title: Gabriel Pascal

paragraphs: Gabriel Pascal (4 June 1894 – 6 July 1954) was a Hungarian movie producer and director.

paragraphs: Gabriel Pascal was born in Transylvania (which is now part of Romania) in 1894. Pascal is best known for having turned some of the best plays by the famous Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw into successful movies. His most famous movie made from one of Shaw's plays was "Pygmalion" in 1938. "Pygmalion" tells the story of a bet that two rich men made over whether one of them, Professor Higgins, could turn a poor uneducated girl into a sophisticated lady. The movie was so successful that after Gabriel Pascal died it was made into a huge Broadway musical called "My Fair Lady", and amazingly this musical was then made into another movie. So "Pygmalion" was first a play, then a movie based on the play, then a play based on the movie, and then a new play based on the movie made from the old play. It is therefore quite a remarkable history and it was Gabriel Pascal's idea to make the play a musical, though he did not live long enough to do it himself.

paragraphs: Gabriel Pascal invented his name and no one seems to know his real one. He claimed to have memories of being rescued by Gypsies from a burning building when he was a tiny child and that the Gypsies taught him to beg, steal, and do acrobatic tricks, but no one knows if this is true. It is unclear what parts of his fabulous account of his childhood are true as there are no formal records of him prior to the age of 17 when he was enlisted in military school in Holics, Hungary, by a mysterious Catholic priest. Gabriel Pascal, who was decidedly unfit for military life, became interested in theater and studied at the Academy of the Hofburg Theater in Vienna. Later his interest expanded into the newly burgeoning cinema and he made movies in Germany and Italy with sporadic success.

paragraphs: Pascal had one son, Peter, conceived in Germany during the delirium of a fever with his landlady's sister Elsie. Unable to care even for himself, Pascal fled to Holland. After WWII ended, at last on his feet with the success of "Pygmalion" and "Major Barbara", Pascal rushed to Germany to search for his son Peter, but he was listed among the missing Hitler Youth. Elsie had been killed by a bomb.

paragraphs: As a young man, Pascal found a job tending horses in Hungary. Leading the horses through the forest to a stream each day, Pascal developed the habit of riding bareback naked through the Hungarian countryside. One day he accidentally rode stark naked through the outdoor set of a silent movie in production and was "discovered." The film's director asked him to repeat the ride for the cameras and he joined the group. Soon he was making his own movies.

paragraphs: Pascal had another auspicious encounter when he was young while walking along the shore of the Mediterranean. An old man, George Bernard Shaw, was swimming naked holding onto a buoy. A conversation ensued and Shaw dared the young Pascal on the shore to take off his clothes and join him in the water. He was impressed when Pascal immediately did so and this began their friendship. Shaw was impressed with Pascal's youthful enthusiasm for art and his bravado and invited him to come visit him one day when he was entirely broke. This chance meeting was to play a major role in Pascal's later career.

paragraphs: Pascal began his producing career making silent movies in Italy for German distribution through UFA Studios in Berlin. His directorial debut was "Populi Morituri" in which he also starred. He later produced horror movies in Germany. His most famous was "Unholy Tales" in 1932. It was an anthology of short spooky stories, including some by Edgar Allan Poe, tied together by the adventures of a black cat and is considered by some to be a forgotten horror classic.

paragraphs: In 1933, during a trip to Hollywood, Pascal was contacted by Princess Norina Matchabelli about a movie project based on the teachings of her guru Meher Baba. Pascal got very caught up in this project, bringing movie writers Hy Kraft and Karl Vollmöller into helping him work up treatments and even making a trip to India to discuss the project further with Meher Baba. By the time Pascal arrived in India, however, Meher Baba did not seem in any hurry to complete the movie, saying it could wait and inviting Pascal to live with him in India. Most ordinary men would have been discouraged, but Pascal took energetically to the austere life of an eastern ascetic, even shedding his western garb for eastern clothing. He took a liking to Meher Baba and maintained a correspondence with him all of his life. Meher Baba nicknamed Pascal "Phoenix" and alternately "Panther."

paragraphs: Pascal remained in contact with his guru Meher Baba right up to the end of his life and met with him in person one last time in New York in 1952. Even in this final meeting there was mention of the movie that Pascal had agreed to try to make for Baba.

paragraphs: In time, however, Pascal's desire to make his mark on cinema returned and Pascal took a ship back to America penniless but undaunted. He landed in San Francisco where he spent some time deciding what to do next. Then it struck him to approach George Bernard Shaw (the most famous living playwright in the English speaking world at the time), whom Pascal had met auspiciously many years earlier. During that earlier meeting Shaw, who had been impressed with the young Pascal's passion for art and cinema, had told him to pay him a visit when he was entirely penniless. Pascal was now exactly that. He then sought out Shaw, first by going to N.Y. hidden in the toilet of the train, then convincing a sea captain to give him a lift to England.

paragraphs: Somehow he did convince Shaw to give him the rights to his plays, beginning with "Pygmalion" (1938), which was an enormous international hit, both critically and financially. Pascal followed up "Pygmalion" with "Major Barbara" (1941) which he directed as well as produced. "Major Barbara" was filmed in London during the bombing by the Nazis. During air raids the crew and cast had to dodge into bomb shelters. Pascal never stopped the production and the movie was completed on schedule. But Pascal became more and more extravagant, finally losing his credibility with "Caesar and Cleopatra" (1945) which was the most expensive British movie ever made at that time and a terrible financial and critical flop, although it is more highly regarded today. Pascal famously insisted on importing sand from Egypt to achieve the right cinematic colors for this extravaganza. Shaw had become more difficult to work with also. After the success of "Pygmalion", which was shortened in its transition from stage to screen, as plays generally are, he increasingly refused to let his plays be cut. The result was that "Major Barbara" and "Caesar and Cleopatra" were not only filmed virtually complete, but with additional scenes by Shaw himself. Each of the two movies ran over two hours.

paragraphs: Pascal did manage to produce one more movie, "Androcles and the Lion", in 1952. By this time he was increasingly sick with cancer of the liver.

paragraphs: In spring of 1954, in New York City, just before his passing Pascal had planned a trip to India to see Meher Baba one last time. He was having an affair and divorcing his wife at the time. One day he impulsively wrote on a piece of hotel stationery to his mistress, "If I die on my trip to India I leave my entire estate to you." He signed and dated it before two witnesses, a cook and a maid in the hotel who did not speak English but only Chinese. This was an absurd gesture since Pascal was totally in debt. He died within a short time of this letter in July 1954, and within two years of his death the musical "My Fair Lady", which Pascal had managed to retain an option on by borrowing money from a Baba follower named Margaret Scott, opened on Broadway. Thus, soon after his death, his estate, which had been worth nothing on his deathbed, grew to an estimated value of two million dollars. There was a large court battle in which his wife Valerie (who he was not fully divorced from at the time of his death) and the mistress fought over his estate. His odd last will and testament on the hotel stationery was entered as evidence in support of his mistress and the case was well-publicized. Several Meher Baba followers were involved in his life at the end including Harold Rudd who testified at his trial. The result of the trial was an even split of Pascal's royalties from "My Fair Lady" between the mistress and Pascal's estranged wife, each receiving well over one million dollars in settlement. His wife Valerie attempted to pay back the borrowed option money to Margaret Scott, but by the time the settlement came through Mrs. Scott had fallen from a New York apartment window to her death. Valerie therefore paid the money to Margaret's daughter instead.

paragraphs: Pascal is best remembered as one of the big Hungarian movie producers, like the famous Alexander Korda. He was the only producer ever to have major movie deals with seven separate countries on three continents: Hungary, Italy, Germany, China, India, England, and the US. He was also the only man to ever convince George Bernard Shaw to adjust his scripts to the new medium of cinema, gaining concessions from Shaw that no other man could. Pascal even invented the famous line for Pygmalion, later appearing in the theatrical and movie versions of "My Fair Lady," "The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain" and Shaw, by now publicly referring to Pascal as a "genius," wrote the line into the script. He was one of the most extravagant men of his time, named in 1938 as one of the world's most famous men by "Time" magazine along with Adolf Hitler. He is less known for his deep interest in the spiritual and his boundless enthusiasm for art as a direct and honest route to God. He is even less known for his lifelong devotion to spiritual master Meher Baba. His life is well documented in the beautifully written biography by his wife Valerie, "The Disciple and His Devil," published by McGraw-Hill in 1970 and republished by iUniverse in 1984. After Pascal's death, Valerie married the famous publisher and philanthropist George T. Delacorte Jr. and spent the rest of her life supporting charitable foundations under the name Valerie Delacorte.


title: McLaren

paragraphs: McLaren Racing Limited is a Formula 1 racing team. McLaren was started by Bruce McLaren in 1963. McLaren's current drivers are Carlos Sainz Jr. and Lando Norris.

paragraphs: McLaren also makes road cars at its Woking factory.


title: Haylie Duff

paragraphs: Haylie Katherine Duff (born February 19, 1985) is an American actress and singer. She is best known for her supporting role on the television series "7th Heaven". She is the sister of Hilary Duff.

paragraphs: Duff was born in Houston, Texas. Her mother, Susan Duff, is a producer. Robert Erhard Duff, Haylie's father, lives at the family home in Houston. Haylie is two and a half years older than her sister.

paragraphs: Duff wrote or co-wrote several songs on two of her sister Hilary's albums, "Metamorphosis" (2003), "Hilary Duff" (2004) and the song, "Gypsy Woman", on Hilary's 4th album, "Dignity". She has also done many songs for different soundtracks with her sister.


title: 20th Century Studios

paragraphs: 20th Century Studios (formerly known from 1914 to 1931 as Fox Film, 1933 to 1935 as 20th Century Pictures 1935 to 1985 and 1985 to 2020 as Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation or Twentieth Century Fox or 20th Century Fox Film Corporation) is a large American company that makes movies ("motion picture studio"). It is in the Century City area of Los Angeles, California, USA, just west of Beverly Hills. 20th Century Studios (co-creator character: Lucy the Mouse).

