title: Australian gold rush

paragraphs: The Australian gold rush was a large number of gold discoveries in Australia. Thousands of people came to Australia in the hope of finding a lot of gold and becoming rich. The rush started in 1851 when gold was found near Bathurst, New South Wales and ended with the last rush in 1893 to Kalgoorlie, Western Australia. At each place gold was easily found in rivers and creeks. This was known as alluvial gold and could be found by individual miners using very basic equipment such as a spade and a dish. In most places this alluvial gold was taken in the first few months. To get at the gold that was buried deeper in the ground meant that miners needed to work together and dig tunnels. Eventually large companies were started to raise money so that deep gold mines could be built.

paragraphs: The gold rushes happened when alluvial gold was found. Miners would quickly move there in the hope of being the first to find the surface gold. For example, miners rushing to Clunes, Victoria in August 1851, quickly changed their minds and went to Buninyong when they heard of a new gold discovery. Weeks later gold was found at Ballarat a few miles to the north and within six weeks there were more than 10,000 people digging. But by 1852 most miners had left Ballarat and rushed to the new goldfields at Bendigo. In 1854, miners in Ballarat were angry and upset at paying for gold licences. They burned their licences and raised the Eureka Stockade flag in protest. The miners fought soldiers and police officers to protect their rights. This was called the Eureka Stockade. Many people died, but afterwards the miners didn't have to pay for their licences anymore.

paragraphs: The gold rush finished at the end of the 1850s, but gold was still found throughout Australia up until the 1890s.

paragraphs: Gold had been found in Australia before the 1851 gold rush. At first people would not believe the stories. A convict who found gold near Bathurst in 1823 was given 150 lashes with a whip as it was believed he must have stolen it. The explorer Count Paul Strzelecki found gold in the Australian Alps in 1839. The government kept it a secret as they did not want to lose control of the convicts if they went rushing off to search for gold. Gold was also found at:

paragraphs: The first gold rush was in New South Wales. There were many others during the next 30 years.


title: Romney Marsh

paragraphs: Romney Marsh is a coastal marshland of southern England. It runs from Hythe in Kent to Rye in East Sussex. It covers about 100 miles (260 km). Romney Marsh is one of three English wetlands, the others being The Fens of East Anglia and the Somerset Levels.

paragraphs: Much of the area has been reclaimed over the centuries, and is now flat farmland. Before the area was drained, it was a cause of malaria among the inhabitants. For much of its history, the Marsh was fringed by a lagoon, which was protected by a shingle beach at Dymchurch.

paragraphs: The Marsh still contains some water features, particularly the Royal Military Canal, completed in 1809, and the River Rother.

paragraphs: At Romney Marsh the coast is at its closest to France, and was several times the point of invasion. In AD 892, a Danish fleet of 250 ships sailed right into the River Rother and took the fortress at Appledore (allegedly built by King Arthur), which they destroyed.

paragraphs: The Romans used the Romney area for a salt industry. Pans of brackish water were left to evaporate, and the salt collected for use in food.

paragraphs: The marsh includes two of the ancient Cinque Ports, New Romney and Hythe, and two ancient towns, Rye and Winchelsea. New Romney was once a port, but is now a mile and a half from the sea. It is the main centre of population on the Marsh.


title: Padua Airport

paragraphs: Padua Airport or Gino Allegri () , in Padua, Italy, is the principal airport serving Padua.


title: Toxaphene

paragraphs: Toxaphene is a chemical substance that is very toxic. It is a persistent organic pollutant, and one of the twelve substances listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Its use is banned since 1993. It was used as an insecticide. It was mainly the cotton and soybean growers who used it. It was also used to treat Mange in cattle. The substance damages the lungs, the nervous system and the kidneys. It is a carcinogen and causes mutations and birth defects. Because it is very volatile, it travels easily through the environment.


title: Eduard Strauss

paragraphs: Eduard Strauss (b. Vienna, 15 March 1835, d. Vienna, 28 December 1916) was a Viennese composer of light music. He was also a conductor. He was the brother of the more famous composers Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss, the son of Johann Strauss I, and the father of Johann Strauss III.


title: Jug (container)

paragraphs: A jug is a type of container that holds liquid (e.g. water). It has an opening that is often small. This is where the liquid is poured from. Jugs nearly always have a handle.


title: Paul Goldschmidt

paragraphs: Paul Edward Goldschmidt (born September 10, 1987 in Wilmington, Delaware) is an American baseball player. He currently plays as a first baseman for the Arizona Diamondbacks of Major League Baseball (MLB). He debuted for the Diamondbacks on August 1, 2011 in a game against the San Francisco Giants.


title: Dendritic cell

paragraphs: Dendritic cells (DCs) are white blood cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. They process antigen material from pathogens and put it on their surface. There it touches other cells of the immune system. So, dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells. They act as messengers between the innate and adaptive immune systems.

paragraphs: Dendritic cells are present in tissues in contact with the external environment. These tissues are the skin, and the inner lining of the nose, lungs, stomach and intestines. They can also be found in an immature state in the blood.

paragraphs: Dedritic cells develop from monocytes, white blood cells which circulate in the body. Depending on the signal, monocytes turn into either dendritic cells or macrophages. The monocytes are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow.

paragraphs: Immature dendritic cells constantly sample their surrounds for pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. This is done through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as the toll-like receptors (TLRs).

paragraphs: They eat pathogens and break down their proteins into small pieces and put these fragments on their cell surface using MHC molecules. Once activated, these cells move to the lymph nodes and become mature. They switch on cell-surface receptors which activate T cells and B cells to start and shape the adaptive immune response.

paragraphs: Dendritic cells were first described by Paul Langerhans (Langerhans cells) in the late nineteenth century. It wasn't until 1973, however, that Ralph Steinman and Zanvil Cohn gave them the name 'dendritic cells'. For discovering the central role of dendritic cells in the adaptive immune response, Steinman was awarded the Albert Lasker Award in 2007, and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2011.


title: Ralph Steinman

paragraphs: Ralph Marvin Steinman (January 14, 1943 – September 30, 2011) was a Canadian immunologist and cell biologist at Rockefeller University. He studied a kind of cell in the immune system and called them "dendritic cells". He made these discoveries while working in the laboratory of Zanvil A. Cohn. He was of Jewish descent.

paragraphs: On October 3, 2011, the Nobel Committee announced that Steinman had received one-half of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for "his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity". The other half went to Bruce Beutler and Jules Hoffmann, for "their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity". However, the committee did not know that Steinman had died three days earlier, on September 30, from pancreatic cancer. The committee considered what to do about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously.

paragraphs: The committee later decided that, as the decision to award the prize "was made in good faith", they would not change the award.

paragraphs: Steinman's daughter said that he had joked the previous week with his family about hanging on until the prize announcement. Steinman said: "I know I have got to hold out for that. They don't give it to you if you have passed away. I got to hold out for that".

paragraphs: Steinman had received numerous other awards and recognitions for his life-long work on dendritic cells, such as the Albert Lasker Award (2007), the Gairdner Foundation International Award (2003), and the Cancer Research Institute William B. Coley Award (1998). In addition, he was made a member of Institute of Medicine (U.S.A.; elected 2002) and the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.A.; elected 2001).


title: Residual-current device

paragraphs: A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI), or Residual Current Device (RCD) is a type of circuit breaker which shuts off electric power when it senses an imbalance between the outgoing and incoming current. The main purpose is to protect people from an electric shock caused when some of the current travels through a person's body due to an electrical fault such as a short circuit, insulation failure, or equipment malfunction. Standard circuit breakers shut off power when the current is too high, like 10, 15, or 20 amps, but a mere 0.030 amps through a body can cause paralysis of skeletal muscles and stop the human heart. The GFCI / RCD breaks the circuit when it detects an imbalance of only 0.005 amps (0.030 amps in Australia and some European / Asian countries.)

paragraphs: A circuit breaker protects the house wires and receptacles from overheating and possible fire. A GFCI / RCD protects people and is often found in bathrooms or kitchens where electrical devices are used and people's bare flesh may be in contact with the floor or metal fixtures which provide an alternate path for current to travel in the case of an electrical fault.

paragraphs: A GFCI / RCD can also prevent fires from short circuits and other electrical faults that don't involve humans such as a low current short where the current never reaches the trigger point for a circuit breaker , e.g. a live wire falls in a tub of water or moist soil and only 1 or 2 amps of current flows.

paragraphs: Electrical sockets supply a flow of current which comes out of one pin of a socket, called "Live", runs through an electrical device, and returns through the other pin "Neutral." In many countries, such as USA, India and others, the "Neutral" is also connected to the earth (via a rod driven into the soil). If a person touches a bare "live" wire, current can travel through the body to any part (like another hand or the bare feet) connected directly or indirectly to the earth, such as through metal such as plumbing pipes or through moist tiles or a bathtub full of water where the water acts as a conductor. Pure water is a poor conductor but in the kitchen or bathroom it is usually salty or soapy which increases the conductivity; but no matter, since it takes so little current to kill a person, even a poor conductor can result in a lethal shock.

paragraphs: The GFCI device uses a differential transformer to compare the current "going out" on the hot leg with the current "coming back in" on the neutral. If there is a large enough difference between the two, typically 5 milliamps (30 in some places), then that is considered an imbalance, and an internal solenoid mechanically trips the built-in circuit breaker cutting off connection to both the Live and Neutral pins.

paragraphs: The assumption is that some of the outgoing current is going through a person or object and is taking an alternate route back to Neutral.

paragraphs: Death caused by electricity (Electrocution) can happen when as little as 30 milliamps of current flows through the heart for just a fraction of a second. The GFCI device protects at a level which is much lower than what is needed to cause harm.

paragraphs: If a GFCI device trips and the fault is later fixed, then the user resets the GFCI device by pushing the reset button . If the problem is not fixed, the GFCI keeps the circuit shut off and will not reset. There is also a test button, which will cause the GFCI to trip if it is working properly. GFCI outlets should be tested at least once a month.

paragraphs: GFCI devices employ a timing standard to prevent false "nuisance" tripping and may also protect against improper Neutral-Earth connections.

