title: Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire

paragraphs: Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is the fourth book in the "Harry Potter" series by J. K. Rowling. It was published on 8 July 2000. The original United Kingdom edition had 636 pages, although the US version has 734. It was made into a movie that was released in 2005.

paragraphs: Throughout the three previous novels in the "Harry Potter" series, the main character, Harry Potter, has struggled with the difficulties of growing up and the added challenge of being a famed wizard. When Harry was a baby, Lord Voldemort, the most powerful dark wizard in history, killed Harry's parents but was mysteriously defeated after unsuccessfully trying to kill Harry, though his attempt left a lightning-shaped scar on Harry's forehead. This results in Harry's immediate fame and his being placed in the care of his abusive Muggle (non-magical) aunt and uncle, Petunia and Vernon Dursley, who have a son named Dudley.

paragraphs: On Harry's eleventh birthday, he learns he is a wizard from Rubeus Hagrid, Keeper of Keys and Grounds at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, and enrols in Hogwarts. He befriends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger and confronts Lord Voldemort, who is trying to regain power. In Harry's first year, he has to protect the Philosopher's Stone from Voldemort and one of his faithful followers at Hogwarts. After returning to school after summer break, students at Hogwarts are attacked by the legendary monster of the Chamber of Secrets after the Chamber is opened. Harry ends the attacks by killing a Basilisk and thwarting another attempt by Lord Voldemort to return to full strength. The following year, Harry hears he has been targeted by escaped mass murderer Sirius Black. Despite stringent security measures at Hogwarts, Harry encounters Black at the end of his third year and learns Black was framed and is actually Harry's godfather. He also learns that it was his father's old school friend Peter Pettigrew who betrayed his parents.

paragraphs: In a prologue, which Harry sees through a dream, the three Riddles (who are the parents of Tom Riddle) are murdered, despite not being poisoned or hurt in anyway. They are in perfect health but upon the time of their death, they appear to have petrified faces. Everyone suspects the elderly caretaker Frank Bryce, to be the murder. But he is released. Later on (in Harry's dream) Frank Bryce, Muggle caretaker of an abandoned mansion known as the Riddle House, is murdered by Lord Voldemort after stumbling upon him and Wormtail. Harry is awoken by his scar hurting.

paragraphs: The Weasleys invite Harry and Hermione Granger to the Quidditch World Cup, to which they travel using a Portkey, meeting Cedric Diggory, a Hufflepuff sixth-year, on the way. In the match, Ireland triumph over Bulgaria, despite the skill of Bulgaria's star seeker, Viktor Krum. Various Ministry of Magic employees at the World Cup discuss Bertha Jorkins, a Ministry worker who has gone missing. Her head-of-department, the charismatic Ludovic ¨Ludo¨ Bagman, is unconcerned.

paragraphs: After the match, men wearing the masks of Death Eaters, followers of Voldemort, attack the camp site, causing terror and abusing the Muggle campsite owners. The Dark Mark is fired into the sky, causing mass panic. Harry discovers that his wand is missing. It is later found in the possession of Winky, Barty Crouch's house elf, and the wand is found to have been used to cast the Mark. Although very few believe Winky could have conjured the Mark, Barty Crouch dismisses Winky from his service. Hermione, angry at this injustice, forms a society to promote house elf rights, known as S.P.E.W. (Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare).

paragraphs: At Hogwarts, Professor Dumbledore announces that Alastor "Mad-Eye" Moody will be the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher for the year. Dumbledore also announces that Hogwarts will host a revival of the Triwizard Tournament, in which a champion of Hogwarts will compete against champions from two other European wizarding schools: Beauxbatons Academy, and Durmstrang Institute. The champions are chosen by the Goblet of Fire from names dropped into it. Because Harry is under 17 (the age of majority in the wizarding world), he is disallowed from entering.

paragraphs: At Halloween, the Goblet of Fire picks Fleur Delacour from Beauxbatons Academy, Viktor Krum, the Bulgaria seeker that played at the Quiditch World Cup, from Durmstrang Institute, and Cedric Diggory from Hogwarts to compete in the tournament. Unexpectedly, however, it also chooses Harry as a fourth champion. Despite anger from the Beauxbatons and Durmstrang contingents, Harry's being chosen magically binds him to compete, forcing him to be an unwilling participant in the Tournament. Very few people believe Harry's protests that he did not put his own name in; Ron, envious of Harry again being the centre of attention, accuses Harry of lying and breaks up their friendship.

paragraphs: In their first Defence Against the Dark Arts lesson, Professor Moody introduces the class to the Unforgivable Curses: the Imperius Curse, through which a wizard can be controlled as another wills; the Cruciatus Curse, which causes immense pain; and "Avada Kedavra", the killing curse.

paragraphs: A tabloid-style reporter, Rita Skeeter, starts writing scandalous articles of half-truths and outright fabrications in "The Daily Prophet" about those at Hogwarts, starting with Harry. Because of the Prophet's high readership, her words hold a lot of sway among the wizarding population.

paragraphs: Despite champions not being allowed to know, Hagrid covertly reveals to Harry that the first task is to get past a dragon. Madame Maxime, the headmistress of Beauxbatons, and Professor Karkaroff, headmaster of Durmstrang, also discover this. Sure that they will tell their respective champions, Harry informs Cedric about the dragons in the interest of fairness. Harry struggles to think of a way past a dragon, until Moody suggests flying. Hermione helps him to perfect a Summoning Charm, which he uses to summon his Firebolt broomstick and fly past the dragon to retrieve a golden egg, receiving high marks from the judges. Ron and Harry subsequently reconcile, Ron now understanding the full danger of the tournament. Harry's egg is supposed to contain a clue to the next task, but when opened it merely shrieks loudly.

paragraphs: Hermione infiltrates the school kitchen as part of her house elf welfare campaign (in which she is finding few allies and much resistance). She takes Harry and Ron there to meet Dobby, who now works there after his freeing in Harry's second year. They also find a distraught Winky, who is seriously depressed after being sacked. Dobby is the only known house elf to appreciate his freedom, despite his hardworking nature; the others reject Hermione's idea of payment and holidays, which they find distressing.

paragraphs: The students are informed of the Yule Ball, a Triwizard Tournament tradition, which requires Harry to find a partner with whom to open the dance. He eventually asks Cho Chang, a Ravenclaw fifth-year with whom he is smitten, but she has already agreed to go with Cedric. Ultimately, Harry asks Parvati and Padma Patil to go with him and Ron. Hermione, offended that Ron did not consider her except as a last resort, attends with Viktor Krum, causing intense jealousy in Ron. At the ball, Cedric tells Harry to take the egg into the bath in the prefects' bathroom to work out the clue, but Harry is reluctant to accept the advice because he is jealous over Cho.

paragraphs: Rita Skeeter writes an article revealing Hagrid's half-giant parentage (though it is a mystery how she found out), a taboo in the wizarding world. After Hermione confronts her, Skeeter writes articles painting Hermione as Harry's unfaithful girlfriend. After masses of hate mail, Hermione swears revenge on Skeeter.

paragraphs: The trio secretly meet Sirius at Hogsmeade, who tells them that Barty Crouch was fanatical about catching dark wizards, often stooping to the same level to punish them. This culminated in Crouch sending his own son to Azkaban. His son later died there. Sirius suspects that someone is attempting to attack Harry through the Tournament and make it look like an accident. He suspects Karkaroff, who is a former Death Eater who walked free.

paragraphs: Finally acting on Cedric's tip, Harry takes the egg to the prefects' bathroom by night, where with help from Moaning Myrtle he listens to the egg underwater. There, the shrieks become the words of a song, which tells Harry that the task is to recover something dear to him from Merpeople at the bottom of the lake in the grounds. While sneaking back to Gryffindor Tower under his invisibility cloak, he sees Barty Crouch in Snape's office on the Marauder's Map, despite Crouch supposedly being too ill to judge the Triwizard Tournament. While investigating, Harry falls into a trick step and drops the egg, which shrieks loudly and attracts Filch, Snape (who has had potion ingredients stolen), and Moody. Moody's magical eye sees Harry stuck in the stair under his cloak, but Moody covers for him, then borrows the Marauder's Map.

paragraphs: Harry, Ron, and Hermione are unable to find a way to survive underwater for the second task, leaving Harry panic-stricken. He is rescued on the morning of the task by Dobby, who gives him some Gillyweed that he heard Moody and Professor Sprout talking about. The Gillyweed gives Harry flippers and gills and allows him to find Ron at the bottom of the lake. However, he refuses to leave the hostages belonging to the other champions behind, and insists on rescuing Fleur's sister when Fleur does not arrive. Although Harry finishes last, the judges (apart from Karkaroff) still award him high marks for 'moral fibre.'

paragraphs: One month before the final task, Harry and Krum are talking near the Forbidden Forest when they encounter Barty Crouch, who stopped appearing to work at the Ministry several months ago. Although insane, in moments of clarity he confesses to have done 'something terrible,' that Bertha Jorkins is dead, and begs for Dumbledore. Leaving Krum with Crouch, Harry fetches Dumbledore but returns to find Krum stunned and Crouch gone, Krum claiming that Crouch attacked him from behind. Moody gives chase but does not find Crouch.

paragraphs: During a Divination lesson, Harry experiences another dream involving Voldemort punishing Wormtail for a 'mistake.' Harry tells Dumbledore about this, and stumbles upon a memory-keeping device in Dumbledore's office, a Pensieve. Inside the Pensieve, he discovers that Ludo Bagman was accused and acquitted of Death Eater activity, and that Barty Crouch's son was sent to Azkaban for supposedly helping to torture Neville Longbottom's parents into insanity.

paragraphs: Harry prepares for the final task, a hedge maze filled with dangerous creatures and obstacles, the goal being to reach the Triwizard Cup at the centre. Inside the maze, Harry stuns Krum, who was using the Cruciatus Curse on Cedric. Helping each other, the two reach the Cup. They agree to touch it at the same time and become joint winners. However, on touching it they discover that it is a Portkey that transports them to a graveyard. There, Wormtail appears, kills Cedric using Voldemort's wand, and ties up Harry. Wormtail uses Harry's blood, Tom Riddle Sr.'s bone, and his own hand to restore Lord Voldemort to a body.

