title: Chaos theory

paragraphs: Chaos theory is a part of mathematics. It looks at certain systems that are very sensitive. A very small change may make the system behave completely differently.

paragraphs: Very small changes in the starting position of a chaotic system make a big difference after a while. This is why even large computers cannot tell the weather for more than a few days in the future. Even if the weather was perfectly measured, a small change or error will make the prediction completely wrong. Since even a butterfly can make enough wind to change weather, a chaotic system is sometimes called the "butterfly effect". No computer knows enough to tell how the small wind will change the weather.

paragraphs: Some systems (like weather) might appear random at first look, but chaos theory says that these kinds of systems or patterns may not be. If people pay close enough attention to what is really going on, they might notice the chaotic patterns.

paragraphs: The main idea of chaos theory is that a minor difference at the start of a process can make a major change in it as time progresses. Quantum chaos theory is a new idea in the study of chaos theory. It deals with quantum physics.

paragraphs: As an example, take a pendulum that is attached at some point, and swings freely. Connecting a second pendulum to the first will make the system completely different. It is very hard to start in exactly the same position again - a change in starting position so small that it cannot even be seen can quickly cause the pendulum swing to become different from what it was before.

paragraphs: A very important part to the study of chaos theory is the study of mathematics functions that are known as "fractals". Fractal functions work like chaotic systems: a small change in the starting values can change the value of the function in ways that look random. Due to the fact that they are mathematical, they are easy to study.


title: First World

paragraphs: First World is a term used in politics and economics to refer to the richer and more developed nations. In these countries, the majority of the people are in the middle class and enjoy a good standard of living. This term is being used less, as terms like "global North" and "developed world" become more common.


title: Mulan (1998 movie)

paragraphs: Mulan is a 1998 American animated movie produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation. It is the 36th movie in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series. It is set in old-time China and based on local legend. The movie stars the voices of Ming-Na Wen and Eddie Murphy. "Mulan" was a success with its fans because it was different from Disney's other movies in terms of music and artistic design. The music was written by Jerry Goldsmith who also wrote the music for another animated movie, 1982's "The Secret of NIMH". Christina Aguilera sang "Reflections" for the movie's soundtrack. A direct-to-video sequel "Mulan II", was released on February 1, 2005.

paragraphs: In 2018, Disney announced that they are making a live action remake.

paragraphs: An army of Huns, led by Shan Yu, arrive and invade China. The Chinese army recruits each man from every family for them to start a war. Mulan's father, Fa Zhou, suffers an injury and he cannot fight. Mulan is supposed to get married, but is so clumsy that she fails the test to prove she would be a good wife. When seeing the match-making mistress she fails to be elegant and ladylike. Mulan fears she has dishonoured her family, but now decides that she must save her father. Mulan decides to become a boy to bring "honor" to her family. She packs her father's armour and weapon and leaves to report the army.

paragraphs: Mushu is an old spirit guardian of the Fa family, who has lost his job and been turned into a dragon. The family ancestors want to send someone to watch over Mulan on her journey, and Mushu takes the job in order to restore his honour. He and the lucky cricket of the family catch up with Mulan, as she joins the small army led by Li Shang. Mulan makes a soldier name Ping. All the men in the new army need a lot of training, but after a while the soldiers must face the enemy.

paragraphs: The army meets the Huns in the snowy mountains. When the Chinese are attacked, Mulan uses a cannon to start an avalanche which buries and kills the rest of Shan Yu's army. Mulan is hurt by a sword, and the doctor who examines her finds that she is not a boy but a girl. Li Shang leaves Mulan alone in the mountains. The army arrives at the Emperor's palace in the Imperial City. As Mulan and her animals spend the night trying to light a fire, they witness some of the surviving enemies climbing from the snow, and they start moving towards the Emperor's city. Mulan decides to follow them and warn her friends in the army.

paragraphs: In the Imperial City the army is celebrated for winning the war, and no one will listen to Mulan's warnings, since she is a girl. Suddenly Shan Yu and his surviving men step forward, kidnap the emperor and hide in the palace. Mulan and her soldier friends dress up as palace women and manage to fool the attackers and move the emperor to safety. With her friends' help, Mulan destroys Shan Yu using a store of fireworks. The emperor rewards her for saving the country.

paragraphs: Mulan returns home with her imperial gifts to show her family. The honour of Mulan, of her family and also of the dragon is now restored. Shang is encouraged by the emperor to marry Mulan. He travels to her town, pays a visit and is invited to dinner by her family.


title: Baltimore

paragraphs: Baltimore is the biggest city in the U.S. state of Maryland. In 2010 it had about 620,961 people living there. It is not in any county, so it is called an independent city. It is next to the Chesapeake Bay and used to be an important port for trade by ships. There is still some shipping but the Inner Harbor is now mostly famous for shopping and restaurants, and also for the National Aquarium and other museums.

paragraphs: Baltimore is home to the Ravens (football) and Orioles (baseball), both professional sports teams. Its main newspaper is the "Baltimore Sun." There is a place for horse races in the city called Pimlico. There are many colleges and universities in Baltimore, like Johns Hopkins University.

paragraphs: The city was made in 1729 and is named after the British Lord Baltimore who started the colony of Maryland. The mayor of this city is Stephanie Rawlings-Blake. She is the second woman to be the mayor of Baltimore, the first was Sheila Dixon. Many governors of Maryland were mayor of Baltimore first. One famous thing that happened in Baltimore was in the War of 1812, when the British attacked the city and Francis Scott Key wrote a song about it called "The Star-Spangled Banner". It is now the national song of the United States.

paragraphs: Some famous people from Baltimore are the Supreme Court judge Thurgood Marshall, the poet and writer Edgar Allen Poe, the baseball player Babe Ruth, the singer Billie Holiday, and the movie director John Waters.

paragraphs: In 1706, the colony of Maryland's General Assembly created the Port of Baltimore at Locust Point. It was built for tobacco trading. The Town of Baltimore was founded on July 30, 1729. It was named after Cecilius Calvert, the British Lord Baltimore. Calvert was the first Proprietary Governor of the Province of Maryland. Baltimore grew quickly in the 1700s as a granary (place for storing cereals and grains) for the sugar plantations in the Caribbean.

paragraphs: Baltimore was important in the time leading up to the American Revolution. Leaders like Jonathan Plowman Jr. got the city to refuse to pay taxes to Britain. Merchants (people who buy and sell things) signed agreements to not trade with Britain. The Second Continental Congress met in the Henry Fite House from December 1776 to February 1777. This made Baltimore the capitol of the United States during this time. In 1796, after the war, the Town of Baltimore, nearby Jonestown, and an area called Fells Point were incorporated as the City of Baltimore. (This means that these areas all merged and became the City of Baltimore.) The city was a part of Baltimore County until 1851. It then became an independent city.

paragraphs: During the War of 1812, the Battle of Baltimore happened in the city. The British attacked Baltimore on the night of September 13, 1814. This was right after they burned Washington D.C.. United States soldiers from Fort McHenry defended the Inner Harbor. Francis Scott Key watched the battle from a British ship in the harbor. He wrote the poem "The Star-Spangled Banner" about the attack. Later, "The Star-Spangled Banner" became the official National Anthem of the United States.

paragraphs: After the war, the number of people who lived in the city grew quickly. The National Road (now part of U.S. Route 40) and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) connected the city with big markets in the Midwest. This made Baltimore a very important shipping and manufacturing center. Baltimore was nicknamed "the Monumental City" by President John Quincy Adams in 1827. During an event, Adams gave a toast and said: "Baltimore: the Monumental City – [m]ay the days of her safety be as prosperous and happy, as the days of her dangers have been trying and triumphant." In 1835, the Baltimore bank riots happened. These were one of the worst riots of the antebellum South. (The "antebellum" period is the time right before the American Civil War.)

paragraphs: During the American Civil War, Maryland did not secede from the Union. (That is, Maryland stayed a part of the Union and did not join the Confederacy.) When Union soldiers marched through the city at the start of the war, some people attacked the soldiers. This started the Baltimore riot of 1861. Four soldiers and 12 civilians were killed. After the riot, Union soldiers occupied (stayed in) Baltimore. During the war, Maryland was governed directly by the federal government and the state government did not have any power. This was to keep the state from seceding (leaving the Union). After the war ended in April 1865, Maryland began governing itself again.

paragraphs: During the 1870s there was an economic depression called the "Panic of 1873." After the Panic, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad company decided to pay its workers less. This caused the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. These strikes stopped train service in Cumberland in western Maryland. On July 20, 1877, the Maryland Governor, John Lee Carroll, ordered the Maryland Army National Guard to stop the strikes. People who supported the railroad workers attacked the national guard soldiers. Soldiers from the 6th Regiment fired their guns at the crowd. 10 people were killed, and 25 people were hurt. This started a riot. Trains were damaged and parts of Camden Station were burned. US Army soldiers came to Baltimore to protect the railroad and end the strike. The riot and strike ended on July 21–22, 1877.

paragraphs: The Great Baltimore Fire started on February 7, 1904. It burned for 30 hours and destroyed 1,500 buildings. More than 70 blocks of downtown burned to the ground. The fire caused about $150 million of damage (US$ million in 2021.)

paragraphs: The city grew bigger by annexing (absorbing) suburbs from nearby counties. The last suburb was added in 1918. The city added parts of Baltimore County and Anne Arundel County. In 1948, the state constitution was amended (changed). It now required a special vote by citizens before an area could be added to the city. This stopped the expansion (growth) of the city.

paragraphs: In 1950, the city was 23.8% black. By 1970, it was 46.4% black. After Martin Luther King, Jr. was murdered in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, 1968, the Baltimore riot of 1968 started. It lasted until April 12, 1968. The riot cost the city about $10 million (US$ million in 2021). During the riot, 11,000 Maryland National Guard soldiers and US Army soldiers tried to protect the city. It is possible to see some effects of the riots today. Parts of North Avenue, Howard Street, Gay Street, and Pennsylvania Avenue are barren, empty, and not taken care of.

