title: Federalism in the United States

paragraphs: Federalism in the United States is the relationship between the state governments and the federal government. This relationship is set out in the United States Constitution. The Constitution says which powers the federal government has, and which powers belong to the states. The goal of federalism is to create a balance of power, so neither the states or the federal government can get too powerful.

paragraphs: When America was a colony of the British Empire, it was ruled by the government of King George III. Many American colonists thought this government was corrupt and did not care about the colonists' rights.

paragraphs: The Founding Fathers of the United States started to believe in an idea they called republicanism. This idea said that the people in a country should be able to choose their government. It said that the government's job was to protect people's natural rights, and if the government did not do this, the people had the right to overthrow it. By 1775, these ideas were common in colonial America.

paragraphs: In the 1760s and 1770s, the British government began passing laws that forced the colonists to pay taxes on items like printed materials and things that were made outside the colonies. To many Americans, these were examples of corruption and unfairness in the government. The government was making them pay taxes, but the colonists had no say in what tax laws were passed, or even what their money was spent on.

paragraphs: In 1775, the American Revolutionary War began. The next year, the colonies passed the United States Declaration of Independence, making them the new country of the United States. By 1783, thanks to help from France, Spain, and some Native American tribes, the United States won the war and its independence from the British Empire.

paragraphs: However, British rule had made most Americans distrust federal governments. Many Americans did not like the thought that people far away from them could make rules about their lives, like the British government had. They saw government as the biggest threat to their freedom. Because of this, the United States' first constitution, the Articles of Confederation, gave most of the power to the states. The Articles created a federal government, but gave it very little power. For example, the Articles allowed the Continental Congress to sign treaties and declare war, but it could not raise taxes to pay for an army. Also, all major decisions required all of the state governments to agree. This made it very difficult for the federal government to get anything done.

paragraphs: The Founding Fathers and regular Americans began to see that the Confederation government was not working well. Some of the Founding Fathers began to suggest federalism as a solution to the problems with the Articles of Confederation.

paragraphs: Many more Americans began to support federalism after Shays' Rebellion of 1786-1787. Shays' Rebellion started out as a protest by poor farmers in western Massachusetts, and ended up as an armed rebellion. Neither the federal government or the state government had enough soldiers or money to pay for an army that could stop the rebellion. Merchants in Massachusetts had to pay for a private army to stop the rebellion. Also, during the Rebellion, Massachusetts' state government took away people's right to habeas corpus (so they could keep people in jail without a trial) and their right to say bad things about the government. Many Americans began to realize that under the Articles of Confederation, their government was unable to protect them or their rights. This was not the republican government they had fought for.

paragraphs: In 1787, fifty-five delegates met at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. There, they created ideas about a new type of government, called federalism. In this type of government, they decided:

paragraphs: The delegates at the Constitutional Convention wrote a new Constitution. The last part of the Constitution, Article 7, said that nine states would have to ratify (approve) the Constitution for it to go into effect. The Federalist movement started working to get the Constitution ratified.

paragraphs: Some of the Founding Fathers argued strongly for federalism, especially James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. They created the strongest defense of the new Constitution in a book called "The Federalist" Papers. This was a collection of 85 essays supporting federalism. Its goal was to convince people to vote to ratify the Constitution. Although they were published anonymously at the time (with nobody's real names listed), the essays were written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay. The essays explained the new Constitution and all the protections in it. It answered many of the arguments against federalism, and explained how the Constitution would help protect people's rights. For example, in "Federalist No. 10," James Madison wrote that federalism would help protect the republican values most Americans supported, like the importance of personal freedoms.

paragraphs: People who did not support the new Constitution were called "Anti-Federalists". The Anti-Federalists included Founding Fathers like Patrick Henry and George Mason. They worried that under the new Constitution, the federal government was too strong, and had too much power over the states. They wanted the states to have more power. They also did not like the fact that the Constitution had no bill of rights. Without a bill of rights, they worried that the federal government would take their rights away.

paragraphs: After the Federalists promised to add a bill of rights to the Constitution after it was ratified, and after George Washington said he supported the new Constitution, the states ratified the Constitution.

paragraphs: The new Constitution took effect on March 4, 1789. That same year, Congress wrote and proposed twelve amendments to the Constitution. Three-fourths of the states would have to ratify these amendments in order to add them to the Constitution. The states ratified ten amendments on December 15, 1791. Together, they became the Bill of Rights. The Tenth Amendment set the guidelines for federalism in the United States. It said that any powers that the Constitution did not give to the federal government belonged to the states. This was meant to calm people's worries that the federal government would try to take more and more power from the states.


title: Roger Agnelli

paragraphs: Roger Agnelli (May 3, 1959 – March 19, 2016) was a Brazilian entrepreneur, banker, and corporate leader. He ran one of the largest mining companies in the world, Vale SA. In 2013, he was voted by Harvard Business Review as the world’s fourth best-performing chief executive officer behind Apple Inc. CEO Steve Jobs, Jeff Bezos of Amazon.com and Yun Jong-Yong of Samsung.

paragraphs: On March 19, 2016, he was killed, along with his wife, son, and daughter (and three others) when their plane crashed in São Paulo, Brazil. He was aged 56.


title: Dušan Čkrebić

paragraphs: Dušan Čkrebić (born 7 August 1927) is a Serbian politician. He was the Prime Minister of Serbia. He served as minister from 5 May 1984 through 5 May 1986. He was a member of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia.


title: Niš

paragraphs: Niš is the city of southern Serbia. It is the third-largest city in Serbia (after Belgrade and Novi Sad).

paragraphs: It is the administrative center of the Nišava District. According to the 2011 census, the city has population of 183,164. The city center has 187,544 people living there and the administrative area has a population of 260,237.


title: Sikiru Adesina

paragraphs: Sikiru Adesina (born 1971, died February 8, 2016), popularly known as Arakangudu, was a Nigerian movie actor, director and producer. He was best known for playing roles as either an herbalist, armed robber or occultist in movies. On February 8, 2016, he died at his residence in Kaduna, Northern Nigeria.


title: United States Reports

paragraphs: United States Reports are the official record of all the cases that the United States Supreme Court has heard.

paragraphs: The United States Reports include many types of information, like:

paragraphs: In the United States, when lawyers want to talk or write about a Supreme Court decision, they cite the "United States Reports". For example, the case "Brown, et al., v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas", is cited this way:

paragraphs: This tells the lawyer that the decision of the Court in the case entitled "Brown v. Board of Education" (as properly abbreviated), decided in 1954, can be found in volume 347 of the United States Reports, starting on page 483.


title: Joseph Mercieca

paragraphs: Joseph Mercieca (, 11 November 1928 – 21 March 2016) was a Maltese prelate. He served as Archbishop of Malta from 1976 to 2006. He was born in Gozo, Malta. He was known for restoring stability in the Maltese church following his predecessor Mikiel Gonzi's dispute with the Malta Labour Party.

paragraphs: Mercieca died in his home in Żejtun, Malta after a long-illness on 21 March 2016. He was aged 87.


title: Léonie Geisendorf

paragraphs: Léonie Geisendorf, née Kaplan (8 April 1914 – 18 March 2016), was a Polish-born Swedish architect. She lived and worked in Stockholm, Sweden most of her life.

paragraphs: Geisendorf was born in Warsaw, Poland. She studied architecture at Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich.

paragraphs: In 1938, after her internship, Geisendorf moved to Sweden and was hired by Sven Ivar Lind, KFAI and Paul Hedqvist. In 1950 Geisendorf and her husband, Charles Edouard started their own office in Stockholm. She was known for creating the S:t Göran high school. She turned 100 in April 2014. Geisendorf died in Paris, France at the age of 101.


title: Salmonidae

paragraphs: The Salmonidae is a family of ray-finned fish. They are the only living family in the order Salmoniformes. It includes salmon, trout, chars, graylings, and the subfamily known as the freshwater whitefish.

paragraphs: The Atlantic salmon and trout in the genus "Salmo" give the family and order their names.

paragraphs: Salmonids look rather primitive for teleost fish. Their pelvic fins are placed far back, with an adipose fin towards the rear of the back. They are slender fish, with rounded scales and forked tails. Their mouths contain a single row of sharp teeth. Although the smallest species is just long as an adult, most are much larger, with the largest reaching .

paragraphs: All salmonids spawn in fresh water. In many cases the fish spend most of their lives at sea, returning to the rivers only to reproduce. This a migratory lifecycle. They are predators, feeding on small crustaceans, aquatic insects, and smaller fish.


title: Robert J. Healey

paragraphs: Robert John "Bob" Healey, Jr. (May 3, 1957 – March 20, 2016) was an American attorney, businessman, educator, restaurateur, and political activist. He was the founder of Rhode Island's Cool Moose Party. It is the state's third-largest political party from 1994 until 2002. He has been a perennial candidate for statewide office.

