title: Dreamtime

paragraphs: In Australian Aboriginal culture, life is based on a foundation of beliefs which are called the Dreamtime, or The Dreaming. This is a complex set of ideas with deep levels of meanings. The Dreamtime has four parts: The beginning of everything; the life and power of the ancestors; the way of life and death; and power in life. Dreamtime was all four of these things at the same time because it is more powerful than time and space. In it all things exist at once. The Aboriginal peoples call Dreamtime the all-at-once time because they think it is the past, present, and future at the same time. It is a beginning that has no end.

paragraphs: They meet The Dreamtime by doing special dances and singing special songs. Aboriginals believe that people have a part of them that will live forever. This part existed before a person was born and will exist after they die. It exists in The Dreamtime.

paragraphs: All Australian Aboriginals believe in the Dreamtime. Each group and each person has their own stories and traditions. In Central Australia, the Pitjantjatjara call it the Tjukurpa. The Tjukurpa provides the answers for questions about life. It also gives the rules for behaviour and how to live together. It explains the complex relationship between the people, animals, plants and the land. It teaches the how and why the land is to be looked after. It provided the information about what could be eaten, the rules of marriage, of growing up and the rituals of death. Some parts of the Dreamtime are only known to those who have inherited the right to the knowledge.

paragraphs: Dreamtime is often used to describe the time before time, or the time of the creation. Most Aboriginals believe that all life is connected to the great spirit ancestors of the Dreamtime. Every hill, water hole, river, the sky, every feature was created in the Dreamtime. The journeys of the ancestors across the country created the landscape, and populated it with plants and animals. These journeys are often told in cycles of stories, songs and dances, known as "iwara", or songlines. These great spirit ancestors have not gone, they are still present, even if they can not be seen. The ceremonies of songs and dance keep the people in contact with the spirits. "Without ceremony the land soon dies..."


title: Loch Ness Monster

paragraphs: The Loch Ness Monster, also referred to as Nessie, is a supposed animal, said to live in the Scottish loch of Loch Ness, the second biggest loch in the country. The Loch Ness Monster story was big in the field of cryptozoology.

paragraphs: Most scientists believe that the Loch Ness Monster is not real, and they say that many of the seeings are either hoaxes or pictures of other mistaken existing animals. However, a popular theory among believers is that "Nessie" is a plesiosaur, an extinct meat-eating aquatic reptile that lived in the Mesozoic era. The Loch Ness monster has also been described as an elephant, eel, and other animals.

paragraphs: The Surgeon's photograph was the only photographic evidence of a head and neck – all the others are humps or disturbances. Dr. Wilson claimed he was looking at the loch when he saw the monster, so grabbed his camera and snapped five photos. After the film was developed, only two exposures were clear. The first photo (the more publicised one) shows what was claimed to be a small head and back. The second one, a blurry image, attracted little publicity because it was difficult to interpret what was depicted.

paragraphs: The image was revealed as a hoax in 1994.

paragraphs: Supposedly taken by Robert Kenneth Wilson, a London gynaecologist, it was published in the "Daily Mail" on 21 April 1934. Wilson's refusal to have his name associated with the photograph led to it being called "Surgeon's photograph".

paragraphs: The strangely small ripples on the photo fit the size and of circular pattern of small ripples as opposed to large waves when photographed up close. Analysis of the original uncropped image fostered further doubt. A year before the hoax was revealed, the makers of Discovery Communications's documentary "Loch Ness Discovered" analysed the uncropped image and found a white object was visible in every version of the photo. "It seems to be the source of ripples in the water, almost as if the object was towed by But science cannot rule out it was just a blemish on the negative", he continued. Additionally, analysis of the full photograph revealed the object was quite small, only about long.

paragraphs: After Christian Spurling's confession, most agree it was what Spurling claimed – a toy submarine with a sculpted head attached. Details of how the photo was accomplished were published in the 1999 book, "Nessie – the Surgeon’s Photograph Exposed". Essentially, it was a toy submarine with a head and neck made of plastic wood, built by Christian Spurling.

paragraphs: Spurling was the son-in-law of Marmaduke Wetherell, a big game hunter who had been publicly ridiculed in the "Daily Mail", the newspaper that employed him. Spurling claimed that to get revenge, Marmaduke Wetherell committed the hoax. His co-conspirators were Spurling (a sculpture specialist), his son Ian Marmaduke, who bought the material for the fake Nessie, and Maurice Chambers (an insurance agent). Chambers asked surgeon Robert Kenneth Wilson to offer the pictures to the "Daily Mail".

paragraphs: The hoax story was disputed by Henry Bauer. Unfortunately for Bauer, he claimed that plastic wood did not exist in 1934, when actually it was a popular DIY and modelling material from the 1920s.

paragraphs: No animal has ever been discovered in the loch which resembles the mythical monster.


title: Wesleyan

paragraphs: Wesleyan is the adjective form of "Wesley", which could also mean:


title: Macintosh

paragraphs: Macintosh, Mackintosh, or McIntosh can be:

paragraphs: Macintosh and similar spellings is a surname:


title: Southern rock

paragraphs: Southern rock is a kind of rock music from the southern part of the United States. Some southern rock music groups include: Lynyrd Skynyrd, The Allman Brothers Band and Molly Hatchet.


title: Ostrów Mazowiecka

paragraphs: Ostrów Mazowiecka is a main town of Ostrów County, Masovian Voivodeship, Poland.


title: Niue

paragraphs: Niue is an island country in the south Pacific. Situated between Tonga, Samoa and the Cook Islands, it is commonly known as "Rock of Polynesia". It has its own government, but it is an associated state of New Zealand. This means that Niue's head of state is New Zealand's sovereign (queen) in right, and most diplomatic relations are conducted by the latter on Niue's behalf.

paragraphs: The territory is 2,400 kilometres northeast of New Zealand in a triangle between Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands.


title: Master race

paragraphs: Master race is an idea that one group of people is better than all other people. A group of people may believe themselves to be better because of their history, race, culture or some other reason. The idea first appeared in the 19th century. It was also used at different times in the 20th century, for example by the Nazi party and during Apartheid in South Africa.

paragraphs: This idea mostly began in the 19th century. It is not a theory liked by any scientists today. It claims there is a hierarchy of races (or that some races are better than others). It was also claimed that at the bottom of the hierarchy were black-skinned people from Africa and Aborigines from Australia, while pale-skinned Nordic people were at the top of the hierarchy.

paragraphs: Arthur de Gobineau (1816–1882) believed that cultures become bad when races mix. In his book "Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races" (, 1853–55), de Gobineau states that the mix of races has a bad influence on culture. In his view, the development of culture is linked to that of the race. When empires are created, this leads to a mixing of races. According to de Gobineau, this would lead to degeneration, and the downfall of the respective empire.

paragraphs: During this time, Charles Darwin started to develop his ideas about evolution. Social Darwinism is the attempt to use these concepts to predict the development of societies. Houston Steward Chamberlain believed the Germanic race was there "to save the world".

paragraphs: In colonialism, the concept was helpful too. Germany and Great Britain had many colonies. They would pick an ethnic group and say that this was better than the other groups. This would then lead to an indirect rule in the respective colony. People who conducted African studies in Germany developed a whole system, to make this easier. The Hamitic theory said that the Hamitic people were superior and should rule over the other Negroid people in Sub-Saharan Africa. John Hanning Speke (1827-64) and Charles Gabriel Seligman (1873-1940) were among the most prominent people with this idea. People such Johann Ludwig Krapf, Karl Richard Lepsius, or Carl Meinhof used the study of languages in this context. They said that languages that had a grammatical genus were Hamitic, those that did not were Negroid. Using these criteria to find suitable candidates for indirect rule also led to problems: According to the theory, the Massai were hamitic, and should rule in German East Africa. Fortunately, they were unable to make such a system for political and econmic reasons. The explanation was that "out of bad luck", the Massai were a Hamitic people kept at a lower level of social development. In their place, the Swahili were picked, as the "next-higher" people. In German South-West Africa, there was a similar problem: The theory identified the Khoikhoi as Hamitic, but they were too few to rule the country. For this reason, the Ovambo were picked for indirect rule.

paragraphs: Arthur Schopenhauer liked this idea, but had the ideal of "Übermensch": He said that the White race had become what it was though hardship and bad conditions in the North. Others who liked his theory were Guido von List and Lanz von Liebefels.

paragraphs: Hitler and his supporters, the Nazi party, took power in Germany in 1933. They were Social Darwinists, Social Darwinists believe that human races are stronger or weaker than each other. They believed that the stronger races would prove themselves better in the long run, this concept was called "survival of the fittest". Nazis believed that their race the Aryans were stronger than all the other races, because of this, they believed the Aryans would one day rule over the weaker races. The Nazis made laws that were based on their ideas of race. They prevented marriage between races so that the aryan race would not become mixed with other "weaker" races because they believed it would weaken the master race. They claimed that "Aryans" were the "master race". They also made propaganda that blamed Jews for many things. Jews were considered by Nazis, a weak race whose weak values would infect the better values of the Aryan race. German Jews were not allowed to own property. In many cases they were attacked and killed because of their Race. When Germany invaded other countries in Europe, they also started putting people into concentration camps. This systematic killing is known as The Holocaust today.

paragraphs: To help increase the numbers of Aryans, the Nazis set up special homes called "Lebensborn". These were for unmarried pregnant woman who were likely to have children that had Nordic or Aryan qualities. This mainly meant fair skin, blond hair, blue eyes. Though slight differences could still be considered Aryan as lots of people in Germany at the time had dark hair and eyes. Heinrich Himmler believed that this would help create more members of the master race. He arranged for nine Lebensborn homes to be built in Germany, and another ten in Norway. There were also Lebensborn in France, Belgium and Luxembourg. About 20,000 children were born in these homes during the Third Reich.


