title: Nicki Minaj

paragraphs: Onika Tanya Maraj-Petty (born December 8, 1982), known professionally as Nicki Minaj (), is a Trinidadian-born rapper, songwriter, actress and model.

paragraphs: Minaj became the first and only female rapper to be listed on "Forbes"' Hip Hop Cash Kings list. She is known for her strange style, funny voices, colorful wigs and costumes, and characters she uses in her music.

paragraphs: In August 2009, Minaj signed to Young Money Entertainment with distribution from Universal Motown. Her debut album, "Pink Friday", was released on November 9, 2010. It climbed to number one on the US "Billboard" 200 album chart and contained the singles "Your Love", "Moment 4 Life" (featuring Canadian rapper Drake), "Super Bass", "Did It on 'Em", and "Fly" (featuring Barbadian singer Rihanna). The first, second, and fifth singles reached the top 20 in the US, while "Super Bass" managed to peak at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and peaked in the top ten around the world. The song has been certified 8× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for combined shipments and streams of 8 million copies in the US alone. Minaj was also featured with Kesha on a remix of Britney Spears' song "Till the World Ends".

paragraphs: Minaj released a single, "Starships", on Valentine's Day of 2012, before releasing her second studio album, "", on April 3, 2012. This album contained more pop- and dance-leaning songs, with some songs produced by RedOne (known for working with Jennifer Lopez and Lady Gaga) and Dr. Luke. "Starships" reached number one in Scotland and the top five in the US, UK, and Canada. Minaj released two more singles from the album, "Pound the Alarm" and "Va Va Voom", which both reached the top 25 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. She was featured on David Guetta's single "Turn Me On", which reached the top ten worldwide. Minaj re-released "Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded" later in the year as "Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded – The Re-Up" that contained songs like "Va Va Voom" and "Freedom".

paragraphs: From 2012 to 2013, she was featured as a judge on the music competition series "American Idol" alongside Keith Urban, Mariah Carey, and Randy Jackson.

paragraphs: In 2014, she was featured in the film "The Other Woman". She released her third studio album, "The Pinkprint, "in December of that year. It was preceded by the singles ""Anaconda"", which samples the 1992 hit single "Baby Got Back" by Sir Mix-a-Lot, and "Only". ""Anaconda"" reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Minaj's highest-peaking song in the United States to date. Minaj performed "Anaconda" at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards.""

paragraphs: She was featured on Guetta's single "Hey Mama" alongside Bebe Rexha and Afrojack, along with Ariana Grande's "Side to Side".

paragraphs: On March 10, 2017, Minaj released three singles: "No Frauds", "Regret in Your Tears", and "Changed It". "No Frauds" became a top 20 hit in the US. Minaj took a break from social media at the end of the year to focus on new songs.

paragraphs: On April 13, 2018, Minaj released two singles: "Chun-Li" and "Barbie Tingz". The first reached number 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and was picked as the lead single from Minaj's fourth studio album, "Queen". "Barbie Tingz" reached number 25 in the US but was later removed from the track list for "Queen", except as a Target edition bonus track. The promotional single "Rich Sex", featuring American rapper Lil Wayne, was also released from the album. Minaj was featured on the single “Fefe” by rapper 6ix9ine which reached number three on the Hot 100 in both the US and Canada.

paragraphs: Minaj released a new single, "Megatron", on June 21, 2019.

paragraphs: After a social media hiatus, Minaj returned to Twitter and Instagram on January 30, 2020. The following day she appeared in the music video for Meghan Trainor's single, “Nice to Meet Ya” which also featured Minaj. On February 7, Minaj released her first single of 2020, titled “Yikes”.

paragraphs: Minaj was featured in two remixes of the song “Say So” by American rapper Doja Cat. The song would go on to become her first US number-one hit. On June 12 Minaj featured on the song “Trollz” by rapper 6ix9ine. The song went on to become Minaj’s second US number one.

paragraphs: Minaj moved to Queens, New York City at age five. Her father went to rehab for alcoholism in 2012. Minaj claimed he burned down their house in her youth. As a teenager, Minaj had an abortion, which is referenced in her song "All Things Go" from "The Pinkprint".

paragraphs: In 2011, her cousin Nicholas Telemaque was murdered in Brooklyn, New York. In November 2017 her brother Jelani Maraj was convicted of raping a child. In January 2020, he was sentenced to 25 years in prison.

paragraphs: Minaj had dated Safaree Samuels for 12 years and later dated rapper Meek Mill from 2015 till 2017. In November 2018, Minaj began dating Kenneth "Zoo" Petty. She has known him since her teenage years. Petty is a registered sex offender. They married in October 2019, after just one year of dating. After the marriage, Minaj changed her surname to Maraj-Petty.

paragraphs: On July 20, 2020, Minaj announced that she is expecting a child. On October 16, 2020, Minaj announced that her child with Petty, a son, had been born.


title: Red billed Quelea

paragraphs: The Red billed Quelea is a small passerine bird of the Ploceidae family. It is found only in Africa.

paragraphs: There are more Quelea than any other bird species in the world: they number over 1.5 billion. Single colonies may have as many as 30 million. Queleas can migrate as far as 2,000 kilometres (1,243 miles). Single flocks can destroy as much as 50 tons of grain a day. Queleas have destroyed over US$22 million of grain in a single year.

paragraphs: Males grow to a length of about 4.75 inches (12 cm) with a 1.75 inch (4.45 cm) tail and weigh 19.47 grams (0.69 oz). Females are a little smaller growing to about 4.60 inches (11.68 cm) with a 1.70 inch (4.32 cm) tail and weigh 18.34 grams (0.65 oz).

paragraphs: Nests are built by the males and take about seven days to complete. Males defend the nest while building it and become very angry when something gets too close. After it is complete, females lay 3 to 7 eggs. Eggs hatch in about two weeks. Males continue to defend the nest after the eggs hatch.


title: Portuguese Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Portuguese Grand Prix ("Grande Prémio de Portugal") was a motor racing event held for several years, starting in the 1950s. It was a Formula One race between and and between and .

paragraphs: The first event was held on the Boavista street course in Porto on 17 June 1951. The Grand Prix was moved to Monsanto Park, Lisbon, in 1954 as a one time event. The first Formula One race was held in 14 August 1958. The first three F1 races were held in both Boavista and Monsanto. 1960 was the last Formula One race for more than 20 years.

paragraphs: The Portuguese Grand Prix returned to the calendar in 1984 to the Autódromo do Estoril in 1984. After the deaths of Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at Imola in 1994, the Estoril track was changed. A new chicane was built in place of the tank curve, as a safety measure. But Estoril was considered an unsafe and outdated track. The last Portuguese Grand Prix was in Estoril on 22 September 1996.


title: Argentine Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Argentine Grand Prix was Formula One Grand Prix motor race. It was held off and on from to . Argentine president Juan Perón was the driving force behind the creation of the circuit, after seeing the success of the country's own Juan Manuel Fangio.

paragraphs: The circuit was built just outside of Buenos Aires on swampland in 1952.In 1953, the Autodrome hosted the first ever Formula One race held outside Europe. The exile of Perón in 1955 lead to an unstable government. The Argentine Grand Prix left the F1 calendar in 1961 for over a decade.

paragraphs: In the Argentine Grand Prix returned to the World Championship. Carlos Reutemann became the new homegrown hero. Reutemann took pole position in his world championship debut. He become only the second driver to do this. The Grand Prix remained in Argentina through , but the 1982 event was canceled.

paragraphs: A private group purchased the track in 1991 and began to upgrade it. The modernized Argentine Grand Prix returned in . Because of financial problems, the race was the last running of the Argentine Grand Prix.

paragraphs: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Designed and built by Cosworth, funded by Ford

paragraphs: "A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship."


title: Sort (typesetting)

paragraphs: In typesetting by hand compositing, a sort is a piece of type representing a specific letter or symbol, cast from a matrix mould and assembled with other sorts bearing additional letters into lines of type to make up a "forme", from which a page is printed.


title: Bayes' theorem

paragraphs: In probability theory and applications, Bayes' theorem shows the relation between a conditional probability and its reverse form. For example, the probability of a hypothesis given some observed pieces of evidence, and the probability of that evidence given the hypothesis. This theorem is named after Thomas Bayes ( or "bays") and is often called Bayes' law or Bayes' rule.

paragraphs: In many scenarios, P("B") is calculated indirectly using the formula formula_2, which simply states that the probability of "B" is the sum of the conditional probabilities based on whether "A" has occurred or not.

paragraphs: A simple example is as follows: There is a 40% chance of rain on Sunday. If it rains on Sunday, there is a 10% chance of rain on Monday. If it did not rain on Sunday, then there is an 80% chance that it will rain on Monday.

paragraphs: "Raining on Sunday" is event A, and "Raining on Monday" is event B.

paragraphs: The first thing we would normally calculate is the probability of it raining on Monday:

paragraphs: This would be the sum of the probability of "Rain on Sunday and rain on Monday" and "No rain on Sunday and rain on Monday":

paragraphs: However, we were asked to calculate the probability that it rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, then this is where Bayes' theorem comes in. It allows us to calculate the probability of an earlier event, given the result of a later event.

paragraphs: In our case, "Rain on Sunday" is event A, and "Rain on Monday" is event B.

paragraphs: So, to calculate the probability it rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, we use the formula:

paragraphs: In other words, if it rained on Monday, then there is a 7.69% chance it rained on Sunday.

paragraphs: To calculate the probability of it having rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, we can take the following steps:

paragraphs: Another way to see this, which shows where Bayes' theorem comes from, is to consider the probability P(AB) that it rains on both Sunday and Monday. This can be calculated in two different ways, which give the same answer for P(AB):

paragraphs: In this regard, Bayes' theorem is just another way to write that equation.


title: Salisbury Plain

paragraphs: Salisbury Plain is in the central southern England covering . It largely lies within the county of Wiltshire, with a little in Hampshire.

