title: Orange (color)

paragraphs: Orange is a color. It is the combination of red and yellow.

paragraphs: Orange is the color of an orange fruit, which is where the name of the color comes from. Before the orange fruit was introduced to England in the 1500s, this color was called "yellow-red". The first recorded use of "orange" as a color name in English was in 1512, in the court of King Henry VIII.


title: Basque Country (greater region)

paragraphs: The Basque Country (Basque: Euskal Herria) is a region in Southwestern Europe that is within the borders of France and Spain.

paragraphs: It is the home of the Basque people. It is at the western end of the Pyrenees on the Bay of Biscay. Its boundaries are complicated, as it consists of seven districts: four within Spain and three within France.

paragraphs: No one knows when the Basques came to Europe. Many say that they have been in Europe since the Neolithic period at the end of the Stone Age, but others say that they were here even earlier.

paragraphs: The first written information about the Basque Country is from the Roman times, when the Basque people already spoke their own language. During the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Basque Country was isolated from the invading Goths.

paragraphs: During the Muslim invasion of Southern Europe, the Basque Country split in two: the Castilian and the Navarrese lands. A war with France later split the Navarrese zone in two.

paragraphs: After the Reconquista, the Castilian Basque lands and Navarre became part of the new country: Spain. Since then, Basque people from the Spanish area of the Basque Country have had their own government and have fought to gain the northern part of the Basque Country from France.

paragraphs: Today, three of the Basque districts in Spain (Araba, Bizkaia, and Gipuzkoa) form the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country. The political unit is one of 17 autonomous communities in Spain.

paragraphs: The fourth Basque district in Spain (Navarra) is its own separate autonomous community of Spain.

paragraphs: The three districts in the North (French) Basque Country are Lapurdi (Labourd), Nafarroa Beherea (Basse-Navarre) and Zuberoa/Xiberoa (Soule).

paragraphs: The entire region has a surface area of 20,664 km (7978 sq mi). The Autonomous Community of the Basque Country has 7,234 km (2793 sq mi), and its population is about 2,000,000 - about 5% of the total population of Spain. Basque and Spanish are spoken, and its largest city is Bilbao although the capital is Vitoria-Gasteiz.


title: M-theory

paragraphs: M-theory is a new idea in small-particle physics that is part of superstring theory that was initially proposed by Edward Witten. The idea, or theory, often causes arguments among scientists, because there is no way to test it to see if it is true. If ever proven true, M-theory and string theory would mean big progress for science.

paragraphs: To understand M-theory one must first have some knowledge of string theory. For hundreds of years, scientists have thought that the simplest objects in the universe are points, like dots. String theory says that this is wrong and that the simplest objects in the universe are shaped like pieces of string. These strings are so small that even when looked at very closely they look like points. Each basic particle is created by the strings vibrating in different patterns. The reason scientists had not thought of this idea for so long is that strings are much harder to work with than points. They seem to break such rules as causality and special relativity, which says that information cannot travel faster than the speed of light.

paragraphs: String theory has been developed because of a very important problem that has existed for almost 100 years. Albert Einstein's theory that describes the universe on very large scales (it is called general relativity), disagrees with two theories that describe things on very small scales (they are called quantum mechanics and the standard model). There are also problems with the Standard Model: it includes about 20 numbers that seem to have no explanation; it has too many "basic particles" - some scientists think it needs to have fewer; and it does not include gravity, which is needed to explain weight.

paragraphs: Many of these problems can be solved by thinking of basic particles as strings. Now there is only one number with no explanation, which gives the size of the strings. String theory includes particles that cause gravity, called gravitons; finding this out delighted the scientists who work on string theory. So, string theory successfully brings General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics together.

paragraphs: But there are some problems with string theory. Normally, we think of the universe as having 4 dimensions, or "basic directions". 3 of these basic directions can be thought of as "up/down", "forward/backward" and "left/right". The other direction is time. String theory needs 10 basic directions.

paragraphs: These six other directions can be explained if they are "curled up", so they are much too small to see. For example, by following the path of a spiral, it is possible to go a great distance along it without moving very far. The 6 other directions can be thought of as tiny spirals - strings can move along them a great distance but not seem to move. This can be looked at as a mathematical trick—a trick that has little to do with the real world that can be seen and touched. Such tricks are allowed if they give a theory that can better tell us how things work.

paragraphs: Another problem with string theory is that there are 5 different versions of it. Each version allows different kinds of strings and says they work in different ways. String theory is supposed to be a "theory of everything" so there should be only one version, not 5. M-theory solves this problem.

paragraphs: In 1995 Edward Witten started what has been called the "Second Superstring Revolution" by introducing M-theory to the world. This theory combines the 5 different string theories (along with a previously abandoned attempt to unify General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics called 11D-Supergravity) into one theory. What Witten actually did was to predict that the fact that all these different theories were connected was a result of there being some underlying theory of which they were all approximations. This theory is somewhat vague in nature and has not yet been pinned down.

paragraphs: Additionally, it was found that the equations that required string theory to exist in 10 dimensions were actually approximations as well. The proposed M-theory would need one extra dimension and instead be a theory that takes place in "11 dimensions". Witten has himself compared this idea in simple terms to a general who takes up a position on a hilltop, the extra space-coordinate, to get a better view of the battlefield's two other dimensions.

paragraphs: The combination is accomplished by knitting together a web of relationships between each of the string theories called dualities (specifically, S-duality, T-duality, and U-duality). Each of these dualities provides a way of converting one of the string theories into another. T-duality is probably the most easily explained of the dualities. It has to do with the size, written as R, of the curled up dimensions of the string theories. It was discovered that by taking a Type IIA string theory that has a size R and changing the radius to 1/R the result will end up being what is equivalent to a Type IIB theory of size R. This duality, along with the others, creates connections between all 5 (or 6, if supergravity is counted) theories. The fact that these dualities existed had been known before Witten came up with the idea of M-theory.

paragraphs: Additional amusement has come for many in guessing what the M might stand for (possibilities include Matrix, Magic, Muffin, Mystery, Mother and Membrane). Regardless of what the M might possibly mean, M-theory has become one of the most interesting and active areas of research in theoretical physics today.

paragraphs: "For a more technical explanation, see w:M-theory (simplified explanation)."


title: Jaguar Cars

paragraphs: Jaguar Cars is a brand of cars made by Jaguar Land Rover. This is a British car builder, owned by the Indian builder Cans Tata Motors since the beginning of 2008. It was established in 1922 by William Lyons. It was renamed Jaguar in 1935. Jaguar is owned by the Indian automobile manufacturer Tata Motors Ltd. Jaguar is known for its luxury sedans and sportscars.

paragraphs: Jaguar was a private company until it became part of the British Motor Corporation in 1966. The new company was called British Motor Holdings. In 1968 that company joined with Leyland Motors to became British Leyland. In 1975 British Leyland was nationalised. In 1984 Jaguar was made private again by Margaret Thatcher. Ford bought Jaguar in 1989. In 1999 it was made part of Ford's "Premier Automotive Group" along with Aston Martin, Land Rover, Volvo and Lincoln. In 2008, Ford sold Jaguar and Land Rover to Tata Motors. Jaguar is now a brand of the merged company called Jaguar Land Rover (JLR).

paragraphs: The company was originally in Blackpool, but moved to Coventry. Today Jaguar cars are made at the JLR factory in Castle Bromwich in Birmingham. In late 2018 was open new plant in Slovakia.

paragraphs: Jaguar owns the Daimler brand (not Daimler-Benz). Jaguar bought the British Daimler Company in 1960. Daimler became a brand for some of Jaguar's saloon cars, but is not used now.

paragraphs: As of 2017, JLR sells the following different Jaguar car ranges: XJ, XF, XE, XK, F-Pace, E-Pace, iPace, and the F-Type.

paragraphs: Jaguar has won many sports car races, like the Le Mans 24 Hours and other races.


title: Scientific method

paragraphs: Scientific method refers to ways to investigate phenomena, get new knowledge, correct errors and mistakes, and test theories.

paragraphs: The Oxford English Dictionary says that scientific method is: "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses".

paragraphs: A scientist gathers empirical and measurable evidence, and uses sound reasoning. New knowledge often needs adjusting, or fitting into, previous knowledge.

paragraphs: What distinguishes a scientific method of inquiry is a question known as 'the criterion'. It is an answer to the question: is there a way to tell whether a concept or theory is science, as opposed to some other kind of knowledge or belief? There have been many ideas as to how it should be expressed. Logical positivists thought a theory was scientific if it could be verified; but Karl Popper thought this was a mistake. He thought a theory was not scientific unless there was some way it might be refuted. On the other hand, Paul Feyerabend thought there was no criterion. For him, "anything goes", or whatever works, works.

paragraphs: Scientists try to let reality speak for itself. They support a theory when its predictions are confirmed, and challenge it when its predictions prove false. Scientific researchers offer hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experiments to test these hypotheses. Since big theories cannot be tested directly, it is done by testing predictions derived from the theory. These steps must be repeatable, to guard against mistake or confusion by any particular experimenter.

paragraphs: Scientific inquiry is generally intended to be as objective as possible. To reduce biased interpretations of results, scientists publish their work, and so share data and methods with other scientists.

paragraphs: Science and things that are not science (such as pseudoscience) are often distinguished by whether they use the scientific method. One of the first people to create an outline of the steps in the scientific method was John Stuart Mill.

paragraphs: There is no one scientific method. Some fields of science are based on mathematical models, such as physics and climate science. Other fields, such as many fields of social science, have rough theories and rely more on patterns that emerge from their data. Sometimes scientists focus on testing and confirming hypotheses, but open-ended exploration is also important. Some scientific fields use laboratory experiments. Others collect observations from real-world situations. Many areas of science are quantitative, emphasizing numerical data and mathematical analysis. But some areas, especially in social science, use qualitative methods, such as interviews or detailed observations of human or animal behavior. Focusing too much one kind of method can lead us to ignore knowledge produced using other methods.

