title: MacOS

paragraphs: macOS, formerly Mac OS X from 2001 to 2012 and OS X until 2016, is the name of an operating system for computers made by Apple Inc. These are called Macintosh computers, or Macs. It differs from other computers, as macOS is supposed to run only on Macs and not on other computers. However, people have made the OS run on computers that are not Macs. This is called Hackintosh and violates macOS' license agreement.

paragraphs: macOS first came out in 2001, and is completely different than the "classic" Mac OS that it replaced. Unlike that old (original) operating system, macOS (since OS X) is based on the Unix operating system (current versions have UNIX 03 certification) and on technologies developed between 1985 and 1997 at NeXT, a company that Apple co-founder Steve Jobs created after leaving Apple in 1985. The "X" in Mac OS X and OS X is the Roman numeral for the number 10 and is pronounced as such. The core of macOS is an open source OS called Darwin, but Darwin itself cannot run macOS software.

paragraphs: macOS releases are named after kinds of big cats, or California landmarks, and have a version number that starts with 10. The latest versions of macOS code name is macOS Catalina (10.15).

paragraphs: Throughout the early 1990s, Apple had tried to create a "next-generation" OS to succeed its classic Mac OS. The current macOS is a Unix operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT from the 1980s until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. That company was also founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 (the "classic" "Mac OS" is much older, came out in 1984). The kernel of NeXTSTEP is based upon the Mach kernel, which was originally developed at Carnegie Mellon University, with additional kernel layers and low-level user space code derived from parts of BSD. Its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the programming language.

paragraphs: On September 13, 2000, Apple released a $29.95 preview of Mac OS X to ask users what they think of the new operating system so far. Apple stopped the Public Beta in March 2001 because of the recent release of OS X 10.0.

paragraphs: On March 24, 2001 Apple released Mac OS X for the first time aka OS X v10.0 (codename Cheetah), but unfortunately, it was a failure due to its many computer bugs and glitches and its slow performance. Luckily this operating system version only stayed on the market up until September when it was moved up to a "higher level".

paragraphs: Due to many problems and complaints about Cheetah, Apple directly got to work on releasing Puma, the next big cat in Mac OS X. It was released on September 24, 2001. Apple gave 10.0 users a free Mac OS X v10.1 install CD to make up for the flawed operating system before. As of January 7, 2002, Apple said Mac OS 9 and other previous operating systems from Apple were "going in the computer scrapyard" by the end of the month (January 31, 2002) and OS X would be the default and only operating system available on all Macs.

paragraphs: Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar was released on August 24, 2002 and was the first to have its codename in the version branding. The Happy Mac (which formerly appeared when a Mac was starting up) was replaced with a large gray apple logo with the startup sequence of OS X 10.2 Jaguar.

paragraphs: Mac OS X 10.3 Panther was released on October 24, 2003 and was one of the biggest updates to OS X yet. It featured a new brushed metal interface, an updated Finder, and many more features from Jaguar the year before.

paragraphs: Tiger was released on April 29, 2005 and as stated by Apple, featured more than 200 new features. Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automator, VoiceOver, Core Image and Core Video. Apple released the first Power Intel Macs for Tiger on January 10, 2006. Tiger ran swell on these computers. It was also the last operating system to support the Aqua color scheme.

paragraphs: Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard was released on October 26, 2007. It was completely redesigned featuring a 3D Dock, a new purple color scheme, and over 200 new features. It had both support for PowerPC and Intel Macs too. Leopard was the last release to have support for PowerPC.

paragraphs: Mac OS X Snow Leopard was released on August 28, 2009, and rather than featuring changes to the appearance, it featured "Under the hood" changes. Snow Leopard dropped support for PowerPC Macs too.

paragraphs: OS X Lion was first shown to the public at the "Back to The Mac" event in 2010, announced more at WWDC 2011, and released on July 20, 2011. It featured iOS like features such as a launchpad, the magic trackpad coming to MacBooks, and a new solar system color scheme. Apple also removed Rosetta making it impossible to use PowerPC.

paragraphs: OS X Mountain Lion was announced on February 18, 2012, and released on July 25, 2012. It adds more features from iOS 5 and 6 to the Mac such as notifications, messaging, game center, and gaming with people on iPhones, iPods, and iPads.

paragraphs: OS X Mavericks was announced on June 10, 2013 at the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference. It adds the Maps and iBooks applications, as well as new Finder features, better multi-display support, power improvements, and a new version of Safari. It was released on October 22, 2013.

paragraphs: OS X Yosemite was announced in June 2014 at the 2014 Worldwide Developers Conference. It was in beta form for developers and those enrolled in the public beta programme to test until October 16 2014 when it was released. It introduces a new flat design, following the aesthetic introduced with iOS 7.

paragraphs: OS X 10.11 El Capitan was released on September 30, 2015 after being announced on June 8, 2015. Similar to Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard, Apple described this release as containing "refinements to the Mac experience" and "improvements to system performance" rather than new features. Refinements include public transport built into the Maps application, GUI improvements to the Notes application, adopting San Francisco as the system font for clearer legibility, and the introduction of System Integrity Protection. The Metal API, first introduced in iOS 8, was also included in this operating system for "all Macs since 2012".

paragraphs: macOS 10.12 Sierra was announced on June 12, 2016 and released to the public on September 20, 2016. New features include the addition of Siri, Optimized Storage, and updates to Photos, Messages, and iTunes

paragraphs: The fall release of macOS 10.13 High Sierra was announced on June 5, 2017 at Apple's WWDC event. On September 12, 2017 at Apple's iPhone event, they announced its release to be September 25, 2017. Like OS X El Capitan and OS X Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a refinement-based update having very few new features. High Sierra uses the new Apple File System and includes enhancements to Safari, Photos, and Mail, among other changes.

paragraphs: Released on September 24, 2018. There are many additional features to the existing mac-OS apps. Some highlights are Dark Mode (UI theme & appearance), time shifts reflecting the hour of the day (desktop background), file stacks, edit features in quick look, continuity camera and Group FaceTime features also adds the screenshot app.

paragraphs: Released on October 7, 2019. This OS is included with lots of additional new features like sharing your screen to iPad (Sidecar) and is capable of running iPad apps. Catalina is the first version of macOS to exclusively support 64-bit applications. MacOS Catalina also split up iTunes into 3 apps: Music, Podcasts and Movies. Because of the removal of iTunes, syncing your devices is done in Finder.

paragraphs: Announced on June 22, 2020, macOS Big Sur changes the version number from 10 to 11. It now supports the ARM64 instruction set architecture (ISA), as Apple is transitioning the Mac to its own Apple Silicon based on the ARM64 platform. It brings the biggest design changes since the introduction of macOS (then called Mac OS X). Big Sur is in Beta testing right now.

paragraphs: At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is macOS.

paragraphs: The Darwin subsystem in macOS is in charge of managing the file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes. More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused. He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should only be tried when problems emerge.

paragraphs: The architecture of macOS incorporates a layered design:

paragraphs: the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks. Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift. For the Apple–Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines. First and third-party applications can be controlled programatically using the AppleScript framework, retained from the classic Mac OS, or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.


