title: Vitamin C

paragraphs: Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vitamin. It is found in fresh fruits, berries and vegetables. It is one of the water-soluble vitamins.

paragraphs: Vitamin C is important in wound healing. Without enough vitamin C, a person can get a sickness called scurvy. Lack of vitamin C was a serious health problem on long ocean trips where supplies of fresh fruit were quickly used up. Many people died from scurvy on such trips.

paragraphs: Most animals make their own vitamin C. Some mammals cannot. Those that cannot include the main suborder of primates, the Haplorrhini: these are the tarsiers, monkeys and apes, including humans. Others are bats, capybaras and guinea pigs.

paragraphs: Vitamin C was first discovered in 1928. In 1932, it was proved to stop the sickness called scurvy. That fruit was a cure for scurvy was known long before vitamins were known to exist.

paragraphs: Through history the need for people to eat fresh plant food to help them get through long sieges or long sea trips was known by some wise people but was often forgotten.

paragraphs: The first attempt to prove this idea was by a ship's doctor in the British Royal Navy called James Lind, who at sea in May 1747 gave some crew members lemon juice as well as their normal ships food, while others continued on normal food alone.

paragraphs: The results showed that lemons prevented the disease. Lind wrote up his work and published it in 1753.

paragraphs: Lind's work was slow to be noticed. In 1795 the British navy adopted lemon or lime juice as food for sailors.

paragraphs: As well as lemons, limes and oranges; sauerkraut, salted cabbage, malt, and soup were tried with different effects. James Cook relied on sauerkraut to prevent the disease on his long voyages of exploration.

paragraphs: It was believed that only humans got scurvy but in 1907, Alex Holst and Theodore Frohlich, two Norwegian chemists found that guinea pigs could also get it if not given fresh food.

paragraphs: In 1928 the Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson proved that Eskimo (Inuit) people are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet by eating raw meat.

paragraphs: In 1912 the Polish American scientist Casimir Funk first used the word "vitamin" for something present in food in small amounts that is essential to health. He named the unknown thing that prevented scurvy "Vitamin C".

paragraphs: From 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, and separately the American Charles Glen King, first took out vitamin C from food and showed it to be an acid they called "ascorbic acid".

paragraphs: In 1933/1934, the British chemists Norman Haworth and Edmund Hirst, and separately the Polish Tadeus Reichstein, successfully synthesized the vitamin.

paragraphs: It was the first man-made vitamin. This made it possible to make lots of vitamin C cheaply in factories. Haworth won the 1937 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for this work.

paragraphs: In 1959 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason why some animals get scurvy is because their liver cannot make one chemical enzyme that other animals have.

paragraphs: Citrus fruits (such as lime, Indian gooseberry, lemon, orange, and grapefruit) are good sources of vitamin C.

paragraphs: Other foods that are good sources of vitamin C include papaya, broccoli, brussels sprouts, blackcurrants, strawberries, cauliflower, spinach, cantaloupe, sweet peppers, and kiwifruit.

paragraphs: The following table is to give an idea of how much vitamin C is in different plant foods. Each individual fruit will vary.

paragraphs: The amount of vitamin C in foods of plant origin depends on the kind of plant, the kind of soil where it grew, how much rain and sun it got, the length of time since it was picked, and how it was stored since then.

paragraphs: Most species of animals synthesise their own vitamin C. It is therefore not a vitamin for them. Synthesis is achieved through a sequence of enzyme driven steps, which convert glucose to ascorbic acid. It is carried out either in the kidneys, in reptiles and birds, or the liver, in mammals and perching birds. The loss of an enzyme concerned with ascorbic acid synthesis has occurred quite frequently in evolution and has affected most fish, many birds; some bats, guinea pigs and most but not all primates, including humans. The mutations have not been lethal because ascorbic acid is so prevalent in the surrounding food sources.

paragraphs: It was only realised in the 1920s that some cuts of meat and fish are also a source of vitamin C for humans. The muscle and fat that make up the modern western diet are however poor sources. As with fruit and vegetables cooking destroys the vitamin C content.

paragraphs: Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process developed in the 1930s uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The more modern Two-Step fermentation process was originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.

paragraphs: In 1934, the Swiss pharmaceutical company Hoffmann-La Roche was the first to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of Redoxon.

paragraphs: Main producers today are BASF/ Takeda, Roche, Merck and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd of the People's Republic of China.

paragraphs: In living organisms, ascorbate is an antioxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress. It is also a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions, including several collagen synthesis reactions that cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy when they are dysfunctional. In animals, these reactions are especially important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries.

paragraphs: Lack of ascorbic acid in the daily diet leads to a disease

paragraphs: called scurvy, a form of avitaminosis that is characterized by:

paragraphs: A healthy person on a balanced western diet should be able to get all the vitamin C needed to prevent the symptoms of scurvy from their daily diet. People who smoke, those under stress and women in pregnancy have a slightly higher requirement.

paragraphs: The amount of vitamin C needed to avoid deficiency symptoms and maintain health has been set by variously national agencies as follows:

paragraphs: Some researchers have calculated the amount needed for an adult human to achieve similar blood serum levels as Vitamin C synthesising mammals as follows:

paragraphs: High doses (thousands of mg) may result in diarrhoea, which is harmless if the dose is reduced immediately. Some researchers (Cathcart) claim the onset of diarrhoea to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies.

paragraphs: The small size of the ascorbic acid molecule means the kidneys cannot retain it in the body. Quite a low level in the blood serum will cause traces to be present in the urine. All vitamin C synthesising mammals have traces in the urine at all times.

paragraphs: In April 1998 "Nature" reported alleged carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of excessive doses of vitamin C. This was given great prominence in the world's media. The effects were noted in test tube experiments and on only two of the 20 markers of free radical damage to DNA. They have not been supported by further evidence from living organisms. Almost all mammals manufacture their own vitamin C in amounts equivalent to human doses of thousands of milligrams per day. Large amounts of the vitamin are used in orthomolecular medicine and no harmful effects have been observed even in doses of 10,000 mg per day or more.

paragraphs: Vitamin C is needed in the diet to prevent scurvy. It also has a reputation for being useful in the treatment of colds and flu. The evidence to support this idea, however, is ambiguous and the effect may depend on the dose size and dosing regime. The Vitamin C Foundation recommends 8 grams of vitamin C every half hour to show an effect on cold symptoms.

paragraphs: Fred R. Klenner, a doctor in Reidsville, North Carolina reported in 1949 that poliomyelitis yielded to repeated megadoses of intravenous vitamin C.

paragraphs: Nobel Prize winning chemist Linus Pauling began actively promoting vitamin C in the 1960s as a means to greatly improve human health and resistance to disease.

paragraphs: A minority of medical and scientific opinion continues to see vitamin C as being a low cost and safe way to treat infectious disease and to deal with a wide range of poisons.

paragraphs: A meta-study of the published research claimed that relatively high levels of vitamin C must be maintained in the body for it to function effectively as an antioxidant.

paragraphs: Some research shows that there are veterinary benefits of vitamin C as well.

paragraphs: One meta-study of the published research examined the effectiveness of ascorbic acid in the treatment of infectious disease and toxins. It was conducted in 2002 by Dr. Thomas Levy, Medical Director of the Colorado Integrative Medical Center in Denver. It claimed that overwhelming scientific evidence exists for its therapeutic role.

paragraphs: Some vitamin C advocates say that vitamin C is not used therapeutically because it cannot be patented. Pharmaceutical companies seek to generate revenue and profit their shareholders. They may be reluctant to research or promote something that will make them little money.


title: Dichlorphenolindophenol

paragraphs: DCPIP (its full name is "2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol") is a blue chemical used as a dye because when it is oxidized it is blue. Once DCPIP is reduced (by addition of electrons) it does not have a color anymore. This reaction can be reversed, and the colourless DCPIP will turn blue again, when it is oxidized.

paragraphs: DCPIP is often used to measure the electron transport chain in plants. It has a higher redox potential (electron affinity) than the Fe-S complex in cytochrome b and will therefore "steal" electrons from it. This means that cytochrome c does not receive them. The process cuts off the electron supply of photosystem I. A common way to illustrate this change is by the addition of vitamin C solution. This reduces the 'jelly' by transforming it to a colourless mass. This experiment can be carried out to illustrate the effect of changing cell sizes on SA/V (surface area:volume ratio). This is known as Titration.


title: Healthy diet

paragraphs: A healthy diet or balanced diet is a diet (what you eat) that contains the right amounts of all the food groups. It includes fruit, vegetables, grains, dairy products, and protein. It does not include too much or too little of any kind of food. Eating wrong amounts of a food group, whether it be too much or too little, is called an "unhealthy diet" or an "imbalanced diet". A healthy diet is one that includes more foods that come from plants and fewer convenience foods.

paragraphs: What is known about nutrition and diet keeps changing as more is learned. However, basic nutrition remains much the same. The best advice is to talk to a doctor or dietitian for personalized information based on an individual's lifestyle, health, and food likes and dislikes.


title: Dye

paragraphs: Dye is a substance used to color materials. It is often used to color the fabric used to make clothing. It has low solubility. A pigment won't do this because it won't stick to the fibers of the fabric and color them. A dye can be natural, usually made from plant material such as berries, or artificial, meaning that it is made by humans from chemicals such as petrochemicals.

paragraphs: Most natural dyes are gotten from different parts of a plant like the roots, fruits, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. Most dyes are synthetic and are made from petrochemicals.

paragraphs: Dyes can be classified based on their solubility and chemical properties.


title: Poetry

paragraphs: Poetry is a type of art form and a type of literature.

paragraphs: Poetry uses the qualities of words, in different ways, to be artistic.

paragraphs: Poetry can be as short as a few words, or as long as a book. A poem as short as one line is called a monostich. A poem that is as long as a book is an epic.

