title: Mandalay

paragraphs: Mandalay ( or ; ) is a city in Myanmar. There is only one city in Myanmar that has more people than Mandalay. It is north of Yangon. Mandalay is on the east side of the Irrawaddy River. In 2014, there were 1,225,553 people living there.

paragraphs: The name "Mandalay" comes from the nearby hill called Mandalay Hill. "Mandalay" may come from the Pali language. Some people think that the name "Mandalay" comes from the Pali word "mandala". Other people think that the name comes from "Mount Mindara". Mindara is a mountain in Hindu mythology.

paragraphs: The original name of the city was Yadanabon (, ). This name came from the Pali word "Ratanapūra" (). "Ratanapūra" means "City of Gems." The city also had another name: Lay Kyun Aung Myei (, ). This means "Victorious Land over the Four Islands."

paragraphs: Mandalay was started by King Mindon. He started the city on 13 February 1857. He built Mandalay as the new capital city of the Kingdom of Burma.

paragraphs: Mindon's city was in size. There were rivers on each side. It had 144 square blocks in a grid. In the middle was a palace that was 16 square blocks in size.

paragraphs: The palace had four walls that were each long. Around the walls was a moat that was wide and deep. Each wall had turrets (towers) for watchmen. These turrets were placed every . Each turret had a spire made of gold. Each side had three gates and five bridges across the moat.

paragraphs: The king also built some other buildings in the city. These buildings were the Kuthodaw Pagoda, the "Pahtan-haw Shwe Thein" upasampada hall, the "Thudamma" "Good Dharma" zayats (), and a library for the Pāli Canon. A "zayat" is a building where Buddhism is taught.

paragraphs: In June 1857, the king moved the royal palace to Mandalay. The palace had been in Amarapura. The building was taken apart. Each piece was moved by elephants to Mandalay. The palace was put back together and finished on 23 May 1859. The palace is now at the bottom of Mandalay Hill.

paragraphs: Mandalay was the capital for 26 years. It was the last royal capital of the Konbaung Dynasty. (The Konbaung Dynasty were the last rulers of the Kingdom of Burma before it was taken over by the British Empire.) On 28 November 1885, the British conquered Burma. This ended the Third Anglo-Burmese War. King Thibaw Min and Queen Supayalat were sent into exile.

paragraphs: Mandalay was still an important city in British Burma. The city of Rangoon became the capital of Burma.

paragraphs: The British wanted to make Mandalay an important commercial city. They did not want it to be important for politics, education, or other reasons. Mandalay was connected to Yangon by railroad in 1889. The first college in Mandalay wasn't built until 1925.

paragraphs: The royal palace was looted by the British. All of the treasures were stolen. Some treasures can be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The British changed the name of the palace to Fort Dufferin. British soldiers used the palace as a barracks (a place to camp.)

paragraphs: Mandalay was the most important city for Burmese culture during the time the British were in charge. It was also the most important place for Buddhist learning. The Burmese people saw Mandalay as a symbol. Between World War I and World War II, there were many protests in Mandalay against the British.

paragraphs: During the time the British were in charge, many people moved to Mandalay from India. (India was also a British colony.) From 1904 to 1905, a plague happened. About one third of the people of Mandalay left to get away from the disease.

paragraphs: During World War II, Mandalay was bombed by the Japanese. The British moved all of their airplanes to India. Mandalay had no defenses against the Japanese air raids. On 3 April 1942, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service bombed the city. Three-fifths (3/5) of the houses were destroyed. More than 2,000 civilians (people who are not military) were killed.

paragraphs: The Japanese soon invaded Burma. The Imperial Japanese Army took over the city of Mandalay. They were in charge from May 1942 until March 1945. The palace citadel was made into a supply depot. (A supply depot is a building that stores supplies like food and machines.)

paragraphs: The Allied forces bombed the city after the Japanese took it over. Much of the palace was destroyed. Only the royal mint and watch tower were not destroyed. The palace was rebuild in the 1990s.

paragraphs: In 1948, the British left Burma. Mandalay was still the most important city for culture, education, and commerce in Upper Burma.

paragraphs: Until the 1990s, most students went to university in Mandalay. Until 1991, there were only three universities in Upper Burma: Mandalay University, The University of Medicine, Mandalay, and the Defense Services Academy. All of these universities are in Mandalay. Only some other cities had schools called "Degree Colleges." These were small schools that were part of Mandalay University. These colleges had classes in a small number of subjects.

paragraphs: From 1962 to 1988, Ne Win was in charge of the government. He was very isolationist. This means that he did not want Myanmar to be part of global trade or tourism. In the 1980s, Mandalay was the second biggest city in Myanmar. It looked like a town with low buildings, dusty streets, and more bicycles than cars.

paragraphs: During the 1980s, there were two big fires. In May 1981, a fire destroyed more than 6,000 buildings. 36,000 people were left homeless. On 24 March 1984, there was another fire. This fire destroyed 2,700 buildings. 23,000 more people were made homeless.

paragraphs: Fires are still a big problem. In February 2008, there was another big fire in Mandalay. It destroyed the Yadanabon Market. This was the second-biggest market in the city. In February 2009, a fire destroyed 320 houses. More than 1,600 people were made homeless.

paragraphs: The fires during the 1980s destroyed a lot of buildings. This made a lot of land empty. Many Chinese people in Burma bought this land. A lot of these people had come from Yunnan in China. Many Chinese people came to Upper Burma and Mandalay from Yunnan and Sichuan in the 1990s. 250,000 to 350,000 people from Yunnan came to Mandalay in the 1990s. Today, about 30% to 40% of the people of Mandalay are Chinese. The native Burmese people complain that Mandalay is now like a part of China.

paragraphs: The Chinese have rebuilt the parts of the city that burned down. They built apartment buildings, hotels, and shopping centers. They helped make Mandalay again an important city for trade and commerce. It now connects trade for Upper Burma, Lower Burma, China, and India.

paragraphs: Mandalay has grown much bigger over time. It now includes what used to be Amarapura. (Amarapura was where King Mindon's capital city used to be before he moved it to Mandalay.) Mandalay celebrated its 150th birthday on 15 May 2009 at 4:31:36 am.

paragraphs: There are many important places and buildings in Mandalay.

paragraphs: The royal palace in Mandalay is a very important building. A lot of it was burned down during World War II. The royal mint and watch tower did not burn down. The rest of the buildings were rebuilt.

paragraphs: The Mandalay Palace's name in Burmese is "Mya Nan San Kyaw" ( ; "The Famed Royal Emerald Palace"). It is also called (), or the "Great Golden Royal Palace".

paragraphs: Today the palace is an important symbol of Mandalay. Many tourists and visitors come to see it.

paragraphs: The Atumashi Monastery is a Buddhist monastery. A monastery is a building where monks (holy men) live, work, and pray. This place is a "kyaung", a special kind of monastery. The name means "inimitable "vihara"."

paragraphs: The monastery burned down in 1890. Only the plinth (bottom platform) did not burn. The government decided to rebuild the monastery. They started building on 2 May 1995. It was finished being built in June of 1996.

paragraphs: Mandalay Hill is a big hill in Mandalay. It is a holy hill. There is a legend about the hill. The Buddha visited the hill and made a prophecy. He said that some day a great city would be built at the bottom of the hill.

paragraphs: The hill is tall. There is a road to the top. There are many temples, monasteries, and pagodas built on the hill.

paragraphs: The Kuthodaw Pagoda is a very large pagoda. It was built by King Mindon in 1857. It was designed to look like the Shwezigon Pagoda in Nyaung U.

paragraphs: There are 729 rocks around the pagoda. Each rock is smooth and has writing on it. The writing are the words of the "Tipiṭaka". (The "Tipiṭaka" are the Buhhdist holy books.) These stone rocks are the "world's largest book."

paragraphs: The Mahamuni Buddha Temple is one of the most important Buddhist temples. It has an important Buddha statue. The statue was made during the life of the Gautama Buddha. The Gauthama Buddha hugged the statue seven times. This caused the statue to come to life.

paragraphs: Buddhists believe that the statue is alive because of this. They call it the Mahamuni Sacred Living Image. This makes the Mahamuni Temple the most holy pagoda in Mandalay.

paragraphs: The temple was built by King Bodawpaya in 1784. The Buddha is sitting. It is tall.

paragraphs: Near the bottom of Mandalay Hill is the Kyauktawgyi Pagoda. It was built by King Mindon from 1853 to 1878. It was carved out of one big block of marble. Around it are 80 arahants.

paragraphs: The Yadanabon Zoological Garden is a small zoo in Mandalay. It is in between the palace and Mandalay Hill. It is the only zoo in the world that has Burmese roofed turtles.

paragraphs: The Shwenandaw Monastery (, ; lit. "Golden Palace Monastery") is an important Buddhist monastery. It was built by King Thibaw Min in 1880. It is made from teak, a kind of wood. Inside of it are many carvings on the walls and roofs. The carvings show Buddhist myths.

paragraphs: In 2007, the United Nations (UN) guessed that there were about 1 million people living in Mandalay. In 2014, the Myanmar government counted all of the people in the country for a census. They found that there were 1,225,133 people living in Mandalay then. The UN thinks that there will be 1.5 million people in Mandalay in 2025.

paragraphs: Mandalay has always been an important city for the Bamar people. Most of the people who have lived in Mandalay are Burman people. Lots of Chinese people have been moving to Mandalay. The Chinese have been coming for the past 20 years. Now there are more Chinese people than Burman people in Mandalay.

paragraphs: Today, 40-50% of the people in Mandalay are Chinese. About 30% of Mandalay's people are Yunnanese. The rest of the people in Mandalay are probably Burman. There are also a lot of Burmese Indians in Mandalay. (These are Indian people who live in Myanmar.)

