title: Warsaw Uprising

paragraphs: The Warsaw Uprising () was a major World War II attack by the Polish resistance Home Army (). The resistance wanted to free Warsaw from Nazi Germany.

paragraphs: The attack happened at the same time as the Soviet Union's Red Army got close to the east of the city and the German forces retreated. However, the Soviets stopped moving forward. This allowed the Germans to destroy the city and defeat the Polish resistance.

paragraphs: The resistance fought for 63 days with little help from other Allied armies. The Uprising was the largest attack done by any European resistance movement of World War II.

paragraphs: The uprising began on 1 August 1944. It was part of a big plan, Operation "Tempest", which started when the Soviet Army got near Warsaw. The goals of the Polish resistance were to push the German troops out of the city. They also wanted to free Warsaw before the Soviets arrived. This would help the Polish Underground State to take control of the city.

paragraphs: At the start of the battle, the Polish resistance got control over most of central Warsaw. The Soviets did not move into the city to help the resistance troops.

paragraphs: By 14 September, Polish forces under Soviet command captured the east bank of the Vistula river. The Soviet army did not help the Poles. The Soviets did not use their military planes to help the Poles.

paragraphs: Winston Churchill asked Stalin and Franklin D. Roosevelt to help the Polish troops, but the Soviets would not help the Poles. Churchill sent over 200 drops of supplies by air. The US Army Air Force sent one drop of supplies by air.

paragraphs: About 16,000 members of the Polish resistance were killed and about 6,000 were badly wounded. In addition, between 150,000 and 200,000 Polish civilians were executed. Jews being hidden by Poles were found by the Germans.

paragraphs: The Germans had over 8,000 soldiers killed and missing, and 9,000 wounded. During the fighting in the city about25% of Warsaw's buildings were destroyed. Following the surrender of Polish forces, German troops destroyed 35% of the city.

paragraphs: By July 1944, Poland had been occupied by Nazi German troops for almost five years. The Polish Home Army was loyal to the Polish government in London. It had planned to attack the Germans. Germany was fighting a group of Allied powers, led by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States.

paragraphs: The initial plan of the Home Army was to join with the invading forces of the Western Allies as they freed Europe from the Nazis. However, in 1943, the Soviets were about to reach the pre-war borders of Poland before the Allied invasion of Europe got very far.

paragraphs: The Soviets and the Poles were both enemies of Nazi Germany. But they had different goals. The Home Army wanted a democratic capitalist Poland that was allied with the West. The Soviet leader Stalin wanted to make Poland a communist country that was allied to the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: The Soviets and the Poles did not trust each other. Soviet partisans in Poland often had disagreements with Polish resistance troops that were allied to the Home Army.

paragraphs: Stalin stopped all Polish-Soviet relations on 25 April 1943 after the Germans told the world about the Katyn massacre of Polish army officers. Stalin refused to admit that he ordered the killings.

paragraphs: The Home Army commander, Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski made a plan on 20 November, called Operation "Tempest". On the Eastern Front, local units of the Home Army were to attack the German "Wehrmacht" and help Soviet troops.

paragraphs: On 13 July 1944 as the Soviet attack crossed the old Polish border, the Poles had to make a decision. They could either start to attack the Germans, which might not be supported by the Soviets, or do no attacks and be criticized by the Soviets.

paragraphs: The Poles were worried that if Poland was freed from German occupation by the Red Army, then the Allies would not accept the Polish government in London after the war.

paragraphs: When the Poles saw the actions of the Soviet forces, they realized they needed to make a decision. In Operation "Ostra Brama", NKVD forces shot or arrested Polish officers and forced lower ranks to join the Soviet-controlled Polish forces.

paragraphs: On 21 July, the Home Army decided to launch Operation "Tempest" in Warsaw soon. The plan was intended as a way of showing Poland was its own country and as an attack against the German occupiers. On 25 July, the Polish government-in-exile (against the views of Polish Commander-in-Chief General Kazimierz Sosnkowski) approved the plan for an uprising in Warsaw.

paragraphs: In the early summer of 1944, German plans required Warsaw to be the defensive centre of the area. The Germans wanted to hold on to Warsaw no matter how many losses they had. The Germans had built fortifications and sent many new troops to the area. This slowed after the failed '20 July plot' to kill Adolf Hitler. The German troops in Warsaw were weak and did not feel confident.

paragraphs: However, by the end of July, German forces in the area had new troops sent to them. On 27 July, the Governor of the Warsaw District, Ludwig Fischer, called for 100,000 Polish men and women to build fortifications around the city. The inhabitants of Warsaw did not follow his demand.

paragraphs: The Home Army became worried about possible revenge actions by the Germans or mass arrests, which would make it hard for the Poles to start an attack. The Soviet forces were approaching Warsaw, and Soviet-controlled radio stations called for the Polish people to attack the Germans.

paragraphs: On 25 July, the Union of Polish Patriots made a radio broadcast from Moscow. It told Poles to attack the Germans. On 29 July, the first Soviet tanks reached the edges of Warsaw. They were counter-attacked by two German Panzer Corps: the 39th and 4th SS. On 29 July 1944 Radio Station Kosciuszko located in Moscow told Poles to "Fight The Germans!".

paragraphs: Bór-Komorowski and several senior officers held a meeting on that day. Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, who had arrived from London, said support from the Allies would be weak. On 31 July, the Polish commanders General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski and Colonel Antoni Chruściel ordered the Home Army forces for to be ready by 17:00 the following day.

paragraphs: The Home Army forces of the Warsaw District numbered between 20,000 and 49,000 soldiers. Other groups also contributed soldiers; estimates range from 2,000 in total to about 3,500 from the far-right National Armed Forces and a few dozen from the communist People's Army. Most of them had trained for several years in partisan and urban guerrilla warfare, but lacked experience in long daylight fighting. The forces lacked equipment, because the Home Army had sent weapons to the east of the country before it was decided to include Warsaw in Operation "Tempest".

paragraphs: Other partisan groups joined under Home Army command, and many volunteers joined during the fighting, including Jews freed from the Gęsiówka concentration camp in the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto.

paragraphs: Colonel Antoni Chruściel (codename "Monter") commanded the Polish forces in Warsaw. Initially he divided his forces into eight areas.

paragraphs: On 20 September, they were changed to match the three areas of the city held by Polish forces. The entire force, renamed the Warsaw Home Army Corps () and commanded by General Antoni Chruściel—promoted from Colonel on 14 September—formed into three infantry divisions (Śródmieście, Żoliborz and Mokotów).

paragraphs: During the fighting, the Poles obtained additional supplies through airdrops and by capture from the enemy (including several armoured vehicles, two Panther tanks and two Sd.Kfz. 251 APCs). Also, the insurgents' workshops produced weapons throughout the fighting, including submachine guns, K pattern flamethrowers, grenades, mortars, and even an armoured car ().

paragraphs: In late July 1944 the German units stationed in and around Warsaw were divided into three categories. The first was the garrison of Warsaw. As of 31 July, it had 11,000 troops under General Rainer Stahel.

paragraphs: These German forces had good weapons. They had prepared for the defence of the city for many months. Several hundred concrete bunkers and barbed wire protected the Germans.

paragraphs: Apart from the garrison troops, German army units were on both banks of the Vistula and in the city. The second category was formed by police and SS under Col. Paul Otto Geibel, numbering initially 5,710 men, including "Schutzpolizei" and "Waffen-SS". The third category was formed by auxiliary units, including detachments of the "Bahnschutz" (rail guard), "Werkschutz" (factory guard), "Sonderdienst" and "Sonderabteilungen" (military Nazi party units).

paragraphs: During the uprising, the German side received new troops every day. Stahel was replaced as overall commander by SS-General Erich von dem Bach in early August. As of 20 August 1944, the Germans fighting in Warsaw included 17,000 men arranged in two battle groups:

paragraphs: Battle Group Rohr (commanded by Major General Rohr), which included Bronislav Kaminski's brigade and Battle Group Reinefarth (commanded by SS-"Gruppenführer" Heinz Reinefarth) consisted of Attack Group Dirlewanger (commanded by Oskar Dirlewanger), Attack Group Reck (commanded by Major Reck), Attack Group Schmidt (commanded by Colonel Schmidt) and various support units.

paragraphs: At 17:00 on 31 July, the Polish army decided to start the uprising at 17:00 on the following day. The decision was a mistake because the poorly-equipped Polish forces were only prepared for night attacks. Attacking during daylight meant that Poles were shot by German machine gun fire.

paragraphs: Although many partisan groups were waiting throughout the city, the movement of thousands of young men and women was hard to hide. Some fighting started before the official attack time, notably in Żoliborz, and around Napoleon Square and Dąbrowski Square.

paragraphs: The Germans had realized that the Poles might attack them. However, they did not realize the Poles could do such a large attack. At 16:30, the German troops were told to be ready for an attack.

paragraphs: That evening the Poles captured a major German weapons building, the main post office and power station, Praga railway station and the tallest building in Warsaw, the Prudential building. However, Castle Square, the police district, and the airport were held by the Germans.

paragraphs: The Poles were most successful in the City Centre, Old Town, and Wola districts. However, several major German strongholds remained, and in some areas of Wola the Poles had to retreat.