paragraphs: Some textbooks focus on a single, standard "scientific method." This idea of a single scientific method is largely based on experimental, hypothesis-testing, quantitative areas of science. It doesn't apply very well to other areas of science. It is often written as a number of steps:

paragraphs: Although written as a list, scientists may go back and forth between different steps a number of times before being satisfied with the answer.

paragraphs: Not all scientists use the above "scientific method" in their day-to-day work. Sometimes the actual work of science looks nothing like the above.

paragraphs: Let's say we are going to find out the effect of temperature on the way sugar dissolves in a glass of water. Below is one way to do this, following the scientific method step by step.

paragraphs: Does sugar dissolve faster in hot water or cold water? Does the temperature affect how fast the sugar dissolves? This is a question we might want to ask.

paragraphs: One simple experiment would be to dissolve sugar in water of different temperatures and to keep track of how much time it takes for the sugar to dissolve. This would be a test of the idea that the rate of dissolving varies according to the kinetic energy of the solvent.

paragraphs: We want to make sure to use exactly the same amount of water in each trial, and exactly the same amount of sugar. We do this to make sure that the temperature alone causes the effect. It might be, for example, that the ratio of sugar to water is also a factor in the rate of dissolving. To be extra careful, we might also run the experiment so that the water temperature does not change during the experiment.

paragraphs: This is called "isolating a variable". This means that, of the factors which might have an effect, only one is being changed in the experiment.

paragraphs: We will do the experiment in three trials, which are exactly the same, except for the temperature of the water.

paragraphs: One way that makes it easy to see results is to make a table of them, listing all of the things that changed each time we ran the experiment. Ours might look like this:

paragraphs: If every other part of the experiment was the same (we did not use more sugar one time than the other, we did not stir one time or the other, etc.), then this would be very good evidence that heat affects how fast sugar is dissolved.

paragraphs: We cannot know for sure, though, that there is not something else affecting it. An example of a "hidden cause" might be that sugar dissolves faster each time more sugar is dissolved into the same pot. This is probably not true, but if it were, it could make the results exactly the same: three trials, and the last one would be fastest. We have no reason to think that this is true at this time, but we might want to note it as another possible answer.

paragraphs: The replication crisis (or replicability crisis) refers to a crisis in science. Very often the result of a scientific experiment is difficult or impossible to replicate later, either by independent researchers or by the original researchers themselves. While the crisis has long-standing roots, the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem.

paragraphs: Since the reproducibility of experiments is an essential part of the scientific method, the inability to replicate studies has potentially grave consequences.

paragraphs: The replication crisis has been particularly widely discussed in the field of psychology (and in particular, social psychology) and in medicine, where a number of efforts have been made to re-investigate classic results, and to attempt to determine both the validity of the results, and, if invalid, the reasons for the failure of replication.

paragraphs: Recent discussions have made this problem better known.

paragraphs: Elements of scientific method were worked out by some early students of nature.


title: Gas

paragraphs: A gas is one of the four most common states of matter. In a gas the molecules move freely and are independent of each other. This makes it different from a liquid where the molecules are loosely attached. It is also different from a solid where the bonds are strong and hold the molecules together.

paragraphs: In a pure gas, each molecule may be made of an individual atom. It may be elemental, where each molecule is made of more than one of the same atom bound together. It may be compounds where molecules are made of many types of atoms together. An example of a monoatomic gas is neon, an example of an elemental gas is hydrogen and an example of a compound gas is carbon dioxide.

paragraphs: A gas mixture contains a mix of any of the above types, for example air which is 78% nitrogen, 20% oxygen and 2% argon and carbon dioxide.

paragraphs: Poison gases were used as chemical weapons in World War I but were later banned. Natural gas is a natural mixture of methane and other gases.

paragraphs: All gases can flow, like liquids. This means the molecules move about independently of each other. Most gases are colourless, like hydrogen. Gas particles will spread about, or diffuse, in order to fill all the space in any container such as a bottle or a room. Compared to liquids and solids, gases have a very low density and viscosity. We cannot directly see most gases since they aren't coloured. However it is possible to measure their density, volume, temperature and pressure.

paragraphs: Pressure is the measure of how much pushing force something is putting on another object. In a gas, this is usually the gas pushing on the container of the object or, if the gas is heavy, something inside the gas. Pressure is measured in pascals. Because of Newton's third law, we can change the pressure of a gas by putting force on the object containing it. For example, squeezing a bottle with air inside pressurises (gives more pressure) to the air inside.

paragraphs: When talking about gas, pressure is often related to the container. A lot of gas in a small container would have very high pressure. A small amount of a gas in a big container would have low pressure.

paragraphs: Gas can create pressure itself when there is a lot of it. The weight of the gas creates pressure on anything underneath it, including other gas. On a planet, this is called atmospheric pressure.

paragraphs: The temperature of a gas is how hot or cold it is. In physics it is usually measured in kelvins although degrees Celsius are used more elsewhere. In a gas, the average velocity (how fast they move) of the molecules is related to the temperature. The faster the gas molecules are moving, the more they collide, or smash into each other. These collisions release energy, which in a gas comes in the form of heat. Conversely if the temperature around the gas becomes hotter then the gas particles will convert the thermal energy to kinetic energy, making them move faster and making the gas hotter.

paragraphs: A gas can go through two different state changes. If the temperature is low enough the gas can condense and turn into a liquid. Sometimes, if the temperature is low enough it can go through deposition, where it changes straight to a solid. Normally a gas must first condense to a liquid, and then freeze to become a solid, but if the temperature is very low it can skip the liquid stage and instantly become solid. Frost on the ground in winter is caused by this. Water vapour (a gas) goes into the air which is very cold, and instantly becomes ice due to deposition.


title: Family

paragraphs: A family is a group of people who, in most cases, live together. They share their money and food and are supposed to take care of one another. Its members are either genetically related (like brother and sister) or legally bound to each other, for example by marriage. In many cultures, the members of a family have the same or a similar surname.

paragraphs: The family in accordance to the Catholic doctrine is treated in many articles of the Catechism of the Catholic Church starting from the article 2201.

paragraphs: A family is said to be society's smallest unit, its nucleus. Family life is more private and intimate than public life. But in most countries there are laws for it. For example, there are restrictions for marrying within the family and bans for having a sexual relationship with relatives, especially with children.

paragraphs: Three types of family are: "nuclear family", "single-parent family" and "extended family".

paragraphs: Both the "nuclear family" and the "single-parent family" are also called the "immediate family".

paragraphs: Foster families are families where a child lives with and is cared for by people who are not his or her parents.

paragraphs: Some family members are related closer to each other. Consanguinity is a way of measuring this closeness.


title: Wave (physics)

paragraphs: A wave is a kind of oscillation (disturbance) that travels through space and matter. Wave motions transfer energy from one place to another.

paragraphs: Waves are found everywhere in the natural world. Examples of waves:

paragraphs: Waves have properties that can be measured. All waves can be pictured by adding sine waves.

paragraphs: Sine waves can be measured too. The shape of a sine wave is given by its amplitude, phase, wavelength and frequency. The speed that the sine wave moves can be measured. The amplitude and wavelength of the sine wave are shown in the picture.

paragraphs: The highest point on a wave is called the crest. The lowest point is called the trough. The crest of a wave and the trough of a wave are always twice the wave's amplitude apart from each other. The part of the wave halfway in between the crest and the trough is called the baseline.

paragraphs: Complicated waveforms (like the sound waves of music) can be made by adding up sine waves of different frequencies. This is how mp3 audio files are converted from their compressed form into the music we can hear. Complex waves can be separated int sine waves by Fourier analysis.

paragraphs: Some waves can move through matter while others cannot. For instance, some waves can move through empty space, light waves for example. Sound waves, on the other hand, cannot move through empty space. Inherently, all waves carry energy from one place to another when they move. In some applications of technology, waves may carry meaningful information from one place to another, such as news on the radio.

paragraphs: Usually, after a wave moves through matter, the matter is the same as it was before the wave was introduced, though in some cases, matter can be affected by waves traveling through it. In 1922, Louis de Broglie found out that all waves are also particles, and all particles are also waves.


title: Weapon

paragraphs: A weapon is an object that can be used to attack or injure a person or animal. People have used weapons since very ancient times. While other animals use weapons, in most cases they are attached to the animal (teeth, claws, tusks, etc.). In man's case they are detached and constantly selected for the purpose at hand. Man has been constantly developing newer and better weapons ever since he picked up the first rock.

paragraphs: Some of the oldest remains that we have of ancient people are weapons made of stone. Ancient people also used spears. Bows and arrows were in use by about 20,000 BC. During the Bronze age people learned to make things of metal, many people used swords. People also built huge machines which could throw rocks to destroy the defensive walls of enemy cities. Some of these machines were called catapults or siege engines. Later, gunpowder was invented in China and the Europeans began using it to make guns and cannons. These weapons were much better than the older weapons, and helped the Europeans to conquer people in many parts of the world. People in many parts of the world used guns such as rifles and shotguns for hunting animals, and handguns for shooting other people.

paragraphs: People continued to invent new weapons. In 1884 the machine gun was invented, which could shoot many bullets very fast. Soldiers began to use land mines, a bomb hidden in the ground, which explodes when someone walks on it. Small submarines were able to use torpedos to attack bigger ships and hide under the ocean. When airplanes were invented, people began to use them to shoot enemies and to drop bombs on them. They built tanks which had big guns and strong armor. Poison gas was used in World War I but was outlawed and rarely used afterwards.

