title: Migraine

paragraphs: A migraine is a medical condition which usually causes a pounding, throbbing headache on one side of the head. The pain may be very bad and hurt so much that a person may have a hard time doing anything. While most people who have migraines get a headache, not everyone does. There are different kinds of migraines, and some do not cause a headache but do have other symptoms.

paragraphs: Most migraines cause a headache and nausea and might make the person dizzy or very sensitive to bright lights or loud noises. Some people have "auras" before a migraine starts, which means their ability to see becomes different. They may see funny patterns, have blurry vision, or may not be able to see at all. Other senses can change before or during a migraine, and the person may sense funny smells or tastes. Migraines can last a long time. Migraines usually last between four and 72 hours.

paragraphs: Migraines have been classified, based on how often they happen in a month: If a person has a headache for less than fifteen days, the migraine is called "episodic migraine" (EM). If it happens more than fifteen days, it is called "chronic migraine" (CM). Chronic means it happens over a long amount of time. Some people who start off getting episodic migraines may start to get "chronic migraines" later. Chronic migraine then may "revert" or go back to episodic migraine.

paragraphs: Scientists have discovered that something called CGRP is the cause of migraines. CGRP stands for "calcitonin gene-related peptide". CGRP is a protein that causes migraines when it is released around the brain. What CGRP does, is that it causes a lot of inflammation in the meninges, a covering above the brain.

paragraphs: There are different risk factors which make a person more likely to have migraines. Being a female is a risk factor, and so is having family members who had migraines. For a person who has migraines, there are different trigger factors which may set off a migraine attack. In a large group of females who have migraines, one of the main trigger factors is when the amount of the hormone estrogen in their body either drops too low or "fluctuates" (goes up and down).

paragraphs: The World Health Organization says that migraine headache is the most costly brain problem for treatment and disability in the European Union and the United States.

paragraphs: "Childhood periodic syndromes" are a group of migraine syndromes that children may have. When a child has one of these child periodic syndromes there is a greater chance that they will get one of the other, more common types of migraines when they become adults.

paragraphs: Abdominal migraine is a kind of migraine which causes a very bad pain in the area of the abdomen, usually around the 'belly-button' which is called the "periumbilical area". Abdominal migraine usually affects children starting at about age 7, but it may affect younger children and older children, and it may also sometimes affect adults.

paragraphs: Benign paroxysmal vertigo of childhood (BPVC for short): (this means harmless dizziness, that happens again and again and happens suddenly) is a medical condition which occurs in children usually starting between two and five years of age; it often disappears by the age of eight. BPVC causes vertigo.

paragraphs: Cyclic vomiting syndrome or cyclical vomiting syndrome (CVS), is a medical condition whose main symptoms are nausea and repeated vomiting. CVS happens more often in children, but it can occur at any age.

paragraphs: Episodic migraine (EM) is when a person has migraine symptoms for 14 days or less in one month, while chronic migraine (CM) is when a person has migraine symptoms for 15 or more days in one month. When compared to persons with episodic migraine, those with CM where less likely to have full-time jobs and had a larger risk of headache-related disability. Persons with CM are almost twice as likely to have anxiety, chronic pain, and/or depression; they also have a 40% greater chance of having heart disease and angina and are 70% more likely to have a history of stroke.

paragraphs: About 7.68% of total migraine cases are chronic migraines and about 1% of people in the United States have CM, with a higher rate among females, middle-aged people, and in those households that had the lowest annual income. (The American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention Study)

paragraphs: Aura (from the Greek word for breeze) is the word used to describe a series of neurological symptoms that may begin before an epileptic seizure or a migraine headache. About 15% of people who have a migraine will have the kind with an aura. The symptoms may include visual problems such as "scotomas" (losing vision for a short time, seeing zig-zag lines or floating spots etc.), vertigo, a ringing noise in the ears (tinnitus) and problems speaking.

paragraphs: Scotoma (came from the Greek word for darkness: "skotos"): a "blind spot" or area of reduced vision surrounded by a normal visual field. i.e.: A person can see normally except where the scotoma is. Scotomas may affect one or both eyes and be either and be either "absolute" where nothing can be seen within the scotoma or, "relative" with some ability to see within the area of the scotoma.

paragraphs: Scotomas may also have different patterns and shapes like the "fortification" scotoma; it is called fortification because it looks like the outline of an old fort. Scotomas can start of small and then get bigger, move around to different parts of a person's visual field, and they can also look like flickering lights.

paragraphs: In medicine a "factor" is a substance, a condition or an activity, or a lack thereof that increases the chance of a certain outcome or condition happening. If it increases the chance of something unhealthy it is a "risk factor". A "trigger factor" or 'trigger' for short is a factor that may cause an activity or the signs and/or symptoms of a medical condition to begin.

paragraphs: There are no specific tests to diagnose migraine but a doctor may use different tests to rule out other causes for a person's symptoms. The diagnosis of migraine is a "clinical diagnosis" which means it is based upon a person's "medical history" that a person reports to the doctor. The medical history for a possible migraine diagnosis which can be called the "headache history" includes information such as:

paragraphs: "Differential diagnoses" are different medical disorders which may cause the same symptoms. Before a doctor makes a "final diagnosis", which means they are sure of what medical disorder is causing the problem, they think of what other medical conditions have the same or almost the same symptoms, and make sure it's not one of them.

paragraphs: Often, having one medical condition makes it more likely a person will also have one or more other medical or psychiatric disorders. These other disorders are the "comorbid disorders" or "comorbidities". There are various comorbid medical and psychiatric conditions associated with migraines. The treatment and "prognosis" (if a disease gets better, worse or stays the same over time) of migraine is affected by the comorbid disorders which may be present and/or the chance of getting comorbid disorders.<br>

paragraphs: In medicine, a complication is a problem that happens because of, a procedure (like surgery), treatment (like medication), or illness (like migraines).

paragraphs: In medicine "epidemiology" is the study of what causes diseases and medical conditions, how often they happen, where they happen and who they happen to.

paragraphs: Migraine is more common among boys than girls until the beginning of puberty when girls start getting migraines more often than boys. By the later part of the teenage years girls get migraines almost twice as much as boys do. The number of people who get migraines is highest between the ages of 25 to 55 years in both men and women, after which, the risk of getting migraines get lower as a person gets older.

paragraphs: Between 65-75% of adult migraine sufferers are women and of these women, about two-thirds have menstrual migraines. Migraines are more common in people who make less money, there may be different reasons why such as stress.

paragraphs: About two-thirds of migraines are migraines without aura and the remaining one-third of cases are migraine with aura.

paragraphs: Symptoms that mimic those of migraines have been recorded in various cultures throughout written history. The first known mention was found on cuneiform tablets from Babylonia dating to 2000-1880 B.C.E. A treatment for migraine can be found in the "Ebers Papyrus", an Ancient Egyptian medical text named after George Ebers, the German Eygptologist who discovered them. In the ancient text dated to 1552 B.C.E. migraine is refereed to as "suffering in half the head".

paragraphs: The Ancient Greek physician Aretaeus of Cappadocia's description of a type of headache he dubbed "heterocrania" is considered a description of migraine.


title: Josh Groban

paragraphs: Joshua Winslow "Josh" Groban (born February 27, 1981) is an American singer, songwriter, musician, actor, and record producer. He has won awards.

paragraphs: Groban was born in Los Angeles, California. His parents are Lindy (nee Johnston), a school teacher, and Jack Groban, a businessman. He has a younger brother, Chris, who shares the same birthday, but four years younger. Groban's father was born Jewish, and is a descendant of Russian and Polish immigrants; he converted from Judaism to Christianity when marrying Groban's mother. Groban's mother's ancestry includes Norwegian (from Toten), German, and English; one of her own grandfathers had been Jewish. Groban's parents are Episcopalians.

paragraphs: Groban debuted as a singer in the seventh grade.


title: Slip End

paragraphs: Slip End is a medium sized village in South Bedfordshire, England. There is one school in the village - Slip End Lower School serving the community and surrounding areas from Reception to Year 4 Children.

paragraphs: There are two community venues in the village:


title: Alex Fraser

paragraphs: Alex Fraser can be any of the following:


title: Network bridge

paragraphs: A network bridge is a device which connects two parts of a network together at the data link layer (layer 2 of the OSI model).

paragraphs: Network bridges work similarly to network switches, but the traffic is managed differently. A bridge will only send traffic from one side to the other if it is going to a destination on the other side. This is different to a layer 1 switch which sends all traffic from either side. Sometimes network bridges are called layer 2 switches.

paragraphs: Since they need to look at the contents of the traffic going into them, they are much more complicated than a hub or repeater.

paragraphs: Network Switches and Bridges are both Layer 2 devices. They operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI Reference Model. Network Switches and Bridges have many similarities and similar function. But Switches are considered as superior devices than bridges.

paragraphs: Following are the major differences between network switches and bridges.

paragraphs: • Packet forwarding in Bridges are performed using software. Packet forwarding in Switches are performed using ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits).

paragraphs: • Switches operate comparatively higher speeds that Bridges.

paragraphs: • Method of switching of a Bridge is store and forward. Method of switching of a Switch can be store and forward, cut-through or fragment-free.

paragraphs: • Normally a Switch has more ports than a Bridge.

paragraphs: • Bridges can operate only in half duplex mode, but a Switch can operate both in half duplex or full duplex mode.

paragraphs: • Both Bridge and Switch has one collision domain per port, but switches have one broadcast domain per VLAN.

paragraphs: • Switches support full-duplex Local Area Network (LAN) communication.


title: Alex Fraser (scientist)

paragraphs: Alex Fraser (1923–2002) was an Australian computer scientist. He helped develop the modelling of population genetics on computers. His work made an impact on how we view evolutionary systems today.


title: Great Northern War

paragraphs: The Great Northern War (1700–1721), was a war fought between Sweden and the coalition of Russia, Saxony, Poland, and Denmark-Norway. In 1715 Prussia and Hannover joined the war against Sweden. The King of Hannover was also King George II of Great Britain.

paragraphs: After the coalition attacked them, Sweden invaded Russia in 1709 which was not a good idea. The Russian Army retreated so the Swedish Army had to chase them. When winter came it was the coldest winter that Europe had had in a hundred years and half of the Swedish soldiers died in the cold. Eventually the Swedish army caught up to the Russian army and they had a battle, called the battle of Poltava. Russia won the battle but most of the Swedish soldiers, including king Charles XII of Sweden, escaped and went to the Ottoman Empire. Peter didn't like this so he declared war on the Ottoman Empire. He lost and had to give the town of Azov back to the Ottomans.

