title: Premier of Victoria

paragraphs: The Premier of Victoria is the head of the Government of Victoria, Australia. The Premier does the same job at a state level as the Prime Minister of Australia does at a national level. Formal power is held by the Queen who is represented in Victoria by the Governor of Victoria. The Governor acts on the advice given to him by the Premier. The current Premier of Victoria is Daniel Andrews.

paragraphs: Victoria is governed under the Westminster system of parliamentary government. It is a bicameral system with two elected houses. The lower house is called the Legislative Assembly and the upper house is called the Legislative Council. After an election, the State Governor appoints as Premier, the leader of the party who can control a majority of the elected members in the lower house. The Premier must resign if they no longer have a majority in the Legislative Assembly. This can happen if they lose seats at an election, or if their own political party does not support them.

paragraphs: Victoria was a British colony, and power was held by the Governor. In 1855, Britain allowed Victoria to have its own parliament, and the power was passed to the Premier.


title: El Mercurio de Valparaíso

paragraphs: El Mercurio de Valparaíso is the oldest newspaper of Chile, and the oldest one in the world in Spanish language that is still being published –the first newspaper in Chile was "La Aurora de Chile". It is from Valparaíso, and it was founded in 1827 by typographers Thomas G. Wells, Ignacio Silva Medina and Pedro Félix Vicuña. The first edition was published in September 12, 1827.

paragraphs: It is claimed that newspaper "El Peruano" is the oldest one in Spanish language.


title: Valparaíso

paragraphs: Valparaíso is a city in Chile, in the central coast del Litoral Central. It's also the capital of the province and region, and the legislative capital of the country. The city is part of the Greater Valparaíso conurbation.

paragraphs: The Chilean House of Representatives, the Command in Chief of the Chilean Army, the Fishing Undersecretary, the Fishing National Service, amidst other organizations, are in this city. The historical part of the city was declared "World Heritage Site" by UNESCO, in 2003.


title: Azoximer bromide

paragraphs: Polyoxidonium is a macromolecular compound with high-molecular weight and high immunomodulating activity. It is for treatment and prophylaxis of diseases connected with damage of immune system. It is a N-oxidized polyethylene–piperazine derivative.

paragraphs: Polyoxidonium is registered in US Patent-5503830 from 1996, in the Russian Federation from 1996, under registration number 96/302/9, FS 42-3906-00.


title: Ray Traylor

paragraphs: Raymond Washington Traylor, Jr. (May 2, 1963 – September 22, 2004) was a professional wrestler who is best known for wrestling with the WWF under the ring name (The) Big Bossman and with World Championship Wrestling (WCW) under the name many different ring names.

paragraphs: During his time with the WWF, he won the WWF Hardcore Champion four times where his fourth reign is credited as being the longest in WWF/E History. He also won the WWF Tag Team Championship one time with Ken Shamrock.

paragraphs: He died of a heart attack in his Acworth, Georgia home on September 22, 2004.


title: Chilliwack

paragraphs: Chilliwack is a city in the Canadian province of British Columbia.

paragraphs: The population of Chilliwack was 77,936 in 2011. The mayor of Chilliwack is Ken Popove.

paragraphs: The Stó:lō people lived in the area between 5,000 and 10,000 years ago. The population grew from 1857 to 1859 when gold was found in the Fraser Canyon. Over 40,000 gold miners had traveled to the goldfields and many of them traveled through the Chilliwack area. Chilliwack was incorporated as a town in 1873 and was the third municipality in British Columbia.


title: Whitesnake

paragraphs: Whitesnake are an English hard rock band formed in Middlesbrough, Cleveland in 1978. The members of the group are David Coverdale, the singer, Doug Aldrich, who plays the guitar, Reb Beach, who plays the guitar, Timothy Drury, who plays the keyboard and Brian Tichy, who plays the drums.


title: Printer (publishing)

paragraphs: In publishing, printers are the companies that supply printing services and persons who operate directly printing presses.

paragraphs: After the invention of the moveable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450, printers were made popular throughout Europe.

paragraphs: Today, printers are found throughout the world. They include:

paragraphs: An artist that operates a printing press to do their own works, especially by hand, is usually named by the term printmaker.


title: Kris Aquino

paragraphs: Kristina Bernadette Cojuangco Aquino (born February 14, 1971) is a Filipino actress and television host. She is the fourth daughter of Former President Corazon Aquino and Former senator Ninoy Aquino and sister of president Benigno Aquino III.


title: University of Melbourne

paragraphs: The University of Melbourne is in Melbourne, Victoria. Opened in 1853, it is the second oldest university in Australia, and the oldest in Victoria. The main campus is in Parkville, just north of the Melbourne CBD. It has several other campuses across Victoria. It has one of the largest financial endowments of any Australian university, standing at $1.105bn as of 2008.

paragraphs: Melbourne is one of the top universities in Australia and the world. In Australia it has a leading position in business, education, engineering, arts, law and medicine. It is the second largest research organisation in Australia after the CSIRO. In 2008, it spent AU$653.7m on research.

paragraphs: The university has over 35,000 students, and nearly 7,200 staff members. In 2008 it changed the way it organized its courses. This to be like way American and European universities work. The idea was to link to the European Union's Bologna process and get international acceptance for its degrees. many people were unhappy with these changes. Professor Glyn Davis AC is Melbourne's current vice-chancellor.

paragraphs: Melbourne University was started by the Victorian Parliament in 1853. Classes began in 1855 with three professors and 16 students. The buildings were officially opened by the Lieutenant Governor of the Colony of Victoria, Sir Charles Hotham, on 3 October 1855. The first chancellor, Redmond Barry (later Sir Redmond), held the position until his death in 1880.

paragraphs: At first all the buildings were built in the gothic revival style. In the 1950s a modernist style was started as the new "house style", resulting in the mix of university buildings seen today.

paragraphs: The opening of the university was made possible by the wealth coming from the Victorian gold rush. The university was to be a "civilising influence" at a time of rapid settlement and commercial growth (Selleck, 2003). It was not a religious university and was not allowed to offer in degrees in divinity. The churches could only build colleges on only the northern edge. The local population wanted 'useful' subjects like law, not 'useless' subjects like classics. The people of Melbourne won this argument, and law was introduced in 1857, and medicine and engineering in the 1860s. Women were let into courses in 1881.