paragraphs: Multiple standard (non-GFCI) sockets can be protected by being wired in a string to the output of a single GFCI wall outlet although the wiring has to be carefully done considering the maximum load and to prevent false "nuisance" tripping.

paragraphs: GFCIs are available in two types: the circuit breaker that installs in an electrical panel, and the receptacle type that installs into an electrical box. GFCIs that attach to appliance cords, or are built in to extension cords, are also available. Newer hair dryers may have them also, appearing as a small box at the end of the power cord or on the handle itself.

paragraphs: Since a GFCI only monitors current on the hot leg compared to the neutral, the GFCI can be used to upgrade older two-prong (non-grounded) outlets to three-prong (grounded/earthed) outlets without installing any new wire. A circuit with a GFCI device without a ground is far safer than a two-prong outlet without a ground. A GFCI installed this way must be labeled "No equipment ground."

paragraphs: When a GFCI is installed in the electrical box without connecting the ground screw (as there is no ground wire), a label that says "No Equipment Ground" is placed on the GFCI outlet and all downstream outlets. Several of these labels are usually included with the GFCI. In some parts of the world, "ground" is called "earth".

paragraphs: GFCIs are a suitable replacement for two prong outlets without a grounded wire. The National Electric Code requires GFCI protection in dwelling on kitchen counter tops, bathrooms, unfinished basements not intended as habitable rooms, crawl spaces, garages, sinks where the receptacles are installed within 6 feet from the top edge of the bowl of the sink, boathouses, bathtubs or shower stalls where receptacles are installed within 6 feet from the edge of the bathtub or shower, laundry areas, outdoors except for receptacles that are not readily accessible and are supplied by a branch circuit dedicated to electric snow-melting, deicing, or pipeline and vessel heating equipment shall be installed in accordance with NEC 426.28 or 427.22 as applicable. (NEC 210.8 (A))

paragraphs: GFCI protection is required on construction sites.


title: Calico cat

paragraphs: Calico cat is an American name for cats with three colors. Outside of North America they are usually called tortoiseshell cats or 'tortie-and-white'. A calico cat has a coat of orange or brown and black spots on a white background. It is not a breed of cat.

paragraphs: Nearly all calico cats are female. There are male calico cats, but they are very rare. Only one of every 3000 calico cats are male.

paragraphs: A single X chromosome can have either a black allele of the coloration gene or an orange version, but not both. However, a female cat has two X chromosomes, so it can have both versions, black on one chromosome and orange on the other, making the cat a calico. A male cat usually has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. A Y chromosome does not have a color gene, so the cat can have either an orange or a black gene, but not both. Calico cats are often used as an example in biology classes when discussing sex chromosomes.

paragraphs: During the early stages of development, when the cat is still an embryo, in each cell one of the X chromosomes (either the black one or the orange one) deactivates. It is called X-inactivation. All cells that were copied from a cell with a deactivated X chromosome will also have the same X chromosome deactivated. This is what leads to formation of the spots. The earlier in development the X chromosomes deactivate, the larger the spots will be. Deactivation of one of the X chromosomes happens in all female mammals. The white coloring on a calico is from a separate gene unrelated to the orange or black genes. Whether or not a cat is a calico is determined by genetics, but the actual layout of the spots is not. The layout of the spots is almost random. It is not possible to selectively breed or clone calico cats: an attempt to clone a calico cat will produce a black and white cat or orange and white tabby cat. The tortoiseshell cat is similar, although on a tortoiseshell cat the spots are usually smaller and closer together and there is less or no white.

paragraphs: It is possible for a male cat to be a calico if it has Klinefelter's syndrome, where it has two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome, though not all cats with Klinefelter's syndrome are calico.

paragraphs: In Japan, calico cats are said to bring good luck. In many Japanese shops there is a calico Japanese Bobtail figurine called the Maneki Neko, which is said to bring good luck to the shop's owner.


title: Bruce Beutler

paragraphs: Bruce Alan Beutler M.D. (born December 29, 1957 in Chicago, Illinois) is an American immunologist and geneticist of Jewish descent. Together with Jules Hoffmann, he received one-half of the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for "discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity" (the other half went to Ralph Steinman for "his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity").

paragraphs: Beutler is currently Director of the Center for the Genetics of Host Defense at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas, Texas and Professor and Chairman of the Department of Genetics at The Scripps Research Institute, in La Jolla, California. His father, Ernest Beutler, a hematologist and medical geneticist, was also a Professor and Department Chairman at Scripps.

paragraphs: Beutler is best known for his pioneering molecular and genetic studies of inflammation and innate immunity. Interested in the mechanism by which lipopolysacchride (LPS) activates mammalian immune cells, Beutler identified the LPS receptor. Identification of the receptor hinged on the positional cloning (a method of gene identification) of the mammalian "Lps" locus, which had been known since the 1960s as a key gene for biological responses to LPS.

paragraphs: Beutler thus discovered the key sensors of microbial infection in mammals. He found that one of the mammalian toll-like receptors, TLR4, acts as the membrane-spanning component of the mammalian LPS receptor complex. The TLRs work in the perception of microbes. Ten are now known in humans. Each detects signature molecules produced early in an infection. These receptors also work in severe illness, including shock and systemic inflammation as it occurs in the course of an infection. They are also active in sterile inflammatory and autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. The research on TLRs won him the Nobel Prize in 2011.

paragraphs: The positional cloning of "Lps" was completed in 1998. Beutler continued to analyse immunity in mammals. His work found numerous signalling molecules of the innate immune response, and helped to work out the biochemistry of innate immunity.


title: Jules Hoffmann

paragraphs: Jules A. Hoffmann (born 2 August 1941) is a Luxembourg-born French biologist. He is a research director and member of the board of administrators of the National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS) in Strasbourg, France. In 2007, he became President of the French Academy of Sciences.

paragraphs: Together with Bruce Beutler, Hoffmann received one-half of the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity". Hoffmann discovered the function of the fruit fly "Toll" gene in innate immunity. Its mammalian homologues, the toll-like receptors, were discovered by Beutler. Toll-like receptors identify constituents of other organisms like fungi and bacteria, and trigger an immune response. This explains how septic shock can be triggered by bacterial remains.

paragraphs: Hoffmann completed his PhD in biology at the University of Strasbourg in 1969. His post-doctoral training was at the Institut für Physiologische Chemie at Philipps-Universität in Marburg an der Lahn, Germany in 1973–1974.

paragraphs: Hoffmann was a research assistant at CNRS from 1964 to 1968, and became a research associate in 1969. Since 1974 he has been a Research Director of CNRS. Between 1978 and 2005 he was Director of the CNRS research unit "Immune Response and Development in Insects", and from 1993 to 2005 he was director of the Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology of CNRS in Strasbourg.

paragraphs: Hoffmann is a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, the French National Academy of Sciences, the Academia Europaea, the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Russian Academy of Sciences.


title: Autoimmune disease

paragraphs: Autoimmune disease: when the body's immune system attacks its own body. The function of the immune system is to recognise and reject foreign bodies like bacteria. Sometimes the system goes wrong, and the body itself gets damaged by its immune system. Examples are:


title: Factoid

paragraphs: Factoid is stating a fact that is not backed up by evidence. The factoid may not be trusted because

paragraphs: Factoids become widely treated as if they were true.

paragraphs: In 1973, the term "factoid" was created and first used by Norman Mailer.

paragraphs: A factoid is "an item of unreliable information which is repeated so often that it becomes accepted as a fact". The most important thing is that the factoid is widely believed.

paragraphs: A factoid refers to something that looks like a fact, could be a fact, but in fact is not a fact.

paragraphs: The term can also be used to describe partial information without context.


title: Allotropes of carbon

paragraphs: There are several allotropes of carbon. Diamond and graphite are the most famous. Graphite is a conductor, a semimetal (an element that is partially a metal and a nonmetal, such as black phosphorus and grey selenium). It can be used, for instance, as the material in the electrodes of an electrical arc lamp. Graphite is the most stable form of solid carbon ever discovered.

paragraphs: Allotropes are different forms of the same chemical element. All elements are made up uniquely of their own atoms. Any physical differences are because of how the atoms are joined together. Many elements show allotropy because there are a number of ways in which the atoms can be linked together. Also there are different ways in how the molecules can be arranged to make larger structures.

paragraphs: Diamond is one of the best known allotropes of carbon. Its hardness and high dispersion of light make it good for use in jewellery. It also has industrial uses. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral. This makes it an excellent abrasive. A diamond also holds its luster well. Both diamond and graphite have extremely high melting point, which is unusual for nonmetallic element.


title: SpySheriff

paragraphs: SpySheriff, also known as Brave Sentry, SpyAxe, SpywareSheriff, Pest Trap, SpyTrooper, Spywareno, and MalwareAlarm, is malware that pretends to be real anti-spyware program. SpySheriff tries to trick the user into buying the program by making false warnings and alerts. It is very difficult to remove SpySheriff from computers, since it hides its parts in "System Restore" folders. SpySheriff also blocks some parts of the computer's administrative tools. Like other rogue antivirus programs, SpySheriff asks the user to register when they click "Remove found threats". SpySheriff can be removed by real antivirus programs.


title: Lunokhod 1

paragraphs: Lunokhod 1 was a lunar rover made by the Soviet Union. It was part of the Lunokhod programme. It was the first man made rover (vehicle) to land on another planet. It landed on the Moon on November 17, 1970. It drove around on the Moon for nearly a year, collecting information about the soil and landscape. The Lunokhod had only two speeds, 1 km/h or 2 km/h. It had four TV cameras and was controlled by a five person team on Earth.

paragraphs: It was lost for almost 40 years, but the space rocket which delivered the rover to the Moon was found in photos taken by the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Scientists were then able to follow the rover's tracks and found the rover about 10 km away. They can now send laser beams to a reflector on the rover which will send them back to Earth. This will help them with measurements to find the exact centre of the Moon.


title: Salmonella enterica

paragraphs: Salmonella enterica is a rod-shaped bacterium. It is a member of the genus "Salmonella".