paragraphs: There are many "poetic forms" (forms of poetry). Some of forms are: Sonnet, Haiku, Ballad, Stev, Prose poem, Ode, Free verse, Blank verse, thematic, limerick and nursery rhymes.

paragraphs: Poetry can be used to describe (comparing, talking about, or expressing emotion) many things. It can make sense or be nonsense, it can rhyme or not. It can have many shapes and sizes; it can be serious or funny.

paragraphs: "To say something poetically" means to give information in an artistic way.


title: Literature

paragraphs: Literature is a group of works of art made up of words. Most are written, but some are passed on by word of mouth. Literature usually means works of poetry and prose that are especially well written. There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels. They can also be put into groups through their language, historical period, origin, genre, and subject. The word "literature" comes from the Latin word "learning, writing, grammar".

paragraphs: Most of the earliest works were epic poems. Epic poems are long stories or myths about adventures. "Ramayana" and "Mahabharta", two Indian epics, are still read today. "Odyssey" and "Iliad" are two famous Greek poems by Homer. They were passed down through speaking and written down around the 8th century BC.

paragraphs: Literature can also mean imaginative or creative writing, which is looked at for its artistic value.


title: Imagination

paragraphs: Imagination is the ability to form images of things or events in one's mind. When someone "imagines" something, they are trying to picture something in their mind that they are not experiencing at the moment or that is not really happening.

paragraphs: Imagination is a way to have fun, Imagination can also cause distress.


title: Calorimeter

paragraphs: A calorimeter is a tool that measures the amount of thermal energy contained in a substance, or released in a reaction.


title: Bolus

paragraphs: In biology, a bolus (from the Latin word for "ball"), is a ball-shaped living thing.

paragraphs: In medicine, a "bolus" is a large amount of a drug given to patients to raise the blood level before treatment.

paragraphs: A "bolus" can also refer to a ball of food after it has been chewed. It passes down the oesophagus by peristalsis.


title: Oesophagus

paragraphs: The oesophagus (or esophagus) is also called the gullet. It is the part of the gastrointestinal system between the mouth and the stomach. It connects the pharynx and the stomach. It is about long. it passes through the thoracic cavity, pierces the diaphragm and leads to the stomach.

paragraphs: The oesophagus is lined with muscle. This muscle pushes food down into the stomach. The oesophagus can contract or expand to allow for the passage of food. The muscular movement that pushes the food down the oesophagus is called peristalsis. mucous secreted by the epithelial cells in the inner lining helps in the smooth passage of food. At the entrance to the stomach there is a ring of muscle called a sphincter. This is usually closed, but relaxes as food approaches, allowing it to enter the stomach. In the stomach, the food is churned until it turns into a soupy mixture called chyme.


title: Protease

paragraphs: A protease is a digestive enzyme. It breaks down long chains of proteins into shorter amino acids. Proteases have evolved a number of times. We know this because different kinds of protease can do the same reaction in completely different ways. Proteases are found in animals, plants, bacteria, archaea and viruses.

paragraphs: Now more than 50 types of protease are known. Each is a separate evolutionary origin of proteolysis.


title: Dental floss

paragraphs: Dental floss is a special type of thread. It is used for cleaning spaces between teeth which cannot be reached by toothbrushes. It is important to floss before brushing teeth and to floss at least once a day. Tooth brushing will not clean food that is packed between teeth. This 'food packing' can lead to unhealthy teeth and gums. Bacteria grow in this 'packed food' between teeth. These bacteria cause the surface of teeth (enamel) to break down. Then the teeth and gums and sometimes even the jaw can become seriously diseased.

paragraphs: These bacteria that come from the food on the teeth and between the teeth are called "plaque" or "bacterial plaque" and also can cause the gums to become less healthy. "Gingivitis" which means gum disease is one type of disease that flossing helps to prevent. Very serious diseases can start on the teeth and move to the bone of the jaw, damaging the jaw badly. Flossing your teeth reduces the danger of these serious diseases of the jaw bone. These hard-to-cure jaw bone diseases are called "periodontal disease".

paragraphs: Food that is trapped between the teeth can be uncomfortable and even cause pain. Some food is hard, for example meat, apple. Ground meat is soft and so is apple sauce. Chicken and turkey meat are hard and full of fibres and very often get trapped between the teeth. When hard food is trapped between the teeth it can cause discomfort and sometimes pain. When hard food is pressed by the teeth against the gum it can cause pain. Some people use toothpicks to try to remove trapped food from between the teeth and other people use dental floss to do this.

paragraphs: Dental floss can do most things that a toothpick can do but dental floss is much thinner than a toothpick and can thus get to places that most toothpicks cannot reach. So floss presumably does a better job at getting bits of food out from between the teeth, relieving discomfort and pain quicker.

paragraphs: When a person first starts flossing, bleeding can happen. This is normal and happens because teeth and gums that are not flossed are less healthy. It will stop as the teeth and gums get healthier with flossing.


title: Rickets

paragraphs: Rickets is a disease that happens in young children. It happens in children who do not get enough vitamin D and calcium. It causes larger spaces inside bones, and makes them dry, like sponges. It can make the legs curve toward each other (so the knees touch) or away from each other.

paragraphs: Rickets in adults is called osteomalacia.

paragraphs: The word "rickets" comes from the Greek word "rhakhis", which means "spine."

paragraphs: People need both vitamin D and calcium to make their bones strong.

paragraphs: Vitamin D helps the bones absorb (take up) calcium. Low vitamin D makes it hard to absorb calcium.

paragraphs: The human body makes vitamin D in the skin, from cholesterol. Then the liver changes vitamin D into calcitriol, which sends calcium from the blood into the bones. The bones need calcium to stay strong. However, the skin will not make vitamin D unless enough ultraviolet light shines on it. Sunlight contains ultraviolet light, so getting enough sun is one way of getting enough D.

paragraphs: People need calcium for calcification. Calcification uses calcium to help make bones bigger and stronger. Low calcium makes bones delicate and easier to break.

paragraphs: Rickets can be prevented if a person gets plenty of calcium and vitamin D.

paragraphs: The best way to do this is to get a lot of sunlight, and eat foods that have a lot of vitamin D and calcium in them. However, people who cannot get enough vitamin D and calcium this way can take supplements (vitamin pills that have calcium and vitamin D in them).

paragraphs: Foods that have a lot of calcium in them include:

paragraphs: Calcium is absorbed best by the bones when it is taken in amounts of 500 600 grams or less. Because of this, doctors suggest eating smaller amounts of foods with calcium in them, at different times in the day, instead of all at once.

paragraphs: There are three ways to get vitamin D: sunlight, foods, or supplements (vitamin pills that have vitamin D in them). However, many people cannot get enough vitamin D just from their diet.

paragraphs: There are only a few foods that have a lot of vitamin D in them. They include:

paragraphs: Breast milk may not have enough vitamin D in it to prevent rickets. Babies who are only breastfed, and not fed any other foods, may be given vitamin D drops to make sure they do not get rickets. However, this is not a significant risk if mothers and child have some exposure to sunlight. Children with dark skin are more likely to need additional vitamin D.

paragraphs: These things make a person more likely to get rickets:


title: Bile

paragraphs: Bile or gall is a green-yellow fluid. It is secreted from the liver of most vertebrate animals, and is often stored in the gall bladder. Bile helps digest fat.

paragraphs: The name "gall" comes from the Greek word "cholè" meaning green or yellow.

paragraphs: The term cholesterol and the illness cholera were named after gall.

paragraphs: Bile is also stored in bile ducts. Often after liver transplants, bile comes out of the body.


title: Dental pulp

paragraphs: The dental pulp is the part in the center of a tooth. It is made up of living soft tissue and cells. It is surrounded by dentine and contains nerves and blood vessels.


title: Protoplasm

paragraphs: Protoplasm is an old term, which means the living substance that makes up a cell. It is no longer much used. Biologists prefer to talk about the cytoplasm and the cell nucleus.

paragraphs: In plant cells, it is surrounded by a cell wall. In animal cells, the whole cell is made of protoplasm, surrounded by a cell membrane. Protoplasm in living beings is made up of about 7580% water. However, this is rather misleading because the cytoplasm is full of structures called organelles, which do various tasks. The endoplasmic reticulum is the largest of these structures; there are many other organelles.

paragraphs: The word "protoplasm" was first used in 1846 by Hugo von Mohl to describe the substance in plant cells, apart from the cell wall, the cell nucleus and the vacuole. After the invention of the electron microscope it was clear that a living cell is much more complicated than von Mohl knew.


title: Amylase

paragraphs: Amylase is an enzyme which breaks down starch into sugars which the body can use.

paragraphs: More accurately, it is a family of similar enzymes which work in a wide range of animals, plants and fungi. There are two variants in humans: alpha-amylase, and gamma-amylase.

paragraphs: Alpha-amylase is a major digestive enzyme. Its optimum pH is 6.7–7.0. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice. It takes starch chains and breaks them into smaller pieces with two or three glucose units. It can break down starch into maltose. It works in the mouth and stomach during digestion.

paragraphs: The gamma-amylase has most acidic optimum pH of all amylases because it is most active around pH 3. Therefore, it works best in the stomach, which does have an acidic pH.

paragraphs: Apparently, early humans did not possess salivary amylase. The closest evolutionary relatives of humans, chimpanzees and bonobos, have either one or no copies of the gene for producing salivary amylase. A duplication event of the AMY1 gene led to the production of amylase in the saliva. The same event occurred independently in rodents. This shows the importance of salivary amylase in organisms that eat relatively large amounts of starch.

paragraphs: Carbohydrates are a food source rich in energy. After the agricultural revolution, human diet began to rely more on plant and animal domestication in place of hunting and gathering. This shift marked the beginning of a diet composed of 49% carbohydrates as opposed to the previous 35% observed in Paleolithic humans. As such, starch became a staple of human diet. Humans that contained amylase in the saliva would benefit from increased ability to digest starch more efficiently and in higher quantities.

