title: Marcel Duchamp

paragraphs: Marcel Duchamp (28 July 1887 – 2 October 1968) was a French artist whose work is most often associated with the Dadaist and Surrealist movements. Duchamp's output influenced the development of post-World War I Western art. He advised modern art collectors, such as Peggy Guggenheim and other prominent figures, thereby helping to shape the tastes of Western art during this period.

paragraphs: A playful man, Duchamp challenged conventional thought about artistic processes and art marketing, not so much by writing, but through subversive actions such as dubbing a urinal art and naming it "Fountain". This approach would 50 years later be called conceptual art, though he himself used the term 'ready-mades' for this idea. He produced relatively few artworks, while moving quickly through the avant-garde circles of his time.

paragraphs: The creative act is not performed by the artist alone; the spectator brings the work in contact with the external world by deciphering and interpreting its inner qualifications and thus adds his contribution to the creative act.

paragraphs: Upon his return to Paris in 1923, Duchamp was, in essence, no longer a practicing artist. Instead, he played chess, which he studied for the rest of his life to the exclusion of most other activities.

paragraphs: Duchamp can be seen, very briefly, playing chess with Man Ray in the short film "Entr'acte" (1924) by René Clair. During this period his fascination with chess so distressed his first wife that she glued his pieces to the board. Duchamp continued to play in the French Championships and also in the Chess Olympiads from 1928–1933, favoring hypermodern openings such as the Nimzo-Indian.


title: The Gaslight Anthem

paragraphs: The Gaslight Anthem is an American punk band from New Brunswick, New Jersey. The members are Brian Fallon (lead vocals, guitar), Alex Rosamilia (guitar, backing vocals), Alex Levine (bass guitar, backing vocals) and Benny Horowitz (drums, percussion, tambourine). They released their first album, "Sink or Swim", on XOXO Records in May 2007, and their second album, "The '59 Sound", on SideOneDummy Records in August 2008. The band's third album, "American Slang", was released on June 15, 2010.


title: Jean-Marie Le Pen

paragraphs: Jean-Marie Le Pen (born June 20, 1928) is a French politician. He was born in La Trinitié-sur-Mer, Brittany, France. He was the leader of the French National Front (FN) from 1972 until 2011, which is a far-right political party in France. He stands for immigration restrictions, the death penalty, raising incentives for homemakers, and is against the EU. He is strongly against same-sex marriage, euthanasia and abortion.

paragraphs: Le Pen served in the French Army from 1953-1957.

paragraphs: Jean-Marie Le Pen founded the FN in 1972 and has been its leader ever since. He became a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in 1984 and has run for President of France five times; in 1974, 1988, 1995, 2002 and 2007. He came second in the 2002 election. Le Pen has often been considered to have xenophobic and antisemitic views and was accused of having practised torture when he fought in the Algerian War (1954-1962). He was suspended from the FN on 4 May 2015.

paragraphs: The youngest of his three daughters is FN leader Marine Le Pen. His granddaughter is FN MP Marion Maréchal-Le Pen.


title: Ascanio Sobrero

paragraphs: Ascanio Sobrero (12 October 1812 - 26 December 1888) was an Italian chemist, who discovered nitroglycerin in 1847. He was born in Casale, Monferrato and worked in Paris. He was made a professor of chemistry at Turino. His face was badly hurt during an experiment with nitroglycerin. He thought it was too dangerous to be of any practical use. He said that he was ashamed to have discovered something that killed people. He died in Turin, Italy.


title: COBRA (avant-garde movement)

paragraphs: COBRA (or CoBrA) was a European avant-garde movement active from 1949 to 1951. The name was coined in 1948 by Christian Dotremont from the initials of the members' home cities: Copenhagen (Co), Brussels (Br), Amsterdam (A).

paragraphs: COBRA was formed by Karel Appel, Constant, Corneille, Christian Dotremont, Asger Jorn, and Joseph Noiret on the 8th November 1948 in the Café Notre-Dame, Paris, with the signing of a manifesto, ""La Cause Était Entendue"" ("The Case Was Settled"), drawn up by Dotremont. Formed with a unifying doctrine of complete freedom of colour and form, as well as antipathy towards surrealism, the artists also shared an interest in Marxism as well as modernism.

paragraphs: Their working method was based on spontaneity and experiment, and they drew their inspiration in particular from children’s drawings, from primitive art forms and from the work of Paul Klee and Joan Miró.

paragraphs: Coming together as an amalgamation of the Dutch group Reflex, the Danish group Høst and the Belgian Revolutionary Surrealist Group, the group only lasted a few years but managed to achieve a number of objectives in that time; the periodical "Cobra", a series of collaborations between various members called "Peintures-Mot" and two large-scale exhibitions.

paragraphs: The first of these was held at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, November (1949), the other at the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Liège (1951).

paragraphs: In November 1949 the group officially changed its name to 'Internationale des Artistes Expérimentaux' with membership having spread across Europe and the USA, although this name has never stuck. The movement was officially disbanded in 1951, but many of its members remained close, with Dotremont in particular continuing collaborations with many of the leading members of the group.

paragraphs: The primary focus of the group consisted of semi-abstract paintings with brilliant color, violent brushwork, and distorted human figures inspired by primitive and folk art and similar to American action painting. Cobra was a milestone in the development of Tachisme and European abstract expressionism.


title: Grand Duchy of Tuscany

paragraphs: The Grand Duchy of Tuscany (, ) was a monarchy in Tuscany, an area in the north-west of the Italian Peninsula. It existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1859. It replaced the Duchy of Florence. It was ruled by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The capital of the grand duchy was Florence. Until the House of Lorraine took over from the Medici, Tuscany was a state of the Holy Roman Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Under the Medici the heir to the grand ducal throne was called the "Grand Prince of Tuscany" whereas the Lorrainers used various titles for the heir apparent.


title: Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany

paragraphs: Cosimo II de' Medici (12 May 1590 – 28 February 1621) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1609 until 1621. He was the elder son of Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Christine of Lorraine. He married Maria Magdalena of Austria and had eight children. Galileo Galilei was his childhood tutor.

paragraphs: For the most of his eleven-year reign, he delegated the administration of Tuscany to his ministers. He is best remembered as the patron of Galileo Galilei, his childhood tutor.

paragraphs: Maria Magdalena and Cosimo had the following children:


title: Maria Magdalena of Austria

paragraphs: Maria Magdalena of Austria or Maria Maddalena of Austria (7 October 1589 – 1 November 1631) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany from her husband's accession in 1609 until his death in 1621. With him, she had eight children, including a duchess of Parma, a grand duke of Tuscany, and an archduchess of Further Austria. She was the youngest daughter of Charles II, Archduke of Inner Austria, and his wife Maria Anna of Bavaria. During the minority of her son, Grand Duke Ferdinando II, she and her mother-in-law Christina of Lorraine acted as regents. She died in Padua.


title: 1230s

paragraphs: The 1230s were a decade that lasted from January 1, 1230 to December 31, 1239.


title: Margherita de' Medici

paragraphs: Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) was Duchess of Parma and Piacenza by her marriage to Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma. Margherita was regent of Plaisance in 1635 and regent of the entire duchy in 1646 after the death of her husband.

paragraphs: She was the fourth of eight children and the second daughter born to Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and his wife Maria Magdalena of Austria.

paragraphs: Margherita's siblings included Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cardinal Gian Carlo de' Medici, Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici and Anna, wife of Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Further Austria. Margherita's other siblings died in childhood or eary adulthood.

paragraphs: Margherita married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma on 11 October 1628. On 11 September 1646 Odoardo died. Their eldest son, Ranuccio was not yet old enough to rule the Duchy alone so Margherita acted as regent until her son was old enough to govern alone. She died in Parma on February 6 1679.


title: Vittoria della Rovere

paragraphs: Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622–5 March 1694) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany as the wife of Grand Duke Ferdinando II.

paragraphs: She gave her husband four children, two of which would survive infancy the future Cosimo III and Francesco Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro. She was the Duchess of Rovere and Montefeltro in her own right and these went to her youngest son when she died. She was later the guardian of her three grandchildren. Her marriage bought a lot of art treasures to the House of Medici which are today at the Palazzo Pitti Uffizi Gallery in Florence. She did not get on with her daughter in law Marguerite Louise d'Orléans.

paragraphs: She was the daughter of Claudia de' Medici. She was distantly related to her husband.


title: Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga

paragraphs: Eleanora Luisa Gonzaga (13 November 1686 – 16 March 1741) was the Duchess of Rovere and Montefeltro as the wife of Francesco Maria de' Medici. She was the only child of Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla and Sabbioneta and his second wife, Maria Vittoria Gonzaga. She did not bear any children and died mad.


title: Quebec Major Junior Hockey League

paragraphs: The Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (French: "la Ligue de hockey junior majeur du Québec", shortened as "QMJHL" in English, "LHJMQ" in French) is one of the three major junior ice hockey leagues which make up the Canadian Hockey League. Because the name of the league is so long, it is sometimes called the "Q".

paragraphs: There are 18 teams in the QMJHL that are in Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island in Canada, and Maine in the United States. The winner of the QMJHL plays against the winners of the Western Hockey League and Ontario Hockey League for the Memorial Cup. Many good players go from the QMJHL to the National Hockey League, and nine players from the QMJHL are in the Hockey Hall of Fame.

paragraphs: The QMJHL was created in 1969 from two different junior leagues in Quebec, the Quebec Junior Hockey League and the Metropolitan Montreal Junior Hockey League. These two teams wanted to make a better junior league for the province, so combined teams from their leagues. Eight teams were from the QJHL and two from the MMJHL and another team came from a town in Ontario on the Ontario-Quebec border. Nearly every team was within a close distance of Montreal, the largest city in Quebec, though no team played in Montreal.

paragraphs: In 1972 the QMJHL finally wanted a team in Montreal, and tried to get the Montreal Junior Canadiens, who played in the Ontario Hockey Association, to join. The OHA made a deal with the QMJHL and gave them the Junior Canadiens while creating a new team in a different city to keep an OHA team with the same name.


title: Tsūtenkaku

paragraphs: The current tower is the second tower on the site. The original tower was built in 1912. The design was based on the Eiffel Tower. The tower had an cable car that connected it to a nearby amusement park called Luna Park. The original was 64 meters tall. It was the second tallest building in Asia at that time. It quickly became one of the most popular locations in the city. Visitors came from all over.

