title: Newton's laws of motion

paragraphs: Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is widely known as the father of dynamics, the study of motion. He developed three laws that are the foundation of classical mechanics. They are believed to be true because the results of experiments by scientists agree with his laws.

paragraphs: A "uniform velocity" means that an object moves at a constant speed without changing direction (i.e. in a straight line). A "net force" means that the forces acting on the object are not balanced. In other words, the first law states two things:

paragraphs: The first part states that a table resting on the ground will not move unless pushed. Although gravity is acting on the table, pulling it down, there is a "reaction force" from the ground which is pushing it back. The forces acting on the table are "balanced", so the object will not move.

paragraphs: The second part is harder to explain. A ball rolling along a flat surface will slow down and eventually come to a halt. This is because of friction, which is a force that slows the ball down. A ball rolling down a slope is also affected by friction, but the effect of the force of gravity is stronger than the friction, so there is a net force acting in the direction in which the ball is moving. In a place without the forces of friction, air resistance and gravity (e.g. in outer space) a moving object would keep on moving in a straight line if there were no force to slow it down or change its direction.

paragraphs: Newton's second law states that acceleration of a particle is dependent on the forces acting upon the particle and the particle's mass. For a given particle, if the net force is increased, the acceleration is increased. For a given net force, the more mass a particle has, the less acceleration it has.

paragraphs: For example, weight is a force that we feel on Earth, caused by the gravity. The weight on a particle is given by

paragraphs: where is the mass of the particle and is the local gravitational acceleration (not to be confused with "G", the universal gravitational constant), roughly equal to 9.8 meters per second (32 feet per second) on Earth.

paragraphs: We can express Newton's second law in terms of momentum. The momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass and velocity :

paragraphs: The acceleration of a particle is the time derivative of its velocity :

paragraphs: Thus, we have another way of stating Newton's second law:

paragraphs: In classical mechanics, the two forms of the second law, formula_1 and formula_6, are completely equivalent. Note that we assume that the mass of a particle does not change.

paragraphs: ===Newton's third law of motion in easy words: To every action there is a reaction,action and reaction are equal but opposite in direction,this is known as newton's third law of motion.

paragraphs: This is best understood with billiard balls, where you can easily see the action/reaction pairs of forces. Likewise, when you kick a football, not only does the ball move, but you feel a force on your foot.

paragraphs: The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.

paragraphs: A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the propulsion of a fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the water will only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the water must also be pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water. The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of the force on the water (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for fish to swim.

paragraphs: Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car has wheels which spin forwards. As the wheels spin forwards, they grip the road and push the road backwards. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing the wheels forward. The size of the force on the road equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.


title: Fencing

paragraphs: "This is about the sport. You may be wanting to read about a fence."

paragraphs: Fencing is a sport that includes two people with swords. The aim is to score hits. There is also a referee.

paragraphs: In the olden times when two people argued they fenced the first one to draw blood was wrong and the person would be dead, so the person that won would claim the dead person's house and belongings.

paragraphs: The foil is a light and easy to bend weapon, first made in mid 17th century as a weapon for practice. 'Hits' can only be scored by hitting the target area with the point of the sword. The target area is the torso.

paragraphs: The épée is the heaviest of the three weapons. To score a hit, the push-button on the end of the weapon must remain fully down for 2-10 milliseconds, and must arrive (hit) with a force of at least 7.35 newtons. The target area for Épée is the entire body. This includes the feet and the head.

paragraphs: The sabre is the "cutting" weapon, with a curved guard (to protect the hand) and a triangular blade. However, in modern electric scoring, a touch with any part of the sabre, (point, flat or edge, as long as it is on target) will count as a hit. The target area in sabre is everything from the waist up, except for the hands.

paragraphs: Fencers wear a uniform to avoid injury. They wear a mask of black mesh with a bib. Also, a jacket, short pants and a sort of half-a-shirt (called an underarm protector or plastron), all of white fabric. They must also wear socks that cover their legs. Women must wear a chest protector. These are collectively called "whites."


title: Administrator

paragraphs: Administrators are people who organize things like businesses. All businesses have administrators. They make decisions, organize the people who work there and make sure that things are working alright and there are no problems. Their work is called "administration". The administrators are part of the "management".

paragraphs: Administrator is also the person in charge of some of the small territories of the United Kingdom, for example Ascension Island and the British Antarctic Territory which are too small to run their own government.


title: Geneva Conventions

paragraphs: The Geneva Conventions are a set of four treaties of international law at wartime. They were formulated in Geneva, Switzerland. All of the four treaties are about humanitarian issues. The Swiss Henri Dunant was the person who started the creation of the Conventions. He did this after he saw the unimaginable cruelty of the Battle of Solferino in 1859.

paragraphs: Some parts of the four Geneva Conventions say that all countries who signed must create national laws to make violations of the Geneva Conventions a crime.

paragraphs: The conventions and their agreements are as follows:

paragraphs: In addition, there are three more protocols to the Geneva Conventions:

paragraphs: After the First Convention was agreed, the International Committee of the Red Cross was founded in 1863.

paragraphs: All four conventions were last checked and agreed on in 1949. Those versions are related to previous revisions. In some cases, ideas from the 1907 Hague Convention were added. Usually, people refer to all four conventions as the "Geneva Conventions of 1949" or simply the "Geneva Conventions". Later conferences have added text that makes it illegal to use certain kinds of warfare, like chemical warfare. They have also spoken about issues of civil wars.

paragraphs: Clara Barton was important in campaigning for the United States to agree to the First Geneva Convention. The United States signed that Convention in 1882.

paragraphs: By the Fourth Geneva Convention in 1949, some 47 nations had ratified the agreements.

paragraphs: Today, nearly all 200 countries of the world are "signatory" nations. This means they have signed and agreed to follow the Geneva Conventions.


title: International law

paragraphs: International law is the law that is used when there is a conflict between countries. There are two different types of international law:

paragraphs: In recent years, people have also seen international organizations like the United Nations use international law.


title: Hague Convention

paragraphs: The Hague Convention is a set of treaties signed in Den Haag in 1899 and 1907. Along with the Geneva conventions, they are among the first treaties to speak about war crimes and the laws of war. They are considered to be part of international law.


title: The Hague

paragraphs: The Hague (with capital T; Dutch: also called , commonly ) is the third-largest city in the Netherlands, after Amsterdam and Rotterdam. It has a population of 490,000 (January 1 2011) and an area of around 100 km². It is in the west of the country, in the province South Holland. It is the capital of the province. About 1 million people live in the urban area of The Hague, on about 405 square kilometers.

paragraphs: The Hague is the location of the Binnenhof, the building where the national government of the Netherlands meets. Built in the 13th century, the Binnenhof is the home of the "Eerste Kamer" (literally "First Chamber") or "Senaat", and the "Tweede Kamer" (literally "Second Chamber"). These are the same as the upper and lower houses in some other countries. They form the "Staten Generaal" (literally the "Estates-General").

paragraphs: Willem-Alexander, the king of the Netherlands, lives and works in The Hague. His home is called the Noordeinde Palace and it is not far away from the Binnenhof. All foreign embassies and government ministries of the country are in the city, as well as the Hoge Raad der Nederlanden (The Supreme Court) and many lobbying organisations.

paragraphs: All of this is unusual for a country, because The Hague is not the capital of the Netherlands, which is Amsterdam. This is made so by the Constitution of the Netherlands.

paragraphs: Besides the buildings used by the government, the International Court of Justice of the United Nations is based in the Peace Palace, which is also in The Hague and often referred to as "The Hague" by metonymy. A tourist attraction is Madurodam, which has lots of tiny buildings that look like the real things.

paragraphs: The Hague is part of a large conurbation called the Randstad, where most Dutch people live. It is only an hour away from Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol by train (most of which are run by Nederlandse Spoorwegen) and with its two train stations, is easy to get to from many places in the Netherlands and all around Europe.


title: S.A.S.

paragraphs: The S.A.S. or Special Air Service, is a Special Operations Organisation of the British Army. It was founded in 1941 to attack behind the German line of defence in North Africa, in World War II. They are one of the best schooled units in the world, that makes them very valuable. There are about 500 active SAS soldiers.

paragraphs: The SAS is a secret organisation. Its members often do not tell anyone except close family that they are in it. The British Ministry of Defence (MOD) rarely speaks of the SAS and mission details are never released until much later.

paragraphs: The badge of the organisation is a flaming excalibur. It shows the motto: "Who Dares Wins".

paragraphs: The SAS is thought of all over the world as one of the best, if not the best Special Operations organisations.

paragraphs: This is mainly because of the intense training they are put through. The hardest part of this is intense interrogation (questioning while under torture) which the trainees must go through.

paragraphs: The SAS is respected worldwide and used to train many other Special Forces Units. Several special operations units are modeled after the SAS. For example, the U.S. Army's Delta Force was founded due in large part to Charles Beckwith, a U.S. Army special operations officer, serving as an exchange officer with the SAS. He felt that the U.S. Army was vulnerable in not having a unit comparable to the SAS.


title: Kookaburra Sport

paragraphs: Kookaburra Sport is an Australian company named after an Australian bird related to the kingfisher, which eats snakes and is, therefore, very valuable to the Australians.

paragraphs: Kookaburra makes and sells cricket supplies which are used by amateurs and professionals. They are one of the leading brands and are famous for their colourful and artistic designs. It is the leading manufacturer of cricket equipment in the world. Its balls are used the most in international cricket matches.


title: Lancashire

paragraphs: Lancashire is a ceremonial county in the North West of England. Its two cities are Lancaster and Preston. Before 1974, Liverpool and Manchester were part of administrative county of Lancashire.

