title: Fairy tale

paragraphs: A fairy tale is an English language expression for a kind of short story. It has the same meaning as the French expression ' or ', the German word ', the Italian ', the Polish ', the Russian ' or the Swedish "". These stories are not all directly about fairies, but they are different from legends and traditions (which usually say that the stories are true) and directly moral stories. There are usually fairies, goblins, elves, trolls, giants or gnomes in fairy tales, and usually magic.

paragraphs: Fairy tales can also mean unusual happiness (for example, the expression "fairy tale ending", meaning a happy ending, even though not all fairy tales have a happy ending). Also, "fairy tale" can simply mean any unbelievable story.

paragraphs: Where demons and witches are seen as real, fairy tales can sometimes be similar to legends, where the story is claimed to be historically true. However, differently from legends and epics, they usually do not specifically mention religion and actual places, people, and events. They also do not say exactly when it happened. Instead, they say that the story happened "once upon a time".

paragraphs: Fairy tales are found in oral form (passed on from mouth to mouth) and in literary form (written down). Fairy tales' histories are hard to find. This is because only written fairy tales can be passed on for a long time. Still, literary works show that there have been fairy tales for thousands of years. Many fairy tales today have are based on very old stories that have appeared, though in different ways, in many different cultures around the world. Fairy tales, and works based on from fairy tales, are still written today.

paragraphs: At first, fairy tales were for both adults and children, but now children are mostly connected with fairy tales. Examples of traditional old fairy tales are "Sleeping Beauty", "Little Red Riding Hood" and "The Three Little Pigs". There can also be new fairy tales written by an author, like "The Little Mermaid" or "Pinocchio". New fairy tales were for example written by Hans Christian Andersen, James Thurber and Oscar Wilde.

paragraphs: People do not agree what a fairy tale exactly is. Some argue that a story with fairies or other magical beings in the story would make it a fairy tale. However, others have suggested that the expression began when the French expression "conte de fées" was being translated (it was first used by Madame D'Aulnoy in 1697). Vladimir Propp criticized the difference between "fairy tales" and "animal tales" in his book "Morphology of the Folktale". He said that many stories had both fantastic qualities and animals. He suggested that fairy tales could be recognized by their story, but this has been criticized, because the same stories can be found in stories that are not fairy tales.

paragraphs: In fact, people such as Stith Thompson point out that there are often more talking animals and magic in fairy tales than fairies. However, just because there is a talking animal in a story does not mean that the story is a fairy tale.

paragraphs: Steven Swann Jones said that fairy tales were different from other sorts of folktales because of magic. Davidson and Chaudri say that "transformation (changing)" is the most important part of a fairy tale.

paragraphs: Some like to use the German expression "Märchen" or "wonder tale" instead of "fairy tale". For example, in his 1977 edition of "The Folktale", Thompson said that fairy tales were "a tale of some length involving a succession of motifs or episodes. It moves in an unreal world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvelous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries (enemies), succeed to kingdoms and marry princesses." The characters and motifs of fairy tales are simple: princesses and girls taking care of geese; youngest sons and brave princes; ogres, giants, dragons, and trolls; wicked stepmothers and false heroes; fairy godmothers and other magic helpers, often talking horses, or foxes, or birds; rules, and people breaking rules.

paragraphs: Fairy tales were passed down by speaking of it from person to person before writing was developed. Stories were told or acted out dramatically. Because of this, the history of fairy tales is not very clear. The oldest written fairy tales we know are from ancient Egypt, around 1300 BC. There are sometimes fairy tales in written literature in different cultures, such as "The Golden Ass", which includes "Cupid and Psyche" (Roman, 100–200 AD). They show that fairy tales were told from very long ago.


title: Game show

paragraphs: A game show is a reality television program where people play a game for points, with the goal of winning money or prizes. Different game shows use different games. Most test the players' knowledge, skill, or cleverness. Many game shows incorporate some element of chance; for example, in "Wheel of Fortune", contestants spin a wheel to determine how much prize money they will get for a correct letter.

paragraphs: Some game shows have the contestants compete against other individual contestants; other game shows group contestants into teams. Some game shows have regular people as the contestants. Other game shows have celebrities such as movie actors or musicians as the contestants.

paragraphs: Many game shows air on the Game Show Network.

paragraphs: Game shows often reward people with money, holidays, or cars. These prizes are often given by the people or group of people that give the game show money to run. The people who give the game show money to run are called sponsors.


title: Genre

paragraphs: A genre (from ) is a style or type of music, literature, movies, or other media.

paragraphs: Some genres (styles) are used in more than one form of art or communication. For example, the genres fantasy and science fiction are used in literature, movies, and television.


title: Kristy Swanson

paragraphs: Renee Kristen "Kristy" Swanson (born December 19, 1969) is an American actress. She is best known for playing the main character in the movie "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". She has also starred in the movie "Flowers in the Attic" as well as many movies and television programs.


title: Octopus

paragraphs: Octopus is a genus of cephalopod mollusc in the order Octopoda. The genus is quite typical of most octopods. They have two, large eyes and eight limbs with suckers. They have a hard beak, with the mouth at the center point of the arms.

paragraphs: Octopods have no internal or external skeleton, allowing them to squeeze through tight places. Many stay in cracks between rocks or corals when they are not hunting. They are intelligent predators with a taste for crabs.

paragraphs: Octopods inhabit many regions of the ocean, especially coral reefs. For defense against predators, they hide, flee quickly, expel ink, or use colour-changing camouflage. They live rather short lives.

paragraphs: An octopus trails its eight arms behind it as it swims. All octopods are venomous, but only the small blue-ringed octopus is known to be deadly to humans.

paragraphs: There are about 300 octopod species, of which more than 100 are in the genus "Octopus". Octopods make up over one-third of the total number of living cephalopods. The term 'octopus' may be used to refer to those in the genus "Octopus". The term 'octopod' is correct for members of the order Octopoda in general.

paragraphs: Unlike most other cephalopods, most octopods have only soft body with no internal skeleton. They have no protective outer shell like the nautilus, which is another type of cephalopod.

paragraphs: A beak, similar in shape to a parrot's beak, is their only hard part.

paragraphs: Because of this, it is very easy for an octopus to squeeze through very narrow openings between rocks, for example squeezing through a hole as big as its eye.

paragraphs: Octopod eyes are complex. In fact, they do not have a blind spot. A "blind spot" is a special place in the eyes that is not able to sense light. So, when we look somewhere, part of what is there is not actually perceived (the brain 'fills in' so we do not notice). However, an octopus does not have this problem.

paragraphs: The lens in octopod are movable. It moves back and forth to focus. This is the way a camera focuses. When a camera focuses on an object to take a picture, the lens moves back and forth until the image that the camera sees is in the right focus.

paragraphs: Some octopuses can use their chromatophores for more than camouflage. If they are not blending in with their surroundings, they can signal their feelings using colour. When they are relaxed, for example, they are a dull, grayish brown or orange-tinged colour. When they become angry, they can become red. If they feel scared, they may turn white.

paragraphs: Octopods are highly intelligent, probably more so than any other invertebrate. The exact extent of their intelligence and learning capability is much debated among biologists. Maze and problem-solving experiments have shown that they do have both short and long-term memory. Their short lifespans limit the amount they can learn.

paragraphs: Some octopods, such as the mimic octopus, can move their arms in ways which copy the movements of other sea creatures.

paragraphs: In laboratory experiments, octopuses can be readily trained to distinguish between different shapes and patterns. They have been seen in what some have described as play: repeatedly releasing bottles or toys into a circular current in their aquariums and then catching them. Octopuses often break out of their aquaria and sometimes into others in search of food.

paragraphs: The largest of the 300+ species of octopods, the giant octopus "Enteroctopus", is large indeed. Mature males average about 50 pounds and females about 33 pounds. Their arm spans are about eight feet. They have even boarded fishing boats and opened holds to get at and eat crabs.

paragraphs: In the UK, cephalopods such as octopuses are regarded as "honorary vertebrates" under the "Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986". This gives them protection not normally given to invertebrates.

paragraphs: Octopods are the only invertebrate which have been definitely shown to use tools. At least four specimens of the veined octopus ("Amphioctopus marginatus") have been seen picking up discarded coconut shells, and then reassembling them to use as shelter.

paragraphs: Octopods are active and intelligent predators, with good eyesight and brains. They eat mostly crabs and some fish.

paragraphs: Octopods have a variety of defences. They use active camouflage and mimicry, controlled by their nervous system. Most can eject black ink clouds to help escape, and some can shed an arm in extreme danger. It wriggles, and attracts the attacker.

paragraphs: When octopods reproduce, males use a specialized arm to put packets of sperm into the female's mantle cavity. Males die within a few months of mating. In some species, the female octopus can keep the sperm alive inside her for weeks until her eggs are mature.

paragraphs: After they have been fertilized, the female lays about 200,000 eggs (this figure dramatically varies between species). The female cares for the eggs, guarding them against predators, and gently blows currents of water over them so they get enough oxygen. The female does not hunt during the one-month period spent taking care of the unhatched eggs, and may ingest some of her own arms for sustenance.

paragraphs: At around the time the eggs hatch, the mother leaves the lair and is too weak to defend herself from predators like cod, often succumbing to their attacks. The young larval octopuses spend a period of time drifting in clouds of plankton, where they feed until they are ready to descend to the ocean bottom, where the cycle repeats.

paragraphs: All octopods for which we have data have a relatively short life expectancy. Some species live for as little as six months. Larger species, such as the North Pacific giant octopus, may live for up to five years under suitable circumstances.

