title: Bivalve

paragraphs: The bivalves are a large class of molluscs, also known as pelecypods.

paragraphs: They have a hard calcareous shell made of two parts or 'valves'. The soft parts are inside the shell. The shell is usually bilaterally symmetrical.

paragraphs: There are over 30,000 species of bivalves, including the fossil species. There are about 9,200 living species in 1,260 genera and 106 families. All of them live in the water, most of them in the sea or in brackish water. Some live in fresh water. All are filter feeders: they lost their radula in the course of evolution. A few are carnivorous, eating much larger prey than the tiny microalgae eaten by other bivalves.

paragraphs: The best known examples of bivalves are clams, mussels, scallops and oysters.

paragraphs: Bivalves have two shells or valves connected by a hinge with hinge teeth. They are made of a calcareous mineral, calcite or aragonite. The valves are covered by a periostracum, which is an organic horny substance. This forms the familiar coloured layer on the shell.

paragraphs: The shells are usually held shut by strong adductor muscles. Scallops can use their muscles to flap the valves and swim.

paragraphs: A bivalve takes in water that has plankton and other things floating in it.

paragraphs: Some (but not all) molluscs have a part of their mantle known as the siphon (a tube). Siphons, if they exist, come in pairs, one to suck in, one to expel.

paragraphs: Anything that is small enough to fit inside the hole of its incurrent siphon enters the bivalve. When the floating material comes in, it gets stuck in slimy mucus that is on the surface of the bivalve's gills. The food is moved down to the mouth, which is on the other side of the siphon. Food is digested in the bivalve's stomach and intestine, and everything that is not digested goes out through the other siphon, with water.

paragraphs: The siphons are an adaptation of burrowing molluscs. Those that live above the substrate (sediment), such as scallops and oysters, do not need them.

paragraphs: There are four feeding types, defined by their gill structure:

paragraphs: As a group, the bivalves are adapted to penetrate into, and to move along horizontally along, soft ground such as mud and sand. Common examples of this are razor shells, which can dig themselves into the sand with great speed to escape enemies, and cockles.

paragraphs: Scallops and file clams can swim to escape a predator, clapping their valves together to create a jet of water. Cockles can use their foot to leap from danger. However these methods quickly exhaust the animal. In the razor shells the siphons can break off only to grow back later.

paragraphs: The file shells can produce a noxious secretion when threatened, and the fan shells of the same family have a unique, acid-producing organ.

paragraphs: Bivalves are superficially similar to brachiopods, but the construction of the shell is completely different in the two groups. In brachiopods, the two valves are on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body, while in bivalves, they are on the left and right sides.

paragraphs: Bivalves appeared late in the Cambrian explosion and came to increase in the Palaeozoic, and dominate over brachiopods during the Mesozoic. So, it was thought that bivalves are better adapted to aquatic life than the brachiopods, and this caused brachiopods to be out-competed and relegated to minor niches.

paragraphs: However, after the Permian-Triassic extinction event bivalves had a huge adaptive radiation while brachiopods were devastated, losing 95% of their diversity.

paragraphs: The upshot was that bivalves took over the desirable inshore habitats. Brachiopods now live in deeper waters where food is scarcer.


title: Card

paragraphs:
Card most commonly refers to:
Card may also refer to:


title: Bishop

paragraphs: Bishop is the of a rank in the clergy of a Christian Church. The diocese which a bishop governs is called a bishopric. A Bishop may be given the rank of Archbishop in an Archdiocese.

paragraphs: Usually, there are priests, then there are bishops. However, some Protestant churches have no bishops or archbishops. The Presbyterian church is an example. The Church of Scotland is headed by a Moderator, who is elected by the General Assembly each year. Other Christian movements have neither bishops nor priests: Quakers are a good example.

paragraphs: In the Catholic church, the Pope is chosen by all the cardinals from amongst their number. According to church law, this does not have to be the case: any male, unmarried, baptized Christian who is judged fit for the office can become pope. However, the last pope who was not a bishop was Urban VI (elected in 1378).

paragraphs: The pope is also 'the Bishop of Rome'. In fact he rules an independent state within Rome, called the Vatican. All Roman Catholic bishops answer to the pope (or to patriarchs in some orthodox churches). In the Anglican church, bishops are governed by Archbishops.

paragraphs: Usually a bishop can be identified by a special hat, called a mitre.


title: Tray

paragraphs: A tray is a shallow container designed for carrying things.

paragraphs: Trays are flat, but with raised edges to stop things from sliding off of them. They are often rectangular, and may or may not have handles with which to carry them.

paragraphs: A butler's tray has a deeper surround, handles on the short sides (usually cut into the surround) so that it can be easily carried, and folding legs. It is used to carry drinks, and can be used as a side table.


title: Orkney Islands

paragraphs: The Orkney Islands (often also called only Orkney) is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, United Kingdom. It is about 16 kilometres north of Caithness. 20 of the about 70 islands have people living on them. The administrative centre is Kirkwall (with about 8000 people living there). The next largest settlements are Stromness (2000 people) and St. Margaret's Hope (with about 550 people).

paragraphs: In addition to the mainland, most of the islands are in two groups, the North and South Isles. All of them are made of sandstone. The climate is mild and the soil is fertile. Most of the land is farmed and agriculture is the main source of income for the economy. There are many birds and fish.

paragraphs: Ferry services go much of the time to Lerwick (in Shetland). Most islands have air strips (for airplanes). This includes the shortest known flight service in the world, between Westray and Papa Westray. Official flight time is 2 minutes. If the wind goes in the right direction, the flight can take just over a minute.


title: Methodism

paragraphs: Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of Protestant denominations. The movement started in Britain in the 18th century and spread to the United States and the British Empire. Originally it was popular with workers, poor farmers, and slaves. The founder of Methodism was Mr. John Wesley who was a priest of the Church of England. His brother Charles Wesley was a famous writer of Church music.


title: Salivary gland

paragraphs: The salivary glands make saliva. Saliva keeps the mouth and other parts of the digestive system wet and slippery. They also help break down the food when you are chewing. This helps food go down the throat to the stomach.

paragraphs: There are three main pairs of salivary glands. They are

paragraphs: There are also many small glands in the tongue, cheeks, lips and palate. All of those glands make mucous.

paragraphs: Saliva consists of two fluids, mucous and serous.

paragraphs: Mucous (slime) is a saccharide glycoprotein called mucin. With water it makes the slippery lubricant used in many parts of the body, where it lines the moving parts, surfaces and tubes. Here it lubricates the mouth, throat and alimentary canal.

paragraphs: The mucous also has antiseptic qualities: it contains lysozyme and immunoglobulins. Mucous, with its antiseptic molecules and slime, traps fungi, bacteria and viruses and prevent infections. The body produces about a litre of mucous per day, in the mouth and other places.

paragraphs: The serous fluid contains the enzyme amylase which acts in the digestion of carbohydrates. Minor salivary glands on the tongue secrete the amylase. The parotid gland produces purely serous saliva. The other major salivary glands produce mixed (serous and mucus) saliva.

paragraphs: Another type of serous fluid is secreted by the two layered serous membranes which line the body cavities. The serous fluid between the two layers acts as a lubricant and reduces friction from muscle movement.

paragraphs: The glands are inside a capsule, of connective tissue. Inside, it is made of little parts called lobules. Blood vessels and nerves go into the lobules. There are three main types of cells in the major salivary glands:

paragraphs: The small tubes go into ducts. Those ducts go into larger ducts that have little stripes on them, called striations. Those go into ducts between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar or excretory ducts). The main duct of the salivary glands then opens into the mouth.

paragraphs: Ducts can get blocked. This would cause pain and swelling of the gland.

paragraphs: Tumours of the salivary glands can occur. These are usually benign. Investigation is done by a sialogram, which is a radiocontrast study of a salivary duct.


title: Vas deferens

paragraphs: The vas deferens (or "ductus deferens") is a duct in a man’s body. It is also present in other male vertebrates. Its function is to carry sperm away from the testes, towards the penis.

paragraphs: There are two of these ducts, which are tubes surrounded by smooth muscle. They connect the left and right epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts in order to move sperm. Each tube is about 30 centimeters long. During ejaculation the smooth muscle in the wall of the vas deferens contracts. That pushes the sperm toward the penis. The sperm go from the vas deferens into the urethra. Other male sex glands push out at the same time.

paragraphs: There is a surgery called vasectomy that is a method of contraception. The two vasa deferentia (Latin plural) are cut and sealed, so the sperm cannot get out of the body. This is usually permanent, but in some cases it can be reversed. Sometimes instead of cutting the vas deferentia, the surgeon puts something to block the sperm instead of cutting them.


title: Che Guevara

paragraphs: Ernesto "Che" Guevara, commonly known as el Che or Che (June 14, 1928 - October 9, 1967) was an Argentine Marxist, revolutionary, physician, author, guerrilla, diplomat, and military theorist. He is popular with socialists. In addition to that he was a writer and some of his articles and speeches were even published.

paragraphs: Time magazine said he was one of the most influential people of the 20th century. "Guerrillero Heroico, "a picture of him, is called "the most famous photograph in the world."

paragraphs: Che Guevara was born in Rosario, Argentina in 1928. He studied at the University of Buenos Aires. He wanted to be a doctor. During his holidays, he traveled. He saw how poor some people were. He thought that revolution could fix it.

paragraphs: After college, he went to Mexico. He met Fidel Castro there in 1954. Castro was planning a communist rebellion in Cuba. Guevara joined Castro. He fought with Castro in Cuba. In 1959, Fidel won and became president of Cuba. Guevara was made head of Cuba's bank. He later became Minister of Industry. In 1965, Guevara helped to start other revolutions. They were in Congo-Kinshasa and Bolivia. In 1967, he was captured and executed by Bolivian soldiers. His body was not found until 1997. His nickname among friends was "Chegi Vara".

paragraphs: People have different opinions on Che Guevara. Some see him as a good leader. In addition to that he was an excellent writer and some of his articles and speeches were even published. Others see him as a bad man who wanted to hurt people. A black and white image of Guevara's face is one of the most merchandized images. It can be found on many items. They include t-shirts, hats, posters, and other items. The image was based on a photograph by Alberto Korda Díaz. Díaz was a Cuban photographer. It was taken in 1960.

paragraphs: Guevara is still an important person. He is seen as an example of youthful rebellion.

paragraphs: A movie, "The Motorcycle Diaries", is about Che. It describes a trip that he took through South America. The trip took place in the 1950s. The movie was directed by Walter Salles. It was produced by Robert Redford.