paragraphs: Charles XII left the Ottoman Empire in 1714 and went to Stralsund in Pomerania which was owned by Sweden at the time but was under siege. Charles escaped back to Sweden just before the people in Stralsund surrendered. Then he invaded Norway (which was owned by Denmark at the time.) and was shot and killed there. With their king gone, the Swedish soldiers left Norway and went back to Sweden. On the way back many soldiers died.

paragraphs: When all that was happening Russia had been invading Sweden. Russia conquered Estonia, Livonia and Ingria. By the time the remaining soldiers had come back from Norway, Russia had completely conquered Finland. Sweden still didn't want peace though, because they would have to give lots of land to Russia. Russia used a newly made fleet of ships to attack and raid the Swedish Coast and Sweden would still not give up. Eventually the Russian and Swedish ships came together in the Battle of Grengam. Both sides thought they had won the battle so no treaty was signed until the Russians continued using their boats to damage the Swedish coast. Finally Sweden gave up in 1721. Sweden had made peace with Denmark in 1720 and in 1721 Sweden signed the treaty of Nystad.

paragraphs: In the Treaty of Nystad Sweden had to give land to other countries. Sweden had to give Estonia, Livonia and Ingria to Russia but could keep Finland. Sweden also signed other treaties. These were the treaty of Stockholm where Sweden gave Prussia Swedish Pomerania and the treaty of Fredericksborg where Sweden had to pay Denmark-Norway money for the damage the war had done.

paragraphs: This war was significant because it allowed Russia to become the dominant power in Northeastern Europe, instead of Sweden.


title: CentOS

paragraphs: CentOS is a distribution (or "distro") of Linux that is made to be similar to Red Hat. It was first made because the company that made Red Hat stopped making it free. Now, many people work on CentOS, and many more people use it on their computers. Often, CentOS is used on servers (computers which provide services to people or other computers) because it is stable (does not break often) and can be installed (put on a computer) in not much time, compared to other distributions such as Gentoo.


title: David Gilmour

paragraphs: David Jon Gilmour CBE (born 6 March 1946) is an English musician. He was born in Cambridge. He is most famous for being a guitarist, singer and songwriter in the rock band Pink Floyd. Along with being in Pink Floyd, he has worked as a record producer for other musicians. Gilmour has also recorded and released albums as a solo performer.

paragraphs: Gilmour has always been active with many different charities. He was appointed CBE in 2003 for services to both music and for his charity work.

paragraphs: In 1996, Gilmour was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Pink Floyd.

paragraphs: In 2003, Gilmour was listed at number 82 in "Rolling Stone Magazine's list of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time"


title: Thermal conductivity

paragraphs: Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. Metals are good at heat conduction, and so are gasses. The thermal conductivity of a material is a defining property that aids in the development of effective heating/cooling technologies. A value for thermal conductivity can be determined by measuring the rate at which heat can pass through a material.

paragraphs: Thermal resistivity is the opposite of thermal conductivity. This means not conducting heat much. Materials with high resistivity are called "thermal insulators" and are used in clothing, thermoses, home insulation, and cars to keep people warm or in refrigerators, freezers, and thermoses to keep things cold.

paragraphs: Thermal conductivity is often represented by the Greek letter "kappa", formula_1. The units of thermal conductivity are watts per meter-kelvin. Watts are a measure of power, meters are a measure of length, and kelvins are a measure of temperature. From the units, we can see that thermal conductivity is a measure of how much power moves through a distance due to a temperature difference.

paragraphs: Silver is one of the most thermally conductive materials (and is relatively common), and because of this there are some cool experiments you can do with silver that show extremely well how thermal conduction works.

paragraphs: One example is when you put 2 spoons in boiling water, one spoon is steel and the other is silver. When you take the spoons out of the boiling water, the silver spoon is hotter than the steel spoon. The reason for this is that silver conducts heat better than steel. The silver spoon will also cool off faster because of this, as it is better at releasing heat.

paragraphs: Another example of silver's thermal conductivity is to put different materials on ice cubes. An iron washer will just sit on the ice and slowly become colder. A copper penny will melt through the ice cube and become colder faster. A silver coin, spoon, or ring on the ice cube will sink into it almost as though the ice cube were made of thick syrup, and the silver will become ice cold almost instantly. Again, this is because the silver is really good at drawing heat from the air and giving it to the ice cube. Copper is also good at this, but not as much as silver.


title: Hydride

paragraphs: A hydride is a compound with hydrogen bonded to other elements. Except for a few of the Noble gases, all of the elements in the periodic table can form hydrides. The properties of hydrides can be very different, but some of the hydrides have similar properties.

paragraphs: "Metallic hydrides": compounds with ionic bonding. They are very reactive, making them difficult to dissolve. Most alkali metals and alkaline earth metals form ionic hydrides.

paragraphs: "Metallic" or "Interstitial hydrides": These have metallic properties like good electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. They are called interstitial because hydrogen can enter the metallic lattice (framework of metal atoms). Metallic hydrides are mostly formed from the metals in the groups 3 to 5 of the periodic table. Some of these are used in the nickel metal-hydride battery.

paragraphs: "Covalent hydrides": These have covalent bonds between hydrogen and the other element. Most of the p-block elements form covalent hydrides. Many of these hydrides are unstable in air or water or when heated. Hydrocarbons are the hydrides of carbon, ammonia is a hydride of nitrogen, and water is a hydride of oxygen.


title: Horse the Band

paragraphs: Horse the Band is an American hardcore rock band from Lake Forest, California that was started in 1999. They are famous for using video-game style music in their songs.


title: Hospice

paragraphs: A hospice is a type of medical treatment that helps take care of people who are very sick and have an illness that they will not be able to heal from. Many people staying in hospices have cancer or AIDS. People who stay in hospices are expected to die soon, but sometimes they get better. Hospices are different from other medicinal treatments because they mostly try to make people feel better instead of trying to cure them. Hospice tries to allow people to die with as little pain as possible.

paragraphs: Hospices have doctors, nurses, and other people who go to patients houses, nursing homes and hospitals to talk to people who want to use hospice medicine.

paragraphs: The Hospice movement was started in England in the 1950s by a nurse named Dame Cicely Saunders. The word Dame at the start of her name means that she did such good work starting hospices that the Queen of England made her a female knight.

paragraphs: A different nurse named Florence Wald brought hospice medicine to the United States because she worked with Dame Cicely Saunders and liked what she did.


title: Offa of Mercia

paragraphs: Offa was the King of Mercia from 757 until his death in July 796.

paragraphs: Many historians regard Offa as the most powerful Anglo-Saxon king before Alfred the Great. Offa died in 796 and was succeeded by his son, Ecgfrith, who reigned for less than five months before Coenwulf of Mercia became king.

paragraphs: Offa was the son of Thingfrith, a descendant of Eowa of Mercia. Eowa was a king of Mercia who ruled along with his more famous brother Penda of Mercia. In 757 the king of Mercia,Athelbald, was murdered. There was a short civil war between others claiming the throne. An ealdorman named Beornred seized the throne of Mercia but Offa drove him out of Mercia and became king himself that same year. The alliances Athelbald had formed fell apart when Offa came to power. Offa had very little power outside of Mercia for the first several years of his reign.

paragraphs: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle makes no mention of Offa for the years between 757—777. No Mercian chronicles from this time period have survived. Charters are the only records that give any idea of Offa's power outside of Mercia. But he proved to be ruthless, bold and creative in bringing Kent, Sussex and Essex under his control. Aethelbert the king of Kent was apparently under Offa's influence before he died in 762. In 794 another Aethelbert, a king in East Anglia was beheaded at Offa's command. When Egbert of Wessex made a bid for the throne of Wessex in 786 Offa had him banished from England. He made Beorhtric king of Wessex instead. Egbert was welcomed at the court of Charlemagne for at least three years. In charters Offa issued in Kent, East Anglia, Sussex and Middlesex he simply used the style "Rex Merciorum" (Latin for king of Mercia). Only in three church charters does he expand his title to indicate he is overlord of all of England.

paragraphs: Offa had diplomatic relations with Charlemagne. He was one of the few Anglo-Saxon monarchs to have dealings with continental rulers. Letters and presents were exchanged. But when Offa sought a marriage of his son to one of Charlemagne's daughters, relations were quickly cut off. Charlemagne had all Frankish ports closed to British ships. Offa, very involved in church affairs, presided over church councils personally in 786-7. In 787 he convinced the pope to create the position of archbishop of Lichfield in Mercia. He wanted his own archbishop who was closer at hand than the Archbishop of Canterbury. He reorganized the defenses of his kingdom. One of these defenses, Offa's Dyke was a massive earthworks between Mercia and the Welsh kingdoms to the west. Offa died in 796. His son, Ecgfrith, lasted only 141 days as king. Mercia was never again as powerful as it was during Offa's reign.


title: Higgs boson

paragraphs: The Higgs boson (or Higgs particle) is a particle in the Standard Model of physics. In the 1960s Peter Higgs was the first person to suggest that this particle might exist. On 14 March 2013, scientists at CERN tentatively confirmed that they had found a Higgs particle.

paragraphs: The Higgs particle is one of the 17 particles in the Standard Model, the model of physics which describes all known basic particles. The Higgs particle is a boson. Bosons are thought to be particles which are responsible for all physical forces. Other known bosons are the photon, the W and Z bosons, and the gluon. Scientists do not yet know how to combine gravity with the Standard Model.

paragraphs: The Higgs field is a fundamental field of crucial importance to particle physics theory. Unlike other known fields such as the electromagnetic field, the Higgs field takes the same non-zero value almost everywhere. The question of the Higgs field's existence was the last unverified part of the Standard Model of particle physics and, according to some, was "the central problem in particle physics".

paragraphs: It is difficult to detect the Higgs boson. The Higgs boson is very massive compared to other particles, so it does not last very long. There are usually no Higgs bosons around because it takes so much energy to make one. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN was built mainly for this reason. It speeds up two bunches of particles to almost light speed (travelling in opposite directions), before setting them on a path to collide with each other.

