title: Lego minifigure

paragraphs: A Lego minifigure (a.k.a. Lego person) is a small figure as part of Lego toys. Minifigures are found in Lego sets, although they are also sold separately as keychains and magnets. Minifigures in 1975 were the same size as minifigures today, but did not have any moving arms or legs. They had a small variety of headpieces, including caps, pigtail hair and cowboy hats. Since 1978, Lego minifigures have had more clothing, hats, shirts and pants to choose from. They started packing them in sets, including Star Wars.

paragraphs: Minifigures are still used in many Lego sets we know today. There are many minifigures such as mermaid with a identical tail to the ocean king and many shorter characters such as the evil dwarf.


title: Chilean Spanish

paragraphs: Chilean Spanish ( or "") is the variety of Spanish spoken in most of Chile. Though still entirely mutually intelligible with standard Spanish, Chilean Spanish has distinctive pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and slang usage. Spanish speakers often say that Chileans speak very quickly and "mix up words". Non-native speakers who are competent in Spanish may find the Chilean variety to be difficult to understand unless they have built up an ear for it.


title: Pacific Electric Railway

paragraphs: The Pacific Electric Railway Company was a private transportation system in Los Angeles, California. It started when Henry E. Huntington began building and buying streetcar railroads in and around Los Angeles to help people reach his properties.

paragraphs: Most of its lines carried people but there was also some freight. Pacific Electric also owned a mountain tourist attraction called the Mount Lowe Railway.

paragraphs: In the 1920s, with hundreds of miles of track, it was the largest system in the world. While Huntington lost money running Pacific Electric, he made money by selling the land it reached.

paragraphs: After Henry Huntington died and the land was all sold, the system started to break down and there was no money coming in to repair it. The city of Los Angeles decided it would be cheaper to move passengers with buses and close the whole system.

paragraphs: And so the last Pacific Electric train ran in 1961. The tracks were all ripped up and all of the old trains were either destroyed or sold to other countries.

paragraphs: Almost thirty years after the last train, with traffic becoming worse and buses becoming slower, the city remembered the old system. They decided to start rebuilding it because they realized trains do not slow down when there is a traffic jam.

paragraphs: Today, a small part of the old Pacific Electric rail network is now part of the new and growing Los Angeles Metro and people are riding trains again.

paragraphs: The Pacific Electric ran lines from Los Angeles to the following cities:


title: Brickfilm

paragraphs: A Brickfilm is a stop-motion movie using Legos, Mega Blocks, or other Lego-like products. Brickfilms are often used to help the Lego Group advertise more sets and themes. The first known Brickfilm was called "The Magic Portal". It was made 1980–1989 in Perth, Western Australia by Lindsay Fleay.

paragraphs: A brickfilm can be made by taking a Lego character, and placing it on a board. The creator takes a picture, and slightly moves the character, and Repeats this step many times. The easiest way to stream the pictures together, is to use video editing software, adding the pictures, and finally, setting them to a very short time. Fifteen frames per second (15 fps) is common, if a video editor only uses fps instead of changing time length.


title: Extreme Rules (2011)

paragraphs: Extreme Rules was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event made by WWE. The event took place May 1, 2011 at the St. Pete Times Forum in Tampa, Florida. It was the third Extreme Rules event. Nine matches overall took place, with eight airing live on PPV.

paragraphs: On the April 11th edition of Raw held a 5-man gauntlet match which would decide the number one contender to face The Miz for the WWE Championship. This match featured John Cena, Randy Orton, John Morrison, R-Truth and Dolph Ziggler. The last two men in the final round were John Cena and R-Truth. After The Miz and Alex Riley beat down both wrestlers, the match was resulted in a double disqualification, which would then lead to the anonymous Raw general manager stating that both John Cena and R-Truth would compete for the WWE Championship against The Miz in a Triple Threat match. The following week on "Raw", John Morrison challenged R-Truth for Truth's spot in the match and won, but Truth turned heel and attacked Morrison after the match. Later in the night, it was revealed that the match would be contested inside a steel cage.

paragraphs: Also on Raw, commentators Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler are also continuing their rivalry from WrestleMania XXVII. At the event, Lawler made Cole submit to the ankle lock, but the anonymous Raw General Manager reversed special guest referee Stone Cold Steve Austin's decision, thus making Cole the winner via disqualification. On the April 11 edition of Raw, Lawler defeated Cole's trainer, Jack Swagger, allowing him to announce that he would team up with his former broadcast partner, Jim Ross, to face Cole and Swagger at Extreme Rules. Two weeks later, the Raw General Manager declared that the teams would face each other in a Country Whipping match.

paragraphs: Meanwhile on "SmackDown", Edge was scheduled to defend his World Heavyweight Championship against Alberto Del Rio in a ladder match at Extreme Rules after Del Rio won a number one contendership match against Christian on the April 8 edition of SmackDown. But less than a week later, on the April 11 edition of "Raw", Edge announced he was being forced to retire due to a real injury to his neck. That Friday, on the April 15 edition of SmackDown, Del Rio demanded to be crowned champion as he was the number one contender. SmackDown general manager Teddy Long didn't see it that way and announced that the match would still happen but that it would now be for the vacant title. Del Rio would be one contender. He also announced his opponent would be the winner of a 20-man over-the-top-rope Battle Royal. Later in the final match of the evening, Edge's real best friend for the past 20 years Christian won. Following this, on the April 25 edition of Raw, Del Rio was drafted to Raw as part of the year's draft. As such if Del Rio wins, he will bring the title to Raw, making the title a "Raw only" title.

paragraphs: Another feud from the SmackDown brand is between Layla and Michelle McCool, formerly known together as LayCool. Disagreement between the two divas started on the April 8 edition of SmackDown when McCool refused to tag Layla in a tag team match against Beth Phoenix and Kelly Kelly. The following two weeks, the two attended couple's therapy sessions, but the latter session ended with McCool attacking Layla, making their break up official. During the 2011 WWE Draft, after Layla lost her match against Eve, she attacked McCool for distracting her. On the April 29 edition of SmackDown, after fighting to a double count-out in their match, Layla and McCool agreed to have a No Count-out, No Disqualification match at Extreme Rules with the loser leaving WWE.


title: Dorgon

paragraphs: Dorgon (, 1612 - 1650) was the Prince empire of Qing Dynasty. His surname was Aisin Gioro. His reign names were Sing Cong and Chong De.

paragraphs: Dorgon was the 4th illegitimate son of Taizu Emperor (Nurhaci). Half brother of Huang Taiji, Half Uncle of Shunzhi Emperor.


title: Slingshot

paragraphs: A slingshot is a kind of projectile weapon which is used to launch small things. It is small and made to be handheld. It is made of a Y-shaped body with an elastic band such as rubber tied to the two top ends of the Y. The projectile is placed in the band, which is pulled back and let go of.

paragraphs: How strong and dangerous the slingshot is depends on how it is made and especially the elastic band. Although a slingshot is a type of weapon and a strong one can hurt people, they are not often used in modern war because there are many better weapons. Strong slingshots may be used to hunt small animals, or weaker ones may be used as toys.

paragraphs: In some places, a slingshot may be illegal because it can be a weapon.


title: Mortal Kombat (1995 movie)

paragraphs: Mortal Kombat is an 1995 live-action/adventure movie that was produced by Lauri Apelian and Lawrence Kasanoff and was directed by Paul W.S. Anderson. It is based on the video game franchise, "Mortal Kombat". "Mortal Kombat" was released on July 13, 1995 in Argentina & Israel, August 18, 1995 in North America, October 20, 1995 in the United Kingdom and on December 26, 1995 in Australia. The movie received mixed reviews with a 35% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic gave it a 58 out of 100. The movie gained a sequel called "" and it was released in 1997.


title: X-wing

paragraphs: The X-wing is a starfighter from the "Star Wars" fictional universe. It is seen in the original trilogy movies and many books, games, toys, and other things. It is shown as a main starfighter for the Rebellion and later the New Republic.

paragraphs: The X-wing was first made for the movie "" by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM). Joe Johnston drew and Colin Cantwell made models that became the final X-wing fighter in "". ILM made miniatures in different sizes, with wing markings showing which prop was for each pilot. Each X-wing model was built around a hollow core to hold parts for effects such as lighting.

paragraphs: Besides the models, the crew made one full-size X-wing for scenes in the Rebels' Yavin IV base hangar; they used editing and cardboard cutouts to make it seem as if there are dozens of fighters. The crew also made a full-size X-wing cockpit that was used for all actors; the astromech droid behind each actor was changed for each starfighter.

paragraphs: According to "Star Wars" backstory, the X-wing was designed by Incom Corporation, who left the Empire and gave the X-wing design to the rebels. It is a one-man starfighter which also has a socket for a droid.

paragraphs: The starfighter has four laser cannons and two proton torpedo launchers. Its four wings (called s-foils) can fold open or closed. It has four engines and can use hyperspace travel. It also has energy shields for defense.


title: One Step Closer

paragraphs: "One Step Closer" is a song by American rock band Linkin Park. It was released as the first single and second track off the band's first album, "Hybrid Theory".

paragraphs: All songs are written by Linkin Park except for "High Voltage", which is written by Mike Shinoda, Brad Delson and Joe Hahn; and "My December", which is also written by Shinoda.

paragraphs: The video starts out with a group of teenage friends hanging out around a dark alley. Two of them follow a strange man wearing a black hooded robe into a door which leads them to an underground room where the band is playing. Strange figures are around doing martial-arts moves. Midway through the song, they knock over a box, and run away when the martial arts people notice them. Towards the end of the song, lead singer Chester Bennington is upside-down.

paragraphs: Joe Hahn, the band's DJ, made the story of the video. Since bassist Dave Farrell has not returned to the band yet, Scott Koziol plays the bass. Gregory Dark directed the video.

paragraphs: "One Step Closer" is the ending song the band's concerts until 2007, where the song was always performed first. In 2008, the band's concerts ended with either the song or "Bleed It Out". From 2003 to 2007, the performances of the song has the verse of Jonathan Davis from his remix of the song in "Reanimation". In their recent concert tour, "A Thousand Suns World Tour", the song is either the final song of the concert or the final song of the main set.


title: Áras an Uachtaráin

paragraphs: Áras an Uachtaráin (), is the official home of the President of Ireland. The name means "House of the President" in Irish. It is in the Phoenix Park on the northside of Dublin. It used to be known as the Viceregal Lodge.

