title: Canon (music)

paragraphs: A canon is a piece of voices (or instrumental parts) that sing or play the same music starting at different times. A round is a type of canon, but in a round each voice, when it finishes, can start at the beginning again so that the piece can go “round and round”. Perhaps the most well-known canon is the Pachelbel Canon written by Johann Pachelbel.

paragraphs: There are different kinds of canon. Canons can be described according to distances between the entries of the voices. If the second voice starts one bar (one measure) after the first voice, this is called a “canon at the bar”. If it starts after only half a bar, it is called a “canon at the half-bar”. It is even possible to have very close canons, e.g. “canon at the quaver (eighth note)”. Olivier Messiaen wrote a 3 part canon at the quaver in his ""' for violin and piano. The pianist’s right hand (playing chords), his left hand and the violinist are the three parts.

paragraphs: Canons can also be described according to the intervals between two voices. If one voice starts on a C and the next voice starts the same tune on an F above this is a “canon at the fourth” (because the interval (distance) from C to F is called a “perfect fourth”). If the second voice has the tune upside down (inversion) this is called “canon in inversion”. If the second voice has the tune at half the speed (each note being twice as long) this is a “canon in augmentation” or an “augmented canon”. The opposite is a “canon in diminution”.

paragraphs: “Strict canon” means a canon where each voice imitates the first voice exactly all the way through the piece. If this does not happen (i.e. if it starts off as a canon but then becomes freer) it is “free canon”. A canon may start off sounding like a fugue, but fugues have their own form and rules.

paragraphs: Canons were already popular in the 14th century when composers enjoyed writing music for several voices in which each voice has a share of melody (this is called polyphonic music.) Composers like Guillaume de Machaut wrote canonic music. His "Sanz cuer m’en vois" is a three-part canon in which each part has different words.

paragraphs: Probably the greatest writer of canons in the eighteenth century was Johann Sebastian Bach. Many of his organ works have canons. He wrote a famous set of "Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her"" which have several canons at different intervals and inversions. He probably wrote this to show young composers how to write good canons. Bach also wrote a work called the "Musical Offering" which has what he calls a “canon per augmentationem contrario motu” (canon in augmentation and contrary motion i.e. backwards) as well as a “canon per tonos”. This last one is a modulating canon which means that the tune changes key. This is hard to compose well so that it sounds good because when the first voice has just changed key the other one is still catching up in the other key.

paragraphs: Bach was a great master at writing canons and other very complicated musical forms. After 1750 composers became less interested in writing music which was all polyphonic, although many composers still showed an interest in counterpoint. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote canons and even Romantic composers like Schumann and Brahms showed an interest. César Franck wrote a canon for the fourth movement of his Sonata for Violin and Piano. It is quite easy to hear this canon, because the violin plays the tune an octave higher than the piano, and the piano holds on to a long note every other bar while the violin catches up.

paragraphs: In the 20th century composers such as Schoenberg who wrote serial music were fond of canons. Modern composers like Pierre Boulez have written rhythmic canons: canons in which, for example, the rhythm of one part is the retrograde (backwards) version of another.


title: Spencer Perceval

paragraphs: Spencer Perceval (1 November 1762 – 11 May 1812) was a British statesman and Prime Minister. He is the only British Prime Minister to have been assassinated.

paragraphs: Perceval was the seventh son of John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont by his second wife. His father, a close friend of Frederick, Prince of Wales and King George III, had served in the Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty.

paragraphs: Perceval was Prime Minister when William Wilberforce passed his Bill (law) ending the slave trade.

paragraphs: The Orders in Council against trade which Perceval had written in 1807 became unpopular. In the winter of 1811 the Luddite riots started. They were also a cause of the War of 1812 with the United States of America. Perceval was forced to have an inquiry by the House of Commons.

paragraphs: On 11 May 1812, Perceval was on his way to attend the inquiry. In the lobby of the House of Commons he was shot through the heart by John Bellingham. Perceval's body lay in 10 Downing Street for five days before burial. Bellingham gave himself up immediately. Tried for murder, he was found guilty and hanged a week later.

paragraphs: Bellingham had a grievance, but it was not political. Bellingham petitioned the United Kingdom government for compensation over his imprisonment in Russia. This had been caused by his employer, but Bellingham blamed the British government for not getting him compensation.

paragraphs: Perceval was an Anglican and considered Anglicanism to be essential to the security of the state. He opposed Catholic emancipation. He is buried at St Luke's Church in Charlton, south-east London.


Canon


title: Carl Linnaeus

paragraphs: Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778) was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who created the binomial nomenclature. In this system, every kind of animal and plant is given a name consisting of two Latin words, for its genus and species. This became used by biologists all over the world, so he is known as the "father of modern taxonomy". He was a good linguist, and famous in his time. He was made a noble by the Swedish king.

paragraphs: Carl was born in Sweden. He was going to be a priest, but did not do well enough in school for that. Instead, Carl studied at a college for botany because he liked it. He studied in Lund and tried to improve the garden there. He later went to another college..

paragraphs: In 1735, Linnaeus moved to the Netherlands for three years. There, he earned his degree in medicine. He also published his book on plant classification. His book was called Systema Naturæ. His book explained how to classify living things by putting them into groups. Some of these groups are bigger than others.

paragraphs: Later he moved to Stockholm and practiced as a doctor. In 1739, Linnaeus married Sara Morea in Stockholm. Throughout the 1740s he conducted many field trips to places in Sweden to name plants and animals. When not on travels, Linnaeus worked on his classification, so it would work for plants, animals, and minerals.

paragraphs: The Swedish king Adolf Fredrik made Linnaeus a noble in 1757, and Linnaeus took the last name "von Linné", later often signing just "Carl Linné".

paragraphs: After he was made a noble, he continued teaching and writing. His reputation had spread over the world, and he talked with many different people. Linnaeus was upset by weak health, and he had gout and tooth aches. A stroke in 1774 weakened him, and two years later he had another, losing the use of his right side. He died on January 1778 and was buried in Uppsala cathedral.

paragraphs: Linnaeus classified man as among the primates, which was already well understood by anthropologists like Blumenbach and natural historians like Buffon. It attracted the criticism of the Swedish church. The Lutheran Archbishop of Uppsala accused him of "impiety".

paragraphs: Linnaeus recognised four races in the human species. These were European whites, American reds (Native Americans), Asian browns, and African blacks. Blumenbach's classification was similar, with the addition of a Mongolian (= Chinese) or yellow race. Thus recognition of man's position as a primate and the existence of races was quite widespread before the theory of evolution was formulated.


title: Botanist

paragraphs: Botanists are scientists who study plants, including flowering plants, and plant-like things such as moss and seaweed. Botany is a scientific study of plants along with their growth, structure, evolution, and uses.

paragraphs: Botanists may specialize in certain areas of botany. Some important areas of study include:


title: Modulation (music)

paragraphs: Modulation, in music, means that the music changes key. A piece of music might, for example, be "in the key of C major" (meaning that it uses the notes of a C major scale, and the C sounds like the "home key" or "tonic" as it is called in music theory). Then it could modulate to G major so that the G now feels like the home key and the notes of a G major scale are used (the Fs will be F sharps).

paragraphs: Modulations like the one above are very common, because G is closely related to C (it is the 5th note in a C major scale: the "dominant"). A modulation to the subdominant (4th note of the scale) is also common (e.g. from C major to Fmajor). Music often modulates to the relative minor (e.g. C major to A minor).

paragraphs: A modulation that goes to a key whose tonic is not part of the original key is called a "chromatic modulation". Modulating from C major to A flat major would be a chromatic modulation because A flat is not a note in the C major scale.

paragraphs: Most pieces of music will modulate, especially if they are long pieces. It gives the music variety and helps to give it shape: the farther away from the tonic it goes the more tension there is. When the music eventually returns to the original key it feels like a homecoming.


title: Member of parliament

paragraphs: A member of parliament (usually abbreviated to MP) is a person in the United Kingdom or in Canada who represents the people of an area (called a "constituency") in the House of Commons. They are voted for by the people in a general election. The Prime Minister chooses when to hold a general election, but must have an election at least once every five years. MPs are usually members of a group called a political party.

paragraphs: In the UK, the main political parties are:

paragraphs: In Canada, the main political parties are:

paragraphs: Members of provincial legislatures in Canada are sometimes referred to as member of provincial parliament (MPP) and other times member of legislative assembly (MLA).


title: Relative key

paragraphs: When a piece of music is in a major key, the relative minor means the minor key which has the same key signature. It can be found by taking the sixth note of the first scale and playing a minor scale starting on that note. For example: in C major the sixth note is an A. Therefore, A minor is the relative minor of C major (C major and A minor share the same key signature: no sharps or flats).

paragraphs: C major is called the relative major of A minor.

paragraphs: A complete list of relative minor/major pairs in order of the circle of fifths is:


title: Electrolysis

paragraphs: Electrolysis is a scientific way of 'splitting' substances. Electrolysis means 'electric-splitting' and involves the separation of substances through an electric current.

paragraphs: Metals above carbon in the reactivity series (potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium) are extracted by electrolysis.

paragraphs: Electrolysis is used in the mining industry to split reactive metals from their ores after they are taken from the ground. Electroplating is also used to plate (cover) things with metal because it costs less than using, for example, solid gold to make jewellery.

paragraphs: Many beauty shops use electrolysis or electrology to remove hair. This is done by "electrocuting" the hair so it splits along its root.

paragraphs: Electrolysis makes the anions (negative ions) go to the anode (positive electrode) and the cations (positive ions) go to the cathode (negative electrode). So, for example, oxygen would go to the anode and iron would go to the cathode.