paragraphs: During the 1970s, Baltimore's downtown area, called the "Inner Harbor," was run down and neglected. It was full of empty and abandoned warehouses. The city began trying to redevelop the area. The Baltimore Convention Center was opened in 1979. Harborplace, a shopping and restaurant area, opened in 1980. The National Aquarium in Baltimore (Maryland's largest tourist destination) and the Baltimore Museum of Industry opened in 1981. In 1992, the Baltimore Orioles baseball team moved from Memorial Stadium to Oriole Park at Camden Yards near the harbor. Six years later the Baltimore Ravens football team moved into M&T Bank Stadium next to Camden Yards.

paragraphs: The National Register of Historic Places lists 280 historical properties in Baltimore city.

paragraphs: Baltimore is in north-central Maryland. It is on the Patapsco River, close to where it empties into the Chesapeake Bay. It is on the fall line between the Piedmont Plateau and the Atlantic Coastal Plain. (The "fall line" is a phrase in geology that means that this is a place where two different kinds of earth meet.) The fall line splits Baltimore into a "lower city" and "upper city."

paragraphs: At the harbor, the city is at sea level. The highest point is near Pimlico in the northwest. There the elevation is .

paragraphs: According to the 2010 census, the city has a total area of . This is of land and of water. The total area of Baltimore City is 12.07% water.

paragraphs: Baltimore is in the humid subtropical climate zone ("Cfa".) This is according to the Köppen climate classification

paragraphs: July is usually the hottest month of the year. The average temperature in July is . Summer is usually very humid. The highest temperature on record is in 1936.

paragraphs: January is the coldest month of the year. Sometimes wind from the subtropics brings springlike weather during winter. At night, winds from the Arctic make temperatures drop into the teens (in Fahrenheit; less than -7 °C.) Some nights the temperature drops to the single digits (less than -12 °C.) The coldest temperature on record is from 1934.

paragraphs: Downtown Baltimore and the parts of the city that are on the coast are usually warmer than other parts of Baltimore. This is because of the urban heat island effect. Also the Chesapeake Bay acts to moderate the effects of temperature. This means that the water helps keep the temperature from changing greatly.

paragraphs: Baltimore gets a lot of rain during the whole year. There is no "rainy season" or "dry season." This is normal in most cities on the East Coast of the United States. Every month, about of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, etc.) falls in Baltimore. The total rainfall yearly average is around . There are usually about 105 sunny days in a year. There are lots of rain showers and thunderstorms during spring, summer, and fall. In the winter, there are longer but lighter rain showers, and less sunshine and more clouds. It sometimes snows in the winter. The average snowfall is .

paragraphs: Baltimore has architecture in every style from the last 200-plus years. Many famous architects have designed buildings in the city. Some of these architects are Benjamin Latrobe, George A. Frederick, John Russell Pope, Mies Van Der Rohe and I. M. Pei.

paragraphs: The city has some buildings that are thought to be important to the history of architecture. Baltimore Basilica (1806–1821) was designed by Benjamin Latrobe in the neoclassical style. It is the oldest Roman Catholic Cathedral in the United States. The Municipal Museum of Baltimore, often called the Peale Museum, was build in 1813 by Robert Cary Long, Sr. It was built for Rembrandt Peale and is the first building in the United States designed specifically to be a museum. The McKim Free School, built by Isaac McKim in 1822, shows the interest of early American architects in ancient Greek art.

paragraphs: The Phoenix Shot Tower (1828) was the tallest building in the United States until the Civil War. It is tall. The tower was build without scaffolding. The Sun Iron Building (1851) was the first iron-front building. Brown Memorial Presbyterian Church (1870) has stained glass windows by Louis Comfort Tiffany. It has been called "one of the most significant buildings in this city, a treasure of art and architecture" by "Baltimore Magazine". The 1845 Greek Revival style Lloyd Street Synagogue is one of the oldest synagogues in the United States.

paragraphs: The Baltimore World Trade Center was built in 1977 by architect I.M. Pei. The building is in the shape of an equilateral pentagon (it has five equal sides.) It is the tallest building of this shape in the world.

paragraphs: Oriole Park at Camden Yards is considered by many to be the most beautiful baseball park in Major League Baseball. It is designed to be "retro style". The park has inspired many other cities to build their own retro ballparks. Camden Yards and the National Aquarium have helped revive the Inner Harbor. The area used to be an industrial district of run-down and abandoned warehouses. Today it is a lively commercial district full of bars, restaurants, and stores.

paragraphs: Baltimore is officially split into nine regions. These regions are based on geography. Each region is patrolled by their own Baltimore Police Department district. These regions are: Northern, Northwestern, Northeastern, Western, Central, Eastern, Southern, Southwestern, and Southeastern. Locals sometimes split the city into "East Baltimore" and "West Baltimore" along Charles Street. Other locals sometimes split the city into "North Baltimore" and "South Baltimore" along Baltimore Street.

paragraphs: The Central district includes Downtown Baltimore, Harborplace, The Camden Yards Sports Complex (Oriole Park at Camden Yards and M&T Bank Stadium), the Convention Center, and the National Aquarium in Baltimore. It is the city's main commercial area. It also has many nightclubs, bars, restaurants, shopping centers, and other attractions. Many of the city's key businesses are in this area as well. The University of Maryland, Baltimore campus, University of Maryland Medical System, Maryland Institute College of Art, the Peabody Institute of music, the Lyric Opera House, The Walters Art Museum, and The Joseph Meyerhoff Symphony Hall are also in the central district.

paragraphs: The Northern District is north of the Central district. Loyola University Maryland, The Johns Hopkins University and College of Notre Dame of Maryland are in this district. Some of the richer residential neighborhoods are also here. The neighborhood of Roland Park, the first planned suburban community in America, is one of these richer neighborhoods. The borders of the district are made by The Alameda on the east and Pimlico Road on the west.

paragraphs: The Southern district is the part of the city below the Inner Harbor and east of the B&O Railroad tracks. It is a mix of industrial and residential areas. It is also a mix of many demographics, cultures, and ethnicities. It is home to the ethnically diverse neighborhood of Locust Point, the historic neighborhood Federal Hill, and poor residential neighborhoods like Cherry Hill. There are two Port of Baltimore terminals in this district. The old Domino Sugar plant is also here.

paragraphs: The Northeastern district is mostly residential. It is home to Morgan State University. Today it is mostly African-American. The district is bordered by the city line to the north and east; Sinclair Lane, Erdman Avenue, and Pulaski Highway on the south; and The Alameda on the west.

paragraphs: The Eastern district is mostly poor, African-American residential neighborhoods. There are entire blocks of abandoned buildings. The district is also dangerous and has a problem with drug trafficking. For this reason, the TV show "The Wire" was often filmed in this district. This area is also home to Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. The district is bordered by Erdman Avenue, Sinclair Lane, and Orleans Street.

paragraphs: The Southeastern district is a mix of industrial and residential areas. Neighborhoods in this district usually have a mix of races and cultures. The district is bordered by Orleans Street, the Inner Harbor, the city line, and the Baltimore harbor.

paragraphs: The Northwestern district is mostly residential. It is also home to the Pimlico Race Course and Sinai Hospital. Until the 1960s, Baltimore's Jewish community was based in the Park Heights neighborhood. Since then, there has been "white flight" and the neighborhood today is almost all black. Northern Parkway is a dividing line in the district. North of the parkway, the neighborhoods are mostly white. Some of these are Mount Washington and Cheswolde. South of the parkway, the neighborhoods are mostly black. The borders of the district are made up by the county line on the north and west, Gwynns Falls Parkway on the south and Pimlico Road on the east.

paragraphs: The Western district is the home of Coppin State University, Mondawmin Mall, and Edmondson Village. These are important to the culture, economy and history of the city's African American community. This district used to be the home to many middle and upper class African Americans, but they have moved away since. Today, more than 45% of people living in some neighborhoods have income levels below the poverty line. Some of the crime from this district was used in the TV show "The Wire". The district is west of downtown. Its borders are Gwynns Falls Parkway, Fremont Avenue, and Baltimore Street.

paragraphs: The Southwestern district is a mix of industrial parks and residential areas. St. Agnes Hospital is in this district. It has Baltimore County to the west, Baltimore Street to the north, and the downtown area to the east.

paragraphs: The City of Baltimore is next to several communities. All of these are unincorporated census-designated places.

paragraphs: Baltimore is sometimes called the "city of neighborhoods." This name comes from the fact that it has 72 official historic districts (areas). People of one ethnic group mainly live in each one of these areas. Some of the most important today are downtown. These are the Inner Harbor, Fells Point, and Little Italy. The Inner Harbor has lots of hotels, shops, and museums. Many tourists visit the Inner Harbor. Fells Point used to be a place where sailors went for entertainment. Today it has been rebuilt and cleaned up. This is the neighborhood in the movie "Sleepless in Seattle". Little Italy is where the Italian-American people live and work. Nancy Pelosi grew up in this neighborhood. She used to be Speaker of the House in Congress.

paragraphs: Another important neighborhood is Mount Vernon. This neighborhood is the center of culture and art in Baltimore. There are many important monuments and museums there. One important monument is the Washington Monument. This monument was built in the 1800s in a plaza. It is older than the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C..

paragraphs: Every year there is an art festival called Artscape. The festival is in the Bolton Hill neighborhood. This is very close to the Maryland Institute College of Art. Artscape is called the "largest free arts festival in America." Another art festival that happens in Baltmore is the Maryland Film Festival. It happens every year in May. At the Film Festival, movies are shown at the Charles Theatre. (The Charles Theatre is an old cinema.)

paragraphs: One of Baltimore's nicknames is "Charm City." Some advertisers wanted to make the city's reputation better. They started using the name in 1975.

paragraphs: People in Baltimore speak English. They have a very unique accent and way of speaking (dialect). For example, they pronounce "Baltimore" as "Balamer" or "Balmer." The Baltimore dialect is sometimes called "Baltimorese." It is a kind of Mid-Atlantic English. People from Baltimore will often call each other "Hon."