paragraphs: Each collision produces a flurry of new particles which are detected by detectors around the point where they collide. There is still only a very small chance, one in 10 billion, of a Higgs boson appearing and being detected. To find the few collisions with evidence of the Higgs boson, the LHC smashes together trillions of particles, and supercomputers sift through a massive amount of data.

paragraphs: Higgs bosons obey the conservation of energy law, which states that no energy is created or destroyed, but instead can be transferred or change form. First, the energy starts out in the gauge boson that interacts with the Higgs field. This energy is in the form of kinetic energy as movement. After the gauge boson interacts with the Higgs field, it slows down. This slowing down reduces the amount of kinetic energy in the gauge boson. However, this energy is not destroyed. Instead, the energy from the motion goes into the field and is converted into mass-energy, which is the energy stored in mass. The mass created can become what we call a Higgs boson. The amount of mass created comes from Einstein's famous equation E=mc, which states that mass is equal to a large amount of energy (for example, 1 kg of mass is equivalent to almost 90 quadrillion joules of energy—the same amount of energy used by the entire world in roughly an hour and a quarter in 2008). Since the amount of mass-energy created by the Higgs field is equal to the amount of kinetic energy that the gauge boson lost by slowing down, energy is conserved.

paragraphs: Higgs bosons are used in a variety of science fiction stories. The physicist Leon Lederman called it the "God particle" in 1993.

paragraphs: On 12 December 2011, the two teams at the Large Hadron Collider looking for the Higgs boson, ATLAS and CMS, announced that they had finally seen results which could suggest the Higgs boson existed; however, they did not know for certain if this was true.

paragraphs: On 4 July 2012, the teams at the Large Hadron Collider declared that they had discovered a particle which they think is the Higgs boson.

paragraphs: On 14 March 2013 the teams had done much more testing, and announced that they now think the new particle is a Higgs boson.


title: Taylor series

paragraphs: A Taylor series is an idea used in computer science, calculus, chemistry, physics and other kinds of higher-level mathematics. It is a series that is used to create an estimate (guess) of what a function looks like. There is also a special kind of Taylor series called a Maclaurin series.

paragraphs: The theory behind the Taylor series is that if a point is chosen on the coordinate plane (x- and y-axes), then it is possible to guess what a function will look like in the area around that point. This is done by taking the derivatives of the function and adding them all together. The idea is that it is possible to add the infinite number of derivatives and come up with a single finite sum.

paragraphs: In mathematics, a Taylor series shows a function as the sum of an . The sum's terms are taken from the function's derivatives. Taylor series come from Taylor's theorem.

paragraphs: The Ancient Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea first came up with the idea of this series. The paradox called "zeno's parodox' the result. He believed that it would be impossible to add an infinite number of values and get a single finite value as a result.

paragraphs: Another Greek philosopher, Aristotle, came up with an answer to the philosophical question. It was Archimedes, however, who came up with a mathematical solution using his method of exhaustion. He was able to prove that when something is split up into an infinite number of tiny pieces, they will still add up to a single whole when all of them are added back together. The ancient Chinese mathematician Liu Hui proved the same thing several hundred years later.

paragraphs: The earliest known examples of the Taylor series are the work of Mādhava of Sañgamāgrama in India in the 1300s. Later Indian mathematicians wrote about his work with the trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, tangent, and arctangent. None of Mādhava's writings or records still exist today. Other mathematicians based their work on Mādhava's discoveries and worked more with these series until the 1500s.

paragraphs: James Gregory, a Scottish mathematician, worked in this area in the 1600s. Gregory studied the Taylor series and published several Maclaurin series. In 1715, Brook Taylor discovered a general method for applying the series to all functions. (All of the previous research showed how to apply the method to only specific functions.) published a special case of the Taylor series in the 1700s. This series, which is based around zero, is called the "Maclaurin series".

paragraphs: A Taylor series can be used to describe any function "ƒ"("x") that is a smooth function (or, in mathematical terms, "infinitely differentiable.") The function "ƒ" can be either real or complex. The Taylor series is then used to describe what the function looks like in the neighborhood of some number "a".

paragraphs: This Taylor series, written as a power series, looks like:

paragraphs: This formula can also be written in sigma notation as:

paragraphs: Here "n"! is the factorial of "n". "ƒ"("a") is the "n"th derivative of "ƒ" at the point "a". formula_3 is a number in the function's domain. If the Taylor Series of a function is equal to that function, the function is called an "analytic function."

paragraphs: When formula_4, the function is called a Maclaurin series. The Maclaurin series written as a power series looks like:

paragraphs: When written in sigma notation, the Maclaurin series is:

paragraphs: Some important Taylor series and Maclaurin series are the following.

paragraphs: Where formula_15 is the nth Bernoulli number, and formula_16 is the natural logarithm.


title: Wilhelm Furtwängler

paragraphs: Wilhelm Furtwängler (born Berlin, 25 January 1886; died Baden-Baden, 30 November 1954) was a German conductor. He is thought of as one of the greatest conductors in history. Many people say that he is the best ever. The famous Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini said he was the world's best conductor other than himself.

paragraphs: Furtwängler was especially famous for conducting the music of famous German composers. His performances of Beethoven, Brahms, Bruckner, and Wagner are very well known and loved by many people.

paragraphs: Furtwängler was born on January, 25, 1886 in Berlin, Germany. He grew up in Munich, where his father was an archaeologist and professor. He started learning about music when he was very young. He learned to play the piano and was very talented. He also began writing music. He wrote several pieces before he was 20 years old. He kept writing music for the rest of his life, but his pieces never became very famous.

paragraphs: Furtwängler first started conducting as a young man. He wanted to conduct in order to perform his own music. However, he quickly became famous for conducting the music of others. The very first piece he conducted in public was the 9th Symphony of Bruckner. He conducted many orchestras before he finally became the leader of the world-famous Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra in 1922. Later, he also had many other important conducting jobs. The most important was the director of the Bayreuth Festival, a very famous German music festival.

paragraphs: When the Nazis took over Germany in the 1930s, Furtwängler was in an awkward position. He wanted to conduct some kinds of music that the Nazis did not like. He left some of his conducting jobs in protest when they did not let him perform. In 1936 he almost left Germany to live in the United States, where the New York Philharmonic Orchestra wanted him to conduct. However, the Nazis still thought he was a good conductor, and they kept him in Germany. He also wanted to stay to protect the German music from the Nazis. People in the United States did not like him for staying, even though he did not really like the Nazis.

paragraphs: During World War II Furtwängler continued to conduct the Berlin Philharmonic. He gave many very famous concerts during this time. But towards the end of the war, the Nazis became unhappy with him. He fled from Germany in 1945 and lived in Switzerland for several years. He did not conduct again for two years.

paragraphs: After the war, Furtwängler was still in a difficult position. The Allies thought that he had been a Nazi supporter because he had stayed in Germany. They put him on trial, but finally decided he was innocent. He was allowed to go back to conducting in 1947. Even though he was innocent, people in the US still did not like him. He was going to conduct the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, but he was not allowed to because people got angry about it.

paragraphs: Furtwängler gave many successful concerts after the war. He still conducted the Berlin Philharmonic and other famous orchestras in Europe. Furtwängler gave the most famous concert of his career in 1951. That year, he conducted Beethoven's 9th Symphony at the Bayreuth Festival. It was the first time that the festival had happened since the end of the war, six years before. Many people say that this concert was the greatest musical concert in history. Furtwängler finally died in 1954, when he was 68 years old.

paragraphs: Furtwängler had a very unusual way of conducting. His movements with the baton were very awkward and jerky. Some people said he looked "like a puppet on a string" when he conducted. He liked to slow down and speed up the music very often. Furtwängler believed that there was more to music than just the notes on the score. He felt it was the performer's job to make each performance something special. This meant that he often played the same piece in very different ways at different concerts. Even when he changed the way he played a piece, though, the music was thought to be very beautiful. He did not like conductors who just played the notes on the page without doing anything special with the music.

paragraphs: As a younger conductor, Furtwängler played music by many different composers. However, as he got older, he usually only played music by the great German composers. Some of his favorites were Beethoven, Brahms, Bruckner, and Wagner.

paragraphs: Furtwängler did not make many recordings in studios. Recording technology was still very new at the time and did not work well for recording long classical pieces at first. However, many of Furtwängler's concerts were recorded, especially during and after World War II. Today people think these are some of the best recordings of all time. His famous concert at Bayreuth in 1951 is one of these concert recordings.


title: Face (professional wrestling)

paragraphs: In professional wrestling, a face is a good guy.

paragraphs: A face should not cheat and most will not use weapons. They often try to make the crowd happy and excited.

paragraphs: Often, a face will fight a heel (bad guy), so the crowd will cheer the face and boo the heel.


title: Fagaceae

paragraphs: The family Fagaceae, also called beech family, is a family of flowering plants. It comprises about 900 species of both evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, which are characterized by alternate simple leaves with pinnate venation, unisexual flowers in the form of catkins, and fruit in the form of nuts.


title: Heat sink

paragraphs: A heat sink is an object that cools another part that is too hot. The heat sink is in contact with the part that should be cooled. It takes heat away and dissipates it, for example into the air around it.

paragraphs: Heat sinks are found in most computers. The chips inside a computer can get very hot. Therefore they need to be cooled, so that they don't break. This is usually done with a heat sink. Heat sinks are also found in most high fidelity audio amplifiers.


title: Haka

paragraphs: The haka (; plural "haka", in both Māori and English) is a ritual dance of the Maori, the native people of New Zealand. Sometimes, a haka is performed to excite friends and to scare enemies. In peace time, a haka is performed as a challenge.

paragraphs: There are many different haka. Each tells a story. The most famous haka is "Ka Mate". The Ka Mate haka is performed by many New Zealand sports teams before games. Another famous haka is 'Kapo O Pango' which is performed by New Zealand's rugby union team. This team is called the All Blacks.

paragraphs: Women are not usually allowed to perform haka. Instead, they sing and chant in support.


title: Crisis on Infinite Earths

paragraphs: Crisis on Infinite Earths was a story told in American comic books in the year 1985. It lasted for 12 issues. Marv Wolfman wrote it and George Pérez drew it. It changed much about the history of the DC Universe, and allowed the editors of DC Comics to simplify their then 55 year old history.


title: Endosymbiosis

paragraphs: Endosymbiosis occurs when a symbiont lives inside the body or the cells of another organism. It is a very widespread phenomenon in living things.

