want to know how big a set is (or what is the cardinality of the set). They do this by counting how many elements are in the set (how many items are in the bag). The cardinality can be a simple number. The empty set has a cardinality of 0. The set formula_12 has a cardinality of 2.

paragraphs: Two sets have the same cardinality if we can pair up their elements—if we can join two elements, one from each set. The set formula_12 and the set formula_14 have the same cardinality. We can pair "apple" with "sun", and "orange" with "moon". The order does not matter. It is possible to pair the elements, and none is left out. But the set formula_15 and the set formula_16 have different cardinality.

paragraphs: If we try to pair them up, we always leave out one animal.

paragraphs: At times cardinality is not a number. Sometimes a set has infinite cardinality. The set of integers is a set with infinite cardinality. Some sets with infinite cardinality are bigger (have a bigger cardinality) than others. There are more real numbers than there are natural numbers, for example, which means we cannot pair up the set of integers and the set of real numbers, even if we worked forever. If a set has the same cardinality as the set of integers, it is called a countable set. But if a set has the same cardinality as the real numbers (or larger), then it is called an uncountable set.

paragraphs:
If you look at the set {a,b} and the set {a,b,c,d}, you can see that all elements in the first set are also in the second set.
 We say: {a,b} is a subset of {a,b,c,d}

paragraphs: In general, when all elements of A are also elements of B, we call A a subset of B:<br>

paragraphs: It is usually read "A is contained in B"

paragraphs: Every Chevrolet is an American car. So the set of all Chevrolets is contained in the set of all American cars.

paragraphs: There are different ways to combine sets.

paragraphs: The intersection formula_19 of two sets A and B is a set that contains all the elements, that are both in set A and in set B.<br>

paragraphs: When A is the set of all cheap cars, and B is the set of all American cars, then formula_19 is the set of all cheap American cars.

paragraphs: The union formula_21 of two sets A and B is a set that contains all the elements, that are in set A or in set B.

paragraphs: When A is the set of all cheap cars, and B is the set of all American cars, then formula_21 is the set of all cars, without all expensive cars that are not from America.

paragraphs: Complement can mean two different things:

paragraphs: The universe U is the set of all things you speak about.<br>

paragraphs: When U is the set of all cars, and A is the set of all cheap cars,<br> then A is the set of all expensive cars.

paragraphs: It is often called the "set difference".<br>

paragraphs: When A is the set of all cheap cars, and B is the set of all American cars,<br> then formula_25 is the set of all expensive American cars.

paragraphs: If you exchange the sets in the set difference, the result is different:<br>In the example with the cars, the difference formula_27 is the set of all cheap cars, that are not made in America.

paragraphs: Some sets are very important to mathematics. They are used very often. One of these is the "empty set".

paragraphs: Many of these special sets are written using blackboard bold typeface, and these include:

paragraphs: Each of these sets of numbers has an infinite number of elements, and formula_44. The primes are used less frequently than the others outside of number theory and related fields.

paragraphs: The mathematician Bertrand Russell found that there are problems with our informal definition of sets. He stated this in a paradox called "Russell's paradox". An easier to understand version, closer to real life, is called the "Barber paradox":

paragraphs: There is a small town somewhere. In that town, there is a barber. All the men in the town do not like beards, so they either shave themselves, or they go to the barber shop to be shaved by the barber.

paragraphs: We can therefore make a statement about the barber himself: "The barber shaves all men that do not shave themselves. He only shaves those men (since the others shave themselves and do not need a barber to give them a shave)."

paragraphs: This of course raises the question: What does the barber do each morning to look clean-shaven? This is the paradox.

paragraphs: The following books explore sets in more detail:


title: Maldives

paragraphs: The Maldives are a group of islands in the Indian Ocean. They are southwest of India. They are made up of the Maldive and Suadive archipelagos, with over 1,200 islands. These islands are a part of 26 atolls. And they are divided to 20 administrative atolls.People live on about 200 of the islands. It has more than 1126 coral reefs. It is the flattest country in the world. The highest point in the Maldives is only high above the level of the sea.

paragraphs: Malé is the capital, with a population of 150,000 people. It’s official religion is Islam mandated by law.

paragraphs: The Maldives has a tropical monsoon climate (Am) under the Köppen climate classification, which is affected by the large landmass of South Asia to the north. Because the Maldives has the lowest elevation of any country in the world, the temperature is constantly hot and often humid. The presence of this landmass causes differential heating of land and water. These factors set off a rush of moisture-rich air from the Indian Ocean over South Asia, resulting in the southwest monsoon. Two seasons dominate Maldives' weather: the dry season associated with the winter northeastern monsoon and the rainy season which brings strong winds and storms.

paragraphs: The shift from the dry northeast monsoon to the moist southwest monsoon occurs during April and May. During this period, the southwest winds contribute to the formation of the southwest monsoon, which reaches Maldives in the beginning of June and lasts until the end of August. However, the weather patterns of Maldives do not always conform to the monsoon patterns of South Asia. The annual rainfall averages in the north and in the south.

paragraphs: The monsoonal influence is greater in the north of the Maldives than in the south, more influenced by the equatorial currents.

paragraphs: The highest temperature ever recorded in Malé was 39.6 °C (103.3 °F) on 1 January 2000 and the lowest was 20.4 °C (68.7 °F) on 20 March 1989 and 21 January 2017.


title: Prime Minister of Australia

paragraphs: The Prime Minister of Australia is the leader of the Australian government. He or she has the most powerful political office in the Commonwealth of Australia.

paragraphs: The current Prime Minister of Australia, since August 2018, is Scott Morrison.

paragraphs: As of , there are six living former Australian Prime Ministers.


title: Structure

paragraphs: Structure is a fundamental concept in science. It means the arrangement of parts. Examples are the organs in a body, or crystals in a substance like granite.

paragraphs: A structure may refer to buildings, machines and similar things made by people as well as to a rock or a mineral, atoms or sentences. It always reflects the hierarchy of its parts.


title: Hardcore punk

paragraphs: Hardcore punk (or hardcore) is a style of punk music that usually sounds louder, faster and more angry than earlier punk rock music from the 1970s. Hardcore began in the late 1970s. Some of the important bands of the genre are Bad Brains, Black Flag, D.O.A, Minor Threat and Cro-Mags. Hardcore songs often have more political lyrics (words) than songs from 1970s punk.

paragraphs: No one is quite sure where the term "hardcore punk" came from. The band D.O.A. may have helped to make the term more popular with the title of their album "Hardcore '81" in 1981.

paragraphs: The first hardcore punk song was "Out of Vogue" by the Santa Ana band The Middle Class. This band started to play a loud type of punk with shouted words.

paragraphs: People in hardcore punk bands and people who listened to hardcore punk wore clothes that were of two types. Some people wore clothes and hairstyles that were strange and a bit scary, like Mohawk hairstyles and leather jackets with metal studs. Other people wore regular clothes like black pants and T-shirts.

paragraphs: At hardcore punk concerts, people did a type of dancing called moshing. This type of dance involves people pushing each other and jumping off the stage.

paragraphs: In the early 1980s, hardcore bands from England began to get noticed, such as Discharge, The Exploited, and The Varukers. Discharge played with a sound that included heavy metal guitar styles.

paragraphs: Hardcore led to the creation of the straight edge movement. People who are straight edge do not use alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. Straight edge led to two new groups, called hardline and youth crew. Hardcore musicians also created independent record labels in the 1980s.

paragraphs: Many bands had a "Do it Yourself" (DIY) attitude. Bands would record their own albums using simple four-track recorders, and the sell the records themselves at shows or through the mail. Hardcore influenced the creation of new styles of music, including alternative rock, grunge, alternative metal, metalcore, thrash metal and post-hardcore.

paragraphs: Many early hardcore punk bands had songs about liberal politics such as anarchism and socialism. They spoke against political leaders, such as American president Ronald Reagan and British prime minister Margaret Thatcher. While George W. Bush was President of the United States, a number of hardcore bands criticized him.

paragraphs: A small number of hardcore musicians have expressed right wing views, including the band Antiseen, whose guitarist Joe Young ran for office as a Libertarian in North Carolina. Former Misfits singer Michale Graves supported George W. Bush.

paragraphs: Hardcore band singers often sing by shouting the words of the song. Hardcore songs often sound like the singer is angry.