paragraphs: It causes typhoid fever. The symptoms of typhoid fever include nausea, vomiting, and fever. The main source of infection is from swallowing infected water. Food may also be able to pick up the bacterium if it is washed or grown with contaminated water.


title: Medusa (biology)

paragraphs: In biology, a medusa (plural: medusae) is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella. The other main body-form is the polyp.

paragraphs: Medusae vary from bell-shaped to the shape of a thin disk, scarcely convex above and only slightly concave below. The upper or aboral surface is called the "exumbrella" and the lower surface is called the "subumbrella"; the mouth is on the lower surface, which may be partially closed by a membrane extending inward from the margin (called the "velum"). The digestive cavity consists of the gastrovascular cavity and radiating canals which extend toward the margin; these canals may be simple or branching, and vary in number from few to many. The margin of the disk bears sensory organs and tentacles.

paragraphs: In the class Hydrozoa, medusae are the sexual individuals of many species, alternating in the life cycle with asexual polyps. The medusa form of Hydrozoans are known as hydromedusae. A polyp is the form that attaches to a surface, while a medusa is the form that is free-floating; a species of cnidarian may take each form in a different phase of its life.

paragraphs: The medusa form predominates in the classes Scyphozoa (the common, colourful, large jellyfish) and Cubozoa. Except for freshwater hydrozoans like "Craspedacusta sowerbyi", these are the only classes in which medusae appear.

paragraphs: Medusae may have many tentacles with which they catch their prey. Sometimes, people bathing in the ocean are touched by a medusa. Their tentacles are long and thin and covered in venomous stinging cells (known as nematocysts). They inject poison which immobilizes small fish. People who are stung should seek medical attention. There have been some deaths after severe medusa stings.


title: Expenditure

paragraphs: In economics an expenditure is when a company buys fixed assets that will create a benefit in the future, or when the company upgrades existing assets so that they can be used for a longer time. This constitutes an investment, as the benefits of the use usually last much longer than the fiscal year. Depreciation also happens: the cost that the company took to upgrade or buy the assets will usually not be deducted directly, in one year; depending on the form of calculation used, a part of the cost will be deducted each year, as a form of expense.


title: UN Women

paragraphs: UN Women is an organization of the United Nations made in 2010. It was made from United Nations Development Fund for Women for equality of gender and women's rights. Michelle Bachelet was the president of the UN Women.


title: Ruslan Salei

paragraphs: Ruslan "Rusty" Salei (Belarusian: Руслан Салей; November 2, 1974 – September 7, 2011) was a Belarusian professional ice hockey player. During 14 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) he played for the Detroit Red Wings, Colorado Avalanche, Florida Panthers and the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. On September 7, 2011, the Yakovlev Yak-42 passenger aircraft, carrying the entire Lokomotiv team including Salei crashed near Yaroslavl on its way to Minsk, Belarus.


title: Mr. Know It All

paragraphs: "Mr. Know It All" is a breakup song by Kelly Clarkson, released in September 2011. Its theme focuses on people that think as though they know it all, but don't really know anything. "Mr. Know It All" is among many hit songs from Clarkson.


title: Andrei Kostitsyn

paragraphs: Andrej Aliehavič Kaścicyn (Belarusian: Андрэй Алегавiч Касціцын; born February 3, 1985), better known as Andrei Kostitsyn, is a Belarusian professional ice hockey forward. Kostitsyn plays for the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has a younger brother who also plays in the NHL for the Nashville Predators named Sergei.


title: Zygomycota

paragraphs: Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, is a large group of 1600 species of fungi.

paragraphs: Fungi are put into groups by the way they reproduce. The name "Zygomycota" comes from zygosporangia, where strong and tough round shaped spores are formed during sexual reproduction.

paragraphs: They are mostly found living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material. Some are parasites of plants, insects, and small animals. Others form symbiotic relationships with plants, where the plant and the fungi need each other to grow.

paragraphs: Zygomycete hyphae may be a syncytium, that is, having a mass of nuclei not divided into separate cells. On occasion these can be divided into separate parts by a cell wall called a septum. This only happens where gametes are formed, or to wall off dead hyphae.


title: Sébastien Bordeleau

paragraphs: Sébastien Bordeleau (born February 15, 1975) is a Canadian-born French professional ice hockey forward, who plays for EHC Biel. NHL player Paulin Bordeleau is his father.


title: Philippe Bozon

paragraphs: Philippe Bozon (born November 30, 1966 in Chamonix, Haute-Savoie, France) is a former professional ice hockey player who played for the St. Louis Blues in the National Hockey League (NHL). Bozon was inducted into the IIHF Hall of Fame in 2008.


title: Nizari

paragraphs: The Nizari are the third biggest group of Shiite Ismailites. They emphasize social justice, pluralism and human reason in the framework of Islam. They are the second-largest group of Shiites. There are about 15-20 million, spread over many countries; in Pakistan up to 05% of the people may follow this faith. Nizari still have an imam that is descended from Ali, the current imam is Karim Aga Khan IV.


title: Invisible College

paragraphs: The Invisible College was the name given to themselves by a group of like-minded scientists and natural philosophers in England in the mid-17th century. The informal association is considered to have been one of the origins of the Royal Society.

paragraphs: The purpose of the invisible college was to encourage each other to develop scientific knowledge through experiments and other kinds of investigation.

paragraphs: Some of the members of the Invisible College were among the founders of the Royal Society in 1660, including Robert Boyle, John Wilkins and Samuel Hartlib.

paragraphs: The concept of invisible college was developed in the sociology of science by Diane Crane, building on de Solla Price's work on citation networks. It is related to, but significantly different from, other concepts of expert communities, such as "Epistemic communities", or "Communities of Practice". Recently, the concept was applied to the global network of communications among scientists by Caroline S. Wagner.

paragraphs: In fiction it is mentioned in the novel "The Lost Symbol" by Dan Brown, and was the inspiration for the Unseen University in the works of Terry Pratchett.


title: Steve Wozniak

paragraphs: Steven Gary Wozniak (August 11, 1950 - ) is an American computer engineer. He is often referred to as "The Woz". He is from San Jose, California. In the 1970s, he and Steve Jobs founded Apple Inc.. Wozniak designed the Apple I and Apple II computers. Wozniak left Apple in the 1980s, but still owns Apple stock. He has founded several other Silicon Valley companies. Wozniak holds the patent for the microcomputer.

paragraphs: Steve Wozniak was born on August 11, 1950 in San Jose, California. He is the son of Jerry Wozniak and Margaret Kern. His father was an engineer at Lockheed Martin. Wozniak is of Polish, German, English and Irish ancestry. His father was from Bukovyna, Ukraine (Poland at the time). The family emigrated to the United States. He grew up with a strong interest in electronics. He experimented by making his own devices such as a voltmeter, ham radio and electronic games. School, however, bored him. He flunked out at the University of Colorado. He then enrolled at the University of California. In 1971, he and Steve Jobs met while working on a mainframe computer at Hewlett-Packard (HP). Like Wozniak, Jobs was interested in electronics and both hated school. Wozniak dropped out of the University of California.

paragraphs: Wozniak and Jobs worked out of a family garage on developing a personal computer the average person could use. Wozniak worked on the designing and building the machines while Jobs worked on marketing the computers. In 1976 they founded the company called Apple Inc.. But Wozniak was working for Hewlett-Packard at the time. As a condition of his employment he had signed an Intellectual property agreement. This meant that anything he invented was the property of Hewlett-Packard. But HP was not interested in his "Apple I" computer invention which left him free to do what he wanted with it. They began selling Apple I computers that same year. In 1977, they made their second computer called the Apple II which was very successful. They went on to produce the Apple III. But the The Apple I, II and III computers were text-based machines. Jobs wanted to invent something completely new. The two were working on a new computer they called the Apple Lisa. Jobs made a deal with Xerox who then owned PARC, the Palo Alto Research Center. In return for three days access to PARC, Xerox could buy 100,000 shares of Apple stock for $10 each. Wozniak and Jobs were amazed at what they saw at PARC. Xerox had built a computer called the Xerox Alto but had not marketed it. The Alto had a Graphical user interface instead of being simply text-based. It used a computer mouse to point and click on objects on the computer's screen. Jobs decided all Apple computers from that time on would use a mouse.

paragraphs: In 1985, Wozniak left Apple and sold most of his stock. He remained an Apple employee and still received an annual salary. He returned to the University of California, Berkeley in 1986 to complete his degree in electrical engineering.

paragraphs: He also started a number of other projects. These include starting CL 9, which created a universal remote control. Wozniak founded]] Wheels of Zeus which developed wireless GPS-enabled products. He joined the board of directors of Danger Inc. which produces mobile computing hardware and software. He also spent a few years teaching grade school.

paragraphs: In 1985, US President Ronald Reagan presented Wozniak (with Steve Jobs) the National Medal of Technology. In December 1989, he received an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree from the University of Colorado at Boulder, where he studied in the late sixties. Later he donated funds to create the "Woz Lab" at the University of Colorado at Boulder. In 1997, the Computer History Museum named him one of its Fellows. Wozniak was a key contributor and benefactor to the Children's Discovery Museum of San Jose; the street in front of the museum has been renamed Woz Way in his honor.

paragraphs: In September 2000, Wozniak was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. In 2001 he was awarded the 7th Annual Heinz Award for Technology, the Economy and Employment. The American Humanist Association awarded him the Isaac Asimov Science Award in 2011.

paragraphs: In December 2005, Kettering University gave Wozniak an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree

paragraphs: He also received an honorary degrees from North Carolina State University, Nova Southeastern University, and the Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology. In May 2011, Michigan State University gave Wozniak an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree.

paragraphs: On June 22, 2011, he was awarded an honorary degree at Concordia University in Montreal, Canada.


title: Krzysztof Oliwa

paragraphs: Krzysztof Artur Oliwa (pronounced ; born April 12, 1973) is a Polish former professional ice hockey player.


title: Edward Leier

paragraphs: Edward "Eddie" Leier (born 3 November 1927) is a Polish-born former baseball player, track athlete, and ice hockey player. As a professional ice hockey player he played two seasons with the Chicago Black Hawks of the National Hockey League.


