title: Abortion

paragraphs: An abortion is when a pregnancy is ended early, without the natural birth of the child and before it is ready to survive outside of the uterus.

paragraphs: A developing human usually takes about thirty-nine weeks to grow and be born. Normally, this occurs about forty weeks after the mother's last menstrual period. This developing human is called an "embryo" for the first eight weeks of the pregnancy, and "fetus" for the rest of the pregnancy.

paragraphs: When an abortion occurs naturally, it is often called a miscarriage. Humans can also choose to end the pregnancy before birth takes place. This is called an "induced abortion". Often, the term "abortion" often refers only to an induced abortion.

paragraphs: In both types of abortion, the embryo or fetus usually comes out of the womb. This is called a "complete" abortion. In some cases, the embryo or fetus remains inside the womb. This is called a "missed" abortion. Surgery is needed to remove the embryo or fetus from the womb so the woman does not get an infection.

paragraphs: Different countries have different laws regarding induced abortion. While abortion is illegal in many countries, there are often exceptions that permit it in cases such as family incest, rape, the fetus having severe disabilities or the mother's health being at risk.

paragraphs: People speak of "spontaneous abortion" or "miscarriage" when the embryo or fetus is lost due to natural causes before the 20th week of pregnancy. A pregnancy that ends this way, but that is between 20 and 37 weeks old is known as "premature birth" if the baby is born alive. If the fetus dies in the womb after 20 weeks, or while it is born, this is known as "stillbirth". Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages.

paragraphs: Spontaneous abortions (miscarriages) are common. About fifteen percent of pregnancies end in spontaneous abortion. In many cases, the woman is not even aware she was pregnant. The pregnancy is only a few days or weeks old and the woman believes the miscarriage is just her menses. About twenty-five percent of all women will have a spontaneous abortion during their lives.

paragraphs: Most miscarriages occur very early. Between ten and fifty percent of pregnancies end with a miscarriage,

paragraphs: where the mother or the doctors are aware of it. These figures depend on the age and health of the pregnant woman. Most spontaneous abortions occur so early in the pregnancy that the woman is not even aware that she was pregnant. One particular study showed that 61.9% of pregnancies end in miscarriage before 12 weeks. In 91.7% of these miscarriages, the woman did not know she was pregnant.

paragraphs: The risk of spontaneous abortion decreases sharply after the 10th week of pregnancy, with a loss rate between 8.5 weeks LMP and birth of about two percent; pregnancy loss is “virtually complete by the end of the embryonic period."

paragraphs: Those people who have already had several spontaneous or induced abortions run a greater risk of having a spontaneous one. Those with certain diseases, and those over the age 35 also run a greater risk. Other causes for abortions can be the infection of either the woman or embryo/fetus, or their immune response. Certain diseases or an accidental trauma can also cause a spontaneous abortion. Putting the woman under trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion. Some countries call this feticide.

paragraphs: Most miscarriages are due to problems with the copying of chromosomes, but some are caused by environmental factors. When a human is conceived, it gets 23 chromosomes from its mother and 23 from its father. If it does not get the right number its development happens wrong (it does not grow right.) It may have many bad birth defects.

paragraphs: Most embryos and fetuses with chromosome problems will not live for a long time. They die very early. There are a few chromosome problems that babies can sometimes be born with. For example, Down syndrome happens when there are three copies of chromosome #21. (Usually people have 2 of every chromosome.) This is called "trisomy 21" (tri- means 3.)

paragraphs: The most common symptom is bleeding from the vagina. This can be very little blood (less blood than a normal menses.) It can be very much blood (much more than a normal menses.)

paragraphs: Some women have bad pains in their low abdomen when they have a miscarriage. This is sometimes like the pain of menses. It can be much worse. Or a woman may have no pain at all. If the pregnancy is many weeks old, the woman may see the embryo or fetus when it comes out. But if it is less than 12 weeks old a woman may not see anything but blood.

paragraphs: Usually, no treatment is needed for a miscarriage. However, sometimes some pregnancy tissue remains in the womb after the miscarriage and must be removed. Sometimes doctors do a surgical abortion. This is the same kind of surgery that is done for induced abortions. Doctors can also prescribe women medicines that can help the miscarriage finish without needing surgery.

paragraphs: An induced abortion is when things are done to end the pregnancy on purpose. These things are normally done by doctors. In countries where abortion can be done legally, it is often done by specialists who know a lot about women's bodies (gynecologists). Abortions done illegally are often performed by people without this special knowledge. This makes them more dangerous. Such abortions are usually called unsafe abortions, back-alley abortions or DIY abortions, mainly because the risk to the health of the mother is much higher than with abortions carried out by skilled doctors.

paragraphs: There can be medical reasons, why an abortion is performed. These include:

paragraphs: There are two different kinds of induced abortions. The type of abortion that is done depends on a few different things, like what the woman wants, what her doctor thinks is best, and how far along a woman is in her pregnancy (how long she has been pregnant).

paragraphs: One type of induced abortion is called a "medical abortion" or a "medication abortion". In this type of abortion, a doctor gives the woman one or two medications that will end her pregnancy. A medication abortion can only be done early on in the pregnancy. This is because the medications that are used work best when they are started as early as possible, and after a woman has been pregnant for about two months, the medications usually do not work very well. Because of this, medication abortion usually is not used after a woman has been pregnant for 9 weeks. Some of the benefits (or reasons why some women choose this type of abortion) are that it can be started as soon as a woman realizes she is pregnant; it does not require anesthesia; and the woman does not have to have a procedure in a hospital or clinic to have the fetus removed, like with the other kind of abortion that is done. After a woman is given the medication or medications that end her pregnancy, the abortion happens like a "spontaneous" abortion or a miscarriage. (The woman passes the fetus, along with the blood and tissue that have built up in the uterus, from her vagina.)

paragraphs: The most common medications that are used for medication abortions are mifepristone and misoprostol. First, a doctor gives the woman mifepristone, which is sometimes also called "RU-468" or "the abortion pill". This drug blocks the hormone progesterone in the body. Without progesterone, the embryo cannot survive. The lining of the uterus becomes thinner, and the embryo cannot grow or stay attached to the lining of the uterus. After a few days, a doctor gives the woman misoprostol. This makes the uterus contract (or get smaller) and the embryo is expelled from (or pushed out of) the uterus through the woman's vagina. Sometimes, another medication, called methotrexate, is used along with misoprostol in medication abortions. A woman is given methotrexate, usually as a shot in a doctor's office, and the drug stops the embryo from staying attached to the lining of the uterus. Then misoprostol is given a few days later.

paragraphs: With the second type of abortion - called "surgical abortion" or "in-office abortion" - a doctor does a procedure that removes an embryo or fetus from the woman's uterus. This kind of abortion can be done in different ways, depending on how long the woman has been pregnant. Surgical abortion is simpler, and there are fewer problems that can happen, if it is done earlier on in the pregnancy. The most common form is called an "aspiration abortion" or a "suction curettage." This can be done in a doctor's office or clinic. First the woman's cervix (the top part of the uterus) is dilated (or made bigger). A medical tool is used to suction out everything inside the woman's uterus, including the fetus. If the woman has been pregnant for more than 12 weeks, the doctor first has to dilate the cervix (or make the cervix bigger), usually by putting small sticks into the cervix to help it open up. If another tool, called a curette, has to be used to scrape out tissue that is still inside the uterus, then this form of abortion is sometimes called a "dilation and curettage" (or "D&C").

paragraphs: A pregnancy that ends without a child being born also may cause some problems to the woman this happens to. There are two broad groups of things that can happen:

paragraphs: Abortion is safer than childbirth if it is done before the 16th week of pregnancy and it is done by a professional. Certain methods of abortion are pretty safe, and complications are rare. Generally, stopping a pregnancy that has gone on longer is riskier.

paragraphs: Women usually feel a small amount of pain during first-trimester abortion. In a 1979 study of 2,299 patients, 97% reported having some amount of pain. Patients rated the pain as being less than earache or toothache, but more than headache or backache.

paragraphs: Local and general anesthesias are used during the abortion.

paragraphs: Few studies have been done to see if an abortion affects the woman psychologically, or mentally. Those that have been done give contradictory results. One study looked at 13.000 women who had become pregnant even though they did not want to. The study found that having an induced abortion does not increase the risk of getting mental health problems; the group that was compared were women who also did not want to have a baby, but who did not have an abortion. Other studies showed similar results: women who had an abortion did better in school or at work after the abortion. Another study showed that women who had an abortion had a higher self-esteem and felt better than those who did not.

paragraphs: Many women who had an abortion felt better afterwards, they also felt relieved. They would do it again in a similar situation.

paragraphs: A study done in New Zealand in 2006 showed that many women who had an abortion developed severe depression up to 4 years after they had the abortion. They were also more likely to have problems with alcohol and illegal drugs than those women who did not have an abortion. The person who oversaw the study later told media that given these results it would be very hard to say that having an abortion has no psychological effects on the woman who has it. He called the abortion "a traumatic experience".

paragraphs: Both spontaneous and induced abortions have some risk for the woman.

paragraphs: If a bad thing happens because of a surgery or medicine that a doctor gives, or because of a miscarriage, it is called a "complication". Complications of abortions can be infection, bleeding, pain. There may or may not be problems getting pregnant again; this is still being researched. In places where induced abortions are legal less than 1% of induced abortions have a bad complication. If doctors do induced abortions, the risk to the woman is less than the risk of complications of childbirth (giving birth to a baby). In places where induced abortions are legal, less women have complications of induced abortion than in places where induced abortion is illegal. This is because induced abortions that are not done by doctors have much more risks. For example, after induced abortions became legal in the United States in 1973, less women died from having abortions. In the United States in 2000, 11 women died from the complications of legal abortion. The risk of death from a legal abortion is 1/100 of the risk of an appendectomy. The risk of death from an injection (shot) of penicillin (an antibiotic) is bigger than the risk of death from a legal abortion.