title: Whisker

paragraphs: A whisker is a long, thick hair around the mouth of some animals, mostly mammals such as cats and mice, that the animal uses to feel its surroundings. Some animals, such as cats, also have whiskers above their eyes and on the backs of their legs. Unlike other hair, whiskers should never be cut or trimmed, as this can confuse the animal.

paragraphs: Whiskers can also mean a beard or mustache.


title: Magma

paragraphs: In volcanology, magma is melted rock that is under the ground. Magma is the molten rocks in Earth's mantle. Magma exists as pockets and plumes beneath the surface of the Earth. Magma is a molten and semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth. This mixture is usually made up of four parts: a hot liquid base, called the melt; minerals crystallized by the melt; solid rocks incorporated into the melt from the surrounding confines; and dissolved gases.

paragraphs: Magma is extremely hot—between 700° and 1,300° Celsius (1,292° and 2,372° Fahrenheit). This heat makes magma a fluid, able to create new landforms. The heat also makes physical and chemical changes to old landforms.

paragraphs: There are many types of magma. One is called felsic magma. Felsic magma is thick (high viscosity) and has much of a mineral called silica. It mostly makes light-coloured rocks. Another type is called mafic magma, which is runny and has less silica. It usually makes dark-coloured rocks. A third type is intermediate magma. It is like both the other types.

paragraphs: When magma becomes solid it's usually by cooling slowly, far below the surface. This makes "plutonic" rocks such as granite. When magma comes out from the ground in a volcano and it is still melted, it is called lava. Lava cools more quickly, and forms other kinds of rock such as basalt. When magma is ejected by a volcano or other vent, the material is called lava. Magma that has cooled into a solid is called igneous rock.

paragraphs: In 2009, the Icelandic Deep Drilling Project created a well that uses magma to generate geothermal energy. Normally, geothermal energy is created by pumping water into hot volcanic bedrock, creating steam that then drives a turbine to generate electricity. While normal geothermal sources average around 60° to 80° Celsius (140° to 176° Fahrenheit), the magma well’s steam reached a record-breaking temperature of 450° Celsius (842° Fahrenheit)! This huge increase in temperature allowed just one magma well to generate roughly 36 megawatts of electricity, powering 36,000 homes. In comparison, one single wind turbine generates between 1 and 3 megawatts, and some steam power stations generate over a thousand megawatts.

paragraphs: Earth is divided into three general layers. The core is the superheated center, the mantle is the thick, middle layer, and the crust is the top layer on which we live.

paragraphs: Magma originates in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and in the upper portion of the mantle. Most of the mantle and crust are solid, so the presence of magma is crucial to understanding the geology and morphology of the mantle.

paragraphs: Differences in temperature, pressure, and structural formations in the mantle and crust cause magma to form in different ways.

paragraphs: Decompression melting involves the upward movement of Earth's mostly-solid mantle. This hot material rises to an area of lower pressure through the process of convection. Areas of lower pressure always have a lower melting point than areas of high pressure. This reduction in overlying pressure, or decompression, enables the mantle rock to melt and form magma.

paragraphs: Decompression melting often occurs at divergent boundaries, where tectonic plates separate. The rifting movement causes the buoyant magma below to rise and fill the space of lower pressure. The rock then cools into new crust.

paragraphs: Decompression melting also occurs at mantle plumes, columns of hot rock that rise from Earth’s high-pressure core to its lower-pressure crust. When located beneath the ocean, these plumes, also known as hot spots, push magma onto the seafloor. These volcanic mounds can grow into volcanic islands over millions of years of activity.

paragraphs: Magma can also be created when hot, liquid rock intrudes into Earth’s cold crust. As the liquid rock solidifies, it loses its heat to the surrounding crust. Much like hot fudge being poured over cold ice cream, this transfer of heat is able to melt the surrounding rock (the “ice cream”) into magma.

paragraphs: Transfer of heat often happens at convergent boundaries, where tectonic plates are crashing together. As the denser tectonic plate subducts, or sinks below, or the less-dense tectonic plate, hot rock from below can intrude into the cooler plate above. This process transfers heat and creates magma. Over millions of years, the magma in this subduction zone can create a series of active volcanoes known as a volcanic arc.

paragraphs: Flux melting occurs when water or carbon dioxide are added to rock. These compounds cause the rock to melt at lower temperatures. This creates magma in places where it originally maintained a solid structure.

paragraphs: Much like heat transfer, flux melting also occurs around subduction zones. In this case, water overlying the subducting seafloor would lower the melting temperature of the mantle, generating magma that rises to the surface.

paragraphs: Magma leaves the confines of the upper mantle and crust in two major ways: as an intrusion or as an extrusion. An intrusion can form features such as dikes and xenoliths. An extrusion could include lava and volcanic rock.

paragraphs: Magma can intrude into a low-density area of another geologic formation, such as a sedimentary rock structure. When it cools to solid rock, this intrusion is often called a pluton. A pluton is an intrusion of magma that wells up from below the surface.

paragraphs: Plutons can include dikes and xenoliths. A magmatic dike is simply a large slab of magmatic material that has intruded into another rock body. A xenolith is a piece of rock trapped in another type of rock. Many xenoliths are crystals torn from inside the Earth and embedded in magma while the magma was cooling.

paragraphs: The most familiar way for magma to escape, or extrude, to Earth’s surface is through lava. Lava eruptions can be “fire fountains” of liquid rock or thick, slow-moving rivers of molten material. Lava cools to form volcanic rock as well as volcanic glass.

paragraphs: Magma can also extrude into Earth’s atmosphere as part of a violent volcanic explosion. This magma solidifies in the air to form volcanic rock called tephra. In the atmosphere, tephra is more often called volcanic ash. As it falls to Earth, tephra includes rocks such as pumice.

paragraphs: In areas where temperature, pressure, and structural formation allow, magma can collect in magma chambers. Most magma chambers sit far beneath the surface of the Earth.

paragraphs: The pool of magma in a magma chamber is layered. The least-dense magma rises to the top. The densest magma sinks near the bottom of the chamber. Over millions of years, many magma chambers simply cool to form a pluton or large igneous intrusion.

paragraphs: If a magma chamber encounters an enormous amount of pressure, however, it may fracture the rock around it. The cracks, called fissures or vents, are tell-tale signs of a volcano. Many volcanoes sit over magma chambers.

paragraphs: As a volcano’s magma chamber experiences greater pressure, often due to more magma seeping into the chamber, the volcano may erupt. A volcanic eruption reduces the pressure inside the magma chamber. As long as more magma pools into a volcano’s magma chamber, there is the possibility of an eruption and the volcano will remain active.

paragraphs: Large eruptions can nearly empty the magma chamber. The layers of magma may be documented by the type of eruption material the volcano emits. Gases, ash, and light-colored rock are emitted first, from the least-dense, top layer of the magma chamber. Dark, dense volcanic rock from the lower part of the magma chamber may be released later.

paragraphs: In violent eruptions, the volume of magma shrinks so much that the entire magma chamber collapses and forms a caldera.

paragraphs: All magma contains gases and a mixture of simple elements. Being that oxygen and silicon are the most abundant elements in magma, geologists define magma types in terms of their silica content, expressed as SiO2. These differences in chemical composition are directly related to differences in gas content, temperature, and viscosity.

paragraphs: Mafic magma has relatively low silica content, roughly 50%, and higher contents in iron and magnesium. This type of magma has a low gas content and low viscosity, or resistance to flow. Mafic magma also has high mean temperatures, between 1000o and 2000o Celsius (1832o and 3632o Fahrenheit), which contributes to its lower viscosity.

paragraphs: Low viscosity means that mafic magma is the most fluid of magma types. It erupts non-explosively and moves very quickly when it reaches Earth’s surface as lava. This lava cools into basalt, a rock that is heavy and dark in color due to its higher iron and magnesium levels. Basalt is one of the most common rocks in Earth’s crust as well as the volcanic islands created by hot spots. The Hawaiian Islands are a direct result of mafic magma eruptions. Steady and relatively calm “lava fountains” continue to change and expand the “Big Island” of Hawaii.

paragraphs: Intermediate magma has higher silica content (roughly 60%) than mafic magma. This results in a higher gas content and viscosity. Its mean temperature ranges from 800° to 1000° Celsius (1500° to 1800° Fahrenheit).

paragraphs: As a result of its higher viscosity and gas content, intermediate magma builds up pressure below the Earth’s surface before it can be released as lava. This more gaseous and sticky lava tends to explode violently and cools as andesite rock. Intermediate magma most commonly transforms into andesite due to the transfer of heat at convergent plate boundaries. Andesitic rocks are often found at continental volcanic arcs, such as the Andes Mountains in South America, after which they are named.

paragraphs: Felsic magma has the highest silica content of all magma types, between 65-70%. As a result, felsic magma also has the highest gas content and viscosity, and lowest mean temperatures, between 650° and 800° Celsius (1202° and 1472° Fahrenheit).

paragraphs: Thick, viscous felsic magma can trap gas bubbles in a volcano’s magma chamber. These trapped bubbles can cause explosive and destructive eruptions. These eruptions eject lava violently into the air, which cools into dacite and rhyolite rock. Much like intermediate magma, felsic magma may be most commonly found at convergent plate boundaries where transfer of heat and flux melting create large stratovolcanoes.

paragraphs: Hawaiian magma is different than magma in other parts of the Earth because it has more molten rock and less dissolved gases. This kind of magma makes fewer explosions than gassy magmas do. The Hawaiian volcano Kilauea, on the "Big Island" of Hawaii, has erupted with enough molten lava to pave a road around the Earth three times.


title: Glue

paragraphs: Glue is a sticky material (usually a liquid) that can stick two or more things together. Glue can be made from plant or animal parts, or it can be made from oil-based chemicals.

paragraphs: The first glues may have been natural liquids that come out of trees when they are cut. Later, people learned to make glue by boiling animal feet, cartilage or bones. Some very strong glues were first made from fish bones, rubber or milk.

paragraphs: A simple glue can be made at home by mixing wheat, flour and water. This glue will stick pieces of paper together.

paragraphs: Many kinds of art can be made using glue. A collage is a work of art made by using glue to stick coloured things onto paper.

paragraphs: Some glues can be used to keep water out of boats, buildings or vehicles. In this case, the glue may be called caulk. Some man-made materials, including wood-like materials, are made using glues to bind together small pieces of material or powders.

paragraphs: While many glues are safe, certain kinds of glue contain strong-smelling chemicals. Some people sniff these glues to get high. Sometimes people breathe in the vapors by mistake. This is a very bad idea because these chemicals are often poisons and may cause brain damage or illness.

