title: Ocala, Florida

paragraphs: Ocala is a city in Marion County, Florida. In 2010, the number of people recorded by the U.S. Census Bureau was 56,315. It is the county seat of Marion County, and the principal city of the Ocala, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area, which in the 2010 census had a population of 331,298.

paragraphs: Ocala is found near the old site of Ocale or Ocali, a major Timucua village and chiefdom during the 16th century. The city of Ocala today borrowed the name from the village. The name is believed to mean "Big Hammock" in the Timucua language. Hernando de Soto passed through Ocale during his famous journey through what is today the southeastern United States in 1539. Ocale is not mentioned in any later accounts; it seems to have been abandoned in the wake of de Soto's attack.

paragraphs: In 1827 the U.S. army outpost of Fort King was built near the current site of Ocala as a buffer between Seminoles and white settlers. The fort saw service during the Second Seminole War and was later used as the first courthouse for Marion County in 1844. Fort King was the beginning of the current city of Ocala, which was established in 1846. Greater Ocala is known as the "Kingdom of the Sun". Rail service reached Ocala in June 1881, encouraging economic development. Two years later, much of the Ocala downtown area was destroyed by a fire on Thanksgiving Day, 1883. Buildings were rebuilt with brick, granite and steel rather than lumber. By 1888, Ocala was known state-wide as "The Brick City".

paragraphs: In December 1890, the Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union, an early version of the Populist Party held its national meeting in Ocala. At the meeting, the Alliance adopted a platform that would become known as the "Ocala Demands". This platform included removal of national banks, low interest government loans, free and limitless coinage of silver, reclamation of excess railroad lands taken by the government, a graduated income tax, and direct election of United States senators. Most of the "Ocala Demands" were to become part of the Populist Party platform.

paragraphs: Ocala was an important center of citrus production until the Great Freeze of 1894-1895.

paragraphs: In the twentieth century, Ocala increased in fame as a center for tourism in Florida. Important attractions included the Silver Springs Nature Theme Park, Wild Waters water park, and the now-defunct Western-themed Six Gun Territory, all in nearby Silver Springs, Florida. (See Six Gun Territory Gallery.) Silver Springs is a nature theme park that surrounds the headwaters of the Silver River, the largest artesian spring formation in the world.

paragraphs: The first thoroughbred horse farm in Florida was created by Carl G. Rose in 1943. Earlier, in 1916, Rose had come to Florida from Indiana to oversee the first asphalt road ever constructed in the state. When he ran into problems with the asphalt, he tried to work with one of Florida's abundant resources: limestone. He also realized that the limestone would be a good source of nutrition for raising strong horses, so he took a gamble in 1943 and bought acreage along State Highway 200 at $10 per acre, which became Rosemere Farm. The next year one of his horses, Gornil, won at Miami's Tropical Park, making him the first Florida-raised thoroughbred to win a Florida race. Close on Rose's heels, the entrepreneur Bonnie Heath soon set up his own thoroughbred horse farm and produced the state's first Kentucky Derby winner. Both of these men have major highways named after them in Ocala. Bonnie Heath Farm is now owned and operated by his son Bonnie Heath, III, and his wife Kim. Rosemere Farm was sold long ago, and Ocala's Paddock Mall and Central Florida College were built on the site.

paragraphs: In 1956, the Ocala area Thoroughbred market received a raise when Needles became the first Florida-bred to win the Kentucky Derby. In 1978, Marion County-bred and -raised Affirmed won the Triple Crown. Today, Marion County is one of the major thoroughbred centers of the world, with over 1,200 horse farms in total and about 900 thoroughbred farms totaling some . Ocala is well known as the horse capital of the world, one of only five cities (four in the USA and one in France) allowed under Chamber of Commerce guidelines to use this title based on yearly money produced by the horse industry. There are some 44,000 jobs created by the breeding, training and related support brought about by the horse industry that generates over $2.2 billion in yearly money. Ocala and "Postime Farms" also support one of the biggest horse shows in the country. H.I.T.S or "Horses in the Sun" is a Dressage/Jumper event lasting about two months and brings with it some 6 to 7 million dollars to the local Marion county economy each year. There are over 100 different breeds aside from thoroughbreds including the Tennessee Walker, Paso Fino, Morgans, SaddleBreds, Drafts, and the American Quarter Horse. Other horse events in the area include cowboy mounted shooting by the Florida Outlaws, as well as endurance rides, barrel races, "extreme" cowboy events, jumper shows, trick shows, parades, draft pulls, and more.

paragraphs: Ocala began undergoing rapid growth in the 1970s with the development of the Interstate 75 and the founding of Disney World, located some southeast.

paragraphs: In the last decades of the twentieth century, the greater Ocala area experienced one of the highest growth rates in the country for a city its size. The population of Marion County in 2000 was over 250,000, up from under 100,000 in 1975. Much of the county's growth is attributable to the area's growing popularity as a retirement destination, primarily in two areas southwest and south of the city: the SR 200 corridor and The Villages, respectively.

paragraphs: Many historic homes are preserved in Ocala's large housing Historic District, established in 1984. A focus of this district is East Fort King Street, featuring many excellent examples of Victorian architecture. Ocala structures on the National Register of Historic Places include the Coca Cola Building, the E. C. Smith House, East Hall, the Marion Hotel, Mount Zion A.M.E. Church, the Ritz Historic Inn, and Union Train Station.

paragraphs: The original Fort King site itself was called a National Historic Landmark in 2004.

paragraphs: Ocala is governed by a five member board of councilors and a mayor, all of which are chosen without caring about their party. Its charter was written in the council-manager form, leaving the mayor with few powers other than refusing legislation passed by the council and tending to some duties involving the police department. The city manager handles most leadership and money issues. Although a small majority of the city's voters are Democrats, Ocala's politics match those of the rest of Marion County in that all of its elected legislators - with one exception - are registered Republicans. In the 2008 presidential election, John McCain carried both the city and the county, the second one by a landslide, even though they lost Florida as a whole to Barack Obama by a narrow margin.

paragraphs: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land. The surrounding farms are famous for their thoroughbred horses, in terrain similar to Kentucky bluegrass. Ocala is also known for nearby Silver Springs, Florida, site of one of the largest artesian spring formations in the world and Silver Springs Nature Theme Park, one of the earliest tourist attractions in Florida.

paragraphs: The long Ocklawaha River flows north from Central Florida until it joins the St. Johns River near Palatka, Florida.

paragraphs: Marion County is also home to the Ocala National Forest which was established in 1908 and is now the second largest national forest in the state. The Florida Trail, also known as the Florida National Scenic Trail, cuts through Ocala National Forest.

paragraphs: Silver River State Park was established in the early 1990s to preserve the areas around the Silver River to the east of Ocala near Silver Springs.

paragraphs: Ocala has two main seasons: the dry season (October–May) and the wet season (June–September). During the dry season, there is almost endless sunshine with very little rain. In January, the morning low temperatures are often in the 30s and 40s, but the cloudless sunny weather typically warms the dry air up to near 70 by the afternoon. During the wet season, afternoon thunderstorms are a daily thing. These storms are often severe (unofficially, Ocala is known to have more cloud-to-ground lightning per square mile than any other city in the world). The typical morning low temperatures during the wet season are in the 70's and typical daytime high temperatures are in the 90s. Due to the city being relatively far away from the moderating influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, Ocala's summertime temperatures are often the highest in the state while winter temperatures are often the lowest compared to other cities on the peninsula. Also, Ocala's distance from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico means the city has more days of sunshine than Florida's coastal cities. This is, in part, why the Ocala/Marion County area is called "the kingdom of the sun." The last snowfall of any significance fell on December 24, 1989, when the city was struck by an ice and snow storm. However, the morning of January 9, 2010, there was a dusting of snow on the ground in city center. A plume of record cold air mixed with moisture caused wintry precipitation to erupt across northern and central Florida.

paragraphs: As of the census of 2010, there were 56,315 people, 23,103 households, and 13,456 families residing in the city. There were 26,764 housing units, of which 23,103 were occupied (86.3%). The racial makeup of the city was 70.7% White, 20.9% African American, 0.3% Native American, 2.6% Asian, 2.9% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11.7% of the population.

paragraphs: The median income for a household in the city was $30,888, and the median income for a family was $38,190. Males had a median income of $29,739 versus $24,367 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,021. About 13.2% of families and 18.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.6% of those under age 18 and 9.8% of those age 65 or over.

paragraphs: Ocala is the headquarters of Emergency One, a worldwide designer and manufacturer of fire rescue vehicles.

paragraphs: Ocala is home to the College of Central Florida. It also has one of 21 campuses of Rasmussen College, an Higher Learning Commission regionally accredited post secondary institution.

paragraphs: Ocala is home to Trinity Catholic High School, which holds the record for the longest high school football championship game in Florida history, going into triple overtime.

paragraphs: on January 6, 2011, the mayor declared January 6 as Trinity Catholic Celtics Day, in honor of this feat.

paragraphs: Ocala, Florida was home Belleview Bulldogs in the FCSL before it folded in 2008. It is also home to one of the largest youth football leagues in the state in the MCYFL. Ocala is hosting the regional events for the Junior League in the Little League World Series in August 2010.

paragraphs: In 1995, Ocala was named an All-America City Award winner.

paragraphs: Several major highways pass through Ocala, including Interstate 75, U.S. Highway 27, U.S. Route 301, and U.S. Highway 441. Ocala was on the western leg of the historic Dixie Highway.

paragraphs: Ocala International Airport provides general aviation services to the community. Ocala Suntran provides bus service throughout select parts of the city. One of the major hubs for Suntran is the former Ocala Union Station, which served Amtrak trains until November 2004.

