title: Western Athletic Conference

paragraphs: The Western Athletic Conference (WAC) is a group of colleges and universities, mostly in the Western United States, that play NCAA Division I sports against one another each season.

paragraphs: The WAC currently has 10 member schools:

paragraphs: Its future is now in serious question due to a wave of departures set for July 2013.

paragraphs: The WAC was formed in 1962 by six western schools—the University of Arizona, Arizona State University, Brigham Young University (BYU), the University of New Mexico, the University of Utah, and the University of Wyoming. Three other schools, the University of Oregon, Oregon State University, and Washington State University, were part of the original discussions, but chose to join what is now the Pacific-12 Conference. New Mexico State and Utah State applied for charter membership, but were turned down, and would not join until 2005.

paragraphs: The WAC grew to eight members in 1967, when Colorado State University and the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) joined. However, in the 1970s, massive population growth in Arizona led to the two Arizona schools dominating the conference, especially in football. Arizona and Arizona State left for the Pacific-8 Conference in 1978, which then became the Pacific-10 (now the Pacific-12). The WAC reloaded by adding San Diego State University in 1978, the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (Hawaiʻi) in 1979, and the United States Air Force Academy (Air Force) in 1980. This nine-team lineup defined the WAC for the next 15 years.

paragraphs: In 1990, the WAC added women's sports when it absorbed the High Country Athletic Conference, a women's sports conference that included most of the schools then in the WAC. Two years later, California State University, Fresno (Fresno State) joined the WAC. Several years later, the demise of the Southwest Conference (SWC) led to many schools changing conferences. In 1996, six schools joined the WAC. Three of them—Rice University, Southern Methodist University (SMU), and Texas Christian University (TCU)—were from the SWC. The others were San Jose State and the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), both from the Big West Conference, and the University of Tulsa from the Missouri Valley Conference. At the same time, Air Force and Hawaiʻi brought their women's sports into the WAC. These moves meant that the WAC now had 16 members.

paragraphs: Most of the pre-1990 members were soon unhappy in a 16-team league. The conference now ranged from Hawaii to Oklahoma, spanning five time zones and , making travel costs a major concern. In 1999, the conference split largely along pre-1990 and post-1990 lines. Seven of the pre-1990 members—Air Force, BYU, Colorado State, New Mexico, San Diego State, Utah, and Wyoming—joined with newcomer UNLV to form the Mountain West Conference (MW).

paragraphs: The post-breakup WAC quickly added a new member in the University of Nevada, Reno (Nevada), which joined from the Big West in 2000. Later that year, the Big West announced that it would no longer play football. Four of that conference's schools—Boise State University, the University of Idaho, New Mexico State University, and Utah State University—wanted to keep playing football. Boise State was immediately accepted by the WAC, joining in 2001. Louisiana Tech University also joined the WAC alongside Boise State. The three other Big West football schools did not join the WAC at that time.

paragraphs: Later in the 2000s, the WAC was affected by another wave of conference realignment. After the Big East Conference lost three of its members to the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) in 2004 and 2005, it reloaded by "raiding" Conference USA (C-USA). In turn, C-USA sought new members from other conferences, and four WAC schools—Rice, SMU, TCU, and Tulsa—accepted invitations to join C-USA in 2005. The WAC responded by adding the three other schools that had played Big West football (Idaho, New Mexico State, and Utah State).

paragraphs: Another major cycle of conference realignment began in 2010 when the Big Ten Conference and the then-Pacific-10 announced plans to expand. This started a chain of moves that affected all eleven conferences that play football in the top-level Division I FBS. No conference was more affected than the WAC, whose future as a Division I conference is now in serious doubt.

paragraphs: The first move affecting the WAC came in June 2010. After the MW lost Utah to the Pacific-12, Boise State accepted an invitation to join the MW in 2011. Two months later, BYU also left the MW, which responded by inviting two WAC members, Fresno State and Nevada. Both accepted, and would leave for the MW in 2012.

paragraphs: In November 2010, Denver, Texas State, and UTSA were invited to join the WAC in 2012, with all accepting. In the same month, Hawaiʻi announced it would leave the WAC in 2012 to join the Big West for most sports and the MW for football. The summer of 2011 saw two other schools accept invitations to join in 2012—Seattle and UT Arlington. These moves meant that for the first time in WAC history, the conference would have non-football members, as Denver, Seattle, and UT Arlington do not have football teams. One month later, Boise State announced that it would rejoin the WAC for most of its sports in 2013, with its football team moving to the Big East.

paragraphs: However, the WAC suffered major blows in spring 2012, with five members stating they would leave in July 2013. Three of the new 2012 members will spend only one year in the WAC—UTSA will join C-USA, and Texas State and UT Arlington will move to the Sun Belt Conference. Louisiana Tech will also join C-USA, while San Jose State and Utah State will join the MW. Making matters worse for the WAC, Boise State decided not to join the WAC in 2013, instead choosing to put its non-football sports in the Big West.

paragraphs: These moves will leave the WAC with four members in 2013—fewer than the six required by the NCAA for full Division I membership.


title: Wilhelm Wundt

paragraphs: Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (August 16 1832– August 31 1920) was a German medical doctor, psychologist, physiologist, and professor. Together with William James, he is regarded as the father of psychology. In 1879, Wundt founded the one of first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig, and the first journal for psychological research in 1881.


title: Bean machine

paragraphs: The bean machine, also known as the quincunx or Galton box, is a machine invented by Sir Francis Galton to demonstrate the law of error and the normal distribution.

paragraphs: The machine consists of a vertical board with interleaved rows of pins. Balls are dropped from the top, and bounce left and right as they hit the pins. Eventually, they are collected into one-ball-wide bins at the bottom. The height of ball columns in the bins approximates a bell curve.

paragraphs: Overlaying Pascal's triangle onto the pins shows the number of different paths that can be taken to get to each pin.

paragraphs: A large-scale working model of this device can be seen at the Museum of Science, Boston.


title: Regression analysis

paragraphs: Regression analysis is a field of statistics. It is a tool to show the relationship between the inputs and the outputs of a system. There are different ways to do this. Better curve fitting usually needs more complex calculations.

paragraphs: "Data modeling" can be used without knowing about the underlying processes that have generated the data; in this case the model is an empirical model. Moreover, in modelling, knowledge of the probability distribution of the errors is not required. "Regression analysis" requires assumptions to be made regarding probability distribution of the errors. Statistical tests are made on the basis of these assumptions. In regression analysis the term "model" embraces both the function used to model the data and the assumptions concerning probability distributions.

paragraphs: Regression can be used for prediction (including forecasting of time-series data), inference, hypothesis testing, and modeling of causal relationships. These uses of regression rely heavily on the underlying assumptions being satisfied. Regression analysis has been criticized as being misused for these purposes in many cases where the appropriate assumptions cannot be verified to hold. One factor contributing to the misuse of regression is that it can take considerably more skill to critique a model than to fit a model.

paragraphs: The first type of regression analysis was linear regression. The method of least squares was first published by Legendre in 1805 and in 1809 by Gauß. Both used the method to predict the movement of planets around the sun. Gauss published an improved method in 1821.


title: Forensic science

paragraphs: Forensic science (or forensics) is when different fields of science work together to answer the questions a lawyer would ask. Most often, forensics is about proving that someone was present at a place where a crime was committed. Specialists take "samples" which are later analyzed in a laboratory. Most forensic tests can take from 1 hour to one year, and investigators need to double (and triple) check the answer, so they know that the answer is the right answer. If a forensics team made a mistake the wrong person could be jailed, or they could get into trouble themselves.

paragraphs: Samples commonly taken include fingerprints. People also look for other things that could be used, for example a few hairs (or pieces of skin). Samples like hair or skin can be use for DNA testing, which allows to tell the gender of the person the hair is from, amongst others.

paragraphs: When someone is accused of committing the crime, these pieces of evidence can then be matched up. Then, if they are correct, the person is charged.


title: Fingerprint

paragraphs: A fingerprint is a trace of a human finger left on a surface. Human fingers have small structures on them (like mountains and valleys). These structures are unique in every human; they can be used as means of identification.

paragraphs: There are many different ways to take fingerprints. Forensic scientists use these techniques to identify a person.

paragraphs: Electronic fingerprint scanners became widespread in the early 21st century.


title: Physical cosmology

paragraphs: Physical cosmology is a branch of astronomy. It looks at large structures in the universe. It wants to explain how the universe came to be what it is today by using axioms of our current astronomy knowledge.


title: Ronald Fisher

paragraphs: Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher FRS (17 February 1890 – 29 July 1962) was an English statistician, evolutionary biologist, and geneticist. He was described as "a genius who almost single-handedly created the foundations for modern statistical science". Richard Dawkins described him as "the greatest of Darwin's successors".

paragraphs: In 1919 Fisher started work at Rothamsted Experimental Station at Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England. Here he started a major study of the extensive collections of data recorded over many years. This resulted in a series of reports under the general title "Studies in crop variation."

paragraphs: This began a period of great productivity. Over the next seven years, he pioneered the principles of the design of experiments and elaborated his studies of the analysis of variance. He studied the statistics of small samples. Perhaps even more important, he began his systematic approach of the analysis of real data as the springboard for the development of new statistical methods.

paragraphs: He began to pay particular attention to the labour involved in the necessary computations, and developed practical methods. In 1925, his first book was published: "Statistical methods for research workers". This went into many editions and translations in later years, and became a standard reference work for scientists in many disciplines. In 1935, this was followed by "The design of experiments," which also became a standard.

paragraphs: His work on the theory of population genetics made him one of the three great figures of that field, together with Sewall Wright and J.B.S. Haldane. He was one of the founders of the neo-Darwinian modern evolutionary synthesis. In addition to founding modern quantitative genetics with his 1918 paper, he was the first to use diffusion equations to attempt to calculate the distribution of gene frequencies among populations.

paragraphs: He pioneered the estimation of genetic linkage and gene frequencies by maximum likelihood methods. His 1950 paper on gene frequency clines is notable as the first application of a computer to biology.

paragraphs: Fisher had a long and successful collaboration with E.B. Ford in the field of ecological genetics. The outcome of this work was the recognition that the force of natural selection was often much stronger than had been appreciated. Many ecogenetic situations (such as polymorphism) were not selectively neutral, on the contrary, they were maintained by the force of selection.

