title: Altruism

paragraphs: Altruism (or selflessness) is concern for the well-being of others. A truly altruistic act is something done completely for the benefit of another, without concern for the self. It usually involves sacrificing something (time, effort or possessions), with no expectation of receiving anything in return (including recognition for the act of giving). It is considered a virtue in many cultures and a basic aspect of most religions. It is the opposite of selfishness.

paragraphs: Altruism is different from acts done out of responsibility, loyalty or moral obligation towards a specific individual (such as a god, a king or a government). Whether "pure" altruism is possible has been debated by scholars for thousands of years. One theory says that no act of giving, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly selfless, because the person will receive personal gratification from it (that is, a feeling of satisfaction that they have done something good for another). Whether this theory is correct depends on whether such feelings qualify as a 'reward' or 'benefit'.

paragraphs: The concept of altruism has long been studied in philosophy and ethics. The term was originally used in the 19th century by sociologist and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte. It has become an important topic for psychologists (especially those that study evolutionary psychology), evolutionary biologists and ethologists. The scholars of each field have developed different ideas about altruism. All agree that altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them.

paragraphs: In the study of animal behaviour, altruism is seen in social animals when an individual willingly sacrifices itself for the better survival of the group. There are several theories about how this behaviour has come about under evolution by natural selection.

paragraphs: These theories try to explain how evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that encourage altruistic behaviour.

paragraphs: Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote selflessness as a very important moral value. It forms part of the central philosophies of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism and Sikhism, as well as many other religions.

paragraphs: Buddhism teaches love and compassion for all forms of life (ahimsa). Love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. It considers all living things to be equal. Unlike most other religions, Buddhists believe that the consequences of our actions come not from punishments based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma ("kamma"). Karma is the natural law of cause and effect. In this law, we experience the effects of what we cause: if you cause suffering, then as a natural consequence you will experience suffering; if you cause happiness, then as a natural consequence you will experience happiness. Most types of karmas, with good or bad results, will keep one in the wheel of samsāra; others will liberate one to nirvāna.

paragraphs: In Sufism, the idea of "īthār" (selflessness) is defined as preferring others over yourself. For Sufis, this means devotion to others and completely forgetting concern for oneself. It teaches sacrifice for the sake of the greater good. Islam considers those practicing "īthār" as abiding by the highest degree of virtue. In "īthār", attention is focused on everything that exists except for the self.


title: Visegrád Group

paragraphs: The Visegrád Group (also the Visegrád Four or V4) is a group of four Central European countries: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. It was created in 1991 in Visegrád, Hungary for the purposes of better cooperation among these countries.


title: Standard error

paragraphs: The standard error, sometimes abbreviated as formula_1, is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic. The term may also be used for an estimate (good guess) of that standard deviation taken from a sample of the whole group.

paragraphs: The average of some part of a group (called a sample) is the usual way to estimate the average for the whole group. It is often too hard or too costly to measure the whole group. But if a different sample is measured, it will have an average that is a little bit different from the first sample. The standard error of the mean is a way to know how close the average of the sample is to the average of the whole group. It is a way of knowing how sure one can be about the average from the sample.

paragraphs: In real measurements, the true value of the standard deviation of the mean for the whole group is usually not known. So the term "standard error" is often used to mean a close guess to the true number for the whole group. The more measurements there are in a sample, the closer the guess will be to the true number for the whole group.

paragraphs: One way to find the standard error of the mean is to have lots of samples. First, the average for each sample is found. Then the average and standard deviation of those sample averages is found. The standard deviation for all the sample averages is the standard error of the mean. This can be a lot of work. Sometimes it is too difficult or costly to have lots of samples.

paragraphs: Another way to find the standard error of the mean is to use an equation that needs only one sample. Standard error of the mean is usually estimated by the standard deviation for a sample from the whole group (sample standard deviation), divided by the square root of the sample size:

paragraphs: In general, the larger the sample, the closer the estimated standard error of the mean is to the actual standard error of the mean. As a rule of thumb, there should be at least six measurements in a sample. Then the standard error of the mean for the sample will be within 5% of the actual standard error of the mean (that is, if the whole group were measured).

paragraphs: There is another equation to use if the number of measurements is for 5% or more of the whole group:

paragraphs: There are special equations to use if a sample has less than 20 measurements.

paragraphs: Sometimes, a sample may come from one place even though the whole group may be spread out, while other times, a sample may be made in a short time period when the whole group covers a longer time. In which case, the numbers in the sample are not independent, and special equations are used to try to correct for this.

paragraphs: "A practical result:" One can become more sure of an average value by having more measurements in a sample. Then the standard error of the mean will be smaller because the standard deviation is divided by a bigger number. However, to make the uncertainty (standard error of the mean) in an average value half as big, the sample size (n) needs to be four times bigger. This is because the standard deviation is divided by the square root of the sample size. To make the uncertainty one-tenth as big, the sample size (n) needs to be one hundred times bigger.

paragraphs: Standard errors are easy to calculate and commonly used because:

paragraphs: The relative standard error (RSE) is the standard error divided by the average. This number is smaller than one. Multiplying it by 100% gives it as a percentage of the average. This helps to show whether the uncertainty is important or not.

paragraphs: For example, consider two surveys of household income that both result in a sample average of $50,000. If one survey has a standard error of $10,000 and the other has a standard error of $5,000, then the relative standard errors are 20% and 10%, respectively. The survey with the lower relative standard error is better, because it has a more precise measurement (the uncertainty is smaller).

paragraphs: In fact, people who need to know average values often decide how small the uncertainty should be—before they decide to use the information. For example, the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics does not report an average if the relative standard error exceeds 30%. NCHS also requires at least 30 observations for an estimate to be reported.

paragraphs: For example, there are many redfish in the water of the Gulf of Mexico. To find out how much a 42 cm long redfish weighs on average, it is not possible to measure all of the redfish that are 42 cm long. Instead, it is possible to measure some of them. The fish that are actually measured are called a sample. The table shows weights for two samples of redfish, all 42 cm long. The average (mean) weight of the first sample is 0.741 kg. The average (mean) weight of the second sample is 0.735 kg—a little bit different from the first sample. Each of these averages is a little bit different from the average that would come from measuring every 42 cm long redfish (which is not possible anyway).

paragraphs: The uncertainty in the mean can be used to know how close the average of the samples are to the average that would come from measuring the whole group. The uncertainty in the mean is estimated as the standard deviation for the sample, divided by the square root of the number of samples minus one. The table shows that the uncertainties in the means for the two samples are very close to each other. Also, the relative uncertainty is the uncertainty in the mean divided by the mean, times 100%. The relative uncertainty in this example is 2.38% and 2.50% for the two samples.

paragraphs: Knowing the uncertainty in the mean, one can know how close the sample average is to the average that would come from measuring the whole group. The average for the whole group is between a) the average for the sample plus the uncertainty in the mean, and b) the average for the sample minus the uncertainty in the mean. In this example, the average weight for all of the 42 cm long redfish in the Gulf of Mexico is expected to be 0.723–0.759 kg based on the first sample, and 0.717–0.753 based on the second sample.


title: Really Wild Animals

paragraphs: Really Wild Animals was a National Geographic television series. It had Dudley Moore as the voice of "Spin".


title: Adaptive radiation

paragraphs: Adaptive radiation is rapid evolutionary radiation. It is an increase in the number and diversity of species in each lineage. It produces more new species, and those species live in a wider range of habitats.

paragraphs: Some definitions phrase it in terms of a single clade: "Adaptive radiation is the rapid proliferation of new taxa from a single ancestral group". However, in the most striking cases, such as occurred in the Triassic after the greatest extinction event in Earth history, many lines underwent rapid radiation simultaneously. This must have something to do with the availability of ecological niches and relative little competition.

paragraphs: The Ediacaran biota were the result of an early metazoan radiation. The greatest radiation of all took place early in the Cambrian period, when most of our animal phyla evolved: see List of animal phyla.

paragraphs: With less competition, groups diversify to fill available habitats and niches. This is an evolutionary process driven by natural selection.

paragraphs: The term was introduced and discussed by George Gaylord Simpson, the palaeontologist who contributed to the modern evolutionary synthesis. Others prefer not to use the term. Robert L Carroll prefers to use the term "major evolutionary transitions", though it turns out that all or most of these could also be described as adaptive radiations. Others use terms like macroevolution, or even megaevolution, as if the processes are different from those which occur below species level. It is part of evolutionary theory that all processes take place at the level of populations. All agree, though, that the speed of evolution does change, however it is measured.

paragraphs: Records of timing are bedevilled by gaps in the fossil record, often at those crucial early stages when numbers are low and geographical distribution is severely restricted. "In reality, there are long periods within nearly every lineage for which the fossil record remains unknown". These gaps affect our knowledge of timing, and of changes in body shape and function.

paragraphs: Nevertheless, when several distinctly new lines appear within a short period, it seems reasonable to say that the rate of change has been surprisingly fast. An example would be the appearance of new reptilian groups in the Upper Triassic. Using the term 'reptile' broadly, the groups include dinosaurs, pterosaurs, Chelonia (turtles), crocodylomorphs (early Crocodilia), phytosaurs, and ichthyosaurs a bit earlier (Middle Triassic).

paragraphs: These radiations occurred after the great Permian–Triassic extinction event that ended the Palaeozoic era. The Triassic itself had several lesser (but still significant) extinctions. Unfortunately, the Triassic has the poorest fossil record of the whole of the Mesozoic era.

paragraphs: The evolution of a new feature may let a group diversify because it makes possible new ways of living. A most striking example is the cleidoic egg, which developed in early amniotes, and permitted vertebrates to invade the land. The cleidoic egg must have been developed in the latest Devonian or early Carboniferous. Amphibians, who branched off before this event, still lay their eggs in water, and so are limited in the extent to which they can exploit land environments.

