title: Philosophy of science

paragraphs: Philosophy of science is the part of philosophy that studies the sciences.

paragraphs: Philosophers who are interested in science study how knowledge is built up by scientists, and what makes science different from other activities. No doubt, modern science has advanced knowledge in a wide range of fields. How has it done this? To tackle this issue, a number of other issues have to be tackled also.

paragraphs: In earlier times, some have thought science was nothing but organised common sense. Thomas Henry Huxley thought this. However, as the twentieth century went on, science produced many ideas which were nothing like common sense. Then it was clear that science really was something different from commonsense knowledge. But what was it? This is called the demarcation problem.

paragraphs: The demarcation problem refers to the distinction between science and non-science (including pseudoscience). Karl Popper called this the central question in the philosophy of science. No account of the problem has got full agreement among philosophers; some regard the problem as insoluble or uninteresting.

paragraphs: The logical positivists tried to base science on observation. In their view, truth was achieved by verification. Non-science was non-observational and meaningless.

paragraphs: Against that, Popper argued that the central property of science is falsifiability. All scientific claims can be proved false, at least in principle. If no such proof can be found despite sufficient effort, then the claim is likely true. Popper's ideas were applauded by many scientists (like Peter Medawar). However, sceptics noticed that theories were often not discarded when a prediction was refuted. The theory was simply adjusted to take into account the new findings. It was clear from this that, although falsifiability was important, it could not be a simple way to distinguish science from non-science.

paragraphs: Other approaches were tried. One idea that science was a problem-solving process aimed at finding answers to questions. Of course, many other fields try to answer questions and solve problems. Another approach was to define science as the search for objective truth. But objectivity is very difficult to define, and whether science really is objective is open to question.

paragraphs: With biology, the situation was rather different. There were many thousands of published observations, and what was achieved by Darwin was to show that sense could be made of the observations if it were the case that evolution had taken place. In a natural history science (such as biology, geology or astronomy), one of the main jobs of science is to explain what has happened and what is seen. Obviously, explanations as well as observations and theories are part of the philosophy of science.

paragraphs: Both theory and observations are part of science, and they are tied together in a kind of cycle. A very clear example was the prediction of Einstein that a source of gravity (such as a star) would bend light passing nearby. An expedition was organised in 1919 to record the positions of stars around the Sun during a solar eclipse. The observation of star positions showed that the apparent star positions close to the Sun were changed slightly from their normal expected positions. In effect, the light passing the Sun was pulled towards the sun by gravitation. This confirmed predictions of gravitational lensing made by Albert Einstein in the general theory of relativity, published in 1915. This was the first solid evidence in favour of Einstein's theory.

paragraphs: The point here is that the observation and the theory were connected. The observation would not have been made but for the theory, and then the observation was convincing evidence in favour of the theory. The theory had passed a critical test. Since then, many more tests have been made of Einstein's ideas, and all have been consistent with his theory.

paragraphs: According to common sense, science begins with observations: all scientific knowledge come from the facts of experience. Theories are produced by observation of these facts and are then tested by prediction.

paragraphs: Here is a schema of this idea of science that some philosophers call a "naive" conception of science:

paragraphs: This naive conception is not held by many philosophers today. For one thing, it sees science as a one-way engine from 'facts' (what are they?) to theories and predictions. As shown by the Einstein example, where a theory led the other way round, the model does not fit much of science. In fact the relationship between the parts of a scientific philosophy are extremely complex.

paragraphs: According to Pierre Duhem and W.V. Quine, it is impossible to test a theory in isolation. For example, to test Newton's Law of Gravitation in our solar system, one needs information about the masses and positions of the Sun and all the planets. Famously, the failure to predict the orbit of Uranus in the 19th century did not lead to the rejection of Newton's Law. Instead, it lead to the rejection of the hypothesis that there are only seven planets in our solar system. The investigations that followed led to the discovery of an eighth planet, Neptune. If a test fails, something is wrong. But there is a problem in figuring out what that something is: a missing planet, badly calibrated test equipment, an unsuspected curvature of space, etc.

paragraphs: One consequence of the Duhem-Quine thesis is that any theory can be made compatible with any empirical observation by the addition of extra (ad hoc) hypotheses. This is why science uses Occam's Razor; hypotheses without justification are eliminated. This led Karl Popper, to reject naïve falsification in favor of 'survival of the fittest', or most falsifiable, of scientific theories. In Popper's view, any hypothesis that does not make testable predictions is simply not science. Such a hypothesis may be useful or valuable, but it cannot be said to be science. W.V. Quine thought that empirical data are not enough to make a judgment between theories. In this view, a theory can always be made to fit with the available empirical data. However, this does not necessarily imply that all theories are of equal value, because scientists often use guiding principles such as Occam's Razor.

paragraphs: One result of this view is that specialists in the philosophy of science stress the requirement that observations made for the purposes of science be restricted to "intersubjective" objects. That is, science is restricted to those areas where there is general agreement on the nature of the observations involved. It is comparatively easy to agree on observations of physical phenomena, harder to agree on observations of social or mental phenomena, and difficult in the extreme to reach agreement on matters of theology or ethics (and thus the latter remain outside the normal purview of science).

paragraphs: Is there any scientific method at all? Paul Feyerabend argued that no description of scientific method could possibly encompass all the approaches and methods used by scientists. Feyerabend objected to prescriptive scientific method on the grounds that any such method would stifle and cramp scientific progress. Feyerabend claimed, "the only principle that does not inhibit progress is: "anything goes"".

paragraphs: Thomas Kuhn denied that it is ever possible to isolate the hypothesis being tested from the influence of the theory in which the observations are grounded. He argued that observations always rely on a specific paradigm, and that it is not possible to evaluate competing paradigms independently. By "paradigm" he meant a consistent "portrait" of the world, one that involves no logical contradictions and that is consistent with observations made from the point of view of the paradigm. More than one such logically consistent construct can paint a usable likeness of the world, but there is no common ground from which to pit two against each other, theory against theory. Neither is a standard by which the other can be judged. Instead, the question is which "portrait" is judged by some set of people to promise the most useful in terms of scientific "puzzle solving".

paragraphs: For Kuhn, the choice of paradigm was sustained by, but not ultimately determined by, logical processes. The individual's choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. In the case of a general acceptance of one paradigm or another, Kuhn believed that it represented the consensus of the community of scientists. Acceptance or rejection of some paradigm is, he argued, a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of relativism. According to Kuhn, a paradigm shift occurs when a number of observational anomalies (problems) in the old paradigm have made the new paradigm more useful. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. A new paradigm is chosen because it does a better job of solving scientific problems than the old one.

paragraphs: The fact that observation is embedded in theory does not mean observations are irrelevant to science. Scientific understanding derives from observation, but the acceptance of scientific statements is dependent on the related theoretical paradigm as well as on observation. Of course, further testing may resolve differences of opinion.


title: Volterra

paragraphs: Volterra is a town in the Tuscany region of Italy. It is in the province of Pisa. Volterra was once one of the 12 cities in Etruria. In the middle ages it was an independent city until it was conquered by the Florentines and then the Medicis. It has its own cathedral, and is built on top of an ancient volcanic hill.

paragraphs: The city was a Neolithic settlement and an important Etruscan center. It became a "municipium" (a type of Roman city) in the Roman Age. Volterra was attacked and controlled by Florence many times. When the Florentian Republic fell in 1530, Volterra came under the control of the Medici family. It later became part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.

paragraphs: The original Etruscan city walls remain in parts, and the remains of the Roman baths, aqueduct and amphitheatre (arena). Visitors to Volterra have to leave their cars outside the town walls, in car parks.

paragraphs: The Medici Villa di Spedaletto is located outside the city in direction of Lajatico. Also near the city, in the Valle Bona area, are excavations of Etruscan tombs.


title: Dynamic random-access memory

paragraphs: Dynamic random access memory is the most commonly used form of RAM.

paragraphs: DRAM is called dynamic (or active), because it must be refreshed all the time or it will lose the data which it is supposed to be storing. Because it loses data when power is removed, DRAM is called volatile. This word comes from the Latin adjective "volātilis", which means "flying, fleeting, transitory".

paragraphs: Refreshing DRAM means "reading" the data "from" the DRAM and directly "writing" them "back" to the DRAM.

paragraphs: DRAM is made up of millions of very small capacitors. Each of these capacitors has a transistor to let energy in and out. The capacitor slowly loses energy, and if the DRAM is not refreshed, in the end one or more of the capacitors will let so much energy out, that for example a 1 will become a 0, so data will be lost or corrupted. Almost all computers refresh their DRAM many times per second.

paragraphs: DRAM is often compared to SRAM (Static RAM). SRAM is able to store data as long as power/energy is used. There is no need to refresh it. SRAM can also be faster than DRAM. But SRAM is much more expensive than DRAM. Also, SRAM uses more electric power and heats up much faster than DRAM.

paragraphs: DRAM and SRAM lose the data when the power to them is turned off, unlike non-volatile random-access memory.


title: Touchpad

paragraphs: A touchpad (also called a trackpad) is a type of input device for computers that does the same things as a computer mouse. It is made up of a flat, touch-sensitive surface which the user slides one or more fingers on to move the cursor on the screen. Next to the touchpad are push-buttons that work just like mouse buttons, including left-clicking and right-clicking. In some newer touchpads, there are no actual buttons, and clicking is done by pushing near the button of the touchpad itself.

paragraphs: Unlike computer mice, touchpads stay in one place when they are being used. This makes it easy to build them into hardware. They are mostly found on laptop computers because, when the user is travelling, sometimes he or she cannot use a mouse. But most laptops do allow the user is able to attach (connect) a separate mouse. Besides laptops, touchpads are also more and more used on mobile devices with a GUI, including MP3 players (a well-known one being the iPod) and mobile phones (such as the BlackBerry). However, touchpads on today's mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers have been replaced with the touchscreen, which is used much like a touchpad except the screen is built into the touch-sensitive surface itself so that no mouse cursor is needed. One can just touch anywhere on the surface to choose what is on the screen at that part.

