title: Vitamin E

paragraphs: Vitamin E (which is also called Tocopherol or Tocotrienol, E307, E308,E309) is a vitamin. There are eight forms of it, E to E. It can be found in vegetable oils. Very often it is also added to lotions and creams for the skin. It is supposed to help the healing of the skin, after burns and injuries, and lower the risk of heart disease and cancer.

paragraphs: Some research suggests that vitamin E has anti-aging benefits.


title: Vitamin K

paragraphs: Vitamin K is a vitamin which is soluble in fat. It is probably best known for its role in the coagulation (clotting) of blood. However, it also serves other important functions in the body.

paragraphs: Vitamin K was discovered by a Danish chemist named Henrik Dam. He won the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering its key role in the coagulation of blood. Since that time, Vitamin K's role in other physiologic functions has become known. One of the most important is its role in controlling where calcium goes in the body.

paragraphs: Without Vitamin K, there would be a loss of blood when a person bleeds, which can lead to unconsciousness or even death. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.


title: B vitamins

paragraphs: The B vitamin complex (also called B vitamins) are a group of 8 vitamins. They have an important job in the metabolism of cells. Each B vitamin is a cofactor (a coenzyme) for some key metabolic processes or it is a precursor needed to make one.

paragraphs: Originally, people thought they were just different forms of one vitamin (as with Vitamin D, for example). Later it turned out that they are separate vitamins that often can be found together. They are Vitamin B1/Thiamine, Vitamin B2/Riboflavin, Vitamin B3/Vitamin P/Vitamin PP/Niacin,Vitamin B5/Pantothenic acid, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B7/Vitamin H/Biotin, Vitamin B9/Vitamin M/Vitamin B-c/Folic acid and Vitamin B12. They are required for growth, and proper functioning of nerves and muscles. B vitamins are found in meat, milk, whole grains and fresh vegetables.

paragraphs: Vitamin B deficiencies have been shown to cause the following symptoms:

paragraphs: Well-known medical syndromes caused by thiamine deficiency are beri-beri, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS), and optic neuropathy.


title: Subarctic climate

paragraphs: Places with a subarctic climate (also called boreal climate) have long, usually very cold winters, and short, warm summers. It is found on large landmasses, away from oceans, usually at latitudes from 50° to 70°N. Because there are no large landmasses at such latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, it is only found at high "altitudes "(heights) in the Andes and the mountains of Australia and New Zealand's South Island. These climates are in groups "Dfc", "Dwc", "Dfd" and "Dwd" in the Köppen climate classification

paragraphs: This type of climate has very big changes in temperature throughout the year. In winter, temperatures can drop to -40 °C (also -40 °F) and in summer, the temperature may go above 30 °C (86 °F). But the summers are short, as there are no more than three months of the year with an average temperature of at least 10 °C (50 °F). However, at least one must have an average temperature of at least 10 °C (50 °F) . In addition, the coldest month must be below 0°C (32°F) The subarctic climate is in between the humid continental climate and the polar climate. The subarctic climate is found in the these places:

paragraphs: With 5–7 months in a row where the average temperature is below freezing, all water in the soil and subsoil freezes several feet deep. In the colder parts of this climate, summer warmth is not enough to "thaw" (unfreeze) more than a few feet on the top of the soil, so there can be "permafrost"(soil that is frozen forever). When the ice melts in the summer, 2 to 14 ft (0.6 to 4 m) of soil can thaw, depending on the latitude and the type of soil. Some subarctic climates near oceans (such as southern Alaska and the northern edge of Europe), have milder winters and no permafrost, so it is easier to farm there.

paragraphs: Summer is very short; it has about 45 to 100 days at most, and in a lot of places, the temperatures can go below freezing (32 °F or 0 °C) at any time of the year, even in the summer. Vegetation (plants) in a subarctic climate usually has low diversity (only a few different types of plants grow), because only "hardy" (very tough) species can survive the long winters and make use of the short summers. Trees are mostly evergreen conifers, because few "broadleaved" (big leaves) trees can survive the very low temperatures in winter. This type of forest is also known as taiga. The word "taiga" can also be a name for the climate itself. A lot of plants grow in the taiga (even if there are only a few different kinds of plants), so the taiga (boreal) forest is the largest forest biome on the planet, with most of the forests in Russia and Canada.

paragraphs: Is it usually very hard to farm in subarctic climates, because the soil is "infertile" (it doesn't have the nutrients that many plants need to grow) and because of the many swamps and lakes that ice sheets make, and only very tough crops can survive the short growing seasons. On the plus side, the days last longer in the summer as you get closer to the poles. So the plants that can grow get a lot of sunlight. Potatoes, strawberries, blueberries and hay for animals grow well. Special varieties of other plants may grow as well.

paragraphs: There is very little precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail); no more than 15 to 20 inches over an entire year. Rain and snow may stay above ground until the ground melts. This means that when the precipitation does soak into the ground, it can be very wet and muddy.

paragraphs: Close to the Earth's poles and the water around the poles, the warmest month has an average temperature of less than 10 °C (50 °F), and the subarctic climate turns into a tundra climate, which is even worse for trees.

paragraphs: Here are some places with subarctic climates:

paragraphs: Some places in the climate group "Dfd" (a very, very cold subarctic climate) are:


title: ONS coding system

paragraphs: The ONS coding system is a system used in the United Kingdom for dealing with census and other statistical data. It is used by the Office for National Statistics as a way to label each area of England and Wales. It is also used for parts of Northern Ireland. The system uses a code for the larger census areas, counties and districts. It then breaks those areas down into smaller areas within the larger areas. Each of the smaller areas get a code that is based on the larger area. Areas are divided in this way until they get to the smallest size used for census data. An area must have at least 40 households, but they try to not divide an area into a size smaller than 100 households.


title: Michael Tippett

paragraphs: Sir Michael Kemp Tippett OM CH CBE (2 January 1905 – 8 January 1998) was an English composer. He is one of the greatest and most original composers of the 20th century. He did not start to study music seriously until he was nearly grown up, and only become famous when he was about 40. The rhythms in his music and the tonality are very original. He is remembered for many kinds of music: opera, oratorio, orchestral music, chamber music and piano music. His oratorio "A Child of our Time" is especially well-known and often performed by choirs.

paragraphs: Tippett was born in Eastcote, Middlesex and spent his childhood in a small village in Suffolk. His father had retired and had bought a hotel in Cannes, France. Michael and his brother learned to speak French when they were very young. He was sent to school in Edinburgh when he was 13 but did not like it there so he went to the local Stamford Grammar School in Lincolnshire.

paragraphs: The only musical training he had as a child were his piano lessons. When he had finished his school years he decided he wanted to be a composer, but neither he nor his parents knew the best way to become a composer. He started having more piano lessons. Then someone said he should go to the Royal College of Music. He went there at the beginning of the summer term, 1923 and spent five years there studying music. He then moved to Oxted in Surrey and for six years he taught French at a school. He composed in his free time.

paragraphs: In Oxted there was a small choir. Tippett had sung with them while he was a student. Now he became their conductor and he learned a lot about music by getting the choir to sing English madrigals and other music including operatic music. He took some more lessons in composition from R.O.Morris at the RCM. He went to music camps where he learned more ideas about politics than about music. He agreed with a lot of the ideas of Trotsky. He became a pacifist and in 1940 he registered as a conscientious objector. In 1943 he spent three months in prison because he refused to help with the war effort.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, Tippett had become director of music at Morley College. He made the choir there into one of the best choirs in England. He played a lot of music by Henry Purcell whose music was not as well known then as it is now. He also worked with young musicians who later became famous: the tenor Peter Pears, the countertenor Alfred Deller and the Amadeus String Quartet.

paragraphs: In 1951 he became a broadcaster with the BBC. Some of the talks he gave on the radio were published in his book "Moving into Aquarius". He continued a brilliant career as composer, conductor and broadcaster. He was director of the Bath Festival which he helped to improve a lot. He became internationally famous, especially in America. His "Symphony no 4" and his oratorio "Mask of Time" were written for performances in America. His last opera "New Year" was written jointly for the Houston Grand Opera, Glyndebourne and the BBC. He was made a CBE in 1959, knighted in 1966, made a Companion of Honour in 1979 and received an Order of Merit in 1983. He received many honours from universities.

paragraphs: Tippett died from pneumonia in London in 1998 after travelling to Stockholm for a festival which included all his works except his stage works. Although he was able to return home he died shortly afterwards.

paragraphs: It is unusual for a great musician to begin studying music properly at the age of 18. However, he was old enough to realize that he had a lot to learn. He studied counterpoint and was influenced by the way Classical composers had shaped their music. Beethoven especially was an inspiration for him. One of his best-known works is the "Concerto for Double String Orchestra" (1938-1939). It shows his love of folk music as well as interest in English music of the Renaissance. This music is exciting because of its beats, which keep changing, and its dance-like character.

paragraphs: "A Child of Our Time" was an oratorio which used negro spirituals. He combined these with his own style of music. It is about something that really happened in 1938. A 17-year-old Jewish Polish boy killed a Nazi diplomat because the Nazis had taken away his parents. The Nazis were angry and killed lots of Jews in return. It was something which helped to lead to the World War II. Tippett’s music is about the cruelty that humans show towards one another.

paragraphs: Tippett’s operas include "A Midsummer Marriage" (started 1946, first performed 1955), "King Priam" (1958-61), "The Knot Garden" (1966-69) and "The Ice Break" (1973-76) and "New Year" (1989). He wrote several choral works. His orchestral works include 4 symphonies, a "Fantasia concertante on a Theme of Corelli" for strings (1953), a "Piano Concerto" (1953-55) and a "Concerto for violin, viola and cello" (1979). His chamber music includes piano sonatas and string quartets.

