title: Osama bin Laden

paragraphs: Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden ""; 10 March 1957 2 May 2011) was the founder of al-Qaeda, the Sunni militant Islamist organization. It claimed responsibility for the September 11 attacks on the United States. It is also responsible of many other mass-casualty attacks against civilian and military targets. He was a Saudi Arabian, a member of the wealthy bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite.

paragraphs: He was born in the bin Laden family to billionaire Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden in Saudi Arabia. He studied there in college until 1979, when he joined the mujahideen forces in Pakistan against the Soviets in Afghanistan. He helped to fund the mujahideen by funneling arms, money and fighters from the Arab world into Afghanistan, also gaining popularity from many Arabs. In 1988, he formed al-Qaeda.

paragraphs: He was banished from Saudi Arabia in 1992, and shifted his base to Sudan, until US pressure forced him to leave Sudan in 1996. After establishing a new base in Afghanistan, he declared a war against the United States, initiating a series of bombings and related attacks. Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives and Most Wanted Terrorists for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings.

paragraphs: From 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, as the FBI placed a $25 million reward on him in their search for him. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed inside a private residential compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, by members of the United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group and Central Intelligence Agency operatives in a covert operation ordered by U.S. President Barack Obama.

paragraphs: Bin Laden probably believed that the restoration of Sharia law would set things right in the Muslim world, and that all other ideologies—"pan-Arabism, socialism, communism, democracy"—must be opposed. These beliefs, along with violent expansive jihad, have sometimes been called Qutbism.

paragraphs: He believed Afghanistan under the rule of Mullah Omar's Taliban was "the only Islamic country" in the Muslim world. Bin Laden had consistently talked about his belief in the need for violent jihad to make right what he believed are injustices against Muslims perpetrated by the United States and sometimes by other non-Muslim states, the need to eliminate the state of Israel, and the necessity of forcing the US to withdraw from the Middle East. He had also called on Americans to "reject the immoral acts of fornication and homosexuality, intoxicants (e.g. alcohol), gambling, and usury" in an October 2002 letter.

paragraphs: One of Bin Laden's most infamous beliefs was that civilians, including women and children, are legitimate targets of jihad. Bin Laden was antisemitic, and had delivered warnings against alleged Jewish conspiracies: "These Jews are masters of usury and leaders in treachery. They will leave you nothing, either in this world or the next". Shia Muslims have been listed along with "Heretics... America and Israel," as the four principal "enemies of Islam" at the ideology classes of bin Laden's Al-Qaeda organization.

paragraphs: In keeping with Wahhabi beliefs (the Saudi type of Islam), bin Laden opposed music on religious grounds, and his attitude towards technology was mixed. He was interested in "earth-moving machinery and genetic engineering of plants" on the one hand, but rejected "chilled water" on the other.

paragraphs: His viewpoints and methods of achieving them led to him been designated as a terrorist by scholars, journalists from the New York Times, the British Broadcasting Corporation, Qatari news station Al Jazeera, analysts such as Peter Bergen, Michael Scheuer, Marc Sageman, and Bruce Hoffman and he was indicted on terrorism charges by law enforcement agencies in Madrid, New York City, and Tripoli. He stayed in hiding until he was killed by the United States in Pakistan, in May 2011.

paragraphs: Osama bin Laden's name can be transliterated in many ways. Usāmah bin Muhammad bin 'Awad bin Lādin (Arabic: أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بنلادن), shortened to Usama bin Laden (أسامة بن لادن).

paragraphs: The form used here, Osama bin Laden, is used by most English-language mass media. This includes CNN and the BBC. The FBI and Fox News use Usama bin Laden. Often the name is abbreviated to UBL.

paragraphs: The bin Laden family (or "Binladin," as they like to be called) usually use the name as a surname in the Western style. The family company is known as the "Binladin Brothers for Contracting and Industry". It is one of the largest corporations in Saudi Arabia.

paragraphs: Bin Laden had many aliases and nicknames, such as "the Prince", "the Emir", "Abu Abdallah", "Mujahid Shayekh", and "the Director".

paragraphs: Bin Laden was first married at the age of 17 to a Syrian cousin. Her name was Najwa Ghanem. She was probably two years younger than he. They had 11 children. Najwa left bin Laden just before 9/11.

paragraphs: He was married to Khadijah (1983–1995, divorced). His next wife was Khairiah (1985–2011, his death). His fourth wife was Siham (1987–2011, his death). He was married to unknown woman in 1996 but the marriage was annulled within a few days. His last wife was Amal (2000–2011, his death). There were a total of nine children from these later marriages, making 20 in all.

paragraphs: U.S. President Barack Obama launched a mission, "Operation Neptune Spear", where United States Special Operation forces raided bin Laden's hideout compound. On the night of 2 May 2011 (Pakistani time; 1 May 2011 U.S. time), bin Laden was killed by bullets to the chest and head. His body was buried at sea later that day so there would be no grave.


title: Mayflower (ship)

paragraphs: The Mayflower was the ship that in 1620 transported 102 passengers, including a group of people seeking religious freedom. Their original destination was the Virginia Colony but they were forced to land instead at the Cape Cod hook. Their story is one of suffering and survival in a harsh environment. The voyage is one of the most famous in early American history.

paragraphs: The "Mayflower" left England with the ship "Speedwell" on 15 August 1620. It carried Pilgrims from England and Holland. The "Speedwell" turned out to be unseaworthy. Both ships were twice forced to return to England. The "Mayflower" finally left Plymouth, England on 16 September 1620. On 19 November 1620, they spotted land. Their destination was the Virginia Colony but the ship was damaged so were forced to land Cape Cod on 21 November. They wrote the Mayflower Compact, which made rules on how they would live and treat each other.

paragraphs: The Passengers lived on the ship for a few months. They went ashore to build shelters in the day, then returned to the ship at night. About half the people died in the winter of 1620-21. In March 1621, there were enough shelters for everyone to live on land.


title: Reykjavík

paragraphs: Reykjavík is the capital city of the island country of Iceland. It is also the largest city in that country. The population of Reykjavík is over 117,000 people. There is a geothermal bath, both natural and unnatural in appearance. It is in the capital and people relax in this hot spring during the cooler months. Björk, an Icelandic singer, is from Reykjavik.


title: Uniform

paragraphs: Uniforms are special clothes to show that a group of people belong together. The group of people will all be dressed in the same way ("uni" means "one", and form means "shape" one shape).

paragraphs: People may wear uniforms for several reasons. The uniform will help the people to feel a team spirit so that they work well together. They may also help members of the public to know who they are, e.g. in a department store a customer can tell who is a member of staff, or in the street people will recognize a police officer. Uniforms may also be worn because they are practical, e.g. it might keep them safe when operating machinery or keep them clean when doing their work.

paragraphs: In the army soldiers wear uniform. They also wear extra things such as badges on their uniform which show how important they are (what rank they are).

paragraphs: Nurses in hospitals wear uniform. Sometimes domestic workers wear uniform when working for their employers. Important domestic workers may wear special smart uniforms called "livery" e.g. porters (doormen) at luxury hotels.

paragraphs: In some countries such as India, Japan, China, Korea, Australia and United Kingdom many school children wear uniform. The uniform would be a set of clothes with the school crest or symbol. It helps them to feel proud of their school and children from rich families and poor families all look the same. In Britain, for example, most young children wear school uniform. In state schools the children may wear polo-necked T shirts with a school logo. Other schools, especially private schools, may have a formal uniform, or they may be free to choose their own clothes so long as they are the school colour.


title: Battle of Trafalgar

paragraphs: The Battle of Trafalgar was a sea battle fought on 21 October 1805 between the navies of France and Spain on one side, and Great Britain on the other. The battle took place near Cape Trafalgar (a cape is a piece of land sticking out into the sea), which is in southwest Spain. The battle ended with a clear victory for the British forces. This allowed Britain to become the world's largest sea power for 100 years. The Battle of Trafalgar was the most important sea battle of the 19th century.

paragraphs: The Napoleonic Wars had gone on for some time. France had built the strongest army in Europe, and controlled much of the land. Because it was an island, Britain had built a strong Royal Navy and used this to blockade France to prevent French ships from leaving their ports. The French leader Napoleon Bonaparte wanted to invade and conquer Britain, which meant he had to sink the British navy first, otherwise it would be able to prevent his army from landing.

paragraphs: The British knew that France might try to attack them, and had placed ships outside the important French ports, like Toulon. The admiral (chief sailor) in charge of the British fleet was Lord Horatio Nelson. He had become famous in Britain for his victories over the French, such as at the Battle of the Nile in 1798.