paragraphs: Glue can also be made from rice or rice flour.


title: Angara River

paragraphs: The Angara is a river in Siberia, Russia, close to the Jenissei. It is nearly 1.779 km long. It flows out of Lake Baikal and into the "Jenissei". A big city on the river is Irkutsk.


title: Yenisei

paragraphs: The Yenisei ("Енисе́й") is a river in Siberia. It belongs to the greatest river system that flows into the Arctic Ocean. The Yenisei is the fifth-longest river in the world. It is a little shorter than the Mississippi River, but with 1.5 times the flow. It comes from Mongolia and follows a northern course to the Kara Sea. The river drains a large part of central Siberia. The longest stream following the Yenisei-Angara-Selenga-Ider is about 5539 km long. Its watershed, which includes the world's largest (by volume) lake, Lake Baikal, holds more water than any other river system.

paragraphs: The upper parts of the system have rapids and flooding, and pass through areas where very few people live. The middle section is controlled by a series of large hydroelectric dams. The dams were built to supply a major Russian primary industry. Partly built by gulag labor in Soviet times, industrial contamination is a big problem in the area. The area is very hard for the police to watch. Moving on through sparsely populated taiga, the Yenisei grows with many tributaries and finally reaches the Kara Sea in desolate tundra where it is covered with ice for more than half the year. As with other Siberian rivers, the flow has increased lately. People think this is because of global warming. A concern was also raised that a change in the salt in the Arctic may have a global impact on ocean currents.


title: Moonspell

paragraphs: Moonspell is a heavy metal band from Portugal. It was started in 1992.

paragraphs: Moonspell's first EP was "Under the Moonspell", which was released in 1994.


title: Siberia

paragraphs: Siberia is the part of Russia that's in Asia. It covers wide landscapes, and stretches from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific. It goes from the Arctic Ocean to the border with China, Kazakhstan and Mongolia. The Yenisei river is sometimes called the border between east Siberia and west Siberia. Siberia covers about 77% of all Russian territory, but only 28% of Russians live there. It is one of the coldest places on Earth where people live. 70% of people in Siberia live in big cities and small towns.

paragraphs: Novosibirsk is the largest city in Siberia, with a population more than . Omsk and Krasnoyarsk also have populations of over a million people. Big citites Yekaterinburg (almost 1.5 million) and Chelyabinsk (almost 1.2 million) are situated in Northern Asia, but not in the Siberian Federal District.

paragraphs: There are many different ethnic groups that live in Siberia. They are sometimes called Sibiryak "(" "сибиряк)" or Sybirak "(" "сыбирак," from Polish")" people. The first settlers arrived in the 17th century.


title: Opel Corsa

paragraphs: The Opel Corsa is a small car. It has been produced by the German car manufacturer Opel since 1982. There are five generations of the Corsa. The first generation was sold as the Vauxhall Nova in the UK.

paragraphs: The Corsa is also sold under the Vauxhall brand in Great Britain.


title: Iron Maiden

paragraphs: Iron Maiden are an English heavy metal band. It was started by Steve Harris in 1975. Its first music album was "Iron Maiden", which was released in 1980. The singer Paul Di'Anno was replaced by Bruce Dickinson in 1982. Bruce Dickinson left in 1993 and was replaced by Blaze Bayley. In 1999, Dickinson returned to the band.

paragraphs: The mascot of the band is Eddie, a monster, who is present in the concerts and also appears on the album covers. Eddie is most often shown as a dead body that has come back to life and looks very evil. The band's music shows often have a statue of Eddie that is very large and much taller than the band.

paragraphs: Iron Maiden has released many albums. The band's newest album, "The Book of Souls", was released in the year 2015. Iron Maiden has sold over 100 million copies of their albums world wide.


title: Ljubljana

paragraphs: Ljubljana is the capital city of Slovenia. It is the largest city in that country. The city became the most important settlement in the area when Romans ruled Slovenia. There are many museums with things from that time in Ljubljana.

paragraphs: As of 2002, there were 265,881 people living in Ljubljana. The University of Ljubljana is in Ljubljana.

paragraphs: The city has an area of 163.8 square kilometers (63.2 sq mi). It is located about 320 kilometers (200 mi) south of Munich, 477 kilometers (296 mi) east of Zürich, 250 kilometers (160 mi) east of Venice, 350 kilometers (220 mi) southwest of Vienna, 224 kilometers (139 mi) south of Salzburg and 400 kilometers (250 mi) southwest of Budapest.

paragraphs: Ljubljana is 295 meters (968 ft) above sea level.

paragraphs: The main bodies of water in Ljubljana are the Ljubljanica, the Sava, the Gradaščica, the Mali Graben, the Iška and the Iščica Rivers.

paragraphs: July and August are the warmest months. The daily temperatures at these times are generally between 25 and 30 °C (77 and 86 °F). January is the coldest month with temperatures closer to 0 °C (32 °F).  Ljubljana is also one of the wettest European capitals. Yearly precipitation is about 1,400 mm (55 in). It can also snow anytime from December to February.

paragraphs: Ljubljana features many kinds of architectural styles. Prominent buildings include Prešeren Square, Ljubljana Castle, Town Hall, Ljubljana Cathedral, and Nebotičnik.

paragraphs: There are also several parks around the city. Tivoli City Park ("Mestni park Tivoli") is the largest park in Ljubljana.

paragraphs: The most notable bridges of Ljubljana are the Triple Bridge ("Tromostovje"), the Trnovo Bridge ("Trnovski most"), the Dragon Bridge ("Zmajski most"), the Hradecky Bridge (Slovene: "Hradeckega most"), and the Butchers' Bridge ("Mesarski most"). The Trnovo Bridge crosses the Gradaščica, whereas the others cross the Ljubljanica.


title: Nukuʻalofa

paragraphs: Nukuʻalofa is the capital city of Tonga. It is on the island of Tongatapu.

paragraphs: 35% of Tongans live in Nukuʻalofa. As of 1996, about 22,400 people lived there.


title: General Motors

paragraphs: General Motors Company is the largest American car company. It is based in the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan. It was founded in 1908 by a man named Billy Durant. It makes cars and trucks in 31 countries. About 209,000 people work for it. It is the second largest car company in the world, after Toyota.

paragraphs: In the 1950s and 1960s, it dominated the car industry, but it fell into decline by the 1980s and 90s. The company went through a bankruptcy in 2009 and was bought by the US Government, which has been selling its stake in the company.

paragraphs: As of April 2014, GM is being investigated by the United States Congress over the deaths of 13 people involving faulty ignition systems that have been used in many GM cars, with some built as early as 1997. In May 2014 the company was fined $35 million from NHTSA over the ignition problem.

paragraphs: In the past, General Motors has used other brands, including Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Saturn, Hummer, Geo, and Daewoo, but none of these are produced by GM as of 2014. They either have gone out of business or were merged into Chevrolet. GM also owned Saab from 1989-2010, and also held stakes in Isuzu and Suzuki until 2008. In 2017 they sold Opel and Vauxhall Motors to Groupe PSA.


title: Bartolomeu Dias

paragraphs: Bartolomeu Dias(or "Bartholomew Dias", 1450 - May 29, 1500) was a Portuguese explorer who was the first European to sail past the Cape of Good Hope now Cape Town.

paragraphs: In 1487, King John II of Portugal asked Dias to find a new route for the spice trade and to find a legendary Christian king named Prester John in the east. In 1488 Bartholomew and his sailors sailed along the western coast of Africa. They got caught in a storm and landed at a cape in southern Africa and they could not sail beyond that point. They named it "Cape of Storms" and later returned to Portugal. The king of Portugal considered it as a victory gained by the Portuguese adventurers and named it as "Cape of Good Hope". Because Prester John did not really exist, they did not find his country but the route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean leading to Asia turned out to be valuable.

paragraphs: Commanding a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabral's later expedition to Brazil he died at sea in 1500 during a storm. There was a statue made for him later in Cape Town, South Africa.


title: Cape Agulhas

paragraphs: Cape Agulhas is the point in Africa which is farthest south. It is in the country of South Africa. It is near the town of Agulhas.


title: Holy Roman Emperor

paragraphs: Holy Roman Emperor was the title that was given to the ruler of a loose group of places in mostly Central Europe called the Holy Roman Empire. The title of "emperor" was passed from the Romans to the Frankish kingdom (for which "France" is named) when, on 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

paragraphs: This list includes all emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, whether or not they called themselves "Holy Roman Emperor". There are some gaps. For example, Henry the Fowler was King of Germany but not Emperor.

paragraphs: Some historians say the Carolingian Empire was the start of the Holy Roman Empire. Others say the start of the Holy Roman Empire was 962. The rulers who were crowned as Emperors in the West before 962 were as follows:

paragraphs: There was no emperor in the west between 924 and 962.


title: Fatu Hiva

paragraphs: Fatu Hiva is a tropical island in the Pacific Ocean. It is part of French Polynesia and the Marquesas Islands.

paragraphs: There are about 600 people living on Fatu Hiva. It is 22 km away from Motu Nao. The three main villages are Hana Vave, Omo'a and Uia.


title: Tampere

paragraphs: Tampere () is the third biggest city in Finland. It is the capital of the Pirkanmaa area.

paragraphs: Neighbour municipalities are Kangasala, Lempäälä, Nokia, Pirkkala, Vesilahti, Hämeenkyrö, Orivesi, Pälkäne and Ylöjärvi.

paragraphs: The population of Tampere was 215,144 in 2011.

paragraphs: Tampere was started in 1779. At 1800's, Tampere became to be a notable industrialized city and one of the biggest cities in Finland.


title: Asikkala

paragraphs: Asikkala is a municipality of Finland. It is in the province of Southern Finland and the region of Päijänne Tavastia. The downtown of Asikkala is called Vääksy. It has a canal, Vääksyn kanava. Asikkala has an area of 756.2 km². 192.29 km² of it is water.

paragraphs: Asikkala is on the coast of the lake Päijänne. As of 31 May 2013, 8,444 people live in the municipality.


title: Lordi

paragraphs: Lordi is a Finnish heavy metal band, which is famous for their monster costumes and songs like "Would You Love a Monsterman?", "Hard Rock Hallelujah", "Devil Is a Loser", "Blood Red Sandman", "This Is Heavy Metal" and "Sincerely with Love".