paragraphs: The county has developed a fierce rivalry with Yorkshire, the next county east. This comes from rivalry in sport, such as in cricket, and comes from the War of the Roses.

paragraphs: A big attraction in Lancashire is Blackpool, an English seaside resort, which has a theme park called Blackpool Pleasure Beach. It has the second largest rollercoaster in Europe ("The Big One") and Blackpool Tower, a tower which was made to look like the Eiffel Tower in Paris.

paragraphs: Lancashire has market towns (like Chorley) and small villages (like Bretherton, Croston and Eccleston). It is just south of an area of outstanding natural beauty called the Lake District. Lancashire also has a lot of pleasant countryside such as White Coppice and the Rivington Moors.

paragraphs: A famous food from Lancashire is "Lancashire Hot pot" which is made of meat, onion or other vegetables and potatoes. It is often found on many pub menus in the county and in other places in Britain.

paragraphs: The people of Lancashire are known for their friendly nature. Humour is also an important part of Lancashire life.


title: Church of England

paragraphs: The Church of England is the leading Christian church in England. It is the church established by law: its formal head is the English monarch (Elizabeth II). It is the mother church of the Anglican Communion. Its headquarters are at Church House, Westminster, in London.

paragraphs: The Church of England understands itself to be both Catholic and Reformed:

paragraphs: There are other Protestant churches in England which are not part of the Anglican Communion.

paragraphs: The Church of England became independent under King Henry VIII in 1534. Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon, but asked the Pope to annul the marriage (say that it was a mistake and that Henry and Catherine were never really married). He wanted to annul the marriage because he wanted a male heir to his throne and Catherine could not produce one. When the annulment was refused, Henry VIII used his position as King to break the Church away from the Roman Catholic Church. This established the independence of the Church of England, sometimes called the Anglican (English) Church. Methodism broke away from the church in the 18th century. The Oxford Movement brought some Catholic beliefs and practices back into the church in the 19th century.

paragraphs: Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant forms of worship were adopted. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer started more changes. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles.


title: Tense (grammar)

paragraphs: Tense is the time described by a verb, shown by its grammatical form. There are two main tenses in English:

paragraphs: Tense is sometimes shown by changing the form of a verb, and sometimes by adding a helping verb. For example, "be" can become "am", "is", and "are" in present tense, and "was" and "were" in past tense.

paragraphs: Linguists generally say that English does not have a future tense. In English, the future is shown by adding "will" before the verb. For example, "be" becomes "will be".

paragraphs: "Note:These tenses can be subdivided further (see below)".

paragraphs: There are also different kinds of tense within each main tense. In English, these are formed by adding "helping verbs" or "auxiliary verbs", such as "be" and "have", before the verb, as well as changing the form of the verb. For example, "I give", "I have given", "I am giving", and "I have been giving" are all in present tense, but have different meanings"." This is called aspect.

paragraphs: Different languages have different ways of showing tense. For example, Latin usually shows tense by changing the form of the verb. Chinese and Indonesian show tense by adding additional words to the verb.


title: Blackpool Tower

paragraphs: Blackpool Tower is a tall structure in Blackpool, a North England seaside town.

paragraphs: It was built in the style of the Eiffel Tower. Building started in 1891 and finished in 1894. It cost £45000 (around $70000), is 518 ft tall and weighs 2586 tons. It is mainly made from steel and cast iron.

paragraphs: It is one of the main tourist attractions in Blackpool. These include the tower itself, the Golden Mile, which is a row of arcades, the Irish Sea and beach, and Pleasure Beach Blackpool (a theme park).

paragraphs: The oldest part of the building is the old aquarium which was part of Dr Cockers' Menagarie and Aquarium since the 1870s. It was kept open to earn money while the tower building was built around it.

paragraphs: The tower was bought by Blackpool Council in 2010 and is now run by Merlin Entertainments for Blackpool Council.

paragraphs: Since Merlin Entertainments started running the tower, the building has been repaired and new attractions have been added. The aquarium was removed to make way for a new attraction.

paragraphs: Attractions at the tower include the Blackpool Dungeon, the Blackpool Tower Eye, the Blackpool Tower Circus, the Blackpool Tower Ballroom and Jungle Jim's.


title: Theme park

paragraphs: A theme park is a place with attractions made up of rides, such as roller coasters and water rides. They usually contain a selection of different types of rides, along with shops, restaurants and other entertainment outlets. Theme parks can be enjoyed by adults, teenagers and children.

paragraphs: Many are themed to a particular area; there are water parks, parks modeled after toys, parks modeled after movies or types of movies, usually adventure or action.


title: Kookaburra

paragraphs: Kookaburras are birds of the genus Dacelo and are native to Australia and New Guinea. An adult kookaburra is generally 28–42cm from the head to the tip of the tail.

paragraphs: Kookaburras usually eat small animals: small mammals (like mice), insects, small birds, lizards and snakes.

paragraphs: Kookaburras usually live in family groups. Young kookaburras help their parents to hunt and care for the smaller children.

paragraphs: Kookaburras are well known for their loud call, which sounds a bit like human laughter. Kookaburras use their calling to show others what is their land.


title: Poll tax

paragraphs: Poll tax is a system of taxing. It is also called head tax. It is based on the idea that everyone pays the same amount of tax. This is regardless of how much they earn. In the last few years of Margaret Thatcher's reign as British Prime minister, she received heavy opposition and mass riots were held when she tried to have poll tax used as the tax system.


title: Canadian dollar

paragraphs: The Canadian dollar is the national currency of Canada. It has been used since 1858. The Canadian dollar is also used in Saint Pierre and Miquelon along with the Euro.


title: Bonn

paragraphs: Bonn is a city near Cologne. It is in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia.

paragraphs: Bonn was founded on an old Roman settlement. Today it has about 310,000 inhabitants.

paragraphs: Following World War II Bonn was in the British occupation zone. In 1949 Bonn was chosen as the provisional capital of West Germany.

paragraphs: Bonn was the choice of Konrad Adenauer, a former Cologne Mayor and the first Chancellor of West Germany after World War II, who came from that area. Frankfurt am Main had most of the needed facilities already, so using Bonn meant spending about 95 Million DM to building new roads and building. However, Frankfurt am Main had been an important city during the war, and choosing Bonn was to symbolise a new start for the new Germany.

paragraphs: Because of its relatively small size for a capital city, Bonn was sometimes jokingly called the "Bundesdorf" (Federal Village).

paragraphs: Bonn was the capital of West Germany from 1949 until 1990 it. The Bundestag voted to move to Berlin on 20 June 1991, after a heated debate. The Federal President had already decided to make Schloß Bellevue in Berlin his main official residence. The extra building work needed meant it was 1999 before the government's move was completed.

paragraphs: Beethoven's birthplace is located at Bonngasse. Next to the market place is the Old Town Hall, built in 1737 in Rococo style, under the rule of Clemens August of Bavaria. It's used for receptions of guests of the town, and as a bureau for the mayor. Close by is the "Kurfürstliches Schloss", which has been built as a residence of the prince-elector, and nowadays is the main building of the University of Bonn.

paragraphs: The "Poppelsdorfer Allee", an alley flanked by chestnut trees, connects the "Kurfürstliches Schloss" with the "Poppelsdorfer Schloss", a palace that was built as a resort to prince-electors in the first half of the 18th century. This axis is interrupted by a railway line and Bonn Central Station, a building erected in 1883/84.

paragraphs: The three highest buildings in the city are the radio mast of WDR in Bonn-Venusberg (180 m), the headquarters of the Deutsche Post called "Post Tower" (162.5 m) and the former building for the German members of parliament "Langer Eugen" (114.7 m) which nowadays is the new location of the UN-Campus.


title: CAF Champions League

paragraphs: The CAF Champions League is a football competition between the best club teams in Africa. The teams are selected because of good performances in matches.


title: Copa Libertadores

paragraphs: CONMEBOL Libertadores or Copa Libertadores (Libertadores Cup) is a football competition between the best club teams in South America. The teams are qualified based on how well they did in the national tournament. The last year winner has assured participation. The tournament is run by Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL).

paragraphs: Copa Libertadores is played annually. It usually happens between the months of February and November (South American summer and spring). Its winner is qualified for the annual FIFA Club World Cup.

paragraphs: Libertadores starts in January with the worst classified team of each country playing for to be a part of the "Main Draw". In February, the Main Draw begins. It is made up of 8 groups with 4 clubs in each group. Each team plays 6 games. They play three home games and three away games. The top 2 clubs in every group advance to the next round. A total of 16 clubs play in the playoffs.

paragraphs: The better qualified clubs in the Main Draw take advantage of playing the second game of each round of the playoffs at home. Libertadores goes on with clubs playing home and away, round after round till the Finals.

paragraphs: Unlike European club competitions, the Copa Libertadores, in the past, did not use extra time or away goals to decide a tie. Starting with the 2005 event, CONMEBOL began to use the away goals rule, with the extra time used only in the final matches.


title: Longbow

paragraphs: A longbow is a type of bow. It may not have been as powerful as a crossbow but it could shoot more arrows per minute. Also, the basic equipment cost little, and could be easily mass produced. Metal-tipped arrows could pierce all but the best plate armour. Archers (longbowmen) would usually have a second weapon, often a battle-axe, for close-quarter fighting.

paragraphs: The longbow was mainly used in the Middle Ages until Henry VIII's reign.