paragraphs: Ocala is the home for the Ocala Symphony Orchestra. The Ocala Symphony Orchestra, Inc., a non-profit organization, began in 1975, when a group of musicians and citizens set out to create a symphonic orchestra for the area. In the fall of 1976 a four-concert subscription season was initiated - a format that continues to this day. The Ocala Symphony Orchestra was later incorporated in the State of Florida and recognized by the IRS as a 501c3 non-profit corporation.

paragraphs: Also, the Ocala Civic Theatre is located in Ocala, and it presents professional-quality, live productions at an affordable price. Ocala Civic Theatre produces more than twelve fully staged productions each season, in addition to hosting touring companies. The Theatre offers a year-round education program that reaches over 1000 students each year. Both skills classes and performance classes are offered to students ages 4–18. This volunteer-based organization is one of the largest community theaters in the state and serves more than 50,000 Marion, Citrus and Lake County residents each season.


title: Islet

paragraphs: Islets are small islands. Examples are Ortac in the English Channel and the Senkaku Islands in the East China Sea.


title: Grand Ole Opry

paragraphs: The Grand Ole Opry is a country music organization. It performs a concert every week and gives awards. The legendary Loretta lynn has been performing there for over 50 years. Also the famous Carrie Underwood has been playing there since 2006 and still plays there today. The type of music that they play is country music


title: Russia at the Olympics

paragraphs: Russia has been at the modern Olympic Games many times. They have been called different nations. As the Russian Empire, they were first at the 1900 Games. They returned again in 1908 and 1912. After the Russian revolution in 1917, and the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922, they were not at the Olympics again until the 1952 Summer Olympics. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia competed as part of the Unified Team in 1992. They returned once again as "Russia" at the 1994 Winter Olympics.

paragraphs: The Soviet Union hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Russia will host the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi.

paragraphs: Since 2012, Russian athletes have won a total of 404 medals (399 since 1994) at the Summer Olympic Games. They have another 91 at the Winter Olympic Games. Over the most recent ten Games (since 1994), Russia's 495 total medals, including 170 gold medals, are second only to the United States (with 631 and 237, respectively).

paragraphs: The Russian Olympic Committee was formed in 1991 and recognized in 1993.


title: Neil Lennon

paragraphs: Neil Francis Lennon (born 25 June 1971) is a football manager and former player from Northern Ireland. He is the manager and former captain of Celtic.

paragraphs: During his playing career he represented English clubs Manchester City, Crewe Alexandra and Leicester City before moving to Scottish club Celtic where he made over 200 appearances as a midfielder. Before retiring as a player, he returned to England to represent Nottingham Forest and Wycombe Wanderers.

paragraphs: Lennon made 40 appearances for Northern Ireland in nine years, scoring two goals.


title: Advanced Light Source

paragraphs: The Advanced Light Source (ALS) at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California is a synchrotron light source. It was built from 1987 to 1993. 210 scientists and staff currently work there.

paragraphs: The ALS is a national user facility. The ALS makes intense light for scientific and technological research. It is one of the world's brightest sources of ultraviolet and soft x-ray beams. Each year over 2000 researchers go to the ALS from universities, industries, and government laboratories around the world. ALS is funded by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Basic Energy Sciences.

paragraphs: The ALS has over forty beamlines. They do a wide range of science at the same time as each other. Any qualified scientist can ask to use the ALS beamlines. Proposals are reviewed by others. The proposals which most people agree on are allowed to use the ALS. The ALS does not charge money to use if the user's research is made public.

paragraphs: The Advanced Light Source's current director is Roger Falcone.

paragraphs: Physicists in Berkeley California began working on accelerating subatomic particles in the 1920s. In 1929, Ernest O. Lawrence built the first cyclotron to accelerate subatomic particles. During World War II, a laboratory there was a part of the Manhattan Project. They were given money from the military. In 1942, Lawrence hired Arthur Brown, Jr. (designer of the Coit Tower in San Francisco) to design a new round building to hold Lawrence's new 4.67 m (184 in) cyclotron. That building, with expansions, is the one which the ALS is in today. The laboratory was a part of the United States Atomic Energy Commission until 1977 when it was moved to the U.S. Department of Energy.

paragraphs: Physicists kept on improving particle accelerators by increasing their energy. The designers wanted higher energy to study smaller building blocks of matter. From the start, physicists realized that as charged particles spun around, they gave off electromagnetic radiation. In the early 1950s, other scientists started to use this radiation for experiments unrelated to the "atom smashing" collisions that were the primary goal of the machines. Particle accelerators shifted from cyclotrons to synchrotrons where the particles traveled in a circle rather than in a spiral path. Construction costs increased as synchrotrons got bigger to the point that many nations joined to build just one very big synchrotron in Europe (CERN) to conduct atom smashing experiments. Other synchrotron labs, such as the Lawrence Berkeley Lab did not have enough energy to discover new particles. So, they switched to using their machines as a source of electromagnetic radiation. Instead of tuning the machine to make particles travel faster, they learned how to wiggle the particle beam to give off particular frequencies of light. In the 1980s and 1990s, scientists wanted to redesign synchrotrons to generate brighter light (more intense electromagnetic radiation) than ever before. These designs were called "third generation synchrotrons." The ALS was the first third generation synchrontron put into operation.

paragraphs: When the Advanced Light Source was first proposed in the early 1980s by former Lawrence Berkeley Lab director David Shirley, skeptics dubbed it "Shirley's Temple" and doubted the use of a synchrotron tuned to make soft x-rays and ultraviolet light. According to former ALS director Daniel Chemla, "The scientific case for a third-generation soft x-ray facility such as the ALS had always been fundamentally sound. However, getting the larger scientific community to believe it was an uphill battle"

paragraphs: In the 1987 Reagan administration budget, President Ronald Reagan allocated $1.5 million for the construction of the Advanced Light Source.


title: Undulator

paragraphs: An undulator is an insertion device from high-energy physics and usually part of a larger

paragraphs: installation, a synchrotron storage ring. It consists of a periodic structure of dipole magnets. A static magnetic field is alternating along the length of the undulator with a wavelength formula_1. Electrons traversing the periodic magnet structure are forced to undergo oscillations. So the electrons give off energy as electronmagnetic radiation. The radiation produced in an undulator is very intense and concentrated in narrow energy bands in the spectrum. The light beam is also collimated on the orbit plane of the electrons. This radiation is guided through beamlines for experiments in various scientific areas.

paragraphs: where "e" is the particle charge, "B" is the magnetic field, "formula_3", "formula_4" is the electron rest

paragraphs: mass and "c" is the speed of light, characterizes the nature of the electron motion. For

paragraphs: formula_5 the oscillation amplitude of the motion is small and the radiation displays interference patterns which lead to narrow energy bands. If formula_6 the oscillation amplitude is bigger and the radiation contributions from each field period sum up independently, leading to a broad energy spectrum. When K is much bigger than 1, the device is no longer called an "undulator"; it is called a wiggler.

paragraphs: Physicist think about undulators both using classical physics and relativity. This means that though the precision calculation is tedious the undulator can be seen as a black box. An electron enters this box and an electromagnetic pulse exits through a small exit slit. The slit should be small enough so that only the main cone passes, so that the side lobes may be ignored.

paragraphs: Undulators can provide hundreds of time more magnetic flux than a simple bending magnet and as such are in high demand at synchrotron radiation facilities. For an undulator that repeat N times (N periods), the brightness can be up to formula_7 more than a bending magnet. The intensity is enhanced up to a factor of N at harmonic wavelengths due to the constructive interference of the fields emitted during the N radiation periods. The usual pulse is a sine wave with some envelope. The second factor of N comes from the reduction of the emission angle associated with these harmonics, which is reduced in proportion to 1/N. When the electrons come with half the period, they interfere destructively. So, the undulator stays dark. The same is true if the electrons come as a bead chain. Because the bunch of electron spreads out the more times that they travel around the synchrotron, physicists want to design new machines that throw out the electron bunches before they have a chance to spread out. This change will produced more useful synchrotron radiation.

paragraphs: The polarization of the emitted radiation can be controlled by using permanent magnets to induce different periodic electron trajectories through the undulator. If the oscillations are confined to a plane the radiation will be linearly polarized. If the oscillation trajectory is helical, the radiation will be circularly polarized, with the handedness determined by the helix.

paragraphs: If the electrons follow the Poisson distribution, a partial interference leads to a linear increase in intensity.

paragraphs: In the free-electron laser the intensity increases exponentially with the number of electrons.

paragraphs: Physicists measure an undulator's effectiveness in terms of spectral radiance.

paragraphs: The first undulator was built by Hans Motz and his coworkers at Stanford in 1953. One of their undulators produced the first ever coherent infrared radiation. Their total frequency range was from visible light down to millimeter waves. The Russian physicist V.L. Ginzburg showed that undulators could be made in principle in a 1947 paper.

paragraphs: D. T. Attwood's page at Berkeley: Soft X-Rays and Extreme Ultraviolet Radiation. His lecture and viewgraphs are available online.


title: Storytime

paragraphs: "Storytime" is a song by Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish. The song was written by keyboardist Tuomas Holopainen, who also created the band. It became the lead single from the band's seventh studio album "Imaginaerum" (2011). "Storytime" features vocals by the vocalist of Nightwish, Anette Olzon. The single was released on November 9, 2011 from Nuclear Blast with mostly positive reviews from music journalist.

paragraphs: The song is about human expressions through folklore tales such as Peter Pan and Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. It also talks about Gaia, a mythical Greek Earth goddess, in the song. A music video was released to promote "Storytime" in November 2011, it features the entire band playing their instruments in a "fantasy" world. After the single's release on radios, it peaked at number-one on the Finnish Singles Chart and peaked within the top 5 in Spain, Hungary, and the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: One day there was a really ugly thing called Lennie yeah and like he liked doin it doggy style yeah and like yeah


title: Imaginaerum

paragraphs: Imaginaerum is the seventh album by the Finnish symphonic metal group Nightwish. It is their second album with Swedish vocalist Anette Olzon. A movie of the same name was released in 2012. The movie has songs from the album in it. The album was No.1 in Finland.


