title: Green River

paragraphs: The Green River is a river in the states of Wyoming and Utah, in the United States. It is the largest tributary of the Colorado River, at about 730 miles (1,175 km) long. Its headwaters are in the west part of Wyoming, in a subrange of the Rocky Mountains known as the Wind River Range. From there, it flows south, then turns east for a short while, then flows south, west, and south into the Reservoir, formed by Fontenelle Dam, and Flaming Gorge Reservoir, which is formed by the Flaming Gorge Dam.

paragraphs: After it exits the dam, it flows east around the Uinta Mountains, and enters the desert-like Colorado Plateau. Here, it flows in a series of deep and spectacular canyons. It meets both of its largest tributaries, the White River and the Yampa River, from the east. In Canyonlands National Monument, it meets the Colorado. Shortly after the two rivers meet, they flow into Lake Powell, formed by Glen Canyon Dam.


title: Mono Lake

paragraphs: Mono Lake is a saline lake on the east side of the Sierra Nevada, in the U.S. state of California. It is endorheic, meaning that it does not connect with the sea. It is fed by streams flowing off the east side of the mountain range, including Rush Creek, Lee Vining Creek and Mill Creek. Lee Vining Creek has its headwaters near Tioga Pass, near Yosemite National Park.

paragraphs: The lake covers 69 square miles (180 square kilometers) and is about long. It is a very ancient lake, and is thought to have formed 760,000 years ago. In the 20th century, the city of Los Angeles began to take water from the streams feeding Mono Lake. This caused the lake to fall, exposing unique tufa formations.


title: Thelyphonida

paragraphs: Thelyphonida is an order of arachnids commonly known as vinegarroons.

paragraphs: They give out a vinegar-like mist (containing mostly acetic acid). The Vinegarroon is not venomous and is not a true scorpion. It is related to spiders, true scorpions, and ticks. They are also known as whip scorpions because they look like true scorpions and because of their whip like tails.


title: Mount Shasta

paragraphs: Mount Shasta is a dormant volcano in northern California in the United States.

paragraphs: The volcano is part of the Cascade Range. It has a smaller peak abutting it, Shastina, and seven glaciers. The mountain stands alone in a large expanse of flatter land, rising 9,822 feet above the surrounding terrain. The Sacramento River flows south near the west edge of the mountain. The town of Mount Shasta and Shasta Lake Reservoir, formed by Shasta Dam, are all named for Mount Shasta. This stratovolcano is expected to erupt again someday.


title: Zhu Xi

paragraphs: Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi (, 18 October 1130 – 23 April 1200) was a Confucian scholar during the Song Dynasty. Zhu Xi was one of the three most important Confucian philosophers. He organized the classic works of Confucianism and contributed to the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism.He was from Fujian province in China.

paragraphs: Zhu Xi was born Wu Yuan, North East Jiangxi province. His father died when he was at the age of thirteen. He continued his studies until he passed the test for a government job. He taught for many years in the Wuyi Mountains and he is also remembered for the time he spent teaching at the Yuelu Academy in Changsha and at his retreat near the White Deer Grotto in Lushan. In his life his ideas were not generally accepted and he was fired from quite a lot of official positions. After his death nearly 1000 people were at his funeral and his tablet was put in a Confucian temple.

paragraphs: During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi's teachings were considered to be unorthodox. Rather than focusing on the "Book of Changes" like other Neo-Confucians, he chose to emphasize the Four Books: the "Great Learning", the "Doctrine of the Mean", the "Analects of Confucius", and the "Mencius" as the core curriculum (thing to learn) for aspiring scholar officials. For all these classics he wrote extensive commentaries (big reviews) that were not widely recognized in his time; however, they later became accepted as their standard commentaries. The Four Books served as the basis of civil service examinations all the way down to 1905.

paragraphs: According to Zhu Xi, knowledge and action were indivisible components of truly intelligent activity. Although he did distinguish (tell apart) between the priority of knowing, since intelligent action requires forethought (thought before), and the importance of action, as it produces a discernible effect, Zhu Xi said "Knowledge and action always require each other. It is like a person who cannot walk without legs although he has eyes, and who cannot see without eyes although he has legs. With respect to order, knowledge comes first, and with respect to importance, action is more important."


title: Plym Valley Railway

paragraphs: The Plym Valley Railway is part of the closed South Devon and Tavistock Railway near Plymouth. It is a branch line of the Great Western Railway in Devon.


title: Swanage Railway

paragraphs: The Swanage Railway is a six-mile (10 km) long heritage railway in the Purbeck district of Dorset, England. The railway follows the route of the Purbeck branch line between Norden railway station, Corfe Castle railway station, Harman's Cross railway station, Herston Halt railway station and Swanage. The line was re−connected to the mainline at Wareham, Dorset along a stretch of the branch line. This had previously only remained open to freight traffic until 2005. Trains operate on the Swanage Railway between Swanage and Norden Park & Ride every weekend and Bank Holiday from mid-February to the end of the year. From April to October, they operate all seven days in the week; with Santa Special services in December. The link between the Swanage Railway and the main line at Wareham has been used used for materials deliveries, special excursions. The line has now reopened to its first through traffic from London with occasional special services.


title: Mangapps Railway Museum

paragraphs: The Mangapps Railway Museum (previously Mangapps Farm Railway Museum) is a heritage railway located near Burnham-on-Crouch in Essex. The 3/4 mile stretch of standard gauge track and museum are owned and operated by the Jolly family. They are assisted by a dedicated staff of volunteers. It was never part of the national rail network.


title: West Somerset Railway

paragraphs: The West Somerset Railway (WSR) is a heritage railway. It runs along the edge of the Quantock Hills in Somerset, England, between Bishops Lydeard and Watchet. The line then turns inland to Washford. It then returns to the coast for the run to Minehead. The Exmoor National Park is nearby.


title: Vale of Glamorgan Railway

paragraphs: The Vale of Glamorgan Railway Company are a Welsh railway preservation society originally called the Butetown Historic Railway Society.

paragraphs: In 1979, the Butetown Historic Railway Society was formed at Bute Road Station in the docklands are of Cardiff. The aim was to restore the then derelict Taff Vale Railway station, and establish a steam hauled passenger service to Cardiff Queen Street station. By 1994, a short section of track existed, and the steam locomotive "Sir Gomer" hauled short passenger trains.

paragraphs: By 1997, the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation was in charge of the redevelopment of Butetown, and dismissed the idea of a rejuvenated steam railway as part of their plans.

paragraphs: Even prior to 1997 the railway started negotiations with the Vale of Glamorgan Council and moved in during 1998 to its new base at Barry Island Railway. It renamed it self the Vale of Glamorgan Railway Company and were based there till early 2009 operating heritage services both steam and diesel over an expanding network of lines.

paragraphs: Following the December 2007 decision by landlords, the Vale of Glamorgan Council to terminate the £65,000 funding of the Barry Island Railway, the society maintain a service. However less than six months after withdrawing financial support, the council with out warning decided to put the railway site out to tender under a long term lease. There were three bids submitted with the sucsefull bidder being the commercial company Cambrian Transport who have been the councils railway adviser and contractor since the Barry Railway Project started.

paragraphs: The other bidder NEWCO was submitted by Graham Lee owner of the LH Plant, Hunselt Engine Company, Statfold Barn Railway and Mike Thomson owner of Arrowvale who make black boxes for the rail industry. NEWCO had spoken to the VGR in advance and agree a method of working together. Had this bid been successfully the VGR would have continued operating at Barry.

paragraphs: The Railway has recently sold assets following the break down of talks with Cambrian Transport which an has been forced to leave Barry. It is now the intention for the railway to relocate to the Bridgend Valleys Railway, with some stock also going to the Dean Forest Railway and further a field.

paragraphs: The Railway is now working with the Bridgend Valleys Railway to develop the 4.5 miles of line in place north of Bridgend.


title: Northampton & Lamport Railway

paragraphs: The Northampton & Lamport Railway is a standard gauge heritage railway in Northamptonshire, England. It is based at Pitsford and Brampton station, near the villages of Pitsford and Chapel Brampton. This is roughly north of Northampton.


title: Epping Ongar Railway

paragraphs: The Epping Ongar Railway is a preserved railway. It runs along the last section of the old Great Eastern Railway and London Underground Central line branch line. The line runs between Epping and Ongar. There is also an intermediate stop at North Weald. The line was reopened in late 2004 after 10 years of being closed. It runs a Sunday and Bank Holiday service using a Class 117 diesel multiple unit. The service runs between Ongar and Coopersale. The service is provided by volunteers who take care for the line as well as run the trains. The land and infrastructure are owned by Epping Ongar Railway Ltd.

paragraphs: The branch line to Ongar was built in 1865 by the Eastern Counties/Great Eastern Railway. The eastern section of the line, between Epping and Ongar, was single track. There was one passing loop at North Weald station. Around 14 trains went as far as Ongar station each day. The rest finished at Epping or Loughton.

paragraphs: The trains continued to finish at Epping or Loughton until 1949. At this time the London Passenger Transport Board's New Works project extended the Central line to Epping using electric trains. The Central Line would take over the railway from British Rail. As part of this change, the Epping-Ongar branch line had its through trains to London removed. Instead, a shuttle service between Epping (to connect with trains to London) and Ongar was used. At one stage, it was possible to see the unusual sight of steam trains and London Underground electric multiple units side-by-side at Epping. The steam shuttle was hired by the London Transport Executive from British Rail. This was because it was felt that the cost of electrifying the line to Ongar could not be justified because of the low passenger numbers on this part of the branch.

paragraphs: In the 1950s, there were attempts to improve the service on the branch line. Over time, permission was given to electrify the line in 1957. However, because the electrification did not cost much, the branch was only able to have special two- or three-car trains running on it. This was because the power supply was not strong enough to support trains that had more cars. Another problem was that the stations on the line had short platforms. This would mean that the normal 8-car trains would not be able to stop at them. Because of this, the Epping-Ongar branch line was normally operated separately from the rest of the Central Line. However, for two days each year, trains did run through from London. These trains would terminate at North Weald for the airshow on the Saturday and Sunday of its opening. The normal Epping-Ongar service would get around this extra service by passing the train on the other line at North Weald station whilst it headed towards Epping. The train from London was run as an extra train on the normal Central Line timetable. However, this extra train was only four carriages long instead of the normal eight.