paragraphs: There are movies that parody (make fun of) the way people from Baltimore talk. A lot of these movies are made by John Waters. He is a movie maker from Baltimore. Most of Waters's movies were made in Baltimore. "Pink Flamingos" and "Hairspray" are some of these movies. Waters also wrote the musical version of "Hairspray."

paragraphs: Many very famous and important people were born or raised in Baltimore. Some of these are:

paragraphs: Baltimore used to be mostly industrial. There was a lot of steel processing, shipping, car manufacturing, and transportation. Deindustrialization happened, and Baltimore lost a lot of jobs that paid a lot of money and did not need a lot of training or skill. Today, most of the jobs in Baltimore are service economy jobs. These jobs do not pay very much. 90% of jobs are service jobs today.

paragraphs: In July 2012, the unemployment rate was 11%. Also in 2012, the steel mill (factory) at Sparrow's Point closed. This will mean more people will lose their jobs. 25% of people who live in Baltimore, and 37% of all children living in Baltimore, live in poverty.

paragraphs: Johns Hopkins Hospital is in Baltimore. Some big companies from Baltimore are Under Armour, Cordish Company, and Royal Farms. There is a big sugar refinery in Baltimore. It is owned by American Sugar Refining.

paragraphs: There are eight Interstate Highways in Baltimore. These are:

paragraphs: Some of these highways do not connect to each other. I-70 stops at a parking lot just inside of the city. This is because of "freeway revolts" that happened in Baltimore. The interstate highways were supposed to go through downtown Baltimore, but the people in the city did not want this to happen. Barbara Mikulski, now a United States Senator, started the "freeway revolts" to keep the highways from being built in downtown.

paragraphs: Today there are some highways numbered U.S. highways and state routes that run through downtown. These are US 1, US 40 National Road, and the Baltimore-Washington Parkway. There are also some tunnels underneath the Baltimore harbor. I-95 runs through the Fort McHenry Tunnel. I-895 runs through the Harbor Tunnel.

paragraphs: Baltimore has a beltway. A beltway is a highway that circles around a city. The Baltimore Beltway is I-695. It crosses over the Chesapeake Bay on the Francis Scott Key Bridge. This bridge is just south of the Inner Harbor.

paragraphs: Baltimore is an important train stop. Amtrak trains in the Northeast Corridor stop in Baltimore. Penn Station is one of the busiest train stations in the country. In 2008 it was the 8th busiest train station in the United States. That year, more than 1 million people took a train to or from Penn Station. Another important train station is at Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport. Many Amtrak trains stop at the BWI Rail Station. The Amtrak trains that stop in Baltimore are: "Acela Express", "Palmetto", "Carolinian", "Silver Star", "Silver Meteor", "Vermonter", "Crescent", and "Northeast Regional". The MARC commuter rail service also has trains that stop in Baltimore. The MARC trains run from Camden Station and Penn Station in Baltimore to Union Station in Washington, D.C..

paragraphs: Baltimore has many colleges and universities. These are both public (run by the government) and private. Some of them are:

paragraphs: Baltimore City Public School System runs Baltimore's public schools. Some of these schools are well known. Carver Vocational-Technical High School was the first vocational high school for African-Americans in Maryland. Lake Clifton Eastern High School is the biggest school campus in Baltimore City. Frederick Douglass High School is the second-oldest African-American high school in the United States. Baltimore City College is the third oldest public high school in the country. Western High School is the oldest public all-girls school in the nation. Baltimore City College and Baltimore Polytechnic Institute are football rivals. This is the second-oldest high school football rivalry in the country.

paragraphs: Baltimore's main newspaper is "The Baltimore Sun." In 1986, the newspaper was sold to the Times Mirror Company. This company was bought by the Tribune Company in 2000. Today, "The Sun" is still a Tribune newspaper.

paragraphs: Baltimore had two newspapers until 1986. (It was very common for US cities to have two newspapers.) The other main newspaper was the "Baltimore News-American". The "News-American" went out of business in 1986.

paragraphs: "The Baltimore Examiner" was started in 2006 to compete with "The Sun." It was owned and run by a company that also published newspapers like "The San Francisco Examiner" and "The Washington Examiner". "The Examiner" was a free newspaper that was paid for by advertising. ("The Sun" is not free.) "The Examiner" was not able to make money, and it stopped being published on February 15, 2009.

paragraphs: According to Nielsen Market Research, Baltimore had the 26th-largest television market in 2008-2009. It was the 27th-largest market for 2009-2010. Arbitron listed Baltimore as the 22nd-largest radio market in Fall 2010.

paragraphs: Baltimore has a long baseball history. The first team to play for Baltimore were the 19th century Baltimore Orioles (1882-1899). This was one of the most successful early baseball teams. The team had many hall of famers play for them. The great Babe Ruth was born in Baltimore in 1895. He played for the minor league Baltimore Orioles team. This team existed from 1903 to 1914 and from 1916 to 1953.

paragraphs: Today, Baltimore's Major League Baseball team is the Baltimore Orioles. They play in the American League. The Orioles came to Baltimore in 1954. Before that, the team had been in St. Louis, Missouri, where they were called the St. Louis Browns. The Orioles went to the World Series in 1966, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1979 and 1983. They won the World Series three times: in 1966, 1960, and 1983.

paragraphs: In 1995, Cal Ripken, Jr. broke the record for the most games played in a row. The old record was set by Lou Gehrig, and was 2,130 games. Ripken was added to the Baseball Hall of Fame. He was also named "Sportsman of the Year" by "Sports Illustrated" magazine. There are six Orioles players and two managers in the hall of fame.

paragraphs: Baltimore's first football team were the Baltimore Colts. The team came to Baltimore in 1953. Before then, they had played in Dallas, Texas as the Dallas Texans. The Colts played for Baltimore until 1984. In 1984, the team moved to Indianapolis and took the name. Today the team still plays as the Indianapolis Colts.

paragraphs: In 1996, the Cleveland Browns came to Baltimore. They were renamed the Baltimore Ravens. The Ravens won a Super Bowl championship in 2000 and again in 2012. They also won three American Football Conference (AFC) North division championships in 2003, 2006, and 2011. In addition, the played in three AFC Championship Games in 2000, 2009, and 2011.

paragraphs: Baltimore has an indoor soccer team, the Baltimore Blast. They play for the Major Indoor Soccer League at the 1st Mariner Arena. The team joined the League in 2001. The Blast have won 5 league championships: 2002, 2003, 2005, 2007 and 2008.

paragraphs: The Baltimore Blues are a semi-professional rugby league football club. They will compete in the USA Rugby League in 2012. Other professional or semi-professional Baltimore teams include Crystal Palace Baltimore, an outdoor soccer franchise of

paragraphs: USL Second Division. The Charm City Roller Girls are a member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association since 2005.

paragraphs: The Preakness Stakes are held every May at the Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore. The Preakness is the "second jewel" in the United States Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing.

paragraphs: Car races are held on the streets of downtown every year in September. The Baltimore Grand Prix runs through the Inner Harbor. It started in 2011. The American Le Mans Series, IndyCar Series, Indy Lights, and other races are a part of it.

paragraphs: Baltimore is very politically liberal. The mayor of Baltimore is a Democrat. 84.7% of the voters in 2016 voted for the Democrat Hillary Clinton, and 87.2% of the voters in 2012 voted for the Democrat Barack Obama. The last time a Republican running for president won more votes than the Democratic candidate in Baltimore was 1956. Even in 1984, when Ronald Reagan won 49 states in his reelction campaign, only 28.2% of the voters in Baltimore voted for him.

paragraphs: Baltimore has eleven sister cities. These were picked by Sister Cities International.


title: Chantilly, Virginia

paragraphs: Chantilly is a community in Fairfax County, Virginia. The Battle of Chantilly was fought here during the American Civil War.


title: Corpus Christi, Texas

paragraphs: Corpus Christi, Texas is a city in the United States. It is near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and is one of the fastest growing cities in America. Its economy is based around petroleum refining and tourism.

paragraphs: The city was founded in 1839 as "Kinney's Ranch" and has been known as Corpus Christi since 1847.


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title: Panama Canal

paragraphs: The Panama Canal is a waterway (a canal) in the country of Panama in Central America, that connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Because of the way Panama twists, the entrance to the Pacific Ocean is farther east than the entrance to the Atlantic Ocean. This is the opposite of what one would expect.

paragraphs: The Panama Canal is 77 km (48 miles) long and cuts across the Isthmus of Panama. At each end it uses three pairs of "locks" for lifting and lowering ships on different water levels. This saves ships 15,000 km (10,000 miles) compared to going around South America. Each year, about 14,000 ships come through the canal. By 2002, around 800,000 ships came through.

paragraphs: The old locks are 110 ft (33.53 m) wide by 1,050 ft (320 m) long and 41.2 feet (12.6 m) deep, with a usable length of 1,000 ft (305 m). The biggest ships that can go through the Panama Canal are called Panamax.

paragraphs: New locks opened in 2016 to allow ships more than twice as big, called New Panamax. They are 55 m (180 ft) wide by 427 m (1,400 ft) long, and 18.3 m (60.0 ft) deep. New channels connect to the new locks.

paragraphs: Ferdinand de Lesseps tried building a Panama Canal in 1880, but could not finish it. The project was started again in 1904 by the United States, under the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, who spent ten years and 375 million dollars building it. The Panama Canal was finally finished in 1914, at the cost of approximately 25,000 lives. Most deaths were from disease, and before United States construction of the canal began. The US government owned and operated the canal until 1999 when the Panamanian government started controlling it.


title: Suriname

paragraphs: Suriname, or Surinam, Dutch Guiana, Dutch Guyana or Sranang is a country in South America. The official name of the country is Republiek Suriname (this is Dutch and translates to "Republic of Suriname"). It used to be known as "Nederlands Guyana", "Netherlands Guiana" or "Dutch Guiana". It is between Guyana and French Guiana. Paramaribo is the capital city, in which resides almost half of the country's population. About half a million people live in the country. Suriname became independent from the Netherlands in 1975. Before that, it was a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

paragraphs: There are border disputes with French Guiana and Guyana all to the south of the country.