paragraphs: Hardcore bands use electric guitars, electric bass guitar, drums, and a singer. The electric guitars in hardcore bands are distorted, noisy, and fuzzy because the guitarists are using electronic boxes called distortion pedals. Some hardcore guitarists have changed the tuning of their guitar strings so they play notes that are lower than those a normal guitar can play.

paragraphs: The drums in hardcore music play loud and fast, often characterized by use of the double-bass pedal, particularly notable in the breakdowns.


title: Limestone

paragraphs: Limestone is a sedimentary rock, made up mostly of the mineral calcite, a form of calcium carbonate, CaCO.

paragraphs: The calcium carbonate is originally produced by living organisms. Later, some of it goes into solution in sea water. Limestone rocks include mainly organic remains and precipitated carbonate.

paragraphs: Limestone is about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks.

paragraphs: Limestones are mostly made of calcium carbonate. It is originally made by small photosynthetic protists like certain bacteria, coccolithophores, and algae. Then the carbonate gets used by various animals, like bivalves and the polyps which make coral reefs. They build their shells or framework out of CaCO crystals.

paragraphs: Carbonates are rocks formed from these sources, plus any CaCO which is precipitated out of solution. Some carbonate dissolves in the water. It gets precipitated when the physical condition of the water changes. For example, if the concentration of CaCO is high, then a temperature drop, or a pH (acidity) change, can cause precipitation.

paragraphs: Florida Bay, the shallow lagoon behind the Florida Keys, is a model for the conditions which produced limestones on the continental shelf. Of course, all the species were somewhat different then but, as an ecosystem, it is similar.

paragraphs: In Florida Bay there is a lot of a type of flowering plant called sea grass. There is also a lot of white, milky water full of calcium carbonate. This is mainly formed by "Melobesia", a small red alga which lives on the sea grass. Finally, the organisms produce huge amounts of slime, which is a polysaccharide. There is good reason to think the slime is produced by microorganisms to control the way their carbonate skeletons are formed. As a side-effect the slime limits the amount of carbonate which goes into solution.

paragraphs: Florida Bay is a flat platform which has laid down a huge amount of carbonate rock.

paragraphs: Many limestones contain fossils, and some are made up almost entirely of skeletal material. Chalk is ~99% coccoliths; Solnhofen limestone is famous for its animal fossils; and there are many shelly limestones from different periods. Limestone is not found much before the Cambrian period, because shelled animals had not yet evolved.

paragraphs: When limestone is heated to a high temperature, and squeezed at the base of a mountain, it recrystallizes into the metamorphic rock marble. Marbles are fairly dense, relatively easy to cut, or be shaped into blocks, and some forms are white in colour.

paragraphs: Limestone is hard enough to resist weathering but usually soft enough to be worked (cut and carved) by stonemasons. It is used for building material. Limestone, particularly Portland limestone, became popular in the 19th and 20th centuries for building things such as churches, banks and houses. However, acid rain does slowly erode limestone.

paragraphs: Limestone is used to make glass and cement. It is also used to make iron in a blast furnace, to remove impurities from the iron ore.


title: Root

paragraphs: The roots of a plant is the part that is usually buried in the soil. Roots are usually always under the soil, though–sometimes roots can be above the ground. This is called an aerial root.

paragraphs: Also, stems can sometimes be under the soil (potatoes, for example). Roots do not have leaves, and are different from stems inside.

paragraphs: Plants need their roots especially for three reasons: The roots take water and nutrients, a sort of food, from the soil. They also often store this food. And they fix the plants to the ground.

paragraphs: However, most plant roots do not work at their best unless they have help from fungi. The symbiosis between roots and fungus is known as mycorrhiza.

paragraphs: Some roots go very deep into the ground. One root that was found in Arizona, USA, was 60 m below the surface.

paragraphs: Roots are also very strong. Some tree roots can destroy stones. Roots are not green because the cells have no chlorophyll.

paragraphs: Roots grow through the whole life of the plant. They grow longer from the tip, adding cells to the end of each root. The root adds cells to their tips, and they grow fatter as they add cells around their tube-like bodies.

paragraphs: At the tip of each root, there is a small group of tough, dead, hard cells called the "root cap". The root cap is the strongest part of the root tip, and its job is to push its way through the dirt to look for moisture and nutrients and protect the plant.

paragraphs: Roots are usually found underground, but in some cases this is not so. In the rainforest, the air is warm and humid (it has a lot of water). Some rainforest plants, known as epiphytes, grow right on trees. Their roots hang down in the air or running into the moss growing on the trees. Many aerial roots, are used to receive water and nutrient intake directly from the air, from fog, dew or humid air.

paragraphs: Some trees have roots that are above the ground "and" underground. Mangrove trees have aerial roots (roots which come up into the air). They exchange gases with the atmosphere, just as leaves do. They are an adaptation to the poor level of oxygen in the waterlogged soil of the mangrove swamp.

paragraphs: The banyan tree has a root system that is underground, but it also has roots that start in its branches and grow down towards the ground. These roots not only take in water and nutrients from the soil, but they also help to support the long branches of the banyan tree. Because of this extra support, banyan tree branches can be really long. A banyantree in Lahaina, Maui, which was planted in 1873 by a man named William Owen Smith, has branches that are so long that this single tree covers a full square block in the city.

paragraphs: Much about aerial roots is still unknown.

paragraphs: There are two main kinds of roots systems: "taproot systems" and "fibrous root systems". A taproot system has one thick main root growing down from the plant's stem, and lots of smaller "secondary roots" branching off from this. A taproot system is usually deeper than it is wide. Often, we eat taproots, like carrots and turnips.

paragraphs: A "fibrous root system" has lots of roots growing in many directions. There is not one main root. A fibrous root system is usually wider than deep.

paragraphs: It has been usually assumed that in regular (non-aerial) terrestrial roots, the nutrients are pumped in together with the water, and that water is pumped into the roots by osmosis. Recent studies in large trees such as the Giant Sequoia, showed, that much of the pumping power, after initial growth, is received by hydraulic suction, due to transpiration - water evaporation from the leaves, in addition to the strong capillary action in the plant's branching xylem in the stem and leaves.


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title: Piero Gobetti

paragraphs: Piero Gobetti (born 1901 – died February 1926) was a young journalist, intellectual, and radical liberal person. He was a very active critic during the years of crisis in Italy after the First World War and during the early years of Fascist rule. He had to leave Italy and settled down in Paris, where he soon died. He died because his health was bad, after the Fascists had terrorized him.


title: Manama

paragraphs: Manama is the capital city of Bahrain. It is also the largest city in Bahrain, having almost 150.000 residents.

paragraphs: Manama has been a city since at least the 1300s, when it was mentioned in Islamic books. It was owned by Portugal from 1521 to 1602, by Persia from 1602 to 1783, and by the Al-Khalifa family for a long time after that. In 1971, Manama became the capital city of Bahrain.


title: Protist

paragraphs: Protists are single-celled eukaryotes (which are organisms with a nucleus). The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. The protists are not a natural group, or clade, since they have no common origin. Like algae or invertebrates, they are often grouped together for convenience.

paragraphs: The term "protist" includes microorganisms from several distantly related phyla. Some are autotrophic (which means they make their own food by photosynthesis), and others are heterotrophic (which means they eat organic material).

paragraphs: Most protists are very small. They are made up of one or a few cells at most – they are microscopic and usually invisible to the naked eye. Some algae are protists, if they are single-celled. Many protists are part of the plankton and are very important for the ecosystem. The cells found in protists may be extremely complex, and are often little understood. It is now possible to do DNA sequencing, and a number of protists have been analysed. The results show that the Protista is not a monophyletic group. It is paraphyletic, and not a single clade. The taxonomy of the Protista is therefore rather confused.

paragraphs: Some protists cause diseases. "Plasmodium falciparum" causes malaria; sleeping sickness is also caused by a protist.

paragraphs: An example of a single celled organism in the protist kingdom is the "Paramecium" or "slipper animalcule." The "Paramecium" moves using its small, hair-like fibers called cilia, and eats using the cilia to sweep the food into its food vacuole. Other protists can be amoebas, which move by extending pseudopods and flowing into them, or flowing around food particles and engulfing them.

paragraphs: Protists are not a monophyletic clade. The term is a convenient holdall for about 20 different kinds of single-celled eukaryotes. They differ in their cell organelles, specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids. This proves they have made the transition from prokaryotes in different ways. It is fairly clear now that all or most of these organelles have their origin in once-independent prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea), and that the eukaryote cell is a 'community of micro-organisms' working together in 'a marriage of convenience'. Admittedly, the Protista is a collection of disparate single-celled forms, but while a more sophisticated taxonomy is in flux (changing), Protista is still a useful term.


