title: Cahors

paragraphs: Cahors () is a commune in southwestern France. Located in the region of Occitanie, it is the "prefecture" (capital) of the Lot department. It is also the capital of 3 "cantons": Cahors-1, Cahors-2 and Cahors-3.

paragraphs: Cahors was the capital of the old province of Quercy and the people of this city are known, in French, as "cadurciens" (women: "cadurciennes"); this name comes from the old name of the city, "Carduca".

paragraphs: Cahors is an ancient town. The people that inhabited the area at the time of the Roman conquest were called "Carduci" and so the Romans named the town as Divona or "Divona Cadurcorum", "Divona of the Cadurci"; Divona was a source of water, now called ""fontaine des Chartreux"". The word "Cahors" comes from "Cadurcorum".

paragraphs: Cahors is located in the southwest of France, in the old province of Quercy, in the valley of the Lot river, and is found in a peninsula () formed by an U-shaped meander of that river which gives its name to the department.

paragraphs: It has an area of and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

paragraphs: The "commune" is at north of Toulouse and is surrounded by the "communes" Mercuès, Calamane, Pradines, Arcambal, Lamagdelaine, Laroque-des-Arcs, Trespoux-Rassiels, Labastide-Marnhac, Le Montat and Flaujac-Poujols.

paragraphs: The climate of Cahors, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

paragraphs: With a population of 19,630, Cahors has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Cahors forms, together with the "commune" Pradines, the urban area of Cahors, with a population of 23,090 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Cahors, formed by 44 "communes" with a population of 44,255 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .

paragraphs: Cahors is the prefecture of the Lot department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Cahors and the administrative centre () of the Cahors-1, Cahors-2 and Cahors-3 cantons.

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Le Grand Cahors" ().


title: Mende, Lozère

paragraphs: Mende is a "commune" and prefecture of the department of Lozère, part of the Occitanie region. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Mende.

paragraphs: The inhabitants of this city are known, in French, as "Mendois" (women: "Mendoises").

paragraphs: Mende is located in the southern Massif Central, to the north of the "Cévennes", near the Mont Lozère, the highest point of the Lozère department. The Lot river flows through the city and most of Mende is on the left side of the river.

paragraphs: The "commune" of Mende has an area of and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

paragraphs: The "commune" of Mende is surrounded by the "communes" Chastel-Nouvel, Badaroux, Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile, Balsièges, Barjac and Servières.

paragraphs: The climate in Mende in the Köppen climate classification is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

paragraphs: The city of Mende had 11,542 inhabitants for a density of persons/km.

paragraphs: Mende is the prefecture of the Lozère department since 1790. It is also the capital of the Mende "arrondissement" and of two "cantons":

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Cœur de Lozère" ().


title: Communes of the Maine-et-Loire department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 363 communes of the Maine-et-Loire "département" in France.


title: Communes of the Lozère department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 185 communes of the Lozère "département", in France.


title: Communes of the Lot-et-Garonne department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 319 communes of the Lot-et-Garonne "département", in France.


title: Communes of the Lot department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 340 communes of the Lot "département", in France.


title: Communes of the Loiret department

paragraphs: The following is the list of the 334 communes of the Loiret "département", in France.


title: Diffraction

paragraphs: Diffraction is a physics concept which occurs when waves bend around small obstacles, or spread out after they pass through small openings. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as light that the eye can see. Diffraction also occurs with matter such as electrons.

paragraphs: Diffraction is caused by one wave of light being shifted by a diffracting object. This shift will cause the wave to have interference with itself. Interference can be either constructive or destructive. When interference is constructive, the intensity of the wave will increase. When interference is destructive, the intensity will decrease, sometimes to a point where it is completely destroyed. These patterns of interference rely on the size of the diffracting object and the size of the wave. The strongest examples of diffraction occur in waves where the wavelength is similar to the size of the object causing diffraction.

paragraphs: Diffraction can be used to separate different wavelengths of light using a diffraction grating. A diffraction grating can be a series of closely-spaced slits or a mirror with a series of small grooves. Diffraction gratings work because different wavelengths of light will constructively interfere at different angles. Diffraction gratings are used in many analytical chemistry tools, such as a spectrometer.

paragraphs: Diffraction can also be used to look at molecules using X-ray crystallography. In X-ray crystallography, X-rays are aimed on a crystal. The crystal diffracts the X-ray and makes a diffraction pattern. This pattern is unique to the type of crystal and can be used to identify the molecule that makes the crystal. Diffraction also occurs in a bending movement where the wave becomes more spread out

paragraphs: Skoog, D.A.; Holler, F.J.; Crouch, S.R. Principles of Instrumental Analysis. (Brooks/Cole, California).


title: Shanghai Knights

paragraphs: Shanghai Knights is an 2003 martial arts action-comedy movie that was produced by Jackie Chan, Gary Barber and Roger Birnbaum and was directed by David Dobkin. It is a sequel to "Shanghai Noon". "Shanghai Knights" was released on February 7, 2003 in North America. The movie received positive reviews with a 66% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 58 out of 100 from Metacritic. prequel "Shanghai Dawn".


title: Wyre

paragraphs: Wyre is a local government district in Lancashire, England. It is a borough, based in the town of Poulton-le-Fylde. Wyre is named after the River Wyre, which runs through the district.


title: River Wyre

paragraphs: The River Wyre is a river in Lancashire, England. It flows into the Irish Sea at the town of Fleetwood. It is about long. The river is a County Biological Heritage Site.


title: Michael Konsel

paragraphs: Michael Konsel (born 6 March 1962) is a retired Austrian football player who played as goalkeeper in Austria and Italy.

paragraphs: He started as defender for Fortuna 05 when he was six but at the age of nine he became goalkeeper, a position he played for the rest of his career. At the age of 16 he came to FC Kritzendorf where he became goalkeeper of the first team. His first professional team was First Vienna FC, then he want to SK Rapid Wien. For Rapid he played 395 matches in the league, 47 Cupmatches and 42 international matches (2 times the final of the UEFA Cupwinner Cup)

paragraphs: After his successful time with Rapid he went to AS Roma in Italys Seria A. The last year of his career he spent with SSC Venice.

paragraphs: Michael Konsel played 43 matches in Austrias national team. He was member of Austrias team for the FIFA World Cup in 1990 and 1998. 1990 in Italy he was second goalkeeper but 1998 he was number 1 and played 3 matches. Although he played his first match 1985 he became number 1 in the team not until 10 years later. His last match was a friendly versus Worldchampion France in Viennas Ernst-Happel-stadium.


title: Lamp (electrical component)

paragraphs: A lamp is a component that can be replaced such as an incandescent light bulb. It is designed to make light from electricity. These components are usually made of ceramic, metal, glass or plastic, which makes an electrical connection.


title: Chaumont, Haute-Marne

paragraphs: Chaumont is a commune of France, and the capital (or "prefecture") of the Haute-Marne department in the Grand Est region.

paragraphs: The city of Chaumont is on the "Langres" plateau on the geographical centre of the Haute-Marne department in northeast France. It is along the Marne (river) river.

paragraphs: It has an area of . Its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

paragraphs: The "commune" of Chaumont is surrounded by the "communes" Condes, Treix, Chamarandes-Choignes, Laville-aux-Bois, Biesles, Verbiesles, Neuilly-sur-Suize, Richebourg, Semoutiers-Montsaon, Villiers-le-Sec and Jonchery.

paragraphs: Two rivers flow through the city: the "Suize" to the west and the Marne to the east.

paragraphs: The climate of Chaumont, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Chaumont are known, in French, as "Chaumontais" (women: "Chaumontaises").

paragraphs: The city of Chaumont has a population, in 2014, of 22,674; its population density is of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Chaumont forms with Chamarandes-Choignes the urban area of Chaumont with a population of 23,716 inhabitants (2014) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Chaumont, formed by 65 "communes", with a population of 42,594 inhabitants (2014) and an area of .

paragraphs: Chaumont is the prefecture of the Haute-Marne department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Chaumont and the administrative centre () of three cantons:

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Chaumont, du Bassin Nogentais et du Bassin de Bologne Vignory Froncles" ().


title: Saint-Lô

paragraphs: Saint-Lô is a commune. It is in the Manche department in west France.


title: Communes of the Haute-Marne department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 433 communes of the Haute-Marne "département", in France.


title: Communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 594 communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department, in France.


title: Vannes

paragraphs: Vannes is a commune. It is the prefecture of Morbihan in Brittany.

paragraphs: Vannes also has partnerships (‘partenariats’) with:


title: Bar-le-Duc

paragraphs: Bar-le-Duc is a commune. It is found in the Meuse department in the east of France.


title: Royal Hospital Kilmainham

paragraphs: The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is a 17th-century building in Kilmainham, Dublin, Ireland. It was built to be a home for retired soldiers. It was used as a home for over 250 years.

paragraphs: The hospital was built between 1680 and 1684 by architect Sir William Robinson. He was the official State Surveyor General for James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to King Charles II.

paragraphs: The style is based on Les Invalides in Paris. The Royal Hospital Chelsea in Chelsea, London was completed two years later and looks alike in style.

paragraphs: The Tudor Gothic gateway at the end of the road leading to the Royal Hospital was designed by Francis Johnston. He was one of the leading architects of the day. This gateway originally stood beside the River Liffey at Bloody Bridge (now Rory O'More Bridge). It was moved after the arrival of the railway in 1844.

paragraphs: When the Irish Free State was formed, they thought about using the building for the Oireachtas Éireann, the new Irish national parliament. This did not happen. After the soldiers were all gone, the buildings were used for different things like offices for the Garda Síochána (the Irish police force) and as storage for the National Museum of Ireland.