paragraphs: "Reproduction is a cause of death": males can only live for a few months after mating, and females die shortly after their eggs hatch. They neglect to eat during the (roughly) one-month period spent taking care of their unhatched eggs, but apparently they do not die of starvation. A biological explanation of these short lifespans (or rapid ageing) is not agreed at present.

paragraphs: Off the coast of California, marine biologists have watched the same female octopod guarding her eggs for over four years. Their development took a long time because the water 1.4 kilometres down was very cold. They knew it was the same octopod because it had a characteristic scar. The research was done using a remote diving vehicle with cameras, lights and robotic arms.


title: Byzantine Empire

paragraphs: The Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire) was the name of the eastern remnant of the Roman Empire which survived into the Middle Ages. Its capital was Constantinople, which today is in Turkey and is now called Istanbul. Unlike the Western Roman Empire, the most important language was Greek, not Latin, and Greek culture and identity dominated.

paragraphs: The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as:

paragraphs: In 324, the Roman Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the city of "Byzantium", and he renamed the city Constantinople. 150 years later, after the city of Rome was slowly taken over by Germanic people during the Migration period, Constantinople was the only remaining capital of the Empire. This Eastern empire had a smaller territory than the original Roman Empire.

paragraphs: The Byzantine Empire tried to take back Rome and Italy from the Germans. Between 530–555 AD, the Byzantines won many battles and took back Rome.

paragraphs: These gains did not last however. More Germans came and eventually Italy and Rome was lost again. Worse was to come when Avar and Slavic peoples came to take modern Bulgaria and Greece from the Byzantines. Gradually, after the 560s the invaders won much of the Balkans. These invaders were later followed by the Bulgarians. The Avars and Bulgarians were both Turkic peoples at first. They ruled over Slavic people called "Sklavinai" and slowly absorbed Slavic language and customs.

paragraphs: After western Rome was captured by Germanic people, the Empire continued to control modern Egypt, Greece, Palestine, Syria and Turkey. However, another Empire, known as the Persian or Sassanid Empire, tried to take these lands for itself. Between 224–628 AD, the Romans and the Persians fought many battles, with many men killed in the fighting. Eventually, the Persians were defeated in modern-day Iraq, near the ancient city of Nineveh in 627 AD, allowing the Byzantines to keep their lands.

paragraphs: After this, another enemy appeared: the Arabs. The Byzantines were economically damaged by the battles with the Persians. They could not withstand the Arabs. Palestine, Syria and Egypt were lost between 635 and 645. However, the Byzantines defended Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and the Arab advance stopped.

paragraphs: In 718 AD, the Arabs were defeated outside Constantinople, ending the Arab threat in the east, but leaving the Byzantine Empire severely weakened. In the west, the Byzantines launched a number of attacks against the Bulgarians. Some of these were successful, others were not and led to the deaths of many emperors. Over time, the Byzantine Empire would became weaker as it loss land to outside invaders.

paragraphs: Between 1007–1014, the ambitious Byzantine Emperor Basil II attacked Bulgaria many times and eventually won a great victory. Later, he fully recaptured Greece, adding it back to the Byzantine Empire. He then went on to conquer Bulgaria, which was completed in 1018.

paragraphs: In the east, the Arabs once again became a threat to the Empire. However, Basil II's attacks won many more victories. Much of Syria was restored to the Empire and Turkey and Armenia were secured. After 1025, the Arabs were no longer a threat to the Byzantine Empire.

paragraphs: After the Byzantine Emperor Basil II died, many unskilled Emperors came to the throne. They wasted the money of the Empire and reduced its army. This meant that it could not defend itself well against enemies if they would attack. Later, the Byzantines relied on mercenaries, soldiers who fought for money and not for their country, so they were less loyal and reliable and more expensive. Because they had mercenaries, military generals were able to rise to power and grab it from the elaborate bureaucracy, a system of administration where tasks are divided by departments.

paragraphs: A large number of people known as the Turks rode on horseback from central Asia and attacked the Byzantine Empire. The Seljuk Empire took all of Turkey from the Byzantines by 1091. However, the Byzantines received help from people in Europe. This help is known as the First Crusade. Many knights and soldiers left to help the Byzantines but also to secure Jerusalem for Christians, which at the time was in Muslim hands.

paragraphs: The Byzantine Empire survived and with the help of the Europeans took back half of Turkey from the Turks, with the other half remaining under the Turks. The Byzantines survived because three good Emperors ruled one after the other, allowing the Byzantines to grow strong again.

paragraphs: After the three good Emperors, the remaining Emperors ruled badly and again wasted a lot of money and soldiers.

paragraphs: In the west, the Europeans betrayed the Byzantines and attacked their capital, Constantinople. The Byzantines lost their capital in 1204 and they did not take it back until 1261. The Byzantines were then divided into many smaller Greek states that were fighting with each other for the throne of the Empire.

paragraphs: After the Byzantines took back Constantinople, they were too busy fighting the Europeans who had betrayed them and could not find enough soldiers or money to fight the new Ottoman Empire of the Turks. All of Anatolia was lost by 1331. In 1369, the Turks crossed over from Turkey and into Greece, taking over much of Greece between 1354–1450.

paragraphs: The Byzantines lost so much land, money and soldiers that they became very weak and begged for help from the Europeans. Some soldiers and ships came from Italy and the Pope to assist the Byzantines when the Turks attacked Constantinople in April 1453. They were very outnumbered though, and the walls of Constantinople were badly damaged by cannons used by the Turks. At the end of May 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople by entering through one of the gates along the walls and the Empire came to an end. The city was plundered for three days. At the end, the population which had not been able to escape, was deported to Edirne, Bursa and other Ottoman cities, leaving the city deserted except for the Jews of Balat and the Genoese of Pera. After that, Constantinople became Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, which it would be until the 1900s, when the capital was moved to Ankara, a city in the Asian part of Turkey.

paragraphs: The Byzantine Empire had many achievements:


title: Guqin

paragraphs: The (; ; Wade–Giles: ku-ch'in; literally "ancient stringed-instrument") is the modern name for a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family. It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favored by educated people as an instrument of great beauty and refinement. It is uncommonly spelt as Gu Qin (and sometimes GuQin or Gu-qin) in English.

paragraphs: Traditionally the instrument was called simply qin 「琴」, but by the 20th century the term had come to be used on many other musical instruments as well (for example, the "yangqin" 「揚琴」 hammered dulcimer, the "huqin" 「胡琴」 family of bowed string instruments, and the Western piano (; literally "steel stringed-instrument")), so the prefix "gu-" 「古」 (meaning "ancient") was added for clarification. It can also be called qixianqin 「七絃琴」 ("seven-stringed instrument"). The guqin is not to be confused with the "guzheng", another Chinese long zither also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. Because Robert Hans van Gulik's famous book about the qin is called "The Lore of the Chinese Lute", the qin is sometimes inaccurately called a lute. Other incorrect classifications (mainly from music CDs) include "harp" or "table-harp". Other Western nicknames for the guqin include "Chinese guitar" and "Chinaman's harp".

paragraphs: The qin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register (its lowest pitch is about two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello). Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. Stopped sounds are special for the variety of slides and ornaments used, and the use of glissando (sliding tones) gives it a sound similar to a pizzicato cello or fretless bass guitar. Extended sections in music scores consisting entirely of harmonics are common, this made possible because the 91 indicated harmonic positions allow great flexibility; early tablature shows that even more harmonic positions were used in the past. By tradition the qin originally had five strings, but ancient qin-like instruments with 10 or more strings have been found. The modern form has been standardized from about two thousand years.

paragraphs: Legend has it that the qin, has a history of about 5,000 years; that the legendary people of China's pre-history; Fuxi, Shennong and Huang Di (the Yellow Emperor), was involved in its creation. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and related instruments have been found in tombs from about 2,500 years ago. Chinese tradition says the qin originally had five strings, but then two were added about 1,000 BCE, making seven.

paragraphs: Based on the detailed description in the poetic essay "Qin Fu" 【琴賦】 by Xi Kang / Ji Kang (223–262), the form of the qin that is recognizable today was most likely set around the late Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). The earliest surviving qin in this modern form, preserved in both Japan and China, have been dated to the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Many are still playable, the most famous perhaps being the one named "Jiuxiao Huanpei" 《九霄環佩》, said to have been made by the famous late Tang dynasty qin maker Lei Wei (雷威). It is kept in the Forbidden City Museum in Beijing.

paragraphs: According to Robert Temple, the qin played an important part in the gaining the first understanding of music timbre for the Chinese. He said that "the Chinese understanding of the nature of sound as vibration was much increased by studying the production of timbre on the strings of the "ch'in"." This understanding of timbre, overtones and higher harmonics eventually led the Chinese to discover equal temperament in music.

paragraphs: In 1977, a recording of "Liu Shui" (Flowing Water, as performed by Guan Pinghu, one of the best qin players of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecrafts. It is the longest music track included on the disc. In 2003, guqin music was proclaimed one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.

paragraphs: Because of the difference in geography in China, many qin schools known as "qin pai" (琴派) developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest.

paragraphs: Most qin schools and groups are based in China. During the 20th century some societies began in other countries. Qin study was initially confined to China in ancient times. Today countries like Japan also have their own qin small traditions. The Tokyo Qin Society was recently founded. Japan has published a "qinpu" (qin tablature collection) in the past, known as "Toukou Kinpu" or "Donggao Qinpu" 【東臯琴譜】.

paragraphs: There have been many players throughout the ages. The instrument was a favourite of the scholars, so many artists played it. Some famous players are also associated with some melodies, like Confucius and Qu Yuan.