paragraphs: During the late 1960s it became clear that the number of people using the line had not become as high as people thought that it would. Not a lot of new development was allowed because the land was now Green Belt land. The number of people using the line peaked in 1971, and it was still only 650 people every day. This meant that the line did not make very much money. London Underground tried to close the whole line in 1980, but they were not able to. Instead, fewer trains were run on the line and they also closed Blake Hall tube station on Sundays.

paragraphs: Blake Hall was permanently closed in 1981. Before the station closed it only had six passengers a day. The station building still survives as a private residence. However, the platform was removed, but recently (2015) partially reinstated to a very high standard.

paragraphs: North Weald station's platform one was closed in 1976. The passing loop and westbound tracks were lifted in 1978. Until this time, access to the two platforms was controlled from the original Eastern Counties Railway signal box. This signal box is still on the southbound platform. North Weald was the last section of the London Underground network to be signalled using semaphore signals.

paragraphs: The line was making a loss of seven pounds for each passenger journey. It was also in need of some expensive maintenance work. On 30 September 1994, the line was closed to the public, with one months notice. From this time on, the Central Line terminated at Epping station. When the line closed it was carrying just 80 passengers a day. Local lore said that the line was being kept open in case the Cabinet needed to be evacuated to the nuclear bunker at Kelvedon Hatch.

paragraphs: Cravens Heritage Trains have preserved a three-car unit of 1960 stock. This was the train that ran the final London Underground service on the line.

paragraphs: The line was bought by Pilot Developments in 1998. Pilot Developments is now known as Epping Ongar Railway Ltd. The Ongar Railway Preservation Society also entered an offer to buy the line. Their offer was for £339,500. However, Pilot Developments matched the offer and got London Underground to accept it. Martin Bell, an independent politician, said that this was "the most controversial land deal in the constituency for years". He said that there was a conflict of interest with local politicians.

paragraphs: The line reopened on Sunday 10 October 2004. It is being run by the Epping Ongar Railway Volunteer Society. An hourly service between Ongar and North Weald was operated. Shortly after opening the line was extended to Coopersale. However, it is currently not possible to get off the train there.

paragraphs: Between 22 January and 9 April 2006 the line was closed for engineering works. The works included general station maintenance, rolling stock maintenance and track maintenance. Ongar station remained closed for engineering works and general maintenance and reopened on Sunday 28 May 2006 to passengers. At first though it was not possible to use the station buildings.

paragraphs: At the end of 2007, the railway was sold to a new private owner. This was because planning permission for the Ongar residential development had been given. The new owner wants to bring steam locomotives back to the line.

paragraphs: In early 2008, the line was closed to passenger trains. This was to allow the railway to be able to have major engineering works. The work will mean that steam locomotives will be able to run on the line again. To make this happen run-round loops and signalling, amongst other things, must be built.

paragraphs: Passenger services on the heritage line were operated throughout 2006 and 2007 by a Class 117 diesel multiple unit. This unit is currently being restored along with a class 205 DEMU. Class 37029 is in operation along with 03170. There are a selection of British rail Mk1 and Mk2 coaches on the line. The line also has some small diesel shunters; a Drewry shunter (works number 2566, current number D1995), named "Heather" by the railway, and two Ruston 88 shunters (RH 512572 is in service, RH 398616 is being used for spares and as a static display). The line employs a Harsco tug unit ("Badger") for engineering work. The EOR's fleet also includes a small works trolley, a Shark brake van, a Dogfish ballast hopper, and a box van for permanent way duties.

paragraphs: At one point the line owned two trains of 1962 tube stock. Units 1616 and 1491 (formed as an eight-car train) were purchased in 1996, and unit 1744 was purchased in 1998. These units were taken away to be cut up for scrap in 1998 and 2003, respectively, after they were destroyed by vandals.


title: Ecclesbourne Valley Railway

paragraphs: The Ecclesbourne Valley Railway is a heritage railway in Derbyshire. Its operations are based at Wirksworth station. It is currently planned to extend the railway along the former Midland Railway branch line which joined the main-line at Duffield.

paragraphs: When complete it will be one of the few Heritage Railways that operates a whole branch line in its original form and entire length.

paragraphs: The line is operated by diesel locomotives, which haul former multiple unit trailer cars and also uses heritage diesel multiple units.

paragraphs: The "Wirksworth Branch" was the product of early nineteenth century railway rivalry. Since 1835 Wirksworth's citizens had been promoting the idea for a branch line from the North Midland Railway (later the Midland Railway) at Duffield. The Midland was initially uninterested, but then realised that the branch could be extended to Rowsley. This was difficult, but the branch could avoid the section from Ambergate, on its Manchester, Buxton, Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway, which was shared with its rival the London and North Western Railway.


title: Crossrail 2

paragraphs: The Chelsea-Hackney (or "Chelney") line is a safeguarded route for an underground railway running from south-west London to north-east London. As of 2008, the plan is being developed by Cross London Rail Links Ltd. who are the developers of Crossrail. It is therefore sometimes known as Crossrail 2.


title: River Lee

paragraphs: The River Lee or River Lea is a river in England. It begins in Leagrave Park , Leagrave, Luton in the Chiltern Hills. It flows generally southeast, east, and then south to London where it meets the River Thames . The last section is known as Bow Creek.

paragraphs: A section of the river runs through Hertford castle and shares a valley with the river Beane at Hartham common. Morgans School, in Hertford, have named one of their houses after the river Lea.


title: Naval mine

paragraphs: A naval mine is a bomb placed in water to destroy ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are put in the water and left to wait until they make contact with a ship. Naval mines can be used offensively, to make it harder for enemy ships to sail easily, or trap them into a harbour. They can also be used defensively, to protect friendly ships and create "safe" zones.

paragraphs: Mines can be laid in many ways: by specially built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines, aircraft, or even by dropping them into a harbour by hand. They are a cheap weapon with a basic mine costing as little as US$1000. There are very advanced mines which can cost millions and have several kinds of sensors, and deliver a warhead by rocket or torpedo.

paragraphs: International law says that nations have to say when they put mines in an area. This is to make it easier for civil shipping to avoid the mines. The warnings do not have to be specific; during World War II, Britain said simply that it had mined the English Channel, North Sea, and French coast.


title: Alan Fletcher (graphic designer)

paragraphs: Alan Gerard Fletcher (27 September 1931 – 21 September 2006) was a British graphic designer. He was described by "The Daily Telegraph" as "the most highly regarded graphic designer of his generation, and probably one of the most prolific".


title: The Edge Chronicles

paragraphs: The Edge Chronicles are books of young-adult and fantasy wrote by Paul Stewart and Chris Riddell. It contains three trilogies. All in the books is surealist. Characters, cities, places, monuments, animals, plants, transportation and more were invanted by the writers.

paragraphs: The books are in the chronological order of the story.


title: Rake

paragraphs: A rake is an garden and farm tool. People use rake to gather loose things like leaves, hay, and grass.

paragraphs: In gardening, a rake loosens soil, and removes weed and dead grass from lawns.


title: Scythe

paragraphs: A scythe (, from Old English "siðe".) is an agricultural tool for mowing grass or reaping crops. It was replaced by horse-drawn machines and then tractors, but is still used in some areas of Europe and Asia.


title: Neil Finn

paragraphs: Neil Finn, (born 27 May 1958) is a rock singer. He was born in New Zealand. Together with his brother Tim, he was the lead singer for Split Enz. He is the frontman of Crowded House. He has released solo albums. He has created the 7 Worlds Collide project and the Pajama Club band.

paragraphs: In the late 1970s he replaced singer songwriter Phil Judd in Split Enz. Split Enz was his brother Tim's band. Neil went on to write some of the biggest hits for the band. Examples are "One Step Ahead", "History Never Repeats", "I Got You" and "Message to My Girl". Split Enz broke up in 1984.

paragraphs: After that, Neil formed Crowded House with Split Enz's final drummer Paul Hester and bass player Nick Seymour in 1985. They became famous worldwide in 1987 when they released the single "Don't Dream It's Over". He ended Crowded House in 1996 to start a solo career.

paragraphs: Neil Finn has recorded two solo albums to date: "Try Whistling This" (1998) and "One Nil" (2001). ("One Nil" was released in the US and Canada – remixed, reordered and renamed "One All" – in 2002.) He has also worked together with his brother Tim on two Finn Brothers albums, "Finn" (1995) and "Everyone Is Here (2004)."

paragraphs: In 2001, he released a live album/DVD ("7 Worlds Collide") with songs that were recorded at St James Theatre in Auckland, New Zealand. Other musicians that were on stage with him were Lisa Germano, Sebastian Steinberg (Soul Coughing), Ed O'Brien and Phil Selway (Radiohead), Johnny Marr (The Smiths), Eddie Vedder (Pearl Jam), Paul Jeffrey, Tim Finn, and Betchadupa.

paragraphs: In 2009, another album was released under the "7 Worlds Collide" name. This was "The Sun Came Out". It was a charity studio record for Oxfam. This album has songs by Jeff Tweedy and three other members of Wilco, Scottish singer-songwriter KT Tunstall, and New Zealand songwriters Don McGlashan and Bic Runga.

paragraphs: Finn has contributed solo music to various film and TV soundtracks including "Rain", "Boston Legal", "Boston Public", "The Waiting Game", "Antz", and "Sports Night".

paragraphs: In 2007, Finn reformed Crowded House with Beck's former drummer Matt Sherrod. They released two albums "Time on Earth" (2007) and "Intriguer" (2010).

paragraphs: In 2011, he has formed Pajama Club with his wife Sharon, New Zealand indie artist SJD and Alana Skyring. They released an album.

paragraphs: In 2014, Dizzy Heights, a Neil Finn solo album was released.