paragraphs: Not all humans have the same number of copies of the AMY1 gene. Populations which rely on carbohydrates have a higher number of AMY1 copies than populations that eat little starch. The number of AMY1 gene copies in humans can range from six copies in agricultural groups such as European-American and Japanese (two high starch populations) to only 2-3 copies in hunter-gatherer societies such as the Biaka, Datog, and Yakuts.

paragraphs: The correlation between starch consumption and number of AMY1 copies suggests that more AMY1 copies in high starch populations is caused by natural selection. It is a favorable phenotype for those individuals. Therefore, it is likely that having more copies of AMY1 in a high starch population increases fitness and produces healthier, fitter offspring. Geographically close populations with different eating habits possess a different number of copies of the AMY1 gene. This offers strong evidence that natural selection has acted on this gene.


title: Variegated leaf

paragraphs: q=partly+yellow+partly+green+leaves&oq=partly+yellow+partly+green+leaves&aqs=chrome..69i57.15177j1j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8|title=partly yellow partly green leaves - Google Search|website=www.google.com|access-date=2020-06-21}}</ref> in color .

paragraphs: A variegated leaf is useful in conducting experiments to show that chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis to happen. They are also popular in horticulture.

paragraphs: The easiest of these experiments is to stain the places where starch is produced (starch is a more compact form of glucose).

paragraphs: Place the leaves in boiling water for six minutes to soften the cells, and then in ethanol (alcohol). When the leaves are drained of colour, spread them out on a flat surface. Soak the leaves in iodine and the green parts will turn blue/black and the non green parts will stay the yellowish brown colour of iodine liquid. The green parts contain starch, which makes iodine turn blue/black. The blue/black stain is what shows starch is present. You could take "before & after" photos to prove the black areas were green at the start.


title: Seam ripper

paragraphs: A seam ripper is a cutting tool. It is used for removing stitches in sewing and cutting open buttonholes made on a sewing machine. Sometimes it is also called a thread ripper.

paragraphs: The tool usually has a handle, shaft, and head. The head has two points: one flattened to form a pointed blade and the other forming a small point.

paragraphs: To use a seam ripper to remove sewn threads, the blade is placed underneath the thread to be cut. The thread slips down between the two points, and the tool is then lifted upwards allowing the blade to cut through the thread. Then the loose thread ends can be removed.


title: Plaque

paragraphs: Plaque: a word meaning a flat, plate-like object.


title: Pin cushion

paragraphs: A pin cushion is small cushion used for holding pins and needles. It is used so that the pins and needles are stored safely and can be taken out by pulling the head.


title: Chemical cell

paragraphs: A chemical cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Most batteries are chemical cells. A chemical reaction takes place inside the battery and causes electric current to flow.

paragraphs: There are two main types of batteries - those that are "rechargeable" and those that are not.

paragraphs: A battery that is not rechargeable will give electricity until the chemicals in it are used up. Then it is no longer useful. It can be rightly called 'use and throw'.

paragraphs: A rechargeable battery can be "recharged" by passing electric current backwards through the battery; it can then be used again to produce more electricity. It was Gaston Plante, a French scientist who invented these rechargeable batteries in 1859.

paragraphs: Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from very small ones used in toys and cameras, to those used in cars or even larger ones. Submarines require very large batteries.

paragraphs: An extremely important class of oxidation and reduction reactions are used to provide useful electrical energy in batteries. A simple electrochemical cell can be made from copper and zinc metals with solutions of their sulphates. In the process of the reaction, electrons can be transferred from the zinc to the copper through an electrically conducting path as a useful electric current.

paragraphs: An electrochemical cell can be created by placing metallic electrodes into an electrolyte where a chemical reaction either uses or generates an electric current. Electrochemical cells which generate an electric current are called voltaic cells or galvanic cells, and common batteries consist of one or more such cells. In other electrochemical cells an externally supplied electric current is used to drive a chemical reaction which would not occur spontaneously. Such cells are called electrolytic cells.

paragraphs: An electrochemical cell which causes external electric current flow can be created using any two different metals since metals differ in their tendency to lose electrons. Zinc more readily loses electrons than copper, so placing zinc and copper metal in solutions of their salts can cause electrons to flow through an external wire which leads from the zinc to the copper. As a zinc atom provides the electrons, it becomes a positive ion and goes into aqueous solution, decreasing the mass of the zinc electrode. On the copper side, the two electrons received allow it to convert a copper ion from solution into an uncharged copper atom which deposits on the copper electrode, increasing its mass. The two reactions are typically written

paragraphs: The letters in parentheses are just reminders that the zinc goes from a solid (s) into a water solution (aq) and vice versa for the copper. It is typical in the language of electrochemistry to refer to these two processes as "half-reactions" which occur at the two electrodes.

paragraphs: In order for the voltaic cell to continue to produce an external electric current, there must be a movement of the sulfate ions in solution from the right to the left to balance the electron flow in the external circuit. The metal ions themselves must be prevented from moving between the electrodes, so some kind of porous membrane or other mechanism must provide for the selective movement of the negative ions in the electrolyte from the right to the left.

paragraphs: Energy is required to force the electrons to move from the zinc to the copper electrode, and the amount of energy per unit charge available from the voltaic cell is called the electromotive force (emf) of the cell. Energy per unit charge is expressed in volts (1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb).

paragraphs: Clearly, to get energy from the cell, you must get more energy released from the oxidation of the zinc than it takes to reduce the copper. The cell can yield a finite amount of energy from this process, the process being limited by the amount of material available either in the electrolyte or in the metal electrodes. For example, if there were one mole of the sulfate ions SO on the copper side, then the process is limited to transferring two moles of electrons through the external circuit. The amount of electric charge contained in a mole of electrons is called the Faraday constant, and is equal to Avogadro's number times the electron charge:Faraday constant = F = Ne = 6.022 x 10 x 1.602 x 10 = 96,485 Coulombs/moleThe energy yield from a voltaic cell is given by the cell voltage times the number of moles of electrons transferred times the Faraday constant.

paragraphs: The cell emf E may be predicted from the standard electrode potentials for the two metals. For the zinc/copper cell under the standard conditions, the calculated cell potential is 1.1 volts.

paragraphs: A simple cell typically has plates of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in dilute sulphuric acid. The zinc dissolves and bubbles of hydrogen appear on the copper plate. These hydrogen bubbles interfere with the passage of current so a simple cell can only be used for a short time. To provide a steady current, a depolarizer (an oxidizing agent) is needed to oxidize the hydrogen. In the Daniel cell, the depolarizer is copper sulphate, which exchanges the hydrogen for copper. In the Leclanche battery, the depolarizer is manganese dioxide, which oxidizes the hydrogen to water.

paragraphs: English chemist John Frederick Daniell developed a voltaic cell in 1836 which used zinc and copper and solutions of their ions.


title: Das Lied der Deutschen

paragraphs: Das Lied der Deutschen ("The Song of the German people"), also known as Deutschlandlied, ("The Song of Germany"), is a song written by Joseph Haydn and Hoffmann von Fallersleben. Part of this song is the national anthem of Germany (German National Anthem).

paragraphs: A line from this song, "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit" ("Unity and justice and freedom") is the motto of Germany.

paragraphs: The music was written by Haydn in 1797 as the anthem of Austria. It was called "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" ("God protect our Emperor Franz"). The words which are used today were written by the poet August Heinrich Hoffman von Fallersleben in 1841.

paragraphs: Today, the first line "Germany, Germany above all" sounds too strong for some people, and is often misunderstood. Fallersleben wanted a united Germany when he wrote it. At that time, Germany was not one country, but many small countries. So "Germany above all" meant that the most important thing to do was to have a unified Germany. Also, the poet was in Heligoland, where people spoke German but were ruled by the British.

paragraphs: Fallersleben's music was very popular in Germany during the second part of the 19th century. This song was not a national anthem then, but a song for people who loved the idea of a strong and united Germany. In 1918, it replaced the anthem of the German Empire "Heil Dir im Siegerkranz" ("Praise to the war-winner"), when the Emperor Wilhelm II lost power at the end of the First World War. In 1921, a "fourth stanza", a new part or verse, was written by poet Albert Matthai with words about the difficult life in Germany at that time. It was not sung very often.

paragraphs: During the time of Hitler, only the first part of the song was used. This was often followed by a Nazi party song. This part of the song was difficult for some people who were not Germans because it has words describing Germany as a country that included land that was in other countries.

paragraphs: After the Second World War, Germany was divided into two countries. In 1949, the new Western Germany tried to get a new song for the national anthem. Another song was chosen, written by poet Rudolf Alexander Schröder. It was not very popular. Finally, the third part of the Fallersleben song was made into the national anthem.

paragraphs: In the other part of Germany, the Eastern Germany, the words of poet Johannes R. Becher ("Auferstanden aus Ruinen" - "Re-built from the Ruins") were used with a song written by Hanns Eisler. It was not very popular, and from the 1970s the words were not sung, because of the line "Germany, [our] unified fatherland".

paragraphs: After East and West Germany united again in 1990, the Fallersleben song again became the national anthem of Germany but only the third part is used. Today, the first part of the song is popular with nationalist extremists.


title: Evidence

paragraphs: Evidence is something that is used to support an argument. It gives examples of why something is true.

paragraphs: For example, if someone come across a cup of spilled milk, that person could look for evidence as to how the milk was spilled. If hairs of a cat and paw prints were found on the ground, they could be evidence that a cat was the cause of the spilled milk. If a witness saw the cat spilling the milk, her testimony would also be evidence.


title: Dyadic

paragraphs: A dyadic is a math function that needs two things in order to give something out. Addition and multiplication are dyadic. Powers are also dyadic. There are many more functions that are dyadic.


