title: Justus Liebig

paragraphs: Justus Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and worked on the organization of organic chemistry.

paragraphs: Liebig was one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time.

paragraphs: At 21 he was appointed professor of chemistry at Giessen, recommended by Alexander von Humboldt. There he established the world's first major school of chemistry. He invented the chemical laboratory, and used it for teaching. He founded and edited the "Annalen der Chemie", the leading German-language journal of chemistry.

paragraphs: Liebig invented new methods for the analysis of organic materials. He showed that, to grow, plants need (as well as water and sunlight) carbon dioxide, minerals and nitrogen compounds. He discovered that nitrogen was an essential plant nutrient, and invented the first nitrogen-based fertiliser. His Law of the Minimum stated that a plant's development is limited by the one essential mineral that is in the shortest supply. He described the effect of individual nutrients on crops.

paragraphs: Where others thought that organic chemicals were entirely separate fron inorganic ones, Liebig thought diffferently:

paragraphs: In 1835 he invented a process of silvering that greatly improved the quality of mirrors.

paragraphs: Liebig also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef cube.

paragraphs: Liebig's work was closely followed in Britain, and he was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1840. His own country made him a Baron in 1845.


title: Awa Province (Chiba)

paragraphs: The province was on the tip of the Boso Peninsula (房総半島).

paragraphs: Awa Province was created during the reign of Empress Genshō.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Awa Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Awa jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Awa.


title: Spaceflight

paragraphs: Spaceflight is when a thing (spacecraft) made by man flies into outer space. A spaceflight can happen with or without humans on board. The Russian Soyuz program, the US Space Shuttle and the International Space Station are examples of manned (with humans) missions for spaceflight. Space probes and satellites (which orbit the Earth), are examples of unmanned (without humans) spaceflights. These operate either by radio control or are fully independent.

paragraphs: Spaceflight is used for space exploration such as manned missions to the Earth's moon or unmanned missions to other planets in the solar system. Spaceflight can also be used for tourism and satellite telecommunications. A spaceflight begins with a rocket launch, which provides enough energy to get out of Earth's atmosphere and to orbit the Earth. Once the rocket is in space, the activity of the rocket is watched and studied by scientists back on Earth. Some rockets may remain in space forever, some break apart when they reenter Earth's atmosphere. A few land or fall on other planets.

paragraphs: A German V-2 missile crossed the Kármán line ( above the Earth) on October 3, 1942. This was the first spaceflight. The first artificial satellite of Earth was the Russian Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957.


title: Sanuki Province

paragraphs: The province had borders with Awa and Iyo Provinces.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Sanuki Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Tamura jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Sanuki.


title: Tosa Province

paragraphs: The province had borders with Iyo and Awa Provinces.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near modern Nankoku.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Tosa Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Tosa jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Tosa.


title: 555 timer IC

paragraphs: The NE555 is a common IC (or integrated circuit) introduced in 1972. It is used in timers. It is popular among hobbyists and can be found in many electronics stores that sell bare components, such as RadioShack.


title: VGA connector

paragraphs: A VGA connector is a type of computer plug. It is used to send analog video signal to an output device like a television screen or a computer monitor. Most VGA connectors have 15 pins; 3 rows of 5 pins. Some of them are a bit different, and have 18 pins; 3 rows of 6 pins.

paragraphs: 21st century equipment more often uses digital plugs, mainly by High-Definition Multimedia Interface.


title: Microbial cyst

paragraphs: A microbial cyst is a resting or dormant stage of a microorganism, usually a bacterium or a protist or rarely an invertebrate animal, that helps the organism to survive in unfavorable environmental conditions. It can be thought of as a state of suspended animation in which the metabolic processes of the cell are slowed down and the cell ceases all activities like feeding and locomotion. "Encystment" also helps the microbe to spread easily, from one host to another or to a better environment. When the encysted microbe reaches an environment good for its growth and survival, the cyst wall breaks down by a process known as "excystation".

paragraphs: Unfavorable environmental conditions trigger the making of a cyst. These include the lack of nutrients or oxygen, extreme temperatures, lack of moisture and presence of toxic chemicals, which are not good for the growth of the microbe.

paragraphs: Different organisms have cyst walls made of different things. The cyst walls of bacteria are formed by the thickening of the normal cell wall with added peptidoglycan layers. The walls of protozoan cysts are made of chitin, a type of glycoprotein. Nematode cyst walls are made of chitin reinforced by collagen.


title: Content delivery

paragraphs: Content delivery describes the delivery of media content such as audio, video, computer software and video games over a delivery medium such as broadcasting or the Internet.

paragraphs: Specialist networks known as content delivery networks have distribute digital content on the Internet. Alternative technologies for content delivery include peer-to-peer file sharing technologies. Content can only be delivered if it exists. If it does not exist, several techniques and methods can be used for content creation or content regeneration. Alternatively, content delivery platforms create and syndicate content remotely, acting like hosted content management systems.


title: Kitano Tenman-gū

paragraphs: , also called Kitano Tenjin-jinja and Kitano Temmangū, is a Shinto shrine in Kamigyō-ku, Kyoto, Japan.

paragraphs: The shrine was built in 947, to appease the angry spirit of Sugawara no Michizane. He had been wrongly sent into exile.

paragraphs: The shrine became the object of Imperial patronage during the early Heian period.

paragraphs: The current buildings date from the early 17th century.

paragraphs: From 1871 through 1946, the Kitano Tenman-gū was officially designated one of the , meaning that it stood in the second rank of government supported shrines.


title: Tommy "Hurricane" Jackson

paragraphs: Tommy "Hurricane" Jackson (1931-1982) was an American heavyweight boxer. He fought from 1951 until 1961. He had a total of 44 fights. His statistics were 34 wins (16 by knockout), 9 losses and 1 draw. In February 1956, he was rated behind Bob Baker for the heavyweight championship title.He fought Floyd Patterson in June 1956 to see who would be the heavyweight champion after Rocky Marciano retired and gave up the title. Jackson lost a very close controversial 12 round split decision. He fought Patterson again in July 1957, when Patterson was the champion. Patterson beat him at the end of 10 rounds when the referee ended the match.


title: Pentium F00F bug

paragraphs: The Pentium F00F bug is a hardware bug (design flaw) found in most original Pentium computer processors (but not in Pentium II, III, or 4). The bug allows a malicious program running as an unprivileged (non-root) user to crash the computer by running the instructions (in hexadecimal) F00FC7C8. In assembly language, this represents "lock cmpxchg8b eax". If the system has crashed because of this bug, the only way to fix it is to reboot the computer, usually by unplugging it and plugging it back in. It does no permanent damage to the computer, but it may cause data loss. The bug was discovered in November 1997. Many operating systems made since 1997 have protection against this bug.


title: Locker

paragraphs: A locker is a small compartment that is used to store things such as books, coats, etc. They are commonly found in schools. They are usually locked with a padlock or a built-in lock. Usually there is an array of lockers. Each user has his/her own key (or combination) and can not open other people's lockers. There is sometimes a master key used only by the manager which can open all of the lockers. The typical maximum padlock shackle thickness is 5/16 inch (8 mm), and the typical door thickness is 0.8 mm. High-security lockers typically have a 10 mm or more maximum shackle thickness and a 1.2 mm door thickness.


title: Skeleton key

paragraphs: A skeleton key (also master key or pass key) is a key that can open all of the locks in a set.

paragraphs: For example, in an office building, each employee would have a key that only opens his/her office, and the manager or owner would have a key that opens all of the offices in that building.

paragraphs: More complicated setups are also possible. For example, if there are cleaners in the office building, and each cleaner only cleans one floor, the cleaner for a each floor could have a "sub-master" key that opens only the offices on that floor, while each employee still has a key that opens only his/her office and the manager still has a key that opens all of the doors. The exterior doors might also be configured so that they can be opened by any employee key, cleaner key, or the manager's master key. The more complicated the setup, the more important it is to use locks that have a large number of key possibilities. Disc-detainer locks are especially suitable for master keying due to their large number of key possibilities.


title: Patent attorney

paragraphs: A patent attorney is an attorney who has the specialized skills and training necessary for representing clients in obtaining patents and acting in all matters and procedures relating to patent law and practice. For example, the patent attorney can not only file an application for a new patent but he can also try to stop the patent office from giving the patent to somebody else. The term is used differently in different countries, and thus may or may not require the same legal qualifications as a general legal practitioner (i.e., a lawyer).

paragraphs: The titles patent agent and patent lawyer are also used in some jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions the terms are interchangeable. In other countries, a patent lawyer must also be qualified as a lawyer.

paragraphs: Each patent office regulates the people who make filings. Patent attorneys can do this, but the patent office will not accept filings from other attorneys. Each patent office has its own rules about what a person has to do to become a patent attorney.

