title: My Chemical Romance

paragraphs: My Chemical Romance (often abbreviated to MCR or shortened to My Chem) is a rock band from New Jersey that began in 2001. They released their first album in 2002. The band has released four albums to date. The band consists of Gerard Way (lead vocals), Ray Toro (lead guitar/vocals), Mikey Way (bass guitar), Frank Iero (rhythm guitar/vocals). The band announced that they were breaking up on March 22, 2013, but have announced their reunion as of October 31, 2019 guest starring Welling based guitarist Harley Roy Baker.

paragraphs: The band was started by Gerard Way on the day of the September 11, 2001 attacks after he was on his way to work in New York and saw the bodies falling from the building. Gerard said that he thought to himself "What am I doing with my life? I'm slaving away doing drawings for Cartoon Network and not actually helping anybody", he then called up his friend Matt Pelissier who went on to recruit Ray Toro - the band's lead guitarist. Gerard said "there's nobody in New Jersey who can beat him, he is the best". Gerard's brother Mikey Way, bass guitarist, joined his brother's new band soon after.

paragraphs: In May 2002, Frank Iero joined as the rhythm guitarist for the band. He was more than happy to leave college against his parents wishes to join his favourite band, and whilst MCR were on tour, he got a tattoo of a scorpion as high up on his neck as he could get it, as a stand against getting a regular job.

paragraphs: In 2004, Pelissier was kicked out of the band for stealing from the band, and was replaced by Bob Bryar - a sound technician for The Used and Thursday at the time.

paragraphs: The name of the band comes from an Irvine Welsh book titled ""Ecstasy: Three Tales of Chemical Romance"" which caught Mikey Way's eye when he was working in Barnes & Noble.

paragraphs: My Chemical Romance's sound usually has elements of punk rock, pop and alternative rock.

paragraphs: They have been categorised as alternative rock, post-hardcore, punk rock, pop punk, and, most controversially, emo.

paragraphs: The band's official website describes their music as simply "rock" or "violent, dangerous pop".

paragraphs: Band frontman Gerard Way has publicly rejected the term "emo", describing the genre as "fucking garbage". However, Way has reportedly also described the band's style as "What-else-ya-got-emo".

paragraphs: Gerard said to "Rolling Stone", "We love bands like Queen, where it's huge and majestic, but also bands like Black Flag and the Misfits, who would go absolutely crazy." Lead singer Gerard Way has stated that the band is very influenced by The Cure, Joy Division, Bauhaus, Siouxsie and the Banshees, and The Smiths/Morrissey. Way has also said that his band patterns their career after that of The Smashing Pumpkins, another band they like. The band's overall influences are:Black Flag, Iron Maiden, The Misfits, Morrissey/The Smiths, At the Gates, The Cure, The Descendents, Pantera, The Smashing Pumpkins, Pink Floyd, Bon Jovi, The Damned, Fugazi, Ministry, New York Dolls, Nirvana, Queen, Sunny Day Real Estate, Green Day, Joy Division, Kill Creek, AFI, Cursive, and Alkaline Trio. One of Gerard Way's biggest influences was The Beach Boys.

paragraphs: Growing up, they were also very influenced by horror films and comic books, and therefore their music, lyrics, and image all have overt elements of fantasy, horror, and theatricality.

paragraphs: The band released their first album on July 23, 2002. It was titled "I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love". The album featured the first song written by the band, Skylines And Turnstiles, which Gerard began to write after the 9/11 attacks, in 2001.

paragraphs: The second album by My Chemical Romance, "Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge", was the album that shot them to fame with songs like "I'm Not Okay (I Promise)" and "Helena" (A song written about the Way brothers' grandmother, Elena. Her friends called her Helen, and Gerard thought of her as Helena). It was released in June 2004. Over two million copies of the album have been sold in the United States. The album contained a lot about death, dying and killing, but also showed the better sides of the matter.

paragraphs: During 2004, drummer Matt Pelissier left the band.

paragraphs: Their third album titled "The Black Parade" was released on October 23rd, 2006. The album sold more than 240,000 copies in the first week after it was released. It has sold over 1 million copies in total. The first single taken from The Black Parade called "Welcome to the Black Parade" reached the top 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and No.1 in the UK charts for two weeks.

paragraphs: The band has commented in the past about the album, saying that The Black Parade is like a different band performing in a different 'world', and once that's over, My Chemical Romance will never be The Black Parade again. The album largely focuses on one character, The Patient, but also consists of songs and lyrics about different subjects and aspects of life and death. At the end of the CD, there is an extra track called Blood which plays over a minute and a half later.

paragraphs: MCR's newest album was released on November 22, 2010. The original album was scrapped by the band due to their dislike and disappointment in it, and their second effort became what is now Danger Days. The band was halfway through making it when Bob Bryar suddenly left the band, which resulted in restarting the record. The record has spawned a tour called the World Contamination Tour, which is set to play through at least May 2011. MCR also went out on the Honda Civic tour 2011 with Blink 182. The band was using Michael Pedicone as a touring drummer to replace Bob Bryar. Pedicone was caught red handed stealing from My Chemical Romance. This resulted in him being kicked out, and replaced with Jarrod Alexander for the remainder of the Honda Civic Tour (2011). This album is musically different from Black Parade as the band has departed a bit from the dark themes of before and is infused with more pop influenced sounds and color. Set in California in the year 2019, a group of rebels called the Killjoys are rebelling against a dictator-like corporation called Better Living Industries.


title: Cobalt blue

paragraphs: Cobalt blue is a cool blue colour. People used to make it using cobalt salts. Cobalt blue is used widely by artists. Many pieces of glassware have this colour--glassware that does have this colour is called "cobalt glass".

paragraphs: The first written use of "cobalt blue" as a colour name in English was in 1777.


title: Azure (color)

paragraphs: Azure is a color that looks like the color of the sky on a bright, clear day. It is a pure chroma on the RGB color wheel halfway between blue and cyan. The complementary color of azure is orange.

paragraphs: The word "azure" comes from the Persian لاژورد "lazhward". Lazhward was the name of a place. This place was famous for a kind of deep blue stone. Now we call this stone "lapis lazuli". This means "stone of Lazhward".

paragraphs: The word came to Old French by the twelfth century. The French used this word to talk about the colors of coats of arms. From the French the word came to the English. The first recorded use of "azure" as a color name in English was in 1374.

paragraphs: In heraldry, the word "azure" simply means "blue". Azure is said to represent Jupiter and sapphires.

paragraphs: It belongs to the class of tinctures called "colors". In engraving, it is sometimes depicted as a region of horizontal lines or else marked with either az. or b. as an abbreviation.

paragraphs: In addition to the standard blue tincture called azure, there is a lighter blue sometimes found that is called bleu celeste or "sky blue". Neither azure nor bleu celeste is precisely defined as a particular shade of blue, but azure is consistently depicted in a much darker shade.


title: Viridian

paragraphs: Viridian is a teal-green color with a hue toward green. The name comes from the Latin word "viridis" which means "green".


title: Tarsier

paragraphs: The tarsiers are prosimian (non-monkey) primates. They got their name from the long bones in their feet. They are now placed together with the simians (monkeys).

paragraphs: They live in trees, and are entirely nocturnal. Tarsiers are the only primates which are wholly carnivorous. They mainly eat insects, but some are also known to eat birds and snakes. Tarsiers can catch prey like birds even if they are in motion as the tarsiers jump from tree to tree to catch their prey.

paragraphs: They have large eyes. Each is about 16 mm wide.They are very sensitive to touch, and weigh as much as their entire brain. Unlike many nocturnal animals, tarsiers lack a light-reflecting area (tapetum lucidum) of the eye. They also have a fovea, which is also not usual in nocturnal animals.

paragraphs: The tarsier's brain is different from other primates in one respect. The sequence of cell layers in the lateral geniculate nucleus getting information from both eyes is different from the set-up in lemurs, lorises, and monkeys. "This apparent difference distinguishes tarsiers from all other primates, and reinforces the view that they arose in an early, independent line of primate evolution".

paragraphs: Pregnancy takes about six months, which is a long time for such a small animal. Tarsiers give birth to single offspring.

paragraphs: They were once widespread, but now tarsiers live only on islands in south-east Asia. Fossils are found in Asia, Europe, and North America, and some disputed fossils from Africa. Living tarsiers are on several southeast Asian islands, including the Philippines, Sulawesi, Borneo, and Sumatra.

paragraphs: They also have the longest continuous fossil record of any primate. The fossil record shows that their teeth have not changed much, except in size, in the past 45 million years. That means what they eat, and probably their lifestyle, has not changed much, either.

paragraphs: Tarsiers are said to be the inspiration for the famous movie character Yoda of Star Wars due to their small size but excellent hunting skills.

paragraphs: One tarsier species, Dian's tarsier ("Tarsius dentatus"), is listed by on the IUCN Red List as being "lower risk – conservation dependent". Horsfield's tarsier ("Cephalopachus bancanus") is listed as "lower risk – least concern". The spectral tarsier ("Tarsius spectrum") is categorized as "lower risk, not threatened". The pygmy tarsier ("Tarsius pumilus") was thought to be extinct until a family were found in 2008. The two males and single female (a fourth escaped) were captured using nets, and were radio collared to track their movements. Other tarsier species are listed as "data deficient".


title: Theoretical computer science

paragraphs: Theoretical Computer Science is domain of Computer Science that looks at the notion of information and about how information can be processed. It also looks at the way models are built in computer science. Common divisions of theoretical computer sciences include:

paragraphs: Other domains, such as Logic and Statistics used as well, but in most cases, they are not the primary focus of theoretical computer science.


title: Pedestrian

paragraphs: A pedestrian is a person travelling on foot, whether walking or running. In modern times, the term mostly refers to someone walking on a road or footpath, but this was not the case historically.

paragraphs: The main way humans get around is by walking. The first humans walked out of Africa about 60,000 years ago. We walked across India to reach Australia. We walked across Asia to reach the Americas. We walked from the fertile crescent area to reach Europe.