paragraphs: It was made from a single piece of hard wearing, flexible wood (often yew). Yew was cut during the winter when there was no sap. The flat side of the bow facing the target was flexible sapwood while the belly (facing the archer) was round and made of strong heartwood (from the center of a tree). The devastating hail of the longbowmen (at a rate of six per minute) was often very demoralizing.

paragraphs: Longbows have been found in Europe as far back as the Mesolithic period.

paragraphs: In the British Isles the weapon was first recorded as being used by the Welsh. In AD 633 Offrid, son of Edwin, king of Northumbria, was killed by an arrow shot from a Welsh longbow. This was during a battle between the Welsh and the Mercians — more than five centuries before any record of its use in England. Despite this, the weapon is more commonly known as the "English longbow" than the "Welsh longbow".

paragraphs: In the Middle Ages the English and Welsh were famous for their very powerful Welsh longbows. They were used to great effect in the civil wars of the period and against the French in the Hundred Years' War (with notable success at the battles of Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415).

paragraphs: The average length of arrowshafts recovered from the 1545 sinking of the Mary Rose is .

paragraphs: A longbow has practical advantages compared to a modern recurve or compound bow; it is usually lighter, quicker to prepare for shooting, and shoots more quietly. However, other things being equal, the modern bow will shoot a faster arrow more accurately than the longbow.


title: African Union

paragraphs: The African Union (AU) is an international organization consisting of fifty-five African member countries. Founded in Durban on 9 July 2002, the AU was formed as a replacement to the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the African Economic Community (AEC).

paragraphs: The current Chairperson of the African Union is President of Egypt Abdel Fattah el-Sisi since February 10, 2019.

paragraphs: The AU, in the future, aims to have a single currency and a single integrated defense force, as well as other institutions of state, including a cabinet for the AU Head of State. The purpose of the organization is to help secure the continent's democracy, human rights, and a sustainable economy, especially by bringing an end to conflict between African nations and creating an effective common market.


title: Bastille

paragraphs: The Bastille was a prison in Paris, France. It was destroyed during the French Revolution on 14 July 1789. It was attacked by rebels from the "third estate" (the people). This event is considered the beginning of the French Revolution. Today in France, the 14 July, "Fête Nationale", or Bastille Day, is a national holiday.

paragraphs: The Bastille was built during the Hundred Years' War. It was called the Bastion de Saint-Antoine. At first it was just the Saint-Antoine gate, but from 1370–1383, this gate was made bigger and became a fortress. It defended the east end of Paris and the Hôtel Saint-Pol royal palace. After the war, it was turned into a prison. Louis XIII(13) was the first king to send prisoners there.

paragraphs: The Bastille was built in a rectangle shape, 70 meters (220 ft) long and 30 meters (90 ft) wide. It had eight towers and walls 25 meters (80 ft) high, with a wide moat going around the outside. There were two courtyards inside and houses against the walls. Pairs of towers on the east and west sides had gates through which the rue Saint-Antoine passed. In the 1400s, these were blocked up, and a new city gate was built to the north on the present day rue de la Bastille. A bastion on the eastern side was built later. The walls and towers were of the same height and width and joined by a broad path. Soldiers on the wall could move quickly to any part of the fortress without having to climb down inside the towers. It also meant that there was enough room for placing artillery. A similar design can be seen today at Château de Tarascon.

paragraphs: As a prison, the Bastille held common criminals such as forgers and thieves, as well as people put in prison for religious reasons, such as the Huguenots. Some had been put in prison for printing or writing things against the government or the King. People of high rank were sometimes held there too. The prison, which could only hold about 50 prisoners, was not as bad most of the prisons in Paris. But secrecy about the prison and its prisoners gave it an evil reputation.

paragraphs: The people of Paris attacked the Bastille on 14 July 1789, following several days of protests. They wanted the gunpowder and weapons that were kept at the prison. They were not attacking the Bastille to free the seven prisoners inside. The prison was guarded by about 80 "invalides" (old soldiers) led by Governor Bernard-René de Launay. There was also an extra group of 32 grenadiers from one of the Swiss mercenary regiments brought to Paris by the King shortly before 14 July.

paragraphs: A crowd of around 8,000 men and women were outside the Bastille by mid-morning. They wanted the guards to give up the prison, remove the artillery guns, and give them the gunpowder and weapons. Two people chosen to represent those outside were invited into the fortress to talk with the Governor.

paragraphs: At about 1:00pm, the crowd broke into the undefended outer courtyard and the chains on the drawbridge to the inner courtyard were cut. There was some gunfire, but by mid-afternoon the crowd was supported by mutinous Gardes Françaises of the Royal Army and two cannons. De Launay ordered his guards to stop shooting and he gave up the fortress. The crowd swept into the Bastille at about 5.30pm.

paragraphs: The crowd took the weapons, gunpowder, and freed the seven prisoners. They had to break down the doors because the keys had already been taken and shown in the streets. Even though they had surrendered, the Governor and some of the guards of the Bastille were killed. Their heads were cut off, stuck onto long poles, and marched through the streets.

paragraphs: The propaganda value of the Bastille was quickly seen by Pierre-François Palloy, "Patriote Palloy". He got together a group of men to begin pulling down the fortress by the next day. People paid him to view the site and he sold off pieces as souvenirs. By November, 1789, the Bastille was largely pulled down. The cut stones of the fortress were used to build the Pont de la Concorde (Paris).

paragraphs: The site of the Bastille is now called the Place de la Bastille. It is home to the Opéra Bastille. The large moat behind the fort has been turned into a marina for boats, the Bassin de l'Arsenal. To the north, a covered canal, the Canal Saint Martin, goes under the road along the edge of the site.

paragraphs: The remains of one tower of the fort were found during digging for the Paris Métro (rail mass-transit system) in 1899. These were moved to a park, the Square Henri-Galli, a few hundred meters away. The outline of the fort is also marked on the streets and sidewalks with special paving stones. A cafe and some other businesses are now on the site of the fort, and the rue Saint Antoine passes directly over it as it opens onto the roundabout of the Bastille.

paragraphs: Today, the French celebrate the 14 July by

paragraphs: ·       Having military and civilian parades


title: The Freecycle Network

paragraphs: The Freecycle Network (TFN) is a global network of people who share and regive items. They organise their network through the Internet. Freecycle is a place for people to meet. There are just two things people can do there.

paragraphs: The first thing is this: A person can ask the other people for an item. If someone has it, they can tell the person who wants it.

paragraphs: The second thing is this: A person can give away an item. Sometimes many people want the item, and the donator has to choose just one person.


title: Slashdot

paragraphs: Slashdot is a website where people can read news. Most people who go to Slashdot like computers. Other people go, too.

paragraphs: On the Slashdot website, people can comment on the news. Often this leads to interesting discussions with many points of view.

paragraphs: Slashdot has been a website for ten years. It has lots of things to talk about. Some of the things are: computers, the Internet, video games, and politics.

paragraphs: Many people like Slashdot because you can share ideas. People who like computers and the Internet can read the ideas to learn.

paragraphs: Anyone can go to Slashdot and read it and do not need to give money. People from every country go. It has many ideas which are never the same.


title: Hooke's law

paragraphs: It is a law of mechanics and physics discovered by Robert Hooke.

paragraphs: This theory of elasticity says the extension of a spring is proportional to the load applied to it. Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Materials for which Hooke's law is useful are known as linear-elastic or "Hookean" materials.

paragraphs: The length of a spring always changes by the same amount when it is pushed or pulled. The equation for this is:

paragraphs: When x = 0, the spring is at the equilibrium position.

paragraphs: This equation only works on a linear spring. A linear spring is a spring that is only being pushed or pulled in one direction, such as left or right or up or down.

paragraphs: Examples of everyday objects that have elastic potential energy are stretched or compressed elastic bands, springs, bungee cords, car shock absorbers, etc.

paragraphs: Elastic potential energy is the energy saved in an object that is stretched, compressed (compression is pressing objects together), twisted or bent. For example, an arrow gets the elastic potential energy from the bow. When it leaves the bow, the potential energy turns into kinetic energy.

paragraphs: The equation of the elastic potential energy is:


title: Railfan

paragraphs: A railfan is a person who likes railways and trains. Railfans like to take pictures of trains. They also like to watch trains. Some railfans make models of railways. These are called model railways.

paragraphs: Some railfans like to study the history of railways. Some railfans collect things having to do with trains. Railfans may carry a radio scanner when they are watching trains, so they can listen to the railway workers talk. Some railfans work for a railway, or have family members who worked for a railway. Most railfans like to ride trains.

paragraphs: There are many magazines for people who like trains. Railfans enjoy reading books and magazines about trains.


title: Time (magazine)

paragraphs: Time is an American news magazine. It was founded in 1923. It is printed every week in the United States. It is published by Time Inc. It has articles on politics and current events. It is read by more people than any other news magazine.

paragraphs: There is also a magazine called "Time For Kids", aimed at children. That magazine is eight pages long and contains more images and shorter articles than the regular "Time" magazine.


title: Cable television

paragraphs: Cable television is a way of letting people watch television without having to get signals from an antenna. The television signals are brought to the television through a coaxial cable or optical fiber People usually have to pay to subscribe to cable television. With cable television, people can watch hundreds of television channels carrying many television shows. Usually some of these are television stations and others are cable channels, made for the cable companies.

paragraphs: Cable TV is provided by many carriers, usually a place is served by only one or two cable companies. Some of those carriers in the United States are: AT&T U-Verse, Comcast, Time Warner Cable and Verizon. Another method of subscription television is by Satellite television, especially in places where cable TV is not available.


title: Antenna

paragraphs: An antenna or aerial is a metal device made to send or receive radio waves. Many electronic devices like radio, television, radar, wireless LAN, cell phone, and GPS need antennas to do their job. Antennas work both in air and outer space.