paragraphs: Tippett published many of his writings. "Moving into Aquarius" consists of talks given on the BBC. In his autobiography "Those Twentieth Century Blues" he discusses many of his problems, including his homosexuality, which in his earlier years he could not talk about because it was illegal at that time.


title: Claw

paragraphs: A claw is a sharp object. It is found at the end of a toe or finger in many mammals, birds, and some reptiles. The word "claw" is also used in reference to an invertebrate. For example, the chelae of crabs and lobsters are often called claws or pincers.

paragraphs: A claw is made of hard protein called keratin. They are used by some meat eating mammals such as cats to catch and hold prey, but they may also be used for other things such as digging, climbing trees, and so on, in those and other species.

paragraphs: Similar appendages that are flat and do not come to a sharp point are called nails instead.

paragraphs: The correct name for an arthropod's 'claw' is chela (plural "chelae"). Legs that have a chela are called chelipeds. Chelae are also called pincers.

paragraphs: In tetrapods, claws are made of keratin and have two layers. The unguis is the outside hard layer, which has keratin fibers arranged perpendicular to the direction of growth and in layers at an angle. The subunguis is the soft, flaky layer, and the grain is parallel to the direction of growth. The claw grows outward from the nail matrix at the base of the unguis and the subunguis grows thicker while traveling across the nail bed. The unguis grows outward faster than the subunguis to make a curve and the thinner sides of the claw wear away faster than their thicker middle, making a more or less sharp point. Tetrapods use their claws in many ways, such as grasping or killing prey, digging, climbing, and hanging.

paragraphs: A talon is the claw of a bird of prey, which it uses to hunt. The talons are very important, and if they did not have them, those birds would not be able to catch their food.

paragraphs: A nail is similar to a claw but it is flatter and has a curved edge instead of a point. A nail that is big enough to hold weight is called a 'hoof'.

paragraphs: Every so often, the growth of claws stops and restarts, just like the growth of hair. In hair, this causes the hair to fall out and it is replaced by a new one. In claws, this results in an old layer, and it breaks off. This takes several months for human thumbnails. Cats are often seen working old layers off on wood or on boards made for the purpose. Ungulates' hooves trim themselves when they walk on the ground. Domesticated equids (horses, donkeys and mules) usually need regular trimming by a farrier.

paragraphs: Many predatory mammals have claws that can hide inside the animal's paw, especially animals such as the cat.

paragraphs: A primate's nail only has the unguis; the subunguis has disappeared. Similar to the tail, the claw in apes is not needed. However, in some primates, the subunguis has redeveloped to make a claw-like structure. These certain animals do not have actual claws; instead the unguis appears normal along with a thick growth of subunguis. Some lemurs have a toilet-claw.


title: Max and Moritz

paragraphs: Max and Moritz (German: Max und Moritz) are two naughty little boys in a story by Wilhelm Busch. The stories were written in 1865 and are still extremely popular in Germany.

paragraphs: Wilhelm Busch was an artist as well as a writer. He wrote a lot of stories in rhyme and made drawings to go with them. "Max and Moritz" are stories like these. The two boys get up to lots of naughty pranks. There are seven stories (seven pranks). In the final prank they are caught and come to a sad end. In the 19th century writers had to show that bad behaviour would be punished in the end. The seven stories are stories with a moral.

paragraphs: In the first story the boys tie pieces of bread onto pieces of string and put it down where an old woman, Widow Bolte, keeps her hens. The hens each try to swallow a piece of bread, which sticks in their throats and they end up hanging in the tree and die.

paragraphs: In the second story Widow Bolte, who is still crying, decides she might as well roast the hens. The boys take fishing rods, climb onto the roof and pull the frying chickens up with their rods. Widow Bolte finds the chickens gone, thinks her little dog has eaten them, and gives the poor dog a beating.

paragraphs: In the third story they take a saw and make a hole in the tiny wooden bridge outside the tailor’s house. They shout at the tailor, calling him names. He is furious and comes running out, the bridge breaks and he falls into the stream. Two flying geese save him. He has a terrible tummy ache but his wife puts a hot iron on his tummy and he feels better.

paragraphs: In the fourth story the boys put gunpowder in the pipe of the schoolmaster while he is in church. When he lights his pipe there is an explosion.

paragraphs: In the fifth story the boys collect beetles and put them under the mattress in their uncle’s bed. In the middle of the night, when the uncle is asleep, the beetles creep up on him. He wakes up and fights with them until he has killed them all.

paragraphs: In the sixth story the boys try to steal some pretzels (German rolls) from the bakery, but they fall into the tub of dough. The baker comes in and finds them. He bakes them in the oven, but when they are taken out they eat their way through the dough and escape.

paragraphs: In the seventh story the boys cut a hole in the farmer’s sacks. When the miller picks one of these sacks up he realizes the grain is spilling. He sees the boys, puts them in the sack and takes them to the mill, where the miller grinds them into corn and feeds them to his ducks.


title: Abstinence

paragraphs: Abstinence is a voluntary restraint from following a desire or appetite for certain bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to abstention from sexual intercourse, alcohol or food. The practice can arise from religious prohibitions or practical considerations.

paragraphs: In India, Buddhists, Jains, and some Hindus abstain from eating meat on the grounds both of health and of reverence for all sentient forms of life. Total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism.


title: Sexual abstinence

paragraphs: Sexual abstinence is the practice of not having sex. It is a choice that some people make. As well as sex itself, they may also choose to abstain from other sexual activities. Sexual abstinence has been debated since ancient history, both in terms of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. Some people take anaphrodisiacs to help them stay abstinent.

paragraphs: Abstaining from sex before marriage is usually called chastity. In some countries, it is illegal to have sex before marriage. Many religious and ethical systems proscribe sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse of that person, including most denominational variations of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as have, historically, many legal systems and societal norms. People who are abstinent even though they do not want to be are sometimes called incels or TFL (true forced loneliness). One form of sexual abstinence is fapstinence, avoiding masturbation.

paragraphs: People may choose to do this for any reason. A common reason is because of the person's religious or philosophical beliefs. When done for religious reasons, it is called celibacy. Other people may choose abstinence in order to prevent pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases. When someone is abstinent from sex but they don't want to be, its sometimes called "incel", short for "involuntary celibacy".


title: Council of Jerusalem

paragraphs: "Council of Jerusalem" is a common name for a meeting of early Christian leaders reported in the "Acts of the Apostles" chapter . The meeting must have happened about the year 50, at the latest some time before the death of James the Just in 62.

paragraphs: A common interpretation is that the council came together because there was disagreement within the Early Christian community between those who believed the church must observe the rules of traditional Judaism, and Paul of Tarsus, who believed there was no such necessity. The "rules of traditional Judaism," the Halakha of Rabbinic Judaism, were not finished at this time

paragraphs: The central issue was circumcision, as the author of "Acts" relates the initial confrontation in Antioch, where Paul had been preaching:


title: Ironing

paragraphs: Ironing means getting the creases out of clothes after they have been washed and dried. Ironing is done with a tool called an "iron". It is called an iron because in past centuries it was made of iron, a type of metal. The iron is heated before it is used. This used to be done by putting the iron on a fire. Nowadays electricity is used to warm the iron. The user can put water inside, which becomes steam.

paragraphs: Ironing clothes is usually easiest when the clothes are still very slightly damp, but it depends on the material of the clothes. There is normally a label on the clothes which shows whether it can be ironed, and at what temperature. Ironing is usually done with a padded ironing board. The clothes to be ironed are put on the ironing board and the iron is pushed carefully along the cloth to get all the wrinkles out.


title: Central European Time

paragraphs: Central European Time is a time zone. It is one hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (what used to be called Greenwich Mean Time). Most countries in the central part of Europe and some countries in Africa follow it.

paragraphs: In Europe, the countries of Ireland, Great Britain, Iceland and Portugal use Western European Time. All the other countries, up to Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and North Macedonia use Central European Time.

paragraphs: Algeria and Tunisia in Africa use CET but do not observe daylight saving time.


title: Central European Summer Time

paragraphs: Central European Summer Time is the name for a time zone. Some of the countries that have Central European Time shift their clocks forward one hour, during the summer months. And shift it one hour backwards during winter months.


title: James the Just

paragraphs: James the Just, also called James Adelphotheos, James, 1st Bishop of Jerusalem, or James, the Brother of the Lord and sometimes identified with James the Less, (died AD 62) was an important figure in Early Christianity.

paragraphs: According to tradition, he was the first formal leader or bishop of Jerusalem, the author of the James in the New Testament, and the first of the Seventy of Luke 10:1-20. Paul of Tarsus in Galatians 2:9 (KJV) characterized James as such: "... James, Cephas, and John, who seemed to be pillars..." He is described in the New Testament as a "brother of Jesus" and in the Liturgy of St James as "the brother of God" ("Adelphotheos")

paragraphs: James was called "the Just" because of his ascetic practices, which involved taking Nazarite vows. The name also helps distinguish him from other important figures in early Christianity, such as James, son of Zebedee.

paragraphs: He is sometimes called "James Adelphotheos", (literally "James the Brother of God" - Greek : Iάκωβος ο Αδελφόθεος ), based on New Testament descriptions.

paragraphs: James' name was important in the genealogy of Jesus because he always appears first when someone lists Jesus' brothers and sisters, this means that James was the eldest brother of Jesus.

paragraphs: The canonical writings of the New Testament, as well as other written sources from the early church, provide some insights into Saint James' life and his role in the early church. The Synoptics mention his name, but nothing else about him, whereas the Gospel of John and early chapters of the Acts of the Apostles do not even mention James.