title: Knut Andresen

paragraphs: Knut Andresen (born 1959 in Asker, Norway) is a former Norwegian ice hockey player who played for the Norwegian national ice hockey team at the 1980 Winter Olympics.


title: Nik Antropov

paragraphs: Nikolai Aleksandrovich Antropov (Russian: Николай Александрович Антропов; born February 18, 1980) is a former Kazakh professional ice hockey forward for the Winnipeg Jets of the National Hockey League (NHL).


title: Kevin Dallman

paragraphs: Kevin Jonathan Dallman (born February 26, 1981) is a former Kazakhstani-Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman that plays for and captains Barys Astana of the KHL. He also played for the Boston Bruins, St. Louis Blues, and Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League (NHL).

paragraphs: Dallman became a citizen of Kazakhstan and is now eligible to play for the country in international competitions. Kevin has also expressed interest in playing for Kazakhstan internationally.


title: Alliance, Nebraska

paragraphs: Alliance, Nebraska is an average-sized city in the panhandle of Nebraska. The community consists of mostly farmers and ranchers.


title: Yelena Chernykh

paragraphs: Yelena Chernykh (née Kolesnichenko; August 24, 1979—October 4, 2011) was a Russian theatre actress.

paragraphs: 32-year-old Yelena was killed in a car crash that took place October 4, 2011 in Novoanninsky. Together with her died her colleagues, 59-year-old Alexander Egorov and 52-year-old Valentin Yudina.

paragraphs: At the time her death Yelena was married to Yegor Chernykh with whom she had a daughter named Anastasia Chernykh (b.2002).


title: Brian Schmidt

paragraphs: Brian P. Schmidt (born February 24, 1967) is a Distinguished Professor, Australian Research Council Laureate Fellow and astrophysicist at the Australian National University Mount Stromlo Observatory and Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics. He is widely known for his research in using supernovae as Cosmological Probes. He currently holds an Australia Research Council Federation Fellowship. Schmidt shared both the 2006 Shaw Prize in Astronomy and the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics with Saul Perlmutter and Adam Riess for providing evidence that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.

paragraphs: Schmidt, an only child, was born February 24, 1967 in the Montana mountains. His father, Dana C. Schmidt, was a fisheries biologist. When he was 13, his family moved to Anchorage, Alaska.

paragraphs: Schmidt went to Bartlett High School in Anchorage, and graduated in 1985. He has said that he wanted to be a meteorologist "since I was about five-years-old" but "... I did some work at the US National Weather Service up in Anchorage and didn't enjoy it very much. It was less scientific, not as exciting as I thought it would be - there was a lot of routine. But I guess I was just a little naive about what being a meteorologist meant." He decided to study astronomy just before he started at university. He was graduated BS(Physics), BS(Astronomy) from the University of Arizona in 1989. He received his MA (1992) and then PhD from Harvard University in 1993. Schmidt's PhD thesis was supervised by Robert Kirshner and used Type II Supernovae to measure the Hubble Constant.

paragraphs: At Harvard, he met his future wife, an Australian, Jenny Gordon who was studying for a PhD in economics. In 1994, he moved to Australia.

paragraphs: Schmidt was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (1993-94) before moving to Mount Stromlo Observatory in the Australian Capital Territory in 1995.

paragraphs: Schmidt and Adam Riess led the High-z Supernova Search Team which found evidence that the Universe's expansion rate is now accelerating. They discovered this by looking at Type 1a Supernova. The discovery was the opposite of the current theory that the expansion of the universe was slowing down. By studying the color shifts in the light from the supernova from Earth, they discovered that these billion-year old nova were still accelerating. This result was also found about the same time by the Supernova Cosmology Project, led by Saul Perlmutter. With two studies getting the same result scientists now accept the accelerating universe theory. New research is now trying to understand the nature of the universe, such as the existence of dark matter. The discovery of the accelerating universe was named 'Breakthrough of the Year' by Science Magazine in 1998. Schmidt was jointly awarded the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics along with Reiss and Perlmutter for their groundbreaking work.

paragraphs: Schmidt is currently leading the SkyMapper telescope Project and the associated Southern Sky Survey.

paragraphs: Schmidt has received the Australian Governments Malcolm McIntosh Prize in 2000, Harvard University's Bok Prize in 2000, the Australian Academy of Science's Pawsey Medal Medal in 2001, and the Vainu Bappu Medal of the Astronomical Society of India in 2002. He was the Marc Aaronson Memorial Lecturer in 2005, and in 2006, he shared the Shaw Prize in Astronomy with Adam Riess and Saul Perlmutter.

paragraphs: Schmidt and the other members of the High-Z Team (the set defined by the co-authors of Riess et al. 1998) shared the 2007 Gruber Cosmology Prize, a $500,000 award, with Saul Perlmutter of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the Supernova Cosmology Project (the set defined by the co-authors of Perlmutter et al. 1999) for their discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe.

paragraphs: Schmidt, along with Riess and Perlmutter, jointly won the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics for their observations which led to the discovery of the accelerating Universe.


title: Crab Nebula

paragraphs: The Crab Nebula (catalogue designations M1, NGC 1952, Taurus A) is a supernova remnant and 'pulsar wind nebula' in the constellation of Taurus. The nebula was observed by John Bevis in 1731; it corresponds to a bright supernova recorded by Chinese and Islamic astronomers in 1054. In 1840, astronomer William Parsons gave it the name it has today.

paragraphs: The nebula is about 6,500 light-years (2 kpc) from Earth. It has a diameter of 11 ly (3.4 pc) and expands at a rate of about 1,500 kilometers per second. It is part of the Perseus Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy.

paragraphs: At the center of the nebula lies the Crab pulsar, a neutron star (or spinning ball of neutrons), 28–30 km across, which emits pulses of radiation from gamma ray bursts to radio waves with a spin rate of 30.2 times per second. The nebula was the first astronomical object identified with a historical supernova explosion.

paragraphs: The nebula acts as a source of radiation for studying celestial bodies between it and us. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Sun's corona was mapped from observations of the Crab's radio waves passing through it, and in 2003, the thickness of the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan was measured as it blocked out X-rays from the nebula.

paragraphs: The cloudy remnants of SN 1054 are now known as the Crab Nebula. The nebula is also referred to as Messier 1 or M1, being the first Messier object catalogued in 1758.

paragraphs: Previous analysis showed that with X-ray and gamma ray energies above 30 keV, the Crab is the strongest persistent source in the sky. Its flux (energy emission) was known to be above 10 eV.

paragraphs: However, recent work has shown the energy levels are much higher than previously thought. Scientists found emissions at more than 100 GeV (gigaelectronvolts) – 100 billion times more energetic than visible light.

paragraphs: The creation of the Crab Nebula corresponds to the bright SN 1054 supernova, which was recorded by Chinese astronomers in 1054 AD. The Crab Nebula itself was first observed in 1731 by John Bevis. The nebula was independently rediscovered in 1758 by Charles Messier as he was observing a bright comet. Messier catalogued it as the first entry in his catalogue of comet-like objects. The Earl of Rosse observed the nebula at Birr Castle in 1848, and referred to the object as the Crab Nebula because a drawing he made of it looked like a crab.

paragraphs: In the early 20th century, the analysis of early photographs of the nebula taken several years apart revealed that it was expanding. Tracing the expansion back revealed that the nebula must have become visible on Earth about 900 years ago. Historical records revealed that a new star bright enough to be seen in the daytime had been recorded in the same part of the sky by Chinese astronomers in 1054. Given its great distance, the daytime 'guest star' observed by the Chinese could only have been a supernova—a massive, exploding star, having exhausted its supply of energy from nuclear fusion and collapsed in on itself.

paragraphs: Recent analysis of historical records have found that the supernova that created the Crab Nebula probably appeared in April or early May, rising to its maximum brightness of between apparent magnitude −7 and −4.5 (brighter than everything in the night sky except the Moon) by July. The supernova was visible to the naked eye for about two years after its first observation. Thanks to the recorded observations of Far Eastern and Middle Eastern astronomers of 1054, Crab Nebula became the first astronomical object recognized as being connected to a supernova explosion.


title: Trackball

paragraphs: In computing, a trackball is a pointing input device. It consists of a ball held by a socket containing sensors to detect a rotation of the ball about two axes. It is like an upside-down mouse with a ball that sticks out. The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers or the palm of the hand to move a cursor. Currently only three major companies: Logitech, A4Tech and Kensington make many of them. Microsoft was once a major producer. Large trackballs are sometimes seen on computerized special-purpose workstations, such as the radar consoles in an air traffic control room, or sonar equipment on a ship or submarine, or computer-aided design. Potentiometers capture the trackball orientation.


title: Binary pulsar

paragraphs: A binary pulsar is a pulsar with a binary companion, often a white dwarf or neutron star. In at least one case, the double pulsar PSR J0737-3039, the companion star is another pulsar as well.

paragraphs: Binary pulsars are one of the few objects which allow physicists to test general relativity in the case of a strong gravitational field. Although the binary companion to the pulsar is usually difficult or impossible to observe, the timing of the pulses from the pulsar can be measured with extraordinary accuracy by radio telescopes. Binary pulsar timing has indirectly confirmed the existence of gravitational radiation and verified Einstein's general theory of relativity.

paragraphs: Two objects orbiting do not do so in absolutely circular paths. the paths are virtually always elliptical. So twice a circuit they are closest, and twice a circuit they are furthest away. This is obvious for the Earth and Sun, but the idea applies much more widely.

paragraphs: When the two bodies are close, the gravitational field is stronger, and the passage of time is slowed. With pulsars, the time between pulses (or ticks) is lengthened. As the pulsar clock travels more slowly through the weakest part of the field it regains time. This is a relativistic time delay. It is the difference between what one would expect to see if the pulsar were moving at a constant distance and speed around its companion, and what is actually observed.