paragraphs: Finn married Sharon Dawn Johnson, on 13 February 1982. The song "I Love You Dawn", available on "Afterglow" was written in her honour. Sharon makes chandeliers in her workshop in Auckland. She has appeared on backing vocals on various albums such as "Crowded House" and Alex Lloyd's "Watching Angels Mend" She also features prominently on the second 7 Worlds Collide project, co-writing (and sharing lead vocal) the track 'Little By Little' with her husband and sings on the track 'Isolation' on the new Crowded House album, Intriguer. In 2011, she becomes part of the "Pajama Club" band after a jam session with Neil.

paragraphs: They have two sons, Liam Mullane Finn (born 1983) and Elroy Timothy Finn (born 1989). Both sons have performed alongside their father. Liam had his own band, Betchadupa, originally based in Auckland, then London before releasing a solo album, "I'll Be Lightning" in 2008. He also plays in Crowded House's touring band lineup. Elroy Finn is drummer for the psychobilly band The Tricks and has been filling in on drums for Cut Off Your Hands.


title: Francisco Correa de Arauxo

paragraphs: Francisco Correa de Arauxo (or Araujo) (b. Seville, 1584; d. Segovia, 1654) was an important Spanish organist, composer, and theorist in the last years of the Renaissance and early years of the Baroque period.

paragraphs: We do not know very much about Correa de Araujo. He was probably born in 1584. He may have been of Portugese origin. In 1599 he got a job as organist in Seville. It must have been an important job because he earned a lot of money. Many years later he seems to have become a priest. He may have been made a priest because he was a good organist. In 1630 he organized a protest when priests were made to work harder wothout being paid more money. Because he argued about this he was sent to prison for a time. By 1635 his health was very bad. In spite of earning a high salary he often had no money.

paragraphs: After 37 years in Seville he took a job as organist in Jaén Cathedral. He was there until 1640 when he went to Segovia Cathedral. He worked there until 1653, by which time he was too ill to work. When he died the following year he was very poor.

paragraphs: Correa only seems to have published one collection of organ works. It was called "Libro de tientos y discursos de música practica, y theorica de organo intitulado Facultad organica" (1626). This was a collection of organ music, as well as a discussion about music theory. It is one of the few books we have which shows us what musical composition was like in Spain at that time. His organ music uses a divided keyboard (medio registro), so that the upper and lower parts of the keyboard (high notes and low notes) can use different stops (making different sounds). The organ pieces in the collection are arranged in order of difficulty. The pieces at the end are very hard indeed. He uses a lot of dissonances, and he expects the performer to put in lots of ornaments, even if they are not shown in the music. He uses glosa (ornamental figuration), although he also uses counterpoint. His harmony shows the influence of composers such as Cabezon and Aguilera de Heredia.


title: Collaboration

paragraphs: Collaboration is when people work with each other to complete a task. It involves co-operation and teamwork and the sharing of ideas, knowledge and skills to reach the same objective. The objective is usually creative in nature. Most collaboration needs leadership or some kind of co-ordination, although responsibilities can be shared within an egalitarian group.

paragraphs: Each person plays a tightly or loosely defined role in the process of collaboration. For instance, to make a movie a writer, director, producer and actors are needed. There may also be a need for a costumer, a cameraman (if the director cannot do it all), an audio engineer, and a film editor if the project is big enough and the schedule tight enough.


title: Apollo 14

paragraphs: Apollo 14 was the eighth manned mission in the Apollo program. It was the third mission to land on the Moon. The nine-day mission left the Earth on January 31, 1971, and landed on the Moon on February 5. The Lunar Module landed in the Fra Mauro formation; this had been the target of the ill-fated Apollo 13 mission. During the two walks on the Moon's surface, of moon rock was collected. Several experiments, including seismic studies, were carried out. Commander Alan Shepard famously hit two golf balls on the lunar surface with a makeshift club he had brought from Earth. Command Module Pilot Stuart Roosa took several hundred seeds on the mission, many of which were planted on return, resulting in the so-called Moon trees. The pilot of the Lunar Module was Dr. Edgar Mitchell.

paragraphs: In June 2009, the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter was able to photograph the Apollo 14 landing site. The base of the lunar module and the astronauts footprints on the Moon's suface could be clearly seen.


title: Libyan Premier League

paragraphs: Libyan Premier League is a football league which is top division in Libya.


title: Giuseppe Meazza

paragraphs: Giuseppe Meazza (23 August 1910 – 21 August 1979) is a former Italian football player. He has played for Italy national team. He is regarded as one of the greatest footballers of all time.


title: Sérgio Conceição

paragraphs: Sérgio Conceição (born 15 November 1974) is a former Portuguese football player. He has played for Portugal national team.


Yutaka Akita


Takahiro Futagawa


title: Éldis Fernando Damasio

paragraphs: Éldis Fernando Damasio (born 13 January 1981) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for Vegalta Sendai.


title: Clemerson de Araújo Soares

paragraphs: Clemerson de Araújo Soares (born 8 August 1977) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for Al-Gharafa in Qatar after recently moving from Cruzeiro on July 31 2007, in a 3-year deal. He is all-time goias top scorer with 136 goals. He scored 52 goals in 73 matches in Goiás State League. He scored 19 goals in 39 matches with Cruzeiro

paragraphs: Araujo played for Japanese side Gamba Osaka in 2005 his 34 league goals helped Gamba to the 2005 J-League title. But 2005 was his last season in Japan. Araujo left for his homeland to sign for Cruzeiro. But 2 years later Araujo left for Qatar. He won the 2007/08 season top scorer award there.

paragraphs: Al-Gharafa, known as "Al Fhoud" (Leopards) are Qatar's champions two years in a row. Araujo has been a leading star in his team so far, leading the scorers list all season long. He plays along with Fernandao in the attacking line, making up a thriving offence.


title: Sidiclei de Souza

paragraphs: Sidiclei de Souza (born 13 May 1972) is a Brazilian football player.


Naoshi Nakamura


Ryoichi Maeda


Akira Narahashi


title: Joubert Araújo Martins

paragraphs: Joubert Araújo Martins (born 7 January 1975) is a Brazilian football player. He has played for Brazil national team.


title: Kozo Tashima

paragraphs: In March 2020, Tashima tested positive for COVID-19 during the 2020 coronavirus pandemic.


Daisuke Sakata


title: Plantain

paragraphs: The banana is a crop from the genus Musa. Its fruits are edible, and are generally used for cooking. This is different from the soft and sweet banana (which is often called "dessert banana"). "Dessert bananas" are more common to import in countries in the European Union or the United States.

paragraphs: The way certain species are called often show how they are used: "cooking plantain", "banana plantain", "beer banana", "bocadillo plantain" (the little one), etc. All members of the genus "Musa" are indigenous to the tropical region of Southeast Asia, including the Malay Archipelago and northern Australia.

paragraphs: Plantains are often firmer than dessert bananas; they also have less sugar. Dessert bananas are often eaten raw; plantains are usually cooked or otherwise processed before they are eaten. Plantains are a staple food in tropical regions, treated similarly to potatoes. They also have a similar taste.

paragraphs: Primary cultivation originated in Southeast Asia, secondary in West Africa. Other regions with Plantain crops include the Southern United States, the Caribbean, Central America, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Southern Brazil, the Canary Islands, Madeira, Egypt, Cameroon, Nigeria, Uganda, Okinawa, Kerala and Taiwan. Farmers grow plantains as far north as Northern California and as far south as KwaZulu-Natal.

paragraphs: Each pseudostem of a plantain plant will flower only once. All the flowers grow at the end of its shoot in a large bunch made of multiple "hands" with individual "fingers" (the fruits). Only the first few hands will become fruits. In Vietnam the young male flower, at the end of the bunch, is used to make salad.

paragraphs: In Laos, the plantain flower is often eaten raw; it is added to a special kind of soup. Thoran is made in Kerala with the end of the bunch (called "Koompu" in Malayalam and Vazhaipoo in Tamil). It is said to be very healthy. You can fry it or boil it

paragraphs: Plantain leaves are used like plates in several dishes, including Hallaca from Venezuela, or south Indian Thali. In southern India, meals are traditionally served on a plantain leaf. The position of the different food items on the leaf is important, also for Hindu rituals.

paragraphs: The plantain leaves often add an aroma to the dish. In the Indian state of Kerala, a food preparation called "Ada" is made in plantain leaves. Plantain leaves are also used in making "Karimeen Pollichathu" in Kerala.

paragraphs: The leaves are usually easy to find in Venezuela. They are sold at grocery stores, and they can be bought on the open-air markets there . Leaves can be very big, over in length. They are also used to stimulate appetite, as they have a distinctive smell when hot food is placed on them.

paragraphs: In Nicaragua, leaves are used to wrap different kinds of food, such as Nacatamales,Vigoron and Vaho. In Peru they are often used to wrap the famous Tamale (Tamales). In Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia, these are usually used to wrap tamales before and while cooking, and they can be used to wrap any kind of seasoned meat while cooking to keep the flavor in. The plantain is the main food source of the Dominican Republic, and is used just as much as, if not more than, rice. Mangu and Sancocho are two dishes for which the plantain is very important.

paragraphs: The leaves are also dried and used to wrap corn dough before it is boiled to make Fanti kenkey, a fine Ghanaian dish eaten with ground pepper, onions, tomatoes and fish.

paragraphs: The plantain will only fruit once. After harvesting the fruit, the plantain plant can be cut and the layers peeled (like an onion) to get a cylinder shaped soft shoot. This can be chopped and first steamed, then fried with masala powder, to make an excellent dish. This dish is called "Posola" in Assamese and a distinct part of Assamese cuisine.


title: Staple food

paragraphs: Staple food are food items that can be stored easily and eaten throughout the year. Different kinds of staple foods are used in different parts of the world.

paragraphs: The term means the common basis of the everyday diet in a place. Potatoes and rice are the most usual examples, but bread is "not" a staple food because it is a manufactured food which cannot be stored. Of course, it can always be made, since wheat "is" a staple food. Fruit is not a staple because it usually grows at a certain time of year. Meat is not a staple because it may not be available, or is expensive to buy. Green vegetables may be a staple in some countries, but not others. Foods which need special facilities, such as refrigeration are not staple foods.


title: Zhengzhou

paragraphs: Zhengzhou (, pinyin: zhèngzhōu) is the capital of Henan Province in the People's Republic of China. It is in the northcentral part of Henan.