paragraphs: "Acts of the Apostles", in later chapters, provides evidence that James was an important figure in the Christian community of Jerusalem. When Peter, having miraculously escaped from prison, must flee Jerusalem, he asks that James be informed (12:17). When the Christians of Antioch are concerned over whether Gentile Christians need be circumcised to be saved, and they send Paul and Barnabas to confer with the Jerusalem church there, James played a prominent role in the formulation of the council's decision (15:13ff). Indeed, after Peter and Paul have made their case, it is James who finally delivers what he calls his "judgement"—the original sense is close to "my ruling"—and afterwards, all accept it. James, in other words, is shown in charge of the Jerusalem group, which conflicts with later claims of Peter's primacy there. And when Paul arrives in Jerusalem to deliver the money he raised for the faithful there, it is to James that he speaks, and who insists that Paul ritually cleanse himself at Herod's Temple to prove his faith and deny rumors of teaching rebellion against the Torah (21:18ff) (a charge of antinomianism).

paragraphs: Paul further describes James as being one of the persons the risen Christ showed himself to (1 Corinthians 15:3-8); then later in 1 Corinthians, mentions James in a way that suggests James had been married (9:5); and in Galatians, Paul lists James with Cephas (better known as Peter) and John, as the three "pillars" of the Church, and who will minister to the "circumcised" (in general Jews and Jewish Proselytes) in Jerusalem, while Paul and his fellows will minister to the "uncircumcised" (in general Gentiles). (2:9, 2:12). These terms (circumcised/uncircumcised) are generally interpreted to mean Jews and Greeks, who were predominant, however it is an oversimplification as 1st century Iudaea Province also had some Jews who no longer circumcised, and some Greeks (called Proselytes or Judaizers) and others such as Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Arabs who did.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

paragraphs: In Christianity, the disciples were the students of Jesus during his ministry, which sometimes means only the Twelve Apostles, but the gospels speaks of different numbers of disciples. In the Book of Acts, the Apostles themselves have disciples. The word "disciple" is used today as a way of self-identification for those who seek to learn from Christianity.

paragraphs: The term disciple comes from the Ancient Greek language word

paragraphs: coming to English by way of the Latin "discipulus". "Disciple" should not be confused with "apostle", meaning

paragraphs: "" While a disciple is one who learns from a teacher, a student, an apostle is sent to deliver those teachings to others.

paragraphs: Both the gospels of Mark () and Matthew () include passages where Jesus initially calls four fishermen from among those at the Sea of Galilee. These are Simon (later called "Rock" or Peter) and his brother Andrew, and the brothers James and John (later called the "Sons of Thunder" or Boanerges). A very similar report in the Gospel of Luke does not speak of Andrew. also includes an initial calling of disciples, but these are: an unnamed disciple, Andrew, Simon, Philip and Nathanael.

paragraphs: Since the Gospel of Luke does not include Andrew, and through various passages in the four gospels where Simon Peter, James and John are called to meet with Jesus separately from the twelve, they are commonly termed "the three." The usage of "the four" over "the three" is still a point which some Christians debate, but never as an essential doctrinal point.

paragraphs: Most of the attention in the gospels is given to a specific group of disciples called by Jesus on the top of a mountain and commissioned by him as the Twelve Apostles. These men are:

paragraphs: The Gospel of John refers to one disciple as the one whom Jesus loved. Since the apostle John, unlike the other twelve, is never named in that gospel, the "beloved disciple" is assumed to be him.

paragraphs: The number of or persons among Jesus' disciples is not always given in the gospel accounts. A much larger group of people is identified as disciples in the opening of the passage of the Sermon on the Plain that begins in Luke .

paragraphs: Additionally, seventy (or seventy-two, depending on the source used) people are sent out in pairs to prepare the way for Jesus (Luke 10). They are sometimes referred to as "the Seventy" or "the Seventy Disciples". They are to eat any food offered, heal the sick and spread the word; that God's reign is coming, that whoever hears them hears Jesus, whoever rejects them rejects Jesus and whoever rejects Jesus rejects the One who sent him. In addition they are granted great powers over the enemy and their names are written in heaven.

paragraphs: Cleopas is one of the two disciples to whom the risen Lord appeared at Emmaus (Luke 24:18). Cleopas, with an unnamed disciple of Jesus' are walking from Jerusalem to Emmaus on the day of Jesus' resurrection. Cleopas and his friend were discussing the events of the past few days when a stranger asked them what they spoke of. The stranger asked to join Cleopas and his friend for the evening meal. There the stranger revealed himself, after blessing and breaking the bread, as the resurrected Jesus and then disappeared. Cleopas and his friend hastened to Jerusalem to carry the news to the other disciples, where Jesus subsequently appeared to them as well. The incident is without parallel in Matthew, Mark, or John.

paragraphs: In Luke (10:38–42), Mary, sister of Lazarus is contrasted with her sister Martha, who was "cumbered about many things" while Jesus was their guest, while Mary had chosen "the better part," that of listening to the master's discourse. John names her as the "one who had anointed the Lord with perfumed oil and dried his feet with her hair" (11:2). In Luke, an unidentified "sinner" in the house of a Pharisee anoints Jesus' feet. Any pre-existing relationship between Jesus and Lazarus himself, prior to the miracle, is unspecified by John. In Catholic folklore, Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is seen as the same as Mary Madgalene.

paragraphs: Luke refers to a number of people accompanying Jesus and the twelve. From among them he names three women: "Mary, called Magdalene, ... and Joanna the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, and Susanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their resources" (Luke 8:2-3). Mary Magdalene and Joanna are among the women who went to prepare Jesus' body in Luke's account of the resurrection, and who later told the apostles and other disciples about the empty tomb and words of the "two men in dazzling clothes". Mary Magdalene is the most well-known of the disciples outside of the Twelve. More is written in the gospels about her than the other female followers. There is also a large body of lore and literature covering her.

paragraphs: Other gospel writers differ as to which women witness the crucifixion and witness to the resurrection. Mark includes Mary, the mother of James and Salome (not to be confused with Salomé the daughter of Herodias) at the crucifixion and Salome at the tomb. John includes Mary the wife of Clopas at the crucifixion.


title: Ahmed Jibril

paragraphs: Ahmed Jibril (born 1938) is the founder and co-leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC). He founded it in 1968. His son Jihad Ahmed Jibril was to take over, but was killed by a car bomb in Beirut in 2002.


title: Jihad Ahmed Jibril

paragraphs: Mohammed Jihad Ahmed Jibril (March 3, 1961 in Damascus - May 20, 2002 in Beirut) was the son of Ahmed Jibril, founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC). He was killed by a car bomb. He was assassinated on May 20, 2002.

paragraphs: Jihad Ahmed Jibril was the leader of the military wing of the PFLP-GC and was the heir apparent of the organization before he was killed in a car bombing in Beirut in 2002. The assassination was blamed on Israel, although Jibril had many other enemies, including the Lebanese Christian militia and other Palestinian nationalist organizations.

paragraphs: Ahmed Jibril was co-leader of the militant Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command. Israeli radio reports said that the son, Jihad Ahmed Jibril, was involved in smuggling arms and explosives to Palestinian militants in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

paragraphs: But there was no evidence to directly link him with terrorist attacks.

paragraphs: Ahmed Jibril accused the Israeli intelligence agency, Mossad, of responsibility for the killing, but a spokesman for Defense Minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer said Israel was not involved.

paragraphs: In mid-June 2006, Lebanon authorities arrested a group of alleged spies who reportedly confessed to working for Israel and carrying out the attacks.


title: Topkapı Palace

paragraphs: The Topkapı Palace is a palace in Istanbul (Constantinople), Turkey. Topkapı Sarayı in Turkish means the "Cannongate Palace". It was built in 1465. The palace was the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire. It was turned into a museum at the request of Turkey's first President, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924. It was built on the acropolis, the site of the first settlement in Istanbul. The palace has an very good view of the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. The palace is surrounded by 5km of walls. It has an area of 700,000 sq. m at the tip of the historical peninsula.

paragraphs: The First Court (or "Alay Meydanı") spans over the entire Seraglio Point and is surrounded by high walls. This court was also known as the Court of the Janissaries or the Parade Court.

paragraphs: The main gate is called Bab-ı Hümayun, simply the Imperial Gate. Apart from the Topkapı Palace, the First Court also contains the old imperial mint (constructed in 1727), the church of Hagia Eirene, the Archeology Museum (constructed during the 19th century) and various fountains, pavilions (for example, the Çinili Pavilion, or Tiled Pavilion) and gardens (including the Gülhane Park, the old imperial rose garden).

paragraphs: The Çinili Pavilion (1472) has many superb examples of Iznik tiles. It now houses the Museum of Islamic Art.

paragraphs: The Fountain of the Executioner is where the executioner washed his hands and sword after a beheading. The Fountain of Ahmed III is an example of Rococo work.

paragraphs: The huge Gate of Greeting ("Bab-üs Selam") leads into the palace and the Second Court ("Divan Meydanı").

paragraphs: The second court is a park surrounded by the palace hospital, bakery, Janissary quarters, stables, the imperial Harem and Divan to the north and the kitchens to the south. The kitchens today contain one of the world's largest collections of Chinese blue-and-white and celadon porcelain, valued by the sultans because it was supposed to change color if the food or drink it contained was poisoned.

paragraphs: The Divan Salonu, or Imperial Council Chamber, was where the sultan's counselors and functionaries met to discuss the empire's affairs. The Sultan could overhear from a concealed grille.

paragraphs: Beyond the Gate of Felicity ("Bab-üs Saadet") is the Third Court which is the heart of the palace, a lush garden surrounded by the Hall of the Privy Chamber ("Has Oda") occupied by the palace officials, the treasury (which contains some of the finest treasures of the Ottoman age, including the Sacred Trusts), the Harem and some pavilions, with the library of Ahmed III in the center.