paragraphs: Fisher was the original author of the idea of heterozygote advantage, which was later found to play a frequent role in genetic polymorphism. The discovery of indisputable cases of natural selection in nature was one of the main strands in the modern evolutionary synthesis.

paragraphs: Fisher was an ardent promoter of eugenics, and he held the Chair in Eugenics at University College London from 1933 until he moved to Cambridge University as Professor of Genetics in 1943.

paragraphs: Between 1929 and 1934 the Eugenics Society also campaigned hard for a law permitting sterilisation on eugenic grounds. They believed that it should be entirely voluntary, and a right, not a punishment. They published a draft of a proposed bill, and it was submitted to Parliament. Although it was defeated by a 2:1 ratio, this was viewed as progress, and the campaign continued. Fisher played a major role in this movement, and served in several official committees to promote it.

paragraphs: In 1934, Fisher moved to increase the power of scientists within the Eugenics Society, but was ultimately thwarted by members with an environmentalist point of view, and he, along with many other scientists, resigned.

paragraphs: Fisher wrote three books of great significance.

paragraphs: His book "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection" was started in 1928 and published in 1930, with a second edition in 1950. He developed ideas on sexual selection, mimicry and the evolution of dominance. He showed that the probability of a mutation increasing the fitness of an organism decreases proportionately with the magnitude of the mutation. He also proved that larger populations carry more variation and have a larger chance of survival. He set forth the foundations of what was to become known as population genetics.

paragraphs: About a third of the book concerned the applications of these ideas to humans, and presented the data available at that time. He presented a theory that attributed the decline and fall of civilizations to the fertility of the upper classes being low. Using the census data of 1911 for Britain, he showed that there was an inverse relationship between fertility and social class. This was partly due, he believed, to the rise in social status of families who were not capable of producing many children but who rose because of the financial advantage of having a small number of children.

paragraphs: Therefore he proposed the abolishment of the economic advantage of small families by instituting subsidies (he called them allowances) to families with larger numbers of children, with the allowances proportional to the earnings of the father. He himself had two sons and six daughters. According to Yates and Mather, "His large family, reared in conditions of great financial stringency, was a personal expression of his genetic and evolutionary convictions".

paragraphs: The book was reviewed, among others, by physicist Charles Galton Darwin, a grandson of Charles Darwin's. After his review, C.G. Darwin sent Fisher his copy of the book, with notes in the margin. The marginal notes became the food for a correspondence running at least three years. Fisher's book also had a major influence on W.D. Hamilton and the development of his theories on the genetic basis for kin selection.

paragraphs: "Statistical Methods for Research Workers" () is a classic 1925 book on statistics by Fisher. It is one of the 20th century's most influential books on statistical methods. According to Conniffe,

paragraphs: Ronald A. Fisher was "interested in application and in the popularization

paragraphs: of statistical methods... his early book "Statistical Methods for Research Workers", published in 1925, went through many editions and influenced the practical use of statistics in many fields of

paragraphs: Fisher's "Design of Experiments" (1935) was "also fundamental, [and promoted] statistical technique and application... The mathematical justification of the methods was not stressed and proofs were often barely sketched or omitted altogether ... [This] led H.B. Mann to fill the gaps with a rigorous mathematical treatment in his treatise".


title: Urla

paragraphs: Urla is a seaside town in the İzmir Province in Turkey.


title: Monash Freeway

paragraphs: The Monash Freeway is a major freeway in Melbourne. It lets cars drive from the CBD to the south-eastern suburbs.


title: The Art of War

paragraphs: The Art of War () is an ancient Chinese military text. It was written by Sun Tzu, a high-ranking military general, strategist and Taoist philosopher. The text contains 13 chapters. Each chapter covers one of warfare. The book was written over 2,500 years ago. "The Art of War" was one of the earliest books on Chinese warfare. It remains one of the best known and most influential books ever written. The book was widely copied in the ancient world. At first it was written on bamboo slats that were sewn together. It was read by politicians, scholars and military leaders. Translations of the book were first read in Japan and Korea. The oldest copy from Japan dates to the 8th century. It was translated into French in 1772 by a Jesuit named Jean Joseph Marie Amiot. The first translation into English was published by Lionel Giles in 1910. "The Art of War" was first translated into Russian in 1950. Due to the Russian knowledge of French culture is it probable they had copies in French much earlier. It is used today by business schools and militaries worldwide.

paragraphs: When Sun Tzu first wrote "The Art of War", it was not the first book on military tactics. He quotes from "The Book of Military Administration" by Chun Cheng. The quote is limited to the use of signal flags and drums to move soldiers. Chun cheng's book has not survived to the present day so little is known of what else was in it. But books of that time were based on rules of warfare that all sides followed. War was the sport of rich noblemen. The rules were based on chivalry. Sun Tzu refused to see war as a sport. He used Taoist principles and applied them to warfare. In doing this he changed the rules of war. Unlike generals who enjoyed long campaigns, he understood war was serious. Sun Tzu believed that once a war started, the goal was to defeat the enemy. Sun Tzu was unconventional in that he didn't follow the prevailing wisdom of his time. Other generals were simply unprepared for Sun Tzu's tactics. Sun Tzu mastered the art of being unpredictable in warfare.

paragraphs: In situations where a smaller weaker force is faced with a stronger larger force, Sun Tzu's tactics are very often successful. David and Goliath is a Biblical story of a weaker shepherd boy facing a giant who is a skilled warrior. David uses an unconventional weapon and slays Goliath. David refused to fight by Goliath's rules. Political scientist Ivan Arreguín-Toft did calculations on wars. He discovered that about a third of the time the weaker country actually wins.

paragraphs: "The Art of War" is credited by Mao Zedong as having helped him defeat Chiang Kai-Shek in the Chinese Civil War. Ho Chi Minh was a fan of Sun Tzu. He led the Communist Vietnamese in their fight against American-backed South Vietnam. American generals Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. and Colin Powell followed principals in "The Art of War" in the Gulf War.


title: Princes Freeway

paragraphs: The Princes Freeway is a freeway in Victoria, Australia. It links Geelong, Victoria to Traralgon, Victoria, via Melbourne, Victoria.


title: Conference USA

paragraphs: Conference USA, officially abbreviated C-USA, is a group of college sports teams that play each other on the NCAA Division I level. It was formed in 1995 when the Great Midwest Conference and Metro Conference merged, and has added several members since then. Most of the new members have come from either the Western Athletic Conference or the Sun Belt Conference. From 2005 to 2014, it also lost many members, mostly to the original Big East Conference and its football-playing offshoot, the American Athletic Conference.

paragraphs: The conference sends several teams to bowl games every year, including the Liberty Bowl and New Orleans Bowl.

paragraphs: Memphis (now a member of The American) has been the most successful men's basketball team in the conference, reaching the national championship game in 2008. (However, the NCAA later took Memphis's wins from that season away because a Memphis player, namely Derrick Rose, had not been eligible to play.)

paragraphs: Conference USA now has 14 "full members" which play most of their sports in the league; all except Rice are public schools. Also, 13 of the 14 schools play football in the top-level Division I FBS. The one non-football member, Charlotte, only started playing football in 2013, and will join the C-USA football league in 2015.

paragraphs: In football only, the schools are split into East and West Divisions. This allows the division winners to play a conference championship game.

paragraphs: C-ISA now has three "associate members", all of which play men's soccer in the conference.

paragraphs: No fewer than 14 schools have left C-USA since it was founded. Most of these schools are now members of the American Athletic Conference.

paragraphs: In addition to the former full members, 14 other schools have been associate members in the past, but have moved their C-USA sports elsewhere. Most notably, the United States Military Academy, more often called "Army" in a sports context, was a football member from 1996 to 2005 (final C-USA season in 2004).


title: Sewall Wright

paragraphs: Sewall Green Wright (21 December 1889 – 3 March 1988) was an American geneticist. He was a founder of population genetics, and contributed to evolutionary theory. He also did original work in statistics in a field called path analysis.

paragraphs: With R.A. Fisher and J.B.S. Haldane, he was a founder of theoretical population genetics. He is the discoverer of the inbreeding coefficient and of methods of computing it in pedigrees. He extended this work to populations, calculating the degree of inbreeding of members of populations as a result of random genetic drift. Together with Fisher, he pioneered methods for calculating the distribution of gene frequencies among populations as a result of the interaction of natural selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift. The work of Fisher, Wright, and Haldane on theoretical population genetics was a major step in the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis of genetics with evolution. Wright also made contributions to mammalian genetics and biochemical genetics.

paragraphs: What appears to happen in evolution is that the rate of change in any organism varies a lot. There seem to be times when change is rapid, and times when almost no change occurs.

paragraphs: Wright tried to explain "stasis", which is when no visible change occurs. His explanation was that organisms come to occupy "adaptive peaks". In order to evolve to another, higher peak, the species would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages. In other words, they get stuck on one peak, and can't get to another because getting there would make them less competitive.

paragraphs: Wright though getting to another peak might be possible. It might happen by genetic drift if the population is small enough. If a species was divided into small populations, some could find higher peaks. If there was some gene flow between the populations, these adaptations could spread to the rest of the species. This was Wright's "shifting balance theory" of evolution. There has been much skepticism among evolutionary biologists as to whether this happens in natural populations. Wright had a long standing and sometimes bitter debate about this with R.A. Fisher, who felt that most populations in nature were too large for the effects of genetic drift to be important. Research by Dobzhansky and E.B. Ford showed that natural selection in the field was a much stronger force that Wright had expected. Wright's own biographer now doubts the validity of Wright's idea.

paragraphs: An anecdote about Wright, disclaimed by Wright himself, describes a lecture during which Wright tucked an unruly guinea pig under his armpit, where he usually held a chalkboard eraser: at the end of the lecture, Wright absent-mindedly erased the blackboard with the guinea pig.


title: Tartan

paragraphs: Tartan is a pattern that has criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in many different colors.


title: Jeff Tesreau

paragraphs: Charles Monroe "Jeff" Tesreau (March 5, 1888 - October 24, 1946) was an American baseball player. Tesreau signed with a Minor League Baseball team of the St. Louis Browns in 1909. In 1910, his contract was bought by the New York Giants where he played Major League Baseball with.