paragraphs: In 1902 the university was bankrupt when it was found out that the man in charge of the university's money, Frederick Dickson, had stolen ₤24,000. The university's annual budget was £15,000. Dickson was jailed for seven years. This resulted in a royal commission that came up with new ways of funding, and new courses including agriculture and education.

paragraphs: After World War II, there were more students wanting to go to a university and Melbourne University became much larger and more inclusive.

paragraphs: The 150th anniversary was celebrated in 2003.


title: Fabiano Caruana

paragraphs: Fabiano Luigi Caruana, (born 30 July 1992 in Miami, Florida), is a chess grandmaster. He has dual citizenship of Italy and the United States. Fabiano plays for Italy in team events.

paragraphs: He became a grandmaster at the age of 14 years, 11 months and 20 days, making him the youngest grandmaster in the history of Italy and the United States. Fabiano won the 2018 Candidates Tournament, and challenged world champion Magnus Carlson in November, 2018.

paragraphs: The classical time-control portion of the championship match ended with 12 consecutive draws, the only time in the history of the world chess championship that all classical games have been drawn. On 28 November, rapid chess was used as a tie-breaker; Carlsen won three consecutive games to retain his title.


title: Twig

paragraphs: A twig is a small, thin branch. people can study twigs to identify plants, especially in winter when they have no leaves.


title: 2010 Tour de France

paragraphs: The 97th edition of the Tour de France took place from 3 to 25 July. The winner was Andy Schleck, because Alberto Contador was disqualified.

paragraphs: The Prologue is held in Rotterdam in the Netherlands. After Amsterdam in 1954, Scheveningen in 1973, Leiden in 1978 and s'Hertogenbosch in 1996, Rotterdam is the fifth city in the Netherlands to have hosted the start of the Tour de France.

paragraphs: During this Tour de France, 3,27 million € are distributed. At the start, each team receives 51 243 €. In return, each team presents in the arrival with at least seven riders obtained a prime of 1 600 € per rider present.

paragraphs: It rewards the overall leader, adding the times achieved on each step. In case of equal time in the general classification, the hundredths of a second recorded by the timekeepers at the time trial "individual" are reintroduced into the total time to separate athletes and decide the attribution of the Yellow jersey.

paragraphs: The points classification is based on the following scale :

paragraphs: The classification of the mountain is based on the following scale :

paragraphs: Points awarded in the climb off-categorized, 1 and 2 categories are doubled when it's the last mountain pass of the stage.

paragraphs: The classification is reserved for young riders born in 1985 or later. The first of them in the general classification is declared leader of the best young rider.

paragraphs: The general team classification is established by adding the three best individual times from each team in all stages. After the last stage, the team credited with the shortest time is declared the winner of the team standings.

paragraphs: The combativity award reward the rider who was the most generous in the effort and showing the best sportsmanship in the stage. After the last stage a Super Competitor is designated by members of the Jury of the Tour de France.


title: Growth ring

paragraphs: Growth rings are the rings of growth found in some living organisms, such as trees. Some animals such as shells and corals also have annual growth rings.

paragraphs: Counting the growth rings shows how old the organism is, or was when it stopped growing. For example, the growth rings in furniture, walls and other wooden items can be counted.

paragraphs: Tree rings grow under the bark, and the bark is pushed out while the tree is growing. The inner part of a growth ring is formed early in the growing season, when growth is fast and is known as early wood. The outer portion is the late wood, and is denser than early wood. Many trees in places with hot summers and cold winters make one growth ring a year.

paragraphs: For the entire life of a tree, a year by year record or ring pattern is formed that reveals the climate conditions in which the tree grew. If a tree grows in a dry place, you can tell its age better than when it grows in a wet place. Switching in between bad and good conditions can result in several rings forming in one year. Tree ring growth patterns are affected by the climate, weather, rain, temperature, soil pH, plant nutrition, CO concentration, and sunspots.

paragraphs: Rings happen because of the change in growth speed through winter, spring, summer and fall, so one ring usually marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree. Tree rings are more visible in places where the seasons change between hot and cold. Enough moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring. A dry year may result in a very narrow ring. Trees from the same area will tend to grow the same pattern of rings.

paragraphs: Tree growth rings can tell us about the ancient climate and growth rings can be used to tell the age of a tree. Growth rings can also be used to date the wood in old buildings, ships and frames for paintings. Tree rings are used to make radiocarbon dating more accurate.

paragraphs: Some perennial herb species form annual growth rings in their roots that basically follow the same principles as growth rings in trees.


title: Albert Esch

paragraphs: Albert Esch (1883 in Eisgrub, Lednice, Czech Republic – 1954 in Vienna) was an Austrian famous landscape architect in the 20th century.


title: José Manuel Balmaceda

paragraphs: José Manuel Balmaceda (1838 – 1891) was a Chilean politician, who eventually became President of the Republic of Chile.

paragraphs: Balmaceda was born in Bucalemu, in 1838. In 1865, he became one of the representatives of the government of Chile at the South American General Congress at Lima, and after his return, he obtained great distinction as an orator in the national assembly.

paragraphs: He became Minister of Foreign Affairs and of the Interior under the presidency of Domingo Santa Maria. He was elected President in 1886. On January 1, 1891 he claimed his intention to terminate an "intolerable situation", by refusing to convoke the assembly, and he ordered to continue the collection of taxes. This action provoked the Chilean Civil War of 1891, which ended with the overthrow of President Balmaceda, who later committed suicide on September 18, in the anniversary of his elevation to the Presidency.


title: Ozymandias

paragraphs: Ozymandias is a sonnet by Percy Bysshe Shelley. It was published in 1818 in the 11 January issue of "The Examiner", a journal in London. It is probably Shelley's most famous short poem.

paragraphs: The poem has been noted for its skillful diction, and its powerful themes and imagery. The central theme of "Ozymandias" is the inevitable (unavoidable) ruin of leaders and empires. The message is that all leaders and the empires they build will always end up as nothing, however mighty they are.

paragraphs: The name "Ozymandias" comes from a transliteration into Greek of the throne name of Ramesses II. The sonnet paraphrases (copies in different words) the writing on the base of a statue of Ramesses. The statue is called Younger Memnon and it is from Thebes (it is now in the British Museum). The writing on the statue was recorded by Diodorus Siculus in his "Bibliotheca historica". It reads: "King of Kings am I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works".