paragraphs: The Treasury holds some of the most famous and spectacular jewels in the world, including the famous Topkapı Dagger. In 1747, the Sultan had this dagger made for Nadir Shah of Persia, but the Shah was assassinated before the emissary had left the Ottoman Empire's boundaries and so the Sultan retained it. There are three large emeralds in the hilt and the sheath is worked with diamonds and enamel. This dagger was the subject of the famous film "Topkapi".

paragraphs: The Harem was home to the Sultan's mother, the Valide sultan; the concubines and wives of the Sultan; and the rest of his family, including children; and their servants. There are approximately 300 rooms (though only about twenty are open to the public), and the Harem housed as many as 500 people, which sometimes amounted up to 300 women, their children, and the eunuchs.

paragraphs: Many of the rooms and features in the Harem were designed by Sinan, a famous architect of the Ottoman Empire.

paragraphs: The Pavilion of the Holy Mantle holds the cloak of Mohammed, his sword, his teeth, his beard, and other relics which are known as the Sacred Trusts. Even the Sultan and his family were permitted entrance only once a year, on the 15th day of Ramadan, during the time when the Palace was a residence. Now any visitor can see these items and many Muslims come on pilgrimage for this purpose.


title: Acts of the Apostles

paragraphs: The Acts of the Apostles (Greek "Praxeis Apostolon") is a book of the Bible, which now is the fifth in the New Testament. It is often simply called Acts.

paragraphs: Acts tells the story of the Early Christian church, with particular interest for the ministry of the Twelve Apostles and of Paul of Tarsus. The early chapters in Jerusalem, report Jesus's Resurrection, his Ascension, the Day of Pentecost, and the start of the Twelve Apostles' ministry. The later chapters report Paul's conversion, his ministry, and finally his arrest and imprisonment and trip to Rome.

paragraphs: Most people think that the author of Acts also wrote the Gospel of Luke, as Acts 1:1 refers to 'the former treatise have I made, Theophilus, of all that Jesus began both to do and teach'. The traditional view is that both the two books were written "c." 60 by a companion of Paul named Luke. Many theologians still think so. But some think the books were written by an unknown author at a later date, sometime between 80 and 150.


title: Firebreak

paragraphs: A Firebreak is a way to fight fires. In a firebreak, there is no vegetation, or other material that can burn. This makes it hard for a fire to jump across the break. Therefore, the spread of a possible fire is delayed.


title: Slum

paragraphs: A slum is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages. There are slums in most of the big cities of the world. They may not be called "slum", however; see shanty town.

paragraphs: Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles rookery was:


title: Montauban

paragraphs: Montauban () is a "commune" in the Tarn-et-Garonne department in the Midi-Pyrénées region in southern France. It is the "préfecture" (capital) of the department.

paragraphs: The town, built mainly with reddish bricks, is on the right bank of the Tarn river at its confluence with the Tescou. It was one of the first bastides in history.

paragraphs: Together with Mont-de-Marsan, Montauban is one of the oldest towns with walls (a bastide) in southern France. It was founded in 1144 by Alphonse Jourdain, Count of Toulouse. Most of the inhabitants came from Montauriol, a village which had grown up around the neighbouring monastery of St Théodard.

paragraphs: In the 13th century the town suffered much during the Albigensian Crusade and from the Inquisition, but by 1317 it had recovered sufficiently to be chosen by the Pope John XXII as the head of a diocese of which the basilica of St Théodard became the cathedral.

paragraphs: In 1360, under the Treaty of Brétigny, the town was given to the English; they were expelled by the inhabitants in 1414. In 1560 the bishops became Protestants; ten years later it became one of the four Huguenot strongholds under the Peace of Saint-Germain, and formed a small independent republic.

paragraphs: In 1790, Montauban was in the Lot department as the capital of a district; with the creation of the "arrondissements" in 1800, Montauban became a "sous-préfecture" in the Lot department. When Napoleon created the Tarn-et-Garonne department in 1809, Montauban became the préfecture (capital) of the new department.

paragraphs: Montauban is at about to the north of Toulouse, on the confluence of the Tescou and the Tarn rivers, and at from Agen ("préfecture" of the Lot-et-Garonne), from Albi ("préfecture" of the Tarn) and at about from Cahors ("préfecture" of the Lot).

paragraphs: It has an area of and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

paragraphs: Montauban is surrounded by the "communes" Villemade, Piquecos, Lamothe-Capdeville, Albias, Saint-Étienne-de-Tulmont, Léojac, Saint-Nauphary,Corbarieu,Bressols, Lacourt-Saint-Pierre, Montbeton and Albefeuille-Lagarde.

paragraphs: The climate of Montauban, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Montauban is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Montauban is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Montauban are known, in French, as "Montalbanais" (women: "Montalbanaises").

paragraphs: With a population of 58,826, Montauban has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Montauban

paragraphs: Montauban is the prefecture of the Tarn-et-Garonne department since 1809. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Montauban and the administrative centre () of three cantons, all formed with part of the commune:

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Le Grand Montauban" ().

paragraphs: Some interesting places in Montauban are:


title: Layyah

paragraphs: Layyah is a city in the Punjab province of Pakistan and is the capital of Layyah District. Layyah gets its name from the wild short shrub commonly known as Layyan. Layyah is located between the rivers Indus and Chenab in central Pakistan.


title: Leo III

paragraphs: Leo III (or the Greek form Leon III) refers to:


title: Pope Leo III

paragraphs: Leo III (died June 12, 816) was Pope from 795 to 816. He is famous for the coronation of Charlemagne as emperor in 800.

paragraphs: Leo reported his election to Charlemagne, sent him the keys of Saint Peter's tomb and the banner of Rome. Charlemagne replied that it was his function to defend the church and the Pope's to pray for the kingdom and for victory of the army.

paragraphs: Charlemagne went to Rome in November 800, and on December 1 held a council there with representatives of both sides. Leo, on December 23, took an oath of purgation concerning the charges brought against him, and his opponents were exiled. Two days later Leo crowned Charlemagne at St. Peter's tomb. Charlemagne did intervene in church affairs, not always successfully.

paragraphs: The reasons for the coronation, the involvement beforehand of the Frankish court, and the relationship to the Byzantine Empire are all matters of debate among historians.


title: Khanda

paragraphs: Khanda is a symbol of Sikhism. It is in the shape of three weapons and a circle.


title: Judi Dench

paragraphs: Dame Judith Olivia Dench (born 9 December 1934) is an English movie, stage and television actress.

paragraphs: Judi Dench has appeared in James Bond movies since 1995 as the character M. She has also appeared in other large budget movies such as "Mrs. Henderson Presents" and "Ladies in Lavender".

paragraphs: Dench was born in Heworth, York, England. She is the daughter of Eleanora Olave (née Jones), a native of Dublin, and Reginald Arthur Dench, a doctor. Dench attended the Mount School, a Quaker independent secondary school in York. She became a Quaker.

paragraphs: In 1971, Dench married British actor Michael Williams. Their only child is Tara Cressida Frances Williams. She was born on 24 September 1972. She is known professionally as Finty Williams. Dench and her husband starred together several times. Michael Williams died from lung cancer in 2001, aged 65.

paragraphs: In early 2012, Dench said she had macular degeneration. Because of this, she needed someone to read scripts to her.

paragraphs: Dench's brother, Jeffery Dench, died on 27 March 2014 at the age of 85.


title: Arendal

paragraphs: Arendal is a city and municipality in the county of Aust-Agder, Norway. It is the administrative center of Aust-Agder county, and belongs to the geographical region of Sørlandet. The municipality is bordered in the southwest by Grimstad, in the northwest by Froland, and in the northeast by Tvedestrand municipalities.

paragraphs: The Norse form of the name was probably ""Arnardalr"". The first element is then the genitive case of "orn" m 'eagle', the last element is "dalr" m 'valley, dale'.


title: S.S. Lazio

paragraphs: S.S. Lazio is an Italian football club based in Formello (Via di Santa Cornelia 1000, 00060 Formello).

paragraphs: They play in light blue shirts, white shorts and socks. The name Lazio was chosen as the original founders wanted to name the club after something which was greater and encompassed more than just the city that they were from - Lazio is the name of the region where Rome is. The sky blue and white team colors were inspired by the Greek flag and more specifically the country which gave birth to Olympic tradition; the eagle as an acknowledgement by its founders.


title: Satire

paragraphs: Satire is a form in art or writing which ridicules either a person, government, or an institution, often through the use of humour. Satire can either be in paintings, plays, books, songs, TV or movies. It also is used to stereotype people.

paragraphs: Satire was used long ago. It is a Latin word, though the plays of Aristophanes are often called satirical. Satire was widely known in Elizabethan times. Swift used it in his book "Gulliver's Travels" to make fun of people’s stupidity. Works like "The Beggar’s Opera" (1728) used satire to show how silly the politicians of the time were. The German playwright Bertolt Brecht used a lot of satire, as did Peter Cook. Jon Stewart and other comedians use it frequently.

paragraphs: Satire often points out ironic or bad things that powerful people are doing. Its adjective is satirical.


title: Iron Cross

paragraphs: The Iron Cross was a medal given to German soldiers for bravery during wartime. The award was created by King Frederick William III of Prussia. It was first given out on 10 March 1813. The Iron Cross was awarded during the Napoleonic Wars, the Franco-Prussian War, the First World War, and the Second World War. This medal was received by Adolf Hitler after World War I.

paragraphs: The medal is only given in wartime, so no Iron Crosses have been given out since the end of the Second World War in 1945.

paragraphs: During the Second World War an extra type of Iron Cross medal was given. It was the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and was given for acts of extreme battlefield bravery or successful leadership. The Knight's Cross was divided into five grades:


title: Manowar

paragraphs: Manowar is an American heavy metal band from Auburn, New York, which formed in 1980.