title: Jurassic

paragraphs: The Jurassic is the second geological period in the Mesozoic era. It began 201.3 million years ago, and ended 145 million years ago. The Jurassic period happened between the Triassic and Cretaceous periods.

paragraphs: During the Jurassic period, the climate was hotter and wetter than it is today. Carbon dioxide levels and sea levels were also higher than today.

paragraphs: The Kimmeridge Clay of the Upper Jurassic was laid down in an environment which does not exist on the earth today. Much of Western Europe was covered by a high sea level. The supercontinent Pangaea was beginning to break up, causing a narrow Atlantic Ocean. Because of this, the United Kingdom was covered by a shallow and largely anoxic sea, perhaps less than 100 metres deep, with occasional landmasses.

paragraphs: This was shallower water than the Blue Lias of the Lower Jurassic. It was often low in oxygen, which caused its organic material to decompose, but only partially. The Jurassic's mudstones are organic-rich, and gave rise to most of the North Sea oil.

paragraphs: During the early or Lower Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana. This was the start of the break-up of Pangaea, a process which took a long time to complete. The process of pulling apart in geology is called rifting.

paragraphs: Floods of lava flowed from fissures (splits) and volcanos. By the end of the Jurassic, South America had begun to part from Africa. In the western part of North America, mountain ranges began to form. This continued as the American tectonic plates gradually moved west. The westward-moving North American plates gradually rode over the Pacific Ocean plates to form the Rocky Mountains.

paragraphs: On sea and land, evolutionary trends which started in the Upper Triassic continued through the Jurassic. Archosaurian reptiles dominated the land biota. Reptile groups radiated and filled many niches. Dinosaurs, pterosaurs, marine reptiles (Ichthyosaurs, Plesiosaurs, turtles) all flourished.

paragraphs: Amongst Invertebrates, there was much change. Modern predators like starfish, crabs, and hole-boring gastropods took over the sea floor, eating the benthic fauna in huge numbers. Brachiopods lost their grip on the in-shore habitats; molluscan bivalves took their place.

paragraphs: Early mammals existed, but mostly as small creatures living in burrows, on the margins of a reptilian world. The first fossils of small dinosaurs with feathers, called "Anchiornis," come from the Jurassic period. The first fossil bird, "Archaeopteryx", comes from the Upper Jurassic.

paragraphs: The dominant land plants were the gymnosperms (conifers). Ferns, large horsetails,'monkey puzzle' trees, ginkgos and cycads were common. These trees were not easy to digest, compared to modern flowering plant trees (Angiosperms). They must have spent longer in the gut than the food of modern herbivores. That would make increased size an advantage for sauropods, which did indeed become much larger in the Jurassic than any any land life had before.


title: Triassic

paragraphs: The Triassic is the first geological period in the Mesozoic era. It lasted 50.6 million years. The period began 251.9 million years ago, and ended 201.3 million years ago.

paragraphs: The period before the Triassic was the Permian period, the last period in the Palaeozoic era. The Jurassic period came after the Triassic.

paragraphs: Many new groups arose during the Triassic period, including the dinosaurs and the first mammals.

paragraphs: Great extinction events happened at both the beginning and end of the Triassic period. The Triassic began after the great extinction at the end of the Palaeozoic era, the Permian/Triassic extinction event. Nobody really knows the exact cause of the Permian/Triassic extinction, but many experts have different theories. Generally, experts agree that many things caused the extinction.

paragraphs: The Triassic had several more extinction events, whose causes are also unknown. The most significant of these took place at the end of the Triassic, which was one of the 'big five' Phanerozoic marine extinctions.

paragraphs: The name 'Triassic' comes from the three rock strata that formed during the Triassic period ("tri" means "three"). Three layers of rock strata formed during this period:

paragraphs: On average, the Triassic's climate was very different from today's:

paragraphs: During the Triassic period, there were no separate continents like there are today. Almost all the Earth's land mass was together in a single supercontinent called Pangaea ("all the land"). Pangaea was centered more or less on the equator. All the deep-ocean sediments (the things that settled at the bottom of the ocean) had disappeared. This happened because oceanic plates moved sideways and downward until they were finally on top of each other, or under each other.

paragraphs: The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic – especially late in the period – but had not yet separated into different continents.

paragraphs: Being a super-continental land mass, Pangaea had limited shoreline. Because of this, Triassic marine deposits fossils from Triassic ocean life are rare in most of the world. In North America, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west. However, they are common in Western Europe, where the Triassic was first studied.

paragraphs: The first part of the Triassic had much less variety than the Permian, and showed signs of a deteriorated environment. This situation lasted for about 5 million years, then steadily improved. Into the vacant ecological niches, new forms evolved, replacing old with new. This rapid adaptive radiation happened to the reptiles on land, the fish in the seas, and a number of other groups, like the insects. Diverse communities with complex ecology took 30 million years to re-establish.

paragraphs: The group of bony fish known as the teleosts first appeared during the Triassic period. The group now includes over 80% of all fish and 95% of all bony fish. The only other common group of fish are the Chondrichthyes (the sharks and rays). The rays also appeared during the Triassic.

paragraphs: Many reptile groups first appeared during the Triassic period, possibly because so many niches were vacant at the time. Some of these new groups died out in the End–Triassic extinction event, but those that survived ruled the Earth for the rest of the Mesozoic. Examples include:

paragraphs: This was a major change, because in the middle Triassic period, the Synapsids (mammals' ancestors) were still dominant.

paragraphs: Many reptile groups became extinct during the Triassic, including:

paragraphs: Also, amongst the Synapsids (which used to be called mammal-like reptiles), the Dicynodonts died out during the end-Triassic extinction.

paragraphs: The Triassic was a period of great change in tetrapods: many new and important groups appeared, but many others became extinct. Of all the periods in the Mesozoic era, there are the least number of fossils from the Triassic period. This makes it difficult for scientists to explain these events.


title: Chromatic

paragraphs: A chromatic scale is a musical scale which uses every note as it goes up or down i.e. it goes up and down in semitones (half tones). To play a chromatic scale on the piano every note is played: both white and black notes (e.g. C, C sharp, D, D sharp, E, F etc.). A chromatic scale can start on any note.

paragraphs: The word “chromatic” comes from the Greek word “chromos” meaning “color”. Organists in the 16th and 17th centuries such as Sweelinck liked to write “Chromatic Fantasias”. These were pieces based on tunes which were chromatic. In those days, because of the tuning systems used, not all the semitones were exactly the same size. Going up a chromatic scale would have been like walking up a staircase with steps which were slightly larger or smaller in depth. This made chromatic scales very interesting and “colourful” which is why they were called “chromatic”.

paragraphs: Chromatic harmony means harmony (chords) which use notes which do not belong to the key the music is in (they are not in the key signature). Although Bach in the 18th century used chromatic harmony it was the 19th century composers who used it more and more. Wagner wrote music which was very chromatic: there were lots of sharps and flats and it kept modulating to different key areas. The chord at the beginning of his opera "Tristan and Isolde" is so famous that it is known as the "Tristan chord". It is very chromatic. The music is full of tension because it leaves us wondering which key the music is in.


title: Nelson Rockefeller

paragraphs: Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller (July 8, 1908 – January 26, 1979) was a liberal Republican American politician and businessman. He was from one of the richest and most powerful families in the United States.

paragraphs: His paternal grandfather was John D. Rockefeller Sr. His maternal grandfather was United States Senator Nelson Aldrich of Rhode Island. He was the son of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and Abby Aldrich. He was Governor of New York from 1959 to 1973. He was the brother of David Rockefeller, chairman of Chase Bank, Winthrop, later Governor of Arkansas, John III, and Laurance. He is the uncle of former Senator John D. Rockefeller IV.

paragraphs: He was married twice. His first was to Mary Todhunter Clark until they divorced. His second was to Margaretta Fitler Murphy until his death from a heart attack.

paragraphs: He tried three times to gain his party's nomination for the United States presidency but lost to the slightly more conservative Vice President and future President Richard Nixon in 1960 and 1968 and conservative Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona in 1964. He refused to support Goldwater in the general election after losing to him, which Nixon condemned him for and used to argue that Rockefeller was not a loyal Republican. He was Vice-President from 1974-1977 under Gerald Ford. He waged a campaign against future President George Bush to be appointed to that office. He won. He was a member of the Republican Party. He was in Knights of Pythias.


title: Preservation

paragraphs:
Preservation may mean:
Special meanings are:


title: Pillar

paragraphs: A pillar is another word for a column, which is a vertical support structure in architecture.


title: Bier

paragraphs: A bier is a flat frame, traditionally wooden but sometimes made of other materials, used to carry a corpse for burial in a funeral procession. In antiquity it was often simply a wooden board on which the dead was placed covered with a shroud (cloth used for burial). In modern times, however, the corpse is almost never carried on the bier without being first placed in a coffin, though the coffin is sometimes kept open.


title: Coffin

paragraphs: A coffin (also known as a casket) is a box used to keep dead bodies, either for burial or after cremation.

paragraphs: The word comes ultimately from Greek "kophinos", a basket. In English, the word was not used in a funeral sense until the 1500s.

paragraphs: Any box used to bury the dead in is a coffin.

paragraphs: The main distinction between a coffin and a casket is the shape. A casket regularly has 6 – 8 sides while coffins have a rectangular shape.


title: Agent Orange

paragraphs: Agent Orange is a very powerful herbicide that was used in the Vietnam War. It is a defoliant that destroys forests. It was used by the United States military so their enemies had no place to hide.

paragraphs: The problem with Agent Orange is that when it is released, some dioxins are also generated. Dioxins stay a long time in the environment. They are very toxic, and cause genetic modifications and cancer.