title: ESCP Europe

paragraphs: ESCP Business School is an European higher studies establishment. The school is in 6 places, in Paris, France, in the United Kingdom (London), in Spain (Madrid), in Italy (Torino), in Poland (Warsaw), and in Germany (Berlin), where it is a university. It is the oldest business school in the world established in 1819. and therefore presents itself as ""The World's First Business School"".

paragraphs: ESCP is specialist in the fields of economics, social sciences and management.


title: Norwich International Airport

paragraphs: Norwich International Airport is an airport in the city of Norwich, United Kingdom.

paragraphs: Norwich has regular flights to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, ran by KLM, which have been operating for many years. Other services, run both internationally (normally via Schiphol), or within the British isles.


title: International Air Transport Association airport code

paragraphs: An IATA airport code, is a three-letter code that can be used to identify airports. This removes the need to write the name of the airport in full every time it is needed, instead an IATA code can be used.

paragraphs: An important use of these codes is on baggage tags. They will display the IATA code for the airport which the bags should be heading to, should they get lost.


title: International Civil Aviation Organization airport code

paragraphs: An ICAO code is the code used by pilots and air traffic controllers to identify airports simply and easily.

paragraphs: The code is made up of four numbers or letters. These are not the same as IATA codes, which are often simpler, and are made to sound like the airport's name. For example, people who fly from Heathrow airport, are likely to know it best as either Heathrow, or by its IATA code: LHR. They are less likely to know its ICAO code: EGLL.


title: Boston

paragraphs: Boston is the largest city of Massachusetts in the United States. It was founded in 1630. Boston is one of the oldest, richest and most culturally important cities in the United States.

paragraphs: Boston was founded on September 7, 1630, by Puritan colonists from England. Boston's early European settlers called the area "Trimountaine" (Three Mountains). They renamed the town for Boston, England, in Lincolnshire because many important "Pilgrim" colonists came from there.

paragraphs: Most of Boston's early citizens were Puritans. Shortly after Boston's settlement, Puritans created America's first public school and America's first university, Harvard University (1636). Harvard is in the city of Cambridge, which is across the Charles River from Boston. Until the 1760s, Boston was America's largest city.

paragraphs: During the early 1770s, the British tried to control the thirteen colonies with taxes. This made people from Boston start the American Revolution. The Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, and several early battles happened in or near the city. It held its first town meeting in Faneuil Hall in 1743.

paragraphs: Boston continued to grow and attract immigrants from around the world. Many immigrants came from Ireland, and gave Boston a very Irish culture that remains today. President John F. Kennedy was a member of an Irish-American family that lived in Boston. Many immigrants also came from Italy, and lived in Boston's North End, where Italian culture remains, with various Italian stores, restaurants, bakeries, and homes.

paragraphs: On 15 April 2013, two bombs exploded at the Boston Marathon.

paragraphs: Boston is located on the Shawmut Peninsula. The city covers 48 square miles. Boston Harbor and the Atlantic Ocean is located east of the city. A much larger metropolitan area surrounds Boston.

paragraphs: The highest point in Boston is Bellevue Hill, at 330 feet above sea level. The lowest point is at sea level. Boston is the only state capital in the contiguous United States with an ocean coastline.

paragraphs: Boston has a continental climate with some ocean effects. Summers are normally warm to hot, rainy, and humid, while winters alternate between periods of cold rain and snow, with cold temperatures. Spring and fall are usually mild. Existing wind patterns that blow offshore lower the effect of the Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: The hottest month is July, with an average temperature of . The coldest month is January, with an average of . Extremes have ranged from on February 9, 1934, up to on July 4, 1911.

paragraphs: Boston's location on the North Atlantic moderates its temperature, but makes the city very likely to suffer from Nor'easter storm systems that can produce much snow and rain. The city averages of precipitation a year, with of snowfall per year.

paragraphs: The tallest towers in Boston are the Prudential Tower and the John Hancock Tower.

paragraphs: Boston has a culture that is quite similar to New England, such as a New England accent and foods that are mostly seafood, salt, and dairy products. Irish-Americans are very important in Boston's politics and religious activities. Boston people also have a style of talking which is called Boston slang.

paragraphs: It is often thought that Bostonians have a strong sense of culture. Perhaps this is because Boston is famous for being a very intellectual place, with much of its culture coming from its universities. The city has many complex theatres, including the Cutler Majestic Theatre, Boston Opera House, Citi Performing Arts Center, the Colonial Theater, and the Orpheum Theatre. The headquarters of Unitarian Universalism (UU) is located in Boston. The Christian Science movement has also made its home in the Boston area.

paragraphs: Boston has many historic places and Bostonians take pride in their city's history. The American Revolution began in Boston, and many of its leaders, such as Samuel Adams, John Adams, John Hancock, and Paul Revere were from the city. Many of the sites from the Revolution are preserved in the city, including Faneuil Hall, the Old State House, Park Street Church, and others. These form the "Freedom Trail", a walk that takes visitors past many historic places in the city.

paragraphs: Boston is one of the United States' most important cities in education and health care. Boston and the towns around it contain many of the country's leading universities. Harvard, MIT, and Boston University are some of the most famous.

paragraphs: Professional sports are an important part of life in Boston. The Red Sox play baseball at Fenway Park, the oldest stadium in Major League Baseball (1912). The Celtics, a basketball team, and the Bruins, a hockey team, both play at the TD Garden. Boston's football team, the New England Patriots, play in Foxborough, a town 22 miles south of the city.

paragraphs: In 2013, the population of Boston was 645,966. The population has grown 9.6% since 2000. Boston has 13,339 people per square mile. The population is 47.8% male and 52.2% female. The racial breakdown is shown in the Racial Groups table. The people from outside the United States are 178,805. 27.7% of the population come from outside of the United States.

paragraphs: The unemployment rate in Boston is 5.9% since June 2014. The 35th annual homeless census from 2015 said there were 7,663 homeless men, women, and children in Boston. The homeless population increased 5.6% since 2013. The number of homeless people sleeping on the streets decreased by 22.8% since 2013. However, the number of adults in emergency shelters has grown by 10.9%. In 2015, the homeless family population increased by 25%. The total number of homeless men, woman, families and children increased by 20.9% from 3,541 to 4,281.