paragraphs: Zhengzhou is on the southern bank of the Yellow River. It is one of the Eight Great Ancient Capitals of China. In 2010, 9,378,000 people lived there.

paragraphs: As of 2017, the prefecture-level city is divided into 6 urban districts, 5 county-level cities and 1 county. Because of rapid population growth, the subdivisions may change.


title: Braidwood, New South Wales

paragraphs: Braidwood () is a town in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia. It is in the Palerang Shire. In 2006 there were 1,108 people living in Braidwood. It was used as a location for the movie Ned Kelly starring Mick Jagger in 1969.

paragraphs: Braidwood is on the Kings Highway which joins Canberra to Batemans Bay on the coast. It is about south west of Sydney. It is in a highland area near the headwaters of the Shoalhaven River.

paragraphs: Europen explorers, Kearns, Marsh and Packer, reached the area in 1822 and the settlers arrived soon after. The town was surveyed in 1839. Gold was discovered in 1851, and over the next 20 years the population grew to about 10,000.

paragraphs: The town was named after Dr Thomas Braidwood Wilson. He had been a surgeon on the ships taking convicts to New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land (now known as Tasmania). He was first given land in Van Diemen's Land in 1824, but changed it for land near Lake George in 1825. He was also given of land in the 'new country' on Monkittee and Flood creeks. In 1833 the government took back the western end of Wilson's land for a future village. They gave him more land at the eastern land in return. Wilson moved to the district in late 1836 with his wife and family. He became a community leader. He built the first courthouse in 1837-38. In 1840 Wilson asked the government to build a road from Braidwood to Huskisson for faster and cheaper shipping of wool to Sydney. Wilson and Col. John Mackenzie, supplied the materials and men to make the Braidwood to Nerriga section. In 1841 there were 141 people living at Braidwood Farm. Wilson lost all of his money because of a drought in the late 1830s. He died in November 1843. His land was sold for £2,000 to John Coghill, who now owned most of the land on the south, east and north of the town. Wilson still owned land on a hill north of the town and was buried there in 1843.

paragraphs: A memorial and large pine tree mark the site of Wilson's grave. The path to the grave is open to the public and is through a series of paddocks with gateway sculptures and large art pieces by local artists.

paragraphs: Bushrangers, Thomas and John Clarke, killed four policemen near Braidwood in 1867. There is a special monument for the police in the Braidwood cemetery.

paragraphs: Australia's first Royal Commission took place in Braidwood in 1867. It looked at the role of the police in trying to control bushrangers in the area. The Commission found the police were lazy, and in some cases had actually helped the bushrangers. They found that the superintendent of police did not have 'strict and proper control over his men.'

paragraphs: Because of the goldrush the banks and hotels in Braidwood were well built and made to last. It is these old heritage buildings that now attract visitors to the town. Other businesses in the area are sheep and cattle farming, and timber growing.

paragraphs: Braidwood used to be the home of the Tallaganda local government area. However, following changes to local government areas by the New South Wales Government, it is now part of the Palerang council. The eastern office of the council is in the town. The local paper is now called the "Braidwood Times".

paragraphs: After the gold rush, Braidwood became a quiet and poor country town. Because of this, very little new building work was carried out, and so the town still has most of its original streetscape and architecture intact. On 30 March 2006 the town and its setting were listed on the NSW State Heritage Register. There were arguments between those who wanted to save the town's old fashioned charm and those wishing to develop it.

paragraphs: The town has several times been used for movie making locations:

paragraphs: Local stories say that Mick Jagger wrote one of his major hits while in Braidwood making the "Ned Kelly" film; but there is no agreement as to which one.


title: Hunan

paragraphs: Hunan (; ) is a province of South Central China, in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting (The characters in the name "Hunan" mean "lake" and "south"). Hunan is sometimes called 湘|湘 () for short, after the Xiang River which runs through the province.

paragraphs: Its major cities are Changde, Changsha, Chenzhou, Hengyang, Huaihua, Loudi, Shaoyang, Xiangtan, Yiyang, Yongzhou, Yueyang, Zhangjiajie and Zhuzhou.


title: Guangxi

paragraphs: Guangxi is a provincial-level autonomous region of the People's Republic of China where mostly Zhuang people live.

paragraphs: Guangxi's capital in Nanning. Other major cities are Baise, Beihai, Chongzuo, Fangchenggang, Guigang, Guilin, Hechi, Hezhou, Laibin, Liuzhou, Qinzhou, Wuzhou and Yulin.

paragraphs: It is near Vietnam and has many mountains. It is one of the border frontiers of Chinese civilization. Even in the 20th century it was considered an open, wild territory. The current name "Guang" itself means "expanse", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in 226 AD. It was given provincial level status during the Yuan Dynasty and in 1949 was reformed as one of China's five autonomous regions.


title: Season structure of the NHL

paragraphs: The National Hockey League (NHL) season is divided into the regular season and the Stanley Cup playoffs. In the regular season, teams play 82 games which determine their standings. The eight top teams in each conference enter the playoff elimination tournament to determine the Stanley Cup champion.


title: 2009 Formula One World Championship

paragraphs: The 2009 Formula One season was the 60th FIA Formula One World Championship season. There were ten teams signed up to compete in the championship. Jenson Button became the Drivers' World Champion and Brawn GP won the Constructors' title.

paragraphs: The season is scheduled to take place over 17 rounds, and started with the Australian Grand Prix on 29 March 2009. It will end on 1 November 2009 with the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, which is included on the race calendar for the first time and will be held at the new Yas Marina Circuit. The French and Canadian Grands Prix, which were both included in the 2008 championship, have been dropped.

paragraphs: Several rule changes will be implemented by the FIA, in a bid to cut costs due to the global financial crisis and to improve the on-track spectacle. New rules governing tyres, aerodynamics and Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS), among others, are some of the biggest changes in the Formula One regulations for several decades. FIA initially declared a change in deciding the World Driver's Championship, with the driver winning the most races to be declared as the champion. However, this decision was later reversed following protests from Formula One Teams Association.

paragraphs: Drivers did not finish the Grand Prix, but were classified as they completed over 90% of the race distance.


title: Bucegi Mountains

paragraphs: The Bucegi Mountains () are in central Romania to the south of the city Braşov. They are part of the Southern Carpathians group of the Carpathian Mountains of Europe.

paragraphs: To the east, the Bucegi Mountains have a very steep slope. This is towards the popular tourist destination Prahova Valley. At a higher elevation is the Bucegi Plateau, where wind and rain have turned the rocks into brilliant figures such as the Sphinx and "Babele".

paragraphs: The Bucegi is thought to be the Dacian holy mountain "Kogainon". Here, the mythical figure Zalmoxis resided in a cave.


title: Private First Class

paragraphs: In many armed forces in the world, Private First Class (PFC) is a rank held by junior enlisted persons.


title: Lance Corporal

paragraphs: Lance corporal is a military rank, used by many armed forces around the world, and also by some police forces and other uniformed organizations. It is below the rank of Corporal, and is typically the lowest Non-commissioned officer, usually equivalent to the NATO Rank Grade OR-3.


title: Ned Kelly (1970 movie)

paragraphs: Ned Kelly is the name of a 1970 movie. It was the second Australian feature length movie about Australian bushranger Ned Kelly. The first was "The Story of the Kelly Gang" made in 1906, the world's first feature movie.

paragraphs: "Ned Kelly" was directed by Tony Richardson, and starred Mick Jagger as Ned Kelly. Scottish-born actor Mark McManus played the part of Kelly's friend Joe Byrne. It was a British production, but was filmed entirely in Australia, shot mostly around Braidwood in southern New South Wales, with mainly Australian actors.

paragraphs: There were many problems in getting the movie made. The actors' union, Actors' Equity and some of Ned Kelly's relatives protested strongly about Jagger having the lead role. Many people were upset that the movie would be made in New South Wales, not Victoria, where the Kellys had lived.

paragraphs: Jagger's girlfriend, Marianne Faithfull, had come to Australia to play the lead female role of Ned's sister, Maggie. Their relationship was breaking up, and she took an overdose of sleeping tablets soon after she got to Sydney. She was in a coma, but soon got better and went back to England. She was replaced by an unknown Australian actress, Diane Craig. During filming, Jagger was hurt by a pistol misfiring. The actors and crew were often sick, some costumes were destroyed by fire, and Jagger's co-star, Mark McManus, just escaped serious injury when a horse-drawn cart in which he was riding overturned during filming.

paragraphs: The body armour costume worn by Jagger is on show at the Queanbeyan City Library, with the letters "MJ" scratched on the inside. The head-piece has been stolen, the loss of an important piece of Australian movie history.

paragraphs: The movie was very poorly received at its opening, and is still said to be Richardson's worst movie. Neither Richardson or Jagger went to the London opening of the movie.

paragraphs: The movie has music written by Shel Silverstein, and performed by Kris Kristofferson and Waylon Jennings, with one song by Jagger.


title: Spring Offensive

paragraphs: The 1918 Spring Offensive or Kaiserschlacht ("Kaiser's Battle"), also known as the Ludendorff Offensive, was a series of German attacks along the Western Front during World War I, which marked the deepest advances by either side since 1914. The German authorities had realised that their only remaining chance of victory was to defeat the Allies before the overwhelming human and matériel resources of the United States could be deployed. They also had the advantage of nearly 50 divisions freed by the Russian surrender (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk).

paragraphs: The first and most important part was called Operation Michael. It used new infiltration tactics. After the offensive, not enough German soldiers were still alive to win the war anymore.


title: Tang Enbo

paragraphs: Tang Enbo (1898-1959) was a Nationalist general in the Republic of China. Along with Hu Zongnan and Xue Yue, Tang was one of the Kuomintang generals most respected by the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War.


title: Xue Yue

paragraphs: Xue Yue (1896-1998) was a Nationalist general in the Republic of China. Xue joined the Chinese army in 1914, at the age of 18. Along with Hu Zongnan and Tang Enbo, Xue was one of the Kuomintang generals most respected by the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Xue was in the defense of greater Wuhan, commanding the 1st Army Corps. In the mountains Xue's army succeeded in nearly destroying the 106th division of the Japanese army. During the battle, most of the Japanese officers were killed and the Japanese had to drop 300 officers by parachute into the battlefield.