paragraphs: Before 2013, 20th Century Fox was a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company before it was split into two companies. After that, one of those companies, 21st Century Fox, became the studio's owner. On December 14, 2017, The Walt Disney Company said that it has acquired many of 21st Century Fox's subsidiaries, including 20th Century Fox. Thus, the studio is now owned by Disney and became 20th Century Studios.

paragraphs: 20th Century Studios was formed in 1935 when Fox Film Corporation and Twentieth Century Pictures joined together to form the company. 20th Century Fox Television is a part of the company that makes television series.


title: Marquette, Michigan

paragraphs: Marquette is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan. Close to 20,000 people live there. Marquette is in the Upper Peninsula, on Lake Superior and is an important port on that lake. Much of the iron ore that was taken from mines in the Upper Peninsula was loaded onto ships in Marquette. Marquette is in the United States of America.


title: John Taverner

paragraphs: John Taverner (born about 1490 – died 18 October, 1545) was the most important English composer of his time. He was also an organist.

paragraphs: We cannot be sure exactly when Taverner was born. Some people think that he was a boy chorister at the church of Tattershall in Lincolnshire but his name does not appear on the list of choristers there. People now think that he worked there later as a lay clerk.

paragraphs: He got a job at Cardinal College (now called Christ Church) in Oxford but he could not stay very long because King Henry VIII made lots of changes to the way people had to worship in church. Taverner even hid some books which the king had forbidden under the floor, and he got into trouble for doing this. In the end the Cardinal did not punish him because, he said, he was “only a musician”.

paragraphs: In 1530 he seems to have gone back to Lincolnshire and stayed there for the rest of his life. He probably wrote no more music, but he was quite rich.

paragraphs: Taverner composed eight masses. The most famous one is called the "Western Wynde". It was a “parody mass”, which meant that it used a popular tune with that title. Another mass was called "Gloria tibi trinitas". This work set a fashion for pieces which were called "In Nomine"s, because the tune was from the Benedictus in the mass which sets the words “in nomine domine” (“in the name of the Father”). “In nomine”s were compositions for instruments which used this tune.

paragraphs: Taverner also wrote magnificats and motets.


title: John Tavener

paragraphs: Sir John Tavener (28 January 1944 – 12 November 2013) was an English composer.

paragraphs: John Tavener was born in Wembley, Middlesex. He went to Highgate School in North London. Another pupil there at the time was John Rutter. At school he studied piano, organ and composition and wrote music for the school orchestra. He also wrote music for the Presbyterian church where his family went and where his father was organist. In 1962 he went to the Royal College of Music where he studied the piano at first but then changed to composition. One of his early successes was a cantata called "Cain and Abel" which was performed by the London Bach Society. It was the performance of "The Whale" by the London Sinfonietta in 1968 that made him really famous. This work used collage, pre-recorded tape, amplified percussion and a chorus who used loudhailers. This kind of thing was very fashionable in the 1960s.

paragraphs: Another work written in 1968 was "In Alium". It was performed at the Proms. It was an unusual concert: three works by living composers were played in the first half. The audience were asked to vote for which one they wanted to hear again after the interval. They chose "In Alium".

paragraphs: The Beatles became interested in Tavener’s music. John Lennon heard The Whale and he decided to issue Tavener’s music on the newly formed Apple label.

paragraphs: Tavener became professor of composition at Trinity College. He continued to compose, although he often had difficulty finishing pieces. He was often worried that he might not be able to think of any new music. In 1977 he became a member of the Russian Orthodox Church. This changed his life. His music was very religious. He married his second wife and had two children. He was also very ill with heart trouble and even died on the operating table in hospital, but he brought back to life by the doctors.

paragraphs: He made a very important friend, Mother Thekla. She was an 80-year-old nun in the Orthodox Church, and she gave John a lot of advice and encouragement in his life.

paragraphs: A short piece for choir, "The Lamb" was written as a birthday present for his 3 year old nephew. It is very often sung by choirs at Christmas as a carol.

paragraphs: In 1989, his work "The Protecting Veil" was performed at the Proms. It was a work for cello and orchestra. The cellist was Steven Isserlis. This piece is one of the best known modern works for cello. He continued to write a lot of music. His "Song for Athene" was performed at the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1998. It was heard on television all over the world.

paragraphs: Tavener died on 12 November 2013 at his home in Child Okeford, Dorset from unknown causes, aged 69. Tavener suffered many health issues. He suffered two heart attack and had surgery to remove an intestinal tumor.


title: Escape velocity

paragraphs: Escape velocity is the initial speed that something would need to completely escape the gravity of a large body, like a star or a planet (such as the Earth), by mere inertia.

paragraphs: If a ball is thrown upwards while standing on the ground, the ball will reach a certain height (the faster thrown - the higher) and fall back down. But imagine if the ball is thrown fast enough that it "never" falls back down, and instead travels into space farther and farther away from the Earth. The minimum speed at which this could happen is called the escape velocity.

paragraphs: The escape velocity at the surface of the Earth is 11.2 kilometers per second (or 6.96 miles per second), assuming there is no drag.

paragraphs: This is, of course, a very high speed compared to how fast a ball can be thrown. Even a bullet shot into the sky will fall back down, because its initial speed of nearly 1 kilometer per second (or 0.621 miles per second) is far from escape velocity.

paragraphs: Spacecraft starting from the surface of Earth has a zero initial speed. But, if it has enough fuel, it may be permanently accelerated by its engine until it reaches escape velocity. Then it will travel into space even after the engine is shut off.


title: Razor

paragraphs: A razor is a tool, with one or more blades, most commonly used by men for shaving the hair from their face, and by women for shaving hair from their legs and underarms. The earliest razors known are from the Bronze Age. They were made of bronze and had an oval shape. There are different kinds of razors today, including straight razors, which are rarely used, and safety razors and electric razors.

paragraphs: A slightly different type of electric razor is used to trim and cut hair from the head, because hair can be cut much more quickly with electric haircutting razors than with scissors.

paragraphs: Before the 20th century, straight razors were widely used. A straight razor consists of a knife blade, which can be reused. Since this blade is usually very sharp, there is a high risk of cutting oneself with the razor while scraping off the hair. Today, such razors are rarely used any more, except by barbers.

paragraphs: In the late 18th century, French engineer Jean-Jacques Perret invented the safety razor. With this system, the skin is protected, from all but the edge of the blade. This makes cutting much harder. The first such razor was released in 1875 by the Campfe Brothers. In 1901, King Camp Gillette invented the first razor with disposable razor blades. The blades were thrown away after several uses. The number of times a disposable blade can be used depends on beard coarseness and shaving technique, but the average is about one week. The company, Gilette still makes such razors today. They sell the razor relatively cheaply, and make big profits on the razor blades.

paragraphs: The electric razor was the next big step. With electric razors, shaving cream, soap or water is no longer needed. Electric razors use electricity to either make blades rotate or oscillate. That is the blades are either moved in circles, or they are moved up and down (or left and right). The razor is usually powered by a rechargeable battery. Prof. Alexandre Horowitz invented the concept of rotating blades which is still marketed as "Philishave" by Philips.

paragraphs: A slightly different type of electric razor is used to trim and cut hair from the head. Haircutting electric razors have comb-like attachments which determine the length of the hair. Electric haircutting razors are widely used by military and prison barbers, because hair can be cut much more quickly with electric haircutting razors than with scissors.

paragraphs: Shaving using any of the shaving methods (straight razor, safety razor, or electric razor) can have side-effects, including cuts, abrasions, and irritated skin. "Razor bumps" can also occur from removing ingrown hairs. To reduce the likelihood of cuts, abrasions, and irritated skin, people can use a fresh razor blade and prepare their faces by washing in hot, soapy water and then applying a shaving cream lather. There is a razor called Bump Fighter that is designed to reduce razor bumps and other side effects, but it uses special cartridges that are more expensive than standard double-edge razor blades.


title: Mood stabilizer

paragraphs: A mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by fast and unstable mood changes. Among the disorders commonly treated are bipolar disorder and Borderline personality disorder. With these conditions, the mood can change rapidly, between mania and depression. Many mood stabilizers can also prevent convulsions.


title: International Baccalaureate

paragraphs: The International Baccalaureate, or IB, is a well-known advanced school program. It is taught in English, French and Spanish in more than 140 countries.

paragraphs: Students earn an IB Diploma after passing exams and completing the program requirements. They have to take classes in 6 subject areas. This is more than most countries.

paragraphs: The six subject areas are: Language 1 (first language), Language 2 (second language), Math, Science, World Studies, and Electives. History, Literature, Geography, and Economics are all World Studies subjects. Students also have the option of taking a second science class instead of an elective.

paragraphs: Students have to write a 4000-word paper called an Extended Essay, take a philosophy class called Theory of Knowledge, and complete 150 hours of CAS (Creativity, Action, Service).

paragraphs: Students have to do to 3 subjects at Higher Level (HL) and 3 subjects at Standard Level (SL). HL classes are longer and more complex, although SL classes are still somewhat more challenging than regular program classes.

paragraphs: IB is studied in most countries, but some schools study the IB differently.


title: Wolfgang Schüssel

paragraphs: Wolfgang Schüssel (born June 7, 1945) was the Chancellor of Austria from February 4, 2000 until January 11, 2007. From January 2006 until June 2006 he was the president of the European Union.

paragraphs: Official page about Dr. Schüssel, at the site of the Austrian parliament (in German)


title: Vaduz

paragraphs: Vaduz (pronounced /fah-DOOTS/) is the capital city of the country of Liechtenstein. It has a population of about 7,500 people.


title: Luxembourgish language

paragraphs: Luxembourgish is a West Germanic language. A lot of people in Luxembourg speak the language. It is quite similar to German and French. Outside Luxembourg, not many people speak it, and inside Luxembourg many people speak other languages, too.


title: Jean-Pierre Cassel

paragraphs: Jean-Pierre Cassel (real name Jean-Pierre Crochon, October 27,1932 - April 19, 2007) was a French actor. He was the father of Vincent Cassel. He became known because of the roles he had in movies in the 1950s and 1960s. He died of cancer.