paragraphs: There was a fire in 1943 which severely damaged the tower. It was not repaired. The tower was taken apart and the steel was used to make things for World War II.

paragraphs: After the war, citizens wanted to rebuild the popular tower. A private company called "Tsūtenkaku Kanko Co. Ltd." was set up for this purpose. They hired Tachu Naito to design it. He was nicknamed Japan's "Father of Towers". The new tower opened in 1956.

paragraphs: In 1957, Hitachi started putting neon sign advertisements on the tower. The ads have usually been changed every 5 or 6 years. Hitachi last changed the signs in 2006. New signs are scheduled for autumn 2011. The new signs will use LED lights, not neon. Other lights on the tower also show weather information.


title: Francesco Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro

paragraphs: Francesco Maria de' Medici (12 November 1660 – 3 February 1711) was an Italian political leader, Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro.

paragraphs: Medici was born in Florence. He was the second son of Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.

paragraphs: In 1686, Pope Innocent XII made him a cardinal. In 1709, he was permitted to give up his role as cardinal on 14 July 1709 the same year.

paragraphs: In March 1694, he inherited to the Duchies of Rovere and Montefeltro.

paragraphs: In 1709, he married Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga.

paragraphs: Medici died at the Bagno a Ripoli in 1711.


title: 2010 in the United Kingdom

paragraphs: This articles list major events that occurred in the United Kingdom in the year 2010.


title: Regurgitation

paragraphs: Regurgitation is the process of a human or animal letting out the food it had been digesting. Sometimes, blood can come out as well.

paragraphs: Regurgitation can be very important to some animals, such as birds for example. It is used by a number of species to feed their young. This is especially when the young is in its nest or home and the parent hunts for food. Or some birds can occasionally regurgitate pellets of food that is not digestable, such as bones and feathers. Owls are known to do this.


paragraphs: Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia (; 6 April 1875 – 20 April 1960) was a daughter of Tsar Alexander III of Russia and the eldest of Czar Nicholas II two sisters. She married her cousin Grand Duke Alexander Mikailovich of Russia and had seven children. During her brother's reign, she lived a private life. However, when monarchy fell, she escaped Russia and lived in England.

paragraphs: Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna was born on 6 April 1875 at Anichkov Palace in St. Petersburg. Her mother was Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia.

paragraphs: After her grandfather died, her father became the Russian king. At this time, Xenia was six years old. It was difficult political time because of terrorist threats. Alexander III moved with his family from the Winter Palace to the Gatchina Palace to protect his family.

paragraphs: Xenia, like her brothers, was educated by private tutors. She studied foreign languages very much. Apart from her native Russian, Xenia studied English, French, and German. Xenia also learnt how to cook and make puppets and clothes. She liked to ride, fish, draw, play gymnastics, dance, and perform the piano.

paragraphs: Xenia and her first cousin once removed, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia, who would also be her husband, used to play together as friends in the 1880s. Alexander was also a friend of her brother Nicholas. In 1886, twenty year old Alexander was in the navy. Eleven year old Xenia sent him a card when his ship was in Brazil, "Best wishes and speedy return! Your sailor Xenia". In 1889, Alexander wrote of Xenia, "She is fourteen. I think she likes me."

paragraphs: At age 15, though Xenia and Alexander wanted to marry, her parents did not want to allow them because Xenia was too young. They were also unsure if Alexander was really very nice. The Tsarina Maria Feodorovna complained that Alexander was too proud and rude. It was not until January 1894 that Xenia's parents allowed them to engage. The couple finally wed on 6 August 1894 at Peterhof Palace. Xenia's younger sister, Olga, wrote about the joy of her the wedding, "The Emperor was so happy. It was the last time I ever saw him like that."


title: Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia

paragraphs: The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (, '), also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, ROCA, or ROCOR) is a small part of the Russian Orthodox Church. It has over 400 parishes worldwide, and an estimated membership of over 400,000 people.


title: Alexei Kosygin

paragraphs: Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin (, "Aleksej Nikolajevič Kosygin"; 21 February 1904 – 18 December 1980) was a Russian man who was Premier of the Soviet Union. He was a friend of the previous Prime Minister, Nikita Khrushchev. He and Leonid Brezhnev led the country together until he died.


title: House arrest

paragraphs: House arrest is when someone has been arrested, but not put in prison. Instead, they are made to stay in their homes, hence the term.

paragraphs: A notable example of house arrest is Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma. She was under house arrest for much of the time between 1990 and 2010.

paragraphs: Subjects typically wear ankle bracelets which alert the authorities when they leave their house.


title: The Stig

paragraphs: The Stig is the 'tame racing driver' from the popular BBC motoring show Top Gear. He coaches the 'stars in the reasonably priced car' and is the driver for the Power laps. His identity is unknown though he has been played by many drivers, the most recent driver is Ben Collins.


title: American League Central

paragraphs: The American League Central Division is a group of baseball teams in the American League of Major League Baseball (MLB). The teams all play in the Midwestern United States. It was started in 1920.


title: Tuner (car)

paragraphs: When talking about cars, a tuner is a car with many parts changed so the car can go very fast. The word "tune" here means "to adjust" or "to change". Typically, people call any vehicle that has been modified for performance reasons a tuner car regardless of make or model.

paragraphs: When people want to drive fast cars but don't want to buy a very expensive car, they change some parts for an ordinary car to make it go faster.

paragraphs: For basic tuning, the engine intake and exhaust are changed, which means the process that takes air into the engine and out of the engine happens faster. People can also make the frame of the car stronger, to help it go around corners better. A spoiler or wing helps air push the car down onto the ground, which means more grip.


title: Rage Racer

paragraphs: Rage Racer is a 1996 racing video game by Namco where the player controls different cars and wins races in order to become what the game calls "Rage Racer". Four different car manufacturers make cars to drive in the game. Each of the cars has its forte and is sometimes named after it. In the game, the player drives three (four later in the game) courses to try and win a trophy and move to the next class.

paragraphs: At the beginning of the game, the game shows a plot of how some elite few "Race Racers" started to race their "worldwide speedway".

paragraphs: In the Grand Prix mode, the player starts at Class 1. They choose a course and then a car. As the player wins races, they win prize money, or "credits", which are called e.g. in the game. E.g. can be used to buy new upgrades, cars, or courses. If the player loses a race, they lose 1 chance. A player starts with 5 chances per class. If a player loses when they do not have any chances, the game ends. Players can still save, and can still retrieve their credit and cars, but medals and trophies are lost.

paragraphs: Time Trial is a mode where the player races the clock. They choose a car and course, and then are shown the record for the track. Tracks are also divided into "sections", parts of a track.

paragraphs: A player can save or load data with a memory card.


title: Watercress

paragraphs: Watercress, "Nasturtium officinale", is a plant which grows in water. It is a member of the Brassicaceae family, along with some other leaf vegetables.

paragraphs: People grow them for eating, often in salad or sandwiches. They have a peppery flavour and are fast-growing. Watercress is related to the cabbage and mustard plants.

paragraphs: Agrology of watercress is both a large scale and a garden scale. However the packaging used by super markets using sealed plastic bags under some pressure.Watercress is also known as tall nasturtium. This plant grows well in cold water. That's why you will find it near water like a ditch.

paragraphs: Watercress packs have a lot of nutrients. Iron, potassium and vitamins C and E are a few. Watercress also helps with skin problems. It keeps the skin very clarified. Watercress is used in many recipes. You can use it to make a sandwich or in soup.

paragraphs: If it is not harvested, watercress can grow to a height of 50–120 cm. It is a member of the brassicacea family, along with some other leaf vegetables.

paragraphs: They are related to mustard and cabbage family.

paragraphs: New market, Alabama, was once known as "Watercress Capital of the World".


paragraphs: Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (30 July 1549 – 3 February 1609) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1587 to 1609. He succeeded his older brother Francesco I.

paragraphs: Ferdinando was the fifth son of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Eleonora di Toledo.

paragraphs: He was a Cardinal before he became Grand Duke, until he married Christine of Lorraine in 1589. He was succeeded by his eldest son, who reigned as Cosimo II. His wife and daughter-in-law Maria Maddalena of Austria acted as regents for Cosimo II.


title: Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany

paragraphs: Cosimo I de' Medici (12 June 1519 – 21 April 1574) was Duke of Florence from 1537 to 1574 and then the first Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1569. He was the son of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere and Maria Salviati.

paragraphs: In 1539, he married Eleonora di Toledo (1522–1562). She died, with her sons Giovanni and Garzia, in 1562, aged forty. All three of them died from malaria while traveling to Pisa.

paragraphs: Before his first marriage, Cosimo fathered an illegitimate daughter with an unknown woman:

paragraphs: With Eleonora, Cosimo fathered eleven children:

paragraphs: After Eleonora's death in 1562, Cosimo fathered two children with his mistress Eleonora degli Albrizzi:

paragraphs: In 1570, Cosimo married Camilla Martelli:


title: Point (ice hockey)

paragraphs: A point is a unit of score that is given when a player knocks the puck into their rival's goal.


title: Riau Islands

paragraphs: The Riau Islands is a province in Indonesia. Tanjung Pinang is its capital city. Its official language is Riau. In 2007, the population was around 1,392,900.


title: Singapore River

paragraphs: The Singapore River is a river in Singapore. It flows from the Central Area of Singapore to the ocean. It is long. Its mouth was used as a port. In the past, it was a very busy place because of the spice trade. It became very polluted and was cleaned up from 1977 to 1987.


title: East India Company

paragraphs: East India Company (EIC) was a joint-stock company. Its headquarters were in London. It was started for trading with the East Indies, but mostly traded with India and China. It was given a charter in 1600. It traded many things in India. In the middle 18th century, the company built up its own presidency armies and won the Battle of Plassey. This brought it from trading with India to ruling India. It was dissolved in 1874.

paragraphs: The Company had armed forces and armed ships. It fought against various Indian rulers and struggled against the Dutch East India Company and other European nations. It was ruled by one governor and 24 directors. It became a monopoly in most parts of India.

paragraphs: The company was dissolved in 1874. Its role was taken over by the Government of India (the British Raj). At its height, the Raj covered a huge area from Baluchistan in the west to Burma in the east, plus Ceylon and a number of other islands.