paragraphs: Healey has run for Governor or Lieutenant Governor a total of seven times. He ran as an independent candidate in 2010, he won 39% of the vote for Lieutenant Governor. He wanted to abolish the office. As the Moderate Party nominee for Governor in 2014, Healey won 22% of the vote while spending less than $40 on the campaign.

paragraphs: Healey was found dead in his bed at his home in Barrington, Rhode Island on March 20, 2016. He is believed to have died from a suspected heart attack in his sleep. He was aged 58.


title: Flag of California

paragraphs: The official flag of the state of California is known as the Bear Flag. An earlier version of the flag was first flown during the 1846 Bear Flag Revolt and was also known as the Bear Flag.


title: Korematsu v. United States

paragraphs: Korematsu v. United States , was a landmark United States Supreme Court. It concerned the constitutionality of military commanders, under an executive order by the President, which ordered Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II. This was regardless of their citizenship. In February of 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order No. 9066. This gave military commanders the power to evacuate all persons considered a threat to national security from the West Coast of the United States to relocation centers. Fred Korematsu, a Japanese-American who was born in the United States, refused to comply with the order. He became a fugitive, but was arrested and sentenced to five years probation. He appealed his conviction with the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. After having his conviction upheld, the case was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court. In a 6-3 decision, the Court upheld his conviction and ruled the exclusion order was constitutional.

paragraphs: The question before the Court was did the President and Congress exceed their long powers. Did they violate the rights of Japanese and American citizens of Japanese descent?

paragraphs: In the majority opinion by Justice Hugo Black, the Court ruled 6-3 that the need to protect the country from

paragraphs: espionage outweighed the rights of Mr. Korematsu. The issue of discrimination against a person due to prejudice against his ancestry is not a factor. Neither is there any question of his loyalty to the United States. The sole issue is his refusal to comply with a legal order during a time of war.

paragraphs: On May 19, 1942, during World War II, Japanese Americans were ordered to be move into relocation camps by Civilian Restrictive Order No. 1, 8 Fed. Reg. 982. This order, and other similar orders, were based upon Executive Order 9066 (February 19, 1942). Fred Korematsu was a Japanese-American man who decided to stay in San Leandro, California and knowingly violated Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34 of the U.S. Army. Korematsu argued that the Executive Order 9066 was unconstitutional and that it violated the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. He was arrested, tried and convicted. No question was raised as to Korematsu's loyalty to the United States. The Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the conviction, and the Supreme Court granted "certiorari."

paragraphs: The decision in "Korematsu v. United States" has been very controversial. Korematsu's conviction for evading internment was overturned in 1983. He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1998 from President Bill Clinton.


title: Lunar mare

paragraphs: Mare ( (singular: mare ) is the name for a great plain on the moon. Several such maria exist. They were formed by ancient volcanic eruptions. The plural form of mare is maria. The Latin word maria means seas. Because of their high amount of iron, they reflects less light than the highlands of moon. So, they appear dark to the naked eye. They are called sea because ancient astronomers looked at the Moon and thought they saw seas and oceans on the Moon. The maria cover about 16% of the surface of the Moon and most of them are in the side of the moon which is visible from Earth.

paragraphs: A lunar mare, Mare Tranquillitatis was the landing site for the first manned landing on the Moon on July 20, 1969, at 20:18 UTC. Apollo 11 landed at .


title: Aérospatiale SN-601 Corvette

paragraphs: The Aérospatiale SN-601 Corvette is a French twin-turbojet aircraft. It was the only one business jet built by Aérospatiale. It can carry two pilots and between 6 and 14 passengers.


title: Embraer Emb-202 Ipanema

paragraphs: The Embraer Emb-202 Ipanema is Brazilian civilian aircraft. It's used for crop dusting.


paragraphs: Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health, , was a United States Supreme Court case. It had to do with the right to die. Nancy Cruzan was a woman who was in a persistent vegetative state. Her family wanted to stop life support treatments so she could die. Hospital workers refused to do this without a court order. Eventually, the case made it to the Supreme Court. On June 25, 1990, the Court decided it was legal to require "clear and convincing evidence" that stopping life support is what a person would have wanted.

paragraphs: On January 11, 1983, Nancy Cruzan's car ran off the road. She landed 35 feet away, face-down in a ditch filled with water. When paramedics arrived, her heart had stopped and she was not breathing. The paramedics resuscitated her, but her brain was damaged by not having enough oxygen. The brain damage caused a persistent vegetative state.

paragraphs: Doctors put a feeding tube into her stomach so food and water could be given through the tube. Without the feeding tube, Cruzan would die from starvation or dehydration, because she could not swallow anything.

paragraphs: In 1988, Cruzan's parents asked her doctors to stop feeding her through the feeding tube. They believed Nancy would not have wanted to live in a persistent vegetative state. She had recently told a friend that if she got badly injured or sick, she would not want to live unless she could live "at least halfway normally." Nancy's parents wanted her to be able to die. However, the hospital refused to take out the feeding tube without a court order.

paragraphs: The Cruzans asked a trial court to order the hospital to remove Nancy's feeding tube. The trial court agreed.

paragraphs: The court said that a person has a "fundamental natural right" in the Constitution to have someone make the decision to remove life support "when the person has no more cognitive brain function ... and there is no hope of further recovery." The court said Nancy's conversation with her friend showed that she would not want to live in a persistent vegetative state.

paragraphs: The state of Missouri appealed this decision. The case went to the Supreme Court of Missouri, which reversed the trial court's decision. The Supreme Court of Missouri ruled that no one can refuse treatment for another person, unless:

paragraphs: The United States Supreme Court agreed to hear an appeal of the Missouri Supreme Court's decision. This was the first "right to die" case that the United States Supreme Court had ever heard.

paragraphs: The Cruzan case divided the Supreme Court. Five of the Supreme Court Justices (judges) wrote their own opinions about the case. Four disagreed with the decision the Court made. However, the Court ruled, in a 5-4 vote, that the Supreme Court of Missouri made the right decision. They ruled that Missouri did not violate the Constitution when it required 'clear and convincing evidence' that Nancy would have wanted her life support to be ended.

paragraphs: The U.S. Supreme Court did rule that competent people (people who are able to make decisions for themselves) have the right to refuse medical treatment. They said the Constitution gives competent people this right in the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.

paragraphs: However, it said things are different for people who are incompetent (people who cannot not make decisions for themselves for example, because they are in a persistent vegetative state). If another person wants to refuse treatment for someone who is incompetent, they have to show "clear and convincing proof" that refusing treatment is what the person would want.

paragraphs: After the Supreme Court's decision, the Cruzans went back to the first trial court with new evidence. The court ruled that the Cruzans now had clear and convincing evidence that Nancy would have wanted her life support ended if she was in a persistent vegetative state. On December 14, 1990, Nancy's feeding tube was taken out.

paragraphs: Protesters filed seven different petitions with the court to try to get Nancy's feeding tube put back in, but the court refused. Then, on December 18, nineteen people went into Nancy's hospital room and tried to reattach her feeding tube themselves; they were arrested.

paragraphs: Nancy Cruzan died on December 26, 1990. She had been in a persistent vegetative state for eight years.

paragraphs: At Nancy's funeral, her father told reporters: "I would prefer to have my daughter back and let someone else be this trailblazer." Six years later, he killed himself.

paragraphs: The "Cruzan" case is one of the most important "right to die" cases in United States history. It set precedents that courts would follow in many cases in the future.

paragraphs: The case also made many Americans interested in writing living wills and other advance directives (documents that tell doctors and family members what they want in certain medical situations, if they cannot make decisions for themselves).


title: Adam Darski

paragraphs: Adam Nergal Darski (sometimes just called Nergal; born Adam Michał Darski; 10 June 1977 in Gdynia, Poland) is a Polish musician and celebrity who is best known for being in the black/death metal band Behemoth. He is the vocalist for Behemoth and plays the guitar, bass, synthesizer and drums.

paragraphs: Darski was born Adam Michał Darski in Gdynia, Poland. He was raised Catholic and began to play the guitar at age eight. He likes to call himself Nergal (which comes from Babylonia mythology and is the god of plague and war). He founded the band Behemoth while he was just a teenager in 1991. Darski also is the main lyricist, composer and manager of the band. For a brief time, he called himself Holocausto, which was inspired by Beherit leader Nuclear Holocausto. He was a member of a band called Wolverine, which showed his skills at clean singing.

paragraphs: He was inspired by Norway's Black Circle, so he formed together with Blasphemous (from the band Veles) and Venom (from Xantotol) and called themselves the Temple of Infernal Fire. Later other bands joined and far-right politics were introduced, and the group renamed the Temple of Fullmoon. Darski didn't want to be involved with politics, so he distanced himself from the group. This led to some members of the group accusing him of betrayal. Some members even sent him death threats. He says that he is now in good terms with the members.

paragraphs: Darski has completed six years of history at the University of Gdańsk. He is qualified to be a museum curator.