title: Power series

paragraphs: In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form

paragraphs: where "a" represents the coefficient of the nth term, "c" is a constant, and "x" varies around "c" (for this reason one sometimes speaks of the series as being "centered" at "c"). This series usually appears as the Taylor series of some known function; the Taylor series article contains many examples.

paragraphs: In many situations "c" is equal to zero, for example when considering a Maclaurin series.

paragraphs: In those cases, the power series takes the simpler form

paragraphs: These power series appear primarily in analysis, but also appear in combinatorics (under the name of generating functions) and in electrical engineering (under the name of the Z-transform). The familiar decimal notation for integers can also be viewed as an example of a power series, but with the argument "x" fixed at 10. In number theory, the concept of p-adic numbers is also closely related to that of a power series.


title: Classical guitar

paragraphs: A classical guitar, also called a Spanish guitar, is a musical instrument from the family of musical instruments called chordophones. This instrument is most commonly used by classical guitarists playing classical music, but it is also used in other music genres. It was first recognized 4 - 5 thousand years ago.


title: Vålerenga Fotball

paragraphs: Vålerenga Fotball is a Norwegian football club from Oslo. It was founded in 1913. They are named after the neighbourhood of Vålerenga. They finished as runners-up in the 2010 Norwegian Premier League, the last time they won was in 2005. Vålerenga's home ground is Ullevaal Stadion, the national stadium for Norway. Their current coach is Martin Andresen.


title: Volga River

paragraphs: The Volga is the longest river in Europe. In Russian it is called Волга, in the Tatar language its name is İdel.

paragraphs: Many people see it as the national river of Russia. It flows through the western part of the country. It is Europe's longest river, with a length of 3,530 kilometres, and forms the core of the largest river system in Europe.

paragraphs: It rises in the Valdai Hills of Russia, 225m above sea level north-west of Moscow. The Kama, Oka, Vetluga and the Sura are its main tributaries. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which drains an area of about 1.35 million square kilometres in Russia. The Volga Delta has a length of about 160 kilometres. It includes

paragraphs: 555 channels and small streams. It is the largest estuary in Europe. It is the only place in Russia where pelicans, flamingoes, and lotuses may be found. The Volga freezes for most of its length for three months each year. Some of the biggest reservoirs in the world can be found along the river.


title: Oi!

paragraphs: Oi! is a type of punk rock that was started in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. The people that started it wanted to connect punk with a working class street-level following. Oi! is a mixing of the styles of early punk bands, such as The Clash, Sex Pistols and the Ramones. It is also influenced by early British rock bands (such as The Rolling Stones and The Who), football chants, pub rock and glam rock bands. The music is often very simple, and the lyrics are blunt (brutally honest, without tact).

paragraphs: Punk rock began to become popular in the 1970s. Some perceived that it was becoming more and more commercialised. This was the kind of thing that punks were against. Oi! began partly as a response to this perception. It was also partly a response to stereotyping that others made about punks. One stereotype was that many people in the early punk rock scene were young people using big words and trying to be artistic, but failing.

paragraphs: Early Oi! bands such as Sham 69 were around for years before the word "Oi!" was used to describe their style of music. The word was first used as a name for the new genre in 1980, by journalist Garry Bushell. He took the name from the way the Cockney Rejects used "Oi!" during live shows to introduce their songs. "Oi! Oi! Oi!" was the title of the third track on their second album. The word is an old Cockney expression, meaning "hey" or "hello". Other bands that were labelled as Oi! bands in the early days of the genre included Angelic Upstarts, The 4-Skins, The Business, Blitz, The Blood, and Combat 84. More recent punk bands such as Rancid and Dropkick Murphys have credited Oi! as a source of inspiration.


title: Brothers Grimm

paragraphs: The Brothers Grimm (German: "Die Brüder Grimm", also "Gebrüder Grimm") were the brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm. They were German academics and most famous for their collections of folktales and fairy tales, and for their work in linguistics.

paragraphs: The Grimm brothers both became linguists. They are the inventors of German philology. They also did other language-related work, like publishing one of the first grammar books for the German language.

paragraphs: They also wrote fairy tales, and collected the tales which people told them. They published a collection of fairy tales known as "Grimms' Fairy Tales" ("Grimms Märchen").


Heavy metal


title: Bryozoa

paragraphs: Bryozoans, or Ectoprocta, are a phylum of small aquatic animals living in colonies. The colonies usually have a skeleton of calcium carbonate. Bryozoans have a long fossil history, starting in the Ordovician. In their life-style they resemble the polyps which form coral. Bryozoa are known informally as moss animals or sea mats. They generally like warm, tropical waters but live all over the world. There are about 5,000 living species, and 15,000 fossil species are known.

paragraphs: The colonies are formed by tiny (~0.2mm) members called zooids. They secrete tubes, usually of lime (CaCO), sometimes of chitin, an organic compound. The zooids in a colony are all clones, produced by asexual reproduction. Despite this, most species produce different morphs: zooids with different functions.

paragraphs: All bryozoa have a lophophore. This is a ring of ten tentacles surrounding the mouth, each tentacle covered with cilia. When feeding, the zooid extends the lophophore outwards; when resting it is withdrawn into the mouth to protect it from predators.

paragraphs: Bryozoan skeletons grow in a variety of shapes and patterns: mound-shaped, lacy fans, branching twigs, and even corkscrew-shaped. Their skeletons have many tiny openings. Each opening is the home of "zooid". They have a body with a U-shaped gut, opening at the mouth and at the anus. They feed with their lophophore. The tentacles of the bryozoans are ciliated. The beating of the cilia creates a current of water which drives food (mainly phytoplankton) towards the mouth. In some groups, notably some ctenostomes, a gizzard may be formed.

paragraphs: Bryozoans do not have a respiratory, or a blood system, because their small size allows diffusion of gases and nutrients. However, they do have a simple nervous system, and muscles, which together can quickly take the zooid down into its shelter.

paragraphs: One species of bryozoan, "Bugula neritina", is of interest as a source of chemicals, bryostatins, which are under investigation as anti-cancer agents.

paragraphs: Bryozoans can reproduce both sexually and asexually. All Bryozoans, as far as is known, are hermaphrodite (meaning they are both male and female).

paragraphs: All members of a colony are clones: they are genetically identical, produced by asexual reproduction. This occurs by budding off new zooids from the first zooid. So the colony grows; this is the way a colony expands in size. If a piece of a bryozoan colony breaks off, the piece can continue to grow and will form a new colony.

paragraphs: All zooids in a colony are linked by strands of epithelial cells. The individual members of a colony, the zooids, are in some species generalised: they feed, and they can reproduce on occasion. But in most species the zooids are specialised to diffent functions. In this case the feeding zooids are called "autozooids", and the non-feeding members are called "heterozooids". Functions done by heterozooids include sexual reproduction, protection, locomotion, plumbing, structural support. The functions of some heterozooids is still unknown. The commonest function is that eggs are developed in brooding chambers ("ovicells") on female or hermaphrodite heterozooids. There are variations in the details: sometimes a little complex of heterozooids produce larvae in a cooperative effort.

paragraphs: Another way to describe the bryozoa which develop heterozooids is to say they are polymorphic. This term is used in biology to describe the way a genetically unified population develops into clearly distinct forms. The polymorphism is usually controlled by genetic switching mechanisms, but in bryozoa there is little knowledge of their genetics.

paragraphs: Most species of Bryozoan live in marine environments. There are about 50 species which inhabit freshwater. In their aquatic habitats, bryozoans live on all types of hard substrates: sand grains, rocks, shells, wood, blades of kelp, pipes and ships may be heavily encrusted with bryozoans. Some bryozoan colonies, however, do not grow on solid substrates, but form colonies on sediment. While some species live at depths of 8,200 m, most bryozoans live in much shallower water. Most bryozoans are sessile and immobile, but a few colonies are able to creep about, and a few species of non-colonial bryozoans live and move about in the spaces between sand grains. One remarkable species makes its living while floating in the Southern Ocean. Several bryozoan species live in the Midwestern United States, especially in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky which was once a part of a large ocean, the Western Interior Seaway.

paragraphs: Their diet consists of small microorganisms, including diatoms and other unicellular algae. In turn, bryozoans are preyed on by grazing organisms such as sea urchins and fish.

paragraphs: Bryozoans are almost entirely colony-forming animals. Many millions of individuals can form one colony. The colonies range from millimeters to meters in size, but the individuals that make up the colonies are tiny, usually less than a millimeter long. In each colony, different individuals have different functions. Some individuals gather up the food for the colony (autozooids), others depend on them (heterozooids). Some individuals are devoted to strengthening the colony (kenozooids), and still others to cleaning the colony (vibracula). There is only a single known solitary species, "Monobryozoon ambulans", which does not form colonies.

paragraphs: Fossil bryozoans first appear in the early Ordovician and had a huge adaptive radiation. They were abundant throughout the Palaeozoic era: they were one of the most dominant groups of Palaeozoic fossils. They were major components of seabed communities and, like modern-day bryozoans, played an important role in sediment stabilization and binding. They were food sources for many other benthic organisms. During the Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) 354 to 323 million years ago, bryozoans were so common that their broken skeletons form entire limestone beds.

paragraphs: After a crash at the Permian/Triassic boundary, when almost all species went extinct, bryozoans recovered in the later Mesozoic to become as successful as before. The bryozoan fossil record has more than 15,000 species.

paragraphs: Most fossil bryozoans have mineralized skeletons. The skeletons of individual zooids vary from tubular to box-shaped and contain a terminal aperture from which the lophophore is protruded to feed. No pores are present in the great majority of Ordovician bryozoans, but skeletal evidence shows that epithelia were continuous from one zooid to the next.

paragraphs: One of the most important events during bryozoan evolution was the acquisition of a calcareous skeleton and the mechanism of tentacle protrusion. The rigidity of the outer body walls gave protection against predators, a greater degree of zooid connection, and the evolution of massive colony forms.


