title: Piano duet

paragraphs: A piano duet is a piece of music written for two people to play at one piano. It is often called Piano 4 hands.

paragraphs: To play piano duets the two players sit with one person on the right (playing the high notes) and the other person on the left (playing the low notes). The person on the right is called “Primo” (“First”) and the person on the left is called “Secondo” (“Second”).

paragraphs: Piano duet music is usually printed with the Secondo part on the left-hand page and the Primo part on the right-hand page. Occasionally it is printed with the two parts underneath one another.

paragraphs: Playing piano duets is great fun and an excellent way to become a better musician. Like all group music making, each player has to learn to listen and adapt to what is going on in the other part. Sometimes one player will have to take away his or her hand quickly so that the other player can play the same note immediately afterwards. Sometimes the players have to cross their hands (secondo’s right hand crosses with primo’s left hand).

paragraphs: A lot of the time the primo’s part may have both hands written in the treble clef and the secondo’s part may have both hands written in the bass clef. This can sometimes be confusing at first.

paragraphs: The pedalling is usually done by the secondo player. This is because pedalling is very much about keeping chords going (“sustaining”), and it is the secondo who usually has the chords which give the harmony because these are in the lower part.

paragraphs: There are lots of piano duets available for people to play. Some of these are simple ones written for beginner pianists. Some are written by the great composers.

paragraphs: Some pieces that are really supposed to be played by an orchestra have been arranged for piano duet. In some cases the composer himself made this arrangement. Examples from famous composers include Stravinsky’s "Rite of Spring" which is extremely hard to play, and Maurice Ravel’s suite "Ma Mère l’Oie".

paragraphs: Some very famous piano duets which were originally written in this form include several sonatas by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, several pieces by Franz Schubert including a "Fantasia in f minor", Gabriel Fauré’s "Dolly Suite", Debussy’s "Petite Suite" and Georges Bizet’s "Jeux d’Enfants" (which he also arranged for orchestra).

paragraphs: Some works are written for two people to play together using two pianos. These are usually called piano duos. Examples include Mozart’s Sonata in D major K448. The Sonata op 34 by Johannes Brahms started as a string quintet but he changed it to a piano concerto, then a piano duo, and eventually a piano quintet. The Suite op 17 by Rachmaninoff is another. Most piano duos are very hard to play and need very good pianists. Piano concertos can be played on two pianos, with one player playing the solo part and the other playing the orchestra’s music.

paragraphs: There is also a small repertoire of pieces for three people to play at one piano. This is called Piano six hands. These pieces are often fun pieces which are not too hard to play, although there are examples of serious pieces. The three people need to be good friends, because it is a bit of a squash. The player at the bottom ought to do the pedalling but it may be easier for the middle player to do it.


title: Piano six hands

paragraphs: Music described as piano six hands is for three pianists at one piano, as distinct from piano duet which is music for two pianists at one piano, and from piano trio which is music for piano, violin and cello. Not much music has been written for this combination, although there are several arrangements of music originally written for other forces.

paragraphs: Compositions include 5 pieces by Percy Grainger, Sergei Rachmaninoff's Romance and Valse, Alfred Schnittke's Hommage, Carl Czerny's op.17 and 741, Jean Cras's "Âmes d’enfants", Paul Robinson (composer)'s "Pensees" and "Monmartre", various pieces by German composer Armin Fuchs, Bulgarian composer Tomislav Baynov's "Metrorhythmia 1", John Pitts's "Are You Going?", Greek composer Dionysis Boukouvalas's "Fantasy on a theme by Steve Reich" and Canadian composer Paul Frehner's "Slowdown."


title: Pedal

paragraphs: A pedal is something that is made to work by someone's foot. The word "pedal" comes from the Latin word for "foot". Many things can be made to work by pedals. These include:


title: Rice wine

paragraphs: Rice wine is a word some people use to talk about alcoholic drinks. However, it is not a true wine, despite the name. True wine is made by fermenting grapes, and perhaps other fruit. In rice wine, the starch in the rice is first changed into sugar. This sugar is then fermented. This process is more like the fermentation as it is done in beer.

paragraphs: The "rice wines" made in this manner have more alcohol in them than normal wines (18–25% alcohol compared to 10–14% for normal wines). Beers on the other hand usually have 4–8% alcohol in them.

paragraphs: Many people use the term "rice wine" to refer to sake (which is just one variant of many different kinds of rice wines).


title: Alcopop

paragraphs: Alcopops are alcoholic drinks. They are also known as Ready-to-drink (RTD), Flavored Alcoholic Beverage (FAB) or Flavored Malt Beverage (FMB). They are usually available in bottles or cans. They contain about the same amount of alcohol as a beer. Usually, they are very sweet, so that the alcohol can not be tasted.

paragraphs: There are two different kinds of this drinks. In Europe, they are usually spirits mixed with lemonade, like vodka with lemon juice (and a lot of sugar, so the alcohol cannot be tasted), or rum with fruit juice (also very sweet). In the US, they tend to be beers, which taste very sweet.

paragraphs: Because they are very sweet, alcopops tend to be more popular among young people. Since the fact that they contain alcohol is usually not obvious from the taste, these drinks are considered to be dangerous for young people by many countries. These have either raised the taxes on the drinks, or they have outlawed the sale of these drinks to people under a certain age (usually 18, sometimes 21 years).


title: Pedal (music)

paragraphs: Pedals on musical instruments are used to control parts of the instrument, or provide extra notes.

paragraphs: There are several musical instruments which have pedals for various reasons.

paragraphs: The piano has at least two pedals; large concert grand pianos always have three. The pedal on the right (operated by the player's right foot) sustains the sound of the notes for as long as the pedal is depressed. It does this by lifting the dampers from the strings. Some of the other strings even start to vibrate as well ("in sympathy").

paragraphs: The pedal on the left makes the sound quieter. It is called the "una corda" pedal (Italian for "one string"). This is because, in the early days of the piano, the una corda pedal made all the hammers move over so that a hammer would only hit one string for each note instead of three (most notes on a piano each have three strings to make a bigger sound). On modern pianos the hammers actually hit two strings instead of just one. They also tend to hit the string at a point where the hammer is softer, away from the grooves which get worn in the hammerhead. On an upright piano the una corda pedal moves the hammers closer to the strings so that they do not hit them so hard.

paragraphs: On pianos which have a middle pedal (called a sostenuto pedal) any note or chord which the player is holding down when the pedal is pressed will be sustained, but any more notes he plays afterwards will not be affected.

paragraphs: On pipe organs there is a pedalboard with pedals which play notes in the same way that the fingers are playing notes. An organ pedalboard usually has two and a half octaves of notes. These are low notes written in the bass clef. An organist has to learn to play with the feet at the same time as with the hands. He uses the toes or the heels of his shoes. It is even possible to play four notes at once (four part chords) but this is very difficult and usually found in some modern French music.

paragraphs: There are seven pedals on a concert harp. Each pedal can be in a high, middle or low position. The strings of the harp can be thought of like the white notes of a piano, tuned to naturals (C,D,E etc.). Each pedal can change one of the letter-named notes one semitone higher or lower. For example: the pedal on the left changes all the Ds to D flat (if the pedal is in the highest position) or D sharp (in the lowest position). From left to right the pedals operate the Ds, Cs, Bs, Es, Fs, Gs and As.

paragraphs: Pedal timpani are timpani with a pedal which will tighten or loosen the drumhead. This will make the note go up or down in pitch. It is a fairly new invention. Composers in the Classical music period never had pedal timpani. Their timpani always had to be tuned by hand using the taps around the side. Composers like Béla Bartók wrote for pedal timpani.

paragraphs: Modern harpsichords often have pedals which change the sound in the same way that stops on an organ change the sound. In earlier harpsichords the sound was more often changed by pushing in or pulling out hand stops.


title: Alcoholism

paragraphs: Alcoholism is addiction to alcohol. People who have alcoholism are called alcoholics.

paragraphs: Alcoholism is a disease. It often gets worse over time, and can kill a person. However, alcoholism can be treated.

paragraphs: Alcohol is the most commonly used drug in the world. Around the world, there are at least 208 million people with alcoholism.

paragraphs: Alcoholism is a condition with a social stigma. Because of this, alcoholics often feel ashamed of their drinking. They may try to hide their drinking, avoid getting help, or refuse to believe that they are alcoholics, because they are too ashamed.

paragraphs: Being an alcoholic does not mean that a person just drinks a lot of alcohol. It means that they cannot control how much alcohol they drink. No matter how badly they want to, once they take one drink, they cannot stop drinking.

paragraphs: To be diagnosed with alcoholism, a person has to have three of these symptoms in the past year:

paragraphs: There is no medical test, like a blood test, that can say whether a person is an alcoholic. There are some questionnaires (lists of questions) that can help tell whether a person "may" be an alcoholic. These questionnaires include the CAGE questionnaire (for adults) and the CRAFFT Screening Test (for teenagers).

paragraphs: Alcoholism can cause many health problems. For example, it can cause:

paragraphs: If a person drinks too much at one time, they can get alcohol poisoning. This can cause breathing problems, coma, and even death.

paragraphs: In 2012, alcohol use caused 3.3 million deaths around the world. This means that in 2012, about 3 out of every 50 deaths in the world were caused by alcohol use.

paragraphs: Alcoholism can also cause many problems in alcoholics' lives. These include:

paragraphs: If an alcoholic stops drinking suddenly, they can get alcohol withdrawal.

paragraphs: The most serious form of alcohol withdrawal is delirium tremens (often called "DTs"). Delirium tremens is a medical emergency. Many people who get the DTs die from them.

paragraphs: This does not mean that alcoholics should not stop drinking. It means that alcoholics should talk to a doctor or go to a hospital before they stop drinking. Doctors can give medications to make sure that a person is safe while they stop drinking.

