title: Warming center

paragraphs: A warming center is a place where people can go to stay warm and dry when it is rainy or wet outside. They are like homeless shelters, except that they are only open when the weather is bad.

paragraphs: Their main goal is to make sure that nobody is left out in the cold. Many people die from being wet and cold, every year.

paragraphs: Sometimes when it is windy, trees fall on them. Sometimes people get frostbite if it is very cold. But the main thing that people worry about is called hypothermia - that's when the body temperature gets too low. It can be fatal. When it is cold and windy, the wind chill factor makes it worse.

paragraphs: If people are old, drinking, or homeless, things can get very bad very fast if the weather goes bad. These things are all called risk factors. The level of risk goes way up making it more likely that they will become sick or maybe even die out in the cold. Scientists study these "risk factors" and put them all together with numbers. That kind of study is discussed below; it is called a "vulnerability index".

paragraphs: Warming Centers are mostly for people who are homeless who do not stay in homeless shelters. Sometimes they are also set up when blizzards occur or the power goes out. Sometimes they are set up when the roads are out due to landslides, avalanches, and blizzards.

paragraphs: In some cases, when cold snaps threaten wildlife, warming centers are created and operated to protect endangered wild animals. Cold-blooded animals such as turtles are particularly vulnerable, as are their hatchlings. Emergency shelters vary in policy on pet, companion, or domesticated animals. During large-scale disasters, there are frequently separate locations including a safe place for horses.

paragraphs: Sometimes warming centers are set up in existing homeless shelters. However, some jurisdictions have laws says that only a certain number of people are allowed at any one time. This is because of things like fire codes. Sometimes an agreement with the neighbors prevents too many people because of parking and overcrowding of the neighborhood.

paragraphs: Therefore, they need to find different locations.

paragraphs: These include churches and community organizations, but also may involve special real estate such as National Guard armories.

paragraphs: Warming centers are generally opened for only a few days at a time based on the conditions of the area, although some are open for a specific portion of the year when weather conditions are bad.

paragraphs: The City of Chicago opens its shelters from December 1 to March 1 each year, as well as any other times the temperature drops below freezing.

paragraphs: The City of Portland, Oregon, uses a more complicated formula to determine when to open centers; wet or dry conditions, the night's predicted lowest temperature, the three-day weather trend, wind, and whether snow may fall.

paragraphs: Opening a center depends on the weather conditions and the formula at that center. Each one is different because weather is different in each place. Lane County, Oregon utilizes an elaborate system of tiered readiness levels in collaboration with the American Red Cross. The Red Cross is involved with some warming centers. They use a system to tell the staff people to get ready. They refer to these levels as their "alert status". It goes all the way from normal good weather OUTLOOK status all the way up through different levels. Finally they reach "ACTIVATE", which means it is time to get to work.

paragraphs: Once a center has been set up, it is always a problem to make sure people know about it.

paragraphs: A lot of people do not want to deal with the "authorities". Other people may be connected with the helping system. In the USA, some people came up with an idea to help fix that problem. The government agency in charge of these issues is called Housing and Urban Development. That agency requires a homeless count every two years. Organizations such as w:Common Ground are trying to reach out to more people with the homeless counts and use these counts to get a list of homeless people who need some help. Hopefully one of the good things to come from all of that work is there will be better ways to make sure people know about the warming centers.

paragraphs: Centers often coordinate with outside programs such as 211. Newspapers are generally published weekly or less frequently, which makes them useful only for general information such as contact numbers and locations.

paragraphs: For transportation to centers, some shelters offer free transportation. In some cases for persons being released from jail can get rides, if the weather is bad.

paragraphs: In blizzard conditions, snowmobilers have been mobilized.

paragraphs: Once opened and populated, warming centers typically offer only the most bare-bones of service: a cot and perhaps a bowl of hot soup. They are generally operated with one or more experienced professional staff person. This is due to the difficulties which untrained volunteers might encounter in dealing with the clientele. Often, users of warming centers are persons who are not participating in routine homeless shelter services due. This may be due to disciplinary problems and issues with behavior, such as drinking and fighting. Sometimes it takes a professional to figure out who might be disruptive or even dangers as opposed to who is just a little bit eccentric or odd. That is why it is important to have experienced staff.

paragraphs: Some people who use warming centers do not have major issues: maybe they are just on the road and the weather takes a turn for the worse. Or they do not stay in shelters because they do not like the rules or have personality problems with a staff person.

paragraphs: Sometime warming centers are started because someone dies from the cold or many people are at risk.They seem to go back as far as 1945, at the end of World War II. In Berlin, Germany, clothing and blankets were allowed for under the air lift plan. Also, an extensive plan was developed for public "warming centers."

paragraphs: Nowadays, U.S. warming centers are springing up all over the place. They are seen as a means to help the homeless who usually stay outdoors. The main time is during temperature and rainfall "spikes".

paragraphs: However, there may not be room in the shelters for everyone who needs them. According to Detroit writer Naomi Spencer, they serve also as "a last resort for homeless people to find respite [relief] from the cold, especially those with drug addictions, mental illness, or criminal backgrounds, who may not meet requirements imposed by some homeless shelters or religious charity operations."

paragraphs: Others, including straight edge, DIY, or anarchist-identified persons may choose to live "off-the-grid", outside the regular system of housing. They are not there because of sobriety issues.

paragraphs: Others simply find shelters too regimented, too much like jail. Newspaperman Mike Hendricks quotes a former resident of an unauthorized homeless encampment named Crow, who said that "some guys would sooner do what they want and not be told what to do."

paragraphs: Tom Brown's "Field Guide to City and Suburban Survival" contains chapters on shelters and heating. He also outlines means of creating a personal warming center by using ATM access cards. His recommendations have been circulated by Chicago's urban community activist Chrisdian Wittenburg, including instructions on building a makeshift stove and a plethora of collaborative cultural projects.

paragraphs: Perception of the importance and priority of warming centers varies. At one extreme, their under-utilization or minimal level of service is said to be unfriendly. During the blizzard of February 2011, the City of Ottawa, Illinois did not have established warming centers. A temporary facility was set up. People had to bring their own food and blankets. There was criticism of that. According to a man calling himself "Poppy", the "have-nots...can all freeze to death...here in the friendly city." In Detroit, there was federal money for a warming center, but the money was not given to the proper officials in time, or at all. This failure to distribute Community Development Block Grants resulted in a situation where people slept in plastic chairs or "in cold hallways".

paragraphs: At the other end, critics have asked if churches are the right place for handling the kind of people who are likely to come in the door. Many people say that the warming centers tend to keep things the way they are, to maintain the "status quo". That is because they do not get to the root of the problems.

paragraphs: Sue Murphy is the administrative director of Interfaith Action of Evanston, Illinois, which has a daytime center. It is used for a time slot when the overnight shelters are closed. She states that warmth and snacks "is not nearly enough...what we need is a place where they can go the whole winter."

paragraphs: Her concerns are seconded by Sue Loellebach of Connections for the Homeless, who laments the lack of warm refuge during daylight hours..


title: Bobby Hull

paragraphs: Robert Marvin "Bobby" Hull, OC (born January 3, 1939 in Pointe Anne, Ontario) is a Canadian retired ice hockey left winger.

paragraphs: Hull is highly regarded as one of the greatest ice hockey players of all time and perhaps the greatest left winger to ever play the game of hockey. Hull was known for his blonde hair, blinding skating speed, and having the fastest shot in the game which also earned him the nickname, "the Golden Jet".

paragraphs: Hull played 17 seasons in the NHL with 3 teams, the Chicago Black Hawks for 15 seasons, the Winnipeg Jets for 1 season and the Hartford Whalers for 1 season.

paragraphs: Hull was inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1983.


title: Scarp (landform)

paragraphs: Scarp is a term in geology and geography with several similar meanings.

paragraphs: Scarps are generally formed by one or both:

paragraphs: Most commonly, an escarpment is a transition from one series of sedimentary rocks to another series of a different age and composition.

paragraphs: Escarpments are also frequently formed by faults. When a fault displaces the ground surface so that one side is higher than the other, a fault scarp is created. This brings a piece of high ground next to an area of lower ground.

paragraphs: More loosely, the term scarp describes the zone between coastal lowlands and continental plateaus. A marked, abrupt change in height is caused by coastal erosion at the base of the plateau.


title: Georg von Békésy

paragraphs: Georg von Békésy (3 June 1899 – 13 June 1972) was an Hungarian biophysicist. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1961 for his findings on the function of the cochlea in the mammalian inner ear. He was born in Budapest, Hungary and died in Honolulu, Hawaii, United States.


title: Frostbite

paragraphs: Frostbite is the localized medical condition where very cold temperatures damage skin and other tissue. It is most likely to happen in body parts farthest from the heart and in body parts with large exposed areas with many blood circulations. It most often occurs in toes.

paragraphs: Also, if the affected parts are not amputated, the person is likely to suffer from a disease called gangrene.


title: Gustave Eiffel

paragraphs: Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (December 15, 1832 – December 27, 1923; , ) was a French structural engineer and architect. He is known for designing the Eiffel Tower. He also designed the armature (supporting framework) for the Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor, United States.


title: Bullshit

paragraphs: Bullshit (also bullcrap, bullplop, bullbutter, bovine stool) is a common American English expletive. It can be used also as an interjection or as many other parts of speech. Usually, it is a noun, verb or interjection that describes a lie. It shows that someone is trying to deceive, e.g. "Stop bullshitting me" ("Don't try to deceive me. I know what you are saying is a lie.").


title: Black-eyed pea

paragraphs: The black-eyed pea, also called black-eyed bean, a subspecies of the cowpea, is a medium-sized edible bean. Humans first grew the pea probably in West Africa, but it is now grown all over the world.

paragraphs: In Nigeria, and the Caribbean, a traditional dish called "akara" is made of mashed black-eyed peas and salt, onions and peppers are added.


title: Circuit of the Americas

paragraphs: The Circuit of the Americas is a motor racing circuit in Austin, Texas. Hermann Tilke designed the circuit in the middle of 2010. Construction was started in early 2011. It is planned to open in 2012. The circuit will run counter-clockwise.

paragraphs: The circuit will host the United States Grand Prix. Starting in 2013, it will host MotoGP races for 10 years. It will also host a round of V8 Supercars, an Australia-based touring car racing series, starting in 2013.


