title: Multi-user

paragraphs: Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system, computer program, or a game that allows use by more than one users of the same computer at the same time.

paragraphs: An example is a Unix server where multiple remote users have access (such as via Secure Shell) to the Unix shell prompt at the same time. Another example uses multiple X terminals so that multiple remote users can use X Window on a single machine.

paragraphs: The complementary term, single-user commonly refers to an operating system being usable only by one person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license agreement.

paragraphs: Single-user mode is a mode for Multi-user operating system where the computer boots or switches into a single superuser mode. It is mainly used for maintenance of multi-user environments such as network or Unix servers.


title: Flying squirrel

paragraphs: Flying squirrels are a tribe of 44 species in the squirrel family Sciuridae. Despite the name, none use powered flight: all are gliders.

paragraphs: They are sociable, noisy rodents that glide from tree to tree, using a flap of loose skin that connects their front and hind legs. They can glide up to 150 feet (46 m), steering with their tail, and landing on tree trunks, gripping it with all four feet.

paragraphs: These squirrels are nocturnal (most active at night). They have a life span of about five years in the wild, and about 13 years in captivity. Flying squirrels live in forests in North America, Europe and Asia.

paragraphs: Flying squirrels eat mostly plants, like seeds, nuts, leaves, maple sap, bulbs, bark, flowers, and roots. Less often, they eat insects, eggs, worms, small birds, and other small animals.

paragraphs: Flying squirrels are hunted by weasels, foxes, hawks, and coyotes.

paragraphs: Before the 21st century, the evolutionary history of the flying squirrel was often debated. This debate was clarified by two recent molecular studies. These studies found that the living flying squirrels originated 18–20 million years ago, are monophyletic, and have a sister relationship with tree squirrels.

paragraphs: There are reasons which may explain why gliding has evolved in mammals:


title: S1m0ne

paragraphs: S1m0ne is a 2002 American comedy-drama science fiction movie. It was directed by Andrew Niccol and released to movie theaters by Warner Bros. It stars Al Pacino.

paragraphs: Viktor Taransky (Al Pacino) is working on a movie project. He is running out of money and his star decided not to do it anymore, so his movie is in trouble. A computer programmer named Hank approaches Viktor and tells him that he is able to create a computer-generated character. Hank soon dies of cancer and gives the program to Viktor. Viktor uses the program to insert an actress in place of his original star and the movie is a huge hit. The program, titled "Simulation One," is simplified to "Simone."

paragraphs: Viktor is at first very happy that this is a success, and has her star in more movies. For her voice, he simply speaks into a microphone and the computer makes it a female voice. He conducts interviews. Simone goes on to win an Academy Award and is wildly famous. However, Viktor soon becomes unhappy with Simone and tries to make her unpopular by having her star in a bad movie. However, the people still love Simone and the movie is still a success. Finally, Viktor uses a virus and erases her program from the computer. He then throws a trunk full of CDs into the ocean.

paragraphs: The police come and arrest Viktor and charge her for the murder of Simone. They have a video showing him dragging the trunk into the ocean; they believe that there was a body inside. He tells them that Simone was never real, but they don't believe him. His ex-wife Elaine (Catherine Keener) and his daughter Lainey (Evan Rachel Wood) enter his studio. Lainey ejects the floppy disk, restoring the Simone program, and they create a short movie that shows that Simone is alive and well. The police let him go. Elaine and Lainey convince Viktor that Simone is a symbol now and that they should continue to keep her alive. The last scene shows Viktor and Simone together, with Viktor announcing that Simone and he just had a child.


Big Brother


title: Sooty mangabey

paragraphs: The sooty mangabey ("Cercocebus atys"), is an Old World monkey of Guinea Bissau, Gabon, Senegal and Ghana. It has social groups of four to twelve individuals.

paragraphs: Sooty mangabeys are naturally infected with a strain of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV). Due to extensive human-mangabey contact in sub-Saharan Africa, the virus has jumped from this species into humans on many occasions. This resulted in the HIV-2 virus. The HIV-1 strain by contrast came from the common chimpanzee strain of SIV.

paragraphs: The sooty mangabey can also get leprosy, as can humans, the Nine-banded Armadillo, the common chimpanzee, and the crab-eating macaque.


title: Joe Byrne

paragraphs: Joseph Byrne also known as Joe Byrne (November 1856 - June 28 1880) was an Australian bushranger. He is known as the lieutenant of the Kelly Gang. He was shot dead in the siege of Glenrowan. Joe Byrne was a very good shot, a good horseman and skilled at living in the bush. This made it difficult for the police to capture him. His skill at writing helped him to write the items that were important in starting the Kelly legend. He wrote the famous Jerilderie letter. There is also a legend that Ned Kelly, with Byrne's help, was going to start an independent republic in north east Victoria. The siege at Glenrowan was the first step.

paragraphs: Joe was born at Woolshed, near Beechworth, in November 1856. His father, Patrick Byrne, had come from County Carlow, Ireland, in 1849, to join his father, Joseph, who had come to Australia as a convict in 1834. Joe's mother was an Irish lady from Galway. The family moved to Sebastopol, a small gold mining town, about two kilometres farther up the valley. Joe learned to speak Chinese from the Chinese miners who lived in a small camp near his house. He was educated at a small Roman Catholic school at Woolshed.

paragraphs: After leaving school in 1870, Joe had a number of jobs including driving a delivery cart for a tannery, putting up fences, looking for gold, wood cutting, and shearing. He often visited the Chinese village at Beechworth and became addicted to opium. During the celebrations for the Prince of Wales birthday in 1873, Joe saw a suit of Chinese armour in the Beechworth museum. This armour provided the ideas for the armour the Kelly Gang wore at Glenrowan.

paragraphs: In September 1873, Byrne was in court for taking a neighbour, Anton Wick's horse. He had ridden it for several days before bringing it back. He had to pay a fine of 20 shillings. In December 1875, he was in court again for taking a saddle, but the court believed Byrne when he said he had found it in the bush. On May 20, 1876, Joe Byrne and his friend, Aaron Sherritt, stole a cow and cut it up for the meat. Someone saw them and told the police. They were taken to court and given six months in the Beechworth Gaol. In prison, Byrne and Sherritt met Jim Kelly, who was the brother of Ned and Dan Kelly. Joe Byrne met Ned Kelly in 1876 and they became friends.

paragraphs: Byrne was probably at the Kelly house on 15 April, 1878, when Constable Fitzpatrick said that Ned Kelly shot him and that Ellen Kelly, Ned's mother, had hit him over the head with a shovel. Ned and Dan Kelly went into hiding in the bush at Bullock Creek, an old gold mining area. The police offered a reward of £100 for them, and Ellen Kelly was sent to gaol for three years.

paragraphs: Joe Byrne was at Stringybark Creek with the Kelly brothers and Steve Hart on 26 October, 1878, when they found four police officers on their trail, and shot three of them dead. Joe Byrne shot dead Trooper Scanlon, and was wearing Scanlon's ring at the time of his death. The gang were made outlaws on 15 November 1878, which meant they could be legally killed by anyone at any time. A reward of £2000 (about AU$754,000 in 2008) was offered for them, dead or alive.

paragraphs: Byrne was Kelly's lieutenant, and the two of them planned the gang's actions. The Kelly Gang robbed the Euroa branch of the National Bank of Australia and took over £2,000. Joe Byrne wrote a letter in red ink for Ned Kelly which was sent to Donald Cameron, a local member of the Victorian Parliament. Ned said justice had not been done in the case of his mother and himself. It ended: "For I need no lead or powder to revenge my cause, and if words be louder I will oppose your laws."

paragraphs: The police locked up over 20 possible supporters of the Kelly gang between January 1879 and April 1879 under the "Felons Apprehension Act 1878". This increased public support for the gang, especially in north east Victoria. Joe Byrne was able to use this increase this by writing a number poems about Ned Kelly and his gang, including "My Name is Ned Kelly":

paragraphs: Joe Byrne often visited his mother at her house in Beechworth. He was also seen drinking in hotels in the town, even though there was a reward for him. He could do it because of his skill and daring, and because the police were badly trained and badly led, and because of the support of local people for the Kelly Gang.

paragraphs: Kelly and Byrne planned their next robbery for Jerilderie. On 10 February, 1879, dressed as policemen, the gang robbed the Bank of New South Wales at Jerilderie taking another £2,000. Byrne wrote the Jerilderie Letter after Ned kelly’s words which wanted an independent republic in north east Victoria. The money from both the Euroa and Jerilderie robberies was given to the gang's family, friends and supporters.

paragraphs: After the Jerilderie robbery, the gang went into hiding for 16 months. This increased their reputation and embarrassed the government of Victoria and the police. The Victorian Government increased the reward for the Kelly Gang to £8,000 (about AU$2,000,000 in 2005).

paragraphs: Byrne and Kelly planned another bank robbery in Benalla in 1880. They thought Aaron Sherritt was being used by police to get information about them. Byrne had told Sherritt to tell the police that the gang was planning a robbery in the Goulburn River while they were really planning the Jerilderie robbery. Kelly and Byrne believed that Sherritt could no longer be trusted. They also knew he was being protected by the police. Byrne and Dan Kelly murdered Sherritt on 26 June, 1880. Ned Kelly believed that this would bring a large group of police to Beechworth to search for the killers.

paragraphs: The next day, the Kelly Gang took over the town of Glenrowan. They tore up the railway tracks because they knew the police would travel by train to Beechworth. They held over 60 people hostage in Jones' Hotel. Thomas Curnow, the local school teacher, escaped and stopped the police train before it could crash on the missing track. The police were able to surround the hotel.

paragraphs: Joe Byrne helped design the armour worn by all members of the gang at Glenrowan. This did not stop him from being shot in the groin cutting his femoral artery. He was in the middle of a speech about the gang when he was shot. He died quickly from loss of blood on 28 June 1880. The police set fire to the hotel, but they dragged his body out of the hotel before it burned down. The bodies of Dan Kelly and Steve Hart were not brought out of the hotel, and were severely burned.