paragraphs: In 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that there were 208 million people with alcoholism around the world. (This is 4.1% of the world's population over age 15.) In 2001, the WHO estimated that there were about 140 million alcoholics around the world. This means that in the nine years between 2001 and 2010, about 68 million people became alcoholics.

paragraphs: People in developed countries drink the most alcohol.

paragraphs: Alcoholism is more common in some areas than others. Here is a list of all the areas in the world. It is in order from the areas where alcoholism is most common to the areas where it is least common:

paragraphs: There are many reasons why alcoholism is more common in some areas than others. Some of these reasons include religion, culture, laws, and people's attitudes about drinking. For example, on average, people in Northern Africa, the Middle East, and islands in the Indian Ocean drink less than people anywhere else in the world. These are areas where many people are Muslims. Many Muslims in these areas do not drink any alcohol, because the Koran says not to. In some of these countries, drinking alcohol is illegal.

paragraphs: However, in other areas, like Western Europe, alcohol is a part of daily life. It is legal and easy to get. People very commonly drink alcohol with meals. Very few people drink no alcohol. People's attitudes about alcohol are very different than attitudes in mostly Muslim countries. This is an example of how differences in religion, culture, laws, and attitudes about drinking can affect the amount of alcohol use and alcoholism in different areas.

paragraphs: Alcoholism is more common in men than in women. However, in the past few decades, the number of female alcoholics has increased.

paragraphs: Female alcoholics are most common in the Americas and Europe. In the United States and Western Europe, five to ten percent of women will become alcoholics at some point in their lives.

paragraphs: In the Southeast Asian and Western Pacific areas, less than 1% of women are alcoholics. In Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean area, almost no women are alcoholics.

paragraphs: In many countries, young people are using more and more alcohol. In a 2008 WHO survey, underage drinking had increased in 71% of countries. Drinking by young adults (ages 18-25) had increased in 80% of countries.

paragraphs: Alcoholism can be treated. There are many forms of treatment for alcoholism.

paragraphs: Detoxification (detox) is often the first step in treating alcoholism. "Detoxification" means "getting toxins out of the body." Alcohol detoxification means that the alcoholic stops drinking, so that alcohol (a toxin) can get out of their body. The alcoholic also needs to give their body time to recover from not having alcohol any more.

paragraphs: It is not safe for an alcoholic to suddenly stop drinking on their own. The safest way to stop drinking is to go to a hospital that specializes in alcohol detoxification. These hospitals are often called "detoxes" or "rehabs." These places can make sure that an alcoholic has a safe detox. They can also give medications to make the alcoholic more comfortable, and to prevent symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. The most common medications that doctors give during alcohol detox are benzodiazepines.

paragraphs: Once a person stops drinking alcohol, they are called "sober". Most people need other treatments to help them stay sober.

paragraphs: Psychotherapy and group therapy can help alcoholics stay sober. For example, they can help alcoholics learn how to:

paragraphs: Some medications can help alcoholics stay sober. These medications include:

paragraphs: Many alcoholics do not have enough vitamins in their body. This can cause serious problems. For example, if an alcoholic does not have enough thiamine, they can get brain damage. Often, alcoholics are treated with thiamine to prevent brain damage. They may also be given other vitamins if needed.

paragraphs: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is the biggest support and mutual aid group for alcoholics in the world. This means that in AA groups, alcoholics come together to support each other and help each other recover. AA uses a twelve-step program. This program is meant to help alcoholics fix the problems their alcoholism has caused.

paragraphs: There are also other groups for alcoholics, like:

paragraphs: Groups for alcoholics and their families


title: Sprain

paragraphs: A sprain is a type of injury in which a person hurts the part really bad, but it is not broken. It has common side affects of a broken bone, but it is less serious.

paragraphs: The first degree is only a minor tear or stretch of a ligament.

paragraphs: The second degree is a tear of a ligament, which is usually followed by pain or swelling.

paragraphs: The typical signs and symptoms associated with a sprain are the main signs of inflammation:

paragraphs: Although any joint can experience a sprain, some of the more common include:

paragraphs: Sprains can best be prevented by proper use of safety equipment (wrist, ankle guards), warm-ups and cool-downs (including stretching), being aware of your surroundings and maintaining strength and flexibility. Physical conditioning is the best way to avoid or lessen the degree of sprains.


title: Second Sino-Japanese War

paragraphs: The Second Sino-Japanese War (July 7, 1937--September 9, 1945) was a major war fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan, besides Northern part of Burma. It is a part of World War II that started years before the other parts. The war ended when Japan surrendered unconditionally.

paragraphs: The Second Sino-Japanese War began when Japan invaded China in 1931. Japan used the Mukden Incident as an excuse to invade China. The invasion grew into a full-scale war after the Marco-Polo Bridge Incident. Japanese officers said that a Japanese soldier got lost and they were allowed to find him in Beiping.

paragraphs: While the Imperial Japanese Army was trying to take over China, the KMT (the Nationalist Government under Chiang Kai-Shek) and the CCP (Chinese Communist Party under Mao Zedong) cooperated a little to try to fight off Japan together. However, for the most part, they continued to fight each other as well.

paragraphs: In 1931, the Imperial Japanese Army began to occupy China, starting in the northeast (Manchuria). In 1937, they occupied Beiping (now called Beijing), and then Nanjing. For six weeks in Nanjing, the army committed the Nanjing Massacre. During this massacre, Japanese soldiers killed between 40,000 and 300,000 Chinese people, and raped at least 20,000 women and girls.

paragraphs: After six weeks, the Japanese Army left Nanjing. It finally occupied the industrial cities in southern China. Chiang moved his capital city from Nanjing to Chongqing, and began a tactic of "using space to trade for time." He was able to spread Japanese soldiers out too thin. This means they were covering too much space with too few soldiers. This made them harder to fight.

paragraphs: Many soldiers died on both sides at this time. However, in 1940, the Japanese Army stopped being able to move farther into China and take more land. 1940 also marked the point where China began to be able to fight back, instead of Japan continuing to take over the country.

paragraphs: After Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in the United States on December 7, 1941, the Second Sino-Japanese War became part of World War II. It became a part of the area of fighting called the China-Burma-India theatre.

paragraphs: The Second Sino-Japanese War had damaged Japan. It had not been able to win the war against China quickly. Instead, Japan's military had already been fighting China for four years. This made it much more difficult for Japan to keep fighting (now in the Pacific against the Allied forces). This may have been one reason why Japan eventually lost the war.

paragraphs: In China, the war had some important effects. It made more people support the Chinese Communist Party. It also made Chiang's Republic fall apart more quickly, in 1949.


title: Ligament

paragraphs: In anatomy, the word ligament usually means the fibrous tissue that joins bones to other bones or cartilages.

paragraphs: A ligament is a short band of tough fibrous connective tissue made of long, stringy collagen fibres. Ligaments join bones to other bones to form a joint. They do "not" connect muscles to bones; that is the function of tendons. Some ligaments limit the amount of movement in a joint, or stop certain movements altogether.

paragraphs: Ligaments are only slightly elastic; when under tension, they gradually lengthen. This is one reason why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much, then the joint will be weakened. Athletes, gymnasts, dancers, and martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints more supple.

paragraphs: The result of a broken ligament can be instability of the joint. Not all broken ligaments need surgery, but if surgery is needed to stabilise the joint, the broken ligament can be joined.


title: Powiat

paragraphs: A county (Polish: "powiat", pronounced "povyat"; plural, "powiaty") is the Polish second-level unit of administration, equivalent to a county, district or prefecture in other countries. A county is part of a larger unit called a "voivodship" (in Polish, "województwo". One would call it in English "province").

paragraphs: Most Polish counties are named after their capital city, or county seat.

paragraphs: If a county seat has a double-barreled name, as with "Maków Mazowiecki," the county may become either "Maków County" or "Maków-Mazowiecki County." Due, in all but the first case, to the existence, respectively, of two "double-barreled" county seats with the identical noun name, the corresponding adjectives ""bielski"," ""grodziski"," ""ostrowski"" and ""tomaszowski"" each denote "two" distinct counties.

paragraphs: Some Polish urban communes constitute administrative entities called the "urban county" ("powiat grodzki"), similar in local administration and self-governance to "land counties." An average county (the largest being the powiat of Białystok) comprises 5 – 8 communes. The largest urban county, in terms of population and area, is the city of Warsaw.

paragraphs: The history of Polish counties goes back to the second half of the 14th century. They remained the basic units of territorial organization in Poland, then in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, until the latter's total dismemberment by its neighbors in 1795.

paragraphs: In the 19th century, the county continued to function in the part of Poland that had been incorporated into the Russian Empire ("Congress Poland"), and as the Polish equivalent of the German ""Kreis"" in the German-governed Grand Duchy of Poznań.

paragraphs: After Poland regained independence in 1918, the county again became the basic territorial unit throughout Poland. "Powiat"s (counties) were abolished in 1975 in favor of a larger number of voivodships, but were reintroduced in 1999. There are now 314 "land counties" ("powiat ziemski") and 65 "urban counties" ("powiat grodzki"), more formally "municipalities with county status" ("miasto na prawach powiatu").


title: 1. FC Köln

paragraphs: 1. FC Köln is a football club that is from Cologne, Germany. The 1. FC KOLN was created in 1948. It was a connection of two football clubs in Cologne (Kölner BC 01 und SpVgg Sülz 07).

paragraphs: In the present day, 1.FC Köln plays in the Bundesliga, the first teir of German football. The club's main rival is Borussia Mönchengladbach, though their Ultrá group WH96 does have friendly connections to The Unity of Borussia Dortmund.


title: Carolina Gynning

paragraphs: Carolina Gynning (born 6 October 1978) is a Swedish celebrity and model. She also is the winner of the 2004 season of reality television program Big Brother. Gynning has also written the book, "Ego Girl". It is a biography of her early life. In 2008 it was reported that Gynning would write a continuation to "Ego Girl" called "Ego Woman".