paragraphs: Nowadays, roads often have a designated footpath attached especially for pedestrian traffic, called the "sidewalk" in American English and the "pavement" in British English. There are also footpaths not associated with a road which are used only by pedestrians, especially ramblers, hikers or hill-walkers and there are roads not associated with a footpath. These footpaths, in mountains or forests, are called trails.

paragraphs: Efforts are underway by pedestrian advocacy groups to make it easy to be a pedestrian in new developments, especially to counteract newer developments where 20 to 30 percent do not include sidewalks. Some activists advocate large auto-free zones where pedestrians only or pedestrians and some non-motorised vehicles are allowed.


title: Patti Deutsch

paragraphs: Patti Deutsch (December 16, 1943 – July 26, 2017) was an American actress who was best known for appearing the television game show "Match Game" in the 1970s. She was also known for doing voices in animated movies. He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

paragraphs: Deutsch died in Los Angeles, California from cancer on July 26, 2017 at the age of 73.


title: Body double

paragraphs: A body double is a person who works in the movie or television production industry. Body doubles are models that act in scenes that actors or actresses do not want to do. For example, body doubles sometimes act in love scenes or scenes of nudity, where a person's body is shown.

paragraphs: Body doubles are usually models that have developed very good bodies by exercising and by eating well. Actors whose characters must appear nude or otherwise show more skin, often have flaws and imperfections such as may come with age or being overweight and it can be expensive to digitally edit these out. Often, movies or television shows that use body doubles do not admit that a body double model was used.

paragraphs: In the popular American movie "Pretty Woman", a fashion and parts model named Donna Scoggins posed for the infamous movie poster in thigh-high boots, while another body double, Shelley Michelle, filmed nude scenes that actress Julia Roberts did not want to do.

paragraphs: Another job in the movie and television production industry where people do actions that the actors or actresses do not want to do is the job of stuntman. A stuntman is a person who does dangerous actions in movies, for example, jumping, falling, getting in a car accident, or pretending to fight with knives.

paragraphs: What distinguishes a "stunt person" from a "stunt double" is the particular character they portray. If the character in question is a main character and/or central to the plot and uniquely identifiable, the stuntman is then typically referred to as a "stunt double" in the credits.


title: Intergenerational conflict

paragraphs: An intergenerational conflict is either a conflict situation between teenagers and adults or a more abstract conflict between two generations, which often involves prejudices against another generation.

paragraphs: Furthermore, intergenerational conflict describes cultural, social or economic discrepancies between generations. These can be caused by value shift or conflict of interest between younger and older generations. An example are changes to an intergenerational contract that may be necessary to reflect a change in demographics.

paragraphs: For examples of intergenerational conflict," Dreaming in Cuban, "by Cristina Garcia is a good novel to take a look at.


title: Intergenerational contract

paragraphs: An intergenerational contract is an agreement between different generations. It assumes that future generations will honor the contract and provide a service to a generation that has done the same service for an older generation.

paragraphs: The most common use of the term is in social security and refers to the consensus to provide pensions for the retired generations through payments made by the working generations.

paragraphs: The use of the word "contract" is not entirely accurate as the next generation enters the agreement without consent.


title: Inca rope bridge

paragraphs: Inca rope bridges were simple suspension bridges over canyons and gorges to provide access for the Inca Empire. Bridges of this type were suitable for use since the Inca people did not use wheeled transport - traffic was limited to pedestrians and livestock. These bridges were an important part on the Inca road system and are an excellent example of Inca innovation in engineering. They were frequently used by runners delivering messages throughout the Incan empire.


title: Ewok

paragraphs: Ewoks are a fictional race of small, bear-like creatures from George Lucas' "Star Wars" universe. They first appeared in the film "".

paragraphs: They live on the forests on the moon of the Planet Endor. They often wear the skins or skulls of animals they have hunted. The most famous Ewok is Wicket W. Warwik, a brave Ewok who destroyed an entire Imperial shield projector. The Ewoks were also well known for their victory against the Empire in the "Battle of Endor".


title: Inca road system

paragraphs: The Inca road system ("El Camino Inca") of Peru was the most extensive among the many roads and trails that were constructed in pre-Columbian South America.

paragraphs: It went across the Andes mountains and reached heights of over 5,000 m (16,500 feet) above sea level. The Inca road system covered approximately 22,500 kilometres (14,000 mi) and provided access to over three million km² of territory.

paragraphs: Because the Incas did not make use of the wheel for transportation, and did not have horses until the arrival of the Spanish in Peru in the 16th century, the trails were used almost exclusively by people walking, sometimes accompanied by pack animals, usually the llama.

paragraphs: The trails were used by the Inca people as a means of relaying messages, carried via knotted-cord quipu and by memory; and for transporting goods. Messages could be carried by runners covering as much as 240 km (150 mi) per day, working in relay fashion much like the Pony Express of the 1860s in North America.

paragraphs: There were approximately 2,000 inns, or "tambos", placed at even intervals along the trails. The inns provided food, shelter and military supplies to the tens of thousands who traveled the roads.

paragraphs: The most important Inca road was the "Camino Real", as it is known in Spanish, with a length of 5,200 km (3,230 mi). It began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina. The Camino Real went across the mountain ranges of the Andes, with peak altitudes of more than 5,000 m. "El Camino de la Costa", the coastal trail, with a length of 4,000 km (2,420 mi), ran parallel to the sea and was linked with the Camino Real by many smaller routes.

paragraphs: By far the most popular of the Inca trails for trekking is the "Capaq Nan trail", which leads from the village of Ollantaytambo to Machu Picchu, the so-called "Lost City of the Incas". There are many well-preserved ruins along the way, and hundreds of thousands of tourists from around the world make the three- or four-day trek each year, accompanied by guides.

paragraphs: The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu is actually three routes, which all meet up near Inti-Pata, the 'Sun Gate' and entrance to Machu Picchu. The three trails are known as the "Mollepata", "Classic" and "One Day" trails, with "Mollepata" being the longest of the three. Passing through the Andes mountain range and sections of the Amazon rainforest, the Trail passes several well-preserved Inca ruins and settlements before ending at the Sun Gate on Machu Picchu mountain. The two longer routes require an ascent to beyond 12,000 ft (3,660 m) above sea level, which can result in altitude sickness.


title: Columbia Pictures

paragraphs: Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. is an American company that produces movies and television shows. It is part of the Columbia TriStar Motion Picture Group, which is owned by the Japanese company Sony.


title: Jason

paragraphs: Jason was a hero in Greek mythology. He was born in Thessaly, northern Greece. Jason was the captain of the ship called the "Argos". The men who helped to sail the boat were called the Argonauts. The word Argonaut comes from the name of the boat: Argo and the word ending -naut meaning "sailor".

paragraphs: Jason and the Argonauts went to find the Golden Fleece. His father was Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcus. Jason fell in love with the daughter of the Golden Fleece's owner. Her name was Medea. Medea helped Jason get the Golden Fleece from her father. Jason and Medea killed the owner of the Golden Fleece and returned to Jason's city, Iolcus. Medea then killed Jason's half-brother Pelias so Jason could be in charge. When she was found out, Jason and Medea went to live in the Greek city of Corinth. Jason then married the princess of Corinth so they could stay. The story of Jason, the Argonauts, and the Golden Fleece is told in two modern movies: "Hercules" starring Steve Reeves, and "Jason and the Argonauts" starring Todd Armstrong.


title: Color code

paragraphs: A color code is a system for displaying information by using different colors. Color codes are often difficult or impossible for blind and color blind people to understand.

paragraphs: "The Color Code" is also the title of a book (References, Joseph et al., 2002) combined with a nutritional practice by the same name in another book publication (Heber, 2001). "The Color Code" combines food science, medical knowledge and nutritional practices to encourage consumer intake of colourful plant foods for achieving optimal health.


title: Complementary color

paragraphs: Complementary colors are pairs of opposite colors. What is meant by "opposite" can be different between color science, and art and the printing process.

paragraphs: In color science "complementary colors" are colors opposite to each other on the color wheel. Primary colors and secondary colors are typically paired in this way:

paragraphs: If a person stares at a single color for about a minute then looks at a white surface, an afterimage of the complementary color will appear. This is because of "eye fatigue". For example, if the person stares at a red color, the photoreceptors (cells in the eye which catch colored light) for red light in the retina (the back part of the eye) become fatigued. When photoreceptors are fatigued they are less able to send information to the brain. If the person then looks at white light, all photoreceptors will send information. Because the photoreceptors for red light are fatigued, the information they send will not be as strong as the information about the colors other than red and the illusion of seeing the complementary color is created.

paragraphs: Because of the limited range of colors that was available throughout most of the history of art, many artists still use a traditional set of complementary pairs, including:

paragraphs: The complement of each primary color (red, blue, or yellow) is roughly the color made by mixing the other two in a subtractive system (red + blue = purple; blue + yellow = green; red + yellow = orange). When two complements are mixed they produce a gray or brown.

paragraphs: The use of complementary colors is an important aspect of art and graphic design. This also extends to other fields such as contrasting colors in logos and retail display. When placed next to each other, complements make each other appear brighter. On an artistic color wheel, complementary colors are placed opposite one another. Although these artistic complements may not be precise complements under the scientific definition, most artistic color wheels are laid out roughly like the HSV color wheel discussed above.


title: Decriminalization

paragraphs: Decriminalization is making something legal that was illegal.

paragraphs: For example, alcohol was illegal in USA during the 1920s. However, people felt strongly against it, and made it legal again.


title: Battledress

paragraphs: Battledress is a general term for the military uniform worn into combat, as opposed to 'display' dress and formal uniforms worn at parades and functions. It may be either monochrome (often a shade of green or brown) or in military camouflage colours.


