title: Leo Tolstoy

paragraphs: Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (9 September 1828 20 November 1910) was a Russian novelist and anarchist, famous for writing the books "War and Peace" and "Anna Karenina", and many other works. He was a Christian and believed in non-violence and practiced simple living. His work "The Kingdom of God is within you" has influenced people like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King.

paragraphs: Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, the family estate in the region of Tula, Russia and he married Sofia Andreevna Bers.

paragraphs: Tolstoy died in 1910, at the age of 82. He died of pneumonia.

paragraphs: When he was young his parents died, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives. At the age of 16, he began studying law and oriental languages. Unfortunately, he left University in the middle of his studies and spent much of his time in Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Later on in his life, he joined the Army with his brother after running up some heavy gambling debts. It was at that time that he started writing.

paragraphs: His conversion from a wealthy society author to the non-violent and spiritual anarchist of his later days was notable. It was caused by his experience in the army as well as two trips around Europe in 1857 and 1860–61. Others who followed a similar path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy saw a public execution in Paris, an experience which marked the rest of his life.

paragraphs: After "Anna Karenina", Tolstoy concentrated on Christian themes, and his later novels such as "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" (1886) and "What Is to Be Done?" (1886) develop a radical Christian philosophy which led to his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901.

paragraphs: After shaping both his political and literary development in Europe, he returned to Russia and founded 13 schools for Russia's peasant children.


title: California wine

paragraphs: People have made wine in the American state of California for a long time. California has become recognized as making some of the world's best wine. California makes most of the wine that is made in America.

paragraphs: People first made wine in California in 1769. Missionaries from Mexico brought their wine plants to produce wine for the mass. Later, people coming from Europe improved the making of wine. They had brought their own kinds of wine plants.

paragraphs: Before 1920, there was more wine made every year. Then Prohibition began. During Prohibition, it was not allowed to sell alcoholic drinks in the United States. It almost ended the making of wine in California. Californian wine-making took a long time to recover.

paragraphs: In 1990, the USA sent less than five percent of its wine to other countries. After that, exports of wine from California increased. Today, the USA is one of the big wine industries.

paragraphs: Wine comes in different colors. Most wines are called "red" or "white". White wine is not really white, it just has a very light color. 54 percent of the Californian wines are white wines. Some examples of white wines are Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc. Some examples of red wines are Zinfandel, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir.

paragraphs: Grapes for wine used to need warm weather. People wanted to grow more grapes, so they learned how to grow them where the weather was not as warm. That way of growing grapes is called "cool climate viticulture". Vines are now planted in colder places, up to above sea level. Monterey County was the first place where that was done.

paragraphs: In California, there are more than 800 wine cellars. Wine cellars are big rooms were wine is stored. They are part of a winery, the place where wine is produced.

paragraphs: Two of the most famous growing areas for wine in California are Napa County and Sonoma County. The wines from those places are some of the best in the world. Some examples of the wines made there are Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon.

paragraphs: Other known wineries are in Mendocino, in the Lake Counties, Santa Maria and Santa Barbara.


title: Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

paragraphs: Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid is a 1969 American movie from 20th Century Fox. George Roy Hill directed it, and John Foreman produced it. It stars Paul Newman and Robert Redford as two robbers in Wyoming who go to Bolivia to escape the law.

paragraphs: The movie was loosely based on the real story of the two title characters (Butch Cassidy and his friend Harry Longabaugh, also called "Sundance"). But it made the legends of the two more popular.

paragraphs: It won four Academy Awards: for Best Cinematography (shooting work on a movie), Best Original Score, Best Song (Burt Bacharach's "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head") and Best Original Screenplay (William Goldman). It was also nominated for Best Picture, Best Director (Hill) and Best Sound. Goldman won the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.

paragraphs: It was one of the largest-grossing movies of the 1960s (with $102.3 million in the United States). It was number fifty on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.

paragraphs: At first, Warren Beatty and Steve McQueen (even Marlon Brando) were called upon to play the title roles. When Newman and Redford took their place, the roles were switched, with Newman as Sundance, and Redford as Cassidy. The studio, 20th Century Fox, did not like Redford's role. But the movie's director, Hill, wanted it that way.

paragraphs: As a result, Redford has said that the movie made him a more famous actor.

paragraphs: The Sundance Film Festival is named after Redford's role, as well his Utah ski resort.


title: Mehmed II

paragraphs: Mehmed II or Mehmed the conqueror (, "Meḥmed-i sānī"; Modern , ; 30 March 1432 – 3 May 1481) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople, bringing an end to the medieval Byzantine Empire.


title: The Bold and the Beautiful

paragraphs: The Bold and the Beautiful is a popular American soap opera. After "The Young and the Restless", it is the highest-rated soap opera there.

paragraphs: The series is shown in over 100 countries. About 300 million people watch it every day. This makes "The Bold and the Beautiful" the most watched television series in the world. The first episode was shown on March 23, 1987 on the CBS network. The series was created by the soap opera writer William J. Bell and his wife, Lee Phillip Bell. It is the only American soap opera to have its daily episodes translated into Spanish for the Hispanic viewers in the United States.

paragraphs: The series is set in Los Angeles, California. It tells the story of the Forrester family, who owns a fashion empire called Forrester Creations. The major members of the family are Eric Forrester (played by John McCook), the president of Forrester Creations, his wife Stephanie (Susan Flannery), their eldest son Ridge (Ronn Moss) and Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang), who was married to both the father and the son. She owns most of Forrester Creations. This is because she created "BeLieF", a formula which earned much money for the company. There used to be a second fashion company called Spectra Fashions. It was Forrester’s main competitor. The conflicts between the Forrester and the Spectra families was one of the major themes of the story.


title: Primary color

paragraphs: Primary colors (or primary colours) are sets of colors that can be combined to make a useful range of colors. The primary colors are those which cannot be created by mixing other colors in a given color space.

paragraphs: For subtractive combination of colors, as in mixing of pigments or dyes for printing, the CMYK set of primaries is often used. In this system the primary colors are cyan, magenta,and yellow. Other sets include the RYB system of red, yellow, blue, especially used by artists.

paragraphs: For additive combination of colors, as in overlapping projected lights or in television and computer screens, the primary colors normally used are red, green, and blue.

paragraphs: Primary colors are not a fundamental property of light but are related to the physiological response of the eye to light (the way the eye works). For humans, three primary colors are usually used, since human color vision is trichromatic.

paragraphs: Fundamentally, light is a continuous spectrum of the wavelengths that can be detected by the human eye, an infinite-dimensional stimulus space. However, the human eye normally contains only three types of color receptors, called cone cells. Each color receptor respond to different ranges of the color spectrum. Humans and other species with three such types of color receptors are known as trichromats.

paragraphs: and blue. Because of the response curves of the three different color receptors in

paragraphs: the human eye, these colors are optimal in the sense that the largest range

paragraphs: of colors — a gamut — visible by humans can be generated by mixing light of these colors.

paragraphs: Additive mixing of red and green light, produce shades of yellow or orange. Mixing green and blue produces shades of cyan, and mixing red and blue produces shades of purple and magenta. Mixing equal proportions of the additive primaries results in shades of grey; when all three colors are fully saturated, the result is white. The color space that is generated is called the RGB ("red, green, blue") color space.

paragraphs: Media that use reflected light and colorants to produce colors are using the subtractive color method of color mixing. In the printing industry, to produce the varying colors, apply the subtractive primaries yellow, cyan, and magenta together in varying amounts. Subtractive color works best when the surface or paper, is white, or close to it.

paragraphs: Mixing yellow and cyan produces shades of green; mixing yellow with magenta produces shades of red, and mixing magenta with cyan produces shades of blue. In theory, mixing equal amounts of all three pigments should produce shades of grey, resulting in black when all three are fully saturated, but in practice they tend to produce muddy brown colors. For this reason, a fourth "primary" pigment, black, is often used in addition to the cyan, magenta, and yellow colors.

paragraphs: The color space generated is the so-called CMYK color space. The abbreviation stands for "Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black" — K stands for "Kohle" (German for coal) and is used to represent black as 'B' could be confused with 'Blue'.

paragraphs: In practice, mixtures of actual materials like paint tend to be less precise. Brighter, or more specific colors can be created using natural pigments instead of mixing, and natural properties of pigments can interfere with the mixing. For example, mixing magenta and green in acrylic creates a dark cyan - something which would not happen if the mixing process were perfectly subtractive.


title: Umbilicus

paragraphs: The umbilicus (also called navel or bellybutton) is a place on the body of mammals that is left after a baby loses its umbilical cord. The umbilicus of humans is in the middle of the abdomen. It is usually only easy to see on humans, and is a thin line on many other mammals. In humans, they can be split into two different kinds, the kind that goes in (innie) and the kind that goes out (outie). Different people have different navels that can be different in size, shape, and looks, but these differences are not genetic (you do not get them from looks passed down in your family). The hepatic portal vein passes from the umbilical vein to the liver. When a person becomes fat, the fat usually goes around the umbilicus.

paragraphs: It marks the water shed line of the body.The venus blood & lymph do not cross the umbilical plane.


title: James Cook

paragraphs: Captain James Cook, FRS (27 October 1728 – 14 February 1779) was an English explorer, navigator and cartographer. He made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, mapping many areas and recording several islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He is most notable for the British finding the east coast of Australia, finding the Hawaiian Islands and the first mapping of Newfoundland and New Zealand.

paragraphs: During his lifetime, he sailed twice around the world. He crossed the Antarctic Circle and found new islands and landscapes in North America and the South Pacific. During his trips, he spent a lot of time on science experiments, and mapping new areas. He also wrote a lot of books about what he found.

paragraphs: Cook was born on 27 November 1728 in Marton in Yorkshire. He was a son of a Scottish farmer. He was educated at the school in Great Ayton, and at 17 he began work in a shop at Staithes. At 18, Cook became a sailor, and became an apprentice to John Walker of Whitby. Walker's business was transporting coal. Cook learned mathematics and navigation from Walker. He studied as much as he could about navigation and science. He was sent on three expeditions with the ship called "Endeavour" all over the world.