paragraphs: "Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth" plays differently from the other games. The games in the "Ace Attorney" series are courtroom dramas, but "Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth" focuses on pointing and clicking around the area, moving Edgeworth around the crime scenes to find evidence.

paragraphs: When it was being developed, it was called "NEW Gyakuten NOT Saiban" because it used the same setting and characters, but different gameplay. It is being directed by Tsuyoshi Yamazaki instead of Shu Takumi, who directed the other games were. By April 2008, they said that the game was 40% complete.


title: Sun Belt Conference

paragraphs: The Sun Belt Conference is a group of college sports teams that play each other on the NCAA Division I level. The conference was formed in 1976, and started playing football in 2001. Of the current 12 full members (those playing most of their sports in the league), 10 play football in the top-level Division I FBS. The other two do not play football. The conference's full members are scattered through the southern United States.

paragraphs: The current non-football members are Little Rock and Texas–Arlington.

paragraphs: In the past, the Sun Belt has had "associate members" that play only a few sports, usually one, in the league. Since 2014, the league once again has had associate members. Currently, only one school is such a member, but a second will join in July 2019. Both schools either play or will play only in men's soccer.

paragraphs: Five schools have been single-sport Sun Belt members in the past, but no longer play those sports in the league.

paragraphs: The first school to abandon single-sport membership was Utah State, which played Sun Belt football in 2003 and 2004 before joining the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) in 2005. The Aggies have been members of the Mountain West Conference since 2013.

paragraphs: Idaho and New Mexico State had two different periods of involvement in the league. New Mexico State first joined the Sun Belt as a full member in 2000, and brought its football team into the Sun Belt the next year. Also in 2001, Idaho joined only for football. Both left in 2005 to join the WAC. During the early 2010s, NCAA Division I went through a major phase of conference changes, with most leagues gaining or losing multiple members. The WAC was one of the most affected conferences, going through a nearly complete membership turnover that left Idaho and New Mexico State as the league's only football schools. In 2014, both placed their football programs in the Sun Belt. The conference announced in 2016 that its agreements for Idaho and New Mexico State to play football in the league would not be renewed when they ended after the 2017 season.

paragraphs: NJIT (the New Jersey Institute of Technology) was another victim of this realignment; it was forced to become an independent (not in a conference) when its former league, the Great West Conference, collapsed. Its men's soccer team joined the Sun Belt in 2014, a year before the school found a home in the Atlantic Sun Conference (ASUN). Although the ASUN sponsors men's soccer, NJIT kept that team in the Sun Belt until 2016, honoring its two-year contract to play in that league.

paragraphs: The most recent change involved Hartwick, which had long competed in Division I men's soccer despite otherwise being in NCAA Division III. In 2018, Hartwick aligned completely with Division III, moving its men's soccer team to its full-time home of the Empire 8.


title: Mountain West Conference

paragraphs: The Mountain West Conference (abbreviated as either "MW" or "MWC") is a group of colleges and universities in the Western United States, who play NCAA Division I sports against one another. In football, the MW plays in the top-level Division I FBS.

paragraphs: The league was formed in 1999 when eight schools split from the Western Athletic Conference (WAC). Most of the original members had been members of the WAC before it grew from 10 schools to 16 in 1996.

paragraphs: Due to a major realignment of Division I conferences, the MW and Conference USA announced plans to merge into one conference, possibly for the 2013–14 school year. However, because of money issues, the conferences backed away from a full merger. They planned to form an alliance for scheduling and television purposes. After both conferences added more schools, they backed out of the planned alliance.

paragraphs: Eleven schools are "full members", meaning that they play almost all of their sports in the MW.

paragraphs: Two schools are "associate members", meaning that they play in the MW in some sports while playing most other sports in another league. Both schools play only one sport in the MW.

paragraphs: Two of the MW's first members, plus one school that joined later, are no longer in the conference.


title: Mid-American Conference

paragraphs: The Mid-American Conference (MAC) is a college sports conference whose full members are located in the Great Lakes region of the United States. It sponsors 11 men's sports and 12 women's sports at the NCAA Division I level. In football, the MAC is one of 10 conferences that play in the top-level Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS).

paragraphs: The MAC was founded in 1946 by five schools in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, but only one of the founding members, Ohio University, is still in the conference. All but two of its current full members are in those three states.

paragraphs: Currently, the MAC has 12 full members, all public schools, each of which competes in at least 15 MAC sports. Every member of the conference competes in football, baseball, men's and women's basketball, and the following women's sports: cross country, soccer, softball, indoor and outdoor track and field, and volleyball. In many sports, the conference is split into East and West Divisions.

paragraphs: The MAC has 19 "associate members" that play only one or two sports in the conference. Of these schools, only one has two sports in the MAC, and that school will move one of its two MAC sports to another conference in 2021. Another school will become an associate member in July 2021.

paragraphs: A major recent change in associate membership happened in 2019 when the MAC absorbed the Eastern Wrestling League, a single-sport conference that had existed since 1975. All seven of the EWL's final members thus became MAC associates.

paragraphs: The most recent changes to associate membership took place on July 1, 2020 when the MAC added three members in the new conference sport of women's lacrosse, along with one former wrestling member dropping the sport.

paragraphs: SIU Edwardsville, in full Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, will leave the MAC men's soccer league in 2021 to return to its former soccer home of the Missouri Valley Conference. It will remain a MAC member in wrestling.

paragraphs: Another change in associate membership was announced in June 2020. Bellarmine University, which started a transition from NCAA Division II to Division I that July, will join the MAC field hockey league in July 2021.


title: University at Buffalo

paragraphs: The State University of New York at Buffalo is a public university in Buffalo, New York. It is the largest university in a group called the "State University of New York" or "SUNY."

paragraphs: The Buffalo Bulls are the sports teams that play for the University at Buffalo. The NCAA Division I teams play in the Mid-American Conference. Their colors are blue and white. The mascot name is Victor E. Bull.

paragraphs: The football team plays in UB Stadium. Basketball plays in Alumni Arena. Baseball is played at Amherst Audubon Field.


title: Rock Band (video game)

paragraphs: Rock Band is a music video game developed by Harmonix Music Systems, published by MTV Games, and distributed by EA Distribution. It was released on the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, and the Wii.

paragraphs: This game comes with a guitar controller, a drum set, and a microphone. Up to four people can play the game on the screen, playing drums, vocals, bass, and guitar.


title: Excelsior of Brooklyn

paragraphs: The Brooklyn Excelsiors were an amateur baseball team that played in Brooklyn, New York. They formed in 1854.


title: Association of American Universities

paragraphs: The Association of American Universities (AAU) is a group of the leading research and education universities. Its members are 59 universities in the United States (both public and private) and two universities in Canada.

paragraphs: This is a list of colleges and universities in the Association of American Universities:


title: Charizard

paragraphs: Charizard (known as Lizardon in Japan) is a character of the Pokémon anime and video game series. Ash, one of the main characters in the series, owns a Charizard. Known as the Flame Pokémon, Charizards are violent yet honorable creatures, flying proudly around the sky and always looking for powerful enemies to fight with. Charizard is also the version mascot of Pokémon Red and FireRed versions, and makes an appearance on the boxarts of many other Pokémon games. During an interview, Pokémon Company president Tsunekazu Ishihara said that they knew Charizard would be popular with North Americans, because they like strong, powerful characters.

paragraphs: Charizards are orange dragon-like Pokémon that have two wings, that are blue on the front, and orange on the back. Its belly and soles are cream-colored, while their eyes are light blue. The video games say that Charizard's wings can bring it to 4,600 feet in the sky. They can breath very hot flames that can melt anything, although it will never torch a weaker enemy. Charizard also crush their enemies with its claws. Charizard are violent yet honorable creatures, flying proudly around the sky and always looking for powerful enemies to fight with. If a Charizard is angry, the flame at the tip of its tail can be a whitish-blue color. Because of their crazy behavior, Charizard are also known to cause wildfires by accident.They can easily fly well over 4,600 feet in the air.

paragraphs: Charizard has appeared many times in the Super Smash Bros. (series). Charizard first appears as a non-playable character in "Super Smash Bros." and "Super Smash Bros. Melee", as one of the Pokémon that come if a player uses a Poké Ball. In "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" Charizard is now playable, under the command of the Pokémon Trainer. The Trainer also has a Squirtle and an Ivysaur, that you can swich from at any time. It can use Flamethrower and Rock Smash. It also uses Fly and has the ability to glide. Charizard is a Heavyweight and attacks with many physical attacks. It uses Fire Blast in Pokémon Trainer's Final Smash, Triple Finish.

paragraphs: Described by the media as "a lean, ferocious, fire-breathing dragon [...] sleek, powerful, and utterly destructive", Charizard has been noted as one of the franchise's most popular characters. People who sell toys have noted that the high sales of merchandise related to the character to the popularity of the character's dragon-like design with children. Interviewed children have stated similar; they attributed its appeal to its "cool looking" appearance and associating the character with the concepts of stubbornness and power. GamesRadar described Charizard as "hands-down one of the coolest Pokémon out there", heavily praising its character design and calling it "one of the coolest" designs of the entire series. IGN editor "pokemonofthedaychick" called Charizard "certainly the most popular and perhaps the most well-balanced of any of the current starting Pokémon". The book "Pikachu's Global Adventure: The Rise and Fall of Pokémon" cited Charizard as popular with older male children who tend to be drawn to "tough or scary" characters, and compared the character's evolution from Charmander into Charizard with the loss of "cuteness" as one leaves childhood. The book "Rebuilding Attachments With Traumatized Children" stated psychiatrists utilized the character as an empowered character traumatized children who were fans of the "Pokémon" series could relate to. In 2005, search engine Yahoo! reported Charizard as one of the top Pokémon-related web searches.

paragraphs: Due to Charizard's appeal, it has been featured in lines of soft toys and action figures in the "Pokémon" franchise, made by Hasbro, and Tomy. In 2004, the "Charizard Medium Plush" was part of a major recall of 13 plush toys due to a manufacturing fault where tips of needles were being found with the stuffing. This caused Tomy to replace the toys with compensation or replacements. Charizard appears often in the "Pokémon Trading Card Game", most notably in the series' initial release. Cards featuring the character have been stated to be the most desired of the series, quickly rising to high prices among collectors and retailers. These cards were extremely powerful and knocked out opponents in one hit.


