title: Ampthill

paragraphs: Ampthill is a small town and civil parish in Bedfordshire, England, between Bedford and Luton. About 6000 people live in the town. A regular market has taken place on Thursdays for more than 700 years.

paragraphs: The name 'Ampthill' comes from an Anglo-Saxon word, 'Aemethyll', which means either 'ant-heap' or 'ant infested hill'. In the Domesday Book, Ampthill is called 'Ammetelle', with the landholder in 1086 being Nigel de la Vast.

paragraphs: In 1242, King Henry III gave Ampthill the right to hold a market on Thursdays. The Thursday markets are still held.

paragraphs: Henry VIII often visited Ampthill Castle. Katherine of Aragon lived at the castle from 1531 until she was divorced in 1533, when she was moved to Kimbolton. The castle was built in the 15th century by Sir John Cornwall, later Lord Fanhope. He used money he had made from ransoms after the Battle of Agincourt. The castle is now gone but there are some interesting parts of castle life still in existence. This includes ponds, such as West Minster Pond, made to hold and grow fish for food for the castle.

paragraphs: Houghton House was built in 1621 by Mary, Countess of Pembroke and brother of the poet Sir Philip Sidney. In 1675, the house gave John Bunyan the idea for the 'House Beautiful' in his book "The Pilgrim's Progress". Bunyan's book is based on his own journey between Bedford and Luton. The steep slope leading into Ampthill was the model for the 'Hill of Difficulty'. Houghton House passed to the Duke of Bedford in 1738 and became a ruin after the roof was taken off in 1794.


title: Ozai

paragraphs: Ozai (also known as Fire Lord Ozai or the Phoenix King) is a fictional character and the main antagonist in Nickelodeon's animated series "". Though once shown behind the scenes than recurringly, he is nevertheless an important character in the series as he is the father of Azula and Zuko. He is also the younger brother of Iroh and is the rival of the main protagonist of the series, Avatar Aang who must stop Ozai to bring balance to the world. He is also Fire Lord Sozin's grandson. He is also member of the 5th Council. He is voiced by Mark Hamill.

paragraphs: Ozai first appears in the episode "Winter Solstice Part 2: Avatar Roku" in a vision where Avatar Roku explains to Aang that Ozai plans to use Sozin's Comet to increase his firebending ability. In the episode "The Storm" he is shown in a flashback of a story being told by Iroh explaining why Zuko is obsessed with capturing the Avatar. Zuko is challenged to a duel by Ozai and when Zuko refuses to fight, Ozai burns his son's face and banishes him. Zuko now tries to capture the Avatar to restore his honor and please his father. At the conclusion of the season 1 finale, "The Siege of the North, Part 2", Ozai sees Zuko as a failure and believes Iroh is now a traitor to the Fire Nation. Just before the episode ends, he is seen giving a task to Azula, though the details of this task are not revealed until season 2.

paragraphs: In the episode "Zuko Alone" his origin is shown in a flashback from back when his father Azulon was Fire Lord. After Iroh's son dies from the war in Ba Sing Se, Ozai claims that he should inherit the throne instead of his older brother, stating that because Iroh no longer has a son, the bloodline of Fire Lords would end with him. Azulon, infuriated at the request, orders Ozai to kill his own son, Zuko, to understand the pain that Iroh felt. Ozai's wife, Ursa, knowing that Ozai would do anything for the throne, offered Ozai a plan to spare Zuko's life and his place to the throne. This resulted the death of Fire Lord Azulon and the banishment of Ursa, though the latter is not revealed until season 3.

paragraphs: Ozai makes his first full appearance in the first episode of season 3, "The Awakening", after the Earth city of Ba Sing Se is conquered by Azula and the Fire Nation. Ozai now welcomes his son, Zuko, home after Azula states that he killed the Avatar. While in a war meeting, Zuko states that even though the Earth Kingdom is conquered that they would still not officially give up. Ozai concludes that the only way to defeat their resistance is to use the power of Sozin's Comet to increase the Fire Nation's power. When it becomes known that the resistance plans to invade the Fire Nation during the eclipse, Ozai evacuates the capital city and hides underground. There he comes face to face with his son, Zuko, who finally stands up to him saying he did not kill the Avatar and he's through trying to earn his love. Zuko states that what Ozai is doing is wrong, that the Fire Nation should live in peace and kindness with the other nations instead of spreading fear across the world. Ozai merely laughs at this. Zuko then admits he will free his Uncle Iroh and help the Avatar stop him. Ozai then provokes Zuko to kill him but Zuko refuses, saying it's the Avatar's destiny to stop him not his. When Zuko starts to walk away, Ozai distracts him by revealing what happened to his mother. When the eclipse ends, Ozai bends lightning straight at Zuko, but Zuko simply redirects it.

paragraphs: When Sozin's Comet arrives he dubs himself the Phoenix King and declares that he is the ruler of the world. He also appoints his daughter Azula to the rank of Fire Lord. While attacking the Earth Kingdom, he is confronted by Avatar Aang. Because of his enhanced power and Aang's refusal to kill Ozai, he originally has the advantage. He is eventually defeated when Aang enters the Avatar state and strips Ozai of his Firebending ability by Energybending. After the defeat Team Avatar taunts him and calls him names, stating that he's not so tough now without his power. He is then imprisoned in the Fire Nation prison where Zuko visits him, stating that maybe prison will set him up in the right path, then demands to know where his mother is.

paragraphs: Ozai is revealed to be a cruel leader. He is easily angered and merciless. His cruel personality could be due to his failure in his relationship with his father, Azulon, who always favored his older brother, Iroh, over him. Ozai would prove to be a heartless father to his own son, Zuko, believing him a failure and even burning his face and banishing him. He even banished his own wife, though admitted later that he felt banishment was too light a punishment. He has a lust for power, a quality shared by his daughter Azula. He favors his daughter over Zuko, seeing her as a firebending prodigy. The expectations Ozai had for Azula caused her to become stressed and paranoid, eventually leading to her mental breakdown at the end of the series.

paragraphs: Ozai is an extremely skilled and powerful firebender, able to hold his own at the height of his powers due to Sozin's Comet against Aang despite Aang's status as a full-fledged Avatar. He is one of the few who can generate lightning along with Azula and Iroh, though he is shown to be the only one to shoot lightning out of both hands. With his firebending ability he is able to propel himself in the air similar to a jet. When Sozin's Comet arrives his firebending ability increases even more. After confronting the Avatar, Ozai's powers are taken away by Aang's Energybending.

paragraphs: He appears as an antagonist in the video game "".

paragraphs: Fire Lord Ozai appears in the live action feature film in "The Last Airbender" played by Cliff Curtis. Unlike the series, Ozai is a regular character in the film.


title: Appa

paragraphs: Appa is a fictional flying bison in Nickelodeon's animated television series "". The character and series were created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko. Appa is voiced by Dee Bradley Baker.


title: Momo (Avatar: The Last Airbender)

paragraphs: Momo is a fictional character in Nickelodeon's animated television series "". The character and series were created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko. Momo is voiced by Dee Bradley Baker.


title: Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit

paragraphs: The Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit is a street circuit around Albert Park Lake, only a couple of kilometres south of central Melbourne. It is used once a year as a racetrack for the Australian Grand Prix and associated support races.

paragraphs: The circuit uses everyday sections of road that circle Albert Park Lake, a small man-made lake just south of the Central Business District of Melbourne. The roads that are used were rebuilt prior to the first race in 1996 to ensure consistency and smoothness. As a result, the Albert Park track has quite a smooth surface.

paragraphs: The course is considered to be quite fast and relatively easy to drive. Drivers have commented that the consistent placement of corners allows them to easily learn the circuit and achieve competitive times. The flat terrain around the lake, coupled with a track design that features few true straights, means that it is not easy to pass another car on the track. Watching the entire race track can only be done from a grandstand seat.

paragraphs: Each year, most of the trackside fencing, pedestrian overpasses, grandstands and other motorsport infrastructure must be erected for the race. This is done about one month before the Grand Prix weekend. They are all removed by six weeks after the event. Land around the circuit has restricted access during the grand prix weekend. This includes an aquatic centre, a golf course, a football stadium, some restaurants and rowing boathouses. Many nearby local residents are unhappy with the loss of park access. Some maintain a silent protest against the event. The event is popular with most people in Melbourne and Australia. They have a large European population and a general interest in motorsport. Middle Park (stadium), the home of South Melbourne FC was demolished in 1994 due to expansion at Albert Park.

paragraphs: Albert Park has the distinction of being the only venue to hold the Australian Grand Prix in both World Championship and non-World Championship formats. Prior to the Grand Prix, a modified version of the current circuit was used for both the 1953 and 1956 Grands Prix. During this time Albert Park ran anti-clockwise as opposed to the current GP circuit standard clockwise.


title: Semiramide

paragraphs: Semiramide is an Italian opera written by Gioachino Rossini. It has two acts. It was first performed at the Teatro La Fenice in Venice, on February 3, 1823, libretto by Gaetano Rossi. This was after Voltaire's "Semiramis". This opera was successful from the start and is still performed today.


title: Clancy Brown

paragraphs: Clarence J. "Clancy" Brown III (born 5 January 1959) is an American actor and voice actor. He is known for his roles as Byron Hadley in "The Shawshank Redemption" and Career Sergeant Zim in "Starship Troopers". He is perhaps best known for his role as the Kurgan in the cult classic "Highlander". Brown also works extensively as a voice actor in animated TV series. He was the voice of Lex Luthor on "" and "Justice League"/"Justice League Unlimited". He was also the voice of Mr. Krabs on "SpongeBob SquarePants".


title: TV Guide (magazine)

paragraphs: TV Guide is an American weekly magazine about television programming.

paragraphs: In addition to TV listings, the publication features television-related news, celebrity interviews, gossip and film reviews and crossword puzzles. Some issues also have horoscope listings.


title: Body temperature

paragraphs: Body Temperature is the general temperature maintained in the body. Many animals control their body temperature; this is called thermoregulation. For humans, it is generally around 98 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Celsius). Body temperature is usually measured in the mouth, under the armpit or in the anus.


title: Annie Awards

paragraphs: The Annie Awards are given to recognize good work in animation. They have been presented by the Los Angeles, California branch of the International Animated Film Association, ASIFA-Hollywood since 1972.


title: 34th Annie Awards

paragraphs: The ceremony for the 34th Annual Annie Awards, honoring the best in animation in 2006, was held on February 11, 2007 at the Alex Theatre in Glendale, California.

paragraphs: The nominations were announced on December 4, 2006.