paragraphs: Captain Cook was killed in Hawaii in a dispute about a stolen boat.

paragraphs: He had four sons and one daughter. Their names were Elizabeth Cook, Hugh Cook, George Cook, Nathaniel Cook and  Joseph Cook. His father’s name was James Cook. He had 3 sisters and 2 brothers. Their names were Mary Cook, who died at age 4, Margaret Cook, William Cook, Jane Cook and John Cook.


title: Offside rule

paragraphs: The offside rule is one of the oldest football rules, but is still a much discussed rule. This is probably because of the relatively complicated set of provisions provided by the sport's law-making body, the IFAB for deciding if a player in an offside position is actually guilty of an offside offence by becoming involved in active play. It can also be a difficult decision for the referee or assistant referee to make as they need to watch the ball, the player playing the ball and also the attacker who is seeking to receive the ball at the same time.

paragraphs: Offside is an offence committed by the team which has the ball and is punished with an indirect free kick.

paragraphs: It is a common misconception that the ball must be played forward for an offside offence to be committed. This is incorrect however, as an offside offence is related to the position of the player in relation to the last two opponents, the ball and the opponent's goal line rather than the direction the ball is played. If the player is closer to the opponent's goal line than both the ball and the second-last opponent when it is played by a team mate, she or he is in an offside position.


title: Valentine's Day

paragraphs: Valentine's Day is a celebration that happens on February 14. It is the day of the year when lovers celebrate their love. This can be done by giving flowers, chocolates, Valentine's cards or just a nice gift. Love notes can be given to one another. These notes that people give out are also called "valentines". Some people pick one person and call them their "Valentine" as a gesture to show love and appreciation.

paragraphs: Symbols of Valentine's Day are heart shapes, roses, and Cupid with his arrows.

paragraphs: Valentine's Day is named for the martyred Christian saint named Valentine. He was a bishop that married forbidden couples.

paragraphs: Since the 14th century, Valentine's pairs are formed in England. English emigrants then took the Valentine's custom to the United States. After World War II, US soldiers brought this festival to Europe.

paragraphs: In the third century A.D., Valentine was the bishop of Terni (Italy). He performed weddings for couples who were not allowed to get married. They may not have been allowed to get married because the parents did not agree with the connection or because the bridegroom was a soldier or a slave, so the marriage was forbidden. Valentine gave the married couple flowers from his garden. That's why flowers play a very important role on Valentine's Day. This did not please the emperor. On February 14, 269 AD, Valentine was beheaded because of his Christian faith.

paragraphs: An expansion of the legend combines the day of death of Valentine with the Roman festival Lupercalia. It was the festival of the great goddess Lupa, which is the feminine word for wolf. She was the Great She-Wolf who nursed the twin babies, Romulus and Remus, who later became the founders of Rome. During the annual ceremony, the temple priestesses (lupae) wrote their names on strips of papyrus. These were picked by young men. After the lottery, the youngsters walked through the city and got the blessings of the citizens. The martyr Valentine became the patron saint of the lovers. Still in the Middle Ages, as in France or in Belgium, people were chosen by the lottery to live a year with each other and people prayed to Saint Valentine to make love potions and charms.

paragraphs: In the 19th century, the custom of sending Valentine's Cards became very popular. The cards usually have pictures of hearts or flowers and contain some sort of poem, message, or code. Codes and simple messages give some people the to show their true feelings to the person they love. Today, some people still use mysterious codes to show their love. People can use newspapers to give a coded message to their loved one, giving other readers a view of the couples' intimacy with one another. Sometimes they will give each other chocolates.

paragraphs: Famous for the popularity of the celebration is the folk song called "Die Vogelhochzeit" ("The Birds' Wedding").

paragraphs: In China, a holiday called Qi Xi is also called "Chinese Valentine's Day", especially by younger people. Qi Xi is traditionally held on the 7th day of the 7th month of the lunar calendar. In recent years, it has become more like Valentine's Day in other countries.


title: Canary Islands

paragraphs: The Canary Islands are a group of islands off the coast of Morocco. They are an autonomous community of Spain (they make their own laws). There are seven main islands. The people who live there speak Spanish. The autonomous community has two capital cities, of equal status: Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Like the other islands of Macaronesia, they were created by volcanoes on the bottom of the sea. Those volcanoes slowly rose above the water and became islands. This process lasted many thousands of years.

paragraphs: The islands have a very long and interesting history. When Europeans first came to the Canary Islands, they found people already living there. These people were called the Guanches. Many of the Guanches were killed in 15th century battles with the Spanish, and the ones who remained adopted the Spanish way of life. After the Spanish conquest many battles were also fought against pirates. Most recently Morocco was interested in them.

paragraphs: After the Spanish conquest many Europeans settled there. Portuguese and Spaniards, and also Belgians and Maltese were among the early settlers. Recently many people from all over Europe, America, India and Africa have also become citizens or permanent residents.

paragraphs: The seven islands are: La Palma, La Gomera, El Hierro, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, and Fuerteventura. People from La Gomera have a whistle language that children there learn at school. Tenerife has the highest mountain in the Canary Islands and Spain too, the Teide. The Teide is actually a volcano, but it has not been active in more than 300 years.

paragraphs: The islands are popular with tourists because of their warm climate and nice beaches. The local farmers grow lots of exotic fruits including papayas and bananas.

paragraphs: The Canary Islands' main exports include bananas and tobacco.


title: Edinburgh Airport

paragraphs: Edinburgh Airport (IATA EDI, ICAO: EGPH) is an airport in Scotland. It is one of seven airports in the United Kingdom owned by the company BAA, which also owns Glasgow Airport and Aberdeen Airport in Scotland.

paragraphs: On 19th October 2011, BAA Limited said that it is going to sell Edinburgh Airport. This was done following a decision by the UK's Competition Commission which said that BAA needs to sell either Glasgow or Edinburgh Airport.

paragraphs: In February of 2001 a Shorts 360 crashed shortly after taking off from Edinburgh Airport. Both pilots were killed but there were no passengers on board as it was a mail-carrying flight.


title: Lufthansa

paragraphs: Lufthansa is the largest airline in Germany, and the second-largest in Europe. Some of Lufthansa's hubs are Frankfurt am Main and Munich, Germany. A hub is an airport where people who fly from one city to a second city can transfer or change airplanes.

paragraphs: Lufthansa buys airplanes from Boeing and Airbus. Lufthansa has big airplanes for flights to North America, Asia, and Africa. These flights are called long-haul flights because they are between cities that are far apart from each other. Lufthansa also has small airplanes for flights in Europe. These flights are called short-haul flights.

paragraphs: Lufthansa is a member of the Star Alliance, which means it is a partner with other airlines like United Airlines and Air Canada. Members of the Star Alliance cooperate or work together to schedule their flights better so that travelling is easier for passengers or people.

paragraphs: The name of Lufthansa's frequent flyer program is Miles and More. People earn points for flights they travel on. When they have enough points, they can get a free flight. Lufthansa has "Miles and More" to encourage people to fly with Lufthansa.

paragraphs: Many regional flights are operated Lufthansa Regional with Lufthansa CityLine, Eurowings and Air Dolomiti.


title: Orlando Bloom

paragraphs: Orlando Jonathan Blanchard Bloom (born 13 January 1977, in Canterbury, Kent, England) is an English actor. He is most known for his first major movie role as the elf Legolas Greenleaf in "The Lord of the Rings" movie trilogy.

paragraphs: In 1993, he moved to London to improve his career, doing bit parts in TV series like "Casualty". Then he played some theatres like "The Seagull", "Twelfth Night", and "Trojan Women". This is a role that he received some days before graduating the drama school in London.

paragraphs: Here are some movies, in which he played an important character:


title: Chromium

paragraphs: Chromium is a chemical element. Its symbol on the periodic table (a list of all the elements) is Cr. It always has 24 protons, so its atomic number is 24. Its mass number (number of protons and neutrons) is about 54. Most of the times it has 28 neutrons, but different isotopes have more or fewer neutrons. As a metal, it has 24 electrons. Its ions have fewer electrons.

paragraphs: Chromium is a shiny metal. It is reactive, but it reacts with air to produce a very thin coating of chromium(III) oxide, which prevents it from rusting any more.

paragraphs: Chromium occurs in several oxidation states; +2, +3, and +6 are most common. It forms chemical compounds that are colorful.

paragraphs: There are two main types of chromium ions, which are found in chromium compounds. One type of chromium ion ("Cr", trivalent chromium ) is required by our body and by those of other animals. If we do not get enough chromium, certain parts of our body may not work properly. We get most of the chromium we need from our food we eat. Chromium is also put into vitamins to make sure that we get enough. If we get too much of this type of chromium, it can harm our body.

paragraphs: Another type of chromium ("Cr" (chromate, hexavalent chromium), in the +6 oxidation state) can cause cancer or make people sick, even though most people do not get exposed to it much. It is found in places that make chromium metal, which is why they need to be cleaned up when they close. Hexavalent chromium can be destroyed by reacting it with reducing agents, turning it into Cr (trivalent chromium). They are strong oxidizing agents.

paragraphs: The chromate ion is CrO. Chromates are generally yellow.

paragraphs: The dichromate ion is CrO. Dichromates are red or orange.

paragraphs: Chromium occurs as chromite. Chromite is a mixture of iron(II) oxide and chromium(III) oxide. Its chemical formula is FeCrO. It is heated with sodium carbonate to make sodium chromate, iron(III) oxide, and carbon dioxide. The sodium chromate is reacted with sulfuric acid to produce sodium dichromate. The sodium dichromate is reduced by carbon to chromium(III) oxide. The chromium(III) oxide is reacted with aluminum to make chromium metal. The chromates and dichromates are what make chromium production areas toxic.

paragraphs: Chromium is used in different metal products. Stainless steel is the most common use. It is also used in "chrome plating", where it makes things shiny and stops corrosion. Some chromates were used as pigments, but they are toxic so people do not want to use them anymore.