paragraphs: Most touchpads have the function of tapping, which imitates the left-click button on a mouse. New models of touchpads often do more things because they can respond to the pressure of more than one finger. This is called multi-touch and makes it possible to do things like scroll though, zoom in and out, and rotate a page or part of the screen. The user can choose and change which functions happen if the user does certain moves. For example, the normal function for tapping on the pad is the left-click on the mouse. The user can change it in the settings section to the right-click of the mouse, if the user likes it better.


title: Fingerprint scanner

paragraphs: Fingerprint scanners are security systems of biometrics. They are used to unlock doors and in other security applications. During the 2010s fingerprint scanners became commonplace on mobile phones.

paragraphs: People have a pattern of ridges on their fingers. This fingerprint cannot be removed or changed. Every fingerprint is different from any other in the world. Because there are countless combinations, fingerprints are much used for identification.

paragraphs: They are based on the oldest technique, that consists of placing your finger on a glass surface or a prism that is illuminated by a led diode. When the ridges of fingerprints touch the surface, the light is absorbed, while between these crests a total reflection occurs. The resulting light and dark areas are recorded in an image sensor.

paragraphs: In practice there are some difficulties with this technique: wet and dry fingers make very different images, and the system is sensitive to dust and dirt on the surface. The unit is large and expensive. This system is also easy to cheat and if the skin is damaged, the fingerprint is not recognized correctly. The recognition of the fingerprint of older people is also difficult to do because their skin may not be elastic enough. In some circumstances this may result in false recognition. If the stored fingerprint was taken with less pressure, false acceptances may occur.

paragraphs: The sensor is a silicon integrated circuit with a surface that is covered by a large number of transducer elements (or pixels), with a typical resolution of 500 dpi. Each element contains two adjacent metal electrodes. The capacitance between the electrodes, which forms a feedback path for an inverting amplifier, is reduced when the finger is applied to said surface: it is further reduced when it detects ridges and less reduced when it detects the space between them.

paragraphs: The sensor is susceptible to electrostatic discharge. These sensors only work with normal healthy skins, they are not operative being used on skins with hard areas, calluses or scars. Moisture, grease or dust can also affect its operation.

paragraphs: It consists of tens of thousands of tiny pressure transducers that are mounted on the surface of the sensor. An alternative design uses switches that are closed when pressed by a ridge, but that stay open when they are under a valley. This only provides one bit of information per pixel, instead of working with a gray scale.

paragraphs: In this case the heat driven by the finger is detected, which is greater when there is a ridge than when there is a valley. A silicon component has been developed with a matrix of pixels called "FingerChip", that is, "finger integrated circuit", each of which is covered with a layer of pyroelectric material in which a change in temperature translates into a change in the load distribution of its surface. The image is in the gray scale that has the right quality even with the finger worn, with dirt, with grease or with humidity. The sensor has a robust protective layer and can provide a dynamic output.

paragraphs: Most of the sensors described have been altered in the past. To avoid this, a new operating mode has been added. Instead of simply placing your finger statically on the sensor, the finger moves slowly along it. The sensor only has a narrow sensitive area, and generates a complete sequence of images, which can be reassembled, by means of a processor, in a complete image. The benefits are improved appreciably and the elimination of any residual grease is guaranteed.

paragraphs: The most important use area is in access control for computers. This is especially important for laptops and PDAs. Thanks to the price falling, more and more devices are equipped with sensors. Other devices with built-in fingerprint sensors include USB hard drives, USB memory modules and card readers. They are also available in mice and keyboards.

paragraphs: Sensors are increasingly used to secure financial transactions and change machines for "online" banking. In the future, the owner's fingerprint will be stored securely on identity cards and credit cards and may also be used for authentication of emails using digital signatures.

paragraphs: Direct physical access to rooms and devices can also be ensured by coupling fingerprint sensors with door opening systems.

paragraphs: There are two construction forms: the stagnant and the moving fingerprint scanner.


title: 324 Bamberga

paragraphs: 324 Bamberga is the 16th biggest asteroid in the Main asteroid belt. It was found by Johann Palisa on February 25, 1892 in Vienna, making it one of the last big (diameter over 200 km) asteroids found. Apart from the near-earth asteroid Eros, it was the last asteroid which is "ever" easily visible with binoculars to be found.

paragraphs: Although its very high orbital eccentricity means its opposition magnitude varies a lot, at a rare opposition near perihelion Bamberga can reach a magnitude of +8.0, which is as bright as Saturn's moon Titan. Such near-perihelion oppositions happen on a regular cycle every twenty-two years, with the last happening in 1991 and the next in 2013. Its brightness at these rare near-perihelion oppositions makes Bamberga the "brightest C-type asteroid", about one magnitude brighter than 10 Hygiea's maximum brightness of around +9.1. At such an opposition Bamberga can in fact be closer to Earth than any main belt asteroid with magnitude above +9.5, getting as close as 0.78 AU. For comparison, 7 Iris never comes closer than 0.85 AU and 4 Vesta never closer than 1.13 AU when it becomes visible to the naked eye in a pollution-free sky.

paragraphs: Overall Bamberga is the tenth brightest main belt asteroid after, in order, Vesta, Pallas, Ceres, Iris, Hebe, Juno, Melpomene, Eunomia and Flora. Its high eccentricity (for comparison 36% higher than that of Pluto), though, means that at most oppositions other asteroids reach higher magnitudes.

paragraphs: It has an unusually long rotation period among the big asteroids. Its spectral class is between the C-type and P-type asteroids.

paragraphs: An occultation of Bamberga was seen on 8 December, 1987, and gave a diameter of about 228 km, in agreement with IRAS results.


title: Dalpe

paragraphs: Dalpe is a municipality of the district Leventina in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Faido

paragraphs: Faido is the capital of the district of Leventina in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino in southern Switzerland.

paragraphs: It has about 1,600 people and lies in the Leventina valley.

paragraphs: The municipality was first noted in 1171 as "Faedo".

paragraphs: In the spring of 2004, the people voted for merging the neighboring municipalities of Chiggiogna, Osco, Mairengo, Calpiogna, Campello, Rossura, Calonico, Anzonico, Cavagnago, and Sobrio. Most of the municipalities did not want to do that, and the new municipality contains only the municipalities of Faido, Chiggiogna, Rossura, and Calonico. On 1 April 2012 the former municipalities of Anzonico, Calpiogna, Campello, Cavagnago, Chironico, Mairengo and Osco merged into the municipality. On 10 April 2016, Sobrio merged into the municipality.


title: Frasco

paragraphs: Frasco is a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Gerra (Gambarogno)

paragraphs: Gerra (Gambarogno) is a former municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 25 April 2010 the former municipalities of Caviano, Contone, Gerra Gambarogno, Indemini, Magadino, Piazzogna, San Nazzaro, Sant'Abbondio and Vira Gambarogno merged to form the new municipality of Gambarogno.


title: Gerra (Verzasca)

paragraphs: Gerra (Verzasca) is a former municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 20 April 2008 the former municipalities of Cugnasco and Gerra (Verzasca) merged to form the new municipality of Cugnasco-Gerra.


title: Ghirone

paragraphs: Ghirone was a municipality of the district Blenio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 22 October 2006 the former municipalities of Aquila, Campo (Blenio), Ghirone, Olivone and Torre merged to form the new municipality of Blenio.


title: Giornico

paragraphs: Giornico is a municipality of the district Leventina in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Giubiasco

paragraphs: Giubiasco is a former municipality of the district Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

paragraphs: On 2 April 2017 the former municipalities of Camorino, Claro, Giubiasco, Gnosca, Gorduno, Gudo, Moleno, Monte Carasso, Pianezzo, Preonzo, Sant'Antonio and Sementina.


title: Gnosca

paragraphs: Gnosca was a municipality, in the municipality of Bellinzona and the district Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Gordevio

paragraphs: Gordevio was a municipality of the district of Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 20 April 2008, Avegno and Gordevio merged to form the new municipality of Avegno Gordevio.


title: Gordola

paragraphs: Gordola is a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. The town was the first time mentioned in a document in 1200.


title: Giaches de Wert

paragraphs: Giaches de Wert (pronounce: JYA-kes de VERT) (born Flanders, 1535; died Mantua, 6 May 1596) was a Flemish composer who lived and worked in Italy. He was one of the most important composers of madrigals in the Renaissance period.

paragraphs: We know very little about his childhood. Even some of the things about his adult life we are not sure about. He was born in Flanders, possibly in Ghent. When he was a boy he was taken to Italy and he stayed there for the rest of his life.

paragraphs: As a boy he was a singer in the household of Maria di Cardona, Marchesa of Padulla, near Naples. As a young man he lived in Novellara. He married there, and he had at least six children.

paragraphs: Later he went to live in Milan where he had the job of maestro di capella (music director). He stayed there until 1565. Some letters he wrote during that time have survived. They describe life at the court where he worked.

paragraphs: In 1565 he went to work for the Gonzaga in Mantua and became choir master at the ducal chapel of S. Barbara where he stayed until 1592. A lot of people were jealous of his good job, especially a man called Bonvicino who made life difficult for him. It was then found that Bonvicino was having a love affair with de Wert’s wife, so she had to go back to live in Novellara.

paragraphs: De Wert was becoming a very well known composer. He was offered a job at the emperor’s palace in Prague, but he did not take it. He travelled to work in various places such as Parma and Novellara. In Novellara his wife was found to have been plotting against the Gonzaga of Novellara. She was put in prison where she later died. There were long arguments in the law court about who should have her property. In the end, de Wert was given a third of her possessions, and he was given the right to let his children inherit the money.

paragraphs: He worked in Ferrara where he had a love affair with a lady who was of aristocratic birth. Since he was only a musician he was only a servant, so the lady was sent away from the court.

paragraphs: In his later years he worked for the court at Mantua where the music had become very good because the new ruler, Vincenzo Gonzaga, was very interested in music. De Wert composed music for the theatre. His health became poor. He suffered from malaria during the early 1580s. He died in Mantua and was buried in the crypt at S Barbara.

paragraphs: De Wert wrote over 230 madrigals and other secular works. These were later published in 16 volumes. He also wrote over 150 sacred pieces (motets, hymns etc.) which showed how well he could write counterpoint.