paragraphs: Classical books such as "Qin Shi", "Qinshi Bu" and "Qinshi Xu" have biographies of hundreds of more players.

paragraphs: The beauty of qin melodies comes not only from the melodies themselves, but from the variation a player can apply to the individual tones and their combinations. The rich tones of the qin can be categorised as three distinctively different "sounds." The first is "san yin" 〔散音〕, which means "scattered sounds." This meant simply pluck the required string to sound an open note. The second is "fan yin" 〔泛音〕, or "floating sounds." These are harmonics, and the player simply lightly touches the string with one or more fingers of the left hand at a position indicated by the white "hui" dots, pluck and then lift, creating a crisp and clear sound ringing sound. The third is "an yin" 〔按音 / 案音 / 實音 / 走音〕, or "stopped sounds." This forms the majority of most qin pieces and requires the player to press on a string with a finger or thumb of the left hand until it touches with the surface board, then pluck. Afterwards, the hand can slide up and down, thereby changing the pitch.

paragraphs: When plucking the strings, it is not required to attach fake-nails on one's fingers. One will often leave their fingernails long, and cut them into an rounded shape. The length is subjective and will depend on the player's preference, but it is usually around 3-4mm from the finger tip. If it is too short, then the finger tip will deaden the sound as it touches the string after the nail has plucked it. If it is too long then the fingers can make playing difficult. Generally, the nails of the right hand are kept long, whilst the nails of the left are cut short, so as to be able to press on the strings without difficulty.

paragraphs: There are eight basic right hand finger techniques: "pi" 〈劈〉 (thumb pluck outwards), "tuo" 〈托〉 (thumb pluck inwards), "mo" 〈抹〉 (index in), "tiao" 〈挑〉 (index out), "gou" 〈勾〉 (middle in), "ti" 〈剔〉 (middle out), "da" 〈打〉 (ring in), and "zhai" 〈摘〉 (ring out); the little finger is not used. Out of these basic eight, their combinations create many more. "Cuo" 〈撮〉 is to pluck two strings at the same time, "lun" 〈輪〉 is to pluck a string with the ring, middle and index finger out in quick succession, the "suo" 〈鎖〉 technique involves plucking a string several times in a fixed rhythm, "bo" 〈撥〉 cups the fingers and strums two strings at the same time, and "gun fu" 〈滾拂〉 is to create a sequence of sounds by running up and down the strings continuously with the index and middle fingers. These are just a few.

paragraphs: Left hand techniques start from the simple pressing down on the string (mostly with the thumb between the flesh and nail, and the ring finger), sliding up or down to the next note ("shang" 〈上〉 and "xia" 〈下〉), to vibrati by swaying the hand ("yin" 〈吟〉 and "nao" 〈猱〉, there are as many as 15 plus different forms of vibrato), plucking the string with the thumb whilst the ring finger stops the string at the lower position ("qiaqi" 〈掐起 / 搯起〉), hammering on a string using the thumb ("yan" 〈掩 / 罨〉), to more difficult techniques such as pressing on several strings at the same time.

paragraphs: Techniques executed by both hands together are more difficult to achieve, for example, "qia cuo san sheng" 〈掐撮三聲〉 (a combination of hammering on and off then plucking two strings, then repeating), to more exciting forms, like pressing of all seven strings with the left, then strumming all the strings with the right, then the left hand quickly moves up the qin, creating a rolling sound like a bucket of water being thrown in a deep pool of water (this technique is used in the Shu style of "Liu Shui" to copy the sound of water).

paragraphs: In order to master the qin, there are in excess of 50 different techniques that must be mastered. Even the most commonly used (such as "tiao") are difficult to get right without proper instruction from a teacher.

paragraphs: Written qin music did not directly tell what notes were played like many outer musical instruments; instead, it was written in a tablature detailing tuning, finger positions, and plucking technique, thus made up of a step by step method and description of how to play a piece. Some tablatures do indicate notes using the "gongche" notation system, or indicate rhythm using dots.

paragraphs: The earliest example of the modern shorthand tablature survives from around the 12th century CE. An earlier form of music notation from the Tang era survives in just one manuscript, dated to the 7th century CE, called "Jieshi Diao: You Lan" 《碣石調幽蘭》 (Solitary Orchid, in Stone Tablet Mode). It is written in a longhand form called "wenzi pu" 〔文字譜〕 (literally "written notation"), which gives all the details using ordinary written Chinese characters. Later in the Tang dynasty, Cao Rou (曹柔) and others simplified the notation, using only the important elements of the characters (like string number, plucking technique, "hui" number and which finger to stop the string) and combined them into one character notation. This meant that instead of having two lines of written text to describe a few notes, a single character could represent one note, or sometimes as many as nine. This notation form was called "jianzi pu" 〔減字譜〕 (literally "reduced notation") and it was a great step forward for recording qin scores. It was so successful that from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) onwards, a lot of qinpu 〔琴譜〕 (qin tablature collections) appeared, the most famous and useful being "Shenqi Mipu" (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) compiled by Zhu Quan (朱勸), the 17th son of the founder of the Ming dynasty. In the 1960s, Zha Fuxi discovered more than 130 qinpu that contain well over 3360 pieces of written music. Many qinpu compiled before the Ming dynasty are now lost, and many pieces have remained unplayed for hundreds of years.

paragraphs: Existing qinpu generally come from private collections or in public libraries throughout China, etc. Those that are available for public purchase are photographic copies printed and bound in the traditional Chinese bookbinding process. More modern qinpu tend to be bound in the normal Western way on modern paper. The format uses qin notation with staff notation and/or "jianpu" notation.

paragraphs: Qin pieces are usually around three to eight minutes in length, with the longest being "Guangling San" 《廣陵散》, which is 22 minutes long. Other famous pieces include "Liu Shui" 《流水》 (Flowing Water), "Yangguan San Die" 《陽關三疊》 (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), "Meihua San Nong" 《梅花三弄》 (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), "Xiao Xiang Shui Yun" 《瀟湘水雲》 (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and "Pingsha Luo Yan" 《平沙落雁》 (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). The average player can generally play around ten pieces from memory which they will aim to play very well, learning new pieces as and when they feel like it. Players mainly learn popular well studied versions, often using a recording as a reference. In addition to learning to play established or ancient pieces very well, highly skilled qin players may also compose or improvise, although the player must be very good and extremely familiar with the instrument to be successful at it.

paragraphs: Dapu 〔打譜〕 is the conversion of old tablature into a playable form. This can be used to create new music as well as to reconstruct the ancient melodies. Since qin tablature does not indicate note value, tempo or rhythm, the player must work it out for him/herself. Normally, qin players will learn the rhythm of a piece through a teacher. They sit facing one another, with the student copying the master. The tablature will only be looked at if the teacher is not sure of how to play a certain part. Because of this, traditional qinpu do not indicate them. If one did not have a teacher, then one had to work out the rhythm by themselves. But it would be a mistake to say that qin music has no rhythm or melody. By the 20th century, there had been attempts to try to replace the shorthand notation, but so far, it has been unsuccessful; since the 20th century, qin music is generally printed with staff notation above the qin tablature. Because qin tablature is so useful, logical, easy, and the fastest way (once the performer knows how to read the notation) of learning a piece, it is invaluable to the qin player and cannot totally be replaced. There are two views of how to best use dapu: one is to use it to create new music, and the other is to use it to reconstruct the way the original music was played.

paragraphs: According to tradition, the qin originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty, Zhou Wen Wang 周文王 added a sixth string to mourn his son, Bo Yihou 伯邑考. His successor, Zhou Wu Wang 周武王, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang. The thirteen "hui" 『徽』 on the surface represent the 13 months of the year (the extra 13th is the 'leap month' in the lunar calendar). The surface board is round to represent Heaven and the bottom board flat to represent earth. The entire length of the qin (in Chinese measurements) is 3 feet, 6.5 inches, representing the 365 days of the year (though this is just a standard since qins can be shorter or longer depending on the period's measurement standard or the maker's preference). Each part of the qin has meaning, some more obvious, like "dragon pool" 『龍池』 and "phoenix pond" 『鳳沼』.

paragraphs: The sound chamber of the qin is constructed with two boards of wood, typically of differing wood types. The slightly rounded top board (soundboard) is usually made of "tong" wood 『桐』, the Chinese parasol tree, or Chinese paulownia. The bottom board is made of "zi mu" 『梓木』 catalpa ("Catalpa ovata") or, more recently, "nan mu" 『楠木』 camphor wood ("Machilus nanmu"). The wood must be well aged, that is, the sap and moisture must be removed (of the top board wood). If sap remains then the sound will not be clear and, as the moisture evaporates, the wood will warp and crack. Some makers use old or ancient wood to construct qins because most of the sap and moisture has been removed naturally by time (old "shan mu" 『杉木』, Chinese Cunninghamia or Japanese Cryptomeria, is often used for creating modern qins). Some go to lengths to obtain extremely ancient wood, such as that from Han dynasty tomb structures or coffins. Although such wood is very dry, it is not necessarily the best since it may be infected with wood worm or be of a bad quality or type. Many modern qins made out of new "tong" wood (such as those made by Zeng Chengwei) can be better than the quality of antique qins.