paragraphs: Chromium metal is nontoxic. But hexavalent chromium is toxic and carcinogenic, and trivalent chromium is mildly toxic in large quantities.


title: Neon

paragraphs: Neon is a noble gas. It is chemical element 10 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Ne.

paragraphs: The word "neon" comes from the Greek word meaning "new". It was discovered by William Ramsay and Morris W. Travers in 1898.

paragraphs: Neon does not react with other elements, so it is found by itself. There is not much neon in the air, and it is clear, so we do not see it.

paragraphs: Neon gas is used in gas discharge lamps. When electricity goes through the neon, it lights up red. Due to this quality, it is used in signs. Similar signs use other gases to make other colors, but they are also often called "neon signs".

paragraphs: Neon is also a term referring to a type of color that is very bright, such as lime green.

paragraphs: No true chemical compounds including the neutral compounds of neon are known. Where there is the helium compound HHeF, which might be stable, the analogous compound with Neon is not.


title: Tin

paragraphs: Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (for ) and atomic number 50. It is in Group 14 on the periodic table. It is not radioactive.

paragraphs: Tin is a silver, somewhat soft metal. It is a post-transition metal. Its melting point is 231.93°C and its boiling point is 2602 °C. It can melt easily in a flame. It is malleable. It makes a crackling sound called tin cry when a piece of it is bent. Tin has more non-radioactive isotopes than any other element.

paragraphs: Tin is found in two allotropes: alpha-tin and beta-tin. Alpha-tin is a brittle, dull, powdery, semimetallic form of tin. It is made when very pure tin is cooled. Beta-tin is the normal shiny, soft, conductive, metallic form. It is made at higher temperatures. The decay of tin by turning from beta-tin to alpha-tin is called "tin pest". Alpha-tin is not wanted in many places. When small amounts of other elements like antimony are added, the tin cannot change into alpha-tin. When alpha-tin is heated, it changes into beta-tin.

paragraphs: Tin can be hardened by adding antimony or copper, as well as some other elements. These also make it resistant to tin pest. Tin can also be made very shiny. Tin can make an alloy with copper called bronze.

paragraphs: Tin resists many corrosive substances and is often used to protect other metals. Salt water and fresh water do not affect tin. It dissolves in strong acids to make tin salts. It reacts with some strong bases.

paragraphs: Tin forms chemical compounds in two oxidation states: +2 and +4. +2 compounds are reducing agents. Some of them are colorless while others are colored. +4 compounds are more unreactive and act more covalent.

paragraphs: Tin burns in air to make tin(IV) oxide, which is white. Tin(IV) oxide dissolves in acids to make other tin(IV) compounds. Tin(IV) chloride is a colorless fuming liquid when anhydrous and a white solid when hydrated. It easily reacts with water to make tin(IV) oxide and an acid again.

paragraphs: Tin reacts with hydrohalic acids to make tin(II) halides. For example, tin(II) chloride is made when tin dissolves in hydrochloric acid. Tin(IV) halides are made when tin reacts with the halogens. Tin(IV) chloride is made when tin reacts with chlorine. Tin(II) sulfate is different as it does not oxidize to tin(IV) sulfate. Tin(II) oxide is a blue-black solid that burns in air to make tin(IV) oxide.

paragraphs: +2 compounds are reducing agents. They are about as common as +4 compounds. Some are colorless, while others are colored.

paragraphs: +4 compounds are unreactive. Some are colorless.

paragraphs: Tin is not found as a metal in the ground. It is normally in the form of cassiterite. Cassiterite is a mineral containg tin(IV) oxide. The cassiterite is normally found downstream of the cassiterite deposit when it is by a stream or river. Tin is also found in some complicated sulfide minerals.

paragraphs: Tin does not have any major job in the human body.

paragraphs: Tin is made by heating cassiterite with carbon in a furnace. China is the biggest maker of tin.

paragraphs: People discovered tin long ago and used it with other metals. When copper and tin are mixed together, bronze is made. Bronze was important in the past, because it was one of the strongest metals available, which meant it was useful in weapons and tools. Bronze changed the world when it was first invented, starting the Bronze Age. People organized themselves more, because making tools from bronze was harder than making them from rock and wood like they did before.

paragraphs: Tin is used in solder. Solder used to contain a mixture of lead and tin. Now the lead is removed because of its toxicity.

paragraphs: Tin is also used to make pewter, which is mainly tin mixed with a small amount of copper and other metals. Babbitt metal also has tin in it. Tin is used to coat several metals, like lead and steel. Tin plated steel containers are used to store foods. The pipes on a pipe organ are made of tin. Tin foil was used before aluminium foil. Tin was one of the first superconductors to be found. Organotin compounds are more common than almost any other organometal compound. They are used in some PVC pipes to stop them from decaying. Organotin compounds are toxic, though.

paragraphs: Tin is not toxic, but tin compounds are very toxic to marine life. They are a little toxic to humans.


title: Silicon

paragraphs: Silicon is a chemical element. Its atomic number is 14 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Si. It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid. It is a tetravalent metalloid and semiconductor. It is a member of group 14 in the periodic table.

paragraphs: Silicon looks like a metal, but does not do everything a metal does, like conduct electricity very easily. Silicon is used as a great deal in today's computers and virtually every electronic device. Germanium can also be used in computers, but silicon is easier to find.

paragraphs: There is a lot of silicon on the Earth. At the beach, there is silicon in the form of sand. Sand is a compound of silicon known as silicon dioxide or silica. Glass is made by heating sand (or silicon dioxide) hot enough. The glass can have different colours by adding coloured compounds. Silicon also makes up a lot of different rocks and minerals, and they are known as silicates.

paragraphs: Silicon is a semiconductor, and much used in computers. A super-pure isotope of silicon, silicon-28, can now be made 40 times more pure than before. It is very important for the next big development in computers. This stores "qubits" in atoms of another element, like phosphorous, embedded in a tiny layer of ultra-pure silicon-28. These qubits can simultaneously encode a one and a zero, for incredibly fast and complex calculations.


title: Cadmium

paragraphs: Cadmium is a metal. It is element 48 on the periodic table. Its symbol is "Cd". Its atomic number is 48 and its atomic mass is 112.4. It is found in Group 12 on the periodic table.

paragraphs: Cadmium is a blue-gray soft metal. It can be considered a transition metal or a post-transition metal. It is malleable and ductile. It is similar to zinc. It melts at 321°C.

paragraphs: Cadmium has 8 natural isotopes. 5 are radioactive, but 3 have very long half-lives so their radioactivity is almost nothing.

paragraphs: Cadmium is a moderately reactive metal. It corrodes in moist air and dissolves in acids. It burns in air when powdered to make the brown cadmium oxide.

paragraphs: Cadmium forms chemical compounds in two oxidation states: +1 and +2. The +1 state is rare and unstable. The +2 state is much more common. Most +2 compounds dissolve easily in water and are white to yellow. Cadmium oxide can be brown, red, or white. Cadmium sulfide is bright yellow. Cadmium chloride and cadmium sulfate are colorless solids that dissolve easily in water. Cadmium fluoride is slightly soluble. Cadmium compounds are toxic when inhaled.

paragraphs: Cadmium was found by two chemists, German chemist Friedrich Stromeyer discovered it in 1817, and Karl Herman also discovered it in 1818. They were looking at an impurity in zinc carbonate and found cadmium. For about 100 years, Germany made most cadmium. Cadmium iodide was used as a medicine although it was toxic.

paragraphs: Cadmium ores are rare. Greenockite, a cadmium sulfide mineral is the only main ore and it is found with sphalerite, a zinc sulfide. Because of this, most cadmium comes from zinc processing. Cadmium as a metal is very rare but is found in one place in Russia.

paragraphs: China makes the most cadmium. South Korea and Japan also make cadmium. Cadmium is taken from the zinc metal by heating the zinc metal in a vacuum. Cadmium is boiled first. The cadmium is condensed and used. Cadmium is also taken by precipitating it from the solution of zinc sulfate used to make pure zinc by electrolysis.

paragraphs: In the 1930s and 1940s cadmium was mainly used to plate steel to prevent it from corroding. Then cadmium sulfide was used as a pigment in paint.

paragraphs: Now, cadmium is mainly used in nickel cadmium batteries. 86% of cadmium is used in batteries as of 2009. Some people are trying to stop using nickel-cadmium batteries because cadmium is toxic. Cadmium is still used to electroplate steel to prevent corrosion. Only about 6% of cadmium is used for this. Cadmium is also used in lasers, nuclear reactors, phosphors, photoresistors, pigments, and semiconductors. Wood's metal, an alloy that melts very easily, has cadmium in it. Cadmium is used in some solder.

paragraphs: Cadmium is not used in the human body or any other animal. A diatom uses cadmium, though.

paragraphs: Cadmium is a highly toxic metal. Dust of cadmium or its compounds is very dangerous and can kill. Some countries have banned cadmium from electronics. Cigarette smoking is the most important source of cadmium. Smokers have about 4 times more cadmium in their blood than nonsmokers (people who do not smoke). Cadmium is thought to be carcinogenic, although people still debate whether it is other things with the cadmium that cause cancer, like arsenic.


title: Krypton

paragraphs: Krypton is a noble gas which means it does not react with many other elements. It is clear and has no taste or smell. The atmosphere is only about one millionth part krypton. The name "kypton" comes from the Greek word "kryptos" meaning hidden. It is used in fluorescent lamps, flashbulbs, and as a wavelength standard. The metre used to be defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of krypton gas. Krypton has very few compounds.

paragraphs: The main use for krypton is to make light. There is one main type of krypton light bulbs. This is called a gas discharge lamp. There are three main types of these. First is a low energy gas discharge lamp or "neon light". Low energy gas discharge lights made from krypton are near white to green. Second is a high energy short length of time gas discharge light or "flash bulb". These are mostly used for photography. They are bright blue-white. Third is a high energy gas discharge light. This third kind is mostly used to light airport runways. They are also bright blue-white.

paragraphs: Krypton is number 36 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Kr.