paragraphs: People in Mandalay speak the Burmese language. A lot of people also speak the Standard Chinese language. The Chinese language is used a lot in markets like Zegyo Market. People who have a lot of money and education also speak the English language.

paragraphs: Mandalay is in the country of Myanmar. It is by the side of the Irrawaddy river. Its coordinates are 21.98° North, 96.08° East.

paragraphs: The city is above sea level. It is in the same time zone as the rest of Mandalay: Myanmar Standard Time (MST), .

paragraphs: Mandalay is on a tectonic fault. This means that there are two tectonic plates that come together underneath the city. (A "tectonic plate" is a big piece of earth.) The tectonic fault underneath Mandalay is called the Sagaing Fault. It is where the India Plate and the Sunda Plate meet.

paragraphs: A lot of earthquakes happen on tectonic faults. The biggest earthquake in Mandalay happened in 1956. That one was a magnitude 7 earthquake. That earthquake did a lot more damage to the city of Sagaing, which is nearby. It is now called the "Great Sagaing Quake."

paragraphs: Mandalay has a tropical savanna climate. This means that the city has a wet season and a dry season. There is a lot of rain during the wet season. There is very little rain during the dry season. The wet season is from May to October. The dry season is from November to April.

paragraphs: The coldest month is January. The average temperature is . The hottest month is April. Then, the average temperature is .

paragraphs: It is very hot in April and May. Most days it is hotter than . Some days it is hotter than .

paragraphs: The hottest temperature ever in Mandalay was . The coldest temperature ever was .

paragraphs: There are some important books and poems that talk about Mandalay. Some of these are famous.

paragraphs: Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem called "Mandalay." He wrote it in 1890. This poem has a famous saying in it: "on the road to Mandalay."

paragraphs: In 1907, Oley Speaks wrote a song using the words of the poem. He called the song "On the Road to Mandalay." The song is very famous. Frank Sinatra sang the song and called it "Come Fly with Me".

paragraphs: George Orwell wrote a novel called "Burmese Days". He wrote it in 1934. Orwell was part of the Indian Imperial Police. He was stationed in Mandalay. The novel is about his experiences (what he did and saw.) He also wrote some non-fiction essays and short stories. Some of these are "A Hanging" (1931) and "Shooting an Elephant" (1936).


title: Act of Congress

paragraphs: An Act of Congress is a statute enacted by the United States Congress according to the powers granted to it by the Constitution of the United States. The term can be used in other countries with a legislature called a "Congress," such as the Congress of the Philippines. But most often the term is associated with the United States Congress. In the US, there are several steps from a bill or resolution becoming a law. It must first be passed by a majority of both of the houses of Congress. Then the bill or resolution is sent to get signed by the President. It becomes an Act of Congress by either the president's signature or, if the President does not return the bill or resolution within ten days.

paragraphs: Senators and Representatives create thousands of written proposals each year for new laws. Called bills, only a few few ever make it all the way through the process to become a law. The Constitution requires only three steps: passing the House, passing the Senate and approval by the President. The actual process has become much more complicated.

paragraphs: A bill may be proposed by anyone but only a member of Congress, called the bill's sponsor, may introduce them on the floor of one of the houses of Congress. A bill may be introduced in both the Senate and House at the same time. In theory, this saves time over sending it though one house, then the other. In each house of Congress, a bill is sent to a committee. A committee studies the bill and recommends changes. If a committee does nothing, the bill is considered "dead". A committee may also add other unrelated provisions to a bill called amendments. Committees usually divide themselves into smaller groups called subcommittees. The bill's sponsors then try to convince the subcommittees to approve the bill. They do this through hearings. If the bill passes through a committee it is sent to the floor for debate and a vote. A bill may either be passed by be defeated. If passed, it is sent to the other house of Congress to follow the same procedures.

paragraphs: In addition to bills, Congress also passes Acts of Congress called resolutions. There are three kinds: simple resolutions, joint resolutions and concurrent resolutions.

paragraphs: These are resolutions concerning the operation of either house of Congress. They are not sent to the President for his approval. Resolutions by the House of Representatives which affect that house are designated "H.Res." followed by a number. Simple resolutions in the Senate are designated "S. Res." followed by a number.

paragraphs: A joint resolution may start either in the House or Senate. They are essentially the same as a bill. The only difference is a joint resolution that proposes an amendment to the US Constitution. They require a two-thirds majority vote in each house. Like a simple resolution, they are not sent to the President for his signature. They become effective when they are ratified by three-quarters of the states. A joint resolution that began in the House of Representatives is designated "H.J.Res." followed by the number. A joint resolution started in the Senate is designated "S.J.Res.", followed by the number. Joint resolutions become law the same as bills.

paragraphs: Concurrent resolutions start with either "S.Con.Res." (Senate) or "H.Con.Res." (House). They are numbered consecutively as they are introduced. Concurrent resolutions are those that affect the operations of both the House and Senate. They can also be used to create a temporary joint committee. Concurrent resolutions are not sent to the president for his signature and do not have the force of law.


title: Jeff Weaver (political staffer)

paragraphs: Jeffrey "Jeff" P. Weaver (born 1966) is an American political adviser. He was the campaign manager for the Bernie Sanders presidential campaign in 2016. Weaver served as the campaign manager during Bernie Sanders' successful Senate run in 2006. Weaver also served as chief of staff in Sanders’ House and Senate offices.

paragraphs: Weaver was born in St. Albans, Vermont. He studied at Boston University, the University of Vermont, and Georgetown University.


title: Asta Nielsen

paragraphs: Asta Nielsen (11 September 1881 – 24 May 1972) was a Danish silent movie actress. She was very popular in the 1910s. She was one of the first international movie stars. Nielsen was in 74 movies. 70 were in Germany where she was known simply as "Die Asta" ("The Asta"). She had large dark eyes, a face like a mask and a figure like a boy. Nielsen most often played strong and passionate women trapped by tragic lives. Her performances were erotic so Nielsen's movies were heavily censored in the United States. Therefore, she was not very famous there. Nielsen started her own movie studio in Berlin in the 1920s. She went back to Denmark in 1937 after Nazism became a problem. Later in life, Nielsen became a collage artist and an author.


title: F. Lee Bailey

paragraphs: Francis Lee Bailey Jr., commonly referred to as F. Lee Bailey, (born June 10, 1933) is a retired criminal-defense lawyer from the United States. Bailey was born in Waltham, Massachusetts. He worked in Massachusetts and Florida.

paragraphs: Bailey represented Doctor Sam Sheppard on appeal after Sheppard was convicted of murdering his wife. Bailey managed to get Sheppard a retrial, in which Bailey was successful in getting Sheppard acquitted. Bailey was the lead lawyer in successfully defending in the court martial for the My Lai Massacre. Bailey, along with others, successfully defended O. J. Simpson in the trial where Simpson was accused of murdering his ex-wife, Nicole Brown.

paragraphs: In 2014, the Maine State Bar Association and the Maine Supreme Judicial Court denied Bailey's petition to have his law license reinstated.


title: Stuffed animal fetishism

paragraphs: Stuffed animal fetishism (or "plushophilia") is a sexual attraction to stuffed animals. People who have this fetish are sometimes called "plushies". People who have a stuffed animal fetish are sometimes thought of as furries.


title: Albert Einstein Square

paragraphs: Albert Einstein Square (, "Kikar Albert Einstein") is a public square in Jerusalem, Israel. it is located in the entrance of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities at the Talbiya neighborhood in Jerusalem.

paragraphs: Albert Einstein visited Palestine in 1923 for 12 days. He gave the first lecture at the Mount Scopus campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

paragraphs: Einstein was in favor of the Hebrew University, as well as Zionism and education in general. This is the reason the square is named for him. Also, a statue of Einstein is nearby in the gardens of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.


title: Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

paragraphs: Ratified on February 3, 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment (Amendment XVI) to the United States Constitution allows the Congress to impose a federal income tax. This allows the federal government to collect a tax on personal income, no matter where that income came from. The Sixteenth Amendment overturned the 1895 Supreme Court landmark decision in "Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co". In "Pollock", the Court ruled that a 2 percent tax on incomes over $4,000 was unconstitutional. This was because the law the ruling struck down did not allow for apportionment, the court ruled against it. The Sixteenth Amendment allowed Congress to levy a uniform direct income tax without being subject to apportionment.

paragraphs: When the framers of the Constitution were determining how the new government would be funded, they were trying to avoid a tax based on a person's income. In the Constitution, Article one, Sections 2 and 9 created the "rule of apportionment". On a practical basis this required Congress to tax the states based on each state's population instead of a tax on each person's income or property. For example, if a state made up four percent of the total population, they would be required to pay four percent of the total federal tax. The framers of the Constitution expected direct taxes to be used and defined the term broadly. However, they did not see that apportionment would cripple any attempt to collect direct taxes.

paragraphs: Before 1913, the bulk of federal revenues came from indirect taxes on goods. These include tariffs on goods imported into the country. They also included excise taxes on items like whiskey. Income taxes were not new in 1913. Congress had passed the Revenue Act of 1861 during the Civil War to help pay for the war. Ten years later it was allowed to lapse. The Confederate States of America also had an income tax. Starting in 1863, the tax exempted the first $1,000 and charged a 1% tax on the first $1,500 over the exemption. A 2% tax was levied on all income over that amount.

paragraphs: In 1894, Congress passed the Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act which included a flat rate federal income tax of 2 percent. A year later, the Supreme Court handed down their decision in "Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.". They ruled the tax unconstitutional because it was a direct tax and not apportioned to the population of each state.

paragraphs: On June 16, 1909, President Taft sent a message to the Senate which read:

paragraphs: The largest and most direct effect of the passage of the Sixteenth Amendment was it shifted power from the states to the national government. States had income taxes before the national government did. This kept the national government weaker due to having less revenue than the states. Without the Sixteenth Amendment, the national government would find it far more difficult to extend its military power to other parts of the world.