paragraphs: In March of 2010, Darski got in legal trouble and was faced with blasphemy charges after he publicly condemned religion and ripped a Bible up on stage in 2007. Darski claimed that he did it to enhance his live performance, and didn't mean to offend anyone. He also said that he believes freedom of speech should come before religion in Poland. Darski faced up to two years in prison for ripping up the Bible, but the charges were dropped on 28 June 2010.

paragraphs: In 2011, he became a judge on season one of The Voice of Poland.

paragraphs: In July 2012, Nergal became the newest spokesman for Demon Energy drinks that would be sold all throughout Poland. Nergal appeared in his full Behemoth attire on the front of four different flavors of the Demon Energy brand next to the brand's slogan of "No Limits, No Laws". Darski reportedly donated all of the money he earned for his placement to one of the world's best bone marrow donor centers.

paragraphs: In October 2012, he got into legal troubles again over the ripped up Bible incident in 2007. The Supreme Court said that Darski could be guilty of the crime of “offending religious feelings” even though he did not mean to. The case was returned to a lower court which found him guilty of “intentionally insulting the Holy Bible” but the case was dismissed because of to the statute of limitations.

paragraphs: Darski dated the famous Polish pop singer, Dorota Rabczewska, from mid-2009 to early 2011. They even engaged during those years, but on 17 March 2011, the media claimed that they had called off the engagement and broken up.

paragraphs: Since 2014, Darski has been the co-owner of a barbershop in Warsaw, Poland. In 2015 he opened a second barber shop in Warsaw and bar in Sopot.

paragraphs: Darski was rushed to the hospital on 8 August 2010 for unknown reasons. All upcoming Behemoth live shows were cancelled. On 24 August 2010, Darski was diagnosed with leukemia. The illness was thought to have advanced far enough to make chemotherapy useless, but these reports have since been proven false. His then-fiancée offered to donate her marrow, but his marrow didn't match. On 8 November 2010, Darski found a genetic bone marrow match, and he then underwent treatment to receive a bone marrow transplant. He was let out of the hospital on 16 January 2011.


title: Karaite

paragraphs: The words Karaite and Qaraite are very confusing and can be used about a few different things:

paragraphs: 1) There are some groups of people (whose ancestors came from Central Asia) who have been called Karaite people and the languages of some of these groups of people have also been called Karaite languages. Their ancestors were a type of Christian from the Church of the East sometimes also called Keraites. Many Karaite people say that the word Karaite means "black" in the Turco-Mongol language of their ancestors. That is a traditional Central Asian way to say they were originally from the Northern Turkic tribes.

paragraphs: 2) There are also Qaraite people who are mainly Turkic and related to the Karaite people but the Qaraite people mainly converted to Islam. Most people say their name also means "black" but some of these Qaraite people themselves say their name actually comes from an Arabic word for someone good at reading the Quran.

paragraphs: 3) There is also a type of Judaism commonly called Karaite Judaism. More accurately it should be spelled in English with a Q not a K, so it should be Qaraite, but Karaite is a more common spelling. In Judaism the word Karaite comes from a Hebrew word meaning "to call out". This Jewish word has a completely different origin from the name used by the Karaite people and Qaraite people. Both words look the same by accident only in English. People who practice Karaite Judaism are called Karaite Jews. In Judaism the term Karaite Language refers to Hebrew.

paragraphs: 4) Some Russian Christians -including some of the western groups of the Karaite people- took many ideas from Karaite Judaism but they did not completely give up on Jesus. They became Russian Sabbatarians. They are also called Russian Karaites and Karaite Sabbatarians but there is a big argument about why they are called Karaite. Is it because of their religion? Or is it because some of them descended from the Karaite people or Qaraite people? It seems impossible to know.


title: Valproate

paragraphs: Valproate or VPA is a drug with the different forms, valproic acid, Sodium Valproate and Valproate semisodium. It is mostly used to treat epilepsy and bipolar disorder. It is also used to prevent migraines. It is useful to prevent some kinds of seizures. It can be given intravenously or by mouth.

paragraphs: Common side effects of this medication are sleepiness, dry mouth, weakness, vomiting and nausea. Serious side effects can include liver problems, pancreatitis and an increased suicide risk. Valproate is known to cause birth defects and miscarriages in pregnant women who use the medicine,so it is not recommended for women who are pregnant or able to become pregnant to take Valproate.

paragraphs: Too much valproic acid can result in sleepiness, shaking, near unconsciousness, shallow breathing, coma, metabolic acidosis, and death. Normal plasma valproic acid levels are in a range of 20–100 mg/l during managed treatment, but may reach 150–1500 mg/l after serious poisoning.

paragraphs: All the above formulations are Pharmac-subsidised.

paragraphs: In much of Europe, Dépakine and Depakine Chrono (tablets) are equivalent to Epilim and Epilim Chrono above.


title: Somnolence

paragraphs: Somnolence (also sleepiness or drowsiness) is a strong desire for sleep. It is also sleeping for unusually long periods. It can refer to the usual state before falling asleep. It can be accompanied by lethargy, weakness and difficulty thinking.

paragraphs: Sleepiness can be dangerous when performing tasks that require constant concentration, such as driving a vehicle.


title: 2016 Brussels bombings

paragraphs: On 22 March 2016, three large explosions happened in the Belgian capital Brussels. Two bombs exploded at Brussels Zaventem Airport and one exploded at Maalbeek metro station. According to the Belgian Health Ministry, there have been at least 31 confirmed deaths and over 250 reported injuries. Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) has publicly claimed responsibility for the attack. There are three suspects. Two were suicide bombers and Belgian police are currently searching for the third one.

paragraphs: Belgium is part of the war on ISIL in Iraq. About 500 foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq are Belgian. The fighters mostly come from immigrant families.

paragraphs: Belgium has been under attacks in the past. In May 2014, a gunman attacked the Jewish Museum of Belgium, killing four people. In January 2015, Security men stopped a group maybe planned a second "Charlie Hebdo" shooting. The operation resulted in the deaths of two members of the group. In August 2015, a man shot and stabbed people on a train in Brussels, before being stopped by passengers.

paragraphs: The attackers that were part of the November 2015 Paris attacks were based in Molenbeek, and the city of Brussels was closed for five days to search for people. On 18 March 2016, Salah Abdeslam, who possibly was part of the Paris attacks, was caught, and at least one other suspect is still free.

paragraphs: Two explosions took place in the airport's departure hall.

paragraphs: At least 31 people were killed and more than 230 others were harmed. Three Americans, Mormon missionaries, were seriously injured, as well as a member of the U.S. military and his family. The U.S. Embassy in Brussels asked U.S. citizens not to use buses and subways.

paragraphs: Two men used bombs to kill themselves at Brussels Airport. The police is looking for a third man seen with them in CCTV photo from the airport. ISIL said it was behind the attack.

paragraphs: Hours after the attacks, police went into a home in Schaarbeek, a north of Brussels, where they found a nail bomb, chemicals, and an ISIL flag. One man was arrested, but then released.

paragraphs: Belgian authorities said two brothers, Khalid and Ibrahim el-Bakraoui, both Belgians with criminal records — were among the three suicide bombers who attacked the Brussels metro and airport.The brothers are believed to have links to last year’s Paris attacks, and to Salah Abdeslam. There third man who appeared on the cameras is still free after he ran away when his bomb didn't explode.

paragraphs: After the attacks in Brussels, European leaders said terror will not scare them. In Belgium, officials declared three days of national mourning. Belgian Prime Minister said that Charles Michel sent a message to the people behind the attacks, saying, "to those who have chosen to be barbarous enemies of freedom, democracy and fundamental values ... we remain united as one."

paragraphs: In its message claiming responsibility, ISIS noted in a twitter post that "What will be coming is worse."

paragraphs: People shared cartoons and showed sadness in black, yellow and red, the colors of the Belgian flag. Others put messages of solidarity with #JeSuisBruxelles, or "I am Brussels," an ode to a similar outpouring with #JeSuisCharlie after the Charlie Hebdo attack in January 2015. Some people invited tourists stuck after the airport was shut into their homes using #OpenHouse.

paragraphs: French cartoonist Jean Plantureux, who goes by Plantu, drew an emotional cartoon for French newspaper Le Monde. A crying person wrapped in a French flag hugs a crying person with a Belgian flag, suggesting solidarity between the two countries.

paragraphs: People in Brussels and elsewhere brought flowers and lit candles to show how sad they are after the attacks.


title: Vacco v. Quill

paragraphs: Vacco v. Quill, , was a landmark court decision about the right to die. New York had made physician-assisted suicide illegal. A group of doctors challenged this law. The case went all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1997, the Supreme Court decided that New York's law against physician-assisted suicide was constitutional and legal. They ruled that the Constitution of the United States does not guarantee the "right to die."

paragraphs: The state of New York had made physician-assisted suicide illegal. This law made it a crime for a doctor to give a patient medications that would kill them. It also made it illegal for a doctor to do anything else that would end a patient's life. These things were crimes even if the patient was terminally ill, wanted to die, and was competent (able to make decisions).