paragraphs: His madrigals were very modern for their time. The music was very daring in the way it described the words. He sometimes used small groups of singers to contrast with one another like a musical conversation. He was a great influence on later madrigal composers such as Monteverdi and Gesualdo.


title: San Gimignano

paragraphs: San Gimignano is a small hill town in the province of Siena, Tuscany, Italy. San Gimignano is famous for the medieval towers, and for the wine, called "Vernaccia di San Gimignano".

paragraphs: San Gimignano was founded as a small village in about 1300 BC by the Etruscans. The city is named after Saint Geminianus, who defended it from Attila the Hun in the mid 5th century.

paragraphs: In medieval and Renaissance times, it was a stopping point for pilgrims on their way to Rome and the Vatican as it sits on the medieval via Francigena.

paragraphs: In 1199, during the period of its highest splendour, the city made itself independent from Volterra.

paragraphs: There are many churches in the town: the two main ones are the "Collegiata", a cathedral, and "Sant'Agostino".

paragraphs: The Communal Palace is now the home of San Gimignano Gallery. Hhere there are works by Pinturicchio, Benozzo Gozzoli, Filippino Lippi, Domenico di Michelino, Pier Francesco Fiorentino, and others.

paragraphs: The heart of the town contains the four squares, "Piazza della Cisterna", "Piazza Duomo", "Piazza Pecori", and "Piazza delle Erbe".

paragraphs: San Gimignano is the birthplace of the poet Folgore da San Gimignano (1270-1332).

paragraphs: "Tea with Mussolini", a 1999 drama about English and American women in Italy during World War II, was filmed in part at San Gimignano.


title: Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection of Germany

paragraphs: The Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMELV) is a ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany. Its headquarters are in Bonn, but it has a second seat in Berlin.

paragraphs: The Ministry was formed on 22 November 2005.

paragraphs: The ministry has two "parliamentary permanent secretaries", Gerd Müller, CSU and Ursula Heinen, CDU, and the top civil servant is Gert Lindemann. He is the "established permanent secretary".

paragraphs: The ministry’s work is done in six departments

paragraphs: The ministry organizes the nationwide competition "Our Village has a Future".


title: Gorduno

paragraphs: Gorduno was a municipality, in the municipality of Bellinzona and the district Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Grancia

paragraphs: Grancia is a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Gravesano

paragraphs: Gravesano is a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: ACF Fiorentina

paragraphs: ACF Fiorentina "(Associazione Calcio Fiorentina e Florentia Viola)",often called Fiorentina, is an Italian professional football club from Florence, Tuscany, and was founded in 1926.

paragraphs: Fiorentina have won the Serie A twice, first in 1955/56 then again in 1968/69, as well as winning six Coppa Italia trophies. On the European stage Fiorentina have won the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1960/61, they finished runners-up in the UEFA Cup 1989/90 and they also came close to winning the biggest European prize, finishing as runners-up in the European Cup during 1956/57.

paragraphs: Fiorentina is known by the nickname "La viola"; a reference to their distinctive purple colours.

paragraphs: August 26 1926 - With the fusion of "Palestra Ginnastica Fiorentina (P.G.F.) Libertas" and "Club Sportivo Firenze", Fiorentina was born.

paragraphs: 1939 - 1940 - Fiorentina wins their first cup, the Coppa Italia.

paragraphs: 1955 - 1956 - FIorentina win their first "Scudetto", (the Italian championship).

paragraphs: 1920 - 1961 - 2th "Scudetto" is won by Fiorentina.

paragraphs: After the second "Scudetto", Fiorentina won the Cup Winners' Cup.

paragraphs: 1960 - the club win the "Coppa Italia" and the Mitropa Cup

paragraphs: 1974 - the "Viola" win the Anglo-Italian League Cup.

paragraphs: 1975 - the team won another "Coppa Italia".

paragraphs: 1993 - 1994 - Fiorentina were relegated to the Serie B (second division).

paragraphs: Afterwards the team return to the Serie A

paragraphs: 1996 - Fiorentina gained their 3rd "Coppa Italia".

paragraphs: 2000 - Fiorentina win the "Italian Super Coppa".

paragraphs: 2001 -2005 - The team is struck by financial problems, and are moved to the bottom of Italian Football. They then work their way back up to the Serie A.


title: Gresso

paragraphs: Gresso is a former municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

paragraphs: The municipality was made in 1882 by splitting from the municipality of Vergeletto. On 10 April 2016 the former municipalities of Gresso, Isorno, Mosogno and Vergeletto merged to form the municipality of Onsernone.


title: Gudo

paragraphs: Gudo is a former municipality of the district Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

paragraphs: On 2 April 2017 the former municipalities of Camorino, Claro, Giubiasco, Gnosca, Gorduno, Gudo, Moleno, Monte Carasso, Pianezzo, Preonzo, Sant'Antonio and Sementina merged into the municipality of Bellinzona.


title: Indemini

paragraphs: Indemini is a former municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 25 April 2010 the former municipalities of Caviano, Contone, Gerra Gambarogno, Indemini, Magadino, Piazzogna, San Nazzaro, Sant'Abbondio and Vira Gambarogno merged to form the new municipality of Gambarogno.


title: Intragna, Switzerland

paragraphs: Intragna was a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 25 October 2009 the former municipalities of Borgnone, Intragna and Palagnedra merged into the new municipality of Centovalli.


title: Iragna

paragraphs: Iragna is a former municipality of the district Riviera in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 2 April 2017 the former municipalities of Cresciano, Iragna, Lodrino and Osogna merged into the new municipality of Riviera.


title: Iseo, Switzerland

paragraphs: Iseo was a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. It was incorporated into the "comune" of Bioggio in 2008.


title: Isone

paragraphs: Isone is a municipality of the district Bellinzona in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Isorno

paragraphs: Isorno is a former municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

paragraphs: The former municipality was created in 2001 by a merger of Auressio, Berzona and Loco. On 10 April 2016 the former municipalities of Gresso, Isorno, Mosogno and Vergeletto merged to form the municipality of Onsernone.


title: Lamone

paragraphs: Lamone is a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Lavertezzo

paragraphs: Lavertezzo is a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Lavizzara

paragraphs: Lavizzara is a municipality of the district Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

paragraphs: The municipality was created in 2004 by a merger of Broglio, Brontallo, Fusio, Menzonio, Peccia and Prato-Sornico.


title: Ligornetto

paragraphs: Ligornetto is a former municipality of the district Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 14 April 2013 the former municipalities of Besazio, Ligornetto and Meride merged into the municipality of Mendrisio.


title: Linescio

paragraphs: Linescio is a municipality of the district Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: Ministry of Economics and Technology of Germany

paragraphs: The Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology () is a Federal Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany. It was founded 1949 as the Federal Ministry of the Economy.

paragraphs: It was combined in May 1971 with the Federal Ministry of Finance to make the Federal Ministry of Economics and Finance. This joining only lasted until December 1972.

paragraphs: In 1998 the technology area of the Ministry of Research and Development was given to the ministry so that it was called Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology. It was joined with the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs to make the Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour between 2002 and 2005.

paragraphs: The new Federal Government of Angela Merkel split the two areas so that there is a Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology again.

paragraphs: To do its job, the ministry is divided into nine departments, the central division deals with administration, the other divisions deal with a certain area of policy. There are also some independent agencies which report to the ministry

paragraphs: Economics 1949 to 1998 (1971/72: Federal Ministry of Economics and Finance)

paragraphs: The ministry had many junior ministers, one who has gone on to a more important political job is Norbert Lammert, CDU, who was parliamentary permanent secretary between 1994 and 1997. Lammert became President of the Bundestag in 2005

paragraphs: Of the ministry's top civil servants, called the "established permanent secretary", Klaus von Dohnanyi is best known. He was established permanent secretary in 1968 and 1969. He is a famous economist and was "First Mayor" of Hamburg

paragraphs: Federal Minister for Economy and Technology 1998 to 2002

paragraphs: Federal Minister for Economics and Labour 2002 to 2005

paragraphs: Federal Minister for Economics and Technology since 2005

paragraphs: Federal Minister for Economic Affairs and Energy, since 2013

paragraphs: The main headquarters of the ministry is in Invalidenstraße in Berlin-Mitte. It is number of buildings which used to be the Kaiser Wilhelm academy (armed forces medical school) and the old hospital. The second headquarters of the ministry is the old Gallwitz barracks in Bonn-Duisdorf.


title: Ministry of Education and Research of Germany

paragraphs: The Federal Ministry of Education and Research () (BMBF) is a Federal Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany. The headquarters of the Ministry are in the so-called "cross buildings" (Kreuzbauten) in Bonn, a second office is in Berlin.

paragraphs: The Federal Ministry of Education and Science was founded as the "Federal Ministry for Nuclear Affairs" on October 20, 1955. It was renamed the "Federal Ministry of Nuclear Affairs and Water-supply and Distribution" in 1957, and again in 1962 to Federal Ministry of Scientific Research.

paragraphs: It became the "Federal Ministry for Education and Science" in 1969 which it kept 1994 up to the reunification with the Federal Ministry of Research and Technology.

paragraphs: The Federal Ministry of Research and Technology had been founded only 1972.

paragraphs: The Ministry got its present name in 1998.


title: Locarno

paragraphs: Locarno is the capital of the Locarno district in the Swiss canton of Ticino.


title: Lodrino, Switzerland

paragraphs: Lodrino is a former municipality of the district Riviera in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 2 April 2017 the former municipalities of Cresciano, Iragna, Lodrino, and Osogna merged to form the new municipality of Riviera.


title: Losone

paragraphs: Losone is a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.


title: New Musical Express

paragraphs: The New Musical Express (better known as the NME) is an Indie and pop music magazine in the United Kingdom. It has been published every week since March 1952. It was the first British magazine to include a singles chart.

paragraphs: The magazine's first issue was published on 7 March 1952. It was first published in a non-glossy tabloid format on standard newsprint.

paragraphs: During the 1960s, the magazine championed the new British groups emerging at the time. The Beatles and The Rolling Stones were frequently on the front cover a lot. These and other artists would also appeared at the NME Poll Winners Concert, an awards event that featured artists voted as most popular by the NME's readers. The concert also featured an awards ceremony where the poll winners would collect their awards.