title: Def Jam Vendetta

paragraphs: Def Jam Vendetta is a 2003 professional wrestling video game published by Electronic Arts and developed by AKI Corporation and EA Canada. It was released for the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube. "Def Jam Vendetta" was released on March 31, 2003 in North America, May 23, 2003 in PAL regions, and on August 21, 2003 in Japan. It featured hip hop musicians from the Def Jam Records label as fighters. The engine for the game was first designed for a sequel to EA's "WCW Mayhem", but EA lost their WCW license when WCW was bought by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in 2001.

paragraphs: IGN rated the game a 8.9 out of 10. Jon Robinson of IGN said that the multiplayer was "smooth" and "slick". GameSpot rated the game 8.4 out of 10. Alex Navarro of GameSpot said "As a wrestling game, Def Jam Vendetta manages to succeed on most every level, providing surprisingly deep gameplay, quality graphics and sound, and a distinctive atmosphere".


title: Hassan al-Turabi

paragraphs: Hassan 'Abd Allah al-Turabi (c.1932 – 5 March 2016) was a Sudanese religious and Islamist political leader in Sudan. He has been called "one of the most important figures in modern Sudanese politics". He was born in Kassala, Sudan. Al-Turabi was leader of what was called the National Islamic Front (NIF). He served as Speaker of the National Assembly serving from 1996 through 1999. He later served as Secretary General of the Popular Congress Party from 1999 until his death in 2016.

paragraphs: Al-Turabi died in Khartoum, Sudan on 5 March 2016. He was aged 84.


title: Berta Cáceres

paragraphs: Berta Isabel Cáceres Flores (4 March 1971, 1972, or 1973 – 2 March 2016) was a Honduran environmental activist and indigenous leader of the Lenca people. She was co-founder and coordinator of the Council of Popular and Indigenous Organizations of Honduras (COPINH). She won the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2015.

paragraphs: Cáceres was killed in her home in La Esperanza, Honduras. She was killed by armed intruders, after years of threats against her life. She was aged 42.


title: Spaghetti strap

paragraphs: A spaghetti strap is a support for clothing with very thin straps. It is often used for garments such as swimwear, camisoles, crop tops, bras, cocktail dresses, and evening gowns.


title: Alcohol by volume

paragraphs: Alcohol by volume (often shortened to ABV) tells how much ethanol there is in an alcoholic drink. The quantity is measured at a temperature of .

paragraphs: Common levels of alcohol are 3-5 percent for cider, 4-7 percent for beer, and 12-14 percent for wine. Distilled alcoholic drinks ( called spirits) contain more than twenty percent ethanol.

paragraphs: A directive of the European Union of 1976 says that the alcohol content of alcoholic drinks must be measured using the ABV measurement described above.

paragraphs: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1777-1850) and Johann Georg Tralles (1763-1822) developed other means of measuring alcohol content. These units are usually measured in degrees, noted °GL, or °GT. The scale Gay-Lussac developed is almost equal to the ABV scale described above. There may be slight different, because Gay-Lussac measured the alcohol content at 15° centigrade, and not 20°.


title: Yakutia Airlines

paragraphs: Yakutia Airlines ("Авиакомпания Якутия") is a Russian airline. It started in 1992 with the name "Sakha Avia". In 2002, the name was changed to "Yakutia Airlines". Today, Yakutia goes from Russia to Asia, Europe and the USA.


title: Barren Island

paragraphs: Barren island is in the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands. India's only active volcano is there.


title: Hanalei, Hawaii

paragraphs: Hanalei is a census-designated place in Kauai County, Hawaii, United States. The population was 450 at the 2010 census. Hanalei means "lei making" in Hawaiian. "Hanalei" also means "crescent bay," coming from the shape of Hanalei Bay.

paragraphs: Hanalei is located next to Hanalei River on the north shore of the island of Kauai.

paragraphs: According to the United States Census Bureau, Hanalei has a total area of 0.8 square miles (2.1 km2), of which 0.6 square miles (1.6 km2) is land and 0.2 square miles (0.52 km2) is water. The total area is 20.73% water.

paragraphs: People from the Russian Empire lived here in the 19th century. In 1815 the German physician Georg Anton Schäffer, who worked with the Russian-American Company, came to Hanalei to get goods taken by Kaumualii. Schäffer got involved in Hawaiian politics and heard of Kaumualiʻi's plan to take back his kingdom of Kauai from Kamehameha I with the help of the Russian Empire. Kaumualiʻi later signed a "treaty" granting Tsar Alexander I protectorate over Kauai. An area near Hanalei used to be part of Russian America.

paragraphs: At the 2000 census, there were 478 people, 193 households and 115 families residing in Hanalei. The population density was 736.7 per square mile (283.9/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 57% White, 18% Asian, 3% Pacific Islander, <1% from other races, and 21% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.81% of the population.

paragraphs: There were 193 households of which 25% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40% were married couples living together, 10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40% were non-families.

paragraphs: The median household income was $34,375, and the median family income was $55,750. About 22% of families and 25% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33% of those under the age of 18 and none of those 65 and older.


title: Probability density function

paragraphs: In probability and statistics, a probability density function is a function that characterizes any continuous probability distribution. For a random variable "X", the probability density function of X is sometimes written as formula_1. The integral of the probability density function in the interval formula_2 yields the probability that a given random variable with the given density is contained in the interval provided. By definition, the probability density function is non-negative throughout its domain, on which the integral sums up to 1.

paragraphs: The probability mass function is to a discrete probability distribution what the probability density function is to a continuous probability distribution. The probability density function is necessary to be able to work with continuous distributions.

paragraphs: A random variable with a continuous probability distribution can take on any value within that distribution. Casting a dice will give the numbers 1 to 6, with a probability of formula_3, but this is not a continuous function, as only the numbers 1 to 6 are possible.

paragraphs: In contrast, two people will not have the same height or the same weight. Using a probability density function, it is possible to determine the probability for people between and , or between and , even though there are infinitely many values between these two bounds.


title: Model airplane

paragraphs: A model airplane is a small sized Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. It may be a replica of an existing airplane or an imaginary aircraft.

paragraphs: Model aircraft are generally divided into two basic types, flying and non-flying. Non-flying models are also called static, display, or shelf models. Flying models range from simple toy gliders to powered scale models. Some can be very large, especially when used to simulate the conditions of a real flight. Static models range from mass produced toys to highly accurate models used for museum display.

paragraphs: Aircraft manufacturers and researchers use wind tunnel models. They are used for testing new designs and development of new ones. Sometimes only part of the aircraft is modeled.


title: Heidi Cruz

paragraphs: Heidi Suzanne Cruz (née Nelson;born on August 7, 1972) is an American investment manager at Goldman Sachs. She is the spouse of Republican Texas senator and 2016 U.S. presidential candidate Ted Cruz.

paragraphs: Heidi Suzanne Cruz was born on August 7, 1972 in San Luis Obispo, California, and grew up in a Seventh-day Adventist family. Cruz's political interest developed when she traveled to Washington with her parents at age 8, and grew when she was age 12 and read an issue of Time magazine concerning the 1984 presidential election.

paragraphs: She graduated with a B.A. in Economics and International Relations from Claremont McKenna College in 1994. She was active in Claremont McKenna's Republican group, but was asked to resign after spying on Bill Clinton's campaign for reelection. In 1995, she received a Masters of European Business from Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management in Brussels, Belgium and in 2000, she graduated with a M.B.A. from Harvard Business School.

paragraphs: Heidi married Ted Cruz on May 27, 2001. Heidi met Ted Cruz while the two were working together on George W. Bush's 2000 presidential campaign. In April 2008, Cruz gave birth to her first child, Caroline Camille Cruz. Her second daughter, Catherine Christiane Cruz, was born in 2011.

paragraphs: In 2003, she worked for the Bush administration on economic policy, eventually becoming the director for the Western Hemisphere on the National Security Council under National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice in 2003. She left Washington DC in 2004 to support Ted Cruz's run for elective office in Texas.

paragraphs: Cruz has worked for three investment banks, JP Morgan Chase, Merrill Lynch, and Goldman Sachs.

paragraphs: In 2005, she joined Goldman Sachs, serving as a private wealth manager and is currently the Region Head for the Southwest Region in the Investment Management Division of Goldman Sachs in Houston.

paragraphs: Ted Cruz said that the decision for him to run for president was difficult for his wife, because she was busy with her business career and raising their 2 children. She changed her mind after listening to a CD from her sister-in-law.

paragraphs: Cruz was there the day her husband announced his run for president in March 2015. When Ted Cruz was criticized for not being born in the United States and running for president, Heidi defended Cruz by saying that the questioning showed that Ted Cruz was winning and his opponents wanted to defame him as a result.


title: Aki Kaurismäki

paragraphs: Aki Kaurismäki (born 4 April 1957 Orimattila, Finland) is a movie director and a screenwriter from Finland. In his movies he shows understanding of people who are not very successful in life. He writes in the style of black comedy.

paragraphs: Kaurismäki made his first movie in 1983. It was based on "Crime and Punishment" by Fyodor Dostoyevsky.

paragraphs: "The Man Without a Past" won the Grand Prix award in the Cannes Film Festival in 2002. It was also an Academy Award nominee for best foreign language movie. The plot is about a man who lost his memory, but gets help from many people whom he meets.

paragraphs: Other Kaurismäki movies include "Leningrad Cowboys Go America" (1989), about a rock and roll band, and "Drifting Clouds" (1996) about how an unemployed couple manages in life.


title: Aleksis Kivi

paragraphs: Aleksis Kivi , born Alexis Stenvall, (10 October 1834 – 31 December 1872) was a Finnish writer. He wrote plays and poems and the first significant novel in the Finnish language, Seven Brothers (Finnish title: Seitsemän veljestä). He is considered one of the greatest authors in Finland.