paragraphs: An example of a more modest innovation is the evolution of a fourth cusp in the mammalian tooth. This trait permits a vast increase in the range of foodstuffs which can be fed on. Evolution of this character has thus increased the number of ecological niches available to mammals. The trait arose a number of times in different groups during the Cenozoic, and in each instance was immediately followed by an adaptive radiation. With birds, the evolution of flight opened new possibilities, and at least two huge adaptive radiations occurred (one before and one after the K/T extinction event). Even more striking was the evolution of insect flight, which led to huge radiation in the Mesozoic era. Then, these insect groups developed ways of feeding on flowering plants. They now outnumber all other forms of animal life by quite a margin.

paragraphs: Adaptive radiations often happen when organisms enter environments with unoccupied niches, such as a newly formed lake or an isolated island chain. The colonizing population(s) may diversify rapidly and take advantage of all possible niches. Opportunities occur when land bridges form between areas which were previously separate, and whenever species get to new place in the world.

paragraphs: In Lake Victoria, an isolated lake which formed recently in the African rift valley, over 300 species of cichlid fish radiated from one parent species in just 15,000 years.

paragraphs: In about , the Hawaiian Islands have the most diverse collection of drosophilid flies in the world, living from rainforests to mountain meadows. About 800 Hawaiian drosophilid species are known.

paragraphs: Studies show a clear "flow" of species from older to newer islands. There are also cases of colonization back to older islands, and skipping of islands, but these are much less frequent. By potassium/argon radioactive dating, the present islands date from 0.4 million years ago (mya) (Mauna Kea) to 10mya (Necker). The oldest member of the Hawaiian archipelago still above the sea is Kure Atoll, which can be dated to 30 mya. The archipelago itself, produced by the Pacific plate moving over a hot spot, has existed for far longer, at least into the Cretaceous. The Hawaiian islands plus former islands which are now beneath the sea make up the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain; and many of the underwater mountains are guyots.

paragraphs: All of the native drosophilid species in Hawaii have apparently descended from "a single ancestral species" that colonized the islands, about 20 million years ago. The subsequent adaptive radiation was spurred by a lack of competition and a wide variety of vacant niches. Although it would be possible for a single pregnant female to colonise an island, it is more likely to have been a group from the same species.

paragraphs: There are other animals and plants on the Hawaiian archipelago which have undergone similar, if less spectacular, adaptive radiations.

paragraphs: Adaptive radiations commonly follow mass extinctions. After an extinction event, many niches are left vacant. A classic example of this is the replacement of the non-avian dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous with mammals in the Palaeocene.


title: Ajda Pekkan

paragraphs: Ajda Pekkan (born February 12, 1946 in Istanbul, Turkey) is a Turkish singer and actress. She is one of the most successful Turkish singers with the sales of over 30 million copies worldwide. She is called ""Superstar"". She has released more than 20 albums. Most famous ones are "Superstar", "Superstar II", "Superstar III" (also known as Superstar 83), "Ajda '90", "Ajda '93", "The Best of Ajda", "Diva", "Cool Kadın" and "Farkın Bu". Also he recorded singles in French and English.

paragraphs: Ajda was born to Rıdvan Pekkan, an officer in the Turkish Navy, and Nevin Dobruca, a housewife. She spent her childhood at the Gölcük Naval Base in Kocaeli Province. Ajda graduated from the Çamlıca Kız Lisesi.

paragraphs: She won a Cover Star contest in 1963 and she began her professional career. She started her career as an actress. She was a popular actress in 60s. She released her very first recording, "Göz Göz Değdi Bana" as a B-Side in 1964. Following year, she released her first single, "Her Yerde Kar Var" in 1965. In April 1977, she released an album called "Superstar". It was a great success. Album sold over millions of copies and became a classic. Her next album, "Superstar II", released in May 1979. It was more successful than Superstar. Songs from album, Bambaşka Biri (It was a Turkish cover of I Will Survive and it became a signature song of Ajda Pekkan), Dile Kolay, Ya Sonra, Haykıracak Nefesim Kalmasa Bile, Yeniden Başlasın, Bir Köşede Yalnız were successful hits. She gave concerts in Tehran, Paris and Tokyo in the 70s. She represented Turkey with the famous entry "Petr' oil" at the 1980 Eurovision Song Contest in the Hague, the Netherlands.

paragraphs: She released her first album on CD, "Ajda '90" in 1990. She recorded her "Ajda '93" album in the USA and Switzerland. Her complation albums containing the new recordings of his hit songs, "The Best of Ajda" and "Diva" were very successful albums. Her latest album, "Farkın Bu", which released in July 2011 became the most selling album of 2011 in Turkey.


title: The Fabulous Moolah

paragraphs: Mary Lillian Ellison (born July 22, 1923 in Kershaw County, South Carolina – died November 2, 2007 in Columbia, South Carolina), better known by her ring name The Fabulous Moolah, was an American female professional wrestler. She wrestled for WWE. She was a 4 time WWF Women's Champion. She was champion for almost thirty years. That made her champion longer than anyone else in the sport. She was inducted into the 1995 WWE Hall of Fame. She was the first woman to join the WWE Hall of Fame. She is also the oldest WWE Women's Champion ever to win the title against Ivory at No Mercy in 1999. She was best friends with fellow wrestler "Mae Young". The Fabulous Moolah also has a book about her life titled, "The Fabulous Moolah: First Goddess of the Squared Circle".

paragraphs: Moolah died on November 2, 2007 in Columbia, South Carolina of a heart attack.


title: Percentile

paragraphs: A percentile (or a centile) is a measure in statistics. It shows the value below which a given percentage of observations falls.

paragraphs: For example, the 20th percentile is the value (or score) below which 20% of the observations may be found. The 35th percentile is the value below which 35% of the data may be found. In general, the "i"-th percentile, written as formula_1, is the value below which "i" percents of data may be found.

paragraphs: In statistics, a large set of numerical data is sometimes divided into 100 groups, each with 1% of the data. The data are arranged in ascending order. Each of the 99 dividing points is called a percentile of the data set.

paragraphs: Some of the percentiles have special names. For example. the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles are called the first, second and third quartile, respectively. The 50th percentile is also called the median.


title: Grand Coulee

paragraphs: The Grand Coulee used to be a river in the U.S. state of Washington. This dry river stretches for sixty miles from the Grand Coulee Dam to Soap Lake. A feature known as Dry Falls divides the Coulee into two parts. Dry Falls is thought to be the remains of the largest waterfall ever, two or three times higher than Niagara Falls.

paragraphs: The Grand Coulee is granite bedrock which is 40 to 60  million years old. The volcanic basalt is thick. The coulee is said to have been made when the Columbia River was blocked by a large glacier. At the end of the last ice age the Columbia River went back to its old route and left the coulee. The coulee is a mile wide and was formed by a river that now flows a different way.

paragraphs: The area surrounding the Grand Coulee is shrub land. It has a rainfall of twelve inches per year. The Lower Grand Coulee contains the Park, Blue, Alkali, Lenore, and Soap lakes. Until recently, the Upper Coulee was dry.

paragraphs: The "Columbia Basin Project" dammed the river in 1952. It used the Grand Coulee as an irrigation network. The Upper Grand Coulee was dammed and made "Banks Lake". The lake is filled by pumps from the Grand Coulee Dam. Banks Lake feeds a hundred-mile (160 km) irrigation system.


title: Latent autoimmune diabetes

paragraphs: Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) is similar to both type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. Like type 1 diabetes, LADA is an autoimmune disease of the pancreas. This means the body's immune system attacks the cells in the pancreas that are supposed to make insulin. But LADA is also like type 2 diabetes, because it causes insulin resistance. This means that insulin does not work as well as it should in a person's body.

paragraphs: Most people with latent autoimmune diabetes are thin or skinny or have a normal BMI, although some are overweight to slightly obese.

paragraphs: The biggest difference between LADA and type 1 diabetes is that LADA has a gradual onset (it comes on slowly).

paragraphs: Also, people with type 1 diabetes cannot make insulin. But if they are given a shot of insulin, the insulin works and does its job in their bodies. But in people with LADA, even if they are given insulin, the insulin may not work as well as it should.

paragraphs: Most people with LADA become insulin-dependent (have to inject insulin) within 3-15 years. This is very different from type 2 diabetes. Only 20%-30% of type 2 diabetics end up being insulin-dependent.

paragraphs: Another difference is that type 2 diabetes can happen to anyone at any age. But LADA does not affect children or teenagers. It usually affects people age 35 and older, but can affect anyone between 20-29 years of age.

paragraphs: With LADA, the pancreas cannot make insulin because the immune system is attacking its insulin-making cells. This does not happen in type 2 diabetes.

paragraphs: Contrary to popular belief, some people with LADA do have family members with type 2 diabetes.

paragraphs: People with LADA are sometimes misdiagnosed (diagnosed incorrectly) as having type 1 or type 2 diabetes. A special blood test can prove what kind of diabetes a person has. The test looks for an antibody that only diabetics with LADA have. It is called a GAD antibody test.

paragraphs: People with LADA usually control their diabetes using very similar methods and changes of lifestyle to type 2 diabetes: eating right, exercising and oral medications; weight loss is optional. Unlike Type 2 diabetics who might never need to inject insulin, however, the LADA patients become insulin dependent within several years.

paragraphs: The complications of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults are highly similar to those for types 1 and 2 diabetes, like stroke, heart disease, gangrene, kidney trouble, and heart attacks.

paragraphs: There are glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) antibodies connected with LADA. There are also TCF7L2 genes associated with Type 2 diabetes which are also connected with LADA.


title: Screwdriver (alcoholic drink)

paragraphs: The Screwdriver is an alcoholic cocktail. It is made from orange juice mixed with vodka which is an alcohol. It got its name because American builders used to add vodka to their orange juice and stir it with their screwdrivers.


title: Antoine Lavoisier

paragraphs: Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794) was a French nobleman, chemist and biologist. He is often called the ""Father of Modern Chemistry"". His work is an important part of the histories of chemistry and biology. It also contributed to the beginnings of atomic theory. He was the first scientist to recognise and name the elements hydrogen and oxygen. He was executed, as were hundreds of other nobles, during the French Revolution.