title: Hill

paragraphs: A hill is a landform that is higher than the surrounding terrain and that is smaller than a mountain. Hill is a highland of much lower elevation than a mountain. Normally it is not as steep as a mountain. The surface of a hill is much more stable than that of a dune. Hill have long been used for hill forts.


title: Enzyme

paragraphs: Enzymes are protein molecules in cells which work as biological catalysts. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the body, but do not get used up in the process, therefore can be used over and over again.

paragraphs: Almost all biochemical reactions in living things need enzymes. With an enzyme, chemical reactions go much faster than they would without the enzyme. Other biocatalysts are catalytic RNA molecules, called ribozymes.

paragraphs: The substances at the start of a reaction are called substrates. The substances at the end of a reaction are the products. Enzymes work on the substrates, and turn them into products. The study of enzymes is called enzymology.

paragraphs: The first enzyme was found in 1833 by Anselme Payen.

paragraphs: There are thousands of different enzymes and each one is specific to the reaction which it catalyses. Enzymes have names which show what they do. Enzyme names usually end in –ase to show that they are enzymes. Examples of this include ATP synthase. It makes a chemical called ATP. Another example is DNA polymerase. It reads an intact DNA strand and uses it as a template to make a new strand.

paragraphs: One example of an enzyme is amylase, found in saliva. It breaks down starch molecules into smaller glucose and maltose molecules. Another kind of enzyme is lipase. It breaks down fats into smaller molecules, fatty acids and glycerol.d

paragraphs: The proteases are a whole class of enzymes. They break down other enzymes and proteins back into amino acids. Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA or RNA, often in specific place in the molecule.

paragraphs: Enzymes are not only for breaking large chemicals into smaller chemicals. Other enzymes take smaller chemicals and build them up into bigger chemicals, and do many other chemical tasks. The classification below lists the main types.

paragraphs: Biochemists often draw a picture of an enzyme to use as a visual aid or map of the enzyme. This is hard to do because there may be hundreds or thousands of atoms in an enzyme. Biochemists can not draw all this detail. Instead, they use ribbon models as pictures of enzymes. Ribbon models can show the shape of an enzyme without having to draw every atom.

paragraphs: Most enzymes will not work unless the temperature and pH are just right. In mammals the right temperature is usually about 37C degrees (body temperature). The correct pH can vary greatly. Pepsin is an example of an enzyme that works best when pH is about 1.5.

paragraphs: Heating an enzyme above a certain temperature will destroy the enzyme permanently. It will be broken down by protease and the chemicals will be used again.

paragraphs: Some chemicals can help an enzyme do its job even better. These are called "activators". Sometimes, a chemical can slow down an enzyme or even make the enzyme not work at all. These are called "inhibitors". Most drugs are chemicals that either speed up or slow down some enzyme in the human body.

paragraphs: Enzymes are very specific. In 1894 Emil Fischer suggested that both the enzyme and the substrate have "specific complementary geometric shapes" that fit exactly into one another. This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model. However, this model fails to explain what happens next.

paragraphs: In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model. Since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is reshaped by interactions with the substrate. As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site. The amino acid side-chains of the active site are bent into positions so the enzyme does its catalytic work. In some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site.

paragraphs: The general equation for an enzyme reaction is:

paragraphs: Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction by forming an intermediary complex with the substrate. This complex is called an enzyme-substrate complex.

paragraphs: For example, sucrase, 400 times the size of its substrate sucrose, splits the sucrose into its constituent sugars, which are glucose and fructose. The sucrase bends the sucrose, and strains the bond between the glucose and fructose. Water molecules join in and make the cleavage in a fraction of a second. Enzymes have these key features:

paragraphs: There are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell.

paragraphs: Inhibitors can be used to stop an enzyme from binding to a substrate. This may be done to slow down an enzyme-controlled reaction. The inhibitors fit loosely or partially into the enzyme's active site. This prevents or slows down an enzyme-substrate complex being formed.

paragraphs: Denaturation is the "irreversible" alteration of an enzyme's active site, caused by an extreme change in temperature or pH. It will decrease the rate of reaction because the substrate molecule will not be able to fit into the active site, so products cannot be formed.

paragraphs: Cofactors, or coenzymes, are helper molecules which are needed to make an enzyme work. They are not proteins, and may be organic or inorganic molecules. Both types of molecules sometimes contain a metal ion at the centre, such as Mg, Cu, Mn or iron-sulphur clusters. This is because such ions may act as electron donors, and this is important in many reactions. The need of enzymes for various little helpers is the basic reason why animals, including ourselves, need trace elements and vitamins.

paragraphs: Enzymes have been classified by the "International Union of Biochemistry". Their Commission on Enzymes has grouped all known enzymes into six classes:

paragraphs: The individual enzymes are given a four-figure number which classifies them in the database.


title: Mountain

paragraphs: A mountain is a large natural rise of the Earth's surface that usually has a "summit" (the name for a mountain's top, which can also be called a peak). It is usually steeper and taller than a hill. Mountains are often thought of as being a hill which is larger than 600 metres (about 2,000 feet). However, some definitions say a mountain is a hill larger than 300 metres (about 1,000 feet).

paragraphs: The forming of a mountain is called orogeny. Mountains are formed when rock layers in the ground are pushed from opposite sides, and by being pushed, they push the crust up. A mountain range is a large group of mountains beside each other. There are three main ways a mountain may be made:

paragraphs: Fold mountains occur when two plates collide. The less dense continental crust "floats" on the denser mantle rocks beneath. The continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines. The Jura Mountains are an example of fold mountains.

paragraphs: Folded mountains make up some of the highest mountains in the world. Folded mountains commonly form along boundaries, where 2 continents meet. Some really complex folds are in parts of the Andes, Alps, Himalayas, Appalachians, and Russia's Ural Mountains. These long mountain chains also show lots of signs of folding.

paragraphs: Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a seam where rocks can move past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or "horsts". The dropped blocks are called "graben". They can form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range province of Western North America and the Rhine valley. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned.

paragraphs: Volcanoes are formed in one of these ways:

paragraphs: Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the states of Utah and Arizona, in the United States.

paragraphs: Volcanic mountains form when molten rock erupts onto the Earth's surface. They can either form on land or in the ocean. The Cascade Range in Washington, Oregon and northern California is made of volcanoes. Some of the largest volcanoes are on divergent boundaries, which form the mid-ocean ridges. The mid-ocean ridges have big volcanic mountain chains that run through the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The mountains in the mid-ocean ridges can grow tall enough to create islands such as Iceland or the Azores.

paragraphs: Other volcanic mountains form over hot spots, pockets of magma beneath the crust which erupt onto Earth's surface. The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of really high volcanic islands that have formed over a hot spot on the sea floor. The main Hawaiian island is a volcano about above the ocean floor. Its base is about wide. Almost of this island is above sea level.

paragraphs: Dome mountains, like those in the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Adirondack Mountains of New York, are an unusual domish type of mountain that is formed when molten rock rises through the crust and push up the rock layers above it. This creates a circular dome on the Earth's surface. The molten rock later cools off and forms hardened rock. When the pushed up rocks are worn away, the hardened rock is shown. This hardened rock then wears away in places. When it wears away, it leaves mountains, and they are called dome mountains.

paragraphs: Plateau mountains are formed a bit like folded mountains. They are large areas of flat topped rocks that have been lifted high above the crust by continental plates. Most plateaus are near folded mountains.

paragraphs: The height of a mountain is measured as distance above sea level.

paragraphs: The highest known mountain in the Solar System is the Olympus Mons (27 km high) on Mars. The highest mountain on earth is Mount Everest (8,848m) which is in Nepal and Tibet, in Asia.

paragraphs: The "tallest" mountain in the world is Mauna Loa, in Hawaii. The "height" of a mountain is measured from sea level, but the "tallness" of a mountain is measured from its base, even if under water. The highest mountain in North America is Mount McKinley (6,194m) in Alaska in the USA. The highest in South America is Aconcagua (6,962m) in Argentina. For Africa, it is Kilimanjaro (5,963m) of Tanzania. In Europe, the highest mountain is in Russia called Elbrus (5,633m). Antarctica's highest mountain is Vinsin Massiff (5,140m). In Oceania, a mountain called Puncak Jaya (5,030m) is the highest there. This particular mountain is in Papua New Guinea / Indonesia.


title: Machine code

paragraphs: Machine code is a computer program written in machine language. It uses the instruction set of a particular computer architecture. It is usually written in binary. Machine code is the lowest level of software. Other programming languages are translated into machine code so the computer can execute them.

paragraphs: An instruction tells the process what operation to perform. Each instruction is made up of an opcode (operation code) and operand(s). The operands are usually memory addresses or data. An instruction set is a list of the opcodes available for a computer. Machine code is what assembly code and other programming languages are compiled to or interpreted as.

paragraphs: Program builders turn code into another language or machine code.

paragraphs: Machine code is sometimes called native code. This is used when talking about things that work on only some computers.

paragraphs: Machine code can be written in different forms:

paragraphs: There are many kinds of instructions found usually found in an instruction set:

paragraphs: Many modern processors use microcode for some of the commands. More complex commands tend to use it. This is often done with CISC architectures.

paragraphs: Every processor or processor family has its own instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits that correspond to different commands that can be given to the machine. Thus, the instruction set is specific to a class of processors using (mostly) the same architecture.

paragraphs: Newer processor designs often include all the instructions of a predecessor and may add additional instructions. Sometimes, a newer design will discontinue or alter the meaning of an instruction code (typically because it is needed for new purposes), affecting code compatibility; even nearly completely compatible processors may show slightly different behavior for some instructions, but this is rarely a problem.

paragraphs: Systems may also differ in other details, such as memory arrangement, operating systems, or peripheral devices. Because a program normally relies on such factors, different systems will typically not run the same machine code, even when the same type of processor is used.