paragraphs: Kivi lived in time when all educated people in Finland spoke Swedish. He was the first professional writer who published his works in Finnish. Kivi, Mikael Agricola and Elias Lönnrot are regarded fathers of a national literature in Finnish.


title: Kalabhavan Mani

paragraphs: Mani Raman (1 January 1971 – 6 March 2016), commonly referred to by his stage name Kalabhavan Mani, was an Indian movie actor and singer. Mani started his career as a mimicry artist with the Kalabhavan troupe.

paragraphs: Mani was in over 200 movies. He was known for his character and villain roles. He won the National Film Award and Kerala State Film Award in 1999 for his role as Ramu in "Vasanthiyum Lakshmiyum Pinne Njaanum".He also acted in many Tamil films starring villain role.

paragraphs: Mani died in Kochi, Kerala on 6 March 2016. He had liver disease. Mani was aged 45.


title: Ray Tomlinson

paragraphs: Raymond Samuel Tomlinson (April 23, 1941 – March 5, 2016) was an American programmer. He created the first email system on the ARPANET system in 1971. He used the @ sign to separate the user from their machine, which has been used in email addresses ever since. He was added into the Internet Hall of Fame. He was born in Amsterdam, New York.

paragraphs: Tomlinson died of a heart attack in Lincoln, Massachusetts. He was aged 74.


title: Albert Edelfelt

paragraphs: Albert Gustaf Aristides Edelfelt (21 July 1854 – 18 August 1905) was a Finnish painter. He painted a lot of history subjects and portraits.

paragraphs: Edelfelt studied and exhibited in Paris. He was invited to paint portraits of many famous people abroad. This way culture of Finland became famous many years before the country became independent.

paragraphs: Edelfelt was above all a painter, but he also worked as a graphic artist and illustrator. His famous works include the illustrations for Johan Ludvig Runeberg's partiotic collection of poems, the 'Ensign Stål' stories (1894 - 1900).


title: Reince Priebus

paragraphs: Reinhold Richard "Reince" Priebus ( ; born March 18, 1972) is an American attorney and politician. He was the 27th White House Chief of Staff from January 20, 2017 through July 31, 2017. He has been the chairman of the Republican National Committee (RNC) from January 20, 2011 to January 20, 2017.

paragraphs: On November 13, 2016, President-elect of the United States Donald Trump announced that Priebus would serve as his White House Chief of Staff. Since the position does not need a full senate confirmation vote, Priebus became Chief of Staff on January 20, 2017.

paragraphs: On July 28, 2017, Trump fired Priebus with John F. Kelly as White House Chief of Staff, making him the shortest serving Chief of Staff in White House history.

paragraphs: Priebus was born in Dover, New Jersey. He was raised in Netcong, New Jersey and in Wisconsin. Priebus studied at the University of Wisconsin, Whitewater and at the University of Miami.

paragraphs: On December 5, 2010, Priebus stepped down as general counsel for the Republican National Committee (RNC). The next day he sent a letter to all 168 voting members of the RNC announcing his candidacy for chairman. On January 14, 2011, after seven rounds of voting, Priebus was elected chairman of the Republican National Committee.

paragraphs: In December 2015, Priebus publicly criticized then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump's proposal to temporarily suspend Muslim immigration in response to terrorist attacks. "I don't agree", Priebus told "The Washington Examiner".

paragraphs: On November 13, 2016, Trump announced his choice of Priebus for White House Chief of Staff.

paragraphs: He was sworn in by Vice President Mike Pence on January 20, 2017.

paragraphs: On July 31, 2017 Priebus was replaced as Chief of Staff by President Trump with John F. Kelly.

paragraphs: In 1999, Priebus married Sally L. Sherrow, whom he met in church when they were teenagers. They have two children. Priebus is a Greek Orthodox Christian.


title: Finnhorse

paragraphs: The Finnhorse or Finnish Horse is a horse breed developed in Finland. The Finnhorse is the national horse breed of Finland. It is suitable both for riding and to pull vehicles in races and as a workhorse.

paragraphs: Studbook of Finnhorses was founded 1907. The horse is 156 cm high. It has many colours, but the main colours are brown and black. The Finnhorse has often white markings on the face and the legs.


title: Kenneth M. Curtis

paragraphs: Kenneth Merwin Curtis (born February 8, 1931) is an American lawyer and former politician. He was born in Leeds, Maine.

paragraphs: Curtis, a member of the Democratic Party. He was the Secretary of State of Maine serving from 1965–1966. He became the 68th Governor in 1967. He held that office until 1975. Curtis served as chairman of the Democratic National Committee from 1977 to 1978. He was the Ambassador to Canada from 1979 to 1981.

paragraphs: Curtis now lives in Florida. He is a superdelegate.


title: Excise tax

paragraphs: An excise or excise tax is an indirect tax charged on certain goods. As an indirect tax, they are charged by the producer or the merchant who then has to pay the government. For the same reason they are also not considered a sales tax. Excise taxes are commonly part of the retail price of a product such as gasoline, alcohol or cigarettes. Excise taxes may be charged by both state and federal governments.

paragraphs: Excise taxes are different from sales tax in two important ways. First, excise is charged only on specific goods. Sales tax can apply to most things a person might buy although certain jurisdictions may exempt food or clothing. Excise taxes are usually applied to luxury goods or products linked to health issues such as tanning salons or cigarettes. Secondly, sales tax is charged as a percentage of the purchase price. An excise tax is usually a fixed amount added to the price. It can be hard to tell how much excise tax a person pays because it is part of the purchase price. Sales tax is added to the price and is usually shown on the receipt.

paragraphs: In the United States, excise taxes make up about 4 percent of all federal revenues. This is lower than many other countries. The Constitution refers to excise tax as an indirect tax. Some states in the United States have different names for excise taxes. For example, in the state of Massachusetts the excise tax charged on automobiles is called an "ad valorem tax".


title: Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

paragraphs: Ratified on April 8, 1913, the Seventeenth Amendment (Amendment XVII) to the United States Constitution

paragraphs: changed the method by which United States Senators were elected. For the first 125 years of the Constitution required US Senators to be elected by the state legislatures. A number of problems in the United States Senate created the need to change how Senators were elected from indirect to direct elections by the people of the United States.

paragraphs: When the Constitution was adopted in 1788, Senators were to be elected by the state legislatures. This remained in effect for 125 years. By the late 19th century it became clear there were many problems with this procedure. In addition to long vacancies that lasted for months and even years, political machines had gained control over state legislatures. This corrupted the process and the Senate was seen as a "millionaire's club" who served private interests instead of the people. Beginning in the 1890s, the House of Representatives passed several resolutions for a constitutional amendment which proposed Senators be elected by direct election. The Senate refused to even take a vote on these proposals.

paragraphs: At this point, many states changed their strategy. Article Five of the United States Constitution offers two methods for amending the Constitution. In addition to the common method of a two-thirds vote by both houses of Congress, was another method. It stated that if two-thirds of the state legislatures apply for one, Congress must call a constitutional convention. The method had not been used before. When it appeared two-thirds of the states wanted the change, Congress acted.

paragraphs: Joint resolution 39 was passed by the House of Representatives in 1911 proposing a constitutional amendment to directly elect US Senators. The Senate accepted the resolution but since it included a change, it went back to the House. The amended Joint resolution was sent to the states for ratification a year later. The required three-quarters of the states ratified the amendment and the Seventeenth Amendment became official on April 8, 1913.

paragraphs: The people of the United States are to elect two Senators from each state, for six years. Each Senator will have one vote in the Senate. There are 100 Senators and 100 votes. "The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures" means that anyone who can vote in a state election in their state, may also vote for a Senator. In the archaic language of the Constitution this was written in such a way to allow for states having different qualifications for persons eligible to vote for their Senator.

paragraphs: The clause. Previously, when vacancies occurred, several state legislatures were not able to agree on who would fill the position. Before the Seventeenth Amendment, vacancies could last for months and even years in some cases. Under the Seventeenth Amendment, if a Senator dies or has to leave office, his state governor may appoint a temporary Senator until a special election can be held.

paragraphs: This is a simple addition to prevent the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment from interrupting the election or term of any Senator chosen before the amendment was passed. The United States Senate elections, 1914 were the first nationwide popular elections for Senators.


Resolution


title: WWE 2K16

paragraphs: WWE 2K16 is a 2015 professional wrestling video game published by 2K Sports and developed by Yuke's and Visual Concepts. It was released for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows. It is the seventeenth game in the "WWE games" series. "WWE 2K16" was released on October 27, 2015 in North America, October 30, 2015 in Europe, and on October 29, 2015 in Australasia. It will be released for Windows on March 11, 2016. Stone Cold Steve Austin is featured on the cover of the game.

paragraphs: It was announced by 2k that "WWE 2K16" would have the "largest roster in the game's history", featuring over 120 playable characters, and almost double the 67 that were in "2K15".

paragraphs: The game received mixed reviews. IGN rated the game a 8.8 out of 10. Vince Ingenito of IGN said that the game was a "step in the right direction" for the series. He said that he liked the gameplay and the roster features, but did not like the overall inconsistency with the game. GameSpot rated the game a 4 out of 10. Don Saas of GameSpot said that he liked the 2K Showcase mode and the Jim Ross returning on commentary but also said that "Little else in the game makes much of a positive impression."


title: Kirby: Planet Robobot

paragraphs: Kirby: Planet Robobot is an action platform video game. It was published by Nintendo. It was developed by HAL Laboratory. It was released for the Nintendo 3DS on April 28, 2016 in Japan and on June 10, 2016 worldwide.

paragraphs: The game was first revealed during a Nintendo Direct on March 3, 2016.

paragraphs: Copy abilities make a return in the series. New copy abilities include "Doctor", "Poison", and "ESP". Kirby can also enter robotic bodies, which can make use of his copy ability perform a stronger attack based on that power.