title: Battle of Marathon

paragraphs: The Battle of Marathon took place in September 490 BC on the plain of Marathon. It was fought between the Athenians and the Persians. Athens was supported by a small force from the city of Plataea. The battle was the end of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to conquer Greece. It was part of the first Greco-Persian war.

paragraphs: The Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the Ionian Revolt. Then, Athens and Eretria had sent a force to support the cities of Ionia, who were trying to overthrow Persian rule. The Athenians and Eretrians succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis, but were forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, Darius swore to burn Athens and Eretria to the ground.

paragraphs: Once the Ionian revolt was crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade, Darius began planning to conquer Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean, to subjugate the Cyclades, the group of Greek islands in the Aegean Sea. The next step was to attack Athens and Eretria. After a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians defeated, captured and burnt Eretria. "/

paragraphs: The Persian force then sailed for Attica. They landed on Schinias beach on the east end of Marathon bay. The broad field, called the plain of Marathon, was flat, level and ideal for battle. The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, marched to Marathon, and blocked the two exits from the plain of Marathon. Stalemate ensued for five days. Then, for reasons that are not clear, the Athenians decided to attack the Persians. Despite the numerical advantage of the Persians, the Greek hoplites proved very effective against the more lightly armed Persian infantry. They routed the Persian wings before turning in on the centre of the Persian line.

paragraphs: The defeat at Marathon was a decisive victory that marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. The Persian force retreated to Asia. Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece. However, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, postponing any Greek expedition. After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece, which finally began in 480 BC.

paragraphs: The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten. The eventual Greek triumph in these wars began at Marathon. The next two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been so influential in western society. This is why the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a key moment in European history.

paragraphs: John Stuart Mill suggested that "the Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings". The Battle of Marathon is perhaps now more famous as the inspiration for the Marathon race. Although historically inaccurate, the legend of a Greek messenger running to Athens with news of the victory became the inspiration for this athletic event, introduced at the 1896 Athens Olympics, and originally run between Marathon and Athens.

paragraphs: When the Athenian line was ready, according to one source, the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades: "At them". Most likely, they marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the "beaten zone", (roughly 200 meters), and then broke into a run towards their enemy. Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed mainly of missile troops (archers, spear-throwers).

paragraphs: All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians. Passing through the hail of arrows, protected for the most part by their armour, the Greek line finally collided with the enemy army. Holland provides an evocative description:

paragraphs: "The enemy directly in their path...realised to their horror that [the Athenians], far from providing the easy pickings for their bowmen, as they had first imagined, were not going to be halted...The impact was devastating. The Athenians had honed their style of fighting in combat with other phalanxes, wooden shields smashing against wooden shields, iron spear tips clattering against breastplates of bronze...in those first terrible seconds of collision, there was nothing but a pulverizing crash of metal into flesh and bone; then the rolling of the Athenian tide over men wearing, at most, quilted jerkins for protection, and armed, perhaps, with nothing more than bows or slings. The hoplites' ash spears, rather than shivering...could instead stab and stab again, and those of the enemy who avoided their fearful jabbing might easily be crushed to death beneath the sheer weight of the advancing men of bronze."

paragraphs: The Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies (conscripted troops) on the flanks, before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre, which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre. The battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships, pursued by the Greeks. Some, unaware of the local terrain, ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned. The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships, and managed to capture seven ships, though most were able to launch.

paragraphs: Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield. It is unknown how many more died in the swamps. The Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11.


title: Strait of Singapore

paragraphs: The Strait of Singapore or Singapore Strait is a strait in Singapore. It is long and wide. It is between the Strait of Malacca and the South China Sea. Singapore is to the north and the Riau Islands are to the south. It is the way to get to the Singapore Harbor.


title: Apache Subversion

paragraphs: Apache Subversion (also called subversion repository and SVN) is an internet software mainly used by software programmers. Subversion allows other developers to view the code easily.

paragraphs: To download files in a directory of a subversion repository, one can "checkout" using a subversion client.


title: Variable-width encoding

paragraphs: A variable-width encoding is a type of character encoding scheme in which codes of different lengths are used to encode a character set for representation in a computer. Some kinds of Unicode work this way.


title: Cro-Magnon

paragraphs: The earliest known Cro-Magnon remains are between 35,000 and 45,000 years old, based on radiometric dating. The oldest remains, from 43,000 45,000 years ago, were found in Italy and Britain. Other remains also show that Cro-Magnons reached the Russian Arctic about 40,000 years ago.

paragraphs: Cro-Magnons had powerful bodies, which were usually heavy and solid with strong muscles. Unlike Neanderthals, which had slanted foreheads, the Cro-Magnons had straight foreheads, like modern humans. Their faces were short and wide with a large chin. Their brains were slightly larger than the average human's is today.

paragraphs: The name "Cro-Magnon" was created by Louis Lartet, who discovered the first Cro-Magnon skull in southwestern France in 1868. He called the place where he found the skull "Abri de Cro-Magnon." "Abri" means "rock shelter" in French; "cro" means "hole" in the Occitan language; and "Magnon" was the name of the person who owned the land where Lartet found the skull. Basically, Cro-Magnon means "rock shelter in a hole on Magnon's land."

paragraphs: This is why scientists now use the term "European early modern humans" instead of "Cro-Magnons." In the scientific system which puts living things into categories, the term "Cro-Magnon" means nothing.

paragraphs: Like most early humans, the Cro-Magnons mostly hunted large animals. For example, they killed mammoths, cave bears, horses, and reindeer for food. They hunted with spears, javelins, and spear-throwers. They also ate fruits from plants.

paragraphs: The Cro-Magnons were nomadic or semi-nomadic. This means that instead of living in just one place, they followed the migration of the animals they wanted to hunt. They may have built hunting camps from mammoth bones; some of these camps were found in a village in the Ukraine. They also made shelters from rocks, clay, tree branches, and animal fur.


title: Cheating in video games

paragraphs: Cheating in video games is when a player creates an advantage for themself beyond what normal gameplay would allow. In general, cheating is breaking the rules to get an unfair advantage. In video games, a player usually cheats to make the game easier.

paragraphs: These kind of advantages can often be activated by entering codes. A set of cheat codes may have been written into the game's programming by the game's developers. When entered, a code activates a corresponding advantage. Cheat codes can also be created by added software, called a game trainer. Players can also cheat by taking advantage of software bugs in the game.

paragraphs: Cheat codes makes the system do things that are not normal. For example, pressing a certain sequence of buttons may increase a character's hit points in an role-playing game, or make a car drive faster in a racing game.


title: Anaphalis

paragraphs: Anaphalis (A-ná-pha-lis) is a genus within the Asteraceae family whose members are commonly known by the name Pearly everlasting. There are around 110 species within the genus with the vast majority being native to central and southern Asia. There is one species native to North America that is fairly well known and popular in cultivation, namely the Western Pearly Everlasting ("Anaphalis margaritacea").

paragraphs: Two of the species, "A. javanica" and A. longifolia can be found on the mountain af the Java island in Indonesia. "A. javanica", also known as the Javanese Edelweiss, is currently an endangered species.


title: Weaning

paragraphs: Weaning means changing the diet of a baby little by little, from its mother's milk to the food it will eat as an adult. Since only female mammals make milk, weaning is only a necessary process for mammals. When a baby does not drink any more breast milk (or milk substitute), the baby has been weaned.

paragraphs: Human babies should start eating small amounts of solid food, along with breast milk or formula, when they are about six months old. Before this time, a child's digestive system and kidneys are still forming, so the child is not ready for solid food.

paragraphs: Babies do not have teeth and cannot chew their food, so they are usually fed soft, runny food such as cooked mashed fruit or vegetables. Babies cannot digest some foods which adults can eat, including food with nuts or with large amounts of gluten, salt or sugar. Also, babies' digestive systems are very sensitive to bacteria, so they should not eat any foods with honey, eggs or shellfish in them because these foods sometimes contain bacteria.

paragraphs: Weaning conflict happens when the mother wants to wean her baby, but the baby wants to keep breastfeeding. The mother tries to force the baby to stop breastfeeding, and the baby tries to force the mother to continue. Some evolutionary scientists think mammal mothers need to wean their babies as soon as possible, so they will have a greater chance of having more babies and spreading their genes. But mammal babies want to breastfeed as long as they can so they will have a chance to grow strong, and also to enjoy the full care of their mothers. Weaning conflict happens in several mammal species, including primates and canines.


title: Nanoelectromechanical systems

paragraphs: Nanoelectromechanical systems will be very tiny machines, with dimensions thousands of times thinner than the human hair, that could be used as motors or sensors. The technology is very new and still in the laboratory stage, but may replace microelectromechanical systems.

paragraphs: Compared to human scale, things work very differently at nano dimensions. For example, attractive forces between materials of the same type may push together moving parts and block a motor.


title: Photocathode

paragraphs: A photocathode is a negatively charged electrode in a light detection device. They are the main type of photomultiplier. That means they take a little light, and make more of it.

paragraphs: There are instruments which need to magnify the amount of light coming in. Examples are astronomical telescopes and military night-sight equipment: binoculars and telescopes on helmets and rifles etc.

paragraphs: The lens of the telescope or binocular passes the light onto a layer of glass coated with a special light-sensitive metal. When this is struck by light, the absorbed energy causes electrons to jump off. This is called the 'photoelectric effect'. The freed electrons are then collected to produce the final image.

paragraphs: These devices are mostly based on alkali metals.


title: Space Shuttle Enterprise

paragraphs: The Space Shuttle Enterprise (OV-101) is a spacecraft used by NASA for testing of the space shuttles. Enterprise was built without engines and without the heat protection system needed for it to travel into space and return to the atmosphere. Enterprise began being built in June 4, 1974, and was completed on September 17, 1976. Enterprise was used for flight tests in 1977. Scientists wanted to test how the shuttle could be transported on top of a Boeing 747. They also did three test manned test flights with the shuttle still joined to the Boeing. When these test were finished they did another five tests with the shuttle flying without engines like a glider. The pilots practiced landing the shuttle at the Edwards Airforce Base. The pilots were astronaut Gordon Fullerton, Apollo 13 astronaut Fred Haise, Joe Engle and Dick Truly. After the test flights, the Enterprise was used for vibration tests at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. After all the tests were finished, some parts of the Enterprise were used in the building of the other shuttles.