paragraphs: But the French navy managed to avoid Nelson's fleet and leave Toulon during a storm and met a group of Spanish ships. Spain at the time was an ally (partner) of France. This small fleet first sailed to the West Indies, then returned across the Atlantic Ocean to the Spanish port of Cadiz. They wanted to join with more French ships to make a stronger fleet. The British had chased them both ways across the ocean.

paragraphs: The French then learned that some British ships had been seen in Gibraltar, and thought this meant that the British fleet was not as strong as it had been before. So they decided that this was the best time to leave Cadiz.

paragraphs: The next day, the 33 ships of the French and Spanish fleet were met by the 27 ships of the British. Nelson had put his ships into two lines. Before the battle started, he sent a message which was to become famous: "England expects that every man will do his duty".

paragraphs: The two British lines sailed through the French and Spanish line, splitting it, and was able to cause great damage to its ships using their cannons

paragraphs: However, Admiral Nelson, on board his ship, "HMS Victory", was hit by a musket bullet fired by a sniper from the French ship "Redoutable". The bullet entered via his shoulder, went into his lung and lodged in his spine. He was taken below the deck and died later, shortly before 4:30pm, as the battle died down. The French and Spanish had lost 22 ships, the British lost none.

paragraphs: Because France was unable to invade Britain, British soldiers were able to fight on the European continent together with the armies of other countries against the armies of Napoleon. In the end, Napoleon was finally defeated, in 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo. With control of the seas, Britain was able to build up a large empire during the years that followed and its navy was the world's largest for over a hundred years.

paragraphs: Nelson's body was brought back to Great Britain and he was given a hero's funeral. In 1843, the famous Trafalgar Square and Nelson's Column were built in London to honor him.


title: Peter Frampton

paragraphs: Peter Frampton (born 22 April 1950) is an English guitarist. He is best known for the album "Frampton Comes Alive".


title: Nairobi

paragraphs: Nairobi is the capital and largest city of Kenya. Its name comes from The Masaai word 'Enkare Nyorobi' meaning 'place of cool waters'. It is far from the coastline of Kenya. About three million people live there. The city was founded in 1899 as a railway depot linking Uganda to Mombasa. Nairobi is the fourth largest city in Africa with a population of more than 6 million people. There are several popular shopping malls, including the Yaya Center,The Thika Road Mall, The Hub Karen, Junction Mall, the Village Market, and the Sarit Center. The Israeli owned, Westgate Mall was another popular destination until it was attacked by al Shaabab terrorists in 2013. Nairobi is headed by a governor, who is called Mike Mbuvi 'Sonko' and he's Deputy, Polycarp Igathe who were inaugurated after the August 8,2017 election.

paragraphs: Nairobi has become very highly populated due to high rural to urban migration rates. Violent crime is also fairly common in many areas, leading to the nickname "Nairobbery."


title: Derek and the Dominos

paragraphs: Derek and the Dominos was an American blues rock band. The band's members were Eric Clapton, Carl Radle, Bobby Whitlock, Jim Gordon, and Duane Allman. They made the album "Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs". "Layla", with the well-known guitar riff, came from that same album. The band broke up after one album.


title: Carl Radle

paragraphs: Carl Dean Radle (born June 18, 1942 Tulsa, Oklahoma, died May 30, 1980) was an American musician, best known for being the bassist in Derek and the Dominos. Radle worked with many well-known artists and worked on many gold and platinum singles and albums. Radle is thought by many to have been the best bass guitar sideman in the music business.

paragraphs: In May 30, 1980, Radle died at age 37, of problems from a kidney infection caused by his alcoholism and drug addiction.


title: Nineteen Eighty-Four

paragraphs: Nineteen Eighty-Four is a novel written by George Orwell in 1948. The book is about what Orwell thought the world could have looked like in the year 1984. It describes a terrifying world where governments control and watch everyone's lives. The main character is Winston Smith. He lives in a country that is ruled by a powerful "Party" and its leader Big Brother, and dreams of changing this. He falls in love with Julia, who agrees with him, and is led into rebellion against the government.

paragraphs: The book is very famous. Many of its ideas are also famous. Among these are "Big Brother", "Newspeak", "Room 101" and "unperson". In 2005, "Time" (a magazine) called it one the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005.

paragraphs: In the year 1984, the world is divided into three massive countries that are in endless war with each other: Oceania, Eurasia and Eastasia. Each country has a totalitarian government, meaning that the government tries to control everything that its people do. Great Britain is now named "Airstrip One" and is part of Oceania. Oceania is ruled by "the Party". They use the "Thought Police" and "telescreens" (two-way televisions) to spy on people. People also have to show love for the Party and its leader, Big Brother. While pictures of Big Brother are everywhere, he is never seen for real, and he may not even exist.

paragraphs: Winston Smith is an ordinary member of the Party. He works for the "Ministry of Truth". His job is to re-write history when the Party wants him to. The Party kills anyone whom it thinks threatens its grip on power, sometimes for reasons that make no sense. When these people are killed, the Party also hides any sign that they existed. Winston works hard and pretends to love the Party. His secret is that he hates the Party and dreams of fighting them. Winston buys a diary from a shopkeeper called Mr Charrington.

paragraphs: He hides the diary in his room, where he writes about his secrets. He falls in love with a woman called Julia. The Party will not allow this, so they go out into the countryside to meet in secret. Later, they start meeting in a room at Mr Charrington's shop. O'Brien, an important member of the Party, tells Winston that he also hates the Party. Winston and Julia meet O'Brien at his home, where he gives them a book. The book is about how the Party stays in power. It says that the Party can be stopped if ordinary people rise up against it.

paragraphs: Winston and Julia are betrayed. Winston is taken to the "Ministry of Love". This is the prison of Oceania. O'Brien tells Winston that he was only pretending to be his friend. Winston is hurt badly and told he must stop hating the Party and do everything they want him to do, even if he has to say that "2 + 2 = 5". O'Brien says that once this is finished, Winston will leave the Ministry of Love and will return to a normal life for some months or years. After this, they will shoot him. But first, they want to make him turn against Julia.

paragraphs: In the end, Winston is taken to "Room 101", where he must face his worst fear: rats. As a cage of hungry rats is pushed against his face, Winston tells them to "Do it to Julia!" After Winston leaves the Ministry of Love, he meets Julia. He says he turned against her in Room 101, and she says she did the same. Winston then sits alone in a café. The last words of the story are: "He loved Big Brother."

paragraphs: Orwell got the idea for the book when he saw in the newspapers of London that they listed how much the country's supplies increased (more supplies) during World War II when they were actually very low on supplies and were getting smaller. He started writing a political satire of the possible condition of Britain in 50 years. He wrote it in 1948, mostly during a visit to Jura, Scotland. He sent the writing to his publishers in December 1948.

paragraphs: The main character, Winston Smith, lives in the town of London, United Kingdom (although in the novel, the United Kingdom is called "Airstrip One"). Airstrip One is only a small part of the mega state (big country) of Oceania. Oceania is a very large country. The Americas, Greenland, Iceland, South Africa, Madagascar, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea, all come together to create the country of Oceania. There are two other countries in the novel - Eurasia, and Eastasia. Europe (not including the United Kingdom), Russia, and half of Mongolia, make up the country of Eurasia. China, Japan, Korea, and some north-west countries in Asia, make up the country of Eastasia. The equatorial countries (the Middle East, North Africa, etc.) are not part of any of these three countries, as Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia are always fighting over these places.

paragraphs: People in Oceania belong to three groups:

paragraphs: Party workers belong to four "ministries":

paragraphs: The leader of Ocenia is Big Brother. His picture is seen everywhere, along with the words "Big Brother is watching you." However, it is not clear if he is a real person. Emmanuel Goldstein and O'Brien both say that the main role of Big Brother is to be a symbol for the Party. O'Brien also says that Big Brother will never die.

paragraphs: The book was an attack on totalitarianism (when a government tries to control people's lives) and dictatorship (rule by one person). George Orwell was a democratic socialist who was against any form of dictatorship. He once wrote: Later he repeated that idea, writing about "1984"

paragraphs: Newspeak is a fictional language (artlang) that appears in the book "Nineteen Eighty-Four". It is the official language of Oceania. At the end of his book, George Orwell described Newspeak. It started out as the English language, but the number of words gets smaller each year. The Party are trying to stop people from rebelling, so it destroys words like "freedom" and "love", saying that people can not think of it if there is no word for it. In the society, this is supposed to prevent thoughtcrime, which is thinking against the Party, or thinking about the past. For example, a person could not say "I want to be free", because there was no word for "free" any more, so the person could not describe what he or she was feeling. At the time, it was supposed to make fun of what was later called "politically correct" speech, and "thoughtcrime" made fun of censorship. "Newspeak" is also used for military reasons, such as Oceania's Ministry of Peace (in Newspeak: "Minipax"), really the war department. Words like "Peace", "Truth", "Love", and "Plenty" were used in Newspeak a lot to mean their exact opposites. Another "Newspeak" word, "joycamp", means "forced labor camp". Other "Newspeak" words were used for political reasons. Words like ""crimethink"" were defined by the "Party", and became laws of the land.