paragraphs: In other areas such as Mokotów, the Poles controlled only the residential areas. In Praga, on the east bank of the Vistula, the Poles were sent back into hiding by a large number of German forces.

paragraphs: The Polish groups had trouble getting in contact with other Polish fighting groups. By 4 August most of the city was held by Polish forces.

paragraphs: The uprising was intended to last a few days until Soviet forces arrived; however, this never happened, and the Polish forces had to fight with little outside help. The results of the first two days of fighting in different parts of the city were as follows:

paragraphs: The Directorate of Sabotage and Diversion or "Kedyw" was to guard the headquarters. These units secured parts of Śródmieście and Wola; along with the units of "Area I", they were the most successful during the first few hours.

paragraphs: Among the most important targets that were not taken during the start of the uprising were the airfields of Okęcie and Mokotów Field, as well as the PAST skyscraper overlooking the city centre and the Gdańsk railway station guarding the passage between the centre and the northern borough of Żoliborz.

paragraphs: On 4 August when the Home Army soldiers managed to establish front lines in the westernmost areas of Wola and Ochota. The German army stopped its retreat westwards and began receiving new troops. On the same day SS General Erich von dem Bach was appointed commander of all the forces used against the Uprising.

paragraphs: German attacks aimed to join up with the remaining German groups of troops and then block the Uprising troops from the Vistula river. Among the new units were forces under the command of Heinz Reinefarth.

paragraphs: On 5 August Reinefarth's three attack groups started their advance westward along "Wolska" and "Górczewska" streets toward the main East-West Jerusalem Avenue. Their advance was halted, but the regiments began carrying out Heinrich Himmler's orders to kill civilians. Special SS, police and "Wehrmacht" groups went from house to house, shooting the people and burning their bodies.

paragraphs: Estimates of civilians killed in Wola and Ochota range from 20,000 to 50,000, 40,000 by 8 August in Wola alone, or as high as 100,000. The leaders of the killings were Oskar Dirlewanger and Bronislav Kaminski.

paragraphs: The killings of civilians were intended to stop the Poles from wanting to fight and end the uprising without having to do heavy city fighting. With time, the Germans realized that killing civilians only made the Poles' resistance stronger.

paragraphs: The Germans began to try to think of a political solution, because the thousands of men under the German commander were unable to win against the insurgents in an urban guerrilla setting.

paragraphs: They aimed to gain a significant victory to show the Home Army that further fighting had no use. They wanted the Home Army to surrender. This did not succeed. Until mid-September, the Germans shot all captured insurgents, but from the end of September, some of the captured Polish soldiers were treated as POWs.

paragraphs: Despite the loss of Wola, the Polish resistance got stronger. "Zośka" and "Wacek" troops captured the Warsaw Ghetto and liberate the Gęsiówka concentration camp, freeing about 350 Jews.

paragraphs: The area became one of the main communication links between the insurgents fighting in Wola and those defending the Old Town. On 7 August German forces were strengthened by the arrival of tanks. The Germans put Polish civilians in front of the tanks to act as human shields.

paragraphs: After two days of heavy fighting they managed to get through Wola and reach Bankowy Square. However, by then the barricades, street fortifications, and tank obstacles were well-prepared. Both sides reached a stalemate (a situation in which no side could win), with violent house-to-house fighting.

paragraphs: Between 9 and 18 August, violent battles raged around the Old Town and nearby Bankowy Square. The Germans and the Poles both made successful attacks. The Germans bombed the Poles with heavy artillery and bombers. The Poles could not defend themselves against the bombers, as they lacked anti-aircraft artillery weapons. Even clearly marked hospitals were dive-bombed by Stukas.

paragraphs: Although the Battle of Stalingrad had already shown the danger of fighting in a city, the Warsaw Uprising showed that an under-equipped force supported by the civilian population could fight better-equipped professional soldiers.

paragraphs: The Poles held the Old Town until a decision to withdraw was made at the end of August. Until 2 September, the defenders of the Old Town withdrew through the sewers. Thousands of people were evacuated in this way. Those that remained were either shot or transported to concentration camps such as Mauthausen and Sachsenhausen once the Germans regained control.

paragraphs: Soviet attacks on the 4th SS Panzer Corps east of Warsaw were renewed on 26 August, and the Germans were forced to retreat into Praga. The Soviet army under the command of Konstantin Rokossovsky captured Praga and arrived on the east bank of the Vistula in mid-September.

paragraphs: By 13 September, the Germans had destroyed the remaining bridges over the Vistula. In the Praga area Polish units under the command of General Zygmunt Berling (thus sometimes known as "berlingowcy" – "the Berling men") fought on the Soviet side. Three patrols of his First Polish Army () landed in the Czerniaków and Powiśle areas and joined with Home Army forces on the night of 14/15 September.

paragraphs: The artillery and air bombing provided by the Soviets did not stop enemy machine-gun fire as the Poles crossed the river, and the landing troops had heavy losses. Only part of the main units made it ashore (I and III battalions of 9th infantry regiment, 3rd Infantry Division).

paragraphs: The landings by the 1st Polish Army were the only outside ground force which arrived to support the uprising.

paragraphs: The Germans attacked the Home Army positions near the river to prevent any further landings. However, they were not able to advance for several days while Polish forces held these positions in preparation for a Soviet landings.

paragraphs: Polish units from the eastern shore attempted several more landings, and from 15 to 23 September had heavy losses (including the destruction of all their landing boats and most of their other river crossing equipment). Red Army support was inadequate. After the failure of repeated attempts by the 1st Polish Army to link up with the insurgents, the Soviets limited their help to occasional artillery and air bombing.

paragraphs: Conditions that prevented the Germans from removing the insurgents also prevented the Poles from removing the Germans. Plans for a river crossing were stopped "for at least 4 months", since fighting against the 9th Army's five panzer divisions was a problem.

paragraphs: The commander of the 1st Polish Army, General Berling was removed from his job by his Soviet superiors. On the night of 19 September,b no further attempts from the other side of the river were made and the

paragraphs: evacuation of wounded did not take place. That night. Home Army soldiers and the 1st Polish Army retreated from their positions on the bank of the river.

paragraphs: Out of approximately 900 men who made it ashore only a small number made it back to the eastern shore of the Vistula. Berling's Polish Army losses in the attempt to aid the Uprising were 5,660 killed, missing or wounded.

paragraphs: From this point on, the Warsaw Uprising can be seen as a one-sided war of attrition or as a fight for good terms of surrender. The Poles were heavily attacked in three areas of the city: Śródmieście, Żoliborz and Mokotów.

paragraphs: In 1939 Warsaw had 1,350,000 people. Over a million were still living in the city at the start of the Uprising.

paragraphs: In Polish-controlled territory, during the first weeks of the Uprising, people tried to have a normal life. There were many cultural activities, including theatres and newspapers. Boys and girls of the Polish Scouts delivered mail.

paragraphs: Near the end of the Uprising, lack of food, medicine, overcrowding and German air and artillery bombing on the city made the civilian life very difficult.

paragraphs: As the Uprising was supposed to be helped by the Soviets in a few days, the Polish underground did not realize food shortages would be a problem.

paragraphs: However, as the fighting continued, the inhabitants of the city had to deal with hunger and starvation. On 6 August, when Polish units recaptured the Haberbusch i Schiele brewery at Ceglana Street, the citizens of Warsaw lived on barley from the brewery's warehouses.

paragraphs: Every day several thousand people went to the brewery for bags of barley and then distributed them in the city centre. The barley was then ground in coffee grinders and boiled with water to form a soup (). The "Sowiński" Battalion managed to capture the brewery until the end of the fighting.

paragraphs: Another serious problem for civilians and soldiers was a shortage of water. By mid-August most of the water pipes were either not working or filled with corpses. In addition, the main water pumping station was held by the Germans.

paragraphs: To prevent the spread of diseases and provide the people with water, the authorities ordered water wells to be dug in the backyards of every house. On 21 September the Germans blew up the remaining pumping stations at Koszykowa Street and after that the public wells were the only source of drinking water in the city. By the end of September, the city centre had more than 90 functioning wells.

paragraphs: Before the Uprising the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Home Army had set up a group of war journalists. Headed by Antoni Bohdziewicz, the group made three newsreels and over 30,000 meters of film about the Uprising. The first newsreel was shown to the public on 13 August in the Palladium cinema at Złota Street.

paragraphs: In addition to films, dozens of newspapers appeared. Several underground newspapers started to be distributed openly. The two main daily newspapers were the government-run "Rzeczpospolita Polska" and military "Biuletyn Informacyjny". There were also several dozen newspapers, magazines, bulletins and weeklies published by various organizations and military units.

paragraphs: The "Błyskawica" long-range radio transmitter, assembled on 7 August in the city centre, was run by the military, but was also used by the recreated Polish Radio from 9 August.

paragraphs: It broadcast three or four times a day, broadcasting news programmes and appeals for help in Polish, English, German and French. It also broadcast reports from the government, patriotic poems and music. It was the only insurgent radio station in German-held Europe.

paragraphs: Among the speakers appearing on the insurgent radio were Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, Zbigniew Świętochowski, Stefan Sojecki, Jeremi Przybora, and John Ward, a war correspondent for "The Times" of London.

paragraphs: According to many historians, the uprising failed because of a lack of outside support and the late arrival of the support which did arrive.