paragraphs: The Enterprise was going to be named the "Constitution", but many people wrote to the President and asked for it to be named after the space craft on the TV show Star Trek. Enterprise can be seen today by visitors to the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington, D.C.


title: Reggie Bush

paragraphs: Reginald Alfred "Reggie" Bush II (born March 2, 1985) is an American football player for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL). He plays the position of running back.

paragraphs: Bush played football at Helix High School in La Mesa, California, then played football at the University of Southern California. Bush won the 2005 Heisman Trophy, which is for the best player in college football, but in 2010, he gave the award back because of claims that he took gifts while in college that would have made him a professional athlete while still in college.

paragraphs: The New Orleans Saints chose Bush with the second pick in the 2006 NFL Draft. In 2010, Bush won a Super Bowl with the Saints over the Indianapolis Colts.


title: Globular protein

paragraphs: Globular proteins are a common type of protein.

paragraphs: They are one of three types of protein. The others are fibrous and membrane proteins.

paragraphs: Their structure is a result of protein folding. They are made of polypeptide chains folded into a compact sphere shape.

paragraphs: They are soluble in water because of the hydrophilic ('water-loving') side chains that project from the outside of the molecules. They play an important role in metabolic reactions.

paragraphs: Unlike proteins which only have a structural function, globular proteins can act as:

paragraphs: Globular proteins include myoglobin and hemoglobin.

paragraphs: Globulins are all globular proteins except albumins. They have higher molecular weights than albumins. They are insoluble in pure water but dissolve in dilute salt solutions.

paragraphs: Some globulins have important function as antibodies, others are responsible for the transport of lipids, iron or copper in the blood.


title: David Haye

paragraphs: David Haye is a British boxer. He is the WBA heavyweight champion and is nicknamed "The Hayemaker". He is 1.91 metres (6 feet 3 inches) tall. Before he became a heavyweight, he boxed in the cruiserweight division, where he held all the major titles. His most famous cruiserweight fights were against Jean-Marc Mormeck and Enzo Maccarinell. He has lost only once in his career.

paragraphs: Haye moved up to the heavyweight division and beat Monte Barrett in 2008. In October 2009, he beat Nikolai Valuev, who is 7 feet tall, to become the WBA champion. In 2010, he beat John Ruiz. He defended his title against fellow Briton Audley Harrison in November 2010.

paragraphs: Haye started his career as an amateur. He reached the finals of the 2001 world amateur championship in the heavyweight class, where he lost to Odlanier Solis. He turned professional in the cruiserweight division in December 2002. His first professional fight was meant to be against Valeri Semishkur, but Semishkur pulled out. Instead, Haye fought and beat Tony Booth on 8 December 2002. He had seven fights in 2003, and won all of them. He won his tenth fight in a row when he beat Arthur Williams on 12 May 2004. He won those ten fights with a total of only 20 rounds. In his match against IBO champion Carl Thompson on 10 September 2004, he lost for the first time in his career. In his next match, on 10 December 2004, he beat Semishkur in the first round.

paragraphs: Haye won the European title on 16 December 2006 when he beat Alexander Gurov. He won the match after only 45 seconds. On 24 March 2007, in his first match as European champion, he beat Lasse Johansen. On 27 April 2007, he had his first heavyweight fight, against Tomasz Bonin. Haye won in the first round. Shortly after the fight, Haye said he had plans to move up to the heavyweight division. "I'm absolutely certain I can rule the heavyweight roost", he said. On 10 November 2007, he beat Jean-Marc Mormeck to win the WBA, WBC, and "Ring" magazine titles. Haye was knocked down in the fourth round, but hit Mormeck with a series of blows in the seventh to win by technical knockout. He became the UK's sixth boxing champion. On 8 March 2008, he beat Enzo Maccarinelli to win the WBO title. Haye hit Maccarinelli with two big punches before the referee stopped the match. Haye said he planned to move up to the heavyweight division. A few weeks after the fight, Wladimir Klitschko, the IBF, IBO, and WBO heavyweight champion, said he wanted to fight Haye.

paragraphs: Haye gave away his titles at cruiserweight and moved up to the heavyweight division. He beat Monte Barrett on 15 November 2008, winning in the fifth round. Before the fight, he said fighting Barrett was a big risk and that he might have retired if he lost. He was meant to fight Wladimir on 20 June 2009, but pulled out. On 31 October 2009, he beat Nikolai Valuev, who is 7 feet tall, to become the WBA champion. Haye was 98 pounds lighter than Valuev; before this fight, no-one had won a heavyweight title match weighing this much less than their opponent. Haye said he has wanted to be the heavyweight champion since he was a toddler. He then beat John Ruiz on 3 April 2010 and Audley Harrison on 13 November 2010. He now says he wants to fight Wladimir or his brother Vitali, who holds the WBC belt. The two brothers are regarded as the best heavyweights in the world. Haye says he plans to retire before his 31st birthday.

paragraphs: Haye was born on 13 October 1980 in Bermondsey, London. He went to Snowsfield primary school and Bacon's College. Jade Goody, winner of the television show "Big Brother", was in his class. Haye is married and has a son called Cassius, named after Cassius Clay, the birth name of Muhammad Ali. His training camp is based in Kyrenia, Northern Cyprus. He started training there in 2007 and sometimes fights with the Northern Cyprus flag on his shorts. He supports the football team Millwall. In September 2010, a newspaper in Northern Cyprus said Haye had become a citizen of Northern Cyprus.


title: Xanthan gum

paragraphs: Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide (a complex form of sugar). It is added to certain foods, such as salad dressings, to make them thicker. It is also added to cosmetics to keep the ingredients from separating. To make xanthan gum, workers deliberately add a kind of bacterium, "Xanthomonas campestris", to glucose or sucrose. They let the mixture ferment for a while, and then add isopropyl alcohol to separate the polysaccharide from the mixture. They dry the polysaccharide, grind it into a powder, then add it to a liquid. The xanthan gum is then ready to use.

paragraphs: Allene Rosalind Jeanes and her research team at the United States Department of Agriculture first discovered xanthan gum. The team was studying many biopolymers to see whether some of them were useful, and how they could be used. The Kelco Company was the first company to produce xanthan gum in the early 1960s. At that time, Kelco called xanthan gum by its brand name, Kelzan. Later, in 1968, xanthan gum was tested and declared safe to be used in food. The USA, Canada, Europe, and many other regions and countries now accept xanthan gum as a safe food additive.

paragraphs: Xanthan gum is a very effective thickener. It is stable under a wide range of temperatures and pH. Only 0.5% of xanthan gum is added to most foods to thicken them. The thickening property of xanthan gum decreases when a food is mixed, shaken or chewed, but it thickens up again when the force is removed. This property is called pseudoplasticity. Sometimes this property can be very useful. For instance, the xanthan gum added to salad dressing makes the dressing thick enough to cling to a salad, but shaking the bottle of dressing makes it temporarily thin and easier to pour.

paragraphs: Salad dressings and sauces contain xanthan gum. Even though xanthan gum is not an emulsifier, it helps to keep an emulsion stable so that the oil in it does not separate. Xanthan gum also helps to keep spices and other solid bits of food evenly distributed in a liquid. Xanthan gum, guar gum and locust bean gum help to give ice cream and other frozen foods a creamy texture. Gluten-free bakers use xanthan gum instead of gluten to make bread dough or batter "sticky." Packaged egg whites or egg substitutes contain xanthan gum to replace the fat and emulsifiers found in egg yolks.

paragraphs: Toothpaste often contains xanthan gum to give the toothpaste a smooth texture. People who have trouble swallowing add xanthan gum to drinks and other liquids to make them thicker and easier to swallow.

paragraphs: Oil drillers use a lot of xanthan gum to make drilling mud thicker. This thick fluid helps carry solids cut by the drill bit up to the surface of the earth. When people need to pour concrete underwater, they add xanthan gum to the concrete to make it thicker and keep it from washing away.

paragraphs: Many cosmetics contain xanthan gum, which helps hold together oil and water emulsions. Xanthan gum can also help keep skin moist. Fake blood, toy slime and gunge all get their thickness from xanthan gum.

paragraphs: Workers who were exposed to xanthan gum dust developed allergy-like symptoms from breathing in the dust.

paragraphs: Coeliac disease sufferers and other people who are sensitive to gluten and other allergens may need to be careful how much xanthan gum is in their food. Some types of xanthan gum are made with wheat, corn or soy and could cause allergic reactions. Xanthan gum is also a strong laxative and can cause diarrhoea in people who eat too much of it, or who are sensitive to it. There are many substitutes available for xanthan gum when used in baking such as guar gum or locust bean gum.


title: Pickerel frog

paragraphs: The pickerel frog is a small frog in North America. It has dark squares on its back. The squares are in lines instead of randomly scattered. Leopard frogs have circular spots. They have an orange or yellow coloration on the inside of their back legs. They are found in the east of North America. They have toxic glands in their skin that can kill other frogs.


title: Northern green frog

paragraphs: The Northern green frog is a subspecies of the North American green frog. Its name is either "Rana clamitans melanota", or "Lithobates clamitans melanota".

paragraphs: It is moderately large. It is found in the northeast United States and some of eastern Canada. Its call sounds like a plucked banjo. It has a fold running from the top of its eyes down the side of its back. The bullfrog does not have these folds. It is normally found in swamps, marshes, and muddy streams.


title: Wiki markup

paragraphs: Wikitext language, or wiki markup, is a markup language used to write pages in wiki websites, such as Wikipedia. It is a simplified alternative to HTML. It is converted by wiki software (like MediaWiki) into regular HTML, which the user's web browser will render.

paragraphs: The main purpose of having Wikitext in wikis instead of HTML is because HTML is more complicated and not many people know how to use it. Therefore, it is easier to use Wikitext rather than HTML and thus makes editors contributing to a wiki easier to create content.


title: Environmentally friendly

paragraphs: Environmentally friendly (also eco-friendly, nature friendly, and green) are terms that refer to objects that people buy (called "goods"), services, laws, and rules that either do not harm the environment or do very little harm to it. To make people who buy the goods or services know that they are environmentally friendly, environmentally friendly goods and services often are marked with "eco-labels". But because there is no single type of eco-label, the International Organization for Standardization thinks that these labels do not mean much because they could mean different things.

paragraphs: Environmentally friendly is a term used to refer to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies claimed to inflict minimal or no harm on the environment. Companies sometimes use these terms to promote goods and services by making environmental marketing claims and with eco-labels. Also ecofriendly, by 1993, from eco- + friendly.


title: Intranet

paragraphs: An intranet is a private network website that only a few selected computers can have access to. Usually, they are being used as internal company websites for employees to know more about what is happening in the company without letting other people see.

paragraphs: An intranet works the same way as a normal website. The system administrator can add webpages to it and it can be accessed normally from a web browser.

paragraphs: Russia has successfully tested Runet, a country-wide alternative to the internet. An expert said "Increasingly, authoritarian countries who want to control what citizens see are looking at what Iran and China have already done... It means people will not have access to dialogue about what is going on in their own country, they will be kept within their own bubble".