paragraphs: There are two sound holes in the bottom board, as the playing techniques of the qin employ the entire surface of the top board which is curved / humped. The inside of the top board is hollowed out to a degree. Inside the qin, there are 'nayin' 『納音』 sound absorbers, and a 'tian chu' 『天柱』 and 'di chu' 『地柱』 soundposts that connect the bottom board to the top. The boards are joined using bamboo nails. Lacquer 『漆』 from the Chinese lacquer tree ("Rhus vernicifera") is then applied to the surfaces of the qin, mixed with various types of powder, the most common being "lujiao shuang" 『鹿角霜』, the remains of deer antler after the glue has been eremoved. Often, ceramic powder is used instead of deer antler powder, but the quality is not as good. After the lacquer has dried (a qin will need several layers), the surface will be polished using oil stones. At the head end of the instrument is the "yue shan" 『岳山』 or bridge, and at the other end is the "long yin" 『龍齦』 (dragon's gums) or nut. There are 13 circular mother-of-pearl inlays which mark the harmonic positions, as well as a reference point to note position, called "hui" 『徽』 ("insignia").

paragraphs: Until the Cultural Revolution, the guqin's strings were always made of various thicknesses of twisted silk 『絲』, but since then most players use modern nylon-flatwound steel strings 『鋼絲』. This was partly due to the scarcity of high quality silk strings and partly due to the newer strings' greater durability and louder tone.

paragraphs: Silk strings are made by gathering a prescribed number of strands of silk thread, then twisting them tightly together. The twisted cord of strings is then wrapped around a frame and immersed in a vat of liquid of natural glue that binds the strands together. The strings are taken out and left to dry, before being cut into the appropriate length. The top thicker strings (i.e. strings one to four) are further wrapped in a thin silk thread, coiled around the core to make it smoother.

paragraphs: Recently in China, production of very good quality silk strings has resumed and more players are beginning to use them. Although most contemporary players use nylon-wrapped metal strings, some argue that nylon-wrapped metal strings cannot replace silk strings for their refinement of tone. Furthermore, it is the case that nylon-wrapped metal strings can cause damage to the wood of old qins. Many traditionalists feel that the sound of the fingers of the left hand sliding on the strings to be a distinctive feature of qin music. The modern nylon-wrapped metal strings were very smooth in the past, but are now slightly modified in order to capture these sliding sounds.

paragraphs: To string a qin, one traditionally had to tie a butterfly knot ("shengtou jie" 『蠅頭結』) at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twisted cord ("rongkou" 『絨剅』) which goes into holes at the head of the qin and then out the bottom through the tuning pegs ("zhen" 『軫』). The string is dragged over the bridge ("yueshan" 『岳山』), across the surface board, over the nut ("longyin" 『龍齦』 dragon gums) to the back of the qin, where the end is wrapped around two legs ("fengzu" 『鳳足』 "phoenix feet" or "yanzu" 『雁足』 "geese feet"). Afterwards, the strings are fine tuned using the tuning pegs. The most common tuning, "zheng diao" 〈正調〉, is pentatonic: 1245612 in the traditional Chinese number system or "jianpu" 〔簡譜〕. Today this is generally interpreted to mean C D F G A c d, but this should be considered do re fa so la do re, since historically the qin was not tuned to absolute pitch. In fact the same tuning can also be considered as 5612356 when the third string is played as do. Thus, except when accompanied by other instruments, only the pitch relations between the seven strings needs to be accurate. Other tunings are achieved by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Thus "manjiao diao" 〈慢角調〉 (slackened third string) gives 1235612 and "ruibin diao" 〈蕤賔調〉 (raised fifth string) gives 1245712, which is transposed to 2356123.

paragraphs: The guqin is nearly always used a solo single instrument, as its quietness of tone means that it cannot be heard over the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a "xiao" (end-blown bamboo flute), with other qin, or played while singing. In old times, the "se" (a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings, similar to the Japanese koto) was frequently used in duets with the qin.

paragraphs: In order for an instrument to accompany the qin, its sound must be mellow and not overwhelm the qin. Thus, the "xiao" generally used for this purpose is one pitched in the key of F, known as "qin xiao", which is narrower than an ordinary "xiao". If one sings to qin songs (which is rare nowadays) then one should not sing in an operatic or folk style as is common in China, but rather in a very low pitched and deep way; and the range in which one should sing should not exceed one and a half octaves. The style of singing is similar to that used to recite Tang poetry. To enjoy qin songs, one must learn to become accustomed to the strange style some players may sing their songs to.

paragraphs: Traditionally, the qin was played in a quiet studio or room by oneself, or with a few friends; or played outdoors in places of outstanding natural beauty. Nowadays, many qin players perform at concerts in large concert halls, almost always, out of necessity, using electronic pickups or microphones to amplify the sound. Many qin players attend yaji (『雅集』 literally "elegant gatherings"), at which a number of qin players, music lovers, or anyone with an interest in Chinese culture can come along to discuss and play the qin.


Ripuarian


Vandal


title: São Paulo (state)

paragraphs: São Paulo (Portuguese: Saint Paul) is a state in the Southeast Region of Brazil. Its capital city is called São Paulo too.

paragraphs: São Paulo is located in the south-east region of Brazil, with close to 248,000 square kilometers of area. (For comparison, Oregon State in the United States of America has 251,000 square miles).

paragraphs: It borders the state of Minas Gerais to the north, the state of Rio de Janeiro and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the state of Paraná to the south and state of Mato Grosso do Sul to the west.

paragraphs: The capital of São Paulo is the city of São Paulo.

paragraphs: São Paulo is the state in Brazil with the highest economical output.

paragraphs: It has the second highest per capita income of Brazil, second only to the Federal District, where Brasília is located.

paragraphs: With the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul it shares the highest standard of living in Brazil, despite of pockets of blight poverty in its largest cities.

paragraphs: The robust economy of São Paulo is based in industrial production, to include automobile and aviation, agriculture, services and tourism.

paragraphs: São Paulo is the Brazilian state with the largest population and also is the most ethnically diverse.

paragraphs: Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Arab, Asian and other descents chose São Paulo as their home, due to its thriving economy.

paragraphs: Also migrants from other Brazilian states (especially from the Northeast Region) come to São Paulo in search of a better life. Because there are not enough jobs, these people usually want to back to their states.

paragraphs: São Paulo is the state in Brazil with the largest and most efficient transportation system.

paragraphs: The city of São Paulo relies on underground train and also suburban at-grade rail systems. City buses complement the public transportation system.

paragraphs: Air traffic is the busiest of all Brazil.

paragraphs: Harbors along the state's ocean front receive and ship a great share of Brazil's export and import goods.

paragraphs: São Paulo is a vibrant place when it comes to sports. Football (soccer) is king but the state has human resources and facilities to produce some of the best athletes in the world in many other fields.

paragraphs: The state has many professional soccer clubs but also volleyball has found a niche here.

paragraphs: Auto racing is a staple of the paulista's way of life. The state has produced several racing drivers that have attained international fame.

paragraphs: São Paulo, Campinas, Guarulhos, Osasco, Ribeirão Preto, Santo André, Santos, São Bernardo do Campo, São Carlos, São José dos Campos and Sorocaba.


title: Trolley

paragraphs: A trolley is a small vehicle with wheels that can carry things. People can push trolleys.

paragraphs: There are different kind of trolleys. There are shopping trolleys which are used in supermarkets and other large stores with self-service. In American English these are called shopping carts. Customers can put things they want to buy in the trolley and then pay for everything at the checkout. Usually they are then allowed to wheel the trolley with the things they have bought out to their car.

paragraphs: Sometimes the customers have to pay a small deposit when collecting a trolley. The trolleys are chained together. The customer puts in a coin (in Britain a £1 coin) which he can have back again when he parks the trolley back in the trolley chain.

paragraphs: Trolleys are used in airports and some large railway stations for passengers to carry their luggage. Deposits are not refundable.

paragraphs: A trolley can also be a tea-trolley. This is a small trolley used traditionally in the house for plates, cups, saucers and sandwiches and cakes for afternoon tea. Tea-trolleys are also used in hospitals and offices to take cups of tea and coffee to people.

paragraphs: In American English "trolley" can be used to mean a tram (or streetcar). This is not to be confused with a trolleybus which is a bus which uses electricity from an overhead cable (like a tram).


title: Mutant (Marvel)

paragraphs: A mutant is a type of fictional character in a fictional universe created by Marvel Comics. In this world, mutants can be either heroes or villains. A mutant is someone who has different DNA than its parents. These mutations often lead to superpowers. They may also cause physical changes such as wings, blue skin, or a tail.

paragraphs: Mutants were created in the Marvel Universe in the 1960s with the comic book "The X-Men". It was a way for them to tell stories that dealt with racism. Racism, hatred and fear of mutants are an important part of their history . Two main teams of mutants have been around since the 1960s: The X-Men (heroes) and the Brotherhood of Mutants (villains).

paragraphs: Sometimes a human is born with a certain kind of DNA change. This "X-GENE" is passed to their children. This genetic change may not create any noticeable difference. It could pass for generations without anyone knowing about it.

paragraphs: Mutants may be born to human or mutant parents, though the odds of a mutant birth are much better for the latter. Likewise, it is rare but possible for mutant parents to have human children, termed "baseline" by characters within the Marvel Universe. Some baseline humans are genetically predisposed towards having mutant descendants such as the Guthrie family (see Cannonball, Husk, and Icarus). Mutant children born to mutant parent(s) will not necessarily have the same power(s) as their parent(s), nor will they necessarily have the same power(s) as any mutant siblings they may have; however, examples of children with the same power(s) as their parents and/or siblings are not uncommon.

paragraphs: There is, however, a chance that mutants may not even be able to reproduce a child at all. The Hayes (Runaways), telepathic mutant doctors, were unsure their mutant heritage could even produce a child; it did, however, take them several years to finally have a child: Molly Hayes.