paragraphs: The industry of the country is centered on the mining and processing of bauxite. This makes up 15 percent of the Gross Domestic Product and more than 70% of the exports. Other exports are sugar, oil and gold. About 25% of the working people are employed in agriculture. The main trade partners are the Netherlands, the United States and countries in the Caribbean.

paragraphs: Dutch, French, Spanish and English explorers discovered the area in the early 16th century. A century later, sugar plantation colonies were established by the Dutch and English along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains. After the second Anglo-Dutch War England traded any claims to the territory for New Amsterdam which became New York.


title: Aarre Merikanto

paragraphs: Aarre Merikanto (29 June 1893 — 28 September 1958) was a Finnish composer. His parents were Liisa Häyrynen and composer Oskar Merikanto.

paragraphs: Merikanto was born in 1893. He studied music in Helsinki (1911), Leipzig (1912-1914) and Moscow (1916-1917). He tried composing an opera for the first time when he was 18 years old. The result was "Helena", which was completed in early 1912. The opera had one act and its libretto was written by Jalmari Finne. In the 1920s Merikanto created his own modernist style. Merikanto was a professor of composition in the Sibelius Academy, Helsinki from 1951 to his death. Merikanto died of lung cancer in Helsinki in 1958.


title: Tribe

paragraphs: A tribe is a group of people who live and work together in a shared geographical area. A tribe has a common culture, dialect and religion. They also have a strong sense of unity. The tribe is usually headed by a chief. A "tribal society" is a group of tribes organized around kinships. Tribes represent a part in social evolution between bands and nations.

paragraphs: A tribe can be a collection of families or of families and individual people living together. A tribe usually divides up the jobs that need to be done among themselves. Most tribes have special customs or traditions.

paragraphs: Humans lived in tribes before they started living in cities and nations. There are still tribal groups all over the world. Their numbers are getting smaller and smaller. Many live as hunter-gatherers.


title: Satan

paragraphs: Satan (meaning "the enemy" or "the trouble-maker" in Hebrew), sometimes called the Devil, is a figure found in the writings of the Abrahamic religions. Muslims, Christians and Jews believe that he tempts people to do bad things. His role is to question and tempt people's faith. They also say that he was once an angel named Lucifer.

paragraphs: In Satanism, Satan is thought to be just a metaphor for what humans want. In Theistic Satanism, Satan is considered to be a good force.

paragraphs: In Islam, a "shayṭān" is any sort of evil creature. The Qu'ran describes Satan as arrogant. The story about him begins in surah Baqarah. It states that Satan views himself as a greater entity than God's other creations because he was created from fire. After this, the Qu'ran states:

paragraphs: In the Bahá'í Faith, "Satan" is not regarded as an independent evil power as he is in some faiths and religions, but rather signifies the "lower nature" of humans. `Abdu'l-Bahá explains: "This lower nature in man is symbolized as Satan — the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside." All other evil spirits described in various faith traditions—such as fallen angels, demons, and jinns—are also metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God. Actions, that are described as "satanic" in some Bahá'í writings, denote humans deeds caused by selfish desires.

paragraphs: Many people believe that Satan was first an angel called Lucifer that left Heaven and took many other angels with him. He did this because he thought he was as powerful as God.


title: Hiking

paragraphs: Hiking is a general word for traveling on foot in wilderness or countryside. Day hikers return before nightfall. Other hikers may go out for many days. Sometimes large groups hike together.

paragraphs: Hiking is a kind of physical activity as well as a leisure activity (a way of spending free time). Hikers (the people who do hiking) enjoy fresh air and the beauty of nature, and learn about the place. Many hikers enjoy challenging their physical and mental strength. Hiking with friends gives them the chance to become stronger.

paragraphs: Planning starts with a hiker deciding what he wants from the hike. A traveler should examine the information on landscape, climate, weather, plants, animals, type of ground, and so on. Based on that information, a hiker decides what equipment (tools) he needs. Writing everything on paper is strongly suggested to not forget anything. A hiker should choose the itinerary (the way of the hike).

paragraphs: Equipping means getting specialized clothing and equipment. Overnight hiking requires carrying more supplies, usually in a backpack, though many use a backpack even for a day hike. Suggestions for equipment can be found in any hiking book. A hiker is suggested to learn more than one source and work. Equipping sometimes needs getting skills in using the apparatus. Basic skills–different ways of orientation (the ability to find the way, for example)–must be developed before hiking.

paragraphs: Hiking can quickly become a fight for life. Hikers can get lost or suffer from injury, sickness, bad weather, or other dangers. For this reason everything in hiking is very important. Nobody should hike alone, no matter what the situation, without a great deal of experience to develop his hiking abilities.

paragraphs: Every hiker should keep in mind that theory is important, but it can hardly replace firsthand experience. To be safe a traveler should have enough experience. A hiker had better start by taking short hikes with more experienced hikers.

paragraphs: Getting lost can have bad results including sickness and death. A hiker is strongly suggested to check from time to time (at least every hour) whether he is going the right way. Portable GPS receivers can help, as long as the batteries are good. Accurate, complete maps and a compass can help, if the user understands them. On no account should he go on traveling if he has lost his way. The first thing a hiker should do is find the direction in which he was going before getting lost. Using the compass and the map, he should choose a reference point nearby (railway, road, river, etc.).


title: Saint Petersburg

paragraphs: Saint Petersburg () is a Russian city in northwestern Russia, near the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea. Over five million people live in St. Petersburg as of 2015, and it is the second biggest city in Russia. It is a major port, connecting with the world's shipping paths through the Neva River and the Baltic.

paragraphs: Part of Saint Petersburg is designated a World Heritage Site called The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments.

paragraphs: Saint Petersburg was started by the Russian Tsar, Peter I as the capital of the Russian Empire in 1703, to take the place of the earlier capital, Moscow. It was the capital of Russia until 1918. Peter the Great established Saint Petersburg as a warm-weather port in order to show Russian dominance in the Baltic and to increase trading opportunities. Peter sought to modernize Russia, therefore he tried to make Saint Petersburg as different as possible from the former capital, Moscow, by modernizing the city.

paragraphs: Saint Petersburg has changed its name many times. During World War I, when Russia and Germany were fighting each other, Russians thought the name Sankt Peterburg sounded too German, so Tsar Nicholas II, on August 31 (August 18, Old Style), 1914 decided that the city was renamed Petrograd. In 1918 during the Russian revolution, the Soviet capital was moved to Moscow, still the capital of Russia now.

paragraphs: On January 26, 1924, five days after Lenin's death, Petrograd was renamed Leningrad in his honor. During World War II, the city was surrounded by the German army and under siege for twenty-nine months until January 1944.

paragraphs: Leningrad again took its old name of St. Petersburg on September 6, 1991, when Russia stopped being communist. In every-day Russian, the city is often called just ""Piter"". The "Oblast" (administrative province) where the city is the capital is still called "Leningrad Oblast".

paragraphs: Saint Petersburg was a beautiful city planned by Peter I. There are many man-made rivers (or canals) in the city, so the city is sometimes called the "Venice of the North". There are also beautiful buildings built by Russian emperors in other places of the city. Some of these buildings are the Hermitage Museum and the Winter Palace.


title: Kiwifruit

paragraphs: Kiwifruit ("Actinidia deliciosa") is a fruit. It has an oval shape. It is green on the inside with small black seeds that can be eaten. The kiwi has furry brown skin that is edible but is usually removed. The skin is relatively thin. The kiwi is native to South China.

paragraphs: The fruit was named in 1959 after the kiwi, a bird and the symbol of New Zealand. Before that, its English name was Chinese gooseberry.

paragraphs: The kiwifruit is healthy and contains many vitamins and minerals. Kiwis are rich in vitamin C, vitamin K, potassium, and fiber. Kiwis have more vitamin C than an equivalent amount of orange.

paragraphs: There are different types of kiwifruit. The main types are Hayward (the most common green kiwifruit), chico, Saanichton 12, and golden kiwifruit. Golden kiwifruit are sweeter than normal green kiwifruit. Golden kiwifruit was invented by grafting and cross-pollinating different types of kiwifruit.


title: Aardvark

paragraphs: The Aardvark ("Orycteropus afer") is a mammal from Africa; its name means "earth pig" in the language Afrikaans. It is the only living member in its order, though some fossil genera have been found

paragraphs: The Aardvark looks a bit like the South American anteaters but they are not related. It is in a proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia, with the golden moles and tenrecs. Another proposal is to out it in the Pseudungulata, with the elephants and Sirenia. There is no consensus at present.

paragraphs: Adult aardvarks weighs about 60 kilograms (130 pounds) and a little more than one meter (45 inches) long. It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's fur is thin. Its hair is short on its head and tail. But, its legs tend to have longer hair.

paragraphs: Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa. They are found in every country in sub-Saharan Africa except Namibia, Ivory Coast, Ghana and Madagascar. It lives in many habitats like savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland. They have been seen as high as 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) in Ethiopia.

paragraphs: Aardvarks eat mostly ants and termites. They have a long sticky tongue which makes it easy to pick up many ants at once. The only fruit that aardvarks eat is the aardvark cucumber. They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants.

paragraphs: Aardvarks are nocturnal, which means they are awake at night and asleep during the day. The aardvark is a good swimmer. It can dig a tunnel that is one yard in about five minutes. Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in captivity. It has many predators such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs, hyenas, and pythons. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in a zigzag to confuse predators. If all else fails they will attack with their claws.

paragraphs: Aardvarks only come together to breed. The gestation period is seven months. They give birth to one cub, which is what a baby aardvark is called. The cub weighs around 1.7–1.9 kilograms (3.7–4.2 lb). It is born during May–July. After 5–6 weeks, hair starts growing on its body. After two weeks, it is able to leave the burrow to follow its mother. After 9 weeks, it is able to eat termites. It is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often stay with the mother until the next mating season. It reaches sexual maturity when it is two years old.