title: Naruto (manga)

paragraphs: Twelve years ago, a spiritual Nine-Tail fox attacked the Hidden Leaf Village, Minato Namikaze and Kushina Uzumaki sacrificed themselves to seal the monster within a boy named Naruto. Nobody told Naruto that the fox was sealed inside him. The villagers treated him badly because of the monster. When Naruto found out the truth, it made him want to become the next Hokage and earn everyone's respect. After graduating from being a genin, Naruto joined Team 7. The members of Team 7 were Naruto, Sasuke Uchiha, Sakura Haruno and their teacher Kakashi Hatake. They defeated Zabuza and Haku in the Land of Waves. Orochimaru interrupted the Chunin Exam, killing the Third Hokage and Fourth Kazekage. Orochimaru tricked the army of the Hidden Sand into opposing the Leaf. Jiraiya trained Naruto, while Tsunade became the Fifth Hokage. Sasuke left the village and looked for revenge against Itachi. Naruto defeated five enemies from the Land of Sound through the forest, but he failed to stop Sasuke from joining up with Orochimaru.

paragraphs: Two and a half years later, Naruto recruited Sai and Yamato. The Akatsuki organization started kidnapping ninja hosts. Sasuke formed a tracking party and defeated Itachi. Then he became stronger and joined Akatsuki. Naruto learned Sage Mode. He defeated Nagato for killing Jiraiya and devastating the village, even though he became good. Tobi interrupted the meeting and declared the Fourth Great Ninja War. He had a plan to reform the legendary Ten Tails from the nine tailed beasts. That would control humanity and achieve world peace. After learning Chakra Mode with the fox spirit, Naruto helped the Allied Shinobi Forces defeat the army of White Zetsu. Tobi was revealed to be Obito, who kept the power of the eyes containing the Rinnegan and Sharingan.

paragraphs: When Madara came back to life and stole Obito's half of the power, he turned into the Sage of Six Paths. He used the power of the forbidden art to trap everyone in the Ninja World (except Naruto, Sasuke, Sakura, Kakashi, Obito and other dead ninjas). Black Zetsu fused with Madara to complete the reincarnation. That freed Kaguya Otsutsuki to take his place. In the past, Kaguya's son, Hagoromo, had trained Ashura and Indra. Ashura and Indra were the first incarnations who came before Naruto and Sasuke. After Kaguya killed Obito, Kakashi sacrificed his power. Naruto and Sasuke worked together to seal Kaguya and Zetsu, and Madara died again. When Sasuke used the forbidden genjutsu, Naruto defeated and spared him. The world was peaceful and all the spiritual beasts were freed from Kaguya. Kakashi became Sixth Hokage. Sasuke realized his mistake, disabled the genjutsu, and forgave everyone.

paragraphs: Years later, Naruto became the Seventh Hokage. He married Hinata Huyga. They had two children. Their daughter was named Himawari, and their son was named Boruto. Boruto has a special eye and body mark. Boruto makes a new Team 7 with Konohamaru Sarutobi, Sasuke and Sakura's daughter Sarada, and Orochimaru's artificial son Mitsuki. Boruto helped Naruto and Sasuke defeat the two clansmen. Boruto learned that the new enemy group called "Kara" are using their own marks. Kawaki was taken to the Leaf Village and adopted by Naruto's family.

paragraphs: This is where a beginner learns to be a ninja.

paragraphs: Basically meaning lower ninja. Rank of missions they are sent to: D and C.

paragraphs: Basically meaning middle ninja. Rank of missions they were sent to: C and B.

paragraphs: Basically meaning high ninja. Rank of missions they were sent to: B, A, and S rank.

paragraphs: They are like ninja black ops and are assassins. They serve the village's Kage.

paragraphs: The main character of the series. The series is named after him. Naruto is a member of Team 7 and the Jinchuriki of Kurama the Nine Tails. He wants to become Hokage to gain the villagers' respect and protect everyone. Over the course of the series, readers find out he is descended from Asura Otsutsuki. He got his chakra and stamina from Asura Otsutsuki. Naruto befriends many foreign and Konoha people and helps them so much that he becomes famous. Naruto eventually completes his dream of becoming Hokage. He starts a family with Hinata Hyuga and has two children, Boruto and Himawari.

paragraphs: The second main character of the series. He is a Team 7 member and a surviving member of the Uchiha clan, a powerful ninja clan descended from Indra Otsutsuki known for their Sharingan eyes. Sasuke's only wish is to avenge his clan. That made him turn on the Hidden Leaf once he learned the truth until the Fourth Great Ninja War. By the events of the "Boruto", he lost his arm. Sasuke started investigating the Otsutsuki clan's influence on the world while helping Konohagakure.

paragraphs: One of Naruto's friends and a female member of Team 7, serving as the group's medic ninja after being trained by Tsunade. Sakura was initially infatuated with Sasuke while resentful to Naruto, gradually seeing the latter as a friend while eventually marrying Sasuke and raising their daughter Sarada.

paragraphs: The leader and sensei of Team 7/Team Kakashi. Kakashi was a student of Naruto's father's Minato. He got a sharigan from his teammate Obito Uchiha. After the Fourth Great Ninja War, Kakashi became the Sixth Hokage and ruled Konoha for many years. Then he retired so Naruto could be Hokage.

paragraphs: A ninja who takes Sasuke's place in Team Kakashi in Part II. Sai can bring his drawings to life. The Foundatin's overseer, Danzo Shimura, raised him to have no emotions. Sai begins becoming more social as he, Naruto and Sakura become friends. At the end of the series, Sai marries into the Yamanaka and raises his son Inojin with his wife Ino.

paragraphs: A ANBU member who becomes a secondary leader in Team Kakashi. Yamato lost his original identity when Orochimaru experimented on him as a child to recreate Hashirama's wood style. Because he has Hashirama's cells, Yamato helps to stop the Nine Tails whenever Naruto is about to be consumed.

paragraphs: A teacher at the Ninja Academy. He lost his parents to Kurama as a child. That made him feel awkward about being Naruto's teacher. Iruka is the first person to acknowledge Naruto. He becomes a father-figure to the boy.

paragraphs: The grandson of Third Hokage who looks to Naruto as a mentor in this quest to become Hokage, emulating his work ethic, determination, and signature jutsu such as the Rasengan and the Sexy Jutsu among a variety of other techniques. Konohamaru insists, however, that he will only become Hokage after Naruto has been Hokage first. By the events of the series epilogue, Konohamaru has ascended to the rank of jonin and become a mentor to Naruto's son Boruto.

paragraphs: One of Naruto's friends and a member of the Hyuga clan. She is a powerful ninja clan descended from Hamura Otsutsuki. The Otsutsuki are known for their Byakugan eyes. Hinata was the first daughter of the main house, but because she was shy and couldn't stand up for herself, her father Hiashi disowned her. She was replaced by her younger sister Hanabi. Afterwards, Kurenai Yuhi cared for Hinata. She became Yuhi's gennin student with Kiba Inuzaka and Shino Abarame. They became members of Team 8. Hinata started to like Naruto. His determination made her feel more confident. In the last episode, she told him she loved him. Hinata and Naruto got married and had two children.

paragraphs: They were known as Team 10. The members are Third Hokage's son Asama Sarutobi and his three students, Shikamaru Nara, Sakura's rival Ino Yamanaka, and Choji Akimichi. Shikamaru and his friends are also called "Ino-Shika-Cho." Their clans being close allies. During Part II, Asuma was killed by the Akatsuki member Hidan. Shikamaru avenged his mentor and became the group's leader. At the end of the series, Shikamaru kept his promise to take care of Asuma's daughter Mirai Sarutobi. Shikamaru and his friends each got married. They raised their children Shikadai Nara, Chocho Akimichi, and Inojin Yamanaka to be the next "Ino-Shika-Cho" group.

paragraphs: A ninja team made of Kakashi's rival Might Guy and his three students Rock Lee, Hinata's cousin Neja Hyuga, and Tenten. They are a year older than the other Hidden Leaf gennin. Guy wanted to wait a year before they could take the test to advance in ninja rank and become Chunin. Neji sacrificed himself to save Naruto and Hinata. Guy was hurt during his ultimate attack and had to retire early.

paragraphs: Naruto's mentor and one of the Three Legendary Sannin. The Three Legendary Sannin were the students of the Third Hokage who survived the Hidden Rain's Hanzo of the Salamander in battle. Jiraiya is also known as the "Toad Sage" for having learned Sage jutsu from the Roads of Mt. Myobu. He was told by the elder that his student will become a savior of the world. Naruto calls him "pervy sage" because he wrote romance novels. He also wrote the epic "Tale of the Gutsy Ninja" with Naruto. During Part I, took Naruto as his student. In Part II, he left to investigate the Akatsuki. He found out it was led by his former student Nagato. Jiraiya died fighting to give the Hidden Leaf a chance against Nagato. He believed Naruto is the child of the Elder Toad's prophecy.

paragraphs: The term Hokage refers to the title of the leader of Konohagakure. There are seven in total through the series. Their pictures are carved into the rock formation over Konohagakure.

paragraphs: A Hidden Leaf resident. He is the leader of the Foundation. The Foundation is a secret organization that takes care of security. His goal is to become Hokage. He thought Hiruzen and his followers were weak. Danzo caused many bad things like the Uchiha Massacre. He had Orochimaru add Sharingan eyes and Hashirama's cells to him. When Tsunade was in a coma, Danzo was Acting Candidate Sixth Hokage. Sasuke killed him. After he died, the Foundation fell apart at the end of the Fourth Great Ninja War.