Reichstag


title: The Last Supper

paragraphs: The Last Supper is a painting by Leonardo da Vinci. It is a picture of the last supper of Jesus and his disciples. It shows how they reacted when Jesus said that one of them would betray him. Each disciple has their own expression showing their own reaction to what Jesus has just told them.

paragraphs: The painting is a mural on the wall of the Santa Maria delle Grazie rectory in the dining room in Milan, Italy. It measures 460 X 880 cm. Da Vinci began painting it in 1495 and finished it in 1498, but did not work on it all the time between these years. Some people think the painting has secret messages.


title: Thomas the Apostle

paragraphs: Saint Thomas is one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. His name means "the twin".

paragraphs: Thomas is most famous for not being present when the other apostles (Jesus's followers and friends) first saw Jesus after he has been risen from the dead. Thomas was not there and when he heard about it, he did not believe his friends, and he said he wanted to see it for himself, even the marks in his hands where Jesus had been nailed to the cross. Jesus did return and showed Thomas. The phrase "Doubting Thomas" (a term for a person who does not believe something at first) comes from this story. Thomas didn't believe Christ had returned until he was invited by the risen Jesus to put his finger into the nail holes in Jesus' hands and his hand into Jesus' wounded side.

paragraphs: Though not recorded in the Bible, there are many stories about Thomas working as a missionary. The Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala, India believe that Thomas came to India to preach in 52 A.D.<ref>


title: Bartholomew the Apostle

paragraphs: Bartholomew the Apostle is one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. He is the patron saint of Armenia, bookbinders, butchers, Florentine cheese and salt merchants, Gambatesa, Italy, leather workers; nervous diseases, plasterers; shoemakers; tanners, and trappers. Along with Saint Jude Thaddeus, he helped bring Christianity to Armenia. He is the patron saint of people who work with leather and animal skins because he was martyred (killed for his beliefs) by being skinned alive. He is usually represented by holding a large knife and his skin.

paragraphs: Bartholomew is also found in Islamic literature. In one such story mentioned by Suyuti, Ibn Arabi, Bayhaqi, and Abu Nuyam Bartholomew is described as one whom God has given extended life to and he meet the companions of the Prophet Muhammad in Iraq. This event took place during the regin of Umar.


title: Matthew the Evangelist

paragraphs: Saint Matthew is one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. Matthew wrote the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. Sometimes, he is called "Levi". He was a tax collector before his decision to follow Christ.


title: John the Apostle

paragraphs: Saint John was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. He is believed to have written one of the four gospels of the New Testament of the Christian Bible that is named after him. He also wrote the New Testament books of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd John and the Book of Revelation. Tradition holds that he was the last surviving apostle and the only apostle to die a natural death rather than by martyrdom. John is the brother of James according to the Bible. He is remembered in many churches on December 27. He was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His so-called brother James was the first disciple of God.


title: Saint Peter

paragraphs: Saint Peter (, "rock") also called Simon (Kephas) Peter is one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. He is often talked about in the New Testament. Most of what we know about Peter comes from the Bible. In the Gospel it is written that Jesus Christ would make Peter the "rock" (foundation) of the Church (Gospel of Matthew 16:18, "you are Peter (rock), and upon this rock I will build my church").

paragraphs: It is not known when Peter was born. But the date of his death is said to be about the year 64 AD. He died by being nailed to a cross in Rome. This type of death is called crucifixion. According to the apocryphal Acts of Peter, Peter asked to be crucified upside down, as he felt unworthy to die as Jesus did. Most historical sources only say he was crucified this way.

paragraphs: The historical accuracy of the accounts of Peter's role in Rome is a matter of ongoing debate.

paragraphs: In art, he is often shown holding the keys to the kingdom of heaven (interpreted by Roman Catholics as the sign of his primacy over the Church), a reference to Matthew .

paragraphs: Peter was married according to the gospel of Mark. The name of his wife is unknown.

paragraphs: The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Lutheran Churches, as well as the Anglican Communion, consider Simon Peter a saint. Roman Catholics believe that the Pope is Peter's successor. For this reason, he is the rightful head of all other bishops. Eastern and Oriental Orthodox also recognise the Bishop of Rome as the successor to Saint Peter and the Ecumenical Patriarch sends a delegation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration of his feast.

paragraphs: In the "Ravenna document" of 13 October 2007 representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church agreed that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the "taxis" (order), and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the "protos" (first) among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of historical evidence from this era regarding the rights of the bishop of Rome as "protos", a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium."

paragraphs: Christian tradition says Saint Peter was the first leader of an early apostolic community for at least 34 years. At that time the word Pope or "Papa" was not used to name the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. At that time there was only one Christian Church. Later, the Roman Catholic Church would say that Peter was their first Pope.

paragraphs: Tradition also locates his burial place where St. Peter's Basilica was later built, in Vatican City.


title: Sistine Chapel

paragraphs: The Sistine Chapel is a large chapel in the Vatican Palace, the place in Italy where the Pope lives. The Chapel was built between 1473 and 1481 by Giovanni dei Dolci for Pope Sixtus IV.

paragraphs: The Sistine Chapel is the Pope's own chapel. It is used for important Masses and ceremonies. When a pope dies, the College of Cardinals meet in the Sistine Chapel to elect a new pope.

paragraphs: The Sistine Chapel is famous for its fresco paintings by the Renaissance painter Michelangelo.

paragraphs: The Sistine Chapel is a brick building shaped like a rectangle. The outside is plain, with no decoration and no big door. It has a walk-way near the top, for soldiers.

paragraphs: It has six arched windows on its two side walls and a curved ceiling called a barrel vault.

paragraphs: The inside of the chapel is richly decorated. The floor is of coloured marble. The lower parts of the walls are painted to look like gold and silver cloth.

paragraphs: The other decorations in the chapel are paintings which tell stories to help people understand about Jesus Christ and about the Roman Catholic Church.

paragraphs: The middle part of the walls has 12 large paintings called frescoes, done by famous artists in 1481. The artists' names were Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli, Perugino, Cosimo Rosselli, Pinturicchio, Benedetto Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli and Bartolomeo della Gatta.

paragraphs: The frescoes show stories from the Bible. On the north side, the stories are about the life of Moses. On the south side, they are about the life of Jesus.

paragraphs: Above the stories, near the windows, are painted pictures of Popes.

paragraphs: The ceiling is the most famous part of the Sistine Chapel, and many thousands of visitors go to see it.

paragraphs: In 1505 Pope Julius II asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling. Michelangelo was a famous sculptor. He did not want to be a painter. Three years later, he agreed to paint the ceiling. He worked from 1508 to 1511, standing on a high platform with his arms stretched above his head.

paragraphs: (Although some people think that he lay down to paint, this is not true.) Because he painted onto wet plaster, the smell and the heat was terrible. He wrote a poem about how sick he was.

paragraphs: Along the center of the ceiling are painted nine pictures that tell stories from the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament of the Bible. The stories start with three pictures of God making light, making the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, and making the Sea and Sky.

paragraphs: The next three pictures tell the story of the first man and woman, Adam and Eve. In the first scene, God has just made Adam. He reaches out his hand and touches his finger to give him Life.

paragraphs: In the next picture, Adam is asleep and God makes Eve from one of Adam's ribs.

paragraphs: In the third picture there are two scenes. Adam and Eve are tricked by the Devil to eat fruit from the tree that they have been told not to touch. In the other scene, an angel chases them out of God's Garden of Eden. This story tells how sin came into the world.

paragraphs: The last three pictures are about Noah's Ark. They tell about a sad and sinful world. Because of human sin and unkindness, God sends a flood. Only Noah and his family escape in the large boat that they build. When the flood has ended, they make an altar and kill a sheep as a sacrifice to God. But then Noah grows grape vines, makes wine and gets drunk. One of his sons sees Noah lying naked and laughs at his father. Noah is ashamed and curses his son. These stories show how people keep acting the wrong way, even when they get a second chance.

paragraphs: All around the wall, Michelangelo painted twelve big figures of wise men and women. These were the prophets and sibyls who told people that God would send Jesus Christ to save them from sin.

paragraphs: Also painted on the ceiling are 20 beautiful young men called the "ignudi". No-one knows what they are for sure, but perhaps they are angels.

paragraphs: When the ceiling was finally uncovered, everyone was amazed. Giorgio Vasari, who wrote Michelangelo's life story, says that hundreds of people came every day to stare and stare.

paragraphs: Michelangelo was happy to get back to his sculpture. But in 1537 Pope Paul III ordered him to paint another large fresco. This time it was on the wall above the altar. It was finished in 1541.

paragraphs: Michelangelo painted "The Last Judgement" which shows Jesus judging the people of the Earth and sending some to Hell while others are welcomed into Heaven by Saints. He painted most of the figures naked. This made some of the priests in the church very angry. They paid another artist to paint clothes onto the Blessed Virgin Mary and many of the other figures.


title: Pope Paul III

paragraphs: Pope Paul III (; February 29, 1468 – November 10, 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 221st Pope from 1534 to 1549.

paragraphs: Alessandro Farnese was born in an ancient Roman family. His grandfather was commander-in-chief of the papal troops under Pope Eugenius IV.

paragraphs: In 1493, Pope Alexander IV made Farnese a cardinal.

paragraphs: Cardinal Farnese was elected Pope in 1534; and he chose to be called Paul III.

paragraphs: Pope Paul was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

paragraphs: He convened the Council of Trent in 1545.


title: Pope Sixtus IV

paragraphs: Pope Sixtus IV (; 21 July 1414 - 12 August 1484), originally "Francesco della Rovere", was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 213th Pope from 1471 until his death in 1484.

