title: Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution

paragraphs: The Twenty-third Amendment (Amendment XXIII) to the United States Constitution extends the right to vote in the presidential election to citizens residing in the District of Columbia by granting the District electors in the Electoral college, as if it were a state. The amendment was proposed by the 86th Congress on June 16, 1960, and ratified by the states on March 29, 1961.

paragraphs: According to the terms of the amendment, the district is allocated as many electors as it would have if it were a state, but no more electors than the least populous state (currently Wyoming, which has three electors); thus, the district cannot have more than three electors. Even if it were a state, the district's population would entitle it to only three electors. Since the passage of this amendment, the District's electoral votes have been cast for the Democratic Party's presidential and vice presidential candidates in every election.

paragraphs: When the Constitution was ratified, the nation's capital was New York City. However, Article one, Section 8, Clause 17 of the Constitution states:

paragraphs: Selecting the site for the new capital was a political compromise. Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury and bankers, mainly from the northeast, got the Bank of the United States located in Philadelphia. In exchange, a special District of Columbia would be located on the Potomac River, closer to the southern states and controlled by Congress.

paragraphs: Washington DC was founded on July 16, 1790 on a site selected by George Washington. He appointed three commissioners to prepare the city for the new government, scheduled for 1800. While this was taking place, from 1790 until 1800, the capital was Philadelphia.

paragraphs: In 1800, as planned, the District of Columbia became the nation's capital. At the time the population was only about 5,000 residents. As a district and federal territory, the population did not have a local or state government. They also could not vote in federal elections.

paragraphs: Passed by Congress on June 17, 1960, and ratified by the states on March 29, 1961, Amendment XXIII, for the purposes of the Electoral College, treats the District of Columbia the same as if it were a state. This gives the citizens of the District the right to vote in presidential elections. The Amendment does not make the district a state, it gives the residents the same number of electors the same number as if it were a state. But, per the amendment, no more than the smallest state. The Amendment does not give district citizens any representation in Congress. Congress continues to govern the district.

paragraphs: While the District of Columbia is considered politically neutral at the time of passage in 1961, the District swung dramatically toward the Democratic Party since. African-Americans have voted in greater numbers than they had in the 1940s and 1950s. According to the 1970 census, 71% of the Federal District was black, a dramatic jump. As a result, the District has sent its 3 electoral votes to the Democratic candidate in every single presidential election since 1964. However, the District's electoral votes have yet to prove decisive in a presidential election. The smallest Electoral College majority won by a Democratic president since the Twenty-third Amendment's ratification was the 56 vote majority achieved by Jimmy Carter in 1976.


title: Paul Daniels

paragraphs: Newton Edward Daniels (6 April 1938 – 17 March 2016), known by his stage name Paul Daniels, was an English magician and television performer.

paragraphs: He was known for his show "The Paul Daniels Magic Show". It ran on the BBC from 1979 to 1994. He was known for his catchphrase of "You'll like this ... not a lot, but you'll like it".

paragraphs: He was born in South Bank, Middlesbrough. He married Jacqueline Skipworth in 1960. The couple had three sons: Gary, Paul and Martin. Daniels was married to his assistant Debbie McGee from 1988 until his death.

paragraphs: Daniels died of a brain tumor in Wargrave, Berkshire, aged 77.


title: Suaad Allami

paragraphs: Suaad Allami (Arabic: سعاد اللامي) or Suaad Abbas Salman Allami (Arabic: سعاد عباس سلمان العلمي ) is an Iraqi lawyer from Sadr City in Baghdad. In 2009 she received the International Women of Courage Award. Alami started a women's center in Baghdad with the NGO Women For Progress. Women for Progress was the first legal clinic for women in Iraq.

paragraphs: Allami graduated from Baghdad University School of Law in 1992. She worked as a lawyer in Iraq's family courts for seventeen years.

paragraphs: In 2010 Allami received a Master's Degree (LLM) in Law and Human Rights from the University of Minnesota Law School.

paragraphs: Allami was in the Baghdad Provincial Council and Sadr City District Council from 2004 to 2009. She wrote laws for the District and Sub-District Councils of Baghdad Province.

paragraphs: Allami opened the first all female legal clinic in Iraq. She runs five women’s centers in Baghdad.


title: Superior, Wisconsin

paragraphs: Superior is a city in northwestern Wisconsin. At the 2010 census, the population was 27,244. Superior is at the western end of Lake Superior.

paragraphs: Superior was the last place that the "Edmund Fitzgerald" visited before it sank.


title: Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution

paragraphs: The Twenty-fifth Amendment (Amendment XXV) to the United States Constitution says that if the President becomes unable to do his job, the Vice President becomes the President. This can happen for just a little while, if the President is just sick or disabled for a short time. It could also happen until the end of the President's term (his time in office), if the President died, resigned, or lost his or her job.

paragraphs: The Twenty-fifth Amendment also says what should happen if there is a "vacancy" in the Vice President's office (meaning there is no Vice President).

paragraphs: The Amendment was ratified by the states and became part of the U.S. Constitution on February 10, 1967.

paragraphs: This means that if the President is fired, dies, resigns, or is unable "to discharge [his] Powers and Duties" (unable to do the things a President has to do), the Vice President will take over his job. The Vice President will do the President's job until he gets better (if he is just sick or disabled), or until the next Presidential election (if the President resigned or is dead). If neither the President or the Vice President can do the President's job, Congress can decide who takes over the President's job. This is all the Constitution says about this subject.

paragraphs: This clause was not very specific. It did not say:

paragraphs: In 1841, the ninth President, William Henry Harrison, became the first United States President to die in office. Before this, Representative John Williams had suggested that the Vice President should become Acting President if the President died. Also, after Harrison died, his Cabinet had met and decided that Vice President John Tyler would become "Vice-President Acting President." However, Tyler did not like this idea. He announced that he had become the President, and was not just doing the old President's job. He refused to look at any papers that were addressed to him as "Acting President."

paragraphs: Tyler took the Presidential Oath, moved into the White House, and took over all of the old President's powers. Nobody formally challenged Tyler's claim to the Presidency. Eventually, both Houses of Congress passed a resolution saying that Tyler was the tenth President of the United States. This created "the precedent of full succession." A precedent is a rule or law that might be followed in the future if a similar situation came up again. "Full succession" means that the Vice President would become the President, not Acting President, if the actual President died. The "precedent of full succession" became known as the "Tyler Precedent."

paragraphs: At other times, Presidents did not die, but they were unable to do their jobs because of illness. For example, during his Presidency, Woodrow Wilson had a stroke. However, the First Lady, Edith Wilson, and the official White House doctor kept the stroke a secret. Because of this, no one took over the Presidency, even though Wilson could not do the job at that time.

paragraphs: Before the 25th Amendment, the office of Vice President had been empty eighteen times because the Vice President died, resigned, or had to take over for the President. For example, there was no Vice President for nearly four years after Franklin D. Roosevelt died.

paragraphs: These problems made it clear that the government needed more specific rules.

paragraphs: On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was murdered. Kennedy's assassination made it very clear to Congress that they needed to figure out a solution about presidential succession right away. The United States was in the middle of the Cold War. The new President, Lyndon B. Johnson, had previously had a heart attack in 1955 along with a family history of Johnson men dying relatively young (in their early 60s, which he did in 1973 aged 64). The next two people in line for the presidency were the Speaker of the House of Representatives, John McCormack (who was 71 years old), and the President pro tempore of the Senate, Carl Hayden (who was 86 years old). Congress started moving more quickly.

paragraphs: Members of Congress suggested two different amendments to fill in the details missing from Clause 6.

paragraphs: The KeatingKefauver Proposal suggested allowing Congress to make a law about who should decide when a President is disabled. It was proposed in 1963 by Senator Kenneth Keating of New York, and supported by Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver. However, other Senators were worried that Congress could abuse this power, or would not actually make the law after the amendment was passed.

paragraphs: The BayhCeller Proposal ended up becoming the Twenty-fifth Amendment. On January 6, 1965, Senator Birch Bayh proposed the amendment in the United States Senate, and Representative Emanuel Celler (Chairman of the House Judiciary Committee) proposed it in the United States House of Representatives. Unlike the KeatingKefauver Proposal, it suggested a way to fill the Vice President's position if it was empty, and also set out rules for how a President could be declared "disabled."

paragraphs: On February 19, 1965, the Senate passed the amendment. However, the House passed a different version of the amendment on April 13. The House and Senate had to form committees to figure out a version of the amendment they could all agree on. On July 6, 1965, both Houses of Congress passed the final version of the amendment and sent it to the states for ratification.

paragraphs: As with all Constitutional amendments proposed by the Congress, the Twenty-fifth Amendment had to be ratified by three-fourths of the states (38 of 50). Ratification was complete 19 months after the Amendment was proposed. Another nine states subsequently also ratified the Amendment; three states did not vote to ratify the Amendment.

paragraphs: The states ratified the Amendment in this order:

paragraphs: Section 1 made the "Tyler Precedent" a law. It says that if a President is removed from office, dies, or resigns, the Vice President immediately becomes President (not "Acting President").

paragraphs: Before the Twenty-fifth Amendment, if the Vice President's position was empty, it stayed empty until the next election.

paragraphs: Under Section 2, whenever there is a vacancy in the office of Vice President, the President nominates someone to replace the Vice President. If a majority of both Houses of Congress agree, that person becomes the Vice President.

paragraphs: Section 3 says that a President can declare themselves "unable to discharge the powers and duties of their office" (unable to do their job). He or she must say this in a written letter to both the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. Once the President does this, the Vice President becomes Acting President. The President can take back the Presidency at any time by sending letters to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House, saying he or she is able to discharge the powers and duties of the Presidency again.