paragraphs: The next day his body was hung on the door of the police cells at Benalla, and photographed by newspaper reporters. It was only removed after a young woman begged the police to let Byrne rest in peace. His family did not take his body and the police would not give it to anyone else, they thought a funeral would become a starting point for a rebellion. He was buried in an unmarked grave on the edge of the Benalla cemetery.

paragraphs: Ned Kelly was captured and tried in Melbourne. Ned Kelly was hanged at Old Melbourne Gaol on 11 November 1880. There is a legend that Kelly and Byrne had written a Declaration for the Republic of north-east Victoria which was destroyed by the Victorian Government.

paragraphs: By writing the letters and the bush ballads, and designing the armour, Joe Byrne and Ned Kelly helped make the Kelly legend. In the following 125 years, the legend has grown. There have been a number of movies made about the Kelly Gang including "The Story of the Kelly Gang" in 1906, the world's first feature-length movie. In 2003, Orlando Bloom played the part of Joe Byrne in Gregor Jordan's movie, "Ned Kelly".

paragraphs: Australian novelist Peter Carey won the 2001 Booker Prize and the Commonwealth Writers Prize for the "True History of the Kelly Gang". This was based on the Jerilderie letter written by Byrne.

paragraphs: Ned Kelly and the Kelly Gang has been made famous by Sidney Nolan wearing the armour designed by Joe Byrne in a famous set of paintings. This was used as a scene at the opening ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.


title: College basketball

paragraphs: College basketball is basketball played between teams from colleges or universities, usually in the United States. The most popular American college basketball league is the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Basketball in the NCAA is put into three divisions: Division I, Division II and Division III. However, there are other college basketball leagues, such as the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). College basketball teams are split into conferences, which are groups of about 10 teams.

paragraphs: Division I of the NCAA has two tournaments to determine who the national champion. One tournament is for men and one is for women. The men's tournament has 68 teams, and the women's tournament has 64 teams. These tournaments are often called "March Madness".

paragraphs: NCAA basketball and NBA basketball are different in some ways:


title: Public university

paragraphs: A public university is a university that is given money by the public or the government.


title: University of Michigan-Flint

paragraphs: The University of Michigan–Flint is in Flint, Michigan, United States. It is one of the three campuses in the University of Michigan, Michigan's oldest university and main campus.


title: Shirley Hufstedler

paragraphs: Shirley Mount Hufstedler (August 24, 1925 – March 30, 2016) was United States Secretary of Education under President Jimmy Carter. She was born in Denver, Colorado.

paragraphs: In 1966, she was appointed Associate Justice of the California Court of Appeal. President Lyndon Johnson appointed her Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in 1968. She served for eleven years before President Jimmy Carter appointed her U.S. Secretary of Education.

paragraphs: Hufstedler was considered to be a candidate for the Supreme Court if a vacancy had occurred under a Jimmy Carter Presidency.

paragraphs: On March 30, 2016, Hufstedler died in Glendale, California from cerebrovascular disease at the age of 90.


title: University of Michigan–Dearborn

paragraphs: The University of Michigan–Dearborn is a university in Dearborn, Michigan, United States. It is one of the three campuses in the University of Michigan, Michigan's oldest university and main campus.


title: Margaret Spellings

paragraphs: Margaret Spellings (born Margaret Dudar on November 30, 1957) was the second Secretary of Education under the administration of U.S. President George W. Bush. She was previously Assistant to the President for Domestic Policy to President Bush.

paragraphs: She was one of the principal authors of the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act.


title: Public Ivy

paragraphs: Public Ivy is a term started by Richard Moll in his 1985 book "Public Ivys: A Guide to America's best public undergraduate colleges and universities". The book is about universities which "provide an Ivy League collegiate experience at a public school price." Public Ivies are chosen, according to the "Journal of Blacks in Higher Education", to be able to be "successfully competing with the Ivy League schools in academic rigor... attracting superstar faculty and in competing for the best and brightest students of all races."


title: Nundle, New South Wales

paragraphs: Nundle is a village in the New England area of New South Wales, Australia. It was once the centre of Nundle Shire. Most of this area, including the village of Nundle, was added to the new Tamworth Regional Council in 2004. The village is 400 km north of Sydney and about 56 km south east of Tamworth. In 2006 there were 289 people living in Nundle.

paragraphs: Nundle was settled when gold was found nearby at “The Hanging Rock” and Swamp Creek in 1852. By June 1852 there were 300 people digging for gold at Oakenville Creek. People from California, Europe and China were also digging along the Peel River and up the mountain slopes. By 1865 there were about 500 people living there and about 50 shops and small businesses had started. A school building was put up in December 1871. Lessons started in 1872. Nundle was made a town in 1885. In 1924 the Peel River Bridge was built. In 1941 electricity was connected to the town. During 1966 the swimming pool was opened by the Rt Hon. Ian Sinclair. There were 1350 people living in the area in 1969. In 1979 the Premier of New South Wales, Neville Wran, opened the new Chaffey Dam. Sheep, cattle and timber are now the main business activities in Nundle.

paragraphs: There are many old buildings: the Nundle Woollen Mill, old Court House, Peel Inn and Primitive Methodist Church. The old Nundle Courthouse and Police Station have been placed on the Register of the National Estate.

paragraphs: Nundle is of the best areas in the State for finding crystals. Some gold and other precious stones can be found including zircons, green jasper, sapphires and serpentine minerals. Nundle is a popular tourist destination for both casual travellers and motorcycle riders. Nearby is the interesting Hanging Rock mining village with good views of the Nundle valley.

paragraphs: A new bridge across the Peel River at Nundle was finished in 2008. The cost of $683,000 was paid by the NSW State Government.

paragraphs: In July 2008 the rare Euphrasia arguta was rediscovered in a State Forest near Nundle. This plant was last recorded in 1904. It is believed to have grown after fire control burning the previous summer.

paragraphs: The annual Go for Gold Festival is held each Easter with around 4,000 visitors. The State Member for Tamworth told the NSW Parliament “that visitors had come to Nundle from all points of the compass during the Easter weekend to enjoy the relaxed atmosphere and the beautiful setting.” The Great Nundle Dog Race, only open to working dogs, is run on the first Sunday in May and attracts many visitors. This event helps to raise money for sporting equipment, computers, books and trips for students at the Nundle Public School.


title: National Library of Australia

paragraphs: The National Library of Australia is Australia's largest reference library. It was started by the "National Library Act". The library has to keep and develop a national collection of library material. This includes a broad and complete collection of library material about Australia and the Australian people. It is in Canberra, the capital of Australia.

paragraphs: The National Library of Australia, was officially set up with the "National Library Act, 1960". It had been working as a National Library, not just a Parliamentary Library, since 1901.

paragraphs: In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was started to help the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia. From its beginning, the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library began to develop of a truly national collection. In 1907 the chairman of the Joint Parliamentary Library Committee, Sir Frederick Holder, gave the reasons for having the library. Australia should have a great public library, like the famous Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. It would be a home for the literature of the world, for ever.

paragraphs: The library building was opened in 1968.

paragraphs: The Library's collections of Australian objects has become the nation's single most important collection of materials recording the Australian cultural history. The Library collects Australian materials of all kinds including:

paragraphs: The Library has good collections in the performing arts, including dance. The Library also has big collections of general overseas and rare book materials, as well as world-class Asian and Pacific collections which add to the Australian collections.

paragraphs: The print collections include large collections of microform. The Library keeps the National Reserve Braille Collection. In total, over 5 million items are held. Films and sound recordings are kept in a separate collection run by the National Film and Sound Archive in Canberra.

paragraphs: The Library has digitised over 130,000 items from its collection. The 100,000th was a photo . These digital items can be seen on the Internet. The Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques. It keeps an Internet archive of selected Australian websites, called the Pandora Archive.


title: Breeza, New South Wales

paragraphs: Breeza is a small village in New South Wales, Australia. It is about 43 kms south of Gunnedah and 393 km north of Sydney. It is a part of the Gunnedah Shire Local Government Area. Breeza is in the Liverpool Plains agricultural area. The area around Breeza is called the "Breeza Plains". There are about 25 people who live in Breeza, and 133 who live in the area.

paragraphs: Breeza is on the Kamilaroi Highway about halfway between Gunnedah and Quirindi. It is also on the North-west railway line, close to where it crosses the Mooki River. Breeza has a grain silo.

paragraphs: It is often erroneously said that the bushranger Ben Hall was born at Breeza. He was in fact born near Maitland, NSW but his father, Ben HAll Snr worked on Breeza Station at one time. There is a Ben Hall wall with a painting at the roadside rest area/picnic spot. The mural was painted by Bronwyn Bassett.

paragraphs: The bushranger, Frederick Ward, known as 'Thunderbolt', robbed a Mr Matthews on the Breeza Plain in 1865.

paragraphs: Dow AgroSciences has established an agricultural research field station at Breeza which researches wheat breeds.


title: Retail

paragraphs: Retail is selling goods or items to the people who will use them. This is different from wholesale, which is selling to a retailer.

paragraphs: According to Oxford Dictionary, Retail is the sale of goods to the public in relatively small quantities for use or consumption rather than for resale.

paragraphs: Retailers buy finished goods or items directly from a manufacturer or a wholesaler and then distribute in smaller quantities to the final consumer who has a need for such items.

paragraphs: For instance, when we buy shoes to wear or food to eat, we buy from a retailer.

paragraphs: Retailing can be done at shops and stores. This includes department stores, malls and markets where stalls or stands are set up at a cleared area.

paragraphs: Another way of purchasing retail items is by ordering them by mail, telephone, Internet or other methods, to be delivered by post or package delivery service such as United Parcel Service. Some items are sold door-to-door, in which a sales person goes to a possible customers home and tries to sell an item.