title: Heiko Westermann

paragraphs: Heiko Westermann (born August 14, 1983 in Wasserlos, Germany) is a German footballer of FC Schalke 04. On the German national football team, he made three matches and no goals.


title: Pope Pius XII

paragraphs: Pope Pius XII (; ), born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli (March 2, 1876 – October 9, 1958), was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 261st Pope from 1939 to 1958.

paragraphs: Pacelli was born on 2 March 1876 in Rome, Italy. He studied at the Capranica Seminary and the Pontifical Gregorian University. In 1895, he earned a degree in Theology.

paragraphs: Pacelli was ordained as a priest on 2 April 1899. In 1904, he was raised to the rank of Monsignor. He worked at the Office of the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs.

paragraphs: In 1917, Pope Benedict XV appointed him an archbishop and nuncio to Bavaria, Germany.

paragraphs: Pope Pius XI raised Pacelli to the rank of Cardinal in December 1929.

paragraphs: In February 1930, Cardinal Pacelli became the Vatican Secretary of State.

paragraphs: Cardinal Pacelli was elected Pope on 2 March 1939, which was his 63th birthday.

paragraphs: Pius XII wrote forty-one official papal letters (encylicals).


title: Procyonidae

paragraphs: Procyonidae is a familiy of the order Carnivora. The Procyonids originally lived in the Americas.


title: Tamburello

paragraphs: Tamburello or pallatamburello is a traditional sport of Italy since 16th century. It has this name because they play with a roundish and oval tool named "tamburello" or "tambourine" in English language. Various forms of tamburello are popular in several nations of the world currently.

paragraphs: This form is also named "classic" and each team regularly has 5 players in open playing field 80 metres long and 20 large. Players use roundish tambourines during actions and they serve with oval tambourines. A rubber ball of 88 grams is used and the team which wins 13 games is final winner of the match: each game consists of 4 points. Professional Italian tamburello league is top level of competitions: in 2002 14 teams competed. A variant is played in a kind of stadium, with lateral wall, named "sferisterio" or "sferodromo" in Italian language.

paragraphs: Three players regularly form a side in indoor shorted courts.

paragraphs: Two players regularly form a side in courts divided by a net like tennis.

paragraphs: One or two players regularly form a side on beach courts divided by a net like beach tennis.


title: Caniformia

paragraphs: Caniformia is a suborder of the order Carnivora. It contains all the dog-like mammals: Unlike the cat-like Feliformia, these animals have claws that are unable to contract. This group contains bears, seals, and true dogs, and more.

paragraphs: The other suborder of Carnivora is the cat-like Feliformia.


title: Attribute-value system

paragraphs: An attribute-value system is a basic knowledge representation framework comprising a table with columns designating "attributes" (also known as "properties", "predicates," "features," "dimensions," "characteristics" or "independent variables" depending on the context) and rows designating "objects" (also known as "entities," "instances," "exemplars," "elements" or "dependent variables."). Each table cell therefore designates the value (also known as "state") of a particular attribute of a particular object.

paragraphs: Below is a sample attribute-value system. It represents 10 objects (rows) and five features (columns). In this example, the table contains only integer values. In general, an attribute-value system may contain any kind of data, numeric or otherwise. An attribute-value system is distinguished from a simple "feature list" representation in that each feature in an attribute-value system may possess a range of values (e.g., feature formula_1 below, which has domain of {0,1,2}), rather than simply being "present" or "absent"

paragraphs: Attribute-value systems are pervasive throughout many different literatures, and have been discussed under many different names:


title: Tim Henman

paragraphs: Timothy Henry "Tim" Henman OBE (born 6 September 1974) is an English retired tennis player, born in Oxford.

paragraphs: He reached the semi finals of Wimbledon many times, the first British tennis player to do so since the 1970s. He reached six grand slam semi finals and won eleven titles in his career. He once was ranked number four in the world.

paragraphs: He was sponsored by Adidas and Slazenger. He retired in 2007 as England's most successful tennis player of the last twenty years.

paragraphs: Henman comes from a sporting family. His mother and father were both interested in tennis and his grandfather played at Wimbledon in the 1940s and 50s. His grandmother also played mixed doubles at Wimbledon with his grandfather on two occasions.

paragraphs: Henman got 10 GCSEs at school and went into tennis training afterwards. He was told by doctors he had a type of bone disease in 1992. He carried on playing tennis anyway and he became professional aged 18 in 1992. In 1999 Henman married his long term girlfriend Lucy Heald. The couple have three daughters: Rose, Olivia and Grace.

paragraphs: Henman moved up the rankings very fast. By 1994, one year after becoming professional, he was 200th in the world.

paragraphs: By 1996 he was in the top thirty. In 1995 he became the first player ever to be disqualified from the Wimbledon tournament. Because he was angry during a match he hit the ball very hard at a ball girl and it hit her on the head.

paragraphs: In 1998, he was ranked one of the ten best tennis players in the world. In the same year he also reached the Wimbledon semi-final. In 2001 he had a good year at Wimbledon beating Roger Federer in straight sets. He reached the semi final only to be beaten by eventual winner Goran Ivanišević. In 2004 he reached the semi finals of Roland Garros in France but lost to Guillermo Coria. Towards the end of his career Henman did not play so well. He ended up falling to 63 in the world rankings. In 2005 he was knocked out of the second round of Wimbledon by Roger Federer. He also had a lot of injuries at this time, including many at important points in matches.

paragraphs: He got an OBE in 2003 and was painted by royal artist Christian Furr in 2005.

paragraphs: Henman's last Wimbledon was a disappointment. He went out in the second round to Feliciano López of Spain. Shortly after he announced his retirement. He had a press conference on 23 August 2007 to make it official.


title: Lasi

paragraphs: Lasi is the name of a tribe and a part of Sindh. It is in southeast Balochistan Province, Las Bela District, about 80 miles north northwest of Karachi. The population was 15,000 in 1998. Another name for this area is Saraiki.


title: Ormuri

paragraphs: Ormuri is an East Iranian language spoken in the city of Kaniguram in Pakistan. It may also be spoken by a few people in Logar, Afghanistan. It is notable for its unusual sound inventory. This includes a voiceless alveolar trill and voiced and unvoiced alveolo-palatal fricatives.


title: Sansi

paragraphs: Sansi is a language spoken in Pakistan and the Republic of India.


title: Sindhi language

paragraphs: Sindhi (Arabic script: سنڌي, Devanagari script: सिन्धी, "Sindhī") is the language of the Sindh region of South Asia, which is a province of Pakistan. It is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 41 million people in Pakistan and 12 million in the Republic of India.


title: Burig

paragraphs: The Burig (or Purik), are a group of Tibetan Muslims, who live south of the Balti in Ladakh. Most of them live in Ladakh and Baltistan, mostly in Kargil, although many live in Leh.


title: West Pakistan

paragraphs: The province of West Pakistan was created on 14 October 1955 by the merger of the provinces, states and tribal areas of the western wing. The province was composed of twelve divisions and the provincial capital was established at Lahore. The province of East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan with the provincial capital at Dacca. The federal government moved in 1959 from Karachi to Rawalpindi (provisional capital until Islamabad was finished), whilst the federal legislature moved to DACCA.

paragraphs: West Pakistan formed a block whose people seemed homogeneous (similar to each other). However, the new region included people of different ethnicities and languages. The "One Unit Policy" was regarded as a rational administrative reform which would reduce spending and eliminate provincial prejudices. However with the military coup of 1958, trouble loomed for the province when the office of Chief Minister was abolished and the President took over executive powers for West Pakistan. The province of West Pakistan was dissolved in July 1970 by President Yahya Khan.

paragraphs: General elections held in December 1970 saw the Awami League under Mujibur Rahman win an overall majority of seats in parliament (all but two of the 162 seats allocated to East Pakistan). The Awami League advocated greater autonomy (or self-rule) for East Pakistan, but the military government did not permit Mujibur Rahman to form a government.

paragraphs: Stamp showing both the East and west divisions of Pakistan Before the secession of Bangladesh. On March 25th 1971, West Pakistan began a civil war to subdue the democratic victory of East Pakistanis. This began the war between the Pakistani military and the Mukhti Bahini. The resulting refugee crisis led to the intervention by India, eventually leading to the surrender of the Pakistani Army. East Pakistan suffered a genocide of its Bengali population. East Pakistan became the independent state of Bangladesh on December 16, 1971. The term West Pakistan became redundant.


title: Ferozpur District

paragraphs: Ferozepur () founded by Firuz Shah Tughluq is a district in the Indian state of Punjab. The district is the oldest British district of Punjab. It was created in 1833 as district headquarters and was part of the earstwhile Lahore Division (now in Pakistan).

paragraphs: Ferozepur has easy access by road and rail to other places such as Lahore, Okara, Kasur, Multan. The area is a center of many holy shrines and historic places. At the city of Zira, a Jain Swetambar Temple with very old brass icons and beautiful wall murals is located.

paragraphs: In addition to cotton and grain cultivation and agriculture-related services, Firozpur has some light manufacturing. Commercial progress is limited because it is very near the border between India and Pakistan.

paragraphs: The district is administratively divided into the following tehsils:


title: Pathankot

paragraphs: Pathankot (, ) is a city and a municipal committee in Gurdaspur district in the Punjab State of India. It is the fifth largest city in the state of Punjab in terms of population.

paragraphs: Pathankot is a meeting point of the Punjab region and considered a disputed territory by the United Nations. It is the last city in Punjab on the national highway that connects Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of Pakistan and India. This bestows strategic importance on the city. It is a major base for the defence forces, the Indian army and air force. It has the largest military base in the whole of Asia.

paragraphs: Due to its ideal location, Pathankot serves as a travel hub for the three northerly states. In the scenic foothills of Kangra and Dalhousie, with the river Chakki flowing close by, the city is often used as a rest-stop before heading into the Himalayan mountains of Kashmir, Dalhousie, Chamba, and Kangra.