paragraphs: Endosymbiont theory is the idea that eukaryote cells arose in evolution by the fusion of previously free-living protists (prokaryotes). The theory was first suggested by the Russian botanist Mereshkovsky in 1905. The nature of lichens had been worked out; mitochondria and chloroplasts had been seen in cells, and their similarity to bacteria noted. The theory was initially dismissed, but was re-examined when more was known about cell biology.

paragraphs: The eukaryote cell is the type of cell all animals and plants are made of. Some cell organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, contain DNA. In each case, this DNA is thought to be the remnant of the genome of a once independent bacterium. The theory is that the eukaryote cell evolved by the fusion of several bacteria or archaean organisms. Together, the new cells survived, prospered and evolved into new and complex forms of life. The origin of other organelles in the eukaryotic cell is still under review: the cell nucleus, its membrane, chromosomes and centromeres; the Golgi body; the flagella or cilia; the intracellular membranes. Some of these may also have had a symbiotic origin.

paragraphs: There is evidence that symbiosis happened between ancient bacteria to produce the double-membrane class known as gram-negative bacteria. Since the gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, this was the first of several such events in the history of the eukaryotes.


title: Four-stroke engine

paragraphs: The four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine. The four strokes are:


title: Pecan

paragraphs: The Pecan ("Carya illinoinensis") is a species of hickory nut, native to south-central North America, in the United States from southern Iowa, Illinois and Indiana east to western Kentucky, North Carolina and western Tennessee, south through Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma and Arkansas; and in Mexico from Coahuila south to Jalisco and Veracruz.

paragraphs: "Pecan" is from an Algonquian word, meaning a nut requiring a stone to crack.

paragraphs: Pecans are often used in cooking in the Southern United States; a common dessert there is pecan pie.


title: Tariff

paragraphs: A tariff is a tax charged on goods as they pass between one country and another. A tariff can be placed on goods being brought into the country (imports), and goods being exported from the country to another. It is usually done to make money for the government. It may also be done for protectionism. Protectionism makes it easier for local products to sell by making products from foreign countries more expensive.

paragraphs: Often, one government will have an agreement with another not to place any tariffs on goods that are traded between them. This kind of agreement is called free trade.


title: Klemens Wenzel von Metternich

paragraphs: Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich (German: Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar, Fürst von Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein) (May 15, 1773 – June 11, 1859) was an Austrian politician. He is thought of as one of the most important diplomats of all time. Metternich was Foreign Minister for Austria from 1809 until 1848. In this time, he got Austria out of a bad treaty with Napoleon that forced Austria to fight on the French side. Then he helped build a system in Europe that kept the peace for most of the next hundred years.

paragraphs: In 1809, when Metternich became Foreign Minister, Napoleon had control of most of Europe. France had taken over some of the closest countries directly. In more distant countries like Austria and Prussia Napoleon forced them to sign treaties saying they would fight on his side in wars. Metternich thought this was bad for Austria. When Napoleon declared war and raised a huge army for the French invasion of Russia, Metternich told the Russians that Austria would not attack, only defend. Napoleon lost badly in Russia, and Metternich used that chance to get out of the treaty.

paragraphs: In 1814, troops of the Quadruple Alliance (Prussia, Russia, Austria and Great Britain) had entered France, and Napoleon had lost the war. For the next year, diplomats from all over Europe met at the Congress of Vienna to decide how things were going to be now that Napoleon was gone. Metternich believed that the best way to keep Europe peaceful was to create a balance of power, which means that no country is strong enough to beat all the other countries. To make sure this happened, he made some countries stronger, so that other countries (especially France) would have to think twice about going to war. Some of these changes were that he added Belgium and Luxembourg to the Netherlands, he grouped over 300 small countries of Germany into a group of larger countries, and he grouped together some countries in what we call Italy today.

paragraphs: After making this new order, Metternich also did a lot to make sure it stayed that way. For example, he talked Alexander I of Russia out of sending troops into Greece. Alexander wanted to send troops to protect Orthodox Christians there who were fighting the Greek War of Independence against the Muslim Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire was weak by that time, and Alexander would most likely win. Metternich was afraid that if Russia attacked, the Ottoman Empire would fall apart, and all the powerful countries of Europe would start fighting to get its land. This would upset Metternich's balance and make a very big war. Also, he was afraid that Russia would get too big and too powerful. So Metternich convinced the czar that if he attacked now, the Ottoman Empire would fall apart before the czar was ready to take it for himself, and that Great Britain and France would get most of it. Alexander agreed to help keep the Ottoman Empire going, so that someday Russia could take all of it.

paragraphs: Metternich kept peace in Europe for a long time. But there were still some revolts in Europe, and finally in 1848 a bunch of revolts happened at the same time. One of them was in Austria, and the rebels had Metternich taken out of office. After he was gone, Otto von Bismarck, in Prussia, managed to get too powerful, and took over the German Confederation and made one big German country, which still exists today. Having one big Germany, though, messed up Metternich's balance, and helped cause World War I.


title: German Confederation

paragraphs: The German Confederation replaced the Holy Roman Empire in Central Europe. After the Holy Roman Empire fell, Germany had fallen into over 300 different small kingdoms. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna decided that these weak kingdoms were not strong enough to keep France from trying to take them over, which it had already done once under Napoleon. So the Congress combined all those little countries into 39 larger countries, which were still very small compared to the powerful countries of Europe.

paragraphs: The problem was that the Congress did not want to make them too strong, or they'd start taking over other countries. So they put the 39 countries into a confederation which meant that they were all separate countries, but they agreed to help defend each other, and in some ways acted like one big country. But the Confederation was never strong enough to be able to attack another country.

paragraphs: The German Confederation lasted until 1866, when the members fought each other. The winners formed a new North German Confederation. In 1871 after winning the Franco-Prussian War, Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of Prussia, combined all the countries of Germany into the German Empire.


title: WrestleMania XXVI

paragraphs: WrestleMania XXIV is the twenty-sixth yearly WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view event put on by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It took place on March 28th, 2010 at the University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona.

paragraphs: Global Spectrum, University of Phoenix Stadium's operator, had worked in past years with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) to get the event to its venue. On January 18, 2008, Global Spectrum publicly announced that it wants to hold WrestleMania in 2010. The event became more widely known weeks prior when a photo of Wayne Gretzky wearing a shirt showing the event was seen in the Swedish newspaper "Expressen". A press conference happened on February 24, 2009 at the University of Phoenix Stadium to officially tell people about the event for Glendale, Arizona at the University of Phoenix Stadium; this event is the first time WrestleMania would happen in the state of Arizona. Tickets for the event went on sale November 7, 2009 at 10:00am MST. Advertisements telling people about the date tickets would go on sale used the song "Welcome to the World" by Kevin Rudolf.

paragraphs: Along with WrestleMania XXVI, a group of events known as "WrestleMania Week" was held in the week before the event. The third yearly "WrestleManiArt", an art show and auction featuring work by WWE superstars, was held on March 24. WrestleMania's yearly fan convention, "WrestleMania Axxess", was held from March 25 through to March 27. On March 27, WWE hosted its yearly WWE Hall of Fame ceremony at the Dodge Theater, where the 2010 members were made an official member of the hall of fame.


title: Ice pellets

paragraphs: Ice pellets are known as sleet in North America, and hail in Great Britain. They are a type of frozen precipitation, little balls of ice. Large ice pellets are called hailstones. Sometimes, ice pellets bounce when they hit the ground.


title: Howitzer

paragraphs: A howitzer is a special type of big gun used by an army. It has a short barrel, and is used fire a shell over a short distance. The barrel length of a howitzer is 15 to 25 times of the caliber. Howitzers are special because they're made to fire higher than a cannon but lower than a mortar. Howitzers are almost always used to shoot at targets on the ground, but they can be used for targets on water, or in the air. The name "howitzer" comes from an old Czech word, "haufnice", which was a catapult that could fire many stones.


title: John Updike

paragraphs: John Updike (March 18, 1932 - January 27, 2009) was an American author of works including "Rabbit, Run" and "Couples". He was born in Reading, Pennsylvania. He died of lung cancer in Danvers, Massachusetts in January 2009.


title: Clog (shoe)

paragraphs: A clog is a kind of shoe. There are different kinds of clogs. They can be shoes, sandals or completely made out of wood.


title: Dendrite

paragraphs: Dendrites are the branches of neurons that receive signals from other neurons. The signals go into the cell body (or soma).

paragraphs: A cell may have hundreds of dendrites, but may have only one axon. The dendrites carry signals from other neurons into the soma, and the axon carries a single signal from the soma to the next neuron or to a muscle fiber.

paragraphs: A dendrite from one neuron and an axon from another neuron meet at a synapse, which is a very narrow gap between the two cells. When electrical impulses reach the end of an axon, they trigger the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters. These chemicals cross the synapse to the dendrite, where they trigger the flow of ions into or out of the cell.

paragraphs: The movement of the charged ions in the dendrite causes an electrical current, which spreads to the soma briefly before being restored to normal.

paragraphs: If the dendrites get lots of signals from axons, then it sets off a chain reaction. The chain reaction is a strong electrical current called an action potential that flows down the axon to the next synapse.

paragraphs: Fully differentiated neurons do not divide. However, stem cells in the adult brain may regenerate functional neurons throughout the life of an organism. Generally, once born, neurons do not divide. Many will live the whole lifetime of the animal.


title: The Sons of Eilaboun

paragraphs: The Sons of Eilaboun is a documentary movie by the Palestinian artist and movie maker Hisham Zreiq (Zrake). It was released in 20007. It tells the story of one of the massacres committed by the newly formed Israeli army during Operation Hiram. The massacres were committed in Eilaboun, a village in the northern Galilee between Nazareth and the Sea of Galilee. In the Eilabun massacre, fourteen men were killed, and twelve of them were executed. The village people were expelled to Lebanon and became refugees for a few months. The villagers eventually managed to return secretly.

paragraphs: The movie starts with Melia Zreiq (an old woman from Eilaboun) saying

paragraphs: “I hope God will bring peace to this land, and let the peoples live together - a good life. I hope there will be peace.”