paragraphs: Antoine de Lavoisier began studying at the Collège Mazarin in Paris in 1754, when he was 11 years old. Collège Mazarin was one of the best secondary schools in France then. He studied to be a lawyer like his father and his grandfather. He got his degree in 1763 and practised law at the parliament; however, he really preferred scientific research to law, so he also studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. He got his law degree in 1763, but never practised as a lawyer. He started a career as a scientist instead.

paragraphs: During his career, Lavoisier brought major changes to the study of chemistry. Much of his research was done on combustion. He is the person who explained combustion by oxidation. To prove this, Lavoisier studied the air. In order to do this, in 1776, he burned mercury in an enclosed vase. His conclusion: the air is a combination of oxygen and is not a chemical element.

paragraphs: He also discovered the law of conservation of mass that is "nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed". It says that the mass of the final products of a chemical reaction is the same as the reactants’ ones. Today, this principle is the basis of modern chemistry.

paragraphs: Lavoisier, together with L. B. Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet and Antoine François de Fourcroy, created the first system of chemical nomenclature in the 1780s.

paragraphs: While he was doing research for chemistry, Lavoisier was also working at the house. During this time, the French Revolution began in 1789. Antoine kept his position in the government. But, two years later, a new government arrived in power. This new government was suspicious of Lavoisier's great success as a scientific researcher and as a public administrator. He was accused of selling modified tobacco. He was arrested for conspiracy against the people. Even though there was no proof that showed that Antoine de Lavoisier broke the law, he was sentenced to death on 8 May 1794. He was executed using the guillotine.


title: Tequila Sunrise

paragraphs: The Tequila Sunrise is an alcoholic cocktail made using tequila. Mexico is known for having Tequila in its bars. It is named afer the way it looks when it is poured into a glass, similar to the sky at sunrise.


title: George Gaylord Simpson

paragraphs: George Gaylord Simpson (16 June 1902 – 6 October 1984) was an American paleontologist. Simpson was perhaps the most influential paleontologist of the twentieth century, and a major participant in the modern evolutionary synthesis.

paragraphs: He was an expert on extinct mammals and their migrations, especially the Great American Interchange between the Americas. Simpson opposed Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, so his work on animal migration lacked this idea.

paragraphs: Simpson dispelled the myth that the evolution of the horse was a linear process culminating in the modern "Equus caballus". He coined the word "hypodigm" in 1940, and published extensively on the taxonomy of fossil and living mammals.

paragraphs: Born in Chicago, Illinois, Simpson was raised mostly in Denver, Colorado. He got his degrees from Yale University in 1923 and 1926. His dissertation, "American Mesozoic Mammalia" (1929), was the first step in his lifelong interest in the evolution of mammals. After a post-doctoral year at the British Natural History Museum, Simpson returned in 1927 to take up a post in the American Museum of Natural History.

paragraphs: In 1942, Simpson enlisted in the U.S. Army. He served as a Captain, then Major, in Army intelligence, Simpson served with American forces in North Africa and western Europe until 1944. Then he resigned, suffering from a severe bout of hepatitis. He returned home, with two Bronze Stars. He was promoted to Curator (head) of the Department of Geology and Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History. He also held a post as Professor of Zoology at Columbia University (19451959). He took up his work on early mammals, and worked on the Palaeocene and Eocene faunas of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico.

paragraphs: He was Curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University from 1959 to 1970, and a Professor of Geosciences at the University of Arizona until his retirement in 1982.

paragraphs: In the 1940s Simpson produced three major works. "Tempo and mode in evolution" (1944), "Principles of classification and a classification of mammals" (1945) and "The meaning of evolution" (1949). Simpson provided a popular account of modern evolutionary theory with emphasis on evidence from the fossil record.

paragraphs: Simpson was awarded the Linnean Society's Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1958. He also received the Royal Society's Darwin Medal "In recognition of his distinguished contributions to general evolutionary theory, based on a profound study of palaeontology, particularly of vertebrates" in 1962. He was awarded the U.S. National Medal of Science in 1965.

paragraphs: These quotations from Simpson give a good idea of the man:


title: Daisy Duck

paragraphs: Daisy Duck is a character of the duck produced by Walt Disney. Daisy Duck is the girlfriend of Donald Duck. She is characterized by her big ribbon on her head. Her best friend is Minnie Mouse. Minnie Mouse is Mickey Mouse's girlfriend.

paragraphs: Daisy made her official debut (an earlier love interest for Donald called Donna was introduced in the 1937 short 'Don Donald') in the 1940 short Mr. Duck Steps Out.

paragraphs: She likes shopping and she is a showboat. Daisy Duck is popular among women though she has made relatively few appearances in media compared to Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck..


title: James Norris Memorial Trophy

paragraphs: The James Norris Memorial Trophy is given out to the National Hockey League's best "defense player who demonstrates throughout the season the greatest all-round ability in the position". The James Norris Memorial Trophy has been awarded 53 times to 22 different players since it was first created in 1954. At the end of each season, members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association vote to decide the player who was the best defenseman during the regular season.

paragraphs: The trophy is named in honour of James E. Norris, owner of the National Hockey League's Detroit Red Wings from 1932 to 1952. The trophy was first awarded at the end of the 1953–54 NHL season.

paragraphs: Bobby Orr of the Boston Bruins won the award for a record eight seasons in a row (1968–75). Doug Harvey and Nicklas Lidström has won the award seven times, while Ray Bourque has won it five times during his career. The Boston Bruins have won the most Norris Trophies with 14. The Montreal Canadiens are second with 11.

paragraphs: There are only two players that have won both the Norris and Hart Memorial Trophy for the same season: Bobby Orr, who won both trophies for the 1969–70, 1970–71 and 1971–72 seasons, and Chris Pronger, who won the Hart and Norris for the 1999–2000 NHL season.

paragraphs: Seven different defensemen won the Hart Trophy before the Norris Trophy's establishment: Billy Burch, Eddie Shore (four times), Herb Gardiner, Albert "Babe" Siebert, Ebbie Goodfellow, Tommy Anderson and Babe Pratt.

paragraphs: The voting is done at the end of the regular season by members of the Professional Hockey Writers Association, and each voter picks their top five candidates on a 10–7–5–3–1 points system. Three finalists are named and the trophy is awarded at the NHL awards ceremony after the end of the playoffs.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

paragraphs: Colossians is the fifty-first book in the Christian Bible, and the twelfth in the New Testament.

paragraphs: This book has been long thought to have been written by the Apostle Paul to the Christians in Colossae, a small Phrygian city in modern day Turkey. Some modern scholars think it was written by a follower of Paul based on how it describes Jesus. They believe those ideas took some time to be thought out. It is not as certain that Paul wrote this letter as it is with his other letters.

paragraphs: The letter may have been written by Paul at Rome when he was in jail the first time. Other scholars have suggested that it was written from Caesarea or Ephesus. This could have been about 62 A.D.,but it could have been later.

paragraphs: The letter to the Colossians says that Jesus Christ is over the entire created universe and tells Christians to lead godly lives. The letter consists of two parts: first a teaching section, then a second section about how to live. Some believe that the letter was needed to warn about growing heresy in the church. In both parts of the letter are warnings about false teachers who have been teaching wrong things to the people. Others see both sections of the letter as mainly about encouraging and teaching a growing church.

paragraphs: In the first two chapters the letter strongly says that Christ is over all that has been created. All things were created through him and for him, and the universe is kept by him. God had chosen to fully live in Christ. The "cosmic powers" honored by the false teachers had been defeated at Christ's death. Christ is the master of all angels and the head of the church. Christ is the only one who can be a go between with God and humans. It is the Father (God) in Colossians who is said to have saved us from darkness and put us in the kingdom of His well loved Son, Jesus also in some way restores all of the created world as well ("all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven").

paragraphs: The second part of the letter, chapters 3 and 4, tells the Christians how to live based on what they know about Jesus. They are told to think about things that are above, to kill the bad desires of their old nature, and to put on the new (Christian) person. Many special duties of the Christian life are also taught. These show that we are true Christians. The letter ends with prayer, instruction, and greetings.


title: Carousel

paragraphs: A carousel, also known as a merry-go-round, is a ride found in an amusement park or on a playground. It includes a circle-shaped rotating platform. A carousel found in an amusement park has seats made to look like objects such as automobiles, trains and animals. Animals that can be seen on a carousel might be horses, elephants, and swans. Carousels are often brightly decorated with lights, paintings, and animals around the outside. A carousel found in an amusement park often moves by machine power. A carousel is also a common toy on a child's playgrounds. Playground carousels are not powered by a machine. The children make the carousel spin by holding on to the handle bars that are attached to the rotating platform. The child will then run in a circle while holding on to the handle bars making the merry-go-round spin. The merry-go-round found on a playground will move faster or slower depending on how fast the child runs. In this Wikipedia article, you will be able to find other words for carousel that are commonly used, a brief history about carousels, animals that may found on carousels, and the scientific principles of how machine powered carousels work.

paragraphs: There are many words that have been invented to talk about carousels. They originate from all over the world. Both of the terms “Merry-go-round” and “round about” came from the United Kingdom. The word “carousel,” can also be spelled "carrousel". It is a word that came from the 17th century. The word "carousel" is a French word which means "a tilting match". This refers to the jousting game played by knights. Both “merry-go-round” and “carousel” are now used interchangeably in North America and The United Kingdom. There are many words which have the same meaning as carousel. Since it was a popular ride in the United Kingdom, America, and France, each region had its own term. Some people call carousels by different names. In England, a carousel can be called a roundabout, galloper, or tilt. In France, a carousel can be called a riding ring of wooden horses. In America, some people may call carousels flying horses, whirlgig, flying Dutchmen, flying jinny, Kelly’s goats, spinning jinny, hobby horses, steam circus, steam riding galleries, galloping-horse steam carousels, carry-us-alls, and the most popular merry-go-rounds. Most of the words used in the 1700s were to attract customers. Merry-go-round which means a ride rotating happily and Menagerie which means beasts. The reason a carousel is generally used today is due to its tie to the origin of the ride.