paragraphs: Lordi was started in 1992 by Mr. Lordi. Its original members were Mr. Lordi (vocals), Kita (percussion), Amen (guitar), G-stealer (bass) and Enary (keyboards). The first single was "Would You Love a Monsterman?" in (2002). It was also included in the band's album "Get Heavy". Their music and style has been compared to the American groups Kiss and Twisted Sister.


title: CD-R

paragraphs: A CD-R (also called Compact Disc Recordable) is a compact disc that can be recorded once. When people record a compact disc, they put either music or data on it.

paragraphs: A compact disc that can be recorded multiple times (and erased) is the CD-RW.

paragraphs: When you put data onto a CD, it is called "burning" a disc. A laser "burns" pits into a dye layer on the disc, making them transparent. These transparent pits can later be read back by the CD drive or audio CD player as data or music.

paragraphs: There are three types of dye used in CD-R discs. The most common is phthalocyanine, and it is usually light green. CMC Pro (formerly Taiyo Yuden) uses cyanine dye. It is usually teal or dark green. Verbatim uses phthalocyanine dye on some discs, and AZO dye on others. AZO dye is usually dark blue or blue-ish silver. The metal layer on the disc is usually made of silver. Archival discs and some professional audio discs use a gold top layer. Verbatim UltraLife discs have a silver main layer, and a gold upper protective layer, providing the reflectivity of silver and the chemical stability of gold. Early cyanine discs could decay and become unplayable within a few years. Recent cyanine discs have preservatives added to the dye to prevent this from happening. AZO and phthalocyanine dyes do not need preservatives and do not decay easily.


title: The Truman Show

paragraphs: The Truman Show is a 1998 American comedy-drama movie. It is directed by Peter Weir and was written by Andrew Niccol. The main star of the movie is Jim Carrey. The movie is about a young man called Truman Burbank who lives in a fictional town called Seahaven. The whole town fits into a dome shape and Truman can be seen all over the world on television. He has been on the show since he was born. He was the one out of six unwanted babies to be in the show. He does not realise until later that the town he is living in is made-up. Christof is the creator of the show and some would call him a villain. He is in charge of making everything go right and cannot afford to lose Truman.


title: Krill

paragraphs: Krill are small shrimp-like crustaceans about an inch or so long, found in all the oceans of the world. In areas with nutrients, they occur in huge swarms, with more than 10,000 krill per cubic meter. They feed on phytoplankton and to a lesser extent zooplankton.

paragraphs: Krill are ecologically very important, because they are near the bottom of the food chain. They make up the largest part of the diet of many animals. In the Southern Ocean, one species, the Antarctic krill, "Euphausia superba", makes up an estimated biomass of over , roughly twice that of the human race. They are eaten by many animals, including whales, seals, penguins, birds, fish, squid, and whale sharks. Of this, over half is eaten by each year, and is replaced by growth and reproduction.

paragraphs: Most krill species make large vertical migrations. They are distinguished from other crustaceans such as true shrimp by their externally visible gills.

paragraphs: The order Euphausiacea is divided into two families, Bentheuphausiidae and Euphausiidae. the first has one species, the second has 85 species. Well known species are the Antarctic krill ("Euphausia superba"), Pacific krill ("Euphausia pacifica") and Northern krill ("Meganyctiphanes norvegica").

paragraphs: Except for "Bentheuphausia amblyops", krill are bioluminescent. They have organs called photophores which emit light. The light is made by an enzyme-catalysed chemiluminescence reaction. A luciferin (a kind of pigment) is activated by a luciferase enzyme. Krill probably get this substance as part of their diet, which contains dinoflagellates. Krill photophores are complex organs with lenses and focusing abilities, and can be rotated by muscles. The exact function of these organs is not known. The possibilities include mating, social interaction or as a form of camouflage to compensate for their shadow against the overhead light.


title: Subaru

paragraphs: Subaru is a car company that is part of a larger Japanese company called Fuji Heavy Industries, who also makes other things like buses and airplanes. Subaru builds cars in Japan and also builds cars in the state of Indiana.

paragraphs: Their cars are known for having all-wheel drive, which means that the engine drives all four wheels, instead of just the wheels in the front or in the back. They also have boxer engines, which means that the pistons and the cylinders in the engine fire left to right instead of up and down or at an angle.

paragraphs: The name Subaru is a Japanese word for a star cluster in the sky named Pleiades, and the company logo has the stars in its picture in the same place as they are in the sky.

paragraphs: Fuji Heavy Industries in 1954 built a car called the Subaru P-1. It was named by the person who was CEO, Kenji Kita. From 1954 to 1997 the company designed and built other vehicles including the tiny 360 (1958), the Sambar (1961), the 1000 (1965), the R2 (1969), the Leone (1971), the Domingo (1983), the Alcyone (1985), the Legacy (1989), the Impreza (1993), the Sambar EV electric van (1995), and the Forester (1997).


title: Giraffe

paragraphs: A giraffe ("Giraffa camelopardalis") is a mammal which lives in Africa. Giraffes have an even number of toes and are the tallest land animals. Giraffes and Okapi are the family "Giraffidae".

paragraphs: Giraffes have a very long neck and long legs. Giraffes are the tallest land animals on Earth, with necks that can be up to 2-2.4 m (6.6-7.9 ft) in length. Fully grown giraffes stand tall, with males taller than females. The tallest recorded male was and the tallest recorded female was tall. The average weight is for an adult male and for an adult female. Maximum weights of and having been recorded for males and females, respectively. They have a long black tongue, up to 45 cm in length. This they use to wrap around leaves and pull them off trees.

paragraphs: Their fur has a light yellowish tan or off-white colour with brown or russet patches. No two giraffes have the same pattern. The different sub-species have different coat patterns. Both male and female giraffes have small horn-like stumps on their head, which are covered with skin. The horns are called ossicones. These come from the cartilage displaced from their skull as it develops. These are fur-covered bumps on their skulls, unlike the horns of other animals.

paragraphs: Giraffes are found in parts of Africa. They live on the savannah, which is the African grassland, or in light woodland. They do not live in thick forests where it is difficult to see predators, such as lions, approaching.The temperature is normally around 70 degrees. Most giraffes live either in East Africa or in Angola and Zambia in southwestern Africa.

paragraphs: Giraffes eat mostly leaves from tall trees, which they can reach because of their long legs and long necks, as well as fruit. Their rough tongue allows them to eat the acacia leaves protected by thorns. They can go without water for weeks. Like all mammals, giraffes have only seven bones in their necks.

paragraphs: Giraffes live alone or in loose groups. Young male giraffes foa single baby, which is called "calf". Giraffes give birth while standing, so the baby falls down 2 metres. Giraffe calfs are already 2 m tall and weigh 50-55 kg. The calf stays with its mother for 1½ years. Young giraffes become mature when they are 4 years old, and they are fully grown when they are 6 years old. Giraffes can live to 25 years old, and in captivity they can live 35 years.

paragraphs: Giraffes use their feet to kick predators away, and mature male giraffes use their head and necks to fight for dominance at mating time.

paragraphs: There are about nine different subspecies of giraffe, with only small differences between them. When giraffes of two different sub-species breed, the young are called hybrids (mixed breeds). Of the nine sub-species of giraffe, only one, the Rothchild's, is endangered.


title: Giant isopod

paragraphs: Giant isopods are big crustaceans that live at the bottom of the ocean. They can grow up to 45 cm long and weigh up to 1.7 kg. Currently about 9 different species are known. Giant isopods usually eat dead whales, fish and squid. They may also be active scavengers, and hunt slow-moving prey, such as sea cucumbers, sponges, nematodes. Perhaps they even catch live fish. They live in depths between 170m to about 2200m. Over 80% can be found between 365 m and 730 m  of depth. They probably prefer a muddy or clay ocean floor environment, and lead solitary lives.


title: Elementary algebra

paragraphs: Elementary algebra is the most basic form of algebra taught to students. It is often one of the next areas of mathematics taught to students after arithmetic. While in arithmetic only numbers and operators like +, −, ×, and ÷ occur; in algebra, variables (like "a", "x", "y") are used to stand for numbers. This is useful because:

paragraphs: These three are the main strands of elementary algebra. Elementary algebra is often used in many other subjects, like science, business, and building. Abstract algebra, a much more advanced topic, is generally taught late in college.

paragraphs: If an equation has only one number that is unknown it is sometimes easy to solve. The unknown number is called "x":

paragraphs: To solve a simple equation with one unknown amount add, subtract, multiply, or divide both sides of the equation by the same number in order to put the unknown amount, x, on one side of the equation. Once x is by itself on one side, use arithmetic to determine the amount on the other side of the equation. For example, by subtracting 4 from both sides in the equation above:

paragraphs: It may help to think of this equation as a see-saw or balance, what you do to one side, you must do to the other and your main aim is to get "x" by itself.

paragraphs: formula_10 has the following components:

paragraphs: 1 : Exponent (power), 2 : Coefficient, 3 : term, 4 : operator, 5 : constant, formula_11 : variables


title: Kesälahti

paragraphs: Kesälahti is a municipality in Finland. It is part of the North Karelia region. There are almost 2,700 people living in Kesalahti.

paragraphs: Kesalahti is the southernmost municipality of North Karelia. It was officially founded in 1873. The area of the municipality is 582.67 km². 195.42 km² of it is water.

paragraphs: Kesälahti is advertised as a popular summer destination for families enjoying camping. The Puruvesi lake shores host three active camping grounds with cabins,¨and tent and trailer lots to let. The name of the municipality can be translated as 'summer bay'.

paragraphs: Hummovaara, Kesälahti (centre), Marjoniemi, Purujärvi, Salokylä, Sarvisalo, Suitsansaari, Totkunniemi, Varmonniemi, Villala


title: Eckerö

paragraphs: Eckerö is a municipality in the Åland Islands, Finland. As of March 2006, there are 926 people living in Eckerö.

paragraphs: Eckerö is the westernmost municipality of Finland. Mariehamn, the capital of Åland, is located 35 km away. 95 % of the people in Eckerö speak Swedish as their first language.


title: Utsjoki

paragraphs: Utsjoki is a municipality in Lapland, Finland. Utsjoki is the only municipality in Finland where most people speak Sami as their first language.

paragraphs: As of February 2005, 1,373 people lived in Utsjoki. The municipalities next to it are Inari in Finland and Karasjok, Tana and Nesseby in Norway. Nuorgam in Utsjoki is the northernmost village in Finland and the European Union.

paragraphs: In the Northern Sami language, the municipality is known as "Ohcejohka".


title: Savitaipale

paragraphs: Savitaipale is a Finnish municipality in the South Karelia region. As of January 2014, more than 3,700 people lived in Savitaipale.

