title: Transperth

paragraphs: Transperth is the brand of the public transport system in Perth, Western Australia. Transperth is launched in 1986. It supplies public bus, train and ferry services.

paragraphs: Train services run on five lines that spread over the Perth metropolitan area. The lines are named Joondalup, Midland, Fremantle, Armadale, and Mandurah. The Mandurah was opened late in 2007. All trains are operated using electricity. A new line to the Perth Airport via the Bayswater railway station is being constructed.

paragraphs: Bus services run throughout the metropolitan area. A circular bus route is the CircleRoute

paragraphs: which links major shopping centres, universities and railway stations.

paragraphs: Ferry services operate across the Swan River between the Perth CBD and South Perth. The ferry is popular for people to go to the zoo located in South Perth.

paragraphs: Passengers can take rides by buying cash tickets or using the ticket system known as "SmartRider".


title: Joondalup railway line, Perth

paragraphs: The Joondalup line is a major public transport railway line in Perth, Western Australia. It runs through Perth's northern suburbs. The line was established in 1992 where is extended north to Joondalup. In 1993, it was extended to Currambine and farther extended in 2004 to Clarkson. A new station was completed in 2005 at Greenwood. The line will be later connected with the new Mandurah railway line late in 2007, allowing passengers to ride in the same train to Mandurah without changing at Perth station to transfer between trains.


title: Armadale railway line, Perth

paragraphs: The Armadale railway line is a major public transport route in Perth. It runs through the metropolitan area's south-eastern suburbs, connecting between Perth and Armadale. A spur line connects the Armadale after Cannington to Thornlie.


title: Silverchair

paragraphs: Silverchair was a rock band from Newcastle, Australia. The band's members were Daniel Johns, Chris Joannou and Ben Gillies, and were only around 12 and 13 when they founded the band. Silverchair is the only artist to score five number-one albums in the Australian Charts. Their studio albums are "Frogstomp", "Freak Show", "Neon Ballroom", "Diorama" and "Young Modern". The band has released many singles, their number-one singles being "Tomorrow", "Freak" and "Straight Lines".


title: Avet Terterian

paragraphs: Avet Terterian (1929 - 1994) was a leading Armenian composer, awarded by Konrad Adenauer prize.

paragraphs: He composed eight (completed) symphonies, an opera and several chamber works.

paragraphs: Several of his symphonies are recorded (the date 1973 in the Musicweb review of the Melodiya recording of symphony 3 is probably a typographical error, since the publisher's listing also gives 1975 for the first performance of that work).

paragraphs: Yekaterinburg's annual music festival is named after him.


title: Bob Denard

paragraphs: "Colonel" Robert "Bob" Denard (April 7, 1929 in Bordeaux - October 14, 2007), also known as "Gilbert Bourgeaud" and "Saïd Mustapha Mahdjoub", was a French mercenary. He was one of the most famous mercenaries after World War II.

paragraphs: During his time in the French Navy Denard fought in Indochina and in Algeria, and spent some time in jail. He subsequently served as a policeman in French Morocco. Afterwards he became a mercenary and fought in African countries like Congo, Angola, Rhodesia, Gabon and especially in the Comoros.

paragraphs: He converted from Roman Catholicism to Judaism, from Judaism to Islam, and from Islam to Roman Catholicism.

paragraphs: He was married seven times and was the father of eight children. He practiced polygamy after his conversion to Islam.

paragraphs: Denard had Alzheimer's disease at the time of his death.


title: Eutheria

paragraphs: Eutheria is the taxonomical name for the main group of living mammals.

paragraphs: This taxon contains the placental mammals, of which humans are one species.

paragraphs: Eutheria was introduced by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1880. Members of Eutheria are now found on all continents and in all oceans.

paragraphs: The terms 'Eutheria and 'Placental' do not mean quite the same thing. A few early eutherians in the Lower Cretaceous were not placentals. "Eomaia" is the earliest example.

paragraphs: All living Eutherians are placental mammals. This means that a Eutherian fetus is fed during gestation by a placenta. The offspring of Eutherians are carried in the mother's uterus until fully developed.

paragraphs: Eutherians are different from other mammal groups such as monotremes and marsupials which (like the earliest eutherians) are not placental.

paragraphs: Monotremes, for example, lay eggs which protect the young until they are fully developed. Marsupials give birth to young who are not completely developed. Their young then move to a special pouch in the mother's body to continue their development.

paragraphs: The earliest known eutherian species is the extinct "Eomaia scansoria" from the Lower Cretaceous in China.


title: Tito Beltrán

paragraphs: Tito Ernesto Beltrán (born on July 1 1965) is a Swedish-Chilean tenor. Tito Beltrán was born in Punta Arenas, Chile. Beltrán left Chile in 1986 to study in Sweden where he now lives. He has performed at many opera houses around the world. He also performs at different scenes and tv-shows in Sweden. Since February 2007 he has been performing at the Royal Swedish Opera in Stockholm. This is where he sings in the operas "La Traviata" and "Tosca".

paragraphs: In October 2008, Beltrán was sentenced to 2.5 years in prison for rape and sexual abuse. He got conditional liberty on February 2010.


title: Cetartiodactyla

paragraphs: Cetartiodactyla is the taxonomical superorder which includes whales (and dolphins) and even-toed ungulates. The name was created by merging the name for the two orders, Cetacea and Artiodactyla, into a single word.

paragraphs: Cetartiodactyla is used because it is thought that whales evolved from the artiodactyls. Because of this, their closest living land relative may be the hippopotamus.


title: Leonardo

paragraphs: Leonardo is a male given name. Many people have this name. The name is Germanic in origin. It means "Strong as a lion."


title: Tetrapod

paragraphs: Tetrapods (Greek "tetrapoda" = four feet) are vertebrate tetrapodomorph land animals. The basic tetrapod plan is four legs and feet. This kind of locomotion is quadrupedal. Amphibians, reptiles, dinosaurs, birds, and mammals are all tetrapods. Even though snakes do not have limbs, they are tetrapods because they evolved from animals with four limbs.

paragraphs: The earliest tetrapods evolved from the Sarcopterygii, or lobe-finned fish, into air-breathing amphibians, perhaps in the Upper Devonian period. This means the transition took place in fish, before the land was the main habitat. This is typical of transitional fossils undergoing mosaic evolution.

paragraphs: Clear fossil tetrapod tracks from the mid-Devonian predate previous tetrapod records by 18 million years. These tracks are from the Middle Devonian of Poland, dated to nearly 400 million years ago. The footprints were made in the mud of a tropical lagoon, and no animal of that time could have made the tracks except a tetrapod. The find strongly suggests that the animals were fish, not amphibia, when the transition to limbs occurred. The term fishapod is becoming used. They would have been derived from lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii), but of a genus whose body fossil has not yet been found. The Polish team suggest the fish > tetrapod transition might have taken place as early as the Lower Devonian.

paragraphs: The earliest tetrapods lived entirely in water. They could not live on land. Earlier, it was believed that fish had first moved onto land – either looking for food (like modern mudskippers) or to find water when the pond they lived in dried out. It was believed that they later evolved legs, lungs, and other body parts to live better on land.

paragraphs: Nine genera of Devonian tetrapods have been described. These earliest tetrapods were not terrestrial. They lived in swampy habitats like shallow wetlands, coastal lagoons, brackish river deltas, and even shallow marine sediments. There is much to suggest that these are the kind of environments in which the tetrapods evolved. Also, because fossils of early tetrapods are found widely in the Old Red Sandstone continent, they must have spread by following the coastal lines. This means they could not have lived only in freshwater.

paragraphs: Still, they may have spent brief periods out of water and would have used their legs to paw their way through the mud. The earliest confirmed terrestrial forms are known from the early Carboniferous deposits, some 20 million years later.

paragraphs: Tetrapods adapted to terrestrial environments over time and spent longer periods away from the water. They also spent more of their juvenile stage on land before returning to the water for the rest of their life. It is also possible that the adults started to spend some time on land to bask in the sun, close to the water's edge. The first true tetrapods that were adapted to moving on land were small. Only later did they increase in size.

paragraphs: Between the lobe-finned fish tetrapods and the first amphibia and amniotes in the Middle Carboniferous lies a gap of 30 million years, with few satisfactory tetrapod fossils. This, noted in the early 1950s by Alfred Romer, is Romer's gap. Some new fossils were found in the 1990s, such as "Pederpes", right in the middle of the Romer Gap. The gap still hides details of the transition from fish to tetrapod, but not so much as before.

paragraphs: So far, only two fossil sites from the Tournasian (earliest Carboniferous) are known. One is Horton Bluff Formation at Blue Beach, Nova Scotia. Much of this material has not yet been scientifically described.

paragraphs: The only other place a Tournasian tetrapod was found is near Dumbarton in the West of Scotland. The articulated (connected) skeleton of "Pederpes" was found there. Now comes news of new finds from this formation in five places in the Scottish Borders. The paper describes five new Tournaisian tetrapods, with information about their habitat.

paragraphs: Apparently, the split between the amphibians and the amniotes came soon after the extinction event as the tetrapods began to recover. "This accords with most molecular dates for the split, which place it at an average of 355  my ago, a date only 4 myr after the end-Devonian".

paragraphs: Whereas amphibia lay their eggs in water, all other tetrapods (the amniotes) lay cleidoic eggs. These eggs are like private little ponds, protecting and nourishing the embryo until it grows into a hatchling. This was a key evolutionary 'invention', which allowed the amniotes to invade the land. Once the amniotes were truly land animals, there followed a huge adaptive radiation. This was one of the most significant advances in vertebrate evolution.

paragraphs: Stem tetrapods are difficult to classify because they lack some or all of the key characteristics of the standard groups.

paragraphs: Descendants of fishapods which at first lived an amphibious life-style. The amniotes and later amphibia are their descendants. Features: able to support their body on land for long periods; had five fingers and toes (pentadactyl limb) in contrast to their fishapod ancestors. Have not yet developed the characteristic features of the main tetrapod groups.

paragraphs: The tetrapod clade separated from fish in the Devonian. The amniotes were the earliest to lay cleidoic eggs. The Synapsids (> mammals) and the Sauropsids (> reptiles) are sister clades, and in particular, reptiles did "not" give rise to mammals.

paragraphs: There are three main groups of living ("crown group") tetrapods. Each group also includes many extinct groups:

paragraphs: Snakes and other legless reptiles are tetrapods because they are evolved from ancestors who had four limbs. This is also true for caecilians and aquatic mammals.