paragraphs: A group of doctors filed a lawsuit in federal court. They argued that this law was unconstitutional. They said the law violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The Equal Protection Clause says that every state must give everyone "the equal protection of the laws." The doctors argued that because of the law against physician-assisted suicide, terminally ill people did not have equal rights under the law. They pointed out that terminally ill patients could refuse treatment, which would lead to their death. However, these same patients did not have the right to give a doctor permission to end their lives. Basically, they were arguing that refusing treatment in order to cause death, and asking a doctor to help cause death, were the same thing.

paragraphs: First, the case went to the United States District Court. This court ruled that New York's law was constitutional. It said that the state of New York had a good reason to care about keeping its citizens alive and protecting people who might need protection.

paragraphs: Next, the case was appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. It reversed the District Court's opinion. The Court of Appeals said that the law did not treat all competent patients equally when they wanted to end their lives. For example, if a patient were attached to a life support machine, like a ventilator, they had the right to have a doctor disconnect it. This would cause their death. However, a person in the same situation, on a life support machine, could not ask a doctor to give them medications to cause their death instead. The Court agreed that asking doctors to remove life support devices (which was legal) was the same as physician-assisted euthanasia (which was not legal). They ruled that this was not equal treatment, and that New York's law against physician-assisted suicide was unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause.

paragraphs: The case was appealed to the United States Supreme Court. On June 26, 1997, the Supreme Court voted 9-0 that New York's law was legal and constitutional. Chief Justice William Rehnquist wrote the majority opinion, but five other Justices wrote separate concurring opinions.

paragraphs: As legal scholar Susan Stefan writes: "Justice Rehnquist's short, curt opinion reversing "Quill" is almost angry." Rehnquist writes that assisted suicide is completely different from allowing a patient to refuse treatment. The difference is that with assisted suicide, the doctor means to cause the patient's death. When the doctor gives the patient medication that will kill them, they are "causing" the patient's death. When a doctor lets a patient refuse treatment, they are letting the patient's "disease" cause their death.

paragraphs: The Court also wrote that there is no "fundamental" right to die in the Constitution. Because of this, laws that make physician-assisted suicide illegal do not violate terminally ill people's Constitutional rights. The Court added that the law allowed everyone to refuse treatment, and banned everyone from assisting suicide. This was equal treatment, and did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the decision said.

paragraphs: Finally, the Court said that the state of New York had "a legitimate interest" (good, valid reasons) in banning physician-assisted suicide. They said the ban would help the state prevent euthanasia, protect doctors' medical ethics, and protect terminally ill people who might feel pressured to end their lives. Most importantly, they said, New York's ban helped protect human life. The right to life (however long it may last) is an "unalienable right" (a natural right) guaranteed by the Constitution. The right to death, the Court said, is not.


title: Sawi language (Dardic)

paragraphs: Sawi, Savi, or Sauji, is a Dardic language spoken in parts of Afghanistan. It is also spoken in parts of Pakistan. There are estimated to be about 4,200 speakers worldwide.


title: Cruel and unusual punishment

paragraphs: Cruel and unusual punishment is punishment that causes severe suffering, pain, or humiliation. Many countries have laws against cruel and unusual punishment. There are also international laws and treaties against this type of punishment.

paragraphs: For most of recorded history, the death penalty was often painful on purpose. Severe historical punishments included being burned or boiled to death; cut or torn apart; crushed by stones; sawed in half; crucified; and many other extremely painful methods of execution. Punishments that were not meant to cause death were also often painful on purpose.

paragraphs: The exact words "cruel and unusual punishment" were first used in the English Bill of Rights 1689. In 1791, the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution made "cruel and unusual punishment" illegal in the United States. Seven years later, the British Leeward Islands used the same words in their Slavery Amelioration Act.

paragraphs: Here are some examples of other laws that include protections against cruel and unusual punishment.

paragraphs: The Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "cruel and unusual punishments [shall not be] inflicted." However, the Constitution does not define exactly what cruel and unusual punishments are.

paragraphs: In a case called "Furman v. Georgia" (), the Supreme Court of the United States decided what questions they would use to figure out whether a punishment was cruel and unusual. Justice William Brennan wrote the opinion in the case. He made four rules about punishments:

paragraphs: In this decision, the Supreme Court set a precedent that if a punishment broke any of these four rules, it would be viewed as "cruel and unusual," and would be illegal under the Constitution.


title: Early Norwegian black metal scene

paragraphs: The early Norwegian black metal scene was a black metal music scene and subculture in Norway during the early 1990s. It is said to have created the modern black metal genre and produced many influential artists.

paragraphs: The scene drew a lot of media attention after some members were responsible for two murders and lots of church burnings in Norway. The scene had an ideology that some people say was like a cult. They had anti-Christian and misanthropic views. Some were actual Satanists who wanted to spread terror, hatred and evil. The core members called themselves "The Black Circle" or "Black Metal Inner Circle". It was made up of mainly young men who gathered around the record shop Helvete ("Hell") in Oslo. They liked to wear corpse paint. The scene was exclusive, and most bands wanted to remain underground and out of reach to the mainstream.

paragraphs: In August 1993 and May 1994, many members of the scene were arrested for arson, murder, assault and possession of explosives.

paragraphs: During the 1980's, bands were called "black metal" if they had Satanic lyrics. These bands usually only used these lyrics for "shock value." During 1990–1992, a lot of bands who were influenced by those bands, began playing a new type of black metal. The rise of popularity during this time was called the "second wave of black metal".


title: History of racial segregation in the United States

paragraphs: Racial segregation means separating people because of their races. In the United States, racial segregation has existed since before the United States was its own country. Slavery, racist laws, racist attitudes, and many other things caused the United States to segregate white and non-white people for centuries. Although segregation is now against the law, racist attitudes still remain, and new forms of segregation have formed over time.

paragraphs: The first African slaves were brought to America in 1619. This was just nine years after British settlers created the first permanent settlement in America, at Jamestown, Virginia.

paragraphs: People in all thirteen American colonies used slaves. Many of the Founding Fathers of the United States owned slaves, including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock, James Madison, Patrick Henry, and John Jay.

paragraphs: Abolitionists started trying to make slavery illegal in the mid-1700s. By 1804, all of the northern states had ended slavery. However, none of the Southern states had. The Southern states believed that slavery was their right, and they did not want to give it up. Cotton had become a very important crop in the South. Owners of large cotton plantations were used to having slaves to do work for free, which made the plantation owners richer because they did not have to pay anybody to work.

paragraphs: Eventually, the South tried to leave the United States. This caused the American Civil War. The North won, and in 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution made slavery illegal everywhere in the country. In 1868 and 1870, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments gave African-Americans citizenship, and gave them the right to vote.

paragraphs: Losing the Civil War did not change people's ideas about African-American people. During slavery, slave owners had not seen slaves as humans. They saw them as property, things to buy and sell, like animals you would use on a farm. After the War, many white people still did not see African-Americans as equal to whites.

paragraphs: Starting in 1890, the all-white legislatures in the Southern states began to pass state laws that required segregation. These racist laws became known as Jim Crow laws. For example, blacks could not:

paragraphs: In 1896, in a case called "Plessy v. Ferguson", the Supreme Court ruled that these laws were legal. They said that segregation was fine, as long as things were "separate but equal." In the South, everything was separate. However, places like black schools and libraries got much less money and were not as good as places for whites. Things were separate, but not equal.

paragraphs: Segregation kept African-Americans from having the basic rights that the Founding Fathers had written into the Constitution of the United States. Law-makers, government officials, voting officials, and police officers were all white. This prevented African-Americans from having any say in their government; being able to get the same voting rights as white people; having police officers protect them; or being able to get justice for crimes against them. Because they could not count on all-white police forces to protect them, violence against African-Americans, especially lynchings, increased. Because African-Americans could not vote, they also could not serve on juries. This meant that if a black person was ever on trial for a crime, the jury would be all-white.

paragraphs: Problems were worst in the South. However, African-Americans went through different kinds of segregation in other places.

paragraphs: Across the United States, segregation in housing was a problem. Many African-Americans could not get mortgages to buy houses. Realtors would not sell black people houses in the suburbs, where white people lived. They also would not rent apartments in white areas. Until the 1950s, the federal government did nothing about this.

paragraphs: When he was elected in 1913, President Woodrow Wilson made government offices segregated. He believed that segregation was best for everyone.

paragraphs: Black people fought in both World War I and World War II. However, the military was segregated; black officers even had to enter some military bases through separate entrances from white officers. Black soldiers also were not given the same opportunities as white soldiers. Finally, in 1948, President Harry Truman de-segregated the military.

paragraphs: African Americans tried to fight back against discrimination in many ways. Mostly, they tried to use the courts to get justice. For example, in 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created. Its goal was to end race discrimination through lawsuits, education, and lobbying.

paragraphs: However, eventually, many African Americans became frustrated and began to dislike the idea of using slow, legal strategies to achieve desegregation. Instead, African American activists decided to use a combination of protests, nonviolence, and civil disobedience. This is how the Civil Rights Movement of 1954-1968 began.