title: Mauro Zárate

paragraphs: Mauro Zàrate (born March 18 1987 in Buenos Aires, Argentina) is a Argentine football player (footballer). He plays for Lazio.


title: Gunnedah, New South Wales

paragraphs: Gunnedah is a town in north-western New South Wales, Australia. In 2006 there were 7,542 people living in the town.

paragraphs: Gunnedah is on the Oxley and Kamilaroi Highways. It is 475 kms from Sydney. There is also a railway to Sydney. There is a daily train service, the Countrylink Xplorer, between Sydney and Moree.

paragraphs: The major business is agriculture. Gunnedah produces cotton, coal, beef, lamb, pork, and cereal and oilseed grains.

paragraphs: Gunnedah is also the home of AgQuip, Australia's largest annual exhibition of agricultural equipment.

paragraphs: The Gunnedah area was the home of the Australian Aborigines who spoke the Kamilaroi (Gamilaraay) language. The area of the town was settled by Europeans in 1833 or 1834.

paragraphs: Dorothea Mackellar wrote her famous poem "My Country" (popularly known as "I Love a Sunburnt Country") about her family's farm near Gunnedah. Every year the Dorothea Mackellar Poetry Awards for school students are held in Gunnedah.

paragraphs: Coal was found on Black Jack Hill in 1877. By 1891, 6,000 tons of coal had been dug from shafts. The Gunnedah Colliery Company was registered in May, 1899. One month later a private railway some 5.7 km in length had been completed from the railway station to their mine. In September, 1957, the Government Railway took over the working of the line.

paragraphs: "The Red Chief," by great Australian author Ion L. Idriess, tells the true story of "Red Kangaroo" and his tribe, from this area.

paragraphs: Gunnedah Shire is 264 metres above sea level on the Liverpool Plains in the Namoi River valley. It is very flat. The tallest hills are only 200 metres above the flat plains. The climate is hot in summer, mild in winter and dry. Rainstorms occasionally cause flooding of the Namoi River. Floods can cut transport links to the town and cut it off from the outside world.

paragraphs: The Gunnedah area has a lot of Australian wildlife, including kangaroos, echidnas and koalas. Koalas can often be seen in trees within the town.

paragraphs: There is a newspaper, the Namoi Valley Independent. There are 2 radio stations 2MO and 2GGG. 2MO claims to be the first station started in Australia outside the capital cities.

paragraphs: Gunnedah railway station is on the Mungindi (or North West) railway line, 475 km from Sydney. The station was opened in 1879. There is a large station building with single platform. There is also a passing loop and small goods yard. There is a single daily Xplorer diesel railmotor operating between Sydney and Moree.


title: Instruction pipelining

paragraphs: Instruction pipelining is a technique used in the design of modern microprocessors, microcontrollers and CPUs to increase their instruction throughput (the number of instructions that can be executed in a unit of time).

paragraphs: The main idea is to divide (termed "split") the processing of a CPU instruction, as defined by the instruction microcode, into a series of independent steps of micro-operations (also called "microinstructions", "micro-op" or "µop"), with storage at the end of each step. This allows the CPUs control logic to handle instructions at the processing rate of the slowest step, which is much faster than the time needed to process the instruction as a single step.

paragraphs: The term pipeline refers to the fact that each step is carrying a single microinstruction (like a drop of water), and each step is linked to another step (analogy; similar to water pipes).

paragraphs: Most modern CPUs are driven by a clock. The CPU consists internally of logic and memory (flip flops). When the clock signal arrives, the flip flops store their new value then the logic requires a period of time to decode the flip flops new values. Then the next clock pulse arrives and the flip flops store another values, and so on. By breaking the logic into smaller pieces and inserting flip flops between pieces of logic, the time required by the logic (to decode values till generating valid outputs depending on these values) is reduced. In this way the clock period can be reduced.<br>For example, the RISC pipeline is broken into five stages with a set of flip flops between each stage as follows:

paragraphs: Processors with pipelining consist internally of stages (modules) which can semi-independently work on separate microinstructions. Each stage is linked by flip flops to the next stage (like a "chain") so that the stage's output is an input to another stage until the job of processing instructions is done. Such organization of processor internal modules reduces the instruction's overall processing time.

paragraphs: A non-pipeline architecture is not as efficient because some CPU modules are idle while another module is active during the instruction cycle. Pipelining does not completely remove idle time in a pipelined CPU, but making CPU modules work in parallel increases instruction throughput.

paragraphs: An instruction pipeline is said to be "fully pipelined" if it can accept a new instruction every clock cycle. A pipeline that is not fully pipelined has wait cycles that delay the progress of the pipeline.

paragraphs: To the right is a generic pipeline with four stages:

paragraphs: The top gray box is the list of instructions waiting to be executed; the bottom gray box is the list of instructions that have been completed; and the middle white box is the pipeline.

paragraphs: When a "hiccup" (interruption) in execution occurs, a "bubble" is created in the pipeline in which nothing useful happens. In cycle 2, the fetching of the purple instruction is delayed and the decoding stage in cycle 3 now contains a bubble. Everything behind the purple instruction is delayed as well but everything in front of the purple instruction continues with execution.

paragraphs: Clearly, when compared to the execution above, the bubble yields a total execution time of 8 clock ticks instead of 7.

paragraphs: Bubbles are like stalls (delays), in which nothing useful will happen for the fetch, decode, execute and writeback. It is like a NOP (short for No OPeration) code.

paragraphs: A typical instruction to add two numbers might be codice_1, which adds the values found in memory locations A and B, and then puts the result in memory location C. In a pipelined processor the pipeline controller would break this into a series of tasks similar to:

paragraphs: The locations 'R1' and 'R2' are registers in the CPU. The values stored in memory locations labeled 'A' and 'B' are loaded (copied) into these registers, then added, and the result is stored in a memory location labeled 'C'.

paragraphs: In this example the pipeline is three stages long- load, execute, and store. Each of the steps are called pipeline stages.

paragraphs: On a non-pipelined processor, only one stage can be working at a time so the entire instruction has to complete before the next instruction can begin. On a pipelined processor, all of the stages can be working at once on different instructions. So when this instruction is at the execute stage, a second instruction will be at the decode stage and a 3rd instruction will be at the fetch stage.

paragraphs: To better understand the concept, we can look at a theoretical 3-stage pipeline:

paragraphs: and a pseudo-code assembly listing to be executed:

paragraphs: The LOAD instruction is fetched from memory.

paragraphs: The LOAD instruction is executed, while the MOVE instruction is fetched from memory.

paragraphs: The LOAD instruction is in the Store stage, where its result (the number 40) will be stored in the register A.

paragraphs: In the meantime, the MOVE instruction is being executed.

paragraphs: Since it must move the contents of A into B, it must wait for the ending of the LOAD instruction.

paragraphs: The STORE instruction is loaded, while the MOVE instruction is finishing off and the ADD is calculating.

paragraphs: And so on. Note that, sometimes, an instruction will depend on the result of another one (like our MOVE example). When more than one instruction references a particular location for an operand, either reading it (as an input) or writing it (as an output), executing those instructions in an order different from the original program order can lead to the hazards situation (mentioned above).


title: Sami Hyypiä

paragraphs: Sami Hyypiä (born 7 October 1973 in Porvoo) is a Finnish football player. He plays for Bayer Leverkusen and the Finland national team. He is a defender in both of his teams and is captain of Finland and used to be the captain of Liverpool.


title: Now That's What I Call Music! 29 (U.S. series)

paragraphs: Now That's What I Call Music! 29 is the 29th album in the original Now series. This compilation album was released in November 2008. Songs include "Thunder" by Boys Like Girls, "Whatever You Like" by T.I., "Got Money" by Lil Wayne, and "Dangerous" by Kardinal Offishall and Akon and 16 other tracks.


title: Thrissur

paragraphs: Thrissur is one of the fourteen districts of Kerala in southwest India. It is the second largest city in Kerala and 20th largest city in India. At the center of the city is a temple, the Vadakkumnathan temple which has Lord Siva as its presiding deity. It is known as the cultural capital of Kerala because of the city's association with history, culture and archaeological remains. Thrissur was once the capital of the Kingdom of Cochin. It is located 300 kilometers (186 mi) towards north-west of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. It is famous for Thrissur Pooram which is a temple festival. Thrissur is also known as the “cultural capital of Kerala” as its well known for its cultural, spiritual and religious learnings throughout history.


title: Michigan Territory

paragraphs: Michigan Territory was a territory of the United States in the early 19th century, between June 30, 1805 and January 26, 1837, when it became Michigan, the 26th state of the Union. Detroit was the territory's capital.

paragraphs: The Treaty of Detroit was signed on November 17, 1807 between William Hurt and American Indians from the Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and Wyandot people. Those Indian tribes agreed to give the United States the area of Southeast Michigan and a part of Ohio near the Maumee River. The Indians were allowed to own small amounts of land in the area. This helped expand the territory.

paragraphs: These numbers do not count most Native Americans. In 1800, the whole of the Northwest Territory had 43,365 people living in it. Under the Northwest Ordinance, a territory could apply to become a state once it had 60,000 people living in it.


title: Syro-Malabar Catholic Church

paragraphs: The Syro-Malabar Catholic Church is a Chaldean Rite, Major Archiepiscopal Church in the Roman Catholic Church. It is the largest group among the Saint Thomas Christians. It originates from St. Thomas the Apostle who is believed to have come to India in AD 52. The Syro Malabar Church is the largest St. Thomas Christian community in India. They are also referred to as Syrian Catholics in Kerala. This church has its headquarters in Cochin, Kerala.

paragraphs: Cardinal Mar George Alencherry is the current head of this church.

paragraphs: The first Indian woman Saint, Saint Alphonsa belongs to this church.

paragraphs: Syro-Malabar Church has its presence all over the world. However the proper location is in South India. There are 26 Syro-Malabar dioceses world wide.


title: Jurassic Coast

paragraphs: The Jurassic Coast is a stretch of coast in south-west England. It is between Orcombe Point near Exmouth in East Devon and Old Harry Rocks near Swanage in East Dorset. This is 96 miles long (154 km).