title: 2012 Formula One World Championship

paragraphs: The 2012 Formula One season was the 63rd season of the Formula One World Championship. The season had 20 races, starting in Australia on 18 March and ended in Brazil on 25 November. The 2012 season saw the return of the United States Grand Prix, which was held at the Circuit of the Americas, in Austin, Texas. After being cancelled in 2011 due to civil protests, the Bahrain Grand Prix also returned to the calendar.

paragraphs: The start of the season was unpredictable, with seven different drivers winning the first seven races of the championship; a record for the series. It was not until the European Grand Prix in June that a driver, Ferrari's Fernando Alonso, won his second race of the year. Alonso was the championship leader for the next seven races, taking his third win in Germany and finishing on the podium in the United Kingdom, Italy and Singapore. However, first-lap retirements in Belgium and Japan allowed others to catch up, and defending World Champion Sebastian Vettel—like Alonso, a two-time winner—took the lead in the sixteenth race of the season. Vettel, too, had problems during the season; contact with a backmarker left him to finish outside the points in Malaysia, while alternator failures at the European and Italian Grands Prix cost him valuable points and exclusion from qualifying in Abu Dhabi led him to start from the pit lane. Vettel entered the final race of the season with a thirteen-point lead over Alonso. Alonso needed a podium finish to stand any chance of becoming World Drivers' Champion, but in a race that finished under the safety car, Vettel finished in sixth place, scoring enough points to win his third consecutive championship, becoming the third driver to do so. In the World Constructors' Championship, Red Bull Racing secured their third consecutive title when Sebastian Vettel finished second at the United States Grand Prix.

paragraphs: In addition to seeing seven different winners at the first seven races, the season also had the most races ever in a season with twenty, beating the last record of nineteen, which was first set in 2005. Six current or former World Drivers' Champions—Sebastian Vettel, Fernando Alonso, Jenson Button, Lewis Hamilton, Kimi Räikkönen, and Michael Schumacher—started the season, breaking the record of five established in 1970.

paragraphs: The pre-season testing season began immediately after the 2011 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix with a three-day 'Young Driver Test' (for drivers with fewer than three Formula One race starts to their name) at the Yas Marina Circuit from 15–17 November 2011. Toro Rosso test driver and Formula Renault 3.5 Series runner-up Jean-Éric Vergne was the fastest driver in every session over the three-day test, driving for Red Bull Racing. The Young Driver Tests also saw the debut of Pirelli's 2012 tyre compounds, with all bar one of the tyre compounds used in 2011 having undergone significant revisions. Several teams, including Williams and Mercedes used the event to test parts for the 2012 season in the face of a ban on exhaust-blown diffusers.

paragraphs: After a dispute between the Formula One Teams Association and the FIA in the first half of , a new Concorde Agreement was signed on 1 August 2009 by the then FIA president Max Mosley and all of the existing teams. The new agreement provided for a continuation of the terms of the 1998 Concorde Agreement, and ran until 31 December 2012.

paragraphs: The FIA published a provisional entry list on 30 November 2011.

paragraphs: Bernie Ecclestone wanted to see the calendar increase to a record 20 rounds, the maximum he feels is viable. However, a provisional calendar was announced in June 2011, with a record 21 races. FIA President Jean Todt later said that the 2012 calendar would have no more than 20, but did not say which race would be removed. On 29 July 2011, a second provisional calendar was released, confirming that the Turkish Grand Prix would be discontinued. The final calendar was released on 7 December 2011.

paragraphs: Points are awarded to the top 10 classified finishers.


title: Great horned owl

paragraphs: The Great horned owl ("Bubo virginianus") is the largest owl in North America. It is sometimes called the hoot owl.

paragraphs: This widespread bird of prey lives in mountains, grasslands, conifer forests, deserts, chapparals, and many other habitats in North and South America. Its call is a far-carrying hoot.

paragraphs: This owl is 18 to 25 inches (46-64 cm) long and has a wing span of 52 to 55 inches (1.3-1.4 m); its weight averages about 3 pounds (1.5 kg).

paragraphs: The feathers of the horned owl are gray to brown to buff to black. There is a patch of white feathers on the brown chest (called a "gular"). The eyes are yellow with round black pupils.

paragraphs: The great horned owl hunts and eats mammals (like rabbits, woodchucks, mice, rats, and squirrels), birds (ducks, quail, and geese), and fish.

paragraphs: The owl is at the top of the food web; it has no major predators. It sometimes eats its prey whole and later regurgitates the bones, fur, and feathers in pellets.


title: Capital Region International Airport

paragraphs: Capital Region International Airport , is a public airport in DeWitt Township, Clinton County, Michigan. The airport is northwest of Lansing, Michigan. The airport has three runways and is 2160 acres (874.12 ha) in size. The airport is owned and operated by the Capital Region Airport Authority.

paragraphs: The airport opened in July 1928. Cargo service from the airport began on July 17, 1928, on Transamerican Airlines. Passenger service began on September 1, 1929, on Kohler Airlines. The current terminal building opened in 1959. The first international flights (to Cancún, Mexico) began in December 2009 on USA3000 Airlines. Allegiant Air served the airport from 2003-2009 and 2012-2015 with flights to Florida.

paragraphs: Delta Air Lines, Sun Country Airlines, and United Airlines are passenger airlines that serve Capital Region International Airport. UPS Airlines is a cargo airline that serves the airport.

paragraphs: The airport has domestic passenger flights to Atlanta, Chicago, Detroit, Minneapolis, and Washington, D.C. The airport has seasonal international passenger flights to Cancún, Mexico and Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. The airport has cargo flights to Columbus and Louisville.

paragraphs: A total of 376,790 passengers flew to and from Capital Region International Airport in 2014. Another 418,850 passengers flew in 2013. Earlier, 656,703 passengers flew in 2000. 45,896,074 pounds (20,818,109 kg) of cargo flew to and from the airport in 2014. 64,844,276 pounds (29,412,869 kg) of cargo flew in 2000.


title: Daniel Bedingfield

paragraphs: Daniel Bedingfield (born 3 December 1979) is a New Zealand-born British singer-songwriter. He was raised in South London. His song "Gotta Get Thru This" became #1 in United Kingdom's Top 40 in December 2001. His album, also titled "Gotta Get Thru This" went to number 2 on the UK albums chart. His sisters are singers Natasha Bedingfield and Nikola Rachelle. Bedingfield was a judge on the first season of The X Factor NZ in 2013.

paragraphs: In 2004, Bedingfield won a BRIT Award for "Best British Male Artist".


title: Belén Esteban

paragraphs: Belén Esteban Menéndez is a Spanish television personality. She presents the television show "Sálvame" with Jorge Javier Vazquez.


title: Holy Week

paragraphs: Holy Week (Latin: "Hebdomas Sancta" or "Hebdomas Maior", "Greater Week"; Greek: "Μεγάλη Ἑβδομάς", "Megale Hebdomas") is the commemoration of the last week of Jesus Christ's ministry on earth. Holy Week is the last week of Lent. It begins with Palm Sunday and leads up to Easter Sunday.


title: Amanda Seyfried

paragraphs: Amanda Michelle Seyfried (born December 3, 1985, Allentown, Pennsylvania) is an American actress, singer-songwriter and former child model. At 11, she became a child model, and at 15 she became a television actress. She starred in "As the World Turns" and "All My Children". In 2004, Seyfried started her film career, acting in "Mean Girls". She also appeared in a number of other movies: "Nine Lives" (2005), "Alpha Dog" (2006), "Mamma Mia!" (2008), "Jennifer's Body", "Chloe", "Dear John", "Veronica Mars" and "Letters to Juliet". In 2006, she had a lead role on HBO's television series "Big Love".


title: Mario Casas

paragraphs: Mario Casas Sierra (born 12 July, 1986, A Coruña) is a Spanish actor. He has starred in "Los hombres de Paco" (2007–2010), "Fuga de cerebros" (2009), and "Tres metros sobre el cielo" (2010)


title: Sinodelphys

paragraphs: Sinodelphys is an extinct mammal from the Lower Cretaceous. It is a member of the infraclass Metatheria, the group which contains modern marsupials.

paragraphs: To date, it is the oldest metatherian fossil known, estimated to be 125 million years old. This makes it almost contemporary to the earliest placental fossils, which have been found in the same area.

paragraphs: It was discovered and described in 2003 in rocks of the Yixian Formation in Liaoning Province, China, by a team of scientists.

paragraphs: "Sinodelphys szalayi" grew only 15 cm (5.9 in) long and possibly weighed about 30 g (1.05 oz).

paragraphs: Its fossilized skeleton is surrounded by impressions of fur and soft tissue. Rapid burial followed volcanic events, and the fine sediment preserved details.

paragraphs: From its foot structure it is thought that "Sinodelphys" was a tree-dweller, like its non-marsupial contemporary "Eomaia" and modern opossums such as "Didelphis". "Sinodelphys" probably hunted worms and insects.

paragraphs: Most Mesozoic metatherians have been found in North America and Asia. Most lived during the Upper Cretaceous between 90-65 million years ago.


title: The Art of Getting By

paragraphs: The Art of Getting By is a 2011 American romantic drama movie that was produced by Darren Goldberg, Gia Walsh, Kara Baker and P. Jennifer Dana and was directed by Gavin Wiesen. "Homework" (its original name) was first shown at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2011, and was released in theaters in North America on June 17, 2011. The movie premiered under the title "Homework" at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival and was released as "The Art of Getting By".


title: Peppermint

paragraphs: The Peppermint is a hybrid plant of the mint family. It is originally from Europe, but grown and sold all over the world. It is a hybrid of watermint and spearmint. Carolus Linnaeus first described the plant in 1753, from samples that had been collected in England. He treated it as a species, but modern biology mostly treats it as a hybrid.

paragraphs: The peppermint is found in some medications, in particular Skumin’s mixture.


title: Emotional intelligence

paragraphs: Emotional intelligence is a thought model that claims that to be successful, people must be able to know their own feelings. They must also be able to guess and influence the emotions of other people, and of groups of other people. There are several different models that disagree about the exact definition of the term. Even though there does not seem to be an exact definition, the model itself can be applied in various ways, across different domains.

