title: Association football

paragraphs: Association football is a sport played between two teams. It was invented in England, and is played in most countries. In the United States and Canada, it is called soccer. In most other countries it is called football. Association football is the most popular sport in the world.

paragraphs: There were various attempts to codify the rules of football in England in the mid-19th century. The present laws date from 1863 when a set of rules was adopted in Rugby, Warwickshire by the newly formed Football Association.

paragraphs: Each team has 11 players on the field. One of these players is the goalkeeper, and the other ten are known as "outfield players". The game is played by kicking a ball into the opponent's goal. A match has 90 minutes of play, with a break of 15 minutes during the match. The break in the middle is called "half-time". Added time may be added after half time or after 90 minutes to make up for time lost during the game because of fouls, free kicks, corner kicks, injuries, bookings, substitutions or any other time the game is stopped. If a match ends in a tie, extra-time with two halves of 15 minutes each may be played, and if there is still a tie, a penalty shootout decides the winner. Sometimes extra-time is skipped and the game goes right into the penalty shootout.

paragraphs: There are many competitions for football, for both football clubs and countries. Football clubs usually play other teams in their own country, with a few exceptions. Here are a list of some of those exceptions:

paragraphs: Football clubs also play other teams in their continent in competitions such as the CAF Champions League and the UEFA Champions League.

paragraphs: There are 6 associations (CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, CAF, UEFA, AFC, and OFC). Each association has their own continental competition between clubs and national teams. Some examples are the Copa América for CONMEBOL national teams and the Copa Libertadores for CONMEBOL clubs. FIFA organises international competitions between worldwide clubs and countries. Clubs play in the Club World Cup, and countries play for the FIFA World Cup.

paragraphs: The FIFA World Cup takes place every four years between national teams, and is the world's most popular sporting event, even more popular than the Olympic Games. In football, there are two main competition types. In a "league", all of the teams play the same number of games, but in a "cup", teams leave the competition when they lose, until the last two teams play each other to decide the winner.

paragraphs: Football is the world's most popular sport. It is played in more countries than any other game. In fact, FIFA (the Federation Internationale de Football Association) has more members than the United Nations. It was originally an all-male sport, but today it is played by both males and females (separately, except sometimes at primary school level).

paragraphs: In Europe, the main competitions to compete are the Champions League for the top teams from the top leagues in each country in Europe. Then there is the UEFA Europa League which is for the next best teams from each member country of the UEFA.

paragraphs: The most successful club in the world, in terms of domestic league results, is Rangers F.C. from Scotland, who have won more domestic league titles than any other team in the world. They have won the country's league 54 times which is a world record. In May 2000, Rangers became the first team to win 100 trophies. Other successful clubs are FC Barcelona and Real Madrid from Spain, Bayern Munich and Borussia Dortmund from Germany, Galatasaray S.K. from Turkey, Juventus and Napoli from Italy, Liverpool and Manchester City from England, and Paris Saint-Germain from France.


title: Spamming

paragraphs: Spamming is when one person or company sends an unwanted email to another person. Spam emails are the computer version of unwanted "junk mail" that arrives in a mailbox, such as advertising pamphlets and brochures. Spam emails are usually sent to try to get the person to buy something or do something else that will cause gain for the sender.

paragraphs: The emails sent when someone is spamming is called spam. The person or company who sent the unwanted email is called a spammer. Both of these words came from a brand of canned meat called "Spam", but it was a short sketch created by the British comedy group Monty Python in 1970 that led to the word "Spam" being widely used to mean unwanted email messages.

paragraphs: Spam emails are usually sent to many people at once trying to get them to buy a product or sign up for a service. The people who receive the email did not ask to receive the email, and do not want to receive it.

paragraphs: One of the reasons there is so much spam emails around is that it costs very little to send millions of spam messages at once. Spam messages can easily be sent, sometimes even by a special computer program.

paragraphs: The hardest part about spamming is to get the email addresses to send the spam to. Sometimes the spammers do this by searching for emails on the internet, or by buying emails from people who know a lot of them (for example, someone who runs a site that makes users tell them their email address to signup will have a lot of email addresses to sell to spammers).

paragraphs: One part of getting e-mail addresses is to find addresses that are still in use. One trick used by spammers is to put a link at the end of a message like this:

paragraphs: If the person clicks on the link, it tells the spammers that there is someone at the address. Then the spammers put that person on a list of people who actually open spam messages. Next, the spammers sell that list to other spammers. The same thing happens if the person sends another email back to the spammer (called "replying"), which also tells the spammer the message has been opened.

paragraphs: Another trick that spammers use is to put a picture – even one that cannot be seen – into a spam message. The picture will have a name that goes with just that one email. When the email is opened, a request will be sent to the server that has that picture to get the image. If they get this request, then they know that you read their email, which could cause a person to receive even more email spam.

paragraphs: The word "spamming" is also used to describe the act of typing a lot of words or text in Internet chat rooms, so that other people using the chatroom cannot carry on conversations. Usually this blocks the screen with meaningless words, in order to annoy the other people in the chatroom. Spamming in Internet chatrooms is usually considered to be rude. This kind of behavior is usually called "flooding" rather than "spamming".

paragraphs: The word "spam" is often (mistakenly) applied to emails containing content that the receiver sees as silly or simply meaningless (e.g. yujhcykgfvylfuv,uyguvgy).

paragraphs: Computer users at home and in workplaces waste a lot of time opening and deleting spam messages. In some cases, spam emails contain viruses or links to pornography or illegal gambling websites. Spam emails often advertise products or services which are being lied about by the companies sending the spam, such as frauds or scams.

paragraphs: Some user email programs can automatically delete spam messages when they arrive, or move them to a separate spam folder. Internet service providers also detect them automatically and cooperate to cut off customers who are major spammers.


title: Earthquake

paragraphs: An earthquake is the sudden movement of the Earth's tectonic plates, resulting in shaking of the ground. This shaking can result in the damage of various structures such as buildings and further breakdown of the Earth's surface.

paragraphs: The study of earthquakes is called seismology. Earthquakes are usually quite brief, but there may be many over a short time frame. The sudden release of tension in the tectonic plates sends waves of energy that travel through the Earth. Seismology studies the cause, frequency, type and size of earthquakes.

paragraphs: There are large earthquakes and small earthquakes. Large earthquakes can take down buildings and cause death and injury. Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismographs. The magnitude of an earthquake and the intensity of shaking is usually reported on the Richter scale. The Richter Scale was invented by Charles Francis Richter in 1935. On the scale, 2 is scarcely noticeable, and magnitude 5 (or more) causes damage over a wide area.

paragraphs: An earthquake under the ocean can cause a tsunami, which can cause just as much destruction as the earthquake itself in mountainous areas. Earthquakes can also cause landslides. Earthquakes are part of the Earth's natural rock cycle.

paragraphs: The impact of an earthquake can be measured by a seismometer. It detects the vibrations caused and it puts these movements on a seismograph. The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake, is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is numbered 0-9. The largest earthquake ever measured was a 9.5 on the scale a 10 has never been recorded.

paragraphs: Scientists cannot predict an earthquake before it happens. But we do know where earthquakes might happen in the future, like close to fault lines.An earthquake under the ocean can cause a tsunami, this can cause just as much destruction as the earthquake itself.

paragraphs: Earthquakes sometimes hit cities and kill hundreds or thousands of people. Most earthquakes happen along the Pacific Ring of Fire but the biggest ones mostly happen in other places. Tectonically active places are places where earthquakes or volcanic eruptions are quite frequent.

paragraphs: Earthquakes are caused by tectonic movements in the Earth's crust. The main cause is when tectonic plates ride one over the other, causing orogeny (mountain building), and severe earthquakes.

paragraphs: The boundaries between moving plates form the largest fault surfaces on Earth. When they stick, motion between the plates leads to increasing stress. This continues until the stress rises and breaks, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault. This releases the stored energy as shock waves. The San Andreas fault in San Francisco, and Rift valley fault in Africa are faults like this.

paragraphs: 1. Volcanic Earthquakes : Earthquakes which are caused by volcanic eruptions are quite devastating. However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.

paragraphs: 2. Collapse Earthquakes : In areas of intense mining activity, often the roofs of underground mines collapse and minor tremors take place. These are called collapse earthquakes.

paragraphs: There are three main types of geological fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other.

paragraphs: Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors which cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.

paragraphs: A foreshock is an earthquake that occurs before a larger earthquake, called the mainshock.

paragraphs: An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. Aftershocks are formed as the crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock.

paragraphs: Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notably higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.

paragraphs: Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern occurred in the North Anatolian fault in Turkey in the 20th century.

paragraphs: Tsunami or a chain of fast moving waves in the ocean caused by powerful earthquakes is a very serious challenge for people's safety and for earthquake engineering. Those waves can inundate coastal areas, destroy houses and even swipe away whole towns. This is a danger for the whole mankind.

paragraphs: Unfortunately, tsunamis can not be prevented. However, there are warning systems which may warn the population before the big waves reach the land to let them enough time to rush to safety.we aware of this tsunami

paragraphs: Earthquake-proof buildings are constructed to withstand the destructive force of an earthquake. This depends upon its type of construction, shape, mass distribution, and rigidity. Different combinations are used. Square, rectangular, and shell-shaped buildings can withstand earthquakes better than skyscrapers. To reduce stress, a building's ground floor can be supported by extremely rigid, hollow columns, while the rest of the building is supported by flexible columns inside the hollow columns. Another method is to use rollers or rubber pads to separate the base columns from the ground, allowing the columns to shake parallel to each other during an earthquake.

paragraphs: To help prevent a roof from collapsing, builders make the roof out of light-weight materials. Outdoor walls are made with stronger and more reinforced materials such as steel or reinforced concrete. During an earthquake flexible windows may help hold the windows together so they don’t break.


title: Colour

paragraphs: Colour or color is a property of light as seen by people. In Latin, as well as the United States, the word is spelled “color” (without a ‘u’.) In traditional English, it is spelled “colour” (with a ‘u’).