title: Sea cucumber

paragraphs: Sea cucumbers are a class of echinoderms, the Holothuroidea. They have a longish body, and leathery skin. Sea cucumbers live on the floor of the ocean. Most sea cucumbers are scavengers. There are about 1500 species of sea cucumbers. Sea cucumbers have a unique respiratory system, and effective defences against predators. The Chinese people eat them.

paragraphs: Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers have an endoskeleton just below the skin, calcareous structures that are usually reduced to isolated ossicles joined by connective tissue. These can sometimes be enlarged to flattened plates, forming an armour. In pelagic species the skeleton is absent.

paragraphs: Sea cucumbers communicate with each other by sending hormone signals through the water.

paragraphs: A remarkable feature of these animals is the collagen which forms their body wall. This can be loosened and tightened at will. If the animal wants to squeeze through a small gap, it can undo the collagen connections, and pour into the space. To keep itself safe in these cracks, the sea cucumber hooks up all its collagen fibres to make its body firm again.

paragraphs: The animals have an internal respiratory tree which floats in the internal watery cavity. At the rear, water is pumped in and out of the cloaca, so gaseous exchange takes place with the resiratory tree in the gut.

paragraphs: Some species of coral reef sea cucumbers defend themselves by expelling sticky "cuvierian tubules" to entangle potential predators. These tubules are attached to the respiratory tree in the gut. When startled, these cucumbers may expel the tubules through a tear in the wall of the cloaca. In effect, this squirts sticky threads all over a predator. Replacement tubules grow back in one-and-a-half to five weeks, depending on the species. The release of these tubules can also be accompanied by the discharge of a toxic chemical known as holothurin, which has similar properties to soap. This chemical can kill any animal in the vicinity and is one more way in which these sedentary animals can defend themselves. Other cucumbers, lacking this device, can split their intestinal wall, and spew out their gut and respiratory tree. They regenerate them later. Zoologists who experience this believe it to be an impressive deterrent. "The mess one individual can make must be seen to be believed".

paragraphs: The existence of these defences explains why the holothurians were able to do without the strong skeleton of their ancestors.

paragraphs: Highly modified tube feet around the mouth are always present. These are branched and retractile tentacles, much larger than the regular tube feet. Sea cucumbers have between ten and thirty such tentacles, depending on the species. There is a ring of larger ossicles round the mouth and oesophagus to which the muscles of the tube feet are attached. With their sticky tentacles the animal collects detritus and small organisms.


title: Yochanan Vollach

paragraphs: Yochanan Vollach (), also transliterated Jochanan Wallach or Yohanan Wallach, born 14 May 1945) is a former Israeli football player who played at: Hapoel Haifa, Maccabi Haifa, HKFC.

paragraphs: He was a member of the Israeli national team that competed at the 1970 FIFA World Cup.

paragraphs: At 1979 he retired and volunteered as general manager of Maccabi Haifa. Vollach was the Major reason for Maccabi's success.

paragraphs: Vollach has a master's degree in business administration from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and is a retired Major in the IDF.

paragraphs: In recognition of his extensive volunteering to the sporting community as well as business success, he was awarded honorary citizenship by the city of Haifa, in 1993.

paragraphs: Today, Vollach is president of the Maccabi Haifa association and president and CEO of Newlog, a subsidiary of Israeli shipping magnate Zim.


title: Maccabi Haifa

paragraphs: Maccabi Haifa is the biggest sports club in Israel, founded in 1913, and part of the Maccabi association. It runs several sports clubs and teams in Haifa such as football, basketball, weightlifting, swimming, tennis, table tennis, volleyball, team handball, water polo, ice hockey, artistic gymnastics, chess, boxing, fencing and others. Maccabi Haifa is well known for its green uniforms.


title: Hapoel Haifa

paragraphs: Hapoel Haifa F. C. is a professional football (soccer) club in Israel, founded in 1924.


title: Swalwell, Alberta

paragraphs: Swalwell is a small village in Kneehill County, Alberta, Canada. It is about from Calgary, the largest city in the Province of Alberta.

paragraphs: Swalwell is at . It has a population of 338 people. The postal code in Swalwell is T0M 1Y0.


title: Polysaccharide

paragraphs: Polysaccharides are relatively more complex carbohydrates.

paragraphs: They are polymers made up of many monosaccharides. They are very large, often branched, molecules. They tend to be amorphous, insoluble in water, and have no sweet taste.

paragraphs: When all the constituent monosaccharides are of the same type they are termed "homopolysaccharides"; when more than one type of monosaccharide is present they are termed "heteropolysaccharides".

paragraphs: Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin.

paragraphs: Starches are insoluble in water. They can be digested by hydrolysis, catalyzed by enzymes called amylases. Humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet.

paragraphs: The structural components of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units. Humans and many other animals do not digest cellulose. Certain animals can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. The classic example is the termite.


title: Alfred Gusenbauer

paragraphs: Alfred Gusenbauer (born February 8, 1960, in St. Pölten, Austria) was the chancellor of Austria from January 2007 to December 2008. His party won the elections of 2008, and he was succeeded as Chancellor the new party leader, Werner Faymann, on 2 December 2008. He was the leader of the political party SPÖ.


title: Chinchilla

paragraphs: The chinchilla is a relatively small rodent. They live in the Andes Mountains in South America. They are active during dusk and dawn. Such an activity pattern is named for crepuscular. Together with the Viscacha, they form the Chinchillidae family.

paragraphs: In their usual habitat, chinchillas live either in burrows, or in crevices of rocks. They are good jumpers, and can jump very high.They use their tails to help them jump. Chinchillas live in colonies. The females are much bigger than the males. Predators in the wild include hawks, skunks, felines, and canines. Wild chinchillas seem to feed on plants, fruits, seed, and small insects.

paragraphs: Chinchillas have been domesticated and are sometimes kept as pets. Their diet is mostly based on hay.

paragraphs: Chinchillas make a variety of vocalizations, including chirps, squeaks, and barks.

paragraphs: They can be found in a variety of colors and mutations. Chinchillas are sexually mature by the time they are eight weeks old.

paragraphs: Chinchillas can not get wet. If they do their fur will get moldy and that can cause an infection. That infection can cause the chinchilla to die. So instead of taking baths in water they take dust baths. The dust also has nutrients that chinchillas need.

paragraphs: There are two species of chinchilla, Chinchilla brevicaudata and Chinchilla lanigera. The difference between the two species is small. Currently, Chinchilla brevicaudata seems to be facing extinction. Chinchilla lanigera can still be found in the wild, but has become rare. Domesticated chinchillas seem to come from the lanigera species.

paragraphs: The following references are not necessarily in simple English:


title: Solubility

paragraphs: Solubility is the ability of a substance (the solute), to mix into a liquid (the solvent).

paragraphs: It measures the highest amount of substance mixed into a liquid solvent while they are both at equal amounts.

paragraphs: When the two mix together it is called a saturated solution. Certain substances can mix into any amount of a liquid solvent. An example of this is ethanol in water. This process is better described as "miscible" (the ability to mix with one another). Solubility does not depend on the size, in fact even the large particles will eventually all dissolve.

paragraphs: A solute is a substance that is dissolving in a solvent and is the smaller part of the solution. A solvent is the bigger part of a solution and is the substance that the solute dissolves in.


title: SpVgg Greuther Fürth

paragraphs: The Spielvereinigung Greuther Fürth is a German football club which plays in the country's top league, the Bundesliga. The club is playing in the Bundesliga for the first time after being promoted from the Second Bundesliga as winners of that league in 2011–12.


title: Taj Mahal (musician)

paragraphs: Henry Saint Clair Fredericks, better known by the stage name Taj Mahal (born May 17, 1942), is an American blues musician. He has been performing and recording since 1964 and is still popular.

paragraphs: Taj Mahal has received two Grammy Awards (nine nominations) over his career.

paragraphs: On February 8, 2006 Taj Mahal was designated the official Blues Artist of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.


title: Floyd Patterson

paragraphs: Floyd Patterson (January 4, 1935 – May 11, 2006) was an American heavyweight boxing champion and Olympic gold medalist. Patterson won the gold medal for boxing in the 1952 Olympic Games in Helsinki, Finland. He was the heavyweight champion of the world from 1956-1959 and from 1960-1962. Patterson is remembered as the first heavyweight champion to lose the title and get it back within a year.

paragraphs: Patterson's amateur record was 44-4 with 37 knockouts. He began fighting as a middleweight and moved to the light heavyweight division. Patterson's first loss was to Joey Maxim in 1954. In January 1956, Patterson married Sandra Hicks. She was his wife until 1969. Their marriage ended because Patterson did not want to quit boxing.

paragraphs: After Rocky Marciano retired, Floyd began aiming at a shot for the vacant heavyweight title. On November 30, 1956, Patterson had two very good things happen in his life. His wife gave birth to his first child, and he beat Archie Moore to become the heavyweight champion of the world. He became the youngest boxing champion ever. He lost the title in 1959 to Ingemar Johanson but he regained it in 1960. In 1962, he lost it again to Sonny Liston. Patterson tried to regain the title two more times from Muhammad Ali in 1965 and 1972. In 1965, he fought for 12 rounds, but on both tries, he failed to win title.

paragraphs: Patterson is remembered as the first man to win back boxing heavyweight championship. All other champions before him failed.


title: Clockwise

paragraphs: A clockwise movement is one that moves in a circle "like the clock's hands": from the top to the right, then down, then to the left, and back to the top.

paragraphs: The opposite of clockwise is counterclockwise or anticlockwise. The movement is from the top to the left, then down, then to the right, and finally back up to the top.


title: Manuel Friedrich

paragraphs: Manuel Friedrich (born September 13, 1979 in Bad Kreuznach) is a German footballer with the position of the Defender. He has played for the team 1.FSV Mainz 05 and at the moment he playes for Bayer Leverkusen. Friedrich has played nine matches for the German national football team since 2006. During that time he has scored one goal.


title: Bruno Kreisky

paragraphs: Bruno Kreisky (January 22, 1911 – July 29, 1990) served as Chancellor of Austria from 1970 to 1983. He is remembered in Austria as one of the people who helped shape the Austrian State Treaty. This treaty is the foundation of modern-day Austria. It was signed in 1955.

paragraphs: Kreisky was of Jewish descent. He was born and died in Vienna.