paragraphs: Savitaipale has an area of 690.78 km². 151.63 km² of it is water. The municipality is on the coast of the Lake Kuolimo. Helsinki is 220 km away. Neighbouring municipalities are Kouvola, Lemi, Luumäki, Mikkeli, Mäntyharju, Puumala and Taipalsaari. The municipality was established in 1639.

paragraphs: Havola, Hyrkkälä, Jokeinmaa, Kaihtula, Karhula, Kaskeinkylä, Kaulio (Kauliala), Kokkola, Korhola, Korpela, Koskeinkylä, Kuivanen, Kunttula, Kurhila (Järviä), Kylliälä, Kärpänen, Laksiainen, Lamminpää, Luotola, Luotolahti, Lyytikkälä, Marttila, Monola, Niinimäki, Paukkula, Peltoinlahti, Pettilä, Purtoismäki, Pöntylä, Rahikkala, Rantala, Ratasalo, Savitaipale, Solkeinkylä, Susivuori, Säänjärvi, Tukiala, Uiminniemi, Valkolanmäki, Virmajärvi, Välijoki


title: Vantaa

paragraphs: Vantaa () is the fourth largest city in Finland (after Helsinki, Espoo and Tampere). It is part of the Greater Helsinki area. The most important parts of Vantaa are Tikkurila, Hakunila, Koivukylä, Korso, Martinlaakso and Myyrmäki. Tuusula, Kerava, Sipoo, Helsinki, Espoo and Nurmijärvi are neighbour communities and cities of Vantaa.

paragraphs: Vantaa has been a city since 1974. As of April 2014, the population was about 208,800. The current mayor is Juhani Paajanen.

paragraphs: The biggest airport in Finland, Helsinki-Vantaa, is in Central Vantaa.

paragraphs: Finnish and Swedish are the official languages of Vantaa. In 2006 Swedish was the mother language of 3.1 percent of population of Vantaa.


title: Karstula

paragraphs: Karstula is a municipality in Central Finland. More than 4,900 people live in Karstula.

paragraphs: Karstula is located 100 kilometres from the city of Jyväskylä. The municipality was founded in 1867.

paragraphs: The municipalities next to it are Kannonkoski, Kivijärvi, Kyyjärvi, Saarijärvi and Soini.

paragraphs: Karstula, Oinoskylä, Kiminki, Rantakylä, Vahanka, Vastinki, Kangasaho, Humppi and Aho-Vastinki.


title: Dimmu Borgir

paragraphs: Dimmu Borgir is a black metal band created in 1993 in Norway. Its name is Icelandic for a "dark castle".

paragraphs: The band's first recordings were in Norwegian, but today, most of the recordings are in English. The newest studio album is "Abrahadabra" (2010). The studio album "In Sorte Diaboli" (2007) entered the Norwegian album chart at No. 1 — the first time a black metal band has ever got to the No. 1 position on a national album chart anywhere in the world. Dimmu Borgir's previous release, "Death Cult Armageddon", as well as Satyricon's "Now, Diabolical" previously reached No. 2 position on the Norwegian album chart.

paragraphs: A week after "In Sorte Diaboli" reached No. 1 on the Norweigan album charts, the album attained No. 43 on The Billboard 200, making them the first Norwegian band since the 80's pop group 'A-HA' to enter the U.S. Top 50.

paragraphs: "In Sorte Diaboli" features the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Strangely, the album has been banned by the UK album charts for questionable reasons.


Kuru


title: Sonata Arctica

paragraphs: Sonata Arctica is a Finnish power metal band founded in 1996 in Kemi.

paragraphs: The band's original name was Tricky Beans. After releasing three demo recordings it was changed into Tricky Means. Afterwards the band adopted its current name.

paragraphs: Before they became as famous and popular as they are, they got attention from metal fans for touring and playing with the band Nightwish.

paragraphs: Sonata Arctica's first music album was "Ecliptica". It was released on November 1999 in Finland and elsewhere in 2000. 30,000 copies were sold in Japan. The newest studio recording is


title: Carpet

paragraphs: A carpet is a rectangular piece of woven textile.

paragraphs: Generally, carpets are used to make spaces more beautiful and to make walking on the floor quieter. Carpets are warmer and softer than hard floors such as hardwood, tile, or concrete. Carpets may be many different sizes. Rugs and carpets originated in Central Asia, but the idea of machine manufacture was invented in Europe. The oldest known carpet was found in the year of 1947 at excavations in Siberia. So there are two different kinds of things: one is hand-made by traditional methods, and the other woven by machine. This accounts for the very great difference in style and price between traditional rugs and modern wall-to-wall carpeting.

paragraphs: The name "carpet" comes from Old Italian carpita, "carpire" means to pluck. The term "carpet" is used mostly to describe textiles placed on the floor most of the times stretched from wall to wall.

paragraphs: Rugs are smaller in size, often placed over a carpet, and often decorated. In Islam, rugs are used as prayer mats, for people to kneel on when they pray.

paragraphs: It is common, especially in the Middle East, for rugs and carpets to be used as wall decoration, and they are designed with decoration in mind. Mass-manufactured carpets in western countries are utilitarian: for hard use on the floor, and usually self-coloured (that is one color over the whole carpet). Traditional rugs from the Middle East are hand-made and may be very expensive by the time they reach shops in the western world.

paragraphs: In some countries carpets are designed in a way to tell stories. They can tell history of family or something important that happened.


title: Digon

paragraphs: In geometry, a digon is a polygon with two sides (edges) and two vertices. Its construction is degenerate in a Euclidean plane because either the two sides would coincide or one or both would have to be curved; however, it can be easily visualised in elliptic space.

paragraphs: A regular digon has both angles equal and both sides equal and is represented by Schläfli symbol {2}. It may be constructed on a sphere as a pair of 180 degree arcs connecting antipodal points, when it forms a lune.

paragraphs: The digon is the simplest abstract polytope of rank 2.

paragraphs: A truncated "digon", t{2} is a square, {4}. An alternated digon, h{2} is a monogon, {1}.


title: Great circle

paragraphs: A great circle the largest possible circle that can be drawn on a sphere, one that divides the surface into equal halves, called hemispheres. It is a circle that has the same diameter as the sphere it was drawn on. These curves are geodesics in the sphere and all have the same circumference, that is, the length of the circle.

paragraphs: There are an infinite number of great circles that can be drawn on any perfect sphere. The longitude lines on a globe all form great circles that pass through the same two points (the North Pole and the South Pole). The Equator is another great circle.

paragraphs: Great Circles can be used to determine the shortest surface distance between two points on a sphere (or on the earth).

paragraphs: A straight line from plane Euclidean geometry corresponds to a Great Circle in non-Euclidean spherical geometry.


title: John Dalton

paragraphs: John Dalton (6 September 1766–27 July 1844) was a British chemist and physicist. He was born in Cumberland to a Quaker family. He is best known for his discoveries in atomic theory. He also made the first important studies of color blindness.

paragraphs: Dalton's Atomic theory is a scientific theory about atoms. Dalton made the theory to explain why the elements would combine in certain ways The idea of atoms was already known at the time, but not widely accepted. Dalton's theory of atoms was based on actual observation. Before this, ideas about atoms were based more on philosophy.


title: Kauniainen

paragraphs: Kauniainen () is a city in Uusimaa, Finland. It is part of the Greater Helsinki area. Kauniainen has an area 6.0 km² and is fully located within Espoo.

paragraphs: Kauniainen has the lowest local taxation rate in Finland (16,5 %). A lot of rich people live there.

paragraphs: Kauniainen was officially founded in 1920. It became a city in 1972. There are about 8,550 people living in Kauniainen. Most of them (57 %) speak Finnish as their first language. 39 % have Swedish as their mother tongue.

paragraphs: Kauniainen has very good bus and train connections. There is a railway station. Many buses drive through Kauniainen.


title: Nummi-Pusula

paragraphs: Nummi-Pusula is a municipality in Finland. It was formed in 1981 from the existing municipalities of Nummi and Pusula. The municipality is in Uusimaa and in the province of Southern Finland.

paragraphs: Nummi-Pusula has an area of . of it is water. About 6,175 people lived there as of 31 December 2012.


title: Medicine man

paragraphs: A medicine man is a traditional Native American healer. Healing was only part of their function. Another part of their role was as guardian of their belief system, and their rituals.

paragraphs: A very similar role was played in many other mesolithic and neolithic societies, such as pre-modern Africa and New Guinea. This person, man or woman, might help cure physical, mental, or spiritual health problems. A term such as shaman or witch doctor reflects the supernatural element in such roles.


title: Basement

paragraphs: The basement is the lowest room in some buildings, almost always below the ground. There is another type of basement, called a subcellar. A subcellar is just like a basement, but more below it.

paragraphs: The first famous basements were made sometime in the 1950s. After that, many other kinds of basements were built and made. Later, most basements were used to have washing machines and other items in basements.

paragraphs: Soon, basements were used to contain or save water.


title: Landfill

paragraphs: A landfill is a place where waste is kept. Waste is usually buried in landfills, but it may first be sorted to remove any recyclable materials.

paragraphs: Landfills have a bad smell and look bad, therefore are usually located far away from where people live.

paragraphs: Once the waste is crushed into very small pieces, it is buried, but without oxygen, a dangerous gas called methane is created. This process is called anaerobic digestion. In some countries, the methane from landfills is used to generate energy.

paragraphs: Roosevelt Regional Landfill, Roosevelt, Washington.

paragraphs: Denver Arapahoe Disposal Site, Aurora, Colorado.

paragraphs: Columbia Ridge Landfill, Arlington, Oregon.


title: Human reproductive system

paragraphs: A reproductive system is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce. Humans and other animals use their reproductive systems to have sexual intercourse as well as reproduce.

paragraphs: The illustrations here show only human reproductive systems. Other mammals have similar reproductive systems.


title: Rectum

paragraphs: The rectum is a part of the large intestine which forms a part of the gastrointestinal system. The rectum ends in the anus which is the end of the gastrointestinal system. It is where feces or stools are stored temporarily before coming out of the anus.

paragraphs: Body temperature can also be taken in the rectum. Rectal temperature can be taken by inserting a medical thermometer not more than 25 mm (1 inch) into the rectum via the anus. Normal rectal temperature generally ranges from 36 to 38 °C (97.6 to 100.4 °F) and is about 0.5 °C (1 °F) above oral (mouth) temperature and about 1 °C (2 °F) above axilla (armpit) temperature.