paragraphs: Krypton was found by Sir William Ramsay and Morris Travers in Great Britain in 1898. Ramsay was given the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on noble gases. It was a difficult gas to discover; Ramsay suspected it existed but only found it by removing other gases. This is why he gave it the name Krypton. There is no mineral called Kryptonite or planet called Krypton, which features in the Superman comics by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. The fictional planet is probably better known than the real chemical element called Krypton.


title: Noble gas

paragraphs: The noble gases are a group of elements that are all gases. These elements are all in group 18 of the periodic table. All of them are monoatomic, meaning each molecule is a single atom. They almost never react with other elements. This is because they have a full 8 electrons outer electron shell. There are six noble gases:

paragraphs: All of these gases are found in air. They make up around 0.96% of the atmosphere. Noble gas compounds can be formed from noble gases.

paragraphs: When the noble gases are used in cold cathode tubes to produce light, each of them has a different colour. Since Radon is radioactive, it is usually not used for lighting. Here are pictures of what the others look like:

paragraphs: Oganesson (element 118) is probably the next noble gas after Radon because it is the next box down in the same group. However it has a half life of 0.89 ms, after which it decays to Livermorium (Element 116). This means its use is probably limited.

paragraphs: Noble gases were discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay. Rayleigh won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1904 for his work on noble gas. Ramsay won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1904 for his work with noble gas.


title: Polonium

paragraphs: Polonium is a rare radioactive metalloid. It is chemical element 84 on the periodic table and its symbol is Po. It was discovered in 1898 by Marie and Pierre Curie.

paragraphs: Polonium is highly unstable, radioactive and toxic. This makes it difficult to handle. It can be dangerous, even in very small amounts. One gram of Po will self-heat to a temperature of about . It also vaporizes easily.

paragraphs: Polonium has 33 isotopes, and all of them are radioactive. It is a very rare element in nature because of its short half-life. It is a breakdown product of uranium, so it is found in uranium ores.

paragraphs: The former Russian secret service agent Alexander Litvinenko was murdered by having a tiny amount of polonium put into a drink. The United Kingdom applied to Russia for extradition.


title: Bismuth

paragraphs: Bismuth is a chemical element. It is element 83 on the periodic table and its symbol is "Bi". Its atomic mass is 209. It is only slightly radioactive. The radioactivity is minimal so it is typically seen as nonradioactive. Bismuth is only naturally found as one isotope, which is the almost nonradioactive one. Its radioactivity was predicted by scientists and proven by analyzing the metal. It is in Group 15 on the periodic table.

paragraphs: Bismuth is a silver metal with a pink tinge to it. This pink color is because of its oxide coating. Bismuth is a post-transition metal. It is one of the strongest diamagnetic metals. It is almost as heavy as lead. Its melting point is quite low , which is normal for post-transition metals. It is quite brittle. It can make crystals with a shiny surface. As a liquid it is heavier than as a solid. Another chemical that does this is water. It does not conduct electricity or heat very well.

paragraphs: Bismuth is somewhat similar to antimony. Bismuth makes a thin coating of bismuth(III) oxide when it is in air. This makes the colors on the crystals. It does not oxidize any more than the oxide layer. It burns when powdered with a bright blue flame, making yellow bismuth(III) oxide fumes. Bismuth reacts with sulfur when molten as well. Bismuth reacts with nitric acid to make bismuth(III) nitrate and concentrated sulfuric acid to make bismuth(III) sulfate and sulfur dioxide. It reacts with the halogens to make bismuth(III) halides. With fluorine it makes bismuth(V) fluoride unless the fluorine is diluted, though.

paragraphs: Bismuth forms chemical compounds in two main oxidation states: +3 and +5. +3 is more common. +3 compounds are weak oxidizing agents and are normally light yellow. +5 compounds are strong oxidizing agents. Bismuthates are the most common +5 compounds. Bismuth(V) fluoride is another +5 compound. Bismuth(V) oxide is an unstable red solid. Bismuth sulfide is a common ore of bismuth. Bismuthine, a bismuth hydride, is very unstable and only can be made at very cold temperatures. Bismuth makes many oxy- compounds like bismuth oxychloride. These compounds are made when bismuth halides dissolve in water.

paragraphs: +3 compounds are weak oxidizing agents except for bismuthine. They are normally pale yellow.

paragraphs: Bismuth(V) oxides (+5 compounds) are very strong oxidizing agents. Its chemical formula is BiO. It is a scarlet red solid. It decomposes to bismuth(III) oxide and oxygen easily. It is made by electrolysis of bismuth(III) oxide in a hot concentrated alkali like sodium hydroxide.

paragraphs: Bismuth was known since ancient times. It was confused with tin and lead, though. No one is credited for discovering bismuth. In the 1500s, people started realizing that bismuth was different than tin or lead.

paragraphs: Bismuth is not very common in the earth. It is only about twice as common as gold. Bismite, a bismuth oxide mineral, and bismuthinite, a bismuth sulfide, are two common ores. Bismuth is sometimes found as a metal, too.

paragraphs: Bismuth and its minerals are too rare to be mined. They are gotten by "secondary extraction". It is normally found in lead metal. The lead metal is purified by electrolysis, leaving the bismuth behind as a sludge on the bottom of the container. The copper is taken out of the sludge and the bismuth is purified by being reduced in a furnace and all the impurities are filtered out.

paragraphs: China makes the most bismuth. Peru, Mexico, and Japan also make bismuth.

paragraphs: Bismuth can also be recycled. This is difficult in many places because bismuth is used for things like bullets, solder, and stomach medicine that get scattered all over and cannot easily be gotten again.

paragraphs: Bismuth is used in alloys with very low melting points. Some of them melt in hot water. They are also found in solder that does not have lead in it. It can make alloys with other metals to make them more malleable. It is also used in bullets to replace lead. In some places lead bullets are outlawed as birds eat them and get lead poisoning. It is also used in alloys for plumbing. It is used in fishing sinkers.

paragraphs: Bismuth is used in some medicines such as Pepto-Bismol. This medicine has bismuth subsalicylate in it. It is also used as an internal deodorant and to treat eye infections and peptic ulcers.

paragraphs: Bismuth oxychloride is used in cosmetics. Bismuth telluride is used in electronic thermometers. Another compound is used in superconductors and becomes a superconductor at a high temperature. It can be used as a pigment and in fireworks to make crackling sounds. It is used in the nuclear fuel of a nuclear reactor.

paragraphs: Bismuth is much less toxic than other heavy metals. This is why it is replacing lead in many things. It does not add up in the body like other heavy metals do. A very large amount of bismuth can poison the kidneys and liver, though. Because its oxide does not dissolve in water, it is considered safe for the environment.


title: Iridium

paragraphs: Iridium is the 77th element on the periodic table. Its symbol is Ir. Ir's atomic number(the amount of protons) is 77.

paragraphs: Iridium is a metal. Like other metals in the platinum group, Iridium is a rare and expensive "noble metal" and is a transition metal. It looks like platinum and is found in asteroids and comets. Iridium deposits are used to identify relative dates of collisions of foreign bodies. Iridium can fold and bend just like aluminum, and remains very shiny. Most iridium is found in the Americas, though some is mined in Myanmar, South Africa, and Russia. Iridium melts at 2410 °C, and boils at 4130 °C. It is the most corrosion resistant metal.

paragraphs: A man named Smithson Tennant first found it in the year 1803. Smithson Tennant found it in the remains when he left crude platinum in a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid.


title: Transition metal

paragraphs: The transition metals are a group of metals that are found in the middle of the periodic table. The alkaline earth metals, beginning with beryllium are to the left and the boron group elements are to the right. The term "transition element" was invented for them in 1921.

paragraphs: Atomic number of these metals are from 21-30, 39-48, 57, 72-80, 89 and 104-112. Many elements like Zn, Cd, Hg, La and Ac have a highly debatable position in the transition series of elements. La and Ac are also classed in the lanthanide series and actinide series respectively.

paragraphs: Transition metals have several general properties. They are harder and less reactive than the alkaline earth metals. They are also harder than the post transition metals. They make colorful chemical compounds with other elements. Most of them have more than one oxidation state. Like other metals, they are electrical conductors.

paragraphs: Some of the transition metals are necessary to keep humans healthy, such as iron, zinc, and chromium. Other elements in the transition metals can be harmful to our body, like cadmium and mercury. Other elements like gold or silver do not harm or help us. There are more transition metals than any other groups in the periodic table.

paragraphs: Only a few of the transition metals are colored; most of them are silver-gray or silver-bluish.


title: Osmium

paragraphs: Osmium is a chemical element. It is element number 76 on the periodic table. Its symbol is "Os".

paragraphs: There is not much osmium on earth. There is actually such a small amount that osmium is very expensive.

paragraphs: Osmium is a metal and it does not react very much, and such a metal is known as a "noble metal".

paragraphs: Osmium is the densest (heaviest for the same amount) element on the periodic table.

paragraphs: It was discovered in 1804 by Smithson Tennant in London, England. He found it together with Iridium in a bit of Platinum, which he had dissolved in Aqua regia.


title: Radon

paragraphs: Radon is element 86 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Rn.

paragraphs: Radon is a gas and is part of the group known as the noble gases. It does not react with other elements, so it is found pure.

paragraphs: Radon is radioactive, meaning that it can give off harmful rays. Some people have high levels of radon in their houses, and this can be very dangerous. A lot of radon can get stuck in the basement of old houses, and so people end up breathing it in. It gets stuck in the lungs and has been known to cause cancer. There are groups that try to make sure there is no dangerous radon in houses.


title: FTP

paragraphs: FTP, also known as File Transfer Protocol, is a communication protocol for the rapid, simple transmission of files across a network supporting the TCP/IP. This network is generally the Internet, or a local network. FTP is a way of accessing files on another computer. FTP uses the Client-Server architecture, meaning that there is a server, that holds the files, and does the authentication, and a client, or the end-user, who is accessing the files. The server listens on the network for connection requests from other computers. The client can make a connection to the FTP server by using FTP client software. Once connected and authenticated (via rsh or SFTP) the client can do things such as uploading files to the server, downloading files (taking the server's files and putting them on his own computer) from the server, and renaming, deleting files on the server, changing file permissions, etc.