title: Viscacha

paragraphs: Viscachas or vizcachas are rodents. Together with the chinchilla they make up the family "Chinchillidae".

paragraphs: There are two genera and four species of viscacha.


title: Incisor

paragraphs: Incisors are special kinds of teeth that can be found in some mammals, such as humans. They are the eight large flat teeth with straight edges that are at the front of a person's mouth, in between the canine teeth, which are pointed. The straight edges of the "incisors" are useful for biting because they cut sharply. They come together like a pair of pincers. In a human, the two teeth at the middle of each jaw are called the "central incisors", and the side ones are the "lateral incisors". (lateral means "to the side"). Some humans never grow "lateral incisors" or have very small ones, particularly at the top.

paragraphs: In many mammalian herbivores (plant-eaters) these front teeth are used to cut off stems of grass and other growing things, that are then ground up by the molars at the back of the mouth. Some omnivores (animals that eat both plants and meat), like humans, have incisors like herbivores. In carnivores (meat-eating mammals) like cats, the incisors are often quite small. The canine teeth are long and suitable for grasping and stabbing. Carnivores use their incisors for many jobs that need fine control, such as catching fleas, carrying a kitten or peeling the skin off a fish. If a dog or a member of the cat family needs to cut something with their teeth, they use their back teeth like scissors.


title: Gerbil

paragraphs: The gerbils are a family of rodents. There are about 110 species of gerbils. All gerbils are adapted to arid habitats. At one time, gerbils were known as wild rats. Most gerbils are diurnal, some are crepuscular. The gerbil is native to Central Asia, India, the Middle East, and Africa. The average length of a gerbil is usually between six and twelve inches, this includes the tail which makes up one half of the total length. The gerbil is also a common household pet.

paragraphs: The Mongolian gerbil is one of around 110 species, but it is the most popular to have for a pet. The Mongolian gerbil was discovered in 1800 but was not studied until 1866. All domestic gerbils come from just a few gerbils from 1930.

paragraphs: A gerbil is smaller than a rat but bigger than a mouse. It depends on the species. From just mice and rats the gerbil has a tail with hair and it ends with a tassel. A gerbil is around 5-6 inches long but with the tail it is around 11-12 inches. There are bigger gerbils too like the Great gerbil who has a 7-8 inches long body and 7-8 inches long tail.


title: Muridae

paragraphs: Muridae is the largest family of mammals. It contains over 700 species. These species can be found naturally throughout Eurasia, Africa, and Australia. They have been introduced worldwide. The group includes true mice and rats, gerbils, and relatives.

paragraphs: The family name Muridae is sometimes used in a broader sense to include all members of the superfamily Muroidea.

paragraphs: The Murids are classified in four subfamilies, and about 140 genera.


title: Muroidea

paragraphs: Muroidea is a large superfamily of rodents. It includes hamsters, gerbils, true mice and rats, and many other relatives. They live on almost every continent except Antarctica. Some scientists have placed all members of this group into a single family, Muridae. Sometimes there are difficulties in knowing how the subfamilies are related to one another.

paragraphs: The muroids are classified in 6 families, 19 subfamilies, around 280 genera and at least 1300 species.


title: Pierre Boulez

paragraphs: Pierre Boulez (pronounced “Boo-LEZ") (26 March 1925 – 5 January 2016) was one of the most important French composers of modern classical music. He was also a conductor. He was born in Montbrison, Loire. He died in Baden-Baden.

paragraphs: Boulez started his university studies by studying mathematics. He then gave that up and went to the Paris Conservatoire to study music. One of his teachers was Olivier Messiaen. He wrote music in an atonal style, similar to the serial music of Anton Webern. Gradually his music became completely serial, so that everything about the music: the pitches of the notes, the length of the notes, the louds and softs, the accents were all organized in a mathematical way. This is called “total serialism” or “integral serialism”. This kind of music is very strange to listen to.

paragraphs: Boulez belonged to a group of composers who met in the summer at Darmstadt in Germany. This group is often called the “Darmstadt School”. He wrote music which was extremely hard to play e.g. "Structures book 1" for two pianos.

paragraphs: Perhaps his most famous piece is "Le marteau sans maître" ("The hammer without a master"). This piece, finished in 1957, is for a small group of instruments: flute, guitar, vibraphone, xylorimba (a cross between a xylophone and a marimba), percussion and viola and a singer (alto). It has very complicated rhythms and is influenced by jazz, gamelan music, African and Japanese music.

paragraphs: Boulez then tried out new ideas. He wrote works which would sound different at each performance because the players could improvise some ideas. "Pli selon pli" ("Fold upon fold") was a work for orchestra and soprano. It was based on a poem by Stéphane Mallarmé about a swan that could not fly away because it was stuck on the frozen lake. His piece "Eclat" (1965) also uses improvisation. The conductor is free to decide on how certain bits could be played and makes signs to the players to improvise in certain ways that the composers has written down. This kind of composition is sometimes called “Chance music” because it is different each time it is played. The American composer John Cage also experimented with Chance music.

paragraphs: In the 1970s he became interested in electronic music. The French president Georges Pompidou supported the building of a big Arts Centre in Paris. This centre included a large underground set of studios for music. It became known as IRCAM (translated from the French: Institute for Acoustical/Musical Research and Coordination). A lot of composers worked in IRCAM. They used computers, tape recorders etc., to compose music.

paragraphs: Boulez was a world-famous conductor. He conducted many of the world's greatest orchestras. He was the chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra from 1971-1975, the New York Philharmonic from 1971-1977 and was Conductor Emeritus of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. His concerts usually consisted of music by the great 20th century composers such as Alban Berg, Claude Debussy, Gustav Mahler, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Anton Webern and Edgard Varèse—as well as lots of new music which he conducted when it had just been written.

paragraphs: Boulez wrote several books and articles on music.


title: Murinae

paragraphs: The Old World rats and mice (called Murinae) is a subfamily in the family Muridae. It has about 560 species. This subfamily is larger than all mammal families except the Cricetidae. It is also larger than all mammal orders except the bats and the remainder of the rodents.

paragraphs: Probably the best known genera are rats and mice.

paragraphs: The Murinae are native to Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia. They are the only terrestrial placental mammals native to Australia. They have also been introduced to all continents except Antarctica. They are serious pest animals. This is particularly true in island communities where they have contributed to the endangerment and extinction of many native animals.

paragraphs: Two prominent murine human commensals have become vital laboratory animals. The brown rat and the house mouse are both used for medical tests. They are among a handful of animals where the full genome has been sequenced.

paragraphs: The murines have a distinctive molar pattern that involves three rows of cusps instead of two, the primitive pattern seen most frequently in muroid rodents.

paragraphs: The first known appearance of the Murinae in the fossil record is about 14 million years ago with the fossil genus "Antemus". "Progonomys" is thought to be the ancestor of "Mus" and relatives, while "Karnimata" is thought to lead to "Rattus" and relatives. All of these fossils are found in the well-preserved and easily dated Siwalik fossil beds of Pakistan.

paragraphs: Most of the Murinae have been poorly studied. Some genera have been grouped, such as the hydromyine water rats, conilurine or pseudomyine Australian mice, or the phloeomyine Southeast Asian forms. No tribal level taxonomy has been attempted for the complete subfamily. It looks like genera from southeast Asian islands and Australia may be early offshoots compared to mainland forms.

paragraphs: Three genera, "Uranomys", "Lophuromys", and "Acomys" were once considered to be murines- Later, it was discovered that they were more closely related to gerbils through molecular phylogenetics. They have been assigned a new subfamily status, Deomyinae.


title: Castorimorpha

paragraphs: Castorimorpha is the suborder of rodents containing the beavers, the pocket gophers, and the kangaroo rats.


title: Arpeggio

paragraphs: In music, an arpeggio is a group of notes in a chord which are played one after the other, instead of all at the same time. The arpeggio may either go up or go down, but it is more common going up.

paragraphs: The word "arpeggio" comes from the Italian word "arpeggiare", which means "to play on a harp". This is because harps are very good at playing arpeggiated chords.

paragraphs: An arpeggio is a type of broken chord, but there are many different kinds.

paragraphs: Learning many musical instruments include playing scales and arpeggios. They are often played as part of music examinations, especially for piano and the string instruments. This is because these skills are useful for playing a lot of music. For example, Bach's Prelude in C () is made of many different arpeggios. Guitarists sometimes play arpeggios instead of strumming, and banjo players do it a lot.

paragraphs: An "arpeggiated chord" means a chord which is "spread". This means the notes do not start exactly at the same time. This is sometimes called "arpeggiato", and in modern music is called a "rolled chord". An arpeggiated chord is written with a wiggly line going from top to bottom in front of the chord. An arpeggiated chord is spread from the lowest to the highest note. Occasionally composers such as Béla Bartók ask for them to be played from top to bottom. This is shown by adding an arrow pointing down.


title: NKVD

paragraphs: The NKVD (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs) was a government department in the Soviet Union. It was the law enforcement agency which did the will of the All Union Communist Party. The NKVD underwent many organizational changes; between 1938 and 1939 alone, the NKVD's structure changed three times.

paragraphs: The public face of the NKVD was the regular police force, which acted in a similar way to other police forces. In addition to its state security and police functions, some of its departments handled other matters, such as transportation, fire guards, border guards (NKVD border troops), etc. These jobs were usually assigned to the Ministry of the Interior (MVD).

paragraphs: However, it is the classified (secret) activities for which it was really feared. This was the work of the Main Directorate for State Security, known as the GUGB. The NKVD also included the Soviet secret police. The GUGB protected the state security of the Soviet Union. This was done by massive political repression, including the use of sanctioned political murders and assassinations, especially in the era of Joseph Stalin, during the Great Purge.

paragraphs: After World War II, and especially after the end of the Soviet Union, there was a flood of books on the deeds of Stalin and the NKVD.

paragraphs: In the occupied territories, the NKVD (later KGB) carried out mass arrests, deportations, and executions. The targets included collaborators with Germany and non-Communist resistance movements. Resistance movements included the Polish Armia Krajowa and Ukrainian patriots aiming to separate from the Russian Soviet Union.