paragraphs: Section 4 is the only part of the Amendment that has never been used. It allows other executive officials to declare the President unable to do his job. The Vice President must agree to do this. So must:

paragraphs: To declare the President unable to do his job, these people would have to sign and give a letter to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House. As with Section 3, the Vice President would then become the Acting President.

paragraphs: The President may take back the Presidency by sending a letter to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House. However, if the Vice President and the Cabinet think the President is still disabled and still cannot do his job, they can challenge his return. They have four days to write another declaration saying the President is still unable to do his job. The Vice President is still Acting President during these four days. Congress then has to get together within 48 hours, if they are not already in session. Then Congress has 21 days to make a decision. In the meantime, the Vice President is still Acting President.

paragraphs: If two-thirds of each House of Congress votes that the President still cannot do his job, the Vice President would continue to be Acting President. If Congress does not vote this way, or if they do not vote at all within 21 days, the President takes over the Presidency again.

paragraphs: The Twenty-fifth Amendment has been invoked (used) six times since it was added to the Constitution. Section 1 has been used once; Section 2 has been used twice; and Section 3 has been used three times. Only Section 4 has never been used, though it was considered twice.

paragraphs: President Richard Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, before the House could vote on whether to impeach him for crimes related to the Watergate scandal. Vice President Gerald Ford became President as soon as Nixon resigned.

paragraphs: On October 10, 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned. Two days later, President Richard Nixon nominated United States Representative Gerald Ford of Michigan to be the new Vice President. According to Section 2, more than 50% of each House of Congress had to approve Ford as Vice President. By December 6, 97% of the Senate and 92% of the House had approved Ford. Ford was sworn in to the Vice Presidency later on December 6 before both Houses of Congress. Ford is the only person in United States history ever to be Vice President, and later President, without being elected to either office.

paragraphs: When Gerald Ford became President after Richard Nixon resigned, the Vice Presidency became vacant. On August 20, 1974, the new President Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to be the new Vice President. On December 10, 1974, the Senate confirmed Rockefeller with a vote of 90–7. Nine days later, the House voted 287-128 to confirm Rockefeller. He was sworn into office later on December 19, 1974, before the Senate.

paragraphs: Presidents have used Section 3 of the 25th Amendment three times. Each time, they have given power to their Vice Presidents for a short time because they needed to get anesthesia for medical tests or surgery. The three Acting Presidents in United States history are listed below.

paragraphs: On July 12, 1985, President Ronald Reagan found out that he had a small growth in his colon that could turn into colon cancer. His doctor told him he needed surgery. Reagan decided to have surgery right away.

paragraphs: However, Reagan did not want to invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment. He was worried that giving Presidential power away would set a bad precedent. The White House's head lawyer and Reagan's Chief of Staff suggested that he use Section 3 and give power to Vice President George H.W. Bush.

paragraphs: Two letters were created. The first invoked Section 3 and said Reagan would be unable to discharge his duties. The second said that Reagan knew about Section 3, and did not think it applied to his situation, but still wanted Bush to take over during his surgery. On July 13, Reagan signed the second letter and had it delivered to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House.

paragraphs: Reagan's autobiography, and other books, argue that Reagan clearly meant to give power to Vice President Bush. The White House lawyer, Fred Fielding, said:

paragraphs: However, since Reagan did not specifically mention Section 3 and say he could not do his job as President, he did not officially invoke the 25th Amendment.

paragraphs: On June 29, 2002, President George W. Bush became the first President to officially invoke Section 3. He needed a colonoscopy, a test of the colon, and would be getting anesthesia. He formally gave power to his Vice President, Dick Cheney, using the rules that the 25th Amendment set out. Unlike Reagan, he specifically said he was using Section 3 of the 25th Amendment in his letter to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House. After about two hours, Bush was awake and took back the Presidency.

paragraphs: On July 21, 2007, President Bush again invoked Section 3 so he could have another colonoscopy. Again, Cheney was Acting President for about two hours, until Bush was ready to take back the Presidency.

paragraphs: As of 2020, Section 4 has never been invoked, however there was at least one occasion where the use of Section 4 was considered and another where its non-use came under substantial criticism. Both occurred during the presidency of Ronald Reagan.

paragraphs: On March 30, 1981, a man named John Hinckley tried to kill President Ronald Reagan. Reagan was shot and needed immediate surgery, so he could not invoke Section 3 to give power to his Vice President. His Vice President, George H.W. Bush, did not invoke Section 4, because he was on an airplane returning from Texas. Reagan was out of surgery by the time Bush got to Washington, D.C.

paragraphs: In 1995, Birch Bayh, who had written the Senate version of the 25th Amendment, wrote that Section 4 should have been invoked.

paragraphs: In 1987, Reagan's Chief of Staff, Donald Regan, resigned. Howard Baker replaced him. Reagan's staff told Baker that Reagan seemed lazy and unable to do his job. They told him to be ready for Section 4 of the 25th Amendment to be invoked.

paragraphs: According to the PBS program "American Experience":

paragraphs: In an interview on the program, Edmund Morris, who had written a biography of Reagan, said:


title: Meir Dagan

paragraphs: Aluf Meir Dagan (; 30 January 1945 – 17 March 2016) was an Israeli politician. He was a former Israel Defense Forces officer. He was a former Director of the Mossad. He served as director from 2002 through 2011.

paragraphs: Dagan was born in the Soviet Union. He moved to Israel at age five.

paragraphs: Dagan died of liver cancer in Tel Aviv, Israel at the age of 71.


title: Larry Drake

paragraphs: Larry Drake (February 21, 1950 – March 17, 2016) was an American actor. He was known for his role as Benny Stulwicz on the television show "L.A. Law", Robert G. Durant in "Darkman" and as Pops in "Johnny Bravo". He won two Emmy Awards in 1988 and in 1989.

paragraphs: Drake died of cardiac arrest complicated by a rare form of blood cancer on March 17, 2016 in Hollywood, California at the age of 66.


title: Zoltán Kamondi

paragraphs: Zoltán Kamondi (6 April 1960 – 17 March 2016) was a Hungarian movie director, actor, screenwriter and producer. He was born in Budapest, Hungary. He was known for directing "Paths of Death and Angels".

paragraphs: Kamondi died on 17 March 2016 at the age of 55.


title: Marian Kociniak

paragraphs: Marian Kociniak (11 January 1936 – 17 March 2016) was a Polish movie and theatre actor. He was known for his role in the 1970 movie "How I Unleashed World War II". He was born in Warsaw, Poland.

paragraphs: Kociniak died in Warsaw, Poland from a heart attack on 17 March 2016 at the age of 80.


title: Jean Miotte

paragraphs: Jean Miotte (1926, – 1 March 2016) was a French abstract painter. He worked with the style known as L'Art Informel. He was born in Paris. Miotte's work is preserved and studied at the Miotte Foundation in Manhattan.

paragraphs: Moitte died in New York City, New York at the age of 90.


title: James Douglas (actor)

paragraphs: James Douglas (May 20, 1929 – March 5, 2016) was an American actor. He best known for his role as Grant Colman on "As the World Turns" (1974–81, with return appearances in 1986 and 1989).

paragraphs: Douglas was born in Los Angeles, California. He died on March 5, 2016 at the age of 86.

paragraphs: His first major role came in 1964 when he joined the cast of the primetime soap "Peyton Place". He played the role of Steven Cord. He stayed with the series until it left the air in 1969.

paragraphs: He then turned mainly to daytime roles, appearing as Elliott Carrington on "Another World" from 1972 to 1974. He then moved to "As the World Turns". He also appeared on "The Edge of Night" in 1984 and on "One Life to Live" as Dr. Marcus Polk (1985–87).


title: Erik Duval

paragraphs: Erik Duval (11 September 1965 – 12 March 2016) was a Belgian scientist. Duval chaired the informatics section of the computer science department of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. He also chaired the research unit on human-computer interaction. His research was situated in the long-standing quest to

paragraphs: Duval died in Antwerp, Belgium from non-Hodgkin lymphoma at the age of 50.


title: Solomon Marcus

paragraphs: Solomon Marcus (; March 1, 1925 – March 17, 2016) was a Romanian mathematician of Jewish descent. He was a member of the Mathematical Section of the Romanian Academy. He was also Emeritus Professor of the University of Bucharest's Faculty of Mathematics.

paragraphs: His main research was in the fields of mathematical analysis, mathematical and computational linguistics and computer science, but he also published numerous papers on various cultural topics: poetics, linguistics, semiotics, philosophy and history of science and education.

paragraphs: Marcus died of heart failure on March 17, 2016 at the age of 91.


title: Vladimir Shainsky

paragraphs: Vladimir Yakovlevich Shainsky () (December 12, 1925 — December 25, 2017) was a Soviet and Russian composer. In the 1950s Shainsky played in Leonid Utyosov's orchestra. He taught young people how to conduct music. He worked as a composer and musical leader at different dance orchestras. He studied in Baku conservatory, the composers faculty.

paragraphs: Shainsky has been awarded many awards, including the USSR State Prize (1981), People's Artist of the Russian SFSR title (1986), Order of Friendship (1996), multiple laureate of the Russian (formerly Soviet) "Song of the Year" festival (since 1971).

paragraphs: Vladimir Shainsky died on December 25, 2017, at the age of 93, after a long illness at the San Diego Hospital in California, USA.