title: SketchUp

paragraphs: SketchUp is a 3D modelling program made for architects, engineers, and moviemakers. It is easier to use than most programs used for three dimensional drawings. SketchUp was created by the company @Last Software and released in August 2000. In 2006, @Last Software was bought by Google. They released SketchUp6 in January 2007. SketchUp6 can use add-ons that let things build with the program be made into files that can be used with Google Earth. In 2012, SketchUp was bought by Trimble Navigation.


title: Islamism

paragraphs: Islamism is a group of ideologies that say that Islamic nations should be run by sharia (Islamic laws). Generally, it is the idea that Islam should guide both society and politics, as well as people's personal lives. Important people who have inspired Islamist movements include Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Malcolm X, Ayatollah Khomeini, Sayyid Qutb, Muhammad Iqbal.


title: Poitiers

paragraphs: Poitiers is a city in France, the prefecture of the Vienne department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. The town is picturesque; and its streets are interesting for their remains of ancient architecture, especially of the Romanesque period, and the memories of great historical events.

paragraphs: The city itself is very old. It already existed as a Gaulish fort in the time when Julius Caesar came to Gaul. It was the capital of the Pictones tribe.

paragraphs: Poitiers is in the centre of the Vienne department, between the valleys of the Boivre and the Clain rivers. The old town is on the slopes and the summit of a plateau which rises 130 feet (40 m) above the streams which surround it on three sides.

paragraphs: Poitiers is at about from Bordeaux, from Paris, from Limoges and from Nantes.

paragraphs: The "commune" has an area of . Its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

paragraphs: The "commune" of Poitiers is surrounded by the "communes":

paragraphs: The climate of Poitiers, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Poitiers are known, in French, as "Pictaviens" (women: "Pictaviennes").

paragraphs: With a population of 87,435, Poitiers has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Poitiers forms, with seven other "communes", the urban area of Poitiers with a population of 128,111 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Poitiers, formed by 97 "communes", with a population of 257,233 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .

paragraphs: Poitiers is the prefecture of the Vienne department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Poitiers and the administrative centre () of five canton:

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Grand Poitiers" ().

paragraphs: This is a list of people of interest who were born or resided in Poitiers:


title: Valence, Drôme

paragraphs: Valence is a city in the south of France, along the Rhône river. It is in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in the Drôme department in France.


Valence


title: Anvil

paragraphs: An anvil is a hard piece of metal which is used as a workbench when making things out of iron or steel. An anvil is used by a blacksmith when he needs to hammer hot iron to bend it into the shape he wants. A blacksmith can make new shoes for horses.

paragraphs: Anvils were known in the Bronze Age and possibly earlier. They were used in Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt. They are still in use today, although not nearly as much as 100 years ago when there were many more horses.

paragraphs: Anvils are extremely heavy. They are made in different sizes. The 17th century writer John Bunyan was a tinker (someone who mends pots and pans). He walked around the villages of Bedfordshire with a small anvil and a few tools on his back. His anvil was wedge-shaped, so that he could knock it into the ground when he needed to do a repair. His anvil is now in the John Bunyan museum in Bedford.

paragraphs: The anvil has sometimes been used as a percussion instrument because it makes a very loud sound when hit by the hammer. Usually musicians use a metal bar mounted on a sound-box. This sounds just as good as a real anvil (which would be very heavy to carry around).

paragraphs: Verdi wrote some famous music called the "Anvil Chorus" in his opera "Il Trovatore". Wagner asked for 18 anvils in "Das Rheingold" in the scene which takes place below the earth where the Nibelungs are working at their forges. Albert Parlow wrote an "Anvil Polka", Varèse used an anvil in "Ionisation", Walton uses an anvil in "Belshazzar’s Feast" and there is an anvil in the orchestra in Howard Shore's music for "The Lord of the Rings" movie trilogy.


title: Inca Empire

paragraphs: The Inca were a pre-Columbian civilization and empire in the Andes of South America. The word Inca can also mean the emperor or king of the Inca people. It was the largest empire in the Americas, and was large even by world standards. It existed shortly before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas.

paragraphs: The Inca ruled along the western coast of South America for a little over 100 years, until the Spanish invasion in the 16th century. The empire was centred around the city of Cusco, or Qosqo, in what is now southern Peru. This was the administrative, political and military center of the empire. In later years, it was also centred around Quito. The Inca were ruled by an Emperor known as the "Sapa Inca". Throughout their empire, they built many roads and bridges to make travel between their communities easy.

paragraphs: The Inca Empire was called in Quechua, which means "four regions". The empire only lasted for about 100 years as the arrival of the conquering Spaniards in 1532 AD marked the end of their reign. Their main language was Quechua, but as the Empire was made up of many different groups there were probably many different languages as well.

paragraphs: The Inca Empire began around Lake Titicaca in about 1197. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used conquest and non-violent assimilation to gain a large portion of western South America. Their empire centered on the Andean mountain ranges. It included large parts of what is now Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile.

paragraphs: In 1533, Atahualpa, the last sovereign emperor, was executed by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro. That meant the beginning of Spanish rule in South America. The Inca Empire was supported by an economy based on the collective ownership of the land.


title: Pre-Columbian era

paragraphs: The pre-Columbian era means the history and prehistory of the Americas before there were important European influences on the American continent.

paragraphs: The word pre-Columbian refers to the era before Christopher Columbus, but sometimes it can include the history of American indigenous cultures as they continued to develop after the Christopher Columbus' first landing in 1492, until they were conquered or influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after the arrival of Columbus.

paragraphs: Pre-Columbian can also mean cultures of any one of the great native civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Aztec and Maya) and of the Andes (Inca, Moche and Chibcha).


title: Duct tape

paragraphs: Duct tape, sometimes called duck tape, is a very strong adhesive tape with a cloth backing . Usually duct tape is grey or black, but it is made in other colors including transparent, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, flames, zebra stripe, leopard spot, tye dye, and others. People use duct tape to repair many things, for example a broken handbag or a broken chair.

paragraphs: Duct tape was designed during World War I. It was first used to keep water out of ammunition cases. It was found to work so well that people started using it to fix many other things. Duct tape was also called "100 mph tape" by the military because it is said the tape will still stick in winds at speeds of 100 miles per hour. Duct tape got its name from its use on heating and air conditioning ducts but oddly enough, that is the one use that the tape is not very good for. It is illegal in California to use duct tape on ducts and most professional builders in the United States are not allowed to use it either.

paragraphs: In the United States, people use duct tape in many action movies and television shows. Strips of duct tape can be used to tie a person up because it is very hard to get them off.

paragraphs: Duct tape is also great for making things like wallets, purses, clothes, and sometimes even sculptures. The use of it as an art medium is fairly new, though.


title: Text editor

paragraphs: A text editor is a program that is run on a computer that can create and change text. The text can be saved into a file that is called a "text file". Text editors can be used for a lot of things. Many people use them to write documents. Some people write code (like HTML or C++) using a text editor.

paragraphs: Some text editors can edit "rich text". Rich text allows bold text, "italic text", and other things. This is why rich text is different form "text file" which do not have bold text or "italic text" properties.

paragraphs: Most text editors today support "search and replace". A computer will quickly find some text the user wants. The user can tell the computer to replace the found text with something else. This can be in part or all of the document.

paragraphs: Copy, cut and paste are other common options in text editors. Copy allows users to instantly add a copy of text in one place to another place. Cut and paste are similar, except that the text is moved from one place to another instead of being copied. This is very useful when a writer wishes to put his paragraphs in a different order, for example.

paragraphs: Sometimes users make mistakes, or need to do the same thing over and over without getting bored. This is what the undo and redo features do. Users can reverse their mistakes, or quickly repeat their actions. Some text editors allow many mistakes in a row to be reversed; others allow only one or two.


title: Valency

paragraphs: In chemistry, valency or valence is the number of chemical bonds that an atom of a certain element can form.

paragraphs: For a long time, people thought that this number was a fixed property of the element in question. They thought that carbon always has four bonds, oxygen always has two, and hydrogen always has one. The problem was seen only later. For example, phosphorous sometimes behaves as if it had three bonds, a valence of three. At other times, though, it seems to have five bonds.

paragraphs: IUPAC saw this problem, and proposed oxidation numbers. This means there is one number per chemical element. The problem with this approach is that it leaves aside most chemical properties of the elements in question.

paragraphs: A valence band is the highest occupied molecular orbital normally occupied by valence electrons for a given solid at absolute zero temperature.


title: Valence (Charente)

paragraphs: Valence is a village in France, in Poitou-Charentes. It is near Angoulême. In 1999, 240 people lived there.


title: Valence (Tarn-et-Garonne)

paragraphs: Valence is a village in the Midi-Pyrénées region of France. It is in the department Tarn-et-Garonne. In 1999, about 4800 people lived there. Together with 23 other, similar villages, it formed the "Communauté de communes des Deux Rives". In that structure (that is, in all the villages together) there are about 15.500 people.

paragraphs: Valence is located 25 km from Agen, 45 km from Montauban, 60 km from Cahors, 90 km from Toulouse and 160 km from Bordeaux


title: Valence-d'Albigeois

paragraphs: Valence-d'Albigeois is a village in the department of Tarn, in French region Midi-Pyrénées. It is near Albi. In 1999, 1142 people lived there.


title: Valence-en-Brie

paragraphs: Valence-en-Brie is a village in the Île-de-France region in France. It is located near Melun in the department Seine-et-Marne. In 1999, 583 people lived there.


title: Valence-sur-Baïse

paragraphs: Valence-sur-Baïse is a city in the Gers department of the Midi-Pyrénees region in France. It is near Condom-en-Armagnac. It was founded in 1274 by Gerald V, Count of Armagnac, and the Cistercian Abbey of Flaran as a Bastide (a fortified city). In 1999, 1151 people lived there. There is an old cisercian abbey at the place. Today the abbey serves as a cultural center. There is also a public washing basin, and a port, where ships can land.


