title: Ernestine duchies

paragraphs: The Ernestine duchies, are sometimes called the Saxon duchies, were a changing number of small states in the present German state of Thuringia, governed by dukes of the Ernestine line of the house of Wettin. The Albertine duchies of Weissenfels, Merseburg and Zeitz were are also sometimes called "Saxon duchies" and border several Ernestine ones.

paragraphs: The old Duchy of Saxon began to split up in the 15th Century, because law said that all sons should inherit. All of the sons of a Saxon duke had the title of "Duke", sometimes brothers ruled the territory together, and sometimes they divided it up between them. Some of the Ernestine duchies stayed independent until 1918. The nearby royal houses of Reuss and Schwarzburg also divided up their territory, so Thuringia was a tangle of little states, exclaves and enclaves from the late 15th Century until the early 20th Century.

paragraphs: Albert, grandson of Albert "the Bear" inherited the Duchy of Saxony from his father. Albert's sons divided Saxony into the duchies of Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. When duke of Saxe-Wittenberg died without an heir in 1422, the Emperor Sigismund gave the duchy to Frederick IV of the House of Wettin. Frederick was already Margrave of Meißen and Landgrave of Thuringia, and then became Frederick I, Elector of Saxony. Frederick was followed as Elector by his son Frederick II, and when Frederick II died in 1464 his sons Ernest and Albert took over. Because he was the older, Ernest became Elector of Saxony, but the brothers shared ruling the lands until 1485. Then Ernest took northern Meißen, southern Thuringia, and Wittenberg, with Albert receiving northern Thuringia and southern Meißen

paragraphs: Elector Ernest died in 1486, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III, the Wise.

paragraphs: It was Frederick the Wise who set up the University of Wittenberg in 1502. This was because the only university in Saxony was in Leipzig, was in the part of Saxony controlled by the descendants of his uncle, Albert. The University of Wittenberg was were Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses. Frederick protected Luther, and did not send him to Rome for trial. Frederick allowed Lutheran reforms in his country.

paragraphs: Frederick the Wise had three grandsons to share the territory. John Frederick II set up his capitals in Eisenach and Coburg, the middle brother John William staying in Weimar (Saxe-Weimar), and the youngest, John Frederick III took Gotha (Saxe-Gotha).

paragraphs: John Frederick III of Gotha died unmarried and heirless in 1565 and John William of Weimar tried to claim Saxe-Gotha, but the sons of the imprisoned John Frederick II entered their own claim.

paragraphs: In 1572 the claimants agreed to the Division of Erfurt. This treaty said John William of Saxe-Weimar would also take the districts of Altenburg, Gotha and Meiningen.

paragraphs: The older son of John Frederick II, and John Ernest (d 1638 heirless), the younger son of John Frederick II, received together the territory of Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach. In 1596 the brothers agreed to split the duchy into Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Eisenach.

paragraphs: Johann II, Duke of Saxe-Weimar (or John II), died young but left eight surviving sons who ruled together, Three died, (including Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, the youngest, the famed general) and a will ordering them to rule jointly. Only three survived by 1639, when the lands of the Coburg-Eisenach dukes were divided between the Altenburgs and the Weimarsthe remaining brothers finally divided their lands which were twice the size of what they inherited.

paragraphs: William kept Weimar, Albert became Duke of Eisenach and Ernest "the Pious" became known as Duke of Gotha.

paragraphs: Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (1601-75) had married Elisabeth Sophie, the only child of John Philip, Duke of Altenburg(1597-1638). Elisabeth Sophie's cousin Frederick William III, Duke of Altenburg, died unmarried 1672. He was the last male descendant of the first Saxe-Altenburg line.

paragraphs: There was a big argument about who should get the Altenburg land. In the end most went to Ernest and Elisabeth Sophie's sons. One quarter the original Altenburglands went to the Saxe-Weimar branch.

paragraphs: These two lines: Weimar and Gotha(-Altenburg) form the basis of future Ernestine lines, and both have surviving male lineage up to today.

paragraphs: After the division of the first Altenburg lands line, the senior Ernestine branch (the Saxe-Weimar family ), line held just under half of the Ernestine lands, and the junior, Gotha-Altenburg, line held more than half. Gotha-Altenburg line divided more each generation. The Weimar line did not subdivide their land and by 1741 all of the land was controlled by the one branch of the Weimar family. In 1815 they became Grand Dukes.

paragraphs: Duke Ernest of Gotha and Duchess Elisabeth Sophie's numerous sons divided the inheritance into seven parts: Gotha-Altenburg, Coburg, Meiningen, Römhild, Eisenberg, Hildburghausen and Saalfeld. The new dukes of Coburg, Römhild and Eisenberg had no children, so their lands were quickly absorbed by the four remaining lines.

paragraphs: Eventually, primogeniture (that is, only the eldest son inherits) became the rule for inheritance in the Ernestine Duchies.

paragraphs: In 1825 Ernest the Pious' senior line, the Gotha-Altenburg, went extinct and the land was redistributed for the last time.

paragraphs: Altenburg went to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, but he gave Hildburghausen to the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen. The duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld gave up Saalfeld in return for Gotha.. All of the Ernestine Duchies ended with the abolition of the monarchy and princely states in Germany shortly after the end of World War I.

paragraphs: had a vote in the Holy Roman Empire’s Reichstag. In 1792 the Duke of Saxe-Weimar was also the Duke of Saxe-Eisenach, and the Duke of Saxe-Altenburg was also the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, so both had two votes; and the Duke of Saxe-Coburg had one vote.

paragraphs: The other Ernestine duchies were never members of the Imperial Circle, and were subordinate to the five duchies that did belong to the Imperial Circle (for example, the principalities of Meiningen and Hildburghausen were such; that was one reason why Duke of Hildburghausen exchanged his patrimony to that of Altenburg). Ultimately, in the German Confederation, all these became equally sovereign.


title: Sri Maha Bodhi

paragraphs: The Sri Maha Bodhi is a Sacred Fig tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. The site where it's on, Sacred City of Anuradhapura, is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

paragraphs: It is said to be a tree grown from a sapling from the famous Bodhi tree where the first Buddha became enlightened. It brought down by Mihindu (Mahinda) and Sanghamitta. It was planted in 288 BC. It is the oldest living human-planted tree in the world with a known planting date.

paragraphs: It was planted on a high terrace about above the ground. It is surrounded by railings to protect it. It is one of the most sacred objects of the Buddhists in Sri Lanka, and respected by Buddhists all over the world.

paragraphs: Its wall was built during the reign of King Kirthi Sri Rajasingha, to protect it from wild elephants which might have attacked the tree.

paragraphs: In the 3rd century BC, the Buddha's fig tree was brought to Sri Lanka by Sangamitta, daughter of Emperor Asoka and founder of an order of Buddhist nuns, in Sri Lanka.

paragraphs: In 249 BC, Jaya Siri Maha Bodhi was planted in the Mahameghavana Park in Anuradhapura by King Devanampiyatissa.


title: Dolores Hope

paragraphs: Dolores Hope (May 27, 1909 – September 19, 2011) was an American singer. She was the widow of Bob Hope.

paragraphs: Hope was born Dolores DeFina on May 27, 1909. She was of Italian and Irish ancestry. She was born and raised in New York City. She began her career in the 1930s.

paragraphs: In 1933, she met Bob Hope the first time in a Manhattan nightclub. They married in 1934. The couple adopted four children: Eleanora, Anthony, Linda and Kelly.

paragraphs: She and her husband entertained U.S. troops from the 1940s until the 1990s. Dolores Hope did this job over the time of a half century until the 1990s. In 1990, she was the only female entertainer who was allowed to go to Saudi Arabia.

paragraphs: She was often awarded for her work, for example with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and seven honorary Doctorates. A street was named after Dolores Hope in the Bronx.

paragraphs: She was with her husband as he turned 100. Shortly after, and 69 years after their marriage, Bob Hope died in summer of 2003 at age 100. On May 27, 2009, Dolores Hope celebrated her 100th birthday. She died on September 19, 2011.


title: Miranda

paragraphs: Miranda (late latin "Miranda" meaning to be admired at or "watchtower", "vantage point"). Miranda is also a family name and a female given name. It may also refer to:


title: Miranda (state)

paragraphs: Estado Miranda is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. The state capital is Los Teques.

paragraphs: Miranda State covers a total surface area of 7,950 km². It is the second largest state in population after Zulia Venezuela, approximately 3,028,965 (2011).

paragraphs: Miranda state is sub-divided into 21 municipalities. given below with their areas, populations and administrative seats:

paragraphs: El principal río del estado es el río Tuy. Nace a 2.100 m de altitud y recorre de 250 km. Otros ris del estado son: Guaire, Grande, Curiepe, Capaya, Guapo, Chupaquire, Panapo, Uchire, Chuspa and Aricagua.

paragraphs: In the state there are various gaps: Laguna de Tacarigua, Merecuere, Agua salud, El Conflicto y el Rosario.


title: Miranda (novel)

paragraphs: Miranda is a novel written by Antoni Lange in 1924. It is the last great work of Lange and his most famous book today. It is said that "Miranda" is an "occultic fiction" and a "romance ranked to a philosophical treaty". The novel is also known as a mix of dystopia and utopia.

paragraphs: The novel was translated into English (in 1968), French, Spanish and Italian.

paragraphs: The novel's title refers to the character Miranda, from Shakespeare's play "The Tempest". "Miranda" also has been influenced by work such as: "Men Like Gods" by Herbert George Wells; "The City of the Sun" by Tommaso Campanella; "Lenore" by Edgar Allan Poe,;"Genezis z Ducha" by Juliusz Słowacki; poems by Cyprian Kamil Norwid; writings of Friedrich Nietzsche (criticism of concept of the Übermensch); Arthur Schopenhauer; Plato; and Sanskrit epics of ancient India.

paragraphs: The novel tells about a civilization of Brahmans who have powerful skills. They can speak with their minds, and levitate (float in the air). The Brahmans in the book think the most important things are anarchy, freedom, peace, and free love. Their country is led by the Ministry of Love, Ministry of Power and Ministry of Wisdom. The Brahmans use a strange chemical named Nivridium to keep their self-perfect idea. The story is the of a Polish emigrant named Jan Podobłoczny (Lange's own "parte-parole") falling in love with a woman named Damayanti. The book ends in a tragedy. In the last chapter of the novel, Damayanti sacrifices her body in order to let her spirit fly to a greater level of though.