paragraphs: The word 'antenna' is from Guglielmo Marconi's test with wireless equipment in 1895. For the test, He used a 2.5 meter long pole antenna with a tent pole called ' "l'antenna centrale" ' in Italian. So his antenna was simply called ' "l'antenna" '. After that, the word 'antenna' became popular among people and had the meaning it has today. The plural of antenna is either "antennas" or "antennae" (U.S. and Canada tends to use "antennas" more than other places).

paragraphs: Each one is made to work for a specific frequency range. The antenna's length or size usually depends on the wavelength (1/frequency) it uses.

paragraphs: Different kinds of antenna have different purposes. For example, the isotropic radiator is an imaginary antenna that sends signals equally in all directions. The dipole antenna is simply two wires with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end standing free in space. It sends or receives signals in all directions except where the wires are pointing. Some antennas are more directional. Horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short. Satellite television and radio telescopes mostly use dish antennas.


title: Jack London

paragraphs: John Griffith "Jack" London (born John Griffith Chaney, January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916) was an American writer. He wrote many books. He lived in the U.S. state of California but also spent a lot of time in Hawaii and Alaska.

paragraphs: His most famous book was "The Call of the Wild". "The Call of the Wild" is about a dog named Buck who is taken to Alaska to work with a pack of dogs pulling a sled. This book took place during the Klondike Gold Rush. Many people bought "The Call of the Wild" and Jack London became a famous writer. He also wrote other books about dogs and wolves. Another one of his famous books is "White Fang".

paragraphs: Jack London was also a hobo at one time. He wrote a book about this called "The Road". Jack London had political beliefs. He was a socialist. One of his famous books is "The Iron Heel", which is the story of the government using force against the socialist movement.

paragraphs: He also spent some time at sea and making a living as an "oyster pirate". He wrote many books about sailing and boats. One of his best-known books about life at sea was "The Sea Wolf".

paragraphs: He married Charmian London born Kittredge (second wife). She was an athletic woman and an intellectual companion that broke the mold of Victorian womanhood—though they grew apart when she turned to socialite circles. His feminism was matched by models of sensitive "virility" and he sorted out the master-slave model of government in order to find alternatives.[3] He was on the vanguard of animal welfare and attempted a model pig farm, and experimented with early ecological agriculture, but Wolf House (his dream home) burnt to the ground in what could have been arson.[4] He died in a state of depression.

paragraphs: 3. Cf. Saiz, Peter Ralph, "Political Tyranny and the Master-Slave Paradigm in Selected Sea-Tales of Herman Melville and Jack London", PhD thesis Purdue University 2003. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI3113867/ Cf. also, Huebert, David, "Species Panic: Interspecies Erotics in Post-1900 American literature", PhD thesis University of Western Ontario 2018. 4. Cf. http://santarosahistory.com/wordpress/2016/11/the-case-for-arson-at-wolf-house/. Cf.Fresneau-Woodward, Servanne, "Nature animale et paysages naturels dans l'oeuvre de Jack London" Doctorat, Université de Paris X https://www.theses.fr/1987PA100174


title: Jerk

paragraphs: Jerk is the change in the acceleration of an object. Mathematically, jerk is the derivative, or the rate of change of acceleration by time. Jerk is also called jolt (in British English), surge, or lurch. Jerk is a vector and there is no word for its scalar value.

paragraphs: The jerk is measured in metres per second cubed (formula_1).

paragraphs: Yank can be thought as a force in terms of jerk. Force is mass times acceleration. Similarly, Yank is mass times jerk. It is also the derivative of the force. However, when an object is moving near the speed of light, a force is often written as the derivative of momentum. In this case, Yank is the rate of change of the derivative of momentum.

paragraphs: Jerk is used in engineering, particularly in making roller coasters. Weak objects such as people can be damaged by high acceleration or high jerk.

paragraphs: Also, jerk must be thought in the process of making any product. Sudden change in acceleration means very large jerk. Extent of exposure to jerk is often a good predictor of the rate of deterioration of tools while in normal use; it corresponds better to the appearance of metal fatigue among other modes of failure.


title: Electric current

paragraphs: An electric current is a flow of electric charge. The equation of current is:

paragraphs: The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A). This is equal to one coulomb of charge in one second.

paragraphs: Current can be found in wires, batteries, and lightning.

paragraphs: In conducting materials, some electrons are very loosely bound to the atoms of the material. When large amounts of these atoms come together, there is a sort of electron cloud that "hovers" near the atoms of the material. If you examine a cross-section of the piece of conducting material, the electrons will move very quickly through it. This motion is caused by temperature, and electrons flowing in one direction tend to equal the electrons flowing from the other direction, so this is not what causes current to flow. Electrons flow from one atom to another, a process has been compared to the passing of water buckets from one person to another in a bucket brigade.

paragraphs: When an electric field is put on the wire, the electrons respond almost instantly by drifting slightly in the opposite direction of the field. They gain energy from the field, which is lost very quickly when they bump into other electrons in the material. As long as the field is in place, however, the electrons will gain back that energy that they lost, and the process will continue. This "jolt" that electrons receive from the electric field is the source of current, not the overall flow of electrons themselves. From this discussion, we can see two things that current is "not":

paragraphs: When current is flowing in a wire circuit, it accelerates when there is no resistance in the circuit. Resistors are used to increase resistance in the circuit so it slows down the current. The relationship between resistance, current, and voltage (another part of the circuit) is shown by Ohm's law.


title: Inbreeding

paragraphs: Inbreeding is a term in genetics, meaning the crossing (mating) of closely related animals or plants. Self-fertilisation in plants is the most extreme kind of inbreeding. It is quite widespread in plants which carry both male and female flowers on the same plant. Inbreeding is the opposite of outcrossing, which is the mating of unrelated members of the same species. The combination of inbreeding and outcrossing is a standard method of artificial selection.

paragraphs: Other terms are inbred strain, a group of organisms so inbred that they have little or no genetic variation, and inbreeding depression, which is the decreased fitness (usually lack of fertility and early illness and death) brought about by inbreeding.

paragraphs: For human beings, inbreeding is destructive, and almost all cultures have an incest taboo. For example, many prohibit marriage between first cousins, and most prohibit it for closer family members.

paragraphs: Loss of genetic variation means that many gene loci that were heterozygous are now homozygous. The result of both genes at a locus being mutant can be serious.

paragraphs: The most intense form of inbreeding is the self-fertilisation in an hermaphrodite, in which the proportion of heterozygotes is halved in each generation. Aa x Aa (100%) gives 1 AA: 2 Aa; 1 aa (50%), and so on. A similar effect takes twice as long with brother-sister mating, and longer still with mating in very small isolated groups. The latter situation is famous because Sewall Wright did his calculations for just such groups, and he called the process genetic drift. Genetic drift and inbreeding are closely related concepts.

paragraphs: The degree of inbreeding can be measured in various ways. A simple test for mammals is the exchange of skin grafts. If the grafts are not rejected, the animals must be nearly identical genetically. Skin grafts can be successfully exchanged between rats in standard laboratory strains, and between cheetahs caught in the wild.

paragraphs: Why is it that inbreeding brings about a loss of viability? There are two answers, and both seem to be true. The first is that a group with little genetic variation is vulnerable to environmental challenges: infections, sudden climate events, predators. Small groups are vulnerable to chance events in any case, but with no heritable variability they are even more vulnerable.

paragraphs: The second explanation is genetic. Some of the homozygous genes will be "deleterious recessives" which would normally be shielded by a dominant allele. Also, there are some loci where the heterozygote is inherently fitter than either homozygote. If so, inbreeding will automatically cause a loss of vigour.

paragraphs: Many plant species do self-pollination in the wild, but the great majority have occasional outcrossing. This provides them with sufficient variety for their survival.


title: Cambridge

paragraphs: Cambridge is a city in England. It is north of London. The city is famous for its university, the University of Cambridge, which is thought to be one of the best universities in the world. The university has a hospital (Addenbrooke's Hospital), laboratory (Cavendish Laboratory), chapel (King's College Chapel) and library (Cambridge University Library). There is also a Central Library in Cambridge, on the first floor of the Grand Arcade, St Andrew's Street.

paragraphs: There are 108,863 people living in Cambridge, of which 22,153 are students. There are lots of smaller towns and villages around Cambridge.

paragraphs: The city has lots of parks and is next to the river Cam - the city's name "Cambridge" means "bridge over the Cam."


title: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

paragraphs: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a book written by Mark Twain, published in 1884. It is a sequel to his earlier book, "Tom Sawyer".

paragraphs: After "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer", Huck was adopted by the widow Douglas who wants to “civilize” him and so he joined Tom’s band of robbers.

paragraphs: One day, Huck’s father Pap, a violent drunkard, appears in St. Petersburg. When a new judge arrives, Pap gains custody of his son and moves to a cabin on the other side of the river. Huck is kept locked but fakes his own death and hides on Jackson’s Island, a small island on the river. There he meets Miss Watson’s black slave Jim who ran away.

paragraphs: When they find a raft, they decide to go to a free state. After a storm, a house is floating down the river and they enter it and grab what they can. Inside, there is a dead man shot in the back and Jim prevents Huck from seeing the dead man’s face.

paragraphs: Huck dresses as a girl and returns to town because he wants to hear what’s going on in town. A woman tells that Jim is considered to be Huck’s murderer. Moreover, she is suspicious about Huck’s true sex and reveals that he is a boy. Huck returns to the island and together with Jim he flees downriver.