paragraphs: The original house was designed by park ranger and amateur architect, Nathaniel Clements in the mid eighteenth century. It was bought by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. His official residence was in the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle. The house in the park then became the "Viceregal Lodge", the "out of season" residence of the Lord Lieutenant (also known as the Viceroy), where he lived for most of the year from the 1820s onwards. During the Social Season (January to St. Patrick's Day in March) he lived in Dublin Castle.

paragraphs: In 1882, the grounds around the house became the location for a famous murder. Two men were stabbed to death with surgical knives while walking back to the residence from Dublin Castle. They were the Lord Frederick Cavendish, the British Cabinet minister with responsibility for Irish affairs, and Thomas Henry Burke, chief civil servant. A small insurgent group called the Invincibles was responsible for the deed. The Lord Lieutenant, the 5th Earl Spencer, heard the victims screams from a ground floor window in the drawing room.

paragraphs: In 1911, the house got a large extension for the visit of King George V and Queen Mary. After the Irish Free State was established in 1922, it became the home of the Governor-General of the Irish Free State until 1932. After that the new Governor-General, Domhnall Ua Buachalla, personally leased a private mansion in the southside of Dublin.

paragraphs: The house was left empty for some years, until the office of President of Ireland was created in 1937. In 1938, the first President, Douglas Hyde lived there temporarily while plans were made to build a new presidential palace on the grounds. The outbreak of World War II saved the building, which had been renamed "Áras an Uachtaráin" as plans were put on hold. By 1945 it had become too closely identified with the presidency of Ireland to be demolished. But because it had not been lived in, a lot of work was needed to rebuild and improve it, especially to the kitchens, servants' quarters and chapel.

paragraphs: The first President, Douglas Hyde lived in the residential quarters on the first floor of the main building. Later presidents moved to the new wing attached to the main house that had been built on for the visit of King George V in 1911. However, in 1990 Mary Robinson moved back to the older main building. Mary McAleese lived in the 1911 wing. The current occupant is Michael D.Higgans

paragraphs: Beside it being the home of the president, it has a few state rooms for official occasions. Áras an Uachtaráin also houses the headquarters of the Garda Mounted Unit.

paragraphs: Various visiting British kings and queens stayed at the Viceregal Lodge, notably Queen Victoria and George V. American presidents that visited include Presidents John F. Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton, who are all of Irish descent. Other famous visitors to the Áras an Uachtaráin have been Princess Grace of Monaco and her husband, Prince Rainier III; King Baudouin of the Belgians; King Juan Carlos and Queen Sophia; Pope John Paul II; Prince Charles, and Prince Philip.

paragraphs: Guests do not normally stay at Áras an Uachtaráin. Although it has ninety-two rooms, many of these are used for storage of presidential files, for household staff and official staff, including military "aides-de-camp", a Secretary to the President and a press office. In 2001, the Irish state opened a guest residence nearby in Farmleigh, a former Guinness mansion.

paragraphs: On 1 May 2004, during Ireland's six-month presidency of the European Union, Áras an Uachtarain was the Venue for the "European Day of Welcomes" (Accession Day) in which ten new members joined the EU. All 25 heads of government attended the flag raising ceremony in the gardens of the palace.

paragraphs: Áras an Uachtaráin is now open for free tours every Saturday.


title: Hangar

paragraphs: A hangar is a closed structure made to hold an aircraft while it is on the ground. It is like a garage but for aircraft instead of cars. A hanger is most often metal, but may be made of other things like wood and concrete. It protects the aircraft from weather and sun damage.


title: Phoenix Park Murders

paragraphs: The Phoenix Park Murders were the fatal stabbings on 6 May 1882 in the Phoenix Park in Dublin. Lord Frederick Cavendish and Thomas Henry Burke were killed. Cavendish was the newly appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, and Burke was the Permanent Undersecretary, the most senior Irish civil servant. The assassination was carried out by members of the "Irish National Invincibles".

paragraphs: Cavendish and Burke were attacked as they walked through Phoenix Park to the Viceregal Lodge. This was the "out of season" residence of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ("the King's representative and head of the Irish affairs"). Thomas Myles, surgeon at the nearby Dr Steevens' Hospital, was called to help the victims.

paragraphs: The Lord Lieutenant, Lord Spencer, described suddenly hearing screams, before seeing a man running to the Lodge grounds shouting "Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke are killed." Responsibility for the political murders was claimed by a small, until then unknown Republican organisation called the "Irish National Invincibles".

paragraphs: The hunt for the murderers was led by Superintendent John Mallon, a Catholic who came from Armagh. Mallon had a pretty good idea of who was involved. He suspected a number of former Fenian activists. A large number of suspects were arrested and kept in prison by claiming they were connected with other crimes. Mallon got several of them to reveal what they knew about the murders.

paragraphs: The Invincibles' leader James Carey, Michael Kavanagh and Joe Hanlon agreed to testify against the others. Joe Brady, Michael Fagan, Thomas Caffrey, Dan Curley and Tim Kelly were convicted of the murder. They were hanged in Kilmainham Gaol in Dublin between 14 May and 4 June 1883. Others were sentenced to serve long prison terms.

paragraphs: Irish politician Charles Stewart Parnell made a speech condemning the murders in 1882. This increased his popularity in both Britain and Ireland.

paragraphs: In March 1887, "The Times" printed letters that said they were written by Parnell. The letters said that he agreed with the murderers of the English politicians, and that his speech saying otherwise was not true. It later came to light that the letters were not written by Parnell. They were forgeries written by journalist Richard Pigott. Parnell was personally shown to be innocent by the Parnell Commission in 1888-89.


title: Garage

paragraphs: A garage is a place for storing cars. There are many kinds of garages used for different things.

paragraphs: A residential garage is a garage that is part of a house or similar building. Some garages are directly connected (called "attached") to the house, while others are separate and called a "detached" garage". The garage will have a large garage door that opens to let cars in and out, which is often opened by a motor.

paragraphs: A parking garage is a large covered structure, often made of concrete, which is used for holding many cars. Parking garages may have more than one level.

paragraphs: An automobile repair shop may also be called a garage, although it is for repairing cars rather than just storing them.


title: Melatonin

paragraphs: Melatonin is a hormone found in animals, plants, and microbes. In animals, levels of melatonin have a daily cycle. It drives the circadian rhythms of several biological functions.

paragraphs: Melatonin is produced in the pineal gland which is outside of the blood–brain barrier. It acts as a hormone, and is released into the blood.

paragraphs: Melatonin acts on melatonin receptors. It also acts directly because it is a powerful antioxidant, which protects DNA.

paragraphs: Melatonin supplements for humans can be given. Melatonin is categorized by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a dietary supplement, not a drug. A prescription-only, timed release melatonin product for people aged 55 and over was approved for use by the European Medicines Agency in 2007, despite having shown only small effects, and in Australia in 2009.


title: Luria–Delbrück experiment

paragraphs: The Luria–Delbrück experiment, 1943, also called the 'Fluctuation Test', asks the question: are mutations independent of natural selection? Or are they directed by the selection?

paragraphs: Max Delbrück and Salvador Luria showed that in bacteria, DNA mutations happen randomly. This means they happen at any time, rather than being a response to selection.

paragraphs: So, Darwin's theory of natural selection acting on random mutations applies to bacteria as well as to more complex organisms.

paragraphs: Delbrück and Luria won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine partly for this work.

paragraphs: In their experiment, Luria and Delbrück grew bacteria in tubes. After a period of growth, they put equal volumes of these separate cultures onto agar containing phage (virus). If virus resistance were not due to random gene mutations, then each plate should contain roughly the same number of resistant colonies. This, however was not what Delbrück and Luria found. Instead, the number of resistant colonies on each plate varied drastically.

paragraphs: Luria and Delbrück proposed that these results could be explained by the occurrence of a constant rate of random mutations in each generation of bacteria growing in the initial culture tubes.


title: Polydactyly

paragraphs: Polydactyly is a birth defect which may affects the hands, feet, or both. It causes one or more extra fingers or toes. It can affect people, and other mammals such as dogs, and cats.


title: Screen Actors Guild

paragraphs: The Screen Actors Guild (SAG) is an American labor union representing over 200,000 film and television principal performers and background performers worldwide. According to SAG's Mission Statement, the Guild was created to negotiate and enforce reasonable salaries, benefits, and working conditions for its performers; collect compensation for exploitation of recorded performances by its members, and provide protection against unauthorized use of those performances; and preserve and expand work opportunities for its members.

paragraphs: The Guild was founded in 1933 in an effort to end exploitation of actors in Hollywood who were being forced into oppressive multi-year contracts with the major movie studios that did not include restrictions on work hours or minimum rest periods, and often had clauses that automatically renewed at the studios' discretion. These contracts were notorious for allowing the studios to dictate the public and private lives of the performers who signed them, and most did not have provisions to allow the performer to end the deal.

paragraphs: In addition to its main offices in Hollywood, SAG also maintains local branches in several major US cities, including: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Honolulu, Houston, Las Vegas, Miami, Nashville, New York City, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Portland, Salt Lake City, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington DC.

paragraphs: Since 1995, the guild has annually awarded the Screen Actors Guild Awards, which are considered an indicator of success at the Academy Awards.

paragraphs: The membership of the Screen Actors Guild voted to merge with the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists on March 30, 2012. It was later renamed as SAG-AFTRA.


title: Screen Actors Guild Award

paragraphs: A Screen Actors Guild Award is an award given by the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) to recognize outstanding performances by its members. The statuette given, a nude male figure holding both a mask of comedy and a mask of tragedy, is called "The Actor". It is 16 inches tall, weighs over 12 pounds, cast in solid bronze, and produced by the American Fine Arts Foundry in Burbank, California.

paragraphs: SAG Awards have been one of the major awards events in Hollywood since 1995. Nominations for the awards come from 4200 randomly selected members of the union, with the full membership (120,000 as of 2007) available to vote for the winners. The awards have been televised for the past several years on TNT, but now also airs on TBS.

paragraphs: The first SAG Awards aired live on February 25, 1995 from Stage 12, Universal Studios. The second SAG awards aired live from the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium, while later awards have been held at the Shrine Exposition Center. Bob Hope was given the first award.