title: Arizona tree frog

paragraphs: These species of tree frogs in the Hylidae family are commonly referred to as the Arizona tree frog:


title: Nancy Olson

paragraphs: Nancy Olson (born April 14, 1928) is an American actress. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in "Sunset Boulevard" (1950). Other movies including "The Absent-Minded Professor" and "Airport 1975" (1974). She has mostly retired from acting. Olson was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.


title: Albert Abraham Michelson

paragraphs: Albert Abraham Michelson (December 19, 1852 – May 9, 1931) was an American physicist. He was born in Strzelno (in Posen, Prussia, now in Poland) but grew up in California. He was known for his work on measuring the speed of light. That work led to him being awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1907. He was the first American to receive it in the field of science.


title: Donna Mills

paragraphs: Donna Mills (born December 11, 1940) is an American actress and producer. She began her television career in 1966 with a recurring role on "The Secret Storm". She played Abby Cunningham on "Knots Landing". She won several Soap Opera Digest Awards for this role. She also played Madeline Reeves in "General Hospital" in 2014-2015. She won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Guest Performer in a Drama Series.

paragraphs: Mills was born in Chicago, Illinois. Some sources give her birth date as 1942 or 1943.


title: R136a1

paragraphs: R136a1 is the most massive and luminous known star. It is a Wolf–Rayet star at the center of R136.

paragraphs: Ri36 is the central group of stars of the large NGC 2070 open cluster in the Tarantula nebula. The nebula lies about 50 kiloparsecs (163,000 light-years) in the Large Magellanic Cloud.

paragraphs: R136a1 has 265 the mass of the Sun, and 8.7 million times its luminosity. It is also one of the hottest at over 50,000 K. The cluster is only about 1.5 million years old, and is pouring out a huge amount of energy. Together, they outshine our Sun by a factor of 30 million.

paragraphs: The star is the largest of nine huge stars in the cluster.


title: Madison (name)

paragraphs: Madison is a family name of English origin. It has become a popular first name in the United States. It was one of the most popular names during the 2000s–2010s for girls.

paragraphs: Although less common, the name has also been used for boys.


title: Tarantula nebula

paragraphs: The Tarantula nebula (also known as 30 Doradus) is an H II region in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). It was originally thought to be a star, but in 1751 Lacaille recognized it was a nebula.

paragraphs: The Tarantula nebula has an apparent magnitude of 8. Considering its distance of 49 kpc (160,000 light-years), this is an extremely luminous object. Its luminosity is so great that if it were as close to Earth as the Orion Nebula, the Tarantula nebula would cast shadows.

paragraphs: It is the most active starburst region known in the Local Group of galaxies. It is also one of the largest such regions in the Local Group with an estimated diameter of 200 pc.

paragraphs: 30 Doradus has at its centre the star cluster NGC 2070 which includes the group of stars known as R136. This group puts out most of the energy that makes the nebula visible. The estimated mass of the cluster is 450,000 solar masses. It may become a globular cluster in the future.

paragraphs: In addition to NGC 2070, the Tarantula nebula has other star clusters, including the much older Hodge 301. The most massive stars of Hodge 301 have already exploded in supernovae. The closest supernova observed since the invention of the telescope, Supernova 1987A, occurred in the outskirts of the Tarantula Nebula. The remnants of many other supernovae are difficult to detect in the complex nebulosity.


title: Rice allergy

paragraphs: Rice allergy is a type of food allergy. People allergic to rice react to some rice proteins after they eat rice or breathe in rice steam. Although some reactions might lead to severe health problems, doctors can diagnose rice allergy with many methods and help allergic people to avoid reactions.

paragraphs: Some rice proteins are regarded as the causes of allergy in some people. People allergic to rice might have sneezing, runny nose, itching, asthma, stomachache or eczema after they eat rice. Besides eating rice, people with a rice allergy can have reactions breathing rice steam from cooked rice. Allergic people might have skin rashes and swellings. Moreover, they might stop breathing and die due to cardiac arrest.

paragraphs: People suspected of having a rice allergy can try diet avoidance on their own. First, they have to avoid rice for a couple of weeks. If they don’t have symptoms in the avoidance period, but have those when exposed to rice, they are most likely allergic to rice.

paragraphs: Specific rice IgE, a kind of antibody in human blood, will rise significantly when people are allergic to rice. A blood test shows the level of the antibody.

paragraphs: A skin prick test, the most efficient diagnosis, shows the reactions in a short period. After being pricked in their skin with some rice mixture, allergic people will get itching and swelling in about 30 minutes.

paragraphs: Some symptoms might weaken if people get allergy shots. After getting several treatments for a long time, some allergic people will not have reactions afterwards.

paragraphs: Some reactions have been eased by replacing original rice with genetically modified rice. This is regarded as a new choice for rice allergic people. Reactions might lessen by staying away from rice long-term.

paragraphs: Unlike other food allergies, rice allergy is relatively uncommon.It has been reported worldwide but mostly in China, Japan or Korea. Because rice is a major food in Asia, people from Asia are exposed to higher allergy risk than people from other areas.


title: Congressional Apportionment Amendment

paragraphs: The Congressional Apportionment Amendment (originally titled Article the First) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution. It was one of twelve "articles of amendment" to the United States Constitution approved by the 1st Congress on September 25, 1789. They were sent to the legislatures of the several states for ratification. If adopted, it would establish a formula for determining the appropriate size of the House of Representatives following each constitutionally required wikt:decennial census. It is the only one of the twelve proposed amendments that has not been adopted, as it has not been ratified by enough states for it to become part of the Constitution.

paragraphs: Because Congress did not set a time limit for its ratification, the Congressional Apportionment Amendment is still technically pending before the states. Ratification by an additional 27 states is now necessary for this amendment to be adopted. The other 1789 article of amendment ("Article the Second") of the original 12, was finally ratified in 1992. It became the Twenty-seventh Amendment.

paragraphs: The "ideal" number of seats in the House of Representatives has been a subject of controversy since the country's founding. The delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention set the representation ratio at one representative for every 40,000 people. Upon the suggestion of George Washington, the ratio was changed to 1:30,000. This was the only time Washington voiced an opinion on any of the actual issues debated during the convention.

paragraphs: In Federalist No. 55, James Madison argued that the size of the House of Representatives has to balance the ability of the body to legislate with the need for legislators to have a relationship close enough to the people to understand their local circumstances, that such representatives' social class be low enough to sympathize with the feelings of the mass of the people, and that their power be diluted enough to limit their abuse of the public trust and interests.

paragraphs: Anti-Federalists, who opposed the Constitution's ratification, noted that there was nothing in the document to guarantee that the number of seats in the House would continue to represent small constituencies as the general population of the states grew. They feared that over time, if the size remained relatively small and the districts became more expansive, that only well-known individuals with reputations spanning wide geographic areas could secure election. It was also feared that those in Congress would, as a result, have an insufficient sense of sympathy with and connectedness to ordinary people in their district.

paragraphs: This concern was evident in the various state ratifying conventions, where several specifically requested an amendment to secure a minimum size for the House of Representatives. Virginia's ratification resolution proposed,

paragraphs: Anti-Federalist Melancton Smith declared at the New York ratifying convention that,

paragraphs: Federalists, who supported the Constitution's ratification, placated those opposing its ratification by agreeing that the new government should immediately address Anti-Federalist concerns and consider amending the Constitution. The assurance that these issues would be addressed in the First Congress was essential to the ratification of the new form of government.

paragraphs: An amendment establishing a formula for determining the appropriate size of the House of Representatives and the appropriate apportionment of representatives among the states was one of several proposed amendments to the Constitution introduced first in the House on June 8, 1789, by Representative James Madison of Virginia. Madison's original intent was,

paragraphs: This, along with Madison's other proposals, was referred to a committee consisting of one representative from each state. After emerging from committee, the full House debated the issue and, on August 24, 1789, passed it and sixteen other articles of amendment. The proposals went next to the Senate, which made 26 substantive alterations. On September 9, 1789, the Senate approved a culled and consolidated package of twelve articles of amendment. Changed in this amendment was the apportionment formula to be followed once the number of House members reached 100.

paragraphs: At the time it was sent to the states for ratification, an affirmative vote by ten states would have made this amendment operational. That number rose to eleven on March 4, 1791, when Vermont joined the Union. By the end of 1791, the amendment was only one state short of the mark. However, when Kentucky attained statehood on June 1, 1792, the number climbed to twelve, and, even though Kentucky ratified the amendment that summer (along with the other eleven amendments), it was still one state short. No additional states ratified this amendment since. To become part of the Constitution, 27 additional ratifications are required.

paragraphs: Eugene Martin LaVergne, a former attorney claims to have found evidence that the entire proposed Bill of Rights, including this proposed amendment, was ratified by Connecticut in 1790. As such, Kentucky's 1792 ratification would have been sufficient for the amendment to meet the constitutional requirement to become part of the Constitution. However, according to LaVergne the Connecticut ratification was never forwarded to Congress for action. LaVergne argued the point in a lawsuit against a number of federal officials, but the case was dismissed. The dismissal was summarily affirmed "per curiam" by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, ending the case.


title: Federalist No. 55

paragraphs: The Federalist No. 55 is an essay by James Madison. It is the fifty-fifth of a collection called the Federalist Papers. It was published on February 13, 1788 under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all The Federalist Papers were published. In this paper, Madison examines the size of the United States House of Representatives. It is titled, "The Total Number of the House of Representatives."

paragraphs: The paper discusses critics' objections to the relatively small size of the House of Representatives (sixty-five members). Madison notes that the size of the House will increase as population increases. In addition, he states that the small size does not put the public liberty in danger because of the checks and balances relationship the House of Representatives has with the state legislatures, as well as the fact every member is voted in by the people every two years.