title: Rendsburg

paragraphs: Rendsburg (Danish: "Rendsborg") is a town in Schleswig-Holstein with 30,000 people.


title: Jacques Chirac

paragraphs: Jacques René Chirac (29 November 1932 – 26 September 2019) was a French politician who served as President of the French Republic and "ex officio" Co-Prince of Andorra from 1995 to 2007. He was re-elected in 2002. Before that, he was Prime Minister of France twice, and Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995.

paragraphs: On 14 July 2002, during Bastille Day celebrations, a man tried to shoot Chirac. A lone gunman with a rifle hidden in a guitar case, the would-be assassin fired a shot toward the presidential motorcade. He was then overpowered by bystanders. The gunman, Maxime Brunerie, had psychiatric testing.

paragraphs: On 15 December 2011, Chirac was found guilty for corruption. He was allowed to serve his 2-year sentence without prison time.

paragraphs: As a former president, Chirac had a lifetime pension. He was a member for life of France's Constitutional Council.

paragraphs: In 1956, he married Bernadette Chodron de Courcel. They had two daughters: Laurence (1958–2016) and Claude (born 1962). Claude is a public relations assistant and personal adviser. Laurence, who had anorexia nervosa in her youth, did not participate in the political activities of her father.

paragraphs: In 2005, Chirac suffered a stroke. He had been suffering from memory loss and was in ill health. On 10 December 2015, Chirac was hospitalized in Paris for undisclosed reasons, and although his state of health did not "give any cause for concern", he would remain under the intensive care unit.

paragraphs: Chirac died at his home in Paris on 26 September 2019 at the age of 86.


title: Mario Jeckle

paragraphs: Mario Jeckle (25 August 1974 – 11 June 2004) was a German computer scientist.

paragraphs: From 1997 to 2003, Jeckle attended the University of Applied Science in Augsburg. In 1998, he received his computer science degree for his thesis (paper) "Prozeßkettenmodellierung am Beispiel der Gießwerkzeugentwicklung und prototypische Implementierung auf Basis des EDM/PDM - Systems Metaphase" (An example of process chain modelling in casting tool development and prototype implementation on basis of the EDM/PDM - Systems Metaphase). At Augsburg, he taught Java, Java Threads, XML and software engineering.

paragraphs: In 2003, Jeckle became a professor at the University of Applied Sciences in Furtwangen. He taught about XML, databases, software engineering, and "eBusiness" (electronic business).

paragraphs: Jeckle was also a W3C and OMG representative of DaimlerChrysler Research and developed technical standards for XML, UML 2.0, and others. At the beginning of 2004, he was a member of the Technical Architecture Group of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Jeckle was also an author of books and a well-known speaker at conferences and seminars (information groups).

paragraphs: Jeckle was a member of the International Red Cross. On 11 June 2004, he died while giving aid to others who had a car accident on a German highway. While helping, another driver lost control and hit Jeckle and another man.


title: Eighty Years' War

paragraphs: The Eighty Years' War, also called Dutch Revolt, was a war between the Netherlands and Spain. It lasted from 1568 to 1648 but was interrupted by a truce between 1609 and 1621. The Peace of Westphalia ended the war. The Netherlands achieved independence in the Eighty Years' War.


title: Exponent

paragraphs: In mathematics, an exponent indicates how many copies of a number (known as the base) is multiplied together.

paragraphs: For example, in the number formula_1, 5 is the base and 4 is the exponent. This can be read as "5 to the power of 4". Therefore, in this example, four copies of 5 are multiplied together, which means that formula_2.

paragraphs: In general, given two numbers formula_3 and formula_4, the number formula_5 can be read as "formula_3 raised to the power of formula_4" or "formula_3 to the formula_4th power", where formula_4 is the exponent.

paragraphs: Bases raised to the power of two, formula_11, can be read the base "squared", because the area of a square with a side length of x is formula_12.

paragraphs: Similarly, bases raised to the power of three, formula_13, can be called the base "cubed", because the area of a cube with a side length of x is formula_14.

paragraphs: Exponents are used in algebra. Exponentiation is a way of shortening the process/equation of repeatedly multiplying many copies of a number.

paragraphs: An exponent is a number or symbol, placed above and to the right of the expression to which it applies, that indicates the number of times the expression is used as a factor. For example. the exponent "x" in formula_15 indicates x copies of formula_16 are multiplied together.

paragraphs: There are some basic rules used in exponentiation

paragraphs: Proof - When multiplying a base term by two different exponents formula_18, there are "m" number of "a'"s and "n" number of "a"'s.

paragraphs: Since exponentiation is simply repeated multiplication of a base term, we get that:

paragraphs: For example, formula_21. This is true because at first, we had 2 threes times 4 threes which, when multiplied together, gives us 3 multiplied by itself 6 times, or 4+2 times.

paragraphs: By grouping the corresponding "a"’s, we get:

paragraphs: Since corresponding "a"’s become 1, we are then left with

paragraphs: For example, formula_27. Notice that formula_28, which confirms the proof.

paragraphs: In fact, this property holds when m < n as well, but in that case, we get negative exponents instead. When m < n, the format of the problem becomes formula_29.

paragraphs: For more information on negative exponents, see § Negative exponents below.

paragraphs: This equation holds true for formula_32 as well, so

paragraphs: If this statement is true where formula_34, then formula_32 must equal one. That is:

paragraphs: A negative exponent is the reciprocal of a number with a positive exponent which can be mathematically represented as formula_37 In the same way that regular exponents are considered repeated multiplication, negative exponents can be considered repeated division.

paragraphs: Negative exponents can also be different from -1. In this case the negative exponent can be separated from the positive exponent, so formula_38

paragraphs: The formula for a negative exponent in terms of a whole number exponent is formula_39 There are more than one ways to prove this. The first proof involves a pattern form. It is not always a good idea to use patterns because in cases like exponents they may not be complete patterns for every case, but the proof still holds.

paragraphs: The second proof proves exactly the same thing but dives further into matching equalities

paragraphs: everything in the next row is proved by the rules in the exponent section

paragraphs: If we also have a multiplication, like in formula_53, it would be written as formula_54

paragraphs: A complex number can also be taken to the power of another complex number. The relationship between imaginary numbers and trigonometry, which produces the multiplication formula

paragraphs: This formula basically states that the multiplication of complex numbers is related to addition of angles.

paragraphs: There are some relationships between functions and “infinite degree polynomials”, that are called series representations of the functions. The important series representations that we will focus on are:

paragraphs: From these representations, you should notice that the terms of the sine and cosine series combine, along with some sign changes, to make the exponential series. By introducing the number i into the equation, we get

paragraphs: This result is often used as the beginning of the definition for complex number exponents.

paragraphs: There are some cases where we are raising other numbers to the power i. For example, we can use the following relationship formula_60. Here using base 2 and exponent i, we get

paragraphs: When using base i and exponent i, we get

paragraphs: We can rewrite the formula_64 in the trigonometric form formula_65.

paragraphs: By the relationship we found between trigonometry and complex exponent, we can rewrite the equation in complex exponential form, formula_66.