paragraphs: The Government of Ireland restored the buildings in different stages from 1957, and opened in 1985 as the National Centre for Culture and the Arts. In 1991 the Irish Museum of Modern Art was opened here.

paragraphs: Every year on the National Day of Commemoration the President of Ireland lays a wreath in the courtyard in memory of all Irishmen and Irishwomen who have died in past wars and on service with the United Nations.


title: Communes of the Morbihan department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 261 communes of the Morbihan "département", in France.


title: Communes of the Meuse department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 500 communes of the Meuse "département", in France.


title: Kilmainham

paragraphs: Kilmainham (In Irish: "Cill Mhaighneann", "St Maighnenn's church") is an area of Dublin. It lies south of the River Liffey and west of the city centre in the Dublin 8 postal district.

paragraphs: In the Viking era, there was a monastery here. The monastery was home to the first Norse base ("longphort") in Ireland.

paragraphs: In the 12th century the lands on the banks of the Liffey belonged to the Knights Templars. Strongbow built a castle for them, about a mile away from the Danish wall of old Dublin. Here the Templars lived for nearly a century and a half. In 1308, Edward II ruled that they were no longer allowed to practice their religion. Thirty members of the Templars were imprisoned in Dublin. Their lands and rights were given to the priory of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. They were there until the monasteries were closed in the 16th century.

paragraphs: The Manor of Kilmainham was a liberty. This means it had special rights. "The manor" was an area that included parts of James's Street and side-streets and went as far as Lucan and Chapelizod.

paragraphs: Until the time of Queen Elizabeth, the lord lieutenants used the manor of Kilmainham. In 1559, the earl of Sussex, found that the building at Kilmainham was damaged by a storm. The following year Elizabeth ordered that Dublin Castle be improved so the lord lieutenant could live there. From that time, Kilmainham was no longer used much.

paragraphs: The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is in Kilmainham. It was built on the site where the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem had their priory in Dublin. It is now the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Nearby is also Kilmainham Gaol, where the executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising took place.

paragraphs: Kilmainham also has one of a small number of Viking era burial sites (Old Norse "haugr" meaning barrow or mound), within Dublin.


title: Balancing selection

paragraphs: Balancing selection refers to selective processes by which different alleles (different versions of a gene) are kept in the gene pool of a population "at frequencies above that of gene mutation".

paragraphs: This usually happens when the heterozygote for a gene has a higher relative fitness than the homozygote. In this way genetic polymorphism is conserved.

paragraphs: Evidence for balancing selection can be found in the number of alleles in a population which are maintained above mutation rate frequencies. All modern research has shown that this significant genetic variation is common in panmictic populations. It is the field experience of Darwin, Wallace and others, that natural populations in the wild are extraordinarily varied. Museum collections of single species tell the same story.

paragraphs: There are several ways balancing selection works to maintain polymorphism. The two major and most studied are heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection.

paragraphs: In heterozygote advantage, or "heterotic balancing selection", an individual who is heterozygous at a particular gene locus has a greater fitness than a homozygous individual. Polymorphisms maintained by this mechanism are "balanced polymorphisms".

paragraphs: A well-studied case is that of sickle cell anemia in humans, a hereditary disease that damages red blood cells. Sickle cell anemia is caused by the inheritance of a variant hemoglobin gene (HgbS) from both parents. In these individuals, hemoglobin in red blood cells is extremely sensitive to oxygen deprivation, and this causes shorter life expectancy.

paragraphs: A person who inherits the sickle cell gene from one parent, and a normal hemoglobin gene (HgbA) from the other, has a normal life expectancy. The heterozygote is resistant to the malarial parasite which kills a large number of people each year. The heterozygote frequency is kept high because of the fierce selection against both the homozygotes.

paragraphs: The heterozygote has a permanent advantage (a higher fitness) wherever malaria exists.

paragraphs: Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency.

paragraphs: In "positive frequency-dependent selection" the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes more common. In "negative frequency-dependent selection" the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes less common. For example, in prey switching, rare morphs of prey are fitter because predators concentrate on more frequent morphs.

paragraphs: The fitness of a genotype may vary greatly between larval and adult stages, or between parts of a habitat range.

paragraphs: The fitness of a genotype may depend on the fitness of other genotypes in the population: this covers many natural situations where the best thing to do (from the point of view of survival and reproduction) depends on what other members of the population are doing at the time.


title: Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield

paragraphs: Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield PC KG (22 September 1694 – 24 March 1773) was a British statesman and intellectual.

paragraphs: Stanhope was born in London. He got his schooling at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. After that, he went on the Grand Tour of the continent. He became gentleman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales.

paragraphs: In 1715 he entered the House of Commons as Lord Stanhope of Shelford and member for St Germans. He left for Paris and sent the government valuable information about the Jacobite plot. In 1716 he returned to Britain and sat in the House of Commons. He liked to take part in the debates.

paragraphs: He took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1728 he was sent to the Hague as ambassador. He did a good job, and got the Order of the Garter in 1730, and the position of Lord Steward. After he did not support Walpole's Excise Bill, he was dismissed from his stewardship. He spent years opposing the ruling party in the House of Lords. First against Robert Walpole and then against King George II of England. In 1744, the "Broad Bottom" party, led by Chesterfield and Pitt, came into office. They ruled together with the Pelhams.

paragraphs: He was then sent to the Hague as ambassador a second time. The object of his mission was to persuade the Dutch to join in the War of the Austrian Succession. His mission was successful. When he got back to London, he was made Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland. This was a position he wanted for a long time.

paragraphs: He took the his role seriously. He established schools and manufacturing in Ireland. In politics, he found a way to work with both Protestant and Roman Catholic parties.

paragraphs: He also still took his seat in the Upper House. In 1751 he helped in making the Gregorian calendar a fact. That Act of Parliament is sometimes known as Chesterfield's Act. After he slowly became deaf, he had to stop his work in the parliament.

paragraphs: He lived for some years at the Ranger's House, Chesterfield Walk, Greenwich, London.

paragraphs: In politics, he is best known for the time he was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. As a writer, he is best known for his "Letters to his Son". Those letters were not really written to be read by the general public. His widow Eugenia Stanhope first published them in 1774. "Letters to his Godson" was published in 1890. Both sets of letters are written with great style and knowledge.

paragraphs: Chesterfield County, Virginia and Chesterfield County, South Carolina in the United States were named in his honour. He also plays a role in the 1757-1758 novel "The Virginians" by William Makepeace Thackery.


title: Grand Tour

paragraphs: The Grand Tour was the name of travel through Europe by rich European (mostly British) young men between 1660 until about 1840. It was done to learn about European society and art. The idea was that what they learned on their travels could be used to help those that stayed at home. Italy was often the final country to visit. They would mostly travel with servants and a teacher called a "bear-leader".

paragraphs: Which places the Grand Tour would visit changed through the years. An example would be a British tourist would go from Dover, England and crossed the English Channel to Ostend, in the Spanish Netherlands/Belgium, or Calais, or Le Havre in France.

paragraphs: There they could rent or buy a carriage and travel to Paris. Or they could make the trip by boat, traveling up the Seine to Paris, or up the Rhine to Basel.

paragraphs: In Paris, the traveler could take lessons in French, dancing, fencing, and horse riding. Paris was popular because of the language and fashion of French high society.

paragraphs: From Paris he would go to Switzerland for a while, often to Geneva. From there the traveler would make a difficult crossing over the Alps into northern Italy.

paragraphs: Once in Italy the tourist would visit Turin, then might spend a few months in Florence. Other Grand Tourists would be in Florence to welcome him. A trip to Pisa then on to Padua, Bologna, and Venice.

paragraphs: Venice was seen as the most important place for Italian architecture, and was very important place to visit.

paragraphs: From Venice the traveler went to Rome to study the ruins of ancient Rome. Some travelers also visited Naples to study music. Naples was often the final destination before turning back.

paragraphs: From here the traveler went north through the Alps to the German-speaking parts of Europe. From there travelers visited Holland and Flanders before returning across the Channel to England.


title: Alnico

paragraphs: Alnico is a type of alloy made up of iron with aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co). The name is an acronym from Al-Ni-Co. Alnico may also contain copper and sometimes titanium.

paragraphs: Alnico alloys are ferromagnetic (a mechanism by which some materials form permanent magnets). Alnico alloys also have a high coercivity (they do not easily lose their magnetism) and are used to make permanent magnets. Before rare-earth magnets were developed in the 1970s, alnico magnets were the strongest type of magnet. The development of Alnico began in 1931 when T. Mishima in Japan found that an alloy of iron, nickel, and aluminium had double the coercivity of the best magnets of that time. (the coercivity of Alnico is 400 oersted).

paragraphs: Alnico alloys can be made magnets by strong magnetic fields. Rare-earth magnets like neodymium and samarium-cobalt are the only easily found magnets which are stronger than alnico magnets. Alnico magnets produce very strong magnetic fields at their poles (a pole is one of the two ends of a magnet) as high as 1500 gauss (0.15 tesla which is about 3000 times stronger than earth's magnetic field.

paragraphs: Some types of alnico magnets are isotropic (properties are same in all directions) and can be properly magnetised in all directions. Other types like alnico 5 and alnico 8 are anisotropic (properties change when direction changes) have a preferred direction (one direction would be better than other directions) for magnetisation. Anisotropic alnico alloys will make stronger magnets in their preferred direction than an isotropic alnico alloy.

paragraphs: Alnico magnets are the only magnets that have useful magnetism even when heated red-hot.

paragraphs: In 2008, the cost of Alnico magnets was about $44/kg ($20/pound).


title: Hermit Thrush

paragraphs: Hermit thrush ("Catharus guttatus") is a common bird that is found in North America. The size of one is 15 to 17 cm. It has a brown head. It is closely related to the Mexican Russet Nightingale-thrush. They are mainly brown and have a reddish tail. Underneath they are white with some dark spots. They have pink legs. The hermit thrush is the state bird of Vermont.