paragraphs: Marvel's mutants are classified by their level of power.

paragraphs: Note: Only Alpha and Omega have actually been used as classification within comics. The other ranks were created by fans.

paragraphs: The X-Men were created in the 1960s during a time of civil unrest in the United States. The characters allowed the writer to write stories that showed racism and bigotry without singling out a specific minority.

paragraphs: By classifying Mutants as they did, they also created different aspects of racism. Some mutants are easily recognized by how they look (similar to African-Americans). Some have a few physical characteristics that can make them get noticed (Similar to Jews). Other mutants blend in so well that it nearly impossible to tell they are a mutant unless they use their powers (Similar to homosexuals)

paragraphs: In the Marvel universe normal people often hate and fear mutants. This is because they think mutants may make normal humans extinct. They fear what they do not understand. They are jealous of them having superpowers. Bigotry and xenophobia are also reasons for hatred of mutants. In the Marvel universe, anti-mutant feeling has led to the separation of mutants from society. It has led to mob violence and government sponsored attempts to fight mutants.

paragraphs: The X-Men books have been written as typical superhero comic books. They have epic adventures and battles with super villains. Yet, the idea of mutants as a metaphor for real world minorities who face oppression is shown throughout the series. Some examples:


title: Urethra

paragraphs: The urethra is a tube that connects the bladder to the outside of the body. It allows people and animals to remove urine from the body. People and animals control urination using the urethral sphincter.

paragraphs: The urethra is part of the urinary system in mammals. Because humans are mammals, they have urethras. In male mammals, the urethra is also a part of the reproductive system, because males use it as a tube for sperm during sex.

paragraphs: In human anatomy, men have longer urethras than women. This means that women have bladder infections more often, because their bladders are closer to the outside. Because the male urethra is longer and is not straight, inserting a catheter (tube to help urination) is more difficult in men.

paragraphs: In women, the urethra is 2.5-4 cm (1-1.5 in) long. Its opening to the outside of the body is part of the vulva (the area between a woman's legs). The female urethra is between the clitoris and the opening to the vagina. In men, the urethra is about 20 cm (8 in) long and its opening to the outside of the body is at the end of the penis.


title: Stanislav Lem

paragraphs: Stanisław Herman Lem () (September 12, 1921 – March 27, 2006) was a Polish science fiction writer. His writings are highly philosophical and satirical. His books have been translated into 41 languages. Over 27 million copies of his books have been sold worldwide. At one point he was among the most widely read science fiction authors in the world. Lem's writing is full of intelligent humor, puns, and neologisms, and Michael Kandel's translations into English have been praised by many for capturing Lem's style.

paragraphs: Lem is perhaps best known for his novel "Solaris". This novel was published in 1961. It is set into the future. Humans have discovered what they think is intelligent life in space. They want to talk to the alien life form. The only problem they have is that the life form is the size of a planet. It is an ocean. This book has also been made into a film by Andrei Tarkowski in 1972. Steven Soderbergh made another film of the book in 2002.


title: Hostage

paragraphs: A hostage is a person who is held captive against his or her will. Hostages are often taken (held captive) to force someone else to do something for their "captors" (the people who took them hostage). Hostages are taken for many different reasons.


title: Intel

paragraphs: Intel Corporation (Integrated Electronics Corporation) is a microprocessor company that was set up in the 1960s. Different types of processors made by Intel were used in most computers. Their most famous older products are the 386, 486, and Pentium models. Many people use Core 2 processor in their computer - it says "Intel Inside." Intel makes many different products, and has switched to dual core, 64-bit processors in 2006. The first Pentium chips were released on March 22, 1993.

paragraphs: Intel Corporation is traded on the NASDAQ under the ticker INTC and has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since 1999.


title: Nintendo Entertainment System

paragraphs: The Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) is the first video game console made by Nintendo in Japan, Europe, the United States. It came out in 1985 in the United States and was very popular.

paragraphs: The controller for the NES was different from the joysticks that older consoles had. It had a D-pad button, that could go up, down, left, or right. It also had A, B, Select, and Start buttons. The NES could use up to two controllers for multiplayer games. There were also other types of controllers that could be used with the NES.

paragraphs: Some famous games for the NES are "Super Mario Bros.", "The Legend of Zelda", "Metroid", "Mega Man", "Castlevania", "Donkey Kong", and "Final Fantasy". There have been many sequels made to these games and they are still enjoyed today. Nintendo discontinued (stopped making and selling) the NES in 1995.

paragraphs: The CPU (Central Processing Unit) in the NES is called MOS 6502 and is an 8-bit CPU. The chip that contains the CPU also contains other electronics that generate sound for games and help with some other things. There are two different versions of the chip called 2A03 and 2A07 that are used in different regions of the world (2A03 works with NTSC TVs, 2A07 with PAL TVs). It was made by a company called Ricoh.

paragraphs: The NES uses a chip called the PPU (Picture Processing Unit) to draw graphics on the TV. It has two different versions called 2C02 (for NTSC TVs) and 2C07 (for PAL TVs). It was also made by Ricoh.


title: System of a Down

paragraphs: System of a Down is an American metal band. They started in 1995 in Los Angeles, California by four members of Armenian descent, Serj Tankian (lead singer, born August 21, 1967), Daron Malakian (lead guitar, singer, born July 18, 1975), Shavo Odadjian (bass, background singer, born April 22, 1974) and drummer Andy Khachaturian (but was replaced with John Dolmayan).

paragraphs: The band became successful with popular songs like "Sugar", "Spiders", "Chop Suey!", "Toxicity", "Aerials", "B.Y.O.B.", "Question!", "Hypnotize", and "Lonely Day".

paragraphs: After the release of "MEZMERIZE"/"Hypnotize", System of a Down went on a break, but they say they have not broken up.

paragraphs: Often described as very angry, Khachaturian was unhappy about his place as drummer, and wanted to lead the band. He left the band and the drummer from the band, "Friik", John Dolmayan, joined the band.

paragraphs: Serj, Daron, and Shavo, went to the same school, Alex Pilibos School for Armenian Americans in Los Angeles, when they were young.

paragraphs: In 1995, they made their first demo tape, and had the songs: "Suite-Pee", "Sugar", "Dam", and "P.L.U.C.K.(Politically Lying Unholy Cowardly Killers)". In 1996, another demo tape was released with the songs: Soil, and two songs that were not on the first album, "Honey" and "Temper". They made another demo tape, and this was the one that got them put on the record label. The producer, Rick Rubin, had tried to sign up the band several times before they agreed.

paragraphs: In 1997, SOAD teamed up with Rubin and produced their first studio album in 1997, "System of a Down". This album was not as popular as the next album, but it made people aware of who and what System of a Down stood for.

paragraphs: Their next album, "Toxicity", made in 2001, had their first UK top 20 single "Chop Suey". This album explores a more melodic side of metal music. It is also political; for example the opening track: "Prison Song" which has Serj speaking the lines.

paragraphs: In May 2005, the band released part one of a double album, "Mezmerize". It was more melodic than before, and included "B.Y.O.B" (Bring Your Own Bombs), and "Lost in Hollywood" - a song based on Daron's childhood about growing up in Hollywood, which he did not think was very glamorous.

paragraphs: Months later, the second part of the double album, "Hypnotize", was released. This was the same sort of style because they were recorded at the same time.

paragraphs: In 2006, the band decided that they were going to have a break for a little while. They said they were going to come back together in a few years. After 10 years together, they each wanted to do different things for a while. There were rumors of them returning in 2011. In July 2010, Dolmayan said in an interview that the band would probably tour in 2011.


title: Belarusian language

paragraphs: The Belarusian language ("", transliteration: Biełaruskaja mova) is an Eastern Slavic language and an Indo-European language.

paragraphs: It is spoken in Belarus and eastern Poland (in the area of Białystok). It is also spoken by Belarusians who live in other countries of Europe, Australia, and North America.

paragraphs: Belarusian is written by the either the Cyrillic alphabet or the Latin alphabet.


title: Kevin Bacon

paragraphs: Kevin Norwood Bacon (born July 8, 1958 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) is an American movie actor who has starred in "Stir of Echoes", "Wild Things", "JFK", "Footloose" and "Apollo 13", among others. He has been married to actress Kyra Sedgwick since September 4, 1988. They have two children, Travis and Sosie Ruth. Bacon is known for the Bacon Number.


title: Kyra Sedgwick

paragraphs: Kyra Sedgwick (born August 19, 1965) is an American actress. She was born in New York City, New York to a father of English descent and a Jewish mother. She is the great-granddaughter of Endicott Peabody, the founder of Groton School. She is married to actor Kevin Bacon. She produced and starred in "The Closer".


title: Treaty of Versailles

paragraphs: The Treaty of Versailles () was a peace treaty between the nations of Japan, the United States, France, Germany and Britain after World War I. The treaty was made in 1919. Germany, Austria and Hungary did not participate in writing it. Germany had the choice between signing it or facing the occupation of Germany by Allied troops.

paragraphs: Germany had to reduce its armed forces from 6 million to 100,000 men and to get rid of its submarines, military aircraft and most of its artillery. Its navy battleships were limited to only six small ones.

paragraphs: Germany also had to give back French territories it had occupied, as well as large territories of its own to Poland and other neighbours, and to give up all of its colonies. Germany was to pay back the huge World War I reparations for the damage done to Allied countries, mostly France, during World War I by German troops. The sum was to be very large but was not yet fixed: many gold marks had to be paid only as a first part of the German debt.