title: Anette Olzon

paragraphs: Anette Ingegerd Olsson (born 21 June 1971) better known as Anette Olzon (married name Blyckert) is a Swedish singer. She is the current lead singer of the Finnish symphonic metal group Nightwish. She used to be the lead singer of Aylson Avenue.


title: Romania at the Olympics

paragraphs: Romania at the Olympics is a history which began in 1900.

paragraphs: The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Romania was RUM. It is now ROU.

paragraphs: A team from Romania was first at the Olympic Games in 1900. They had only one participant. The National Olympic Committee for Romania is the "Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee". It was formed and recognized in 1914. The nation first sent a team to the Games in 1924. They have been to each of the Summer Olympic Games and Winter Olympic Games since then except for two times. Notably, Romania was the lone Eastern Bloc nation to participate at the 1984 Summer Olympics, which the other nations boycotted. That was also Romania's most successful Olympic Games: they won 20 gold medals and 53 medals total.

paragraphs: Romanian athletes have won a total of 293 medals, with gymnastics as the top medal-producing sport.


title: Serbia at the Olympics

paragraphs: Serbia was first at the Olympic Games in 1912. After 96 years, Serbia returned to the Olympics as an independent team at the 2008 Summer Olympics. From 1920 to the 1992 Winter Olympics Serbian athletes were part of the Yugoslavian team. At the 1992 Summer Olympics they took part as Independent Olympic Participants. This was because the United Nations was threatening to punish Serbia. Because of this, no Serbians were at the 1994 Winter Olympics. The threats stopped in 1995. From the 1996 Summer Olympics to the 2006 Winter Olympics they were part of the Serbia and Montenegro team.


title: Slovakia at the Olympics

paragraphs: Slovakia was first at the Olympic Games in 1994. They have been in every Games since then. Before Czechoslovakia broke up in 1993, Slovak athletes competed for Czechoslovakia at the Olympics.

paragraphs: Slovak athletes have won twenty medals altogether at the Summer Olympic Games. These were mostly for canoeing. The nation has also won four medals at the Winter Olympic Games.

paragraphs: The National Olympic Committee for Slovakia was made in 1992 and recognized in 1993.


title: Slovenia at the Olympics

paragraphs: Slovenia was first an independent nation at the Olympic Games in 1992. They have been in every Games since then. Prior to the breakup of Yugoslavia, Slovenian athletes were part of Yugoslavia at the Olympics.

paragraphs: The National Olympic Committee for Slovenia was formed in 1991 and recognized in 1993. Slovenian athletes have won a total of fifteen medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another seven at the Winter Olympic Games.


title: Sweden at the Olympics

paragraphs: Sweden was first at the Olympic Games at the inaugural 1896 Games. They have been in every Games since then with one exception for the 1904 Summer Olympics. Sweden has earned medals at all Olympic games except for two, the 1896 Games and the 1904 Games.

paragraphs: Sweden hosted the Games on one occasion, the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm. The equestrian events of the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne were held in Stockholm, due to quarantine reasons.

paragraphs: Swedish athletes have a total of 475 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another 118 at the Winter Olympic Games.

paragraphs: The International Olympic Committee had Swedish officer and sports instructor Viktor Balck as one of its original members. The Swedish Olympic Committee was formed and recognized in 1913.

paragraphs: 2006, 2010, 2014 and 2018 Winter Games bids were declared non-finished applications by the Swedish Olympic Committee, due lack of political support from the Swedish government. The reason has been that the bidding is financially insecure for the Swedish society as a nation. 2018 Winter Olympic Games bids were promised support by the former government, but when the new government was elected, the bid was withdrawn. Östersund and Åre were the only applicant cities.

paragraphs: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Total medal counts include six medals – three gold, two silver, and one bronze – awarded in the 1908 and 1920 figure skating events. These medals are included in the summer games medal totals and the winter sport medal totals. This is why the totals for summer and winter games do not match the totals for summer and winter sports.


title: Scarlet fever

paragraphs: Scarlet fever is an infectious disease that is caused by bacteria. It is caused by exotoxin released by Streptococcus pyogenes. It was once a major cause of death. It is now treated with antibiotics. The term scarlatina can be used to mean scarlet fever. Scarlatina is a lesser form of scarlet fever. At the early times, this disease could not be cured and this was a common reason for death in that time which applies to many famous people of the world.


title: RTI Colombia

paragraphs: RTI Colombia (Radio Televisión Interamericana - in Spanish; Inter-American Radio and Television) is a Colombian television production company. Many of its series are co-produced with Telemundo, their strategic partner from the United States whose owner is NBC.


title: Irish House of Lords

paragraphs: Irish House of Lords was the upper chamber of the Irish Parliament from its creation in the thirteenth century to its abolition in 1800-1801. It was made up of the barons and clergy of the island. After the reformation the clergy in the Lords came from the Church of Ireland.


title: Henry Grattan

paragraphs: Henry Grattan (3 July 1746 – 6 June 1820) was an Irish politician. He was a member of the Irish House of Commons. He wanted changes such as Catholic Emancipation and more self government for the kingdom. He did not believe that Ireland and Great Britain should become a single country. He was one of the people who were most important in creating the constitution of 1782. This gave Ireland self-government. He was also important in ending Poynings law of 1494 and the Declaratory Act of 1720.


title: Turkey at the Olympics

paragraphs: Turkey sent athletes to the Olympic Games for the first time in 1908. It has sent athletes to of the Summer Olympic Games since then. Turkey has been a part of most Winter Olympic Games since their first in 1936. Turkish athletes have won a total of 82 medals. They have won 37 golds, 23 silvers and 22 bronzes. Turkey won the most medals in wrestling.

paragraphs: The National Olympic Committee for Turkey was created in 1908. It was accepted by the IOC in 1911. Istanbul wants to host the 2020 Summer Olympics.


title: Ukraine at the Olympics

paragraphs: Ukraine sent athletes to the Olympic Games for the first time as an independent nation in 1994. It has sent athletes to every Summer Olympic Games and Winter Olympic Games since then.

paragraphs: Before 1994, Ukrainian athletes were a part of the Soviet Union at the Olympics from 1952 to 1988. After the Soviet Union ended, Ukraine was part of the Unified Team in 1992.

paragraphs: Ukraine has won a total of 116 medals at the Summer Games and five at the Winter Games. Gymnastics has been the nation's best sport.

paragraphs: The National Olympic Committee of Ukraine was created in 1990. It was accepted by the International Olympic Committee in 1993.


title: Serbia and Montenegro at the Olympics

paragraphs: The former state union of Serbia and Montenegro sent athletes to the Olympic Games seven times between 1992 and 2006. After that, Montenegro and Serbia became separate countries.

paragraphs: Yugoslavia had sent athletes to every Summer Olympic Games from 1920–1988. They sent athletes to all but two Winter Olympic Games between 1924–1988. Because of the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991 and 1992, their part in the Olympics changed. Croatia and Slovenia sent their own athletes to the 1992 Winter Olympics. The team from Yugoslavia was made up of athletes from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. This was the last Games for the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

paragraphs: The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was created in April 1992. It included the Republic of Montenegro and the Republic of Serbia. In May of 1992, the United Nations Security Council said that all nations should not let the FR of Yugoslavia take part in any international sports. The International Olympic Committee said that athletes from Serbia and Montenegro (and also Macedonia) could still take part in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. The athletes had to be Independent Olympic Participants (IOP), wear plan white clothing and use the Olympic Anthem and Olympic flag during the events. They could not be a part of the opening and closing ceremonies of the games.

paragraphs: A team of 52 athletes took part in events. They won three medals in shooting. The athletes could only take part in the game as individuals. No teams were allowed. This meant that the men's water polo team, the women's basketball team, and the men's and women's handball teams could not compete.

paragraphs: No athletes were allowed to take part in any way in the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. The country was allowed to send athletes to the next Olympiad.

paragraphs: At the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, the team of 68 athletes took part in 13 sports and won four medals. In Sydney for the 2000 Summer Olympics, the "Yugoslavia" team had 111 athletes in 14 sports and won three medals.

paragraphs: In 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia became the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. The nation was named "Serbia and Montenegro" (SCG) for the first time at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. The team of 87 athletes competed in 14 sports and won two silver medals.

paragraphs: In 2006, the state union ended. Each nation became independent. The NOC for Serbia and Montenegro became the Olympic Committee of Serbia in June 2006. The Montenegrin Olympic Committee was accepted by the IOC in July 2007.

paragraphs: Montenegro and Serbia participated independently for the first time at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.


title: Magnetic flux

paragraphs: Magnetic flux is what generates the field around a magnetic material. It consists of photons, however, unlike the light we receive from the Sun, it is at a much lower frequency. (1) This is why magnetic field lines are not visible to the naked eye.

paragraphs: It is the alignment of "electrons" in the atomic shells of Ferromagnets and, separately, the “"spinning” electrons" in Electromagnets, that provides a material with it’s Magnetism. (2)

paragraphs: The number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface (such as a loop of wire). The magnetic flux through a closed surface (such as a ball) is always zero.

paragraphs: The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds).

paragraphs: Magnetic flux is sometimes used by electrical engineers designing systems with electromagnets or designing dynamos. Physicists designing particle accelerators also calculate magnetic flux.


title: Emperor Tenji

paragraphs: , also known as Emperor Tenchi, was the 38th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign started in 661 and ended in 671.

paragraphs: Before he became the monarch, his personal name ("imina") was .