paragraphs: He is known for beginning construction of the Sistine Chapel.

paragraphs: Della Rovere was born in Celle Ligure, a town near Savona in Liguria. His family was important.

paragraphs: As a young man, he joined the Franciscan Order. He rose in the order to head of the Franciscans in Liguria.

paragraphs: Della Rovere studied philosophy and theology at the University of Pavia; and he lectured at Padua, Bologna, Pavia, Siena, and Florence.

paragraphs: In 1467, Pope Paul II raised della Rovere to the rank of Cardinal.

paragraphs: He was elected pope on August 9, 1471. He took the name Sixtus because the first day of the conclave which elected him pope was the Feast Day of St. Sixtus.

paragraphs: Pope Sixtus was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

paragraphs: Sixtus ordered the building of the Ponte Sisto (Sistine Bridge) across the Tiber River.

paragraphs: The Vatican Library was enlarged during the reign of Sixtus; and the number of manuscripts grew ten times larger—from 360 during the reign of Pope Nicholas V to 3650.


title: Pope Julius II

paragraphs: Pope Julius II (; December 5, 1443 - February 21, 1513), originally "Giuliano Della Rovere", was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 217th Pope from 1503 until his death in 1513. He was known as "the Warrior Pope."

paragraphs: Giuliano della Rovere was the son of Rafaello della Rovere.

paragraphs: In 1471, Sixtus made della Rovere a cardinal.

paragraphs: Della Rovere was elected pope in 1503; and he chose to be called Julius II.

paragraphs: Pope Julius was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

paragraphs: In 1506, Pope Julius he established the Swiss Guard.


title: Donato Bramante

paragraphs: Donato Bramante (c. 1444 - April 11, 1514) was an architect who introduced the High Renaissance style to architecture.


title: Alexandre Dumas, père

paragraphs: Alexandre Dumas (born 24 July, 1802 at Villers-Cotterêts, died 5 December 1870 at Dieppe) was a French writer of Haitian descent. He is famous for writing "The Three Musketeers" (1844), "Queen Margot", "The Count of Monte Cristo" (1844-1845) and about the Man with the iron mask.

paragraphs: Dumas was the son of a general, who fought in the French Revolution. His father died and his mother raised him. They didn't have much money when he was growing up.

paragraphs: Dumas wrote his first plays in 1825 and 1826 after reading Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Friedrich von Scholler and Lord Byron.

paragraphs: Dumas was also a gourmand (lover of food), and wrote Le Grand Dictionnaire de cuisine, an encyclopædia of food and cooking with 1152 pages. He finished it weeks before his death. It is not thought very reliable, because it relies on Dumas' opinions rather than fact.

paragraphs: Dumas was a member of the Club des Hashischins, or Hashish Club. This group of French writers experimented with hashish to get ideas.


title: Beastie Boys

paragraphs: The Beastie Boys were an American rap group. According to an interview with Charlie Rose, the word "Beastie" is the backronym of "Boys Entering Anarchic States Towards Internal Excellence". They formed in 1981 as punk rock band. Their most famous albums are probably "Licensed To Ill" (1986) and "" (1989). "Licensed To Ill" is their first album, and it is an album that is given credit for starting the type of music "rap rock", which is rapping done over rock guitar or beats. "Paul's Boutique" is an album famous for its use of samples, or snippets of music, and the fact that the samples were put together in creative, interesting ways.

paragraphs: Adam Yauch (1964-2012) was one of the founding members of the band until his death on May 4, 2012 after a near 3-year battle with cancer of the parotid salivary gland. Former original guitarist, John Berry (1963-2016), died on May 19, 2016 from dementia at 52.


title: Public Enemy

paragraphs: Public Enemy is an American rap group. They are also known as PE. They formed in 1982, and are still together today. They became famous for their politically charged, militant messages in their songs. They are also famous for using lots of jazz and funk samples in their songs, doneto create a loud, noisy sound and back their angry, powerful rapping. Group members include Chuck D. and Flavor Flav, as well as Terminator X and Professor Griff, who left the group in 1990, but rejoined in the late 1990s.


title: Macbeth

paragraphs: "Not to be confused with the king of Scotland Macbeth of Scotland"

paragraphs: Macbeth is a play by William Shakespeare. Shakespeare wrote three types of plays; histories, comedies and tragedies, and Macbeth is the shortest tragedy written by Shakespeare. It was written between 1603 and 1607, during the reign of King James I of England.

paragraphs: Shakespeare based some characters in the play (Macbeth, Macduff, and Duncan) roughly on records of real people in "Holinshed's Chronicles", a history book from 1587. However, the things that happen in the play are very different from what happened in real life.

paragraphs: The first characters we see in the play are the three Witches. They talk to each other in a mysterious way, and agree to meet with Macbeth on the heath. This scene includes the famous line "fair is foul, and foul is fair", a subject which becomes a main part of the play.

paragraphs: In Act 1 Scene 2, there is a war going on. King Duncan is at a camp, listening to reports from the battlefield. An injured officer (some scripts say a captain, others a sergeant) is brought in. He saved Malcolm's life. The officer tells Duncan about the battle. He says that it was going badly, until Macbeth fought his way to the rebel leader Macdonald and disembowelled him. But as soon as that happened, the Norwegians, led by their king Sweno, also attacked. They were joined by a traitor, the Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth and Banquo fought bravely until they were defeated. Duncan is pleased by the news. He orders that the Thane of Cawdor be executed and his title given to Macbeth.

paragraphs: In I.iii, the Witches appear again. They talk about using their powers on humans, and it becomes clear that they have a lot of power, but they cannot kill people. Macbeth and Banquo are returning from the battlefield to Forres, and meet the witches. Banquo is amazed by the way the witches look, because they look like women but they have beards. Macbeth is not afraid and asks them what they are. They do not answer him, but greet him as the Thane of Glamis, the Thane of Cawdor and the future King. Macbeth is surprised, because he knows that he is not the Thane of Cawdor, and does not think he will ever become the King. Banquo asks the witches what his future will be like. They answer in riddles, saying that he will be "lesser than Macbeth, and greater", "not so happy, yet much happier", and that he will be the father to a line of kings. Then the witches disappear.

paragraphs: Ross and Angus come to find Macbeth, and tell him that the King has given him the title of Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is surprised and happy, but he starts thinking of ways to become king. This frightens him, because he thinks that the only way he can become king is to murder Duncan.

paragraphs: In I.iv, Macbeth and Banquo return to Forres and Duncan thanks them for their courage and hard work. He also says that his son Malcolm will be his heir. Macbeth realizes that he will have to get past both Duncan and Malcolm to become king. Duncan says he is going to Macbeth's castle for the night.

paragraphs: In I.v, Lady Macbeth is reading a letter from Macbeth that tells her about the witches and their prophecy. She is very excited, and starts planning to murder Duncan. A messenger tells her that Duncan will be staying at their castle that night. She calls on evil spirits to make her strong and evil so that she can murder Duncan. Macbeth comes in and she tells him of her plans.

paragraphs: I.vi shows Duncan, Banquo, Donalbain, Malcolm, Macduff and some of the thanes entering Macbeth's castle. Duncan and Banquo agree that the castle is sweet and pleasant. Lady Macbeth enters and greets them.

paragraphs: I.vii is the last scene in Act I. Macbeth is talking to himself about why it is wrong to kill the king. He knows that it is a bad thing to do, especially because he is the host and Duncan trusts him. Lady Macbeth enters and scolds him for being a coward and says that he is not brave enough to be a man. She works out how they are going to kill Duncan, and convinces Macbeth to do it.

paragraphs: Act II starts with Banquo and his son Fleance walking in a courtyard in Macbeth's castle. They meet Macbeth, who lies to Banquo and says that he has not thought about the witches' prophecy. When they leave, Macbeth sees a hallucination of a knife. He knows it is not real, but before his sight it changes and becomes covered in blood. He leaves to kill Duncan.

paragraphs: Lady Macbeth enters in scene ii. She has already made Duncan's guards drunk. Macbeth comes in with his hands covered in blood, carrying the knifes of the guards. He is very troubled. Lady Macbeth comforts him and tells him to wash his hands and cover the guards with blood, so it looks like they did it. But Macbeth is afraid, so Lady Macbeth does it instead.

paragraphs: In II.iii, the porter is very drunk. He pretends to be the porter of the gate of hell, and takes a long time to open the gate for Macduff and Lennox. Macbeth greets them. Macduff says that he is there to wake the king, and Macbeth leads him to the king's room. Macduff is shocked to see the king murdered on his bed. He runs out shouting and wakes everybody up. Macbeth pretends he did not know about the murder, as everyone comes to see what is happening. He admits that he killed the guards, and says that he did it because he was so angry that they killed Duncan. Lady Macbeth faints and they rush to help her. Malcolm and Donalbain think that somebody is lying. They know it is not safe for them to stay in Scotland, so they run away. Malcolm goes to England, and Donalbain to Ireland.

paragraphs: Scene iv is a talk between Ross and an old man. They talk about how strange the night was. Nature seems to have turned into a mess now that Duncan is dead. Macduff comes in and says that Macbeth is going to become king. He does not trust Macbeth, and is not going to the coronation.

paragraphs: Banquo is alone on stage at the start of Act III. He realizes that Macbeth has become everything the witches said he would become. He thinks that Macbeth did wrong to get the crown, but he does not want to say anything. He hopes that his son will also be king, as the witches said. Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, and the lords enter. Macbeth asks Banquo if he is going riding that afternoon, and if Fleance is going with him. Banquo says yes to both. Two men come to see Macbeth, and he goes to meet them. He is angry that he has risked everything to become king, but that Banquo's sons will be kings after him. The men are actually murderers.

