title: Time Person of the Year

paragraphs: Person of the Year is an issue of the United States magazine "Time" that has come out each year since 1927. Until 1999, it was called "Man of the Year."

paragraphs: The "Person of the Year" is not always a person. It can be a person, group, idea, or thing that "for better or for worse...has done the most to influence the events of the year". This means that being chosen is not an award, like being chosen as the "best person of the year." The Person of the Year may be an enemy of the United States, like Adolf Hitler (1938) or Joseph Stalin (1939 and 1942). Every year, "Time" chooses the person who they think has had the most effect on the things that have happened in that year (whether those things were good or bad).

paragraphs: The first Person of the Year was aviator Charles Lindbergh, in 1927. Since then, Persons of the Year have included groups, whole generations, important objects, and even the Earth. Since the list began, every serving President of the United States has been a Person of the Year at least once, except for Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and Gerald Ford. Franklin D. Roosevelt is the only person to have been named Person of the Year three times.

paragraphs: The December 31, 1999 issue of "Time" named Albert Einstein the "Person of the Century". Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mahatma Gandhi were chosen as runners-up.


title: Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans

paragraphs: Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans (13 September 1676 – 23 December 1744) was a niece of Louis XIV and wife of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine. She was later regent of Lorraine. As a widow she was created Princess of Commercy. Among her children was Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, father of Marie Antoinette. She also had much input in the construction of the "Château de Lunéville". She also introduced the future architect "Germain Boffrand" to the royal courts in 1711.

paragraphs: Élisabeth Charlotte was born at the Château de Saint-Cloud the daughter of Philippe, Duke of Orléans and of his second wife, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. Her father was the only sibling of King Louis XIV of France.

paragraphs: She was entitled to have the style of "Her Royal Highness". At birth, she was given the honorary style "Mademoiselle de Chartres". After the marriage of her two older half-sisters, Marie Louise and Anne Marie born of the first marriage of their father to Henrietta of England, she was known as "Madame Royale", according to her status as the highest-ranking unmarried princess in France.

paragraphs: There were plans for her to marry Joseph Clemens of Bavaria (Élisabeth Charlotte herself refused), William III of England, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I, Joseph was suggested by Pope Innocent XII himself, as well as her widowed first cousin Louis, Grand Dauphin. Another was Louis Auguste de Bourbon, Duke of Maine, eldest son of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan.

paragraphs: Élisabeth Charlotte was finally married on 13 October 1698 at the Palace of Fontainebleau to Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, son of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine, and of the Archduchess Eleonora of Austria. The marriage was the result of the Treaty of Ryswick, one of its conditions being that the Duchy of Lorraine, which had been for many years in the possession of France, be restored to Leopold, a son of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine. Thus, Élisabeth Charlotte was but an instrument to cement the peace treaty. The House of Lorraine received a dowry of 900,000 Livres.

paragraphs: To everyone surprise, what had been expected to be an unhappy union turned out to be a marriage of love and happiness. With the birth of her children, Élisabeth Charlotte showed great maternal instinct and a naturally caring character. The marriage produced thirteen children, of which five survived into adulthood. Three of them died within a week in May 1711 due to a smallpox outbreak at the Château de Lunéville, the country seat of the Duke's of Lorraine.

paragraphs: Her husband died in 1729, leaving his wife Regent of Lorraine for their son, Francis Stephen of Lorraine. After being educated in Vienna, Francis Stephen returned to Lorraine in 1737, ending his mother's tenure as regent.

paragraphs: Élisabeth Charlotte tried to engage her youngest child Anne Charlotte to King Louis XV; this project failed due to the intrigues of Duke of Bourbon; Élisabeth Charlotte then tried to arrange the marriage of Anne Charlotte to her first cousin Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, who had been recently widowed; Louis d'Orléans refused.

paragraphs: Unable to prevent her son from giving up the duchy of Lorraine to Stanisław Leszczyński when he married the Habsburg heiress, Maria Theresa of Austria, Élisabeth Charlotte moved into the "Château d’Haroué" in nearby Commercy, which was turned into a sovereign principality for her to enjoy during her dowager years.

paragraphs: Élisabeth Charlotte died of a stroke, on 23 December 1744, one week after her daughter-in-law and grandchild, at the age of sixty-eight. She was the last of her siblings to die and had outlived ten of her thirteen children. Nine months after her death, her son Francis Stephen became Holy Roman Emperor.

paragraphs: She was buried in the funerary chapel of the Dukes of Lorraine in the "Saint-François-des-Cordeliers" church in Nancy.


title: Metalworking

paragraphs: Metalworking is the shaping of metals to create single parts, assemblies, or large scale buildings/objects. There are many ways of shaping metal, including machining, metalspinning, forging, casting, and fabricating. Humans have been working metal for close to 7000 years.


title: DJ Shadow

paragraphs: Joshua Paul Davis, (born June 29, 1972) known by his stage name DJ Shadow, is an American music producer, DJ and songwriter. He is an important person in the history of instrumental hip hop. He became well known after his first album "Endtroducing...", which was made entirely from samples. He has a collection of over 60,000 records.


title: Thallium(I) carbonate

paragraphs: Thallium(I) carbonate, also known as thallous carbonate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlCO. It has thallium and carbonate ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) carbonate is a white solid. It dissolves in water. It is the only heavy metal carbonate that can dissolve in water. It is similar to potassium carbonate. It is highly toxic, though. It reacts with acids like all carbonates do to make a thallium salt and carbon dioxide.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting thallium(I) oxide with carbon dioxide.

paragraphs: It is used to make fake diamonds, to test for carbon disulfide, and to kill fungi.


title: Thallium(I) fluoride

paragraphs: Thallium(I) fluoride, also known as thallous fluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlF. It has thallium and fluoride ions. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) fluoride is a white solid. It dissolves easily in water. It also dissolves in ethanol. It absorbs a little water in wet air.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting thallium(I) oxide or thallium(I) carbonate with hydrofluoric acid.


title: Thallium(I) hydroxide

paragraphs: Thallium(I) hydroxide, also known as thallous hydroxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlOH. It has thallium and hydroxide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) hydroxide is a yellow solid. It dissolves in water to make a yellow and very basic solution, similar to potassium hydroxide. It reacts with acids to make thallium salts. It breaks down to thallium(I) oxide when heated.

paragraphs: It is made by dissolving thallium(I) oxide in water or by reacting thallium with water or moist air.


title: Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia

paragraphs: Victor Amadeus III (Vittorio Amadeo Maria; 26 June 1726–16 October 1796) was King of Sardinia from 1773 until his death. Although he was politically conservative, he carried out numerous administrative reforms until declaring war on revolutionary France in 1792.

paragraphs: Born at the Royal Palace of Turin, he was a son of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and his second wife Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg. He was styled as the "Duke of Savoy" from birth. As a young prince, he surrounded himself with intellectuals and stayed far from public life.

paragraphs: He married Maria Antonia of Spain (1729–1785), youngest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese, on 31 May 1750 at Oulx and later had twelve children. He had a loving relationship with his wife who exerted little influence over her husband]. The marriage had been arranged by Maria Antonia's half brother, the ruling Ferdinand VI of Spain.

paragraphs: When Victor Amadeus came to the throne in 1773 he started working on bureaucratic and military aspects of the reign. He was suspicious of anything innovative.

paragraphs: At the outbreak of the French Revolution, Victor Amadeus III allowed his two son's in law, the Counts of Artois, Provence and the Princesses Marie Adélaïde and Victoire to stay in his kingdom under his protection.

paragraphs: He died at the Castle of Moncalieri having suffered an attack of apoplexy. He died leaving an economically damaged kingdom and two key provinces–Savoy and Nice–devastated having suffered at the hands of French revolutionary forces. He was buried at the Basilica of Superga in Turin.


title: Thallium(I) iodide

paragraphs: Thallium(I) iodide, also known as thallous iodide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlI. It has thallium and iodide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) iodide is a yellow solid. It does not dissolve in water. It turns red when heated gently. It is a reducing agent. It is very toxic like all thallium compounds.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting thallium with iodine or hydroiodic acid or by reacting any soluble thallium salt like thallium(I) sulfate with any iodide.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) iodide is used in mercury-vapor lamps. It is also used in a detector of radiation.


title: Thallium(I) oxide

paragraphs: Thallium(I) oxide, also known as thallous oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlO. It has thallium and oxide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) oxide is a black solid. It reacts with water to make a yellow solution of thallium(I) hydroxide. It reacts with carbon dioxide to make thallium(I) carbonate. It is a strong base. It reacts with acids to make other thallium salts. It is very toxic.

paragraphs: It is made by heating thallium(I) hydroxide or thallium(I) carbonate in air.

paragraphs: It is used in some superconductors. It is also used to make certain special types of glass.


title: Thallium oxide

paragraphs: Thallium oxide can refer to either of these thallium oxides:


title: Oscar Hertwig

paragraphs: Oscar Hertwig (21 April 1849, Friedberg, Hesse – 25 October 1922, Berlin) was a German zoologist, anatomist and professor, who also wrote about the theory of evolution over 55 years after Charles Darwin's "The Origin of Species".

paragraphs: Oscar Hertwig was a leader in the field of embryology. He discovered fertilization of sea urchins, he recognized the role of the cell nucleus during inheritance and chromosome reduction during meiosis. In 1876, he found that fertilization includes the penetration of a spermatozoon into an egg cell. He thought, correctly, that the vectors of hereditary traits resided in the nuclei of the egg and sperm.

paragraphs: His work on the development of sea urchin eggs was fundamental and lasting; his work on evolution was not. He was opposed to 'chance', as he thought was Charles Darwin's theory. He wrote: "Das Werden der Organismen, eine Widerlegung der Darwinschen Zufallslehre" (Jena, 1916) (translation: "The Origin of Organisms: a refutation of Darwin's theory of chance").

paragraphs: Hertwig was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1903.


title: Igersheim

paragraphs: Igersheim is a city in Germany. It is between Heilbronn and Würzburg in Baden-Württemberg.


title: Bihari languages

paragraphs: Bihari is a group of Indic languages spoken in parts of Bangladesh and Bihar.


title: Walther Flemming

paragraphs: Walther Flemming (21 April 1843 – 4 August 1905) was a German biologist and a founder of cytogenetics.

paragraphs: Making use of dyes he was able to find a structure which he named chromatin. He identified that chromatin was correlated to threadlike structures in the cell nucleus– the chromosomes (meaning "coloured body"). Edouard Van Beneden (1846–1910) had also observed them, independently.