paragraphs: From about 1954 to 1968, many African-American people and white allies fought to end racial segregation. The movement depended on non-violent protests, sit-ins, marches, civil disobedience, and lawsuits. Its victories included:

paragraphs: These victories were not easy. Protesters were often threatened and attacked. Leaders' homes were bombed. In Birmingham, the police attacked protesters, including children, with police dogs and fire hoses, then took them to jail. In other cities, police beat protesters with clubs and fired into student protests. Three of the movement's leaders Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X, and Medgar Evers were murdered.

paragraphs: Nobody knows exactly how many people were killed during the Civil Rights Movement. However, at least 37 people were murdered, either because they were doing civil rights work, or because racist white groups like the Ku Klux Klan and the White Citizens' Council wanted to terrorize black people. Twelve of these people were children or teenagers when they were murdered.

paragraphs: Eventually, the Movement was successful in removing the laws that allowed segregation. However, attitudes are harder to change, and racism still exists in the United States.

paragraphs: In the early 1800s, the United States was growing farther into the South. White Americans wanted more land to plant cotton. However, many different Native American tribes lived in the lands the United States wanted to take over.

paragraphs: Andrew Jackson was a big supporter of "Indian removal" convincing or forcing Native Americans to leave the South and move west, outside of the United States. First as a Major General in the United States Army, and then as President, he led the United States' "Indian removal" program.

paragraphs: The program started in 1814, when Jackson led a group of soldiers who defeated the Creek Indians. He forced them to sign a treaty giving up over 20 million acres of their land to the United States. Over the next ten years, Jackson got nine other tribes to sign treaties giving up their land.

paragraphs: In 1829, Jackson became President. That same year, gold was found in Georgia, which caused a gold rush. This only made white people in the United States want control of the South even more. In 1830, Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This law said Jackson could give land west of the Mississippi River to Indian tribes if they agreed to give up their lands in the South. The law promised the tribes that they could live on their new lands forever, and be protected by the United States government. By the time his presidency ended in 1837, Jackson had gotten Native Americans to sign almost 70 treaties giving up their land. Almost 50,000 Native Americans moved to "Indian Territory" west of the Mississippi River. However, the government already had a plan to force them into a smaller area, in what is now eastern Oklahoma.

paragraphs: The Cherokee Nation refused to leave their lands. They even got the United States Supreme Court to rule that they were sovereign and did not have to follow the laws of the United States. Jackson simply ignored this ruling. In 1835, he got a small group of Cherokee to sign a treaty agreeing to leave their lands. The rest of the Cherokee Nation tried to keep their lands. However, in 1838, the United States Army and the Georgia militia forced them to leave their lands. On what is known as the "Trail of Tears," about 15,000 Cherokee were forced to walk over 2,000 miles to Oklahoma. About 4,000 died along the way.

paragraphs: By the 1840s, except for a few Seminole Indians living in Florida, there were no Native Americans left in the American South.

paragraphs: In 1851, the United States Congress passed a law that created Indian reservations in Oklahoma. White settlers had already begun to move into the lands the Native Americans had been forced to move to. This was causing conflicts between whites and Native Americans. The goal of the reservations was to segregate the Native Americans from white settlers.

paragraphs: In 1868, President Ulysses S. Grant decided to create more reservations, and force Native American tribes that lived in the west to move to them. Along with segregating the Native Americans and clearing their land for white use, Grant planned to have church officials run the reservations so they could teach Christianity to the tribes.

paragraphs: Many tribes refused to leave their lands, and were forced onto reservations by the United States Army. If Native Americans left their reservations, the Army went after them to try to force them back onto the reservations. This led to massacres of Native Americans, and some wars.

paragraphs: In 1887, Congress passed the Dawes Act. This law stopped giving land to whole tribes, and broke up the land into small pieces for individual families to use for farming. Indians who took the land, started living alone instead of with their tribes, and started farming were viewed as "civilized," and they were made United States citizens. Indians who refused to segregate themselves even more on small pieces of land were not allowed to be citizens. Whatever land was left was sold to white settlers, which made the reservations even smaller.

paragraphs: It was not until 1975 that the Supreme Court ruled that tribes are sovereign over tribal lands and members of the tribe.

paragraphs: As of 2015, all of the Indian reservations in the United States, together, make up 87,800 square miles an area about the size of Idaho. However, Native Americans are now allowed to live or work anywhere they want to, and as of 2016, more than half have left the reservations.

paragraphs: On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and declared war on the United States. This caused the United States to enter World War II and start fighting Japan, as well as Nazi Germany and Italy.

paragraphs: In February 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed an order that allowed the military to force people to leave the West Coast. However, Japanese-Americans were the only people on the West Coast who were forced to leave. They were given 48 hours to leave their homes for internment camps. These were camps where Japanese-Americans were kept separate from everybody else. The camps were surrounded by barbed wire and guarded by soldiers with guns.

paragraphs: The United States government forced over 110,000 Japanese-American people into internment camps. (This was over 80% of the Japanese-American people who lived in the continental United States at the time.) More than three out of every five of these people were born in the United States, and were United States citizens. About half were children.

paragraphs: Because the United States was fighting Nazi Germany and Italy as well as Japan, some German-Americans and Italian-Americans were forced into internment camps too. So were some Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. However, none of this was as common as it was with Japanese-Americans.

paragraphs: In 1945, the year World War II ended, the United States let people out of the camps. However, many of the people who were interned had lost everything they had. In 1988, the United States government finally apologized and said that there was no reason for the internment other than racism.


title: Norris Bradbury

paragraphs: Norris Edwin Bradbury (30 May 1909 – 20 August 1997), was an American physicist. He served as Director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory for 25 years from 1945 to 1970. He replaced Robert Oppenheimer. Bradbury worked with Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Bradbury was in charge of the final assembly of "the Gadget", detonated in July 1945 for the Trinity test.


title: Leon Charney

paragraphs: Leon Charney (1938 – 22 March 2016) was an American real estate tycoon, author, philanthropist, political pundit, media personality and Jewish cantor. He lived in Manhattan in New York City. In March 2012, "Forbes" listed Charney as #353 among the wealthiest Americans.

paragraphs: In 1979, Charney played an important role as the unofficial adviser to former U.S. President Jimmy Carter, most well known for his behind-the-scenes role in the Camp David Accords which created the first comprehensive peace between Israel and Egypt in 1978 and 1979.

paragraphs: Charney died on March 21, 2016 at the age of 77.


title: Jack Mansell

paragraphs: Jack Mansell (22 August 1927 – 19 March 2016) was a British professional footballer. He made 274 appearances in the Football League as a fullback for Brighton & Hove Albion, Cardiff City and Portsmouth.

paragraphs: After retiring as a player he joined the coaching staff at Sheffield Wednesday. He coached many clubs with his longest spell being at Reading and had experience overseas with the likes of Blauw-Wit Amsterdam, Boston Beacons and the Israel national football team. In 1982, Mansell was chosen to train Maccabi Haifa, after a year at the Israeli national team.

paragraphs: Mansell died on 19 March 2016 at the age of 88.


title: Sergey Lavrov

paragraphs: Sergey Viktorovich Lavrov (, ; born 21 March 1950) is a Russian diplomat. He was the Foreign Minister of Russia since 2004. From 1994 to 2004, Lavrov was a Soviet diplomat, and the Permanent Representative of Russia to the United Nations.


title: Rita Gam

paragraphs: Rita Gam (April 2, 1927March 22, 2016) was an American and television actress and documentary filmmaker. She was nominated for a Golden Globe and won the Silver Bear for Best Actress. She was known for her roles in "The Thief" and "King of Kings". She was also known for being Sidney Lumet's first wife.

paragraphs: Gam shared the Silver Bear for Best Actress award with Viveca Lindfors at the 1962 Berlin Film Festival, for their performances in Tad Danielewski's "No Exit".

paragraphs: Gam died on March 22, 2016 at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California from respiratory failure, aged 88.


title: Loratadine

paragraphs: Loratadine (also known as Claritin) is a drug used to treat hay fever, urticaria and skin allergies. It is closely related to tryciclic antidepressants. It is distantly related to quetiapine.

paragraphs: Loratadine was discovered in 1981. It was first sold in 1993.


title: Allergic rhinitis

paragraphs: Allergic rhinitis (also known as hay fever or pollinosis) is a type of inflammation in the nose. It occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. Symptoms include sneezing, red, itchy and watery eyes, and swelling around the eyes.

paragraphs: Allergens that often cause hay fever include pollen, pet hair and mold.

paragraphs: Hay fever is most common between ages twenty and forty.


title: Ethan Carter III

paragraphs: Michael Hutter (born March 18, 1983) is an American professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name EC3. He is perhaps best known for his stint in Impact Wrestling, where he won the TNA World Heavyweight Championshipthree times.


title: Paolo Guerrero

paragraphs: José Paolo Guerrero Gonzales (born 1 January 1984 in Lima, Peru) is a Peruvian footballer who plays as a striker for Brazilian club Flamengo and the Peru national team.