paragraphs: Macbeth tells them that Banquo is the reason they are unhappy and have bad lives, and orders them to kill Banquo and Fleance.

paragraphs: Macbeth talks to Lady Macbeth in scene ii. He says that he has nightmares and cannot sleep. He is jealous of Duncan, because he is dead and does not need to worry anymore. Macbeth also says that he is worried about Banquo being alive, but he does not tell his wife about the murderers.

paragraphs: In III, the two murderers meet another one, also sent by Macbeth. They kill Banquo, but Fleance escapes.

paragraphs: In Scene iv Macbeth has a banquet with the nobles. The murderers come in and inform him of Banquo's death and Fleance's escape. He returns to the table where the nobles are eating, and looks for a seat. Even though there is one empty, he cannot see it. He has a vision of the murdered Banquo sitting in his seat, and becomes hysterical talking to the vision. Lady Macbeth explains it to the nobles as an illness, and asks them to leave as Macbeth becomes more and more upset.

paragraphs: Many editors say that scene v of Act III, along with a song in IV.i, is not written by Shakespeare. This is because the writing is different to the way Shakespeare usually writes. It has a witch called Hecate in it, who is not previously mentioned in the play. She seems to be in charge of the other witches and is scolding them for dealing with Macbeth without informing her.

paragraphs: In the final scene, Lennox is talking to another lord. They find out that Macduff has gone to England to convince Malcolm to return and claim his throne, and to ask for the help of King Edward of England.

paragraphs: Scene (i) starts with the witches, who are standing in a circle around their cauldron, throwing things in, like the tongue of a dog. Then suddenly Macbeth arrives and asks them to tell him some more prophecies. As the first prophecy they tell him to be careful of Macduff, Thane of Fife. As the second prophecy they say he can't be killed by anyone who was born of a woman and as the third prophecy the witches say if Birnam Wood stays at its current position Macbeth is okay but if the wood moves he will have problems. Macbeth is happy because he thinks that all of these things are impossible. He wants to know a fourth thing but suddenly the witches dance crazily and then run away.

paragraphs: Next Lennox enters and tells Macbeth that Macduff has fled to England. Macbeth orders Macduff's castle to be seized.

paragraphs: In scene ii Macbeth’s men arrive at Macduff’s castle and kill Macduff´s family and everybody else in the castle.

paragraphs: In scene iii Macduff finds out what Macbeth did to his family. He is very sad and angry, so he decides to go back to Scotland with Malcolm and they plan to kill Macbeth.

paragraphs: Scene i takes place in Macbeth’s castle. A doctor and a servant are talking about Lady Macbeth. They’re talking about Lady Macbeth’s sickness. She is sleepwalking and while she sleepwalks she says that she regrets having told her husband to kill Duncan and Banquo.

paragraphs: In scene ii Lennox and other Scottish thanes think that Macbeth is crazy and that he is killing too many people. Together they go to Malcolm and king Edward of England and tell them that they want to fight against Macbeth with the English army.

paragraphs: Scene iii takes place in Macbeth’s castle. He is told that Malcolm and Macduff are coming with the English army and want to kill him. The doctor tells him that his wife is ill. She has become crazy and is sleepwalking.

paragraphs: In scene iv Malcolm, Macduff and the English army hide in Birnam Wood. They don’t want to be seen, so they cut off some branches and cover themselves with them.

paragraphs: In scene V, the doctor comes to Macbeth and tells him that his wife is dead. Macbeth is depressed, and then he has a monologue about how meaningless life is. After that, a servant says that Birnam Wood is moving, but Macbeth doesn't believe him, so the servant shows him.

paragraphs: In scene VI, Macduff, Malcolm and the English army are planning to attack Macbeth.

paragraphs: In scene VII, Macbeth and an English Lord fight, and Macbeth says he cannot be killed by anyone born of a woman. Macbeth then kills him. Meanwhile, Macduff is looking for Macbeth.

paragraphs: Scene VIII shows the fight between Macduff and Macbeth, who says again that he cannot be killed by anyone born of a woman. Macduff replies that he was cut out of his mother‘s stomach (Caesarean). He then kills Macbeth. In the last scene Malcolm is declared king.

paragraphs: Many actors think it is bad luck to say the word "Macbeth", and will not say the play's name. Instead, they call it "The Scottish Play". One theory about where this superstition came from is that the play deals with witchcraft.


title: Love's Labour's Lost

paragraphs: Love's Labour's Lost is a comedy play by William Shakespeare which was written between 1588 and 1597.

paragraphs: The play contains a lot of wordplay and many characters are based off real kings and noblemen from around those years. This makes the play harder to understand for modern audiences, which is why it is less famous than most of Shakespeare's plays. However, it has been performed more often since the 20th century.

paragraphs: Ferdinand, the King of Navarre, and three of his men meet together and talk about their intellectual plans. Their plans then go wrong when the Princess of France and three of her ladies arrive. The men find that they are in love with the ladies and cannot hide it.

paragraphs: The exact original title is unknown. In early written versions of the script, it varied as to how many apostrophes were used in the title. In the first quarto, it is called "Loues labors lost", as a "u" was often used for a "v" sound back then. The title is now most often given as "Love's Labour's Lost".


title: Titus Andronicus

paragraphs: Titus Andronicus (c. 1589–1592) is the first tragedy play by William Shakespeare. Most of its theme, structure and language comes from "The Spanish Tragedy" by Thomas Kyd. It is believed to be Shakespeare's first play, and also the most bloodiest and less respected of his works.


title: The Comedy of Errors

paragraphs: The Comedy of Errors (c. 1589–94) is one of the first plays by William Shakespeare. It is a comedy. Shakespeare's sources were "Menaechmi" by Plautus and "Amphitruo" by Plautus.


title: Pieta (Michelangelo)

paragraphs: The Pieta is a statue by Michelangelo. It is now in the first temple on the right of Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City.

paragraphs: The following are other statues by Michelangelo:


title: Raphael

paragraphs: Raffaello Sanzio, usually known as Raphael (April 6, 1483 - April 6, 1520) was a Renaissance painter and architect. With Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, he is one of the three greatest painters of the High Renaissance.

paragraphs: He is best known for his paintings of the Madonna and Christ Child and for his paintings in the Vatican in Rome, Italy.

paragraphs: Raphael was born in Urbino, in the region of Umbria, Italy. He was the son of Giovanni Santi (d. 1494), who was also a painter, and Magia di Battista Ciarla (d. 1491). Giovanni Santi was Raphael's first teacher, but he died when Raphael was only eleven.

paragraphs: While about 15, Raphael became an apprentice at the workshop of the painter Pietro Perugino, called by that name because he was the most famous painter in the town of Perugia. Perugino was famous, not only in Umbria, but also in Rome and in Florence, the home of Leonardo and Michelangelo. He had been one of the artists given the important job of painting the Pope's large chapel in the Vatican, the Sistine Chapel.

paragraphs: Perugino was known to have expert ways of painting (technique), and was good at getting paintings finished on time which made him popular with his patrons. He painted some portraits of people alive in his day, but most of his pictures are of religious figures of the past. Some of his paintings are small pictures of the Madonna and Child that could be used in a family chapel for private worship. Because he was famous, Perugino also got lots of work from wealthy patrons and from churches, so he painted many very large pieces to go above the altars in churches. To do this, he needed the help of his "apprentices".

paragraphs: Raphael was able to learn a great deal from Perugino - drawing, the anatomy of the human figure, paint chemistry, and the technique of putting the paint onto the picture in smooth layers. The figures in Perugino's paintings often have very sweet gentle faces. Many of Raphael's paintings are also sweet and gentle. Some painters, such as Leonardo, were quick to change their style and make their paintings show their own touch. But Raphael continued to paint in the style that Perugino taught him. He added new ideas that he learned by looking at the work of other artists. Unlike Leonardo and Michelangelo, Raphael did not give the world anything new in the Art of Painting. He is famous simply because he was so expert at what he did, and because people loved his paintings so much.

paragraphs: The painting that is thought to be his earliest known work is a small picture called "The Vision of a Knight". In this painting a knight lies asleep. In his dream there are two beautiful women. One woman, dressed in soft flowing clothes, offers him flowers. The other woman, dressed in dark clothing, offers the knight a sword and a book. The path behind the pretty woman runs beside a river. The other path leads up a steep mountain. Raphael was thinking about choices. Should the knight take the easy road, or should he try to change things?

paragraphs: Other early pictures by Raphael are "Three Graces", and "Saint Michael".

paragraphs: Raphael's first major work was "The Marriage of the Virgin" which was painted in 1504. It was influenced by Perugino's painting for the Sistine Chapel of "Jesus giving the Keys to Saint Peter". It is now in the Brera Gallery in Milan, Italy.

paragraphs: In about 1504 Raphael went with another painter, Pinturicchio, to Florence, Italy. Florence was famous for its artworks, its artist's workshops, its new Renaissance buildings and its huge cathedral. Raphael wanted to see the work of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and other important painters and sculptors.

paragraphs: Florence had a very strong tradition of making images of the Madonna and Child because the city was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. On almost every street corner there was a painting or a brightly-coloured statue of the Madonna and Child.

paragraphs: While he was in Florence, Raphael painted many of his famous "Madonna" paintings. The most famous of these paintings are:

paragraphs: In 1508 Raphael was called to Rome by Pope Julius II. He became so popular whilst he was in Rome that he was known as the "Prince of Painters". He spent the last 12 years of his life in Rome and created many of his most famous paintings.