paragraphs: The treaty made a League of Nations, which was intended to make decisions and keep the peace after the treaty was signed. The League solved some international disputes without war, but could not stop World War II.

paragraphs: This treaty can be seen as a one-sided peace, dictated to Germany. The English economist John Maynard Keynes thought that it was a great mistake to force such harsh measures on the German people, but his advice was ignored.

paragraphs: Germany set up the Weimar Republic. It was democratic but suffered an economic collapse, with the huge inflation of its currency, the mark. Adolf Hitler became chancellor and overruled the treaty. His actions eventually led to World War II.

paragraphs: Germany had to give back French areas (Alsace-Lorraine) taken by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War, which was still an embarrassment for France. The French made Germany take its troops out of the Rhineland (the long stretch of land on Germany's border with France where the Rhine River flows), an important part of land for Germany since it had many factories and businesses. If Germany had its troops come back into the Rhineland, the French were allowed to invade Germany.

paragraphs: Germany also had to give parts to Poland, a country made out of Russian and Austrian parts and the Polish and Lithuanian people who lived in them. Poland had been a big kingdom a few hundred years earlier, but Austria, Prussia and Russia had split it in the Partitions of Poland.

paragraphs: Belgium was allowed to have Moresnet and Eupen and Malmedy, which is the main reason that Belgium has a German-speaking community.

paragraphs: Versailles also split up many large empires on the losing side. US President Woodrow Wilson thought that to be a very good idea because many people in Europe wanted to be free from the big empires. but it also created problems such as having many small countries next to a much bigger Germany.

paragraphs: In the separate Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye the same year. Austria-Hungary was split into many countries. One was Austria, which was meant to be the homeland of the Austrians, who spoke German and mainly ruled Austria-Hungary. Its capital was Vienna. One of the problems of Versailles was that most Austrians, like Adolf Hitler, thought that Austria should become part of Germany, which later led to the German invasion of Austria.

paragraphs: Hungary was also created. Like Poland, it was a country that was strong on its own centuries before. Its capital was Budapest. Another new country, Czechoslovakia was created to be the homeland of the Czechs and Slovaks. The Czech part was made up of the country once called Bohemia and Moravia. The country's capital was Prague. Many Germans lived near its borders in the the Sudetenland, and Hitler later insisted for it to belong to Germany, which many of its people wanted.

paragraphs: Bosnia, Slovenia, Croatia (parts of Austria-Hungary), northern Macedonia (part of Bulgaria), Serbia and Montenegro were made into one country, called Yugoslavia (meaning Southern Slavic). It was made to be a Southern Slavic homeland but had many religious, language and national differences.

paragraphs: New countries by the Baltic Sea (Estonia, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania) were also created in other treaties after World War I. The Russian Revolution started during the war, and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia was killed and a communist state formed. A civil war raged in Russia between the anticommunist White Russians and the communist Red Russians. Russia had lost control of its western territory (Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and parts of Poland). Later during the World War II, the Soviet Union would take over Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and half of Poland.

paragraphs: Another treaty, the Treaty of Sèvres, gave parts the defeated Ottoman Empire to the various victors. However, Greek and Turkish armies soon started another war.

paragraphs: The German Empire became the Weimar Republic. A big problem for Germany was to pay back a giant amount of money for the all of the damage done to the Allied countries, mostly France, during World War I. That made Germany one of the poorest countries in Europe for almost 20 years and caused political fighting in Germany. Two important parties, the Communist Party, which wanted a communist revolution like that of Russia, and the Nazis, who thought that Germany should become the most powerful country in Europe, fought for many years.

paragraphs: As Germany owed a huge amount of money to the Allies, it started to get loans by the US (such as under the Dawes Plan). When the Great Depression hit in 1932, the US requested for all its money back. Germany refused to pay and printed more and more money to pay debts. That led to hyperinflation and the Reichsmark was worthless. The German economy was shattered. Many Germans hated the treaty, and some even wanted to fight another war to get rid of it.

paragraphs: Also, the League of Nations created after Versailles was usually not powerful enough to stop wars. Japan took Manchuria and the League did not stop it. Italy invaded Ethiopia, and although the Ethiopian Emperor begged the League to help him, it did not do so. Germany, Japan and Italy left the League and became the Axis powers, and by invading many peaceful countries caused World War II. The United States and, for a time, the Soviet Union, did not even join the League even though it was the idea of US President Woodrow Wilson in the first place. The League was never taken seriously even though one reason that it was created to make sure that the treaty was followed.

paragraphs: The treaty failed to keep peace in the end and was a reason for Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler, to win the support of many Germans to get rid of the "chains of Versailles", leading to World War II.

paragraphs: . Langley, Andrew. Living through World War II. Chicago, IL: Heinemann Library, 2012.


title: Saint Pierre and Miquelon

paragraphs: Saint Pierre and Miquelon (French "Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon") is a French overseas collectivity. It is made up of several small islands. They are close to Newfoundland on the eastern coast of Canada. It is the only remaining bit of the former French colonial empire territory of New France.

paragraphs: Historically L'Île-aux-Marins was a separate commune. Then in 1945 it was added into the commune of Saint-Pierre.

paragraphs: In each commune there are settlements Miquelon, Miquelon-Langlade and Saint-Pierre, Saint-Pierre.


title: 50 (number)

paragraphs: Fifty is the integer that is after forty-nine and before fifty-one.

paragraphs: The prime factors of fifty are 2 and 5. (2 * 5 * 5 = 50) The factors of 50 are 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, and 50. 5*10=50. 50 is the smallest number that can be written as the sum of two squares in two distinct ways: 50=1+7=5+5. Also, 50 is one-half of 100 or half of a century (a century is 100 years).


title: Rzeszów

paragraphs: Rzeszów (, ) is city in the south-east part of Poland in Subcarpathian Voivodeship with a population of 170,722 (2008). The city is located on the river Wislok.


title: Houston

paragraphs: Houston is the largest city in the state of Texas. It is the fourth-largest city in the United States. As of 2019, it had a population of over 2 million people. Sylvester Turner became the mayor of Houston in 2015 is. Houston is named for Sam Houston, who fought for Texas freedom in 1836. It is well known for the Johnson Space Center of NASA.

paragraphs: Houston is known for having the largest medical center and complex in the world, the Texas Medical Center.

paragraphs: George Bush Intercontinental Airport is the main international airport serving Houston, and William P. Hobby Airport is the other international airport that is serving close to downtown Houston.

paragraphs: Houston is often called a black mecca for African Americans. Enslaved African-Americans living near Houston worked on sugar and cotton plantations. Only Atlanta, Georgia has more African Americans per square miles.

paragraphs: Houston has many sports teams, including the Astros, Texans, Rockets, and Houston Dynamo. The Astros play baseball, the Rockets play basketball, the Texans play American Football, and the Houston Dynamo play soccer.

paragraphs: Houston has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa" in the Koeppen climate classification).


title: Polynesian people

paragraphs: Polynesians are native people from islands in Polynesia, including Hawaii, Tahiti, Samoa, and Maoris in New Zealand.


title: Colonialism

paragraphs: Colonialism occurs when a country or a nation takes control of other lands, regions, or territories outside of its borders (boundaries of the country) by turning those other lands, regions, or territories into a colony. Usually, it is a more powerful, richer country that takes control of a smaller, less powerful region or territory. Sometimes the words "colonialism" and "imperialism" are used to mean the same thing.

paragraphs: In the 1700s and 1800s, many of the richer, more powerful European countries (such as Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands) established colonies in the continents of Africa, South America, Asia, and the Caribbean.

paragraphs: Some countries use colonialism to get more land for their people to live in. They helped settlers move to the new area. The local people living in the land or territories were usually moved away by using force and violence from armies. To protect these settlers from the local residents who were pushed aside, colonial nations often set up a military fort or colonial police system.

paragraphs: Other countries use colonialism to get more land so that they can use the land for farming or to extract (take out) resources such as trees (wood), coal, or metals, or to create a local government or military fort.

paragraphs: Other countries use colonialism so that they can get workers from the poorer country to work in factories or farms (either in the richer country, or in the poorer country). In the past, powerful countries that were colonizing poorer countries or regions often forced the people from the poorer countries to work as slaves.

paragraphs: The Phoenicians started many trade colonies around the Mediterranean. Carthage was the largest and most famous colony, and also made other colonies including Cartagena in Spain.

paragraphs: Later, the Ancient Greeks expanded their territories with colonies. Ancient Greece was many city-states. Each city was independent with a government in place. Those cities also fought wars against each other and traded goods. To get more influence, or to secure a trade route, the city would send settlers to a new place. These people would then make a new city called a colony. Sometimes a new city had to pay some form of taxes to the mother city in exchange for protection, for example. The colonies, however, ruled themselves. The mother city did not send them a governor. Syracuse is the most famous of these Greek colonies.

paragraphs: If the Greek settlers found a local tribe living in the new territory, they would fight to force them to leave. The local tribe was usually made into slaves. The new colony would exploit the land it found, by growing crops or by raising cattle.

paragraphs: Ancient Rome invented the word "colonia" from the word "colonus" meaning "farmer". "Colonia" at that time meant a new town to which some Romans moved, including farmers. Many of the settlers were veterans. In later centuries the word "colony" less often meant settlers, and more often meant rule by foreigners.

paragraphs: There are several different types of colonialism. Some countries that expanded their territory made settler colonies. Some countries that started out as settler colonies include the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the states of Latin America. In all of these countries, people from European countries moved to the best parts of the new place, and forced the indigenous peoples (such as Indians, Maori, etc.) to move. When the local people or tribes had to move, it caused a lot of problems.