paragraphs: Miranda is a Scottish spiritual medium, who lives in Warsaw. She can talk with the soul of Damayanti and make a woman named Lenore appear. She meets Jan Podobłoczny when he is close to his death. In the moment when Damayanti dies, Miranda disappears.


title: Capybara

paragraphs: Capybara ("Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris") is a semi-aquatic rodent of South America. It weighs about a hundred pounds, and is about two feet tall at the shoulder. The capybara is the world's largest rodent.

paragraphs: Capybaras are closely related to guinea pigs and to chinchillas. When they are full-grown, they weigh about 55 kg, or 100 pounds. The capybara's stocky body is about a meter, or 3 feet, long, and its shoulder is about 60 centimeters, or about two feet, high off the ground. Females are usually bigger and heavier than males. Capybaras have brown or reddish-brown fur. When they are old their fur is thin, their skin can get sunburned easily. Their eyes and ears and nostrils are high on their heads, so they can easily be kept above water when the capybara is swimming.

paragraphs: Capybaras live in grassy wetlands or close to rivers in many parts of South America. In the morning, evening, and at night they eat grass, mostly on land. They spend the hottest hours of the day in the water. They are good swimmers and divers. Webs between their toes help them swim. They can only hold their breath under water for about five minutes at a time. Sometimes they hide in water for much longer, with only their noses sticking out to breathe. Many predators like to eat them. They are a favourite food for jaguars, eagles, anaconda snakes, and many other animals.

paragraphs: Capybaras eat plants, mostly grass. Their babies are usually born in litters of four at one time. They can start to eat grass once they are about a week old, but they will also keep nursing from their mothers and even from other grown females until they are about four months old. They live in large groups, usually 10-30 capybaras together. Some groups have even had 100 capybaras. They talk to each other using many sounds: clicks, grunts, whistles, and barks.

paragraphs: Capybaras are not endangered. Their population is stable, not increasing or decreasing very much. They can live in towns or zoos. Humans can touch them, but it is not common, as it can cause disease. Sometimes humans eat capybaras. They are hunted for meat, and sometimes they are raised on farms. Also, their tough skin is sometimes used to make high quality leather, especially for gloves. Capybaras are sometimes kept as pets. They can be kept pets in the United States, but not in some places. They are also very liked in Japan, and are kept as pets there too.


title: Martha Jefferson

paragraphs: Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, born Martha Wayles (October 30, 1748 – September 6, 1782) was the only wife of her second husband, Thomas Jefferson.

paragraphs: She was a widow at her second wedding, as her first husband had died young. When her second husband, Jefferson, was Governor of Virginia, she served as First Lady of Virginia from 1779 to 1781.

paragraphs: The Jeffersons had six children together, but only two daughters survived to adulthood, and only one past the age of 25. Weakened by childbirth, Martha Jefferson died several months after the birth of her last child, twenty years before her husband became the third President of the United States. At her wishes, he never married again.


title: Great Awakening

paragraphs: The Great Awakenings were a few periods of religious revival in United States history. The term is used sometimes to refer to events like the Protestant Reformation, as well as to identify general trends within U.S. religious culture.

paragraphs: There are four generally accepted Great Awakenings in U.S. history:


title: Lycopene

paragraphs: Lycopene is the pigment of tomato. Its chemical formula is (6E,8E,10E,12E,14E,16E,18E,20E,22E,24E,26E)-

paragraphs: Ketchup contains the highest concentrations of bioavailable lycopene.


title: Housefly

paragraphs: Housefly is the common fly often found in houses. The Latin name for the housefly is "Musca domestica". This species is always found near humans. It is the most common species found on hog and poultry farms, horse stables and ranches. Not only are house flies a nuisance, but they also carry disease-causing organisms. Flies are not only an irritant to farm workers but may be a public health concern. Houseflies are pests and can carry diseases.

paragraphs: Each female fly can lay about 9,000 eggs in its life, in several batches of about 75 to 150. The eggs are laid on or near meat, often dead animals. Within a day, larvae (maggots) hatch from the eggs; they live and feed on dead and decaying organic material, such as garbage, carrion or faeces. They are pale-whitish, and have no legs. Their life cycle is from 14 hours to 36 hours.

paragraphs: At the end of their third instar, the maggots crawl to a dry, cool place and turn into pupae. These are coloured reddish-brown and about 8 mm long. From the pupae emerge adult flies. The whole cycle is known as complete metamorphosis.

paragraphs: Adults live from two weeks to a month in the wild. After they come out from the pupae, the flies do not grow. Small flies of the same species did not get enough food when they were larvae.The function of an adult fly is to reproduce.


title: Chemical engineering

paragraphs: Chemical engineering is a branch of engineering dealing with chemistry that came to existence in the early 20th century. Before this time, chemical plants were designed by chemists, who were trained to work on a small scale only. Chemical engineering combines the jobs of a chemist and that of industrial engineer. This makes factories more efficient and chemicals much cheaper. Chemical engineering uses physics (the science of moving objects and forces), chemistry (the science of substances), and mathematics. There are many different types of jobs for people with degrees in chemical engineering.

paragraphs: Some new topics in chemical engineering include:


title: House of Windsor

paragraphs: The House of Windsor is the current Royal House of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and each of the other Commonwealth realms. The older part is a branch of the Saxe-Coburg and Gotha line of the House of Wettin, while the newer part is a branch of the Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg line of the House of Oldenburg.

paragraphs: Queen Victoria married Prince Albert, son of Duke Ernst I of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Therefore her descendants are members of the ducal family of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha with the house name of Wettin. Victoria's son Edward VII and his son George V reigned as members of this house. But during World War I there was a lot of hatred of anything German. A lot of this feeling was stirred up by newspapers. People with German names were beaten up, and shops with German names had their windows broken. Even the Royal Family were accused of supporting Germany. On 17 July 1917 George V ordered the Royal Family to give up their German titles, and change German-sounding titles and house names for English-sounding versions. Prince Louis Battenberg became Lord Louis Mountbatten. The Duke of Teck became the Marquis of Milford Haven and the name of the royal house, and the royal surname was changed to Windsor, after the town of Windsor and Windsor Castle.

paragraphs: When he heard about the change of name, German Emperor William II joked that he wanted to see Shakespeare's play "The Merry Wives of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha".

paragraphs: In April 1952, Queen Elizabeth II said that her descendants will keep name and House of Windsor, the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg through their father, born Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, a line of the House of Oldenburg.

paragraphs: On 8 February 1960, the Queen decided instead to keep the House and Family of Windsor but that their personal surname is ""Mountbatten-Windsor"". Mountbatten is the surname adopted by Prince Philip before his marriage, an anglicization of his mother's family name of Battenberg.

paragraphs: The next in line for the throne is Prince Charles; if so he may be known as King Charles III.


title: Jocelyne Saab

paragraphs: Jocelyne Saab (30 April 1948 – 7 January 2019) was a journalist and movie director from Beirut, Lebanon.

paragraphs: Saab died on 7 January 2019 from endometrial cancer in Paris, aged 70.


title: Ulva

paragraphs: Ulva or the Isle of Ulva (Gaelic: Ulbha) is an island in the Inner Hebrides in Scotland. Around 16 people live there. At the beginning of the 19th century, 600 people lived there. Lachlan Macquarie who is sometimes known as the "Father of Australia", came from here.


title: Sugar Ray Robinson

paragraphs: Sugar Ray Robinson (born Walker Smith Jr., May 3, 1921 – April 12, 1989) was an American boxer. He won the welterweight and middleweight world championships. Many boxing historians rank Robinson as the best boxer who ever lived.

paragraphs: Robinson was born in Ailey, Georgia. He moved to Harlem, New York City when he was 12.

paragraphs: He had no losses as an amateur boxer. He became a professional boxer in 1940 and won the welterweight title from Johnny Bratton in 1946. He then beat Jake LaMotta (who had, up to that time, been the only man to beat him) for the middleweight championship in 1951. He lost and regained the title from Randy Turpin before trying, and failing, to beat Joey Maxim for the light heavyweight championship in 1952. He retired later that year. He made a comeback, however, and won the middleweight title again in 1955. He lost it to Gene Fullmer in 1957, but defeated him in a rematch. Later that year Carmen Basilio also beat Robinson for the title, but Robinson defeated him in 1958 to get the championship back.

paragraphs: Robinson continued to fight until the 1960s. He died of diabetes and Alzheimer's disease at the age of 67 in Culver City, California in 1989.


title: Randolph Turpin

paragraphs: Randolph Adolphus ('Randy') Turpin (7 June 1928 – 17 May 1966) was an English boxer who was the middleweight champion of the world in 1951.

paragraphs: Turpin was born in Leamington Spa to a white British mother and black Guyanan father. He became a professional boxer in 1946. In 1951, Sugar Ray Robinson traveled to England and gave Turpin an opportunity to fight for his middleweight championship. Turpin became only the second man to defeat Robinson when he won a fifteen-round decision.

paragraphs: Robinson and Turpin had a rematch in September 1951 where Robinson regained the title by a tenth-round knockout.

paragraphs: He stopped boxing in the mid-1960s. He lived in Leamington Spa with his wife and four daughters. On 17 May 1966 in Leamington Spa he shot one of his daughters (who survived), then shot himself dead.


title: Maple

paragraphs: Maple (Latin name "Acer" ) is a genus of trees or shrubs. Sometimes they are made a family of their own, the Average . At other times they are included in the Sapindaceae. To include them in the Sapindaceae is the more modern classification. There are between 100 and 200 species of Maples. Most species are native to Asia, but some also occur in Europe, Northern Africa, and North America.

paragraphs: The word "Acer" comes from a Latin word meaning "sharp". It was given because of the characteristic sharp points on the maple leaves. The first person to talk about the genus that way was French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in 1700. The type species of the genus is "Acer pseudoplatanus" (Sycamore Maple).

paragraphs: The maple's distinctive fruit are called samaras, and known by many children as "helicopters" by the way they spin as they fall. Inside the fruit are found their seeds, which are in pairs. Each one is enclosed in a "nutlet" attached to a flattened wing of papery tissue. They are shaped to spin as they fall and carry the seeds a considerable distance on the wind. One tree can release hundreds of thousands of seeds at a time. Some seeds can remain in the soil for several years before germinating.