title: County seat

paragraphs: A county seat is the location of a county government, and is usually the largest, oldest, or most central town or city within a county. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the name county town is used rather than county seat.

paragraphs: In the U.S. state of Louisiana, counties are called parishes and have parish seats rather than county seats; while in Alaska, counties are called boroughs and have borough seats.


title: Pacific Islands

paragraphs: Pacific Islands are islands that are in the Pacific Ocean. There are about 20,000 or 30,000 of them. These islands are sometimes called Oceania. The Pacific Islands are in three groups. These groups are Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. People who live on these islands are called Pacific Islanders. These islands can be made by volcanoes or made on coral reefs. The islands made by volcanoes are bigger, and more people can live on them. The islands made on coral reefs are smaller, and fewer people can live on them. One of Oceania's biggest economic advantages are tourism. As many vacationers come to see the wildlife and the beautiful beaches that span the islands. Major countries and territories include Samoa, Hawaii (U.S), Federal States of Micronesia and French Polynesia.

paragraphs: Island countries in the Pacific Ocean, such as Malaysia, Philippines, East Timor, Japan, Taiwan and most of Indonesia are not considered Pacific Islands since they do not lie in any of the three Oceanic regions. People inhabiting those islands, therefore are not Pacific Islanders.


title: Large intestine

paragraphs: The large intestine is also called the colon or large bowel. It connects the small intestine to the rectum and anus. It is about 1.5 meters long or 5 feet. It is shorter than the small intestine, but its diameter is larger.

paragraphs: Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as faeces before being removed by defecation.


title: Joensuu

paragraphs: Joensuu is a city in Finland. It is the centre of the region of North Karelia. Joensuu has an area of 2.751,13 km² and a population of 73,076 people. 369.3 km² of the area is water.

paragraphs: The Finnish capital, Helsinki is located 437 km away from Joensuu. There is a university in Joensuu.

paragraphs: The municipalities of Tuupovaara and Kiihtelysvaara were merged with Joensuu on January 1 2005.


title: Tuupovaara

paragraphs: Tuupovaara was a municipality in the North Karelia region of Finland. It was merged with Joensuu on January 1 2005. Before 1913 the place was known as Kovero.

paragraphs: In 2004 there were 2,217 people living in Tuupovaara.

paragraphs: Eimisjärvi, Hartiovaara, Heinäaho, Herajärvi, Hoilola, Kinnasniemi, Kokinvaara, Konnunniemi, Kortevaara, Kovero, Luutalahti, Mannervaara, Pirttijärvi, Revonsonkaja, Saarivaara, Sonkajanranta, Tuupovaara, Öllölä


title: Urine

paragraphs: Urine is a liquid created by the body in the kidneys. It is stored in the bladder and comes out of the human body through the urethra, a tube which leads from the bladder to the urethral meatus ("meatus" is an opening in the body), at the tip of the penis (men) or the vulva (women). Urinating is how the body gets rid of unwanted or unneeded substances in the blood. Urine is the liquid that these substances are put in. After the blood has circulated through the body, its composition has changed, because some substances in the blood have been absorbed by the body, and because the body has released other substances into the blood. The blood has also absorbed substances produced from our food. The liver removes many toxins (harmful substances) and adds other substances that the blood needs (amino acids, proteins, coagulation factors, hormones, etc.). Then the kidneys remove excess amounts of urea, salts, etc. by putting them into the urine. After the blood has passed through the liver and the kidneys, it has the correct composition that the body needs.

paragraphs: Urine is mostly water, and contains mineral salts, and about 2% urea, which is produced in the liver to remove ammonia, which is a very toxic substance. Urea has a very low toxicity, although a continuous high level of urea in the blood (a condition called hyperuremia) can cause disease.

paragraphs: The color of urine normally ranges from colourless to yellow. The yellow color is caused by urobilins, which are produced by the breakdown of hemoglobin, the substance that gives blood its red color. If a person is dehydrated, less urine will be produced (maybe less than one liter per day), and it will be more concentrated. If a person drinks a lot of water, more urine will be produced (maybe as much as two liters per day) and it will be less concentrated.

paragraphs: Some slang terms for urine are "pee" and "piss".


title: Rudolf Vrba

paragraphs: Rudolf "Rudi" Vrba (September 11, 1924 - March 27, 2006), was a Professor in the Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics at the University of British Columbia in Canada. His birth name was Walter Rosenberg. In April 1944, he escaped from the Auschwitz concentration camp. After escaping, he passed information to the Allies who were fighting the Axis Powers during the Second World War. He informed the authorities about the mass murder that was taking place at the camp.


title: Joel Brand

paragraphs: Joel Brand (1907 – 1964) was a Jew from Hungary. He helped to save many lives of Jews of Hungary from death. He saved them from being sent to Nazi Germany’s death camp at Auschwitz concentration camp.


title: Auschwitz concentration camp

paragraphs: Auschwitz was a group of concentration camps run by Nazi Germany during World War II. There were three large camps at Auschwitz, and 3 smaller ones. Auschwitz I was the main camp, which held prisoners from 1940-1945. Auschwitz II (Birkenau) was the largest extermination camp (death camp) run by Nazi Germany during The Holocaust. Auschwitz III (Monowitz) and the subcamps were forced labor camps where prisoners worked as slaves. These camps were established because there were too many Polish prisoners and not enough room in "local" prisons to hold them in.

paragraphs: The Auschwitz camps were in a town in Poland called Oświęcim. ("Auschwitz" is the German name for "Oświęcim.") In German, Auschwitz was called Konzentrationslager Auschwitz (KZ Auschwitz), which means "Auschwitz concentration camp."

paragraphs: The "Schutzstaffel" (SS), led by Heinrich Himmler, ran the death camps and concentration camps in Nazi Germany.

paragraphs: No one knows exactly how many people were sent to Auschwitz, or how many died there. However, historians estimate that between 1940 and 1945, the Nazis sent at least 1.3 million people to Auschwitz. About 1.1 million of these people died or were killed at Auschwitz.

paragraphs: Extermination camps were different from concentration camps. Starting in 1940, the Nazis built about 150 concentration camps and many more sub-camps. However, there were only six extermination camps in Nazi Germany, all in eastern Europe:

paragraphs: In extermination camps, almost everyone was killed right after they got to the camps. The Nazis killed about 3.0-3.5 million people in these death camps. 90% of them were Jewish people.

paragraphs: Every day, Nazi authorities brought many prisoners to Auschwitz on trains. The camp's SS doctors separated these prisoners into three groups. This was called "selection." Selection was how the SS decided which of Auschwitz's camps each prisoner would go to.

paragraphs: Most prisoners sent to Auschwitz were selected for death. This means the SS decided they should be killed right away. Usually, the SS put all children, most women, all elderly people, people who looked sick, and people who looked like they could not work in this group. SS guards brought these people right to Auschwitz's gas chambers and killed them with poison gas. They used a form of hydrogen cyanide, a type of poison gas called a blood agent. They called this poison gas Zyklon B. This gas was a very efficient way of killing the prisoners, and could kill everyone exposed to it within 20 minutes.

paragraphs: Primo Levi, a prisoner who survived Auschwitz, later wrote about what selections were like:

paragraphs: "In less than ten minutes all the fit [healthy] men had been collected together in a group. [I]n [the SS guards'] rapid and summary choice each one of us had been judged capable or not of working usefully for the [Third] Reich... [W]e know that of our [group] no more than ninety-six men and twenty-nine women entered the [camps], and that of all the others, more than five hundred in number, not one was living two days later…"

paragraphs: "Thus in an instant, our women, our parents, our children disappeared. We saw them for a short while as an obscure mass at the other end of the platform; then we saw nothing more."

paragraphs: The SS selected some strong, healthy people to be slave workers. They worked at Auschwitz I; at an IG Farben factory at Auschwitz III; and at munitions factories in the sub-camps. Records say that between 1940 and 1945, about 405,000 people worked as slave laborers, and about 84% of them (340,000) died.

paragraphs: Oskar Schindler, a German business owner, saved about 1,000 Jews from Poland. He sent them away to his factory, and these Jews lived.

paragraphs: SS officials chose a third group of people they could use for special jobs or medical experiments. For example:

paragraphs: Kapos and "Sonderkommandos" made it possible for a small number of SS guards to control tens of thousands of prisoners at Auschwitz. Altogether, about 7,000 SS members worked at Auschwitz.

paragraphs: Auschwitz I was the office for all of the camps in the Auschwitz complex.

paragraphs: The Nazis kept prisoners at Auschwitz from 14 June 1940 until 27 January 1945.

paragraphs: The first prisoners at Auschwitz I were 728 people from Poland. One of these prisoners was Kazimierz Albin. He survived Auschwitz. Later, he wrote about how the first day at Auschwitz began:

paragraphs: "[W]e had to line up in five rows... [SS guard] Frizsch announced: "This is Auschwitz Concentration Camp... Any resistance or disobedience will be ruthlessly punished. Anyone disobeying superiors, or trying to escape, will be sentenced to death. Young and healthy people don't live longer than three months here. Priests one month, Jews two weeks. There is only one way out—through the crematorium chimneys.""

paragraphs: Next were 48 homosexual men from Germany. Then Jews arrived as prisoners.

paragraphs: From 1940-1941, at any time, there were between 13,000 and 16,000 prisoners in Auschwitz I. By 1942, there were 20,000. Most of these prisoners were not Jewish, because most of the Jewish prisoners were sent to Auschwitz II.

paragraphs: At Auschwitz, the prisoners had to put marks on their uniforms to show why they were sent to Auschwitz. For example, Jewish prisoners had to sew two yellow triangles onto their clothes, in the shape of a Star of David. Homosexual people had to sew a pink triangle onto their clothes. The SS also gave each prisoner a serial number and tattooed the number on the prisoners' bodies. The SS never called prisoners by their names, only by their numbers.

paragraphs: The living conditions at Auschwitz I were very bad. Prisoners got very little food. There was no sanitation, which made it easy for diseases to spread. Many prisoners died from diseases, starvation, and freezing to death.

paragraphs: On Sundays, the prisoners had to clean their barracks, and were allowed to shower.

paragraphs: The SS built many types of rooms meant to punish and torture prisoners. These included:

paragraphs: Sometimes, the SS would tie a prisoner's hands behind his back and hang him by his wrists. This would break the person's shoulder joints. The SS would leave prisoners hanging like this for hours or days, sometimes until the prisoners died.

paragraphs: The SS also hung some prisoners by the neck, so they would die a slow and painful death.

paragraphs: The SS tried killing prisoners with Zyklon B for the first time at Auschwitz I, on 3rd September 1941.