paragraphs: One of Naruto's first opponents. He was a member of Hidden Mist's Seven Swordsmen of the Mist, a group of ninja that use particularly large swords in battle. He killed his whole class as part of a graduation ritual. Zabuza has a large sword called the Executioner's Blade. The Executioner's Blade can repair itself by absorbing the iron from blood. Zabuza had an apprentice named Haku. Haku could use the Ice-Style Kekkei Genkai. Zabuza and Haku became rogue ninja after trying to take over the Fourth Mizukage. They worked for a crime boss named Gato to get money to try again. Zabuza died after he was betrayed by Gato. Kabu brought Zabuza and Haku back to life.

paragraphs: A criminal who served as the principal villain of Part I. He was Hiruzen's student. Orochimaru joined the Akatsuki and worked with Danzo. Orochimaru wanted to live forever so he could learn every jutsu. He did experiments on other ninja. Then he made his own ninja village, the Hidden Sound Village. He used the village to experiment on people and make an army. He wanted to use the army to destroy Konoha. To live forever, he changes his mind to different bodies every few years. He wanted to use Sasuke's body to live in. After the end of part II, Orochimaru stopped fighting Konoha. He made Mitsuki instead. Yamato watched him.

paragraphs: Orochimaru's right hand and spy. He is good at medical ninjutsu and can manipulate cells. Kabuto was initially a Foundation spy. He had no memory of his past. Orochimaru helped Kabuto when Danzo did not trust him. Kabuto used his skills to spy on people for Orochimaru. After Orochimaru was defeated, Kabuto decided to master Snake Sage jutsu. He put some of Orochimaru's remains into his body. He also added DNA samples of Sound Five, Jugo, Suigetsu, and Karin. Kabuto perfected the Reanimation Jutsu. He made Tobi work with him as payment for his surfaces. Kabuto was defeated, but he saved Sasuke. After the war Kabuto returned to run the orphanage he was raised in with his adopted brother Urushi.

paragraphs: A rogue Hidden Leaf ninja. He joined the Akatsuki after slaughtering his clan. He was shown as a villain. After he died, Itachi was shown to be loyal to the Hidden Leaf. He only killed his family because they tried to take over when Danzo and Tobi told them to. Itachi joined Akatsuki after they agreed to keep Sasuke alive. He planned to have Sasuke kill him. Itachi secretly stayed loyal to the Hidden Leaf by secretly spying on the Akatsuki. He was Kisame's partner..

paragraphs: The main enemy of the second part of the series. It was founded by Jiraiya's students Yahiko, Nagato and Konan as a peacekeeping group in the Hidden Rain. Danzo and Tobi made it change to paid fighters made of rogue ninja. Nagato became a leader. The Akatsuki's new goal was to make everyone understand suffering so that there would be peace. They acted on Madara's Project Moon's Eye to feed the tailed beasts to the Gedo Statue. They used an Infinite Tsukiyomi to control all people.

paragraphs: Also known a Tobi. He is the Akatsuki's true leader. He is the main enemy for most of Part II. He was a child during the Third Great Ninja War. He gave his left eye to his teammate Kakashi when he looke like he was about to ddie.When he looked like he was going to diee, Obito was saved by Madara. Madara replaced the damaged parts of his body with Zetsu prosthetics. Obito became Madara's student. Madara made Obitsu watch Kakashi kill Rin Noharu. Obito decided he would use the Tailed Beasts to destroy reality. He wanted to create a perfect world. Obito took Madara's name. He controlled things that led to the creation of the Akatsuki. He also controlled things that led to the Nine Tails' attack on the Hidden Leaf Village. He was angry at his former mentor, Minato. With his Sharingan, Obito can make it seem like he cannot be touched. He can teleport a long way. He can also use Wood Style attacks because he has Hashirama's cells. After Obito is defeated, he gets back the sharingan he gave Kakashi. Then he died to protect team 7 from Kaguya. He helped Kakashi in spirit.

paragraphs: One of two people who started Hidden Leaf Village. The other was Madara's childhood friend Hashirama Senju. Madara and Hashirama are reincarnations of the founding ancestors, Indra and Asura. Sasuke and Naruto are also reincarnations of Indra and Asura. Madara does not like the Senju because they killed his brothers during the Warring States Period. He makes peace with Hashirama, but then turns against him again. Madara tried to destroy the Hidden Leaf Village with the Nine Tails jutsu. Hashirama stopped him, and Madara faked his death. Madara used Hashirama's blood for his Rinnegan. He summoned the Gedo statue to keep himself alive. He finally died after getting Obito Uchiha to work for him. He gave his Rinnegan to Nagato so that he could be brought back from the dead later. After some time, Madara came back from the dead and turned himself into the Ten Tails jinchuriki. He tried to finish his plan, but Black Zetsu betrayed him. Madara became a vessel for Kaguya. When Kaguya was resealed, Madara was close to dying. He finally made peace with Hashirama and then died for good.

paragraphs: The main enemy of the "Naruto" series. Kaguya was a member of the main family of the Otsutsuki clan. The Otsutsuki clan were a race of alien ninja whose branch family's descendants include the Senju, the Uchiha, and the Hyuga. Kaguya decided to protect the world rather than feed off it like her kin. She became part of the world's Divine Tree as she worked on her ideal of world peace. Kaguya lost faith in humanity. She turned some humans into an army called trust White Zetsu. They were to defend her against other Otsutsuki. She fought with her half-human twin sons, Hagoromo and Hamura, upon learning they inherited her chakra. Kaguya became part of the Divine Tree and turned it into the Ten-Tails. When Hagoromo captured her, she was sealed in the moon. She turned into the Gedo Statue. Her chakra turned into the Nine Tailed Beasts. Before she was sealed, Kaguya made Black Zetsu. Black Zetsu would help her to come back. They would use Indra and the Uchiha Clan. Madara Uchiha would be her new vessel. Naruto and Sasuke defeated her with their team. They took out the spiritual beasts and Madara. Then they sealed Kaguya again.

paragraphs: The "Naruto" manga series has 72 volumes.

paragraphs: There are 26 light novels in Japan. There are also 13 novels in Japan.

paragraphs: In the US, there are 16 chapter books. They use pictures from the manga.

paragraphs: The manga series ran up to 72 volumes. It became one of the most popular manga and anime. Since it began, a lot of Naruto fansites (websites made by people who like it a lot) were made with detailed information, guides, forums and card games.

paragraphs: The first part aired from 2002 to 2007. There were 220 episodes. The second part aired from 2007 to 2017. It was called Naruto Shippuden. There were 500 episodes. Some episodes and anime movies for the series are not based on the manga.

paragraphs: Twelve "Naruto" original video animations (OVAs) have been released.

paragraphs: There are 11 "Naruto" movies. They follow the plot of the anime and manga.

paragraphs: There is a plan to make a live action Naruto movie.

paragraphs: There are more than 50 Naruto video games. Many of them are fighting games based on the anime or manga.

paragraphs: Websites for the game included Ninja Classic and Naruto-Arena.


title: Mobster

paragraphs: "Mobster" is a slang term for someone who is part of the mafia or a mafia-like group. A mobster is a criminal. The word " "Gangster" often means the same thing.


title: Sergio Leone

paragraphs: Sergio Leone (3 January 1929 - 30 April 1989) was an Italian movie director. He is well known for his Spaghetti Western films; particularly his "Dollars" trilogy (also known as "The Man with No Name" trilogy) starring American actor, Clint Eastwood.

paragraphs: Leone was born in Rome and died there of a heart attack.


title: Ban Ki-moon

paragraphs: Ban Ki-moon (; born 13 June 1944) is a South Korean diplomat. He was the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations from 2007 to 2016. He replaced Kofi Annan on 1 January 2007.

paragraphs: Ban was the Foreign Minister of South Korea from January 2004 to November 2006. On October 13, 2006, he was elected to be the eighth Secretary-General by the United Nations General Assembly.

paragraphs: Ban received his bachelor's degree in International Relations from Seoul National University in 1970 and earned a Master of Public Administration from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1985.

paragraphs: Ban is married, and he has a son and two daughters. His native language is Korean, but he also speaks English and French.

paragraphs: Ban met U.S. President John F. Kennedy in Washington, D.C. after winning an English language competition in the early 1960s while he was in high school. The competition was organised by the American Red Cross. He has said that it was after this meeting that he wanted to become a diplomat.

paragraphs: Ban joined the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in May 1970 and worked his way up during the years of the Yusin Constitution.

paragraphs: His first overseas posting was to New Delhi. After that, he worked in the United Nations Division at the foreign ministry's headquarters. At the time of Park Chung Hee's assassination, Ban was First Secretary at South Korea's Permanent Observer Mission to the UN in New York City (South Korea only became a full UN member state on September 17, 1991). He subsequently assumed the post of Director of the United Nations Division. He has been posted twice to the Republic of Korea (ROK) Embassy in Washington, D.C. Between these two assignments he served as Director-General for American Affairs in 1990 – 1992. He was promoted to the position of Deputy Minister for Policy Planning and International Organizations in 1995. He was then appointed National Security Advisor to the President in 1996, and assumed the office of Vice Minister in 2000. His most recent post was as Foreign Policy Advisor to the President Roh Moo-hyun.

paragraphs: While he served as Ambassador to Austria, Ban was elected as Chairman of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO PrepCom) in 1999. During the ROK's Presidency of the 56th Session of the United Nations General Assembly (GA) in 2001, he worked as Chef de Cabinet of the President of the GA.

paragraphs: Ban has been very involved in issues relating to inter-Korean relationships. In 1992, he served as Vice Chairman of the South-North Joint Nuclear Control Commission, following the adoption by South and North Korea of the Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. In September 2005, as Foreign Minister, he played a leading role in the diplomatic efforts to adopt the Joint Statement on resolving the North Korean nuclear issue at the Fourth Round of the Six-Party Talks held in Beijing.