paragraphs: Ilan pappe takes about Plan Dalet, a plan that David Ben-Gurion and the Haganah leaders in Palestine worked out during autumn 1947 to spring 1948, and explains the details of the plan, and how was it performed. In October 30th, 1948, the Israeli army entered Eilaboun at approximately 5 AM. They then forced the people of Eilaboun together in the main square of the village. They chose seventeen young men. Five of them were taken as human shield, and the rest of the twelve were killed, each in a different location. This all happened after the expulsion of the rest of the village to Lebanon, where they became refugees after a five days forced march to Lebanon. After a UN peace keeper observed and reported Israel was forced to allow the people back.

paragraphs: That same night, the Israeli army entered Eilaboun, a then Christian village in the northern Galilee between Nazareth and the sea of Galilee. Most of the villagers were hiding in the two village churches.

paragraphs: The soldiers ordered the people to gather in the village square, while going out of the Catholic Church the soldiers shot at the people killing an old man, making him the first victim. The soldiers chose seventeen men, and ordered the village to walk to Maghar, a village five kilometers to the north of Eilaboun. Shortly after the people left the village, the soldiers executed twelve of the young men, and five were taking to drive an army vehicle as human shields and later sent to a prisoners of war camp. The Israeli army had looted Eilaboun but left the houses.

paragraphs: When the villagers reached Maghar, the soldiers ordered them to continue to Kafr 'Inan, where the near Kafr Inan another man was killed, making the number of victims fourten. Kafr 'Inan and Eilaboun were both expelled to Farradiyya, a nearby village. The Israeli soldiers gathered the people of Eilaboun, Kafr 'Inan and Farradiyya (al-Farradiyya), looted the people and took all worthy. They spent the night in Farradiyya. In the morning the Israeli soldiers separated the women, children and the old from the men. The young men from the three villages were sent to prisoner of war camps. The women, children and the old of the three villages were marched to Mirun where they spent three nights without any food or water. At Mirun, the Israelis put everyone in two cattle trucks, and took them to Rmeish (in Lebanon). Kafr 'Inan and Farradiyya were later razed to the ground by the Israeli army.

paragraphs: About 52 villagers were left in the village, mainly old people and children. The priests complained about the expulsion of the villagers and demanded their return. Following a UN investigation and pressure activated by the Vatican, the villagers eventually managed to return clandestinely. After 6 months from the massacre most of the villagers managed to come back from Lebanon, and all the men were released from the prisoners of war camps.

paragraphs: The movie won the Al-Awda award in 2008, and was screened in many festivals and events as:


title: Mischief night

paragraphs: Mischief night is a tradition in some parts of the world; a night when people do mischief to their neighbours. This is usually 30 October, the day before Halloween night.

paragraphs: In Detroit and other parts of Michigan, October 30 is called Devil's Night and includes vandalism and arson.

paragraphs: In northern New Jersey and the Philadelphia region, October 30 is referred to as "Mischief Night," where mischievous teens soap car windows, egg houses, adorn trees with toilet paper, and run away after ringing doorbells. In other parts of New Jersey, October 30 is also known as "Cabbage Night" or "Goosey Night." In Camden, New Jersey. Over 130 arsons were committed in that city on the night of October 30, 1991.

paragraphs: It is known as "Gate Night" in Trail, British Columbia, Winnipeg, Canada and as Mat Night in Quebec, Canada, always on the 30 October, the eve of Halloween. It is also commonly known as "Devil's Night" in many places throughout Canada.

paragraphs: In Yorkshire, it is also known as "mischievous night", "Miggy Night", "Tick-Tack Night", "Corn Night", "Trick Night" and "Micky Night". In Liverpool, it is known as "Mizzy Night"(but unlike in Yorkshire, where it is celebrated on October 30th). It was celebrated on Nov 4 in Merseyside during the 1970s, as well as in Manchester after the war.

paragraphs: Mischief night is becoming popular in Ireland, where teenagers get the week around Halloween off school. This means that many of the nights before 31 October are used by teenagers for vandalism.

paragraphs: Modern mischief includes toilet papering gardens and buildings, flouring and egging of cars, people, and homes, "forking" gardens, setting off fireworks and smashing pumpkins and jack-o'-lanterns. Local shops do not sell eggs to chavs around the time of Halloween. Sometimes the damage includes spray-painting of buildings and homes.

paragraphs: People play "Ding-Dong Ditch": in this 'game', people knock on doors and then run and hide.

paragraphs: A 2006 film Mischief Night is based on a night in Leeds, UK.


title: Bad Doberan Minster

paragraphs: Along the "European street of Gothic brick architecture" in north eastern Germany, close to the old Hanse city of Rostock, is the Minster of Bad Doberan, the Ex-Cistercian abbey dedicated in 1368.

paragraphs: The first abbey in Mecklenburg, founded in 1171, which was also used as the burial site for the regional rulers, became important both politically and historically.

paragraphs: Through the activities of its inhabitants, the abbey greatly contributed to the cultural and economic development of Mecklenburg and became the centre of Christianity in this region.

paragraphs: No other Cistercian abbey in Europe can lay claim to such a large amount of the original interior remaining intact. Among the treasures are the main altar which is the oldest wing-altar in art history, the monumental cross altar and the sculpted tomb of Danish Queen Margarete Sambiria.

paragraphs: Even after the reformation and the dissolution of the abbey in 1552, the church continued to serve as the main burial place for the ruling Mecklenburg nobility as well as the place of worship for the Evangelical-Lutheran congregation.

paragraphs: The Minster in Bad Doberan is said to be the most important medieval building in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, the best example of medieval creativity put in practice and it is a building of the highest technical and artistic perfection. The furnishings on display are of highest artistic quality. No other church in northern Germany has such complete and historically important liturgical furnishings. The mostly well preserved Cistercian furnishings are unique. The abbey is a unique and precious artistic monument in the coastal region of the Baltic Sea.

paragraphs: Today the Bad Doberan Minster is the main Lutheran Church of Bad Doberan in Germany.

paragraphs: The Doberan Minster is a unique symbiosis of a high gothic cathedral building, based upon French cathedral style and elements of other Hanseatic churches as well as influence by the building code of the Cistercians.

paragraphs: The Cistercian Order was created in 1098 in France as a reformist movement of the Benedictine Order. The ideas for living together are based on the rules of St. Benedict from the 5th century. The Cistercian order was strongly influenced by Bernard of Clairvaux who joined at the beginning of the 12th century.

paragraphs: The basic rules of monastic life were humility, poverty and obedience. Poverty as a rule meant that no monk was allowed to hold any personal possessions and also that abbey churches were to be kept simple, without decorations or ornaments.

paragraphs: In the early Romanesque style Cistercian churches, some of which are partially maintained, it is easy to recognize the simple, smooth forms, sparse decorations and furnishings.

paragraphs: In around 1280, the construction of the second abbey church was begun and was consecrated in 1368. The Cistercian reform, which demanded simplicity in design and furnishing, was 200 years in the past and had little influence on the second church building.

paragraphs: During trips to France, the monks of Doberan were inspired by the gothic churches there. They returned with new ideas and implemented them here. Also in the surrounding Hanseatic cities, churches were built in gothic style.

paragraphs: The regional dukes influenced construction even further. Duke Pribislav of Mecklenburg was a sponsor of the monastery in Doberan and was later buried in the church.

paragraphs: The Doberan Minster became the most important burial site for the Dukes of Mecklenburg, who donated money for its continuing development.

paragraphs: The foundations of the Minster are set into sandy soil with integrated wedges of gravel at the meeting point of 3 creeks. The groundwater is approximately 1.5 m below ground level. The surrounding area was mostly marshland.

paragraphs: This wasn't an ideal site for building, especially not for building a monastery with a church of such dimensions. Therefore, the foundations had to be set very deep, to guarantee a safe and stable building.

paragraphs: Contrary to other religious orders, the Cistercian monks looked for remote, difficult to access sites to establish their monasteries. Thus they made a large contribution by cultivating arable land and were well liked by the dukes.

paragraphs: With no real stone or sandstone available, brick was used as building material. To produce bricks they mixed sand, clay and water and filled wooden forms which then dried and were baked in field ovens. It took three years to produce a brick. These bricks, the so-called abbey form, were about 30 cm long, 15 cm wide, 9.5 cm high and weighed around 8 kilograms.

paragraphs: The cement of limestone for the brick joints was free of gypsum to prevent expansion and erosion thus guaranteeing a long life span.

paragraphs: It was created around 1300 as an enclosed altar by unknown artists. It is not only the oldest wing altar in Germany, but also the oldest in art history. The upper and middle sections date back to that time. The upper row depicts stories from the New Testament which match the depictions of the Old Testament in the middle row. The New Testament is represented on the left wing depicting the joy of Mary and on the right wing the suffering of Mary.

paragraphs: Until around 1400, the figure of Mary on the candle holder was in the middle niche of this altar. The wooden figure was then replaced by a large monstrance and several holy pictures. Furthermore, relics and monstrances were stored in the shrine. All of these were lost during the 30-year war.

paragraphs: Around 1350 the lower row was added, depicting the apostles and the two patron saints St. Sebastian and Pope Fabian.

paragraphs: The upper row on the left wing shows: John the Baptist, the annunciation of Mary, the birth and dedication of Christ. On the right wing: the scourging of Jesus, Jesus carrying the cross, the crucifixion and the resurrection. The middle row on the left wing shows: Eve, Sara, the closed gate, the burning bush and the dedication of Samuel. On the right wing: Moses striking the rock, the suffering of Job, Abraham offering Isaac, the iron serpent, Samon and the city gates of Gaza. The lower row on the left wing shows: St. Fabian, apostles Bartholomew, Thomas, Simon, Matthew, Andrew and Peter. The right wing shows: apostles Paul, Jacob the elder, Evangelist John, Phillip, Judas the Galilean, Matthew and St. Sebastian.

paragraphs: It was built between 1350 - 1360 in the form of an enormous Gothic style monstrance, probably by the same carver who made the lower row of the main altar. The 11.60 metre high carving is made of oak and is the oldest tabernacle of its kind in Germany.

paragraphs: On the same level as the statue of Mary is the compartment that held the host until the dissolution of the abbey. In the space above there was probably a monstrance displaying a host.

paragraphs: The figures are all relating to the celebration of mass. The depictions starting in the lower front and going clockwise are: King David with a harp, Abel offering a lamb, Moses and manna, St. Bernard, the prophetess Deborah, priest and king Melchisedek and on the upper level: Mary, mother of God, John the Baptist, St Peter, St Jacob, St Paul, St John the Evangelist.