paragraphs: Substituting this equation in the exponent in our original equation, we get formula_67

paragraphs: The real and imaginary parts of the exponent can be simplified separately to obtain to result formula_69

paragraphs: Because there are many ways to describe the angle P, this formula can give many answers. If we allow the variable P to vary by multiples of formula_70, we get the final result


title: Moresnet

paragraphs: Moresnet or Neutral Moresnet () was a very small territory that existed from 1816 to 1919. It had a size of 3.5 km². It existed because its neighbours could not agree on who should own it, so they decided to make it a neutral territory where both neighbours would both have power. It was 7 km Southwest of Aix-la-Chapelle (Germany), and south of the points were the borders of Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands come together on the Vaalserberg.

paragraphs: At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 many borders and countries changed. One of the borders was the one between the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands and Prussia. For the most part Prussia and the Netherlands agreed on the border, because it was mostly the same as the old border. Around Moresnet there was a problem. Between the villages of Moresnet and Neu-Moresnet was the zinc mine of Vieille Montagne (in French) / Altenberg (in German). Both countries wanted to have this mine. In 1816 it was decided that the village of Moresnet itself would become part of the Netherlands, Neu-Moresnet would become part of Prussia and the mine and the village of Kelmis around it would become neutral territory where both countries shared the power.

paragraphs: Neutral Moresnet was shaped more or less like a triangle. The southern border was the road between Aix-la-Chapelle and Liège. The mine was just to the north of this road. The most northerly point of the country was the Vaalserberg. When Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830, the land on the Dutch side became Belgian. So from 1830 Belgium and Prussia were in power in Moresnet. At first Moresnet was governed by two royal commissioners, one from each neighbour. Later Moresnet got its own rulers: a mayor and a council of ten members were installed. The mayor was the Head of State, he was appointed by the council.

paragraphs: Most people in Moresnet worked in the zinc mine. Many people from the neighbouring countries also worked in the zinc mine. Because Moresnet was neutral, there were very low taxes and there were no import-tariffs (like in Andorra now). The people from Moresnet were allowed to choose in which army they wanted to serve, but they were not allowed to have their own army.

paragraphs: The mine was exhausted by 1885, so people from Moresnet had to find a new way to find money. Some wanted to start a casino, or issue their own stamps. Dr. Wilhelm Molly, wanted to change Moresnet into a country where everyone would speak Esperanto. He wanted to name the country Amikejo ("place of friendship"). None of these plans succeeded. Belgium and Prussia (which became a part of Germany in 1871) both wanted to take over the territory. In 1914, in the First World War, Germany invaded Belgium and occupied Moresnet. In 1915 they officially annexed it, so Neutral Moresnet did not exist any more.

paragraphs: In 1919, after the war, in the Treaty of Versailles it was decided that Moresnet would become part of Belgium. From 1940 to 1944, during World War II, Moresnet was occupied by Germany again, but since 1944 it has been part of Belgium again.


title: MacGyver

paragraphs: MacGyver was an American television series. It was first shown in September 1985 on the television network, ABC. The main character, Angus MacGyver (played by Richard Dean Anderson), often prevented inevitable defeats, saved lives, distracted enemies, made weapons, and even performed everyday tasks usually using very few objects that seemed irrelevant or abnormal to use in such situations. His use of duct tape has led some parts of the world to call it "MacGyver tape."

paragraphs: The term "McGyver" now means someone who is able to perform amazing feats with the use of very few and often irrelevant objects.


title: Quark

paragraphs: A quark is a tiny particle which makes up protons and neutrons. Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons. It was once thought that all three of those were fundamental particles, which cannot be broken up into anything smaller. After the invention of the particle accelerator, it was discovered that electrons are fundamental particles, but neutrons and protons are not. Neutrons and protons are made up of quarks, which are held together by gluons.

paragraphs: There are six types of quarks. The types are called flavours. The flavours are up, down, strange, charm, top, and bottom. Up, charm and top quarks have a charge of +, while down, strange and bottom quarks have a charge of -. Each quark has a matching antiquark. Antiquarks have a charge opposite to that of their quarks; meaning that up, charm and top antiquarks have a charge of - and that down, strange and bottom antiquarks have a charge of +.

paragraphs: Only up and down quarks are found inside atoms of normal matter. Two up quarks and one down make a proton ( + - = +1 charge) while two down quarks and one up make a neutron ( - - = 0 charge). The other four flavours are not seen naturally on Earth, but they can be made in particle accelerators. Some of them may also exist inside of stars.

paragraphs: When two or more quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, the particle formed is called a hadron. Quarks that make the quantum number of hadrons are named 'valence quarks'. The two families of hadrons are baryons (made of three valence quarks) and mesons (which are made from a quark and an antiquark).

paragraphs: When quarks are stretched farther and farther, the force that holds them together becomes bigger. When it comes to the point when quarks are separated, they form two sets of quarks, because the energy that is put into trying to separate them is enough to form two new quarks.

paragraphs: The idea (or model) for quarks was proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964. Other scientists began searching for evidence of quarks, and succeeded later in 1968.


title: Northern Hemisphere

paragraphs: The Northern Hemisphere is the part of the planet that is north of the equator. It has about 90 percent of world's population and most of the world's land. All of North America and Europe are in the Northern Hemisphere. Most of Asia, two-thirds of Africa and 10 percent of South America are also in this hemisphere. The three largest countries by population; China, India, and the United States, are in the Northern Hemisphere.


Yesterday


title: Messiah

paragraphs: Messiah or the Anointed One is the figure promised by God to the Jews for the salvation of the world. The Jews think that the Messiah will be a human being that will save Israel and lead the whole world into the End Of Days and eternal peace.

paragraphs: Other people in real life or fiction are called messianic if they have the qualities of a messiah, or people think they will bring about a better world.

paragraphs: Christianity, which began in Israel with Jewish followers of Jesus (), holds that the Messiah foretold by the Jewish Scriptures is Jesus, and that in fulfillment of prophecy Jesus died for the sins of the world, rose from the dead and lives today, seated at the right hand of God until His return. Most Jews do not hold these beliefs; those who do are sometimes called Messianic Jews. Some Messianic Jews and other Christians see the fact that a majority of Jews do not hold these beliefs as a fulfillment of prophecy. (see Epistle to the Romans chapter 10)

paragraphs: Muslims believe that Jesus was the son of Mary, that he was a mighty prophet of God and that he was the Messiah (though, in Islam, the Messiah has a different role than he does in Christianity or Judaism). They believe that he will come again one day in his Second Coming to fight besides the Mahdi against the "Dajjal" ("false messiah").


title: César Chávez

paragraphs: Cesar Chavez (born César Estrada Chávez (March 31, 1927April 23, 1993) was an American farmworker, labor leader and civil rights activist. Chávez started the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) along with Dolores Huerta. He wanted equal rights for Mexicans working in the United States. This union became the United Farm Workers. He led a boycott against grape companies to gain rights for workers. Chávez used nonviolence to make these changes. Chavez is thought of as one of the leaders in the movement for Chicanos to gain more rights in the late-20th century.