paragraphs: Most modern operating systems support FTP. This implies that any computer connected to a TCP/IP based network can manipulate files on another computer on that network regardless of which operating systems are involved, provided that they are open to FTP connections. There are many existing FTP client and server programs, many of these are available free, or open source.

paragraphs: FTP connection is also seen in cellular phones when trying to transfer or receive data from a computer nearby.

paragraphs: FTP server return codes show their status by the digits within them. A short explanation of various digits' meanings are given below:

paragraphs: FTP may run in "active" or "passive" mode, which determines how the data connection is established. In both cases, the client creates a TCP control connection from a random, usually an unprivileged, port N to the FTP server command port 21.

paragraphs: Some popular open source FTP server implementations are:


title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

paragraphs: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (often abbreviated to HTTP) is a communications protocol. It is used to send and receive webpages and files on the internet. It was developed by Tim Berners-Lee and is now coordinated by the W3C. HTTP version 1.1 is the most common used version today. It is defined in RFC 2616.

paragraphs: HTTP works by using a user agent to connect to a server. The user agent could be a web browser or spider. The server must be located using a URL or URI. This always contains http:// at the start. It normally connects to port 80 on a computer.

paragraphs: A more secure version of HTTP is called HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure). This contains https:// at the beginning of the URL. It encrypts all the information that is sent and received. This can stop malicious users such as hackers from stealing the information and is often used on payment websites. HTTPS uses port 443 for communication instead of port 80.

paragraphs: The request message contains the following:

paragraphs: The request line and headers must all end with two characters: a carriage return followed by a line feed, often written <CR><LF>. The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace. In the HTTP/1.1 protocol, all headers except Host are optional.

paragraphs: A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 standard.


title: Ethernet

paragraphs: Ethernet is a way of connecting computers together in a local area network or LAN. It has been the most widely used method of linking computers together in LANs since the 1990s. The basic idea of its design is that multiple computers have access to it and can send data at any time. This is comparatively easy to engineer.

paragraphs: If two computers send data at the same time, a collision will occur. When this happens, the data sent is not usable. In general, both computers will stop sending, and wait a random amount of time, before they try again. A special protocol was developed to deal with such problems. It is called Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection or CSMA/CD.

paragraphs: There are different Ethernet standards. Today, Ethernet cables look like thick telephone cables. They connect to boxes called hubs or switches. Each cable runs from a computer's network interface card (NIC) to such a box. This cable is called 10BaseT or 100BaseT, or 1000BaseT Cable.

paragraphs: Today, the cables for 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT are the same. Their transmission medium is unshielded twisted pair for Category 5 (UTP-Cat5) or 5e. Shielded cable (STP-Cat5 or Cat5e) can be used when there is a lot of electrical noise, and Category 6 (UTP-Cat6 or STP-Cat6) works better with faster signals such as 1GBit or 10GBit.

paragraphs: Other devices, such as video game consoles, can also be connected using the same kind of cabling. Certain computer peripherals, for example printers and certain hard disks can be directly connected to the network with such cables.

paragraphs: Ethernet can go at different speeds. In the beginning, Ethernet was at 10 MBits per second. The Ethernet most often used today is at 100 MBits per second. Most new computers now have the NIC built in, and can go at 1GBit per second. There are also standards for 1GBit per second and 10 GBit per second. 100 MBit can usually talk to 10 MBit, and 1 GBit can talk to 100 MBit and usually to 10 MBit (both full and half duplex).


title: Obesity

paragraphs: Obesity is the condition of being much too heavy for one's height so that one's health is affected. In other words, it means to be too overweight. Also known as being fat. It is considered a disease and has been described as an epidemic.

paragraphs: To know if a person is overweight, the body mass index (BMI) is calculated, by dividing the person's weight (in kilograms), by their height (in meters) squared (multiplied by itself). (This is only meaningful for adults who are fully grown, and should not be used for children. Growth charts can be used to measure obesity in children.)

paragraphs: A BMI between 18.5 and 25 is considered "normal". People with a BMI of 25 or more are said to be overweight; with 30 and above, they are considered obese, and with 35 and above, they are considered "severely obese" (this used to be called "morbidly obese"). In general, the BMI number is a good quantifiable measurement of a person's obesity. However, it is a poor predictor in people who are very athletic, because a person with a higher than average amount of muscle tissue will weigh more than an average person, thus resulting in a BMI that is higher than normal, even if that person is very large.

paragraphs: The most common cause for obesity is getting more calories than are used by the body. Other factors that often contribute to obesity are:

paragraphs: Genetics are known to contribute to obesity. Leptin is a hormone that is linked to obesity.

paragraphs: Many health problems are associated with obesity. An example is Type 2 diabetes. A woman with a BMI higher than 35 is 93 times more likely to develop diabetes. A 2009 review found that people with a BMI between 40 and 50 were 22.5 times more likely to die from diabetes than people with BMIs between 22.5 and 25.

paragraphs: An obese woman is more likely to have an unhealthy baby.

paragraphs: Risk is associated with where the excess fat is stored on the body. Abdominal obesity is particularly dangerous.

paragraphs: Some people think that the idea that obesity causes bad health is not completely true and has been exaggerated. An example is J. Eric Oliver. He wrote a book called "Fat Politics: The Real Story Behind America's Obesity Epidemic". There is evidence for this belief.

paragraphs: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said in 2003 that 400,000 people died because of being obese in 2000. Then in 2004 they said that the number was wrong. A 2013 review of scientific papers found that Grade 1 obesity (BMI 30-34.9) is not associated with increased deaths. Grades 2 (BMI 35-39.9) and 3 (40+) obesity are associated with much higher rates of death. It has been suggested that obesity is associated with mortality (death) because of mortality in Grade 2 and 3 obesity. People with grade 2 and 3 obesity are 29% more likely to die.

paragraphs: 'Metabolically healthy obesity' is increasingly being recognized. Up to 40% of obese people are metabolically healthy. They are not more likely to get heart disease or die than metabolically healthy non-obese people.

paragraphs: The 'obesity paradox' is a term used to describe how obesity can lower the risk of death. Obesity increases the chance of getting heart disease. But obese people with heart disease are less likely to die in a 7-year period. The obesity paradox has also been found in patients with stroke, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

paragraphs: Scientists have not yet found a 'cure' for obesity that most people are willing to implement. It is common wisdom that people who lose weight will regain it all within 5 years.

paragraphs: However, this position has been scientifically challenged for over a decade. Additionally, modern research has achieved significantly higher success rates than the figure that dominates the popular internet. Therefore, diet and exercise is the most common recommended treatment for obesity - it has the potential for a very high treatment success rate.

paragraphs: Surgery can be used to treat obesity. Gastric bypass is the most common weight loss surgery. It makes a person's stomach smaller so that they feel full after eating less food and causes their body to absorb less calories. People who have surgery are usually very obese.

paragraphs: Some people think that obesity should not be treated at all. This position is contradicted by substantial medical research.

paragraphs: Weight loss medicines can make people want to eat less or make less of the energy from food be absorbed by their bodies. The only weight loss drug approved by the FDA for long term use is orlistat. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved other drugs because they have side effects. Also they are worried that people who are not obese will take them.

paragraphs: In the West, people associate obesity with negative characteristics such as laziness, ugliness, stupidity, etc. These attitudes are increasing. Discriminating against someone because of their weight is legal in the United States. The fat acceptance movement says that this is wrong and is a kind of prejudice called fatphobia. In some cultures obesity is viewed as positive. It is associated with wealth, beauty, and fertility.


title: Phillips Academy

paragraphs: Phillips Academy (also called Andover, Phillips Andover, or PA) is a high school for boys and girls in Andover, Massachusetts, near Boston, USA. The school is a boarding school. 75% of the students live there.

paragraphs: Phillips Academy is one of the oldest private boarding schools in the United States. Two American Presidents, George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, went to school there.

paragraphs: Phillips Academy was founded during the American Revolution as an all-boys school in 1778. The great seal of the school was designed by Paul Revere. George Washington's nephews went to the school, and he once spoke at an assembly while visiting. John Hancock, the famous signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, signed the articles of incorporation.

paragraphs: Phillips Exeter Academy was made three years later in Exeter, New Hampshire by Samuel Phillips' uncle John. The football teams have played against each other almost every year since 1878. This makes their rilvalry one of the oldest high school rivalries in the country.

paragraphs: Paul Revere put bees, a beehive, and the sun into the school's great seal. The school's main motto, "Finis Origine Pendet", means "the end depends upon the beginning." It is written at the bottom of the seal. The school's second motto, "Non Sibi" means "not for self."


title: Gluttony

paragraphs: Gluttony is a wasting of resources. Usually it is food that is wasted. Either one person eats too much, or the person does something so the food (or the resources) do not reach those who need it.

paragraphs: In Christianity, this is considered to be one of the Seven deadly sins.


title: Greed

paragraphs: Greed is a desire to have more goods, or more wealth than is needed. Christianity says that greed is one of the Seven deadly sins. There it is listed as "avarice", or in Latin "avaritia".


title: Mazurek Dąbrowskiego

paragraphs: Mazurek Dąbrowskiego is the Polish national anthem, made in 1797 by Józef Wybicki.


title: Fornication

paragraphs: Fornication is a word that means having sex with someone who is not your spouse. Many Christians and Muslims believe it is sinful.


title: Profit

paragraphs: Profit is how much money somebody (normally a company) makes. This is found by subtracting how much money they have spent ("expenditure") from how much money they have brought in (revenue).

paragraphs: If John spends $15 on some ice cream cones, and then sells them for $20, he has made a profit of $5. This is because he made $20 but when the $15 he used to buy the ice cream cones is subtracted, what is left is $5. In the end, he has $5 more than he had before he bought and sold the ice cream cones.