title: Voivodeship

paragraphs: A voivodeship, also spelled voivodship, voivodina or vojvodina (Romanian: "voievodat", Polish: "województwo", Serbian: "vojvodina" (војводина), "vojvodstvo" (војводство) or "vojvodovina" (војводовина), Hungarian: "vajdaság", Lithuanian: "vaivadija", Latin "Palatinatus" in Poland), is a geographical administrative division dating to medieval Romania, Hungary, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Russia and Serbia (see Vojvodina), ruled by a voivod ("voivode", "wojewoda"). The voivod (literal translation: "the one who leads the warriors", is the same as to Dux Exercituum / Herzog) was originally the military commander next to the ruler.


title: President of the Republic of Poland

paragraphs: The President of the Republic of Poland (Polish: "Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej") is the president of Poland. The president directly elected by the people to serve a term of five years. He can be reelected only once. His rights and responsibilities are determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Poland.

paragraphs: In agreement with the current Constitution, the President of the Republic of Poland is the head of state, the supreme representative of Poland and the guarantor of the continuity of government and is prevented from holding office for more than two consecutive terms. This means that the President heads the executive authority, is appointed to represent Polish interests on the international arena, ensures the observance of the Constitution, and is responsible for the security of the state. The President calls elections to the Sejm and the Polish Senate. He has a right to dissolve the parliament when it fails to form a Council of Ministers or pass the budget act. He can (with the Senate's consent) call a national referendum in matters important for the state, requiring the decision of all the citizens.

paragraphs: There are three living former Polish Presidents:


title: Tadeusz Kościuszko

paragraphs: Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kościuszko (; 1746 – 1817) was a Polish national hero, general and a leader of the Kościuszko Uprising (which bears his name) against the Russian Empire. Tadeusz was born in February 1746 in Mereczowszczyzna, Polesie. (courrently located in Belarus) He fought in the American Revolutionary War as a colonel in the Continental Army on the side of Washington. Because of his service he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General in 1783, and became a legitimate citizen of the United States that same year. He died in Solothurn, Switzerland on October 15, 1817 due to a stroke.


title: Wes Archer

paragraphs: Wesley "Wes" Archer (born November 26, 1961) is a television animation director. He was one of the original three animators (along with David Silverman and Bill Kopp) on The Simpsons' Tracey Ullman shorts and subsequently directed a number of Simpsons episodes before becoming supervising director at "King of the Hill" for many years. Archer's college animation movie, "Jac Mac and Rad Boy, Go!" has long been a cult classic after receiving repeated airplay on USA Network's Night Flight in the 1980s. He studied at the movie Graphics/Experimental Animation Program at CalArts.


title: David Silverman

paragraphs: David Silverman (born on 15 March 1957 in New York City, New York) is an animator and writer. He is best known for directing many episodes of the animated television series "The Simpsons", where he would go on to be the supervising director of animation for several years, as well as animating on all of the original Simpsons "Tracey Ullman shorts".


title: Bill Kopp

paragraphs: Bill Kopp (born in Rockford, Illinois on April 17, 1962) is an American animator and voice actor. He performed the "Whammy" on the 1980s game show "Press Your Luck" and the title character on Nelvana's "Eek! The Cat". He was an animator for The Simpsons The Tracey Ullman Shorts, but left after the first season. He created "The Schnookums and Meat Funny Cartoon Show and Mad Jack the Pirate". He studied animation at the California Institute of the Arts.


title: Klasky Csupo

paragraphs: Klasky Csupo, Inc. (pronounced "Class-key Chew-po", although commonly mistaken as "Class-key Ka-zoo-po") is a multimedia entertainment production company. It was founded in Los Angeles, California by artist/producer Arlene Klasky and animator Gábor Csupó.


title: Bergkamen

paragraphs: Bergkamen is a town in the district of Unna, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is near the river Lippe, approx. 15 km north-east of Dortmund and 15 km south-west of Hamm.

paragraphs: Bergkamen, a German town in the East part of the Ruhrgebiet and south of the Münsterland, was founded in 1966 by the merging of at first five smaller communities.


title: Renewable energy commercialisation in Australia

paragraphs: Australia's renewable energy industries cover many energy sources and stages of commercialisation. Renewable energy technologies make up about 6 per cent of Australia's total energy supply and some 8 per cent of Australia's electricity supply, with hydro-electricity by far the largest single contributor.

paragraphs: Government policies have opened up more opportunities for "new" renewable energies such as wind power, photovoltaics, and solar thermal technologies. The use of these technologies helps to reduce greenhouse gases.

paragraphs: At the end of 2006, Australia had 817 MW of installed wind power capacity, mainly in South Australia. Initiatives are also being taken with solar power, ethanol fuel and geothermal energy.

paragraphs: Surveys show that there is much public support for the use of renewable energy and energy efficiency in Australia.


title: Renewable energy commercialization in the United States

paragraphs: The current status of renewable energy commercialization in the United States varies considerably between different renewable energy technologies, with some being commercialized at the present time.

paragraphs: Wind power is a growing industry in the United States. Latest American Wind Energy Association figures show that installed U.S. wind power capacity now exceeds 11,600 MW which is enough to serve three million average households. Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by California.

paragraphs: Several solar thermal power stations, including the new 64 MW Nevada Solar One, have also been built. The largest of these solar thermal power stations is the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert with a total generating capacity of 354 MW, making the system the largest solar plant of any kind in the world. The largest solar photovoltaic plant in the U.S. is the 4.6 MW Springerville Generating Station, located near Tucson, Arizona.

paragraphs: In terms of renewable fuels for transportation, most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol fuel, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends.

paragraphs: Solar Energy Industries Association and GTM Research found that the amount of new solar electric capacity increased in 2012 by 76 percent from 2011, raising the United States’ market share of the world’s installations above 10 percent, up from roughly 5 to 7 percent in the last seven years.


title: Low kick

paragraphs: Low kick is a leg technique used in certain "boxes pieds-poings" (Burmese boxing, kickboxing and Thai boxing "Muay Thai") and certain martial arts. It consists in striking a blow with shinbone or a kick in the lower limb of the opponent (thigh or leg). According to the official rules concerning sport, it can be carried to the outer and to the inner part of the lower limb.

paragraphs: In fights in full contact (so-called "K.O. system"), these kicks are allowed in order to make an opponent not stable, indeed to have an advantage.

paragraphs: In the matter of hits in the legs, several kicks exist: circular or roundhouse kick, semicircular kick, balanced kicks (stick kick, crescent kick, axe kick...), kicks along the straight line (front kick and side kick), hooked-type kicks (hook kick), kicks that go down (hammer kick), etc.

paragraphs: In American or Japanese kickboxing, this type of kick can be only circular or semicircular according to the official rules.


title: Spider-Man (movie)

paragraphs: Spider-Man is an American 2002 superhero movie. It was made from the story of the Marvel Comics superhero, Spider-Man. It was the first in the "Spider-Man" movie series. It was written by David Koepp and directed by Sam Raimi. Tobey Maguire starred as Peter Parker / Spider-Man. Kirsten Dunst played the girl Peter loves, Mary-Jane Watson, and Willem Dafoe played the bad guy, Norman Osborn.

paragraphs: At the start of the movie, Peter Parker, a very smart teenager, is accidentally bitten by a spider that had been mutated (changed) in a science study. This allows him to climb up walls, make spider webs come from his wrists, jump high, move fast and become very strong. Peter lives with his aunt and uncle. His Uncle Ben teaches him that "with great power comes great responsibility." He uses these powers to win a wrestling competition. However, he does not get paid what he thought he would get paid. A criminal steals a lot of money from the cashier and runs off. Peter does not try to catch the criminal, as revenge for not getting paid as much as he wanted to be. The criminal then steals Ben's car and Ben dies. From then on, Peter becomes Spider-Man and vows to fight crime, using Ben's words to their fullest.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, Peter's friend Harry's father is in trouble. Norman is the CEO or head of his own company, but the executive board kicks him off. He tests a new kind of formula and becomes the Green Goblin. Norman also has a device that lets him fly around. Spider-Man and the Green Goblin begin to fight in various places. During a fire at a building, the Green Goblin uses his voice and pretends to be someone trapped. When Spider-Man goes to rescue the person, he finds the Green Goblin. During the fight, Spider-Man's arm is cut. Peter, Norman, Harry, Peter's friend Mary Jane Watson, and Peter's aunt then meet at Peter's apartment for Thanksgiving. Norman notices Peter's cut on his arm and realizes that Peter Parker is Spider-Man.

paragraphs: Norman then starts planning to hurt Peter. He scares Peter's Aunt May so badly that she has to go to the hospital. There, Peter realizes that the Green Goblin knows that he likes Mary Jane Watson, so he calls her up, but the Green Goblin has already taken her. Spider-Man goes out to a bridge in New York. The Green Goblin has Mary Jane in one arm and a group of kids in a bus on the other hand. He wants Spider-Man to fail at doing something – to choose between the person he loves and innocent civilians. He then drops both at once. Spider-Man grabs Mary Jane first and uses his webbing to save the kids. The Green Goblin is angry and attacks Spider-Man. A bunch of New York people start to throw trash and knock the Green Goblin off balance.

paragraphs: The Green Goblin then grabs Peter and they start to fight inside an abandoned building. The fight is very violent and Spider-Man starts to bleed. Finally, after Spider-Man knocks the Green Goblin down, the Green Goblin says that he is Norman Osborn. Spider-Man is very surprised. Norman then distracts Peter and talks to him as he tries to get his flying device to move and to kill Peter. Spider-Man ducks at the last second and the flying device impales Norman, killing him. Dying, Norman asks Peter not to tell Harry that he was the Green Goblin.

paragraphs: The last scene is at a cemetery for the funeral of Norman. During the ceremony, Harry tells Peter that he swears that Spider-Man will die because Spider-Man killed his father. Mary Jane implies that she loves Peter, but Peter tells her that he will always be a friend and be there for her, and that is all he can give to her.

paragraphs: After the movie was kept from being made for almost 25 years, it was shown in theaters on May 3, 2002. Critics liked it a lot and it broke many movie records. It made more money than any other movie in the year 2002. As of late 2007, "Spider-Man" is the seventh highest grossing movie in the United States and 17th highest world wide. It made enough money and two sequels have been made, "Spider-Man 2" (2004) and "Spider-Man 3" (2007).