paragraphs: The later part of the 1960s, the magazine began to report about psychedelia as well as the continuation of articles about British groups of the time.

paragraphs: In early 1972, with the magazine on the verge of closure by its owners, But a new person became editor and the paper's coverage changed radically from an uncritical to something intended to be smarter, hipper, more cynical and funnier than any mainstream British music paper had previously been (an approach influenced mainly by writers).

paragraphs: In mid-1973, the paper was selling nearly 300,000 copies per week and was outselling its other weekly rivals, "Disc", "Record Mirror" and "Sounds".

paragraphs: The year 1976 saw Punk Rock arrive on the music scene and "NME", like other "specialist" publications, was slow in reporting and covering this new music phenomenon. In an attempt to boost sales, the paper advertised for a pair of ""hip young gunslingers"" to join their editorial staff. This resulted in the recruitment of two journalists who made sure the magazine was completely up to date on this new music style. Bands who a few months previously had been criticising the "NME" were now eager to be included.

paragraphs: The magazine also became more openly political during the time of Punk. Its cover would sometimes feature youth-oriented issues rather than a musical act.

paragraphs: Sales were dropping, and by 1985 "NME" had hit a rough patch and was in danger of closing again. During this period, the editors at the magazine were split between those who wanted to write about hip hop, a genre that was relatively new to the UK, and those who wanted to stick to rock music. Sales were apparently lower when photos of hip hop artists appeared on the front and this led to the paper suffering as the lack of direction became even more apparent to readers.

paragraphs: The late eighties and early nineties had a generally weak rock scene in the UK and the paper was forced into giving a high profile to long forgotten bands like Kingmaker and the Railway Children.

paragraphs: By the end of 1990, although the magazine still supported new British bands, the paper was dominated by American bands, because that was what the music scene in general was about.

paragraphs: Although the period from 1991 to 1993 was dominated by American bands like Nirvana, this did not mean that British bands were being ignored. The "NME" still covered the Indie scene a lot.

paragraphs: By 1992, some new British bands were beginning to appear. "Suede" were quickly hailed by the paper as an alternative to the heavy Grunge sound and hailed as the start of a new British music scene. Indie however was still the dominant force, but the rise of new British bands would become something the paper would focus more and more upon.

paragraphs: In April 1994 Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain was found dead, a story which affected not only his fans and readers of the "NME", but would see a massive change in British music. Grunge was about to be replaced by Britpop , a new form of music influenced by British music of the 1960s and British culture. The phrase was coined by "NME" after the band Blur released their album "Parklife" in the same month of Cobain's death. Britpop began to fill the musical and cultural void left after Cobain's death, and Blur's success, along with the rise of a new group from Manchester called Oasis saw Britpop gather popularity for the rest of 1994. By the end of the year Blur and Oasis were the two biggest bands in the UK and sales of the "NME" were increasing thanks to the Britpop effect.

paragraphs: 1995 saw the "NME" cover many of these new bands and saw many of these bands play the "NME Stage" at that years Glastonbury Festival where the magazine had been sponsoring the second stage at the festival since 1993.

paragraphs: The new millennium saw the "NME" focus on new British bands such as Franz Ferdinand and the Kaiser Chiefs who emerged as "indie music" continued to grow in commercial success. This commercial success has led to bands such as the Arctic Monkeys being both successful in the extreme and being championed by the NME; a phenomenon not seen since Britpop.

paragraphs: In December 2005 accusations were made that the "NME" end of year poll had been edited for commercial and political reasons. These criticisms were rebutted by McNicholas, who claimed that webzine Londonist.com had got hold of an early draft of the poll.

paragraphs: In 2006 NME won the CocaCola best magazine this century award.

paragraphs: Its first editor was Brendan Fitzgerald. Later Anthony Thornton redesigned the site, focusing on music news. The website was awarded Online Magazine Of The Year in 1999 and 2001 and Anthony Thornton was announced as Website Editor Of The Year on three occasions.

paragraphs: It was awarded 'Best Music Website' at the Record Of The Day awards in October 2005. In 2006 NME.COM celebrated with a party at London's KOKO featuring Leicester band Kasabian and was subsequently awarded the BT Digital Music Award for Best Music Magazine and the first 'Chairman's Award' from the Association of Online Publishers awarded by the Chairman, Simon Waldman.

paragraphs: In 2007 NME.COM was launched in the USA with additional staff and plans to launch its Breaking Bands contest and the NME Awards across the Atlantic.

paragraphs: The site now provides news, reviews, gig listings, and videos as well as featuring downloads, merchandising and message boards.

paragraphs: The website over the last year has shifted it focus to also include tabloid gossip alongside its traditional music news. With regular news articles entitled "Daily Ligger" and "Tabloid Hell."

paragraphs: In 2007 NME.com had a free download from the Verve, and it was the first songs the Verve released since they got back together.


title: Pedernales Province

paragraphs: Pedernales is a Dominican province; it is in the southwestern part of the country, on the border with Haiti. Its capital city has the same name, Pedernales.

paragraphs: It was created on 16 December 1957. It was a municipality of the Barahona province before being elevated to the category of province.

paragraphs: The province was named after the Pedernales river; this river forms the southern border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. And the river is named Pedernales because the mineral flint () is common in the region.

paragraphs: Some native groups lived close to the coast and the River Pedernales before the conquest of the island by European people. But very few people has lived in the region, for most of its history, because it is a very dry region.

paragraphs: In his second travel to America, Christopher Columbus sighted and named part of the present island, including the Beata and Alto Velo islands, that are part of the province.

paragraphs: Until the 20th century, the only people living here were Haitians and many places have French names. Sometimes, during the Dominican-Haitian War (1844-1856), Haitian soldiers came across this region because there were not Dominican soldiers. The only fight between soldiers of the two countries in the territory of the present province was close to the "El Can" bay, near the town of Juancho, on 6 January 1856.

paragraphs: Since colonial times, the territory was part of the Azua province until it was changed to the Barahona when Barahona became a province in 1881. The province of Pedernales was created in 1957 with the municipalities of Pedernales, its capital, and Oviedo.

paragraphs: Juancho became a municipal district in 1998 and José Francisco Peña Gómez Oviedo in 2005.

paragraphs: The Pedernales province is in the southwest of the country. It is bordered to the north by the province of Independencia, to the northeast by Barahona, to the east, south and west by the Caribbean Sea. To the west Pedernales borders the Republic of Haiti.

paragraphs: In (last national census), there were people living in the Pedernales province, and 20,345 () living in towns and cities. The population density was persons/km².

paragraphs: Its population represents of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 32nd (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province, the province with fewest people living in it and with the lowest population density.

paragraphs: , the total estimated propulation of the province is 33,755 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The largest city of the province is Pedernales, its head municipality or capital, with an urban population (in ) of 13,077 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The Pedernales province has a total area of . It has of the area of the Dominican Republic and it is ranked as the 7th (out of 31 plus the National District) largest province.

paragraphs: The province is in the Barahona Peninsula. The "Sierra de Bahoruco" ("Bahoruco mountain range") is in the northern half of the province; its highest mountain, and the highest mountain of the province, is "Loma del Toro", above sea level, in the limits with the Independencia province.

paragraphs: The rest of the province is formed by savannas and plains of limestone rocks. The savannas are close to the coast, as the Sansón Savanna in Oviedo and the Pedernales Savanna around the city of Pedernales.

paragraphs: Several small islands belong to the province. The main islands are Beata and Alto Velo.

paragraphs: The altitude of Pedernales, provincial capital, is above sea level.

paragraphs: The only important river is the Pedernales river, with its tributary Mulito. The Pedernales river marks the Dominican-Haitian border.

paragraphs: There are several lagoons (a lagoon is a small lake close to the sea) with brackish water. The most important is the "Laguna de Oviedo", on the eastern coast and near the town of Oviedo, with an area of . On the western coast, the most important lagoon is "Laguna Salada", with an area of .

paragraphs: The climate of the province is tropical, hot most of the year, but it is cooler on the mountains. It is very dry in the savannas and plains, with long droughts, but rains are common in the high mountains.

paragraphs: There are two municipalities and two municipal districts (M.D.) in the province.

paragraphs: As in all border provinces in the Dominican Republic, there is little economic development. The trade with Haiti is important, above all in the capital city. On the mountains, coffee and beans are important products. Potato, cabbage and other vegetables are produced in the Sierra de Bahoruco.

paragraphs: Fishing is also an important activity in the province, mainly close to the Beata Island, where lobster, conch and several kind of fishes are caught.

paragraphs: Because of the beautiful beaches of the western coast of the province, like "Bahía de las Águilas" ("Eagles Bay"), tourism is becoming an important economic activity. There are two of the largest national parks of the country: the "Jaragua National Park" and the "Sierra de Bahoruco National Park".

paragraphs: The development of the province was produced by the mining of bauxite (an aluminium ore) but, since 1984, it has changed to the mining of limestone to send to other countries and for a cement factory.


title: Wolfenstein 3D

paragraphs: Wolfenstein 3D is a 1992 first person shooter computer video game. The game was created by id Software. It was released for the PC on May 5, 1992. It was later released for many other systems including Apple computers and Nintendo's SNES console and Game Boy Advance handheld system. "Wolfenstein 3D" was one of the first first person shooter games. It is said to have created much of the popularity in this type of game. The game was based on the 1980s Muse Software computer games "Castle Wolfenstein" and "Beyond Castle Wolfenstein".

paragraphs: In "Wolfenstein 3D", the player controls an American soldier named BJ Blazkowicz. The player is trying to get out of a building controlled by Nazis during World War II. The player must avoid guards and dogs while looking for the way out. Food, medical supplies, ammunition and weapons can be found along the way to help the player.

paragraphs: There are four types of weapons in the game:

paragraphs: Because of the use of Nazi symbols and music in the game, "Wolfenstein 3D" was banned in Germany. This was because it broke German laws. People also complained about the player having to shoot dogs in the game.


title: Deceiver

paragraphs: Deceiver is the fourth album by American musician Chris Thile, which was released in 2004. The album uses thirty-nine different instruments, which were all played by Thile alone. Some of the instruments played on the album include mandolin, piano, bass guitar, electric guitar, violin, and different types of percussion instruments. In 2005, the album was nominated a Grammy Award, for "Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical" to "Deceiver"'s engineers, Thile and Gary Paczosa.