paragraphs: Maple trees are often planted as ornamental trees in cities. Some species resist the cold rather well. Sugar maples are grown to make Maple syrup. Some maples are grown for timber (wood that is used for furniture).


title: Tilde Fröling

paragraphs: Tilde Maria Henny Märta Fröling (born May 15, 1980) is a Swedish television personality, actress and singer. She is the daughter of actress Ewa Fröling. Fröling was born in Stockholm, Sweden.


title: Marie Picasso

paragraphs: Marie Picasso (born 24 April 1979) is a Swedish reality show star, model and singer who rose to fame in 2002 when she was a housemate on Big Brother. She later got a job as a game show host on TV4 leading two different game shows. In 2007 she entered Idol 2007 where she is currently in the top 10 of the Swedish version of Pop Idol. Picasso won Pop idol on 7 December 2007 in Globen Arena in Stockholm with 51,3% of the votes and she won over the first runner up Amanda Jenssen. Her debut single is called "This Moment".


title: Eulipotyphla

paragraphs: The Eulipotyphla is an order of mammals. It was formed from those insectivorous mammals which are monophyletic, a single clade. The old order Insectivora is now abandoned because it was polyphyletic. The new order Eulipotyphla has been shown to be monophyletic.

paragraphs: The term insectivore (insect eater) can still be used to describe lifestyle. It explains the food habits of this and some other groups of mammals.

paragraphs: Although moles and shrews are not all strictly insectivorous, insects and other small animal life make up the main food of most members of the group. Some kinds, the otter shrews of Africa and the star-nosed mole of North America, for example, feed also upon fish. The Townsend mole of the Pacific Northwest often is a nuisance to bulb growers because of its fondness for the bulbs of many kinds of plants.

paragraphs: Moles, as a group, are subterranean in habit. They spend most of their lives in the darkness of underground tunnels which they dig for themselves. The eyes of all moles are very small, in some species actually not opening to the outside, and of little value to them: vestigial organs. On the other hand, their senses of touch and smell are highly developed.

paragraphs: The following groups are now placed in other orders:


title: Bad Kissingen

paragraphs: Bad Kissingen is a city in Bavaria, in the country of Germany. About 21,000 people live there.

paragraphs: It was first mentioned in 801 CE. It is a "spa town", a place where people go to rest and relax. The well that is the source of the spa was first mentioned in 823 CE.


title: Hostel

paragraphs: A hostel is a place that rents beds to travelers. They offer less privacy and more of a community experience than hotels. They are also cheaper.


title: Reuters

paragraphs: Reuters is a British News agency and Financial company.


title: Associated Press

paragraphs: The Associated Press (also called the AP and AP Wire) is an American non-profit news media company. It is based in New York City. The AP is a non-profit cooperative owned by the newspapers, radio and Television stations who share its news stories. Most articles are written by staff members belonging to the Newspaper Guild Union, a part of the AFL-CIO. Many news organizations that are not members pay a fee to use the stories. The AP has more than 250 local news offices in more than 100 countries.

paragraphs: In 2013 the United States Department of Justice announced it had secretly obtained records of telephone calls by AP a few months before the United States presidential election, 2012. Associated Press CEO Gary Pruitt called the DOJ action: a 'massive and unprecedented intrusion' of Freedom of the Press rights, according to Fox News. Eric Holder, the United States Attorney General, claimed that he was not involved.


title: BBC News

paragraphs: BBC News is a free news channel, broadcast by BBC. It began in November 1997. The BBC's website, bbc.co.uk, also features a section called BBC News. This section contains news articles and videos of broadcasts from the news channel.


title: Saxe-Jena

paragraphs: The Duchy of Saxe-Jena was one of the Ernestine duchies of the House of Wettin.

paragraphs: Part of the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar was given to Bernhard, the fourth son of Wilhelm, Duke of Saxe-Weimar in 1672. The second duke had no male heirs to inherit the title, so the territory was taken back by Saxe-Weimar when the second duke died in 1690. .


title: Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach

paragraphs: The Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach () was created in 1809 when the Ernestine duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach were formally joined into one state. The two duchies had shared the same ruler since 1741, which is when the Saxe-Eisenach line had died out. It became a Grand Duchy in 1815.

paragraphs: In 1877, the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach officially became the Grand Duchy of Saxony (), but this name was not often used. The Grand Duchy was abolished in 1918 with the other German monarchies, and the state joined others to form the new state of Thuringia in the Weimar Republic.

paragraphs: The Grand Dukes full title was Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Landgrave in Thuringia, Margrave of Meißen, Princely Count of Henneberg, Lord of Blankenhayn, Neustadt and Tautenburg.


title: Alligatoridae

paragraphs: Alligators and Caimans make up the second largest family of the crocodilians, Alligatoridae. There are 4 genera and about 7 known species of Alligatorids. Alligatorids range in size depending on species. The Chinese alligator ("Aligator sinensis") is usually about while the American Alligator ("A. mississippiensis") is usually . The largest American alligator was long. The Black Caiman of the Amazon can reach as much as .

paragraphs: Alligatorids live in the southern United States, Central America, northern South America and near the Yangzee river in China.

paragraphs: There are several differences between alligators and crocodiles. Alligators have shorter and wider snouts. They prefer fresh water to saltwater. Crocodiles have a gland that removes much of the salt. Alligators do not have this gland. In alligators, the fourth tooth of their lower jaw fits into a pit in the upper jaw. In crocodilians this tooth fits into a groove on the outside of the jaw. Alligators are also less aggressive than crocodilids. Usually only the largest of the species are a threat to humans.


title: Gaza

paragraphs: Gaza (, transliterated Ġazzah; , transliterated: Azzah) is the largest city inside the Gaza Strip and in the Palestinian territories. The city has a population of about 400,000. It is often named "Gaza City" to distinguish it from the larger Gaza Strip.


title: Grand duchy

paragraphs: A grand duchy is a country whose head of state is a Grand Duke or Grand Duchess.

paragraphs: The only grand duchy in existence today is Luxembourg. Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815 when the Netherlands became an independent kingdom, and King William I of the Netherlands was made Grand Duke of Luxembourg. In 1890, the two countries separated. William III of the Netherlands had no male heir, so in the Netherlands he was succeeded by Queen Wilhelmina but Luxembourg followed Salic law, which meant only a man could rule. The present Grand Duke of Luxembourg is Henri.

paragraphs: However there are other houses of Europe that style themselves as Grand Dukes even if not wholly recognised by the rest of society.

paragraphs: The independent republics of Finland and Lithuania, and the Dutch province Limburg (Duchy of Limburg) have been Grand Duchies at certain times in their history.

paragraphs: The title Grand Duke (Latin: "Magnus Dux", German: "Großherzog", Italian: "Gran Duca", French: "Grand-Duc", Swedish: "Storhertig", Lithuanian:"Didysis kunigaikštis", Polish: "Wielki książę", Czech: "Velkovévoda") ranks in honour below King but higher than a sovereign Duke ("Herzog") or Prince ("Fürst").

paragraphs: A Grand Duke (or Grand Duchess) is a person who rules a Grand Duchy. But in the English language "Grand Duke" can also mean a type of prince who does not rule a country, but is related to the monarch. In the Russian language "Velikiy Knjaz" are "Grand Princes", relatives of the Tsar, other princes were noblemen who ranked above a duke. English says Grand Duke instead of Grand Prince.

paragraphs: Between the Napoleonic Wars and World War I there were at least eight grand duchies in Europe:

paragraphs: A lot of grand duchies were created in the Napoleonic era and by the Congress of Vienna and the German Confederation.

paragraphs: The Duchy of Warsaw(1807-1813) is sometimes called a Grand Duchy but it was not.

paragraphs: Today Luxembourg is the only remaining grand duchy. However some old Grand Duchies still retain the titles granted to them usually in the Congress of Vienna.

paragraphs: Most reigning Grand Dukes were called "Royal Highness". Titles e styfor other members of the families were different. In Hesse-Darmstadt and in Baden, junior members were called "Grand Ducal Highness".

paragraphs: The only current grand ducal family in existence, Luxembourg, styles calls its junior members "Royal Highnesses", but they were also Princes of Parma.

paragraphs: A Russian Grand Duke or Grand Duchess was an "Imperial Highness".


title: António de Oliveira Salazar

paragraphs: António de Oliveira Salazar, , , , (April 28, 1888 – July 27, 1970) was the Prime Minister and dictator of Portugal from 1932 to 1968. He was the President of the Republic in 1951, as interim. He started and led the Estado Novo ("New State"), the authoritarian, right-wing government that ruled Portugal from 1932 to 1974.

paragraphs: Salazar was born in Vimieiro, Santa Comba Dão, Portugal. His father had been a farm worker who became the farm manager for the Perestrelos family. His great grandfather had been a landowner and nobleman. He studied at the Viseu Seminary from 1900 to 1914 with the hope of becoming a priest. He changed his mind and studied Law at University of Coimbra.

paragraphs: Following a military revolution in 1926 which overthrew a civilian government of squabbling politicians and a country close to failure, Dr. Salazar was invited to take control of the finances of the then-failed state. Dr. Salazar was Finance Minister for 13 days, but resigned in disgust over interference by politicians and soldiers and went back to his university. He was again persuaded to take over as Finance Minister in 1928, which he did conditionally on an assurance of greater powers for himself with minimal interference from the military. Salazar continued as minister until 1932, and was widely credited with turning the fledgling economy around.

paragraphs: Dr Salazar was Prime Minister from 1932 until 1968.

paragraphs: He ruled Portugal for almost 40 years, managing to keep Portugal away from the Second World War as well as preventing a Spanish invasion by keeping friends with both sides. Salazar died in 1970. Often called a fascist by his opponents, Dr Salazar's regime was instrumental in issuing Portuguese travel documents to thousands of Jews fleeing though Europe and to Portugal a boarding point for the ultimate destination in North America. Unfortunately Dr. Salazar's contribution to this humanitarian cause was never acknowledged as this activity had to be toned down in the later years of the war. Instead, the overzealous Consul to France Aristides de Sousa Mendes is often given credit, despite the fact that it was he who recklessly endagered the operation by issuing a flood of travel documents in assembly line fashion. Tens of thousands of such documents were issued by him in the months of June and July of 1940. Salazar's cease-and-desist orders to Mendes are often highlighted. Incidently, the United States had issued similar instructions to all its missions abroad many years earlier, purportedly because of the fear that Germany would smuggle in spies amongst fleeing Jewish refugees. President Hoover ordered U.S. consuls to strictly interpret the LPC clause of the immigration law. President Franklin Roosevelt failed to push for a change in immigration laws and policy. In this context, Portugal's and Salazar's actions may be seen as almost heroic.