paragraphs: In World War II, cities were heavily bombed from the air and Nazi Germany used V-2 missiles to carry bombs to England. Both sides used many firebombs. At the end of World War II, the United States used atomic bombs (nuclear bombs) to destroy the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

paragraphs: After World War II, people continued to develop new weapons, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. People became concerned about weapons of mass destruction, weapons that can kill many people very fast, and are usually cheap and easy to make and use. One kind of weapon of mass destruction is poison gas. New kinds of poison gas, such as nerve gas, are much more powerful than the old kinds. Another kind of weapon of mass destruction is disease germs, which could be used to make many people sick and maybe kill them.

paragraphs: Old-fashioned weapons still kill many people in wars and fighting. In wars in Africa in the 1990s and early 21st century, many people were killed with machetes (big knives). People sometimes try to make laws, treaties, and international agreements to try to control weapons because they are worried about all the killing done with them. Laws vary from country to country, for example, in the United States, the "right to keep and bear arms" is guaranteed to all citizens by the Constitution. A country may say that people in that country cannot keep or use guns, or only when the government allows it. The laws of war forbid certain weapons, and countries may agree with each other that they should not use certain weapons against each other, or should not have more than a certain number of particular kinds of weapons.

paragraphs: Things specifically made as weapons that most ordinary people can carry, include non lethal:

paragraphs: Weapons that soldiers or police personnel carry, include:

paragraphs: Weapons that the defense people of a national government have, include:


title: Christmas cake

paragraphs: A Christmas cake is a heavy cake containing much dried fruit and usually having a covering of icing. It is made to be eaten at Christmas. It can also be called a fruitcake.

paragraphs: A common favorite of many is the traditional Scottish Christmas cake, the "Whisky Dundee." It was named this because the cake came from Dundee and is made with Scotch whisky. It is a light and crumbly cake, and light on fruit and candied peel—only currants, raisins, sultanas and cherries. This Christmas cake is mostly good for people who do not like very sweet and moist cakes. As with all fruitcakes, almonds (or other nuts) can be removed by people who do not like them or those with bad nut allergies.

paragraphs: At the other end of the Christmas cake tradition, the apple cream Christmas cake is a sweet mix of sliced apples, raisins and other fruit, with eggs, cream cheese, and heavy whipping cream.

paragraphs: In the middle of the other two listed above is the mincemeat Christmas cake. It is simply any traditional or vegetarian mincemeat mixed with flour, eggs, and other pastry ingredients, to transform it into a cake batter; or it can also be steamed as a Christmas pudding.

paragraphs: A premade fruitcake mix can be bought at a grocery store.


title: Christmas cracker

paragraphs: A Christmas cracker is a tube of brightly coloured paper. When pulled apart, it makes a pop sound. It usually contains a small gift, a paper hat and a joke. It is generally used at Christmas parties or Christmas dinner. It is a British tradition which started back in the 1840s.


title: Fingerplate

paragraphs: A fingerplate is a plate that is fixed to a door near the handle or keyhole. It is for stopping dirt getting on the door. It is made of metal or glass.


title: Floodlight

paragraphs: A floodlight is a large electric light. It makes a very strong and bright beam of light. It is used for lighting the outside of buildings, football grounds, etc. at night.


title: Headrest

paragraphs: A headrest is something which supports the head. It is usually a suitably shaped part of the back of a chair or of a front seat in a car.

paragraphs: It is designed to support passenger's shoulder part and neck to prevent whiplash in cases of crash at the rear.


title: Inkpad

paragraphs: An inkpad is a small box that contains a pad of cloth or other material. It is impregnated with ink (the pad is inky). A marker is pressed onto the pad, then onto paper. Any raised marks on the pad leave an impression in ink on the paper.

paragraphs: Ink pads are used with rubber stamps. On the stamp is the symbol of an organisation, for example. After a form has been passed by an official, it is stamped to show it is authentic. Another variation is a date stamp, placed on all letters which arrive in the building. Another version is a stamp with a facsimile (copy) of an official's signature. Using this, staff can send out letters when the official is not present. Rubber stamps and ink pads have been used for at least a hundred years by civil servants and businesses. They are still in use in many countries, but are gradually being replaced with other systems.


title: Jack-in-the-box

paragraphs: A jack-in-the-box is a children's toy which is a box from which a figure on a spring jumps when the top is opened. You twist the knob until the spring shoots out the toy, which you put back in the box and do it all over again. Many kids have fun when they see the jack jumping out from the box.


title: London boroughs

paragraphs: A London Borough is a district of London. There are 33 of them, including two that also call themselves cities - the City of Westminster (where Buckingham Palace and the Houses of Parliament are) and the City of London (the oldest part of London). Each Borough has its own local government.


title: City of London

paragraphs: The City of London is a district of Greater London. The City's boundaries have remained almost unchanged since the Middle Ages. Although it is now only a small part of the metropolis, it is a notable part of central London. The City holds city status in its own right, and is also a separate ceremonial county. Often referred to as the City, or the Square Mile, it is just over one square mile, in area.

paragraphs: It is here in the City of London where most of the United Kingdom's financial trade is done. It is a very small area, covering only a square mile, and has a very small resident population (8,000). However, many people come to work here and during the day it can be very busy, with some 300,000 people in it.

paragraphs: "London" now refers to Greater London, which is made up of 32 boroughs (including the City of Westminster and the City of London. The City is in central London and is the oldest part of the city, dating back to Roman times. The City of London has its own mayor, the Lord Mayor of London, an office separate from (and much older than) the Mayor of London. There are other ancient features, dating back to medieval times. The City has its own police force, the City of London Police.

paragraphs: The City vies with New York City as the financial capital of the world: many banking and insurance institutions have their headquarters there. The London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds), Lloyd's of London (insurance) and the Bank of England are all based in the City.

paragraphs: Over 500 banks have offices in the City, and the City is an established leader in trading in Eurobonds, foreign exchange, energy futures and global insurance. The Alternative Investment Market, a market for trades in equities of smaller firms, is a recent development. In 2008, the City of London accounted for 4% of UK GDP.

paragraphs: London is the world's greatest foreign exchange market, with much of the trade conducted in the City of London. Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2007, trading in London accounted for around $1.36 trillion, or 34.1% of the total. The Pound Sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth most traded currency and the third most held reserve currency.

paragraphs: Since 1991 Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, has become a second centre for London's financial services industry and houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile. This development does not appear to have damaged the City: growth has continued in both locations.

paragraphs: The City is the site of Roman "Londinium", and the archaeological remains are on display in the Museum of London, City Wall.

paragraphs: The City has many churches designed by Sir Christopher Wren, including St Paul's Cathedral. The City was the site of the Great Fire of London in 1666.


title: City of Westminster

paragraphs: The City of Westminster is a city and London borough. It is to the west of the City of London. Its most important area, Westminster, contains the Houses of Parliament, Whitehall, Downing Street and Westminster Abbey.


title: London Borough of Lambeth

paragraphs: The London Borough of Lambeth is a London Borough. It is in south west London, England.


title: London Borough of Southwark

paragraphs: The London Borough of Southwark is a London Borough. It is in south east London.


title: London Borough of Camden

paragraphs: The London Borough of Camden is a London Borough. It is in north and central London.


title: London Borough of Merton

paragraphs: The London Borough of Merton is a London Borough. It is in south west London. In the London Borough of Merton there is the towns of Morden, Wimbledon, Mitcham and other small towns like Pollards Hill, Colliers Wood and Summerstown.


title: Brixton

paragraphs: Brixton is a place in south London. It has a lot of people from the Caribbean. It has a big market and many nightclubs. David Bowie was born at 40 Stansfield Road, Brixton and attended Stockwell Primary School.


title: Bankside

paragraphs: Bankside is the old part of the London Borough of Southwark. It is next to the River Thames.


title: River Thames

paragraphs: The River Thames is a large river in England. It goes through London the capital city of the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: The Thames is 346 kilometres (215 statute miles) long. Its source is near the village of Kemble in the Cotswolds; it flows through Oxford (where it is called "The Isis", a shortening of its Latin name), Reading, Maidenhead, Eton and then Windsor.

paragraphs: From the outskirts of Greater London, it passes Syon House, Hampton Court Palace, Richmond (with the famous view of the Thames from Richmond Hill), and Kew. It then passes through London, then Greenwich and Dartford before it enters the sea in an estuary, The Nore. Part of the area west of London is sometimes called the Thames Valley. The area east of Tower Bridge is called Thames Gateway by development agencies and officials.

paragraphs: About 90 kilometres from the sea, above London, the river begins to show the tide caused by the North Sea. It is said that London was made capital of Roman Britain at the spot where the tides reached in 43 AD, but different things have pushed this spot farther up the river in the over 2000 years since then. At London, the water is slightly salty with sea salt.

paragraphs: Like the Celts who lived in the area, the Romans called the river "Thamesis".

paragraphs: The Thames was an important way to go between London and Westminster in the 16th and 17th centuries. The guild of watermen took Londoners back and forth by ferry. One of them, John Taylor, the Water Poet (15801653), described the river in a poem.

paragraphs: In the 17th and 18th century, at a time some call the "Little Ice Age", the Thames often froze over in the winter. This led to the first "Frost Fair" in 1607, with a tent city set up on the river with lots of odd amusements, like ice bowling. The last time the river froze over was in 1814. The building of a new London Bridge in 1825 may have helped stop it from freezing: the new bridge had fewer pillars than the old, allowing the river to flow more easily, and stopping it from flowing slowly enough to freeze in cold winters.

paragraphs: By the 18th century, the Thames was one of the world's busiest waterways, as London became the centre of the very big British Empire. During this time one of the worst river disasters in England took place on 3 September 1878 on the Thames, when the crowded pleasure boat "Princess Alice" crashed into the "Bywell Castle" killing over 640 people.