paragraphs: "Book" magazine ranked the character of Big Brother as #59 on its "100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900" list.


title: Grover Cleveland

paragraphs: Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 - June 24, 1908) was the 22nd (1885–1889) and also the 24th (1893–1897) President of the United States. He was the only president to serve a second term that did not begin as soon as the first had ended. Cleveland was the first Democrat elected as President after the Civil War.

paragraphs: He was known for his honesty, integrity, and having a firm stance against corruption. He believed in small government (he wanted the government to tax less and spend less). He used the presidential veto power over 500 times, far more than most other presidents, to reject bills he disagreed with. He did not want the United States to get its military involved in Latin America.

paragraphs: Cleveland was born on March 18, 1837 in Caldwell, New Jersey. He was raised in Cleveland, Ohio. Cleveland studied at New York Institute for the Blind. He was married to Frances Folsom, who was over 20 years younger. In fact, many people expected Cleveland to marry her mother Emma. He was the first President to marry in the White House. They had one child, Ruth Cleveland, during his presidency.

paragraphs: During his second term, he had an emergency surgery for jaw cancer on a boat in the middle of a river to avoid publicity. Cleveland died on June 24, 1908 from a heart attack in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 71.


title: Bassist

paragraphs: A bassist is a musician whose musical instrument is a bass guitar or a double bass. In rock, pop, country, metal, jazz fusion, and funk music, most bassists play a bass guitar. In some types of jazz, and in rockabilly, bluegrass, and in symphony orchestras, bassists play a double bass.

paragraphs: Many professional rock, pop, country, metal, and funk, rockabilly, and bluegrass, bassists learn to play by performing in groups for many years and by taking private lessons with bass teachers.

paragraphs: Bassists who play in symphony orchestras, or who play jazz or jazz fusion often learn to play the bass in a conservatory, music school, college, or university. College or university degrees in double bass include the Bachelor of Music degree (which takes four years) and the Master of Music degree (which takes two years).

paragraphs: There are fewer Bass players than traditional guitar players. Some believe the bass is harder to play, although it has fewer strings

paragraphs: Bassists, like other musicians, have a much lower average income than many other job categories, such as accountants or administrators. Although a tiny number of famous bassists make a large amount of money, and a small number of bassists have full-time jobs in bands or orchestras, most bassists have low incomes. Many bassists do not earn enough from playing, so they do other music-related jobs, such as teaching bass.


title: President of the United States of America

paragraphs: President of the United States (of America) is the head of state and leader of the government of the United States of America.

paragraphs: The Presidents of the United States of America may also refer to:


title: Fascism

paragraphs: Fascism is a right-wing form of government in which most of the country's power is held by one ruler. Fascist governments are usually totalitarian and authoritarian one-party states. Under fascism, the economy and other parts of society are heavily and closely controlled by the government, usually by using a form of authoritarian corporatism. The government uses violence to arrest, kill or otherwise stop anyone it does not like.

paragraphs: Three large fascist countries were Italy under Benito Mussolini, Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, and Spain under Francisco Franco.

paragraphs: Mussolini invented fascism in Italy in the late 1910s and developed it fully in the 1930s. When Hitler came to power in Germany in the 1930s, he copied Mussolini.

paragraphs: Not all scholars agree on what fascism is. Philosopher Jason Stanley of Yale University says it is "a cult of the leader who promises national restoration in the face of humiliation brought on by supposed communists, Marxists and minorities and immigrants who are supposedly posing a threat to the character and the history of a nation." That is, fascism focuses on one person as leader, fascism says communism is bad, and fascism says that at least one group of people is bad and has caused the nation's problems. This group could be people from other countries or groups of people within the country. Under Hitler's fascist Germany, the government blamed Jews, communists, homosexuals, the disabled, Roma and other people for Germany's problems, arrested those people, and took them to camps to be killed.

paragraphs: In 2003, Dr. Lawrence Britt wrote "14 Defining Characteristics of Fascism":

paragraphs: The name fascism comes from the Italian word "fascio" for "bundle". This word comes from the Latin word "fasces" which was an axe surrounded by a bundle of sticks. In Ancient Rome, leaders carried the fasces as a symbol of their power.

paragraphs: A journalist named Benito Mussolini invented fascism. He started Italy's fascist party in 1919. He became Italy's prime minister in 1922. He was not elected. His supporters walked into Rome in large numbers, and the king of Italy made him prime minister. Although, officially, the fascist party in Italy was ruled by a "grand council" from 1922 until the end of World War II, Benito Mussolini really had almost all the power in the country.

paragraphs: According to scholar Ruth Ben-Ghiat, Mussolini believed democracy had failed. He had been a socialism but left the movement because he thought it was not good either. He believed democracy failed because of social class. Under fascism, Mussolini would say, people would focus on the nation and people would not think about social class.

paragraphs: However, Mussolini also believed that to make fascism work, he and his followers had to remove anything that could distract people from the nation. He also believed he should get to decide who in Italy counted as part of the Italian nation and he should get to throw out or arrest anyone he said did not count as a real Italian. He believed it was right to use violence to remove those distractions and those people. Groups of people with weapons would go out into the streets and beat up or even kill people Mussolini did not like.

paragraphs: Mussolini did not allow journalists to write what they wanted.

paragraphs: Mussolini believed that Italy should be made of white people, so he encouraged white women to have more babies and persecuted people who were not white.

paragraphs: One of the reasons fascism spread in the early 20th century was because the Russian Revolution had just happened and people were afraid of communism. Sometimes landowners and business owners would support fascists because they were afraid of what would happen if the country became communist instead.

paragraphs: In her work, "The Origins of Totalitarianism", published in 1951, Hannah Arendt compared National Socialism, Stalinism and Maoism. She does not talk about these regimes being fascist; according to her, they are totalitarian. In 1967, German philosoper Jürgen Habermas warned about a "left-wing fascism" of a protest movement in Germany of the 1960s, commonly known as Ausserparlametarische Opposition, or APO.

paragraphs: There is more than one reason why people living in democratic states oppose fascism, but the main reason is that in a Fascist government the individual citizen doesn’t always have the option to vote, nor do they have the option to live a lifestyle which may be seen as immoral, useless, and unproductive towards society. If you are not heterosexual (homosexual, cross-dressing, changing genders, etc.) you can be arrested and put on trial.

paragraphs: The fascist governments in Italy and Germany were removed after they lost World War II, but fascism continued as military dictatorships under Salazar in Portugal, Franco in Spain, in some parts of Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

paragraphs: In the 21st century, fascist political movements exist in many countries.


title: Erection

paragraphs: An erection () of a body part such as a man's penis, a woman's clitoris or a nipple refers to it becoming larger and harder.

paragraphs: The term "erection" is most often used to refer to an erection of the penis. It is widely believed that a man's penis needs to be erect in order for him to take part in sexual intercourse and penetrate his partner's vagina and to ejaculate semen, but all are possible without an erection. In a healthy male, an erection will usually occur if the man is sexually aroused (made sexually excited) or stimulated. This can happen if he is touched sexually, or even if he is not touched – for example, if he sees a naked person or thinks about having sex with someone else. Erections can also occur without thinking about sex or being touched. Most boy teenagers have unexpected erections. This is normal. Erections happen several times during the night. This happens to all healthy adult males of all ages. This also happens when a man wakes up. That is normal too. Tissues in the penis called the corpus spongiosum penis and corpora cavernosa penis fill with blood, causing the penis to become longer, thicker, harder and to stand upright. A man's erection usually stops if he is no longer sexually aroused, or after he has had an orgasm and has ejaculated. An erection will usually not be possible immediately following ejaculation, although adolescent males may be able to achieve erections immediately following ejaculation. The time period during which an erection cannot be repeated following ejaculation is called the refractory period.

paragraphs: Erect penises have appeared in erotic (sexually exciting) art for a very long time. Pictures of men with erections appear on ancient objects and in paintings. In the past, the erect penis was also a symbol or sign of health and fertility (the ability to give life). Ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans believed in gods that had erect penises. Today, erect penises do not often appear in artworks or movies because many people think that showing a man's penis when it is erect is obscene (not decent). Men with larger penises are often thought to be more handsome, manly and powerful. A lot of people also believe that men with bigger penises are better at making their partners feel good when they are having sex. However, this is not always true.