title: Bastide

paragraphs: A bastide is a fortified town. They were built mainly in the south of France in the Middle Ages. Most bastides were built between 1229 and 1373, between the Albigensian Crusade and the Hundred Years' War. Today, there are about 400 bastides. They all have a central square, and a rectangular street layout. On the market square, the houses have arcades. They were usually built in places that were easy to defend, such as the top of a hill or on a plain.

paragraphs: Well-known bastides today are Carcassonne and Andorra la Vella.

paragraphs: Bastides are medieval cities. There is an act of foundation (a law made to start them). There are often historic documents written about them.

paragraphs: Some times they are planned cities and are usually only one architect (or one lord) designs it. They were often built where there was already a village, or at a place of historical importance. They were sometimes also built where people bought and sold things a lot (for example where trading routes crossed).

paragraphs: The Treaty of Paris (1229) is sometimes seen as the foundation act which made the construction of modern cities and bastides possible. The treaty itself ended the Albigensian Crusade. One of the first bastides built was Montauban. Montauban became a city in 1144. However some consider Mont-de-Marsan which was founded in 1133 to be a bastide.

paragraphs: Most bastides were built in the countryside. They were basically to serve the needs of local trade (usually, agriculture). A few of them were built in places which were very easy to defend. Others were built where it was possible to defend them, but most bastides were simply built where they were needed. The time when they were built was a peaceful one in the region.

paragraphs: Bastides were built by people who had a high social status, such as:

paragraphs: The main feature of all bastides is a central, open place, or square. It was used for markets, but also used for political and social gatherings. A typical square, (which was probably a model for other bastides), can be found in Montauban.

paragraphs: Generally, there is just one square. Saint-Lys and Albias are different because they have two squares, one for the market, and one square for the church.

paragraphs: The square is also used to divide the city into quarters. Generally it lies outside the main street (the axis) which carried the traffic. There are three possible layouts:

paragraphs: Generally the flattest place in the bastide was used for the square.

paragraphs: Except in very rare cases, the church was not on the central square. Usually it was at an angle, and faced the square diagonally. One of the rare exceptions is Villefranche-de-Rouergue.

paragraphs: There were clear rules how houses could be built in the bastide. The front of the houses - the façades - had to line up. Also there had to be a small space between the houses. The different housing lots were all alike, by was a common size. There were only a limited number of lots. This varied between 10, and several thousand (3,000 in Grenade-sur-Garonne)

paragraphs: The streets were usually – wide, so a chariot could pass through. They ran alongside the façades of the houses. Alleys run between streets, these are usually only – wide. Sometimes they are only – wide. In a bastide there were usually between one and eight streets.

paragraphs: When bastides were founded most had no city walls or fortifications. This was because it was a peaceful time in history. Such things were added later. This was done either through a special tax, or through a law that required that the people of the city helped build the walls. A good example is Libourne. Ten years after the city was founded, the people asked for money to build city walls. Once they had received the money, they spent it on making their city prettier, rather than building walls.

paragraphs: At the beginning of the Hundred Years' War, many bastides that had no city walls were destroyed. Some of the others quickly built stone walls, to protect the city.

paragraphs: There are different base layouts for bastides. Often for each type of layout, there was a bastide that was an example for other bastides. The most common layout started from two perpendicular streets. New streets were made parallel to the two original streets. This led to a usually rectangular grid layout.

paragraphs: There seems to have been no plan when these bastides were built. This may have been for the following reasons:

paragraphs: An example of such a bastide is La Bastide-de-Bousignac.

paragraphs: The circle layout for a bastide was very rare. The only surviving example is in Fourcès.

paragraphs: Enclosing bastides were built around an existing small village or hamlet. There already was a church or a small group of houses. When new houses were built, they were added around the original buildings.

paragraphs: There is one main street that links the two gates. This makes the axis around which the bastide was built. These are quite common, with about 30—40% of all bastides using this design. Very often they are found on flat land. The square is often made by making the main street bigger. Very often there are alleys which run perpendicular to the main street. This layout is very easy to change to fit in with the local landscape.

paragraphs: An example of a one axis bastide is Gimont. Gimont is long, and only wide. Sometimes, there is another street which runs parallel to the main axis. The city square is made between the two streets.

paragraphs: There are two main streets, axes, which are perpendicular (make a right angle). All other streets are at a right angle, or parallel to one of the two main streets. The city square is very often in the centre, or very near the centre. The whole city is either rectangular, square, hexagonal or oval shaped. This layout was the plan used at the height of the bastide movement.

paragraphs: A few steps are necessary to make a new bastide, these are:

paragraphs: Once all this steps are done, the bastide is not yet founded. The next step is to attract people to come live in the new city. This is done by making a "Charta of customs". This Charta does not tell so much about customs, but rather about the privileges those that live there (the citizens) get. These privileges can be of different kinds:

paragraphs: Bastides wanted to attract people who should come to live there. They therefore offered equality to those who came to live there. They made it look like citizens had equal rights, and were free.

paragraphs: The social system was very fixed and unchanging during the Middle Ages. The system of laws of the Middle Ages was built on the fact that society did not change. Everyone had their place in the system and they stayed there. The lords who built the bastide did not want to change the social system. All they wanted was small local improvements. Usually, the land where the bastide was built was not developed. The lords that owned the land were not making much money from it. They built the bastide because they hoped they would get more profits from the land.

paragraphs: For these reasons, people who already had a social status, (serfs, noblemen and priests) could not settle in the bastide. A few poor noblemen gave their land to the city and started a career as a trader, because that way they could earn more money than before.

paragraphs: The people who lived in the city looked free, but this freedom had limits:

paragraphs: Men and women did not have equal rights. Women are often mentioned in the Charter, and have some rights:

paragraphs: Lepers were usually not welcome in the city. Certain bastides had special places which would treat them, but they were generally excluded from social life. They had to wear special badges to show they were ill, and they could not come close to normal people.

paragraphs: Another group of people that was generally not welcome were the Jews. In the beginning there was no problem, but later Jews were persecuted. Philip IV of France did not allow any Jews to live in France, in 1306. He confiscated their belongings and sold them.

paragraphs: A number of bastides were successful and still exist today. Many others have failed, and most of their population left them.

paragraphs: The bastides had three stages of development or change:


title: Arcade

paragraphs: In architecture, an Arcade is a passage or a walkway that is covered by arches or vaults. It can also be a covered walkway with arches (towards a place or a street).


title: Military camouflage

paragraphs: Camouflage is a type of clothing, fabric covering, or painted pattern used by militaries and armies to make it harder to see soldiers and weapons such as artillery guns and military vehicles. Camouflage clothes, fabric coverings, and paint use a colored pattern of several colors that is designed to blend in with the surroundings. Camouflage patterns are also used for hunting clothes.

paragraphs: Camouflage patterns used in desert areas, are beige and light brown. Camouflage patterns used in forested areas, mix different green and brown colors. Camouflage patterns used in urban areas mix grey, white, and black colors. Camouflage for snowy areas use white colors to blend in with the snow.

paragraphs: Camouflage became an important part of modern military tactics when the accuracy of rifles and cannons improved at the end of the 1800s. But armies continued to use bright colours and designs until the 20th century. During World War II camouflage became a common feature in military uniforms. As well, many military vehicles such as planes and trucks were painted with camouflage patterns.

paragraphs: Different countries use different types of military camouflage patterns.


title: Assyrian genocide

paragraphs: The Assyrian Genocide was a genocide by the Ottoman Empire, in which over 300,000 Assyrians were killed during raids and massacres.

paragraphs: The name goven to this is the "Sayfo" which is the Aramaic word for sword. Many Assyrians were considered unpure by the Turks and were massacred for not submitting their Christian identity. Assyrians lost their homes and possessions to the Sultan-Adulhamed the Red and even before the genocide—they were persecuted and forced to pay high taxes.

paragraphs: Since ancient times and conquest by the Babylonian, the Assyrians have not have had their own nation. It was called a diaspora and they have spread over to many different countries. Under the Arabs and Turks, they were oppressed and assimilated to society and many lost their independence. Those that survive continue to have a common unity especially in their deep Christian faith.

paragraphs: The Assyrian Genocide (also known as Sayfo or Seyfo) was committed against the Assyrian population of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War by the Young Turks. The Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia (the Tur Abdin, Hakkari, Van, Siirt regions of present-day southeastern Turkey and the Urmia region of northwestern Iran) was forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman (Turkish) and Kurdish forces between 1914 and 1920 under the regime of the Young Turks.

paragraphs: Scholars have placed the number of Assyrian victims from 300,000-750,000.

paragraphs: The Assyrian Genocide took place in the same context and time-period as the Armenian and Greek genocides. But unlike these, no official national or international recognition of the Assyrian genocide has been made, and many accounts discuss the Assyrian genocide as a part of the larger events subsumed under the Armenian genocide.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

paragraphs: The Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG; Georgian: საქართველოს დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა, "Sakartvelos Demokratiuli Respublika"), 1918–1921, was the first modern establishment of a Republic of Georgia.

paragraphs: Georgia's capital was Tbilisi, and its state language was Georgian. Created on May 26, 1918, on the break-up of the Transcaucasian Federation, it was led by the Social Democratic Menshevik party. Facing permanent internal and external problems, the young state was not able to withstand the invasion by the Russian SFSR Red Armies. It collapsed between February and March of 1921 to become a Soviet republic.


title: Alternative rock

paragraphs: Alternative rock is a type of rock music that started between 1979-1981 and popular by 1992. Alternative rock is made up of various subgenres that have come out of the indie music scene since the 1980s, such as grunge, indie rock, Britpop, gothic rock, and indie pop.

paragraphs: These genres are sorted by their collective types of punk, which laid the groundwork for alternative music in the 1970s.

paragraphs: Examples of alternative rock bands include R.E.M., Nirvana, Radiohead and Oasis.


title: Anne Sullivan

paragraphs: Anne Sullivan (April 14, 1866 – October 20, 1936) was a teacher best known as the tutor of Helen Keller.