title: Rutherford B. Hayes

paragraphs: Rutherford Birchard Hayes (October 4, 1822 - January 17, 1893) was the 19th President of the United States. He served only one term, from 1877 to 1881. Hayes was a Republican. He was elected governor of Ohio three times before becoming president. Hayes barely won the election of 1876, only defeating Democratic opponent Samuel Tilden after a Congressional committee gave Hayes some disputed electoral votes.

paragraphs: Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio. He went to Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio, and then went to Harvard Law School. After graduating from law school, he became a lawyer. In 1849, he joined the Republican Party, which was new then, because he was against slavery. In 1852, he married Lucy Webb, a woman who was also against slavery. In the 1860s, he served in the American Civil War on the Union side, and became a major general. After the war ended, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a part of the Republican Party. In 1867, he became the governor of Ohio.

paragraphs: Ulysses S. Grant had been president since 1869, and was not going to run for president a third time in 1876. Grant was a member of the Republican Party, and while he was president, became known for allowing corruption to go on around him. The Republican Party did not want people to think that everybody in the party was corrupt, so they decided to make Hayes their candidate. They thought he was a good candidate because he had made many changes in Ohio while he was governor there that people thought were good, and because he was thought to have been a hero in the Civil War.

paragraphs: Hayes ran against Samuel Tilden, whom the Democratic Party nominated. The election was close, and many people who did not think that Hayes fairly won the election called him "His Fraudulency". Tilden actually got more votes than Hayes, but Hayes got 185 votes in the Electoral College, while Tilden got 184, so Hayes won the election.

paragraphs: While he was president, Hayes ended the Reconstruction period that followed the American Civil War. Rutherford B. Hayes ordered military forces that had been in the Southern states to leave. He also sent federal troops to end a railroad strike. Hayes refused to seek a second term as president.

paragraphs: After being president, Hayes retired to Fremont, Ohio where he would die of a heart attack on January 17, 1893. Meanwhile, He spent time talking about his beliefs that all children should have the chance to go to school, that people who had been in the military should get their fair payments for their service, and that people in prisons should be treated better.


title: Eyebrow

paragraphs: An eyebrow is the stripe of hair about 2 cm over the eye. Eyebrows protect the eyes, if water runs over the face or if there is too much sunlight. The eyebrow's ability to move is also important in facial expression.


title: Solstice

paragraphs: A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the Sun reaches its highest position in the sky as seen from the North or South Pole. The day of the solstice is either the "longest day of the year" or the "shortest day of the year" for any place on Earth, because the length of time between sunrise and sunset on that day is the yearly maximum or minimum for that place. The name is derived from the Latin words "sol" (“sun”) and "sistere" (“to stand still”). During the solstice, the Sun stands still; that is, the seasonal movement of the Sun's path comes to a stop before reversing direction. The “Northern Solstice” occurs in June, when the sun is at its highest point seen from the North Pole. The “Southern Solstice” occurs in December, when the sun is at its highest point seen from the South Pole.

paragraphs: The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons. In some cultures they mark either the beginning or the middle of summer and winter.

paragraphs: The June Solstice happens when the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth is tilted toward the Sun and the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth is tilted away from the Sun. At the North Pole, the Sun reaches its highest point in the sky, and then begins moving lower. At the moment of the June solstice, the Sun is directly overhead some point on the Tropic of Cancer; this is the furthest north that the subsolar point ever reaches. In the Northern Hemisphere the June solstice is called the Summer Solstice (and marks the longest day of the year), while in the Southern Hemisphere it is called the Winter Solstice (and marks the shortest day of the year). The June Solstice is usually on June 21.

paragraphs: The December Solstice happens when the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth is tilted toward the Sun and the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth is tilted away from the Sun. At the South Pole, the Sun reaches its highest point in the sky, and then begins moving lower. At the moment of the December solstice, the Sun is directly overhead some point on the Tropic of Capricorn; this is the furthest south that the subsolar point ever reaches. In the Southern Hemisphere the December solstice is called the Summer Solstice (and marks the longest day of the year), while in the Northern Hemisphere it is called the Winter Solstice (and marks the shortest day of the year). The December Solstice is usually on December 21.

paragraphs: While the exact causes were long unknown, the effect (of days getting shorter or longer) was recognised in many ancient cultures. Many of the pre-Christian cultures, like the druidic, the Germanic and the Norse faith therefore celebrated these events as holidays.

paragraphs: When the importance of the old faiths vanished, the Christian religion took over some of the festivities, which were then carried out in the honour of a new (Christian) occasion. For instance, the date of Christmas in the Catholic and Protestant faith is just 3 days away from the December Solstice.


title: Secular humanism

paragraphs: Secular humanists believe that each human being is worth something and has dignity. They think that people are happiest when they give something to society. They also believe that human beings can solve problems without help from god(s).

paragraphs: Secular humanists are not religious. Usually they are atheists.


title: Quebec City

paragraphs: Quebec City (Ville de Québec in French) is the capital of the Canadian province of Quebec. It is the second largest city in Quebec, behind Montreal. It is known for its winter fair, beautiful churches, and an old hotel called Château Frontenac. It is next to the Saint Lawrence River. There are almost 700,000 people in the whole area.

paragraphs: The city was created in 1608 at a First Nations (native) Canadian place called Stadacona. People came from France to live there. The English captured the city in 1759 during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The walls made to keep the city safe are still there. The walls that surrounded Old Quebec are the only remaining fortified city walls that still exist in the Americas north of Mexico. They were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1985.

paragraphs: Quebec City has a humid continental climate ("Dfb" in the Köppen climate classification).

paragraphs: Most people in Quebec City speak French. Many also speak English.


title: Vancouver Island

paragraphs: Vancouver Island is an island that is part of the province of British Columbia in Canada. It is big and is in the south-western part of the province.

paragraphs: The first people to live on the island, before Europeans came, were the Nuu-chah-nulth, Salish, and Kwakiutl. As of 2009, over 700,000 people live here.

paragraphs: There are no bridges or tunnels between Vancouver Island and the mainland. There are ferries that carry people and cars to and from the island. One route crosses the Strait of Georgia to the Tsawwassen peninsula, from which there are roads that go to Vancouver and other cities in Canada as part of the Trans-Canada Highway. Another ferry route crosses the Strait of Juan de Fuca and reaches Anacortes in the U.S. state of Washington, from which roads go to Seattle and other cities along the West Coast.

paragraphs: There are many cities and towns on Vancouver Island. The biggest of these is Victoria, the capital of British Columbia, where the Legislative Assembly and the University of Victoria are found.

paragraphs: Other places on Vancouver Island where people live include:


title: First Nations

paragraphs: First Nations () are the people of native tribes who lived in the land now governed by Canada before Europeans came there. Many Canadians also use "second Nations" to mean people with natives in their family trees. Many say it because these nations were here long before Canada, and to make it clearer that the First Nations have many cultures, and that some of the cultures are very different from others. Some consider it a respect to those who first cultivated certain patches of land. The aboriginal people from Canada's Arctic are thought of as a different group of people, called the Inuit.

paragraphs: These First Nations are important in the world because their stories have taught us a lot about cultural values and how to live in harmony with the land.

paragraphs: Other words that have been used for First Nations people, tribes, and cultures have been "indigenous", "aboriginal", "Indian", "Native Indian", "Amerind," or "native." Now many people say "Indian" only about people to India.


title: New Brunswick

paragraphs: New Brunswick (postal abbreviation NB) is a province in the eastern part of Canada. The capital city of New Brunswick is Fredericton. Other large cities are Saint John and Moncton. More than 750,000 people live in New Brunswick.

paragraphs: The province is bordered by Quebec in the west, Nova Scotia in the east and the American state of Maine in the south. There is a link to Prince Edward Island also.

paragraphs: The English and French languages are both spoken in New Brunswick, and it is the only province in Canada where both languages are official. This is because about 33% of the people living in New Brunswick speak French.

paragraphs: Some industries including forestry, mining, and farming are important to the province, and especially fishing since it is near the Atlantic Ocean.


title: AC/DC

paragraphs: AC/DC is a hard rock band from Australia. They formed in Sydney, Australia in November 1973. AC/DC has sold an estimated 200 million albums worldwide, including 68 million in the United States of America. The two primary founders of the band, Malcolm Young and Angus Young, developed the idea for the band's name after their sister Margaret saw the initials "AC/DC" written on a sewing machine. "AC/DC" is an abbreviation for "alternating current/direct current," which refer to the two different types of charges used in electricity. The band chose the name because of their energetic “electrical” style of playing rock and roll. Even though AC/DC considers their music style simply as "rock and roll", AC/DC are often considered pioneers of heavy metal.


title: Double bass

paragraphs: Double bass is a widely used name for a large stringed instrument. Other terms, perhaps more correct, include contrabass and upright bass. It is used in orchestras, jazz bands, rockabilly bands, bluegrass music, and some country music bands. It plays low-pitched musical notes in musical ensembles and bands. In jazz bands, these low-pitched musical notes are called the "bass line." The double bass looks like smaller instruments like the violin, viola, and cello.

paragraphs: The double bass is usually made from wood. Double basses have a hollow wooden body which helps to amplify the sounds of the instrument . A wooden neck is attached to the body, and a flat wooded fingerboard is glued onto the neck. It usually has four metal strings which are strung with tension on the neck. It has a peg at the bottom to stand it.

paragraphs: In an orchestra, double bass players bow the strings with a wooden bow strung with horsehair, or pluck the strings with their fingers (plucking the strings is called pizzicato). In jazz the double bass is played pizzicato most of the time. However some jazz players use the bow to play melodies on the double bass.

paragraphs: Double bass players hold down the metal strings against the fingerboard with their left hand and then bow the string or pluck it with their right hand. To play different notes the double bass players move the left hand to different positions on the fingerboard.

paragraphs: Double bass players in jazz bands or rock bands often connect their double bass to an electronic amplifier and a loudspeaker, to make a louder, stronger sound. This makes it easier for the double bass player, the other musicians, and the audience to hear the double bass's musical notes.