paragraphs: The Polish government in London tried to get support from the Western Allies before the start of battle. The allies would not help without Soviet approval. The Polish government in London asked the British several times to send allied troops to Poland, however, the British troops did not arrive until December 1944. Shortly after their arrival, the Soviet authorities arrested them.

paragraphs: From August 1943 to July 1944, over 200 British Royal Air Force (RAF) flights dropped 146 Polish personnel trained in Great Britain, over 4000 containers of supplies, and $16 million in banknotes and gold to the Home Army.

paragraphs: The only support operation which was done all through the Uprising were night supply drops by long-range planes of the RAF, other British Commonwealth air forces, and units of the Polish Air Force. They had to use airfields in Italy, reducing the amount of supplies they could carry.

paragraphs: The RAF made 223 flights and lost 34 aircraft. The effect of these airdrops was mostly that they gave the insurgents a feeling of hope. The airdrops delivered too few supplies for the needs of the insurgents, and many airdrops landed outside insurgent-controlled territory.

paragraphs: From 4 August the Western Allies began supporting the Uprising with airdrops of ammunition and other supplies. Initially the flights were carried out by the "1568th Polish Special Duties Flight" of the Polish Air Force (later renamed No. 301 Polish Bomber Squadron) stationed in Bari and Brindisi in Italy. They flew B-24 Liberator, Handley Page Halifax and Douglas C-47 Dakota planes.

paragraphs: Later on, after the Polish government-in-exile asked for more help, they were joined by the Liberators of 2 Wing –No.31 and No. 34 Squadrons of the South African Air Force based at Foggia in Southern Italy, and Halifaxes, flown by No. 148 and No. 178 RAF Squadrons.

paragraphs: The drops by British, Polish and South African forces continued until 21 September. The total weight of allied drops varies according to source (104 tons, 230 tons or 239 tons), over 200 flights were made.

paragraphs: The Soviet Union did not allow the Western Allies to use its airports for the airdrops, so the planes had to use bases in the United Kingdom and Italy. This reduced the weight they could carry and number of flights. The Allies' request for the use of landing strips made on 20 August was denied by Stalin on 22 August. Stalin called the insurgents "criminals" and stated that the uprising was started by "enemies of the Soviet Union".

paragraphs: By not giving landing rights to Allied aircraft on Soviet-controlled territory the Soviets made it hard for the Allies to help the Uprising. The Soviets fired at Allied airplanes which carried supplies from Italy and went into Soviet-controlled airspace.

paragraphs: American support was also limited. After Stalin's objections to supporting the uprising, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill telegraphed U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 25 August and said they should send planes. Roosevelt did not want to upset Stalin before the Yalta Conference. Roosevelt said he would not send planes.

paragraphs: Finally on 18 September the Soviets allowed a USAAF flight of 107 B-17 Flying Fortresses of the Eighth Air Force's 3rd Division to land at Soviet airfields used in Operation "Frantic", but it was too late to help the insurgents.

paragraphs: The planes dropped 100 tons of supplies but only 20 tons were picked up by the insurgents due to the wide area over which they were spread. The vast majority of supplies fell into German-held areas. The USAAF lost two B-17s with a further seven damaged. The planes landed at the Operation "Frantic" airbases in the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: The next day, 100 B-17s and 61 P-51s left the USSR to bomb Szolnok in Hungary on their way back to bases in Italy. The Soviets thought that 96% of the supplies dropped by the Americans fell into German areas.

paragraphs: The Soviets refused permission for any further American flights until 30 September. By this time the weather was too poor to fly, and the insurgency was nearly over.

paragraphs: Between 13 and 30 September Soviet planes dropped arms, medicines and food supplies. Initially these supplies were dropped without parachutes which led to damage and loss of the contents – also, a large number of canisters fell into German areas.

paragraphs: The Soviet Air Forces flew 2535 re-supply missions with small bi-plane Polikarpov Po-2's. They delivered a total of 156 50-mm mortars, 505 anti-tank rifles, 1478 sub-machine guns, 520 rifles, 669 carbines, 41 780 hand grenades, 37 216 mortar shells, over 3 mln. cartridges, 131.2 tons of food and 515 kg of medicine.

paragraphs: Although there was almost no German air defence over the Warsaw area, about 12% of the 296 planes were lost because they had to fly 1,600 km out and the same distance back over heavily defended enemy territory (112 out of 637 Polish and 133 out of 735 British and South African airmen were shot down).

paragraphs: Most of the drops were made during night at 100–300 feet altitude. Many parachuted packages fell into German-controlled territory (only about 50 tons of supplies, less than 50% delivered, was recovered by the insurgents).

paragraphs: The role of the Red Army during the Warsaw Uprising is controversial and historians still disagree about its role.

paragraphs: The Uprising started when the Red Army arrived near the city. The Poles in Warsaw were expecting the Soviets to capture the city in a few days.

paragraphs: This approach of starting an insurgent uprising against the Germans a few days before the arrival of Allied forces was done successfully in a number of European capitals, such as Paris and Prague.

paragraphs: However, despite the easy capture of the area south-east of Warsaw, the Soviets did not help the insurgents. Instead, the Soviets waited as the Germans killed the soldiers from the anti-communist Polish Home Army.

paragraphs: At that time, the city edges were defended by the weak German 73rd Infantry Division. The weak German defence forces were not attacked by the Soviets. This allowed the German forces to send more troops to fight against uprising in the city itself.

paragraphs: The Red Army was fighting battles to the south of Warsaw, to capture bridges over the Vistula river. The Red Army was fighting battles to the north of the city, to capture bridges over the river Narew. The best German armoured divisions were fighting in those sectors.

paragraphs: The Soviet 47th Army did not move into Praga (Warsaw's suburbs) on the right bank of the Vistula, until 11 September (when the uprising was over). In three days the Soviets quickly captured the suburb. The weak German 73rd Division was quickly defeated.

paragraphs: By mid-September a series of German attacks had reduced the territory held by the Poles to one narrow stretch of the riverbank, in the district of Czerniaków. The Poles were hoping Soviet forces would help them.

paragraphs: Though Berling's communist 1st Polish Army did cross the river, they did not get much support from the Soviets and the main Soviet force did not follow them.

paragraphs: One of the reasons given for the failure of the uprising was that the Soviet Red Army did not help the Resistance. On 1 August, the day of Uprising, the Soviet advance stopped. Soon afterwards the Soviet tanks stopped receiving any oil.

paragraphs: Soviets knew of the planned Uprising from their agents in Warsaw. They also knew because Polish Prime Minister Stanisław Mikołajczyk told them of the Polish Home Army uprising plans. The Red Army's lack of support for the Polish resistance was a decision Stalin made so that the Soviets would be able to control Poland after the war.

paragraphs: If the Polish Home Army had won, the Polish government in London would have been able to return to Poland.

paragraphs: Also the destruction of the main Polish resistance forces by the Germans helped the Soviet Union, since it significantly weakened any potential Polish opposition to the Soviet occupation.

paragraphs: Stopping the advance and then capturing Warsaw in January 1945 enabled the Soviets to say they "freed" Warsaw.

paragraphs: The fact that Soviet tanks were nearby Wołomin 15 kilometers to the east of Warsaw helped convince the Home Army leaders to launch the uprising. However, as a result of the battle of Radzymin in late July, these tanks from the Soviet 2nd Tank Army were pushed out of Wołomin and back about 10 km.

paragraphs: On 9 August, Stalin told Premier Mikołajczyk that the Soviets had originally planned to be in Warsaw by 6 August. He said an attack by four Panzer divisions had stopped them from getting to the city. By 10 August, the Germans had surrounded and badly damaged the Soviet 2nd Tank Army at Wołomin.

paragraphs: When Stalin and Churchill met in October 1944, Stalin told Churchill that the lack of Soviet support was due to Soviet losses in the Vistula area.

paragraphs: Germans thought that the Soviets were trying to help the insurgents. The Germans thought it was their defence of Warsaw that prevented the Soviet advance. The Germans did not think that the Soviets did not want to advance.

paragraphs: The Germans published propaganda which said that both the British and Soviets did not help the Poles.

paragraphs: The Soviet units which reached the edges of Warsaw in the final days of July 1944 had advanced from the 1st Belorussian Front in Western Ukraine.

paragraphs: The Soviets defeated many German troops.

paragraphs: The Germans were trying to send new troops to hold the line of the Vistula. This was the last major river barrier between the Red Army and Germany.

paragraphs: The Germans sent in many infantry units of poor quality, and 4–5 high quality Panzer Divisions in the 39th Panzer Corps and 4th SS Panzer Corps.

paragraphs: Other explanations for the Soviet lack of help to the Poles are possible. The Red Army made for a major attack into the Balkans through Romania in mid-August. A lot of Soviet troops and equipment was sent in that direction, while the attacks in Poland were stopped.

paragraphs: Stalin decided to occupy Eastern Europe, rather than moving toward Germany. The capture of Warsaw was not essential for the Soviets. They had already captured bridges to the south of Warsaw, and were defending them against German attacks.

paragraphs: Finally, the Soviet High Command may not have developed a plan for helping Warsaw because they did not have correct information. Propaganda from the Polish Committee of National Liberation said that the Home Army was weak and said that they were allied with the Nazis. Information submitted to Stalin by Soviet agents was often wrong.