paragraphs: "Primary colours" can be mixed to make the other colours. Red, yellow and blue are the three traditional primary colours. The primary colours for television screens and computer monitors are red, green and blue. Printers use magenta, yellow and cyan as their primary colours; they also use black.

paragraphs: People who can not see colours or have a distorted sense of colour are called colour blind. Most colour blind people are male.

paragraphs: Colours are sometimes added to food. Food colouring is used to colour food, but some foods have natural colourings, like beta carotene.

paragraphs: When something has no colour, it is transparent. An example is air.

paragraphs: The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply color science

paragraphs: A translucent material is not the same as a colourless material because it can still have a colour, like stained glass.


title: Scurvy

paragraphs: Scurvy is a disease (sickness). It is caused by not eating enough vitamin C. But scurvy can be prevented. It has many symptoms. People who have scurvy get spots on their skin, especially on their legs. Their teeth may loosen and/or fall out. They may bleed from the mouth, nose, and gums (mucus membranes). A person with scurvy will look pale and feel sad (see depression). They will not be able to move easily, because their joints hurt.

paragraphs: Scurvy can be easily cured. Oranges and other fruits can restore vitamins. In the past, sailors more commonly got scurvy. Fresh fruit could not be kept for long.The main cause of scurvy is lack of fresh fruits and vegetables. It is uncommon today.

paragraphs: When a person gets help for scurvy, they usually get better very quickly. Babies start eating again after one or two days of help. The symptoms get better within seven days.

paragraphs: Eating vitamin C prevents scurvy. How much vitamin C a person needs changes with his or her age and is different for pregnant and lactating women. The following is the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council's advice on how much vitamin C to eat every day:

paragraphs: Foods with a lot of vitamin C include the following:


title: Ion

paragraphs: An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms.

paragraphs: It is a part of an atom, or part of a group of atoms (molecule). It is "charged" so it will move near electricity. This is because atoms are made of three smaller parts:

paragraphs: An ion has unequal numbers of protons and electrons. Making an ion from an atom or molecule is called "ionization".

paragraphs: The charge on a proton is measured as +1 (positively charged). The charge on an electron is measured as -1 (negatively charged). An atom that is ionized makes two ions, one positive, and one negatively charged. For example, a neutral hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron. Heating the atom breaks it into two parts: (1) a positively charged hydrogen ion, H+ (2) a negatively charged electron.

paragraphs: A liquid with ions is called an electrolyte. A gas with lots of ions is called a plasma. When ions move, it is called electricity. For example, in a wire, the metal ions do not move, but the electrons move as electricity. A positive ion and a negative ion will move together. Two ions of the same charge will move apart. When ions move they also make "magnetic fields".

paragraphs: Many ions are colourless. Elements in the main groups in the Periodic Table form colourless ions. Some ions are coloured. The transition metals usually form coloured ions.

paragraphs: In physics, atomic nuclei that have been completely ionized are called charged particles. These are ones in alpha radiation.

paragraphs: Ionization happens by giving atoms high energy. This is done using electrical voltage or by high-energy ionizing radiation or high temperature.

paragraphs: A simple ion is formed from a single atom.

paragraphs: Polyatomic ions are formed from a number of atoms. Polyatomic ions usually consist of all non-metal atoms. But sometimes the polyatomic ion can have a metallic atom too.

paragraphs: Positive ions are called cations. They are attracted to cathodes (negatively charged electrodes). ("Cation" is pronounced "cat eye on", not "kay shun".) All simple metal ions are cations.

paragraphs: Negative ions are called anions. They are attracted to anodes (positively charged electrodes). All simple non-metal ions (except H, which is a proton) are anions (except NH).

paragraphs: Transition metals can form more than one simple cation with different charges.

paragraphs: Most ions have a charge of less than 4, but some can have higher charges.

paragraphs: Michael Faraday was the first person to write a theory about ions, in 1830. In his theory, he said what the portions of molecules were like that moved to anions or cations. Svante August Arrhenius showed how this happened. He wrote this in his doctoral dissertation in 1884 (University of Uppsala). The university did not accept his theory at first (he only just passed his degree). But in 1903, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the same idea.

paragraphs: In Greek "ion" is like the word "go". "Anion" and "cation" mean "up-goer" and "down-goer". "Anode" and "cathode" are "way up" and "way down".


title: Cognitive science

paragraphs: Cognitive science studies how people make their ideas and what makes thoughts logical. It is often seen as the result of several different scientific fields working together. These fields are psychology (a study of the mind), neuroscience (biological study of the brain), computer science (the creation of programs and computers), and linguistics (the study of language). It does not refer to the sum of all these disciplines. It refers to their intersection on specific problems.


title: Anthropology

paragraphs: Anthropology is the study of human beings in the past and present.

paragraphs: The word anthropology has two roots: [ anthrop- ] and [ -ology ]. Anthrop- means “about human beings,” and -ology means “a type of science." Anthropology is a type of science about human beings. A person who studies anthropology is called an anthropologist.

paragraphs: The main goal of anthropology is to answer the questions: What makes us human and why?

paragraphs: Anthropology is a biological and historical social science that helps us learn how groups of people are the same, and how they are different in all parts of the world. Anthropologists do research in many places and study how people live now and how they may have lived in the past. They research in modern cities, small villages, tribes, and in the countryside.

paragraphs: Anthropology uses a "four-field approach" that divides anthropology into four big kinds:

paragraphs: Archaeology is the study of humans from the past. People who study archaeology are called archaeologists.

paragraphs: Archaeologists look at things that past people left behind to know how they lived. They look at tools, bones, and past houses to see how people in the past are not the same as people that live today.

paragraphs: Here are some other examples of what archaeologists like to study:

paragraphs: Biological or physical anthropology studies human bodies and how they change over time.

paragraphs: They look at how humans live in nature and how their bodies change because of where they live. They also study how human beings and apes and monkeys are alike. Sometimes biological anthropologists study human and animal bones to learn about how past humans lived. They are also called physical anthropologists.

paragraphs: Here are some other examples of what biological anthropologists like to study:

paragraphs: Linguistic anthropology is the study of how people talk.

paragraphs: Linguistic anthropologists study sounds and how they go together to make words. Then they study what the words mean and how people use them. Linguistic anthropology also studies how language changes what people think and how people change language. No two people talk the same way, so linguistic anthropologists want to know why that happens.

paragraphs: Here are some other examples of what linguistic anthropologists like to study:

paragraphs: Socio-Cultural Anthropology is the study of human societies and cultures.

paragraphs: It looks at how human beings understand the world around them and how they act with the people around them. Socio-cultural anthropologists study living people by going to their homes and learning about who those people are and what they do. They write about people in places all over the world to see why people are different. Some socio-cultural anthropologists study medicine in these places and some look at how babies grow up in other places.

paragraphs: Here are some other examples of what socio-cultural anthropologists like to study:

paragraphs: Even though there are four main kinds of anthropology, there are a lot of different kinds of anthropology within the four main kinds. Here are some examples:

paragraphs: Like everything in life, anthropology has a set of rules that every anthropologist needs to follow. The rules try to make sure that no one gets hurt or mad when studying other people. Here are some of the rules:

paragraphs: This is a list of important people who studied anthropology.


title: Defense (military)

paragraphs: Defense or defence is protecting something from attack. Defenders have advantages over attackers. They can use fortifications and weapons that are too large to move. The defending side in an air battle can have help from anti-aircraft warfare.

paragraphs: Trench warfare during World War I was an example of the advantages of defenders. Attackers were rarely able to take territory that the enemy defended with the new weapons of the time. Later, armies developed newer weapons and methods and that again allowed them to attack and take even fortified places. Tanks, for example, were well protected from machine guns, and groups of tanks could move fast enough to avoid being completely destroyed by artillery.

paragraphs: A country's government may form an army and navy and/or an air force to protect the country and its people from attacks. The same forces can also attack other countries. A country can also use the military to kill or arrest people, or members of groups, from other countries who have hurt or killed their own citizens.


title: The bush

paragraphs: The bush is a phrase used to describe land where people do not live, land a long way from cities, or forests. The word is mainly used in Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Canada, and Alaska.

paragraphs: In Australia, the phrase, "the bush", has a special symbolic meaning in Australian life. When used to describe the land, "the bush" means a wooded area, but not dense forest. It is usually dry and nitrogen-poor soil, mostly grassless, with thin to thick woody shrubs and bushes, with some eucalypt trees.

paragraphs: When talking about people, "the bush" means any unpopulated areas outside of the major metropolitan areas. This can include mining and farming areas. It is not unusual to have a mining town in the desert, such as Port Hedland, Western Australia (Pop. 14,000) called "the bush" in the media.

paragraphs: The word bush is also added to any number of other words, things or activities to describe their rural, country or folk nature, e.g. "Bush Cricket", "Bush Music", etc.


title: Moondyne Joe

paragraphs: Moondyne Joe (1826 – 1900), real name Joseph Bolitho Johns, is the most famous bushranger from Western Australia. He became famous, not for his crimes, but for his many escapes from gaol (jail).

paragraphs: Johns was born in Cornwall, England around 1826. His father Thomas Johns was a blacksmith. He might have had smallpox in his youth, as later his face is said to be "pockmarked". After his father died, Johns and his three brothers worked in the copper mines. In 1841 the family was living at Illogan, Penwith, Cornwall. By 1848 Johns had moved to Wales, working as an iron ore miner, at the Clydach Iron Works.

paragraphs: On 15 November 1848, Johns and a friend, John Williams, were arrested near Chepstow for stealing from the house of Richard Price, three loaves of bread, one piece of bacon, several cheeses, and "other goods".<ref name="The Welshman 30/03/1849"></ref> They were charged with burglary and stealing, but they said they did not steal anything. On 23 March they were tried in court with Sir William Erleas the judge. Newspaper reports say that the men were very determined to prove their innocence, but Johns was not polite and did not follow the normal court rules. The men were convicted and sent to gaol for ten years. Johns must have made the judge angry. In other cases before the same judge that day, people on the same type of charges were sent to gaol for times between three weeks to three months.