paragraphs: Mayor Marty Walsh announced his goal to help those in need for a permanent housing solution. Agencies such as Pine Street Inn, Boston Healthcare, Project Hope, and Boston Public Health Commission are helping the homeless. The homeless are helped by reducing family evictions. Property management companies and nonprofits, such as Project Hope and the Department of Neighborhood Development, will increase affordable housing options. Boston Public Health Commission and the Department of Neighborhood Development will work together to provide support for treatment options and shelters. The Wyman Re-Entry Center has a 90-day residential substance-abuse and recovery program. The Safe Harbor serves adults with HIV. The project SOAR stands for Stability, Opportunity, Achievement, and Recovery, and helps clients maintain a healthy lifestyle and provide support in moving to permanent housing.

paragraphs: Over 85.6% of the population ages 20 years and over in Boston have a high school diploma or higher in 2013. Those with a Bachelor's degree or higher make up 45.2% of the population.

paragraphs: Some of the Colleges and Universities in Boston are:

paragraphs: The MBTA runs the city's subway (known as "the T"), commuter rail, buses, and ferries. The main airport for the city is Logan International Airport.


title: Parti Québécois

paragraphs: The Parti Québécois (PQ) is a political party that wants sovereignty for the province of Quebec. The party wants Quebec to become its own country, or secede from Canada.

paragraphs: The Parti Québécois, or PQ was founded by René Lévesque. PQ's main goals are to get independence for Québec. In the provincial election of 1976, the Parti Québécois was elected to the government of Québec for the first time and René Lévesque, became the premier of Quebec. Many French people in Québec were happy to see the Lévesque as premier, while many English people were not happy..

paragraphs: The PQ passed a bill called Bill 101. This bill is a law that makes French the languages used most in Quebec, even though English and French are the languages spoken in Canada. The party was elected again in the 1981 election, but in November 1984 founder René Lévesque left the party and the PQ lost the 1985 election.

paragraphs: The Parti Québécois started the first Quebec referendum, having the citizens vote to decide to either leave Canada or stay a part of the country. 60 per cent of the people who voted decided to stay in Canada. The PQ had a second referendum in 1995. The citizens once again voted to stay in Canada. The leader of the party, Jacques Parizeau, quit after the referendum failed.

paragraphs: The current Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe was the first to announce that he would to try to become the leader of the PQ, on May 11, 2007. Pauline Marois also said she was going to try to become leader, but Duceppe changed his mind on the 12th leaving Marois the only candidate. On June 26, 2007 Marois won the leadership. Pauline Marois is the current leader of the PQ. She has said that the PQ plans to have another referendum in the future. On , Marois led her party to minority victory in the Quebec general election, thus becoming the first female premier in the province's history. After an electoral defeat in , she resigned. The current leader of the PQ is Jean-François Lisée, elected in 2016.

paragraphs: The Bloc Québécois is a federal political party in Canada that was made in 1990 by future PQ leader Lucien Bouchard. The Bloc also wants sovereignty for Québec. The two parties help each other during elections.


title: Wheel gymnastics

paragraphs: Wheel gymnastics is a form of gymnastics which originated in Germany.

paragraphs: Wheel gymnasts do exercises in a large wheel known as the "Rhönrad", "gymnastics wheel", "gym wheel", or "German wheel".

paragraphs: There are three main categories of exercise in wheel gymnasts. They are: "straight line", "spiral", and "vault".

paragraphs: While being a child, Otto Feick, the son of a blacksmith from Reichenbach, Germany, used to roll down a hill in two wagon tires which inspired him later to invent the wheel gymnastics between 1920-1922. The current wheel gymnastics obtained its final shape in 1974 with the introduction of the PVC coating. Now, it's a competitive sport practiced in Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland, Japan, and United States of America.


title: Trampolining

paragraphs: Trampolining is a competitive Olympic sport in which gymnasts perform airborne acrobatics while bouncing on a trampoline. These can include simple jumps in the "pike", "tuck" or "straddle position" to more complex combinations of forward or backward somersaults and twists.

paragraphs: There are two related competitive rebound sports: "synchronized trampoline" and "double mini-trampoline".

paragraphs: The currently accepted basic format for individual trampoline competitions usually consists of two or three "routines", one of which may involve a compulsory set of skills. The skills consist of various combinations of somersaults, shaped bounces, body landings and twists performed in various body positions.

paragraphs: In the early 1930s, an American gymnast George Nissen observed "trapeze" artistes performing tricks when bouncing off the "safety net". He made the first modern trampoline in his garage to reproduce that net on a smaller scale and used it to help with his diving and tumbling activities. It was the beginning of a new sport.

paragraphs: In the USA, trampolining was quickly introduced into school physical education programs and was also used in private entertainment centers. Since trampolining became an Olympic sport in 2000, many countries have started developing programs for producing very competitive athletes.


title: Priapulida

paragraphs: Priapulida (priapulid or penis worms) are a phylum of marine worms. Their name refers to their extensible spiny proboscis, which, in some species, may have a shape similar to that of a human penis. They live in the mud, which they eat, in comparatively shallow waters up to .

paragraphs: Their nearest relatives are probably Kinorhyncha and Loricifera with which they constitute the taxon Scalidophora. Besides arthropods and velvet worms, the priapulids are the only members of the Ecdysozoa which are relatively large in size. They feed on slow-moving invertebrates, such as polychaete worms.

paragraphs: Priapulid fossils are known at least as far back as the Middle Cambrian. They were probably major predators of the Cambrian period. There are only sixteen known living species of priapulid worms.


title: Kinorhyncha

paragraphs: Kinorhyncha is a phylum of small (1 mm or less) marine invertebrates. They are widespread in mud or sand at all depths of the sea. They are sometimes called mud dragons. About 150 species are known. Kinorhynchs eat either diatoms or organic material found in the mud, depending on species.

paragraphs: Kinorhynchans are segmented, limbless animals. Their body has a head, neck, and a trunk. The trunk has eleven segments. They do not have external cilia, but have a number of spines along the body, and up to seven circles of spines around the head. These spines are used for movement. They can pull back the head and push forward; then they can grip the substrate with the spines, and draw up the body.