paragraphs: After some time on the river, they are separated by a passing steaming boat and Huck meets the Grangerfords, a rich family. He befriends with Buck Grangerford who is about his age. The Grangerfords are in a 30-year feud against the Shepherdsons, another rich family along the Mississippi. When a conflict breaks out, all Grangerford males are killed. Huck can escape and reunites with Jim. Together they float further downriver.

paragraphs: Later, they rescue two con men who join the boys on their journey. They pull several scams along the river. Once, they pretend to be a dead man’s brothers and escape after their true identities are revealed.

paragraphs: Later, the elder one sells Jim. Huck finds out that Jim is now owned by the Phelps. He decides to free him and pretends to be the Phelps’ nephew Tom Sawyer. When the real Tom arrives, he plays along.

paragraphs: Jim is held in a shed and Tom has a risky escape plan. As they carry out their plan, Tom is shot in the leg. While Huck gets help, Jim remains with Tom. When they return to the farm, Jim is recaptured while Tom is unconscious.

paragraphs: When Tom awakes, he reveals that Jim had been free for weeks after his owner died two months ago. He did not tell Huck because he wanted a risky plan to rescue Jim. Furthermore, Tom’s Aunt Polly arrives and reveals Huck’s and Tom’s real identities. Moreover, Jim tells that Pap was the dead man on the floating house. Finally, Huck decides to go West.

paragraphs: "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" received often good reviews, but the novel was controversial from the beginning. When the American edition came out in 1885 some libraries banned it.

paragraphs: Today, many people feel that the book attacks racism and shows that it is bad. Others criticize the book because it shows things like slavery, and uses words like "nigger". They also think that, although Jim is not meant to be a bad character, he has some stereotypes of that time.


title: Snooker

paragraphs: Snooker is a cue sport played by two players. It is popular in the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth and parts of Asia.

paragraphs: It is played on a large (12 by 6 feet) table that is covered with a smooth green cloth called baize and has holes (called pockets) in each of the four corners and in the middle of each of the long side cushions.

paragraphs: The players use long thin sticks called cues to strike a white ball (the cue ball). The cue ball must always be hit first when attempting a shot at the target ball.

paragraphs: There are 21 target balls in total - 15 red balls (worth 1 point each) and 6 colours: a yellow (2 points), green (3 points), brown (4 points), blue (5 points), pink (6 points) and black ball (7 points).

paragraphs: Each target ball must be aimed or 'potted' into one of the pockets in order. A red ball followed by a colour then a red ball again. This happens until only the coloured balls are left. The colours then have to be potted in the following order: yellow, green, brown, blue, pink and black.

paragraphs: The player who scores more points wins the game or 'frame'. A match consists of an agreed number of frames.

paragraphs: Big events in snooker are the World Snooker Championship, UK Championship and the Masters. Professional players play on the World Snooker Tour.

paragraphs: The best-known snooker players are the five-time world champion Ronnie O'Sullivan, seven-time world champion Stephen Hendry and the current world champion Judd Trump. Other former world champions are for example Joe Davis (fifteen wins), his brother Fred Davis, John Pulman (each eight wins) and six-time world champions Ray Reardon and Steve Davis.


title: Aaliyah

paragraphs: Aaliyah Dana Haughton (January 16, 1979 – August 25, 2001) was an American recording artist and actress.

paragraphs: Aaliyah was born in Brooklyn, New York, and raised in Detroit, Michigan. From her youth, she began to sing: she did singing competitions, castings and shows. Her career began in 1994 with the release of her first album "Age Ain't Nothing But A Number". She continued going to the High School of the Performing Arts after this.

paragraphs: In 1996, Aaliyah's second album, "One in a Million". Aaliyah always wanted to act and she got the leading role in "Romeo Must Die" (2000). Then she starred in "Queen of the Damned" in 2002.

paragraphs: In 2001, she returned to music with her third album called "Aaliyah", She put a lot into it, as a singer and as an executive producer. She worked on it with her uncle. She died on August 25, 2001 in a plane crash in the Bahamas. She was going to be in the movie "The Matrix Reloaded", but the filmmakers had to use another person after she died.

paragraphs: Aaliyah Dana Haughton was born in Brooklyn, New York. She was of African American descent, with Native American heritage from her grandmother. She was the second and younger child of Diane and Michael Haughton. Aaliyah was enrolled in voice lessons by her mother, and she would perform at weddings, church choir and charity events. When she was five years old, her family moved to Detroit, Michigan, where she was raised along with her older brother, Rashad. She attended a Catholic school, Gesu Elementary, where she received a part in the stage play named "Annie" in first grade. From then on, she was determined to become an entertainer.

paragraphs: Aaliyah's mother was a vocalist. Her uncle, Barry Hankerson, was an entertainment lawyer who had been married to Gladys Knight. As a child, Aaliyah traveled with Knight and worked with an agent in New York to audition for commercials and television programs, including "Family Matters"; she went on to appear on "Star Search" at the age of ten. She then auditioned for several record labels and appeared in concerts alongside Knight at age 11.

paragraphs: Aaliyah attended the Detroit High School for the Performing Arts, where she majored in drama and graduated in 1997. Aaliyah began her acting career that same year.

paragraphs: After Hankerson signed a distribution deal with Jive Records, he signed Aaliyah to his label named Blackground Records when Aaliyah was 12 years old. She released her debut album "Age Ain't Nothing but a Number" in 1994. Rumors circulated that she and her mentor R. Kelly were not only romantically involved, but had also married. Aaliyah admitted to a friendship with R. Kelly, which had developed while recording "Age Ain't Nothing but a Number". She said they would go out together and watch a movie or eat somewhere when they went on breaks from recording the album and said they were "rather close". She dismissed the rumors about her relationship with him as people taking it "the wrong way."

paragraphs: Jamie Foster Brown wrote about R. Kelly's recollection of the time he had spent working with Aaliyah, writing, "R. Kelly told me that he and Aaliyah got together and it was just magic." Brown reported hearing Aaliyah being a frequent guest at R. Kelly's home and walking his dog 12 Play. Along with this, he heard that she was pregnant. There were complaints about Aaliyah being in the studio recording with a bunch of older men. Aaliyah went on to admit that she had lied about her age in court documents and filed suit in Cook County to have the records erased since she was not old enough at the time (being fifteen when the marriage took place) to get married without having the go-ahead by her parents. Reports indicate that Aaliyah had a crush on R. Kelly at some point, but after the marriage was ended, she ceased professional and personal contact with him.

paragraphs: Jomo Hankerson later said that Aaliyah was treated bad over the marriage and that she had a hard time getting her second album to have a producer because of what had happened between her and R. Kelly. With the exception of Sean Combs, he said, there were not too many producers seeking to work with her because people were upset with her, which he did not understand given her age at the time. After the marriage ended, she stopped answering questions about R. Kelly and would often change the subject whenever it was brought up. This was noted by several organizations that did interviews with her. Aaliyah indicated that she would never again work with R. Kelly during an interview with Christopher John Farley, who went on to write a biography of the singer titled "Aaliyah: More Than a Woman". R. Kelly would go on to have more allegations about relationships with underage girls and the relationship with Aaliyah was brought up or mentioned most of the time as a starting point. He refused to discuss his relationship with her and explained his reason for doing this: ""Out of respect for her, and her mom and her dad, I will not discuss Aaliyah. That was a whole other situation, a whole other time, it was a whole other thing, and I'm sure that people also know that." According to her mother Diane Haughton, everything "that went wrong in her life" began with her relationship with R. Kelly. The allegations were dismissed as having little effect on her image or career.

paragraphs: In 1996, Aaliyah left Jive Records and signed with Atlantic Records. She worked with record producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott, who contributed to her second studio album, "One in a Million". She developed friendships with the pair. Timbaland was in love with her, but did not act out on it due to her being years younger than him. Instead he wanted to be a bigger brother figure for her, similar to her own brother Rashad Haughton. However, he struggled with keeping his feelings at bay. During her last days, the pair had an argument and it would be the last time they would speak to each other, as he next learned that she had passed.

paragraphs: She played as herself in the police drama television series "New York Undercover". During this time, Aaliyah participated in the Children's Benefit Concert, a charity concert that took place at the Beacon Theatre in New York.

paragraphs: Aaliyah's first major movie role was in "Romeo Must Die". Aaliyah starred opposite martial artist Jet Li, playing a couple who fall in love amid their warring families. It grossed US$18.6 million in its first weekend, ranking number two at the box office. Aaliyah was scared about bad reviews so she did not look for them. She heard good things about her role in the movie, but there were critics that did not like her role because of her relationship with Jet Li's character not having any realism along with the rest of the movie.

paragraphs: Before she died, she talked to the Isley Brothers about working together, having recorded one of their songs when she was younger during her tenure with Jive Records and was signed to appear in more movies. One of them was "Honey", which came out in 2003 "Some Kind of Blue", a romantic movie and "Sparkle", a movie produced by Whitney Houston that was the remake of the 1976 film of the same name. Houston said after Aaliyah passed that she wanted to be in the movie. Studio officials from Warner Brothers said she and her mother read the script and Aaliyah was passionate about appearing in the movie.