paragraphs: Its entire length can be walked on the South West Coast Path.

paragraphs: Some of the greatest fossil discoveries were made in this area.

paragraphs: These finds were by Mary Anning in the first part of the 19th century. This area was home to Mary, a collector who searched for fossils of the coastline around Lyme Regis and discovered several complete Ichthyosaur fossils.

paragraphs: The Jurassic Coast is made of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous cliffs, spanning 185 million years of geological history.

paragraphs: The site contains a number of special features and shows different landforms, including the natural arch at Durdle Door, the cove and limestone folding at Lulworth Cove and an island, the Isle of Portland.

paragraphs: Chesil Beach (or Chesil Bank) is one of England's three shingle (gravel) beaches. It is a barrier beach which runs parallel to the coastline and connects to Portland Bill (see photo). Between the barrier and the regular coastline is a lagoon.

paragraphs: Golden Cap is the highest place on the south coast of England. It is high.

paragraphs: This section notes the main rocks found on the coast, starting with the lowest (earliest).

paragraphs: The Blue Lias is a geologic formation in the Jurassic Coast and parts of south Wales. It is part of the Lias Group.

paragraphs: The Blue Lias consists of a sequence of limestone and shale layers. It was laid down in late Triassic and early Jurassic times, between 195 and 200 million years ago. The Blue Lias is famous for its fossils, especially ammonites. Also found were remains of a number of dinosaurs, and the pterosaur "Dimorphodon".

paragraphs: The Blue Lias alternates between limestone, (with some clay), and mudstone.

paragraphs: These are special towns that are related to the Jurassic Coast:


title: Instruction (computer science)

paragraphs: In computer science, an instruction is a single operation of a processor defined by the processor instruction set.

paragraphs: The size or length of an instruction varies widely, from as little as 4-bits in some microcontrollers to many as multiples of a bytes in some very long instruction word (VLIW) systems. Most modern processors used in personal computers, mainframes, and supercomputers have instruction sizes between 16 and 64 bits. In some architectures, especially Reduced instruction set computers, instructions are of fixed length, typically corresponding with that architecture's word size.

paragraphs: On traditional architectures, an instruction includes an opcode specifying the operation to be performed, such as "add contents of memory to register", and zero or more operand specifiers, which may specify registers, memory locations, or literal data. The operand specifiers may have addressing modes determining their meaning or may be in fixed fields.

paragraphs: In VLIW architectures, which include many microcode architectures, multiple simultaneous operations and operands are specified in a single instruction.

paragraphs: Instructions are rarely specified using their machine code form; they may be specified by programmers using an assembly language or, more commonly, may be generated by compilers.

paragraphs: There is another more general definition for an "instruction" not only related to the processor instruction set, which is: An "instruction" may be any representation of an element of an executable computer program.


title: Piacenza

paragraphs: Piacenza is a city in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy. It is the capital city of the province of Piacenza. 99,897 people live there. Piacenza is famous for its "palazzi".


title: Superscalar

paragraphs: A superscalar CPU design makes a form of parallel computing called Instruction-level parallelism inside a single CPU, which allows more work to be done at the same clock rate. This means the CPU executes more than one instruction during a clock cycle by running multiple instructions at the same time (called instruction dispatching) on duplicate functional units. Each functional unit is just an execution resource inside the CPU core, like an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), floating point unit (FPU), a bit shifter, or a multiplier.

paragraphs: Most superscalar CPUs are also pipelined, but it's possible to have a non-pipelined superscalar CPU or a pipelined non-superscalar CPU.

paragraphs: The superscalar technique is supported by several features of the CPU core:

paragraphs: Each instruction run by a scalar processor changes one or two data items at a time, but each instruction executed by a vector processor handles many data items at once. A superscalar processor is a mixture of the two:

paragraphs: In a superscalar CPU an instruction dispatcher reads instructions from memory and decides which ones can be run in parallel, dispatching them on the multiple duplicate functional units available inside the CPU.

paragraphs: Superscalar CPU design is concerned with improving accuracy of the instruction dispatcher, and allowing it to keep the multiple functional units busy at all times. As of 2008, all general-purpose CPUs are superscalar, a typical superscalar CPU may include up to 4 ALUs, 2 FPUs, and two SIMD units. If the dispatcher can't keep all of the units busy, the performance of the CPU will be lower.

paragraphs: Performance improvement in Superscalar CPU design is limited by two things:

paragraphs: Even given infinitely fast dependency checking inside a normal superscalar CPU, if the instruction list itself has many dependencies, this would also limit the possible performance improvement, so the amount of built-in parallelism in the code is another limitation.

paragraphs: No matter how fast the dispatcher speed, there is a practical limit on how many instructions can be simultaneously dispatched. While hardware advances will allow for more functional units (e.g., ALUs) per CPU core, the problem of checking instruction dependencies increases to a limit that the achievable superscalar dispatching limit is somewhat small. -- Likely on the order of five to six simultaneously dispatched instructions.

paragraphs: The various alternative techniques are not mutually exclusive—they can be (and frequently are) combined in a single processor, so it is possible to design a multicore CPU is where each core is an independent processor with multiple parallel superscalar pipelines. Some multicore processors also include vector capability.


Abercrombie


title: SA80

paragraphs: SA80 (Small Arms for the 80s) is the name of a weapons family used by the British Army and Royal Marines. All are of bullpup design: this means the magazine is behind the trigger so the weapon is shorter yet still has a long barrel.

paragraphs: The series includes an assault rifle known as the L85 and a Light Support Weapon (LSW) designated the L86 as well as a carbine variant for helicopter crews and a bolt action army cadet variant.

paragraphs: The LSW variant is far more accurate than its predecessor, and is used in army FSGs (Fire Support Groups). They are amazingly accurate for their size (Army marksmanship tests were redesigned after the SA80 introduction because it was so accurate). Nevertheless, the SA80 family has been plagued by poor reliability. They have had an upgrade by the German arms company H&K when it was British owned. This resulted in the A2 series, but not all models have been upgraded.

paragraphs: The SA80 also has a cadet force variant (L98 A2 Cadet GP) that is the same size, and is used throughout the ACF. It has a success rate far higher than the old, bolt-action A1 version.


title: Geoff Bunn

paragraphs: Geoff Bunn is an English artist. He was born in Birmingham, England in 1963. He has been in galleries such as the Tate but is better known for putting his work in the ordinary environment rather than 'ordinary' art galleries. He worked in France, for a time, with painter Fred Yates.


title: Fred Yates

paragraphs: Fred Yates (1922-2008) was an English artist. His work was very much in the style of the late LS Lowry. Yates lived and worked all over England but in later years he was based in France.


title: Sauerbraten

paragraphs: Sauerbraten is a meat dish eaten mainly in Germany, but also neighbouring countries. The name comes form "sauer" (sour) and "braten" (roast). It refers to the way the dish is prepared: the meat is left in a kind of sour sauce (based on vinegar) to marinate


title: The Economist

paragraphs: The Economist is a magazine published each week in England. It was founded in 1843. It currently has about 1.3 million subscribers.

paragraphs: "The Economist" is classically liberal and economically liberal. It supports free trade, globalization, and the legalization of same-sex marriage and illegal drugs. It targets highly educated readers, as well as famous people such as Bill Gates, Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher, and Ted Turner.

paragraphs: "The Economist" has a consistent voice, partly because its writers are anonymous. It assumes its readers have a basic understanding of economics. Its articles are often witty.


title: Our Lady of Guadalupe

paragraphs: Our Lady of Guadalupe (Spanish: "Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe") is a name for the Virgin Mary who is said to have appeared at Tepeyac Hills in Guadalupe, a town near Mexico City. She is said to have appeared to a poor native American named Juan Diego. Our Lady of Guadalupe is one of the most popular cultural and religious icons in the Hispanic world. The feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe is celebrated each year by the Catholic Church on December 12, the anniversary of her appearance.


title: Poison (band)

paragraphs: Poison is an American glam metal band from Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania. They were formed in 1983. Their lead singer is Bret Michaels. One of their most popular hits was ""Every Rose Has Its Thorn"" which was the Hot 100 number-one single of December 24, 1988 and lasted until January 7, 1989.


title: Yao Ming

paragraphs: Yao Ming (; born September 12, 1980) is a former Chinese professional basketball player. He played for the Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was the tallest player in the NBA, at .

paragraphs: Yao was born in Shanghai, People's Republic of China. He started with the Shanghai Sharks as a teenager and played on their senior team for five years in the Chinese Basketball Association (CBA). The team won a championship in his final year. Then he entered the 2002 NBA Draft. The CBA had to release him, and he was selected by the Houston Rockets to play on their team. He had also been chosen to play for the NBA All-Star Game for all six of his seasons. However, the Rockets have not advanced past the first round of the playoffs since he joined the team, and he has also had injuries in each of the past three seasons. On July 20, 2011, Yao announced that he was retiring from basketball after many foot and ankle injuries.

paragraphs: His father, Yao Zhiyuan, is 2.08 m or 6 ft 10 in tall; his mother, Fengdi Fang, is 1.88 m or 6 ft 2 in tall. She was captain of the Chinese national women's basketball team. Yao's parents were the tallest couple in China when he was born.

paragraphs: Yao is married to Ye Li, who used to play for the China women's national basketball team. He is one of China's best-known athletes. He has sponsorships with several major companies, and he has been the richest celebrity in China for six straight years, earning US$51 million (CN¥357 million) in 2008.

paragraphs: His rookie year in the NBA was the subject of a documentary film, "The Year of the Yao", and he recently wrote an autobiography titled "Yao: A Life in Two Worlds".


title: Ray Emery

paragraphs: Raymond "Ray" Emery (September 28, 1982 – July 15, 2018) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player. He played for the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League (NHL) until his death. Emery played for the Ottawa Senators, Anaheim Ducks and Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL). He also played in KHL with the Atlant Moscow Oblast. Emery was awarded many honors, most from the minor league.