paragraphs: In Europe, requirements for practicing as patent attorney before national patent offices differ from those needed for practicing before the European Patent Office (EPO). On the national level, the requirements are not harmonized across the European Union, except that the EU makes sure that respective professional qualifications are mutually recognized to some degree. In the United States, the patent attorney must pass a special examination to test his knowledge of patent office procedures. Some countries allow lawyers who are not citizens to practice. Some countries will allow lawyers from a second country to make filings if the second country will do the same for lawyers from that first country. Many times, a patent attorney from a foreign country will work with a local attorney to make sure that the patent application for that country is filed correctly and quickly.


title: Bungo Province

paragraphs: Bungo had borders with Buzen, Hyūga, Higo, Chikugo, and Chikuzen Provinces.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Bungo Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Sasamuta-jinja" and "Yusuhara Hachiman-gū" were the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") of Bungo.


title: Aberystwyth

paragraphs: Aberystwyth (Mouth of the River Ystwyth) is a historic market town, administrative centre and holiday resort. It is in the area of Ceredigion in West of Wales. Locals call the area 'Aber'.

paragraphs: The people who live there mostly speak English, though many are also fluent in the Welsh language. It is a university town. The small town of over 13,000 brows by another 10,000 when the students are there. The nearby suburb of Llanbadarn Fawr has another 3,400 people.


title: Transition-minimized differential signaling

paragraphs: Transition Minimized Differential Signaling (or TMDS) is a standard that is used to transport uncompressed data to a digital device. The data transmitted is digital. By using a digital signal instead of an analogue signal, the impact of Electromagnetic interference on the signal is reduced. This mode of transmission is mainly used for audio and visual data.

paragraphs: TMDS uses 8b/10b encoding. The code set is different from the original, developed by IBM. Encoding is a two-stage process that uses XOR and XNOR gates. Whether to use XOR or XNOR operation is selected, so that the number ofsignal transitions is minimal; this is where the name is from.

paragraphs: S/PDIF is a similar standard, used in consumer audio equipment.


title: Hazel

paragraphs: Hazel is a genus of trees and shrubs, in the birch family. There are 50 to 80 species, in four genera. They are native to the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.


title: Maxi single

paragraphs: A maxi single is a CD single that contains more than two tracks. The first maxi-single was released during the 1970s. There are also cassette maxi singles that began in the 1990s.


title: Electric piano

paragraphs: A electric piano is a piano that makes sounds mechanically. The sounds are turned into electrical signals by pick ups. Electric pianos are usually seen in live performances in popular music.


title: Refrain

paragraphs: A refrain is a verse or group of verses that is repeated at intervals in a piece of music or poetry. In song, it is often called the chorus. The refrain is often very different to the verse in melody, rhythm and harmonics. It usually has a higher level of dynamics and activity, often with added instrumentation.

paragraphs: In music, a refrain has two parts: the lyrics of the song, and the melody. Sometimes refrains use slightly different words as they are repeated. Such lines are still able to be recognised as part of the refrain by the fact that it is always has the same tune or melody. The rhymes, if present, are also kept even if the words are sometimes different. In popular music, the chorus contrasts with the verse, which leads into it, while the bridge contrasts with and leads into both. Many popular songs from the middle of the 20th century consist only of a chorus.

paragraphs: The word comes from Vulgar Latin word "refringere", and later from Old French "refraindre", both of which mean "to repeat".


title: Willimantic, Connecticut

paragraphs: Willimantic, Connecticut is a census-designated place and former city. It is in the town of Windham, Windham County. About 15,823 people lived there at the 2000 census. Eastern Connecticut State University and the Windham Textile and History Museum are in Willimantic.


title: Windham, Connecticut

paragraphs: Windham is a town in Windham County, Connecticut, United States. It contains the city of Willimantic and the villages of Windham Center, North Windham, and South Windham. The city of Willimantic was made part of the town in 1983. The population was 23,733 in 2009 and 22,857 at the 2000 census.


title: Eastern Connecticut State University

paragraphs: Eastern Connecticut State University (ECSU) is a public liberal arts university. It is located in Willimantic, Connecticut. Eastern Connecticut State University is ranked in the top 100 regional universities in the North (of the United States) in the 2011 edition of the "U.S. News and World Report" list of Best Colleges. There are 5,671 students attending Eastern. The campus is suburban. The school's athletic department are called the "Warriors".


title: Windham County, Connecticut

paragraphs: Windham County is a county in the northwest of the US state Connecticut.


title: Ashford, Connecticut

paragraphs: Ashford is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The town had a population of 4,098 at the 2000 census. Ashford was founded in 1714. Eastford was a part of Ashford until 1848 or 1847. Eastford split into its own town. Ashford has the largest Boy scout camps in the US state of Connecticut.


title: Jadeite Cabbage

paragraphs: The Jadeite Cabbage (), or Jadeite Cabbage with Insects, is a Chinese sculpture. It is a piece of jadeite carved into the shape of a Chinese cabbage head. It also has a locust and a katydid hiding in the leaves.

paragraphs: The work is part of the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan.

paragraphs: The Jadeite Cabbage is a small sculpture. It measures only . It is think. It is "hardly larger than a human hand".

paragraphs: Jade is translucent: it lets light pass through the sculpture. The combination of several colors in the jade gives the leaves the various colors of a real cabbage. The sculpture was made from one piece of half-white, half-green jadeite. The piece of jade has many imperfections. These include cracks and patches of different colors. These were used as the veins in the cabbage's stalks and leaves.

paragraphs: The sculpture is seen as a symbol of female virtue. The white stalk is a symbol of purity, the leaves show fertility and the locust and katydid symbolize children.

paragraphs: The sculptor of the Jadeite Cabbage is not known. It was first shown in the Forbidden City's Yonghe Palace. This is the home of the Qing Empire's Guangxu Emperor's Consort Jin. She likely got the sculpture as part of her dowry for her wedding to Guangxu in 1889. After the end of the Qing Empire in the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the sculpture became part of the collection of the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City. The piece survived the Second Sino-Japanese War (World War II) and the Chinese Civil War. It was finally made a part of Taiwan's National Palace Museum.

paragraphs: The Jadeite Cabbage has been called the "most famous masterpiece" of the entire National Palace Museum. It is said the be one of the "Three Treasures of the National Palace Museum". The other two are the Meat-shaped Stone and the Mao Gong Ding. It was picked by the public as the most important item in the museum's entire collection. people thought it was a bad thing in 2009 when it was learned that souvenir copies of the sculpture were being made in China and not in Taiwan. These copies were being sold at the museum.


title: Brooklyn, Connecticut

paragraphs: Brooklyn is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 7,173 at the 2000 census. East Brooklyn is listed as a census-designated place and is located on the east side of Brooklyn. The town was founded in 1786 and is known for being one of Windham's "fastest growing towns".


title: East Brooklyn, Connecticut

paragraphs: East Brooklyn is a census-designated place in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 1,473 at the 2000 census. Danielson is located in East Brooklyn. East Brooklyn is the urban side of Brooklyn. The racial makeup of the city was 94.30% White, 2.04% African American, 0.81% Native American, 0.75% Asian, 0.41% from other races, and 1.70% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.83% of the population.


title: Canterbury, Connecticut

paragraphs: Canterbury is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. The population was 5,132 at the 2010 census. The racial makeup of the town was 97.34% White, 0.36% African American, 0.28% Native American, 0.26% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.30% from other races, and 1.45% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.07% of the population.

paragraphs: The town was founded in the 1680s as Peagscomsuck until 1703. In 1832, Prudence Crandall, a school teacher, opened the first school for African American girls. The "Black Law" did not allow the education of black people. However, Crandall taught until she was sent to prison in 1832 for a short time. Angry mobs forced the school to close in 1834. Crandall later married and moved out of the state. Connecticut ended the "Black Law" in 1838. They also gave Crandall a small pension in 1886, four years before her death. The school is now the Prudence Crandall Museum.


title: Chaplin, Connecticut

paragraphs: Chaplin is a town in Windham County, Connecticut. Chaplin was named after Deacon Benjamin Chaplin, an early settler. The Chaplin Museum, Chaplin Historic District and the Witter House are located in Chaplin.


title: Surface tension

paragraphs: Surface tension is an effect where the surface of a liquid is strong. The surface can hold up a weight, and the surface of a water droplet holds the droplet together, in a ball shape. Some small things can float on a surface because of surface tension, even though they normally could not float. Some insects (e.g. water striders) can run on the surface of water because of this. This property is caused by the molecules in the liquid being attracted to each other (cohesion), and is responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids.

paragraphs: Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent—but when referring to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface energy—which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids and not just liquids.

paragraphs: In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy.

paragraphs: The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules cause surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.

paragraphs: Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be perfectly spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary "wall tension" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.

paragraphs: Another way to view it is in terms of energy. A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone (not in contact with a neighbor). The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors (compared to interior molecules). So, the boundary molecules have a higher energy. For the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a minimized surface area.

paragraphs: As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can. Any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area and a higher energy. So, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.

paragraphs: Studying water shows several effects of surface tension:

paragraphs: A. Rain water forms beads on the surface of a waxy surface, such as a leaf. Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio.

paragraphs: B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water were running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres.

paragraphs: C. Objects denser than water still float when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension. For example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond. The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area.