paragraphs: Anne Sullivan was born in Feeding Hills, Massachusetts. Her parents, Thomas Sullivan and Alice Clohessy, were poor Irish farmers who left Ireland in 1847 because of the Irish Potato Famine. Sullivan taught Helen Keller sign language. Anne and Helen lived together in Forest Hills, Queens, New York and Anne died there on October 20, 1936. Anne was Helen's favorite teacher. Helen wrote the book 'Teacher' about Anne.


title: Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra

paragraphs: The Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra is an orchestra based in Belgrade, Serbia. It was founded in 1923. Its founder was Stevan Hristić, one of the most important Serbian composers and conductors. The first concert of the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra took place on April 28, 1923 with Hristić conducting.

paragraphs: The orchestra was the best orchestra in Yugoslavia. By the 1960s it had become one of the best orchestras in Europe. Then, during the 1990s there were wars in the areas which made up Yugoslavia. For a time the orchestra were not allowed to play abroad. It was a difficult time for them, and many players left.

paragraphs: In 2000, with Belgrade now the capital city of Serbia, the orchestra was built up again. Many new players from other countries joined the orchestra, most of them were young. Their concert hall was rebuilt. They have worked with famous people such as Zubin Mehta, Sarah Chang and Nigel Kennedy.

paragraphs: However, the orchestra are facing difficult times again. They need more money. In 2009 they advertised in the city's newspapers that they were available to play at weddings, funerals, baptisms, divorces and saints' days. Some people thought the advertisement was not the right thing for the orchestra to do, but it has attracted support from many young people.


title: Futrono

paragraphs: Futrono is one of the 12 municipalities in the province of Valdivia, in the region of Los Lagos of Chile. It is located on the north side of the Ranco lake, but the town of Futrono is not on the shore.

paragraphs: This place was a territory of mapuches indigenous. They called this town, "Futronohue". Then, it becomes a port used to transport things to Puerto Nuevo, and after that to La Unión. In 1941, the municipality was created and that made it grow in population.

paragraphs: Now, Futrono has much more activity, for example; agriculture, tourism and high quality furniture companies.


title: Tigranes the Great

paragraphs: Tigranes the Great (, ; also called Tigranes II and sometimes Tigranes I) was the king of Armenia. He ruled from 95 BCE to 55 BCE. His country became for a short time the strongest state in the Roman East.

paragraphs: Tigranes was born around 140 BCE and was the son or nephew of Artavasdes I or Tigranes I.

paragraphs: Tigranes the Great represented the Artaxiad Royal House.

paragraphs: He was involved in many battles during his reign. He had battles against the Parthian, Seleucid, and Roman empires.


title: George Canning

paragraphs: George Canning PC, FRS (11 April 1770 – 8 August 1827) was a British statesman and politician who was Foreign Secretary and, briefly, Prime Minister.

paragraphs: Stratford Canning was a Whig and would introduce his nephew in the 1780s to prominent Whigs such as Charles James Fox, Edmund Burke, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. George Canning's friendship with Sheridan would last for the remainder of Sheridan's life.


title: Chester city walls

paragraphs: The Chester city walls are big intact defensive walls around an important English city of Chester. The city has been defended with walls since the foundation of the Deva Victrix fort on the site in 79.

paragraphs: The first walls were built to help the Roman fort in 79, although these were replaced by stronger stone walls between the 1st and 3rd century. The walls enclosed a far smaller area than the modern walls, with the south-western corner much farther from the River Dee.


title: Physicalism

paragraphs: Physicalism is the view that everything in the universe is made out of physical matter. Physicalism does not believe in gods, spirits, or other things that are not made of physical material. A person who believes in physicalism is a materialist.


title: Herd

paragraphs: A herd is a large group of animals. The term is used for mammals, particularly hoofed animals. Herding is a good example of collective animal behavior. Other terms are used for similar types of behavior in other types of animal. For example, a large group of birds is usually called a "flock" (this may also refer to certain mammals as well) and a large group of carnivores is usually called a "pack".

paragraphs: In addition, special collective nouns may be used for particular cases: for example a flock of geese, if not in flight, is sometimes called a gaggle. However, in theoretical discussions in behavioural ecology, the term "herd" is used for all these kinds of assemblage. A herd may also refer to one that tends and cares for such groups (e.i. shepherds tend to sheep, and goatherds tend to goats, etc.).

paragraphs: When an association of animals (or, by extension, people) is described as a "herd", that means that the group tends to act together (for example, all moving in the same direction at a given time), but that this does not occur as a result of planning or co-ordination. Rather, each individual is choosing behaviour that corresponds to that of the majority of other members, possibly through imitation or possibly because all are responding to the same external circumstances. A herd can be contrasted with a co-ordinated group where individuals have distinct roles. Many human groupings, such as an army detachments or sports teams, show such co-ordination and differentiation of roles, but so do some animal groupings such as those of eusocial insects, which are co-ordinated through pheromones and other forms of animal communication. Conversely, some human groupings may behave more like herds.


title: Ungulate

paragraphs: Ungulates (meaning roughly "hoofed animal") are several groups of mammals. Most of them use the tips of their toes, usually as hooves, to sustain their whole body weight whilst moving.

paragraphs: As a descriptive term, "ungulate" normally excludes cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises), because they do not have most of the typical morphological characteristics of ungulates. However, recent discoveries show that cetacea were descended from early artiodactyls.

paragraphs: Ungulates are typically herbivorous and many use specialised gut flora to digest cellulose. Some modern species, such as pigs, are omnivorous. Some prehistoric species, such as the mesonychia, were carnivorous.

paragraphs: Ungulates include odd-toed ungulates such as horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs, and even-toed ungulates such as cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, sheep, deer, and hippopotamuses. Cetaceans are also even-toed ungulates although they do not have hooves. Most terrestrial ungulates use the tips of their toes, usually hoofed body weight while moving.


title: Aylesbury

paragraphs: Aylesbury is the county town of Buckinghamshire in south central England. It had a population in 2001 of 65,173. Aylesbury is near London. Aylesbury was a major market town in Anglo-Saxon times. Aylesbury replaced Buckingham as the county town of Buckinghamshire in 1529 by order of King Henry VIII.

paragraphs: It is home to the Roald Dahl Children's Gallery and, since 2010, the 1,200 seat Waterside Theatre.

paragraphs: It is a popular London commuter town, thanks to its easy access to the A41, directly leading to the M25.


title: Augusta, Georgia

paragraphs: Augusta is a city in the state of Georgia. As of 2000, the population was 195,182. In 1996, the governments of the City of Augusta and Richmond County combined to form the "Augusta-Richmond County". The consolidated city-county is today simply known as "Augusta, Georgia". The area that makes up the city of Augusta includes almost all of Richmond County, except for the towns of Hephzibah and Blythe. These towns have their own governments separate from that of Augusta.

paragraphs: Augusta is on the Georgia/South Carolina border. It is about 150 miles east of Atlanta. It is the second largest city and second largest metropolitan area in the state. Augusta is the birthplace of the Southern Baptist denomination. It is also the location of Springfield Baptist Church, the oldest African-American Baptist church in the United States. The city is famous for its golf course, the Augusta National Golf Club which is home to the first major golf tournament of each year, The Masters.

paragraphs: The city was named for Augusta, Princess of Wales, daughter-in-law of King George II of Great Britain and mother of King George III of Great Britain. It was the second state capital of Georgia from 1785 until 1795

paragraphs: Augusta's official nickname is "The Garden City". It is also known as "Masters City", because of the Masters golf tournament.


title: Landsberg Prison

paragraphs: The Landsberg Prison was built around 1910 on the town's western edge. Its most noted prisoner was Adolf Hitler. Hitler was there in 1924 after being found guilty of treason for his part in the Beer Hall Putsch. It was during his time at Landsberg that Hitler wrote his book "Mein Kampf" ("My Struggle") with help from Rudolf Hess. During the occupation of Germany by the Allies after World War II, the US Army named the prison as "War Criminal Prison No. 1". They held many Nazi war criminals there. Executions of war criminals were also done at Landsberg. The last of these executions happened on June 8, 1951. These were the last executions in the Federal Republic of Germany, then commonly known as West Germany.


title: Melun

paragraphs: Melun is a city in France. It is the capital of the Seine-et-Marne department, in the Île-de-France region of France. The city is about 40 kilometres southeast of Paris, in a bend of the river Seine. Between Brie and Gâtinais. It is between 37 metres and 102 metres of above the sea. At the last count in 1999, 37.500 people lived there.

paragraphs: The city is home to the production of the Brie de Melun, a saltier variant of the Brie de Meaux. A school for police officers has been in the city since 1945. Other than that there are pharmaceuitical and aviation industries and a prison complex in the city.

paragraphs: The first historical mention of the city is in 52BC, as "Melodunum". The modern name of the city comes from the name it had in the 6th century, "Meluneum". Clovis I makes a duchy out of the city. He also has fortifications built. The city gains new importance. The city is also prone to raids of the vikings, most notably those in 852 and 866.

paragraphs: When the département Seine-et-Marne was formed on the 4th March 1790, Melun became its capital.

paragraphs: A campus of the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation academy) is in Melun.


title: Midi-Pyrénées

paragraphs: Midi-Pyrénées ( or "Mieidia-Pirenèus") is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Occitanie. It is part of the historical region of Occitania.

paragraphs: The name of the region is not based on any old name, like in most other regions, but on the geography of the region, Midi (meaning "southern France") - Pyrénées (Pyrenees mountains that are the highest mountains in the region). The French adjective and name of the people living in the region is "Midi-Pyrénéen".

paragraphs: The departments in the region were Ariège, Aveyron, Haute-Garonne, Gers, Lot, Hautes-Pyrénées, Tarn, and Tarn-et-Garonne. Its capital was Toulouse.

paragraphs: The Midi-Pyrénées region is the largest region of Metropolitan France. It had an area of . It bordered to the south with Spain and Andorra. It also bordered four French regions: Aquitaine to the west, Limousin to the north, Auvergne to the northeast and Languedoc-Roussillon to the east.