paragraphs: Binary pulsars are one of the few tools scientists have to detect evidence of gravitational waves. Einstein’s theory of general relativity predicts that two neutron stars would emit gravitational waves as they orbit a common center of mass, which would carry away orbital energy, and cause the two stars to draw closer together. As the two stellar bodies draw closer to one another, often one pulsar will absorb matter from the other, causing a violent accretion process. This interaction can heat the gas being exchanged between the bodies and produce X-ray light which can appear to pulsate, causing binary pulsars to occasionally be referred to as X-ray binaries. This flow of matter from one stellar body to another is known as an accretion disk. Millisecond pulsars (or MSP's) create a sort of "wind", which in the case of binary pulsars can blow away the magnetosphere of the neutron stars and have a dramatic effect on the pulse emission.

paragraphs: The first binary pulsar, PSR B1913+16 or the "Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar" was discovered in 1974 at Arecibo by Joseph Taylor and Russell Hulse, for which they won the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics. Pulses from this system have been tracked, without glitches, to within 15 μs since its discovery.

paragraphs: The 1993 Nobel Prize was awarded to Joseph Taylor and Russell Hulse after they discovered two such stars. While Hulse was observing a new pulsar, named PSR B1913+16, he noticed that the frequency with which it pulsed fluctuated. It was concluded that the simplest explanation was that the pulsar was orbiting another star very closely at a high velocity. Hulse and Taylor determined that the stars were equally heavy by observing these pulse fluctuations, which led them to believe the other spacial object was also a neutron star.

paragraphs: The observations made of the orbital decay of this star system was a near perfect match to Einstein’s equations. Relativity predicts that over time a binary system’s orbital energy will be converted to gravitational radiation. Data collected by Taylor and his colleagues of the orbital period of PRS B1913+16 supported this relativistic prediction. They reported in 1983 that there was a difference in the observed minimum separation of the two pulsars compared to that expected if the orbital separation had remained constant. In the decade following its discovery the system’s orbital period had decreased by about 76 millionths of a second per year. This means the pulsar was approaching its maximum separation more than a second earlier than it would have if the orbit had remained the same. Subsequent observations continue to show this decrease.


title: Zacarias Moussaoui

paragraphs: Zacarias Moussaoui (, Zakariyyā Mūsawī; born May 30, 1968) is a French citizen who plead guilty to conspiring to kill citizens of the United States as part of the September 11 attacks. As a result of his conviction, he is serving a life sentence without parole at the Federal ADX Supermax prison in Florence, Colorado.


title: Massari

paragraphs: Sari Abboud () or simply known as Massari () which means "money" in Arabic, is a Lebanese-born contemporary R&B/hip-hop singer. Massari was born in Beirut, Lebanon on December 10, 1980. His family moved to Canada while he was teenager. Massari began performing at a young age. Massari released his debut album "Massari" in 2005. The album was certified gold by the CRIA for selling 50,000 copies in that country alone. In 2009, Massari released "Forever Massari". The album sold over 120,000 copies in Lebanon and Canada, combined.


title: Kid Nation

paragraphs: Kid Nation was a reality show. It first aired on the CBS network on September 19, 2007. The show featured 40 children, aged 8–15, living in a ghost town named "Bonanza Town". No one had lived in the town since the 19th century. The children were required to create a functioning society in the town, as well as set up a government system used to solve problems in the town.

paragraphs: At the end of each episode the council awards a cash prize which is a "gold star" worth $20,000 to one of the kids.


title: Big Brother 14 (U.S.)

paragraphs: Big Brother 14 is the upcoming fourteenth season of the US reality television show "Big Brother". The new season was announced during the season finale of "Big Brother 13". Julie Chen will continue to host the season. The season premier is scheduled to air on CBS in July 2012.


title: Austrian Hockey League

paragraphs: The Austrian Hockey League (Erste Bank Eishockey Liga) for sponsorship reasons, is the top level of ice hockey in Austria. EC KAC has won the most league titles, with 23.

paragraphs: bold - seasons in which league had teams outside Austria


title: Tamura, Fukushima

paragraphs: There are two well-known places to visit in Takine-cho. Abukuma Limestone Caves and the "Hoshi no Mura" ("Village of Stars") Observatory are popular with tourists.

paragraphs: Tamura has a only one international sister city:


title: Mount Stromlo Observatory

paragraphs: Mount Stromlo Observatory (MSO) just outside of Canberra, Australia, is part of the Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Australian National University (ANU).

paragraphs: The observatory was built in 1924 as The Commonwealth Solar Observatory. Mount Stromlo had already been used for observations in the previous decade, with a small observatory being built in 1911 by Pietro Baracchi using the Oddie telescope. The dome built to house the Oddie telescope was the first Commonwealth building built in the new Australian Capital Territory. Until World War II, the observatory specialised in solar and atmospheric observations. During the war the workshops made gun sights, and other optical equipment. After the war, the observatory began stellar and galactic astronomy and was renamed The Commonwealth Observatory.

paragraphs: When ANU began in 1946 in nearby Canberra, they shared staff and started graduate studies. In 1957 the Mount Stromlo Observatory became part of the ANU.

paragraphs: On January 18, 2003, a huge bushfire hit Canberra and Mount Stromlo. The observatory was surrounded by a plantation pine forest. Five telescopes, workshops, seven homes and the historic administration building were destroyed. The only telescope to escape the fires was the 1868 15-centimetre Farnham telescope. Some items from the fire are on display in the National Museum of Australia. They include a melted telescope mirror and a piece of melted optical glass (flint). The latter has pieces of charcoal and wire fused into it from the fierce heat of the fire.

paragraphs: Rebuilding is largely completed and the Observatory is now a major partner in the construction of the Giant Magellan Telescope. A copy of the Oddie telescope has been put on display at the observatory.

paragraphs: The MACHO project found the first example of the gravitational lensing of one star by another, known as Gravitational microlensing, in 1993 (Alcock et al. 1993; Paczynski 1996). This discovery was made by repeated imaging of the Magellanic Clouds with the 50-inch Great Melbourne Telescope using a mosaic of 8 2048 by 2048 pixel CCDs. The camera was made by the Centre for Particle Astrophysics in California (CFPA). At the time it was the largest digital camera ever built (Frame & Faulkner 2003). Between July 1992 and December 1999, the MACHO project made over 200 billion stellar measurements. The data was studied at the observatory and at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

paragraphs: Brian Schmidt, an astrophysicist at Mount Stromlo, led an international group, the High-z Supernova Search Team, which looked at the rate of change of the Cosmic Expansion using type Ia supernovae. In 1998, the team discovered that cosmic expansion was accelerating, which was the opposite of the current theory. This universal acceleration means that dark energy must exist. The discovery was named the top science breakthrough of 1998 by "Science" magazine. In 2011, Brian Schmidt shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Saul Perlmutter and Adam Riess for finding the evidence for the accelerating Universe.

paragraphs: The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey, co-led by Matthew Colless, began the largest galaxy red shift survey of its time. It was based at the Anglo-Australian Observatory (AAO) using the 3.9m Anglo-Australian Telescope between 1997 and 11 April 2002. The survey measured more than 245,000 galaxies. With the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, this provided the measurements of large scale structure in the low-redshift Universe.

paragraphs: The workshops at Mount Stromlo Observatory have built two instruments for the Gemini Telescope. This includes the near infrared integral field spectrometer, NIFS, used on Gemini-North, and the adaptive optics imager for Gemini-South, GSAOI. The NIFS was destroyed in the bushfires of 18 January 2003 and had to be rebuilt.

paragraphs: A new rapid survey telescope, SkyMapper, is under construction. SkyMapper will be built at the ANU's other observatory (Siding Spring) and operated remotely from Mount Stromlo.

paragraphs: Mount Stromlo Observatory is at an altitude of above sea level on Mount Stromlo.


title: Pietro Baracchi

paragraphs: Pietro Paolo Giovanni Ernesto Baracchi (1851–1926) was an Italian astronomer. He moved to Australia in the 1870's and worked at the Melbourne Observatory. In 1910 the Australian government asked him to find a suitable place for an observatory in the new Australian Capital Territory. Barrachi set up a small observatory on Mount Stromlo in May 1911. This was the first government building in Canberra and was the beginning of the Mount Stromlo Observatory. The observatory had a 9-inch (23 cm) telescope, donated by Ballarat gold miner, James Oddie.


title: Melbourne Observatory

paragraphs: The Melbourne Observatory, in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, was built in 1861. It replaced an earlier observatory at Williamstown. The Melbourne Observatory is now part of Melbourne's Royal Botanic Gardens. The observatory had an important role as it used observations of the stars to keep accurate time. It also kept the weather records and scientists were able to make weather predictions.

paragraphs: In 1869 the observatory installed the Great Melbourne Telescope (48 inch) which at that time was the largest steerable telescope in world. There were problems with its size and image accuracy and by 1890 it was no longer used. As Melbourne increased in size the light from the city limited the use of the observatory for serious astronomy. The Great Melbourne Telescope was sold to the Mount Stromlo Observatory in Canberra in 1944. It was destroyed in a bushfire in 2003, but there are plans to rebuild it and set it up as a display at the Melbourne Observatory.

paragraphs: The Melbourne Observatory is no longer used, but the historic equipment is kept in working condition by the Astronomical Society of Victoria. This is an amateur group of volunteers interested in astronomy. They have regular tours, talks and observation nights using the telescopes. The historic buildings are now used as offices for the gardens, a cafe and a shop.


title: Matt Cooke

paragraphs: Matthew David Cooke (born September 7, 1978) is a former Canadian professional ice hockey left winger. He plays for the Minnesota Wild of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks, Washington Capitals and Pittsburgh Penguins.

paragraphs: He is known as a pest because of his way of aggravating opponents. He has also faced many suspensions by the NHL. In 2009, He won the Stanley Cup with the Pittsburgh Penguins.


title: Mencius

paragraphs: Mèng Kē (), who is usually known as Meng Zi ()，which means "Master Meng," or Mencius (which is the Latin form of Meng Zi), was not in the generation of students who worked directly with Confucius, but in the second generation after it. He lived from about 371 B.C. to about 289 B.C. Mencius regarded Confucius as the greatest teacher, and he wrote a book in which he tried to explain the full picture behind what Confucius taught. The book is just called by his name, so in English it is called the "Mencius."