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title: Italic

paragraphs: Italic script and type has a long history. It was based on handwriting.

paragraphs: Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi (1475–1527) was a papal scribe and type designer in Renaissance Italy. Present day cursive writing style known as "italic" is based upon the style he developed. It has been said that the style of cursive known as "italic" got its name from this "Italian" designer. Modern day scribes, also known as "calligraphers", study the work of Arrighi to learn the structure of the style of writing known as "italic", a modernized version of the Chancery hand which was first perfected by Roman scribes in the early part of the sixteenth century.

paragraphs: In typography, italic type is a cursive font based on a kind of calligraphic handwriting. Such letters normally slant slightly to the right.

paragraphs: In modern texts, Italics can emphasise key points in a printed text. One manual of English usage described italics as "the print equivalent of underlining".

paragraphs: Calligraphy-inspired typefaces were first designed in Italy, to replace documents written in a handwriting style called chancery hand. As the illustration shows, there were flourishes copied from calligraphy. An alternative is oblique type: the type is slanted but the letterforms do not change shape: this less elaborate approach is used by many sans-serif typefaces.

paragraphs: Using italic is usually used as a place holder for a blank piece of information.

paragraphs: There are different ways in making a text "italic".

paragraphs: In HTML, the editor can add the codice_1 and the codice_1 tags to make text surrounded by these tags italic.

paragraphs: In Wikitext, the editor can just add two apostrophes (codice_3) around the text to become italic.


title: Bold (type)

paragraphs: In formatting, bold makes a text become darker and a little bigger. It is used to emphasize a few words as a bolded text can attract attention from the reader.

paragraphs: To make a word bold, there are different ways in doing so. They are listed below

paragraphs: In HTML, the codice_1 and the codice_1 tags are used to surround the text that needs to be bolded.

paragraphs: In Wikitext, an editor can bold a text using three apostrophes (codice_1) around the text to be bolded to produce the same results.


title: Underline

paragraphs: To make a text underlined means to add a straight line below the text. It is commonly used to emphasize the text. However, it is usually not used.

paragraphs: Both HTML and Wikitext uses the same way in making underlined text. They both use the codice_1 and the codice_1 tags to produce an underlined text.


title: Iodic acid

paragraphs: Iodic acid is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is HIO. It contains hydrogen and iodate ions. The iodine is in its +5 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Iodic acid is a white solid that can dissolve in water to make an acidic solution. Chloric acid and bromic acid only exist in solution and break down when crystallized. Iodic acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It can be converted to iodine pentoxide when it is heated gently. If it is heated strongly, it decomposes into iodine, oxygen, and other iodine oxides.

paragraphs: It can form several things when it is reduced. If there is a lot of reducing agent, it is reduced to iodide. If there is a lot of iodic acid, it is reduced to iodine. If there is a lot of chloride, then it is reduced to iodine trichloride, a yellow liquid.

paragraphs: It can be made by electrolysis of an acidic iodide solution.

paragraphs: Iodic acid is used to make other iodates by reacting bases with iodic acid. It is also used as a strong acid.


title: Malays

paragraphs: The Malays (Malay: "Melayu", Jawi: ) are an Austronesian ethnic group in Southeast Asia. They mainly live in the Malay Peninsula and many parts of the Malay Archipelago, including Brunei, Singapore, Borneo and eastern Sumatra.

paragraphs: The Malay language is one of the major languages of the world. Their religion was animist and a mix of other Chinese religions at first but now they are mostly Muslims. They use wood for most of their traditional villages which are called "kampongs".

paragraphs: Malays make up a majority of Malaysia and Brunei's populations. They make a significant populations in Singapore, Thailand, and Indonesia.

paragraphs: Most ethnic Malays speak one or more of the many dialects (versions) of the Malay language, a language of the Austronesian family of languages. In Indonesia, the standardized form of Malay is Indonesian (). In Malaysia, the standard form is called Malaysian (. About 80% of their words mean the same thing in either dialect. These naming policies were created to form national unities in the two countries instead of making the Malays a ruling influence or the ruling class, something that it is in Brunei. In Brunei, Thailand and Singapore it is known as "Bahasa Melayu".

paragraphs: Today, the language is usually written a version of the Roman alphabet, called Rumi. Malay written using the Arabic alphabet is called Jawi, which is mostly used in official and religious contexts. Jawi is more common than Rumi in very conservative Muslim areas like Kelantan in Malaysia and Pattani in Thailand.


title: Tinie Tempah

paragraphs: Patrick Chukwuemeka Okogwu (born 7 November 1988) is a British Grime MC and rapper. He was born in Plumstead, London and is of Nigerian origin. He is better known by his stage name Tinie Tempah. He also founded the record label Disturbing London in 2006.

paragraphs: Some of his more famous songs are "Pass Out", "Written in the Stars" and "Earthquake".

paragraphs: Tempah released his first album "Disc-Overy" in 2010. It went straight to number one in the UK Albums Chart. Seven singles were released from the album.

paragraphs: On 4 August 2013, the first single from "Demonstration", "Trampoline", was released. 2 Chainz rapped in it. It reached number three in the UK Singles Chart. His second album "Demonstration" was released 4 November 2013. Twelve of the album's fifteen songs feature other musicians. Tempah is doing a UK tour for the album in 2014. Tempah won Best UK Hip Hop/Grime Act at the 2013 Music of Black Origin Awards.


title: Orang Laut

paragraphs: The Orang Laut are a group of Malays living in the Riau Islands. Their name means "the sea people". They used to be pirates.


title: Japanese Occupation of Singapore

paragraphs: The Japanese Occupation of Singapore is a time from 1942-1945 (during World War II) where the Japanese occupied Singapore. Japan attacked because Singapore was an important naval base for controlling other areas. The occupation started after the army of Japan defeated garrison troops from Australia, British Malaya, Britain, and India. This was at the Battle of Singapore. The British decided to surrender to the Japanese on 15 February 1942 at the Ford Motor Factory.

paragraphs: The city was renamed to Syonan-to (pronounced as Sho-nan-to), meaning Light of the South, during the rule. It was officially returned to the British after the peace treaty ending World War II was signed.

paragraphs: The Japanese did not treat the people very well during their occupation. There was a large amount of inflation because the Japanese printed paper money for Singapore to use, which did not have any identification numbers. Also called 'banana notes' as they had a picture of a banana tree on them, the paper notes could have been printed by people who had a modern-day printer and sufficient paper.

paragraphs: In 1941, due to the weak defenses, the Japanese attacked Singapore. They landed on Singaporean soil on the 9th of February 1942 and took control of the colony on 15 February 1942, soon renaming it Syonan-to (pronounced as Sio-nan-to or Sho-nan-to), meaning Light of the South Island, during the rule. Many people suffered during this time till the Japanese surrendered and the British returned to Singapore in September 1945.

paragraphs: During the Japanese Occupation, the trade was disrupted, resulting in scarcity of food and other kinds of goods, causing the price to drastically increase in a process known as inflation. Even if one were to try to buy a jar of jam from a shop, the shopkeeper would say that he had none. However, if one was prepared to pay a very high price for it, the shopkeeper would know just where to get it: the black market.


title: Ligand

paragraphs: A ligand is a biochemical substance. Its function is to bind to a biological molecule, and make the molecule perform a function. Ligand binding alters the shape of the receptor protein. This changes the protein's behaviour.

paragraphs: In a narrower sense, it is a signal triggering molecule, binding to a site on a target protein.

paragraphs: The binding occurs by intermolecular forces, such as ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces. The docking (association) is usually reversible (dissociation).

paragraphs: Ligands include substrates, inhibitors, activators, and neurotransmitters. The tendency or strength of binding is called affinity.


title: Polyxena of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg

paragraphs: Polyxena of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg (Polyxena Christina Johanna; 21 September 1706 – 13 January 1735) was the second wife of Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont, future King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia.

paragraphs: Polyxena was born at Langenschwalbach in Hesse and was baptised with the names "Polyxena Christina Johanna ". King Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia approached her family and proposed a union between Polyxena and Victor Amadeus II's son and heir Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont. A previous match organised by "Agostino Steffani" with a daughter of Duke Rinaldo d'Este of Modena had come to nothing. His first wife, Anne Christine of Sulzbach died March 1723 having given birth to a son.

paragraphs: The engagement was announced on 2 July 1724. The marriage was celebrated in person at Thonon in Chablais on 20 August 1724. The happy marriage produced six children.

paragraphs: Praised as an attractive, cultured and kind woman, Polyxena founded a home for penniless mothers in Turin in 1732, redecorated the "Villa della Regina", the hunting lodge of Stupingi, and the Church of Saint Giuseppe in Turin. She popularised "chinoiserie". She was also a patron of Giovanni Battista Crosato, a baroque painter.

paragraphs: Having been ill since June 1734, she died at the Royal Palace of Turin. Originally buried at the "Cathedral of Saint Giovanni Battista", she was moved to the Royal Basilica of Superga in 1786 by her son Victor Amadeus III. Two years after her death, her husband married Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine, sister of the future Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor.


title: Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine

paragraphs: Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine (Élisabeth Thérèse de Lorraine; 15 October 1711 – 3 July 1741) was born a Princess of Lorraine and a Queen of Sardinia as wife King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia. She was a younger sister of Francis Stephan, Duke of Lorraine.