paragraphs: Voldemort, alive again, summons his Death Eaters, berates them for believing him dead, and mentions that he has a single 'faithful servant' concealed at Hogwarts, who has led Harry to the graveyard for the resurrection. He tortures Harry, then challenges him to a duel to prove his prowess. However, when he and Harry fire spells at each other, their wands connect unexpectedly, causing echoes of Voldemort's previous magic to appear, including manifestations of Cedric and Harry's parents. These echoes provide a distraction for Harry, who escapes with Cedric's body to the Cup, which takes him back to Hogwarts.

paragraphs: Under the panic caused by his arrival, Moody takes a traumatised Harry to his office. He reveals himself to be Voldemort's 'faithful servant.' He explains that he put Harry's name into the Goblet of Fire under a different school and has been guiding him through the tournament to ensure he would touch the Cup first: he gave him the hint about flying, staged a conversation about Gillyweed in front of Dobby, cursed obstacles from outside the hedge maze, and used the Imperius Curse on Krum to force him to curse Cedric. As Moody prepares to kill Harry, Professors Dumbledore, McGonagall, and Snape intervene and stun Moody. Slowly, Moody changes appearance to become Barty Crouch Jr., the supposedly long-dead son of Barty Crouch Sr., who was using Polyjuice Potion to impersonate Moody.

paragraphs: Using Veritaserum, a truth potion, they learn that Barty Crouch Sr. rescued his son from Azkaban as a favour to his dying wife: the Crouch Jr. who died in Azkaban was his mother, disguised under Polyjuice Potion. Crouch Jr. was kept imprisoned at home. Winky convinced Crouch Sr. to allow Crouch Jr. to see the Quidditch World Cup, where he stole Harry's wand, escaped, and conjured the Dark Mark. Wormtail, meanwhile, had captured Bertha Jorkins, who had once seen Crouch Jr. at home and been bewitched to forget. This allowed Voldemort to discover Crouch Jr.'s whereabouts, then formulate a plan to install Crouch at Hogwarts and lead Harry to him. Crouch Sr. was imprisoned by Wormtail, and when he escaped to Hogwarts, Crouch Jr. killed him.

paragraphs: Dumbledore explains that Harry's and Voldemort's wands connected because they share a core of a feather from the same phoenix, coincidentally Dumbledore's own phoenix Fawkes.

paragraphs: Dumbledore announces Lord Voldemort's return to the school. However, many people, including Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge, refuse to believe it. Fudge hastily has the Dementor's Kiss performed on Crouch Jr., who is thus unable to give testimony proving Voldemort's return. Dumbledore puts his own anti-Voldemort plans into action.

paragraphs: Hermione discovers Rita Skeeter is an unregistered Animagus who can take the form of a beetle, allowing her to eavesdrop on secrets. She blackmails Skeeter to force her to stop writing her libelous stories. Not wanting his tournament winnings, Harry gives all one thousand Galleons to Fred and George to start their joke shop, and returns home with the Dursleys.


title: Crohn's disease

paragraphs: Crohn's disease is a disease that causes the intestines to become swollen. It is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The intestines may also develop ulcers. People with Crohn's disease often have pain in the stomach, diarrhea, vomiting, and weight loss. Crohn's can also cause skin rashes, arthritis, and swollen eyes. It is named after Burrill Bernard Crohn, who described cases in 1932. It was first

paragraphs: described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682–1771) in the 18th century.

paragraphs: Nobody knows exactly what causes Crohn's disease. In the disease, the person's body attacks itself. The immune system attacks healthy parts of the digestive tract. This causes swelling in the digestive tract.

paragraphs: Though Crohn's is an immune-related disease, it is not an autoimmune disease (the immune system is not triggered by the body itself). The exact underlying immune problem is not clear. Crohn's disease seems to be connected to the person's genes. People whose brothers or sisters have the disease are the most likely to get it. Men and women can both be affected by Crohn's disease.

paragraphs: Managing Crohn's disease includes both lifestyle changes and various kind of medication. It is a chronic condition for which there is no cure. Certain parasitic intestinal worms appear to make the bowel less inflamed. It is supposed that the worms modify the immune reactions in the parts of the intestine where they live.

paragraphs: Alternative medicine of various kinds has been tried, with uncertain results.


title: Pet door

paragraphs: Pet doors, also known as cat doors, dog doors, doggie doors, or in the United Kingdom, cat flaps, are small doors for pets. They are usually built in regular doors, but can also be in windows or walls. They usually have the hinge on the top, with no latch, so the animal can push their way in and out. Newer models sometimes only let the pet go outside, but not inside. Others have a latch and something that can be put on the pet that makes the latch open when the pet gets close to the door. They are most commonly used for pet cats, but can also be used for dogs, miniature pigs, or other small pets.

paragraphs: The pet door was developed by Isaac Newton.


title: Mount Rainier

paragraphs: Mount Rainier is a mountain 54 miles (87 kilometres) southeast of Seattle, Washington, in the United States. The volcano is the highest mountain in the Cascade Range, at 14,410 feet (4,392 metres). The top of the mountain is mostly covered by snow and glaciers. Rainier is an active volcano, but has not had an eruption for more than 100 years. Some describe Rainier as dormant or inactive.

paragraphs: On March 2, 1899, U.S. President William McKinley made the mountain and area around it Mount Rainier National Park. It was the country's fifth national park.


title: Fort Knox

paragraphs: Fort Knox is an U.S. Army post in Kentucky. Named after Henry Knox, the fort is now the site of the U.S. Bullion Reservatory (where the United States keeps its gold). The fort's fortifications were built in 1862 during the American Civil War; however, after the war the camp became abandoned until 1917.

paragraphs: It is named for Henry Knox, a general in the American Revolutionary War.

paragraphs: The James Bond book and film "Goldfinger" is about somebody trying to blow up Fort Knox


title: Maxwell's equations

paragraphs: Maxwell's equations describe how electric charges and electric currents create electric and magnetic fields. They describe how an electric field can generate a magnetic field, and vice versa.

paragraphs: In the 1860s James Clerk Maxwell published equations that describe how charged particles give rise to electric and magnetic force per unit charge. The force per unit charge is called a field. The particles could be stationary or moving. These, and the Lorentz force equation, give everything one needs to calculate the motion of classical particles in electric and magnetic fields.

paragraphs: The first equation allows one to calculate the electric field created by a charge. The second allows one to calculate the magnetic field. The other two describe how fields 'circulate' around their sources. Magnetic fields 'circulate' around electric currents and time varying electric fields: Ampère's law with Maxwell's extension, while electric fields 'circulate' around time varying magnetic fields: Faraday's law.

paragraphs: where the following table provides the meaning of each symbol and the SI unit of measure:

paragraphs: where formula_4 is the "free" electric charge density (in units of C/m), not counting the dipole charges bound in a material, and formula_5 is the electric displacement field (in units of C/m). This equation is like Coulomb's law for non-moving charges in vacuum.

paragraphs: The next integral form (by the divergence theorem), also known as Gauss' law, says the same thing:

paragraphs: formula_7 is the area of a differential square on the closed surface A. The surface normal pointing out is the direction, and formula_8 is the free charge that is inside the surface.

paragraphs: In a "linear material", formula_5 is directly related to the electric field formula_10 with a constant called the permittivity, formula_11 (This constant is different for different materials):

paragraphs: You can pretend a material is linear, if the electric field is not very strong.

paragraphs: The permittivity of free space is called formula_13, and is used in this equation:

paragraphs: Here formula_10 is the electric field again (in units of V/m), formula_16 is the total charge density (including the bound charges), and formula_13 (approximately 8.854 pF/m) is the permittivity of free space. One can also write formula_11 as formula_19. Here, formula_20 is the permittivity of the material when compared to the permittivity of free space. This is called the relative permittivity or "dielectric constant".

paragraphs: formula_22 is the magnetic flux density (in units of tesla, T), also called the magnetic induction.

paragraphs: This next integral form says the same thing:

paragraphs: The area of formula_7 is the area of a differential square on the surface formula_25. The direction of formula_7 is the surface normal pointing outwards on the surface of formula_25.

paragraphs: This equation only works if the integral is done over a closed surface.

paragraphs: This equation says, that in every volume the sum of the magnetic field lines that go in equals the sum of the magnetical field lines that go out. This means that the magnetic field lines must be closed loops. Another way of saying this is that the field lines cannot start from somewhere.

paragraphs: This is the mathematical way of saying: "There are no magnetic monopoles".

paragraphs: Φ is the magnetic flux that goes through the area A that the second equation describes,

paragraphs: E is the electric field that the magnetic flux causes,

paragraphs: s is a closed path in which current is induced, for example a wire,

paragraphs: v is the instantaneous velocity of the line element (for moving circuits).

paragraphs: The electromotive force is equal to the value of this integral. Sometimes this symbol is used for the electromotive force: formula_31, do not confuse it with the symbol for permittivity that was used before.

paragraphs: This law is like Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

paragraphs: Some textbooks show the right hand sign of the integral form with an "N" (N is the number of coils of wire that are around the edge of "A") in front of the flux derivative. The "N" can be taken care of in calculating "A" (multiple wire coils means multiple surfaces for the flux to go through), and it is an engineering detail so it's left out here.

paragraphs: The negative sign is needed for conservation of energy. It is so important that it even has its own name, Lenz's law.

paragraphs: This equation shows how the electric and magnetic fields have to do with each other. For example, this equation explains how electric motors and electric generators work. In a motor or generator, the field circuit has a fixed electric field that causes a magnetic field. This is called fixed excitation. The varying voltage is measured across the armature circuit.

paragraphs: Maxwell's equations are used in a right-handed coordinate system. To use them in a left-handed system, without having to change the equations, the polarity of magnetic fields has to be made opposite (this is not wrong, but it is confusing because it is not usually done like this).