paragraphs: The double bass is usually considered a member of the violin family, because it is constructed using many of the same techniques as violins. The double bass also has influences from the viol family. Viols are old string instruments from the 1400s and 1500s with sloping "shoulders" on the instrument's body and flat backs. Like the viols, the double bass also has sloping "shoulders" on its body and a flat back.

paragraphs: The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to members of the orchestral string family, which are tuned in fifths. Modern double basses are usually tuned, low to high, E-A-D-G, which is one octave lower than the four lowest-pitch strings on a guitar.

paragraphs: Throughout classical repertoire, there are notes that fall below the range of a standard double bass. Notes below low E appear regularly in double bass parts in the Baroque and Classical eras, when the double bass was typically doubling the cello part an octave below. In the Romantic era and the 20th-century, composers such as Mahler, Beethoven, Busoni, and Prokofiev also requested notes below the low E. There are two common methods for making these notes available to the player. Major European orchestras generally use basses with a fifth string, tuned to B three octaves and a semitone below middle C. Players with standard double basses (E-A-D-G) typically play the notes below "E" an octave higher.

paragraphs: In the United States, Canada and United Kingdom, most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses with a "C extension," which extends the lowest string down as far as low C, an octave below the lowest note on the cello. More rarely would one find a four-string double bass with a "B extension", extending the lowest string down to a low B. The extension is an extra section of fingerboard mounted up over the head of the bass. There are several varieties of extensions.

paragraphs: In the simplest version, there are no mechanical aids attached to the fingerboard extension except a locking nut for the "E" note. To play the extension notes, the player reaches back over the pegs to press the string to the fingerboard. The advantage of this "fingered" extension is that the player can adjust the intonation of all of the stopped notes on the extension, and there are no mechanical noises from metal keys and levers. The disadvantage of the "fingered" extension is that it can be hard to perform rapid alternations between low notes on the extension and notes on the regular fingerboard, such as a bassline that quickly alternates between "G" and the low "D".

paragraphs: The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use of wooden "fingers" that can be closed to press the string down and fret the C#, D, Eb, or E notes. This system is particularly useful for basslines that have a repeating pedal point such as a low D, because once the note is locked in place with the mechanical "finger", the lowest string then sounds a different note when it is played "open" (e.g., a low D).

paragraphs: With the B extension, the "fingers" can fret the low C.

paragraphs: A much simpler way to get down to Low C would be to tune the Double Bass in Fifths see (Fifths tuning]] cause the sound will be more equal like the rest of the string section.

paragraphs: The double bass also has many other names. Some bluegrass musicians call it a "bass fiddle" or a "bull fiddle." Rockabilly bands often call it an "upright bass" or "Doghouse" Some orchestra musicians call it a "contrabass." In a military concert band, it is often called the "string bass." Sometimes the double bass is simply called a "bass."


title: Allies of World War II

paragraphs: The Allied Powers (or Allies of World War II) were a group of nations that fought against the Axis countries in World War II. They were successful in defeating the Axis nations. The war ended in 1945. The group of nations was later named the United Nations by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt. The main great powers, sometimes called "The Big Three", were the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: Some of the powers fought for a short time, or declared war but did not fight. Romania, Bulgaria, and Finland fought from 1944-1945 and before that were Axis powers. Italy also changed sides.


title: Convair B-36 Peacemaker

paragraphs: The B-36 Peacemaker was a strategic bomber. It was used in the United States. The B-36 could carry a 21,000 pound bomb. The B-36 was never used in wartime, but was in a movie called Strategic Air Command. The Peacemaker could fly for 48 hours non-stop and was one of the longest ranged bombers at the time. It first flew in 1948, and the last combat flight was in 1959.


title: Wing

paragraphs: A wing is the part of an animal or airplanes that allows it to fly.

paragraphs: A "wing" is part of an animal that allows it to fly. By moving its wings, the animal can produce lift and get off the ground.

paragraphs: Animals that have wings are insects, birds and bats. Birds' wings are made of feathers. The wings of bats are made of skin, which is stretched between the bones of the bat's arms and fingers. Not all insects and birds can fly, even if they have wings.


title: Disability

paragraphs: A disability is a condition that a person has which limits them in some way.

paragraphs: People with a disability or disabilities may need to use special equipment that can help them. This can include using a wheelchair, a cane or walking stick, hearing aids, a teletypewriter (TTY) and using specially designed software and hardware for the personal computer.

paragraphs: People who use a wheelchair or cane/walking stick cannot walk up or down stairs in a building. They need to use ramps and elevators when going into and moving around in a building. Wide doorways and accessible toilets also make it easier for people with physical disabilities to use.

paragraphs: Prejudice towards people with disabilities is common. This is sometimes called 'ableism'. A person with such a prejudice is called an ablecentrist.


title: Newfoundland

paragraphs: Newfoundland is an island off the east Coast of North America, and is part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The capital city of Newfoundland is St. John's, on the north-east part of the island. Over 500,000 people live in Newfoundland (these people are called Newfoundlanders). It, along with Labrador on the mainland, became part of Canada on March 31, 1949. There is no bridge or tunnel from Newfoundland to the rest of the country but there is a ferry to Nova Scotia.

paragraphs: In Newfoundland, most people speak English, but there are also French speakers on the island, mostly in the south-west. In some areas of Newfoundland, people speak with an accent and use words that are not in standard English. There is even a dictionary of Newfoundland English.

paragraphs: The first people in Newfoundland were the First Nations. Settlers came from countries like Norway, England, Portugal, France, and Ireland in the 16th century. The first European explorers were the Vikings from Norway and they settled in L'Anse aux Meadows. They came because of the good fishing off the coast, especially off the south-east coast. Eventually they left because of disagreements with aboriginals. Today, there is still fishing, but not very much because people fished too much, and now there are not many fish left.

paragraphs: Cutting down trees and mining have also been attractions of the island. There are some paper mills (paper factories) in a few cities in Newfoundland.


title: Kiss (band)

paragraphs: Kiss is an American hard rock/heavy metal band. The band started in the 1970s. They formed in New York City on January 4th 1973. The original members are Gene Simmons, Paul Stanley, Peter Criss, and Ace Frehley. They are most famous for their stage show and songs like "Rock and Roll All Nite" (1975), "Strutter" (1974) and "Detroit Rock City" (1976).

paragraphs: Kiss has had several changes in style and lineup. Their more famous era was in the mid 1970s, particularly the first 6 studio albums, and the first live album, Alive! which was widely popular. In the 1980s, Kiss started to follow the trend taking place with more synthesizers, and songs that many fans didn't like because of a big change in style. In the 1990s, Kiss changed toward the grunge and heavier trend with Revenge and . The original members reunited for Psycho Circus and then parted ways again in 2002. Tommy Thayer and Eric Singer replaced Frehley and Criss, and the current lineup has made the 2009 album Sonic Boom, which was a return to the classic style of the 70's, and many fans liked it. The follow up to that is going to be released in June 2012, titled Monster.


title: The Visioner's Tale

paragraphs: The Visioner's Tale is one of the little-known writings of Geoffrey Chaucer. Only parts of the story were left from when Chaucer wrote it in the 14th century, so it is not normally included in modern versions of the Canterbury Tales.

paragraphs: Here is the tale, as put together by someone from Denmark who studied the parts of the story, and tried to put them together:

paragraphs: "My lady's touch upon the lute is light,"

paragraphs: "that the river of time spills into dream,"

paragraphs: "where lives primordial the memory of future things,"


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

paragraphs: Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–25 October 1400) was an English writer, poet, and philosopher. He is most famous for writing Canterbury Tales which had 24 stories but was not completed. He was one of the first writers to write in English. He wrote in Middle English.

paragraphs: Chaucer was probably born in London. His father, John, and grandfather were prosperous wine merchants in London. The name "Chaucer" is French and means shoemaker. However, not many details are known of his early life and education.

paragraphs: By 1357, Chaucer was a page to Elizabeth, Countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, 1st Duke of Clarence. In 1360, he was captured by the French near Reims during a battle in the Hundred Years' War. He was then ransomed and released. King Edward III gave £16 towards his release. Chaucer married Phillipa (de) Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to the queen and had close family connections to John of Gaunt. He had about three or four children.

paragraphs: Chaucer may have studied law in the "Inner Temple". He joined the Royal court and travelled around Europe on business for the king. He became one of the king's esquires. One of his first known poems was written in 1369. It was called "The Book of The Duchess", and was written after the death of John of Gaunt's wife, Blanche. In 1374, he became "Comptroller" (in charge of the money) of the Customs for the Port of London. He did this job for 12 years. It was a well paid job and Chaucer was quite rich.

paragraphs: When Richard II became king, Chaucer continued to work in Customs. He was also sent to Europe on several more diplomatic jobs for the king.

paragraphs: Chaucer moved to Kent in 1385 where he had a new position as Justice of the Peace. He was also elected as one of two knights of the shire to be a member of parliament. At the end of the year he lost his customs jobs. His wife, Phillipa, died in 1387. But on 12 July 1389, he was made the "Clerk of the Kings Works", looking after repairs to the royal palaces. He was given other small positions, including looking after the river banks of the Thames, and as a deputy forester in the Royal Forest. Over the next few years, Chaucer became poorer and often was given small payments and pensions from the king.

paragraphs: He died at St.Mary's Chapel in Sevenoaks on 25 October 1400. Chaucer is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is now called the Poets' Corner.

paragraphs: Chaucer did most of his writing between 1369 and 1393. He is famous for his collection of stories in verse called the "Canterbury Tales". He also wrote "The Book of the Duchess", "The House of Fame" and "Troilus and Criseyde".


title: Echidna

paragraphs: Echidna, the spiny anteater, is a monotreme that lives in Australia and in New Guinea. They are the living members of the family Tachyglossidae.

paragraphs: Echnidas have a long, tube-like mouth with a sticky tongue, and they are also covered in spines. They have mammary glands, and lay eggs.

paragraphs: The echidna has a method of protecting itself. With its long, sharp claws, they quickly dig a hole until only their spines are showing when they are hiding in the hole. The predator will not be able to get it without injuring itself on the spines.

paragraphs: When there is a fire, the echidna will dig down out of reach of the fire.