paragraphs: Johns and Williams spent the next seven months working on a government work party in the local area, before being sent to Millbank Prison. On 1 January 1850, they were sent to Pentonville Prison to serve six months of solitary confinement. On 21 October 1851, they were sent to Dartmoor Prison. Johns was sent to the Woolwich prison hulk "Justitia", probably for bad behavior. When the "Justitia" was destroyed by fire, he was moved to the "Defence". About a year later, he was put on convict transport ship, the "Pyrenees", and sent to the British penal colony of Western Australia.

paragraphs: The "Pyrenees" sailed for Western Australia on 2 February 1853, and arrived in Fremantle on 30 April. He was a well behaved prisoner, and as a reward Johns was given a ticket of leave. On 10 March 1855, he was given a conditional pardon. He moved to the Avon Valley, which was a remote valley, in the Darling Range. The Aboriginal name for the area was "Moondyne". Johns put a fence around a natural water spring in the area, and trapped lost sheep, cattle and horses when they came to drink. Farmers would pay a reward to get their animals back.

paragraphs: In August 1861, Johns trapped a horse without a brand (owner's mark). He put his own brand on it, which was really stealing. He was soon arrested by the police. The horse was taken as evidence, and Johns was placed in the Toodyay gaol. During the night, Johns escaped from his cell, took the horse and the magistrate's new saddle and bridle. He was caught the next day, but he had killed the horse and cut out the brand to destroy the evidence. Without the proof he was only sent to gaol for three years for escaping, not the ten years he would have been given for horse stealing.

paragraphs: Johns was a well behaved prisoner, so he was let out early with a ticket of leave in February 1864. He worked on a farm at Kelmscott. In January 1865 a bullock was killed and eaten, and the police said that Johns had done it. He said he had not killed the animal, but in court he was sent to gaol for ten years. At this time the only things he owned were one pair of trousers, one shirt, one pair of boots, one strap and one old hat. Johns decided he would not stay in gaol because he had not done anything wrong. In November he and another prisoner escaped from a work party. During the next month they robbed a few houses. Johns began calling himself "Moondyne Joe". They were captured east of York by the police with help from a black tracker, Tommy Windich. Black trackers were Indigenous Australian who had very good skills for finding things in the bush. For escaping, and for having a gun, Moondyne Joe was sent to prison for 12 months. He had to wear iron chains around his legs.

paragraphs: Moondyne Joe did not think he had been treated properly. In April 1865, he wrote a letter to the Chief Justice. The Chief Justice cut his gaol time by four years, but Joe was still not happy. A few weeks later he tried to cut the lock out of his door. He was given another six months in leg irons. In August, he escaped again, cutting off his leg irons. He met up with three other escaped convicts and together they robbed people in the bush around Perth. At the end of August, one of the gang was taken prisoner by the police.

paragraphs: Moondyne Joe came up with a plan to get away from Western Australia by going overland to South Australia. This would be a long and difficult journey through the desert. On 5 September, Moondyne Joe stole boots, blankets, clothing, guns and ammunition, knives and food from a shop at Toodyay, owned by an old convict, James Everett. The gang went east, following the track made by the explorer Charles Hunt. Their tracks were discovered by police on 26 September, about east of York. The police set out after them, and they were captured on 29 September, about north east of Perth. This is near where the town of Westonia is now.

paragraphs: Moondyne Joe was sent back to jail, and given another five years with hard labor. To make sure that he could not escape again, he was sent to Fremantle Prison where a special cell was built. It was made with stone, and lined with very thick pieces of wood. He was set to work in the prison yard breaking up rocks into small stones. He was watched all the time by a prison guard. The Governor of Western Australia, John Hampton, said to Johns: "If you get out again, I'll forgive you".

paragraphs: However, the rocks broken up by Joe were not taken away, and soon a large amount of stones blocked the guard's view of Joe's legs. Partly hidden behind the stones, he sometimes hit his hammer against the prison wall. On 7 March, 1867, Moondyne Joe escaped through a hole he had made in the prison wall. The police searched everywhere, but he could not be found. He did not rob any more people, and he did not go any place where someone might know who he was. Many prisoners heard about Moondyne Joe's escape, and tried to escape themselves.

paragraphs: In March 1867, Moondyne Joe tried to steal some wine from the cellars at Houghton Winery. The owner had been helping the police on another search, and brought the policemen to the winery for a drink. Joe thought he had been seen, and ran out of the cellar, right into the policemen. He was sent back to prison and given four more years, as well as having to wear chains around his legs. He tried to escape, but was quickly captured. The new Governor, Weld, heard about Hampton's promise, and said the extra punishment was not fair. Moondyne Joe was given another ticket of leave in April 1871.

paragraphs: Moondyne Joe did not rob anyone else, though he did do some wrong things and was sent back to jail a few more times. In January 1879, he married a widow named Louisa Hearn, and they spent some time looking for gold near Southern Cross. In 1881, while looking around Karridale, he discovered Moondyne Cave. In his later years, he began acting strangely, and became mentally ill. He died of senile dementia in the Fremantle Lunatic Asylum (now the Fremantle Arts Centre building) on 13 August, 1900. He was buried in Fremantle Cemetery.

paragraphs: Every year, on the first Sunday of May, the small town of Toodyay remembers the life of Moondyne Joe with the Moondyne Festival. This festival takes place in the main street with street theatre, markets and performances. The most recent Moondyne Festival was on Sunday May 1, 2016.

paragraphs: While Moondyne Joe was bushranging in 1869, an Irish prisoner named John Boyle O'Reilly was in Fremantle Prison. He must have heard many stories about Joe's escapes. In September 1869, O'Reilly escaped with help from an American ship. After he got to the United States, he wrote a novel about convict life called Moondyne: An Australian Tale, whose main character was called "Moondyne Joe". The book is not a true story, and the character and the story are different to the life of Joseph Johns.

paragraphs: In 1913, O'Reilly's book was made into a movie called "Moondyne". Directed by W. J. Lincoln, it starred George Bryant, Godfrey Cass and Roy Redgrave.

paragraphs: Randolph Stow wrote a funny children's book, "Midnite: The Story of a Wild Colonial Boy", in 1967. This told the story of an Australian bushranger based on the lives of Moondyne Joe and a Queensland bushranger, Captain Starlight.

paragraphs: In 2002, Cygnet Books published "The Legend of Moondyne Joe", by Mark Greenwood and pictures by Frané Lessac. The book won the award in the Children's Books section at the 2002 Western Australian Premier's Book Awards.

paragraphs: The Ballad of Moondyne Joe, a song which started:

paragraphs: "In the Darling Ranges, many years ago,<br>

paragraphs: There lived a daring outlaw, by the name of ‘Moondyne Joe’...".

paragraphs: For Moondyne Joe has give 'em the slip, <br>


title: Fremantle, Western Australia

paragraphs: Fremantle is a port city in Western Australia. It is the main city on the ocean and is near Perth. The city has a population of 26,000 people. It is at the place where the Swan River runs into the Indian Ocean.

paragraphs: It was established by English people who arrived there in 1829 and established the Swan River Colony. The city is named after Charles Fremantle who was the captain of the first ship to arrive there.


title: Standard deviation

paragraphs: Standard deviation is a number used to tell how measurements for a group are spread out from the average (mean or expected value). A low standard deviation means that most of the numbers are close to the average, while a high standard deviation means that the numbers are more spread out.

paragraphs: The reported margin of error is usually twice the standard deviation. Scientists commonly report the standard deviation of numbers from the average number in experiments. They often decide that only differences bigger than two or three times the standard deviation are important. Standard deviation is also useful in money, where the standard deviation on interest earned shows how different one person’s interest earned might be from the average.

paragraphs: Many times, only a sample, or part of a group can be measured. Then a number close to the standard deviation for the whole group can be found by a slightly different equation called the sample standard deviation, explained below. In which case, the standard deviation of the whole group is represented by the Greek letter formula_1, and that of the sample by formula_2.

paragraphs: Consider a group having the following eight numbers:

paragraphs: These eight numbers have the average (mean) of 5:

paragraphs: To calculate the population standard deviation, first find the difference of each number in the list from the mean. Then square the result of each difference:

paragraphs: Next, find the average of these values (sum divided by the number of numbers). Last, take the square root:

paragraphs: The answer is the population standard deviation. The formula is only true if the eight numbers we started with are the whole group. If they are only a part of the group picked at random, then we should use instead of in the bottom (denominator) of the second-to-last step. Then the answer is the (biased corrected) sample standard deviation. This is called the Bessel's Correction.

paragraphs: Here is a slightly harder, real-life example: The average height for grown men in the United States is 70", with a standard deviation of 3". A standard deviation of 3” means that most men (about 68%, assuming a normal distribution) have a height 3" taller to 3” shorter than the average (67"–73") — one standard deviation. Almost all men (about 95%) have a height 6” taller to 6” shorter than the average (64"–76") — two standard deviations. Three standard deviations include all the numbers for 99.7% of the sample population being studied. This is true if the distribution is normal (bell-shaped).

paragraphs: If the standard deviation were zero, then all men would be exactly 70" tall. If the standard deviation were 20", then some men would be much taller or much shorter than the average, with a typical range of about 50"–90".

paragraphs: For another example, each of the three groups {0, 0, 14, 14}, {0, 6, 8, 14} and {6, 6, 8, 8} has an average (mean) of 7. But their standard deviations are 7, 5, and 1. The third group has a much smaller standard deviation than the other two because its numbers are all close to 7. In general, the standard deviation tells us how far from the average the rest of the numbers tend to be, and it will have the same units as the numbers themselves. If, for example, the group {0, 6, 8, 14} is the ages of a group of four brothers in years, the average is 7 years and the standard deviation is 5 years.