title: IC 10

paragraphs: IC 10 is an irregular galaxy in the constellation Cassiopeia.

paragraphs: It was discovered in 1887. Edwin Hubble suspected it might belong to the Local Group of galaxies, but this was uncertain for decades. The radial velocity of IC 10 was measured in 1962. It is approaching the Milky Way at about 350 km/s. This strengthened the evidence for its being in the Local Group. Its membership in the group was finally confirmed in 1996 by measurements of its distance by observations of Cepheids. Despite its closeness, the galaxy is rather difficult to study because it lies near the galactic plane of the Milky Way. It is heavily obscured by interstellar matter.

paragraphs: The apparent distance between IC 10 and the Andromeda Galaxy is about the same as the apparent distance between the Andromeda Galaxy and the Triangulum Galaxy, which suggests that IC 10 may belong to the M31 subgroup.

paragraphs: IC 10 is the only known starburst galaxy in the Local Group of galaxies. It has many more Wolf-Rayet stars per square kiloparsec (5.1 stars/kpc²) than the Large Magellanic Cloud (2.0 stars/kpc²) or the Small Magellanic Cloud (0.9 stars/kpc²). Although the galaxy has a luminosity similar to the SMC, it is much smaller. The evolutionary status of the Wolf-Rayet stars suggests they all formed in a relatively short period. The galaxy produces stars at the rate of 0.04–0.08 solar masses per year, which means that the gas supply in the galaxy can last for a few billion years longer.

paragraphs: Observations of IC 10 in the far-infrared show that the dust in this mild starburst galaxy is deficient in small grains. Perhaps small grains were destroyed by strong ultraviolet radiation in the areas around the hot luminous stars.

paragraphs: The galaxy has a huge envelope of hydrogen gas, with an apparent size measuring 68′ × 80′, which is far larger than the apparent size of the galaxy in visible light (5.5′ × 7.0′). IC 10 is also unusual in the respect that the visible part of the galaxy seems to rotate in a different direction than the outer envelope. It has an H II nucleus.


title: The Old Man and the Sea

paragraphs: The Old Man and the Sea is a novella by Ernest Hemingway that was written in 1951 and then published in 1952. It is Hemingway's most famous work, and also his final work to be published while he was alive. Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 for this work. Hemingway wrote it while he was in the Bahamas. The work tells the story of Santiago, an old Cuban fisherman who catches a giant marlin in the Gulf Stream.


title: Water tank

paragraphs: A water tank is a container for storing water. The need for water tanks is as old as civilization. Tanks were used to provide storage of water for use in many applications, drinking water, irrigation agriculture, fire suppression, agricultural farming, both for plants and livestock, chemical manufacturing, food preparation as well as many other uses. Water tank parameters include the general design of the tank, and choice of construction materials, linings. Various materials are used for making a water tank: plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene), fiberglass, concrete, stone, steel (welded or bolted, carbon, or stainless). Earthen pots also function as water storages. Water tanks are an efficient way to help developing countries to store clean water. In the 1980s, high density polyethylene rotationally molded water tanks became popular for home water storage. Gardeners, for example, use various types of these tanks to store rain water. A Water tower, usually made of metal, is a type of elevated water tank.


title: History of the United States Constitution

paragraphs: The history of the United States Constitution is a history of how the government of the United States functions, its rule of law and the rights guaranteed to its citizens. It was signed by the delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia on September 17, 1787. It replaced the Articles of Confederation, that served as new nation's first constitution. The government under the Articles proved to be weak and inefficient. When the convention was called to meet in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787, most of the members were aware a new stronger government was necessary.

paragraphs: The history of the (second) Constitution of the United States begins with the history behind the creation of the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution. The Articles of Confederation were, in effect, a loose confederation that joined together thirteen independent states to mainly deal with foreign policy. For all other purposes they remained sovereign states. The greatest weakness of the Articles of Confederation is that it had no direct connection to the people themselves. It recognized state sovereignty. Each state collected its own taxes, provided its own militia and printed its own currency. A weak Congress was the chief instrument in the new government. There was no executive branch. The recent tyranny suffered under Britain's King George III made the new country's leaders wary of a strong central government. In Congress, each state only had one vote. States with small populations had the same voting rights as states ten times their size. Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote, which was virtually impossible with thirteen states each having their own interests.

paragraphs: However, the weaknesses became rapidly apparent. Congress could not levy taxes and so could not effectively support any war effort. The central government did not have the ability to negotiate trade agreements with foreign governments. It could not settle quarrels between states. The country could not protect its ships which were being robbed at by pirates. The states themselves were in a near disastrous condition economically. The widespread use of paper money was causing inflation. So much so that in some places a pound of tea could cost $100. Farmers were being thrown in jail because they could not pay their debts. Many farms were being sold off for the unpaid taxes that were owed.

paragraphs: There was an attempt at reforming the Articles. The Articles Congress received a report on August 7, 1786 from a twelve-member "Grand Committee". They were appointed to develop needed amendments. Seven amendments to the Articles of Confederation were proposed. Under these reforms, Congress would gain "sole and exclusive" power to regulate trade. States could not favor foreigners over citizens. Tax bills would require a 70% vote, public debt 85%, not the 100% currently required. Congress could charge states a late payment penalty fee. A state withholding troops would be charged for them, plus a penalty. If a state did not pay, Congress could collect directly from its cities and counties. There would have been a national court of seven judges. No-shows at Congress would have been banned from any U.S. or state office. These proposals were, however, sent back to committee without a vote and were not taken up again.

paragraphs: Congress had given the delegates the task of amending the Articles of Confederation. But almost immediately they began discussing a completely new form of government. The debates lasted through the summer of 1787 and at times became so heated it threatened to end the convention prematurely.

paragraphs: Appointed to the convention were 74 delegates—only 55 of which actually attended the sessions. The state of Rhode Island refused to send any delegates. They believed the convention was actually a conspiracy to overthrow the Confederation government. Patrick Henry of Virginia was another who refused to attend declaring he "smelt a rat." In particular he suspected James Madison, also of Virginia, of wanting to create a new form of government. Henry was a firm believer that the states offered the best protections for personal rights and wanted nothing to do with upsetting that arrangement. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were away on diplomatic missions. John Jay was in New York at the diplomatic office. For various reasons many of the country's major political leaders were not at the convention. But the list of those who did attend was impressive. It included Benjamin Franklin, James Wilson, Alexander Hamilton, George Mason, John Dickinson, Gouverneur Morris and George Washington. Many others also became famous as framers of the Constitution.

paragraphs: The sessions were held in secret. Reporters and spectators were not allowed. To those who already had suspicions, the secrecy of the proceedings only confirmed what they feared. There were even armed guards at the doors. Many of those present had already risked being hanged by the British as traitors during the revolution. Now they worried about what their states would think of abandoning the Articles of Confederation.

paragraphs: James Madison spent the winter of 1787 making a study of various confederations throughout history. He came to Philadelphia armed with a wealth of knowledge and an idea for what the United States government should be. His plan was presented to the Convention by Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia. It became the broad outline of what would be a new government under the U.S. Constitution. His plan called for three branches of government with checks and balances to prevent any one branch from abusing their power. Madison's idea for a legislature had two houses. One would feature members elected by the people for a three year term. The other would have its members elected by the state legislatures and would serve for 7 years. Both would have the seats determined by the population of the country.

paragraphs: After debating the Virginia plan for two weeks, William Patterson presented his plan called variously, the New Jersey Plan, the Patterson Plan and the Small State Plan. It was very similar to the Articles of Confederation and featured a unicameral (one house) legislature. All states would have one vote. He had one idea that was kept; that state laws that ran counter to federal laws would be voided.

paragraphs: A third plan was offered by Alexander Hamilton. It was a copy of the British Constitution. It also was bicameral with an upper house and a legislature in which members served on their good behavior.

paragraphs: Finally they worked out a compromise between all three plans. The new government would have an upper house, having an equal number of delegates from each state, and a lower house with representation based on population. The executive branch would have most of the responsibilities of foreign affairs while other important powers, like ratifying treaties, would be the responsibility of the legislative branch. After the new Constitution was ratified by the states, it went into effect in 1789.


paragraphs: The Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XXVI) lowered the minimum voting age in the United States from 21 to 18.

paragraphs: The United States Congress approved the amendment on March 23, 1971, and sent it to the states to be ratified. Within three months and eight days, the states had ratified the amendment, and it became part of the Constitution. This was the quickest amendment to be ratified in United States history.

paragraphs: Lowering the minimum voting age was not a new idea. In the United States, some people started trying to get the voting age lowered during World War II. During the war, President Franklin D. Roosevelt lowered the military draft age to 18. This meant that men as young as 18 could be forced to join the military. To many people, it did not seem fair that the government thought these young men were old enough to fight a world war, but not old enough to vote in the country they were fighting for. "Old enough to fight, old enough to vote" became a common slogan.

paragraphs: United States Senator Harley Kilgore had begun supporting a lowered voting age in 1941. Many other Senators, Representatives, and the First Lady, Eleanor Roosevelt, supported the idea. However, Congress never made any changes.

paragraphs: Kilgore's ideas did interest some of the states. In 1943, the Georgia state legislature passed a law lowering the voting age in the state to 18; in 1955, Kentucky did the same thing.

paragraphs: In his State of the Union address in 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower became the first president to say publicly that he supported letting people ages 18 and older vote.

paragraphs: In 1963, the President's Commission on Registration and Voting Participation made a report to President Lyndon B. Johnson. The report encouraged Johnson to lower the voting age.