paragraphs: H is the magnetic field strength (in units of A/m), which you can get by dividing the magnetic flux B by a constant called the permeability, μ (B = μH), and J is the current density, defined by:

paragraphs: v is a vector field called the drift velocity. It describes the speeds of the charge carriers that have a density described by the scalar function ρ.

paragraphs: In free space, the permeability μ is the permeability of free space, μ, which is "exactly" 4π×10 W/A·m, by definition. Also, the permittivity is the permittivity of free space ε. So, in free space, the equation is:

paragraphs: The next integral form says the same thing:

paragraphs: "s" is the edge of the open surface "A" (any surface with the curve "s" as its edge is okay here), and "I" is the current encircled by the curve "s" (the current through any surface is defined by the equation: "I" = ∫"J·dA)."

paragraphs: If the electric flux density does not change very fast, the second term on the right hand side (the displacement flux) is very small and can be left out, and then the equation is the same as Ampere's law.

paragraphs: There are only two covariant Maxwell Equations, because the covariant field vector includes the electrical and the magnetical field.

paragraphs: "Mathematical note: In this section the abstract index notation will be used."

paragraphs: In special relativity, Maxwell's equations for the vacuum are written in terms of four-vectors and tensors in the "manifestly covariant" form. This has been done to show more clearly the fact that Maxwell's equations (in vacuum) take the same form in any inertial coordinate system. This is the "manifestly covariant" form:

paragraphs: Here formula_38 is the 4-current, formula_39 is the field strength tensor (written as a 4 × 4 matrix), formula_40 is the Levi-Civita symbol, and formula_41 is the 4-gradient (so that formula_42 is the d'Alembertian operator). (The formula_43 in the first equation is implicitly summed over, according to Einstein notation.) The first tensor equation says the same thing as the two inhomogeneous Maxwell's equations: Gauss' law and Ampere's law with Maxwell's correction. The second equation say the same thing as the other two equations, the homogeneous equations: Faraday's law of induction and the absence of magnetic monopoles.

paragraphs: formula_38 can also be described more explicitly by this equation: formula_45 (as a contravariant vector), where you get formula_38 from the charge density ρ and the current density formula_47. The 4-current is a solution to the continuity equation:

paragraphs: In terms of the 4-potential (as a contravariant vector) formula_49, where φ is the electric potential and formula_50 is the magnetic vector potential in the Lorentz gauge formula_51, "F" can be written as:

paragraphs: which leads to the 4 × 4 matrix rank-2 tensor:

paragraphs: The fact that both electric and magnetic fields are combined into a single tensor shows the fact that, according to relativity, both of these are different parts of the same thing—by changing frames of reference, what looks like an electric field in one frame can look like a magnetic field in another frame, and the other way around.

paragraphs: Using the tensor form of Maxwell's equations, the first equation implies

paragraphs: (See Electromagnetic four-potential for the relationship between the d'Alembertian of the four-potential and the four-current, expressed in terms of the older vector operator notation).

paragraphs: Different authors sometimes use different sign conventions for these tensors and 4-vectors (but this does not change what they mean).

paragraphs: formula_39 and formula_56 are "not" the same: they are related by the Minkowski metric tensor formula_57: formula_58. This changes the sign of some of "F"'s components; more complex metric dualities can be seen in general relativity.


title: Henry Knox

paragraphs: Henry Knox (1750-1806) was a military leader for the Americans during the American Revolutionary War. Originally from Boston, Massachusetts, he was appointed Chief Artillery Officer of the Continental Army. He is best known for transporting cannons and other artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston through icy conditions using oxen. Later, George Washington named him the first Secretary of War.

paragraphs: Fort Knox in Kentucky & Maine are named after him.


title: American Revolutionary War

paragraphs: The American Revolutionary War was a war fought between Great Britain and the original 13 British colonies in North America. The war took place from 1775 to 1783 with fighting in North America and other places. The Continental Army (army of the colonies), led by George Washington and helped by France and other powers, defeated the armies of the British Empire.

paragraphs: After the war ended, the Thirteen Colonies became independent, which meant that the British Empire was no longer in charge of them. They together became the first 13 states of a new country called the United States of America.

paragraphs: The war started after years of problems between the British Empire and the colonists of North America after the French and Indian War (The seven years war). People in the Thirteen Colonies disliked many of the actions of the British Government, such as the Intolerable Acts. For many years the British government decided which countries could trade with the colonies, instead of the colonies deciding it themselves. Many colonists wanted free trade.

paragraphs: In 1765, the British Parliament needed money to pay back the debt for the French and Indian War. They passed a Law called the Stamp Act. This law said that colonists had to buy stamps for legal papers, newspapers, and even playing cards, as other British people did. The money from the stamps went to the King. The colonies did not follow this law. The colonies kept refusing to do what the King wanted. The Boston Tea Party and Boston Massacre caused people to become more angry about the situation. The British sent more soldiers (who were called Red Coats by the colonists to insult them) to keep control of the colonies and they sometimes had to fight. In 1774, the British passed the Intolerable Acts to punish the colonists in Boston for the Boston Tea Party.

paragraphs: Not all colonists wanted to leave the British Empire. The "Loyalists", or Tories, stayed loyal to Great Britain. They were not going to change their views. The "Patriots", or Whigs, wanted independence. Before the Revolutionary War, most people in America were Loyalists; but after it, most people were Patriots.

paragraphs: Many colonists wrote letters showing how they felt. Thomas Paine wrote "Common Sense", a famous pamphlet about independence from Britain. Other colonial leaders, such as Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson wanted independence.

paragraphs: The first battles of the American Revolutionary War were Lexington and Concord. One of the first major battles was the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. After that, the British controlled Boston. Around that time, the Second Continental Congress sent an Olive Branch Petition to King George III (which he rejected) and named George Washington head of the army. Early in 1776, Washington's army drove the British out of Boston.

paragraphs: A few months later the Continental Army and British troops under William Howe fought the New York and New Jersey Campaign. During the New York battles, the British started using Hessian troops, who were from Germany. Though the colonists lost New York (the British would hold it for the rest of the war), Washington was able to hold onto most of his army. Over Christmas, 1776-77, Washington crossed the Delaware River and defeated the Hessians at Trenton and the British at Princeton.

paragraphs: In 1777, the British attacked the city of Philadelphia, then the American capital. Two battles were fought over Philadelphia: Brandywine and Germantown. Again, the Americans lost a major city, but Washington was able to keep most of his army. Around this time, the Frenchman Lafayette joined the American Army. In 1778, the British left Philadelphia. Between 1778 and 1781, most battles between Washington and the British were inconclusive (they did not have any major effect militarily).

paragraphs: One of the most important battles was the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. American soldiers under Horatio Gates forced a British surrender under John Burgoyne. This led to France and Spain joining the war on the side of Americans. These powerful countries fought the British around the world. From 1778 to 1780, there was fighting in the West.

paragraphs: The Scottish (fighting on the side of the Americans) commerce raider John Paul Jones also won several naval battles over the British, but the French navy did most of the fighting at sea. The Americans tried to capture Canada several times.

paragraphs: In 1779 major fighting shifted to Georgia and South Carolina. As fighting spread northward, General Nathanael Greene led the Rebel campaign. He caused many people in the South to be Patriots instead of Loyalists, and won several battles against the British.

paragraphs: In 1781, Washington and French general Jean Rochambeau led an offensive against British troops in Yorktown, Virginia. This was called the Battle of Yorktown. When their soldiers lost this battle, the British surrendered.

paragraphs: The British continued to fight the French and Spanish for two years, winning in India, Gibraltar and elsewhere.

paragraphs: The American Revolution came to an end in 1783 when a peace treaty was signed in Paris, France. In the Treaty of Paris, the British King, George III accepted the independence of the colonies and recognized the newly created nation as the United States of America.

paragraphs: The treaty also gave all the land Britain said it owned which was west of the Appalachians as far as the Mississippi River to the new country. This land would eventually become part of the US, and lead to the creation of 35 new states (some of which later rebelled as part of the Confederate States of America) that now make up the contiguous United States. Many Loyalists fled to Canada.

paragraphs: As usual for 18th-century wars, casualty figures (Killed/wounded/missing/captured) for the American Revolution are poorly known. Unlike American Civil War casualties which were published in newspapers, Revolutionary War casualty reports are found in local town histories; total casualties of the Revolution are rough estimates.


title: Continental Army

paragraphs: The Continental Army was the fighting force of the thirteen British colonies in the American Revolutionary War. It was created in 1775 by the First Continental Congress. Most of the army was disbanded in 1783 after the conclusion of the war. The army was officially closed by a resolution of Congress in 1784. A Legion of the United States partly replaced it in 1792, and the United States Army replaced it in 1796.

paragraphs: Congress elected George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army when it was formed. He led the army until it was disbanded.


title: Cream cheese

paragraphs: Cream cheese is a soft, mild-tasting, white cheese. Sometimes it is given extra flavor by adding additional seasonings such as puréed garlic, chopped dill, or chopped olives; as well, some cream cheese has small pieces of fruit or other sweet food blended into it. Cream cheese is different from other cheese in that it is not allowed time to mature.

paragraphs: Cream cheese is often spread on toasted bagels. Waffles with cream cheese and salsa is eaten in some areas of the United States.

paragraphs: Cream cheese is used to make cheesecake, a sweet, rich cake that is served for dessert.


title: Shrewsbury

paragraphs: Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, a county of England. It is located 9 miles (14 km) east of the Welsh border and serves as the commercial centre for Shropshire and mid-Wales.

paragraphs: The town is very old. It was started around 700 AD. The town centre has almost the exact same medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings. Many of these buildings have timber framing from the 15th and 16th centuries. There is also Shrewsbury Castle, which was built in 1074, and Shrewsbury Abbey, which was built in 1083. The town centre is almost completely surrounded by the River Severn.

paragraphs: Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury and lived there for 27 years.