paragraphs: D. Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called "interface tension", but its physics are the same.

paragraphs: E. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol. It is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.

paragraphs: Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:

paragraphs: Surface tension, represented by the symbol "γ" is defined as the force along a line of unit length, where the force is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the line. One way to picture this is to imagine a flat soap film bounded on one side by a taut thread of length, "L". The thread will be pulled toward the interior of the film by a force equal to 2"formula_1L" (the factor of 2 is because the soap film has two sides, hence two surfaces). Surface tension is therefore measured in forces per unit length. Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per cm is also used. One dyn/cm corresponds to 0.001 N/m.

paragraphs: An equivalent definition, one that is useful in thermodynamics, is work done per unit area. As such, in order to increase the surface area of a mass of liquid by an amount, "δA", a quantity of work, "formula_1δA", is needed. This work is stored as potential energy. Consequently surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm. Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume.

paragraphs: The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis.

paragraphs: If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat. But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force. In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be curved. The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch. When all the forces are balanced, the resulting equation is known as the Young–Laplace equation:

paragraphs: The quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact (twice) the mean curvature of the surface (depending on normalization).

paragraphs: Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension. (Another example is the shape of the impressions that a water strider's feet make on the surface of a pond).

paragraphs: The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius. For not very small drops the effect is subtle, but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size. (In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless.)

paragraphs: It is hard to find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using just mathematics. Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap-solution, a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap-film within seconds.

paragraphs: The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature, as seen in the Young-Laplace equation. For an open soap film, the pressure difference is zero, hence the mean curvature is zero, and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature.

paragraphs: The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium. The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond water and the air. Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but a property of the liquid's interface with another medium. If a liquid is in a container, then besides the liquid/air interface at its top surface, there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container. The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater than) its surface tension with the walls of a container. Where the two surfaces meet, the geometry will balance all forces.

paragraphs: Where the two surfaces meet, they form a contact angle, formula_5, which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface. The diagram to the right shows two examples. Tension forces are shown for the liquid-air interface, the liquid-solid interface, and the solid-air interface. The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, formula_6, is less than the liquid-air surface tension, formula_7, but is still positive, that is

paragraphs: In the diagram, both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point, known as equilibrium. The horizontal component of formula_9 is canceled by the adhesive force, formula_10.

paragraphs: The more important balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction. The vertical component of formula_9 must exactly cancel the force, formula_13.

paragraphs: Since the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions, we also have:

paragraphs: This means that although the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, formula_20, is difficult to measure directly, it can be inferred from the liquid-air surface tension, formula_17, and the equilibrium contact angle, formula_5, which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles (see main article contact angle).

paragraphs: This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right. But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90°, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference must be negative:

paragraphs: Observe that in the special case of a water-silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90°, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference is exactly zero.

paragraphs: Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180°. Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this. Contact angle of 180° occurs when the liquid-solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid-air surface tension.

paragraphs: Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it offers a number of paths to its measurement. Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is deformed.

paragraphs: An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury, and with a vacuum (called Torricelli's vacuum) in the unfilled volume (see diagram to the right). Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges, making the upper surface of the mercury dome-shaped. The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire crossection of the tube. But the dome-shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury. Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy. Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus.

paragraphs: We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, because mercury does not adhere at all to glass. So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass. If instead of glass, the tube were made out of copper, the situation would be very different. Mercury aggressively adheres to copper. So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus). In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid's surface area that is in contact with the container to have "negative" surface tension. The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area. So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy. That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.

paragraphs: If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height the column is lifted to is given by:

paragraphs: Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness. The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimeter thick, and no thinner. Again this is due to the action of mercury's strong surface tension. The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible, but the surface tension, at the same time, is acting to reduce the total surface area. The result is the compromise of a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness.

paragraphs: The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, lime water or even saline, but only if the liquid does not adhere to the flat surface material. Wax is such a substance. Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.

paragraphs: The thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180° is given by:

paragraphs: In reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180° with any liquid. When the contact angle is less than 180°, the thickness is given by:

paragraphs: For mercury on glass, γ = 487 dyn/cm, ρ = 13.5 g/cm and θ = 140°, which gives h = 0.36 cm. For water on paraffin at 25 °C, γ = 72 dyn/cm, ρ = 1.0 g/cm, and θ = 107° which gives h = 0.44 cm.

paragraphs: The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0°, the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface. Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid.

paragraphs: In day-to-day life we all observe that a stream of water emerging from a faucet will break up into droplets, no matter how smoothly the stream is emitted from the faucet. This is due to a phenomenon called the Plateau–Rayleigh instability, which is entirely a consequence of the effects of surface tension.

paragraphs: The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream. These are always present, no matter how smooth the stream is. If the perturbations are resolved into sinusoidal components, we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time. Among those that grow with time, some grow at faster rates than others. Whether a component decays or grows, and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number (a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter) and the radii of the original cylindrical stream.


title: The Suite Life on Deck

paragraphs: The Suite Life on Deck was an American television series on Disney Channel. It premiered on September 26, 2008. It is a sequel to "The Suite Life of Zack and Cody". The series is about twin brothers Zack and Cody Martin and hotel heiress London Tipton in a new setting, the SS "Tipton". The group goes to classes at a school on the boat that is called "Seven Seas High". On the boat, they meet Bailey Pickett. Mr. Moseby manages the ship. The ship travels around the world to nations such as Italy, Greece, India, Sweden and the United Kingdom In the places where the ship travels, the characters experience different cultures, adventures, and situations.

paragraphs: The show's first episode premiered on the Disney Channel in the US on September 26, 2008. Around 5.7 million people watched it on the night of its premiere.. The series premiere in Canada was also the most watched series premiere on Family channel. In December 2008, Business Wire reported that the show was 2008's #1 scripted television series for children between the ages 6 to 11 and older children between the ages 9 to 14, beating the older series "Hannah Montana" and "Wizards of Waverly Place" in the ratings.<ref name="Disney Channel/DisneyChannel.com Highlights For 2008"></ref> The show was in the #1 spot for the best rated children's television series for many months. The show has been one of the best 4 live-action television series for many months. Since then, “The Suite Life on Deck” had a large lead in the time slot (Friday 8:00 p.m.), ranking as TV's #1 program among the important children's age groups. The series is also #1 in total viewers on all cable, doing better than #2 rank (Fox News and Nickelodeon) by 800,000 more viewers.

paragraphs: As of August 2009, the highest rated episode of "The Suite Life on Deck" was "Double-Crossed," the second part of "Wizards On Deck with Hannah Montana", three episodes where guest stars from "Wizards of Waverly Place" and "Hannah Montana" came onto the show. It premiered on July 17, 2009 on Disney Channel. The special episode was viewed by more than 10.6 million people. It is one of the highest-rated episodes for a Disney Channel original series.

paragraphs: In early October 2009, the one hour special episode "Lost at Sea" became the most watched episode of the series. It had 7.6 million total viewers. In 2009, the series was the most watched scripted series in the children and older children group of viewers (6-14). The series second season's ratings were 25% higher than the show's season one ratings. The second season has averaged around 5.1 million viewers.

paragraphs: Before the series officially started airing, the first episode named "The Suite Life Sets Sail" was made available as a free download on iTunes. All series have since been made available.


title: Atmospheric chemistry

paragraphs: Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines. Research is connected with other areas of study such as climatology.

paragraphs: Studying the atmosphere includes studying the interactions between the atmosphere and living organisms. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes such as volcano emissions, lightning and bombardment by solar particles from the Sun's corona. It has also been changed by human activity. Some of these changes are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems. Examples of problems include acid rain, ozone depletion, photochemical smog, greenhouse gases and global warming. Atmospheric chemists study the causes of these problems. Atmospheric chemists offer theories about these problems, then test the theories and possible solutions. Atmospheric chemists also note the effects of changes in government policy.

paragraphs: Notes: the concentration of CO and CH vary by season and location. The mean molecular mass of air is 28.97 g/mol.

paragraphs: The ancient Greeks regarded air as one of the four elements. The first scientific studies of atmospheric composition began in the 18th century. Chemists such as Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and Henry Cavendish made the first measurements of the composition of the atmosphere.

paragraphs: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries interest shifted towards trace constituents with very small concentrations. One important discovery for atmospheric chemistry was the discovery of ozone by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1840.

paragraphs: The concentrations of trace gases in the atmosphere have changed over time and so have the chemical processes which make and destroy compounds in the air. Two important examples of this were the explanation by Sydney Chapman and Gordon Dobson of how the ozone layer is created and maintained, and the explanation of photochemical smog by Arie Jan Haagen-Smit. Further studies on ozone issues led to the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry award shared between Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina and Frank Sherwood Rowland.

paragraphs: In the 21st century the focus is now shifting again. Atmospheric chemistry is increasingly studied as one part of the Earth system. Before, scientists focused on atmospheric chemistry in isolation. Now, scientists study atmospheric chemistry as one part of a single system with the rest of the atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere. A reason for this is the links between chemistry and climate. For example, changing climate and the recovery of the ozone hole affect each other. Also, the composition of the atmosphere interact with the oceans and terrestrial ecosystems.