paragraphs: Nowadays, there are 3 main models of Emotional intelligence:

paragraphs: Emotional Intelligence (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ).


title: Bulletproof (La Roux song)

paragraphs: Bulletproof is a 2009 song by the English electropop duo La Roux off their self-titled album. It was released in the United Kingdom in June 2009 and was highly received by the critics. This song debuted at #1 on the UK Singles Chart. It was a sleeper hit in the United States, peaking at number eight.


title: Truffle

paragraphs: A truffle is the fruiting body of an underground mushroom. Its spores are dispersed by fungivores (animals that eat fungi). Almost all truffles are found in close association with trees (see mycorrhiza]]). It is used as a food additive in cooking. The truffles improve the flavour.

paragraphs: There are hundreds of species of truffles that can be used, but the fruiting body of some (mostly in the genus "Tuber") are highly prized. The 18th-century French gastronome Brillat-Savarin called these truffles "the diamond of the kitchen". Edible truffles are are expensive because they are held in high esteem in "haute cuisine". They are used in the cuisine of many countries in Europe and worldwide.

paragraphs: The "black truffle" or "black Périgord truffle" "Tuber melanosporum" is named after the Périgord region in France and grows only with oak. Specimens can be found in late autumn and winter, reaching 7 cm in diameter and weighing up to 100 g. Production is almost exclusively European, with France accounting for 45%, Spain 35%, Italy 20%, and small amounts from Slovenia, Croatia and the Australian states of Tasmania and Western Australia (see below). In 1900, France produced around 1,000 metric tonnes (1,100 short tons) of "Tuber melanosporum". Production has considerably shrunk in the past century, and is now around 20 metric tonnes (22 short tons) per year, with peaks at 46 metric tonnes (50 short tons) in the best years. About 80% of the French production comes from southeast France. The largest truffle market in France (and probably also in the world) is at Richerenches in Vaucluse. The largest truffle market in southwest France is at Lalbenque in Quercy. These markets are busiest in the month of January, when the black truffles have their highest perfume. As of December 2009, black truffles were sold for about €1,000 per kilo in a farmer's market and €3,940 per kilo in a retail saler.

paragraphs: The "white truffle" or "Alba madonna" or "Tuber magnatum" comes from the Montferrat and Langhe areas of the Piedmont region in northern Italy and in the countryside around the city of Alba. It is also found in Croatia, on the Istria peninsula in the Motovun forest alongside Mirna river. They grow with oak, hazel, poplar and beech trees, and fruit in autumn. They can reach 12 cm diameter and 500 g, though are usually much smaller. The flesh is pale cream or brown with white marbling. Like the French black truffles, Italian white truffles are very highly esteemed ("illustration, left"). The white truffle market in Alba is busiest in the months of October and November, where a 1.6-pound white truffle sold to "The Cody" of southern California for $150,000 on November 8, 2009 during the 79th White Truffle Festival. In 2001, the "Tuber magnatum" truffles sold for between US$1,000 and $2,200 per pound; as of December 2009 they were being sold at €10,200 per kilogram.

paragraphs: Giancarlo Zigante and his dog Diana found one of the largest truffles in the world near Buje, Croatia. The truffle weighed and has entered the Guinness Book of Records.

paragraphs: The record price paid for a single white truffle was set in December 2007, when Macau casino owner Stanley Ho paid US$330,000 (£165,000) for a specimen weighing , discovered by Luciano Savini and his dog Rocco. One of the largest truffles found in decades, it was unearthed near Pisa and sold at an auction held simultaneously in Macau, Hong Kong and Florence. This record was then matched on November 27, 2010 when Ho again paid US$330,000 for a pair of white truffles including one weighing nearly a kilogram.

paragraphs: Looking for truffles in open ground is almost always carried out with specially trained pigs (hogs) or, more recently, dogs. The Lagotto Romagnolo is the only dog breed recognized for sniffing out truffles (although virtually any breed could be trained for this purpose).

paragraphs: The female pig's natural truffle-seeking, as well as her intent to eat the truffle, is due to a compound in the truffle. This compound is similar to androstenol, the sex pheromone of boar saliva, to which the sow is keenly attracted.

paragraphs: In Italy, the use of the pig to hunt truffles is prohibited since 1985 due to damage caused by animals to truffle's mycelia during the digging that dropped the production rate of the area for some years.

paragraphs: Truffles can be cultivated, but it is not easy. The two world wars disrupted the growing of truffles in Europe, and changes in land use has reduced the available area. Truffles are now being cultivated in Australia and New Zealand.


title: Sweetbread

paragraphs: Sweetbreads or ris are culinary names for the thymus or the pancreas glands especially of the calf ("ris de veau") and lamb ("ris d'agneau") (although beef and pork sweetbreads are also eaten).

paragraphs: Various other glands used as food have also been called 'sweetbreads', including the parotid gland, the sublingual glands, and testicles ("cf." Rocky Mountain oyster). The "heart" sweetbreads are more spherical in shape, and surrounded symmetrically by the "throat" sweetbreads, which are more cylindrical in shape.

paragraphs: One common preparation of sweetbreads involves soaking in salt water, then poaching in milk, after which the outer membrane is removed. Once dried and chilled, they are often breaded and fried. They are also used for stuffing or in pâtés. They are grilled in many Latin American cuisines, such as in the Argentine asado, and served in bread in Turkish cuisine.

paragraphs: The word "sweetbread" is first known in the 16th century, but the logic behind the name is unclear. "Sweet" is perhaps used since the thymus is sweet and rich tasting, as opposed to savoury tasting muscle flesh. "Bread" may come from "brede" 'roasted meat'.


title: Culinary name

paragraphs: Culinary name is the name of an ingredient when used in the kitchen for preparing food. Sometimes the kitchen name is used because it sounds more attractive than the real name, or because a cheaper ingredient can be linked with a more expensive one. The culinary name may also refer to a way of cooking or to a region, or using a particular ingredient


title: Ken Salazar

paragraphs: Kenneth Lee Salazar (born March 2, 1955) was the United States Secretary of the Interior. Salazar was a member of the United States Senate from Colorado before being appointed as the Secretary of the Interior. Salazar is a Democrat.


title: Jean Casimir-Perier

paragraphs: Jean Paul Pierre Casimir-Perier (; 8 November 1847 – 11 March 1907) was a French politician, fifth president of the French Third Republic.

paragraphs: He was born in Paris, the son of Auguste Casimir-Perier and the grandson of Casimir Pierre Perier, premier of Louis Philippe. He entered public life as secretary to his father, who was minister of the interior under the presidency of Thiers.

paragraphs: On 17 August 1883 he became under-secretary of state for war, a post he retained until 7 January 1885. From 1890 to 1892 he was vice-president of the chamber, then in 1893 president. On 3 December he became prime-minister and foreign minister, but heresigned in May 1894, and was re-elected president of the chamber.

paragraphs: On 24 June 1894, after the assassination of President Carnot, he was elected president of the republic by 451 votes against 195 for Henri Brisson and 97 for Charles Dupuy. He was president for only six months. The day after Dupuy resigned, on 14 January 1895, Casimir-Perier resigned, saying he was ignored by the ministers, who did not consult him before taking decisions, and did not keep him informed upon political events, especially in foreign affairs.

paragraphs: From that time he completely abandoned politics, and devoted himself to business - especially mining. At the trial of Alfred Dreyfus at Rennes, Casimir-Perier's evidence, as opposed to that of General Mercier, was of great value to the cause of Dreyfus.


title: Hilda Solis

paragraphs: Hilda Solis (born October 20, 1957) is an American politician. She is currently a member of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors for District 1. Before being elected to the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors for District 1, she was the United States Secretary of Labor from 2009 to 2013. Solis was a member of the United States House of Representatives from California's 32nd congressional district before being elected as the Secretary of Labor. Prior to being a U.S. Representative, she was a California State Senator and a member of the California State Assembly. She was the first Hispanic woman to serve in the California State Senate. Solis is a Democrat. She was elected to the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors for District 1 on June 3, 2014. She was sworn in on December 1, 2014.


title: Louis de Béchamel

paragraphs: Louis de Béchamel, marquis de Nointel (1630–1703) was a French "financier" and patron of the arts.

paragraphs: Son of Jean-Baptiste Béchamel, Louis was a rich tax farmer and superintendent to the house of the Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. In 1697, Béchamel bought the "marquisat" of Nointel and later became Louis XIV's head steward.

paragraphs: Béchamel and his wife, Marie Colbert (d. April 3, 1686) had two children, Marie Louise Béchamel de Nointel (1661 – April 2, 1740) and Louis Béchamel de Nointel (1649 – December 31, 1718).

paragraphs: The white sauce called béchamel sauce (Fr. "sauce béchamel") acquired its name from him for he perfected an older sauce made from cream originally made by François Pierre de la Varenne (1615–1678), the cook of the marquis d'Uxelles. The sauce was dedicated to Béchamel to flatter him, at which the Duke of Escars commented:


title: Kathleen Sebelius

paragraphs: Kathleen Sebelius (born May 15, 1948) is an American politician. She was the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services from 2009 to 2014. Before becoming the Secretary of Health and Human Services, Sebelius was a governor from Kansas. "Time Magazine" listed Sebelius as one of America's five best governors in 2005. Sebelius is a Democrat. She resigned on April 10, 2014.


title: Lojze Grozde

paragraphs: Lojze Grozde was a Slovenian student who was killed by partisans during World War II. His death is recognised as martyrdom by the Catholic Church. He was beatified on June 13, 2010.

paragraphs: Grozde was born on May 27, 1923 in the village of Gorenje Vodale, Tržišče near Mokronog in Lower Carniola, Slovenia.

paragraphs: He was an illegitimate child. When he was four years old, his mother married. His stepfather chased him away each time he wanted to see his mother. Later, because Lojze was a good pupil, the stepfather became friendlier towards him, and so he remained at the house and his aunt took care of him. She saw to his schooling and sent him to a school in Ljubljana, where she was working as a servant. Some benefactors helped her support her nephew. He stayed at the Marijanišče boarding school and attended "Classical Secondary School" ("Klasična gimnazija") in Ljubljana. There he was an outstanding student; but found time for literary creativity too and so became poet and writer. He was a member of Catholic Action and a member of the Marian Congregation. Towards the end of his high schooling World War II was approaching. Circumstances were becoming increasingly strained. This was also the time when Lojze had to make a decision about his vocation. He sought his path in life through meditation and learning, in deep prayer, and in apostolic work for others.