paragraphs: The population of Shrewsbury is just over 71,000, making it the second largest town in Shropshire, the biggest being Telford.

paragraphs: The town has a railway station and a professional football club, Shrewsbury Town, who compete in League One.

paragraphs: Shrewsbury Abbey is the setting of the Brother Cadfael Chronicles by Ellis Peters (Edith Pargeter). The books were later made into a television show. The story is about a 12th-century monk who solves mysteries. In 2013, the Abbey honoured Pargeter on the 100th anniversary of her birth.


title: Telford

paragraphs: Telford is a large town in the county of Shropshire, England. It is in the borough of Telford and Wrekin.

paragraphs: It is a new town and building began in the 1960s. It is known for its large shopping centre in the town centre. It also has an ice rink and a large park.

paragraphs: The population of Telford is just over 140,000. It is the largest town in Shropshire, however the county town is Shrewsbury.

paragraphs: The town has a railway station, Telford Central. The town also has a football club, A.F.C. Telford United.


title: Ludlow

paragraphs: Ludlow is a town in Shropshire, a county of England. The town is very old and dates back to around 800 AD. There is a large castle and many other historic buildings.

paragraphs: There are just over 10,000 people living in the town.

paragraphs: It is the largest town in the South Shropshire area.

paragraphs: The town, though not large, is important in its area, which includes the Welsh Marches, Wales and South Shropshire. Its parish church, St Laurence's, is the largest in the county.


title: South Shropshire

paragraphs: South Shropshire is an area of Shropshire in England.

paragraphs: It is very hilly and has few people living there. The only large town is Ludlow.

paragraphs: The area has many castles and other ancient features, such as stone circles.


title: Battle of Yorktown (1781)

paragraphs: The Battle of Yorktown, also called the Siege of Yorktown, fought from September 28-October 19, 1781. It is considered the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army, led by General George Washington, won a decisive victory against the British Army, led by General Lord Charles Cornwallis. Cornwallis was forced to surrender after being surrounded by Washington's army.

paragraphs: The Americans were assisted by the French, led by the Comte de Rochambeau. The battle took place in Yorktown, Virginia, near the York River. After the French fleet defeated a British fleet, Cornwallis was cut off and had to surrender to the French and the Continental Army. Eventually, it led to the Treaty of Paris in 1783, two years later.

paragraphs: British General Lord Cornwallis had fought against the Americans in 1776 and 1777. He was convinced the Americans could not defeat a British army in the field. In 1778 he returned to England to care for his wife who died in February of 1779. After a few months he returned to America to continue the fight. While he was gone, there was a change in British strategy. Before, the British had concentrated on defeating and destroying Washington's army. Now, since the French had joined the Americans, it was no longer just a rebellion but a world war. Earlier, the French had been helping the Americans with loans and war supplies. Now France and Spain were fighting against the British, who had to move troops from North America to defend other places. The new strategy was to win back the Southern colonies beginning with Georgia. The British thought that as many as 50 percent of the population in the South was loyal to Britain. They would start with Georgia and move north through The Carolinas to the Virginia Colony.

paragraphs: On his arrival in New York City, Cornwallis was made second-in-command to General Henry Clinton. The two generals did not trust each other. Clinton was convinced Washington would attack him in New York. He was afraid of sending troops home and having to depend more on Loyalist militia. Cornwallis was ready to go ahead with what troops he had. Clinton was suspicious Cornwallis' return from England was to get a command for himself. In fact, Cornwallis had secured a commission to replace Clinton if Clinton repeated his threats to resign.

paragraphs: Clinton sent Cornwallis south to recapture Charleston, South Carolina following the new plan. Soon, Cornwallis began acting independently of Clinton, who stayed safe in New York City. Cornwallis wasn't going to play it safe and advance by careful steps as he had been instructed. When he saw a chance to attack the new patriot army under Major General Horatio Gates, he did so without orders nearly wiping out the Americans.

paragraphs: Cornwallis moved carelessly. He left American units, such as the one led by Francis Marion (called the "Swamp Fox"), in his rear. The American general Nathanael Greene noticed this right away. He broke up his command into smaller units in order to plague Cornwallis. Finally the two armies met at the Battle of Guilford Court House, which neither army won. During this time Cornwallis was not sending messages to Clinton telling him where he was. After Guilford Court House, Cornwallis moved to the coast of North Carolina to rest his men. Then, again without orders, he decided to march north to Virginia. Frustrated by this, Clinton sent Cornwallis a number of contradictory messages. Most of them were worded as suggestions rather than orders. But he did order Cornwallis to find a defensible position. This was so he could be evacuated by the Royal Navy, possibly to Philadelphia. Cornwallis decided on the community of Yorktown and his men started building defenses there in August of 1781 to wait for the Navy.

paragraphs: In New York, Washington learned that the French Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse was sailing north from the West Indies. Rochambeau convinced Washington they could attack and defeat Cornwallis. The two commanders began marching south to meet de Grasse's 27 ships and 3,200 troops. Clinton learned of this and sent a British naval fleet to the Chesapeake Bay to cut them off. But the French and Americans arrived first. In the Battle of the Chesapeake the French navy forced the British ships back to New York City. Clinton warned Cornwallis in early September he would soon be facing American and French troops but promised him reinforcements by sea. Clinton had not yet learned of the French naval victory and did not know he could not rescue Cornwallis by sea. By the end of September, Washington and Rochambeau had surrounded Yorktown. Cornwallis received another message in late September from Clinton telling him help was on the way. Cornwallis was misled again and thought he only had to hold out for a few days.

paragraphs: Just after the clash between the French and British Fleets, a smaller French squadron carrying the French army's siege artillery slipped into the Chesapeake. Now the French and Americans had bigger guns than Cornwallis had behind his earthen fortifications.

paragraphs: Marching out of Williamsburg, Virginia the Americans and French arrived on September 28, 1781 at Yorktown. They surrounded the earthworks in a Semicircle with the York River completing the circle. Cornwallis made the first move, abandoning his outer works made up of four redoubts. Washington and Rochambeau thought this was a mistake. They sent troops to occupy the outer earthworks. The Americans and French began setting up their siege operations on September 30, first on the east side. By October 9, they were close enough to begin the bombardment. The Americans and French stormed two of the redoubts on October 14, forcing the British back even further. By that time it became obvious the British could not hold out much longer. On October 16, the British attacked two of the redoubts they had abandoned and spiked the guns. At the same time Cornwallis attempted to slip past the guards to Gloucester (now Gloucester Point, Virginia) across the river but was turned back by a storm. Finally, with no sign of relief as promised by Clinton, Cornwallis' army of 6,000 soldiers surrendered.

paragraphs: The casualties were about 500 British, 200 French and 80 Americans. Captured were 240 artillery pieces, a large supply of small arms and ammunition, plus equipment. General Cornwallis did not attend the surrender. Claiming to be sick, he sent General Charles O'Hara to surrender for him. O'Hara first tried to surrender to Comte de Rochambeau. Rochambeau directed him to surrender to General Washington. In turn, Washington directed him to surrender to General Benjamin Lincoln who accepted O'Hara's sword. As the British stacked their guns marching out of the fortress, their band played "The World Turned Upside Down". When Lord North, the British Prime Minister, received news of the surrender he cried out "Oh God, it is all over!"

paragraphs: The battles of Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781 were two major turning points in the Revolutionary war. Both were American victories over the British, but with very different results. The British defeat at Saratoga prolonged the war, while the battle at Yorktown foretold its end. Saratoga convinced the French to join the Americans against the British. Yorktown was a joint victory by the French and the Americans over the British. France and her allies continued to fight hard for two more years, but there was little fighting anymore on the American continent. The Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the war.


title: Battle of Saratoga

paragraphs: The Battle of Saratoga is considered the turning point of the American Revolution. The battle was fought in late 1777. It was actually two engagements: the Battle of Freeman's Farm (September 19) and the Battle of Bemis Heights (October 7). The Americans were led by General Horatio Gates. The British were led by General John Burgoyne. On October 17 Burgoyne surrendered his army of nearly 6,000 British soldiers. The American victory helped convince France to come to the aid the Continental Army. It also helped them recognize the United States.

paragraphs: In early 1777, General William Howe asked London to approve his plan to attack Philadelphia. This would destroy the rebellious American government. In Canada, General John Burgoyne submitted a plan to move down through New York and meet General Howe at Albany. This would divide the colonies. London approved both plans. Burgoyne began moving down the Hudson River valley from Canada. He split his force into two columns. One, under Colonel Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario down the Mohawk Valley. They attacked the Americans at Fort Stanwix. The Americans sent two parties to relieve the fort. The second, under the command of Benedict Arnold, drove the British away from the fort. St. Leger's column retreated back to Lake Ontario. Burgoyne continued south with his own column of about 7,000 British and Hessian soldiers. He was joined by about 500 native Americans, allied to the British.

paragraphs: Burgoyne made a proclamation to his Indians to go out and strike at the enemy. He added that women and children, or any who did not oppose them should not be killed. But men, women and children were killed. One famous incident upset all the colonists. A young woman named Jane McCrea was engaged to marry one of Burgoyne's young tory officers. Indians bringing her to Burgoyne fought over her, killed and scalped her. Burgoyne wouldn't punish the Indian who killed her. This proved he could not even protect friendly colonists. Newspapers in the colonies spread the story. As a result, a great many Americans who had been neutral took up arms against the British. The story even reached England. In the House of Commons Edmund Burke spoke out against the British policy of using Native American allies.

paragraphs: Howe had captured Philadelphia. But it took so long he did not send any forces north to support Burgoyne. On September 19 Burgoyne attacked the Americans who were entrenched on Bemis Heights near Saratoga. He again fought Americans at Freeman's Farm. This time it was American riflemen under the command of Daniel Morgan. American Marksman killed a large number of British and Hessian officers. This was intended to cause confusion among the British forces. Burgoyne lost about 600 casualties. He claimed victory although he was still held in place by the Americans.