paragraphs: Observations, lab measurements and modeling are the three central elements in atmospheric chemistry. All three methods are used together. For example, observations may tell that more of a chemical compound exists than previously thought possible. This will stimulate new modelling and laboratory studies which will increase scientific understanding to a point where the observations can be explained.

paragraphs: Observations of atmospheric chemistry are important. Scientist record data about the chemical composition of air over time to watch for any changes. One example of this is the Keeling Curve - a series of measurements from 1958 to today which show a steady rise in of the concentration of carbon dioxide. Observations of atmospheric chemistry are made in observatories such as that on Mauna Loa and on mobile platforms such as aircraft, ships and balloons. Observations of atmospheric composition are increasingly made by satellites giving a global picture of air pollution and chemistry. Surface observations have the advantage that they provide long term records at high time resolution but provide data from a limited vertical and horizontal space. Some surface based instruments such as LIDAR can provide concentration profiles of chemical compounds and aerosol but are still restricted in the horizontal region they cover. Many observations are shared on-line.

paragraphs: Measurements made in the laboratory are essential to our understanding of the sources and sinks of pollutants and compounds found in nature. Lab studies tell which gases react with each other and how fast they react. Scientists measure reactions in the gas phase, on surfaces and in water. Scientists also study photochemistry which quantifies how quickly molecules are split apart by sunlight and what the products are. Scientists also study thermodynamic data such as Henry's law coefficients.


title: Buzen Province

paragraphs: Buzen had borders with Bungo and Chikuzen Provinces.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near Toyotsu, Fukuoka.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Buzen Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Usa-jinjū" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Buzen.


title: Chikugo Province

paragraphs: Chikugo had borders with Hizen, Chikuzen, Bungo, and Higo Provinces.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near Kurume, Fukuoka.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Chikugo Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Kōra taisha" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Chikugo.


title: Chikuzen Province

paragraphs: Chikuzen had borders with Buzen, Bungo, Chikugo, and Hizen Provinces.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near Dazaifu.

paragraphs: At the end of the 13th century, Chikuzen was the landing point for a Mongol invasion force. But the main force was destroyed by a typhoon which was later called "kamikaze".

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Chikuzen Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Sumiyoshi-jinja" and "Hakosagi-gū" were the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") of Chikuzen.


title: Windows Live Mail

paragraphs: Windows Live Mail is an email client made by Microsoft. It is part of the Windows Live set of products. The application takes over Outlook Express on Windows XP and Windows Mail on Windows Vista. You can download Windows Live Mail for free as part of the Windows Live Essentials suite.


title: Higo Province

paragraphs: Higo Province (肥後国; Higo no kuni) was an old province of Japan in the area that is today Kumamoto Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū. Along with Hizen Province, it was sometimes called .

paragraphs: Higo had borders with Chikugo, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma Provinces.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Higo Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Aso-jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Higo.


title: Hizen Province

paragraphs: Hizen had borders with the provinces of Chikuzen and Chikugo.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near Saga.

paragraphs: The name "Hizen" dates from the Nara Period, when the province was divided from Higo Province. The name appears in the "Shoku Nihongi".

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Hizen Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Kawakami jinja" and "Chiriku Hachiman-gū" were the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") of Hizen.


title: Hyūga Province

paragraphs: Hyūga had borders with Bungo, Higo, Ōsumi, and Satsuma Province.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near Saito.

paragraphs: In Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Hyūga is called in Tsukushi-no-shima, with Tsukushi, Toyo and Hi Province.

paragraphs: In 713 ("Wadō 6, 3rd month"), the province of Hyūga was separated from Ōsumi.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Hyūga Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Tsuno jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Hyūga.


title: Apollo 4

paragraphs: Apollo 4 was the first unmanned test flight mission of the Saturn V launch vehicle. This was the rocket used in the Apollo program to send the first men to the Moon. The rocket was launched on November 9, 1967 from the Kennedy Space Center. NASA said that the mission was a complete success, and it helped the Apollo program very much.


title: Alfred Maurer

paragraphs: Alfred Henry Maurer (April 21, 1868 – August 4, 1932) was an American modernist painter. He exhibited his work in avant-garde circles during the early 20th century.

paragraphs: Maurer was born in New York City, the son of a German lithographer. At age sixteen, Maurer quit school to work at his father's lithographic firm. In 1897 Maurer left for Paris, where he stayed the next four years, joining a circle of American and French artists. At the time, Maurer's style was realist.

paragraphs: Briefly returning to New York, he was determined to show his skeptical father that he could paint. Maurer painted what arguably is his most famous painting "An Arrangement", using a woman next door as a model and completing the work (on a borrowed piece of cardboard) in a matter of hours. The painting received first prize at the 1901 Carnegie International Exhibition. Other awards received by Maurer included the Inness Jr. prize of the Salmagundi Club in 1900 and a bronze medal at the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, New York in 1901. In 1905 he won the third medal at the Liège International Exposition and a gold medal at the International Exposition in Munich.

paragraphs: At age thirty-six, in Paris, Maurer changed his methods sharply. From that point on he painted only in the cubist and fauvist manner. By 1909 he was an important American avant-garde painter. He had a two-man exhibition with John Marin in New York City at the 291 Gallery. Four of his paintings were included in the Armory Show of 1913.

paragraphs: Leaving Paris shortly before World War I, he returned to his father's house, but was denied support. For the next 17 years, Maurer painted in a garret in his father's house, and gained no critical acclaim. However, he took part in exhibitions at the Anderson Galleries and others. He exhibited regularly at the New York Society of Independent Artists and was elected their director in 1919. In 1924 the New York dealer Erhard Weyhe bought the contents of Maurer's studio and represented the artist for the remainder of his career.


title: Virgin Interactive

paragraphs: Virgin Interactive was a British video game publisher. It was formed as Virgin Games Ltd. in 1981. The company became much larger after purchasing the budget label, Mastertronic in 1987. It was part of the Virgin Group. In 1994 it was renamed Virgin Interactive.

paragraphs: It published games for PC and systems, including the Amiga, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, C64, Sega Master System, Sega Mega Drive, Sega Game Gear, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Sega Saturn, Sony PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and Dreamcast.

paragraphs: It helped the career of many developers, including Westwood Studios (who developed Command & Conquer Series and the PC port of Resident Evil) and Synergistic. Also, many workers for Shiny Entertainment, including David Perry, worked for Virgin before splitting off to create "Earthworm Jim".

paragraphs: Also among Virgin Interactive alumni are famed video game composer Tommy Tallarico, artist Doug TenNapel, designer David Bishop, animator Bill Kroyer, animator/artists Andy Luckey and Mike Dietz and programmer Andy Astor.

paragraphs: In 1993 Virgin Interactive created the "Digicel" process, originally for an unpublished game called "Dynoblaze". Key to developing the process were Dr. Stephen Clarke-Willson, David Perry, designer David Bishop, animator Bill Kroyer, animator artists Andy Luckey, animator Mike Dietz and programmer Andy Astor. The technology was first released to the general public in "Disney's Aladdin" for the Sega Mega Drive/Sega Genesis and subsequently on such projects as "The Lion King" video game.

paragraphs: The worldwide operations were acquired in a management buyout backed by Mark Dyne who became its Chief Executive Officer in 1998. Tim Chaney, the former Managing Director was named as President. The U.S. operations were spun out to Electronic Arts as part of its acquisition of Westwood Studios that same year.

paragraphs: The Company's assets were acquired by the French publisher Titus Software -- its name was changed to Avalon Interactive on July 1, 2003.

paragraphs: In May 2002, the Spanish division of Virgin Interactive, known as Virgin Interactive España, was purchased by Tim Chaney along with former Spanish president and founder Paco Encinas. The branch was then separated from the main Virgin Interactive company, already part of Titus Software, and kept its own identity as a Virgin brand. Renamed Virgin Play in October 2002, this Spanish publisher remains as the sole representation of the Virgin Group in the video game industry.


title: Charles Cecil

paragraphs: Charles Cecil MBE (born 11 August 1962) is an English video game designer. He has worked in the interactive entertainment industry for 25 years. He is currently the Managing Director for UK based company Revolution Software which has released such critical and commercial hits as "Beneath a Steel Sky" and the "Broken Sword" series. Cecil is on the advisory panel of the Edinburgh Interactive Entertainment Festival, and Develop Conference and regularly talks at events and to mainstream press about creative and commercial aspects of the video games industry. He is also a co-founder and director of Game Republic, an alliance of game developers, and is a Board member of Screen Yorkshire, a regional agency that supports movie, television and interactive entertainment in Yorkshire. In 2006, Cecil was awarded the status of ‘industry legend’ by Develop, Europe’s leading development magazine.


title: Barrington Pheloung

paragraphs: Barrington Somers Pheloung (born 1956 in Sydney, New South Wales) is an Australian composer, now living in England. He is one of the most prolific television and movie composers in the UK, known for his wide range of compositional genres.