paragraphs: The short-beaked echidna ("Tachyglossus") eats termites and ants. The three "Zaglossus" species also eat other small insects and grubs. Echidnas pick up the prey with their sticky tongues.


title: 2002 Bali terrorist bombing

paragraphs: The 2002 Bali terrorist bombings took place in Kuta on the Indonesian island of Bali. The attack was the deadliest act of terrorism in the history of Indonesia. Kuta is a popular tourist destination. 202 people were killed. 164 of them were foreigners, 38 were Indonesian citizens. Most of those killed were Australians, Britons and Indonesians. In addition, 209 people were injured.

paragraphs: At around 11 in the evening, a bomb destroyed a bar on Bali. The bomb was in a backpack, and only the person that owned it died. A few seconds later, a larger bomb went off. This bomb was close to 1,000 kilograms.

paragraphs: A terrorist group called Jemaah Islamiyah are believed to be responsible for making and exploding the device.

paragraphs: In total, four people were charged with the terrorist attack. An Indonesian court sentenced three of them to death. One person received a long prison sentence.


title: Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress

paragraphs: The Boeing 17 Flying Fortress was a heavy bomber, that was used by the United States Strategic Air Force during World War II. It first flew in 1935, and was introduced in 1938. It had a shorter range, and a smaller bomb load, than its sister bomber the B-24 Liberator, but it had more defensive armament. It dropped large amounts of bombs during air raids against Germany, such as the raid on Dresden. The B-17 was also used in the Pacific, including the Battle of Midway. The Flying Fortress had its name for a good reason, it could survive the hits, being able to fly while under intense enemy fire. The B-17 was a heavy bomber plane that carried 2 tons of bombs. Not many B-17's survived WWII. It was the result of lots of opposition and the lack of escort by fighters. Although the Flying Fortress shot down many opposing fighters they also took a beating. Later in WWII, the U.S. increased escort fighters for the bombers giving more protection. The escort fights flew until the end of WWII.


title: Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith

paragraphs: Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith is the third film in the "Star Wars" saga produced by Lucasfilms It was released in 2005.

paragraphs: The movie shows the events that led to the transformation of Anakin Skywalker to Darth Vader of the original trilogy. It also shows how Palpatine turned the Galactic Republic into the Galactic Empire as well as showing the destruction of the Jedi because of Order 66.


title: Midway Atoll

paragraphs: Midway Atoll was the site of a famous battle in World War II, the Battle of Midway. The United States of America took control of the atoll in the 19th century when nobody lived there.

paragraphs: Midway Atoll is now home to 67-70% of the world's Laysan Albatross population, and 34-39% of the global Black-footed Albatross.

paragraphs: While Midway supports nearly three million birds, each seabird species has carved out a specific site on the atoll in which to nest. Seventeen different species of seabird can be found, the rarest of which is the Short-tailed Albatross, otherwise known as the “Golden Gooney.” Fewer than 2,200 are believed to exist due to excessive feather hunting in the late nineteenth century.

paragraphs: Over 250 different species of looli marine life are found in the of lagoon and surrounding waters. The critically endangered Hawaiian monk seals raise their pups on the beaches. Monk seals are benthic foragers and rely on the Midway Atoll’s reef fish, squid, octopus and crustaceans. Green sea turtles, another threatened species, occasionally nest on the island. The first was found in 2006 on Spitsy Rinaia Island and another in 2007 on Sand Island. A resident pod of 300 spinner dolphins live in the lagoons and nearshore waters.


title: Beşiktaş J.K.

paragraphs: Beşiktaş Jimnastik Kulübü (Besiktas JK) is a Turkish football club from Istanbul. Besiktas JK was founded in 1903 by 26 young men in "Osman Pasa Konagi".

paragraphs: It was the beginning of the 20th century and it was forbidden then to attend sports activities on a club basis. People were gathering together all around Istanbul. Twenty-six young men (Huseyin Bereket, Mehmet Samil, Ahmet Fetgeri, Mehmet Ali Fetgeri, Fuat Balkan, Muhittin Pasa, Mazhar Kazanci, Nazim Nazif Ander, Haydar Bey, Cami Baykurt, Behcet Bey, Sevket Cenani, Mahmut Naci Bey, Refik Bey, Sukru Pasa, Haci Ahmet Pasa, Kilic Ali, Ziya Karamursel, Kenan Bey, Yuzbasi Fethi Bey, Seraffettin Bey, Seref Bey, Celal Davut, Hami Bey, Fuat Pasa, and Kamil Beyler) gathered together on November in 1902 and decided to found a club. Next year in 1903 the vision came to life and Besiktas JK was founded.

paragraphs: Besiktas is one of the 3 big clubs in Turkey. Others are Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe.


title: Phosphorus

paragraphs: Phosphorus has the chemical symbol P, and its atomic number is 15. Its mass number is 30.97. It is not found in nature as an element but as compounds, such as phosphates. It can be a red or a white waxy solid.

paragraphs: Phosphorus comes in several forms. White and red phosphorus are the most common forms. White phosphorus is a waxy white solid. When pure, it is colourless. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulfide, an organic solvent. It turns light yellow when in air. It glows in the dark because it "burns" very slowly in air.

paragraphs: When exposed to sunlight, or when heated in its own vapour to 250 °C, it is converted to the red variety. This form does not ignite spontaneously and it is less toxic and less flammable than white phosphorus. The red modification is fairly stable and sublimes with a vapor pressure of 1 atmosphere at 417 °C.

paragraphs: White phosphorus is more reactive than red phosphorus. White phosphorus catches fire spontaneously in air, burning to make smoke of phosphorus(V) oxide. If it burns in a little air, it produces poisonous phosphorus(III) oxide. When white phosphorus is heated in an alkali, it disproportionates to produce hypophosphites and phosphine. Red phosphorus can burn but needs to be ignited. Phosphorus reacts with the halogens to make phosphorus halides. It reacts with some metals to make phosphides.

paragraphs: Phosphorus compounds are chemical compounds containing phosphorus. They are listed below with some of their properties. Phosphorus comes in several oxidation states, the number of electrons moved during a redox reaction. -3 is flammable, powerful reducing agent, and toxic; +1 is a strong reducing agent and is rare; +3 is a weaker reducing agent that is poisonous; +5 is not a reducing agent and is very common.

paragraphs: It is an essential component of living systems and is found as phosphate in nervous tissue, bones and cell protoplasm. It is also found in the earth as phosphate rock. Phosphate rock is the main source of phosphorus and phosphorus compounds. Many body tissues have calcium phosphates in them.

paragraphs: Phosphorus was first made by heating a mixture of phosphates and carbon in an iron pot. The phosphates were made by dissolving bones in strong acids and evaporating the solution.

paragraphs: Phosphorus is made now by heating calcium phosphate, carbon, and silicon dioxide in an electric arc furnace. The heat of the electric arc melts the mixture of materials, and phosphorus gas is given off. It is absorbed under water. This makes white phosphorus.

paragraphs: White phosphorus is used in incendiary weapons and smoke grenades. It is also used to make organic compounds that have phosphorus in them. Phosphorus is used to dope semiconductors. Phosphorus is used to remove oxygen from copper. It is also used in making alloys. Red phosphorus is used in matches and flares.

paragraphs: Phosphorus compounds are used for fertilizers, soft drinks, toothpaste, and detergents. Most of these are phosphates. Phosphides can be used to kill rodents.

paragraphs: White phosphorus is very dangerous. It is very toxic and ignites easily, burning with a very hot flame. Red phosphorus is much safer. Some phosphorus compounds are toxic, but the common phosphates are not toxic.


title: Franklin Pierce

paragraphs: Franklin Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869) was the 14th President of the United States (1853–1857) and is the only President from New Hampshire. Pierce was a Democrat and a "doughface" (a Northerner with Southern sympathies) who served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate.

paragraphs: Pierce was born on November 23, 1804, in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He attended school at Hillsborough Center but then moved to Hancock Academy in Hancock at the age of 12. After attending school there for five years, he was transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy in the spring of 1820. After he entered, he felt homesick and returned home. Consequently, his father then put him in a wagon, drove him half way back to school, and left him on the roadside without saying a word. Franklin walked the seven remaining miles back to school. Later that year, he was transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy to prepare for college. That fall, he was sent to Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine. While he was there, Franklin Pierce participated in literary, political, and debating clubs. During his second year there, his grades were the lowest in his class, but he was able to improve them and graduated with the rank of fifth in his class.

paragraphs: Once finished with college, he went to law school in Northampton, Massachusetts. Pierce was admitted to the bar and began law practice in Concord, New Hampshire, in 1827. Franklin Pierce rose to a central position in the Democratic party of New Hampshire and was elected to the lower house in New Hampshire’s General Court in 1828. Pierce served in the State House from 1829 to 1833 and also served as Speaker from 1832 to 1833. Then in 1832, Franklin was elected Democrat to the 23rd and 24th of Congress from March 4, 1833, to March 4, 1837. At 27 years of age, Pierce was the youngest U.S. Representative at that time. In 1836, he was elected by the New Hampshire General Court as a Democrat to the U.S Senate, serving from March 4, 1837, to February 28, 1842. After serving in the Senate, Pierce went back to Concord to resume law practice. He then was U.S. Attorney from 1845 to 1847 for the district of New Hampshire, though he declined Democratic nomination for Governor of New Hampshire and refused the appointment as General of the United States.

paragraphs: On November 19, 1834, Franklin Pierce married Jane Means Appleton. They had three children, all of which died in childhood. Franklin Pierce Jr. died only three days after birth; and Frank Robert Pierce died at four years of age from epidemic typhus; just two months before his inauguration, Franklin Pierce and his family boarded a train bound for Boston. Shortly after, their derailed car started to roll down an embankment. Franklin and Jane survived, merely shaken up, but saw their 11-year-old son Benjamin get crushed to death. Jane Pierce thought the train accident was a divine punishment for Franklin’s pursuit and acceptance of high office.