paragraphs: The earliest types of carousels were most likely created by Arabians. The first carousels were made for adults to ride. Today carousels are made for children to ride. However, the carousel was first recognized as being a carousel in Europe. People most likely made the first carousels in the seventeenth century. However carousels were used in France, to practice a game they enjoyed playing. For this game, horsemen practiced playing a game on which they would ride wooden horses, horses that were carved out of wood. The wooden horses would be rotated by servants pulling at the rotating platform. This would be similar to the playground carousels. Or the horsemen would use real horses to rotate the platform. The carousel emerged as a ride when a toy dealer in France showed wooden horses on a rotating platform moved by human power or horsepower in the beginning of 18th century. Carousels became popular in America between 1880 and 1930. During this time, there were around 5000 carousels built. Michael Dentzel, an American who immigrated from German and lived in Philadelphia, moved the rotary platform of his carousel using steam power or horsepower in 1814. Later, the carousels found in amusement parks had platforms moved by a machine. This concept is still being used today. It was invented in 1898 in America. Railroads were the first companies in America to purchase carousels for their customers' enjoyment.

paragraphs: The most popular of the carousel animals always has been and still is the horse. Eighty percent of animals carved for carousels in America are horses. Other animals that have been used on carousels include "Mother Goose" and "Disney" characters. The "romance" side of the carousel animals is the side that faces the audience. On the romance side the animal had extra carvings and decorations. Most of the carousels in Europe and America turn counterclockwise. In Great Britain, carousels turn clockwise.

paragraphs: A carousel is set up a little above the ground. The platform rotates under motor power in the middle and can move up and down. The number of seats resembling horses or other animals varies depending on the carousel but there are usually between 16 and 60. The horses on the platform are connected to a pole attached to both the floor and the ceiling of the ride. The velocity of a carousel’s rotation is about 5 rounds a minute. An average ride length is 2 to 3 minutes.

paragraphs: The speed of the ride is low in order to keep centrifugal force low because the faster it turns the more centrifugal force the ride will have. The axis in the middle has centripetal force, which is the opposite force of centrifugal force.


title: Tony Abbott

paragraphs: Anthony John "Tony" Abbott (born 4 November 1957) is an Australian politician, who was Prime Minister of Australia from September 2013 until September 2015, serving for just under 2 years. He became the leader of the Liberal Party, taking over from Malcolm Turnbull on 1 December 2009, and was in turn succeeded by Turnbull as Liberal leader and Prime Minister on September 15, 2015. He lost his parliament seat in the 2019 election.

paragraphs: Abbott was born in London, England to an Australian mother; her father was Dutch; her mother was Welsh. Abbott's father was born in Newcastle upon Tyne, moved to Australia during the Second World War and is an unconfirmed naturalized Australian citizen. Abbott was raised in Sydney, Australia and is a Roman Catholic. He studied economics and law at Sydney University, and then did a Master of Arts in politics and philosophy at Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar. When he came back to Australia he entered St. Patricks Seminary in Manly where he began training as a priest. He did not complete his priest training and in 1990 he started work as a journalist writing for the Bulletin magazine and the Australian newspaper From 1990-1993 Abbott worked as press secretary and an advisor to Dr. John Hewson, who was the Leader of the Opposition. He then worked as the executive director of Australians for a Constitutional Monarchy. He was elected to the Federal Parliament for the Division of Warringah in a by-election in 1994 after Michael McKellar resigned.

paragraphs: in 1998, Prime Minister John Howard made Abbott the Minister for Employment Services and in 2001 was promoted to Minister for Employment, Workplace Relations and Small Business. In 2003 Abbott was the Minister for Health and Ageing, and Leader of the House of Representatives in the Federal Parliament. After the defeat of the Howard Government in 2007 he was Shadow Minister for Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs. He resigned on the 26 November 2009 in protest against Liberal Party policy on climate change. He then defeated the leader Malcolm Turnbull by only one vote in a Liberal Party leadership election on 1 December, 2009.

paragraphs: Abbott led the party to the 2010 Federal Election. Following the narrow victory of the Australian Labor Party, Abbott was re-elected leader of the Liberal Party and remained Leader of the Opposition.

paragraphs: At the 2013 federal election on 7 September, Abbott led the Coalition to victory and became Prime Minister on 18 September 2013. Abbott is no longer prime minister of Australia and has been succeeded by Malcolm Turnbull. In September 2017 Abbott declared that government should end all the subsidies for renewable energy, coal.

paragraphs: Abbott has always held strong conservative and religious views and has not been afraid to speak out on controversial issues. Combined with his earlier training as a priest this has led to his being given the nickname of the "Mad Monk". Abbott for example does not support the right of women to have an abortion. As Minister for Health he created a huge protest in 2006 when he tried to ban a drug used for abortions. In 2012 he was criticised by Australian lawyer Julian Burnside for saying that refugees trying to reach Australia were acting in an un-Christian way. Abbott's policies for the 2013 Australian election includes a plan to stop refugee boats coming to Australia. He does not support marriage equality which would let same sex couples get married.

paragraphs: Abbott is a very keen sportsman, and regularly takes part in competitions. He is currently in training for the 2014 Port Macquarie Ironman contest. This is a race with a 3.9 km swim, 180 km bicycle ride, and finishing with a 42.2 km run. Abbott is married with three daughters.


title: Conrad Gessner

paragraphs: Conrad Gessner (or Konrad Gessner, 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565) was a Swiss naturalist and bibliographer. His five-volume "Historiae animalium" (1551–1558) is a forerunner of modern zoology. The flowering plant genus "Gesneria" is named after him.

paragraphs: He studied at Strasbourg, Bourges (1532–1533) and Paris. In 1535, religious unrest drove him back to Zürich, where he made an unwise marriage. His friends came to his aid, enabled him to study at Basel (1536), and in 1537 obtained for him the professorship of Greek at the newly founded academy of Lausanne (then belonging to Berne). Here he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially botany.

paragraphs: In 1540–1541 he visited the famous medical university of Montpellier, took his degree of doctor of medicine (1541) at Basel, and then settled down to practise at Zürich, where he obtained the post of lecturer in physics at the Carolinum, the precursor of the University of Zürich. There, apart from a few journeys to foreign countries, and annual summer botanical journeys in his native land, he passed the remainder of his life. He devoted himself to preparing works on many subjects of different sorts. He died of the plague, the year after his ennoblement.

paragraphs: To his contemporaries he was best known as a botanist, though his botanical manuscripts were not published till long after his death (at Nuremberg, 1751–1771, 2 vols. folio), he himself issuing only the "Enchiridion historiae plantarum" (1541) and the "Catalogus plantarum" (1542) in four languages.

paragraphs: In 1545 he published his remarkable "Bibliotheca universalis" (ed. J. Simler 1574), supposedly a catalogue (in Latin, Greek and Hebrew) of all writers who had ever lived, with the titles of their works, etc. A second part, "Pandectarium sive partitionum universalium Conradi Gesneri Ligurini libri xxi", appeared in 1548; only nineteen books being then concluded. The last, a theological encyclopaedia, was published in 1549, but the last but one, intended to include his medical work, was never finished.

paragraphs: His great zoological work, "Historiae animalium", appeared in 4 vols. (quadrupeds, birds, fish) folio, 1551–1558, at Zürich, a fifth (snakes) being issued in 1587. This work is the starting-point of modern zoology. Not content with such vast works, Gessner put forth in 1555 his book entitled "Mithridates de differentis linguis", an account of about 130 known languages, with the "Lord's Prayer" in twenty-two languages, while in 1556 appeared his edition of the works of Claudius Aelianus.

paragraphs: Gessner's work "On fossil objects" contains, among much else, a recognition of the true organic nature of some fossils.

paragraphs: To non-scientific readers, Gessner is best known for his love of mountains (below the snow-line) and for his many excursions among them, undertaken partly as a botanist, but also for the sake of exercise and enjoyment of the beauties of nature. In 1541 he prefixed to his "Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis" a letter addressed to his friend, J. Vogel, of Glarus, as to the wonders to be found among the mountains, declaring his love for them, and his firm resolve to climb at least one mountain every year, not only to collect flowers, but in order to exercise his body. In 1555 Gessner issued his narrative ("Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati") of his excursion to the Gnepfstein (1920 m), the lowest point in the Pilatus chain.


title: Bernhard Rensch

paragraphs: Bernhard Rensch (21 January 1900–4 April 1990) was a German evolutionary biologist, and ornithologist who did field work in Indonesia and India. He is probably best known as one of the architects of the modern evolutionary synthesis, which he popularised in Germany. His work on the evolution of geographically isolated populations, and on evolution above the species level, contributed to the modern synthesis. He also worked extensively on animal behavior (ethology).

paragraphs: Rensch's education and scientific work was interrupted by service in the German military during both World War I and World War II. His autobiography, published later in life, translates as 'Life of a biologist in a turbulent century'.

paragraphs: In 1929 he published a classic book on species and speciation in which he proposed ideas which later were to become basic principles of taxonomy. He recognised the significance of Moritz Wagner's idea of geographical species-splitting.

paragraphs: In 1947, Rensch published "Neuere Probleme der Abstammungslehre: die Transspezifische Evolution". This looked at how the evolutionary mechanisms involved in speciation might be extended to explain the origins of the differences between the higher level taxa. His work contributed to the rapid acceptance of the synthesis in Germany.


title: Kinect

paragraphs: Kinect is a device that was made by Microsoft for the Xbox 360 and Xbox One. Kinect uses cameras and a special microphone to see and hear Xbox 360 users. The device also uses equations to know what is a person and what is not. It was first shown at E3 in Los Angeles in May of 2009. It has won many awards. Kinect allows a user to move his or her body to control games, movies, and more. People can move their hand to go through menus, or they can use their whole body to control a body in a game. Kinect is special because it is the first way to play games that does not use a controller.