paragraphs: While he was in Rome he was "commissioned" (given a job), to paint a fresco of the Prophet Isaiah in the Church of Sant'Agostino. While he was working on the painting, he went to visit his friend, the architect, Donato Bramante. Bramante was at the Vatican while Michelangelo was painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Of course Raphael wanted to see what the famous master was doing. While Michelangelo was away, Bramante took Raphael into the Chapel. When Raphael saw the way that Michelangelo had painted the prophets, he was so excited that he went back to Sant'Agostino's Church, scraped his painting off the wall and started all over again. It is easy to see that Raphael's painting is in the style of Michelangelo. Raphael was not ashamed of this. He did it to give honour to the great master.

paragraphs: Among Raphael's most famous paintings are the frescos that are painted on the walls of Julius II's own rooms in the Vatican Palace, known as the "Stanze". The paintings in the "Stanza della Segnatura" and the "Stanza d'Eliodoro" were created by Raphael himself, whilst the "Stanza dell'Incendio" was designed by Raphael and painted by his assistants.

paragraphs: One of the frescoes in the "Stanza della Segnatura" is of the greatest importance. This painting is called "The School of Athens". It shows a group of learned people from Ancient Greece, philosophers, poets, dramatists, mathematicians and others. They are listening to the central figure, who is the philosopher, Plato. The painting is meant to show that at that time, the early 1500s, there was a new birth of ideas and learning among the people of Rome that was equal to the learning of Ancient Athens.

paragraphs: To make this message clear, Raphael used the faces of the people that he knew. Michelangelo, with his broken nose, is sitting with his chin on his hand. The tall figure of Plato with long hair and flowing beard is a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci.

paragraphs: One of the excellent things about this painting is the way that Raphael has painted the building in which the figures are standing. The architecture looks as if it is opening up from the real room.

paragraphs: In the 1500s, painters were often asked to design architecture. Raphael's first work as an architect was the funeral chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo. Pope Leo X also chose Raphael to help design Saint Peter's Basilica alongside Donato Bramante. After Bramante died, Raphael took over the designing of the basilica and changed its groundplan from a Greek Cross to a Latin Cross. Michelangelo went back to Bramante's plan but made it simpler. Then another architect, Maderna, made the building longer, as Raphael had planned.

paragraphs: Raphael's last work of art was a painting of the "Transfiguration". This was an altarpiece, but Raphael died before he could complete it. It was instead finished by Giulio Romano, who was one of Raphael's assistants.

paragraphs: Raphael died on his 37th birthday. He was buried in the Pantheon in Rome. His funeral was a mass devastation at the Vatican. His "Transfiguration" altarpiece was put at the head of Raphael's funeral carriage.


title: Non-governmental organization

paragraphs: A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a group of people from different countries acting together, but not connected with the government of any country. Usually non-governmental organizations are non-profit - that is, they are trying to do something other than make money for the people who run them. They include organisations such as 'Oxfam' and 'World Vision'.

paragraphs: Non-governmental organization (NGO) is a term that has become widely accepted as referring to a legally constituted, non-governmental organization created by natural or legal persons with no participation or representation of any government. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status and excludes government representatives from membership in the organization.

paragraphs: Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according David Rieff, writing in "The New Republic", "the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter."

paragraphs: Unlike the term intergovernmental organization, "non-governmental organization" is a term in general use but is not a legal definition. In many jurisdictions these types of organization are defined as "civil society organizations" or referred to by other names.


title: Wikipedia

paragraphs: Wikipedia () is a free Internet encyclopedia website in many languages. People can freely use it, share it and change it, without having to pay. It is also one of the biggest wiki organizations. People can choose to donate to the Wikimedia Foundation to fund Wikipedia and its sister projects. It is "open content". This means anyone can copy it, and make changes to it if they follow the for copying or editing.

paragraphs: Wikipedia is owned by an American organization, the Wikimedia Foundation, which is in San Francisco, California.

paragraphs: Wikipedia's name is a portmanteau of two words, "wiki" and "encyclopedia."

paragraphs: Wikipedia was started on January 10, 2001 by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger as part of an earlier Internet encyclopedia named Nupedia. On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia became a separate website of its own. It is a wiki that runs using the software MediaWiki (like all other Wikimedia projects).

paragraphs: Anyone who wishes to can change the pages in Wikipedia, or even make new ones. Wikipedia has a standard page layout for all pages in the encyclopedia.

paragraphs: As of September 2011, Wikipedia had about 18 million pages in about 300 languages, and more than 3.50 billion words across all Wikipedias. The regular English Wikipedia is the largest.

paragraphs: Wikipedia began as a related project for Nupedia. Nupedia was a free online English-language encyclopedia project. Nupedia's articles were written and owned by Bomis, Inc which was a web portal company. The main people of the company were Jimmy Wales, the guy in charge of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, the editor-in-chief for Nupedia. Nupedia was first licensed under the Nupedia Open Content License which was changed to the GNU Free Documentation License before Wikipedia was founded and made their first article when Richard Stallman requested them.

paragraphs: Larry Sanger and Jimmy Wales are the ones who started Wikipedia. Wales is credited with defining the goals of the project. Sanger created the strategy of using a wiki to reach Wales' goal. On January 10, 2001, Larry Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001. It was launched as an English-language edition at www.wikipedia.com, and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. Wikipedia's policy of "neutral point-of-view" was codified in its initial months, and was similar to Nupedia's earlier "nonbiased" policy. Otherwise, there were not very many rules initially, and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia.

paragraphs: Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot, and also from search engines. It grew to about 20,000 articles, and 18 languages by the end of 2001. By late 2002 it had 26 languages, 46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the end of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia both existed until Nupedia's servers were stopped in 2003. After this, its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the 2 million-article mark on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, even larger than the Yongle Encyclopedia (1407), which had held the record for exactly 600 years.

paragraphs: The English Wikipedia reached 3 million articles in August 2009. The numbers of articles and contributors appeared to be growing less quickly around spring 2007.

paragraphs: In October 2014, the Wikipedia Monument was unveiled to the public in Poland to honor all the contributors of the Wikipedia.

paragraphs: According to TechCrunch website, on 23 January 2020, Wikipedia had surpassed more than 6 million articles on the English Wikipedia.

paragraphs: On January 15, 2011, Wikipedia celebrated its 10th anniversary. It used a special logo "(pictured)" to celebrate its 10 years since it opened on January 15, 2001. The logo was used for the whole day on the sidebar of English Wikipedia.

paragraphs: Wikipedia is a free site where anybody can start or change a page. It is a global site that is available in many languages. While people can use any searching engine, the Wikipedia page will come out in the first results of many searches. To use Wikipedia better, people should understand the basic function on the page. The page is organized while they are looking up the page. As Wikipedia users, they should have a good understanding of Wikipedia.


title: Conservation law

paragraphs: A conservation law is a statement used in physics that says that the amount of something does not change in time. That thing could be as simple as mass or charge, or something that has to be calculated, like energy, or angular momentum.

paragraphs: For example, the "law of conservation of mass" is the conservation law that says that the amount of mass is always conserved, even if it is changed into another form. This means that if the mass of the universe could be measured right now, its mass would be known tomorrow because it will not change.

paragraphs: For a long time, people thought that these laws were true for the amount of mass and energy in the universe. Later on, Albert Einstein said that they were not completely true. He said that mass could change into energy (or the other way around). If this happened, it would be against the conservation laws because if mass was changed into energy, the total amount of mass goes down, and the total amount of energy goes up.

paragraphs: Einstein said that conservation laws could still be used if all the mass and all the energy were combined. He said that even though the mass changes or the energy changes, the sum when they are added together does not change. So now there is just one conservation law for mass and energy together.

paragraphs: Of course, mass is measured in kilograms, and energy is measured in joules. They cannot be added together directly, but Einstein found a way to add them together. He created the equation formula_1. This equation means is that before adding the amount of mass to the amount of energy, the mass must be multiplied by the speed of light and then by the speed of light again.

paragraphs: Some of the things that are thought to be conserved are:

paragraphs: Conservation laws are helpful for people when they do problems in Physics. This is because if they know that a thing is conserved, it gives them more mathematical information about the thing they are doing the problem about.

paragraphs: Emmy Noether showed that conservation laws can be said to arise from symmetries in the laws of physics. This theorem, called Noether's theorem gives physicists an extremely powerful tool to try and solve complicated problems.

paragraphs: Conservation laws can come in two types, global, or local.

paragraphs: A global conservation law just says that the total amount of something in the universe does not change in time.

paragraphs: A local conservation law says a little bit more than that. It says that if the amount of something changed in one place, it is because it moved into or out of that place, and we can measure that movement.


title: Animal rights

paragraphs: Animal rights is a term used for the general belief that non-human animals have certain natural rights. Most animal rights promoters believe that non-human animals have the natural right not to be used by humans for any means, including food, clothing, experimentation, and entertainment. Just as human rights are gained simply because someone is a human, animals have animal rights simply because they are an animal.


title: Aaron Sorkin

paragraphs: Aaron Benjamin Sorkin is an American screenwriter. He was born on June 9, 1961 in New York City, New York. He is most famous for creating and writing "The West Wing", a television series about the lives of people who work in the White House. He also wrote the movies "The American President" and "A Few Good Men" (which he took from a play he had written with the same name), and created and wrote the television series "Sports Night".


title: Aristophanes

paragraphs: Aristophanes (born around 450/445 BC – died around 385 BC) was a Greek writer who wrote 40 plays. However, only 11 of his plays survive in their entirety. He is famous for writing comedies. They were biting satires aimed at famous men of his day, and the all-too-human weaknesses of ordinary people.

paragraphs: His most famous play, "Lysistrata", is about a group of women who protest against a war by not having sexual intercourse with their husbands until the war is ended.