paragraphs: Significant and benevolent or charitable impact on the art and industry of animation.

paragraphs: Recognition of lifetime or career contributions to the art of animation.


title: 59th Primetime Emmy Awards

paragraphs: The 59th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards were held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, California on September 16, 2007 and were live on television on Fox at 8:00 p.m. EDT (00:00 UTC) for the first time in high definition (on tape delay three hours later on the West Coast of the United States at 8:00 p.m. PDT/3:00 UTC). The ceremonies were hosted by Ryan Seacrest.

paragraphs: Creative Arts Awards winners who were recognized at the Primetime telecast.


title: The Cheeky Girls

paragraphs: The Cheeky Girls are a female bubblegum pop/bubblegum dance and europop duo based in Great Britain. They are identical twins from Transylvania, Romania. They have been active since 2002 when they auditioned in "". Their songs include "The Cheeky Song (Touch My Bum)", "Take Your Shoes Off", "(Hooray, Hooray!) It's a Cheeky Holiday!", "Have a Cheeky Christmas", "Cheeky Flamenco" and "Boys and Girls (Xmas Time Love)". They released another single named "The Farmyard Hokey", but it did not chart. They also have one album, "Party Time as In My Mind (Is A Different World - A Cheeky One)". This album did not chart in the official albums chart. They are part of Multiply record label. Their real names are Gabriela and Monica Irimia.


title: Junior Seau

paragraphs: Tiaina Baul "Junior" Seau, Jr. (January 19, 1969 – May 2, 2012) was an NFL football player. His jersey number was #55 and he was a linebacker. He was 43 years old. He was 6'3" in height and weighed 250 lb (pounds). He attended the University of Southern California. He played for the New England Patriots, Miami Dolphins and the San Diego Chargers. He had a foundation called the Junior Seau Foundation. He owned his own restaurant in San Diego. He played in the Pro Bowl 12 times. He was of Samoan origin. He received the nickname "Tazmanian Devil" from his teammates. He also has a dance called the "Lightning Bolt Dance" from his days with the Chargers. On May 2, 2012, Seau was found dead in his home by his girlfriend from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the chest.


title: Autódromo José Carlos Pace

paragraphs: Autódromo José Carlos Pace, also known by its former name Interlagos, is a motor racing circuit. It is in the city of São Paulo. It is named after Carlos Pace. Pace was a Brazilian Formula One driver, who died in 1977. The track was renamed in his honor. It is well known for being the venue of the Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix.

paragraphs: The land on which the circuit is built was originally bought in 1926 by property developers. They wanted to build a large suburban development.

paragraphs: Following financial difficulties, partly due to the 1929 stock market crash, it was decided to built a racing circuit instead. Construction started in 1938 and the track was opened in May 1940.

paragraphs: The traditional name of the circuit, Interlagos, literally means "between lakes". It comes from the fact that it was built between two large artificial lakes, Guarapiranga and Billings. They were built in the early 20th century to supply the city with water and electric power. It was renamed in 1985 to its current name to honor the Brazilian Formula One driver José Carlos Pace, who died in a plane crash in 1977.

paragraphs: The facilities include a kart circuit named after Ayrton Senna.

paragraphs: The circuit is one of the few non-oval racing circuits to go in an anti-clockwise (counter-clockwise) direction. The present design of the track dates back to 1990. The FIA had placed new restrictions on track length. The original circuit was shortened from 7.829 km to only 4.397 km. The track lost three long straight sections and three fast curves. The direction on another curve was reversed and a new curve created. The original track had many fast corners that allowed cars to keep maximum speed for up to twenty seconds. This was considered very dangerous. The new track still has a very long high-speed section. That section contains bumps, high-speed turns and little run-off area, but the track is very wide at this point.

paragraphs: Another feature that makes Interlagos interesting is that it follows the ups and downs of hilly ground. This makes the circuit harder to drive and more demanding on the car's engine. The hilly course is also a good feature for cycling races held in the circuit.

paragraphs: The circuit is known for its bumpy surface. This can cause damage on an F1 car, which has a very low ride height. The races are also physically tough on the drivers. With more right turns, the drivers' necks are forced to move to the left. Since drivers turn left more often, the other side of their neck is usually stronger.

paragraphs: For the Brazilian Grand Prix, major repairs were made to the circuit. They were the largest set of repairs made in the last 35 years. The repairs were to fix the problems with the track surface. The existing asphalt surface was entirely replaced, resulting in a much smoother track surface. At the same time, the pit lane entrance was improve for safety. A new grandstand was built. For the work to be done, the circuit was closed. No events were held in the five months immediately preceding the race.

paragraphs: On 17 October 2007, Companhia Paulista de Trens Metropolitanos (CPTM) opened a new station of the Line C, "Autódromo", near the racing circuit. The Line C had been extended to improve the access between the center of São Paulo and southern area of the Greater São Paulo including the circuit. This improved access to the circuit.

paragraphs: The race start is in front of the "Tribunas" section and features a long straight section. Next comes "S do Senna" (Senna's S), a series of left, right, and left turns.

paragraphs: "S do Senna" connects with "Curva do Sol" (Sun Turn), a large-radius left-turn that leads to "Reta Oposta" (Opposite Straight). This refers to the unused back straight of the pre-1990 circuit. Next are two left hand, downhill turns that are called "Descida do Lago" (Lake Descent) and "Mergulho" (Dive). Then there is a short straight section that goes downhill.

paragraphs: After "Mergulho" comes a slow and difficult section, with tight turns and elevation changes. These turns are "Ferradura" (Horseshoe), "Laranjinha" (Orange Turn), "Pinheirinho" (Small Pine Tree), "Bico de Pato" (Duck Bill), and then two left hand turns called "Junção" (Junction).

paragraphs: After "Junção" there is a long, high-speed section. The is "Subida dos Boxes" (Up to the Pits), a long, left-hand uphill turn. At the end there are turns 14 and 15 that form what was once called "Cotovelo" (Elbow).

paragraphs: Interlagos has one of the longest pit-lanes ever used in Formula One. It starts just before the start-finish straight and rejoining the main course after Curva do Sol. Before 2007, the pits entrance was a difficult high-speed left turn. The pit lane entrance was changed to become safer for the 2007 Brazilian Grand Prix.

paragraphs: The fastest laps at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace.


title: Pewter

paragraphs: Pewter is an alloy made of tin mixed with antimony and copper. It is soft and flexible and it can be melted easily. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid to produce tin(II) chloride, leaving the antimony and copper behind in the hydrochloric acid. A long time ago, it was used to make knives, forks, spoons and other pieces of cutlery because it did not take much effort to melt down many times. It used to contain poisonous lead, but it does not contain lead anymore as the lead would make people ill when making things with pewter.


title: Tin(II) chloride

paragraphs: Tin(II) chloride, also known as stannous chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SnCl. It has tin and chloride ions in it. The tin is in its +2 oxidation state.

paragraphs: It is a colorless crystalline solid. It is a reducing agent. It is poisonous to mollusks like clams and oysters. It reacts with water to make tin(II) oxide hydrate, which is white, and hydrochloric acid. That is why tin(II) chloride is normally dissolved in hydrochloric acid. It reacts with oxygen in the air to make tin(IV) chloride and tin(IV) oxide. It reacts with silver and gold compounds to make silver and gold metal. It also reacts with ferric compounds to make ferrous compounds.

paragraphs: It reacts with bases to make tin(II) oxide hydrate, which is white; if more base is added, the tin(II) oxide hydrate dissolves to make a clear solution again.

paragraphs: It is made when tin reacts with hydrochloric acid.

paragraphs: It is used to electroplate tin on steel. It is used in the coloring of textiles. It is used to make silvered mirrors. A certain plastic uses it as a catalyst. It was used as a test for mercury(II) ions. If it is added to a colorless solution of mercury(II), a white solid of mercury(I) would form. If more is added, a black solid of mercury metal would be made. It turns bright purple in a solution that has gold ions in it. It is used in organic chemistry as a reducing agent.


title: Tin(II) sulfate

paragraphs: Tin(II) sulfate is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SnSO. It contains tin and sulfate ions. The tin is in its +2 oxidation state.

paragraphs: It is a white crystalline solid. It is not a reducing agent like other compounds containing tin(II), like tin(II) chloride. It absorbs water from the atmosphere and dissolves in the water it absorbed.

paragraphs: It is made by dissolving tin in sulfuric acid. It is also made by reacting tin with copper(II) sulfate.

paragraphs: It is used as a source of tin(II) ions without any tin(IV) ions contaminating them.


title: Tin(IV) chloride

paragraphs: Tin(IV) chloride, also known as stannic chloride or tin dioxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SnCl. It contains tin and chloride ions. The tin is in its +4 oxidation state.

paragraphs: It is a corrosive liquid (anhydrous) or solid (hydrated). It makes hydrochloric acid fumes which irritate the nose. It reacts with strong bases to make tin(IV) oxide hydrate. It also reacts with hydrochloric acid to make the SnCl ion.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting tin with chlorine.

paragraphs: It was used in World War I to create irritating clouds of smoke. It is also used to make tin(IV) fluoride. It is also used to make organic compounds that have tin in them.


title: Tin chloride

paragraphs: Tin chloride may refer to either of these compounds:


title: Caesium-137

paragraphs: Caesium 137 is an isotope of caesium. It is radioactive. It is often a by-product of nuclear fission. It has a half life of about 30 years. Many areas where nuclear accidents have occurred, such as Chernobyl and Fukushima, are contaminated with caesium-137.


title: Tin(IV) oxide

paragraphs: Tin(IV) oxide, also known as tin dioxide or stannic oxide is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SnO. It has tin and oxide ions in it. It has tin in its +4 oxidation state.

paragraphs: It is a white powdery solid. It reacts with acids to produce stannic salts, such as tin(IV) chloride with hydrochloric acid. It reacts with strong bases to make stannites. It reacts with carbon at a high temperature to make tin metal.

paragraphs: It is found as cassiterite in the mineral form. Cassiterite is an ore of tin.

paragraphs: It can be made in pure form by burning powdered tin in air.

paragraphs: It is used to detect carbon monoxide. It is also used as a catalyst for certain reactions. It is also used to make ceramics opaque (not clear). It is used in sensors of gases that can burn. A tin(IV) oxide wire is heated. When a flammable gas flows over it, it can conduct a little electricity. The sensor measures the electricity.


title: Strontium-90

paragraphs: Strontium 90 is a radioactive isotope of strontium. It has a half life of roughly 29 years. Strontium 90 and Strontium 89 have medical applications. They are used for radioation therapy, in the treatment of certain bone cancers. Because its application generates a lot of heat it is sometimes used instead of Plutonium in nuclear power plants.