paragraphs: The Plain is famous for its rich archaeology, including Avebury and Stonehenge, which are a joint World Heritage Site. The Plain is sparsely populated and is the largest remaining area of calcareous grassland in north-west Europe. The Plain also has arable land, and a few small areas of beech trees and coniferous woodland.

paragraphs: On the Plain is the British Army's largest training ground in England. It is suitable terrain for tank manoeuvres; buildings such as Imber are used for urban warfare training.

paragraphs: The boundaries of Salisbury Plain have never been defined, and there is some difference of opinion as to its exact area. The river valleys surrounding it, and other downs and plains beyond them loosely define its boundaries. To the north the scarp of the downs overlooks the Vale of Pewsey, and to the north west the Avon. The River Wylye runs along the south west, and the River Bourne runs to the east.


title: Hot pants

paragraphs: Hot pants, or 'short shorts', are a fashion item from the 1960s which is still popular today. They first appeared as a design item in so-called 'Swinging London'. The trend for shorter, brighter shorts for young women was started by designers in London such as Mary Quant.

paragraphs: Running or gym shorts are worn by girls as normal wear in some places. Many gym shorts have an inlay made of a comfortable fabric such as cotton, similar to swim shorts (swimming trunks). These are designed to be worn without underwear.

paragraphs: If a person cuts off the legs of a pair of jeans, that's known as a 'cut-off'.

paragraphs: The character Daisy Duke from "The Dukes of Hazzard" was known for wearing low cut blue jeans. The popularity of the character led to the term "Daisy Dukes" being used for short shorts.


title: Mini-skirt

paragraphs: The mini-skirt, or miniskirt, is a skirt well above the knees, close to the buttocks. If the top and skirt are all-in-one, then it is a minidress. Microskirts are "extremely" brief, and usually worn only for publicity events.

paragraphs: Mini-skirts were invented by Mary Quant, who also invented, or promoted, hot pants. There is disagreement as to who came up with the idea first; some say André Courrèges or John Bates. The short- and ever-shorter skirt was evolving already among fashion-minded young women: the designers who adapted it just helped spread the style. In Quant's case, she gave it the name. Mary Quant named the mini-skirt after her favorite make of car, the Mini. She loved the car so much, she had one designed especially for her.


title: Austrian Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Austrian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race. The first event was held in 1964 at a race track on the Zeltweg Airfield. The track was deemed too dangerous. It was narrow and very bumpy. Spectators complained of poor viewing areas. The FIA removed the race from the F1 calendar until a better circuit was built.

paragraphs: From 1970 until 1987, the event was held at the Österreichring, near Zeltweg. In 1975, it was called the European Grand Prix. In 1987, the FIA decided that the circuit was too dangerous. The race was dropped for a decade.

paragraphs: In 1995 and 1996, the track was modified and brought up to modern standards. The race returned to F1 in 1997. The circuit was renamed the A1-Ring, after a sponsor. Most of the new track is in Spielberg. Spielberg was now used as the location of the Grand Prix. The final Austrian Grand Prix was held in 2003. The Grand Prix returned to the Formula One calendar in 2014.

paragraphs: "Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."<br>

paragraphs: "A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship."

paragraphs: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Shared win with Kurt Ahrens, Jr.

paragraphs: "Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."<br>

paragraphs: "Manufacturers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."<br>

paragraphs: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Built by Cosworth, funded by Ford (except 1967)

paragraphs: <nowiki>**</nowiki> Between 1998-2001 built by Ilmor, funded by Mercedes


title: Lucretia Mott

paragraphs: Lucretia Coffin Mott (January 3, 1793 – November 11, 1880) was an advocate for women's rights in the United States. She was one of the first people in the U.S. to do so. She also spoke on ending slavery in the United States. She was one of the leaders of the anti-slavery movement in Philadelphia. She was a Quaker, and was a minister for several years. She was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts.She helped with women's involvement and the seneca falls convention.


title: Luxembourg Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Luxembourg Grand Prix () was a Formula One motor race for two years in the 1990s. The FIA created the Luxembourg GP to keep a race at Nürburgring, and allow the European GP to be held in another country.

paragraphs: The FIA only allowed one Formula One per country. They would allow a second race within a country if it had a different Grand Prix name. For several years, the German Grand Prix had been held at Hockenheimring, and the European Grand Prix at Nürburgring. There was unease that the Nürburgring was being given a monopoly for the European GP. The border of Luxembourg lies about 50 miles away from the Nürburgring track.


title: Mexican Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Mexican Grand Prix (Gran Premio de Mexico) is a Formula One motor race held at the Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez in Mexico City. It first appeared as a non-championship event in 1962 before being held as a championship event from 1963-1970, 1986-1992 and since 2015.

paragraphs: "Event that were not part of the Formula One World Championship have a" pink background.


title: Moroccan Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Moroccan Grand Prix was a Grand Prix motor racing event. It began in 1925 in Casablanca, Morocco. The official name was "Casablanca Grand Prix".

paragraphs: In 1930, the race was moved to the new Anfa Racecourse. There was no race in 1933. There were no races between 1935 and 1953. When it returned in 1954, it was held on a circuit at the city of Agadir for sports cars.

paragraphs: A new circuit at Ain-Diab near Casablanca was ready for the 1957 Moroccan Grand Prix Formula One race. This race did not counttoward the World Championship. The only World Championship F1 race was in 1958. The race was marred by the death of Stuart Lewis-Evans. This was the last Grand Prix organized in Morocco.

paragraphs: "No driver won the Moroccan Grand Prix more than one time.


title: Typesetting

paragraphs: Typesetting is the making of block-printed writing which is formed by using types grouped from sorts.

paragraphs: Typesetting uses the earlier steps of designing a font and storing it in some manner. Typesetting is the taking of the stored letters (called "sorts" in mechanical systems and "glyphs" in digital systems) and the ordering of them in the manner of a language's orthography for showing them on a page.

paragraphs: During the letterpress era, moveable type was composed by hand for each page. Cast metal "sorts" were grouped into words and lines of text and tightly bound together to make up a page image called a "forme". All letter faces were set to the same height, to form an even surface of type. The forme was mounted in a machine press, inked, and an impression made on paper.

paragraphs: The diagram at right shows a cast metal sort: a face, b body or shank, c point size, 1 shoulder, 2 nick, 3 groove, 4 foot. Wooden printing sorts were in use for centuries in combination with metal type.

paragraphs: Copies of formes were cast when expecting later printings of a text, freeing the costly type for other work. In this process, called stereotyping, the entire forme is pressed into a fine matrix such as plaster of Paris or papier mâché called Flong to create a positive, from which the stereotype forme was cast of type metal.

paragraphs: Hand composing was rendered commercially obsolete by continuous casting or "hot-metal" typesetting machines, such as the Linotype machine and Monotype at the end of the 19th century. The Linotype, invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler, enabled one machine operator to do the work of ten hand compositors by automating the selection, use and replacement of sorts, with a keyboard as input. Later advances, such as the typewriter or computer, pushed the state of the art even farther ahead. Still, hand composition and letterpress printing did not fall completely out of use. Since the introduction of digital typesetting, it has seen a renewal as an artisanal pursuit. However, it is a very small niche within the larger typesetting market.

paragraphs: Phototypesetting or "cold type" systems first appeared in the early 1960s and rapidly displaced continuous casting machines. These devices consisted of glass disks (one per font) that spun in front of a light source which selectively exposed characters onto light-sensitive paper. Originally they were driven by pre-punched paper tapes. Later they were hooked up to computer front ends.

paragraphs: One of the earliest electronic photocomposition systems was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor. The typesetter typed a line of text on a Fairchild keyboard that had no display. To verify correct content of the line it was typed a second time. If the two lines were identical a bell rang and the machine produced a punched paper tape corresponding to the text. With the completion of a block of lines the typesetter fed the corresponding paper tapes into a phototypesetting device which mechanically set type outlines printed on glass sheets into place for exposure onto a negative film. Photosensitive paper was exposed to light through the negative film, resulting in a column of black type on white paper, or a galley. The galley was then cut up and used to create a mechanical drawing or paste up of a whole page. A large film negative of the page is shot and used to make a plates for offset printing.

paragraphs: Before the 1980s, almost all typesetting for publishers and advertisers was done by specialist typesetting companies. These companies performed keyboarding, editing and production of paper or film output, and formed a large component of the graphic arts industry. In the United States, these companies were in rural Pennsylvania, New England or the Midwest where labor was cheap, and paper produced nearby, but still within a few hours' travel time of the major publishing centers.

paragraphs: In 1985, desktop publishing became available, starting with the Apple Macintosh, Aldus PageMaker (and later QuarkXPress) and PostScript. Improvements in software and hardware, and rapidly-lowering costs, popularized desktop publishing and enabled very fine control of typeset results at much lower cost than the minicomputer-based systems. At the same time, word processing systems such as Wang and WordPerfect revolutionized office documents. They did not, however, have the typographic ability or flexibility required for complex book layout, graphics, mathematics, or advanced hyphenation and justification rules ("H and J").

paragraphs: By the year 2000, this industry segment had shrunk because publishers were now capable of integrating typesetting and graphic design on their own in-house computers. Many found that the cost of maintaining high standards of typographic design and technical skill made it more economical to out-source to freelancers and graphic design specialists.

paragraphs: The availability of cheap, or free, fonts made the conversion to do-it-yourself easier but also opened up a gap between skilled designers and amateurs. The advent of PostScript, supplemented by the PDF file format, provided a universal method of proofing designs and layouts, readable on major computer and operating systems.

paragraphs: IBM created and inspired a family of typesetting languages with names that were derivatives of the word "SCRIPT". Latter versions of SCRIPT included advanced features such as automatic generation of a table of contents and index, multi-column page layout, footnotes, boxes, automatic hyphenation and spelling verification.