title: The Apple Dumpling Gang

paragraphs: The Apple Dumpling Gang is a Disney movie from 1975, in which three orphan children find gold during California's Gold Rush. Tim Conway and Don Knotts also star in it as two gangsters.

paragraphs: The movie is based on the book of the same name by Jack Bickham.


title: 0s

paragraphs: The 0s only had nine years which started in 1 AD and ended in 9 AD.

paragraphs: Those people had significant influence on things in this decade.


title: Quentin Tarantino

paragraphs: Quentin Jerome Tarantino (born May 27, 1963) is an American filmmaker. He was born in Knoxville, Tennessee. Tarantino is an independent movie maker. He wrote, directed, and acted in "Pulp Fiction", "Reservoir Dogs" and "Kill Bill" among others. His movies have become famous for violence and humor. He won Academy Awards for Best Original Screenplay in 1994 for Pulp Fiction and 2012 for Django Unchained.


title: Leander-class frigate

paragraphs: The Leander-class frigate or Type 12M is a type of ship that was used by the Royal Navy.

paragraphs: The class became well known through the Warship BBC television drama series.


title: Spacecraft

paragraphs: A spacecraft is a vehicle that can carry people and cargo beyond the Earth's atmosphere, through space to other planetary bodies, space stations, or orbits and back home again. Spacecraft which are launched from the surface of a planet are called launch vehicles and usually take-off from launch pads at spaceports.

paragraphs: Most spacecraft today are propelled by rocket engines, which shoot hot gases opposite to the direction of travel. Other forms of propulsion are used when appropriate. Spacecraft which do not need to escape from strong gravity may use ion thrusters or other more efficient methods.

paragraphs: Because of the very large amount of energy needed to leave the Earth's gravity, spacecraft are usually very expensive to build, launch, and operate. Plans for future spacecraft often focus on reducing these costs so more people can participate in space. But today, costs are still very high, and until recently all spacecraft were sponsored by national governments.

paragraphs: Most expensive of all is to send people in to space, due to their needs for food, water, air, living space, safety, and control. People participating in this way have special names: Americans call themselves astronauts; Russians call themselves cosmonauts; Chinese call themselves taikonauts.

paragraphs: Some of the most important spacecraft today are artificial satellites. Artificial satellites are smaller, unmanned spacecraft. Some go into Low Earth orbit to look at the Earth or for other purposes. Others are sent to geostationary orbit to relay radio signals from one part of Earth to another, or to watch events on Earth from a high point of view. Communications satellites are important for television and other communications, and other satellites help with weather prediction and other jobs.


title: Acoustics

paragraphs: Acoustics is a science. It studies the mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids. These waves can make vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound.

paragraphs: A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician. Someone who works with acoustics technology may be called an acoustical engineer.


title: Public finance

paragraphs: Public finance is the study of how the government raises funds and spends its money, and their economic effect.


title: Budget

paragraphs: A budget is an account of the money to be spent on a project, or by a person or organization in a time period. It usually lists the various things that are to be done, and how much to spend on each. It may also list estimated revenues. When spending is less than revenues, it is a surplus budget. When spending is more than revenues, it is a deficit budget. When they are the same, it's a balanced budget.

paragraphs: An organization's budget is usually for a fiscal year.


title: Indirect tax

paragraphs: An indirect tax is a tax that is paid as part of a product. Many countries tax gasoline or cigarettes, but they do so indirectly. Because of the tax, the product will be more expensive. In turn, the shops will then pay the tax for the number of packets of cigarettes they sold, or for the amount of gasoline. This is opposed to a direct tax, which is directly paid by the consumer.


title: Erode

paragraphs: Erode is a city in Tamil Nadu, India. It is the capital of the Erode district. About 500,000 people live in the city.

paragraphs: Erode District in Tamil Nadu State is very important market centre for Turmeric. Turmeric is received, not only from Erode district, but also from the other parts of Tamil Nadu and adjoining district like Mysore in Karnataka State.

paragraphs: Erode is well known for marketing of textile products of Handloom, Powerloom and Readymade Garments. The Handloom and Powerloom products such as Cotton Sarees, Bed Spreads, Carpets, Lungies, Printed Fabrics, Towels, Dhotis are marketed here in bulk.

paragraphs: Kangeyam is famous for Bulls and Oil Mills. Kangeyam cows are not noted for their yield but their availability in large numbers has helped the district to make a mark in the field of dairy development


title: Sky Sports

paragraphs: Sky Sports is a group of 10 channels - Sky Sports 1, Sky Sports 2, Sky Sports 3, Sky Sports 4, Sky Sports News, Sky Sports HD 1, Sky Sports HD 2, Sky Sports HD 3, Sky Sports HD 4, Sky Sports News HD and At the Races. The channels are owned by a major company named British Sky Broadcasting. It is the most powerful sports television company in the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: Sky Sports is known for its major football coverage and help launched the FA Premier League.

paragraphs: Sky Sports has a series of well known shows such as "Soccer AM", which is a morning chat show with jokes, "Gillette Soccer Saturday" and "You're on Sky Sports".

paragraphs: On August 22 1999, Sky Sports launched Sky Sports Active. The first game was Arsenal vs Manchester United. It gave the viewer to focus either on one player, or look at different camera angles. It soon proved to be successful, and Sky decided to continue it. It can be accessed by pressing the Red Button on your Sky Digital Remote. On 26 August 2014, Sky Sports Active closed and was replaced by Sky Sports split screen (Only on Sky Q 1TB Box and (once you've set to five recordings) Sky Q 2TB Box

paragraphs: On 24 November 2002, Sky Sports won the rights to air the UEFA Champions League, with ITV. They had beaten channels such as the BBC and Channel 4 to win it. Part of the deal had stated that ITV would air two games on a Sunday and Sky Sports would air 2 games on a Monday. Sky soon launched an 8-screen 'Champions League Interactive' channel which showed 8 live games.


title: Rhetoric

paragraphs: Rhetoric is the art of convincing and persuading people by language through public speaking or writing. The root of the word is from Greek ῥητορικὴ [τέχνη] roughly meaning 'the art of speech'.

paragraphs: Webster’s dictionary defines it as “the art or science of using words effectively in speaking or writing, especially the art or science of literary composition.”

paragraphs: The word “effectively” in this definition is a relative matter. What is effective in one context may be entirely different in another cultural setting. Different languages differ in their rhetorical styles – that is, in the way that they use language to accomplish various purposes. People can be trained in this skill. It is the art or the technique of persuasion, used by orators (public speakers), writers and media.

paragraphs: Its origin was in Ancient Greece of the 5th century. They made their decisions by speaking for or against proposals in a public place. Also, speeches were made when a person was accused of a serious crime before the magistrates. Because rhetoric was so important to them, the Greeks and Romans wrote about how to be a good rhetorician. This is sometimes called 'secondary rhetoric'. It is a technique which can be taught, and used in writing. An early example is Plato, who wrote his works in the form of dialogues. Each question raised is discussed between two characters. In the ancient world, the Romans, who were much influenced by the ancient Greeks, also used the same methods for decision-making. Cicero was one of their famous orators. In their case, the debates did not involve all citizens, just the Roman Senate or the courts.

paragraphs: In medieval universities rhetoric was taught as part of the curriculum. Rhetoric, dialectic and grammar form the trivium which, with the quadrivium, make up the seven liberal arts of Western culture. During Antiquity and the Middle Ages, rhetoric was used for persuasion in public and political arenas, and also in the courts of justice. The words 'rhetoric' or 'sophism' are often used with a negative meaning, of disinformation or propaganda. As the art of persuasion, the rhetoric continues to be important in present-day public life. They are also used to describe a speech with doubtful or slanted arguments. Several hundred "rhetorical figures" were recognised by classical rhetoricians. Some of these are still in use, such as metaphor, simile and paradox.

paragraphs: In the modern world, speeches made on television, ideas embedded in advertisements or in front of crowds are all rhetorics. They speak to people directly with the intention of persuading them. Before World War II, radio and print media were powerful tools for rhetoric. The newspapers and books persuade readers towards a particular point of view. Rhetoric does not depend only on a live audience.