paragraphs: During the 1960s, many Americans pushed both Congress and the state legislatures to lower the minimum voting age from 21 to 18. This was mostly because of to the Vietnam War. As the war went on, more and more people started to protest the war and become active. During that war, many young men were drafted and sent to fight in the war before they were old enough to vote. This meant they had no way to influence the people sending them off to risk their lives. Protesters started to use the slogan "Old enough to fight, old enough to vote" again.

paragraphs: Supporters also argued that the law treated eighteen-year-olds as adults in many other ways. For example, they had to pay income taxes. Supporters argued that this was "taxation without representation" meaning that 18- to 20-year-olds had to pay taxes, but had no say in what those taxes were or what they were spent on, because they could not vote.

paragraphs: In 1967, United States Representative William St. Onge pointed out: ""To tax our 18-, 19-, and 20-year-olds without giving them the right to vote ignores the great rallying cry of our War of Independence that there [should] be 'no taxation without representation.'"

paragraphs: Similarly, in 1970, in a committee that was debating a possible Constitutional amendment to lower the voting age, Representative Thomas Railsback said: ""Our laws tax these 18-year-olds but our voting laws do not permit them representation in enacting that tax law. The Boston Tea Party was supposed to have been the spark that put that issue to rest in this country."

paragraphs: Not everybody supported lowering the minimum voting age. Opponents to giving younger people the vote had several arguments. Many argued that teenagers were not mature or responsible enough to vote.

paragraphs: Other people argued that teenagers did not know enough to have the right to vote. One historian writes:

paragraphs: Others criticized the "old enough to fight, old enough to vote" argument. For example, in 1953, the popular magazine "Collier's Weekly" said this argument "doesn't justify giving young ladies of eighteen the right to franchise [vote]." They added: "If a man if old enough to vote when he's old enough to fight, then logically the man who is too old to fight out to lose the right to vote."

paragraphs: Another example comes from an editorial written by the "New York Times" in 1967. The paper wrote: "The requirements for a good soldier and for a good voter are not the same. For the soldier, youthful enthusiasm and physical endurance are [of most] importance; for the voter, maturity of judgment far outweighs other qualifications."

paragraphs: Finally, some people thought lowering the voting age was not that important for the country, and that it should be left up to each individual state.

paragraphs: In 1970, United States Senators Ted Kennedy and Mike Mansfield suggested changing the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to lower the voting age in the United States.

paragraphs: The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment says that the government has to give every person "the equal protection of its laws." People who supported the addition to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, like Ted Kennedy, said that by not allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to vote, the government not treating them equally by not letting them vote.

paragraphs: President Nixon disagreed with Kennedy. He was not against lowering the voting age. However, he did not agree with Kennedy's legal argument. He also worried that if the Supreme Court thought the new Voting Rights Act was unconstitutional, they could overturn it  cancel the entire law. Nixon thought this could cause a lot of damage to the country.

paragraphs: However, on June 22, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed an extension (an addition) to the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The change required the voting age to be 18 in all federal, state, and local elections. After signing the change, Nixon said:

paragraphs: After Nixon signed this change, about 17 states refused to change their minimum voting ages to 18.

paragraphs: After Nixon signed the change to the Voting Rights Act, Oregon and Texas challenged the law in court. The case, "Oregon v. Mitchell," made it to the Supreme Court in October 1970. This was just four months after Nixon signed the change. By this time, four states had lowered their minimum voting ages: Georgia, Kentucky, Alaska, and Hawaii.

paragraphs: In "Oregon v. Mitchell", the Supreme Court looked at whether the voting age changes that Congress added to the Voting Rights Act were constitutional. This means they looked at whether the changes agreed with the rules in the Constitution, or broke them. The judges on the Supreme Court strongly disagreed with each other in this case. Eventually, five out of the nine judges agreed on a decision - just enough to reach the majority needed for a decision. However, most of the judges did not agree on which legal reason was behind their decision.

paragraphs: The Court ruled that Congress could set a voting age for federal elections, but not state or local elections. This meant that for state and local elections, states could keep the voting age at 21 if they wanted to. However, they would have to keep two different voting registers (lists of people who had signed up to vote): one for federal elections, which would include people as young as 18, and another for state and local elections, which would only include people over age 20.

paragraphs: After the Supreme Court's decision, both Congress and the states wanted to find a way to lower the minimum voting age throughout the country. Congress decided to propose a Constitutional amendment that would set the minimum voting age at 18 everywhere in the country. This would be different than the change to the Voting Rights Act in a few ways.

paragraphs: First of all, the states did not want to deal with the cost and difficulty of having to keep two different voting registers, so they supported the idea of a Constitutional amendment. Also, when they changed the Voting Rights Act, Congress had made a law about state and local elections without the states having any say. However, for an amendment to be added to the Constitution, two-thirds of both Houses of Congress, and then three-fourths of the state legislatures, have to agree on it. (These rules are set out in Article Five of the Constitution.) An amendment would be something that both Congress "and" the states agreed on. Congress would not be over-using its power and breaking the Constitution by making laws for the states.

paragraphs: Opinion polls said that most Americans wanted the Twenty-sixth Amendment to pass. Younger people were most likely to support the Amendment. However, even in people over age 50, over half of Americans supported the Amendment. Even the "New York Times" changed its official opinion and supported the Amendment.

paragraphs: On March 10, 1971, the United States Senate voted 94–0 in support of proposing an amendment that would lower the minimum voting age to 18 everywhere in the country. On March 23, the United States House of Representatives voted 401–19 for the amendment. Congress sent the amendment to the states.

paragraphs: For the Twenty-sixth Amendment to be added to the Constitution, three-fourths of the state legislatures (38 out of the 50) would have to ratify the Amendment. It took just three months for 38 states to ratify the Amendment. After the Amendment was added to the Constitution, another five states ratified it. Seven states never did.

paragraphs: The states ratified the Amendment in this order:

paragraphs: On July 5, 1971, President Richard Nixon held a ceremony at the White House, where he signed the Twenty-sixth Amendment just to show his support. (The President does not have to sign an amendment in order for it to be added to the Constitution.) During the signing ceremony, he talked about his confidence in the United States' young people:


title: Tray Walker

paragraphs: Tray Walker (August 5, 1992 – March 18, 2016) was an American football cornerback. He played for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Texas Southern, and was drafted by the Ravens in the 4th round of the 2015 NFL draft. He was born in Miami, Florida.

paragraphs: Walker died in Miami, Florida when he was dirt biking when his bike was hit by a car. He died the next day on March 18, 2016 from his injuries. He was aged 23.


title: Lothar Späth

paragraphs: Lothar Späth (16 November 1937 – 18 March 2016) was a German politician of the CDU.

paragraphs: From 30 August 1978 to 13 January 1991, Späth was the 5th Minister President of Baden-Württemberg and chairman of the CDU Baden-Württemberg. He served as the 36th President of the Bundesrat in the 1980s.


title: Separation process

paragraphs: A separation process is a method used in science to separate two substances, that once formed a mixture. The type of separation process used depend on the mixture's properties and components. Here are examples of separation techniques: distillation, evaporation, chromatography, filtration, fractional distillation and magnetism. The end product of the separation process is one or more pure compounds.


title: Les Tanyuk

paragraphs: Leonid (Les) Stepanovych Tanyuk (, August 7, 1938 – March 18, 2016) was a Ukrainian theatre and movie director. He was a dissident and the head of the Club of Creative Youth. After 1991's Ukrainian independence Tanyuk became a multiple re-elected member of the Ukrainian parliament.

paragraphs: Tanyuk died on March 18, 2016 in Kiev, Ukraine at the age of 77.


title: Jan Němec

paragraphs: Jan Němec (12 July 1936 – 18 March 2016) was a Czech movie director and screenwriter. His important work dates from the 1960s. Movie historian Peter Hames has called him as the "enfant terrible of the Czech New Wave." He was known for directing the 1966 movie "A Report on the Party and the Guests".


title: Argentine real

paragraphs: The real was the former currency of Argentina. It was in circulation from 1813 to 1881 and was also the country's first currency used. During its period, the "sol" was also used and its value was equal to that of the real. The peso was worth 8 reales and the escudo was worth 16 reales.


title: Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2012

paragraphs: The 2012 Democratic presidential primaries and caucuses was the process by which voters of the Democratic Party chose the candidate for the United States presidential election, 2012. The incumbent president, Barack Obama, won the primaries and caucuses after easily winning 88.87% of the popular vote, and all of the states and territories. No other candidates seriously challenged Obama.

paragraphs: Barack Obama was the only candidate who was on the ballot in all 50 states.


paragraphs: The Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XXVII) has to do with the salaries paid to members of the United States Congress.

paragraphs: Congress is made of two "Houses," and the members of each House serve different terms (amounts of time in office). Members of the United States Senate serve six-year terms, and members of the United States House of Representatives serve two years each. The Twenty-seventh Amendment says that no law can change Congresspeople's salaries until a new two-year term for Representatives starts.

paragraphs: As of 2020, the Twenty-seventh amendment is the last amendment that has been added to the Constitution. It took longer for the states to ratify this amendment than any other in history. The 1st United States Congress sent the suggested amendment to the states for their approval on September 25, 1789. It was not until May 7, 1992, that enough states ratified the amendment for it to be added to the Constitution. The ratification process had taken 202 years, 7 months, and 12 days the longest in United States history.

paragraphs: When Congress first proposed the amendment in 1789, this is the text they suggested:

paragraphs: On September 25, 1789, the first United States Congress gave a group of 12 amendments to the states for their approval. Written by James Madison, these were the first 12 Constitutional amendments ever written. One of them was an amendment about salaries for Members of Congress. Madison wanted to protect against Congresspeople being able to give themselves raises whenever they wanted to, while they were in the middle of their terms and the people could not vote them out.