paragraphs: Chávez was born near Yuma, Arizona and went to over 37 schools. He graduated from the eighth grade. He did most of his organizing in California, especially near Bakersfield. Fred Ross taught him to lead unions. Fred Ross was a student of Saul Alinsky.

paragraphs: In 1965, Chávez and the NFWA started a strike for grape-pickers in California. At the same time, he asked Americans to boycott grapes from California. In 1970, the migrant workers won their fight for better pay.

paragraphs: He kept working against unfair labor rules. He stopped eating in protest three times because of low pay and bad working conditions. When he died, was leading another grape boycott to stop the use of pesticides.

paragraphs: Chávez is respected in California and other states. In 2000, California's state legislature started a holiday to honor him. The holiday is on March 31, Chávez's birthday. This is the first time that a US public holiday honored a Mexican American or a union leader. Many cities have streets or places named for him. These cities include San Francisco, Los Angeles, Albuquerque, New Mexico, Austin, Texas, Chicago, Illinois, Milwaukee, and Salt Lake City. In 1998 he was inducted into the Hall of Honor by the United States Department of Labor.


title: Hamilton, Ontario

paragraphs: Hamilton is a medium-sized city in the Canadian province of Ontario.

paragraphs: For over 150 years, Hamilton has had factories. For over 100 years, most of them have been steel factories like Stelco and Dofasco. Since the strike of 1946, the workers at Stelco have had a trade union. The workers at Dofasco do not have a trade union. There was also a Studebaker car factory in Hamilton until 1966.

paragraphs: Since the 1980s, industries in Hamilton have had trouble making money and keeping people working. In 2004, Stelco filed for bankruptcy. This means Stelco asked the courts if it could stop paying money it borrowed back to banks. The future for industry does not look good for Hamiltonians.

paragraphs: However, other businesses look much better. People might not think of schools like McMaster University and Mohawk College as businesses, but they are. Students and teachers come to Hamilton and spend their money here. Doctors, teachers, nurses and other professionals train here. Even Tim Hortons doughnut stores started in Hamilton in 1965.

paragraphs: CH has been a local TV station in Hamilton since 1954. Steve Smith, known for starring in "The Red Green Show", started working at CH. "Tiny Talent Time" is another popular show on CHCH which features many children.

paragraphs: Some movies were filmed in and around Hamilton, such as "Anne of Green Gables","5ive Girls" and "Rocky V", because it looks like other places.

paragraphs: Folksinger Stan Rogers was born in Dundas, which became part of Hamilton in 2001. The Appleton sisters, now famous in Britain, were born in Hamilton. Daniel Lanois is an important singer himself and helped the band U2 with its music. He lived in Hamilton and recorded at Grant Avenue Studios.

paragraphs: "The Hamilton Spectator" newspaper has been around since the 1840s. It offers tours showing its giant printing press and writers' offices. It also has school projects which include a classroom subscription to the newspaper for every student.

paragraphs: Government is how people organize themselves to be directed by politics. Hamilton was part of Wentworth County until 1974. Wentworth County included the townships of: Ancaster, Barton, Beverly, Binbrook, East Flamborough, West Flamborough, Glanford and Saltfleet. Here is how the government of Hamilton changed over the years:

paragraphs: Politics is the way people choose the leaders of their communities and the things they decide are important enough to do. Hamiltonians like choosing socially minded people to governm themselves, especially women and minorities. Many people who were mayors, members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs) or members of Parliament (MPs) have things named for them in the city, such as:

paragraphs: Netural and Mohawk Native Canadians of the Six Nations were the first people to live in this area. In 1616, Étienne Brûlé probably became the first European to visit what is now Hamilton. United Empire Loyalists moved into the Hamilton area during and after the American Revolution. The Battle of Stoney Creek was fought during the War of 1812 in what is now Hamilton.

paragraphs: In the mid- to late 1800s, Hamilton became an industrial city with lots of factories. It was close to limestone from the Niagara Escarpment, coal from the United States, iron ore mined from northern Ontario. But factories demanded that people work hard jobs for long hours. In 1872, Hamilton workers marched for a work day of no more than nine hours! The two large steel factories were Stelco (the Steel Company of Canada), created in 1910 and the Dofasco (Dominion Steel Casting Company) in 1912. Dominion is an old word often heard to describe Canada when it was part of the British Empire.

paragraphs: Many schools were built between 1910 and 1930, including Adelaide Hoodless School, Memorial School (for the First World War, Viscount Allenby School (WWI general) and Earl Kitchener School (WWI general). The First World War is often shortened to WWI.

paragraphs: In the 1930s, the Great Depression hit Hamilton. People were unemployed and poor. Factories stoped running. Times were hard. Then the Second World War started and people got jobs again in the army and building guns for the army. August 19, 1942, hundreds of young men from Hamilton were killed by the German army when they tried to attack Dieppe in France.

paragraphs: There are a few professional sports in Hamilton. The Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League play at Ivor Wynne Stadium. Hamilton would like a National Hockey League team but it does not have one. The Hamilton Bulldogs of the Ontario Hockey League play at Copps Coliseum.

paragraphs: There are many amateur sports in Hamilton. People of all ages can run in the Around the Bay Race. It takes 30 km to go around the edge of Hamilton Harbour or Burlington Bay. "The Hamilton Spectator" also hosts amateur indoor games. Every year, children from Hamilton and Flint, Michigan compete in the Canusa Games.

paragraphs: The Commonwealth Games are like the Olympics for people who used to be ruled by Britain. In 1930, Hamilton became the first ever host for what ere then called the Empire Games. The city also tried to host the 2010 Commonwealth Games.

paragraphs: McMaster University and Mohawk College have produced national championship teams in a number of sports. McMaster University is a perennial powerhouse in Men's Basketball and Football.

paragraphs: Here in Hamilton we also have recreational leagues for kids to enjoy their childhood by playing many recreational sports such as Hockey(Stoney Creek Minor Hockey), Soccer(Stoney Creek Soccer Club), and Football with (Steelcity Ironmen). In addition, there are a number of other community sport clubs like the Mt Hamilton Youth Soccer Club which has provided an avenue for children to play soccer since 1964.

paragraphs: There are many buses, apart from the school buses operated by the Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board. For $2.55, the Hamilton Street Railway or HSR takes people inside and across the city.

paragraphs: Travellers can also get to places like Niagara Falls, Dunnville, Buffalo, Kitchener, and London. These buses are run by companies called Greyhound, Trentway Wagar and McCoy. GO Transit has buses and trains that go to Toronto. Using GO however is not a part of the HSR.

paragraphs: The city streets in the old city of Hamilton follow a pattern. The big streets going north and south are in straight lines. When they are on the Mountain, they have "Upper" in front the their names, except for Garth Street which should be Upper Dundurn Street.

paragraphs: Streets are called "North," such as "James Street North," if they are north of King Street or Queenston Road. Streets are called "South" if they are south of King or Queenston. Streets are called "East," such as "East 5th Street" or "Main Street East," if they are east of James Street or Upper James Street. Streets are called "West" if they are west of James or Upper James.