title: John Bunyan

paragraphs: John Bunyan (Harrowden, near Bedford, 28 November 1628 – London, 31 August 1688) was an English tinker, preacher and writer. He wrote a book called "The Pilgrim's Progress" which has been translated into more languages than any other book except the Bible. The book is a story about a man who is trying to lead a good life as a Christian. It is allegory. The characters in the story represent good things or bad things. Bunyan lived at a time when there was no religious freedom: everybody had to believe what the Church of England told them. Bunyan did not agree with some of the things the Church of England said. He started to preach about his ideas. He was arrested and put into prison because of his beliefs. He wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress" while he was in gaol (prison).

paragraphs: Bunyan’s father was a tinker: a metal worker who mends pots and pans. The Bunyan family had been living in Bedfordshire at least since the 12th century. They had gradually lost more and more of their land and had become quite poor. John Bunyan’s father had inherited a small cottage and 9 acres of land. He could not read or write.

paragraphs: John Bunyan only went to school for two, three or four years. He learned how to be a tinker from his father.

paragraphs: There was a lot of fighting in England at the time Bunyan was a child. Many people were against King Charles I so there was a Civil War and the king was executed. For several years England was a republic, ruled by Oliver Cromwell.

paragraphs: When Bunyan was 16 years old, he served in the parliamentary army at Newport Pagnell (1644 - 1647). After that, he started to work as a tinker, and in 1649, he married. His wife had two books, both of which were religious books. Bunyan started to be influenced by religion. He became very frightened because he realized he had done things which were wrong, and he wondered whether God would forgive him, so that he would go to heaven when he died, or whether he would be punished and go to hell. The kind of things he did which at that time were thought to be wrong (sins) were not things which would worry many people nowadays: ringing church bells, dancing, playing games on Sundays and, perhaps the worst of all, swearing. Other wrongs he had done in the past included disrespecting his parents, and very likely causing, or at least unremorsefully (unsorrowfully) helping along the early death of his mother and sister - which he did by refusing to take any of the burden or workload at home. It was only for lack of money that he did not spend his time with prostitutes, though he longed to join the gambling and "painted women" who attended fairs and other public events. In his book "Grace Abounding" Bunyan describes himself as the “Chief of Sinners”. He tells how one day he was walking along when he heard a group of women talking to one another about salvation. This made him think about these things.

paragraphs: In those days, people were supposed to worship God in the Church of England. There were, however, groups of people who wanted to worship God in different ways. These people were called “non-conformists”. In 1653, a sect (religious group) of non-conformists had taken over St John’s Church in Bedford. Their vicar was John Gifford. Bunyan discussed the Bible a lot with Gifford.

paragraphs: Bunyan lived in Elstow, near Bedford, until 1655, when his wife died. He moved to Bedford to be nearer to Gifford’s church . He married again in 1659. In 1660, the Restoration of the Monarchy took place: England had a king once more: Charles II became king. It was bad for religious freedom, because all non-conformist meetings were forbidden. St John’s Church had to become part of the Church of England again. Bunyan refused to go to church. He started to preach to groups of people anywhere they could meet: in barns or in the streets. Because he did not have permission to preach, he was arrested and put in gaol. At first, he was sentenced to 3 months, but because he refused to promise to stop preaching, he spent 12 years in gaol.

paragraphs: Bunyan spent the years 1660-1672 in gaol, and again he was in gaol for a short time in 1677. The gaol was at the top of Silver Street in the centre of Bedford, only 5 minutes walk from his house in St Cuthbert Street, which was then on the edge of the town. The gaol had 6 cells and 2 dungeons. He could probably have been free at any time if he had promised to give up preaching, but he did what he firmly believed to be right. He made some money in gaol by making shoelaces. His eldest daughter Mary, who was blind, brought him soup every day and also gave him books to read. Sometimes, he seems to have been let out of gaol for short periods of time. This was not really allowed, but often, the guards might let a prisoner out if they promised to come back. Bunyan even travelled as far as London once, and he must have gone home sometimes because he had two more children by his second wife during that time.

paragraphs: It was during this time in gaol that he wrote his allegorical novel: "Pilgrim's Progress". We do not know whether he wrote it all while he was in gaol. The book is in two parts. The first part finishes with the words: “So I awoke, and behold it was a dream”. When the second part begins he says “..as I slept I dreamt again”. This might mean that he wrote the second part in 1677 when he was in gaol again. This is only a guess, we do not know.

paragraphs: Bunyan was released in January 1672, when Charles II issued the “Declaration of Religious Indulgence” which meant that people were free to worship God in the way they wanted. The king had done this mainly because he wanted the Catholics to have less power. Non-conformist sects could register and get a license. Bunyan became pastor (priest) of the Bedford church. In March 1675, he was again imprisoned for preaching (because Charles II withdrew the Declaration of Religious Indulgence). This time he seems to have been in the Bedford town gaol on the stone bridge over the river Ouse. After a few months, he was let out. He was a very popular preacher, so he was not arrested again. His book "The Pilgrim's Progress" was published in 1678. He also wrote several other books about religion, but "The Pilgrim's Progress" was the one that became extremely popular. Because Bunyan did not have a formal education he wrote in a very direct style which ordinary people could understand. A passage from Part Two of "The Pilgrim's Progress" beginning "Who would true Valour see" is sung regularly as a hymn.

paragraphs: On his way to London, in 1688, he caught a severe cold from rats and bats, and died a painful death. His grave is in the cemetery at Bunhill Fields in London.


title: Smith (metalwork)

paragraphs: A smith, or metalsmith, is a person who makes things from metal.

paragraphs: Metal smiths were very important before industrialisation because they made metal tools for farming (especially the plough) and weapons for fighting in wars. Because of the importance of smiths, the name of their craft ('Smith') turned into a surname.

paragraphs: The word smith means "to hit" or "to strike". Originally, smiths made things from metal by using a hammer.

paragraphs: As an English suffix, "-smith" at the end of a word means a craftsmen. For example, a "locksmith" makes locks.

paragraphs: The ancient traditional tool of the smith is a forge or "smithy", which is a fire which allows compressed air (through a bellows) to heat the inside until it is hot enough for metal to melt so that it can be made into the shape that is required. .

paragraphs: The term, "metalsmith", often refers to artisans and craftpersons who practice their craft in many different metals, including gold, copper and silver. Jewelers often refer to their craft as "metalsmithing", and many universities offer degree programs in metalsmithing, jewelry and blacksmithing as part of their fine arts programs.

paragraphs: A "tinker" is a metalsmith who mends kettles, pots and pans. They were often poor, itinerant workers (walking from place to place looking for jobs).

paragraphs: Machinists are metalsmiths who produce high-precision parts and tools. The most advanced of these tools, CNC machines, are computer controlled and largely automated.


title: Allegory

paragraphs: An allegory is a term for a figure of speech. It is a story or picture with a hidden meaning. The characters in allegories are symbols which represent particular ideas. The story has a figurative meaning, not just a literal one.

paragraphs: Allegory is an example of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be a story in language. It may be something to look at, such as a painting or sculpture.

paragraphs: An allegory is like a long metaphor. People have to use their imagination to understand what it is trying to say. A fable or parable is a short allegory with one basic idea (a moral).

paragraphs: Sometimes people say that stories have meanings which the author, in fact, did not intend. For instance, many people have suggested that "The Lord of the Rings" was an allegory for the World Wars, but, in fact, it was written well before the outbreak of World War II, and J.R.R. Tolkien said that it was not an allegory. In this way people sometimes change the author’s ideas. Sometimes they do it for their own political reasons.

paragraphs: Allegory has been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation. It is often used as a way of criticizing things or people where it would not be possible to do so directly.

paragraphs: In classical literature Plato and Ovid wrote allegories. Dante Alighieri wrote allegories in "The Divine Comedy". In the Middle Ages "Everyman" was a morality play. John Bunyan’s "The Pilgrim's Progress" tells the story of a man trying to lead a Christian life. Jonathan Swift wrote "Gulliver's Travels", which tells about the strange customs of (made-up) faraway countries, but he was really criticizing things about his own country, the United Kingdom. "Animal Farm" by George Orwell is another example of an allegory, this time of the Soviet Union during Josef Stalin's era and the Russian Revolution. Some of the characters can be directly linked to figures during that time.

paragraphs: Songs may also include allegories. "Waist Deep In The Big Muddy" tells a story of American soldiers in the 1800s, ordered by their commander to march into the Mississippi River, which they could never cross on foot. In truth, it told the story of soldiers fighting in the Vietnam War in the 1960s, and being expected to do the white guys bidding.

paragraphs: Allegories still continue to be popular today. Pictures, movies and plays can be allegories. William Golding’s novel "Lord of the Flies" also has allegorical meaning. "Star Trek" used a great deal of allegory, to look at social conditions and moral values in the present, while telling stories based in the future. Alien races were often a reflection of Earth's own races and countries.

paragraphs: Allegorical artworks include Sandro Botticelli's "La Primavera (Allegory of Spring)" and Jan Vermeer's "The Allegory of Painting".


title: Newport Pagnell

paragraphs: Newport Pagnell is a town in England. It is in the borough of Milton Keynes.

paragraphs: The town was first mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as "Neuport", which is an Old English word meaning "New Market Town". At that time it was fairly new, having been founded by Norman invaders. The suffix "Pagnell" came later, when the manor passed into the hands of the Pagnell (Paynel) family.

paragraphs: At one time Newport Pagnell was one of the largest towns in the County of Buckinghamshire but today the new town of Milton Keynes has made it much less important.

paragraphs: Tickford Bridge, over the River Ouze, was built in 1810. It is the only iron bridge in Britain that still carries main road traffic. This is the oldest iron bridge in the world that is still in constant use. There is a plaque near the footbridge on the side that gives details of its history and construction. A large set of sluice gates used to control downstream flooding of the River Great Ouse is near the bridge.

paragraphs: Since 1954, Tickford Street in Newport Pagnell has been the home of the Aston Martin site, where all Aston Martin cars were built, until the recent opening of the new Ford Motor Company luxury division plant for Aston Martin built at Gaydon, Warwickshire.

paragraphs: The modern civil parish of Newport Pagnell stops at the M1, but the ecclesiastical parish extends to include Broughton and Caldecote. The parish church is dedicated to St Peter and St Paul.