title: Placebo

paragraphs: A placebo is a treatment for a disease or condition which is deliberately ineffective. The motive usually is that if a person believes that a medicine, diet, or other treatment is good for himself or herself, then it is good for the person.

paragraphs: Sometimes sick people who receive a placebo feel like they are getting better, and sometimes their bodies actually do get better. When patients have that response, it is called the "placebo effect". The term "placebo effect" (or "placebo response") was introduced in 1920. It is the response of the subject which causes the observed effect, not the substance.

paragraphs: John Haygarth tested a placebo effect in the 18th century. It showed ""to a degree which has never been suspected, what powerful influence upon diseases is produced by mere imagination"".

paragraphs: Émile Coué, a French apothecary, working between 1882 and 1910, discovered what later came to be known as the "Placebo effect". He reassured his clients by praising each remedy's efficiency and leaving a small positive notice with each medication. In 1901 Coué began to study under hypnosis. In 1913, Coué and his wife founded "La Société Lorraine de Psychologie appliquée". His book "Self-mastery through conscious autosuggestion" was published in England (1920) and in the United States (1922).

paragraphs: Placebos are used as part of blind trials. Blind trials work like this: Some people are given the medicine or treatment being tested, and others are given the placebo. No one knows who gets the real treatment and who gets the placebo. They are "blind" to their treatment.

paragraphs: If researchers notice that the "treatment group" is different from the "placebo group" they will know that the difference is because of the treatment. Without a "placebo group" then researchers cannot know if those changes would have happened anyway, no matter which medicine people had taken.

paragraphs: Placebos can have real effects on patients: that is what "placebo effect" means. Since a landmark paper in 1955 the placebo effect has been recognised and accepted by some, and denied by others. However, there is no doubt that for certain conditions, the placebo effect does exist. Examples are:


title: Identity (mathematics)

paragraphs: In mathematics, the term identity has several important uses:

paragraphs: An equality in mathematical sense is only true under more particular conditions. For this, the symbol ≡ is sometimes used (note, however, that the same symbol can also be used for a congruence relation as well.)

paragraphs: A common example of the first meaning is the trigonometric identity

paragraphs: which is true for all real values of formula_7 (since the real numbers formula_8 are the domain of both sine and cosine), as opposed to

paragraphs: which is only true for certain values of formula_7 in a subset of the domain.

paragraphs: The concepts of "additive identity" and "multiplicative identity" are central to the Peano axioms.

paragraphs: The number 0 is the "additive identity" for integers, real numbers, and complex numbers. For the real numbers, for all formula_11

paragraphs: Similarly, The number 1 is the "multiplicative identity" for integers, real numbers, and complex numbers. For the real numbers, for all formula_11

paragraphs: A common example of an identity function is the identity permutation, which sends each element of the set formula_19 to itself.

paragraphs: These meanings are not mutually exclusive; for instance, the identity permutation is the identity element in the set of permutations of formula_19 under composition.


Equality


title: Equality (mathematics)

paragraphs: In mathematics, two things are equal if and only if they are exactly the same in every way. That is, they have the same (mathematical) value and the same mathematical properties. Mathematicians use the equals sign (=) to say this. This defines a binary relation, equality. The statement ""x" = "y"" means that "x" and "y" are equal.

paragraphs: Equivalence in a more general sense is provided by the construction of an equivalence relation between two mathematical objects, that is, two mathematical objects are equivalent if they are related by this relation. In which case, the equivalence is often represented using the symbols formula_1 or formula_2.

paragraphs: A statement that two expressions denote equal quantities is an equation (or an equality). Equations are equal. Inequalities are unequal.

paragraphs: An equality is also a transitive relation. This means that if one object is equal to a second object, and the second object is equal to a third object, then the first object is equal to the third object as well.

paragraphs: Since a predicate is a way of describing something that is true, another way to say this is that if one thing that is true about a variable is not true about the other variable, then they are not "equal" as far as mathematical logic is concerned: two things are only equal if anything that is true about one has to be true about the other.

paragraphs: In geometry, the word congruence is often preferred. Numbers are equal, geometrical objects are congruent. Two shapes are congruent if one can be moved or rotated so that it fits exactly where the other one is. If shrinking or enlarging one of the two objects is needed, then they are not congruent. They are called "similar" instead. The congruence relation is often represented by the symbol formula_3, while the similarity relation is represented by the symbol formula_1.

paragraphs: In computer science, usually, the mathematical definition is used. Very often, the comparison is written "==" (and the assignment, the act of giving a value, is written as "=", or ":="). In object-oriented languages, or languages which have pointers, there is an additional problem. Those languages contain references (which are in fact pointers). If two such references do not reference exactly the same object, then they are different and "a == b" will be false in this case.

paragraphs: For this reason, many such languages have introduced another operator (in Java, this method is called "equals"). This operator compares the actual values of the objects—not where the variables that reference them point to.

paragraphs: In social sciences, two people are equal if many of the same things are true about them. For example. two people who have the same amount of education and money, and who are of the same age usually think of each other as equals. Another name for a person who is equal to another person is a peer.


Ministry


title: Religious ministry

paragraphs: Ministry, in Christianity, is the activity that is done by members of the church to serve the purposes of the church.

paragraphs: It can mean this activity as a whole, or specific activities, or organizations in a church that perform specific activities.

paragraphs: As churches attempt to meet the needs of their congregations, they often separate their members into groups according to age categories. Age-specific groups meet for religious study including Sunday school programs, fellowship, and other activities. These age divisions may include:

paragraphs: Nearly all churches have some form of worship music, whether from a choir, orchestra, or worship band.

paragraphs: Many churches sponsor ministries designed to reach out others on a local and global scale, usually grouped under the heading of missions. There are many organizations which perform missions on a fully-funded and organized level, such as North American Mission Board, operated by the Southern Baptist Convention.


title: Ministry (government department)

paragraphs: A ministry is a department of a government, led by a political minister.

paragraphs: Ministries are usually subordinate to the cabinet, and prime minister, president or chancellor. A government will usually have several ministries, each with a specialised field of service. National ministries vary greatly between countries, but some common ones include Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Finance, and Ministry of Health.

paragraphs: Some countries such as Switzerland, the Philippines and the United States do not use the term "ministry" for their government departments, and instead simply call them departments. In Hong Kong the term "bureau" is used.

paragraphs: In Canada, some provincial-level government departments are called "ministries" (such as in Ontario and British Columbia) but most are called "departments." Their heads are referred to as "ministers" in both levels of government, however.


title: Galerius

paragraphs: Galerius (Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, ~250 – 5 May 311), was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311.

paragraphs: Galerius served as a soldier with distinction. When the Tetrarchy was introduced by Diocletian in 293 Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were given the rank of "Caesar". Galerius married Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and took over the Illyrian provinces.

paragraphs: In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, Galerius moved from the Danube to the Euphrates. There his first campaign ended in a defeat by the Sassanid prince Narses, near Callinicum. This disaster caused the loss of Mesopotamia.

paragraphs: Diocletian came to Antioch, where the official version of events was made clear: Galerius was to take the blame. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor. The message was clear: the loss at Carrhae was not due to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but due to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.

paragraphs: In 298 Galerius got reinforcements from the Danube in the Spring. He led the army to attack Narseh in northern Mesopotamia, and Narseh retreated to Armenia.

paragraphs: The rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but unfavorable to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces. In two battles, Galerius got victories over Narseh.

paragraphs: During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch. This was, to the Persians, a constant reminder of Roman victory. Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning victories. He took Nisibis (Nusaybin, Turkey) before 1 October 298. He moved down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon, and looking at the ruins of Babylon. Then he returned to Roman territory by the Euphrates.

paragraphs: Narses asked for peace. Mesopotamia was returned to Roman rule and even some territory east of the Tigris. This was the greatest extension of the Roman Empire in the east.

paragraphs: In 305, on the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius got the title of Augustus, together with Constantius, his former colleague. Two younger men were appointed as Caesars: Maximus Daia and Severus II.

paragraphs: Galerius' hopes were dashed when his colleague Constantius died at York in 306. The legions raised his son Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only discovered this when he got a letter from Constantine, who told him of his father's death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented that the enthusiasm of his troops had not allowed him to get the Imperial purple in a regular manner.

paragraphs: The first emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage. As he could not restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.

paragraphs: When he had time to reconsider his position, he realised his chances of winning a war against Constantine was doubtful. Therefore, without commenting on the choice of the British army, Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague as the ruler of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only the title of Caesar, and the fourth rank among the Roman princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favourite, Severus II.

paragraphs: Suddenly Galerius had the unexpected loss of Italy to Maxentius, his son-in-law. Galerius’ need for revenue led him to make a strict examination of the property of his subjects for the purpose of taxation. A survey was taken of their estates. Where there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was used to get a sincere declaration of their personal wealth.

paragraphs: Italy had traditionally been exempt from any form of taxation, but Galerius ignored this. Italy began to murmur against this indignity and Maxentius used this sentiment to declare himself emperor in Italy, to the fury of Galerius. Therefore, Galerius ordered his colleague Severus to immediately march to Rome, so that, by his unexpected arrival, he would easily suppress the rebellion. Severus was quickly captured and executed by Maximian, who had once again been elevated to the rank of co-emperor, this time by his son Maxentius.

paragraphs: The importance of the occasion needed the presence and abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy. He was determined to revenge the death of Severus and to punish the rebellious Romans However, due to the skill of Maximian, Galerius found every place hostile, fortified, and inaccessible. Though he forced his way as far as Narni, sixty miles from Rome, he controlled only his camp.