paragraphs: In February 2006, Ban announced his candidacy to replace Kofi Annan as UN Secretary-General at the end of 2006. He was the first South Korean to run for Secretary-General. He got the most votes in each of the four straw polls conducted by the United Nations Security Council on July 24, 2006, September 14, 2006 September 28, 2006 and October 2, 2006.

paragraphs: On September 25, 2006, while these polls were taking place, Ban addressed the Asia Society in New York on his candidacy and views on major issues confronting the UN. The next day, he gave an interview to the Asia Society's "AsiaSource", where he again spoke a lot about the upcoming challenges to be faced by the UN. Earlier in the year, he had spoken to the Council on Foreign Relations in New York.

paragraphs: In an informal poll that took place on October 2, 2006, Ban received fourteen favourable votes and one "no opinion" from the fifteen members of the Security Council; the Japanese delegation the only nation that was not in full agreement. More importantly, Ban was the only one to escape a veto, while each of the five other candidates received at least one "no" vote from the five permanent members of the council — People's Republic of China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. After the vote, Shashi Tharoor, who finished second, withdrew his candidacy and China's Permanent Representative to the UN told reporters that "it is quite clear from today's straw poll that Minister Ban Ki-moon is the candidate that the Security Council will recommend to the General Assembly."

paragraphs: On October 9, 2006, the Security Council formally chose Ban as its nominee. On October 13, 2006, the 192-member General Assembly adopted a resolution, by acclamation, appointing Ban as Secretary-General.

paragraphs: In 2009 Op-Ed, Ban Ki-moon in referring to global warming stated: "All agree that climate change is an existential threat to humankind"

paragraphs: On June 21, 2011, he was re-elected for a second term as UN Secretary General by unanimous votes.

paragraphs: Ban has been awarded the Order of Service Merit twice, once in 1975, and again in 1986, by the Government of the Republic of Korea. For his accomplishments as an envoy, he received the Grand Decoration of Honour from the Republic of Austria in 2001. A year later, the government of Brazil awarded himi the Grand Cross of Rio Branco.

paragraphs: In September 2005, the Korea Society in New York honoured him with the James A. Van Fleet Award for his contributions to friendship between the United States and the Republic of Korea.


title: Italian Americans

paragraphs: An Italian American is a U.S. citizen of Italian descent. It may mean someone born in the United States with Italian parents or grandparents or someone born in Italy who moved to the United States. The largest group of Italians moved to the United States in the early 1900s; two million moved between 1900 to 1914. Only Irish and Germans moved to the United States in bigger numbers. In 2000 the government counted 15.6 million Italian Americans in the United States. This means that in the year 2000, for every 1000 Americans, 56 of them were Italian Americans.

paragraphs: Italian Americans have been an important part in building the United States. Many great politicians, inventors, scientists, soldiers, musicians and film makers (actors and directors) have been Italian Americans. The Mafia in the United States was made by some Italian Americans but nearly all Italian Americans have nothing to do with it.

paragraphs: Most of them came from southern Italy, in regions such as Sicily, Naples and Calabria, only a sizeable minority of Italian Americans have ancestral roots in Northern Italy.

paragraphs: New York City has more Italian Americans than any other city in the United States. More than 3 million Italians live in or near New York. The states of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, California, Florida and Massachusetts also have large Italian American populations. There are large Italian-American populations in the cities of Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Detroit, Ohio, which each have over a half million Italians.


title: Municipalities of the canton of Vaud

paragraphs: This is a list of articles in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. It includes municipalities that merged with others. The capital of each district is in bold type.


title: Samuel Alito

paragraphs: Samuel Anthony Alito, Jr. (; born April 1, 1950) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was nominated by President George W. Bush and has served on the court since January 31, 2006.

paragraphs: Alito was born to Italian American parents. He served in the U.S. Army reserves from 1972-1980, as Assistant United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey 1977-1981, as Assistant to U.S. Solicitor General 1981-1985, as Deputy Assistant Attorney General, 1987-1990, and from 1990 on as a member the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit before his 2006 nomination to the Supreme Court. Alito holds an originalist view of the law. The vote by the U.S. Senate to confirm Alito to the Supreme Court judge was the second narrowest in recent U.S. History to that point (58-42), the only narrower one being the 52-48 vote to confirm Clarence Thomas. Alito is from Trenton, New Jersey.


title: House of Representatives

paragraphs: A House of Representatives is a part of some legislatures, which are law-making bodies. In a House of Representatives, the members are called representatives. For example, the legislature of the United States, called Congress, is made up of two parts. One of these parts is called the House of Representatives and the other one is called the Senate. A representative in the United States Congress is a "U.S. Representative". Many state legislatures in the United States also have Houses of Representatives. A representative in one of those state houses is a State Representative.


title: Abigail Johnson

paragraphs: Abigail Johnson (born January 7, 1961) is an American businessperson. She runs the mutual fund company Fidelity Investments with her father, Edward Johnson. In 2005, she was ranked as the fifth richest woman in the world.


title: William Wrigley, Jr.

paragraphs: William Wrigley Jr. (September 30, 1861 – January 26, 1932) was an American businessman. He was the founder of the Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company. His company makes Wrigley brand chewing gum.


title: Dan Marino

paragraphs: Daniel Constantine Marino, Jr. (born September 15, 1961) is a Hall of Fame quarterback who played for the Miami Dolphins in the National Football League. Many think of him as one of the greatest quarterbacks ever.

paragraphs: Marino started his career playing for University of Pittsburgh as a quarterback. Marino finished his career with the university having thrown 74 touchdown passes. In 2002 he was voted into the College Football Hall of Fame. He had a long and successful career as a quarterback for the Miami Dolphins, breaking many passing records but never leading his team to win the NFL Super Bowl.


title: Joe Montana

paragraphs: Joseph Clifford Montana, Jr. (born June 11, 1956) is a retired American Hall of Fame football player. He played as a quarterback for the San Francisco 49ers and the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League. With the San Francisco 49ers, he won four Super Bowls. He was named the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player (MVP) three times. Montana began his career playing for the University of Notre Dame in Indiana. He broke many records while playing for San Francisco. His main receiver was Jerry Rice, who is also in the Hall of Fame.


title: Hall of fame

paragraphs: A hall of fame is a type of museum for awards in certain areas where awards can be given, for example sport, art, theatre, music, agriculture, military and many more areas. A hall of fame is sometimes an actual building where awards, trophies and memrobilia are stored but sometimes a hall of Fame is just a list of award winners. To get into a hall of fame in any area, one must be the best in that area, or one of the best.

paragraphs: The first hall of fame was the Forum Augustum in Ancient Rome. It was built by Augustus who vowed to build a temple honoring Mars, the Roman God of war, during the battle of Philippi in 42 BC. The Forum incuded statues of heroes of the Ancient world.


title: Once Upon a Time in America

paragraphs: Once Upon a Time in America is a 1984 movie directed by Sergio Leone and starring Robert De Niro and James Woods as Jewish gangsters. The movie was Sergio Leone's last before his death.

paragraphs: The movie is set at three different times;

paragraphs: When Leone finished making the movie it was 229 minutes (3 hours and 49 minutes) and started with an old character (Robert De Niro) remembering his past; it then showed him as a child and as a young adult. We call this flashbacks; it can happen in movie but certainly not in real life. But when it was first shown to American audiences it was made much shorter and set in chronological order; meaning the movie first showed the characters as children, then as young adults and then as older adults; or 'from start to finish'. We call this "chronological"; this is what would happen in real life. Many people agree that the longer version is much better than the shortened chronological version.


title: Liu-bo

paragraphs: Liu-bo is an Italian martial art. It started in Sicily.

paragraphs: In Sicily, the art of "paranza", moving the stick by hand in order to attack or in order to defend oneself, was being taught to sons by their fathers for centuries. Many people who took care of sheep were masters of it. They often were asked to fight in order to decide problems of honor. Recently, rules have been created and it was made a sport. This sport has become well-known and has been made official by the National Educational Sport Center (CSEN).

paragraphs: The stick is made from the wood of olive, rowan, or bitter orange tree. It is used as a base for a number of actions. It is held in one or both hands.


title: Ui Miyazaki

paragraphs: Ui Miyazaki at "Anime News Network"'s Encyclopedia


title: Edward the Elder

paragraphs: Edward the Elder (c. 874-877-17 July 924) was a West Saxon nobleman. He was the King of Wessex but assumed the title King of the Anglo-Saxons. He was king from 899 until his death in 924.

paragraphs: Edward was the son of Alfred the Great and Ealhswith. She was a daughter of Ethelred, also called Mucill, of the Gaini. He was born about the year 870. As one of at least three , it was not absolutely certain he would be king after his father. His cousin, Aethelwold, was older and was the son of Alfred's older brother Athelred of Wessex. When he was about four years old Edward was sent to Rome. There, in a ceremony, he was given a sword, belt and given the rank of . This is one of several things Alfred did to make Edward the first choice among the Athelings who would succeed him as king. By a past agreement Alfred had control of most of the royal estates. He could leave all or some to Edward. In the 880s, Alfred made a will giving most of the royal estates to his son Edward, and left his two nephews only modest lands in the eastern part of the realm. This meant that if Ethelhelm were selected as king over Edward, he might not have enough income to support himself as king.