title: Carrie Underwood

paragraphs: Carrie Marie Underwood (born March 10, 1983) is a US country singer-songwriter and actress. She won the fourth season of "American Idol". Her first album, "Some Hearts", has sold 7 million copies. Underwood has won one American Music Award, eight Billboard Music Awards, and two Grammy Awards (including Best New Artist) and more.

paragraphs: Carrie Underwood grew up in Oklahoma, on her family's farm in Checotah. She started singing at a young age, initially at church and later in school plays and talent shows. In 2002 she entered Northeastern State University in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, with intentions to pursue a career in broadcast journalism. She has had fourteen songs reach number one on charts in the United States and Canada, including "Inside Your Heaven", "Jesus, Take the Wheel", and "Before He Cheats". In 2007, Underwood sang during one of the live shows of American Idol, season 6. On December 5, 2013, Underwood appeared in "The Sound of Music Live" on NBC television. She played the heroine Maria von Trapp in the three-hour production. She received critical praise in the "New York Times" for her singing, but was reviewed negatively for her acting. She is married to Nashville Predators ice hockey player, Mike Fisher. They married on July 10, 2010 at the Ritz Carlton Resort at Reynolds Plantation in Greensboro, Georgia.


title: Nicole Richie

paragraphs: Nicole Camille Richie (born September 21, 1981) is an American socialite, actress, author, and singer. She is the adopted daughter of Lionel Richie, and is best known for being in the reality show "The Simple Life". During late 2007 Nicole Richie faced charges of drunk driving and risked a jail sentence similar to Paris Hilton, her co-star and friend in "The Simple Life". She has had two children with Joel Madden: Harlow and Sparrow Madden. On February 15, 2010, she announced that she was engaged with Madden. They got married later in 2010.

paragraphs: In 2013, Richie was in the video for the song "Let There Be Love" by Christina Aguilera.

paragraphs: Richie is of black, Creole, English, French, French-Canadian, Indigenous Mexican, Mexican, Cherokee Native American, Scottish and Spanish descent.


title: The Simple Life

paragraphs: The Simple Life is the name of a reality television series originally broadcast on Fox from 2003 to 2005 and on E! from 2006 to 2007. The series stars Paris Hilton and Nicole Richie doing ordinary jobs.


title: Jordin Sparks

paragraphs: Jordin Brianna Sparks (born December 22, 1989 in Phoenix, Arizona) is an American recording artist, singer and actress. On May 23, 2007, she won the 6th season of the reality television show "American Idol". She was the youngest winner of the talent show. She has released two studio albums "Jordin Sparks" and "Battlefield". She has a vocal range of a mezzo-soprano.


title: Taylor Hicks

paragraphs: Taylor Reuben Hicks (born October 7, 1976) is an American singer, songwriter and musician. In 2006, he won the fifth season of "American Idol". His runner-up was Katharine McPhee. After he won, he was signed to Arista Records. His album called "Taylor Hicks" was released on December 12, 2006.


title: Oba Chandler

paragraphs: Oba Chandler (October 11, 1946 in Cincinnati, Ohio - November 15, 2011 in Raiford, Florida) was an American convicted murderer who was executed in Florida for the murders of Joan Rogers and her two teenage daughters. The women's bodies were found floating in the Tampa Bay, Tampa in June 1989. They had been bound and gagged and then tossed into the bay with concrete blocks tied to their necks while still alive.

paragraphs: Billboards where at the later stages of the investigation used in trying to find however did the murders, the billboards that was spread all over Tampa had pictures of the Rogers women and a picture of the hand-writing of the suspected triple murderer. This method had never been used before, and became useful in searches for missing people later on.

paragraphs: Chandler was arrested in September 1992. He was put on trial where he was found guilty of the murders by a 12-member jury. In November 4, 1994 he was sentenced to death by a deadly injection by the judge in the case. Before his execution, Chandler was locked up at Union Correctional Institution in Florida. Author Thomas French in 1998 won the Pulitzer Prize for his article series Angels & Demons which told the story of the murders.

paragraphs: Oba Chandler was born in Cincinnati in the state of Ohio. He was the fourth of five children. His parents were Oba Chandler Sr. and Margaret Johnson. At the age of 10, Chandler's father Oba Chandler Senior hanged himself in the Chandler family's basement. This upset Oba so much that he jumped into his father's grave during the funeral in 1957 while gravediggers were covering the coffin with dirt. Afterwards, Oba's life spun out of control and he was arrested many times and had been arrested 20 times by the time he was a teenager. As an adult, he was charged with a long list of crimes, including theft, having fake money, burglary, kidnapping and armed robbery. Chandler would also father a total of eight children before his arrest, the latest one being Whitney born in February, 1989 with his wife at the time Debra Chandler. Between May and September of 1991 Chandler worked as an informant for the US customs Tampa office, at the same time as Tampa police investigated the Rogers family triple murder.

paragraphs: Joan Rogers and her two daughters, Michelle (17 years of age) and Christe (14 years of age) left their family dairy farm on May 26, 1989 in Willshire for a vacation in Florida.

paragraphs: The women's bodies were discovered floating in the Tampa Bay on June 4, 1989 with bound hands and feet with concrete blocks tied to their necks and duct tape over their mouths. The first body was found floating over the Sunshine Skyway bridge when a sailboat on its way home to Tampa after a trip to Key West, had just crossed under the Sunshine Skyway when many people on board saw an object in the water. They soon realized it was a dead body of a female. Soon another body was found and yet another third body was also dragged out of the bay within an hour. All three bodies had been tied and gagged and had concrete blocks tied around their necks. Autopsies thought the women had been tossed into the bay while still alive.

paragraphs: The Rogers women where identified a week after their bodies where found in the bay. A hotel maid had discovered that a hotel room had stood unused for several days. And when the reports about the murders started to leap into the media the hotel decided to contact investigators in the case. Soon it stood clear that it was indeed the families room after fingerprints where matched to those of the victims, some snaphots from a camera was also discovered in the room which showed where the family had traveled and also a last shot over Tampa Bay. This photo was taken just minutes before the Rogers women went out to meet Oba Chandler to go on a boat ride out on the bay.

paragraphs: The case remained unsolved and cold for several years, partly due to the volume of tips pouring in to the police who investigated the crime.

paragraphs: Chandler would not be arrested for the murders until September 24, 1992. His handwritten directions and palmprint on a brochure found in the Rogers' vehicle, along with a description of his boat written by Jo Rogers on the brochure, were the primary clues that led to his being named a suspect. Also, authorities had posted the handwriting from the brochure on billboards, which was historic as it was used for the first time in an attempt to find the unknown killer, and this led to a tip from a former neighbor who was able to provide a copy of a work order that Chandler had written. A handwriting analysis conclusively matched the two.

paragraphs: The Rogers women were all buried on June 13, 1989 after a funeral service at the Zion Lutheral Church in their hometown of Willshire, Ohio. About 300 people among them family and friends of the victims attended the service. Numerous police officers were also present to keep all news media and crews out of the church during the funeral service, this because of the huge media interest for the case by media at the time. Chandler was tried and found guilty of the murders, and sentenced to death on November 4, 1994. After sentencing, the jury forewoman commented regarding the death sentence that ""They need to do this swiftly. The man is a mutation of a human being and he needs to be destroyed."" In July 2008, it was revealed that Chandler was on Florida's short-list of executions.

paragraphs: Profiling experts believe that Chandler may have killed previously, based on the speculation that a first-time killer would not be experienced or bold enough to abduct and kill three women at once. Chandler remains a suspect in a 1982 murder of a woman found floating off Anna Maria Island, he is also a suspect in a rape case concerning a Canadian woman weeks before the Rogers women's murder. However, Chandler has never been charged with other murders. Chandler got an Institutional Adjustment disciplinary report on December 15, 2001, for disobeying orders in prison. All of Chandler's appeals since his 1994 conviction have been denied, the latest one in May 2007. Author Thomas French in 1998 won the Pulitzer prize for his article series Angels & Demons which told the story of the murders.

paragraphs: Oba Chandler was executed on November 15, 2011 with a lethal injection at 4:25 pm in Florida State Prison in Raiford, Florida.


title: All Saints' Day

paragraphs: All Saints' Day is celebrated by Catholic Christians on November 1. Other Christians celebrate it as well. (May not be on the same day) It is a mandatory Catholic holiday. It is celebrated in the Catholic Church.

paragraphs: The next day, November 2 is celebrated as All Souls' Day, souls in Purgatory are especially remembered. Both days are considered important and they are integrated with each other.

paragraphs: The older name is All Hallows or Hallowmas

paragraphs: All Saints is also a Christian formula involving all the faithful saints and martyrs, known and unknown.

paragraphs: In Portugal, Spain and Mexico, "ofrendas" (offerings) are made on this day. In Spain, the play "Don Juan Tenorio" is traditionally performed. In Spain, Portugal, Italy and France, people bring flowers to the graves of dead relatives. In Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia, Lithuania, Croatia, Austria and Germany, the tradition is to light candles and visit the graves of deceased relatives. In the Philippines, the day is spent visiting the graves of deceased relatives, where they offer prayers, lay flowers, and light candles, often in a picnic-like atmosphere. In English speaking countries the festival is traditionally celebrated with the hymn "For All the Saints" by William Walsham How. The most familiar tune for this hymn is "Sine Nomine" by Ralph Vaughan Williams.

paragraphs: The festival was retained after the Reformation in the calendar of the Church of England and in many Lutheran churches.


title: Ishy Bilady

paragraphs: Ishy Bilady is the national anthem (a song that represents the country) of the seven United Arab Emirates. The tune was written in the year 1971 without words to sing. Then, in the year 1986 Arif Al Sheikh Abdullah Al Hassan Sahab came up with words for the song. The song is dedicated to the UAE. In the song, the people praise their country by stating that "the unity of the Emirates has lived" and "the United Arab Emirates has lived to be the nation, whose religion is Islam and whose guide is the Quran" the people also vow to forever work hard and sincerely for the country. The people also state that they "supply their country with their body, blood and souls." The song is a representation of love and submission of the Emirati people to country.