paragraphs: The NKVD also executed tens of thousands of Polish political prisoners in 1939–1941, including the Katyń massacre. NKVD units were also used to repress the partisan war in the Ukraine and the Baltics (which lasted until the early 1950s).


title: Spyglass Entertainment

paragraphs: Spyglass Entertainment is a movie and television production company. Jonathan Glickman is the current President of Production. Internationally, Buena Vista has released most movies made by Spyglass (with exceptions). The first movie released by the company was "Instinct".


title: Hovercraft

paragraphs: A hovercraft is a vehicle supported and moved by a cushion of air blowing downwards. They are used on water, land, ice and other areas where the surface is smooth. A difference in air pressure between the ship and the atmosphere creates lift, causing the hovercraft to float above the surface it is set on, allowing it to ride on different surfaces. They are often used as ferries and by militaries for amphibious, or on water and on land (like an amphibian can live in water and land) missions. A hovercraft can move cargo, people, and cars.

paragraphs: The English engineer Sir Christopher Cockerell invented the modern hovercraft.


title: Duccio

paragraphs: Duccio di Buoninsegna, (c.1255 - c.1319) was one of the most important painters in Italy in the Late Middle Ages. He worked mainly in the city of Siena in Tuscany but one of his largest works was done for a church in Florence. He is most famous for his altarpieces of the Madonna and Child. Duccio painted in the Byzantine style, similar to Greek icons.

paragraphs: The first written record of Duccio is dated 1278, when he was painting in Siena. His paintings, of which only a few remain, are all Holy pictures. Two of them are very large and were painted as altarpieces. Some of them are very small and were for private owners, not for churches.

paragraphs: At that time, many artists painted pictures that were specially for people to look at while they were praying. The pictures are most often of the Madonna and Child. They often have gold backgrounds which glow when they are lit by candlelight. The figures in the paintings do not look very solid or realistic. They look very still, calm and holy. These paintings had been done in the same style for many hundreds of years, in Greece, Constantinople and many other countries where the Greek Orthodox Church was the main church. The style, which was called the Byzantine style, had also spread to Italy where several Orthodox icons (Holy picture), had become famous and were copied by many artists.

paragraphs: Duccio was one of the greatest painters in the Byzantine style in Italy at the time. He had a famous rival who worked in Florence. His name was Cimabue. One of Cimabue's pupils, Giotto, was to become even more famous, and is remembered as having begun the Renaissance style of painting in Florence. Even though Duccio probably saw Giotto's paintings, in which the figures look solid and three-dimensional, like actors on a stage, Duccio was not very influenced by him.

paragraphs: Duccio had several students who also became famous painters of the 1300s. They include Simone Martini and the Lorenzetti brothers, who were also influenced by Giotto.

paragraphs: In 1285 Duccio was asked to go to Florence to paint an altarpiece of the Madonna and Child for the church of Santa Maria Novella which had been rebuilt for the Dominican friars. It was a very large church and for it, Duccio painted the biggest ancient altarpiece of this type that is known. It is called the "Rucellai Madonna" because the Rucellai, who were a very rich family, paid for the decoration of the main chapel of the church, where this altarpiece was hung in the 1600s.

paragraphs: Duccio painted the Madonna sitting on a throne with the Christ Child in her lap, raising his hand in blessing. Around them are six kneeling angels in robes of delicate colours. The robe of the Madonna is very dark blue and looks almost black; it is painted with ground-up semi precious stone called lapis lazuli. The robe of the baby looks quite transparent. Duccio was one of the first painters to try to paint transparent material. One of the important parts of Duccio's design is the gold border of the Madonnna's robe, which seems to wander around the painting in a waving line, and frames the Madonna's face in a way that holds the attention of the viewer.

paragraphs: The "Rucellai Madonna" is no longer in the Church of Santa Maria Novella. In 1948 it was moved to the Ufizzi Gallery where it is shown in the same room as Cimabue's "Trinita Madonna" and Giotto's "Ognisanti Madonna".

paragraphs: In Duccio's own city there was a large cathedral. In 1308 he was given the job of making an enormous altarpiece of the Madonna on a throne for the cathedral. It was not to be as tall as the "Rucellai Madonna" but was much wider, because it showed two rows of saints and a row of angels on either side of the throne. The four saints the kneel at the front of the picture are those who were particularly remembered in the city of Siena. The altarpiece was to have a very fancy Gothic gold frame with more figures at the top, and small pictures at the bottom, but unfortunately the frame has been destroyed.

paragraphs: Because the painting stood above an altar that was right in the middle of the cathedral, and not against a wall, it was easy for people to walk around to see the back of the altarpiece. So Duccio painted the back as well. The back of the altarpiece had lots of small scenes which tell the life of Jesus. These small scenes, which have gold backgrounds and bright colours in the usual way, are very lively illustrations to the Bible stories.

paragraphs: After three years, the altarpiece was finished. It was carried in a great procession from Duccio's workshop, up the hill to the cathedral which stood on the highest point of the city. It was called the "Maestà" (or "Majesty"). Four other artists were asked to do smaller altarpieces to go in the four chapels that were nearby.

paragraphs: Unfortunately, in the 1700s, people at the cathedral thought that Duccio's altarpiece was old-fashioned. It was taken to pieces, and some of the smaller parts were sold. They can be seen in the National Gallery, London and other places. Luckily most of the pieces were kept together and can now be seen in the Cathedral Museum which is near Siena Cathedral.


title: Castoridae

paragraphs: Castoridae is a family of rodents. Today, the only genus that has alive species in it is "Castor". It contains modern-day beavers. In addition, about 20 extinct genera of beavers have been put into the family.


title: IUCN Red List

paragraphs: The IUCN Red List (also IUCN Red List of Threatened Species) is a list of species. The list tells for each species how likely it is to become extinct (or if it is already). This is called its conservation status. This list is put together each year by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

paragraphs: There are exact criteria to see if a certain species is threatened to become extinct. These criteria are the same for all parts of the world. The purpose of the list is to tell people how threatened a certain species is. Politicians can then decide on what needs to be done and the efforts needed to save certain species from becoming extinct.


title: Redruth

paragraphs: Redruth (Cornish: Resrudh) is a small town in Cornwall. The name of the town means "red ford"; the parish church of Redruth is dedicated to St Uny. The district of Camborne and Redruth was once very important for the mining of tin and copper. Until 1974, Camborne and Redruth were included in the Camborne-Redruth urban district. In 2001 there were 12,352 people living in Redruth. The two towns with the village of Pool have more people than St Austell (Cornwall's largest settlement). In 2004, about 38,500 people were living in Camborne-Redruth.


title: Integrated Taxonomic Information System

paragraphs: The Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) is an American organization. It works with several federal agencies to unify the information gathered about different taxonomy of biological species. It provides a common database for these agencies to use. ITIS was originally formed in 1996.


title: Yersinia pestis

paragraphs: Yersinia pestis is a bacillus. It is a bacterium. It has been identified as the infectious agent of bubonic plague. This bacterium also causes other forms of plague- Septicemic plague and pneumonic plague. These three forms of the plague have been responsible for a high death toll in many epidemics throughout human history. These diseases are believed to be the cause of the Black Death. Because of the Black Death, about one third (one of three) people in Europe died. This was between 1347 and 1353.

paragraphs: The bacillus was discovered by the physician Alexandre Yersin during an epidemic of the plague in Hong Kong, in 1894. Yersin worked for the Pasteur Institute at the time. Originally, the microoganism was named "Pasteurella pestis". It was renamed in 1967.

paragraphs: Currently, three varieties of Y. pestis are known.

paragraphs: Historians are currently divided about the role of "Y. pestis" in the Black Death. Some historians said that the Black Death spread far too fast. Therefore, "Y. pestis" could not have caused it. DNA from "Y. pestis" has been found in the teeth of some of the victims of the Black Death. For this reason, "Y. pestis" must have been at least a factor in some (but not necessarily all) European plague epidemics.

paragraphs: These references are probably not in Simple English.


title: Leptospirosis

paragraphs: Leptospirosis (also known as Weil's disease, canicola fever, canefield fever, nanukayami fever or seven day fever) is a bacterial disease. It is caused by spirochaetes of the genus "Leptospira". This bacterium affects humans and many animals, including mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. It was first described by Adolf Weil in 1886. At the time he reported an "acute infectious disease with enlargement of spleen, jaundice and nephritis". The pathogen, "Leptospira"-genus bacteria was isolated in 1907 from a post mortem kidney slice.

paragraphs: Leptospirosis is a relatively rare bacterial infection in humans. The infection is commonly transmitted to humans by allowing fresh water that has been contaminated by animal urine (often from rats) to come in contact with the skin, eyes or with the mucous membranes.

paragraphs: It usually causes heart failure, kidney failure or liver failure, and most sufferers die if they are not treated urgently. The disease causes little concern, as it is quite rare

paragraphs: Except for tropical areas, Leptospirosis seems to occur most often in the months August to September, in the Northern Hemisphere.


title: François-Joseph Gossec

paragraphs: François-Joseph Gossec (born Vergnies, 17 January 1734 — 16 February, 1829) was a South Netherlands composer. He was born in what is now Belgium, but worked in France during his long life. People hardly ever hear his music now except for one very popular piece of dance music called Tambourin. He was famous in France in his time and had a lot of influence on French music.

paragraphs: Gossec’s family were small farmers. When Gossec was young he worked as a cowherd (someone who looks after cows). He showed a lot of talent and became a choir-boy in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Antwerp.

paragraphs: In 1751 he went to Paris. The composer Jean-Philippe Rameau was very impressed by him and got him jobs playing the violin and double bass in his private orchestra. He heard a lot of music by German composers and started to write music of his own. His symphony in D was one of the first works in France to use clarinets which had only just been invented. He composed many operas as well as instrumental works.

paragraphs: In 1762 Gossec became the conductor of a private theatre of the Prince of Condé at Chantilly. A lot of German and Bohemian wind players at that time went to Paris, and Gossec gave them jobs in his orchestra.

paragraphs: Gossec wrote a lot of music for the French Revolution. When the Paris Conservatoire was opened in 1795 he became a teacher of composition there.