paragraphs: Standard deviation may serve as a measure of uncertainty. In science, for example, the standard deviation of a group of repeated measurements helps scientists know how sure they are of the average number. When deciding whether measurements from an experiment agree with a prediction, the standard deviation of those measurements is very important. If the average number from the experiments is too far away from the predicted number (with the distance measured in standard deviations), then the theory being tested may not be right. For more information, see prediction interval.

paragraphs: Understanding the standard deviation of a set of values allows us to know how large a difference from the "average" (mean) is expected.

paragraphs: As a simple example, consider the average daily high temperatures for two cities, one inland and one near the ocean. It is helpful to understand that the range of daily high temperatures for cities near the ocean is smaller than for cities inland. These two cities may each have the same average daily high temperature. However, the standard deviation of the daily high temperature for the coastal city will be less than that of the inland city .

paragraphs: Another way of seeing it is to consider sports teams. In any sport, there will be teams that are good at some things and not at others. The teams that are ranked highest will not show a lot of differences in abilities. They do well in most categories. The lower the standard deviation of their ability in each category, the more balanced and consistent they are. Teams with a higher standard deviation, however, will be less predictable. A team that is usually bad in most categories will have a low standard deviation. A team that is usually good in most categories will also have a low standard deviation. However, a team with a high standard deviation might be the type of team that scores many points (strong offense) but also lets the other team score many points (weak defense).

paragraphs: Trying to know ahead of time which teams will win may include looking at the standard deviations of the various team "statistics." Numbers that are different from expected can match strengths vs. weaknesses to show what reasons may be most important in knowing which team will win.

paragraphs: In racing, the time a driver takes to finish each lap around the track is measured. A driver with a low standard deviation of lap times is more consistent than a driver with a higher standard deviation. This information can be used to help understand how a driver can reduce the time to finish a lap.

paragraphs: In money, standard deviation may mean the risk that a price will go up or down (stocks, bonds, property, etc.). It can also mean the risk that a group of prices will go up or down (actively managed mutual funds, index mutual funds, or ETFs). Risk is one reason to make decisions about what to buy. Risk is a number people can use to know how much money they may earn or lose. As risk gets larger, the return on an investment can be more than expected (the "plus" standard deviation). However, an investment can also lose more money than expected (the "minus" standard deviation).

paragraphs: For example, a person had to choose between two stocks. Stock A over the past 20 years had an average return of 10 percent, with a standard deviation of 20 percentage points (pp). Stock B over the past 20 years had an average return of 12 percent but a higher standard deviation of 30 pp. Thinking about the risk, the person may decide that Stock A is the safer choice. Even though they may not make as much money, they probably will not lose much money either. The person may think that Stock B's 2 point higher average is not worth the additional 10 pp standard deviation (greater risk or uncertainty of the expected return).

paragraphs: Most math equations for standard deviation assume that the numbers are normally distributed. This means that the numbers are spread out in a certain way on both sides of the average value. The normal distribution is also called a Gaussian distribution because it was discovered by Carl Friedrich Gauss. It is often called the bell curve because the numbers spread out to make the shape of a bell on a graph.

paragraphs: Numbers are not normally distributed if they are grouped on one side or the other side of the average value. Numbers can be spread out and still be normally distributed. The standard deviation tells how widely the numbers are spread out.

paragraphs: The average (mean) and the standard deviation of a set of data are usually written together. Then a person can understand what the average number is and how widely other numbers in the group are spread out.

paragraphs: The way a group of numbers is spread out can also be given by the coefficient of variation (CV), which is the standard deviation divided by the average. It is a dimensionless number. Coefficient of variation is often multiplied by 100% and written as a percentage.

paragraphs: The term "standard deviation" was first used in writing by Karl Pearson in 1894, after he used it in lectures. It was as a replacement for earlier names for the same idea: for example, Gauss used "mean error".


title: Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows

paragraphs: Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is the seventh and last book in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series. The book was released worldwide on 21 July 2007. It became the fastest-selling book ever, with 8.3 million copies sold in the United States during the first 24 hours.

paragraphs: This book is about Harry Potter, the main character of the book series, going on a journey to destroy horcruxes made by the villain of the series, Voldemort.

paragraphs: The movie was to be released in 2010, but on 8 March 2008, it was announced that the movie will be split into two parts; part one was released on 19 November 2010 and part two was released on 15 July 2011.

paragraphs: In Harry potter and the Deathly hallows, Harry and Hermione visit Lily and James Potter's graves. Ron has left Harry and Hermione for a while. At the end Voldemort is finally dead once and for all. Nineteen years later Harry marries Ginny Weasley and Hermione marries Ron Weasley. They all live happily, knowing nothing can harm them now.


title: Boiling

paragraphs: Boiling is the phase change that occurs when a liquid becomes gas throughout the substance. When bubbles are formed you can tell a substance is boiling. This is not to be confused with evaporation.

paragraphs: The temperature at which boiling happens is called the boiling point and depends on the particular nature of the substance.

paragraphs: For example, water boils at around 100 °C (Celsius degrees). When water is boiling, it transforms into a vapor called water vapor.


title: He

paragraphs: He (, unstressed ) is a third-person singular pronoun used to talk about a male. "He" can be used in place of a male's name. When the name of a man has been the subject, then "he" can be used instead of that name. While "he" is the subject form, the word "him" is the object or possessive form ("see table below"). The word "he" is used for a man (or boy) where the word "she" would be used for a woman.

paragraphs: In the past, "he" and "him" were often used as gender-neutral pronouns. In other words, the word may have been used in a general way to refer to any person who is either male or female.


title: Swan River

paragraphs: The Swan River is an important river in Western Australia. It runs past the city of Perth and into the Indian Ocean at Fremantle.


title: Scheinfeld

paragraphs: Scheinfeld is a city in Franconia, Germany. The city has 13 districts:

paragraphs: The city was first mentioned in the 8th century. It lies about 40 km east of Würzburg. The settlement got town privileges in 1415.


title: Dirk Nowitzki

paragraphs: Dirk Werner Nowitzki (born June 19, 1978 in Würzburg, Germany; pronounced "durk VER-ner nah-VIT-skee") is a former German basketball player. He played for the Dallas Mavericks in the United States' National Basketball Association's (NBA).

paragraphs: Nowitzki started playing in the NBA in 1998. He is only the second player who was born in Germany to play in the Finals.

paragraphs: He is a 12-time NBA All Star. Nowitkzi won the 2006-07 NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award. The Mavericks, led by Nowitzki, defeated the Miami Heat 4-2 in the 2011 NBA Finals. In addition to performing very well in general in the Finals, his 101-degree fever in Game 4 didn't stop him from scoring the winning basket to tie the series 2-2. This amazing feat is a lot like when Michael Jordan played well despite the flu in the 1997 Finals against the Utah Jazz.


title: Volkach

paragraphs: Volkach is a town in Lower Franconia, Bavaria, in Germany. It is in the district of Kitzingen. 9,451 people live in this town.

paragraphs: The surface of Volkach amounts to 60,19 km2.


title: Ochsenfurt

paragraphs: Ochsenfurt is a town in the district of Würzburg, in Bavaria, Germany. It is on the left bank of the River Main. The town has 11,600 people.


title: Kitzingen (district)

paragraphs: Kitzingen is a district in Bavaria, Germany.

paragraphs: The district was last changed in 1973. The old district of Gerolzhofen was split up, and half of its territory was joined with the old Kitzingen district. The city of Kitzingen lost its status as an independent city and was put into the district.

paragraphs: The Main River runs through the district from south to north.


title: Haflinger

paragraphs: Haflinger is an all-round breed of horse. It is a mountain horse but today people use it for spare time. A Haflinger counts as a pony breed of horse. The first cloned horse, Prometea is of this breed. A Haflinger has a gallant dry head with big eyes, wide-dilating nostrils, and small, attentive ears. People who raise this breed want them to have a good muscled body and a smart neck.


title: Kevin Kurányi

paragraphs: Kevin Kuranyi (born 2 March 1982 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) is a German football player. He used to play for the German national team, but was excluded in October 2008 due to improper behaviour. His team is Dynamo Moscow. Before playing for Moscow, he played for Stuttgart and Schalke.


title: Würzburger Kickers

paragraphs: Kickers Wurzburg is one of the most traditional football clubs in Franconia. It was founded in 1907.

paragraphs: Famous Footballers of FC Wurzburger Kickers:


title: Chico, California

paragraphs: Chico is a big city in the Central Valley of the American state of California. It is in the northern part of the state. Chico is in the Sacramento Valley close to the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. The city has a population of 79,091. People first started living in Chico in 1843. The city was founded in 1860 and started to govern itself in 1872.


title: Repperndorf

paragraphs: Repperndorf is a village in Regierungsbezirk, Lower Franconia, Bavaria, Germany. Since 1977 it is part of the town of Kitzingen. Repperndorf has a population of 260 people. The village has a graveyard and two churches, one for Catholics and one for Protestants. It also has one restaurant and one soccer club. There was the famous "Schnitzel factory" but now it moved to Kitzingen.


title: Großlangheim

paragraphs: Großlangheim is a small village in Bavaria, Germany. About 1,600 people live in Großlangheim. Big events in Großlangheim are the Weinfest (wineparty) and the Panik-Party in the Winehill. Panik-Party is the biggest open air party in Unterfranken. Over 5,000 people came to this event in 2006 which is organized by teenagers from Großlangheim.


title: Falun Gong

paragraphs: Falun Gong (also known as Falun Dafa) is a spiritual discipline from China with exercises similar to Tai chi chuan. It was founded by Li Hongzhi in 1992. People who follow Falun Gong do five exercises and read books written by Li Hongzhi, the movement's founder. They believe in "Truthfulness, Compassion and Forbearance", and they also believe that the Falun Gong exercises can make them healthy, and make them better people. In 1999, after a big Falun Gong gathering in front of a Chinese government building, the Communist Party of China said: people cannot practice Falun Gong, it is "illegal".