title: Tin(II) oxide

paragraphs: Tin(II) oxide, also known as stannous oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SnO. It has tin in an oxidation state of +2. It also has oxide ions in it.

paragraphs: It is normally a blue-black solid. It can be red but the red form is more unstable. It burns in air with a green flame to make tin(IV) oxide. It is a reducing agent. It is rarer than tin(IV) oxide. It dissolves in acids to make a colorless solution.

paragraphs: It can be made by reacting sulfuric acid with tin and reacting the tin(II) sulfate made with sodium hydroxide to make the tin(II) oxide hydrate. This is heated to get the tin(II) oxide.

paragraphs: It is used in touchscreens. It is used to make a glass with gold in it called ruby glass.


title: Tin oxide

paragraphs: Tin oxide may refer to either of the following compounds:


title: Chemical stability

paragraphs: Chemical stability refers to the resistance of a chemical to change in a chemical reaction. Some chemicals, like gold, are very stable and resistant to change; but sodium is unstable and corrodes rapidly in the presence of air. When an atom has an extra electron or a missing electron, it is unstable. When that atom loses or gains the electron, it becomes stable. Stable atoms have lower energy than unstable ones.


title: Pisces (astrology)

paragraphs: The symbol represents 2 fish, swimming in different directions. The two shapes are also crescents, facing outward, which represents the idea that Pisceans are open to new things and to change.

paragraphs: Pisces has been traditionally ruled by the planet Jupiter, but since its discovery, Neptune has been considered a modern ruler of this sign. Being the twelfth sign, Pisces is associated with the astrological twelfth house.

paragraphs: Individuals born when the Sun was in this sign are considered ""Pisceans"". The Sun can be seen 1n Pisces from about February 19 to March 20, ending at the moment of vernal equinox by definition under the tropical zodiac.

paragraphs: Under the "sidereal zodiac", it is generally there from about March 15 to April 13.


title: James Wilson

paragraphs: James Wilson (September 14, 1742 – August 21, 1798) was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence. Wilson was elected two times to the Continental Congress, and was a major force in drafting the United States Constitution. He was a leading legal thinker, and he was one of the first six justices appointed by George Washington to the Supreme Court of the United States. Wilson was born in Scotland, but lived most of his life in Pennsylvania.

paragraphs: James Wilson was born in Carskerdo, near St. Andrews, Scotland. His parents were William Wilson and Alison Landall. Wilson attended a number of universities in Scotland without attaining a degree. Imbued with the ideas of the Scottish Enlightenment, he moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in British America in 1766, carrying valuable letters of introduction. These helped Wilson to begin tutoring and then teaching at The Academy and College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania). He petitioned there for a degree and was awarded an honorary Master of Arts several months later.

paragraphs: Wilson started reading the law at the office of John Dickinson a short time later. After two years of studying, he got the bar in Philadelphia, and, in the following year (1767), set up his own practice in Reading, Pennsylvania. His office was very successful and he earned a small fortune in a few years. By then he had a small farm near Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was handling cases in eight local counties, and was lecturing at The Academy and College of Philadelphia.

paragraphs: On 5 November 1771, he married Rachel Bird, daughter of William Bird and Bridgette Hulings, they had six children together.

paragraphs: In 1774, Wilson wrote a pamphlet saying that the British Parliament had no power in America. He was for the Declaration of Independence when he was in the Continental Congress. During the American Revolution, he served in the Pennsylvania State Militia. He was also attacked at his house by a mob. This was called the Fort Wilson riot. Wilson also continued to practice law, and was France's lawyer in the U.S.

paragraphs: Wilson was one of the main political economists at the Constitutional Convention. He gave more speeches than anyone but Gouverneur Morris. He also proposed the three-fifths compromise, and sat on the Committee of Detail.

paragraphs: Wilson served on the United States Supreme Court from 1789 to 1798. He was the first associate justice nominated by George Washington.


title: Ultratop 40 Singles

paragraphs: Ultratop 40 Singles, often called Ultratop 40, is the weekly chart of best-selling singles in Wallonia, Belgium. Its equivalent covering the Flanders region is Ultratop 50. Both charts are made and published by the Ultratop organization. Like the UK Singles Chart, Ultratop creates charts based on retail record sales of around 500 retail outlets and legal digital downloads. Currently GfK is the market observer of the charts. The chart broadcasts on Radio Contact on Saturdays from 12:00 to 14:00. The combined number of Ultratop chart listeners on radio or TV stations exceeds two million each week. To celebrate the 10th anniversary of the charts in 2005 a jubilee book was published. It covered all the 15,282 singles from 5,882 artists thus far.


title: Ultratop 50 Singles

paragraphs: Ultratop 50 Singles, often called Ultratop 50, is the weekly chart of fifty best-selling singles in Flanders, Belgium. Ultratop 50 and is produced and published by the Ultratop organization. The chart has existed since March 31, 1995. It is published in Dutch, French, and English, and is presented on several Belgian radio stations as well as on TMF Flanders television.

paragraphs: Its equivalent in the Wallonia region of Belgium is known as the "Ultratop 40 Singles" chart.

paragraphs: Three other charts from the Ultratop organization bear similar names: two separate and usually different charts named "Ultratop 50 Albums" tracking weekly album performance in the Dutch-speaking Flanders and French-speaking Wallonia regions, respectively; and one chart named "Ultratop 50 Alternative Albums". All of these charts, too, are published in three languages.


title: Valencia Street Circuit

paragraphs: The Valencia Street Circuit is a semi-permanent street circuit in Valencia Spain. The circuit will host the Formula One European Grand Prix for seven years starting in The first Formula One race on the circuit was held on 24 August 2008, with Felipe Massa winning the event, the European Grand Prix. The circuit uses the roads around the city's harbour and America's Cup port area. One section of the circuit uses a 140 metre long swing bridge.

paragraphs: It also includes some roads designed to be used only for racing purposes by the German architect Hermann Tilke. Tilke also designed the buildings used for the circuit.

paragraphs: The deal to host the Valencia race was signed on 1 June 2007. It will last for seven years. The deal was made with the Valmor Sport group. The official track layout was unveiled by Valencia councillor and transport minister, Mario Flores, on 19 July 2007. The track was first used in the last weekend of July 2008. The circuit hosted a round of the Spanish F3 Championship and International GT Open. It was first used for the European Grand Prix on 24 August 2008.

paragraphs: The track is long and incorporates a total of 25 turns. There are 11 right-hand turns and 14 left-hand turns. It is estimated that the track has a top speed of around . Valencia is not as tight as Circuit de Monaco. There are not very many places to pass. The straights not not very straight the track gets very dusty off line.

paragraphs: The circuit has been criticised by the drivers for its lack of overtaking opportunites. There have only been 4 recorded passes in the first race held in 2008, and no passes in 2009. There is little space in the circuit to make changes to improve passing.


title: Circuit Ricardo Tormo

paragraphs: Circuit Ricardo Tormo (also known as Circuit de Valencia and officially named "Circuit de la Comunitat Valenciana Ricardo Tormo") is a motorsport race track located in Cheste (Valencia, Spain) and built in 1999. It has a capacity of 120,000 spectators and seating for 60,000. It is often used as a test track by the Formula One teams, because of the mild temperatures in winter. Anthony Davidson holds the unofficial lap record, set in 2006 while testing a Honda, with a time of 1 m 08.540sec. The track hosts the MotoGP Valencian Community Grand Prix.

paragraphs: The track is named after Spanish Grand Prix motorcycle racer Ricardo Tormo (September 7, 1952 – December 27, 1998). Circuit Ricardo Tormo has been featured in a number of video games and simulations.


title: Velvet Sky

paragraphs: Jamie Szantyr (born June 2, 1981 in New Britain, Connecticut) is an American female professional wrestler currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. Velvet Sky is a former TNA Knockout Tag Team Champion. Sky also appeared in the WWE in 2005-06. Sky formerly dated Former WWE wrestler Gregory Helms but they broke up.


title: Sydney funnel-web spider

paragraphs: A Sydney funnel-web spider or Atrax robustus is a funnel-web spiders. Their bite is very serious and venomous and has killed 13 people since 1927. It is found in Sydney, Australia.


title: Circuit Gilles Villeneuve

paragraphs: The Circuit Gilles Villeneuve is a motor racing circuit. It is the location the Formula One Canadian Grand Prix, NASCAR Canadian Tire Series, NASCAR Nationwide Series and Grand-Am Rolex Sports Car Series.

paragraphs: The Canadian Grand Prix was held at Circuit Gilles Villeneuve for 30 years. In , the race was dropped from the Formula One calendar and replaced with the new Abu Dhabi Grand Prix. On 27 November 2009, Quebec's officials and Canadian Grand Prix organisers announced an agreement with Formula One and signed a new five-year contract. Circuit Gilles Villeneuve will host the Canadian Grand Prix from through the seasons.

paragraphs: The circuit is located on Île Notre-Dame, a man-made island in the St. Lawrence River. It is part of the city of Montreal, was originally named the Île Notre-Dame Circuit. It was renamed in honour of Canadian Formula One driver Gilles Villeneuve, following his death in 1982. Gilles is the father of Jacques Villeneuve. The venue hosted the Champ Car World Series Grand Prix of Montreal from 2002 to 2006.

paragraphs: Barriers run close to the circuit and many experienced drivers have been caught out by them. A famous part of the circuit is the wall on the outside of the exit of the final chicane. The wall has the slogan "Bienvenue au Québec" ("Welcome to Quebec") painted on it. It has been giving the nickname "Mur du Québec" ("Quebec Wall"). In the wall ended the race of three Formula One World Champions, Damon Hill, Michael Schumacher, and Jacques Villeneuve. FIA GT champion Ricardo Zonta also crashed into the wall. Since then the wall has been nicknamed "The Wall Of Champions". Other drivers who have crashed into the wall include Jenson Button, Fernando Alonso, and Juan Pablo Montoya.

paragraphs: The curbs leading to the final chicane were made higher in . The new curbs were more difficult for the drivers to see, making the chicane even more challenging.

paragraphs: On 23 June 2006, Canadian Press reported that the city of Montreal had awarded Normand Legault the right to stage the race weekends on the track. Legault is the promoter of the Formula One race. The deal run until 2011, with an option to go to 2016. Legault decided to replace the Champ Car race with races from the Grand American Road Racing Association's Rolex Series and NASCAR's Nationwide Series. This would be NASCAR's first race in Canada. On 4 August 2007, Kevin Harvick made history by winning the first Nationwide Series (then Busch Series) race at Circuit Gilles Villeneuve.