paragraphs: Edward ruled from time of his father's death on 26 October, 899. But he wasn't until (8 June) of 900. His reign began with his cousin Athelwold, son of King Athelred, seizing the royal manors of Wimborne and Christchurch. When Edward confronted him Athelwold fled. He left behind a nun he had abducted. Athelwold was accepted by the Danes of Northumbria. There he was elected King of York. In 901 Athelwold was in Essex with a fleet he raised over seas. In 902 he convinced a Danish army in East Anglia to raid into Wessex and Mercia with him. In response Edward led his army into East Anglia and destroyed the countryside. Edward ordered his troops to retire back to Wessex, but the Kentish men disobeyed his orders and stayed behind. The Danish army quickly caught up with them. In the battle that followed, Ethelwald was killed.

paragraphs: Edward continued his wars against the Danes. He received a great deal of aid from his sister, Ethelflaeda. She had married Ethelred of Mercia and at his death she became the leader of the Mercians. Together Edward and Ethelflaeda defeated the Danes in numerous battles. But Ethelflaeda also built a line of fortresses on the Mercian Frontier. This was what her father Alfred the Great had done on the Wessex borders with the Danish held territories. Edward began to use these fortresses differently. Not just for defense of his own lands he used them to hold captured lands. Edward and his sister were very successful against the Danes. So much so they quit raiding into Wessex and Mercia. Freed of wars with the Daneds, Edward could attend to other issues. He brought Strathclyde and parts of Northumbria under his control. He also brought Mercia under his direct rule after his sister Ethelflaeda died. The appearance of the Viking leader Ragnvald in York slowed his progress. But by the end of his reign he had control of all lands south of the River Humber. In a treaty Ragnvald, the kings of Strathclyde and the Scots recognized his rule.

paragraphs: In 924 Mercian nobles wanting to be free of Edward's rule made an alliance with the Welsh. Edward quickly put down the and placed a in the town of Chester. But this expedition proved to be his last. Edward died 17 July 924. Before the end of the year his son Athelstan was recognized as the rightful king.

paragraphs: Edward's first wife was Egwina. Together they had:

paragraphs: Edward married secondly, Elfleda, a daughter of Æthelhelm. Together they had:

paragraphs: As his third wife, Edward married Eadgifu, the daughter of Sigehelm. Together they had:


title: Ælfweard of Wessex

paragraphs: Aelfweard (904 - 2 August 924) was briefly the King of Wessex, following the death of his father, Edward the Elder. The Kingdom of England was divided between Aelfweard and his half-brother, Athelstan, who became King of Mercia.

paragraphs: Aelfweard lived for only 16 days after his father and was probably not even crowned. Athelstan became King of Wessex in September 924, so the English kingdom was re-united again.


title: Edmund I of England

paragraphs: Edmund I (922 26 May 946), the Elder, the Deed-Doer or the Magnificent, was King of England from 939 until his death. He was a son of Edward the Elder and a half-brother of Athelstan. Edmund was the first king to start his rule with a united England.

paragraphs: Early in his rule, the Norse king, Olaf Guthfrithson, took back much of the north of England. By 941, Edmund regained his northern lands from the Norse. He defeated a revolt by the Welsh and killed the Scottish King of Strathclyde, Donald MacDonald. He signed a treaty with Malcolm I of Scotland and set up a policy of safe borders.

paragraphs: He was married twice. With is first wife, "St. Aelfgith", he had two children who became King Eadwig "All-Fair" and King Edgar "the Peacemaker". After she died in 944 Edmund married Ethelflaed of Damerham. They did not have children.

paragraphs: During the Feast of St. Augustine, on 26 May 946, at Pucklechurch in Gloucester, Edmund was killed fighting a thief who would not leave the feast. He was succeeded by his brother Edred. Edmund is buried at Glastonbury Abbey.


title: Beak

paragraphs: A beak, a bill, or a rostrum is the nose and mouth of a bird. The beak is used for eating, fighting, grooming and many other things.

paragraphs: Beaks on different types of birds can be very different in size, shape and color. Beaks are made of an upper and lower mandible. In most species, two holes are used for breathing.

paragraphs: The upper and lower parts of the beak are called mandibles. They are attached to the skull. The upper mandible is attached using several smaller bones, and is able to move up.

paragraphs: The mandibles are bones that are covered in a rhamphotheca - a thin layer of hard skin. This hard skin is similar to horns, nails and claws, and grows constantly. In some birds the rhamphotheca has different colors in different times of year. Beaks can have color spots that can be seen in ultraviolet light.

paragraphs: The edges of the mandibles are used for cutting and grabbing food. Some birds have sharp points or grooves on the edge of the beak. These shapes make it easier to hold insects or break seeds. Birds that hunt fish or other animals often have more sharp points.

paragraphs: The gape is the inside of the open mouth of a bird. Baby birds of some species have bright colors in their gape, including spots that can be seen in ultraviolet light. Parent birds use these colored spots to choose which baby to feed. The color spots go away as the babies grow.

paragraphs: The nostrils are the two breathing holes on the beak. They are usually on the top mandible on the part close to the head. A few species breathe through their mouths and have no nostrils. In some birds the nostrils cannot be seen because they are under feathers or a cover called an operculum.

paragraphs: Some birds like parrots, raptors and turkeys have a cere - a waxy area covering the beak near the head. Most species that have a cere have their nostrils in it. Male and female birds in some species are told apart by the color of their cere.

paragraphs: Ducks, geese and swans have a special plate at the end of the beak called a nail. The nail is hard and is used to force out food that is stuck to a surface or in the ground.

paragraphs: The egg tooth is a small, hard lump that grows on the tip of baby bird beaks. It grows before they hatch and falls off soon after. Birds use the egg tooth to break open the egg from the inside. Only a few species of birds kick the inside of the egg to hatch instead of using an egg tooth.

paragraphs: A bird is able to stab or bite with its beak. Birds also use their beaks as a threat when afraid or angry, by opening them wide. Sometimes birds hiss or clap their beaks at the same time.

paragraphs: Beaks are used for preening (grooming the feathers). A bird can comb its feathers with its beak to adjust any that are badly positioned. Many birds spread a thin layer of oil onto their feathers, which helps to waterproof them. They also remove any dirt or parasites at the same time.

paragraphs: Many birds use beaks during courtship. They may dance, touch each other's beaks, or tap things with their beaks. In some species, birds may preen each other as either a friendship behavior or courting behavior.

paragraphs: Birds lose body heat through their beaks because beaks have blood in them and are not covered with feathers. Birds in warm places can lose heat this way without sweating and losing water. Birds in cold climates have smaller beaks to stop too much heat loss.


title: Coral

paragraphs: Corals are formed by small animals, the polyps of the phylum Cnidaria.

paragraphs: The corals are marine, either on continental shelves or round oceanic islands. They live in colonies.

paragraphs: All the polyps in a colony are zooids: they are all clones, genetically identical. Inside the colony they breed by asexual reproduction. They also reproduce sexually. Colonies of the same species release gametes together, over one, two or three nights around a full moon.

paragraphs: Each coral animal is like a small bag. The opening on top is the mouth. Tentacles (little arms) around the mouth carry stinging nematocysts, which paralyse the small animals eaten by the coral polyps.

paragraphs: Coral usually grows in tropical oceans. A few corals grow in cold water, like the oceans around the British Isles and Norway.

paragraphs: Most corals get energy and nutrients from symbiosis with photosynthetic unicellular algae called zooxanthellae. Such corals need sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths less than 60 metres (200 ft).

paragraphs: Many corals (and some other cnidaria) live with zooxanthellae of the genus "Symbiodinium", which are dinoflagellates. Usually, each polyp harbours one species of algae. By photosynthesis, these provide energy for the coral, and help calcification.

paragraphs: The algae benefit from a safe place to live and consume the polyp's carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste. Due to the strain the algae can put on the polyp, the coral often ejects the algae. Mass ejections are known as coral bleaching, because the algae contribute to coral's brown coloration. Ejection increases the polyp's chance of surviving short-term stress—they can regain algae, possibly of a different species, at a later time. If the stressful conditions persist, the polyp eventually dies.

paragraphs: A coral reef is a place where many corals grow. The reef makes good places for many other animals, such as fish, crabs, clams, and sponges.

paragraphs: Each coral animal secretes calcium carbonate around itself. This makes the solid structure of the colony. When the animal dies, new polyps live on top of the older structure. The rock they make is also called coral.

paragraphs: They are called "coral skeletons". Each different kind of coral colony builds a different kind of skeleton, so that colonies can be shaped like a brain, a mushroom, a cabbage, or many other things. With all these corals gathered together building skeletons around themselves, large coral formations are made. Together, all the coral formations in one place make up a coral reef.


title: Sweyn I of Denmark

paragraphs: Sweyn I, or Sweyn Forkbeard, (c 960 - 3 February 1014) was King of Denmark from about 985-3 February 1014 and King of England from 25 December 1013-3 February 1014.

paragraphs: Sweyn's father was Harald Bluetooth, King of Denmark. Sweyn invaded England many times between 990 and 1013, when his army took control of London on Christmas day. Sweyn briefly became King of England until he died 40 days later on 3 February 1014 after being hurt in a fall from his horse.


title: Dollars trilogy

paragraphs: The Dollars trilogy, also known as The Man with No Name trilogy, refers to the three Spaghetti Westerns starring Clint Eastwood and directed by Sergio Leone:


title: Blue Line International

paragraphs: Blue Line International is an international maritime company. They deal in the transportation of passengers and vehicles between Croatia and Italy.

paragraphs: Blue Line International was started in 1993. Its first passenger ship "Kraljica mira" sailed towards Italy carrying humanitarian aid and refugees. "Kraljica mira" was sailing at that time under the flag of SEM Maritime Company (SMC). In 1997, the passenger ship "Split 1700" joined the same company. In 2003, Blue Line International replaced SMC.