paragraphs: SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) was based upon GML (IBM Generalized Markup Language). GML was a set of macros on top of IBM SCRIPT.

paragraphs: The arrival of SGML/XML as the document model made other typesetting engines popular. Such engines include Datalogics Pager, Penta, Miles 33's OASYS, Xyvision's XML Professional Publisher (XPP), FrameMaker, Arbortext, YesLogic's Prince, QuarkXPress and Adobe InDesign. These products allow users to program their typesetting process around the SGML/XML with the help of scripting languages. Some of them, such as Arbortext Editor and XMetaL Author, provide attractive WYSIWYG-ish interfaces with support for XML standards and Unicode to attract a wider spectrum of users.

paragraphs: During the mid-1970s Joseph Ossanna, working at Bell Laboratories, wrote the troff (said as "tee-roff") typesetting program to drive a Wang C/A/T phototypesetter owned by the Labs; it was later enhanced by Brian Kernighan to support output to different equipment such as laser printers and the like. While its use has fallen off, it is still included with a number of Unix and Unix-like systems and has been used to typeset a number of high-profile technical and computer books. Some versions, as well as a GNU work-alike called groff, are now open source.

paragraphs: The TeX system, developed by Donald E. Knuth at the end of the 1970s, is another widespread and powerful automated typesetting system which has set high standards, especially for typesetting mathematics.


title: Swinging London

paragraphs: Swinging London is a catch-all term applied to the fashion and cultural scene which flourished in London, in the 1960s.

paragraphs: It was a phenomenon which emphasized the young, the new and the modern. It was a period of optimism and hedonism, and a cultural revolution. One catalyst was the recovery of the British economy after post-World War II hard times had lasted through much of the 1950s. Journalist Christopher Booker, a founder of the satirical magazine "Private Eye", recalled the "bewitching" character of the swinging sixties: "There seemed to be no one standing outside the bubble, and observing just how odd and shallow and egocentric and even rather horrible it was".

paragraphs: "Swinging London" was defined by "Time" magazine in its issue of 15 April 1966, and celebrated in the name of the pirate radio station, "Swinging Radio England", that began shortly afterward. However, "swinging" in the sense of hip or fashionable, had been used since the early 1960s. In 1965, Diana Vreeland, editor of "Vogue" magazine, said "London is the most swinging city in the world at the moment".

paragraphs: Although "The Beatles" came from Liverpool, "The Rolling Stones", and the rest of the new culture was London-based. Most of the new fashion designers, models and photographers were young, and packed into a small area in Soho around Carnaby Street, W1., and another area round the King's Road, Chelsea.

paragraphs: During the time of Swinging London, fashion and photography were featured in "Queen" magazine, which drew attention to fashion designer Mary Quant.

paragraphs: The model Jean Shrimpton was another icon and one of the world's first supermodels. She was the world's highest paid and most photographed model of the time. Shrimpton was called "The face of the '60s", in which she has been considered by many as "the symbol of Swinging London", and the "embodiment of the 1960s". Other popular models of the era included Veruschka, and Twiggy. Twiggy was called "the Queen of Mod", a label she shared with others, such as Cathy McGowan, who hosted the television rock show, "Ready Steady Go!" from 1964 to 1966.

paragraphs: Mod-related fashions such as the miniskirt stimulated fashionable shopping areas such as Carnaby Street and the Kings Road, Chelsea. The fashion was a symbol of youth culture.

paragraphs: The British flag, the Union Flag, became a symbol, assisted by events such as England's home victory in the 1966 World Cup. The Mini car (launched in 1959) was used by a fleet of mini-cab taxis highlighted by advertising which covered their paintwork.


title: Tosca

paragraphs: Tosca is an Italian opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini. It was first performed in Rome on January 14, 1900. The libretto was written by Giuseppe Giacosa and Luigi Illica. It was based on Victorien Sardou's play "La Tosca". "Tosca" was a great success.

paragraphs: The story happens in Rome in the year 1800. Some years before, Rome was ruled by the pope. But Napoleon invaded Rome and made it a republic. This republic was ruled by seven men called "consuls". But Napoleon had problems with Austria and the French had to leave, so Rome was conquered by people from Naples. Because of that, the new government decided to arrest people from the previous government. In 1800 Napoleon decided to return to Rome because he had just defeated the Austrian army in the north. The battle they fought was called the "Battle of Marengo".

paragraphs: On the 17th of June, 1800, Scarpia, general of the secret police, is sending republicans to prison. One of the republicans, Angelotti, flees prison and gets inside the church of Sant' Andrea della Valle. Angelotti used to be one of the consuls. In this church, he meets another republican called Cavaradossi. Cavaradossi hides Angelotti in a secret place.

paragraphs: Later, Scarpia enters the church. Scarpia can’t find Angelotti, but meets a woman called Tosca there. She is the singer, and Cavaradossi's lover. Scarpia tricks Tosca into going to Cavaradossi’s house, and has his soldiers follow her.

paragraphs: Scarpia hears that his soldiers can’t find Angelotti, but have arrested Cavaradossi. Scarpia then tortures Cavaradossi, but Cavaradossi doesn’t confess where Angelotti is. So Scarpia calls Tosca, and shows her her lover’s tortured state. Tosca tells him where is the secret place Angelotti was hidden.

paragraphs: Then, a message comes saying that Napoleon has won the Battle of Marengo. Cavaradossi is happy, because there will be a new republican government. Scarpia is furious and condemns Cavaradossi to death.

paragraphs: Tosca begs Scarpia to save her lover's life. Scarpia demands that Tosca gives herself to him in exchange. As Scarpia goes to touch Tosca, she stabs him to death with a knife from the table.

paragraphs: Tosca runs to Cavaradossi in the prison at the castle Sant'Angelo. But, the firing squad shoot Cavaradossi. When Scarpia’s soldiers try to arrest Tosca for Scarpia's murder, she kills herself by jumping from the castle.


title: Manon Lescaut

paragraphs: Manon Lescaut is an Italian opera in four acts by Giacomo Puccini, first performed in Turin, on February 1, 1893, libretto by Luigi Illica, Giuseppe Giacosa, Giulio Ricordi, Marco Praga and Domenico Oliva. Puccini's third opera and the work that established his reputation.


title: Caesars Palace Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Caesars Palace Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race in 1981 and 1982. Nissan/Datsun was a presenting sponsor of both races.

paragraphs: When Watkins Glen left the F1 schedule after 1980, the Caesars Palace GP took its place. The track was set up in the parking lot of the Caesars Palace hotel. It was surprisingly well set up for a temporary circuit. It was wide enough for passing, provided ample run-off areas filled with sand, and had a surface that was as smooth as glass. Its counter-clockwise direction put a tremendous strain on the drivers' necks. 1982 was the end of Formula One racing in Las Vegas. The races had drawn only tiny crowds.

paragraphs: In 1983 and 1984, CART ran Grands Prix races on the same circuit.

paragraphs: "A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship."


title: Kakadu National Park

paragraphs: Kakadu National Park is in the Northern Territory of Australia, 171 km southeast of Darwin. It is the second largest national park in the world. It covers an area of . It is about 200 kilometres from north to south, and more than 100 kilometres from east to west. It is the size of Slovenia, about one-third the size of Tasmania, or nearly half the size of Switzerland. The Ranger Uranium Mine, one of the biggest Uranium mines in the world, is inside the park.

paragraphs: The name Kakadu comes from "Gagadju", the name of an Aboriginal language spoken in the northern part of the Park. Kakadu National Park has many different ecological areas, and many different plant and animal species. The main natural features protected within the National Park include:

paragraphs: Kakadu National Park is famous for the richness of its Aboriginal cultural sites. There are more than 5000 recorded art sites showing Aboriginal culture over thousands of years. The archaeological sites show that Aboriginals have lived here for at least 20 000 and possibly up to 40 000 years.

paragraphs: The cultural and natural values of Kakadu National Park were recognised internationally when the Park was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This is an international list of places that are have outstanding cultural or natural values of international significance. Kakadu was listed in three stages: Stage 1 in 1981, Stage 2 in 1987, and the entire Park in 1992.

paragraphs: About half of the land in Kakadu is aboriginal land under the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976. Most of the remaining land is currently under claim by Aboriginal people. The areas of the Park that are owned by Aboriginal people are leased by the traditional owners to the Director of National Parks to be managed as a national park. The remaining area is Australian Government land controlled by the Director of National Parks. All of Kakadu is declared a national park under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

paragraphs: The Aboriginal traditional owners of the Park are descendants of various clan groups from the Kakadu area. Their lifestyle has changed in recent years, but their traditional customs and beliefs remain very important. About 500 Aboriginal people live in the Park; many of them are traditional owners. All of Kakadu is jointly managed by Aboriginal traditional owners and the Australian Government’s Department of the Environment and Water Resources through a division known as Parks Australia. Park Management is directed by the Kakadu Board of Management.

paragraphs: Kakadu was set up at a time when Australians were becoming more interested in national parks for conservation and in recognising the land rights of Aboriginal people. A national park in the Alligator River region was proposed as early as 1965. In 1978 the Australian Government took over the titles of various pieces of land that now makes up Kakadu National Park.

paragraphs: Kakadu National Park was made a park in three stages between 1979 and 1991. Each stage of the Park includes Aboriginal land under the Land Rights Act that is leased to the Director of National Parks or land that is subject to a claim to traditional ownership under the Land Rights Act. Most of the land that was to become part of Stage One of Kakadu was given to the Kakadu Aboriginal Land Trust under the Land Rights Act in August 1978. In November 1978, the Land Trust and the Director signed a lease for the land to be managed as a national park. Stage One of the Park was declared on 5 April 1979.

paragraphs: Stage Two was declared on 28 February 1984. In March 1978, a claim was lodged under the Land Rights Act for the land included in Stage Two of Kakadu. The land claim was partly successful. In 1986, three areas in the eastern part of Stage Two were given to the Jabiluka Aboriginal Land Trust. A lease between the Land Trust and the Director of National parks was signed in March 1991.