paragraphs: A multiplayer mode called "Team Kirby Clash" is included. Up to four players can use different copy abilities and powers similar to classes in most RPGs, before working together to defeat bosses.


title: Flint water crisis

paragraphs: The Flint water crisis is a drinking water contamination crisis in Flint, Michigan which began in April 2014. When the city changed its water source from treated Detroit Water and Sewerage Department water to the Flint River, it created a serious public health danger.

paragraphs: In Flint, between 6,000 and 12,000 children have been exposed to drinking water with high levels of lead. They may experience serious health problems. The water change is also a possible cause of an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease that has killed 10 people in the county.

paragraphs: On January 5, 2016, Michigan Governor Rick Snyder declared a state of emergency for Flint. President Barack Obama declared a federal state of emergency. He authorized additional help from the Federal Emergency Management Agency and the Department of Homeland Security almost two weeks later.


title: Legionnaires' disease

paragraphs: Legionnaires' disease is a form of pneumonia caused by any type of "Legionella" bacteria. Over 90% of cases are caused by "Legionella pneumophila".

paragraphs: The length of time between exposure to the bacteria and the appearance of symptoms is generally two to ten days. It can be as much as 20 days. People with Legionnaires' usually have fever, chills, and a cough. Some also have muscle aches, headache, tiredness, loss of appetite, diarrhea or vomiting.

paragraphs: People of any age may have Legionnaires' disease. It is most common in middle aged and older people.


title: Marley Shelton

paragraphs: Marley Eve Shelton (born April 12, 1974) is an American television and movie actress. She began her acting career in 1991. She has acted in different movie genres. She played Amanda in "Grand Canyon". She also played Tricia Nixon Cox in "Nixon" (1995). voice roles include, Nutri Ventures, The Powerpuff Girls as additional adr voices.

paragraphs: Shelton was born in Los Angeles, California.


title: LaWanda Page

paragraphs: LaWanda Page (October 19, 1920September 14, 2002), born Alberta Peal, was an American actress and comedienne best known for her role as Aunt Esther in the 1970s TV sitcom "Sanford and Son". She later reprised the role in "Sanford Arms" and "Sanford".

paragraphs: She was born on October 19, 1920 in Cleveland, Ohio. Page was raised in St. Louis, Missouri. LaWanda Page and Redd Foxx were very close friends from the time they were pre-teens. They attended school and grew up together in St. Louis. Later on, they both entered the field of comedy separately and performed stage acts. Page later recorded several live comedy albums for the Laff Records label in the late 1960s and early 1970s under the LaWanda stage name. One release, a gold-selling album called "Watch It, Sucker!", was titled after one of her Aunt Esther character's catchphrases to capitalize on her newfound TV fame. During her tenure as a stand-up comic, which lasted all the way to the 1990s, she was often called "The Queen of Comedy", or "The Black Queen of Comedy". Other than the expletive-free "Sane Advice" album, released two years after the run of "Sanford and Son", most of Page's albums and stand-up material were raunchy in nature.

paragraphs: In 1977 Page appeared in an episode of "The Love Boat", "Martin," "227," "Family Matters," and "Diff'rent Strokes." She appeared on "Circus Of The Stars" as a fire eater.

paragraphs: Page died of complications from diabetes on September 14, 2002. She is interred in an outdoor crypt at Inglewood Park Cemetery in Inglewood, California.

paragraphs: Her daughter, the evangelist Clara Estella Roberta Johnson, died on June 4, 2006, in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 69.


title: Atmosphere of Mars

paragraphs: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars. It is mainly made up of carbon dioxide. The average atmospheric pressure of the Martian surface (6.0 mbar) is much lower than that of the Earth (1,013 mbar). The pressure is well below the Armstrong limit, meaning that water boils at the normal temperature of the human body: 98.6 °F (36.6 °C).

paragraphs: The Martian atmosphere contains 96% carbon dioxide, 1.9% argon, 1.9% nitrogen, and traces of oxygen, carbon monoxide, water and methane, and so on. Ever since the discovery of methane in 2003, scientists say that this might indicate life. It has also been suggested that is may be caused by geochemical processes, volcanic or hydrothermal activity.

paragraphs: The atmosphere of Mars is quite dusty, giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface. Data from NASA pointed out that the dust particles are 1.5 micrometres diameter.

paragraphs: On 18 March 2015, NASA found an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars.

paragraphs: Liquid water on Mars was once commonplace, which means the atmosphere was thicker. Many studies have found that the atmosphere of Mars has been weakened over time due to solar winds. On Earth, the magnetic field protects us from most of the wind. Mars used to have a magnetic field, but cooling of the core has resulted in the magnetic field being lost.


title: Solar Wind Composition Experiment

paragraphs: The Solar Wind Composition Experiment (SWC) was an experiment that took place on the Moon during the Apollo program (Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15 and 16). It was done to measure the solar wind outside of Earth's magnetosphere. It was the first notable measurement of isotopic solar material.

paragraphs: The experiment was suggested by by a Swiss team headed by Johannes Geiss of the University of Bern and Peter Eberhardt of the Swiss Institute of Technology. It was partially funded by the Swiss Government.

paragraphs: The SWC experiment was done by getting a aluminum sheet and facing it towards the sun. The foil was to collect the ion types and energies of the solar wind on the lunar surface. After the experiment, the sheet was placed into a Teflon bag, and sent back to Earth to be studied. The experiment was successful and found Helium, Neon and Argon isotopic compositions coming from the sun.


title: Caesar's Comet

paragraphs: Caesar's Comet (C/-43 K1) is also known as 'Comet Caesar' and the 'Great Comet of 44 BC'. It was one of the most famous comets of ancient times. Many Romans thought the comet's seven-day appearance was a sign of the deification of recently assassinated dictator, Julius Caesar (100–44 BC).

paragraphs: Caesar's Comet was one of only five comets known to have had a negative absolute magnitude and may have been the brightest daylight comet in history. It was not periodic, and it had a parabolic orbit. The comet might now be more than 800 AU from the Sun.


title: Do You Know the Way to San Jose

paragraphs: "Do You Know the Way to San Jose" is a 1968 popular song. It is about a person from San Jose, California who wants to go back to her hometown. Dionne Warwick performed it.

paragraphs: The song sold over a million copies. Warwick won her first Grammy Award for it.

paragraphs: The song was Warwick's first song after "(Theme from) Valley of the Dolls"/"I Say a Little Prayer". It was released in April 1968.

paragraphs: The song was later sung by Connie Francis, Rita Reys, Neil Diamond, Nancy Sinatra and others.


title: Don't Make Me Over

paragraphs: "Don't Make Me Over" is a 1962 popular ballad. It was written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David. Dionne Warwick sang this song.

paragraphs: The song reached #5 on the "Billboard" R&B charts.

paragraphs: The song was later recorded by other artists, such as Jennifer Warnes and Julia Holter.


title: Julia Holter

paragraphs: Julia Holter (born December 18, 1984) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, composer and artist. Her first studio album, "Tragedy", was released in 2011. She released a second album, "Ekstasis", in March 2012. This album was compared to works by such artists as Laurie Anderson, Kate Bush, Joanna Newsom and several others. "Ekstasis" received many positive reviews.

paragraphs: Holter joined Domino Recording Company. She then released her 3rd album "Loud City Song". The album was a critical success.

paragraphs: She released "Have You in My Wilderness" in 2015. The album was very successful.


title: Article One of the United States Constitution

paragraphs: Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. The Congress is a bicameral legislature consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate

paragraphs: Section 1: Legislative power vested in Congress

paragraphs: Section 1 gives federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III. The former gives executive power to the President. The latter grants judicial power to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government. The separation of powers was intended to limit Congress to making law, the President to enforcing the law and the courts as interpreting the law in different cases.

paragraphs: There is no provision in the Constitution that gives Congress the power to investigate. However, before the adoption of the Constitution, assemblies| in the American colonies exercised that power. Before them, the British Parliament had investigative powers. Congress has always considered an implicit power in the Constitution. In "McGrain v. Daugherty" (1927), the Supreme Court held that Congress did have the power to investigate.

paragraphs: Section Two provides for the election every two years of members of the House of Representatives by the people of the respective states. The "electors" (voters) in the state are those who the state decides are eligible to vote for "the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature" are eligible to vote for members of the House of Representatives from that state.

paragraphs: The Constitution provides three requirements for Representatives. A Representative must be at least 25 years old. He or she must live in the state in which he or she is elected. A Representative must also have been a citizen of the United States for the previous seven years.

paragraphs: After much debate, the framers of the Constitution compromised and made population the basis of determining the number of seats (called apportionment) in the House of Representatives. It also used apportionment to determine the tax liability among the states. To accomplish this, the Constitution requires that a census be conducted every ten years. This is to determine the population of each state and of the nation as a whole. It also establishes a rule for who should and who should not be included in the count. Because the Constitution would go into effect before the completion of a national census, it provides for a temporary apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives.

paragraphs: Originally, the population of each state and of the nation as a whole was determined by adding to the whole number of free Persons, three-fifths the number of all other persons (slaves), but excluding non-taxed Native Americans. This Constitutional rule was known as the three-fifths compromise. It was used to determine the number of Representatives in the House. Larger states contributed more money and would have more seats in the House of Representatives.

paragraphs: The Fourteenth Amendment removed the three-fifths rule and ordered the census to count everyone regardless of skin color. It stipulated that males over the age of twenty-one could vote. The Sixteenth Amendment removed the connection between apportionment and direct taxes. The 19th Amendment removed the restriction by sex allowing women to vote. The 26th Amendment reduced the voting age requirement to those 18 years of age and older. But none of these amendments changed congressional apportionment.

paragraphs: Since enactment of the Reapportionment Act of 1929, Congress set the number of House seats at 435, except in 1959 when Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as states. Then the number became 437 temporarily.