paragraphs: The NASCAR races have changed the circuit layout. The pit lanes were expanded. NASCAR pit lane must handle at least 43 cars.

paragraphs: As part of Parc Jean-Drapeau, the Circuit is open to visitors, between races, for walking, running, biking, in-line skating, etc. During the few days of the Grand Prix, Île Notre-Dame is one of the noisiest places in Montreal. At just about any other time of the year, it is one of the quietest, being located in the middle of a river, on an island filled with greenery and animals, joggers and cyclists.

paragraphs: As the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve serves as host to different racing series, it is possible to directly compare different race series' lap times.

paragraphs: In 2002, former Champ Car Champion Juan Pablo Montoya set pole position for the Canadian Grand Prix with a lap time of 1:12.836. Several weeks later, during the inaugural Champ Car Grand Prix of Montreal, Cristiano Da Matta set pole position with a lap time of 1:18.959.

paragraphs: 2006 was the last year Champ Car and F1 ran on the same track. The pole position in Formula One was set by Fernando Alonso in a time of 1:14.942. Sébastien Bourdais set pole in 1:20.005 in Champ Car.

paragraphs: In 2007 NASCAR Nationwide Series (then Busch Series) driver Patrick Carpentier set a pole time of 1:42.086. The track record for the Rolex Sports Car Series is 1:33.199 set by Scott Pruett in 2008.


title: A1

paragraphs: A1 is the name of a major road in some countries. It may be:


title: The Last Airbender

paragraphs: The Last Airbender is a 2010 American adventure fantasy movie released on 1 July 2010. It is a live-action movie adaptation based on of the "". The movie stars Noah Ringer as Aang, the main hero of the story. Aang and his friends, Katara and Sokka, journey to the North Pole to find a Waterbending master to teach Aang and Katara how control the water. At the same time, Fire Lord Ozai, the current Fire Lord of the Fire Nation, is waging a seemingly endless war against the Earth Kingdom, the Water Tribes, and the already vanquished Air Nomads. The movie also stars Nicola Peltz, Jackson Rathbone, and Dev Patel.

paragraphs: The first of a planned trilogy, "The Last Airbender" was created by Paramount Pictures and Nickelodeon Movies. Development for a movie began in 2007; it was adapted into a movie by M. Night Shyamalan, who also directed and produced. Other producers include Frank Marshall, Kathleen Kennedy, Sam Mercer and Scott Aversano. The series from which it was adapted () was created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko. Filming began in mid-March 2009; the movie was released in both traditional two-dimensional projectors, as well as in 3D (using the RealD 3D format).<ref name="/FILM"></ref>

paragraphs: "The Last Airbender" was made for $150 million and marketed with a budget of $130 million, making total costs at least $280 million. Other estimates put the cost between $100 million and $110 million, while various news sources reported the whole "Last Airbender" trilogy would be made for around $250 million. Premiering in New York City on 30 June, 2010, it opened in the USA the following day, grossing an estimated $16 million. The movie has received extremely negative reviews and is widely considered to be one of the worst movies of all time. It won 5 razzies in 2011, including Worst Picture and Worst Eye-Gouging Mis-Use of 3D.

paragraphs: The movie begins with Katara and Sokka find an iceberg and free Aang, and his flying bison, Appa. This attracts the attention of Zuko. Arriving to Southern Water Tribe, Zuko demands the elderly under the impression that Avatar is an old person until Aang is found. Aang surrenders himself to Zuko as long as he agrees to leave the village alone. Eventually he manages to maneuver away from the guards before Katara and Sokka arrive on Appa, making their escape. Aang and friends visit the Southern Air Temple where the Avatar learns that he was in the ice for 100 years and the Fire Nation killed all the airbenders. It was there Aang meets up with the only known remaining "flying lemur", naming it "" as it joins Aang's group.

paragraphs: Arriving in a small town of Earth Kingdom that is controlled by the Fire Nation, Aang's group are arrested while helping a boy named Haru. They then incite a revolution with reminding the disgruntled Earthbenders that earth was given to them through the air ducts. After, Katara finds a Waterbending scroll that she and Aang used to teach waterbending. During a side track to the Northern Air Temple on his own, Aang is betrayed by a peasant and captured by a group of Fire Nation Yuu Yan archers, commanded by Zhao. However, a masked marauder, the "Blue Spirit" (Zuko), free Aang. Aware that Zuko is the "Blue Spirit," Zhao arranges the prince's demise. But Zuko survives the attempt on his life and, with Iroh's help, sneaks aboard Zhao's lead ship as his fleet departs for the Northern Water Tribe to execute the plan he and Ozai set up with the scrolls from the Library detailing the spirits there.

paragraphs: Upon arriving, Aang's group is welcomed warmly by the citizens of the Northern Water Tribe. Sokka falls in love with Princess Yue, while Aang and Katara master their waterbending skills under master Pakku. Once the Fire Nation armada arrives, Zhao begins his attack while Zuko infiltrates the tribe on his own, capturing Aang while he entered the spirit world to find the dragon spirit to give him the wisdom to defeat the Fire Nation. Coming to his senses, Aang battles Zuko before Katara freezes him. As the battles escalates, Iroh watches Zhao slay the moon spirit Tui, causing the Waterbenders to lose all of their powers and abilities to Waterbend. However, Yue, who was imbued with some of the energy of the Moon Spirit when she was a newborn, sacrifices her life to revive the Moon Spirit. As Zhao is drowned by Northern Waterbenders after Zuko and Iroh leave him to his fate, Aang uses the ocean to drive the armada back. Aang now fully embraces his destiny as the Avatar and prepares to continue their struggle against Ozai. When news of Zhao's death and Iroh's betrayal reaches him, Ozai appoints his daughter Azula to capture both her uncle and older brother while hindering the Avatar in any way before Sozin's Comet makes its return within three years time.


title: Season finale

paragraphs: A season finale (British English: last in the series; Australian English: season final) is the final episode of a season of a television program. This is often the final episode to be produced for a few months or longer, and, as such, will try to attract viewers to continue watching when the series begins again.

paragraphs: A season finale may contain a cliffhanger ending to be resolved in the next season. Alternatively, a season finale could bring open-ended storylines to a close, "going out on a high" and similarly maintaining interest in the series' eventual return.

paragraphs: The final episode of a television series often concludes the entire premise of the show.

paragraphs: There are examples of episodes, ostensibly having been the "season finale", unexpectedly becoming the "de facto" series finale due to the cancellation of the series. Recent examples of this include "John Doe", "Invasion", "Two Guys and a Girl", "Instant Star", "Las Vegas" and "Everybody Hates Chris".

paragraphs: In American English, the term has developed to describe the final event of a sporting season, e.g. in soccer or Motocross, perhaps partly because of the popularity of these with television viewers.


title: Season premiere

paragraphs: In television, a season premiere refers to the first episode of a new television season for a series that has been renewed.

paragraphs: In North America, a given show's season premiere often airs in September or October, after several months of reruns.

paragraphs: A season premiere usually has one or more of the following characteristics:


title: Madison Rayne

paragraphs: Ashley Nichole Simmons (born February 5, 1986 in West Lafayette, Ohio) is an American female professional wrestler currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. Madison Rayne is a former TNA Knockout Tag Team Champion with Lacey Von Erich and Velvet Sky and is a former two-time TNA Women's Knockout Champion. Rayne is currently part of the stable, The Beautiful People.


title: Tony Orlando

paragraphs: Michael Anthony Orlando Cassavitis (born April 3 1944) known professionally as Tony Orlando is an American singer. He is best known for being in the singing group, Tony Orlando and Dawn. They were known for singing the songs, "Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree", "Knock Three Times", and "He Don't Love You (Like I Love You)".

paragraphs: Orlando is from Greek, Latino, and Puerto Rican descent.


title: Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir

paragraphs: The Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca, or Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is a large evergreen tree in the genus "Pseudotsuga" in the plant family Pinaceae. The tree is native to British Columbia, Idaho and Colorado.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

paragraphs: A1 is the official title of the Great Northern Road in England. It runs up the eastern side of England from London to Edinburgh in Scotland. It is six hundred and sixty kilometres long, making it the longest numbered road in the U.K.. The A1 has six major junctions with motorways, and over twenty major junctions with other A roads.

paragraphs: The A1 follows, for much of the way, the course of a Roman road, Ermine Street, and the old coach route to Edinburgh. It is not a motorway, but a lot of it is now built to motorway standards. It is one of two main roads going from London to Northern England, the other being the M1 motorway.

paragraphs: Passing through Nottinghamshire, the road skirts the remains of Sherwood Forest. Scotch Corner, in North Yorkshire, marks the point where the traffic for Glasgow and the west of Scotland divides from that for Edinburgh, as it has for hundreds of years before car traffic. From North Yorkshire to Durham the road follows, for part of the way, another Roman road called Dere Street. This road ran from Eboracum (York) to the Antonine Wall in the lowlands of present-day Scotland.

paragraphs: Some parts of the A1 are motorways, and these parts are numbered A1(M).


title: Roman roads in Britain

paragraphs: The Roman roads in Britain were, with Roman aqueducts, and the Roman army, one of the most impressive features of the Roman Empire in Britain.

paragraphs: In Britannia, as in other provinces, the Romans constructed a network of paved trunk roads to (surfaced highways). In their nearly four centuries of occupation (43 – 410 AD) they built about 2,000 miles of Roman roads in Britain. They are shown on the Ordnance Survey's "Map of Roman Britain". This is the most accurate and up-to-date layout of certain and probable routes that is available to the general public.

paragraphs: The pre-Roman Britons used unpaved trackways, including ancient ones running along the ridges of hills, such as the South Downs Way, now a public long-distance footpath. In contrast, most of the Roman network was surveyed and built from scratch, with the aim of connecting key points by the most direct possible route. The roads were all paved, to permit heavy freight-wagons to be used in all seasons and weather.

paragraphs: Most of the known network was complete by 180 AD. Its main purpose was to allow the rapid movement of troops and military supplies. It was also vital for trade and the transport of goods.

paragraphs: Roman roads remained in use as trunk roads for centuries after the Romans withdrew from Britain in 410 AD. Systematic construction of paved highways did not resume in England until the 18th century.