paragraphs: During his summer vacation of 1942 he did not go home because there was a lot of violence and it was not easy to travel. It was only for New Year 1943 that he decided to visit his relatives. He asked for a permit to travel home. First he visited a friend of his at the village of Struge. On 1 January 1943, the first Friday, he attended mass at the monastery at Stična, where he received communion for the last time in his young life; then travelled by train from Ivančna Gorica to Trebnje, where he found he could not travel further because the rails had been destroyed. He decided to continue to Mirna on foot, and on the way he rode in a cart. By the first house at Mirna he had to get out of the cart because a partisan guard seized and interrogated him. On him they found a devotional book, The Imitation of Christ by Thomas a Kempis and a booklet on Our Lady of Fatima. He was taken to a nearby inn and interrogated, tortured, and killed. Three hours earlier the seminarian Janez Hočevar, who wanted to visit his relatives in nearby Šentrupert, had been also shot. Lojze Grozde was suspected of being an informant; the communists saw in him the mentality that they deprecated and persecuted.

paragraphs: Soon rumors spread about cruel way the Tone Tomšič Partisan Brigade, which had conquered Mirna, celebrated the New Year.

paragraphs: Some others maintain that Grozde was not tortured.

paragraphs: Other sources state that he was tortured.

paragraphs: On 23 February 1943 the fate of Lojze Grozde was partly revealed, indicating that he had been tortured. Schoolchildren picking snowdrops found his corpse. Although there were traces of torture on his body, the corpse itself was uncorrupted. His body was taken to nearby Šentrupert, where a committee made a report. The body of Lojze Grozde was buried at the cemetery in Šentrupert because it was impossible to take it to his home parish of Tržišče under the difficult circumstances of those days. The news of the violent torture and death of this innocent student struck fear among people and shocked the students in Ljubljana.

paragraphs: On the 50th anniversary of the death of Lojze Grozde, the Archdiocese of Ljubljana started a process to recognize his martyrdom and also his beatification and canonization. When Pope John Paul II visited Slovenia for the first time in 1996, he mentioned Lojze Grozde twice. He said, "The servant of God Lojze Grozde is just one of innumerable innocent victims of Communism that raise the palm of martyrdom as an indelible memory and admonition. He was a disciple of Christ." Pope Benedict XVI said that "saints are not the past, but they represent the present and the future of the Church and society. They fully realized love in truth, which is the highest value in Christian life; their figures are like prisms that in various casts reflect the unique light of Christ."

paragraphs: On March 27, 2010 the news came from Rome that Pope Benedict XVI had affirmed the martyrdom of Lojze Grozde. Thus a solemn beatification is allowed that took place at the Slovenian eucharistic congress in Celje on June 13, 2010.

paragraphs: In his introduction to the biography of Lojze Grozde by Anton Strle, who is also a candidate for sainthood, Taras Kermauner wrote: "Grozde combines the ardour and apostolate of Friderik Baraga, the asceticism and suffering of Janez Frančišek Gnidovec, a gift for organization, and the Slovenian national consciousness of Blessed Anton Martin Slomšek ... He symbolizes the entire martyrdom suffered by Christians and Catholic Slovenians during World War II and afterwards for their affiliation to their faith ... His personality should be returned to the common Slovenian consciousness of heroes that have been praised and elevated to the first plane as the only models. Today a man like Grozde is needed as our model – a martyr, a saint. Not a man of aggressive military action thinking he will put forward God with arms and the blood of other or foreign people ... I do not fear to write that Grozde belongs among the greatest young Slovenians; that his attitude is fitting and most precious."


title: Szilárd Bogdánffy

paragraphs: Szilárd Ignác Bogdánffy was a Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop of Satu Mare and Oradea of the Latins. On October 30, 2010 he was proclaimed blessed in a ceremony held in St. Mary's Basilica, Oradea, Romania, being recognized as a martyr of the Communist period.

paragraphs: Szilárd Bogdánffy was born on February 21, 1911 in the village of Feketetõ, then part of Torontal district, Austria-Hungary; today called Crna Bara, near the town of Kikinda, district Northern Banat, autonomous province of Vojvodina, Serbia. He lived there with his family until 1925. He was baptized in the parish church of Čoka to which his village belonged and where his father was a cantor.

paragraphs: Bogdánffy went to elementary school in Crna Bara, until 1925 when the Bogdánffy family moved to Timişoara a city in Eastern part of Banat. There he went to the Piarists high school. After his final exams, he was accepted to the Catholic seminary of the Latin-rite Diocese of Oradea. He was ordained a priest by the bishop of Oradea Stefan Fiedler on the June 29, 1934. He continued his studies at the University of Budapest, where he earned a PhD in philosophy and dogmatics (with a thesis on “Apocalyptics in the Synoptic Gospels”). Upon his return to Romania he became professor of the Catholic seminary in Oradea and confessor at the Ursuline convent in the city. In 1939 he was followed by the Royal Romanian Secret Services for alleged anti-Romanian activity. During World War II – because he was hiding Jews – he was also interrogated by the Hungarian Fascist „Nyílás” gendarmes.

paragraphs: After the end of the war, the new Romanian communist leadership started a campaign against Christian (especially against the catholic Christian) religion. As a consequence, the Vatican allowed secret consecration of bishops. Dr. Szilárd Bogdánffy was consecrated as bishop of Oradea of the Latins and auxiliary bishop of Satu Mare on February 14, 1949 by Gerald Patrick O’Hara, Regent of the Apostolic Nunciature to Bucharest. The new bishop was arrested and imprisoned only two months later. He had previously been approached, on several occasions, by representatives o the regime, with the request that he lead an "independent Romanian Latin-rite Church, with no ties to the Vatican" which he adamantly refused. Until his death he spent four years as a captive in various prisons throughout Romania, including the evil reputed Capul-Midia camp. He fell seriously ill, being affected by bad conditions and regular tortures. In Aiud Prison, as the Byzantine rite Catholic bishop of Lugoj, Ioan Ploscaru recalled, Bishop Bogdánffy was "humble and serene, always ready to help his fellow sufferers". Although lying with serious pneumonia, the prison doctor refused him the necessary medication claiming he was not worthy of it. He died in solitary confinement on October 3rd, 1953 in the prison of Aiud, Romania.

paragraphs: His beatification took place on October 30th, 2010, in Oradea. Saint mass with 200 priests, 42 bishops and two cardinals guided and during it preached Cardinal Péter Erdő, Archbishop of Esztergom-Budapest, President of the Council of European Bishops' Conferences (CCEE). The same ceremony of beatification was presided by the Cardinal and Archbishop Angelo Amato, President of the Congregation for causes of the Saints. He is the first Catholic martyred during the Communist regime in Romania to be elevated to the honor of the altars.


title: Trevor Bayne

paragraphs: Trevor Bayne (born February 19, 1991) is an American race car driver. In the Sprint Cup Series, he drives the No. 6 Ford Fusion for Roush Fenway Racing. On February 20, 2011 Trevor Bayne won the 2011 Daytona 500. Bayne is now the youngest driver to win the Daytona 500.

paragraphs: Trevor Bayne started racing Go-Karts when he was 5 years old. Bayne won over 300 races and 22 championships in Go-Karts. In 2005, Bayne started racing in the Allison Legacy Series. He drove in 22 races, and won 12 of those races. In 2006, Bayne raced for Team Rensi in the USAR Pro Hooters Cup, and he won the Rookie of the Year award at age of 15. In 2007, Bayne left Team Rensi to race for Dale Earnhardt, Inc.

paragraphs: For the 2008 season, Bayne drove the #1 car for Dale Earnhardt Incorporated in the NASCAR Camping World East Series. Bayne had 6 Top 5's, two poles and one win at Thompson International Speedway in his 6th start. In the 2009 season Bayne made his first NASCAR Nationwide Series start for Means Racing in the #52 Taco Bell Chevrolet at Bristol Motor Speedway. Bayne also agreed to drive the #99 Aarons Toyota for Michael Waltrip Racing for 8 races. Bayne got his career best finish at O'Reilly Raceway Park when he finished 7. In September 2010, Bayne left Diamond-Waltrip Racing and went to drive for Roush-Fenway Racing. He will drive for Roush-Fenway Racing in the 2011 season in the NASCAR Nationwide Series. He made his first NASCAR Sprint Cup Series start in the 2010 AAA Texas 500 at Texas Motor Speedway with Wood Brothers Racing. Bayne is the first driver to compete in one of the top three NASCAR series to be born in 1991.

paragraphs: Bayne drove the #21 Wood Brothers Racing Ford in 17 Sprint Cup Series races in 2011. He did not competing for the Rookie of the Year award because he was racing the full Nationwide Series season. Bayne won his first Sprint Cup Series race in his second race ever, the 2011 Daytona 500. This win makes him the second youngest driver ever to win a Sprint Cup Series race, and the youngest ever driver to win the Daytona 500. In 2015 Bayne started racing full time in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series for Roush Fenway Racing.


title: Ambrosia (band)

paragraphs: Ambrosia are a pop rock music group. It formed in the Los Angeles area around 1970. They had many radio hits in the 1970s, although much of the material is progressive in nature. The founding members of Ambrosia grew up in southern California.


title: Miguel Olivo

paragraphs: Miguel Olivo (born July 15, 1978) is a Major League Baseball player from Villa Vasquez, Dominican Republic. Olivo plays as a catcher for the Seattle Mariners. In 1996, Olivo was signed as a free agent by the Oakland Athletics. In December, 2000, he was traded to the Chicago White Sox for Chad Bradford. Olivo made his Major League Baseball debut on September 15, 2002, for the Chicago White Sox. On December 9, 2010, Olivo signed a two year, seven million dollar deal with the Seattle Mariners.


title: Vulnerability index

paragraphs: The vulnerability index is a tool for finding out who among the street homeless population needs health care and housing the most. It is being used in more and more cities in the USA. Volunteeers conduct a survey of people living in homeless shelters, warming centers and people who do not have any housing at all.