paragraphs: The chalice cupboard, to the left of the tabernacle, is an exceptionally unique showpiece, created around 1310. There was room inside for 20 sets of utensils for celebrating mass (chalices, plates, jugs, spoons), probably for the 2 main and 18 side altars of the abbey church. Brick residue on the sidewalls show that the cupboard was originally built into a wall.

paragraphs: Worth noticing are the figures on the outside of the doors, depicting Mary, Christ, St Paul and Ezekiel, and the original paintings (only cleaned, never retouched) on the inside of the doors. There you can see Abel with the lamb and Melchisedek with the chalice, as a sign of the death offering of Jesus Christ. On top you can see Jesus giving his blessing.

paragraphs: To the left is a credenza (around 1300). It is part of the original furnishings of the Gothic Minster and was carved from oak wood, like most of the other medieval wooden artifacts of the minster. It served for the preparation of liturgical utensils used when celebrating the Eucharist at the main altar.

paragraphs: The lower parts of the Levite pews originate from the 14th century. The canopy is a reconstruction from the 19th century. The Levites’ seating, a pew for three, was the place for the monk, the deacon and sub deacon celebrating mass.

paragraphs: Above it hangs an ornamental candle holder prominently showing the statue of Mother Mary in the late Roman - early Gothic style from the time of 1280. This figure stood from 1300 onwards as the central statue in the middle section of the main altar. Around 1400 it was integrated into the newly created candle holder. Here she is portrayed as an apocalyptic Madonna with a crown of stars, the sun and the crescent moon, as in the Book of Revelation 12.1: “and there appeared a woman, clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet and upon her head a crown of 12 stars.”

paragraphs: On top of the baldachin you can see the script “AVE MARIA” (“Hail Mary”) as the infinite prayer of the Cistercian monks to their main patroness.

paragraphs: The eagle lectern in front of the main altar was made of copper in the 19th century by the copper smith Steusloff from Doberan as an imitation of a lectern originally found in the cathedral of Hildesheim. The eagle is the symbol of Christ and faith being victorious over evil. It was restored in 2002.

paragraphs: Behind the lectern are the tombs of Duke Heinrich II (the lion) von Mecklenburg (died 1329) and Nicolaide von Werle (14th century). The tombs are covered with medieval mosaic tablets, which are protected by metal grids (19th century).

paragraphs: Although nearly 700 years old, the rows of choir stalls have been preserved in excellent condition. These were built during the period from 1300-1370 and they were used by the monks for holding their seven daily prayer services. The stalls were originally placed a few metres eastwards towards the main altar. The reason for the longitudinal positioning of the stalls lies in the fact that the Gregorian hourly prayers were sung alternately by the monks on either side.

paragraphs: The canopies above the stalls, with intricately carved roses, are of the highest quality and were completed around 1380-1400. The ornamental work was done in a style matching the cross altar (1360) and was followed by work done on the octagon (1420).

paragraphs: Of special interest are some very unique carvings on the pew ends: the pelican style pew end with the vine, ivy and the eagle. Near the lectern are pew ends with carved lilies and monks (1310). The latter ones show, in the upper part, the annunciation of Mary and, in the lower part, St. Benedict, the founder of the Benedictine Order and the author of the rules of monastic life as well as St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the spiritual father of the Cistercian Order.

paragraphs: The double sided cross altar and the Lettnerwand, taller than a human, divided the monks`choir pews in the eastern part from the lay brothers’ seating in the western part. The altar was probably created under the supervision of a Bohemian or south German master builder, with the help of north German master Bertram von Minden. The time of creation is dated 1360-1370. It is the most monumental of its kind in Europe. For the dedication of the church in 1368 the greater part of it was probably finished.

paragraphs: The double sided cross altar shows, on the western side, Christ, the predella and the cross of triumph and on the eastern side the shrine of relics, an altar and the cross shaped “Good Tree of Mary”.

paragraphs: The paintings on Mary’s side of the cross altar: from the left: annunciation of Mary (Luke 1, 26-38), the signs to Gideon (Judges 6,36-40), birth of Christ (Luke 2,6-16), Moses and the burning bush (2. Moses 3,1-8), presentation of Jesus in the temple (Luke 2,22-35), presentation of Samuel in the temple (1. Samuel 1,24-28), escape to Egypt (Matthew 2,13-15). On the cross from the bottom to top: Striking the rock with Moses and Aaron (4. Moses 20,1-13), Evangelist Matthew (angel), spies with grapes (4. Moses 13,17-33), Judith and Holofernes (Judith 13), Mary with Jesus (central picture), Esther in front of Ahasuerus (Esther 5,1-8), Evangelist John (eagle), crowning of Mary (without biblical background). To the left: the sprouting rod of Aaron (4. Moses 17,8-9), Evangelist Mark (lion). To the right: Evangelist Luke (Taurus), the closed gate to the sanctuary (Ezekiel 44,1-3).

paragraphs: The cross is shown as the tree of life - true to the words of Christ: “I am the vine and you are the branches” (John 15:5). The portrayal of Christ as the life-giving and triumphant tree, conquering Satan, is one of the most important symbols of medieval Christianity. The cross, which brought death, is not seen as an instrument of torture but through the resurrection of Christ it came to be understood as a symbol of eternal life. Certain figures or stories from the Old Testament influenced scenes, persons or statements in the New Testament.

paragraphs: The symbolic pictures on the side of Christ to the left of the altar are: Christ on the Mount of Olives (Matthew 26,36-46), Elijah at Mount Carmel (2. Kings 1), Christ in front of Pontius Pilate (Matthew 27,24-26), the Scourging of Jesus (Matthew 27,26-30), the story of Job (Job 2,1-10), Jesus carrying the cross (Matthew 27,31+32), the Fall of Man (1. Moses 3,1-5). On the cross from bottom to top:

paragraphs: Abraham offering Isaac (1. Moses 22,9-14), Jacob fighting the angel and the stairway to heaven (1. Moses 32,23-33 + 28,11-22), Samson and the city gates of Gaza (Judges 16,1-3), Abel and Melchisedek (1. Moses 4,4 + 14,18-24), Christ on the cross (centre picture), the striking of the rock (2. Moses 17,1-7), Elijah and the widow of Zarephath (1. Kings 17,10-24), marking the servant of God with the seal (Revelation 7), to the left: the iron serpent, to the right: David kills Goliath (1. Samuel 17, 4 (38-51) 58). In the half round areas on the cross arms are heads of prophets.

paragraphs: In the upper window valuable pieces of medieval glass (1300) were joined together during the 19th century to show images of Mother Mary and John the Evangelist.

paragraphs: Originally the chapel of the von Oertzen family was located beneath the window. The only things remaining from it are the chapel window sponsored by the von Oertzen family, to the left a medieval tomb stone of one of the family of von Oertzen and to the right the memorial plaque for Siegfried (died 1441) and Hermann von Oertzen (died 1386) with the inscription: “In the year of our Lord 1441 on the 11th day of July Siegfried von Oertzen passed away in the holy land and is buried on Mount Zion. In the year of our Lord 1386, the knight Hermann von Oertzen passed away.”

paragraphs: Up to the former Lettnerwand and the cross altar was, as in all Cistercians abbeys, the room for the church services of the lay brothers.

paragraphs: The pews of the lay brothers are mostly original and complete and are dated around 1280. The round shape of the separating walls, the console style penance seating and the small Romanesque semi-columns all belong to this period. The canopies with their ornate carvings were added later on and were modelled after the choir stalls in the eastern part of the church.

paragraphs: Please note the artfully carved pew ends. The carving of an eagle with oaks and fig leaf depicts a scene in which the devil wants to tempt a lay brother. The script says: “Brother, what are you doing here? Come with me!” and the stoic lay brother replies: “You will not find anything bad on me, you repulsive beast, depart from me!”. Another pew end shows a pelican representing the sacrifice of Christ, yet another pew end shows a lion representing the risen Christ. One pew end shows a wolf and dragon, from whose mouths vine and hop grows. Thus these evil creatures bring forth goodness.

paragraphs: The chalice shaped Romanesque baptismal font from the 13th century, is made from limestone and was brought in from the isle of Gotland. It was originally part of the interior of the Church of St. Mary’s in Wismar.

paragraphs: The western window from the 19th century is the largest window of the Minster and was restored in 1996. Parts of the medieval pews were used when re-doing the pews for the dukes (19th century). They were placed between the southern rows of the monks and the lay brothers’ pews, diagonally across from the pulpit.

paragraphs: Above the western entrance is the face of the astronomical clock, which was destroyed during the 30-year war. It was built in 1390 by Nicolaus Lilienfeld according to the belief of a geocentric universe. The clock was originally located on the western wall of the southern transept, above the steps to the monks dormitories. The four corners depict famous philosophers and astronomers of ancient times.

paragraphs: of Great Duke Friedrich Franz I. von Mecklenburg (died 1837) took 16 years to finish and was put in front of the high altar in 1843. It was moved to its present place in the western part of the Minster in 1976. Friedrich Franz was the first Great Duke of Mecklenburg and founded the first seaside health spa in 1793 in Heiligendamm. He chose Doberan as summer residence for the dukes of Mecklenburg and thus brought growing fame to Doberan.

paragraphs: In the side aisle, valuable medieval tomb stones of abbots have been arranged as a new display in 2004 and 2005. These tomb stones were originally in the crossing. After the reformation they were moved and set into the church floor. During the late 19th century the master builder Möckel removed them from the church floor and integrated them into the side walls. They were removed from the side walls, desalinated, restored and set, at a distance, against the walls, permitting a constant flow of air to avoid further damage. The tomb stones are now placed as follows: to the right side the two nameless abbots, followed by the abbots Martin I. (died 1339), Jakob (died 1361), Martin II. (died 1391), Johannes Plate (died 1420) as well as the vicar von Neuburg, Hermann von Giwertze (died 1449); to the left the abbots Gottschalk (died 1391), Hermann Bockholt (died 1423), Bernhard (died 1441), Johannes Wilkens (died 1489), Franz Meyne (died 1499) and Heinrich Mützel (died 1504).