title: Lord Lieutenant of Ireland

paragraphs: The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (plural: Lords Lieutenant) is the name of a political office ("job"). It was the representative of the King and head of the Irish executive (government) between 1171 and 1922. The term is always pronounced as 'Lord "Lef"-tenant of Ireland'.

paragraphs: Other words used for this office were Judiciar in the early mediaeval period and Lord Deputy as late as the 17th century. The people in this job were often also called viceroy, from the French "vice roi" or deputy king.

paragraphs: In the Middle Ages some Lord Lieutenants had been Irish noblemen. After that only noblemen from Great Britain worked in this job.

paragraphs: The King's representative had a number of different roles. He was

paragraphs: The Lord Lieutenant was helped to govern by the Irish Privy Council. This was a group of people chosen to be on the Council. Some inherited their seat. They usually met in the Council Chamber in Dublin Castle.

paragraphs: Lords Lieutenant stayed in power until the British Government/the King wanted them to leave.

paragraphs: Two Lords Lieutenant, Lord Hartington and the Duke of Portland, went from Dublin Castle to 10 Downing Street as Prime Minister of Great Britain, in 1756 and 1783 respectively. At other times, the post was used to move politicians that were no longer wanted in London out of the way.

paragraphs: By the mid-to-late 19th century the post was no longer very important. The Chief Secretary for Ireland had become more important in ruling the country than the Lord Lieutenant.

paragraphs: The official house of the Lord Lieutenant was the Viceregal Apartments in Dublin Castle. This was also where the Viceregal Court was based. When the Lord Lieutenant had to live in Ireland full time, this had to change. In 1781 the British government bought the former ranger's house in Phoenix Park. It was named the Viceregal Lodge. It is now known as Áras an Uachtaráin. It is the residence of the President of Ireland.

paragraphs: The Lords Lieutenant then only lived in the Castle during the Social Season (early January to St. Patrick's Day, 17 March).

paragraphs: The office of Lord Lieutenant, like the British government in Ireland, was generally unpopular.

paragraphs: From the early 19th century, calls were made frequently to get rid of the office. However, the office survived right down until the end of British rule in most of Ireland.


title: Dublin Zoo

paragraphs: The Dublin Zoo (), in Phoenix Park, Dublin, Ireland is the largest zoo in Ireland. It is one of Dublin's most popular attractions. It was opened in 1831.

paragraphs: It is over in size. It has a number of special areas like:

paragraphs: It was founded on 10 May 1830 and opened to the public on 1 September 1831. This makes it the third oldest zoo in the world. The animals, 46 mammals and 72 birds,< were a present from London Zoo.> It now has over 600 animals from all over the world.

paragraphs: In 2010, Dublin Zoo received 963,053 visitors.


title: How to

paragraphs: A how-to or a how to is an informal, often short, description of how to do a specific physical task, think to solve a specific problem, or think about a topic.


title: Wild type

paragraphs: Wild type is a term in genetics for the most common type in a natural population. It is applied to alleles of a gene, or the genotypes or phenotypes of a species.

paragraphs: The term is used in genetics to contrast normal alleles with mutant alleles.

paragraphs: With "Drosophila melanogaster", wild type usually means the standard version of the famous laboratory population used in the T.H. Morgan laboratory, and since used around the world. This was, of course, only a sample of the natural populations.


title: CMUNE

paragraphs: Cmune is a software development company. It is the maker of UberStrike, a popular web-based video game. Cmune was started in 2007 by Shaun Lelacheur Sales and Ludovic Bodin.

paragraphs: UberStrike was originally developed under the name Paradise Paintball. It is a free, multiplayer first-person shooter browser game. There are over 10 million registered players. As of November 2012, it was still the largest FPS inside Facebook.


title: Tábor

paragraphs: Tábor is a city in the Czech Republic. It is in the South Bohemian Region. At the 2007 census, 35,859 people lived there. The city was started in 1420. The current mayor is Hana Randová. The city is named after Mount Tabor.


title: Yamaguchi, Yamaguchi

paragraphs: Yamaguchi is a city in southern Japan. It is the capital of Yamaguchi Prefecture. The city had a population of 198,971 people in 2010. Yamaguchi was made when 40 towns were merged together on April 1, 1889.


title: Random mating

paragraphs: Random mating is a term in population genetics. It describes an ideal situation in which all individuals on one sex are equally potential partners of all members of the opposite sex. The technical term for it is panmixia.

paragraphs: Random mating is one of the requirements for the Hardy–Weinberg law to hold. This is the foundation equation of population genetics.

paragraphs: There are a number of types of non-random mating, such as mate choice (selection by females from a small group of males), mating type (in microorganisms like "Paramecium"), selfing in some flowering plants, and in general, inbreeding. Mechanical or geographical differences within a species will often prevent a whole species being panmictic.

paragraphs: The opposite of random mating is "assortative mating".


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

paragraphs: The Ernst-Happel-Stadion is a football stadium in Vienna, Austria. The Ernst Happel Stadium is the largest football stadium in Austria. It is the home of the Austrian national football team. Club football matches are limited to the Austrian cup final and international competitions with one of Vienna's top clubs, FK Austria Wien and SK Rapid Wien, as their homegrounds are too small for UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup matches. Local derbies between FK Austria and SK Rapid have also been played in the stadium. In 2014, it became the official homeground of SK Rapid Wien because their stadium was being rebuilt.

paragraphs: The stadium was built between 1929 and 1931. It was used and opend for the second Workers' Olympiad 1931. The capacity of the stadium was approximately 60,000 people. The first match in the new stadium was a match between a selection from workers sportclubs from Lower Austria and Vienna. (2:3).

paragraphs: During the occupation of Austria by Nazi Germany it was used as barracks and also as collecting point for Viennese Jews. In 2003 a private plaque was created in the VIP area to remind on this incidents. In 1944 the stadium was bombed and heavily demaged.

paragraphs: After the Second World war the stadium was reconstructed. 1956 the capacity was extended to 92,708 people.The record was 91,000 visitors on October 30, 1960 at the football match between Spain and Austria (3-0). After the death of former Austrian top player and coach Ernst Happel, the Prater Stadium was renamed after him in 1992.

paragraphs: The Ernst-Happel-Stadion hosted 7 games of Euro 2008: 3 group games of the Austrian team, two quarter-finals, one semi-final and the final.

paragraphs: The stadium has hosted concerts by many famous artists, including AC/DC, Bon Jovi, David Bowie, Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band, Guns N' Roses, Michael Jackson, Pink Floyd, Robert Plant, Rihanna, The Rolling Stones, U2, Kanye West and Robbie Williams, among others.


title: Hollow-cathode lamp

paragraphs: A hollow-cathode lamp (HCL) is type of cold cathode lamp used in physics and chemistry as a spectral line source (for example, in atomic absorption spectrometers) and as a frequency tuner for light sources such as lasers. An HCL takes advantage of the hollow cathode effect, which causes conduction at a lower voltage and with more current than a cold cathode lamp that does not have a hollow cathode.

paragraphs: The HCL is a light source or radiation source which is used to excite electrons of a metal of interest to a higher energy level. Excitation is when an electron in its lowest energy state, also known as the ground state, undergoes a transition to a higher energy state known as an excited state. These transitions can occur through heat, electrical energy, light, particles, or a chemical reaction.

paragraphs: A HCL consists of an anode and a cathode inside of a glass tube. The glass tube is filled with some type of inert gas such as argon or neon with a pressure of around 5 torr (666 Pascal). It is important that the gas is inert in order to minimize interferences in the output of the data. The anode is an electrode in which loss of electrons by ionization takes place. The anode is typically constructed of an inert conducting metal to ionize the inert gas.

paragraphs: The cathode is made of the pure metal of interest or a mixture of metals containing the metal of interest. It is important that the cathode be stored under a vacuum to avoid any kind of contamination. Contamination of the cathode compromises the purity of the metal of interest and the data obtained for that metal. The material of the window is specifically selected in order to get the best transmission of spectral lines for the cathode element.

paragraphs: The excitation process of the element of interest takes place through a few steps. First, the inert gas contained inside of the glass tube is ionized by a voltage. Ionization is the process by which neutral atoms are converted to charged species. This voltage is applied across the anode and the cathode and generates a current of 5-15 mA. This current allows for electrons to move to the anode and cathode.

paragraphs: If the voltage applied is large enough, the ions of the inert gas gather enough energy to remove some of the metal atoms of interest from the surface of the cathode by striking the surface. The removal of these atoms produces a cloud around the cathode. The process of producing this cloud is called sputtering. Some of these metal atoms in the cloud have moved to an excited energy state and as they return to their ground state, they emit a specific radiation which is characteristic to the metal of interest. The release of this radiation allows for data to be collected and information gathered pertaining to the metal of interest. After a period of time, the atoms move to the glass walls of the lamp or back to the surface of the cathode.

paragraphs: How well the HCL works and how long it lasts is dependent on the care of operation. When a high voltage is applied, higher currents arise. These higher currents allow for more intense data output but at the same time can produce a number of unexcited atoms in the cloud. These unexcited atoms can interfere with good output data because they are able to absorb the radiation that is emitted from the excited electrons returning to their ground state. This process is called self adsorption. The process of self adsorption results in weaker intensities. Increasing the current too much can also result in a shorter lifetime of the lamp, as well as melting the metal on the cathode thus ruining the lamp.


title: Ernest Tubb

paragraphs: Ernest Dale Tubb (February 9, 1914 – September 6, 1984) was an American country music singer and songwriter. Tubb was nicknamed "The Texas Troubadour". He is probably best known for his hit song "Walking the Floor Over You" in 1941. He joined the Grand Ole Opry as a member in 1943. He was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1965.