Swearing


title: Amniote

paragraphs: The amniotes are a taxonomic group of animals: all the tetrapods except the amphibians.

paragraphs: They are the land vertebrates which lay cleidoic eggs.

paragraphs: Two super-groups make up the amniotes: the Synapsida (Pelycosaurs, Theriodonts and mammals) and the Sauropsida (all reptiles, including dinosaurs and birds).

paragraphs: The embryos of amniotes are either laid as eggs or develop in the female. These embyros are protected by several membranes, and have a much larger food supply than amphibian eggs.

paragraphs: The 'invention' of the cleidoic egg, and its embryonic membranes, is the main reason why the eggs of an amniote do not need to be laid in water.

paragraphs: Thus, as distinct from the amphibians, "amniotes are truly terrestrial". Secondarily, many reptiles and mammals returned to water, and mammals bear the young live, as do some reptile groups. This evolutionary flexibility is much less common in amphibians.

paragraphs: The first amniotes, such as "Casineria", looked like small lizards. They evolved about 340 million years ago, in the Mississippian or Lower Carboniferous. Their eggs could survive out of the water. This let amniotes move into environments that had less water. The amniotes moved across the Earth. Most vertebrates that live on land are amniotes, as are most of the air-breathing animals of the sea.

paragraphs: Very early in the evolutionary history of amniotes, they split into two main lines, the synapsids and the sauropsids, both of which persist into the modern era.

paragraphs: The oldest known fossil synapsid is "Protoclepsydrops" from about 320 million years ago, while the oldest known sauropsid is probably "Paleothyris", in the order Captorhinida, from the Middle Pennsylvanian epoch (about 306–312 million years ago).

paragraphs: One can assume the ancestors of the amniotes laid their eggs in moist places, as such modest-sized animals would not have difficulty finding depressions under fallen logs or other suitable places in the ancient forests, and dry conditions were probably not the main reason why the soft shell emerged.

paragraphs: In fish and amphibians there is only one inner membrane, also called an embryonic membrane. In amniotes the inner anatomy of the egg has evolved further and new structures have developed to take care of the gas exchanges between the embryo and the atmosphere, as well as dealing with the waste problems. To grow a thicker and tougher shell required new ways to supply the embryo with oxygen, as diffusion alone was not enough.

paragraphs: After the egg developed these structures, further sophistication allowed amniotes to lay much bigger eggs in much drier habitats. Bigger eggs allowed for bigger offspring, and bigger adults could produce bigger eggs, so amniotes grew bigger than their ancestors. Real growth was not possible, however, until they stopped relying on small invertebrates as their main food source and started to eat plants or other vertebrates, or returned to the water. New habits and heavier bodies meant further evolution for the amniotes, both in behavior and anatomy.

paragraphs: There are three main lines of amniotes, which may be distinguished by the structure of the skull and in particular the number of temporal fenestrae (openings) behind the eye. In anapsids (turtles) there are none, in synapsids (mammals and their extinct relatives) there is one, and in most diapsids (non-anapsid reptiles, including dinosaurs and birds) there are two.

paragraphs: The skeletal remains of amniotes have at least two pairs of sacral ribs, a sternum in the pectoral girdle (shoulders area) and an astragalus bone in the ankle.

paragraphs: A simplified phylogeny of tetrapods goes like this:

paragraphs: This is perhaps better than the older taxonomy, which lists recent branches like birds and mammals as classes on mere traditional grounds.


title: Synapsid

paragraphs: Synapsids ('fused arch'), is a taxonomic class of tetrapods. This class includes mammals and earlier groups related to mammals. Synapsids are one of the two major groups of amniotes. The sister group, which gave rise to the reptiles, is the Sauropsida. Both groups evolved from early amniotes about 345 million years ago during the early or mid Carboniferous period.

paragraphs: Synapsids include the Pelycosauria (Pennsylvanian to Permian), and the Therapsida (Lower Permian to present).

paragraphs: The pelycosaurs were dominant on land in the Permian, and went under at the Permian–Triassic extinction event. The therapsids were dominant on land in the Lower Triassic, but by the Upper Triassic the dinosaurs had taken over.

paragraphs: The mammal-like reptiles are traditionally divided into a primitive group and an advanced group, known respectively as pelycosaurs and therapsids. Pelycosaurs are a paraphyletic group of six primitive families of synapsids. They were all rather lizard-like with sprawling gait and possibly horny scutes. The therapsids contain the more advanced synapsids, having a more erect pose and possibly hair, at least in some forms. The latter are the ancestors of mammals. Thus both of the two synapsid groups represent evolutionary grades: the pelycosaurs have given rise to the therapsids, who in their turn have given rise to the mammals.

paragraphs: The therapsids ('beast face') used to be called mammal-like reptiles. This was a mistake, because they were never reptiles. The split between Synapsids and Sauropsids (the group which gave rise to reptiles) took place long before therapsids evolved.

paragraphs: There are a number of characteristics which cannot be seen on fossils, but which are of great importance. Mammals are distinguished from reptiles by fundamental differences in the development of the blood system. These differences are such that it would be almost impossible for mammals to be derived from reptiles.

paragraphs: This supports the division of amniotes into sauropsida and synapsida.

paragraphs: Synapsids evolved a fenestra (hole) behind each eye orbit on the lower part of the skull. It allows better attachment sites for jaw muscles than the original anapsid condition.

paragraphs: A parallel development took place in the diapsida, who evolved two rather than one opening behind each eye.

paragraphs: Originally, the opening in the skull left the inner cranium only covered by the jaw muscles, but in higher therapsids and mammals the sphenoid bone has expanded to close the opening.

paragraphs: Synapsids had differentiated teeth. These include the canines, molars, and incisors.

paragraphs: The trend towards differentiation is found in some labyrinthodonts and early anapsid reptilians. They have enlarged first teeth on the maxilla, forming a form of proto-canines. This trait was subsequently lost in the sauropsid line, but developed further in the synapsids. Early synapsids could have 2 or even 3 enlarged 'canines', but in the therapsids, the pattern had settled to one canine in each upper jaw half. The lower canines developed later.

paragraphs: Note: in evolutionary terms, the mammals are entirely within the Synapsida. Their status as a separate class is traditional Linnaean taxonomy: as a clade they are a sub-group of the Therapsida.


title: The Pilgrim's Progress

paragraphs: The Pilgrim's Progress is an English language book written by John Bunyan. It was published in two parts: the First Part in 1678, and the Second Part in 1684. Its full title is The Pilgrim's Progress from this World to that which is to come. It is regarded as one of the most important books in English literature. It is a Christian allegory.

paragraphs: The book uses the dream story of a journey through the English county of Bedfordshire, to London. Bunyan uses this to tell the idea of Christianity from a Protestant point of view. Although the journey is imaginary, the places are based upon real places in 17th century Bedfordshire. The difficulties faced by "Christian", the main character, is meant to be an allegory of the difficulties faced by a true Christian in keeping to the 'straight and narrow path'. The author was jailed for preaching his opinions, yet after the book was published, it was translated into over 200 languages.

paragraphs: Bunyan started to write the book in jail. He got into trouble for preaching without a licence. Bunyan, who was a Reformed Baptist, did not qualify for a licence. Only ministers of the Church of England were allowed to preach. He spent 12 years in Bedford jail. He might have been freed if he had promised not to preach, but he refused. He was let out only when the law changed, in 1672. He was jailed again for a short time in 1677.

paragraphs: The book is divided into two parts, and is 108,260 words long. Each part is a continuous narrative, with no chapter divisions. When the first part was published in 1678, it immediately became extremely popular. Part Two was published in 1684. There were 11 editions of the first part during John Bunyan’s lifetime, and two editions of the second part.

paragraphs: The story is an allegory about a man called Christian, who goes on a journey, and meets many strange people. Christian is an 'everyman' character: he represents the reader or any ordinary person. Eventually he gets to the Celestial City. The strange people he meets are characters who represent good and bad things in life. The story is therefore an allegory of the life of a good Christian. To be precise, it is an allegory of the Protestant view of Christianity. It includes, as characters, the giants 'Pope' and 'Pagan', allegories of Roman Catholicism and paganism as persecutors of Protestant Christians. 'Pagan' is dead, indicating the end of pagan persecution, and 'Pope' is alive but decrepit (elderly), indicating the diminished power and influence of the Roman Catholic pope. The many indirect references to the Bible is a sure sign of Protestant belief. The Bible had not long been available in English, and its translation was opposed by the church in the reign of Henry VIII.

paragraphs: Many of the places Bunyan describes are based on places he knew in the Bedfordshire countryside. For example, the Slough of Despond is thought to be the marshes in Tempsford (now on the A1 road). House Beautiful is thought to be Houghton House (now a ruin), just outside Ampthill. The character of the Evangelist is that of his friend John Gifford, who was the leader of a non-conformist group at St John’s Church, Bedford. The heavy burden (the load), which Christian carries on his back, represents his sins: the things he has done wrong, and which trouble him. However, the burden is also based on the heavy anvil which he carried on his back as he walked from place to place. He worked as a tinker (someone who mends pots and pans).

paragraphs: Later, the Land of Beulah is Middlesex County, the Very Deep River is the Thames, and the Celestial City is London.

paragraphs: Part One tells how a man called Christian makes his way from the 'City of Destruction' (Earth) to the 'Celestial City' (Heaven) of Zion. Christian finds himself weighed down by a great burden which he gets from reading a book (obviously the Bible). He wonders what he can do to be saved. The character Evangelist appears several times during the story, pointing him in the right direction. Evangelist shows Christian the way to the 'Wicket Gate'. Christian tries to persuade his family to join him on the journey, but they refuse, so he leaves them behind.

paragraphs: The first person he meets is called Mr. Worldly Wiseman, who says he can be saved by looking at the law, and that Mr. Legality can help him. Evangelist stops him from going that way. He must go to the Wicket Gate.

paragraphs: At the Wicket Gate the gatekeeper, Goodwill, tells him to keep to the straight path. In the Second Part, Goodwill is shown to be Jesus himself. To Christian's query about relief from his burden, Goodwill directs him forward to the 'place of deliverance'.

paragraphs: Christian goes to the House of the Interpreter, where he is shown pictures and that show ideas of the Christian faith. Then he gets to the 'place of deliverance'. This is meant to be the hill with the cross where Jesus died. There his burden falls off his back, so he is very relieved. Three shining ones give him the greeting of peace. They give him new clothes and a passport to the Celestial City (heaven). This is like a Christian Baptism.

paragraphs: At the top of the Hill of Difficulty, Christian stops at the House Beautiful, which is an allegory of the local Christian congregation. Christian spends three days here. When he leaves he is wearing armour which protects him when he fights a battle with the monster Apollyon. Then he goes to the Shadow of Death. He is not afraid because his friend Faithful reminds him of the words of Psalm 23: "Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me." The sun rises as he leaves.