paragraphs: Emery was given various nicknames over his career, most goes by "Razor" and "Sugar Ray." In the 2001 NHL entry draft, Emery was chosen 99th overall by the Ottawa Senators. Emery was made starting goaltender in the 2006-07 NHL season. That year, the Senators made it to the Stanley Cup finals. On June 20, 2008, after some off-ice incidents, the Senators released Emery. Under one month later, Emery signed a one-year, $2M contract with Atlant Mytishchi of the Russian KHL. After his time in Russia, it was announced on June 10, 2009 that the Philadelphia Flyers had signed him to a one-year deal for $1.5 million. In March 2010, Flyers GM Paul Holmgren announced that Emery would miss the remainder of the season because of avascular necrosis and that a bone graft would be done to alleviate his hip issues. Emery began workout and rehabilitation process and later signed a one-year, two-way contract with the Anaheim Ducks on February 7, 2011. During his time with the Ducks, he tied for fourth in the league after he posted a 7–2–0 record with a 2.28 goals-against average (GAA) and a .926 save percentage (SV%) in 10 regular season games going into the playoffs. He attended the Chicago Blackhawks training camp on a tryout basis and was later signed by the Blackhawks to a 1-year, $600,000 deal.

paragraphs: Emery has been known for getting into several altercations while playing ice hockey, a rarity for an ice-hockey goaltender. Emery once fought two Buffalo Sabres players, Martin Biron and Andrew Peters in a line brawl during the 2006-07 NHL season. He also fought with his teammate, Brian McGrattan, during a practice in January 2008. He has also fought with teammate's Jason Spezza and Chris Neil.

paragraphs: On June 24, 2013, He won the Stanley Cup with the Blackhawks after they defeated the Boston Bruins 4 games to 2 in the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals.

paragraphs: On July 5, 2013, he signed a $1.65 million, 1-year deal with the Philadelphia Flyers.

paragraphs: On July 15, 2018, Emery accidentally drowned while diving at a yacht club in Hamilton, Ontario, aged 35.


title: Execution unit

paragraphs: In computer engineering, an execution unit is a part of a CPU (not to be confused with the CPUs main control unit) that performs specific operations or calculations. It may have its own internal control sequence unit, some registers, and other internal units such as a sub-ALU or FPU, or some smaller, more specific components.

paragraphs: Now modern CPUs have multiple parallel execution units, referred to as scalar or superscalar design. The simplest arrangement is to use one, the bus manager, to manage the memory interface, and the others to perform calculations. Additionally, modern CPUs execution units are usually pipelined.


title: Pre-1600 Atlantic hurricane seasons

paragraphs: The pre-1600 Atlantic hurricane seasons talks about all known Atlantic tropical cyclones before to 1600. While info for every storm that happened is not available, some parts of the coastline had enough people to give info of hurricane happenings. Each season was an event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation in the Atlantic basin. Most tropical cyclone formation occurs between June 1 and November 30.

paragraphs: Observation info for years before 1492 is completely unavailable because record keeping was non-existent in the pre-Columbian era, and any records that may have once existed have long since been lost. Even info from the early years of the Columbian era is suspect and incomplete because the difference between a hurricane and an extratropical system was not drawn by Renaissance scientists and sailors and because European exploration and colonization of the regions affected by hurricanes did not begin in earnest until the mid-16th century.

paragraphs: However, paleotempestological research allows reconstruction of pre-historic hurricane activity trends on timescales of centuries to millennia. A theory has been postulated that an anti-phase pattern exists between the Gulf of Mexico coast and the Atlantic coast. During the quiescent periods, a more northeasterly position of the Azores High would result in more hurricanes being steered towards the Atlantic coast. During the hyperactive period, more hurricanes were steered towards the Gulf coast as the Azores High—controlled by the North Atlantic Oscillation—was shifted to a more southwesterly position near the Caribbean. In fact, few major hurricanes struck the Gulf coast during 3000–1400 BC and again during the most recent millennium; these quiescent intervals were separated by a hyperactive period during 1400 BC and 1000 AD, when the Gulf coast was struck frequently by catastrophic hurricanes and their landfall probabilities increased by 3–5 times. On the Atlantic coast, chance of landfalling hurricanes has doubled in the recent millennium compared to the one and a half millennia before.


title: Valley Parade

paragraphs: Valley Parade, also known by its sponsored name of the Coral Windows Stadium is a football stadium in Bradford in England. It is home to the club Bradford City A.F.C. It was built in 1886. In 1985, a fire in one of the stands killed 56 people.


title: Levi Lincoln Sr.

paragraphs: Levi Lincoln, Sr. (May 15, 1749–April 14, 1820) was an American revolutionary. He was a Minuteman at the beginning of the American Revolutionary War, a state legislator in Massachusetts, Governor of Massachusetts, Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts, a U.S. Representative, Attorney General for President Thomas Jefferson and Acting Secretary of State.


title: James R. Schlesinger

paragraphs: James Rodney Schlesinger (February 15, 1929 - March 27, 2014) was United States Secretary of Defense from 1973 to 1975 under presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. He became America's first Secretary of Energy under Jimmy Carter.

paragraphs: On March 27, 2014, Schlesinger died from complications of pneumonia at a Baltimore hospital. He was 85.


title: Simultaneous multithreading

paragraphs: Simultaneous multithreading, acronym SMT, is a technique for improving the overall efficiency of superscalar CPUs with Hardware multithreading. SMT permits multiple independent threads of execution to better utilize the resources provided by modern computer architectures.

paragraphs: Multithreading is similar in concept to multitasking but is implemented at the thread level of execution in modern superscalar processors.

paragraphs: In processor design, there are two ways to increase on-chip parallelism with less resource requirements:

paragraphs: There are many ways to support more than one thread inside a chip, namely:

paragraphs: The key factor to distinguish them is to look at how many instructions the processor can issue in one cycle and how many threads from which the instructions come.


title: Out-of-order execution

paragraphs: In computer engineering, out-of-order execution, OoOE, is a technique used in most high-performance microprocessors to make use of cycles that would otherwise be wasted by a certain type of costly delay. Most modern CPU designs include support for out of order execution.

paragraphs: The key concept of OoO processing is to allow the processor to avoid a class of delays (termed: ""stalls "") that occur when the data needed to perform an operation are unavailable.

paragraphs: OoO processors fill these "slots" in time with other instructions that are ready, then re-order the results at the end to make it appear that the instructions were processed as normal. The way the instructions are ordered in the original computer code is known as program order, in the processor they are handled in data order (the order in which the data, operands, become available in the processor's registers). Fairly complex circuitry is needed to convert from one ordering to the other and maintain a logical ordering of the output; the processor itself appears to be running the instructions in random order.

paragraphs: The benefit of OoO processing grows as the instruction pipeline expands and the speed difference between main memory (or cache memory) and the processor increases. On modern machines, the processor runs many times faster than the memory, so during the time an in-order processor spends waiting for data to arrive, it could have processed a large number of instructions.

paragraphs: In earlier In-order processors, the processing of instructions is normally done in these steps:

paragraphs: Out-of-order processors breaks up the processing of instructions into these steps:

paragraphs: In the examples outlined above, the OoO processor avoids the stall that occurs in step (2) of the in-order processor when the instruction is not completely ready to be processed due to missing data.


title: Speculative execution

paragraphs: In computer science, speculative execution is the execution of code, before being sure if the result will be needed.

paragraphs: The technique is used in most high-performance microprocessors to execute a complete instructions or parts of instructions before being sure whether this execution is required

paragraphs: In the context of functional programming, the term "speculative evaluation" is used instead.


title: Branch prediction

paragraphs: In computer architecture, a branch predictor is the part of a processor that determines whether a conditional branch (jump) in the instruction flow of a program is likely to be taken or not. This is called branch prediction.

paragraphs: Branch predictors are important in today's modern, superscalar processors for achieving high performance. They allow processors to fetch and execute instructions without waiting for a branch to be resolved.

paragraphs: Almost all pipelined processors do branch prediction of some form, because they must guess the address of the next instruction to fetch before the current instruction has been executed.

paragraphs: Many earlier microprogrammed CPUs did not do branch prediction because there was little or no performance requirements; for this reason there is no need for altering the flow of the instruction stream.


Aka


title: Key exchange

paragraphs: Key exchange is any method in cryptography by which cryptographic keys are exchanged between users, allowing use of a cryptographic system.

paragraphs: If two parties wish to exchange encrypted messages, each needs to know how to decrypt received messages and to encrypt sent messages. The information they require to do so depends on the encryption technique they might use. If they use a code, both will require a copy of the same codebook. If they use a cipher, they will need appropriate keys. If the cipher is a symmetric key cipher, both will need a copy of the same key. If an asymmetric key cipher with the public/private key property, both will need the other's public key.

paragraphs: The key exchange problem is how to exchange whatever keys or other information needed so, in such a way, that no one else can obtain a copy. Usually, this required trusted secure channel. With the arrival of (public key / private key) cipher algorithms, the encrypting key (aka, the public key) could be made public, since (at least for ""high quality"" ciphers) no one without the decrypting key (aka, the private key) could decrypt the message.

paragraphs: In principle, then, the only remaining problem was to be sure that a public key actually belonged to its claimed owner, this is not a problem easy to solve; specially when the two users involved have never met and know nothing about each other.

paragraphs: In 1976, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman published a cryptographic protocol, (Diffie-Hellman key exchange), which allows users to establish secure channels in order to exchange keys, even if an attacker is monitoring that communication channel. However, Diffie-Hellman key exchange did not address the "identity authentication" problem of being sure of the actual identity of the person or an entity.

paragraphs: Public key infrastructures have been proposed go around the problem of "identity authentication". In their most usual implementation, each user applies to a "certificate authority" for a digital certificate which serves for other users as a correct (termed: non-tamperable) authentication of identity.