paragraphs: In the 'Great Stink' of 1858, pollution in the river became so bad that the House of Commons at Westminster had to quit sitting.

paragraphs: The authorities accepted a proposal from the civil engineer Joseph Bazalgette. He moved the effluent eastwards along a series of interconnecting sewers. These sloped towards outfalls beyond the metropolitan area.

paragraphs: The coming of rail transport and road transport, and the decline of the Empire in the years after 1945, made the river less important than it was. London itself is no longer used much as a port, and the "Port of London" has moved down the river to Tilbury. The Thames has been greatly cleaned up, and life has returned to its dead waters.

paragraphs: In the early 1980s, the Thames Barrier was opened to control flooding. It is used many times a year to stop water damage to London's low-lying areas up the river.

paragraphs: There are many bridges and tunnels crossing the Thames, including Tower Bridge, London Bridge, Lambeth Bridge, and the Dartford Crossing.

paragraphs: In September 2011 a British comedian, David Walliams, swam the entire 140 mile length of the river raising over £1million for a charity called Sport Relief. On Red Nose Day, people swim the Thames for charity.

paragraphs: Many books have been written about the Thames. "Three Men in a Boat" by Jerome K. Jerome describes a boat trip up the Thames. Somewhere near Oxford is where the Lidells were rowing in the poem at the start of "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland". Somewhere near here was where Alice fell asleep in the book. The river is named in both "The Wind in the Willows" and the play "Toad of Toad Hall". In "Heart of Darkness" by Joseph Conrad, Marlow tells his tale while waiting for the tide near the mouth of the Thames.

paragraphs: Other fictional events include Sherlock Holmes looking for a boat in "A Study in Scarlet" and Bill Sykes killing Nancy just near the river, in Charles Dickens's classic novel " Oliver Twist".

paragraphs: See Crossings of the River Thames for a full article. Famous crossings include


title: Queen

paragraphs: In a country whose system of government is a monarchy, the ruler, or head of state, is decided by inheritance. That is, when a ruler dies their child, or nearest relative, takes over. For much of history most countries were governed in this way, especially in Europe. Some countries elect their monarch instead of using inheritance, like the Holy Roman Empire and Malaysia.

paragraphs: The wife of a king is also called a queen. However the husband of a female ruler is not necessarily called a king. The last King of Britain (George VI) had a wife (Elizabeth) who was called Queen Elizabeth. He had no sons, so he was followed by his elder daughter. She is also called Elizabeth and became Queen Elizabeth II. She is married to The Duke of Edinburgh; but when she became Queen he did not become King.

paragraphs: Many people do not think it is good to have a Monarchy, because it is not elected, though some people in countries such as the UK want to keep their royal family as they have remained a traditional icon and source of income for the country. However, in the UK their influence in the rule of the country is incredibly limited and democracy is left primarily to the governing party elected by the people.

paragraphs: A "queen regnant" is head of state, and has all the powers of a sovereign.

paragraphs: A queen regnant does not keep the title of queen if she "abdicates" (resigns). No queen has ever abdicated in the history of the United Kingdom, but three abdications have occurred in the Kingdom of the Netherlands:

paragraphs: A "queen consort" is the wife of a king. She is not the head of state, and does not have any powers unless they are given by the King or another law.

paragraphs: A "queen dowager" is the widow of a king.

paragraphs: A queen consort usually keeps the title of Queen after her husband's death, for example


title: Male

paragraphs: Male is one of two genders. Most species have two sexes male and female. Human males are men or boys; human females are women or girls.

paragraphs: The two sexes have different sexual organs, and different secondary sex characteristics. They also often have different biological functions. The female gives birth to children with the semen provided by the male. In many human societies, females often were involved in gathering, while men used to hunt.


title: Female

paragraphs: Female is a gender. It is the sex that produces ova ("egg" cells) for sexual reproduction. Females of some species also bear offspring.

paragraphs: When looking at seed plants, the plants that only produce seed are called female, those that only produce pollen are called male. The majority of seed plants produce both, and are called hermaphrodite.

paragraphs: Organisms can either be grouped as male or female. Female humans are called women and their bodies are different from male humans (who are called men). A woman has a vagina between her legs (a male has a penis) which is the main sexual organ. They also have breasts with milk glands, which allow them to nurse (feed) infants. A woman's shoulders are usually not as wide as a man's, but women usually have wider hips than men, because they need wide hips to be able to give birth.

paragraphs: Women who become pregnant are encouraged by the medical community to seek professional care from an obstetrician or a gynecologist in order to prevent complications. Likewise, women should see a gynecologist regularly for routine screening exams for cancer.


title: Camden

paragraphs: Camden is a place in north London, England. It has a big market which has lots of clothes. It is also good for music. It is an Urban Area. Regent's Canal runs through Camden.


title: Royal Borough of Greenwich

paragraphs: The Royal Borough of Greenwich is a London Borough. It is in south east London.


title: London Borough of Wandsworth

paragraphs: The London Borough of Wandsworth is a London Borough. It is in south west London.


title: London Borough of Islington

paragraphs: The London Borough of Islington is a London Borough. It is north of Central London.


title: Bambuco

paragraphs: Bambuco is a type of music from Colombia. The beat of this music is like the European waltz or polska. Bambuco is often folk music. There is a dance that goes with Bambuco music. It is a group dance and has a 6/8 or 3/4 meter.

paragraphs: Sometimes Bambuco is called "el bambuco". People think Bambuco started in Africa. It is popular in the Andean region of Colombia and throughout Latin America.


title: Christmas

paragraphs: Christmas (which means "Feast day of Christ") is a Christian holiday that refers to the birth of Jesus (whom Christians believe is the Son of God), and a cultural holiday for non-Christians.

paragraphs: The day known as Christmas Day is celebrated on the 25th day of December. It is one of the most important days of the year for Christians, along with Easter when the death and resurrection of Jesus are celebrated. The season of preparing for Christmas is called Advent and begins on a Sunday about four weeks before Christmas. The Christmas Season (called Christmastide) ends 6 January or the Twelfth Day of Christmas, in which "Epiphany" is remembered.

paragraphs: Christmas is celebrated all over the world, as a religious holiday or as a time of celebration by Christians and non-Christians alike. The traditions are different from country to country, but they nearly always include a feast, giving gifts or cards, and enjoying church or public festivities such as singing Christmas carols and songs. Santa Claus is a tradition in many countries of the world.

paragraphs: Christmastide, as it is often called, is in the winter of the Northern Hemisphere, at a time when there were already ancient festivals. Some of the traditions that are used for Christmas are older than Christmas, or come from other non-Christian traditions such as Yule. Modern traditions of Christmas often focus on the giving of gifts. The season for retail stores to sell gifts, food, greeting cards, Christmas trees, and decorations begins the day about a month before Christmas Day.

paragraphs: Christmas celebrates the birth of Jesus. The story of how this happened is told in part of the Bible known as the Gospels. There are four Gospels telling the life of Jesus. The Gospel of Luke tells the most about his birth, and the Gospel of Matthew tells another part of the story. The Gospel of John says that Jesus came from God to bring his "Word" or message to all people.

paragraphs: The Gospels say that many years before Jesus' birth, prophets had told a promise to the Jewish people that God would send them a Messiah, or holy teacher. Christians believe that the promised Messiah was Jesus. His mother was a young woman called Mary, who was engaged, but not yet married to a carpenter called Joseph. Joseph found out that Mary was pregnant and was upset. He was wondering what he should do, when an angel came from God to tell him that the baby was the Holy One. The angel said that he must "name the baby". This was a sign that he would take care of it like his own child.

paragraphs: At this time, the Middle East was ruled by the Romans. An order came that all the people had to travel back to their home town, to put their names on the taxation lists. Joseph took his new wife to Bethlehem. There was nowhere for them to stay, except a stable where the animals slept. This is where the baby was born. Joseph called him Jesus, as the angel had said.

paragraphs: The baby Jesus had two lots of visitors. On the night he was born, angels told some shepherds in the fields that they would find a newborn king lying in an animals' feed bin (or "manger"). Jesus' other visitors were some wise men who saw a new star in the sky and followed it, until they found the house where the family was now living and gave the young child expensive gifts of gold, incense and a precious herb called myrrh. (The wise men are often traditionally called the Three Kings, because there were three very expensive presents but the Bible does not say how many wise men there were.)

paragraphs: All these parts of the Christmas story are remembered and celebrated in different ways at Christmas: in pictures, songs, plays, stories and in models that are called "cribs", "creches" or "presepe".

paragraphs: Most Christian countries of the world use a calendar called the Gregorian Calendar, but some churches use a calendar called the Julian Calendar. Most Christians, such as those of the Catholic and Protestant Churches, celebrate the birth of Jesus on 25 December.

paragraphs: The Eastern Orthodox Church still uses the Julian Calendar in some regions such as Russia. In such regions, Christmas is celebrated on 25 December in the Julian Calendar, but because of the difference between the calendars it is 7 January in the modern Gregorian Calendar.

paragraphs: Some Christians, like Jehovah's Witnesses, do not celebrate Christmas because there is no instruction from Jesus in the Bible which tells Christians to celebrate his birth. Mormons celebrate Christmas on 25 December but they believe that Christ's actual birth took place on 6 April.

paragraphs: Some believe that Jesus was probably not born on 25 December. Some historians believe this date was used by the Catholic Church to replace the pagan rites that took place at that time of the year.

paragraphs: The Season of Advent, which begins on Sunday about four weeks before Christmas Day, is celebrated by the Catholic and Anglican Churches, as well as others. It is a time for people to prepare themselves for two different things: for the coming of the baby Jesus and Christmas, and for the second coming of Jesus, when he shall rule over all the Earth in peace. Not all Christian people remember Advent. Some people use it as a time of fasting, study, meditation and prayer. Special Advent Calendars are made for children, with pictures or treats for each day of Advent.