paragraphs: Burgoyne tried and failed to attack the Americans again on October 7. But the Americans held out against him. A counterattack led by Benedict Arnold pushed the British back further until they finally retreated back to Saratoga. This battle cost Burgoyne another 600 casualties. The American losses were less than 150. Burgoyne's army was now surrounded by a much larger and growing American army. On October 13, 1777 Burgoyne asked for a Ceasefire. Horatio Gates, the American commander asked for Burgoyne's surrender. But Burgoyne stalled and did not give an answer. The terms given by Gates were harsh. Finally Gates offered better terms. On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered.

paragraphs: Burgoyne surrendered his whole army of 5,752. He gave up 42 cannons, 7,000 muskets and all his supplies. Officers were separated from their men and placed on parole. Unlike their men they were allowed to keep their pistols. Gates invited Burgoyne to dine with him. The two men were friendly. Each toasted the other's leader. The British and Hessian soldiers were marched to Boston. Per the agreement they were to return to England on their promise not to fight again. While some did return to England, Congress changed the terms. Many were sent to prisons in the colonies to wait out the war.


title: Horatio Gates

paragraphs: Horatio Gates (1726 - 1806) was an American general in the American Revolutionary War. General Gates fought for the Continental Army and is credited with the decisive American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777.

paragraphs: In the earlier French and Indian War, he fought along with George Washington against the French, as an officer in the British Army.

paragraphs: However, Gates also lost to British General Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden in 1780. He had a child named Robert.


title: Heinrich-Heine-University

paragraphs: The Heinrich-Heine-University is the university of Düsseldorf, Germany, named after the most famous son of Düsseldorf, the poet Heinrich Heine.

paragraphs: In the era of Napoleon Bonaparte there was the first university in Düsseldorf, which ended after Napoleon surrendered.

paragraphs: So in the further 19th century there was only a Medical Academy and the famous Arts School of Düsseldorf and a Teacher Academy (Special University only for studying to became a teacher) until the 1970s, but no regular university, in Düsseldorf. In the 1960s the state government of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to have a regular university in the state's capital. The university started about 1970.

paragraphs: It got its name only in the 1980s, because the medicine faculty wanted to have a physician's name, because of the tradition as Medical Academy.

paragraphs: Currently the Heinrich-Heine-University is a university with about 20,000 students, which is middle-class in Germany.

paragraphs: It has a lot of subjects in sciences, arts, economics, and so on. The deep points are on biological-medicinal research in sciences and some deep points in arts, economics, political sciences, and philosophy.

paragraphs: Like most German universities it has many subjects:


title: Siberian tiger

paragraphs: The Siberian tiger ("Panthera tigris altaica"), also known as the ""Amur Tiger"", is the largest felid in the world. They live in eastern Russia's birch forests, and there are some in China and North Korea. It is estimated that there are around 400 to 500 Siberian tigers left in the wild.

paragraphs: Siberian tigers are the largest of all tigers, as well as the largest of all the big cats. They can grow up to the length of 6–9 ft (1.8–2.7 meters), but some can be as long as . They usually weigh around 300–600 pounds, but can weigh as much as 700 pounds or more. To keep themselves from becoming cold in the winters, Siberian tigers have thicker fur coats than tigers which live in southern Asia. They also have a thick layer of fat which helps keep them warm. Like all other tigers, Siberian tigers have orange fur with black stripes. Siberian tigers have extra fur around their necks and paws which helps them keep warm. Siberian tigers have less orange in their coats, and have fewer stripes.

paragraphs: Siberian tigers are located in northeast China, the Russian Far East and parts of North Korea. This region is called the "Amur Region", which is named after the Amur River. This region is covered with mountainous areas and coniferous forests. In the summer, the temperature is between mild and hot. In the winter, it may be very cold, especially at higher altitudes.

paragraphs: Like other tigers, the Siberian tiger likes to live on its own. Each Siberian tiger has its own large amount of territory. Male tigers' territories will usually cross those of several females' territories, but will usually not cross the territories of other males. In their territories, Siberian tigers usually have a lair in a cave or another area.

paragraphs: Since Siberian tigers live in such cold regions, an adult needs to eat at least of food every day to survive, but adults can eat as much as 50 kilograms of meat. Siberian tigers are carnivores. Siberian tigers are apex predators. Siberian tigers feed mainly on wild boar, moose and deer. If regular prey is unavailable they will eat fish, rodents, rabbits and even small bears. During normal conditions, around 50 percent of the tiger's diet will be of wild boar.

paragraphs: While hunting, a Siberian tiger can run faster than , but running at this speed takes a lot of energy, so the Siberian tiger will only run short distances. The Siberian tiger has good night vision and likes to hunt during the night, when it can more easily surprise its prey. It also has excellent hearing and sense of smell which it uses to find and attack prey.

paragraphs: Siberian tigers live alone and only come together in mating season. The mating season usually begins in December, and lasts through January. Females are pregnant for around three to three and a half months before giving birth to their cubs in early spring. Females usually give birth to around 3–4 cubs at a time. When born, the Siberian tiger cub is blind and toothless and is no larger than a normal house cat. It stays blind for around two weeks. The mother starts teaching the cubs how to hunt when the cubs are around 1 year old. The cubs then stay with their mother until they are 3–5 years old.


Cassette


title: Audio cassette

paragraphs: An audio cassette is a type of cassette which can store music and sounds. To play a tape, a cassette player or cassette recorder is used. Cassettes store the sound on a magnetic tape that is wound around the two reels in the cassette.

paragraphs: The standard audio cassette was invented in 1962 by the Philips company. They named it the "Compact Cassette". The first cassettes and cassette recorders were not very good. Over time, audio quality improved. During the 1970s, the cassette grew to be a popular physical . Their popularity grew further during the following decades.

paragraphs: As compact discs grew in popularity, cassettes were used less. In 2011, the Oxford English Dictionary attempted to remove the word "cassette tape" from a small version of its book.


title: Fight Club

paragraphs: Fight Club is a 1999 American drama movie. It stars Edward Norton, Brad Pitt, and Helena Bonham Carter. The movie was directed by David Fincher. It is based on a novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk.

paragraphs: The story is about an unnamed character's path during a dark form of personal enlightenment (or eternal happiness) which is achieved primarily through fighting. The story is dark and, in both the book and the movie, contains strong depictions of violence. There are a large number of metaphors which are revealed in its complex and twisted storyline. Some would think that the morals and life guidelines taught in the story would be an extreme form of Buddhism, such as the idea of detachment from material possessions (things). The central character has dissociative identity disorder.


title: Top of the Pops

paragraphs: Top of the Pops is a British music show, which featured popular artists performing their songs. It started in 1964 and ended in 2006 because not enough people were watching it any more. It was hosted by many presenters over the years, most notably by Sir Jimmy Savile, who opened the very first show on New Year's Day 1964 on BBC1.

paragraphs: TOTP2 (Top of the Pops 2) is a variant of the show. However, it featured a collection of archive performances by artists spanning the past four decades.

paragraphs: The show was regularly hosted by Steve Wright, up until 2009, when Mark Radcliffe replaced him. A new episode of the programme is shown on 25 December each year.


title: Trinidad and Tobago

paragraphs: The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a nation in the south Caribbean Sea. It is 11 km (7 miles) away from Venezuela. The country has two bigger islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and many smaller islands. The capital is Port-of-Spain. The country has about 1,262,366 people in it.

paragraphs: Trinidad and Tobago received independence from the United Kingdom on August 31, 1962. Before that, it was ruled by the U.K. Right now, the head of state (person who is in charge of the country) is Ms Paula-Mae Weekes. The head of government (person who is in charge of the government) are Prime Minister Keith Rowley and President Paula-Mae Weekes.

paragraphs: Trinidad and Tobago is very diverse. It has people of many different races and religions. There are people who are children of Africans, Europeans, Arabs, Indians, and Chinese who moved to the islands a long time ago. The biggest religions in the country are Christianity and Hinduism. There are also Islam and African religions in the country.

paragraphs: The country has some natural gas beneath the ground and underwater in the ocean. Natural gas is a liquid that makes machines work and heats houses. Also, many people called tourists visit the islands. They take pictures and learn about the islands.

paragraphs: The people in the country are famous for their music. They also play football and cricket.

paragraphs: The population of Trinidad and Tobago is 1.17 million as of (2002). The ethnic groups of the population are:


title: Mount St. Helens

paragraphs: Mount St. Helens is a volcano in the U.S. state of Washington. It is 96 miles (154 km) south of Seattle and 53 miles (85 km) northeast of Portland, Oregon. The volcano is in Cascade Range of mountains. It is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the Pacific Ring of Fire that includes over 160 active volcanos. This is a deadly volcano.

paragraphs: Mount St. Helens was first called "Louwala-Clough", which means "smoking" or "fire mountain" in the language of the Native American Klickitat people. This volcano is well known for its explosions and flows of lava. Its most famous volcanic eruption was on May 18, 1980. In 1982, U.S. President Ronald Reagan and the United States Congress made the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, a 110,000 acre (445 km²) area around the volcano that is also a part of the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.

paragraphs: The 1980 eruption was the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in the history of the United States. 57 people were killed; 250 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles of railways, and 185 miles of highway were destroyed. A massive debris avalanche was triggered by an earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale. This caused the eruption, which reduced the height of the mountain's summit from to and replacing it with a wide horseshoe-shaped crater. The earthquake was caused by a sudden surge of magma from the Earth's mantle. The debris avalanche was up to 0.7 cubic miles (3.1 cubic kilometers) in volume.

paragraphs: Before the eruption in 1980, Mount St. Helens was the fifth-highest peak in Washington State. The peak rose more than 5,000 feet (1,525 m) above its base, where it rises from the ridges that are around it. It stood out from the surrounding hills because of the symmetrical cone shape and the snow that covered the top. Because of its cone-shape, it was called the "Mount Fuji of America", after the famous Mount Fuji which is a symbol of Japan.