paragraphs: The Romans became expert at constructing roads, which they called "viae". It was permitted to walk or drive cattle, vehicles, or traffic of any description along the road. The "viae" differed from the many other smaller or rougher roads, bridle-paths, drifts, and tracks. By law, the minimum width of a "via" was fixed at 2.4 m where it was straight, and 4.9 m where it turned.

paragraphs: The best sources of information as regards the construction of a regulation "via munita" are:

paragraphs: After the civil engineer looked over the site of the proposed road and determined roughly where it should go, the "agrimensores" went to work surveying the road bed. They used two main devices, the rod and a device called a "groma", which helped them obtain right angles. The rod men put down a line of rods called the "rigor". A surveyor looked along the rods and told the "gromatici" to move them as required. Using the "gromae" they then laid out a grid on the plan of the road.

paragraphs: The "libratores" then began their work using ploughs and, sometimes with the help of legionaries, with spades dug down to bed rock or at least to the firmest ground they could find. The excavation was called the "fossa", "ditch". The depth varied according to terrain.

paragraphs: In top-quality roads, there were five layers, plus footpaths and kerbstones:

paragraphs: The method varied according to place, materials available and terrain, but the plan was always the same. The roadbed was layered. The road was constructed by filling the ditch. This was done by layering rock over other stones.

paragraphs: Into the "fossa" was dumped large amounts of rubble, gravel and stone, whatever fill was available. Sometimes a layer of sand was put down, if it could be found. When it came to within 1 yd (1 m) or so of the surface it was covered with gravel and tamped down, a process called "pavire", or "pavimentare". The flat surface was then the "pavimentum". It could be used as the road, or additional layers could be constructed. A "statumen" or "foundation" of flat stones set in cement might support the additional layers.

paragraphs: The final steps used concrete, which the Romans had rediscovered (it had been used in Ancient Egypt). They seem to have mixed the mortar and the stones in the fossa. First a small layer of coarse concrete, the "rudus", then a little layer of fine concrete, the nucleus, went onto the pavement or "statumen". Into or onto the nucleus went a course of polygonal or square paving stones, called the "summa crusta". The "crusta" was crowned for drainage.

paragraphs: An example is found in an early basalt road by the Temple of Saturn on the Clivus Capitolinus. It had travertine paving, polygonal basalt blocks, concrete bedding (substituted for the gravel), and a rain-water gutter.


title: Cam'ron

paragraphs: Cameron Giles (born February 4, 1974 in Harlem, New York) is an American rapper better known by his stage name, Cam'ron or Killa Cam.

paragraphs: Cam'ron was known for popularising the colour pink, which he demonstrated in his music video for "Killa Cam", where he was wearing all pink clothing and drove a pink Range Rover.

paragraphs: Cam'ron started the "Stop Snitchin'" campaign when he was shot outside a nightclub in his Lamborghini, which the gunman was trying to carjack. Cam'ron said in a "60 Minutes" interview that he did not know the gunman, but he did not want to help the police because he did not want to be a snitch and it would hurt his record sales. He also mentioned his Stop Snitchin' campaign in another "60 Minutes" interview when Anderson Cooper asked him, "If there was a serial killer living next to you, you wouldn't tell the police?" He replied, "I would probably move."


title: Kaihin-Makuhari Station

paragraphs: Kaihin-Makuhari Station (海浜幕張駅,かいひんまくはりえき) is a Railway station of East Japan Railway Company (JR East) in Mihama-ku, Chiba City, Chiba Prefecture, Japan. This is the nearest station to Makuhari Messe, Chiba Marine Stadium, and the AEON headquarters.


title: Nihombashi Station

paragraphs: Nihombashi Station (日本橋駅,にほんばしえき) is a railway station of Tokyo Metro and Toei Subway in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan.


title: Drew Brees

paragraphs: Drew Brees (; born January 15, 1979) is an American football quarterback for the New Orleans Saints. A native of Austin, Texas, he played college football for Purdue and was drafted by the San Diego Chargers in 2001, where he was their starting quarterback until 2006. In 2009, he led the Saints to a Super Bowl championship and was named MVP of the game.


title: Mariano Rivera

paragraphs: Mariano Rivera (born November 29, 1969 in Panama City, Panama) is a baseball player. He has played with the New York Yankees for many seasons. He is a “closer”, a type of pitcher who pitches in the ninth inning. Rivera is thought to be one of the best relief pitchers ever, and will probably be in the Baseball Hall of Fame. Rivera throws a very fast “cutter” pitches that are good at striking out batters. Rivera has more saves in the World Series than any other pitcher. He also has more saves all-time then anybody, a record he set in 2011. Mariano Rivera wears #42, and is the only player in Major League baseball to do so. Rivera was born in Panama and played his first baseball there.


title: Taco truck

paragraphs: A taco truck is a truck that sells tacos and other types of Mexican food. Some taco trucks also deal in fusion cuisine. It is one of the most common types of food trucks. In most taco trucks, the food is made in the truck. Taco trucks and other food trucks are common around colleges, as college students often eat at them. Though there are taco trucks all over the world, they are most often seen in Los Angeles and other Mexican-American cities. In many cities, such as Los Angeles, regular restaurants have tried to shut down taco trucks. This is because taco trucks sell food at a lower price than many restaurants. Taco trucks have been criticized in the past for being dirty and unhealthy, but this is not the case anymore. Chicago is the only city in the United States which does not allow cooking on food trucks but Taquero Fusion, Chicago's Original Taco Truck, managed to figure out a way to provide gourmet tacos to their customers.


title: Silky shark

paragraphs: The Silky shark ("Carcharhinus falciformis") is a type of shark of the genus "Carcharhinus", family Carcharhinidae. They are mainly found in warm bodies of water in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The Silky shark is large, slim, and grows up to a maximum length of 3.3 metres (10 feet). The Silky shark gets its name from the fact that it has a smooth, "silky" texture.

paragraphs: The Silky shark feeds on bony fish such as tuna, mackerel, sardines, and mullets, and molluscs such as squid and paper nautilus. They have also been known to feed on the bodies of dead whales.

paragraphs: The Silky shark is classified as "Near Threatened" by the IUCN.

paragraphs: A large, slim shark, the Silky shark has a fairly stretched , rounded snout, a relatively slanting first dorsal fin with a blunt top that is located behind the edges of the pectoral fins, a small second dorsal fin with an extremely long free rear tip (more than two times the height), and a low inter-dorsal ridge (ridge between the dorsal fins). The pectoral fins are long and slim, and have dusky coloured tips.

paragraphs: Silky sharks are normally dark grey with a shade of bronze, but are sometimes a golden-brown colour. Their undersides are white. Except for the first dorsal fin, the tips of all the fins are a dusky colour; this is more visible among the young.

paragraphs: The upper teeth are widely triangular and slanted, becoming more diagonal toward the angle of the jaws which are strongly cut and heavily jagged on the sides. The lower teeth are raised with smooth edges. There is usually 1 to 2 symphysial teeth on both, the lower and upper jaw.

paragraphs: The dermal denticles are small, tightly packed and over-lapping, giving the hide a smooth or "silky" texture, giving the shark it's name.

paragraphs: The maximum length for this species is 3.3 metres (10 feet). Males mature at the lengths of 2.2-2.3 metres (9-10 years of age) and grow to a lesser size than females, which reach maturity at the lengths 2.3-2.5 metres (12 years of age), however, these numbers are different among the different populations of this species. Silky sharks weigh around 350 kilograms (770 pounds).

paragraphs: The first specimen described was given the name "Carcharias (Prionodon) falciformis" by Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle in 1841. The genus name "Carcharhinus" comes from the Greek words ""karcharos"" which means "sharpen", and ""rhinos"" which means "nose". Other names given to the Silky shark are "Squalus" or "Prionodon tiburo", "Gymnorhinus" or "Gymnorrhinus pharaonis", "Aprionodon sitankaiensis", "Carcharhinus floridanus", "Eulamia malpeloensis", and "Carcharhinus atrodorsus".

paragraphs: The Silky shark is common in tropical and subtropical waters, and is found in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. In the western Atlantic, it ranges from the U.S state Massachusetts to Brazil (including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea), and in the east it ranges from Spain to Angola. It is found in the western Indian Ocean and the Red Sea from Tanzania to Mozambique, including Madagascar and the Comores, and in the middle and eastern Indian Ocean in ranges from the Maldives and Sri Lanka to western Australia. It is found from China to New Zealand in the western Pacific (including the Hawaiian Islands), and Baja California to Peru in the eastern Pacific.

paragraphs: Although the Silky shark is mainly found in the pelagic zone, the Silky shark is not just found in the open ocean, but has also been recorded from depths as shallow as 18 meters (56 ft). It is an active, swift shark that prefers warmer waters (about 23°C). It is commonly found near the edges of continental shelves and over deep water reefs where there is a large amount of food source. It mainly ranges from the surface down to at least 500 meters (1,550 ft) but has been caught over water as deep as 4000 meters (12,400 ft). Studies show that groups of Silky sharks contain Silky sharks of different genders, but of the same size. Young Silky sharks can be found in coastal nurseries and adults are found further offshore, over deeper waters.

paragraphs: The Silky shark feeds mainly on bony fish such as tuna, mackerel, sardines, mullets, groupers, snappers, sea chubs, sea catfish, eels, lanternfish, filefish, triggerfish, and porcupinefish. It's diet also includes squid, paper nautilus, and swimming crabs, and there is fossil evidence of it scavenging on dead whales. Since of their good sense of hearing, and hunting tactics, these sharks are excellent hunters. They usually work together to "herd" groups of small fish to the surface, trapping the fish. When the fish are all tightly packed together, the Silky sharks attack the fish with great speed, and often consume the whole group of fish.

paragraphs: The Silky shark is viviparous, meaning that it gives live birth. In the western north Atlantic, females mate in the late spring (May-June), and give birth in the same time period, but in the next year, meaning that the gestation period lasts 12 months. The number of pups per litter is 6-14 in the western Atlantic, 9-12 in the eastern Atlantic, 9-14 in the western Indian Ocean, and 2-11 in the central Indian. The young spend their first few months in coral reefs, but move to the open ocean by the first winter. In the western north Atlantic, nursery areas are located along the Caribbean islands.