paragraphs: Élisabeth Thérèse of Lorraine was born at the Château de Lunéville and was the ninth of eleven children of Leopold Joseph of Lorraine and his wife Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans. Her mother was a niece of Louis XIV.

paragraphs: Her mother wanted her to marry her cousin Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans but the Duke of Orléans refused. As a result Elisabeth Therese was created the "coadjutrice" of Remiremont Abbey in October 1734.

paragraphs: In 1736 her brother the Duke of Lorraine married the Maria Theresa of Austria, daughter of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor. The already twice widowed Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia asked for her hand in late 1736 and the marriage went ahead.

paragraphs: The couple married in person on 1 April 1737. Charles Emmanuel III was her first cousin, his mother being Anne Marie d'Orléans – a half sister of her mother Élisabeth Charlotte. The marriage produced three children, only one of whom survived infancy.

paragraphs: Élisabeth Thérèse died at the Palace of Venaria aged 29, having fallen ill with a fever after childbirth. She was buried in the Cathedral of Saint Giovanni Battista in Turin. She was moved to the Royal Basilica of Superga in 1786 by her stepson Victor Amadeus III.


title: Bronze (color)

paragraphs: Bronze is the color of the alloy bronze.

paragraphs: The first recorded use of "bronze" as a color name in English was in 1753.


title: Bradley International Airport

paragraphs: Bradley International Airport is an airport in Windsor Locks, Connecticut serving Hartford, Connecticut and Springfield, Massachusetts.

paragraphs: Bradley International Airport hosts the following airlines:

paragraphs: It hosts an "Admirals Club" in Terminal A (West Concourse) and an Escape Lounge in the East Concourse.


title: Dr. Dolittle (movie)

paragraphs: Dr. Dolittle is a comedy movie released in 1998 by Davis Entertainment/20th Century Fox. It stars Eddie Murphy who plays Dr. Dolittle. He is a doctor who lives in San Francisco. He discovers that he has the ability to talk to (and understand) animals. It was marketed as a family movie and earned $294,456,605. It had 1 sequel of the same format and 3 direct-to-video sequels. There was and is a video game based on the movie which was and is simulation game "Dr. Dolittle" by Blast! Entertainment Ltd/Aqua Pacific which was released in 2006.


title: Dot product

paragraphs: In mathematics, the dot product is an operation that takes two vectors as input, and that returns a scalar number as output. The number returned is dependent on the length of both vectors, and on the angle between them. The name is derived from the centered dot "·" that is often used to designate this operation; the alternative name scalar product emphasizes the scalar (rather than vector) nature of the result.

paragraphs: In three-dimensional space, the dot product contrasts with the cross product, which produces a vector as result.

paragraphs: The dot product of two vectors a = ["a", "a", ..., "a"] and b = ["b", "b", ..., "b"] is defined as:

paragraphs: where Σ denotes summation notation (the sum of all the terms) and "n" is the dimension of the vector space.

paragraphs: In dimension 2, the dot product of vectors [a,b] and [c,d] is ac + bd.

paragraphs: The same way, in a dimension 3, the dot product of vectors [a,b,c] and [d,e,f] is ad + be + cf.

paragraphs: For example, the dot product of two three-dimensional vectors [1, 3, −5] and [4, −2, −1] is

paragraphs: In Euclidean geometry, the dot product, length, and angle are related. For a vector a, the dot product a · a is the square of the length of a, or

paragraphs: where ||a|| denotes the length (magnitude) of a. More generally, if b is another vector, then

paragraphs: where ||a|| and ||b|| denote the length of a and b and "θ" is the angle between them.

paragraphs: This formula can be rearranged to determine the size of the angle between two nonzero vectors:

paragraphs: One can also first convert the vectors to unit vectors, by dividing by their magnitude:

paragraphs: As the cosine of 90° is zero, the dot product of two orthogonal (perpendicular in 2D and 3D) vectors is always zero. Moreover, two vectors can be considered orthogonal if and only if their dot product is zero, and they both have a nonzero length. This property provides a simple method to test the condition of orthogonality.

paragraphs: Sometimes, these properties are also used for "defining" the dot product, especially in 2 and 3 dimensions; this definition is equivalent to the above one. For higher dimensions, the formula can be used to define the concept of angle.

paragraphs: The geometric properties rely on the basis being orthonormal (composed of pairwise perpendicular vectors with unit length).

paragraphs: If both a and b are unit vectors (vectors of length one), then their dot product simply gives the cosine of the angle between them.

paragraphs: If only b is a unit vector, then the dot product a · b gives |a| cos(θ). This corresponds to the magnitude of the projection of a in the direction of b, with a minus sign if the direction is opposite. This is called the scalar projection of a onto b, or scalar component of a in the direction of b (see figure). This property of the dot product has several useful applications (see § Rotation below).

paragraphs: If neither a nor b is a unit vector, then the magnitude of the projection of a in the direction of b would be a · (b / |b|), as the unit vector in the direction of b is b / |b|.

paragraphs: A rotation of the orthonormal basis in terms of which vector a is represented is obtained with a multiplication of a by a rotation matrix R. This matrix multiplication is just a compact representation of a sequence of dot products.

paragraphs: Then the rotation from "B" to "B" is performed as follows:

paragraphs: Notice that the rotation matrix R is assembled by using the rotated basis vectors u, v, w as its rows, and these vectors are unit vectors. By definition, Ra consists of a sequence of dot products between each of the three rows of R and vector a. Each of these dot products determines a scalar component of a in the direction of a rotated basis vector (see previous section).

paragraphs: If a is a row vector, rather than a column vector, then R must contain the rotated basis vectors in its columns, and must post-multiply a:

paragraphs: In physics, magnitude is a scalar in the physical sense, in that.it is a physical quantity independent of the coordinate system, expressed as the product of a numerical value and a physical unit, not just a number. The dot product is also a scalar in this sense, given by the formula, independent of the coordinate system. For example:

paragraphs: The following properties hold if a, b, and c are real vectors and "r" is a scalar.

paragraphs: The dot product is distributive over vector addition:

paragraphs: When multiplied by a scalar value, dot product satisfies:

paragraphs: (these last two properties follow from the first two).

paragraphs: Two non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular if and only if a • b = 0.

paragraphs: Unlike multiplication of ordinary numbers, where if "ab" = "ac", then "b" always equals "c" unless "a" is zero, the dot product does not obey the cancellation law:

paragraphs: Provided that the basis is orthonormal, the dot product is invariant under isometric changes of the basis: rotations, reflections, and combinations, keeping the origin fixed. The above mentioned geometric interpretation relies on this property. In other words, for an orthonormal space with any number of dimensions, the dot product is invariant under a coordinate transformation based on an orthogonal matrix. This corresponds to the following two conditions:

paragraphs: If a and b are functions, then the derivative of a • b is a' • b + a • b'.

paragraphs: This is a very useful identity (also known as Lagrange's formula) involving the dot- and cross-products. It is written as

paragraphs: which is easier to remember as "BAC minus CAB", keeping in mind which vectors are dotted together. This formula is commonly used to simplify vector calculations in physics.

paragraphs: Repeated application of the Pythagorean theorem yields for its length |v|

paragraphs: so we conclude that taking the dot product of a vector v with itself yields the squared length of the vector.

paragraphs: Now consider two vectors a and b extending from the origin, separated by an angle θ. A third vector c may be defined as

paragraphs: creating a triangle with sides a, b, and c. According to the law of cosines, we have

paragraphs: Substituting dot products for the squared lengths according to Lemma 1, we get

paragraphs: which, according to the distributive law, expands to

paragraphs: Merging the two c • c equations, "(1)" and "(2)", we obtain

paragraphs: Subtracting a • a + b • b from both sides and dividing by −2 leaves

paragraphs: The inner product generalizes the dot product to abstract vector spaces and is usually denoted by formula_26. Due to the geometric interpretation of the dot product, the norm ||a|| of a vector a in such an inner product space is defined as

paragraphs: such that it generalizes length, and the angle θ between two vectors a and b by

paragraphs: In particular, two vectors are considered orthogonal if their inner product is zero

paragraphs: For vectors with complex entries, using the given definition of the dot product would lead to quite different geometric properties. For instance, the dot product of a vector with itself can be an arbitrary complex number, and can be zero without the vector being the zero vector; this in turn would have severe consequences for notions like length and angle. Many geometric properties can be salvaged, at the cost of giving up the symmetric and bilinear properties of the scalar product, by alternatively defining

paragraphs: where "b" is the complex conjugate of "b". Then the scalar product of any vector with itself is a non-negative real number, and it is nonzero except for the zero vector. However, this scalar product is not linear in b (but rather conjugate linear), and the scalar product is not symmetric either, since

paragraphs: This type of scalar product is nevertheless quite useful, and leads to the notions of Hermitian form and of general inner product spaces.

paragraphs: The Frobenius inner product generalizes the dot product to matrices. It is defined as the sum of the products of the corresponding components of two matrices having the same size.

paragraphs: The dot product between a tensor of order n and a tensor of order m is a tensor of order n+m-2. The dot product is worked out by multiplying and summing across a single index in both tensors. If formula_32 and formula_33 are two tensors with element representation formula_34 and formula_35 the elements of the dot product formula_36 are given by

paragraphs: This definition naturally reduces to the standard vector dot product when applied to vectors, and matrix multiplication when applied to matrices.

paragraphs: Occasionally, a double dot product is used to represent multiplying and summing across two indices. The double dot product between two 2nd order tensors is a scalar.


title: Sarcocystis

paragraphs: Sarcocystis is a genus of protozoa. Species in this genus can live in reptiles, birds, mammals, and sometimes pigs. The name came from the Greek language, "sarx", which meant flesh, and "kystis", which meant bladder. The organism was first found by Miescher in 1843, in a mouse.


title: Zapatista Army of National Liberation

paragraphs: The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN; ) is a political and militant group based in –Chiapas, the southernmost state of Mexico. Its members are called the Zapatistas. They advocate for libertarian socialism, environmental sustainability and indigenous rights.

paragraphs: It is led by the indigenous people of the Chiapas Mountains. The name "Zapatista" refers to Emiliano Zapata who was a leader of the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The group was formed in the 1980s and led a large rebellion in 1994. Where it captured a small region of Mexico and was granted control over it.