paragraphs: According to Aristotle, a rhetoric has three elements in persuasion:

paragraphs: A 1988 study was conducted by Söter in Australia among students who were native speakers of Arabic, Vietnamese and English. The sample, 6th and 11th grade students were asked to write a bedtime story for a young child. Patterns were immediately evident in the different approaches used by the student's in the story writing task.

paragraphs: The Vietnamese stories placed primary focus on characters and the relationships between them (manifested in a great proportion of dialog). English stories placed primary focus on the sequential forward movement of the plot. Arabic stories placed primary focus on descriptive elements of the setting.

paragraphs: Contrastive rhetorics says that people who share a common language might have different rhetoric styles due the influence of culture and exchanges. The discourse goes beyond the target language's native forms of discourse organization or rhetoric.

paragraphs: A paraphrasing task study was done in the USA among Chinese and Russian students. American students were easily able to paraphrase, but Chinese students found it hard, perhaps due to their academic environment influenced by Confucian traditions. Russian students struggled with the paraphrasing because norm in Russian academic environment was that students are only required to read and describe, and was not required to give a personal interpretation or an opinion.

paragraphs: U.S. rhetorical style: ethnocentric sources describe it as typically direct and relatively logical.

paragraphs: Some very witty things have been said against orators and their rhetoric:


title: Skill

paragraphs: A skill or technique is a learned ability to do something.

paragraphs: It could be playing a musical instrument or playing a kind of sport or even doing something simple like using a corkscrew. Someone who is trying to do something but not succeeding may be using the wrong technique. Skill does not always have to be something physical: it may refer to the way a person approaches a problem.


title: Hamas

paragraphs: Hamas (, acronym of Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya, , literally "Islamic Resistance Movement") is a Palestinian Sunni Islamist paramilitary organisation. It was started in 1987 during the First Intifada by Ahmed Yassin and Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi as the Gaza branch of the Muslim Brotherhood organization in Egypt. In the 2006 Palestinian election, Hamas got 74 of 132 seats in parliament and controls the Gaza Strip. The group wants to build a Palestinian state based on Islamic values in the area that is now Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza Strip. Hamas does not recognize the State of Israel.

paragraphs: "Hamas" is an acronym of the Arabic phrase , or Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya or "Islamic Resistance Movement".

paragraphs: Hamas is known for its military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, which plans and carries out attacks on Israel. Because of its policy of suicide bombings and rocket attacks on civilians in Israel, the United States, European Union and other countries call it a terrorist organisation. The country of Jordan has made the group illegal. However, many of the international press, including the English-language edition of the Israeli daily newspaper "Haaretz", refer to Hamas members by the more neutral term "militants."

paragraphs: In early 2006, Hamas won a clear victory in the vote for the Palestinian parliament. Voters saw Hamas as an alternative to exchange the long-ruling Fatah party, the main part of the PLO. Fatah had not improved the Palestinian people's conditions and reached statehood, and was thought to be corrupt.

paragraphs: Hamas has shown its organizational ability by building health, education, and social services to help the population in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, where there is much poverty. Such efforts have increased its support. In the first half of 2007, Hamas gained political control of the Gaza Strip, while Fatah keeps its headquarters in the West Bank.

paragraphs: Hamas is also associated in some way with Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine headed by Ahmed Jibril.


title: Suicide attack

paragraphs: A suicide attack is an attack where the attacker (either one person or a group of people) plans on killing people and/or destroying property while also dying in the process. In a suicide attack, the attacker dies as a result of the attack, for example in an explosion or a crash.

paragraphs: Nowadays, suicide attacks are often done with a vehicle or an explosive material such as a bomb (a suicide bombing), or sometimes both (i.e. a car filled with explosives). If everything goes according to plan, the attacker is killed as soon as their attack is complete (when their vehicle crashes or their bomb detonates).

paragraphs: Suicide attacks are often done in a crowded place so that as many people as possible are killed. They are common in the Middle East and South Asia. Most attacks on Israel, carried out by Hamas or other Palestinian terrorist groups are suicide bombings.


title: Laser

paragraphs: A laser is a machine that makes an amplified, single-colour source of light. It uses special gases or crystals to make the light with only a single color. The gases are energized to make them emit light. Then mirrors are used to amplify (make stronger) the light. In many lasers all the light travels in one direction, so it stays as a narrow beam of Collimated light that does not get wider or weaker as most sources of light do.

paragraphs: When pointed at something, this narrow beam makes a single point of light. The energy of the light stays in that one narrow beam instead of spreading out like a flashlight (electric torch).

paragraphs: The word "laser" is an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". Both the device and its name were developed from the earlier Maser.

paragraphs: A laser creates light by special actions involving a material called an "optical gain medium". Energy is put into this material using an 'energy pump'. This can be electricity, another light source, or some other source of energy. The energy makes the material go into what is called an excited state. This means the electrons in the material have extra energy, and after a bit of time they will lose that energy. When they lose the energy they will release a photon (a particle of light). The type of optical gain medium used will change what color (wavelength) will be produced. Releasing photons is the "stimulated emission of radiation" part of laser.

paragraphs: Many things can radiate light, like a light bulb, but the light will not be organized in one direction and phase. By using an electric field to control how the light is created, this light will now be one kind, going in one direction. This is "coherent radiation".

paragraphs: At this point, the light is still weak. The mirrors on either side bounce the light back and forth, and this hits other parts of the optical gain medium, causing those parts to also release photons, generating more light ("light amplification"). When all of the optical gain medium is producing light, this is called saturation and creates a very strong beam of light at a very narrow wavelength, which we would call a laser beam.

paragraphs: The light moves through the medium between the two mirrors that reflect the light back and forth between them. One of the mirrors, however, only partially reflects the light, allowing some to escape. The escaping light makes up the laser beam.

paragraphs: This is a simple design; the type of optical gain medium used usually defines the type of laser. It can be a crystal, examples are ruby and a garnet crystal made of yttrium and aluminum with the rare earth metal mixed in. Gases can be used for laser by using helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, neon or others. Large, powerful lasers are usually gas lasers. A free-electron laser uses a beam of electrons and can be tuned to emit different colors. Finally, the smallest lasers use semiconductor diodes to produce the light. These are the most numerous kind, used in electronics.

paragraphs: Albert Einstein was the first to have the idea of stimulated emission that could produce a laser. From that point many years were spent to see if the idea worked. At first, people succeeded in making masers and later figured how to make shorter visible wavelengths. It was not until 1959 that the name laser was coined by Gordon Gould in a research paper. The first working laser was put together and operated by Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Research Laboratories in 1960. Many people started working on lasers at this time, and the question of who would get the patent for the laser wasn't decided until 1987 (Gould won the rights).

paragraphs: Lasers have found many uses in everyday life as well as in industry. Lasers are found in CD and DVD players, where they read the code from the disk that stores a song or movie. A laser is often used to read the bar codes or SQR codes on things sold in a store, to identify a product and give its price. Lasers are used in medicine, particularly in LASIK eye surgery, where the laser is used to repair the shape of the cornea. It is used in chemistry with spectroscopy to identify materials, to find out what kind of gases, solids or liquids something is made of. Stronger lasers can be used to cut metal.

paragraphs: Lasers are used to measure the distance of the Moon from Earth by reflecting off reflectors left by the Apollo missions. By measuring the time it takes for the light to travel to the Moon and back again we can find out exactly how far away the moon is.

paragraphs: Laser pointers are used by people to point at a place on a map or diagram. For example, lecturers use them. Also, many people like to play with laser pointers. Some people have pointed them at aircraft. This is dangerous, and it is also illegal in many countries. People have been arrested and prosecuted for this crime.

paragraphs: Computers commonly use an optical computer mouse as an input device. Modern laser pointers are too big and powerful for this use, so most mice use small VCSEL's, or "Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers" for this purpose. These lasers are also used in DVD, CD-ROM drives and holography.


title: NBC

paragraphs: NBC, whose letters stand for National Broadcasting Company, is an American television network that started in 1926 as a radio company. NBC started airing Its first television programs in 1944. NBC is owned by Comcast, and was previously owned by General Electric and Universal Studios. NBC owns the cable news channels CNBC and MSNBC.

paragraphs: It is nicknamed "The Peacock Network" because of the animal in its logo.

paragraphs: The network is famous for its three-note chimes, and NBC Sunday Night Football, which is the most watched TV series after American Idol. Some famous NBC shows are Saturday Night Live, The Fresh Prince of Bel Air, Law and Order, 30 Rock, Frasier, ER, Cheers, Will and Grace, Meet the Press, and Today.