paragraphs: Prince Naka no Ōe was made heir apparent and Crown Prince in 661.

paragraphs: Prince Ōtomo (Ōtomo"-shinnō") was the favorite son of Emperor Tenji; and he was also the first to be accorded the title of "Daijō-daijin."

paragraphs: Tenji improved the military forces which had been established during the Taika reforms.

paragraphs: The actual site of Tenji's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") at Yamashina-ku, Kyoto.

paragraphs: The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Tenji's mausoleum. It is formally named "Yamashina no misasagi".


title: Fess Parker

paragraphs: Fess Elisha Parker, Jr. (August 16, 1924 - March 18, 2010), was an American actor.

paragraphs: His first movie was "Harvey" (1950) with James Stewart. Over the years, he worked on movies with many well known actors. These include Gary Cooper, Bob Hope, Jeff Chandler and Steve McQueen.

paragraphs: Fess Parker work for Disney on two movies about Davy Crockett In 1964, NBC hired him to do a television series about Daniel Boone. The series was about the Boone and his fights against the Indians and the redcoats in the American Revolution. The cast of the series included of Patricia Blair as Rebecca Boone, Albert Salmi as Yadkin, Ed Ames as Mingo, Roosevelt Grier as Gabe Cooper and Darby Hinton is Israel Boone. 159 episodes were made between 1964-1970.


title: Soviet Union at the Olympics

paragraphs: The Soviet Union sent athletes to the Olympic Games for the first time in 1952. They sent teams to the Games 18 simes since then. At seven of its nine times at the Summer Olympic Games, the team ranked first in the total number of medals won. It was ranked second at the other two Games. The team was ranked first in the medal count seven times and second twice in nine times they sent teams to the Winter Olympic Games.

paragraphs: "The Olympic Committee of the USSR" was created on April 21, 1951. It was accepted by the IOC on May 7, 1951.

paragraphs: The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki was first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. On July 20, 1952, the first Olympic gold medal for the country was won by Nina Romashkova in the women's discus throw. Romashkova set the new Olympic record in the event. The 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo were the first Winter Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The first Winter Olympic gold medal for the Soviet Union was won by Lyubov Kozyreva in women's cross-country skiing 10 km event.

paragraphs: The USSR was the host nation for the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. These Games were boycotted by the United States and many other countries. After this, the USSR led a boycott of the 1984 Games in Los Angeles.

paragraphs: The USSR ended on December 26, 1991. "The Olympic Committee of the USSR" did not end until March 12, 1992.

paragraphs: In 1992, 12 of the 15 countries that had been part of the Soviet Union took part in the Games as the Unified Team. They used the Olympic Flag in the Barcelona Games. The Unified Team finished first in the medal rankings. The Unified Team also competed at the Albertville Winter Games earlier in the year. Only seven of the twelve countries took part. They finished second in the medal ranking at those Games.


title: To Catch a Predator

paragraphs: To Catch a Predator is a television program designed to catch adults trying to have sex with children below the age of 16. People were lured to meet with a decoy under the pretense of sexual contact and then confronted. Show host Chris Hansen clarified in an interview with NPR News that these subjects should be labeled as potential sexual predators, and not pedophiles. "Pedophiles have a very specific definition, people who are interested in prepubescent sex," he stated.

paragraphs: The series premiered in November 2004, and featured 12 investigations in total held across the United States. The investigations were conducted as undercover sting operations with the help of on-line watchdog group Perverted-Justice. Since the third installment, law enforcement and other officials were also involved, leading to the arrests of most individuals caught. No new episodes have aired since December 2007.

paragraphs: NBC affiliates WTMJ in Milwaukee, KSHB in Kansas City and WBRE have also done local versions of "To Catch a Predator". Various spin-offs have aired in the same format, including "To Catch a Con Man", "To Catch an ID Thief", "To Catch a Car Thief" and "To Catch an i-Jacker", which featured iPod thieves. "To Catch a Predator" is also aired on FX and Crime & Investigation Network in the United Kingdom, the Crime & Investigation Network in Australia and New Zealand and FOX Crime in Portugal.


title: Jahbulon

paragraphs: Jahbulon (or Jabulon) is a word, or a confection of three syllables, that was used in the past in some rituals of certain parts of Masonry. It is also said to be used in Ordo Templi Orientis rituals.

paragraphs: The origin and meaning of this word are not completely known. Different groups think the word means different things. Even Masonic researchers do not all agree to what the word means or where it came from. One Masonic scholar says that the word was first used in an early 18th century Royal Arch ritual. He said it was the name of an explorer looking for King Solomon's Temple. Another Masonic scholar thinks it is a name for God in Hebrew. The most used Masonic explanation is that it is a word that comes from putting together parts of the name of God in different historic languages.

paragraphs: Writers who are not Masons, especially those against Masonry, have said that it is a Masonic name for God. Some say it is the name of a unique "Masonic God". Freemasonry's officials have said many times that ""There is no separate Masonic God"". They have also said that there is no separate proper name for a deity in any branch of Freemasonry. This meaning of the word has caused many religious groups to argue about and condemn Freemasonry. In England, no ritual with the name has been in official Masonic use since February 1989. Stephen Knights, author of The Brotherhood:The Secret World of the Freemasons, says it is a trinity composed of three ancient Middle Eastern Gods, Jah, God of the Jews, Baal, God of the Phoenicians, and On, an Egyptian God.

paragraphs: After persistent strong criticism in the popular press, the Supreme Grand Chapter of England excised the word from its Royal Arch ritual in 1989, and replaced it with a choice between two forms of the tetragrammaton.


title: Yugoslavia at the Olympics

paragraphs: Yugoslavia sent athletes to the Olympic Games for the first time in 1920. Before this, several athletes from Croatia, Slovenia and Vojvodina were on the Olympic teams of Austria or Hungary when those countries were part of the Empire of Austria-Hungary. A small team of two athletes been sent from the Serbia to the 1912 Summer Olympics.

paragraphs: "Yugoslavia" has been the name for Olympic teams from three distinct nations:

paragraphs: Two of the nations that were at one time part of Yugoslavia, (Croatia and Slovenia), started sending their own teams to the Olympics at the 1992 Winter Olympics. As of the 2008 Summer Olympics, all six former parts of Yugoslavia were sending their own teams to the Games.

paragraphs: These tables do not include "Yugoslavia" teams representing the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro).


title: Sex linkage

paragraphs: Sex linkage is a term in genetics. It applies to alleles (forms of a gene) on the X chromosome.

paragraphs: In mammals, which have an XX/XY system of sex determination, the X chromosome has many more genes than the Y chromosome. This explains the inheritance of such conditions as colour blindness and haemophilia. They are caused by recessive alleles, and usually do not show the condition in females. This is because those females carrying the mutant are most likely to be heterozygous for the allele. However, if the mutant allele is carried by a male, the condition will develop, because his X chromosome has the mutant allele, but his Y chromosome has no allele at that locus.

paragraphs: Sex-linked characters controlled by genes on sex chromosomes are not the only kind of sex-related characters.

paragraphs: Sex-influenced or sex-conditioned traits are phenotypes affected by whether they appear in a male or female body. Even in a homozygous female the condition may not be expressed fully. Example: baldness in humans.

paragraphs: These are characters only expressed in one sex. They may be caused by genes on either autosomal or sex chromosomes. Examples: female sterility in "Drosophila"; and polymorphism in insects, especially in relation to mimicry. Closely linked genes on autosomes called "supergenes" are often responsible for the latter.


title: Telenovela

paragraphs: A telenovela, or simply novela, is a serial drama television program. It is popular in Latin American, Portuguese, and Spanish television programming. Telenovelas are different from soap operas. Telenovelas have an ending. They come to an end after a long run. This is usually less than one year. The telenovela combines drama with the 19th century "feuilleton" and the Latin American radionovela. They are often used to give cultural messages by adding them into storylines.

paragraphs: Because the telenovela is similar to the American soap opera, the telenovela is often called a "Spanish soap opera" in the United States. While most English language soap operas have no ending, almost all telenovelas run for a limit time. They are usually shown five or six days a week and run for an average of 120 episodes.


title: Arriva London

paragraphs: Arriva London is a bus company. It is a division of Arriva, which operates services in Greater London. It is made up of Grey Green, Leaside Buses and London Country bus operations, that splits into the north and the south.

paragraphs: Arriva London North Limited operates nine bus garages.

paragraphs: Arriva London South Limited operate four bus garages.


title: Harold Camping

paragraphs: Harold Egbert Camping (July 19, 1921 – December 15, 2013) was an American Christian radio broadcaster. His parents were Dutch immigrants. He served as president of Family Radio, a California-based radio station group that broadcasts to more than 150 markets in the United States, since 1958. In 2011 he retired from active broadcasting following a stroke, but maintained a role at Family Radio until his death. Camping is notable for applying numerology to his interpretations of Bible passages in an attempt to predict dates for the End Times.

paragraphs: His 2011 end times prediction was that on May 21, 2011 Jesus Christ would return to Earth, the righteous would fly up to heaven, and that there would follow five months of fire, brimstone and plagues on Earth, with millions of people dying each day, culminating on October 21, 2011 with the end of the world. He had previously predicted judgment days on May 21, 1988, and September 6, 1994.

paragraphs: His prediction for May 21, 2011 was widely reported, in part because of a massive publicity campaign by Family Radio, and it prompted responses from both atheist and Christian organizations. After May 21 passed without the predicted incidents, Camping said he believed that a "spiritual" judgment had occurred on that date, and that the physical Rapture would occur on October 21, 2011, simultaneously with the destruction of the universe by God. Except for one press appearance on May 23, 2011, Camping largely avoided press interviews after May 21, particularly after he suffered a stroke in June. October 21, 2011, passed without the predicted apocalypse, leading the International Business Times to proclaim Camping a "false prophet."