paragraphs: Ancient Greek theatre was first presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia, dedicated to the god Dionysus. The interesting thing is that Aristophanes did not always win first prize. The plays which won ahead of his have been lost, so we cannot make any comparisons.


title: California Institute of Technology

paragraphs: The California Institute of Technology (called "Caltech" for short) is a major American research university in the city of Pasadena in the state of California. Caltech specializes - is especially good, or especially interested - in the study of engineering, computer science, and the physical sciences (some physical sciences are physics and chemistry, as well as others). Caltech is also in charge of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, also called JPL. JPL is part of NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, which is the part of the United States government that explores space. Caltech is not owned or run by the United States, or NASA, but NASA pays Caltech to run JPL for them. By most measures, it is the most selective college/university in the world and has one of the highest faculty-to-student ratios in the world.

paragraphs: Caltech's mascot is the beaver. Many schools that specialize in engineering have beavers for their mascot, because in the wild, beavers are known for making dams, and so people think that they are the animal most like engineers.


title: Secrecy

paragraphs: A secret is information or facts that only one person or group knows about. There are many reasons for not telling or sharing the truth with others.

paragraphs: Some secrets are good. These are ones that should be kept secret. An example of a good secret is respect for a citizen's privacy. But some secrets are bad, if keeping facts hidden causes harm. An example of a bad secret is child abuse. Some things might be kept secret only for a short time, such as a surprise party. Other things may need to be kept secret forever. Sometimes things might be kept secret from someone because it is believed that it would upset them to know.

paragraphs: Some things need to be kept secret for security reasons. If a person has a bank account they must keep their password secret. No one else should know it. Espionage is snooping for someone else's secrets. Criminals like to keep their crimes secret.

paragraphs: In a business, some information is kept secret. This is also called "confidential". Conversations at meetings are sometimes confidential. People who were at the meeting cannot go telling everyone else what was discussed. Usually, managers will make this a rule for an employee. Trade secrets are protected by law.

paragraphs: Another type of secret is Cryptography. These are codes that unlock other secrets. So, secrets are being used to protect secrets.


title: Chicago Cubs

paragraphs: The Chicago Cubs are the professional baseball team based in Chicago, Illinois. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB). The Cubs became World Series Champions in 2016, ending a 108-year drought.

paragraphs: The Cubs were started in 1870. They originally wore all-white uniforms and were called the Chicago White Stockings. (The current Chicago White Sox got their nickname from the Cubs' original nickname.) By the 1890s the team was called the "Colts". In the early 1900s, the nicknames "Colts" and "Cubs" were both used. The name "Cubs" became official in 1906.

paragraphs: The team was very successful in its early years. They won the first National League championship in 1876. They won several pennants in the 1880s and then again in the early 1900s. After they won their second World Series in 1908, they went into the longest championship drought in the history of North American sports. They won the World Series in 1907, 1908, and 2016. They won the pennant but lost the World Series in 1906, 1910, 1918, 1929, 1932, 1935, 1938, and 1945.

paragraphs: The Wrigley family, founders of the Wrigley Gum Company, owned the team from about 1920 to about 1980. The Chicago Tribune bought the team and operated them for close to 30 years. They were sold to the Ricketts family in 2009.

paragraphs: When playing home games in Chicago, the Cubs play at Wrigley Field. The stadium was built in 1914 and has been the home playing field of the Cubs since 1916.

paragraphs: During games, the stadium is filled with Cubs fans, who are known for always cheering for their team, even if they are not winning. Even when the Cubs held the record for the longest championship dry spell in all of American professional sports (until they won the World Series in 2016), their fans remain loyal to them.

paragraphs: The name "Billy Goat " comes from a bar known as the Billy Goat Tavern, located on lower Wacker drive in downtown Chicago. By the time the story of this "curse" started to get out, all the main characters were conveniently dead.

paragraphs: During the 1945 World Series, a man by the name of Vasili "Billy Goat" Sianis attended Game 4 of the series with his pet goat. During the 7th inning of the game, the Stadium's security guards asked Sianis to leave the stadium because his goat was bothering other fans. Sianis became angry and cursed the Cubs, saying that they would never win or even play in a World Series as long as they played at Wrigley Field. Although the curse is often seen as a joke for most Cubs fans, some fans thought it could be the reason for the Cubs' championship drought between 1908 and 2016. The drought ended and the "curse" was reversed in 2016 when the team won their third World Series title.

paragraphs: In the 2016 World Series, the Cubs beat the Cleveland Indians. They fell 3 games to 1 to the Indians, but then, on the brink of elimination, won the next three games, and thereby won the series. Game 7 went down as a classic. It was an exciting back-and-forth game, in which the Cubs won in 10 innings to win their first World Series since 1908. The Cubs became sixth team to win a World Series after trailing 3 games to 1.


title: Herpes simplex

paragraphs: The herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a virus. It causes two common diseases. Both diseases have painful, watery blisters in the skin or mucous membranes (such as the mouth or lips) or on the genitals.

paragraphs: The disease is contagious, particularly when the disease is active. "Contagious" means that it can spread from one person to another. It is not possible to stop this disease completely after it has started in a person. However, there are some medical treatments that stop the disease for a little while.

paragraphs: An infection on the lips is commonly known as a cold sore or fever blister. A cold sore is not the same as a canker sore, which appears inside the mouth and is caused by something else.


title: Władysław Reymont

paragraphs: Władysław Stanisław Reymont, born as Stanisław Władysław Rejment, (May 7, 1867 in Kobielce Wielkie, Poland - December 5, 1925 in Warsaw, Poland) was a well-known Polish writer, who won the Nobel Prize in 1924 for his four-volume epic novel "Chłopi" ("The Peasants"). This novel was about life of this part of the society. He also wrote "Ziemia obiecana" ("The Promised Land"), about industrial capitalism in 19th century Łódź.

paragraphs: Many people say he is one of the greatest and most prominent Polish writers of all time and one of the greatest in 20th century.

paragraphs: Reymont was born in the family of the organist. His father, Józef Rejment, well-read man, had a musical education and in tuszyńskiej performed the parish duties of the organist, and also carried on Civil Status Registers and the correspondence of the parish priest with Russian authorities. Mother, Antonia from Kupczyńskich, had talent for a story. She came from the impoverished Cracow gentry; in mature years the writer has often emphasized this fact.


title: Introversion and extroversion

paragraphs: Introversion and extroversion is a personality dimension. It was promoted by Carl Jung in the 1920s. Individual people differ on this scale. "Introverts" are quiet and shy, and "extroverts" are loud and sociable. According to the theory, introverts get energy from inside themselves (ideas and concepts in their own minds), and extroverts get energy from outside of themselves (interacting with other people). There are many concepts or understanding about introversion and extroversion that are false or myths. Such as the idea that introverts are not talkative and live their lives emotionless.

paragraphs: The idea of introversion and extroversion has been used in many personality tests and is an important factor.

paragraphs: Those who follow this way of looking at the world say that everyone has some parts of both traits in them, though one will usually dominate over the other. At one time, extroverts were thought to make up almost three-fourths of American society. Now, researchers typically assume that the number of extroverts is pretty much equal to the number of introverts in the country.


title: Sartell, Minnesota

paragraphs: Sartell is a city in the U.S. state of Minnesota. The 2000 census said 9,641 live in the city. Newer information says 12,629 people live in the city. Sartell is in both Stearns County and Benton County.

paragraphs: Sartell started as a small town near the Mississippi River. It was first named "The Third Rapids" because it was the third rapids that French fur traders came to as they went north from St. Anthony Falls in Minneapolis.

paragraphs: One of the first people to live in this young town was Joseph B. Sartell. He came in 1854 and worked as a millwright at a local sawmill. In 1877, he started a flour mill at the nearby Watab River. In 1884, he started the Sartell Brothers Lumber Company with his sons.

paragraphs: In 1905, some people started to build the Watab Pulp and Paper Company. They also started to build the Sartell Dam across the Mississippi near the "third rapids". Both of these things were finished in 1907. Seven people died when building the dam. Since that time, Watab Pulp and Paper was rebuilt several times and many people bought and sold it. Now a company called International Paper owns it.

paragraphs: It was in 1907 that residents of the town decided it was time to incorporate. Several influential people felt the town ought to be named "Wengert" after a local businessman. Another man lobbyied to have the town named "Oberly" after himself. However, because of his many relatives and generous contributions to the community, the town was incorporated as "The Village of Sartell" in honor of Joseph B. Sartell. From 1907 until 1973, there was a Sartell on nearly every City Council, the most prominent being Ripley B. "Rip" Sartell who was mayor for 31 years.

paragraphs: The town continued to grow slowly and developed a number of businesses and a "downtown" on the east side of the Mississippi along U.S. Highway 10. In the 1960s, the highway was re-routed, greatly contributing to the demise of the downtown area. The later construction of a new bridge over the Mississippi in the early 1980s replaced the remaining businesses. This and Sartell’s nearby location to St. Cloud, Minnesota's major retail center account for Sartell's lack of a traditional "downtown".

paragraphs: Because residents wanted to educate their children locally, Independent School District #748, Sartell-St. Stephen, was created in 1969. Despite not having a downtown the city continued to grow and the pace of the growth increased in the 1970s. From 1970 to the present, the population of the city has grown from 700 to over 10,000.

paragraphs: Sartell's city council has a mayor and four council members. They are elected at-large to represent the community. They also legislate policy for the city. As of October 2005, Sartell's mayor is Robert Pogatshnik and its four council members are Mary Lewandowski, Tim O'Driscoll, Paul Orndorff, and Joe Perske. They have the authority to pass and enforce ordinances, establish public and administrative policies, create advisory boards and commissions, and manage the city's financial operations including preparing a budget, auditing expenditures, and transacting other city business as required by law. The City Council also appoints a City Administrator who overseas the day-to-day operations of the city and implements the policies of the Council.