title: Thiruvananthapuram

paragraphs: Thiruvananthapuram () is the capital city of the Indian state of Kerala. The city used to be known by the name of Trivandrum. It is on the west coast of India near the far south of the mainland.

paragraphs: With 889,191 people as of 2001, it is the biggest city in Kerala in terms of size and number of people.

paragraphs: The city is the state capital and houses many national and state government offices, organizations and companies. It is also a major center of learning and is home to several schools and colleges including Kerala University, and to many scientific institutions, the most prominent being the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST), Technopark, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB) and Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST).

paragraphs: Thiruvananthapuram literally means ""City of Lord Anantha"" in Malayalam. The name derives from the god of the Hindu temple at the centre of the city. Anantha is the serpent Shesha on whom Padmanabhan or Vishnu lies. The temple of Vishnu lying on Anantha, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple is the most recognizable landmark of the city. The city was officially known as "Trivandrum" in English until 1991, when the government decided to change the city's name back to the original name, Thiruvananthapuram, in all languages. However, the city is still widely referred to as "Trivandrum".

paragraphs: The city is fully electrified by the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB). The district is divided in to three circles: Transmission circle, Thiruvananthapuram city and Kattakkada. Domestic users account for 43% of the total power usage, or 90 million units per month. Thiruvananthapuram district has one 220 kV, nine 110 kV and six 66 kV electrical substations. A 400 kV substation has just been commissioned by the Power Grid Corporation and will ensure high-quality power supply to the city.

paragraphs: The water supply schemes cover 100% within the city limits. It is 84% of the urban and 69% of the rural population, when the district is considered. Peppara and Aruvikkara dams are the main sources of water for distribution in the capital city. The new project plan for improving the water supply with Japan aid covers Thiruvananthapuram city and six suburban panchayats having urban characteristics.

paragraphs: The sewerage system in the city was implemented at the time of the Travancore Kingdom, and modernised in 1938. This scheme for the disposal of sullage and sewage is an underground system. The whole system is controlled by Kerala Water Authority now. The city area is divided in to seven blocks for the execution of the sewerage system, two commissioned in the 1990s and two after 2000. The sewerage is pumped to a stilling chamber at the Sewerage Treatment Plant (STP) at Valiyathura, and is disposed through sewage farming. Diary Development Department maintains this sewage farm and fodder cultivation is done here. There is no revenue generation from this scheme, and the sewerage system in the city is a service provided to the residents.

paragraphs: Apart from being the capital of India’s most literate and socially developed state, Thiruvananthapuram is a strategically important city in Southern India. Being the largest city in India’s deep south, it is important for both military logistics and civil aviation in the southern part of the country. It is the headquarters of the "Southern Air Command(SAC)" of the Indian Air Force. The city is very close to the international shipping route and East-West shipping axis. Also, it falls under the international air route.

paragraphs: Due to the strategic importance of the city, the Indian Air Force authorities have planned to make an aerospace command in SAC.

paragraphs: The plan for setting up a new "Tri-Service Command", which will integrate all the three forces under a single command, is also in the pipeline.

paragraphs: Being the Indian city with the closest air link to the small island-country of Maldives and also Sri Lanka, the city’s medical and health infrastructure caters to patients from both countries, especially Maldives. Exports of perishables and medicines from Trivandrum International Airport run to full capacity on everyday flights to Maldives and Sri Lanka because of this nearness. Thiruvananthapuram also provides a key link in movement of goods and passengers to and from southern Tamil Nadu into Kerala, the state border being just 30 km away. The city is also important for people from around the world seeking help through Ayurveda medicine and therapy. Ayurveda resorts are coming up at a rapid pace along the International Beach of Kovalam and Varkala coast.


title: Animal Farm

paragraphs: Animal Farm is a short novel by George Orwell. It was written during World War II and published in 1945. It is about a group of farm animals who rebel against their farmer. They hope to create a place where the animals can be equal, free, and happy. In the end, however, they are betrayed and the farm ends up as bad it was before.

paragraphs: The story is an allegory, meaning that the author wanted it to represent real life events. It is one of the most famous allegories about political events. It is based on Joseph Stalin's betrayal of the Russian Revolution.

paragraphs: Although rejected by several publishers, when published it became a best-seller. "Animal Farm" is one of Orwell's two best-known books (the other is "Nineteen Eighty-Four") and is widely viewed as a classic. "Time" magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005). it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996, and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.

paragraphs: Manor Farm is run by Mr Jones, a cruel and drunken farmer. One day, the animals gather at a meeting to listen to Old Major, a wise old pig. Old Major makes a speech, calling for animals to rise up against their farmers. The animals are very keen about the idea. Old Major dies a few days later. The pigs, who are the most intelligent animals, begin planning a rebellion. They are led by Snowball and Napoleon.

paragraphs: About three months later, the animals revolt against Mr Jones and take over the farm. They change its name to "Animal Farm". They decide the farm will now be ruled only by animals, calling the system "animalism". They write seven commandments, with the most important being "All animals are equal". “Four legs good, two legs bad” becomes a popular chant for the sheep. Mr Jones and his friends attack the farm to try to take it back, but in the "Battle of the Cowshed" the animals drive them away. Mr Jones flees and never returns.

paragraphs: Snowball and Napoleon fall out with each other, as they have different ideas for how Animal Farm should be led. Snowball announces plans to build a windmill, but Napoleon disagrees. Napoleon trains nine puppies, who grow into vicious dogs who will serve him. When the dogs are fully grown, he uses them to chase Snowball off the farm. He takes control and rules the farm by himself (as a dictator). Napoleon uses the dogs to kill any animal that does not agree with him, while a pig called Squealer keeps telling the animals that everything is fine and they should support Napoleon.

paragraphs: Napoleon changes his mind and decides to build a windmill, pretending that it was his idea all along. The first windmill they build collapses. Napoleon blames this (and other problems) on Snowball. He claims that Snowball is sneaking around Animal Farm ruining everything. Many animals are killed for "being in contact with Snowball". Napoleon starts working with human beings outside, even though this used to be forbidden. One of them is their neighbour, a farmer called Mr Frederick. He brings in a group of men who invade the farm and destroy the second windmill. The animals fight them off in the "Battle of the Windmill", at great cost.

paragraphs: As the animals build a third windmill, Boxer, their strongest horse, loses his strength because of old age and collapses. Napoleon sends him to be slaughtered, even though Boxer was his friend. The pigs continue to work with humans and start to behave like them, such as living in the farmhouse and walking on two legs. They teach the sheep a new chant: “Four legs good, two legs better”. The commandments are replaced by the words "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others." In the end, other animals watch the pigs talking with a group of humans and decide they cannot tell which is which.

paragraphs: George Orwell who was a socialist and was opposed to dictatorship (rule by one person). In particular, he did not like the communist government of Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. In 1936 and 1937, Orwell fought in the Spanish Civil War. He had watched as democratic left-wing rebels were pushed out by pro-Soviet communist rebels. In the introduction to the 1947 Ukrainian translation of "Animal Farm", Orwell said he wrote it because he wished to destroy what he called the "Soviet myth".

paragraphs: Orwell also said he said he got the idea from seeing a young boy whipping a large cart horse. He explained, "It struck me that if only such animals became aware of (knew) their strength we should have no power over them, and that men exploit (badly use) animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat (the poor, the lower class)".

paragraphs: There are many characters in the book who are based on real people. They are grouped into pigs, horses, humans and other animals.

paragraphs: Animal-ism is a system of beliefs shared by the farm animals of Manor Farm. The purpose is to ensure the farm animals behave like actual animals and not follow the footsteps of humans beings. Therefore, any human behavior is considered contrary to the spirit of Animalism.

paragraphs: "Beasts of England" is a song that is featured in the story. The tune as said to be "a cross between La Cucaracha and Oh, My Darling Clementine". Old Major teaches the song to the animals in an early scene, and it becomes very popular. It becomes the first national anthem of Animal Farm. Later on, Napoleon orders a new anthem to be written, with words that praise him.

paragraphs: These are the original commandments laid down by the pigs.

paragraphs: For the sheep, who are said to be stupid, they are instead taught the chant "Four legs good, two legs bad." Napoleon sometimes gets the sheep to chant this when he wants the animals to stop talking.