paragraphs: King and Main Streets are major roads that are almost parallel or side by side one another. They cross at the Delta in east Hamilton. For most of King and Main, cars could only travel one way. So instead of thinking of them as two streets, think of them as one street with a very wide boulevard between them. This changed in the early 2000s, and most of the streets in Downtown Hamilton are now two-way.

paragraphs: Throughout the city there are some neighbourhoods with weird or strange street names. For example, Birdland has streets named after birds like Cardinal, Blue Jay and Swallow. Another neighbourhood on the Mountain has streets named after people from the French Revolution, such as Napoleon, Josephine, and Robespierre. Riverdale West, in the Lower City, has streets named after types of berries.


title: Shape

paragraphs: A shape is a geometric figure that can be described with mathematics. One way to classify shapes is to describe a bigger kind of shape that the shape is one of. For example, they can be classified by their different numbers of dimensions. Thus, circles are two-dimensional shapes so, like other 2D shapes, they will fit into a flat plane.

paragraphs: Three-dimensional objects like cubes will not fit inside a plane, because they are not flat. Four-dimensional shapes made of polygons are called polychorons, and shapes made of polygons of any dimension are polytopes.

paragraphs: Two shapes are said to be equal, if one can be changed into the other by turning, moving, growing, shrinking, or more than one of these in combination.

paragraphs: These are two-dimensional shapes or flat plane geometry shapes. Their sides are made of straight or curved lines. They can have any number of sides. Plane figures made of lines are called polygons. Triangles and squares are examples of polygons.

paragraphs: These are three-dimensional shapes. Their sides are made of flat or curved surfaces.


title: Quechua

paragraphs: Quechua, sometimes written Quichua or Ketchua, is a language spoken by 8 million people in the South American nations of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Argentina and Colombia. It was also the language of the ancient Inca Empire. It's part of the Quechuan languages family.

paragraphs: It is the most-spoken Native American language in South America. It is also the most widely-spoken indigenous language. A quarter of people in Peru speak Quechua. People who speak Quechua as their first language are called Quechua Indians by Spanish-speakers. However, the Quechua refer to themselves as "Runa" ("the people") and call their language "Runa Simi".

paragraphs: Quechua has only three vowel sounds: "a", "i", and "u".

paragraphs: Quechua has given names to many places in Peru, including the Ancash Region. "" is the Quechua word for "blue", and it is thought that the name refers to the region's blue skies.


title: Drinking water

paragraphs: Drinking water, also known as potable water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation.

paragraphs: Water in rivers, stream, lakes and underground may contain organisms that cause disease. It may also contain chemicals that might cause illness.

paragraphs: 'Water treatment' involves filtering the water through sand beds and then adding a chemical to kill any remaining organisms.

paragraphs: The amount of drinking water needed for good health varies. Americans, on average, drink one litre of water per day and 95% drink less than three litres per day. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16 litres a day may be required. Liquid water is essential for life.

paragraphs: In developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards. Other uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater (wastewater) may be used for toilets or irrigation. Using greywater for irrigation may have risks. Water may be unacceptable if it has high levels of toxins or suspended solids.


title: Pen

paragraphs: A pen (Latin: "pinna", feather) is a tool used for writing or drawing. The ink of the pen is pressed onto paper and dries very fast.

paragraphs: "Reed pens" are the oldest known type of pen. They were made from reeds growing in the delta of the Nile. The ancient Egyptians invented them, and also invented black ink, using soot and gum arabic. Their pens had split nibs to regulated the flow of ink to the writing tip. This simple design is still used in calligraphy today.

paragraphs: "Quill pens" are one of the oldest type of pens. A quill pen is the feather of a bird, usually a goose. The end of the feather (the quill) was kept very sharp and had to be dipped into ink after every few words.

paragraphs: Reed and quill pens are "dip pens" because they have to be dipped in ink many times during writing or drawing. Modern dip pens have nibs made of metal.

paragraphs: "Fountain pens" are like dip pens, but can hold enough ink inside to write several pages before being refilled. Inside, the ink is held in a sac or cartridge.

paragraphs: A "ballpoint pen" is generally cylindrical plastic shaft that holds ink and is smaller than a fountain pen. It has a small hard ball on the writing end that rolls the ink onto the paper.

paragraphs: A "stylus" is a pen that cannot write on paper. Styli of wood or metal have been used for thousands of years, for example in cuneiform writing. A modern computer stylus is usually made of plastic and may have electronics inside. It is used with a touchscreen.

paragraphs: The coming of the personal computer much reduced the need to write on paper. All the same, a personally written letter suggests "I think so much of you that I took the effort to write a "real" letter.'


title: Leet

paragraphs: Leet (sometimes written as "1337" or "l33t"), also known as eleet or leetspeak, is another alphabet for the English language that is used mostly on the internet. It uses various combinations of ASCII characters to replace Latinate letters. For example, leet spellings of the word "leet" include "1337" and "l33t"; "eleet" may be spelled "31337" or "3l33t". It is used on the internet in forums, chat rooms and online games.

paragraphs: Leet is mostly used for English, but can also be used with other languages including French, Spanish and German.

paragraphs: Leetspeak is a mixture of words (mostly computer-related jargon) spelled incorrectly intentionally*, usually coming from typographical errors (e.g. "the" becomes "t3h"). The words of leetspeak are usually put together to create a dialect (small language). This dialect is used in some places for funniness. l33tspeak uses numbers, ASCII symbols, and diacritics together to make symbols that look like Latin letters. For example, in the name "David" would translate in 1337 as |)/-\\/1|).

paragraphs: Most of the time it is only the vowels that are changed and then usually only they are replaced by numbers; therefore, it is unusual to see someone use the leet alphabet to spell out a whole word (although there are common exceptions, namely "1337").

paragraphs: These are only examples; these are not mandatory for leetspeak, which is not officially defined anywhere, like most slangs.

paragraphs: When people write in leet, they spell some words wrong all the time. They might do this to laugh at new people who do not write words with their keyboards well, might just be making fun of English's pronunciation or spelling .

paragraphs: When a person writes in English the person must follow English rules, but most of the time people who write in leet do not use these rules. When they write in leet they try to write it in a special way, so that it is very different from English.

paragraphs: "l33t is teh suck!" (meaning: 'leet sucks') shows that in leet people can use their own rules, and not use the English rules. A lot of times adjectives (describing words) are turned into nouns. The leet word "teh" (the) is also often placed in front of verbs, as in "I teh pwnd j00" (meaning I the owned you, meaning: I beat you badly). another example might be I 4m t3h pwnage!!!!11!!11 (meaning I am the best!)

paragraphs: Leet speakers may also speak normally but without the vowels. Fr xmpl nmbr 1 u cn tll it wrks.= For example, number one you can tell it works.

paragraphs: Because some words are too long for use in games they have been written how they sound. Here's a quick guide:

paragraphs: There are some that are uber 1337...using nothing but symbols and numbers to represent their letters...

paragraphs: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Much of the intentional misspelling said to be part of 1337 is actually more properly part of chatspeak, a completely different thing.