paragraphs: Most instructions have one or more opcode fields. They specify the basic instruction type. Other fields may give the type of the operands, the addressing mode, and so on. There may also be special instructions that are contained in the opcode itself. These instructions are called "immediates".

paragraphs: Processor designs can be different in other ways. Different instructions can have different lengths. Also, they can have the same length. Having all instructions have the same length can simplify the design.

paragraphs: The MIPS architecture has instructions which are 32 bits long. This section has examples of code. The general type of instruction is in the "op" (operation) field. It is the highest 6 bits. J-type (jump) and I-type (immediate) instructions are fully given by "op". R-type (register) instructions include the field "funct". It determines the exact operation of the code. The fields used in these types are:

paragraphs: "rs", "rt", and "rd" indicate register operands. "shamt" gives a shift amount. The "address" or "immediate" fields contain an operand directly.

paragraphs: Example: add the registers 1 and 2. Place the result in register 6. It is encoded:

paragraphs: Load a value into register 8. Take it from the memory cell 68 cells after the location listed in register 3:


title: Area

paragraphs: Area is the amount of space a two dimensional (flat) surface takes up. It is useful because it is how much of a material is needed to make a hollow container. Area is the amount of surface covered by a close object or shape.

paragraphs: Small areas can be measured in square centimetre and large areas in square kilometre. The area of a planar figure is often written as formula_1. Areas of regular shapes such as square, rectangle, triangle and circle can be calculated through formulas. The area of an irregular shape can be approximated through grid or graph paper.

paragraphs: One can use different formulas to find the area of different shapes. For example:

paragraphs: The area of a flat object is related to the surface area and volume of a three-dimensional object.

paragraphs: The area under a curve can be found using integration, a concept from calculus.

paragraphs: Some units used to measure area are square foot, square mile, square metre and square kilometre.


title: Air space

paragraphs: Air space is the area of the air that is controlled by a country or organisation. You have to have the permission of the controller to enter their air space in an airplane. The air traffic controllers make sure the planes go in the right place and do not hit each other or something else. Some countries are very protective of their air space.


title: Swamp cooler

paragraphs: Swamp coolers are simple type of air conditioning device that can cool a room of a house or a car by using the cooling effect of the evaporation of water. Swamp coolers can cool the air temperature in a small space by drawing the air through wet pads (some are made of aspen wood) using an electric fan.

paragraphs: Swamp coolers work best in dry climates such as the American Southwest and the American South. They are usually much cheaper to buy and operate than refrigerated air-conditioning devices.

paragraphs: This type of air conditioner was first used thousands of years ago in ancient Iran


title: Saskatoon

paragraphs: Saskatoon is a city in Saskatchewan, Canada. Saskatoon is the biggest city in Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, though, is not the capital of Saskatchewan. Regina is the capital of Saskatchewan. The South Saskatchewan River flows through the centre of the city and many people enjoy boating, biking and walking in this area. The University of Saskatchewan is also in Saskatoon.

paragraphs: The name "Saskatoon" [in Cree: "sâskwatôn", "Saskatoon"] comes from the Cree inanimate noun "misâskwatômina" "saskatoon berries", which refers to the sweet, violet-coloured berry that grows in the area.


title: Glass rod

paragraphs: Glass rods are sometimes used as stirrers in laboratory environments.

paragraphs: Glass rods are often used to spread liquids evenly onto something. An example would be to coat glass surfaces with liquids to look at them under a microscope.

paragraphs: Glass rods rubbed with silk or fur were used in early demonstrations of electrical energy.

paragraphs: Glass rods are commonly manufactured in diameters of 3 mm, 6 mm, and 10 mm.

paragraphs: Glass is used for these rods because it does not react with most laboratory chemicals.


title: Thermometer

paragraphs: A thermometer is an instrument for measuring or showing temperature (how hot or cold something is). One type of thermometer is a narrow, concealed glass tube containing mercury or alcohol which extends along the tube as it expands. Another type is a digital thermometer, which uses electronics to measure temperature.

paragraphs: Early thermometers from the time of Galileo measured the expansion and contraction of air. After the middle 17th century many used alcohol or mercury. In the 19th century a mechanical thermometer was in invented that used a bimetallic strip to move a pointer. This kind is still popular where people like to read temperature from a distance.

paragraphs: A laboratory thermometer is a tool used in laboratories to measure temperature with high accuracy. It can be partially or fully immersed in the substance being measured. A laboratory thermometer is recognizable by its long stem with a silver bulb at the end. The silver color in the bulb normally indicates the presence of mercury. Mercury expands as the temperature increases, thus raising the reading, while decreasing temperatures contract the mercury, lowering the reading. Mercury-in-glass thermometers are less used in the 21st century as preference is shifted to other types of thermometers, such as digital, alcohol-filled and organic-based thermometers.

paragraphs: In the 20th century, the traditional clinical thermometer was a mercury-in-glass thermometer. People put the end of this in their mouth ("oral" temperature), under their arm, or in their rectum ("rectal" temperature).

paragraphs: It is only possible to find oral temperatures on patients who can hold the thermometer correctly in their mouth. So small children cannot use this method. It is also a problem for people with a cough or people who are vomiting. In the past it was a big problem because mercury thermometers needed a long time to measure the temperature. Today's digital thermometers are faster. If a person drinks something hot or cold, one still needs to wait before testing their oral temperature.

paragraphs: When measuring a person's rectal temperature, it helps to use a cream on the thermometer. Rectal thermometers are usually more reliable since they aren't as much influenced by other factors. In some countries people think it is embarrassing to use them for people older than two or three. In other countries, it is considered normal for children and adults to use rectal thermometers.

paragraphs: In the 1990s, people in many countries thought mercury thermometers were too risky, as mercury is dangerous if it leaks out. Today we use electronic thermometers. Sometimes thermometers with liquids are used, but not with mercury.

paragraphs: There are other kinds of medical thermometers: "tympanic" thermometers test the temperature of the tympanic membrane (the eardrum) with infrared; "band" thermometers test a person's temperature on the front of their head.


title: Week

paragraphs: A week is 7 days in connecting order. There are usually 52 weeks in a year.

paragraphs: In the English language, the days of the week are named after gods in Norse mythology, except for Saturday, which is named after a Roman god.

paragraphs: Depending on the law of a country, the week either starts on Monday and ends on Sunday, or starts on Sunday and ends on Saturday. In most countries, Saturday and Sunday are the weekend. Friday, Saturday, and Sunday is a religious day for Muslims, Jews, and Christians, respectively.


title: Suffix

paragraphs: A suffix is a few letters put at the end of a word to change its meaning. It is a type of affix mostly used to show Inflection

paragraphs: Compare to prefix. Prefixes are letters put at the beginning of a word to change its meaning.


title: Japanese language

paragraphs: Japanese (日本語 "Nihon-go" in Japanese) is the official language of Japan, in East Asia. Japanese belongs to the Japonic language family, which also includes the endangered Ryukyuan languages. One theory says Japanese and Korean are related, but most linguists no longer think so. Other theories about the origin of Japanese are that it related to the Austronesian languages, the Dravidian languages, or the controversial Altaic language family. Interestingly, a different term is used for Japanese as a course of study by citizens: it is "kokugo" (国語), which means national language. Nonetheless, Japanese is still referred to as 日本語 by the Japanese.

paragraphs: Japanese uses three separate writing systems: hiragana, katakana, and kanji. The first two are phonetic systems and so show the pronunciation of Japanese words, and kanji is the Japanese variation of Chinese characters and show the meaning of Japanese words. The three systems are used interchangeably, and all three systems can often be found in the same sentence. The three systems are each reserved for different purposes.

paragraphs: In English, the order of the words is very important. For example, the sentences "Is it?" and "It is." mean different things. In Japanese, differences are made often by adding or changing the ending of words. A Japanese word has a stem called a "body", and additional parts (called suffixes). Changing the suffix can change the meaning or the grammar of the word.

paragraphs: After World War II, many English words entered the Japanese language. An example of one would be “アイスクリーム, aisukurīmu”, meaning “ice cream”.

paragraphs: Japanese has five vowel sounds that can have two different lengths. They are "a, i, u, e, o". In IPA they are transliterated as /a/, /i/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/; and they are pronounced in English as "ah, ee, oo, eh, oh". Lengthening a vowel can change the meaning of the word: "ojisan" (おじさん, uncle) and "ojiisan" (おじいさん, grandfather). Japanese has a sound that is like the English "l", but it is also like the English "r". (That is why it can be difficult for many Japanese when to learn to make both sounds when they speak English.) Japanese has a sound that is not uncommon in English and is usually written "Tsu" (つ). This sound appears in "tsunami" (つなみ), the Japanese word for large ocean waves caused by earthquakes or extreme weather.

paragraphs: When foreigners speak Japanese, it is important they know how formal they must be when they speak to people you may or may not know. In Japan, it could be considered quite impolite (rude) if you are not formal enough.

paragraphs: In Japanese, sentences use subject-object-verb (SOV) word order, so the verb is at the end of the sentence and the subject is at the beginning. Many sentences have no subject, and the listener can infer the subject based context and the form of a verb.

paragraphs: In Japanese, Japan is called "Nihon" (日本), and the language is called "Nihongo" (日本語) (-go means "language"). Sometimes, the words "Nippon" and "Nippongo" are also used, but both words are now thought of as more nationalist, and "Nihon" is a more neutral word. The kanji of the word mean "sun-origin." Since Japan is at the eastern edge of Asia, to observers in China, the sun rose from the direction of Japan. That is why Japan is called "The Land of Rising Sun."

paragraphs: Japanese is an agglutinative language, especially in its verbs. Its words has a short "body," and prefixes or suffixes are easily added to change or to redefine the meaning.