title: Machair

paragraphs: Machair or machar is a Gàidhlig (Scottish Gaelic) word used to describe a fertile low-lying grassy plain found on some of the north-west coastlines of Ireland and Scotland, in particular the Outer Hebrides. There are machairs in the Isle of Skye, The Isle of Barra, the Isle of Harris and all throughout the west coast and islands.


title: Max Delbrück

paragraphs: Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück (September 4, 1906 – March 9, 1981) was a German-American biophysicist and Nobel laureate.

paragraphs: Delbrück was one of the most influential people in the movement of physical scientists into biology during the 20th century.

paragraphs: Delbrück's big idea was to explore genetics by means of the bacteriophage viruses which infect bacteria. This was important in the early development of molecular biology.

paragraphs: Delbrück was born in Berlin, German Empire. Trained as a physicist, he got his Ph.D. in 1930. he traveled through England, Denmark, and Switzerland. He met Wolfgang Pauli and Niels Bohr, who got him interested in biology.

paragraphs: In 1937, he moved to the United States to pursue his interests in biology, taking up research in the Biology Division at Caltech on genetics of the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster". While at Caltech Delbrück became acquainted with bacteria and their viruses (bacteriophage or 'phage').

paragraphs: Delbrück remained in the US during World War II, teaching physics at Vanderbilt University in Nashville while pursuing his genetic research. In 1942, he and Salvador Luria of Indiana University demonstrated that bacterial resistance to virus infection is caused by random mutation and not adaptive change. This research, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, was also significant for its use of mathematics to make quantitative predictions for the results to be expected from alternative models. For that work, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, sharing it with Alfred Hershey.

paragraphs: During the 1940s Delbrück developed a course in bacteriophage genetics at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory to encourage interest in the field. In 1947, Delbrück returned to Caltech as a professor of biology where he remained until 1977.


title: Salvador Luria

paragraphs: Salvador Edward Luria (Turin, Italy, August 13, 1912 – Lexington, Massachusetts, February 6, 1991) was an Italian microbiologist.

paragraphs: He won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his pioneering work with Max Delbrück and Alfred Hershey on phages in molecular biology.

paragraphs: Luria was born Salvatore Edoardo Luria in Turin, Italy to an influential Italian Sephardic Jewish family. He attended the medical school at the University of Turin. There, he met two other future Nobel laureates: Rita Levi-Montalcini and Renato Dulbecco.

paragraphs: In Rome, he was introduced to Max Delbrück's theories on the gene as a molecule and began to formulate methods for testing genetic theory with bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect bacteria.

paragraphs: In 1938, he received a fellowship to study in the United States, where he intended to work with Delbrück. Soon after Luria received the award Benito Mussolini's fascist regime banned Jews from academic research fellowships.

paragraphs: Without funding sources for work in the U.S. or Italy, Luria left his home country for Paris, France in 1938. As the Nazi German armies invaded France in 1940, Luria fled on bicycle to Marseilles where he received an immigration visa to the United States.

paragraphs: Luria arrived in New York City on September 12, 1940 and soon changed his first and middle names. With the help of physicist Enrico Fermi, whom he knew from his time at the University of Rome, Luria received a fellowship at Columbia University. He soon met Delbrück and Hershey, and they collaborated on experiments at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and in Delbrück's lab at Vanderbilt University.

paragraphs: His famous experiment with Delbrück in 1943, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, demonstrated that inheritance in bacteria follows Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles and that mutant genes occurring randomly can still give viral resistance without the virus being present. The idea that natural selection affects bacteria has profound consequences, for example, it explains how bacteria develop antibiotic resistance.

paragraphs: From 1943 to 1950, he worked at Indiana University, Bloomington. His first graduate student was James D. Watson, who went on to discover the structure of DNA with Francis Crick. In January 1947, Luria became a naturalized citizen of the United States.

paragraphs: In 1950, Luria moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. While investigating how a culture of "E. coli" was able to stop the production of phages, Luria discovered that specific bacterial strains produce enzymes that cut DNA at certain sequences. These enzymes became known as restriction enzymes and developed into one of the main molecular tools in molecular biology.


title: Maya calendar

paragraphs: The Maya calendar is a system of calendars and almanacs used in the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and in some modern Maya communities in highland Guatemala.

paragraphs: It shares many aspects with calendars employed by other earlier Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Zapotec and Olmec, and contemporary or later ones such as the Mixtec and Aztec calendars. Although the Mesoamerican calendar did not originate with the Maya, their subsequent extensions and refinements of it were the most sophisticated. Along with those of the Aztecs, the Maya calendars are the best-documented and most completely understood.

paragraphs: There are three main Maya calendars: the 260 day ritual calendar called "Tzolk'in", the 365 day "Haab"', and the "Long Count". Approximately 52 years pass before the Haab and Tzolkin calendars converge and are back in the same alignment. This is called the Calendar round. The Tzolk'in is still in use today by the Ixil, Kek'chi and Quiche peoples of the Guatemalan highlands.

paragraphs: Here is an example of a Maya calendar date: 12.18.16.2.6, 3 Cimi 4 Zotz. The “12.18.16.2.6” is the Long Count. Going from right to left, the units are: kin (1 day), uinal (20 kin = 20 days), tun (18 uinal = 360 days), katun (20 tun = approximately 20 years), baktun (20 katun =394 years). The Long Count was used to track periods of time longer than the 52 years of the Calendar Round. The mythical starting date of the current creation was August 11, 3114 BCE (Gregorian). “3 Cimi” is the Tzolkin date. The Tzolkin date is a combination of thirteen days numbered one-thirteen and twenty day-names. “4 Zotz” is the Haab' date. The Haab' year contains 18 months (each named) with 20 days each. The number before the word is the day of that month. The Maya then added five days to the calendar after the last month, Cumku, ends, in order to make the year 365 days long. Those five days, called "Uayeb," were considered to be unlucky.

paragraphs: A common myth about the Maya calendar was that it predicted that the world would end on December 21, 2012. This belief was mistaken. According to the Maya, there were three previous worlds. The first began with “the creation of the Earth, and it had upon it vegetation and living beings. Unfortunately, because they lacked speech, the birds and animals were unable to pay homage to the gods and were destroyed. In the second and third Ages the gods created humans of mud and then wood, but these also failed to please and were wiped out. The "zero date" 13.0.0.0.0 on the Long Count was when, according to the Maya, the third world ended and the fourth one, the current world, began. Another 13.0.0.0.0 would occur on December 21, 2012. There is no evidence that the Long Count would end on 13.0.0.0.0 or that the Maya believed that this would be the date of the apocalypse. Still, a variety of popular books and movies have contributed to the publicity surrounding the Maya calendar's supposed prediction of the end of the world in 2012. Some believershave taken advantage of this publicity to sell guides to surviving the apocalypse.


title: Mexican coat of arms

paragraphs: The flag of Mexico contains a coat of arms which is derived from an Aztec symbol depicting an eagle with a snake in its mouth.

paragraphs: In the early 14th century, the Mexica people were a wandering tribe looking for a permanent settlement in modern day central Mexico. They survived by hunting and gathering and were often hired to fight as mercenaries for the city-states scattered throughout the region. According to legend, their god, Huitzilopochtli, told them to establish a city of their own at a site where they would find an eagle eating a snake on top of a cactus. The legend relates that the people saw the eagle on a small, swampy island in the middle of the shallow Texcoco lake. The Mexica invented a resourceful system of gardening, called chinampas, which allowed them to grow small gardens, eventually drying out the lake. In 1325, they completed construction of a city there. That city, which they called Tenochtitlan, became the capital of the Aztec Empire, which dominated central Mexico until its destruction by Spanish Conquistadores led by Hernando Cortes.

paragraphs: After winning its independence from Spain in 1810, the newly created nation of Mexico–whose capital was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan–adopted the symbol of the eagle and the snake to commemorate its Aztec heritage. The symbol can be found at the center of the Mexican flag.


title: San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan

paragraphs: San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan started out as an agricultural and population center for the Olmec civilization, which inhabited a region of what is today southeastern Mexico. The Olmecs emerged as early as 1500 BC as the earliest complex society in the Americas. San Lorenzo is best known as the first city established in the Americas.

paragraphs: The main reason San Lorenzo flourished at such an early period is its location within the Coatzacoalcos flood plain, which provided fertile land for farming. Thus, the settlement of San Lorenzo follows the pattern of settlement of the world’s very first urban centers, which emerged in the fertile river valleys of Mesopotamia. Because of the high farming value of the surrounding land, San Lorenzo ranked as the Olmecs’ most populous settlement from 1200-900 BC. During that period, San Lorenzo had the biggest trade market in all of the Olmec Heartland.

paragraphs: For unknown reasons, many people migrated out of San Lorenzo in 800 BC to the nearby city of La Venta. However, San Lorenzo was repopulated in 600 BC, when it became a center for Olmec ritual sacrifices until the population faded away in 400 BC along with the Olmec civilization. Today, San Lorenzo remains a significant archaeological site because the artifacts found there–including the famous Colossal Heads and jade masks–shed some light on Olmec culture and its profound influence on later Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Aztec and Maya.


title: Terrace farming

paragraphs: This method of farming uses "steps" that are built into the side of a mountain or hill. On each level, various crops are planted. When it rains, instead of washing away all of the nutrients in the soil, the nutrients are carried down to the next level. Additionally, these steps prevent a free flowing avalanche of water that would take plants with it and destroy all of the crops on the hillside. This system also allowed them to build aqueducts, which carried water to each level.

paragraphs: The idea was also independently developed by the Inca people. The Incas built their aqueduct system so well that it is still used today.


title: Sapa Inca

paragraphs: Sapa Inca was the Inca emperor. "" means "The Great Inca" or "The Only Inca" in Quechua, the Inca language. According to legend, the first Sapa Inca, Manco Cápac (c. 1200 CE- 1230) was the son of the sun god, Inti. Manco Cápac became Sapa Inca by founding the city of Cuzco after he was sent on a quest by a god to find a good location for a city and build one. He also united the tribes around Cuzco.

paragraphs: The position of Sapa Inca was hereditary, which means that it passed from father to son. The Sapa Inca was the sole and absolute ruler over the Incas. His word was law, and he was the supreme commander of the military. The Sapa Inca lived in great luxury with many wives, slaves, and riches. Another privilege that he had was that he was allowed to (and usually would) marry his sister even though it was prohibited for common people. When the Sapa Inca died he would be mummified.