title: Waterfall

paragraphs: A waterfall is a place where water rushes down a steep ledge. The water flows from higher land, then it falls down a big step of rock to lower land of softer rock where it will continue on its journey. Usually the lower land is in a gorge. Waterfalls are usually made when a river is young, in places where softer rock is underneath harder rock| in the waterfalls

paragraphs: Many people choose them as sacred spots. The roar from a big waterfall is very loud. Some people think it is beautiful music and that a waterfall is one of the most beautiful things in nature.

paragraphs: The highest waterfall in the world is "Angel Falls" in Venezuela where the water falls .


title: Garden

paragraphs: A garden is usually a piece of land that is used for growing flowers, trees, shrubs, and other plants. The act of caring for a garden by watering the flowers and plants and removing the weeds is called gardening.

paragraphs: There are many types of gardens. People have small private gardens in the backyard outside their house. Some gardens are built indoors in malls, public buildings, or greenhouses. Greenhouses are special buildings where plants are grown. A greenhouse has a transparent glass or plastic roof and walls that let sunlight in.

paragraphs: Water gardens are plants that are grown in ornamental (decorative) pools and ponds. People doing water gardening plant water lilies and other aquatic (water) plants.

paragraphs: Gardening can be done outside of the home, as well. There are in city gardens, botanical gardens (places where plants are grown), zoos which have gardens, and theme parks which have gardens. These types of gardens are cared for by people called gardeners or groundskeepers.

paragraphs: Gardens are related to farms (agriculture); both gardens and farms are used for growing plants. But farms are much larger than gardens. A farm may have hundreds of square kilometers of plants and crops. A garden in a person's backyard is usually only measures a few square meters.

paragraphs: Farms are businesses which sell the crops, fruit, and vegetables that are produced. Some gardens are businesses, which charge a fee to enter the garden. However, private gardens in people's backyards are used as a hobby or as a recreation, not as a business.

paragraphs: In addition to plants, many gardens also have landscaping features such as pathways, seats, rock gardens, ponds, fountains, a small stream with or without a waterfall. Some incorporate gazebos and structural designs to accommodate for places to sit or to place a hammock for a siesta. Roman gardens will have its own columns, fountains and statures placed at strategic places depending on its sizes and uses. Japanese gardens have their own unique designs and features.

paragraphs: Some gardens are created in people's backyards, outside their home (note that in Britain the whole area is called a "garden", not a "yard"). People with gardens in their backyards use gardens as a place to do gardening. Gardening is a type of physical activity which can use enough energy and increase your heart rate that it can be rated as a form of exercise for to relax and exercise certain muscles depending on whether on the activity you do that day such as planting, pruning, weeding, or simply just walk around your garden continuously for 15 minutes or more.

paragraphs: Many people find gardens relaxing especially if the garden is full flowers with strong scents. Some flowers like roses, bougainvilleas, orchids and many others are just beautiful to look at. Many people think that gardens are very beautiful and a place to relax and /or entertain. A garden can have a place to barbecue, to sit and to read.

paragraphs: In many countries and cultures, designing pretty gardens is considered to be an art. In Japan, for instance, Zen monks build decorative gardens with stone and waterfall features using natural materials such as bamboo, rock and BONSAI trees like spruce, pine, and other trees with they trained into miniature forms. In Europe in the 1700s, kings and queens had formal gardens built (for example, the gardens at Versailles, France). In China they also feature Chinese forms of gardens. Now some enterprising people start to have herbal gardens to feature useful herbs used in alternative, traditional, and homeopathic medicine


title: Great Zimbabwe

paragraphs: Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe. The site is not far from the country's border with Mozambique, which is in the southeast of the African continent.

paragraphs: Greater Zimbabwe was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s later Iron Age. The monument first began to be built in the 11th century, and work continued until the 14th century. It covered an area of 722 hectares (1,780 acres) which might have housed up to 18,000 people. It was a royal city for the Zimbabwean monarch. One of its most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high and which were constructed without mortar. Eventually the city was abandoned and fell into ruin.

paragraphs: The Kingdom of Zimbabwe included the River Zambezi in the north, the Transvaal in the south and Botswana in the east. The people who lived at Great Zimbabwe controlled trade between the coast and inland Africa. The modern country of Zimbabwe is named after it.

paragraphs: Archaeologists have found goods from as far as China that were used by the people. This shows they bought and sold things over great distances. The city had stopped growing when traders from Portugal came to southern Africa 500 years ago, but nobody is sure why this happened. Europeans at first thought that Great Zimbabwe had been built by foreigners. Now we know it was built by the local people. People who have studied the site have learned much about old Africa.

paragraphs: The earliest known written mention of the ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala, who recorded it as "Symbaoe". The first visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.


title: Machu Picchu

paragraphs: Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian 15th-century Inca site in Peru, in South America.

paragraphs: The Incas built the city on a mountain ridge, 2430m above sea level. They lived there between 1200 and 1450 AD. Other people lived there before about 650 AD.

paragraphs: The Incas built houses, fields and temples by cutting the rock on the mountain so it was flat. They built an Observatory to look at the stars.

paragraphs: When the Spanish invaded Peru, the Incas left Machu Picchu. Nobody knows for sure why they did that, but some think it was because of diseases from Europe. The city was left unfinished, most likely due to the Spanish invasion and/or a civil war between the ruling rival Inca brothers named Huascar and Atahualpa. The Spanish never found Machu Picchu or the lost city during their occupation.

paragraphs: Machu Picchu is very difficult to get to because it is so high in the mountains. It has only one way in and a stone wall to protect it. Most people on Earth did not know it was there until a Yale graduate named Hiram Bingham rediscovered it in 1911. He heard rumours of a hidden city which was already known to the native Peruvians, who guided him there. He led a restoration project that was partly funded by the National Geographic Society. Bingham made a deal with the government to take artifacts to the Peabody Museum for study. Peru is still trying to have those artifacts returned to them.

paragraphs: Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll.

paragraphs: Today, there is a new road so that tourists can visit. People can also walk along the Inca Trail, or take a train from Cusco.


title: Apple Inc.

paragraphs: Apple Inc. is a multinational company that makes computer hardware (the Macintoshes), software (macOS, iOS, watchOS and tvOS), and mobile devices (iPod, iPhone and iPad) like music players. Apple calls its computers "Macintoshes" or "Macs", and it calls its laptops "MacBooks". Their popular line of mobile music players is called "iPod", their smartphone line is called "iPhone" and their tablet line is called "iPad". Apple sells their products all around the world. Apple Inc. used to be called Apple Computer, Inc., but Apple changed their name after introducing the original iPhone.

paragraphs: Apple Inc. is a public company and trades on the NASDAQ under the stock ticker AAPL. On March 19, 2015, it became one of the 30 components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.

paragraphs: Apple was started in 1976 by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Before they made the company, they sold "blue boxes", which had telephone buttons on them. People could use them to make telephone calls from payphones without paying any money. It did this by pretending to be a telephone operator. The company's first product is now called the Apple I computer. They were almost ready to sell it, but a problem happened. Steve Wozniak was working for the computer company Hewlett-Packard, and the papers that said he could work there said he had to give everything he invented to the company before he could do what he wanted to do with it. He showed the first Apple I to the boss at Hewlett-Packard, but they did not want his computer. Wozniak was then free to do what he wanted to do with the Apple I. It began selling in 1976. In 1977, they made their second computer, called the Apple II, which later became very successful compared to Apple I.