paragraphs: In the months before the large eruption that took place on May 18, 1980, there were many signs of volcanic activity. On March 20, 1980, Mount St. Helens was the center of a magnitude 4.2 earthquake. Steam venting from the volcano started on March 27. By the end of April, the north side of the volcano started to grow larger.

paragraphs: On May 18, a second earthquake of magnitude 5.1 made a huge part of the north face of the volcano collapse. It was the largest known debris avalanche in recorded history. At 8:32 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time, the magma inside of St. Helens exploded. On the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated a five, which is the same rating of the famous Vesuvius eruption in 79 AD.

paragraphs: For more than nine hours, ash erupted from the volcano, rising into the air for 12 to 16 miles (20 to 27 km) above sea level in the air. This cloud rising from a volcano is called a "plume". The pyroclastic flow of heated rocks and gas that poured out of the Volcano spread over an area of over 230 square miles (600 km²), destroying plants and buildings. The ash spread east at about 60 miles per hour (95 km/h), with some ash reaching Idaho by about 12:00 pm, almost 3.5 hours after the eruption. By about 5:30 pm the plume of ash became smaller. Through the night and for several days after, there were smaller eruptions.

paragraphs: As well as the effect of the fast-moving hot gasses and stones from the explosion, the collapse of the northern side of Mount St. Helens caused "lahars", or volcanic mudflows. These were mixtures of volcanic ash with melted ice and snow. The lahars went many miles down the Toutle and Cowlitz rivers, destroying bridges and killing many trees. A total of 3.9 million cubic yards (3.0 million m³) of material was carried 17 miles (27 km) south into the Columbia River by the lahars.

paragraphs: The St. Helens May 18 eruption released 24 megatons of thermal energy. It released more than 0.67 cubic miles (2.8 cubic km) of ash and other material. The collapse of the north side of the volcano shortened St. Helens' height by about 1,300 feet (400 m) and left a volcanic crater one to two miles (1.6 to 3.2 km) wide and half of a mile (800 m) deep. The eruption

paragraphs: killed 57 people, nearly 7,000 game animals (deer, elk, and bear), and about 12 million fish from a fish farm. It destroyed or damaged over 200 homes, 185 miles (300 km) of highway and of railways.

paragraphs: Between 1980 and 1986, more volcanic activity continued at Mount Saint Helens, with a new lava dome made in the crater. Several small explosions and eruptions took place, making more lava domes. From December 7, 1989 to January 6, 1990, and from November 5, 1990 to February 14, 1991, the volcano erupted with sometimes huge clouds of ash.

paragraphs: The ash reached a number of states, as far east as Montana and as south as Colorado.

paragraphs: Magma bubbles came to the top of the volcano on about October 11, 2004, and a new lava dome was made on the first dome's south side. This new dome grew throughout 2005 and into 2006. Several new features were seen, such as the "whaleback," which is solid magma being pushed to the top of the volcano by magma under it. These features do not last long and break down soon after they are formed. On July 2, 2005, the tip of the whaleback broke off, and a rockfall sent ash several hundred meters into the air.

paragraphs: Mount St. Helens showed important new activity on March 8, 2005, when a 36,000-foot (11,000 m) plume of steam and ash came from the volcano. The plume was seen from as far away as Seattle, a city that is 96 miles away. This fairly small eruption took place because of a new lava dome being formed and a 2.5 magnitude earthquake.

paragraphs: Another feature that grew from the dome is a "fin" or "slab." About half the size of a football field, the large volcanic rock was being moved up as fast as 6 feet (2 m) per day. In mid-June 2006, the slab had rockfalls very often, but was still being pushed up from inside the volcano.

paragraphs: On October 22, 2006, at 3:13 p.m. PST, a magnitude 3.5 earthquake broke the lava dome. The resulting collapse and avalanche sent an ash plume 2,000 feet (610 m) over the crater, although it quickly disappeared.

paragraphs: On December 19, 2006, a large white plume of steam was seen, and some journalists from the media thought there had been a small eruption. However, the Cascades Volcano Observatory of the United States Geological Survey says that there was no large ash plume, so it could not have been an eruption. The volcano has been erupting on occasion since October 2004.


title: Oder-Neisse line

paragraphs: The Oder-Neisse line (named after the Oder and Neisse rivers) is the border between Germany and Poland since the end of the Second World War. As a result of the defeat Germany lost a part of its territory to Poland. Previously, the German Empire had to cede the former Prussian provinces of Posen and Westpreußen, as well as parts of upper Silesia, to the newly founded Polish state after the First World War in 1919. In earlier centuries these territories were part of the . They were annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia, as a result of the of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the , the Holy Roman Empire and the Russian Empire.

paragraphs: Most of the ethnically-German part of the population of these provinces, alongside most of the German minority population in what was Poland before the Second World War (), either fled before the to central and western Germany or were forcibly resettled later. It should be noted here that German citizens of Polish descent and ethically-Polish residents of these regions and other parts of Germany faced systematic discrimination, internment in concentration camps, property-confiscations, forced-resettlement and expulsion under the Nazi administration.


title: Jimmy Wales

paragraphs: Jimmy Donal "Jimbo" Wales (; born August 7, 1966) is an American Internet entrepreneur, best known as a co-founder of Wikipedia and Wikia. Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, United States. There, he went to Randolph School. He then earned bachelor’s and master’s degrees in finance. In 1996, he and two partners founded Bomis. Bomis was an Internet portal with entertainment and adult content. The company gave money for Nupedia (2000–2003) and, after that, Wikipedia.

paragraphs: Wales has been married three times. He also has two children. When he was 20, Wales married Pam. Pam was a worker at a store in Alabama. He met his second wife, Christine Rohan, through a friend in Chicago. They had a daughter before their marriage ended. Wales moved to San Diego in 1998. In 2002, he moved again to Florida. In 2007, he still lived there. As of 2012 he lives in London, England. In 2012, Wales married Kate Garvey, a government worker for Tony Blair. They have a child together.

paragraphs: Wales says that he follows the ideas of Objectivism. He also says that he is a libertarian to some extent, meaning that he thinks people should be allowed to do whatever they want so long as they do not hurt others.

paragraphs: On January 15, 2001, with Larry Sanger and others, Wales started Wikipedia. Wikipedia is a free, open content encyclopedia. It grew and became popular very quickly. As Wikipedia became known to the public, he became the project’s promoter and spokesperson. He is often called a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has argued against the "co-" part. He said he was the only founder. Wales is on the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation. In 2004, he co-founded Wikia, a wiki-hosting service which tries to make money. In 2015, Wales started the Jimmy Wales Foundation for freedom of expression, to try to help bloggers or internet activists who are in prison.


title: Exeter

paragraphs: Exeter is a city in South West England on the River Exe, from which it takes its name. It is the county town of Devon. Just over 100,000 live there. In the city are a ruined castle, much of the old Roman city wall, and Exeter Cathedral.

paragraphs: Exeter was built by the Romans, who called it "Isca Dumnoniorum" (Isca of the Dumnonii, the local British tribe). After the Romans left and the Anglo-Saxons moved into the area in the seventh century, the name changed to Exeter. In the 1060s, Exeter was a centre of resistance to the Norman conquest.

paragraphs: In 1050, the Bishop of Crediton moved to Exeter; from then until 1876 the bishops were the heads of the church in the whole of Devon and Cornwall. Now, only Devon is within the Exeter diocese.

paragraphs: Today it is home to the Meteorological Office, which forecasts the country's weather.


title: United States Congress

paragraphs: The United States Congress is the legislative, or law making, branch of the United States government. It meets in the United States Capitol.

paragraphs: It has two houses (parts): The United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. This two house system is known as a bicameral ("bi" is the Latin word for "two", and "camera" is Latin for "chamber" or "room") legislature. There are 435 Representatives in Congress, split between the states based on how many people live in the state. There are 100 Senators in Congress, with two coming from each state.

paragraphs: The primary duty of Congress is to write, debate, and pass bills (laws they want). For Congress to pass a bill, both houses must pass exactly the same bill. For each house to pass a bill, more than half of its members must vote in favor of passing the bill. After both houses pass the same bill, this bill is then sent to the President. If the President agrees the bill should be a law he or she signs the bill within 10 days. If the president does not agree, then he or she can veto the bill and send it back to Congress. If the bill is neither signed nor vetoed by the president within 10 days, the bill becomes law anyway if Congress does not adjourn (end its session) within that time. If Congress adjourns within that time, the bill does not become a law. Congress may override a president's veto of a bill by having more than two thirds of its members passing the bill. In that case, the bill becomes law even though the president vetoed it.

paragraphs: Article 1 of the United States Constitution lists what subjects Congress can pass laws on.

paragraphs: Members of Congress cannot be arrested, except for certain crimes, during a session of Congress or going to or returning from a session.

paragraphs: Each house of Congress can decide to expel (throw out) one of its members if more than two thirds of them vote to expel him or her.

paragraphs: The political party with the most members in a house of Congress usually decides which bills are voted on in their house.


title: Charles Cornwallis

paragraphs: Lord Charles Cornwallis (31 December 1738 5 October 1805) was a British general and colonial governor. He is best known for leading the British forces in the American Revolution.

paragraphs: His parents were Elizabeth, and Charles Cornwallis, 1st Earl Cornwallis.

paragraphs: Cornwallis moved to the 13 colonies in North America in 1776 to try to control the rebelling colonies. He fought at the Battle of Princeton. George Washington led the Americans in that battle. Later, Cornwallis led British forces through North Carolina and South Carolina, where he fought against American forces under Nathanael Greene. In October 1781, Cornwallis's forces surrendered to George Washington at the Battle of Yorktown, ending the American Revolution.

paragraphs: In 1786 Cornwallis was appointed Governor-General of the British colony of India.

paragraphs: From 1798 to 1801 Cornwallis was Lord Lieutenant and Commander in Chief of Ireland.


title: Battle of Princeton

paragraphs: The Battle of Princeton was a battle during the American Revolution. It was fought in January of 1777 near Princeton, New Jersey. The battle came a week after the Battle of Trenton, where General George Washington had led the Continental Army to a surprise victory over the British.