paragraphs: In english, the Silky shark is also called the "Net-eater shark" in the eastern Pacific because of the fact that it is often caught in nets used for fishing tuna. The Silky shark is also called the "Blackspot shark", "Grey whaler shark", "Olive shark", "Reef shark", "Ridgeback shark", "Sickle shark", "Sickle silk shark", and "Sickle-shaped shark". In other languages, the Silky shark is called the "cação" (Portuguese), "cazon" (Spanish), "cazon de playa" (Spanish), "cazón-tiburón" (Spanish), "haukkahai" (Finnish), "jaqueta" (Spanish), "jaqueton" (Spanish), "kanhaai" (Dutch), "karcharinos lios" (Greek), "kurotogarizame" (Japanese), "lombo preto" (Portuguese), "malie" (Samoan), "mandi sravu" (Malay), "mangeur d'hommes" (French), "marracho sedoso" (Portuguese), "marracho-luzidio" (Portuguese), "mbamba menyo" (Swahili), "moosi" (Gujarati), "mungsing" (Javanese), "mushi" (Marathi), "papa" (Swahili), "papa bunshu" (Swahili), "pating" (Tagalog), "requin soyeux" (French), "seidenhai" (German), "suga sura" (Telugu), "syhaai" (Afrikaans), "tiburón" (Spanish), "tiburon jaqueton" (Spanish), "tiburón lustroso" (Spanish), "tiburón sedoso" (Spanish), "tinterero" (Spanish), "tollo" (Spanish), "tollo mantequero" (Spanish), "tribon berde" (Papiamento), "tubarão-luzidio" (Portuguese), "yu jereh" (Malay), "yu pasir" (Malay), and "zijdehaai" (Dutch).

paragraphs: Silky sharks are considered dangerous to humans because of their aggressive nature and size. Silky sharks have been observed with their head raised, back arched and tail lowered, a posture believed to be a form of threat display.

paragraphs: Silky sharks are important to longline and gillnet fisheries in many parts of the world. In the Gulf of Mexico they are often caught with tuna catches, but are also caught by shark fishery. In the Caribbean they are sometimes fished, usually by longline, but they are not a common catch. In the Maldives and Sri Lanka, they are the most important shark species, making up 70-80% of the catches made in the pelagic zone. In Japanese waters, Silky sharks are a common target species of the shark fishery and are also caught with swordfish and tuna fisheries. In the mid-Atlantic waters of the U.S.A, the Silky shark is fished on a limited basis, but not in significant numbers. The meat, oil, and fins of the Silky shark are sold commercially. The Silky shark is also fished by recreational fishermen. Like other sharks, the Silky shark is in danger due to overfishing, because of its long gestation period, low number of offspring, and slow growth rate.

paragraphs: Other than its importance to various fisheries, Silky sharks have been used in various scientific studies to investigate the sensory biology of sharks.


title: Hairpin turn

paragraphs: A hairpin turn (also hairpin bend, hairpin corner, or just hairpin), is a very tight corner. It makes a vehicle turn almost 180° to continue on the road. It gets its name from the way it looks like a hairpin or bobby pin. Hairpin turns may be called switchbacks in American English.

paragraphs: Hairpin turns may be built when a road or path climbs up or down a steep slope. This allows the path to travel the slope with a smaller slope. Hairpin turns may be used in race tracks to slow down the race cars after a long, fast straight.


title: Sepang International Circuit

paragraphs: The Sepang International Circuit (SIC) is a racing circuit in Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia. It is near the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, about 60 km south of the capital city Kuala Lumpur. It is the venue used for the Formula One Malaysian Grand Prix, A1 Grand Prix as well as the Malaysian MotoGP. The circuit was designed by German designer Hermann Tilke.

paragraphs: The main circuit is 5.54 km long. It is raced in a clockwise direction. It is noted for its sweeping corners and wide straights. The layout is unusual, with a very long back straight separated from the pit straight by just one very tight hairpin corner.

paragraphs: The circuit may be set-up with other configurations. The north circuit is the first half of the main circuit. The course turns back towards the pit straight after turn 6 and is 2.71 km long.

paragraphs: The south circuit is the other half of the circuit. The back straight of the main circuit becomes the pit straight. It joins onto turn 8 of the main circuit to form a hairpin turn. This circuit is 2.61 km in length.

paragraphs: Sepang International Circuit also features kart racing and motocross facilities.


title: Phoronida

paragraphs: The Phoronida, or horseshoe worms, are a small phylum of marine animals. There are twenty species, in two genera. They are part of the Brachiozoa, which also includes the brachiopods.

paragraphs: Phoronids are worm-shaped, but with a gut that loops and exits the body near the mouth. That explains the name 'horseshoe worms'. They are found in all oceans and seas (except the polar seas), and all species have wide geographical ranges.

paragraphs: They occur at depths up to 400 metres, but mainly between 0 to 70 metres. The life span is thought to be about a year. The adults are tube worms, and secrete chitinous tubes in which they live. These tubes can be buried in the mud or sand or rest on the surface of a rocky substrate. If on rocks, they may live in colonies with their tubes become twisted around each other for support. Some species can dissolve away holes in rocks such as limestone, calcareous seashells or even cement piers; they then live in these holes which they line with their secreted tubes.

paragraphs: They feed using a lophophore, a ciliated structure that surrounds the mouth. Together with the Bryozoa and Brachiopoda, the phoronids belong to the lophophorates, sometimes treated as a single phylum.

paragraphs: Though they are normally long, up to 50cm (30 in). Phoronids are normally very thin.

paragraphs: The digestive tract of Phoronids consists of a short oesophagus which leads into a spherical stomach and then into the intestines which end in the anus. Phoronids have a simple blood system of one descending artery and ascending vein linked by a network of fine capillaries. There are also blood vessels into each of the tentacles. The blood is colourless but contains corpuscles with a haemoglobin-like pigment that helps to carry oxygen.

paragraphs: The nervous system is mainly composed by the nervous ganglion between mouth and anus, a ring nerve at the basis of the lophophore, one or two giant nerve fibres which issue from the ganglion and extend along the body wall. There are two tubular excretory organs, which discharge to the exterior via nephridiopores, on the anal papilla.

paragraphs: Phoronids may be hermaphrodites or single sexed, and may also reproduce asexually. Gametes are released through the nephridia. Fertilisation is probably internal. Phoronids follow one of two types of reproductive strategy. Some species, such as "Phoronis ovalis", lay only a few (12–25) large eggs which have a lot of yolk. These eggs are brooded within the adult's tube, they are released only when they have hatched. The second strategy is to lay a much larger number (up to 500) of smaller eggs. These eggs are released as soon as they are fertilised. They hatch a few days later into what is called an 'actinotrocha' larvae. The larvae undergo a planktonic development for 2–3 weeks, and settle after about 20 days. Metamorphosis is 'catastrophic', occurring in less than 30 minutes and leading to a slender young phoronid.

paragraphs: Phoronids can regenerate the lophophore if it becomes damaged, in fact "Phoronis ovalis" voluntarily loses its lophophore in order to lay its eggs. Once the eggs are laid the animal grows a new lophophore.

paragraphs: Phoronids are suspension-feeders. They move their lophophores into the prevailing water current. Food particles in the water current are trapped in a stream of mucous that travels along the tentacles until it reaches the oral ring. There it is drawn into the mouth and then on into the digestive tract. Direct uptake of amino acids through the epidermis also occurs.

paragraphs: The fossil record of phoronids is poor. There are borings dating back to the Devonian which have been attributed to phoronids. "Iotuba chengjiangensis", a form known from only three specimens in the Lower Cambrian, has been interpreted as a phoronid because it appears to have had a U-shaped gut and was tentaculated. Phoronids may be related to the common but mysterious tubular fossils known as hederellids.


title: Shanghai International Circuit

paragraphs: The Shanghai International Circuit is a Chinese motor racing venue. It is in the district of Jiading near Shanghai in the People's Republic of China. It was the venue of the first Formula One Chinese Grand Prix on 26 September 2004.

paragraphs: The circuit costing about $450 million (USD). It was paid for by a government-funded joint-venture company. This company was made up of the Shanghai Juss Corporation, Shanghai National Property Management Co Ltd, and Shanghai Jia'an Investment and Development Co Ltd. Architectural and design experts began visiting the site by April 2003. The site was transformed from swampland to an international racetrack in 18 months. A team of 3000 worked around the clock to finish the construction.

paragraphs: Other events held at the circuit include a round of the MotoGP world championship, the Australian-based V8 Supercar championship, and also the final round of the A1 Grand Prix in 2006 and 2007.

paragraphs: The 2008 MotoGP race was the last one at Shanghai International Circuit. The FIM didn't select the circuit for 2009 because of overcrowding problems.

paragraphs: Like many new Formula One circuits, Shanghai International Circuit was designed by Hermann Tilke. It features his trademark track feature: a long back straight followed by a hairpin turn. Current-generation F1 cars can easily exceed on the long straight between corners 13 and 14. The track layout was inspired from the Chinese character shang (上). Shang is the first character in the name of the city Shanghai, and means "above" or "ascend".


title: Endeavour River National Park

paragraphs: The Endeavour River National Park is just north of Cooktown, Queensland, Australia. It protects the north banks of the Endeavour River. Both the river and the park are named after Captain James Cook's ship, HM Bark Endeavour. The ship was repaired in the river in 1770 after being damaged by coral on the Great Barrier Reef. Most of the park can only be reached by boat. There are no facilities in the park, and people are not allowed to camp there. The park covers an area of about 2400 hectares. It is next to the Cairns Marine Park and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.

paragraphs: The Endeavour River protects a number of different habitats including, coastal dunes, fresh water wetlands, river estuary, mangrove forests, heathland and tropical woodlands.


title: Nobuko Yoshiya

paragraphs: Yoshiya was born in Niigata Prefecture, but grew up in the cities of Mooka and Tochigi, in Tochigi Prefecture. Her father was in the public service, so her family often moved. She was the only daughter and youngest child of her family. Both, her mother and her father, came from samurai families. She started writing when she was in her teens, although before this she had developed a love for writing which sapped her time for learning domestic skills from her mother.


title: Radioisotope heater unit

paragraphs: A radioisotope heater unit is a device that provides heat from the breakdown of radioactive material. Radioactive material is added to a container within the heater. Because the material is unstable, it breaks down, releasing energy as heat. The heater may be packaged with a thermocouple to make electricity.


title: Circuit de Catalunya

paragraphs: The Circuit de Catalunya is a racetrack in Montmeló, to the north of Barcelona, Catalonia. It is home to the Formula One Spanish Grand Prix and the motorcycle Catalonia Grand Prix. With long straights and a variety of corners, the Circuit de Catalunya is seen as an all-rounder circuit. It is often used for off-season testing.