paragraphs: Though the movement has many leaders, both women and men, Marcos has become the unofficial spokesperson for the movement. This is because he is very well educated, a good public speaker, and has written letters to and worked with writers and intellectuals from all over the world. He signs almost all of his letters with "Subcomandante Marcos, from the mountains of the southeast of Mexico." He is wearing a ski-mask in every picture and video of him and ski-masks have become a symbol of the EZLN in Mexico, as the majority of its supporters also wear them. Followers of the EZLN also paint murals of Marcos in his mask and Emiliano Zapata to show their support.

paragraphs: Since 1994, the Zapatistas have been in control of a region in Southern Chiapas. The Zapatistas created a 'Council of Good Government' which is a direct democracy representing between 120,000 to 300,000 people. The economy is made up of a coordinated network of communal stores, worker cooperatives and family farms. Their autonomous government provides low-interest loans, free education and universal health care. The Zapatistas mainly produce corn, beans, coffee, bananas, sugar, cattle, chicken, pigs and clothing. The Mexican military has attacked communities several times with drones, infantry and helicopters.


title: Lead glass

paragraphs: Lead glass, also known as lead crystal, is a type of glass that has lead in it. Normal glass has calcium oxide in it, while lead glass changes the calcium oxide with lead(II) oxide. It looks nice because the lead is very large and heavy and changes how the glass looks. Lead glass rings when tapped while ordinary glass does not. This glass can absorb some X-rays. It is very insulating. When food is in lead glass, lead might come out of the glass and into the food. Acidic foods such as lemons leach lead much more easily.


title: Summoner

paragraphs: The Summoner is one of the characters in the Canterbury Tales.

paragraphs: He is always drunk. Children are afraid of him. When he drinks too much wine, he starts speaking in Latin. He has pimples on his face but is rather intelligent. Chaucer used to write about the medieval age. Anachronism can be found in his writings easily. Everything that he has described about the Summoner is set in that time.


title: Lead(II) chloride

paragraphs: Lead(II) chloride, also known as plumbous chloride and lead dichloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is PbCl. It contains lead and chloride ions. The lead is in the +2 oxidation state. Its use may lead to lead poisoning.

paragraphs: Lead(II) chloride is a colorless crystalline solid. It does not dissolve well in water. It can dissolve in solutions that have chloride ions in them. It reacts with molten sodium nitrite to make lead(II) oxide.

paragraphs: Lead(II) chloride is made by reacting sodium chloride or hydrochloric acid with lead nitrate. It can also be made by reacting lead(IV) oxide with hydrochloric acid. It can also be made by reacting chlorine with lead.

paragraphs: It is used to make ceramics. A basic chloride is used in pigments.


title: Relic

paragraphs: A relic is an object, especially a piece of the body or a personal item of someone of religious importance, that was carefully preserved with an air of veneration as a memorial that you can touch. Relics are an important aspect of Buddhism, some denominations of Christianity, Hinduism, shamanism, and many other personal belief systems.

paragraphs: The word relic comes from the Latin "reliquiae" ('remains'). A reliquary is a shrine that houses one or more relics.

paragraphs: Some well-known religious relics include the Tooth of Buddha, the Holy Grail, the Crown of Thorns, the True Cross of Jesus, the Staff of Moses, and the Sword of Mohammed.


title: John F. Kennedy Jr.

paragraphs: John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. (November 25, 1960 – July 16, 1999) often called John-John or JFK Jr., was an American lawyer and magazine publisher. He was the son of American President John F. Kennedy.

paragraphs: Kennedy was born at Medstar Georgetown University Hospital in Washington, DC, to President elect John F. Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline. He spent his first three years at the White House until his father's assassination on November 22, 1963. The following year, he moved to New York City with his mother and older sister Caroline.

paragraphs: After high school, he attended Brown University. He graduated in 1983 with a Bachelor's Degree in history. He then attended the New York University of Law, earning his law degree in 1989. He founded the magazine "George" in 1995.

paragraphs: He married Carolyn Bessette (1966-1999) on September 21, 1996. He was flying his own airplane on July 16, 1999 when he crashed off Cape Cod coast. He was on his way to the wedding of one of his Kennedy cousins. He was with his wife Carolyn and her sister. They were all killed.


title: Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria

paragraphs: Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria (31 October 1636 – 26 May 1679) was a Wittelsbach ruler of Bavaria and an elector (Kurfürst) of the Holy Roman Empire from 1651 to 1679.

paragraphs: He was born in Munich and was the eldest son of Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria and Maria Anna of Austria a daughter of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor.

paragraphs: On 8 December 1650 he married Henriette Adelaide of Savoy, daughter of Victor Amadeus I of Savoy and Christine Marie of France. The couple had seven children.

paragraphs: Still a minor he succeeded his father in 1651, his mother and his uncle Albert VI of Bavaria served as regents of Bavaria for three years.

paragraphs: Ferdinand Maria was crowned on 31 October 1654. He was an absolute monarch. He allied with France. Ferdinand Maria supported the wars of the Habsburgs against the Ottoman Empire with Bavarian forces (1662-1664). During the Franco-Dutch War since 1672 Bavaria became neutral. The marriage of his eldest daughter Maria Anna and her cousin "Louis, Grand Dauphin" in 1680 cemented the alliance with France. Ferdinand Maria modernised the army and introduced the first Bavarian local government code. He made Bavaria a rich nation.

paragraphs: He died in Schleissheim Palace and was succeeded by his son Maximilian II Emanuel. He is buried at the Theatiner Church.


title: Christian apologetics

paragraphs: Christian apologetics is a field of Christian theology that tries to find a rational basis for the Christian faith. There have been many people who tried to do this, including Paul of Tarsus, Origen, Augustine of Hippo and C. S. Lewis. Apologists base their arguments on historical evidence and philosophy, amongst others.


title: Denny Hamlin

paragraphs: James Dennis Alan "Denny" Hamlin (born November 18, 1980 in Chesterfield, Virginia)

paragraphs: Hamlin started his racing career in 1988, at the age of 7 years old, racing Go-Karts. At the age of 16, he was racing Ministocks. In his first stock car race, at Langley Speedway, Hamlin won the pole position, and won the race. In 2004, while racing full-time in Late Model Stock Cars, Hamlin was signed to a development program with Joe Gibbs Racing.

paragraphs: In 2004, Hamlin raced in five NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series (NCTS) races with the team EJP Racing. He finished tenth in his first race, at Indianopolis Raceway Park. He ran his first ARCA RE/MAX Series race at Talladega Superspeedway, finishing third in the #10 Pontiac owned by Andy Hillenburg. His last start of the year came at Darlington Raceway, when he started his first Busch Series race. He started twenty-seventh but finished eighth in the #18 Joe Gibbs Driven Performance Oil Chevrolet.

paragraphs: Hamlin raced the full season in the #20 Rockwell Automation Chevrolet in the Busch Series. He finished 5th in the final championship points standings as a rookie in that series. Hamlin also raced in his first Nextel Cup Series races in 2005, making his Cup first start at Kansas Speedway as driver of the #11 FedEx Chevrolet. He made seven starts in the Sprint Cup series in 2005. He finished the Sprint Cup season with three top 10 finishes in seven starts and one pole at Phoenix International Raceway.

paragraphs: In 2006, Hamlin raced his first full season in the NASCAR Nextel Cup Series. He also drove in the Busch Series full-time. In Hamlin's first race as a Nextel Cup driver, he won the 70-lap 2006 Budweiser Shootout. Hamlin became the first Rookie to win the Budweiser Shootout. Hamlin got his first career Busch Series win at Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez on March 5th 2006. On June 11 2006, Hamlin won his first career Nextel Cup Series race at the Pocono 500. He got his second career win on July 23, in the Pennsylvania 500, also at Pocono Raceway. In the Nextel Cup Series, Hamlin won the Raybestos Rookie of the Year award and finished third in the final standings.

paragraphs: In 2007 Denny Hamlin finished 12th overall in the final standings in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. In the Nationwide Series, Hamlin won three races, Darlington, Michigan, and Dover in the #20 Rockwell Automation Chevy.

paragraphs: In 2008, Hamlin finished 8th in the Sprint Cup Series and won early in the season at Martinsville Speedway. He won three races in the Nationwide Series, driving both the #18 and #20 cars for Joe Gibbs Racing, as well as the #32 Dollar General/Haas Avocados car for Braun Racing.

paragraphs: In 2009 Hamlin won his fifth career race at Pocono Raceway on August 3, 2009. The win was Hamlin's third at Pocono. It was an emotional win for Hamlin as his grandmother, Thelma Clark, died the Friday before the race.

paragraphs: Hamlin also won races at Martinsville Speedway, his home track Richmond International Raceway, and the last race of the year at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Hamlin ended the season 5th in the Sprint Cup Series points.

paragraphs: On January 22, 2010, Denny Hamlin tore the anterior cruciate ligament in his left knee while playing basketball.

paragraphs: On March 27, 2010 Hamlin said he was going to have surgery on his left knee the next Monday. If he did not have the surgery, his knee would have been injured worse.

paragraphs: Three weeks after his surgery on April 19, 2010, Hamlin won the race at Texas Motor Speedway. It was the 10th win of his career.

paragraphs: Later in the season Hamlin finished 43rd in a race at Atlanta Motor Speedway. This was the first time that Denny Hamlin finished last in a race. This race moved Hamlin into 10th place in the Sprint Cup Series points, and made sure he would have a place in the championship race. Denny Hamlin won 8 races in the 2010 Sprint Cup Series but finished the season 2nd in Sprint Cup Series points behind Jimmie Johnson.

paragraphs: After a strong second place finish in 2010, 2011 was not a very good year for Denny Hamlin. Hamlin had mechanical problems many times in 2011, and this hurt his chances at finishing well in the points. Hamlin only won one race in 2011, and finished the season 9th in the points standing.


title: Anterior cruciate ligament

paragraphs: The anterior cruciate ligament is one of the four major ligaments of the human knee. The injury of this ligament is the most common one of the knee. Many athletes suffer from this condition. Moving the knee sideways or rotating it can cause this ligament to strain or tear. Tears will almost always require surgery to repair.