paragraphs: There can be emotional problems for the woman after a spontaneous or induced abortion. She may feel sad, angry, or guilty that she had a miscarriage or asked for an abortion. She may think she has done something that made the miscarriage happen, or that having an abortion was the wrong thing to do, and because of this she may feel intense grief. There are many places where women can get help dealing with these feelings.

paragraphs: Some women who have induced abortions may get criticism from friends or family who have different beliefs. When scientists look at this in research studies, however, they do not usually see that women have emotional problems after induced abortions. In 1987, President Ronald Reagan told the Surgeon General of the US to look at this question. Both president Reagan and the Surgeon General C. Everett Koop did not think abortion was right. Dr Koop looked at 250 papers that scientists wrote in scientific journals. Dr Koop said that the science we know does not show that induced abortions cause emotional problems for women who have them.

paragraphs: The number of induced abortions done are different for different parts of the world. This is also true for the reasons why women decide to have an abortion. Estimates are that about 46 million induced abortions are done worldwide, every year. 26 million of them occur in places where abortion is legal, 20 million happen in countries where it is illegal to have an abortion. Some countries, like Belgium (11.2 per 100 known pregnancies) and the Netherlands (10.6 per 100) have a low rate of induced abortion. Others, like Russia (62.6 per 100) and Vietnam (43.7 per 100) have a comparatively high rate. Overall, there are 26 induced abortions per 100 known pregnancies.

paragraphs: The WHO estimated in 2001 that every year about 210 million women get pregnant, and that there are about 135 mililon live births. The remaining 75 million cases are miscarriages or induced abortions. About forty percent of pregnancies are unplanned, and about a fifth of the pregnant women decide to end the pregnancy early. This results in about 42 million abortions per year. About 20 million of these are legal, the rest are agains the law. Most of the illegal abortions is performed by medically unqualified people, often with poor hygiene, which often threaten the lives of the women. The WHO estimated that about 47.000 women died in 2008 because of illegal abortions. This number was lower than the estimate of 1990, mainly because in South America, women opted to take drugs to end the pregnancy.

paragraphs: Abortion rates vary. The length the pregnancy has gone on, and the method used to do the abortion influence these rates. According to data collected in the United States, 88.2% of abortions were done in the first twelve weeks of pregnancy, 10.4% between week 13 and week 20 of the pregnancy. The remaining 1.4% were done in week 21 or later.

paragraphs: 90.9% were done by curettage, 7.7% were medical abortions (using drugs, mifepristone in most cases), 0.4% by "intrauterine instillation" (saline or prostaglandin), and 1.0% by "other" (including hysterotomy and hysterectomy). The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 intact dilation and extraction procedures in the U.S. during 2000 - 0.17% of the total number of abortions performed that year. Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 and 19 weeks, and 1.5% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical. Later abortions are more common in China, India, and other developing countries than in developed countries.

paragraphs: In 1998, a study was done in 27 countries. This study wanted to find the reasons, why women wanted to end their pregnancy. It found that women often gave one of the following reasons:

paragraphs: A different study, done in the United States in 2004 came to similar conclusions.

paragraphs: Women who had an abortion in Finland and the United States usually did not state that the pregnancy posed a risk to their health. In Bangladesh, India and Kenya, however, more such women thought the pregnancy was a risk to their health. 1% of women in the 2004 survey-based U.S. study became pregnant as a result of rape and 0.5% as a result of incest. Another American study in 2002 concluded that 54% of women who had an abortion were using a form of contraception at the time of becoming pregnant. Inconsistent use was reported by 49% of those using condoms and 76% of those using the combined oral contraceptive pill; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage. The Guttmacher Institute estimated that "most abortions in the United States are obtained by minority women" because minority women "have much higher rates of unintended pregnancy."

paragraphs: Some women have an abortion because the society they live in pressures them to.

paragraphs: Any of these factors might force a pregnant woman to have an abortion.

paragraphs: Induced abortion is not legal in every place. In some countries, a doctor who does an induced abortion is committing a "crime". In the United States, Canada, and many countries in Europe abortion is legal (not a crime). In some countries like Ireland and Somalia it is legal only to save the life of the woman. In some countries like Chile and El Salvador, abortion is never legal, including in cases where the woman risks dying from continuing the pregnancy.

paragraphs: In countries where induced abortion is not legal many more women die from abortion. Women still get induced abortions, but they cannot get them in safe hospitals and clinics. These induced abortions have more complications than abortions done by doctors.

paragraphs: Women who live in places where abortion is illegal, or heavily frowned upon sometimes travel to other places where an abortion can be done legally, so they can have an abortion. This is a form of medical tourism.

paragraphs: Spontaneous abortions occur in various mammals. In sheep, it may be caused by crowding through doors, or by being chased by dogs. In cows, abortion may be caused by contagious diseases, such as Brucellosis or Campylobacter. This can often be controlled by vaccination, though.

paragraphs: Abortion may also be induced in animals, in the context of animal husbandry. For example, abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly, or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant, or that are pregnant with twin foals.

paragraphs: Feticide can occur in horses and zebras. Usually this is done because males harass pregnant mares or force copulation. Scientists have raised the question, how often this occurs in the wild, though. Male Gray langur monkeys may attack females following male takeover, causing miscarriage.

paragraphs: Induced abortion is a subject that is controversial. Each person has a system of moral values. Based on their system of morals, people have different opinions about it. Religion can also influence this opinion.

paragraphs: A number of opinion polls have been carried out around the world. They have tried to find out what people think about abortion. Results were different for different countries, but also varied with the questions that were asked.

paragraphs: In May 2005, a survey was done in ten European countries. The people were asked, if they could agree with the statement: "If a woman does not want children, she should be allowed to have an abortion". The highest level of approval was 81% in the Czech Republic; the lowest was 47% in Poland.

paragraphs: A poll was done in November 2001. The poll asked people in Canada in what circumstances they believed an abortion should be permitted. 32% responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstances, 52% that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14% that it should never be legal. A similar poll in April 2009 surveyed people in the United States about abortion; 18% said that abortion should be "legal in all cases", 28% said that abortion should be "legal in most cases", 28% said abortion should be "illegal in most cases" and 16% said abortion should be "illegal in all cases". In a Gallup poll taken in July of 2011, however, 47% of Americans identified themselves as pro-life and the same percentage of Americans identified themselves as pro-choice. A November 2005 poll in Mexico found that 73.4% think abortion should not be legalized while 11.2% think it should.

paragraphs: Of attitudes in South America, a December 2003 survey found that 30% of Argentines thought that abortion should be allowed in Argentina "regardless of situation", 47% that it should be allowed "under some circumstances", and 23% that it should not be allowed "regardless of situation". A March 2007 poll about abortion in Brazil found that 65% of Brazilians believe that it "should not be modified", 16% that it should be expanded "to allow abortion in other cases", 10% that abortion should be "decriminalized", and 5% were "not sure". A July 2005 poll in Colombia found that 65.6% said they thought that abortion should remain illegal, 26.9% that it should be made legal, and 7.5% that they were unsure.

paragraphs: Some people have strong feelings about abortion. People who think that the law should let women choose to have abortions are called "pro-choice". People who think that abortion is wrong and that the law should not allow it are called "pro-life".

paragraphs: People who are pro-choice believe that women should be allowed to have control over their own bodies when it comes to ending or continuing a pregnancy. They believe that, because the embryo or fetus is inside the woman's body and does not have developed enough organs to survive on its own until later in the pregnancy, it is not yet a person with rights. Pro-choice people also make the argument that abortion needs to be legal in order to protect women, because when abortion is illegal, it does not completely stop abortions from happening, but makes it so that women try to do abortions on themselves or get them done by people who are not trained doctors, which puts those women in danger of death or injury. Pro-choice people believe the way to prevent abortion is to make sure women only get pregnant when they want to. In addition to advocating the legality of abortion, pro-choice groups like Planned Parenthood often try to improve people's access to things used to prevent pregnancy (called "contraception"), and try to teach young people about sex to reduce the number of teen pregnancies.

paragraphs: People who are pro-life believe that all humans, including the unborn, have a right to life. For this reason, they believe abortion is wrong and that it is murder. They think the law should make abortion a crime in order to protect innocent life within the womb. However, though pro-life people think abortion is wrong, there are rare cases in which "some" pro-life people would allow an abortion to happen, like if the pregnancy puts the woman's life at risk or if she got pregnant from rape. Pro-life people think women who are pregnant and do not want to raise a child should look for alternatives to abortion such as giving the baby up for adoption. There are many crisis pregnancy centers pro-life people have started to discourage women from having abortions. They have also started advocacy groups, like the American Life League, Feminists for Life and Live Action, to try to convince more people to believe that abortion is wrong and to try to get governments to make laws to restrict abortion. Some pro-life people have used violence to try to stop abortions from happening. However, most people who are against abortion do not do such wrong things and so they try to stop abortions from happening through peaceful activism.

paragraphs: Many religions have a view on abortion. These views span a broad spectrum from acceptance to rejection. Most religions generally oppose abortion.

paragraphs: Generally, when there is a debate about whether abortion laws should be changed in a country, there are advocacy groups. Some of the arguments these groups often have are outlined below.

paragraphs: There is a hypothesis that induced abortion raises the risk of getting breast cancer. People who support this, call it a "link", rather than a "hypothesis".