paragraphs: One of the most popular products made by Apple is the iPod. It was first sold in 2001, and Apple sold over 100 million in six years. All iPods can play music with good quality. Recent iPod Touches have a high quality LED screens, can take and show good pictures, record, view and edit high definition videos, use the Internet for features such as e-mail, gaming, and blogging, record word and voice memos, and even get office work done. The latest iPod Touch is even made with a 64-bit architecture.

paragraphs: There are several different types of iPods:

paragraphs: The red iPod shuffle, iPod nano, and iPod touch models, and a few more products, are part of the "(PRODUCT) RED" program. This means that some of the profits from these iPods goes to the Global Fund to fight AIDS in Africa.

paragraphs: Apple is most well known for computers. Computers by Apple run the OS X operating system, which is included with every new Mac.

paragraphs: Apple also makes software for their computers. Some of the software that Apple makes is:

paragraphs: Most computer users in the world use Microsoft Windows, the rival to Mac OS X. About 10% of computer users use Apple's Macintosh computers. It is not legal to run Apple's Mac OS X on a Windows computer. However, it is allowed to run Windows on modern Macintosh computers. Even though Apple makes their computers to run Mac OS X, they also make software that allows you to install Windows. This software is called Boot Camp.

paragraphs: Apple is perhaps most famous for its mobile devices, which are small computers that are easy to carry around. They have touchscreens with multi-touch technology instead of a separate keyboard and mouse. Most of these products run an operating system called iOS. It is very similar to the Android software made by Google. iOS can do a lot of different things, and it does so by running "apps", which are programs similar to those on a PC. Users can download and buy more apps for their device from Apple's App Store.

paragraphs: The iPhone is a mobile phone that can make calls, send text messages, play games and music, show photos and videos (like an iPod), browse the Internet, and do much more. It was one of the first smartphones in the world when the first version was announced in 2007. Apple usually makes and sells a different model every year, with new models being faster and more powerful and having a newer version of iOS than those that come before them. The newest iPhones released are the iPhone 11 and the iPhone 11 Pro which run on iOS 13. Many cellular carriers around the world sell iPhones, including Sprint, Verizon, AT&T, and T-Mobile in the US.

paragraphs: The iPad is a tablet computer, similar to the iPhone and iPod Touch but with a much larger display - while a typical iPhone has a screen about 4 to 5 inches in size, iPads have screens from 8 to 12 inches big. The first iPad was introduced in 2010 and along with the iPhone, new and better models are made and sold every year. The newest iPads, the iPad Air and iPad Pro came out in 2015. They have new designs and features such as a front and back camera, true tone flash and a new 64-bit processor. They, too, ship with the latest IPad OS software if it is supported.

paragraphs: The Apple Watch is an example of "wearable technology", because it is worn around the wrist in the same way as a traditional wristwatch. However, it is much more than a wristwatch as not only does it tell the time and date but also tracks the fitness of the person wearing it and monitors the person's health. It can also do many of the same things that an iPhone can do, such as use Apple's Siri personal assistant, but it needs to be "paired" with an iPhone for it to do these things. The Apple Watch has many different designs: there is the standard version, a "Sport" version designed for athletes, and an "Edition" version which is made as a fashion product. These all run "Watch OS", a modified version of iOS.

paragraphs: The Apple TV is a box that plugs into a TV. It can connect wirelessly to any computer that has the Apple program "iTunes" on it. The Apple TV can play music and show photos or videos from iTunes on the TV. Like other Apple products, Apple TV is regularly updated with new software and features. The most recent version comes with a new remote control and includes the Siri voice assistant. It uses tvOS, a TV version of iOS.

paragraphs: Following several campaigns (for example, Green my Apple), Apple has made their products greener. Recently, the new notebook line removed many toxins and improved the products battery life and recharge cycles.

paragraphs: the following individuals sit on the board of Apple Inc.

paragraphs: Since the formation of the Apple Computer Company in 1977, Apple has employed over 95,000 people worldwide. The majority of Apple's employees have been in the United States but Apple has substantial manufacturing, sales, marketing, and support organizations worldwide, with some engineering operations in Paris and Tokyo.

paragraphs: Apple employees include employees of companies Apple owns, and less important, but still relevant companies such as FileMaker Inc. and Braeburn Capital.

paragraphs: Apple Corps has sued Apple Inc. many times for trademark infringement. In the first case, Apple Inc. agreed not to go into the music industry. Apple Corps believes this agreement was broken when Apple Inc. launched the iTunes Store, Apple's online music store.

paragraphs: The two companies had trouble in the past, over the use of the Apple name. They made a deal that Apple Computers would not act as a music company. When Apple Computer Inc. began to sell their iPod, and set up their iTunes music store, Apple Corps believed they had broken their agreement, and took them to court. Apple Computers won the case, but the two companies later worked out a new deal. This deal now means that the Beatles music is now on the iTunes store, whereas it was not there before. Apple Computers was then renamed as Apple Inc. because of its mobile technology business. Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, Inc., has said in the past that he loves music from The Beatles, which can be considered to be very ironic.


title: Soil

paragraphs: Soil essentially is the loose material which forms the thin surface layer of Earth. Its formation is related to the parent Rock material ,relief ,climate and vegetation. It is a mixture of many different things including rock, minerals, water and air. Soil also has living things and dead things in it. We call the living and dead things "organic matter". Soil is important for life on Earth.

paragraphs: Because soil holds water and nutrients, it is an ideal place for plants to grow. Soil holds the roots, and lets plants stand above the ground to collect the light they need to live. This helps plants grow. Fungi and bacteria also live in the soil. They eat the dead plants and animals. The broken down material becomes food for plants (nutrients).

paragraphs: Many animals dig into the soil and make the soil their home. The large animals use soil to make dens for sleeping and giving birth. The small animals live most of their life in the soil. Earthworms are famous for improving soil. This is because the holes they make let air go into the soil. The holes also let water go through.

paragraphs: The soil also has many microorganisms living in it. Many of them eat the organic material in the soil. They use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. They also release mineral nutrients into the soil.

paragraphs: Soil is different in different places on Earth. This is because the climate and rocks in the Earth are different in different places on Earth. Soils are usually thicker in places where ice sheets covered the ground during the Pleistocene ice ages. This is because the ice sheets ground the rock into powder as they slowly moved over the surface.

paragraphs: Soil has rock pieces made small by wind and rain and sun and snow. The rocks are made of minerals and the minerals dissolve in water. Some of the minerals dissolved in water can be used as food by plants. Soil also has dead and living things (organic matter) in it. When a plant dies, the dead leaves are eaten by bacteria in the soil. When the bacteria are done eating, what is left behind is called humus. When the bacteria die they put the plant food (minerals) back into the soil. A food for plants is called a "plant nutrient". There are many kinds of plant nutrients. Soil has many empty spaces. Half of the soil is space. The spaces are filled with water and air. Water can enter the soil because there are spaces in the soil. Plants drink the water and the minerals in the water. Plant roots need air to live. If plant roots do not have air, the roots will die. If the plant roots die, the plant will die. A plant that dies is eaten by bacteria and becomes plant nutrients again.