paragraphs: In 1791, the states ratified ten of the 12 suggested amendments. These ten amendments became the Bill of Rights. However, the states did not ratify the other two amendments out of the 12 including the one on limiting pay for Congresspeople.

paragraphs: James Madison first proposed this amendment in the United States House of Representatives on June 8, 1789. On August 24, 1789, the House passed the suggested amendment and sixteen others. The proposals went next to the United States Senate, which made 26 different changes to the House's suggested amendments. After taking out some parts of the House amendments, and combining others, the Senate approved a package of twelve suggested amendments on September 9, 1789.

paragraphs: Now a committee of House and Senate members had to meet to figure out a compromise and come up with amendments that they could all agree on. After three days, they had come up with 12 suggested amendments, which they brought back to the full House and Senate. That same day September 24, 1789 the House agreed on the 12 proposed amendments. The next day, the Senate agreed too. The 12 amendments included the one on Congressional pay.

paragraphs: Congress sent the package of 12 amendments to the states on September 25, 1789. For these amendments to be added to the Constitution, three-fourths of the state legislatures would have to ratify (approve) the amendments. At the time, there were only 11 states (North Carolina and Rhode Island had not ratified the Constitution yet). This meant just nine states would have to approve the amendments to add them to the Constitution.

paragraphs: On December 15, 1791, the states ratified ten of the twelve suggested amendments. These got added to the Constitution together as the Bill of Rights. However, at this time, only six states had ratified the Congressional pay amendment.

paragraphs: Over the next 186 years, only two more states ratified the Amendment. Meanwhile, many more states joined the United States. This meant that a larger number of states would need to ratify the amendment to get it added to the Constitution, since three-fourths of the state legislatures needed to ratify it, and there were more and more states as time went on.


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title: From Russia with Love

paragraphs: From Russia with Love is the second James Bond movie made by Eon Productions. It is also the second to star Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. Released in 1963, the film was produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman. It was directed by Terence Young. From Russia with Love is based on the 1957 novel of the same name written by Ian Fleming. In the movie, James Bond is sent to assist in the defection of Soviet consulate clerk Tatiana Romanova in Turkey, where SPECTRE plans to avenge Bond's killing of Dr. No. Rotten Tomatoes gave the move a 96% rating.


title: Vajiralongkorn

paragraphs: Maha Vajiralongkorn (born 28 July 1952) is the King of Thailand since October 13, 2016. He is the only son of former King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit. In 1972, the king gave him the title "Somdech Phra Borom Oras Adhiraj Chao Fah Maha Vajiralongkorn Sayam Makutrajakuman" and the title made him the Crown Prince and heir apparent to the throne. Vajiralongkorn was also a marshal in the Thai military.

paragraphs: After his father's death on 13 October 2016, he succeeded to the throne of Thailand, with a delay, saying he needed "time to prepare before being proclaimed as the new king". He accepted the throne on December 1, 2016. The coronation was in May 2019.

paragraphs: Vajiralongkorn has been married and divorced three times. He has three daughters and five sons. His four eldest sons were born before he married their mother. They are not able to succeed as king, because their titles have been removed.

paragraphs: On 1 May 2019, three days before his coronation, Vajiralongkorn married Suthida Tidjai, former acting commander of Royal Thai Aide-de-Camp Department.


title: On Her Majesty's Secret Service

paragraphs: On Her Majesty's Secret Service is a James Bond movie. It was released in 1969. It stars George Lazenby as Bond. It also stars Diana Rigg and Telly Savalas. It is the sixth movie in the James Bond series. It is based on the novel of the same name by Ian Fleming.


title: Lyubka Rondova

paragraphs: Lyubka Vasileva Rondova, Ljubka Rondova or Lubka Rondova () (24 September 1936 – 15 March 2016) was a Bulgarian folk singer. She best known for performing and recording many of the traditional song from Macedonia as a folklore region. She was born in Sidirochori, Greece to Bulgarian parents. She was awarded the highest Bulgarian order Stara planina, First Degree in 2002.

paragraphs: Rondova died in Sofia, Bulgaria at the age of 79.


title: Robert H. Michel

paragraphs: Robert Henry "Bob" Michel (pronounced "Michael"; March 2, 1923 – February 17, 2017) was an American Republican Party politician.

paragraphs: He was a member of the United States House of Representatives for 38 years. He represented central Illinois' 18th congressional district, and was the GOP leader in Congress during the Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton presidencies from 1981 through 1995. He as Minority Leader from 1981 through 1995. He was also Minority Whip for 6 years from 1975 through 1981.

paragraphs: Michel was born and raised in Peoria, Illinois. He studied in Bradley University. Michel died on February 17, 2017 in Arlington, Virginia from pneumonia, aged 93.


title: Joe Santos

paragraphs: Joe Santos (born Joseph John Minieri, Jr.; June 9, 1931 – March 18, 2016) was an American movie and television actor. He was born in The Bronx, New York. He played Sergeant Dennis Becker in "The Rockford Files", and Lt. Frank Harper in the TV series "Hardcastle and McCormick". He appeared on "The Sopranos" as Angelo Garepe in seven 2004 episodes.

paragraphs: Santos suffered a heart attack on March 14, 2016, according to his son. He died four days later in Santa Monica, California at the age of 84.


title: José Artetxe

paragraphs: José Luis Artetxe Muguire (26 June 1930 – 19 March 2016) was a Spanish footballer who played as a striker. He was born in Algorta, Spain. His career began in 1947.

paragraphs: Artetxe played for Getxo from 1949 through 1950, for Athletic Bilbao from 1950 through 1965 and for Spain national football team in 1953 and again from 1954 through 1959. He retired in the 1960s.

paragraphs: Artetxe earned six caps for Spain, during five years. His debut came on 17 March 1954 in a 2–2 draw against Turkey for the 1954 FIFA World Cup qualifiers. He scored the game's first goal in Rome.

paragraphs: Artetxe died in Bilbao, Spain from complications of Alzheimer's disease at the age of 85.


title: Titles of Nobility Amendment

paragraphs: The Titles of Nobility Amendment is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution. It was approved by the 11th Congress on May 1, 1810, and submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. It would strip United States citizenship from any citizen who accepted a title of nobility from a foreign country. On two occasions between 1812 and 1816 it only needed ratifying by two states to become a valid part of the Constitution. Congress did not set a time limit for its ratification, so the amendment is still pending before the states. Now, since the number of states has increased, ratification by an additional 26 states would be needed for this amendment to be adopted.

paragraphs: This proposed amendment would amplify both , which prohibits the federal government from issuing titles of nobility or honor, and , which prohibits the states from issuing them.

paragraphs: There is speculation that the Congress proposed the amendment in response to the 1803 marriage of Napoleon Bonaparte's younger brother, Jerome, and Betsy Patterson of Baltimore, Maryland. She gave birth to a son for whom she wanted aristocratic recognition from France. The child, named Jérôme Napoleon Bonaparte, was not born in the United States, but in Great Britain on July 7, 1805. Nevertheless, he would have held U.S. citizenship through his mother. In turn, his son, Charles Joseph Bonaparte, was born in 1851 and died 1921. He graduated from Harvard Law School, and became Secretary of the Navy and then, in the Theodore Roosevelt Administration, Attorney-General – and created the FBI. Another theory is that his mother actually desired a title of nobility for herself. She is referred to as the "Duchess of Baltimore" in many texts written about the amendment. The marriage had been annulled in 1805. This was well before the amendment's proposal by the 11th Congress. Nonetheless, Representative Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina is recorded to have said that "he considered the vote on this question as deciding whether or not we were to have members of the Legion of Honor in this country."


title: 1st United States Congress

paragraphs: The First United States Congress, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives, met from March 4, 1789, to March 4, 1791. This was during the first two years of George Washington's presidency. Congress met first at Federal Hall in New York City and later at Congress Hall in Philadelphia. With the initial meeting of the First Congress, the United States federal government officially began operations under the new (and current) frame of government established by the 1787 Constitution. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the provisions of of the Constitution. Both chambers had a Pro-Administration majority. Twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution were passed by this Congress and sent to the states for ratification. The ten ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791 are collectively known as the Bill of Rights (Amendments one through ten).

paragraphs: Held March 4, 1789, through September 29, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York City

paragraphs: Held January 4, 1790, through August 12, 1790, at Federal Hall in New York City

paragraphs: Held December 6, 1790, through March 3, 1791, at Congress Hall in Philadelphia

paragraphs: There were no political parties in this Congress. Members are informally grouped into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.

paragraphs: Details on changes are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.

paragraphs: During this congress, two Senate seats were added for North Carolina and Rhode Island when each ratified the Constitution.

paragraphs: During this congress, five House seats were added for North Carolina and one House seat was added for Rhode Island when they ratified the Constitution.


title: Grand-Bassam shootings

paragraphs: On 13 March 2016, three gunmen opened fire at a beach on Grand-Bassam, Ivory Coast. They attacked the Étoile du Sud hotel which was occupied at the time. Eighteen people were killed. Thirty-three people were injured.

paragraphs: The attackers were described as Africans. They were dressed in casual clothes. They had grenade belts and Kalashnikov rifles. People were evacuated from the beach to nearby hotels. The hotels were placed on lockdown.


title: Republicanism in the United States

paragraphs: Republicanism in the United States is a set of ideas that guides the government and politics. These ideas have shaped the government, and the way people in the United States think about politics, since the American Revolution.