paragraphs: Section two, Clause four, provides that when vacancies occur in the House of Representatives, it is not the job of the House of Representatives to arrange for a replacement. It is the job of the State whose vacant seat is up for refilling. In addition, the Constitution does not authorize a State Governor to appoint a temporary replacement. He is to arrange for a special election to fill the vacancy. The original qualifications and procedures for holding that election are still valid.

paragraphs: Section Two also provides that the House of Representatives may choose its Speaker and its other officers. The Constitution does not require it but every Speaker has been a member of the House of Representatives. The Speaker rarely presides over routine House sessions. Instead he chooses to deputize a junior member to accomplish the task.

paragraphs: Finally, Section Two grants to the House of Representatives the sole power of impeachment. Although the Supreme Court has not had an occasion to interpret this specific provision, the Court has suggested that the grant to the House of the ""sole"" power of impeachment makes the House the exclusive interpreter of what constitutes an impeachable offense.

paragraphs: This power, which is analogous to the bringing of criminal charges by a grand jury, has been used only rarely. The House of Representatives has initiated impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789, and nineteen federal officials have been formally impeached as a result, including: two Presidents (Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton), one Cabinet Secretary (William W. Belknap), one Senator (William Blount), one Supreme Court Associate Justice (Samuel Chase), and fourteen federal judges.

paragraphs: The Constitution does not specify how impeachment proceedings are to be initiated. Until the early 20th century, a House member could rise and propose an impeachment, which would then be assigned to a committee for investigation. Presently, it is the House Judiciary Committee that initiates the process. It does this only after investigating the allegations, prepares recommendations for the whole House's consideration. If the House votes to adopt an impeachment resolution, the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee recommends a slate of "managers," whom the House subsequently approves by resolution. These Representatives then become the prosecution team in the impeachment trial in the Senate (see Section 3, Clause 6 below).

paragraphs: The first Clause of Section Three provides that each state is entitled to have two Senators. It states they would be elected by its state legislature and serve six-year terms. Each Senator has one vote. By these provisions, the framers of the Constitution intended to protect the interests of the states as states. However, this clause has been superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913. Due to problems in the Senate, it was changed to Senators would now be elected by the people instead of the state legislatures.

paragraphs: Approximately one-third of the Senate is up for re-election every two years. But the entire body is never up for re-election in the same year. The Seventeenth Amendment changed how vacancies would be filled. Under the Seventeenth Amendment, if a Senator dies or has to leave office, his state governor may appoint a temporary Senator until a special election can be held.

paragraphs: A Senator must be at least 30 years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for at least nine years before being elected, and must reside in the State he or she will represent at the time of the election. As with Representatives in the House, the Constitution sets the qualifications to be a Senator.

paragraphs: Section Three provides that the Vice President is the President of the Senate. When serving in this capacity, the Vice President, who is not a member of the Senate, may cast a vote to break a tie. Early in the nation's history, Vice Presidents frequently presided over the Senate. In modern times, the Vice President usually does so only during ceremonial occasions or when a tie in the voting is anticipated. A tie-breaking vote has been cast 243 times by 35 different Vice Presidents.

paragraphs: Clause five provides for a President "pro tempore of the Senate" (meaning temporary), a Senator elected to the post by the Senate, to preside over the body when the Vice President is either absent or exercising the Office of the President.

paragraphs: The Senate's current practice is to elect a full-time President pro tempore at the beginning of each Congress, as opposed to making it a temporary office only existing during the Vice President's absence. Since World War II, the senior (longest serving) member of the majority party has filled this position. As is true of the Speaker of the House, the Constitution does not require that the President pro tempore be a senator, but by tradition, a senator is always chosen.

paragraphs: The House of Representatives votes to impeach a president, vice president or other civil officer, but the Senate serves as judge and jury. The defendant in the trial can be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Only two times has the Senate brought impeachment charges against a president still in office. This was in 1868 against Andrew Johnson and in 1998 against Bill Clinton. In both cases the president was not convicted and allowed to serve out his term of office.

paragraphs: If any officer is convicted on impeachment, he or she is immediately removed from office. He or she may be barred from holding any public office in the future. No other punishments may be used. Any person removed from office may still be criminally prosecuted. They may also be subject to lawsuits.

paragraphs: State legislatures have the task of deciding how congressional elections are held. They may decide the scheduling of an election, where voters may cast ballots and how voters are to register. Congress has the right to change these rules.

paragraphs: Clause 2 fixes an annual date upon which Congress must meet. By doing so, the Constitution gives Congress the power to meet, whether or not the President called it into session.

paragraphs: Section Five states that a majority of each House constitutes a quorum to do business; a smaller number may adjourn the House or compel the attendance of absent members. In practice, the quorum requirement is all but ignored. A quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call, requested by a member, proves otherwise. Rarely do members ask for quorum calls to demonstrate the absence of a quorum; more often, they use the quorum call as a delaying tactic.

paragraphs: Each House can determine its own Rules (assuming a quorum is present), and may punish any of its members. A two-thirds vote is necessary to expel a member. Section 5, Clause 2 does not provide specific guidance to each House regarding when and how each House may change its rules, leaving details to the respective chambers.

paragraphs: Each House must keep and publish a Journal, though it may choose to keep any part of the Journal secret. The decisions of the House—not the words spoken during debates—are recorded in the Journal; if one-fifth of those present (assuming a quorum is present) request it, the votes of the members on a particular question must also be entered.

paragraphs: Neither House may adjourn, without the consent of the other, for more than three days. Often, a House will hold "pro forma" sessions every three days. Such sessions are held just to fulfill the constitutional requirement. They are not for the purpose of conducting business. Neither House may meet in any place other than that designated for both Houses (the Capitol), without the consent of the other House.

paragraphs: Senators and Representatives set their own compensation. Under the Twenty-seventh Amendment, any change in their compensation will not take effect until after the next congressional election.

paragraphs: Members of both Houses have certain privileges, based on those enjoyed by the members of the British Parliament. Members attending, going to or returning from either House are privileged from arrest, except for treason, felony or breach of the peace. One may not sue a Senator or Representative for slander that may happen during Congressional debate, nor may speech by a member of Congress during a Congressional session be the basis for criminal prosecution.

paragraphs: Senators and Representatives may not simultaneously serve in Congress and hold a position in the executive branch. This restriction is meant to protect legislative independence by preventing the president from using patronage to buy votes in Congress. It is a major difference from the political system in the British Parliament, where cabinet ministers are required to be members of parliament.

paragraphs: This establishes the method for making Acts of Congress that involve taxation. Accordingly, any bill may originate in either House of Congress, except for a revenue bill, which may originate only in the House of Representatives.

paragraphs: This clause of the U.S. Constitution stemmed from an English parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their first reading in the House of Commons. This practice was intended to ensure that the power of the purse is possessed by the legislative body most responsive to the people, although the English practice was modified in America by allowing the Senate to amend these bills.

paragraphs: This clause is known as the Presentment Clause. Before a bill becomes law, it must be presented to the President, who has ten days (excluding Sundays) to act upon it. If the President signs the bill, it becomes law. If he disapproves of the bill, he must return it to the House in which it originated together with his objections. This procedure has become known as the veto, although that particular word does not appear in the text of Article One. The bill does not then become law unless both Houses, by two-thirds votes, override the veto. If the President neither signs nor returns the bill within the ten-day limit, the bill becomes law, unless the Congress has adjourned in the meantime, thereby preventing the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated. In the latter case, the President, by taking no action on the bill towards the end of a session, exercises a "pocket veto", which Congress may not override. In the former case, where the President allows a bill to become law unsigned, there is no common name for the practice, but recent scholarship has termed it a "default enactment."

paragraphs: What exactly constitutes an adjournment for the purposes of the pocket veto has been unclear. In the "Pocket Veto Case" (1929), the Supreme Court held that "the determinative question in reference to an 'adjournment' is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment, such as an adjournment of the first session, but whether it is one that 'prevents' the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated within the time allowed." Since neither House of Congress was in session, the President could not return the bill to one of them, thereby permitting the use of the pocket veto. In "Wright v. United States" (1938), however, the Court ruled that adjournments of one House only did not constitute an adjournment of Congress required for a pocket veto. In such cases, the Secretary or Clerk of the House in question was ruled competent to receive the bill.

paragraphs: In 1996, Congress passed the Line Item Veto Act, which permitted the President, at the time of the signing of the bill, to rescind certain expenditures. The Congress could disapprove the cancellation and reinstate the funds. The President could veto the disapproval, but the Congress, by a two-thirds vote in each House, could override the veto. In the case "Clinton v. City of New York", the Supreme Court found the Line Item Veto Act unconstitutional because it violated the Presentment clause. First, the procedure delegated legislative powers to the President, thereby violating the nondelegation doctrine. Second, the procedure violated the terms of Section Seven, which state, "if he approve [the bill] he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it." Thus, the President may sign the bill, veto it, or do nothing, but he may not amend the bill and then sign it.

paragraphs: Every bill, order, resolution, or vote that must be passed by both Houses, except on a question of adjournment, must be presented to the President before becoming law. However, to propose a constitutional amendment, two-thirds of both Houses may submit it to the states for the ratification, without any consideration by the President, as prescribed in Article V.

paragraphs: Congress's legislative powers are enumerated in Section Eight:

paragraphs: Many powers of Congress have been interpreted broadly. Most notably, the Taxing and Spending, Interstate Commerce, and Necessary and Proper Clauses have been deemed to grant expansive powers to Congress.

paragraphs: Congress may lay and collect taxes for the "common defense" or "general welfare" of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has not often defined "general welfare," leaving the political question to Congress. In "United States v. Butler" (1936), the Court for the first time construed the clause. The dispute centered on a tax collected from processors of agricultural products such as meat; the funds raised by the tax were not paid into the general funds of the treasury, but were rather specially earmarked for farmers. The Court struck down the tax, ruling that the general welfare language in the Taxing and Spending Clause related only to "matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare". Congress continues to make expansive use of the Taxing and Spending Clause; for instance, the social security program is authorized under the Taxing and Spending Clause.