paragraphs: The subject has been controversial, but currently, scientists agree that there is no link between abortion in the first trimester, and increasing the risk to get breast cancer.

paragraphs: In early pregnancy, levels of estrogen increase. This causes the breast to grow, and to prepare for lactation. In the 1890s, studies were done on rats, before this hypothesis was put forward.

paragraphs: It is currently unclear from what moment the embryo or fetus can feel pain. This is also used in the debate about abortion. Many researchers think that a fetus is unlikely to feel pain until after the seventh month of pregnancy. Others disagree. At about twenty-six weeks of pregnancy, certain connections are made in the thalamus of the growing fetus. Developmental neurobiologists suspect that these connections may be critical to perception of pain by the fetus. However, legislation has been proposed by pro-life advocates requiring abortion providers to tell a woman that the embryo or fetus may feel pain during an abortion procedure.

paragraphs: Researchers from the University of California, San Francisco published a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association. The study analyzed data from dozens of medical reports and other studies. The researchers concluded that fetuses are unlikely to feel pain until the third trimester of pregnancy. However a number of medical critics have since disputed these conclusions. There are certain connections in the thalamus of the fetuse. These connections develop at about twenty-six weeks of pregnancy. At the end of the 20th century there was an emerging consensus among developmental neurobiologists that these connections are very important when it comes to the perception of pain in the fetus. Other researchers such as Anand and Fisk have challenged this late date, positing that pain can be felt around twenty weeks.

paragraphs: Pain can have many different aspects: It might be purely relying on sensory input, but it might also involve emotions and thought. For this reason, it is perhaps impossible to know exactly when the embryo or fetus feels pain, even if it has developed the links in the thalamus.


title: Clock

paragraphs: A clock is a device that tells the time. Some clocks can give the date as well as the time and a few give other information. There are different types of clocks. A watch is a type of clock that is small and can be carried. Watches are usually worn on a person's wrist. At one time, watches were commonly kept in the person's pocket.

paragraphs: Clocks use different ways to measure time. Clocks need some sort of steady beat or motion to track the change in time. Ancient water clocks worked by the steady movement of water from a container with a hole in the bottom to another container without a hole. Other clocks use pendulums, springs and gears to track the change in time correctly.

paragraphs: Digital clocks work by measuring the vibrations of quartz crystals when charged with electricity. The vibration frequency of the crystal does not change.

paragraphs: Atomic clocks use the electromagnetic waves absorbed and emitted by atoms such as caesium to measure time. They are the most precise clocks in the world.

paragraphs: There are many types of clocks and watches. The two most common types of displays on clocks are "analog" and "digital" .

paragraphs: Analog clocks use angles to tell time. They have "hands" that rotate around the clock's "face". The position of the hands shows the time. The face of the clock is a flat disk. It will often have the numbers one through twelve on the face to make it easier to read. Analog clocks commonly have two or three hands. If it has two, there is a large hand or "minute hand" and a smaller hand, the "hour hand". Clocks with three hands also have a "second hand". This hand is usually about as long as the minute hand, but much thinner.

paragraphs: Each hand shows the time it is named for and moves around the face of the clock one complete rotation for each movement to the next larger hand. For example, the second hand moves around the face of the clock in 60 seconds. It moves once each second. When it moves all the way around the clock, the minute hand moves forward one space. When the minute hand moves all the way around the face of the clock (which takes 60 minutes), the hour hand moves forward one section. The second and minute hands take 60 movements to move all around the face of the clock, the hour hand only needs 12 movements to do the same.

paragraphs: Digital clocks use numbers to show the time. LCDs and LEDs are common for digital clocks. Unlike analog clocks which are based on 12 hours, digital clocks can use either a 12-hour clock (often with "am" for morning and "pm" for afternoon/night) or a 24-hour clock. Digital clocks are usually smaller and easier to both use and read than analog clocks but they can also be made much larger. New digital clocks can even correct themselves using the internet or radio signals.

paragraphs: There are also clocks that use sound, usually along with a dial or some other means, to show the time. The sound could be as simple as a bell or so complex that it sounds the same as a person. Many clocks that do this are old and are driven by springs or weights rather than batteries or other forms of electric power. Some special clocks are often used by people who are blind or cannot see well enough to read an analog or digital clock. They can also be used by people with mental problems that cause them to be unable to read other clocks.

paragraphs: There are many different types of clocks and watches. They are different in what they are used for, what they can do or how they are made. Examples include:


title: Sexual orientation

paragraphs: Sexual orientation is forms of attraction to people. There are four groups. Attraction to a different gender (heterosexuality). Attraction to the same gender (homosexuality). Attraction to more than one gender (bisexuality). No attraction any gender (asexuality).

paragraphs: The groups are part of sexual identity. Some people use something such as "pansexual" or "polysexual". Other people use nothing at all. "Androphilia and gynephilia" are an alternative to the gender binary in homosexual and heterosexual. "Androphilia" is attraction to a man or masculinity (any quality or behavior linked to a man). "Gynephilia" is attraction to a woman or femininity. "Sexual preference" overlaps with sexual orientation but is different. A bisexual person may like one gender more than another. "Sexual preference" may also give the idea of a degree of choice. The scientific consensus (position in the community of scientists) is that sexual orientation is not a choice.

paragraphs: Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation. It is thought that this is a complex combination of genetics, hormones, and environment. Scientists like any biological theory more than any social theory. This is because there is more proof that supports a biological cause of sexual orientation than a social one. There is little proof which gives the idea that early life experiences play a part in connection to sexual orientation.

paragraphs: Sexual orientation is important in biology, psychology, anthropology, history, and law.

paragraphs: Sexual orientation includes heterosexuality, bisexuality, and homosexuality, and asexuality. An asexual has little to no sexual attraction to people. This may be thought of as a lack of a sexual orientation. There is a large amount of discussion over whether or not this is a sexual orientation.

paragraphs: Most definitions of sexual orientation are one of two components. The focus is on the desire of an individual or the partner of the individual. Some people like to use the definition of the individual.

paragraphs: Sexual identity and sexual behavior are connected to sexual orientation but are different. Sexual identity is a concept of self. Sexual behavior is sex with other people. Sexual orientation is connections to other people. An individual may or may not show sexual orientation from behavior. A person who is not heterosexual by sexual orientation and has a heterosexual sexual identity is 'closeted'. This term may show a stage of change in any society that, little by little, attempts to support the sexual minority. In any sexual orientation study, scientists use the terms "concordance" (sexual attraction, sexual behavior, and sexual identity match) or "discordance" (sexual attraction, sexual behavior, and sexual identity do not match)"." Here is an example of discordance. A woman with attraction to women says she is heterosexual and only has sex with men. Sexual orientation (homosexual), sexual identity (heterosexual), and sexual behavior (heterosexual) of the woman do not match.

paragraphs: "Sexual identity" may also describe a perception of the "sex" of a person. "Sexual preference" is almost the same as "sexual orientation". The main difference is "sexual preference" gives the idea of a degree of choice. The Committee on Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity of the American Psychological Association says the term supports a "heterosexual bias".

paragraphs: "Androphilia" and "gynephilia" (or "gynecophilia") are terms in behavioral science (the study of human and animal behavior) that describe sexual orientation. It is an alternative to the gender binary in homosexual and heterosexual. The terms describe the focus of attraction with no need to credit a sex assignment or gender identity to the person. Other terms such as "pansexual" and "polysexual" also do not make any connection to the person. People may also use terms such as "queer", "pansensual," "polyfidelitous," or "ambisexual".

paragraphs: Some scientists support use of the terms to skirt bias in concepts of human sexuality in the West. Sociologist Johanna Schmidt says that a term like "homosexual transsexual" cannot line up in a society where a third gender is supported. One example would be Samoan Fa’afafine.

paragraphs: Bruce Bagemihl is also against "homosexual transsexual". This is because Bageminl thought this makes it simple to say a straight transgender woman is a homosexual male looking to run from stigma.

paragraphs: "Same gender loving" ("SGL") is a term by African Americans that is the same as homosexual.

paragraphs: Very early writers thought sexual orientation connects to the gender expression of the person. Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Magnus Hirschfeld, Havelock Ellis, Carl Jung, and Sigmund Freud are some of the more famous writers. It was thought that a female person with attraction to female people is always masculine. Just the same, it was thought that a male person with attraction to male people is always feminine. This understanding of homosexuality as sexual inversion was a discussion at the time. By the second half of the 1900s, gender identity was seen as different from sexual orientation. Transgender and cisgender people may be attracted to men, women, or both. A homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual person may be masculine, feminine, or androgynous. Still, studies by J. Michael Bailey and Kenneth Zucker say most of the gay men and lesbians describe different degrees of not matching gender roles as a child.

paragraphs: Today, the sexual orientation of transgender people match the gender. A trans woman who experiences attraction only to women is a lesbian. A trans man who experiences attraction only to women is a straight man.

paragraphs: Sexual orientation sees a more complex understanding of both sex (male, female, or intersex) and gender (man, woman, or third gender).

paragraphs: A gay or lesbian person may do sexual behaviors with someone of a different gender for many reasons. One reason is the desire for a family that looks common. Another reason is to skirt bias. A third reason is to skirt punishment in religion. Not all LGBT people keep quiet about orientation to a wife or husband. Some who come out as gay or lesbian have a healthy continuous heterosexual marriage.

paragraphs: Sexual identity can change through the life of an individual. This may or may not line up with sex, sexual behavior, or sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is stable and will not change for most people. Still, some tests say that some people may experience change in sexual orientation. This is more common for a woman than for a man.