paragraphs: Camping was reported to have retired from his position at Family Radio as of October 16, 2011, only days before his last predicted date for the end of the world. However, his daughter later clarified that he had not retired outright, but was maintaining a role at the Family Radio while working from home. Camping admitted in a private interview that he no longer believed that anybody could know the time of the Rapture or the end of the world, in stark contrast to his previously staunch position on the subject.


title: Santana Formation

paragraphs: The Santana Formation is a high quality fossil site in Brazil. It is in northeastern Brazil's Arar ipe Basin. It qualifies as a Lagerstätte, which means it is one of the best fossil sites, with many undisturbed fossils.

paragraphs: The strata come from the Lower Cretaceous, laid down about 92 million years ago in a shallow inland sea.

paragraphs: Some 25 species of fish are found, many with stomach contents preserved. This lets palaeontologists study predator–prey relationships in the ecosystem. There are also fine examples of pterosaurs, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates (especially insects) and plants. Even dinosaurs are found here: a new maniraptor was described in 1996.

paragraphs: Limestone nodules formed around dead organisms; this preserved even the soft parts of their anatomy. The limestone was etched away using a mild acid. The fossils were then preserved by the 'transfer technique' which means they were embedded in a plastic resin such as polyester or epoxy.

paragraphs: The nearby Crato Formation is also a lagerstätte. It was produced in similar conditions, about 10 million years before the Santana Formation.

paragraphs: Various remains of non-avian theropods, avialans, ornithischians, and possibly oviraptorosaurs have been found in Estado do Ceara, Brazil. Examples are spinosaurs like "Irritator" and maniraptors like "Santanaraptor".

paragraphs: The pterosaurs are all pterodactyls, because the long-tailed rhamphorhynchoidea died out at the Jurassic–Cretaceous junction.

paragraphs: "Ornithocheirus" and "Tupuxuara" are examples. The inland sea also had turtles, such as "Santanachelys".


title: Coit Tower

paragraphs: Coit Tower is a tower in the Telegraph Hill neighborhood of San Francisco, California. The tower, in the city's Pioneer Park, was built in 1933. Lillie Hitchcock Coit left one-third of her estate to the city "to be expended in an appropriate manner for the purpose of adding to the beauty of the city which I have always loved".

paragraphs: The art deco tower is made of unpainted reinforced concrete. Architects Arthur Brown, Jr. and Henry Howard designed it. The tower has fresco murals by 27 different on-site artists and their assistants, plus two additional paintings installed after creation off-site.

paragraphs: The tower was not designed to resemble a fire hose nozzle, despite Coit's affinity with the San Francisco firefighters of the day, in particular with Knickerbocker Engine Company Number 5.


title: Fiat Tempra

paragraphs: The Fiat Tempra is a car made by Fiat. It replaced the Fiat Regata in 1990, and were replaced by the Fiat Marea in 1996.


title: Leonor Piuza

paragraphs: Leonor Piuza (born 14 April 1978) is a Mozambican runner. She is best in the 800 meter runs.

paragraphs: Piuza won the gold medal at the 2007 All-Africa Games and finished sixth at the 2008 African Championships. She also competed at the 2006 Commonwealth Games.

paragraphs: Piuza's personal best time is 2:01.71 minutes. She got this in June 2007 in Villefranche-sur-Saône.


title: Ōmi Code

paragraphs: The , also known as the Asuka Kiyomihara Code, are Japanese laws which were written in 668-672. The code was created by Fujiwara no Kamatari.

paragraphs: The Ōmi Code was 22 volumes long. It was put into effect in the last year of Emperor Tenji's reign. This code was an early version of the Taihō Code of 701.


title: Lake Charles, Louisiana

paragraphs: Lake Charles is the largest city in the southwest Louisiana. it is the second-largest city in the Acadiana. it is the fifth-largest city in the U.S. States of Louisiana. The actual population is almost 72,000. The city was founded as Charleston, March 7, 1861. The name was changed to Lake Charles on March 16, 1867. The city was founded by and named for Charles Sallier.


title: Empress Jitō

paragraphs: Jitō's reign started in 686 and ended in 697. Historians consider details about the life of Empress Jitō to be possibly legendary, but probable. The name Jitō"-tennō" was created for him posthumously by later generations.

paragraphs: The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

paragraphs: In the history of Japan, Jitō was the third of eight women to be empress. The two female monarchs before Jitō were (a) Suiko and (b) Kōgyoku/Saimei. The five women monarchs after Jitō were (c) Gemmei, (d) Genshō, (e) Kōken/Shōtoku, (f) Meishō, and (g) Go-Sakuramachi.

paragraphs: Before she became the monarch, this princess's personal name ("imina") was , or alternately Uno.

paragraphs: Princess Uno was the daughter of Emperor Tenji and she was the wife of Emperor Temmu, who was Tenji's brother.

paragraphs: In this period, the court and the government was centered at Fujiwara Palace in Yamato.

paragraphs: The actual site of Jitō's grave is known. This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") at Nara.

paragraphs: The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Jitō's mausoleum. It is formally named "Ochi-no-Okanoe no misasagi".

paragraphs: The "Man'yōshū" includes a waka poem said to have been composed by Jitō


title: Emperor Go-Murakami

paragraphs: This 14th century sovereign was named after the 10th century Emperor Murakami and "go-" (後), translates literally as "later"; and thus, he is sometimes called the "Later Emperor Murakami". The Japanese word ""go"" has also been translated to mean the "second one"; and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as "Murakami, the second", or as "Murakami II".

paragraphs: His personal name was , also known as Yoshiyoshi.

paragraphs: He reigned from Sumiyoshi, Ōsaka, Yoshino, Nara, and other temporary locations.

paragraphs: Prince Noriyoshi was a member of the Southern Court during the Nanboku-chō period of rival courts.

paragraphs: According to the Imperial Household Agency, the mausoleum ("misasagi") of Go-Murakami is in Osaka Prefecture. The emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in the precincts of Kanshinji temple (観心寺) in Kawachinagano, Osaka.

paragraphs: The years of Go-Murakami's reign are more identified by more than one era name.


title: Almayer's Folly

paragraphs: Almayer's Folly is Joseph Conrad's first novel. It was published in 1895. Set in the late 19th century, it centers on the life of the Dutch trader Kaspar Almayer in the Borneo jungle and his relationship to his half-caste daughter Nina.

paragraphs: Kaspar Almayer is a young Dutch trader cared for by rich Captain Lingard. Hoping to gain Lingard's wealth, Almayer agrees to a loveless marriage to Lingard's adopted Malay child and to running his trading post in Sambir in the Borneo jungle. Lingard loses much of his fortune searching for a hidden treasure. Meanwhile, Almayer's ventures constantly fail, most notably an expensive trading house, the "Almayer's Folly," that no one trades in. He did seem to enjoy dancing.

paragraphs: A daughter named Nina was born to Almayer and his wife. The rest of the novel concerns Almayer's conflicting wishes: his love for Nina, his effort at keeping her from her mother's Malay influence, and his desire for money and self-redemption.

paragraphs: Dain, a Malay prince, arrives at Sambir. Almayer tries to enlist Dain's help to find the treasure long sought by Lingard. Instead, Dain marries Nina and leaves Sambir with her, against Almayer's wishes. The loss of Nina and any prospect of wealth stuns Almayer. He spends the rest of his days in the empty trading house as his sanity slips away.

paragraphs: As Conrad's earliest novel, "Almayer's Folly" is often seen by critics as inferior to the author's later work because of its repetitive and at times awkward language. However, recent critics have paid more attention to Conrad's depiction of Nina as a self-determined female non-European character along with Aissa from Joseph Conrad's second novel, "An Outcast of the Islands".

paragraphs: Filming started in November 2010 for a French-Belgian adaptation by Chantal Akerman.


title: Surface integral

paragraphs: In mathematics, a surface integral is a definite integral taken over a surface (which may be a curve set in space). Just as a line integral allows one to integrate over an arbitrary curve (of one dimension), a surface integral can be thought of as a double integral integrating over a two-dimensional surface. Given a surface, one may integrate over its scalar fields (that is, functions which return numbers as values), or its vector fields (that is, functions which return vectors as values).

paragraphs: Surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the classical theory of electromagnetism.

paragraphs: Consider a surface "S" on which a scalar field "f" is defined. If one thinks of "S" as made of some material, and for each x in "S" the number "f"(x) is the density of material at x, then the surface integral of "f" over "S" is the mass per unit thickness of "S". (This is only true if the surface is an infinitesimally thin shell.)

paragraphs: One approach to calculating the surface integral is then to split the surface in many very small pieces, assume that the density is approximately constant on each piece, find the mass per unit thickness of each piece (by multiplying the density of the piece by its area), and then sum up the resulting numbers to find the total mass per unit thickness of "S".

paragraphs: To find an explicit formula for the surface integral, mathematicians parametrize "S" by considering on "S" a system of curvilinear coordinates, like the latitude and longitude on a sphere. Let such a parametrization be x("s", "t"), where ("s", "t") varies in some region "T" in the plane. Then, the surface integral is given by

paragraphs: where the expression between bars on the right-hand side is the magnitude of the cross product of the partial derivatives of x("s", "t").

paragraphs: For example, to find the surface area of some general functional shape, say formula_2, we have

paragraphs: where formula_4. So that formula_5, and formula_6. So,

paragraphs: which is the formula used for the surface area of a general functional shape. One can recognize the vector in the second line above as the normal vector to the surface.

paragraphs: Note that because of the presence of the cross product, the above formulas only work for surfaces embedded in three dimensional space.

paragraphs: Consider a vector field v on "S", that is, for each x in "S", v(x) is a vector.