paragraphs: A little known fact is that Salazar's Portugal was the only European nation at the time to have non-white people at all levels of administration and judiciary. Dark-skinned people termed "colonial subjects" by other contemporary colonial powers very rarely qualified for rights similar to those enjoyed by the citizens of their colonial masters. Portugal accorded its subjects full civil status. It was the only state anywhere in the western world to have non-European non-white Members of Parliament. This status, however, was not universally available to the black people of the African territories i.e. those who were not "assimilados" (which literately translates to "assimilated") which meant those Africans who had not given up their tribal customs nor reached minimum educational standards. Roughly 4% of the African populace was considered "assimilado" while the people native to the overseas colonies of Cape Verde, India, and China were considered universally "assimilados" even though in the latter two territories, people were not largely Roman Catholic nor did most speak the Portuguese language.

paragraphs: In the mid-sixties, Portugal and its colonies found themselves in the front line of the Cold war, with a proxy war which drained Portugal of its resources. Salazar was blamed for a war he had no control over as well as the consequent impoverishment of his country. Thousands from mainland Portugal fled into neighbouring European countries, particularly France, to avoid the military draft and the war in Africa. Most took up menial jobs and were a convinient source of low cost labour to Europe. This expatriate segment of society became increasingly empowered after a military coup overthrew the government of Salazar's successor Marcello Caetano in 1974. Many returned to Portugal to become next generation politicians.

paragraphs: The term "fascist regime" probably stems from an attempt by this sizable group to demonize the fallen regime and justify their flight from a country at war.

paragraphs: Salazar is still loved by some of the people of Portugal today, and was voted the greatest Portuguese man of all time. Apologists say that it was more as a way of showing frustration with the current political events and politicians in Portugal than actually a true devotion. A great segment of the Portuguese people though may beg to differ.

paragraphs: In 1945 Portugal had large colonial Empire, including Cape Verde Islands, São Tomé e Principe, Angola (including Cabinda), Portuguese Guinea, and Mozambique in Africa; Goa, Damão (including Dadra and Nagar Haveli), and Diu in India; Macau in China; and Portuguese Timor in Southeast Asia. Salazar was determined to keep control of Portugal's territories. After the war the colonies were in a mess. The Indian nationalists in Goa wanted their country to join with the new independent state of India. There strikes and protests by the local people against the Portuguese. The Indian Armed Forces invaded and took over Goa, Daman and Diu in 1961. Revolutions against the Portuguese were started in Mozambique, Angola, and Portuguese Guinea.

paragraphs: In 1968, Salazar suffered a major stroke, reportedly caused by falling from his chair at his summer house. President Américo Thomaz was forced to replace him with Marcelo Caetano on September 27, 1968. Salazar died in Lisbon on July 27, 1970. Tens of thousands of people went to the funeral and the Requiem Mass and watched the journey of the special train that carried his coffin to his hometown of Santa Comba Dão. He was buried next to his ancestors and the farmers of the region, in a plain ordinary grave.Decades as a "dictator" and Salazar's worldly possessions were almost the literal "shirt on his back" . He died without ever having purchased a motor car, the modest house he lived in Lisbon belonged to the State and is reported as having had two pairs of suits in his wardrobe.


title: Princess Nikki

paragraphs: Princess Nikki is a British reality television show that stars former Big Brother 7 UK house mate Nikki Grahame. It ran on Wednesday nights between 10:00 - 10:30pm on the digital and satellite television channel E4 from 6 September 2006, for a total runtime of 30 minutes. The show was devised by Endemol, the company that also devised Big Brother. It was narrated by the presenter and comedian, Alex Zane.

paragraphs: The format saw Grahame attempt several jobs on each show, which included various unpleasant tasks such as rubbish collecting, deep sea fishing, and waste management. The show's premise was to see whether or not she would perform the tasks given to her and keep her job for a day, or whether she would quit or be sacked due to her infamous tantrums. The concept of the show was taken from one of the tasks Nikki undertook while in the "Big Brother" house. During the task, she was assigned as Big Brother's personal assistant and had to carry out various duties, which often resulted in Nikki throwing a tantrum and refusing to comply.

paragraphs: The theme music for the programme has been adapted from the 1982 hit single "Hey Mickey!" by Toni Basil, with the lyrics "Hey Nikki!" used as a replacement.

paragraphs: Contrary to rumors, no second season is planned. Creative director Philip Edgar-Jones confirmed the series is finished in an interview with Brother's Bar.


title: James Van Der Beek

paragraphs: James William Van Der Beek, Jr. (born March 8, 1977) is an American television and movie actor. He was born in Cheshire, Connecticut. He is best known for his role as Dawson Leery in "Dawson's Creek".


title: Dawson's Creek

paragraphs: Dawson's Creek is an American primetime television drama which aired from January 20, 1998, to May 14, 2003, on The WB Television Network. The lead production company was Sony Pictures Television. Reruns of the show are currently seen in the US in syndication on TBS and on The N. with Katie Holmes in one of the leading roles. It is set in Massachusetts.


title: General Hospital

paragraphs: General Hospital (commonly abbreviated GH) is the longest-running ABC Daytime American soap opera broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company television network. It is also the longest-running serial produced in Hollywood (having been taped at the Prospect Avenue ABC Television Center West and Sunset-Gower Studios).

paragraphs: Set in the fictional city of Port Charles, New York, "General Hospital" debuted on April 1, 1963, the same day that rival network NBC launched its own medical daytime drama, "The Doctors". The show originally aired for a half-hour until the network expanded it to the unusual length of 45 minutes in 1976, and then to a full hour in 1978. The serial was created by soap writers Frank and Doris Hursley, a husband-and-wife team.

paragraphs: "General Hospital" is credited for starting several trends in the soap opera genre in the 1980s, most notably that of the fast-paced action-adventure plotlines that were remarkably different from the more traditional domestic and social issues that had been the sole focus of most soap operas during the previous decades. In 2003, when "GH" was celebrating its 40th anniversary, "TV Guide" named it "The Greatest Soap Opera Of All Time." In addition, "GH" was also named as one of "TIME" Magazine's "Top 100 Television Shows of All Time."


title: Popstars

paragraphs: Popstars is a reality show where a number of people audition of a spot in a new popgroup. The concept has been sold to most parts of the world.

paragraphs: Also solo artists has been searched for in this show, Girls Aloud are one of the most famous groups coming out from the reality show also Nicole Scherzinger from Pussycat Dolls audition for a spot on Edens Crush on American Popstars.


title: Nicole Scherzinger

paragraphs: Nicole Elikolani Valiente Prescovia Scherzinger (born June 29, 1978) is an American singer-songwriter, television personality, and philanthrophist.

paragraphs: Her father is of Filipino ancestry. Her mother is of Hawaiian and Russian ancestry. Her Catholic parents separated when she was a baby. At age six, she moved to Louisville, Kentucky. She took her German American stepfather's surname when he adopted her.

paragraphs: Since 2006, Scherzinger has had an on-off relationship with Lewis Hamilton. She has had bulimia nervosa.

paragraphs: Scherzinger was one of the group members in Edens Crush after winning a spot from the reality show "Popstars". Scherzinger was later a member of the Pussycat Dolls. On November 16, 2007, she released her first solo album, "Killer Love". She was a judge on The Sing-Off in 2009 and 2010. She was a judge on "The X Factor" in the United States in 2011. She has been a judge on "The X Factor" in the United Kingdom since 2012.

paragraphs: will.i.am is the executive producer of her second album.


title: Girls Aloud

paragraphs: Girls Aloud was a British girl group created by an ITV television show named "" in 2002. The group's members were Cheryl Cole (née Tweedy), Nadine Coyle, Sarah Harding, Nicola Roberts and Kimberley Walsh. Girls Aloud have become one of the most successful British pop groups of the 2000s, with a record-breaking twenty consecutive Top 10 singles (including four number ones), six platinum albums (including two number ones) and record sales of more than 4.3 million in the UK. They have also been nominated for five BRIT Awards, winning Best Single in 2009 for The Promise. The Guinness Book of World Records list them as "the most successful reality TV group of all time". In March 2013, the group announced that they were splitting up.


title: Wulfila Bible

paragraphs: The Wulfila Bible (or Gothic Bible) is a translation of parts of the Bible into the Gothic language. It was done by a Christian Bishop, called Wulfila, in the 3rd century. It contains mainly a translation of the New Testament. The basis for the translation was a Greek version of the Bible. Up till then, the Goths had used runes to write. This was impractical, though. For this reason Wulfila also invented the Gothic alphabet. The Gothic alphabet is based on the Greek one.

paragraphs: Many copies of parts of the text still exist today. Most of them are from the 6th to 8th century. The Wulfila bible is the oldest written text of a Germanic language. It is very important for research.

paragraphs: "þ" is pronounced like the English "th" in "the".


title: Plague of Athens

paragraphs: The Plague of Athens was an epidemic which hit the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC), when an Athenian victory still seemed possible. Many historians believe that it entered Athens through Piraeus, the city's port and sole source of food and supplies. The city-state of Sparta, and much of the eastern Mediterranean, was also struck by the disease. The plague returned twice more, in 429 BC and in the winter of 427/6 BC.


title: Peloponnesian War

paragraphs: The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) was an Ancient Greek military conflict, fought by Athens and its allies, against the "Peloponnesian League", led by Sparta. Athens and Sparta were the main winners of the earlier Greco-Persian Wars.

paragraphs: Athens stood for democracy, and Sparta for oligarchy, though they fought as much for economic reasons of commerce and for the dominance of their respective leagues.

paragraphs: Sparta eventually won the Peloponnesian War. Athens was never the same again.

paragraphs: Athens was the greatest sea power, and Sparta the greatest land power in 5th century BC Greece.

paragraphs: In the first phase, the Archidamian War, Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica, while Athens took advantage of its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the Peloponnese attempting to suppress signs of unrest in its empire.

paragraphs: This period of the war ended in 421 BC, with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. That treaty, however, was soon undermined by renewed fighting in the Peloponnese. In 415 BC, Athens dispatched a large force, organized by Alcibiades, to attack Syracuse in Sicily. The attack failed, with the destruction of the entire force, in 413 BC.