paragraphs: As he was facing difficulties, Galerius made the first steps to reconciliation. He sent two officers to tempt the Romans by the offer of a conference. These offers were rejected with firmness, his friendship refused. Unless he retreated, he might meet the fate of Severus. It was not a moment too soon; money from Maxentius to his soldiers had corrupted their loyalty. When Galerius began his withdrawal from Italy, it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.

paragraphs: In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.

paragraphs: With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, the retired emperor Diocletian and Maximian called an imperial 'conference' at Carnuntum on the River Danube. Its aim was to bring some order back into the imperial government. Here it was agreed that Galerius’ long-time friend and military companion Licinius, who had been entrusted by Galerius with the defense of the Danube while Galerius was in Italy, would become Augustus in the West, with Constantine as his Caesar. In the East, Galerius remained Augustus and Maximinus remained his Caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.

paragraphs: Galerius’ plan soon failed. The news of Licinius’ promotion was carried into the East, and Maximinus, who governed the provinces of Egypt and Syria, rejected his position as Caesar. Maximus claimed (and got) the equal title of Augustus. For the first, and indeed for the last time, six emperors administered the Roman world. Although the memory of a recent war divided the empire into two great hostile powers, their fears and the fading authority of Galerius produced an apparent tranquility in the imperial government.

paragraphs: The last years of Galerius saw him keep the position of first among equals. He spent the rest of his time enjoying himself, and ordering some important public works, such as discharging into the Danube the superfluous waters of Lake Pelso, and cutting down the immense forests around it.

paragraphs: Christians had lived in peace during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to the influence of Galerius. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of secret gatherings.

paragraphs: But in April 311 Galerius issued the general edict of toleration, from Nicomedia in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine. Lactantius gives the text of the edict in "De Mortibus Persecutorum" ('On the Deaths of the Persecutors', chapters 34, 35). This marked the end of official persecution of Christians. Galerius died on 5 May, 311.


title: Square foot gardening

paragraphs: Square foot gardening is a type of gardening made popular by Mel Bartholemew. It is based on the idea that the wide rows in traditional gardening is a waste of time, work, water, and area. It shows that quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less work. In this method, the garden space is divided into "bed"s. Each bed is 4' x 4' (16 sq ft) (120 cm x 120 cm, 1.4m²). The beds are separated by paths. These beds are further divided into squares of about one square foot. Common spacing is one plant per square for larger plants such as broccoli and basil, four per square for medium large plants like lettuce, nine per square for medium -small plants like spinach, and sixteen per square for small plants such as onions and carrots. The weeds are removed from the beds and the plants are watered from the pathways. This stops the soil from being compacted.


title: Blender

paragraphs: A blender is an electric kitchen appliance used for making drinks, mixing liquids, and puréeing (chopping up into small bits) fruits and vegetables for sauces and soups.

paragraphs: A blender consists of a glass or plastic container with a mounted blade in the bottom, and a base that has an electric motor and switches to turn on the motor or change its speed.

paragraphs: Blenders are used to make milk shakes (a blend of ice cream and milk) and fruit smoothies (a mix of fruit and ice).

paragraphs: Blenders are also used to make cold alcoholic drinks that include crushed ice or ice cream, such as margaritas and Mississippi Mudslide drinks.


title: Drinking straw

paragraphs: A drinking straw (or "straw") is a utensil used to consume cold drinks such as milk shakes, smoothies, cola, and fruit juice. Drinking straws are usually made from plastic that is formed into a tube. To use a drinking straw, a person places the straw in a glass that contains a liquid and then sucks the straw with their mouth. Straws are mainly plastic, but some straws are paper or cardboard to protect the environment.

paragraphs: The oldest straw found is over 5000 years old. Straws have been found in Sumerian temples made of gold and lapis lazuli. The straws popularity came in the 1800s during the industrial revolution. Those straws were made of paper and turned to mush quickly. An inventor named Joseph Friedman invented a straw made of paper coated in glue so that it did not dissolve.


title: Whole-tone scale

paragraphs: In music, a whole tone scale is a scale in which each note is separated from the next one by an interval of a whole tone. There is always one note (a semitone) in between each neighbouring pair of notes of the whole-tone scale. Whatever note is started on, the whole tone scale will contain one of the following sets of notes:

paragraphs: When a whole-tone scale is played on a piano, starting from a low note and moving up to high notes, while at the same time pressing the sustaining pedal (the right pedal), it makes a "dreamy" sound. It does not sound in any particular key, but floats along. It also sounds very good on a harp.

paragraphs: Debussy uses the whole-tone scale a lot in his music, but he was not the first to do so. Russian composers such as Glinka in his opera "Ruslan and Ludmila" and Borodin in "Prince Igor" used the whole-tone scale.

paragraphs: Later composers to use it include Alban Berg in his "Violin Concerto", and Béla Bartók in

paragraphs: his "String Quartet No. 5". It has also been used in jazz.


title: Pentatonic scale

paragraphs: In music, a pentatonic scale is a scale with five notes in each octave. Pentatonic scales are very common and are found in folk music from all over the world.

paragraphs: Any scale using five notes is "pentatonic" ("penta" is Greek for "five"). However, the pentatonic scale which is used in most Western music uses notes which do not have any semitones. A pentatonic scale starting on C will use the notes C,D,E,G,A (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th and 6th notes of a major scale).. An easy way to find such a pentatonic scale is by using all the black notes of a keyboard.

paragraphs: Using the pentatonic scale is a good way for children to make up their own tunes. It does not matter too much which note is used for the start and the finish, because there is no feeling of a clear key. The notes always sound good when played together.

paragraphs: Many folk songs are pentatonic, or nearly pentatonic. Well-known songs such as "Land of the Silver Birch" or "Auld Lang Syne" are pentatonic tunes.

paragraphs: Classical composers have sometimes used pentatonic scales, especially Claude Debussy. His piano piece "La fille aux cheveux de lin" has a tune which is pentatonic except for one note. Maurice Ravel used it to write music which sounded Chinese, and in his "Mother Goose" suite ("Ma Mère l'Oye") which sounds like a fairy tale.

paragraphs: The pentatonic scales used in Indonesian gamelan music are called "slendro" and "pelog".

paragraphs: Difficult words: Octave - An octave is the distance between two musical notes that have the same letter name.

paragraphs: Folk music - Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that. Some types of folk music are also called world music.

paragraphs: Semitones - A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone, is the smallest musical interval commonly used in Western tonal music, and it is considered the most dissonant when sounded harmonically. It is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from C to C♯). This implies that its size is exactly or approximately equal to 100 cents, a twelfth of an octave.

paragraphs: Major scale - The major scale or Ionian scale is one of the most commonly used musical scales, especially in Western music. It is one of the diatonic scales. Like many musical scales it is made up of seven notes: the eighth duplicates the first at double its frequency so that it is called a higher octave of the same note (from Latin "octavus", the eighth).


title: Major scale

paragraphs: In music theory, the major scale or Ionian scale is one of the diatonic scales. It is made up of seven separate notes, plus an eighth which is the same as the first an octave higher. In solfege these notes correspond to the syllables "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti/Si, Do". The simplest major scale to write or play on the piano is C major, the only major scale not to require sharps or flats, using only the white keys on the piano keyboard:

paragraphs: A major scale is a set of steps in the order "Whole:Whole:Half:Whole:Whole:Whole:Half" (tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone). Western scales do not skip any line or space on the staff, and they do not repeat any note with a different accidental. This means that the key signature of the scale will feature just sharps "or" just flats.

paragraphs: The Circle of Fifths was first described in 1728 by Johann David Heinichen in his book "Der General-bass". It has been used ever since as a way to show the relations between scales.

paragraphs: The numbers inside the circle show the number of sharps or flats in the key signature, with the sharp keys going clockwise, and the flat keys counterclockwise from C major (which has no sharps or flats.) The circle depends on enharmonic relationships in the circle, which is six sharps or flats for the major keys of F = G and D = E for minor keys (Drabkin 2001). Seven sharps or flats make major keys (C major and C major) that are more easy to spell with five flats or sharps (as D major or B major).

paragraphs: The major scale is used more often than the minor scale in Western music because of its unique harmonic properties. For example, the major third is much stronger in the harmonic series (it is the 5th, 10th and 20th harmonic – see below) than the minor third (the 19th harmonic).


title: Minor scale

paragraphs: A minor scale in music theory is any scale that has at least three scale degrees: the tonic, the minor third above the tonic, and the perfect fifth above the tonic. Together they make the minor triad. This includes many scales and modes such as Dorian mode and the Phrygian mode.

paragraphs: In simple terms, a minor scale is a series of notes with a sad, somber character (exaggerated when heard back-to-back with a major scale). A minor scale begins on the sixth note of its relative major scale, and is built with the following pattern of half steps and whole steps:

paragraphs: i_whole_ii°_half_III_whole_iv_whole_v_half_VI_whole_VII_whole _i (next octave)

paragraphs: Usually, when people talk about minor scales, they mean natural minor, harmonic minor, or melodic minor scales, which are the most common in Western music.

paragraphs: The natural minor scale is the same as the 6th mode (or Aeolian mode) of the major scale. For example, the white notes of a keyboard from one C to the next C up makes a C major scale. If the white notes are played starting from the sixth step of that C scale, (from any A to the next A), then an A natural minor scale (the "relative minor" of C) is produced.

paragraphs: The harmonic minor scale is the same as the natural minor but with the seventh note raised by a semitone.

paragraphs: For example, in the key of A minor, the harmonic minor scale is:

paragraphs: One way the harmonic minor is different to the natural minor is that it has two chords which have the same structure when inverted, so they do not belong to any key. These are the diminished seventh chord (2nd, 4th, 6th and 7th degrees) and the augmented chord (the 3rd, 5th and 7th degrees).