paragraphs: The Inca Empire reached its height under Huayna Capac (1493–1527) when it stretched from modern day Argentina to Ecuador, although Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493) was responsible for expanding much of the empire to those borders. Tupac Yupanqui conquered the Kingdom of Chimor, the biggest rival to the Inca. He expanded the empire into modern day Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Atahualpa was the last pre-conquest Sapa Inca. He was killed by the invading Spaniards in 1533 and after that there were several Sapa Inca who were installed by the Spanish. The last person to hold the title was Tupac Amaru who was killed by the Spanish in 1572.


title: STS-1

paragraphs: STS-1 was the first flight of the space shuttle. It launched on April 12, 1981 and landed on April 14. It was launched 20 years after the first manned space flight. The space shuttle used was "Columbia". Space Shuttle Columbia orbited the Earth 37 times in this mission.

paragraphs: STS-1 was the first of two missions with a painted external tank. The paint was put to protect the external tank from ultraviolet light when it was standing on the launch pad. After STS-2, the paint was removed


title: Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir

paragraphs: Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir (; born 1944) was the 7th President of Sudan. He came into power in 1989 and resigned in 2019 following massive anti-protests and a coup. In October 2004, Omar's government negotiated an end to the second Sudanese civil war, one of the longest-running and deadliest wars of the 20th century. However, there has been a violent conflict in Darfur that has resulted in a death toll between 200,000 and 400,000. During his presidency, there have been several violent struggles between the rebel groups such as the Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) in the form of warfare in the Darfur region. The civil war has resulted in over 2.5 million people being displaced, and the relations between Sudan and Chad are at a crisis.


title: Regression (psychology)

paragraphs: Regression is a word used in psychology. It means the act of reversing the ego into an earlier state which allows one to avoid dealing with impulses in an adult manner.


title: Displacement (psychology)

paragraphs: Displacement is a word used in Freudian psychology for is an unconscious defence mechanism. Example: the mind redirects thoughts, emotions, desires from an object or person felt to be dangerous or unacceptable to an object or person felt to be safe or acceptable.

paragraphs: More generally, the substitute of one response by another, when the original response is blocked: displaced aggression.


title: Ego depletion

paragraphs: Ego depletion is the idea that people get tired of making decisions because it is a neuro-chemical process that requires energy.


title: Central dogma of molecular biology

paragraphs: The central dogma of molecular biology is a phrase by Francis Crick, who proposed the double helix structure of DNA.

paragraphs: It means that information passes from DNA to proteins via RNA, but proteins cannot pass the information back to DNA.

paragraphs: Crick first wrote it in 1958, and repeated it in 1970.

paragraphs: The dogma is a framework for understanding the transfer of sequence information.

paragraphs: There are 3 major classes of such biopolymers: DNA and RNA (both nucleic acids), and protein. There are 3×3 = 9 conceivable direct transfers of information that can occur between these. The dogma classes these into 3 groups of 3:

paragraphs: The general transfers describe the normal flow of biological information: DNA can be copied to DNA (DNA replication), DNA information can be copied into mRNA, (transcription), and proteins can be synthesized using the information in mRNA as a template (translation).

paragraphs: The dogma is a modern version of the Weismann barrier (after August Weismann). This is the principle that hereditary information moves only from genes to body cells, and never in reverse. Hereditary information moves only from germline cells to somatic cells.


title: Ubar

paragraphs: Ubar is a ruined city in Oman. English adventurer Ranulph Fiennes discovered the city in 1992. According to Nicolas Clapp, this probably is the lost city Iram of the Pillars the Qu'ran talks about.

paragraphs: Today, ruins are left, which can be reached in a four-wheel drive. Part of the area forms the ceiling to underground vaults, which have collapsed. These vaults hold water supplies for a nearby settlement, which houses a small museum.


title: Wavves

paragraphs: Wavves (pronounced "waves") is an American noise pop band based out of San Diego, California. They formed in 2008, and are currently signed to Fat Possum Records.


title: Daniel Catán

paragraphs: Daniel Catán Porteny (3 April 1949 in Mexico City - 9 April 2011 in Austin, Texas) was a Mexican opera composer of Jewish descent. He is best known for turning the Italian movie, "Il Postino", into an opera. He was working at the University of Texas at Austin on a new opera based on the Frank Capra movie, "Meet John Doe".


title: Rick Perry

paragraphs: James Richard "Rick" Perry (born March 4, 1950) is an American former politician. He was the 14th United States Secretary of Energy from March 2, 2017 through December 1, 2019. He was the Governor of Texas from 2000 to 2015. He is a Republican. He became governor when George W. Bush became President, and has been elected three more times. Perry was the longest governor in the United States for 14 years.

paragraphs: On December 13, 2016, then-President-elect Donald Trump nominated Perry to serve as United States Secretary of Energy during his administration. He was confirmed by the United States senate on March 2, 2017.

paragraphs: Perry was born in Haskell, Texas. His parents were Joseph Perry and Amelia Holt. He grew up in West Texas and studied at Texas A&M University. During his early years, he was a farmer and a pilot.

paragraphs: In 1984, Perry was elected to the Texas House of Representatives as a Democrat from district 64, which included his home county of Haskell. He served on the House Appropriations and Calendars committees during his three two-year terms in office.

paragraphs: In 1990, as a newly Republican, Perry challenged Jim Hightower, the incumbent Democratic Agriculture Commissioner. Karl Rove was Perry’s campaign manager. Perry won the election.

paragraphs: In April 1993, Perry, while serving as Texas agriculture commissioner, expressed support for the effort to reform the nation's health care, describing it as "most commendable".

paragraphs: In 1994, Perry was reelected Agriculture Commissioner by a large margin.

paragraphs: In 1998, Perry chose not to seek a third term as Agriculture Commissioner, running instead for Lieutenant Governor to succeed the retiring Democrat Bob Bullock. He won the election.

paragraphs: Perry assumed the office of governor on December 21, 2000, following the resignation of George W. Bush – who was preparing to become President of the United States. In the 2001 legislative session, Perry set a record for his use of the veto, rejecting 82 acts, more than

paragraphs: any other governor in any single legislative session in the history of the state since Reconstruction.

paragraphs: Perry's campaigns for lieutenant governor and governor focused on a tough stance on crime. He has supported block grants for crime programs. In 2007, Perry signed a law ending automatic arrest for cannabis possession.

paragraphs: Perry supports the death penalty. In June 2002, he vetoed a ban on the execution of mentally retarded inmates. As of September 18, 2014, there have been 278 executions since Perry first took office in December 2000.

paragraphs: Perry was re-elected in 2006 and in 2010. In 2014, Perry announced that he would not run for a fourth term.

paragraphs: On August 15, 2014, Perry was indicted by a grand jury on felony charges for abuse of power. He was accused of threatening a Democratic District Attorney who had been convicted of drunk driving to resign by threatening to veto funding for state public corruption prosecutors. The indictment received some support and also wide criticism from all sides of the political parties, and editorial criticism from major US newspapers.

paragraphs: Perry also ran for President of the United States in the 2012 Republican primaries. He was one of the last candidates to enter the race. He was a frontrunner for the nomination during the first month of his campaign, but he did not do well in many of the debates. On January 19, 2012, Perry withdrew his campaign and endorsed Newt Gingrich.

paragraphs: On June 4, 2015, Perry officially announced his bid with a new web site and a press conference at Addison Airport outside Dallas, Texas. Perry then announced his candidacy at the scheduled press conference. On September 11, 2015, Perry dropped out of the race after poor polling after the first debate. He later announced his support for Ted Cruz and later Donald Trump for president.

paragraphs: Perry has been mentioned as a possible challenger to U.S. Senator and fellow 2016 Republican presidential candidate Ted Cruz in 2018. Speculation about Cruz being challenged in the Republican primary arose during the 2016 Republican National Convention, when Cruz refused to endorse Donald Trump, the eventual Republican presidential nominee, whom Perry had endorsed after Cruz suspended his campaign. In a poll conducted from August 12 to 14 of that year by "Public Policy Polling", Perry had a 46%-37% lead over Cruz. In November 2016, Perry declined to enter the senate race and endorsed Cruz in the elections.

paragraphs: On December 12, 2016, multiple sources reported that Perry is to be nominated by President-elect of the United States Trump to serve as Secretary of the United States Department of Energy. His nomination was approved by a 16-7 vote from the United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on January 31, 2017.

paragraphs: On March 2, 2017, Perry was confirmed by the United States Senate in a 62-37 vote.

paragraphs: On October 17, 2019, Perry told Trump he would resign by the end of the year. He officially stepped down on December 1, 2019.

paragraphs: A July 25, 2019 telephone call between Trump and Ukraine president Volodymyr Zelensky led in September to a whistleblower complaint and an impeachment inquiry against Trump. Two weeks after the inquiry was launched, Trump claimed in a conference call with Congressional Republican leaders that he had only made the telephone call at Perry's urging. Perry denied ever mentioning Joe Biden in his discussions with Trump or Ukrainian officials.

paragraphs: Although Perry is a Methodist, he now attends an Evangelical "megachurch". He is also an Eagle Scout. Perry married Anita Thigpen in 1982. Together, they have two children.

paragraphs: On August 30, 2016, Perry was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 23 of "Dancing with the Stars". He was partnered with professional dancer Emma Slater. Perry and Slater were eliminated on the third week of competition and finished in 12th place.


title: Jerry Jones

paragraphs: Jerral "Jerry" Wayne Jones (born October 13, 1942 in Los Angeles, California) is the owner and general manager of the Dallas Cowboys in the NFL. He has owned the team since 1989.


title: Texas Motor Speedway

paragraphs: Texas Motor Speedway is a racetrack in Fort Worth, Texas. It hosts two races a year in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. It first opened in 1996. Its layout is similar to the track layout of Atlanta Motor Speedway and Charlotte Motor Speedway (which used to be known as Lowe's Motor Speedway).


title: Little Caesars

paragraphs: Little Caesars is a pizza company in the United States. It is the 4th biggest pizza company in the United States. It was founded on May 8, 1959 in Garden City, Michigan by Mike Ilitch. It is a subsidiary of Ilitch Holdings, Inc.