paragraphs: These are the words in Arabic, and English.


title: Origami

paragraphs: Origami is a traditional Japanese art of paper folding. It uses many techniques and various objects can be created. The object is made of origami paper, which is specially made for folding and staying in shape. Many dictionaries and television shows suggest that origami is only paper cranes, waterbombs, and paper planes, but many new models and creatures have been made because new folding techniques have allowed this.

paragraphs: When the Japanese first folded origami, they used only one piece of paper. A different kind of origami called "modular origami" uses many small pieces that are the same, which are combined to form one large model. Also, many mathematical shapes can be made with origami.

paragraphs: The beginnings of origami are not clear. Paperfolding started in China in the 1st or 2nd century. It finally came to Japan in the 6th century. Instead of making models that looked exactly like things, the first origami models only looked similar to things. People often folded models and gave them to other people for good luck. For example, Shinto nobles celebrated weddings with sake in glasses decorated with origami butterflies, which gave good luck to the bride and groom.

paragraphs: There were also independent paperfolding traditions in other countries, like Germany and Spain. The earliest evidence of paperfolding in Europe is a picture of a boat in 1490. There was also a paper box from 1440. Finally, in 1845, "Kan no mado" was written, and it was the first book of origami models.

paragraphs: Recently, people have become more interested in origami. In 1954, Japanese paperfolder Akira Yoshizawa created rules to explain how to fold origami models. His instructions on paperfolding are now used in all countries.

paragraphs: Peter Engel, who is a well-known paperfolder, says "the best paper [for origami] is thin and crisp and absolutely square." Pre-cut origami paper is sold in many colors, sizes, and patterns. Duo paper, or paper with different colors on each side, is used by paperfolders because it makes areas of different color on the finished model. There are also special papers, like textured, metallic, and patterned.

paragraphs: Many people like to make their own paper. Engel describes a process shown to him by Robert Lang that is "a sandwich of aluminum foil and two pieces of tissue paper." In this method, two pieces of paper are pasted to each side of the aluminum foil. Many people like origami because there is almost always paper. Copy paper, napkins, wallpaper, index cards, and even paper money can be used to make interesting and unique models.

paragraphs: Many paperfolders prefer to use a flat surface to fold models on, but others, like the Japanese, fold in the air. Traditional paperfolders believe that only the hands should be used when folding, but many modern folders use other tools when folding. Tweezers and paper clips can be used to make very small folds. Some folders use rulers or other flat tools to make sharper creases in the models.

paragraphs: New types of origami have been made because more people are making origami models.

paragraphs: Pureland origami is origami with one rule: only one fold can be made at a time. British paperfolder John Smith started pureland origami for inexperienced paperfolders or for people with poor motor skills. Hard folds, like the inside-reverse fold, are not allowed in pureland origami.


title: JSPWiki

paragraphs: JSPWiki is a feature-rich and extensible WikiWiki software built around the standard J2EE components (Java, servlets, JSP).


Statement


title: Salvation

paragraphs: In theology, salvation can mean various things:


title: Polyhedron

paragraphs: A polyhedron (one polyhedron, many "polyhedra", or "polyhedrons") is a geometrical shape. It is a 3D shape with flat faces, and straight edges. Usually it is defined by the number of faces, or edges.

paragraphs: Mathematicians do not agree on what makes a polyhedron. They do agree that there are five Platonic solids.

paragraphs: Usually, polyhedra are named by the number of faces they have. The first polyhedra are the tetrahedron, which is made of four triangles, pentahedron (five faces, can look like a four-sided pyramid), hexahedron (six faces, a cube if it is regular), heptahedron (seven faces) and octahedron (eight faces). Prisms, pyramids and other shapes can also be named according to how many faces they have.


title: Pentagon

paragraphs: A pentagon is a polygon with five edges. It is defined by five points, which are all on a plane. If all the edges have the same length and the angles at the corners are all 108°, the pentagon is called "regular". Pentagons also occur in nature: Fruits of the Okra are pentangular. The flowers of Ipomoea are pentagular. In chemistry, many Cyclic compounds are pentangles: Cyclopentane and Furan are examples for this. In architecture, many bastions are pentangular: Bourtange, in the Netherlands has been completely restored, and is a pentangle. The Citadel of Lille, Nyenschantz, near St. Petersburg, or the Citadel of Pamplona are . The Villa Farnese is a palace in the form of a pentagon, so is the castle of Nowy Wiśnicz. The Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk near Žďár nad Sázavou also uses a pentangular design.


title: Calendar date

paragraphs: A Calendar date is a way to refer to a certain day in a calendar. With the calendar date and the calendar, the exact day can be identified. With a different calendar, the same calendar date may refer to a different day. This can be seen easiest when comparing the Julian calendar with the Gregorian calendar.

paragraphs: Calendar dates are important to refer to events (most holidays are fixed with reference to a particular event or calendar date.) One example may be Easter. In the Middle Ages, it has been fixed that Easter is to be the first Sunday that is (on or after) the 14th day after the spring equinox.

paragraphs: Most calendar systems have a date format that has three parts, the day of a certain month, the month and the year. Sometimes the week is added.


title: Persian calendar

paragraphs: The Iranian calendar also known as Persian calendar or the Jalāli Calendar is a solar calendar. It is currently used in Iran and Afghanistan. It is observation-based, rather than rule-based. Each year starts on the vernal equinox as precisely determined by astronomical observations from Tehran (or the 52.5°E meridian, which also defines IRST) and Kabul. This makes it more accurate than the Gregorian Calendar.

paragraphs: The current Iranian Calendar year is 1397 AP" (AP = Anno Persico/Anno Persarum = Persian year)".


title: Hexagon

paragraphs: A hexagon is a polygon with 6 sides and 6 corners (vertices). Like regular triangles and squares, hexagons fit together without gaps, which are known as tesselations. They therefore are often used for tiling floors. They are also quite common in nature. The honeycombs in beehives are hexagons, for example.


title: West Edmonton Mall

paragraphs: The West Edmonton Mall (WEM) is the largest shopping centre in North America. It is in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It is one of the main tourist attractions in Alberta. The mall is also the fourth largest in the world. WEM first opened on September 15, 1981.

paragraphs: In addition to the over 500 shops in the West Edmonton Mall, there are many other things which people go to the mall for.

paragraphs: The mall also has an Ice skating rink, miniature golf course, casino, skate park, hotel, petting zoo, three movie theaters and many other things to see.


title: Ahmad Khatami

paragraphs: Ayatollah Sayyid Ahmad Khatami () is a member of the Iranian Assembly of Experts.

paragraphs: Although his name resembles that of Mohammad Khatami, the reformist former president of Iran, the two men are not related. In fact, they have opposite points of view on many issues, such as democracy and velayate faqih in Iran.


title: Tendon

paragraphs: A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of tissue that connects muscle to bone. It is built to withstand tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments except that ligaments join one bone to another. Tendons and muscles work together. They can only create a pulling force.

paragraphs: The beginning of a tendon is where it connects to a muscle. Collagen fibers from the inside of the muscle are the same as those of the tendon. A tendon inserts into bone at an enthesis. At this point, the collagen fibers are changed into bone tissue. Tendons can not create any pulling force of their own. The tendons transfer the movement of muscles. They can create an elastic force if stretched. Tendons are part of the human body often connected to joints.


title: Coffee substitute

paragraphs: Coffee substitutes are products that try to taste like coffee. The idea for using them is to have a drink that tastes like coffee, but has no caffeine in it. The main reasons for making coffee substitutes are medical, economic and barbaric. In World War II, acorns were used to make coffee, however it tasted foul. It was also hard to get. In the American Civil War there was a similar story -

paragraphs: ""For the stimulating property to which both tea and coffee owe their chief value, there is unfortunately no substitute; the best we can do is to dilute the little stocks which still remain, and cheat the palate, if we cannot deceive the nerves."" The Southern Banner, 1865

paragraphs: Grain coffee and other substitutes can be made by roasting or decocting various organic substances.

paragraphs: Some ingredients used include: almond, acorn, asparagus, barley and malt, beech nut, beetroot, carrot, chicory root, corn, cotton seed, dandelion root, fig, boiled-down molasses, okra seed, pea, persimmon seed, potato peel, rye, sassafras nut, sweet potato.

paragraphs: Chicory has been sold commercially on a large scale since around 1970, and it has become a mainstream product. It was widely used during the American Civil War on both sides.

paragraphs: Postum is an instant type beverage used in place of coffee. It reached the height of its popularity during World War II. For popular usage on the sitcom Seinfeld George says to Jerry he does not know why postum is not a more popular beverage.


title: Kuzcham Dherai

paragraphs: Kuzcham Dherai (also sometimes called Dherai, Dehrai or Derai) is a town in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. It is located on the bank of the river Swat and a couple of miles away from Swat Saidu Sharif airport. The population of Dherai is about 10,000 people.

paragraphs: It is believed that Alexander the Great once passed through this area.


title: Croatian language

paragraphs: The Croatian language is spoken mainly throughout the countries of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the surrounding countries of Europe.

paragraphs: Croatian grammar is the grammar of the Croatian language. The Croatian language consists of three vernaculars (Kaikavian, Chakavian and Shtokavian).