paragraphs: Aaliyah had a vocal range of a soprano. With the release of her first single "Back & Forth", Dimitri Ehrlich of "Entertainment Weekly" expressed that Aaliyah's "silky vocals are more agile than those of self-proclaimed queen of hip-hop soul Mary J. Blige." Aaliyah described her sound as "street but sweet", which featured her "gentle" vocals over a "hard" beat. Though Aaliyah did not write any of her own material, her lyrics were described as in-depth. She incorporated R&B, pop and hip hop into her music. Her songs were often uptempo and melancholy, revolving around "matters of the heart". Her songs have been said to have "crisp production" and "staccato arrangements" that "extend genre boundaries" while containing "old-school" soul music. When she experimented with other genres, such as Latin pop and heavy metal, critics did not like the attempt. As her albums progressed, writers felt that Aaliyah acted more older, calling her progress a "declaration of strength and independence". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described her eponymous album, "Aaliyah", as "a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward" and called it one of the strongest urban soul records of its time. She portrayed "unfamiliar sounds, styles and emotions", but managed to please critics with the contemporary sound it contained. Ernest Hardy of "Rolling Stone" felt that Aaliyah reflected a stronger technique, where she gave her best vocal performance. Others felt that she was "satisfying rather than extraordinary", stating that she added little to modern R&B.

paragraphs: On August 25, 2001, at 6:50 pm (EST), Aaliyah and various members of the record company boarded a twin-engine Cessna 402B (registration N8097W) at the Marsh Harbour Airport in Abaco Islands, The Bahamas, to travel to the Opa-locka Airport in Florida, after they completed filming the music video for the single "Rock the Boat". They had a flight scheduled the following day, August 26, but with filming finishing early, Aaliyah and her entourage were eager to return to the United States and made the decision to leave immediately. The designated airplane was smaller than the Cessna 404 in which they had originally flown. The whole party and all of the equipment were accommodated on board. As a result, when the aircraft attempted to depart, it was over its maximum takeoff weight by and was carrying one excess passenger, according to its certification. The plane crashed shortly after takeoff, about from the runway. Aaliyah and the eight others on board, pilot Luis Morales III, hair stylist Eric Forman, Anthony Dodd, security guard Scott Gallin, video producer Douglas Kratz, stylist Christopher Maldonado, and Blackground Records employees Keith Wallace and Gina Smith, were all killed.

paragraphs: According to findings from an inquest, conducted by the coroner's office in The Bahamas, Aaliyah suffered from "severe burns and a blow to the head", in addition to severe shock and a weak heart. The coroner theorized that, even if Aaliyah had survived the crash, her recovery would have been virtually impossible given the severity of her injuries. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) report stated that "the airplane was seen lifting off the runway, and then nose down, impacting in a marsh on the south side of the departure end of runway 27 and then exploding in flames." It indicated that the pilot was not approved to pilot the plane he was attempting to fly. Morales falsely obtained his Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) license by showing hundreds of hours never flown, and he may also have falsified how many hours he had flown in order to get a job with his employer, Blackhawk International Airways. Additionally, an autopsy performed on Morales revealed traces of cocaine and alcohol in his system. The NTSB reported that the maximum allowed gross weight of the plane was "substantially exceeded" and that the center of gravity was positioned beyond its rear limit. John Frank of the Cessna Pilots Association stated that the plane was "definitely overloaded".

paragraphs: The day of the crash was Morales' first official day with Blackhawk International Airways, an FAA Part 135 single-pilot operation. Morales was not registered with the FAA to fly for Blackhawk. As a result of the accident, Aaliyah's parents filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the company, which was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount. Barry & Sons, Inc., a corporation formed in 1992 to develop, promote and capitalize Aaliyah and to oversee the production and distribution of her records and music videos, brought an unsuccessful lawsuit in the New York Supreme Court against Instinct Productions LLC, the company that was hired in August 2001 to produce the music video for "Rock the Boat". The case was dismissed because of New York's wrongful death statute only permitting certain people to recover damages for wrongful death.

paragraphs: Aaliyah's funeral was held on August 31, 2001, at the Saint Ignatius Loyola Church in Manhattan. Her body was set in a silver casket, which was carried in a glass hearse and was drawn by horse. An estimated 800 mourners were in attendance of the procession. Among those in attendance at the private ceremony were Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Gladys Knight, Lil' Kim and Sean Combs. After the service, 22 white doves were released to symbolize each year of Aaliyah's life. She was interred in a crypt in a private room in the Rosewood Mausoleum at the Ferncliff Cemetery.

paragraphs: The week after Aaliyah's death, her third studio album, "Aaliyah", rose from number 19 to number one on the "Billboard" 200. "Rock the Boat" was released as a posthumous single. The music video premiered on BET's "Access Granted"; it became the most viewed and highest rated episode in the history of the show. The song peaked at number 14 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number two on the "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It was also included on the "Now That's What I Call Music! 8" compilation series; a portion of the album's profits was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund. The following two singles from "Aaliyah", "More than a Woman" and "I Care 4 U", peaked within the top 25 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. The album was certified double Platinum by the RIAA and sold 2.95 million copies in the United States. "More than a Woman" reached number one in the UK singles chart making Aaliyah the first deceased artist to reach number one in the UK single chart. "More than a Woman" was replaced by George Harrison's "My Sweet Lord" which is the only time in the UK singles chart history where a dead artist has replaced another dead artist at number one.

paragraphs: She won two posthumous awards at the American Music Awards of 2002; Favorite Female R&B Artist and Favorite R&B/Soul Album for "Aaliyah". Her second and final movie, "Queen of the Damned", was released in February 2002. Before its release, Aaliyah's brother, Rashad, re-dubbed some of her lines during post-production. It grossed US$15.2 million in its first weekend, ranking number one at the box office. On the first anniversary of Aaliyah's death, a candlelight vigil was held in Times Square, where millions of fans observed a moment of silence. Throughout the United States, radio stations played her music in remembrance. In December 2002, a collection of previously unreleased material was released as Aaliyah's first posthumous album, "I Care 4 U". A portion of the proceeds was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund, a program that benefits the Revlon UCLA Women Cancer Research Program and Harlem's Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. It debuted at number three on the "Billboard" 200, selling 280,000 copies in its first week. The album's lead single, "Miss You", peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and topped the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. In August of the following year, clothing retailer Christian Dior donated profits from sales in honor of Aaliyah.

paragraphs: Aaliyah was signed to appear in several future movies, including "Honey" (recast to Jessica Alba). "Some Kind of Blue" and a Whitney Houston-produced remake of the 1976 movie "Sparkle" were canceled due to Aaliyah's death. Before her death, Aaliyah had filmed part of her role in "The Matrix Reloaded" and was scheduled to appear in "The Matrix Revolutions" as Zee. The role was later recast to Nona Gaye. Aaliyah's scenes were later included in the tribute section of the "Matrix Ultimate Collection" series.

paragraphs: In 2005, Aaliyah's second compilation album, "Ultimate Aaliyah" was released in the UK by Blackground Records. "Ultimate Aaliyah" is a three disc set, which included a greatest hits audio CD and a DVD. Andy Kellman of Allmusic remarked ""Ultimate Aaliyah" adequately represents the shortened career of a tremendous talent who benefited from some of the best songwriting and production work by Timbaland, Missy Elliott, and R. Kelly." A documentary movie "Aaliyah Live in Amsterdam" was released in 2011., shortly before the tenth anniversary of Aaliyah's death. The documentary, by Pogus Caesar, contained previously unseen footage shot of her career beginnings in 1995 when she was appearing in the Netherlands.

paragraphs: In 2012 music producer Jeffrey "J-Dub" Walker via twitter said "Just got great news today; the smash unreleased song called "Steady Ground" I produced on #Aaliyah is gonna be on her upcoming album". Walker co-wrote "I Refuse" and "What if" from Aaliyah's third self-titled album and produced the song "Steady Ground" for her 'One in a Million' album. This second proposed posthumous album would feature this song using demo vocals since Walker claims the originals were somehow lost by his sound engineer. However, Walker's original tweet announcing this event has since been removed, and Aaliyah's brother, via Twitter, has stated that "no official album [is] being released and supported by the Haughton family."


title: Simple Plan

paragraphs: Simple Plan is a rock band from Montréal, Canada that was founded in 1999.

paragraphs: When they were 13, schoolmates Pierre Bouvier and Chuck Comeau founded the band "Reset". They published their first album in 1997. Soon after that, Comeau left the band because school was more important to him. He came back in 1999 and founded "Simple Plan" with Sebastien Lefebvre and Jeff Stinco. Bouvier met up with Comeau at a Sugar Ray concert, and Comeau offered Bouvier to join his band. David Desrosiers, who had replaced Bouvier in Reset, joined the band in 2000. in 2002, they published the album "No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls". They worked together with Joel Madden (Good Charlotte) and Mark Hoppus (Blink-182). One year later, the album "Still Not Getting Any..." was published.


title: Serj Tankian

paragraphs: Serj Tankian (born on August 21, 1967 in Beirut, Lebanon) is an Armenian-American musician who lives in Los Angeles. He was the lead vocalist of System of a Down. He is now a solo artist and has released five solo albums.

paragraphs: Tankian was born in Beirut, Lebanon. Tankian moved with his parents to Los Angeles, California when he was five years old.


title: Axl Rose

paragraphs: Axl Rose (born February 6, 1962) is an American hard rock singer and songwriter. He was born William Bruce Bailey in Lafayette, Indiana, and grew up under the name William 'Bill' Bailey. He is best known as the lead singer for the rock band Guns N' Roses.

paragraphs: Rose started dating Erin Everly in early 1986. He wrote "Sweet Child o' Mine" for her and she was in the song's video.

paragraphs: He married Everly on April 28, 1990 in Las Vegas. Everly later said that Rose came to her house the day before their wedding with a gun and told her he would kill himself if she didn't marry him.

paragraphs: In 2012 it was rumored that he was dating Lana Del Rey.