paragraphs: In 1987, a land claim was made for the land in the Goodparla and Gimbat pastoral leases that were to be included in Stage Three of Kakadu. The other area to be included in Stage Three, the Gimbat Resumption and the Waterfall Creek Reserve, were later added to this land claim. The need to create the park in stages was due to the debate over whether mining should be allowed at Guratba (Coronation Hill) which is located in the middle of the area referred to as Sickness Country. The traditional owners’ wishes were ultimately respected and the Australian National Government decided that there would be no mining at Guratba.

paragraphs: In 1996, the land in Stage Three, apart from the former Goodparla pastoral leases, was given to the Gunlom Aboriginal Land Trust and leased to the Director of National Parks to continue being managed as part of Kakadu.

paragraphs: The Chinese, Malays and Portuguese all claim to have been the first non-Aboriginal explorers of Australia’s north coast. The first surviving written account comes from the Dutch. In 1623 Jan Carstenz made his way west across the Gulf of Carpentaria to what is believed to be Groote Eylandt. Abel Tasman was the next explorer to visit in 1644. He was the first person to record European contact with Aboriginal people. Almost a century later Matthew Flinders surveyed the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1802 and 1803.

paragraphs: Phillip Parker King, an English navigator entered the Gulf of Carpentaria between 1818 and 1822. During this time he named the three Alligator Rivers after the large numbers of crocodiles, which he thought were alligators.

paragraphs: Ludwig Leichhardt was the first land-based European explorer to visit the Kakadu region, in 1845 on his way from Moreton Bay in Queensland to Port Essington in the Northern Territory. He followed Jim Jim Creek down from the Arnhem Land escarpment, then went down the South Alligator before crossing to the East Alligator and going north.

paragraphs: In 1862 John McDouall Stuart travelled along the south-western boundary of Kakadu but did not see any people.

paragraphs: The first non-Aboriginal people to visit and have long term contact with Aboriginal people in northern Australia were the Macassans from Sulawesi and other parts of Indonesia. They travelled to northern Australia every wet season, probably from the last quarter of the 17th century, in sailing boats called praus. They came to harvest trepang (sea cucumber), turtle shell, pearls and other prized items to trade in their homeland. Aboriginal people helped in harvesting and processing the trepang, and in collecting and exchanging the other goods.

paragraphs: There is no evidence that the Macassans spent time on the coast of Kakadu. There is evidence of some contact between Macassan culture and Aboriginal people of the Kakadu area. Among the finds from archaeological digs in the Park are glass and metal pieces that probably came from the Macassans, either directly or through trade with the Coburg Peninsula people.

paragraphs: The British attempted a number of settlements on the northern Australian coast in the

paragraphs: early part of the 19th century: Fort Dundas on Melville Island in 1824; Fort Wellington at Raffles Bay in 1829; and Victoria Settlement (Port Essington) on the Coburg Peninsula in 1838. They wanted to secure the north of Australia before the French or Dutch, who had colonised islands further north. The British settlements all failed for a variety of reasons, such as lack of water and fresh food, sickness and isolation.

paragraphs: It is difficult to assess the impact of these settlements on the local Aboriginal people and the type of relationship that developed between them and the British. Certainly, some Aboriginals worked at the settlements. Exposure to new sickness was an ever-present danger. As in other parts of Australia, disease and the disruption it caused to society devastated the local Aboriginal population.

paragraphs: Water buffalo have had a big influence on the Kakadu region as well. By the 1880s the number of buffaloes escaped from early settlements had grown so much that hunting them for skins and horns was economically successful.

paragraphs: The industry began on the Adelaide River, close to Darwin, and moved east to the Mary River and Alligator Rivers regions.

paragraphs: Most of the buffalo hunting and skin curing was done in the dry season, between June and September, when buffaloes gathered around the remaining billabongs. During the wet season hunting stopped because the ground was too muddy to follow the buffalo and the harvested hides would rot. The buffalo hunting industry became an important employer of Aboriginal people during the dry-season months.

paragraphs: Missionaries had a big influence on the Aboriginal people of the Alligator Rivers area. Many of the people lived and went to school at missions. Two missions were set up in the region in the early part of the century. Kapalga Native Industrial Mission was started near the South Alligator River in 1899, but lasted only four years. The Oenpelli Mission began in 1925, when the Church of England Missionary Society accepted an offer from the Northern Territory Administration to take over the area, which had been used as a dairy farm. The Oenpelli Mission operated for 50 years.

paragraphs: Some writers and anthropologists say that missionaries, in trying to ‘civilise and institutionalise’ Aboriginal people, forced them to give up their lifestyle, language, religion, ceremonies and change the whole way they lived. Others say that, although they might not have used the best methods to achieve their goal, the missionaries did care about the Aboriginal people at a time when wider Australian society did not.

paragraphs: The pastoral industry made started slowly in the Top End. Pastoral leases in the Kakadu area were progressively given up from 1889, because the Victoria River and the Barkly Tablelands were better pastoral regions.

paragraphs: In southern Kakadu much of Goodparla and Gimbat was claimed in the mid-1870s by three pastoralists, Roderick, Travers and Sergison. The leases were later passed on to a series of owners, who were all unsuccessful. In 1987 both stations were taken back by the Commonwealth and added to Kakadu National Park.

paragraphs: There was a sawmill at Nourlangie Camp, begun by Chinese workers, probably before World War I, to cut stands of cypress pine in the area. After World War II there were a number of small-scale activities, including dingo shooting and trapping, brumby shooting, crocodile shooting, tourism and forestry.

paragraphs: Nourlangie Camp was again the site of a sawmill in the 1950s, until the cypress pines were cleared. In 1958 it became a safari camp for tourists. Soon after, a similar camp was started at Patonga and at Muirella Park. People were flown in to hunt buffalo, crocodiles and fishing.

paragraphs: Crocodile hunters often made use of the bush skills of Aboriginal people. By copying a wallaby’s tail hitting the ground, Aboriginal hunters could attract crocodiles, making it easier to shoot the animals. Using paperbark rafts, they would track the movement of a wounded crocodile and get the carcass for skinning. The skins were then sold to make leather goods. Aboriginal people became less involved in commercial hunting of crocodiles once night spotlight shooting started. Freshwater Crocodiles have been protected by law since 1964 and Saltwater Crocodiles since 1971.

paragraphs: Minerals were found in the Top End during the building of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line line between 1870 and 1872, in the Pine Creek – Adelaide River area. A number of short mining booms followed.

paragraphs: The building of the North Australia Railway line helped the mining camps, and places such as Burrundie and Pine Creek became permanent settlements. The mining camps and new settlements drew many Aboriginal people away from Kakadu. No Aboriginal people are known to have worked in the mines but their access to alcohol and other drugs had a huge impact.

paragraphs: Small-scale gold mining began at Imarlkba, near Barramundi Creek, and Mundogie Hill in the 1920s and at Moline (previously called Eureka and Northern Hercules mine), south of the Park, in the 1930s. The mines employed a few local Aboriginal people.

paragraphs: In 1953 uranium was discovered in the South Alligator River valley. Thirteen small but rich uranium mines operated in the following decade, at their peak in 1957 employing over 150 workers. No Aboriginal people were employed at any of these mines.

paragraphs: Early in the 1970s large uranium deposits were discovered at Ranger, Jabiluka and Koongarra. The Australian Government began an inquiry into land use in the Alligator Rivers region. The Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry (known as the Fox inquiry) recommended that mining begin at the Ranger site. It also said that Jabiluka and Koongarra sites should be developed, and that a town be built to support the mines.(Fox et al. 1976, 1977). The Ranger mine and the service town at Jabiru have had many impacts on Aboriginal people. Aboriginal people have different opinions about mining.

paragraphs: Kakadu is in the tropics, between 12° and 14° south of the Equator. The climate is monsoonal,

paragraphs: with two main seasons: the dry season and the rain season. The 'build up' describes the change between the dry and the rain. During the dry season (from April/May to September), there are dry southerly and easterly trade winds. Humidity is relatively low and rain is unusual. At Jabiru, the average maximum temperature for June-July is 32 °C. During the 'build up' (October to December) conditions can be extremely uncomfortable with high temperatures and high humidity. However, 'build up' storms are impressive and with many lightning strikes. At Jabiru the average maximum temperature for October is 37.5 °C.

paragraphs: The rain season (January to March/April) has warm temperatures and rain. Most of the rain is caused by monsoonal troughs formed over Southeast Asia. Sometimes tropical cyclones cause very heavy rain over small areas. At Jabiru, the average maximum temperature for January is 33 °C. Annual rainfall in Kakadu National Park ranges from 1,565 mm in Jabiru to 1,300 mm in the Mary River region.

paragraphs: The Aboriginal people, the Bininj/Mungguy, named as many as six seasons in the Kakadu region:

paragraphs: Periods of torrential rain and long dry spells mean that Kakadu can change its appearance according to the season, so is a place deserving of more than one visit.

paragraphs: Kakadu has more than 2000 plant species, because of the different geological areas, landforms and habitats. Kakadu is also said to be one of the most weed free national parks in the world.

paragraphs: The different geographical areas of Kakadu have their own specialised plants. The area called ‘the Stone Country’ has ‘resurrection grasses’ that are able to survive extreme heat, and dry conditions followed by periods of heavy rain. Monsoon forests often develop in the cool moist gorges found in the stone country. The southern hills and basins support several endemic plants that are only found in Kakadu such as "Eucalyptus koolpinensis" near Jarrangbarnmi (Koolpin Gorge). Lowland areas form a large proportion of Kakadu National Park and are mainly covered in eucalypt-dominated open woodland with the ground layer consisting of a large range of grasses including spear grass, sedges and wildflowers.