paragraphs: In an interview from 2007, Chris Thile described what he had in plan for "Deceiver":

paragraphs: All songs on "Deceiver" were written by Chris Thile.


title: My Trach Massacre

paragraphs: The My Trach Massacre was the murder of many people in My Trach Village, My Thuy Commune, Le Thuy District, Quang Binh Province, Vietnam. The massacre took place on 29 November 1947 between 2:00 a.m. and 12:00 p.m. Soldiers of the French army killed nearly half of the 320 people who lived in the village. Many of the civilians who were killed were women, old people and children.


title: Anti-submarine boom net (Sydney Harbour WWII)

paragraphs: The Anti-submarine boom net was used to stop enemy submarines entering Sydney Harbour during World War II. The net went all the way across the harbour from Green Point, Watson's Bay to Georges Head on the other side. The boom was part of the Sydney Harbour defences which also included artillery batteries and patrol boats.

paragraphs: In January 1942, the Australian defence forces began to build the anti-submarine boom net; it was finished in August 1942. For more than three years, entry by boats, ships and ferries into Sydney Harbour was through one of three different gates that were a part of the anti-submarine boom net.

paragraphs: On 31 May 1942, during WWII, three Japanese submarines tried to get into the harbour. The first submarine to try and come in was the M27. Lieutenant Jahai Chuma was the man in charge of this submarine. The M27 followed a Sydney ferry through the gate on its way to Manly, but it got caught in the western end of the net's middle section. Lieutenant Chuma, tried to free his submarine by using a special tool that cuts metal, but this only made things worse. By 8:30pm the watchman for the Maritime Service Board, James Cargill, went to see what was happening. He used a boat to row across to where the submarine was stuck. Very surprised at finding a Japanese submarine, Cargill called naval headquarters with his two way radio. At first the navy did not believe that there was a Japanese Midget submarine caught in the boom net. It took him two hours to get them to believe him.

paragraphs: By 10:27pm, Chuma knew that he had been discovered, so he blew up the submarine using bombs, killing himself and his crew. The two other submarines got through the boom net, which at the time was not quite finished. They attacked shipping for many hours before they were destroyed as well.

paragraphs: In August 1945, the boom net was taken away. By early 1946, only the dolphin structure was left. The base of the winch house is the only remaining part of the anti-submarine boom net. It can still be seen at Green Point.


title: Eurotrash (term)

paragraphs: Eurotrash is an American English slang term to describe stereotypical Europeans. These words often will cause rage to the European.


title: Adele

paragraphs: Adele Laurie Blue Adkins, (born 5 May 1988), better known simply as Adele, is an English singer, songwriter, musician, and multi-instrumentalist.

paragraphs: Adele graduated from The BRIT School in Croydon in May 2006. In July 2006, Adele published two songs on the fourth issue of online arts magazine PlatformsMagazine.com. After graduation, Adele began to play small shows at places all over Britain. She has also toured with best friend Jack Peñate, as well as Jamie T, Raul Midon, Devendra Banhart, Amos Lee and Keren Ann since summer 2006. Adele went on her first UK headlining tour in October 2007.

paragraphs: Adele's first single released was "Hometown Glory""." On it, she sings about Tottenham. The album was released on 22 October 2007 on Jamie T's label Pacemaker Recordings. It is a limited edition 7" vinyl with B-side "Best for Last". She has since signed to independent music label XL Recordings. In January 2008, she released her second single "Chasing Pavements""."

paragraphs: Adele has become quite popular on MySpace. She is following the example of fellow Londoner Lily Allen by using the web as a mediafocus and a place to see what people think of her songs. Adele performed "Daydreamer" on BBC2's "Later With Jools Holland," alongside Paul McCartney and Björk. She was next on BBC1's "Friday Night with Jonathan Ross" on 7 December 2007, singing "Chasing Pavements."

paragraphs: On 10 December 2007, Adele was awarded with the first BRIT Awards Critics’ Choice prize. She has been called the "new Amy Winehouse." In January 2008, she was voted winner in the annual BBC 6 Music poll of industry experts "Sound of 2008," for acts to emerge in the coming year.

paragraphs: In 2011 Adele released her second album, "21", named after her age at the time it was made. It was number one in more than 26 countries. It became the biggest selling album of the 21st century.

paragraphs: Her third studio album, "25", was released on 20 November 2015 and debuted at number one all around the world. The music video for the lead single "Hello", which also debuted at number one in many countries, broke the record for the shortest amount of time for a YouTube video to reach one billion views. The song was also certified 4× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America faster than any other song in history. To date, it has been certified 7× Platinum by the RIAA.

paragraphs: In October 2012, Adele gave birth to her son, Angelo, with her then-boyfriend, Simon Konecki. In 2013 she won an Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and the Brit Award for Best British Single for the title track for the James Bond movie "Skyfall". The song also won the award for Best Song for Visual Media at the Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: On December 19, 2013, Adele was given an MBE by the Prince of Wales.

paragraphs: In 2017, Adele confirmed that she is married to Konecki. In April 2019, it was reported that the two ended their marriage.

paragraphs: The Grammy Awards are awarded each year by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States for outstanding achievements in the music industry. Some think they are the highest music honor.

paragraphs: As of February 13, 2017, Adele has received 15 Grammy Awards from 18 nominations. In 2012, Adele became the second female artist to win six awards in one night, after Beyoncé Knowles did in 2010. Adele is only the second artist (following Christopher Cross) to have won all four of the General Field ("Big Four") awards at the Grammys.


title: Hair straightening

paragraphs: Hair straightening is when a person makes their hair straighter. Their hair may be curly, wavy, or almost straight. There are methods to make even very curly hair straighter.

paragraphs: There are two different types of straightening: temporary and permanent. Temporary hair straightening keeps the hair straight until it gets wet or damp again, so only lasts for up to a few days. Permanent hair straightening keeps the hair straight for up to a few months, even when the hair gets wet.

paragraphs: A person can temporarily straighten their hair using:

paragraphs: A person can permanently straighten their hair using:


title: Hair iron

paragraphs: A hair iron or hair tong is something people use to change the shape of the hair by heating it. There are three types of hair iron:

paragraphs: In 1872, Marcel Grateau (a Parisian) used heated rods to curl or style hair.

paragraphs: In 1893, Ada Harris, a school teacher from Indianapolis, applied for a patent for the hair straightener. The hair straightener was a device “heated like a curling iron” with two flat faces held together by a hinge . It was said that when the faces press the hair, it will become straight.” Harris's invention also had a comb, which would keep different parts of the hair separated.

paragraphs: Simon E. Monroe patented a hair straightener in 1906 that was like a metal comb.

paragraphs: In 1909, Issac K. Shero patented a hair straightener made of two irons that are heated and put together around the hair.

paragraphs: Years later, Sharrell made heated metal tools, for example: hot combs. The hot metal straightener went easily through the hair, making less damage and dryness than the way things were done before. Later, ceramic and electrical straighteners were made, meaning people could adjust the heat settings and straightener size.

paragraphs: Another method of hair straightening is Japanese hair straightening, which was invented in Japan, and works like a perm, but to straighten instead of curl the hair. It is now given at many salons but is quite expensive and must be re-done after it stops working.

paragraphs: Some better hair straighteners today have ceramic coated heating parts, which harm the hair less, and heat up faster than non-ceramic coated heating parts. Cheaper brands do not often have ceramic, but some have a paint-like coating that looks like ceramic plating. Cordless flat irons use lithium battery that can last up to 45 minutes, and other is heated by thermacell butane gas cartridge.

paragraphs: Lots of more expensive hair straighteners use ionic and infra red technology, which helps to keep moisture and oils in the hair, and to stop static and frizz.

paragraphs: Depending on the hair type, repeated use of hair straighteners, like most other heat styling tools, can cause varying amounts of damage such as split ends, thinning of the hair shaft and even causing hair to become brittle and prone to breakage. Generally, after extensive damage, hair will show signs of dryness and display an unhealthy appearance. However, many companies, such as L’Oréal and Tresemmé, have began to manufacture heat protection sprays and cream which aim to reduce the amount of damage that is caused by the use of straighteners.

paragraphs: Hair straighteners should only be used on dry hair, unless they are specially made with vents to let the moisture out. These sort of irons are usually called "Wet Dry" irons.

paragraphs: Based on the materials used in the heating plates, hair irons can be classified as ceramic, tourmaline and traditional metal flat iron. Ceramic hair irons are believed to be gentle to the hair.

paragraphs: Hair straighteners work by breaking the hair's hydrogen bonds, which are part of what make the hair curly. After the bonds are broken, the hair is stopped from going back to its original, natural, curly form. The hydrogen bonds can re-form if moisture touches them, such as water or dampness.


title: Intel Core

paragraphs: Intel Core is the name of a family of 32-bit dual-core microprocessors. It was made by the technology company Intel. Intel Core processors are based on Pentium M technology. Those processors are more advanced than Intel P6 processors. This architecture, or way to build a processor, is now replaced by Core 2 microarchitecture. In the Core family, there are two groups: the Duo (with two cores) and Solo (Duo with one disabled core). The Solo line replaced the Pentium M one-core processor.

paragraphs: September 2006 and January 4, 2008 were times when many Core CPUs stopped selling.

paragraphs: Yonah is a company name for Intel's first generation of microprocessors for mobile computers. The Core Duo was released on 5 January 2006. It was the first Intel processor to be used in Apple Inc.'s Macintosh computers. Yonah does not have 64-bit function.

paragraphs: The Intel Core Duo has two cores, 2 Mebibytes of L2 cache for both cores, and an arbiter bus that controls the L2 cache and front side bus access.

paragraphs: The Intel Core Solo uses two-cores die as a Core Duo, but one core is turned off.

paragraphs: The duo version of Intel Core (Yonah) has two cores, which give performance per watt almost as good as single-core processors. In computer machines operating with batteries, this means getting as much total work done in one battery charge like in old computers.