paragraphs: Japanese words come from three main sources. The first is "wago" (和語), which are native Japanese words and can also be called "yamato kotoba" (大和言葉). The second is "kango" (漢語), which are Chinese loanwords. The third is "gairaigo" (外来語), which are loanwords borrowed from languages other than Chinese (usually English since the Second World War).


title: Spice

paragraphs: Spice is an ingredient that adds flavor to food. It is usually used to enrich or alter the quality of something. Spices can be used to give food an interesting and exciting taste.

paragraphs: Examples of a spice would be cinnamon, fenugreek and nutmeg.

paragraphs: Spices can also be used to hide or cover up bad tastes in the food, because it is rotten or affected by fungi, e.g. marzipan.

paragraphs: Indians and Pakistanis use a lot of spices like turmeric


title: Flavor

paragraphs: Flavour or Flavor (US English) is the quality of anything which affects the taste. When someone remarks on the "flavor" of something they are trying to describe the specific way something tastes.

paragraphs: Flavor can also be used to describe the act of adding a taste alteration (to change the taste) to something. This is usually done by adding spices or sugars, though in "processed food" there are oftentimes artificial (fake) flavors.


title: Bank

paragraphs: A bank is a financial institution where customers can save or borrow money. Banks also invest money to build up their reserve of money. What they do is regulated by laws. Those laws differ in different countries. The people who work at a bank are called bank employees. Certain banks deal directly with the public and they are the only ones which an ordinary person will deal with. Other banks deal with investments and international currency trading.

paragraphs: Customer's money may be placed in the bank for safe keeping. Banks may give loans to customers under an agreement to pay the money back to the bank at a later time, with interest. An example is getting a mortgage to buy a house or apartment. Banks also can use the money they have from deposit accounts to invest in businesses in order to make more money.

paragraphs: In most countries the rules for banks are made by the government acting through laws. A central bank (such as the Bank of England) adjusts how much money is issued at a particular time. This is a factor in the economy of a country, and the government takes the big decisions. These "banks of issue" take in, and issue out, coins and banknotes.

paragraphs: The word "bank" comes from an Italian word "banco", meaning "a bench", since Italian merchants in the Renaissance made deals to borrow and lend money beside a bench. They placed the money on that bench.

paragraphs: Elementary financial records are known from the beginning of history. Baked clay records were done before the invention of writing.

paragraphs: In the 17th century, merchants started storing their gold with goldsmiths in London. The goldsmiths had their own vaults, and charged a fee for storing the merchants' gold. The goldsmiths eventually started loaning money using the gold left to them, and also paid interest on the gold.

paragraphs: The Bank of England began issuing banknotes in 1695. The oldest bank still in existence is Monte dei Paschi di Siena in Siena, Italy, which started in 1472.

paragraphs: A bank usually provides the following services:


title: Halley's Comet

paragraphs: Halley's Comet (Comet Halley) is a comet which comes round every 75 or 76 years. When it is near, it can be seen with the naked eye. It will return in 2061.

paragraphs: The comet is named after Edmond Halley (1656–1742), an English astronomer, who predicted the comet's return. Halley's Comet was the first comet to be recognized as periodic. (Periodic means that it comes by Earth regularly.)

paragraphs: When the comet came close to the Earth in 1986, it was visited by several space-probes. The probe "Giotto" from the European Space Agency managed the closest approach to the comet.

paragraphs: The number of years that the comet finishes its full cycle can vary depending on the effect of another planet's gravitational pull.

paragraphs: In 1986, Halley's Comet was the first to be observed in detail by spacecraft. It gave the first data on the structure of a comet nucleus and how the "coma" (nebulous envelope around the core or nucleus) and the tail formed. These observations supported Fred Whipple's "dirty snowball" model. This correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices – such as water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, – and dust. The missions also adjusted these ideas. For example, it is now known that the "surface" of Halley is mostly dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.


title: Hubble Space Telescope

paragraphs: The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is the first big optical space observatory telescope. Being above the atmosphere means it can see the sky more clearly than a telescope on the ground. The atmosphere blurs starlight before it reaches Earth. Named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble, the Hubble Space Telescope can observe 24 hours a day. The main mirror is 94.5 inches (2.4 meters) across. The telescope can take pictures of things so far away it would be nearly impossible to see them from anywhere else.

paragraphs: It was made by both NASA and the ESA working together. It is 600 km in space and was launched on April 24, 1990. Like other things in low Earth orbit it travels at 5 miles (10 km) per second. If you were going this speed on Earth, you would be able to get from New York to San Francisco in 10 minutes. This speed creates difficulty in scheduling observations.

paragraphs: The Hubble itself is the size of a large school bus, but still small enough to fit inside the cargo bay of a Space Shuttle. It was repaired in 1993 due to problems in the picture quality.

paragraphs: The telescope was launched in 1990 by a space shuttle. When it entered orbit, everything seemed fine. But there was a problem with the telescope that was not discovered until it started taking pictures.

paragraphs: When the HST took its first pictures, astronomers were happy to see the images, but they were not as sharp and as crisp as expected. Telescopes in space can take better pictures than telescopes on Earth, but for some reason, the pictures were not better than the pictures taken on Earth. They found a problem with the telescope's mirror. The mirror was not curved right. It was only wrong by 2.2 microns (1/50th as thick as a piece of paper). Still, this was enough to cause the images to be blurred. Some said that Hubble was nearsighted.

paragraphs: Another space shuttle was soon sent up to repair the space telescope. The repair was not easy. The astronauts had to install some small mirrors to correct the light from the big mirror. The big mirror could still be used. It took five days of space walks. When an astronaut opened one of the doors on Hubble to install a new camera, the door would not close. The astronauts had to think of a creative way to get around the problem. Eventually, Hubble was fixed.

paragraphs: Repairs and servicing missions have been made to the Hubble Space Telescope five times to keep it in orbit and make it even better as technology improved. The space shuttle program was kept going longer than planned to send an extra trip up to the Hubble Space Telescope for a final fix.

paragraphs: Hubble will be replaced by the James Webb Space Telescope which will be located even further from Earth. There are now other telescopes in orbit, like the Herschel Space Observatory and the Kepler Spacecraft, which was specially made for finding Earth-like planets around other stars.


title: Motion sensor

paragraphs: A motion sensor is a sensor device. It is used for studying motions. It is connected to a . The data-logger is connected to a computer. The computer runs a data-logging program. The computer is connected to power, and a security system. Motion sensors have many uses including security.

paragraphs: Applications for movement sensor technology include clinical, workplace safety & athletic sports.


title: Arm

paragraphs: An arm is a limb. Most humans have two arms each, coming out of their body just below the neck. On the end of each arm is a hand. Humans use arms and hands to do things to other objects, this is called manipulation. The main purpose of the hand is to grasp objects. Some other primates have arms which they use to move around by holding onto trees or supporting themselves as they walk along the ground.


title: Arrow

paragraphs: An arrow is a projectile fired with a bow. A bow and arrow is a weapon used before medieval times and later. For thousands of years, people all over the world have used bows and arrows for hunting and for defense. Arrows have a sharp point at one end and usually a flight at the other end. The flight is usually made of feathers and helps the arrow go through the air straight. Someone who makes arrows is a fletcher.

paragraphs: A picture of an arrow is often used to point to something. Arrows look may like this: -->. "Double-headed" arrows look like this: <-->.


title: Golf

paragraphs: Golf is a game played in an open field where the golfer plays his golf ball into a hole by using different types of clubs (golf instruments). The book "Rules of Golf" reads "The Game of Golf consists in playing a ball from the teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules."

paragraphs: In golf, a golfer plays a number of holes in a given order. 18 holes played in an order controlled by the golf course design, normally make up a game. On a nine-hole course, two nine-hole rounds make up a normal game.

paragraphs: Each hole starts from the teeing area. Golfers put the ball on a small stand called a tee and swing a club at it to try and hit it as straight and far as possible. Once each golfer in the group has done this, the person whose ball landed farthest from the hole hits his again, followed by everyone else, one person at a time, until everyone is on the green. The green is the area near the hole where the grass is cut very short.

paragraphs: Once on the green the players will try to "putt" the ball into the hole. Putting is similar to a regular swing except it is not as hard and the player does not want the ball to go in the air. Once each player has put their ball into the hole, the group moves on to the next hole.

paragraphs: Each time a player swings at his ball, it is considered a "stroke". Each hole is a certain number of strokes that golfers are expected to need to get their ball into the hole. This is known as the "par". If a player gets his ball in the hole in less than the par he gets a "birdie". If it takes him one more shot then the par it is known as a bogey. Most holes have a par between 3 and 5.

paragraphs: The two common forms of playing golf are match play and stroke play. In match play, two golfers (or two teams) play holes one at a time. The golfer with the lower number of strokes (number of times the golfer used to get his ball in the hole) wins that hole. If the two have the same number of strokes, the hole is "halved" (drawn). The golfer that has the greatest number of holes wins. In "stroke play", the golfer (or team) with the smallest number of strokes all together wins. There are different forms of these rules, some given in the "Rules of Golf" making them "official.

paragraphs: The four different types of clubs used in golf are woods, irons, putters and wedges. Woods are used to hit the ball very far, usually off the tee (but also on the fairway). The name of woods is different every number, for example, No.1 wood is called "driver", No.2 is "brassey", No.3 is "spoon" and so on. There are many types of irons, which can be used to hit varying distances. They are numbered 1-9 with a 1 iron hitting the ball farther than a 9. The 1 iron is no longer common in the game. Even the 2 iron is getting uncommon. Putters are used when on the green. The rules do not let the golfer use over 14 clubs in a game.

paragraphs: Golfers call the four (or five) biggest tournaments in professional golf "majors", and they play them at nearly the same time every year. The four majors are:

paragraphs: In 2013, women's golf added the fifth major. The Evian Masters, held in France.

paragraphs: Vincent Clark won the first ever open championship which was held in St Andrews in 1860.