paragraphs: As the story goes on, the pigs start changing the commandments. For example, "No animal shall drink alcohol" becomes "No animal shall drink alcohol "to excess"". By the end of the story, all the commandments have been erased apart from "All animals are equal", which has been changed to "All Animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others." Meanwhile, the sheep chant has been changed to "Four legs good, two legs "better"."


title: Miso

paragraphs: Miso (味噌 or みそ) is a thick or solid paste. It is a traditional Japanese seasoning.

paragraphs: Miso is similar to the Korean "doenjang". It is made by fermenting soy beans with sea salt or salt and "kōji". Kōji is the product of fermenting rice, barley, or soybeans with a mold culture, "Kōji-kin" (Aspergillus oryzae). Often, grains such as barley or rice, and sometimes other ingredients, are added. Miso is high in protein and rich in vitamins and minerals. Miso tastes salty and, depending on the grains used and fermentation time, may also be sweet. Miso is used to make miso soup.

paragraphs: Miso is a very important part of Japanese food. There are different kinds of miso. "Kome miso" (米味噌) is made from rice and beans. "Mame miso" (豆味噌) is made from beans. "Mugi miso" (麦味噌) is made from barley and beans. Awase miso (合せ味噌) is a mix of these misos.

paragraphs: Miso first came to Japan from China or the Korean peninsula. Ancient Chinese "jan" (醤) is the origin of miso. "Jan" is an ancient fermented seasoning. According to classical scholars, "jan" was called "hishio" or "kuki" in the Edo era. In China, "jan" was written about in the "Shurai".

paragraphs: Miso existed in the Jomon era in Japan. "Jan" is the Japanese original seasoning. In the Nara era, "jan" was found in Nishi city, Heiankyo. Miso was used for seasoning porridge made of rice and vegetables. In the Sengoku period, Miso was important to preserved food.

paragraphs: Many Japanese used to make miso in their own homes. This was called "Temae-miso". In the Muromachi era, it was used as a food preservative and as a seasoning. Miso was an important source of nutrients for soldiers. In the Edo era, industrial mass production method of miso began. "Temae-miso" became less common. "Temae-miso" nowadays also used when a person is proud of something.

paragraphs: There are many different flavors of miso. It depends on regions. "Shiromiso" (白味噌) is popular in the western Kansai region, especially in Kyoto. A"kamiso" is popular in the eastern Kantō region or northern region. Shinshumiso (信州味噌) is generally popular after the second world war, because it is mass produced in factories and sold in supermarkets in over Japan.


title: Wakame

paragraphs: Wakame (Japanese: わかめ or 若布) is a type of kelp. People eat it. Its scientific name is "Undaria pinnatifida".

paragraphs: It is sold either dried or salted. It is often used in miso soup and salads. In Korea it is called miyeok. It is used in salads, or as the main ingredient in miyeok soup. In China it is called qundaicai. Chinese production is concentrated around Dalian.

paragraphs: In New Zealand "Undaria pinnatifida" is a very serious weed, and is one of the 100 worst invasive species in the world. It was first seen in Wellington Harbour in 1987. It probably arrived accidentally in the late 1980s, on ships from Asia, in ballast water. It is native to cold temperate coastal areas of Japan, Korea and China, but recently it has also spread to France, Britain, Spain, Italy, Argentina and Australia.

paragraphs: "Undaria" is now found around much of south-eastern New Zealand, and as far north as Auckland. It spreads in two ways. Naturally, through the millions of microscopic spores released by each fertile plant; and attached to vessel hulls and marine farming equipment.

paragraphs: "Undaria" is a highly successful and fertile species, which makes it a serious invader.


title: Kelp

paragraphs: Kelp is a type of marine seaweed. It is a brown algae. There are many different kinds of kelp. Kelp grow in large forests, usually near the surface of the water. It grows in nutrient rich saltwater. Some kelps grow very fast (up to 30 cm a day). Kelp can reach a length of up to 60 m. The blades are kept afloat by gas-filled bladders.

paragraphs: Kelp plays an important role as food and habitat for fish and other forms. It may be eaten as a vegetable.

paragraphs: Kelp is found in many places. People put it in aquariums. In the Monterey Aquarium there is a large forest of kelp.

paragraphs: In some parts of the Pacific Ocean, sea urchins have eaten so much kelp that the kelp forests become urchin barrens.


title: Tofu

paragraphs: Tofu (豆腐), sometimes also called doufu (usually used in Chinese recipes) or bean curd (literal translation), is a food made from soybeans. In fact, it is a very complex process. Tofu is made by coagulating soy milk, and then pressing the resulting curds into blocks. The making of tofu from soy milk is similar to the technique of making cheese from milk. Wheat gluten, or seitan, in its steamed and fried forms, is often mistakenly called "tofu" in Asian or vegetarian dishes.

paragraphs: China has more kinds of tofu than Japan and various tofu foods.

paragraphs: In Japan, tofu is a common food, used often in miso soup or as a hot dish. People in Japan has created various kinds of tofu. One of them is 絹こし豆腐 (or soft tofu), 木綿豆腐 (or firm tofu, or solid tofu) and "凍み豆腐" (or dried tofu). It is said that the way to make tofu from soybeans was taught by the Chinese a several hundreds years ago. you can find its very first history in a diary of 奈良春日大社 in 1183 of the Heian period.

paragraphs: In the United States, tofu is becoming more popular, since Hillary Rodham Clinton spoke on the effects of tofu on TV. Today, Americans buy tofu at the grocery store. The word “tofu” takes root in common use.

paragraphs: In South Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar and Indonesia, tofu is daily food.

paragraphs: Tofu is rich in textured vegetable protein and is relatively low in calories. Dietary fiber is a little for process. More and more Americans and Europeans use it as health food.


title: Soy milk

paragraphs: Soy milk (also called soymilk, soya milk, soybean milk, soy bean milk, soy drink, or soy beverage) is a milk-like product made from soybeans.

paragraphs: Soy milk originated in China where the soybean was native. Later on, the soybean and soybean foods came to Japan.


title: Dashi

paragraphs: Dashi (出汁、だし) is a kind of stock or broth mainly used for soup or dishes in Japanese cooking. The most common form of dashi is a simple broth or stock made by kombu (edible kelp) or katsuobushi (flakes of dried skipjack tuna) in boiling water. niboshi (煮干し) is also used, too. It is not always necessary to strain the resulting liquid. Dashi can be a basis for miso soup, Japanese noodle (うどん or そば) soup, and many other Japanese simmering (or boiling) liquids. Fresh dashi made from kelp and katsuobushi is not so popular today in Japan. Some people use instant substitutes to add boiled water.

paragraphs: Other kinds of dashi stock are made by soaking (or putting) kelp, shiitake, or niboshi in cool water for many hours. Or they are made by heating them in water nearly to boiling and then straining the resulting broth. Kelp stock or "konbu dashi" is made by soaking kelp, or "sea tangle", in water. "Shiitake dashi" stock is made by soaking dried shiitake mushrooms in water. "Niboshi dashi" stock is made by soaking dried small sardines. Some use niboshi after taking off (or pinching off) their heads and entrails in water, but others use whole niboshi as this way get tasty dashi, too.

paragraphs: Other important Japanese flavors include shoyu, mirin, rice vinegar, miso, and sake.


title: Shiitake mushroom

paragraphs: The shiitake mushroom, or simply called "shiitake"(椎茸) ("Lentinus edodes" or "Lentinula edodes") is also known as Chinese black mushroom or black forest mushroom. It is also called "black mushroom". It is an edible mushroom, which is typically grown on the tree, such as shii, kunugi and oak.

paragraphs: There are two variant names. For high grades of shiitake is "dōnggū" (冬茹: どんこ) ("winter mushroom"). And another is "huāgū" ("flower mushroom," (香信: こうしん) which has a flower-like cracking pattern on the mushroom's upper surface). Both are produced at colder temperatures. There are many cultivated varieties, which grow-up in a temperature at 7C - 26C, most cultivars like cooler tempertatures.


title: Soy sauce

paragraphs: Soy sauce (US) or soya sauce is a fermented sauce made from soy beans (soya beans), roasted grain, water and salt. It is commonly used in Chinese, Japanese and Korean cuisine. It appears in some Western cuisine dishes, especially as an ingredient in Worcestershire sauce. Real soy sauces are fermented with kōji (麹, the mold Aspergillus oryzae or "A. sojae") and other related microorganisms.