title: Photomultiplier tubes

paragraphs: A photomultiplier tube (PMT) is a transducer which converts photons into electrons, which generate a current and voltage. Photomultiplier tubes are used to detect low levels of incident light, even as low as a single photon.

paragraphs: An incoming photon will strike the photocathode surface of the PMT which will emit electrons. These electrons are then accelerated toward additional electrodes by a potential difference of about 90 volts. Upon striking this electrode, more electrons are emitted. This process repeats nine times, each time generating more and more electrons. This process can generate 10 to 10 electrons for each individual photon. These electrons are then collected at the anode where the current and voltage is then measured.

paragraphs: Photomultiplier tubes are highly sensitive and have very quick response times. The sensitivity of the PMT can be improved by cooling it, to reduce temperature induced noise. Photomultiplier tubes must not be exposed to intense light, such as the sun or ambient light because the intensity can damage the components.

paragraphs: Photomultiplier tubes are commonly used for analysis techniques as well as medical and research purposes.


title: 2011–12 Juventus F.C. season

paragraphs: The 2011–12 season is Juventus Football Club's 114th in Serie A. Juventus starts the season with a new Manager, Antonio Conte.

paragraphs: On June 15, Former Juventus director manager Luciano Moggi has been banned for life from all Italian football.

paragraphs: On July 8, Juventus start pre-season training in Turin.

paragraphs: On October, President Andrea Agnelli said that Alessandro Del Piero will leave Juventus at the end of the season.


title: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

paragraphs: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) combines the features of gas-liquid chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS). This makes it possible to identify different substances within a test sample. GC-MS has many uses include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis and explosives investigation. It can also be used to identify unknown samples. GC-MS can also be used in airport security to detect substances in luggage or on human beings. Additionally, GC-MS can identify trace elements in deteriorated materials, even after the sample fell apart so much that other tests cannot work.

paragraphs: GC-MS is the best way for forensic experts to identify substances because it is a "specific test". A specific test positively identifies the actual presence of a particular substance in a given sample. A "non-specific test" only says that categories of substances are in the sample. Although a non-specific test could statistically suggest the identity of the substance, this could lead to false positive identification.

paragraphs: The first research papers on gas-liquid chromatography were published in 1950. Chemists used different detectors to see that compounds were flowing out of the end of the chromatograph. Most of the detectors destroyed the compounds, because they burned them or ioned them. These detectors left chemists guessing the exact identity of each compound in the sample. In the 1950s, Roland Gohlke and Fred McLafferty developed a new combined machine. They used a mass spectrometer as the detector in gas chromatography. These early devices were big, fragile, and originally limited to laboratory settings.

paragraphs: The design was complex. The time interval between different compounds flowing out of the chromatograph was hard to control. So, the mass spectrometer had to finish working on one compound before the next one flowed out of the chromatograph. In the early models, the measurements from the mass spectrometer was recorded on graph paper. Highly-trained chemists studied the patterns of peaks to identify each compound. By the 1970s, analog-to-digital converters were added to mass spectrometers. This allowed computers to store and to interpret the results. As computers grew faster and smaller, GC-MS became faster and spread from laboratories into every day life. Today, computerized GC-MS instruments are widely used in environmental monitoring of water, air, and soil. It is also used in the regulation of agriculture, food safety and in the discovery and production of medicine.

paragraphs: The development of small computers has helped in the simplification of GC-MS machines. It also greatly reduced the amount of time it takes to analyze a sample. Electronic Associates, Inc. (EAI) was a leading U.S. supplier of analog computers. In 1964, EAI began development of a computer-controlled mass spectrometer under the direction of Robert E. Finnigan. By 1966, over 500 gas-analyzer instruments were sold. In 1967, the Finnigan Instrument Corporation (FIC) was formed. In early 1968, delivered the first prototype quadrapole GC-MS instruments to Stanford and Purdue University. FIC was eventually renamed Finnigan Corporation and went on to establish itself as the worldwide leader in GC-MS systems.

paragraphs: GC-MS can find all of the compounds mixed together in a sample object. The operator dissolves the sample in a liquid. The operator then injects the liquid into a stream of gas. (Helium, Hydrogen or Nitrogen gas are used most often.) The gas flows through a tube with a special coating. Because each compound in the sample sticks to the coating in a different way, each compound comes out of the tube at a different time. So the coating is used to separate each compound that was mixed together in the sample. As each compound comes out at the end of the tube, it is ionized and gets an electric charge. Most compounds break apart when they are ionized. The different pieces fly under a magnet which separates the pieces based on their weight and charge. A computer then measures all of the pieces of each compound. By comparing the measurements against a computer library of known compounds, the computer makes a list of the names of all of the compounds in the sample. The computer can also tell how much of each compound was in the sample.

paragraphs: The GC-MS is made up of two major building blocks: the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer. The gas chromatograph uses a capillary column which depends on the column's dimensions (length, diameter, film thickness) as well as the phase properties (e.g. 5% phenyl polysiloxane). The difference in the chemical properties between different molecules in a mixture will separate the molecules as the sample travels the length of the column. The molecules take different amounts of time (called the retention time) to come out of (elute from) the gas chromatograph. This allows the mass spectrometer downstream to capture, ionize, accelerate, deflect, and detect the ionized molecules separately. The mass spectrometer does this by breaking each molecule into ionized fragments and detecting these fragments using their mass to charge ratio.

paragraphs: These two machines, used together, allow a much finer precision of substance identification than either unit used separately. It is not possible to make an accurate identification of a particular molecule by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry alone. The mass spectrometry process normally requires a very pure sample. In the past, gas chromatography use other detectors such as a Flame Ionization Detector. These detectors cannot separate different molecules that happen to take the same amount of time to travel through the column. (When two different molecules have the same retention time they are said to "co-elute".) The co-eluting molecules will confuse the computer programs that are reading a single mass spectrum for both molecules.

paragraphs: Sometimes two different molecules can also have a similar pattern of ionized fragments in a mass spectrometer (mass spectrum). Combining the two processes reduces the possibility of error. It is extremely unlikely that two different molecules will behave in the same way in both a gas chromatograph and a mass spectrometer. Therefore, if a mass spectrum matches the analyte of interest, the retention time of that spectrum can be checked against a characteristic GC retention time to increased confidence that the analyte is in the sample.

paragraphs: The most common type of MS associated with a GC is the quadrupole mass spectrometer. Hewlett-Packard (now Agilent) markets it under trade name "Mass Selective Detector" (MSD). Another relatively common detector is the ion trap mass spectrometer. Additionally one may find a magnetic sector mass spectrometer. However these particular instruments are expensive and bulky and not typically found in high-throughput service laboratories. Other detectors are used such as time of flight (TOF), tandem quadrupoles (MS-MS) (see below), or in the case of an ion trap MS. The n indicates the number mass spectrometry stages.

paragraphs: A mass spectrometer is typically used in one of two ways: Full Scan or Selective Ion Monitoring (SIM). The typical GC-MS can work either way alone, or both at the same time.

paragraphs: When collecting data in the full scan mode, a target range of mass fragments is selected and put into the instrument's method. An example of a typical broad range of mass fragments to monitor would be "m/z" 50 to "m/z" 400. The determination of what range to use is largely set by what one expects being in the sample while being aware of the solvent and other possible interferences. If an MS looks for mass fragments with a very low m/z, it may detect air or other possible interferring factors. Using a large scan range decreases the sensitivity of the instrument. The machine will perform fewer scans per second because each scan will take more time to detect a wider range of mass fragments.

paragraphs: Full scan is useful in determining unknown compounds in a sample. It provides more information than SIM when it comes to confirming or resolving compounds in a sample. Most instruments are controlled by a computer which operates a computer program called an "instrument method." The instrument method controls the temperature in the GC, the MS scan rate and the range of fragment sizes being detected. When a chemist is developing an instrument method, the chemist sends test solutions through the GS-MS in full scan mode. This checks the GC retention time and the mass fragment fingerprint before moving to a SIM instrument method. Specialized GC-MS instruments, such as explosive detectors, have an instrument method pre-loaded at the factory.

paragraphs: In selected ion monitoring (SIM), the instrument method focuses on certain ion fragments. Only those mass fragments are detected by the mass spectrometer. The advantages of SIM are that the detection limit is lower since the instrument is only looking at a small number of fragments (e.g. three fragments) during each scan. More scans can take place each second. Since only a few mass fragments of interest are being monitored, matrix interferences are typically lower. To improve the chances of reading a positive result correctly, the ion ratios of the various mass fragments are comparable to a known reference standard.

paragraphs: After the molecules travel the length of the column, pass through the transfer line and enter into the mass spectrometer they are ionized by various methods. Typically only one ionization method being used at any given time. Once the sample is fragmented it will then be detected, usually by an electron multiplier diode. The diode treats the ionized mass fragment like an electrical signal that is then detected.

paragraphs: Chemists select an ionization technique separately from choosing Full Scan or SIM monitoring.

paragraphs: The most common type of ionization is electron ionization (EI). The molecules enter into the MS (the source is a quadrupole or the ion trap itself in an ion trap MS) where they are hit with free electrons emitted from a filament. This is like the filament one would find in a standard incandescent light bulb. The electrons hit the molecules, causing the molecule to fragment in a characteristic way that can be repeated. This "hard ionization" technique results in the creation of more fragments of low mass to charge ratio (m/z). EI has few, if any, fragments having a mass that is near the mass of the original molecule. Chemists consider hard ionization to be shooting electrons into the sample molecules. In contrast, "soft ionization" is placing a charge on the sample molecule by hitting it with an introduced gas. The molecular fragmentation pattern depends on the electron energy applied to the system, typically 70 eV (electron Volts). The use of 70 eV helps to compare the spectra generated from the test sample against known library spectra. (The library spectra can come from manufacturer-supplied software or software developed by the National Institute of Standards (NIST-USA)). The software searches the library spectra using a matching algorithm such as Probability Based Matching or dot-product matching. Many method standardization agencies now control these algorithms and methods to assure their objectivity.