paragraphs: Above these tomb stones are the pictures of Duchess Anna von Brandenburg (died 1567), the spouse of Albrecht VII., Duke Albrecht VII. von Mecklenburg (died 1547), Johannes VI. von Mecklenburg (died 1474), Albrecht VI. von Mecklenburg (died 1483), Johann V. von Mecklenburg (died 1422), Heinrich IV. (the Fat) von Mecklenburg (died 1477), Albrecht II. (the great) von Mecklenburg (died 1379), Pribislav, duke of the Obotrite tribe and founder of the abbey Doberan, the first Christian ruler of this region (died 1178) and Niklot, duke of the Slavs (died 1160).

paragraphs: This window was restored from 1978-1980. Valuable pieces of medieval glass (1300) were used in the restoration process. The abbey started operating two glassworks in the 13th century. During the glass making process various pigments from natural resources, for example earths, salts or metal-oxides were added to the colourless heated glass to achieve unique colour schemes. The coloured glass sections were then held together with strips of lead. Then the ornamental motives were painted. Despite early Cistercian rules stressing simplicity, the entire abbey church was completely fitted with coloured windows during the 14th century. Depicted are John the Baptist, Virgin Mary with the Christ child in Bethlehem, John the Evangelist and beneath him Duchess Anastasia von Mecklenburg (died 1317), who sponsored a window for the abbey church.

paragraphs: Beneath the windows are stone tablets commemorating the victims of war and violence. The church community added the two outermost plates in 1985, 40 years after the ending of World War II. They name some places of murder and cruelty and admonish us to keep peace and justice.

paragraphs: The von Bülow Chapel (Room of silence) was named after the family von Bülow. For three quarters of a century the bishops of Schwerin came from this family. The interior frescos were painted in 1873 since most of the medieval frescos were lost. Depicted are bishops, several family members and, on the eastern wall, the crucified Christ with John and Mary as well as Saint Thomas of Canterbury and Knight Olav.

paragraphs: In front of the chapel is the tomb stone of Magister Hermann Kruse (died 1599), the first Lutheran pastor taking office in 1564. Magister Kruse is shown carrying a layman’s chalice which was in accordance with the reformatory convictions of that time. This depiction of the chalice is a statement of evangelical teaching meaning that the Lutheran belief is the proper religion. Tomb stone restored 2007.

paragraphs: The organ, built in 1980 by the organ builder Schuke from Potsdam, is above the von Bülow Chapel. The first organ was installed in the Minster around 1600, the second organ was built and installed by the organ builder Friese from Schwerin. Today’s organ has 3220 pipes, 44 registers and three manuals.

paragraphs: It is played during church services, organ recitals and concerts. Starting in May through September concerts are held every Friday at 19:30. The present organ gallery was the gallery of the House von Mecklenburg during med medieval times.

paragraphs: The Chapel was the burial place and chapel of the House von Mecklenburg since 1302. It was named after Duke Pribislav, founder of the abbey, who died in 1178 in Lüneburg. His remains were transferred to Doberan in 1219.

paragraphs: In the chapel there are numerous noteworthy exhibits. In the eastern wall a partially medieval window, dated to the 16th century, shows Mary with Jesus as a child, God the father and the Evangelist John. In front of it there is a late-Gothic cross (1480) from Lübeck and two cupboards (14th century). It is assumed that the cross was originally in the inner yard of the abbey. In front of the altar is the tomb stone of the first Lutheran bishop and administrator of Mecklenburg, Magnus III (died 1550). He was a friend of Philipp Melanchtons. Furthermore, there is the tomb stone of Duchess Ursula, the mother of Magnus III. Set into the northern wall is a renaissance script epitaph, in Latin and German, for Magnus III with the Duke’s coat of arms. To the left there are several memorial plates of the nobles buried here and below it are medieval stone slabs displaying heraldic animals (14th century) to mark the ducal graves (restored in 2005/06).

paragraphs: Beneath the organ gallery you can see the painting of Great Duke Friedrich Franz I. von Mecklenburg, the founder of the first German seaside health resort in Heiligendamm in the year 1793. The marble sarcophagus serves as final resting place for Princess Feodora von Reuß (died 1918), wife of Duke Adolf Friedrich von Mecklenburg. Next to it is the tomb stone of Duke Pribislav (died 1179) thought to have been mistakenly placed on top of the grave of Duke Heinrich I von Mecklenburg (died 1302) sometime during the 19th century.

paragraphs: Inside the archway to the organ gallery, valuable wall paintings were preserved showing vines and the suffering Jesus, dated 15th century.

paragraphs: On the pillar to the choir there are two statues, one of Duke Balthasar (died 1507) and the other of Duke Erich (died 1508). Both are dated from the transitional period between Gothic and Renaissance. These are epitaphs of the highest quality.

paragraphs: The colourful tile paintings on the central column in the northern transept (a similar one is in the southern transept), were created in the 14th century based on oriental designs. The central column, the arches in the crossing, the rafters beneath the vaulted ceilings and the side columns stabilise the church building which was built in a swampy area.

paragraphs: On the other side the tomb stone of Duchess Anna von Mecklenburg (died 1464), the daughter of Heinrich IV von Mecklenburg and sister of Magnus II.

paragraphs: The “Mill Altar” (1410/20) was created as one of the first of its kind. The middle section shows a very picturesque depiction of the transformation of the word to the flesh, or the Eucharist. The four evangelists pour the word of God into the mill funnel, the mill in cross form represents Jesus Christ and shows the place of transformation, the 12 apostles power the mill and the four church fathers catch the trans-substantiated nourishment in a chalice and pass it on to the believers. On the side section, scenes from the life of St. Martin are portrayed.

paragraphs: The scaled model of the Abbey shows the abbey buildings at the time of the dissolution in 1552 with the crosswalk and numerous side buildings. Several of those buildings are still intact today e.g. the charnel house (1250) to the north of the Minster as well as the grain storage and the ruins of the trade building (1290) to the south of the abbey grounds. The abbey wall, 1400 metres long, remains nearly as it was in medieval times.

paragraphs: On the other side is the tomb stone of Heinrich von der Lühe, restored in 2004. It shows the inscription “In the year of Our Lord 1401, on the day of the martyr Vincentius, the good Heinrich von Lühe, a sincere friend of the abbey, died and is resting under this stone. May he rest in peace. Amen.”

paragraphs: The tomb of Lord Samuel von Behr (died 1621) was built by Julius Döteber from Leipzig and the canopy was erected in 1626 by Cheer Evert Pilot. Samuel von Behr was chancellor, marshal, minister, manager and mentor of Duke Adolf Friedrich who had this memorial erected in gratitude to his mentor.

paragraphs: To the right of the chapel and opposite, the swan and antlers remind us of the abbey’s founding legend. After the first abbey was destroyed, Duke Nikolaus from Rostock looked for a new building site for the abbey. The new abbey’s building site would be the place where the first stag was killed in the hunt. The Prince killed the stag here. The monks surveying the site thought that this ground would be too wet as it was swampland. However suddenly a swan rose out of a thicket into the air and shouted “dobr, dobr” ("dobr" is Slavic for "good") which the monks took as a sign from God, and decided to build the abbey on that spot. "Doberan" is Slavic for "good place".

paragraphs: The late-Romanesque, early-Gothic figure of Queen Margarete of Denmark (died 1282) carved from oak, is supposed to be the oldest tomb sculpture in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and the oldest female sculpture of all Cistercian abbeys (see picture next page).

paragraphs: After Margarete’s husband Christopher I. of Denmark was murdered in his homeland, she made a journey to Rome and upon her return lived as a contributor and inhabitant of the Holy Cross abbey in Rostock. Although she lived in Rostock, she was buried in the Minster, since that was the place where the Dukes and Duchesses of the House von Mecklenburg were buried.

paragraphs: To the right, behind the tomb sculpture, the centre section of the altar of the crucifixion of Christ (1340) depicts seven women representing the seven virtues: obedience, persistence, compassion, love, humility, justice and peace. This rare exhibit is based on Isaiah 4.1 which tells of the struggle of the virtues for the human soul: Christ died so that the virtues could come into the world and the place where the virtues reign there the Kingdom of God has come. On the inside of the wings you see the prophets, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Jeremiah and Daniel. On the outside of the wings you can see the annunciation scene with Mary, the birth of Christ, the 3 kings worshipping and the dedication in the temple. The altar was renovated 2003/2004.

paragraphs: The Altar of the Passion of Christ from the 14th century with parts of a further side altar, is only partially preserved.

paragraphs: The Corpus Christi Altar with The Last Supper (1330 - see picture) shows one of the oldest tablet paintings in Mecklenburg. It is thought to have stood in the gate chapel at the western gate of the abbey, and is associated with the Doberan holy blood relics.

paragraphs: The tablet is attributed to the second quarter of the 14th century. The left folding wing section was already missing around the year 1700.

paragraphs: Tomb and crypt of Duke Adolf Friedrich I von Mecklenburg (died 1658) and wife Anna Maria von Ostfriesland (died 1634) was built by Julius Döteber from Leipzig and Daniel Weber from Rostock in the transitional style of renaissance to baroque in 1634.

paragraphs: The monument is made of limestone, the ceiling is of carved wood with tiny inlaid mother-of-pearl windows. The carved life size figures of the duke and duchess were done in Spanish fashion which was the dominant style at that time. After the looting during the 30-year war, Adolf Friedrich had the roof and furnishings renovated in 1637.

paragraphs: is an octagonal burial chapel for 13 dukes of Mecklenburg, built or reconstructed in 1420 using Romanesque columns and capitals from around 1240. The location behind the high altar was a privileged burial place. Please note the ornamental carvings along the balustrade.

paragraphs: The wall paintings on the Octagon, restored in 2004, depict King Albrecht III of Sweden (died 1412), Duke Heinrich III (died 1383), Duke Johann IV (died 1422) as well as Duke Magnus I von Mecklenburg (died 1384).

paragraphs: Tomb of Duke Albrecht III von Mecklenburg and King of Sweden (died 1412), buried in the octagon and his first wife Richardis von Schwerin (1377), buried in Stockholm, is an important example of Gothic burial art (see picture).

paragraphs: Swedish nobility voted for Albrecht to become the Swedish King. After a reign of 25 years, in the year 1389, he was defeated in battle by the Danish Queen Margaret I. From then on his power and influence was limited to Mecklenburg. The lion and dog beneath the figures symbolize strength and loyalty. Worth noticing are the beautifully arranged folds of Richard’s dress in Gothic style.