paragraphs: The passenger ship "Ancona", the largest ship in the Adriatic Sea was bought in 2003. It has been sailing together with the passenger ship "Split 1700" for several years on Blue Line's regular route. They maintain the seasonal lines between Ancona and Hvar and between Ancona and Vis.


title: Flainval

paragraphs: Flainval is a town in France. It is near Dombasle-sur-Meurthe.


title: Dombasle-sur-Meurthe

paragraphs: Dombasle-sur-Meurthe is a town in France. It is near Saint-Nicolas-de-Port on the Meurthe River.


title: Saint-Nicolas-de-Port

paragraphs: Saint-Nicolas-de-Port is a town in France.

paragraphs: It is near Dombasle-sur-Meurthe on the Meurthe River.


title: Footballer

paragraphs: A footballer is the athlete who - with amatorial or professional interests - plays football.

paragraphs: Footballers sign a contract with clubs, playing for them until their expire date. At this point, a footballer can make another contract or move to another club.

paragraphs: During a game, each team uses 11 players with the compulsory presences of a goalkeeper and a captain. Roles are as follows: goalkeeper, defender, midfielder and attacker. Each of these have more positions, for example:

paragraphs: Despite each role requests different skills and moves, every footballer has a common objective: scoring goals.


title: Tex Avery

paragraphs: Frederick Bean "Fred/Tex" Avery (February 26, 1908 – Tuesday, August 26, 1980) was an American animator, cartoonist, and director. He is famous for creating animated cartoons during the Golden Age of Hollywood. He did his most major work for the Warner Bros. and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios. He created the characters of Porky Pig, Daffy Duck, Bugs Bunny, and Droopy. His had an effect on almost all of the animated cartoon series by various studios in the 1940s and 1950s.


title: Edgar the Atheling

paragraphs: Edgar the Aethling (or Edgar the Ætheling, c. 1051 – c. 1126) was a claimant to the throne of England in 1066 after Edward the Confessor died. Edgar was a popular choice among the English, because he was English and a grandson of Edmund Ironside.

paragraphs: Edgar was born in Hungary because his father was in exile there. When Edgar was five, his father, Edward the Exile returned to England from Hungary. He had been exiled from England during the Viking reign. Soon after returning, Edgar’s father died under mysterious circumstances.

paragraphs: Edward the Confessor, who had no children, had promised the throne to his nephew Edward the Exile, his nearest living relative. In 1057, the king's messengers found Edward The Exile, his wife Agatha, their two daughters and son Edgar living in Hungary. Edward agreed to return to England and brought his family. But a few days after their arrival Edward was killed. At the time Edgar was only five years old. When Edward the Confessor died Edgar was still young (15 years old) and had no experience, money or soldiers. The leaders in England expected attacks from Norway and Normandy. Under these conditions, Edgar was not a good choice as king. Royal succession in Anglo-Saxon England was determined by the Witenagemot (Witan), a council of wise men.

paragraphs: While Edgar was an Etheling (a prince of the royal family) he was not the heir apparent. That designation was unknown in Anglo-Saxon England. A king could recommend his successor but the actual choice of King was made by the Witan. The first thing the Witan did was choose Edward's brother-in-law, Harold Godwinson to be the next king. On the same day Edward, the Confessor was buried, Harold Godwinson was hurriedly crowned king at Westminster Abbey.

paragraphs: Nine months later, on 14 October 1066 at the battle of Hastings Harold was killed. Duke William rested his army for five days before marching to London. During this time Edgar was selected as king in London. It was thought a second army could be raised to fight the Normans if they had a king whose name could unite England. But William took control of England with his army before Edgar could be crowned. William met with the English leaders including Edgar, at Berkhamsted. There William received oaths of fealty and received hostages from Edgar.

paragraphs: Six months after Berkhamsted, King William returned to Normandy. To make things easier for his representatives left to govern England, he took Edgar and others with him. At the end of 1067 William brought Edgar back to England when he returned. In the summer of 1068 Edgar took his mother and sisters and escaped to Scotland. His sister, Margaret, married King Malcolm III of Scotland. Along with Malcolm, Edgar took part in several military campaigns against William, now King of England. He later took part in the Crusades. Edgar remained unmarried and never produced any children. He lived until c.1126 (Aged 75). Edgar was the last living male member of the Anglo-Saxon royalty.

paragraphs: Edgar was a direct descendant of a line of Wessex kings that the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" traced back to the dynasty's supposed 6th century founder, Cerdic, a descent that includes Alfred the Great. His grandfather, great-grandfather and great-great-grandfather were all Kings of England before Cnut the Great took the crown.


title: McIntosh (apple)

paragraphs: The McIntosh is a type of apple. It is red and green like a Gala apple only brighter in color. Tart and crisp, it snaps when bitten into.


title: Municipalities of the canton of Bern

paragraphs: There are 400 municipalities in the canton of Bern (including mergers), Switzerland. It is the largest canton in Switzerland and has the most communes.


title: Edgar of England

paragraphs: King Edgar or Eadgar I (~942 – 8 July 975) was the younger son of King Edmund I of England. He had the nickname, "the Peaceable", but was a stronger king than his elder brother, Edwy. He took the kingdoms of Northumbria and Mercia from Edwy in 958.

paragraphs: Edgar was recognized as king north of the Thames by Mercian nobles in 958, and officially took the throne when Edwy died in October 959. Immediately Edgar recalled Dunstan from exile and made him successively Bishop of Worcester, then of London and finally Archbishop of Canterbury.

paragraphs: Edgar is regarded as a Saint by the Catholic church.


title: Mozilla Thunderbird

paragraphs: Mozilla Thunderbird is a free cross-platform e-mail client developed by the Mozilla Foundation.


title: Sauropsid

paragraphs: Sauropsids are a group of land vertebrates which includes all existing "reptiles" and birds and their fossil ancestors. They are one of the two groups which evolved from egg-laying amniotes in the first part of the Carboniferous period.

paragraphs: The synapsids are the other group which evolved from amniotes. They gave rise, eventually, to the mammals.

paragraphs: Living sauropsids include lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodiles, and birds. Extinct sauropsids include non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and many others.

paragraphs: More or less, the evolution of tetrapods has taken this course:

paragraphs: The earlies tetrapods lived in water. Clear fossil tetrapod tracks from the mid-Devonian predate previous tetrapod records by 18 million years.

paragraphs: Nine genera of Devonian tetrapods have been described. These earliest tetrapods were not terrestrial. They lived in swampy habitats like shallow wetlands, coastal lagoons, brackish river deltas, and even shallow marine sediments.

paragraphs: Between the lobe-finned fish tetrapods and the first amphibia and amniotes in the Middle Carboniferous lies a gap of 30 million years, with few satisfactory tetrapod fossils. This, noted in 1950, is Romer's gap. Some new fossils were found in the 1990s, such as "Pederpes", right in the middle of the Romer Gap. The gap still obscures the details of the tetrapod transition.

paragraphs: Sometime, in the later Devonian or earliest Carboniferous, the fishapods became mainly land-based. One group of them kept their link to the water, and always laid their eggs in water. They became the amphibians. The others evolved a way of laying eggs on land. They were the amniotes, whose key innovation was the cleidoic egg.

paragraphs: Sometime in the middle or lower Carboniferous, the amniotes split into two lines. One line lead to the reptiles of all kinds, and we call that the Sauropsida. The other line led eventually to the mammals, and we call that the Synapsida. It is not right to say "mammals evolved from reptiles" because both groups derived from early amniotes. In any event, modern reptiles are vastly different from modern mammals. Both groups have evolved for over 300 million years from the early amniotes.


title: Conservation status

paragraphs: The conservation status of a species shows how likely it is for that species to survive now or in the future. Many factors affect the conservation status of a species: the number remaining, the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, known threats, and others.


title: Abstract algebra

paragraphs: Abstract algebra is a part of math which studies algebraic structures. These include:

paragraphs: It is normal to build a theory on one kind of structure, like group theory or category theory.

paragraphs: The purpose of the theory of each concept is to organize the precise definition of the concept, examples of it, its substructures, the ways to relate different examples of the concept algebraically (these are called morphisms in some cases), and the concept's applications, both inside its own theory and outside in other areas of mathematics.

paragraphs: During history, different fields of mathematics have used algebras. Algebras are about finding or specifying rules on how to calculate with certain mathematical formulas and expressions. Another algebra (which is not "abstract") is elementary algebra, for example.


title: Geodesic

paragraphs: In mathematics a geodesic is a curve with the shortest length between two places on a surface when considering places which are not "too far". These paths on a sphere are also called great circles, such that in this case, two points are joined by two distinct geodesics. A minimal geodesic (or segment) is a particular case where the geodesic joining two distant points has the shortest length.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

paragraphs: Anarcho-syndicalism is a form of anarchism. It sees labour unions as something which will cause revolutionary change. This change will give freedom and equality to the workers. Anarcho-syndicalists want to get rid of the wage system and capitalism. They believe this leads to class divisions and inequality.

paragraphs: The basic concepts of anarcho-syndicalism are:

paragraphs: Anarcho-syndicalists believe that only direct action can bring about change. Anarcho-syndicalists do not take part in indirect action, like electing a representative to a government position.

paragraphs: Anarcho-syndicalism played an important role in the Spanish Civil War.


title: Trotskyism

paragraphs: Trotskyism is the form of Communism that is based on the ideas of Leon Trotsky. Trotsky described himself as an "orthodox Marxist". This is a different way of seeing the ideas of Karl Marx than the way other communists like Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin saw them. The biggest difference is in Trotsky's idea that there needs to be an international "permanent revolution". A permanent revolution is the idea that proletarian revolution needed to spread in countries worldwide, even where capitalism was not as advanced as only the proletarian revolution could carry out the tasks of the unfinished bourgeois revolutions in these countries. This is different to the Stalinist idea of trying to preserve a single nation's revolution from within. Trotsky also supported a less authoritarian government and more democracy.