paragraphs: In chemical ionization (CI), a reagent gas, typically methane or ammonia is put into the mass spectrometer. There are two types of CI: positive CI or negative CI. Either way, the reagent gas will interact with the electrons and analyte and cause a 'soft' ionization of the molecule of interest. A softer ionization fragments the molecule to a lower degree than the hard ionization of EI. Chemists prefer CI over EI. This is because CI produces at least one mass fragment with a weight, that is nearly the same as the molecular weight of the analyte of interest.

paragraphs: In Positive Chemical Ionization (PCI) the reagent gas interacts with the target molecule, most often with a proton exchange. This produces the ion species in relatively high amounts.

paragraphs: In Negative Chemical Ionization (NCI) the reagent gas decreases the impact of the free electrons on the target analyte. This decreased energy typically leaves the fragment in great supply. (The fragments do not break up further.)

paragraphs: The primary goal of instrument analysis is to measure an amount of substance. This is done by comparing the relative concentrations among the atomic masses in the generated mass spectrum. Two kinds of analysis are possible, comparative and original. Comparative analysis essentially compares the given spectrum to a spectrum library to see if its characteristics are present for some known sample in the library. This is best performed by a computer because there are many visual distortions that can take place due to variations in scale. Computers can also correlate more data (such as the retention times identified by the GC), to more accurately relate certain data.

paragraphs: Another method of analysis measures the peaks in relation to one another. In this method, the tallest peak is set at 100%. The other peaks given a value equal to the ratio of the peak height to the tallest peak height. All values above 3% are assigned. The total mass of the unknown compound is normally indicated by the parent peak. The value of this parent peak can be used to fit with a chemical formula containing the various elements which are believed to be in the compound. The isotope pattern in the spectrum is unique for elements that have many isotopes. So, it can also be used to identify the various elements present. This tells the overall chemical formula of the unknown molecule. Because a molecule's structure and bonds break apart in characteristic ways, they can be identified from the difference in peak masses. The identified molecule structure must be consistent with the characteristics recorded by GC-MS. Typically, this identification is done automatically by computer programs which come with the instrument. Those programs match the spectra against a library of known compounds that have same list of elements which could be present in the sample.

paragraphs: A “full spectrum” analysis considers all the “peaks” within a spectrum. But, selective ion monitoring (SIM) only monitors selected peaks associated with a specific substance. Chemists assume that at a given retention time, a set of ions is characteristic of a certain compound. SIM is a fast and efficient analysis. SIM works best when the analyst has previous information about a sample or is only looking for a few specific substances. When the amount of information collected about the ions in a given gas chromatographic peak decreases, the sensitivity of the analysis increases. So, SIM analysis allows for a smaller quantity of a compound to be detected and measured. But the degree of certainty about the identity of that compound is reduced.

paragraphs: When a second phase of mass fragmentation is added, for example using a second quadrupole in a quadrupole instrument, it is called tandem MS (MS/MS). MS/MS are good at measuring low levels of target compounds in a sample with a matrix of background compounds that are not of interest.

paragraphs: The first quadrupole (Q1) is connected with a collision cell (q2) and another quadrupole (Q3). Both quadrupoles can be used in scanning or static mode, depending on the type of MS/MS analysis used. Types of analysis include product ion scan, precursor ion scan, Selected Reaction Monitoring (SRM) and Neutral Loss Scan. For example: When Q1 is in static mode (looking at one mass only as in SIM), and Q3 is in scanning mode, one obtains a so-called product ion spectrum (also called "daughter spectrum"). From this spectrum, one can select a prominent product ion which can be the product ion for the chosen precursor ion. The pair is called a "transition" and forms the basis for SRM. SRM is highly specific and almost completely eliminates matrix background.

paragraphs: Many chemists believe that GC-MS is the best tool for monitoring organic pollutants in the environment. The cost of GC-MS equipment has decreased a lot. The reliability of GC-MS has increased at the same time. Both improvements have increased use in environmental studies. Some compounds, such as certain pesticides and herbicides, cannot be identified by GS-MS. They are too similar to other related compounds. But for most organic analysis of environmental samples, including many major classes of pesticides, GC-MS is very sensitive and effective.

paragraphs: GC-MS can analyze the particles from a human body in order to help link a criminal to a crime. The law accepts using GC-MS to analyze fire debris. In fact, the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has a standard for fire debris analysis. GCMS/MS is especially useful here as samples often contain very complex matrices and results, used in court, need to be highly accurate.

paragraphs: GC-MS is used for detection of illegal narcotics, and may eventually replace drug-sniffing dogs. It is also commonly used in forensic toxicology. It helps to find drugs and/or poisons in biological specimens taken from suspects, victims, or a dead body.

paragraphs: After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, explosive detection systems have become a part of all US airports. These systems run on a host of technologies, many of them based on GC-MS. There are only three manufacturers certified by the FAA to provide these systems. The first is Thermo Detection (formerly Thermedics), which produces the EGIS, a GC-MS-based line of explosives detectors. The second is Barringer Technologies, which is now owned by Smith's Detection Systems. The third is Ion Track Instruments (part of General Electric Infrastructure Security Systems).

paragraphs: Foods and beverages contain a lot of aromatic compounds, some naturally present in the raw materials and some forming during processing. GC-MS is extensively used for the analysis of these compounds which include esters, fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes, etc. It is also used to detect and measure contaminants from spoilage or adulteration which may be harmful. The contaminants are often controlled by governmental agencies, for example pesticides.

paragraphs: Several GC-MS have left earth. Two went to Mars in the Viking program. Venera 11 and 12 and Pioneer Venus analysed the atmosphere of Venus with GC-MS. The Huygens probe of the Cassini-Huygens mission landed one GC-MS on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. The material in the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko will be analysed by the Rosetta mission with a chiral GC-MS in 2014.

paragraphs: GC-MS are used in newborn screening tests. These tests can find dozens of congenital metabolic diseases (also known as Inborn error of metabolism). GC-MS can determine compounds in urine even in very small amounts. These compounds are normally not present but appear in individuals suffering with metabolic disorders. This is becoming a common way to diagnose IEM for earlier diagnosis and beginning of treatment. This eventually leads to a better outcome. It is now possible to test a newborn for over 100 genetic metabolic disorders by a urine test at birth based on GC-MS.

paragraphs: In combination with isotopic labeling of metabolic compounds, the GC-MS is used for determining metabolic activity. Most applications are based on the use of C as the labeling and the measurement of C-C ratios with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). A IRMS is an mass spectrometer with a detector designed to measure a few select ions and return values as ratios.


title: Lacey Brown

paragraphs: Lacey Elizabeth Brown (born August 13, 1985) is an American singer-songwriter, record producer, violinist, painter, model and fashion designer. She is from Amarillo, Texas. She was the twelfth place finalist on the ninth season of "American Idol".

paragraphs: Born on August 13, 1985, Brown is the daughter of the pastors of Victory Church, a local Christian Church, in Amarillo. There, she served as Venue (Victory's college-aged group) director and taught civics and Christian values to Victory's internship students. During her childhood, she learned how to play the violin. She also spent time in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where she had Bible schooling. Her education includes studying art. Her musical influences include folk and country, as well as rock music, such as Lady Antebellum, Kings of Leon, Coldplay, and U2, apart from Patsy Cline, Joni Mitchell, Dolly Parton, and Pete Yorn.

paragraphs: Brown first auditioned for the eighth season of "American Idol", where she made it into the Top 54 of the Hollywood rounds. Brown later auditioned in Orlando, Florida with the song "Over the Rainbow", from "The Wizard of Oz", by Judy Garland. The judges all loved her performance, including guest judge Kristin Chenoweth, and she made it through to the next round. During Hollywood week, her performance of "What a Wonderful World" was featured as a montage for contestants who made it to the Top 24. She performed "Landslide" on the first night of the semi-finals but did not impress the judges. The judges did not like her performance of "Kiss Me" by Sixpence None the Richer during the second week. Despite this, it was well received by the band's lead singer, Leigh Nash. Her cover of Brandi Carlile's "The Story", on the final night before the finals, was considered to be better. Brown eventually made it to the Top 12.

paragraphs: Brown's performance of "Ruby Tuesday" by The Rolling Stones (she stated that her version is the one by Melanie Safka), was described by the judges as not having energy, but Simon Cowell added that there was nothing wrong with her vocals. Brown was eliminated from the show on March 17, 2010. The song "What a Wonderful World" was played at the beginning of the episode, with a montage of the Top 12's journey, setting the tone for her elimination. Her elimination caused problems after Ryan Seacrest tweeted the results. Angry fans did not watch the show which had "the smallest audience among 18-49 year-olds for a regularly scheduled in-season episode in "Idol" history".