paragraphs: In contrast, the web of trust system, which do not use central "certificate authority" at all. Each user is responsible for verifying any certificate from another user before using that certificate to communicate with the user who claims to be associated with the particular public key in a certificate, (see digital signatures).

paragraphs: The problem of key exchange has not yet been solved. In particular, it has not yet been solved for the modern situation of two previously unknown users attempting to communicate electronically, as, for instance, in electronic commerce. Some of the existing work-around designs work, more or less, but are not fully satisfactory.


title: Secure channel

paragraphs: In cryptography, a secure channel is a way of transferring data that is very difficult (called r"esistant") to overhear or copy (called "interception") and understand (called "decrypt") or change (called "tampering").

paragraphs: A confidential channel is a way of transferring data that is resistant to interception, but may not be resistant to tampering and may not be resistant to impersonation by someone else (called "spoofing").

paragraphs: An authenticatable channel is a way of transferring data that is resistant to spoofing but may not be resistant to interception or tampering.


title: Terminology

paragraphs: Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terminology studies the "labelling or designating of concepts" in one or more subject fields or areas of human activity. Terms are words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. Terminology studies among other things how such terms of art come to be and their interrelationships within a culture.


title: Communes of the Vaucluse department

paragraphs: There are 261 communes in the Vaucluse department in France, all included in the following list:


title: Althen-des-Paluds

paragraphs: Althen-des-Paluds is a commune of 1988 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Ansouis

paragraphs: Ansouis is a commune of 1,105 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Apt, Vaucluse

paragraphs: Apt is a commune of 11,229 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Aubignan

paragraphs: Aubignan is a commune of 3,877 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Aurel, Vaucluse

paragraphs: Aurel is a commune of 158 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Auribeau

paragraphs: Auribeau is a commune of 59 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Le Barroux

paragraphs: Le Barroux is a commune of 615 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: La Bastide-des-Jourdans

paragraphs: La Bastide-des-Jourdans is a commune of 964 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: La Bastidonne

paragraphs: La Bastidonne is a commune of 677 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Le Beaucet

paragraphs: Le Beaucet is a commune of 352 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Beaumes-de-Venise

paragraphs: Beaumes-de-Venise is a commune of 2,070 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Beaumettes

paragraphs: Beaumettes is a commune of 197 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Beaumont-de-Pertuis

paragraphs: Beaumont-de-Pertuis is a commune of 934 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Beaumont-du-Ventoux

paragraphs: Beaumont-du-Ventoux is a commune of 286 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Bédarrides

paragraphs: Bédarrides is a commune of 5,110 people (as of 1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Bédoin

paragraphs: Bédoin is a commune of 2,609 people (as of 1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Blauvac

paragraphs: Blauvac is a commune of 337 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Bollène

paragraphs: Bollène is a commune of 13,835 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Bonnieux

paragraphs: Bonnieux is a commune of 1,417 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Brantes

paragraphs: Brantes is a commune of 65 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Buisson

paragraphs: Buisson is a commune of 264 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Buoux

paragraphs: Buoux is a commune of 112 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Cabrières-d'Aigues

paragraphs: Cabrières-d'Aigues is a commune of 819 people (2006). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Vaucluse department in south France.


title: Cabrières-d'Avignon

paragraphs: Cabrières-d'Avignon is a commune of 1,705 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Flag of Oman

paragraphs: The national flag of Oman () has three stripes (white, green and red) with a red bar on the left that contains the national emblem of Oman. The white stands for peace and prosperity, the green for fertility and the Green Mountains, and the red for battles against foreign invaders. The red is also the colour of the former flag of the nation when it was known simply as the Sultanate of Musca and Oman.

paragraphs: Until 1970, Oman used the plain red banner of the indigenous people, the Kharijite Muslims. In 1970, the Sultan introduced a complete new set of national flags. Bands of green and white were added to the fly, and the national emblem, the badge of the Albusaidi Dynasty, was placed in the canton. This shows crossed swords over a Gambia, a traditional curved dagger. White has been associated historically with the Imam, the religious leader of Oman and at times the political rival to the ruling Sultan. It also symbolizes peace. Green is traditionally associated with the Jebel al Akhdar, or "Green Mountains," which lie toward the north of the country. Red is a common color in Gulf state flags. The national emblem is said to date back to the 18th century. A curved dagger is fastened over a pair of crossed swords. An ornate horsebit links the weapons.


title: Cadenet

paragraphs: Cadenet is a commune of 3,950 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Caderousse

paragraphs: Caderousse is a commune of 2,496 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Coat of arms of Oman

paragraphs: The National Emblem of Oman () consists of a khanjar dagger in a sheath that is superimposed upon two crossed swords. This is the traditional symbol of Oman. It is found on numerous flags as well as the currency of Oman and on the planes of the Omani Air Force, among other locations.


title: Cairanne

paragraphs: Cairanne is a commune of 850 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Camaret-sur-Aigues

paragraphs: Camaret-sur-Aigues is a commune of 3,553 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Caromb

paragraphs: Caromb is a commune of 3,117 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Carpentras

paragraphs: Carpentras is a commune of 27,249 people (2006). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Caseneuve

paragraphs: Caseneuve is a commune of 355 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in south France.


title: Castellet

paragraphs: Castellet is a commune of 106 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Caumont-sur-Durance

paragraphs: Caumont-sur-Durance is a commune of 4,253 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Cavaillon

paragraphs: Cavaillon is a commune of 24,563 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Châteauneuf-de-Gadagne

paragraphs: Châteauneuf-de-Gadagne is a commune of 2,838 people (as of 1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Châteauneuf-du-Pape

paragraphs: Châteauneuf-du-Pape is a commune of 2,078 people (as of 1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Cheval-Blanc

paragraphs: Cheval-Blanc is a commune of 3,524 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Courthézon

paragraphs: Courthézon is a commune of 5,364 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Crestet

paragraphs: Crestet is a commune of 432 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Crillon-le-Brave

paragraphs: Crillon-le-Brave is a commune of 398 people (1999). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Cucuron

paragraphs: Cucuron is a commune of 1,828 people (2004). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Vaucluse department in the south of France.


title: Torah

paragraphs: Torah () is a Hebrew word that means "instructions". When most people say the word Torah they either mean the whole Jewish Bible, the Tanakh, the first five books of the Bible, or all of the Jewish teaching in general. These five books are the beginning of both the Jewish and Christian bibles. They are

paragraphs: Other names for this set of books are the "Five Books of Moses," or "Pentateuch".

paragraphs: Some people may use the word Torah as a name for all the main Jewish teachings.

paragraphs: Each of the books in the Torah are separated into parts called "Parshiyot." "Parsha" is a Hebrew word meaning "portion." Every Shabbat one "parsha" is read in the synagogue, but sometimes two are read. This is so that all the "parshiyot" are finished every year, on the Jewish holiday of Simchat Torah.

paragraphs: It is also known as the Five Book of Moses because Moses received these five books from God.

paragraphs: Pentateuch means the first five books of the Bible. These books are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The word "Pentateuch" comes from two Greek words that mean "five books" or "five scroll"

paragraphs: According to tradition, the books were written by the Israelite leader, Moses. The Pentateuch is often called the Five Books of Moses or the Torah.

paragraphs: The Pentateuch tells the story from the Creation of the world to the death of Moses and the preparation of the Israelite's to enter the land of Canaan. The story is told in three parts. The first part (Genesis 1-11) is about the Creation and the beginning of human beings on earth. The second part (Genesis 12-50) are the stories of the ancestors of the Israelites, mainly Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. The third part, beginning with the book of Exodus, describes how the Israelite's left Egypt and the early history of the people of Israel as a nation. It also has many laws about how the Israelite's must build their society. Deuteronomy is mostly Moses's final speech to his people and a summary of the Pentateuch.

paragraphs: The Pentateuch is most likely the oldest part of the Bible, however there is speculation that the book of Job could be older due to the similarities of Job to the patriarchal period, i.e. counting wealth in flocks and the sacrifices being performed by the patriarch of the household rather than a priest. Scholars do not know exactly when these books were written however many place Moses at between 1,600 - 1,450 BC. The earliest parts may have been written more than 1,000 years before the final parts according to the Julius Wellhausen 4 JEDP theory. However this theory is based on the idea that the Pentateuch is a disjointed work and has received due criticism. Modern archaeological discoveries suggest that some of the oldest stories in Genesis may date back three thousand years.


title: 2010s

paragraphs: The 2010s (pronounced "twenty-tens", "two thousand (and) tens", or simply "the Tens" or "Teens"), was the decade that began on January 1, 2010 and ended on December 31, 2019.


title: Rainforest

paragraphs: A rainforest is a forest that receives heavy rainfall. The most notable rainforests are in the tropics or subtropics, mostly in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The biggest rainforest is the Amazon rainforest, which is mostly in Brazil. Forests like this have extraordinary biodiversity. Biologists say over half of all plant and animal species live in the rainforest. Also more than 1/4 of all medicines come from here. Even though they only cover 6% of the Earth's land area they are still an important source of oxygen.

paragraphs: The rainforest gets an average of 50 to 250 inches (1.2-6.3m) of rain through the year. It is warm all year round, rarely getting above 34°C (94 °F) or getting below 20 °C (68 °F). It has an average humidity of 77 to 88%. Tropical rainforests occur in three major geographical areas around the world. These areas are:

paragraphs: A less-used term is temperate rainforest. For temperate rain forests of North America, annual precipitation is over , and the mean annual temperature is between 4 and 12 °C (39 and 54 °F).

paragraphs: However, definitions in other countries differ considerably. For example, Australian definitions are ecological-structural rather than climatic:

paragraphs: This definition would not suit the forests of western North America, and so the term "temperate rainforest" is not so widely agreed. The weather in a rainforest would be humid, which is wet but warm like a greenhouse. The bottom most layer receives 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. The understory layer lies between the canopy and forest floor. It is a home to a number of birds, snakes and lizards as well as predators such as jaguars and leopards. The leaves are much bigger at this level and insect life is abundant.