title: Shunroku Hata

paragraphs: Hata was minister of war in 1939. He was commander-in-chief of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) in China in 1941.

paragraphs: He was the last surviving Japanese military officer with a rank of Field Marshal. He was jailed at the end of World War Two and released in 1955.


title: Bai Chongxi

paragraphs: Bai Chongxi (18 March 1893 – 1 December 1966), also spelled Pai Chung-hsi, was a Chinese Muslim general in the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China. He was a warlord in the Guangxi Province, commanding his own troops and governing Guangxi (though part of the Republic of China). He was often an ally of Chiang Kai-Shek in the politics of the Republic of China.

paragraphs: Bai Chongxi Born Omar Chongxi Bai was born in Guilin, Guangxi Province.


title: Letter of Jeremiah

paragraphs: The Letter of Jeremiah, also known as the Epistle of Jeremy. This is a deuterocanonical (or apocryphal) book of the Old Testament. The letter is believed to have been made by Jeremiah to the people who were to be taken prisoner into Babylon. It is included in Catholic Bibles as the last part of the Book of Baruch. It is also in Orthodox Bibles as a standalone book.

paragraphs: Most learned people argue that the person who started the book was not Jeremiah. Jeremiah was a Hellenistic Jew who lived in Alexandria. Whoever the starter, the work was written with a purpose: to teach the Jews not to worship the gods of the Babylonians. Instead, to worship only the Lord.

paragraphs: The letter (epistle) is part of the Septuagint. There is no evidence of it ever having been rule bearing in the Jewish tradition.

paragraphs: The earliest evidence we have of the question of its canonicity arising in Christian tradition is in the work of Origen of Alexandria, as reported by Eusebius in his Church History. Origen listed Lamentations and the Letter of Jeremiah as one unit with the Book of Jeremiah proper, among "the canonical books as the Hebrews have handed them down".

paragraphs: Jerome provided the majority of the translation work for the vulgar (popular) Latin translation of the Bible, called the Vulgate Bible. In view of the fact that no Hebrew text was available, Jerome refused to consider the Epistle of Jeremiah, as the other books he called apocryphal, canonical.

paragraphs: Despite Jerome's reservations, the epistle is included as chapter 6 of the book of Baruch in the Old Testament of the Vulgate. The Authorized King James Version follows the same practice, while placing Baruch in the Apocrypha section. In the Ethiopian Orthodox canon, it forms part of the "Rest of Jeremiah", along with 4 Baruch (also known as the "Paraleipomena of Jeremiah").

paragraphs: The epistle is one of three deuterocanonical books found among the Dead Sea scrolls (the other two are Ben Sira and Tobit.) The portion of the epistle discovered at Qumran was written in Greek. This does not preclude the possibility of the text being based on a prior Hebrew or Aramaic text. However, the only text available to us has dozens of linguistic features available in Greek, but not in Hebrew, hence introductions of a Greek editor, not required for minimalist translation.


title: AllMovie

paragraphs: AllMovie is a commercial database with information about movie stars, movies and television shows. It was started by Michael Erlewine, who also started AllMusic and AllGame.


title: Revelation

paragraphs: Revelation is when something is made clear or obvious that was hidden before. Most of the time, the term is used to speak about religious revelations. That means that the revelation is done by communication with the divine. Revelation can be through a deity who may send a messenger. Messengers that are supernatural are often called angels (Angel literally means messenger). Human messengers tend to be called prophets.


title: Sebastián Aguilera de Heredia

paragraphs: Sebastian Aguilera de Heredia (1561-1627) was a Spanish organist and composer.

paragraphs: Aguilera was born in Zaragoza, Spain on about August 15, 1561.

paragraphs: We do not know much about his early life. He was ordained as a priest in January 1584. In 1585 he became organist at Huesca Cathedral, where he supervised the building of a new organ at the cathedral during 1588. In 1603 he became a priest and organist at the Cathedral of La Seo, Zaragossa. He looked after the organ at the cathedral and often had work done to improve it. He remained at the cathedral until his death on December 16, 1627.

paragraphs: All his compositions were for the church: both his organ music and vocal music. His organ works show that he learned from composers such as Antonio de Cabezón, but he put new, modern ideas in his music which later influenced younger composers such as Correa de Arauxo. His students became the cathedral organists after his death, and were part of a tradition and style of paying which lasted for over 100 years.

paragraphs: A very important new technique which he used was the use of a divided keyboard (medio registro) which allowed different sounds in the upper half and the lower half of the keyboard (on today's organs one would need a two-manual organ to get the same effect). He wrote 36 settings of the Magnificat, called "Canticum Beatissimae Virginis Deiparae Mariae" (1618). His vocal work shows a skilful use of polyphony.


title: Shahnameh

paragraphs: The Shahnameh ("Book of Kings", ) is a large poetic opus by the Persian poet Firdousi. The book was written between c.977 to 1010 ce. The Shahnameh is about the mythical and historical past of Iran. It is the national epic of Persia/Iran and one of the greatest literary works of the Persian language.

paragraphs: Shahname have 3 secen: 1- mythical 2- hero 3- hestorical


title: Papal conclave

paragraphs: A Papal conclave is a meeting of cardinals. The cardinals meet to elect the next bishop of Rome, to become pope. This becomes necessary when the old pope dies or resigns. Usually, popes do not resign, though. The last pope to resign was Pope Benedict XVI. On 11 February 2013, the Vatican confirmed Pope Benedict would resign the papacy and on 13 March it announced the new and current pope as Pope Francis.

paragraphs: The word "conclave" is from Latin. It refers to the fact that the cardinals are locked up together, until they have agreed on a new pope. Today, this happens in the Sistine Chapel.

paragraphs: Originally, the conclave was started in Italian city states, in the 12th century. These cities needed to elect officeholders, and the election needed to be free of party politics. Events such as the Investiture Controversy in medieval Europe led to people wanting "free" elections, with a medieval understanding of free. Methods were often combined, the elements used were Acclamation, naming of candidates by predecessors, or by univolved people, and using "electrors" who would agree on the successor, behind closed doors. Earliest examples are that of Genua, in 1157, Pisa, in 1162-64, or Pistoia.

paragraphs: Pope Nicholas II published a papal bull called In Nomine Domini, in 1059, which introduced the conclave as the way to elect his successor.


title: Seminary

paragraphs: A seminary, theological college or divinity school is a university that specializes in theology or philosophy. Very often the students live at the seminary. Usually, priests have to study at a seminary at the start of their career.


title: Hunger

paragraphs: Hunger is the feeling of wanting to eat. Ghrelin is a hormone that makes people feel hungry. The opposite of hunger is called "satiety" or "fullness". Leptin causes this feeling. People can survive weeks without eating, but they will start to feel hungry after they have not eaten for a few hours. Hunger is generally considered quite uncomfortable. People who have eaten food usually will feel less hungry, or not hungry at all. People can live longer without food than without water.

paragraphs: Hunger is also used to refer to people who generally have little to eat, and are therefore often hungry.


title: Chanakya

paragraphs: Chanakya ( "", ; c. 350-283 BCE) was an adviser and a prime minister to Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340-293 BCE). Chanakya helped Chandragupta create the Maurya Empire. Chanakya is considered a pioneer (someone who explores a new area) in economics. He wrote about economics a very long time before Ibn Khaldun.

paragraphs: He is generally called Chanakya (taken from his father's name "Chanak") but, in his capacity as author of the "Arthaśhāstra", is generally referred to as Kautilya derived from his gotra's name "KOTIL"(Kautilya means "of Kotil"). He believed in four ways: Treating with Equality, Enticement, Punishment or War and Sowing Dissension. The "Arthaśhāstra" identifies its author by the name Kautilya, except for one verse which refers to him by the name Vishnugupta. One of the earliest Sanskrit literatures to explicitly identify Chanakya with Vishnugupta was Vishnu Sarma's "Panchatantra" in the 3rd century BC.


title: Trowel

paragraphs: A trowel is a small tool used for digging, smoothing, or moving around small amounts of material.


title: Juniper

paragraphs: Junipers is the name for a number of species of coniferous plants in the genus "Juniperus". They are related to the family "Cupressaceae" (the cypress). There are between 50 and 67 species of juniper. Junipers grow in the northern hemisphere.

paragraphs: Junipers are evergreen. They vary in size from low shrubs to tall trees, which grow to between twenty and forty metres tall. The female trees have seed cones which form something resembling a berry. These berries are called juniper berries. They take from six to eighteen months to grow, after pollination, are often aromatic and can be used as a spice.


title: Juniper berry

paragraphs: The juniper berry is the female seed cone made by the different kinds of junipers. It is not a true berry, but its unusual roundness and merged scales make it look like a berry. Some of the cones are used as spices. Juniper berries are also used to flavour gin. According to a FAO document, juniper berries are the only spice that comes from conifers. However, tar and bark from pine trees are sometimes thought of as spices, too.


title: Henry Kissinger

paragraphs: Henry Alfred Wolfgang Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Wolfgang Kissinger on May 27, 1923), , is an American political scientist, diplomat, and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize. He served as both National Security Advisor and later as Secretary of State in the Nixon Administration and the Ford Administration.

paragraphs: Kissinger was born in Germany in 1923. As a German Jew, it was not safe for him to stay in Germany after Adolf Hitler came to power, and he left for the United States in 1933. He fought for the US against the Nazis in World War Two.

paragraphs: Kissinger was Richard Nixon's most trusted advisor on foreign affairs. He was in government during the Cold War and promoted what he called "realpolitik" in dealing with the Soviet Union and Communist China. He was a major force behind the 1973 ceasefire in the Vietnam War. He won a Nobel Peace Prize for the ceasefire, but the agreement fell apart in 1975. Under Kissinger, the US opened up relations to China, which is considered one of his biggest successes. He also supported détente, an easing of the rivalry with the Soviets.

paragraphs: In his later years, Kissinger — along with William Perry, Sam Nunn, and George Shultz — called upon governments to reduce nuclear weapons, and in three "Wall Street Journal" articles proposed a program of urgent steps to that end. The four have created the Nuclear Security Project to advance this cause.

paragraphs: His legacy is often debated by historians. Some people criticize him, even calling him a criminal, for his tactics during the cold war, notably supporting a military junta in Chile and backing Pakistan during the Bangladesh War. Many people, however, consider Kissinger a great figure in modern American history who ended the Vietnam War, opened up China, and supported peace in the Cold War.