paragraphs: The Circuit de Catalunya was built in 1991. It was planned to host its first race in 1992 to go with the Olympic Games. The Olympic Games were scheduled to take place in Barcelona. The circuit is often referred to as 'Barcelona' in the racing community, even though it is located in Montmeló. The Circuit de Catalunya should not be confused with the Montjuïc circuit, which hosted the Spanish Grand Prix four times between 1969 and 1975. Unlike the Circuit de Catalunya, Montjuïc circuit is actually located within the city of Barcelona.

paragraphs: Because of so much testing is done at this circuit, Formula One drivers and mechanics are extremely familiar with it. This has led to criticism that drivers and mechanics are too familiar with Catalunya, reducing the amount of on-track action.

paragraphs: When the circuit opened, overtaking was frequent. Cars could closely follow each other through the last two corners. They would slipstream down the long straight for a pass. As aerodynamic balance became more important, this overtaking method became less effective. The cars were unable to follow each other as close. They would encounter turbulence created by the leading car. This made it hard for a car to get close enough to pass. In the next to the last corner was replaced with a chicane. This was an effort to improve passing. The redesign did not increase the amount of overtaking.

paragraphs: The Circuit de Catalunya also plays host to many other racing series, including Moto GP. The chicane which was put in for Formula 1 does not exist in the track layout for Moto GP, and there are at least five points on the track where riders are known to pass. As in Formula 1, turn one is the most popular place for overtaking.


title: Juan Manuel Santos

paragraphs: Juan Manuel Santos Calderón (born 10 August 1951) is a Colombian politician. He became the President of Colombia on 7 August 2010. Santos replaces Álvaro Uribe as president.

paragraphs: Santos has distanced himself from Uribe. Santos intends work on the social need of the country. He also wants to improve relations Colombia's neighbors.

paragraphs: Since winning the presidency in a June 20 landslide, Santos has marked distance between himself and Uribe, signaling the arrival of a leader who, unlike his predecessor, intends to focus on a social agenda and the country's frayed relations with its neighbors. During his inauguration speech, he said "I will preside over a government of national unity that will bring social prosperity for all Colombians... If we want to have economic and social development, we need to build unity among us."

paragraphs: Santos was schooled in the United States and is familiar with technology. He was a defense minister in the Uribe government. Santos has become well known around the world for trying to end the long conflict in Colombia. In 2016, after a lot of negotiations, he announced a peace deal with the FARC militia, which has been at war with the Colombian government since the 1960s. By June 2016, a peace deal had been reached, and some people have said Santos and the other negotiators may win a Nobel Peace Prize if the peace deal holds. Uribe is against the deal, which he thinks is too easy on FARC.

paragraphs: He is 65 years old, and is from one of the most politically influential families of Colombia. He is married to Maria and has three children.

paragraphs: He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2016

paragraphs: He left office on 7 August 2018 and was replaced by conservative Iván Duque Márquez.


title: Ross Island

paragraphs: Ross Island is an island which was formed by four volcanoes in the Ross Sea, which can be found near the continent, Antarctica.

paragraphs: Because of the persistent presence of the ice sheet, the island is sometimes mistaken to be a part of Antarctica. Its area is 2,460 km² (950 sq mi); only a small portion of the island is free of ice and snow. The planet's southernmost active volcano, Erebus (3794 m), as well as the dormant volcano Terror (3230 m), are situated on the island. They were named by Ross after his ships HMS "Erebus" and HMS "Terror". The third highest peak is Mount Bird, and on its slopes are Shell Glacier and Endeavour Piedmont Glacier. Abbott Peak stands between Mount Erebus and Mount Bird.

paragraphs: Despite its relatively small size, Ross Island is the world's 6th highest island.

paragraphs: The island was discovered by Sir James Clark Ross in 1841, and it was later named in his honour by Robert F. Scott.

paragraphs: Ross Island was the base for many of the early expeditions to Antarctica. It was and still is the southernmost island reachable by sea. Huts built by Scott's and Shackleton's expeditions are still located on the island, preserved as historical sites.

paragraphs: Today Ross Island is home to New Zealand's Scott Base, and the largest Antarctic settlement, the U.S. Antarctic Program's McMurdo Station. Greenpeace established World Park Base on the island and it ran for five years, from 1987 to 1992.

paragraphs: Ross Island lies within the boundaries of Ross Dependency, which is claimed by New Zealand.

paragraphs: Ross Island supports a colony of about a half million (500 000) Adélie Penguins.


title: Islamic world

paragraphs: The Islamic World consists of all people who are in Islam. It is not an exact location, but rather a community. When they do things together as Muslims, they are the "umma", which means "community" referring to all of the believers. The faith emphasizes unity and defense of fellow Muslims, so it is common for these nations to cooperate. Recent conflicts in the Muslim World have sometimes spread because of this desire to cooperate (see below). It is also likely that some have been made shorter and less damaging because of it. Some might even have never started.

paragraphs: Muslims are in many countries. In 52 nations, Muslims are the majority. Almost all are Sunni. They speak about 60 languages and come from all ethnic backgrounds.

paragraphs: The "Al-Jazeera" satellite TV network in the Arabic language is a news source many Muslims watch.

paragraphs: In most Muslim nations, the government is the main source of news. This sometimes makes it very difficult or dangerous to make anti-government statements.

paragraphs: There are, however, many other news programmes and websites in the Muslim world.

paragraphs: Islamic law exists in many variations - in Arabic it is called shariah - five schools of which were created centuries ago. These are the classical fiqh: the Hanafi school from India, Pakistan and Bangaladesh, West Africa, Egypt, the Maliki in North Africa and West Africa, the Shafi in Malaysia and Indonesia, the Hanbali in Arabia, and Jaferi in Iran and Iraq - where the majority is Shia. All five are very old and many Muslims feel a new fiqh must be created for modern society. Islam has a method for doing this, al-urf and ijtihad are the words to describe this method, but they have not been used in a long time, and few people are trusted enough to use them to make new laws.

paragraphs: So, in most of the Muslim world, people are very conservative, especially about alcohol, adultery, abortion and women working in jobs where they are used to lure customers.

paragraphs: Muslim women often dress extremely modestly, and many do so by choice. But in some countries they have been forced to do so against their will. This is one of the things that causes tension between the Western World and that of Muslims.

paragraphs: Islamic economics bans debt but in most Muslim countries Western banking is allowed. This is another issue that many Muslims have with the Western world.

paragraphs: One quarter of the world population share Islam as an ethical tradition.

paragraphs: Many people in these countries also see Islam as a political movement. In democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party.

paragraphs: Political Islam is powerful in all Muslim-majority countries. Islamic parties in Pakistan and Algeria have taken power.

paragraphs: Many in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups and their views of democracy are complex.

paragraphs: Some of these groups are called terrorists because they attack civilians of other non-Muslim nations, to make a political point.

paragraphs: Israel is very unpopular in the Muslim world, because of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the way that the state of Israel came into being in 1948 which many Arabs thought was unfair.

paragraphs: Some Muslims see this as a fight against Judaism or Jews, but not all. In Morocco for instance, the Islamists recently invited Jews to join the party. Jewish groups also cooperate with Arabs in the West Bank, where Neturei Karta (anti-Zionist orthodox Jewish) leader Rabbi Mosche Hirsch served as the Minister for Jewish Affairs in the Fatah before there was a Palestinian Authority. Like the Arabs, this small group of Jews thought the way Israel was created was not right. However, very few Jews believe this, and most support Israel as a state.

paragraphs: In 1979 there was a big shift in the way the Muslim world dealt with the rest of the world. In that year, Egypt made peace with Israel, Iran became an Islamic state after a revolution, and there was an invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union. A lot of things changed in that year. By 2001 the Soviet Union was gone, Jordan had also made peace with Israel, and on September 11, 2001 there were major attacks on the U.S. - which most people believe were made to drive the United States out of the Muslim world, especially Saudi Arabia. In many ways the events of 1979 led to the events of 2001.

paragraphs: The 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq are called part of a War on Terrorism by the United States. Many or most Muslims see it as a War on Islam. After the invasion, the Islamic parties won more seats, and a majority of Muslims polled in many nations expressed support for Osama bin Laden and said he would "do the right thing". Olivier Roy is a French scholar who thinks that this does not express support for al-Qaeda or militant Islam but opposing colonialism and what many Muslims call racism - favourable treatment for Jews especially those living in West Bank settlements, many of whom have American or British passport, and which the United Nations says have no right to live there.

paragraphs: The situation is very complicated and there are many different views of it.

paragraphs: The Organization of Islamic Conference formed in 1969 lets the Muslim nations work as a group. Russia joined in 2003.

paragraphs: The Arab League is a smaller group of only the Arab countries.

paragraphs: OPEC is another forum where issues between the Muslim and non-Muslim world come up. In 1973 to protest U.S. support for Israel there was an oil embargo which caused the 1973 energy crisis.


title: Multiverse

paragraphs: A multiverse is the theory of a conjectured set of multiple possible universes, including ours, which make up reality. These universes are sometimes called parallel universes. A number of different versions have been considered.

paragraphs: The term "multiverse" was coined in 1895 by psychologist William James as a philosophical concept.

paragraphs: The cosmological multiverse tries to explain why the universe we observe i.e. <nowiki>"our universe"</nowiki> seems so welcoming to the emergence of life. Even small changes to the way physics works would make life impossible. In a multiverse a vast number of universes are randomly created and some happen to favour life emerging there. Many inhospitable universes would also have been created, but there would be no life there to observe their existence.

paragraphs: The quantum multiverse is another version in which our universe splits into alternative futures with every quantum event. This is called many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.


title: Mechanistic paradigm

paragraphs: The mechanistic paradigm, also known as the Newtonian paradigm, assumes that things in the environment around humans are more like machines than like life. It was more common in the 19th century. This is a set of loosely related beliefs that affects all sciences:

paragraphs: Believers in this paradigm sometimes say that those who do not believe in it are following a cognitive paradigm - but almost no one uses this term, since it is redundant - cognitive science is already accepted as the most basic idea in the philosophy of science. But mechanists reject some of the ideas of cognitive scientists, like cognitive science of mathematics.

paragraphs: Mechanistic thinking also assumes that philosophy of perception is much less important than cognitive scientists say it is - that humans and their beliefs and equipment do not generally add a lot of bias to a scientific theory. Thomas Kuhn said otherwise, that these things matter, and that the major assumptions of science, can shift drastically. This he called a paradigm shift. The shift from mechanistic to cognitive paradigm is an example of this.

paragraphs: Later he used other words to describe the assumptions and beliefs, like mind-set, but the word "paradigm" is still used. Some say it is much over-used.

paragraphs: Economics is often said to "suffer from" assumptions of the mechanistic paradigm. Sometimes those who believe in neoclassical economics and also in the mechanistic paradigm say they "seek to unify physics and economics," as if people and particles behaved as two examples of the same kind of thing.