paragraphs: The final phase of the war is called the Decelean War, or the Ionian War. In this phase, Sparta, now receiving support from Persia, supported rebellions in Athens' subject states in the Aegean Sea and Ionia, undermining Athens' empire. Eventually, Athens lost its naval supremacy. The destruction of the Athenian fleet in a battle in 405 BC effectively ended the war, and Athens surrendered in the following year.

paragraphs: The Peloponnesian War reshaped the Ancient Greek world. Athens, the strongest city-state in Greece before the war started, was reduced to a state of near-complete subjection. Sparta became the leading power of Greece.

paragraphs: The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece; poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese, Athens was completely devastated, and never regained its pre-war prosperity. The war also wrought subtler changes to Greek society; the conflict between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta, each of which supported friendly political factions within other states, made civil war a common occurrence in the Greek world.

paragraphs: Greek warfare, originally a limited and formalized form of conflict, was transformed into an all-out struggle between city states, complete with atrocities on a large scale. Shattering religious and cultural taboos, devastating vast swathes of countryside, and destroying whole cities, the Peloponnese War marked the dramatic end to the fifth-century BC 'Golden age of Greece'.


title: Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg

paragraphs: Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg () was a country in what is today Thuringia, Germany.

paragraphs: It was formed in 1672 when Frederick Wilhelm III, the last duke of Saxe-Altenburg died and Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (who had married Frederick Wilhelm's cousin, Elisabeth Sophie) inherited his possessions.

paragraphs: The duchy was split up again after Ernest’s death in 1675, and the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg officially came into existence in 1680 when his eldest son, Frederick, took control of the parts of the country Gotha and Altenburg.

paragraphs: When the royal house of "Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg" became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha was given to Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Altenburg passed to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War, both Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg became part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

paragraphs: Divided between Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Hildburghausen


title: Thucydides

paragraphs: Thucydides (born around 460 B.C.E. – died around 400 B.C.E. ) (Greek Θουκυδίδης, "Thoukudídēs") was an ancient Greek historian best remembered for his work on the Peloponnesian War. He was the son of Olorus.


title: Piraeus

paragraphs: Piraeus is a port and municipality in Athens, Attica, Greece, in the south of the center of Athens.

paragraphs: The population of Piraeus is 163,688 (2011).


title: Rhône

paragraphs: The Rhône is a river in France and Switzerland. It is 812 kilometers long. The river starts in Rhône Glacier, which is in Switzerland. Then, the Rhône River joints the Saône, in France (and other rivers) and ends in the Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: The River Rhône empties into the Mediterranean. Only the Nile brings more water into the Mediterranean. The river drains an area of 95.5500 m. The usual amount of water is about 1.700 m per second (at Tarrascon). During floods, this value has reached over 12.000 m per second.


title: Luis Egidio Meléndez

paragraphs: Luis Egidio Meléndez (Naples, 1716-Madrid, 1780) was a Spanish painter. Although he received little acclaim or praise during his lifetime and died in poverty, Meléndez is recognized today as the greatest Spanish still life painter of the eighteenth century. His mastery of composition and light, and his remarkable ability to convey the volume and texture of individual objects enabled him to transform the most mundane (ordinary) of kitchen fare into powerful images.


title: Augustine

paragraphs: Augustine, Augustin, or Augustini can mean:


title: Saxe-Hildburghausen

paragraphs: Saxe-Hildburghausen was one of the Ernestine duchies of the House of Wettin.

paragraphs: Although it was very small, Saxe-Hildburghausen was an independent duchy from 1680 to 1826. In 1684 the duchy changed its capital from Heldburg to Hildburghausen, and changed its name to Saxe-Hildburghausen.

paragraphs: In 1810, a Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen married Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, who became king of Bavaria 15 years later. The marriage is the reason for the Oktoberfest, held annually in Munich.

paragraphs: In 1826, the Ernestine duchies were reorganised after the last ruler of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg died without an heir. The duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen gave up his duchy in return for becoming Duke of Saxe-Altenburg. Hildburghausen was given to Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was not one of the duchies in the Imperial circle, Altenburg was, so by swapping his land the duke gained in social rank, even though the Holy Roman Empire no longer existed

paragraphs: In 1868, four districts were established in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was one of these districts, with boundaries very similar to those of the former duchy. It remained almost unchanged until 1993, when the former district of Suhl was dissolved and most of its municipalities joined the district.


title: Augustine of Hippo

paragraphs: Augustine of Hippo (354 - 430) was a Christian philosopher and theologian.


title: House of Wettin

paragraphs: The House of Wettin was a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors (Kurfürsten) and kings that ruled in what is known today as the German states of Saxony and Thuringia for more than 800 years. Members of the Wettin family were also kings of Poland, as well as forming the ruling houses of Great Britain, Portugal, Bulgaria, Poland, Saxony, and Belgium. Today only the British and Belgian lines still rule their countries, but the last Tsar of Bulgaria, Simeon II, was Prime Minister of Bulgaria between 2001 and 2005. Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the only ex-king who has ever returned to his country as an elected leader.

paragraphs: The oldest known member of the House of Wettin was Thiedericus (died 982). Around 1000, as part of the German conquest of Slavic territory, the family got Wettin Castle and changed their name. It was usual for noblemen to change their name to the name of their territory. Wettin Castle is located in Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt in the Hosgau on the Saale River.

paragraphs: The House split into two main branches, the Ernestine and the Albertine. The descendants of Ernest often subdivided their land and ended up with a lot of small duchies, but one (Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) became very important. Ernest's younger brother was Albert. His descendants became Electors of Saxony, and in 1806, Kings of Saxony

paragraphs: Descendants of the Dukes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha have become:

paragraphs: The wife of the Emperor of Mexico (Carlota of Mexico) was also a member of the house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. As such, the British, Portuguese, and for a time, Mexican, thrones became a possession of persons who belonged to the House of Wettin.

paragraphs: During World War I the British Royal Family changed the name as well as their personal surnames to "Windsor" by an Order-in-Council of King George V. The Kings of Belgiums now do not use the Saxe-Coburg and Gotha name, but have never officially changed it.


title: Durham

paragraphs: Durham is a city in the North East of England. It is within the County Durham local government district, and is the county town of the larger ceremonial county. It lies to the south of Newcastle upon Tyne, Chester-le-Street and Sunderland and to the north of Darlington.

paragraphs: Durham is well known for its Norman Cathedral and 11th-century castle, and is home to Durham University. HM Prison Durham is also close to the city centre. Durham Castle and Cathedral is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

paragraphs: Archeological evidence shows settlement in the area since 2000 BC. The present city can clearly be traced back to AD 995, when a group of monks from Lindisfarne chose to settle there with the body of Saint Cuthbert, which had previously lain in Chester-le-Street.

paragraphs: Before the Reformation the shrine of Saint Cuthbert, behind the High Altar of Durham Cathedral, was the most important religious site in England until the martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury.

paragraphs: Despite a brief translation back to Holy Island during the Norman Invasion the saint's relics remain enshrined to the present day. Saint Bede's bones are also entombed in the cathedral, drawing the mediaeval pilgrim to the city.

paragraphs: Durham’s geographical position has always given it an important position in the defence of England against the Scots. The city has played an important part in the defence of the north and Durham Castle is the only Norman castle keep never to have suffered a breach. The Battle of Neville's Cross which took place near the city on 17 October 1346 between the English and Scots was the most famous battle of its age.

paragraphs: The city suffered from a number of plague outbreaks in 1544, 1589 and 1598.

paragraphs: As the north east was so far from Westminster the bishops of Durham enjoyed extraordinary powers. They had the ability to hold their own parliament, raise their own armies, appoint their own sheriffs and Justices, administer their own laws, levy taxes and customs duties, create fairs and markets, issue charters, salvage shipwrecks, collect revenue from mines, administer the forests and mint their own coins.

paragraphs: Basically, William the Conqueror delegated many powers to bishops in the furthest reaches of England. They were his men, and most had fought at the Battle of Hastings. This style of delegation ran for many centuries afterwards. This applied especially in the north and west of England, which were several days ride from London.

paragraphs: So far reaching were the bishop’s powers that the steward of Bishop Anthony Bek commented in 1299 AD:

paragraphs: All this activity was administered from the castle and buildings surrounding the Palace Green.

paragraphs: Every Bishop of Durham from 1071 to 1836 was a Prince Bishop except for the first Norman-appointed Bishop Walcher who was styled an Earl-Bishop. The last Prince Bishop of Durham Bishop William Van Mildert founded Durham University. Henry VIII cut some of the Prince-Bishop's powers and, in 1538, ordered the destruction of the shrine of Saint Cuthbert.

paragraphs: The Prince Bishops also had their own court system, most notably the Durham Court of Chancery. The county also had its own attorney general, whose authority to bring an indictment for criminal matters was tested by central government in the infamous case of "Rex" v. "Mary Ann Cotton" (1832). The courts and judicial posts for the county were finally abolished in 1873.

paragraphs: The Council is made up of 50 councillors elected every four years (last elections 2007). In 2007, the council was made of Liberal Democrat (30), Labour (17), and Independent (3) members.

paragraphs: Liberal Democrats first took control of the council in the 2003 elections. Labour had held overall control of the City Council continually since the early 1980s.


title: Angelic Upstarts

paragraphs: The Angelic Upstarts are an anti-fascist Oi! punk rock band who started in South Shields, North-East England in 1977.


title: Anti-fascism

paragraphs: Anti-fascism is the opposition to fascist ideologies, organizations, governments and people. Anti-fascism started in Europe in the 1920s. At the same time, fascist political parties were getting popular in Europe. Anti-fascism was most popular during and after World War II, when fascist governments were very powerful in Europe. Many different kinds of political parties have believed in anti-fascism. Some of these parties have been Marxist, nationalist, anarchist, socialist, pacifist, social democratic, conservative, and liberal.


title: History of the Peloponnesian War

paragraphs: The History of the Peloponnesian War tells the story of the Peloponnesian War in Ancient Greece. It was written by Thucydides, an Athenian general who served in that war. The war was fought between the "Peloponnesian League" (led by Sparta) and the "Athenian league" (led by Athens). The war lasted more than 20 years.

paragraphs: Many historians regard this "History" of Thucydides as one of the earliest scholarly works of history.