paragraphs: Just outside the Valley of the Shadow of Death he meets Faithful, who also used to live in the City of Destruction. They go together to Vanity Fair, where they are both arrested because they do not like the kind of business which is being done at the fair, all based on greed. Faithful is put on trial, and executed. Hopeful, who lives in Vanity, takes Faithful's place as Christian's companion for the rest of the way.

paragraphs: Together Christian and Hope have several adventures. They are captured by Giant Despair, who takes them to Doubting Castle, where they are imprisoned, beaten and starved. The giant wants them to commit suicide, but they refuse. Suddenly Christian realizes that a key he has, called Promise, will open all the doors and gates of Doubting Castle. Using the key, they escape.

paragraphs: They come to the Delectable Mountains where the shepherds show them some of the wonders of the place also known as 'Immanuel's Land'.

paragraphs: On the way, Christian and Hopeful meet a man called Ignorance. He thinks he can enter the Celestial City even though he does not believe. A ferryman called Vain Hope ferries Ignorance across the River of Death, but Ignorance is turned away from the gates of Celestial City and thrown into hell.

paragraphs: Christian and Hopeful eventually reach the Celestial City.

paragraphs: The Second Part of "The Pilgrim's Progress" presents the pilgrimage of Christian's wife, Christiana; their sons and the maiden, Mercy. They visit the same places that Christian visited, but they take a longer time. This is because the story includes the marriage of his sons, and children for the four sons and their wives.

paragraphs: The story shows that women can be as brave as men. They visit the same stopping places that Christian did, but they take longer because they marry and give birth to children on the way. The hero of the story is Greatheart, the servant of the Interpreter, who is a pilgrim's guide to the Celestial City. He kills four giants, including Giant Despair, and helps to kill a monster that terrorizes the city of Vanity.

paragraphs: Expert critics think the second part is important, and brings in more ideas: "Part II, which appeared in 1684, is much more than a mere sequel to or repetition of the earlier volume. It clarifies and reinforces and justifies the story of Part I. The beam of Bunyan's spotlight is broadened to include Christian's family and other men, women, and children; the incidents and accidents of everyday life are more numerous, the joys of the pilgrimage tend to outweigh the hardships; and to the faith and hope of Part I is added in abundant measure that greatest of virtues, charity. The two parts of The Pilgrim's Progress in reality constitute a whole, and the whole is, without doubt, the most influential religious book ever written in the English language.

paragraphs: Part II shows human frailty: of women, children, and people with weak bodies or minds. When Christiana's party leaves Gaius's Inn, Mr. Feeble-mind lingers in order to be left behind. He is encouraged to come with the party by Greatheart: But brother ... I have it in commission, to comfort the feeble-minded, and to support the weak. You must needs go along with us; we will wait for you, we will lend you our help, we will deny ourselves of some things, both opinionative and practical, for your sake; we will not enter into doubtful disputations before you, we will be made all things to you, rather than you shall be left behind.

paragraphs: Although the language of "The Pilgrim’s Progress" may seem old-fashioned now, Bunyan wrote in a simple and direct style. He gave his characters symbolic names, which may have sounded lively and imaginative to a 17th century audience. Bunyan was of humble origin, and had no higher education. He was, however, highly literate, and wrote in a way that ordinary people could understand.

paragraphs: The book includes a poem which became the popular hymn "Who Would True Valour See" ("He Who Would Valiant Be" in some versions).

paragraphs: Some phrases from the book have become part of the English language, just as many English expressions come from the Bible. We often talk of a 'Slough of Despond' (when we feel a problem is too big for us). The expressions 'Vanity Fair' and 'House Beautiful' are also quite familiar. There are a large number of references to the book in later literature, and Bunyan's idea of how to tell a story has been borrowed and adapted many times.

paragraphs: The explicit Protestant theology of "The Pilgrim's Progress" made it popular. Bunyan's plain style breathes life into abstract ideas such as 'greed', 'envy', 'pride'. These ideas are turned into imaginary people, whom Christian meets and talks to, on his way to Heaven. Samuel Johnson said that "this is the great merit of the book, that the most cultivated man cannot find anything to praise more highly, and the child knows nothing more amusing". Three years after its publication (1681), it was reprinted in colonial America, and was widely read in the Puritan colonies.

paragraphs: Because of its explicit English Protestant theology "The Pilgrim's Progress" shares the feeling of most English, in the 17th century, against the Roman Catholic Church. It was published over the years of the Popish Plot (1678–1681) and ten years before the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and it shows the influence of John Foxe's "Foxe's Book of Martyrs". Bunyan presents a decrepit and harmless giant to confront Christian at the end of the Valley of the Shadow of Death that is explicitly named "Pope":Now I saw in my Dream, that at the end of this Valley lay blood, bones, ashes, and mangled bodies of men, even of Pilgrims that had gone this way formerly: And while I was musing what should be the reason, I espied a little before me a Cave, where two Giants, "Pope" and "Pagan", dwelt in old times, by whose Power and Tyranny the Men whose bones, blood ashes, &c. lay there, were cruelly put to death. But by this place "Christian" went without much danger, whereat I somewhat wondered; but I have learnt since, that "Pagan" has been dead many a day; and as for the other, though he be yet alive, he is by reason of age, and also of the many shrewd brushes that he met with in his younger dayes, grown so crazy and stiff in his joynts, that he can now do little more than sit in his Caves mouth, grinning at Pilgrims as they go by, and biting his nails, because he cannot come at them.

paragraphs: When Christian and Faithful travel through Vanity Fair, Bunyan adds the editorial comment:But as in other "fairs", some one Commodity is as the chief of all the "fair", so the Ware of "Rome" and her Merchandize is greatly promoted in "this fair": Only our "English" Nation, with some others, have taken a dislike thereat.

paragraphs: The book was the basis of an opera by Ralph Vaughan Williams, first performed in 1951. Vaughan Williams also wrote a short anthem "Valiant for Truth". The story has been made into films and used in video games.

paragraphs: Because modern English has changed from Bunyan's day, many authors have provided their own versions of the story.


title: The Need for Speed

paragraphs: The Need for Speed is a racing video game made by Electronic Arts. It is the 1st game in the "Need for Speed" series. It was released on the 3DO, PlayStation and Sega Saturn.


title: Louis de Broglie

paragraphs: Louis Victor Pierre Raymond, (7th) Duke of Broglie, (August 15, 1892 in Dieppe – March 19, 1987 in Louveciennes) was a French physicist. He discovered that electrons are similar to both particles and waves. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929.


title: Las Galeras, Samaná

paragraphs: Las Galeras is a Dominican Municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná province. It is on the east coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the "Rincón Bay" that is found between "Cabrón" and "Samaná" capes.

paragraphs: "Las Galeras", in English "The Galleys" (a galley was a war ship where prisoners and slaves were used to move the ship), because two galleys stayed here during the 16th Century.

paragraphs: In the last national census (2010), the district had a total population of 6,929: 3,800 men and 3,129 women. The urban population was only 13.41% of the total population.

paragraphs: The most important economic activities of the province are agriculture, fishing and tourism.

paragraphs: The region is famous for its beautiful beaches with palms. There is a beach at the seafront of Las Galeras itself, as well as a white sand beach, "La Playita" ("The Small Beach") within walking distance from the town. It is possible to take a boat to visit "Playa Rincón" ("Rincón Beach"), another beautiful beach in the region.


title: The Beyoncé Experience: Live

paragraphs: The Beyoncé Experience: Live is a live DVD by American R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles to be released in the US on November 20, 2007. It was filmed in Staples Center, Los Angeles, California which was shot on September 2, 2007 during her worldwide tour The Beyoncé Experience. It also includes guest appearances from Jay-Z on "Upgrade U" and former Destiny's Child mates Michelle Williams and Kelly Rowland on "Survivor."


title: Induno Olona

paragraphs: Induno Olona is a city in northern Italy, in the Lombardy region, near Varese. It has 10,000 inhabitants.


title: Swordfish

paragraphs: Swordfish ("Xiphias gladius") are large fish with a long, flat bill. They are a popular sport fish. Swordfish are elongated, round-bodied, and lose all teeth and scales by adulthood.

paragraphs: The International Game Fish Association's all-tackle angling record for a swordfish was a 1,182 lb (535.15 kg) specimen taken off Chile in 1953.

paragraphs: They are the sole member of their family Xiphiidae.

paragraphs: The swordfish is named after its sharp bill, resembling a sword (Latin gladius), which together with its streamlined physique (smooth body) allows it to cut through the water with great ease and agility. Swordfish are fast predators of other fish.

paragraphs: The "sword" is not used to spear, but may be used to slash at its prey to injure the prey animal, to make for an easier catch. Mainly, the swordfish relies on its slow speed and agility in the water to catch its enemy. It is undoubtedly among the slowest fish.

paragraphs: Swordfish is a particularly popular fish for cooking. Since swordfish are large animals, meat is usually sold as steaks, which are often grilled. The color of the flesh varies by diet, with fish caught on the east coast of North America often being rosier.

paragraphs: However, many sources including the United States Food and Drug Administration warn about potential toxicity (how poisonous it is) from high levels of methylmercury in swordfish.


title: Carreño de Miranda

paragraphs: Juan Carreño de Miranda (March, 1614-September, 1685) was a Spanish painter of the Baroque period.

paragraphs: Born in Avilés in Asturias, son of a painter with the same name, Juan Carreño de Miranda. His family moved to Madrid in 1623, and he trained in Madrid during the late 1620s as apprentice of Pedro de Las Cuevas and Bartolomé Roman. He came to the notice of Velazquez for his work in the cloister of doña María de Aragón y en la iglesia del Rosario, he was asked to help paint in the Royal Palace of Madridwith frescoes on mythologic fables. He was named Painter of the king in 1669. In 1658 Carreño was hired as an assistant on a royal commission to paint frescoes in the Alcázar palace, now Royal Palace of Madrid. In 1671 he was appointed court painter to the queen (pintor de cámara) and began to paint primarily portraits.In 1671, upon the death ofSebastian de Herrera, he was named chamber painter. He refused to be knighted in the order of Santiago, saying "Painting needs no honors, it can give them to the whole world". Mainly recalled as a painter of portraits. His main pupilswere Mateo Cerezo, Cabezalero, Donoso, Ledesma y Sotomayor. He died in Madrid.


title: Late Old Japanese

paragraphs: Late Old Japanese (中古日本語) is an old form of the Japanese language. It was used in the time known as the Heian Period, between 794 and 1185. The form of Japanese that was used before that is called Old Japanese.