paragraphs: With the plantation colony, the powerful, rich country use the poorer country's land to grow crops. Typically, slaves work on the farms. Examples of plantation colonies include Barbados, Saint-Domingue and Jamaica.

paragraphs: In some regions which were colonized, the settlers married the local people and had children with them. An example is Mexico, where a new people called the mestizos came from the marriages of the settlers and the local tribes. In other regions which were colonized, the settlers and the local people lived in separate areas, without living together or marrying. An example of this situation is French Algeria (when France colonized the African country of Algeria) or Southern Rhodesia.

paragraphs: Another type of colonialism is when a powerful country sets up (establishes) dependencies. With a dependency, the colonizing country does not send over thousands of settlers to the new territory. Instead, the colonizing country sets up administrators (a governing organization) that controls the existing local (native) populations or tribes. Examples include the British Raj, (geraldine) in which the British government controlled India; the Dutch East Indies, in which the Netherlands controlled parts of the East Indies; and the Japanese colonial empire, in which Japan controlled Asian territories.

paragraphs: Another type of colony is the trading post colony. Rich and powerful countries set up trading post colonies so that there would be a territory where trading, selling, and business could be conducted. The rich and powerful countries usually set up military forts or police forces to enforce the rules and laws of the colonizing country. Examples of trading colonies include Macau, Malacca, Deshima and Singapore.

paragraphs: Massive colonization took place in Ancient India too. But the history of colonization is attributed to Greece only. In Ancient India Colonization began not with political conquest but with cultural conquest. Hinduism, and after centuries Buddhism became the main source of colonization. It was a colonization that began with cultural expansion leading to economic colonization. Indians were in the role of masters for a few centuries and in the role of slaves for centuries.


title: Hey Arnold!

paragraphs: Hey Arnold! was an American animated television show on the Nickelodeon network. It was about a boy with a football-shaped head named Arnold, his "gang" of friends, and their lives in the fictional city of Hillwood. Each episode of "Hey Arnold!" ran for about 15 minutes each. In 2002, Nickelodeon made a movie from it. Arnold's best friends in his gang are Gerald, Sid, Stinky, Eugene, Rhonda, Phoebe, Lila, and Curly (who was voiced by Haley Joel Osment). Adult Arnold was voiced by Christopher Walberg.


title: Diego Maradona

paragraphs: Diego Armando Maradona Franco(born 30 October 1960 in Lanús, Buenos Aires) is an Argentine former football player. He was nicknamed "El Diez", "Pelusa", "El Diego" and "El pibe de oro". He won the World Cup in Mexico in the year of 1986.

paragraphs: He is regarded as one of the best footballers of all time. At age 25, Diego Maradona was the main figure of Argentina's drive to its 1986 World Cup. His great skill and moves reserved him a spot in soccer history and as one of the best players. Once he controlled the ball for more than half of the entire field, beating English defenders, he kicked the ball off his left leg into the net, juking out the goalkeeper. The World Cup made Maradona the most famous soccer player after Pele from Brazil. Even the British named him "athlete of the decade."

paragraphs: "Diego Maradona." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Vol. 20. Detroit: Gale, 2000.Biography in Context. Web. 12 May 2014.

paragraphs: "Maradona, Diego Armando." Hutchinson Encyclopedia. 2011. eLibrary. Web. 12 May. 2014.


title: José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero

paragraphs: Don José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (; born 4 August 1960 in Valladolid) is a Spanish politician. He was elected for two terms as Prime Minister of Spain. This was in the 2004 and 2008 general elections. On 2 April 2011 he said he would not stand for re-election. His party is the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE).

paragraphs: He left the office on 21 December 2011. He was succeeded by Mariano Rajoy. He left the PSOE's Secretary General chair on 4th February 2012 to Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba. On 9th February he entered the Spanish Council of State.

paragraphs: Important actions of his government have included withdrawing Spanish troops from Iraq, legalizing same-sex marriages and negotiating with Basque terrorist group ETA.

paragraphs: He studied Law at the University of León, graduating in 1982. Rodríguez Zapatero met Sonsoles Espinosa in León in 1981. They married on 27 January 1990 and have two daughters named Laura (born 1993) and Alba (born 1995).

paragraphs: Zapatero is a supporter of FC Barcelona.


title: Electric guitar

paragraphs: The Electric guitar is a type of musical instrument. It was made in 1931 by George Beauchamp. It is a string instrument usually played with a pick and sometimes with the fingers. It uses things called "electric pickups" which are wire-wound magnets that change the vibration of the strings into electric current. This electric current is then sent to an amplifier that changes it to sound. This electric current can also be changed to produce effects.

paragraphs: The main parts of an electric guitar are the neck, the pickups, the tuners, the bridge, the input, the body, the frets, the pick guard, the volume knobs and the tone knobs. There may also be other parts that can change other sounds. A normal electric guitar has one neck with 6 strings on it, although there are 12 string guitars and guitars with more than one neck.

paragraphs: Guitars are made and sold in many parts of the world by many companies. They can be hand made or factory made. Some companies that make electric guitars are Fender, Gibson, and Ibanez.

paragraphs: Many guitarists today share their music through a system called tablature (commonly known as 'tab'). Tablature is a way of reading notes for a guitar. It is much simpler than musical notes, but most tabs do not support rhythm. Many tabs can be found online or in books and magazines.

paragraphs: To read guitar tab, generally there is a staff like this:

paragraphs: Each line represents a string. Tab is always read as if the player were holding the guitar on their lap, strings facing up. Each number then represents what fret the finger is placed on.

paragraphs: The above diagram would be to play an open E chord, picking each string individually, and then strumming the chord. If the notes are stacked directly above each other, it means to strum the chord.

paragraphs: Some guitar music is written in both musical note format and tablature. The musical notes are written out, with the corresponding tablature under each line of notes.


title: Louise Brooks

paragraphs: Louise Brooks (Cherryvale, Kansas, 14 November 1906 – Rochester, New York, 8 August 1985) was an American dancer and actress. She became a leading film star, and a style icon famous for her beauty and her bobbed hair style.

paragraphs: In 2006, the centenary of Brooks' birth was celebrated by the release of three DVDs and three books, museum exhibits, screenings, and other events.

paragraphs: Brooks' signature film role was as Lulu in G.W. Pabst's "Pandora's Box" ("Die Büchse der Pandora") in 1929. Brooks' portrayal was of a young woman whose raw sexuality and uninhibited nature brings ruin to herself and those who love her. It made the actress a star.


title: Bangor, Maine

paragraphs: Bangor is the 3rd-largest city in Maine. In 2000, the city had 31,473 people.

paragraphs: In 1937, Al Brady, an armed robber and murderer is shot dead in a gun battle with FBI agent Walter Walsh, ending a long crime spree.


title: Ben Bradshaw

paragraphs: Benjamin Peter James Bradshaw (born 30 August 1960) is an English politician and the Member of Parliament for the Exeter constituency in the United Kingdom. He was elected in the 1997 general election.

paragraphs: He was a Minister of State in the Department of Health, a Minister for the South West and Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. He holds no posts in the current shadow government.


title: Eschelbronn

paragraphs: Eschelbronn is a village with 2597 people living there. It is in the Rhein-Neckar area of Baden-Württemberg, Germany and close to Sinsheim.

paragraphs: Eschelbronn is in the north of Kraichgau with a distance of about 25 km to Heidelberg.

paragraphs: It was already mentioned in the years 788/789 in a document of the monastery of Lorsch. Afterwards there was no documentation until the end of the 13th century when it became part of the restrict of Speyer.

paragraphs: The first mayor was Heinrich von Eschelbrunnen in the year 1261. In 1267 a castle made of wood was built and later rebuilt into a water-castle of stone in 1375. In 1526 the village became Protestant.

paragraphs: In 1803 Eschelbronn became part of Baden. From 1807 on the village was administered by Waibstadt and 1803 by Sinsheim until the 31st of December 1972. Today it belongs to the Rhein-Neckar area.

paragraphs: In former times most of the people were farmers, however later in the 18th century the production of textiles became more and more important. Since the end of the 19th century Eschelbronn is well known for its furniture production.


title: Order of the Bath

paragraphs: The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry. It was founded by George I, on 18 May 1725. The name comes from an old ceremony, first mentioned in 1128. In the ceremony, men participated in a vigil of fasting, prayer, and taking a bath. They did this on the day before they were made a knight. The ceremony was abolished in 1815.

paragraphs: The Order is made up of the Sovereign (the British Sovereign), the Great Master (Charles, Prince of Wales), and three classes of members: (Highest to lowest)

paragraphs: Originally founded as a military order of chivalry, the star (or pip) is worn as army officers' rank insignia. The insignia is that of the Order of the Bath. Members of the order now belong to either the Civil or the Military Division. The Order's motto is "Tria juncta in uno" (Latin for "Three joined in one"). This is a reference to either the union of England, Scotland and Ireland, or to the Holy Trinity. A symbol of the Order that is seen over and over has three crowns in it. Another motto, "Ich dien" (German for "I serve") is used occasionally, but only by members of the Order who serve in the military.

paragraphs: The Order is the fourth oldest of the British Orders of Chivalry, after The Most Noble Order of the Garter, The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, and The Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick. The last of those Orders–which relates to Ireland, no longer a part of the United Kingdom–still exists, but is no longer active; no appointments have been made to it since 1934.


title: Kurdish people

paragraphs: The Kurds are an ethnic group living in Turkey Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia and Lebanon. Kurds are an Indo-European people, like the peoples of Western and northwestern Iran, widely thought to be descended from the Medes. They speak Kurdish.