paragraphs: Franklin Pierce served as President from March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857. He was the first President to “affirm” his oath of office instead of swearing it (the only other president to do this has been Herbert Hoover). So rather than placing his hands on the Bible, Franklin Pierce placed his hands on a law book. He was also the first President to recite his inaugural address from memory. Surprisingly, Franklin Pierce selected men of different opinions for his Cabinet. Many people expected a diverse group to break up quickly, but the Cabinet stayed together for Pierce’s four-year term.

paragraphs: Franklin Pierce’s toughest challenge as President was the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. This act repealed the Missouri Compromise and, in the west, reopened the question of slavery. These and more triggered a series of events known as "Bleeding Kansas". Pro-slavery Border Ruffians, mostly from Missouri, illegally voted in a government. Pierce recognized this and called the Topeka Constitution, set up by Free-Staters, as an act of “rebellion.” Overall, Franklin Pierce is ranked among the least effective Presidents of the United States, as he was unable to steer a steady, prudent course.

paragraphs: After losing the Democratic reelection in 1856, Pierce retired with his wife. Franklin Pierce died in Concord, New Hampshire of cirrhosis on October 8, 1869 at the age of 64. He was buried in Old North Cemetery in Concord.


title: Ottoman Empire

paragraphs: The Ottoman Empire, officially the Sublime State of Ottomania (in Ottoman Turkish:دولت عالیه عثمانیه), was a multinational state that lasted from 1299 to 1923. It was centered in Turkey and controlled the eastern and southern lands around the Mediterranean Sea. The empire was founded by Osman I around 1299, and was most powerful from around 1400 to 1600, when it controlled trade and politics in southeastern Europe, southwest Asia, and northern Africa. Suleiman the Magnificent was one of the most powerful rulers.

paragraphs: The empire was a collection of conquered countries. The Sultan sent governors to rule these countries or provinces, with titles such as Pasha or Bey. The most famous in the early 19th century was Muhammad Ali Pasha. Besides provinces, the empire also had tributary states.

paragraphs: In later years, the Ottoman Empire began to weaken. In the later part of the 19th century, it became known as "the sick man of Europe". The empire was defeated in World War I and broke apart.

paragraphs: The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in 1299AD. His son, Orhan, captured the first capital of the Ottoman Empire, Bursa, from the Byzantines. In the later 1300s, the Ottomans began consolidating power, especially in the Balkans, where Serbia was defeated in 1389 at the Battle of Kosovo Polje by Sultan Murad I. Murad died at the battle, and Bayezid I took control. At the 1396 Battle of Nicopolis, a large crusade of the Western European powers was defeated. Despite this victory, Bayezid was deposed by Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. His absence led to a civil war referred to as the Ottoman interregnum. Mehmed Çelebi won and became Mehmed I. His son, Murad II had to battle pretenders to the throne backed by the Byzantine Empire. He retaliated with an attack on Constantinople, and Venice helped the Byzantines. Murad defeated them at Thessaloniki, and also defeated the Karamanid "beylik" (principality). He also defeated Hungary, Poland, and Wallachia at Varna in 1444. John Hunyadi, a Hungarian general, tried his hand at defeating the Turks, but he lost in 1448.

paragraphs: Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453. He also subjugated Albania and expanded tolerance for the Orthodox Church. Mehmed continued his expansion, along with his son Bayezid II. Selim I conquered Egypt and the Levant, which were ruled by the Mamluks, in early 1517. He also obliterated the Safavid Persians at Chaldiran in 1514. The Ottomans were at odds with Portugal over their expansion as well. Suleiman the Magnificent, his son, captured Belgrade and most of Hungary after the Battle of Mohács in 1526. His siege of Vienna was repulsed by the deeply-divided Holy Roman Empire in 1529. Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia became tributary to the Ottoman Empire soon afterwards. In the east, the Ottomans captured Baghdad from the Safavids and partitioned the Caucasus with them. Meanwhile, Suleiman allied Francis I of France over mutual hatred of the Habsburgs. This led to Ottoman activity in the Mediterranean, where Rhodes, Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli would eventually be captured. Barbarossa Hayreddin led the Ottoman advance. In 1566, Suleiman died, and many historians consider this the beginning of the Ottoman stagnation.

paragraphs: The Ottomans lost the war in the battle of Lepanto in 1571 by Philip II of Spain and his Holy League. The Ottomans quickly recovered, capturing Cyprus from Venice. However, this defeat shattered the myth of Ottoman invincibility. The Ottomans suffered many defeats in the next 30 years: the Long War with Austria ended in stalemate and the Safavids invaded the eastern Ottoman provinces. Murad IV recaptured Iraq and the Caucasus from Persia. The "Sultanate of Women" became an epithet for the Ottoman Empire after consorts Kösem Sultan and Turhan Sultan became important in the empire, sometimes making economic decisions in the Sultan's place. The Grand Vizier also took a greater role under the leadership of the Köprülüs. Crete was captured from Venice and southern Ukraine was captured from Poland. However, Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha carelessly opened up the empire to attack when he attacked Vienna. The Austrians, Poles, Russians, and Venetians all attacked the Ottomans back in the Great Turkish War. Austria and Poland attacked the overstretched Turks in Hungary and Transylvania while Russia hammered Crimea. Venice settled to attack Greece. The warring sides signed the Treaty of Karlowitz, ceding Hungary and Transylvania to Austria, Podolia (southern Ukraine) to Poland, Morea (southern Greece) to Venice, and Azov (a Black Sea port) to Russia.

paragraphs: Russia and Sweden went to war, and the Ottomans got involved. They retook Azov and then made peace. Austria, Russia, Venice, and Turkey would go to war several times. By 1739, the Ottomans had actually retaken the Morea and Serbia. In the 1740s and 1750s, the Ottomans began to modernize their military, but in the 1760s, the Ottomans went to war with the Russians again. Russia took over Crimea in 1783 and claimed that Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire were under Russian protection. Selim III continued modernizing the military, but the Janissary corps (the elite troops) revolted. Napoleon attacked Egypt and was repulsed by the British.

paragraphs: Serbia revolted and gained nominal independence in 1815, but they were still vassals of the Ottoman Empire. Greece won their independence after a long war of independence from 1821 to 1829. The al-Saud family revolted in 1811 with the support of the Wahhabi sect. Then, Egypt under Muhammad Ali almost captured Constantinople, but the Russians repulsed them. The Egyptians settled with the Levant, and the Ottomans tried to retake it. They were soundly defeated. Turkey was dubbed the "sick man of Europe" because of its incompetence in international affairs.

paragraphs: The Ottoman Tanzimat period brought reform: conscription was introduced, a central bank was formed, homosexuality was decriminalized, law was secularized, and guilds were replaced with factories. The Christian part of the empire became much more advanced than the Muslim part, and this divide created tension. Meanwhile, in the 1850s, the British and French protected the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War. The debts of the Ottomans led to a state of bankruptcy, and European countries began providing loans and controlling the finances of the empire. Worse yet, the Ottomans began war with Russia over Bulgarian independence. In the 1878 Congress of Berlin, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro gained complete independence. Bulgaria remained a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. The British took Cyprus and, in 1882, Egypt.

paragraphs: In 1908, the Ottomans underwent a revolution by the Young Turks. Abdul Hamid II abdicated and Mehmed V was instated. Bulgaria gained independence and Austria invaded Bosnia in that same year. In 1912, the Ottomans lost Libya to the Italians. The ensuing Balkan Wars saw the Ottomans lose all of its European territories but Eastern Thrace to a combined force of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria. The Second Balkan War allowed the Ottomans to attack Bulgaria in conjunction with Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. Their victory meant little. Unrest continued with a 1909 countercoup to the Young Turk coup and three subsequent countercoups to that 1909 coup. In 1914, utterly disorganized, the Ottomans declared war on Russia. Britain and France went to war with the Ottomans, and World War I had come to Turkey.

paragraphs: Early Ottoman conduct in the war was actually not completely objectionable. The Battle of Gallipoli was won by the Ottomans in part because of the complete incompetence of the British commanders. Al-Kut was also won by the Ottomans, even though it was lost later. In 1915, the Armenian Genocide, one of the worst mass killings in history, began. Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, and others were targeted. As many as 2.5 million of these peoples died. The Ottoman Empire crumbled upon itself after the Arabs revolted in 1916 with British help. The Ottomans fell after the Sinai, Palestine, Iraq, Syria, and eventually Anatolia itself fell. The Ottomans surrendered in 1918.

paragraphs: The Turkish War of Independence was fought against the Sultan, Greece, Armenia, France, Britain, and Italy. The Turkish national movement won under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and the Republic of Turkey was founded. In 1923, the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist.

paragraphs: The empire was a hereditary monarchy. The ruler's title was 'Sultan'. In the early years of the empire, shahzadahs, the sons of the Sultan, were sent to different parts of the empire (Sanjaks) to get experience of governing. Later they might be candidates for the Sultanate and Caliphate.

paragraphs: After Ahmed this system changed. In the new system the Sultan would keep his male relatives locked in a small apartment called a "kafes" where they would never be able to see the outside world, and would therefore be unable to take power from him. Often, a new Sultan would have his male relatives killed, a simpler solution since it removed competition for the Sultanate and prevented rebel movements. However, the women in his harem often sought greater status and influence, and the Sultan's mother might become a powerful political force in the Empire. Each mother in the harem would try to make her own son the next Sultan, since they knew he would probably be killed if he was not.

paragraphs: The Sultans gradually lost their ability to govern far-away territories well. Distant governors did whatever they wanted and made their own laws instead of obeying the Sultan. By its end, the Ottoman Empire grew so worn out and corrupt that it was ready to collapse.

paragraphs: Bursa was the first capital of the Ottoman Empire. Edirne in Thrace became the capital city of the Ottoman Empire in 1365, until Istanbul was conquered by the Turks and became the empire's final capital.

paragraphs: Many places were vassal states to the empire rather than being directly ruled. These included Transylvania, Moldavia, Wallachia, (which would become Romania), Caucasus (Georgia, Dagestan, and Chechnya). Their rulers received a degree of independence and autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. The price for this autonomy was more money (tax or tribute) paid to the Sultan.