paragraphs: The memorial statue of Duke Magnus II von Mecklenburg (died 1503) is said to be the most complete form of an epitaph. In his right hand he holds a dagger and wound around his head is a death bandage. Magnus was an energetic ruler, enacting fundamental land reforms which showed his farsightedness concerning economic and financial matters. Two similar statues are on display in front of the Pribislav chapel.

paragraphs: Tomb of Duke Johann Albrecht II von Mecklenburg (died 1920) and his wife Elisabeth von Saxony-Weimar-Eisenach (died 1908) was created in 1910 by the master builder Winter from Braunschweig. It consists of a pedestal of grey-blue Norwegian Labrador, roofed by a ciboria made partially of Italian marble, which is decorated with a valuable glass-mosaic. Johann Albrecht travelled extensively as the president of the German colonial society. The style of the tomb was influenced by Byzantine style of buildings in Ravenna as well as by Prussian-style architecture.

paragraphs: The lower parts of the Levite pews originate from the 14th century, the baldachin and the rear are a reconstruction of the 19th century. In the display cases, literature, postcards and souvenirs which can be bought at the cashiers booth.

paragraphs: The Tour through the Minster are best started at the right hand side of the entrance in the southern wing. On the southern wall you'll see the translation of the "Dedication Certificate" from 1368, the memorial tomb stone of Heinrich von der Weser and his wife (14th century), the memorial burial plate of Peter Wise (died 1338), a merchant from Lübeck and sponsor of the abbey. Above it is the picture and text plaque of Peter Wise in German and Latin. It mentions three altar donations from Wise and shows him dressed in the fashion of the 14th century.

paragraphs: On the western wall is a Renaissance style ducal epitaph made of four separate marble plates. It was made in 1583 at the request of Duke Ulrich and his wife Elizabeth, Duchess of Mecklenburg, born Princess of Denmark. The epitaph honours all members of the House von Mecklenburg laid to rest in the Minster up until that time. This epitaph exceeds all others in style and form and was restored in 2006.

paragraphs: In the southern transept located on the wall are also the paintings of Duke Christian Ludwig von Mecklenburg (died 1692), Duke Adolf Friedrich I von Mecklenburg (died 1658) and of his wife Anna Maria von Ostfriesland (died 1634).

paragraphs: Underneath the tomb stone of Johannes Moltke (died 1388) and his wife Margaretha (died 1391). Next to it is the tomb stone of Knight Heinrich Moltke and Katharina Moltke. Both stones were restores in 2006.

paragraphs: In the corner to the right is a limestone pillar from the 13th century, which was probably moved here from some other, now nonexistent, building of the abbey.


title: Sibi District

paragraphs: Sibi () is a district in the Baluchistan province of Pakistan. The hottest place in Pakistan, in the summer with temperatures reaching .


title: Kohlu District

paragraphs: The Kohlu District is an administrative division in the Balochistan province in Pakistan.


title: Ziarat District

paragraphs: Ziarat is a district in the north of Balochistan province of Pakistan.


title: Hammerbeam roof

paragraphs: Hammerbeam roof is a type of wooden roof found in architecture. It was used in the gothic era.


title: Quetta District

paragraphs: Quetta is a district in the north-west of Balochistan province of Pakistan. It was part of Quetta Division until the year 2000 when divisions were abolished.


title: Pishin District

paragraphs: Pishin () is a district in the north west of Balochistan province of Pakistan.

paragraphs: The district of Pishin is administratively subdivided into the following tehsils:


title: Purbeck marble

paragraphs: Purbeck marble is a fossiliferous limestone found in the Isle of Purbeck, a peninsula in south-east Dorset, England. It has been quarried since at least Roman times as a decorative building stone. This industry is no longer active.

paragraphs: These limestone beds were deposited during Lower Cretaceous epoch. Purbeck Marble is not a metamorphic rock, like a true marble, but is so-called because it can take a fine polish.

paragraphs: Its characteristic appearance comes from densely-packed shells of the freshwater snail "Viviparus". Sussex Marble is similar in type. The 'marble' large clasts (the snail shells) in a fine-grained limestone mud matrix.

paragraphs: The individual marble beds (also known as 'seams'), lie between layers of softer marine clays and mudstone, laid down during repeated marine ingressions. Some of the beds contain iron oxide/hydroxide minerals, such as haematite or limonite, giving red or brown varieties, while other beds contain glauconite giving a green (or occasionally blue) colour.

paragraphs: Purbeck marble is found at outcrop, or beneath superficial cover, all the way across the Isle of Purbeck. The marble beds are never more than 1.2 m thick and are often much thinner. The outcrops lie within the Purbeck Monocline, with the beds dipping moderately steeply to the north.


title: Chagai District

paragraphs: Chagai is the largest district of Pakistan and is on the northwest corner of Balochistan, Pakistan. It forms a triangular internationalised border with Afghanistan and Iran.

paragraphs: Chagai is administratively subdivided into the following tehsils:


title: Qilla Abdullah District

paragraphs: Killa Abdullah or Qilla Abdullah or Abdullah Qilla () is a district in the northwest of the Balochistan province of Pakistan.


title: Barkhan District

paragraphs: Barkhan () a district in the north-west of the Balochistan province of Pakistan.


title: Holy Grail

paragraphs: The Holy Grail is an artifact from Christian mythology. According to a legend, it is the cup or plate used by Jesus at the Last Supper. It was later used to catch his blood when he had to die on the cross.

paragraphs: According to legend, it has special powers. Many stories of the Arthurian Legend are about the Holy Grail. The first to write about it was Chrétien de Troyes. The legend may combine Christian lore with a Celtic myth of a cauldron which has special powers.

paragraphs: The connection of Joseph of Arimathea with the Grail legend dates from Robert de Boron's "Joseph d'Arimathie". In the story, Joseph receives the Grail from an apparition of Jesus Christ, and sends it with his followers to Great Britain; building upon this theme, later writers told how Joseph used the Grail to catch Christ's blood while burying him and that in Britain he founded a line of guardians to keep it safe.

paragraphs: A cup that could have been the Holy Grail can be seen in Valencia Cathedral.

paragraphs: The term "Holy Grail" is often used as a metaphor for something very important or special.


title: St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle

paragraphs: St George's Chapel is the church at Windsor Castle in England. The chapel is governed by the Dean and Canons of Windsor and is found in the Lower Ward of the castle.

paragraphs: The status of the Abbey is that of a Royal Peculiar. This means it is place of worship that falls directly under the jurisdiction of the British monarch, rather than under a bishop. The concept dates from Anglo-Saxon times, when a church could ally itself with the monarch and therefore not be subject to the bishop of the area. Technically speaking, it is not a cathedral, though it has a similar status. Many Royal weddings and other ceremonies with the British Crown have taken place there.


title: Henry VII Lady Chapel

paragraphs: The Henry VII Lady Chapel is a Lady chapel at the far eastern end of Westminster Abbey built in the Gothic style.

paragraphs: The Chapel was built in 1503 by the architect Sir Reginald Bray. Henry VII was buried in the Chapel on his death in 1509 in a tomb designed by the Italian artist Torrigiani.


title: Bath Abbey

paragraphs: Bath Abbey, is an Anglican parish church and an old monastery in Bath, Somerset. Its full name is

paragraphs: the Abbey Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, Bath. It was founded in the 7th century, reorganised in the 10th century, and rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries. It is one of the finest and largest examples of Gothic architecture (Perpendicular style) in the West of England.

paragraphs: The church is a former Benedictine monastery, and a former cathedral.


title: Qilla Saifullah District

paragraphs: Qilla Saifullah, Killa Saifullah or Saifullah Qilla (fort of Saifullah Khan) is a district in the northwest of Balochistan province of Pakistan.


title: Loralai District

paragraphs: Loralai is a district in the centre of Balochistan province of Pakistan. Loralai district was created on October, 1903. Loralai town is the district headquarters. Loralai was further partitioned in 1992 when Musakhel and Barkhan were given the status of separate administrative districts.


title: Musakhel District

paragraphs: Musakhel is a district in the northwest of Balochistan province of Pakistan. The Jafri dialect of the Punjabi language is spoken here.

paragraphs: The district is administratively subdivided into the following tehsils:


title: Zhob District

paragraphs: Zhob () is a district in the northwest of Balochistan province of Pakistan. The Zhob district is a Provincially Administered Tribal Area (PATA). The Zhob district is subdivided into three subdistricts: Zhob, Kakkar and Sherani. The population of Zhob district was estimated to be over 500,000 in 2005. The Zhob River is used for irrigation in the Zhob district.


title: Jhal Magsi District

paragraphs: Jhal Magsi district is in the centre of Balochistan province of Pakistan.


title: Nushki District

paragraphs: Nushki District is one of the districts of Balochistan province, Pakistan.


title: Kathua District

paragraphs: Kathua district () is one of 14 administrative districts in the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir. It is surrounded by Jammu to the northwest, the Doda District and Udhampur District districts to the north, the state of Himachal Pradesh to the east, Punjab to the south in the Republic of India. Its terrain is diverse, consisting of rich agricultural areas along the Pakistani border, plains sweeping eastward to the foothills of the Himalaya, and a mountainous Pahari region in the east.

paragraphs: Kathua district is divided into 8 blocks:Bani, Barnoti, Basholi, Billawar, Duggan, Ghagwal, Hiranagar, Kathua and Lohai Malhar. It has approximately 587 villages.

paragraphs: The traditional language of Kathua is Dogri. The Pahari language is prevalent in the mountainous area of the east. The principal media of education are English, Hindi, and Urdu.

paragraphs: In a Muslim majority state, Kathua, like the Jammu region, is overwhelmingly Hindu, the religion practiced by 91% of its district population. Another 7% is Muslim, and 2% Sikh.

paragraphs: A relatively safe regional pocket, Kathua was spared the decade-long insurrection sparked by the Khalistan separatist movement in Punjab that ended in the early 1990s, just to its south, and the ongoing Freedom movement in Kashmir Valley farther to the north, beginning in the 1980s.


title: South Tibet

paragraphs: South Tibet () is what the Chinese government names a geographic area that is the focus of border dispute between the Government of India and the China. The area, most of which lies within the Indian region recognised as Arunachal Pradesh, is claimed by both China and India. The people of South Tibet have Tibetan cultural, Tibetan languages/linguistic, and the ethnic ties to the Tibet Autonomous Region.


title: Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed

paragraphs: Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed is a 2008 independent documentary movie that is about intelligent design. It has been criticized by some people in the scientific community, especially Richard Dawkins.