paragraphs: Flemming investigated the process of cell division and the distribution of chromosomes to the daughter nuclei, a process he called mitosis from the Greek word for thread. However, he did not see the splitting into identical halves, the daughter chromatids. He studied mitosis, both in life and in stained preparations, using as the source of biological material the fins and gills of salamanders. These results were published first in 1878 and in 1882 in the seminal book "Zellsubstanz, Kern und Zelltheilung" (1882; Cell substance, nucleus and cell division). On the basis of his discoveries, Flemming surmised for the first time that all cell nuclei came from another predecessor nucleus (he coined the phrase "omnis nucleus e nucleo", after Virchow's "omnis cellula e cellula").

paragraphs: Flemming was unaware of Gregor Mendel's (1822–1884) work on heredity, so he did not make the connection between his observations and genetic inheritance. Two decades would pass before the significance of Flemming's work was truly realized with the rediscovery of Mendel's rules. His discovery of mitosis and chromosomes is considered one of the 100 most important scientific discoveries of all times, and one of the 10 most important discoveries in cell biology.


title: Eduard Strasburger

paragraphs: Eduard Adolf Strasburger (1 February 1844 in Warsaw – 19 May 1912 in Bonn) was a German professor who was one of the most famous botanists of the 19th century.

paragraphs: In 1868 he taught at the University of Warsaw. In 1869 Strasburger was appointed professor of botany at the University of Jena. After 1881 he was head of the "Botanisches Institut" at the University of Bonn.

paragraphs: Strasburger was a founder of the famous "Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen" ("Textbook of Botany"), which first appeared in 1894. He was the first to provide an accurate description of the embryonic sac in gymnosperms (such as conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants), along with demonstrating double-fertilization in angiosperms. He came up with one of the modern laws of plant cytology: "New cell nuclei can only arise from the division of other nuclei", and originated the terms cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.

paragraphs: At about the same time as Walther Flemming, and Edouard van Beneden, he worked out chromosome movement during mitosis in plant cells. His work on the upward movement of tree sap proved that the process was physical and not physiological.

paragraphs: He was awarded the Linnean Society's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908.


title: Edouard van Beneden

paragraphs: Edouard Joseph Marie Van Beneden (Leuven, 5 March 1846 – Liège, 28 April 1910), cytologist and marine biologist. He was professor of zoology at the University of Liège. He contributed to cytology and genetics by his work on the roundworm "Ascaris". In this work he discovered how chromosomes combined during meiosis, during the production of gametes.

paragraphs: Beneden discovered, with Walther Flemming and Eduard Strasburger, the essential facts of mitosis. In contrast to meiosis, the double (diploid) set of chromosomes in daughter cells is identical to those in the parent cells. Excepting rare accidents, there is no change in the genetic apparatus. In meiosis, only one set of chromosomes ends up in each gamete, a condition called haploid.

paragraphs: Van Beneden's father was also a well-known biologist. Pierre-Joseph van Beneden (18091894) introduced two important terms into evolutionary biology and ecology: mutualism and commensalism.


title: Ascaris

paragraphs: Ascaris is a genus of parasitic nematode worms known as the "giant intestinal roundworms". One species, "A. suum", typically infects pigs, while another, "A. lumbricoides", affects humans, typically in sub-tropical and tropical areas with poor sanitation. "A. lumbricoides" is the largest intestinal roundworm and is the most common worm infection of humans, an infection known as "ascariasis". Infestation can cause morbidity, and sometimes death, by compromising nutritional status, affecting cognitive processes, inducing tissue reactions, such as granuloma, and provoking intestinal obstruction or rectal prolapse.

paragraphs: The roundworms are members of the phylum Nematoda. They are an extremely successful group; it is estimated that they represent 90% of all life on the seafloor.


title: Free (band)

paragraphs: Free were an English rock band. The band started in London, England in 1968. They are best known for their famous song called "All Right Now". When the band ended the singer, Paul Rodgers, went on to form the band Bad Company. The lead guitarist of Free was named Paul Kossoff. In 1976 he died from a drug-induced heart failure. He was only 25 years old.


title: Bacardi

paragraphs: Bacardi is a spirits company that was founded February 4, 1862 in Cuba. It is named after the founder "Facundo Bacardí", a wine merchant. Facundo use to filter the rum through charcoal, which removed impurities. In addition to this, He aged the rum in oak barrels, which had the effect of "mellowing" the drink.


title: Mick Jagger

paragraphs: Sir Michael Philip "Mick" Jagger (born 26 July 1943) is an English musician, producer and actor. He is most famous for being the singer of the Rolling Stones. In 2003 he was knighted for his services to music.

paragraphs: Jagger is known for his many high-profile relationships. He married Nicaraguan-born Bianca De Macias on 12 May 1971. It was a Catholic ceremony in Saint-Tropez, France. In late 1977, he began seeing model Jerry Hall. This was while still married to Bianca. Jagger and Hall lived together for many years. They were married on 21 November 1990, in a Hindu beach ceremony in Indonesia. The marriage ended in August 1999.

paragraphs: Jagger has also been romantically linked to other women: Chrissie Shrimpton, Marianne Faithfull, Anita Pallenberg, Marsha Hunt, Pamela Des Barres, Uschi Obermaier, Bebe Buell, Carly Simon, Margaret Trudeau, Mackenzie Phillips, Janice Dickinson, Carla Bruni, Sophie Dahl and Angelina Jolie, among others. He was in a relationship with L'Wren Scott (1964-2014) from 2001 until she committed suicide in 2014. Jagger's girlfriend Melanie Hamrick is pregnant with his eighth child.

paragraphs: In March 2019, Jagger had to postpone his tour due to medical reasons. A few days later it was announced that he would have heart valve replacement surgery.

paragraphs: Jagger has seven children by four women:

paragraphs: His personal fortune was estimated in 2010, at £190 million (~$298 million US).


title: Burn It to the Ground

paragraphs: Burn It to the Ground is a 2009 rock song by the Canadian rock band Nickelback off their "Dark Horse" album. It became the theme song for WWE Raw on November 16, 2009 and is featured on the soundtrack to the video game NHL 10.


title: Rădăuţi

paragraphs: Rădăuţi is a municipality of Suceava County in Romania. 27,759 people live in Rădăuţi.

paragraphs: Rădăuţi can be found in Bukovina, between the Suceava and Suceviţa rivers. It is 23 miles north of Suceava.


title: Maria Kanellis

paragraphs: Maria Louise Kanellis (born February 25, 1982 in Ottawa, Illinois) is an American female professional wrestler. She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment from 2004 to 2010. She joined WWE again in June 2017 and she will be with real-life husband, Mike Kanellis.


title: Jillian Hall

paragraphs: Jillian Faye Hall (born Jillian Faye Fletcher; September 6, 1980 in Ashland, Kentucky) is an American retired female professional wrestler and singer. She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) where she competed under the ring name Jillian Hall.

paragraphs: She released a Christmas album titled "A Jingle with Jillian", which was sung completely in her character of a terrible singer. The album reached #20 on the UK Holidays Top 100 shortly after its release. During her time in the WWE, She was a one-time WWE Divas Champion.

paragraphs: On November 19, 2010, her WWE contract expired and WWE announced that they were not going to renew it. After being released, she wrestled on the independent circuit until announcing her retirement on January 21, 2014.


title: Khufu

paragraphs: Khufu was a Pharaoh (or leader) of Ancient Egypt's Old Kingdom. He was the Pharaoh of Egypt from around 2589 to 2566 B.C.E . Khufu was the second pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty. He is also thought to be the one who built the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Khufu's full name was "Khnum-Khufu" which means "the god Khnum protects me."


title: Ajana, Western Australia

paragraphs: Ajana is a small farming town in Western Australia. It is about 530 kilometres north east of Perth. The town was officially started in 1915. In 2006, there were 22 people living at Ajana. The name of the town might be from an Australian Aboriginal word, "Ajano", used for the area nearby. It might also be from the word "Ngajna", meaning "mine", as a place where stone axes could be made.


title: Victor Posa

paragraphs: Victor Posa (born 5 November 1966 in Bari) is an Italian ice hockey player. He played 2 games for the Chicago Black Hawks of the NHL.


title: Genetic linkage

paragraphs: Genetic linkage occurs when alleles at different loci do not segregate at random. Mendel's second law is thus broken.

paragraphs: Genes are linked when they are on the same chromosome. They then tend to stay together during meiosis. Alleles for genes on different chromosomes are usually not linked, due to independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis.

paragraphs: There is some crossing over of DNA during meiosis when the chromosomes segregate. So, alleles on the same chromosome can be separated and go to different daughter cells. There is a greater probability of this happening if the alleles are far apart on the chromosome, as it is more likely that a cross-over will occur between them. The relative distance between two genes can be calculated using the offspring of an organism showing two linked genetic traits. The percentage of offspring where the two traits do not run together is noted. The higher the percentage of offspring showing both traits, the closer on the chromosome the two genes are.

paragraphs: This was the first technique used for mapping genes on chromosomes. By working out the number of recombinants it is possible to obtain a measure for the distance between the genes. This distance is called a "genetic map unit" (m.u.), or a "centimorgan" and is defined as the distance between genes for which one product of meiosis in 100 is recombinant. A recombinant frequency (RF) of 1 % is equivalent to 1 m.u. A linkage map is created by finding the map distances between a number of traits that are present on the same chromosome, ideally avoiding significant gaps between traits to avoid the possibility of multiple crossovers.


title: Barthélemy Dumortier

paragraphs: Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier (Tournai, 3 April 1797 – 1878) was a Belgian botanist and politician. Some consider him to be the true discoverer of cell division, although he is rarely credited as such. His 1832 paper deals with this topic.


title: Eddie Van Halen

paragraphs: Edward Lodewijk "Eddie" Van Halen (born January 26, 1955) is a Dutch-American guitarist, keyboardist, songwriter and producer.

paragraphs: Van Halen was born in Amsterdam. He moved to Nijmegen and in 1962 to Pasadena, California. He became a naturalized U.S. citizen.

paragraphs: He was the guitarist and co-founder of the hard rock band Van Halen. He is listed as number 70 in Rolling Stone Magazine's ""Top 100 Guitarists of All Time"" issue. In 2007, Eddie Van Halen was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


title: Eddie Cheever

paragraphs: Edward "Eddie" McKay Cheever, Jr. (born January 10, 1958 in Phoenix, Arizona) is an American racing driver. He raced for almost thirty years in Formula One, Sports cars, CART and the Indy Racing League. Cheever participated in 143 World Championship Formula One races and started 132, more than any other American, driving for nine different teams from 1978 through 1989. In 1997, he formed his own IRL team and won the Indianapolis 500 as both owner and driver in 1998. The team now competes in sports cars.