paragraphs: The shortcomings of Intel Core (Yonah) are:

paragraphs: Core-based processor Intel Xeon Sossaman LV (low-voltage), for servers also does not have the Intel 64-bit function. All new server systems have support for x86-64, and Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 even requires a 64-bit processor to run.

paragraphs: On July 27, 2006, Intel released newer Core version Intel Core 2.


title: Geographer

paragraphs: A geographer is a scientist whose area of study is geography.

paragraphs: That is the study of Earth's physical environment and human habitat.

paragraphs: Geographers are historically known as people who make maps. Nowadays map making is the field of study of cartography, a subset of geography. The geographer studies not only the physical details of the environment. He looks at the influence of this physical environment as well. Therefore he looks at human and wildlife ecologies, weather and climate patterns, economics, and culture. He will concentrate on the influence space has for relationships between these elements.

paragraphs: The National Geographic Society sees five broad key themes for geographers:


title: Rod

paragraphs: Often as an abbreviation of such names as Roderick and Rodney:


title: Chakra

paragraphs: A chakra is an energy center in the human body as taught in Indian yoga and some related cultures. Chakras are also believed in by some New Age adherents. Chakra means ‘Aneel or wheel' in Sanskrit.

paragraphs: A chakra is an area in the body connected with life energy. There are seven chakras in the body - each is an interface for the flow of life energy. A chakra vitalizes a physical body and is associated with interactions of a physical or mental nature. Current science is not able to detect or measure chakras.

paragraphs: Although there are various interpretations as to what exactly a chakra is, the following features are common in all systems:

paragraphs: The seven main chakras are described as being present in an ascending column from the base of the spine to the head. The chakras are usually connected with a certain color. Each chakra is also connected with some part of consciousness.

paragraphs: The following seven primary chakras are commonly described:


title: Scalp

paragraphs: The scalp is the anatomical area between the face and the neck.

paragraphs: It is usually described as having five layers, which can be remembered with the mnemonic "SCALP":


title: Maltese people

paragraphs: The Maltese people, or Maltese, are a nation and ethnic group native to Malta, an island country made of a group of seven islands in the Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: People have lived in Malta since around 5200 BC with the first people living there coming from Sicily. An important prehistoric Neolithic culture marked by Megalithic structures was on the islands, which were made a thousand years before the Pyramids of Giza, which means they were very old. The Phoenicians in the Mediterranean took over Malta from about 1000 BC, using the islands to expand their sea explorations and trade in the Mediterranean, until the Carthaginians took over and also expanded in the Mediterranean, but these were also defeated by the Romans in 216 BC.

paragraphs: Malta was then ruled by Byzantine, a Greek group that took over almost all of the Mediterranean, from the 4th to 9th century. Sometime around this point, the Vandals, a German tribe, ruled the islands. The islands were at one point invaded by the Arabs in AD 870. They allowed the people to believe in Christianity, and did not have children with the population, so they did not change much on the island, but they showed them citrus fruits and cotton, and water-moving systems. They hardly had any effect on the island or its people while they were there, but one thing that they did effect was the language. The Maltese language gained a lot from this.

paragraphs: From the advent of the Normans in 1090 to 1530, Malta was part of the 'Kingdom of Sicily'. This means that from 1091 to 1530, when the Order of St. John came to Malta, the original Sicilian population that moved there from Sicily in the beginning got bigger.

paragraphs: The French under the rule of Napoleon took over Malta in 1798. The British helped the Maltese to stop the French control two years later. The people of Malta were very happy that the British did this, and wanted Britain to rule it. As part of the 'Treaty of Paris' (1814), Malta became a colony in the British Empire.

paragraphs: Malta became a separate country from everyone on 21 September 1964 (Independence Day). Under the 1964 rules, Malta originally kept Queen Elizabeth II as the Queen of Malta, with a Governor-General working on her behalf in Malta. On 13 December 1974 (Republic Day), it became a republic within the Commonwealth, with the President as head of state. Malta joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 and joined the Eurozone on 1 January 2008.

paragraphs: Historians and Geneticists currently do not know where the Maltese people came from. The answer is difficult to find because of several things, such as Malta's invasions, with long parts in time where the population got smaller, before other people from the Mediterranean moved to Malta and married the Maltese. One unusual example of this is the exile to Malta of all of the male population from the town of Celano (Italy) in 1223, the stationing of a Norman and Sicilian garrison on Malta in 1240, the expulsion from Malta of Arabs (presumably, those who refused to convert to Christianity) commencing in 1245, the arrival of several hundred Catalan soldiers in 1283, the European repopulation of Malta that began in the 13th century,

paragraphs: the settlement in Malta of noble families from Sicily and Aragon between 1372 and 1450, the arrival of several thousand Greek and Rhodian sailors, soldiers and slaves with the Knights of St. John, the introduction of several thousand Sicilian labourers in 1551 and again in 1566, the emigration to Malta of some 891 Italian exiles during the Risorgimento in 1849, and the posting of some 22,000 British servicemen in Malta from 1807 to 1979.

paragraphs: Historical and ethnic studies published and promoted by the various ruling classes during their governance over Malta provide little, if any, valuable guidance on the question of Maltese ethnicity, given that their conclusions appear to have been driven, in large part, by political expediency. Hence, Maltese history books published during the rule of the Knights of St. John, at a time when Malta and Gozo suffered repeated "razzias" at the hands of the Ottomans and Barbary corsairs, promoted the myth of a continuous, Roman Catholic, native Maltese population, that somehow survived despite the Arab conquest of Malta and the depopulation that followed. Studies and reports published during the British colonial period promoted the theory of Phoenician origins, in an attempt to distinguish the Maltese from their Sicilian and Italian neighbours, or in the case of the Catholic Church, to distinguish the Maltese from the Arab peoples that controlled Malta prior to the liberation of Malta by the Normans. By contrast, history books published during the Mintoff years following Independence began to question the earlier beliefs in a continuous, indigenous population of Christian Maltese and, in some cases, quietly promoted the theory of closer cultural and ethnic ties with North Africa. This new development was noted by Boissevain in 1991:

paragraphs: "...the Labour government broke off relations with NATO and sought links with the Arab world. After 900 years of being linked to Europe, Malta began to look southward. Muslims, still remembered in folklore for savage pirate attacks, were redefined as blood brothers."

paragraphs: This latter development coincided with and reflected dramatic new (but short-lived) developments in Maltese foreign policy: Western media reported that Malta appeared to be turning its back on NATO, the United Kingdom, and Europe generally; Libya had loaned several million dollars to Malta to make up for the loss of rental income which followed the closure of British military bases in Malta; Malta and Libya had entered into a "Friendship and Cooperation Treaty", in response to repeated overtures by Gaddafi for a closer, more formal union between the two countries.

paragraphs: Some recent studies carried out by geneticists Spencer Wells and Pierre Zalloua of the American University of Beirut collected samples of Y-chromosomes from men living in the Middle East, North Africa, southern Spain, and Malta, places the Phoenicians are known to have settled and traded. According to the study, more than half (50%) of the Y chromosome lineages that are seen in today's Maltese population could have come in with the Phoenicians. As to why there is such a significant genetic impact, Wells could only speculate, ""but the results are consistent with a settlement of people from the Levant within the past 2,000 years, and that points to the Phoenicians.""

paragraphs: The Phoenician background of the Maltese suggests possible tenuous cultural, religious, and linguistic links to Lebanese Maronites, (whom are also descended from Phoenicians revealed during National Geographic's Special), who speak a variety of Arabic, and are Christian. .

paragraphs: This "Phoenician origins" theory has been contradicted by at least one major study, which found that ""the contemporary males of Malta most likely originated from Southern Italy, including Sicily and up to Calabria,"" and that ""[t]here is a minuscule amount of input from the Eastern Mediterranean with genetic affinity to Christian Lebanon."" One of the authors of this study commented as follows on the Wells/Zalloua study:

paragraphs: ""We are aware of conflicting conclusions published as an interview in the popular National Geographic magazine. Despite an intensive search we cannot find them reproduced in the mainstream scientific literature. We consider that data somewhat flawed, and furthermore, unsound. National Geographic is not a peer-reviewed academic journal and thus the weight of the evidence is poor compared to other peer-reviewed academic journals that are also in the public domain. One cannot be comfortable with data that have not passed the scrutiny of peer review..."

paragraphs: "[I]t seems to me that the simplest explanation that cannot be excluded by any of the scientific data thus far available is that Malta was indeed barely inhabited at the turn of the tenth century."

paragraphs: "Repopulation is likely to have occurred by a clan or clans (possibly of Arab or Arab-like speaking people) from neighbouring Sicily and Calabria. Possibly, they could have mixed with minute numbers of residual inhabitants, with a constant input of immigrants from neighbouring countries and later, even from afar. There seems to be little input from North Africa.""


title: Perm (hairstyle)

paragraphs: A permanent wave, commonly called a perm, is the chemical treatment of hair to produce .

paragraphs: The first chemical treatment for curling hair that was suitable for use on people was invented in the year 1906 by the German hairdresser Karl Nessler (1872-1951). He used a mixture of cow urine and water. The first public demonstration took place on October 8, 1906, but Nessler had been working on the idea since 1896. Previously, wigs had been set with caustic chemicals to form curls, but these recipes were too harsh to use on human skin.


title: Audiophile

paragraphs: An audiophile is a person who cares about how good music sounds on a stereo or other high fidelity sound system. An audiophile is interested in how to improve the sound quality of sound recordings, such as vinyl records and Compact Discs, as well as the equipment used to listen to recordings such as CD players, amplifiers and loudspeakers.

paragraphs: Audiophiles are always looking for ways to improve their sound system. There are discussion forums, magazines and clubs for audiophiles to share their ideas.

paragraphs: Some audiophiles believe that differences should be able to be measured in a scientific way. This type of audiophile is called an "objectivist".

paragraphs: Other audiophiles believe that "what sounds better" or "more musical" may not be measurable. They rely mostly on their own ears and preferences. This type of audiophile is called a "subjectivist".

paragraphs: Audiophile is also used as an adjective in descriptions of audio equipment and recorded music, where it is intended to imply high quality.