paragraphs: There is no proof for the exact cause of the development of a certain sexual orientation. People thought that homosexuality was the result of wrong brain development. Early life experience and sexual abuse was thought to cause wrong brain development. This thought process comes from bias about homosexuality. Now many people guess that biology and environment play a complex part as a cause.

paragraphs: Tests link many biological factors which may have relation to the development of sexual orientation. The factors are genes, prenatal hormones, and brain structure. Tests are continuous in this area.

paragraphs: Scientists have a belief that sexual orientation is not from any one factor. Instead, this is thought to be from a combination of genetics, hormones, and environment. There is more proof that supports a biological cause of sexual orientation than a social one. It is not thought that sexual orientation is a choice. Some scientists have the belief that this is set at fertilization. Statistics say there are biological differences between gay people and heterosexuals. This may result from the same cause as sexual orientation itself.

paragraphs: Genes may link to the development of sexual orientation. A twin study from 2001 excludes genes as a major factor. A twin study from 2010 says that homosexuality is from both genes and environment. The design of experiments in each twin study makes interpretation hard.

paragraphs: In 2012, many separate groups of scientists do a large study on male sexual orientation. Important links to homosexuality are noted with genes on chromosome Xq28 and chromosome 8. The links are near the middle of the chromosomes. The study was public in November 2014.

paragraphs: The hormone theory of sexuality holds that certain hormones play a part in the sexual orientation that shows later in a mature person. Hormones in the fetus may be the prime effect on sexual orientation. This also may be one of many factors that combines with genes, environment, and social conditions to make a sexual orientation.

paragraphs: In humans, it is normal for females to have two X chromosomes. For males, it is normal to have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. A human fetus starts as female so the Y chromosome is what makes the changes necessary to switch to male. Androgen hormones control this process. These androgens are testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). The testicles in the fetus are responsible for the existence of androgens. The androgens will work together to make the sex difference of the fetus. This results in differences between males and females. Some scientists change androgen levels in mammals during fetus and early life as experiments.

paragraphs: More than one study says the chance of homosexuality in a male increases with each successful birth of a male child. This effect ends if if a male uses his left hand more than his right hand since birth.

paragraphs: "Fraternal birth order" (FBO) effect is a theory that has strong proof of its prenatal origin. No proof so far links this to an exact prenatal process. Tests give the idea that this may be from the immune system. This is a immune reaction from the mother against a substance important to the development of the male fetus. This reaction is even more probable after every successful male birth. It is thought that this immune effect changes future males prenatal development. This process is the maternal immunization hypothesis (MIH). This starts when cells from a male fetus enter the circulation of the mother. The immune system of the mother cannot support the Y proteins because she is female. This causes the development of antibodies. An antibody travels through the placenta into the section with the fetus. From here, an antibody crosses the blood–brain barrier of the brain of the fetus. This alters sex differences in brain structures relative to sexual orientation. This cause the son to experience more attraction to a man than a woman.

paragraphs: There is little proof to support the suggestion that early life experience or sexual abuse play a part in connection to sexual orientation. The viewpoints of parents may have an effect on how a child experiments with behaviors that link to a certain sexual orientation.

paragraphs: A sexual orientation change effort is a plan that will try to change a same gender sexual orientation. This is cognitive behavioral therapy or conversion therapy.

paragraphs: No mental health organization gives approval to any effort to change sexual orientation. Almost all have a statement that says not to get a treatment that claims to change sexual orientation. Some orginizations with that statement are the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Counseling Association, National Association of Social Workers, Royal College of Psychiatrists, and Australian Psychological Society.

paragraphs: In 2012, the Pan American Health Organization makes a statement that says not to get a service that claims to change people with a not heterosexual sexual orientation. This is because there is no medical need. This is also a serious threat to the well-being of people that use this service. The scientific consensus of the world is that homosexuality is a normal and natural form of human sexuality. Homosexuality cannot be thought of as a disease. The Pan American Health Organization also says governments, schools, organizations, and communication outlets need to support respect for differences. Sometimes, a gay child will have to go to a "treatment" without choice. A gay child is sometimes put in a place separate from everyone for many months. Any places that have such poor treatment be subject to punishment under government law. This is for two reasons. The first reason is because this is against the moral concepts of medical care. The second reason is because this is against human rights that the international agreement keeps safe.

paragraphs: The National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH) takes takes issue with how the mental health society describes the success of conversion therapy. NARTH also takes issue with how the mental health society describes sexual orientation for two reasons. One reason is because it is not a fixed two part quality. The second reason is because it is not a disease. Instead, it describes as a continuous order of sexual attraction and emotional attraction. The American Psychological Association and the Royal College of Psychiatrists say there is trouble with the positions of the NARTH. Science cannot support the positions. The positions also make an environment in which bias increases.

paragraphs: Different definitions and strong social rules about sexuality makes sexual orientation hard to measure.

paragraphs: In the 1860s, Karl Henrich Ulrichs makes small books about a sexual orientation organization system. The organization system is only for males. It separates males into three simple groups. The groups are "dionings, urnings" and "uranodionings". Ulrichs outlines a set of questions to check if a man was an "urning".

paragraphs: A "dioning" is the same as heterosexual male. An "urning" is the same as a homosexual male. An "uranodioning" is the same as a bisexual male.

paragraphs: A "mannling" is a masculine "urning". A "weibling" is an effeminate "urning". A "zwischen" is an androgynous "urning". A "virilised" is an "urning" that will only have heterosex sex.

paragraphs: In 1896, Berlin sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld makes a system that measures the strength of sexual desire of an individual. This system measures on two different scales of 10 points. The scales are A (homosexual) and B (heterosexual). A heterosexual individual may be A0, B5. A homosexual individual may be A5, B0. An asexual is A0, B0. Someone with a strong attraction to both genders may be A9, B9.

paragraphs: Alfred Kinsey, Wardell Pomeroy, and Clyde Martin made the Kinsey scale. This scale was in "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female." It was made to fight the idea that people can only be homosexual or heterosexual. Kinsey sees that much of population is not all heterosexual or all homosexual. Such people experience both heterosexual and homosexual behavior.

paragraphs: The Kinsey scale is an organization of sexual orientation. The position on the scale is based on the relation of heterosexuality to homosexuality in their history.

paragraphs: Even with eight groups, it is still hard determining which group will be good to put an individual in. Masters and Johnson talk about the difficulty of sexual comparisons with the Kinsey results. They find it hard to put an individual between the numbers 2 to 4 if the individual has a large amount of heterosexual and homosexual experiences. This is because it becomes hard for that individual to judge the relative amount of each without bias.

paragraphs: Kinsey thought about two areas of sexual orientation. The two areas are sexual reactions and sexual experiences. Weinrich says important information is lost when the two values combine into one final result. A person only with same gender sexual reactions is different from someone with little sexual reactions but a large amount of same gender sexual experiences. Also, there are more than two areas of sexuality to be thought about. Attraction and identity are other areas to judge. This is fixed in the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid.

paragraphs: A 1970s study on masculinity and femininity says that the concepts are better on separate scales. The scales are in place of single continuous scale. Each end of the scale is representative of total opposites. When on the same scale, one will have to decrease for the other to increase. To be more feminine, one has to be less masculine. To be more masculine, one has to be less feminine. However, if they are thought of as separate areas, one can be both very masculine and very feminine. In the same way, heterosexuality and homosexuality on separate scales would allow one to be both very heterosexual and very homosexual. Or someone can be not very much of either. This makes determining the degree of heterosexual and homosexual in an individual easy. It is easy because each area is thought as independent rather than attempts to match a specific balance like the Kinsey scale.

paragraphs: In 1978, Fritz Klein makes the Klein sexual orientation grid (KSOG). It was in his book "The Bisexual Option". The KSOG uses a seven-point scale to measure sexual orientation in seven sections. The focus is on three different points of life: past (from age thirteen to one year before current age), present (within the last twelve months), and ideal (what someone wants if they have complete choice). This design is an improvement on the Kinsey scale.

paragraphs: The Sell Assessment of Sexual Orientation (SASO) is an improvement on the Kinsey Scale and Klein Sexual Orientation Grid. SASO improves in three areas. It contains many sections of sexual orientation. It also separates homosexuality and heterosexuality. SASO can start discussions on the best ways to measure sexual orientation.

paragraphs: Many people have been discriminated against because of their sexual orientation. In many cultures, people who are homosexual or bisexual have been teased (made fun of), fired from their job, or made to suffer violence because of who they are. In many countries and states, there are laws against having sex with somebody of the same gender, and people can be put in jail because of who they have sex with. In the United States, these laws were struck down (repealed) by the United States Supreme Court in the last few years. The Yogyakarta Principles are made to combat such discrimination and United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights also made a document "Born Free and Equal" to counter them by international human rights law.


title: Smiley

paragraphs: A smiley (also called a "smiley face" and an "emoticon") is a picture of a smiling face that is used to show emotion. The first smileys to be widely used were made as yellow buttons, but now the most common smileys are made using computer keyboard symbols. Smileys are used by many people in emails and other types of computer messages. A "smiley" is also sometimes spelt wrongly as "smily" or "smilie".

paragraphs: There were a number of early uses of simple graphics representing a smiling face. Some of these used a large circle containing two dots for eyes and a curve for the mouth. The most well-known smiley face was created in 1963 by Harvey Ball for an insurance company in Massachusetts. This design was a bright yellow circle representing a face, with black oval eyes and a big curved mouth with smile creases at the ends.

paragraphs: The design was made popular in the early 1970s by a pair of brothers, Murray and Bernard Spain, who though of a great plan to sell novelty items. The two used the "smiley face" on buttons as well to decorate coffee mugs, t-shirts, bumper stickers and many other things. They also used the phrase "Have a happy day" (which was the idea of Gyula Bogar). "Smiley" buttons were very popular from the 1970s onwards.