paragraphs: In his book, Mencius taught that humans are born with four gifts: The first is the natural ability to feel what other people feel and to want to help and protect them. The second is to recognize when you are not doing your share of the job of maintaining a good society. The third is to recognize conflict situations before they grow big and to defuse them. The fourth is to recognize when some other people are hurting other people and want to obtain justice for those being hurt.

paragraphs: Mencius believed that just as the people owed things to the ruler, the ruler also owed things to the people. So if a man held the position of ruler but did not do the things for the people that a ruler should do, then it was acceptable for the people to get rid of the ruler, and even to kill him.

paragraphs: The culture that Mencius came from believed that after people died they would have some kind of existence after life. That belief goes back to distant prehistorical times. At some time, people began to say that the dead go to 天 Tiān. Tiān has several meanings including "sky," "day," "Heaven," and "God." The earliest versions of the character 天 is a picture of a man with a very large head, which suggests "head man" or "leader." Since Chinese people believed that when any person dies he or she goes to Tiān, and that dead ancestors are more powerful than they were while still alive, it is possible that Tiān originally was the name of the earliest ancestor of the Zhōu ruling house from long before the fall of the previous dynasty, the Shàng. If that idea is correct, then "Tiān" first was a name for an ancestor. Later people may have forgotten that this very powerful spirit was originally a living human being, so Tiān became regarded as a god. After that, "Tiān" could have been used to name the place where the god lived, and since that place was high above us, it came to mean not only "Heaven," but also "the heavens," "sky," "day," etc.

paragraphs: China has myths that go back long before the Shàng and Zhōu dynasties. There were several culture heroes who were regarded as ancient wise emperors. There were 黃帝 Huáng Dì, known in English as the Yellow Emperor, 堯 Yáo, 舜 Shùn, and 禹 Yǚ, who all came before what is called the first dynasty, the 夏 Xià.

paragraphs: The story of how Yǚ came to be made emperor is very important to the Confucians. The myth says that the world started to become flooded and the father of Yǚ (whose name was 鯀 Gǔn) tried to fix the problem by building dams. Gǔn was not successful because the water just kept coming and when it went over the top of the dams then all of the water that had built up came out very fast. So Yǚ took over the job of saving China and cleaned out all of the rivers so that the extra water could easily go to the sea.

paragraphs: Mencius does not tell the part of the story about Gǔn, but he does tell the part about how Yǚ made all the rivers deeper to drain the land. The lesson Mencius and the Chinese people learned from the story of Yǚ was that in all things it is better to give forces a way to get out that will not cause harm, and that damming forces up will always be bad in the long run.

paragraphs: The founders of the Zhōu dynasty believed in the idea that King Wen, the father of King Wu (who was the first to actually rule after the Shàng rulers were defeated), continued to be able to act in the world of human beings even after his death. He and his own father and grandfather were central figures in an important document called "The Brass-bound Coffer." Another important document is called "The Announcement of Duke Shao." Both of these documents introduce and support the idea that Tiān decides who will be the human to act as steward or helper to carry out the will of Tiān on earth, and the idea that Tiān will only let someone be king as long as he looks out for the welfare of all human beings.

paragraphs: Mencius told the story of Yü in his book at 3B:9:

paragraphs: 當堯之時，水逆行，氾濫於中國。蛇龍居之，民無所定。下者為巢，上者為營窟。書曰：『洚水警余。』洚水者，洪水也。使禹治之。禹掘地而注之海，驅蛇龍 而放之菹﹔水由地中行，江、淮、河、漢是也。險社既遠，鳥獸之害人者消﹔然後人得平土而居之。

paragraphs: At the time of [the sage emperor] Yao, the rivers ceased their normal flow and flooded the Central Kingdom. Then snakes and dragons took up residence and humans had no fixed abodes. Those in lower places created nests in the trees for themselves, and those in higher places made underground redoubts.

paragraphs: 書曰：『洚水警余。』洚水者，洪水也。使禹治之。禹掘地而注之海，驅蛇龍 而放之菹﹔水由地中行，江、淮、河、漢是也。險社既遠，鳥獸之害人者消﹔然後人得平土而居之。堯、舜既沒，聖人之道衰。

paragraphs: The "Book of Records" says: "The inundation alarms me." "Inundation" means "flood waters." Yü was employed to manage the flood. Yü dredged the earth and conveyed the water to the sea. He drove away the snakes and dragons and exiled them to the marshes. When water traveled through the land it formed the Yangze River, the Huai River, the Yellow River, and the Han River. Since the [marshes] were in remote and cut off places, the depredations visited upon humans by birds and beasts were eliminated, and after that humans got to live on the plains. [However,] after [people's memories of] both Yao and Shun fell into obscurity the way of the sages went into a steep decline.

paragraphs: 如智者若禹之行水也，則無惡於智也。禹之行水也，行其所無事，則 智亦大矣

paragraphs: If these wise ones could conduct themselves as did Yü in managing the flood waters, then what would there be to dislike about them? Yü managed the flood waters by doing his work in ways that involved no great fuss. If these wise ones could also conduct themselves without making any fuss, then their wisdom would be great.

paragraphs: For Mencius, Yü's way of doing things was the best. Yü was one of the great heroes of Mencius.

paragraphs: In the West there was a scientist named Konrad Lorenz (1903 - 1989) who studied animals. He was an ethologist, which means that he carefully studied the behavior of animals and tried to understand why they do the things that they ordinarily do. He saw, for instance, that if baby ducks see a human instead of a duck right after they hatch, they will ever after follow humans and take them to be their parents. He called this kind of learning "imprinting."

paragraphs: Mencius studied humans the way Lorenz studied other animals. Mencius was an ethologist too, but in the language of ancient China he was regarded as a "master," that is, a teacher. He was a Confucian, and Confucianism is sometimes called a religion. However, Mencius does not quote religious texts and try to get people to act the way those books say to act. He also does not name fundamental truths or axioms and try to figure out how people ought to act. So he is not like most people that we regard as either religious leaders or philosophers.

paragraphs: In modern times we separate philosophy from science, but in earlier times the kinds of studies we now call science were called "natural philosophy," and Mencius was basically a natural philosopher. His work led to the same general kind of knowledge that Lorenz learned about ducks and other animals. Mencius asked: what kinds of things do people do that keep families and communities working well, what kinds of things do they do that harm families and communities, and why do they do these thing?

paragraphs: Mencius said that we do not need to teach people to love the taste of good food. The feeling we have for fine cooking is natural. Similarly, he said, we have other natural feelings that are good gifts that we are all born with. We cannot really get rid of these gifts except by destroying ourselves, but we can allow them to be covered over so that they do not work right. It is a little like the way humans cannot just take off their noses and throw them away, but they can put plugs in their nostrils and spoil their ability to smell things. So it is important that humans not do anything that would prevent their four gifts from working well. It is too bad that people often let their four gifts get messed up. When humans are well nurtured and are protected from negative forces, then they will be good of their own free will.

paragraphs: The virtues or powers that humans have are things that they get directly from Heaven. These same things are in Heaven. When people do bad things, it is because their other parts have taken control away from their virtues/powers. Mencius gives a wonderful story that is called Ox Mountain as proof.

paragraphs: The Chinese word for what has been called "gifts" above is 德 dé. It is a cognate of a word that means "to get," so one way of explaining it is to say that a dé is something that we get from Heaven. It means "virtue," but only in the sense that it is the power to do something. ("Virtue" has this meaning in English, too.) Humans have four virtues or powers. Here are their Chinese names, a translation of each, and an explanation of each:

paragraphs: Human beings might be able to live perfect lives if they had only these four kinds of motivations or emotional reactions to the world, but they have many other motivations. They include fear, anger, greed for wealth and power, sex, etc. Humans very easily learn that they can satisfy these drives more easily if they ignore the inputs from their virtues. For instance, a child who is large for his age may easily learn that he can take by force whatever he wants from other children his age.

paragraphs: Human beings are born with the four powers that would keep them from doing bad things, and they are also born with the many drives or motivations that can lead them to do bad things to satisfy these needs. So what determines who will be good and who will be bad?

paragraphs: Mencius observed that humans depend on one more important mental function. He called it the 志 Zhì, which can sometimes be translated as "aspirations," but which in the case of Mencius is what we would call the will. Something has to decide what to do when the ethical impulses, the moral feelings, of what Mencius called the "four virtues," conflict with the ordinary impulses that are involved with hunger, sex, aggression, fear, etc. The part of humans that balances things and makes decisions is the zhì.

paragraphs: For Mencius, if an individual is functioning well, then his or her will can strike a healthy balance among all the impulses and can keep the virtues from being swamped by the ordinary desires. If a person's will is not in control, then that person may do damage to himself or herself, or to other people. So it is important while growing up to learn how to keep the zhì from getting taken over by other forces—or by other people.

paragraphs: The individual has a free-will choice about whether to integrate (put together so they will not fight each other) all his impulses and also his intellect, or to give up and just act on whatever impulse is being felt at the moment. So for Mencius the best path for a human being is to plan and to act to make himself or herself well balanced, integrated (not in a fight with himself or herself and wanting to do both one thing and its opposite), and so a useful person to society.

paragraphs: Somebody who operates at the very high end of the moral scale by "having his act together" is called a 君子 jūn zǐ, or "morally noble man." 孟子曰：「人之所以異於禽獸者幾希！庶民去之，君子存之。舜明於庶物，

paragraphs: Mencius said: "That by which humans differ from the birds and the beasts is extremely small. Ordinary people get rid of it, but the morally noble man keeps it safe. [The sage emperor] Shun clearly saw the many creatures, and he made a close examination of human social relationships. His actions came out of his benevolence and his sense of duty. He did not act out [a phony] benevolence and sense of duty."

paragraphs: So a jūn zǐ is somebody who has managed to hold onto the gifts that Heaven has given him, the gifts that can make humans act with benevolence, be led by a sense of duty, want to act in ways that will keep good relations with others, and try to aid and protect people who are being treated unfairly. To be a real jūn zǐ, the person has to have these true feelings and to act on them. It is not enough just to act as though one has these feelings.