paragraphs: Thucydides' "History" made a number of contributions to early historiography. Many of his principles have become standard methods of history writing today, though others have not.

paragraphs: One of Thucydides' major innovations was to use a strict standard of chronology, recording events by year, each year consisting of the summer campaigning season and a less active winter season. As a result, events that span several years are divided up and described in parts of the book that are sometimes quite distant from one another, causing the impression that he is oscillating between the various theatres of conflict. This method contrasts sharply with Herodotus' earlier work "The Histories", which jumps around chronologically.

paragraphs: Another feature of the work is that Thucydides writes dozens of speeches of the most important figures who were engaged in the war. Thucydides heard some of these speeches himself but some of the speeches he wrote without knowing exactly what was really spoken.

paragraphs: Thucydides wanted his writings "to last for ever" (1.22.4). Therefore he tried to be as neutral as possible though as general of Athens that was difficult for him.

paragraphs: The gods play no active role in Thucydides' work. This is very different to Herodotus, who frequently mentions the role of the gods. Instead, Thucydides regards history as being caused by the choices and actions of human beings.

paragraphs: The "History" concentrates on the military aspects of the Peloponnesian War, but it uses these events as a medium to suggest several other themes as well, for instance to show degenerative effects of war on humanity itself.

paragraphs: For the most part, the "History" does not discuss topics such as the art and architecture of Greece, but speaks of the development of military technologies

paragraphs: The "History" explains that the cause of the Peloponnesian War was the "growth in power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Sparta" (1.23.6). The Spartans represent a more traditional and less expansive power.

paragraphs: Thucydides almost never names his informants. This is in contrast to Herodotus, who frequently mentions multiple versions of his stories and allows the reader to decide which is true.

paragraphs: Thucydides' "History" has been enormously influential in both ancient and modern historiography.


title: Hindi

paragraphs: Hindi is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the main language in India. It is the fifth most spoken language in the world with about 182 million native speakers in 1998. The Devanāgarī script is used to write Hindi. Previously Hindi was known as "Hindui".

paragraphs: Hindi is widely written, spoken and understood in North India and some other places in India. In 1997, a survey found that 45% of Indians can speak Hindi. It has taken words from the Dravidian languages of South India, as well as the Arabic, Persian, Chagatai, English and Portuguese languages.

paragraphs: Hindi and Urdu were considered the same language but have evolved into separate dialects. However, to this day, both languages are mutually intelligible, meaning their speakers can understand each other without knowing the other language. Urdu, however, is written in the completely different Arabic alphabet.

paragraphs: Hindi developed from Sanskrit, the ancient language of India. Hindi started to develop in the 7th century as "Apabhramsha" and became stable by the 10th century. Some famous Hindi poets are Tulsidas and Kabir.

paragraphs: Dialects of Hindi include: Avadhi, Braj, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Bagheli, Chhattisgarhi, Dogri and Marwari.

paragraphs: Hindi is also spoken with regional accents like Haryanvi and Rajasthani. Bombay Hindi is spreading because Bollywood films use it.

paragraphs: Hindi Diwas is an annual celebration on 14th September. It commemorates the law of 1949 that made Hindi the legal language of the Republic.


title: Ludwig van Beethoven

paragraphs: Ludwig van Beethoven (baptized 17 December 1770 in Bonn – 26 March 1827 in Vienna; pronounced "LUD-vig vahn BAY-TOH-ven") was a German composer. He wrote classical music for the piano, orchestras and different groups of instruments. His best-known works are his third ("Eroica"), fifth, sixth ("Pastorale") and ninth ("Choral") symphonies, the eighth ("Pathetique") and fourteenth ("Moonlight") piano sonatas, two of his later piano concertos, his opera "Fidelio", and also the piano piece "Für Elise". Beethoven lived when the piano was still a new instrument, and when he was a young man, he was a talented pianist. Beethoven was popular with the rich and important people in Vienna, Austria, where he lived.

paragraphs: In 1801, however, he began to lose his hearing. His deafness became worse. By 1817, he was completely deaf. Although he could no longer play in concerts, he continued to compose. During this time he composed some of his greatest works. He is said to be one of the greatest classical composers who has ever lived. When Beethoven died, he was surrounded by friends on his death bed. His funeral was held at the Church of the Holy Trinity. Between 10,000 and 30,000 people are estimated to have attended. Franz Schubert was a pall bearer at his funeral, even though the two were never close.

paragraphs: Very little is known about Beethoven’s childhood. He was baptized on December 17, 1770 and was probably born a few days before that. Beethoven's parents were Johann van Beethoven (1740 in Bonn – December 18, 1792) and Maria Magdalena Keverich (1744 in Ehrenbreitstein – July 17, 1787). Magdalena's father, Johann Heinrich Keverich, had been Chief at the court of the Archbishopric of Trier at Festung Ehrenbreitstein fortress opposite to Koblenz. His father was a fairly unimportant musician who worked at the court of the Elector of Cologne. This court was in Bonn and it was here that he lived until he was a young man. His father gave him his first lessons in piano and violin. Beethoven was a child prodigy like Mozart, but while Mozart as a little boy was taken all over Europe by his father, Beethoven never traveled until he was 17. By that time, his piano teacher was a man called Neefe who had learned the piano from Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, the son of Johann Sebastian Bach. Neefe said to the Elector that the young Beethoven should be given the chance to travel, so he was allowed to go to Vienna. There, he might have had one or two lessons from Mozart, but then Beethoven got a letter saying that his mother was dying, so he hurried back to Bonn. Soon his mother died, and Beethoven had to help to look after the family because his father had become an alcoholic. Beethoven played the viola in the orchestra of the Elector, he started to compose, and made many friends. Some of these friends were musicians and others were very important people, many of them were aristocrats who would be able to help him in his career.

paragraphs: In 1792, the Elector let Beethoven travel to Vienna again. They expected him to return after a while. However, Beethoven never left Vienna. He stayed there for the rest of his life. He would have loved to have had some more composition lessons from Mozart, but Mozart had just died, so he had lessons from Haydn instead. Haydn was a good teacher, but a year later, he went off to England. Therefore, Beethoven took lessons from a man called Albrechtsberger who was not famous like Haydn. He was a good teacher too, and he made him write lots of technical exercises. He showed him how to write advanced counterpoint and fugues. This helped him to be a great composer.

paragraphs: Beethoven wanted to become famous as a pianist and composer, so he started to get to know important, aristocratic people. Some of these people had already heard him in Bonn when they had traveled there, so his name was becoming known in Vienna. It also helped that he could say he was the pupil of the famous Joseph Haydn. There were a lot of aristocratic people in Vienna who liked music, and many had their own private orchestras. Some of them started to give Beethoven places to live when the Elector of Bonn stopped sending him money in 1794. Beethoven started to perform in private houses, and he became known for his improvisations. In 1795 he performed one of his piano concertos at a concert. He also had his first publication (his opus 1). This was a group of three Piano Trios. Haydn had heard them at a private concert a year before and had advised Beethoven not to publish the third one. However, he did publish it, and that was the one which became the most successful. His opus 2 was a group of three piano sonatas which he played at the court of his friend Prince Lichnowsky. When he published them, he dedicated them to Haydn.

paragraphs: Beethoven was starting to become famous, travelling to places like Prague and Pressburg. He wrote much chamber music. He was, perhaps, a little jealous of the success that Haydn had with his latest symphonies he had written for London. In 1800 he gave his first public concert with his own music. He conducted his First Symphony as well as the Septet. By now several publishers were trying to persuade him to let them publish his new works. Beethoven was becoming famous as a composer. And during this period Beethoven produced his most famous piano sonata: No. 14, in C sharp minor, nicknamed, "Moonlight". This was written for his girlfriend, 16-year-old Giulietta Guicciardi. However, he was far from happy because he realized that he was starting to become deaf. And when he asked for Giulietta's marriage, her parents refused and married her to another 20-year-old man instead.

paragraphs: Beethoven seems to have tried to forget these bad thoughts by working very hard. He composed a lot more music, including his Third Symphony, called the "Eroica". Originally he gave it the title "Bonaparte" in honour of Napoleon whom he admired. But when Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804, Beethoven began to think that he was just a tyrant who wanted a lot of power. He went to the table where the score of the symphony was lying and tore up the title page. Beethoven stayed in Vienna that year, working hard at an opera and giving piano lessons to Josephine von Brunsvik to whom he wrote passionate letters. She was a young widow with four children. It is impossible to know quite what her feelings were for Beethoven, but socially she belonged in higher society and probably thought that a wild musician was not a suitable husband. In the end she married a Baron, but this marriage, like her first one, was not happy either.

paragraphs: In 1805 Beethoven wrote his only opera. The next spring it had two performances but was then not performed again for another eight years. Beethoven had made several changes to the opera which became known as "Fidelio". The overture that he had written for the 1806 performance is now known as "Leonore 3" and is usually performed separately at concerts. The opera is a “rescue” opera, a typical French kind of opera describing a man who is imprisoned and rescued by his lover who disguises herself as a man and manages to get into the prison.

paragraphs: Beethoven continued to write compositions: a Violin Concerto, symphonies, piano concertos, string quartets and chamber music. Two of his greatest symphonies were produced in 1806: "Symphony No. 5" and "Symphony No. 6 "Pastorale"". The first one was known for its dark and deep tone, especially in its first movement. The second was famous for its depiction of the countryside. He also wrote "Piano Concerto No. 4" and "Piano Concerto No. 5 "Emperor"". He earned money by pleasing the aristocrats, dedicating works to them in return for fees, and by selling his music to publishers. Occasionally he earned money from concerts. It was not a regular income. He would have liked the job of Kapellmeister to the emperor. He was not able to get this, but in 1809 three rich aristocrats: the Archduke Rodolph, Prince Lobkowitz and Prince Kinsky gave him an income for the rest of his life on condition that he stayed in Vienna. This meant that Beethoven did not have to worry so much about money. He was asked to write music for "Egmont", a play by Goethe. The overture is very often performed as a concert piece. Beethoven very much wanted to meet Goethe. The two great men met in Teplitz. Goethe later described Beethoven as a rather wild-mannered man who made life difficult for himself by his cross attitude to the world. Beethoven admired several women, including one to whom he wrote a passionate letter. She is known as the “Immortal Beloved”, but no one knows who she was. Beethoven seems pølle to have become deeply depressed because he never found true happiness in love.