paragraphs: Best known for the theme and incidental music to the "Inspector Morse", for which he was nominated for 'Best Original Television Music' at the British Academy Television Awards in 1991, the sequel " Lewis", and the prequel "Endeavour". He has also composed for dance companies, such as the London Contemporary Dance Theatre, and for events, including the opening night of the Millennium Dome.. Pheloung also wrote the theme music for the BBC television series Dalziel & Pascoe.

paragraphs: His film work, includes "Hillary and Jackie", based on the life of the cellist Jacqueline du Pré, for which he was nominated for the 'Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music' at the 52nd British Academy Film Awards. Other works include "A Previous Engagement", "The Little Fugitive", "Shopgirl", "Touching Wild Horses", "Twin Dragons", "Shopping" and "The Mangler". He also made the music to Revolution Software's adventure games In Cold Blood and the first two Broken Swords.

paragraphs: Pheloung's other work includes music for the Sydney Opera House's Twentieth Birthday Celebrations and he contributed to the music for the movie, "Truly, Madly, Deeply" in which he also appeared. He composed the incidental music for the first series of "Boon".

paragraphs: In 2009 he composed the music for "1983", the concluding episode of the acclaimed Channel 4 drama series "Red Riding".


title: Don Bluth

paragraphs: Donald Virgil "Don" Bluth (born September 13, 1937) is an American animator and independent studio owner. He is best known for leaving The Walt Disney Company in 1979 and later directing of animated movies such as "The Secret of NIMH" (1982), "An American Tail" (1986), "The Land Before Time" (1988), and "All Dogs Go to Heaven" (1989), as well as his work on the laserdisc game "Dragon's Lair".

paragraphs: He is also often credited for providing competition to Disney, and making them improve from their streak of less-successful movie efforts to the movies that would make up the Disney Renaissance.


title: Manierre Dawson

paragraphs: Manierre Dawson (December 22, 1887, Chicago, Illinois – August 15, 1969, Sarasota, Florida) was an avant-garde painter and sculptor. He was born and raised in Chicago, but lived most of his life in Michigan.

paragraphs: The case of Manierre Dawson is interesting, and his work been called "surprising and prophetic". During a tour of Europe in 1910, he started painting true abstract works. Back in America, he became convinced that he could not earn a living at art, and became a farmer. He was forgotten until a rediscovery in 1963. He may have been the first person to paint a completely abstract work. He was probably the earliest American abstract artist, slightly ahead of Arthur Dove.

paragraphs: After working for a year with a firm of architects, he was granted a six-month leave-of-absence for an educational tour of Europe. He departed in mid-June 1910 for his only trip abroad. He made his way across England to France, south through Germany, across Switzerland to Italy, back north for a second stay in Paris, and around northern Germany before embarking from Bremerhaven in late-November. In Sienna, he met and exchanged ideas on painting with John Singer Sargent. During his return visit to Paris he attended a Saturday evening soirée at the apartment of Gertrude Stein and he saw paintings by Paul Cézanne in the gallery of Ambroise Vollard.

paragraphs: 1911 through 1914 were the most productive years of his career. In 1914, Dawson participated in two group exhibitions. Summers spent at the family’s retreat in Mason Country, Michigan were his most productive periods during his early career and provided rudimentary knowledge of growing and marketing fruit. He met Lilian Boucher, the daughter of a local farmer, and fell in love. They married in July 1915 and three children were born over the next five years.

paragraphs: Living in rural Michigan and struggling financially he made art from what was available (Portland cement, scraps of lumber, pieces of plywood). Sheets of composite wood (brand names Novoply and Timblend) were laminated together for thickness and carved into freestanding sculptures.

paragraphs: The first real recognition of his work began in 1966 with a retrospective exhibition mounted by the Grand Rapids Art Museum. An exhibition organized by the John and Mable Ringing Museum in Sarasota and shared with the Norton Gallery in West Palm Springs followed a year later. This exhibition brought Dawson to the attention of Robert Schoelkopf, who showed his work in New York in April 1969 and March 1981.

paragraphs: When Dawson was diagnosed with cancer in 1968, he sold the Michigan farm and moved to Sarasota permanently. He died on August 15, 1969.


title: Pierre Guéry

paragraphs: Pierre Guéry (born 1965) is a French writer, poet and performer.

paragraphs: Born in Marseille (France), he studied music, drama and modern dance and gained a doctorate in literature and phonetics.

paragraphs: These various strands merge together in his poetic work. He is a performance poet, for whom very different places can be stages for his reading. Illness, madness and mourning are the main subjects of his sound poetry. He uses his voice in many different ways in his performances, from whispering to screaming, from sounds that are not words to formal reciting.

paragraphs: Since 2006 he has been taking part in various poetic and artistic events in France, Belgium, Canada, Germany and Lebanon.

paragraphs: In 2009 he translated the "Poems of Guantanamo" into French, and he has translated some work of important beat poets and spoken word artists such as Anne Waldman and Lawrence Ferlinghetti, from the American.


title: Arthur Dove

paragraphs: Arthur Garfield Dove (August 2, 1880 – November 23, 1946) was an American artist. An early American modernist, he was the first American abstract painter to be shown publicly. In recent years it has become clear that Manierre Dawson was probably slightly ahead of Dove and Kandinsky in producing pure abstracts.


title: Dynamical systems theory

paragraphs: Dynamical systems theory is a field of applied mathematics. It tries to describe complex dynamical systems, often using differential equations and difference equations. When differential equations are used, the theory is called "continuous" dynamical systems theory. When difference equations are used, it is called "discrete" dynamical systems theory.

paragraphs: The theory looks at the long-term behaviour of dynamical systems. It also studies solutions to the equations of motion, mainly for mechanical systems. The study also includes the motion of planets, or electronic circuits. Part of it focuses on solving Partial differential equations that occur in biology.


title: Sol Linowitz

paragraphs: Sol Myron Linowitz (December 7, 1913 – March 18, 2005) was an American diplomat, lawyer, and businessman born in Trenton, NJ.

paragraphs: He was a graduate of Trenton Central High School, Hamilton College and Cornell Law School. Early in his law career, he helped Xerox get patents on office copier inventions.

paragraphs: Linowitz helped negotiate the return of the Panama Canal to Panama under the direction of President Jimmy Carter. Besides being a career diplomat, lawyer, and one time chairman of Xerox, he wrote two books, "The Making of a Public Man: A Memoir", and "The Betrayed Profession".

paragraphs: He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He served on the Cornell University Board of Trustees.


title: William P. Carey

paragraphs: William Polk Carey (May 11, 1930 – January 2, 2012) born in Baltimore, Maryland, was an American businessman who was the first to apply "sale lease back" financing to assets other than cars. He started W. P. Carey & Co. LLC, a corporate real estate financing firm headquartered in New York City in 1973. It is the world’s largest publicly traded limited liability company. As of 2012, it owns more than 650 commercial and industrial facilities throughout the United States, Europe and Asia. It owns more than 90 million square feet (8 million square meters) of space.

paragraphs: Carey is a direct descendant of James K. Polk. Carey's family has long ties in Baltimore. His great-great-great-grandfather James Carey was an 18th- and 19th-century Baltimore shipper, chairman of the Bank of Maryland, a member of Baltimore's first City Council and a relative of Johns Hopkins. His grandmother, Anne Galbraith Carey, started the Gilman School for boys in Roland Park in 1897.

paragraphs: As a young man Carey left the Gilman School to go to the Pomfret School in Connecticut, then attended Princeton University and the University of Pennsylvania. He served in the Air Force for two years. He then worked at his stepfather's car dealership to repay his college expenses. He learned about sale lease back financing at the dealership. He then moved to New York City. Carey resided in New York City and Rensselaerville, New York. In 1988, Carey started the W.P. Carey Foundation. In 1999, he served as the Executive in Residence at the Harvard Business School.

paragraphs: Carey was benefactor to the Arizona State University College of Business. In 2002, Carey donated $50 million to the College of Business. In recognition of his gift, the University renamed its business school the W. P. Carey School of Business.

paragraphs: Carey approached Johns Hopkins with a proposal to start a business school in the 1950s, but the college was not interested. Carey announced December 5, 2006 his donation of $50 million to Johns Hopkins University. He was a trustee emeritus at Hopkins and donated the money through his W.P. Carey Foundation. The gift is the largest to Hopkins in support of business education and is now called the Carey Business School. The Hopkins business school was renamed after William Carey's great-great-great-grandfather, James Carey. The school offers a Master of Science in Real Estate program, one of the first in the Baltimore/Washington, D.C. corridor.

paragraphs: On April 25, 2011 Carey announced his donation of $30 million to the University of Maryland School of Law. The emphasis of the gift was to increase the school's endowment. The school was renamed after Carey's grandfather, Francis King Carey, who was a graduate of the Law School (Class of 1880).