paragraphs: The body wall is a thin layer with a tough cuticle. It is moulted several times during growth. This layer is a syncytium, with nuclei, but no cell membranes.

paragraphs: The spines are are hollow and covered by cuticle. The head is completely retractable, when is covered by a set of neck plates.

paragraphs: The nervous system is a ventral nerve cord, with one ganglion in each segment, and an anterior nerve ring surrounding the pharynx. This is the common arrangement for invertebrates. Some species have simple ocelli (eye-spots) on the head, and all species have tiny bristles on the body as touch receptors.

paragraphs: There are two sexes that look alike. A pair of gonads are in the mid-region of the trunk, and open to pores in the final segment. In most species, the sperm duct has two or three spiny structures that presumably help in copulation. The larvae are free-living.

paragraphs: Their closest relatives may be the phyla Loricifera and Priapulida. Together they are the Scalidophora.


title: Loricifera

paragraphs: Loricifera is a recently discovered ecdysozoan phylum of marine animals. The phylum includes the first animals known to exist in a completely anoxic environment (no oxygen at all). The phylum was described in 1983 by Reinhardt Kristensen.

paragraphs: They are a phylum of very small animals which live in sediment. There are now twenty-two described species, in eight genera. In addition, there are about 100 more species which have been collected, but not yet described. Their size ranges from 100 µm to about 1 mm.

paragraphs: Their habitat is in the spaces between marine gravel to which they attach themselves. They are among the most recently discovered groups of Metazoans. They attach themselves quite firmly to the gravel, and this explains why they remained undiscovered for so long. The first specimen was collected in the 1970s, and later described in 1983. They are found at all depths of water, in different sediment types, and in all latitudes. They have not yet been found in the fossil record.

paragraphs: These animals have a protective outer case called a lorica. Protected by the lorica, the animals have a head, mouth and digestive system. Development is usually direct, though there are larvae in some species. The animals have two sexes as adults. There are some complex and flexible life cycles with different forms of parthenogenetic reproduction.

paragraphs: Their closest relatives are thought to be the Kinorhyncha and Priapulida, with whom they share some characteristics. Together they make up the clade Scalidophora.

paragraphs: Three species of Loricifera have been found in the sediments at the bottom of the L'Atalante basin in the Mediterranean Sea. The 'surface' of this basin is 3,500 meters down. They are the first multicellular organisms known to spend their entire lives in an oxygen-free environment. It is thought they are able to do this because they rely on organelles which, unlike normal mitochondria, do not use oxygen for their energy cycle. They are able to do this because they use hydrogenosomes to get their energy rather than mitochondria.

paragraphs: The newly reported animals complete their life cycle in the total absence of light and oxygen, and they are less than a millimetre in size. They were collected from the deep basin where they live in a nearly salt-saturated brine. This brine, because of its density, does not mix with the waters above. As a result, the brine is completely anoxic, and high in ammonia. Also, due to the action of sulphate reducers, it contains sulphide at a high concentration. In the brine, the abundance of cells is not high. Extremophiles predominate, including members of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent community of archaea and bacteria. Eukaryotes are also found in l'Atalante, including ciliates (45%), dinoflagellates (21%) and choanoflagellata (10%).

paragraphs: This article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text from references


title: Saturation (chemistry)

paragraphs: The term saturation in chemistry is used in several ways:


title: Sulphide

paragraphs: A sulphide (sulfide in US English) is an anion of sulphur in its lowest oxidation number of -2. Sulphide is also a term for thioethers, a common type of compound which are known for their bad odours (example: HS = hydrogen sulphide).

paragraphs: The dianion S exists only in strongly alkaline aqueous solutions.


title: Sulphate

paragraphs: In chemistry, a sulphate (sulfate in US English) is a salt of sulphuric acid. The sulphate ion is a group of atoms with the formula SO and two negative charges. It consists of a central sulphur atom surrounded by four equivalent oxygen atoms. It occurs when sulfuric acid is deprotonated twice. If it is only deprotonated once, the hydrogen sulfate ion is made.


title: L'Atalante basin

paragraphs: The L'Atalante basin is a very salty 'lake' at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea.

paragraphs: It is about 190 km (~120 miles) west of the island of Crete. It is called a 'lake' because, though it is under more than two miles of water, it is almost completely separate from the sea above it. Its huge salt content prevents the waters mixing. Sometimes these lakes are called "brine pools". They are found in many oceans; there is one in the Gulf of Mexico.

paragraphs: L'Atalante is only one of several such lakes underneath the normal waters of the Mediterranean. When the Strait of Gibraltar was closed, about six million years ago, the Mediterranean dried up and became a huge salt lake, rather like the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake are today. Then it dried out completely, leaving an enormous amount of salt. When the Straight of Gibraltar opened again about five million years ago, water from the Atlantic Ocean rushed in to form the Mediterranean we see today. Even today, the Atlantic feeds the Mediterranean with water, because the evaporation from the 'Med' is greater than is provided by its rivers. With its huge supply of salt underneath, and the constant evaporation, the Med is a high salt sea compared with the Atlantic.

paragraphs: The L'Atalanta lake and its neighbours the Urania and Discovery lakes are about 35,000 years old. They were formed by salt deposits dissolving out of the Mediterranean Ridge and collecting in deep depressions at the bottom of the Med. L'Atalante is the smallest of the three. Its surface begins at about below sea level.

paragraphs: L'Atalante's salinity (salt content) is near saturation, at 36.5%, about eight times more than seawater. This prevents the water in the brine pool from mixing with the 'normal' seawater above. Without mixing, oxygen from above can't get into the brine pool. The basin's water is completely anoxic: it has no oxygen.

paragraphs: Between the normal water and the brine is a short (1.5 metres) boundary zone called a halocline. The salt content rises sharply there, and oxygen reduces towards zero. This halocline between the seawater above and the brine below has many bacterial and archaeal cells: they are chemoautotrophs, which feed on ammonia from the brine but cannot function without some oxygen. Certain methane oxidizers and haloarchaea are found only in the halocline.

paragraphs: Below, in the brine, the number of cells is much lower than in the halocline. Extremophiles are most common, including some of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent archaea and bacteria. Eukaryotes are also found in l'Atalante, mostly ciliates (45%), dinoflagellates (21%) and choanoflagellata (10%).