title: Barbelo

paragraphs: Barbelo is a goddess in Gnosticsm. She is also called Thought, Providence, Forethought, or Foreknowledge. She is believed to be the first emanation of Bythos.

paragraphs: In the Apocryphon of John, a writing in the Nag Hammadi Library, Barbelo is described as "The first power, the glory, Barbelo, the perfect glory in the aions, the glory of the revelation."

paragraphs: "This is the first thought, his image; she became the womb of everything, for it is she who is prior to them all, the Mother-Father, the first man (Anthropos), the holy Spirit, the thrice-male, the thrice-powerful, the thrice-named androgynous one, and the eternal aeon among the invisible ones, and the first to come forth."

paragraphs: The Gnostic account of Barbelo is quite similar to Tantric thought. In Kashmir Shaivism, Shakti is similarly the second Tattva or first emanation of Shiva.


title: Perm

paragraphs: Perm (, pronounced:pʲɛrʲmʲ) is a city and administrative center of "Perm Krai", Russia. It lies on the banks of the Kama River, at the foot of the Ural Mountains.

paragraphs: Perm is one of the largest cities in Russia, with 976,116 (2006 est.) inhabitants, fewer than the 1,001,653 recorded in the 2002 Census and 1,090,944 recorded in the 1989 Census.

paragraphs: In geology, the Permian period takes its name from the region.

paragraphs: From 1940 until 1957, the city was named Molotov (), after Vyacheslav Molotov.

paragraphs: Perm is divided into seven city districts:

paragraphs: The city is a major administrative, industrial, scientific, and cultural center. The leading industries include machinery, defence, oil production (about 3% of Russian output), oil refining, chemical and petrochemical, timber and wood processing and the food industry.

paragraphs: There is one international airport in Perm Bolshoye Savino (Big Savino).

paragraphs: Perm is also served by the smaller airport "Bakharevka".

paragraphs: Perm's public transit network includes streetcar (tram), bus, and trolleybus routes.

paragraphs: Perm is the sister city of (twinned with):


title: Bodhicitta

paragraphs: In Buddhist thought, bodhicitta is the motivation of a bodhisattva. The word "bodhicitta" combines the words for enlightenment "(Bodhi)" and mind "(Citta)". It is sometimes translated as "mind of enlightenment".

paragraphs: Bodhicitta is taught to be the intent to become enlightened, not for oneself, but for the benefit of "all" beings.


title: Dakini

paragraphs: In Hinduism and Buddhism, a dakini is a female being like a goddess. They are mostly found in Tibetan Buddhism.Chinese: 空行母, Pinyin: Kōngxíng Mǔ and 狐仙,Pinyin:Hú xian ;明妃,Pinyin:Míng fēi｝ The dakini inspires spiritual practice. A dakini is often depicted as beautiful and naked. The nakedness represents the freedom of the mind.

paragraphs: The Chinese and Tibetan terms for "dakini" literally mean "she who travels in the sky"; this is sometimes written poetically as "sky dancer". Their bodies are depicted curved in sinuous dance poses.

paragraphs: Dakinis are associated with energy. They are linked with the revelation of the path of transformation. They help people to change the energy of negative emotions, called poisons "(kleshas)", into enlightened awareness.

paragraphs: Images tend to show the dakini as a young, naked figure in a dancing posture, often holding a skull cup filled with menstrual blood or the elixir of life in one hand, and a curved knife in the other. She may wear a garland of human skulls, with a trident staff leaning against her shoulder. Her hair is usually wild and hanging down her back, and her face often wrathful in expression, as she dances on top of a corpse, which represents her complete mastery over ego and ignorance.

paragraphs: Tibetan Buddhists believe that a Dakini gave a black hat to the third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje (1284 - 1339), when he was three years old. The Black Crown became the emblem of this Tibetan lineage known as the Karma Kagyu.


title: Dattatreya

paragraphs: Dattatreya is the God who is an incarnation of the Divine Trinity Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. The word Datta means "Given", Datta is called so because the divine trinity have "given" themselves in the form of a son to the sage couple Guru Atri and Mata Anusuya. He is the son of Guru Atri, hence the name "Atreya."

paragraphs: In the Nath tradition, Dattatreya is seen as an Avatar or incarnation of the Lord Shiva and as the Adi-Guru (First Teacher) of the Adi-Nath sampradaya of the Nathas. Although Dattatreya was at first a "Lord of Yoga" with Tantric traits, he was adapted and assimilated into the more devotional cults; while still worshiped by millions of Hindus, he is approached more as a benevolent God than as a teacher of the highest essence of Indian thought.

paragraphs: Though the Dattatreya of the Natha tradition coexisted and intermingled with the Puranic, Brahmanical tradition of the Datta sampradaya, here we shall focus almost exclusively on the earlier Tantric manifestation of Datta. Shri Gurudev Mahendranath had no doubt that Dattatreya was an historical figure. He stated that Datta was born on Wednesday, the fourteenth day of the full moon in the month of Margasirsa, though he does not mention the year.

paragraphs: Dattatreya left home at an early age to wander naked in search of the Absolute. He seems to have spent most of his life wandering in the area between and including North Mysore, through the Maharashtra, and into Gujarat as far as the Narmada River. He attained realization at a place not far from the town now known as Ganagapur. The original footprints of Datta are believed to be located on the lonely peak at Mount Girnar. The "Tripura-rahasya" refers to the disciple Parasurama finding Datta meditating on Gandhamadana mountain.

paragraphs: The "Tripura-rahasya (The Secret of [the Goddess] Tripura)" is believed to be an abbreviated version of the original "Datta Samhita" or "Dakshinamurti Samhita" traditionally ascribed to Dattatreya. This more lengthy work was summarized by Dattatreya's disciple Parasurama, whose disciple, Sumedha Haritayana, scribed the text. Thus, this text is sometimes referred to as the "Haritayana Samhita".

paragraphs: The "Tripura-rahasya" is divided into three parts. The first part, the "Mahatmya Khanda" or section on the goddess is concerned with the origin, mantra and yantra of the Goddess Tripura, also known as Lalita or Lalita Tripurasundari. The "Jnana Khanda" or section on knowledge elaborates on the themes of consciousness, manifestation, and liberation. The last part, "Charya Khanda" or section on conduct, has been lost and some believe destroyed.

paragraphs: Another work, the "Avadhuta Gita (Song of the Free)" is a wonderful, compete compilation of the highest thought given to and recorded by two of Dattatreya's disciples, Swami and Kartika. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) held it in high esteem. Originally a work of seven chapters, a spurious and misogynistic eighth chapter may be a later attempt to append sexual morality to the Natha tradition by a conservative ascetic. Some of the ideas in this Gita are however common to both Shaivite and Buddhist Tantras.

paragraphs: The "Markandeya Purana" reports that Dattatreya, to free himself of all attachments, dove into a lake where he stayed for many years. By doing so, he also hoped to evade an assembly of Munis who remained on the banks of the lake awaiting his return. Datta emerged from the water naked in the company of a beautiful woman. The text relates that he made love with her (maithuna), drank liquor, and enjoyed singing and music. In spite of this, the Munis did not abandon him, and Dattatraya, accompanied by his shakti, continued to engage in these practices and was meditated on by those longing for moksha.

paragraphs: In the "Bhagavata Purana" Dattatreya enumerates a list of his twenty-four gurus: earth, air, sky / ether, water, fire, sun, moon, python, pigeons, sea, moth, bee, bull elephant, bear, deer, fish, osprey, a child, a maiden, a courtesan, a blacksmith, serpent, spider, and wasp. The image of the Natha ranged from that of a siddha living in the woods with animals, to that of a frightening, even demonic, being.

paragraphs: In "The Pathless Path to Immortality", Shri Gurudev Mahendranath writes:

paragraphs: "Shri Dattatreya was a dropout of an earlier age than the period when Veda and Tantra merged to become one simple cult. It was men like Dattatreya who helped to make this possible. Three of his close disciples were kings, one an Asura and the other two both belonging to the warrior caste. Dattatreya himself was regarded as an avatar of Maheshwara (Shiva) but later was claimed by Vaishnavites as the avatar of Vishnu. Not such a sectarian claim as it appears; Hindus regard Shiva and Vishnu as the same or as manifestations of the Absolute taking form."

paragraphs: Indeed, the "Dattatreya Upanisad", which opens proclaiming Dattatreya's identity with Vishnu, ends with the mantra "Om Namah Shivaya", identifying Datta with Shiva. In the last portion of the third chapter, Mahesvara (Shiva) alone is said to pervade reality and shine in every heart of man. He alone is in front, behind, to the left, to the right, below, above, everywhere the center. Finally, Mahesvara is identified with Dattatreya, depicting the latter as an Avatar of Shiva.

paragraphs: Dattatreya is usually depicted with three heads, symbolising Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva; past, present, and future; and the three states of consciousness: waking, dreaming, and dreamless sleep. He is portrayed sitting in meditation with his shakti beneath the "audumbara" (wish-fulfilling) tree. In front of him is a fire pit, and around him are four dogs. These are sometimes said to symbolise the four Vedas.


title: Gnosticism

paragraphs: Gnosticism comes from the which means knowledge.

paragraphs: Some religions and sects mostly in the few hundred years before and after Jesus are said to be gnostic or practice gnosticism.

paragraphs: This is because these religions believe that there is a special, hidden knowledge that only a few people may have.

paragraphs: There are two problems finding out a lot about believers in gnosticism:

paragraphs: Gnosticism says that humans are divine souls trapped in the ordinary physical (or "material") world. They say that the world was made by an imperfect spirit.

paragraphs: The imperfect spirit is thought to be the same as the God of Abraham. The imperfect spirit may be seen as evil, or sometimes just not perfect but doing the best it can.

paragraphs: The real God who is good, is distant and not easy to know. In order to get free from the material world, a person has to get "gnosis". That is the special secret knowledge given only to a few special people.

paragraphs: Some Gnostic groups saw Jesus as sent by the supreme being, to bring "gnosis" to the Earth.


title: Grigori Rasputin

paragraphs: Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin (; ;  – ) was a Russian peasant, and a mystical faith healer.

paragraphs: He was not a monk who lived in a monastery, but a religious pilgrim. In 1904 he arrived in the capital St Petersburg. The Tsar and Tsarina talked many times with Rasputin and asked for advice as he became their spiritual guide.