paragraphs: The floodplains, which are flooded for several months each year, feature sedges such as spike rush as well patches of freshwater mangroves (itchy tree), pandanus and paper bark trees (Melaleuca). Varieties of water lilies, such as the blue, yellow and white snowflake, are commonly found in these areas. Estuaries and tidal flats are populated with varieties of mangroves, in fact 39 of the 47 Northern Territory species of mangrove are found in Kakadu. These are important for preventing erosion of the coast. Mangroves serve as feeding and breeding grounds for many fish species including the barramundi.

paragraphs: On the tidal flats behind the mangroves, hardy succulents (samphire), grasses and sedges grow. Isolated pockets of monsoon forest grow along the coast and river banks. These forests contain several impressive trees, among them the banyan fig, which can be recognised by its large, spreading aerial roots, and the kapok tree, which has a spiny trunk, large, waxy red flowers and pods full of cotton-like material.

paragraphs: The different areas of Kakadu National Park support a huge number of animals, a number of which have adapted to particular habitats. Some animals in the Park are rare, endangered, vulnerable or endemic. Because of the extreme weather conditions experienced in the Park, many animals are active only at particular times of the day or night or at particular times of the year.

paragraphs: About 62 mammal species have been seen in the Park. Most of them live in the open forest and woodlands and are nocturnal, making it difficult to see them. Others, such as wallabies and kangaroos are active in the cooler parts of the day and are easier to see. The larger mammals are Dingos, Antilopine Kangaroos, Black Wallaroos, Agile Wallabys, and Short-eared Rock Wallabys. Smaller common mammals are northern quolls, brush-tailed phascogales, brown bandicoots, black-footed tree-rats, and black fruit bats. Dugongs are found in the coastal waters. However, recent surveys have shown smaller numbers of nearly all mammals throughout Kakadu. This includes once common and widespread species such as northern quolls.

paragraphs: Kakadu’s many habitats support more than 280 species of birds. This is about one-third of Australia’s bird species. Some birds range over a number of habitats, but many are found in only one environment.

paragraphs: To date, 123 species of reptiles have been found in Kakadu. Being cold blooded, these animals need heat from an external source such as the sun to control their body temperature. This is not to say that reptiles are active only during the day; in fact, few snakes can withstand Kakadu’s midday heat and most are active at night.

paragraphs: Two species of crocodile live in Kakadu: the Freshwater Crocodile ("Crocodylus johnstonii") and the Estuarine, or Saltwater Crocodile ("C. porosus"). Freshwater Crocodiles have a narrow snout and a single row of four large boney lumps called ‘scutes’ immediately behind the head. Estuarine Crocodiles do not have these scutes and their snout is broader. The maximum size for a ‘freshie’ is 3 metres, whereas a ‘saltie’ can exceed 6 metres.

paragraphs: Kakadu’s 25 frog species are extremely well adapted to the region’s climatic extremes. Many remain dormant during dry times. At the start of the wet season, when the billabongs and swamps start to fill with water, the night air is filled with the sounds of frogs such as the northern bullfrog and the marbled frog. As the water builds up, frogs and tadpoles have plenty of food, such as algae, vegetation, insects, dragonfly nymphs, and other tadpoles. Not all of Kakadu’s frogs are found in the wetlands: many live in the lowland forests.

paragraphs: Fifty-one species of freshwater fish have been found in Kakadu’s waterways; eight of them have a restricted distribution. In the Magela Creek system alone, 32 species have been found. In comparison, the Murray–Darling river system, the most extensive in Australia, now supports only 27 native fish species. Although introduced fish have been found in most Australian waterways, none have been recorded in the Park.

paragraphs: Kakadu supports more than 10,000 species of insect including grasshoppers, beetles, flies, termites, butterflies and moths, bees, wasps, ants, dragonflies and damselflies, caddis flies, non-biting midges and mayflies. The great variety of insects is a result of the varied habitats and relatively high temperatures throughout the year.

paragraphs: Perhaps the most striking insect-created features in the Park are the termite mounds. The mounds in the southern part of the Park are particularly large and impressive. Leichhardt’s grasshopper, in colours of orange, blue and black, is perhaps the most spectacular insect found in Kakadu. It is also found on the Arnhem Land plateau and in Gregory National Park.

paragraphs: Kakadu has seen several invasive species threaten the native habitat, particularly in recent decades. Introduced fauna including the Water Buffalo, wild pig and more recently, the Cane Toad have had major effects on habitat. Invasive weeds include "Mimosa pigra", which covers 800 km² of the Top End, including vast areas of Kakadu, invasive paragrass displaces the native food of much of Kakadu's birdlife. "Salvinia molesta" has infested the Magela floodplain. Brumbies also inhabit areas of the National Park, including Yellow Water.

paragraphs: There are six main landforms in Kakadu National Park:

paragraphs: Each landform has its own range of habitats. Kakadu’s varied landscapes and the habitats they contain are features that contributed to its listing as a World Heritage Area.

paragraphs: Most of Kakadu was under a shallow sea about 140 million years ago, with the escarpment wall formed from sea cliffs and Arnhem Land from a flat plateau above the sea. Currently the escarpment rises 330 metres above the plateau and stretches 500 kilometres along the East edge of the park and on into Arnhem Land. The escarpment varies from near vertical cliffs in the Jim Jim Falls area to isolated outliers and stepped cliffs in the North.

paragraphs: Chasms and gorges form a network that cut through the rocky platforms on the plateau. The plateau top is a harsh, dry environment where water drains away quickly and top soil is scarce in most areas. Sparse pockets of open forest and woodlands have developed in these areas. However creeks have carved deep gorges in the escarpment in which tall monsoon forests grow. These areas form microclimates for plants and animals and often serve as a refuge during the dry season. Allosyncarpia ternata, a large shady tree found only in the Kakadu and Arnhem Land, is the main plant species.

paragraphs: The outliers are pieces of the Arnhem Land plateau that have become separated from the plateau by erosion. They were islands in the ancient seas that once covered much of Kakadu. The lowland plains stretch over much of the Top End and they make up nearly 70% of the Park. The soils are shallow and often are above large sheets of laterite (ironstone) and a thick profile of strongly leached rocks.

paragraphs: During the wet season, water carried down from the Arnhem Land plateau often overflows from creeks and rivers onto nearby floodplains. Alluvial soils carried in the floodwaters add nutrients to the floodplains. Nutrient-rich soils along with an abundance of water and sunlight make the floodplains an area of prolific plant and animal life. During the dry season the water drains into rivers, creeks and isolated waterholes or billabongs. Kakadu’s wetlands are listed under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar Convention) for their outstanding ecological, botanical, zoological and hydrological features.

paragraphs: The southern hills and basins cover a large area in the south of the Park, including the headwaters of the South Alligator River. Rocks here have been exposed from beneath the retreating Arnhem escarpment; they are of volcanic origin and are extremely old (2500 million years). This landform is characterised by rugged strike ridges separated by alluvial flats.

paragraphs: Kakadu’s coast and the creeks and river systems under tidal influence (extending about 100 kilometres inland) make up this landform. The shape of the estuaries and tidal flats varies considerably from the dry season to the wet season. During the dry season tidal action deposits silt along the river beds and banks. During the wet season the river beds are eroded by the floodwaters and large quantities of fresh and saline water flow out across the tidal flats, where silt is deposited. Large silt loads are also carried out to sea, some of the silt being deposited as a nutrient rich layer on the sea floor, contributing to the muddy waters that characterise Kakadu’s coastline.

paragraphs: The estuaries and tidal flats are home to many plants and animals adapted to living in the oxygen-deficient saline mud. The dominant habitats are mangrove swamps and samphire flats. Where freshwater springs occur along the coasts and river banks, isolated pockets of coastal monsoon rainforests form.

paragraphs: The art sites of Ubirr, Nourlangie Rock and Nanguluwur are world famous as examples of Aboriginal rock art. These sites are found among the rocks that have given shelter to the Aborigines for thousands of years. The painting in these rock shelters were done for different reasons:

paragraphs: Ubirr is a group of rock outcrops in the northest of the Park, on the edge of the Nadab floodplain. There are several large rock overhangs that would have provided excellent shelter to Aboriginal people over thousands of years. Because it is close to the East Alligator River and Nadab floodplains, it means that there would have been plenty of food. This is shown in much of the rock art here. Animals shown in the main gallery include barramundi, catfish, mullet, goanna, snake-necked turtle, pig-nosed turtle, Rock-haunting Ringtail Possum, and wallaby and thylacine (Tasmanian Tiger).

paragraphs: There are also images of the Rainbow Serpent said to have created much of the landscape as well as mischievous Mimi spirits and the story of the Namarrgarn Sisters. Many stories connected to Aboriginal rock are highly complex and linked to other stories. Often the true meanings have been lost, but they all have a purpose which is usually to serve as a lesson or a warning to the young or to those passing through the area.

paragraphs: Nourlangie is located in an outlying formation of the Arnhem Land Escarpment. There are a number of shelters in this large outcrop linked by paths and stairways. The shelters contain several impressive paintings that deal with the Dreamtime. The stories connected to these artworks are known only to certain Aboriginal people and remain secret.

paragraphs: Anbangbang Billabong lies in the shadow of Nourlangie Rock and is home to a wide range of wildlife which would have sustained traditional Aboriginal people well.

paragraphs: Nanguluwur, a small art site near Nourlangie, has several rock art styles. These include hand stencils, dynamic figures in large head-dresses carrying spears and boomerangs, Namandi spirits and mythical figures, including Alkajko, a female spirit with four arms and horns. There is also an interesting example of ‘contact art’ showing a two-masted sailing ship with anchor chain and a dinghy trailing behind.