paragraphs: Kurds have similarly distinct features like those of southern Europe, however their looks vary from blondes to brunettes and although most have brown eyes they can have other colours. Their culture has survived for thousands of years despite efforts by their neighbours to demolish it: it remains a strong influence on their way of life. Today, there are thought to be about 40 million Kurds. Most are Sunnite Muslim.


title: Guerrilla warfare

paragraphs: A guerrilla is a civilian who attacks a regular army. When civilians attack civilians, it is usually called terrorism. When two or more armies (representing countries) attack each other, this is a war.

paragraphs: Guerrilla warfare is a war tactic in which people () fight against an organized army. Guerrilla warfare is sometimes practiced in places where a regular army has difficulty, such as forests and mountains. Usually, this army is invading a territory.

paragraphs: Guerrilla is a word of Spanish origin. It means "little war". It was first used in 1808, when Spain was invaded by Napoleon, resulting in the Peninsular War with Spanish guerilla forces resisting the French army.

paragraphs: This war tactic was used on the British by the Native Americans. The natives had an advantage because they used guerrilla warfare. This war tactic was also used on the Americans during the Vietnam War.


title: Sacrament

paragraphs: In Christianity, a sacrament is a special rite. It is a visible token of the reality of God.

paragraphs: The Roman Catholic Church knows seven such sacraments. These are

paragraphs: Following Martin Luther's tradition, many Protestant churches see only Baptism and Lord's Supper as Sacraments. They also have most of the other rites, but do not consider them to be sacraments.

paragraphs: Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches basically have the same views as the Roman Catholic Church. They say however, that many things the church does (as church), can be seen as sacraments, in some way.


title: St. Petersburg, Florida

paragraphs: St. Petersburg (shortened to St. Pete by the area residents) is a city in the U.S. state of Florida. It is in Pinellas County. It is home to the MLB team Tampa Bay Rays.


title: 20 (number)

paragraphs: Twenty is the number that is after nineteen and before twenty-one.

paragraphs: The prime factors of twenty are 2 and 5. (2 * 2 * 5 = 20)

paragraphs: Its factors are: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20. As the sum of its factors is more than itself (i.e. 22), it can be referred to as an abundant number.

paragraphs: 20 can been used as a number base. Remnants of this system remain in some European languages, for example in the English “score” (20) and the French “quatre-vingts” (80, literally four groups of twenty). The old (pre-decimal) English monetary system had twenty shillings in a pound. The ancient Mayan numerical system – counting on fingers and toes – was a base 20 or "vigesimal" system.

paragraphs: A polyhedron of 20 faces is an icosahedron, one of the five Platonic solids. It is a convex regular polyhedron composed of twenty triangular faces, with five meeting at each of the twelve vertices. It has 30 edges and 12 vertices. Its dual polyhedron is the dodecahedron.

paragraphs: In Japanese tradition, adulthood is established at the age of 20. See seijin not hi (the celebration of adulthood in Japan).

paragraphs: It is the number of milk teeth in an infant’s mouth.


title: 40 (number)

paragraphs: Forty is the number that is after thirty-nine and before forty-one.

paragraphs: The prime factors of forty are 2 and 5. (2 * 2 * 2 * 5 = 40)

paragraphs: Forty is also the only number in the English language which is spelt in alphabetical order.

paragraphs: In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the number forty has special meaning. The Jews wandered in a desert for forty years, there was a forty-day and forty-night rainstorm, and other instances.


title: 70 (number)

paragraphs: Seventy is the number that is after sixty-nine and before seventy-one.

paragraphs: The prime factors of seventy are 2, 5, and 7. (2 * 5 * 7 = 70)


title: Gas giant

paragraphs: A gas giant is a large planet that has a solid core, but a very thick atmosphere. This means that most of the planet is made up of gas. These planets are very large.

paragraphs: In our outer Solar System, there are 4 gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

paragraphs: Jupiter and Saturn are similar because they are made up of mostly hydrogen and helium. They both contain massive rocky cores that are bigger than Earth. Neptune and Uranus are similar because they are mainly made up of water and rock (a mixture of one or several minerals).

paragraphs: Gas giants have also been found around other stars than the sun. Most of those giant extrasolar planets are "hot giants" orbiting close to their star.


title: North Vietnam

paragraphs: The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) (Vietnamese: "Việt Nam Dân Chủ Cộng Hòa"), also known as North Vietnam, was a country that existed from 1945 until 1976. It took control in northern Vietnam and eventually took over its southern opponent. It lay north of the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone, and South Vietnam lay to the south of it.

paragraphs: It was proclaimed by President Hồ Chí Minh in Hà Nội on September 2, 1945. The country was supported by China and the Soviet Union during the Vietnam War, eventually defeating South Vietnam 20 years later in the Vietnam War.


title: Set theory

paragraphs: Set theory is the study of sets in mathematics. Sets are collections of objects. We refer to these objects as "elements" or "members" of the set. To write a set, one wraps the numbers in {curly brackets}, and separates them with commas. For example. the set holds 1, 2, and 3. Sets are also often referred to using capital roman letters such as formula_1, formula_2, formula_3.

paragraphs: There are three methods one can use to describe a set: Description method, Roster method (tabular form) and Rule method (set builder form).

paragraphs: Set theory was created around 1874 by Georg Cantor. It had to be made better because collections of objects can cause problems if we work with them without explaining them better. Russell's paradox was one of the problems. Think about the set of all sets that are not members of themselves. If it were inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it is "not" inside itself. But, if it were not inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it "is" inside itself. This was a serious problem, and it meant that the old set theory was broken.

paragraphs: It was improved by people including Zermelo and Bertrand Russell.

paragraphs: Set theory begins by giving some examples of things that are sets. Then it gives rules in which you can make other sets from the already known sets. Collections of objects that are not sets are called (proper) classes. It is possible to do mathematics using only sets, rather than classes, so that the problems that classes cause in mathematics do not occur.

paragraphs: A binary relation between two sets is the subset relation, also called "set inclusion". If all the members of set are also members of set , then is a "subset" of , marking . For example, is a subset of , but is not. From this example, it is clear that a set is a subset of itself. In cases where one wishes to not to have this, the term "proper subset" is meant not to have this possibility.

paragraphs: The self-considering objects in set theory was considered too, with some example numbers being 1={1}, 2={1, 2}, 3={1, 2, 3} and so on.


title: Bangor

paragraphs: Bangor is a city name found in several countries.


title: Demo (music)

paragraphs: A demo, in music, is the first version of a song or album.

paragraphs: It can also refer to an album made by the band as a "sample" in hopes of getting a contract with a record label.


title: Breton language

paragraphs: Breton ("", in Breton) is a Celtic language spoken in Brittany, in the north-west of France. Breton is closely related to the Cornish language of Cornwall spoken in south-west Great Britain. It is less closely related to Welsh, and the Goidelic languages of Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Man. The Breton language has about 240,000 speakers, but this number is falling very quickly due to the French government's policy of using French. As such, Breton is considered to be an endangered language.


title: Celtic languages

paragraphs: The Celtic languages are a language family inside of Indo-European languages. There are six Celtic languages still spoken in the world today, spoken in north-west Europe. They are divided into two groups, Goidelic (or Gaelic) and the Brythonic (or British).

paragraphs: The three Goidelic languages still spoken are Irish, Scottish, and Manx. Scottish is the main language spoken in parts of north-west Scotland and Irish is the main language spoken in the Gaeltacht in Ireland. Manx is spoken mainly by people interested in the language.

paragraphs: The three Brythonic languages are Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. Of these Cornish became extinct in the 18th century but people have started speaking it again now. Welsh is spoken everywhere throughout Wales, but is mainly first language for people in the western part of Wales, in the area some people call the Bro Gymraeg. Breton is spoken mainly in west Brittany, and is the only Celtic language not mainly spoken on the islands of Great Britain and Ireland. Because Brittany is part of France, the language is in danger of becoming extinct, just like Cornish, and there are ongoing efforts to prevent this from happening.

paragraphs: Scottish Gaelic also has a native community of speakers in Canada where it was once very widely spoken, and there are Welsh speakers in Patagonia, Argentina.


title: Salem, Tamil Nadu

paragraphs: Salem is a district capital and major city in Tamil Nadu, in India. It is known for its steel plants, factories which make steel.


title: Hunger strike

paragraphs: A hunger strike is a way that people protest by not eating. Many people have done this to get people's attention, especially the attention of leaders.

paragraphs: Sometimes, hunger strikes are done by people who are in prison. In this case, the hunger strikes are sometimes ended by force feeding, when the prisoners are fed against their will through a feeding tube.


title: Hermitage Museum

paragraphs: The Hermitage Museum (Эрмитаж) in St. Petersburg, Russia is one of the largest and oldest art galleries and museums of human history and culture in the world. The vast Hermitage collections are displayed in six buildings, founded by Catherine II of Russia in 1764 and opened in public since 1852. The main building is the Winter Palace. This was the official residence of the Russian Tsars.

paragraphs: Strong points of the Hermitage collection of Western art include Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, Poussin, Claude Lorraine, Watteau, Tiepolo, Canaletto, Canova, Rodin, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Cézanne, Van Gogh, Gauguin, Picasso, and Matisse. There are several more collections. Among the collections are the Russian imperial regalia, an assortment of Faberge jewellery, and the largest existing collection of ancient gold from Eastern Europe and Western Asia.

paragraphs: A population of cats lives on the museum grounds. They are named the Hermitage cats. They are an added attraction for tourists.