paragraphs: In their first test, the SS used Zyklon B on 600 prisoners of war from the Soviet Union and about 250 Polish people. When the gas killed these prisoners, the SS realized that they could kill people much more quickly with Zyklon B than they could by shooting them. They built a gas chamber, where they could kill over 700 people at a time. They also built a crematorium in block 11 of the camp.

paragraphs: From 1941 to 1942, the SS killed about 60,000 people in this gas chamber. After 1942, they made the gas chamber an air-raid shelter for the SS to hide in if Allied planes were dropping bombs nearby.

paragraphs: Today, the gas chamber still exists. It has been re-built, using its original parts. Now, it is a part of the museum at Auschwitz.

paragraphs: On 26th March 1942, the SS sent the first women prisoners to Auschwitz.

paragraphs: From about March 1941 to January 1945, Nazi Dr. Carl Clauberg did medical experiments on many women at Auschwitz. He wanted to find a way to sterilize millions of people as easily and quickly as possible. He tried using X-rays, surgery, and medications to sterilize women prisoners. The Nazis' plan was to get rid of everyone who was not "Aryan." As part of this plan, the Nazis sterilized many people so they could not have children who were not "Aryan."

paragraphs: In 1943, Heinrich Himmler ordered the SS to create a brothel in Auschwitz. Non-Jewish women prisoners were forced to work in the brothel. Prisoners who were important to the Nazis, like kapos and chefs, were allowed to use the brothel as a reward. Heinrich Himmler also ordered homosexual prisoners to visit the brothel every week. He thought this would 'cure' them of being homosexual.

paragraphs: Johanna Langefeld, Maria Mandel, and Elisabeth Volkenrath were in charge of the women prisoners at Auschwitz.

paragraphs: Criminal Joseph Mengele did medical experiments on many prisoners, especially twins, dwarves, and people with physical disabilities. All of these experiments were very crude and painful. For example, Mengele castrated some prisoners without using any anesthetics. Many women and men died during these experiments.

paragraphs: Mengele was also in charge of Auschwitz's camp "hospital." This was not like a regular hospital. Prisoners who were doctors, like Gisella Perl, worked there. They tried to help prisoners who were sick or hurt, but they had no medications or medical supplies, not even clean bandages or running water. If patients did not get better quickly, Mengele sent them to the gas chambers, or Nazi doctors killed them by injecting them with phenol.

paragraphs: Auschwitz II was Auschwitz's death camp. It was also called Birkenau (pronounced "BEER-kin-now"), which means "the birch wood" (forest). Today, Birkenau is often just called "Auschwitz."

paragraphs: The Nazis began building Auschwitz II in October 1941, because Auschwitz I was getting too crowded. By this time, Adolf Hitler had decided to kill all of the Jewish people. The Nazis called this plan the "Final Solution." Soon after it was built, Heinrich Himmler ordered Auschwitz II to be used as a killing center. Its goal would be to kill every prisoner that was sent there.

paragraphs: Auschwitz II had four gas chambers. The Nazis made the gas chambers look like showers. They convinced prisoners that they were going into the gas chambers to shower. Then they dropped Zyklon B into the gas chambers and killed everyone inside. The dead bodies were burned to ashes in Auschwitz II's four crematoria.

paragraphs: Auschwitz II was the largest death camp run by Nazi Germany during The Holocaust. The SS killed more people at Auschwitz than in any of the other Nazi death camps. The SS built Auschwitz II's gas chambers so that 2,000 people could fit inside at once. This meant they were able to kill about 2,000 people every 30 minutes in the gas chambers.

paragraphs: Auschwitz III was also called Monowitz (pronounced "MOW-no-vitz"). At Monowitz and the 48 subcamps around it, prisoners worked as slaves in the IG Farben factory and factories that made weapons for the German Army.

paragraphs: The IG Farben factory at Monowitz opened in 1941. By October 1942, prisoners had been forced to build the Monowitz camp, so slave workers could live there. IG Farben paid for the camp to be built. This made Monowitz the first concentration camp in history to be paid for and built by a private company.

paragraphs: Between 1941 and 1945, about 35,000 prisoners worked at the IG Farben factory. Seven out of every ten of these prisoners (about 25,000) died from starvation, disease, and being forced to work so hard. The average prisoner lived for only three months after being sent to Monowitz.

paragraphs: Managers at the IG Farben factory were always trying to make the prisoners work harder. Often they threatened prisoners by saying they would be sent to the gas chambers if they did not work harder. Every month, 20% of the slave workers at the factory (one out of every five) died or were sent to the gas chambers.

paragraphs: Until the summer of 1943, Rudolf Höss was the commander of Auschwitz. After him, Arthur Liebehenschel and Richard Baer became commanders of the camp.

paragraphs: After World War II, Höss wrote an autobiography. He gave many details about Auschwitz's camps. At the Nuremberg Trials, he received the death penalty. He was hanged in front of the crematorium at Auschwitz I.

paragraphs: By 1943, many resistance groups had formed inside Auschwitz's camps. These were groups who tried to fight back against the Nazis, any way they could.

paragraphs: Resistance groups helped some prisoners to escape from Auschwitz. These people brought information to the world about the killings happening at Auschwitz.

paragraphs: However, if one prisoner escaped, the SS killed many other prisoners. Sometimes, they brought the escaped prisoners' family members to Auschwitz. The SS did these things so that other prisoners would not try to escape. Overall, about 700 prisoners tried to escape from Auschwitz's three different camps. Of these 700, about 300 were able to escape.

paragraphs: Some of the "Sonderkommando" at Auschwitz fought back against the SS. For example, in 1944, some of the "Sonderkommando" at Auschwitz blew up one of the camp's crematoria.

paragraphs: Also in 1944, members of the "Sonderkommando" secretly took pictures inside Auschwitz. These are the only pictures that show the mass murder that was happening at Auschwitz. Members of the Polish resistance helped sneak the photographs out of the camp.

paragraphs: The Allies got some information about Auschwitz's camps between 1941 and 1944. However, they did not believe that so many people were being killed at Auschwitz. Then two people, Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler, escaped from Auschwitz. They wrote reports about what was happening at Auschwitz. From these reports, Allied leaders learned the truth about Auschwitz in the middle of 1944.

paragraphs: During 1944, Allied airplanes had taken some photographs of the area, including Auschwitz. However, no one studied these photographs. The first time anyone looked at these photos carefully was in the 1970s.

paragraphs: At one time, the Allies had planned to bomb the camps. However, they decided not to, because they did not want to kill any prisoners. In fact, some planes dropped bombs at nearby military targets. One bomb fell on the camp. It killed 315 prisoners and hurt 1425 more.

paragraphs: People still argue about what the Allies could have done to save more of the prisoners at Auschwitz.

paragraphs: By late 1944, the Red Army was close to Auschwitz. The SS blew up the gas chambers at Birkenau to hide what they had done. They also destroyed many other buildings and records. On 17th January 1945, the camps' SS guards started to leave Auschwitz. They forced more than 58,000 prisoners to march west to the cities Gliwice or Wodzilaw. At the arrival of these cities they were transported by trains to concentration camps in Germany. They left behind only those who could not march. About 38,000 prisoners died on the forced march.

paragraphs: On 27th January 1945, the soldiers in the Red Army's 322nd Infantry reached Auschwitz. They found and freed about 7,500 prisoners.

paragraphs: Nobody knows exactly how many people died at Auschwitz, or other Nazi camps. The SS kept records, but they destroyed most of them.

paragraphs: Historians have used many different ways of estimating how many people died at Auschwitz. For example, they have studied what witnesses at the Nuremberg Trials said. Some people who survived Auschwitz also helped to estimate how many people died there.

paragraphs: Still, many different people and governments have disagreed about this:

paragraphs: The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum says that these are "the best estimates of the number of victims" at Auschwitz between 1940 and 1945:

paragraphs: A few years after World War II ended, the government of Poland decided to rebuild Auschwitz and put a museum there. They repaired some of the camps. Sometimes they made very small changes from the original setup.

paragraphs: The museum has many parts and exhibits. They include:

paragraphs: In 1947, the museum was opened for the public. Later, people scattered the ashes of Auschwitz's victims between the huts where the prisoners lived. They see the entire area as a gravesite.

paragraphs: In 1979, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Association (UNESCO) made Auschwitz a World Heritage Site.

paragraphs: Also in 1979, Polish Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass at Auschwitz II.

paragraphs: In the 1980s, Pope John Paul II made two people who were killed at Auschwitz into Catholic saints:

paragraphs: In 2005, the United Nations made 27 January the International Holocaust Remembrance Day. They chose 27 January because it is the day that the Red Army freed Auschwitz.

paragraphs: On 27 January 2005, the European Parliament marked the anniversary of Auschwitz's liberation with a minute of silence. The European Parliament also passed a resolution saying that the murder of about 1.5 million people at Auschwitz's camps was terrible. The Parliament said they passed the resolution partly because of “the disturbing rise in antisemitism, and especially antisemitic incidents, in Europe, and for learning anew the wider lessons about the dangers of victimizing people on the basis of race, ethnic origin, religion, social classification, politics or sexual orientation."

paragraphs: After World War II, the communist governments of the Soviet Union and Poland put up a memorial sign at Auschwitz. The sign said 4 million people died at Auschwitz. After the fall of the communist government in Poland in 1989, the sign was changed to say that 1.1 million people died there. People who try to deny the Holocaust use this difference to claim that the Holocaust was propaganda. However, the Holocaust is a fact of history, and the SS killed at least 1.1 million people at Auschwitz.

paragraphs: Starting in 1989, the Polish government and media argued that it was not fair to use the name "Polish death camps" to describe the Auschwitz camps. They said this name made it seem like Poland ran the death camps. In fact, Nazi Germany had taken over Poland, and the Nazis ran the death camps. In 2006, the Polish government asked UNESCO to change the name of the World Heritage Site at Auschwitz. They wanted UNESCO to change the name from "Auschwitz Concentration Camp" to "Former Nazi German Concentration Camp Auschwitz-Birkenau". The Polish government thought this would avoid misleading the public and would show that Nazi Germany ran the camp, not Poland. In 2007, UNESCO agreed, and changed the site's name to "Auschwitz Birkenau: German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)."

paragraphs: The Polish government had allowed filming at the sites for two movies, and a TV series. However, in some cases, they did not allow filming inside the camps. In February 2006, Poland refused visas to some researchers from Iran who wanted to visit Auschwitz. They did this because the President of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, has denied the Holocaust, and even said that it is "a myth."