Akihiro Endō


title: Fernando Moner

paragraphs: Fernando Moner (born 30 December 1967) is a former Argentine football player.


title: Toshiaki Imai

paragraphs: Toshiaki Imai (born 29 December 1954) is a former Japanese football player. He has played for Fujitsu.


title: Vanderlei Luxemburgo

paragraphs: Vanderlei Luxemburgo (born 10 May 1952) is a former Brazilian football player and football coach. He has been four times winner of Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, which is a record.


title: Shinya Aikawa

paragraphs: Shinya Aikawa (born 26 July 1983) is a former Japanese football player.


title: Takuto Hayashi

paragraphs: Takuto Hayashi (born 9 August 1982) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Vegalta Sendai.


title: Norihiro Yamagishi

paragraphs: Norihiro Yamagishi (born 17 May 1978) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Urawa Red Diamonds.


title: Ryōta Tsuzuki

paragraphs: In 2007, his goalkeeper saves helped the Urawa Reds become the first Japanese team to reach the finals of the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) Champions League.

paragraphs: Tsuzuki's play was been noted by the international press, including reports of games against British and South Korea.


title: Robson Ponte

paragraphs: Robson Ponte (born 6 November 1976) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for Urawa Red Diamonds.


title: Tomislav Marić

paragraphs: Tomislav Marić (born 28 January 1973) is a former Croatian football player. He has played for Croatia national team.


title: Ichiei Muroi

paragraphs: Ichiei Muroi (born 22 June 1974) is a former Japanese football player.


title: Boeremusiek

paragraphs: Boeremusiek is from Europe. It was brought to South Africa and changed into its own style. It is thought to have got to South Africa by British Empire military bands.

paragraphs: Every artist or band comes up with their own sound and style. They make up their own style by playing different types of concertinas and using different instruments in the band.

paragraphs: A concertina is similar to an accordion and is the lead instrument in most Boeremusiek bands. There are many different types of concertinas, which is why Boeremusiek has so many sounds and styles, and the construction the concertina is what makes the different sounds in the Boeremusiek band; it depends on where the slots and holes are put makes the difference on the sound that the concertina makes.

paragraphs: Other instruments that might be in a Boeremusiek band are piano accordions, button harmonicas, accordions, pianos, harmoniums and the guitar. Sometimes, a cello or bass guitar may be seen.

paragraphs: Today, there are many successful Boeremusiek bands that have recorded albums. Some famous bands and individual artists today are Klipwerf Boereorkes, Danie Grey, Nico Carstens, Taffie Kikkilus, Brian Nieuwoudt, Samuel Petzer, Worsie Visser and Die Ghitaar Man.


title: Military Merit Cross (Austria–Hungary)

paragraphs: The Military Merit Cross (German: "Militärverdienstkreuz", Croatian: "Vojni križ za zasluge") was a decoration of the Empire of Austria and, after the establishment of the Dual Monarchy in 1867, the Empire of Austria-Hungary. It was first established on 22 October 1849 and underwent several revisions to its design and award criteria over the years of its existence. It became obsolete in 1918 with the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.


title: Ray Gordy

paragraphs: Terry Ray Gordy, Jr. (born 23 March 1979) is a retired American professional wrestler who is best known for wrestling with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) where he appeared on their SmackDown brand under the ring names Jesse and Slam Master J. In WWE, he was known for tagging with Drew Hankinson where they made the team of Jesse and Festus. He is the son of the wrestler Terry Gordy of the Fabulous Freebirds. Gordy currently works as a police officer in Atlanta, Georgia.


title: Bing

paragraphs: Microsoft Bing (before called "Windows Live Search" and "MSN Search") is a search engine. Microsoft calls it a "decision engine", meaning that Bing tries to interpret search queries and give people better search results compared to a typical search engine, helping the user make better decisions. Bing concentrates on four major areas: shopping, travel, local and health. A preview version was made available for everyone to use on June 1, 2009, and the website was fully launched on June 3, 2009. The website quickly became popular after a few weeks.

paragraphs: On July 29, 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo! announced that Bing would power Yahoo! Search. All Yahoo! Search global customers and partners will be shifted to Bing by early 2012.

paragraphs: In October 2011, Microsoft announced "Tiger", a new internal search computer program for Bing. When it was finished, Bing delivered faster and more relevant search results for users. It has been incorporated into Bing since August 2011.

paragraphs: Bing includes the listing of search suggestions as queries are entered. It lists related searches (called "Explore pane") based on semantic technology from Powerset that Microsoft purchased in 2008.

paragraphs: Every day, Bing.com displays a different picture that users can click on parts of to learn more about. These pictures can be about different places around the world, or nature, or even sometimes things in outer space.


title: Boy Scouts of America

paragraphs: The Boy Scouts of America or BSA is an organization for children and teens with over 5 million members across the United States. They try to give young people life values. BSA includes Cub Scouts, which is for children ages 6–11, Scouts BSA, which is for youth ages 11–17, and Venturing and Sea Scouts, for youth ages 14–20. Scouts BSA was called Boy Scouts until it started allowing girls in 2019.

paragraphs: Scouts BSA are ages 11–17 and belong to troops, groups of Scouts associated with a church, school or post. Cub Scouts are scouts ages 6–11 and belong to packs. Cub Scouts include Tigers (age 6-7), Wolfs (age 7-8), Bears (age 8-9), and Webelos (age 9-11). Older Scouts can be Venturer Scouts.

paragraphs: The Boy Scouts of America were founded by American writer W. D. Boyce, in 1910, but were similar to Scouting groups in Great Britain and other early scout movements. James E. West helped out the BSA in its early years, but also made the BSA more religious than scouts were in Europe. Scouting grew in the 1910s and 20s due to the rise of “boy’s books” devoted to Scouting and the First World War. Scouting had many members during the 1960s, but has declined since the 1970s, despite an attempt to make scouting modern by changing requirements and adding more merit badges.

paragraphs: Over the years, the BSA has taken some stands that many Americans did not like. These included being against unions (organized workers) in the 1920s, requiring Scouts to believe in God, and not allowing gays to join Scouting.

paragraphs: An important part of scouting is earning ranks. There are seven ranks in Scouts BSA: Scout, Tenderfoot, 2nd Class, 1st Class, Star, Life and Eagle. The first four focus on learning basic scout skills, including camping, cooking, swimming, first aid (basic medical care), citizenship, orienteering (use of a map and compass), and pioneering (tying knots). The final three focus on earning merit badges, serving the troop and serving the community. Eagle Scouts must plan and finish a project that benefits something other than Scouting, and earn 21 merit badges. They must also hold a position of leadership in the troop. Only about 2 or 3% of Scouts earn Eagle, but some of the ones that have include Gerald Ford and Neil Armstrong.

paragraphs: Scouts must learn, know and follow the Scout Oath and Scout Law:


title: Counterfeit

paragraphs: Counterfeit is the sale or manufacture of items that have not been made by real companies or have been made illegally. Nearly anything can be counterfeit, but most counterfeiting is of clothing and other small items such as bags, medicines, money, watches, or jewellery. Most things can be sold without people realizing that they are counterfeit and that they could possibly be breaking the law by buying the counterfeit goods.

paragraphs: Money can also be counterfeited. Sometimes people make fake cash, and this is considered to be counterfeit. The United States Secret Service investigates people who do this.


title: Limoux

paragraphs: Limoux () is a French commune, a "subprefecture" in the Aude department. It is in the Occitanie region. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Limoux.

paragraphs: Limoux is along the Aude river and is about due south of Carcassonne.

paragraphs: The "commune" of Limoux has an area of . Its average altitude is and the city hall is an altitude of .

paragraphs: The "commune" of Limoux is surrounded by the "communes":

paragraphs: The climate of Limoux, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - oceanic climate with warm summers.

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Limoux are known, in French, as "Limouxins" (women: "Limouxines").

paragraphs: With a population of 10,275, Limoux has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Limoux forms, with other 4 "communes", the urban area of Limoux with a population of 12,883 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Limoux, formed by 16 "communes" with a population of 15,560 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .

paragraphs: Limoux is a subprefecture of the Aude department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Limoux and the administrative centre () of the canton La Région Limouxine, with 19,978 inhabitants .