paragraphs: In a letter dated June 29, 1801, Beethoven told a friend in Bonn about a terrible secret he had for some time. He knew that he was becoming deaf. For some time, he had spells of fever and stomach pains. A young man does not expect to become deaf, but now he was starting to admit it to himself. He was finding it hard to hear what people were saying. Just at the moment when he was starting to become known as one of the greatest of all composers, it was a terrible blow to realize that he was losing his hearing. In 1802, he stayed for a time in Heiligenstadt which is now a suburb of Vienna but at that time it was outside the city. There he wrote a famous letter which is known as the "Heiligenstadt Testament". It is dated October 6 and told about his rising frustration at his deafness. He asks people to forgive him if he cannot hear what they are saying. He said that he had often thought of suicide, but that he had so much music in his head which had to be written down that he decided to continue his life. This very emotional letter was found amongst his papers after his death. He never sent it to anyone.

paragraphs: By 1814, Beethoven had reached the height of his fame. The Viennese people thought of him as the greatest living composer, and he was often invited by royal people to their palaces. It was the year in which he played his famous Piano Trio Op. 97 "The Archduke". That was the last time he played the piano in public. His deafness was making it impossible to continue.

paragraphs: Beethoven had many problems when his brother Caspar Carl died, leaving a 9-year-old son. The boy’s mother may have been incapable of looking after him, but Beethoven had to prove this in a court of law. For several years he looked after his nephew, but it was a difficult relationship and it involved a lot of legal letters and quarrels with people. In 1826, Karl tried to shoot himself. He survived, but people persuaded Beethoven to stop being his guardian. Karl went into the army.

paragraphs: The last years were unhappy years for Beethoven. During this time he composed very little. Then, in 1817, he recovered and wrote his last two symphonies, a mass called "Missa Solemnis", his last five piano sonatas, and a group of string quartets which were so modern and difficult that very few people at the time understood the music. Nowadays, people think they are the greatest works ever written for string quartet.

paragraphs: His Ninth Symphony is called the "Choral" Symphony because there is a choir and soloists in the last movement. At the time people did not understand this either, because a symphony is normally a work for orchestra, not a work with singers. Beethoven chose the words of a poem by the German poet Friedrich Schiller: "An die Freude" ("Ode to Joy"). It is all about living together in peace and harmony, so that it sends an important message to people. This is why it has been chosen in recent years as the National Anthem for the European Union. The Ninth Symphony was performed at a concert on May 7, 1824. After the scherzo movement the audience applauded enthusiastically, but Beethoven could not hear the applause and one of the singers had to turn him round so that he could see that people were clapping.

paragraphs: Beethoven died on March 26, 1827. About 20,000 people came onto the streets for his funeral. The famous poet Franz Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech. One of the torchbearers was Franz Schubert. Schubert died the next year. In 1888 Beethoven’s and Schubert’s remains were moved to another cemetery in Vienna and were placed side by side.

paragraphs: Beethoven’s music is usually divided into three periods: Early, Middle and Late. Most composers who live a long time develop as they get older and change their way of composing. Of course, these changes in style are not sudden, but they are quite a good way of understanding the different periods of his composing life.

paragraphs: His first period includes the works he wrote in his youth in Bonn, and his early days in Vienna up to about 1803. His middle period starts with the Eroica Symphony and includes most of his orchestral works. His last period includes the Ninth Symphony and the late string quartets.

paragraphs: Beethoven is probably the most famous of all composers, and the most written about. He had a wild personality and this was something that the Romantics in the 19th century always expected from great artists. The Romantics thought that the artist was somehow a person with exaggerated qualities who was not like normal people. Beethoven had a very strong personality. He lived in the time of the French Revolution and had strong views on independence and ways of living free from tyranny. This made him a hero in many people’s eyes.

paragraphs: His music was so famous that many composers in the 19th century found it quite hard to compose because they thought they would be compared to him. For example, Johannes Brahms, took a long time to write his First Symphony. He thought that everyone was expecting him to be the next Beethoven. It was only towards the end of the 19th century that Gustav Mahler wrote several symphonies which include singing, although he does this very differently to Beethoven.


title: Roald Amundsen

paragraphs: Roald Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer who focused on the poles. He led the first expedition to reach the South Pole and the first that could prove it made it to the North Pole. Amundsen was also the first man known to travel the Northwest Passage.

paragraphs: When Amundsen was young, he decided he would use his life to explore the wilderness. He was inspired by the lives of Fridtjof Nansen and John Franklin. While his mother was alive he did not go to sea, to keep a promise to her. After her death, he quit university to begin exploring the world at 21 years old.

paragraphs: In 1897, he went on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition as first mate. This was the first expedition to stay over winter at Antartica, since their ship got stuck in the ice preventing them from leaving.

paragraphs: In 1903, Amundsen led the first expedition to make it through the Northwest Passage.

paragraphs: In October 1911, he began his expedition to Antarctica with four other men in attempt to be the first man to reach the South Pole. Robert Falcon Scott, an explorer from Britain, arrived in Antarctica with his own team only days after Amundsen. Both explorers raced to the South Pole, but Amundsen and his men used skis and dog sleds for transportation. This was more efficient. On 14 December 1911, Amundsen successfully became the first man to reach the South Pole.

paragraphs: In 1926, Amundsen and his men made it to the North Pole. Three other expeditions claimed to make it before then, but their claims have not been verified. Two of them have been considered fraud. This may make Amundsen and his men the first to reach the North Pole.

paragraphs: He disappeared in June 1928 while taking part in a rescue mission.


title: Christopher Columbus

paragraphs: Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was a Genoese trader, explorer, and navigator. He was born in Genoa, Italy, in the year 1451. "Christopher Columbus" is the English version of Columbus's name. His real name in Italian was Cristoforo Colombo

paragraphs: In 1492 Columbus landed on an island of the Bahamas, the first European to do so. His initial goal was to find a quicker route to Asia from Europe. He is credited with the discovery of the New World because his voyage started the era of European colonialism in the Americas. This was an important moment in European history. While Leif Erikson was the first European to land on the soils of America it was not well documented and did not lead to the later contact between Europe and the New World.

paragraphs: When the Spanish learned that Columbus had found a New World, many other people, called conquistadors, went there too. This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

paragraphs: Columbus died on 20 May 1506, in Valladolid, Spain.

paragraphs: Columbus was not the first European person to have discovered America. At the time of his voyage, Europeans did not know that the Americas existed. However, Leif Erikson, around 1000 AD had landed in present-day Canada. This discovery had no impact on European history and was not well documented. Columbus discovered America in the sense that he was the first person to create repeated exploration and contact with the New World. Another point is that Native Americans had been living there for thousands of years before he arrived. However, Native Americans did not record or contribute to the European record of history for obvious reasons. Columbus, therefore, "discovered" America in context of European history.

paragraphs: Many people in Western Europe wanted to find a shorter way to get to Asia. Columbus thought he could get to Asia by sailing west. He did not know about the Western Hemisphere, so he did not realize it would block him from getting to Asia.

paragraphs: However, Columbus did not have enough money to pay for this voyage on his own. After defeating the Emirate of Granada, the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Castile, agreed to pay for the voyage. He promised to bring back gold and spices for them.

paragraphs: In August 1492, Columbus and his sailors left Spain in three ships: the "Santa María" (the Holy Mary), the "Pinta" (the Painted), and the "Santa Clara" (nicknamed the "Niña": the Little Girl).

paragraphs: The three ships were very small. Historians think that the largest ship, the "Santa María", was only about long, and about 16 to 19 feet (4.8 to 5.8 metres) wide.

paragraphs: Columbus's other ships were even smaller. Historians think they were about long.

paragraphs: On October 12, 1492, after sailing for about four months, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. The natives called it Guanahani; Columbus renamed it San Salvador Island ("Holy Savior"). He met Arawek and Taíno Native Americans who lived on the island. They were friendly and peaceful towards Columbus and his crew. Not knowing where he was, and thinking that he had reached Asia, the "Indies," he called them "Indians." He claimed their land as Spain's.

paragraphs: Columbus then sailed to what is now Cuba, then to Hispaniola. On Hispaniola, Columbus built a fort. This was one of the first European military bases in the Western Hemisphere. He called it Navidad (Spanish for "Christmas"). He left thirty-nine crew members there, and ordered them to find and store the gold.

paragraphs: On the day he landed in the Bahamas, Columbus wrote about the Arawaks and Taíno:

paragraphs: Columbus noticed that some of the Arawaks had gold earrings. He took some of them as prisoners and ordered them to lead him to the gold. However, they could not.

paragraphs: On September 24, 1493, Columbus left Spain with enough ships, supplies, and men to invade and make Spanish colonies in the New World. He had 17 ships and 1,200 men. These men included soldiers and farmers. There were also priests, whose job was to convert the natives to Christianity.

paragraphs: On this voyage, Columbus explored some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. He also sailed around most of Hispaniola and explored the sides of Jamaica and Cuba he had not seen on his first voyage.

paragraphs: Then he went back to the Navidad fort. He found the fort burned down. Eleven of the 37 soldiers Columbus left at the fort were buried there. The rest had disappeared. Historians think this happened because of disease and fights with the Arawak people.

paragraphs: While Columbus was away from Navidad exploring Jamaica and Cuba, his soldiers stopped working on building a new fort and farms. They made the Arawaks give them food. They also stole things from the Arawaks and raped Arawak women. This made the Arawaks decide to fight back against the Spaniards. However, Spain had many weapons that the Arawaks had never seen, including steel swords, pikes, crossbows, dogs, and horses. This made it much easier for Spain to win fights against the Arawaks.

paragraphs: Columbus also took revenge against the Arawaks for killing his soldiers at Navidad. He made every native older than 14 give him a certain amount of gold every three months. If a person did not do this, Columbus's men would cut off their hands, and they would bleed to death. Historian Carl Lehrburger says that about 10,000 natives died this way. Columbus also led his soldiers to many different villages in Hispaniola to take them over and make them pay him gold also. If they could not pay the gold, people would be made into slaves or killed.

paragraphs: There was not much gold on the parts of the island Columbus took over. To avoid getting their hands cut off, many Arawaks tried to run away from Columbus and his men. However, Columbus's soldiers used dogs to hunt them down and kill them. Bartolomé de las Casas said that the Spanish killed two out of every three native people in the area (though he may have been exaggerating).