paragraphs: Kinect was released to retail stores in late 2010. The retail price is $149.99 and the Kinect is also optionally bundled with a new Xbox 360 S model that includes a game called Kinect Adventures!. Microsoft has said they will advertise it almost like a new video game console. They want Kinect to increase the time that people make games for Xbox 360 before a new video game console is made. In the future, Microsoft hopes Kinect starts a new idea of people using televisions, computers, and games with their hands and voices. PlayStation Move, which is for the PlayStation 3 console, is Kinect's main competitor.

paragraphs: The Kinect was named the "Fastest selling consumer electronics device" by the Guinness World Records, selling an average of 133,333 kinects per day with a total of 8 million units in its first 60 days.

paragraphs: A new version of the Kinect sensor was released with the Xbox One, which was released on November 22, 2013.

paragraphs: However, on October 2017, Microsoft stopped making Xbox One Kinect devices and the Xbox One Kinect doesn't want to work for Xbox One dashboard anymore, but only works for games.


title: G. Ledyard Stebbins

paragraphs: George Ledyard Stebbins, Jr (6 January 1906 – 19 January 2000) was an American botanist and geneticist. He was one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century. Stebbins received his PhD in botany from Harvard University in 1931. He went on to the University of California, Berkeley, where his work led to a synthesis of plant evolution and genetics.

paragraphs: His most important publication was "Variation and evolution in plants", which combined genetics and Darwin's theory of natural selection to describe plant speciation. It helped form the modern evolutionary synthesis, and still provides the framework for research in plant evolutionary biology. According to Ernst Mayr, "Few later works dealing with the evolutionary systematics of plants have not been very deeply affected by Stebbins' work".

paragraphs: He also researched and wrote widely on the role of hybridization and polyploidy in speciation and plant evolution; his work in this area has had a lasting influence on research in the field.

paragraphs: Stebbins was elected to the National Academy of Science, was awarded the National Medal of Science. He was involved in the development of evolution-based science programs for California high schools, as well as the conservation of rare plants in that state.

paragraphs: In 1935, Stebbins was offered a genetics research position at the University of California, Berkeley working with geneticist E.B. Babcock. Babcock needed assistance with a large Rockefeller-funded project on the genetics and evolution of plants from the genus "Crepis". "Crepis" commonly hybridized, displayed polyploidy, and could make seed without fertilization (a process known as apomixis). The collaboration between Babcock and Stebbins produced numerous papers and two monographs.

paragraphs: Stebbins's review, "The significance of polyploidy in plant evolution", showed how polyploidy was important in developing large, complex, and widespread genera. By looking at the history of polyploidy in plant families, he argued that polyploidy was only common in herbaceous perennials, but infrequent in woody plants and annuals. As such, polyploids played a conservative role in evolution since problems with fertility prevented the replication of new genetic material that might lead to a new line of evolution. This work continued with the 1947 paper "Types of polyploids: their classification and significance", which described Stebbins' ideas about the role of paleopolyploidy in angiosperm evolution. He argued that chromosome number may be a useful tool for the construction of phylogenies. These reviews were highly influential and helped others study the role of polyploidy in evolution.

paragraphs: In 1939, with Babcock's support, Stebbins was made a full professor in the Department of Genetics at UC Berkeley, after the Department of Botany failed to promote him. Stebbins taught a course on evolution. During his preparation he became excited by research combining genetics and evolution. Stebbins directed his research towards evolution. He became involved with the Society for the Study of Evolution in 1946, and was one of the few botanists in the new organization.

paragraphs: He worked on the genetics of grass grown for grazing, looking at polyploidy and the evolution of the Poaceae (grass family). He produced an artificial autotetraploid grass from the diploid species "Ehrharta erecta" by treatment with the chromosome doubling agent colchicine. He was able to establish the plant in the field, and after 39 years of field trials found that the tetraploid was not as successful as its diploid parent in an unchanging environment.


title: Rusty Wallace

paragraphs: Russell William Wallace, Jr. (born August 14, 1956 in Fenton, Missoui) is a retired American race car driver. Wallace won the 1989 NASCAR Cup Series. In 2013 Wallace was inducted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame.

paragraphs: He is known for driving the number 2 Miller Lite/Miller Genuine Draft car for Team Penske in NASCAR. He raced from 1980 to 2005. He won 55 races from 1986 to 2004. Wallace won many races on short tracks such as Bristol Motor Speedway and Richmond Raceway.

paragraphs: In 2006, he became a broadcaster for ESPN and ABC. He covered many auto racing events, such as the Indianapolis 500.


title: Kevin Clash

paragraphs: Kevin Clash (born September 17, 1960) is a puppeteer and voice actor. Clash currently performs Elmo on Sesame Street. He has also performed Splinter from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Clifford from Muppets Tonight, and Baby Dinosaur from Dinosaurs. Mr. Clash is an important part of Sesame Street Workshop. He often performs Elmo in hospitals for sick children. Mr. Clash is well known for his ability to improvise.


title: George Mallory

paragraphs: George Herbert Leigh Mallory (June 18, 1886 - June 8/June 9 1924) was a British mountaineer who took part in three expeditions to Mount Everest in the early 1920's. Mallory and his climbing partner Andrew Irvine both disappeared somewhere high on the North - East Ridge in an attempt to get to the top. The pair's last known sighting was a few hundred feet from the summit. Mallory's fate was unknown for 75 years until his body was discovered in 1999. Whether they made it to the summit or not still remains a mystery.

paragraphs: George Mallory was famous for replying to the question "Why do you want to climb Mount Everest?" with the reply: "Because it's there", which has been described as "the most famous three words in the history of mountaineering". Some questions have been raised inquiring whether Mallory had actually said it, or if it was a newspaper reporter making it up.

paragraphs: Mallory was born in Mobberly, Cheshire, the son of Herbert Leigh Mallory (1846 - 1943), a clergyman who changed his name to Leigh-Mallory in 1914. George had two sisters - one older, one younger - and a younger brother called Trafford-Leigh Mallory, the World War II Royal Air Force commander.

paragraphs: In 1896, Mallory went to Glengorse, a boarding school in Eastbourne on the south coast of England, having already transferred from a school in West Kirby. At the age of 13, he won a scholarship to Winchester College. In his second - to - last year at Winchester, he was introduced to rock climbing and mountaineering by a master, R.L.G Irving, who took a small number of pupils climbing in the Alps every year. In October 1905, Mallory entered Magdalane College, Cambridge to study history. There, he became good friends with several members of the Bloomsbury Group including James Strachey, Lytton Strachey, Rupert Brooke, John Maynard Keynes, and Duncan Grant, who painted many portraits of Mallory. Mallory was a keen oarsman and rowed in his college "eight", but he did not (as has been written elsewhere) row for Cambridge in the annual Oxford & Cambridge Boat Race.

paragraphs: After getting his degree Mallory stayed in Cambridge for a year writing an essay he later published as Boswell the Biographer (1912). He lived briefly in France, where Simon Bussy painted his portrait, now in London's National Portrait Gallery. On his return he decided to become a teacher. In 1910 he began teaching at Charterhouse School, Godalming, Surrey, where he met the poet Robert Graves, then a pupil; in his autobiography, "Goodbye to All That", Graves remembered Mallory, who acted as best man at Robert Graves' wedding in 1918, fondly both for his encouragement of Grave's interest in literature in poetry and his instruction in climbing. Graves recalled: "He (Mallory) was wasted (as a teacher) at Charterhouse. He tried to treat his class in a friendly way, which puzzled and offended them."

paragraphs: While at Charterhouse he met his wife, Ruth Turner, a taxi driver who lived in Goldalming, and they were married in 1914, just six days before Britain and Germany went to war. George and Ruth had two daughters and a son: Clare, born 1915; Beridge, known as 'Berry' (1917); and John (1920). In December 1915 Mallory joined the Royal Garrison Artillery as 2nd lieutenant and in 1916 participated in the shelling of the Somme, under the command of Major Gwilym Lloyd George, who was son of then Prime Minister David Lloyd George.

paragraphs: After the war he returned to Charterhouse, resigning in 1921 to take part in the first Everest expedition.


title: Atomic clock

paragraphs: An atomic clock is a clock that works with atoms, as opposed to most other clocks which are mechanical. The frequency comes from the crossing radiation of electrons. Atomic clocks are currently the most exact clocks of the world. They are also called "primary clocks".

paragraphs: Most clocks know the time because they count how many times something moves back and forth. Atomic clocks count how many times an atom wiggles back and forth.

paragraphs: Worldwide, there are over 260 atomic clocks at over 60 different places. All data is collected at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France. The International Atomic Time is calculated there.

paragraphs: The basics were developed by Isidor Isaac Rabi. He was an American physicist at Columbia University. He got the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944.


title: Typography

paragraphs: Typography is the practical art of arranging how the printed word appears on the page. Typography was born when print was born. Early types were based on the letterforms of scribes, and the letters cut into Trajan's Column ("monumental inscriptions"). Later, gradually, type designs were based on the special needs of books, pamphlets, newspapers and advertisements.

paragraphs: Typography includes not only letters, but all the set of symbols in a font, and it includes the overall design of a page or document. It applies to any medium which may be read; therefore it includes text on computer screens. A typographer may design type, select fonts, and design the layout of pages and books. The term does not cover the act of printing itself, though many of the early printers were themselves typographers.

paragraphs: Typography in the 20th century was greatly influenced by three things:

paragraphs: A traditional aim of the typographer would be to produce a page which is, above all, "legible" and "attractive" to read, without its being obtrusive. For display typography, such as advertising, the display must be "noticed" before it is read. This had led to the development of many display typefaces which are highly visible, and which are available in large sizes.


title: Cape

paragraphs: A cape can mean any outer piece of clothing that has no sleeves. However, it usually it is long and covers only the back half of the wearer, It fastens around the neck. Capes were common in medieval Europe, especially when combined with a hood. Capes have had periodic returns to fashion. Roman Catholic clergy wear a type of cape known as a ferraiolo, which is worn for formal events. Capes are often used as rain wear in various military units and police forces. In modern times, comic-book super-heroes, such as Superman and Batman, are often shown wearing capes.