paragraphs: The American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence (1776), the Constitution (1787), and even the Gettysburg Address (1863) were based on ideas from American republicanism.

paragraphs: "Republicanism" comes from the word "republic." However, they are not the same thing. A republic is a type of government (one where the people can choose their leaders). Republicanism is an ideology set of beliefs that people in a republic have about what is most important to them.

paragraphs: Republicanism in the United States grew out of some very old ideas. It includes ideas from ancient Greece, ancient Rome, the Renaissance, and England.

paragraphs: Some of the most important ideas of republicanism are that:

paragraphs: Republicanism is different than other forms of democracy. In a "pure" democracy, the majority rules. If a majority of the people voted to take rights away from a certain group, that is what would happen. Alexis de Tocqueville, a famous French political thinker, called this the "tyranny of the majority." He meant that a pure democracy could still turn into an unfair, unequal, corrupt society if the majority of the people decided to take away others' rights.

paragraphs: However, republicanism says that people have "unalienable" rights that cannot be voted away. Republican governments are different than "pure" democracies, because they include protections to make sure people's rights are not taken away. In a true republican government, one group - even if it is a majority - cannot take another group's unalienable rights away.

paragraphs: American republicanism was created and first practiced by the Founding Fathers in the 18th century. For them, "republicanism represented more than a particular form of government. It was a way of life, a core ideology, an uncompromising commitment to liberty, and a total rejection of aristocracy." Republicanism shaped what the Founders thought and did during the American Revolution, and after.

paragraphs: The leaders of colonial America in the 1760s and 1770s read history carefully. Their goal was to compare governments and how well different types of governments worked. They were especially interested in the history of liberty in England. They modeled American republicanism partly after the English "Country Party." This was a political party which opposed the Court Party, which held power in England.

paragraphs: The Country Party was based on ancient Greek and Roman republicanism. The Party criticized the corruption in the "Court" Party, which focused mostly on the King's court in London. It did not focus on the needs of regular people in England, or on areas outside of the capital city.

paragraphs: By reading history, The Founders came up with a set of political ideas that they called "republicanism." By 1775, these ideas were common in colonial America. One historian writes: "Republicanism was the distinctive political [way of thinking] of the entire Revolutionary generation."

paragraphs: Another historian explains that believers of American republicanism saw government as a threat. He writes that colonists felt constantly "threatened by corruption." Government, to them, was "the [biggest] source of corruption and operat[ed] through such means as patronage, faction, standing armies ( [instead of] the ideal of the militia); [and] established churches" which people would have to belong to.

paragraphs: By the 1770s, most Americans were dedicated to republican values and to their property rights. This helped cause the American Revolution. More and more, Americans saw Britain as corrupt; hostile; and a threat to republicanism, freedom, and property rights. Many people thought that the greatest threat to liberty was corruption not just in London, but at home too. They thought corruption went along with inherited aristocracy, which they hated.

paragraphs: During the Revolution, many Christians connected republicanism with their religion. When the Revolution started, there was a major change in thinking that "convinced Americans ... that God was raising up America for some special purpose," according to one historian. This made the Revolutionists believe that they had a moral and religious duty to get rid of the corruption in the monarchy.

paragraphs: Another historian, Gordon Wood, writes that republicanism led to American Exceptionalism: "Our beliefs in liberty, equality, constitutionalism, and the well-being of ordinary people came out of the Revolutionary era. So too did our idea that we Americans are a special people with a special destiny to lead the world toward liberty and democracy."

paragraphs: In his "Discourse of 1759," Revolutionist Jonathan Mayhew argued that people should only obey their governments if they "actually perform the duty of rulers by exercising a reasonable and [fair] authority for the good of human society." Many American colonists were convinced that British rulers were not using their power "for the good of human society." This made them want to form a new government which would be based on republicanism. They thought a republican government would protect not threaten freedom and democracy.

paragraphs: The "Founding Fathers" were strong supporters of republican values, especially Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, George Washington, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton.

paragraphs: For example, Thomas Jefferson once wrote that a government that had the most possible participation by "its citizens in mass" (all the people together) was the safest kind. He said a republic is:

paragraphs: In Simple English, Jefferson was saying: 'A republic is a government where all its citizens act together, based on rules that most of them have agreed on. The government's powers should be divided, and each power should be carried out by representatives that the people choose. They should serve terms (times in office) that are short enough to make sure they are doing what the people want. All the people, together, are the best protectors of their own rights.'

paragraphs: The Founding Fathers often talked about what "republicanism" meant. In 1787, John Adams defined it as "a government, in which all men, rich and poor, magistrates and subjects, officers and people, masters and servants, the first citizen and the last, are equally subject to the laws."

paragraphs: Some other ideas also affected the Founding Fathers. For example, in the 1600s, John Locke, an English philosopher, had created the idea of the "social contract." This idea said that people agree to obey governments, and in return, those governments agree to protect the people and their rights. This is like a contract made between the people and the government. If the government breaks this contract, and does not protect the people's rights, then the people have the right to overthrow their leaders. This idea was important to the Revolutionists.

paragraphs: When they were writing state and national constitutions, the Americans used ideas from Montesquieu, an 18th-century French political thinker. Montesquieu wrote about how the perfect British constitution would be "balanced." The idea of a balance of power (also called "checks and balances") is a very important part of the Constitution. It is one of the strategies the Founders used to make sure their government would be republican and protect the people from government corruption.

paragraphs: The Founding Fathers wanted republicanism because its ideas guaranteed liberty, with limited powers checking and balancing each other. However, they also wanted change to happen slowly. They worried that in a democracy, the majority of voters could vote away rights and freedoms. They were most worried about poor Americans (who made up most of the United States) turning against the rich. They worried that democracy could turn into "mob rule."

paragraphs: To guard against this, the Founders wrote many protections into the Constitution. For example:

paragraphs: Most adult white males were able to vote. In 1776, most states required people to own property to be able to vote. However, at that time, America was 90% rural, and most people owned farms. As cities grew bigger and people started doing work in the cities, most states dropped the property requirement. By 1850, this requirement was gone in every state.

paragraphs: Under the new government after the Revolution, "republican motherhood" became an ideal. Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren were held up as the perfect "republican mothers." This idea said that a republican mother's first duty was to teach her children republican values. Her second job was to live simply and avoid luxury, which the Founders linked with corruption.

paragraphs: Many of the Founders did not think "democracy" was a good idea. Their idea of "democracy" was the "pure democracy" that de Tocqueville had described. They worried often about the problem of 'tyranny of the majority' that de Tocqueville had warned about. They wrote many protections into the Constitution to prevent this from happening. As historians Richard Ellis and Michael Nelson write: "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to [make sure] that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be [destroyed] by majorities." Thomas Jefferson warned that "an elect[ed] despotism is not the government we fought for."

paragraphs: James Madison, in particular, worried about this, and wrote about it in "The Federalist Papers". The "Federalist Papers" talk about democracy as being dangerous, because it allows a majority to take away the rights of a smaller group. However, Madison thought that as more people came to the United States, the country would get more diverse, and it would be harder to form a majority big enough to do this. In Federalist No. 10, Madison also argued that a strong federal government would help protect republicanism. The United States' first constitution, the Articles of Confederation, gave most power to the states and had a very weak federal government that could not get anything done. In Federalist No. 10, Madison argued that a small but powerful group might be able to take control of a small area, like a state. However, it would be much harder to take over an entire country. The bigger the country, he argued, the safer republicanism would be.

paragraphs: As late as 1800, the word "democrat" still had a very bad meaning to most Americans. It was mostly used to attack an opponent of the Federalist party. In 1798, George Washington complained that a "Democrat ... will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country." This changed over the next few decades.

paragraphs: United States Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story (1779–1845) made the protection of property rights by the courts a major part of American republicanism. James Madison appointed Story to the Court in 1811. Story and Chief Justice John Marshall made the Court a protector of the rights of property against runaway democracy. Story believed that "the right of the citizens to the free enjoyment of their property" (if they got it legally) was "a great and fundamental principle of a republican government." Historians agree that Story—as much or more than Marshall or anyone else—reshaped American law in a conservative direction that protected property rights.

paragraphs: Republicanism saw military service as one of a citizen's most important duties. John Randolph, a Congressman from Virginia, once said: "When citizen and soldier shall be synonymous terms, then you will be safe."

paragraphs: However, at this time, the word "army" meant "foreign mercenaries." After the Revolutionary War, Americans did not trust mercenaries. Instead, they came up with the idea of a national army, made of citizens. They changed their definition of military service from a choice of careers to a civic duty something every good republican should do. Before the Civil War, people saw military service as an important show of patriotism, and a necessary part of citizenship. To soldiers, military service was something they chose to do, something they had a say in, and it showed that they were good citizens.

paragraphs: The term "republic" is not used in the Declaration of Independence. However, it does appear in Article Four of the Constitution, which "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government."

paragraphs: The United States Supreme Court has created a basic definition of what a "republic" is. In "United States v. Cruikshank" (1875), the court ruled that the "equal rights of citizens" were inherent to the idea of a republic. Later, the Court's decision from "In re Duncan" (1891) ruled that the "right of the people to choose their government" is also part of the definition of a republic.

paragraphs: Over time, most Americans changed their opinion about the word "democracy." By the 1830s, most Americans saw democracy as a great thing, and members of the new Democratic Party proudly called themselves "Democrats."

paragraphs: After 1800, the limitations on democracy (like rules that limited who could vote) were removed one by one:


title: Defence Intelligence

paragraphs: Defence Intelligence (DI) is part of the United Kingdom "intelligence Community", with the SIS, GCHQ, and the Security Service.