paragraphs: The region can be divided into three landscape zones:

paragraphs: The Pic Vignemale (), at , is the highest point of the Midi-Pyrénées region; it is on the border with Spain. The Vignemale is in the Pyrénées National Park.

paragraphs: The main rivers of the region are the Garonne river, that flows through the Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrénées and Tarn-et-Garonne departments; and the Adour river, that flows through the Hautes-Pyrénées and Gers departments.

paragraphs: The Midi-Pyrénées region was formed by eight departments:

paragraphs: In 2012, The Midi-Pyrénées region had a population of 2,926,592. Its population density was inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: The 10 most important cities in the region were:


title: Alsace

paragraphs: Alsace (Alsatian and German: "Elsass", pre-1996 German: "Elsaß") was an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. Alsace was on the eastern border of France. It was on the west bank of the Upper Rhine, next to Germany and Switzerland.

paragraphs: The departments in Alsace were Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin.

paragraphs: Before the region merged with Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine in 2014, data from INSEE stated that about 1.8 million people lived there as of 2013. Its capital was Strasbourg, the largest city. It changed hands between France and Germany many times. The people living there had an attitude and set of social values that was closer to the German ones, than the French. Language, cuisine, music, dress and customs were Germanic, and very close to the Swabian ones across the Rhine. The overall culture was generally more German than French, being somewhere between German and French.

paragraphs: Alsace was part of the Holy Roman Empire and was still inhabited by people speaking a dialect of Upper German. In the 17th century, all of Alsace was annexed (in steps) under King Louis XIV of France. He made it one of the provinces of France.

paragraphs: The Treaty of Verdun had divided the empire of Charlemagne in the 9th century, eventually causing Alsace to be frequently mentioned in conjunction with Lorraine, because the possession of these two "régions" (as "Alsace-Lorraine") was often contested in the 19th and 20th centuries.


title: Lorraine

paragraphs: Lorraine () is a former administrative region in the northeast of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. In 2012, the population was 2,356,600.

paragraphs: The most important population centres were Nancy and Metz, with about 300,000 people each, followed by Thionville, with about 130,000. Other important cities were Epinal and Bar-le-Duc.

paragraphs: The departments in the region were Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Moselle, and Vosges.


title: Regions of France

paragraphs: France is split into 18 administrative regions ("régions"). These regions are a kind of local government.

paragraphs: Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called "collectivité territoriale". Five regions are overseas.

paragraphs: There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.


title: Auvergne

paragraphs: Auvergne () is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. It is in the Massif Central in south-central France. The inhabitants of the region are known as "Auvergnats".

paragraphs: The four departments in Auvergne were Allier, Cantal, Haute-Loire, and Puy-de-Dôme. Its capital was Clermont-Ferrand.

paragraphs: The region of Auvergne was named after the Arverni, one of the most powerful gallic tribes.

paragraphs: The administrative region of Auvergne was formed with the territory of the old province of Auvergne, most of the territory of the Bourbonnais and small parts of Languedoc and Lyonnais.

paragraphs: During World War II, Vichy (a city in the department of Allier) was the headquarters of the government of the French State.

paragraphs: The Auvergne region has an area of , 4.8% of France's total surface area. It was surrounded by six other former regions: Burgundy to the northeast, Rhône-Alpes to the east and to the southeast, Languedoc-Roussillon to the south, Midi-Pyrénées to the southwest, Limousin to the west and Centre-Val de Loire to the northwest.

paragraphs: The landscape of the region varies greatly, with valleys, mountain, meadows and forests. Much of the regions is in the Massif Central, a high region in south-central France with mountains and plateaus.

paragraphs: There are many dormant volcanoes (volcanoes that are not active) in Auvergne, mainly in the "Monts Dore" and in the "Chaîne des Puys". The highest point in Auvergne is the Puy de Sancy (), at high.

paragraphs: The northern part of the region (in the Allier department) is a land of small hills cut in two parts by a plain, the valley of the Allier river.

paragraphs: Auvergne has about 50 freshwater ponds and lakes. Some are high in the mountains and have volcanic origins. The "Guéry Lake" is, at high in the Puy-de-Dôme department, the highest lake in Auvergne.

paragraphs: The Auvergne region was formed by four departments:

paragraphs: The Auvergne region had a population, in 2012, of 1,354,104, for a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: The ten main cities in the department are:

paragraphs: The region is predominantly agricultural. Cattle are common and are used both for meat (beef) and for milk, which is made into a number of well-known cheeses such as Bleu d'Auvergne, Cantal, Fourme d'Ambert and Saint-Nectaire.

paragraphs: The main industry in Auvergne is the tyre industry, represented by "Michelin", with headquarters and history in Clermont-Ferrand, and "Dunlop" in Montluçon.


title: Lower Normandy

paragraphs: Lower Normandy (called "Basse-Normandie" in French) is a former administrative Regions of France. It is now part of the region of Normandy. The capital city was Caen. In 2007 about 1.4 million people lived there.

paragraphs: Lower Normandy became a region in 1956. The old region of Normandy was split into Lower Normandy and Upper Normandy. The departments in the region were Calvados, Manche, and Orne.

paragraphs: The economy is centered on agriculture. Cider is made there and livestock is farmed. There is a bit of textile industry as well. It was the first region of France when it comes to producing butter, cheese and horses. The west part of the region is used mainly for farming, because of the prairies. Camembert, Pont-l'évêque and Livarot cheeses come from this region.


title: Centre-Val de Loire

paragraphs: Centre-Val de Loire is one of the administrative regions of France. Its capital is Orléans but its largest city is Tours.

paragraphs: It was formed in 2014 from the territories of three historical provinces: Touraine (Indre-et-Loire), Orléanais (Loiret, Eure-et-Loir, Loir-et-Cher), and Berry (Cher, Indre).

paragraphs: The Centre-Val de Loire region is the seventh largest region of France with an area of . It is in north central France and borders with 6 regions: Normandy to the northwest, Île-de-France to the north, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté to the east, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes to the southeast, Nouvelle-Aquitaine to the south and Pays de la Loire to the west.

paragraphs: The distances from Orléans, the capital of the region, to other cities are:

paragraphs: The Centre-Val de Loire is crossed by the longest French river: the Loire, . Some other rivers that flow through the region are:

paragraphs: The territory of the Centre-Val de Loire region is formed mostly by large plains and low plateaus.

paragraphs: The "Le Magnoux" (), at , is the highest point of the Centre-Val region. It is in northwestern Massif Central, in the southern end of the Cher department.

paragraphs: The highest point of the different departments in the Centre-Val de Loire region are:

paragraphs: The Centre-Val de Loire region is formed by 6 departments:

paragraphs: "Arr." = Arrondissements          "Cant." = Cantons          "Comm." = Communes

paragraphs: , the Centre-Val de Loire region had a population of 2,577,435, for a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: The main cities with more than 20,000 inhabitants (2014) in the region are:


title: Champagne-Ardenne

paragraphs: Champagne-Ardenne is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. Its capital was Chalons-en-Champagne. Another very important city in the region is Reims.

paragraphs: The departments in Champagne-Ardenne were Ardennes, Aube, Marne, and Haute-Marne.

paragraphs: The region is heavily centered on farming. It was the first region of France in the production of barley and alfalfa. Many cereals are also grown here. It is also very important for vegetables and wine. It is nearest to the east border. Sparkling wine is officially allowed to be called champagne if it is from here.


title: Upper Normandy

paragraphs: Upper Normandy (called "Haute-Normandie" in French) is a former region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Normandy. The capital was Rouen, which is now the capital of Normandy. In 2007 about 1.9 million people lived in the region.

paragraphs: Upper Normandy was formed as a region in 1956. The old region of Normandy was split into the current Upper Normandy and Lower Normandy. The departments in the region were Seine-Maritime and Eure.

paragraphs: The region was the first producer of flax in France. It is also quite industrialized, specialising in petrochemical and pharmaceutical, as well as manufacturing industries.


title: Limousin

paragraphs: Limousin is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. Its capital was Limoges. With 42 people per square kilometer, this was one of the least populated regions. About 710,000 people lived on roughly .

paragraphs: The departments in the region were Corrèze, Creuse, and Haute-Vienne.

paragraphs: The local economy had been recentered around services.


title: Languedoc-Roussillon

paragraphs: Languedoc-Roussillon (; ) is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Occitanie. It is the southernmost region of mainland France and borders to the south with Spain and Andorra.

paragraphs: The five departments in the region were Aude, Gard, Hérault, Lozère, and Pyrénées-Orientales.

paragraphs: Its capital was Montpellier, the largest city. In French, the name of the inhabitants of the region is "Languedocien-Roussillonnais".

paragraphs: The name of the province of Languedoc originates from the language spoken in southern France, "langue d'oc," also known as "Occitan", and Roussillon, an area in the South of present-day Languedoc-Roussillon.

paragraphs: The Languedoc-Roussillon region has an area of . It bordered to the south with Spain and Andorra; to the east is the Mediterranean Sea (the "Gulf of Lion"). It also bordered four French regions: Midi-Pyrénées to the west, Auvergne and Rhône-Alpes to the north, and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA) to the northeast.

paragraphs: The highest point in Languedoc-Roussillon is Pic Carlit () in the Pyrénées-Orientales department; it is high.

paragraphs: The Languedoc-Roussillon region is formed by five departments:

paragraphs: The Languedoc-Roussillon region has a population, in 2012, of 2,700,266, for a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: The 10 most important cities in the region are:


title: Poitou-Charentes

paragraphs: Poitou-Charentes is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It was in the west, bordering the Atlantic. Its capital was Poitiers. In 2007 about 1.7 million people lived in the region.

paragraphs: The departments in the region were Charente, Charente-Maritime, Deux-Sèvres and Vienne.

paragraphs: The region is well known for making wines. It is better known for its spirits, such as Cognac and Pineau. There is also some tourism and a little agriculture.