paragraphs: Smiley is a brand developed by Franklin Loufrani since 1971. He controls Smileyworld Ltd, a company whose mission is to make the world a happier place to live. Its brand Smiley is sold all over the world in several lifestyle industries, and its designers are constantly developing very creative and edgy products. The company donates ten percent of its royalties to a charity called the Smiley World Association, active with social actions in several countries. Its baseline is "Share your smile with those in need".

paragraphs: In 1997 Franklin's son Nicolas Loufrani has started to create a new world with icons based on the original Smiley logo. Today over 1200 icons are used as part of a brand called Smileyworld. This brand is based on a communication concept aimed at helping people to communicate better through various social expression products (greeting cards, gifts, etc.). It is also an educative project with books, toys, interactive products as well as a lifestyle brand for children.

paragraphs: Smiley has been a registered trademark since 1971. The Smiley name and logo now registered and used in over 100 countries for 25 classes of goods and services. More than 1200 Smiley emoticons are registered with the Washington Library of Congress and protected by the Universal Copyrights Convention. In the past 10 years, Smileyworld Ltd has signed more than 800 licensing contracts worldwide and has been using its rights in most classes of goods and services in all important countries on the 5 continents. Smileyworld Ltd works with over 60 law firms to protect its IP.

paragraphs: In the 1990s people started using the internet and emails as a regular way of communicating. So that they could show happiness or fun in an easy way, people started making little smiling faces using some of the symbols on the keyboard. A keyboard smiley has a colon ":" for the eyes, a hyphen "-" for the nose, and a parenthesis ")" for the mouth. Some people make the smiley without the hyphen for a nose. The "smileys" that are made in this way are sideways.

paragraphs: When you tilt your head to the left, it looks like a smiling face.

paragraphs: Smileys are usually used as part of a written message, but sometimes a smiley is just sent on its own to say "I am happy with your last message." Smileys are a useful way to show feelings to someone who cannot see the face of person sending the message.

paragraphs: From the smiley came other ideas for showing emotions using keyboard symbols:

paragraphs: Some people use different symbols, or do not use a nose, etc.


title: Flamenco

paragraphs: Flamenco is a style of entertainment with song, music and dance. It is very popular in Spain and is known worldwide. Its foundation is in Andalusia in Spain. In its evolution Andalusian Gypsies played an important part. The term 'flamenco' was first recorded in the late 18th century but many believe the art form is much older.

paragraphs: Flamenco has acoustic guitar music, singing, hand claps, heel stamps, castanets. It is danced by a man and a woman in traditional Spanish costumes. The dance has no set tempo. It may have both fast and slow passages, rising to a climax near the end.

paragraphs: Flamenco performance has evolved during the history of this musical genre. In the beginning (the 18th century at the latest), songs were sung without any guitar accompaniment. During the 19th century, the guitar was used to accompany songs. Since the second half of the 19th century, the solo guitar is played in flamenco concerts.

paragraphs: On November 16, 2010, UNESCO declared Flamenco one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.


title: Cream (band)

paragraphs: Cream was a British rock band in the late 1960s. They played and recorded together from 1966 to 1968. The members of the group were Eric Clapton, Jack Bruce, and Ginger Baker. They were called a power trio, as there were three musicians, who all played essential roles in the band. Their sound of heavy blues-rock was a great influence on many other bands. They were one of the most skilled rock bands of all time; the guitarist and bassist were capable of soloing at the same time. Clapton helped pioneer the use of the wah-wah pedal and played a famous guitar called The Fool. Clapton developed what he called the "woman tone" on his guitar, while Bruce played a fretless bass guitar, and Baker played unusual rhythms on drums to create the band's distinctive sound.

paragraphs: Cream's hit records included the songs "Strange Brew", "Sunshine Of Your Love" and "White Room". Their last album, titled "Goodbye", included a song called "Badge", co-written by Eric Clapton and George Harrison of The Beatles.


title: Blind Faith

paragraphs: Blind Faith was an English rock-blues band. The band was only together for about one year (1969). It was formed by Eric Clapton who had been in the band Cream. Also in the band were Ginger Baker (who was Cream's drummer) and Rick Grech (who was in the band "Family"). Clapton, Winwood, and many other people had high expectations for the new band, but many people did not like the new stuff they were doing. Many people wanted to hear music like Cream made. The name of the band came about as a result of the "blind faith" shown by many people. These people had thought that the band would go on to greatness. Many people did not like the band and they broke up. Before they broke up, they released a self-titled album. It caused controversy because it only had six songs and featured a naked teenage girl holding a toy airplane on the cover. This image upset some people.


title: The Guess Who

paragraphs: The Guess Who is a Canadian rock band. They formed in Winnipeg in 1963 and broke up in 1975. Their best known songs include, "American Woman", "Share The Land", "No Time", and "These Eyes".

paragraphs: The band was inducted into The Canadian Music Hall of Fame in 1987.


title: Bruce Springsteen

paragraphs: Bruce Frederick Joseph Springsteen (born September 23, 1949) is an American rock musician from New Jersey. His songs include "Born to Run" and "Born in the USA". For more than 30 years he has been a singer along with his "E-Street Band." Also, he is now a member in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Jon Landau, a music writer for "Rolling Stone" magazine, once said: "I have seen the future of rock and roll, and its name is Bruce Springsteen." Springsteen won an Oscar for his song "Streets Of Philadelphia", written for the Tom Hanks' movie "Philadelphia".

paragraphs: Springsteen was born in Long Branch, New Jersey, and spent his childhood and high school years in Freehold Borough. His father, Douglas Frederick Springsteen, was a bus driver.His mother, Adele Ann (née Zirilli), was a legal secretary. He has two younger sisters, Virginia and Pamela. Pamela was an actor but left this profession and became a photographer. She took photos for the "Human Touch" and "Lucky Town" albums.

paragraphs: Raised Catholic, Springsteen attended the St. Rose of Lima Catholic school in Freehold Borough.Old teachers have said he was a "loner, who wanted nothing more than to play his guitar." He completed high school, but felt so uncomfortable that he skipped his own graduation ceremony. He briefly went to Ocean County College but had no degree.

paragraphs: Till the early 1970s he played with different bands in the Atlantic area. In 1972 he signed a record contract with Columbia Records. His first album "Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.", released in January 1973, was commercially not a success but was highly favored by music critics. Also his second album "The Wild, the Innocent & the E Street Shuffle" was more acclaimed than sold.

paragraphs: In the May 22, 1974, issue of Boston's "The Real Paper", music critic Jon Landau wrote after seeing a performance at the Harvard Square Theater, "I saw rock and roll future, and its name is Bruce Springsteen. And on a night when I needed to feel young, he made me feel like I was hearing music for the very first time." Landau became Springsteen's manager and producer.

paragraphs: The commercial breakthrough was his third album "Born to Run", which was released on August 25, 1975. Due to this Springsteen was on the covers of Time magazine and Newsweek. After a legal battle with his old manager Mike Appel, he could release his third album "Darkness on the Edge of Town" not earlier than 1978. In 1978, he worked together with Patti Smith, who had a hit with Springsteen's song "Because the Night". Also Manfred Mann ("Blinded by the Light") and the Pointer Sisters ("Fire") had success with songs of Bruce Springsteen. The next album was "The River". The single from this album "Hungry Heart" was his first Top 10 hit. "The River" brought Bruce Springsteen in a wide range of styles from ballads to rock songs.

paragraphs: His next album was "Nebraska" (1982) which he recorded in a studio at his home. The only instruments in this record were guitar and harmonica. The songs are about outsiders of the US society. Despite its commercial flop it is regarded by critics as one of Springsteen's best albums.

paragraphs: He is probably best known for his next album "Born in the USA" which sold 15 million copies in the USA. It contains 7 hit singles which all reached the Top 10. The following tour was also a huge success. The title track of the album was widely misunderstood as patriotic hymn. In fact it was a comment on the poor treatment of Vietnam veterans. In later years Springsteen performed the song only with acoustic guitar to make the meaning of the song more clear. An acoustic version also appeared on "Tracks", a later album. Videos for the album were made by famous movie directors Brian De Palma and John Sayles.

paragraphs: The next album was "Live/1975–85", which summed up the powerful live performances of Bruce Springsteen. It was a five records box-set and was the first set which reached #1 in the charts.

paragraphs: After "Born in the USA", Springsteen recorded again more sedate and contemplative albums like "Tunnel of Love" (1987). In late 1989 he dissolved the E-Street Band and married Patti Scialfa. The couple relocated to California. In 1992 he released two albums at once, "Human Touch" and "Lucky Town". After he had received many Grammy Awards he also was winner of the Academy Award in 1994 for his song "Streets of Philadelphia", which appeared on the soundtrack to the movie "Philadelphia".

paragraphs: In 1995, he released his second solo guitar album, "The Ghost of Tom Joad", inspired by John Steinbeck's "The Grapes of Wrath". Following the album he made a solo acoustic tour where he played the new songs but also many of his older songs in acoustic form. After the tour he and his family went back to New Jersey.

paragraphs: In 1999, the E Street Band and Springsteen officially played together again. They made a reunion tour which lasted over one year. The last two concerts of the tour were recorded for an HBO Concert also a DVD and album was released under the title "Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band: Live in New York City". The same year Springsteen was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

paragraphs: About the 1990s Springsteen said: "I didn't do a lot of work. Some people would say I didn't do my best work."