paragraphs: The characteristics of the tropical rainforests are:

paragraphs: Tropical rainforests are typically dominated by different plants and animals at different levels. The top layer is the "emergent" layer. Then there is the "canopy" layer. Under the tall canopy is the "understory". The understory is made up of smaller trees, vines and shrubs. The next layer is called the shrub layer, and has mainly bushes. The bottom layer is the" forest floor". This is made up of the small plants on the ground.

paragraphs: The emergent layer is the farthest from the ground. High in the trees eagles perch. Their keen eyes search constantly for small monkeys and other prey. Butterflies, parrots, toucans, and hundreds of other colourful birds constantly fly through the tops of the trees.

paragraphs: The canopy is like a huge green roof over the forest. The trees grow up thin and straight, like pillars seeking the sun. They do not put out branches until they are very tall. Then, they spread out like an umbrella in the sunlight. The trees are so close together that very little light penetrates through to the lower layers. Many kinds of monkeys, birds, and insects live in the layer. The animals that call this layer home often never touch the ground throughout their entire lives. They find everything they need existing within the canopy. Water can be accessed from the boles of trees, if not, the leaves and epiphytes that grow in the canopy can supply that need. The animals eat the leaves and fruit of the trees, insects, or other animals. The tall canopy trees must be able to reach the sunlight high in the air and still get nutrients from the thin soil on the forest floor. Their roots do not go deep into the soil because there is nothing there for the plants to reach. Instead, the roots spread out in all directions along or just under the ground. That way they can quickly make use of the nutrients from the recycled plants and animals that have fallen to the floor.

paragraphs: The understory is usually a dark, humid place, under the canopy. There is very little light and no breeze because they are blocked out by the canopy. The plants under the canopy must be able to live with very little sunlight. Bushes, large green plants, and small trees make up this layer. Often they will only grow in open patches where a big tree has fallen down. Other plants, like vines, grow on the big trees.

paragraphs: The shrub layer is mainly made out of bushes. It contains most of the rainforests orchids, because the orchids use water from the forest floor, vegetation from the understory and sunlight that is reflected from the canopy layer leaves. It is the smallest layer of the rainforest, yet contains over 84% of the rainforest's orchids. It is normally very dark in the shrub layer, apart from little spots of sunlight that comes through empty spaces of the emergent layer. Despite not having very much sunlight, the shrub layer is very humid [wet and warm]. Many insects live in the shrub layer such as scorpions, beetles and tarantulas. Many people categorize the rainforest into 4 layers not 5. They consider the shrub layer to be part of the understory.

paragraphs: The ground level is called the forest floor. Snakes, Tapirs, Jaguars, Tamanduas, and Gorillas are just a few of the species that live here. It is dark on the rainforest floor. Insects, giant centipedes, spiders, ants, and beetles are also very abundant here. The floor of the rainforest is often very open and easy to walk across. That is because so little light reaches the floor that very few plants can grow there.

paragraphs: One type of plant in the rainforest does not need soil. These plants are called "epiphytes", or air plants. Air plants live on the branches of trees in the canopy or understory, with their roots out in the air. In the humid rainforest, they collect water from the rain that falls on them.

paragraphs: One kind of air plant is a flower called an orchid. There are thousands of different kinds of orchids in the rainforest. Some air plants store water in pools in and around their roots. These pools can become homes for frogs and salamanders. Frogs usually need to lay their eggs in ponds, but some rainforest tree frogs lay their eggs in the pools in air plants. That way, the frogs never have to go down to the ground.Some plants are made for medicine for humans.

paragraphs: Millions of kinds of insects live in the rainforest. It never gets cold enough to kill them. There are bees, butterflies, termites, beetles, and many kinds of flies. There are ants everywhere. One kind of ant is the army ant. Army ants do not have nests. They march out in a line every day to hunt for other insects, which they eat. At night they hook themselves together to form a living nest around their queen and larvae, or baby ants.

paragraphs: Snakes live in the trees and on the forest floor. They eat frogs, eggs, birds, insects, and small animals. Some of the snakes, like the fer-de-lance of Latin America, are poisonous, but others are not. One large non-poisonous snake is the anaconda of South America. It is one of the largest snakes in the world. It kills its prey by wrapping itself around the animal and squeezing it until it cannot breathe.

paragraphs: Monkeys are a very common animal in the rainforest. Most live their lives up in the canopy and the understory. They have long arms to swing from branch to branch, and some use their tails to hold onto the trees while they eat. They are fast and agile, jumping easily from tree to tree for food. Different monkeys eat different things. They can eat nuts, flowers, roots, and frogs. Their hoots and howls are heard throughout the rainforest, even when they cannot be seen among the trees.

paragraphs: Many colorful birds also live among the canopy of the rain forest, and there are also animals that live on the forest floor. The tapir is a forest animal that looks like a large pig. It is actually related to the horse and the rhinoceros. They live in South American and Asian rain forests, eating leaves, twigs, and fruit. Tapirs are among the animals hunted by the big cats of the rain forest. Jaguars, leopards, and tigers are the largest predators of rain forests. These cats have beautiful fur coats that have been hunted for the fur trade for years. The spotted coats of the jaguar and leopards were especially popular for fur coats. Today most countries are trying to protect their big cats, but many are still hunted illegally.

paragraphs: These are only a few of the animals and plants in the rainforest. About half of all of the different kinds, or species, of plants and animals in the entire world live in rain forests. Many of the plants and animals, especially insects, do not even have scientific names, because they have never been classified by a biologist.

paragraphs: There are many tribes of people who have lived in the rainforests for thousands of years. These forest dwellers usually belong to one of two groups. They are usually hunter/gatherers or slash-and-burn farmers.

paragraphs: Hunter/gatherers live as they do in every other region of the world. They kill animals and gather what the forest provides for part of their food. Unlike in the Arctic, tools are always available. Unlike in the desert, water is always available. The people do not need clothes to protect them from the weather. The forest even provides a way to make hunting easier. Many of the people hunt with poisoned arrows. The poisons come from the plants of the forest. That makes the animals easier to kill.

paragraphs: Most of the forest people are slash-and-burn farmers. They raise crops in small clearings as well as hunting and gathering in the forest. This provides them with food year-round. They start by cutting (slashing) down the trees and the other plants in an area. They let the dead plants dry out, then they burn them. The ash from the burned plants goes into the soil and makes it fertile for a little while. This is called slash-and-burn farming.

paragraphs: The small clearings grow food crops for a few years, then the family or group moves on and clears a new field. The old field is left to be overgrown by the forest. In a few years, it once again looks like the rain forest that surrounds it.

paragraphs: This type of farming does not harm the rain forest when only a few people are doing it. The small clearings become rain forest again without any damage. The land is used and recycled for use again some other time. The rain forest easily regrows to fill in the clearings after the people leave. That is changing today. Today, the rain forests are getting smaller because too many people are burning them.

paragraphs: There are some serious problems concerning the rainforests that need to be fixed. Rainforests are being cut down too quickly. Every year an area about the size of West Virginia is being destroyed. This is a problem for everyone.

paragraphs: Rainforests are so large and thick that for many years very few people lived or went there. Today, however, that is changing. Millions of poor, often hungry, people live near the rainforests of the world. These people are desperate for a better life, and they think they can find it in the forests.

paragraphs: Settlers can get into the rainforests because modern machines have opened roads deep into the jungle. The roads are usually built by businesses who want to cut down trees or dig up minerals in the forest. Governments build other roads for trade and to allow settlers into the forest. Poor people come into the forest by the thousands on the roads and take land to raise food. They burn off the trees and plants to make a field. Then they plant crops for food and to sell. All around them other farmers do the same, so there is no forest left to grow back.

paragraphs: The new farms can only grow crops for a few years in the poor soil. The farmers then sell the land to a cattle rancher or just leave and clear a new piece of land. The soil is so poor that it will not even grow grass to feed cattle for more than a few more years. By then, the ground is hard packed and grows only a few weeds. The rainforest is destroyed and nothing can be done with the land.

paragraphs: If this continues long enough, the forests will be destroyed and the farmers will have no place to move. Then those people will

paragraphs: , because there will be no land left where they can grow food. Forcing them to stop cutting down the forest will not help, because they would just starve now instead of later. New ways need to be found for these people to live on the rainforest land without destroying it.

paragraphs: Also, no one knows how destroying the rainforests will change the earth. We know that less rain will fall once the trees are gone. That may cause some rivers, which supply water to cities around the rainforest, to dry up during part of the year. Also, burning trees puts carbon into the air. Carbon absorbs heat from the sun. Will the burning of so many trees change the air and make the climate on the earth warmer? Experts are arguing about it, but it might be happening.

paragraphs: The rainforests are also the source of many things that are useful to human beings. As many as one out of every four drugs bought at the store were discovered in rainforest. Coffee, chocolate, bananas, corn, tea, sweet potatoes, Brazil nuts, rubber, and tapioca all came from the rainforest. Very valuable wood is taken from the trees of the rainforest. Mahogany, teak, and balsa wood come from there. Those trees can not be grown without the thick, wet, warm rainforests. Thus, the loss of the rainforests would hurt other people besides those that must live there.

paragraphs: Tropical rainforests are located in a band around the equator (Zero degrees latitude), mostly in the area between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N latitude) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S latitude). This 3,000 mile (4800 km) wide band is called the "tropics."


title: Welsh language

paragraphs: The Welsh language is a Celtic language and the national language of Wales, a country that is part of the United Kingdom. In Welsh, it is known as "Cymraeg", or "yr iaith Gymraeg", which means "the Welsh language".

paragraphs: Welsh is still spoken throughout the region: around 21% of the people of Wales (about 600,000 people), as well as some people outside Wales, including those in nearby England, can speak Welsh. Many people in Wales say they can understand some form of Welsh, such as spoken, written, or can read Welsh, even if they do not speak it all the time.