title: Kori Creek

paragraphs: The Kori Creek (, ) is a tidal creek and maritime Border dispute between the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat and the Kachchhi region of the Pakistani province of Sindh. It is in the Rann of Kutch marshland east of the Sir Creek, which is disputed between India and Pakistan. It is a 96 km (60 mi) strip of water disputed between the Republic of India and Pakistan, claimed by India as a part of the Indian Rann of Kutch marshlands. The creek, which opens up into the Arabian Sea, divides the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat with the Sindh province of Pakistan.

paragraphs: The long-standing dispute hinges in the actual demarcation "from the mouth of Kori Creek to the top of Kori Creek, and from the top of Kori Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus". From this point onwards, the boundary is unambiguously fixed as defined by the Tribunal Award of 1968.

paragraphs: The creek itself is in the uninhabited marshlands. During the monsoon season between June and September, the creek floods its banks and envelops the low-lying salty mudflats around it. During the winter season, the area is home to flamingoes and other migratory birds.

paragraphs: The dispute is in the interpretation of the boundary line between Kutch and Sindh as depicted in a 1914 and 1925 map. At that time, the region was a part of Bombay Presidency of undivided India. After India's independence in 1947, Sindh became a part of Pakistan while Kutch became a part of India.

paragraphs: The resolution, which demarcated the boundaries between the two territories, included the creek as part of Sindh province, thus setting the boundary as the eastern flank of the creek. The boundary line, known as the "Green Line", is disputed by India which maintains that it is an indicative line, known as a "ribbon line" in technical jargon. India's position is that the boundary is mid-channel as depicted in another map drawn in 1925, and implemented by the installation of mid-channel pillars back in 1924.

paragraphs: India supports its stance by citing the Thalweg Doctrine in International Law. The law states that river boundaries between two states may be, if the two states agree, divided by the mid-channel. Though Pakistan does not dispute the 1925 map, it maintains that the Doctrine is not applicable in this case as it only applies to bodies of water that are navigable, which the Kori Creek is not. India rejects the Pakistani stance by maintaining the fact that the creek is navigable in high tide, and that fishing trawlers use it to go out to sea. Several cartographic surveys conducted have supported the Indian claim. Another point of concern for Pakistan is that Kori Creek has changed its course considerably over the years. If the boundary line is demarcated (outlined) according to the Thalweg principle, Pakistan stands to lose a considerable portion of the territory that was historically part of the province of Sindh. Accepting India's stance would also result in the shifting of the land/sea terminus (end) point several kilometres to the disadvantage of Pakistan, leading in turn to a loss of several thousand square kilometres of its Exclusive Economic Zone under the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea.

paragraphs: In April 1965, a dispute there contributed to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when fighting broke out between India and Pakistan. Later the same year, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson persuaded both countries to set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. A verdict was reached in 1968, which saw Pakistan getting 10% of its claim of 9,000 km² (3,500 sq. miles).

paragraphs: The disputed region was at the center of international attention in 1999 after Mig-21 fighter planes of the Indian Air Force shot down a Pakistani Navy Breguet Atlantique surveillance aircraft over the Kori Creek on August 10, 1999, killing all 16 on board. India claimed that the plane had strayed into its airspace, which was disputed by the Pakistani navy. (See the Atlantique Incident)

paragraphs: Though the Kori Creek has little military value, it holds immense economic gain. Much of the region is rich in oil and gas below the sea bed, and control over the creek would have a huge bearing on the energy potential of each nation. Also once the boundaries are defined, it would help in the determination of the maritime boundaries which are drawn as an extension of onshore reference points. Maritime boundaries also help in determining the limits of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and continental shelves. EEZs extend to 200 nautical miles (370 km) and can be subjected to commercial exploitation.

paragraphs: The demarcation would also prevent the inadvertent crossing over of fishermen of both nations into each others' territories.

paragraphs: The Federal Government of Pakistan lays claim to the entire creek as per "paras 9 and 10" of the "Bombay Government Resolution of 1914" signed between the then provincial Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj, then the ruler of the former Princely state of Kutch.

paragraphs: However since 1969, there have been eight rounds of talks between the two nations, without a breakthrough. Steps to resolve the dispute include:

paragraphs: Since neither side has conceded ground, India has proposed that the maritime boundary could be demarcated first, as per the provisions of Technical Aspects of Law of Sea (TALOS). However, Pakistan has firmly refused the proposal on the grounds that the dispute should be resolved first. Pakistan has also proposed that the two sides go in for international arbitration, which India has flatly refused. India maintains that all bilateral disputes should be resolved without the intervention of third-parties.


title: Bangladesh Liberation War

paragraphs: The Bangladesh Liberation War ( "Muktijuddho") was a revolutionary independence war in 1971 which established the republic of Bangladesh. The war pitted East Pakistan (later joined by India) against West Pakistan, and lasted over a duration of nine months. It witnessed large-scale atrocities, the exodus of 10 million refugees and the displacement of 30 million people.

paragraphs: The war started on 26 March 1971 and finished on 16 December 1971. A category 3 cyclone also appeared during the war.

paragraphs: Ghulam Azam and Motiur Rahman Nizami were convicted for war crimes as a result of the liberation war. Azam died before a final hearing while Nizami was executed for his crimes in May 2016.


title: Toray Pan Pacific Open

paragraphs: The Toray Pan Pacific Open (東レ・パン・パシフィック・テニス) is a WTA Tour of tennis tournaments for women. It is held every year since 1984 in Tokyo, Japan.


title: Home City Ice

paragraphs: Home City Ice is one of the largest packaged ice manufacturer in the United States, serving customers in Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Georgia, West Virginia, Illinois, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, New York, and Maryland.


title: Peter Potamus

paragraphs: Peter Potamus is a cartoon made by Hanna-Barbera. It was first shown on television on September 16, 1964. The main characters are a friendly purple hippopotamus called Peter Potamus and his friend So-So the monkey. Together they explore the world in a time-traveling hot-air balloon. Peter has a special "Hippo Hurricane Holler" that helps him blow away his enemies.


title: Muscovy duck

paragraphs: Cairina moschata is an duck from Mexico. Its common name Muscovy duck comes from commerce with Russia. It is related to Aix, a species of shelduck.


title: Feliformia

paragraphs: Feliformia is a suborder in the mammal order Carnivora. It contains all the Felidae, which are cat-like animals. The suborder also contains the relatives of the cats, which includes hyaenas, civets, and more. There are six families, twelve subfamilies, 56 genera and 114 species in the Feliformia suborder now.

paragraphs: Molecular phylogeny shows the Feliformia is monophyletic. The other suborder of Carnivora is the dog-like Caniformia.


Crack


title: Eared seal

paragraphs: The eared seals or otariids are marine mammals of the family Otariidae, one of the three pinniped families.


title: Earless seal

paragraphs: The earless seals or true seals are marine mammals of the family Phocidae, one of the three pinniped families.


title: Ernst Mayr

paragraphs: Ernst Walter Mayr (5 July 1904, Kempten, Germany – 3 February 2005, Bedford, Massachusetts), was a German American scientist. He was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists. He was also a well-known taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, historian of science, and naturalist. He was a leading contributor to the modern evolutionary synthesis. He was especially interested in how new species formed.

paragraphs: Mayr joined the faculty of Harvard University in 1953, where he also served as director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1961 to 1970. He retired in 1975 as emeritus professor of zoology, showered with honors.

paragraphs: After his retirement, he went on to publish more than 200 articles, in a variety of journals—more than some reputable scientists publish in their entire careers; 14 of his 25 books were published after he was 65. Even as a centenarian, he continued to write books.

paragraphs: Mayr was awarded the Linnean Society's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1958. He was never awarded a Nobel Prize, because there is no Prize for evolutionary biology. He commented that Darwin would not have received one, either. Mayr did win a 1999 Crafoord Prize. That prize honors basic research in fields that do not qualify for Nobel awards, and is administered by the same organization as the Nobel Prize.

paragraphs: Neither Darwin nor anyone else in his time knew the answer to the "species problem": how multiple species could evolve from a single common ancestor.

paragraphs: Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a definition for the concept species. He wrote that a species is not just a group of individuals that look similar, but a group that can breed only among themselves.

paragraphs: When populations of organisms get isolated, the sub-populations will start to differ by genetic drift and natural selection over a period of time. This way, they will evolve into new species. The most rapid genetic reorganization occurs in extremely small populations that have been isolated. This happens if a species gets trapped on an island, for example.

paragraphs: Today, it is accepted that reproductive isolation is by far the most frequent cause of species splitting, and that geographical separation is the most frequent cause of this isolation. This was Mayr's most characteristic idea. Debate continues over the extent to which speciation occurs when a population is not so isolated.


title: Ovis

paragraphs: Ovis is a genus of the subfamily Caprinae, of the family Bovidae. The wild sheep and domestic sheep and other animals like it belong to this genus. There are 5 or more animals in this genus.


title: Aberdeen F.C.

paragraphs: Aberdeen Football Club (also known as The Dons, The Reds and The Dandies) is a Scottish professional football club based in Aberdeen. They compete in the Scottish Premier League and are one of the most successful teams in their country, having won four league titles and seven Scottish Cups. They are also the only Scottish team to have won two European trophies, both in the same year.

paragraphs: Formed in 1903 as a result of the amalgamation of three clubs from Aberdeen, they rarely challenged for honours until the 1950s, when they won each of the major Scottish trophies under manager Dave Halliday. This level of success was surpassed in the 1980s, when, under the management of Alex Ferguson, they won three league titles, four Scottish Cups and a Scottish League Cup, alongside the European honours. Aberdeen were the last club outside of the Old Firm to win a league title, in 1984–85.

paragraphs: Aberdeen have played at Pittodrie Stadium since their inception. The ground currently has a capacity of 22,199 and was the first all-seated and all-covered stadium in the United Kingdom. Pittodrie was also the first football stadium to feature a dugout, an invention of player and coach Donald Colman. The club's colours have been primarily red and white since 1939; before this, they played in black and gold vertical stripes.