paragraphs: Humans have made major changes in the area during the 19th and 20th century. Introduction of water buffalo from Southeast Asia caused damage to the fragile floodplains and wetlands. Since then, buffalo have largely been removed from the area so the land is now recovering. Crocodile hunting which has been banned since 1972 made a huge impact on crocodile numbers. Since they have been protected, the crocodiles have recovered so successfully that some think there are now too many.

paragraphs: Mining has made changes to the landscape, but only one uranium mine (Ranger) remains. Mine operators are have to repair and replant the area when the mine closes. Some small scale logging took place in the early part of the 20th century, but little evidence of this remains. Tourism causes big changes to Kakadu National Park with hundreds of thousands of visitors arriving annually. Roads, tracks, signs, shelter, accommodation, telecommunications and other services must be provided to support this activity.

paragraphs: Fire is part of the landscape of Kakadu National Park. The Park has large areas of woodland and grassy plains that are subject to long periods of dry hot weather. The flora of the region has adapted to frequent fires. Fires in northern Australia are less threatening than in southern Australia as many of the trees are largely fire resistant while other plants simply grow back very quickly.

paragraphs: Controlled burning is practiced by the national park in consultation with traditional owners who have used fire as a land management tool for thousands of years. Fire is an important hunting tool for Aboriginal people using it to flush out prey. The other benefit is that once the fire has gone through an area the tender shoots of the fast regenerating grasses attract wallabies into a clearly defined area. Birds of prey such as Whistling Kites also rely on fire to flush out small animals and are usually found in large numbers circling a fire front. Other species such as white-throated grasswrens have declined because of too many fires. Aboriginal people understand that fire is necessary to ‘clean up’ the landscape and believe that many small fires are preferable to one large fire.

paragraphs: Kakadu National Park is a major tourist attraction in Australia’s north with more than 200,000 visitors a year. Kakadu’s dramatic landscape, Aboriginal cultural significance and diverse and abundant wildlife are what visitors come to see. There are many beautiful waterfalls and gorges within the Park that are popular with visitors such as Maguk, Gunlom, Twin Falls and Jim Jim Falls.

paragraphs: Kakadu National Park has some of the best examples of Aboriginal rock art in Australia. The sites of Nourlangie and Ubirr are among the most visited locations in the Park. It is possible to view some of Kakadu’s diverse wildlife at places like Yellow Water Billabong, Cooinda on board a wildlife cruise or at Mamukala Wetlands or Anbangbang Billabong. The Kakadu region is one of the world’s best for bird watching as about 30% of Australia’s bird species can be seen here.

paragraphs: Large saltwater crocodiles are also common at Yellow Water and the East Alligator River. The Crocodile Dundee movies were made here. Visitors need to be careful around crocodiles as they have been responsible for a number of fatal attacks. Fishing is a popular activity inside Kakadu National Park. The main species is Barramundi and the most popular locations are Yellow Water, the South Alligator and the East Alligator River. Hunting is not allowed in Kakadu National Park.

paragraphs: There are several places to stay in the Park, mostly found in the town of Jabiru, as well as a range of services to cater to visitor’s needs. Visitors can experience Kakadu National Park with a recognised tour operator or they can drive themselves. Many of the Park’s sites are can be reached by standard two wheel drive vehicles, but areas like Twin and Jim Jim Falls and Gunlom require four wheel drive vehicles. Visitors can experience Kakadu National Park via the Nature’s Way tourism drive which is a loop from Darwin to Jabiru then onto Katherine and back to Darwin covering about 900 km.

paragraphs: The Park is proclaimed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (the EPBC Act) and is managed through a joint management arrangement between the Aboriginal traditional owners and the Director of National Parks. The Director manages Commonwealth national parks through Parks Australia, which is a part of the Department of the Environment and Water Resources. Title to Aboriginal land in the Park is held by Aboriginal land trusts. The land trusts have leased their land to the Director of National Parks for the purpose of a national park for the enjoyment and benefit of all Australians and international visitors. Traditional owners have also expected that having their land managed as a national park would assist them in looking after their land in the face of growing and competing pressures. They saw a national park as establishing a way to manage the land that could protect their interests and be sympathetic to their aspirations. Parks Australia and the Aboriginal traditional owners of Kakadu are committed to the principle of joint management of the Park and arrangements to help this happen are highlighted in Kakadu’s Plan of Management.

paragraphs: The EPBC Act provides for boards of management to be established for parks on Aboriginal land. The Kakadu Board of Management, which has an Aboriginal majority (ten out of fifteen members), representing the Aboriginal traditional owners of land in the Park, was established in 1989. The Board determines policy for managing the Park and is responsible, along with the Director, for preparing plans of management for the Park. The Plan of Management is the main policy document for the Park and strives to balance strategic or long-term goals and tactical or day to day goals.

paragraphs: Day to day management of Kakadu is carried out by people employed by Parks Australia, which is a branch of the Australian Government’s Department of the Environment and Water Resources. Approximately one-third of the staff in Kakadu are Aboriginal people.

paragraphs: Kakadu National Park brought in an entry fee in April 2010. Money raised will help manage the natural and cultural values of the park environment and improve visitor services.

paragraphs: Like many World Heritage sites around the world, including Yellowstone National Park, Serengeti National Park, Stonehenge, Pompeii and Herculaneum and the Pyramids of Giza - a park use fee will help maintain world-best management practices and facilities for the more than 200,000 visitors who experience Kakadu each year.

paragraphs: The $25 fee will apply to all interstate and international visitors aged 16 years and over. It can be used for 14 days. All Northern Territory residents and children under 16 have free entry.

paragraphs: Kakadu National Park is linked to Darwin by the Arnhem Highway and to Pine Creek and Katherine by the Kakadu Highway. Both roads are sealed all weather roads although may be cut off periodically during periods of heavy rain.

paragraphs: The town of Jabiru has several accommodation options, a service station, police, a medical clinic and a shopping centre with a range of outlets. The town was built for the Uranium mine that was established prior to the founding of Kakadu National Park and provides infrastructure for the mine’s workforce as well as the national park activities and tourism. Jabiru has a small airport from which scenic flights operate daily. There are no scheduled air services between Jabiru and Darwin however.

paragraphs: Other small tourism centres such as Cooinda and South Alligator provide limited facilities. Cooinda, 50 km south of Jabiru on the Kakadu Highway is the site of Gagudju Lodge Cooinda, Yellow Water Cruises and the Warradjan Cultural Centre. Fuel and limited provisions are available at Cooinda and there is also a small airstrip for scenic flights. South Alligator approximately 40 km west of Jabiru on the Arnhem Highway includes a hotel and service station. The Border Store near Ubirr Art Site and Cahills Crossing, 50 km north of Jabiru, is a general store.

paragraphs: There are a wide variety of designated camping sites throughout the Park. Jabiru, Cooinda and South Alligator all have commercial camping areas and are close to most of the important natural attractions in these areas. Some of the Park’s campsites charge a nominal fee as these have shower and toilet facilities, others are free, however they have limited or no facilities. A list of the sites can be obtained from the Kakadu National Park’s Glenn Murcutt-designed Bowali Visitor Centre or from their website.


title: Detroit Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Detroit Grand Prix is a car racing event held in Detroit, Michigan, USA. From 1982 to 1988 it was a part of the Formula One series. It has been a part of the IndyCar Series since 1988.

paragraphs: In 1982, the U.S. became the first country to host three World Championship Grands Prix in one season. As of 2010, it is the only one to do so. In addition to the US GP West and Caesars Palace GP races, the new event was held on another street course, in the Renaissance Center of Detroit.

paragraphs: The original circuit had seventeen corners in 2.493 miles, and included a tunnel and a railroad track crossing. For 1989, it was planned to move the Grand Prix to a new circuit at Belle Isle. However, an agreement could not be reached, and the Grand Prix moved to Phoenix in 1989. Upon the departure of F1, the Detroit race was replaced by an event sanctioned by CART, which was held on the same track except the 18th turn, a chicane, was removed. In 1992, the race was moved to Belle Isle, an island in the Detroit River. Since then, the race has been held at Belle Isle. It was canceled after the 2001 race before being held in 2007 and 2008. The race returned for 2012 and has been on the IndyCar series schedule since.


title: Dallas Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Dallas Grand Prix was a Formula One World Championship motor race in 1984. The race was run at the Fair Park street circuit. In 1988, the Dallas GP became a round of the American Trans-Am Series.

paragraphs: "A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship."


title: United States Grand Prix West

paragraphs: The United States Grand Prix West was a Formula One motor race held at street circuit in Long Beach, California. It was a Formula 5000 race in 1975, and a F1 world championship event from 1976 to 1983. After 1983 the event became the Long Beach Grand Prix of the CART series.

paragraphs: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Built by Cosworth, engine program funded by Ford


title: Pilsner Urquell

paragraphs: Pilsner Urquell (Czech: Plzeňský Prazdroj) is a famous brand of beer that is made in the city of Pilsen in Western Bohemia, Czech Republic. They started making this beer in 1842. The Asahi Breweries company owns this brewery today.


title: Swiss Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Swiss Grand Prix (, ) was the motor race of Switzerland. In its later years it was a Formula One race.

paragraphs: Grand Prix racing started in Switzerland in 1934. The Bremgarten circuit was just outside the town of Bremgarten, near Bern. The Swiss Grand Prix counted toward the European Championship from 1935 to 1939.

paragraphs: The Bremgarten track remained the home of the Swiss Grand Prix until 1954. In 1958, motor racing was banned by the Swiss government as an unsafe spectator sport. The was in reaction following the death of 80 people at the 1955 24 Hours of Le Mans race. The Swiss Grand Prix did return for two more races, but at the Dijon-Prenois circuit, just across the border in France. In 1975 it was a non-Championship Grand Prix. One Championship F1 race was held in 1982.

paragraphs: "A yellow background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war European Championship."


title: Swedish Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Swedish Grand Prix was a round of the Formula One World Championship from 1973 to 1978. It took place at the Scandinavian Raceway in Anderstorp (Gislaved Municipality), about 30 km from Jönköping, in Småland, Sweden.