paragraphs: In the mid-1990s, the Gilman School started discussing the much needed renovations of Carey Hall, the school's main building which houses the Upper School students. Carey Hall, named after Carey's grandmother, was constructed in 1910 and remained the same until late 2006. Carey donated 10 million dollars to the school's capital campaign fund, a sum that was one fifth of the total amount of money raised for the renovation of Carey Hall. On December 10, 2007 Carey Hall was officially re-opened.

paragraphs: Carey is a direct descendent of Bishop Leonidas Polk, the founder of Sewanee, the University of the South. Sewanee named an undergraduate business program in Carey's honor. Carey also funded the Carey Fellowships for honor business students. In 2006, Carey received an honorary degree from Sewanee.


title: Teddy Stadium

paragraphs: Teddy Stadium (, "Itztadion Teddy") is a football stadium in Jerusalem, Israel.

paragraphs: It is the homeground of Beitar Jerusalem F.C. and Hapoel Jerusalem F.C. It is named after the long time Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek. For Beitar the stadium was important. They played at the YMCA Stadium. That stadium was nicknamed "The Sandbox" because of its bad ground conditions.

paragraphs: Originally only the west and east sides of the stadium were built giving it a capacity of 13,000. In 1999 work was finished on a north side. Now the capacity is 21,600. The city of Jerusalem decided to increase the stadium's capacity to 34,000 seats until 2013 for UEFA European Under-21 Championship and the Maccabiah Olympic Games.

paragraphs: The stadium itself is one of the newest in Israel and meets all European standards. The stadium has 5,000 parking spots and is connected to the Malha Mall and its parking facilities by a pedestrian bridge. The stadium is located at the Begin Expressway and the Malha Train Station. So people can go to the stadium either by car or rail.

paragraphs: Because of its atmosphere (stands are close to the ground and the acoustics are excellent), Teddy Stadium hosted matches of the National football team. It was also the place for the Maccabiah Games opening ceremony and other public events.


title: Infinitesimal

paragraphs: Infinitesimals are quantities that are too small to measure.

paragraphs: Newton and Leibniz developed the calculus based on an intuitive notion of an infinitesimal. In 1870, Karl Weierstraß provided the first rigorous treatment of the calculus, using the limit method. But in 1960, Abraham Robinson found that infinitesimals also provide a rigorous basis for the calculus. Many calculus courses still begin with the difficult limit concept, but others now adopt the easier to understand infinitesimal concept.

paragraphs: In differential calculus, in both the limit and infinitesimal versions, the velocity of a particle is represented by formula_1, where "s" is the position of the particle and "t" the time at which the velocity is measured. In infinitesimal calculus, d"s" and d"t" are simply very small quantities. In general, the term formula_2 is called the differential of the variable formula_3.

paragraphs: Assume that "s" = "t", we have that at time "t" + d"t", "s" + d"s" = (t + d"t"). From these equations, we can determine d"s" in terms of d"t" by using simple algebra as follows:

paragraphs: Because d"t" is infinitesimal, one can just ignore it, so the instantanous velocity is "v" = 2"t". One gets the same result using the limit version, with greater rigour. The infinitesimal derivation can also be made more rigorous.


title: Linzer Stadion

paragraphs: The Stadion der Stadt Linz (City of Linz Stadium) is the largest stadium in Upper Austria. It is also known as Gugl stadium after the hill it is situated on. It was built in 1952. It was renovated and adapted often since this year. At the moment there are adaption works. After this the stadium is for 20 000 people.

paragraphs: The stadium is owned by LIVA. The LIVA is the event agency of the City of Linz. The stadium is the homeground of LASK Linz and Blau Weiß Linz. Beetween 1988 and 2008 there was an annual track and field athletics meeting.


title: Second Battle of Ypres

paragraphs: The Second Battle of Ypres was a battle of the First World War. It was fought for control of the town of Ypres in western Belgium. It happened in the spring of 1915. It was the first time that Germany successfully used chemical weapons on a large scale on the Western Front. It was also the first time a former Colonial power defeated a major European power in European soil. The battle was the beginning of a new danger; gas, which will cost both sides thousands of casualties the rest of the war.

paragraphs: During the months of April and May 1915, the two sides fought over Hill 60. The allies captured the hill five days before the Second battle of Ypres began. Hill 60 was on the southeast edge of the Ypres Salient. It was an excellent Observation post to see the salient. Hill 60 would also be involved in the battle that followed.

paragraphs: The Geneva Conventions of 1899 and 1907 had not allowed "projectiles" that carried poison gas. Before the second battle at Ypres, the Germans had placed 5,700 chlorine gas cylinders in front of their trenches. For weeks before the battle, the allied high command picked up intelligence the Germans intended to use poison gas. However, they didn't believe the Germans would do it.

paragraphs: The first casualties of the chlorine gas attack in World War One were the French (mostly Algerian soldiers). They were not trained for this kind of attack. When the first Chlorine gas was released into the air, the French began to retreat in massive numbers. This left the Canadians without any French support. It also left their center open to any German attack. But the Germans were unprepared for the results of the gas attack. Their reserves of manpower were low and they failed to take advantage of the French Withdrawal. The 1st Canadian Division and British troops quickly filled the gap in the lines to stop the Germans from attacking.

paragraphs: When the gas valves froze (from the rapidly expanding gas), many German soldiers tried to open them. This left the Germans exposed to the Gas as well. By the end of the battle the Allies and Germans had suffered massive casualties in the attack. The Canadians alone suffered over 6000 casualties. Gas masks were none existent at the time. But a Canadian Ceramic maker was able to recognize the color of the gas. He immediately told the soldiers to urinate on a towel and put it over their face. This isolated (separated) the gas components and stopped the gas from killing the Canadian soldiers.

paragraphs: This was actually the second time the Germans had used gas against enemy troops. The first attempt was at the Battle of Bolimov, Russia in February 1915. The freezing temperatures caused the gas to fall to the ground harmlessly.


title: European Aviation Safety Agency

paragraphs: The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is a working group of the European Union (EU). The agency offices are in Cologne, Germany. EASA which has been given regulatory and executive tasks in the field of civilian aviation safety. The current Head of the EASA is Patrick Ky.

paragraphs: EASA was created on 15 July 2002. The agency took over functions of the JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities) in 2008.

paragraphs: The Agency’s responsibility and jurisdiction include

paragraphs: The EASA is the European point of reference in aviation safety. The agency has taken over functions of the National Aviation Authorities (NAAs). This is part of the process of standardisation across the EU. EASA assists the European Commission in international harmonisation agreements.

paragraphs: EASA is tasked by Article 15(4) of Regulation (EC) No 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 February 2008 to provide a review of aviation safety each year. The "Annual Safety Review" presents statistics on European and worldwide civil aviation safety.


paragraphs: École pour l'informatique et les techniques avancées, commonly named EPITA, is a French private, non-profit university. It is in Le Kremlin-Bicêtre (close to Paris), Rennes, Lyon, Strasbourg and Toulouse, France. The school was created in 1984.

paragraphs: EPITA is specialized in the different fields of IT. The school is part of IONIS Education Group and "Conférence des Grandes Écoles". Since 1997, the head is Joël Courtois.


title: Sup'Biotech

paragraphs: Institut Sup'Biotech de Paris, commonly named Sup'Biotech, is a French private, non-profit university establishment. It is in Villejuif (close to Paris), and in Lyon, France. The school was created in 2003. Sup'Biotech specialises in Biotechnology. The school is part of IONIS Education Group.


title: North Downs

paragraphs: The North Downs are a group of hills in southeast England. The contain a large amount of chalk. The North Downs stretch from The White Cliffs of Dover in Kent to Farnham in Surrey. There are many beautiful places in the area which are called Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs).


title: National Historic Landmark

paragraphs: A National Historic Landmark (NHL) is a building, site, structure, object, or district with historical importance. The United States government marks them as NHLs only if they have high historical significance. Out of more than 80,000 places on the National Register of Historic Places only about 2,430 are NHLs.

paragraphs: A National Historic Landmark District (NHLD) is a historic district that is recognized as an NHL. It may include contributing properties that have buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties.

paragraphs: On October 9, 1960, Secretary of the Interior Fred Andrew Seaton announced 92 properties as NHLs. The first of these was a political nomination, Sergeant Floyd Grave and Monument in Sioux City, Iowa as officially designated on June 30 of that year, but for various reasons the public announcement of the first several NHLs was delayed.

paragraphs: NHLs are designated by the United States Secretary of the Interior because they are:

paragraphs: Of the 2,442 or so current NHLs, 3 states, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New York account for nearly 25 percent of the nation's NHLs. In addition to these states, cities within these states, Boston, Philadelphia, and New York City (each separately) alone have more NHLs than 40 out of the 50 states. There are NHLs in all 50 states. There are 74 in the District of Columbia, 15 in Puerto Rico and other U.S. commonwealths and territories, five in U.S.-associated states such as Micronesia, and one in Morocco.

paragraphs: There are 128 ships or shipwrecks that are NHLs.

paragraphs: About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned. The National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. The National Historic Landmark Stewards Association is a friends' group of owners and managers who works to preserve, protect and promote National Historic Landmarks.