paragraphs: Gossec composed lots of different kinds of music. His music for instruments was very successful. He wrote operas which suited the taste of French people at the time, but he did not have a good sense of drama and the words of his operas were uninteresting. He was an important man in the history of music because he organized a lot of musical events in Paris. He was made a "chevalier" of the Legion of Honour. A lot of composers went to his funeral.


title: Josiah Wedgwood

paragraphs: Josiah Wedgwood (12 July 1730 3 January 1795, born in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent) was an English potter, who became famous for the industrialisation of pottery. He was the grandfather of "both" Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin, Charles' wife.

paragraphs: Wedgwood was the first to use modern marketing: direct mail, money-back guarantees, travelling salesmen, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues.

paragraphs: When he was a child, Josiah had smallpox, but he survived (did not die). The smallpox injured his knee, so he could not easily work as a potter. Instead, he worked hard to design pottery. Working as an apprentice, Wedgwood learned many techniques for making pottery. He used his skills to make one of the first pottery factories, Ivy Works, in Burslem, now part of Stoke-on-Trent.

paragraphs: Wedgwood was very interested in science and technology, and used new ideas to make good quality pottery. He became famous for making pottery for royalty, and became very rich. He spent money on civic works, things that would help businessmen and people in the city, for example canals. He became friends with Erasmus Darwin, an important scientist and inventor. In 1780, Wedgwood and Darwin became business partners. Wedgwood's son married Darwin's daughter, who gave birth to Charles Darwin. Wedgwood and Darwin were also members of the 'Lunar Society', a group of important scientists, philosophers and businessmen.

paragraphs: By 1763, he was receiving orders from the highest levels of the British nobility, including Queen Charlotte. Wedgwood convinced her to let him name the line of pottery she had purchased "Queen's Ware", and trumpeted the royal association in his paperwork and stationery. In 1773, Empress Catherine of Russia ordered the Green Frog Service from Wedgwood; it can still be seen in the Hermitage Museum. An even earlier commission from Catherine was the Husk Service (1770), now on exhibit in Peterhof.

paragraphs: In the latter part of his life, Wedgwood's obsession was to duplicate the Portland Vase, a dark blue and white glass vase from the first century BC. For three years he worked on the project, eventually producing what he considered a satisfactory copy in 1789.

paragraphs: Together with his friends in the Lunar Society, Wedgwood worked for the abolition (ending) of slavery. Wedgwood produced medallions asking for the end of slavery. These medallions became very popular. Wedgwood died in Etruria, Stoke-on-Trent, in 1795. Selling slaves became illegal (against the law) in 1807 in Britain, and having slaves became illegal in 1833.


title: Tambourin

paragraphs: A tambourin (pronounced the French way) is a piece of music which was popular in France in the 18th century. It is based on a folkdance from the Provence. The music is made to sound like the kind of drum which is called "tambourin" in French. Jean-Philippe Rameau wrote several Tambourins in his operas. Other composers who wrote Tambourins include François-Joseph Gossec and Maurice Duruflé.

paragraphs: Tambourin also means a special kind of drum from the Provence. It has a long, cylindrical shape and is played with one drumstick. It is found in orchestral music such as Georges Bizet's "L'Arlésienne Suite no. 2"


title: Thomas Wedgwood III

paragraphs: Thomas Wedgwood (1685-1739) was an English potter. He was a member of the Wedgwood family, who were very successful potters. He was the son of Thomas Wedgwood II and Mary Leigh.

paragraphs: Thomas Wedgwood was married to Mary Stringer. Their children were:


title: Thomas Wedgwood IV

paragraphs: Thomas Wedgwood (1716-1773) was an English potter. He was a member of the Wedgwood family, who were very successful potters. He was the son of Thomas Wedgwood III and Mary Stringer and brother of Josiah Wedgwood.

paragraphs: Thomas Wedgwood was married firstly to Isabell Beech. Their children were:


title: Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach

paragraphs: Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (8 March 1714–14 December 1788) was a German musician and composer. He was the second of five sons of Johann Sebastian Bach and Maria Barbara Bach. He was said to be one of the greatest harpsichord players of his time. He wrote a book called "Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments" (1755), which was used by Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven.

paragraphs: Bach was born in Weimar on 8 March 1714. His godfather was the composer Georg Philipp Telemann, and he stayed in contact with him throughout his life. He was taught to play music at an early age by his father. His father moved the family to Leipzig in 1723 where he had a position as Kantor at the Thomasschule. After finishing school Bach went to Leipzig University and trained as a lawyer.

paragraphs: In 1740 he moved to Berlin to become the harpsichord player for Frederick the Great. Frederick played the flute, and it was Bach's job to provide the keyboard accompaniment. This left him with plenty of time to compose music. Bach married Johanna Maria Dannemann in 1744. They had a number of children, but only three lived to be adults. His son, also Johann Sebastian Bach, became a painter in Rome, but died at the age of 30. Life in Berlin became difficult for Bach during the Seven Years' War. Frederick was often away and so there was little musical activity in the court. He was paid with paper money which did not keep its value, and so he had to be careful with his spending. There was also criticism of his playing style, it was becoming "affected", too modern for the conservative tastes of Frederick's court.

paragraphs: After Telemann died at the end of 1767, Bach was able to replace him as the director of church music for the five churches in Hamburg. His duties included teaching music, and organising about 200 musical performances a year. This position allowed Bach to write church music including 21 settings of the Passion, 70 cantatas, motets and liturgies. He also organised concerts and other performances throughout the year. Bach became ill in the summer of 1788 and died from a chest ailment on December 14. He was buried in the Church of St. Michael in Hamburg. His grave was forgotten, and only rediscovered in 1925.

paragraphs: Bach wrote nearly 200 keyboard works, mainly sonatas while at Berlin. He was able to develop a network of people around Europe who were able to sell printed copies of his pieces which brought in a considerable income. The king however did not regard him as a composer, even though Bach dedicated some of his compositions to him. Bach wrote in 1773 that many of his compositions were simply written as a business to make money. Bach also helped make his father's music more widely known. he arranged the printing and sales of his music. Bach protected his father's original manuscripts, and it is because of this that some of them, including the St. John Passion and the St. Matthew Passion, have survived. Other manuscripts of Johann Sebastian's were given to Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, who sold them and they are now lost.

paragraphs: There were other compositions that C. P. E. Bach wrote for himself, to develop his ideas and theories of music. After leaving Berlin and moving to Hamburg in 1768 he began writing music with more emotion, which he described as "Empfindsamer" meaning "sentimental". This was a time of great changes in musical style, from the baroque work of his father, to the classical works of Mozart and Haydn. His music has elements of both, and does not easily fit into the categories that have been created since. Because of this, his music is not played as much in modern times. His father's music has become much more famous, but C. P. E. Bach's music had a greater influence on the composers that came after him.

paragraphs: Bach wrote his book, the "Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments" in 1755 while in Berlin. This book is important for two reasons. It was the first book to teach players to use their thumbs, which is now standard practice. Secondly it was the first to talk about emotion as being an important part of a performer's skills; as important as technical ability. It is still in use today as the reference book on how to correctly play the ornamentation and how to improvise in the late baroque style. Bach wrote his autobiography in 1773. This shows that where his father was mainly influenced by religion, Bach was influenced by ideas from art and philosophy. He had a collection of 400 paintings of people whose ideas and works he admired.


title: Maria Barbara Bach

paragraphs: Maria Barbara Bach (20 October 1684–7 July 1720) was the wife of the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach. She was also the mother of the composers Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach.


title: Ligue 1

paragraphs: Ligue 1 is the top league of French football. A.S. Monaco F.C. from the Principality of Monaco, on the south coast of France, is in the league.


title: Serie A

paragraphs: Serie A is the highest football league in Italy.

paragraphs: From 1929 to 2004, Serie A has got 16 or 18 teams. The Only Exception was in the years from 1946 to 1952, where in the Serie A there were 20-21 teams.

paragraphs: All the 20 teams play two times against all the other teams from August to May.

paragraphs: The top four teams in the Serie A qualify for the UEFA Champions League (from the 2017–18 season). The 5th and the 6th qualify for the UEFA Europa League.

paragraphs: Also the winner of Coppa Italia qualify to the UEFA Europa League, but if the winner of Coppa Italia is qualified yet, the 7th goes to UEFA Europa League.

paragraphs: The three lowest-placed teams are relegated to Serie B.


title: Oath

paragraphs: An oath (from Anglo-Saxon "āð") is a promise. An oath is spoken out loud in front of other people who can see and hear what is done and said. They are witnesses to the oath. A person who cannot speak can make a sign that they are "taking an oath". Another way of saying that a person is "taking an oath" is to say that they are "swearing an oath".

paragraphs: A person can say "I promise that I will do this..." or "I swear that I will do this..."

paragraphs: When a person swears an oath they often show that the oath is very important to them by calling God to see and remember the promise, and to show that the promise is true, and cannot be taken back later. When a person takes an oath they sometimes raise their right hand, or put their hand on their heart, on the Bible or on another holy book.

paragraphs: Oaths are used in many situations when a person needs to be true to what they say:

paragraphs: The word "oath" is often used to mean any angry expression which includes religious or other strong language and promises that the person will do something horrible.


title: Jeffrey Archer

paragraphs: Jeffrey Howard Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare (born 15 May 1940) is a British author and politician. He was a member of Parliament, Deputy Chairman of the Conservative Party and since 1992 is a life peer. His political career ended after an indictment for perjury. He is married to Mary Archer, a prominent scientist in solar power.

paragraphs: Jeffrey Howard Archer was born in the City of London Maternity Hospital. When he was two weeks old he and his family moved to the seaside town of Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, where he spent most of his young life.

paragraphs: At Oxford he was successful in athletics, competing in sprinting and hurdling. He also made a name for himself in raising money for the then little-known charity Oxfam, famously claiming to have obtained the support of The Beatles in a charity fundraising drive (it was actually Pat Davidson of Oxfam). The band accepted the invitation to visit the Senior Common Room of his Brasenose College, where they were photographed with Archer and dons of the college, although they did not play there. It was during this period that he met his future wife, Mary. His parents were John and Mary Archer who gave birth to him in 1940. Jeffery Archer only had one sibling and that was his brother, Thomas Archer who is a renowned politician for the conservative party.