paragraphs: Old Japanese was the first form of the Japanese language. The script (the way it was written) came from the Chinese script. This was all based on characters which were like little pictures (called kanji today, e.g. 中古日本語). During the Late Old period two new scripts were invented: Hiragana and Katakana. These were much simpler and described the sound of the syllables. It made reading and writing much easier. Famous books were written during this period such as "The Tale of Genji", "The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter", "The Tales of Ise" and many others.

paragraphs: Many changes took place to the way the language was pronounced during this period. Consonants that had been spoken through the nose became voiced, some long vowels were added, some consonants slid into one another. The syllables became simpler: instead of 88 there were only 66. Instead of two types of -i, -e, and –o there were only one. Some verbs ended in a consonant, others in a vowel. The changes in grammar included different ways that adjectives could be declined.


title: Old Japanese

paragraphs: Old Japanese (上代日本語, Jōdai nihongo) is the oldest known form of the Japanese language.

paragraphs: It is difficult to give a precise date when Old Japanese started. The date when the Old Japanese period is said to have finished is 794. It was the start of the Heian period.

paragraphs: The Japanese writing system came from the Chinese. Wooden tablets have been found with writing on. The oldest extended piece of writing we know of dates from 712. This is the start of the Nara period (710-794).

paragraphs: The earliest texts found in Japan are written in classical Chinese. However, some of them show the influences of Japanese grammar (e.g. word order). Sometimes bits of Chinese characters are used to make the sound of the small Japanese words called “particles”. This helps us to make some guesses about how it used to be pronounced.

paragraphs: Many changes in the Japanese language took place over the centuries. The spoken form of Japanese changed much more quickly than the written form.


title: Tom and Jerry

paragraphs: Tom and Jerry is an American animated short series. The original cartoons were created in 1940, written and directed by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera. It is named after its two main characters: a blue-grey cat named Tom and a brown house mouse named Jerry. Each cartoon shows the two characters getting into comedic fights or chases, in which they often get hurt cartoon-style.

paragraphs: A total of 114 "Tom and Jerry" shorts were produced by the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio from 1940–1958, starting with "Puss Gets the Boot". Seven of these cartoons won an Academy Award for Animated Short Film.

paragraphs: "Tom and Jerry" still holds the record of the most awards in the Animated Short Film category, which is tied for first place with the Walt Disney musical production "Silly Symphonies".

paragraphs: Later, Gene Deitch in Europe made 13 more cartoons for the series from 1961-1962. Then, Chuck Jones produced 34 more cartoons from 1963–1967. Finally, Hanna-Barbera worked with Warner Brothers Animation to make the last two "Tom and Jerry" cartoons: "The Mansion Cat" in 2001, and "The Karate Guard" in 2005. Since then, the cartoon characters have made appearances in other media

paragraphs: The following cartoons won the Academy Award for Animated Short Film:

paragraphs: The following lists are about the "Tom and Jerry" media which were not made for the original cartoon series.

paragraphs: The following shows are re-launches of the original "Tom and Jerry" cartoons:


title: Tynwald

paragraphs: Tynwald (), or more formally, the High Court of Tynwald () or Tynwald Court, is claimed to be the oldest parliament in continuous existence in the world, dating back over 1000 years.

paragraphs: It rules the Isle of Man, and while the island is a Crown dependency, this ancient form of government enjoys a large amount of political power.

paragraphs: Tynwald is separated into 2 houses (this is called a "Bicameral" parliament, meaning it has 2 chambers) - the House of Keys, which is elected by the people of the Isle of Man, and the Legislative Council, which is not directly elected - instead, other members of the Legislative Council elect members of the House of Keys (MHK's) to sit on it.

paragraphs: Both houses of Tynwald sit at the same time on Tynwald day, at the site of the original parliament - Tynwald Hill - in St. John's, a small village near Peel, and once a month at Parliament House in the Island's capital, Douglas. The rest of the time, they sit separately at Parliament House, with the House of Keys making most of the laws, and the Legislative Council doing most of the work of changing and revising them.

paragraphs: Queen Elizabeth II is acknowledged as the Lord of Mann.

paragraphs: Tynwald can trace its descent from the Viking and Norse that first colonized the Isle of Man.


title: Possum

paragraphs: The possum is an Australasian marsupial which was later introduced to China and New Zealand. There are about 69 species alive today.

paragraphs: Possums are members of the Phalangeriformes. This is a suborder of the Diprotodonts, a large order which includes the kangaroos and its relatives.

paragraphs: Possums are native to Australia and are protected there. Possums spend the first four months of their lives in their mother's pouch. By the time they are six months old, the young possums live outside the pouch.

paragraphs: They are nocturnal and at least partly arboreal. Some of the smaller species are gliders. They have sharp claws and a keen sense of smell. They eat the leaves of trees, insects, berries and bird's eggs.

paragraphs: The first possums were brought to New Zealand in 1837 from Australia. In New Zealand, possums have no natural enemies, so possum numbers increased quickly. It is thought of as a pest in New Zealand.

paragraphs: The possum has done a lot of damage to the native plants, animals and birds.


title: Gotha

paragraphs: Gotha is a town in Thuringia, in Germany. It is the capital of the District of Gotha. The population was 46,205 in 2004.

paragraphs: The town has existed at least since the 8th century, when its name was mentioned in a document signed by Charlemagne, in which it appears as "Villa Gotaha" ("Good Waters"). In 1640 Gotha became the capital city of Saxe-Gotha. In the 18th century the French philosopher Voltaire stayed for a long time, and the Royal court became one of the centres of the Enlightenment in Germany. From 1826 to 1918, Gotha was one of the two capitals of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

paragraphs: Gotha has played an important role in the Germany's workers' movement: the German socialist party (SPD) was founded in Gotha in 1875, when the Social Democratic Workers' Party, led by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, and the General German Workers' Association, founded by Ferdinand Lassalle joined together. The compromise was known the "Gotha Program" and was opposed by Karl Marx.

paragraphs: Gotha has also been traditionally a centre of publishing. The firm of Justus Perthes (now called Hermann Haack) began publishing the "Almanach de Gotha" in 1763. The almanach was a very important directory of the world's major ruling dynasties and Europe's high nobility.

paragraphs: From 1949 to 1990 the city of Gotha was in the German Democratic Republic.


title: Palm Island, Queensland

paragraphs: Palm Island, also known as Great Palm Island, or by the Aboriginal name Bukaman, is an island with about 2,000 people living on it.

paragraphs: The small town on the island has many names such as Palm Island, the Mission, Palm Island Settlement or Palm Community.

paragraphs: The island is north-west of Townsville, on the east coast of Queensland, Australia. It is the biggest of the "Greater Palm" group of islands. It has small bays, sandy beaches and steep forested mountains rising to high. Other close by islands outside the Palm group include Rattlesnake Island and Magnetic Island.

paragraphs: Palm Island is often called a "tropical paradise" because of its natural beauty, but it has had a sad past since Europeans arrived in Australia. For much of the 20th Century it was used by the Queensland Government as a town for Aboriginals thought to be guilty of such crimes as being "disruptive", being pregnant to a white man or being born with "mixed blood".

paragraphs: The community created by this history has had many problems and has often been debated about by political and social writers. Of major concern is a lack of jobs and housing. Since it became a Aboriginal reserve, Palm Island has been a symbol of aboriginal hardship and violence.<ref name="Q Mag 3/07"></ref> At the same time it has been at the centre of political campaigning to improve the lives and treatment of Australia's Indigenous peoples as well as seeking people to recognise the bad history which lead to the Palm Island of today.


title: 100 Greatest Britons

paragraphs: 100 Greatest Britons was a BBC programme broadcast in 2002. The list was the result of a poll. The top ten people on the list were:

paragraphs: The complete list can be found on the BBC website.


title: Igrejinha

paragraphs: Igrejinha is a Brazilian city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It has 31 389 inhabitants and an area of 136.816 km².


title: Arroyo Barril, Samaná

paragraphs: Arroyo Barril is a Municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná province in the Dominican Republic . It is on the south coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the coast of Samaná Bay.

paragraphs: It was made a municipal district on May 1, 2003.

paragraphs: In the last national census (2010), the district had a total population of 11,007: 5,591 men and 5,416 women. The urban population was 22% of the total population.

paragraphs: The most important economic activities of Arroyo Barril are the same of the province: agriculture, fishing and tourism.

paragraphs: The Arroyo Barril Airport is in this place; it is a national airport with flights to other airports in the country.


title: Intolerable Acts

paragraphs: The Intolerable Acts are laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774.

paragraphs: The British Parliament passed these laws to punish the Massachusetts colony for the Boston Tea Party.

paragraphs: These laws were so harsh that the colonists called them the Intolerable Acts.

paragraphs: Other colonies offered Massachusetts their support. They sent supplies to Boston. The Committees of Correspondence also called for a meeting of all colonies. This meeting would decide what to do about their problems with Britain, which led to the Continental Congress.


title: Mike Zambidis

paragraphs: "Iron" Mike Zambidis (born July 15, 1980) is a Greek kickboxer. He is known in the kickboxing community as K.O. artist and for his explosive fighting style.


title: Indo-Greek Kingdom

paragraphs: The Indo-Greek Kingdom was a part of the Greek Empire. It ruled in parts of northwest and northern Indian subcontinent (present-day Pakistan) from 180 BCE to around 10 CE, and was ruled by a succession of more than thirty Hellenic kings.


title: Dassault Mirage 2000

paragraphs: The Mirage 2000 is a French-built multirole fighter jet manufactured by Dassault Aviation. It first flew in 1978, and was introduced in 1984. Originally designed in the late seventies as a lightweight fighter for the Armée de l'Air, it evolved into a successful multirole aircraft now in service in 9 countries with more than 600 airplanes built.


title: Excretion

paragraphs: Excretion is one of the most basic functions of life. It is the process of eliminating waste products of metabolism and other non-useful materials. It is an essential process in all forms of life. It contrasts with secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell.

paragraphs: In single-celled organisms, waste products are discharged directly through the surface of the cell. Multicellular organisms use more complex methods. Higher plants eliminate gases through the stomata on the surface of leaves. Animals have special excretory organs.

paragraphs: In mammals, excretion is the formation of urine in the kidneys, and expelling carbon dioxide from the lungs. These waste products are eliminated by urination and breathing out respectively. If excretion does not occur in an organism, waste products accumulate, which eventually kill the organism.

paragraphs: Also, food waste is expelled through the anus. Other substances are secreted into the bile, and then eliminated in the faeces. The skin and lungs also have excretory functions: the skin eliminates metabolic wastes like urea and lactic acid through sweating, and the lungs expel carbon dioxide.

paragraphs: Aquatic animals usually excrete ammonia directly into the water, as this compound is soluble and there is ample water available for dilution. In terrestrial animals ammonia-like compounds are converted into other nitrogenous materials as there is less water in the environment, and ammonia itself is toxic.

paragraphs: Reptiles and birds excrete their nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of a white paste. This allows efficient water retention and it can be stored more easily in the egg. Both uric acid and faeces are expelled through a common opening called the cloaca. Their waste is usually two-coloured: part white (uric acid) and part green or black (organic waste).

paragraphs: Many bird species, especially seabirds, can also excrete salt via specialized nasal salt glands, the saline solution leaving through nostrils in the beak.


title: Vibration isolation

paragraphs: Vibration isolation is a system of devices to decouple a mechanical or structural object from its vibrating supports.

paragraphs: For example, the handles of the saw presented in the right photo are separated from the engine and cutting bar to reduce shaking for the operator. Here, the spring mount is a part of this vibration isolation system.

paragraphs: When the targeted object is rather heavy (e.g. building, bridge or the like), vibration isolation may be called base isolation. Vibration isolation is a branch of protective techniques known as vibration control.

paragraphs: From the very beginning, the theory of vibration isolation, in general, and of base isolation, in particular, rested on two pillars: "heavy damping" and "frequency separation". Unfortunately, nobody paid any attention that the heavy damping was a sort of a strong connection between a "substructure" and "superstructure", and that the idea of decoupling them with the help of such connections was of no good.