paragraphs: The deaths in 1978 of both Ronnie Peterson and Gunnar Nilsson contributed to dropping the Swedish GP from the world championship. Interest for Formula One in Sweden fell following the death of these two Swedish racers.

paragraphs: "The races before 1956 were formally called the Swedish Summer Grand Prix."<br>


title: Coppa Acerbo

paragraphs: The Coppa Acerbo was an motor race held in Italy. Following Italy's defeat in World War II, the race was renamed the Circuito di Pescara, and in some years was also referred to as the Pescara Grand Prix ("Gran Premio di Pescara"). The race was run between 1924 and 1961 with a variety of vehicle classes. In the Pescara Grand Prix was one round of the Formula One World Championship. This race which holds the record of the longest circuit length ever used for a Championship event.


title: Pacific Grand Prix

paragraphs: The Pacific Grand Prix was a round of the Formula One World Championship in and . Both races were held at the Tanaka International Aida circuit(now Okayama International Circuit), a 2.3-mile track in the countryside in Aida (near Kobe), Japan.


title: Anna Bolena

paragraphs: Anna Bolena is an Italian opera in two acts. Gaetano Donizetti wrote the music to a libretto by Felice Romani. The opera was first performed in Milan, on December 26, 1830. "Anna Bolena" was Donizetti's thirty-third opera. It was his first major success, and the work that established his reputation in Europe. The opera was long neglected until it was revived to great acclaim by Maria Callas at La Scala in Milan in 1957. It has since been regularly performed, notably by Joan Sutherland, Montserrat Caballé and Beverly Sills.

paragraphs: The action takes place in England in 1536. The opera relates the stormy relationship between King Henry VIII and his second wife Anne Boleyn, and the king's new romantic interest in Jane Seymour. Anne is accused of treason and adultery and executed to make way for Jane to become his third wife.


title: Copper(II) carbonate

paragraphs: Copper(II) carbonate, also known as cupric carbonate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCO. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains carbonate ions.

paragraphs: Copper(II) carbonate is a blue-green solid. It is made when copper is in air for a long time and turns green. The other part of that coating is copper(II) hydroxide. It dissolves in acids to make carbon dioxide and a copper salt. It breaks down when heated to make carbon dioxide and copper(II) oxide.

paragraphs: It can be made by leaving copper(II) hydroxide in air, which makes copper(II) carbonate. It can also be made by reacting copper sulfate and sodium carbonate. This makes sodium sulfate in solution.

paragraphs: Copper(II) carbonate can be used to kill algae. It is also used as a pigment.

paragraphs: It can irritate the skin. It is toxic since it dissolves in stomach acid to make copper ions in solution, which can be absorbed.


title: Copper(II) hydroxide

paragraphs: Copper(II) hydroxide, also known as cupric hydroxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu(OH). It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains hydroxide ions.

paragraphs: Copper(II) hydroxide is light blue. It is rubbery when wet. When it is mixed with copper(II) carbonate, it is greenish. It reacts with carbon dioxide to make copper(II) carbonate when in air. It turns into copper(II) oxide when wet. When it is dry, though, it only turns into copper(II) oxide when it is heated. It reacts with ammonia to make a very dark blue solution.

paragraphs: Copper(II) hydroxide can be made by reacting copper sulfate with sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can be used, but it is more expensive. It can also be made by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate with a copper anode.

paragraphs: Copper(II) hydroxide is used to kill mold in paints. It can be used to color ceramics. It can be used as a catalyst.

paragraphs: It is not toxic in small amounts, but it can dissolve in stomach acid to make soluble copper, which can poison much more easily.


title: Copper(II) oxide

paragraphs: Copper(II) oxide, also known as cupric oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuO. It has copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also has oxide ions.

paragraphs: Copper(II) oxide is a black solid. It dissolves in acids to make copper(II) salts. It can react with carbon monoxide or hydrogen to make copper metal. It dissolves in very concentrated alkalis. It dissolves in ammonia to make a dark blue solution, similar to copper(II) hydroxide.

paragraphs: It can be made by heating copper(II) hydroxide. It can also be made by heating copper in air. It can also be made by heating copper(II) carbonate or copper(II) nitrate.

paragraphs: Copper(II) oxide is used to color ceramics. It is also used to make thermite. It can react with many toxic chemicals to oxidize them, so they are not toxic any more. It can be added to vitamins to get copper into the body. It can also be added to clothing to kill germs.

paragraphs: Copper(II) oxide is toxic when eaten. It can be eaten in very small amounts, such as in vitamins. This adds copper to the body, which is needed.


title: Copper oxide

paragraphs: Copper oxide can refer to either of these compounds:


title: Copper(II) sulfate

paragraphs: Copper(II) sulfate, also known as cupric sulfate, copper sulfate, blue vitriol, or bluestone, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuSO. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains sulfate ions. It is a blue solid that can kill fungi. It is also used to purify copper metal. It is common in chemistry sets and chemistry demonstrations. And practical lessons at high school

paragraphs: Copper(II) sulfate is a blue solid when hydrated (attached to water molecules). It is whitish when anhydrous (not attached to water molecules). When hydrated, it normally has five water molecules attached to it. It can be dehydrated by heating it. When water is added to it, it gets hydrated again. When it is in air, it absorbs water vapor and becomes hydrated, too.

paragraphs: It is a weak oxidizing agent. It reacts with most metals to make copper and a metal sulfate. For example, it reacts with iron to make copper and iron(II) sulfate.

paragraphs: It reacts with sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to make copper(II) hydroxide.

paragraphs: It reacts with sodium carbonate to make copper(II) carbonate.

paragraphs: It reacts with ammonia to make a dark blue solution. This solution can dissolve fibers in cotton.

paragraphs: When it is heated to a high temperature, it turns into copper(II) oxide and sulfur trioxide.

paragraphs: It makes a blue-green color when it is heated in a flame, like all copper compounds.

paragraphs: Copper(II) sulfate is found in the ground as chalcanthite. Chalcanthite is easily dissolved. It is only found in dry areas. When it is in air, it loses its bright blue color. Some minerals are tested by taste. Chalcanthite has a sweet metal taste. It should only be tasted carefully, as it is poisonous. Its Mohs hardness is 2.5. It is the pentahydrate of copper sulfate. It is blue or green. Many people collecting minerals want it.

paragraphs: Copper sulfate is not normally made in a small laboratory, because it is much easier just to buy it. There are some ways to make copper sulfate, however.

paragraphs: Copper(II) sulfate can be made by electrolysis of a solution of sulfuric acid with copper electrodes. Hydrogen is made, as well as copper sulfate solution.

paragraphs: It can also be made by reacting copper(II) oxide or copper(II) hydroxide or copper(II) carbonate with sulfuric acid or by adding copper to heated concentrated sulphuric acid:

paragraphs: It can also be made by reacting copper with a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid.

paragraphs: Copper(II) sulfate, as the most common copper compound, has many uses. It can be used to kill algae and fungi. Some fungi can get resistant to copper sulfate, though. Then the copper sulfate does not kill them any more. It can be mixed with lime to make a similar fungi killer. It can be used to treat aquarium fish for infections. It is also used to detect sugars. It turns into red copper(I) oxide when reduced by a sugar. It can be used in organic chemistry as a catalyst and oxidizing agent. It is used to see whether blood is anemic.

paragraphs: It is commonly found in chemistry sets. It is used to demonstrate a displacement reaction, where a metal reacts with copper sulfate to make copper and the metal sulfate. It is also used to demonstrated hydrated and anhydrous chemicals. It was used as an emetic in the past. It is seen as too toxic now.

paragraphs: It can be used to purify copper. A thin pure piece of copper and a thick impure piece of copper are placed in copper sulfate solution. The thin plate is connected to the negative wire and the thick plate to the positive wire. An electrical current is passed through them. The copper in the thick plate dissolves and plates on the thin plate. All of the impurities fall to the bottom, while the pure copper is made at the negative electrode.

paragraphs: Someone covered the walls of their apartment with copper sulfate crystals for decoration.

paragraphs: Copper sulfate is somewhat toxic to humans. It is very toxic to fish, though. In humans, it irritates skin and eyes. It can cause nausea when eaten. It automatically makes one throw up when it is ingested. If too much is eaten, however, it can get into the stomach and cause many problems.


title: Cooper Tire & Rubber Company

paragraphs: Cooper Tire & Rubber Company () is a United States based company. They design, manufacture, marketing and sales replacement automobile and truck tires. With their subsidiaries they produce medium truck, motorcycle and racing tires. Their headquarters is in Findlay, Ohio. Cooper Tire has 60 facilities located around the world.

paragraphs: Cooper also owns the UK Avon Tyres brand, which also produces tires for motorcycles, road cars, and for motor racing.

paragraphs: The beginning for Cooper Tire was the "M and M Company". M and M was formed by two brothers-in-law in Akron, Ohio in 1914. M and M made tire repair materials. M and M was bought by the Giant Tire and Rubber Company and moved to Findlay, Ohio. The site is still occupied by Cooper Tire and is next to The Cooper Corporation facilities. The Cooper name came from Ira J. Cooper in 1919. He formed a company to manufacture new tires. The Cooper Corporation, the M and M Company, and The Falls Rubber company merged in 1930 to form the "Master Tire and Rubber Company".

paragraphs: During World War II the Master Tire and Rubber built military equipment, such as pontoons, waterproof bags, life jackets, and, tires. The company received the Army-Navy 'E' Award for excellence. The name was changed to Cooper Tire and Rubber Company in 1946.

paragraphs: Cooper Tire began a 51% owned joined venture with Shandong Chengshan Tire Co in 2006. They will produce truck and passenger car tires for Chinese and export markets. Cooper Tires is the second largest United States based tire company, after Goodyear.