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Le Limouxin" ().

paragraphs: The town is well known for its wine called Limoux wine. It also has a Winter festival called "Fècos". It is often called "Carnaval de Limoux" in France. It is usually between January and Easter.


title: Tamaddun Majlish

paragraphs: Tamaddun Majlish () was an Islamic cultural organization in East Bengal. Tamddun Majlish was the founder of the historic Language Movement.


title: Sindh Valley

paragraphs: The Sindh Valley, is a valley in a mountain range which is north of Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir. The valley begins in Gandarbal and ends near Baltal and the start of the Zojila Pass. Sindh Valley is the main route between Kashmir and Central Asia.


title: Paktia Province

paragraphs: Paktia ( - Paktyā) is a province under Afghanistan. Its capital (city) is Gardez. There are about 1.3 million people who live in the Province. Most of the people are Pashtun.

paragraphs: Paktia is made up of 14 district (District Centers are given in parentheses):


title: Sun Microsystems

paragraphs: Sun Microsystems, Inc. (Sun for short) was an American company that sold computers, computer components, software, and information technology services. Sun contributed to many important computing technologies, such as Unix, RISC processors, thin client computing, and virtualized computing. Sun created the Java programming language, the Solaris operating system, the Network File System (NFS), and the SPARC instruction set. Sun was founded on February 24, 1982. Sun's headquarters were in Santa Clara, California. In January 2010, it was bought by Oracle Corporation.


title: Water strider

paragraphs: The water strider (also known as the pond skater) is a true bug, an insect of the family Gerridae. It can run across the surface of water. It lives on ponds and slow-running streams. It rarely goes underwater. The underside of the body is covered with water-repellent hair. There are around 500 known species, commonly placed in around 60 genera. Also called the Jesus bug (walks on water).


title: Bowler

paragraphs: A bowler is a person who bowls a ball to the batsman in the game of cricket. Unlike the pitcher in a game of baseball, a bowler delivers with a straight arm (see photo). A ball bowled with the elbow bent is a throw, and that is illegal.

paragraphs: A bowler who can also bat well, is called an all rounder. There are different types of bowler, and a cricket team will usually have a mix of different types.

paragraphs: A fast bowler uses simple speed to defeat a batsman. They can send the ball to the batsman at a speed of 145 km/h. They take a long run up before bowling each ball to build speed. Shoaib Akhtar of Pakistan was the first to bowl at a speed of 160 km/h. Another famous fast bowler is Australian Brett Lee.

paragraphs: A medium pace bowler bowls more slowly. They often use other tricks to defeat the batsman. They can get the ball able to curve in the air or change the speed or length (where the ball hits the ground) to fool the batsman. Some are very accurate so they can repeatedly send the ball to a place which forces the batsman to defend rather than scoring runs. Others grip the ball so that it lands on its seam; this makes the path of the ball unpredictable.

paragraphs: A spin bowler usually bowls quite slowly and puts a lot of spin on the ball which makes it bounce at an angle off the ground. This makes the batsman play each ball carefully. Generally spin bowlers give up the most runs but they all have "tricks" that they use to fool the batsman and get him or her out. These tricks are given names such as the arm ball, googly, flipper, topspinner or doosra. Spin bowling is very much about fooling the batsman rather than speed. A fast off spin is the normal off spin action but with more pace. Off spin is when the cricket ball spins towards a right-handed batsmen's bat (bowler's left to right). With more pace, there usually is less turn (amount of spin). Off-spin is also called an off-break or finger spin. A famous spin bowler was the Australian Shane Warne, but his type was the leg break, which uses the wrist to spin the ball from the bowler's right to left. This is varied with the top spin, when the ball comes on straight and low.


title: Wicket

paragraphs: There is one wicket in each of the two batsmen's grounds. The fielding team can hit a wicket with the ball to run out a batsman, but only if there is no batsman in the ground of the wicket. In addition, when delivering the ball to the batsman, the bowler can hit the wicket in the striker's ground with the ball to bowl the striker out.

paragraphs: A batsman is said to have "lost his wicket" when he gets out.


title: Dynamic and formal equivalence

paragraphs: Dynamic and formal equivalence are concepts from linguistics.

paragraphs: When a language is translated into another one, there is a problem: the meaning of a word or a phrase in the first language is not the same as that of the word or phrase in the second language. The first language may also have words, phrases or grammatical structures that do not exist in the second language.

paragraphs: There are two possible ways to solve this problem:


title: The Undertones

paragraphs: The Undertones are a punk rock/power pop band from Northern Ireland. They formed in Derry in 1975.


title: Luftfahrtgesellschaft Walter

paragraphs: The Luftfahrtgesellschaft Walter or LGW is a German airline.


title: 3G

paragraphs: 3G, the short form for the third generation, is the third generation of wireless mobile telecommunication technology. It was replaced by 4G.


title: Kin selection

paragraphs: Kin selection or kin altruism is a form of natural selection. Some animals cooperate with relatives, even if this brings risk to themselves. The classic example of this is seen in the family life of mammals, or in colonial insects such as ants.

paragraphs: Many mammals and birds raise alarms to warn others of danger. Others cooperate in tasks, such as scrub jays help each other with to build nests. In all these cases where animals cooperate, the question is whether there is any biological benefit to themselves. It is now clear that there is benefit if the animals are closely related. This is because related organisms have (to a degree) a shared genetic inheritance.

paragraphs: The first to write about the concept were by R.A. Fisher in 1930, and J.B.S. Haldane in 1955, but it was W.D. Hamilton who truly formalized the concept. The actual term "kin selection" was probably coined by John Maynard Smith, when he wrote:

paragraphs: By cooperating, relatives influence each other's fitness. Under natural selection, a gene which improves the fitness of individuals will increase in frequency. A gene which lowers the fitness of individuals will become rare.

paragraphs: However, behaviour which enhances the fitness of relatives but lowers that of the actor, may nonetheless increase in frequency. Relatives do, by definition, carry many of the same genes. This is the fundamental principle behind the theory of kin selection. According to the theory, the enhanced fitness of relatives may more than compensate for the fitness loss of the helpers (individuals displaying the behaviour).

paragraphs: This is a special case of a more general model, called inclusive fitness.

paragraphs: Hamilton's equation describes whether or not a gene for helping behaviour will spread in a population. The gene will spread if rxb is greater than c:


title: Sterile

paragraphs: Sterile is an important term which has two main meanings.

paragraphs: 1. Anything which is not infected by bacteria (or viruses or parasites).

paragraphs: 2. Unable to give rise to offspring (children) by birth or fertilisation.


title: Foraging

paragraphs: Foraging is the act of hunting or gathering food. For example, cattle forage grass to eat. The idea of animals foraging is called "forage theory", and was first proposed in 1966.

paragraphs: Humans that forage are often called hunter-gatherers, who find and eat (wild) animals and plants without domestication of them (people who farm plants are not hunter-gatherers, as they have grown them themselves).


title: Pacific Northwest

paragraphs: The Pacific Northwest, also referred to as Cascadia, is a region on the west coast of North America. It refers to the northwestern corner of the United States and the southwestern part of Canada. The U.S. states of Washington, Idaho, western Montana, Oregon and northern California are in the southern part of the Pacific Northwest. The Canadian province of British Columbia and the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Alaska is in the northern part. The entire region is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west.

paragraphs: Historically, the Pacific Northwest had many Native Americans. Starting from about 15,000 years ago, Native Americans settled along the coastline and along the major rivers. From the 1500s to the 1700s, Europeans explored the region, beginning with the discovery of Oregon and Washington. In the early 1800s, the famous Lewis and Clark expedition arrived in Washington State. From the 19th century to present day, the region began to become settled. Today, the largest cities in the Northwest include Vancouver, Seattle and Portland.

paragraphs: The rugged mountains of the Northwest consist of the Coast Range, which is nearer the coast, and the Cascade Range. In northern Washington, the Cascade Range is called the North Cascades. In British Columbia, it is called the Canadian Cascades. The many rivers of the Northwest result from its wet climate - the mountains trap wet Pacific air, leaving little rain for inland states like Idaho. The rivers once supported large salmon runs, but large power dams have been built on many rivers.

paragraphs: The main language of the Pacific Northwest is English in the United States and Canada; among the Native Americans Chinook Jargon is common. Among the many Asian immigrants, Chinese is being used more in the Northwest.

paragraphs: The Pacific Northwest basically extends from southeastern Alaska to Northern California. Along this entire length, is a large mountain range, the Cascade Range, that forms the geographic spine of the Pacific Northwest. The highest mountain in the Northwest is Mount Rainier. Rainier is high. Other notable mountains include Mount Shasta, at , and Mount Baker, at . East of the Cascades, there is the Columbia Plateau, a high area of land that stretches east to the Rocky Mountains in Idaho and Montana. In the west, the Coast Range borders the coast more closely. The Olympic Mountains are on the Olympic Peninsula, an extension of Washington State. Puget Sound is a large system of bays and straits in northwestern Washington and southeastern British Columbia.

paragraphs: The main rivers of the Pacific Northwest are the Fraser River, the Columbia River, and the Snake River. The Fraser River is mainly in British Columbia; it flows west to the Pacific Ocean near Vancouver. The Fraser drains most of the southern Canadian Cascades. The Columbia River begins in the Canadian Cascades and flows south, then turns west where it meets the Snake River. From there, it flows on to the ocean near Portland. The Snake River is mainly in inland Idaho. After a journey west from the Rocky Mountains, it meets the Columbia at Kennewick, Washington.

paragraphs: Other rivers in the Northwest include the Finlay, the Skagit, the Umpqua, the Rogue, and the Klamath. The Finlay drains the northern Canadian Cascades and flows on to join the Mackenzie River, which flows through Canada to Hudson Bay. The Skagit also begins in the Canadian Cascades, and crosses into Washington; it turns west and flows into the sea north of Everett, Washington. The Umpqua River begins in the Southern Oregon Cascades, and flows west to the Pacific Ocean near Reedsport, Oregon. The Rogue parallels the Umpqua and dumps into the sea at Gold Beach, Oregon. The Klamath flows south from a valley in inland Oregon, then turns west through northern California, cutting through the Cascade Range to its mouth near Klamath, California.


title: Adaptation

paragraphs: Adaptation is the evolutionary process where an organism becomes better suited to its habitat. This process takes place over many generations. It is one of the basic phenomena of biology.

paragraphs: When people speak about adaptation, they often mean a 'feature' (a trait) which helps an animal or plant survive. An example is the adaptation of horses' teeth to grinding grass. Grass is their usual food; it wears the teeth down, but horses' teeth continue to grow during life. Horses also have adapted to run fast, which helps them to escape their predators, such as lions. These features are the "product" of the process of adaptation.

paragraphs: The illustration of bird beaks shows an obvious sign of their different ways of life. However, eating a different food also means having a different digestive system, gut, claws, wings and above all, different inherited behaviour. For the major adaptations, what changes is not a single trait, but a whole group of features.

paragraphs: Adaptation occurs because the better adapted animals are the most likely to survive, and to reproduce successfully. This process is known as natural selection; it is the basic cause of evolutionary change.

paragraphs: Adaptation is, first of all, a "process", rather than a physical part of a body.

paragraphs: Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past, and became instead a continuing dynamic process. "Ernst Mayr".

paragraphs: An internal parasite (such as a fluke) is a good example: it has a very simple bodily structure, but still the organism is highly adapted to its particular environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the life cycle, which is often quite complex.

paragraphs: However, as a practical term, adaptation is often used for the "product": those features of a species which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function is in doubt. By using the term "adaptation" for the evolutionary "process", and "adaptive trait" for the bodily part or function (the product), the two senses of the word may be distinguished.