paragraphs: The police started arresting Falun Gong followers, and according to human rights organizations, over 3000 people have been jailed and tortured to death. The Chinese government claimed that Falun Gong spread superstitions, while others have suggest that Falun Gong's popularity challenges the rule of the Chinese Communist Party. Many people and organizations outside of China have called for the Chinese government to stop jailing and killing Falun Gong people.

paragraphs: It is not known how many people practice Falun Gong. The Chinese government suggests there were 70 million practitioners in China in 1998. A Falun Gong website claims there are 100 million practitioners in more than 80 countries.

paragraphs: Reporter Ethan Gutmann said about 65,000 Falun Gong people were killed for their body parts from 2000 to 2008.


title: Deflation

paragraphs: Deflation means that generally the prices of products are going down. It is the opposite of inflation. It is said, that deflation happens when there is less money than there are goods. It is also said that deflation is a sign of a weak state of that country's economy, because deflation usually happens during an economic collapse. Deflation is thought to be even worse than inflation.

paragraphs: Deflation starts when people are waiting for prices to go down even more. They will then spend less money. Because of that, companies can not afford to keep up the amount of goods that are made, and have to lower that amount, as well as fire workers to make even a small profit.

paragraphs: Even if an economy is growing, there can be some amount of deflation - if the amount of money going around grows slower than the making of goods. There has not been much deflation in the world since the 1930s, except in Japan.

paragraphs: Deflation can be helped by the country's own government by lowering the companies' tax levels, so they can lower their prices while getting the same profit. This way normal people are more encouraged to buy the cheap goods they were waiting for, and slowly the companies can make more profit. Governments do not like deflation, because it means that they can collect less tax.


title: Chemical symbol

paragraphs: A chemical symbol is the shortform of the name of an element. Usually, it is made up of one or two letters, but sometimes it is made up of three letters.

paragraphs: The chemical symbols of all elements are listed in the periodic table. They are also used while writing chemical equations.

paragraphs: Here C stands for carbon and O stands for oxygen.

paragraphs: Some chemical symbols are the short forms of their English names.

paragraphs: For example, H is the chemical symbol of hydrogen.

paragraphs: Some other chemical symbols are the short forms of their Latin names.

paragraphs: For example, Na is the chemical symbol of sodium which is called 'Natrium' in Latin.


title: Secretary of State

paragraphs: Secretary of State is a title for a government official. The title has different meanings in different countries, and in some cases there are several Secretaries of State in the government.

paragraphs: In many countries, a secretary of state is a mid-level official.

paragraphs: In the United States federal government, the Secretary of State is the head of the United States Department of State, and is responsible for foreign policy. In most other countries, this official is called the Foreign Secretary or foreign minister. The Secretary of State is the highest-ranking member of the Cabinet. The current U.S. Secretary of State is Mike Pompeo.


title: Official

paragraphs: An official is someone who holds an office (i.e. function, mandate) in an organisation, of any kind. A public official is an official of central or local government. Officials may be appointed or elected to their office.

paragraphs: The term officer is close to being a synonym (but has more military connotations). A functionary is someone who carries out a particular role within an organisation; this is quite a close synonym for official, as a noun, but with connotations closer to bureaucrat.


title: Heteroptera

paragraphs: The Heteroptera is a group of about 40,000 species of insects in the Hemiptera. They are typical bugs.

paragraphs: "Heteroptera" is Greek for "different wings": most species have front wings with both membranous and hardened portions (called hemelytra.

paragraphs: The name "Heteroptera" is used in two different ways in modern classifications. In Linnean nomenclature it is a suborder of the order Hemiptera. In cladistics it is an unranked clade in the Hemiptera clade.

paragraphs: 1: claws; 2: tarsus; 3: tibia; 4: femur; 8: compound eye; 9: antenna; 10: clypeus; 23: laterotergites; 25: pronotum; 26: scutellum; 27: clavus; 28: corium; 29: embolium; 30: membrane.

paragraphs: "Waterbug" is a common name for various aquatic insects.


title: Snuff

paragraphs: Snuff is a kind of tobacco which is sniffed instead of smoked. People take a bit of snuff between their fingers and put it in their nostrils to smell it. Not many people use snuff now, but a century or more ago it was very common. In the novels of 19th century authors like Charles Dickens we often read about people taking snuff. They kept it in a "snuffbox".


title: The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind

paragraphs: The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, or just Morrowind, is a video game released in 2002. In it, players take on the role of a character which they create, and use it to wander around in a big and diverse world. There is a storyline, but players do not have to follow it, instead doing the side-quests that are included with the game. Morrowind is released on the PC and the Xbox.You can also get game of the year edition and get Morrowind, Bloodmoon, and Tribunal expansion packs. You can go to the official website for help and guides.


title: The Nose (opera)

paragraphs: The Nose is an opera by Dmitri Shostakovich. It was written in 1927. At this time a lot of exciting new movies were being made in the Soviet Union. There were also some very interesting new plays in the theatres. The famous theatre director Vsevolod Meyerhold had many new ideas. However, operas that were being written then were mostly quite uninteresting.

paragraphs: Shostakovich, who was only just twenty years old, started to make Soviet operas interesting again. He took the story called "The Nose" which was written by Nikolai Gogol. It is about a man who wakes up one day to find his nose has gone.

paragraphs: The opera was first performed in 1930. Unfortunately by then the music critics had changed their ideas because of the political situation in the Soviet Union which was being ruled by the dictator Stalin. They wrote bad things about the opera and the performances soon had to stop. It was not until 1974 that it was performed again in the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: The opera is a satire. It pokes fun at bureaucrats: people in official jobs who think they are more important than they really are.

paragraphs: In the opera the barber Ivan Yakovlevich is seen shaving the Major. In the morning Ivan wakes up and his wife gives him some fresh bread and onion. When he cuts the bread open he finds a nose inside. His wife screams and yells at her husband. She chases him out of the house. He runs along the street with the nose, feeling very embarrassed. He throws the nose in the river, but a policeman catches him. He tries unsuccessfully to bribe him.

paragraphs: In the next scene the Major wakes up and finds he has no nose. He goes to tell the police. He goes to the cathedral and sees his nose who is dressed up as an important person (the nose is now a person, sung by a singer). The Major is not sure what to say to his nose because his nose is now more important than he is. He can’t speak properly and the nose does not understand him. The nose speaks very confidently, like a person of high rank. The Major cannot find the Chief of Police so he goes to the newspaper office. The people there laugh at him and say that they cannot put a notice in the newspaper about a lost nose because it would make their newspaper look silly. He is told to see a doctor. When the Major takes his handkerchief away from his face to show that he really has lost his nose the newspaper staff become interested because they think they have a good story for the newspaper. They offer him some snuff. Of course, he cannot sniff it, and gets very cross.

paragraphs: The police, who are looking for the lost nose, are watching people who are getting into a coach. They think the nose might be trying to leave the city. As the coach leaves the nose runs in, tries to stop the coach, frightens thehorses, the driver tries to shoot the nose, and everyone starts to fight the nose, beating and hitting it until it is back to its normal size. The policeman wraps it in a piece of paper. He returns it to the Major and asks for payment. The Major tries to stick his nose back on his face but he can’t. Even the doctor can’t do it. The nose escapes into the crowd. The Major thinks that Madame Podtochina, who tried to make him marry her daughter, has used witchcraft on him. He writes to her asking her to stop the spell but she writes back thinking that he wants to marry her daughter. Large crowds appear on the street to try to see the nose.

paragraphs: In the last part of the opera the Major has got his nose back where it belongs. He is shaved by the barber and then walks along the street proudly showing everyone his nose.

paragraphs: The music is just right for telling a story which is a satire. The policeman, for example, sings in a high, squeaky voice. The music at the beginning sounds rather like circus music. At the end of the scene when he is unable to bribe the police officer there is music just for percussion instruments. This bit is very famous and often played as a separate piece. One of the barber’s songs is accompanied by four balalaikas. Madame Podtochina’s daughter sings like a romantic opera singer. The waltz which is sung as the people get on the coach is a parody waltz.


title: Video game developer

paragraphs: A video game developer is a person or company who makes games on computers and other game systems. Some developers make games for only one or two types of game systems, others might even make one kind of game. Some games are only for one system. Developers might try and make a copy of such game to another, different system. Some translate games from one language to another.

paragraphs: Video game developers work in "development companies". There are over 1,000 development companies today. A big part of that thousand is very small companies, that usually only have one or two workers - these kind of small companies make games for the Internet or mobile phones. Some development companies are big, too. They have buildings in many places and hundreds of workers.

paragraphs: There are three types of video game developers.

paragraphs: Third-party developers are video game developers that make deals with big publishers to make one game at a time. The developers are not part of the company: when the game is complete, the developers do not have to make another game for the publisher if they do not want to. Publishers will tell them exactly what they want third-party developers to do, and the developers do not have very much power to do something else.

paragraphs: In-house developers work directly to the publisher. They have more freedom on the making of the game than third-party developers have. Sometimes publishers buy third-party developers, and so they become in-house developers: workers for the publisher. This is an easy way for the publisher, because the developers are workers for the publisher and so the publisher has more control.

paragraphs: Independent developers are usually small groups of people that are not owned by any publisher or another company. Because of that, most independent developers publish their games themselves. If they do that, the games usually will not get much attention or money. Still, independent developers can make exactly the game they want, when there is no publisher to tell them what to do.


title: Video game publisher

paragraphs: A video game publisher is a company that publish games that they have made or that they have bought to be made by a video game developer. The publisher pays for the development of the game. Because of that, they can tell the developers exactly what kind of game they want. The publisher is responsible for the making and marketing of the game. Big publishers also distribute the games that they publish. Smaller ones pay for other companies to distribute the game for them. Publishers also usually design and make the copies of the games and write the manual.


title: Cork (city)

paragraphs: Cork is a city in County Cork in Ireland. It is the country's second largest city, only Dublin is larger. It is the third largest city on the island of Ireland, as Belfast is also larger. People from Cork are called Corkonians. It was founded by Saint Finbarr in the sixth century. 274,000 people live in Cork city and the surrounding urban areas. The River Lee runs through Cork city.

paragraphs: Famous things in Cork City include Saint Fin Barre's Cathedral, Shandon cathedral, Blackrock castle, Fota wildlife park, Fota house and gardens, and University College Cork. Many famous sports people come from Cork including Roy Keane, Dennis Irwin and Christy Ring. Olympic medal winner Sonia O'Sullivan comes from the town of Cobh just outside Cork city in County Cork.


title: County Cork

paragraphs: County Cork is the largest county in Ireland in terms of size. Almost half a million people live there. The leader of the Irish War of Independence, Michael Collins, was born in the town of Clonakilty in County Cork. He was killed in Béal na mBláth in west Cork. West Cork is known for its beautiful scenery.

paragraphs: The main towns in County Cork are Cork City, Youghal, Mallow, Bandon, Clonakilty, Kinsale, Blarney and Cobh. It is nicknamed "The Rebel County".

paragraphs: Parts of the Gaeltacht are in the county.


title: Genie

paragraphs: Genies or jinns or djinns are supposed to be magical beings or creatures with free will. They are originally found in ancient myths and legends of the Middle East, especially Arabia.

paragraphs: Nowadays, people in many Muslim countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, Iraq, Syria,United Arab Emirates, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, Turkey, Iran, parts of Central Asia, Afghanistan and Pakistan believe in these Jinns or Djinns. Jinns are also common in legends and stories from the Middle East, for example in the One Thousand and One Nights.

paragraphs: The holy book of Muslims, the Quran also mentions Jinns, and says that they are made from fire or smoke. Together, the jinn, humans, devils and angels make up the four wise creations of God. Like human beings, the jinn can be good or bad.


Elasticity


title: Kendo

paragraphs: Kendo means the "way of the sword". The rules and gear of kendo were first created in the 18th century and its modern rules and styles date to 19th century.

paragraphs: An opponent may be struck at seven places: both sides and top of helmet ("men"), on either hand (gloves, "kote") or either side of the body breastplate ("do"). There is also one legal thrust ("tsuki") on throat.

paragraphs: The "men" can only be struck from face, not from back. However, only one of the two hands can be struck, it depends on which kind of posture("kamae") your opponent are using. A struck to the right side of body(one kind of "do") will often be ignored by referee because in the old days samurai will have a smaller sword in this position, which gives this position a good protection. Very important, because "tsuki" is somehow dangerous, junior practicer perform "tsuki" is forbidden both in match and daily training.

paragraphs: In a match, the attacker must name the location of each strike. Often, name these locations by Japanese list before("men","kote","do","tsuki"), but some people will name it by Korean or Chinese or other language, or even a meaningless shout. All these kinds of shout name "kiai". An effective attack must contains "kiai" besides other essential factors.

paragraphs: The weapon used in kendo is a bamboo sword, called "shinai". The kendo armour, which the players must wear, is called "bogu" and is made of a helmet ("men"), breastplate ("do"), waist protector ("tare"), and special gloves ("kote").

paragraphs: Lesson is called "keiko" in kendo. keiko means that We think about past. kendo's keiko is distinguished between "shinai keiko" and "kata keiko". the building which we do kendo is called "dojyo". In particular "keiko" done in summer is "shochugeiko" and one done in winter is "kangeiko".


title: Paleontology

paragraphs: Palaeontology or Paleontology is the study of fossils of living things, and their phylogeny (evolutionary relationships). It depends on basic sciences such as zoology, botany and historical geology. The term palaeobiology implies that the study will investigate the palaeoecology of the groups in question.

paragraphs: In "palaeozoology", the evolution of those phyla with fossil records are studied: see List of animal phyla. In "palaeobotany", fossil plants are studied. In historical geology the formation, sequence and dating of rock strata give information about past environments.

paragraphs: A fossil is any kind of life that is more than ten thousand years old and preserved in any form that we can study today. The fossil record is always incomplete, and later discoveries may extend the known survival of a group. See Lazarus taxon.

paragraphs: Some palaeontologists study fossils of microorganisms, living things that are too small to see without a microscope, while other palaeontologists study fossils of giant dinosaurs.


title: Cotswolds

paragraphs: The Cotswolds is a range of hills in central England, sometimes called the "Heart of England", a hilly area reaching over 300 m. The area has been designated as Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The highest point in the Cotswolds is Cleeve Hill at 330 m (1083 ft).

paragraphs: The Cotswolds lie within the current ceremonial counties of Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Somerset, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire. The county of Gloucestershire forms the largest area of the Cotswolds.

paragraphs: The spine of the Cotswolds runs southwest to northeast through six counties, particularly Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, and southern Warwickshire. The northern and western edges of the Cotswolds are marked by steep slopes down to the Severn valley and the Avon. These are a result of the broken edge of the limestone layer. On the eastern boundary is the city of Oxford and on the west is Stroud. To the south towns as Cirencester, Lechlade, Tetbury, Beverston and Fairford mark the southern limit of this region.

paragraphs: The area is characterised by attractive small towns and villages built of "Cotswold stone" (a yellow limestone). This limestone is rich in fossils. In the Middle Ages, the wool trade made the Cotswolds prosperous. Some of this money was put into the building of churches so the area has a number of large, handsome Cotswold stone "wool churches". The area remains rich and has attracted rich people who own second homes in the area or have chosen to retire to the Cotswolds.

paragraphs: Typical Cotswold towns are Bourton-on-the-Water, Broadway, Burford, Chipping Norton, Cirencester, Moreton-in-Marsh, Stow-on-the-Wold and Winchcombe. The town of Chipping Campden is famous as the home of the Arts and Crafts movement, that was founded by William Morris at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.

paragraphs: The Cotswold Way is a long-distance footpath (approx 103 miles (166 km)) running the length of the AONB, mainly on the edge of the Cotswold escarpement with good views over the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham.


title: Piauí

paragraphs: Piauí is one of the 26 states of Brazil. It is in the northeastern part of the country. The capital of Piauí is Teresina.

paragraphs: Piauí shares borders with the states of Maranhão (west), Ceará (east), Pernambuco (east) and Bahia (east and south). It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north.

paragraphs: Piauí has the shortest coastline of any of the Brazilian states that borders the Atlantic Ocean. Its coastline is only 66 km long. The capital, Teresina, is the only state capital in the northeast that is not on the coast. The reason for this is because, unlike the rest of the area, Piauí state was first colonised away from the coast and slowly expanded towards the ocean. The other states in the area started on the coast and grew inland.

paragraphs: The flag of Piaui was created on 24 July 1922. The blue canton and a star is for the state itself. The green and yellow stripes are for Brazil.


title: Rio Grande do Norte

paragraphs: Rio Grande do Norte is one of the 26 states of Brazil. It is in the northeastern part of the country. It is on the edge of the South American continent.

paragraphs: Rio Grande do Norte has a large coastline. The state is well known for its beaches and sand dunes. The air is the cleanest in South America.

paragraphs: Because of a large mountain chain called Serra da Borborema, Rio Grande do Norte has two main climates. The area along most of the coastline is very tropical. Inland, much of the state is very dry.

paragraphs: The dry climate is not only because by the low amount of rainfall but also because of the fact that it rarely rains at all. Often years go by with no or very little rain. Most of the interior of the state is part of the "Polygon of Droughts". This is an area which gets special attention from the federal government.

paragraphs: Rocas Atoll belongs to the state of Rio Grande do Norte. It is in the Atlantic Ocean, 260 km Northeast of Natal.

paragraphs: The first European to come to the region may have been the Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda in 1499. The northeastern tip of South America, cape São Roque, was first seen by European navigators in 1501. This was during a 1501-1502 Portuguese expedition led by Amerigo Vespucci. He named the spot after the saint of the day. The Vespucci expedition also named the Potengi river, "Rio Grande". The name is Portuguese for "Great River". The area and state were named after the river. For decades, no permanent European settlement was made in the area.

paragraphs: In the 16th century (between 1535 and 1598), the area was explored by French pirates. In 1598, the Portuguese built the "Forte dos Reis Magos". The next year, they created the city of Natal.

paragraphs: In 1633, the area was fought over between the Portuguese and the Dutch. In 1654, the Dutch were finally cast out.

paragraphs: During World War II, Rio Grande do Norte was used as an Allied airbase. The base was used to German-occupied North Africa.

paragraphs: In 1964, Latin America's first space launch site was built in Rio Grande do Norte; "Barreira do Inferno" (Hell's Barrier). It is often called the "Brazilian NASA".

paragraphs: Historically, the economy of Rio Grande do Norte has been based on sugar and cattle. In the 1980s, the state government has realised that tourism is a very good industry. Since then, more money is being used to build placed for tourists and repairing colonial buildings in major cities.

paragraphs: Fruit is also grown in Rio Grande do Norte. The state grows 70% of Brazil's melons. The state is famous for its mango and cashew fields. The world's largest cashew tree is there. It has a circumference of 500 metres and an area of 7,300m². It is 70 times the size of average cashew trees.

paragraphs: Natal is the capital and largest city in the state. Other cities include:

paragraphs: The flag was adopted on December 3 1957. It is based on a design by Luis de Camara Cascudo. In the middle of the flag is the coat of arms of the state. The coat of arms was adopted on July 1 1909. It shows a sailing boat at the coast in the middle. This is for the fishing and salt industries. Above this is a bar which shows two flowers on the sides and two cotton bolls in the center. To the sides of the shield are a coconut palm to the right and a carnauba palm to the left. The two palms are connected by two branches of sugar cane. The star above represents the state as part of Brazil.


title: Brazilian Federal District

paragraphs: The Brazilian Federal District or Distrito Federal is a part of Brazil, which is used to shelter Brasília, the federal capital. It is in the centre of the country.

paragraphs: The government of Brazil was moved to Distrito Federal on April 21, 1960. Before this, the Brazilian Federal District used to be the municipality of Rio de Janeiro. Afterwards, the municipality of Rio de Janeiro became the Estado da Guanabara (State of Guanabara), from 1960 until 1975. In 1975, the State of Guanabara and the State of Rio de Janeiro merged, to be named the state of Rio de Janeiro.

paragraphs: Originally, most of the people were local workers (called "Candangos"), who built the capital, and federal government workers who were sent to the new capital, Brasília. The capital is a planned city. It had areas built for homes, business, schools and other uses. Originally built for up to one million people, the city now has many more than one million people. Because of how the city was built, it has been hard for the city to grow. This has caused many people to live in cities around Brasília. A large percentage of the people of the Distrito Federal live outside the city now.

paragraphs: The white color is for peace. The green and yellow colors in the middle refer to the national colors of Brazil. The four yellow arrows are for the native people of Brazil. The arrows pointing into the four cardinal directions of the compass stands for the power moving out from the center. The yellow arrows also form a cross. This is a symbol of the Southern Cross carried by the explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral.

paragraphs: The flag was created by the poet Guilherme de Almeida, and was adopted by decree no. 1090 on August 25, 1969.


title: Hiromu Shinozuka

paragraphs: Hiromu Shinozuka (, born 27 March 1979 in Fukuoka) is a Japanese manga artist. She writes in "Ciao". She came out with "Takkyu shoujo" in 1999.


title: Zvečan

paragraphs: Zvečan is a town in north Kosovo, Serbia, near Kosovska Mitrovica. , about 16,600 people lived there. The town was first mentioned at the time of border disputes between Serbia and the Byzantine Empire between 1091 and 1094.


title: Rosario

paragraphs: Rosario is a city in the center-east of Argentina, about NW from Buenos Aires. It is the main city of Santa Fe Province. As of 2008 Rosario metropolitan area has a population of around 1,300,000 inhabitants, making it Argentina's 3rd largest city. The city is on the well-known Argentine river of the Parana.

paragraphs: It's called Rosario because of 'Virgen del Rosario', which image remains at the cathedral, at the same place where the original chapel was.

paragraphs: Rosario is famous because of his nightlife, there are many discos that are open to very late, and the people are very friendly and kind. you can always find new friends


title: Gymnastics

paragraphs: Gymnastics is a sport which involves doing exercises which need strength, flexibility, balance and control. This may include running, jumping, tumbling, somersaulting, flipping and balancing.

paragraphs: In women's gymnastics, there are four activities: floor, uneven bars, balance beam, and vault. In men's gymnastics, there are six activities: floor exercise, parallel bars, high bar, pommel horse, vault, and rings.

paragraphs: Gymnastics is not just for girls, it can also be for boys as well.

paragraphs: Gymnastics began as a form of exercise in ancient Greece. It was one of the first sports in the Olympics.

paragraphs: There are several forms of gymnastics, including rhythmic gymnastics, artistic gymnastics, acrobatics, trampolining, and wheel gymnastics and no handed gymnastics. In "artistic gymnastics", gymnasts perform short routines using different pieces of equipment. "Acrobatics" involves showing balance and performing flips on the floor or in the air. In "trampolining", gymnasts do routines using only the trampoline. "Wheel gymnasts" exercise in a large wheel called a German wheel.

paragraphs: In "rhythmic gymnastics", gymnasts perform with ribbons, rope, ball, hoop and clubs. Usually, only females do rhythmic gymnastics because they are more flexible than males.

paragraphs: Federation Internationale de Gymnastique


title: Atahualpa

paragraphs: Atahuallpa or Atawallpa (c. 1502 – 1533) was the 13th and last sovereign emperor of the Tahuantinsuyo, or Inca empire. He became emperor after defeating his younger half-brother Huáscar in a civil war that followed the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac, from an infectious disease (maybe malaria or smallpox). During the civil war, the Spaniard Francisco Pizarro arrived and captured Atahuallpa, and used him to control the Inca empire. Eventually, the Spanish executed Atahuallpa. So ended the Inca Empire (although several weak puppet successors followed him.)

paragraphs: On the death of their father, the Emperor Huayna Capac, and their older brother, Ninan Cuyochi, who had been the heir, the empire was divided between the two surviving brothers, Huáscar and Atahualpa. Huascar got the major part of it with the capital Cusco, and Atahualpa the northern parts, including Quito (now the capital of Ecuador). For a couple of years, the two brothers reigned without problems. But Huascar demanded that Atahuallpa swear an oath to him. Atahuallpa refused, and the civil war began.

paragraphs: The final battle took place at Quipaipan, where Huascar was captured. Atahuallpa was resting in the city of Cajamarca in the Andes with his army of 80,000 troops on his way to the south and Cusco to claim his throne.

paragraphs: By this time the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro had established the city of Piura, the first Spanish settlement in Peru on July of 1532. After two months on the march, Pizarro had arrived at Cajamarca with just 168 men under his command and sent Hernando de Soto, friar Vicente de Valverde and native interpreter Felipillo to speak with Atahuallpa about the Spanish presence.

paragraphs: The Spanish envoys returned to Pizarro, who prepared a surprise attack against Atahuallpa's army in what became the Battle of Cajamarca on November 16, 1532.

paragraphs: According to Spanish law the Spanish officially declared war on the Inca people. When Atahuallpa coldly asked the priest Valverde by what authority he and his people could say such things, Valverde offered him a Bible, saying that the authority came from the words in it. He examined it and then asked why did it not speak to him. He then threw it to the ground. That gave the Spaniards the excuse they needed to wage war on the Incas. They opened fire, and over the course of 2 hours more than two thousand Inca soldiers were killed. The Spanish then imprisoned Atahuallpa in the Temple of the Sun.

paragraphs: Atahuallpa still could not believe the Spanish intended to take control of his kingdom. He thought that if he gave them the gold and silver they sought they would leave. In exchange for his release, he agreed to fill a large room with gold and promised the Spanish twice that amount in silver. Although he was stunned by the offer, Pizarro had no intention of releasing the Inca because he needed the ruler's influence over the native people to maintain order in the surrounding country.

paragraphs: But then Pizarro decided to have him executed because he feared he could be freed by an Inca General. Pizarro staged a mock trial and found Atahuallpa guilty of revolting against the Spanish and murdering Huáscar, his own brother. Atahuallpa was sentenced to execution by burning. He was horrified, since the Inca believed that the soul would not be able to go on to the afterlife if the body were burned. Friar Vicente de Valverde, who had earlier offered the Bible to Atahuallpa, intervened again, telling Atahuallpa that if he agreed to convert to Christianity he would convince the rest to commute the sentence. Atahualpa agreed to be baptized into the Christian faith. He was given the name Juan Santos Atahualpa and then was strangled with a garrote instead of being burned. Atahuallpa died on August 29, 1533.

paragraphs: Atahuallpa was succeeded by his brother, the puppet Inca Tupac Huallpa, and later by another brother Manco Inca Yupanqui.


title: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg

paragraphs: Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (The Mastersingers of Nuremberg) is an opera by Richard Wagner. It is the only comic opera that Wagner wrote. Wagner wrote the words (the libretto) in 1862 and composed the music in 1867. It was first performed in Munich in 1868.

paragraphs: The story is set in the town of Nuremberg (German: Nürnberg) in 16th century Germany. It is about a group of Mastersingers. The Mastersingers (German: Meistersinger) were a guild of singers in Germany many centuries ago. The most famous of them was a man called Hans Sachs, who lived in the 16th century. Although Hans Sachs was a real person, the story of the opera was made up by Wagner. It is a story about a song contest.

paragraphs: The prelude (orchestral introduction) to the opera is very famous and is often played by itself at concerts. It has several tunes which are sometimes cleverly played at the same time (counterpoint). These tunes are used during the opera and are associated with particular people or ideas (such tunes are called leitmotifs).

paragraphs: The young knight Walther is in church and sees a beautiful young girl, Eva. He wants to know whether she is married. She tells him that she will be married to the person who wins the singing contest the next day. Walther tries to learn the art of the Mastersingers from David, who works for Hans Sachs, the cobbler. David himself is in love with Magdalene. The apprentices start to prepare the stage for the contest.

paragraphs: If Walther is to win the contest he will have to compose his own mastersong and sing it. He will have to compose it according to a lot of strict rules (the number of lines, the rhyming patterns etc.). When he meets the other Mastersingers he introduces himself, saying that he learned the art of singing from the ancient poet Walther von der Vogelweide and from nature itself. He sings this in a song which is very beautiful, but it does not obey the rules of the Mastersingers. The Mastersingers are not able to understand the beauty of his song.

paragraphs: One of the Mastersingers is the town clerk. His name is Beckmesser. He is a comic figure and Wagner makes him look very silly. Beckmesser is the “marker”. This means something like: an “adjudicator”. When a singer makes a “mistake” (disobeys the rules) the marker puts a chalkmark on the board. When Walther sings his song Beckmesser makes lots of chalkmarks. Hans Sachs is the only person who realizes the beauty of his song. There is a lot of shouting and Walther has to stand on a chair to finish his song.

paragraphs: A street in Nuremberg at night. Eva’s grand house is opposite Hans Sachs’ simple house. Eva’s father realizes she is in love with Walther. Hans is thinking about the young knight and how well he sings. Eva asks Hans who he thinks will be likely to win the song contest. Then she is called back by her father. Beckmesser has come and would like to serenade her (sing her a love song). Walther meets up with Eva and they wonder whether they should elope (run away together). Eva changes clothes with her maid. Hans Sachs stops them as they are about to elope. Beckmesser is tuning his lute ready to sing. Walther would like to argue with him but Eva gets him to sit quietly while Beckmesser sings. Hans Sachs, who is mending Beckmesser’s shoe, has other ideas: he sings a song himself, and this annoys Beckmesser who is trying to sing to the girl he thinks is Eva (but it is Eva’s maid in disguise). He tells Hans to stop singing. Hans says that he will stop, but he will hammer on his shoe every time he hears Beckmesser make a mistake. Beckmesser starts singing again, and Hans hammers lots of times. All the neighbours wake up and come into the street and argue and fight. In the end the night watchman comes and everybody goes back into their houses.

paragraphs: David is preparing a song for the midsummer festival. Then Walther arrives and tells Hans that a song came to him in a dream. Hans helps him to prepare the song for the contest. When they have left the workshop Beckmesser comes in and sees the piece of paper with the song. He picks it up when Hans returns and says that it is obvious that he, Hans, wants to enter the contest. Hans tells Beckmesser that he can have the song. Beckmesser is delighted and thinks he can now win Eva in marriage.

paragraphs: At the song contest Beckmesser tries to sing the song, but he sings it to his own tune which does not fit the words, and he gets the words all muddled up. Everyone laughs and he leaves the stage angrily, saying that Sachs wrote the song. Walther now sings his prize song. This time people realize how beautiful it is although it does not obey the usual rules. Walther can marry Eva.

paragraphs: Wagner’s operas have continuous music which develops is very logical ways using leitmotifs. In the prelude we hear several tunes which are leitmotifs that are to be important during the opera: a theme that represents the dignity of the mastersingers, a theme for passion which later becomes Walther’s prize song, the chattering of the apprentices etc. The music at the beginning of Act Three is also often played separately in the concert hall.

paragraphs: There are many beautiful moments in the opera. Wagner cleverly changes the style to suit the action, for example when Eva’s father is talking about the Mastersingers’ reputation in Germany we hear an old-fashioned recitative. Beckmesser is made to look stupid through his music which contrasts with Walther’s romantic music.

paragraphs: People have explained the meanings behind this opera in several ways. The basic story is

paragraphs: about the wonderful German art of singing. It is also about the fact that composers should be able to write music which is beautiful without having to obey rules that were made up long ago and have become old-fashioned. Wagner was trying to bring lots of changes to opera, making the drama the most important thing. Some people found his new ideas quite difficult to follow, and this may be why he chose, for once, to write a comic opera instead of a serious one based on mythology. The character of Beckmesser is a caricature of Eduard Hanslick, a famous music critic who did not like the music of Wagner and Bruckner but preferred the more traditional music of Brahms and Antonín Dvořák.

paragraphs: The opera has been criticized because Wagner may have meant the story to have an anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish) meaning. This is certainly the way that Hitler understood it. It was his favourite opera, and the idea of praising German art and song fitted in nicely with his racist views. The character of Beckmesser is also a caricature of a stereotype Jew.


title: Takbir

paragraphs: Allahu Akbar is a Muslim saying. The exact words in Arabic mean "God is greater", but people know that saying "God is great" in the right time and place means the same as "God is Greater." "Allahu Akbar" is the first part of the Adhan, which people hear 5 times a day where Muslim people live together. Saying "God is Great" tells people in a few words what Islam believes and teaches.

paragraphs: This Arabic phrase was added to the Iraqi flag, in Saddam Hussein's handwriting, in 2001. Muslims say it before changing positions during their prayers.


title: Shire

paragraphs: A shire is an administrative area of Great Britain (also county) and Australia. It is a kind of local government.

paragraphs: The first shires were created by the Anglo-Saxons in central and southern England. Shires were controlled by a royal official known as a "shire reeve" or sheriff. In modern English usage shires are sub-divided into districts.

paragraphs: Individually, or as a suffix in Scotland, the word is pronounced (to rhyme with "fire"). As a suffix in an English or Welsh place name it is pronounced (rhymes with "fir").

paragraphs: In England and Wales, the term "shire county" is used to refer to counties which are not metropolitan counties.

paragraphs: It can also be used in a narrower sense, referring only to traditional counties ending in "shire". These counties are typically (though not always) named after their county town.

paragraphs: Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Herefordshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Wiltshire, Worcestershire, Yorkshire.

paragraphs: Of these, all but Huntingdonshire and Yorkshire are also administrative counties (but with different boundaries). Huntingdonshire is now administered as a district of Cambridgeshire, and Yorkshire is split between East, North, South and West Yorkshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Cumbria and County Durham.

paragraphs: Brecknockshire, Caernarvonshire, Cardiganshire, Carmarthenshire, Denbighshire, Flintshire, Monmouthshire, Montgomeryshire, Pembrokeshire, Radnorshire

paragraphs: In Wales, the counties of Merioneth and Glamorgan are occasionally referred to with the "shire" suffix. The only traditional Welsh county that never takes "shire" is Anglesey.

paragraphs: Aberdeenshire, Ayrshire, Banffshire, Berwickshire, Clackmannanshire, Cromartyshire, Dumfriesshire, Dunbartonshire, Fifeshire, Inverness-shire, Kincardineshire, Kinross-shire, Kirkcudbrightshire, Lanarkshire, Morayshire, Nairnshire, Peeblesshire, Perthshire, Renfrewshire, Ross-shire, Roxburghshire, Selkirkshire, Stirlingshire, Wigtownshire

paragraphs: Shire is the most common word in Australia for the smallest local government areas by population. The states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia use shire for this unit. South Australia and Tasmania use district. A shire has the same powers as the next largest units, the town and city. In NSW, the expression 'The Shire' commonly refers to the Sutherland shire.


title: Fairy Tail

paragraphs: Fairy Tail is a shonen manga published in the "Weekly Shônen Magazine" from August 2, 2006 to July 26, 2017. It was created by Hiro Mashima. It has 545 chapters and 63 tankōbon volumes. The series is also aired. Some video games are released by Konami. In August 2012 The Phoenix Priestess, a Fairy Tail movie, was released.

paragraphs: The story of Fairy Tail focuses around the adventures of main characters Natsu and Lucy, who are sometimes with the members of the Fairy Tail Guild.

paragraphs: In the beginning, Lucy is a young sorceress (a "mage"), who wants to join Fairy Tail Guild. On her trip, she meets Natsu, a young boy, who is looking for Igneel the Salamander. She offers Natsu and Happy (his partner) a lunch and Natsu explains that Igneel is a dragon. Lucy talks about her dream to join a famous guild, which she later told him was the Fairy Tail Guild. Later, she is tricked and taken by Bora of Prominence to be sold as a slave. She is rescued by Natsu, who is the real Salamander, and a true member of Fairy Tail Guild. He offers her to be a member of Fairy Tail. Lucy says yes and joins the guild. Since then, Natsu and Lucy formed a team. This is the beginning of the adventures that the two have while carrying out missions from the guild.

paragraphs: According to Oricon, "Fairy Tail" was the eighth best-selling manga series in Japan for 2009. It became the fourth best in 2010 and 2011 and the fifth best of 2012. It also won the 2009 Kodansha Manga Award for shōnen manga.

paragraphs: In 2012, the anime series won the "Meilleur Anime Japonais" (best Japanese anime) award and the best French dubbing award at the 19th Anime & Manga Grand Prix in Paris, France.


title: Viol

paragraphs: The viol (rhymes with "mile") is a string instrument that is played with a bow. The viol was a popular instrument from the 15th to the 18th century. Small viols are held on the lap, and the larger ones are held between the knees, which gave them the name of "viol da gamba", meaning a leg viol. The bow is held with the palm of the hand facing upwards: the other way round from today's bowhold for violins, violas or cellos. The viol is a gentle-sounding instrument. When the violin family became popular in the 17th century and people started to go to concerts in large concert halls, and to operas, the viols became less important. They were never used in orchestras.

paragraphs: Viols are made of wood, and are similar to the violin family. Most viols have six strings, although this number did vary during the centuries. The strings were made of gut, and are not as tight as on a violin. The fingerboard has frets like a guitar, except that they were also made of gut. They were tied around the fingerboard, and could be moved for tuning. These frets help the player to find the exact place to put their fingers. Sometimes the top of the scrolls on the fingerboard were beautifully decorated. The instruments have sloped shoulders and a flat back. The viol, like the vihuela, from which it developed, has a bridge that is flatter than the bridge of a modern violin. This makes it easier to play chords. The bow was convex in shape, where a violin bow is concave.

paragraphs: Viols were made in different sizes. A set of viols of different sizes - perhaps four or five instruments - were sometimes kept together in a chest (large box) which is why they were called a "chest of viols". When they were played together people talked of a "consort of viols". A consort would normally have at least one treble, tenor and bass instrument. A "broken consort" meant a mixture of different instruments: viols, recorders etc. Lute and bass viol were often played together. They were tuned in fourths, with a major third in the middle.

paragraphs: The strings of a bass viol (equivalent to the cello in the modern violin family) are tuned (from the lowest note, nearly two octaves below middle C, upwards) to D - G - C - E - A -D. The tenor viol was often called a viola da gamba (literally: "viol of the leg"). It was the most popular size for solo music and many composers wrote sonatas for the viola da gamba. The biggest viol is called the violone. It developed into the modern double bass. This is why the double bass is a little different in shape from the violin, viola and cello. Some double bass players today hold the bow with the palm (inside) of the hand facing upwards, like viol players.

paragraphs: The viol was popular in the houses of rich people, and in the royal court. During the reign of Elizabeth I and, later, King Charles I composers such as William Byrd, John Dowland, Orlando Gibbons, John Jenkins and William Lawes wrote viol music. Solo sonatas were written by many composers including Marin Marais, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Karl Friedrich Abel. Some of the last and greatest fantasies for viol consort were written by Henry Purcell.

paragraphs: After the mid-18th century people forgot about the viol until the 20th century when there was a new interest in early music and people like Arnold Dolmetsch started making them again so that Renaissance and Baroque viol music could be played. Today there are many societies for people who are interested in playing the viol.

paragraphs: There are now many societies for people with an interest in the viol. One of these, The Viola da Gamba Society has a worldwide membership. Some modern composers have also written for the viol e.g. John Tavener, Sally Beamish, Thea Musgrave, Tan Dun and Poul Ruders. There is a group called Fretwork which perform viol music.