title: Wildest Dreams (song)

paragraphs: "Wildest Dreams" is a song by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. The song was released on August 31, 2015. Swift co-write the song with its producers Max Martin and Shellback. It got generally positive reviews from music critics.

paragraphs: The song hit #5 on the American "Billboard" Hot 100.

paragraphs: "Wildest Dreams" has been certified 2× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales and streams of over 2 million copies in the United States.


title: Hernandez v. Texas

paragraphs: Hernandez v. Texas, , was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. In a unanimous ruling, the Court held that Mexican Americans and all other racial or national groups in the United States had equal protection under the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. The ruling was written by Chief Justice Earl Warren. This was the first case in which Mexican-American lawyers had appeared before the US Supreme Court.

paragraphs: Pete Hernandez, a Mexican-American agricultural worker, was convicted for the 1950 murder of Joe Espinosa. Hernandez's "pro bono" legal team, including Gustavo C. García, wanted to challenge what they knew was "the systematic exclusion of persons of Mexican origin" from all types of jury duty in at least seventy counties in Texas. His defense lawyers argued that persons of Mexican descent had not been allowed to serve on juries even though numerous Mexican Americans were citizens and had qualified for jury duty in Jackson County. Even though 14 percent of the county was Hispanic, none had served on juries for at least the last 25 years. This meant Hernandez had been deprived of his Fourteenth Amendment rights. Hernandez and his lawyers appealed to the Supreme Court of Texas, then to the United States Supreme Court through a writ of certiorari.

paragraphs: The unanimous majority opinion was delivered by Chief Justice Earl Warren. The Court ruled the Fourteenth Amendment protects persons beyond the racial classes of white or black, and extends protection to other racial or national groups, as well as legal classes. Mexican Americans were such a "special class" and were entitled to equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment.

paragraphs: Pete Hernandez was granted a new trial with a jury that included Mexican Americans. Hernandez was found to be guilty of murder. The ultimate effect of this ruling was that the protection of the 14th Amendment was ruled to cover any racial, national and ethnic groups of the United States for which discrimination could be proved. The Court's ruling served as a legal precedent used in legal challenges against unfair housing laws, school segregation, and voting rights of Mexican Americans nationwide.


title: Gideon v. Wainwright

paragraphs: Gideon v. Wainwright, , is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. The Court decided that if a person is charged with a crime, and they cannot pay for a lawyer, the state has to give them one for free. This case caused the public defender program to be created in the United States. (A public defender is a lawyer who defends clients who cannot pay them.)

paragraphs: Between midnight and 8:00 a.m. on June 3, 1961, someone broke into the Bay Harbor Pool Room in Panama City, Florida. The person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole coins from a cash register. Later that day, a witness said he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the pool room at around 5:30 that morning. The witness said Gideon left with a wine bottle and money in his pockets. Based only on this information, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny. This charge means a person broke into a place, meaning to steal someone else's property. (In Florida, at the time, "petty" larceny meant that the person stole something that was worth less than $50.) Under Florida law, if Gideon was found guilty, he could be put in prison for up to five years.

paragraphs: In 1961, state courts had to follow the Supreme Court's decision in "Betts v. Brady." In this case, the Court ruled that if a defendant was charged with a capital crime, he had to be be assigned a lawyer if he could not pay for one. However, as long as the defendant was not charged with a capital crime, the states did not have to assign free lawyers to every defendant who could not afford them. The Court ruled that having a lawyer was not a basic right, and was not necessary for a fair trial.

paragraphs: In their decision, the Court did rule that there were special cases where a court should assign a lawyer. In these special cases, not having a lawyer would make it difficult for a defendant to get a fair trial. These "specialized circumstances" included things like a defendant not having education or not knowing the rules of the court.

paragraphs: What this meant was that in 1961, throughout the state of Florida, most defendants did not have lawyers. They had two choices: to plead guilty, or to defend themselves at trial. A Florida lawyer remembers that "[before] 1963, lawyers were likely to appear in Florida courtrooms only for the wealthy."

paragraphs: In a letter he wrote from prison, Gideon once wrote:

paragraphs: First, Gideon filed a writ of habeas corpus with the Florida State Supreme Court. This is a request to be set free from unfair imprisonment. The Florida Supreme Court summarily denied his request meaning they refused to even hold a court hearing or hear Gideon's arguments.

paragraphs: From his prison cell, using the prison library and writing in pencil on prison paper, Gideon then appealed to the United States Supreme Court. He asked the Supreme Court to review his case "because the 'due process clause' of the fourteenth admendment of the constitution and the fifth and sixth articales of the Bill of rights has been violated" "sic".

paragraphs: Gideon argued that he had been denied a lawyer, which violated his Sixth Amendment rights. In "Betts v. Brady", the Supreme Court had ruled that the Sixth Amendment did not apply to the states. However, Gideon argued that it did, because of the Fourteenth Amendment.

paragraphs: The Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws." Gideon argued that without assigning lawyers to poor defendants, the state of Florida was not giving those defendants due process or equal protection under the laws.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court agreed to hear Gideon's appeal. They had decided to think about whether "Betts v. Brady" should be "reconsidered" (re-thought).

paragraphs: The basic question the Supreme Court had to answer had to do with the Sixth Amendment. They had already decided that under the Sixth Amendment, everyone accused of a crime in "federal" court had the right to have a lawyer, even if they could not pay for one. Now they needed to decide whether the Sixth Amendment applied to the states like it did to the federal government. In other words, did every person accused of a crime in "state" court have the right to a lawyer?

paragraphs: The Supreme Court had assigned Gideon a well-known lawyer from Washington, D.C. named Abe Fortas. (In 1965, Fortas would become a United States Supreme Court Justice.)

paragraphs: Fortas argued that it was impossible for a person to get a fair trial without a lawyer. He argued that under the Fourteenth Amendment's "due process" requirement, the states had to give a person a fair trial before taking away their freedom. By denying Gideon a lawyer, the state of Florida denied him a fair trial and violated his right to due process under the Fourteenth Amendment.

paragraphs: A lawyer named Bruce Jacob argued the case against Gideon in front of the Supreme Court. He made a few different arguments.

paragraphs: Jacob argued that the Constitution allows states to make their own rules about the criminal procedure (how to run criminal trials). He talked about federalism the separation of powers between federal and state governments that is written into the Constitution. By making a rule saying the states always had to give poor defendants free lawyers, the federal government would be over-stepping its powers. The states would be unable to make their own rules, and this would take away a right the Constitution gave to the states.

paragraphs: Jacob also argued that a person does not need a lawyer to get a fair trial. He said that judges, and even prosecutors, help protect the rights of people who defend themselves in court.

paragraphs: In addition, Jacob said that if the Court ruled in favor of Gideon, the effects would be harmful. If the Court ruled that a lawyer was needed for a fair trial, then the state would also have to give poor defendants free lawyers for other types of trials, like appeals and civil trials. The state would never have enough lawyers for this or enough money to pay them, he said. Also, out of Florida's 8,000 prisoners, 65% 5,200 prisoners had not had lawyers. Jacob argued that many of these prisoners could go free if the Court ruled in favor of Gideon.

paragraphs: On March 18, 1963, the Supreme Court voted 9-0 that Gideon was right. His rights "had" been violated.

paragraphs: The Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment's right to a lawyer does apply to the states. It reasoned that without a lawyer, a person cannot get a fair trial. If a person does not get a fair trial, they are not getting the "due process of law" that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees. In other words, because people have the right to due process, they have the right to a fair trial; and because they cannot get a fair trial without a lawyer, they also have the right to a lawyer.

paragraphs: The Court also said that its earlier decision in "Betts v. Brady" had been wrong. This ruling overturned the Supreme Court's earlier decision in "Betts v. Brady" (meaning the "Betts" decision was no longer valid). Justice Black (who had disagreed with the "Betts" decision when the Court made it) wrote:

paragraphs: The Supreme Court's ruling did not mean that Gideon could automatically go free. It meant he got a new trial this time, with a free lawyer assigned to him.

paragraphs: Gideon asked for a lawyer named Fred Turner, who had a very good reputation, and the judge agreed. With Turner arguing the case, it took jurors less than an hour to find Gideon not guilty. Gideon was set free that day.

paragraphs: Gideon died on January 18, 1972, from cancer and tuberculosis. He was buried in an unmarked grave in Missouri.

paragraphs: Almost thirteen years later, the American Civil Liberties Union paid for a headstone to be put on Gideon's grave. On the gravestone, there is a quote based on something Gideon wrote in a letter to Abe Fortas: "I believe that each era finds an improvement in law for the benefit of mankind."

paragraphs: Based on the Supreme Court decision, each of Florida's 5,200 prisoners who had been convicted without counsel had the right to a new trial this time with a lawyer. However, about 1,200 of these prisoners were set free without a new trial. This happened because witnesses in their cases had died or moved away, and the state of Florida did not have enough evidence to try them again.