paragraphs: Like a man's penis, a woman's clitoris can also become erect. This happens in a similar way to an erection of the penis. The clitoris also has a corpora cavernosa, and when a woman is sexually excited this part of the clitoris fill with blood. This causes the clitoris and other parts of the woman's sex organs to become larger, harder, redder in colour, and very sensitive to being touched.

paragraphs: The nipples of men and women can also become erect. Women's nipples become erect when they are breastfeeding (giving milk to their babies from their breasts). Men and women may also have an erection of their nipples when they are sexually excited, or if they feel cold. Nipples do not have any tissue in them that fills with blood. Instead, the body's nervous system makes muscles in the nipples contract (become shorter), causing them to stand up and become slightly harder.

paragraphs: Blood flows out of the corpus spongiosum and corpora cavernosa penis, and the penis goes back to its normal size. A man who often has problems having or keeping an erection of his penis is said to have erectile dysfunction (ED). On the other hand, an erection that lasts too long is also a dangerous condition called priapism. Men who want to get less erections sometimes take anaphrodisiacs.

paragraphs: The term "erection" is most often used to refer to an erection of the penis. A man's penis is usually soft, quite short and hangs down. When the penis is like this, it is said to be flaccid (). In order for the man to take part in sexual intercourse by putting his penis inside a woman's vagina, his penis needs to become longer, thicker, harder. For many men it stands upright. It is okay if it points out or down. When the penis is hard, it is said that the penis is erect or that the man has an erection. The scrotum (the bag containing a man's testicles or "balls") will usually tighten during erection. The penis usually needs to be at least mildly erect before the man can have an orgasm and ejaculate semen.

paragraphs: The scientific name for an erection is "tumescence" (which means "swelling"). Some slang terms for having an erection are "getting hard", "getting wood" and "having a hard-on", and an erect penis is informally called a "boner", "hard-on", "stiffy", "wood" or "woody".

paragraphs: The penis is shaped like a banana or sausage. It has a duct or tube called the urethra running right through it. Semen and urine pass along the urethra to get out of the body. Around the whole urethra is tissue called the corpus spongiosum penis (which is Latin for "body of the penis that is like a sponge"). It is near the lower surface of the penis. Also inside the penis near its upper surface are two cylindrical tissues called the corpora cavernosa penis (Latin for "bodies of the penis that are like caves"). (One of these tissues by itself is called a corpus cavernosum.) The corpus spongiosum penis and corpora cavernosa penis are filled with many blood vessels called arteries which carry blood.

paragraphs: When a man is sexually aroused or stimulated (made sexually excited) by touch – for example, if he masturbates or another person touches him in a sexual way – the touching is picked up by nerves in the arteries of the corpus spongiosum penis and corpora cavernosa penis. The nerves then cause a chemical called nitric oxide to be released into the arteries. This makes the arteries dilate (become wider), and they fill up with blood. Thus, the corpus spongiosum penis and corpora cavernosa penis all fill with blood and become larger and harder. This makes the penis grow longer, thicker and harder. The corpora cavernosa penis press against blood vessels called veins that let blood flow out of the penis. Since less blood can flow out of the penis through the veins, more of it stays in the penis, which remains hard. During an erection, a valve stops urine from entering the urethra so that only semen flows along it. This is why it is very difficult for a man to urinate when he is having an erection.

paragraphs: A man can also become sexually aroused without being touched, for example, if he sees a naked person or thinks about having sex with someone. In this case, his brain sends messages through his spinal cord (which is inside his vertebral column or backbone) to his penis and makes an erection happen. The brain can also stop an erection from happening, even if the man is being touched sexually.

paragraphs: After a man has had an orgasm and has ejaculated, his erection usually ends. How long this takes depends on the length and thickness of his penis. A man can also stop having an erection without having an orgasm and ejaculating, if he is no longer sexually aroused. Nerves in his body cause the arteries in the penis to constrict (become narrower). This forces blood out of the corpus spongiosum penis and corpora cavernosa penis. As they go back to their normal size, they do not press so much on the veins leading out of the penis. This lets blood flow faster out of the corpus spongiosum penis and corpora cavernosa penis. The scientific term for this process is "detumescence".

paragraphs: The angle that an erect penis makes varies from one man to another. If it is imagined that a man is standing upright and there is a horizontal line stretching out from the base of his penis, most men's erect penises point upwards from the line at a certain angle (as shown in the photograph on the left). However, it is common and normal for an erect penis to point nearly vertically upwards, nearly vertically downwards, or even horizontally forward. The angle depends on how long a man's suspensory ligament is. The suspensory ligament is a band of tough, stringy tissue that joins a man's penis to the front of his pelvis.

paragraphs: Few men's penises are completely straight when they are erect. It is common for an erect penis to have a slight curve in it. The curve can be up or down, or to the left or right. A curve of up to 30° is considered normal, and medical treatment is usually not needed unless the angle of curvature is more than 45°. A curved penis does not usually cause a man any problems when he is having sex. However, if the curvature of a penis changes, this could be caused by an illness called Peyronie's disease (see below). An erection that pokes through clothing is sometimes called a "manbulge".

paragraphs: A survey of 300 men over the age of 18 carried out between 11 March and 17 March 2001 in Cancún, Mexico, found that among those men the average erect human penis was about 14.928 centimetres (5.877 inches) long, and that most of them had an erect penis length of between 14 and 16 centimetres (5.5 and 6.3 inches). The typical girth or circumference (the length around the outside of the penis) was about 12.63 centimetres (4.972 inches), and most erect penises had a girth of between 12 and 13 centimetres (4.7 and 5.1 inches). As this survey was only done in one city, its findings may not apply to men from other countries.

paragraphs: The size of an erect penis generally does not change after puberty, the time when a boy becomes sexually mature. Some people have surgery to make their penises larger. However, a study that came out in 2006 found that only 35% of men who had gone for such surgery were happy with the results.

paragraphs: An erection of the penis can also happen by itself when a man is asleep, often when he is dreaming. The scientific term for this is "nocturnal penile tumescence" (which means "swelling of the penis at night"). It is also common for a man to wake up after a night's sleep to find that he has an erection. This is often caused by his bladder being full of urine, which presses on the tissues in the penis. Such an erection is sometimes informally called a "morning glory" or "morning wood".

paragraphs: Most boy teenagers have unexpected erections. Sometimes adult men have unexpected erections. Unexpected erections are involuntary and are normal. People call this a "spontaneous" (sudden or surprise) erection. Sometimes it happens in school. Sometimes it happens walking. Sometimes it happens taking clothes off for a shower or bath or swimming. This is normal. Such erections can be embarrassing if they happen in public. Erections can occur unexpectedly at any time of day.

paragraphs: A man who often has problems having or keeping an erection of his penis is said to have erectile dysfunction. Erectile dysfunction is also known as ED, impotence or male impotence. The study of erectile dysfunction comes within andrology, the field of science dealing with men's health.

paragraphs: ED is not uncommon. For example, about 10% of all men in the United Kingdom will have ED happening to them regularly at some time in their lives. It can be due to both physiological and psychological reasons. Physiological reasons are those dealing with how the body works. Psychological reasons are those involving human behaviour and how people think.

paragraphs: These are some common physiological reasons for ED:

paragraphs: ED can also happen for psychological reasons. For example, a man can find it difficult to have an erection:

paragraphs: Having erections is seen by many people as a very important part of being a man. Therefore, a man who has ED often feels that he is not manly enough and not successful in life. This can lead to him feeling ashamed and not as good as other men. The matter is made worse because men often do not like talking about their personal problems with other people, so they keep their unhappy feelings to themselves. However, talking to a doctor or psychiatrist (a doctor who knows a lot about mental problems) is helpful, as he or she may be able to suggest ways of dealing with the problem.

paragraphs: How ED may be treated depends on the cause. If it is caused by a disease, sometimes treating the disease will reduce the problem. For example, if a man is unable to have erections because his body does not make enough testosterone, he can be given pills to take which help his body to do so. If the blood vessels or nerves in the corpora cavernosa penis are damaged, a full cure may not be possible. However, there are some temporary treatments that allow a man to have an erection for long enough to have sex:

paragraphs: If a man's erection lasts for more than four hours even though he is no longer sexually excited, this is a medical problem called priapism (). The man must go to a doctor or hospital quickly if it happens. The condition is named after the Greek god Priapus, whose penis was believed to always be erect (see below). Priapism is painful, and is a medical emergency because the blood stuck in the penis can become thick and form clots. This can damage the blood vessels of the penis and lead to erectile dysfunction (ED). In serious cases the tissues of the penis can die, and the penis may have to be amputated (cut off) so that the tissue death does not spread to the rest of the body.