paragraphs: In February 1495, Columbus started the transatlantic slave trade. He and his soldiers captured about 1,500 Taíno. Only 500 could fit on Columbus's ships, so Columbus told his men they could take any of the rest as slaves. They took 600 and let 400 go. Of the 500 natives that Columbus shipped to Spain as slaves, about 200 died on the trip. Half of the rest were very sick when they arrived. This was the first time people had ever been shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold as slaves.

paragraphs: Michele da Cuneo, a friend of Columbus's, helped capture natives as slaves. In a letter, da Cuneo later wrote that Columbus gave him a captured native woman to rape:

paragraphs: Columbus went on another voyage in 1498. King John II of Portugal had said there was a continent to the south-west of the Cape Verde islands. On his third voyage, Columbus wanted to find this continent. Before the voyage, Queen Isabella reminded Columbus that he should treat all of the native people well and make them into Christians.

paragraphs: On this voyage, Columbus sent three ships straight to the West Indies (the Caribbean). He led another three ships: first to two Portuguese islands, then to the Canary Islands, then Cape Verde. From Cape Verde, they sailed to the northern coast of South America and landed in Trinidad. He also explored part of South America and the islands now called Tobago and Grenada.

paragraphs: On August 19, 1498, Columbus returned to Hispaniola. He found that many of the Spanish settlers there were unhappy. They thought there would be more gold in the New World. Some of them had rebelled while he was gone. Columbus had five of the rebellion's leaders hanged. He also tried to make the rest of the settlers happy by giving them land in Hispaniola. However, the settlers kept sending complaints to Spain. In 1499, Queen Isabella sent a man named Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola. She gave him the power to do whatever he thought he should do. When he arrived in 1500, the first thing he did was to have Columbus arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.

paragraphs: When he was trying to make Spanish settlers happy, Columbus started the "Encomienda" system in Hispaniola. Under this system, Columbus would give a piece of land in Hispaniola to an individual Spanish settler. Sometimes, he would give away a whole native village. Any natives that lived in that area had to work for that Spanish settler. Natives had lived on this land for centuries. Columbus was giving their land away, "and" then forcing them to work on that land.

paragraphs: On August 23, 1500 Columbus was arrested in Hispañola, now called Santo Domingo, for cruelty to natives and Spaniards. He was sent to Spain in chains in October 1500. He was released on December 12, 1500, and taken to court. Columbus had important friends, and the King restored his freedom. He was not made governor again, but eventually he was allowed to lead another voyage.

paragraphs: Columbus died of heart failure and arthritis in Valladolid, Spain, at the possible age of 54.

paragraphs: Columbus's relatives said that Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy. Today, no historian can say for sure where Columbus was born. Most experts think the best evidence says he was born in Genoa. However, other historians think Columbus was born somewhere else, like Spain or Portugal. Some think he was originally a Jew who converted to Christianity.

paragraphs: Columbus wrote that he first went to sea when he was 14 years old.

paragraphs: In 1477, Columbus married Felipa Moniz Perestrelo. She was from a semi-noble family with connections to sailing. She died around 1479 or 1480 while giving birth to their son, Diego.

paragraphs: In 1485, while in Córdoba, Spain, Columbus met Beatriz Enríquez de Trasierra. They lived together for a while. They had one child named Fernando.

paragraphs: Columbus had a few different goals for his journeys to the New World. First, he believed he could find a shorter and easier route to Asia, which made things Europe did not. He believed he could find a shorter route to China. Other people had called this belief absurd. Columbus wanted to prove these people wrong.

paragraphs: Second, Columbus wanted to find gold. Gold was the main kind of money used in Columbus's times. In his letter to Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Columbus wrote: “Gold is most excellent; gold is treasure, and [the person] who [has] it does all he wishes to in this world." This means that someone with gold can do anything he wants to do. Many historians believe that Columbus wanted to become a powerful person and in order to become powerful, he needed to find gold.

paragraphs: When the Spanish learned about the New World, many conquistadors, or conquerors, went there. This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

paragraphs: The Spanish conquistadors first settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico. They grabbed as much gold as they could. The Spanish also brought priests and forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.

paragraphs: In the United States, Columbus Day is a holiday that celebrates Columbus's arrival in the New World on October 12, 1492.

paragraphs: The World's Columbian Exposition, which happened in 1893 in Chicago, Illinois, was held to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus visiting the Americas.


title: GNU General Public License

paragraphs: The GNU General Public License (GPL) is a computer software copyleft license. This license lets the user of the software use a program in many of the same ways as if it were public domain. They can use it, change it, and copy it. They can also sell or give away copies of the program with or without any changes they made to it. The license lets them do this as long as they agree to follow the terms of the license. The GPL was created by Richard Stallman. The current version is version 3, created in 2007, although some software still uses version 2, created in 1991.

paragraphs: There are two main terms to the license. Both apply to giving the program away or selling it.

paragraphs: If the user does not agree to follow the GPL, they can still use the software under copyright laws. They can use it and make copies or changes to it for themselves, but they cannot give it away or sell it. They also can not change the license.


title: Square

paragraphs: A square is a shape with four equal sides and four corners that are all right angles (90 degrees). The diagonals of a square also cross at right angles. The angle between any diagonal and a side of a square is 45 degrees. A square has rotational symmetry of four. It has four lines of regular symmetry. A square with vertices "A", "B", "C" and "D" can be written as formula_1.

paragraphs: A square is a type of rectangle with all sides of equal length. However, while a square is a type of rectangle and rhombus, the opposite does not need to be true.

paragraphs: A square is also the 2-dimensional analogue of a cube.

paragraphs: If the length of side "a" is known, then we have that:

paragraphs: If the length of diagonal "d" is known, then we have that:


title: Computer hardware

paragraphs: Computer hardware or hardware means the physical parts that make up a computer.

paragraphs: Hardware needs software to tell it what to do. Without software, the hardware cannot be used.


title: Meat

paragraphs: Meat is animal tissue used as food. Most often is used to describe skeletal muscle and fat that is found with it. Types of meat include beef and veal from cattle, pork, ham and bacon from pigs, mutton from sheep, "venison" from deer, fish, insects, and poultry from chickens, ducks and turkeys. The word meat is also used for sausages and for non-muscle organs which are used for food, for example liver, brain, and kidneys.

paragraphs: In the meat processing industry, (in some countries) the word "meat" is to mean only the flesh of mammalian species such as pigs, cattle, etc. but does not include fish, insects and poultry.

paragraphs: Meat is an important part of the diet of many people because it contains protein. Protein helps the growth and healing of a body and gives energy. Meat is a "high-protein" food, but costs more than other foods like bread and vegetables. People who cannot afford meat, or who do not like to eat it need to find other ways to get enough protein in their diet. Beans and certain nuts are also high in protein. People that choose not to eat meat are called vegetarians, and those who do not eat any animal product are known as vegans.

paragraphs: Animals such as members of the cat family that mainly eat animals are called carnivores.

paragraphs: Red meat is darker-coloured meat, different from white meat such as chicken or fish. Some raw meat can make people sick or even cause death.


title: Anders Celsius

paragraphs: Anders Celsius (27 November 1701 – 25 April 1744) was a Swedish astronomer. Celsius was born in Uppsala in Sweden. Much of his work was in what was later called Geodesy.

paragraphs: He is more famous for developing the Celsius temperature scale when he worked on meteorology (a science about weather conditions). It later became an the international standard. One of his good friends Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the Fahrenheit scale for the thermometer.


title: Tuvalu

paragraphs: Tuvalu is a small island country in the Pacific Ocean. In the past, it was the Ellice Islands. It was part of Gilbert and Ellice Islands. It is a monarchy.

paragraphs: Tuvalu is getting smaller. If the sea level keeps rising at the same rate, this country will be covered by water in about 50 years.

paragraphs: The most important language spoken in Tuvalu is Tuvaluan, although Nuian is spoken on the island of Nui.

paragraphs: The United States and Tuvalu signed a treaty of friendship in 1979, when the US gave up their claim to Tuvalu for the islands of Funafuti, Nukefetau, Nukulaelae, and Nurakita.

paragraphs: Following Tuvalu being allocated two-letter top-level Internet domain suffix, .tv, the Government of Tuvalu worked with the International Telecommunications Union and established a process to select a management partner for the domain suffix.

paragraphs: On 6 August 1998 a licensing agreement was signed with Information.CA of Toronto under which it agreed to pay an up-front payment of US$50 million for exclusive marketing rights to Tuvalu's domain until 2048, with the country manager/delegee of the Government of Tuvalu for the .tv extension being The .tv Corporation International, which was established in 1998. Subsequent negotiations with Information.CA followed from the delays in payment of US$50 million. Idealab, a Californian company, became involved in 1999 and assumed the $50 million obligation to be paid over 10 years. With the first $1 million payment, Tuvalu was finally able to afford to join the United Nations. Lou Kerner became the first employee of .tv when he joined as CEO in January 2000. .tv grew to over 100 employees, with offices in Los Angeles, London, and Hong Kong, before being acquired in a nine figure transaction in December, 2001.

paragraphs: Tuvalu has four reef islands and five true atolls. The atolls have only 26 km of land. Tuvalu is the fourth smallest country in the world. The land is very low lying and the coral atolls are narrow. Funafuti is the largest atoll of the islands and atolls. It has many islets around a central lagoon. This is about 25.1 kilometres (15.6 mi) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 mi) (W-E), centered on 179°7’E and 8°30’S. A

paragraphs: The highest height is above sea level, which gives Tuvalu the second-lowest highest elevation of any country (after the Maldives). Because of this, the islands that make up Tuvalu are threatened by any sea level rise. If this happens, the people will have to go to New Zealand, Niue or the Fijian island of Kioa. Tuvalu is also affected by what is known as a king tide, which can raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide.


title: Java

paragraphs: Java () is one of the islands of Indonesia.

paragraphs: The area is 132,000 square km. It is the world's 13th largest island. Around 140 million people live there, which is half the people in Indonesia and more than on any other island in the world. Most of them speak the Javanese language and many also speak other languages.

paragraphs: The Java Sea is to the north, the Indian Ocean south. The capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta, is in Java.

paragraphs: Most of Java has a tropical monsoon climate (Am in the Koeppen climate classification). The northern coast of the island is low-lying. The soil is fertile, because the island was made by volcanoes. It is an important area for growing crops in Indonesia.