paragraphs: According to David Glantz (military historian and a retired US Army colonel, as well as a member of the Russian Federation’s Academy of Natural Sciences), the Red Army could not help the uprising, regardless of Stalin's political goals. German military strength in August and early September stopped any Soviet help to the Poles in Warsaw. Glantz argued that Warsaw would be a hard city for the Soviets to capture from the Germans. As well, Warsaw was not a good location for future Red Army attacks.

paragraphs: By the first week of September both German and Polish commanders realized that the Soviet army was not going to attack and break the stalemate. The Germans thought that a longer insurgency would make it hard to hold Warsaw as the frontline. The Poles were worried that continued resistance would lead to many deaths. On 7 September, General Rohr proposed to talk, which Bór-Komorowski agreed to discuss the following day.

paragraphs: Over 8, 9 and 10 September about 20,000 civilians were allowed to leave the city. Rohr recognized the right of Home Army insurgents to be treated as fighters. The Poles stopped talks on the 11th, as they received news that the Soviets were advancing through Praga. A few days later, the arrival of the 1st Polish gave the resistance confidence and the talks stopped.

paragraphs: However, by the morning of 27 September, the Germans had recaptured Mokotów. Talks restarted on 28 September. In the evening of 30 September, Żoliborz was captured by the Germans. The Poles were being pushed into a smaller area and they were at risk of being killed. On the 30th, Hitler decorated von dem Bach, Dirlewanger and Reinefarth, while in London General Sosnkowski was dismissed as Polish commander-in-chief. Bór-Komorowski was promoted to commander-in-chief, even though he was trapped in Warsaw.

paragraphs: Bór-Komorowski and Prime Minister Mikołajczyk again asked Rokossovky and Stalin for Soviet help. None came. According to Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov, who was by this time at the Vistula front, both he and Rokossovsky advised Stalin against an attack because of heavy Soviet losses.

paragraphs: The surrender order of the remaining Polish forces was signed on 2 October. All fighting ceased that evening. According to the agreement, the "Wehrmacht" promised to treat Home Army soldiers in accordance with the Geneva Convention, and to treat the civilian population humanely.

paragraphs: The next day the Germans began to disarm the Home Army soldiers. They later sent 15,000 of them to POW camps in various parts of Germany. Between 5,000 and 6,000 insurgents decided to blend into the civilian population hoping to continue the fight later. The entire civilian population of Warsaw was removed from the city and sent to camp "Durchgangslager" 121 in Pruszków.

paragraphs: Out of 350,000–550,000 civilians who passed through the camp, 90,000 were sent to labour camps in the Third Reich, 60,000 were shipped to death and concentration camps (including Ravensbrück, Auschwitz, and Mauthausen, among others). The rest were transported to various locations in the General Government and released.

paragraphs: The Eastern Front did not change in the Vistula sector. The Soviets made no attempt to push forward, until the Vistula–Oder Offensive began on 12 January 1945. Almost entirely destroyed, Warsaw was liberated from the Germans on 17 January 1945 by the Red Army and the First Polish Army.

paragraphs: The destruction of the Polish capital was planned before the start of World War II. Warsaw was to be turned into a provincial German city. The failure of the Warsaw Uprising provided an opportunity for Hitler to begin the transformation.

paragraphs: After the remaining population had been removed, the Germans continued the destruction of the city. German engineers burned and demolished the remaining buildings. According to German plans, after the war Warsaw was to be turned into a military station, or even an artificial lake – the latter of which the Nazi leadership had already intended to implement for the Soviet/Russian capital of Moscow in 1941. The demolition squads used flamethrowers and explosives to destroy houses. They destroyed historical monuments, Polish national archives and places of interest.

paragraphs: By January 1945 85% of the buildings were destroyed: 25% as a result of the Uprising, 35% as a result of German actions after the uprising, and the rest as a result of the earlier Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, and the September 1939 campaign. Material losses are estimated at 10,455 buildings, 923 historical buildings (94%), 25 churches, 14 libraries including the National Library, 81 primary schools, 64 high schools, University of Warsaw and Warsaw University of Technology, and most of the historical monuments.

paragraphs: Almost a million inhabitants lost all of their possessions. The exact amount of losses of private and public property as well as art, monuments of science and culture is unknown but considered enormous. Studies done in the late 1940s estimated total damage at about US $30 billion.

paragraphs: In 2004, President of Warsaw Lech Kaczyński, later President of Poland, established a historical commission to estimate the losses caused by German authorities. The commission estimated the losses as at least US $31.5 billion at 2004 values. Those estimates were later raised to US $45 billion 2004 US dollars and in 2005, to $54.6 billion.

paragraphs: The exact number of casualties on both sides is unknown. Estimates of casualties fall into roughly similar ranges. Polish civilian deaths are estimated at between 150,000 and 200,000. Both Polish and German military personnel losses are estimated separately at under 20,000.

paragraphs: In addition, Germans lost valuable military equipment, including three aircraft, 310 tanks and armoured cars, 340 trucks and cars and 22 light (75 mm) artillery pieces.

paragraphs: Most soldiers of the Home Army (including those who took part in the Warsaw Uprising) were captured by the NKVD or UB political police. They were asked questions under force and imprisoned on various charges, such as "fascism".

paragraphs: Many of them were sent to Gulags or executed. Between 1944 and 1956, all of the former members of Battalion Zośka were put in Soviet prisons. In March 1945, a staged trial of 16 leaders of the Polish Underground State held by the Soviet Union took place in Moscow – (the Trial of the Sixteen).

paragraphs: The Government Delegate, together with most members of the Council of National Unity and the C-i-C of the Armia Krajowa, were invited by Soviet general Ivan Serov with agreement of Joseph Stalin to a conference on their eventual entry to the Soviet-backed Provisional Government.

paragraphs: They were presented with a warrant of safety, yet they were arrested in Pruszków by the NKVD on 27 and 28 March. Leopold Okulicki, Jan Stanisław Jankowski and Kazimierz Pużak were arrested on the 27th with 12 more the next day. A. Zwierzynski had been arrested earlier.

paragraphs: They were brought to Moscow in the Lubyanka.

paragraphs: After several months of violent interrogation and torture, they were presented with the forged accusations of "collaboration with Nazi Germany" and "planning a military alliance with Nazi Germany".

paragraphs: Many insurgents, captured by the Germans and sent to POW camps in Germany, were later liberated by British, American and Polish forces and remained in the West. Among those were the leaders of the uprising: Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski and Antoni Chruściel.

paragraphs: The facts of the Warsaw Uprising were a problem for Stalin. The facts were changed in propaganda of the People's Republic of Poland, which emphasized the failings of the Home Army and the Polish government-in-exile. It did not allow criticism of the Red Army or the goals of Soviet Union.

paragraphs: In the post-war period, the name of the Home Army was banned, and most films and novels covering the 1944 Uprising were either banned or modified so that the name of the Home Army did not appear. From the 1950s on, Polish propaganda depicted the soldiers of the Uprising as brave, but the officers as treacherous, reactionary and characterized by disregard of the losses.

paragraphs: The first publications on the topic taken seriously in the West were not issued until the late 1980s. In Warsaw no monument to the Home Army was built until 1989. Instead, efforts of the Soviet-backed People's Army were glorified and exaggerated.

paragraphs: By contrast, in the West the story of the Polish fight for Warsaw was told as a tale of valiant heroes fighting against a cruel and ruthless enemy. It was suggested that Stalin benefited from Soviet failure to help. The opposition to eventual Soviet control of Poland was eliminated when the Nazis killed the partisans.

paragraphs: The belief that the Uprising failed because of the Soviet Union contributed to anti-Soviet feelings in Poland. Memories of the Uprising helped to inspire the Polish labour movement Solidarity, which led a peaceful opposition movement against the Communist government during the 1980s.

paragraphs: Until the 1990s, there was little historical analysis of the events because of official censorship and lack of academic interest. Research into the Warsaw Uprising was boosted by the fall of communism in 1989, due to the end censorship and increased access to state archives. As of 2004, however, access to some material in British, Polish and ex-Soviet archives was still restricted.

paragraphs: Further complicating the matter is the British claim that the records of the Polish government-in-exile were destroyed, and material not transferred to British authorities after the war was burnt by the Poles in London in July 1945.

paragraphs: In Poland, 1 August is now a celebrated anniversary. On 1 August 1994, Poland held a ceremony commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Uprising to which both the German and Russian presidents were invited. Though the German President Roman Herzog attended, the Russian President Boris Yeltsin declined the invitation; other notable guests included the U.S. Vice President Al Gore.

paragraphs: Herzog, on behalf of Germany, was the first German statesman to apologize for German atrocities committed against the Polish nation during the Uprising. During the 60th anniversary of the Uprising in 2004, official delegations included: German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, UK deputy Prime Minister John Prescott and US Secretary of State Colin Powell; Pope John Paul II sent a letter to the mayor of Warsaw, Lech Kaczyński on this occasion. Russia once again did not send a representative. A day before, 31 July 2004, the Warsaw Uprising Museum opened in Warsaw.