paragraphs: The Continental Army, led by Washington, advanced to Princeton after their victory at Trenton. The army defeated a small British force. A larger British force, led by Charles Cornwallis, was alerted and gave chase. However, the Continental Army burned the bridges behind them and sniped at the British army before escaping to Morristown, New Jersey.

paragraphs: The battle resulted in about 200 casualties (deaths) for the British along with another 300 injured or captured, while the Americans suffered minimal losses. The battle boosted American morale.


title: Fork

paragraphs: A fork is a tool for eating. It has points called "tines". Most forks have three or four tines. Some cooking-forks have two tines. The tines help you pick up your food. Forks are useful only for eating solid food. For example, a fork would be useless for eating soup because all the soup would fall through the tines and into your lap. Most forks are made of metal. Some are made of plastic or wood.

paragraphs: The word "fork" is also used to describe a two choices of course. A fork in the road would be a split in the road leading in two (or more) directions. A forked tongue would have two parts or tips.

paragraphs: Forks are very common in Western culture. Many countries do not use forks, but instead have their own ways to eat food, such as chopsticks.


title: Backgammon

paragraphs: Backgammon is a game played by two players. Each player moves pieces around a board. Players roll two dice to find out how far their pieces can move in one turn. The winner of one game is the first to get all pieces all the way around, and off, the board.

paragraphs: The game is laid-out asymmetrically. White's direction of travel is counter-clockwise, whereas black's direction of travel is clockwise. (There is no advantage to either side due to this asymmetry.)

paragraphs: White moves from white's far right to white's home area on white's close right, in the shape of a right-hand "C" from white's point of view. Black moves along the same "C", beginning from black's far left and ending at black's home area on black's close left. (The "C" is the same for both sides - the "C" points to the right for white and points to the left for black.)

paragraphs: As shown in the image, some pieces (for each side) begin already in the home quadrant, and some pieces must make their way all the way around. Pieces can be sent backwards to their starting position during play.

paragraphs: The roll of two dice introduces a random component in the game, but Backgammon is basically a game of strategy.

paragraphs: Usual playing time is around 15– 30 minutes, for a single game (which could be thought of as something like one particular long "hand" of a card game). An overall championship or round of backgammon involves a number of ongoing single games, with the involvement of points, a "doubling cube," and other complications.

paragraphs: The game has a long history. Games that resemble it have been played for thousands of years. Archaeologists doing excavations at a place called "Burnt City" in modern-day Iran have found parts of a game that resembled backgammon. They have found 60 pieces to play with, and two dice. They could show that the game utensils date from around 3000 BC. These pieces around 100–200 years older than another set, found in Ur, in Mesopotamia.


title: Cell wall

paragraphs: A cell wall is the wall of a cell in plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and some archaea. Animal cells do not have cell walls, nor do protozoa. Cell walls protect the cells from damage. It is also there to make the cell strong, to keep its shape, and to control the growing of the cell and plant.

paragraphs: The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is outside the cell membrane and gives these cells support and protection, as well as acting as a filter. The cell wall also acts as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell by osmosis.

paragraphs: The material in the cell wall varies. In plants and algae, the cell wall is made of long molecules of cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose. The cell wall has channels which let some proteins in and keeps others out. Water and small molecules can go through the cell wall and the cell membrane.

paragraphs: The cell wall has mechanical strength, and supports cell shape. This mechanical strength is its main function:

paragraphs: Although the plant cell wall is strong, it is not rigid or stiff. The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop.

paragraphs: Some plants add stiffening material to some of their cell walls. A "secondary" cell wall is an additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. More layers may be added containing lignin in xylem cell walls, or containing suberin in cork cell walls. These compounds are rigid and waterproof. They make the secondary wall stiff. Both wood and bark cells of trees have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the leaf stalk may get reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces.

paragraphs: Small molecules, including small proteins, can easily get through the primary plant cell wall. Water and carbon dioxide are distributed throughout the plant. The pH is an important factor in the transport of molecules through cell walls.

paragraphs: Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively.

paragraphs: The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria. The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse. The lysozyme enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls.

paragraphs: The middle lamella gives the cell shape, support, and strength. It is made of calcium and magnesium. Even though it is called "middle" lanella, it is the outer part of the cell. The middle lamella is the first wall of the cell to give protection.

paragraphs: Animal cells do not have cell walls. They have microfilaments (the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton).


title: Friction

paragraphs: Friction is a force that acts to stop the movement of two touching things. The energy lost to friction is turned into sound and heat. Two kinds of friction are static and kinetic. Static friction is when the friction is strong enough to stop movement between two objects. Kinetic friction is used when the frictional force is not strong enough to stop all motion. An effect of kinetic friction is heat production.

paragraphs: Many everyday mechanisms that utilize friction include car brakes. Even a person sliding across the floor uses a form of friction.


title: Lima

paragraphs: Lima is the capital city (where the government works), and is considered the most important and largest city of Peru. 75% of the Peruvian economy is handled in Lima.

paragraphs: Lima is the industrial and financial center of Peru, and one of the most important financial centers in Latin America.

paragraphs: It is an important city of South America and the entrance to Peru. Lima is city in constant urban growth. It has a large population. Over 8 million people live in the metropolitan area, which includes Callao Seaport. Lima is the fifth largest city in Latin America, behind Mexico City, São Paulo, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro.

paragraphs: The city was founded by the Spanish conquistador (conqueror) Francisco Pizarro on January 18, 1535. He called it 'La Ciudad de los Reyes' (the City of the Kings). It became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Perú. And after the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru.

paragraphs: In the 1940s, Lima started a period of rapid growth, with the migration from the Andean regions of Peru, as rural people. They wanted to find better opportunities for work and education. The population, estimated at 0.6 million in 1940, reached 1.9M by 1960 and 4.8M by 1980.

paragraphs: Lima has developed an important tourism industry, characterized by its historic center, archeological sites, nightlife, museums, art galleries, festivals, popular traditions, and gastronomy. Lima is considered Americas's gastronomical capital.

paragraphs: Lima is made up of mainly Spanish speaking inhabitants with over 90% of the population speaking the language. Lima Province has 43 districts, including:


title: Cleaner

paragraphs: A cleaner (or janitor) is someone who takes away garbage and cleans surfaces. Cleaners sometimes repair things, and maintain their equipment in good working order, as well as dusting, washing, waxing and polishing.

paragraphs: Heavy duty cleaners often move furniture, large containers of recycled materials and waste, and other objects, and operate large buffers and other weighty equipment. "Light" duty cleaners clean chalk boards, windows, shelves, desks, light fixtures, and ledges. Some duties, like using a vacuum cleaner, can be done by either "light" or "heavy" duty cleaners. Cleaners can clean offices, staircases, kitchens, bathrooms, hallways, sidewalks, elevators, escalators, and other areas. Cleaners can specialize in washing windows, or in cleaning carpets, hospitals, food processing plants, or construction sites. Cleaners who discover seriously damaged surfaces and equipment on their sites can notify specialists, like plumbers and carpenters, about the need for professional repairs.

paragraphs: Cleaners are also alert for security problems, like vandalism, signs of theft (forced windows or doors, missing computers or stock), blocked fire escape routes, lights or fire alarms not working, or trespassers. When these occur, the cleaners promptly notify their sites' Security Officers and Site Supervisors. Janitors know how to keep themselves and their sites safe, by immediately removing hazards like broken class, spilled fluids, and waste from kitchens and bathrooms, and by checking hand rails, floor mats, stairs, automated doors, escalators, elevators, intercoms, and plumbing.


title: Bovinae

paragraphs: Bovinae is a subfamily of the even-toed ungulate family Bovidae. About 26 species of bovines belong to this subfamily.

paragraphs: Bovines are herbivores, and they mostly eat grass.

paragraphs: The four genera "Tetracerus", "Boselaphus", "Tragelaphus" and "Taurotragus" are sometimes put into their own subfamily "Tragelaphinae", and sometimes with the bovines.


title: Mongolia

paragraphs: Mongolia is a country between China and Russia, in Asia.

paragraphs: Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia and Central Asia. It borders Russia to the north and the People's Republic of China to the south, east and west. Mongolia's political system is a parliamentary republic.

paragraphs: Until recently, most of the people there were Buddhists. Many of them are nomads (people who always move from place to place and do not stay in one home), but this is changing. The largest city, and capital city is Ulaanbaatar. It is where about 38% of the population live. This has been spelled "Ulan Bator/ Ulaan Battor" and other ways in the past. The north and east parts of the country have many mountains. Part of the south part is the Gobi Desert. There are 2,791,272 people living in Mongolia. The country is the 18th biggest country in the world, with an area of .

paragraphs: Mongolia is mainly rural with the lowest population density of all independent countries in the world.

paragraphs: The area which is Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires. This was until the great 'Mongol Empire' was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206. After the Yuan Dynasty collapsed, the Mongols became nomads again. After the 16th century, Mongolia were influenced by Tibetan Buddhism. By the end of the 17th century, most of Mongolia was part of an area ruled by the Qing Dynasty. When the Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911, Mongolia declared independence. But they had to fight against the Chinese. They were helped by the Soviet Union. In 1921, the world accepted its independence. Shortly after the death of Bogd Khaan, the last monarch of Mongolia the monarchy was replaced by a communist government in 1924, and the country was renamed the Mongolian People's Republic. Up until the fall of the Soviet Union, Mongolia was a satellite state for the Soviets. The Mongolian Red Cross Society was set up in 1939. It has its headquarters in Ulaanbaator.

paragraphs: Following the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia's interest in Mongolia has declined. China and South Korea are currently Mongolia's main trade and political partners.

paragraphs: Mongolia is a parliamentary republic. People vote for their government. The President of Mongolia is elected to a four-year term, and cannot be elected President more than twice. The current President is Khaltmaagiin Battulga. He was first elected as President on July 7, 2017.