paragraphs: The surface integral can be defined component-wise according to the definition of the surface integral of a scalar field; the result is a vector. For example, this applies to the electric field at some fixed point due to an electrically charged surface, or the gravity at some fixed point due to a sheet of material. It can also calculate the magnetic flux through a surface.

paragraphs: Alternatively, mathematicians can integrate the normal component of the vector field; the result is a scalar. An example is a fluid flowing through "S", such that v(x) determines the velocity of the fluid at x. The flux is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing through "S" in a unit amount of time.

paragraphs: This illustration implies that if the vector field is tangent to "S" at each point, then the flux is zero, because the fluid just flows in parallel to "S", and neither in nor out. This also implies that if v does not just flow along "S", that is, if v has both a tangential and a normal component, then only the normal component contributes to the flux. Based on this reasoning, to find the flux, we need to take the dot product of v with the unit surface normal to "S" at each point, which will give us a scalar field, and integrate the obtained field as above. This gives the formula

paragraphs: The cross product on the right-hand side of this expression is a surface normal determined by the parametrization.

paragraphs: This formula "defines" the integral on the left (note the dot and the vector notation for the surface element).

paragraphs: Various useful results for surface integrals can be derived using differential geometry and vector calculus, such as the divergence theorem, and its generalization, Stokes' theorem.

paragraphs: The discussion above defined the surface integral by using a parametrization of the surface "S". A given surface might have several parametrizations. For example, when the locations of the North Pole and South Pole are moved on a sphere, the latitude and longitude change for all the points on the sphere. A natural question is then whether the definition of the surface integral depends on the chosen parametrization. For integrals of scalar fields, the answer to this question is simple: the value of the surface integral will be the same no matter what parametrization one uses.

paragraphs: Integrals of vector fields are more complicated, because the surface normal is involved. Mathematicians have proved that given two parametrizations of the same surface, whose surface normals point in the same direction, both parametrizations give the same value for the surface integral. If, however, the normals for these parametrizations point in opposite directions, the value of the surface integral obtained using one parametrization is the negative of the one obtained via the other parametrization. It follows that given a surface, we do not need to stick to any unique parametrization; but, when integrating vector fields, we do need to decide in advance which direction the normal will point to, and then choose any parametrization consistent with that direction.

paragraphs: Another issue is that sometimes surfaces do not have parametrizations which cover the whole surface; this is true for example for the surface of a cylinder (of finite height). The obvious solution is then to split that surface in several pieces, calculate the surface integral on each piece, and then add them all up. This is indeed how things work, but when integrating vector fields, one needs to again be careful in choosing the normal-pointing vector for each piece of the surface, so that when the pieces are put back together, the results are consistent. For the cylinder, this means that if we decide that for the side region the normal will point out of the body, then for the top and bottom circular parts, the normal must point out of the body too.

paragraphs: Last, there are surfaces which do not have a surface normal at each point with consistent results (for example, the Möbius strip). If such a surface is split into pieces, on each piece a parametrization and corresponding surface normal is chosen, and the pieces are put back together, the normal vectors coming from different pieces cannot be reconciled. This means that at some junction between two pieces will have normal vectors pointing in opposite directions. Such a surface is called non-orientable. Vector fields cannot be integrated on non-orientable surfaces.


title: Philae (spacecraft)

paragraphs: Philae (before known as RoLand) is an ESA lander spacecraft. It went with the Rosetta spacecraft. It landed on comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenkoon on 12 November 2014 to analyze it.

paragraphs: The name Philae was chosen through a contest organized by ESA, won by fifteen year old Serena Olga Vismara from Milan. The name comes from the orbiter name, already defined as Rosetta, which is the name of the stele that allowed Jean-François Champollion to understand ancient Egypt hieroglyphics. In order to complete the translation, he needed to use also the monuments on the island of Philae, the same way Philae lander will help to complete the work of the Rosetta lander.


title: Americana

paragraphs: Americana is about the United States, for example, its culture, geography, history etc.


title: FC Pinzgau Saalfelden

paragraphs: FC Pinzgau Saalfelden is an Austrian football club from Saalfelden in the federal state of Salzburg. The club plays in the Regionalliga West which is the third level in Austrian football. The second team is playing in the 2.Klasse Südwest of the Salzburger Fußballverband.

paragraphs: The club was founded on 23 May 2007. The new club was formed out of "1. Saalfeldner SK" (founded 1947) and "ESV Saalfelden" (founded 1952). The club was the first of the later players for the Austrian national football team Franz Bacher and Wolfgang Feiersinger. Feiersinger was also Championsleague winner with Borussia Dortmund.


title: Narrandera, New South Wales

paragraphs: Narrandera ( ) is a town in southern New South Wales, Australia. It is near the junction of the Newell and Sturt Highways, on the banks of the Murrumbidgee River. In 2006 there were 3,961 people living in Narrandera.

paragraphs: Narrandera is a river town with a long history. Captain Charles Sturt, the famous explorer, was the first European to see the area that later became known as Narrandera. However Sturt, who passed through on 12 December 1829, was not the first explorer to see the Murrumbidgee River. The upper Murrumbidgee, the "Big Water", was first discovered in April 1821, by Charles Throsby. The name "Narrandera" probably comes from Wiradjuri word "nharrang", meaning "frill-necked lizard".

paragraphs: The Narrungderra were the local indigenous people. They were all but destroyed by settlement, disease brought by European settlers, and clashes with the settlers. The last major battle between the indigenous people and European settlers took place near Massacre Island, and is said to have left only one survivor.

paragraphs: Narrandera is first recorded as a pastoral station or "run" (Narrandera Run) in 1848. The property was owned by Mr Edward Flood covered about .

paragraphs: The township developed in the early 1860s. Gillinbah Post Office opened nearby on 1 March 1859 and was replaced by the Narrandera office in 1861. A Gillenbah office was open from 1881 to 1892 and from 1906 to 1941.

paragraphs: The Borough of Narrandera began on 17 March 1885. The centenary of Local Government in Narrandera was celebrated in 1985.

paragraphs: The town of Narrandera is at the centre of a productive farming region. Its attractive tree-lined streets contrast with the open plains that surround it.

paragraphs: The Narrandera Memorial Gardens include the unusual Hankinson Fountain. Manufactured by the Royal Doulton Company of England, the ceramic fountain is one of only two known in the world, the other in India. It was given to the people of Narrandera by Alderman and Mrs Hankinson in 1922 in honour of locals who served in World War I. The Hankinson Fountain was smashed by an act of vandalism in 1971 and was restored by Charles Pearce.

paragraphs: To the east of Narrandera farmers grow cereal crops, sheep and wool. To the west, is the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (MIA) fed by water from the Burrinjuck Dam. The MIA is a region where farmer grow rice and other cereals with irrigation, as well as citrus, wine grapes and potatoes.

paragraphs: The town also has number of historic attractions, such as a fig tree on the corner of King and Cadell Streets, which is thought to be 150 years old; and the Mon Repos, a residence built in a Queen Anne-style, which was built in the 1890s.

paragraphs: Narrandera's Irrigation Canal which carries water to the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area flows through the town. It begins west at Berembed Weir where water is taken from the Murrumbidgee River. The canal follows the natural bed of Bundidgerry Creek and in places is very wide and has no levee banks. Lake Talbot was formed in 1924 when the bank of the Irrigation Canal gave way, flooding the river flat between the canal and Bundidgerry Hill. The shallow lake was allowed to remain and became an important recreational feature of the town. The eastern end of the lake is used by water skiiers. The western end is a wetland habitat for native fauna. A wetland has been made near Lizard Drive, only from the Murrumbidgee River. The Narrandera Wetland is a collection point for storm water run-off from the town.

paragraphs: Narrandera is well served for transport. The Sturt Highway and the Newell Highways cross just south of Narrandera. Interstate buses pass daily - note that the destination can be listed as Jillenbah.

paragraphs: The Narranderra-Leeton airport is 5 km west of town. Regional Express (REX) operate several turboprop return services daily to Sydney, an hour and 10 minutes (approx) flying time away.

paragraphs: Narrandera's railway station is serviced by the weekly Sydney to Griffith XPlorer. It stops on the way to Griffith at 2:33pm on Saturdays and stops on the way back to Sydney at 8:45am on Sundays. CountryLink buses carry passengers daily to and from Wagga, to meet Sydney and Melbourne bound train services.

paragraphs: The book Jessica by Bryce Courtenay has Narrandera as the main town near the place where the book is set.

paragraphs: Notable citizens from Narrandera include:


title: Electric flux

paragraphs: Imagine an electric field E passing through a surface. Consider an infinitesimal area (dA) on that surface across which E remains constant. Also assume that the angle between E and dA is i. The electric flux is defined as EdAcos(i). E and dA are vectors. Flux is the dot product of E and dA. Using full vector notation, the electric flux formula_1 through a small area formula_2 is given by

paragraphs: The electric flux over a surface "S" is therefore given by the surface integral:

paragraphs: where E is the electric field and dA is a differential area on the surface formula_5 with an outward facing surface normal defining its direction.

paragraphs: For a closed Gaussian surface, electric flux is given by:

paragraphs: where Q is the net charge enclosed by the surface (including both free and bound charge), and ε is the electric constant. This relation is known as Gauss' law for electric field in its integral form and it is one of the four Maxwell's equations.

paragraphs: Electric flux is not affected by charges that are not within the closed surface. But the net electric field, E, in the Gauss' Law equation, can be affected by charges that lie outside the closed surface. Gauss' Law is true in all situations, but people can only use it to calculate when high degrees of symmetry exist in the electric field. Examples include spherical and cylindrical symmetry. Otherwise, the calculations are too hard to do by hand and must be worked out using a computer.