title: Roasting

paragraphs: Roasting is a way of cooking. Something gets roasted if it is put over a fire, and some is burnt. The same effect can also be attained with a grill at a barbecue.

paragraphs: In different countries people like to roast different things. People usually roast meats such as pork, beef, chicken, lamb, and duck. The roasted meat, along with its accompanying vegetables, is often called a roast.

paragraphs: Most meat being roasted has to cook for a relatively long time, to ensure that it is cooked through. Variations to this include lamb and beef, which may be left "pink" or partially uncooked towards the centre.

paragraphs: Other things can be roasted too. For example, vegetables, coffee and chocolate. Coffee and chocolate are always roasted.


title: Influenza

paragraphs: Influenza, better known as the flu and sometimes called the grippe, is a common childhood illness, but is not as common among adults. It is not limited to humans, most mammals and many birds can also catch influenza. It is caused by several different viruses (see: RNA virus), which is why people can have the flu more than once. The name "influenza" comes from , meaning "influence".

paragraphs: Human Influenza can pass from one person to another very easily. It is most commonly spread by the microscopic droplets of mucus and fluid that are sent into the air when the sick person coughs or sneezes. Symptoms include cough, sore throat, muscle aches and pains, fever, headache, and rarely vomiting and diarrhoea. Influenza can also lead to other diseases, such as pneumonia. This makes it especially dangerous to young children and elderly people.

paragraphs: Although there is no cure for influenza, Antiviral drugs can be used to treat the illness so it is not as severe and does not last as long.

paragraphs: The influenza season runs from late fall to spring because most people catch it in the winter months. When there are more cases of influenza than expected, it will sometimes be called an epidemic. When there are a large number of cases of the same type of influenza all over the world, it is often called a pandemic.

paragraphs: Small changes that happen as flu is passed from one person to another is the most common way flu viruses change. This is the main reason that people can catch the flu every year.

paragraphs: The CDC keeps track of the different flu viruses that are circulating, and gives this information to the companies that make flu shots. Since the flu changes so much from year to year, flu shots have to be given for each new flu season.

paragraphs: Flu shots only protect against the most common flu viruses, and every now and then a slightly different type spreads more than expected. Usually when this happens, the existing flu shot gives some protection so that even if a person who had a flu shot catches it, they do not get as sick.

paragraphs: Some flu viruses are caught from animals. Bird flu, for example, is usually only caught by people in contact with sick birds (usually chickens). These types of flu virus are usually very limited, and while they can make a person very ill, usually other people do not catch the virus from the sick person.

paragraphs: Another way that the flu can change is when a person or animal catches two different flu viruses. The two viruses can exchange some of their genetic information, which can create a brand new flu that nobody has ever caught before.

paragraphs: If an animal flu virus changes in this way to one that can easily pass from human to human, many people become ill because nobody has any immunity to the new virus. Often, a brand new virus is more severe and kills more people.

paragraphs: New types of flu virus are usually what causes pandemics, and that is the reason many scientists have been following Bird Flu so closely—it kills six people out of every ten who catch it. This would be a very serious problem if it changes enough to spread easily between people.

paragraphs: This new flu virus got its name because it contains genetic parts that are commonly found in flu viruses that infect pigs. It is not spread by pigs or by eating pork—this is a new human virus being spread by humans. The name was the 2009 flu pandemic.

paragraphs: Although information is still coming out about swine flu, so far it does not seem to be as severe as bird flu or the flu that caused the influenza pandemic of 1918 (also known as Spanish flu), but it is much too early to predict whether it will cause the next flu pandemic.


title: Pancreas

paragraphs: The pancreas is an organ that makes hormones and enzymes to help digestion. The pancreas helps break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The pancreas is behind the stomach and is on the left side of the human body.

paragraphs: The part of the pancreas that makes hormones is called the Islets of Langerhans. The Islets of Langerhans are a small part (2%) of the total cells in the pancreas. The Islets of Langerhans change which chemical they make depending on how much of other chemicals are already in the blood. So, the pancreas works to keep the level of chemicals in balance in the body. If the Islets of Langerhans stop working, a person will suffer from a disease called diabetes. Doctors are experimenting with taking the Islets of Langerhans cells from a donor body and putting them into the pancreas of a person with diabetes to make that person well.

paragraphs: The pancreas belongs to two systems of the body: the digestive system for its role in breaking down nutrients, and the endocrine system for producing hormones.

paragraphs: The pancreas releases many different enzymes to help digestion:


title: Chloroplast

paragraphs: Chloroplasts are small organelles inside the cells of plants and algae. They absorb light to make sugar in a process called photosynthesis. The sugar can be stored in the form of starch. Chloroplasts contain the molecule chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis. In addition to chlorophyll, a chloroplast uses carbon dioxide (CO) and water (HO) to form sugar and gives off oxygen (O). Chlorophyll is what gives green plants their green colour. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow and orange pigments to assist in photon capture for photosynthesis.

paragraphs: Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double walled semi-permeable membrane which collectively known as peristromium. In the layered stacks are flat disk-shaped thylakoids. They contain light-absorbing pigments, including chlorophyll and carotenoids, as well as proteins which bind the pigments. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also contain their own DNA and ribosomes.

paragraphs: Chloroplasts are one of the many different types of organelles in the cell. They are thought to have originated as endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. This was first suggested by Mereschkowsky in 1905 after an observation by Schimper in 1883 that chloroplasts closely resembled cyanobacteria. Almost all chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event.

paragraphs: Mitochondria also had a similar origin, but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protista. In green plants, chloroplasts are surrounded by two lipid-bilayer membranes. They are thought to correspond to the outer and inner membranes of the ancestral cyanobacterium. Chloroplasts have their own genome, which is much smaller than that of free-living cyanobacteria. The DNA which remains shows clear similarities with the cyanobacterial genome. Plastids may contain 60–100 genes whereas cyanobacteria often contain more than 1500 genes. Many of the missing genes are encoded in the nuclear genome of the host.

paragraphs: In some algae (such as the heterokonts), chloroplasts seem to have evolved through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary endosymbionts may have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, thus forming tertiary endosymbionts. In the alga "Chlorella", there is only one chloroplast, which is bell-shaped.

paragraphs: In some groups of mixotrophic protists such as the dinoflagellates, chloroplasts are separated from a captured alga or diatom and used temporarily. These klepto (stolen) chloroplasts may only have a lifetime of a few days and are then replaced.


title: Chlorophyll

paragraphs: Chlorophyll is a chemical in the chloroplasts of plants. It allows plants to absorb and use light. Energy from the light is used in photosynthesis to make glucose. This contains lots of stored energy which the plant needs to release. It does this through respiration. This energy is then used when the plant grows or repairs damage. Chlorophyll also makes the stem and leaf of the plant green.

paragraphs: Chlorophyll is a green pigment in almost all plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. It absorbs light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, followed by the red portion. However, it is a poor absorber of green and near-green portions of the spectrum. Chlorophyll was first isolated in 1817.

paragraphs: Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis, which allows plants to obtain energy from light.

paragraphs: Chlorophyll molecules are arranged in and around the membranes of chloroplasts. It serves two main functions. The function of most chlorophyll (up to several hundred molecules per photosystem) is to absorb light and transfer that light energy to reaction centres. These pigments are named after the wavelength (in nanometers) of their red-peak absorption maximum. These chlorophyll pigments can be separated in a simple paper chromatography experiment.

paragraphs: The function of the reaction center chlorophyll is to use the energy transferred to it from the other chlorophyll pigments to undergo a specific redox reaction. In this reaction the chlorophyll gives an electron to an electron transport chain. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O gas, and is the source for practically all the O in Earth's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II.

paragraphs: The electron flow produced by the reaction center chlorophyll pigments is used to shuttle H ions across the membrane, setting up a chemiosmotic potential used mainly to produce ATP chemical energy; and those electrons ultimately reduce NADP to NADPH, a universal reductant used to reduce CO into sugars as well as for other biosynthetic reductions.

paragraphs: A green sea slug, "Elysia chlorotica", has been found to use the chlorophyll it has eaten to perform photosynthesis for itself. This process is known as kleptoplasty, and no other animal has been found to have this ability.

paragraphs: It still is unclear exactly why plants have mostly evolved to be green. Green plants reflect mostly green and near-green light rather than absorbing it. Other parts of the system of photosynthesis still allow green plants to use the green light spectrum (e.g. through a light-trapping leaf structure, carotenoids, etc.). Green plants do not use a large part of the visible spectrum as efficiently as possible. A black plant can absorb more radiation, and this could be very useful, notwitstandanding the problems of disposing of this extra heat (e.g. some plants must close their openings, called stoma, on hot days to avoid losing too much water). More precisely, the question becomes why the only light absorbing molecule used for power in plants is green and not simply black.

paragraphs: The biologist John Berman has said that evolution is not an engineering process, so it often has limits that an engineer or other designer does not. Even if black leaves were better, evolution's limitations can prevent species from becoming as efficient as possible. Berman wrote that achieving pigments that work better than chlorophyll could be very difficult. In fact, all higher plants (embryophytes) are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor that is a sort of green algae – so chlorophyll has evolved only once (common ancestor).

paragraphs: Shil DasSarma, a microbial geneticist at the University of Maryland, has pointed out that species of archaea use another light-absorbing molecule, retinal, to get power from the green spectrum. Some scientists believe that green-light-absorbing archae were once the most common in the earth environment. This could have left open a "niche" for green organisms which would absorb the other wavelengths of sunlight. This is just a possibility, and Berman wrote that scientists are still not convinced of any one explanation.

paragraphs: Chlorophyll is a chlorin pigment, which is structurally similar to and produced through the same metabolic pathway as other porphyrin pigments such as haem. At the center of the chlorin ring is a magnesium ion. For the structures depicted in this article, some of the ligands attached to the Mg center are omitted for clarity. The chlorin ring can have several different side chains, usually including a long phytol chain. There are a few different forms that occur naturally, but the most widely distributed form in terrestrial plants is chlorophyll "a". The general structure of chlorophyll "a" was worked out by Hans Fischer in 1940. By 1960, when most of the stereochemistry of chlorophyll "a" was known, Robert Burns Woodward published a total synthesis of the molecule. In 1967, the last remaining stereochemical elucidation was completed by Ian Fleming, and in 1990 Woodward and co-authors published an updated synthesis. In 2010, a near-infrared-light photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll f might have been discovered in cyanobacteria and other oxygenic microorganisms that form stromatolites.