paragraphs: Croatian grammar books show that the codification of the language started at the beginning of the 17th century (the first grammar was written by Bartol Kašić in Latin in 1604). This means that the rules for the language were written down. From 1604 to 1836 there were 17 grammars. Most of them described the Štokavian dialect, but some were about Kajkavian. In the 19th century, more grammars based on Štokavian were written. They were "Nova ricsoslovnica illiricka", written by Šime Starčević (1812), and "Grammatik der illyrischen Sprache", written by Ignjat Alojzije Brlić (1833). Even before the 19th century, the three dialects of the Croatian language were almost equally used. However, the way each dialect was written down varied throughout Croatia. Near the Adriatic coast, it was more similar to Italian, and near the Hungarian border, it was more similar to Hungarian.

paragraphs: All grammars of the above period (1604-1836) used three accents: acute, grave and circumflex, Starčević's grammar is an exception as it uses a system of four accents.

paragraphs: In 19th century, Ljudevit Gaj proposed new letters from Czech (č,ž,š,ľ,ň,ď and ǧ). The letters that were accepted were č, ž and š, and from Polish, ć. For other phonemes (sounds), the digraphs that were accepted were ie, lj, nj and dž. Later dj or gj was changed to đ (according to proposal by Đuro Daničić).

paragraphs: The Croatian language uses a Latin script of 30 letters and one diphthong "ie" or "ije", and "ŕ". This system is called "gajica" in Croatian (or Croatian Gaj's Latin alphabet). The name came from Ljudevit Gaj. The letter order (and whole alphabet) is called "abeceda" in Croatian, because the first 4 letters are spelled "a, be, ce, de". For writing foreign names and words, and in some professions, the Croatian language uses letters which do not belong to "gajica", like "X, x (iks), Y,y (ipsilon)" and others.

paragraphs: In Croatian, nouns change form depending on the composition of the sentence. This is called declension. For people who are learning Croatian, declension is the most difficult part of the language to master. It is very complicated and time consuming to explain it and because of that we will use simpler techniques. However, many languages have noun and pronoun declension, including English. In English, though, only pronoun declension now remains. Let us start by explaining all of the seven Croatian grammatical cases. The technique that is most frequently used in determining grammatical cases (the same technique is used in Croatian schools when taught to children) is by asking yourself a question when you are trying to figure out which case a noun should be in. In Croatian, grammatical cases are called padeži (plural) and padež (singular).

paragraphs: The question you will ask yourself here is: “Where is Krešimir going?”. And the answer is that he's going to school. By looking at the table below you will see that the question 'where' is used for the Locative case.

paragraphs: Croatian nouns are divided into three genders: the masculine, feminine and neuter gender. To know a noun's gender is very important because it affects all the words in a sentence that are tied to the noun, such as adjectives. A gender is determined by the noun's ending (with some exceptions). This makes it easier to tell what gender a noun is without memorizing the gender of every word. See the table below.

paragraphs: Nouns retain their gender in plural. For instance, even though the noun 'žene' (women) ends in -e, it is of the feminine gender.

paragraphs: Croatian verbs have two grammatical aspects: the perfective and imperfective. The perfective aspect depicts an action that has already been finished. The imperfective aspect depicts an action that is still continuing. So, each verb in its infinitive form can be written in 2 ways: in its perfective and imperfective aspect. The table below is showing 5 verbs both in their perfective and imperfective aspects.

paragraphs: In Croatian, there are seven grammatical tenses. They can be divided in two ways: by the time they take place in and by their complexity. Simple tenses consist of only 1 word (simple tenses are aorist, imperfect, and present) while complex tenses consist of 2 or even 3 words (complex tenses are pluperfect, perfect, first future, second future) because they also consist of auxiliary verbs. Also, some grammatical tenses cannot be formed with both grammatical aspects, they work with only one aspect.

paragraphs: The Croatian week starts with Monday and ends with Sunday, unlike weeks from some other countries, where Sunday is the first day and Saturday the last.


title: Prize

paragraphs: A prize is an award given to a person or a group of people to reward good work.

paragraphs: Official prizes often include monetary rewards as well as the fame that comes with them. Some prizes are given out in famous ceremonies, such as the Oscars.

paragraphs: Prizes are given for a number of reasons: as an honour for special persons, for exemplary behaviour and to provide incentives in competitions, etc. In general, prizes are regarded in a positive light, and their winners are admired. However, many prizes, especially the more famous ones, have often caused controversy and jealousy.


title: Christian Church

paragraphs: The term Christian Church, Catholic Church or One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, as it was called by 110 AD, refers to the "universal company of believers". It means every person who has ever accepted or ever will accept the Christian Faith. The idea is that all these people together make up one "body" called "the Church". "The Church" (in this sense) is not thought of by Christians as an ordinary human organisation. It is thought of as being part of God's way to bring people close to him. "The Church" was begun by Jesus in the 1st century AD. It is called "The Christian Church" because Jesus was called "The Christ" (or holy one from God).

paragraphs: "Churches" as Christian organisations were begun by Jesus' followers. Today there are many churches in the sense of "church organisations". The different organised churches are called Christian denominations.

paragraphs: The main Christian beliefs are held by all major Christian denominations. These beliefs are often said aloud by Christian people in a "statement of faith" which is called the Creed. The Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican Communion and other Protestant churches all believe that God is the "creator and eternal father of all things", that Jesus was the "Christ" and son of God who died to save people from the punishment for their sins, and that the Holy Spirit is God's gift to help and comfort Christian people. Christians believe that these are three parts of One God.

paragraphs: There are many other beliefs that are different between different denominations. These differences have sometimes caused arguments and have caused the organised church to split into denominations. The different opinions are called controversies.

paragraphs: The English word "church" comes from the Greek κυριακή (kyriake) meaning "Master's (house)", or "Lord's (house)". In modern English the word "church" is used for both a church building and "the Christian Church" throughout the world.

paragraphs: In 381 AD, at the a meeting of bishops known as the First Council of Constantinople, the Nicene Creed (a statement of beliefs) that was used at the time was changed to include a description of the Church. The words that were added to the Nicene Creed are "One Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church". This important addition describes the four most important things that Christians were to believe about the Christian Church.

paragraphs: These are the four words that are used in the Nicene Creed:

paragraphs: One important controversy is simply the definition of the Christian or Catholic Church. To some degree this controversy comes from the Nicene Creed with its words "One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church" which means "universal" church. Many denominations believe that all denominations are part of a world-wide Christian Church and think that the most important thing is the "common faith" and not a common organisation or tradition. ("Common faith" means "the faith that is the same". The word "common" does not mean "ordinary" in this sense.)

paragraphs: For many hundreds of years, the Roman Catholic Church has regarded itself as the only Christian Church and has called itself the "Catholic" (or "universal") church. In other words, only those people who were within the "organisation" of the Roman Catholic Church were believed to belong to the "Universal Church". In the 20th century this view began to change and in the late 20th century there was a strong movement within parts of the Roman Catholic Church to reach out to other denominations. The Eastern Orthodox Church has thought of itself in the same way, but in the late 20th century there has been much more discussion between the Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican Churches. Some smaller denominations such as Jehovah's Witnesses also believe that they are the one and only true Christian Church.


title: Religious denomination

paragraphs: A religious denomination (also simply denomination) is a subgroup within a religion that has a common name, tradition, and identity.

paragraphs: The term is often used for several Christian denominations including Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and the many sorts of Protestantism like Baptist, Methodist, Episcopalian and Pentecostal.

paragraphs: It is also used for the four branches of Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist), and for the main branches of Islam (Sunnism and Shi'ism, Quranism, Ibadism, Sufism, Muwahhidism).

paragraphs: In Hinduism the major deity or philosophical belief functions as the identifier of a denomination and typically each has distinct cultural and religious practices. The major denominations include Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartism, and Halumatha.


title: Christian denomination

paragraphs: The word denomination is used for a large group of Christian people right across the world who use the same name, the same sort of organisation and have the same (or very similar) beliefs. Christianity is divided into ten main groups. These groups all branched out at different dates from the early Christianity founded by the followers of Jesus. The splits generally happened because they could not agree on certain beliefs or practices. The groups then divided into smaller groups. Each group that has its own separate name is a "denomination". The word "denomination" means "having a name".

paragraphs: Worldwide Christianity is divided into ten major groups of Churches:

paragraphs: Each of these ten has important subdivisions. There are also other (smaller) groups that are not mentioned here.

paragraphs: The Evangelical and Nontrinitarian branches of Christianity are much more divided up than any of the others. Each separate Evangelical church is often called a "denomination". While the Roman Catholic Church looks to a single earthly leader, the Pope, and has similar beliefs right across the world, the several Protestant denominations do not look to a single leader and sometimes have beliefs that are very different from each other.

paragraphs: Many Christian denomination see themselves as part of the worldwide Church which includes other denominations as well. Some denominations, such as the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches and some Protestant Churches, believe that they are the "only" true Christian church.

paragraphs: Some denominations have beliefs which almost all the other denominations would disagree with, very strongly. These beliefs are called "heresy" by the other churches.

paragraphs: There were some movements considered heresies by the early church which do not exist today and are not generally referred to as denominations. Examples include the Gnostics (who had believed in an esoteric dualism), the Ebionites (who venerated Christ's blood relatives), and the Arians. The greatest divisions in Christianity today, however, are between Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and various denominations formed during and after the Protestant Reformation. There also exists in Protestantism and Orthodoxy various degrees of unity and division.

paragraphs: Comparisons between denominations must be approached with caution. For example, some churches are part of a larger church organization or diocese, while in other groups, each congregation is an independent organization. This issue is further complicated by the existence of groups of congregations with a common heritage that are officially nondenominational and have no centralized authority or records, but which are identified as denominations by non-adherents. Study of such churches in denominational terms is therefore a more complex proposition.

paragraphs: Numerical comparisons are also problematic. Some groups count membership based on adult believers and baptized children of believers, while others only count adult baptized believers. Others may count membership based on those adult believers who have formally affiliated themselves with the congregation. In addition, there may be political motives of advocates or opponents of a particular group to inflate or deflate membership numbers through propaganda or outright deception.