title: Nord-Pas-de-Calais

paragraphs: Nord-Pas-de-Calais (sometimes also Nord-Pas de Calais) used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Hauts-de-France. Its prefecture was Lille. In 2012, four million people lived there (365,000 in the urban area of Lille).

paragraphs: The two departments in the region were Nord and Pas-de-Calais.

paragraphs: The local economy was based on carbon, steel and textiles. The secondary sector (industry) employed 33.8% (of an 28.9% national average). Unemployment was at 12.9 per cent (9.8% national average). Structural investment in the TGV and the Channel Tunnel has shown some improvement though. The tourism industry does well thanks to the border with Belgium and closeness to England.


title: Picardy

paragraphs: Picardy () used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Hauts-de-France. It is in the north of the country. Amiens was its capital. In 2007 almost 1.9 million people lived in the region, 186,000 of them in the capital.

paragraphs: The departments in the region were Aisne, Oise, and Somme.

paragraphs: Agriculture is very important for Picardy. There are many products, including potatoes, cereals, and vegetables. Picardy was also called "Jardin de France", meaning 'Garden of France'.


title: Pays de la Loire

paragraphs: Pays de la Loire (or Pays-de-la-Loire) is an administrative region of France. Its capital is Nantes. In 2005 about 3.2 million people lived in the region.

paragraphs: The economy is centered around the production of food, and agriculture in general. It is the third in France in that sector. 51% of meat products, 19% of milk, and 67% of the natural produce of grain (cereals) are produced there.


title: Rhône-Alpes

paragraphs: Rhône-Alpes is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. In 2010, about six million people lived in the region.

paragraphs: The capital was Lyon. Grenoble and Saint-Étienne are also important cities in the region.

paragraphs: The Rhône-Alpes region hosted the Winter Olympics three times; in 1924 at Chamonix, 1968 at Grenoble, and 1992 at Albertville.


title: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

paragraphs: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur or PACA () is one of the 18 administrative regions of France. Its capital is Marseille.

paragraphs: The Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region is the tenth largest region of France with an area of . It is in southeastern France and borders to the east with Monaco and Italy (with the Italian regions of Liguria and Piedmont). To the north is the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region and to the west is the Occitanie region.

paragraphs: To the south, the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur has about of coast along the Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: The distances from Marseille, the capital of the region, to other cities are:

paragraphs: The only main drainage basin in the region is the Mediterranean basin; some of the rivers in region are:

paragraphs: The Barre des Écrins (), at , is the highest mountain of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. It is in the Écrins National Park (), one of the ten French national parks.

paragraphs: The highest point of the different departments in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region are:

paragraphs: The Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region is formed by 6 departments:

paragraphs: "Arr." = Arrondissements          "Cant." = Cantons          "Comm." = Communes

paragraphs: The Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region had, in 2014, a population of 4,983,438, with a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: The main cities with more than 30,000 inhabitants (2014) in the region are:


title: Île-de-France

paragraphs: Île-de-France is a region of France. The capital city is Paris. It is also the capital city of France. In 2013 about 12 million people lived in the region. About 2.1 million people live in the city of Paris.

paragraphs: There are 8 departments in the region. They are:


title: Pont-l'évêque cheese

paragraphs: Pont-l'évêque is a soft cheese from Normandy. It is produced in the village with the same name. It has an AOC since 1976. It is made from the milk of cows.


title: Livarot cheese

paragraphs: Livarot is a cheese from Normandy. It is produced in the village with the same name. It is a soft cheese made from the milk of cows.


title: Ajaccio

paragraphs: Ajaccio (Latin: "Ajax"; French: "Ajaccio"; Corsican: "Aiacciu"), pronounced "ah-YAH-cho", is a town in France. It is the capital of the "territorial collectivity" of Corsica and the prefecture of the department of Corse-du-Sud.

paragraphs: Ajaccio is on the west coast of the island of Corsica in a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The harbour is to the east of the town and is protected on the south by a peninsula. Ajaccio has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa" in the Koeppen climate classification).


Prefectures in France


title: Spectrum

paragraphs: "This article is about the visible spectrum. For all other uses see: Spectrum (disambiguation)"

paragraphs: A spectrum, plural: spectra, is a band of several colours: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. A spectrum can be seen if the Sun's light is passed through a prism and allowed to gather on a white screen. This visible spectrum is part of the larger electromagnetic spectrum. Spectroscopy is the study of spectra.

paragraphs: A natural example of a spectrum is a rainbow. The word "spectrum" was first used by scientists studying optics. They used the word to describe the rainbow of colors in visible light when separated using a prism. The spectrum seen when light passes through a prism is an example of the dispersion of light. The material from which the prism is made has a different refractive index "n" than air. Usually, "n" is greater than "n", and "n" is taken to be approximately one. This implies that light travels a little slower in the material of the prism than in the space surrounding it. The angle of refraction can be determined from the angle of incidence and the refractive indexes using Snell's law.

paragraphs: The reason why the white light separates into in its component colors instead of remaining white is because the shorter wavelengths are refracted, or bent, more than the longer wavelengths. Thus, red, having the longest visible wavelength, will appear closest to the line perpendicular to the surface of the material (the normal), that is, it will be bent the least. Violet light, with the smallest wavelength in the visible spectrum, will be bent the most. The rainbow produced will always be in the same order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.


title: Arshak II

paragraphs: Arshak II (or Arsaces II) (350-367) was the son of Diran. During his reign, Shapur II of Persia tried to take over Armenia once and for all. Arshak II was taken prisoner during talks about peace with Shapur and later killed himself in prison.

paragraphs: Despite having many troubles during his reign, Arshak II was able to change many parts of his kingdom for the better. They included:


title: Tiridates III of Armenia

paragraphs: Tiridates III (or Trdat III) was the king of Armenia (286-330), and was also known as Tiridates the Great. (Some scholars may be wrong because they call him as Trdat IV as a result of the fact that Tiridates I of Armenia reigned twice.) In 301, Tiridates made Christianity as the sole religion in Armenia, making Armenia the first Christian state in the world.


title: Tiridates

paragraphs: Tiridates was the name of three members of the Arsacid Dynasty of Parthia:

paragraphs: Tiridates (Trdat in Armenian) was the name of three kings of the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia:


title: Hagia Sophia

paragraphs: Hagia Sophia is a prestigious building in the European side of Istanbul, Turkey. It is often said to be one of the greatest and most beautiful buildings in history.

paragraphs: Hagia Sophia was built between 532 and 537, to serve as a Byzantine imperial church. After an earthquake, Trdat the Architect finished rebuilding it again in 994. It was used as an Eastern Orthodox church until 1453, except used as a Roman Catholic cathedral between 1204 and 1261. Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror converted it into a mosque in 1453 after the Fall of Constantinople. It became a museum in 1935 after the decision of the secularist Turkish government under Kemal Atatürk in 1934. In July 2020, the Islamist Turkish government under Tayyip Erdoğan ordered the Hagia Sophia to be turned back into a mosque following a supreme court annulment of a 1934 presidential decree that made it a museum.


title: Incense

paragraphs: Incense is a fuel that is burned to make a smell. It can be used for many purposes, for example, during rituals in some religions. Incense can be used to make a place smell better or to help improve mood.

paragraphs: In Judaism, instructions for the use of incense were given in Exodus. (E.g. Exodus 30:1). In Christianity, Christ is given myrrh and frankincense by the wise men. (Gospel of Matthew 2:11)


title: Derbyshire

paragraphs: Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A large part of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire. The northern part of Derbyshire overlaps with the Pennines, a famous chain of hills and mountains. The county contains part of the National Forest, and borders on Greater Manchester, West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, Staffordshire and Cheshire.


title: West Yorkshire

paragraphs: West Yorkshire is a metropolitan county in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. It was created in 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972 and in 2005 covered an area of 2,029 km² and a population of 2.1 million. It is the most built up and biggest urban area in Yorkshire.

paragraphs: West Yorkshire is divided into five local government districts; they are the City of Bradford, Calderdale, Kirklees, the City of Leeds and the City of Wakefield. The county borders Lancashire, Greater Manchester, Derbyshire, North Yorkshire and South Yorkshire.

paragraphs: This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of West Yorkshire at current basic prices published (pp.240-253) by "Office for National Statistics" with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.


title: South Yorkshire

paragraphs: South Yorkshire is a metropolitan county in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England, in the north. The county was created in 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972 and in 2001 covered an area of 155,205 hectares.

paragraphs: South Yorkshire is divided into four local government districts; they are the City of Sheffield, the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster, the Metropolitan Borough of Barnsley and the Metropolitan Borough of Rotherham. The county borders Derbyshire, West Yorkshire, North Yorkshire, East Riding of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire.

paragraphs: The main settlements of South Yorkshire developed around the industries of mining and steel manufacturing. The main mining industry was coal which was concentrated to the north and east of the county. There were also iron mines in the area. The rivers running off the Pennines to the west of the county supported the steel industry that is concentrated in the city of Sheffield.

paragraphs: South Yorkshire was created as a metropolitan county in 1974, by the Local Government Act 1972, from the southern part of the West Riding of Yorkshire and the former county boroughs of Barnsley, Doncaster, Rotherham and Sheffield.

paragraphs: South Yorkshire is one of the least prosperous areas in Western Europe.

paragraphs: The principal settlements of South Yorkshire are:

paragraphs: South Yorkshire is made up of three main urban areas. Dearne Valley is made up of Barnsley and a number of villages and towns. The Sheffield urban area is made up of Sheffield and Rotherham and the Doncaster urban area is Doncaster and surrounding areas.


title: Salad

paragraphs: A salad is a serving in a meal that includes leaf vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, or arugula. Uncooked or cold cooked vegetables that are sliced into small pieces (for example tomato or onion) are then mixed with the leaf vegetables.

paragraphs: A salad dressing or vinaigrette is then poured on top of the vegetables. Salad dressings and vinaigrettes are a mixture of oil, herbs, spices, and flavorings.