title: Martin Bashir

paragraphs: Martin Bashir (born 19 January 1963) is a British journalist. He is known for interviewing Princess Diana in 1995 and Michael Jackson in the 2003 documentary Living with Michael Jackson. That year he was voted the fifth 'worst Briton'. He started being a journalist in 1986. He worked with BBC until 1999. Then he joined ITV. In December 2010 he joined MSNBC. He hosted "Martin Bashir" on MSNBC on weekdays.

paragraphs: On 15 November 2013, Bashir made people angry when he said on his MSNBC show "Clear the Air" that someone should defecate in Sarah Palin's mouth and called her a 'world-class idiot'. In December 2013 Bashir stopped working at the MSNBC.

paragraphs: Bashir was born to Pakistani parents in Wandsworth in South London. He speaks English and Urdu.


title: Chaff (countermeasure)

paragraphs: In the military, chaff are small thin pieces of metal which are shot out of an airplane or warship. These thin strips of metal make it harder for enemy radar to detect where the plane or ship is. The thin strips of metal also make it harder for radar-guided missiles to hit the plane or warship. The chaff tricks the enemy and helps to keep the plane or warship safe.


title: Flare (countermeasure)

paragraphs: In the military, a flare countermeasure is a very hot, burning object which is shot out from a warplane or helicopter. Warplanes and helicopters shoot out flares if the enemy has fired a heat-seeking missile at them. The flare may trick the missile into hitting into the hot, burning flare. This helps to protect warplanes and helicopters from enemy missiles. If a warplane or helicopter has had a radar-guided missile fired at them, they may shoot out chaff. Chaff is thin strips or fibres of metal which make if hard for the enemy missile to target the plane or helicopter.


title: Terry stop

paragraphs: In the United States, a Terry stop is a when police stop a person and quickly check the person's clothes for guns or knives. To do this action, the police officer has to have a good reason to think that the person may be involved in a crime.


title: Traffic calming

paragraphs: Traffic calming measures are changes to a road to make car drivers slow down and to make the road safer for people who have to walk across the road. Some traffic calming techniques include installing speed bumps and narrowing roads, which make drivers slow down. Another way to make drivers slow down is to set speed limits. These speed limits can be enforced with automatic speed cameras. These cameras take photographs of people who are driving too fast. Another way to slow drivers down is to make curbs wider.


title: Earl (mixtape)

paragraphs: Earl is the debut mixtape by Earl Sweatshirt. It was released on March 31, 2010 as a free digital download on Odd Future's website. The mixtape was recorded when Earl was between 15 and 16. The album is short and the lyrics are about murder, rape, drugs and critism of religion.


title: John Abbott

paragraphs: Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott, (March 12, 1821 – October 30, 1893) was the third Prime Minister of Canada. He served in the office for seventeen months, from June 16, 1891 to November 24, 1892. Through his daughter, Abbott is the great-grandfather of Canadian Academy Award-winning actor Christopher Plummer.

paragraphs: Abbott died on March 12, 1893 from complications of pneumonia in his Montreal, Quebec home. He was 72 years old.


title: Bike rage

paragraphs: Bike rage refers to using bad words, bad gestures, or physcial conflict between cyclists and others on the road, including pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, and drivers. Bike rage is similar to other road rage.

paragraphs: A bike rage event can start because a cyclist, driver, or pedestrian thinks that another road user was breaking traffic rules, or in other ways because someone felt that their safety was threatened by another road user. Some people consider that the problem is city planners have mixed bikes and cars together in the same ways and may cause lots of chances for conflict. As such, cyclists feel threatened in traffic and hard done by and under attack.

paragraphs: An article in "Toronto Life" magazine argued that the source of the problem bike rage is neither the problem of drivers nor the problem of cyclists, but the environment in which they interact. A possible explanation between cyclists and drivers is the anonymity of the big city; all the cyclists and drivers know they will never meet each other again.

paragraphs: An event from New York Times show that a 41-year-old cyclist, Dan Cooley was injured by a driver who became angry at him after an exchange of insults. The event began when the driver overtake in front of Mr. Cooley. As Mr. Cooley moved off the road, the driver drove the car to him, and used car to hurted him. Mr. Cooley fell on the ground and then the driver got out of the car and attacked him. Mr. Cooley got concussion and a torn ligament when he was taken to hospital. Mr. Cooley said that the reason for anger between cyclists and drivers is the car had monopolized the road for long time, however, bicyclists become more and more popular to save gas in this time. No one knows how to share the road.

paragraphs: In 2004 Chicago had an event that a cyclist attacked a driver. A Pennsylvania bicyclist shot a truck driver after an altercation. The truck driver, William Nicoletti, 51, when he drove past the cyclist, the man on the bike made obscene gesture to him. Not only for this, but also he drew a pistol and shot Mr. Nicoletti. The man on the bicycle, Robert Urick, 41, was "charged with attempted homicide, aggravated assault and weapons offenses."

paragraphs: In Toronto in January 2006, a driver threw his lunch out the window of his car. A 26-year-old bike courier threw the food back into the car. The driver tossed two cups of hot coffee at the courier. Then the driver attacked the woman and her bike.

paragraphs: A cyclist named Jefferey Guffey from Indiana told a driver to slow down. The driver attacked Guffey and bit part of his ear off. Police charged the driver with an offence.

paragraphs: In Toronto in 2007, a cyclist got angry at a driver. The cyclist then stabbed the driver in the face and neck with a screwdriver.


title: Trevor McDonald

paragraphs: Sir Trevor McDonald OBE (born George McDonald on 16 August 1939) is a British journalist. He was ITN's first black journalist.

paragraphs: In 1992, McDonald became the presenter of the ITV News at Ten. In 1999 the programme ended.

paragraphs: In 1999 "Tonight with Trevor McDonald" started on ITV. In 2007 McDonald stopped presenting the programme. It is now simply called "Tonight".

paragraphs: He was born in Trinidad. In 1969 he started working for the BBC.


title: Jeremy Kyle

paragraphs: Jeremy Kyle (born 7 July 1965) is an English television presenter. He is best known for presenting British talk show "The Jeremy Kyle Show" from 2005 to 2019. He also hosted the American version until September 2013.

paragraphs: He was born in Reading, Berkshire. He went to the Reading Blue Coat School. He married Carla Germaine in 2003.

paragraphs: In late 2007 Kyle started a radio show called "The Jeremy Kyle Show".

paragraphs: In 2009 his first book, "I'm Only Being Honest", was published. In it he talks about 'Broken Britain'.

paragraphs: On 11 October 2011 a game show called "High Stakes" started on ITV. Kyle presented the show until it ended 13 December 2011.

paragraphs: In Blackpool's Madame Tussauds there is a wax figure of Kyle.


title: Vandal-resistant switch

paragraphs: Vandal-resistant switches (sometimes referred to as vandal-proof switches or tamper-proof switches) are electrical switches that are designed to be so strong that people cannot break them. To make switches strong, they are often made out of stainless steel or other durable metals. Buttons are often made so that they do not come very far out. This makes it harder for vandals to pry them out with a screwdriver. Examples of vandal-resistant switches include the buttons that you press to cross the street, the buttons on bank machines, and the buttons on public telephones.


title: Zine

paragraphs: A zine (a short way of referring to a fanzine) is a photocopied newspaper or magazine about music, politics, or another issue. Zines are usually photocopied by hand, and made by amateurs who do not have training in journalism. Only a small number of copies of a zine are usually made. Zines are often sold at record stores. A music zine might include reviews of line music shows, interviews with bands, and advertisements for CDs. Zines were an important part of the punk rock and hardcore punk subcultures.


title: Shed

paragraphs: A shed is a simple, single-storey structure in a garden which is used for storage. Some people use their shed to do hobbies or as a workshop. There are many types of sheds. Some sheds are small open-sided structures with tin rooves. Some sheds are large structures framed by wood. Some sheds are made out of plastic. Sheds used on farms can be large and tall structures. Sheds can be made with metal panels attached to a metal frame, plastic or vinyl panels attached to a frame, all-wood construction.


title: Water politics

paragraphs: Water politics are the politics related to whether people have enough fresh drinking water (see water scarcity). There is less fresh water available for many reasons. One reason is that some industries use huge amounts of water. Another problem is water pollution, which occurs when dangerous chemicals or human waste gets into the water. Currently, 40% of the people in the world do not have enough fresh water. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases that were caused by drinking polluted, dirty water or drought.


title: M-60 machine gun

paragraphs: The M60 is a type of American-made machine gun. The M60 fires 7.62mm NATO cartridges. The cartridges are fed into the gun using a belt. The United States Army started to use the M60 in 1957. It has been used by all the branches of the U.S. military. The United States Army used the M60 during the Vietnam War, Gulf War, Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. Recently, the U.S. military has started to replace the M60 with the M240 machine gun.


title: Lauren Laverne

paragraphs: Lauren Cecilia Fisher (born 28 April 1978), known as Lauren Laverne, is an English television presenter.

paragraphs: When she was at college she started a rock band called Kenickie with her brother Peter, Marie Nixon and Emma Jackson. The band broke up in 1998. In 2000 she sang on the single "Don't Falter" by Mint Royale. It reached No.15 in the UK Singles Chart.

paragraphs: In 2010 her first novel was "Candypop – Candy and the Broken Biscuits" was published by HarperCollins. From 2010-2013 Laverne presented 10 O'Clock Live.