paragraphs: Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding "Knox v. Lee," the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign", as the doctrine of sovereign immunity prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges its commitment.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court has seldom restrained the use of the "commerce clause" for widely varying purposes. The first important decision related to the commerce clause was "Gibbons v. Ogden", decided by a unanimous Court in 1824. The case involved conflicting federal and state laws: Thomas Gibbons had a federal permit to navigate steamboats in the Hudson River, while the other, Aaron Ogden, had a monopoly to do the same granted by the state of New York. Ogden contended that "commerce" included only buying and selling of goods and not their transportation. Chief Justice John Marshall rejected this notion. Marshall suggested that "commerce" included navigation of goods, and that it "must have been contemplated" by the Framers. Marshall added that Congress's power over commerce "is complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution".

paragraphs: The expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause was restrained during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when a "laissez-faire" attitude dominated the Court. In "United States v. E. C. Knight Company" (1895), the Supreme Court limited the newly enacted Sherman Antitrust Act, which had sought to break up the monopolies dominating the nation's economy. The Court ruled that Congress could not regulate the manufacture of goods, even if they were later shipped to other states. Chief Justice Melville Fuller wrote, "commerce succeeds to manufacture, and is not a part of it."

paragraphs: The U.S. Supreme Court sometimes ruled New Deal programs unconstitutional because they stretched the meaning of the commerce clause. In "Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States," (1935) the Court unanimously struck down industrial codes regulating the slaughter of poultry, declaring that Congress could not regulate commerce relating to the poultry, which had "come to a permanent rest within the State." As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes put it, "so far as the poultry here in question is concerned, the flow of interstate commerce has ceased." Judicial rulings against attempted use of Congress's Commerce Clause powers continued during the 1930s.

paragraphs: In 1937, the Supreme Court began moving away from its laissez-faire attitude concerning Congressional legislation and the Commerce Clause, when it ruled in "National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Company", that the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (commonly known as the Wagner Act) was constitutional. The legislation under scrutiny, prevented employers from engaging in "unfair labor practices" such as firing workers for joining unions. In sustaining this act, the Court, signaled its return to the philosophy espoused by John Marshall, that Congress could pass laws regulating actions that even indirectly influenced interstate commerce.

paragraphs: This new attitude became firmly set into place in 1942. In "Wickard v. Filburn", the Court ruled that production quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 were constitutionally applied to agricultural production (in this instance, home-grown wheat for private consumption) that was consumed purely intrastate, because its effect upon interstate commerce placed it within the power of Congress to regulate under the Commerce Clause. This decision marked the beginning of the Court's total deference to Congress' claims of Commerce Clause powers, which lasted into the 1990s.

paragraphs: "United States v. Lopez" (1995) was the first decision in six decades to invalidate a federal statute on the grounds that it exceeded the power of the Congress under the Commerce Clause. The Court held that while Congress had broad lawmaking authority under the Commerce Clause, the power was limited, and did not extend so far from "commerce" as to authorize the regulation of the carrying of handguns, especially when there was no evidence that carrying them affected the economy on a massive scale. In a later case, "United States v. Morrison" (2000), the justices ruled that Congress could not make such laws even when there was evidence of aggregate effect.

paragraphs: In contrast to these rulings, the Supreme Court also continues to follow the precedent set by "Wickard v. Filburn". In "Gonzales v. Raich" it ruled that the Commerce Clause granted Congress the authority to criminalize the production and use of home-grown cannabis even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes. The court held that, as with the agricultural production in the earlier case, home-grown cannabis is a legitimate subject of federal regulation because it competes with marijuana that moves in interstate commerce.

paragraphs: Congress may establish uniform laws relating to naturalization and bankruptcy. It may also coin money, regulate the value of American or foreign currency and punish counterfeiters. Congress may fix the standards of weights and measures. Furthermore, Congress may establish post offices and post roads (the roads, however, need not be exclusively for the conveyance of mail). Congress may promote the progress of science and useful arts by granting copyrights and patents of limited duration. Section eight, clause eight of Article One, known as the Copyright Clause, is the only instance of the word "right" used in the original constitution (though the word does appear in several Amendments). Though perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited, the Supreme Court has ruled in "Eldred v. Ashcroft" (2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute perpetual copyright; also note that this is the only power granted where the means to accomplish its stated purpose is specifically provided for. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may be established by Congress.

paragraphs: Congress has several powers related to war and the armed forces. Under the War Powers Clause, only Congress may declare war, but in several cases it has, without declaring war, granted the President the authority to engage in military conflicts. Five wars have been declared in United States' history: the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II. Some historians argue that the legal doctrines and legislation passed during the operations against Pancho Villa constitute a sixth declaration of war. Congress may grant letters of marque and reprisal. Congress may establish and support the armed forces, but no appropriation made for the support of the army may be used for more than two years. This provision was inserted because the Framers feared the establishment of a standing army, beyond civilian control, during peacetime. Congress may regulate or call forth the state militias, but the states retain the authority to appoint officers and train personnel. Congress also has exclusive power to make rules and regulations governing the land and naval forces. Although the executive branch and the Pentagon have asserted an ever-increasing measure of involvement in this process, the U.S. Supreme Court has often reaffirmed Congress's exclusive hold on this power (e.g. Burns v. Wilson, 346 U.S. 137 (1953)). Congress used this power twice soon after World War II with the enactment of two statutes: the Uniform Code of Military Justice to improve the quality and fairness of courts martial and military justice, and the Federal Tort Claims Act which among other rights had allowed military service persons to sue for damages until the U.S. Supreme Court repealed that section of the statute in a divisive series of cases, known collectively as the Feres Doctrine.

paragraphs: Congress has the exclusive right to legislate "in all cases whatsoever" for the nation's capital, the District of Columbia. Congress chooses to devolve some of such authority to the elected mayor and council of District of Columbia. Nevertheless, Congress remains free to enact any legislation for the District so long as constitutionally permissible, to overturn any legislation by the city government, and technically to revoke the city government at any time. Congress may also exercise such jurisdiction over land purchased from the states for the erection of forts and other buildings.

paragraphs: Finally, Congress has the power to do whatever is "necessary and proper" to carry out its enumerated powers and, crucially, all others vested in it. This has been interpreted to authorize criminal prosecution of those whose actions have a "substantial effect" on interstate commerce in "Wickard v. Filburn" ; however, Thomas Jefferson, in the Kentucky Resolutions, supported by James Madison, maintained that a penal power could not be inferred from a power to regulate, and that the only penal powers were for treason, counterfeiting, piracy and felony on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations.

paragraphs: The necessary and proper clause has been interpreted extremely broadly, thereby giving Congress wide latitude in legislation. The first landmark case involving the clause was "McCulloch v. Maryland" (1819), which involved the establishment of a national bank. Alexander Hamilton, in advocating the creation of the bank, argued that there was "a more or less direct" relationship between the bank and "the powers of collecting taxes, borrowing money, regulating trade between the states, and raising and maintaining fleets and navies". Thomas Jefferson countered that Congress's powers "can all be carried into execution without a national bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase". Chief Justice John Marshall agreed with the former interpretation. Marshall wrote that a Constitution listing "all" of Congress's powers "would partake of a prolixity of a legal code and could scarcely be embraced by the human mind". Since the Constitution could not possibly enumerate the "minor ingredients" of the powers of Congress, Marshall "deduced" that Congress had the authority to establish a bank from the "great outlines" of the general welfare, commerce and other clauses. Under this doctrine of the necessary and proper clause, Congress has sweepingly broad powers (known as implied powers) not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution. However, the Congress cannot enact laws solely on the implied powers, any action must be necessary and proper in the execution of the enumerated powers.

paragraphs: The ninth section of Article One places limits on Congress' powers:

paragraphs: The first clause in this section prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves into the United States prior to 1808. Congress could however, levy a "Per capita" duty of up to ten dollars for each slave imported into the country. This clause was further entrenched into the Constitution by Article V, where it is explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808. On January 1, 1808, the first day it was permitted to do so, Congress approved legislation prohibiting the importation of slaves into the United States.

paragraphs: A writ of "habeas corpus" is a legal action against unlawful detainment that commands a law enforcement agency or other body that has a person in custody to have a court inquire into the legality of the detention. The court may order the person released if the reason for detention is deemed insufficient or unjustifiable. The Constitution further provides that the privilege of the writ of "habeas corpus" may not be suspended "unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it". In "Ex parte Milligan" (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that the suspension of "habeas corpus" in a time of war was lawful, but military tribunals did not apply to citizens in states that had upheld the authority of the Constitution and where civilian courts were still operating.

paragraphs: A bill of attainder is a law by which a person is immediately convicted without trial. An "ex post facto" law is a law which applies retroactively, punishing someone for an act that was only made criminal after it was done. The "ex post facto" clause does not apply to civil matters.

paragraphs: Section Nine reiterates the provision from Section Two that direct taxes must be apportioned by state populations. This clause was also explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808 by Article V. In 1913, the 16th Amendment exempted income taxes from this clause. Furthermore, no tax may be imposed on exports from any state. Congress may not, by revenue or commerce legislation, give preference to ports of one state over those of another; neither may it require ships from one state to pay duties in another. All funds belonging to the Treasury may not be withdrawn except according to law. Modern practice is that Congress annually passes a number of appropriations bills authorizing the expenditure of public money. The Constitution requires that a regular statement of such expenditures be published.

paragraphs: The Title of Nobility Clause prohibits Congress from granting any title of nobility. In addition, it specifies that no civil officer may accept, without the consent of Congress, any gift, payment, office or title from a foreign ruler or state. However, a U.S. citizen may receive foreign office before or after their period of public service.