paragraphs: Electrical flux has SI units of volt metres (V m), or, equivalently, newton metres squared per coulomb . So, the SI base units of electric flux are kg•m•s•A.


title: Enda Kenny

paragraphs: Enda Kenny (born 24 April 1951) is an Irish Fine Gael politician. He was the Taoiseach from 2011 through 2017. Kenny has led Fine Gael from 2002 until his retirement in 2017. He served as Minister for Tourism and Trade from 1994 to 1997. He is also a two-term Vice President of the European People's Party.

paragraphs: Kenny has been a Teachta Dála (TD) for Mayo since 1975, having succeeded his father Henry Kenny. He is the longest-serving TD currently in Dáil Éireann, which makes him the incumbent Father of the Dáil.

paragraphs: Kenny led Fine Gael in the 2011 general election. He subsequently brokered an agreement with the Labour Party and formed a coalition government on 9 March 2011. He is Fine Gael's first Taoiseach since John Bruton from 1994 to 1997, and the first Fine Gael leader to win government in an election since Garret FitzGerald in 1982.

paragraphs: In May 2017, Kenny announced he will retire as Fine Gael leader and will resign as Taoiseach once a new leader is chosen.


title: SC Hakoah Graz

paragraphs: The Sportclub Hakoah Graz ( - strength) was a Jewish sports and football club from the Styrian capital Graz. It was beside Sturm and GAK the third top league team from Graz.

paragraphs: The club was founded on 12 March 1919 to offer the Jewish people of Graz (around 4000) the possibility to do sports. The old club Jüdischen Turnvereins zu Graz was dissolved in 1917. Jewish officials were against the club. The club was highly accepted by the young football players.

paragraphs: In 1921, the football section took part in the 2.Klasse of the Styrian football championship. The first classes of the federal states were the highest, because at that time there was no Austrian-wide championship. The champion of Viennas highest league was considered Austrian champion. They played in blue and white jerseys with the Star of David on the breast. It was difficult for them to play because they had no ground of their own. Due to the antisemitism of that time other clubs often did not allow them to use their grounds. In 1923, they leased an own ground.

paragraphs: In the 1921/22 season, they reached the first place and were promoted to the 1. Klasse. In the 1. Klasse, the club was again confronted with antisemitism. The Deutscher Sportverein Leoben and Turnverein Leibniz did not want to play against a Jewish club. They were disqualified. During the years in the first class Hakoah often reached places on top of the table.

paragraphs: In 1935, the club was relegated to the 2. Klasse. The reason for this was that some players went to other clubs and some ended their career because antisemitism grew at that time. The club also lost its ground which was only leased. The contract was not prolonged. In the Second Class, they gained again strength but the occupation of Austria by Nazi Germany ended its history. The club was dissolved like all other Jewish sports clubs in Austria.


title: Sugar Ray Leonard

paragraphs: Ray Charles Leonard (born May 17, 1956), better known as Sugar Ray Leonard, is a former American boxer. He was born in Wilmington, North Carolina. Leonard is believed by many to be one of the best boxers of all times. He was named the "Boxer of the Decade" for the 1980s. Leonard retired with a record of 36 wins (25 by knockout) 3 losses and 1 draw. He also won the gold medal in the 1976 Olympics.

paragraphs: His mother named him after singer Ray Charles.


title: Gastrolith

paragraphs: Gastroliths, or gizzard stones, are small rocks kept by an animal inside its stomach or at an early part of the alimentary canal. The function of these is to mash up the food so digestion takes place faster. Typically, animals which do this do not have suitable teeth for grinding, and the gastroliths are a good substitute for this.

paragraphs: A second function, in aquatic animals, is that gastroliths can be used for ballast to make diving easier.

paragraphs: Several pieces of evidence are needed to show that a rock was used by a fossil animal to aid its digestion. First, the stone must be unlike the rock found in its geological vicinity. Secondly, it should be rounded and polished, because inside a gizzard any genuine gastrolith would grind against other stones and fibrous materials, like the action of a rock tumbler. Lastly, the stone must be found with the fossils of the animal which ingested it.

paragraphs: Among living vertebrates, gastroliths are common among crocodiles, alligators, herbivorous birds, seals and sea lions. Domestic fowl need access to "grit". Stones swallowed by ostriches can exceed a length of . Amphibians such as the Axolotl ingest rocks that are presumed to be gastroliths. Apparent microgastroliths have also been found in frog tadpoles. Ingestion of silt and gravel by tadpoles of various frog species improves buoyancy control.

paragraphs: Sauropod dinosaurs appear to have used stones to grind tough plant matter. An example of this is the early Cretaceous theropod "Caudipteryx zoui" from northeastern China. It was discovered with a series of small stones, in the area of its skeleton that would have corresponded with its abdominal region. Aquatic animals, such as plesiosaurs, may have used them as ballast, to help balance themselves or to decrease their buoyancy, as crocodiles do. Some fossil gastroliths are rounded and polished, many stones in living birds are not polished at all. Gastroliths associated with dinosaur fossils can weigh several kilograms.


title: Scute

paragraphs: A scute is a bony external plate or scale, as on the shell of a turtle, the skin of crocodiles or the feet of some birds.

paragraphs: Scutes are similar to scales and serve the same function. Unlike the scales of fish and snakes, which are formed from the epidermis, scutes are formed in the lower vascular layer of the skin and the epidermal element is only the top surface. Forming in the living dermis, the scutes produce a horny outer layer, that is superficially similar to that of scales.

paragraphs: The dermal base may contain bone and produce dermal armour. Scutes with a bony base are properly called osteoderms. Dermal scutes are also found in the feet of birds and tails of some mammals, and are believed to be the primitive form of dermal armour in reptiles.

paragraphs: The term is also used to describe the heavy armour of the armadillo and the extinct glyptodon, and is occasionally used as an alternative to scales in describing snakes or certain fish, such as sturgeon.


title: BepiColombo

paragraphs: BepiColombo is a planned European Space Agency (ESA) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) mission to the planet Mercury. The mission is still being planned. This means that the details of the mission are likely to change. Its planned launch date is 2014 and it is planned to arrive at Mercury in 2020.


title: Sputnik 2

paragraphs: Sputnik 2 was a Soviet Union spacecraft. It was the second spacecraft in the Sputnik programme. It was the first spacecraft to carry a living animal, a dog called Laika. It was launched on 3 October 1957 at Baikonur Cosmodrome. Scientists think that Laika died several hours after launch from overheating. The spacecraft went into orbit around Earth for roughly five months. It went down into Earth's atmosphere on 14 April 1958 and burned up.

paragraphs: Sputnik 2 was 4 metres (13 feet) high and its base diameter was 2 metres (6.6 feet). It was a cone-shaped and it had several different places for radio transmitters, a telemetry system, a programming unit, a regeneration and temperature control system for the spacecraft, and scientific instruments. Laika was put in a special area.


title: Michal Prokop

paragraphs: Michal Prokop (* August 13, 1946, Prague, Czechoslovakia, today Czech Republic) is a Czech singer, songwriter and politician. He is member of Framus Five. In 2007 he was inducted into the Beatová síň slávy (Beat Hall of Fame).


title: Megali Idea

paragraphs: The Megali Idea was an idea in Greek nationalism since the end of the Byzantine Empire. The goal of Megali Idea was the liberation of all Greek-inhabited lands occupied by Ottoman Empire.


title: Paula Fernandes

paragraphs: Paula Fernandes de Souza (born August 28, 1984) is a Brazilian sertanejo and country singer.


title: Nodosauridae

paragraphs: The Nodosauridae is a family of ankylosaur dinosaurs, from Upper Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous strata of what are now North America, Asia, Antarctica and Europe. They are the family of ankylosaurs which do not have club-shaped tails. They often have spikes protecting their head and shoulders.

paragraphs: All nodosaurs, like other ankylosaurs, are medium-sized to large, heavily built quadrupedal herbivorous dinosaurs, with small denticulate teeth and rows of osteoderms (a type of armour) on the dorsolateral (top and sides) surfaces of the body.

paragraphs: The following taxonomy follows Thompson "et al.", 2011 unless otherwise noted.

paragraphs: The clade Nodosauridae may be defined as "all ankylosaurs closer to "Panoplosaurus" than to "Ankylosaurus". Vickaryous "et al." considered the most primitive member of the Nodosauridae to be "Cedarpelta". A cladogram from a 2011 analysis is shown by Richard S. Thompson and colleagues.


title: French grammar

paragraphs: French grammar is the is the rules about how to speak and write the French language. It is similar to the grammar of other Romance languages. French is moderately inflected. This means that some words change their form in different situations.


title: Stem (linguistics)

paragraphs: The stem of a verb is the main part of the verb to which the endings are added.


title: Qinhuangdao

paragraphs: Qinhuangdao (秦皇岛) is a city in the north of China. The name in Chinese means "island of the Qin Emperor" or "Emperor Qin's island", since it was where Emperor Qin Shi Huang sent men to search for immortals, or living beings who cannot die or grow old, across the sea. It is in Hebei Province. It is about east of Beijing, on the Bohai Sea. The city had 2,987,605 people as of 2010. Qinhuangdao is one of fourteen coastal open cities, which are important foreign trade ports in north China. It was approved as a national grade tourist city by the State Council. Famous scenic spots include Shanhaiguan and Beidaihe. Qinhuangdao City is a state-level economic and technological development zone of Qinhuangdao.

paragraphs: Qinhuangdao City, Hebei Province, is in the northeast of China , north latitude 39 ° 24 '~ 40 ° 37', longitude 118 ° 33 '~ 119 ° 51'.  Qinhuangdao's climate is a humid, temperate, monsoon climate, influenced by the ocean.

paragraphs: Qinhuangdao's train station serves the Beijing-Harbin Railway, Daqin Railway and Tsuyama railway. China's first express passenger line between Qinhuangdao and Shenyang Passenger starts here. The line became the official carrier on October 12, 2013.