title: Eddie Irvine

paragraphs: Edmund "Eddie" Irvine, Jr. (Born 10 November 1965, Newtownards, County Down) is a former racing driver from Northern Ireland. He raced under a British Driving License.

paragraphs: Irvine spent time in the 1980s and early 1990's in Formula Ford and F3000. He joined Formula One in 1993, scoring a point on his debut as he replaced Emanuele Naspetti. He stayed on for Jordan in 1994 and 1995, before going on to drive for Scuderia Ferrari in 1996. His results were not as successful as Michael Schumacher's, including eight straight DNF's (Did not Finish) in a row in 1996. He eventually improved, scoring more podiums as he went along with the team.

paragraphs: In 1999 Michael Schumacher, the "#1 driver" for Ferrari was injured during a race at Silverstone. Irvine was made the #1 driver. The team put all their efforts towards Irvine winning a driver's championship. It wasn't successful, but Irvine did place second in the championship. Irvine left Ferrari after that season because he was frustrated with Ferrari's policy on team orders, which meant that one driver was labelled as "being #1." So, Irvine joined the new Jaguar Racing team in 2000, where he finally became the lead driver. However, the car was not competitive and reliable, so Jaguar, despite having lots of experience with Irvine, had little results. Irvine obtained the only two podiums Jaguar would ever see, and Irvine retired from Formula One after 2002.


title: Wilhelm Roux

paragraphs: Wilhelm Roux (9 June 1850 in Jena – 15 September 1924 in Halle) was a German zoologist, anatomist and pioneer of experimental embryology.

paragraphs: For ten years he worked in Breslau (now Wroclaw), becoming director of his own Institute of Embryology in 1879. He was professor at Innsbruck, Austria from 1889–95, then accepted a professorial chair at the Anatomical Institute of the University of Halle, a post he retained until 1921.

paragraphs: Roux's research was based upon the notion of "Entwicklungsmechanik" or developmental mechanics. His methodology was to interfere with developing embryos and observe the outcome. Roux's investigations were performed mainly on frogs' eggs to research the earliest structures in amphibian development. His goal was to show Darwinian processes at work on the cellular level.

paragraphs: In 1888, Roux published the results of a series of defect experiments in which he took 2 and 4 cell frog embryos and killed half of the cells of each embryo with a hot needle. He reported that they grew into half-embryos and surmised that the separate function of the two cells had already been determined. This led him to propose his "mosaic" theory: after a few cell divisions the embryo would be like a mosaic, each cell playing its own unique part in the entire design.

paragraphs: After a few years Roux's theory was refuted by the studies of his colleague Hans Driesch and later, with more precision, Hans Spemann showed that, as a rule, Driesch's conclusions were correct, but that results like Roux's may be obtained after intervention in certain planes. Despite this early lapse Roux's pioneering mechanical methodology was to prove most fruitful in 20th century biology.

paragraphs: In a remarkable paper, Roux realised the significance of the linear structure of chromosomes. Their splitting into two equal longitudinal halves assured each daughter cell got the same chromosome complement. Therefore, chromosomes were the bearers of heredity. This was a significant event in cytogenetics.


title: Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line

paragraphs: The Marunouchi Line (丸の内線,まるのうちせん) is a metro line of Tokyo Metro in Tokyo, Japan.


title: Poanes

paragraphs: Poanes is a genus of butterflies. The species are native to North America, Central America, and South America.


title: Concentric

paragraphs: Concentric objects share the same center, axis, or origin. Circles,spheres, cylinders, tubes, and other round objects can be concentric. Concentric shapes do not normally have the same radius.


title: Andreas Hinkel

paragraphs: Andreas Hinkel (born 26 March 1982) is a German football player. He plays for Celtic and Germany national team.

paragraphs: Hinkel grew up in Leutenbach in the state of Baden-Württemberg and started to play football there. When he was ten years old, he came to the youth teams of Stuttgart. In 2001 he had his first matches for Stuttgart in the UEFA Cup and in the Bundesliga. From 2003 to 2009, he played 21 matches for the Germany national team. His first international match was on 30 April 2003 against Serbia and Montenegro.

paragraphs: In 2006 he came to Sevilla in the La Liga. He won the UEFA Cup and the Copa del Rey with them. When he was in Sevilla, he did not play for Germany any more. He did not take part in 2006 FIFA World Cup and in 2008 UEFA Euro.

paragraphs: In the year 2008 he came to Celtic in Glasgow. They won Scottish Premier League in 2008 and the Scottish League Cup in 2009. On 10 September 2008, he played his first match for Germany after three years.


title: Nymphalidae

paragraphs: The Nymphalidae is the largest family of butterflies, with about 6,000 species. They live on all continents except Antarctica. They are commonly known as nymphalids, brushfoots, or brush-footed butterflies.

paragraphs: Brushfoots get their name from their front pair of legs. This pair of legs is reduced. They do not have claws at the end. Only the middle and last pair of legs are used for walking. This is why they are called brush-footed butterflies or four-footed butterflies.

paragraphs: Many species are brightly colored and include popular species such as the emperors, admirals, tortoiseshells, and fritillaries. Most hold their colourful wings flat when they are at rest. However, the underwings are often dull; in some species they look just like dead leaves, or are much paler. So when they raise their wings in the normal butterfly position, this cryptic effect helps the butterfly disappear into its surroundings.


title: Marcel Schäfer

paragraphs: Marcel Schäfer (born 7 June 1984 in Aschaffenburg) is a German footballer.

paragraphs: Schäfer came to the youth teams of 1860 Munich when he was 16 years old. In 2003 he played his first and only Bundesliga match for Munich. After the Bundesliga season 2003-04, 1860 Munich was relegated to the 2. Bundesliga. Schäfer played three more years for Munich.

paragraphs: In 2007 he went back to the Bundesliga and came to V.f.L. Wolfsburg. They won their first German Championship in 2009.

paragraphs: Schäfer plays for the German national football team since the year 2008. His first international match was against England on 19 November 2008.


title: Dred Scott

paragraphs: Dred Scott (1799 – September 17, 1858) was a slave in the United States of America who took legal action to get his freedom in the Dred Scott v. Sanford case. His case was rejected by the Supreme Court.

paragraphs: Many people were angry at the decision, and slavery became one of the main issues in the American Civil War a few years later. Slavery was ended after the Confederate States of America surrendered.


title: Hannah Montana: The Movie

paragraphs: Hannah Montana: The Movie is a 2009 American musical movie. It is based on the teen sitcom "Hannah Montana". The film stars Miley Cyrus.

paragraphs: It is about a girl named, Miley Stewart, that is living the secret life of Hannah Montana. It starts with that she makes a mistake and comes late to her best friends, Lily, birthday party, dressed as Hannah. All attention goes to her, and Lily gets disappointed. As Hannah tries to make it up for Lily, she gets an offer to fly to New York with her manager Vanessa Williams but Miley's father Billy Ray Cyrus has other plans. His mother's birthday is coming up in Tennessee and he his clear that Miley will go, too. She complains and complains, which leads to her thinking she can go to New York, but is fooled by her father who drives her and her brother to Tennessee.

paragraphs: When they get there, Miley is seeing things in a different way and when she meets Trevor, a sweet guy she has known from her younger age, everything changes. Not to mention, the crazy journalist that is stalking her for a story that is supposed to bring her down.


title: Louis Farrakhan

paragraphs: Louis Eugene Farrakhan (born May 11, 1933) is an American religious leader, political activist and writer, black nationalist and social commentator. He is the leader of the religious group known as The Nation of Islam, which is based on an African-American interpretation of Islam. Many people say that he was involved in a plot to kill Malcolm X. He is known for his antisemitism views and anti-White views. In 2007, he retired.

paragraphs: Farrakhan was born Louis Eugene Wolcott in The Bronx, New York. He started playing the violin when he was six years old. He went to the Boston Latin School.

paragraphs: Farrakhan now lives in Kenwood, Chicago. In 1953, he married Khadijah Farrakhan. They have nine children.


title: Synod of Dort

paragraphs: The Synod of Dort was a national council that took place in 1618-1619 in the town of Dordrecht in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church held the meeting in order to discuss a very important issue in the Dutch churches that begin with the teachings of Jacobus Arminius and the rise of Arminianism. The first meeting was on November 13, 1618, and the last meeting, which was the 154th, took place on May 9, 1619.

paragraphs: Members from the Reformed churches in eight different countries were also invited to this meeting. The name "Dort" is the English name for the Dutch town of "Dordrecht" and is still used as the pronunciation of the name today. This synod, or meeting, is usually called the Synod of Dordt or the Synod of Dordrecht.

paragraphs: The reason that this meeting was called was to settle an issue that had just been brought up in the Dutch churches after the spread of Arminianism. After Jacob Arminius died, people that believed the same way that he did objected to the Belgic Confession and the teachings of John Calvin and Theodore Beza. Arminius's followers published their problems with the Confession in a paper called The Remonstrance of 1610. The followers of the things listed in this document were called Remonstrants. Calvinists, who followed the teachings of John Calvin, became known as "Contra-Remonstrants".

paragraphs: In "The Remonstrance" and some later writing, the Arminians wrote about an alternative to the Calvinist Belgic Confession and mentioned several things that they disagreed with. They taught election on the basis of God knowing who would have faith, a universal atonement, resistible grace and the possibility of walking away from grace. Simon Episopius was the speaker for the 13 members of the Remonstrants who were called to the Synod in 1618.

paragraphs: The meetings concluded with the views of the Remonstrants being rejected and set out the Reformed doctrine on each of the points. These are sometimes called the Five points of Calvinism and are remembered by the five letters "TULIP".

paragraphs: "The Decision of the Synod of Dort on the Five Main Points of Doctrine in Dispute in the Netherlands", known as the Canons of Dort, is the reasoning behind the decisions made by the Synod.

paragraphs: The "Canons" are not supposed to be an absolute explanation of the Reformed doctrine, but only explain the five points of doctrine that were being argued over.


title: Jacob Arminius

paragraphs: Jacobus Arminius (October 10, 1560 – October 19, 1609), is the Latin name of the Dutch theologian Jakob Harmenszoon. He is also known by the names of Jacob Arminius or James Arminius. Arminius was a professor of theology at the University of Leiden from 1603 until he died in 1609. He wrote many books and papers on theology, which is the study of God, and his views became the basis for the Dutch Remonstrants.