paragraphs: Almost all soy sauce has some alcohol added during bottling. This acts as a preservative to protect it from going bad. For this reason, soy sauce should always be kept in the fridge. It should also not be put in direct light. An opened bottle of soy sauce that has been left unrefrigerated could become slightly bitter.

paragraphs: Although there are many types of soy sauce, all are salty and earthy-tasting brownish liquids used to season food while cooking or at the table. What some westerners can only describe as a flavorful, kind of sweet taste is a distinct basic taste called "umami" by the Japanese and "xian-wei" (鲜味, "lit." fresh taste) by the Chinese.

paragraphs: Although this seasoning was first used in China, it is used several cuisines across Asia and is a particularly important flavoring in Japanese cuisine. There are many types of sauce.


title: Bowl

paragraphs: A bowl is a container for food. It can hold liquids, such as soups and solids, like popcorn. People also prepare salads in it. A bowl is like a ball cut in half. Bowls are usually made from glass, ceramic, wood or plastic.


title: Oktoberfest

paragraphs: The Oktoberfest (also called Wiesn) is a German festival that takes place on the Theresienwiese, a public place in the center of Munich, Bavaria. It is every year, in late September and early October. It is a big social event. There is lots of eating and drinking. It is on for sixteen days ending on the first Sunday in October. If this is the first or the second the festival is extended to the end on 3 October, the Day of German Unity. This is the day when East Germany and West Germany joined into one country again in 1990.

paragraphs: The first Oktoberfest was on 12 October 1810. The feast was for the wedding of King Ludwig I of Bavaria and Therese of Sachsen-Hildburghausen. The feast lasted for "5 days". There was music, eating and drinking. At the end of it there was a big horse-race. The next years they had this horse-race and the feast again, because the people had liked it so much.

paragraphs: On 26 September 1980, a right-wing lone wolf terrorist killed 12 people and himself using a bomb.

paragraphs: Today the Oktoberfest is the world's largest fair, and it has become very famous and popular. About six million people visit it every year. Many people and tourists from all over the world come to Munich for Oktoberfest. Other cities have copied the Oktoberfest, and now they also hold feasts that are similar to the Oktoberfest.

paragraphs: One of the famous attractions is a big dipper called the "Wilde Maus" which means "Wild mouse" in English.

paragraphs: There are 14 main tents at the Oktoberfest.


title: Tomb Raider

paragraphs: Tomb Raider is a computer and video game series. Originally the games were made by Core Design. Now they are being made by Crystal Dynamics. The first game was sold in 1996 for PC, PlayStation and Sega Saturn.

paragraphs: The main character of the game is a woman called "Lara Croft". She is an archeologist and explores ancient places, searching old relics, often fighting a great danger to the world.

paragraphs: Since 2001, Paramount Pictures has made two movies like the game, starring Angelina Jolie.

paragraphs: The first six games in the series was made by Core Design. In 2003, parent company Eidos moved development of the "Tomb Raider" games from Core Design to Crystal Dynamics, another Eidos-owned studio, after the sixth game, "Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness", was met with dislike from critics.


title: Hot dog

paragraphs: A hot dog is made of the remains of the pig after other parts are cut off and sold as bacon, sausage patties, and ham. However many people across the world eat hot dogs and enjoy them very much. Hot dogs can be boiled, grilled, or fried. The word frankfurter comes from Frankfurt, Germany. This sausage is usually served in a bun or another type of bread. The most common type of hot dogs are made from beef, sometimes mixed with pork. Chicken and vegetarian hot dogs are popular as well. Animal parts are used in most hot dogs, and may include skin, lips, pig snouts, organs, fat, and other parts of animal bodies. Hot dogs and other sausage products were first developed as a way to sell these parts that people would not normally eat. Nearly 20% of the weight of a hot dog is usually non-meat ingredients including water, sugar, and spices. Some legal categories of hot dogs, such as "frankfurters" can contain up to 3.5% of non-meat fillers as well, such as corn meal.

paragraphs: To add to the taste, various toppings and sauces are often added. The most common sauces in the United States are ketchup, mustard and pickle relish. Onions, chopped pickles, peppers, hot sauce and cheese are also sometimes added to the food. Onions cooked in tomato sauce and Sauerkraut are popular toppings, as is chili.

paragraphs: In the United States, there are many different types of hot dogs, with different combinations of chili, cheese, onions, mustard, and other products. One of the most popular types of hot dogs is a chili dog. There are many different types of chili dogs. One of the most well-known is a Coney Island dog, a dog topped with a blend of chili, cheese, mustard and onions that is originally from Michigan.

paragraphs: A type of hot dog called a "kosher hot dog" is very common in parts of the United States and overseas. It is similar to most hot dogs except that it is always made of Kosher beef, has more spice added to it. Kosher hotdogs contain less of the less desirable sounding ingredients (such as rectum) as these parts are not considered to be Kosher beef. Halal hot dogs are also made.

paragraphs: Though hot dogs are most popular in the United States, they are served in many places around the world. People in Japan eat a lot of hot dogs, and the world's largest hot dog ever was made there. In some countries, "hot dog" is the name of a completely different sausage dish; for example, in New Zealand it is used to mean corn dog, and hot dogs are called "American hot dogs" instead.


title: Constipation

paragraphs: Constipation is when it is very hard to pass stool (defecate): that is, get rid of digested food waste (feces). Constipation can be caused by many things. One is eating or drinking too much dairy products that use cow milk. To solve this problem many people use a laxative or eat defecation-inducing foods such as plums. Another possible cause could be an obstruction somewhere along the digestive tract (the path that food travels inside the body). A person suffers from constipation if he or she passes stool three times in a week or more seldom. People suffering from constipation may defecate only once or twice in a week, and their stool is very solid and tough. Normally people defecate daily.

paragraphs: When a person is constipated their lower stomach and intestinal area will be blocked. People can usually conquer constipation by eating natural laxatives such a fruits, fruit juice and dietary supplements. Liquid will help get rid of constipation. Constipation can occur by eating hard food such as cheese or meat.

paragraphs: A good way on preventing constipation is to eat foods which contain fiber such as whole grain

paragraphs: Papaya and guava is very rich in fiber and potassium should be consume after meal everydayGet rid of constipation .

paragraphs: Types 1 and 2 indicate constipation, with 3 and 4 being the "ideal stools", especially the latter, as they are the easiest to defecate, and 5–7 tending towards diarrhoea.


title: Kernel (computer science)

paragraphs: A kernel is the central part of an operating system. It manages the operations of the computer and the hardware, most notably memory and CPU time.

paragraphs: A computer user never interacts directly with the kernel. It runs behind the scenes and cannot be seen, except for the text logs that it prints.

paragraphs: The kernel is the most fundamental part of an operating system. It can be thought of as the program which controls all other programs on the computer. When the computer starts, it goes through some initialization (booting) functions, such as checking memory. It is responsible for assigning and unassigning memory space which allows software to run.

paragraphs: The kernel provides services so programs can request the use of the network card, the disk or other pieces of hardware. The kernel forwards the request to special programs called device drivers which control the hardware. It also manages the file system and sets interrupts for the CPU to enable multitasking. Many kernels are also responsible for ensuring that faulty programs do not interfere with the operation of others by denying access to memory that has not been allocated to them and restricting the amount of CPU time they can consume.

paragraphs: It is the heart of the operating system.

paragraphs: Operating systems commonly use monolithic kernels. In Linux, for example, device drivers are often part of a kernel (specifically Loadable Kernel Modules). When a device is needed, its extension is loaded and 'joined' onto the kernel making the kernel larger. Monolithic kernels can cause trouble when one of these drivers is faulty, such as if a beta driver is downloaded. Because it is part of the kernel the faulty driver can override the mechanisms that deal with faulty programs (see above). This can mean that the kernel, and thus the entire computer, can cease to function. If there are too many devices, the kernel can also run out of memory causing a system crash or making the computer very slow.

paragraphs: Microkernels are a way of solving this problem. In a microkernel operating system, the kernel deals only with critical activities, such as controlling the memory and CPU, and nothing else. Drivers and other functions that monolithic kernels would normally include within the kernel are moved outside the kernel, where they are under control. Instead of being an uncontrollable part of the kernel the beta driver is, therefore, no more likely to cause a crash than a beta web browser. That is, if a driver goes wrong it can simply be restarted by the kernel. Unfortunately, creating microkernel based operating systems is very difficult and there are no common microkernel operating systems. Minix and QNX are both microkernel operating systems.