paragraphs: The vulnerability index is from the work of Dr. Jim O'Connell of Boston's Healthcare for the Homeless. He was concerned about the causes of death of unsheltered homeless individuals living on the street. A national drive is underway by Common Ground to work with the HUD homeless count. Since communities are doing the count, he believes that is a good time to do the vulnerability index too. Its' people say that using it will help getting needy individuals off the street.

paragraphs: The vulnerability index has been tried out in a lot of other places not just the East Coast. These include Charlotte, North Carolina, Albuquerque, New Mexico and Santa Monica, California.


title: Common Ground

paragraphs: Common Ground is a nonprofit social services organization. It provides housing for the homeless and others. Their philosophy holds that housing costs less than homeless shelters. It also costs many times less than jail cells or hospital rooms, They also believe that people with psychiatric and other problems can better manage them once they have a place to live. It was started in 1990 by Rosanne Haggerty. Since then the organization has created more than 2,000 units of housing for the homeless. "This is about creating a small town, rather than just a building," according to Haggerty. "It’s about a real mixed society, working with many different people."

paragraphs: Haggerty’s work was recognized in 2001. She was selected as a prize winner and received and award called a MacArthur Fellowship award. The MacArthur Foundation praised her work in saving historic buildings, and fixing them up. She used creative financing which means new ways to deal with banks and other organizations that provide money for housing.

paragraphs: Among Common Ground's activities is documentation of the homeless population. In other words, to study them and write down what is going on so that people can figure out a plan of action. Sometimes this is done while counting the homeless. These counts are sometimes called "enumeration" because they put a number on how many homeless there are.

paragraphs: In these counts, there is a way of writing down who is most vulnerable, who is most in danger from being homeless. This is called a vulnerability index. Workers complete the vulnerability index by asking about medical problems. Then they try to persuade those who spend the most time on the streets to seek permanent housing. They do this even if the people still have drug, alcohol or medical problems. Some of those involved in the issue of homelessness consider Common Ground a pioneer - someone who thinks up new ways to deal with old problems.

paragraphs: However, the count is not an end to itself, but a first step. According to Becky Kanis, the Director of Common Ground’s "Innovations Department",

paragraphs: The important part is what we do with this information. We want to move from crisis management to lasting solutions. Other cities have done that successfully. We plan to do the same. ... At the real end of the day the only thing that’s going to matter is the people who have been ... unwilling to accept the offers of shelter... Can we reach them and make a positive difference in their lives?... "

paragraphs: Some people have asked if what works in New York will work in other places.

paragraphs: Kanis states: "We don’t know exactly what’s going to work here in New York, but we know what’s worked in other cities. Therefore, we’re going to spend our efforts doing those things, and as we find smarter and better ways to do things we will adopt them.


title: Chinese mountain cat

paragraphs: The Chinese Mountain cat ("Felis bieti"), also known as the Chinese Desert cat, is a small wild cat of western China. It is a little-known member of the genus "Felis", the common cats.

paragraphs: Some authorities regard the "chutchta" and "vellerosa" subspecies of the Wildcat as Chinese Mountain cat subspecies.


title: Mason Ryan

paragraphs: Barri Griffiths (born January 13, 1982 in Tremadog, Wales) better known by his ring name Mason Ryan, is a Welsh professional wrestler currently signed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and to the Raw brand where he used to be part of the stable, The Nexus. He also wrestled for Florida Championship Wrestling where was a one time FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship. Griffiths is a former Gladiator where he was known by the name, Goliath. He has also wrestled in several wrestling tournaments throughout his home country Wales before joining the WWE.


title: Expansion pack

paragraphs: An expansion pack is an addition (extra part) of a video game, that adds to it. Expansion packs can add characters, worlds, weapons, or scenarios. They can be for all types of video games.

paragraphs: Most expansion packs need the main version of the game to play, although there are a few exceptions which can be purchased stand-alone, such as "The Ultimate Doom".

paragraphs: Expansion packs are usually cheaper than the main game, or may even be free.

paragraphs: The term "Expansion Pack" was also used by Nintendo for a hardware add-on that plugged into the Nintendo 64 and was required for some games. It increased the RAM from 4 MB to 8 MB.


title: Florence Henderson

paragraphs: Florence Agnes Henderson (February 14, 1934 – November 24, 2016) was an American actress and singer. She starred as Carol Brady in "The Brady Bunch" between 1969 and 1974. She was hosting her own talk show, "The Florence Henderson Show", on television.

paragraphs: Henderson died suddenly of heart failure at a hospital in Los Angeles, California on November 24, 2016, aged 82.


title: The Subtle Knife

paragraphs: The Subtle Knife is the second book of the "His Dark Materials" trilogy written by Philip Pullman and first published in 1997.

paragraphs: In the first world that Lyra enters, Lyra meets a boy of 12 years named Will Parry who comes from Oxford of the reader's universe and is escaping from the authorities. Defending his sick mother he has accidentally killed a man.They travel through a silent world to resolve many mysteries. They begin to realize that there is something special about that world.


title: Minerva McGonagall

paragraphs: Minerva McGonagall is a fictional character in the "Harry Potter" books written by J. K. Rowling. This character is a teacher at the school Hogwarts, and a good character in the series. She helps Harry Potter, the main character, many times in the series. She teaches "transfiguration", a type of magic where you change objects or animals into other objects and animals. At the end of the books, McGonagall becomes the school principal. Her honorary title is Hogwarts Headmistress.

paragraphs: When McGonagall was young she went to Hogwarts. She was in Gryffindor, a house for brave and bold students. When she got older she decided to train herself to be an "animagus", a wizard who can change themselves into an animal without a wand. She can change into a cat. Later, she became a member of the Order Of the Phoenix, an organization trained to fight evil wizards. In a quidditch match, she was hurt by a Slytherin player.

paragraphs: McGonagall is played by Maggie Smith in the movies.


title: Knots Landing

paragraphs: Knots Landing was an American soap opera which began December 27, 1979 and ended May 13, 1993. It was a spin-off of "Dallas". The show aired on CBS throughout its run. It was set around a fictional coastal suburb of Los Angeles and focuses on four married couples living in a cul-de-sac. By the time of the show's end, it had become one of the longest running primetime drama shows on television in the US.


title: Okra

paragraphs: Okra ("Abelmoschus esculentus") are known in many English-speaking countries as lady's fingers or gumbo) is a flowering plant in the mallow family, related to cotton and hibiscus. It is valued for its edible green seed pods. It is cultivated for the pods, which are harvested in the immature stage and used in salads, soups and dishes. It is the national vegetable of Pakistan.


title: Daniel (name)

paragraphs: Daniel is a Hebrew given name for males and a surname. It means, "GOD IS MY JUDGE".

paragraphs: There are many nicknames for "Daniel": "Dan", "Danny, Dani" (English) and "Danya" (Russia). For females, nicknames include "Danielle", "Daniela", "Dani", and "Danitza". "Daniel" as a surname developed into Daniels, meaning "son of Daniel".


title: Ruthless People

paragraphs: Ruthless People is a 1986 American black comedy crime movie which stars Danny DeVito, Helen Slater, Bette Midler and Judge Reinhold. Also starring in the movie is Bill Pullman in his movie debut. David Zucker, Jerry Zucker and Jim Abrahams are the directors of this movie. It was distributed via Touchstone Pictures.


title: Alexandertorte

paragraphs: Alexandertorte, also known as Alexander Torte or Aleksander Torte, is a dessert of pastry strips filled with raspberry preserves.

paragraphs: Its origin is not really known. Although Alexander I employed Carême, this dessert is not claimed by Carême. It was possibly first made in Finland, by Swiss pastry chefs in Helsinki in 1818, when Alexander was due to visit. It is also said to be a Latvian dish.


title: 2011 Christchurch earthquake

paragraphs: The 2011 Christchurch earthquake was a 6.3 magnitude earthquake which struck the South Island of New Zealand at on NZT. (This is 23:51 UTC). It was about 5 km underground. It struck the Canterbury region of the island and caused a lot of damage and many deaths in Christchurch, New Zealand's second largest city.

paragraphs: It was the largest aftershock of the 4 September 2010 Canterbury earthquake, although it is being regarded as a separate earthquake. It was smaller than the September earthquake, but it was more damaging because it was closer to Christchurch and nearer to the surface of the earth. It also happened at lunchtime on a Tuesday compared to before dawn on a Saturday, which meant that more people were outside and in danger of being injured by falling buildings. Buildings were also already weakened from the previous quakes. The intensity felt in Christchurch was MM VIII.

paragraphs: Prime Minister John Key said that the 22nd of February "may well be New Zealand's darkest day".

paragraphs: At least 166 people have been confirmed dead with the final death toll expected to be over 200.

paragraphs: At the end of the first day 65 people were known to have died, and the number is expected to rise. Over 100 people may be trapped in one building alone. The New Zealand Fire Service says many people were injured and trapped in buildings. At 5pm local time Radio New Zealand reported that 80% of the city was without electricity. Water and wastewater services are not working in many parts of the city. People are being asked to use as little water as possible and to collect rainwater. It is expected that the State of Emergency Level 3, the highest possible in a regional disaster, will last at least five days. Medical staff from the army are being used.

paragraphs: The "Sydney Morning Herald" reported that two buses and a number of cars were crushed by falling buildings.

paragraphs: Buildings have collapsed around Cathedral Square in downtown Christchurch. The spire of ChristChurch Cathedral has completely collapsed. Christchurch Hospital was evacuated due to damage in some areas, but soon reopened to treat the injured. It has treated over 220 serious injuries so far, even though sometimes they were working by torchlight. The New Zealand defence forces have been called in to help move people out of the central business district. Fires were reported at the Canterbury Television (CTV) building.

paragraphs: The Pyne Gould Corporation building on Cambridge Terrace has suffered a lot of damage (photo), and some of the building's 200 workers are believed to be trapped within. Screams have been heard from inside.

paragraphs: The historic Canterbury Provincial Chambers building has also suffered major damage from the earthquake.

paragraphs: The Statistics New Zealand buildings in Christchurch were also damaged. They were due to process much of the March 2011 census of New Zealand. The census has been cancelled because people living in Christchurch have had their lives seriously disrupted. This is the third time the census has been cancelled, the previous two times being during the Great Depression and World War II.