paragraphs: The United States Census Bureau says that the city has a total area of 15.9 km² (6.1 mi²). 15.3 km² (5.9 mi²) of it is land and 0.6 km² (0.2 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 3.75% water.

paragraphs: The city is located on both sides of the Mississippi River. The area around the city has lots of farmland and forests.

paragraphs: Because the Mississippi River goes through the city, people use the river to have fun. When it is warm, people ride boats, swim, catch fish and water ski on the river. When the river is frozen in winter, people ride snowmobiles, cross country ski, and catch fish through holes in the ice.

paragraphs: The city has also built places for people to have fun. These include 24 parks, walking pathways, playgrounds, a bike lane, tennis courts, baseball and soccer fields, ice rinks, a disc golf course and a wading pool.

paragraphs: Sartell's largest employer is Verso Paper. They own a paper mill in the city. Another large employer is DeZurik Water Controls.

paragraphs: Sartell's Chamber of Commerce says that the city has many small business.

paragraphs: As of the census of 2000, there were 9,641 people, 3,443 households, and 2,513 families living in the city. The population density was 630.9/km² (1,633.9/mi²). There were 3,531 housing units at an average density of 231.1/km² (598.4/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 97.42% White, 0.29% African American, 0.17% Native American, 1.21% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.21% from other races, and 0.69% from two or more races. 0.87% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

paragraphs: There were 3,443 households out of which 46.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.6% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.0% were non-families. 20.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.23.

paragraphs: In the city the population was spread out with 32.0% under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 35.5% from 25 to 44, 15.5% from 45 to 64, and 8.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 95.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.3 males.

paragraphs: The median income for a household in the city was $52,531, and the median income for a family was $61,056. Males had a median income of $39,834 versus $27,476 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,667. 4.0% of the population and 3.0% of families were below the poverty line. 4.7% of those under the age of 18 and 8.3% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

paragraphs: Transportation to and from Sartell is limited to surface roads, mainly U.S. Highway 10 and Minnesota Highway 15 which both pass along the outskirts of the city. A rail line runs through town but serves only as freight transportation for the local paper mill. The presence of dams along the Mississippi River and the waterway's relatively shallow depth render it useless for anything more than recreational watercraft traffic.

paragraphs: Sartell's proximity to St. Cloud allows for convenient access to St. Cloud Regional Airport.


title: Punctuation

paragraphs: Punctuation is the name for marks used in writing text. They are to help understanding and the correct reading. These are some common punctuation marks used in English:

paragraphs: There are other punctuation marks but used less often. Other languages have other marks, such as French using "guillemets", codice_1 as quotation marks.

paragraphs: The use of punctuation in English can change from place to place and from time to time, for the rules in use at that location. Modern typography suggests that punctuation should only be used when there is a need. That results in less punctuation than was the case in the early 20th century.

paragraphs: The use of these marks is often decided by a group or organization and then written down into a style guide of format rules. Newspapers have a style guide to make their content use the same rules (for consistency).

paragraphs: In the second example, no style guide will help. The writer just has to make sure that the sentence is understood as it is written. Punctuation is there to help the reader make sense of what is written. Often it is best to change the sentence so that the meaning does not rest on a comma.

paragraphs: A period (U.S.A.), full stop (U.K. and Commonwealth) or full point (typography and printing), looks like this: .

paragraphs: A period or stop is used to end a sentence. The period plus a space separates sentences in prose, and makes it easier to read. If they are not needed, they should not be used. So, for example, in a list format it is obvious when a section ends, therefore it does not need a full stop.

paragraphs: A period can show numbers that are smaller than one. With money, a period is used to show the amount of money less than one dollar.

paragraphs: A period is sometimes used to show that a word has been made shorter. A word that is made shorter with a period is called an abbreviation.

paragraphs: A comma has many uses. Some of these are shown below:

paragraphs: Question marks are used when writing a question, to make an inquiry, or to ask something.

paragraphs: An exclamation mark is used to write about a strong emotion, or to write the words a person shouted. It can be used to make a statement stronger or more forceful.

paragraphs: An exclamation mark can be used with a question mark, to make a question more forceful.

paragraphs: An apostrophe looks like this: <nowiki>'</nowiki>

paragraphs: An apostrophe can be used to show that something belongs to someone else.

paragraphs: If there is only one thing, the letter "s" is used after an apostrophe to show ownership.

paragraphs: Sometimes the letter "s" is not used after an apostrophe to show ownership. A word will end with just an apostrophe if there is more than one thing and the word already ends with an "s".

paragraphs: An apostrophe can be used to put two small words together. Two small words that are put together with an apostrophe to make one word are called contractions. This is normal in writing about a person speaking. Spoken English often uses contractions because these words are easier to say.

paragraphs: Pronouns do not use an apostrophe to show that something belongs to something else. Among these are "its", "his", "hers", "theirs".

paragraphs: Plurals (words referring to more than one thing) do not need an apostrophe.

paragraphs: Quotation marks (also called quote marks or quotes for short) are used around the words that people have said, or direct speech. They are used in pairs.

paragraphs: When quotation marks sit next to periods and commas, there are two styles of punctuation. These two styles are most commonly referred to as "American" and "British"; the British one is also called "logical quotation".

paragraphs: Both systems have the same rules regarding question marks, exclamation points, colons, and semicolons. But they differ in how they treat full stops and commas.

paragraphs: In all major forms of English, question marks, exclamation marks, semicolons, and any other punctuation are placed inside or outside the closing quotation mark depending on whether they are part of the quoted material.

paragraphs: The style in the United Kingdom and other non-American places is called British style,

paragraphs: or logical punctuation. it includes inside quotation marks only those punctuation marks which appeared in the "original" quoted material. Otherwise it places punctuation outside the closing quotation marks. Fowler's "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage" provides an early example of the rule: "All signs of punctuation used with words in quotation marks must be placed "according to the sense"."

paragraphs: When dealing with words-as-words, short-form works and sentence fragments, this style places periods and commas outside the quotation marks:

paragraphs: With direct speech, British placing depends on whether or not the quoted statement is complete or a fragment. According to the British style guide "Butcher's Copy-editing", American style should be used when writing fiction. In non-fiction, some British publishers may permit placing punctuation that is not part of the person's speech inside the quotation marks but prefer that it be placed outside. Periods and commas that "are" part of the person's speech are permitted inside the quotation marks regardless of whether the material is fiction.

paragraphs: In the United States, the prevailing style is called American style, whereby commas and periods are almost always placed inside closing quotation marks. This style of punctuation is common in the U.S. and to a lesser extent, Canada as well., and is the style usually recommended by "The Chicago Manual of Style" and most other American style guides.

paragraphs: When dealing with words-as-words, short-form works and sentence fragments, standard American style places periods and commas inside the quotation marks:

paragraphs: This style also places periods and commas inside the quotation marks when dealing with direct speech, regardless of whether the work is fiction or non-fiction:

paragraphs: In both major styles, regardless of placement, only one end mark (?, !, or .) can end a sentence. Only the period, however, "may not" end a quoted sentence when it does not also end the enclosing sentence, except for literal text:

paragraphs: Colons can be used at the beginning of a list. ""This is a list of animals: birds, cats, insects, pigs, and sheep."".

paragraphs: Colons can be used to replace a semicolon in between two parts of a sentence, but this is not common today.

paragraphs: Standard English usage is to have no spaces before, and one space after a colon.

paragraphs: A semicolon has only two uses. First, to connect two independent clauses into a single sentence. For example:

paragraphs: "I could tell that it was getting late; it was growing darker by the second."

paragraphs: The second use of a semicolon is to separate items in a series when the items contain parenthetical elements within themselves. For example:

paragraphs: "The following crewmembers were on the bridge: James T. Kirk, captain of the

paragraphs: Enterprise; Mr. Spock, first science officer; Mr. Sulu, helmsman; Mr. Scott,

paragraphs: engineer; and Dr. McCoy, chief medical officer."

paragraphs: A semicolon is also used with a conjunctive adverb when joining two clauses. In reality, this is the same as the first rule, but it looks different enough to sometimes cause concern.

paragraphs: "huzaifa, context in which all life exists; consequently, it is more than a political issue."

paragraphs: An ellipsis is a mark that looks like this: ...

paragraphs: It is used to show where words have been omitted when writing what a person said. It can also be used to show that there is more to be said but the person stopped at that point.

paragraphs: A hyphen looks like this: -. Hyphens have many uses in writing:


title: Land

paragraphs: Land can mean some territory, forming part of a country. Roughly 22% of the surface of Earth is land, while the rest is covered with water. Land can have different types of soil; it may be covered with stones, sand, dirt, etc. Sometimes it is not clear where land ends and a body of water begins.


title: Surface

paragraphs: A surface is the outer part of something. Most surfaces have a width and a length, but no depth.


title: Sexual slavery

paragraphs: Sexual slavery is a special case of slavery or forced labour. Sexual slaves are like normal slaves, except for the following:

paragraphs: This term is also used by the Vienna Declaration for the women's rights and by the name of humanitarian international law.


title: 1963 Atlantic hurricane season

paragraphs: The 1963 Atlantic hurricane season started on June 1, 1963, and ended in November 30, 1963.

paragraphs: The most famous hurricane of the season was Hurricane Flora. It was one of the most deadly. It killed 7,200 people as in Haiti and Cuba.