paragraphs: The harmonic minor is also sometimes called the Mohammedan scale because its upper tetrachord is the same as the Hijaz jins, often found in Middle Eastern music. The harmonic minor scale as a whole is sometimes called "Nahawand-Hijaz" in Arabic, or as "Bûselik Hicaz" in Turkish.

paragraphs: The interval between the sixth and seventh degrees of this scale (in this case F and G) is an augmented second. While some composers, like Mozart, have used this interval in melodic composition, other composers found it awkward. They thought that a whole step between these two scale degrees was better for smooth melody writing, so they used the subtonic seventh, or raised the sixth scale degree. These two options are called the ascending melodic minor scale and descending melodic minor scale. The ascending has the same upper tetrachord to the major scale, and the descending is the same as the natural minor:

paragraphs: Many composers do not stick to the notes of only one of these scales when writing music. Using the triad of the relative major is very common, but because this is based on the third degree of the minor scale, the raised seventh degree of the harmonic scale would cause an augmented triad. In this case, composers usually use the natural minor. In jazz, usually only the ascending minor is used.

paragraphs: Major and minor keys that share the same key signature are called "relative"; so C major is the relative major of A minor, and C minor is the relative minor of E major. The relative major is a minor third above the tonic of the minor. For example, since the key signature of G major has one sharp (see major scales for how to find this), its relative minor, E minor, also has one sharp in its key signature.

paragraphs: Music may be written in an enharmonic scale (e.g. A major, which only has four flats in its key signature, compared to the eight sharps required for G major). The following are enharmonic equivalents:


title: Yeast

paragraphs: Yeast are microorganisms. They are single-celled fungi. There are about 1,500 different species of yeast. Most reproduce asexually, by budding. Some use binary fission to reproduce asexually.

paragraphs: A particular species of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been used for a very long time. It is used for baking bread. It is also used in fermentation to make ethanol. This method makes many drinks, such as beer or wine. Ethanol is also used as fuel and to make other organic chemicals.

paragraphs: Yeast can be used to make electricity. Yeast is also a model organism for studying cell biology. Some yeasts can cause infections in humans (they are pathogens).


title: Budding

paragraphs: Budding is a method of asexual reproduction. With budding, a new organism grows on another one. It stays attached, while it grows. Only when it is fully grown does it detach from the parent organism. Since the reproduction is asexual, the newly created organism is a clone and is genetically identical to the parent organism.

paragraphs: Budding is very common in plants and fungi. Sometimes it can also be found with animals, for example with hydras or sponges.


title: Binary fission

paragraphs: Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction. It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. It occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like the "Amoeba" and the "Paramoecium". In binary fission DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.

paragraphs: In binary fission, the fully grown parent cell splits into two halves, producing two pools. After replicating its genetic material, the parent cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The genetic material is replicated, then equally split. The daughter cells are genetically identical (unless a mutation occurs during replication).

paragraphs: During binary fission, the DNA molecule divides and forms two DNA molecules. The cell then grows to create room for each molecule to move towards the opposite side of the bacterium. At the same time, the cell membrane divides to form 2 daughter cells. After division, the new cells grow and the process repeats itself.

paragraphs: Binary fission occurs in eukaryotic tissue cells, but the process is more complicated: see mitosis.

paragraphs: Basically, a cell copies its DNA, and then splits down the middle, creating two daughter cells.


title: Charisma Carpenter

paragraphs: Charisma Lee Carpenter (born July 23, 1970) is an American actress. She is best known for playing the character Cordelia Chase in the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and its spin-off "Angel".

paragraphs: Carpenter was born in Las Vegas, Nevada. At 15, her family moved to Rosarito B.C., Mexico. Later, they moved to Chula Vista (a suburb of San Diego). After graduating high school, she was a San Diego Chargers cheerleader in 1991 before beginning her Hollywood career. She had also sky-dived. She married Damian Hardy on October 5, 2002. She gave birth to their son Donavan Charles Hardy on March 24, 2003.


title: Paul Watzlawick

paragraphs: Paul Watzlawick PhD (July 25, 1921 – March 31, 2007) was a theoretician in communication theory. He also commented in the fields of family therapy and general psychotherapy. He lived and worked in California until his death in 2007 in Palo Alto.

paragraphs: Watzlawick is author of 18 books (in 85 foreign language editions) and more than 150 book articles and book chapters. Books he has written or on which he has collaborated include:


title: Neurotransmitter

paragraphs: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. They send information between neurons by crossing a synapse. Electrical signals are not able to cross the gap between most neurons. They are changed into chemical signals to cross the gap. Neurotransmitters act mostly on chemical synapses. Once they reach the next neuron they are absorbed. The neuron then changes this chemical signal back into an electrical signal called an action potential. The action potential passes across the next neuron and to the next synapse.

paragraphs: Many neurotransmitters are made from amino acids, which are part of your diet and it takes only a few steps to convert them. Neurotransmitters play a major role in shaping everyday life and functions. Scientists do not yet know exactly how many neurotransmitters exist, but more than 100 chemical messengers have been identified.

paragraphs: Each neurotransmitter has a different function. For example: dopamine is used in reward and pleasure and noradrenaline is used in an animal's "fight or flight" response. Neurotransmitters also regulate the passing of messages. This is because an action potential must be a certain strength before the neurotransmitters are released. The strength required to release the neurotransmitter is called a threshold.

paragraphs: The most common transmitter is glutamate, which is excitatory at well over 90% of the synapses in the human brain. The next most prevalent is called GABA, which inhibits at more than 90% of the synapses that do not use glutamate.

paragraphs: Neurotransmitters are transported within neurons by small "sacks" called vesicles. When these vesciles come into contact with the neuron's cell membrane, it opens. This releases the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

paragraphs: Until the early 20th century, scientists assumed that the majority of synaptic communication in the brain was electrical. However, through the careful histological examinations by Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), a 20 to 40 nm gap between neurons, known today as the synaptic cleft, was discovered. The presence of the gap suggested chemical messengers moved across the synaptic cleft. In 1921 German pharmacologist Otto Loewi (1873–1961) confirmed that neurons can communicate by releasing chemicals. By experiments involving the vagus nerves of frogs, Loewi was able to slow the heart rate of frogs by controlling the amount of saline solution present around the vagus nerve.

paragraphs: Loewi asserted that sympathetic regulation of cardiac function can be mediated through changes in chemical concentrations. Otto Loewi also discovered acetylcholine (ACh)—the first known neurotransmitter. Some neurons do, however, communicate by electrical synapses through the use of gap junctions, which allow specific ions to pass directly from one cell to another.


title: Hard rock

paragraphs: Hard rock is a variation of rock music with roots in early 1960s garage rock and psychedelic rock. The term "hard rock" may be used several genres such as punk rock and grunge in order to distinguish them from the more radio-friendly pop rock genre.


title: Sally Beamish

paragraphs: Sally Beamish (born London, 26 August 1956) is an English composer. She has written music for orchestra, chamber music, vocal and choral music.

paragraphs: Sally studied the viola at the Royal Northern College of Music. Later she also studied in Germany and Italy.

paragraphs: Sally started her career playing the viola in a chamber group called the Raphael Ensemble. The experience of playing in small groups was important for her development as a composer. Her music often combines and contrasts solo instruments, exploring the sounds they can make.

paragraphs: She has written works for the Swedish and Scottish Chamber Orchestras and has had works performed at the BBC Proms. Her trumpet concerto, written for Håkan Hardenberger and the National Youth Orchestra of Scotland was performed at the Proms in 2003 with Martyn Brabbins conducting. She has also written concertos for the flute, viola, saxophone, percussion and accordion and is planning to write concertos for viola (her third), saxophone quartet and cello.

paragraphs: She has written a stage musical about the Scottish Highlands. She lives in Scotland with her husband and young daughter.


title: Nakhodka

paragraphs: Nakhodka (Russian "Находка") is a port city in Primorsky Krai, Russia. It is one of the most eastern cities in Russia. Nakhodka is a port on the Japan Sea. It is located around Nakhodka Bay. "Nakhodka" means "Lucky find" in Russian.

paragraphs: The village Amerikanka was the first permanent settlement at the location of the current city. It was founded in 1907. Nakhodka became an urban-type fishing settlement in 1941. It received city status on May 19, 1950. This date is now called "City Day".

paragraphs: The economy of the city is based mainly on the port and port-related businesses. This include processing and canning fish. In Soviet times, Nakhodka was the only Soviet port in the Far East open to foreign vessels. After Vladivostok started being used by foreigners in 1991, the port of Nakhodka is not used as much as before. Economic activity in the city has become much less because of this..

paragraphs: Nakhodka is still an important international port. It is the center of the coastal trade. Exports include timber, coal, fluorspar, honey, fish and seafood.


title: Sumatra

paragraphs: Sumatra, known also as "Sumatera", is the sixth largest island in the world. It is in western Indonesia. It is to the west of the Sunda Islands, and is bordered by the Indian Ocean. Sumatra contains the provinces of Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Riau, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung Islands, Jambi, Bengkulu, Lampung, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and West Sumatra. Sumatra has an area of about 443,066 km².


title: Whigs

paragraphs: The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Tories. The British prime minister was usually from one of the two parties.

paragraphs: The Whigs played a central role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders, who were Roman Catholic. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715. They held it until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760, allowed Tories back in.

paragraphs: When they held power, the Whigs purged (got rid of) the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession and local officials.

paragraphs: Their most famous leader was Robert Walpole, who kept control of the government from 1721 to 1742.


title: Espionage

paragraphs: Espionage or spying is a practice of getting information about an organization, society, or country that is meant to be secret or confidential, without permission. Espionage usually involves having access to where the needed information is stored or to the people that know the information. In wartime, espionage is a war crime. The person who does it is called a "spy" or more vaguely an "agent". A "double agent" is one who trades information to both sides, and is (without their knowledge) being employed by both sides.