paragraphs: ChristChurch Cathedral has lost the top of its main spire and its roof has fallen in. (photos) Initial reports said 22 people were in the spire at the time of the collapse. However, after the building was made safe to enter over a week after the quake, and searched thoroughly, "no" bodies were located.

paragraphs: The Catholic cathedral of Christchurch, the Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, has half collapsed.

paragraphs: Buildings in Lyttelton have been damaged; a fire officer said that 60% of the buildings in the main street have collapsed. The town's historic Timeball Station was also badly damaged. The New Zealand Historic Places Trust who own the building have decided that it is unsafe to try to repair it. It will be dismantled, if possible, and perhaps re-constructed.

paragraphs: Around 30 million tonnes of ice fell off Tasman Glacier into Tasman Lake, about from the epicentre, hitting tour boats with waves 3.5 high.

paragraphs: The quake was felt as far north as Tauranga and as far south as Invercargill, where the 111 emergency network was damaged and stopped working.

paragraphs: New Zealand Prime Minister, John Key, said "All Civil Defence procedures have now been activated; the Civil Defence bunker at Parliament is in operation here in Wellington." Civil Defence has alerted all Urban Search and Rescue teams in Christchurch. The New Zealand Red Cross is also involved.

paragraphs: Australia has offered help, and immediately sent a search and rescue team of 70 from New South Wales on a RAAF C-130 Hercules. Foreign Affairs Minister Kevin Rudd also said a second team from South Australia will also be sent with more equipment. Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard has offered John Key any other help he may need.

paragraphs: The United States and Japan have also offered help.

paragraphs: Christchurch International Airport was only open for emergency air traffic, but has now been opened to all local and domestic flights. The earthquake has affected all air traffic in New Zealand. Air traffic control services by Airways New Zealand, the national Air Traffic Control organisation, have been disrupted.


title: Adolphe Dugléré

paragraphs: Adolphe Dugléré (born Bordeaux, June 3, 1805 - died Paris April 4, 1884) was a French chef and a pupil of Carême.

paragraphs: Dugléré was a "chef de cuisine" to the Rothschild family until 1848, and was manager at the restaurant "Les Frères Provençaux" at the Palais-Royal from 1848 to 1866 which was owned by three men from Provence named Barthélémy, Maneille and Simonas (who were, in reality, not brothers).

paragraphs: In 1866 he became the head chef of the which was the most famous Paris restaurant of the 19th century and where he is believed to have created the dish "Pommes Anna".

paragraphs: It was at the Café Anglais in 1867 that Dugléré served a famous meal that became known as the Dîner des trois empereurs, () for Tsar Alexander II of Russia, his son the tsarevitch (who later became Tsar Alexander III) and King William I of Prussia, as well as Prince Otto von Bismarck who were in Paris for "L'Exposition Universelle". The table service used for this meal is on display to this day at the oldest existing restaurant in Paris, "La Tour d'Argent" which is owned by the descendants of Claudius Burdel, the last owner of Café Anglais which was demolished in 1913.

paragraphs: The evening of 7 June 1867 is reputed to have been the most magnificent ever to have occurred in any restaurant in the world. The three emperors and Prince Bismarck had requested of Dugléré a meal that would live in their memories and the "maître de cave", Claudius Burdel, was instructed to accompany the dishes with the greatest wines in the world.

paragraphs: The most famous dish attributed to Dugléré is almost certainly "Pommes Anna". Other dishes created by Dugléré include "Potage Germiny", a sorrel soup created for the Count of Germiny, governor of the Bank of France, "Poularde Albufera", dedicated to Maréchal Suchet, Duke of Albufera, "Soufflé à l'anglaise", "Sole Dugléré" and "Culotte de bœuf Salomon", (dedicated to Salomon de Rothschild) and "Barbue à la Dugléré" (brill in tomato and parsley sauce).

paragraphs: He is also credited with inventing "Tournedos Rossini", but this dish has also been credited to both Escoffier as well as Carême (although not the title itself). It was composer Gioachino Rossini who dubbed Dugléré "Le Mozart de la cuisine" (The Mozart of the Kitchen). It was a title he used on the menu for the Dinner of the Three Emperors.


title: Sean Avery

paragraphs: Sean Christopher Avery (born April 10, 1980 in Pickering, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey left winger. He played 12 years in the National Hockey League (NHL). He played with the Detroit Red Wings, Los Angeles Kings, New York Rangers, and Dallas Stars. Avery was known for his agitating playing style, as well as his controversial behavior both on and off the ice.

paragraphs: He has also worked as an intern for Vogue, a male model and a restaurateur.

paragraphs: Avery has been featured on MTV Cribs, Punk'd and TRL and has also opened a sports bar called, Warren 77 in Manhattan.


title: Cul-de-sac

paragraphs: A cul-de-sac (literally "bottom of bag") is a word that came from the French language and means a small street without a way through at the far end. It is also used in Catalan and Occitan, its meaning being equivalent to a dead end, close, or no through road (United Kingdom, Australian and Canadian English). While culs-de-sac were built in history for other reasons, its modern use is to calm down the traffic.


title: Daniel Boone

paragraphs: Daniel Boone(1734 – 1820) was an American explorer and frontiersman. He is probably most famous for exploring Kentucky when it was not part of the U.S. In 1769 he made the Wilderness Road, a trail through the Appalachian Mountains from North Carolina and Tennessee and through Kentucky. He spent the last 20 years of his life in Missouri.

paragraphs: Boone was born on October 24 1734 (N.S.). Boone's grandfather, George Boone, a Quaker, immigrated from England in 1717. Daniel Boone was born in Berks County, Pennsylvania, the son of Squire Boone and Sarah Morgan. His father was a weaver while his mother ran the family farm. In addition to his chores on the farm, Boone learned to hunt, fish and trap. When he was 15 his family moved to the Yadkin Valley of North Carolina.

paragraphs: Boone was a part of an British expedition in 1755 into French territory. When the column was attacked by Indians allied to the French, the British commander, General Edward Braddock was mortally wounded and many of the soldiers were killed. This was the Battle of the Monongahela where then colonel George Washington rallied the British and the Virginia militia into an organized retreat. Boone, who was supervisor of the wagon train was one of those who retreated with Washington. He returned to North Carolina and settled on a farm near his father's. In 1756 he married Rebecca Bryan.

paragraphs: 1757 saw several more British defeats but life on Boone's farm remained peaceful. In 1758 the British had several victories over the French. But at the same time their Cherokee allies were becoming tired of poor treatment by the British and the Americans. The French took advantage of this and encouraged the Cherokees to attack American homesteads. In 1759 the indians attacked in Virginia, North and South Carolina. To protect their families many settlers left their farms for safer areas. Boone took his wife, two young sons, and all the belongings they could carry in a single wagon to Culpeper County, Virginia. To make a living Boone hauled tobacco to market in Fredericksburg, Virginia. In 1763 Boone and his family returned to their farm in North Carolina.

paragraphs: Boone first heard of the lands of Kentucky while he was serving with General Braddock in 1755. The person he heard it from was John Findley, another member of the wagon train. Findley had been there as a trader at a Shawnee village called "Blue Lick". He talked about Kentucky as a paradise full of wild game. Boone decided he had to see Kentucky. On a long hunt in the winter of 1767–68 he, his brother Squire and a friend named William Hill moved westward trying to find Kentucky. They reached as far as the present site of Prestonsburg, Kentucky where they remained the rest of the winter. Not realizing they had reached Kentucky, they returned to North Carolina in the spring. Boone again met John Findley and asked him for the route from North Carolina to Kentucky. Findley was not a but did know of a trail the Cherokee used when they made war on the Carolina colonies. In the summer of 1769 Boone and five companions used the warrior's trail to get to Kentucky. They hunted and explored the area. Most of his friends were killed or captured by Indians, but Boone and his brother escaped every time. He made another attempt to reach eastern Kentucky in 1763 but had to turn back. In 1775 he founded the settlement of Boonesborough, Kentucky.

paragraphs: In 1778, Boone and a party were gathering salt when they were attacked. Boone was captured and taken to Detroit where the indians made him a member of their tribe. Boone soon escaped and returned to Boonesborough. In one of the last battles of the American Revolutionary War, Boone, a lieutenant colonel, was at the Battle of Blue Licks on 19 August 1782. The Americans were led into an ambush. Boone was one of the last to retreat. His son Israel Boone was killed in the battle. Boone was the hero of the battle, but other leaders had not listened to his warnings that it was a trap. Boone remained a leading figure in Kentucky for the next 24 years. Through a series of defective land titles and being cheated by land speculators, Boone lost all his lands in Kentucky. There were swarms of people coming into Kentucky and Boone felt crowded. Kentucky was no longer the wilderness it was when he first came there. Now he wanted to discover new lands. He was drawn to the wilds of what is now eastern Missouri.

paragraphs: In 1799, Boone moved with much of his extended family to what is now Warren County, Missouri. It was then part of Spanish Louisiana. The area later became part of Missouri. The Spanish were eager to promote settlement in the sparsely populated region. So they did not enforce the requirement that all immigrants had to be Roman Catholic. The Spanish governor appointed Boone "syndic" (Justice of the peace) of the "Femme Osage" district. Boone served as syndic and commandant until 1804, when the area became part of the Louisiana Purchase. His land grants from the Spanish government had been largely based on verbal agreements. But the former Lieutenant-governor, Zenon Trudeau made the promise in writing and Boone's lands were confirmed. But Boone had not made the necessary improvements under the law and the lands were again taken away. About 1810 Boone sent a petition to Congress to restore his lands. It took them until 1814 to create a special bill which was signed by President James Monroe on 10 February 1814. Boone spent his final years in Missouri, often in the company of children and grandchildren, where he continued to hunt and trap as much as his health and energy levels permitted. He died on 26 September 1820 just before sunrise. His body was taken to Charette, Louisiana territory (now Marthasville, Missouri) and buried next to his wife Rebecca.

paragraphs: In 1845 a group from Kentucky removed the bones of Daniel and Rebecca Boone from their cemetery in Missouri. They took them to Frankfort, Kentucky to be buried in a tomb there. Reverend Philip Fall made a plaster cast of the skull of the body they removed from Missouri. The plaster cast was then presented to the Kentucky State Historical Society. In 1862 the State of Kentucky created a monument over the grave in the Frankfurt cemetery.