paragraphs: It is not really known what causes priapism. Men who suffer from priapism sometimes have blood diseases like leukemia (a type of cancer of the blood; in the United Kingdom and some other countries it is spelled "leukaemia") or sickle-cell disease (which makes the blood cells crescent-shaped). Problems with the nervous system such as injury to the spinal cord or abnormal growths on it can also lead to priapism. Certain medicines can make priapism happen, including some used to treat ED such as alprostadil. A 2008 study suggests that too much of the chemical adenosine in the body may cause priapism since it makes blood vessels widen which lets more blood flow into the penis.

paragraphs: When a man with priapism is brought to the emergency department of a hospital, a doctor will usually try to remove blood from the corpora cavernosa penis by aspirating it (sucking it out) using a syringe. If this is not enough, a chemical called phenylephrine (/"feen-il-eff-rin"/) may be injected into the penis to try and make the blood vessels become narrower. If this also does not work, the doctor will make a shunt (a hole or passage) between the corpora cavernosa penis and corpus spongiosum penis. This allows blood to flow away from the corpora cavernosa penis into the corpus spongiosum penis. For men who have priapism again and again, it has been found that medicines such as sildenafil (Viagra) and tadalafil (Cialis) may help.

paragraphs: When an erect penis is shown in art, it is often called a phallus. Erotic (sexually exciting) art has shown phalluses for a very long time. Pictures of men with erections appear on ancient objects and in paintings.

paragraphs: The erect penis was also a symbol or sign of health and fertility (the ability to give life). The Hohle Fels phallus was found in a cave in Germany. It is a piece of stone carved to look like a penis that archaeologists believe is about 28,000 years old. (Archaeologists are scientists who study the past by looking for things that people have left behind.) From the fourth millennium B.C. (4000–3001 B.C.), Ancient Egyptians worshipped Min as the god of reproduction and the maker of all things. Min was shown in statues and on wall carvings as having an erect penis.

paragraphs: The Ancient Greeks believed in a god called Priapus who had a very large penis that was always erect. He was thought to protect livestock (animals kept by humans for food, milk, leather or wool), fruit plants and gardens, and men's sex organs. He was also seen as able to chase away evil, and as a protector of sailors, fishermen and others needing good luck.

paragraphs: Long after the Roman Empire ended and many people became Christian, Priapus was still seen as a symbol of health and fertility. A 13th-century book called the "Lanercost Chronicle", which is a history of northern England and Scotland, talks about someone putting up a statue of Priapus to try and stop a disease from spreading among cattle.

paragraphs: Some Native Americans in the Southwestern United States believe in a fertility god called Kokopelli who is in charge of childbirth and agriculture (the growing of plants and animals for food and other uses). He also plays tricks and is a symbol for the spirit of music. Kokopelli is sometimes shown as a man playing a flute with a humpback (a back that is bent forwards), things like feathers sticking out from his head, and a very big penis.

paragraphs: Today, phalluses do not often appear in artworks or movies (except in pornographic movies which show people having sex with each other). This is because many people think that showing a man's penis when it is erect is obscene (not decent).

paragraphs: Men with larger penises are commonly thought to be more handsome, manly and powerful. In 2006, it was reported that an Internet survey of 52,031 heterosexual (straight) men and women showed that men who thought that their penises were larger than the average size believed they were more good-looking. Of the men, 55% of them were happy with their penis size, but 45% wanted to be larger. Only 0.2% wanted a smaller penis. On the other hand, 85% of women were happy with how big their partner's penis was. Another study that also came out in 2006 in the Netherlands found that out of 251 homosexual (gay) men who were asked, most felt it was better to have a large penis, and those who thought they had one were happy about their bodies. However, just because a man has a large penis does not always mean he is sexier or stronger than other men, even though many people think this.

paragraphs: A lot of people also believe that men with bigger penises are better at making their partners feel good when they are having sex. For heterosexual men, this is because it is thought that when the penis can go further into the vagina, this helps the woman have a better orgasm. Scientists are not sure whether this is true or not. Some research shows that the most sensitive area of the female sex organs includes the vulva, clitoris and the part of the vagina nearest the outside of a woman's body. There are also parts of the clitoris inside the vulva and vagina. Therefore, most men's penises are long enough to make their partners feel good during sex. Also, some studies say it is not how long but how thick a penis is that decides how well it excites a woman sexually.

paragraphs: However, other research seems to say that a long penis that touches and sexually excites the fornix, which is the deepest part of the vagina near the cervix (the opening of the uterus into the vagina), helps a woman to have an orgasm. A study from the Netherlands of 375 women came out in 2002. This study said that although 77% of the women felt that the length of a man's penis was not important to them, quite a large number – 21% – felt it was important.

paragraphs: The clitoris () is part of a woman's sex organs. It makes a woman's orgasms happen, which gives her very good sexual feelings. Like a man's penis, a woman's clitoris also becomes bigger and harder, moving out and away from the body, when she is sexually excited. However, because the clitoris is much smaller than the penis, and most of the clitoris is inside the woman's body, only part of its entire length can be seen from the outside. Some clitoral erections cannot be seen as well as an erection of the penis.

paragraphs: An erection of the clitoris happens in the same way as an erection of the penis. The clitoris has a corpus cavernosum similar to the penis. However, instead of the corpus spongiosum it has two vestibular bulbs. When a woman is sexually excited, the corpus cavernosum and vestibular bulbs fill with blood. This causes the clitoris and other parts of the woman's sex organs to become larger, harder, and redder in color. When this happens, they become very sensitive to being touched.

paragraphs: If an erection of the clitoris does not go away after a long time, even though the woman is not being made sexually excited any more, this is a medical problem called clitorism. Like priapism which can affect a man's penis, it is painful. A woman who thinks she may have clitorism should see a doctor.

paragraphs: Clitorises range in size. From a small pea to fingertip-section(s) when still soft. They engorge with blood and become much larger in all dimensions, and firmer when aroused. They can range into even 4-5 inches in some. A penis has a tubular shape while a clitoris has a hood covering and C curvature shape, and yet still tube-like, and rides along the body. The tip can lift upward more when aroused. The tip can also be referred to as the pearl. Sometimes, it can be uncomfortable to the entire clitoris, from its sensitivity, if treated rashly, mistaking erection for pleasure. This is known mentally by the participant if pleasurable or uncomfortable. It can be hard, or mid-firm as well, and climb to a shudder, then do a sharp firm up and an outward move right before, and then a tingling jingle inside and to the g-spot on in the other - and this is an orgasm. Orgasms vary in intensity. The body and mind can be relaxed and passionate afterwards to continue with love making or setting itself.

paragraphs: The nipples of men and women can also become erect. Women's nipples become erect when they are breastfeeding (giving milk to their babies from their breasts). Men and women may also have an erection of their nipples when they are sexually excited. This is caused by the release of a hormone called oxytocin in the body. Nipples can also become erect when a person feels cold or sexually excited.

paragraphs: Unlike the penis and clitoris, nipples do not have any tissue in them that fills with blood. Instead, the body's nervous system makes muscles in the nipples contract (become shorter), causing them to stand up and become slightly harder.


title: Methamphetamine

paragraphs: Methamphetamine (also called meth or speed) is a man-made stimulant drug. Many people use it illegally, but it is occasionally used legally by prescription to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or obesity as "Desoxyn".

paragraphs: Methamphetamine has two isomers, "left-handed" and "right-handed". Left-handed methamphetamine helps fight stuffy nose and is legal. Right-handed methamphetamine makes people feel high and is mostly illegal. This page is mostly about the right-handed form.

paragraphs: Methamphetamine is very addictive. This means that when people start taking the drug, they will want to keep taking more, even if it is making them sick.

paragraphs: Methamphetamine can be in powder or crystal form, and can be snorted, smoked, injected, or eaten. In its smoked form, methamphetamine is known as "ice," "crystal," "crank," "batu," "barang," "cerita," or "glass".

paragraphs: When meth is snorted, the methamphetamine crystals are ground up and made into little lines (also called rails). Then they are inhaled through the nose with rolled-up paper, rolled-up dollar bills, empty plastic pen tubes, short plastic straws, or other things that can be made into a small "tube" shape.

paragraphs: When meth is snorted, its effects last longer than when it is smoked or injected. The effects can last as long as twelve hours. However, it takes longer to feel the effects, and there is not as strong of a "rush" (a very happy feeling called euphoria).