paragraphs: If not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs.


title: Iki Province

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Iki Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Amanotanagao jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Iki.


title: McAfee

paragraphs: McAfee, Inc. is a computer security company. Its headquarters are in Santa Clara, California, United States. It sells software and services to home users, businesses and the public sector. It was founded in 1987. Intel bought McAfee in 2010.


title: Ōsumi Province

paragraphs: Ōsumi had borders with Hyūga and Satsuma Provinces.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near Kokubu.

paragraphs: In 713 ("Wadō 6, 3rd month"), the land of Ōsumi Province was separated from Hyūga.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Ōsumi Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: Japan's first satellite was named "Ōsumi". It was launched February 11, 1970.

paragraphs: "Kagoshima jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Ōsumi.


title: Satsuma Province

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Satsuma Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Hirasaki jinja" and "Nitta Hachiman-gū" were the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") of Satsuma.


title: Tsushima Province

paragraphs: The province was the Tsushima Islands, which is today part of Nagasaki Prefecture.

paragraphs: The capital city of the province was located at Izuhara.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. Maps of Japan and Tsushima Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Kaijin jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Tsushima.


title: Duo Dickinson

paragraphs: George "Duo" Dickinson (born August, 21, 1955) is an American architect. He has built over 500 projects in over 10 states, with budgets ranging from $5,000 to $5,000,000. He maintains an office of 10 staff members in Madison, Connecticut.

paragraphs: Dickinson graduated from Cornell in 1977 with a Bachelor's degree in Architecture and opened his own architectural practice in 1987. He is licensed in Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Texas, Florida, Arizona, Oklahoma, Minnesota and Tennessee.

paragraphs: His work has received more than 30 awards, including the "Architectural Record" Record House, the "Metropolitan Home" Met Home Award, and the Connecticut and New York American Institute of Architects design awards. He is the first non-member award-winner of the Society of America Registered Architects' 2009 Special Service Award. He is the co-Founder of The Congress of Residential Architecture (CORA), the first national organization of residential designers. CORA has grown to over 20 chapters and 1,000 members in seven years.

paragraphs: Dickinson's design work has been published in over 70 publications including the "New York Times", "Architectural Record" and "House Beautiful". He has written seven books, including "The Small House" and "Expressive Details" for McGraw-Hill and "The House You Build", published by Taunton Press and as a paperback entitled "House On A Budget". His last book, "Staying Put", was released by Taunton Press in November 2011.

paragraphs: Dickinson is a commissioned blogger for the "New Haven Register", and his blog, "Saved By Design" has been up since the summer of 2010. He is a contributing writer on home design for "Money Magazine". Additionally he is the architecture critic for the "New Haven Register" and contributing writer in home design for "New Haven" magazine. Dickinson has written articles for more than a dozen national publications including "Residential Architect", "Home" and "Fine Homebuilding" and was a contributing writer for the “By Design” column for "This Old House" magazine.

paragraphs: Dickinson has taught at Yale College, Roger Williams University and at the Harvard Graduate School of Design Summer Program. Additionally he has lectured at dozens of universities, AIA associations, and at national conventions and gatherings.

paragraphs: Dickinson was the co-host of the CNN/Money Magazine web series "Home Work". He was under contract with Lightworks Producing Group to create production ideas for cable television programming focusing on residential design and is in production with Bruce Barber on a regional radio program "The Real Life Survival Guide" scheduled to begin airing in 2011. He has appeared on a variety of national media platforms, including Heritage Radio Network's "Burning Down the House", CNN’s "Open House", NPR’s "Studio 360" and "Weekend Marketplace".

paragraphs: Dickinson sits on the board of seven not-for-profit organizations, including the New Haven Chapter of Habitat for Humanity, the Katherine Hepburn Cultural Arts Center, and Madison Cultural Arts. Additionally, 20-30% of the ongoing work in his office is dedicated to "pro bono" or at-cost work for not-for-profits, totaling over 50 projects for over 30 organizations over the last 25 years.


title: Aki Province

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Aki Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Itsukushima jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Aki.


title: Bingo Province

paragraphs: The province had borders with Bitchū, Hōki, Izumo, Iwami, and Aki Provinces.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was in the area of Fuchu.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Bingo Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Kibitsu jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Bingo.


title: Thelton Henderson

paragraphs: Thelton Eugene Henderson (born November 28, 1933, Shreveport, Louisiana) is currently a federal judge in the Northern District of California. He has played an important role in civil rights as a lawyer, educator, and jurist.

paragraphs: Henderson received both his undergraduate and law degrees from University of California, Berkeley. In 1962, he became the Justice Department's first African-American lawyer in the Civil Rights Division. He was sent to the South to monitor local law enforcement for any civil rights abuses, a role that included investigating the 1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing which killed four girls. In this capacity, he met Martin Luther King and other leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, after winning over their initial skepticism of being a government attorney.

paragraphs: After time in private practice, he served as director of a Legal Aid Society of San Mateo County office in East Palo Alto, California. In 1969, he became assistant dean at Stanford Law School, where he started the minority recruiting program and helped diversify the student body. He also assisted in creating Stanford's clinical program. During this time, he also was a consultant to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Office of Economic Opportunity, Carnegie Corporation, and Ford Foundation. In 1977, he left Stanford to start a law firm which specialized in civil rights, civil liberties and other issues of constitutional law. He also was a law professor at Golden Gate University.

paragraphs: In June 1980, President Jimmy Carter appointed Henderson as U.S. District Court Judge. From 1990 to 1997, Henderson served as Chief Judge for the Northern District of California. Since 1998, he has served as Senior Judge.

paragraphs: In the late 1980s, Henderson presided over a long-running case over the fishing industry's practice of snaring dolphins in its tuna nets. Environmental groups charged that millions of dolphins had drowned because of the industry's refusal to follow existing safety regulations. He

paragraphs: also rejected attempts by the Clinton and Bush administrations to relax legal standards on fishing practices and loosen dolphin safe labeling on tuna.

paragraphs: In a landmark 1995 civil rights case, "Madrid v. Gomez", Henderson found the use of force and level of medical care at the Pelican Bay State Prison unconstitutional. During its subsequent federal oversight process, Henderson visited the prison.

paragraphs: In a 1997 decision, he struck down Proposition 209, the anti-affirmative action California initiative, as unconstitutional. Many supporters of Proposition 209 criticized his decision, and the next year a three-judge Court of Appeals panel overturned his decision.

paragraphs: In 2005, Henderson found that substandard medical care in the California prison system had violated prisoners' rights under the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution to be protected from cruel and unusual punishment. Bad medical care had led to unnecessary deaths in California prisons. In 2006, he appointed Robert Sillen as receiver to take over the health care system of the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation; he replaced Sillen with J. Clark Kelso in 2008.

paragraphs: In addition to his official work, he went to South Africa in 1985 with fellow judge Leon Higginbotham as a judicial observer and guest of the nation's black lawyers association. While there he was briefly detained and interrogated by white policemen.

paragraphs: Among his awards are the State Bar of California's Bernard Witkin Medal, the Pearlstein Civil Rights Award from the Anti-Defamation League, the Distinguished Service Award by the National Bar Association, the Lewis F. Powell, Jr. Award for Professionalism and Ethics from the American Inns of Court, the Judge Learned Hand Award from the American Jewish Committee and the 2008 Alumnus of the Year Award from the California Alumni Association at the University of California, Berkeley.

paragraphs: Additionally, the Thelton E. Henderson Center for Social Justice at Boalt Hall is named for him.

paragraphs: A documentary on his life, "Soul of Justice" by Abby Ginzberg, was released in late 2005.


title: Caitlyn Jenner

paragraphs: Caitlyn Jenner (born William Bruce Jenner, October 28, 1949), formerly known as Bruce Jenner, is an American former track and field athlete and current television personality.

paragraphs: After her Olympic career, her professional career changed into being a television celebrity. By 1981, she had starred in several television movies. Since 2007, she is best known for the reality television program "Keeping Up with the Kardashians". She is the stepmother of the Kardashian sisters.

paragraphs: In 2015, Jenner came out as transgender. In June 2015, Jenner had completed her transition and changed her name to Caitlyn Jenner.

paragraphs: Jenner is from Mount Kisco, New York. She studied at Newtown High School in Newtown, Connecticut. Jenner got a football scholarship to Graceland College (now Graceland University) in Iowa. A knee injury caused her to stop playing football. She changed to the decathlon. Jenner first decathlon was at the Drake Relays in 1970. She finished in fifth place.

paragraphs: Jenner placed third in the decathlon at the 1972 U.S. Olympic trials. She finished in tenth place at the 1972 Munich games. Because she did so well in getting to the Olympics, she chose focus her time almost entirely on training. She sold insurance when not training. In the years before professionalism was allowed in athletics, this kind of full-time training was unusual. During that time, she spent eight hours a day at the San Jose City College track. San Jose at the time was a main place for training Olympic athletes. Millard Hampton, Andre Phillips, John Powell, Mac Wilkins, Al Feuerbach and others also trained there. In 1974 and 1976, Jenner was the American champion in the decathlon.