paragraphs: A forensic anthropologist, Dr. David Wolf, examined the plaster cast and stated it was probably that of a black slave. Wolf said the cast made by Rev. Fall did not provide enough evidence to be certain, but several clues also point to the conclusion it may not be Daniel Boone. Wolf stated he does not believe the skull shape, slope of the brow, the brow ridges and occipital bone are caucasian. The body removed from Missouri was that of a "large and robust man". According to Boone's brother-in-law Daniel Bryan described Boone as about 5 foot 8 or 9 inches tall. Boone had blonde hair and blue eyes.

paragraphs: Several Missouri historians have stated before that the bones taken from the Missouri cemetery were actually those of a slave. When Boone died at age 85, the gravediggers discovered an unmarked body had been buried next to Rebecca Boone (died 1813). The stranger was left in his grave and Daniel was buried at the foot of his wife's grave. But 16 years later a gravestone was mistakenly placed over the stranger's grave. When the party from Kentucky took the bodies in 1845 they took the bodies of Rebecca and the stranger next to her, wrongly marked as Daniel Boone. Both states claim to have the actual grave of Daniel Boone.


title: International Labour Organization

paragraphs: The International Labour Organization (ILO) is an international organization created in Geneva in 1919 for better for working conditions and standard of living. In 1946, this organization has become a special organization of the United Nations and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1969.

paragraphs: Juan Somavía was the ILO's director-general from 1999 until October 2012, when Guy Ryder was elected as his replacement. This governing body is composed of 28 government representatives, 14 workers' representatives, and 14 employers' representatives.

paragraphs: The constitution of the International Labour Organization affirms that "universal and lasting peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice." An additional declaration adopted in Philadelphia at the 26th section affirms that "Labour is not a commodity" (I (a)), "Freedom of expression and association are essential to sustained progress" (I (b)), "Poverty anywhere constitutes a danger to prosperity everywhere" (I (c)), and that "All human beings, irrespective of race, creed or sex, have the right to pursue both their material well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic security and equal opportunity". (II (a))

paragraphs: For this purpose, ILO has made 189 Conventions called "International Labour Convention" but many countries do not ratify the Conventions despite its importance.


title: James Graham Brown

paragraphs: James Graham Brown (August 18, 1881 — March 20, 1969) was an American businessman and philanthropist. He was a hotel owner in Louisville, Kentucky. It was his hotel, the Brown Hotel, which first served the hot sandwich.

paragraphs: The name Hot Brown meaning a type of hot sandwich comes either from Brown himself, or his hotel.


title: Social justice

paragraphs: Social justice is an idea of justice that is based on social equality and opposes any kind of discrimination or abuse based on social class, social status or any other reasons.

paragraphs: This idea is discussed by modern philosophers such as John Rawls. It is a fundamental idea for International Labour Organization for universal and lasting peace; And Vienna Declaration also affirm social justice as a subject and a purpose of education for human rights.


title: Baker County, Oregon

paragraphs: Baker County, Oregon is a county in Oregon.


title: Bradford County

paragraphs: Bradford County is the name of two counties in the United States:


Bradford County, Florida


title: Bradford County, Pennsylvania

paragraphs: Bradford County is a county in Pennsylvania.


title: Calhoun County

paragraphs: Calhoun County is the name of many counties in the United States, mostly named after Senator John C. Calhoun:


title: Calhoun County, Florida

paragraphs: Calhoun County is a county in Florida. It is named after John C. Calhoun. He lived in South Carolina and was a member of the United States Senate. He later became the President of the United States.


title: 2011 Daytona 500

paragraphs: The 2011 Daytona 500 took place on February 20th 2011 at the Daytona International Speedway. It was the first race of the 2011 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. Dale Earnhardt, Jr. won the pole in qualifying, however he did not start in 1st place because he crashed his car during practice. The race was won by Trevor Bayne. At 20 years old, he is the youngest driver to win the race.


title: Melrose Place (1992 TV series)

paragraphs: Melrose Place was an American primetime soap opera which began July 8th, 1992 and ended May 24, 1999. The show lasted seven seasons on Fox. Starring in the show were Daphne Zuniga, Marcia Cross, Courtney Thorne Smith, Josie Bissett, Heather Locklear, and many others. Aaron Spelling was the executive producer for Melrose Place throughout its seven year run. Many cast changes happened during this time period.


title: Speciation

paragraphs: Speciation is about how species form. It is a major part of evolutionary biology.

paragraphs: Darwin thought most species arose directly from pre-existing species. This is called anagenesis: species by changing, or 'phyletic evolution'. For much of the 20th century we thought most species arose by previous species splitting: cladogenesis.

paragraphs: The general view was that most species splitting is caused or helped on its way by isolating mechanisms.

paragraphs: No doubt the physical separation of species which once lived together is a main factor. It is illustrated by so many examples, some of which are discussed below.

paragraphs: However, work in the last 20 years has shown some other causes. Analysing the DNA sequence of living things has shown that there is often some hybridisation between related species. That means genes have been transferred by these crosses. In turn, that means reproductive isolation is not the only definition of a species, and speciation does not always need allopatry (species to be reproductively separated). The sections below illustrate the idea that physical separation was of prime importance in the formation of new species.

paragraphs: Isolating mechanisms are things which prevent successful breeding between groups in a species. Reproductive isolation of populations is established. This is particularly important to the biological species concept, as species are defined by reproductive isolation.

paragraphs: Isolating mechanisms can be divided into two groups, before and after fertilisation.

paragraphs: Factors which prevent individuals from mating.

paragraphs: Factors which prevent mating being successful, such as genetic incompatibility, hybrid inviability or sterility.

paragraphs: This is thought to be the most comon cause of speciation. The first person to think of it was Moritz Wagner, a German explorer and natural historian.

paragraphs: Wagner's early career was as a geographer, and he published a number of geographical books about North Africa, the Middle East, and Tropical America. He was also a keen naturalist and collector, and it is for this work he is best known among biologists. Ernst Mayr, the evolutionist and historian of biology, has given an account of Wagner's significance.

paragraphs: During his three years in Algeria, Wagner (amongst other activities) studied the flightless beetles "Pimelia" and "Melasoma". Each genus is split into a number of species, each of which is confined to a stretch of the north coast between rivers which descend from the Atlas Mountains to the Mediterranean. As soon as one crosses a river, a different but closely related species appears.

paragraphs: This was an early description of a process of one kind of geographic speciation. In 1942 it was reintroduced by Mayr, and the importance of geographic speciation became one of the core ideas of the evolutionary synthesis.

paragraphs: Another term for geographic speciation is allopatric speciation. Allopatry means 'different land'.

paragraphs: Volcanic islands are formed with no life, and all life has to arrive carried by wind or water. We know from the Hawaiian islands and from the Galapagos Islands that all forms of life change when they reach the islands from the mainland.

paragraphs: In about , the Hawaiian Islands have the most diverse collection of drosophilid flies in the world, living from rainforests to mountain meadows. About 800 Hawaiian drosophilid species are known.

paragraphs: Studies show a clear "flow" of species from older to newer islands. There are also cases of colonization back to older islands, and skipping of islands, but these are much less frequent.

paragraphs: By potassium/argon radioactive dating, the present islands date from 0.4 million years ago (mya) (Mauna Kea) to 10mya (Necker). The oldest member of the Hawaiian archipelago still above the sea is Kure Atoll, which can be dated to 30 mya.

paragraphs: The archipelago itself, produced by the Pacific plate moving over a hot spot, has existed for far longer, at least into the Cretaceous. The Hawaiian islands plus former islands which are now beneath the sea make up the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain; and many of the underwater mountains are guyots.

paragraphs: All of the native drosophilid species in Hawaii have apparently descended from "a single ancestral species" that colonized the islands, about 20 million years ago. The subsequent adaptive radiation was spurred by a lack of competition and a wide variety of vacant niches. Although it would be possible for a single pregnant female to colonise an island, it is more likely to have been a group from the same species.

paragraphs: There are other animals and plants on the Hawaiian archipelago which have undergone similar, if less spectacular, adaptive radiations.

paragraphs: In biology, a ring species is a connected series of neighboring populations, each of which can interbreed with next-door populations. The two ends of the chain overlap.

paragraphs: The two end populations in the series are too distantly related to interbreed. Such non-breeding-though-genetically-connected 'end' populations may co-exist in the same region, thus closing a 'ring'.

paragraphs: Ring species provide important evidence of evolution: they illustrate what happens over time as populations genetically diverge. Richard Dawkins observed that ring species "are only showing us in the spatial dimension something that must always happen in the time dimension".

paragraphs: However, it is difficult to find a simple, straightforward example.

paragraphs: A classic example of ring species is the "Larus" gulls' circumpolar species ring. The range of these gulls forms a ring around the North Pole, which is not normally flown over by individual gulls.

paragraphs: Broadly speaking, the gulls can interbreed to some extent with their neighbours, except at the two ends of the ring.

paragraphs: The lesser black-backed gulls and herring gulls are sufficiently different that they do not normally hybridize; thus the group of gulls forms a continuum except where the two lineages meet in Europe.

paragraphs: Although the reality is much more complicated, it shows the general idea well.

paragraphs: The "Ensatina" salamander is a ring species in the mountains around the Californian Central Valley. The complex forms a horseshoe shape around the mountains. Though interbreeding can happen between each of the 19 populations around the horseshoe, the "Ensatina eschscholtzii" subspecies on the western end of the horseshoe cannot interbreed with the "Ensatina klauberi" on the eastern end. It is an illustration of "nearly all stages in a speciation process" (Dobzhansky). Richard Highton argued that "Ensatina" is a case of multiple species and not a continuum of one species.

paragraphs: The "Greenish Warbler" ("Phylloscopus trochiloides") has a number of subspecies, of which "P. t . viridianus" is the most familiar in Europe. It is a ring species with populations diverging east and westwards of the Tibetan Plateau, later meeting on the northern side. Their relationships are fairly confusing.

paragraphs: Sympatric speciation refers to the formation of two or more descendant species from a single ancestral species all occupying the same geographic location. This is now thought to be very common.