paragraphs: In 2002 the artist released "The Rising" the first studio album with the E Street Band for 19 years. The 2005 album "Devils & Dust" was again mostly acoustic and recorded without the band. In November 2005, Sirius Satellite Radio started a 24-hour, seven-day-a-week radio station on Channel 10 called "E Street Radio". This channel brings commercial-free Bruce Springsteen music, including rare tracks, interviews, and daily concerts of Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band recorded throughout their career. In April 2006, Springsteen released "We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions", a project with folk songs which were made popular by Pete Seeger. It was recorded with a large ensemble of musicians including only Patti Scialfa, Soozie Tyrell, and The Miami Horns from past efforts. The end of the decade brought three albums. ("Magic" (#1), "Working on a Dream" (#1) and "The Promise" (#16), which featured again outtakes of different songs). On January 11, 2009, Springsteen won the Golden Globe Award for Best Song for "The Wrestler", from the Mickey Rourke movie by the same name.

paragraphs: In September 1979, Springsteen and the E Street Band joined the Musicians United for Safe Energy (MUSE) anti-nuclear power collective at Madison Square Garden for two nights, playing an short set and two songs from his next album. 1988 Springsteen headlined the worldwide Human Rights Now! tour for Amnesty International. 2008 he supported Barack Obama's presidential campaign

paragraphs: and he was the musical opener for the Obama Inaugural Celebration on January 18, 2009. He performed "The Rising" with a female choir. Later he performed Woody Guthrie's "This Land Is Your Land" with Pete Seeger.

paragraphs: Springsteen's lyrics often explore highly personal themes such as disappointment and unhappiness with life in everyday situations.

paragraphs: He did most of his records with the E Street Band. The band was formed in October, 1972. Although Springsteen played with other bands, the E Street Band was his band for 40 years. The band took the name from a street in Belmar, New Jersey where the mother of a founding member lived and allowed the band to practice. The band members do also solo works and play as session musicians (for example: Bittan and Van Zandt for Bob Dylan on "Empire Burlesque"). Clemons and Lofgren also went on tour with Ringo Starr and his All-Starr Band in 1989.

paragraphs: Although Springsteen informed the band in 1989 that he would not play with them they stayed friends and from 1999 onwards they again played and recorded together.

paragraphs: Major studio albums (along with their chart positions in the U.S. Billboard 200 at the time of release):


title: Intersexuality

paragraphs: Intersex variations occur (though rarely) in species which use sexual reproduction. Intersex people are born with sex characteristics that lie between those of typical males and typical females. Hermaphrodite is a term that gets confused with intersexual, and while all hermaphrodites are intersexual, not all intersexual people are hermaphrodites. The clinical term 'disorders of sex development' (DSD) is very controversial.

paragraphs: An intersex individual's genitalia may be atypical in some way. It can be difficult to determine if an intersex baby is genetically male or female (with XY chromosomes or XX chromosomes). They may also have male and/or female secondary sex characteristics (such as body shape). However, there is a wide range of variation in sexual anatomy. There are many more subtle forms of sex anatomy, or sex chromosome differences. These don't even show physically. Some won't show up until later in life. Sometimes, the variation may appear when the baby reaches puberty or becomes an adult. It may not even be detected in an individual's lifetime, but as technology gets more advanced, that chance dims down.

paragraphs: Up to 1.7% of people may be born with an intersex variation. A child born with genitalia atypical enough to call in an expert occurs in about 1 of 1,500 births. More information on the frequency of different causes is available.

paragraphs: Most causes of intersex are congenital, or born with it, usually because of a genetic condition. All development is governed by genes which regulate the process of growth.

paragraphs: The most common intersex variation is a hormone condition. This causes genetically female fetuses to have a more masculine body appearance, because the babies' adrenal gland produces higher levels of androgen hormones (hormones that act like testosterone). This may cause the female baby to appear male even to doctors and parents.

paragraphs: Some intersex people may be so because of abnormalities with their sex chromosomes, resulting in genetic disorders. One disorder known as Turner's Syndrome, is when instead of having an XX (female) or XY (male) genotype, a person has X0. A person with Turner's Syndrome usually looks like a girl, but they are shorter in height and do not go through puberty, meaning they cannot reproduce.

paragraphs: Another genetic disorder is Klinefelter Syndrome, where a person has an XXY genotype. This disorder affects men, causing infertility, smaller genitalia, and less facial hair. Men with this disorder can have a variety of symptoms which can be so unnoticeable that they may never be diagnosed.

paragraphs: Surgery may be used on intersex babies to give a more usual cosmetic appearance. This is sometimes thought to make children more normal, but this idea lacks evidence and is contested. Early cosmetic medical interventions can lead to problems in later life, including decreased sexual function and sensation. The children concerned cannot consent to those surgeries, and their parents may not understand the full implications. There is no medical consensus about surgical interventions, including their type, timing, necessity and conduct.

paragraphs: Medical interventions can cause mental and emotional harm to the child when it grows and begins to go through puberty. Children may not feel like they are the gender that is assigned to them by their parents or doctors, causing issues with gender identity. Some people believe it is best to leave the genitalia as it is when the child is born and allow them to make decisions about it when they are old enough.

paragraphs: Civil society organizations and human rights experts have called for an end to medical interventions on intersex children that are carried out for social reasons. United Nations and other human rights experts regard these medical treatments as harmful.

paragraphs: In 2011, Christiane Völling became the first intersex person known to win a legal case taken because of non-consensual surgical intervention. In April 2015, Malta became the first country to end medical interventions to modify the sex anatomy of intersex children.

paragraphs: Several countries protect intersex people from discrimination, including South Africa, Australia, and Malta.

paragraphs: As intersexuality becomes more recognized all over the world, there are many activist groups created to promote recognizing and supporting members of this community. One major activist group known as the Intersex Society of North America, or INSA, teaches people what intersexuality is and the harms of children having gender assignment surgery without their permission to consent.

paragraphs: One of the major issues intersex people face is other people who are not intersex making them feel uncomfortable about their sex and gender. Intersex people may not feel the need to identify themselves at all in their lifetimes, preferring to maintain ambiguity. However, those who are not a part of this community feel as though people need to chose and be more clear about their genitalia. This invasion of privacy is often protested against and discussed by activist groups who believe intersex people are allowed to be private and deserve to be treated the same as those who are not intersex.


title: Human digestive system

paragraphs: The digestive system is the parts of the body that digest food; it is also called the gastrointestinal system. It breaks down food into simple chemicals which can be absorbed into the blood stream. From the blood stream, nutrients go first to the liver, which is a kind of chemical factory for the body. The liver adjusts the nutrients so that the mix is what the body needs. The digestive system consists of gastric acid (hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride, and sodium chloride), which is very reactive and has a pH level of 1.5 to 3.5. The stomach has a protective layer called the mucus.

paragraphs: The digestive system also gets rid of waste material. The gastrointestinal system starts at the lips and ends at the anus. Animals like worms, insects, mammals, birds, fish, and people all have digestive systems.

paragraphs: The gastrointestinal tract is not only the gut, but also other organs that help us digest food. For example, digestive enzymes are needed to help us absorb carbohydrates and meat.

paragraphs: The parts of the human, and many other animals, digestive system are:

paragraphs: Other organs that are part of the gastrointestinal system but are "not" part of the gut are:

paragraphs: Food does not go through these organs. But they help the gut digest the food. They also have other work. For example, the pancreas, thyroid, liver, and parathyroids are also endocrine glands that make hormones like insulin.

paragraphs: There are many diseases that affect the gastrointestinal system. Doctors who study the gastrointestinal tract are called gastroenterologists.


title: Mouth

paragraphs: The mouth is an opening in the face and is the first part of the alimentary canal (digestive system). It is the place where food is chewed. The mouth has teeth to help chew the food.

paragraphs: In addition to its main role as the start of the digestive system, in humans the mouth also plays a great part in communication. The tongue, lips, and jaw, which are parts of the mouth, are needed to produce the number of sounds in human language. People also kiss and show their feelings with the mouth.


title: Deacon

paragraphs: A deacon is a role in the Christian church. The job of a deacon is different depending on the church he or she is a part of. A deacon usually helps to run the church and teaches people about Christianity. A deacon can also witness marriages.

paragraphs: Men who intend to become priests are usually named deacons for some time before advancing onto the rank of priest.

paragraphs: In the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches men are not allowed to marry after they have become deacons. Deacons in Protestant churches are allowed to marry.

paragraphs: A protodeacon is an honorary rank given to certain married deacons in Eastern Christian churches. In the Russian Orthodox Church it is an honorary title given to married deacons, as a mark of which, the clergyman is entitled to wear a burgundy-colored skufia.


title: Friedrich Engels

paragraphs: Friedrich Engels II (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German political thinker. With his best friend Karl Marx, Engels wrote about Communism. They wrote the famous book "The Communist Manifesto" together.

paragraphs: Friedrich Engels II was born in Barmen, Germany in 1820. His father was a very rich factory owner, and he sent Friedrich to England to run one of the factories. The way the workers were living at his father's factories made Engels upset with the class system. At about this time, he began to write about politics and workers' struggles.

paragraphs: In 1844 he met Karl Marx in France and the two became friends and began to write together. The two men worked together until Marx's death in 1883.

paragraphs: After Marx died, Engels spent the rest of his life editing and translating Marx' writings. He also wrote about women and marriage. He died of throat cancer in London in 1895.


title: Dinner

paragraphs: Dinner is a word with a few different meanings.

paragraphs: In North America dinner usually means a large meal that is eaten in early evening. Sometimes dinner can mean a meal eaten in the middle of the day. This meaning is more common in the Southern United States and the United Kingdom .

paragraphs: A more formal definition of "dinner", especially outside North America, is any meal that has several courses. The minimum number of course is often regarded as two but there can be as many as seven. If there is only one course and it is the main meal of the day, then it is called dinner.