paragraphs: The different structures of chlorophyll are summarized below:

paragraphs: Chlorophyll Content meters measure the optical absorption of a leaf to estimate its chlorophyll content. Chlorophyll molecules absorb in the blue and red bands, but not the green and infra-red bands. Chlorophyll content meters measure the amount of absorption at the red band to estimate the amount of chlorophyll present in the leaf. To compensate for varying leaf thickness, Chlorophyll Meters also measure absorption at the infrared band which is not significantly affected by chlorophyll.

paragraphs: The chlorophyll content of leaves can be non-destructively measured using hand-held, battery-powered meters. The measurements made by these devices are simple, quick and relatively inexpensive. They now have large data storage capacity, averaging and graphical displays.

paragraphs: Measurement of the absorption of light is complicated by the solvent used to extract it from plant material, which affects the values obtained,

paragraphs: In Angiosperms, the last step in the synthesis of chlorophyll is light-dependent. Such plants are pale (etiolated) if grown in the darkness. Non-vascular plants and green algae have an additional light-independent enzyme and grow green in the darkness instead.

paragraphs: Chlorosis is a condition in which leaves do not make enough chlorophyll, so they become yellow. Chlorosis can be caused by a not having enough iron—called iron chlorosis—or by not having enough magnesium or nitrogen. Soil pH sometimes affects these kinds of chlorosis. Many plants are adapted to grow in soils with specific pH levels and their ability to absorb nutrients from the soil can depend on this. Chlorosis can also be caused by pathogens including viruses, bacteria and fungal infections, or sap-sucking insects.


title: Oak

paragraphs: The oak tree is a tree or shrub in the genus "Quercus". There are about 600 living species. The common name "oak (Oaks)" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, such as "Lithocarpus".

paragraphs: The genus "Quercus" is native to the Northern Hemisphere. It includes deciduous and evergreen species from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in Asia and the Americas. North America has the largest number of oak species: about 90 occur in the United States. Mexico has 160 species, of which 109 are endemic. The second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which has about 100 species.

paragraphs: Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with rounded edges in many species; some have leaves with jagged edges or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species do not drop dead leaves until spring. In spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers (as catkins) and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, carried in a cup-like structure. Each acorn has one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on species. The so-called "live oaks" are evergreen. They are not a taxonomic group, just a life style which occurs across the genus.

paragraphs: The oak is a kind of hardwood forest tree. They are well known as a climax vegetation in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. That means, left untouched by humans, it would be the dominant tree. Much of England was covered by oak forests before modern farming took over the land. The last extensive oak woodlands were cut down to build ships for the Royal Navy in the 18th century.

paragraphs: Some kinds of oak wood are very hard. That is why people in past centuries cut them down to make ships, furniture and other things. The wood is now scarce and expensive and only used to make a few things anymore. Much cheaper are softwoods like pine.

paragraphs: Oak trees grow slowly and can live up to 1000 years.

paragraphs: A mature oak tree stands about 100 feet tall (~30 metres). It is a home for more animals than any other European tree. 30 species of birds, 45 different bugs and over 200 species of moth have been found on oaks. Beetles burrow under the bark, and some drill holes into the wood. The leaves are eaten by many caterpillars. Many leaves carry strange little bumps on the underside. These are insect galls, caused by many little animals. Midges, moths, worms and tiny wasps lay their eggs in leaves or leaf buds. The leaf reacts by forming a growth around the eggs. Inside the gall, larvae develop. The leaf falls, but the larvae may come out only the next spring. Small galls only have one larva, but larger galls may contain as many as 30 larvae.

paragraphs: Oak trees produce acorns once a year which ripen in autumn. Oak trees may start producing acorns when they are about 20 years old. A mature oak may produce 90,000 acorns a year; this is several millions in its lifetime.


title: Glucose

paragraphs: Glucose is a simple carbohydrate, or "sugar". It is one of several kinds of sugars. It is important because cells in an organism use it as a source of energy. Turning glucose into energy is called cellular respiration, which is done inside the cells of a living organism. Excess glucose is converted to fats and are stored in adipose tissues.

paragraphs: Glucose is made by plants in a process called photosynthesis. It can also be made by animals in their liver or kidneys.

paragraphs: Having the right amount of glucose available in a person's body is important. Glucose is essential in the proper functioning of the brain. It can be measured with a simple blood test. People that do not have enough glucose have low blood sugar levels. This is a health condition called hypoglycemia. People with too much glucose have hyperglycemia. They might have a health condition called diabetes.

paragraphs: Its chemical formula is CHO. This means it has six carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms bonded together.

paragraphs: How sugars work, and how glucose can be formed, was studied by a German chemist named Emil Fischer in the 1890s. His work earned him the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

paragraphs: There are two forms of glucose, the α- and β- forms. The only difference between them is the position of the hydroxyl group, above and below the plane of the ring of the molecule.

paragraphs: For α-glucose, the hydroxyl (-OH) group is below the ring, while for β-glucose, the (-OH) group is above.


title: Cellulose

paragraphs: Cellulose is the main chemical that forms the main structure of plants. It is the most abundant macromolecule on Earth. It is also fiber. Cellulose is a very complex carbohydrate and consisting of 3,000 or more glucose units. Cellulose was discovered by Anselme Payen discovered in 1838. He isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula. Cellulose is the most common organic compound on Earth.

paragraphs: Cellulose has no taste. It is odorless and hydrophilic. It is insoluble in water and most organic solvents. It is chiral and is biodegradable.

paragraphs: Cellulose is made from a form of glucose and makes up most of the cell wall of plant cells. This is what keeps a plant in shape. Humans and other animals cannot digest cellulose but some animals such as termites and ruminants use bacteria to digest it.

paragraphs: It is a polysaccharide, which is repeating units of a monosaccharide joined together by a glycosidic bond by a condensation reaction, there is a by-product of water, found in plants. It is very tough because when you join beta glucose together, they are opposite ways up, the bonds are straight, forming straight chains. There is hydrogen bonds between the polymers.

paragraphs: These fibers are in bundles of about 40, called microfibrils. Microfibrils are embedded in a hydrated network of other polysaccharides. The cell wall is assembled in place. The parts are made inside the cell and then assembled by enzymes associated with the cell membrane.

paragraphs: It is mainly used to make paper. It is also used to make as cotton, linen, and rayon for clothes, nitrocellulose for explosives, and cellulose acetate for films. Cellulose is used as insulation in transformers, cables, and other electrical equipment. Microcrystalline cellulose and powdered cellulose are used as inactive fillers in drug tablets. Cellulose derivatives are used as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Cellulose can be converted into cellophane. Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose.


title: Wikiquote

paragraphs: Wikiquote is a "sister" (related) project of Wikipedia. It is one of many projects run by the Wikimedia Foundation.

paragraphs: Wikiquote was based on an idea by Daniel Alston and made by Brion Vibber. The goal of the project is to produce a large reference of quotations from famous people, books, and proverbs, and to give details about them.

paragraphs: The project was first created in English. However, in July 2004, more languages were added. Some of there are:

paragraphs: As of May 2016, 31 versions each have more than 1,000 articles. The largest Wikiquote is the English project with over 26,500 content pages, followed by the Italian and Polish versions, both with over 22,000 content pages. In total, 60 languages have over 100 content pages.

paragraphs: In February 2010, the Simple English Wikiquote was locked and closed.


title: Brasília

paragraphs: Brasília () is the capital city of Brazil. The name is commonly spelled "Brasilia" in English. The city and its Federal District are in the Central-West region of the country. It is on a plateau known as "Planalto Central". Brasília has a population of about 2,557,000 (3,599,000 in the metropolitan area) as of the 2008 IBGE estimate. It is the fourth largest city in Brazil. But the Brasília metropolitan area is the sixth largest in the nation. It is listed as a World Heritage Site. Brasília hosts 124 foreign embassies.

paragraphs: Viewed from above, the main portion of the city resembles an airplane or a butterfly. The Monumental Axis goes east-west and holds government buildings and monuments. The other axis is curved in a north south direction. The city is commonly referred to as "Capital Federal", or simply "BSB". As the national capital, Brasília is the seat of all three branches of the Brazilian government. The city also hosts the headquarters of many Brazilian companies. Planning policies place residential buildings around expansive urban areas. The plan includes large avenues. It divides the city into sectors with different purposes, including accommodation and tourism. The city is built around an artificial lake, Lake Paranoá.

paragraphs: Residents of Brasília are known as "brasilienses" or "candangos". (The "candangos" are people who moved to Brasília when the city was established). In local usage, the word "Brasília" usually refers only to the First Administrative Region within the Distrito Federal (Federal District), where the most important government buildings are. Brasília has a unique status in Brazil, as it is an administrative division rather than a legal municipality like nearly all cities in Brazil. In the rest of Brazil, Brasília is almost always means the Brazilian Federal District. There are several "satellite cities," which are also part of the Federal District.

paragraphs: The city was planned and developed as a new town in 1956. Lúcio Costa was the principal urban planner and Oscar Niemeyer was the principal architect. Roberto Burle Marx was the landscape designer. They created the "Plano Piloto de Brasília". Brasília was built in 41 months, from 1956 to April 21, 1960.

paragraphs: The Brasília subway system ("Metrô de Brasília") has 24 stations on two lines long. The subway currently covers the south half of the metropolitan area. In 2010, a light rail line was added. By 2014, the light rail line will go from the end of the north wing of the city to the airport in the south.

paragraphs: Brasília International Airport is the main airport in Brasília, connecting the capital to all major Brazilian cities and many airports in other countries. It is the third most important airport of Brazil, in terms of passengers and aircraft movements.