paragraphs: She writes a style column for The Guardian.


title: M240 machine gun

paragraphs: The M240 machine gun is a type of machine gun. It fires the 7.62mm NATO cartridge. It is gas-operated and the bullets are fed into the chamber by a belt. The M240 has been used by the United States Armed Forces since the late-1970s. It is used a lot by infantry. The M240 is also mounted onto ground vehicles, boats, and helicopters.


title: Ms. Marvel (Kamala Khan)

paragraphs: Kamala Khan is a fictional character appearing in comic books published by Marvel Comics. She first appeared in Captain Marvel #17 (November 2013). Khan is a 16-year-old Pakistani-American Muslim. She is from the suburbs of New Jersey. She can shapeshift. She was made by Sana Amanat, Steve Wacker, and G. Willow Wilson.


title: Clonewheel organ

paragraphs: A clonewheel organ is an electronic musical instrument that copies the sound of the Hammond organ. The first group of clonewheel organs designed used synthesizer sounds. In the 1990s and 2000s, clonewheel organs began using sampling or digital techniques.


title: Robert Peston

paragraphs: Robert James Kenneth Peston (born 25 April 1960) is a British journalist. In 2005 his biography of Gordon Brown, "Brown's Britain" was published. In 2013, "How Do We Fix This Mess?: The Economic Price of Having it All, and the Route to Lasting Prosperity" was published. On 17 October 2013 he was made the Economics Editor for BBC News.


title: Joseph Paul Franklin

paragraphs: Joseph Paul Franklin (April 13, 1950 – November 20, 2013) was an American serial killer. He tried to kill Larry Flynt, a magazine publisher, in 1978 and Vernon Jordan, Jr., the civil rights activist, in 1980. He has been given six life sentences. He lived at Potosi Correctional Center on death row. On November 20, 2013 he was executed at 8:30am with Propofol, a lethal drug, for killing a Jewish man outside a synagogue.

paragraphs: He was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. Franklin said that he thought he deserved to die for his crimes. Larry Flynt wrote in an essay published in the Hollywood Reporter, “I do not want to see him die.” Franklin was executed on November 20, 2013 by lethal injection.


title: Canistota, South Dakota

paragraphs: Canistota is a city in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. It is located in McCook County, and 656 people lived there at the 2010 census. Canistota became a city in 1883.


title: Bridgewater, South Dakota

paragraphs: Bridgewater is a city in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. It is located in McCook County, and 492 people lived there at the 2010 census. Bridgewater became a city in 1889.


title: Garretson, South Dakota

paragraphs: Garretson is a city in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. It is located in Minnehaha County, and 1,166 people lived there at the 2010 census. Garretson became a city in 1891. A popular place in the city is Devil's Gulch, the place where Jesse James jumped over a wide cliff on his horse and got away from the police after trying to rob a bank in Northfield, Minnesota, in 1876. Garretson gets its name from a banker named A.S. Garretson.


title: Survivor Series (2007)

paragraphs: Survivor Series (2007) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held on November 18, 2007 at the American Airlines Arena in Miami, Florida. It was the twenty first Survivor Series event held by the WWE.


title: Iyengar Yoga

paragraphs: Iyengar Yoga is a type of yoga named after and developed by B. K. S. Iyengar (1918-2014). It is a form of Hatha Yoga. It emphasizes detail, precision and alignment. It focuses performing postures (poses) and breath control. This type of yoga helps to develop strength, mobility and stability.

paragraphs: B. K. S. Iyengar has created over 200 yoga poses. Students start with simple poses and move on to more complex ones.

paragraphs: Iyengar Yoga often uses belts, blocks, and blankets to help people get into the postures. By using belts, blocks and blankets, people are less likely to hurt themselves.


title: Chinatown (1974 movie)

paragraphs: Chinatown is a 1974 American movie directed by Roman Polanski, written by Robert Towne, and starring Jack Nicholson, Faye Dunaway, John Hillerman and John Huston. The movie is based on a true story about arguments that people had over the water politics in 1937 Los Angeles. It is considered to be a film noir. It was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1991. The movie is often considered to be one of the greatest movies ever made. During the 1975 Academy Awards, an Oscar award was given to Robert Towne for Best Original Screenplay. The Golden Globe Awards gave the movie awards for Best Drama, Best Director, Best Actor, and Best Screenplay. The American Film Institute says that it is the second-best of all mystery movies.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

paragraphs: All Souls College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford. It was founded in 1438 by Henry VI and the Archbishop of Canterbury Henry Chichele. The full name of the college is "The Warden and the College of the Souls of all Faithful People deceased in the University of Oxford".

paragraphs: All Souls does not have any undergraduate students. It only has graduate students.

paragraphs: All Souls is one of the richest colleges at Oxford.


title: Applied behavior analysis

paragraphs: Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a way to help organisms change their behavior, and to identify the environmental contingencies that result in this behavior change. ABA, the application of behavior analysis, is based on the scientific approach known as radical behaviorism, which views covert events as behavior that are to be subjected to the same conditions as overt behavior. ABA can be used as a treatment for animals, mental disorders, and developmental disabilities, and is based on the principles of behavior that were discovered using experiments.

paragraphs: Scientific experiments and articles about ABA are published in the "Journal for Applied Behavior Analysis" (JABA.) This journal was founded in 1968. In the first issue of JABA, three people wrote an article explaining what Applied behavior analysis is.

paragraphs: Psychologists who study the way the environment influences behavior are called behaviorists. They study the external causes of behavior instead of a person's feelings. A person's feelings are internal so behaviorists think they cannot be studied scientifically.

paragraphs: Psychologist John B. Watson founded Behaviorism in 1913 and he is regarded as one of the first psychologists to study the applied science of behavior. He thought that internal feelings should not be studied at all. He also thought that behavior is shaped by the environment over time due to the outcome of a person's actions. He believed all behavior is learned and can be changed. If a person gets something good as a result of doing a behavior they are more likely to repeat that behavior. If something bad happens as a result of a behavior a person is less likely to do that thing again. This is an idea that is used a lot in ABA.

paragraphs: One of the most famous behaviorists was the psychologist B.F. Skinner. Skinner first published his ideas about behaviorism in 1938. He wrote a lot about behaviorism throughout his career. He made some of the behavior principles that ABA uses.

paragraphs: ABA emerged when experimental behavior principles were applied to social behavior. There are various people that began the process of applying these principles to social behavior. One of the most famous was Ole Ivar Lovaas. In the 1960s, Lovaas became one of the first people to use applied behavior analysis as a treatment for autism. When Lovaas began using ABA to treat children with autism he changed the way developmental disorders were treated. Lovaas also thought that treatments would be more successful if they are started early in a child's life. The idea of starting treatment with a child as soon as possible is called 'early intervention'. Early intervention is still thought to be very important in ABA.

paragraphs: One of the more recent developments in Applied Behavior Analysis is the founding of the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB). The BACB is a non-profit corporation that was started in 1998. The BACB certifies behavior analysts. In order to become a behavior analyst a person must go to a special school and then pass an exam. Once they pass this exam they will be board certified behavior analysts. The BACB sets standards to make sure board certified behavior analysts (BCBAs) are good at their jobs. The BACB makes sure that the BCBAs are using ethical, legal, and professional practices when they work.

paragraphs: There are seven characteristics of ABA A treatment that is based on ABA must have all of these things.

paragraphs: The following terms and ideas are used in Applied Behavior Analysis. It is important to understand these ideas when using ABA based interventions.

paragraphs: In ABA, a behavior that is bad is called a problem behavior. Problem behavior is something that hurts the person doing it or hurts other people around them. A problem behavior makes it harder for a person to learn new things.

paragraphs: Positive reinforcement (SR+) is when the "addition" of a stimulus leads to an increase in responding. There are four different types of positive reinforcement:

paragraphs: Negative reinforcement (SR-) happens when the "removal" of a stimulus increases the likelihood a person will do a behavior in the future. In this case the term negative does not mean bad. The stimulus that is removed from the environment is something aversive. This means that the person does not like it. People will want to do a behavior if they know that something they do not like will be taken away.

paragraphs: Reinforcements are given based on schedules of reinforcement. The schedule will explain the ways reinforcement is earned. Behavior analysts decide which reinforcement schedule is best. Different schedules are useful for different things. The schedule used depends on the person. It also depends on the behavior that is being reinforced.

paragraphs: Continuous reinforcement schedules (CRF) reinforce a person every time they do the target behavior. There are a few problems with CRF schedules though. The rates of behavior are not long-lasting. If the person stops being reinforced they may stop doing the target behavior. Another issue is satiation. If the person becomes satiated it means that they do not want the reinforcer anymore.

paragraphs: These schedules of reinforcement only reinforce the target behavior sometimes. The four most common types of intermittent schedules are:

paragraphs: A discriminative stimulus (SD) is something that tells a person that reinforcement is available. The presentation of a SD should cause a response. Differential reinforcement teaches a person the difference between a SD and a non-discriminative stimulus (S-delta). A SD signals that reinforcement is available. A S-delta does not tell the person anything about the availability of reinforcement. A S-delta is not likely to produce responses because there is reinforcement is not given.

paragraphs: It is also used to decrease problem behavior. There are four types of differential reinforcement that can be used to decrease a problem behavior.