paragraphs: Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the diverse species we see in biology. The other is speciation (species-splitting or cladogenesis). A favourite example used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of cichlid fish in African lakes.

paragraphs: An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places "constraints" on the evolution of development, behaviour and structure of organisms.

paragraphs: The general idea is that each genetic and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. But polyploidy in plants is a fairly common large genetic change. The origin of the eukaryota by the symbiosis of micro-organisms is a more exotic example.

paragraphs: All adaptations help organisms survive in their ecological niches. This implies an increase in biological fitness.

paragraphs: These adaptive traits may be structural, behavioural or physiological. Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism (shape, body covering, armament; and also the internal organization).

paragraphs: Behavioural adaptations are composed of inherited behaviour chains and/or the ability to learn: behaviours may be inherited in detail (instincts), or a tendency for learning may be inherited (see neuropsychology). Examples: searching for food, sex, vocalizations.

paragraphs: Physiological adaptations permit the organism to perform special functions (for instance, making venom, secreting slime, phototropism); but also more general functions such as growth and development, temperature regulation, ionic balance and other aspects of homeostasis. Adaptation, then, affects all aspects of the life of an organism.

paragraphs: Important adaptations do not come singly. They come in groups, which work together to make the animal or plant successful in its particular niche or life-style.

paragraphs: Woodpecker adaptations are a good example of how a whole suite of features are needed for a successful way of life.

paragraphs: Ancestral woodpeckers, which switched to climbing on tree trunks, had ancestral foot and tail structure. This suggests that a change in behaviour, perhaps to get at a better food source, was one of the first things that happened in the chain of events. The way evolutionary novelties start is an important topic.

paragraphs: Not all features of an organism are adaptations. It may need field investigations or experiments to find out whether it has a function in the life of the species.

paragraphs: Adaptations tend to reflect the past life of a species. If a species has recently changed its life style, a once valuable adaptation may become a dwindling vestige. Animals which live in dark caves often lose, over a long period, their colours and eyesight.

paragraphs: The reasons for this may vary. The loss of structure and function may be a positive adaptation which saves energy and materials. But it may be simply a by-product of genes selected for other functions (pleiotropy). Or the structure may be linked in development, and affected by selection for some other structure.

paragraphs: It is a general rule that any adaptations which are no longer useful either become vestigial organs (see vermiform appendix), or may be selected and adapted to other functions (see ear ossicles).

paragraphs: Many adaptations serve more than one function. This is often the reason some traits become so noticeable that they almost define the species concerned. The legs of a horse are also a main defence: a horse's kick is very destructive. The antlers of male deer serve a sexual function as well as a defence against predators. Man's large brain serves not only for language, but also for thinking and problem-solving. Bird feathers are not just used to fly; they are the basis of its heat conservation, temperature regulation and signalling

paragraphs: It is a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolution... is a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder. "Peter Medawar".

paragraphs: Adaptations are never perfect. There are always tradeoffs between the various functions and structures in a body. It is the organism as a whole which lives and reproduces, therefore it is the complete set of adaptations which gets passed on to future generations.

paragraphs: All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they cannot scratch their backs; mammals' hair helps temperature regulation, but offers a niche for ectoparasites. Compromise and make-shift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise.

paragraphs: Since the phenotype as a whole is the target of selection, it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of the phenotype to the same degree. Ernst Mayr.

paragraphs: Camouflage to avoid detection is destroyed when vivid colours are displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the need for reproduction. The peacock's ornamental train (grown anew in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptation. It must reduce his maneuverability and flight, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resources.

paragraphs: Darwin's explanation of its advantage was in terms of sexual selection: "it depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in relation to reproduction". The kind of sexual selection represented by the peacock is called 'mate choice', meaning the process selects the more fit over the less fit, and so has survival value. In practice, the blue peafowl "Pavo cristatus" is a pretty successful species, with a big natural range in India, so the overall outcome of their mating system is quite viable.

paragraphs: The size of the human foetal brain at birth means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The newborn's brain cannot be larger than about 400ccs, else it will not get through the mother's pelvis. Yet the size needed for an adult brain is about 1400ccs.

paragraphs: The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright bipedal stance, without which our pelvis could be shaped more suitably for birth. Neanderthals had a similar problem.

paragraphs: The function of a trait can, and often does, change over time. Several terms have been used to describe this: "preadaptation", "exaptation", "cooption". 'Preadaptation' is the most common term used when a preexisting structure or trait inherited from an ancestor evolves a different function. It was the term used by Julian Huxley and Ernst Mayr. The term 'pre-' does not mean any foresight, it just means the adaptation was already available, serving some older function. 'Exaptation' was Stephen J. Gould's word.

paragraphs: One example of preadaptation is in dinosaurs, which evolved feathers with the function of thermo-insulation and display long before they were used for flight by early birds. Sweat glands in mammals were later transformed into mammary glands. Another example is the long journey of the mammalian ear ossicles, which started in the gill covers of ancient fish, then became part of the lower jaw of reptiles, and then became part of the inner ear of mammals. Another example is the wings of penguins. Once used for flying, they are now used for 'flying' under water.

paragraphs: Change of function in organs and structures is extremely common in evolution. Many of the features of tetrapods (land vertebrates) evolved from features with different functions in the ancestral lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii).

paragraphs: The following definitions are mainly due to Theodosius Dobzhansky.


title: Amaranth (color)

paragraphs: Amaranth is a rose-red color that is the color of the flower of the amaranth plant.

paragraphs: The first written use of "amaranth" as a color name in English was in 1690.

paragraphs: The name "amaranth" comes from the Greek "a" (not) + "marainean" (to waste away). A flower that never died that was believed to grow on Mount Olympus.

paragraphs: Amaranth flowers come in many different colors:


title: Cobra Starship

paragraphs: Cobra Starship was an American alternative dance band. The group started in 2005 in New York City. They are most famous for their songs "Snakes on a Plane (Bring It)" and "Good Girls Go Bad". They are currently signed to record label Fueled by Ramen.

paragraphs: Cobra Starship officially dissolved on November 10, 2015.


title: San Felipe de Puerto Plata

paragraphs: The Dominican city of San Felipe de Puerto Plata, usually called just Puerto Plata is the head municipality of the Puerto Plata province, on the north (Atlantic) coast of the country.

paragraphs: The name Puerto Plata ("Silver Port") came from the name given by Columbus to the mountain just to the south of the city: "Monte de Plata" ("Silver Mountain") because the mountain always had clouds on its top and not because there was the metal silver; that mountain now is called Isabel de Torres mountain (in Spanish, the complete name is "Loma Isabel de Torres"). Isabel de Torres was a lady who lived in Puerto Plata in 1605 and had a lot of land in the mountain.

paragraphs: The city was called first "Puerto de Plata" but later it was changed to just "Puerto Plata", the name that is still used

paragraphs: Columbus visited the Puerto Plata Bay on 11 January 1493. The city was founded and built by Nicolás de Ovando in 1502. Soon it became the most important port in the northern coast of the Hispaniola island and, in 1508, the king of Spain gave a coat of arms to the city.

paragraphs: Because there were many pirates and other British and French ships along the northern coast of the island, a fort was built here by orders of Carlos I, king of Spain; its construction took several years and it was finished in 1577. Because at that moment the Spanish's king was Felipe II, the fort was named Fuerte San Felipe (in English, "Saint Phillip Fort").

paragraphs: In 1606, those that were living in the towns of Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi were ordered by the Spanish king to move to the southeast of the island and to found a new town: Monte Plata. Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi were, then, destroyed. They were founded again in the 18th century with families that came from the Canary Islands.

paragraphs: The municipality had, in , a total population of 128,240: 63,564 men and 64,676 women. The urban population was of the total population.

paragraphs: San Felipe de Puerto Plata has a total area of (without including its municipal districts), about of the total area of the province of Puerto Plata. The city is at an elevation of , and at to the north of Santo Domingo.

paragraphs: The "Cordillera Septentrional" ("Northern mountain range") runs along the southern half of the municipality. There are only two roads that go through this mountain range. It rains a lot in these mountains.

paragraphs: The mountain "Loma Isabel de Torres" (the "Monte de Plata" of Columbus) is at about to the southeast of the city of Puerto Plata. It stands alone even if it is part of the Cordillera Septentrional. On top of the mountain, there is rainforest because it gets a lot of rain there; it rains almost every day. That forest is now a national park. It is high and there are two ways for getting to the top: by road or by a cable car (a type of car that runs on cables above the car).

paragraphs: There are many rivers in the municipality but, because the Cordillera Septentrional is close to the coast, they are all very short. The two most important rivers are Camú del Norte and Yásica. Two small rivers that are close to the city are San Marcos and Muñoz.

paragraphs: There are some bays along the coast. Two of them are the "Puerto Plata Bay" and "Maimón Bay".

paragraphs: Puerto Plata has a tropical wet climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: Af) with no dry or cold season as it is constantly moist (rainfalls during the whole year).

paragraphs: The average amount of rainfall for the year in the city is . The month with the most precipitation on average is December with of rainfall, followed by November with .

paragraphs: The driest season is summer. The month with the least rainfall on average is July with an average of and the second is June with .

paragraphs: Puerto Plata is in a warm region; the average temperature for the year is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is February, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The municipality of San Felipe de Puerto Plata has two municipal districts:


title: North Cascades

paragraphs: The North Cascades are a name used for the mountains at the north end of the Cascade Range, south of Canada. The North Cascades are entirely in the United States, in the state of Washington. At the Canadian border, the North Cascades are called the Canadian Cascades. The highest point in the North Cascades is Mount Baker (10,781 ft/3,286m). North Cascades National Park is located at the northernmost end of the North Cascades.

paragraphs: Some of the primary rivers in the North Cascades are the Skagit, Nooksack, Stillaguamish, and Stehekin. Lake Chelan is the largest lake in the North Cascades. Although now termed a reservoir, it was originally a natural lake, but enlarged by a dam. The urban areas of Seattle, Tacoma and Everett are all west of the North Cascades. The Columbia River, Washington's largest river, forms the east and south boundary.