paragraphs: At the age of 29, he was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for a Lincolnshire constituency, holding the seat for the Conservative Party in a by-election on 4 December 1969.

paragraphs: In Parliament, Archer was on the left of the Conservative Party, rebelling against some of his party's policies. He urged free TV licences for the elderly and was against museum charges. Archer voted against restoring the death penalty saying it was barbaric and obscene.

paragraphs: Archer had to resign because of a scandal in October 1986 when the Sunday newspaper "The News of the World" led on the story "Tory boss Archer pays vice-girl". The article claimed that Archer had paid Monica Coghlan, a prostitute, £2000 through another person at Waterloo Station to go abroad. Unlike the "Daily Star", the newspaper did not allege that Archer had actually slept with Coghlan. Archer sued the "Daily Star".

paragraphs: Archer had been selected by the Conservative Party as their candidate for the London mayoral election of 2000. He was forced to withdraw from the race when it was revealed that he was facing a charge of perjury.

paragraphs: On 4 February, 2000 Archer was expelled from the Conservative Party for five years. On 26 September, 2000 he was charged with perjury and perverting the course of justice (obstruction of justice) during the 1987 libel trial.

paragraphs: A few months before the beginning of the perjury trial, Archer began performing in the star role in a courtroom play (which he also wrote) called "The Accused". The play was staged at London's Theatre Royal Haymarket and concerns the court trial of an alleged murderer from beginning to end. The play used the innovation of assigning the role of jury in the trial to the audience, with theatre-goers voting on whether Archer's character was innocent or guilty at the end of each night's performance. Archer would attend his real trial during the day and be judged in his fictional trial at the theatre in the evening.

paragraphs: The real life trial began on 30 May, 2001. On 19 July, 2001 Lord Archer was found guilty of perjury. He was sentenced to a total of four years' imprisonment by Mr. Justice Potts. The most ironic aspect of his trial was that he had fabricated the alibi for the wrong date. Archer never spoke during the trial. Ted Francis was found not guilty of perverting the course of justice.

paragraphs: On 21 July, 2003 he was released on licence, after serving half of his sentence, from HMP Hollesley Bay, Suffolk.

paragraphs: Many of Lord Archer's friends remained loyal to him.

paragraphs: In addition, Archer lost an £8m libel case about false accusations in his book twist of tales, portraying Major General James Oluleye to be a thief. Oluleye was a man who left a legacy of honesty and integrity for the future generations of Nigerians, See his book "Architecturing a Destiny" and "Military Leadership in Nigeria".


title: Return to Oz

paragraphs: Return to Oz is a 1985 Disney movie. It is considered to be a sequel of "The Wizard of Oz".


title: Mordred

paragraphs: Mordred is a character from Arthurian legend. In some of the legends, he betrayed Arthur and killed him. He is said to be Arthur's son by his half-sister Morgaine (also called Morgan or Morgana). Mordred was born at Caerlon. Mordred was also said to have been killed by Arthur after he stole Excalibur from him. He was killed while Arthur was fatally wounded. His name comes from old Welsh. He was not a knight of the round table. In some legends he is a chimera made by Morgana with Arthur's blood and a range of magic's, Mordred in multiple legends was know to be the thief of king Arthur's second sword Clarent known as Arthur's sword of peace this being the reason why it is not as well known as Excalibur Arthur's sword of war which he used to protect Camelot, Clarent was a sword that would be percent whenever Arthur would be making a covenant of peace this being change once in the hands of Morderd using it to mortally wound Arthur just before being cut down by his farther Arthur


title: Firewall (networking)

paragraphs: In terms of computer security, a firewall is a piece of software. This software monitors the network traffic between the inside and outside. The firewall is placed between the network that is to be protected (trusted) and the outside network (less trusted) aka WAN or Internet. A firewall has a set of rules which are applied to each packet. The rules decide if a packet can pass, or whether it is discarded.When a large network needs to be protected, the firewall software often runs on a computer that does nothing else.

paragraphs: A firewall protects one part of the network against unauthorized access.

paragraphs: Data travels on the internet in small pieces; these are called packets. Each packet has certain metadata attached, like where it is coming from, and where it should be sent to. The easiest thing to do is to look at the metadata. Based on rules, certain packets are then dropped or rejected. All firewalls can do this. It is done at the network layer.

paragraphs: In addition to the simple packet filtering (above) this kind of firewall also keeps track of connections. A packet can be the start of a new connection, or it can be part of an existing connection. If it is neither of the two, it is probably useless and can be dropped.

paragraphs: Application-layer firewalls do not just look at the metadata; they also look at the actual data transported. They know how certain protocols work, for example FTP or HTTP. They can then look if the data that is in the packet is valid (for that protocol). If it is not, it can be dropped.

paragraphs: Firewalls can provide a secure connection between two networks. This is called "tunnellng". The data may be encrypted. It is decrypted at the other end. Since the firewalls are doing this, the rest of the network is unaware of it. An alternative is to provide a secure access (to the corporate network).

paragraphs: Very often, firewalls can translate IP addresses. That way, many computers can share a few public IP addresses. The firewall translates between the public and the private IP addresses.

paragraphs: In general, there are two types of firewalls:

paragraphs: Prominent Brands include OPNsense, pfsense, comodo etc.

paragraphs: Prominent Brands include PaloAlto, WiJungle, Checkpoint, Cisco etc.

paragraphs: Firewalls can protect against some problems (viruses and attacks) that come from the internet. They cannot protect against viruses, that come from infected media (like an infected office document on an USB flash drive).


title: The Cask of Amontillado

paragraphs: "The Cask of Amontillado" (sometimes spelled "The Casque of Amontillado") is a short story by Edgar Allan Poe. It was first published in "Godey's Lady's Book" in November 1846.

paragraphs: The narrator [Montressor] talks to a priest about his sin. Montresor wants to take revenge on Fortunato for an insult.

paragraphs: During a masquerade (ball where people wear masks) in the city. Fortunato is dressed in a jester's costume. Montresor tells Fortunato he has bought a wine called amontillado. He wants Fortunato to test it to be sure it is real. Montresor leads Fortunato into his underground catacombs/wine cellar to test the wine. When there, Montressor chains Fortunato and then walls him up alive in a niche.

paragraphs: Fortunato cries out "For the love of God, Montresor!" to which Montresor replies, "Yes, for the love of God!" He twice calls out for a reply but hears nothing. Before placing the last stone, he drops a burning torch through the gap, but hears only the jester's bells ringing.

paragraphs: The crime took place 50 years before... Montressor express no regrets except for remarking about Fortunato: In pace requiescat! ("May he rest in peace!").


title: Osei Bonsu

paragraphs: Osei Bonsu (died January 21, 1824) was the Asantehene (King of the Ashanti). He ruled from 1804 to 1824. He died in Kumasi, and was succeeded by Osei Yaw Akoto.


title: Uther Pendragon

paragraphs: Uther Pendragon is the father of King Arthur in the Arthurian legend. His name, "Pendragon", means the "Chief-Dragon", which means he is the "foremost leader" or "chief of warriors". He is mentioned briefly in Old Welsh poems, but his biography was first written down by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his "Historia Regum Britanniae" ("History of the Kings of Britain"). Geoffrey's description of him has been used in most later stories.

paragraphs: According to the stories, Arthur is the son of Uther Prendragon and the Lady Igraine.


title: Chocolate milk

paragraphs: Chocolate milk is a kind of cold, sweetened milk drink made by mixing cold milk with chocolate syrup or cocoa powder and sugar.

paragraphs: In the United Kingdom, chocolate milk is known as a chocolate milkshake.

paragraphs: A mixture of hot milk and melted chocolate (or cocoa powder and sugar) is called hot chocolate. A mixture of ice cream, cold milk, and chocolate syrup is called a milkshake.


title: Chocolate syrup

paragraphs: Chocolate syrup is a thick, sweet, chocolate-flavored liquid. It is made from sugar and cocoa (or chocolate). Chocolate syrup is used to sweeten and flavor hot and cold drinks such as hot chocolate, chocolate milk, chocolate milk shakes, and poured on desserts.

paragraphs: Chocolate syrup is used in many different types of drinks. Coffee shops add chocolate syrup and other flavored syrups to coffee drinks. Ice cream parlors add chocolate syrup to milk shakes.

paragraphs: Chocolate syrup is also used in many desserts. Ice cream parlors pour chocolate syrup on bowls of ice cream.


title: Wetsuit

paragraphs: A wetsuit is a garment used by scuba divers, snorkelers, windsurfers, and surfers to keep themselves warm when they are in cold ocean water. Wetsuits act as insulation invented by Jack O'Neill, and help the body to retain its heat. Wetsuits are made of plastic or rubber materials such as neoprene. Wetsuits include torso coverings, leggings, head coverings, and hand and feet coverings.

paragraphs: When people are doing diving or water sports in areas where the water is not very cold, they may only wear some parts of a wetsuit, such as a torso covering or leggings.

paragraphs: Wet suits are garments that oceangoers wear!

paragraphs: It's very vital when going to the ocean and dive because it serves as a life and system protector.

paragraphs: Deepwater divers often wear full wetsuits that include torso coverings, leggings, head coverings, and hand and feet coverings. In very cold water, a scuba diver may need to wear a dry suit.


title: Touch rugby

paragraphs: Touch rugby, also named Touch or Touch Football, is a sport which is derived from rugby league. It minimizes body contact so that rugby players practice over the preseason and improve their handling skills without any risk of injuries. It also eliminates body contact to allow inclusion of both genders and people from all ages.

paragraphs: Touch rugby was started in South Sydney in the late 1960s, pursued as a non-contact off season sport and as a fitness program for Rugby League players. The game was introduced in Europe in the 1980s and the first Touch league began in Ireland in 2005.

paragraphs: It is played on fields or pitches of 70 meters long by 50 meters, wide with sidelines, a half-way line and In goal areas.

paragraphs: According to official rules, each team can have up to 14 players, with 6 players per team in the field at one time. Therefore, total 12 players get to play on a field. It is possible to interchange players as many as they want.