paragraphs: Rasputin had a lot of influence over Tsarina Alexandra, the wife of Tsar Nicholas II, the emperor of Imperial Russia. Alexandra believed that Rasputin was the answer to her worries. Her only son, Tsarevich Alexei, the heir to the throne was very sick. He had hemophilia. It caused heavy bleeding and pain in his groin and legs each time he fell. Rasputin calmed the boy and the parents. From then on, Alexandra believed Rasputin was the only person who could heal her son with his prayers.

paragraphs: Because of this, the Tsar and his family began to trust Rasputin more with important decisions on politics. Rasputin did not support the Tsar when he decided to lead his country into World War I. In July 1914, during a stay in his home village, he was stabbed in his belly by a female conspirator Khioniya Guseva. After seven weeks, Rasputin recovered and went back to the capital. There he lived with his two daughters, who went to school in the capital.

paragraphs: In August 1915, the Tsar decided to lead the country's army himself, and replace his cousin Grand Duke Nikolai. Almost nobody supported him, except Alexandra and Rasputin. Many Russian politicians and nobles became very worried about Rasputin's influence. While the Tsar was at the front, Alexandra and Rasputin took many bad decisions. They proposed to the Tsar, extremely shy and weak-willed, the replacement of several ministers with ones that supported peace. At the end of 1916, Imperial Russia was in a chaotic state. In the big cities there was almost nothing to eat or heat. All the trains were used to supply the army. Some politicians in the parliament decided to attack Alexandra and Rasputin. Their goal was to go on with the war, even though there were heavy losses and a lack of weapons and ammunition.

paragraphs: In the night of 30 December 1916, Rasputin was led into the Yusupov palace's basement. He was offered wine. When he got drunk, he was shot twice by Prince Felix Yusupov. One shot went into his right kidney and then into his spine. He climbed some stairs and staggered out of the palace through a back door. Rasputin was shot again in the courtyard. To be sure he was dead, he was shot in the forehead at close range. (Nobody knows who fired that shot.) Grand Duke Dmitri drove the conspirators to the Neva River. There they dropped his body from the bridge. In the meantime, Prince Felix had killed his favorite dog, to cover the blood in the courtyard. A few days later Rasputin's body, completely frozen, was found stuck in the ice. The next day the corpse was buried in a park next to the Alexander Palace. After the February Revolution, the new leaders decided to dig up his body to prevent it from becoming a place of worship; and eventually burned it.


title: Grimoire

paragraphs: Grimoire is a book of witchcraft or paranormal magic. The word is pronounced "grim-warr", which rhymes with "guitar".

paragraphs: The word is a mistaken way of saying "grammar". It probably started being used in a time when not many people could read. Then any book might be thought to contain instructions for magic.

paragraphs: In the religion of Wicca other forms of Neopaganism, such a book is sometimes called a "Book of Shadows".


title: NVIDIA

paragraphs: NVIDIA Corporation is an American based multinational corporation (has branches in many countries). They make graphics processors technologies for computers and small mobile devices (for example: smartphones). The company, based in Santa Clara, California, is supplies electronic chips for motherboard chipsets, smart phones' graphic controller, graphics processing units (GPUs), and game consoles. NVIDIA product lines include: GeForce, Quadro, and nForce (chipsets).

paragraphs: "NVIDIA", is a combination of two parts: n (usually used as a mathematical variable) and video (Latin: to "see").

paragraphs: NVIDIA was established in 1993 by Jen-Hsun Huang, Curtis Priem, and Chris Malachowsky. In 2000 NVIDIA took intellectual possession of 3dfx, one of the biggest GPU producers in 1990s.

paragraphs: On December 14, 2005, NVIDIA purchased ULI. At that time ULI supplied 30% Southbridge parts for chipsets to ATI), NVIDIA's competitor. In March 2006, NVIDIA bought the company Hybrid Graphics.

paragraphs: On January 5, 2007, the company announced their acquisition of PortalPlayer, Inc.

paragraphs: In December 2006 NVIDIA, along with its main rival in the graphics industry AMD, received subpoenas from the Justice Department. This was regarding possible antitrust violations in the graphics-card industry.

paragraphs: Forbes magazine called NVIDIA "Company of the Year for 2007" for accomplishing company goals in last 5 years.


title: Hermeticism

paragraphs: Hermeticism is the study and practice of occult philosophy and magic. The name comes from the fact that the first books about Hermeticism are said to have been written by the god Hermes Trismegistus ("Thrice-Greatest Hermes"), who combines aspects of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian god Thoth.

paragraphs: Hermeticism is also connected with astrology and alchemy. These beliefs were strong in Europe during the Renaissance. The Hermetic Corpus was translated by Marsilio Ficino in 1463 and published in 1471. At this time, the Hermetic Corpus was thought to be older than both Plato and Pythagoras.

paragraphs: In 1614, Isaac Causabon showed that the texts were actually written sometime between 200 and 300 AD. This view was based on careful study of the way language was used in the original writings.

paragraphs: Hermeticism was revived in the 19th century in Western Europe. The most famous group involved in this revival was the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.


title: Illuminati

paragraphs: The Illuminati (the “enlightened ones”) was a late 18th century German political secret society. Adam Weishaupt, a Bavarian philosopher and lawyer, started the secret society on the 1st of May 1776 at the university of ingolstat. In 1785 it was outlawed in Bavaria.

paragraphs: Originally, they opposed superstition, prejudice, religious influence over public life, and abuses of state power. They supported women’s education and gender equality.

paragraphs: Later, other groups formed using the same name. There is no evidence that these present-day groups have any significant power or influence. They promote themselves using the Bavarian Illuminati to attract membership.


title: Simputer

paragraphs: The Simputer is a small, cheap device, similar to personal digital assistant (palmtop). The unique feature of this device is a smart-card interface which allows a single Simputer to be used by many users. User's private datas might be kept on a cheap smart-card. This device was constructed by Indian company- Simputer Trust. The name stands for "Simple computer".

paragraphs: The Simputer project was invented during the organization of the Global Village, an International Seminar on Information Technology for Developing Countries. It was conducted in October 1998. The discussion was about big need for a low-cost mass access device which will bring local-language IT to the masses. During inventing a name for new established original device, the purpose was to find complex acronym to fit the name Simputer. Thus Simputer is a Simple, Inexpensive, Multi-lingual comPUTER. Later it was expanded to Simple, Inexpensive Multi-lingual People's compUTER. Now it is also called "computer for the masses".

paragraphs: It is architecturally similar to the Linux Advanced Radio Terminal and the Intel StrongARM reference platform. It has processor Intel StrongARM 200+ MHz, 64MB of RAM, 32MB Flash ROM and may use cheap smart-cards with capacity 8KB. It has also USB connectivity and software modem so might be connect to the internet. 320x240 LCD interface in Simputer is with a touch panel overlay on liquid-crystal display. Operating system runs on a version of the Linux Kernel (computer science). Type of the software used in Simputer is text-to-speech. This tool may use speakers and microphone because it has special jacks. It has also built-in Infrared Data Association (IrDA) port. The device is powered by 3 AAA sized NiMH batteries.

paragraphs: The Simputer Trust has licensed to manufacturers to produce devices based on the Simputer. These companies are: PicoPeta Simputers and Encore Technologies.

paragraphs: The tool developed is very generic and has similarities to many other countries. It is ideally suited for developing and under developed countries like: India, Azerbaijan, Mauritius, Mongolia, Ghana, Uzbekistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Thailand or Vietnam.


title: Stonewall UK

paragraphs: Stonewall UK is a gay rights organisation in the United Kingdom which was named after the Stonewall riots.

paragraphs: It was created in 1989 by Labour Party members who were trying to change section 28 of the Local Government Act. Many famous people, such as Sir Ian McKellen and Michael Cashman were among those who made it. Stonewall is in London. Stonewall Scotland has offices in Edinburgh and Glasgow and Stonewall Cymru is based in both Cardiff and Bangor in North Wales.

paragraphs: Stonewall showed ideas for change to the government. It did not start out as a membership organisation. Since Labour came into power in 1997, however, it has now become active in developing policy (political ideas) to protect the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people.

paragraphs: Some of Stonewall's best known early work was backing legal test cases in the European Court of Human Rights. These included:

paragraphs: In the last few years it was successful in parliamentary lobbying. Its previous director Angela Mason (1992 to 2002) was awarded an OBE "for services to homosexual rights". Under her direction, Stonewall persuaded parliament to change the 2002 Adoption and Children Bill so that lesbian and gay couples were treated the same as heterosexuals. Under its current Chief Executive, Ben Summerskill, it was closely involved in successful parliamentary campaigns to repeal Section 28 of the Local Government Act (2003); make attacks on gay people separate crimes (that is, "anti-gay hate crimes"), through the Criminal Justice Act 2003; introduce the Civil Partnership Act 2004 giving gay and lesbian couples "civil union" almost the same as a civil marriage; and introduce the "2007 Sexual Orientation Regulations" under the Equality Act 2006, to stop discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation.

paragraphs: Stonewall helps 300 big employers across Britain by giving advice and support to lesbian and gay staff. These companies include IBM, Credit Suisse, the Inland Revenue and the Royal Navy.

paragraphs: The "Education for All" campaign was started in 2005. Stonewall and 70 other organsiations help to stop homophobic bullying in British schools. Section 28 of the Local government Act made any sort of teaching about homosexuality difficult, and the Education for All campaign started after section 28 was repealed.

paragraphs: Grass-roots activists such as Peter Tatchell have accused Stonewall of allowing discrimination by holding regular meetings of celebrities and politicians. The meetings were supported by big businesses such as HSBC, even though HSBC is accused of dismissing someone because of their sexual orientation.

paragraphs: Stonewall supported the Civil Partnership bill. Many other groups did not, and they formed a group called the "Coalition for Marriage Equality", saying that the new Civil Partnership Bill made a separate yet equal system "not unlike apartheid". Many LGBT people who were not part of these groups liked the bill, and Stonewall got a lot of new members. Now Stonewall gets more money from its 10,000 individual supporters than it does money from its business supporters.