paragraphs: The dark grey anoxic sediments at the bottom of L'Atalante lake are covered with a loose black layer. Microbes found in the sediments are almost all (90%) various species of "Bacillus". In 2010, three metazoan species, all in the Loricifera phylum, were discovered living in the sediment, the first multicellular lifeforms known to live entirely without oxygen.


title: Tactical voting

paragraphs: Tactical voting happens when a person votes for someone other than their favorite candidate in a way to either help their favorite or achieve some other goal. This may happen in national or local elections, or even in elections for clubs and homeowner associations.

paragraphs: Say 5 people are running as candidates for board members, but only 3 will be elected. For the following situations except the last, let's say you get 1 vote.

paragraphs: Another common situation happens in primary elections, where members of one party may temporarily 'cross over' to the other party to support a candidate who is getting fewer votes, hoping their favorite will face weak competition in the main election. This type of negative voting is popular but often considered unethical.

paragraphs: Many experts question tactical voting in that it can undermine a democratic outcome. That is, ethical voters may believe it more important how a candidate wins than who wins. Others feel the end justifies the means. Most researchers tend to frown on tactical voting.


title: Queensberry (band)

paragraphs: Queensberry were a German girl group that was started at the German version of Popstars in 2008. They split in 2013.


title: Strait of Gibraltar

paragraphs: The Strait of Gibraltar is the only water passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. It is between Europe and Africa; on one side is the southern tip of Spain and Gibraltar, and on the other is northern Morocco and Ceuta. The distance between the Rock of Gibraltar and Morocco is only 7.7 nautical miles (14.24 kilometers, 8.9 miles) at its narrowest point.

paragraphs: The water depth ranges between 300 and 900 meters.


title: Hurricane Fran

paragraphs: Hurricane Fran was a hurricane during the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season. This storm caused over $3 billion in damage. It killed 20-30 people. Fran struck North Carolina as a strong Category 3 hurricane with winds of . The name Fran was later retired and replaced by Fay for the 2002 Atlantic season.

paragraphs: Hurricane Fran started from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa, entering the Atlantic Ocean, on August 22. The low pressure area became a tropical depression on August 23. Little changed for several days. By August 26, the storm had been disorganized.

paragraphs: On August 27, the storm grew into a tropical storm and was named Fran. On August 29, the storm intensified into a category 1 hurricane. The interaction with Hurricane Edouard led to weakening and the storm took a northwestward direction. When Edouard was gone, the storm grew into a category 1 hurricane again.

paragraphs: Fran grew in early September. By September 3, it the winds were at . The system started to develop an eye. By September 5, winds were at 120 mph (195 km/h) and its pressure was 946 mbar.

paragraphs: On September 6, the storm hit North Carolina with winds of . Once on land, the storm rapidly weakened. It moved through Virginia. It died on September 8.

paragraphs: Hurricane watch was issued in the Lesser Antilles on late August. As Fran moved away, the watch was discontinued.


title: Type 1 diabetes

paragraphs: Diabetes mellitus type 1, also called type 1 diabetes, is an autoimmune disease that results in high blood sugar. This is because the body cannot create enough of the hormone insulin. People with this condition are insulin dependent - they require insulin injections without which they may die. People with type 1 diabetes are at increased risk of stroke, heart disease or gangrene. About 15% of people with diabetes have type 1.

paragraphs: Type 1 diabetes is a condition caused by a lack of insulin in the body. Insulin is a hormone produced by cells in the pancreas. Insulin is responsible for moving sugars out of the blood and into cells to be used for energy. If insulin is not made, the body will search for other ways to get the sugars needed to feed the body's cells, including breaking down muscle and fat, leading to a loss of weight.

paragraphs: Insulin is not being produced in the pancreas due to an autoimmune condition attacking its cells. The body's immune system mistakenly attacks the cells responsible for producing insulin in the pancreas, the beta cell, damaging the cells in a way the prevents them from producing more insulin. As more and more cells are damaged, less insulin is produced in the body. This means that more sugar remains in the bloodstream rather than being moved into cells. This high blood sugar causes the symptoms seen in type 1 diabetes.

paragraphs: The disease is thought to be strongly linked to genetic factors, but the trigger that starts the autoimmune disease is not currently known.

paragraphs: In the past, type 1 diabetes was generally thought to be a disorder in children and teenagers. However, it's now been found that adults can be diagnosed with the disease.

paragraphs: Although type 1 diabetes can now be diagnosed at any age, it is one of the most common chronic conditions in children and young adults. Being diagnosed at ages 5–7 or at the start of puberty is particularly common. Type 1 diabetes is also slightly more common in boys.

paragraphs: Cases of type 1 diabetes have been increasing across the world for several decades. Approximately 1 in 300 people are diagnosed with type 1 diabetes by the age of 18 in the United States. If this rate continues, the number of cases of type 1 diabetes could double in the next decade.

paragraphs: In type 1 diabetes, symptoms generally develop over a few days or weeks, though may take longer in adults. The main symptoms are:

paragraphs: Nausea, vomiting and heavy breathing are more serious symptoms. They occur at a later stage in the disease, and if they're seen a sufferer should be taken to hospital immediately.

paragraphs: Sufferers of type 1 diabetes may have to deal with both short-term and long-term complications, particularly if the disease is not well managed.

paragraphs: Hypoglycaemia is when blood sugar levels decrease to below normal. This is most commonly due to overuse of medications for diabetes type 1 like insulin or from poor diet control. The risk of suffering from low blood sugar is increased by drinking alcohol. Leads to various symptoms, including confusion, loss of consciousness, clumsiness, seizures or death.

paragraphs: Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a very serious complication of type 1 diabetes. It is always a medical emergency and requires rapid medical attention to prevent further damage to a patient, if left untreated it can potentially lead to death. DKA occurs when there is not enough insulin in the body to supply sugars to the body's cells. In order to give its cells enough energy to survive, the body begins to produce acidic ketone bodies which are then used to feed energy to the cells.

paragraphs: If too many ketone bodies build up the blood becomes acidic, damaging the body and leading to the symptoms:

paragraphs: If diabetes is not treated, even mildly raised blood sugar levels can damage nerves, organs and blood vessels in the body .