paragraphs: States may not exercise certain powers reserved for the federal government: they may not enter into treaties, alliances or confederations, grant letters of marque or reprisal, coin money or issue bills of credit (such as currency). Furthermore, no state may make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, which expressly forbids any state government (but not the federal government) from "making a tender" (i.e., authorizing something that may be offered in payment) of any type or form of money to meet any financial obligation, unless that form of money is coins made of gold or silver (or a medium of exchange backed by and redeemable in gold or silver coins, as noted in "Farmers & Merchants Bank v. Federal Reserve Bank"). Much of this clause is devoted to preventing the States from using or creating any currency other than that created by Congress. In Federalist no. 44, Madison explains that "... it may be observed that the same reasons which shew the necessity of denying to the States the power of regulating coin, prove with equal force that they ought not to be at liberty to substitute a paper medium in the place of coin. Had every State a right to regulate the value of its coin, there might be as many different currencies as States; and thus the intercourse among them would be impeded." Moreover, the states may not pass bills of attainder, enact "ex post facto" laws, impair the obligation of contracts, or grant titles of nobility.

paragraphs: The Contract Clause was the subject of much contentious litigation in the 19th century. It was first interpreted by the Supreme Court in 1810, when "Fletcher v. Peck" was decided. The case involved the Yazoo land scandal, in which the Georgia legislature authorized the sale of land to speculators at low prices. The bribery involved in the passage of the authorizing legislation was so blatant that a Georgia mob attempted to lynch the corrupt members of the legislature. Following elections, the legislature passed a law that rescinded the contracts granted by the corrupt legislators. The validity of the annulment of the sale was questioned in the Supreme Court. In writing for a unanimous court, Chief Justice John Marshall asked, "What is a contract?" His answer was: "a compact between two or more parties." Marshall argued that the sale of land by the Georgia legislature, though fraught with corruption, was a valid "contract". He added that the state had no right to annul the purchase of the land, since doing so would impair the obligations of contract.

paragraphs: The definition of a contract propounded by Chief Justice Marshall was not as simple as it may seem. In 1819, the Court considered whether a corporate charter could be construed as a contract. The case of "Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward" involved Dartmouth College, which had been established under a Royal Charter granted by King George III. The Charter created a board of twelve trustees for the governance of the College. In 1815, however, New Hampshire passed a law increasing the board's membership to twenty-one with the aim that public control could be exercised over the College. The Court, including Marshall, ruled that New Hampshire could not amend the charter, which was ruled to be a contract since it conferred "vested rights" on the trustees.

paragraphs: The Marshall Court determined another dispute in "Sturges v. Crowninshield". The case involved a debt that was contracted in early 1811. Later in that year, the state of New York passed a bankruptcy law, under which the debt was later discharged. The Supreme Court ruled that a retroactively applied state bankruptcy law impaired the obligation to pay the debt, and therefore violated the Constitution. In "Ogden v. Saunders" (1827), however, the court decided that state bankruptcy laws "could" apply to debts contracted after the passage of the law. State legislation on the issue of bankruptcy and debtor relief has not been much of an issue since the adoption of a comprehensive federal bankruptcy law in 1898.

paragraphs: Still more powers are prohibited of the states. States may not, without the consent of Congress, tax imports or exports except for the fulfillment of state inspection laws (which may be revised by Congress). The net revenue of the tax is paid not to the state, but to the federal Treasury.

paragraphs: Under the Compact Clause, states may not, without the consent of Congress, keep troops or armies during times of peace. They may not enter into alliances nor compacts with foreign states, nor engage in war unless invaded. States may, however, organize and arm a militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. (Article I, Section 8, enumerated powers of Congress.) The National Guard, whose members are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by , fulfill this function, as do persons serving in State Militias with federal oversight under .

paragraphs: The idea of allowing Congress to have say over agreements between states traces back to the numerous controversies that arose between various colonies. Eventually compromises would be created between the two colonies and these compromises would be submitted to the Crown for approval. After the American Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation allowed states to appeal to Congress to settle disputes between the states over boundaries or "any cause whatever". The Articles of Confederation also required Congressional approval for "any treaty or alliance" in which a state was one of the parties.

paragraphs: There have been a number of Supreme Court cases concerning what constitutes valid congressional consent to an interstate compact. In "Virginia v. Tennessee", , the Court found that some agreements among states stand even when lacking the explicit consent of Congress. (One example the court gave was a state moving some goods from a distant state to itself, it would not require Congressional approval to contract with another state to use its canals for transport.) According to the Court, the Compact Clause requires congressional consent only if the agreement among the states is "directed to the formation of any combination tending to the increase of political power in the States, which may encroach upon or interfere with the just supremacy of the United States". The congressional consent issue is at the center of the current debate over the constitutionality of the not yet effective National Popular Vote Interstate Compact entered into by several states plus the District of Columbia.


title: Victory Day

paragraphs: Victory Day (also shortened as "V-Day") is a common name of many different public holidays in various countries. In most cases it is to commemorate victories in important battles or wars in the countries' history. For example, in Russia, it is celebrated on May 9th for the defeat of Nazi Germany in what Russia calls "The Great Patriotic War" (World War II). For the United States and Britain, the victory in Europe (celebrated as Victory in Europe Day or V-E Day) was only part of the victory. It is celebrated on May 8th (May 7th in the United Kingdom). The war in the Pacific did not end for the US and Britain until the Japanese surrender on Sept. 2, 1945. This is celebrated as Victory over Japan Day or V-J Day. This part of the war is usually not studied by Russians. In France, their Victory Day also celebrated the end of World War II and is celebrated on May 8, 1945, when Charles de Gaulle announced the end of the war.


title: Collard greens

paragraphs: Collard greens (or collards) are loose leafed cultivars of "Brassica oleracea". Collard greens are part of the acephala group of the species, which includes kale and spring greens.

paragraphs: Collard greens are known for their large, dark colored and edible leaves. They are also known as a garden ornamental.

paragraphs: Collard greens are available year round. They are tastier and more nutritious in cold months, after the first frost.


title: Elizabeth Garrett

paragraphs: Helen Elizabeth Garrett, commonly known as Elizabeth Garrett, (1963 – March 6, 2016), was a American professor of law and an academic administrator. In 2010, she became Provost and Senior Vice President for Academic Affairs at the University of Southern California. On July 1, 2015, she became the 13th president of Cornell University.

paragraphs: Garrett died on March 6, 2016 from colon cancer at her New York City home. She was aged 52.


title: Paul Ryan (cartoonist)

paragraphs: Paul Ryan (September 23, 1949 – March 6, 2016) was an American comic book and comic strip cartoonist. Ryan worked for Marvel Comics and DC Comics on a number of super-hero comics. Until his death in 2016, he worked on "The Phantom" for King Features Syndicate. He was born in Somerville, Massachusetts.

paragraphs: Ryan died in Worcester, Massachusetts of cancer on March 6, 2016. He was aged 66.


title: Adrian Hardiman

paragraphs: Adrian Hardiman (21 May 1951 – 7 March 2016) was an Irish judge. He was the justice of the Supreme Court of Ireland. He served from 7 February 2000 until his death on 7 March 2016.

paragraphs: Hardiman was born in Dublin, Ireland. He studied at Belvedere College, at the University College Dublin, and at the King's Inn. Hardiman died in Dublin, Ireland from a heart attack. He was aged 65.


title: Vernon L. Smith

paragraphs: Vernon Lomax Smith (born January 1, 1927) is an American professor of economics. He worked at Chapman University's Argyros School of Business and Economics and School of Law in Orange, California. Smith shared the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics with Daniel Kahneman.

paragraphs: He is the founder and president of the International Foundation for Research in Experimental Economics, a Member of the Board of Advisors for The Independent Institute, and a Senior Fellow at the Cato Institute in Washington D.C..

paragraphs: In 2004 Smith was honored with an honorary doctoral degree at Universidad Francisco Marroquín, the institution that named the Vernon Smith Center for Experimental Economics Research after him.


title: Radiometer

paragraphs: A radiometer or roentgenometer is a device for measuring the radiant flux (power) of electromagnetic radiation. Generally, a radiometer is an infrared radiation detector or ultraviolet detector.


title: Reading Rainbow

paragraphs: Reading Rainbow is an American children's television series. It aired on PBS Kids from June 6, 1983 until November 10, 2006. It encouraged children to read. In 2012, an iPad and Kindle Fire educational interactive book was launched with the "Reading Rainbow" name.

paragraphs: The public television series won over 200 broadcast awards, including a Peabody Award and 26 Emmy Awards. Eleven of those awards were in the "Outstanding Children's Series" category.

paragraphs: When the show was canceled in 2006, reruns ran until August 28, 2009.

paragraphs: The original team included Lynne Brenner Ganek, Ellen Schecter, and LeVar Burton.


title: Paul Webley

paragraphs: Professor Paul Webley CBE (19 November 1953 – 2 March 2016) was a British educator. He was the Director and Principal of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London from 2006 to 2015. From 2010 until his death in 2016, he served as Deputy Vice-Chancellor of the University of London.

paragraphs: He was a member of the Editorial Board of the "Journal of Economic Psychology". He was the former President of the International Association for Research in Economic Psychology. Webley was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2015 New Year Honours for services to higher education.

paragraphs: Webley died in London, England on 2 March 2016 from cancer. He was aged 62.


title: Sheila Varian

paragraphs: Sheila Varian (August 8, 1936 – March 6, 2016) was an American breeder and trainer of Arabian horses. She was born in Santa Maria, California. Her career began in 1963. She used "vaquero"-influenced methods of training horses.

paragraphs: Varian produced many famous Arabian horses who won many show horses in the United States. Varian received many awards from the United States Equestrian Federation. She was added into the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in 2003.

paragraphs: Varian died in Arroyo Grande, California from ovarian cancer on March 6, 2016. She was aged 79.