title: Christendom

paragraphs: Christendom or the Christian world, in the widest sense, means Christianity as a territorial phenomenon. That means: those countries where most people are Christians and because of that are part of Christendom.

paragraphs: People have used the term Christendom for the medieval and Renaissance understanding of the Christian world as one single "Body of Christ" with Christ as the head. With the rise of Modernity and the Reformation during the early 16th century the understanding changed to a modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society that consists of many different communities.


title: Creed

paragraphs: A creed is a statement or confession of belief — usually religious belief — or faith. The word comes from the Latin "credo" for "I believe". It is called "symbol" (Greek, συμβολον), that means a "token" by which persons of like beliefs might recognize each other.

paragraphs: It is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the Apostles' Creed. The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist Gnosticism; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It reads:

paragraphs: The Nicene Creed is clearly derived from the Apostles' Creed, and represents an elaboration of its basic themes. The most important additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning Christology and the Trinity.

paragraphs: Christians today probably use the Nicene Creed most widely, followed by the Apostles' Creed.

paragraphs: The Jewish faith recognizes a single creed called the Shmah or Shema Yisrael, a statement of faith in strict unitarian monotheism, the belief in one God. This creed is embodied in a single prayer recited twice a day: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One", also translated as "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is unique ["or" alone]."

paragraphs: In Hebrew: שמע ישראל אדני אלהינו אדני אחד

paragraphs: This is pronounced phonetically in Hebrew: "Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad".

paragraphs: The most basic attempt to put the religion of Islam in a brief statement of doctrine is the shahada, the proclamation that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet.

paragraphs: More detailed credal declarations of Islamic dogma constitute aqidah.

paragraphs: Also from the Aqidah of the Salaf is the belief that the faith (i.e. Eemaan) consists of (both) speech and action and that it increases and decreases. This differs from the Murji’ah a sect who uphold the belief of “Irjaa’”-to hold that sins major and minor, do not affect the faith and that faith neither increases nor decreases.

paragraphs: And they uphold the belief that the Quran is the Speech of Allah, His Revelation and Light. It is not created, since the Quran is from Allah and that which is from Allah is not created. One of the attributes of Allah is his Speech. Since His attributes have been with Him eternally, His Speech cannot be created and therefore, the Quran is not created. According to the Salaf, debating about it is disbelief. It is not denied except by a Jahmee. A Jahmee is one who denies Allah’s attributes.


title: Shahada

paragraphs: The Shahadah (, ) is the first pillar of Islam. The Quranist or ahl al-Quran shahadah comes from surah 3:18. It says "Ashhadu an la ilaha illa 'llah", meaning "I bear witness there is no lord but Allah." The Sunni Saying is ""Lā ʾIlāha ʾIllā Allah, Muḥammadun Rasūl Allah"", meaning "There no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God". This means the shahada has differences between the Quraniyoon sect, the Sunnism sect and the Shia sect.

paragraphs: The Quranist sources comes from verse 3:18 of the Quran. It states: "God bears witness that there is no other god besides Him, and so do the angels and those who possess knowledge."

paragraphs: In addition to the first two testimonies, Shia Muslims may also recite the third testimony of:

paragraphs: A single honest recitation of the shahadah in Arabic is all that is required for a person to become a Muslim according to most traditional schools of Islam.


title: Purgatory

paragraphs: According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, Purgatory is the "final purification of the elect": "All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven."

paragraphs: “In Purgatory there are different levels; the lowest is close to hell and the highest gradually draws near to Heaven. It is not All Souls Day, but, Christmas, that the greatest number of souls leave Purgatory.

paragraphs: There are in Purgatory, souls who pray ardently to God, but for whom no relative or friend prays on earth. God makes them benefit from the prayers of other people.

paragraphs: It happens that God permits them to manifest themselves in different way, close to their relatives on earth, in order to remind men of the existence of Purgatory and to solicit their prayers to come close to God who is just, but good.

paragraphs: Perhaps the best-known instance of purgatory in the arts is Dante's "Purgatorio", the second book of his "Divine Comedy". Likewise, the Ghost in William Shakespeare's "Hamlet" may also presuppose a belief in purgatory,


title: William Blake

paragraphs: William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, visionary, painter, and printmaker. He was born in London and died there.

paragraphs: During his lifetime he was not very well known. Today Blake's work is thought to be important in the history of both poetry and the visual arts. Blake's first collection of poems, "Poetical Sketches", was printed around 1783. His most famous poem "And did those feet in ancient time" was, over 100 years later, put to music by Hubert Parry. The hymn is called "Jerusalem".

paragraphs: Blake was voted 38th in a poll of the 100 Greatest Britons organised by the BBC in 2002.


title: Institution

paragraphs: An institution is a social structure in which people cooperate and which influences the behavior of people and the way they live.

paragraphs: An institution has a purpose. Institutions are permanent, which means that they do not end when one person is gone. An institution has rules and can enforce rules of human behavior. The word "institution" can be used in two ways. It can mean a very broad idea, or a very "specific" (narrow) one. For example:

paragraphs: Institutions, in the broad sense, are found in every society. The way that each institution works is different in different cultures. Some important institutions are:

paragraphs: Some societies have many institutions in the "specific" sense. These societies have an organised government, schools, hospitals, churches, clubs, armies, markets, courts and places for entertainment. Some societies have very few of these things, but this does not mean that there are no "institutions". The way in which the people relate to each other may have just as many "controls" as in a society with schools, markets and a government. An example of a society that has lots of "specific" institutions is Western Europe. An example of a society with very few specific institutions is the society of the Australian Aboriginal people before the 20th century.

paragraphs: Historians look at institutions to find differences between eras or periods. They sometimes judge political and military events by the effect that they had on institutions.


title: Race (biology)

paragraphs: In biology, races are distinct populations within the same species with relatively small morphological and genetic differences.

paragraphs: The populations are "ecological races" if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats or "geographic races" when they are geographically isolated.

paragraphs: If sufficiently different, two or more races may be described as subspecies, which is an official biological taxonomy unit below 'species'.

paragraphs: If not, they are called "races", which means that a formal rank should not be given to the group, or taxonomists are unsure whether or not a formal rank should be given.

paragraphs: According to Ernst Mayr, "a subspecies is a "geographic race" that is sufficiently different taxonomically to be worthy of a separate name"

paragraphs: The key lime is a shrub that grows to a size of about 5 metres in height. It has many thorns. It produces a fruit that is yellow when it is ripe. This fruit is preferred by bartenders to mix cocktails. They prefer this lime, rather than the Persian lime.

paragraphs: The lime plant originally came from southeast Asia, where it is native. It was taken to the Middle East, and Crusaders took it to Europe and North Africa. Spanish explorers took it to the West Indies and the Florida Keys. In 1926, a hurricane destroyed most of the commercially-grown limes in the region. The Persian lime was reintroduced then.

paragraphs: Some of the original shrubs grew wild in the Florida Keys. It became clear that the originally introduced shrubs (now known as "Mexican limes") had modified their fruits. These were darker green than the original Persian limes, they also had a thicker skin.

paragraphs: In biological taxonomy, race is an informal rank below the level of subspecies. It may be used as a higher rank than "strain". There are various definitions. Races may be genetically distinct populations in the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically. Genetic isolation between races is not complete (some interbreeding takes place between the groups).

paragraphs: However, the genetic differences are not (yet) enough to put the groups into separate species. The term "race" is recognized by some, but is not governed by any of the formal codes of biological classification.

paragraphs: In former times, human beings were often divided into races. For example, people with a dark skin were called "Negroid" or "black race". But, human gene sequences are very similar compared to many other animals. This is one reason why modern biology says that there is only one human race.


title: Phenotype

paragraphs: The phenotype of an organism is the whole set of characters (or traits) of that organism.

paragraphs: It does not mean just 'what you can see on the surface'. Rather, it means anything which can be made visible by suitable means. For example, blood groups are definitely a part of the phenotype. However, they are not visible just by looking at a person.

paragraphs: In biology, the phenotype is distinguished from the genotype. This was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces. The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between "germ plasm" (gametes or their stem cells) and "somatic cells" (the body).

paragraphs: The phenotype is important because it is exposed to natural selection:

paragraphs: Phenotypes are determined mainly by genes and are influenced by environmental factors. So, knowing the genome of an organism does not give an exact prediction of its phenotype.

paragraphs: Traits vary greatly in how much they owe to heredity (nature vs nurture). The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:

paragraphs: The term 'phenotype' must include characteristics that can be made visible by some technical procedure (such as blood types). Another extension adds behaviour to the phenotype since behaviours are also affected by both genotypic and environmental factors.

paragraphs: The idea of the extended phenotype has been developed by Richard Dawkins to mean all the effects a gene has on the outside world that may influence its chances of being inherited. These can be effects on the organism carrying the trait, the environment, or other organisms. For instance, a beaver dam might be considered a phenotype of beaver genes, the same way beavers' powerful incisor teeth are phenotype expressions of their genes. Dawkins also cites the effect of an organism on the behaviour of another organism (such as the devoted nurturing of a cuckoo by a parent clearly of a different species) as an example of the extended phenotype.


title: Key lime

paragraphs: The Key lime is a citrus fruit. Its Latin name is "Citrus aurantiifolia" (often, less correctly: "C. aurantifolia"), or "Citrus" x "aurantiifolia" (Christm.) Swingle. It is also known as the Mexican lime, West Indian lime or Bartender's lime. It is a shrub that grows to about 5m in height.

paragraphs: Its fruit is 2.5-5 cm in diameter (1-2 in). The fruit is yellow when ripe but usually it is picked green. It is smaller, seedier, has a higher acidity, a stronger aroma, and a thinner rind than that of the more common Persian lime. It is valued for its unique flavor compared to other lime. The Key lime usually has a more tart and bitter flavor. It is perhaps most distinguished as an ingredient in the Key lime pie.