paragraphs: Generally, Advent is a time when many people are very busy in preparation for Christmas Day, cleaning and decorating, buying food and presents, writing cards and letters, and cooking the Christmas feast.

paragraphs: Before the 4th century AD, Christians could only worship and celebrate in secret. The feast of Christmas probably began while Constantine was the Emperor of Rome, because it was he who made Christianity a legal religion and built some of Rome's oldest churches. Some old stone coffins or "sarcophagi" from this time are carved with pictures of Mary and baby Jesus and the Wise Men.

paragraphs: Through the Middle Ages Christmas was celebrated with feasting, singing and plays. The plays were held in churches, and also in castles and in market places, where a big hay wagon was sometimes used as a stage.

paragraphs: Because Advent was a time of prayer and preparation, most parties were held after Christmas, rather than before it. The main pre-Christmas celebration was the Feast of St. Nicholas on 6 December. In some countries, particularly the Netherlands, the tradition grew for children to receive presents on this day, rather than Christmas Day. The name of Saint Nicholas is now remembered in many countries as Santa Claus.

paragraphs: Another festivity that takes place is the Feast of Saint Lucy (St. Lucia Day) on 13 December which is particularly celebrated in Scandinavia, where girls take part in candlelit processions, and the daughters of the house must rise early to bring coffee or chocolate to the family.

paragraphs: For many centuries, the celebration of Christmas often began with a church service or mass, which lasted from late at night to after midnight on Christmas morning. Christmas Day was a time of feasting. On the following day, the Feast of Saint Stephen people from rich households would carry boxes of food out to the street for the poor and hungry. Many people would go back to work but employers would give gifts of money to their workers. The Holy Days continued with the feast of Saint John and Holy Innocents' Day. The feasting and parties ended on the Feast of the Epiphany, the day of the Three Wise Men, often called the "Three Kings". The season is nowadays remembered by the song "The Twelve Days of Christmas". William Shakespeare wrote a play to be performed as part of the celebration, called "Twelfth Night".

paragraphs: For many, Christmas has become a time when having parties, sending messages to family and friends and giving presents has become more important than the celebration of Jesus' birth. Manufacturers and stores have responded to the feasting and present-giving with lots of advertising, decorations and displays. In the US, the Christmas displays are put up right after Thanksgiving, late in November. In some countries such as Australia, stores put up decorations at the beginning of November. Given that Jesus himself called people making money in the Jewish Temple 'robbers' (Matthew 21:13) many Christians are uneasy about profit instead of prophets at Christmas.

paragraphs: Town councils celebrate by decorating streets and squares, and providing Christmas entertainment for shoppers. In countries of the Southern Hemisphere, where Christmas falls in Summer, there is a tradition of open-air Carol Services, often organised by the town council, which are attended by thousands of people.

paragraphs: Many Christians celebrate Christmas by attending church, and with prayers and singing. And each year there are Bible readings from the Gospels that tell the story of the birth of Jesus.

paragraphs: Christmas traditions are of several types. There are traditions of the church, traditions which are public celebrations and traditions that are kept by families. These traditions are different in different times, places, cultures and even families.

paragraphs: The celebration of Christmas is a very important time for churches. Almost every church has special services or celebrations. Here are some of the ways that churches celebrate Christmas.

paragraphs: It is the custom in many churches to set up a Crib (or "Creche") scene of the "Nativity" or birth of Jesus. The first scene of this type was set up by St. Francis of Assisi in the 13th century. They have been very popular in Italy ever since then, and the custom has spread to other countries.

paragraphs: Nativity scenes can be large with life-sized statues, or they can be tiny enough to fit in a matchbox. They are made of many different things including carved and painted wood, brightly coloured ceramics (pottery), painted paper glued to boards, and mixtures of material with clay, wood, cloth, straw and metal used for different parts.

paragraphs: The Advent wreath is a circle of leaves, usually pine boughs, ivy and holly, with 4 (or sometimes 5) candles in it which is hung up in a church. The candles are lit on each Sunday in Advent, and the central candle is lit on Christmas morning. Churches are often decked with green branches and leaves, and many churches also have a Christmas tree.

paragraphs: A popular tradition in many churches is the Carol Service which is often lit only by candles. The carol service generally has lots of singing and Bible readings. There is a tradition in England which began in the Temple Church in London and has now spread to many other places for a service of Nine Lessons and Carols. The lessons are Bible readings. Some carols are sung by a choir and others by the choir and people (the congregation). Every year one of these services is recorded in a large English Church, often King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and is broadcast on radio and television to be enjoyed by people who love good music and carol singing, but particularly for people who cannot go to a Christmas service.

paragraphs: Many cities and towns celebrate Christmas by putting up decorations. These may be banners and bunting which are strung from buildings or lampposts. They may be Christmas lights which can also decorate buildings and street trees. Many large cities put up a huge Christmas tree in a public place, such as those in Trafalgar Square in London, Times Square in New York and Martin Place in Sydney. This is often combined with an appeal to the people of the city to give money or gifts to help the poor and needy.

paragraphs: In many cities, the usual shopping hours are made longer before Christmas so that workers have more time to buy Christmas food and presents. Shop windows are often decorated with Christmas scenes, with large department stores often having animated scenes to entertain children. Shopping malls and big stores often have a Santa Claus, who sits on a throne, while children tell him what they want for Christmas, and have their photos taken.

paragraphs: Many towns hold Christmas parades, street entertainment and concerts. Some towns have a tradition of carols with a choir and entertainers in the town hall, while in Australia and New Zealand, these concerts of Christmas entertainment and carols are usually held outdoors, in parks or even on beaches, with families bringing picnics. The arrival of Santa Claus at the end of the evening is accompanied by a firework display.

paragraphs: A traditional part of Christmas is the theatre entertainment. This includes the performance of classical music such as Handel's Messiah as well as orchestral concerts and band recitals. Pantomimes are often played at Christmas and favourites include "Peter Pan and Wendy" and "Cinderella". Many children's movies are released during the Christmas season.

paragraphs: Because many people feel very lonely, hungry and sad at Christmas, many cities, churches, charities and service organisations try to help the poor and lonely by providing Christmas food and gifts for poor families, and Christmas parties for people who are hungry or who are lonely and without any friends or family.

paragraphs: Family celebrations are often very different from each other, depending on where a family comes from, and the customs that have grown in particular families.

paragraphs: Most families think of Christmas as a time to get together with other members of the family. People often travel from far away to be with other family members at Christmas. Those people who cannot travel often make long-distance phone calls on Christmas Day. Many people also see Christmas as a time to reach out to others that they know might be lonely, and invite them to dinner on Christmas Day. Christmas is seen as a time for people of all ages to have fun together, for cousins to get to know each other, for grandparents to see their grandchildren and for the family to admire the babies that have been born during the year. Big family parties are usually a time of joy, but some families often talk about their disagreements and have big fights at Christmas time.

paragraphs: Family traditions are very different. Some families might all go off to church together, to a Carol Service, a Midnight Mass, or a Christmas Morning service. Some families are pulled out of bed very early by children who want to open their presents. In other families, presents are given on St. Nicholas Day, on Christmas Eve or not until after church on Christmas morning. The Christmas feast might start on Christmas Eve, with a special breakfast on Christmas morning, or at midday on Christmas Day.

paragraphs: Some families have a tradition of carol singing, and might go around the streets, to hospitals and other such places singing with members of their church. Other families like to watch certain television programs together, which might include carol services and the Queen's Message. Some families use Christmas as a time to play music and sing together, or to read a favourite book such as "A Christmas Carol" by Charles Dickens. In countries in the Southern Hemisphere, a visit to the beach or a swim in a pool is often part of the Christmas Day tradition.

paragraphs: Christmas Dinner, usually eaten in the middle of the day, is an important part of the family celebration. The food differs from country to country and also from family to family. In the Northern Hemisphere, roasted meat and vegetables is generally the main course of the meal. Often several types of meat are served, which may include turkey, ham, roast beef or lamb. There are often several courses, with special treats that are usually only eaten at Christmas.

paragraphs: In English-speaking countries, the traditional dessert is Christmas plum pudding. Nowadays these are often bought from bakers, but many people make their own to a family recipe. The tradition came from the Middle Ages when the pudding was used to preserve some of the fruit from the Autumn until the mid-winter. A traditional pudding is baked six weeks before Christmas and is left tied up in a cloth, in a cool place. Stirring the pudding is sometimes a family tradition, with everyone making a wish as they stir. Traditionally a silver coin would be stirred into the pudding, to bring luck to the person who found it. Nowadays most coins cannot be used because they taste horrible and may be poisonous. Some families use old coins or silver charms. On Christmas Day the pudding must be boiled in a pot for several hours. When it is served, the cloth is cut off, brandy is poured onto the pudding, and is set on fire before it is carried to the table.

paragraphs: Many families have a Christmas Cake or a special bread instead of a pudding (or as well as a pudding). These are very different depending on the country, but often have Marzipan which is made from almonds and is traditional in many countries at Christmas. In France "Buche de Noel" or gingerbread men and women are decorated and hung on the Christmas tree. In Scotland a pastry biscuit called shortbread is made and has become a popular tradition in many countries. A German tradition is "pfeffernuss", spiced cookies rolled in powdered sugar. Other Christmas food includes raisins, sultanas, ginger, Turkish delight, almonds, chocolates, caramel toffee, candy canes and oranges.

paragraphs: Many families also prepare mulled wine which is warmed with cinnamon and nutmeg or egg nogs, a sweet drink made of milk, sugar, eggs, nutmeg and sometimes alcohol.