paragraphs: Cooper Tires produces Cooper branded tires for passenger cars, light trucks, sport utility vehicles and commercial trucks.

paragraphs: In 1997, the tyre business of Avon Rubber PLC of Melksham, Wiltshire, in the United Kingdom was sold to Cooper Tire. The Cooper Tire site remains a major employer in central Melksham.

paragraphs: In addition to Avon, Cooper Tire manufactures tires under the brand names Dean, Mastercraft and Starfire.

paragraphs: Cooper Tire became the official tire of the A1 Grand Prix for the series' initial 2005-06 season. Cooper was under contract to produce tires for the series championship until 2007-08. Cooper Tire became the official tire of the Champ Car Atlantic Championship in 2007. Cooper Tire became the official tire of USF2000 National Championship and the IMSA Prototype Lites series (formerly IMSA Lites) in 2010.

paragraphs: Cooper is heavily involved in the sport of drifting by supplying tires to several drifters in both the Need for Speed Formula D Drift series and Canadian Drift series.

paragraphs: Cooper employs 13,311 employees. Roy V. Armes is Chairman, President, and CEO.


title: Copper chloride

paragraphs: Copper chloride can refer to either of these chemical compounds:


title: Copper(I) chloride

paragraphs: Copper(I) chloride, also known as cuprous chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions.

paragraphs: Copper(I) chloride is white when pure. It does not dissolve in water. It is green when in air because of conversion to copper(II) chloride. It can react with Lewis bases, a group of chemicals. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid easily. It dissolves in solutions that have ammonia in them. It absorbs carbon monoxide. It easily disproportionates into copper and copper(II) chloride. It reacts with ammonia and acetylene to make copper(I) acetylide, a reddish explosive.

paragraphs: It can be made by reduction of copper(II) chloride. It was made at first by reacting copper with mercury(II) chloride. It can be made by heating copper(II) chloride very hot. Some chlorine is released, and copper(I) chloride is left behind.

paragraphs: Copper(I) chloride is used to make a fungicide, which is used to kill fungi. It is also used to make many organic compounds.


title: Alex Delvecchio

paragraphs: Alexander Peter "Fats" Delvecchio (born December 4, 1931 in Fort William, Ontario) is a Canadian retired ice hockey player and member of the Hockey Hall of Fame.


title: Copper(II) chloride

paragraphs: Copper(II) chloride, also known as cupric chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl. It contains copper in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions.

paragraphs: Copper(II) chloride is light brown when anhydrous. It is green when hydrated. It is a weak oxidizing agent. It reacts with aluminium foil to make hydrogen, copper(I) oxide, and aluminium chloride. This is used in school demonstrations. It releases chlorine and turns into copper(I) chloride when heated very hot. It reacts with sodium hydroxide to make copper(II) hydroxide. Copper(II) chloride reacts with metals to make metal chlorides and copper. It puts out blue flames if it is heated in a flame. It reacts with sulfur dioxide to make copper(I) chloride. It dissolves in water to make a blue solution. When more chloride is added, it turns green, then yellow.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting copper with chlorine. It can also be made by reacting copper(II) hydroxide, copper(II) oxide, or copper(II) carbonate with hydrochloric acid and from pure copper and from 1:1 solution of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid where copper first get oxidized to CuO from H2O2 and then reacts with HCl to form CuCl2, reaction goes like this:

paragraphs: Copper(II) chloride is used to make fungicides. It is also used to make organic compounds. It is also used to make acetaldehyde from ethane.

paragraphs: It is toxic, with toxicity similar to copper sulfate It is therefore harmful.


title: Copper(I) oxide

paragraphs: Copper(I) oxide, also known as cuprous oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuO. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions.

paragraphs: Copper(I) oxide is a red solid. It can also be yellow, but not commonly. It does not dissolve in water. It turns into copper(II) oxide when in air. It dissolves in ammonia to make a colorless complex. This is oxidized to a blue complex of copper(II). It dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid. It also dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make copper(II) sulfate and nitric acid to make copper(II) nitrate.

paragraphs: Copper(I) oxide is found in the ground. It is a copper ore.

paragraphs: Copper(I) oxide is made by heating copper in air. Some copper(II) oxide is also made. It can also be made by reducing copper(II) oxide or other copper(II) compounds. It is the result of a test for sugars. Green copper(II) chloride is reduced to red copper(I) oxide when a sugar is present.

paragraphs: Copper(I) oxide is used as a semiconductor. It is also used as a pigment and fungicide. It can be used to stop things from growing on ships.


title: Copper(I) acetylide

paragraphs: Copper(I) acetylide, also known as cuprous acetylide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuC. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains acetylide ions.

paragraphs: Copper(I) acetylide is a reddish solid. It is an explosive. It is a strange explosive because it does not release gas. When it detonates, it only releases copper and carbon. It can be formed inside copper pipes where acetylene flows through. It explodes because the acetylide is a reducing agent and the copper(I) is an oxidizing agent.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting copper(I) chloride dissolved in ammonia with acetylene. Hydrochloric acid and copper(I) acetylide is made. This reaction is used to test for acetylene.

paragraphs: It is used in organic chemistry. It is a very sensitive explosive, too sensitive to be used.


title: Illinois State University

paragraphs: Illinois State University is a public university in Normal, Illinois. Founded in 1857, it is Illinois' oldest public university. It was originally a teachers' college or "Normal School", and was known as Illinois State Normal University.


title: Acetylide

paragraphs: Acetylide, also known as ethynide, dicarbide, and percarbide, is an ion. Its chemical formula is C. It is made by deprotonation of acetylene. Some acetylides (chemical compounds contain acetylide ions) are explosive. Many acetylides are used in organic chemistry. Some are known as carbides. Copper(I) acetylide is an example.


title: Bridgestone

paragraphs: The very first Bridgestone tire was produced on April 9, 1930, by the Japanese "Tabi" Socks Tyre Division. On March 1, 1931, the founder, Shojiro Ishibashi, made the "Tabi" Socks tire Division independent and established the Bridgestone Tire Co., Ltd. in the city of Kurume, Fukuoka Prefecture. "Bridgestone" was named after the name of the founder, Shojiro Ishibashi ("Ishi" = Stone, "Bashi" = Bridge).

paragraphs: The Bridgestone tire Co., Ltd. decided to build tires based solely on Japanese technology. The company had many problems in the early days. Improvements were made in quality and the building processes. The business expanded rapidly on both the domestic and overseas markets.

paragraphs: Wartime regulations sent nearly all of the company's output to the military. After the war, the company was devastated. The Tokyo Headquarters building was destroyed by aerial bombing. All of their overseas assets were lost. The factories in Kurume and Yokohama were not damaged. Production was restarted after the war ended.

paragraphs: After World War II, Bridgestone started manufacturing motorcycles. But its main income was from supplying tires to its rival motorcycle makers such as Honda, Suzuki and Yamaha. Bridgestone later decided to stop building motorcycles.

paragraphs: In 1951, Bridgestone was the first company in Japan to begin selling rayon cord tires. The sale of nylon tires was started in 1959. 1967 saw the sale of first ever radial tire. Bridgestone's first overseas plant since the end of the war was opened in Singapore in 1965. Bridgestone America was started in the United States in 1967 to represent Bridgestone. The "Super Filler Radial" went on the market in 1978. In 1979 the company introduced the high-performance "POTENZA" radial tire.

paragraphs: The company name changed to Bridgestone Corporation in 1984.

paragraphs: In 1988, Bridgestone purchased the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. Bridgestone invested a lot of money into Firestone. They worked on rebuilding the Firestone company. By 1992, they were making a profit with "Bridgestone Firestone Europe". By 1993, they were making a profit with "Bridgestone Firestone USA".

paragraphs: The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company and Bridgestone Tire Company Ltd USA were merged in 1990 and became Bridgestone Firestone North American Holdings Ltd. To increase the brand awareness, they re-entered the Firestone brand into IndyCar racing in 1995. In 1997, "Bridgestone Corporation Japan" entered the Bridgestone brand into Formula One racing.

paragraphs: Bridgestone has supplied tires in Formula One since . They supplied tires on a one race only basis for the and Japanese Grands Prix. These tires were for Japanese teams such as Heros Racing and Kojima.

paragraphs: Bridgestone decided to supply tires for Formula One in 1995. They wanted to improve company's name value in the European market. Their main competitor was Michelin.

paragraphs: Their first title was acquired in by Mika Häkkinen and McLaren-Mercedes. Bridgestone users took five Drivers' championship titles and five Constructors' championship titles during the years that had more than one tire available. For (–), they competed with Goodyear. For (–), they competed with Michelin.

paragraphs: Michelin chose to end its Formula One tire program after the season. All teams have used Bridgestone tires from the season to the season. On November 2, 2009 Bridgestone announced that they will end their contract to supply tires to Formula One teams after 2010. The company said it was "addressing the impact of the continuing evolution of the business environment"

paragraphs: Bridgestone makes many other products than tires. The list includes: automotive components, industrial products, polyurethane foam products, construction materials, parts and materials for electronic equipment, bicycles and sporting goods.

paragraphs: On December 5, 2006, Bridgestone America and Bandag Inc. announced a merger. Bandag was a leading company in the tire re-treading business. Tire re-treading is the process of putting a new tread on a used tire. This will extend the life of the tire and save money. This process is mostly done on large truck tires. The name of new company has become "Bridgestone Bandag, LLC".

paragraphs: The Bridgestone Cycle Co Ltd started in 1949. It offers bicycles under its own brand and under the "Anchor brand".

paragraphs: "Bridgestone Aircraft tire (USA)" builds aircraft tires and provides re-tread services.

paragraphs: "Precept Golf" is a division of Bridgestone. They sell the Bridgestone Golfing Products. Bridgestone has been producing golf-related products since 1935. The Golf division of Bridgestone currently produces both clubs, balls and accessories.


Indian