paragraphs: "C. aurantiifolia" is a shrubby tree, that grows to 5 m (16 ft), with many thorns. Dwarf varieties are popular with home growers and can be grown indoors in winter in colder climates. The trunk rarely grows straight, with many branches that often originate quite far down on the trunk. The leaves are ovate 2.5–9 cm (1–3.5 in) long. They resemble orange leaves (the scientific name "aurantiifolia" refers to the leaves' resemblance). The flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. They are yellowish white with a light purple tinge on the margins. Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September .

paragraphs: "C. aurantiifolia" originally came from Southeast Asia. It was introduced through the Middle East to North Africa and Europe during the Crusades. Spanish explorers then took it to the West Indies (at some point including the Florida Keys) contemporaneously with Columbus, then tropical and sub-tropical North America including Mexico, Florida, and later California . The English name "lime" was derived from the Persian name لیمو "Limu" in this course. "Key" would seem to have been added some time after the Persian lime cultivar became more important commercially in the United States. This was after the hurricane of 1926. The hurricane destroyed most U.S. "C. aurantiifolia" plants. Some plants growing in the wild in the Keys survived the hurricane. Since the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect, many Key limes are grown in Mexico and Central America. They are also grown in Texas and California.


title: Age of Discovery

paragraphs: The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century that continued into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners.

paragraphs: They were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans met people and mapped lands previously unknown to them. Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, John Cabot, , Juan Ponce de León, Juan Sebastian Elcano, Bartholomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, Willem Blaeu and Captain James Cook.

paragraphs: Henry the Navigator started by paying Portuguese sailors to explore the west coast of Africa. In 1419 Joao Goncalves Zarco discovered the Madeira Islands. Later in the 15th century, Vasco da Gama reached the southwestern tip of Africa and established the city of Cape Town, a Portuguese colony. This opened the way to the Indian Ocean. In the next two centuries, the Portuguese created a great trading empire on coasts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. The Portuguese Empire eventually weakened after the Dutch East India Company rose as the major power in Indian Ocean trade.

paragraphs: In a hurry to compete with Portugal for a colonial empire, Spain sent Christopher Columbus to the opposite route of the Portuguese. Instead of going south along the west coast of Africa, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. He believed that he came to Asia. Later, some Spanish sailors found out that this land was a different continent than Asia. It is now called the Americas.

paragraphs: In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores gained the whole of what later became Latin America, except some British and French colonies in northeastern South America, and Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. The Spanish concentrated on conquest, unlike the Portuguese who focused on trading. They eventually developed a vast colonial empire, in contrast to the Portuguese who ruled a few islands and coastal cities along the Indian Ocean. When Spain and Portugal were united under King Philip II of Spain , their combined empire was the largest on earth.

paragraphs: In 1522 the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan returned to Spain. The survivors were the first ever to sail all the way around the world.

paragraphs: In the 17th century, political and religious wars with Britain, France, and the Netherlands weakened the Iberian Peninsula. These three nations emerged as the main winners of the wars and became major powers like Spain and Portugal. In the next two centuries, the world became a battlefield of the three nations. Britain and France held land in North America, in India and other distant places. The Dutch colonized smaller parts of the Americas, took the former Portuguese trading centers around the Indian Ocean, and conquered Indonesia. These three new great powers also had influence all around the world.

paragraphs: Eventually, the result was a series of wars that were fought both in Europe and overseas, with Britain emerging victorious. The British took the former land of French Canada and India in the 18th century. They seized power in the Indian Ocean and defeated the Dutch navy. By 1763, the British Empire had become the second global empire after Spain. However, in 1776, thirteen colonies of British America declared independence. With help from the French, Dutch and Spanish, they defeated Britain in the American Revolution.

paragraphs: In 1778, Captain James Cook of Britain sailed across the South Pacific Ocean looking for a mysterious continent in the Southern Hemisphere. He landed on two large islands. Then he sailed west and found a bigger piece of land. The first, was modern New Zealand; the second was Australia. Captain Cook claimed these lands for Britain. He then explored the Pacific world for another year and died in a fight with the Hawaiians.

paragraphs: Many slaves brought from Africa were brought to the Americas which was claimed to be found by Christopher Columbus himself. In conclusion, the Portuguese were weakened after the Dutch rose in the Indian Ocean trade route. Spain gained almost all of Latin America and a massive amount of silver.

paragraphs: When Christopher Columbus tried to find a new trade route to Asia, he thought that he could travel around the world. Instead, he had found a New World. Vikings had briefly visited Vinland around 1000 A.D.


title: Persian lime

paragraphs: Persian Lime ("Citrus x latifolia"), also known as Tahiti lime or Bearss lime is a kind of citrus fruit. It is the primary citrus fruit grown commercially in the U.S. It is sold simply as a "lime". The fruit is about 6 cm in diameter. Very often, it has slightly nippled ends. It is usually sold quite green, although it yellows as it reaches full ripeness. It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the key lime. The key lime is grown more often worldwide. The Persian lime is bigger than the key lime, and has fewer seeds. The plant is also hardier, and has no thorns on the bushes. The fruit also has a longer shelf life.

paragraphs: Persian limes are less acidic than key limes and do not have the bitterness that lends to the key lime's unique flavour. Persian limes are sold primarily in six sizes, known as 110's, 150's, 175's, 200's, 230's and 250's. They are grown primarily in Florida in the U.S. The Persian lime became more important when key lime orchards were wiped out by a hurricane in 1926. Persian lime orchards themselves were devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Large numbers of Persian limes are grown, processed and exported every year primarily from Martínez de la Torre, Veracruz, Mexico, to the American, European and Asian markets. U.S. Persian lime imports from Mexico are handled mostly through McAllen, Texas.


title: Kaffir lime

paragraphs: The Kaffir lime ("Citrus hystrix "DC., Rutaceae), also known as kieffer lime, makrut or magrood, is a citrus fruit native to Indonesia. It is widely grown worldwide as a garden shrub. It is usually grown it for its fruit, the lime. The leaves are used for cooking. Vegetable oil obtained from the leaves is used to make perfumes.

paragraphs: The plant is a very thorny bush with aromatic leaves. The oil obtained from the rind of the fruit can be used as an insecticide. The plant is well suited to being grown in a container. The green fruits are different from other limes because of their bumpy and rough exterior. They are also quite small, about 4 centimetres across. The leaves are shaped like an hourglass. The leaves and the leaf-shaped stem are widely used in the cuisine of Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.

paragraphs: "Citrus x hystrix" leaves are also popular in Cambodia but less so in Vietnam. Malay, Burmese and Indonesian (especially Balinese and Javanese; see also Indonesian bay leaf) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish.

paragraphs: The leaves can be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen.

paragraphs: Although the most common product of the "Citrus x hystrix" tree is its leaves (which give a sharp Lime/neroli flavour to Cambodian base paste known as Krueng, Thai dishes such as tom yum and Indonesian food such as sayur assam - literally "sour vegetables"), the juice and rind of the small, dark-green gnarled fruit (known as jeruk obat - literally "medicine citrus") are used in traditional Indonesian medicine.

paragraphs: The zest is widely used in Creole cuisine and to impart flavour to "arranged" rums on Réunion and Madagascar.

paragraphs: "The Oxford Companion to Food" () recommends that the name "kaffir lime" should be avoided in favour of "makrut lime" because "Kaffir" is an offensive term in certain cultures and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However "kaffir lime" appears to be much more common.


title: Medina

paragraphs: Medina (; , ' , "the radiant city"; or , ' (), "the city"), also transliterated as Madīnah, is a city in the Hejaz, and the capital of the Al Madinah Region of Saudi Arabia. The city contains al-Masjid al-Nabawi ("the Prophet's Mosque"), which is the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is the second-holiest city in Islam after Mecca.

paragraphs: Medina was Muhammad's destination after his Hijrah from Mecca, and became the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire, first under Muhammad's leadership, and then under the first four Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. It served as the power base of Islam in its first century where the early Muslim community developed. Medina is home to the three oldest mosques, namely the Quba Mosque, al-Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("the mosque of the two qiblas"). Muslims believe that the chronologically final surahs of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad in Medina, and are called Medinan surahs in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs.

paragraphs: Similar to Mecca, non-Muslims are forbidden from entering the sacred core of Medina or the center of the city.

paragraphs: Medina currently has a population of more than 1,300,000 people (2006). The city was originally known as "Yathrib", but later its name was changed to Madīnat al-Nabī (مدينة ﺍﻟﻨﺒﻲ "city of the prophet") or "Al Madīnah al Munawwarah" ("the enlightened city" or "the radiant city"). The short form "Madīnah" simply means "city". Madina is the second holiest city of Islam, after Mecca (Makkah).

paragraphs: Medina is very important to Muslims. This is because the Prophet Muhammad is buried in a mosque known as 'Masjid-e-Nabawi' or 'The Mosque of The Prophet'. The Mosque was built on a site next to Muhammad's home. Muslims believe that Prophets must be buried at the very same place that they die. Accordingly, Muhammad was buried in his house. The tomb later became part of the mosque when it was expanded by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I. The first mosque of Islam is also in Medina. It is known as "Masjid Quba," (the Quba Mosque).

paragraphs: Like Mecca, the city of Medina only permits Muslims to enter. The "haram" (area closed to non-Muslims) of Medina is much smaller than that of Mecca, though. Many facilities on the outskirts of Medina are open to non-Muslims. In Mecca the area closed to non-Muslims extends well beyond the limits of the built-up area. Both cities' numerous mosques are the destination for large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims come to Medina each year to visit the 'Tomb of Prophet' and to worship at mosques in a unified celebration. Muslims believe that praying once in the Mosque of the Prophet is equal to praying at least 1000 times in any other mosque.


title: Doctrine

paragraphs: Doctrine (Latin: "doctrina") is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings".

paragraphs: Doctrine often means several religious dogmas that a church teaches.