title: Spirituality

paragraphs: Spirituality is a name given to matters of the spirit. These can be any kind of meaningful personal activity or peaceful experience. There is not one agreed upon way to explain what happens. It is a concept so people can see and understand it in different ways. Some people believe spirituality is a part of religion. Others who are not religious, still seek and have spiritual experiences.

paragraphs: "Matters of the spirit" may include the meaning in a person's life (or in all life), and how to find and improve on it. They may also include someone's search for God, the supernatural, a divine influence in their lives, or information about the afterlife, and how to best deal with each. "Matters of the spirit" may also include how to live among others as a group, or in a certain environment.

paragraphs: Some who do not believe in an organized religion may still be interested in the "spirits" of humanity or of nature and live a certain way, or worship ancestors or creation because it gives them a sense of happiness to do so.

paragraphs: Another common usage refers to people who ascribe to ideals "greater than themselves." For many, this leads to a pursuit of some form of enlightenment, often through meditation, yoga, philosophy or, in some cases, a study of Metaphysics.

paragraphs: Many philosophers work to find answers to spiritual questions, although some may deny the existence of a 'god' or any supernatural influences. Throughout the world however, philosophers have often had ideas about spirituality. The following are a few 20th century examples:


title: Chopsticks

paragraphs: Chopsticks are sticks used in pairs as cutlery. Chopsticks are the traditional eating utensils of some countries including China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, and Vietnam. They can be made of wood, gold, silver, ivory, bamboo, or plastic. Gold and silver chopsticks are considerably heavier than normal wooden chopsticks and also considered to be extravagant.

paragraphs: Today chopsticks are mainly used in China and neighboring countries. Elsewhere, chopsticks are often used in restaurants serving oriental cuisines.

paragraphs: Chopsticks came from China as early as the Shang dynasty (1600–1100 BC). The creation of chopsticks might have been influenced by the teachings of Confucius. They were widely used throughout East Asia. Tools like chopsticks were also found in the archaeological site Megiddo in Israel. This discovery may mean there was some form of trade between the Middle East and Asia in early antiquity. Alternatively, such tools may have developed independently in both the Middle East and Asia. Chopsticks were also common household items of civilized Uyghurs on the Mongolian steppes during the 6th–8th centuries.

paragraphs: The English word "chopstick" seems to come from Chinese Pidgin English, a pidgin where "chop chop" meant quickly.

paragraphs: The Mandarin Chinese word for chopsticks is "kuàizi" (筷子). It is a word made of different parts; it has the phonetic part of "快", which means "quick", and a semantic part, 竹, meaning bamboo. In Chinese, the old word for "chopsticks", and also in some varieties of modern Chinese such as Hokkien, was "zhù" (MC: ) (箸 Pinyin:"zhù", Minnan: "tī"). However, "zhù" became a taboo on ships because it sounded the same as another word meaning "to stop" (住). Consequently, it was replaced by a word of opposite meaning, "kuài" (fast, quick). This gradually spread until it became the word for "chopsticks" in most varieties of modern Chinese. The character for this new meaning of "chopsticks" (筷) for "kuài" has the semantic element of bamboo added to the character meaning "fast" "kuài" (快).

paragraphs: In Japanese, chopsticks are called "hashi", written . They are also known as . This is what is usually printed on disposable chopsticks.

paragraphs: In Korean, 箸 ("jeo") is used in the compound "jeotgarak" (젓가락) which is composed of "jeo" (chopsticks) and "garak" (stick). "Jeo" cannot be used alone.

paragraphs: In Vietnamese, chopsticks are called ""đũa""

paragraphs: When people are eating with chopsticks they usually do not use a knife and fork. The sticks are held together in the same hand. Usually this is the right hand. At some formal occasions it may be considered rude to use chopsticks with the left hand.

paragraphs: If the tips do not line up, it will be difficult to hold things. Hold the chopsticks upright with one of the tips lightly touching the table, and gently push the chopsticks down or gently loosen your grip for a moment to let both tips become equal in length. You can also adjust your grip or holding position this way.

paragraphs: With practice, it is possible to perform step one and two right away, on picking up the chopsticks with one hand smoothly. Hold the chopstick at different angles if necessary in order to feel comfortable with two sticks between your fingers.

paragraphs: Chopsticks are used in many countries; those eating with chopsticks generally observe the following rules:

paragraphs: Chopsticks are used in many countries. Chopsticks are sometimes different in those countries.

paragraphs: Chopsticks are used in cooking to stir materials in a pan, or to help move meals.

paragraphs: In Japan, people use a single-use chopstick called "waribashi" (split chopstick). Before using, people split it into two. Japanese people also call their chopsticks "hashi".

paragraphs: In Japan, people use chopsticks during the funeral ceremony of Buddhists. After burning the dead, family and friends use chopsticks to move the burned bones of the dead from the coffin to a pot.

paragraphs: Using a set of chopsticks only once, and then throwing them away causes problems for the environment. There are some movements which aim at telling people to use a set of chopsticks more than once. In China, about 45 billion pairs of disposable chopsticks are used per year. This is equal to 1.7 billion cubic metres of timber–about 25 million fully grown trees. China is the biggest producer of disposable chopsticks, about 60,000 people have a job making chopsticks. If production continues at the current level, China's forests will be gone in about a decade.

paragraphs: For this reason, a tax has been introduced on chopsticks that are only used once. There are also moves to replace disposable chopsticks made of wood by plastic or metal ones.

paragraphs: In 2003, a study was done. It found that people who use chopsticks regularly have a slightly higher risk of getting arthritis in the hand. With this, cartilage gets worn off, which causes pain in the joints of the hand. This is more common in older people. Another problem is that using certain kinds of chopsticks may lead to coughing or even asthma.

paragraphs: The Hong Kong Department of Health did a study in 2006. It found that generally, people use chopsticks or other food utensils more often than in 2003 when eating with others. It also found that personal hygiene has improved.


title: Telephone

paragraphs: A telephone, also known as a phone, is a communication tool. Originally it was an electric tool transmitting analogue speech along wires. Now it is an electronic tool sending digital signals on wires or radio transmission. Using a telephone, two people who are in different places can talk to each other. Early telephones needed to be connected with wires which are called fixed or landline telephones. Modern mobile phones use radio waves.

paragraphs: Alexander Graham Bell was the first person to patent the telephone, in 1876. Early telephones were wired directly to each other and could only talk to the phone that they were connected to. Later, telephone exchanges allowed connecting to other telephones. During the 20th century the machines that made the connections were automated.

paragraphs: There are many different types of telephone. A telephone that can be carried around is called a mobile phone or cell phone. These became popular in the late 1980s. It has become common for people to carry mobile phones and in some places it is unusual to not have one. The majority are smartphones, which can be used as computers. Some mobile phones are able to make telephone calls using communications satellites instead of masts on the ground, which means people can make calls from anywhere in the world.

paragraphs: In most countries there are public payphones. To use one, people pay with coins, a credit card or a prepaid card.

paragraphs: Computers can use a machine called a modem or a Digital subscriber line router to talk to other computers over a telephone line. This allows a computer to connect to other computer networks including the Internet.

paragraphs: Most countries have a telephone network. The telephones in one place are connected to a telephone exchange. The exchanges are connected together in a world-wide network. In less developed countries cell phones are used as a cheaper and faster way to connect the countryside to the network.

paragraphs: Most telephones have their own number. Today, telephone numbers are about seven to ten digits long. In many countries, part of the telephone number is called the "area code". Area codes are used to make sure the numbers are not the same in two different places. Areas have their own area code, and countries have their own country code.

paragraphs: By the end of 2009, there were a total of nearly 6 billion mobile and fixed-line telephone subscribers worldwide. This included 1.26 billion fixed-line subscribers and 4.6 billion mobile subscribers.


title: Checkers

paragraphs: Checkers or draughts is the name of several different board games. All of these games are similar. In every kind of checkers, the other player's pieces can be taken by being "jumped" over.

paragraphs: "Checkers" is the American name. In British English, and in various other English-speaking nations, these games are called "draughts."

paragraphs: The rules and championships are controlled by the World Draughts Federation.

paragraphs: Checkers dates back certainly to the 12th century, in France. These authorities do not admit that discoveries of earlier checkerboards prove the game was played earlier, though it may have been. Some other writers have thought differently, but they were not professional historians.

paragraphs: There are two main types of checkers played: the Anglo-American version (which originally came from France) and the Polish or continental version. The Anglo-American version is played on an 8x8 checkerboard (chessboard) with 12 pieces. The continental version (so-called because it is played on the continent of Europe) is played on a 10x10 board with 20 pieces each. There are also a number of variations in various countries.

paragraphs: In most games of checkers, there are two players. The players are at opposite ends of the board. One player has dark pieces, and one player has light pieces. They take turns moving their pieces. Players move their pieces diagonally from one square to another square. When a player jumps over their opponent's (the other player's) piece, you take that piece from the board. If you can take a piece, then you must take a piece.

paragraphs: British people call the game "draughts". English draughts is played on an 8x8 chess board. Only the dark squares are used: the light squares are never used.

paragraphs: A player can move in two ways. A piece can be moved forward, diagonally, to the very next dark square. If one player's piece, the other player's piece, and an empty square are lined up, then the first player "must" "jump" the other player's piece. The first player jumps over the other player's piece onto the empty square and takes the other player's piece off the board.

paragraphs: A player can also use one piece to make multiple jumps in any one single turn, provided each jump continues to lead immediately into the next jump and in a straight line. Sometimes a player may have the option or a choice of which opponent piece he must jump. In such cases, he may then choose which to jump. If you keep your hand on any piece when you're moving, you have the choice to put it back and move another piece.


title: Kobe, Hyōgo

paragraphs: Kobe (Japanese: 神戸市; -shi) is a city in the Kansai region of Japan on the island of Honshu. It is the capital city of Hyōgo Prefecture.