title: Whataburger

paragraphs: Whataburger is a fast food restaurant that specifically makes hamburgers. It was founded in 1950 in the city of Corpus Christi, Texas. The restaurant chain was completely on portable stands until the first permanent store was built in 1961. Most Whataburger locations are open for all 24 hours in the day.


title: The Human League

paragraphs: The Human League is a British pop music band from Sheffield. The Human League has 3 members: Philip Oakey, Joanne Catherall, and Susan Ann Sulley. The band originally had 6 members. The other 3 members were Ian Burden, Jo Callis, and Philip Adrian Wright. They all left The Human League in the late 1980s.

paragraphs: The Human League started in 1977 and they had their greatest success during the 1980s. They continue to make new music today. Philip Oakey, the band's singer, is the only Human League member that has been with the band since it started. The other 2 members, Joanne Catherall and Susan Ann Sulley, joined The Human League in 1980.

paragraphs: The Human League has made 10 albums. Their newest album is called "Credo" and it was released in March 2011. Some of The Human League's hit songs are "Don't You Want Me", "Keep Feeling Fascination", "The Lebanon" and "Human".

paragraphs: Below is a list of all the albums by The Human League.


title: 20/20 (American TV program)

paragraphs: 20/20 is a television newsmagazine on ABC. It has been on ABC since June 6, 1978 and is currently airing. 20/20 is currently hosted by Chris Cuomo and Elizabeth Vargas.


title: Mesoamerican ball game

paragraphs: The Mesoamerican ball game is a sport that people in Mesoamerica have played since about 1,400 B.C.E. It was the first team sport in history, as far as historians know.

paragraphs: The Olmecs, who lived from 1,200 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E., played the Mesoamerican ballgame. They may have created the game. The ancient Mayans played the game; they called it pitz in Classical Maya. Later, the Aztecs played it; in their language, Nahuatl, they called the game ōllamaliztli.

paragraphs: In some parts of Mexico, indigenous people still play a more modern version of the game, called "ulama". This means that people have played the Mesoamerican ballgame for over 3,400 years longer than any other sport in history. The Mesoamerican ballgame was also the first sport in history ever to use a rubber ball.

paragraphs: The game's goal was to shoot a ball through a stone hoop about wide. The ball, called an "ulli", was made out of rubber. It weighed about , about as much as a brick. The court, called a "tlachtili", was around long. It had a wall on each side. The stone hoops hung on these walls.

paragraphs: The court was usually in the shape of an “I,” although the shape was sometimes different. A line ran down the center of the court. From that line, the floor sloped to meet the walls.

paragraphs: The players were only allowed to use their heads, elbows, legs, and hips to hit the ball. The ball was not allowed to touch the ground, so the players often dove to avoid losing points. If one of the teams got the ball through the stone hoop, the game was over and that team won. However, this was very hard to do, since the stone hoops could be as high as off the ground. Since getting the ball through the hoop was uncommon, a team could also score points by hitting one of six markers alongside the edges of the court.

paragraphs: Gambling played a large part in the culture surrounding the ballgame. People could bet nearly anything on which team would win the game. Some ancient people bet things like beautiful feathers. Others bet children or even their own lives. The losers sometimes sold themselves into slavery just so they could pay off their debt.

paragraphs: Sometimes, city-states would play the game instead of going to war with each other. The city-state whose team won the game would rule over the losing city-state. Winning or losing a game could turn into an excuse to start an attack or try an assassination.

paragraphs: The Mesoamerican ballgame also held a very important religious meaning. In Aztec culture, for example, the game was meant to represent the combat that happened every day on the "ball court" in the underworld, where the sun fought with the night to get across.

paragraphs: The game's religious meaning was linked to the Mayan and Aztec practices of human sacrifice. Sometimes, the Mayans would make prisoners of war play the game, and would sacrifice them if they lost. However, Mayan art suggests that Mayan ballplayers, maybe team captains, were sacrificed too.

paragraphs: The Aztecs also sacrificed losing teams (or, according to some historians, winning teams) after some games. The ancient Aztecs believed that without human sacrifice, the sun would stop and the earth would be plunged into darkness. Sometimes, ancient Aztecs would decorate the ball court with the skulls of people who had been sacrificed. The ball itself was a symbol of a sacrificed person's head. Sometimes, the actual head or skull of a sacrificed person was used as a ball in the game.

paragraphs: In modern times, the Aztec ballgame changed into "ulama." People still play this game in a few communities in the Mexican state of Sinaloa.

paragraphs: Ulama uses temporary courts, made by drawing thick lines in the dirt. There are three different ways to play ulama. In the different versions of the game, players may use their hips, forearms, or paddles to hit the ball.


title: Hit the Road, Jack

paragraphs: "Hit the Road Jack" is a rhythm and blues song from the 1960s.

paragraphs: Percy Mayfield wrote and sang "Hit the Road, Jack" in 1960.

paragraphs: Ray Charles made the song famous. Ray Charles's song was number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in fall of 1961.

paragraphs: The song is ranked #377 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".

paragraphs: The words of this song are not standard English. In standard English, the words could be "Hit the road, Jack, and don't come back again" or "Hit the road, Jack, and don't come back anymore"

paragraphs: In this context, "hit the road" is an idiom meaning "get lost," as the following words indicate.


title: Olaf Scholz

paragraphs: Olaf Scholz (; born ) is a German politician serving as Federal Minister of Finance since 14 March 2018 and as Acting Chairman of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since 13 February 2018. He was First Mayor of Hamburg from 7 March 2011 to 13 March 2018.

paragraphs: From May to October 2001 he was Minister of the Interior "(Innensenator)" of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg and from 2002 to 2004 he was general secretary of the SPD.

paragraphs: In 2005 Scholz was elected a member of the sixteenth Bundestag, and succeeded Franz Müntefering as Minister of Labour and Social Affairs, when the latter left office in 2007.

paragraphs: In 2010 Olaf Scholz took part in the annual Bilderberg Meeting in Sitges, Spain.

paragraphs: On 20 February 2011 the Social Democrats led by Scholz won the Hamburg state election, 2011 with 48.3% of the votes, resulting in 62 out of 121 seats in the Hamburg Parliament. Scholz resigned as a member of the seventeenth Bundestag on 11 March 2011 shortly after his election as First Mayor.


title: Lemmy

paragraphs: Ian Fraser "Lemmy" Kilmister (24 December 1945 – 28 December 2015), commonly known by Lemmy, was a British musician, singer-songwriter and actor. He was best known as the bassist of the heavy metal band Motörhead.

paragraphs: Lemmy was born in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, England. He went to school at Ysgol Syr Thomas Jones in Amlwch, Wales. At age 16 he attended a concert by The Beatles in the Cavern Club. Lemmy liked the sarcastic attitude of the Beatles, especially John Lennon. Around that time he began playing guitar in small local bands like The Sundowners.

paragraphs: In mid-1960, he played guitar in bands like The Rainmakers, then The Motown Sect, playing clubs in the north. In 1965, he joined the band The Rockin 'Vickers, and signed a contract with CBS. The band released three single albums and toured Europe. In 1967, he moved to London and got a job as a roadie on The Jimi Hendrix Experience. In 1968, he recorded an album titled "Escalator" with the band Sam Gopal. After that, Lemmy met Simon King in a shopping center in Chelsea and then joined the band Opal Butterfly for a short period.

paragraphs: Lemmy joined the Ladbroke Grove rock band Hawkwind as a bassist and vocalist. He gained experience as a bassist, because until then he had only worked as a guitarist. Lemmy was also lead vocals on several songs for the band.

paragraphs: In 1975, Lemmy founded a new band called Bastard with guitarist Larry Wallis and Lucas Fox on drums. Later, Lemmy changed the name of the band to Motörhead. Wallis and Fox left the band and were replaced by the guitarist Eddie Clarke and drummer Phil "Philthy Animal" Taylor. This new formation would begin Motörhead's success in live performances. In 1977, the band recorded their first album, "Motörhead", released 24 September 1977. The second album, titled "Overkill", contained two songs that would become Motörhead classics: "Louie Louie" and "Overkill". The peak of the band was 1980 and 1981 with a series of chart hits in the UK, including the classic single "Ace of Spades", one of the biggest hits of the band.

paragraphs: Motörhead's members changed throughout the band's career, but Lemmy remained on bass and vocals from their start 1975 until today.

paragraphs: Lemmy's career as an actor began by playing small roles in low-budget UK films "Eat the Rich" (1988) and "Hardware" (1990). His credits include "Terror Firmer" (1998), "Frezno Smooth" (1999), and "Citizen Toxie: The Toxic Avenger IV" (2000).

paragraphs: On 28 December 2015, Lemmy died of prostate cancer, cardiac arrhythmia and congestive heart failure at his home in Los Angeles, California at the age of 70.


title: Ole von Beust

paragraphs: Carl-Friedrich Arp Ole Freiherr von Beust, generally called Ole von Beust, born 13 April 1955, in Hamburg, Germany, was Ole von Beust First Mayor of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg () from 31 October 2001 to 25 August 2010, serving as President of the Bundesrat from 1 November 2007 on for one year. He was followed as mayor by Christoph Ahlhaus.

paragraphs: He is the son of Achim Helge Freiherr von Beust and Hanna, née Wolff, who was considered half Jewish in Nazi Germany. Through his father he is a descendant of Saxon and Austrian statesman Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust.

paragraphs: In 1971 von Beust became member of the conservative Christian Democratic Union (CDU). In 1973, after finishing high school, he worked for the CDU group in Hamburg's city-state parliament ("Bürgerschaft"), a position he held until he started to study law in 1975 at the University of Hamburg. From 1977 until 1983 he was Hamburg president of the youth organisation of his party. Since 1978 Beust has been a member of the Hamburg city-state's parliament. In 1983 he successfully completed his studies and became an independent lawyer.

paragraphs: He has been a member of the ruling council of the Hamburg Land CDU since 1992, and of the national ruling council of the CDU party since 1998.

paragraphs: On 31 October 2001, Ole von Beust became First Mayor of Hamburg.

paragraphs: On 19 August 2003, Beust dismissed his vice-mayor Ronald Schill, causing a scandal. Beust had earlier dismissed Walter Wellinghausen, senator of the interior and Schill's most important official, without consulting Schill beforehand. This was due to public allegations of misconduct on Wellinghausen's part. In a private conversation, Schill then demanded that Beust take back the dismissal, allegedly using personal threats. Beust then decided to dismiss Schill as well.