paragraphs: Snorting methamphetamine can damage the nasal septum on the inside of the nose. Also, if people share the same snorting tube, they can get infections.

paragraphs: When meth is smoked, the crystals are placed into a glass pipe (called a "meth pipe") or a hollowed-out lightbulb. The crystals are warmed up from underneath by a flame (like from a lighter or matches). The methamphetamine is not actually "smoked" this way; it is heated up until it melts. When it melts, it turns into a gas that the user then breathes in.

paragraphs: Smoking meth causes euphoria to happen very quickly, and causes strong euphoria. However, the vapor (gas) can damage the lungs.

paragraphs: Methamphetamine can be mixed with water, then put into a needle and injected. Meth can be injected under the skin (this is called "skin-popping); into a muscle; or into a vein. Injecting meth into a vein causes the quickest, strongest euphoria.

paragraphs: Injecting meth can damage the body in many ways. It is very addictive. People can get infections (including HIV, hepatitis C, and many others) from dirty needles.

paragraphs: If methamphetamine is eaten, it gets absorbed into the body from the digestive system. The effects take longer to start, but they last longer.

paragraphs: Desired effects are the things people want to feel when they take methamphetamine. These include:

paragraphs: Adverse effects are the bad things that using methamphetamine can cause. Meth has many adverse effects. For example:

paragraphs: One of the reasons meth is so addictive is that people feel very bad when the effect begins to wear off. Many users claim to have an uncontrollable urge to get more of the drug after using it.

paragraphs: When people are addicted to meth, they will have withdrawal symptoms when they do not take meth. This means they will feel tired and/or hungry when they do not have the drug. For example, without meth, people will feel anhedonia. This means they cannot feel good without taking meth.

paragraphs: Overdosing on meth (taking too much) can make a person very sick. Some of the symptoms of methamphetamine overdose are very dangerous, and can even kill a person. For example, overdosing on meth can cause:

paragraphs: "Meth Mouth" is a term used to describe destroyed teeth in people that use methamphetamine. Meth mouth can happen very quickly. A new addict can go from having healthy teeth to losing all of their teeth in as little as one year. The decay (rotting teeth) is not caused by methamphetamine itself, but by meth users not brushing their teeth, having a lot of sugary drinks, and having dry mouth.

paragraphs: The life expectancy of a meth addict is 5-10 years.

paragraphs: Methamphetamine's effects on the body can include:

paragraphs: Methamphetamine's effects on feelings and behavior can include:

paragraphs: Taking meth over a long time can cause Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. In fact, a teenager taking methamphetamine can show symptoms similar to Alzheimer's.

paragraphs: People who take meth over a long time often have serious psychological problems, like:


title: Mother

paragraphs: A mother is a female parent. A mother gives birth to babies after pregnancy. Pregnancy is usually nine months. If a woman over the stage of puberty puberty raises an adopted or biological child, then she is a mother as well. Adopted children are also part of that person's family.

paragraphs: After the birth of a baby, breastfeeding is an important part of taking care of the baby. Mother's milk

paragraphs: "Madre" is Mother in Spanish. "Mamma" or "Mor" is Mother in Norwegian. "Mater" is Mother in Latin. "Mutter" is Mother in German. "Mat" is Mother in Russian. "Mama" is mother in Swahili


Democrat


title: Caribbean

paragraphs: The Caribbean or Caribbean Area (Dutch: "Cariben" or "Caraiben", French: "Caraïbe" or more commonly "Antilles"; Spanish: "Caribe") is a region of the Americas. It includes the Caribbean Sea, its islands (more than 7,000 islands, small islands and cays, most of them surrounding the sea), and the coastal islands of north South America and east Central America.

paragraphs: The Caribbean is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to its east and north, the coast of South America to its south, the coast of Central America to its southwest, and by the Gulf of Mexico to its northwest.

paragraphs: The West Indies is the name for the group of the islands of the Bahamas and the "Antilles". The Antilles are divided into two groups: the larger "Greater Antilles", on the north limit of the Caribbean Sea, and the "Lesser Antilles", on the east and south.

paragraphs: The Caribbean islands have many different types of land. Because of this, the islands have many different kinds of plants and animals, even uncommon ones.

paragraphs: Famous islands in the Caribbean include Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. The countries of Dominican Republic, and Haiti are on Hispaniola.

paragraphs: There is also a lot of white sandy beaches and hot sun there.

paragraphs: The name Caribbean comes from "Carib", indigenous people living in the Lesser Antilles and north South America when the Europeans came to the Americas.

paragraphs: The 18th century saw many countries trying to colonize the islands. Because of this, Caribbean culture is very similar to those of Africa, India, and many countries in Europe.


title: Caribbean Sea

paragraphs: The Caribbean Sea is a tropical sea in the center of the Caribbean area. The body of water is part of the Atlantic Ocean. The sea is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico. The Caribbean Sea has many islands, which are popular among North American tourists because of their tropical climate. The Caribbean Sea is famous around the world as a tourist destination.

paragraphs: Christopher Columbus came across a group of islands in the Caribbean region. When he did so, he thought he had reached another part of the world. Because of this, he named the islands the ‘West Indies’. However, later it was realized that he found an entire region. It still had its natural resources. The name ‘Caribbean’ was later given to it by the Amerindian tribe, the Caribs. That is how it got its name: the Caribbean Sea.

paragraphs: This entire region covers an area of 1,063,000 sq. miles. It covers from Mexico to the boundaries of South America.

paragraphs: This sea is just as deep as it is wide. Its deepest point is believed to be even lower than 25,220 ft, 7,686 m. That makes this point one of the lowest points on the surface of the earth, and the Caribbean Sea one of the deepest seas in the world.


title: Gibraltar

paragraphs: Gibraltar is an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom. This means it shares the British King or Queen and has the protection of the British Armed Forces. It is in southwest Europe on the Mediterranean Sea. About 32,000 people live there. They are called Gibraltarians.

paragraphs: Gibraltar has always been important as a military base because this is where the Mediterranean Sea narrows to only 14 kilometres (9 miles) at the Strait of Gibraltar. This meant that whichever country controlled Gibraltar could see all ships that came into the Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: Gibraltar is most famous for "The Rock of Gibraltar", a 426 meter high limestone rock rising out of the sea. The rock can be seen for many miles. It is home to the "Barbary Apes", a type of tail-less macaque which are the only wild monkeys in Europe.

paragraphs: Gibraltar was named for a general who led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. It belonged to Spain between the years 1501 and 1704, and it was captured by a group of Dutch and British marines during the War of the Spanish Succession (1704). In 1713, Spain signed the "Treaty of Utrecht". This treaty ended the war and said Gibraltar would be British permanently. However, according to this treaty, if the Crown of Great Britain ever wants to leave the territory, the Crown of Spain will have a prior position in order to claim the sovereignty.

paragraphs: Ever since then, Spain has tried to get Gibraltar back. They attacked the Rock several times in the 18th century.

paragraphs: However, since the 1950s, Spain has tried get Gibraltar by diplomacy (international relations) by putting different kinds of pressure and restrictions on the people of Gibraltar.

paragraphs: Gibraltar was very important in World War II. Since it was in such a good position, it was the perfect place for the British army and navy to have its base. In World War II the people living in Gibraltar were taken to different parts of the world like Jamaica so they could be protected from the war and also leave the Rock for the soldiers. The Rock of Gibraltar was used by these soldiers, and long tunnels were made inside it. These tunnels even had a hospital and living areas for the soldiers.

paragraphs: In 1969 Britain gave Gibraltar a new constitution. This meant that it gave the people of Gibraltar a large amount of self-government.

paragraphs: In 2002 the people of Gibraltar were asked to vote whether they wanted Spain to share Gibraltar with the United Kingdom; almost everyone voted and 98.97% said they did not.

paragraphs: In 2006 Gibraltar voted to approve a new constitution which gave full self-government to the people meaning they can independently create their own laws.

paragraphs: In 2006, Spain signed a deal to stop interfering with Gibraltar telephone lines, and daily flights to Madrid started.


title: Windows 2000

paragraphs: Windows 2000 (also known as Win2K, W2K, Win2000 or Windows 2K) is an operating system that was designed to work with computers that have either single or multiple processors. It was designed for 32-bit Intel x86 computers. It is part of the Microsoft Windows NT line of operating systems and was released to manufacturing on December 15, 1999 and officially on February 17, 2000. Windows 2000 comes in four versions: Professional, Server, Advanced Server, and Datacenter Server. Additionally, Microsoft offers Windows 2000 Advanced Server - Limited Edition and Datacenter Server - Limited Edition, which were released in 2001 and runs on 64-bit Intel Itanium processors. Windows 2000 was designed for businesses, but it was also popular with home users. A Home Edition of Windows 2000, codenamed Neptune, was planned, but was never released.