title: Musical genre

paragraphs: A musical genre is how people describe different styles of music. Some of the most common music genres are:

paragraphs: Plus there are several more common music genres. Religious music is also common, such as hymns, choir music and many more.

paragraphs: To provide an example of cross genre descriptions; Joe Walsh is to the SteelDrivers as Metallica is to Trampled by Turtles. Furthermore, The Rolling Stones are to Flatt and Scruggs as Nickelback is to Doyle Lawson and Quicksliver.


title: Dim sum

paragraphs: Dim sum is a way of serving Chinese and/or Vietnamese food. A range of different foods are served to the people who are eating, including pork wontons, fried shrimp, and egg rolls.

paragraphs: They are served on small wooden platters, and are usually steamed.


title: Super Smash Bros. Melee

paragraphs: Super Smash Bros. Melee, known in Japan as is a video game where players can choose from many people from famous Nintendo games and have them fight each other. Players can fight alone or team up with someone else against a friend. This game is a sequel to "Super Smash Bros." for the Nintendo 64. "Super Smash Bros. Melee" is for the Nintendo GameCube. The subsequent game is "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" for the Wii.

paragraphs: Super Smash Bros. Melee takes 26 characters from many of Nintendo's series. It includes all 12 veteran characters from Super Smash Bros. 64, and adds 14 new characters, including Princess Peach and Bowser from the Super Mario Bros. series, Princess Zelda/Sheik and Ganondorf from The Legend of Zelda, and new characters like Ice Climbers from Ice Climber and Marth from Fire Emblem. Some characters seem to play more like other characters who were in the first game, like Ganondorf compared to Captain Falcon.

paragraphs: Sakurai planned to include more characters, including Diddy Kong, Meta Knight, King Dedede, Balloon Fighter, Solid Snake and Lucas but did not have time to fit them in. All of them except for Balloon Fighter made it into "Super Smash Bros. Brawl".

paragraphs: Items from different games can fall from the sky, like Poké Balls from "Pokémon" or Mushrooms from "Mario". These items can be used in different ways. For example, Poké Balls can summon Pokémon, and Mushrooms can either grow the person whom touches it, unless it is a Poison Mushroom which makes them shrink.

paragraphs: "Super Smash Bros. Melee" has many stages that players can battle on. Most of the stages are based on Nintendo series like "Mario", "Pokémon", and "The Legend of Zelda".

paragraphs: "Super Smash Bros. Melee" has become very popular in tournaments. These tournaments do not use items or most stages, believing that these make the game unfair. In tournaments, however, a lot of characters are not strong enough to win. Some of the best characters for tournaments are Fox McCloud, Falco Lombardi, and Jigglypuff.


title: Catalysis

paragraphs: Catalysis is the change in speed (rate) of a chemical reaction due to the help of a catalyst. Unlike other chemicals which take part in the reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in many chemical reactions. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive catalysts. Catalysts that slow the reaction are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons.

paragraphs: A catalyst is something which changes the rate of a chemical reaction. An example is when manganese oxide (MnO) is added to hydrogen peroxide (HO), and the hydrogen peroxide starts to break up into water and oxygen. Catalysts are either of natural or synthetic origin. Catalysts are useful because they leave no residue in the solution they have sped up. A catalyst can also be used in a reaction again and again as it is not used up. There are many catalysts in our body which play an important part in many biochemical reactions. These are called enzymes. Most catalysts work by lowering the 'activation energy' of a reaction. This allows less energy to be used, thus speeding up the reaction. The opposite of a catalyst is an "inhibitor". Inhibitors slow down reactions. Some of them are found in snake venom and are dangerous for our nervous system or heart.


title: Hydrogen peroxide

paragraphs: Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound. Its molecular formula is HO. It is used as a cleaner, and as hair bleach. In a concentration of 3% (meaning that there are 3 grams of hydrogen peroxide for 100 grams of a water solution), it can be used to treat wounds. Over time it will slowly become oxygen gas and water through decomposition.

paragraphs: Chemists often use hydrogen peroxide in chemical reactions. It is a very strong oxidising agent when used with acid and water. "Oxidising agents" take electrons from other compounds.

paragraphs: Here hydrogen peroxide takes an electron from the Fe2+ ions and becomes water.

paragraphs: It can also be a reducing agent when used with other compounds. When it acts as a reducing agent, oxygen gas is also produced. "Reducing agents" give electrons to other compounds. This method is often used to make oxygen in laboratories.

paragraphs: Hydrogen peroxide can be bought in shops when mixed with lots of water but is very dangerous when the concentration is higher. It is flammable and causes burns.


title: Mayotte

paragraphs: Mayotte is an island in the Indian Ocean next to Madagascar.

paragraphs: It is geographically part of the Comoros Islands, but politically, it is part of France.


title: Halldór Ásgrímsson

paragraphs: Halldór Ásgrímsson (8 September 1947 – 18 May 2015) was the Prime Minister of Iceland. The leader of the Progressive Party since 1994, he took over as Prime Minister on September 15, 2004, from the Independence Party leader, Davíð Oddsson. He resigned in 2009.

paragraphs: He died from a heart attack at a Reykjavik hospital, aged 67.


title: Somaliland

paragraphs: Somaliland (officially called the Republic of Somaliland) is a country in middle-east Africa. It borders Djibouti to the west, the Federal Republic of Ethiopia to the south and Somalia to the east.

paragraphs: The area used to be the Somali area which was part of the British empire along with Jubaland, which was called Trans-juba. It was called the British Somali Coast Protectorate before 26 June 1960. That year it united with Somalia called the "Somali Republic". In May of 1991, after a war, Somaliland regained independence.

paragraphs: Currently, Somaliland is an unrecognized state. This means that no country with membership in the United Nations or international organization views Somaliland as an independent country. Instead, they wrongly mistake Somaliland as a part of Somalia.

paragraphs: Somaliland has a republican government with free elections. The capital is Hargeisa. Berbera is a beautiful city on the coast.

paragraphs: People from Somaliland are often criticized for their country having declared independence from Somalia and working as an independent state. However, the country is much more peaceful than Somalia, has its own functioning market economy, and is not burdened with high tax rates, unlike other African countries. Some Dhulbahante people in the east have rejected joining Somaliland. These Dhulbahante created their own movement called Khatumo State which is now defunct after most of them reunited with Somaliland

paragraphs: Most people in Somaliland speak Somali and Arabic. Article 6 of the Constitution of 2001 says the official language of Somaliland is Somali, but Arabic is a mandatory subject in school. English is also spoken and taught in schools.

paragraphs: The main Somali dialect is Standard Somali. Standard Somali is spoken in most of Somalia and in countries that border it. Standard Somali is used by almost all of the media in the Somaliland region.

paragraphs: Almost all Somalilanders are Muslims. This is because Islam is the state religion, and practicing a religion other than Islam is against the law. Small amounts of non-Islamic traditions exist in Somaliland, but Islam is very important to the Somali sense of national identity.


title: NSDAP 25 points manifesto

paragraphs: The NSDAP 25 points manifesto is a 25-point plan written by Anton Drexler and edited and supported by Adolf Hitler for the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), Nazi Party, when it was founded in 1920.

paragraphs: The purpose of the 25 points was explained in the fifth chapter of the second volume of Mein Kampf

paragraphs: The leaders of the Party promise to work—if need be to sacrifice their very lives—to put this programme into action.


title: Penny

paragraphs: A penny (plural "pence" in the United Kingdom, plural "pennies" in Canada and the United States) is a coin used by several countries where people speak English. This includes United Kingdom, the United States, where a penny is worth one cent, and Canada, where "penny" is an informal term for one cent coins. Canada stopped minting the penny in 2012.

paragraphs: In British and American culture, finding a penny is often thought to be lucky. A popular expression is "Find a penny, pick it up, and all the day you'll have good luck." If someone asks you "A penny for your thoughts" They're wanting to know what you think. The phrase was first written in John Heywood's 1547 Dialogue Conteinying the Nomber in Effect of All the Proverbes in the Englishe Tongue, written when the penny was still a sterling silver coin. The possibly related American expression "my two cents" (meaning "my humble opinion") uses the low value of the penny to make fun of one's own thoughts in a funny way. In British English, to "spend a penny" means to urinate. The phrase does actually imply spending an actual penny: coin-operated public toilets commonly charged a predecimal penny, starting with the Great Exhibition of 1851. Around Decimal Day, British Rail introduced the "Superloo", better public toilets that charged 2p (roughly the equivalent of 6d.).


title: Matt Groening

paragraphs: Matthew Abram "Matt" Groening (born February 15, 1954) is an American cartoonist, screenwriter, producer, animator, author, musician, comedian, and voice actor. He is the creator of the comic strip "Life in Hell", as well as two successful television series, "The Simpsons" and "Futurama".

paragraphs: Groening has won 12 Primetime Emmy Awards, ten for The Simpsons and two for Futurama as well as a British Comedy Award for "outstanding contribution to comedy" in 2004. In 2002, he won the National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award for his work on Life in Hell. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 14, 2012.

paragraphs: He was born on February 15, 1954 in Portland, Oregon, the middle of five children. His mother Margaret Ruth was once a teacher. His father Homer Philip Groening was a filmmaker, advertiser, writer and cartoonist. Groening has Norwegian and German ancestry.

paragraphs: Groening grew up in Portland, and attended Ainsworth Elementary School, Lincoln High School and also The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington.

paragraphs: Groening identifies himself as agnostic and liberal. He has often made campaign contributions to Democratic Party candidates. His first cousin, Laurie Monnes Anderson, is a member of the Oregon State Senate representing eastern Multnomah County.

paragraphs: He has been married twice. Groening and Deborah Caplan married in 1986. They had 2 sons - Homer (who is called Will) and Abe. Couple split up in 1999. In 2011, Groening married Argentinian artist Agustina Picasso and became stepfather to her daughter Camille. In May 2013, Picasso gave birth to Nathaniel Philip Picasso Groening who was named after American writer Nathanael West.