paragraphs: In the press conference Schill held minutes after he had heard of his own dismissal, he spoke vaguely of "homosexual relationships", a "flat in an infamous hustler district" and "certain things happened that let one infer the occurrence of love acts" between Beust and Roger Kusch, who Beust had appointed minister (in German city-states "senator") of justice. Beust in turn stated that Schill threatened to make his alleged liaison with Kusch public under the premise that Beust intermingled public and private affairs. He said he had no sexual relationship with Kusch, that they merely knew each other for 25 years and were good friends, and that Beust was Kusch's landlord. "This is all – absolutely all", according to Beust.

paragraphs: His unprepared statement to the press quickly earned Schill an homophobic reputation. A popular radio-station broadcast a song calling him "Mega-Proll" (mega redneck) and gay and lesbian associations protested vocally. Schill however later affirmed Beust's version of the story, except for the accusations of blackmail, saying that he warned Beust to stay clear of nepotism, and that this had nothing to do with Beust's sexual orientation. He stated "I have nothing against homosexuals".

paragraphs: In a later interview, Beust's father confirmed that his son is indeed homosexual. Beust himself considers his sexual orientation a private matter; when asked directly he usually ironically refers the interviewer to his father.

paragraphs: The Hamburg elections of 29 February 2004, ended with an unprecedented landslide victory for Ole von Beust and the CDU, with the party achieving absolute majority in the city-state's parliament. The CDU gained 47.2 percent of the vote, a full 21-point increase from the previous election in September 2001. This was the first time since 1993 the city-state has had only a single ruling party. In the Hamburg elections of 24 February 2008, the CDU gained 42.6 percent of the vote. Thus, the CDU continued to be the strongest party in Hamburg. However, since the CDU lost its absolute majority, it formed a coalition government with the Greens.

paragraphs: On 18 July 2010 Ole von Beust declared his resignation effective 25 August. He was a finalist for the 2010 World Mayor prize.


title: Sunny Day Real Estate

paragraphs: Sunny Day Real Estate is an American rock band from Seattle, Washington. Sunny Day Real Estate formed in 1992 when they were originally called "Empty Set". The started in 1992 and broke up in 1995 because Goldsmith and Mendel were leaving to join Dave Grohl's band The Foo Fighters. They reunited in 1997 and disbanded again in 2001. They reunited once again in 2009.


title: Volbeat

paragraphs: Volbeat is an Danish heavy metal band from Copenhagen. Volbeat formed in 2001 when singer Michael Poulsen formed a death metal band called Dominus. He became tired of the death metal genre and left the band. He then formed a new band called Volbeat with other members of Dominus.


title: Alfred Hershey

paragraphs: Alfred Day Hershey (December 4, 1908 – May 22, 1997) was an American Nobel Prize-winning bacteriologist and geneticist.

paragraphs: He was born in Owosso, Michigan and received his B.S. in chemistry at Michigan State University in 1930 and his Ph.D. in bacteriology in 1934, taking a position shortly thereafter at the Department of Bacteriology at Washington University in St. Louis.

paragraphs: He began doing experiments with bacteriophages with Italian-American Salvador Luria and German Max Delbrück in 1940. He found that when two different strains of bacteriophage have infected the same bacteria, the two viruses may exchange genetic information.

paragraphs: He moved with his wife Harriet to Cold Spring Harbor, New York, in 1950 to join the Carnegie Institution for Science's Department of Genetics. There he performed the famous Hershey-Chase blender experiment with Martha Chase in 1952. This experiment provided additional evidence that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material.

paragraphs: He became director of the Carnegie Institution in 1962 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, shared with Luria and Delbrück for their discovery on the replication of viruses and their genetic structure.


title: Blues Hall of Fame

paragraphs: The Blues Hall of Fame is a list of people who are important in the development of blues music. The Hall is part of the Blues Foundation, and honors people who have performed, recorded, or documented blues.


title: Night terror

paragraphs: A night terror, also known as a sleep terror, is a sleep disorder that causes extreme terror and a temporary inability to regain full consciousness. The person having the night terror wakes up suddenly, usually gasping, moaning, or screaming while waking. It is often impossible to wake up the person fully because they are so concentrated on waking, and after the terror the subject normally settles back to sleep without waking. A night terror can rarely be recalled by the subject. They typically occur during non-rapid eye movement sleep.


title: David Hubel

paragraphs: David Hunter Hubel (February 27, 1926 – September 22, 2013) was a Canadian neurophysiologist noted for his studies of the structure and function of the visual cortex. He was co-recipient with Torsten Wiesel of the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with Roger W. Sperry), for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system.

paragraphs: For much of his career, Hubel was the John Franklin Enders University Professor of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School. In 1978, Hubel and Wiesel were awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University.

paragraphs: David Hunter Hubel (February 27, 1926 September 22, 2013) was a Professor of Neurobiology Emeritus at Harvard Medical School.

paragraphs: Hubel was co-recipient with Torsten Wiesel of the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries about information processing in the visual system. The prize was shared with Roger Sperry for his independent research on the cerebral hemispheres.

paragraphs: Hubel and Wiesel received the Nobel Prize for two major contributions:

paragraphs: In one experiment, done in 1959, they inserted a microelectrode into the primary visual cortex of an anesthetized cat. They then projected patterns of light and dark on a screen in front of the cat. They found that some neurons fired rapidly when presented with lines at one angle, while others responded best to another angle. Some of these neurons responded differently to light patterns than to dark patterns. Hubel and Wiesel called these neurons 'simple cells'.

paragraphs: Still other neurons, which they called 'complex cells', detected edges regardless of how they were placed in the visual field, and could detect motion in certain directions. These studies showed how the visual system constructs complex pictures of visual information from simple stimulus features.

paragraphs: They did important work in the study of cortical plasticity (flexibility).

paragraphs: By depriving kittens from using one eye, they showed that columns in the primary visual cortex receiving inputs from the other eye took over the areas that would normally receive input from the deprived eye.

paragraphs: These kittens did not develop areas receiving input from both eyes, a feature needed for binocular vision. Hubel and Wiesel's experiments showed that ocular dominance (dominance of one eye is normal) develops early in childhood development, and cannot be reversed. Several childhood vision problems were understood better after this work.


title: Red Bull Arena (Harrison)

paragraphs: The Red Bull Arena is a football stadium in Harrison, New Jersey in the United States. It is the homeground of New York Red Bulls, a team playing in the MLS (Major League Soccer), the highest league in American soccer.

paragraphs: The construction started in 2006, but through differences of the clubowner and the state of New Jersey there was a delay. After the buying of the former Metro Stars by the Red Bull Company the stadium was opened on March 20th, 2010 with a friendly match of the NY Red Bulls versus FC Santos from Brazil. One week later the first leaguematch was held in the new stadium versus Chicago Fire. The stadium has 30 luxury suites and 1,000 premium seats. The design is customized to the design of the owner company, Red Bull.


title: Roger Wolcott Sperry

paragraphs: Roger Wolcott Sperry (August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was an American neurobiologist and Nobel Prize winner.

paragraphs: He shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel. In 1989, Sperry also received the National Medal of Science.

paragraphs: Before Sperry's experiments, some research evidence seemed to indicate that areas of the cerebral cortex were largely interchangeable. In his early experiments, Sperry showed that the opposite was true: after early development, circuits of the brain are largely hardwired. That is, they are set with a particular function.

paragraphs: Sperry's work was on 'split-brain' research. In his Nobel-winning work, Sperry tested ten patients who had undergone an operation developed in 1940 by William Van Wagenen, a neurosurgeon in Rochester, NY.

paragraphs: The surgery, designed to treat epileptics with "grand mal" seizures, severed (cut) the corpus callosum, the area of the brain used to transfer signals between the right and left hemispheres.

paragraphs: Sperry and his colleagues tested these patients with tasks that were known to be dependent on specific hemispheres of the brain and demonstrated that the two halves of the brain may each contain consciousness. In his words, each hemisphere is

paragraphs: This research contributed greatly to understanding how each cerebral hemisphere works.

paragraphs: Some activities, such as naming objects or putting blocks together in a particular way, can only be done when using one side of the brain or the other. It seems the left hemisphere usually specializes in language processes and the right is dominant in visual-construction tasks.


title: Machair (TV series)

paragraphs: Machair was a Scottish Gaelic television soap opera produced by Scottish Television Enterprises between August 1992 and September 1998.

paragraphs: "Machair" was written in English and translated into Gaelic, then given English subtitles and broadcast during primetime. At first, critics thought this process would not work, but when the show aired it got lots of praise from reviewers. Kenneth Roy, television critic of Scotland on Sunday, described it as ""A credit to the company (Scottish Television) and a smack in the face to those of us who were doubtful"" and after a few episodes said ""It is even better than it looked at first glance quite simply the best thing to have happened to television in Scotland for a long time."" Audiences liked the show too. "Machair" got 30% audience share and made it into the Top Ten of programmes viewed in Scotland, even though fewer than 2% of the Scottish population can speak Gaelic. It was nominated for awards for production and writing from "The Celtic Film Festival" and Writers Guild of Great Britain.


title: Oil refinery

paragraphs: An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial plant where crude oil is made into useful petroleum products by fractional distillation and other processes. Products include gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.


title: IP Phone

paragraphs: An IP Phone is a VoIP-based telephone service. Because it uses the internet instead of a phone company, call costs are often lower.


title: American Express

paragraphs: The American Express Company, is a financial company which today is best known for its credit card business. Sometimes called Amex cards, these credit cards make up nearly a quarter of all credit card transactions in the USA.

paragraphs: Since 1958 the company's mascot has been a Roman centurion.

paragraphs: When the American Express Company was founded in 1850 it was an “express business”. This meant that it was a private company whose business was to carry money, packages or valuable things from one place to another. The US Postal Service had only recently begun. They delivered letters, but not large parcels. This is why some people started small “express businesses”. An express messenger would carry money in a money bag. He would travel by train or stagecoach. The trains were very slow and often came off the rails. The stagecoaches travelled on terrible roads which were much too bumpy for the horses to trot. It was a time when many people were going to California and other areas in the west of the US. There was a lot of demand for money to be transferred from one part of the country to another. This is why the American Express company was started.