paragraphs: Currently, there is no known cure for diabetes. Instead, treatment is designed to help keep blood sugar levels normal in order to reduce the chances of complications developing as the disease progresses. There are two main method that are combined to manage diabetes type 1:

paragraphs: Type 1 diabetes occurs due to the bodies inability to produce its own insulin. To counter this, insulin can be injected into the blood manually. When diabetes is first diagnosed, a plan should be made for insulin treatment in order to not under or overdose, which can lead to serious complications. A sufferer should monitor their own blood sugar levels continuously to know whether they need a dose of insulin to lower their blood sugar.

paragraphs: There are different kinds of insulin that can be taken:


title: Eagle Mountain (Minnesota)

paragraphs: Eagle Mountain is the highest point in Minnesota, at 2,301 feet (701 m). It is located in northern Cook County. It is a Minnesota State Historic Site.


title: Al Franken

paragraphs: Alan Stuart "Al" Franken (born May 21, 1951) is a former United States Senator from Minnesota. He is a member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party, which affiliates with the national Democratic Party. Before he was a Senator, Franken was a writer and actor on "Saturday Night Live".

paragraphs: Franken was also a left-wing pundit and has written several books on politics. His second cousin was actor Steven Franken.

paragraphs: On December 7, 2017, Franken announced in an address before the Senate that he would be resigning from his office following sexual harassment claims.


title: Minneapolis–Saint Paul

paragraphs: Minneapolis-Saint Paul is the most populous urban area in the state of Minnesota, United States, and is made up of 186 cities and townships. Built around the Mississippi, Minnesota and St. Croix rivers, the area is also nicknamed the Twin Cities for its two largest cities, Minneapolis and Saint Paul.


title: Arrowhead Region

paragraphs: The Arrowhead Region is in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It got its name from its pointed shape. The mainly rural region is 27,575.19 km² (10,635.26 sq mi) of land area and comprises Carlton, Cook, Lake and St. Louis Counties. At the 2000 census 248,425 people lived there.


title: Misquah Hills

paragraphs: The Misquah Hills are a range of large hills or small mountains in northeastern Minnesota, in the United States. They are located in or near the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness within Superior National Forest. They contain Eagle Mountain, the highest point in Minnesota at 2301 feet (701 meters).


title: Sawtooth Mountains (Minnesota)

paragraphs: The Sawtooth Mountains are low ridges on the North Shore of Lake Superior in the U.S. state of Minnesota. They extend about 30 miles (50 km) from Carlton Peak near Tofte on the west, to Grand Marais on the east.


title: Leaf Hills Moraines

paragraphs: The Leaf Hills Moraines, sometimes called the Leaf Mountains, are a range of hills in west-central Minnesota. The lands typically rises to a height of to above the surrounding farmland throughout the duration of its range, occasionally reaching higher than .


title: Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party

paragraphs: The Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL) is a major political party in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It was created on April 15, 1944 when the Minnesota Democratic Party and the Farmer–Labor Party merged. Hubert Humphrey was a major part in this merger. The party is affiliated with the national Democratic Party. Both members of the party and non-members in Minnesota often use "DFLer" instead of "Democrat".


title: Governor of Minnesota

paragraphs: The Governor of Minnesota is the chief executive of the U.S. state of Minnesota, leading the state's executive branch. Thirty-nine different people have been governor of the state. State governors are elected to office by popular vote. The current governor of Minnesota is Democratic Tim Walz.

paragraphs: The governor has a cabinet consisting of the leaders of various state departments. The governor appoints these department heads, who are usually called commissioners. Cabinet-level departments include:

paragraphs: The Minnesota Governor's Residence is located in Saint Paul, at 1006 Summit Avenue.


title: Okutama, Tokyo

paragraphs: Okutama has an area of 225.63 km². Mount Kumotori, Tokyo's highest peak at 2017 m, divides Okutama from the Okuchichibu region of the neighboring Saitama and Yamanashi Prefectures. Tokyo's northernmost and westernmost points lie in Okutama, as does Lake Okutama, an important source of water for Tokyo, located above the Ogōchi Dam in the town.


title: Flag of Minnesota

paragraphs: The Flag of Minnesota is the state seal on a blue background. The flag that people use now was made in 1957 and the state seal on the flag was changed in 1983. In the past, people used a different flag that looked like the one that Minnesota uses now, but it had different colors on the front and back of the flag. Some people don't like the flag because they think it is too complicated and they think it should be simpler.


title: Seal of Minnesota

paragraphs: The Great Seal of the State of Minnesota is the insignia that the Secretary of State affixes to government papers and documents to make them official.


title: Sweet corn

paragraphs: Sweet corn ("Zea mays" convar. "saccharata" var. "rugosa"; also called Indian corn, sugar corn, and pole corn) is a variety of maize with a high sugar content and prepared as a vegetable.


title: Alternative country

paragraphs: Alternative country (sometimes called alt-country, or Americana) is a type of country music. It has singers or bands that sound very different from mainstream or pop country music. "Alternative country" has been used to describe country music bands and artists that have influences such as roots rock, bluegrass, rockabilly, Americana, honky-tonk, alternative rock, folk rock, or punk.

paragraphs: In the 1990s the term "alternative country" (which is like the term alternative rock, which was becoming popular at the same time), began to be used to talk about different groups of musicians and singers who did not follow the same traditions of regular country music, and who had a different sound. Many of them did not follow the high production values (such as spending a lot of money in the recording studio) of the big country music industry at the time, which was mostly based in Nashville, Tennessee.

paragraphs: Lyrics in alternative country might be depressing or about social issues, and often from the heart. They do not follow the clichés sometimes used by mainstream country musicians as often. In other ways, the sounds of alternative country artists do not always have much in common. They can include traditional American folk tunes, bluegrass, and other types of sounds. It can be music that does not sound like mainstream rock or country. This has become even more confusing with "alternative country artists" saying that they do not want to be called alternative country, with more mainstream artists saying they are alternative country, and with people saying that older musicians or musicians from the past are alternative country. "No Depression", the most popular magazine about alternative country, said that it covered "alternative-country music (whatever that is)".

paragraphs: Even though not everybody agrees on what makes music "alternative country", most people agree that alternative country came from traditional American country music.