paragraphs: A group of clouds in the central Atlantic became a tropical storm on July 31. It went to the west and it became a hurricane on August 2. The hurricane quickly became a category 2 hurricane with 100 mph (160 km/h) winds. Arlene got to Bermuda on August 9. Afterwards it got wind speeds of 100 mph (160 km/h) again that night. It got weaker until it left the tropics on August 11. No one died from it.

paragraphs: Before Hurricane Beulah there was a tropical wave moving in the tropical Atlantic. It was put together enough to be called a tropical depression on August 20, and it became strong enough to be called a tropical storm the next day. Beulah moved to the northwest, becoming a hurricane on the 22nd and a big hurricane on the 24th. The hurricane moved to the north.

paragraphs: A weak storm north of Puerto Rico moved northeast. It became a tropical depression on September 10. It became a tropical storm on the 11th. This small storm had 60 mph (100 km/h) winds on the 12th. That was the fastest the winds would become.

paragraphs: Over the Gulf of Mexico Cindy turned into a tropical storm on September 16. Cindy turned into a hurricane the next day. It did not become any stronger before it got to High Island, Texas. Cindy brought a lot of rain to southeast Texas as it moved to the southwest over the state. The hurricane weakened on the 20th, after causing $12.5 million (1963 dollars) in damage. It killed three people.

paragraphs: On September 19, a tropical wave became a tropical depression in the Atlantic Ocean. It turned into a tropical storm on the 21st. It did not hit the islands as it moved north. Debra became a hurricane later on the 21st.

paragraphs: The Intertropical Convergence Zone developed a tropical depression on September 23, east of the Lesser Antilles. It moved west and it became a hurricane on the 24th. It went through the Windward Islands on the 25th as a hurricane with 95 mph (140 km/h) winds. Upper-level winds made it stay as a minimal hurricane before it got to Dominican Republic on the 27th. The island killed the hurricane. Edith was gone by the 29th. Edith killed ten people in Martinique, injured 50 people across the Caribbean, and caused $47 million in damage. It was unlucky that Hurricane Flora came just days later.

paragraphs: Hurricane Flora was the deadliest hurricane of the season. It killed over 7,000 people and created hundreds of millions of dollars in damage.

paragraphs: Ginny was strange. It is one of the most recent hurricanes to make landfall near New England. It made 18 inches (50 cm) of snow over Maine. The hurricane killed 7 people and created $300,000 in damage (1963 dollars).

paragraphs: Tropical Storm Helena formed on October 25. It reached its maximum of 50 mph (80 km/h) before it hit the Lesser Antilles. Helena's strength changed a lot for the next 3 days. Though it was weak, Helena was able to kill 5 people and create $500,000 in damage.

paragraphs: The following names were used for tropical storms and hurricanes that formed in Atlantic in 1963. Names that were not used are marked in gray.


title: Sildenafil

paragraphs: Sildenafil is an aphrodisiac. It is a medication that is also called Viagra, Revatio and (in the Indian subcontinent) Caverta.

paragraphs: Sildenafil makes the blood vessels become wider. This lowers the blood pressure. Sildenafil mostly works in the penis and in the lungs. This medicine increases blood flow to the penis. This helps the penis become erect during sexual intercourse. Sildenafil also helps pulmonary hypertension. Because this medicine makes the blood vessels wider, it makes it easier for blood to flow. Sildenafil was patented in 1996 and first made to sell in 1998.


title: Sylvester McCoy

paragraphs: Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith or Sylvester McCoy (born 20 August 1943) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing the seventh incarnation of the Doctor on "Doctor Who" from 1987–1989, he also briefly played the Doctor in beginning of the 1996 TV movie.


title: Paul McGann

paragraphs: Paul McGann (born 14 November 1959) is an English actor. He is best known for his roles in "Withnail and I" (1987) and as the Eighth Doctor in the 1996 "Doctor Who" television movie.


title: Georgia O'Keeffe

paragraphs: Georgia O’Keeffe (November 15 1887 – March 6 1986) was an American artist. She was born near Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, U.S. O'Keeffe studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago, Art Students' League, University of Virginia, Charlottesville and Teachers College.

paragraphs: She is mainly known for her modernist paintings. These paintings use both "abstract" and "concrete" elements.

paragraphs: Georgia O'Keeffe married Alfred Stieglitz in 1924. Stieglitz was a famous photographer and he helped O'Keeffe gain success in her career. He owned the first studio her art was displayed in. Georgia and Alfred evidently wrote over 25,000 love letters to each other.

paragraphs: O'Keefe holds the world auction record for a painting by a woman (November 2014). Her "Jimson Weed/White Flower No 1" sold for $44.4m (£28.8m) at the O'Keeffe Museum in Santa Fe, New Mexico, which has many of the artist's works. O'Keeffe's large-format depictions of flowers which she painted as if they had been seen in close-up. Sotheby's in New York said the $15m (£9.5m) estimate on O'Keeffe's work was shattered by intense bidding between two rivals.


title: Genesis (band)

paragraphs: Genesis is an English progressive rock group. They formed in 1967. They have sold about 150 million albums all over the world. This puts them among the top 30 best-selling recording artists of all time. The group's members have included Peter Gabriel and Phil Collins. Both of them were successful as solo artists as well.

paragraphs: Over the years, Genesis has changed members more than once. The first line-up was Peter Gabriel (vocals), Anthony Phillips (guitar), Tony Banks (keyboards), Mike Rutherford (bass & guitar), and Chris Stewart (drums).

paragraphs: Other drummers until 1970 were John Silver and John Mayhew. In August 1970, Phil Collins began playing drums for Genesis. In some songs, he also sang. The same year Phillips left, and Steve Hackett joined as a guitarist in 1971.

paragraphs: The band also made a song called "Supper's Ready" which is almost 23 minutes long. Many fans call it their best because it has many different parts.

paragraphs: After the release of the album "The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway" (1974), Gabriel left the band. Collins took over the singing. He was singer for Genesis from 1976 to 1996. When Hackett also left, in 1977 there were only three members left. The 1978 album was called "...And Then There Were Three..." because of this.

paragraphs: The band ended up making lots of well-known songs, like Abacab, Invisible Touch and No Son of Mine.

paragraphs: The last studio album with Collins was "We Can't Dance" in 1991. He left the band in 1996 and was replaced with singer Ray Wilson. Because the album "Calling All Stations" (1997) with Ray Wilson was not very successful, the group disbanded.

paragraphs: After a break of eight years, Genesis started a world tour in 2006. The members now are Phil Collins, Mike Rutherford and Tony Banks. The band disbanded again at 2011 due to Collins retiring and Collins came back from retiring at 2015.

paragraphs: Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2010.


title: Deadly nightshade

paragraphs: Deadly nightshade or belladonna ("Atropa belladonna") is a well-known, hardy perennial shrub. It is a member of the nightshade family.

paragraphs: Originally, it grew in Europe, North Africa, and Asia. It has also been seen in North America, but is far less common there. Usually it grows in the shade. The plant does not like direct sunlight. Often it grows in places where the soil is rich in limestone.

paragraphs: Most parts of the plant are known to be very poisonous. Children have died from eating as few as three berries. One leaf contains enough poison to kill an adult. The root usually contains the most poison.

paragraphs: The poison present in the plant is called atropine.

paragraphs: The effects of atropine are dilated (big) pupils, hallucinations, and difficulty in seeing (the vision may not be as sharp as always, it may be difficult to focus on some object). Problems keeping upright, feeling like one is flying, and being confused are also symptoms.

paragraphs: The pulse of the victim grows faster and faster, and the rate at which the heart is beating will go up. Toxic reaction to atropine causes fever, delirium, stupor and rash on head, neck and upper trunk. There may be agitation, difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Coma and convulsions usually come before death.


title: Perennial

paragraphs: A perennial is a plant that bears leaves and perhaps flowers every year. Some plants only bear leaves and flowers once, then they die. Such plants are called "annual". Other plants live for two years. They are called "biennial".

paragraphs: Most trees and shrubs are perennial plants.


title: Shrub

paragraphs: A shrub or bush is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A "shrub" can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1–2 m tall.

paragraphs: Very many plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.

paragraphs: A shrubbery is a garden with shrubs as the main feature.

paragraphs: In botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.

paragraphs: For example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.

paragraphs: For shrubs 2–8 m high the following structural forms are categorized:

paragraphs: For shrubs less than 2 m high the following structural forms are categorized:


title: Evergreen

paragraphs: An evergreen is a plant which keeps its leaves throughout the year. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their leaves during the winter or wet seasons. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs.


title: Deciduous

paragraphs: Deciduous means "temporary" or "tending to fall off" (deriving from the Latin word "decidere", to fall off).

paragraphs: When talking about plants this means that the plant loses its leaves, usually in autumn. The leaves will then grow again in spring.

paragraphs: When referring to teeth, it means the teeth at the front of the mouth that grow and fall out and are replaced in childhood. They are called .

paragraphs: In botany and horticulture, deciduous plants are trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials which lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This is called abscission. Leaf loss happens in winter in temperate or polar climates.

paragraphs: With evergreens, foliage is shed differently from deciduous trees. They seem green year round. Plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous; they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before the next growing season, keeping some in winter or dry periods. Some trees, including a few species of oak, have desiccated leaves that stay on the tree through winter. These persistent dry leaves are dropped in the spring as new growth begins.

paragraphs: Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination. Not having leaves also improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants.


title: Shade

paragraphs: A place is called in the shade when the sun is shining, and some object, a tree for example, blocks the direct sunlight. So the sunlight can not reach the spot. The dark image, which the object casts on the ground (or on another object) is called shadow, not "shade".

paragraphs: Shade can also mean a darker or lighter color of the same base color. For example: in a picture of a tree's shadow, the grass in the shade will be a darker "shade" of green than the grass out of the shade.