title: Post-transition metal

paragraphs: Post transition metals, also known as the poor metals, is a group of metals on the periodic table. It is to the right of the transition metals. The Group 12 elements are sometimes included. Sometimes germanium, antimony, and polonium are included, although they are normally considered metalloids. They normally have higher electronegativities than the transition metals. Their melting points are lower, too. They are generally softer than other metals. They include Lead, Tin and other softer metals.


title: Lead(II) sulfide

paragraphs: Lead(II) sulfide, also known as plumbuus sulfide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is PbS. It contains lead and sulfide ions. The lead is in its +2 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Lead(II) sulfide is a black solid. It does not react with acids. It reacts with air at a high temperature to make lead(II) oxide. It is one of the least toxic forms of lead. This does not mean that it is not toxic, though. It is the result of a test for hydrogen sulfide. Paper soaked in lead(II) acetate is passed through hydrogen sulfide. The colorless lead(II) acetate turns black.

paragraphs: It can be made by reacting hydrogen sulfide with lead(II) acetate or lead(II) nitrate. This makes a black solid.

paragraphs: It is found as the mineral galena. Galena is a little shinier.

paragraphs: It was once used as a black pigment. Now it is mainly used in infrared detectors.


title: Lead(IV) acetate

paragraphs: Lead(IV) acetate, also known as plumbic acetate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Pb(CHO). It contains lead and acetate ions. The lead is in its +4 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Lead(IV) acetate is a colorless or pink solid. It is a powerful oxidizing agent. It reacts with water.

paragraphs: It can be made by reacting lead(II,IV) oxide with acetic acid.

paragraphs: Lead(IV) acetate is used in organic chemistry as an oxidizing agent. It is also used to add lead to other organic compounds.


title: Lead(II) bromide

paragraphs: Lead(II) bromide, also known as plumbous bromide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is PbBr. It contains lead and bromide ions. The lead is in its +2 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Lead(II) bromide is a white solid. It only dissolves a little in water. It melts to make a liquid that conducts a little electricity. It is toxic because it has lead in it.

paragraphs: It can be made by reacting lead(II) nitrate or lead(II) acetate with hydrobromic acid or any other bromide.


title: Lead(II) sulfate

paragraphs: Lead(II) sulfate, also known as plumbous sulfate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is PbSO. It contains lead and sulfate ions. The lead is in its +2 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Lead(II) sulfate is a white solid. It does not dissolve in water. It is toxic because it has lead in it. It does not dissolve in sulfuric acid.

paragraphs: Lead(II) sulfate is made in a lead acid battery by normal usage. It can be made by reacting lead(II) acetate or lead(II) nitrate with any sulfate. It is found as a mineral named anglesite. This mineral is made when galena is oxidized.


title: Anderson Cooper

paragraphs: Anderson Hays Vanderbilt Cooper (born June 3, 1967) is an American journalist. He is an anchor on CNN. He hosts Anderson Cooper 360° and the syndicated daytime talk show, Anderson Live.

paragraphs: Cooper was born in New York City. His mother is Gloria Vanderbilt; his father was Wyatt Emory Cooper. Cooper's great-great-great-grandfather was Cornelius Vanderbilt, a 19th-century American businessman.

paragraphs: On July 2, 2012, Cooper came out as gay.


title: Contra

paragraphs: Contra (known as Probotector in Europe) is a 1987 arcade shooting video game. The player tries to balance the terrorist organization Red Falcon from taking over the planet Earth.

paragraphs: Either Bill or Lance is chosen. The player has a rifle with no limit to the number of times it can shoot. However, the player dies after being hit by an enemy once.

paragraphs: The game has ten stages. For each stage, the player must shoot out the sensors before moving on. A player has 3 lives, and when all of them are lost, the game ends. In the arcade version, the player can continue a few times.

paragraphs: Most stages are side-scroller stages, though Contra stages follow a basic pattern.


title: Small arms

paragraphs: A small arm is a gun that is small enough to be held by one person. This includes pistols, shotguns, and rifles. Artillery are larger guns that cannot be carried by one person.


title: Ryan Caldwell

paragraphs: Ryan Caldwell (born June 15, 1981 in Brandon, Manitoba) is a Canadian ice hockey defenceman. He currently plays for the Schwenninger Wild Wings of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL). He has also played for the New York Islanders and Phoenix Coyotes of the National Hockey League (NHL), the DEG Metro Stars, Eisbären Berlin, and Thomas Sabo Ice Tigers of the DEL, and Ässät and Lukko of the SM-liiga.

paragraphs: As an amateur he was an All-American defenceman and captained the University of Denver Pioneers to the 2004 NCAA Championship.


title: Aaron MacKenzie

paragraphs: Aaron MacKenzie (born March 7, 1981 in Terrace Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who currently plays for Denver Cutthroats of the Central Hockey League (CHL).


title: Connie Madigan

paragraphs: Cornelius Dennis "Mad Dog" Madigan (born October 4, 1934, in Port Arthur, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey defenceman notable for being the oldest rookie in National Hockey League history.

paragraphs: After playing several years in senior leagues in Ontario and British Columbia in the late 1950s, Madigan had a long career as a minor league star, most notably with the Fort Wayne Komets of the International Hockey League for three seasons in the early 1960s, and then for the Portland Buckaroos of the Western Hockey League for nine seasons. He won accolades as First Team league All-Star in 1960, 1966, 1967, 1968 and 1969, Second Team All-Star in 1965, 1971 and 1972, as well as winning best defenceman honors in 1966.

paragraphs: In the 1972–73 NHL season, the St. Louis Blues of the NHL bought Madigan's rights from the Buckaroos, and he joined the Blues in January 1973 at the age of 38, becoming the oldest rookie ever. He played for the Blues in twenty regular-season games and five playoff games, before finishing his career with Portland in parts of the two successive seasons.

paragraphs: At the time of his retirement, Madigan was second in minor league history in career penalty minutes, and is still 62nd in that category.

paragraphs: In addition to Madigan's hockey career, he had a minor role in the 1977 cult classic movie "Slap Shot" as legendary hockey goon Ross "Mad Dog" Madison.


title: JaVale McGee

paragraphs: JaVale McGee (born January 19, 1988 in Flint, Michigan) is an American basketball player that currently plays for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He went to University of Nevada, Reno for college where he played for the Nevada Wolf Pack. McGee was drafted by the Washington Wizards with the 18th overall pick in the 1st round of the 2008 NBA Draft. McGee also participated in the 2011 NBA Slam Dunk Contest where he finished in second place, losing to Blake Griffin. He was the first player to dunk three basketballs at one time in a dunk contest. On March 15, 2012, He was traded by the Wizards to the Denver Nuggets for Nenê. McGee's father was George Montgomery who was also a NBA player and his mother is Pamela McGee who was a WNBA player which made McGee the first son of an WNBA player to play in the NBA.


title: Kevin Love

paragraphs: Kevin Wesley Love (born September 7, 1988 in Santa Monica, California) is an American basketball player that currently plays for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He used to play for the Minnesota Timberwolves. He went to UCLA for college where he played for the UCLA Bruins basketball team.

paragraphs: He is the son of former NBA player Stan Love and the nephew of founding Beach Boys member Mike Love.


title: Western grey kangaroo

paragraphs: The western grey kangaroo ("Macropus fuliginosus") is a large and very common kangaroo or macropod. It lives right across the southern part of Australia. They live from just south of Shark Bay in Western Australia to western Victoria. In South Australia they live along the coast. They also live in the Murray-Darling Basin in New South Wales and Queensland. The subspecies on Kangaroo Island, South Australia, is called the Kangaroo Island kangaroo.

paragraphs: The western grey kangaroo is one of the largest kangaroos. It weighs 28–54 kg and its length is 0.84-1.1m with a 80–100 cm tail, and is about 1.3m tall. It has sexual dimorphism with the male up to twice the size of female. It has thick, coarse fur with colour ranging from pale grey to brown. It has a paler color on its throat, chest and belly. It feeds at night, mainly on grasses but also on leafy shrubs and low trees. It has a nickname "Stinker" because mature males have a curry-like odour.

paragraphs: The kangaroo lives in groups of up to 15. The males compete for females during the breeding season. During these "boxing" contests, they would lock arms and try to push each other over. Usually, only the strongest male in the group mates. The gestation period is 30–31 days. After the birth, the tiny baby Joey attaches to the teat in the females pouch for nine months. After it comes out of the pouch, it will continue to drink milk from the mother's pouch for about another nine months.

paragraphs: Long known to the Aboriginal people of Australia, for Europeans, the western grey was the centre of a great deal of sometimes comical taxonomic confusion for almost 200 years. It was first noted by European settlers when the great explorer Matthew Flinders landed on Kangaroo Island in 1802. Flinders shot several for food but assumed that they were eastern grey kangaroos. In 1803 French explorers captured several Kangaroo Island Western Greys and shipped them home to Paris, where they lived in the zoological gardens for some years. Eventually, researchers at the Paris Museum of Natural History recognised that these animals were indeed different and formally described the species as "Macropus fuliginosus" in 1817. Unfortunately, for reasons that remain unclear, it was described as native to Tasmania.

paragraphs: There the matter rested for over 100 years, and it was not until 1917 that researchers realised that the "forester kangaroo" of Tasmania was in fact "Macropus giganteus", the same western grey kangaroo that was, and still is, widespread in the more fertile south-eastern part of the mainland. By 1971, it was understood that the Kangaroo Island species was the same as the kangaroos of southern Western Australia, and that this population extended through much of the eastern part of the continent as well. For a time, three subspecies were described, two on the mainland and one on Kangaroo Island. Finally, by the early 1990s, the current understanding emerged.

paragraphs: There are two subspecies of the western grey: "Macropus fuliginosus fuliginosus" which lives on Kangaroo Island, and "Macropus fuliginosus melanops", which has a range of different types that change gradually from west to east.

paragraphs: The western grey does not live in the tropical north or the fertile south-east of Australia. The eastern grey does not live over the NSW-South Australia border, but the two species are both common in the Murray-Darling Basin area. They never interbreed in the wild, although hybrids between eastern grey females and western grey males have been produced in captivity.

paragraphs: The western grey kangaroo is also called the black-faced kangaroo, mallee kangaroo, sooty kangaroo and carno kangaroo.