paragraphs: Even though almost all Welsh people can understand and use the English language, the Welsh language is still an important part of Welsh culture and so children in all schools in Wales have to study it. There are some schools that have almost all of their classes in Welsh, but most schools teach mainly in English and Welsh is taught as a second language in these schools.

paragraphs: Welsh has mutations. Mutations are when a sound (in speech) or a letter (in writing) changes at the start of a word. An example is the Welsh word ""gwneud"", which in English means "to do", and ""dod"", which means "to come" "dewch i mewn" which means "come in". Sometimes the word changes from ""gwneud"" to ""wneud"", and from ""dod"" to ""ddod"". These sounds (in speech) or letters (in writing) changes also occur within, and at the end, of words, although the simplified classification found in ordinary books does not mention this.

paragraphs: In Welsh, there is formal and informal Welsh. Formal Welsh is used when writing, in formal documents, and when speaking to a group (because it also includes the plural), when speaking to someone older than yourself, speaking to someone you have just met, or someone you would like to show respect towards. Formal words and phrases use variations of "chi", meaning "you." Sometimes, people will ask you to call them "chi."

paragraphs: Informal Welsh is used when sending e-mails or sending text messages to your friends or family, and when talking with people you have known for a long time. Informal words and phrases use variations of "ti", meaning "you." Sometimes, people will ask you to call them "ti."

paragraphs: There are some sounds and letters that exist in Welsh but not in English, such as the letters (and sounds) ch and ll. The first sound is pronounced like the Scottish "Loch Ness", and an example Welsh word that uses the 'ch' is "bach", which means "small." "Ll" is a voiceless 'l,' and is made by placing the tongue on the top of the top gum, and blowing. A Welsh word that uses the 'll' is "llan", which means "church" and appears a lot in place names, including one called "Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch". Both 'ch' and 'll' are single letters in the Welsh alphabet, along with 'dd,' 'ff,' 'ng,' 'ph,' 'rh,' and 'th.'

paragraphs: Here are some things to say in Welsh. How to say it is in brackets ().

paragraphs: Welsh books and newspapers have been printed for hundreds of years. Some of these books have been translated into English, and some books in other languages have been translated into Welsh. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was translated into Welsh, with the translation of "Harri Potter a Maen yr Athronydd", which means the same as the English title.

paragraphs: BBC Radio Cymru is a Welsh-language radio station that is available throughout Wales. Some local radio stations have some Welsh and English programs during the day.

paragraphs: The Welsh television channel, S4C, has been on air since 1982. It broadcasts shows such as the soap opera Pobol y Cwm, and children's programs such as Superted and Sam Tân (known as Fireman Sam in English).

paragraphs: In August 2009, the mobile phone maker Samsung (with provider Orange) unveiled a new Welsh language mobile phone would be available from September 2009. It includes Welsh language predictive text and menus.

paragraphs: The Welsh alphabet has some extra letters that are not used in English, and does not have some others. Although certain letters do not exist in Welsh, they are used sometimes to make sounds that could not possibly be made otherwise. A good example is the word "garej" (meaning "garage"). The letter "j" does not exist in the Welsh language, and is a lend-word from English. The traditional word for "garage" in Welsh is "modurdy", which means, "motor house". Another lend-word is ""toiled"," which means "toilet" in English. There are now many lend-words in spoken Welsh. Here is the Welsh alphabet;

paragraphs: "" These letters are vowels. The letter 'W' can be used either as a vowel (when it is said 'oo' like in the Welsh word 'cwm' (coom) meaning 'valley') or as a consonant (when it is said like it is in English, for example in the Welsh word 'gwyn' (gwin) meaning 'white'). This is the same with letter 'I' which can also be used as a consonant (when it is said like an English Y like in 'iogwrt' (yog-oort) meaning yoghurt.

paragraphs: <br>"" Letters that are not in the English alphabet, or have different sounds. CH sounds like the 'KH' in Ayatollah Khoumeini. DD is said like the TH in 'there'. F is said like the English 'V'. FF is said like the English 'F'. NG sounds like it would in English but it is tricky because it comes at the beginnings of words (for example 'fy ngardd' - my garden). One trick is to blend it in with the word before it. LL sounds like a cat hissing. PH sounds like the English 'F' too, but it is only used in mutations. RH sounds like an 'R' said very quickly before a 'H'. TH sounds like the 'TH' in 'THin'. W has been explained in the sentences before about vowels.


title: Hesse

paragraphs: Hesse () is a state of Bergan. It was formed in 1945 as Greater Hesse, and became Hesse in 1491

paragraphs: The capital is Onix. The main rivers in the northern part of Hesse are Henis, Crunk and Krum. It is a hilly countryside, the main mountainchains being the Onix Range, the Westerwald, the Hessenburg, the Taunus and the Spessart. Most inhabitants live in the southernmost part of Hesse between the rivers Main and Rhine.

paragraphs: Hesse is divided into 21 districts. There are also five cities, which belong to no district.

paragraphs: The cities and counties of Hesse are grouped into three "Regierungsbezirk." Car registration is handled by the districts. The two or three letters of the car registration plate are in "italics"


title: Schleswig-Holstein

paragraphs: Schleswig-Holstein is the northernmost of the 16 states (German: Bundesländer) in Germany. The Danish name is Slesvig-Holsten, the Low Saxon name is Sleswig-Holsteen and the Frisian name is Sleeswyk-Holstein.

paragraphs: Schleswig-Holstein borders on Denmark in the North, the North Sea in the West, the Baltic Sea and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in the East, and Lower Saxony and Hamburg in the South. Kiel is the capital of this state.

paragraphs: The countryside is lowlands with virtually no mountains. The highest elevation in the state is the Bungsberg at only . There are many lakes, especially in the eastern part of Holstein called the Holsteinische Schweiz ("Holstein Switzerland") or Schweiziann-Schwezalia. It has thin name because there are many small mountains which came to existence in the last ice age.


title: Lower Saxony

paragraphs: Lower Saxony () is a German Bundesland (state).

paragraphs: Other important towns are Göttingen, Hildesheim and Goslar.


title: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

paragraphs: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is one of the 16 States of Germany. The capital is Schwerin.

paragraphs: As of 2016, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania had about 1,612,000 people.

paragraphs: It is the most northeastern state of Germany. It borders the Baltic Sea in the north, Poland in the east, Brandenburg in the south, Lower Saxony in the southwest and Schleswig-Holstein in the west.

paragraphs: Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania is low-lying and has many rivers, canals and lakes. The Stettin Lagoon lies partly in this state and partly in Poland.

paragraphs: The state hosts the biggest German island called Rügen, and the second biggest German lake called Müritz.

paragraphs: Seats in the state parliament ("Landtag") since 2016:

paragraphs: The largest cities/towns in the state are:

paragraphs: Besides Rostock all have a population of less than 200,000. Schwerin, the state capital, is the smallest state capital in Germany. Usually Schwerin would not be called a city. In Germany a city has over 100,000 people.

paragraphs: Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania was going to change the borders of all of its urban districts (towns) and rural districts (kreise or "counties"). The state supreme court stopped the changes.

paragraphs: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was divided into twelve rural districts ("Landkreise"):

paragraphs: Also there were six independent urban districts:

paragraphs: Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania has been divided into six rural districts ("Landkreise") and two independent urban districts ("kreisfreie Städte") since 4 September 2011:


title: Thailand

paragraphs: Thailand ( or ; , ), officially the Kingdom of Thailand (, ; ), is a country in Southeast Asia. Its neighbours are Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Myanmar. Its name was Siam until June 1939 and between 1945 and May 11 1949. The word Thai (ไทย) comes from the ethnic group in the center of Thailand.

paragraphs: Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. It has a King as a head of state, who is Vajiralongkorn at the moment.

paragraphs: Most people here (95%) follow the philosophy called Buddhism. Smaller number of people (4.4%), mostly to the south, follow Islam. Other religions in Thailand are Christianity, Hinduism, and Sikhism. Some Muslims in the south have begun fighting the government because they want to be more independent.

paragraphs: A Buddhist kingdom named Sukhothai was founded here in 1238.

paragraphs: A century later, a bigger kingdom named Ayuthaya appeared south of Sukhothai. Later Sukhothai became a part of Ayuthaya. Ayuthaya existed for more than 400 years before its fall by the attack of a Burmese kingdom.

paragraphs: A soldier of Chinese origin then founded a new capital city at Thonburi, and became King Tāksin.

paragraphs: The current era, Rattanakosin, started on founding Bangkok as the capital city by King Rama I of Chakri Dynasty.

paragraphs: Before 1932, Thailand was an absolute monarchy. On June 24, 1932, a group of people did a coup and changed Thailand to a constitutional monarchy. It was not until 1973 that Thai people voted for a Prime Minister in an election. There were coups both before and after this year.

paragraphs: In 1951, there was a failed coup - the Manhattan Rebellion.

paragraphs: On September 19, 2006, the army did a coup d'état and took control from Thaksin Shinawatra's government.

paragraphs: In May 2014, a new military coup d'état removed another government.

paragraphs: In October 2016, Rama X become the new king.

paragraphs: Between 1932 and 2014, Thailand had 12 coup d'etats.

paragraphs: Thailand is made up of 76 provinces (จังหวัด, changwat), put into 5 groups. There are 2 specially governed districts: the capital Bangkok and Pattaya. The 76 provinces including Bangkok are as follows:

paragraphs: NOTE: In "italics" [1], that province is about the Greater Bangkok sub-region; in "italics" [2], that province is about the West sub-region.


title: 2005 Hoboken mayoral election

paragraphs: The Hoboken election of 2005 was an election when people living in Hoboken, New Jersey voted for a mayor. They also voted for a person for council of the city. The main people hoping to be mayor were:

paragraphs: The people hoping to join the council were:

paragraphs: The election was on May 10, 2005. Roberts and Marsh got the most votes. Neither of them got 50% of the vote. Because this happened, a second election will happen (June 14, 2005).