paragraphs: The same year "Gideon" was decided, the Florida state legislature set up their public defender system. Throughout the 1960s, states that did not already have public defender systems created them.

paragraphs: When "Gideon" was decided, there were still 13 states that did not always give lawyers to poor criminal defendants. Like in Florida, many of these poor defendants did not get fair trials because they did not have a lawyer's help. After the "Gideon" decision, every person who is charged with a crime, in any court in the United States, has the right to a lawyer even if they cannot pay for one. Defendants can decide they do not want a lawyer, but when they do that, they are giving up their right to a lawyer because they want to.

paragraphs: Four years after "Gideon", in a case called "Burget v. Texas", the Supreme Court ruled that the "Gideon" decision applied "retroactively." This means it applies even to defendants who were convicted before "Gideon" was decided in 1963. In other words, the Court was admitting that defendants should have had the right to counsel all along, even before "Gideon". The Court decided in "Gideon" that people could not get a fair trial without lawyers; that was just as true for people who were convicted before 1963. These people, too, now deserved new trials, with free lawyers to help them.

paragraphs: The "Gideon" decision still guarantees free counsel to every poor individual charged with a crime in the United States. However, many legal scholars agree that there are many problems with the public defender system in the 21st century. Because of these problems, they argue, many poor defendants are not getting the rights the "Gideon" decision gave them.

paragraphs: According to these scholars, one of the biggest problems with today's public defender programs is that they do not get enough money from the government to deal with the number of poor defendants they have to represent. This means:

paragraphs: When public defenders cannot do their jobs well because they have too many cases, have too little experience, or are too overwhelmed, defendants get more severe punishments when they are convicted.


title: Radical Face

paragraphs: Radical Face is a musical act whose main member is Ben Cooper, who sings and plays multiple instruments. All the sounds are put together on a computer. Cooper is also in Electric President, an electronic music group. However, Radical Face has an acoustic sound.

paragraphs: Radical Face's music has been on television programmes and in the movie "Wish I Was Here".

paragraphs: Cooper's first album to be recorded under the name Radical Face was "The Junkyard Chandelier" (2003). The album was never released. However, it can be downloaded for free online. "Ghost" was the first official studio album, released in March 2007.

paragraphs: On November 16, 2010, Cooper released an EP titled "Touch The Sky". It was a preview for a trilogy of albums called "Family Tree". This trilogy is about a fictional family from the 1800s, the Northcotes. It is also really about Cooper's own life. The albums are "The Roots", "The Branches", and "The Leaves".

paragraphs: Another EP, "The Bastards: Volume One", was released before "The Roots". In August 2011, iTunes accidentally released "The Roots" to users outside of the US. It was released in the US on October 4, 2011.

paragraphs: "The Family Tree: The Branches" was released on October 22, 2013 in America and on November 1 in Europe. "The Bastards: Volume Two" was also released that year.

paragraphs: "The Bastards: Volume Three" and "The Bastards: Volume Four" were both released in 2015, before the release of "The Family Tree: The Leaves" in March 2016. "The Leaves" has songs that are about Cooper's own life.

paragraphs: "Clone", an album by Ben Cooper and Richard Colado, was supposed to be released before fall of 2012, but it kept getting delayed. The first track of the album, "The Laboratory", was finally released on September 23, 2014. Cooper then released one track per week.


title: 2015–16 La Liga

paragraphs: The 2015–16 La Liga season (known as the "Liga BBVA" for sponsorship reasons) is the 85th since its establishment. Barcelona are the defending champions. The season started on 22 August 2015 and will conclude on 15 May 2016.


title: Test case (law)

paragraphs: In case law, a test case is a legal action whose purpose is to set a precedent. An example of a test case might be a person who files a lawsuit in order to see if the court considers a certain law or a certain legal precedent applies in certain circumstances. This is useful, for example, in order to later file similar lawsuits in similar circumstances. Sometimes, lawyers delay filing a lawsuit to wait and see how a test case is decided. Test cases are sometimes used to challenge a law to have it possibly overturned. Government agencies sometimes bring test cases in order to confirm or expand their powers.

paragraphs: Examples of influential test cases include:


title: Strict scrutiny

paragraphs: Strict scrutiny is the most stringent standard of judicial review used by United States courts. It is part of the hierarchy of standards that courts use to weigh the government's interest against a constitutional right or principle. The lesser standards are rational basis review and exacting or intermediate scrutiny. These standards are used to test statutes and government action at all levels of government within the United States.

paragraphs: The idea of "levels of judicial scrutiny", including strict scrutiny, was introduced in "United States v. Carolene Products Co." (1938), one of a series of decisions testing the constitutionality of New Deal legislation. The first and most notable case in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard and found the government's actions valid was "Korematsu v. United States" (1944). In "Korematsu" the Court upheld the government ruling 6-9 that the need to protect the country from espionage outweighed the rights of Mr. Korematsu.

paragraphs: U.S. courts apply the strict scrutiny standard in two contexts: when a fundamental constitutional right is infringed, particularly those found in the Bill of Rights and those the court has deemed a fundamental right protected by the Due Process Clause or "liberty clause" of the 14th Amendment, or when a government action applies to a "suspect classification," such as race or national origin.

paragraphs: To pass strict scrutiny, the law or policy must satisfy three tests:


title: Cancer of unknown primary origin

paragraphs: Cancer of unknown primary origin (CUP, "occult cancer") is a term used to describe a cancer that is said to be at the metastatic stage at the time of diagnosis, but a primary tumor cannot be identified. A diagnosis of CUP requires a clinical picture with metastatic disease and one or more biopsy results inconsistent with a primary tumor.

paragraphs: CUP is found in about 3 to 5% of all people diagnosed with invasive cancer, and carries a poor prognosis in most (80 to 85%) of those circumstances. The other 15 to 20% of patients, however, have a relatively long survival with appropriate treatment.


title: Joe Garagiola, Sr.

paragraphs: Joseph Henry Garagiola, Sr. (February 12, 1926 – March 23, 2016) was an American professional baseball catcher and later an announcer and television host.

paragraphs: Garagiola played nine seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs and the New York Giants. He was also well known outside of baseball for having been one of the regular panelists on "The Today Show" for many years and for his many appearances on game shows both as a host and panelist.

paragraphs: Garagiola died on March 23, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona at the age of 90.


title: Phife Dawg

paragraphs: Malik Isaac Taylor (November 20, 1970 – March 22, 2016), better known by his stage name Phife Dawg (or simply Phife), was an American rapper.

paragraphs: He was a member of the group A Tribe Called Quest with high school classmates Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad (and for a short time Jarobi White). He was also known as the "Five Foot Assassin" and "The Five Footer", because he stood at .

paragraphs: Taylor died on March 22, 2016 due to complications of diabetes at the age of 45.


title: Peter Brown (actor)

paragraphs: Peter Brown (October 5, 1935 – March 21, 2016) was an American television actor. He was known for his four-year role as young Deputy Johnny McKay in the 1958 to 1962 ABC/Warner Brothers western television series, "Lawman" and as Texas Ranger Chad Cooper on "Laredo" from 1965 to 1967.

paragraphs: Brown died on March 21, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 80.


title: Glen Dawson

paragraphs: Glen Dawson (June 3, 1912 – March 22, 2016) was an American rock climber, mountaineer, antiquarian bookseller, publisher and environmentalist. He was born in California.

paragraphs: In 1929, Glen began serious mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada. On July 6, 1930, during the Sierra Club's annual High Trip, he first teamed up with Jules Eichorn to make the third ascent of Red-and-White Mountain in the Sierra.

paragraphs: Dawson died in Pasadena, California on March 22, 2016, aged 103.


title: Jimmy Riley

paragraphs: Martin James Norman Riley (22 May 1954 – 23 March 2016), better known as Jimmy Riley, was a Jamaican singer. Along to recording solo, he was also a member of the Sensations and The Uniques. He was the father of Tarrus Riley.

paragraphs: In September 2013 he released the album "Contradiction", that featured guest appearances from his son Tarrus, Sizzla, and Fantan Mojah.

paragraphs: Riley died on the morning of 23 March 2016 in New York City after suffering from cancer, aged 61.


title: Carolyn Squires

paragraphs: Carolyn M. Squires (September 25, 1940 – March 21, 2016) was an American politician. She was a member of the Democratic Party.

paragraphs: Squires was a member of the Montana House of Representatives for the 96th district from 2010 to 2015. From 2002 to 2010, she was a member of the Montana Senate, representing District 48, where she served as Majority Whip. Earlier she was a member of the Montana House of Representatives from 1987 through 2000.

paragraphs: Squires died in Missoula, Montana from colorectal cancer at the age of 75.


title: Missoula, Montana

paragraphs: Missoula is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County. , the United States Census Bureau estimated the city's population at 69,821 and the population of the Missoula Metropolitan Area at 112,684. It is the second largest city in Montana. It is home of the University of Montana.