paragraphs: It is not a stand-alone organisation, but a part of the Ministry of Defence (MOD). The organisation employs civilian and military staff. The organisation was formerly known as the Defence Intelligence Staff or DIS, but changed its name in 2009.

paragraphs: Defence Intelligence gets information from many sources. This information is used to support military operations, planning, and defence policy. It notes politico-military, scientific and technical developments which may affect the UK. DI's assessments support the work of the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC), other Government departments, and international partners such as NATO and the European Union.

paragraphs: It is this 'all-source' information which distinguishes Defence Intelligence from other organisations such as SIS and GCHQ. They focus on the collection of 'single-source' human intelligence (HUMINT) and signals intelligence (SIGINT) respectively.


title: Water purification

paragraphs: Water purification is the process of removing contaminants from water. One reason is to make it safe for humans to consume. Another is industrial use such as cleaning and cooling microchips during manufacturing. Unclean water is not only harmful to your health but equally damaging for the plumbing, home appliances, kitchen, washroom, and everything. According to a 2007 World Health Organization (WHO) report, 1.1 billion people do not have access to clean drinking water.;)


title: Corwin Amendment

paragraphs: The Corwin Amendment is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution. It was passed by the Congress on March 2, 1861 and sent to the state legislatures for ratification. Senator William H. Seward of New York introduced the amendment in the Senate. Representative Thomas Corwin of Ohio introduced it in the House of Representatives. It was one of several bills considered by Congress in an unsuccessful attempt to attract the seceding states back into the Union and to convince border slave states to stay. Technically still pending before the states, it would, if ratified, shield "domestic institutions" of the states (which in 1861 included slavery) from the constitutional amendment process and from interference by Congress.

paragraphs: In 1963, more than a century after the Corwin Amendment was sent to the state legislatures by the Congress, a joint resolution to ratify it was introduced in the Texas House of Representatives by Dallas Republican Henry Stollenwerck. The joint resolution was sent to the House's Committee on Constitutional Amendments on March 7, 1963, but received no further consideration.

paragraphs: The Corwin Amendment, when viewed through the lens of the plain meaning rule ("literal rule"), would have made institutionalized slavery unable to be affected by the amendment process. As a result, the later Reconstruction Amendments (Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth) would not have been allowed, as they abolish or interfere with the domestic institution of the states.

paragraphs: A competing theory, however, suggests that a later amendment conflicting with an already-ratified Corwin Amendment could either explicitly repeal the Corwin Amendment (as the Twenty-first Amendment explicitly repealed the Eighteenth Amendment) or be inferred to have partially or completely repealed any conflicting provisions of an already-adopted Corwin Amendment.


title: Child Labor Amendment

paragraphs: The Child Labor Amendment is a proposed and still-pending amendment to the United States Constitution that would specifically authorize Congress to regulate "labor of persons under eighteen years of age". The amendment was proposed in 1924 following Supreme Court rulings in 1918 and 1922 that federal laws regulating and taxing goods produced by employees under the ages of 14 and 16 were unconstitutional.

paragraphs: The majority of the state governments ratified the amendment by the mid-1930s. However, it has not been ratified by the required three-fourths of the states according to Article V of the Constitution. None of the states have ratified it since 1937. There was not much interest in the amendment after the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which implemented federal regulation of child labor with the Supreme Court's approval in 1941.

paragraphs: Because Congress did not set a time limit for its ratification, the amendment is still technically pending before the states. Currently, ratification by an additional ten states would be necessary for this amendment to become law.

paragraphs: With the Keating–Owen Act of 1916, Congress had attempted to control interstate commerce involving goods produced by employees under the ages of 14 or 16, depending on the type of work. The Supreme Court found this law unconstitutional in "Hammer v. Dagenhart" (1918). Later that year, Congress attempted to levy a tax on businesses with employees under the ages of 14 or 16 (again depending on the type of work), which was struck down by the Supreme Court in "Bailey v. Drexel Furniture". It became apparent that a constitutional amendment would be necessary for such legislation to overcome the Court's objections.

paragraphs: The amendment was offered by Ohio Republican Congressman Israel Moore Foster on April 26, 1924, during the 68th Congress, in the form of House Joint Resolution No. 184. The text of the proposed amendment reads:

paragraphs: Having been approved by Congress, the proposed amendment was sent to the state legislatures for ratification. It was ratified by the following states:

paragraphs: The following fifteen state legislatures rejected the Child Labor Amendment and did not ratify it: Connecticut (1925), Delaware (1925), Florida (1925), Georgia (1924), Louisiana (1924), Maryland (1927), Massachusetts (1925), Missouri (1925), North Carolina (1924), South Carolina (1925), South Dakota (1925, 1933 and 1937), Tennessee (1925), Texas (1925), Vermont (1925), and Virginia (1926). Although the act, on the part of state legislatures, of "rejecting" a proposed constitutional amendment has no legal recognition, such action does have political implications.

paragraphs: Of the 48 states in the Union in 1924, five have taken no action of record on the amendment: Alabama, Mississippi, Nebraska, New York and Rhode Island. Neither have Alaska or Hawaii, which became states in 1959. Because there are now 50 states in the Union, it cannot become law unless it is ratified by 38 states (an additional 10), although when it was submitted to the states 36 ratifications were enough.

paragraphs: If ever ratified by the required number of U.S. state legislatures, the Child Labor Amendment would give the Congress of the United States jurisdiction concurrent with that of the states to legislate on the subject of child labor. In this case, child labor laws would no longer only fall under the jurisdiction of the states under the 10th Amendment. The states would have to yield to federal law where the two conflict—which is normal procedure anyway. After several state legislatures initially objected to the proposal during the 1920s, a number of them re-examined their position during the 1930s and decided to ratify. Those delayed actions resulted in much controversy. They also resulted in the 1939 decision of the United States Supreme Court in the landmark case of "Coleman v. Miller". In this case it was determined that the Child Labor Amendment remains pending business before the state legislatures because the 68th Congress did not specify a deadline within which the state legislatures must act upon the Child Labor Amendment. The "Coleman v. Miller" ruling formed the basis of the unusual and belated ratification of the 27th Amendment which was proposed by Congress in 1789 and ratified more than two centuries later in 1992 by the legislatures of at least three-fourths of the 50 states.

paragraphs: The common legal opinion of federal child labor regulation reversed in the 1930s. Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1938 regulating the employment of those under 16 or 18 years of age. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously in favor of that law in "United States v. Darby Lumber Co." (1941), which overturned "Hammer v. Dagenhart" (one of the key decisions that had motivated those in favor of the Child Labor Amendment). After this shift, the amendment has been described as "moot" and effectively part of the Constitution; the movement for it had concluded.


title: National Central Library (Florence)

paragraphs: The National Central Library in Florence is one of Italy's two national libraries. It is the largest library in the country. A copy of every book published in Italy has to be sent there.


paragraphs: The District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution that would have given the District of Columbia full representation in the United States Congress, full representation in the Electoral college system, and full participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended. It was proposed by Congress on August 22, 1978. It was ratified by only 16 states by the time of its expiration on August 22, 1985. It was 22 ratifications short of the needed 38 in order for the proposed amendment to have been adopted.

paragraphs: Representative Don Edwards of California proposed House Joint Resolution 554 in the 95th Congress. The United States House of Representatives passed it on March 2, 1978, by a 289–127 vote, with 18 not voting. The United States Senate passed it on August 22, 1978, by a 67–32 vote, with 1 not voting. With that, the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment was submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. The Congress included in the text of the proposed amendment that included the requirement that ratification by three-fourths (38) of the states be completed within seven years following its passage by the Congress (i.e., August 22, 1985) in order for the proposed amendment to become part of the Constitution. By placing the ratification deadline in the text of the proposed amendment, the deadline could not be extended, as had been done regarding the Equal Rights Amendment.

paragraphs: Ratification by the legislatures of at least 38 of the 50 states by August 22, 1985 was necessary for the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment to become a part of the Constitution. During the seven-year period specified by Congress it was ratified by only 16 states and so failed to be adopted. The amendment was ratified by the following states:

paragraphs: Had it been adopted, this proposed amendment would have given Washington, D.C. full representation in both houses of the Congress. Also, this proposed amendment would have repealed the Twenty-third Amendment. The Twenty-third Amendment does not allow Washington, D.C. to have more electoral votes "than the least populous State," nor does it grant Washington, D.C. any role in the election of a President by the House of Representatives (or that of the Vice President by the Senate). In contrast, this proposed amendment would have provided Washington, D.C. full participation in the Electoral College. Finally, the proposed amendment would have also allowed the Council of the District of Columbia, the Congress, or the people of Washington D.C. (depending on how this proposed amendment would have been interpreted) to decide whether to ratify any proposed amendment to the Constitution, or to apply to the Congress for a convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution, just as a state's legislature can according to the Constitutional amendment process. The amendment would neither have made Washington, D.C. a state, nor affected Congress's authority over it.


title: Belaid Abdessalam

paragraphs: Belaid Abdessalam () (20 July 1928 – 27 June 2020) was an Algerian politician. He served as Prime Minister of Algeria. He served as minister from 8 July 1992 until he resigned in 21 August 1993.

paragraphs: Abdessalam was born in Dehemcha, near Sétif, Algeria on 20 July 1928. He died on 27 June 2020, aged 91.


title: Marcy Kaptur

paragraphs: Marcia Carolyn "Marcy" Kaptur (born June 17, 1946) is an American politician. He is the U.S. Representative representing Ohio. She has served since 1983. She is a member of the Democratic Party.

paragraphs: Kaptur endorsed Bernie Sanders for Democratic nomination in 2016.