paragraphs: At the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, she won the gold medal in the Decathlon. She set the world record of 8,618 points. Her record was broken by just 4 points by Daley Thompson in 1980. In 1985, the IAAF Decathlon scoring table was changed. Using the new table, Jenner's score was 8634 when comparing him to modern athletes. As of 2011, Jenner is #25 on the world all-time list and #9 on the American all-time list.

paragraphs: Jenner was a national hero due to winning the Olympic decathlon. She won the 1976 James E. Sullivan Award as the top amateur athlete in the United States. Jenner was also the Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year in 1976. She was made a part of the Olympic Hall of Fame in 1986 and the Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame, the Connecticut Sports Hall of Fame in 1994 and the United States National Track and Field Hall of Fame in 1980.

paragraphs: In the 1970s, Olympic athletes were required to be amateur. They were not allowed to be paid as a sports celebrity. In 1972, three major Olympic sports (basketball, 100 meters and decathlon), were won by Soviet athletes. Winning the decathlon title made Jenner an American hero. After this, Jenner wanted to earn money because of her celebrity. If he did this, she could not take part in the Olympics again. She left his equipment in the stadium. She did not expect to ever use them again. Shortly after the Games, Jenner's picture was used on the front of Wheaties brand breakfast cereal as a "Wheaties champion." Since then, photographs of several hundred athletes have been used on the boxes. Jenner is one of only seven Wheaties "spokesmen." He was asked to go to the White House to meet with President Gerald R. Ford.

paragraphs: On November 22, 1977, Jenner went to San Francisco to testify in court against complaints that General Mills, the makers of Wheaties, had been using false advertising about her eating Wheaties. Jenner said that she liked the cereal and ate it two to three times per week. Two days later the court case was stopped.

paragraphs: In 1977, the Kansas City Kings picked Jenner with the 139th pick of the NBA Draft. Jenner had not played basketball since high school. She did not play for them.

paragraphs: Jenner decided to try for a television career. She had some success. Jenner starred in the television movies ""The Golden Moment: An Olympic Love Story"" (1980) and ""Grambling's White Tiger"" (1981). In 1981–82, she began acting on the police series "CHiPs". She played the role of Officer Steve McLeish. She was a short time replacement for Erik Estrada. Estrada was in a contract dispute with NBC and MGM at the time. Jenner was in a half-dozen episodes before Estrada returned.

paragraphs: Jenner also appears in the video games "Olympic Decathlon" (1981) and "Bruce Jenner's World Class Decathlon" (1996).

paragraphs: Jenner has appeared as herself on many game shows and reality TV programs. In the early 1990s, she was the host of an infomercial for a stair-climbing exercise machine called the "Stair Climber Plus".

paragraphs: In January 2002, Jenner was in an episode of the American series of "The Weakest Link". In February and March 2003, she was part of the cast of the American series of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!". She made a cameo on a season three episode of "The Apprentice" in May 2005. She skated with Tai Babilonia for "Skating with Celebrities" in January–March 2006. Jenner has as also been a guest judge on "Pet Star" on Animal Planet, and appeared on NBC's game show "Identity". She was also on "Celebrity Family Feud" with her family.

paragraphs: Since 2007, Jenner has been in the E! reality television series "Keeping Up with the Kardashians". She is on the series with her wife Kris Jenner, stepdaughters Kourtney, Kim, Khloé, and stepson Rob Kardashian and daughters Kylie and Kendall Jenner. The Kardashian members of the family are from Kris' marriage to attorney Robert Kardashian. Season two had an average of 1.6 million viewers.

paragraphs: At the start of its fourth season in late 2009, "Keeping Up with the Kardashians" set ratings records. Its second episode had a total of 4.2 million people watch it.

paragraphs: "Kardashians" ended its fifth season on October 24, 2010. It had 4.1 million viewers at that time. This was less than record 4.8 million viewers for its fourth-season finale on February 28, 2010.

paragraphs: Jenner's company, Bruce Jenner Aviation, sells aircraft supplies.

paragraphs: When Jenner was a young child, she learned she had dyslexia. In an episode of the sitcom "Silver Spoons", she told the Stratton family about her condition. This was after she retired from sports, built a successful career as a motivational speaker and television sports commentator.

paragraphs: On February 7, 2015, Jenner was involved in a multiple-vehicle collision on the Pacific Coast Highway in Malibu, California. The accident caused one death, and eight others were injured. Jenner was able to walk away from the accident.

paragraphs: Politically, Jenner is conservative and is a Republican. She is also a Christian.

paragraphs: On September 23, 2013, Jenner said that she underwent surgery of her nose skin because of cancer.

paragraphs: In April 2015, Jenner publicly came out as transgender in a two-hour television interview. She said that she wants to be referred to with male pronouns while transitioning. Jenner will star in an eight-part documentary about her transition. It will be broadcast starting in July 2015. On June 1, 2015, Jenner revealed her new name, Caitlyn, and her use of female pronouns officially. Many news sources have described Jenner as the most famous openly transgender American.

paragraphs: Jenner has a younger sister named Lisa. Her younger brother, Burt was killed in a car accident shortly after Jenner's success in the Olympics. Jenner's first son is named after her brother.

paragraphs: Jenner's first marriage was to Chrystie Crownover (December 15, 1972 – January 2, 1980). They had two children, Burton William "Burt" Jenner (born September 6, 1978) and daughter Cassandra Lynn "Casey" Jenner (born June 10, 1980). In 2009, Jenner became a grandmother to Francesca, her daughter Casey's first child.

paragraphs: Jenner's second marriage was from 1981–1985 to actress Linda Thompson. Their two sons Brandon Thompson (born June 4, 1981) and Brody (born August 21, 1983) appeared in their own reality show "The Princes of Malibu". Brody was also on the reality show "The Hills".

paragraphs: Jenner's third marriage was to Kris (née Houghton). After dating for five months, they married on April 21, 1991. Kris was previously married to lawyer Robert Kardashian. Jenner has two daughters with Kris, Kendall Nicole (born November 3, 1995) and Kylie Kristen (born August 10, 1997). During Jenner's third marriage, she was the stepfather of Kim, Khloé, Kourtney and Rob Kardashian.

paragraphs: Bruce and Kris Jenner announced their separation in October 2013, though they had actually separated a year earlier. Their divorce was finalized in March 2015.

paragraphs: In July 2017, Jenner announced that she was contemplating running in the 2018 race for the US Senate to represent California.


title: Bitchū Province

paragraphs: The province had borders with Hōki, Mimasaka, Bizen, and Bingo Provinces.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near Soja.

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Bitchū Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Kibitsu jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Bitchū.


title: Clay Mathematics Institute

paragraphs: The Clay Mathematics Institute (CMI) is a private, non-profit foundation, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Institute is dedicated to increasing and disseminating mathematical knowledge. It gives out various awards and sponsorships to promising mathematicians. Boston businessman Landon T. Clay and his wife, Lavinia D. Clay started it in 1998. Harvard University mathematician Arthur Jaffe was the first president of CMI.

paragraphs: The institute is best known for its Millennium Prize Problems, a list of the seven most important unsolved mathematical questions. Of these, only the Poincaré conjecture has since been solved. The Clay Institute also does other things, including a postdoctoral program (ten Clay Research Fellows are supported each year) and an annual summer school, the proceedings of which are published jointly with the American Mathematical Society.


title: Bizen Province

paragraphs: The province had borders with Mimasaka, Harima, and Bitchū Provinces.

paragraphs: The ancient capital city of the province was near Okayama.

paragraphs: In 713 ("Wadō era 6, 3rd month"), the land of Bizen"-no kuni" was separated from Mimasaka Province (美作国).

paragraphs: In the Meiji period, the provinces of Japan were converted into prefectures. The maps of Japan and Bizen Province were reformed in the 1870s.

paragraphs: "Kitbitsuhiko jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Bizen.


title: Lauderhill, Florida

paragraphs: Lauderhill is a town in south Florida. It is in Broward County, ten miles from the Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: In 2010, 66,887 people lived there. Nearly 60% of the population is black. Many are Jamaicans who immigrated in the last 30 years. Nearly 25% are white, mostly old people retired from New England.


title: Monica Iozzi

paragraphs: Monica Iozzi de Castro (November 2, 1981 in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil) is a Brazilian actress and reporter. Currently she integrates the TV Show "Custe o Que Custar" of the Rede Bandeirantes.


title: Socialite

paragraphs: A socialite is a wealthy person who takes part in social activities and spends a large amount of time entertaining and being entertained at upper-class events.

paragraphs: American socialites used to be listed in the Social Register. It was a list of names and addresses of the people who were thought to be more socially acceptable in the socially important families in the 19th century. In 1886, Louis Keller had the idea of combining these lists and selling them. Mr. Keller had great success. By 1918 there were 18 yearly volumes that covered 26 cities.

paragraphs: The term includes many people who are "famous because they are famous". These people are not famous because of something they have done. They are famous most often because of which family they are a member of and/or how they are talked about by the media.