paragraphs: Kobe is an important port city in the Kansai district of Western Japan. It is between the country's financial capital Osaka and Kyoto. Its population is around 1.53 million as of 2008.

paragraphs: Kobe is next to the Seto Inland Sea. Its northern part, including Rokko mountain, is hilly. A ropeway runs from Rokko district in its southern area through Rokko mountain to Arima Spa. Transportation includes Shinkansen train service and highways and roads along the coast. Many cargos and tankers use the port. There is a ferry between Shanghai and Kobe periodically.

paragraphs: Already in the late 12th century powerful leader Taira no Kiyomori moved the capital of Japan from Kyoto to Fukuwara, nowadays Fukuwara district of Japan. He planned for it to serve as a trade and political center of Japan. Kiyomori relied his political influence on the trade between Japan and China. But his plan failed and Kobe stayed a small village during a long time.

paragraphs: The area of Kobe was expanded and today it includes Mount Maya, Sumaura Park, Sumaike park with a good spa and the famous Arima spa. Arima spa is one of oldest spas in Japan, whose earliest record is found already in "Nihonshoki". Kobe is also famous for its Kobe beef, a very expensive meat delicacy.

paragraphs: Kobe was founded in 1868 as a port for serving foreign ships. In those days most ports in Japan were closed to foreigners. Many foreigners lived in Kobe, including: westerners, Chinese, Jews, and Indians. Kobe has one of the more important Chinatowns in Japan. People can find a synagogue and many Christian churches, too. Kobe is similar to Yokohama as a place from where modern international culture was introduced into Japan.

paragraphs: On January 17, 1995 a very powerful earthquake hit the city. Earthquakes are more common in other parts of Japan, but not in Kansai so this earthquake was a surprise for everyone. 6,434 people were killed in Kobe and its neighboring cities, and many more were injured. Many buildings were destroyed.

paragraphs: The northern area of Kobe is an industrial area. There are many factories. Sake production in Nada district has been known from the Edo period. Nagata district in the southwest area of Kobe was a center of shoe production in Japan but production suffered because of destruction caused by the Earthquake.


title: Oradea

paragraphs: Oradea (pronunciation in Romanian: , Hungarian: "Nagyvárad", colloquially also "Várad", German: "Großwardein", former , ) is the capital city of Bihor County, in Crişana, Romania. There are 206,527 people in the city according to the 2002 census. Oradea is one of Romania's richest cities. Oradea is near the Hungarian border, on the river Crişul Repede. There are many Hungarians in the city.

paragraphs: 6.0% of people in Oradea are unemployed (they do not have work).

paragraphs: In the 20th century, the city changed from having a mainly Hungarian population to mainly Romanian.

paragraphs: In 2002, the people belonged to these ethnic groups (races):

paragraphs: The city is made up of several areas. They are called quarters ("cartiere" in Romanian):

paragraphs: The name "Vie" means vine in Romanian. It is the part of the city where the richest and most important people live. Vie is on the hills overlooking Oradea. Vie is popular with the elite (the powerful people) for two main reasons: it is close to Oradea, within walking distance of the railway station and the city centre; and it is peaceful and has fresh air. Vie has many mansions (big houses). In the north of Vie, at the top of the hills, there are also farms that grow grapes for making wine.

paragraphs: Vie also has the County Hospital of Oradea (Spitalul Judetean), the tuberculosis hospital (Spital TBC), and the mental (mind) hospital. In communist times, blocks of flats were built at the bottom of the hills.

paragraphs: The border between Vie and the city centre of Oradea is the railway station and railway tracks. Everything above the main railway station of Oradea is considered to be part of Vie. Despite its nearness to the railway station and Oradea, Vie is not easy to reach by public transport (except of course the part near the station), because many of its roads are unpaved (have a bad surface), and very steep. Some parts of the quarter are within walking distance of the railway station and the main supermarkets and shops of Oradea, but others are more only easy to get to by car. There is a bus service that serves the three hospitals in the region, and the houses among them.

paragraphs: Like Rogerius, Nufărul is like a mini-city, with supermarkets, large blocks of flats and more. It is on the eastern outskirts (the edge) of Oradea, and is near to Băile Felix, the famous spa resort. It is possible to get to Nufărul by tram and bus. It is perhaps the fastest growing area, because of its position: many highways and national roads lead from Oradea to other Romanian cities and pass through Nuf&atilderul. For example, Nufărul was home to the second McDonalds (now there are many more) in Oradea, as well to many supermarkets that were not in central Oradea. Even though Nufărul has a lively market and excellent transport, education and shopping, it is not as nice as central Oradea, because it was planned and rebuilt in communist times.

paragraphs: The name Nufărul means water lily in Romanian. It has this name because there are many water lilies in the area.

paragraphs: Rogerius is located at the western end of the city, near Borş, on the Hungarian border. It is the city's largest district other than the city centre, and is home to many communist-era housing estates, as well as a large market. You can get to Rogerius by tram from the city centre and other parts of Oradea, as well as by bus. It is also the first part of Oradea visitors will see when coming from Western Europe or Hungary through via Borş. The western part of Rogerius has factories from Communist times, including a chemical factory called "Sinteza".

paragraphs: Unlike many of the other outer quarters of Oradea, Iosia does not have many large apartment blocks and is still fairly rural (like being in the country). It is located in the city's far southwest. The quarter is one of the most beautiful in Oradea, and has most of the facilities and amenities of the city. For tourists, it shows what Romanian country life is like while still being in the city close to all the excellent facilities that Oradea is home to.

paragraphs: There is a public transport system run by "Regia Autonomă Oradea Transport Local". There are three tram lines and some bus routes. The city has three train stations: central, Vest and Est. Vest Station is in the quarter of Ioşia, and the central station (called simply Oradea) is in the city centre, near the quarter of Vie.

paragraphs: The city has many Baroque buildings. It was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire many times in history.

paragraphs: The city centre is beautiful and worth visiting, as well as many other sites:

paragraphs: There are around 100 churches in Oradea, and three synagogues (Jewish places of worship). Only one of the synagogues is still being used. Oradea also has the biggest Baptist church in Eastern Europe


title: Henry Ford

paragraphs: Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 – April 7, 1947) was an American engineer and businessman. He started making cars in 1896 and founded the Ford Motor Company.

paragraphs: He developed the idea of a system in which each worker has the duty to do one small part of the process of making something. His idea made it possible to produce cars in large numbers. This was called the assembly line.

paragraphs: Many factories around the world still make things this way. It was quite innovative at the time and it allowed him to produce many cars quickly and at a cheaper price than other car companies could. He married Clara Bryant and had one child named Edsel Bryant Ford. Ford left home for Detroit, Michigan to start his mechanical career.

paragraphs: In 1903, Henry Ford helped start the Ford Motor Company. He was the owner of the company. The company sold its first car which was the model T car on July 23, 1903. Ford became president of the company in 1906.

paragraphs: In 1908, Ford's company began making the Ford Model T car. Ford said that he wanted to make a "motor car for the great multitude". This meant that he thought that most Americans should be able to afford to buy a car and not just a few rich people. In order to reach this goal, he chose to make the design as simple as possible. All his cars would be made the same way. They were even all the same color – black.

paragraphs: It cost $850 to buy a Model T car. Even though that was a lot of money back then, it was still very cheap for a car. Many people wanted to buy Model T cars. In fact, so many people wanted to buy them that Ford was having a hard time making enough cars to sell one to everybody who wanted to buy one.

paragraphs: Ford helped develop an idea, not much used before his time, called the assembly line, and started using it in his factories in 1913. Because of the assembly line, making new cars would not take as long. He put a moving belt in his factory. Cars moved along the belt, and workers put on one part at a time. Each worker would only be responsible for putting one part on cars.

paragraphs: The assembly line was a big success. Cars did not take as long to make, and they were cheaper to buy now, too. By 1916, it only cost $360 to buy one of Ford's cars, and more than three times as many people were buying his cars now. The Ford Model T changed America. It made it easier for people to live in the city instead of the country.

paragraphs: Ford was also known for his political views. He had been against World War I because he thought that it was a waste of time. He also believed that Jewish people were causing problems in the world. This belief is called Anti-Semitism. In 1919, he took over a newspaper called the "Dearborn Independent". He began publishing articles that blamed Jews for problems in the world. Later, he would blame Jewish bankers for starting World War II.


title: George Orwell

paragraphs: George Orwell (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950) was an English dia during the British Empire's rule of India. He is best known for two novels that he wrote in the late 1940s, "Animal Farm" and "Nineteen Eighty-Four". In those works, he said that totalitarianism, especially Stalinism, was very bad.

paragraphs: Orwell fought in the Spanish Civil War with the antifascist troops. These troops were against the dictatorship of fascist governments.

paragraphs: Eric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903, in India.

paragraphs: . His great-grandfather Charles Blair was a rich gentleman who had married Lady Mary Fane, and he was supported by money from slave plantations in Jamaica.

paragraphs: Eric grew up with his mother and sisters. Except for a short visit, he did not see his father again until 1912. The family moved to Shiplake before World War I. There, Eric became friends with the Buddicom family, especially Jacintha Buddicom. They read poetry and hoped to become famous writers. At this time, he also liked fishing and watching birds with Jacintha's brother and sister.

paragraphs: When he was five, Eric was sent to a convent school where Marjorie went. It was a Catholic convent. His mother wanted him to go to public school, but his family was not rich enough to pay for it. Ida's brother, Charles Limouzin, was asked to help find the best school to help Eric prepare for better things. He suggested St Cyprian's School in Eastbourne, Sussex. Limouzin, who was a good golfer, came to know the school and its headmaster at the Royal Eastbourne Golf Club. The headmaster helped Blair win the scholarship to pay for his education. He also let Blair's parents pay only half the usual amount of money. However, Blair hated the school.