paragraphs: Aberdeen attract support from the city and surrounding areas, as they are the only senior team within a wide area. Aberdeen have no geographically close rivals; their nearest neighbours at the same level are in the city of Dundee, with Dundee United having been their principal rivals in the New Firm in the 1980s. Rangers supplanted Dundee United as rivals in the late 1980s, but the rivalry, while fierce, does not approach that of the Old Firm.

paragraphs: For the 1904–05 season, Aberdeen adopted a black and gold striped shirt, which led to the team being nicknamed "Wasps". This strip, with only minor variations, was worn until just before the start of the Second World War. The blue shorts lasted until 1911, and then were replaced with white ones. Socks were black with gold trim, either as stripes or as a solid bar at the turndown.

paragraphs: In March 1939, Aberdeen changed the black and gold colours to red and white, reflecting the silver and red colours of the official City of Aberdeen arms. The first red strips were worn with white shorts, these were worn with either red or white socks from 1939 until the 1965–66 season. In 1966, Aberdeen adopted red shorts, making the official kit all-red, similar to that of Liverpool, who made a similar change at around the same time. This arrangement has continued to the present day, with several variations in design, in common with most senior clubs as the replica shirt market has expanded. In the late 1970s an Admiral strip featured five vertical white stripes on the left side of the shirt and shorts, and the early 1980s shirts—as worn at the 1983 European Cup Winners Cup final—featured white vertical pinstripes. Later design changes included significant amounts of blue, and a one season reversion to white shorts, although the all-red scheme returned in 1997.

paragraphs: Shirt sponsorship began in 1987, and the initial shirt sponsor was JVC. Since then, with the club making fewer appearances on the international stage, shirt sponsors have tended to be more local—they have included one of the local commercial radio stations, Northsound. Aberdeen last season had announced their intention to move away from local sponsorship. Sponsored by Apex Tubulars at the time, that deal ended at the end of the 2007/08 season. In a turnaround though, Aberdeen FC Managing Director, Duncan Fraser, announced the side would bare the name of local company Team Recruitment on their shirts for the next two seasons. It is believed no international sponsor showed interest.

paragraphs: Change, or "away", strips have tended to be either white, often with black shorts, or a combination of yellow and black, referring back to the black and gold strips of the pre-war era, although for a time in the 1970s, Aberdeen sported an all-blue change strip with white socks. For the 2007–08 season, the change strip is all-white, with a third kit of yellow and black halves available if needed for European games, or in the event of a clash involving both red and white.

paragraphs: The club did not have an official crest before 1972, but several variations on the letters AFC had from time to time featured on the shirt, usually in some kind of cursive font. In November 1972, the club unveiled an official crest or logo, designed by Aberdonian graphic designer Donald Addison. The design represented a capital letter "A" as the side view of a football goal, with a ball forming the crossbar of the letter. This ball was crosshatched in such a way as to depict it as being inside the net, signifying the scoring of a goal. The logo was completed by the letters "FC" in smaller type at a level with the ball element. This badge was used on the shirts from around 1978, with no significant alterations until the mid-1980s when the words "Aberdeen Football Club" were added in a circular border, and the date of the club's founding, 1903, was added under the goal element. The current version of the crest, which retains these elements in a unified design, was introduced at the start of the 1997–98 season. Two stars signifying the winning of the two European cups in 1983 were introduced over the badge in the 2005–06 season.

paragraphs: Aberdeen have played at Pittodrie Stadium, the name of which comes from the Pictish for "place of manure", throughout their existence. The ground was first used by the original Aberdeen F.C. in 1899, in a 7–1 win over Dumbarton; when they merged with two other teams in 1903, the new club took over the old Aberdeen ground. On August 15 1903, 8,000 spectators turned up to watch the new Aberdeen draw 1-1 against Stenhousemuir, the first game played at Pittodrie by its amalgamated tenants. The club initially rented the ground, but subsequently bought it in 1920. The stadium contains 21,600 seats, but due to the directors' boxes, some sources place this figure at 22,000. The record attendance occurred on March 13 1954, when 45,061 spectators turned up for a Scottish Cup match between Aberdeen and Hearts.

paragraphs: The stadium consists of four stands. The Main Stand, which houses the club offices and players facilities, holds the majority of the supporters. The Merkland Road Stand is primarily for families. The South Stand is opposite the main stand and a quarter of this section is used to accommodate travelling supporters, except for Old Firm games, where half of this stand is given to the visiting fans. The newest element is the Richard Donald stand at the East, or Beach End, of the ground, and is named after former chairman Dick Donald. This is a modern, two–tier design, completed in 1993, containing hospitality suites which is significantly taller than the other structures at the ground. In 1978, Pittodrie became the first all covered, all-seater stadium in Britain.

paragraphs: The club are examining a move to a new stadium in Aberdeen.

paragraphs: Aberdeen inaugurated the Hall of Fame following the club's centenary celebrations in 2003. At the launch, it was claimed that over a five-year period, around 50 players and staff would be inducted. However, as of November 2007, the following initial inductees are still the only ones listed on the official website as members:

paragraphs: "List of full-time managers, as of 3 November 2012. Only competitive matches are counted. Caretaker managers are not listed."


title: Gunnar Nordström

paragraphs: Gunnar Nordström (12 March 1881, Helsinki – 24 December 1923, Helsinki) was a Finnish physicist. He is best known for his theory of gravitation, which was a competitor of Albert Einstein's general relativity. In 1914, Nordström added a space dimension to his theory. This described gravity and electromagnetism at the same time. Unluckily, Theodor Kaluza and Oskar Klein have got most attetion on this subject. Nordström is not well known in his own home country, but what he has done is known well in other countries. Some Finnish authors call Nordström as "Finnish Einstein".

paragraphs: Nordström was born in Helsinki, the capital of Finland during the time when Finland was part of Russian Empire). He studied at University of Helsinki and completed his dissertation in 1908. Before this, he studied for some time in Göttingen where he met the world's best scientists. After this, he became a professor at the university. In 1910, he started his trip in Europe. He visited at Zürich, Berlin, Vienna, and Leyden. During his time in the Netherlands, he married Cornelia van Leeuwen. They had three children.

paragraphs: Nordström was very close friend to Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. He died at Helsinki in 1923 because of radioactivity. In that time, radioactivity was thought to have healing effects.


title: Pope Pius XI

paragraphs: Pope Pius XI (; , 31 May 1857–10 February 1939), born Achille Ratti, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 260th Pope from 1922 to 1939.

paragraphs: Father Ratti was a professor at the Padua Seminary from 1882 to 1888. He worked at Ambrosian Library of Milan from 1888 to 1911; and at the Vatican Library from 1911-1914.

paragraphs: In 1919, Pope Benedict XV made Ratti a Bishop of Lepanto.

paragraphs: In 1921, Benedict named him Archbishop of Milan.

paragraphs: Cardinal Ratti was elected pope on February 6, 1922; and he chose the name Pope Pius XI.

paragraphs: Some of his decisions were controversial. He made 18 concordats (treaties) with foreign governments. They included the Lateran Concordat with Italy in 1929; and the Reichskoncordat with Germany in 1933.


title: Defender (football)

paragraphs: A defender in football is a player, who plays in at the back of the formation. There are many positions classed as a defender, mainly:

paragraphs: The defenders are the first number when referring to formations, for example:


title: Defender

paragraphs: A defender is usually somebody who participates in a legal defense (legal).


title: Modern evolutionary synthesis

paragraphs: The modern evolutionary synthesis is about evolution. It explained how the discoveries of Gregor Mendel fit with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by means of natural selection. Mendel found out how we inherit our genes.

paragraphs: Key biologists who contributed work to the synthesis included: Julian Huxley, Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ernst Mayr, Ronald Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, Sewall Wright, G.G. Simpson, E.B. Ford, Bernhard Rensch and G. Ledyard Stebbins.

paragraphs: The modern synthesis brought Darwin's idea up to date. It bridged the gap between different types of biologists: geneticists, naturalists, and palaeontologists.

paragraphs: The idea that new species occur after populations split has been much debated. Geographical isolation often leads to speciation. In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation.

paragraphs: This shows how some biologists see the synthesis.

paragraphs: Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology. It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research after WWII.

paragraphs: Several discoveries in earth sciences and biology have arisen since the synthesis. Listed here are some of those topics which are relevant to the evolutionary synthesis, and which seem soundly based.

paragraphs: The Earth is the stage on which the evolutionary play is performed. Darwin studied evolution in the context of Charles Lyell's geology, but we now know more historical geology.

paragraphs: Conclusion: Our present knowledge of earth history strongly suggests that large-scale geophysical events influenced macroevolution and megaevolution. These terms refer to evolution above the species level, including such events as mass extinction, adaptive radiation, and the major transitions in evolution.

paragraphs: Starting in the late 20th century scientists made excavations in parts of the world which had scarcely been investigated before. Also, there is fresh appreciation of fossils discovered in the 19th century, but not appreciated at the time. Many outstanding discoveries have been made, and some of these have implications for evolutionary theory.

paragraphs: Important work on genetics has led to a new approach to animal development. The field is called evolutionary developmental biology, or evo-devo for short.

paragraphs: There is clear proof that much of development is closely controlled by special genetic systems involving hox genes. In his Nobel Prize lecture, E.B. Lewis said "Ultimately, comparisons of the [control complexes] throughout the animal kingdom should provide a picture of how the organisms, as well as the [control genes] have evolved".

paragraphs: In 2000, a special section of the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences" (PNAS) was devoted to evo-devo, and an entire 2005 issue of the "Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution" was devoted to the key evo-devo topics of evolutionary innovation and morphological novelty.

paragraphs: A survey of the field for the general reader gives examples.


title: Midfielder

paragraphs: A midfielder in football is a player who usually plays in the centre of the field. There are usually a number of midfielders in each team of football, and are normally split into three: attacking; central; and defending.

paragraphs: The midfielders are always the middle parts of the formation numbers, for example:

paragraphs: A winger or wide player refer to a non-defender who plays on the left or right sides of the pitch. These terms can apply to left or right midfielders, left or right attacking midfielders, or left or right forwards.


title: Striker

paragraphs: A Striker (or a forward) is a football player who is the closest to the other team's goal. The forwards are the players that are known to score the most goals.

paragraphs: Coaches usually send a forward that scores all the goals ("the centre forward") and sends another forward that makes the assists ("second striker").