paragraphs: In the Southern Hemisphere, the traditional roast dinner is often replaced with cold cuts of meat, and served with salads. The first course might be prawn cocktail or a cold soup like borsch. The plum pudding might be served with ice cream. White wine and beer are both served cold (beer is kept in a refrigerator). Christmas dinner may be served on the veranda, or sometimes as a picnic.

paragraphs: In most homes when Christmas is celebrated, people set up a Christmas tree in the house. This old Yuletide custom began in Germany as the "Tannenbaum" (German for "Fir Tree"). These are traditionally evergreens, the best type being the Fir Tree which does not shed its needles or lose its fragrance. The tree may be a cut tree that is bought from a plantation or taken from the forest. Artificial trees are sometimes preferred to real trees. The Christmas tree is decorated with lights, shiny coloured balls, sparkly tinsel and other ornaments. A wreath of leaves or pine is often put on the front door of a house as a sign of welcome. Other plants that have special significance at Christmas are holly which is used as decoration and mistletoe which is hung in the centre of a room. The tradition is that people who meet under the mistletoe must kiss.

paragraphs: Many people decorate their homes at Christmas time. These decorations and the Christmas tree are generally inside, but may be put where they can also be seen through a window by people passing by. In the mid 20th century there grew up a custom for decorating the outside of houses as well. These decorations may be just a few lights around the porch, or hundreds of lights and colourful Christmas figures decorating the whole house and garden. Some neighbourhoods hold competitions for the best-decorated house, and driving around the streets to look at them has become another family tradition.

paragraphs: The giving of gifts at Christmas comes from several different ideas. One is that God gave his son, Jesus, to the world at Christmas. There is also the story of the Wise Men who came to the baby Jesus with three gifts, gold, frankincense and myrrh. For many centuries it has been the custom for people to give small gifts at Christmas, and also to give generously to the poor and needy to help them through the winter. Another tradition has become linked to this one, and the result is the tradition of Santa Claus, or Father Christmas as he is sometimes called, and who is nowadays thought by many children to be the bringer of presents and happiness.

paragraphs: In the 4th century, in a Greek village that is now part of Turkey, there was a good man who would secretly given presents to the poor to help them. He became a bishop and is called Saint Nicholas. Over the centuries, he became a very popular saint and lots of churches were named after him. He was very popular in places where there were lots of sailors. One of those places was the Netherlands. In the Netherlands and many other European countries, presents are given on the feast of Saint Nicholas, 6 December. Traditionally, the presents are not big, and are sometimes hidden, or have a funny joke or poem that must be read. In many towns of Europe a man dressed in bishop's robes comes on a horse or in a boat, acting as St. Nicholas. His name was often shortened to Sante Claus, or Santa Claus in English.

paragraphs: In English speaking countries, where presents are usually given on Christmas Day, not 6 December, Santa Claus, (or Father Christmas) is usually thought of as coming on Christmas Night, when his magic sleigh is pulled across the sky by reindeer, and he comes into houses through the chimney. While in Europe, children put out their shoes for St. Nicholas, the English tradition is to hang up stockings (or long socks) in front of the fireplace. Santa Claus would traditionally fill the socks or shoes with nuts, raisins, chocolates and an orange. Nowadays children usually get much more expensive presents, and hang up pillow cases or have the presents in a big pile under the Christmas tree.

paragraphs: Another Christmas tradition is the sending of cards to friends and relatives. These contain warm greetings and may also have a letter telling all the things that have happened to the person or family during the year.


title: Adjective

paragraphs: An adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun. Nouns are words that name a place, a person, a thing, or an idea. An adjective is a word that gives more information about the noun that goes with it. It is a part of speech.

paragraphs: Often, the adjective is before the noun it describes. Sometimes an adjective is not followed by a noun:

paragraphs: An adjective is a word that gives instant information about a noun to make a clear picture of the noun in the mind of the reader and create a feeling to the writer.

paragraphs: Sometimes there are different forms of the same adjective. If one joke makes a person laugh more than another joke, then that joke is funnier. This is called the comparative form. The day that is colder than any other is the coldest day. This is the superlative form of "cold". Some adjectives need additional words when we want to compare them. For instance, one car may be cheaper than another, but the second car may be more reliable (we use "more reliable", instead of "reliabler"). Reliable means worthy of trust.

paragraphs: For short adjectives ending in a consonant like "cold," "black," or "fast," one adds the suffix er to make a comparison of greater magnitude. Example: "The North Pole is colder than Florida." The greatest possible comparison is made by adding the suffix est. Example: "The North Pole is the coldest place on the Earth." For long adjectives like intelligent, conscientious, comprehensive, one uses the word more to make a comparison of greater magnitude. Example: "Children are more intelligent than adults."

paragraphs: A superlative makes the greatest possible comparison. One uses the word most. Example: "She is the most conscientious person I have ever known."

paragraphs: In the English language, it is possible for a noun to modify (describe) another noun. Example: take the noun "angel" and the noun "face." Put them together and the result is "angel face." The first noun is acting as an adjective, because it is giving us information about the second noun.

paragraphs: Adjectives are words we use to describe the noun. Simple words like "warm" and "fat" are adjectives commonly used in writing. One can make adverbs from some adjectives by adding the suffix ly. Example: take the adjective "beautiful," the adverb is beautifully. One can do it the other way around: take an adverb like "presumably," the adjective is "presumable". "Presumable innocence" means the accused is assumed to be innocent until proven guilty.

paragraphs: The adjective "guilty" becomes the adverb "guiltily" and vice versa (the opposite), the adverb "guiltily" becomes the adjective "guilty."

paragraphs: • acid • angry • • beautiful • black • boiling • • • brown • • chemical • • • clear • • complex • • cut • deep • dependent • • elastic • electric • equal • fat • fertile • first • • flat • free • • • general • good • • gray • hanging • happy • • healthy • high • • • kind • like • living • long • male • married • material • medical • military • natural • necessary • new • • • parallel • past • physical • political • • • • private • • quick • • • red • • • right • round • • second • • • sharp • • • • straight • strong • • sweet • • • • • true • violent • warm • wet • wide • wise • yellow •


title: Paper

paragraphs: Modern paper is a thin material of (mostly) wood fibres pressed together. People write on paper with a pencil or pen, and books are made of paper. Paper can absorb liquids such as water, so people can clean things with paper. There are many types of paper.

paragraphs: The pulp and paper industry comprises companies that use wood as raw material and produce pulp, paper, board and other cellulose-based products.

paragraphs: Modern paper is normally made from wood pulp. Wood is ground up and mixed with water and other chemicals to make a thin liquid called "paper pulp". Paper pulp can be bleached to make paper more white, and dyes can be added to make colored paper. This pulp is pressed into sheets of paper. Printing is often done on paper before the paper is cut into sheets. Newsprint paper (newspaper) comes in a huge roll, and goes through the printing process as one continuous sheet. It is cut by a machine-driven guillotine blade later. Folding comes last, then packing for distribution.

paragraphs: Sometimes paper is made heavier and more glossy (shiny) by adding clay, and by 'milling' it. Milling is done by squeezing the paper through a series of rollers. Sometimes paper is made from used or waste paper: this is recycling.

paragraphs: Not all paper is made from wood. Other kinds of fiber can be used. People still make paper from cotton, linen and hemp for special purposes.

paragraphs: Writing started long before the invention of paper. People wrote on many kinds of material. They wrote on cloth, on the stone walls and on wood. In Mesopotamia the Sumerians wrote on clay tablets, many of which have survived today. In Europe, people wrote on vellum.

paragraphs: Many centuries ago – as early as the 3rd millennium BC (that's over 2000 BC) – people in Egypt made a kind of paper from the papyrus plant. This is where the word 'paper' comes from. The people of Greece and Rome learned to do this too. The Romans wrote on parchment (made from animal skin), on waxed tablets and on wood (see Vindolanda).

paragraphs: In China 105 AD, the eunuch Cai Lun told his Emperor he had made paper. They had previously used bamboo and silk. The material used in this ancient paper included cotton rags, hemp, various plant fibres and old fish nets. The oldest existing paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a watchtower in the Great Wall of China. It dates to about 150 AD. Even earlier paper (but with no writing on it) has been claimed: "The oldest surviving piece of paper in the world is made of hemp fibers, discovered in 1957 in a tomb near Xian, China, and dates from between the years 140 and 87 BC". Paper-making was regarded by the Chinese as so valuable that they kept it secret as long as they could.

paragraphs: People in Japan learned how to make paper with fibres of the mulberry tree, around 610 AD. This is called Japanese paper or "Washi". The Chinese invention spread to India, and then to the Middle East, and then to Italy.

paragraphs: An opportunity occurred after The Battle of Talas in 751. Then an Arab army captured soldiers of the Chinese. There were some paper makers among the captured soldiers. From them, paper-making spread throughout the Islamic world. In 757, a paper mill was built at Samarkand. People learned to use linen as paper raw material and to use starch made from flour as an additive.

paragraphs: The Italians used hemp and linen rags. In 1276 the first Italian paper mill was built at Fabriano and, until the 14 century, Italy was a paper supplier in Europe. In 1282 the first watermark was introduced in Bologna.

paragraphs: Paper was hard to make. It was cheaper than the old writing materials, but still expensive. A mechanical paper maker was conceived in France 1798, but invented in England. At least one paper mill was using them by 1812. Now the process was cheaper but the raw material was still expensive.

paragraphs: In 1840 Friedrich Gottlob Keller Invented a machine that could make pulp for paper out of wood fibres (instead of the expensive rag paper). Paper became cheap enough for everyone to buy. Around the same time, other inventions were made, like the pencil, the fountain pen, and a printing press that used steam power. With this new information technology, people wrote more letters, made more books and newspapers, and kept more records of what they did.