paragraphs: After he died, his views on theology were most widely known for being the opposite of the five points of Calvinism, though Arminius only objected to three: unconditional election, limited atonement, and irresistible grace; and he doubted the perseverance of the saints. His view on total depravity agreed with John Calvin, only changing the view held by Calvinists a little bit.

paragraphs: Arminius was born at Oudewater, Utrecht. His father Herman died when Arminius was a baby, leaving his wife (and Jacob's mother) as a single mother with small children.

paragraphs: Theodorus Aemilius, a priest, adopted Jacobus and sent him to school at Utrecht. His mother was killed by the Spanish in Oudewater in 1575. About that same year the kindness of his friends allowed him to go study theology at the University of Leiden.


title: Valdeir Vieira

paragraphs: Valdeir Vieira (born 11 July 1944) is a Brazilian football manager.


title: Richart Báez

paragraphs: Richart Báez (born 31 July 1973) is a former Paraguayan football player. He has played for Paraguay national team.


title: Mustapha Hadji

paragraphs: Mustapha Hadji (born 16 November 1971) is a Moroccan football player. He has played for Morocco national team.


title: Alexi Lalas

paragraphs: Alexi Lalas (born 1 June 1970) is a former American soccer player. He has played for United States national team.


title: Christian Wilhelmsson

paragraphs: Christian Wilhelmsson (born 8 December 1979) is a Swedish football player. He plays for Al-Hilal and Sweden national team.


title: Ivan Turgenev

paragraphs: Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (9 November 1818 - 3 September 1883) was a Russian writer, most famous for his novel "Fathers and Sons".

paragraphs: Turgenev was born into a rich land-owning family in Oryol, Russia, on 9 November 1818. His father died when Turgenev was sixteen. He and his brother Nicholas were brought up by their mother. She did not treat them well.

paragraphs: Turgenev went to the University of Moscow for one year and then moved to the University of Saint Petersburg, where he studied Classics and Russian Literature. In 1838 he went to the University of Berlin to study philosophy and history. Turgenev liked Germany and thought Russia should change their social system to be more like Germany’s.

paragraphs: The 1840s and 1850s were hard times for writers and artists in Russia. The political system did not allow them to express themselves as they wanted to. Many intelligent Russians left the country and went to England, France and Germany. In 1852 Turgenev himself was put in prison for a month for praising Nikolai Gogol – a famous Russian writer who had been criticised by the ruling powers in the country. In 1854, Turgenev moved to Western Europe and started writing his novel "Rudin", which complained about the Russia of the 1840s and 1850s.

paragraphs: The political system in Russia changed in 1855 when Alexander II took over power from his father Nicholas I. Writers and artists had more freedom from this time. In 1860 one of Turgenev’s most famous novels, "First Love", was published.

paragraphs: In 1862, "Fathers and Sons", Turgenev’s most famous novel, appeared. Many people did not like the novel which upset Turgenev and he began to write less.

paragraphs: "Smoke" was published in 1867, but again was not popular in Russia.

paragraphs: In 1879, he received an honorary degree from the University of Oxford in England.

paragraphs: In later life, Turgenev did not live in Russia much. He lived either at Baden-Baden or Paris, often near the singer Pauline Viardot, who he was having an affair with. He never married, but he did have a daughter with one of his family’s servants.

paragraphs: Turgenev died near Paris on 3 September 1883. On his deathbed he told Leo Tolstoy to start writing again.

paragraphs: Turgenev had an awkward relationship with two other famous Russian writers – Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky criticised Turgenev for liking Western Europe and its literature more than Russian literature. Turgenev was also close to the French writer Gustave Flaubert.


title: Kim Jung-woo

paragraphs: Kim Jung-Woo (born 9 May 1982) is a South Korean professional athlete. He is best known as an association football player. He was a member of the Korean national team.


title: Marek Špilár

paragraphs: Marek Špilár (11 February 1975 – 7 September 2013) was a former Slovak football player. He has played for Slovakia national team.

paragraphs: On 7 September 2013, Špilár committed suicide by jumping out of a fifth-floor window in Prešov.


title: Andrej Panadić

paragraphs: Andrej Panadić (born 9 March 1969) is a former Croatian football player. He has played for Yugoslavia's national team.


title: Franck Durix

paragraphs: Franck Durix (born 20 October 1965) is a former French football player.


title: Kim Sang-Woo

paragraphs: Kim Sang-Woo (born 18 May 1987) is a South Korean professional athlete. He is best known as an association football player..


title: Shigeru Yokotani

paragraphs: Shigeru Yokotani (born 3 May 1987) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Gamba Osaka.


Michihiro Yasuda


Toshihiro Yamaguchi


title: Takuya Kokeguchi

paragraphs: Takuya Kokeguchi (born 13 July 1985) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Kataller Toyama.


title: Hogares CREA

paragraphs: Hogar CREA is a group that helps drug addicts break their habits. It was started in Puerto Rico in 1968 by Javier Garcia Rios "CheJuan". It spread to several Latin American countries and to the US in the early 80's but is on the decline in the US.

paragraphs: "CREA" is based on the idea of who to better treat drug addiction than an addict. Many people believe that it is a money making scam.


title: Photorespiration

paragraphs: Photorespiration, or "'photo-respiration'", is a process in plant metabolism. A sugar has oxygen added to it by the enzyme (RuBisCO), instead of carbon dioxide during normal photosynthesis. This process reduces efficiency of photosynthesis.

paragraphs: Photorespiration can occur when carbon dioxide levels are low, for example, when the stomata are closed to prevent water loss during drought. In most plants, photorespiration increases as temperature increases. Photorespiration produces no ATP and leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen (as ammonia), slowing plant growth.


title: August Weismann

paragraphs: August Friedrich Leopold Weismann (Frankfurt am Main, 17 January 1834 – Freiburg, 5 November 1914) was a German evolutionary biologist.

paragraphs: Weismann is much admired today. Ernst Mayr thought he was "one of the great biologists of all time", and ranked him "the second most notable evolutionary theorist of the 19th century", after Charles Darwin.

paragraphs: Weismann advocated the "germ plasm" theory. According to this, inheritance only takes place by means of the germ cells the gametes, such as egg cells and sperm cells. Other cells of the body (somatic cells or "soma") are not agents of heredity. The effect is one-way: germ cells produce somatic cells, and more germ cells. The germ cells are not affected by anything the somatic cells learn or any ability the body acquires during its life. Genetic information cannot pass from soma to germ plasm and on to the next generation. This is referred to as the "Weismann barrier". This idea, if true, rules out the inheritance of acquired characteristics as proposed by Lamarck.

paragraphs: The idea of the Weismann barrier is central to the modern evolutionary synthesis, though it is not expressed today in the same terms. In Weismann's opinion the random process of mutation in the gametes (or stem cells which make them) is the only source of change for natural selection to work on. Weismann was one of the first biologists to deny the inheritance of acquired characters entirely. Weismann's ideas came before the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's work. Though Weismann was cagey about accepting Mendelism, younger workers soon made the connection.

paragraphs: Weismann's demarkation between germ-line and soma rested on the work of (mostly) German biologists during the second half of the 19th century. This was the time that the mechanisms of cell division began to be understood. Eduard Strasburger, Walther Flemming, and the Belgian Edouard Van Beneden laid the basis for the cytology and cytogenetics of the 20th century. Strasburger, the outstanding botanical physiologist of that century, coined the terms nucleus and cytoplasm. He said "new cell nuclei can only arise from the division of other cell nuclei". Van Beneden discovered how chromosomes combined at meiosis, during the production of gametes. Walther Flemming, the founder of cytogenetics, named mitosis, and pronounced "omne nucleus e nuclei" (which means the same as Strasburger's dictum). The discovery of mitosis, meiosis and chromosomes is regarded as one of the 100 most important scientific discoveries of all times, and one of the 10 most important discoveries in cell biology.

paragraphs: Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876, by Oscar Hertwig. It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by Van Beneden in "Ascaris" eggs. The "significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance", however, was first described in 1890 by Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. Thus the work of the earlier cytologists laid the ground for Weismann, who turned his mind to the consequences for evolution, which was an aspect the cytologists had not addressed. All this took place before the work of Mendel had been rediscovered


title: Theodor Boveri

paragraphs: Theodor Heinrich Boveri (12 October 1862 – 15 October 1915) was a German biologist who made discoveries in cytology, embryology and genetics. His career was devoted to the processes whereby a new individual arises from parental reproductive materials.

paragraphs: His work with sea urchins showed that it was necessary to have all chromosomes present in order for proper development of the embryo to take place. This discovery was an important part of the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory. His other significant discovery was the centrosome (1888), which he described as the "especial organ of cell division". Boveri also discovered the phenomenon of chromatin diminution during embryonic development of the nematode "Parascaris".

paragraphs: 1902–1904: Boveri, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel. He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which retain their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".

paragraphs: In 1903 Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. E.B. Wilson, who was Sutton's teacher, called this the "Sutton–Boveri hypothesis".

paragraphs: Boveri reasoned that a cancerous tumor begins with a single cell in which the make up of its chromosomes becomes scrambled, causing the cells to divide uncontrollably.

paragraphs: It was only later that researchers such as Thomas Hunt Morgan showed that Boveri was correct.


title: Fred Hoyle

paragraphs: Sir Fred Hoyle (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was an English astronomer. He is noted mainly for being the first man to think of the idea that nuclear fusion might happen in stars, like our Sun. In addition to his work as an astronomer, Hoyle was a writer of science fiction, including a number of books co-written with his son Geoffrey Hoyle. Fred Hoyle gave the Big Bang theory its name in a radio broadcast.


title: Edmund Beecher Wilson

paragraphs: Edmund Beecher Wilson (Geneva, Illinois, 19 October 1856 – 3 March 1939) was a pioneering American zoologist and cell biologist. He wrote one of the most famous textbooks in the history of modern biology, "The Cell".

paragraphs: Wilson graduated from Yale in 1878. He earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins in 1881. He was a lecturer at Williams College in 1883–84 and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1884–85. He served as professor of biology at Bryn Mawr College from 1885 to 1891.

paragraphs: He spent the balance of his career at Columbia University where he was successively adjunct professor of biology (1891–94), professor of invertebrate zoology (1894–1897), and professor of zoology (from 1897).