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

paragraphs: Megan Nicole Kanka (December 7, 1986 – July 29, 1994) was an American child who was raped and murdered by her neighbor Jesse Timmendequas. It happened in Hamilton Township, Mercer County, New Jersey by a convicted sex offender, when she was seven years old.

paragraphs: Timmendequas tricked Kanka to come into his house by saying he had a puppy inside. Once Kanka noticed there was no puppy Timmendequas raped her, slammed her head into a dresser, strangled her, wrapped her head in a plastic bag, and strangled her with a belt. He put her body in his car and assaulted her once more before placing her in a toy chest and dumping it in a park in nearby West Windsor, New Jersey. When he went to court the jury sentenced him to death after convicting him of kidnapping, rape, sodomy and murder.

paragraphs: The aftermath of this lead the New Jersey Legislature to pass a law called "Megan's Law" which requires convicted sex offenders to tell the local police department when they move into a neighborhood.


title: Ueno Station

paragraphs: Ueno Station (上野駅,うえのえき) is a railway station of JR East and Tokyo Metro in Taitō, Tokyo, Japan. Ueno Station should not be confused with the nearby Keisei-Ueno Station.


title: Yuniesky Betancourt

paragraphs: Yuniesky Betancourt (born January 31, 1982 in Santa Clara, Cuba) is a Cuban baseball player. He currently plays as a shortstop for the Milwaukee Brewers of Major League Baseball (MLB).

paragraphs: Betancourt formerly played for the Seattle Mariners from 2005-2009 and the Kansas City Royals from 2009-2010 before being traded along with Zack Greinke to the Brewers for Alcides Escobar, Lorenzo Cain, Jeremy Jeffress, Jake Odorizzi, and $2,000,000 to reportedly offset the buyout of Betancourt's club option in 2012.


title: Saitama-Shintoshin Station

paragraphs: Saitama-Shintoshin Station (さいたま新都心駅,さいたましんとしんえき) is a railway station of JR East in Saitama, Saitama Prefecture, Japan.


title: Tarawih

paragraphs: Tarawih (تراويح) also spelled Taraweeh, are extra prayers which Muslims read at night in the month of Ramadan. The details of how the Tarawih are to be said is different between the different branches of Islam. Tarawih prayers are made up of a number of prayer phrases and actions, raka‘āt, said in pairs. Hanafis and Shafi'i say there are 20 raka‘āt, some Hanabalis say it is only eight, while others say 20. Malikis say there are 36, and the Ahl al-Hadeeth say it is 8.


title: Ferrari Grand Prix results

paragraphs: The table below details the World Championship Grand Prix results for Scuderia Ferrari's factory team-entered and privately-entered Formula One cars since 1950 in a separate list. The distinction between factory team entries and privateers is important in the early years of the Formula One championships. A third separate list details other teams for which Ferrari was an engine supplier.


title: Let's Go All the Way (song)

paragraphs: "Let's Go All the Way'" is a 1986 dance-pop/new wave song by the American pop band Sly Fox. It is the first single from their only album "Let's Go All the Way", which was released in 1985. The song was produced by Ted Currier and written by Gary "Mudbone" Cooper.

paragraphs: The song was used in the movie Ferris Bueller's Day Off and Loverboy and was also covered in 1999 by The Wondergirls and again in 2000 by the horrorcore band Insane Clown Posse.


title: Riddle Box

paragraphs: Riddle Box is the third studio album by American Horrorcore band, Insane Clown Posse. It was released on October 10, 1995. The producers of the album were Insane Clown Posse and Mike E. Clark. The album was the third of the "Joker Cards" in the Dark Carnival mythology.


title: Privateer (motorsport)

paragraphs: In auto racing, a privateer is usually an person or race team that enters a race on their own. They are not directly supported by an automobile manufacturer. Privateer teams often build and maintain their own vehicles.

paragraphs: In the early years of Formula One, privately-owned teams would race using a race car built by another team or constructor. Many privateer entrants compete for the enjoyment of the sport, and are not paid to be racing drivers.

paragraphs: The modern F1 Concorde Agreement now requires teams to build their own cars. In modern F1 terms, privateer is more often used to refer to a team who are not at least part-owned by large corporations, such as WilliamsF1.


title: Factory-backed

paragraphs: Factory-backed is a term commonly used in motor sports to describe a racing team with support from a manufacturer. This support includes financial aid. Motor sports is an expensive pastime, and some amount of factory support is often necessary for success. Full factory backing is often seen in the top levels of competition.


title: Meriwether Lewis

paragraphs: Meriwether Lewis (August 18, 1774 – October 11, 1809) was an American explorer, soldier, and public administrator. He was best known for his role as the leader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition with William Clark. Their mission was to explore the territory of the Louisiana Purchase, establish trade and sovereignty over the natives near the Missouri River, and claim the Pacific Northwest and Oregon Country for the United States before European nations. They also collected scientific data, and information on indigenous nations. President Thomas Jefferson appointed him Governor of Upper Louisiana in 1806. He died of gunshot wounds in what was an act of suicide.


title: William Clark

paragraphs: William Clark (August 1, 1770 – September 1, 1838) was an American explorer, soldier, Indian agent, and territorial governor. A native of Virginia, he grew up in prestatehood Kentucky before later settling in what became the state of Missouri. Clark was a planter and slaveholder.

paragraphs: Along with Meriwether Lewis, Clark led the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1803 to 1806 across the Louisiana Purchase to the Pacific Ocean, and claimed the Pacific Northwest for the United States. Before the expedition, he served in a militia and the United States Army. Afterward, he served in a militia and as governor of the Missouri Territory. From 1822 until his death in 1838, he served as Superintendent of Indian Affairs.


title: Concorde Agreement

paragraphs: The Concorde Agreement is a contract between the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the Formula One teams and the Formula One Administration. The Concorde Agreement defines the agreement about how the teams race, and how the money is divided up. The money includes the television revenue and prize money.

paragraphs: There have been six Concorde Agreements since 1981. The terms of all of the agreements have been kept a secret. The secrecy was broken by racing journalist Forrest Bond when the 1997 Concorde Agreement was published in 2006 by RaceFax.

paragraphs: The basic requirements of the agreements are to be professional and to increase the success of Formula One. The biggest requirement of the teams to participate in every race. This makes Formula One better for the broadcasters. Broadcasters spend a large amount of money to televise the races. In return for racing, the teams were guaranteed a percentage of the sport's revenue.

paragraphs: The Commission Sportive Internationale, was an organization that reported to the FIA. They were the rule-making group for Formula One. In 1979 they were replaced by the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile, or FISA.

paragraphs: The race teams were represented by the Formula One Constructors Association, or FOCA. At the time, FOCA's chief executive was Bernie Ecclestone and his legal advisor was Max Mosley.

paragraphs: FISA and FOCA had a number of disagreements. Some teams believed that FISA was favoring the major manufacturers. The teams were also unhappy about how the money in Formula One was being distributed.

paragraphs: The FISA and FOCA disagreements became known as the FISA-FOCA war. This resulted in several races being canceled. Goodyear threatened to quit suppling tyres to Formula One. This would have been a disaster to the sport.

paragraphs: Bernie Ecclestone of FOCA organized a meeting of team managers and FISA representatives. The meeting was held at the offices of the FIA in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, France. At the meeting, they negotiated for thirteen straight hours. On 19 January 1981, the first Concorde Agreement was signed. The agreement was named after the plaza in Paris where the discussions took place.

paragraphs: The contract terms remain mostly confidential. It is known that teams were required to appear and compete in every race. This would ensure that the newly acquired television public that they would have a race to watch. The agreement also granted FOCA the right to televise Formula One races. This may have been the most important part of the agreement. This right was "leased" to Formula One Promotions and Administration, a company created and owned by Bernie Ecclestone. Another important part of the agreement was that the rules would be kept stable.

paragraphs: The first Concorde Agreement expired on 31 December 1987.

paragraphs: The second Concorde Agreement covered the through seasons.

paragraphs: The third Concorde Agreement covered the through seasons.

paragraphs: In 1995 the FIA decided to transfer Formula One's commercial rights from FOCA to Formula One Administration for a 14-year period. In exchange, Ecclestone would make an annual payment. McLaren, Williams, and Tyrrell did not like this arrangement. They rejecting the proposed Concorde Agreement. Ken Tyrrell was upset that Ecclestone, as President of FOCA, had transfer the rights to his own company. Mr. Tyrrell also did not like that the Agreement was secret. He believed that only helped Ecclestone. He felt it weakened the bargaining power of the teams.

paragraphs: On 5 September 1996 the new Concorde Agreement was signed by all the teams except McLaren, Williams, and Tyrrell. The agreement was to run from 1 January 1997 to 2002.

paragraphs: Taking a stand against Bernie Ecclestone, the FIA, and the commercial aspects of Formula One put McLaren, Williams, and Tyrrell in a bind. The three teams lost influence in the sport and income they would have received if they had signed.