paragraphs: The largest Trotskyist organizations today are the Reunified Fourth International, International Socialist Tendency, the International Communist League, and the Committee for a Workers' International.


title: A Fistful of Dollars

paragraphs: A Fistful of Dollars (1964) is a Spaghetti Western movie directed by Sergio Leone and starring Clint Eastwood. It is the first movie in the Dollars trilogy and was the first Spaghetti Western to be released in the United States. The second movie in the Dollars Trilogy is "For a Few Dollars More"; the third is "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly".


title: For a Few Dollars More

paragraphs: For a Few Dollars More (1965) is a Spaghetti Western movie directed by Sergio Leone and starring Clint Eastwood. It is the second movie in the Dollars trilogy and was released in the United States in 1967. The first movie in the trilogy is "A Fistful of Dollars"; the third is "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly".


title: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

paragraphs: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966) is a Spaghetti Western movie directed by Sergio Leone and starring Clint Eastwood. It is the third and final movie in the Dollars trilogy and was released in the United States in 1967. The first movie in the trilogy is "A Fistful of Dollars"; the second is "For a Few Dollars More".

paragraphs: This movie and "Once Upon a Time in the West" are considered to be the greatest western movies ever.


title: Ennio Morricone

paragraphs: Ennio Morricone (November 10, 1928 – July 6, 2020) was an Italian classical composer famous for making movie scores. He composed the scores for more than 500 movies and television programs. He is well known for composing the scores to , particularly Spaghetti Westerns.

paragraphs: In 2007 he received the Honorary Academy Award for his many great movie scores. In his career, the composer sold over 50 million records worldwide. In 2016, he won an Academy Award for his work on "The Hateful Eight".

paragraphs: Morricone was born in Rome. He died at a hospital in Rome on July 6, 2020 from problems caused by a fall, aged 91.


title: XTC

paragraphs: XTC was an English rock band. Its members were: Andy Partridge, Colin Moulding, Barry Andrews, and Terry Chambers. XTC started in 1976. They had their biggest success in the late 1970s and most of the 1980s. XTC was best known in their home country of England, but they had some fame in other countries like the United States. Their 2 biggest hits in the U.S. are "Dear God" and "The Mayor Of Simpleton". Some of XTC's other hit songs include "Making Plans For Nigel", "Senses Working Overtime", and "Are You Receiving Me".

paragraphs: XTC made a total of 13 studio albums. Their last album came out in 2000 and they broke up in 2005. Andy Partridge, the band's singer, says he doesn't think XTC will ever get back together.

paragraphs: One interesting thing about XTC is that they almost never did live concerts since 1982. The reason for that is because Andy Partridge sometimes got very nervous performing on stage in front of thousands of people.


title: Roh Moo-hyun

paragraphs: Roh Moo-Hyun is a former President of South Korea. He was born on September 1, 1946 in Gimhae, Gyeongsangnam-do, South Korea. He took office on February 25, 2003. After retirement from Cheongwadae, he was residing in Bongha Maeul, Gimhae, Gyeongsangnam-do until death. He committed suicide on May 23, 2009, by jumping off a cliff.


title: Kim Young-sam

paragraphs: Kim Young-sam (December 20, 1927 – November 22, 2015) was the President of the South Korea from February 25, 1993 to February 25, 1998. He was born in Geoje, South Gyeongsang. When elected in 1992, he became the first civilian to become president in over 30 years.

paragraphs: Kim died in a hospital in Seoul, South Korea from heart failure caused by a blood infection, aged 87.


title: Roh Tae-woo

paragraphs: Roh Tae-woo (born December 4, 1932 in Daegu), is the sixth President of South Korea (1988–1993). He was a former Korean general and politician. A member of the Hanahoi, Roh was the hand-picked successor of the ex-general and president Chun Doo-hwan. This caused large pro-democracy rallies in Seoul and other cities in 1987. Roh agreed to hold democratic presidential elections, making himself a candidate for the next election. The opposition split the votes between Kim Young-sam and Kim Dae-jung (both of whom later became presidents). This made Roh the first elected president after the time that the military ruled the country.

paragraphs: Roh's rule was notable for hosting the Seoul Olympics in 1988 and for his foreign policy of nordpolitik.

paragraphs: In 1993, Roh's successor Kim Young-sam led an anti-corruption campaign that saw Roh and Chun Doo-hwan on trial for bribery. The two former presidents were later charged with mutiny and treason for their part in the 1979 coup and the 1980 Gwangju Riot.

paragraphs: Both were found to be guilty in August 1996 of treason, mutiny and corruption. Chun was sentenced to death, later changed to life imprisonment. Roh's 22 1/2-year jail sentence was reduced to 17 years. Both were released from prison in early 1998, pardoned by then-President Kim Dae-jung.


title: Chun Doo-hwan

paragraphs: Chun Doo-hwan (born March 6 (Lunar January 18) , 1931) was a Korean military officer and the President of South Korea from 1980 to 1988. He was sentenced to death in 1996. Chun was later pardoned by President Kim Young-sam with the advice of then President-elect Kim Dae-jung, who had sentenced to death by Chun some 20 years earlier.

paragraphs: Chun was a graduate of the Korean Military Academy in 1955. He was a member of Hanahoi, a powerful group of military officials that supported his actions. He was in charge of the investigation into the assassination of President Park Chung-hee. On 12 December 1979, in what became known as the Incident of December 12th, Chun ordered the arrest of Army Chief of Staff General Chung Sung Hwa (정승화, 鄭昇和) without authorization from then-President Choi Kyu-ha. He ordered the arrest as part of the investigation of his part in the assassination. Chung Sung Hwa resisted the arrest. This led to a bloody gun fight at the Army Headquarters and the Ministry of Defense. By the next morning, Chun and his fellow military academy graduates Roh Tae-woo and Jeong Ho-yong were in charge of the Korean military.

paragraphs: On 17 May 1980, Chun placed the entire country under martial law and disbanded the National Assembly. Many politicians were arrested, including liberal politician Kim Dae-jung. Kim was later sentenced to death in spite of protests from the United States. Later, Chun changed Kim's sentence in return for U.S. support. Protests across the nation became smaller. However, very violent prostests happened in Gwangju. Protestors Lootinglooted government building. They armed themselves with stolen guns and military jeeps. Protestors killed a couple of policemen and started of violent protest against the government. A couple of hundreds of protestors and some thirty soldiers were killed in the Gwangju. Choi resigned in August, and Chun was elected his successor by the National Conference for Unification, the South Korean electoral college, in September. In February 1981, Chun was elected president under a revised constitution as the candidate of the Democratic Justice Party (later renamed Democratic Republican Party).

paragraphs: Chun ruled in an authoritarian manner. The 1981 constitution was less authoritarian than its 1972 predecessor, the Yushin Constitution, but still granted very broad powers to the president. However, it limited the president to one seven-year term. Chun did not try to change it so he could run for reelection in 1988.

paragraphs: By 1986, the general public was happy with the economic growth. However, there was much anger and hatred against Chun's regime by left-wing students who later became known as 386s. The left wing students led the nationwide June 1987 protests. In the same month, U.S. President Ronald Reagan sent a letter to Chun in support of the creation of "democratic institutions." On June 29th, Roh Tae-woo announced a program of reform. This included direct presidential elections, restoration of banned politicians including Kim Dae-jung, and other liberalizing measures. This won Roh instant popularity, and he was elected as the next president of South Korea. It later became known that Chun was responsible for this plan.

paragraphs: During Chun's visit to Rangoon, Burma (now Myanmar) in 1983, a bomb exploded at a mausoleum he was about to visit. The bomb killed 21 people, including South Korean Cabinet members. Chun himself did not die because he got there two minutes late. While no firm evidence of North Korean involvement has been found, they are widely thought to be responsible.

paragraphs: In 1996, former presidents Chun and Roh were jailed on charges of corruption. On December 16, they were also found guilty of treason and mutiny as part of their takeover of power. Chun was sentenced to death. That sentence was changed to a life sentence. He and Roh were pardoned a year later.


title: Choi Kyu-ha

paragraphs: Choi Kyu-hah (July 16, 1919 – October 22, 2006) (also spelled Choi Kyu-ha) was the President of South Korea between 1979 and 1980. He was born in the town of Wonju, in Gangwon Province. He was foreign minister of South Korea from 1967 to 1971 and prime minister from 1975 to 1979.

paragraphs: After the assassination of Park Chung Hee in 1979, Choi, the prime minister of South Korea at the time, took power. Because of the unrest of Park's authoritarian rule, Choi promised a new constitution and democratic elections (many thought that the elections led by Park were flawed). He won a December election later that year to become the country's fourth president.

paragraphs: In December 1979, Major General Chun Doo-hwan and close allies in the military staged a military coup against Choi's government. They quickly removed the army chief of staff and by early 1980 virtually controlled the government.

paragraphs: In April 1980, because of increasing pressure from Chun and other politicians, Choi appointed Chun as head of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency, giving him enormous power. In May, Chun declared martial law and removed all trappings of civilian government, becoming the de facto ruler of the country. By then, student protests were increasing in Seoul and Gwangju. The protests in Gwangju continued, resulting in the Gwangju Massacre, where over 200 civilians were killed within five days by Chun's military.

paragraphs: Choi resigned soon afterward. Chun became president on September 1, 1980. After his resignation, Choi lived quietly out of the public eye. He died on October 22, 2006, aged 87.