paragraphs: Wilson is credited as America's first cell biologist. In 1898 he used the similarity in embryos to describe evolutionary relationships. By observing spiral cleavage in molluscs, flatworms and annelids he concluded that the same organs came from the same group of cells and concluded that all these organisms must have a common ancestor.

paragraphs: He also discovered the chromosomal XY sex-determination system in 1905—that males have XY and females XX sex chromosomes. Nettie Stevens independently made the same discovery the same year.

paragraphs: In 1907, he described, for the first time, the additional or supernumerary chromosomes, now called B-chromosomes.

paragraphs: Professor Wilson published many papers on embryology, and served as President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1913.

paragraphs: The American Society for Cell Biology annually awards the E.B. Wilson Medal in his honour.

paragraphs: 1902–1904: Theodor Boveri (1862–1915), a German biologist, in a series of papers, drew attention to the correspondence between the behaviour of chromosomes and the results obtained by Mendel. He said that chromosomes were "independent entities which retain their independence even in the resting nucleus... What comes out of the nucleus is what goes into it".

paragraphs: In 1903 Walter Sutton suggested that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units. Wilson, who was Sutton's teacher, called this the "Sutton–Boveri hypothesis".


title: Reginald Punnett

paragraphs: Reginald Crundall Punnett FRS (Tonbridge, Kent, 20 June 1875 – Bilbrook, Somerset, 3 January 1967) was a British geneticist. He became Professor of Biology and then Professor of Genetics at the University of Cambridge.

paragraphs: He co-founded, with William Bateson, the "Journal of Genetics" in 1910. Punnett is probably best remembered today as the creator of the Punnett square, a tool still used by biologists to predict the probability of possible genotypes of offspring. His "Mendelism" (1905) is sometimes said to have been the first textbook on genetics; it was probably the first popular science book to introduce genetics to the public.

paragraphs: Reginald Punnett was born in 1875 in the town of Tonbridge in Kent, England. While recovering from a childhood bout of appendicitis, Punnett became acquainted with Jardine's Naturalist's Library and developed an interest in natural history.

paragraphs: Attending the University of Cambridge, Punnett earned a degree in zoology in 1898, and a masters in 1902. Between these degrees he worked as a demonstrator and part-time lecturer at the University of St Andrews Natural History Department. However, by 1902 Punnett was back at Cambridge working in zoology, primarily the study of nematode worms. It was during this time that he and William Bateson began a research collaboration, which lasted several years.

paragraphs: When Punnett was an undergraduate, Gregor Mendel's work on inheritance was largely unknown and unappreciated by scientists. However, in 1900, Mendel's work was rediscovered. William Bateson became a proponent of Mendelian genetics, and had Mendel's work translated into English. It was with Bateson that Reginald Punnett helped establish the new science of genetics at Cambridge. He and Bateson co-discovered genetic linkage through experiments with chickens and pea plants.

paragraphs: In 1908, unable to explain how a dominant gene would not become fixed and ubiquitous in a population, Punnett introduced his problem to the mathematician G. H. Hardy, with whom he played cricket. Hardy went on to formulate what became known as the Hardy–Weinberg law.

paragraphs: In 1910 Punnett became professor of biology at Cambridge, and then the first Arthur Balfour Professor of Genetics when Bateson left in 1912. In the same year, Punnett was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He received the society's Darwin Medal in 1922.

paragraphs: During World War I, Punnett successfully applied his expertise to the problem of the early determination of gender in chickens. Since only females were used for egg-production, early identification of male chicks, which were destroyed or separated for fattening, meant that limited animal-feed and other resources could be used more efficiently. Punnett's work in this area was summarized in "Heredity in Poultry" (1923).

paragraphs: Punnett squares are used by biologists to determine the probability of offspring having a particular genotype.

paragraphs: If B represents the allele for having black hair and b represents the allele for having white hair, the offspring of two Bb parents would have a 25% probability of having two white hair alleles (bb), 50% of having one of each (Bb), and 25% of having only black hair alleles (BB). The phenotype (in this case the appearance) of the offspring would depend on whether and to what extent one of the alleles was dominant.


title: Canons of Dort

paragraphs: The Canons of Dort, also called the Canons of Dordrecht (full name: "The Decision of the Synod of Dort on the Five Main Points of Doctrine in Dispute in the Netherlands") is the ruling of the National Synod (or meeting) that took place in the Dutch city of Dordrecht from 1618-1619. Dordrecht is often called "Dort" in English.

paragraphs: Today, the Canons of Dort are part of the Three Forms of Unity, which is one of the confession standards of many of the Reformed churches around the world. The Reformed churches continued use of the Canons as a standard keeps the Reformed churches from being in full harmony with the followers of Jacob Arminius, the Remonstrants and the Dutch Reformed Churches, who disagree with the Canons.

paragraphs: The Canons are not supposed to be an absolute explanation of the Reformed doctrine, but only explain the five points of doctrine that were being argued over. These Canons introduced the Five Points of Calvinism.


title: Three Forms of Unity

paragraphs: The Three Forms of Unity is the name that is given to the Belgic Confession, the Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg Catechism. These three works are about the doctrinal concerns of Continental Calvinism. They are considered official statements of Church doctrine by many of the Reformed churches.

paragraphs: From 1618 to 1619, the Dutch government, acting for the Dutch Reformed Church, called a series of meetings that would come to be called the Synod of Dort. Members from the Netherlands and twenty-seven members from eight other countries met at this Synod to discuss and come to an agreement on their views. This agreement is known as the "Canons of Dort."

paragraphs: This meeting then added the Canons of Dort to two other documents, the Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism. Those were both commonly used by the Dutch Church at this time.

paragraphs: The reasons that they chose to do this were:

paragraphs: The different forms each serve different things:


title: Total depravity

paragraphs: Total depravity (also called total inability or total corruption) is a theological teaching that comes from Augustine's teachings on original sin. It is the teaching that, since the Fall of Man, every person who has been born into the world is a slave of sin and, without the irresistible grace of God, it is not possible for man to choose to follow God or accept salvation as He freely offers it.

paragraphs: Total depravity is taught by many Protestant confessions of faith, including Lutheranism, and Methodism, Arminianism, and Calvinism.


title: Dordrecht Confession of Faith

paragraphs: The Dordrecht Confession of Faith is a statement of faith that was created by Dutch Mennonite leaders at a meeting (also known as a Synod) in Dordrecht, Netherlands, on April 21, 1632. It has 18 articles of faith that talk about the importance of salvation through Jesus Christ, baptism, nonviolence, feet washing, and not taking oaths.

paragraphs: It was a very important part of the Radical Reformation and is still a very important document to many Anabaptist groups today, such as the Amish. In 1725, Jacob Gottshalk with sixteen other ministers from Pennsylvania and together they created the Dutch Mennonite Dordrecht Confession of Faith.


title: Arthur Antunes Coimbra Junior

paragraphs: Arthur Antunes Coimbra Junior (born 15 October 1977) is a former Brazilian football player.


title: Martin Müller

paragraphs: Martin Müller (born 6 November 1970) is a former Czech football player.


title: Pavel Horváth

paragraphs: Pavel Horváth (born 22 April 1975) is a Czech football player. He has played for Czech Republic national team.


title: Bernard Genghini

paragraphs: Bernard Genghini (born 18 January 1958) is a former French football player. He has played for France national team.


title: Jun Yanagisawa

paragraphs: Jun Yanagisawa (born 27 June 1987) is a Japanese football player. He plays for Sagan Tosu.


title: Anders Svensson

paragraphs: Anders Svensson (born 17 July 1976) is a Swedish football player. He plays for Elfsborg and Sweden national team.


title: John Piper (broadcaster)

paragraphs: John Piper was the mid-morning talk show host on the BBC Radio Solent throughout the 1970s. The name of his program was called "Piper's Tune". The show was a mix of music, talk guests and the regular feature called, "Give a Neighbour a Hand", in which listeners would call in and ask for advice and other listeners would call in and give advice. Piper left the BBC in 1879 to join the Two Counties Radio in Bournemouth, as the station's first Programme Controller. He stayed on the air in Bournemouth until he left radio to move to Spain with his wife, Dilys.

paragraphs: In the 1980s, Piper also served as the mayor of his home town, Sitio de Calahonda which is located near Málaga in Spain. Piper also served in the Special Operations during World War II as a journalist and naturalist.


title: Xerophyte

paragraphs: Xerophytes are plants which are adapted to dry/desert areas. They are a type of succulent plant. To survive these harsh conditions they have special features. For example, a cactus has white hairs which help to prevent water loss. Another example is manzanita plants, which have a thick waxy coating and keep their leaves vertical to the sun.

paragraphs: Some Xerophytic plants sit out a drought. They can still extract water from soil. They may have very salty cell sap and therefore a very low water potential in the roots; they may have very extensive or deep roots or may pick up the slightest dew and survive on that.

paragraphs: Others have special features about their shape or structure (xeromorphs). Thick waxy cuticle ("Aloe"); hairy surfaces ("Edelweiss"); dense packing of leaves, reduced leaf size (species of cypress); reduced density of stomata (many cacti); pitted and grooved position of stomata (Ammophila) Water storage in stem and tubers, etc. (baobab). They may also protect this water store from animals by spines and chemicals.


title: Liga MX

paragraphs: Liga MX, known as the Primera División de México before the 2012–13 season, is the top football league in México.

paragraphs: Like most football leagues in Latin America, Liga MX divides its season into two phases—Apertura and Clausura (Spanish for "opening" and "closing"), with different champions in each phase. The Apertura is held in the Northern Hemisphere fall (autumn), and the Clausura in spring.


title: Fortuna Düsseldorf

paragraphs: Fortuna Düsseldorf is a football club which plays in Germany from Düsseldorf that plays in the highest league in German football, the Fußball-Bundesliga.


title: SC Freiburg

paragraphs: S.C. Freiburg is a football club which plays in Germany.


title: MSV Duisburg

paragraphs: The Meidericher Spielverein 02 e. V. Duisburg is a football club which plays in Germany. The club was founding member of the German Bundesliga 1962/63 and is now playing in the Second Bundesliga. Due to their striped jerseys they are also called the "Zebras".

paragraphs: The club was founded in 1902 as "Meidericher SV". On 9 January 1967 the club was renamed into his still today valid name "MSV Duisburg".


title: Hansa Rostock

paragraphs: Hansa Rostock is a football club from Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The club plays in German 2. Bundesliga.