paragraphs: A compromise (agreement between all parties) was reached. On 27 August 1998, the 1998 Concorde Agreement was signed. This agreement expired on 31 December 2007.

paragraphs: A meeting on the new Concorde Agreement was held on 7 December 2004. All of the teams but Ferrari attended the meeting. Ecclestone offered a payment of £260,000,000 over three years if all the teams would renew of the Concorde Agreement.

paragraphs: On 19 January 2005, Ferrari announced that it had signed an extension to the 1997 Concorde Agreement. The extension would expire on 31 December 2012. Later that year, Red Bull and Jordan/Midland also signed an extension. (Jordan had been sold to Midland, but was still racing under the name Jordan.) On 7 December, 2005, Williams became the fourth team to sign an extension to the agreement.

paragraphs: On 27 March 2006, the five GPMA-backed teams (Jaguar, Honda, Ferrari, Toyota, and Renault) submitted their applications for the 2008 season. On 14 May 2006, the five GPMA-backed teams signed a Memorandum of Understanding (a letter agreeing to the terms) with the commercial rights holders (CVC/Ecclestone). This formed the basis of the next Concorde Agreement. A full Concorde Agreement was not in place for the season, with the Memorandum and other individual teams acting as a temporary solution.

paragraphs: On 29 July 2008, the ten currently competing teams created the Formula One Teams Association (FOTA) to negotiate the terms of contract. After a dispute between FOTA and the FIA in the first half of 2009, a new Concorde Agreement was signed by Mosley and all of the teams except BMW Sauber. BMW Sauber had announced it was going to withdraw from Formula One at the end of the season. The new agreement provides for a continuation of the terms of the 1998 agreement. It runs until 31 December 2012.

paragraphs: A program of resource limits was also agreed on. Revised sporting and technical regulations for the season were set.


paragraphs: The Avatar: The Last Airbender Trading Card Game is a collectible card game based on the Nickelodeon animated television series "". Upper Deck Entertainment launched this title in the first quarter of 2006.


title: Tokyopop

paragraphs: Tokyopop, and formerly known as Mixx, is a distributor, licensor, and publisher of anime, manga, manhwa and Original English-language manga in English, German, and Japanese. Tokyopop has its headquarters in Los Angeles, California and branches in the United Kingdom and Germany. Tokyopop products are available internationally.


title: Film comic

paragraphs: A , or , also referred to as ani-manga, are Japanese manga volumes which use images from an anime series, movie, or video release instead of the standard drawn panels. They generally contain the full dialog from the anime from which they are adapted. While generally published in book form, they are also sometimes released electronically as e-books, occasionally called e-manga.

paragraphs: This format has been adopted by companies such as Disney and companies from other countries' television and movie, and may even be based on live-action productions.

paragraphs: Companies such as Tokyopop and Viz release movies comics but refer to them as Cine-manga and Ani-manga, respectively. These western companies also release movies comics for young readers. movies comics have been well received in English speaking countries, with some titles selling more than 500,000 copies.


title: Roerich’s Pact

paragraphs: The Roerich Pact is a treaty on Protection of Artistic and Scientific Institutions and Historic Monuments, signed by the representatives of 21 states in the Oval Office of the White House on 15 April 1935. As of January 1, 1990, the Roerich Pact had been ratified by ten nations: Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, the United States, and Venezuela. It went into effect on 26 August 1935. The Government of India approved the Treaty in 1948, but did not take any further formal action. The Roerich Pact is also known as "Pax Cultura" ("Cultural Peace" or "Peace through Culture"). The most important part of the Roerich Pact is the legal recognition that the protection of culture is always more important than any military necessity.

paragraphs: Russian painter and philosopher Nicholas Roerich (1874-1947) started the modern movement for the defense of cultural objects, in order for a “Peace of Civilizations”.

paragraphs: Nicholas Roerich was born on October 9, 1874, in St. Petersburg. He became a successful painter. One of his paintings was purchased by Nicholas II of Russia.

paragraphs: After 1918, Roerich left Russia. In 1923, the Roerich Museum was founded in New York. Presently, the Roerich Museum is located in Manhattan, at the corner of 107th Street and Riverside Drive. Finally, Roerich settled down in the Kulu Valley in Himachal Pradesh in the Himalayas. He died on December 13, 1947.

paragraphs: In 1929, Nicholas Roerich, working with Paris University professor Giorge Chklaver, wrote a draft of an international treaty dedicated to protection of cultural values (Roerich Pact).

paragraphs: President Franklin D. Roosevelt had a decisive influence on the process of signing of this treaty by all nations of the American continent. Incidentally, Roosevelt kept in his private rooms a bust of Roerich.

paragraphs: The Roerich Pact was the basis for the United Nations “International Convention for Protection of Cultural Values in the Event of Armed Conflict” signed in 1954. But not all of the ideas of the Roerich Pact are fully implemented in international law, especially the preference of the preservation of cultural values over military necessity.

paragraphs: The Roerich Pact proposed a flag to identify protected objects – the Banner of Peace, which was a white cloth containing a red ring and three red circles inscribed in it. The sign symbolized a unity of the past, present and future into the ring of eternity. Ideas from the Pact were reflected in Roerich’s art. The Banner of Peace symbol is shown in many paintings of Nicholas Roerich.

paragraphs: The Roerich Pact is not only an international treaty. It contains legal ideas about a new type of state. The state budget should include money spent on culture, art and education. These expenses must be larger than military expenses. This is the legal recognition that the protection of cultural objects is more important than any military necessity. Roerich thought that caring for future generations was an important reason for constitutional states to exist.

paragraphs: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in the speech upon the signature of the 'Roerich Pact' Treaty, said, "In opening this Pact to the adherence of the Nations of the world, we are endeavoring to make of universal application one of the principles vital to the preservation of modern civilization. This Treaty possesses a spiritual significance far deeper than the text of the instrument itself." The Roerich Pact was an important step towards the future development of a new legal culture. The provisions of Roerich’s concept are based on the idea that the primary duty of the state is to preserve the national culture. The ideas of the Roerich Pact are still not fully implemented in international law. Some people think that the 21st century is a good time to implement these ideas.


title: M. Night Shyamalan

paragraphs: Manoj Nelliyattu Shyamalan (; മനോജ് നെല്ലിയാട്ടു ശ്യാമളന്, Mitur Ben Es-Derti ,Latin English: "Maṉōj Nelliyāṯṯu Ṣiyāmaḷaṉ", born 6 August 1970), known professionally as M. Night Shyamalan, is an American filmmaker and screenwriter who resides and works primarily in the United States, known for making movies with contemporary supernatural plots that climax with a twist ending including "The Sixth Sense" (1999), "Unbreakable" (2000), "Signs" (2002), "The Village" (2004), "Lady in the Water" (2006), "The Happening" (2008) and "The Last Airbender" (2010). He is also known for filming his movies (and staging his plots) in and around Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he was raised.

paragraphs: Shyamalan was born in a Hindu household in Mahé, Puducherry, India. His father, Nelliate C. Shyamalan is a Malayali traditional physician (Vaidyar) from Mahé. His mother, Jayalakshmi is Tamil and is an obstetrician and gynecologist by profession.


title: Neijia

paragraphs: , literally "internal family", is a term in Chinese martial arts, grouping those styles that practice

paragraphs: , literally "internal strength", usually translated as internal martial arts, occupied with spiritual, mental or qi-related aspects, as opposed to an "external" ) approach focused on physiological aspects. The distinction dates to the 17th century, but its modern application is due to publications by Sun Lutang, dating to the period of 1915 to 1928.

paragraphs: Nèi jìng is developed by using "nèigōng", or "internal exercises," as opposed to "wài gōng", "external exercises."

paragraphs: Nèijiā is a broad term used mistakenly in the West as a synonym for the more specific Wǔdāngquán styles, named for their association with the Taoist monasteries of Wudangshan range, Hubei Province in Chinese popular legend. These styles are enumerated by Sun Lutang as Tàijíquán, Xíngyìquán and Bāguàzhǎng, but must also include Bājíquán and the legendary Wudang Sword. Some other Chinese arts, not in the Wudangquan group, such as Liuhebafa, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Foo Pai and Yiquan are frequently classified (or classify themselves) as "internal".


title: Brahmajala Sutta (Theravada)

paragraphs: The Brahmajala Sutta is the first of 34 suttas in the Digha Nikaya (the Long Discourses of the Buddha). The name comes from 'brahma' (perfect wisdom) and 'jala' (net-which-embraced-all-views). The sutta is also called 'Atthajala' (Net of Essence), Dhammajala, (Net of the Dhamma), Ditthijala (Net of Views), Anuttarasangama Vijaya (Incomparable Victory in Battle).

paragraphs: The sutta discusses two main topics: the elaboration of the Ten Precepts (Cula-sila), the Middle Precepts (Majjhima-sila), and the Great Precepts (Maha-sila). Cula-sila deals with the Ten Precepts to be practised by devout buddhists, while Majjhima-sila gives a detailed description of the practice of the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth precepts, together with the practise of plant conservation and speech etiquette.

paragraphs: The second and third parts of the sutta discuss the 62 beliefs (ditthi) or "views" held by ascetics in the Ganges plains ( in what is now India) during the life of the Buddha. These are divided into: 18 beliefs related to the past (pubbantanuditthino), and 44 beliefs about the future (aparantakappika).

paragraphs: Many of these beliefs are still relevant in the modern world and thus the sutta provides Buddhist scholars with much information to ponder about the Buddha's teachings.

paragraphs: The elaboration of these beliefs is very detailed, focusing on how the beliefs (faiths) come to be and the way they are described and declared. The elaboration ends with the Buddha's statement about the danger of clinging to these beliefs, as they are still influenced by desire (lobha), hatred (dosa), and ignorance (moha) that its faithful followers will not end in the final liberation but still in the cycle of samsara. Believers of these faiths are compared to small fish in a pond which will be captured by a fine net no matter how much they want to escape, while those who see reality as it is are beyond the net of samsara.


title: Baguazhang

paragraphs: Bāguàzhǎng is one of the major Chinese martial arts of the Wudang school. It is also one of the three main internal styles, or Neijia. "Bāguà zhǎng" means "eight trigram palm," according to the trigrams of the Yijing (I Ching), one of the canons of Taoism.


title: Grace Slick

paragraphs: Grace Slick (born "Grace Barnett Wing"; October 30, 1939) is an American singer-songwriter from Evanston, Illinois. She was the lead singer of Jefferson Airplane, Jefferson Starship and Starship.

paragraphs: She was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 as a member of Jefferson Airplane.