paragraphs: But it can also mean a principle of law, in the common law traditions, established through a history of past decisions, such as the doctrine of self-defense, or the principle of fair use.

paragraphs: In matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy. Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.

paragraphs: Examples of religious doctrines include:

paragraphs: One department of the Roman Curia is called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

paragraphs: The term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare. The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.


title: Citron

paragraphs: The citron ("Citrus medica") is a species of citrus fruit. It usually has a thick rind and small sections. Originally, the tree came from Southeast Asia. Today it is mainly grown in Sicily, Morocco, Crete, and Corsica, as well as Puerto Rico. The tree can grow to a size of about 3 metres. The fruit can grow to a size of about 25 cm in length, and about 4 kg in weight. The pulp of the fruit is hardly ever used. The rind is used. It is made into an additive for cooking. Jam can also be made from the rind. The rind is also used to make vegetable oil, which is used for perfumes.

paragraphs: Generally, it is eaten preserved or in bakery goods, such as fruitcakes. (The candied peel rather than the fruit is often used in cooking.) In some cultures, it is made into a fruity tea. Pliny the Elder states that in his time , the citron could only be grown in Media and Persia ("HN" xii.7). The Romans tried to transport it into the Roman Empire in tightly packed pots, but failed, according to Pliny. There is evidence, however, which shows it was cultivated in the Mediterranean during Pliny's lifetime. Zohary and Hopf believe this tree was first domesticated in India. They think that its wild forms, along with those of the mandarin and pomelo, were the original citrus species.

paragraphs: The citron has many names in different countries; one popular reference is "Cedrat", which is the French name for the fruit. Theophrastus referred to the citron as the Persian or Median Apple, and the fruit later came to be known as the Citrus Apple. Pliny calls the tree the Assyrian, or the Median, "apple" (the generic Greco-Roman name for globose fruits). Other citrus crops were not introduced to the Mediterranean basin until Islamic times.

paragraphs: In many languages other than English, a normal lemon is called a "citron" and a Lime is called a "limon". Although the East Asian citrus fruit "yuzu" (also called "yuja") is sometimes called a citron, it is actually a separate species, "Citrus junos".

paragraphs: The citron fruit is slow-growing. The citron tree is typically grown from cuttings that are two to four years old; the tree begins to bear fruit when it is around three years old. The fruit is oblong in shape, and sometimes as much as six inches in length. Its skin is thick, somewhat hard, fragrant, and covered with protuberances; the pulp is white and subacid.

paragraphs: In Pliny's time the fruit was never eaten (it began to be used in cooking by the early 2nd century), but its intense perfume was used, penetrating clothes to repel noxious insects (compare Citronella).

paragraphs: In Hebrew, the citron is known as the etrog (). It is one of the Four Species used during the holiday of Sukkot each fall. The role of the citron in that holiday was portrayed in the Israeli movie Ushpizin. Citrons that have been bred with lemon (in order to increase output per tree and make the tree less fragile) are not kosher for use as part of the Four Species.

paragraphs: In South Indian cuisine, especially Tamil cuisine, citron is widely used in pickles and preserves. In Tamil, the unripe fruit is referred to as 'narthangai', which is usually salted and dried to make a preserve. The tender leaves of the plant are often used in conjunction with chili powder and other spices to make a powder, called 'narthellai podi', literally translating to 'powder of citron leaves'. Both narthangai and narthellai podi are usually consumed with 'thayir sadam' (Curd Rice - Yogurt Rice).

paragraphs: In Korea, it is used to create a syrupy tea (called Yuja cha) where the slices of whole fruit are eaten with the sweet tea. The fruit is thinly sliced (peel, pith and pulp) and soaked or cooked in honey or sugar to create a chunky syrup. This syrupy candied fruit is mixed with hot water as a fragrant tea, where the fruit at the bottom of the cup is eaten as well. Often perserved in the syrup for the cold months, Yuja tea served as a source of fruit in winter. It is also popular in Taiwan, where it is known as 柚子茶 (Youzi cha).

paragraphs: [Note: The Korean Yuja is the same as the Japanese Yuzu 柚子 and must be different from the citron being described in this article. The Japanese Yuzu = Citrus junos.]


title: Citric acid

paragraphs: Citric acid is a weak organic acid. It can be found in citrus fruits ( like oranges). It is used by organisms for Krebs cycle. It acts like a preservative when added to food. It is also used to add a sour (acidic) taste to foods and soft drinks. In the European Union it is known as E 330, as a food additive.

paragraphs: Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first who could extract citric acid from lemons, in 1782. The substance was probably known to alchemists, perhaps with a different name. The Arabian alchemist Geber is said to have discovered citric acid in the 9th century. Citric Acid contains 6 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms and 7 Oxygen atoms. Its chemical formula is CHO.


title: Geber

paragraphs: Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (Arabic: جابر بن حيان) (c. 721–c. 815), known also by his Latinised name Geber, was a Persian prominent chemist, alchemist, pharmacist, philosopher, astronomer/astrologer, physician and physicist. He has also been widely referred to as the "father of chemistry". Ibn Hayyan is widely credited with the introduction of the experimental method into alchemy, and with the invention of numerous important processes still used in modern chemistry today, such as the syntheses of hydrochloric and nitric acids, distillation, and crystallisation. His original works are highly esoteric and probably coded, though nobody today knows what the code is. On the surface, his alchemical career revolved around an elaborate chemical numerology based on consonants in the Arabic names of substances and the concept of "takwin", the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory.


title: Carl Wilhelm Scheele

paragraphs: Carl Wilhelm Scheele (December 9, 1742 - May 21, 1786) a German-Swedish pharmaceutical chemist, born in Stralsund, Western Pomerania, Germany (at the time under Swedish rule), was the discoverer of many chemical substances, most notably discovering oxygen before Joseph Priestley and chlorine before Humphry Davy.


title: Micheline Calmy-Rey

paragraphs: Micheline Calmy-Rey (born 8 July 1945) is a Swiss politician. She was Switzerland's foreign minister as head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. She was also a member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003. She was President of the Confederation in 2007 and again in 2011. She resigned her office as member of the Federal Council on 31 December 2011.


title: Criss Angel Mindfreak

paragraphs: Criss Angel Mindfreak is an American television program. The program is hosted by illusionist Criss Angel. Angel performs many different types of stunts and illusions on the program such as street magic, levitation, and setting himself on fire. The program was first shown on July 20, 2005. It is shown and distributed by the A&E network.


title: Piano trio

paragraphs: A piano trio is a group of three instruments including a piano. Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello. This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards. A piano trio can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play.

paragraphs: Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument. For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a “clarinet trio”. Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a “horn trio”.

paragraphs: Music for three people to play at one piano is called music for piano six hands.

paragraphs: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello. Beethoven’s last piano trio has the nickname "Archduke" because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph. Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios.

paragraphs: In the Romantic period some of the best piano trios were written by Felix Mendelssohn, Antonín Dvořák, César Franck and Pyotr Tchaikovsky.

paragraphs: In the 20th century Maurice Ravel and Dmitri Shostakovich each wrote a famous piano trio.

paragraphs: Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals were world famous musicians who played and recorded piano trios in the early 20th century.

paragraphs: During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group. Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory.


title: Franz Grillparzer

paragraphs: Franz Grillparzer (born Vienna, 15 January 1791 - died Vienna, 21 January 1872) was an Austrian dramatist and poet. His dramas include three plays (a “trilogy”) called "Das Goldene Vliess" ("The Golden Fleece").

paragraphs: Two other famous plays are "Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen" ("The Waves of the Sea and of Love") and "Der Traum, ein Leben" ("The Dream, a Life"). Although he said he was not interested in prose his short story "Der arme Spielmann" ("The poor minstrel") is probably the best known of his works and one of the best short stories of the 19th century. Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech for Beethoven's funeral in 1827.

paragraphs: An Austrian pastry is named after him: the Grillparzertorte.


title: Pastry

paragraphs: Pastry is the dough from which some baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products. It is made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and/or eggs. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties.

paragraphs: Pastry is also the name given to various kinds of baked products. Small cakes, tarts and other sweet or savoury baked products are called "pastries."

paragraphs: Turkish food such as Gözleme are made from pastries.


title: Johann Georg Albrechtsberger

paragraphs: Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (born 3 February 1736 in Klosterneuburg near Vienna; died 7 March 1809 in Vienna) was an Austrian composer, organist, music theorist and music teacher. He is most known today because he was Beethoven’s teacher for a time.

paragraphs: From the age of seven, Albrechtsberger was a choirboy. He had lessons in organ and music theory. As an adult, he had several jobs in churches in small towns. He became Kapellmeister at St Stephen’s Church, Vienna in 1793. This was the best job for a church musician in the empire.

paragraphs: Albrechtsberger wrote hundreds of compositions. He wrote most of them before he got the job in Vienna. He wrote in a classical style. Albrechsberger enjoyed doing things with music which were not normally done. He would ask string players to tune their strings in different ways (called “scordatura”). He would also write slow movements with muted strings. As well as classical sonatas he wrote lots of fugues. Several people, including Mozart, thought of him as the greatest organist in the world.

paragraphs: Albrechtsberger was a very important music teacher. Joseph Haydn thought he was the best teacher in Vienna. He was very interested in contrapuntal music of the Baroque period. He copied many fugues by Bach and other composers.

paragraphs: When Beethoven was a young man, he had some composition lessons from Joseph Haydn. When Haydn was going to travel to England for several months, he asked Albrechtsberger to teach Beethoven while he was gone. These lessons took place from 1793 to 1795. A few years later, Albrechtsberger said about Beethoven that “he learned absolutely nothing and will never accomplish anything decent”. Beethoven said that Albrechtsberger was a “musical pedant”. However, Beethoven still studied Albrechtsberger’s books on music theory. The string quartets which Beethoven wrote near the end of his life show the influence of Albrechtsberger.