paragraphs: The club was founded on 1 November 1954 multi-sport Sportclub Empor Rostock. Because it was not possible to find enough players for the football team the team of Empor Lauter was transferred to Rostock. This was common in the German Democratic Republic. Rostock took the place of Lauter in the first league. The re-organization of East German sports in 1965 led to the association's football department becoming independent as Fußball Club Hansa Rostock. The new club was named "Hansa" to remember northern Europe's Hanseatic League. Rostock was an important member there.

paragraphs: After the reunification of Germany Hansa played together with Dynamo Dresden in the German Bundesliga. They were relegated but came back. Their best result in the Bundesliga was 2 times a 6th place.


title: F.C. Red Bull Salzburg

paragraphs: F.C. Red Bull Salzburg is a football club from Salzburg that plays in the Austrian Bundesliga. The club was known as SV Austria Salzburg until 2005, when the club was bought by the Red Bull Company. They renamed the club and changed the colours from the traditional violet to red and white. Also, the company's logo was added. The club runs two academies in Ghana and in Brazil. Their home stadium is the Red Bull Arena which was opened in 2003 and was renovated for the 2008 Euro.

paragraphs: The football club was started on September 13, 1933 by the unification of the two clubs FC Rapid Salzburg and FC Hertha Salzburg. During the time of the Nazi occupation of Germany the club was able to compete with SAK 1914. As Salzburg was champion they played for the promotion to the highest league, but failed. After the end of the war they started again as SV Austria Salzburg.

paragraphs: In 1952-53 they reached the A-Liga for the first time, the highest division of Austrian football then, beating Kapfenberger SV in the play-offs. They played there for 3 seasons but were relegated in 1959. To stay in the league they signed Erich Probst, who was the second best scorer in the FIFA World Cup 1954. In 20 matches he scored 14 goals, which helped Salzburg stay in the league. He was also the first player of SV Austria who played for the Austrian national football team. The next years were characterized by ups and downs. The first success was being second in the league in the 1971-72 season. This year was also their first year of playing in the UEFA Cup. The same year they made the Lehener Stadion their homeground. Two years later, in 1974, they reached the Austrian Cup final for the first time. However, the lost to FK Austria Wien 3-2 on global.

paragraphs: The best years of the club were between 1990 and 1997. In these years, the club reached the championship three times, played in the UEFA Champions League and played in the 1994 UEFA Cup final versus Inter Milan. They won their first Austrian Bundesliga title the same year, and the next year too. Their first Champions League in 1994 saw them reach the group stage, however, they were eliminated after finishing in third place out of four. In 2005 the Red Bull Company bought the club because the owners were having problems with money. Some traditional fans left the club and started a new club under the old name SV Austria Salzburg. Ever since 2005, the club has been named FC Red Bull Salzburg.

paragraphs: In 2005 the Red Bull Company bought the club because the owners were having problems with money. Some traditional fans left the club and started a new club under the old name SV Austria Salzburg. Ever since 2005, the club has been named FC Red Bull Salzburg. One of the aims of the new owners was to form a team which can play in the UEFA Champions League regularly. This was not reached but the new club was nevertheless successful. In the national league they reached four titles and were four times second. In the 2009-10 Europa League the club won the group stage with 6 victories over FC Villarreal CF, SS Lazio and Levski Sofia. In the Round of 32 they lost versus Standard Lüttich. Also the next two Euro League group stages were reached. In the 2011-12 Europa League they got second in the group stage behind Athletic Bilbao.

paragraphs: In the 2012-13 Champions League they failed to beat F91 Dudelange from Luxembourg. So the team was changed and new players were bought. In the league they finished 2nd. In 2013/14 the team was very successful and came in first place in the league. In the 2017–18 Europa League, Salzburg reached the semi-finals where they lost to Olympique de Marseille 2-3 on aggregate. They had also beaten Lazio, Borussia Dortmund, and Real Sociedad.

paragraphs: FC Liefering, which currently plays in the Austrian Second League, has been a reserve team for Salzburg.

paragraphs: "<nowiki>*</nowiki> as Austria Salzburg"

paragraphs: After the Red Bull take over of SV Austria Salzburg some group of fans were unhappy because the new club has other colours and did not accept the history of the club. After some negotiations these fans left the club and founded a new one under the name SV (Sportverein) Austria Salzburg. The new club is playing in the Regionalliga West

paragraphs: In the meantime Red Bull Salzburg has 44 official fan clubs all over Austria.


title: SK Sturm Graz

paragraphs: S.K. Sturm Graz is a football club which plays in Austria. He was founded in 1909 and the coulors ar black and white. Therefore they are nicknamed the "Blackies".

paragraphs: The club was founded on 1 May 1909. It was founded by pupils between 16 and 18. The official foundation of the club was in 1912. From 1921 to 1949 Sturm won the styrian championship 11 times. During German occupation the club played his first season in the highest division, the Gauliga Ostmark, but was relegated the same year. 1949 Sturm entered the national league as first team which came not from Vienna. In 1981 the team had the first success, it finished second in the league and reached the quarterfinals of tne UEFA Cup.

paragraphs: With the new president Hannes Kartnig a new successful era started. In 1994 Ivica Osim became coach of the team. 1995 they finished second in the league and 1996 they reached their first title, the Austrian Cup beating Admira Wacker. In 1998 they reached the first title. In 1999 they also won the league.

paragraphs: The first time they played for the Champions League, only reached one point against Spartak Moscow. The second time they played there they reached the 3rd place in the group. In the 199/2000 season of the Champions League they won the Group D versus Galatasaray Istanbul, Glasgow Rangers and AS Monaco FC.

paragraphs: After this success some key players left the club and also coach Ivica Osim. Since 2005 Sturm had financial problems. Therefore Sturm was forced to play with young players. Under Franco Foda this way was successful, Sturm is one of the top four teams in the league. In 2010 they reached the third title and played in the qualification for the Champions League but lost in the play off round against BATE Borrisow and play this season in the UEFA Euro League.


title: L.A.S.K. Linz

paragraphs: L.A.S.K. Linz is a football club which plays in Linz, the capital of Upper Austria. They are playing in the First League, the second division in Austrias league system.

paragraphs: The club was founded on 7 August 1899 as Athletiksportclub Siegfried, the football section was founded in February 1919. The first match was on 4 May 1919 against Fußballverein Wels . LASK lost 1:4. Being the most successful section of the Athletiksportclub it was decided that the name of the club should be Linzer Athletik-Sport-Klub (Linzer ASK). Till the occupation by Germany in 1938 they reached many titels in the Upper Austrian league. In the 1938/39 season they were promoted to the Gauliga XVII, which was then the highest class in Austrian football. But they were relegated the same season.

paragraphs: After the Second World War LASK reached the title in Austrian highest class in the 1964/65 season. The LASK was the first team which came not from Vienna to do so. The same season they also won the Autrian Cup. The next decades were partly successful but also by relegetions to the second division. In 1997, due to public pressure, LASK Linz merged with city rivals FC Linz (formerly known as SK VOEST Linz) which, however, resulted in the cancellation of the latter. Club name, colors, chairmen and members remained the same.

paragraphs: In the 2010/11 season they were relegated. Today they are playing in Austrias First League, the second division in Austrian football.


title: F.C. Wacker Innsbruck

paragraphs: F.C. Wacker Innsbruck is a football club which plays in Austria. The club was founded in June 2002 after the insolvency of FC Tirol Innsbuck. The fans think this club is the successor but leagaly they are a new club.

paragraphs: The club started in the Regionalliga West (3 stage of Austrian football, this was possible because the club played together with WSG Wattens, a 3rd league club) and promoted within 2 seasons to the Bundesliga. In the 2006/07 season they avoided relegetion only because of the insolvency of the GAK. But the following season they were relegated to the 1st league(2nd stage of Austrian football). 2009 they won the championship again and promoted again to the Bundesliga.

paragraphs: The second team (FC Wacker Innsbruck Amateure) is playing in the Regionalliga West (3rd level).


title: Grazer AK

paragraphs: Grazer AK (or GAK) is a football club which plays in Austria. it was founded in 1902.

paragraphs: The club was founded by a group of students led by medical student Georg August Wagner from Prague. Due to this development the first football match in Austria with the FA rules took place in Graz. 1902 was the official start of the Grazer Athletik-Sport-Club. The club reached the Styrian Championship in 1922, 1924 and between 1926 and 1933 and was Austrian Amateur Champion in 1929, 1932 and 1933. One of the players of GAK was Rudi Hiden, who went to Wiener AC and became goalkeeper of the famous "Austrian Wunderteam". 1944 the matches were stopped due to the Second World War.

paragraphs: 1946 the club begun again. 1951 it reached the highest class (Liga A) and, at the end of that season, the 6th position, which was the best of a club outside Vienna. In the following years the Athletics were established in the first class. 1962 and 1968 they where runners-up in the cup-final. Only because the league was reformed the club was relegated to the second division in 1974, but came back one year later. 1981 the Athletics gained first title as professional team when they won the Austrian cup, which also was the first title for a styrian team. From 1990 to 1995 the club was in the second league. They won the cup-title also in 2000, 2002 and were double winners in 2004.

paragraphs: 2007 the club collapsed due to 15,2 mil. € debts. They had to go to the third league where they went bankrupt again and had to interrupt playing in october 2012.

paragraphs: 2013 they had to start over from the lowest (9th tier) league after being reestablished. Since then the club (named GAC due legal grounds initially) won every championship. For the Season 2017/18, they are in Landesliga Steiermark, 4th tier.

paragraphs: List of international games of GAK in UEFA-Cup, Champions League Qualification, Cupwinners' Cup and in Fairs' Cup:


title: Judge Joe Brown

paragraphs: Judge Joe Brown is an American television show. It is a courtroom series, shown in first run syndication. The judge, Joe Brown, decides who is telling the truth and who is lying. Joe Brown is famous for being in charge of the trial of James Earl Ray, the man who assassinated, or killed, Martin Luther King.


title: Curt Stern

paragraphs: Curt Stern (30 August 1902 – 23 October 1981) was a German-American geneticist of Jewish descent. Born in Hamburg, Germany, he studied zoology at the University of Berlin, receiving his PhD in 1923 at the age of 21. He was selected for a fellowship to study at Columbia University, then the site of Thomas Hunt Morgan's famous drosophila fly room.

paragraphs: Stern accepted an appointment at the University of Berlin after his fellowship ended. In 1931, he was the first to demonstrate crossover of homologous chromosomes in "Drosophila melanogaster", only weeks after Barbara McClintock and Harriet Creighton had done so with maize.