paragraphs: Today, some of the largest paper-producing countries are China, USA, Canada, Finland, Sweden and Russia. Paper is produced in large factories called "paper mills". They produce hundreds of thousands of tons of paper each year.

paragraphs: Paper is used for writing and printing. Books, magazines and newspapers are printed on paper.

paragraphs: Paper is often used for money. Paper used for money is made in special ways. It does not use wood fiber. It is mostly cotton with additives to make it hard for people to print their own money. A piece of paper money is called a banknote, a bill or a note.

paragraphs: Paper can be used for cleaning. Special forms of paper are used, such as paper towels, facial tissues or toilet paper.

paragraphs: Pretty paper can be used as decoration. It can be pasted onto the walls of a room; this is called wallpaper. Paper can be used to wrap gifts. This is called wrapping paper or gift wrap.

paragraphs: Some kinds of paper are strong and can be used in boxes and other packaging material. Sometimes several layers of paper are held together with glue, to make cardboard.


title: Power

paragraphs: Power has different meanings when talking about different subjects:


title: States of matter

paragraphs: There are four common states of matter (or "phases") in the universe: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. The state of matter affects a substance's properties, such as density, viscosity (how well it flows), malleability (how easy it is to bend), and conductivity. Changes between states of matter are often reversible.

paragraphs: In a "solid", the positions of atoms are fixed relative to each other over a long time. That is due to the cohesion or "friction" between molecules. This cohesion is provided by metallic, covalent or ionic bonds. Only solids can be pushed on by a force without changing shape, which means that they can be resistant to deformation. Solids also tend to be strong enough to hold their own shape in a container. Solids are generally denser than liquids. Solid becoming a gas is called sublimation.

paragraphs: In a "liquid", molecules are attracted to each other strongly enough to keep them in contact, but not strongly enough to hold a particular structure. The molecules can continually move with respect to each other. This means that liquids can flow smoothly, but not as smoothly as gases. Liquids will tend to take the shape of a container that they are in. Liquids are generally less dense than solids, but denser than gases.

paragraphs: In a "gas", the chemical bonds are not strong enough to hold atoms or molecules together, and from this a gas is a collection of independent, unbonded molecules which interact mainly by collision. Gases tend to take the shape of their container, and are less dense than both solids and liquids.

paragraphs: Gases have weaker forces of attraction than solids and liquids. Gas becoming a solid directly is called deposition.

paragraphs: Gases can sometimes turn directly into solids without passing through a fluid stage. That is called desublimation. You see it in the hoary frost which forms on window-panes in cold climates. It is the reverse of sublimation.

paragraphs: "Plasmas" are gases that have so much energy that electrons of an atom cannot stay in orbit around one atomic nucleus. The atomic ions and free electrons mix around like a hot soup.

paragraphs: Because the positive and negative charged particles are not stuck together, plasma is a good conductor of electricity. For example, air is not good at conducting electricity. However, in a bolt of lightning, the atoms in air get so much energy that they no longer can hold on to their electrons, and become a plasma for a brief time. Then an electric current is able to flow through the plasma, making the lightning.

paragraphs: Plasma is the most common state of matter in the universe. Both stars and the interstellar medium are mostly made of plasma.

paragraphs: Phases of matter can be changed by a number of things. The most common ones are temperature and pressure. Substances usually become a gas at warm temperatures and/or low pressures, become a solid at cool temperatures, and become a plasma at extremely hot temperatures. Substances often become liquid in between solid and gas, but when the pressure is very low (such as the vacuum of outer space) many substances skip the liquid phase, going directly from solid to gas or vice versa. Scientists have created graphs called phase change diagrams to show the relationship between pressure, temperature, and phase of many substances.

paragraphs: When a solid becomes a liquid, it is called melting. When a liquid becomes a solid, it is called freezing. When a solid becomes a gas, it is called sublimation. When a gas becomes a solid, it is called desublimation. When a liquid becomes a gas, it is called evaporation. When a gas becomes a liquid, it is called condensation.

paragraphs: The freezing point and the melting point are said to be the same, because any increase in temperature from that point will cause the substance to melt, while any drop in temperature will cause it to freeze. Likewise, the vaporization and condensation points (or the sublimation and desublimation points) always match. In most substances, as the pressure increases, the vaporization/condensation point also increases, or vice versa. For example, the boiling point of water decreases as you go up a mountain, because the air pressure is lower. The relationship for freezing and melting can go in different directions depending on the substance.

paragraphs: Many other states of matter can exist under special conditions, including strange matter, supersolids, and possibly string-net liquids. Scientist work on experiments at very high or very low temperatures to learn more about phases of matter.

paragraphs: Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates are phases of matter that apply to particles called bosons and fermions, respectively. (More than one boson can exist in the same spot at the same time. Only one fermion can exist in the same spot at the same time). Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates occur at incredibly low temperatures (about 4° Kelvin, which is the same as -452° Fahrenheit). All of the particles in these condensates begin to act like one big quantum state, so they have almost no friction or electrical resistance.

paragraphs: When the core of a star runs out of light elements (like hydrogen or helium) to sustain fusion, the core will collapse into a very dense state called "degenerate matter". Everything is packed very tightly and can barely move. If the star isn't too heavy, it becomes a white dwarf. In a heavier star, the pressure is so intense that even the protons and electrons are crushed, and it becomes a neutron star.

paragraphs: The protons and neutrons that make up atoms are made of even smaller things called quarks (which are "glued" together by things called "gluons"). At incredibly high temperatures over 2 trillion Kelvin, quarks and gluons turn into another state of matter. Humans can make a little bit of quark-gluon plasma in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, but it doesn't last long before cooling down.

paragraphs: When a substance has enough temperature and pressure at the same time, called the critical point, you can't tell the difference between very dense gas and very energetic liquid. This is a supercritical fluid, and it behaves like both liquid and gas.

paragraphs: Superfluids, on the other hand, only happen at very low temperatures, and only for a few special substances like liquid helium. Superfluids can do things that regular liquids cannot, like flowing up the side of a bowl and getting out.


title: Perimeter

paragraphs: In geometry, perimeter is the distance around a flat object. For example, all four sides of a square rhombus have the same length, so a rhombus with side length 2 inches would have a perimeter of 8 inches (2+2+2+2=8).

paragraphs: For a polygon, the perimeter is simply the sum of the length of all of its sides. For a rectangle, the perimeter is twice the sum of its length and width (formula_1). Perimeter can also be calculated for other planar figures, such as circle, sector and ellipse.

paragraphs: Real-life objects have perimeters as well. A football field, including the end zones, is 360 feet long and 160 feet wide. This means that the perimeter of the field is 360+160+360+160=1040 feet.

paragraphs: The perimeter of a circle is usually called the circumference. It may be calculated by multiplying the diameter times "Pi". Pi is a constant which is approximately equal to 3.14159; however, the places to the right of the decimal are endless. The number of places used depends on the accuracy required for the result.


title: Nation

paragraphs: A nation is a group of people who share the same culture, history, language or ethnicity. It can also be described as people living in the same country and government.

paragraphs: The word "nation" comes from a Latin language word meaning "birth" or "place of birth." The adjective is national.

paragraphs: Some nations are people with a particular belief, such as the Vatican City, or ethnic group, such as Armenia. Others share an idea, such as Democracy in the United States or Communism in China.

paragraphs: Some nations are controlled by a small minority who have all the power, such as Saudi Arabia, who hold the nation together with the use of this power.

paragraphs: Some of these may also be combined. The highest lawful authority of most nations is a constitution, which is a document which states clearly what kinds of power the rulers have and how new laws must be made. Many others are ruled by a single person who holds an "office" (position), such as a King or Pope, or from a long legal tradition without an official Constitution, such as the United Kingdom.


title: Metal

paragraphs: Some chemical elements are called metals. They are the majority of elements in the periodic table. These elements usually have the following properties:

paragraphs: Most metals are solid at room temperature, but this does not have to be the case. Mercury is liquid. Alloys are mixtures, where at least one part of the mixture is a metal. Examples of metals are aluminium, copper, iron, tin, gold, lead, silver, titanium, uranium, and zinc. Well-known alloys include bronze and steel.

paragraphs: The study of metals is called metallurgy.

paragraphs: Most metals are hard, shiny, they feel heavy and they melt only when they are heated at very high temperatures . Lumps of metal will make a bell-like sound when they are hit with something heavy (they are sonorous).

paragraphs: Heat and electricity can easily pass through a metal (it is conductive). A lump of metal can be beaten into a thin sheet (it is malleable) or can be pulled into thin wires (it is ductile). Metal is hard to pull apart (it has a high tensile strength) or smash (it has a high compressive strength). If you push on a long, thin piece of metal, it will bend, not break (it is elastic). Except for cesium, copper, and gold, metals have a neutral, silvery color.

paragraphs: Not all metals have these properties. Mercury, for instance, is liquid at room temperature, Lead, is very soft, and heat and electricity do not pass through iron as well as they do through copper.

paragraphs: Metals are very useful to people. They are used to make tools because they can be strong and easy to shape. Iron and steel have been used to make bridges, buildings, or ships.

paragraphs: Some metals are used to make items like coins because they are hard and will not wear away quickly. For example, copper (which is shiny and red in color), aluminium (which is shiny and white), gold (which is yellow and shiny), and silver and nickel (also white and shiny).

paragraphs: Some metals, like steel, can be made sharp and stay sharp, so they can be used to make knives, axes or razors.

paragraphs: Rare metals with high value, like gold, silver and platinum are often used to make jewellery. Metals are also used to make fasteners and screws. Pots used for cooking can be made from copper, aluminium, steel or iron. Lead is very heavy and dense and can be used as ballast in boats to stop them from turning over, or to protect people from ionizing radiation.