paragraphs: Extinction is a way to decrease rates of problem behavior. A DRA program should be used at the same time as an extinction program. This will make the extinction program more effective.

paragraphs: Reinforcement is always the first thing that is tried when trying to change a behavior. Reinforcement produces long-lasting results and is better for the person. However reinforcement does not always reduce problem behavior. If reinforcement does not work it may be necessary to try punishment. Punishment is effective but it can have bad consequences. It can cause emotional harm if it is not used correctly.

paragraphs: Punishment is any response to a behavior that "decreases" the likelihood of a behavior happening in the future. Punishment of a problem behavior should be used with reinforcement of the appropriate behavior. Appropriate behavior should always be reinforced even when using punishment for problem behavior. Just like reinforcement, punishment can be both positive and negative. Positive punishment is the "addition" of an stimulus that decreases the chances of future responses. This stimulus that is added is something aversive. Negative punishment is the "removal" of a stimulus that decreases the chance of future behaviors happening. The stimulus that is removed is something that the person likes.

paragraphs: Prompting increases the likelihood that a behavior will be done the right way. Using prompts will make the learning process easier and quicker. Someone that is teaching a new behavior can use prompts to help the person that is learning the behavior. The two broad categories of prompts are stimulus and response.

paragraphs: Examples of stimulus prompts would be: lists or pictures that help the learner remember what the correct response is.

paragraphs: Response prompts do not involve a change in the antecedent. There are three types of response prompts.

paragraphs: Fading prompts is a way to increase the independence of the learner. Once the learner can do the behavior on their own they will not need the help of the teacher. However, if a teacher stops using prompts quickly it may confuse the learner. So prompts should be decreased slowly. The process of gradually decreasing prompting is called 'fading'.

paragraphs: Shaping is a way to teach new behaviors or improve behaviors that have already been taught. It involves reinforcing steps towards a target behavior.

paragraphs: Complex behaviors are made up of smaller simple behaviors. This is what the concept of behavior chains is based on. A behavior chain is when smaller behaviors are combined to form a complex behavior. These smaller behaviors are done in a certain order. Each of the smaller behaviors is a step in the behavior chain. Each step in a behavior chain is a response on its own. There are three different ways to teach a behavior chain:

paragraphs: ABA relies on data to make decisions about behavior. Behavior analysts are always collecting data about a person's behavior.

paragraphs: Direct observation is when behavior is watched and recorded. Indirect measures compare one person's behavior to other people's behavior. An example would be an intelligence test. One person's score is compared to the scores that other people got.

paragraphs: There are three common methods of data collection. They are frequency, interval, and time sampling. These methods are used for direct observation.

paragraphs: A functional analysis (FA) is done to find the reason for problem behavior. The reason for problem behavior must be known before a behavioral intervention can be done. Behavior analysts came up with the idea of a functional analysis in 1982. Since then it has become an important part of ABA. The behavior analyst is tries to find the situations that cause the highest rates of problem behavior. The situations that cause the highest rates of problem behavior tell the behavior analyst the reason for the behavior. Once the reasons for problem behavior are known treatment can begin.

paragraphs: Treatments based on the results of a FA are more effective than without a FA.

paragraphs: Applied behavior analysis is commonly associated with autism. This is because ABA is the only treatment for autism that has been scientifically proven to be effective.


title: Queen Elizabeth Islands

paragraphs: The Queen Elizabeth Islands are a group of islands in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. They are split between Nunavut and Northwest Territories.

paragraphs: In the past the islands were called Parry Archipelago or Parry Islands. They were named after British Arctic explorer Sir William Parry. In 1953 the islands were renamed after Elizabeth II.

paragraphs: According to the "Atlas of Canada" there are 34 large and 2,092 small islands in the archipelago. Many of the islands are among the largest in the world. The largest island in the archipelago is Ellesmere Island.

paragraphs: Less than 400 people live on the Queen Elizabeth Islands.


title: Cristobal Tapia de Veer

paragraphs: Juan Cristobal Tapia de Veer also known as "Cristo", is a film and television score composer, arranger, producer and multi-instrumentalist based in Montreal, QC, Canada. He is mostly known for his music to the British 6-part drama UTOPIA for which he won an RTS Craft Award in the best original score category in 2013.

paragraphs: Cristo was born during the military coup d'état in Chile. First, his parents fled to Paris, France. While his father decided to stay there, his mother took him back to Chile. Life under Pinochet's dictatorship still proved impossible, so they found political refuge in Québec, Canada.

paragraphs: He obtained a master's degree in Classical Music (specialization in percussion) from the Conservatoire de musique du Québec. In 2001 he got signed to Warner Music with his pop-band "One Ton", putting a hold on his classical career. The trio won the Canadian Dance Music Award (SOCAN) in 2003 with the electro-dance single "Supersex World". It was Cristo who produced the album.

paragraphs: In 2011, his music for the Victorian 4-part drama "The Crimson Petal and the White" (dir: Marc Munden, BBC2) totally surprised the audiences.

paragraphs: Matthew Gilbert, The Boston Globe, U.S.:

paragraphs: "The soundtrack ranges from gnawing electronic hums to choral ecstasy. It's all brilliantly, effectively, appropriately jarring, even if it sends the Masterpiece crowd to the medicine cabinet for Dramamine."

paragraphs: His latest work is in the conspiracy thriller "UTOPIA" created by Dennis Kelly, that aired on Channel 4. A second series has already been commissioned.

paragraphs: The Royal Television Society awarded him a Craft & Design Awards for "best original music" in November 2013.

paragraphs: He wrote music for a new TV-show called "Série Noire", written and directed by the writers of "Les Invincibles", released in January 2014 on Radio-Canada.


title: Canova, South Dakota

paragraphs: Canova is a town in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. It is located in Miner County, and 105 people lived there at the 2010 census. Canova became a town in 1898.


title: Monroe, South Dakota

paragraphs: Monroe is a town in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota. It is located in Turner County, and 160 people lived there at the 2010 census. Monroe became a town in 1901.


title: Eruption (band)

paragraphs: Eruption was a popular disco, R&B and soul band in the 1970s and 1980s. It was created by German producer Frank Farian.


title: Survivor Series (2006)

paragraphs: Survivor Series (2006) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held on November 26, 2006 at the Wachovia Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was the twentieth Survivor Series event held by the WWE.


title: One Way Ticket

paragraphs: One Way Ticket is song which was recorded by Eruption.

paragraphs: The song was reached #1 on Austria and Switzerland music charts.

paragraphs: This song is a cover version of song "One Way Ticket (To The Blues)" by Neil Sedaka.


title: Elitserien (bandy)

paragraphs: Elitserien () is the men's bandy top division of Sweden since the 2007–2008 season. It consist of 14 teams, and is followed up by the Swedish championships playoffs, ending with one single final game.

paragraphs: The season starts with a regular season comprising 14 teams and 26 rounds. The first eight teams qualify for the quarter finals, the eleventh and twelfth plays a relegation round robin tournament against teams from the Allsvenskan and the last two teams are relegated.


title: Allsvenskan (bandy)

paragraphs: Allsvenskan () is since the 2007–2008 the second highest division of men's bandy in Sweden. It is made up of 24 teams in two regional groups.


title: European Cup (bandy)

paragraphs: The European Cup is an annual bandy club competition between teams from Europe. The first edition of the tournament was held in 1974.


title: Sweden women's national football team

paragraphs: Sweden women's national football team () represents Sweden on the women's side in association football. Sweden won the 1984 UEFA European Championship. In the FIFA World Cup, the team ended up second in 2003, and won the bronze medals in 1991 and 2011.


title: Homeless shelter

paragraphs: A homeless shelter is a place for homeless people to take refuge. Shelters provide safety and protection from exposure to the weather. These shelters also provide food, warmth, and the basic needs for any person.


title: Determinant

paragraphs: The determinant of a square matrix is a scalar (a number) that indicates how that matrix behaves. It can be calculated from the numbers in the matrix.

paragraphs: The determinant of the matrix formula_1 is written as formula_2 or formula_3 in a formula. Sometimes, instead of formula_4 and formula_5, one simply writes formula_6 and formula_7.

paragraphs: There are a few ways to understand what the determinant says about a matrix.

paragraphs: An formula_8 matrix can be seen as describing a linear map in formula_9 dimensions. In which case, the determinant indicates the factor by which this matrix scales (grows or shrinks) a region of formula_9-dimensional space.For example, a formula_11 matrix formula_1, seen as a linear map, will turn a square in 2-dimensional space into a parallelogram. That parallellogram's area will be formula_2 times as big as the square's area.In the same way, a formula_14 matrix formula_15, seen as a linear map, will turn a cube in 3-dimensional space into a parallelepiped. That parallelepiped's volume will be formula_16 times as big as the cube's volume.

paragraphs: The determinant can be negative or zero. A linear map can stretch and scale a volume, but it can also reflect it over an axis. Whenever this happens, the sign of the determinant changes from positive to negative, or from negative to positive. A negative determinant means that the volume was mirrored over an odd number of axes.

paragraphs: One can think of a matrix as describing a system of linear equations. That system has a unique non-trivial solution "exactly" when the determinant is not 0 ("non-trivial" meaning that the solution is not just all zeros).