paragraphs: Two very important people in the express business at the time were Henry Wells and William G. Fargo. They had formed a partnership in 1844. When the American Express was formed its headquarters were in a building in Manhattan, New York. Three other companies merged to form the new company. They soon bought several other buildings nearby to use as stables for their horses. For many years it was the most successful company transporting goods, securities, money etc. (these were called “express shipments”). In 1874 the American Express moved its headquarters to 65 Broadway in the financial district of Manhattan. It has been there ever since.

paragraphs: Gradually American Express began to focus their attention on banks and other big financial groups because they found the American Express very reliable and paid them good money for their services. The American Express gradually changed to be a financial company. In the late 1890s they started to compete with the banks by issuing money orders. They had big offices in London, Paris, Antwerp, Zurich and Berlin.

paragraphs: By 1890 the company needed a new building, so they pulled down the old building and built a new ten-story building in its place. By 1903, the company had assets of about $28 million. In 1916-17 a new building was constructed. It was made of concrete and steel and was shaped like an H. This building was sold in 1975.

paragraphs: When their director J. C. Fargo travelled to Europe around 1890 he found it very difficult to get cash. He was very annoyed, because he was carrying with him letters of credit, and he felt that, as president of the American Express, it should have been no problem. Fargo went to Marcellus Flemming Berry and asked him to invent a better way getting cash. Berry invented the Traveler's Cheque. The traveler’s cheque was a very safe way of getting cash from a bank when travelling. The American Express Traveller’s Cheque, started in 1891, was to be used worldwide for nearly a century, when credit cards took over. Traveler's cheques made American Express a great international company.

paragraphs: In 1914, when World War I started, many people who happened to be travelling could not get at their money, but American Express offices in Europe were among the few companies to honor the letters of credit so that American tourists could get money to travel back home.

paragraphs: The war made American Express enter the travel business. In 1922 they provided a luxury steamship to take tourists round the world. The traveler’s cheque business made them hugely successful for many years.

paragraphs: The idea of a charge card for travel was discussed as early as 1946 but it was not until 1958 that American Express introduced their first cards. The early ones were paper. In 1959 plastic cards were introduced.

paragraphs: In 1966, American Express introduced the Gold Card and in 1984 the Platinum Card. The Platinum Card had a $250 annual fee (today it is $550). It was only offered to trusted customers. Today customers can apply for it.

paragraphs: In 1987, American Express introduced a credit card, known as the Optima card. Customers did not have to pay in full every month. They could now wait to pay later.

paragraphs: From early 1980s until the early 1990s, American Express offered merchants and restaurants a discount if they accepted only American Express and no other credit or charge cards. However, in 1991, several restaurants in Boston started accepting Visa and MasterCards, even encouraging their customers to use them. These cards had a much lower fee than American Express fees, which at the time charged 4% for each transaction. Some restaurants even stopped accepting American Express cards. This revolt was called the “Boston Fee Party” (a pun on the name “Boston Tea Party”). In the end American Express decided to reduce their charges.

paragraphs: The director of American Express is Kenneth Chenault. American Express continues to be one of the world’s biggest financial companies.


title: Traveler's cheque

paragraphs: A traveler's cheque (also traveller's cheque, travellers cheque, traveller's check or traveler's check) is a preprinted cheque for a fixed amount. The person who buys it must sign it and then sign it again when he "cashes" it. It is a good way for a traveller to take money when going on holiday. If a traveler's cheque is stolen it can be replaced so long as the person still has a receipt to prove that he bought it.

paragraphs: Traveler's cheques were a large part of the business of American Express. Since 2005 the American Express have been issuing "American Express Travelers Cheque Cards". These can be used in stores like a credit card.


title: Catscratch

paragraphs: Catscratch is a cartoon television show that aired on Nickelodeon and Nicktoons Network from 2005 to 2007.


title: Nabarlek

paragraphs: The Nabarlek ("Petrogale concinna") is a small marsupial, also known as the Pygmy Rock-wallaby or the Little Rock-wallaby, a type of wallaby from northern Australia. Nabarleks are small kangaroos. They can hop and jump with their powerful legs, and balance on their long tail.


title: Mathias Grünewald

paragraphs: Mathias Grünewald (born between 1475 and 1480 in Würzburg, died 31 August 1528) was a German painter and artist. Today he is seen as one of the important German artists of the Renaissance. His real name was "Mathias Gothart" or "Mathias Neidhardt", his first name is also spelled "Mathis". Sometimes he is called Mathias of Aschaffenburg. Today, only ten paintings and 35 drawings survive. At first many of his works were attributed to Albrecht Dürer, even though Dürer's style of paining is completely different. All the surviving works have religious motifs.


title: American Airlines Center

paragraphs: The American Airlines Center (also known as the AAC) is a multi-purpose arena. It is in the Victory Park neighborhood, near downtown Dallas, Texas. It is currently used by the Dallas Stars, Dallas Mavericks and, Dallas Vigilantes. It is also used for concerts and entertainment.


title: Torsten Wiesel

paragraphs: Torsten Nils Wiesel (born June 3, 1924) is a Swedish neuroscientist.

paragraphs: He and David Hubel won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for their discoveries of information processing in the visual system. The prize was shared with Roger Sperry for his independent research on the cerebral hemispheres.

paragraphs: After serving as president of the Rockefeller University, he is now director of the Shelby White and Leon Levy Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior at the same institution. He is also an advisor to several countries and organizations, mainly helping young scientists do research. He is a member of the President's Council of University of the People.

paragraphs: Torsten was married to American editor Jean Stein from 1995 until they divorced in 2007.


title: Yi-junyong

paragraphs: Yi junyong (or Lee Junyong, , hanja: , June 25 1870 - March 22, 1918) was a Korean politician. He was a member of the Joseon Dynasty royal family. He was the grandson of Heungseon Daewangun, and elder nephew of Emperor Kojong of the Korean empire. He was rival of his uncle Kojong 1874 to 1907. His title was 'Prince Youngseon' ().


title: Keine Sorgen Arena

paragraphs: The Keine Sorgen Arena ("Don´t worry arena") is a football stadium in Ried, Austria. It is the homeground of SV Ried. The stadium is named after a slogan used by one sponsor of SV Ried, an upper Austrian insurance company.

paragraphs: The stadium replaced the former stadium of SV Ried which had only 1 100 places and was a multipurpose stadium with a running track. The new stadium is only used for football and has 7 700 seats of whom 120 are a VIP-area. The weststand and the awaystand offer only standingroom.


title: Barbara McClintock

paragraphs: Barbara McClintock (June 16, 1902 – September 2, 1992) was an American biologist. She was a distinguished cytogeneticist who worked on inheritance in maize. McClintock was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

paragraphs: McClintock got her PhD in botany from Cornell University in 1927. Maize cytogenetics was the focus of her research for the rest of her career.

paragraphs: From the late 1920s, McClintock studied chromosomes and how they change during reproduction in maize. She used microscopic analysis to show genetic recombination by crossing-over during meiosis—a mechanism by which chromosomes exchange information.

paragraphs: She produced the first genetic map for maize, and demonstrated the role of the telomere and centromere. These are regions of the chromosome that are important in preserving genetic information.

paragraphs: She was recognized amongst the best in the field, awarded prestigious fellowships, and elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1944.

paragraphs: During the 1940s and 1950s, McClintock discovered transposition and used it to show how genes are responsible for turning physical characteristics on or off. She developed theories to explain the control of genetic information from one generation of maize plants to the next. Encountering skepticism of her research and its implications, she stopped publishing her data in 1953. Later, she made an extensive study of the cytogenetics of maize races from South America.

paragraphs: McClintock's research became well understood in the 1960s and 1970s, as researchers discovered the mechanisms behind the genetic change and gene regulation that she had shown in her maize research in the 1940s and 1950s.

paragraphs: Awards and recognition for her contributions to the field followed for the discovery of transposons; she is the only woman to receive an unshared Nobel Prize in the category 'Physiology or Medicine'.

paragraphs: In the summer of 1944 at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, McClintock began systematic studies on the inheritance of colour patterns of maize seeds. In early 1948, she made the surprising discovery that two genetic loci, "Dissociator" and "Activator" could transpose, or change position, on the chromosomes.

paragraphs: McClintock also found that the transposition of "Ds" and the is determined by the number of "Ac" copies in the cell.

paragraphs: Between 1948 and 1950, she developed a theory: these mobile elements regulated genes by inhibiting or modulating their action. She referred to "Dissociator" and "Activator" as "controlling units"—later, as "controlling elements"—to distinguish them from genes.

paragraphs: She suggested that gene regulation could explain how complex multicellular organisms made of cells with identical genomes have cells of different function. McClintock's discovery challenged the concept of the genome as a static set of instructions passed between generations.

paragraphs: In 1950, she reported her work on "Ac/Ds" and her ideas about gene regulation in a paper. In summer 1951, when she reported on her work on gene mutability in maize at the annual symposium at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.

paragraphs: Her work on controlling elements and gene regulation was difficult and was not immediately understood or accepted by her contemporaries; she described the reception of her research as "puzzlement, even hostility". Nevertheless, McClintock continued to develop her ideas on controlling elements. She published a paper in 1953 where she presented all her statistical data, and undertook lecture tours to universities throughout the 1950s to speak about her work. She continued to investigate the problem and identified a new element that she called "Suppressor-mutator" ("Spm"), which, although similar to "Ac/Ds", displays more complex behavior.


title: PKN Orlen

paragraphs: Polski Koncern Naftowy ORLEN S.A. (PKN Orlen) is a Polish oil and gas company. It has a lot of petrol stations in Poland, Germany, Czech Republic, Lithuania and Slovakia. It is the biggest company in Poland and one of the biggest oil and gas companies in Europe.

paragraphs: PKN Orlen was founded in People's Repubic of Poland.In 1999 it was privatized.


title: Richard Roberts

paragraphs: Sir Richard John Roberts FRS (born 6 September 1943, Derby) is a British biochemist and molecular biologist.

paragraphs: He was awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Phillip Sharp for "the discovery that genes in eukaryotes are not contiguous strings but contain introns, and that the splicing of messenger RNA to delete those introns can occur in different ways, yielding different proteins from the same DNA sequence".