paragraphs: Some people also add other foods to the salad, such as croutons, bacon, chicken, grated cheese, tuna, pasta, olives, cooked potatoes, rice, or beans.

paragraphs: A green salad or garden salad has leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, or rocket (arugula). The salad leaves may be cut or torn into bite-sized fragments and tossed together (a "tossed salad"). They may also have nuts or croutons.

paragraphs: A wedge salad is made from a head of lettuce (such as iceberg) halved or quartered, with other ingredients on top.

paragraphs: Vegetables other than greens may be used in a salad. Common raw vegetables used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, carrots, celery, and radishes. Other ingredients include mushrooms, avocado, olives, hard boiled egg, artichoke hearts, heart of palm, green beans, cheeses.

paragraphs: Fruit salads are made of fruit, and include the fruit cocktail that can be made fresh or from canned fruit.

paragraphs: Dessert salads rarely include leafy greens and are often sweet. Common variants are made with gelatin or whipped cream; e.g. jello salad, pistachio salad, and ambrosia. Other forms of dessert salads include snickers salad, glorified rice, and cookie salad popular in parts of the Midwestern United States.

paragraphs: A composed salad is a salad arranged on a plate rather than put into a bowl. It can be used as a meal in itself rather than as a part of a meal.

paragraphs: A green salad is often served with a salad dressing. Some examples include:

paragraphs: The purpose of salad dressing depends across cultures. There are many often used salad dressings in North America. Traditional dressings in southern Europe are vinaigrettes, while mayonnaise is predominant in eastern European countries and Russia. In Denmark dressings are often based on crème fraîche. In China, where Western salad is a recent adoption from Western cuisine, the term salad dressing (沙拉酱, "shalajiang") means to mayonnaise or mayonnaise-based dressings.

paragraphs: There are many vegetables and other fare that are often added to salads. Some of them include:

paragraphs: Again, individual taste usually governs the choice of salad garnishes.


title: Nottinghamshire

paragraphs: Nottinghamshire (abbreviated Notts) is a county in the East Midlands, which borders South Yorkshire, North Lincolnshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Derbyshire. The county town is traditionally Nottingham, at , though the council is now based in West Bridgford (at a site facing Nottingham over the River Trent).

paragraphs: The districts of Nottinghamshire are Ashfield, Bassetlaw, Broxtowe, Gedling, Mansfield, Newark and Sherwood, and Rushcliffe. The City of Nottingham was administratively part of Nottinghamshire between 1974 and 1998 but is now a unitary authority, although it remains part of the county.

paragraphs: Nottinghamshire contains the ancestral home of the poet Lord Byron, Newstead Abbey, which he sold in 1818. It is now owned by Nottingham City Council and open to the public.

paragraphs: The traditional county town, and the largest settlement in the historic and ceremonial county boundaries, is Nottingham. The City is now administratively independent, but suburbs including Arnold, Carlton, West Bridgford, Beeston and Stapleford are still within the administrative county and West Bridgford is now home of the county council.


title: Pennines

paragraphs: The Pennines are a mountain range in England. Often said to be the "backbone of England", they form an unbroken range stretching from the Peak District in the Midlands, through the Yorkshire Dales, parts of Greater Manchester, the West Pennine Moors of Lancashire and Cumbrian Fells to the Cheviot Hills on the Scottish border. Their total length is about .

paragraphs: The name "Pennines" is believed to come from the Celtic "pennioroches", meaning "hill", although the earliest written reference to the name dates only from the 18th century.

paragraphs: The mountains are not very tall and are often called hills. The highest is Cross Fell in eastern Cumbria, at . Other main mountain peaks include Mickle Fell , Whernside , Ingleborough , Pen-y-ghent , and Kinder Scout .

paragraphs: The landscape of the Pennines are mostly upland areas of high moorland.

paragraphs: The Pennines make up the main watershed in northern England, dividing the eastern and western parts of the country. The rivers Eden, Ribble, and Mersey flow west towards the Irish Sea. On the other side of the watershed, the rivers Tyne, Tees, Swale, Calder, Aire, Don, and Trent flow east to the North Sea.


title: International Phonetic Alphabet

paragraphs: The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system for writing down sounds. It was created by the International Phonetic Association in 1886, so that people could write down sounds of languages in a standard way. Linguists, language teachers, and translators use this system to show the pronunciation for words.

paragraphs: Wikipedia also uses the IPA to show how certain words are meant to be spoken. Most symbols are letters in the Latin alphabet, or variations of it. For example, the "palatal approximant" (the "y" in yesterday) is written with []. In IPA symbols can be written between slashes (called a broad transcription, e.g."little" can be written as /lɪtl/ ) or in square brackets (called a narrow transcription, e.g. "little" can be written [lɪɾɫ], which is how specific groups say it). Narrow translation is more precise than broad.

paragraphs: The IPA has symbols only for sounds that are used normally in spoken languages. The Extended IPA is used to write down other sounds.

paragraphs: The IPA is sometimes changed, and symbols are added or taken away. Right now there are 107 different letters in the IPA. There are also 52 marks which are added to letters to change their sound. These marks are called "diacritics".

paragraphs: In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers formed the International Phonetic Association. These teachers used the Romic alphabet at first. They later changed the alphabet so that different languages would all write the same sounds with the same letters.

paragraphs: The IPA is made to have one symbol for every sound. This means that every letter always makes the same one sound. This is different from English. In English, some letters make multiple sounds. For example, the letter <x> in English normally is spoken as two sounds ([ks]), but could also mean [gz] or [z].

paragraphs: The International Phonetic Alphabet has letters for three types of sounds: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.

paragraphs: Pulmonic consonants are made by blocking air coming from the lungs. Most consonants (and all English consonants) are pulmonic. The symbols for these sounds are arranged in a table. The rows show how the sound is made, and the columns show where it is made.

paragraphs: Non-pulmonic consonants are made without air coming from the lungs. There are three types of non-pulmonic consonants. Implosive consonants are made by taking air into the mouth. Ejective consonants are made by forcing the air out of the voicebox instead of the lungs. Click consonants are made by creating an airtight pocket in the mouth and quickly releasing it.


title: Lake District

paragraphs: The Lake District, also known as The Lakes or Lakeland, is a rural area in north west England. It is a popular vacation area, famous for its lakes and its mountains and its associations with the early 19th century poetry and writings of William Wordsworth and the Lake Poets.

paragraphs: It is on a tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

paragraphs: Lake District National Park (created in 1951) is one of the fifteen National parks in the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: The Lake District is about 34 miles (55 km) across (north-to-south or west-to-east). It is entirely within Cumbria, and is one of England's few mountainous regions. All the land in England higher than three thousand feet above sea level is in the Park.

paragraphs: The 25 highest fells (of those given an individual chapter in the "Pictorial Guides" by Alfred Wainwright) are:

paragraphs: Only one lake in the National Park has the word 'Lake' in its name, namely Bassenthwaite Lake. All the others such as Windermere, Coniston Water, Ullswater and Buttermere use other forms, such as 'mere' and 'water'. The major lakes and reservoirs in the park are given below.

paragraphs: The word 'tarn' is a local word used to describe any small lake that may otherwise be called a pond.

paragraphs: A number of words/phrases are local to the Lake District and are part of the Cumbrian dialect. These include:


title: Khosrov III the Small

paragraphs: Chosroes III The Small (or Khosrov III Godag), was the son of Tiridates III, was a member of the Arshakuni Dynasty and the king of Armenia from 330 – 339 AD. He was a man of short stature, thus his name. He founded the city of Dvin which later became the Armenian capital.

paragraphs: During his reign, two generals, Vatche Mamikonian and Vahan Amatuni, started a battle, often coming to help the king. During these years, pro-Sassanid and anti-Mamikonian sentiment grew in Armenia and so did anti-Roman sentiment. Pro-Sassanid groups gained popularity so much so that they were successful in assassinating Catholicos St. Aristaces I, son of Gregory the Illuminator.

paragraphs: Shapur II, Sassanid king of the Persians, invaded Armenia twice and did gain some territory. Vatche Mamikonian was killed in those battles and was later named a saint by the Armenian Apostolic Church for his sacrifice. Chosroes II died in 339 AD.

paragraphs: Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, A. hador [Armenian History, volume I], Athens, Greece, 1994, pg. 107


title: Queen Isabella of Armenia

paragraphs: Queen Isabella of Armenia (died c. 1252) ruled the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 1219–1252. She was the daughter of Leo II of Armenia and Sybilla of Lusignan (daughter of Amalric I of Cyprus). Leo named Isabella as his heir.

paragraphs: She was married twice. Her first husband was Philip, son of Bohemund IV of Antioch, whom she married in 1223. Philip was murdered in 1225.

paragraphs: Her second husband was Hethum (or Hetoum) I, to whom she was married against her will on June 14, 1226. Hethum was co-ruler (or ruler) of Armenia from 1226 to 1270. The couple had six children:


title: Argishti II of Urartu

paragraphs: Argishti II of Urartu was king of the Urartun empire from 714 to 680 BC.


title: Xerxes of Armenia

paragraphs: Xerxes (died c. 212 BC) was the King of Sophene and son of Arsames II. During his domination, Antiochus III the Great invaded his capital Arsamosata. Xerxes recognized Antiochus as his sovereign and received his sister Antiochia as his bride, who later killed him.


title: Yorkshire and the Humber

paragraphs: Yorkshire and the Humber is one of the regions of England. It covers most of the historic county of Yorkshire, along with the part of northern Lincolnshire that was previously in the administrative area of Humberside (which existed 1974-1996).

paragraphs: The highest point of the region is Whernside, in the Yorkshire Dales, at 737 metres. The largest freshwater lake is Hornsea Mere in the East Riding of Yorkshire.

paragraphs: The official region consists of the following subdivisions:

paragraphs: Key: shire county = † | metropolitan county = *

paragraphs: It was originally called Yorkshire and Humberside, and defined as North Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire and Humberside.