paragraphs: The attackers are normally the last part of the formation numbers, for example:


title: Daniela Hantuchová

paragraphs: Daniela Hantuchová (born April 24,1983) is a former Slovak professional tennis player. As of May 2016, she was ranked World No. 170 in women's singles tennis and 179th in doubles. In 2008, she reached the Australian Open semi-finals and has been ranked as World No. 5 for both women's singles and doubles. She played tennis for Slovakia in an international competition called the Fed Cup, and also in the Olympic Games.

paragraphs: As of her retirement from professional tennis in July, 2017 , her winnings total more than million. She has worked with coaches from the Sanchez-Casal Academy, namely Angel Gimenez and Eduardo Nicolas. Her Women's Tennis Association (WTA) Tour mentor, Martina Navratilova, was also her doubles partner in early 2004. Outside tennis, she has modeled clothes and has been in some television advertisements.

paragraphs: Hantuchová's parents are both scientists. Her father, Igor Hantucha, is a computer science professor. Her mother, Mariane Hantuchová, is a toxicologist. Daniela was taught to play tennis by her grandmother, Helena, when she was six years old. Helena used to be a Slovakian national champion. Even though Daniela practiced a lot at tennis, she studied hard at school as well.

paragraphs: Hantuchová's parents were divorced in 2003. At the same time Hantuchová lost weight, and people became worried she was ill with anorexia. She said "I have proved that physically I don't have any problems."

paragraphs: Hantuchová speaks three languages (German, Slovak, and English), and can play the piano. She has several hobbies, such as skiing and ice skating. She has been in several advertisements on television, such as the campaign for Sony with Ana Ivanović in July 2006. Hantuchová has also been in Italian "Vogue" magazine, as a model. She now lives in Monte Carlo, Monaco.

paragraphs: Hantuchová holds her racket in her right hand but uses both hands when playing backhand shots. She can hit the ball hard with both her forehand and backhand. She has a strong serve and can play well when close to the net. She is famous for her long legs which are long. Because she is so tall (), she can run a long way in a short amount of time, which also helps in returning shots, also adding power.

paragraphs: Hantuchová became a professional tennis player in 1989, when she was 15 years old. She started training in Florida, but still went back to Bratislava, Slovakia, to study. She won her first WTA tournament in 2000, a doubles title which she won in Bratislava. In 2001, she played her first Grand Slam tournament at the Australian Open. Hantuchová lost in her first match in Australia to Russian player Anna Kournikova. However, she won the mixed doubles tournament, playing with Czech player Leos Friedl. Hantuchová won her second WTA doubles competition by winning with Russian player Elena Bovina in Luxembourg. She finished the year in the top 100, and was given an award by the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) for being the best new player in 2001.

paragraphs: In 2002, Hantuchová lost in the quarter-final of both the Wimbledon Championships and the US Open. However, playing with Zimbabwean Kevin Ullyett, she won the mixed doubles at the Australian Open. She also came second in the doubles in Australia, playing with Spanish player Arantxa Sanchez Vicario. She and Ullyett lost the mixed doubles final at Wimbledon in the same season. She did win her first singles WTA tournament, beating Swiss player Martina Hingis at the Masters tournament at Indian Wells in California. She also won two more WTA doubles tournaments, in Florida and Connecticut in the United States. Both times she won with Arantxa Sanchez Vicario. Hantuchová finished the season in the top 10, and was given an award for being the most improved player in 2002 by the WTA. In January 2003, Hantuchová was the fifth best female tennis player in the world. As of June 2008, this is the best she has done. Later in 2003, she split up from her English coach, Nigel Sears.

paragraphs: Sears coached Hantuchová again in 2004 and in 2005, where she won the mixed doubles at the French Open and the US Open. This means she had won all four Grand Slam mixed doubles tournaments. In June 2005, she and Japanese player Ai Sugiyama won a WTA tour doubles tournament in Birmingham, England. The same pair came second in the doubles final at the French Open. Hantuchová won her sixth WTA doubles title with Russian player Anastasia Myskina in Germany in October 2004.

paragraphs: Hantuchová and Sugiyama won another doubles tournament in March 2006, this time in Doha in Qatar. Hantuchová finally split up with her coach, Sears, for good in April 2006. She went on to win her eigthth WTA doubles tournament in May 2006 in Rome in Italy, again with Ai Sugiyama. Hantuchová won her second singles match WTA Tour title in March 2007, beating Svetlana Kuznetsova at Indian Wells again. She then won her third singles Tour title in October 2007, beating Swiss player Patty Schnyder in Linz in Austria. Hantuchová lost in the semi-final of the 2008 Australian Open to Serbian player Ana Ivanović. She also lost in the second round at Wimbledon in June 2008. Since the semi-final appearance, Hantuchová has failed to make it beyond the fourth round in any of the Grand Slam tournaments.

paragraphs: Hantuchová has also played tennis for Slovakia in an international tennis competition called the Fed Cup. As of July 2011, she has played 44 matches and won 29 of them. She helped Slovakia win the Fed Cup in 2002. In 2004, she played for Slovakia in the Olympic Games in Athens, Greece. She is sponsored by sportswear company Nike and racket manufacturer Prince. As of October 2011, she has won over $7.9 million from playing tennis. She is the first Slovak woman to win this much money just from tennis tournaments.

paragraphs: By winning the 2005 US Open title, Hantuchová completed the mixed doubles Career Grand Slam. She became only the fifth female player in history to achieve this.


title: Lollywood

paragraphs: Lollywood () is the name of Pakistani movie industry that is based in the city of Lahore. The name is a combination of the city's first letter with the name "Hollywood". The word "Lollywood" was first used in the summer of 1989.


title: Mugger crocodile

paragraphs: The Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) (literally "Crocodile of the marsh"), also called the Iranian, Marsh, or Persian Crocodile (in Persian گاندو Gandu), is found throughout the Indian subcontinent and the surrounding countries (India, Pakistan). In Pakistan's coastal regions of the Makran and delta marshlands of Sindh, it is known as the Indus Crocodile, although they do exist in parts of Bangladesh, and parts of Nepal and Iran. The name "Mugger" is a corruption of the Urdu word magar which means "water monster" in the Urdu language. It is the "National reptile of Pakistan".


title: Indus river dolphin

paragraphs: Indus river dolphin ("Platanista gangetica minor") are a subspecies of river dolphins. It is only found in the Indus River in Pakistan. They are very similar to the Ganges river dolphin which is mainly found in the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers in the Republic of India, Bangladesh and Nepal. In fact, the two subspecies are often described together as the South Asian river dolphin

paragraphs: These animals are currently endangered species, mainly because of water pollution.


title: Sikhism in Pakistan

paragraphs: Sikhism is a very small minority religion in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan but has many cultural, historical and political ties to the country, and to the historical region of the Punjab.

paragraphs: Today, Pakistan, a nation of over 170 million, is 97% Muslim, with Christians and Hindus making up the largest minority faiths, each absorbing about 1.5% of the population. Sikhs, Zoroastrians, Buddhists, members of heterodox (according to Pakistani law) Islamic faiths and some adherents to animist religions make up the remainder. Information is scarce on minority adherents. According to the CIA Fact File, there are no more than 20,000 Sikhs in Pakistan now. To put this in perspective had there not been a partition in 1947 then the region that is called Pakistan to day would have had around 13 million Sikhs.


title: Banbury

paragraphs: Banbury is a market town on the River Cherwell in northern Oxfordshire, England. It had a population of 43,867 at the 2001 census. Although this figure has increased greatly in recent years. Banbury is part of the Cherwell district. The Member of Parliament for Banbury is Victoria Prentis. Banbury played an important part in the English Civil War prior to the Battle of Edge Hill, as shown by The Reindeer inn (December 2005).

paragraphs: Heavy clay and Ironstone deposits surround Banbury.

paragraphs: The Oxfordshire Ironstone Railway (the O.I.R.) was the local railway line from Banbury to the nearby ironstone quarry at Wroxton. It was open from 1917 to 1967.


title: Mecha

paragraphs: Mecha (also known as meka or mechs) are walking vehicles run by a pilot, often shown in science fiction or fantasy with a futuristic element. Some stories, such as the Manga Patlabor and American miniatures game Battletech, also show mecha doing civilian purposes such as heavy construction work, police topics, or firefighting.


Tautology


title: Glyph

paragraphs: A glyph is an element of writing. Example: the ligature æ in archæology represents a and e letters.

paragraphs: More exactly, a glyph is an element in an agreed set of symbols. A mark used in a language is a glyph, but in another language it may not be a glyph. For example, an n with tilde, ñ, is used only in Spanish, as in piñata. It is not a glyph in English.


title: Tilde

paragraphs: The tilde ( ~ ) can be many things, such as a diacritic. Many languages use tildes. Two of these are Spanish and Portuguese.

paragraphs: In Spanish, the tilde, which is only put over the N ( Ñ ), makes it sound like [ɲ] (like 'ny' in "canyon") instead of [n].

paragraphs: The tilde also appears in Portuguese where it is used to nasalise (meaning to sound them through the nose) the vowels "a" (ã) and "o" (õ).

paragraphs: In UNIX operating systems, a tilde represents the user's "home" directory.

paragraphs: The tilde is also used to denote when something is an estimate, such as ~24 meaning approximately 24.

paragraphs: On most QWERTY keyboards, you can type a tilde by holding down the shift key and pressing the "`" (single back quote). This key is in the upper left corner of the keyboard, below the esc (escape) key and to the left of the key that you use to type the number 1 or an exclamation mark (!).

paragraphs: Wikipedia sign their comments on pages with four tildes (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>).


title: Burlington, Iowa

paragraphs: Burlington is a city in Des Moines County, Iowa, United States. The population was 26,839 at the 2000 census.


title: Regis High School (Cedar Rapids)

paragraphs: Regis Catholic High School was a Catholic high school in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. It is at 735 Prairie Drive NE. It merged with LaSalle High School to form Xavier High School in 1998.


title: Cedar Rapids, Iowa

paragraphs: Cedar Rapids () is the second largest city in the U.S. state of Iowa. It is the county seat of Linn County.