paragraphs: In 1984, the Carmelites opened a convent near Auschwitz I. Jewish groups protested, and the Carmelites removed the convent in 1993.

paragraphs: In 1987, after Pope John Paul II beatified Edith Stein, Catholic people put up a cross near the gas chamber. After some time, a Star of David appeared at the site. Many religious symbols appeared. Finally, people removed all of them.

paragraphs: In 1988, the Carmelites put up an 8-meter (26-foot) tall cross outside block 11 at Auschwitz. Jewish groups protested, saying that most of the people killed at Auschwitz were Jewish. By 1998, 300 smaller crosses had appeared. Finally, people removed the smaller crosses. However, the larger cross is still there.


title: Savukoski

paragraphs: Savukoski (Inari Sami: Suovâkuoškâis, Northern Sami: Suovvaguoika) is a Finnish municipality in the Province of Lapland. As of 2005, 1,326 people lived there. The area is 6,496.64 km². The municipality was founded in 1916.

paragraphs: Nearby municipalities are Pelkosenniemi, Salla and Sodankylä. The villages in Savukoski include Kuosku, Martti, Nousu, Seitajärvi, Savukoski, Tanhua, Lunkkaus, Viitaranta, Värriö, Rovala and Ruuvaoja.

paragraphs: Employers: Metsähallitus, Veljekset Karjalainen and Metsänhoitoyhdistys. In 1967, phosphorus was found in the area. It is planned to open a phosphorus mine after 2015.

paragraphs: One third of area is national parkland: Urho Kekkonen National Park, Värriö Strict Nature Reserve and Maltio Strict Nature Reserve.


title: Friedrich Dürrenmatt

paragraphs: Friedrich Dürrenmatt (January 5, 1921 in Konolfingen, canton of Bern; † December 14, 1990 in Neuchâtel) was a writer and philosopher from Switzerland.

paragraphs: Dürrenmatt was the son of a protestant pastor. He was always interested in drawing. He went to school until 1941, afterwards he studied philosophy, sciences (deep point physics) and German literature at the University of Bern. He dropped studies in 1946, when he published his first written work.

paragraphs: One year later he married the Swiss actress Lotti Geissler (1919–1983). They had three children. The financial situation of the family got better, when Dürrenmatt began to write radio dramas and crime fiction.

paragraphs: In 1984 he married the german actress and television director Charlotte Kerr (1927–2011).

paragraphs: His world-wide success is based on two plays: "The Visit" and "The Physicists".


title: Kampala

paragraphs: Kampala is the capital of Uganda. More than 1,800,000 people live there. The city is on the shore of Lake Victoria.

paragraphs: The Ugandan National Theatre is in Kampala. There is also a university in the city.

paragraphs: The home team; Kampala City Council (KCC) Footbal Club is a leading Africa FIFA Club team player.


title: Common wombat

paragraphs: The common wombat, "Vombatus ursinus", is one of three wombat species living in Australia. It is found the mountains and hills of southeast Australia, Tasmania, and Flinders Island in Bass Strait. They look like a small bear, which is what the name "ursinus" means. It is a marsupial, a type of mammal that carried its young in a pouch. It is the largest burrowing plant-eating mammal in the world. Its closest living relative is the koala.

paragraphs: They are a short and muscular animal that walks on four strong legs. The feet and claws are designed to help the wombat dig tunnels in rocky ground. They are between 70–120 cm in length and weigh between 15–35 kg. It is covered in a very rough and coarse fur which can be anywhere from black to silver grey, from dark brown to sandy brown. Wombats have very tough skin on their rump.

paragraphs: Wombats live alone but meet up to breed in April to June on mainland Australia. In Tasmania the breeding can occur at any time of the year. The young wombats are tiny, about two cm long, when they are born after a gestation of only 21 days, and move into the mother's pouch. Wombats normally only have one baby although the pouch has two nipples. Unlike a kangaroo, the pouch opens backwards, which would prevent it from filling with dirt as it crawls into its burrow. The young wombat lives in the pouch for about six months, and finally becomes independent of the mother at about 18 months of age. Wombats live for about five years, although some in captivity have lived for 26 years.

paragraphs: Wombats live in burrows that they dig with their sharp claws. They are nocturnal animals, and come out their burrows in the evening to look for food. It is a herbivore, so it only eats grass, tree and shrub roots, bark, leaves, and fungi. Wombat faeces are cube shaped. The wombat will use them to mark things in its territory, so it is common to find the cubes on top of leaves, rocks, and branches. Because of their shape they do not roll off.

paragraphs: The burrows can be as small as two metres or as long as 30 metres. They dig with their front feet, kick the soil backwards with their back feet, and then use their rump like a bulldozer to push the dirt out of the burrow. Only one wombat lives in each burrow, but wombats may have up to four burrows in the area they live.

paragraphs: Farmers see the Common Wombat as a pest. It often destroys fences by burrowing, and the burrow openings are a danger to grazing animals. It is still common in Australia, but the areas it lives in are being reduced because of land clearing for farms.

paragraphs: The common wombat has no natural predators. It is not scared of people and is often seen in camping areas. They can make good pets.


title: Common chimpanzee

paragraphs: The common chimpanzee ("Pan troglodytes"), also known as the robust chimpanzee, is a species of great ape. The common chimpanzee is often called the chimpanzee (or simply "chimp"), though this can be used to refer to both species in the genus "Pan": the common chimpanzee and the closely related bonobo. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing show both species of chimpanzees are the closest living relatives to modern humans.

paragraphs: The common chimpanzee is more robust than the bonobo, weighing between and measuring approximately from head to tail. Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old, but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several more years; it reaches puberty at the age of eight to 10, and its lifespan in captivity is about 50 years.

paragraphs: The common chimpanzee lives in groups which range from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a male-dominated, strict hierarchy, so disputes can generally be settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them for acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts, and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees.

paragraphs: The common chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range in the forests and savannahs of West and Central Africa. The biggest threats to the common chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching and disease.

paragraphs: Jane Goodall discovered that chimps hunt and eat smaller primates such as "Colobus" monkeys. Goodall watched a hunting group isolate a colobus high in a tree, block all possible exits, then one chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the colobus. The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours. The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as "one-third of the colobus population" in the park each year. This alone was a major scientific find which challenged previous conceptions of chimp diet and behavior.

paragraphs: Also startling, and disturbing, was the tendency for aggression and violence "within" chimpanzee troops. Goodall observed dominant females deliberately killing the young of other females in the troop in order to maintain their dominance, sometimes going as far as cannibalism.

paragraphs: She says of this revelation, "During the first ten years of the study I had believed […] that the Gombe chimpanzees were, for the most part, rather nicer than human beings. […] Then suddenly we found that chimpanzees could be brutal—that they, like us, had a darker side to their nature". These findings revolutionized our knowledge of chimpanzee behaviour. They were further evidence of the social similarities between humans and chimpanzees, albeit in a much darker manner.

paragraphs: If they can, male chimpanzees try to kill the male members of neighbouring groups. Males work together when they spot a chance to make a lightning raid on an isolated male from the other group. They kill him. In Gombe, Tanzania, a group in the 1970s was seen to kill seven of their neighbours one by one, until all were gone. It can take years for this to happen but, when it does, the remaining females and the neighbouring territory are added to the now larger group. Attacks like this are carefully planned, done only when success is likely, and carried out in silence. Their behaviour is quite different from any other behaviour known in chimpanzees:

paragraphs: The advantage for the males that triumph is to breed more children. Their tribe also holds a larger territory, and so has access to more food. Several authors have drawn a connection between this behaviour and the origins of human warfare.


title: Bonobo

paragraphs: The bonobo, "Pan paniscus", is a great ape and the smaller of the two species making up the genus "Pan" (the other is "Pan troglodytes", the common chimpanzee). The bonobo is sometimes called the dwarf or pygmy chimpanzee. Although the name "chimpanzee" is sometimes used to refer to both species together, it is usually understood to mean the common chimpanzee, while "Pan paniscus" is usually referred to as the bonobo.

paragraphs: The bonobo lives in rain forest, in a area south of the Congo River. This is in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central Africa.

paragraphs: The bonobo has high levels of sexual behavior. Sex functions in conflict appeasement, affection, social status, excitement, and stress reduction. It occurs in virtually all partner combinations and in a variety of positions. This may explain the lower levels of aggression in the bonobo as compared to the common chimpanzee and other apes. Bonobos are matriarchal and a male's rank in the social hierarchy is often determined by his mother's rank.

paragraphs: The two chimpanzee species are separated by the huge Congo River. Its formation 1.5–2 million years ago may have led to the speciation of the bonobo. Their population is between 29,000 and 50,000 individuals. The species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is threatened by habitat destruction, human population growth and commercial poaching. The bonobo lives for about 40 years in captivity, though its lifespan in the wild is unknown.


title: Genoa

paragraphs: Genoa (, Ligurian: "Zena") is a city and capital of the Liguria region in Italy. The population of Genoa in 2006 was 620,316. It is the most important seaport in Italy. Before Italy was united into one country in the 1800s, Genoa was a republic that also included the island of Corsica. Genoa was famous for its merchants, or traders, who traded everywhere from England to Istanbul. Famous Genoese people include, Andrea Doria, Niccolò Paganini, and Christopher Columbus.


title: Liguria

paragraphs: Liguria is a region of a Northern Italy. The capital is Genoa.

paragraphs: The population was about 1,610,134 in 2005.


title: Royal Opera House

paragraphs: The Royal Opera House is a famous opera house in London. Sometimes it is called "Covent Garden" because it is in the area of London called Covent Garden. The Royal Opera House is the home of the Royal Opera and the Royal Ballet. There is an orchestra which plays there for all the operas and ballets.

paragraphs: The building that is now the Royal Opera House is the third building in that place. The first theatre to be built there in 1732 was burnt down in 1808. The second theatre opened in 1809 but was burnt down in 1856. Today's building was built in 1858, although a lot of it was rebuilt between 1996 and 2000. The auditorium (the main part where the audience sits) is nearly the same, but all the backstage rooms are new: the dressing rooms, rehearsal rooms, office space etc. There is an extra small theatre called the Linbury Theatre which is used for smaller performances. Together with the new restaurant areas it has helped to get more young people to come.

paragraphs: The Royal Opera House seats 2,268 people. There are seats downstairs (the stalls), four tiers of boxes, a balcony and a gallery.

paragraphs: The conductor ("Musical Director") of the Royal Opera House Orchestra is Antonio Pappano who is a young British conductor.