paragraphs: If the determinant is zero, then there is either no unique non-trivial solution, or there are infinitely many.

paragraphs: A matrix has an inverse matrix exactly when the determinant is not 0. For this reason, a matrix with a non-zero determinant is called invertible. If the determinant is 0, then the matrix is called non-invertible or singular.

paragraphs: Geometrically, one can think of a singular matrix as "flattening" the parallelepiped into a parallelogram, or a parallelogram into a line. Then the volume or area is 0, which means that there is no linear map that will bring the old shape back.

paragraphs: There are a few ways to calculate a determinant.

paragraphs: For larger matrices, the determinant is harder to calculate. One way to do it is called cofactor expansion.

paragraphs: Suppose that we have an formula_8 matrix formula_1. First, we choose any row or column of the matrix. For each number formula_24 in that row or column, we calculate something called its cofactor formula_25. Then formula_26.

paragraphs: To compute such a cofactor formula_25, we erase row formula_28 and column formula_29 from the matrix formula_1. This gives us a smaller formula_31 matrix. We call it formula_32. The cofactor formula_25 then equals formula_34.

paragraphs: Here is an example of a cofactor expansion of the left column of a formula_14 matrix:

paragraphs: As illustrated above, one can simplify the computation of determinant by choosing a row or column that has many zeros; if formula_24 is 0, then one can skip calculating formula_25 altogether.


title: Philip the Arab

paragraphs: Philip the Arab (; , ""; 204 – 249) was the ruler of the Roman Empire from 244 to 249 AD.

paragraphs: He is known as Philip "the Arab" for two reasons. He came from modern-day Syria, he was born in the Roman province of Arabia but that doesn’t mean he is of Arabian Origin, little is known about his genealogy, let alone that The term Arab can’t be applicable to modern day definition.

paragraphs: He was one of the Roman rulers that ended war with the empire known as the Sassanids, a dynasty of Persians.

paragraphs: He became emperor after Gordian III. During his reign, Rome celebrated its millennium or its 1,000th anniversary of existence.

paragraphs: Many say that unlike the Pagan rulers of the Romans, Philip was nice to the Christians and let them practice their faith openly. Philip and his wife received letters from Origen.

paragraphs: Philip was overthrown and killed following a rebellion led by his successor Decius.


title: Loneliness

paragraphs: Loneliness is a sad emotion that a person can feel if they are isolated or feel a sense of lack of friends and family members. Loneliness can make people feel anxious.

paragraphs: People can feel lonely even if they are surrounded by a lot of other people. Loneliness can occur even to people in marriages, relationships, families and successful jobs. One cause of loneliness is a lack of friends during childhood and teenage years. Loneliness can also be caused by chronic depression. Loneliness can also be caused when a relationship or marriage ends.


title: Fuzz bass

paragraphs: Fuzz bass (also called "bass overdrive" or "bass distortion") is a style of playing the electric bass. When a person plays fuzz bass, the bass sounds buzzy and distorted. Fuzz bass is created by turning up the volume on a bass amplifier very high, or by using an electronic fuzz pedal. In the mid-1960s, some bass players began to play fuzz bass. The Beatles' 1965 song "Think for Yourself" (from Rubber Soul) has fuzz bass. The 1965 Rolling Stones song "Under My Thumb" has fuzz bass.


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title: Primulaceae

paragraphs: The Primulaceae are a family of herbaceous flowering plants. It has about 24 genera. It includes some garden plants and wildflowers. It is also called the primrose family.


title: SOCATA TBM-700

paragraphs: The SOCATA TB700 is a light transport aircraft. It is used by both civilian and military operators. It is built in Tarbes, France by SOCATA. It is a single-turboprop aircraft built in all-metal. More than 600 were sold. TBM-850 is a modern variant.


title: The Great Gatsby (2013 movie)

paragraphs: The Great Gatsby is a drama movie released in 2013. It is based on the novel "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald.

paragraphs: The movie was an Australian-American production. It was directed by Baz Luhrmann. The screenplay was written by Luhrmann and Craig Pearce.

paragraphs: The main actors in it are Leonardo DiCaprio, Tobey Maguire, Carey Mulligan, Joel Edgerton and Isla Fisher.


title: Siege of Tobruk

paragraphs: The Siege of Tobruk was a battle in Libya during the North African Campaign of World War II. It lasted for 241 days. The battle was between Axis and Allied Forces. The battle started on 11 April 1941, when Tobruk was besieged by an Italian and Nazi German force commanded by Lieutenant General Erwin Rommel. The siege continued for 240 days up to 27 November 1941. On that date, the Allied 8th Army took control of Tobruk.

paragraphs: The reason that both sides wanted to control Tobruk is that it had a deep protected harbour. This made it a good place for ships to seek shelter. As well, the Italians had built fortifications. There were also escarpments and cliffs near Tobruk, which helped to protect the town from attack.

paragraphs: The Allies wanted to control Tobruk so that they could defend Egypt and the Suez Canal. When the Axis armies could no longer use the port at Tobruk, they had to bring in supplies at the distant port of Tripoli. This required the Axis armies to bring the supplies by truck through of desert. After the Allies won Tobruk, the Axis armies continuted fighting to take it back. The Axis armies fired many artillery shells at Tobruk and dropped many bombs on the town.


title: Tobruk

paragraphs: Tobruk is a port city on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast. It is near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District. In 2011, it had a population of about 120,000. There was once an ancient Greek colony at Tobruk. Later, the Romans built a fortress there. By 1911, Tobruk had become an Italian military base. During World War II, in a battle called the Siege of Tobruk, Allied forces captured the town. After the war, Tobruk was rebuilt. During the 1960s, a port terminal was built at Tobruk.


title: Battle of Berlin (RAF campaign)

paragraphs: The Battle of Berlin was the British bombing raid on Berlin during World War II. The bombings were done from November 1943 to March 1944. British bombers had new navigation aids to help them, such as the new H2S radar. Between November 1943 and March 1944, Bomber Command made 16 attacks on Berlin. Although the bombings were mostly done by British bombers, Australian and Canadian bombers also flew to Germany.

paragraphs: The Battle of Berlin was considered a failure for the Royal Air Force (RAF). They lost 1,047 bombers, with 1,682 more damaged. The RAF also lost over 7,000 air crew members. Another reason that the battle is seen as a defeat for the British is that the bombings did not cause the Germans to give up. Although it left 450,000 Germans homeless.


title: Battle of Guam (1941)

paragraphs: The First Battle of Guam was a battle fought during the Pacific War in World War II. It took place on 8 December 1941 on Guam in the Mariana Islands. The battle was between Japan and the United States. The American forces on Guam were defeated by Japanese forces. The Japanese forces then occupied the island until the Second Battle of Guam in 1944.


title: Survivor Series (2005)

paragraphs: Survivor Series (2005) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held on November 27, 2005 at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, Michigan. It was the nineteenth Survivor Series event held by the WWE.


title: Bohol (island)

paragraphs: Bohol is the tenth-largest island of the Philippines and the main island of the Bohol province. It is part of the Region VII (Central Visayas) in the Visayas island group.

paragraphs: The Philippine Tarsier, one of the smallest primate in the world, is one endemic animal of southern Philippines, including the island of Bohol.

paragraphs: The island of Bohol has an oval shape and is surrounded by 73 smaller islands; the larger of these small islands are Panglao, in the southwest in front of the city of Tagbilaran, and Lapining, in the northeast.

paragraphs: The main island of Bohol has an area of and a coastline of . It lies southeast from Cebu Island across the Cebu Strait (sometimes called Bohol Strait) and southwest from Leyte, separated by the Camotes Sea and Canigao Channel. Bohol is also located north of Mindanao with the Bohol Sea or Mindanao Sea between them.

paragraphs: The terrain of Bohol is basically hilly and about half the island is covered in limestone. The interior is a large plateau.

paragraphs: In the centre of the island, mainly in the municipalities of Sagbayan, Batuan and Carmen, are the Chocolate Hills, over 1,270 hills cone-shaped hills over an area of .

paragraphs: The main mountain range of the island is "Sierra Bullones" that is along the south coast. It begins near Loboc, goes to the east and then to the northeast to end near Candijay. The highest point of this range and in the entire province is Mount Mayana ().

paragraphs: There are four main rivers that flow through Bohol:

paragraphs: The climate of the island of Bohol is a warm tropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Af"); it is typically hot and wet throughout the year and rainfall is both heavy and frequent.


title: Congressional Record

paragraphs: The Congressional Record is the official record of the United States Congress. It is published by the United States Government Printing Office. It is issued when the United States Congress is in session. Indexes are printed about every two weeks. At the end of a session of Congress, the daily editions are assembled into bound volumes creating permanent editions. The Congressional Record is similar to Hansards, which report on the parliamentary debates in the UK's Westminster system of government.


title: Exclusionary zoning

paragraphs: Exclusionary zoning is the use of zoning laws to exclude certain types of people from a community. Exclusionary zoning laws began to be used in the United States in the late 19th century. Exclusionary zoning rules are still used today across the country. A common type of exclusionary zoning rule is a minimum lot size rule. This type of rule makes it hard for poor families to build a house on a small lot that they could afford. Exclusionary zoning rules make it hard for poor families to find housing in a community.