paragraphs: Stern eventually returned to the United States in 1932. He became an American citizen in 1939. From 1933 to 1947, he taught at the University of Rochester. From 1947 until his retirement in 1970, he was a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he had numerous doctoral students.

paragraphs: In 1936, he demonstrated that recombination can also take place in mitosis resulting in somatic mosaics, organisms that contain two or more genetically distinct types of tissues. He later demonstrated that there were multiple genes on the "Drosophila" Y chromosome, and described the mechanism of dosage compensation.

paragraphs: During World War II, he led research for the American government on low dose radiation safety. His laboratory group concluded that there is no "safe" threshold below which radiation is not harmful.

paragraphs: After the war his research focused on human genetics, pioneering in what is now known as gene regulation. Although not a physician, he engaged in clinical work in human genetics. In 1943 he began teaching a course in human genetics to medical students at the University of Rochester. The first edition of Stern's pioneering textbook "The Principles of human genetics" was published in 1949. Both his teaching and his textbook were instrumental in re-founding human genetics on a non-racist basis, in contrast with pre-war German and American traditions in the subject. Stern was a signatory of the 1950 UNESCO statement "The Race Question", a statement by leading scientists in many fields that questioned the validity and scientific foundations of racism.

paragraphs: The Curt Stern Award, established by the American Society of Human Genetics in 2001, recognizes a scientist who has made major scientific achievements in human genetics during the previous 10 years.


title: Thomas Hunt Morgan

paragraphs: Thomas Hunt Morgan (25 September 1866 – 4 December 1945) was an American geneticist and embryologist. Morgan took his PhD at Johns Hopkins University in 1890, and researched embryology while at Bryn Mawr College.

paragraphs: After the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance in 1900, Morgan switched his research to the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster". In 1904, E.B. Wilson invited Morgan to join him at Columbia University. This move freed Morgan to focus fully on experimental work.

paragraphs: In his famous Fly Room at Columbia, Morgan was able to show that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. These discoveries formed the basis of the modern science of genetics.

paragraphs: Morgan moved to California in 1928 to head the Division of Biology at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech). Research was focused on genetics and evolution; experimental embryology; physiology; biophysics and biochemistry.

paragraphs: He was given the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933. It was the first one given for genetics, for his "discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity". The prize was not shared with the lab's main researcher, Alfred Sturtevant, a decision of the Nobel Committee which was certainly controversial.

paragraphs: Morgan's early work with "Drosophila" was on the associations known as 'coupling' and 'repulsion', discovered by English workers in 1909 and 1910 using the Sweet Pea. These were, in reality, the same phenomenon, which was later called linkage. Morgan's first papers dealt with the demonstration of sex linkage of the gene for white eyes in the fly, the male fly being heterogametic (XY).

paragraphs: During his distinguished career, Morgan wrote 22 books and 370 scientific papers, and, as a result of his work, "Drosophila" became the main 'model organism' in genetics. The Division of Biology he started at the California Institute of Technology produced "seven" Nobel Prize winners.


title: Alfred Sturtevant

paragraphs: Alfred Henry Sturtevant (21 November 1891 – 5 April 5 1970) was an American geneticist. Sturtevant made the first genetic map of a chromosome in 1913. In his career he worked on the fruit-fly "Drosophila melanogaster" with Thomas Hunt Morgan.

paragraphs: Morgan was both a help and a hindrance to Sturtevant. Morgan supported him through the early part of his career, but took much of the credit for the research. Morgan's Nobel Prize in 1933 was not shared with Sturtevant, who was the lab's main researcher.

paragraphs: Later in his career, Sturtevant had another important relationship, this time with Theodosius Dobzhansky. The research was into the genetics of natural populations of "Drosophila". This relationship, too, became uneasy, and they split up after a few years. Sturtevant was one of the most outstanding genetics researchers not to get a Nobel Prize. In 1967, Sturtevant received the National Medal of Science.


title: H. J. Muller

paragraphs: Hermann Joseph Muller, generally known as H. J. Muller, (21 December 1890 – 5 April 1967) was an American geneticist, educator, and Nobel Prize winner. He was best known for his work on the physiological and genetic effects of radiation, as well as his outspoken political beliefs. Muller frequently warned of the long-term dangers of radioactive fallout from nuclear explosions.

paragraphs: Muller's life was as extraordinary as could be imagined. Born in New York City, he got his PhD at CalTech in Morgan's "Drosophila" fly lab. He next worked at Rice University, and then spent twelve years at the University of Texas. Then he moved to Berlin in 1932, then to Leningrad (St Petersburg), and then to Moscow. In all these places he organised a genetics lab, and sometimes taught as well. Then arose the scientific charlatan Lysenko, who saw to it that genuine genetics scientists came under the disapproval of Stalin. Once again Muller moved, this time to Edinburgh, with 250 strains of "Drosophila", then finally back to the United States in 1940, where he became an advisor to the Manhattan Project. He became Professor of Zoology at Indiana University.

paragraphs: Muller's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1946 was "for the discovery that mutations can be induced by X-rays". By then the real interest lay in the same effects caused by gamma rays from nuclear testing. Muller was a wholehearted enthusiast for eugenics, socialism, atheism and other relatively unpopular ideas, but his real contribution was to genetics. One reputable source writes of him:


title: Hermann Muller

paragraphs: Several people are named Hermann Muller or Hermann Müller:


title: Little Boy

paragraphs: Little Boy is the name that was given to the first atomic bomb that was dropped in a war. The bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 by the American army who were trying to end World War II. Enola Gay was the name of the plane that dropped Little Boy.


title: Fat Man

paragraphs: Fat Man is the name of the second atomic bomb ever made from plutonium and the second atomic bomb to be used in nuclear warfare. It was dropped over the Japanese island of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.


title: Geography of Haiti

paragraphs: Haiti (; ) is a country in the Caribbean. It occupies the western three-eighths of Hispaniola; the Dominican Republic occupies the eastern five-eighths (63%) of the island.

paragraphs: The country has a total area of , of which 27,560 km² is land and 190 km² is water. Haiti has of coast-line and a border with the Dominican Republic.

paragraphs: The limits of the country are the Dominican Republic to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north, and the Caribbean Sea to the south and west. The capital, Port-au-Prince, is a seaport located on the west coast.

paragraphs: Cuba is to the northwest and Jamaica to the southwest of Haiti; the Winward Passage separates Cuba from Haiti (and Hispaniola), and the Jamaica Channel separates Haiti from Jamaica.

paragraphs: There are two large peninsulas: the Northwestern on the Atlantic Ocean, and the Southern peninsulas on the Caribbean Sea. The Northwestern, or just Northern, Peninsula () is also known as the Saint-Nicolas Peninsula; it was the first part of the Hispaniola visited by Christopher Columbus on 1492. The historical name of the Southern Peninsula () was Tiburón Peninsula.

paragraphs: Between those two large peninsulas there is a gulf (a very large bay): the Gulf of Gonâve. It is named so after the Gonâve Island that is in the middle of the gulf. It was called also Gulf of Léogane after the city of Léogane, one of the oldest in Haiti.

paragraphs: Haiti has a tropical climate but modified by elevation and the "Trade winds" (winds that come from the northeast, from the Atlantic Ocean, full of water vapour), which blow from the Atlantic all year long. In low lands with mountains to the northeast, the climate is arid (dry) because the trade winds leave their water in those mountains rather than the valleys and plains.

paragraphs: There are two rainy seasons, in spring and fall to the south, and in spring and winter to the north. From June to November (mainly from August to October), tropical storms and hurricanes are frequent and can do much damage in the country.

paragraphs: There are several smaller islands and cays that are part of Haiti. The largest islands are:

paragraphs: The chains of mountains show a direction northwest-southeast, except in the Southern Peninsula, where they have a direction west-east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction.

paragraphs: From north to south, the main mountain ranges and valleys are:

paragraphs: The river "Artibonite" is the longest river of the island and of Haiti. It is 321 km long (68 km in the Dominican Republic, 253 km in Haiti). Its sources are in the Cordillera Central (Dominican Republic) and flows into the Gulf of Gonâve. Its watershed has an area of 6,399 km² in Haiti and 2,614 km² in the Dominican Republic.

paragraphs: Another important Haitian river is the "Trois Rivières" (Three Rivers). It is 150 km long and its sources are in the Massif du Nord and flows into the Atlantic Ocean, near the city of Po//

paragraphs: Others lakes are "Étang de Miragoâne" (25 km²), of fresh water at 4 km southeast from the city of Miragoâne; and "Trou Caïman" (16.2 km²), a small lake at 6 km from Étang Saumâtre.

paragraphs: <nowiki>https://www.shrek.com</nowiki> for more information


title: Mundari language

paragraphs: The Mundari language is a Munda language of the Austro-Asiatic language family. It is spoken by the Munda people.


title: Listed building

paragraphs: A listed building, in the United Kingdom, is a building that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. This is a list of buildings that are important in terms of architecture, history, or culture. There are many buildings on this list. In the UK, there are about 500,000 listed buildings.

paragraphs: In England and Wales, there are three kinds of listed buildings:

paragraphs: There used to be a fourth kind of listed building: Grade III. This type has not been used since 1970.


title: Holborn

paragraphs: Holborn ( ) is an area of Central London, England. Holborn is also the name of the area's principal east-west street. The street runs from St Giles's High Street as High Holborn to Gray's Inn Road to Holborn Viaduct. It crosses the borders of the City of Westminster, London Borough of Camden and the City of London.


title: Poker Alice

paragraphs: Alice Ivers (1851-February 27, 1930), better known as Poker Alice, was a famous poker player. Her family moved from Devon, England, where she was born, to Virginia, United States, where she went to school and was raised. As an adult, Ivers moved to Leadville, Colorado where she met her husband Frank Duffield. Duffield was responsible for getting Ivers interested in poker, but he was killed a few years after they got married. Ivers made a name for herself by winning money from poker games in places like Silver City, New Mexico, and even working at a saloon that was owned by Bob Ford, the man who killed Jesse James

paragraphs: “Poker” Alice Ivers was born on February 17, 1851 in Devon, England to Irish Immigrants. Her family moved to Virginia when Alice was 12. As a young woman, she went to boarding school in Virginia to become a refined lady. While in her late teens, her family moved to Leadville, a city in the Colorado Territory.

paragraphs: It was in Leadville that Alice met Frank Duffield, whom she married at a young age. Frank Duffield was a mining engineer who played poker in his spare time. After just a few years of marriage, Duffield was killed in an accident while resetting a dynamite charge in a Leadville mine.