paragraphs: According to Mencius, anyone can choose become a morally noble man. All it would take would be to really make that decision and then do it. Mencius talked about Yan Yuan, who was the favorite disciple of Confucius:

paragraphs: 顏淵曰：『舜何人也；予何人也。有為者亦若是！』

paragraphs: Yan Yuan said: "What kind of a man was Shun? What kind of a man am I? All it takes to be like him is to do it."

paragraphs: Of course Mencius realized that "just doing it" is much harder than talking about it. One has to keep watching oneself all the time.

paragraphs: One goal that Mencius had was to grow what he called an "unmovable mind." By those words he meant a mind that could not be knocked around by being hit from the outside. An "unmovable mind" is guarded against doing the wrong thing because one is angry, afraid, etc. Anything that can pull or push from the outside and make us go out of control could cause harm, but Mencius says that if the will and the four virtues/powers are well integrated, if the person is "really together," then these outside forces cannot take over control.

paragraphs: Every culture and every society has developed ways to prevent children from getting into too much trouble. Even in a single community people may used several different strategies for getting and keeping control over their children. One way of controlling children is to beat them when they do things that the parents do not want them to do. Another way of controlling children is to make them feel guilty and expect to be severely punished because they are bad humans. A third way is to make children feel shame and expect people to laugh at them and then turn away from them. Method number four is to explain to children the likely results of their actions. "If you pull the dog's ears he will bite you." Many parents the world over use more than one of these methods, and they may use all of them from time to time.

paragraphs: The Chinese culture has another method that may not be well known and may be rarely practiced in other places—calling forth the use of the child's own virtue/power. When a child does something hurtful to someone else, instead of telling the child how bad he or she is the parents may say something like: "Just now we saw you take the eggs out of the sparrow's nest. We know that you are a good person at heart. So we wonder whether you thought about how the mother sparrow will feel when she comes back and finds her children gone. Would you like to put the eggs back now while they are still warm? The mother sparrow will be coming back soon."

paragraphs: The object of getting the child to look at the feelings that come up in his heart/mind when he or she really thinks about what he or she did is not to make the child feel like a horrible person, and not to make the child fear punishment. Once the child really listens to the quiet voice of what we in the West would call "the conscience," then the child will naturally feel what the mother sparrow would feel if she came home to an empty nest. The child will then do something so that the mother sparrow will not need to have that bad feeling. The next time the child may think about how the mother sparrow will feel before he or she steals any eggs.

paragraphs: It takes a long time to get really good at listing to these four gifts from Heaven, and it takes practice to understand the possible consequences of some things that one might do. So becoming a really good person is a lifetime job that is never really finished. In the traditional Chinese society, young people were encouraged to read both the stories of the past that showed good acts and also to read the books by people like Confucius and Mencius to get help in learning to see all the results and learning how to keep anger, fear, and all the other ordinary emotions from overpowering the four moral virtues/powers.

paragraphs: "Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China", by Arthur Waley


title: Radio frequency

paragraphs: The term Radio frequency refers to electromagnetic radiation in the range of frequencies lower than microwaves. Radio waves at these frequencies have been found useful for long-range communications. Among these frequencies, shortwave radio communications operate at frequencies that can be reflected by the ionosphere and therefore can bounce around the earth. Longwave frequencies are used for relatively short range communications such as the most ordinary of the commercial amplitude modulation (AM) radio stations. Their transmissions ordinarily do not get long bounces.

paragraphs: Different short-wave frequencies (with wavelengths shorter than 120 meters) can be reflected well and transmitted by long bounces around the world during times when different conditions prevail in the ionosphere. So transmitters for such organizations as VOA (Voice of America) and BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) will change operating frequencies from month to month and also from time to time during a 24 hour period.


title: White-flippered penguin

paragraphs: The white-flippered penguin ("Eudyptula minor albosignata") is a subspecies of the little penguin. Their name comes from the unique white edges on their flippers (wings).


title: Chris Nilan

paragraphs: Christopher John Nilan (born February 9, 1958 in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American retired professional ice hockey forward. He played 15 seasons and 688 regular season games in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the Montreal Canadiens, New York Rangers and Boston Bruins organizations. He won the Stanley Cup with the Montreal Canadiens in 1986. His nickname was "Knuckles" because he was to fight with other players.


title: Solar telescope

paragraphs: A solar telescope is a special telescope used to look at the Sun. By using a range of special filters astronomers are able to study the Sun and look at sunspots and solar eclipses. A solar telescope also known as a special telescope orbits space.


title: Dave Semenko

paragraphs: David John Semenko (July 12, 1957 – June 29, 2017) was a Canadian professional ice hockey centre that played 2 seasons in the WHA and 10 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Edmonton Oilers, Hartford Whalers and Toronto Maple Leafs organizations. He won back-to-back Stanley Cups in 1984 and 1985 with the Edmonton Oilers. Fans nicknamed Semenko "Cementhead" even though his official team nickname was always "Sammy".

paragraphs: Semenko died on June 29, 2017, 13 days before his 60th birthday after a short battle with liver and pancreatic cancer.


title: Seraikistan

paragraphs: Saraikistan (Saraiki, Punjabi, ) is a term used by few Saraikis to mean the southern region of the Punjab province of Pakistan.


title: Hexachlorobenzene

paragraphs: Hexachlorobenzene is an aromatic compound. The molecule structure resembles benzene, except that hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine. It is a colorless powder that is produced using catalysis from Iron(III) chloride or from Hexachlorocyclohexane. Hexachlorobenzene was used as a fungicide, mostly to treat cereals. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants forbids its production and use. The main reason for this restriction was that the outbreaks of rare diseases. Certain people eating food that had been treated became ill, and the illness could be linked to this substance.


title: Chlordane

paragraphs: Chlordane is an insecticide, introduced in 1947. It is an organochloride that acts like a contact poison. It can be produced using the Diels–Alder reaction, and has at least 147 constituents. Its main use was in treating seeds, e.g. of potatoes, wheat, or vegetables. It was also used for wood preservation, and against ants and termites. Chlordane only degrades slowly, which means that it is relatively easy to spread it over long distances. It accumulates in the body of animals, in mammals mostly in the nervous system and the liver. Chlordane has been shown to cause cancer in mice; it may cause cancer in humans. Chlordane is toxic. It is listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.


title: Aldrin

paragraphs: Aldrin is an insecticide, which was used against termites, locusts and the larvae of Click beetles. Most plants and animals convert it to Dieldrin. It is listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, its production, use and trade are banned since 2004. Aldrin is a neurotoxin. People inhaling it can develop headaches, but also seizures. In humans, Aldrin is converted to dieldrin in the liver. The change will mean that it can leave the body again. The problem is that the change is slow, and the half-life is about a year. Aldrin may be a teratogen, and it probably causes cancer.

paragraphs: Aldrin is produced by combining hexachlorocyclopentadiene with norbornadiene in a Diels-Alder reaction to give the adduct.

paragraphs: Aldrin is named after the German chemist Kurt Alder, one of the coinventors of this kind of reaction. An estimated 270 million kilograms of aldrin and related cyclodiene pesticides were produced between 1946 and 1976.

paragraphs: In soil, on plant surfaces, or in the digestive tracts of insects, aldrin oxidizes to the epoxide, dieldrin. Dieldrin is more strongly insecticidal than aldrin.


title: Mirex

paragraphs: Mirex is a chlorinated hydrocarbon that was commercialized as an insecticide. It was later banned because it was harmful to the environment. This white crystalline odorless solid is a derivative of cyclopentadiene. It was popularized to control fire ants but by virtue of its chemical robustness and lipophilicity it was recognized as a bioaccumulative pollutant. However, the spread of the red imported fire ant was actually encouraged by the use of Mirex, as it also kills native ants that are highly competitive with the fire ants. The United States Environmental Protection Agency prohibited its use in 1976.


title: Dieldrin

paragraphs: Dieldrin is a chlorinated hydrocarbon originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin. Aldrin reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to form dieldrin which is the active compound. Both dieldrin and aldrin are named after the Diels-Alder reaction which is used to form aldrin from a mixture of norbornadiene and hexachlorocyclopentadiene.

paragraphs: Dieldrin was developed as an alternative to DDT and has proved to be a highly effective insecticide. It was very widely used during the 1950s to early 1970s. Endrin is a stereoisomer of dieldrin.

paragraphs: However, it is an extremely persistent organic pollutant; it does not degrade easily. Furthermore it tends to biomagnify as it is passed along the food chain. Long-term exposure has proven toxic to a very wide range of animals including humans. For this reason it is now banned in most of the world.

paragraphs: It has been linked to health problems such as Parkinson's disease, breast cancer, and immune, reproductive, and nervous system damage. It can also adversely affect testicular descent in the fetus if a pregnant woman is exposed to Dieldrin.

paragraphs: Dieldrin is listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.

paragraphs: It can be formed from the synthesis of hexachloro-1,3-cyclopentadiene with norbornadiene in a Diels-Alder reaction, followed by epoxidation of the norbornene ring.

paragraphs: Dieldrin is named after Otto Paul Hermann Diels, the co-inventor of the Diels-Alder reaction.


title: Endrin

paragraphs: Endrin is an insecticide that was commonplace among cotton growers and for the treament of cereals. It was also used to kill rodents. It is a neurotoxin. It is a stereoisomer of Dieldrin. In the soil, it can take up to twelve years to decay. It is one of the twelve substances listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, and its production, trade and use is banned since 2004.


title: Mount Stromlo

paragraphs: Mount Stromlo is west of the centre of Canberra, Australia, near the district of Weston Creek. It is about above sea level and above the surrounding plains. The Mount Stromlo Observatory (run by the Australian National University) is on the top of the mountain. Canberra's main water supply treatment plant, supplied by the Cotter River catchment area is nearby. Road access to the mountain is by Cotter Road on the south side, and Uriarra Road on the east and north. The summit is reached by a road joining Cotter road just outside Duffy.

paragraphs: The mountain had been part of the Yarralumla Station, a farm now used as the residence the Governor-General of Australia. It was named Mount Stromlo by Frederick Campbell in the 1880s, but it is not known where he got the name.