paragraphs: Windows 2000 uses two 'modes' - a 'User Mode' and a 'Kernel Mode'. The Kernel Mode is specially for hardware drivers (drivers tell the computer how to 'speak' to something) and allows drivers to 'speak' to things in the computer. The User Mode is for computer programs to run in without fear of causing harm to the computer.

paragraphs: All versions of Windows 2000 have things in common, including many system utilities such as the Microsoft Management Console (MMC) and standard system management applications such as a disk defragmentation utility. There is lots of support for different languages and for people with disabilities. Windows 2000 supports the Windows NT filesystem NTFS 5, the Encrypted File System (EFS), as well as basic and dynamic disk storage. Dynamic disk storage allows different types of volumes to be used (a volume is an area of storage on a hard disk that has been formatted with its own file system structure). The Windows 2000 Server version has many more features, including the ability to provide Active Directory services (a way of organising resources such as printers, users and group), a distributed file system (a file system that supports sharing of files) and fault-redundant storage volumes.

paragraphs: Windows 2000 can be installed and deployed to an enterprise through either an attended or unattended installation. Unattended installations rely on the use of answer files to fill in installation information, and can be performed through a bootable CD using Microsoft Systems Management Server (SMS), by the System Preparation Tool (Sysprep).

paragraphs: Windows 2000 was created from the Microsoft Windows NT operating system versions. It was originally called Windows NT 5.0 but Microsoft changed the name to Windows 2000 on October 27, 1998. It was also the first Windows version that was released without a code name. The first software test version (also known as a beta version) for Windows 2000 was released on September 27, 1997. Several more test versions were released until Beta 3, which was released on April 29, 1999. Microsoft further issued three more test versions from between July to November 1999. They then finally released Windows 2000 to partners on December 12, 1999 . The public received the full version of Windows 2000 on February 17, 2000 and the press immediately called it the most stable operating system Microsoft had ever released. Novell (a competitor of Microsoft) did not think that Microsoft's new directory service product (part of Windows 2000) was as good as their own Novell Directory Services (NDS) technology . On September 29, 2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000 Datacenter. Microsoft released Service Pack 1 (SP1) on August 15, 2000, Service Pack 2 (SP2) on May 16, 2001, Service Pack 3 (SP3) on August 29, 2002 and its last Service Pack (SP4) on June 26, 2003. Microsoft has said that they will not release a Service Pack 5, but instead, have offered an "Update Rollup" for Service Pack 4. Microsoft stopped developing their Java Virtual Machine (JVM) for Windows 2000 in Service Pack 3.

paragraphs: Microsoft has replaced Windows 2000 Server products with Windows Server 2003, and Windows 2000 Professional with Windows XP Professional. Windows Neptune started development in 1999, and was supposed to be the home-user edition of Windows 2000. However, the project took a long time to create and only one pre-test (alpha version) release was created. Windows Me was released instead and the Neptune project was incorporated into the development of Windows XP. The only elements of the Windows project which were included in Windows 2000 were the ability to upgrade from Windows 95 or Windows 98, and support for the FAT32 file system.

paragraphs: Several notable security flaws have been found in Windows 2000. Code Red and Code Red II were famous computer worms that used problems with indexing service of Windows 2000's Internet Information Services (IIS) to caused a security problem. In August 2003, two major worms named the Sobig worm and the Blaster worm began to attack millions of Microsoft Windows computers and caused many problems for system administrators and computer operators who used Windows 2000. This was very embarrassing for Microsoft, and caused many corporations and governments to look carefully at Microsoft's security problems.

paragraphs: Windows 2000 is the last version of Windows that does not require any Pentium instructions, and is therefore the last version that will run on a 486.


title: Junior Certificate

paragraphs: The Junior Certificate is earned by passing a required exam that takes place in secondary schools in the Republic of Ireland.

paragraphs: The exams take place every June, with English always the first exam. For example, the English exam took place on June 8 this year (2005). Exams usually end with the subjects that the fewest people take. For example, Italian took place on June 24 this year (2005).

paragraphs: Three exams must be passed in order to receive a certificate: They are English, Mathematics, and Irish. If a student has not lived in Ireland for at least seven years before the exam, he is not required to sit for the Irish exam. A student may then take 3-6 other subjects to get his certifcate.

paragraphs: The results of the exams are given in mid-September.


title: Leaving Certificate

paragraphs: The Leaving Certificate is the final exam in the Republic of Ireland secondary school education system. Students have to do the Junior Certificate before they can take the Leaving Certificate. Students also have to take Maths and English. If they took Irish during the Junior Certificate, they also have to take Irish.

paragraphs: Students have to take exams on at least six subjects. They can take either High or Ordinary level tests. In Irish and Maths, there is also a Foundation level. This is for people who have trouble with that subject.

paragraphs: The results are given out in the middle of August. A leaving certificate is required in order to go on to college or university.


title: Empire

paragraphs: An empire is a set of lands or regions that are ruled by an emperor. Usually the emperor will have governors, viceroys or client kings who each rule one land or region. An empire will usually also have many different cultures.

paragraphs: Well-known empires include the Persian Empire, the Roman Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the British Empire.

paragraphs: Today, the only monarch to use the title "emperor" is the Emperor of Japan, although his power is mostly ceremonial and the "de facto" head of government is the Prime-Minister of Japan.

paragraphs: The Mongol Empire was the largest land empire in history.


title: Writer

paragraphs: A writer can mean anyone who makes a written work or who writes, but the word more usually means people who write creatively or as a job, or those who have written in many different forms. Skilled writers demonstrate skills in using language to portray certain ideas and images, whether in fiction or non-fiction.

paragraphs: Writers often specialize in one of the following categories:


title: Inventor

paragraphs: An inventor is a person who makes new inventions, devices that perform some kind of function. The devices are mostly electrical or mechanical. Someone that invents new ideas or methods on how to do things may also be called an inventor. Inventors can receive a patent.

paragraphs: Many inventors make small changes to old inventions. For example, people have invented new ways to make clocks over history. Early clocks were sundials, later clocks used water, and pendulums. Modern clocks are often electronic. Other machines such as vehicles are made of many inventions.


title: Bear

paragraphs: Bears are a group of large mammals found in all over the world in many different habitats. They form the family Ursidae, in the suborder Caniformia of the order Carnivora. There are 8 living bear species.

paragraphs: Bears usually have a big body with short and thick legs. They have a broad head and a very short tail. They have small eyes and round ears. They usually have longer, shaggy fur. On each foot they have five claws, which they cannot pull back. They use their claws for digging, climbing, and hunting. They can stand up on their back legs and their front paws are flexible. Usually bears can climb and swim very well. Males are usually bigger than females. Most bears except the giant panda are only one color. Most bears are russet, brown, or black.

paragraphs: Bears do not have good hearing. They have powerful senses of smell and sight. They have good sight and can see colors, which is different from other carnivores. Bears mostly use their sense of smell to know what is around them. They can smell better than dogs. Bears also have good memory, which lets them remember where they can find food.

paragraphs: They are mostly active at night, except for the Polar Bear. Some bears hibernate, that means they sleep during the winter to save energy.

paragraphs: Bears are usually omnivorous, which means that they eat plants and meat. They eat berries, grass, and fish. An exception is the polar bear, which eats mostly meat.

paragraphs: Bears usually live alone, except when they are mating season or if they have cubs. The father does not raise the cubs. The mother raises the cubs for months or a few years depending on how much food there is. The mother protects her young, even at the cost of her life.

paragraphs: Bears life all over the world, mostly in the Northern hemisphere. They are found in North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. There used to be bears in northern Africa but they are now extinct.

paragraphs: Fictional bears include, Yogi Bear, Berenstain Bears, and Winnie the Pooh.


title: Meteorology

paragraphs: Meteorology is the science that focuses on the Earth's atmosphere. People who study meteorology are called meteorologists. Meteorologists record air pressure, wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity, weather patterns, and other information. Meteorologists use this data to understand weather and to predict it. Meteorology is a major branch of earth science. Meteorologists study the causes of particular weather conditions using information obtained from the land, sea and upper atmosphere.

paragraphs: They use computerized and mathematical models to make short and long-range forecasts concerning weather and climate patterns. A variety of organizations use meteorological forecasts including:

paragraphs: In addition to forecasting, meteorologists study the impact of weather on the environment and conduct research into weather patterns, climate change and models of weather prediction.