paragraphs: There are many kinds of soil. Each kind of soil has big and small rocks in it and some humus. If rocks in a soil are as big as your fingers, we call those rocks "gravel". Smaller rocks are called sand. Very small rocks are called silt. Very, very small rocks are called clay. You can see sand with your eye. Sand feels rough between your toes. Silt rock is very small and you must use a lens to see silt. Silt rock is smooth between your toes. Clay rock is too small to see with a lens. To see the smallest things you must use a big microscope. You must use a big microscope to see clay too. Clay rock feels slippery between your toes. Most soils contain all kinds of small rocks. The three best rocks for making soil are sand, silt, and clay.

paragraphs: Every soil has different amounts of sand and silt and clay. The mix of sand and silt and clay is the "texture" of the soil. We can also say the mix has a "soil texture". A soil with a lot of sand is called a "sandy soil texture". A soil with a lot of silt is called a "silt soil texture". A soil with a lot of clay is called a "clay soil texture". Farmers like to grow food in the best soil. The best soil is half sand and some silt and a little clay. The organic matter found in the soil is not counted in the soil texture. Only the rocks are counted when we discover the soil texture. Soil texture is very important.

paragraphs: Clay and humus are special parts of the soil. They help keep water and plant food (plant nutrients) in the soil. Water and plant nutrients stick to clay and humus. Water sticks to all of the rock in the soil. But, water sticks best to clay. Water is taken into (absorbed) into humus like a sponge absorbs water. Humus holds a lot of water and plant nutrients. Clay and humus keep water and plant nutrients in the soil. Sand will hold only a little water in the soil. If the soil has too much sand, the water will flow down into the earth. The water that flows down takes plant nutrients down too. The plant roots can not get at the water and plant nutrients if they go too deep. It is best for soil to have a little bit of clay and humus in it for growing plants.

paragraphs: The smallest parts of soil are sand and silt and clay. Those small parts join to make larger parts we call "clumps" or "aggregates". The clumps are made when sand and silt and clay stick together. The humus and clay and minerals in the soil are like glue. The glue sticks the sand and silt and clay together and makes clumps. The clumps make shapes by themselves. Some soils have small round clumps. Other soils have large, hard and flat clumps. The soil with small round clumps is best because it lets in air and water. A little glue is best. If the soil has only a little glue there will be space for water and air and the soil will be soft. If the soil has too much glue the soil will be hard. If the soil has no glue, there will be no space in the soil for air and water. A soil with no spaces is not healthy. Worms in the soil make a slippery glue. When worms make holes in the soil they leave some glue in the soil. Plant roots also make spaces in the soil. When the roots die they leave holes in the soil.

paragraphs: A soil has a "soil texture" (sand and silt and clay) and it has organic matter mixed in it. But weather changes the soil. It is cold on the Earth near the north and south poles. It is hot near the equator of the Earth. Some places on Earth get a lot of rain and some places get no rain. Hot and wet weather make one kind of soil. Cold and dry weather make another kind of soil. Rain water makes small things in the soil move down with the water. When the things in the water get stuck in the soil those things make a layer in the soil. If you dig down into the soil you may find many layers in the soil. The layers may have different colors. The layers may have different "soil textures". The top part of the soil may have a lot of humus and sand. Below that layer there may be a layer of silt. Below that layer there may be a layer of clay.

paragraphs: The sand stays on the top because it is large. The silt goes down a little with the water and makes a layer because it is small. The silt is smaller than some of the spaces in the soil. The clay can go down even lower with the water because it is the smallest. The sand will make one layer, the silt will make another layer and the clay will make another layer. The humus can move down with the water and make a layer too. The silt and clay and humus can move down because of the spaces in the soil. But, the silt, clay, and humus will fill the spaces in the soil. When the spaces in the soil are closed, it makes it hard for air to go into the soil. Plant roots do not go where there is no air. When we dig down we find layers in the soil.

paragraphs: We call those layers "soil horizons". The top horizon may be an inch (25mm) thick. We call that layer the "O" horizon or sometimes "topsoil". The next layer (horizon) is the "B" horizon. The next lower layer of soil is the "C" horizon. The bottom layer has many rocks and may be called the bedrock or "R" horizon for "rock". Deep down, there is always bedrock. But you may have to dig down a mile (a km) or more. When the soil dries, the soil may shrink and cracks will form in the soil. The soil in the top layer may fall down into the cracks. This causes the layers of soil to be changed because they are mixed. There may be many types soil where you live or only one type of soil. Different rocks make different soil textures. Different weather makes the different soil textures different. And so, there are different soils all over the world.


title: Organic

paragraphs: The word organic is used for different things:


title: 3D

paragraphs: 3D (or 3-D) means three-dimensional, or having three dimensions. For example, a box is three-dimensional; it is solid, and not thin like a piece of paper. It has volume, a top and bottom, left and right (sides), as well as a front and back. You can turn the box around to view it from another side (called a face, surface or simply side).

paragraphs: A dimension is measurable in inches, microns, miles, kilometers, or any other unit of length.

paragraphs: The three dimensions are often called length (or depth), width (or breadth), and height. Some purposes use other words.

paragraphs: 3D graphics are used to make video games or animated movies. Many calculations are needed to make pictures seem three-dimensional on a screen. Modern computers usually have a GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) to handle these calculations.

paragraphs: Binocular vision helps people to see the third dimension easily.

paragraphs: In the Cartesian coordinate system, length, width, and height are given in letters (variables) to make them easier to write, or if a value is not known. Often X is width, Y is height, and Z is length. Other 3D coordinate systems such as spherical coordinates include both linear and angular measurements.

paragraphs: The mathematical study of 3D shapes and dimensions is called solid geometry.

paragraphs: Some people see time as a fourth dimension. It is also measured. It is measured in units of time such as seconds, hours, years, or any other measurement of time.


title: Humidity

paragraphs: Humidity means water vapor in the air, but not to liquid droplets in fog, clouds, or rain. Deserts usually have low humidity, and tropical regions have high humidity. The word "humid" often means that the humidity is high, which gives the feeling of being very damp (wet air), stuffy, or even sweltering when the temperature is also high. When the humidity is low, the air can be said to be "not humid" or "dry."

paragraphs: Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin.

paragraphs: The term "relative humidity" is used to note the amount of humidity as a percent, from 0-100%. Meteorologists use hygrometers to measure the humidity in the air.

paragraphs: Humidity affects the rate of evaporation. With a higher humidity, the rate of evaporation is less.


title: Calabi-Yau manifold

paragraphs: A Calabi–Yau manifold, or 'Calabi–Yau space', is a special type of manifold. It is described in certain branches of mathematics such as algebraic geometry.

paragraphs: The Calabi–Yau manifold's properties, such as Ricci flatness, have applications in theoretical physics. Particularly in superstring theory, the extra dimensions of spacetime might take the form of a 6-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold. This led to the idea of string theory mirror symmetry.