paragraphs: Roberts has worked at Harvard University, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and New England Biolab. He was knighted in the 2008 Birthday Honours.

paragraphs: It used to be thought that each gene on DNA coded for a single protein in a continuous strip. Roberts and Sharp independently found out that the genes in adenovirus (which causes the common cold), were split into segments that were combined later in RNA processing.

paragraphs: In 1997 Roberts proved that in the adenovirus coding DNA is separated by stretches of DNA which are non-coding. The coding sections are exons, and the non-coding sections are introns.

paragraphs: Furthermore, it turned out that this structure occurs in all higher organisms. The discovery that a gene in could be present in the genetic material as several distinct and separate segments was revolutionary.

paragraphs: The second part of Robert's work was in gene-splitting and gene splicing. This means to cut pieces out of, and add pieces to, a coding sequence. This creates a protein which works differently from the original version. This is now used in genetic engineering.

paragraphs: This kind of structure may allow more flexible responses to environmental change, and so speed up evolution. The structure may also be responsible for a number of inherited genetic defects.

paragraphs: Here's a key part of the Nobel presentation speech by Professor Bertil Daneholt of the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute:


title: Asseco

paragraphs: Asseco Poland S.A. is a Polish company in the technology sector, the biggest in Warsaw Stock Exchange.


title: Etta Baker

paragraphs: Etta Baker (March 31, 1913 – September 23, 2006) was an American blues guitarist and singer from North Carolina, United States. She played in the Piedmont blues style.

paragraphs: Baker was born as Etta Lucille Reid in Caldwell County, North Carolina of African American, Native American, and European American origin. Since the age of three she played 6- and 12-string guitar and Banjo. She was thought by her father, who was also a Piedmont blues musician. She did her first recording in 1956, when folk singer Paul Clayton was asked by her father to listen to his daughter. She played "One Dime Blues" and Clayton was very impressed. Next day he did some recordings with his taperecorder in Etta Bakers home.

paragraphs: Over the years she played with different musicians like Bob Dylan, Taj Mahal, and Kenny Wayne Shepherd. Etta Baker had nine children, one of them died in the Vietnam War. She died at the age of 93 in Fairfax, Virginia, while visiting a daughter who had suffered a stroke.


title: Susumu Tonegawa

paragraphs: Susumu Tonegawa (born 6 September 1939) is a Japanese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1987.

paragraphs: He discovered the genetic mechanism that produces antibody diversity. Although he won the Nobel Prize for his work in immunology, Tonegawa is a molecular biologist by training. In his later years, he has turned his attention to the molecular and cellular basis of memory.

paragraphs: Tonegawa is best known for elucidating the genetic mechanism in the adaptive immune system. If each antibody was coded by one gene, it would take millions of genes to protect against antigens.

paragraphs: Instead, as Tonegawa showed in a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976, genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies. The main mechanism is called RNA splicing.

paragraphs: Antibodies have a 'variable region' in their structure. Tonegawa compared the DNA of B cells (a type of white blood cell) in embryonic and adult mice. He found that genes in the mature B cells of the adult mice are moved around, recombined, and deleted to make the many versions of the variable region of antibodies.

paragraphs: The critical work was started in Basle, Switzerland, and later at MIT. "Our work resolved the long held debate on the genetic origin of antibody diversity. It turned out that this diversity is generated by somatic recombination of the inherited gene segments and by somatic mutation".


title: Edexcel

paragraphs: Edexcel is a UK examination board. It is one of England, Wales and Northern Ireland's five main examination boards. Edexcel is owned by the private-sector Pearson PLC. The company offers many qualifications including A levels and GCSEs. Edexcel's name is from the words "education" and "excellence".


title: Chamber pot

paragraphs: A chamber pot (also a chamberpot), a piss pot, a potty, or a thunder pot) is a container with a handle, usually used as a urinal at night. It is kept in a bedroom under a bed or in a nightstand.

paragraphs: During Victorian times, some chamber pots were built into a cabinet with a closeable cover.

paragraphs: The chamber pot was originally designed for females. Called the "Bourdaloue", it allowed women to urinate squatting or sitting without accidents. It was supposedly named after the French Catholic priest Louis Bourdaloue, whose sermon were so long that women brought "Bourdaloue" so they could urinate without having to leave.

paragraphs: In the 19th century, water closets started to be more common than chamber pots, but chamber pots were still used until the mid-20th century. Today, they are used in countries that have no indoor plumbing.

paragraphs: In North America and the UK, "potty" refer to the toilets made especially for potty training. These toilets are similar to chamber pots.

paragraphs: In the Philippines, chamber pots are used as urinals and are commonly called "Arinola" in Philippine languages like Tagalog and Cebuano.

paragraphs: In Korea, chamber pots are referred to as yogang (요강). Currently, they are still used in some country regions in the North.


title: SimCity 2000

paragraphs: SimCity 2000 is a city building computer game released in 1994. It is the sequel to "SimCity". It had a lot of new things such as more power plants, hills and mountains, subways, water pipes, prisons, schools, libraries, museums, and hospitals. There were also roads, highways, and other buildings.


title: Jonathan Dickinson State Park

paragraphs: Jonathan Dickinson State Park is a Florida State Park and historic site in Martin County, Florida, between Hobe Sound and Tequesta. The park has many kinds of areas, such as sand pine scrub, pine flatwoods, mangroves, and river swamps. The Loxahatchee River, which was named a National Wild and Scenic River in 1985 (the first in Florida), runs through the park. The address is 16450 S.E. Federal Highway, Hobe Sound.

paragraphs: The park is named after Jonathan Dickinson, a Quaker merchant who was shipwrecked in 1696, with his family and others, on the Florida coast near the present-day park. He wrote a journal about their encounters with local tribes, and their journey up the coast to St. Augustine.

paragraphs: A man known as Trapper Nelson lived on the banks of the Loxahatchee River after coming to the area in the 1930s, living off the land trapping and selling furs. He soon became known as the "Wildman of the Loxahatchee". After he died in 1968 the state got his land, and gave it to the park.

paragraphs: The United States Army established Camp Murphy, a top-secret radar training school, in the area that is now the park, in 1942. The camp included over 1,000 buildings, and housed more than 6,000 officers and soldiers. The camp stopped being used in 1944, after only two years. Most of the camp buildings were torn down, but some of the building foundations remain. The property was given to the State of Florida in 1947, and opened as a state park in 1950.

paragraphs: The park has such activities as bicycling, boat tours, boating, cabins, canoeing, fishing, hiking, horse trails, kayaking, picnicking areas, swimming, wildlife viewing and full camping facilities. It also has the Elsa Kimbell Environmental Education and Research Center, with exhibits about the park's natural and cultural history. The park operates a 44-passenger boat for tours of Trapper Nelson's homestead.


title: Phillip Sharp

paragraphs: Phillip Allen Sharp (born June 6, 1944) is an American geneticist and molecular biologist.

paragraphs: He co-discovered gene splicing, and shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Richard Roberts for "the discovery that genes in eukaryotes are not contiguous strings but contain introns, and that the splicing of pre-messenger RNA to delete those introns can occur in different ways, yielding different proteins from the same DNA sequence".

paragraphs: Sharp was born in Falmouth, Kentucky. He completed his PhD in chemistry at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1969. After completing his PhD he worked at the California Institute of Technology until 1971, where he studied plasmids and, later, gene expression in human cells at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory under James Watson.

paragraphs: In 1974 he was offered a position at MIT by biologist Salvador Luria. He was director of MIT's Center for Cancer Research (now the Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research) from 1985 to 1991; head of the Biology department from 1991 to 1999; and director of the McGovern Institute for Brain Research from 2000 to 2004.

paragraphs: It used to be thought that each gene on DNA coded for a single protein in a continuous strip. In 1997 Sharp and Roberts independently found out that genes were split into segments that were combined later in RNA processing.

paragraphs: Sharp and Roberts proved that the coding DNA is separated by stretches of DNA which are non-coding. The coding sections are exons, and the non-coding sections are introns.

paragraphs: Furthermore, it turned out that this structure occurs in all higher organisms. The discovery that a gene in could be present in the genetic material as several distinct and separate segments was revolutionary.

paragraphs: The second part of Sharp's work was in gene-splitting and gene splicing. This means to cut pieces out of, and add pieces to, a coding sequence. This creates a protein which works differently from the original version.

paragraphs: This kind of structure may allow more flexible responses to environmental change, and so speed up evolution. The structure may also be responsible for a number of inherited genetic defects.

paragraphs: Here's a key part of the Nobel presentation speech by Professor Bertil Daneholt of the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute:


title: Anti-Comintern Pact

paragraphs: The Anti-Comintern Pact was a pact between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan, which would later joined by more countries, in Berlin, Germany, on November 25, 1936. It was set up directly against the Comintern, or Communist International, an organization that was led by the Soviet Union. On November 6, 1937, Fascist Italy joined the pact, which was the beginning of the Axis Powers.


title: Reichstag fire

paragraphs: The Reichstag fire () was an arson (setting fire) on the Reichstag building, the meeting place of the German Parliament, in Berlin on 27 February 1933. It was an important event in the creation of Nazi Germany.

paragraphs: A Berlin fire station was called, and by the time the police and firefighters had arrived, most of the building was covered in flames. Inside the building, Marinus van der Lubbe was found. He was a Dutch communist. The Nazis said it proved that communists were beginning a plot against the German government. Van der Lubbe and four Communist leaders were arrested shortly after that. Adolf Hitler, who had become Chancellor of Germany four weeks before, urged President Paul von Hindenburg to pass an emergency law to fight back "the confrontation of the Communist Party of Germany".

paragraphs: As a result, Enabling Act of 1933 was passed. The Reichstag Fire Decree was issued by German President von Hindenburg on the advice of Chancellor Adolf Hitler on 28 February 1933 in response to the Reichstag fire. "The decree suspended most civil liberties in Germany". Many Communists were arrested, including all the Communist Party members of Parliament. This made the Nazis the majority of the Parliament, and made Hitler's the dictator in effect. The following elections gave Hitler more power.

paragraphs: More investigation continued. In early March 1933, three men were brought to the court. All of them were senior Bulgarian Comintern agents. One Communist was found guilty and executed; the others were acquitted and went to the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: Historians still don't know who planned the fire or who did it. It is still an ongoing topic of research.