paragraphs: Mount Stromlo was chosen by Pietro Baracchi in 1910 as the site for an observatory. The first telescope installed at Mount Stromlo was the Oddie telescope on 8 September 1911. The building housing this telescope was the first built by the Australian government in Canberra. In January 1913 the first telephone was connected to the Queanbeyan telephone exchange.

paragraphs: Mount Stromlo was burnt during bushfires in 2003. The fire burnt a pine plantation that covered the mountain, destroyed much of the observatory and water treatment plant.

paragraphs: Before the 2003 fires, Mount Stromlo had some of the best and oldest mountain bike trails in Australia. In May 2006 the trails were rebuilt and made bigger. Stromlo Forest Park now has more than 35 km of cross country single trail, a Four-Cross course, several observed trials areas and a downhill track. The 2009 Union Cycliste Internationale Mountain Bike and Trials World Championships were held at Mount Stromlo. About 30,000 visitors from up to 40 countries came to the event. More than 750 of the world's top riders took part in the four mountain bike sports of Cross Country, Downhill, Four Cross and Observed Trials.

paragraphs: Mount Stromlo also has a large building for events, with offices and change rooms. There is a children's play ground, barbecues, a road cycling circuit, a grass cross country running track and horse riding trails.

paragraphs: The rock on Mount Stromlo is ignimbrite from a volcanic eruption during the upper Silurian period. This is covering rhyodacite from a much earlier period, which can be seen on the surface on the lower slopes in the east and southeast sides. The northern lower slopes are covered with a calcareous shale also from the Silurian period. This is cut off on the northwest side by the Winslade Fault, which heads northeast to Cook and Kaleen. A spur fault heads off east from the Winslade Fault to under the Scrivener Dam. On the other side (northwest and north) of these faults are middle Silurian period rhyodacite volcanic deposits. The northern side has been uplifted compared with the southern side.

paragraphs: Stoney Creek and its tributaries drain the north side of the mountain, The east side drains into the Molonglo River. The south side supplies Blugar creek that runs into the Murrumbidgee River.

paragraphs: The top of the mountain near the observatory runs in a north-south direction with a spur running to the southwest where the water treatment plant is.


title: National Museum of Australia

paragraphs: The National Museum of Australia is a social history museum in Australia's capital city, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory. It includes displays on the people of Australia, including the Indigenous Australians, the history of settlement and the environment. It was opened in 2001.


title: Terminal Velocity (video game)

paragraphs: Terminal Velocity is a video game that was published by 3D Realms and was developed by Terminal Reality. The video game was released on May 1, 1995 and was released for the MS-DOS and Mac OS. The game is an arcade-style flight combat game, with simpler game controls and physics than most other flight simulators. The game is best known for it's fast and high-energy action sequences. The game takes place in the year 2704, when the ASFAR (Alliance of Space-Faring Alien Races), of which Earth is a member of, suddenly turns against Earth and their fleet ravages the planet and starts a war. The player has to fly a powerful starfighter called the TV-202, in a series of missions to defeat the enemy. A huge supercomputer known as X.I. (Xenocidic Initiative) is responsible for the war and the final mission is to destroy it.


title: Star Fox 64

paragraphs: is a remake released for the Nintendo 3DS console. It was released in July and September 2011. It includes use of the console's touch screen and better graphics.


title: Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey

paragraphs: Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey is a 1993 animal-adventure movie that was produced by Jeffrey Chernov and Franklin R. Levy and was directed by Duwayne Dunham. Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey was released on February 3, 1993 in North America. It is a remake of the 1963 movie, "The Incredible Journey" which was based on the novel of the same name. The movie was xxxxxxxxxx the 1996 movie, "". The movie received positive reviews with a 87% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Teltow

paragraphs: Teltow is a place in Germany. The population is around 4,000 and it is in the province Potsdam-Mittelmark.


title: Page layout

paragraphs: Page layout is a part of typography and graphic design. It deals with the arrangement and style of elements (content) on a page.

paragraphs: Page design has long been a consideration in printed material. It began with early illuminated manuscripts in the hand-copied books of the Middle Ages. Today, modern magazine and catalogue layouts, (and other print media) consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.

paragraphs: Since the advent of computing, page layout skills are used on electronic media as well as print. The electronic page–the graphical user interface (GUI)–is often where design now takes place.

paragraphs: A page layout may be designed in a rough paper and pencil sketch before producing, or produced during the design process to the final form. Both design and production may be achieved using hand tools or page layout software. Producing a web page may require knowledge of markup languages along with WYSIWYG software. Special considerations must be made for how the layout of an HTML page will change (reflow) when resized by the end-user. Cascading style sheets are often required to keep the page layout consistent between web browsers.

paragraphs: Grids and templates are page layout design patterns used in advertising campaigns and multiple-page publications, including websites.

paragraphs: Most desktop publishing software allows for grids in the form of a page filled with coloured lines or dots placed at a specified equal horizontal and vertical distance apart. Automatic margins and booklet spine (gutter) lines may be specified for global use throughout the document. Multiple additional horizontal and vertical lines may be placed at any point on the page. Invisible to the end-user/audience shapes may be placed on the page as guidelines for page layout and print processing as well. Software templates are achieved by duplicating a template data file, or with master page features in a multiple-page document. Master pages may include both grid elements and template elements such as header and footer elements, automatic page numbering, and automatic table of contents features.

paragraphs: With modern media content retrieval and output technology, there is much overlap between visual communications (front-end) and information technology (back-end). Large print publications (thick books, especially instructional in nature) and electronic pages (web pages) require meta data for automatic indexing, automatic reformatting, database publishing, dynamic page display and end-user interactivity. Much of the meta data (meta tags) must be hand coded or specified during the page layout process. This divides the task of page layout between artists and engineers, or tasks the artist/engineer to do both.

paragraphs: More complex projects may require two separate designs: page layout design as the front-end, and function coding as the back-end. In this case, the front-end may be designed using an alternative page layout technology such as image editing software or on paper with hand rendering methods. Most image editing software includes features for converting a page layout for use in a "What You See Is What You Get" (WYSIWYG) editor or features to export graphics for desktop publishing software. WYSIWYG editors and desktop publishing software allow front-end design prior to back end-coding in most cases. Interface design and database publishing may involve more technical knowledge or collaboration with information technology engineering in the front-end.


title: Eric Carle

paragraphs: Eric Carle (born June 25, 1929 in Syracuse, New York) is an American children's author and illustrator. Carle has illustrated more than 70 books with some being best sellers. More than 102 million copies of his books have been sold worldwide. His best known work is the 1969 book, "The Very Hungry Caterpillar" which has been translated into over 50 different languages. He was drafted into the U.S. Army during the Korean War and was stationed in Germany with the Second Armored Division and was appointed the position of mail clerk. Carle has a son and a daughter.


title: The Very Hungry Caterpillar

paragraphs: The Very Hungry Caterpillar is a children's book by American writer Eric Carle. It is Carle's most famous book, it has been translated into over 50 different languages and has sold 30 million copies worldwide. The book is about a caterpillar that eats food until pupating and becoming a butterfly. The book was inspired by a hole puncher. The New York Times named it as one of the "Ten Best Picture Books of the Year" in 1969. Google celebrated the book's 40th anniversary in 2009 by changing the logo on its main search page to the style used in the book.


title: 1920 Duluth lynchings

paragraphs: The 1920 Duluth lynchings occurred when a mob attacked and lynched three black circus workers in Duluth, Minnesota. Beforehand there were rumours that black people had raped a teenager. A physician who examined the girl found no evidence of rape or assault.

paragraphs: The killings shocked the country, particularly because they had occurred in the northern United States, Four lynchings had occurred in Minnesota before that time. In 2003, the city of Duluth erected a memorial to the murdered workers.


title: Lynching

paragraphs: Lynching is the execution of a person or persons, by the people of an area without the use of a court trial. Often the people lynched have been hanged. Other forms of lynching include being dragged to death behind a car, burning and use of a gun. What makes the execution a lynching is the nature of it being done without a court trial by people who believe the accused is guilty of a crime. Lynchings have been used in the southern states of the United States of America against African Americans during the time of slavery but more commonly after the abolition of slavery during the time of civil rights activism and the times of the various Ku Klux Klans. Lynching continues to be a problem to this day, and is not just limited to southern states. Lynching is murder, and many times the people who do it are never punished. One horrific example of Lynching is Lynching of Jesse Washington.

paragraphs: United States lynchings rose in number after the American Civil War in the early-to-mid 1860s.

paragraphs: Most lynchings were of African American men in the South. But women were also lynched. Also, white lynchings of blacks happened in the Midwest and Border States. Sometimes whites were also lynched. There were also lynchings of Native Americans, Hispanics and Asian Americans in the West, including California.


title: MERLIN

paragraphs: MERLIN, the Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network, is an array of radio telescopes. It is spread across Great Britain. There are seven radio telescopes in the array. MERLIN is run by Jodrell Bank Observatory, by the University of Manchester. It is run as a national facility on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council.


title: Grouped data

paragraphs: Grouped data is a statistical term used in data analysis. Raw data can be organized by grouping together similar measurements in a table. This frequency table is also called grouped data.

paragraphs: For example, someone gave a group of students a simple math question, and timed how long it took them to answer it. The numbers are below:

paragraphs: The smallest amount of time was 8 seconds, and the largest was 34 seconds. One method we could use to analyze the needed time is to group close numbers together. In order to keep the analysis fair, we'll make each group be the same number of seconds. We can then count how many students fell in each group. For example, if we organized scores into 5 second ranges:

paragraphs: Another way to group data is to organize the scores data into groups based on their performance. Suppose there are three types of students:

paragraphs: then the grouped data looks like the following:

paragraphs: An estimate, formula_1, of the mean can be calculated from grouped data.

paragraphs: Note that this estimated mean may be different from the sample mean of the ungrouped data. The mean of the grouped data in the above example can be calculated as follows:

paragraphs: Therefore, the mean of the grouped data is


title: Kim Hyun-Soo

paragraphs: Kim Hyun-Soo () is a Korean name. The surname is "Kim" (), and the given name is "Hyun-Soo" (). It is usually thought of as a unisex name. It can also be spelled as Kim Hyun-Su, Kim Hyeon-Soo or Kim Hyeon-Su.