title: Santiago J. Erevia

paragraphs: Santiago Jesus Erevia (December 15, 1946 – March 22, 2016) was an American U.S. Army-veteran. He was born in Nordheim, Texas. Erevia served in the Vietnam War starting at the age of 22.

paragraphs: In 1970, Erevia left active service with a two-year reserve obligation. In 1972 he joined the Texas National Guard and went on to serve 17 years. Erevia worked as a mail carrier for the United States Postal Service, retiring in 2002 after thirty-two years of service.

paragraphs: Erevia was awarded the Medal of Honor by President Barack Obama in a March 18, 2014 ceremony at the White House.

paragraphs: Erevia died on March 22, 2016 in San Antonio, Texas at the age of 70.


title: EDVAC

paragraphs: EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one of the first electronic computers. Unlike the computer before it, the ENIAC, EDVAC operated in binary and was able to store programs.

paragraphs: Functionally, EDVAC was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with a capacity of 1,000 44-bit words. EDVAC's average addition time was 864 microseconds and its average multiplication time was 2,900 microseconds.

paragraphs: By 1960, EDVAC was running over 20 hours a day with error-free run time averaging eight hours. EDVAC ran until 1961 when it was replaced by BRLESC. During its operational life it proved to be reliable and productive for its time.


title: Naked singularity

paragraphs: In general relativity, a naked singularity is a gravitational singularity that is viewable from the outside. The event horizon is like a bubble which surrounds a black hole. Inside the event horizon, the pull of the light cannot escape, so we are unable to view objects inside the event horizon. This includes the event horizon itself. Naked singularities do not have an event horizon, hence the term 'naked'.

paragraphs: The existence of naked singularities is a very important topic in physics, because it would mean we could actually see phenomena made by black holes that we wouldn't be able to see otherwise. In addition, naked singularities would pose big problems for general relativity, since scientists still have not figured out a working idea for what happens to space-time in and around a black hole. Quantum mechanics, the main other scientific theory scientists turn to in physics, is also unable to explain how space-time would behave in such a situation.

paragraphs: Although the cosmic censorship hypothesis says that naked singularities cannot exist, some research says that if loop quantum gravity (a scientific theory that says the universe is made of small 'loops') is correct, naked singularities could exist in nature. Other calculations and arguments have been made to support this.


title: Civil Rights Cases

paragraphs: The Civil Rights Cases , were a group of five similar cases consolidated into one issue for the United States Supreme Court to review. The Court held that Congress lacked the constitutional authority under the Fourteenth Amendment to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals and organizations, rather than state and local governments.

paragraphs: The Court held that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which provided that "all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement; subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law, and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude" was unconstitutional.

paragraphs: The decision itself involved five consolidated cases (United States v. Stanley, United States v. Ryan, United States v. Nichols, United States v. Singleton, and Robinson v. Memphis & Charleston Railroad 109 U.S. 3, 3 S. Ct. 18, 27 L. Ed. 835.) coming from different lower courts in which Black Americans had sued theaters, hotels and transit companies that had refused them service or excluded them from "white only" facilities.

paragraphs: The Court, in an 8-1 decision by Justice Joseph P. Bradley, held that the language of the 14th Amendment, which prohibited denial of equal protection by a state, did not give Congress power to regulate these private acts. This was because it was the result of conduct by private individuals, not state law or action, that blacks were suffering. Section five empowers Congress only to enforce the prohibition on state action. Legislation by Congress on subjects which are within the domain of the state are not authorized by the 14th Amendment. Private acts of racial discrimination were simply private wrongs that the national government was powerless to correct. Bradley commented that "individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject-matter of the [14th] Amendment. It has a deeper and broader scope. It nullifies and makes void all state legislation, and state action of every kind, which impairs the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, or which injures them in life, liberty or property without due process of law, or which denies to any of them the equal protection of the laws."

paragraphs: The Court also acknowledged that the 13th Amendment does apply to private actors, but only to the extent that it prohibits people from owning slaves, not exhibiting discriminatory behavior. The Court said that "it would be running the slavery argument into the ground to make it apply to every act of discrimination which a person may see fit to make as to guests he will entertain, or as to the people he will take into his coach or cab or car; or admit to his concert or theatre, or deal with in other matters of intercourse or business."

paragraphs: Many African-American leaders were outraged and disappointed that the Supreme Court declared the first two sections of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional. On October 20, 1883, T. Thomas Fortune, the editor of the "New York Globe" wrote: "The colored people of the United States feel to-day as if they had been baptized in ice water". Many felt it was the end of an era in which the Federal government would protect the rights of African-American citizens.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court decision severely restricted the power of the federal government to guarantee equal status under the law to blacks. State officials in the South took advantage of the decision and began to enact laws that legalized the treatment of blacks as second-class citizens for another seventy years. The court's decision thus ultimately led to the enactment of state laws, such as Jim Crow laws, which made racial segregation the law.


title: United States Statutes at Large

paragraphs: The United States Statutes at Large, commonly referred to as the Statutes at Large and abbreviated Stat., is the official record of Acts of Congress and concurrent resolutions passed by the United States Congress. Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law (abbreviated Pub.L.) or private law (Pvt.L.), and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws (now commonly called session laws) are compiled into "Statutes at Large", which are numbered and organised by Congress session. They are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws ("Statutes at Large"), and codification ("United States Code").


title: Civil Rights Act of 1875

paragraphs: The Civil Rights Act of 1875 (–337), sometimes called Enforcement Act or Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prevent being excluded from jury duty. The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in "Civil Rights Cases" (1883) that sections of the act were unconstitutional.

paragraphs: The drafting of the bill was done in early 1870 by Senator Charles Sumner. It was with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African-American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st United States Congress in 1870. The act was eventually passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court, in an 8 to 1 decision, declared the act unconstitutional in the "Civil Rights Cases" on October 15, 1883. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law in the United States until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.

paragraphs: The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as one of the major pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War. These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870.

paragraphs: Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later adopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. This legislation relied on the Commerce Clause contained in of the Constitution of the United States.


title: Garner v. Louisiana

paragraphs: Garner v. Louisiana, , was an important civil rights case argued by Thurgood Marshall before the Supreme Court. On December 11, 1961, the court ruled that Louisiana could not convict peaceful sit-in protesters who refused to leave dining establishments under the state's "disturbing the peace" laws.

paragraphs: African-American students from Southern University sat at a "whites only" segregated lunch bar at Sitman's Drugstore in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The manager called the Police after the students quietly remained even though they were asked to move to another counter. After ordering the black patrons to leave, the Police arrested them and charged them with disturbing the peace. The claim was that their behavior could "foreseeably disturb or alarm the public," according to the state's "disturbing the peace" statute.

paragraphs: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People defended the student demonstrators as did the Kennedy administration's Justice Department, which filed a legal brief on their behalf.

paragraphs: In a 9-0 decision, the court ruled in the African-American students' favor, arguing the state violated due process of law under the Fourteenth Amendment and finding there was no evidence the students' behavior could have foreseeably disturbed the peace. In his written opinion, Justice John Marshall Harlan compared sit-in demonstrations to verbal expression as a form of free speech.

paragraphs: Justice William O. Douglas in his concurring opinion said, “For the police are supposed to be on the side of the Constitution, not on the side of discrimination. Yet if all constitutional questions are to be put aside and the problem treated merely in terms of disturbing the peace, I would have difficulty in reversing these judgments. I think, however, the constitutional questions must be reached and that they make reversal necessary.”

paragraphs: "Garner v. Louisiana" was an important case for the Civil Rights Movement, and one of many civil rights cases argued before the Warren Court (1953-69).

paragraphs: Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce."


title: Federal judiciary of the United States

paragraphs: The federal judiciary of the United States is one of the three co-equal branches of the Federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution. Article III of the Constitution requires the establishment of a Supreme Court and permits the Congress to create other federal courts, and place limitations on their jurisdiction. Article III United States federal judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve until they resign, are impeached and convicted, retire, or die.

paragraphs: The federal courts are composed of three levels of courts. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court. It is generally an appellate court that operates under discretionary review, which means that the Court can choose which cases to hear, by granting of writs of certiorari. There is generally no right of appeal to the Supreme Court. In a few situations (like lawsuits between state governments or some cases between the federal government and a state) it sits as a court of original jurisdiction.

paragraphs: The United States courts of appeals are the intermediate federal appellate courts. There are 13 appellate courts that determine if the law was applied correctly in trial courts. In some cases, Congress has diverted appellate jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review.

paragraphs: There are 94 United States district courts. These are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals. The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)


title: Rob Paulsen

paragraphs: Robert Fredrick "Rob" Paulsen III (born March 11, 1956) is an American voice actor, singer and former film and television actor who has done many voice roles in various films, television shows and video games. He is best known for his roles as Pinky from "Pinky and the Brain". P.J. in "A Goofy Movie" and "Goof Troop", Carl Wheezer from "The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron Boy Genius", Raphael (1987) and Donatello (2012) from "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" and Dr. Otto Scratchansniff from "Animaniacs".