paragraphs: Mongolia has a steppe climate. It has very cold winters and mild summers. Recently, winters have become very cold. This has killed many people and cattle. On June 2, 2008, 52 people and 200,000 head of cattle died in heavy blizzards in Mongolia.

paragraphs: On March 1–2, 2008, a heavy dust storm hit northeast China and parts of Mongolia. and ended over North Korea and South Korea on the March 4 .

paragraphs: Twenty one people died in a rural Mongolian blizzard on May 8, 2008. Parts of the Chinese province of Inner Mongolia were also affected on the May 8, 2008.

paragraphs: On June 2, 2009, it was said that 15 people and 10,000 head of cattle had died by this date in Mongolia.

paragraphs: April 1–2, 2010 had temperatures plummet to -50 degrees in Mongolia’s Tuul valley, A nomad named Urna said she bought 400 bundles of grass to feed the animals in preparation for more bad weather. The Mongolian Red Cross has said that about 4,500,000 livestock died as a result of the bad weather this year [2010]. Tume, who lives in Ulan Bator, said that he had noticed that there were several really harsh winters in a row too. He blamed climate change, but experts said that overgrazing by cattle had also killed off most of the country’s grassland.

paragraphs: Mongolia known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" () because it has over 250 sunny days a year.

paragraphs: Mongolia is the world's 19th-largest country (after Iran). It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan but its westernmost point is only 38 kilometers (24 mi) away from Kazakhstan.

paragraphs: The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and with cold and mountainous regions to the north and west. Most of Mongolia consists of steppes, with forested areas comprising 11.2% of the total land area.  The highest point in Mongolia is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif, at a height of 4,374 m (14,350 ft).

paragraphs: Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces called "aimags". The "aimags" are divided into 329 districts called "sums".

paragraphs: The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryatare are spoken across the country. Turkic languages, such as Kazakh and Tuvan, are also spoken in the western part of the country.

paragraphs: Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet, although in the past it was written using the Mongolian script. The traditional alphabet is being slowly reintroduced through schools recently.

paragraphs: Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia due to their diplomatic ties as former communist states. However English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language in order to become part of the world economy. Korean has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work and study in South Korea. Interest in Chinese has been growing because of the neighboring power.

paragraphs: Mongolia is currently free of bird and swine flu, but 103 air travelers who were suspected victims, and the plane crew of 6, were quarantined for 7 days in Ulaan Bator(Ulaanbaatar) in May 2009.

paragraphs: It may have come over the border from the Chinese province of Inner Mongolia.


title: Fourier transform

paragraphs: The Fourier transform is a mathematical function that can be used to find the base frequencies that make up a signal or wave. For example, if a chord is played, the sound wave of the chord can be fed into a Fourier transform to find the notes that the chord is made from. The output of a Fourier transform is sometimes called a frequency spectrum or distribution, because it displays a spectrum of the frequencies of the input. This function has many uses in cryptography, oceanography, machine learning, radiology, quantum physics as well as sound design and visualization.

paragraphs: The Fourier transform of a function formula_1, sometimes written as formula_2, is given by

paragraphs: The inverse Fourier transform is given by

paragraphs: A Fourier transform shows what frequencies are in a signal. For example, consider a sound wave which contains three different musical notes: A, B, and C. Making a graph of the Fourier transform of this sound wave (with the frequency on the "x"-axis and the intensity on the "y"-axis) will show a peak at each frequency which corresponds with one of the musical notes.

paragraphs: Many signals can be created by adding cosines and sines together with varying amplitudes and frequencies. The Fourier transform plots the amplitudes and phases of these cosines and sines against their respective frequencies.

paragraphs: Fourier transforms are important, because many signals make more sense when their frequencies are separated. In the audio example above, looking at the signal with respect to time does not make it obvious that the notes A, B, and C are in the signal. Many systems do different things to different frequencies, so these kinds of systems can be described by what they do to each frequency. An example of this is a filter which blocks high frequencies.

paragraphs: Calculating a Fourier transform requires understanding of integration and imaginary numbers. Computers are usually used to calculate Fourier transforms of anything but the simplest signals. The Fast Fourier Transform is a method computers use to quickly calculate a Fourier transform.


title: The Divine Comedy

paragraphs: The Divine Comedy is an epic poem written by Dante Alighieri. It is about a trip through the afterlife. The poem has three parts: "Inferno" (Hell), "Purgatorio" (Purgatory), and "Paradiso" (Paradise, or Heaven). "The Divine Comedy" is a piece of world literature.

paragraphs: "Inferno" is the most famous section of the poem. The poem is about the travels of a man through Christian hell, purgatory, and heaven. Note that "comedy" does not mean funny here, but rather that it has a positive ending.

paragraphs: The narrator, Dante Alighieri, is lost in a forest in front of a giant mountain which symbolizes sin, and is harassed by a lion, leopard and she-wolf. He finds the Roman poet Virgil, who has to lead him through the nine circles of hell so Dante can be saved.

paragraphs: Souls that did not accept Christ are here. This includes atheists, pagans, and the unbaptized. They did not actively sin, but they could not enter Heaven because of their lack of faith and even Hell would not allow them to enter very far.

paragraphs: The punishment for the souls is not physical, but that they have no hope of seeing Christ, so they are mentally punished.

paragraphs: Beyond the first circle, souls are assigned their place by Minos, who wraps his tail around his legs a corresponding number of times,and forces them to descend to their appropriate circle.

paragraphs: In this circle souls who succumb to lust. They are the first ones to be truly punished in Hell. These souls are blown around in a giant storm which will last forever. This symbolizes the power of lust to blow one about aimlessly.

paragraphs: This circle is guarded by Cerberus. The gluttons are punished here, lying in cold mud. While in life they were provided with warmth and comfort from their food, in Hell the souls are punished with cold and heavy rain. Cerberus claws at the spirits, rips at their skin, and bites holes.

paragraphs: In life the sinners miserly hoarded their money greedily, while the prodigal spent their money foolishly. Both groups are pushing and pulling great bags of gold as they did in life. The greedy are guarded by Plutus, god of riches and wealth.

paragraphs: In the river Styx the wrathful fight each other on the surface. The river surrounds the city of Dis, where active sinners are located. When Virgil tries to enter, the angels of Hell slam the door in his face. He and Dante proceed to the gate where Christ entered Hell during his three-day trip to release a select few people. During Christ's Harrowing of Hell he broke the door so it could never close again.

paragraphs: The heretics are trapped in red-hot iron tombs.

paragraphs: This circle holds those who were violent in their lives. The people who were violent to people and property are in a river of fire. The depth of their placement in the river corresponds to how much you damaged in life. For example, Alexander the Great is immersed up to his eyebrows. The violent against self are turned into plants and are pecked at and ripped apart by birds. The violent to God and the violent to nature are also here. They have to walk on flaming sand for eternity.

paragraphs: Pimps, seducers, flatterers, simonists, sorcerers, fortune-tellers, false prophets, corrupt politicians, hypocrites, thieves, schismatics, alchemists, and counterfeiters are in this circle. Each punishment is the opposite of what they did in life. Fortune-tellers, who tried to see things ahead of time, are forced to walk backwards.

paragraphs: The traitors to family are immersed in ice up to their faces. Traitors to political entities are also here. Traitors to guests lie in the ice, which covers them completely except for their faces. Traitors to their lords and benefactors are completely buried in ice in various positions.

paragraphs: In the very center of Hell, because he sinned the ultimate sin (treachery against God), lies Satan. Satan is described as a beast with three faces, six wings, and is eternally weeping from his six eyes. Each of Satan's mouths chews on a famous traitor from history. Brutus and Cassius are being chewed feet-first. The center mouth is chewing on Judas Iscariot. His head is being chewed on by Satan, and his back is being skinned by Satan's claws.

paragraphs: Dante and Virgil escape by climbing down Satan's fur through the center of the earth and out the other hemisphere, where they will climb Mount Purgatory.


title: Artist

paragraphs: An artist is a person who creates art. This word is used most often for persons and activities of 'high culture'. That is for example drawing, painting, sculpture, acting, dancing, writing, filmmaking, photography, and music. Sometimes a person who is very good at their job is called an artist, even if it is not considered as art. A scientist or mathematician can be called an artist.

paragraphs: Wiktionary defines the noun 'artist' (one artist, two artists) as follows:

paragraphs: In ancient Greece there was the word "Techne" which is often translated as art. From this word comes "technical" and America is now the root of words such as technical, technology, etc. The seven muses were the gods of artists in the seven fields of human excellence: • Epic and lyric • History • Choral singing and poetry of love • Music • Tragedy • Religious Hymns • Gay poetry, poetry and rustic comedy • Dance • Astronomy and Geometry.

paragraphs: The word comes from Latin art "ars", that literally means skill method or technique, combined with the beauty of the objects produced. In the Middle Ages already existed the word artist, although its meaning is closer to what we now call the craftsman.

paragraphs: Concept art expresses a series of creations, called classical arts (painting, sculpture, literature, dance, music, architecture and cinema). However, considering someone as an artist is not limited to a series of works or concrete creations.

paragraphs: An artist is a person exercising the arts and produce artistic works. The artist is someone who has a special sensitivity to create a work or activity. There is no specific classification of what are an artist's own activities .In any case, the concept artist implies knowledge of art and at the same time, is a craft that can be professional but not necessarily. The artist seeks to create an object or activity that has a component of beauty. Very beautiful is one aspect cherished by the creators, but not only that. It also seeks to communicate feelings and ideas and form their own world.

paragraphs: An artist is a person able to put their point of view, their way of seeing the world and feel things on a canvas, a sheet or paper. An artist is a dreamer, is a poet, he is a speaker, is someone provided with sensibility sufficient or necessary to make us see things through their eyes.


title: Jacksonville, Florida

paragraphs: Jacksonville is the largest city in the state of Florida and one of the 15 largest cities in the United States. It is home to the University of North Florida. It is the county seat of Duval County.

paragraphs: It is the largest city in the Continental United States in terms of area. It covers nearly all of Duval County in North Florida. The Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL play here.


Fetishism