title: Cab Calloway

paragraphs: Cabell "Cab" Calloway III (December 25, 1907 – November 18, 1994) was an American jazz musician and actor. He was famous for his ""scat"" style singing. He was the leader of one of the most famous big bands in the 1930s and 1940s. Calloway's band featured many famous musicians including Dizzy Gillespie.

paragraphs: In 1931 he recorded his most famous song, '"Minnie the Moocher."'

paragraphs: In his later career Calloway became a popular actor in movies and stage shows. In 1980 he acted and sang in the movie ""The Blues Brothers."" In the movie he sang "Minnie the Moocher." He sang the song "The Jumpin' Jive" on the famous children's TV show "Sesame Street".

paragraphs: In May 1994, Calloway suffered a stroke. He died six months later on November 18, 1994.


title: Korean name

paragraphs: Korean names today have different rules than they had in the past. This article mainly covers South Korea's. The North Korean one could be different

paragraphs: Korean names have two parts. One is the family name and the other is the given name.

paragraphs: "Park Chan-Ho" is a name of a Korean person. Park is the family name, and Chan-Ho is the given name. In the Korean language, the family name comes first, and the given name comes second. (It is like writing Smith John, instead of John Smith.) Most Koreans feel uneasy when they are called in the reverse way or by only family name.

paragraphs: Married men and women usually keep their full personal names, and children take the father's family name. So, a son of Ha Hi-Ra (female) and Choi Su-Jong (male) will be Choi something.

paragraphs: Although Koreans have nicknames, these usually come from their personal characteristics like appearance, a physical defect, or a word with a similar pronunciation to their names. They are different from the nicknames in the Western sense such as Bob, Bill, Liz and Kate. Unfavorable nicknames are more common than favorable ones. It is very rare for an adult to be called by a nickname.

paragraphs: Koreans call someone with Si (氏 means Mr., Mrs. or Miss, the most universal), Yang (孃 means Miss, used when the person is younger than the speaker), Goon (it means Mr., used when the person is younger than the speaker) after the family name, the given name or the full name.

paragraphs: Male Koreans often call older males 형 (Hyeong) and older females 누나 (Nu-na). Female Koreans call older males 오빠 (O-ppa) and older females 언니 (Eon-ni) after the given name.

paragraphs: Koreans call someone by only the given name itself or with the vocative postpositional word (Ya - In case the last syllable is open, or A - In case the last syllable is closed).

paragraphs: Koreans call someone using the word that indicates their blood relation instead of their name.

paragraphs: Examples: 아버지 (A-beo-ji, means father), 아빠 (A-ppa, means dad in a casual way), 어머니 (Eo-meo-ni, means mother), 엄마 (eom-ma, means mom), 형 (hyeong, means male's elder brother), 누나 (Nu-na, male's elder sister), 오빠 (O-ppa, means female's elder brother), 언니 (Eon-ni, female's elder sister), 남동생 (Nam-Dong-Saeng, means the younger brother of a person regardless of the person's gender), 여동생 (Yeo-Dong-Saeng, means the younger sister of a person regardless of the person's gender)

paragraphs: Koreans may speak to someone using the job title instead of their name.

paragraphs: For example, 사장 (Sa-Jang, means the president of a company) and 과장 (Gua-Jang, the head of a department).

paragraphs: Koreans call someone with the job title after his family name, for example 박과장 (Park Gua-Jang).

paragraphs: Koreans add 님 (Nim, the suffix showing respect) after the job title or by the combination like the family name + the job title + Nim.

paragraphs: For example, 사장님 (Sa-Jang Nim), 과장님 (Gua-Jang Nim) or 박과장님 (Park Gua-Jang Nim)

paragraphs: The family name is typically a single syllable, and the given name two syllables. There is no middle name in the Western sense. Each syllable in Korean name (including family names) usually has its Chinese character. But its pronunciation is considerably different from the one in China. In case of the given name, Koreans place great importance on the meaning of each Chinese character. Often naming centers take charge of naming a new baby.


title: Villette

paragraphs: Villette is a novel by English writer Charlotte Brontë. It is based on her experience as an English teacher in Brussels. "Villette" is a moving story of hidden feelings and , and a woman's right to love and be loved. People like the book, not so much for its plot, but for the careful and detailed picture of Lucy (the main character)'s feelings and emotions. Charlotte Brontë used Gothic buildings and other things to show Lucy's feelings inside.

paragraphs: The story starts with Lucy Snowe at age 14 observing a visitor at her godmother, Lousia Bretton's, house, a little girl called "Polly" or "Missy." (Her real name is Paulina Mary Home). Polly loves her papa very, very much, and when he leaves, is extremely unhappy. However, she soon starts to like Mrs. Bretton's young son, Graham, and they become great friends. Later, when Lucy tells her she has to leave and see her father again, Polly is very surprised and sad. Lucy comforts her, and they part.

paragraphs: Later, a family trouble (the book does not say what) forces Lucy into action--she goes onto a ship heading for France. On there, she makes friends with a very pretty and selfish girl named Ginevra Fanshawe. When she arrives at France, a gentleman helps her find her trunk, and she finally finds work as a teacher in Madame Beck's boarding school. Madame Beck is a cool, clever, careful woman, who often spies and searches the teachers, firing and hiring easily. However, Lucy is quite satisfied, if not happy, there. Ginevra Fanshawe is a student there, and she and Lucy become friends again. They usually fight with each other because of Ginevra's silliness, but they never get separated completely. Later, young English Dr. John (the gentleman who helped her when she first came to France) keeps on visiting the school because he loves Ginevra, who says she doesn't like him much. Later, Dr. John is discovered to actually be Graham Bretton, and Lucy and Graham become friends again. Lucy begins to love him secretly, but tries her best to keep her feelings hidden. Eventually, though, she buries her love for him by symbolically burying all the letters he sent to her.

paragraphs: Dr. John meets little Polly again, now a young and beautiful countess, and they quickly become friends again - and something more. They marry and have a happy life.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, Lucy begins to be good friends with Professor Emanuel, and they fall in love. However, lots of people, including Madame Beck, try hard to break the two up, and at last force him to travel away. Professor Emanuel and Lucy declare their love for each other before Professor Emanuel leaves, making Lucy the principal (headmistress) of a school in the meantime. However, it is hinted that he probably dies on the trip home.

paragraphs: loves him, and thinks of her as "quiet Lucy Snowe," and he admits she "...tasted nothing of my grace."


title: The Stranger (novel)

paragraphs: The Stranger (sometimes known as The Outsider) is an existentialist novel written by French writer Albert Camus. It was written in 1942.

paragraphs: The title is ""L'Etranger"" in French. It discusses philosophical ideas.


title: Toei Asakusa Line

paragraphs: The Toei Asakusa Line (都営浅草線, とえいあさくさせん) is a metro line of Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation in Tokyo, Japan.


title: 1080p

paragraphs: 1080p is the progressived 1K high definition.

paragraphs: The number 1080p means there are 1,080 vertical lines of color going from left to right in each picture on the screen.

paragraphs: The p means "progressived" (progressive scan, every picture has all the lines scanned every time). 1080p is always 1K high definition, however the horizontal wide.


title: Teriyaki

paragraphs: Teriyaki is an Asian cuisine dish usually made from pork, chicken, or beef on a stick or separately on plates. It is mostly found in Thailand, China, and Japan and other Asian countries. The taste is something of sweet, or sour, or spicy usually.


title: Dance hall

paragraphs: A dance hall is a place where people go to dance and talk to each other. It also usually has drinks and lounging, with music and disco lights or lighting of some sort.


title: Yaque del Norte River

paragraphs: Yaque del Norte is the longest river in the Dominican Republic, and the second longest river of the Hispaniola island, after the river Artibonite.

paragraphs: It is 296 km long and flows to the northwest into the Montecristi Bay, Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: "Yaque" or "Yaqui" is a Taíno word given to two rivers. One of those rivers, the longest, goes to the north of the island, to the Atlantic Ocean, and is called the Yaque del Norte ("Northern Yaque"); and the second goes to the south, to the Caribbean Sea, and is called Yaque del Sur ("Southern Yaque").

paragraphs: During his first visit to America in 1492, Christopher Columbus saw for the first time this river, at its mouth, and he called it "Río de Oro" ("Gold River") because he found many small pieces of gold. But later, during his second visit, he saw the river in other place and called it "Río de las Cañas" ("River of Canes") because many tall grasses (as sugar cane) were growing on the borders of the river. But none of those names were ever used; it has always been called Yaque, or Yaque del Norte.

paragraphs: Columbus built three forts near the river: Esperanza, Magdalena and Santiago; the first two were abandoned and Santiago was moved to another place with the name of Santiago de los Caballeros. Later Santiago de los Caballeros was moved again near the river but not in the original place.

paragraphs: The source of the Yaque del Norte is at an elevation of 2,580 m, on the "Pico del Yaque" mountain, in the central part of the Cordillera Central mountain range.

paragraphs: But in this place, the river is called "Los Guanos" or "Río de la Derecha" ("River to the Right"). The name Yaque del Norte is used only when this small river joins another small river, "Los Tablones" or "Río de la Izquierda" ("River to the Left") in Manabao, to the west of Jarabacoa, at an elevation of 900 m.

paragraphs: From Manabao, the river flows to the east, through the northwestern part of La Vega province. When it gets to Jarabacoa, it turns to the north, to the Santiago. The River Jimenoa, the only important right tributary of Yaque del Norte, joins it at Jarabacoa.

paragraphs: In Santiago de los Caballeros, the river turns to the northwest and flows by the "Yaque del Norte Valley", the western part of the Cibao Valley.

paragraphs: Its mouth is on the Montecristi Bay, just to the south of the city of San Fernando de Monte Cristi, on the Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: Its most important left tributaries are the rivers Bao, Ámina, Mao and Guayubín.

paragraphs: The city of Santiago de los Caballeros is the most important Dominican city close to the river.It goes also near the cities of Jarabacoa, Mao, Guayubín, Castañuela and Monte Cristi.