title: Technology

paragraphs: Technology is the skills, methods, and processes used to achieve goals.

paragraphs: Technology can be knowledge of how to do things. Machines are examples of embed. This lets others use the machines without knowing how they work. Technological systems use technology by taking something, changing it, then producing a result. They are also known as technology systems.

paragraphs: The most simple form of technology is the development and use of basic tools. The discovery of fire and the Neolithic Revolution made food easier to get. Other inventions, such as the wheel and the ship, helped people to transport goods and themselves. Information technology, such as the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, has led to globalization.

paragraphs: The word "technology" comes from two Greek words:


title: Wonders of the World

paragraphs: The Seven Wonders of the World (or the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) is a widely-known list of seven great buildings or structures from the classical time period.

paragraphs: This is a list put together in the 2nd century BC by

paragraphs: Antipater of Sidon and Philon of Byzantium. This explains why it only lists monuments of the Mediterranean world. There are other slightly different versions: this is the most usual one.

paragraphs: Out of those structures only the Great Pyramid still exists in the 21st century. Most of the wonders were built by the Greeks. Earlier versions listed the Walls of Babylon and the Palace of Cyrus the Great.

paragraphs: This version was decided by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

paragraphs: There is no single list of seven natural wonders of the world. One of the many lists was compiled by CNN:

paragraphs: New7Wonders of the World was an idea to choose new wonders of the world from a selection of 200 existing monuments. The mission began in 2001 and ended in 2007 with the announcement of the winners. The popularity poll was led by Canadian-Swiss Bernard Weber and organized by the New7Wonders Foundation in Zürich, Switzerland. Voting took place through the Internet or by telephone.

paragraphs: The program caused different reactions from countries and organisations. Some countries praised their finalist and tried to get more people to vote for it. Others criticized the contest or did not think it was very important.

paragraphs: Among the strongest criticism was from UNESCO, who said in a press release in 2007:

paragraphs: From a variety of modern lists of wonders made by man, some items occur several times:


title: Daughter

paragraphs: A daughter is a female child. A daughter is a sister, if she has siblings.


title: Son

paragraphs: A son is the male child of a mother and father. The opposite of a son is a daughter. If the child has siblings then the son is a brother.


title: Oliver Stone

paragraphs: William Oliver Stone (born September 15, 1946) is an American movie director, producer, writer and actor. He was born in New York City and raised in Manhattan and Stamford, Connecticut. Stone became well known in the late 1980s and early 1990s for directing a series of movies about the Vietnam War. He was in the war as an infantry soldier. Stone's movies are often about political and cultural issues.


title: Whale shark

paragraphs: The whale shark ("Rhincodon typus"), is a filter feeding shark. It is the largest shark in the world. It grows up to 12 metres long, and may weigh as much as 47,000 pounds.

paragraphs: The whale shark has a very wide distribution, found in all tropical and warm temperate seas, except in the Mediterranean.

paragraphs: The whale shark has a streamlined body and a wide, flattened head. The mouth is transverse, very large and is nearly at the tip of the snout. The gill slits are also very large, and are designed as filtering screens. The first dorsal fin is much larger than the second dorsal fin, and is located at the back of the body. The caudal fin is semi-lunate (crescent-shaped) in adults, and with the young, the upper lobe is quite longer than the lower lobe. The whale shark has a unique "checkerboard" colour pattern of light spots and stripes on a dark background.

paragraphs: Whale sharks are grey, blue or brown above, with a surface pattern of creamy white spots between pale, vertical and horizontal stripes. The belly is white. The use of the strange pattern on the whale shark is unknown, although many bottom-dwelling Whale sharks use these markings as a camouflage against their backgrounds.

paragraphs: They can be as long as 41 feet (12.3 metres) in length, and weigh as much as 47,000 pounds (21.5 tonnes). However, it is believed that there are some whale sharks which can reach lengths of up to 67 feet (20 metres). The smallest free-living individuals are around 55cm (21.7 inches) long. Whale sharks reach maturity at lengths of around 9 metres

paragraphs: The whale shark has a very widespread distribution, found in all tropical and warm temperate seas, except in the Mediterranean. It is found throughout the Atlantic Ocean, from New York, through the Caribbean, to central Brazil, and from Senegal to the Gulf of Guinea. It also is found in the Indian Ocean, throughout the region, including the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf. In the Pacific Ocean it is found from Japan to Australia, off Hawaii, and from California to Chile.

paragraphs: Although other shark species of the order Orectolobiformes are benthic (live on or near the bottom), the whale shark lives in the pelagic zone. Studies show that this shark prefers warm waters, with surface temperatures of around 21-30 °C. It is often seen offshore but commonly comes close inshore, sometimes entering lagoons or coral atolls. Whale sharks sometimes swim deeper than 700 metres

paragraphs: Although the whale shark has no real predator, young Whale sharks have been found in the stomachs of Blue sharks and Blue marlin.

paragraphs: In spite of its large size, the whale shark is timid. Divers usually hold onto the tails of these sharks and swim with them, and the whale sharks never seem to attack.

paragraphs: There is some risk that a diver getting too close to a whale shark could get sucked into the filtering system that the sharks use for feeding. Another risk is that they can create problems for small boats that they may accidentally knock into. For the sharks, contact with very large boats can result in severe injuries.

paragraphs: With the basking shark and the megamouth shark, the whale shark is one of the three known species of filter feeding sharks. It feeds mainly on plankton and nekton, small crustaceans, schooling fish, and sometimes on tuna and squids. Whale sharks may also sometimes feed on phytoplankton and macroalgae. Unlike most plankton-feeding vertebrates, the whale shark does not depend on slow forward motion to operate its filtration mechanism. Instead, it relies on a versatile suction filter-feeding methodology, which allows it to draw in a larger amount of water than other filter-feeders, such as the Starfish. This allows the whale shark to capture larger amounts of plankton. Whale sharks are always seen feeding in a vertical or near vertical position with the head at or near the surface.

paragraphs: Other food items for the whale shark can include krill, and the larvae of Christmas Island red crab.

paragraphs: There is very little information that has been documented about whale sharks mating and giving birth to young. Some whale sharks which live in captivity are studied by scientists but the whale shark is not very common in aquariums due to its large size.

paragraphs: However, it is believed that they can have up to 300 pups at a time. This would be considerably more than other shark species, yet only a small fraction of them live to the age of maturity. It is believed that this species of shark doesn’t mate until it is about 30 years old. They can live from 70 to 100 years of age.

paragraphs: In the past, the whale shark has been of little interest to fisheries. Now, commercial fishing for whale sharks are limited, but may expand from an increased demand for food products. In Taiwan around 100 whale sharks are caught annually. The meat of the whale shark is sold for high prices in this country, and since of this, there have been larger harvests of whale sharks over the last few years. Fishing for this shark also occurs in the Philippines, particularly in the Visayas and Mindanao areas, providing food for the local fishing communities. Whale shark fins are sold in the Orient, especially in Hong Kong. Occasionally, whale sharks are captured accidentally along the coast of India. Sometimes the flesh is eaten and the liver oil is used for waterproofing wooden fishing boats and for the manufacture of shoe polish, and it is also used as a treatment for some skin diseases. The fins of Whale sharks are also sold in India. Often, the whale shark is used as an indicator of waters which are rich in plankton-feeding fish that will, in turn, attract more valuable species, such as tuna. Whale sharks have been kept in aquaria in Japan, but their large size and their diet has made it hard to keep a whale shark in an aquarium. Some locations where the presence of whale sharks appears to be predictable, are increasingly targeted by commercial tourist operations.

paragraphs: Some biological characteristics, such as the slow growth, and long time to mature, makes the whale shark vulnerable to overfishing. These characteristics also suggest that populations are slow to recover from any overfishing. The whale shark is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN. The whale shark is listed by the AFS (American Fisheries Society) as "Conservation dependent" (meaning that the whale shark's population has reduced but it is recovering under conservation plans) in both the Atlantic waters of the U.S.A, and the Gulf of Mexico. However, it is considered not at risk in the Gulf of California. In the Maldives and Philippines there has been a ban on the fishing of whale sharks. This protection was introduced because of the serious impact that the fisheries may be making on whale shark numbers. The predictable occurrence of whale sharks in a few areas, such as western Australia, has led to the development of an expanding tourism industry. In this area the whale shark is a protected species and its tourism has been managed through a controlled system, including the licensing of a limited number of operators tours. Also, divers have been stopped from riding, chasing, or harassing any marine animal in any way, including whale sharks. Recently, some studies made on the Ningaloo Reef's whale sharks provided information that regular diving is a normal behaviour of these sharks, and there is no avoidance reaction during contact with humans.