paragraphs: Brown thanked her fans for their support and plans to return to her hometown, after doing interviews in New York. She says she will try "acting" (from a criticism to her by Simon Cowell) as well as a career in music. In her final moments on the show, she said she might try country music although her MySpace page lists "pop" and "folk" as her genres. A notable line of Brown in the show was: ""You've got to take no's and turn them into yes'es""

paragraphs: After leaving Idol, Brown gave several media interviews with "Entertainment Weekly", "USA Today", "The Los Angeles Times", "People", several Fox affiliates, MTV, E!, with Ryan Seacrest on his radio show ("On Air with Ryan Seacrest"), with Ellen DeGeneres on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", along with several in New York, including "the Wendy Williams Show" and "The Late Show with David Letterman", where she performed "What a Wonderful World". Among the finalists, her closest friends are Paige Miles and Lee DeWyze although she is friends with all of them including Siobhan Magnus and Katie Stevens. She said in these interviews that she is planning to continue her career in music but she is also open to any offers that may come to her. She now lives in Nashville, Tennessee. She released an EP entitled "Let It Go" on May 31, 2011. In 2011, Brown signed a management contract with Tracy Lawrence and she will be touring at the CMA Fest in Nashville in June 2011.

paragraphs: The alternative country EP "Let It Go", with five songs on it, was released on May 31, 2011 through the independent (self-owned) record label LEB Records. Brown's voice was described as a mix "...of sweet, yet haunting tones with a hint of Brenda Lee". Her writing style was described as "...pop lyrics resting on a bed of American Bluegrass."

paragraphs: The official track listing released through the iTunes Store and Amazon.com on 31 May 2011.


title: Napkin

paragraphs: A napkin, or face towel (also in Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia: serviette) is a rectangle of cloth used at the table for wiping the mouth while eating. It is usually small and folded.


title: Chun Kuk Do

paragraphs: Chun Kuk Do (, commonly abbreviated as CKD) is a martial art (or type of fighting style) that Chuck Norris created. It is said to be based upon Tang Soo Do, another martial art.


title: Nevers

paragraphs: Nevers is a "commune" in the Nièvre department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in central France. It is the "préfecture" (capital) of the department.

paragraphs: It is the main city of the department and one of the largest city of the region, after Dijon and Chalon-sur-Saône.

paragraphs: The name of the city comes from the name of the "Nièvre" river. Julius Caesar named the town as Noviodunum but later was named as Nebirnum, after the name of the river.

paragraphs: Nevers was the capital of the old province of "Nivernais" and became the capital of Nièvres on 4 March 1790 with the creation of the departments in France.

paragraphs: Nevers is at about to the southeast of Paris, on the confluence of the Loire and the Nièvre rivers.

paragraphs: It has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

paragraphs: Nevers is surrounded by the "communes" Varennes-Vauzelles, Coulanges-lès-Nevers, Saint-Éloi, Sermoise-sur-Loire, Challuy and Marzy.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for Nevers is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Nevers is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month, on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Nevers is . The month with the most precipitation on average is May with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Nevers are known, in French, as "Nivernais" (women: "Nivernaises") but they are also known as "Neversois" (women: "Neversoises"), leaving Nivernais for the people of the department.

paragraphs: With a population of 34,485, Nevers has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Nevers forms, together with other 6 "communes", the urban area of Nevers with a population of 59,444 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Nevers, formed by 57 "communes", with a population of 100,768 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .

paragraphs: Nevers is the prefecture of the Nièvre department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Nevers and the administrative centre () of four cantons:

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Nevers Agglomération" ().


title: Beauvais

paragraphs: Beauvais is a commune. It is in the Oise department in the north of France. In 2012, 54,289 people lived there.


title: Alençon

paragraphs: Alençon is a commune. It is found in the Orne department in the north western of France.


title: Andrea Moda Formula

paragraphs: Andrea Moda Formula, commonly referred to as Andrea Moda, was a Formula One team which raced in the 1992 Formula One season. It was founded by Andrea Sassetti, who owned a shoe maker in Italy. In 1991 Sassetti bought the old Coloni F1 team which had failed to get through pre-qualifying.

paragraphs: The team was excluded from the opening race in South Africa after not paying the required $100,000 entry fee for new teams. Sassetti argued that the team was a continuation of the Coloni team. Even still, the car was not ready, as the team did not participate in the next race in Mexico. Even though the team was entered in the next race, in Brazil, with drivers Roberto Moreno and Perry McCarthy, the cars were still not ready. At the fifth race in San Marino the car was finally ready but McCarthy did not receive his Super License, which is required to race a F1 car. However, Moreno finally qualified his car in Monaco, only to retire during the race due to an engine problem.

paragraphs: In Canada, the team did not have engines because Sassetti did not pay the engine supplier, Judd, the money. The team also missed France due to their car being stuck in a blockade by French truck drivers.

paragraphs: In August of 1992, the FIA warned the team that they might be excluded (disqualified, does not count) from the championship. It was a known fact that McCarthy was barely given a chance, since the team could not afford to properly run two cars, so they mainly worked on Moreno's car while McCarthy was only there to meet the rules of having two cars in the race.

paragraphs: Finally, at the Belgian Grand Prix, Sassetti was arrested for forging invoices . The team was not allowed in the paddock at the Italian Grand Prix, because the FIA banned the team brought Formula One into disrepute.

paragraphs: () (results in bold indicate pole position)


title: Size-exclusion chromatography

paragraphs: The popular separation method called Size-Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) separates components of mixture based on the size. Recall a mixture can be composed of many substances each with different physical and chemical properties which can be used to differentiate them. SEC essentially allows components that are larger in size to exit the column (elute) first while components that are smaller in size will exit the column last.

paragraphs: A typical column used in SEC has two substances called phases that interact with the mixture and these substances help force the separation of the mixture. The mobile phase is a solvent which helps carry the mixture down the column, and the stationary phase which does not move. Unlike other chromatography methods, the stationary phase used in SEC does not exploit the polarity of each component. It is worth noting there is no chemical interaction between the stationary phase and a component. A column could be packed with two types of stationary phase material. First the stationary phase could be a porous solid. A common porous solid is silica which has a diameter of 5-10µm and a pore sizes ranging from 100-1000Å. Silica provides excellent rigidity and will not move throughout the column. Porous solids are also stable at high pressures and temperatures which allows for the use of a vast variety of solvents. Unfortunately silica particles have a tendency to allow absorb soluble components and they have the capacity to break down components into atoms. For these reasons columns could also be packed with porous gels. The structure of gel is vastly different from a porous solid because gel’s have a polymer-like (a repeating structure of the same substance) structure. Gels have been shown to be more effective than porous solids at allowing components through its pores. Gels have pore sizes ranging from 100-100000Å. So how is it that larger molecules exit the column before smaller molecules?

paragraphs: The porous material will not allow larger molecules to pass so these molecules go to the next pore and again they cannot pass. They eventually get to the bottom of the column and exit the column. Remember there is volume inside the column that is not inhabited by the stationary phase which allows for the flow of both the mobile phase and the sample. These larger molecules then find themselves at the bottom of the column whereas smaller molecules have a longer path to travel. Smaller molecules can pass through a pore and then pass through another one. The smaller a molecule is, the greater the chance is that it can fit into a pore which means the longer it spends inside the column.

paragraphs: Notice the graph is logarithmic not linear. There at two distinct positions on the curve the exclusion limit and the permeation limit. The exclusion limit defines the maximum molecular weight that can enter a pore, while the permeation limit signifies the minimum molecular weight to enter a pore. The curve itself is called the permeation region and this provides a range of molecular weights which could be found in the experiment. Retention time, how long the component spends in the column, is plotted against molecular weight. The peaks located in Figures 1 and 2 are similar to peaks liquid or gas chromatography readout. Normally peaks found in liquid or gas chromatography indicates how many components are in a mixture if the number of components is unknown and the relative amount of each component in the mixture within a given range. In the case of SEC these peaks indicate the relative amount of each component (based on molecular weight) within the permeation region.

paragraphs: SEC has several advantages and disadvantages. First in SEC the time it takes the mixture to exit the column can be controlled. Depending on the chemical characteristics of the mixture and its components the process could be quick or slow. Second the peaks are well-defined, sharp, and narrow. All characteristics indicate SCE provides good sensitivity. Next there is low mass loss since the sample theoretically is not supposed to come interact with the stationary phase. Last the stability of the stationary phase allows close packing to provide greater separation of components in the sample.

paragraphs: A clear disadvantage to SEC is with short retention times the peaks overlap and little information could be extracted from such data. Resolution (how well two peaks can two peaks be distinguished between) must be sacrificed if the process is to be shorter in time. SEC does not provide data to distinguish between components of similar molecular mass. For example if component A has molecular mass equal to 900 g/mol and component B has molecular mass equal to 950 g/mol, SEC will show one peak in this region and both components will be represented by the same peak. To have statistically different peaks there should be a 10% difference between molecular weight. Also lumped into this category are enantiomers and diastereomers which are molecules of the same molecular weight but have slightly different structures. Last SEC fails to take into account for a component’s viscosity or resistance to flow.


title: Communes of the Puy-de-Dôme department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 470 communes of the Puy-de-Dôme "département", in France.


title: Communes of the Oise department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 693 communes of the Oise "département", in France.


title: Communes of the Nord department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 652 communes of the Nord "département", in France.


title: Communes of the Nièvre department

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 312 communes of the Nièvre "département", in France.


title: Thin layer chromatography

paragraphs: Thin layer chromatography (or TLC) is a method by which mixtures are separated into their individual components.

paragraphs: TLC is performed on a TLC plate. These plates consist of a layer of silica and are usually backed by a thin piece of glass, although other materials like plastic may be used. The silica coating on the front of the TLC plate is called the stationary phase.

paragraphs: The process of running a TLC experiment starts with placing a small droplet of liquid analyte near the bottom of the TLC plate. This is called “spotting” the TLC plate. Very thin glass tubes are commonly used as spotters.

paragraphs: Once a plate has been spotted, it is placed into a glass container with a small amount of solvent. This solvent is called the mobile phase. It is important that the height of the solvent is below the height that the compound was spotted on the plate. As the solvent moves up the TLC plate by capillary action, the compound will also move. The compound will be separated into its components based upon each component’s attraction for the stationary phase versus the mobile phase. Components that are attracted to the mobile phase more than they are attracted to the stationary phase will move further up the column. Attractive forces are based on polarity differences.