paragraphs: With an area of 7,044 km², its watershed is the largest of the Dominican Republic, and the second largest of the island. Its discharge (volume of water which passes through a section of the river per unit of time) is 97.0 cubic metres per second at Palo Verde, to the southeast of San Fernando de Monte Cristi.

paragraphs: The water of the river is used for irrigation, mainly in the valley that goes from Santiago to Monte Cristi, the Yaque del Norte Valley. It is a very dry valley and without water it would be very difficult to grow any crop. The most important crops here with irrigation are rice, bananas and

paragraphs: Around Jarabacoa, the river is used for some water sports with canoes and small boats.

paragraphs: There are several dams along the river to generate electricity, store the water for irrigation, and prevent flooding.


title: Whip (instrument)

paragraphs: In music, a whip or slapstick is a percussion instrument. It consists of two pieces of wood joined by a hinge. The pieces of wood are slapped together. This makes a noise like a whip. There is a handle on each of the pieces of wood so that the player can hold it and slap them together without trapping his fingers.

paragraphs: The whip is often heard in modern orchestras, bands and percussion groups. Examples of a whip in classical music can be heard near the beginning of Ravel's "Piano Concerto" (3rd movement), and in Britten's "Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra".

paragraphs: There is another type of whip, in which one plank is longer than the other. It can be played with one hand. The player shakes the instrument quickly and the small plank moves away from the large one, then slaps back onto it. It makes a different kind of sound from the whip, and is properly called a slapstick. It has been used by several composers including Mahler, Richard Strauss, Ravel, Mussorgsky and Hindemith. The first whip was designed in the 14th century.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

paragraphs: The First Epistle to the Thessalonians is the fifty-second book in the Christian Bible, and the thirteenth in the New Testament.

paragraphs: This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to a church in Thessalonica in modern-day Greece. It is likely the first of Paul's letters, probably written by the end of AD 52 (however, some scholars believe the Epistle to Galatians may have been written at an earlier date: AD 48).

paragraphs: Most New Testament scholars believe Paul wrote this letter from Corinth, most of the letter has personal information, with only the last two chapters teaching things about what Christians are to believe. Paul's main goal is to encourage and reassure the Christians there. Paul tells them to go on working quietly while waiting in hope for the return of Christ. Paul also teaches that the dead will be resurrected prior to those still living, and both groups will greet the Lord (Jesus) in the air. These verses are often read at funerals of Christians to comfort their families.

paragraphs: Unlike later Pauline epistles, 1 Thessalonians does not focus on faith or questions of Jewish–Gentile relations, things that are covered in all his other letters. Many scholars see this as an indication that this letter was written before the Epistle to the Galatians, where Paul's teaching on these matters were given.


title: Second Epistle to the Thessalonians

paragraphs: The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians is the fifty-third book in the Christian Bible, and the fourteenth in the New Testament.

paragraphs: This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to a church in Thessalonica a part of ancient Greece. Thessalonica was the second city in Europe where Paul taught and left a Christian church. After the first letter was sent, probably soon, some of the Thessalonians were not sure that those who had died would share in the Second Coming of Jesus. This letter was written to answer this concern.

paragraphs: Many believe it was written around 51–52 AD, shortly after the First Epistle. Others think a date of around 80–115 AD is more likely. These are scholars who say that the second letter is quite different from the First Epistle to the Thessalonians and may have been written by someone else. Those who believe Paul wrote "Second Thessalonians" also note how Paul signed it himself: "I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand, which is how I write in every letter.".

paragraphs: The first part of the letter praises this church for keeping their faith even though others were against them.

paragraphs: The letter has a whole chapter mainly about the Second Coming of Christ. Someone had told the Thessalonians that Christ had already returned. Paul says this is not true. (chapter 2, verses 1 to 12), He tells the Thessalonians that a great tribulation (time of trouble) must occur before Christ's return. Since this has not yet happened, Christ cannot have returned yet. He then gives thanks that his readers were chosen by God for salvation and saved by His grace through faith, and so would not be deceived by false teachings. (Chapter 2, verses 13 and14)

paragraphs: The letter then tells the Thessalonian church to stand firm in their faith, and to "keep away from every brother who leads an unruly(evil) life and not according to the tradition which you received from us... do not associate (stay) with him, so that he will be put to shame. Yet do not regard him as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother" (Chapter 3, verses 6,7, 14 and 15).

paragraphs: A passage from this book reading "For even when we were with you, this we commanded you, that if any would not work, neither should he eat", (Chapter 3, verse 10), was later adapted by Vladimir Lenin as an rule of the Soviet Union, "He who does not work, neither shall he eat" .

paragraphs: Christian groups who work with poor people sometimes also use the verse to help people to help themselves instead of just taking help from others. They try to help them find a job instead of just giving them food.


title: First Epistle to Timothy

paragraphs: The First Epistle to the Timothy is the fifty-fourth book in the Christian Bible, and the fifteenth in the New Testament.

paragraphs: This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to Timothy. It is one of three letters in the New Testament of the Bible that are called the Pastoral Epistles, along with Second Timothy and Titus. These letters are called "pastoral", because the are sent to persons who are pastors of Christian churches.Timothy was a pastor in Ephesus (Chapter 1, verse 3). The letter gives advice on the organization of the Church and how the leaders in it should act. They are also told to be faithful to the truth even though all around them were false ideas.

paragraphs: For many years Paul was a mentor to Timothy. Timothy is first mentioned in chapter 16 of the Book of Acts. His mother Eunice, and his grandmother, Lois, are mentioned in 2 Timothy Chapter 1, verse 5. All that we know of his father is that he was a Greek, not a Jew.

paragraphs: Paul's second visit to Lystra, a city in Asia Minor is when Timothy first met Paul; (). Paul not only brought Timothy into the faith but he was Timothy’s main mentor in Christian leadership (). They preached and started churches together. Timothy would have received his authority to preach in churches directly from Paul who of course was the greater known and accepted of the two and an apostle.

paragraphs: The most important things in the letter are the use of The Law (), warnings against false teachings, instructions for prayer (), roles of women in the church, qualifications for leaders of the church (), and the treatment of widows, elders, masters, youth, and church members in general. The verse about women teaching, Chapter 2,verse 12 is much talked about in churches that do or do not allow women to be pastors. There are many different ideas about what this verse means.


title: Second Epistle to Timothy

paragraphs: The Second Epistle to the Timothy is the fifty-fifth book in the Christian Bible, and the sixteenth in the New Testament.

paragraphs: This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to Timothy. It is thought to be the last letter Paul wrote before his death although some think is was written by one of Paul's followers some time after his death.

paragraphs: In the letter, Paul tells Timothy not to have a "spirit of fear" and not to "be ashamed to talk openly about our Lord (Jesus)" (Chapter 1, verses 7 and 8). He also tells Timothy to come to visit him before winter, and to bring Mark with him (cf. "Philippians" Chapter 2, verse 22). He thought that "the time of his death was at hand" (Chapter 4 ,verse 6), and he tells his "son Timothy" to work hard and be strong in the face of false teachings, and to be faithful in all the duties of his office of pastor (Chapter 4, verses 1 to 5), knowing that he would someday stand before the Judge of the living and the dead (God).

paragraphs: Paul thinks he will soon be killed and talks about that. In Chapter 4, verses 6 to 8 he writes "For I am now ready to be offered, and the time of my departure is at hand. I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course(race), I have kept the faith: in the future there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day: and not to me only, but unto all them also that love his appearing."


title: Frederick Soddy

paragraphs: Frederick Soddy was a Nobel Prize winning English chemist and physicist.

paragraphs: He graduated from Merton College, Oxford with a degree in chemistry. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921.

paragraphs: His work on the theory of how atoms worked was very important. He proved, amongst other things, the existence of isotopes and how radioactivity causes changes in atoms. Throughout his career he worked closely with another important atomic physicist, Ernest Rutherford.


title: Epistle to Titus

paragraphs: The Epistle to Titus is the fifty-sixth book in the Christian Bible, and the seventeenth in the New Testament. This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to Titus. Titus was a pastor and church leader. The letter tells what church leaders should be like and lists their duties. These leaders are called elders and bishops. This letter is one of three "Pastoral epistles" since it was sent to a pastor and is mainly about pastors.

paragraphs: Titus was mentioned in Galatians (Chapter 2, verses 1 and 3) where Paul wrote of going to Jerusalem with Barnabas, along with Titus. He was then sent to Corinth, Greece, where he helped the Christians there to follow Paul's teachings. Titus was later left on the island of Crete to help organize the Church, and later met back with the Apostle Paul in Nicopolis. He soon went to Dalmatia (now Croatia). Then he served as the first bishop of Crete.

paragraphs: In Chapter 1, verse 9, Paul says that some among the Jewish Christians are false teachers. Paul says the false teachers are rebellious, empty talkers who claim to teach the law "without understanding" They cause the Christians to believe false things. Calvin wrote that vain (empty) talking (Greek: mataiologia) is not the same as useful doctrine. The false teachings don't help people to show piety and fear of God.

paragraphs: In Chapter 2, Paul tells how the people in the church should act. He talks about older men, older women, younger women, young men, and slaves. Each group is given their proper way to live. All are told to live for God while they wait for the return of Jesus who died to buy us back from evil living and make us into good people.

paragraphs: Chapter 3 tells the Christians to obey the government leaders and to live a good life and be gentle. The adds that Jesus has saved us not because of the good things we had done, but through his grace and mercy and now wants to make us into people always who do good things. The letter ends with a final warning against those who stir up fights and some personal greetings.

paragraphs: In the Epistle to Titus it says in chapter 1 verse 12 and 13 "One of the Cretans, a prophet of their own, said, 'Cretans are always liars'". This is called a logical paradox since if a member of a group says that all members of the group are liars we can't know if what he says is true since he must also be a liar. Students of logic think about this and try to find an answer. The one who said this was Epimenides, so it is named for him.


title: Epistle to Philemon

paragraphs: The Epistle to Philemon is the fifty-seventh book in the Christian Bible, and the eighteenth in the New Testament. Almost everyone agrees that letter was written by the Saint Paul to Philemon. It is the shortest of Paul's letters, consisting of only 335 words in the Greek text.