paragraphs: Ivers was known for splurging her winnings, as when she won a lot of money in Silver City and spent it all in New York. After all of her big wins, she would travel to New York and spend her money on clothes. She was very keen on keeping up with the latest fashions and would buy dresses to wear to play poker.

paragraphs: Alice met her next husband around 1890 when she was a dealer in Bedrock Tom’s saloon in Deadwood, South Dakota. When a drunken miner tried to attack her fellow dealer Warren G. Tubbs with a knife, Alice threatened him with her .38. After this incident, Tubbs and Ivers started a romance and were married soon after.

paragraphs: Alice Ivers and Warren Tubbs had 4 sons and 3 daughters together. Tubbs and Ivers did not want their children to be influenced by the world of poker, so they moved to a house just northeast of Sturgis on the Moreau River in South Dakota. Tubbs was not only a dealer, but a housepainter as well. It was most likely this house painting that caused him to fall sick with tuberculosis. Warren Tubbs died in 1910 in of pneumonia during a blizzard. To pay for his funeral, Alice had to pawn her wedding ring, which led her back to the poker world.

paragraphs: Alice’s third husband was George Huckert, who worked on her homestead taking care of the sheep. Huckert was constantly proposing to Ivers, yet for a while she did not agree. Eventually, however, Ivers owed Huckert $1,008, so she married him figuring that it would be cheaper than paying his back wages. Huckert died in 1913.

paragraphs: First husband Frank Duffield introduced Alice to poker when she accompanied him to his poker games in Leadville. For a while she just attended, watching and observing, but eventually she started to play and gamble along with the men. However, it wasn’t until after her first husband died that she started to play poker seriously.

paragraphs: Alice was in a tough financial position, and after failing in a few different jobs including teaching; she turned to poker to support herself financially. Alice would make money by gambling and working as a dealer. Ivers made a name for herself by winning money from poker games in places like Silver City, New Mexico, even working at a saloon that was owned by Bob Ford, the man who killed Jesse James.

paragraphs: By the time Ivers was given the name “Poker Alice,” she was drawing in large crowd to watch her play and men were constantly challenging her to play. Saloon owners liked that Ivers was a respectable woman who kept to her values. These values included her refusal to play poker on Sundays.

paragraphs: As her reputation grew, so did the amount of money she was making. Some nights she would even make $6,000, an incredibly large sum of money at the time. Alice claimed that she won $250,000, which would now be worth over three million dollars.

paragraphs: Ivers used her good looks to distract men at the poker table. She always had the newest dresses, and even in her 50s was considered a very attractive woman. She was also very good at counting cards and figuring odds, which helped her at the table.

paragraphs: Alice was known to always be carrying a gun with her, preferably her .38. She was also known to smoke a lot.

paragraphs: In 1910, Ivers opened “Poker’s Palace,” a saloon in Fort Meade, South Dakota, which offered gambling and liquor downstairs, and prostitution upstairs. The saloon was always closed on Sundays, due to Iver’s religious beliefs. However, in 1913, some drunken soldiers disobeyed Iver’s “no work on Sunday” rule and started to get unruly, chaotic, and destructive of the house. It was then that Ivers shot her gun, supposedly to quiet the soldiers down. The shot ended up killing one of the soldiers and injuring another, resulting in Iver’s arrest, along with the arrest of six of her ‘girls’.

paragraphs: Iver’s time spent in jail was short, but she got through it with the help of reading the bible and smoking cigars. At the trial, she claimed self-defense and was acquitted. After the trial, her saloon was shut down.

paragraphs: While in her 60s, Alice Ivers was arrested several times after the “Poker Palace” incident for being a madam, a gambler, and a bootlegger, as well as her drunkenness. She would comply with the law and pay her fines, but keep her business still. In 1928, she was arrested again for bootlegging and her repeated offenses of holding a brothel. Despite this sentence to prison, Ivers did not end up having to stay, because she was pardoned by then Governor Bulow of South Dakota who did so because of her old age.

paragraphs: After being forced to retire by the anger of the military and other people who were upset with her blend of religious elements at her house in Sturgis, Alice’s health began to fail her. Alice Ivers died on February 27, 1930 in Rapid City after a gallbladder operation at the age of 79. Ivers was buried at the St. Aloysius Cemetery in Sturgis, South Dakota.


title: National Anthem of Croatia

paragraphs: The National Anthem of Croatia is named "Lijepa naša domovino" which means "Our beautiful homeland". The singing text was written by a Croatian composer "Antun Mihanović" and music to it was made by "Josif Runjanin".


title: Strand Underpass

paragraphs: The Strand Underpass (sometimes incorrectly called the Kingsway Underpass) is a vehicle tunnel in central London. It connects Waterloo Bridge to Kingsway near Holborn. It was built by John Mowlem & Co. It opened on 21 January 1964.


title: Southampton Row

paragraphs: Southampton Row is major road running northwest-southeast in Bloomsbury, Camden, central London, England. The road is part of the A4200.


title: Victoria Embankment

paragraphs: The Victoria Embankment is part of the Thames Embankment, a road and walkway along the north bank of the River Thames in London. Victoria Embankment extends from the City of Westminster into the City of London.


title: Charlton, London

paragraphs: Charlton is an area and an electoral ward in south-east London. It is in the London Borough of Greenwich. It is located between Greenwich and Woolwich.


title: Waterloo Bridge

paragraphs: Waterloo Bridge is a road and foot traffic bridge crossing the River Thames in London, England between Blackfriars Bridge and Hungerford Bridge.

paragraphs: The first bridge on the site was designed in 1809-10 by John Rennie for the Strand Bridge Company and opened in 1817 as a toll bridge. The granite bridge had nine arches, each of span, separated by double Grecian-Doric stone columns and was long, including approaches. Before its opening it was known as 'Strand Bridge'. During the 1840s the bridge gained a reputation as a popular place for suicide attempts. In 1844 Thomas Hood wrote the poem "The Bridge of Sighs" about the suicide of a prostitute there. Paintings of the bridge were created by the French Impressionist Claude Monet and English Impressionist, John Constable. The bridge was nationalised in 1878 and given to the Metropolitan Board of Works, who removed the toll from it.

paragraphs: In June 2012, the bridge was highlighted on the route of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Pageant on the Thames.


title: Westminster Bridge

paragraphs: Westminster Bridge is a road traffic and foot bridge over the River Thames between Westminster and Lambeth, in London. It is right next to the Houses of Parliament.

paragraphs: Until Westminster Bridge was built in 1750, there was only one bridge crossing the River Thames.


title: Bloomsbury

paragraphs: Bloomsbury is an area of central London in the south of the London Borough of Camden.


title: Hop Exchange

paragraphs: The Hop Exchange is a Grade II listed building at No. 24 Southwark Street, London SE1. It is in the Bankside area of the London Borough of Southwark. It opened in 1867 and was designed by R.H. Moore. It served as the centre for hop trading for the brewing industry.


title: River Fleet

paragraphs: The River Fleet is the biggest of London's subterranean rivers.


title: The Angel, Islington

paragraphs: The Angel was originally an inn near a toll gate on the Great North Road (at what is now the corner of Islington High Street and Pentonville Road). The term now informally refers to this part of Islington in London. The corner itself is actually in Finsbury which was a separate borough until 1965 when the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury merged with the Metropolitan Borough of Islington to form the London Borough of Islington.


title: Blackfriars, London

paragraphs: Blackfriars is an area of central London, which lies in the south-west corner of the City of London. It is also were Henry VIII sixth wife died and was buried


title: Kennington

paragraphs: Kennington is an area of South London, England, in the London Borough of Lambeth. It is a mixed class residential area, and is the location of The Oval, the well-known cricket stadium.


title: Elephant and Castle

paragraphs: The Elephant and Castle is a major road intersection in inner south London, England, and is also used as a name for the surrounding district.


title: Battersea

paragraphs: Battersea is a place in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is an inner-city district. It is southwest of Charing Cross. In April 2001, it had 75,651 people. In Battersea there is a home for dogs and cats called Battersea Dogs & Cats Home.


title: Wandsworth

paragraphs: Wandsworth is an inner suburb of London on the south bank of the River Thames in south-west London. Wandsworth takes its name from the River Wandle, which enters the Thames at Wandsworth. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.


title: Anti-abortion movement

paragraphs: The pro-life movement, also called the anti-abortion movement, are a group of people who share the view that human life begins at conception and that the life of unborn children should be protected. They believe that an unborn child is a living human being from the moment of conception. They oppose abortion. As abortion is an important political topic, they are called anti-choice by the "pro-choice movement" . The pro-choice movement believes that the mother should have a choice to end the pregnancy. The most important difference between the two movements is on whether or not unborn children are living human beings, and if they are, whether they have equal human rights of fully developed human beings or not.

paragraphs: People who are pro-life believe that all humans, including the unborn, have a right to life. Within the pro-life community some believe that an unborn baby has life as soon as it has been conceived, because they believe that having a human genome is enough for a developing organism to be called a living human being. Others believe that an organism should be identified as a living human being once a heartbeat has been detected, so they believe the law should consider abortion a crime to protect innocent life while in the womb. Many pro-life people think women who are pregnant and do not want to raise a child should look for alternatives to abortion such as adoption.

paragraphs: There are many advocacy groups that want to help women considering abortion as an option, and try to convince more people that abortion is wrong.

paragraphs: Being pro-life is most associated with conservative politics. In one poll in the United States, 66% of conservatives called themselves pro-life. It is also associated with the Catholic Church. Pope Francis has said that "Every child that isn't born, but is unjustly condemned to be aborted, has the face of Jesus Christ, has the face of the Lord."


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

paragraphs: The Dunning–Kruger effect is a bias in thinking, usually where a person is unaware of how badly they grasp a subject, not understanding that they are failing at it. They mistakenly think that they are doing as well as "average" or even "above average".

paragraphs: It is a psychological effect in which people don't realize their level of knowledge or ability in a subject. People who know little about a subject will think that they know more than they actually know. People of low ability may not have enough intelligence to fully grasp how complicated something can be, causing them to overestimate their knowledge or ability. This can cause them to underestimate the intelligence of a high ability person who claims something is complicated when they falsely believe they understand it fully.

paragraphs: This effect was shown in an experiment that was done by Justin Kruger and David Dunning at Cornell University.

paragraphs: In the year 2000, Dunning and Kruger were awarded the Ig Nobel Prize in the field of psychology for their study.