title: University of Northern Iowa

paragraphs: The University of Northern Iowa is a public university in Cedar Falls, Iowa.


title: Bowling

paragraphs: Bowling is a sport where people roll a heavy ball. It was invented centuries ago when grenades were heavy iron balls. Two main kinds of bowling arose. In one kind the bowler rolls a ball near a target and knocks away the ball of another bowler. This kind includes lawn bowling.

paragraphs: In the more common kind nowadays, the bowler rolls the ball down a bowling lane trying to knock down wooden bowling pins. This kind includes ten-pin bowling, which is so commonplace that it is often simply called "bowling". Some people bowl at smaller pins, called "duck pins" or "candle pins" with slightly different rules.

paragraphs: The usual kind of bowling ball has three holes, where the player puts two fingers and the thumb. The person on the lane swings the ball and lets it go to roll along the lane, attempting to knock down ten wooden pins. If the bowler does not do it right, the ball might not knock all the pins down or might roll into the gutter and hit none. Players take turns rolling their ball down the lane to see who gets the highest score.

paragraphs: Ten-pin bowling scores can be as low as 0 or as high as 300. Players get 10 chances to knock down all of the pins; each chance is called a frame. In each frame, players can try to knock down all of the pins up to two times. Players who do not knock down all of the pins after two tries get up to 9 points for the frame. One point is given for every pin knocked down, if any are knocked down at all. If players are able to knock down all of the pins on the first or second try, they are given 10 points for the frame plus bonus points. Frames in which a player knocks down all of the pins on the first try are scored as a strike. A strike is worth 10 points plus the number of pins knocked down by the player during their next two tries. If players do not score a strike but knock down all remaining on their second try, the frame is scored as a spare. A spare is worth 10 points plus the number of pins knocked down on the next try.

paragraphs: Players who score a strike or spare on their 10th frame are allowed to roll the ball up to two additional times to score their bonus points.


title: Abbot Suger

paragraphs: Abbot Suger (c. 1081 – January 13, 1151) was one of the last French abbot-statesmen. He was also a historian and the first patron of Gothic architecture.

paragraphs: Suger was part of a poor family, and in 1091, he was brought to the abbey of Saint-Denis. There he trained and eventually became secretary to the abbot of Saint-Denis in 1104.

paragraphs: He took a trip to Italy, and when he came back, he became the abbot of St-Denis. Until 1127, he worked at the abbey of St-Denis and worked to reform it.


title: Arch of Constantine

paragraphs: The Arch of Constantine () is an arch in Rome, found between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill. It was built in honour of Constantine I's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312. It is the latest of the triumphal arches in Rome.

paragraphs: The main inscription was made of bronze letters. It says (identically on both sides):

paragraphs: Two short inscriptions on the inside of the central archway say:

paragraphs: Over each of the small archways, inscriptions say:


title: Great hall

paragraphs: A great hall was the main room of a royal palace, a nobleman's castle or a large manor house in the Middle Ages. At that time the word "great" meant "big". Great halls were found in France, England and Scotland and some other European countries.

paragraphs: A great hall was a rectangular room between 1.5 and 3 times as long as it was wide, and also higher than it was wide. At night some members of the household might sleep on the floor of the great hall.

paragraphs: Two very large surviving royal halls are Westminster Hall and the Wenceslas Hall in Prague Castle. Penshurst Place in Kent, England has a hall from the 14th century. There are lots of 16th century and early 17th century halls in England, Wales and Scotland, for example those at Longleat (England), Burghley House (England), Bodysgallen Hall (Wales), Muchalls Castle (Scotland) and Crathes Castle (Scotland); however, by the late 1700s the great hall was beginning to lose its purpose over time.


title: Louis VI of France

paragraphs: Louis VI (1 December 1081 – 1 August 1137), called the Fat (), was King of France from 1108 until his death (1137).

paragraphs: He married in 1104: 1) Lucienne de Rochefort — the marriage was cancelled.

paragraphs: He married in 1115: 2) Adélaide de Maurienne (1092–1154)


title: Louis VII of France

paragraphs: Louis VII, called the Younger or the Young (; 1120 – 18 September 1180), was King of France from 1137 until his death. He was the son and successor of Louis VI.

paragraphs: Louis married three times. By Eleanor of Aquitaine, he had:


title: Gatehouse

paragraphs: A gatehouse is found on European castles, manor houses and mansions. A gatehouse was a strong building built over the gateway to a city or castle.

paragraphs: Sometimes gatehouses defended a town by being built across a bridge, a river or a moat, as in Monmouth.


title: Pittodrie Stadium

paragraphs: Pittodrie Stadium is a stadium in Aberdeen, Scotland. It is mostly used as a football stadium for Aberdeen F.C.

paragraphs: Aberdeen have played at Pittodrie Stadium throughout their existence. The ground was first used by the original Aberdeen F.C. in 1899, in a 7–1 win over Dumbarton; when they merged with two other teams in 1903, the new club took over the old Aberdeen ground. On August 15 1903, 8,000 spectators turned up to watch the new Aberdeen draw 1-1 against Stenhousemuir, the first game played at Pittodrie by its amalgamated tenants. The club initially rented the ground, but subsequently bought it in 1920. The stadium contains 21,600 seats, but due to the directors' boxes, some sources place this figure at 22,000. The record attendance occurred on March 13 1954, when 45,061 spectators turned up for a Scottish Cup match between Aberdeen and Hearts.

paragraphs: The stadium consists of four stands. The Main Stand, which houses the club offices and players facilities, holds the majority of the supporters. The Merkland Road Stand is primarily for families. The South Stand is opposite the main stand and a quarter of this section is used to accommodate travelling supporters, except for Old Firm games, where half of this stand is given to the visiting fans. The newest element is the Richard Donald stand at the East, or Beach End, of the ground, and is named after former chairman Dick Donald. This is a modern, two–tier design, completed in 1993, containing hospitality suites which is significantly taller than the other structures at the ground. In 1978, Pittodrie became the first all covered, all-seater stadium in Britain.

paragraphs: The club are examining a move to a new stadium in Aberdeen.


title: Florence Cathedral

paragraphs: One of the most amazing architecture made during the Renaissance was built in Italy by a man called Filippo Brunelleschi. Brunelleschi made the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral in Florence, Italy. It took him 16 years to create and used mainly only two materials marble and brick. The cathedral finished its construction on the 9th of September 1296. Many experts do not understand the logic of how it was built. But what we do know is that Brunelleschi invented many new techniques to produce such an amazing cathedral. The Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore or Florence Cathedral is the cathedral church of Florence, Italy. The basilica was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio with the dome by Filippo Brunelleschi. The bell tower was designed by Giotto. The outside is decorated with marble panels in green and pink bordered by white. The building was begun in 1296 and was finished in 1469, except for the decoration. The facade (the main front) was decorated between 1876 and 1903. The dome, which is built of bricks with stone ribs, is one of the biggest in the world.

paragraphs: From about 1464 the members of the Wool Guild wanted to have twelve statues of people from the Old Testament of the Bible carved for the Florence Cathedral. These statues were to go on the buttresses all around the outside walls, high up near the roof.


title: Beauvais Cathedral

paragraphs: Beauvais Cathedral ("Cathédrale Saint-Pierre de Beauvais") is an unfinished cathedral in Beauvais, in northern France. It was started in the 13th century.


title: Orvieto Cathedral

paragraphs: The Duomo di Orvieto is a big 14th century Roman Catholic cathedral found in the town of Orvieto in Umbria in Italy.


title: Laon Cathedral

paragraphs: The cathedral of Notre-Dame of Laon is a cathedral in Laon, Hauts-de-France, France. The current gothic cathedral was built between 1135 and 1270, on the site of an romanesque church which had been destroyed by a fire. It is one of the most important examples of the Gothic architecture of the 12th and 13th centuries. It is also among the first gothic cathedrals built in France. The cathedral has been compared to those of Saint-Étienne of Sens and Notre Dame of Paris.


title: Lincoln Cathedral

paragraphs: Lincoln Cathedral is an Anglican church in Lincoln, England. It was the tallest building in the world for over 200 years (1300–1549), but the central spire fell down in the sixteenth century and was not rebuilt. It owns one of the four surviving copies of the Magna Carta.


title: Milan Cathedral

paragraphs: Milan Cathedral (Italian: Duomo di Milano) is the cathedral church of Milan found in Lombardy, northern Italy. The cathedral where locate in Milan was built according to Italian style. Its construction was started in 1386 and was completed in 1965. The construction took 579 years. Capacity of the cathedral is 60000 people. It is one of the largest cathedral in the world and the largest in Italy.


title: Sainte Chapelle

paragraphs: La Sainte-Chapelle () is a Gothic chapel found on the Île de la Cité in the heart of Paris, France. This chapel is a perfect example of the "rayonnante" period of Gothic architecture. The chapel was designed by architect, Pierre de Montereau.

paragraphs: La Sainte-Chapelle was built in six years (1242-1248). It was consecrated in 1248. The building was designed to house the relics of the Passion, especially the Crown of Thorns. King Louis IX had acquired this Crown from Emperor Baudouin II in 1239. The possession of this relic put France in the forefront of Latin Christendom.

paragraphs: Other relics were brought from Byzantium over the next two years. These relics were kept in the Saint-Nicholas Chapel until a more appropriate place could be prepared. During the French Revolution, the choir stalls and the rood screen of Sainte Chapelle were destroyed. The spire was torn down and the relics sent elsewhere. Restoration of the chapel was undertaken in 1846. The chapel was returned to its former splendor with this restoration.

paragraphs: The stained glass windows of the chapel are its chief glory. They tell the story of humankind from the Creation to the Redemption of the world through Jesus Christ. These windows contain 6,458 sq. ft of glass. Two thirds of the glass are original. Each window is divided into lancets. These lancets must be read from left to right, working from the bottom up. They were restored in the 19th century.


title: Gloucester Cathedral

paragraphs: Gloucester Cathedral is an Anglican church in Gloucester, England. It is in the north of the city near the river. It started with the foundation of an Abbey built for Saint Peter in 678 or 679. Henry VIII ordered the monasteries to be dissolved and Gloucester Abbey surrendered in January 1540. The abbey buildings became Gloucester Cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of Gloucester in 1541.