paragraphs: Paul wrote this letter on behalf of Onesimus, who may have been a runaway slave who had wronged his owner Philemon. We don't know what Onesimus had done, but perhaps he ran away after stealing money. Paul says in verse 18 that if Onesimus owes anything, Philemon should charge it to Paul's account. It is thought that Philemon lived in Colossae; in the letter to the Colossians, Onesimus (the slave who fled from Philemon) and Archippus (whom Paul greets in the letter to Philemon) are said to be members of the church there.

paragraphs: Paul says that Onesimus has been very helpful to him while he was in prison in Rome. He would like for Philemon to free him and send him back to Rome. Paul says that Philemon should receive him not as a slave but as a brother. Paul did not seem to think that Onesimus should be punished, even though Roman law allowed the owner of a runaway slave to punish or even kill them.

paragraphs: Some see this letter as a step towards thinking of slaves as fully human. Before Paul, Ruden argues, a slave was considered subhuman, and entitled to no more consideration than an animal. Others think that Paul and the early Christians should have done more to combat the evil of slavery. In history, some Christians used the book to justify slavery. Pope Benedict XVI refers to this letter in the Encyclic, "Spe salvi", to tell of the power of Christianity to improve society. He says that Christianity was very important to the large decrease of slavery during the Middle Ages and after.


title: Epistle of James

paragraphs: The Epistle of James is a book inclused in the Christian Bible, the twentieth in the New Testament.

paragraphs: According to its opening verse, this epistle was written by James (often identified with the “brother of the Lord” who leaded the Jerusalem Church about 20 years and was killed around 62 AD).

paragraphs: The title “servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (which suggest a Church official), the courage to address “the twelve tribes in the Dispersion” (i.e. Jewish Christian communities outside Palestine, or all faithful living in a non-Christian environment), and the tone of authority throughout the letter, all indicate someone well known and respected.

paragraphs: The writer appears concerned in clarifying Paul’s teaching on faith/action, against Christians who deform it. This indicates that the letter was written after those of Paul had begun to circulate diffusely, in the last decades of the 1st century.

paragraphs: This late dating, together with the quite elegant Greek style and the lack of any real emphasis on the Jewish legalism which was part of James’ approach to religion, have persuaded a growing majority of contemporary scholars that a Christian versed in both Hellenism and Judaism wrote using James’ name.

paragraphs: May be early tradition stemming from James was updated and published by an unknown Christian teacher of a later generation: possibly this is why the letter was not universally accepted by the Churches until near the end of the 4th century.

paragraphs: The author’s two chief sources are OT Wisdom books and the teaching found in the Gospels, though he hardly ever uses direct quotations.

paragraphs: Reflecting Jewish Christian assemblies, he rethinks OT sayings in the light of Jesus’ teachings and re-presents them in an original way.

paragraphs: The epistle consists of a long series of exhortations, mostly brief and loosely connected, some developed at length.

paragraphs: The one common trait, which gives the letter its distinctive quality, is a concern that the faith be implemented in every aspect of life; otherwise it is useless.

paragraphs: The author takes for granted Jesus' saving work, but is especially interested in Christians' moral life. So, there is no real contradiction between Paul's and James' teachings, for Paul was speaking of the impossibility of earning salvation by one's own efforts, not of the works of charity and justice to which the Christians are called.

paragraphs: James used a friendly way of addressing his readers on the day-to-day problems we also meet and in which we must follow faith and love for others: community life, prejudice or discrimination, care for poor, widows and orphans, jealousy and selfish ambition, controlling the tongue, community concern for the sick, matters of justice, speaking evil against each other. He said in effect: “Love first and it will prove your faith”.

paragraphs: The central theme is the true wisdom that comes from God as opposed to false wisdom. The moral teaching revealed from on high, is not human but divine wisdom. Humans can only analyse it, enter into it more deeply and put it into practice. It is an objective ethics needed to see life in its proper perspective and to be guided in action. Earthly wisdom, on the contrary, is a permanent temptation in people who want to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong, only to end in justifying wicked behaviour.

paragraphs: The other main theme is God’s preference for the lowly: so in this manifesto for social justice the author praises the poor and threatens the rich. Respect for the dignity of every person is fundamental especially that of the poor, exposed to contempt by the powerful. This evidently takes up the task undertaken by the prophets, but it also refers to Christ, whose glory guarantees the dignity of everyone redeemed by his blood, and excludes every kind of favouritism.

paragraphs: James insists much on bridling the tongue: in this respect, teachers have a special responsibility within the Church since their instructions (and their writings) can create dissent and division in her. Those with a strong influence on public also have a similar responsibility.

paragraphs: Jas 1:1-18: A series of short exhortations, linked together more by word connections than by concept, introduces topics to be developed in the letter.

paragraphs: Jas 1:19-27: The Word in which we were given birth by God must be heard: any obstacles must be removed so to put it into practice.

paragraphs: Jas 2:1-13: This explanation of the previous exhortations is a warning against partiality and leads to a fuller consideration of the poor in community.

paragraphs: Jas 2:14-26: This part is unique for its unified and relatively long development of a single theme: that faith without works is dead i.e. cannot save anyone for eternal life. This is the heart of the letter, giving the theoretical basis for the practical exhortations. Yet, the appearance of a contradiction of Paul’s teaching on justification by faith has given excessive prominence to this section. It was largely because of it that M. Luther wished to exclude this letter from the Bible.

paragraphs: Jas 3:1-4:12: These are two clearly defined, closely developed sections. Since faults of tongue and false wisdom lead to strife in the community, James considers the root causes and remedies thereof, concluding with a consideration of law and judgment.

paragraphs: Jas 4:13-5:6: These two passages are parallel in that each is introduced identically and employs direct address. The first is against mercantile arrogance, the second is a severe denunciation of unjust rich similar to those of OT prophets. It is a useful warning to the faithful of the terrible fate of those who abuse riches.

paragraphs: Jas 5:7-20: After an exhortation to patiently waiting for the Lord’s coming, the letter ends with three topics: oaths, prayer and converting the sinners. In the midst, James proclaims the anointing of the sick by Church leaders which is one of the seven sacraments.


title: First Epistle of Peter

paragraphs: The First Epistle of Peter is the sixtieth book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-first in the New Testament. This book is believed to be a letter from Peter to fellow Christians. The traditional Roman Catholic belief is that was written during his time as Bishop of Rome or Bishop of Antioch but that is not said in the letter, which says that it was written from Babylon. In the Book of Revelation Babylon is used as a code word for Rome. The letter was sent to Christian churches in Asia Minor that were being persecuted for their faith.

paragraphs: Many students of the book believe that Peter was not the author of the letter because it seems been written by someone who had learned rhetoric and philosophy, and had studied the Greek language, none of which would be usual for a Galilean fisherman. Others believe that Peter used an educated secretary to help him write the letter or that he studied relevant subjects in the decades-long period between Jesus' death and Peter's writing of the letter.

paragraphs: 1 Peter was sent to the “elect resident aliens” living in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. These were Roman provinces in Asia Minor. In Chapter 1, verse 17, they are told to “live in reverent fear during the time of your exile". Peter calls them "strangers", in the first verse of the letter. This could mean Christians wishing for their home in heaven, or people in a different place from where they were born. While local people may have been unkind to the Christians, Peter tells them to stay loyal to both their religion and the Roman Empire (Chapter 2, verse 17).


title: Second Epistle of Peter

paragraphs: The Second Epistle of Peter is the 61st book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-second in the New Testament. This book is believed to be a letter from Peter, who was a disciple of Jesus.

paragraphs: Since Peter was killed in about 69 A.D. by Nero, the emperor of Rome, if Peter is the author it was written about 65 to 69 A.D. In the letter the writer says, ("since I know that the putting off of my body will be soon, as our Lord Jesus Christ made clear to me"). Chapter 1, verse 14 Some think that the book was written by a later unnamed follower of Peter, and it could have been any time between 60 and 160 A.D. In both ancient and modern times, people have disagreed about this but the letter was finally accepted as part of the Bible by most Christians.

paragraphs: In both content and style this letter is very different from 1 Peter.

paragraphs: The epistle mentions many verses in the Old Testament. In Chapter 3, verses 15 and 16 one of Paul's letters is mentioned. This is probably 1 Thessalonians chapters 4 and 5. Peter calls Paul's writings scripture and mentions that they are hard to understand so that some people try to change their meaning.

paragraphs: The letter begins with a greeting. Next the writer tells the Christians to live a good life of faith, knowledge, self control, and love. In Chapter 2, there are warnings about false teachers. In Chapter 3 are teachings about the Second Coming of Jesus. The letter ends by saying again that the Christians should live properly. Then there is a final blessing.


title: First Epistle of John

paragraphs: The First Epistle of John is the sixty-second book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-third in the New Testament.

paragraphs: This book is believed to a letter from John.

paragraphs: There is some disagreement over whether the John who wrote the letters of John, the John who wrote The Gospel of John, and the John who wrote the Book of Revelation are the same person.

paragraphs: This letter was probably written in Ephesus in AD 95–110. It was written to show that Jesus really came "in the flesh", and not only as a spirit, as some false teachers were saying. John says they are "anti-Christ", meaning against Christ. This false teaching is known as docetism. It says that Jesus only seemed to be a human person with a real body. John's letter says that Christians can tell if teachers are true. True teachers will say that say that Jesus came in the flesh. Ture teachers are also known by their ethics, and by their love.

paragraphs: John wrote the letter so that the joy of his readers would "be full" (Chapter 1, verse 4).

paragraphs: Also he says that as true Christians they would "not practice sin" (keep sinning) (Chapter 2, verse 1); that "we should love one another" (Chapter 3, verse 11); and that "you who believe in the name of the Son of God... may know that you have eternal life." (Chapter 5, verse 13). So we see that the aim of the letter was to make the Christians more full of joy, and also to help readers to know if they are really saved.