paragraphs: The TLC plate should be removed before the solvent reaches the top of the plate. Separated compounds will sometimes be colored, but further work is often required for analysis. Many compounds will be illuminated when the TLC plate is placed under an ultraviolet lamp. TLC plates are also commonly dipped in stains (such as anisaldehyde, potassium permanganate, or iodine) to force a compound to appear on the plate.

paragraphs: TLC is commonly used by organic chemists to monitor the progress of reactions. The presence of starting material and products may be monitored using a single TLC plate.

paragraphs: Based on the results of a TLC experiment, a larger volume of mixture may be separated by another technique (like column chromatography) using a similar solvent system. Or, a TLC experiment may be repeated using a different solvent. Mixtures of solvents may also be used. Use of different solvents will affect how well individual components are separated on the TLC plate.


title: Reichshofstadion

paragraphs: The Reichshofstadion is a football stadium in Vorarlbergs city Lustenau. It is the largest stadium in this federal state of Austria. The stadium is the homeground of SC Austria Lustenau but is also used by the second club from Lustenau, FC Lustenau 07.

paragraphs: The stadium was built from 1952 till 1953 and was in the beginning a multipurpose stadium with a running track. During the construction of new stands the track was used so today the stadium is de facto a pure football stadium. It is the homeground of both Lustenau clubs in Austrias First league. Originally it was the homeground of Austria Lustenau, but after the promotion of FC Lustenau to the first league their stadium was not good enough for the league. The stadium offers 8 800 places, 2.126 roofed seats, 2.390 roofed and 4.284 unroofed standing room.

paragraphs: On 3 August 2007 the chapel of the stadium was consecrate, where fans of Austria Lustenau can merry. It is named after Hugo Kleinbrod, who cared after the 2. World War for children and orphans.

paragraphs: In May 2011 supporters of FC Lustenau coloured the main stand and a cash desk in their club colour blue, although they were originally green, which is Austrias colour.


title: Billiard Congress of America

paragraphs: Billiard Congress of America (BCA) is a group that organizes for cue sports in the United States. It started in 1948 as a non-profit trade organization The BCA headquarters is in Broomfield, Colorado. The voting members of the organization are mostly equipment manufacturers.


title: Commonwealth of the Philippines

paragraphs: The Commonwealth of the Philippines (, ) was the name of the Philippines from 1935 to 1946 when it was still controlled by the United States. The Philippine Commonwealth had been created by the Tydings-McDuffie Act, which was approved by the U.S. Congress in 1934. When Manuel L. Quezon became president in 1935, he was the first Filipino to head an elected government in the Philippines.

paragraphs: The President of the Philippine Commonwealth had strong control of the islands and was guided by a Supreme Court. The National Assembly or law-making part of the government, members mostly come from the Nacionalista Party, was at first only one, but later became two, a lower part and a higher part. In 1937, the government chose Tagalog, the language of Manila, as the national language.

paragraphs: Women were allowed to vote, and the economy was strong.

paragraphs: The Philippine Commonwealth government was forced out of the country from 1942–1945, when the Philippines was under Japanese control. In 1946, the Philippine Commonwealth ended when the Third Philippines Republic began.

paragraphs: The Philippine Commonwealth was also known as the Commonwealth of the Philippines, or simply as the Commonwealth. It had official names in Malasariling Pamahalan ng Pilipinas (pɪlɪˈpinɐs) and Mancomunidad Filipina (fɪlɪˈpinɐ). The 1935 constitution specifies Philippines as the country's short form name and uses Philippine Islands only to refer to pre-1935 status and institutions. Under the previous regime, known most formally as the Territory of the Philippine Islands, both terms had official status.

paragraphs: The Philippine Commonwealth had its own constitution, which remained effective until 1973, and was self-governing although foreign policy and military affairs would be under the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required the approval of the American President.

paragraphs: It featured a very strong President, a single National Assembly, and a Supreme Court, all composed entirely of Filipinos, as well as an elected Resident Commissioner to the United States House of Representatives (as Puerto Rico does today). An American High Commissioner and an American Military Advisor, were also present in the government while a Field Marshall was in charge of the Philippine Army.

paragraphs: In 1939-40, after an amendment in the Constitution, an upper and lower Congress, consisting of a Philippine Senate, and of a House of Representatives, was restored replacing the National Assembly.

paragraphs: The pre-1935 U.S. territorial administration, or Insular Government, was headed by a governor general who was appointed by the president of the U.S. In December 1932, the U.S. Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (First Philippine Independence Act) with the premise of granting Filipinos independence. Provisions of the bill included reserving several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. It was vetoed by President Herbert Hoover but the American Congress overrode his veto in 1933 and passed the bill. The bill, however, was opposed by the then Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and was also rejected by the Philippine Senate.

paragraphs: This led to the creation and passing of a new bill known as Tydings-McDuffie Act, or Philippine Independence Act, which allowed the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with a 10-year period of peaceful transition to full independence. The Commonwealth was officially inaugurated on November 15, 1935.

paragraphs: A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935 and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935.

paragraphs: In October 1935, Philippine presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the "Philippine Independent Church" leader Gregorio Aglipay, and others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively.

paragraphs: The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the Old Congress Building in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people.

paragraphs: The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic and political independence. These included national defense (such as the National Defense Act of 1935, which organized a conscription for service in the country), greater control over the economy, the perfection of democratic institutions, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the promotion of local capital, industrialization, and the colonization of Mindanao.

paragraphs: However, uncertainties, especially in the diplomatic and military situation in Southeast Asia, in the level of U.S. commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines, and in the economy due to the Great Depression, proved to be major problems. The situation was further complicated by the presence of agrarian unrest, and of power struggles between Osmeña and Quezon, especially after Quezon was permitted to be re-elected after one six-year term.

paragraphs: A proper evaluation of the policies' effectiveness or failure is difficult due to Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II.

paragraphs: Japan launched a surprise attack on the Philippines on December 8, 1941. The Philippine Commonwealth government drafted the Philippine Army into the U.S. Army Forces Far East, which would resist Japanese occupation. Manila was declared an open city to prevent its destruction, and it was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. Meanwhile, battles against the Japanese continued on the Bataan Peninsula, Corregidor, and Leyte, until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on May 1942.

paragraphs: Quezon and Osmeña were escorted by troops from Manila to Corregidor, and later they left for Australia and then the U.S. There they set up a government in exile, which participated in the Pacific War Council as well as the Declaration by United Nations. During this exile, Quezon became ill with tuberculosis, and later he died of it. Osmeña replaced him as the president.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, the Japanese military organized a new government in the Philippines known as the Second Philippine Republic, which was headed by president José P. Laurel. This government ended up being very unpopular.

paragraphs: The resistance to the Japanese occupation continued in the Philippines. This included the "Hukbalahap" ("People's Army Against the Japanese"), which consisted of 30,000 armed people and controlled much of Central Luzon. Remnants of the Philippine Army also fought the Japanese through guerrilla warfare, and it was successful, since all but 12 of the 48 provinces were liberated.

paragraphs: The American General Douglas MacArthur's army landed on Leyte on 20 October 1944, and they were all welcomed as liberators, along with Philippine Commonwealth troops when other amphibious landings soon followed. Fighting continued in remote corners of the Philippines, until Japan's surrender in August 1945, which was signed on 2 September in Tokyo Bay. Estimates for Filipino casualties reached one million, and Manila was extensively damaged when certain Japanese forces refused to vacate the city (against their orders from the Japanese High Command).

paragraphs: After the War in the Philippines, the Philippine Commonwealth was restored, and a one-year transitional period in preparation for independence began. Elections followed in April 1946 with Manuel Roxas winning as the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines and Elpidio Quirino winning as vice-president. In spite of the years of Japanese occupation, the Philippines became independent exactly as scheduled a decade before, on July 4, 1946.

paragraphs: The Commonwealth ended when the U.S. recognized Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. However, the economy remained dependent to the U.S. This was due to the Bell Trade Act, otherwise known as the Philippine Trade Act, which was a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States.

paragraphs: At the time, tenant farmers held grievances often rooted to debt caused by the sharecropping system, as well as by the dramatic increase in population, which added economic pressure to the tenant farmers' families. As a result, an agrarian reform program was initiated by the Commonwealth. However, success of the program was hampered by ongoing clashes between tenants and landowners.

paragraphs: An example of these clashes includes one initiated by Benigno Ramos through his "Sakdalista" movement, which advocated tax reductions, land reforms, the breakup of the large estates or "haciendas", and the severing of American ties. The uprising, which occurred in Central Luzon in May 1935, claimed about a hundred lives.

paragraphs: Due to the diverse number of Philippine languages, a program for the "development and adoption of a common national language based on the existing native dialects" was drafted in the 1935 Philippine constitution. The Commonwealth created a "Surian ng Wikang Pambansa" (National Language Institute), which was composed of Quezon and six other members from various ethnic groups. A deliberation was held, and the Tagalog (due to its extensive literary tradition) was selected as the basis for the "national language" to be called "Philipino".

paragraphs: In 1940, the Commonwealth authorized the creation of a dictionary and grammar book for the language. On the same year, Commonwealth Act 570 was passed, allowing Pilipino to become an official language upon independence.

paragraphs: The economy of the Commonwealth was mostly based on farming, as agriculture-based. Farmers grew abaca, coconuts and coconut oil, sugar, and timber trees. Other foreign income came from money spent at the American army, navy, and air bases in the Philippines, such as the naval base at Subic Bay and Clark Air Base. The economy was good until World War II stopped growth.