paragraphs: In sympatric speciation, species diverge while inhabiting the same place. Often-cited examples of sympatric speciation are found in insects that become dependent on different host plants in the same area.

paragraphs: The existence of sympatric speciation as a mechanism of speciation was hotly contested. People argued that the evidences of sympatric speciation are in fact examples of micro-geographic speciation. In general, this is not now the preferred explanation. Rather, it is the result of hybridisation between closely related species, followed by natural selection working on the offspring of such crosses. One widely accepted example of sympatric speciation is that of the cichlids of Lake Nabugabo in East Africa, which is thought to be due to sexual selection.

paragraphs: Polyploidy has caused many rapid speciation events because offspring of, for example, tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny.

paragraphs: However, not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parental plants, and gene flow may still occur for example through triploid hybrid x diploid matings that produce tetraploids.

paragraphs: Many of the existing plant and most animal species have apparently undergone polyploidization in their evolutionary history. Reproduction of successful polyploid species is sometimes asexual, by parthenogenesis. For unknown reasons many asexual organisms are polyploid.

paragraphs: One example of evolution at work is the case of the hawthorn fly, "Rhagoletis pomonella", which appears to be undergoing sympatric speciation.

paragraphs: Different populations of hawthorn fly feed on different fruits. A distinct population emerged in North America in the 19th century some time after apples, a non-native species, were introduced. This apple-feeding population normally feeds only on apples and not on the historically preferred fruit of hawthorns. The current hawthorn feeding population does not normally feed on apples.

paragraphs: Some evidence suggests that sympatric speciation is occurring. Hawthorn flies mature later in the season and take longer to mature than apple flies; and there is little evidence of interbreeding (researchers have documented a 4-6% hybridization rate).

paragraphs: The emergence of the new hawthorn fly is an example of evolution in progress.

paragraphs: Rarely, a new species forms when individual members of different species mate. Usually, the products of such hybrid matings are infertile (not fertile), or relatively so, and so get eliminated by natural selection.

paragraphs: One example of a new and successful hybrid species has been found. The new species is a hybrid of the Italian and Spanish sparrows, and the basic facts have been checked by sequence analysis from the DNA in their blood. The bird lives in Italy in a region where both parent species live. It does not reproduce with the Spanish sparrow even though it lives with them side-by-side.

paragraphs: New species have been created by domesticated animal husbandry, but the initial dates and methods are not clear. For example, domestic sheep were created by hybridisation, and no longer produce viable offspring with "Ovis orientalis", one species from which they are descended.

paragraphs: Domestic cattle, on the other hand, can be considered the same species as several varieties of wild ox, gaur, yak, etc., as they readily produce fertile offspring with them.

paragraphs: The best-documented creations of new species in the laboratory were performed in the late 1980s. William Rice and G.W. Salt bred fruit flies, "Drosophila melanogaster," using a maze with three different choices of habitat such as light/dark and wet/dry.

paragraphs: Each generation was placed into the maze, and the groups of flies that came out of two of the eight exits were set apart to breed with each other in their respective groups. After thirty-five generations, the two groups and their offspring were isolated reproductively because of their strong habitat preferences: they mated only within the areas they preferred, and so did not mate with flies that preferred the other areas. The history of such attempts is described in Rice and Hostert (1993).

paragraphs: Diane Dodd was also able to show how reproductive isolation can develop from mating preferences in "Drosophila pseudoobscura" after only eight generations using different food types, starch and maltose.

paragraphs: Dodd's experiment has been easy for many others to replicate, including with other kinds of fruit flies and foods.

paragraphs: Reinforcement is the process by which natural selection increases reproductive isolation.

paragraphs: It may occur after two populations of the same species are separated and then come back into contact. If their reproductive isolation was complete, then they will have already developed into two separate incompatible species.

paragraphs: If their reproductive isolation is incomplete, then further mating between the populations will produce hybrids, which may or may not be fertile. If the hybrids are infertile, or fertile but less fit than their ancestors, then there will be no further reproductive isolation and speciation has essentially occurred (e.g., as in horses and donkeys.)

paragraphs: The reasoning behind this is that if the parents of the hybrid offspring each have naturally selected traits for their own different environments, the hybrid offspring will bear traits from both, and would not fit either niche as well as either parent. The low fitness of the hybrids would cause selection to favour assortative mating, which would reduce hybridization.

paragraphs: This is sometimes called the Wallace effect after the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace who suggested in the late 19th century that it might be an important factor in speciation.

paragraphs: If the hybrid offspring are more fit than their ancestors, then the populations will merge back into the same species within the area they are in contact.

paragraphs: Reinforcement is required for separation when there is a "hybrid zone" between two forms of a species. Hybrid zones are regions where diverged populations meet and interbreed. Hybrid offspring are very common in these regions, which are usually created by diverged species coming into secondary contact.

paragraphs: Without reinforcement the two populations or species would have uncontrollable interbreeding. Reinforcement may be induced in artificial selection experiments as described above.


title: Calhoun County, Alabama

paragraphs: Calhoun County is a county in the U.S. state of Alabama. As of 2010 the population was 118,572. It is included in the Anniston-Oxford Metropolitan Statistical Area. Its county seat is Anniston.

paragraphs: Benton County was formed on December 18, 1832. It was named for Thomas Hart Benton, a member of the United States Senate from Missouri. The first county seat was at Jacksonville.

paragraphs: An F4 tornado struck here on Palm Sunday March 27, 1994. It destroyed Piedmont's Goshen United Methodist Church twelve minutes after the National Weather Service of Birmingham issued a tornado warning for northern Calhoun, southeastern Etowah, and southern Cherokee.

paragraphs: According to the 2000 census, the county has a total area of . (or 99.37%) is land and (or 0.63%) is water.

paragraphs: Calhoun County is home to the Anniston Museum of Natural History and the Berman Museum of World History. It also contains a part of the Talladega National Forest.


title: Dallas (1978 TV series)

paragraphs: Dallas is an American soap opera. It is about the Ewings, a family from Texas involved in oil and cattle ranching. The show began as a television miniseries during April 1978. It was broadcasted until May 3, 1991 on CBS. The cast included Charlene Tilton, Victoria Principal, Priscilla Presley, Patrick Duffy, and Larry Hagman as J.R. Ewing. The series lasted for fourteen seasons.

paragraphs: The show was revived on TNT in June 2012.


Calhoun County, Arkansas


title: Calhoun County, Georgia

paragraphs: Calhoun County is a county in Georgia. Its county seat is Morgan.


Calhoun County, Illinois


title: Elasmobranchii

paragraphs: Elasmobranchii is a subclass of Chondrichthyes or cartilaginous fish, that includes the sharks and the rays and skates.

paragraphs: Fossilised shark teeth are known from the early Devonian, around 400 million years ago. During the following Carboniferous period, the sharks underwent a period of diversification, with many new forms evolving. Many of these became extinct during the Permian, but the remaining sharks underwent a second burst of adaptive radiation during the Jurassic, around which time the skates and rays first appeared.


title: Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.

paragraphs: Earl Wilbur Sutherland, Jr. (November 19, 1915 – March 9, 1974) was an American pharmacologist and biochemist. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1971 for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones. He was born in Burlingame, Kansas in 1915 and died in Miami, Florida, United States in 1974.


title: Persian Wikipedia

paragraphs: Persian Wikipedia is a member of Wikimedia Foundation. It started work in December 2003. founder of Persian version is Roozbeh Pour-Nader.

paragraphs: It is the 18th largest edition by article count. Persian Wikipedia has currently more than 500,000 articles.

paragraphs: Many of the first articles on the Persian Wikipedia were about chemical materials and historical subjects. The Wikipedia added geography and religious subjects soon after. On December 16, 2004, the Wikipedia reached 10,000 articles.


title: Edward B. Lewis

paragraphs: Edward B. Lewis (May 20, 1918 – July 21, 2004) was an American geneticist. He shared the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

paragraphs: Lewis was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania He received a BA in Biostatistics from the University of Minnesota in 1939.

paragraphs: In 1942 Lewis received a PhD from California Institute of Technology (Caltech), working on "Drosophila melanogaster" under the guidance of Alfred Sturtevant.

paragraphs: After serving as a meteorologist in the U.S. Air Force in World War II, Lewis joined the Caltech faculty in 1946 as an instructor. In 1956 he was appointed Professor of Biology, and in 1966 the Thomas Hunt Morgan Professor of Biology.

paragraphs: His Nobel Prize winning studies with "Drosophila" founded the field of developmental genetics and laid the groundwork for our current understanding of the universal, evolutionarily conserved strategies controlling animal development.

paragraphs: His key publications in the fields of genetics, developmental biology, radiation and cancer are available in a book.

paragraphs: During the 1950s, Lewis studied the effects of radiation from X-rays, nuclear fallout and other sources as possible causes of cancer. He reviewed medical records from survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as well as radiologists and patients exposed to X-rays. Lewis concluded that "health risks from radiation had been underestimated". Lewis published articles in "Science" and other journals and made a presentation to a Congressional committee on atomic energy in 1957.

paragraphs: At the scientific level of the debate, the crucial question was whether the "threshold theory" was valid or whether, as Lewis insisted, the effects of radioactivity were "linear with no threshold", where every exposure to radiation had a long-term cumulative effect.

paragraphs: In a series of experiments with the fruit-fly "Drosophila", Lewis was able to identify a complex of genes whose proteins bind to the regulatory regions of target genes. The latter then activate or repress cell processes which direct the final development of the organism.

paragraphs: Furthermore, the sequence of these control genes show "co-linearity": the order of the loci in the chromosome parallels the order in which the loci are expressed in segments along the body. Not only that, but this cluster of master control genes programs the development of all higher organisms.

paragraphs: Each of the genes contains a homeobox, a remarkably conserved DNA sequence. This suggests the complex itself arose by gene duplication.

paragraphs: In his Nobel lecture, Lewis said "Ultimately, comparisons of the [control complexes] throughout the animal kingdom should provide a picture of how the organisms, as well as the [control genes] have evolved".


title: Christine Baranski

paragraphs: Christine Jane Baranski (b. 2 May 1952) is an American Actress, Singer and Producer. On stage, she played Mrs. Lovett in "Sweeney Todd" and the title character in "Mame". She has also acted in multiple movies. Baranski was born in Buffalo, New York.