paragraphs: Dinner is very important to some cultures. Dinner is a large part, often a tradition, on many American holidays including Thanksgiving and Christmas.


title: Rosa Luxemburg

paragraphs: Rosa Luxemburg (5 March 1871 in Zamość, Russian Poland – 15 January 1919 in Berlin) was a Polish-Jewish Marxist politician working in both Poland and Germany. Her birth name was Rosalia "Luxemburg". She was born into a Jewish family. She was the fifth child of her parents. Her father was a wood trader/timber trader. His name was Eliasz Luxemburg III. Her mother's name was Line (maiden name: Löwenstein).

paragraphs: In one of her earliest publications, 'Reform or Revolution?' (1900) Luxemburg accepted Marx's argument that capitalism promoted exploitation and was at odds with humanity's natural, fraternal instincts. She also agreed that evolutionary socialism was impossible: only revolution could create real change. However, like Lenin, she had little sympathy for Marx's 'historicism' and denied that for a revolution to occur, capitalism would have to reach an advanced stage of development. However, Luxemburg's analysis of how the revolution should come would distinguish her from both Marx and Lenin.

paragraphs: After WW1 Luxemburg helped establish the German Communist Party (KDP). She organised a socialist uprising in Germany but was killed by a right-wing group called the Freikorps. Rosa Luxemburg made many new communist ideas that continue to influence communism today. Rosa Luxemburg supported the Russian Revolution led by Lenin and Trotsky, but she saw them both as making undemocratic mistakes in organizing what was supposed to be a more democratic nation. She also insisted the freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, freedom of speech and abolition of death penalty. In 1913 she published an essay "The Accumulation of Capital" that urges that capital accumulation causes the imperialism.

paragraphs: Rosa Luxemburg was murdered-executed by the Garde-Kavallerie-Schützendivision of the Freikorps.


title: Liver

paragraphs: The liver is an organ in the abdomen. It is part of the gastrointestinal system. Sometimes people use "hepar- or hepat-" as a prefix whenever they talk about the liver.

paragraphs: The liver does many important things in the body:

paragraphs: There are many different liver diseases. Liver disease can make someone very sick because of all the important work the liver does. People who have bad liver disease usually die unless they can get a liver transplant. This is when the liver from someone who has just died is put in another person by surgery. Such surgeries are usually technically challenging but can be life-saving.

paragraphs: The symptoms of liver disease happen because the liver does not do the work it should.

paragraphs: The liver cannot metabolize toxins and waste so these bad things stay in the blood longer. One thing that builds up is a substance called bilirubin. When red blood cells die, the hemoglobin in them leaks into the blood. The hemoglobin becomes bilirubin (a yellow substance that makes bile yellow). The liver takes the bilirubin out of the blood and puts it into the bile. The bile goes into the intestines and then goes out with the waste from your body. If the liver is hurt, it does not remove the bilirubin, so the bilirubin stays in the body. This makes the person's body look yellow and is known as jaundice. So yellow eyes and yellow skin are symptoms of liver disease.

paragraphs: Hepatitis is when liver cells get "inflamed" (sick). This can be from virus infections. This can be caused by toxins or poisons. The most common toxin to cause hepatitis is "alcohol". It can also have genetic, or autoimmune causes, when the body's immune system hurts itself.

paragraphs: Cirrhosis is caused by death of liver cells that happens again and again. When the cells die, scar tissue forms. This scar tissue damages the structure of the liver. This makes the liver not work as well. But it also makes the pressure in the veins that go to the liver very high. This high pressure makes "esophageal varices". The most common reason for cirrhosis in the world is hepatitis B virus infection.

paragraphs: Some diseases cause bad things to build up in the liver. Hemochromatosis causes extra iron to build up in the liver. Wilson's disease causes extra copper to build up in the liver. Both of these diseases hurt the cells and can cause very bad liver disease that kills people.

paragraphs: You can also get cancer of your liver. This can be metastatic cancer that came from some other place in your body. The liver is a common place to get metastases because it takes bad things out of the blood. So it takes cancer cells out of the blood and they grow in the liver. Cancer can also grow in the liver. If it grows in the liver it is called "hepatocellular carcinoma" (liver cell cancer). Most hepatocellular carcinoma is from cirrhosis.

paragraphs: Some liver diseases can be treated easily with medicine. Hemochromatosis is treated by taking blood from people every two months.

paragraphs: Some liver viruses can be stopped before they start. Two types of viral hepatitis can be stopped with an immunization. Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B can be prevented with a total of five shots in a person's life.

paragraphs: Some liver diseases can only be treated with liver transplant.


title: Coachella Valley

paragraphs: The Coachella Valley is a desert valley in the Colorado Desert of Southern California. It is famous as a resort destination and an agricultural region.

paragraphs: The cities of the Coachella Valley from west to east are:

paragraphs: Many people visit the area during tourist season, which is from September to June. It has a hot desert climate (BWh in the Koeppen climate classification) Winter in the Coachella Valley is warm. Summer is very hot, with temperatures over 100 degrees Fahrenheit/40 degrees Centigrade. Although the area is a desert, there is lots of water both under the ground and in aqueducts from the Colorado River. The weather is so similar to that in the Middle East that the area grows more than 95% of the nation's crop of dates. A grapefruit called the "Coachella Grapefruit" was first grown there.

paragraphs: One of the world's greatest engineering feats is in Palm Springs. The Palm Springs Aerial Tramway brings visitors from the floor of the valley to the top of Mount San Jacinto, 8516 feet (3000 metres) up.


title: Derivative work

paragraphs: Derivative work is a phrase used in copyright law. It is a piece of work (for example: a novel, a song or a painting) that is based on what someone else created.

paragraphs: Copyright law says that if someone writes a book, draws a picture, or writes a song, then it belongs to them. Other people are not allowed to copy it unless the person who created it says that they can. This is important because it means the person who created the work can sell what they created and get money.

paragraphs: A derivative work is one that is based on something else. If a person watches a movie, and then writes a story about the people in the movie, that story is a derivative work. If after hearing a song, someone sings the same tune with different words, the song they sung is a derivative work.

paragraphs: In the law, if someone else has a copyright on something, no one is allowed to create a derivative work unless they say it is allowed. So if someone watches a movie, they are not allowed to write a story about the people in the movie unless the people who made the movie give them permission.

paragraphs: This only applies to the things that are known about by the person creating the work. If a movie is made, but they do not go and see the movie, and then they write a book that has the same story as the movie, that is not a derivative work.


title: Rugby football

paragraphs: Rugby football is a sport people play in many countries. It is usually called rugby or rugger.

paragraphs: Rugby football is named after Rugby School, the public school in England where it was developed. Legend has it that one day in 1823, a senior boy called William Webb Ellis elected to run with the ball rather than retiring to kick it as was the normal mode of play in Rugby School football matches. "Running in" was not considered quite the done thing then but was later formalised in the laws of Rugby Football (first published in 1846).

paragraphs: Its rival, Association football (soccer), came later. It was not formalised until 1863. Even then handling of the ball was allowed, but not catching it and running with it. In the mid 1860s an attempt was made to provide one set of laws for all football but there were irreconcilable differences, mainly concerning "hacking" (kicking an opponent in the shins). The "hackers" went on to eventually play rugby football even though hacking was barred a few years later. The "anti-hackers" went on to form Association Football, eventually banning any handling.

paragraphs: There are two types of rugby, called Rugby Union and Rugby League. Originally, Rugby Union was played in England by gentlemen amateurs, and Rugby League was played by working class guys for pay. There are many similarities between the two types of rugby, but they have developed different sets of rules over time. The split between the two types occurred because of a disagreement about the way players were treated when they were injured during a game.

paragraphs: Rugby Union is the most popular form of rugby, and it is the national sport in New Zealand, Wales, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Madagascar. Rugby League is played by many people in the UK (especially in northern England), Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. In most other places, the word "rugby" refers to rugby union.

paragraphs: Rugby football is played on a field by two teams of 15 people. The objective of the game is to obtain more points than the opposing team within 80 minutes of playing time. Points are gained through scoring tries or kicking goals.

paragraphs: At each end of the playing field there is a field goal made out of poles, shaped like the letter H in English. There is also an area called the in-goal. A goal is scored when a player kicks the ball through the top of the H of the other team's goal.

paragraphs: Play starts when a player from one team kicks the ball from the halfway line towards the opposing team's field goal. Play continues until a try is scored, the ball crosses the side line or dead ball line, or an infringement occurs. The ball can be moved up the field either by carrying or kicking it. The ball can be passed between team members, but it cannot be passed to team members who are closer to the opposing team's goal than the person who is currently carrying the ball.

paragraphs: Players score a "try" if they manage to touch the ball to the ground on or beyond the other team's in-goal. After a try, the team that scored the try then has an opportunity to kick a goal. This is known as a "conversion kick". A goal that is scored from a conversion kick is worth two points in addition to the points of a try. A try is worth five points in rugby union, and four points in rugby league. After a team scores points, play restarts with the non-scoring team kicking the ball from the halfway line toward the opposing team's field goal.

paragraphs: Players tackle members of the other team to prevent the opposing team from scoring. Tackling in rugby means grabbing the other person and either stopping them from moving or making them fall on the ground. The main rule for tackling in rugby is that there should be no contact with the neck. Only players carrying the ball can be tackled. Once a tackle is completed, the opposition can compete for the ball.

paragraphs: The Rugby World Cup is a championship of rugby union teams from countries all over the world. The Rugby World Cup is held every four years, and will next be held in 2023, in France.