paragraphs: In 1941, the estimated population of the Philippines reached 17,000,000 while Manila's population was 684,000. The number of Chinese people rose to 117,000. There were also 30,000 Japanese people, with 20,000 living in Davao, and 9,000 U.S.-Mexicans. English was spoken by 27% of the population. Spanish was spoken by only 3%.

paragraphs: The following is the estimated number of speakers of the dominant languages:

paragraphs: The colors indicate the political party or party groups of each President at Election Day.


title: Österreichischer Fußball- Bund

paragraphs: The Austrian Football Association (ÖFB) (German: Österreichischer Fußball-Bund) is the highest body of football in Austria. It organizes the football league Austrian Bundesliga, the Austrian Cup and the Austrian national team, and the same items in women's football. It is based in Vienna.

paragraphs: In 2010 501,685 male and female players are organized into 2,256 teams. This number makes the ÖFB the largest sport organisation in Austria.

paragraphs: In 1894. the first football club was founded, and 10 years later the Österreichischer Fußball-Bund (Austrian Football Association). Until 1904, the Österreichische Fußball-Union was the leading body in Austrian football, but it dissolved after the foundation of the ÖFB. In 1905 it became a member of FIFA. In 1908 the ÖFB was host for the fifth FIFA-congress. Since 1954 the ÖFB has also been a member of the UEFA.

paragraphs: The time before the Second World War was the most successful for the ÖFB. Between 1930 and 1933 the so-called Wunderteam (miracle team) won 14 matches. In 1934 they reached fourth place in the FIFA World Cup. The Austrian team won the silver medal in the Olympic football tournament in Berlin. Also, after the Second World War, Austria played in different FIFA-World Cups: 1954, 1958, 1978, 1982, 1990, and 1998. The most successful World Cup was 1954 with third place. The last international tournament was the UEFA Euro 2008 which was hosted by Austria and Switzerland.


title: Bill Nighy

paragraphs: William Francis "Bill" Nighy (born 12 December 1949) is an English actor. He was born in Caterham, Surrey. He starred in the movies "Love Actually" and "". He was partners with actress Diana Quick from 1980 until they separated in 2008. Their daughter is actress Mary Nighy.


title: Medal of Honor (2010 video game)

paragraphs: Medal of Honor is a first-person shooter video game. It was developed by Danger Close and EA Digital Illusions CE (DICE). It is the twelfth game in the "Medal of Honor" series. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on October 12, 2010. The game is set in the ongoing War in Afghanistan.


title: Flame ionization detector

paragraphs: Flame Ionization Detectors (shortened FID) is a common type detector used in gas chromatography. These detectors are best at detecting organic compounds. The first flame ionization detector was developed in 1957 in Australia.

paragraphs: The purpose of a FID is to detect compounds as they exit out of the gas chromatography column. The compounds that are exiting the column are in the gas phase. Detection is done by first turning the gas compounds into ions and electrons and then collecting the charged molecules. The FID turns compounds into ions and electrons by putting them into a flame. The fuel used to make the flame in FIDs is usually made of a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. As these charged materials are collected, they make a current which is measured. The larger the current the more charged compounds are being collected. Currents for FIDs are usually about 10 amps and are measured by a high-impedance picoammeter.

paragraphs: Flame ionization detectors are used most often for organic compounds. This is because organic compounds contain lot of carbon atoms which easily turn into ions. Reduced carbons (carbons with no oxygen bonds) make the most ions. Other carbons such as alcohols (C-O-H) and carbonyls (C=O) do not make as many ions.

paragraphs: Many times organic samples being tested are not pure. The samples often contain impurities such as water (HO), carbon dioxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO), nitrous oxides (NO), and noble gases. The FID does not detect these impurities because they do not burn. This makes the FID a very useful detector because the samples being tested do not have to be purified before being tested.

paragraphs: FID can be used to detect very small amounts of material, as small as 10 g/s. It is also accurate over a large range of molecule amounts (a range of over 10). One problem with FID is that it destroys the sample being tested. Any sample used in gas chromatography with an FID cannot be used for other measurements afterwards. Also, a lot of fuel is required as well as very exact equipment to get exact results.


title: Little Wing

paragraphs: "Little Wing'" is a 1967 psychedelic rock song by the English band The Jimi Hendrix Experience and was featured on their album . The song was written by lead vocalist and guitarist Jimi Hendrix. The song was ranked as #357 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of "the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". The song has been covered by many other musical artists.


title: Edam, Netherlands

paragraphs: Edam is a city in the province of North Holland in the Netherlands. About 7,380 people live there. The town is part of the municipality of Edam-Volendam. It is famous for Edam cheese which was first made in the town. The town has a little pub and a young population.


paragraphs: Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides is a 2011 American fantasy comedy adventure movie that was produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and was directed by Rob Marshall. "Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides" was released on May 18 and May 20, 2011 in North America. The movie was the fourth movie in the "Pirates of the Caribbean" francise by Disney and the first and currently the only to be directed by Rob Marshall. It is the sequel to "". It is based on the novel "On Stranger Tides" by Tim Powers. The movie was shot in Hawaii, California and Puerto Rico.


title: Tequila, Jalisco

paragraphs: Santiago de Tequila is a Mexican city. The town is in the Mexican state of Jalisco. At the 2005 census, Tequila had 38,534 people. The town is known for being the birthplace of the beverage known as tequila. The popularity and history of the drink made the town of Tequila a World Heritage Site.


title: Cashpoint Arena Altach

paragraphs: The Cashpoint Arena is a football stadium in Altach, Vorarlberg, Austria. It is the homeground of SCR Rheindorf Altach, a football club playing in Austrian Football First League, which is the second level in Austrias football.

paragraphs: The stadium was built 1989/90 and was opened on 1 June 1990 under the name Schnabelholz. 1998 the main stand of the stadium was completely roofed. After the promotion to the First league a floodlighting was installed. After the promotion to the Bundesliga a new stand with 1 800 seats was built because the Bundesliga regulates 3000 seats at least. The stadium now offers over 3000 roofed seats. 2006 the match versus SK Rapid Wien was visited by 8 900 people which is the record till today.

paragraphs: The stadium offers a unique athmosphere because the visitors are near to the playing field. But the stadium is not only used for football but also for open air concerts and other events.


title: Time-domain spectroscopy

paragraphs: Time-domain spectroscopy is a type of spectroscopy that measures the power of electromagnetic radiation as a function of time. Normal spectroscopy is frequency-domain spectroscopy. It measures radiation as a function of frequency or wavelength. Time-domain spectroscopy usually requires the use of Fourier transforms.

paragraphs: Two monochromatic lights of different frequencies can combine to show interference patterns. At time t=0, the waves interfere constructively. This gives a maximum in the added plot. The waves get more out of phase. This leads to destructive interference and a minimum in the added plot. From one peak maximum to the next is a "cycle". So when looking at two monochromatic lights, they can be graphed as two lines in the frequency-domain (this plot shows power, P(ν), as a function of frequency). The same two lights can be plotted as the sum of their waves in the time-domain (this plot shows power, P(t), as a function of time).

paragraphs: Spectroscopy done with visible or infrared radiation involves wavelengths of 10 to 10 Hz. Phototransducers (instruments that convert light to information readable by a computer) cannot make measurements that quickly. What is needed, then, is a way to make these high-frequency signals into low-frequency signals. For optical spectroscopy (such as infrared spectroscopy) the most common way to do this is by using a "Michelson interferometer".

paragraphs: Monochromatic light traveling through a Michelson interferometer is split into two beams by a beam splitter. These beams travel to mirrors, reflect, and then recombine at the beam splitter. One of the mirrors can be moved. If the two mirrors are the same distance apart, they meet at the beam splitter in-phase and show constructive interference. As the one mirror is moved, the beams become slightly more out of phase. When the movable mirror has moved a distance equal to ¼ of the light's wavelength, the extra distance it travels is ½ the light's wavelength. This means that when the two beams combine at the beam splitter, they destructively interfere. So moving the mirror a total distance of ½ the wavelength of light means the spectra will show one complete cycle. One could then plot the power of radiation as a function of distance traveled by the movable mirror. However, by knowing the speed of the movable mirror the power of radiation can be plotted as a function of time.

paragraphs: Most time-domain spectroscopy experiments involve broadband radiation (radiation that consists of a large range of wavelengths).

paragraphs: Time-domain spectroscopy is used very often in infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and NMR spectroscopy(FT-NMR). It has several advantages over frequency-domain spectroscopy. In frequency-domain experiments, each wavelength must be measured one at a time. This means scans can take several minutes. A single time-domain experiment takes no longer than a minute. Usually it only takes seconds. This means that many scans may be taken for a given sample, and that the scans can be averaged. So not only is the time-domain experiment faster, but it can also have a better signal to noise ratio.

paragraphs: D.A. Skoog, F.J. Holler, S.R. Crouch. 2007. " Principles of Instrumental Analysis". 6th ed, Thompson and Brooks/Cole: Canada.


title: Merle Haggard

paragraphs: Merle Ronald Haggard (April 6, 1937 – April 6, 2016) was an American country music singer and songwriter. He was known for his song "Okie from Muskogee". He was inducted into the Oklahoma Music Hall of Fame. He was involved with the growing outlaw country movement in the 1970s. Haggard won three Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: On April 6, 2016, Haggard died at his home in Palo Cedro, California from complications of pneumonia. He was 79 years old.


title: Battlefield 3

paragraphs: Battlefield 3 (BF3) is a first-person shooter video game. It was made by EA Digital Illusions CE and it was published by Electronic Arts. The game was released in October 2011. It is available for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. Battlefield 3 is the 11th game in the "Battlefield" video games series, and it is next part of "Battlefield 2" (2005). On 29 June 2012, EA revealed that the game has sold 15 million copies.