title: Gravitational energy

paragraphs: Gravitational energy is the potential energy held by an object because of its high position compared to a lower position. In other words, it is energy associated with gravity or gravitational force. For example, a pen being held above a table has a higher gravitational potential than a pen sitting on the table. Gravitational potential energy is mechanical energy minus kinetic energy. It has a scalar quantity measured in Joules (J).

paragraphs: An object gets gravitational potential energy when it moves uphill. The energy used up when moving up the hill is changed into gravitational potential energy. When the object comes back down again, the gravitational potential energy is turned back into kinetic energy (movement). That is why riding a bike up a steep hill is very hard, but when you are coming back down, you will not need to pedal at all - you are being powered by the gravitational potential energy that you stored when you rode up the hill. Another way gravitational potential energy helps us is by keeping earth and the other planets in orbit in our solar system around the Sun.

paragraphs: The mathematical formula for the gravitational potential energy:

paragraphs: Gravitational potential energy = formula_1

paragraphs: Most scientists and students use these measurement unit:

paragraphs: For example, an object with a mass of 1.5 kilograms that is 2.5 metres above the ground would have a gravitational potential energy value of:


title: Shining Rock Wilderness

paragraphs: The Shining Rock Wilderness is a protected area in the U.S. state of North Carolina. Its first have been part of the National Wilderness Preservation System since the System was created in 1964. It now includes , and is managed by the United States Forest Service.

paragraphs: Within the wilderness, the Art Loeb trail can be followed to the top of Cold Mountain. Cold Mountain is the namesake of a historical fiction novel set in the time of the American Civil War. A movie based on the book is also named "Cold Mountain".


title: Radioactive decay

paragraphs: Radioactive decay happens to some chemical elements. Most chemical elements are stable. Stable elements are made up of atoms that stay the same. Even in a chemical reaction, the atoms themselves do not change ever.

paragraphs: In the 19th century, Henri Becquerel discovered that some chemical elements have atoms that change over time. In 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie called this phenomenon radioactive decay. Becquerel and the Curies were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery, in 1903.

paragraphs: Most carbon atoms have six protons and six neutrons in their nucleus. This carbon is called carbon-12s (six protons + six neutrons = 12). Its atomic weight is 12. If a carbon atom has two more neutrons it is carbon-14. Carbon-14 acts chemically like other carbon, because the six protons and six electrons are what govern its chemical properties. In fact, carbon-14 exists in all living things; all plants and animals contain carbon-14. However, carbon-14 is radioactive. It decays by beta decay to become nitrogen-14. Carbon-14, in the small amounts found about us in nature, is harmless. In archeology, this kind of carbon is used to determine the age of wood and other formerly living things. The method is called radiocarbon dating.

paragraphs: Ernest Rutherford found that there are different ways in which these particles penetrate matter. He found two different kinds, which he called alpha decay and beta decay. Paul Villard discovered a third kind in 1900. Rutherford called it "gamma decay", in 1903.

paragraphs: The change from radioactive carbon-14 to stable nitrogen-14 is a radioactive decay. It happens when the atom emits an alpha particle. An alpha particle is a pulse of energy as an electron or positron leaves the nucleus.

paragraphs: Other kinds of decay were discovered later. The types of decay are different from each other because different types of decay produce different kinds of particles. The starting radioactive nucleus is called the parent nucleus and the nucleus that it changes into is called the daughter nucleus. The high-energy particles produced by radioactive materials are called radiation.

paragraphs: These various kinds of decay can happen sequentially in a "decay chain". One kind of nucleus decays to another kind, which decays again to another and so on until it becomes a stable isotope and the chain comes to an end.

paragraphs: The speed at which this change happens, is different for each element. Radioactive decay is governed by chance: The time it takes, on average for half the atoms of a substance to change is named the half-life. The rate is given by an exponential function. As an example, iodine (I) has a half-life of about 8 days. That of plutonium ranges between 4 hours (Pu) and 80 million years (Pu)

paragraphs: Radioactive decay changes an atom from one that has higher energy inside its nucleus into one with lower energy. The change of energy of the nucleus is given to the particles that are created. The energy released by radioactive decay may either be carried away by a gamma ray electromagnetic radiation (a type of light), a beta particle or an alpha particle. In all those cases, the change of energy of the nucleus is carried away. And in all those cases, the total number of positive and negative charges of the atom's protons and electrons sum to zero before and after the change.

paragraphs: During alpha decay, the atomic nucleus releases an alpha particle. Alpha decay causes the nucleus to lose two protons and two neutrons. Alpha decay causes the atom to change into another element, because the atom loses two protons (and two electrons). For example, if Americium were to go through alpha decay it would change into Neptunium because Neptunium is defined by having two protons fewer than Americium. Alpha decay usually happens in the most heavy elements, such as uranium, thorium, plutonium, and radium.

paragraphs: Alpha particles cannot even go through a few centimeters of air. Alpha radiation cannot hurt humans when the alpha radiation source is outside the human body, because human skin does not let the alpha particles go through. Alpha radiation can be very harmful if the source is inside the body, such as when people breathe dust or gas containing materials which decay by emitting alpha particles (radiation).

paragraphs: There are two kinds of beta decay, beta-plus and beta-minus.

paragraphs: In beta-minus decay, the nucleus gives out a negatively charged electron and a neutron changes into a proton:

paragraphs: Beta-minus decay happens in nuclear reactors.

paragraphs: In beta-plus decay, the nucleus releases a positron, which is like an electron but it is positively charged, and a proton changes into a neutron:

paragraphs: Beta-plus decay happens inside the sun and in some types of particle accelerators.

paragraphs: Gamma decay happens when a nucleus produces a high-energy packet of energy called a gamma ray. Gamma rays do not have electrical charge, but they do have angular momentum. Gamma rays are usually emitted from nuclei just after other types of decay. Gamma rays can be used to see through material, to kill bacteria in food, to find some types of disease, and to treat some kinds of cancer. Gamma rays have the highest energy of any electromagnetic wave, and gamma ray bursts from space are the most energetic releases of energy known.


title: Nicotine

paragraphs: Nicotine is a drug in tobacco cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, vaping liquids and some e-cigarettes. Nicotine is an addictive stimulant that causes the heart to beat faster and makes blood pressure rise. It can also make a person feel less hungry and speeds up the metabolism. These effects can be very unhealthy. Many people who use tobacco products want to quit but have a hard time quitting. It is one of the most addictive chemicals that is widely consumed by humans. It can be as addictive as heroin or cocaine.

paragraphs: Nicotine is a substance found in most members of the Nightshade family of plants. Small quantities of it can be found in tomatoes, potatoes, aubergines (eggplants) and green pepper ("Capsicum", the peppers used as vegetables). Nicotine is also in the Coca plant. In higher quantities it is a very efficient poison. It acts on the nerves. It is a stimulant in lower quantities. It is the main reason people are addicted to smoking.

paragraphs: Nicotine is named after Jean Nicot. Nicot was a French ambassador in Portugal. He had some tobacco seeds sent to Paris for analysis (As a drug).

paragraphs: Besides the treatment of nicotine dependency, it seems that the drug can also be used to treat special (severe) forms of epilepsy, as well as some other diseases.

paragraphs: The amount of nicotine in one cigarette varies greatly. Factors which influence the amount include type of tobacco; brand of cigarette; country or region (some markets restrict maximum average nicotine levels); and how the cigarette is smoked.


title: Addiction

paragraphs: Addiction is when the body or mind badly wants or needs something in order to work right. When you have addiction to something it is called being "addicted" or being an "addict". People can be addicted to drugs, cigarettes, alcohol, caffeine, and many other things.

paragraphs: When somebody is addicted to something, they can become sick if they do not get the thing they are addicted to. But taking more of the thing they are addicted to can also hurt their health. Some people who are addicts need to go to a doctor or hospital to cure the addiction, so they no longer crave (want or need) the drug.

paragraphs: Addiction takes place when the addictive element enters the body. The blood stream moves the element around the body so that it gets to the brain, and makes the person feel that they are enjoying it; then they want more of that substance. This takes place remarkably fast for some addictions such as hashish and cocaine; but all of them control the consumer. Once under this control, the consumer does not have a completely free will, and listens to the addiction's bidding.

paragraphs: People can also be addicted to other things which are not drugs. You may hear people talk about being "addicted to the Internet" or "addicted to chocolate" or gambling. This means that they get into a habit of enjoying that thing, so if they have to go without it for a while, they miss it a lot.

paragraphs: Addiction is similar to a major disease like chronic heart disease or perhaps diabetes, but addictions are not taken as seriously as these major diseases. Most people believe addiction to be a lifestyle choice, which in fact it is but it is also part of a person's genetics. While some people can do things and control themselves others cannot due to their genetic makeup. There are ways of helping the addict but this takes the admission of a problem and then proper testing to reveal what kind of treatment is needed.

paragraphs: The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) defines addiction as a treatable, chronic medical disease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual’s life experiences. People with addiction use substances or engage in behaviors that become compulsive and often continue despite harmful consequences. Prevention efforts and treatment approaches for addiction are generally as successful as those for other chronic diseases.


title: Secession

paragraphs: Secession usually means when part of one country breaks away, or leaves that country to start a new country. During the American Civil War, eleven southern states declared their secession (independence) from the United States.


title: Mine

paragraphs: In English, the term mine can stand for different concepts:


title: New England

paragraphs: New England is a region in the northeastern United States consisting of six states: Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The name was coined in 1616 by the English explorer John Smith.


title: Rockville, Virginia

paragraphs: Rockville is a small town in the U.S. state of Virginia. It is in Hanover County near Richmond, Virginia. Rockville is mainly a farming town. It got its name from nearby rock quarries.