paragraphs: Qinhuangdao Shanhaiguan Airport has flights from Shijiazhuang, Wuhan and Shanghai.

paragraphs: Qinhuangdao's Port is one of China's bigger energy output ports. It is one of the major ports where China's Shanxi Coal can go to other countries. It is a natural, ice-free harbor.

paragraphs: The very important industries are glass, ship making, Metallurgy (making gold), and auto parts.

paragraphs: Yanshan University and the Hebei Institute of International Business and Economics (HIIBE) is in Qinhuangdao.


title: Penghu

paragraphs: The Penghu Islands, also known as Pescadores (from Portuguese: "fishermen") are an archipelago off the western coast of Taiwan. They are in the Taiwan Strait. The Archipelago is made up of 90 small islands and islets. It covers an area of .

paragraphs: The whole archipelago forms Penghu County under Taiwan Province in the Republic of China. The archipelago and the island of Taiwan together formed the former Japanese territory of Formosa.


title: Yanshan University

paragraphs: Yanshan University is a university in Qinhuangdao, Hebei, China.


title: Insertion device

paragraphs: In physics, an insertion device is a group of magnets that can be placed on a straight segment of a particle accelerator to be a synchrotron light source. They are called an "insertion devices" because they replace pipe that otherwise would hold the vacuum needed to maintain the particle beam path. Many times, insertion devices are used on the circular path of a synchrotron or a storage ring.

paragraphs: There are two types of insertion devices. Undulators make electromagnetic radiation that is tuned to a narrow frequency range. Wigglers make a wide range of electromagnetic radiation frequencies.


title: Beamline

paragraphs: In particle physics, a beamline is the path in a particle accelerator of the particles.

paragraphs: In materials science, physics, chemistry, and molecular biology a beamline leads to the experimental endstation utilizing particle beams from a particle accelerator, synchrotron light obtained from a synchrotron, or neutrons from a spallation source or research reactor.

paragraphs: In particle accelerators the beamline is usually housed in a tunnel and/or underground, cased inside a cement housing. The beamline is usually cylindrical metal. Typical names include, "beam pipe", and/or a blank section called a "drift tube". This entire section must be under a good vacuum in order to have a the beam travel for a long distance.

paragraphs: A survey and alignment crew carefully align the beamline segments by using a laser tracker. All beamlines must be within micrometre tolerance. Good alignment helps to prevent beam loss, and beam from colliding with the pipe walls, which creates secondary emissions and/or radiation.

paragraphs: Regarding synchrotrons, a beamline is the instrumentation that carries beams of synchrotron radiation to an experimental end station, which uses the radiation produced by the bending magnets and insertion devices in the storage ring of a synchrotron light source. A typical application for this kind of beamline is crystallography. Scientists also use synchrotron light in many other ways.

paragraphs: A large synchrotron laboratory will have many beamlines, each optimized for a particular field of research. The differences will depend on the type of insertion device (which, in turn, determines the intensity and spectral distribution of the radiation); the beam conditioning equipment; and the experimental end station.

paragraphs: A typical beamline at a modern synchrotron will be 25 to 100 m (82 ft to 328 ft) long from the storage ring to the end station, and may cost up to millions of US dollars. For this reason, a synchrotron facility is often built in stages, with the first few beamlines at the start of operation, and other beamlines being added later as the funding permits.

paragraphs: The beamline elements are in radiation shielding enclosures, called hutches, which are the size of a small room (cabin). A typical beamline consists of two hutches, an optical hutch for the beam conditioning elements and an experimental hutch, which houses the experiment. Between hutches, the beam travels in a transport tube. People are not allowed to enter hutches when the beam shutter is open and radiation can enter the hutch. Hutches have complex safety systems with redundant interlocking functions to make sure that no one is inside the hutch when the radiation is turned on. The safety system will also shut down the radiation beam if the door to the hutch is accidentally opened when the beam is on. In this case, the beam is turned off by dumping the electron beam circulating in the synchrotron. So, opening one door will shut down all of the beamlines in the facility.

paragraphs: Experimenters use the following elements that are used in beamlines for conditioning the radiation beam between the storage ring and the end station:

paragraphs: The combination of beam conditioning devices controls the thermal load (heating caused by the beam) at the end station; the spectrum of radiation incident at the end station; and the focus or collimation of the beam. Devices along the beamline which absorb significant power from the beam may need to be actively cooled by water, or liquid nitrogen. The entire length of a beamline is normally kept under ultra high vacuum conditions.

paragraphs: An experimental end station in a neutron facility is called a neutron beamline. Superficially, neutron beamlines differ from synchrotron radiation beamlines mostly by the fact that they use neutrons from a research reactor or a spallation source instead of photons. The experiments usually measure neutron scattering from the sample under study.


paragraphs: The Conférence des directeurs des écoles françaises d'ingénieurs (CDEFI) is a French association, established in 1976, of Grandes Écoles of engineering. The CDEFI represents the administration of all the engineering institutions.


title: Fred Burton

paragraphs: Fred Burton is STATFOR's vice president for intelligence. STRATFOR is a global intelligence company. Burton is thought to be "one of the world's foremost experts on security, terrorists and terrorist organizations." This basically means that he is thought to be one of the world's best intelligence workers.

paragraphs: He was a special agent with the U.S. Diplomatic Security Service.

paragraphs: Washington asked Burton to help the investigation of the assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. He used to be the deputy chief of the counter-terrorism part of the U.S. State Department's Diplomatic Security Service. He also investigated the killing of Rabbi Meir Kahane, the al Qaeda New York City bombing plots before the September 11 attacks and the Libyan-backed terrorist attacks against diplomats in Sana'a and Khartoum. He helped in the arrest of Ramzi Yousef, the mastermind of the first World Trade Center bombing in 1993.

paragraphs: Burton is the author of a memoir called "Ghost: Confessions of a Counterterrorism Agent". It was published by Random House in 2008. Another memoir is "Chasing Shadows: A Special Agent's Lifelong Hunt to Bring a Cold War Assassin to Justice", published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2011.

paragraphs: Burton was moved to the Texas Border Security Council on September 11, 2007 by Governor Rick Perry.

paragraphs: In August 2009 he was hired as the Texas Department of Public Safety's Assistant Director for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism but left after 2 months. This was because he wanted to work on his writing and speaking career.


title: Collimated light

paragraphs: Collimated light is light whose rays are parallel. This light spreads slowly as it travels. The word "collimated" is related to "collinear", because all the rays in collimated light line up with each other.

paragraphs: Perfectly collimated light would not spread out with distance at all. No real light is perfectly collimated. Real light will spread a little as it travels. Diffraction prevents anyone from creating a perfectly collimated beam.

paragraphs: Light can be roughly collimated by using a "collimator" – a device which narrows a beam of particles or waves.

paragraphs: The word "collimate" comes from the Latin verb "collimare", which originated in a misreading of "collineare", "to direct in a straight line".

paragraphs: Laser light from crystal and some gas lasers is highly collimated because it is formed in an optical cavity between two parallel mirrors, in addition to being coherent. The divergence of high-quality laser beams is commonly less than 1 milliradian, and can be much less for large-diameter beams. Laser diodes emit less collimated light due to their short cavity, and therefore higher collimation requires a collimating lens.

paragraphs: Synchrotron light is very collimated. It is produced by bending relativistic electrons around a circular track.

paragraphs: The light from stars (other than the Sun) can be considered collimated for almost any purpose, because they are so far away they have almost no angular size.

paragraphs: A perfect parabolic mirror will bring parallel rays to a focus at a single point. Conversely, a point source at the focus of a parabolic mirror will produce a beam of collimated light. Since the source needs to be small, such an optical system cannot produce much optical power. Spherical mirrors are easier to make than parabolic mirrors and they are often used to produce approximately collimated light. Many types of lenses can also produce collimated light from point-like sources.


title: Hispanic

paragraphs: Hispanic (Spanish: "Hispano", "hispánico") is a word that originally meant a relationship to Hispania. This is the Iberian Peninsula and includes Portugal, Andorra, Gibraltar and Spain. Now the word is used with a more limited meaning. In the United States it is often used to mean a person of (usually) mixed race with a Spanish surname. In North America generally, the word Hispanic has lost its link to Spain and Portugal, and is mainly used to mean Latin America.

paragraphs: Hispanic has also been used to mean the culture and people of the former Spanish and Portuguese Empires in America. Known as Hispanic America, this region includes Mexico, most of the Central and South American countries, and the Spanish-speaking island-nations of the Caribbean.

paragraphs: Spanish names, the Spanish language, and Spanish customs can also be found in other areas that were part of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires, such as in Equatorial Guinea in Africa, or in the Spanish East Indies (e.g. Philipines) and the Portuguese Brazil.


title: Muryeong of Baekje

paragraphs: Muryeong of Baekje (462–523, r. 501–23), also known as Sama, was a 6th-century Korean king. He was the 25th king of Baekje, which was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in ancient times. The name Muryong means "military peace". It is a name he got after death.

paragraphs: During Muryeong’s reign, the southwestern kingdom of Baekje was allied with its eastern rival Silla against the northern kingdom of Goguryeo.

paragraphs: The king is known for expanding contacts with China and Japan.

paragraphs: Muryeong's tomb is located in Gongju in South Chungcheong Province. It has been studied by archeologists and historians. This the only ancient tomb that has been positively identified among those of this period.

paragraphs: In 2001, Japan's Emperor Akihito acknowledged a distant relationship with Muryeong. He explained, "I, on my part, feel a certain kinship with Korea, given the fact that it is recorded in the "Chronicles of Japan" that the mother of Emperor Kammu was of the line of King Muryong of Baekje."