paragraphs: Many things that are made of metals may, in fact, be made of mixtures of at least one metal with either other metals, or with non-metals. These mixtures are called alloys. Some common alloys are:

paragraphs: People first began making things from metal over 9000 years ago, when they discovered how to get copper from its []ore. They then learned how to make a harder alloy, bronze, by adding tin to the copper. About 3000 years ago, they discovered iron. By adding small amounts of carbon to iron, they found that they could make a particularly useful alloy – steel.

paragraphs: In chemistry, metal is a word for a group of chemical elements that have certain properties. It is easy for the atoms of a metal to lose an electron and become positive ions, or cations. In this way, metals are not like the other two kinds of elements - the nonmetals and the metalloids. Most elements on the periodic table are metals.

paragraphs: On the periodic table, we can draw a zigzag line from the element boron (symbol B) to the element polonium (symbol Po). The elements that this line passes through are the metalloids. The elements that are above and to the right of this line are the nonmetals. The rest of the elements are the metals.

paragraphs: Most of the properties of metals are due to the fact that the atoms in the metal do not hold onto their electrons very tightly. Each atom is separated from the others by a thin layer of valence electrons.

paragraphs: However, some metals are different. An example is the metal sodium. It is soft, melts at a low temperature, and is so light, it floats on water. People should not try this though, because another property of sodium is that it explodes when it touches water.

paragraphs: Most metals are chemically stable, and do not react easily but some do react. The reactive ones are the alkali metals like sodium (symbol Na) and the alkaline earth metals like calcium (symbol Ca). When metals do react, they often react with oxygen. The oxides of metals are basic. The oxides of nonmetals are acidic.

paragraphs: Compounds, which have metal atoms combined with other atoms to make molecules, are probably the most common substances on Earth. For example, common salt is a compound of sodium.

paragraphs: The use of metals is said to be the thing that makes people different from animals. Before they used metals, people made tools from stones, wood, and animal bones. This is now called the Stone Age.

paragraphs: No-one knows when the first metal was found and used. It was probably what is called native copper, which is sometimes found in large lumps on the ground. People learned to make this into copper tools and other things, although, for a metal, it is quite soft. They learned smelting to get copper from common ores. When copper was melted over fire, people learned how to make an alloy called bronze, which is much harder and stronger than copper. People made knives and weapons from bronze. This time in human history, after about 3300 BC is often called the Bronze Age, that is, the time of bronze tools and weapons.

paragraphs: Around the year 1200 BC some people learned to make iron tools and weapons. These were even harder and stronger than bronze and this was an advantage in war. The time of iron tools and weapons is now called the Iron Age

paragraphs: Metals have been very important in human history and civilization. Iron and steel were important in the making of machines. Gold and silver were used as money in order to allow people to trade, that is, exchange goods and services over long distances.

paragraphs: In astronomy, a metal is any element other than hydrogen or helium. This is because these two elements (and sometimes lithium) are the only ones that form outside stars. In the sky, a spectrometer can see the signs of metals and show the astronomer the metals in a star.

paragraphs: In humans, some metals are essential nutrients like iron, cobalt, and zinc. Some metals can be harmless such as ruthenium, silver, and indium. Some metals can be toxic in large amounts. Other metals such as cadmium, mercury, and lead, are very poisonous. Sources of metal poisoning include mining, tailings, industrial wastes, agricultural runoff, occupational exposure, paints and treated timber.


title: German

paragraphs: When talking about a person, it can mean someone who lives in Germany, or someone who thinks of himself or herself as 'German'.


title: Indonesia

paragraphs: Indonesia, () officially the Republic of Indonesia, (Indonesian: "Republik Indonesia") is a nation in Southeast Asia. It is part of the Malay Islands. It has 18,108 islands. People live on about 6,000 of these islands. The most important islands of Indonesia are Java, Bali, Borneo, Sulawesi, and Sumatra. The capital of Indonesia is Jakarta, on Java. The president now is Joko Widodo. Modern Indonesia began on the 17th of August 1945. At 10 o'clock on that Friday morning, Sukarno read Indonesia's Declaration of Independence. Indonesia's Independence Day is a national holiday.

paragraphs: Indonesia is the fourth most populated country in the world with 238,452,952 people (2004 est.) Half of the population lives in Java, There are 111 people per km. The land area is 1.904 million km, or slightly smaller than Mexico. The official language of Indonesia is Bahasa Indonesia, but a total of 737 languages are spoken in different parts of Indonesia. Most of these many languages are only spoken among remote tribal groups. Other languages widely spoken in Indonesia include Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese. Indonesia's neighbors are Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and East Timor which share land borders with Indonesia. Other nearby countries are Australia to the south, Singapore to the Northwest, and Philippines to the Northeast.

paragraphs: Indonesia has the most active volcanoes of any country in the world. It is also close to fault lines so there are many earthquakes and tsunamis.

paragraphs: Most people in Indonesia follow Islam, but Indonesia is not an Islamic country by law. Indonesia has the largest Muslim population on earth. Other religions Indonesians follow include Christianity (Protestant and Roman Catholic), Hinduism, and Buddhism.

paragraphs: Indonesia has a written history as far back as the 7th century. Before the colonial Dutch came in the 1596, Indonesia was made up of many kingdoms that were constantly fighting each other. Indonesia was ruled by the Netherlands from the 17th century until World War II. The country was then called the Dutch East Indies.

paragraphs: During World War II, the Japanese drove out the Dutch and took control of Indonesia. After Japan surrendered in the war, Indonesia claimed its independence on the 17th of August 1945. The proclamation was read by Sukarno in Jakarta. Sukarno later became Indonesia's first President.

paragraphs: British troops came into Indonesia to restore peace and to rescue Europeans who had been prisoners of the Japanese. The British troops also had the job of shipping home 300,000 Japanese troops. The Indonesian Republicans fought the British troops, because it was expected that the British would give Indonesia back to the Dutch. The Indonesian Republicans killed many of the Japanese prisoners, before they could be sent home. They also began killing people from minority groups who might be against the new Republic. Many European and Indonesian European people were killed. Many Chinese business people and other minority groups were killed or made homeless. In Java there were many thousands of homeless people.

paragraphs: In 1946, the Dutch came back. When the British left in 1947, there were 55,000 Dutch soldiers in Indonesia. The Dutch action was called "Operatie Product" or "Politionele Acties". The Indonesian Republicans fought the Dutch until 1949. But the Indonesian Republicans were badly organised and often fought among themselves. As the Dutch forced the Republican soldiers out of different areas, they moved in more troops until there were 100,000 Dutch troops. The Dutch refused to obey the United Nations who said they should stop the fighting in Indonesia. The United States of America organised for meetings between Dutch and Indonesian leaders. The Dutch finally agreed to recognise Indonesia's independence in November 1949.

paragraphs: Because of the fighting and the bad organisation, it took a long time for the country to become peaceful, and for the economy to get better. Many Indonesian soldiers had died, between 45,000 and 100,000. Also, a very large number of civilians, Indonesians, Europeans and Chinese, had died; perhaps as many as 200,000.

paragraphs: Indonesia has 34 provinces. Five of them have special status. Each province has its own legislature and governor. The provinces are divided into regencies ("kabupaten") and cities ("kota"). These are further divided into districts ("kecamatan"), and again into village groupings (either "desa" or "kelurahan").

paragraphs: Indonesian provinces and their capitals – listed by region

paragraphs: There are people of many different cultural groups living in Indonesia, has more than 700 ethnic groups. It is affected by Indians, Chinese people, Arabs, Malays and Europeans. The Javan hawk-eagle is the national bird.


title: Property

paragraphs: Property is something that is owned by someone. If someone buys a car, the car becomes their property. People who deal with buying or selling real estate will often talk about "properties", meaning houses, apartments, offices etc.


title: NEWI Cefn Druids F.C.

paragraphs: NEWI Cefn Druids Football Club (they used to be called Flexsys Cefn Druids) are a Welsh football (soccer) team.


title: Aberystwyth Town F.C.

paragraphs: Aberystwyth Town Football Club are a Welsh football (soccer) team.

paragraphs: The club was started in 1884. They play at the Park Avenue stadium in Aberystwyth. They play in the Welsh League. They came third in the Welsh league in 1992 but have only had success at a regional level.


title: German language

paragraphs: German (German: "Deutsch") is a West Germanic language. It is spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg; natively by around 100 million people. It is the most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union. There are some people who speak German in Belgium and in the Netherlands, as well as in France and Northern Italy. There are people who speak German in many countries, including the United States and Canada, where many people emigrated from Germany. German is also spoken in Eastern Europe, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia.

paragraphs: German is a part of the West Germanic language family (a group of languages that are similar) and is much like English and Dutch. A lot of the vocabulary in German is related to English, but the grammar is more complicated. German has a system of cases, and when helping verbs are used, the main part of the verb must be moved to the end of the sentence. For example, "Someone has stolen my car" is "Jemand hat mein Auto gestohlen" (Someone has my car stolen) or, "Someone called me last night" is "Jemand hat mich letzte Nacht angerufen" (Someone has me last night called).

paragraphs: In German writing, every noun must start with a capital letter. English and Danish also did this long ago, but not now. Today, German is the only language that has this rule.

paragraphs: While German is an official language in Switzerland, the Swiss dialect of German is difficult for native speakers from Germany, and even for Swiss who are not native to speaking German, to understand. One reason why the dialects are still so different today is that even though Switzerland adopted Standard German, mostly as a written standard, German Swiss in WWII wanted to separate themselves from the Nazis by choosing to speak the Swiss dialect over the standard dialect. Swiss German also has some differences in writing, for example, the letter ß, which is only seen in German, is always replaced by "ss".