title: Intelligence quotient

paragraphs: An intelligence quotient (acronym: IQ) is a number. This number is the score (result) of a standard test to measure intelligence. There are several different tests designed to measure the intelligence of a person. Measuring intelligence in any way is an idea developed by British scientist Francis Galton in the book "Hereditary genius" published in the late 19th century.

paragraphs: IQ is a comparative measure: it tells one how much above or below the average a person is. The idea of the test was developed at the start of the 20th century. The tests try to avoid specific knowledge, and try to ask questions which, in principle, anyone might be able to answer.

paragraphs: One modern IQ test is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. It says where the subject's score is on the Gaussian bell. The bell curve used has a center value of 100 and a standard deviation of 15; other tests may have different standard deviations.

paragraphs: IQ scores can tell some things about a person, as well as intelligence. This is because intelligence is linked to other aspects of life. "All the cognitive tests completed in 1983 predicted onset of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease up to 11 years later". They can predict the social status of the parents, and the parents' IQ.

paragraphs: There is still disagreement about to what extent IQ is inherited. People still disagree about how much of a person's IQ comes from his parents and how much depends on his environment (what his home is like).

paragraphs: The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising about three points per decade since the early 20th century. Most of the increase is in the lower half of the IQ range. This is called the Flynn effect. People who study it disagree whether these changes in scores are really happening, or it they mean that there were mistakes in how people were tested in the past.

paragraphs: There are associations of people who have scored high on IQ tests, such as Mensa International.

paragraphs: There are many different kinds of intelligence tests that use many methods. Some kinds of tests are

paragraphs: The different tests are strongly correlated with each other. psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904 first studied how the scores from different kinds of intelligence tests are related to each other. He did factor analysis of correlations between the tests, and found a single common factor explained the positive correlations among tests.

paragraphs: Spearman found that if a person got a high (or low) score on one kind of test, he probably (but not always) would get a similar score on the other kinds of tests. Because of this, he said that a person's intelligence could be described with one number. He called this number "g" (for general factor). Tests that use abstract reasoning are usually the best to tell what the scores on the other kinds of tests probably will be. Because of that, Spearman thought that a person's abstract reasoning ability (how good he was at solving puzzles or problems) was what other kinds of intelligence are based on.

paragraphs: Therefore, the number "g" is what an IQ test is supposed to measure. One of the most commonly used measures of "g" is Raven's Progressive Matrices, which is a test of visual reasoning.

paragraphs: During World War I, the military needed a way to test recruits and decide what kind of job they could do best. They used IQ tests.

paragraphs: The testing generated controversy and much public debate. Nonverbal or "performance" tests were developed for those who could not speak English or were suspected of malingering. After the war, positive publicity on army psychological testing helped to make psychology a respected field. Afterwards, there was an increase in jobs and funding in psychology in the United States. Group intelligence tests were developed and became widely used in schools and industry.

paragraphs: There are a number of problems with intelligence quotients. They relate to different fields of the subject. The problems can be grouped:

paragraphs: Alfred Binet, a French psychologist (who designed one of the first tests in 1905) had this opinion. He used the test to see which pupils would need special help with the school curriculum. He believed that the test scales were not able to measure intelligence:

paragraphs: He argued that with good education programs, most students could catch up and perform quite well in school. This was independent of the background of the pupil. He did not believe that intelligence was a measurable fixed entity.

paragraphs: Some dispute psychometrics entirely. Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence tests were based on faulty assumptions and showed their history of being used as the basis for scientific racism. In his opinion, the general intelligence factor "g" (which these tests measure), is simply a mathematical artifact.

paragraphs: However, as explained above, IQ tests were highly successful in assessing recruits during wartime. Therefore, "it must be true that they are measuring a relevant mental capability". Therefore, IQs are not simply a mathematical fiction: they relate to the ability of individuals to perform certain functions. Even if experts do not agree on a definition of intelligence, that does not disprove the usefulness (or otherwise) of the tests. In every day life people do notice the relative intelligence of others. The issue is central to human nature and evolutionary psychology, because humans evolved the characteristics which helped them survive and reproduce.

paragraphs: The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: knowns and unknowns" states that IQ tests as predictors of social achievement are not biased against people of African descent. They predict future performance, such as school achievement, similarly to the way they predict future performance for European descent.

paragraphs: However, IQ tests may well be biased when used in other situations. A 2005 study stated that "differential validity in prediction suggests that the WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American students", indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to sampled white students. Other recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa. Standard intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet test, are often inappropriate for children with autism and dyslexia; the alternative of using developmental or adaptive skills measures are relatively poor measures of intelligence in autistic children, and have resulted in incorrect claims that a majority of children with autism are mentally retarded.

paragraphs: Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the feudal system and unequal treatment of women. In contrast, others claim that the refusal of "high-IQ elites" to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.

paragraphs: The American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion. The full text of the report is available through several websites.

paragraphs: In this paper the representatives of the association regret that IQ-related works are frequently written with a view to their political consequences: "research findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their scientific standing as on their supposed political implications".

paragraphs: The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They found that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics. Both genes and environment, in complex interplay, are essential to the development of intellectual competence.

paragraphs: They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition. The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. The task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences are possible, and that environmental factors have raised mean test scores in many populations.

paragraphs: The APA journal that published the statement, "American Psychologist," later published responses in January 1997. Several of these argued that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations.


title: Dead Calm

paragraphs: Dead Calm is an American novel that was written in 1963. A 1989 Australian movie was made from it. The movie stars Sam Neill, Nicole Kidman, and Billy Zane.

paragraphs: In it, a honeymoon couple rescue a young man from a sinking boat who claims to have lost his companions to food poisoning, but the real story is much less innocent.

paragraphs: In this movie, Kidman and Neill plays good guys and Zane plays a bad guy. This movie was Kidman's first well-known movie, and it helped make her famous. In this movie, Zane's character rapes Kidman's character.


title: Event Horizon

paragraphs: Event Horizon is a 1997 Anglo-American science fiction horror movie.

paragraphs: It was directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. It stars Laurence Fishburne, Sam Neill, Kathleen Quinlan and Joely Richardson.

paragraphs: This movie is set in 2047. A spaceship is stuck near Neptune. Sam Neill's character (Dr. William Weir) is very sad because his wife has died. When they go to the space ship, they find that everyone has killed themselves. It all looks very scary. Then they find out that the ship has been to another dimension. It is like hell and everyone sees their worst nightmares.

paragraphs: Sam Neill sees his wife in his dream. She tells him to pull his eyes out. Neill then walks around without any eyes and starts to kill people. They send him out to space, but he does not die. People get very scared. Even after they kill Neill, they still see him.


title: Melting point

paragraphs: The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which this substance goes from the solid state to the liquid one, at a normal pressure. For water, this is 0° Celsius (32 Fahrenheit, 273,15 Kelvin). The chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten. Some chemical compounds have a higher melting point.

paragraphs: When looking at when a liquid substance becomes solid, most people call this the freezing point. For most substances, like water, this is the same as the melting point. There are substances, where this is not the case (they melt at one temperature, and freeze at another). Agar seems to melt at 85° Celsius, but freeze at between 35°C and 40°C. This phenomenon is a kind of hysteresis.

paragraphs: Adding certain substances or impurities will change the melting point of the resulting mixture. For example, sugar or salt will lower the melting point, and alcohol will raise it.


title: Michael Hayden

paragraphs: Michael Hayden (born March 17, 1945) is an American politician, writer and military personnel. He was the head of the CIA from 2006 to 2009. On 24 May 2006, he was voted as the new head of the CIA by the United States Senate. He was the director of the NSA from 1999 to 2005. The NSA and CIA are both spy agencies. He has worked as a spy since 1970.

paragraphs: On November 23, 2018, Hayden was hospitalized after suffering a stroke.


title: Lutherstadt Wittenberg

paragraphs: Wittenberg is a town in Germany. It lies in the eastern part of Saxony-Anhalt. Wittenberg became one of the most important German towns of political, cultural, historical, and artistic advances in the 16th century. The famous reformation places in the old town, and the buildings developed in different epochs, make up the architecture of the town.

paragraphs: Many people travel to Wittenberg because of its past, and its connection to Martin Luther who worked there.

paragraphs: Wittenberg has about 46,000 inhabitants. Its geographical coordinates are 51° 52’ N, 12° 39’ E.


title: Cyberstalking

paragraphs: Cyberstalking is when someone is using the Internet to stalk or harass someone. Cyberstalking is illegal in some countries.

paragraphs: Stalking is following someone around in a way that makes them feel hunted or not safe in some other way. It is not just one event but an ongoing process that threatens or makes that person feel scared. Someone who does this is called a stalker. The stalker may do this because they want to be involved in that person's life or because they want to have power over that person's life. The stalker can hurt that person's feelings by making them scared. They may feel they do not have the power to stop the stalker. Psychologists say stalking is a way of hurting someone's mind with serious effects. Sometimes a stalker may go on to hurt that person's body by assaulting, raping or murdering that person.

paragraphs: Cyberstalking is when the stalker uses the Internet to contact or follow that person. The stalker may make direct contact with that person, they may send nasty messages to that person or spread lies about them to others. Sometimes stalkers use the Internet to learn more about the other person. They might find their address, phone number, workplace or photograph. Then they might use this information to do more stalking or find other ways to hurt that person on the Internet or hurt their body.

paragraphs: The person who is stalked on the Internet may feel they have more power if they can simply delete emails or turn their computer connection off. Or they may feel they have less power if they do not know who the stalker is.