paragraphs: By tossing a coin, starting team is decided and an attacking team gets to have six chances to make a score. These chances are called touches.

paragraphs: Players can score by grounding the ball in goal areas. The definition of grounding is holding a ball and letting it touch the ground.

paragraphs: If the attacking team drops a ball, the possession is changed to the other team and the game starts over with rollball by using hands or feet. The definition of rollball is rolling the ball slightly backward by using your hand or feet.

paragraphs: Team which has possession can pass a ball to teammates who is at sideways or backwards. If it is passed forward, it is a penalty and they lose the possession. The game starts over by a tap kick, which is kicking the ball by using your foot.

paragraphs: If a player passes the ball after being touched a penalty occurs for forward pass.

paragraphs: Players must start over with rollball or a penalty at the same mark where a rollball or a penalty were given.

paragraphs: In Touch, tackle from traditional rugby is replaced with touch by using a hand. It allows any part of body to be touched and must use minimum force.

paragraphs: Touch rugby encourages many people to join the rugby world. No matter who you are, how old you are. It is used as a tool to promote rugby to new players such as youth players or girls and women.


title: Coven

paragraphs: Coven is a word that first meant any type of meeting or gathering. It is used today to mean a group of witches.


title: First Geneva Convention

paragraphs: The First Geneva Convention is one of several Geneva Conventions. It is more formally known as the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, 1864. It covers the treatment of battlefield injuries and was made in 1864 as part of the making of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.


title: Second Geneva Convention

paragraphs: The Second Geneva Convention of 1906 is one of the Geneva Conventions. Its full title is Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field. It was made in Geneva, on 6 July 1906. It extended the principles from the First Geneva Convention of 1864 on the treatment of battlefield casualties. The Convention of 1906 should not be confused with "Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea" (Geneva, 12 August 1949).

paragraphs: As of 27 June 2006, when Nauru adopted the convention, it has been ratified by 194 countries.


title: Disc jockey

paragraphs: A disc jockey (also called a DJ or deejay) is a person who plays recorded pop or dance music for dancers or listeners and introduces the names of the songs using a microphone.

paragraphs: There are several types of DJs. A radio DJ plays music files (like mp3) or recorded CDs on a radio station and announces the names of the songs. A club DJ plays music files or recorded CDs over a PA system (an amplifier and loudspeakers) at a nightclub, rave, or disco. A hip hop DJ uses turntables and vinyl records to do scratching and make music while other hip hop musicians do rapping (rhythmic type of singing). Reggae DJs play recordings of rhythm instruments and then rap or "toast" (made-up chanting and boasting) with a microphone.


title: Padniewko

paragraphs: Padniewko is a village in Poland in Kuyavia-Pomerania voivodship. It has about 400 inhabitants and 4.95 km.


title: Sierra Nevada (US)

paragraphs: The Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "Snowy Range") is a mountain range that is almost entirely in the eastern portion of the U.S. state of California. The range is also known as The Sierra and The Sierras.

paragraphs: The Sierra Nevada stretches 400 miles (650 km), from Fredonyer Pass in the north to Tehachapi Pass in the south. It is bounded on the west by California's Central Valley, and on the east by the Great Basin.


title: Flurbereinigung

paragraphs: Flurbereinigung (pronounce: FLOOER-be-rye-nee-gung) is a word used in Germany to refer to the rearranging of fields in agriculture. During the second half of the 20th century, Flurbereinigung led to major changes in the landscape in the German countryside.

paragraphs: Many German farmers used to have several small fields which were not together but were in different places, some of them maybe two or three miles away from where they lived. This was particularly a problem in the area to the left of the Rhine which had been ruled by Napoleon, because in the 19th century, when a farmer and his wife had died, their land was shared between all their children, so it got divided into smaller pieces. In other parts of Germany only the eldest son inherited the land.

paragraphs: Since the 1960s, people understood that it would be much easier for a farmer to have all his fields together so that he did not have to keep making journeys between lots of small fields. Larger fields are easier to manage and more economical. The German government encouraged farmers to swap some of their fields among themselves so that each farmer had his land all in one place.

paragraphs: In the last few years the government have realized that the way the changes have been made are not always good. Nature often suffers when hedgerows are taken away to make fields bigger. Flurbereinigung today tries to keep some of the hedgerows and small groups of trees which sometimes stand in the middle of fields. They are good places for birds to nest and other animals like to live there, too.

paragraphs: Winegrowers do not always find it a good thing to have all their land together. This is because the soil in one field may be slightly different from the soil in a field just farther up the road, and this gives the wine a slightly different taste. Also, if all their land is on one hillside and a storm hits that hillside and ruins the crops, then they have lost everything. If they have several pieces of land in different places they are less likely to lose all their crops because of one disaster.


title: Live 8

paragraphs: Live 8 was a rock concert organized by activist Bob Geldof. The concert took place in nine places at once on July 2, 2005. Like Bob's Live Aid concert, Live 8 was made for helping out African citizens who were not getting enough food and medicine. However, this concert was not for charity. Instead, it was held to make people aware of the famine in Africa. Bob wanted to make the political group named the G8 give more to Africa. The concerts featured singers like Paul McCartney, Juan Diego Flórez and U2.

paragraphs: In November 2005, the concerts were released on DVD. The money used to buy the DVD sets was also used to help Africans.


title: Rigveda

paragraphs: 'Rigveda' is an ancient Indian religious book. It is counted as one of the four sacred Hindu writings, which are called Vedas. It is the world's oldest religious writings. It is also one of the oldest writings in Sanskrit language. Rigveda is very important to Hindus, especially Hindus in India and Nepal. Its words are said during prayers and religious gatherings. It is dated up to 4000 years ago but on the basis of astronomical calculations it is dated back to 8000 years and some calculations date back it to 10,000 years.

paragraphs: Rig Veda mainly contains various hymns for praying to Vedic Gods such as Agni (Fire God), Indra (The lord of Heavens), Mitra, Varuna (Water God), Surya (Sun God) etc. These hymns are called Riks. Hence the Veda is called Rik-Veda or RigVeda. This writing consists of 10 writings. The Rigveda has 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses.


title: Ecozone

paragraphs: An ecozone or biogeographic realm is the largest scale biogeographic division of the earth's surface.

paragraphs: These divisions are based on the historic and evolutionary distribution of plants and animals. Ecozones represent large areas of the Earth surface where plants and animals developed in relative isolation over long periods of time, and are separated from one another by geologic features, such as oceans, broad deserts, or high mountain ranges, that formed barriers to plant and animal migration. Ecozones correspond to the floristic kingdoms of botany or zoogeographic regions of mammal zoology.

paragraphs: Ecozones are characterized by the evolutionary history of the plants and animals they contain. As such, they are distinct from biomes, also known as major habitat types, which are divisions of the earth's surface based on "life form", or the adaptation of plants and animals to climatic, soil, and other conditions. Biomes are characterized by similar climax vegetation, regardless of the evolutionary lineage of the specific plants and animals. Each ecozone may include a number of different biomes. A tropical forest in Central America, for example, may be similar to one in New Guinea in its vegetation type, but these forests are inhabited by plants and animals with very different evolutionary histories.

paragraphs: The patterns of plant and animal distribution in the world's ecozones was shaped by the process of plate tectonics, which has redistributed the world's land masses over geological history.

paragraphs: The term ecozone, as used here, is a fairly recent development, and other terms, including kingdom, realm, and region, are used by other authorities with the same meaning. J. Schultz uses the term "ecozone" to refer his classification system of biomes.

paragraphs: In 1975 Miklos Udvardy proposed a system of 203 biogeographical provinces, which were grouped into eight biogeographical realms (Afrotropical, Antarctic, Australian, Indomalayan, Nearctic, Neotropical, Oceanian, and Palaearctic). Udvardy's goal was to create an integrated ecological land classification system that could be used for conservation purposes.

paragraphs: The WWF ecozones are based largely on the biogeographic realms of Pielou (1979) and Udvardy (1975). A team of biologists convened by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) developed a system of eight biogeographic realms (ecozones) as part of their delineation of the world's over 800 terrestrial ecoregions.

paragraphs: The WWF scheme is broadly similar to Udvardy's system, the chief difference being the delineation of the Australasian ecozone relative to the Antarctic, Oceanic, and Indomalayan ecozones. In the WWF system, The Australasia ecozone includes Australia, Tasmania, the islands of Wallacea, New Guinea, the East Melanesian islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand. Udvardy's Australian realm includes only Australia and Tasmania; he places Wallacea in the Indomalayan Realm, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and East Melanesia in the Oceanian Realm, and New Zealand in the Antarctic Realm.


title: Amorphous solid

paragraphs: An amorphous solid does not have a definite geometric or crystalline shape. It is a solid in which there is no long-term order in the positions of the atoms. Most classes of solid materials can be found or prepared in an amorphous form. For instance, common window glass is an amorphous ceramic, many polymers are amorphous, and even foods such as cotton candy and cotton are amorphous solids.

paragraphs: An amorphous solid is any noncrystalline solid in which the atoms and molecules are not organized in a definite lattice pattern. Such solids include glass, plastic, and gel.

paragraphs: Solids and liquids are both forms of condensed matter; both are composed of atoms in close proximity to each other. But their properties are, of course, enormously different. While a solid material has both a well-defined volume and a well-defined shape, a liquid has a well-defined volume but a shape that depends on the shape of the container. Stated differently, a solid exhibits resistance to shear stress while a liquid does not. Externally applied forces can twist or bend or distort a solid’s shape, but (provided the forces have not exceeded the solid’s elastic limit) it “springs back” to its original shape when the forces are removed. A liquid flows under the action of an external force; it does not hold its shape. These macroscopic characteristics constitute the essential distinctions: a liquid flows, lacks a definite shape (though its volume is definite), and cannot withstand a shear stress; a solid does not flow, has a definite shape, and exhibits elastic stiffness against shear stress.


title: Climate commitment studies

paragraphs: Climate commitment describes the fact that climate reacts slowly to factors ("climate forcings") such as greenhouse gases. Climate commitment studies attempt to measure the amount of future warming that is "committed" under the assumption of some constant level of forcings.


Plane