paragraphs: Technology is often easier to make if people accept a mechanistic paradigm - but it may be harder to say why it does not work, if one believes in these ideas. For instance, creating diagnostic trees might be easier if one works from experience, not from an idea of how a technology should or must work.

paragraphs: A controversial idea is that mechanistic ideas are just an older idea called scholasticism, with more mathematics. Both tried to work from what should or must be, instead of what experiment seemed to show.

paragraphs: Another controversial idea is that scientism, belief in science as if it were a religion or ethical tradition, comes from this paradigm. Most scientists who are mechanistic do not say they see science as a guide to ethics, but try to keep them separate.


title: MediaWiki

paragraphs: MediaWiki is the name of the software that runs all of the Wikimedia projects. MediaWiki was released in 2003. It is free server-based software which is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The software is licensed under the GPL. This means it is free content, or open source.

paragraphs: MediaWiki is designed to be run on a large web server farm for a website that gets millions of hits per day. MediaWiki is a very powerful, scalable software and a feature-rich wiki implementation, that uses PHP to process and display data stored in its MySQL database. Pages use MediaWiki's Wikitext format, so that users without knowledge of XHTML or CSS can edit them easily.

paragraphs: When a user submits an edit to a page, MediaWiki writes it to the database, but without deleting the previous versions of the page, thus allowing easy reverts in case of vandalism or spamming. MediaWiki can manage image and multimedia files, too, which are stored in the filesystem. For large wikis with lots of users, MediaWiki supports caching and can be easily coupled with Squid proxy server software.

paragraphs: All Wikimedia projects run on MediaWiki version .

paragraphs: Because MediaWiki is flexible, many websites that want people to contribute information use MediaWiki rather than other types of wiki software. Those operated by Wikia are among them.

paragraphs: There are also some websites that use MediaWiki as a content management system.

paragraphs: In MediaWiki, a system administrator can choose to install extensions which are provided on the main MediaWiki website. Some are from the MediaWiki developers, while others are from programmers from all around the world.

paragraphs: Most extensions can be download from Wikimedia's Subversion repository. However, there are some other extensions that other people host themselves.

paragraphs: Some extensions had been added to the main software along the development of MediaWiki. For example, the extension is an extension to promote a user into an administrator or a bureaucrat.

paragraphs: There were a total of 2124 extensions as of October 4, 2013.

paragraphs: In the default installation of MediaWiki, the software has 17 namespaces(18 actually, but one does not have a namespace), namely:

paragraphs: Additional namespaces can be added using the from the installation of MediaWiki.

paragraphs: As MediaWiki is a complex software, there would always be bugs in the software, especially for new extensions. Therefore, Wikimedia has created a bugzilla website for people who see a bug to tell the developers of MediaWiki.

paragraphs: Some extensions of MediaWiki use the , while some just use the talk pages of the extension page.

paragraphs: Users can customize MediaWiki for different appearance. They may use one of the several "skins". At different times different skins have been default. For example, Wikipedia once used Monobook before adopting the new Vector skin in version 1.16.

paragraphs: A survey done by Wikimedia showed that more people prefer the Vector skin.


title: First language

paragraphs: A first language (also mother tongue, native language, arterial language, or L1) often means the language that a person learns first. It helps one understand words and concepts in the style of that language.

paragraphs: Sometimes, "first language" means the language that a person speaks best (the second language is then spoken less well than the first language, etc.). Since "first language", "second language" and "third language" then mean how well one speaks a language, a person can have more than one first language or second language.


title: Mustache

paragraphs: The hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is called a mustache. The hair that grows on the sides of the face and the chin of some men is called a beard. Some men have a lot of hair and a big mustache, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their mustaches, or cut their mustache so it does not get very long. A chin beard with no mustache is called a goatee, whilst a chin beard with a mustache is known as a Van Dyke.

paragraphs: Mustache in United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations is spelled moustache.

paragraphs: Some animals such as walruses also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a mustache.


title: Mile

paragraphs: A mile is a unit of length. There are many different kinds of mile but "mile" on its own usually means the "statute" mile.

paragraphs: In the US and the UK the word "mile" usually means the statute mile.

paragraphs: The nautical mile is used for sea or air travel.

paragraphs: The nautical mile was originally defined as one minute of arc along a line of longitude of the Earth. There are 60 minutes of arc in one degree or arc (60' = 1°). So there were 10,800 nautical miles from the North Pole to the South Pole.

paragraphs: Now the nautical mile is defined as 1,852 metres.

paragraphs: The speed of a ship that travels one nautical mile in one hour is called one knot

paragraphs: The mile was first used by the Romans. It comes from the Latin phrase "mille passus" (plural: "milia passuum"). This means "one thousand paces". A pace is the distance each foot moves when taking one step.

paragraphs: Different miles have been used throughout history in various parts of the world. In Norway and Sweden, for example, a mil is a unit of length which is equal to 10 kilometres.

paragraphs: Even in English-speaking countries that use the metric system (for example, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand), the mile is still used in many idioms. These include:


title: Margarine

paragraphs: Margarine is an artificial butter. It can be made from vegetable oil, or animal fat. It may also contain skimmed milk, salt and emulsifiers. Margarine is used in many baked products. It contains less fat than butter, so is often chosen instead of it. There are also "low fat" margarines, which contain even less fat. However, many types of margarine contain trans fats, which are unhealthy and can cause heart disease. Other vegetables fats, like olive oil, are a better choice for cooking.


title: Milky Way

paragraphs: The Milky Way is our home galaxy. It contains over 200 billion stars, including our Sun.

paragraphs: The Milky Way has a diameter of about 170,000 or 200,000 light years, and is a barred spiral galaxy. The idea that the Milky Way is made of stars goes back to the Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus.

paragraphs: The Milky Way has three main parts: a "disk", in which the Solar System resides, a "bulge" at the core, and an all encompassing "halo". Although the word "disk" suggest it is flat, the Milky Way is actually not quite flat. It is slightly warped and twisted.

paragraphs: This galaxy belongs to the Local Group of three large galaxies and over 50 smaller galaxies. The Milky Way is one of the largest galaxies in the group, second to the Andromeda Galaxy. Milky Way's closest neighbour is Canis Major Dwarf, which is about 25,000 light years away from the Earth. The Andromeda Galaxy moves towards the Milky Way Galaxy, and will meet it in about 3.75 billion years. Andromeda Galaxy moves with a speed of about 1,800 kilometres per minute.

paragraphs: The stellar disk of the Milky Way Galaxy is approximately 200,000 light-years (9×10 km) in diameter, and is considered to be, on average, about 1000 light years thick.

paragraphs: It is estimated to contain at least 200 billion stars and possibly up to 400 billion stars. The figure depends on the number of very low-mass, or dwarf stars, which are hard to detect, especially more than 300 light years from our sun. Therefore, present estimates of the total number are uncertain. This can be compared to the one trillion (10) stars of the neighbouring Andromeda Galaxy.

paragraphs: The stellar disc of the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge, a radius beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the number of stars drops smoothly with distance from the centre of the Galaxy. Beyond a radius of about 40,000 light years, the number of stars drops much faster, for reasons that are not understood.

paragraphs: Extending beyond the stellar disk is a much thicker disk of gas. Recent observations indicate that the gaseous disk of the Milky Way has a thickness of around 12000 light years–twice the previously accepted value. As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to the orbit of Pluto were reduced to the size of a US quarter (about an inch or 25 mm in diameter), the Milky Way would have a diameter of 2,000 kilometers. At 220 kilometers per second it takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Galaxy (a galactic year).

paragraphs: The Galactic halo extends outward, but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and the Small Magellanic Clouds, whose closest approach is at about 180,000 light years. At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds, and the objects would likely be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way.

paragraphs: The galactic disc, which bulges outward at the galactic center, has a diameter of 70–100,000 light years.

paragraphs: The exact distance from the Sun to the galactic center is debated. The latest estimates give distances to the Galactic center of 25–28,000 light years.

paragraphs: Movement of material around the galactic center shows that it has a compact object of very large mass. The intense radio source named Sagittarius A*, thought to mark the center of the Milky Way, is now confirmed to be a supermassive black hole. Most galaxies are believed to have a supermassive black hole at their center.

paragraphs: The nature of the galaxy's bar is also actively debated, with estimates for its half-length and orientation spanning from 3,300–16,000 light years (short or a long bar) and 10–50 degrees. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of our own galaxy.

paragraphs: In Greek mythology, Zeus places his son (the baby Heracles) whose mother was a mortal woman on Hera's breast while she is sleeping so that the baby will drink her divine milk and become immortal. However, Hera wakes up while she is breastfeeding the baby and realizes she is nursing a baby she does not know. According to Greek mythology, she then pushes the baby away and a stream of her milk sprays the night sky, making a faint band of light known as the Milky Way.


title: Movement

paragraphs: Movement, or motion, is the state of changing something's position—that is, changing where something is. A flying bird or a walking person are moving, because they change where they are from one place to another. There are many kinds of science and math related to movement.

paragraphs: Thanks to the work of scientists including Galileo Galilei and Issac Newton, we know that "position" and motion are relative. This means that an object's position depends on where it exists in relation to other objects. For example, a ball can be 5 feet away from a box, 3 feet away from a chair, and a foot away from a table. Here, the box, chair and the table helped me to decide the position of the ball. In other words, they acted as the reference points for my observation. By telling you how far the ball was from other objects, I told you its relative position.

paragraphs: Similarly, an object's "motion" is also relative. It depends on how its position changes in relation to other objects. Let us understand this with an example:

paragraphs: Suppose you are sitting inside a train. The train has not started moving yet. Let us call this Train A. You look out from the window and see another train moving in the opposite direction. Let us call this Train B. Now, when you look at Train B, it appears as if Train A is moving in the forward direction. But when you look at a nearby electric pole, you notice that train A was actually at rest and Train B was moving backwards.

paragraphs: From this, we conclude that we cannot decide whether a body is moving or at rest, unless we choose a frame of reference. In the above example, when we chose Train B as our frame of reference, Train A appeared to be moving forward. On the other hand, when we chose the electric pole as frame of reference, Train A appeared to be at rest and Train B appeared to move backward.

paragraphs: The study of motion, without considering its cause is called kinematics. In kinematics, we come across terms like speed, velocity, and acceleration. Dynamics is the branch of physics concerned with the study of causes and effects of motion. In dynamics we come across terms like force, inertia, work, energy and momentum.