title: Ulm

paragraphs: Ulm is a city in Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg. It was started in about 850 AD.

paragraphs: It is on the left side of the river Danube. Across the river on the right side is Neu-Ulm in Bavaria. Together they have more than 170,000 inhabitants. Ulm alone has about 120,000 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The university of Ulm was started in 1967. It has about 7000 students.

paragraphs: The world's highest church tower is the Ulmer Münster (161,5m) in Ulm. Also, Ulm has the oldest city theatre in Germany. Albert Einstein was born in Ulm.


title: Landlocked

paragraphs: A country is landlocked if it has no access to any oceans or seas.

paragraphs: As an example, Austria is landlocked. France is not landlocked because it has access to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean. A sea is also landlocked if does not have access to an ocean. This is also called an endorheic basin. As an example, the Caspian Sea is landlocked. The Gulf of Mexico is not landlocked because it has access to the Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: If a country is landlocked by landlocked countries (surrounded by landlocked countries), then it is doubly landlocked. Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan are the only two doubly landlocked countries in the world.


title: Kyrgyzstan

paragraphs: Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан), formally the Kyrgyz Republic, and sometimes known as Kirghizia, is a country in Central Asia. The country is landlocked (has no coast) and mountainous. It has borders with China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Its capital is Bishkek. It was a socialist republic of the Soviet Union, but became independent in 1991. The country was peaceful in the 1990s. Its president, Askar Akayev showed an autocratic and authoritarian character.

paragraphs: In 2005, there was an unexpected revolution after the elections of parliament (the legislature) in March. President Akayev resigned on April 4 of that year. Opposition leaders formed a coalition (a group from more than one party), and a new government was formed, led by President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and Prime Minister Feliks Kulov.

paragraphs: At the moment, different political groups are fighting for power in the republic. Three of the 75 elected members of Parliament have been murdered. Kyrgyzstan’s main religion is Islam.

paragraphs: Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia. It is farther from the ocean than any other country in the world. It borders Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Mountains cover over 80% of the country.

paragraphs: The land area of Kyrgyzstan is just a little bigger than the state of Nebraska.

paragraphs: Issyk-Kul Lake is the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan. It is the largest mountain lake in Asia and the second largest mountain lake in the world after Titicaca. Peak Jengish Chokusu, at 7,439 m (24,406 ft), is the highest point. The highest peaks are in the Kakshaal-Too range.

paragraphs: Bishkek, the capital city, is in the north. It is largest city in Kyrgyzstan. The second largest is the ancient town of Osh.

paragraphs: Kyrgyzstan was the second poorest country in the former Soviet Union next to Tajikistan. Now it is the second poorest country in Central Asia.

paragraphs: Agriculture is an important part of the economy in Kyrgyzstan. Much farming is still being done by hand and by horse. Main crops include wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, cotton, tobacco, vegetables, and fruit.

paragraphs: Kyrgyzstan is rich in mineral resources. It has small petroleum and natural gas reserves. Among its mineral reserves are solid amount of coal, gold, uranium, antimony and other metals but not iron. Metallurgy is an important industry.

paragraphs: Imports include petroleum and natural gas, ferrous metals, chemicals, most machinery, wood and paper products, food and construction materials. Its trade partners are Germany, Russia, China, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan.


title: Kebab

paragraphs: Kebab (kebap in Turkish, kabab in Iran, Afghanistan, India and Pakistan, also spelled kebob, kabob; ) means "grilled (or broiled) meat" in Persian and Turkish. Kebab is usually made of lamb and beef. Sometimes chicken and fish are used for some styles. Pork is never used by Muslims but is sometimes used by non-Muslim sellers. Muslims are not allowed to eat pork, for religious reasons.

paragraphs: There are many varieties of kebab and the term means different things in different countries. The generic term kebab usually refers to doner kebab or "döner kebap" in Europe and to shish kebab in the United States, though its meaning can vary. In South Asia the term can refer to a whole range of items such as Chappali kabab, Shami kabab, Bihari kabab and so on.

paragraphs: There are many types of kebab. Below are just a few.

paragraphs: Shish kebabs are cooked or grilled on skewers, over hot coals or wood. These kababs originated in Iran and Afghanistan and then spread out to Turkey, Pakistan, India and various parts of Arabia. They are also very popular now in Europe and the United States.

paragraphs: Döner kebab (which means "rotating kebab" in Turkish) is sliced lamb, beef, or chicken, that is slowly roasted on a vertical rotating spit.

paragraphs: Chappali kabab or chappal kabab or chapli kebab is a type of fried kebab. It started in the North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of present Pakistan and in Afghanistan. The name comes from the Pashto (and also Urdu) word for 'slipper' or 'shoe'. The kebab is actually called a 'slipper/shoe kebab'. Its shape is like that of a slipper or shoe.

paragraphs: This kebab is basically made from ground or minced beef or mutton mixed with tomatoes, onions and chillies, and a variety of herbs and spices. It is given its unique shape. It is fried in a special big pan. It is eaten with big "roti" bread typical of the Pathan region. Often "Qahwa" or green tea, is drunk with it or after it, to help digestion.

paragraphs: "Chappali kabab" is very popular throughout Pakistan. It has spread to major cities of the country such as Lahore and Karachi. According to gourmets, the best ones are still found in Peshawar city and Mardan. Today, the popularity of these kebabs is also gradually spreading to other parts of the world, including the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and the United States.


title: Halal

paragraphs: Halal (حلال, halāl, halaal) is an Islamic Arabic term meaning "permissible".

paragraphs: Muslims have strict rules of what they can and cannot eat:


title: Surat

paragraphs: Surat is a city in the State of Gujarat, India. It is on the banks of the Tapti river. Surat used to be a large seaport. It is the eighth largest city in India. According to the 2020 reports on the ‘cleanest cities of India’, Surat ranked no. 2 out of 4242 cities from all over India.


title: Kanpur

paragraphs: Kanpur is a city in Uttar Pradesh, India. Almost three million people live in Kanpur.


title: Web portal

paragraphs: An internet portal or web portal is a website used to enter the Internet. It can also be used to describe a website to enter certain parts of the Internet, like Wikipedia's .

paragraphs: Many ISPs have their own portals, but there are many other portals by other companies, like Microsoft's MSN, Ask.com, and Yahoo!.


title: Humanism

paragraphs: Humanism is a philosophy or a way of thinking about the world. Humanism is a set of ethics or ideas about how people should live and act. People who hold this set of ethics are called humanists. Humanists prefer critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition.

paragraphs: In modern times, humanism is close to secularism. It refers to a non-theistic approach to life, looking to science instead of religious dogma in order to understand the world. The term was made widely known by scientists in the mid-20th century. Many wanted to recognise human values, but without depending on religion as the main source of values.

paragraphs: Humanist ideas were discussed in Ancient Greece, from Thales to Anaxagoras and Protagoras. The teachings of Zarathushtra and Lao Tzu had strong elements of humanism, and there are many other examples.

paragraphs: The writings of the ancient Greeks were studied in the 1400s during the Renaissance. However, in this period the term "humanism" came to mean educated in the humanities, a rather different kind of idea. Petrarch is often cited as the first modern humanist, but he pointed backwards to classical authors. The modern meaning of humanism is more to do with using science to make the world a better place.

paragraphs: A comment by the English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead in 1925 was


title: The Guardian

paragraphs: The Guardian is a British newspaper. It is published every day, except on Sunday. It is owned by the same company as The Observer, which only publishes on Sunday. "The Guardian" is edited by Katharine Viner.

paragraphs: The newspaper was founded in 1821. It was founded by textile traders and merchants. The Guardian was seen as "an organ of the middle class", or, in the words of C.P. Scott's son Ted, "a paper that will remain bourgeois to the last". In 2005, Sir Max Hastings stated that he writes for "The Guardian" "because it is read by the new establishment", reflecting the paper's growing influence.

paragraphs: Until 1959 "The Guardian" was called "The Manchester Guardian".

paragraphs: Three of the four people who wrote leaders for the "Guardian" joined the Social Democratic Party on its foundation in 1982. The paper supported Tony Blair when he wanted to lead the Labour Party and to become Prime Minister.

paragraphs: In 1999 theguardian.com started. At the time it was a website called Guardian Unlimited.

paragraphs: "The Guardian" describes itself as centre-left.