paragraphs: There is also the Rugby League World Cup, which is made up of member nations of the Rugby League International Federation (RLIF). The tournament has an irregular schedule. The next tournament will be in 2017, and will be hosted by Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea.


title: Kidney

paragraphs: Kidneys are two organs in the abdomen of vertebrates that are shaped like beans. They make urine (the yellow waste water that comes out of the urethra.) They are part of the urinary system. When medical professionals discuss the kidneys, they typically refer to the word "renal". For example, "renal failure" is when the kidneys are sick and do not work.

paragraphs: The prefix "nephro-" is also used in words to mean "kidneys". For example, a "nephrologist" is a doctor who studies kidneys.

paragraphs: The kidney makes hormones. The two most important ones that it makes are erythropoetin and renin.

paragraphs: Erythropoetin is made by the kidneys if there is less oxygen in the kidney. Erythropoetin tells the bone marrow to make more red blood cells. So this means there will be more oxygen carried in the blood.

paragraphs: Renin is made by the kidney if there is low blood pressure, low volume of blood, or too low salts in the blood. Renin makes the blood vessels smaller and tells the adrenal gland to make aldosterone (which tells the kidneys to save salts). It also makes a person feel thirsty. All of this makes the blood pressure go up.

paragraphs: The kidney's most important work is keeping homeostasis. Homeostasis means that the body keeps a stable environment inside itself. The body needs to have the consistent and proper amount of water, salt, and acid in the blood. The kidney keeps these things constant.

paragraphs: If there is too much water, the kidney puts more water in the urine. If there is not enough water, the kidney uses less water in the urine. This is why people make less urine when they are dehydrated.

paragraphs: There are many types of kidney diseases. A kidney disease makes the kidneys unable to work perfectly but they do work in part. People can have mild kidney failure and have no symptoms. As long as it does not become worse, people may not even know they have it. "Severe" kidney failure means "very" bad failure. The kidneys do not work very much at all. People with severe kidney failure "always" have symptoms. They may need special care from doctors.

paragraphs: If a person's kidneys do not work properly, they are very sick. If they have severe kidney failure, they cannot live unless they have a replacement for their kidneys.

paragraphs: There are two ways to replace the kidneys: dialysis and transplantation.

paragraphs: Dialysis is when doctors use a machine and medicines to do the work of the kidneys. There are two kinds of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.

paragraphs: Peritoneal dialysis is when doctors put a plastic tube into the person's abdomen. Every day the person fills the abdomen with fluid. The extra salts, waste, and water that the body does not need goes into the fluid. Then the fluid comes out and takes the wastes with it. This does part of the job that kidneys do.

paragraphs: Hemodialysis is when doctors take blood from a person, clean the blood with a special kind of filter, called a" haemodialyser," and put it back in the person. When the blood is cleaned; water, salts and wastes are taken out of it. This must be done 2–4 times every week (usually 3 times.) It takes 2–4 hours to do this each time.

paragraphs: Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are not perfect. They do some of the work of the kidney, but it is not as good as a real kidney. So people who need dialysis are not as healthy. They must take medicines. For example, in kidney failure, the kidneys do not make any erythropoetin. Doctors have to give people erythropoetin so they make enough red blood cells.

paragraphs: A better way to do the kidneys' work is to give the person another kidney. This is called a kidney transplant. Kidney transplants are the most common type of organ transplant. It is the most common because we have two kidneys, but only need one kidney to live. People who are alive can donate a kidney to another person.

paragraphs: Even transplanted kidneys are not the same as kidneys people were born with. A person who gets a renal transplant must take strong medicines to stop their body from attacking the new kidney. Sometimes, after years, the transplanted kidney stops working. But sometimes a patient can get a new transplanted kidney after the first one stops working.

paragraphs: It was widely believed in Europe that the conscience was actually located in the kidneys. This idea was taken from the Hebrew Bible. In modern times, medical scientists have shown kidneys do not have this kind of psychological role.


title: Prefix

paragraphs: A prefix is a part of a word or a word, within a word. It is put at the start of another word to make a different meaning. It can also mean a number that is put in at the start to show which number something is in a group. It is a type of affix.

paragraphs: compound nouns (in other cases also compound adjectives).

paragraphs: The following examples illustrate real prefixes.

paragraphs: Often people want to use a prefix to mean "not". There are many prefixes that mean "not".

paragraphs: We also learnt the prefixes anti which means against and auto is used to mean self "or own"

paragraphs: anti glare which means it will prevent sun and light glare on a screen

paragraphs: autograph which means a person's signature

paragraphs: Scientists and doctors use prefixes in many words.

paragraphs: Sometimes people make up words by adding a prefix. These words are not in a dictionary. But if people use these words enough, sometimes they go into dictionaries.

paragraphs: For example, we can make the word "unsimple", which splits up into "not simple". This is not a word in a dictionary.

paragraphs: Compare to suffix. Suffixes are letters put at the end of a word to change its meaning.


title: UNESCO

paragraphs: UNESCO is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (). It is an agency of the United Nations (UN).

paragraphs: UNESCO says its purpose, as defined just after the end of World War II, is "to build the defenses of peace in the minds of men and women". It does this by helping nations work together, through education for all, science, and culture. This is supposed to help other nations follow the rule of law and human rights. It also helps promote some freedoms in the UN Charter.

paragraphs: UNESCO tries to achieve what it wants to do through six programs: education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, communication and information. Some projects sponsored by UNESCO are literacy, technical, and teacher-training programmes. UNESCO also decides what will become World Heritage Sites. A World Heritage Site is an important, special, interesting or beautiful place. If a place is a World Heritage Site, the place can not be destroyed, as it can give useful information for the future. The Uluru, for example, gives a lot of information on the culture of Aborigines. UNESCO is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. and works for Millennium Development Goals.


title: Human rights

paragraphs: Human rights are rights and freedoms that all people should have.

paragraphs: Today, the ideas of human rights are protected as legal rights in national and international law.

paragraphs: They are seen as "universal," which means they are meant for everyone, no matter what their race, religion, ethnicity, nationality, age, sex, political beliefs (or any other kind of beliefs), intelligence, disability, sexual orientation, or gender identity are.

paragraphs: Every person has all of these rights, it is not possible to only grant some of them:

paragraphs: The idea of human rights originated from ideas found in religion and philosophy in Western Europe. The modern Western idea of human rights started in the European Enlightenment. In the 16th century, some people started suggesting that everyone had the religious and political right to choose their religion and their leaders. This sort of thinking was important in the English Civil War. After the war, the philosopher John Locke argued that people should have a certain set of human rights. These ideas were also important in the American revolution and the French revolution in the 18th century.

paragraphs: In the 19th century, John Stuart Mill was an important philosopher who also thought about human rights. He said that people should be able to control their own bodies and minds. He talked about three special ideas:

paragraphs: Hegel was a philosopher who wrote about the idea of free will. He believed that in order to have freedom, a person should be able to:

paragraphs: Because people believe that human rights are important, countries make laws to protect them. These laws say that governments cannot take away people's basic rights. They make sure people who take away other people's rights are punished. However, many countries in the world do not protect the human rights of their people.

paragraphs: Some major political groups and countries have made statements that promote human rights. Many governments and international groups punish human rights violators by refusing to trade with them, or even helping groups that want to overthrow their governments.

paragraphs: Some of the important places that human rights laws are written is in constitutions. The United States Constitution and Constitution of France are two of the oldest set of laws based on human rights.

paragraphs: In 1948 the United Nations made the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This is a widely respected document that lists what the United Nations believes are human rights. It is not a law, but two important agreements have been written based on its ideas:

paragraphs: These are United Nations human rights "Covenants": agreements between people or countries. The countries who sign these two covenants agree to follow them.

paragraphs: In addition to those Declaration and Covenants, there are many treaties and documents made by United Nations and other international organizations. Those treaties and documents are called "International human rights law".

paragraphs: Not everyone agrees on what the basic human rights are. It is very clear that few countries permit all these rights. Also, there are countries in which the rights are not illegal, but nothing is done to promote them. Here is a list of some of the most recognized rights:

paragraphs: Human rights abuses are when a person is hurt in a way that violates (goes against) his/her human rights. Human rights abuses are also often called "human rights violations".

paragraphs: Many people, groups, and countries think protecting human rights is very important. But not everyone in the world believes in human rights. If people who do not believe in human rights have political power they can hurt many people. Even if these people have no political power, they can be violent to other people. There are many people who work to protect everyone's human rights; some of these are government groups, and some are not with any government. They are sometimes called "human rights organizations". Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch are examples of human rights organizations.

paragraphs: In the UK, every Act of Parliament must comply with the European Convention on Human Rights. Nonetheless, a person can challenge an Act if it violates the Convention. However, the Government are not bound to change the law due to incompatibility, and they have the power to pass a law that contravenes with the Human Rights, if they wish.


title: Nationality

paragraphs: The nationality of a person is that person's legal relationship with a state, for example a Swedish person's legal relationship with the kingdom of Sweden. Nationality is not identical to citizenship but in the majority of states most of the population are both citizens and nationals. Dual nationality means that the person has a legal relationship with two different states at the same time, for example with the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. The rights and duties of individual people and the states they belong to vary from country to country.

paragraphs: "Nationality" can take on different meanings depending on the country, language and culture in question. For example, someone of Italian descent may be called "Italian" even if the individual, a member of the Italian diaspora, has no right to an Italian passport and citizenship. In past centuries, the usual meaning of "nationality" was not political, but rather meant membership in an ethnic group. In modern cases such as in airports, when officials ask your "nationality," they are asking to see the passport you use for travel to foreign countries.


title: Race

paragraphs: Race has many meanings in English. It can mean: