title: Warsaw Pact

paragraphs: The Warsaw Pact, officially the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was an organization of Central and Eastern European Communist states. The states were all allies and would fight together if one of them was attacked. While in theory all the countries in the organisation were equals, the smaller countries were controlled by the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: It was established in 1955 in Warsaw, Poland in response to West Germany joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO). The treaty was signed in Warsaw, on 14 May 1955 and official copies were made in the languages of Russian, Polish, Czech and German. The Pact lasted until the end of the Cold War when some members quit in 1991, following the collapse of the Eastern bloc and political changes in the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: All the Communist states of Central and Eastern Europe signed except Yugoslavia.


title: Central Europe

paragraphs: Central Europe is the region around the Alps and Carpathian Mountains lying between the areas of Eastern and Western Europe. In addition, Northern, Southern and Southeastern Europe mean different regions, but in some way they may overlap Central Europe as well as each other.

paragraphs: The term has come back into fashion since the end of the Cold War, which had divided Europe politically into East and West, with the Iron Curtain splitting "Central Europe" in half. The understanding of the concept of "Central Europe" varies considerably from nation to nation, and also has from time to time.

paragraphs: The states of Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia are also often included in Eastern Europe. Alternatively, Slovenia is often placed in Southeast (or Southeastern) Europe. When using these definitions, the countries of Austria, Germany, Liechtenstein and Switzerland are considered Western Europe instead. Some experts consider such definitions outdated, but many still use them. Supranational organizations like the UN and EU also make use of them.


title: Four-wheel drive

paragraphs: A Four-wheel drive (also called 4WD and 4x4) is a vehicle on which all four wheels get power from the engine to move forward. This is as opposed to a two-wheel drive vehicle. 4WDs are often used off road. Part-time and full-time four wheel drive vehicles uses a transfer case as part of the drivetrain to direct power to one or both axles. By having a transfer case the driver can shift the vehicle into either "two-wheel-drive" or "four-wheel-drive" mode (part-time systems). Many transfer cases also have a low power range that multiplies the engine power when in four-wheel drive (called four-wheel low gear).

paragraphs: There are basically four types of four-wheel drive.

paragraphs: Part-time systems are the most basic type. They are also still the most popular type for using off-road. The can be shifted (mechanically or electrically) from two-wheel drive to four-wheel drive. This gives them the versatility to operate both on and off-road. When the four-wheel drive system is engaged, the two axles turn at the same speed. There usually is no center differential. For that reason part-time four-wheel drive should not be used on dry pavement. If operated for any distance on dry pavement tire damage and drivetrain damage is very possible. Because it operates off-road, the vehicle typically has a higher Ride height. This is to go over obstacles on uneven ground without damage. Even when operated in two-wheel drive on-road, this system will not get the fuel economy of a comparable two-wheel drive vehicle. Locking hubs are available on some models. They help to get better fuel mileage by disengaging the front axle differential.

paragraphs: This is the original four-wheel drive. It was and still is designed for serious off-roading. Common on full-time four-wheel drives are locking differentials. These prevent one wheel slipping on the same axle if the other has traction. These systems do not get good gas mileage due to their typical weight.

paragraphs: All-wheel drive (AWD) uses a center differential to direct a percentage of the power to both axles, depending on conditions. All wheel drive is not designed specifically to go off road but is for traction in rain, snow or ice on the road. Body-on frame SUVs are typically designed for off-road use. Unibody crossovers are usually only equipped with the lighter-duty all-wheel drive. However the unibody built Grand Cherokee and newly designed Durango are available with four-wheel drive.

paragraphs: Part-time All-wheel drive (AWD) operate as a front-wheel drive under normal conditions. When traction is lost for any reason, the system automatically sends a portion of the engine's power to the rear wheels. As soon as the system detects good traction, it disengages the rear wheels and shifts back to front drive. This is a less expensive system that adds less weight to the vehicle (usually a car). This makes it popular on compact vehicles. It typically gets better fuel economy than all-wheel drive vehicles. They do not have a low range or a transfer case.


title: 2D

paragraphs: 2D or two-dimensional objects have two measurements: width and length, like a square. Two-dimensional objects do not have depth, like a cube. It's a mathematics tool, but it's also used in video games, and computer science.

paragraphs: Throughout maths, it is used in geometry and other categories.

paragraphs: In video games, it is used as a perspective, like in Grand Theft Auto 1 and 2.


title: Microraptor

paragraphs: Microraptor was a small feathered dinosaur related to "Velociraptor" and "Deinonychus". It had flight feathers, and could glide and probably fly. About two dozen well-preserved fossil specimens have been found in Liaoning, China. They are from the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation, 125 million years old.

paragraphs: Adult specimens are 42–83 centimeters (1.4–2.7 ft) long, so "Microraptor" was one of the smallest dinosaurs.

paragraphs: "Microraptor" is one of a number of 'dinobirds' found in the same area of China. They were buried in volcanic ash during huge eruptions.

paragraphs: "Microraptor" was among the first non-avian dinosaurs discovered with the impressions of feathers and wings. Three specimens of "M. zhaoianus" have been described in detail, in addition to two specimens of "M. gui" and three specimens of "M. sp." described by Xu and colleagues in 2003, from which most feather impressions are known.

paragraphs: Unusual even among early birds and feathered dinosaurs, "Microraptor" is one of the few known bird precursors to sport long flight feathers on its feet as well as its forearms and hands. This led Xu Xing to describe it as a "four winged dinosaur", and to speculate that it may have glided using all four limbs for lift. Their bodies had a thick covering of feathers. A diamond-shaped fan on the end of the tail gave stability during flight.

paragraphs: Sankar Chatterjee found that, in order for "Microraptor" to glide or fly, the fore and hind wings must have been on different levels (as on a biplane) and not overlaid (as on a dragonfly). Using this biplane model, he calculated possible methods of gliding, and determined that "Microraptor" most likely launched itself from a perch, swooped downward in a deep 'U' shaped curve and then lifted again to land on another tree. The feathers not directly employed in the biplane wing, like those on the tibia and the tail, could have been used to control and alter the flight path. The hind wings would also have helped control the gliding flight.

paragraphs: Chatterjee also used computer algorithms to test whether or not "Microraptor" was capable of true, powered flight, in addition to gliding. The data showed that "Microraptor" could sustain some level powered flight, so it is possible that the animal flew as well as glided.


title: Opera (web browser)

paragraphs: Opera is a web browser that formerly included e-mail, webfeed reader, and IRC Chat. There are versions available for several operating systems. These include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Solaris, FreeBSD, and Linux. There are also version for mobile phones, personal digital assistants, game consoles, and interactive televisions.

paragraphs: Opera is developed by Opera Software which is based in Oslo, Norway.

paragraphs: Opera was created in 1994 at Telenor, which is Norway's largest telecommunications company. In 1995, Opera became its own company called Opera Software ASA.

paragraphs: Opera was first released publicly with version 2.0 in 1996, which only ran on Microsoft Windows. With the release of Opera 4.0 in the year 2000, other operating systems were supported.


title: Orange

paragraphs:
Places in the United States:
Places in South Africa:
Other places in the world:


title: Orange (fruit)

paragraphs: An orange is a type of citrus fruit that people often eat. Oranges are a very good source of vitamin C. Orange juice is an important part of many people's breakfast. The "sweet orange", which is the kind that are most often eaten today, grew first in South and East Asia but now grows in lots of parts of the world.

paragraphs: Oranges are round orange-coloured fruit that grow on a tree which can reach 10 metres (33 ft) high. Orange trees have dark green shiny leaves and small white flowers with five petals. The flowers smell very sweet which attracts many bees.

paragraphs: An orange has a tough shiny orange skin. Inside, the fruit is divided into "segments", which have thin tough skins that hold together many little sections with juice inside. There are usually ten segments in an orange, but sometimes there are more or less. Inside each segment of most types of orange there are seeds called "pips". Orange trees can be grown from pips, but some types of orange trees can only be grown from "cuttings" (a piece cut off a tree and made to grow roots). The segments and the skin are separated by white stringy fibrous material called "pith". In most types of oranges, the skin can be peeled off the pith, and the segments can be pulled apart with the fingers to be eaten. In some oranges it is hard to take the skin off. Orange skin is often called "orange peel".

paragraphs: Oranges are an important food source in many parts of the world for several reasons. They are a commonly available source of vitamin C. They last longer than many other fruits when they are stored. They are easy to transport because each orange comes in its own tough skin which acts as a container. They can be piled into heaps or carried in bags, lunchboxes and shipping containers without being easily damaged.

paragraphs: The colour orange takes its name from the fruit. The word "orange" is unusual because it is one of only a few English words that do not rhyme with anything.

paragraphs: The orange is particularly used in Asia for wide variety of purposes including cosmetic as well as medicinal . Doctors prescribe oranges for people who suffer from diabetes [citation needed].

paragraphs: Sweet orange trees were brought to Italy, Spain and Portugal from India in the fifteenth century (1400's). Before that time only sour oranges were grown in Italy. The name is from a Tamil word, via Persian and Arabic. From Europe, orange trees were taken to the United States, South America, Africa and Australia, which all grow oranges for sale.

paragraphs: There are several different types of sweet oranges. One of the most common types is called the "Valencia" orange, which comes from Spain and is also grown in Africa and Australia. It is one of the most important "commercial" oranges. (This means that it is grown for sale in shops.)

paragraphs: One type of sweet orange is called the "blood orange" or "sanguine orange" (sanguine means blood red). These oranges often have red marks on the skin, and some parts of the inside look as if they have blood in them. Some blood oranges make juice that is ruby red.

paragraphs: In the 1850s, in Brazil, a tree growing in a monastery garden was making very odd fruit. Inside each orange skin there was a large orange with no seeds. At the bottom of the orange were smaller sections that looked like a smaller squashed orange inside the same skin, which was really the bigger orange's twin. The little orange made a strange bump at the bottom of the orange skin, that looked just like a human navel or belly button. These oranges were named "Navel Oranges". They tasted very sweet, they had no seeds and they peeled quite easily. This made them a very good orange to grow commercially. But they could not grow from seed. They could only grow from plant cuttings. Nowadays, thousands of these orange trees have been planted from cuttings. "Navel Oranges" are grown in California and exported to many countries of the world. Every navel orange in the world has the same genetic make up as the oranges on that tree in the monastery in Brazil.

paragraphs: Mandarins, small flattened oranges with skins that come off easily, are believed to have come from China. Now there are several varieties. These include tangerines, which are redder than most mandarins, and clementines, which are large, smooth and plump. Mandarins of all sorts are very useful lunchbox fruit, because they are easy to peel and eat, but do not get squashed easily.

paragraphs: Nowadays, many people of the world eat an orange or drink orange juice every day, because oranges are one of the best and cheapest sources of Vitamin C. Human bodies, unlike many other animals, do not manufacture Vitamin C, so a human needs vitamin C in their diet regularly. (Vitamin C helps the body to grow, to heal wounds and fight infection.) Oranges are also a very good source of dietary fibre. But they do not contain high amounts of minerals. If a person eats an orange and a banana together, then they have had a very nourishing snack that supplies both vitamins and minerals. Oranges are sweet and juicy.


title: Diplodocus

paragraphs: Diplodocus was a huge dinosaur from the same time as the "Allosaurus". It lived during the Upper Jurassic period, about 145 to 155 million years ago. It was a vegetarian, eating mostly leaves with its peg-like teeth.

paragraphs: "Diplodocus" was a long-necked, whip-tailed giant and could grow up to 27 m long. It had an 8 m long neck and 14 m long tail. Its weight was approximately 22,680 kg. It had a short 6 ft long head. Its size helped protect it from other dinosaurs. It used its long neck to poke into forests because its body was too big. It is also believed to have knocked the trees down. The longest species is the "hallorum", which was thought to be the longest of all dinosaurs (now "Amphicoelias").

paragraphs: "Diplodocus" skeletons are among the longest dinosaur skeletons ever found. Fossils were discovered in Western North America, particularly in the Rocky Mountains of the western USA. A complete tail has never been found.

paragraphs: "Seismosaurus" was thought to be its own genus of dinosaur. In 2004 and 2006 it was decided to be a large species of "Diplodocus". It is now known as "Diplodocus hallorum".

paragraphs: "Seismosaurus" was the longest animal ever known, but paleontologists found they had misplaced vertebrae, making the body too long. Current length estimates are 33–36 metres long. Weight estimates vary from 40 to 60 tonnes. Weight estimates of other "Diplodocus" species are much lower: 10 to 17 tonnes.


title: Onion

paragraphs: Onions are vegetables. They are plants in the genus "Allium". When people talk about onions, they usually mean "garden onions". Most species of onions have bulbs that people can eat. They have a strong flavour and a very distinctive smell.

paragraphs: Onions have been grown for a very long time. They were probably first grown in Ancient Egypt, together with leek and garlic, but maybe earlier. Now, most of the world's cultures eat onions.

paragraphs: Farmers and gardeners can grow onions from seeds or from bulbs. If they plant seeds, they must later pull out most of the young plants so the rest can grow better. This is called 'thinning.' A different way to plant onions is to plant young bulbs. This is faster, but the onions that grow this way are weaker than the onions that started as seeds.

paragraphs: When you cut an onion, you open some cells of the onion. Then, some chemicals react. When one chemical floats through the air and reaches your eyes, they sting.

paragraphs: There are ways to keep the chemical away. You can:


title: Universal House of Justice

paragraphs: The Universal House of Justice is the name of a council that leads the Bahá'í community. It was described by the person who made the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, in his books and letters. He called it the Supreme House of Justice. His son, `Abdu'l-Bahá called it the Universal House of Justice, because it was going to lead all of the Bahá'ís. There will be other "Houses of Justice" for each country and city, but for now these are called "Spiritual Assemblies."

paragraphs: Bahá'ís vote for the members of this council every five years during a special festival held between April 20 and May 2.


title: Logitech

paragraphs: Logitech (sometimes shortened to Logi) is a Swiss company that makes electronics. They are best known for making peripheral equipment for computers, including webcams, keyboards and computer mice.

paragraphs: The first mice were made in Switzerland. Now Logitech makes its items all over the world. Selling computer mice made Logitech a big company. In 2008, Logitech made its billionth mouse.

paragraphs: As well as webcams, keyboards and mice, Logitech also makes other products such as:

paragraphs: Logitech has also made two computer games: "Jelly Jumper" and "Jelly Battle".


title: Bacteriophage

paragraphs: A bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria. The term is commonly shortened to phage.

paragraphs: Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere. Like viruses that infect eukaryotes (plants, animals, and fungi) there are many different phage structures and functions.

paragraphs: The top of phages is made up of a dice-like shape which has 20 sides and 30 edges. Inside it contains the genetic information, which is its DNA. This dice-like shape often sits on a tail that has leg-like fibres.

paragraphs: Phages are typically made of an outer protein hull that has genetic material inside it. The genetic material may be single-stranded (ssRNA or ssDNA), or double-stranded (dsRNA or dsDNA). It may be between 5,000 to 500,000 base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are usually between 20 and 200 nanometers in size.

paragraphs: Phage genomes may code for as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages inject their genome into the bacterium, and replicate inside the bacterium.

paragraphs: Phages are everywhere there are bacteria, such as soils or the intestines of animals. They are very common in sea water: up to 9×10 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface, and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages.

paragraphs: They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. However, it was not until the first phage was observed under an electron microscope by Helmut Ruska in 1939 that its true nature was established.

paragraphs: They are a possible therapy against antibiotic resistant strains of many bacteria. On the other hand, some phages complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis. They shelter the bacteria from drugs and so prolong the infection.


title: Deconstruction

paragraphs: Deconstruction is a way of understanding how something was created, usually things like art, books, poems and other writing. Deconstruction is breaking something down into smaller parts. Deconstruction looks at the smaller parts that were used to create an object. The smaller parts are usually ideas.

paragraphs: Sometimes deconstruction looks at how an author can imply things he does not mean. It says that because words are not precise, we can never know what an author meant.

paragraphs: Sometimes deconstruction looks at the things the author did not say because he made assumptions.

paragraphs: One thing it pays attention to is how opposites work. (It calls them "binary oppositions.") It says that two opposites like "good" and "bad" are not really different things. "Good" only makes sense when someone compares it to "bad," and "bad" only makes sense when someone compares it to "good." And so even when someone talks about "good," they are still talking about "bad." But this is just one thing it does.

paragraphs: Because of things like this, deconstruction argues that books and poems never just mean what we think they mean at first. Other meanings are always there too, and the book or poem works because all of those meanings work together. The closer we look at the writing, the more we find about how it works, and how meaning works for all things. If we deconstructed everything, we might never be able to talk or write at all. But that does not mean deconstruction is useless. If we deconstruct some things, we can learn more about them and about how talking and writing work.

paragraphs: Words are made up of 'signifiers', or the sounds/spellings, and the 'signified', or the meaning and concepts they are talking about. However, the meaning of a word is naturally ambiguous; the word in itself and the meaning are not naturally linked. The word 'band' can refer to an elastic band, a pop music group, a gathering of brass musicians or a collection of people, each with separate connotations and mental images. This means it is the reader who will choose the meanings of words. In a similar way, reading is like trying to hold a wet fish, because there are a variety of meanings to each word. Jacques Derrida calls this "slippage along the chain of signifiers."

paragraphs: The chain of signifiers is a long chain of words that are interrelated, for instance a chain might look like this: "band, brass, copper, police." This chain really has no end, because each word connects to many others, and the more slippery a word, the more words it relates to.

paragraphs: Deconstructionists question language and meaning. Some people who were very close to Derrida are usually called deconstructionists. These people include Helene Cixous and Jean-Luc Nancy. If someone really deconstructed everything, he or she could not talk or think! Instead there are people who deconstruct things (books, poems, writing, words - in short, texts). Jacques Derrida began deconstructing things in the 1960s, but he was not the first. Martin Heidegger had talked about deconstruction in 1927 with "Being and Time" but he used the word "destruktion". Heidegger might even say that he got the idea from Ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Other important people who talked about it include Paul de Man and Judith Butler.


title: Nihilism

paragraphs: Nihilism comes from the Latin nihil, or nothing. It is the belief that values are falsely invented. The term 'nihilism' can also be used to describe the idea that life, or the world, has no distinct meaning or purpose. Nihilists believe that there are no true morals. Many people think of the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche when they think about nihilism, because he said that morals were invented. But in his books, Nietzsche said that people needed to create their own morals to get over nihilism.

paragraphs: Mikhail Bakunin’s (18141876) "Reaction in Germany" (1842) included this passage: "Let us therefore trust the eternal Spirit which destroys and annihilates only because it is the unfathomable and eternal source of all life. The passion for destruction is a creative passion, too!" The term was made popular by Ivan Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862). Bazarov, the hero in it, was a nihilist.

paragraphs: Nihilism was the basis of much revolutionary terrorism. It was taken up by Sergei Nechaev, a Russian who wrote a pamphlet that influenced Lenin. Dostoyevsky was a member of a nihilist group in his 20s. He served ten years in exile as a consequence. His novel "Devils" (or "The Possessed") deals with Nechaev. His famous novel "Crime and Punishment" is also on that theme.

paragraphs: The assassination of the Tsar Alexander II (13 March 1881) by a series of bombs, had long been planned by nihilists. It resulted in the crushing of the nihilist movement.


title: Licensed to Ill

paragraphs: "Licensed to Ill" is the first album of the Beastie Boys, released on November 1986.


title: Coronary artery disease

paragraphs: Coronary artery disease, also called coronary heart disease, is a heart disease. ("Coronary" means "the blood vessels of the heart".) Coronary heart disease causes plaque to build up inside the coronary arteries. This causes the coronary arteries to become narrower. An artery is a blood vessel - a tube that carries blood. After the heart supplies blood that is full of oxygen and nutrients, the arteries carry the blood to different parts of the body. The coronary arteries are very important: they supply blood to the heart muscle. So when the coronary arteries become narrower, less blood gets to the heart muscle.

paragraphs: Most people with coronary heart disease can feel healthy for years before they start experiencing symptoms. The most common symptom is a heart attack. If coronary heart disease is not treated, some of the plaques in the coronary arteries can break away and block the blood flow to the heart. Coronary heart disease is the most common cause of sudden death. It is also the most common cause of death in people over 65 years old. Men are 10 times more likely to get coronary heart disease than women.

paragraphs: Atherosclerosis is a form of heart disease. It causes fatty materials (like cholesterol) to build up in the arteries, forming harder materials called plaques. This causes the arteries to become harder. It also makes it more difficult for blood to flow through the arteries. This can cause blood clots to form, blocking blood from traveling through the arteries. Small pieces of plaque can also break off and block smaller blood vessels.

paragraphs: If an artery becomes blocked completely, it causes serious problems. All cells, tissues, and organs in the body need oxygen and nutrients (carried by blood) to survive. If cells or tissues are not supplied with enough blood, they will die. (This is called necrosis.) When this happens in the coronary arteries, a section of the heart dies. This can cause a myocardial infarction (a heart attack) to happen.

paragraphs: People can do many different things to keep themselves from getting coronary heart disease:


title: Fructose

paragraphs: Fructose is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods. It is also one of the three most important blood sugars, the other two being glucose and galactose. Honey; tree fruits; berries; melons; and some root vegetables, such as beets, sweet potatoes, parsnips and onions, contain fructose, usually with sucrose and glucose.


title: Peer pressure

paragraphs: Peer pressure is being influenced by the peer group members. It often happens to children during puberty. The group defines some social values. For somebody to stay "cool" in that group, they feel as if they have to act like other people in that group. Social pressure (and wanting to be accepted or in favor inside the group) leads people to do things they would not do otherwise. For example, it can influence a person to smoke cigarettes or marijuana, to drink alcohol, commit crimes, and/or many other things that they might regret.Through adolescents are seen adults from external physical point of view, they lack proper mental maturity. Similarly, they look physically matured and do not intend to be in children's group but adult also do not value them as adults. Therefore, they create peer group of their own age and enjoy themselves. They have strong faith and belief on the friends of the same groups. Because of the changes they experience, the new desires, aspirations and interests are developed. They become sensitive and sentimental.

paragraphs: When parents and society do not consider and address their needs, aspiration and desires, they feel dominated and leave home to pass most of their time with their friends on peer groups. Sometimes they cannot get proper counselling and guidelines in these stages. Consequently, sometimes, they can fall prey to many bad habits. there are many positives and negatives by peer pressure. Positive peer pressure is good.


title: Cuticle

paragraphs: In biology, a cuticle is something that covers the outside of living things called organisms. Cuticles are usually tough but also bendable. In plants, cuticles in the leaves help it from losing too much water by evaporation.


title: Leek

paragraphs: Leek is a vegetable. It belongs to the genus "Allium". This is the same genus as the onion and garlic. It can be used for cooking.

paragraphs: It is similar to the Chinese onion but it is bigger in size.


title: Great power

paragraphs: A great power is a nation or state that is able to influence other states in most of the world. That is possible because it has great economic, political and military strength. A great power is a sovereign state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers usually have military and economic strength.

paragraphs: Its opinions are taken into account by other nations before taking diplomatic or military action. Characteristically, they have the ability to intervene militarily almost anywhere. They also have soft, cultural power, and often economic investment in less developed countries. There is no definite list, but five great powers are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and eight are in G8.

paragraphs: The world's great powers as of the early 21st century are at least:


title: Bite

paragraphs: A bite is a wound received from the teeth of an animal. Animals may bite things in self-defence. Animals also bite things to cut them into smaller pieces before they eat them.

paragraphs: Bites can cause many medical problems, such as:

paragraphs: Bite wounds should be washed, ideally with povidone-iodine soap and water. The injury should then be loosely wrapped with a bandage. Open bite wounds are not sutured because of the risk of infection.

paragraphs: Animal bites caused by carnivores (other than rodents) may infect the victim with rabies if the animal that bit them carries it. If possible, the animal is caught and the head is looked at for signs of rabies. Signs of rabies include foaming at the mouth, self-mutilation, growling, jerky behaviour, and red eyes. If the animal lives for ten days and does not develop rabies, then the animal probably is not infected. In cases where the animal cannot be found, prophylactic rabies treatment is carried out in most places.

paragraphs: Many of the world's snakes are not considered dangerous to humans, but even a bite from a "safe" snake may injure the victim if the wound is not treated properly, and large snakes such as constrictors are capable of causing a lot of damage with their bites.

paragraphs: The black widow spider and some scorpions are considered dangerous to humans, mostly to small children and elderly adults. Only the Sydney funnel-web spider of Australia is frequently dangerous to adults, and it lives only within 100 miles of Sydney. Antivenins are available in the United States for black widow spiders and the dangerous scorpions native to the region.


title: Northern Europe

paragraphs: Northern Europe is the northern part of the European continent. Most people see the following states as part of it:

paragraphs: Europe, the planet's 6th largest continent, includes 47 countries and assorted dependencies, islands and territories.

paragraphs: Before the 19th century, the term 'Nordic' or 'Northern' was commonly used to mean Northern Europe in a sense that included the Nordic countries, European Russia, the Baltic countries (at that time Livonia and Courland) and Greenland.

paragraphs: In earlier eras, when Europe was dominated by the Mediterranean region (i.e. the Roman Empire), everything not near this sea was termed Northern Europe, including Germany, the Low Countries, and Austria. In medieval times, the term (Ultima) Thule was used to mean a semi-mythical place in the extreme northern reaches of the continent.

paragraphs: In a European Union context, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Germany, the UK, Ireland, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are often seen as belonging to a Northern group.


title: Western Europe

paragraphs: Western Europe is a geographic region of Europe. This term does not have a precise definition. Its use has changed over time. During the middle ages, the European parts of the Western World included those countries following Catholicism or Protestantism. During the Cold War, "Western Europe" was a geographic and socio-political concept. It meant the democratic European countries of the First World, which are also vaguely defined. It was and still is distinguished from Eastern Europe by differences of economics, politics, and religion. At its widest medieval definition, it includes the following 32 countries:

paragraphs: Many of these countries were members of the Western European Union. Many, such as Norway, are also in Northern Europe or in Central Europe or Southern Europe.

paragraphs: Today, the term "Western Europe" has to do with geography and with economics. The concept is commonly associated with liberal democracy, socialism and also with the European Union, though that also has some countries of Eastern Europe.

paragraphs: Most of the countries in the region share Western culture, and many have economic, and political ties with countries in North and South America and Oceania.

paragraphs: In addition, Scandinavia (in Northern Europe) is commonly associated with social democracy and remains fairly neutral throughout international disputes. The Iberian Peninsula, the most western part of Europe is similarly closely linked to the Americas.


title: Furnace

paragraphs: A Furnace is a device used for heating. The word has different meanings, though:


title: Southern Europe

paragraphs: Southern Europe is a region of the European continent. The officialise définition of southern europ is iberic peninsula, italian peninsula and balkanic peninsula. Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece and over all the Mediterranean countries of the European continent as parts of Southern Europe.

paragraphs: Geographically, Southern Europe would be the south half of the landmass of Europe. This definition is relative, with no clear limits.

paragraphs: The Alps mountains are a physical barrier between Italy and the rest of Europe.

paragraphs: For its official works and publications, the United Nations Organization has its own special definition of regions. Corsica for example is part of France, thus not part of Southern Europe, but Italian Tyrol belongs to Southern Europe as it is part of Italy..

paragraphs: The climatic definition of southern Europe would be similar to the areas of Mediterranean climate. The Mediterranean climate is often thought to be a typical characteristic of Southern Europe.

paragraphs: Countries of Latin Europe are often associated with the concept of Southern Europe, especially Italy and Spain.

paragraphs: Greece, Malta and Anatolia are often associated with them.

paragraphs: Although there is no precise definition, the following territories are commonly thought to be parts of Southern Europe:


title: Corsica

paragraphs: Corsica is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily, Sardinia, and Cyprus). It is west of Italy, southeast of France, and north of the island of Sardinia.

paragraphs: Corsica is one of the administrative regions of France. Some people want Corsica to be a part of Italy.

paragraphs: Corsica is famous for its tourist attractions, and as the birthplace of Napoléon Bonaparte.

paragraphs: Corsica has 1,000 km of coastline and more than 200 beaches, and is very mountainous, with Monte Cinto as the highest peak at 2706m and 20 other peaks of more than 2000m.

paragraphs: Corsica is the most mountainous Mediterranean island. The low ground has a Mediterranean climate. Summers are hot and dry. Winters are mild with moderate rainfall. The climate of the high ground is cold and is wetter. The natural vegetation is Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrubs. The mountains are rich of forests of oak, and pine, except for the high ground. Much of the coastal lowlands has been cleared for agriculture, which has reduced the mountain forests considerably. The island has a natural park (Parc Naturel Régional de Corse), which protects thousands of rare animal and plant species. The park was created in 1972 and includes the Golfe de Porto, the Réserve Naturelle de Scandola (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), and some of the highest mountains on the island. This park is protected.

paragraphs: The capital of the territorial collectivity of Corsica is Ajaccio (). The territorial collectivity is divided in two "départements": Corse-du-Sud and Haute-Corse. These two "départements" were created on September 15, 1975 by the "département" of Corse.

paragraphs: Tourism is the biggest source of Corsican economy. The island has a pleasant climate, beautiful mountains and really beautiful coastlines that make it a popular destination among the French and other Western Europeans. However, the island has not had the same level of intensive development as other parts of the Mediterranean. Tourism is particularly concentrated in the area around Porto Vecchio and Bonifacio in the south of the island and Calvi in the northwest.

paragraphs: Corsica is currently governed almost as any other "région" of France. There are lots of movements on the island the independence of Corsica and of Corsicans from France. The French government is against full independence. There is support on the island for to have more autonomy, but polls show that a large majority of Corsicans are opposed to full independence. Some groups who claim to support Corsican independence have carried out a violent campaign since the 1970s that includes bombings and a few accidental assassinations, usually against "pieds-noirs" and other non-Corsicans, or buildings of the French government. Corsican independence groups attack when they are sure there won't be a danger for victims. However, not all groups for independence has "nice treaties", Sometimes independence groups are known to practice extortion and other intimidatory tactics, similar to mafia activity in Sicily and southern Italy. Non-Corsican homeowners may be threatened with the destruction of their home, or they are constrict to pay a "revolutionarian tax",for to help the groups in the attacks.

paragraphs: In 2000, Prime Minister Lionel Jospin agreed to give more autonomy to Corsica but just for stopping the violence. The propose of autonomy for Corsica would have included greater protection for the Corsican language (Corsu), the island's traditional language (which is also considered to be a dialect of Italian). However, the plans for increased autonomy were opposed by the Gaullist opposition in the French National Assembly. In a referendum on July 6,2003, a narrow majority of Corsican voters opposed to the project from the government of Jean-Pierre Raffarin and Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy that would have suppressed the two "départements" of the island and granted more autonomy to the territorial collectivity of Corsica.

paragraphs: In Corsica the official language is French, but lots of people speak, "u corsu", the language of Corsica, protected by UNESCO. Corsu shares some similarities with Tuscan dialects (with their accents) or to Gallurese language, spoken in the nearby island of Sardinia. Corsu has two varietes, "Supranacciu", common in the northeast of theisland, (Bastia, Corte), and the "Suttanacciu" common in the south of the island, (Ajaccio, Sartene). The native Corsican language is closer to Italian than French, but both come from Latin. The ancient Romans spoke Latin.

paragraphs: In Corsica, football is a very common sport. The island has in the first league of France ('Ligue 1'), 2 teams. The AC Ajaccio and the SC Bastia. Another very famous sport in Corsica, is volleyball, with the "GFCO Ajaccio Volley-Ball' team.


title: Maser

paragraphs: A maser is a device that produces light and heat by using atoms to release energy. It was invented by Charles Hard Townes in the 1950s. A maser takes the small vibrations in atoms and amplifies them to release electromagnetic radiation. Originally, they were referred to by the acronym MASER or 'Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Unlike most radio transmitters, maser waves tend to have very similar wavelengths. Their usage was first predicted by Albert Einstein. In the 1960s masers were made to emit optical wavelengths, and soon were called lasers.


title: World Wide Web Consortium

paragraphs: The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is an organization created by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, in order to continue the development of the web, and its languages. Tim Berners-Lee also wants to make standards for the languages, and to improve them. As of 2 April 2010, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has 328 Members.

paragraphs: As of 29 March 2012, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has 351 members.

paragraphs: As of 9 June 2014, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has 384 Members.


title: Deinonychus

paragraphs: Deinonychus was a medium theropod dinosaur. It was a dromaeosaur, and also a larger relative of the famous "Velociraptor". This 3.4 meter (11 ft) long "Deinonychus" lived during the Lower Cretaceous, about 115-108 million years ago. Fossils have been found in the U.S. states of Montana, Wyoming, and Oklahoma.

paragraphs: "Deinonychus" is perhaps the single most important dinosaur discovered in the mid 20th century.

paragraphs: Paleontologist John Ostrom's study of "Deinonychus" in the late 1960s started the debate on whether dinosaurs were warm-blooded. It is now accepted that all or most smaller theropods had feathers whose function was temperature regulation. Ostrom noted the small body, sleek, horizontal, posture, and the enlarged claws on the feet, which suggested the animal was an active, agile predator. Before this, the popular idea of dinosaurs had been one of plodding, reptilian giants.

paragraphs: "Deinonychus" means 'Terrible claw'. This refers to the large, sickle-shaped claw bone on the second toe of each hind foot. In life, a horny sheath over this bone extended the length. Ostrom reconstructed the claw as over long.

paragraphs: The species name "antirrhopus" means “counter balance”. This refers to Ostrom's idea that the tail balanced the front of the body. As in other dromaeosaurs, the tail vertebrae have ossified (bony) tendons and super-long bone processes. These features seemed to make the tail into a stiff counterbalance. A fossil of the closely related "Velociraptor" has an connected tail skeleton that is curved side to side in a long S–shape. This suggests that, in life, the tail could swish to the sides with some flexibility.

paragraphs: "Deinonychus" remains have been found near those of the ornithopod "Tenontosaurus". Teeth discovered near "Tenontosaurus" specimens suggest it was hunted or at least scavenged by "Deinonychus".


title: Cheerleader

paragraphs: A cheerleader is a person who does cheerleading, or leads cheers for sporting events or during competition. This is usually done as a group. It is done to keep the spirit of a sports team up.

paragraphs: This sport is originally from the United States. It was first seen in the beginning of the 1900s. It was, and is still used to support a local sports group (for example football).

paragraphs: Because of the athletic ability often needed in cheerleading, many people think cheerleading is a sport. Cheerleaders perform routines that include dancing, tumbling, cheering, stunting and jumping. Cheerleading teams can compete in competitions against other cheer teams as well as perform for different sporting events.


title: My Opera Community

paragraphs: The My Opera Community is a virtual community, which provides help and social networking services for people who use the Opera browser.

paragraphs: The My Opera Community started in August 2001 and will be shut down after February 2014. It currently has over 16,000,000 members, who are from all over the world.


title: Permanent

paragraphs: Permanent used as an adjective usually means that something will stay for a long time or forever. Its opposite is temporary. Permanent may also mean other things.


title: Linen

paragraphs: Linen is a material made from the fibers of the flax plant ("Linum usitatissimum"). It is mainly used to make cloth, especially for light clothing and table coverings.

paragraphs: The flax plant is one of the plants humans have grown and used. Linen cloth was already made at least 6,000 years ago in Egypt and Mesopotamia. This makes linen one of the oldest fibers and cloths used by humans, besides wool and hemp. Linen and hemp were the most important fiber plants in Europe for a long time. Linen was for example also used to wrap Egyptian mummies.

paragraphs: In recent centuries linen has largely been replaced by cotton and synthetic materials, which are cheaper.


title: Hieroglyph

paragraphs: Hieroglyphs, or hieroglyphics, are a type of writing that uses symbols or pictures to stand for sounds and words. The Egyptians, Luwians and Mayan cultures are among those who used hieroglyphs. They have also been found in Turkey, Crete, United States and Canada.

paragraphs: They are thought to have started when pictures were used to tell stories on pots and other artwork. Over time, the pictures became letters.

paragraphs: The word "hieroglyph" comes from the Greek words ἱερός (hierós 'sacred') and γλύφειν (glúphein 'to carve' or 'to write'), and it was first used to mean Egyptian hieroglyphs. The Greeks who came to Egypt saw the picture letters, which were often found carved on house walls, tombs and monuments.

paragraphs: Ancient Egyptians used pictures to make a phonetic alphabet as in a rebus, so that each sound could be written with a picture-word, a "phonogram" or "pictograph". For example, a zig-zag for water n came to mean the letter "n", because the Egyptian word for water started with n. This same picture became our letter 'M' in the Latin alphabet, because the Semitic word for water started with m, and Semitic workers changed the symbols to fit sounds in their own language. In the same way, our Latin letter 'N' came from the hieroglyph for snake D as the word for "snake" started with n in Semitic. In Egyptian, this picture had stood for a sound like English "J" because of their word for snake. Some pictures came to represent ideas, and these are known as "ideograms".

paragraphs: The Egyptians used between 700 or 800 pictures, or glyphs. They were written from right to left and from top to bottom. They did not use punctuation.

paragraphs: Archaeologists believe that the Egyptians began using hieroglyphs about 3300 or 3200 BCE. They were in use for more than 3500 years. Only the nobles, priests and government officials wrote in hieroglyphs. They were hard to learn and took a long time to write. People stopped using hieroglyphs when Christianity took hold in Egypt. Writing in hieroglyphs became more rare: the last known inscription was made in 394 CE.

paragraphs: Hieroglyphs, like Japanese or Chinese characters, started out as ideographic characters, or writing made of pictures. The ancient writing has no vowels, and all sounds in the writing are consonants.

paragraphs: After the end of the Egyptian civilization in 30 BCE, people no longer knew how to read the hieroglyphs. When the French took over Egypt in 1798, French soldiers found a large stone. This is now called the Rosetta Stone. The Rosetta Stone had writing in three different languages: hieroglyphs, Ancient Greek and demotic (a simplified form of hieroglyphs). Jean François Champollion guessed that the writing on the stone was the same in three different languages. By using the Ancient Greek, he was able to work out the name of the ruler, Ptolemy V, in hieroglyphs. After many years of study, he was then able to work out how to read the other words.

paragraphs: A type of hieroglyphs was also used on Crete and the surrounding islands in the 2nd millennium BCE. This writing system developed into a script called Linear A. For some time, both writing systems were used. Of the 137 symbols are known, several resemble pictograms. 96 of the 137 known hieroglyphs occur in "words" and 32 seem to be logograms.

paragraphs: There are four numerals that represent 1, 10, 100 and 1000, respectively, and a symbol that looks like a small cross: it probably shows the beginning of the text. Because there are relatively few symbols, the writing is probably syllabic, much like Linear A. Most of the known texts are short: occur on sigils and clay shards.


title: Papyrus

paragraphs: Papyrus is a kind of paper that was used in Ancient Egypt for writing. It was first made as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. It was made from a kind of reed called "Cyperus papyrus". This plant was originally grown in marshy areas around the Nile river. The plant had a variety of uses. The Egyptians also used the papyrus plants to make boats, mattresses, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets. Specially cultivated papyrus, grown on plantations, was used to make the writing material. They were first used in Ancient Egypt, but they were later used throughout the Mediterranean region.


title: Sodium hypochlorite

paragraphs: Sodium hypochlorite is an unstable compound composed of sodium and hypochlorite ions. It is stable in solution, though. It is light green and has the chemical formula NaClO (or NaOCl). It is a strong oxidizing agent. It is used to disinfect (kill bacteria) and as a bleach to remove stains from clothing. It is not good for cotton because the sodium hydroxide normally contained eats away the clothing fibers. It reacts with acids to produce chlorine.


title: Raisin

paragraphs: Raisins are dried grapes. They have a lot of sugar.


title: Taste bud

paragraphs: Taste buds are small 'bumps' on the tongue. They are the sense organs which detect the taste of things that go into the mouth. They are involved in detecting the five (known) elements of taste perception: salty, sour, bitter, sweet, and umami.


title: Nectar

paragraphs: Nectar, in botany, is a liquid made by the flowers of plants. It is sweet because it has sugar in it. Plants make nectar to attract pollinating animals. It is made in glands called nectaries. The nectaries are usually at the bottom of the perianth of the flower. This means the animal trying to get the nectar have to touch the parts of the plant that are used for reproduction. By doing this, the animal getting the nectar helps the plants reproduce.

paragraphs: Some plants make nectar outside the flower. These plants do it to attract predatory insects. These insects will eat both the nectar and any plant-eating insects found near the plant.

paragraphs: Nectar is economically important because it is where the sugar for honey comes from. It is also useful in agriculture and horticulture because the adults of many predatory insects, as well as hummingbirds, eat nectar. Some plants give off very rich aromas, such as the Rocky Mountain Columbine


title: Hunting dog

paragraphs: A hunting dog is any dog who helps humans in hunting. There are several types of hunting dogs. The major categories of hunting dog include hounds, terriers, cur type dogs, and gun dogs. These categories have smaller groups in them that are based on different things the dogs are good at doing.

paragraphs: There are two types of hounds, "sight hounds" and "scent hounds". The difference between them is if they use sight or smell to find what they are hunting for. They are often used to hunt animals with fur. In America, raccoon, coyote, and large predators are hunted with hounds, and traditionally in Britain hounds were used to hunt the fox.

paragraphs: These dogs are also called bird dogs. They are used by hunters who carry shotguns to hunt small animals. Gun dogs come in three main classes. The classes are "retriever"s, "flushing spaniels", and "pointing breeds".

paragraphs: The main job of a retriever is to get the animal after the hunter shoots it. Retrievers are very good in the water and often used by hunters shooting ducks.

paragraphs: Flushing spaniels are used when birds being hunted are found in areas where they can hide, for example high grass. The spaniel will run through the grass. This makes the birds fly into the air so the hunter can shoot them. Spaniels stay close to the hunter so when the birds start to fly, the hunter is close enough to shoot them.

paragraphs: Pointers find birds then stand still and point at where the bird is. They often are farther away from the hunter than a spaniel would be. By pointing instead of flushing the bird out, they give the hunter time to get close enough to shoot the bird.

paragraphs: These dogs are almost always used to hunt mammals. Terriers are used to find the den or living space of the animal. They will go into where the animal lives and either force it to run out or they will kill it. Many of the animals hunted with terriers are animals that cause damage, for example, ground hogs, fox and badger.

paragraphs: Curs are used in the same way as terriers but on larger animals. Curs are used to hunt boars, raccoon, cougars, and other large mammals


title: Purebred dog

paragraphs: Purebred dogs are dogs whose ancestors are all the same breed.

paragraphs: A breed of dog is a particular subspecies that has been bred through time to exhibit certain characteristics, for example a bulldog is bred to be short and have a flat nose while a greyhound is bred to be light and run fast. Some dogs are bred to look special which is why poodles have fluffy hair.


title: MTR

paragraphs: The Mass Transit Railway or MTR (in Chinese, 香港鐵路有限公司, literally "Hong Kong Railway Company"; or 港鐵 for short) is the main rapid transit railway system in Hong Kong. Since the MTR service first opened in 1979, the network has grown to more than 150 stations. Built and run by MTR Corporation Limited, the MTR system is a very popular mode of public transport in Hong Kong, with around 2.46 million passengers riding each day.

paragraphs: Hong Kong's growing economy and the quick increase in population created a lot of traffic problems. The Hong Kong government made a study of these problems. The first line was opened in 1979. The MTR was quickly popular with the people of Hong Kong, so later they built more lines to cover more ground. People are still deciding how and where to expand the MTR network next.

paragraphs: During the 1960s, the government of Hong Kong thought they need to accommodate increasing road traffic that growing Hong Kong's economy would bring. British transport consultants Freeman, Fox, Wilbur Smith & Associates were appointed to study the transport system of Hong Kong. The consultants released the "Hong Kong Mass Transport Study" in September 1967, which proposed the construction of a mass transport underground railway system in Hong Kong.

paragraphs: In 1970, an underground network with four lines was laid out and planned as part of the British consultants' new report, "Hong Kong Mass Transit: Further Studies". The four lines were to be the Kwun Tong Line, Tsuen Wan Line, Island Line, and East Kowloon Line. However, the lines that were eventually constructed were somewhat different compared with the lines that were originally proposed by the "Hong Kong Mass Transport Study".

paragraphs: In 1972, the Hong Kong government authorised construction of the "Initial System", a 20-km system that roughly translates to the Kwun Tong Line today (except the line now extends to Tiu Keng Leng). Negotiations with four major construction consortia started in 1973. The government's intention was to tender the entire project, based on the British design, as a single tender at a fixed price. A consortium from Japan signed an agreement to construct the system in early 1974, but in December of the same year it pulled out from the agreement, stemming from fears of the Arab oil crisis.

paragraphs: Several weeks later, in early 1975, a government agency known as the Mass Transport Provisional Authority was established to take charge of the project. It announced that the Initial System would be slightly reduced to 15.6 kilometres, and renamed it the Modified Initial System. Plans for a single contract were also abandoned in favour of 25 engineering contracts and 10 electrical and mechanical contracts.

paragraphs: In addition, the government-owned Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) was established to replace the Mass Transport Provisional Authority. (This was the company succeeded by the MTR Corporation Limited on 30 June 2000)

paragraphs: Construction of the Modified Initial System (now part of Kwun Tong Line and Tsuen Wan Line) commenced in November 1975. After almost four years, the northern section was completed on 30 September 1979. On 1 October 1979, the northern section was opened, with trains running from Shek Kip Mei to Kwun Tong. The route from Tsim Sha Tsui to Shek Kip Mei was opened in December of the same year.

paragraphs: In 1980, the first harbour crossing was made by an MTR train as the Kwun Tong Line was extended even farther to Chater station, now known as Central station. To deal with increasing patronage, trains were also extended to six cars.

paragraphs: The government approved construction of the Tsuen Wan Line in 1977, then known as Tsuen Wan Extension, and works commenced in November 1978. The project added a 10.5-kilometre section to the MTR system, from Prince Edward to Tsuen Wan. The line started service on 10 May 1982 with a total cost of construction (not adjusted for inflation) at HK$4.1 billion.

paragraphs: When service of this line started, the section of the Kwun Tong Line from Chater to Argyle, present-day Mong Kok station, was transferred to the Tsuen Wan Line. Thus, Waterloo became the terminus of the Kwun Tong Line, and both Argyle and Prince Edward stations became interchange stations. This change was made because system planners expected traffic of the Tsuen Wan Line would exceed that of the Kwun Tong Line. This forecast proved quite accurate, necessitating a bypass from the northwestern New Territories to Hong Kong Island. Launched in 1998, the Tung Chung Line serves exactly that purpose.

paragraphs: Although land acquisitions were made for a station at Tsuen Wan West, the station was never built. This is not to be confused with Tsuen Wan West Station on KCR West Rail, which lies on the newly reclaimed area near the former ferry pier.

paragraphs: It is interesting to note that since the line's opening in 1982, this is the only line whose alignment has virtually remained the same for the past 23 years. For example, the Kwun Tong Line's alignment has changed for 2 times since its opening - the taking over of Tsuen Wan Line from Mong Kok to Central, and the taking over of Eastern Harbour Crossing section by the Tseung Kwan O Line.

paragraphs: Government approvals were granted for construction of the Island Line in December, 1980. Construction commenced in October, 1981. On 31 May 1985 the Island Line was opened with service between Admiralty and Chai Wan stations. Both Admiralty and Central stations became interchange stations with the Tsuen Wan Line. Furthermore, each train was extended to eight cars.

paragraphs: On 23 May 1986, service reached Sheung Wan station. Construction for this station was delayed for one year as government offices which sat on top of the station had to be removed to a new location before construction could start.

paragraphs: In 1984, the government approved the construction of the Eastern Harbour Crossing, a tunnel to be used by cars and MTR trains. The Kwun Tong Line was extended across the harbour to Quarry Bay, which became an interchange station for the Kwun Tong Line and the Island Line. The extension was launched on 5 August 1989. An intermediate station, Lam Tin, started operations on 1 October 1989.

paragraphs: The decision was made in October 1989 to construct a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak International Airport. The government invited the MTR to build a train line, then known as the Lantau Airport Railway, to the airport. But construction did not begin until the Chinese and British governments settled their financial and land disagreements in November 1994.

paragraphs: In the end, the new line was included in the financing plans of the new Hong Kong International Airport as the airport was not considered viable without direct public transport links. Construction costs were also shared by the MTR which was granted many large-scale developments in the construction plans for the new stations.

paragraphs: The Lantau Airport Railway turned into two MTR lines, the Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express. The Tung Chung Line was officially opened on 21 June 1998 by Hong Kong Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwa, and service commenced the next day. The Airport Express opened for service on 6 July 1998 along with the new Hong Kong International Airport.

paragraphs: The Airport Express line is the second most popular means of transport to the Hong Kong International Airport. In 2005, 22% of the commuters took the Airport Express to and from the airport.

paragraphs: The Quarry Bay Congestion Relief Works involved extending the Hong Kong Island end of the Kwun Tong Line from Quarry Bay to North Point via a 4.2–kilometre tunnel. The project was initiated due to overcrowding at Quarry Bay and persistent passenger complaints about the five-minute walk from the Island Line platforms to the Kwun Tong Line platform. Construction began in September 1997 and was completed in September 2001 at a cost of HK$3.0 billion (US $385 million). The tried-and-true cross-platform interchange arrangement is repeated here.

paragraphs: Construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line was approved on 18 August 1998 to serve new housing developments. Construction began on 24 April 1999 and the line officially opened in 2002, taking over the train tracks running through the Eastern Harbour Tunnel from the Kwun Tong Line, running from Po Lam to North Point. When the line was opened, the Kwun Tong Line was diverted to Tiu Keng Leng on the new line. Construction costs were partly covered by the Hong Kong Government and private developers which linked construction of the Tseung Kwan O Line to new real estate and commercial developments. Previously less developed areas were opened up for development with more transport options.

paragraphs: While the construction of the Tung Chung Line was still underway, the plan to build a railway corridor serving the northwestern New Territories was conceived. Space had been reserved for the addition of an interchange station and two extra tracks (to allow nonstop service for the Airport Express) between Olympic and Lai King. Originally known as the Airport Railway Phase 2, the contracts of the West Rail Line Interface Works were awarded shortly after construction works of the West Rail commenced. The project comprised Mei Foo Interchange (modification of the existing Mei Foo station on the Tsuen Wan Line to provide a pedestrian link to the West Rail Line Mei Foo Station); Nam Cheong Station (an interchange station on the Tung Chung Line, jointly operated by the MTRCL and KCRC) and quadruplication works (the additional two tracks, four kilometres in length, allow the Tung Chung Line trains to stop at Nam Cheong without blocking the passage of Airport Express trains).

paragraphs: The works were completed in stages. The Tung Chung Line trains have been diverted to the new track since mid May 2003, whereas the Mei Foo station interchange subway and the Nam Cheong station were opened at the same time the West Rail Line opened for public use in December 2003. The Kowloon Southern Link extension from Nam Cheong Station to East Tsim Sha Tsui Station was opened on 16 August 2009, with West Rail Line trains now terminating at Hung Hom Station, interchange station for East Rail Line.

paragraphs: The interchange between the Tsuen Wan Line and the Kwun Tong Line, the Island Line and the Tseung Kwan O Line, as well as that between the Kwun Tong Line and the Tseung Kwan O Line, are two stations long, allowing cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line. For example, when passengers are travelling on the Kwun Tong Line towards Tiu Keng Leng, getting off at Yau Tong would allow them to switch trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards North Point. Whereas, staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow them to board the Tseung Kwan O Line trains towards Po Lam/LOHAS Park. This design makes interchanging more convenient and passengers do not have the need to change to different levels. However this interchange arrangement is not available for all transferring passengers at Kowloon Tong, Central, Hong Kong, Nam Cheong (Except transfer between Tuen Mun and Hong Kong bound trains), Mei Foo, Tai Wai Station (Except alighting from Ma On Shan Line to change southbound trains for East Rail Line) and Sunny Bay (Except alighting from Tung Chung bound trains to Disneyland Resort Line) stations, mainly because this service is available only when there are two continuous stations shared as interchange stations by two lines.

paragraphs: Two major works were undertaken to facilitate interchange between Kwun Tong Line and East Rail Line. The modification of Kowloon Tong Station started in June 2001. A new pedestrian link to Kowloon Tong Station southern concourse and a new entrance (Exit D) were opened on 15 April 2004 to cope with the increase in interchange passenger flow. Modification to Tsim Sha Tsui Station involved upgrading station facilities and concourse layout to facilitate access from the East Tsim Sha Tsui Station via its pedestrian links. New entrances to the subway links were opened on 19 September 2004 (Exit G) and 30 March 2005 (Exit F), with the whole scheme completed in May 2005.

paragraphs: The Ma On Shan Line was constructed by the KCR to serve Ma On Shan and City One residential areas and operation of the line was outsourced to the MTR. The system mostly runs on a viaduct between the middle of roads with stations, stopping right next to major buildings. The only time the trains don't run on viaducts is when the railway meets the route 2 highway, where it runs in the middle and then raises back to a viaduct. The railway is slightly different from all other Hong Kong railways because the trains run on the right, not the left; this is so that passengers can easily interchange from the Ma On Shan line to the East Rail Line towards Hong Hum. The majority of passengers using the line get off the train at Tai Wai to interchange to the East Rail Line, using the line as a feeder route.

paragraphs: The Disneyland Resort Line, previously known as Penny's Bay Rail Link, provides service to the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort which was opened on 12 September 2005. Service to Sunny Bay station on the Tung Chung Line started in 2005. The new line and the Disneyland Resort station opened on 1 August 2005. It is a 3.5–kilometre single-track railway that runs between Sunny Bay station and Disneyland Resort station. The Disneyland Resort station itself was designed to blend in with the ambience of the resort. The line currently operates fully automated, trains running every four to ten minutes without a driver, and the carriages were changed from the existing M-Train rolling stock to match the recreational and adventurous nature of the 3.5-minute journey.

paragraphs: The new AsiaWorld-Expo Station is an extension of the Airport Express serving the new international exhibition centre, known as the AsiaWorld-Expo at Hong Kong International Airport. The station opened on 20 December 2005 along with the exhibition centre. To cope with the projected increase in patronage, Airport Express trains have been expanded to utilise eight carriages from the previous seven. Additional trains will also be deployed on the Tung Chung line during major exhibitions and events.

paragraphs: On 5 October 2000, the operator of the MTR network, MTR Corporation Limited (MTRCL), became Hong Kong's first rail company to be privatised, marking the beginning of the Hong Kong government's initiative to dissolve its interests in public utilities. Prior to its listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) was wholly owned by the Hong Kong government. The offering involved the sale of about one billion shares, and the company now has the largest shareholder base of any company listed in Hong Kong. In June 2001, MTRCL was transferred to the Hang Seng Index.

paragraphs: MTRCL has often developed properties next to stations to complement its already profitable railway business. Many recently built stations were incorporated into large housing estates or shopping complexes. For example, Tsing Yi station is built next to the Maritime Square shopping centre and directly underneath the Tierra Verde housing estate.

paragraphs: On 11 April 2006, MTRCL signed a non-binding memorandum of understanding with the Hong Kong government, the owner of Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation, to merge the operation of the two railway networks in Hong Kong in spite of the strong opposition by the KCRC staff. The minority shareholders of the corporation approved the proposal at an extraordinary general meeting on 9 October 2007, allowing MTRCL to take over the operation of the KCR network and combine the fare system of the two networks on 2 December 2007.

paragraphs: On 2 December 2007 the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC) granted a 50-year service concession (which may be extended) of the KCR network to MTRCL, in return for making annual payments to KCRC, thereby merging the railway operations of the two corporations under MTRCL's management. At the same time MTRCL changed its Chinese name from "地鐵有限公司" (Subway Limited Company) to "香港鐵路有限公司" (Hong Kong Railway Limited Company), but left its English name unchanged. After the merger, the MTR network included three more lines, East Rail Line, West Rail Line and Ma On Shan Line, as well as the Light Rail network and Guangdong Through Train to Guangzhou.

paragraphs: On 28 September 2008, fare zones of all commuter lines which is ex-KCR were merged. A passenger could travel on these networks with only one ticket, except where a transfer is made between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations, where two tickets are required. Student discounts on Octopus Card were also issued.

paragraphs: Various campaigns and activities are taken to help ensure that the MTR is a safe system to travel on. Poster campaigns displaying information on topics such as escalator safety are a common sight in all MTR stations, and announcements are made regularly as safety reminders to travelling passengers.

paragraphs: Bylaws have been recently introduced to deter potentially dangerous actions on the MTR, such as the ban of flammable goods on the MTR and rushing into trains when the doors are closing. Penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment have been imposed for such offenses. Metallic balloons are also banned due to previous incidents on KCR and on MTR's Island Line where a metallic balloon interfered with the operation of the overhead power lines.

paragraphs: Police officers patrol on trains and stations, and police posts are available at some stations. The Hong Kong Police Force has a Railway District responsible for the MTR and the KCR. Closed-circuit television cameras are installed in stations.

paragraphs: Tung Chung Line, the Airport Express and Tseung Kwan O Line, except Quarry Bay station, had platform screen doors (PSDs) installed upon construction. These doors prevent people from falling onto the rails, and MTRC allowed the assumption that this implementation was primarily a safety campaign, without heavily promoting it directly. In fact, the primary motivation was to separate the stations from the tunnels, hence allowing substantial energy savings on station air-conditioning and tunnel ventilation. Automatic platform gates (APGs) have also been installed at the Sunny Bay and Disneyland Resort stations. Their heights are half of the PSDs and only prevent people from falling onto the rails.

paragraphs: In June 2000, The MTR Corporation proceeded with its plans to retrofit 2,960 pairs of platform screen doors at all 30 underground stations on the Kwun Tong Line, Tsuen Wan Line, and Island Line in a six-year programme. The programme made MTR the world's first railway to undertake the retrofitting of PSDs on a passenger-carrying system already in operation. A prototype design was first introduced at Choi Hung station in the 3rd quarter of 2001. HK$0.10 per passenger trip was levied on Octopus card users to help fund the HK$2 billion retrofit programme. The whole installation scheme was completed in October 2005. The original completion year was 2006. The MTR Corporation said that part of the cost had to be assumed by passengers.

paragraphs: With the high level of daily passenger traffic, facilities of MTR stations are built with durability and accessibility in mind. The elevators and escalators in stations are heavy duty, with the elevators installed by Otis Elevator Company/Fujitec and the escalators installed by Constructions Industrielles de la Mediterranée and Otis Elevator Company.

paragraphs: After extensive retrofits, the MTR system has become, in general, disabled-friendly—the trains have dedicated wheelchair space, the stations have special floor tiles to guide the blind safely on the platforms, and there are extra wide entry and exit gates for wheelchairs as well.

paragraphs: Unlike many other metro systems around the world, "main line" MTR stations do not have toilet facilities, although their installation has been contemplated. Only stations on the Airport Express and Disneyland Resort Line have access to toilet facilities.

paragraphs: The MTR network is unique in its arrangement of interchange stations. Interchange stations between the Island, Tsuen Wan, Kwun Tong and Tseung Kwan O lines are arranged in pairs; such an arrangement allows cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line.

paragraphs: Most of those stations make use of a cross-platform interchange system, where the commuter can change to another line on the opposite platform. For example, when a person is travelling on the Kwun Tong Line towards Tiu Keng Leng, getting off at Yau Tong would allow him to change trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards North Point. Whereas, staying on the train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow you to change trains for the Tseung Kwan O Line towards Po Lam.

paragraphs: This not only makes it more convenient for passengers, it also reduces the amount of traffic per station. Riders are made aware of the closest connection point by way of in-train visual and auditory messages. Although riders can disregard these tips, the design of the stations are for the convenience of passengers.

paragraphs: A full GSM (GSM-900 and GSM-1800), CDMA and TDMA mobile phone network is in place throughout the MTR system of stations and tunnels. Passengers can stay connected underground.

paragraphs: Currently, full 3G network coverage in all stations and tunnels (except West Rail Line) for the MTR system has been provided by 3 Hong Kong, SmarTone-Vodafone and PCCW Mobile. Passengers with subscription services will be able to make video calls and access high speed video content on their mobile phones regardless whether the train is above ground or under ground.

paragraphs: Until recently, MTR stations only had branches of the Hang Seng Bank and Maxim's Cakes stores, owned by Jardine Matheson, and a handful of other shops. Since the privatisation of the MTR, however, numerous shops have been added to certain stations, turning them into miniature shopping centres. Services available at most stations include:

paragraphs: Apart from retailers, there are also dentists and medical clinics, drycleaners, and florists along the Tseung Kwan O Line. Standard services include payphones, vending machines (Coca-Cola only), and self-service photo-booths.

paragraphs: "Recruit" was the first free magazine which was solely distributed in MTR stations since July 1992. However, in July 2002, the contract between the magazine and MTR was terminated. Another recruitment magazine "Jiu Jik" (招職), published by "South China Morning Post", replaced "Recruit" as the only free recruitment magazine distributed in MTR stations on every Tuesdays and Fridays.

paragraphs: At the same time, there was another entertainment magazine "Hui Kai Guide" (去街 Guide). However, it is no longer distributed in MTR stations since 2006.

paragraphs: The "Metropolis Daily" (都市日報), published by Metro International, is the first free newspaper distributed free in MTR stations from Monday to Friday (except public holidays); and in 2005, there is another weekend newspaper "Express Post" (快線周報), distributed every Saturday except public holidays.

paragraphs: The "Metropop" (都市流行), also published by Metro International, started its distribution in MTR stations every Thursdays since April 27 2006, few months after the termination of "Hui Kai Guide". It is a weekly magazine featuring cultural affairs and city trends.

paragraphs: The Airport Express also offer value-added services to travellers on the line. Toilets and check-in facilities are available at every station on the line. A free Airport Express shuttle bus service transports travellers from stations to their respective hotels as well. Flight passengers can even have in-town check-in at the station, which offers a more convenient and time-saving routine.

paragraphs: As of January 2005, there are two different fare classes on the MTR: Adult and concessionary. Only children below the age of 12, senior citizens 65 years or older, or full-time Hong Kong students between the ages of 12 and 25 qualify for the concessionary rate. Children below the age of 3 travel free.

paragraphs: Similar to some other metro systems in the world, the fare payable by a passenger depends on the approximate distance travelled. However, taking any particular station as the origin, the other stations fall into fare "zones" depending on the distance from the origin. The fare to all stations in a "zone" is the same and increases with distance, especially if the journey involves a harbour crossing. Adult fares range from HK$3.80 to $26.00. Concessionary fares are usually half the adult fare, and range from HK$2.40 to $13.00. Fares for the Airport Express Line are significantly higher.

paragraphs: The price of using MTR is very low. For example, the price of going from Tsing Yi to Causeway Bay by taxi is around HK$200. Travelling the same distance by MTR costs HK$11.80 for grown up people and HK$5.40 for young and very old people. People can buy a one way ticket or a Octopus card to enter MTR. Octopus card is a contact-less smart card.

paragraphs: The Octopus card is a rechargeable contactless smart card used in an electronic payment system in Hong Kong. It was launched in September 1997 for use on both the MTR and the KCR and now is the most widely used electronic cash system for transactions in Hong Kong as many retailers are fitted with readers.

paragraphs: The Octopus card uses radio frequency identification (RFID) technology so that users need only hold the card in front of the reader. Physical contact is not required, and the card need not even be taken out because the reader can penetrate through material. This fare collection system has been so popular that many cities such as Singapore, London, Chicago, and Taipei have adopted the idea, launching their own version of smart cards, respectively named EZ-link, Oyster card, and EasyCard.

paragraphs: Except for the Airport Express, MTR fares are slightly lower when using an Octopus card compared to using single journey tickets. For example, the cost of the 3-minute journey from Admiralty to Tsim Sha Tsui across the Victoria Harbour is (as of 2005) HK$7.9 using the Octopus card, compared with HK$9.0 for a single-journey ticket.

paragraphs: Two types of tourist passes are available: one allows unlimited rides for a single day (at HK$50), while the other allows three days of unlimited rides on the MTR, with a stored value of HK$20, refundable deposit of HK$50 and choice of either a single (HK$220) or return (HK$300) trip on the Airport Express.

paragraphs: Tourists are required to produce proof of tourist status, (e.g. passports or, in the case of Mainland travellers, entry permits) when purchasing the pass, and whenever requested by a ticket inspector during spot-checks.

paragraphs: The magnetic fare card system is used for single journey tickets. These tickets are pre-paid for between pre-determined stations, and are good for only one trip. There are no return tickets, except on the Airport Express.

paragraphs: Fares for the Airport Express are substantially different from main line fares. Apart from single tickets, same-day return tickets (same price as a single), and one-month return tickets are also available.

paragraphs: A one-day pass can be used to unlimited travel to/from Hong Kong Disneyland within the same day, and costs HK$50. This pass can be purchased from any MTR Customer Service Centres or Airport Express Customer Service Centres.

paragraphs: Four variations of rolling stock operate on the MTR on 1.5kV DC overhead electrification. All trains are electric multiple units (EMUs), with ATC and ATP, operating on 1432 mm rail gauge. Except for the rolling stock of the Airport Express, all trains are designed with features to cope with high density passenger traffic on stopping services. Examples are the latitudinal seating arrangement, additional ventilation fans and 5 doors on each side per car.

paragraphs: The Tung Chung Line and the Airport Express use dedicated rolling stock designs specified to their respective lines. Initially run in 7-car formations, they have now been lengthened to eight cars. These two variations are built jointly by Adtranz (now Bombardier Transportations) and Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles between 1994–97.

paragraphs: The other lines are operated using a mixture of the other two variations, known as the "M-Train" and the "K-Stock". The "M-Stock" (or CM-Stock") of "M-Train" are the oldest trains on the MTR, built originally by Metro Cammell (now Alstom) and refurbished by United Goninan. The "M-Train" is the only variation that uses sliding doors, as opposed to others which use plug-doors. The "K-Stock" are built jointly by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and ROTEM, and a further order of 32 cars is due to be in service on the Tung Chung Line by 2007.

paragraphs: The Disneyland Resort Line uses driverless "M-Trains" with their appearance overhauled to suit the atmosphere and theme of the line. Windows on each carriage and the handrails inside are made into the shape of Mickey Mouse's head, and there are bronze-made Disney characters decorating the interior of the carriages.

paragraphs: With the objective "not only bring MTR passengers more time for life, but also more time for art", the "Art in MTR" Initiative has been a success since its reception in 1998, where the Airport Express Artwork Programme was the pioneer project. Thereafter, live performances, art exhibitions, display of artwork by established and emerging artists, students and young children have been brought into the MTR stations. MTR Corporation Limited have even made art part of the station architecture when building new stations or renovating existing ones. Artworks are exhibited in different forms on the network, including "arttube", open art gallery, community art galleries, roving art, living art, and art in station architecture.

paragraphs: By incorporating elements of art into the railway network, the travelling environment for the passengers is not only enhanced, but also makes their journeys even more pleasant and enjoyable. Moreover, with MTR stations being an integral part of the neighbourhood, the programme also provides opportunities to promote Hong Kong's community art, encourage art appreciation among the public and give residents a feeling of home at the stations.

paragraphs: MTR Corporation Limited has suggested several future projects to the Hong Kong Government, with some already being built. The network is also set to grow quite much when MTR Corporation Limited joins with the government-owned Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC), with the non-binding "Memorandum of Understanding" agreement signed on 11 April 2006 to give MTR Corporation control of the KCR network for 50 years. The new Sha Tin to Central Link that was first given to KCRC would now also be run by MTR Corporation Limited, which will run from Tai Wai Station in Tai Wai to Central.

paragraphs: It has also been suggested to improve parts of MTR that are running now. Airport Station on the Airport Express will have a new platform to serve passengers flying out of Hong Kong International Airport's Skyplaza. New subway links to the stations are also being made, and it has been proposed to lengthen the Tseung Kwan O Line with a branch line to Tseung Kwan O South, and the Kwun Tong Line as far as Whampoa Garden, also linking with the Sha Tin to Central Link expansion.

paragraphs: The West Island Line and South Island Line, first suggested to the government by MTR on 21 January 2003, was finally accepted on 30 June 2005. It was made up of the West Island Line that took the Island Line to Kennedy Town, and the South Island Line (East section) from Admiralty to Ap Lei Chau and South Island Line (West section) that connects the other two lines. This is being talked about now and the whole longer line should be finished and running by 2012.


title: Rib cage

paragraphs: The ribcage is a part of the skeleton of humans and some animals. It is made up of curved bones called ribs. The rib cage is found in the chest area. It protects a person's internal organs from damage. Most humans have 12 pairs of rib bones with one from each pair on each side of the chest. Some people may have 11 or 13 pairs of rib bones. The bones are also filled with bone marrow. The bones that are connected to the sternum directly are called true ribs, and the bones that are connected to the sternum indirectly, through the seventh bone, are called false ribs (eighth, ninth, and tenth bones), and the bones which are not connected to the sternum, and is connected to the back bone, are called floating ribs. If these floating ribs were connected to the sternum, we could not breathe properly, as the chest needs space to expand and decrease. The rib cage is also called the thoracic cavity.


title: Interview

paragraphs: An interview is a conversation where somebody is trying to get information from another person. The person asking questions is the interviewer and the person answering questions is the interviewee.

paragraphs: Employers interview people trying to get a job to find out if they are a good person for the job. Researchers use an interview to ask people to find how they feel or what they know about something. Since the middle 19th century, interviews have often been used in journalism to get information for stories on news shows or in newspapers.

paragraphs: Police interview witnesses to a crime to find out what happened. Military intelligence agents interview prisoners to learn about enemy plans and capabilities. These interviews are often called interrogation.


title: Athelstan

paragraphs: Athelstan or Æthelstan, (893/4–27 October 939), called the Glorious, was the first King of England. He reigned from 924 to 939. He was the son of King Edward the Elder. Athelstan's reign is sometimes overlooked but it was of great importance to political developments in the 10th century.

paragraphs: Athelstan was the son of Edward the Elder, and grandson of Alfred the Great. His father succeeded, after some difficulty, to the Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons formed by Alfred. His father had also been the King of Mercia. When Edward died Athelstan quickly became King of Mercia but he was not immediately accepted as King of England. His brother, Ælfweard, had more support in England but died soon after Edward. This made it easier for Athelstan to become king.

paragraphs: For Athelstan it was very important to have many allies. A year after his crowning he married one of his sisters to the Viking King of Northumbria, Sithric. However, Sithric died only a year later, and Athelstan seized Northumbria. This move made him king of more land than any other before him, roughly the same as modern England. Historical records indicate that the other rulers in Great Britain accepted him as king at Bamburgh around this time.

paragraphs: Athelstan died at Gloucester in 939 and was succeeded by his half-brother, Edmund I.