paragraphs: In the 1980s, in southern California, some musicians tried to make some music that had parts of country and parts of punk. This was called the "cowpunk scene". It had bands like Jason and the Scorchers. These styles came together in Uncle Tupelo's popular album "No Depression", which came out in 1990. Many people think it was the first alternative country album. A magazine called "No Depression" later came out that was written about alternative country. The magazine was named after Uncle Tupelo's album. The band made three more important albums and joined a big record label. The band broke up in 1994. Musicians in the band and people around the band later started three other important alternative country bands: Wilco, Son Volt and Bottle Rockets. Bottle Rockets signed, along with acts like Freakwater, The Old 97's and Robbie Fulks, to the Chicago-based indie record label, Bloodshot. They played a type of alternative country called "insurgent country". The bands Blue Mountain, Whiskeytown, Blood Oranges and Drive-By Truckers kept going in this direction before most began to move more in the direction of rock music in the 2000s.


title: Upper Midwest

paragraphs: The Upper Midwest is a region of the United States with no agreed-upon boundaries, but it almost always lies within the U.S. Census Bureau's Midwest region, which includes the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, and Indiana.


title: Animikie Group

paragraphs: The Animikie Group of sediments were deposited between 2.5 and 1.8 billion years ago, within the Animikie Basin. This group of formations are divided into the Gunflint Range, the Mesabi and Vermilion ranges, and the Cuyuna Range.


title: Hail! Minnesota

paragraphs: "Hail! Minnesota" (also simply called "Minnesota" in early years) is the state song of Minnesota. It began at the University of Minnesota in the early 1900s when some students decided to honor their graduating class with a new song. In 1945, the Minnesota State Legislature approved the tune as the state song.


title: Morchella

paragraphs: Morchella, the true morels, is a genus of edible mushrooms closely related to the cup fungi. These appear honeycomb-like in that the upper portion is composed of a network of ridges with pits between them.

paragraphs: Morels are the state mushroom of Minnesota, USA.


title: Cypripedium reginae

paragraphs: The Showy Lady's-slipper (Cypripedium reginae), also known as the Pink-and-white Lady's-slipper or the Queen's Lady's-slipper, is a rare temperate lady's-slipper orchid native to northern North America. It grows white flowers, with pink labella.


title: Lake Superior agate

paragraphs: The Lake Superior agate is a type of agate stained by iron and found on the shores of Lake Superior. Its wide distribution and iron-rich bands of color reflect the gemstone's geologic history in Minnesota. In 1969 the Lake Superior agate was picked by the Minnesota Legislature as the official state gemstone.


title: Wild rice

paragraphs: Wild rice (also called Canada rice, Indian rice, and water oats) is four species of grasses forming the genus Zizania, and the grain which can be harvested from them. The grain was historically gathered and eaten in both North America and China. While it is now something of a delicacy in North America, the grain is no longer eaten in China, where the plant's stem is used as a vegetable.


title: Red pine

paragraphs: The Red Pine ("Pinus resinosa") is a pine native to northeastern North America. The Red Pine grows in the area from Newfoundland west to southeast Manitoba, and south to northern Illinois and Pennsylvania, with a small outlying population in the Appalachian Mountains in West Virginia. In the Upper Midwest of the United States it is sometimes known by the confusing name Norway Pine even though it is not native to Norway.


title: L'Étoile du Nord

paragraphs: L'Étoile du Nord is a French phrase meaning "The Star of the North". It is the motto of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It was chosen by the state's first governor, Henry Hastings Sibley, and was adopted in 1861, three years after Minnesota became a state. Because of this motto, one of Minnesota's nicknames is "The North Star State". The Minnesota North Stars chose the English translation for their name.


title: Grace (photograph)

paragraphs: Grace is a 1918 photograph by Eric Enstrom. It depicts an old man, Charles Wilden, with hands folded, saying a prayer over a table with a simple meal. It was created in Bovey, Minnesota. In 2002, the Minnesota State Legislature established it as the state photograph.


title: Walleye

paragraphs: Walleye ("Sander vitreus") is a freshwater perciform fish native to most of Canada and to the northern United States.

paragraphs: It is a North American close relative of the European pikeperch.

paragraphs: The walleye is sometimes also called the yellow walleye to distinguish it from the blue walleye, which is an extinct subspecies formerly found in the southern Great Lakes.


title: Minnesota Territory

paragraphs: The Territory of Minnesota was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from March 3, 1849, until May 11, 1858, when the eastern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Minnesota.


title: Constitution of Australia

paragraphs: The Constitution of Australia is the law that set up the Australian Commonwealth Government and says how it works. It is made up of several documents. The most important is the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. The people of Australia voted in referendums from 1898–1900 to accept the Constitution. The Constitution was then passed as a part of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp), an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Queen Victoria signed it on 9 July 1900. The Constitution became law on 1 January 1901. Even though the Constitution was an Act of the United Kingdom parliament, the Australia Acts took away the power of the United Kingdom parliament to change the Constitution. Now only the Australian people can change it by referendum.

paragraphs: Two other laws support the Australian Constitution. The first is the Statute of Westminster, as passed by the Commonwealth as the "Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942." The second is the "Australia Act 1986", which was passed by the Parliaments of every Australian state, the United Kingdom, and the Australian Federal Parliament. Together, these Acts had the effect of cutting all constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom. Even though the same person, Queen Elizabeth II, is the monarch of both countries, these are now separate countries.

paragraphs: Under Australia's common law system, the High Court of Australia and the Federal Court of Australia have the power to decide what the constitution actually means.

paragraphs: The history of the Constitution of Australia began with moves towards federation in the 19th century. The Australian colonies joined together to form the Commonwealth of Australian in 1901.

paragraphs: In the mid-19th century, the Australian colonies needed to work together on things that affected them all, especially tariffs between the colonies. This cooperation led to plans to join the colonies together in a single federation. The push to do this came mainly from Britain and there was little local support. The smaller colonies thought they would be taken over by the larger ones. Victoria and New South Wales did not agree about the need to protect local industry, as opposed to allowing everyone to trade freely. The then-recent American Civil War also weakened the case for federalism. These difficulties led to the failure of several attempts to bring about federation in the 1860s and 1850s.

paragraphs: By the 1880s Australians were worried about the growing presence of the Germans and the French in the Pacific. Along with a growing Australian identity, this created the opportunity to start the first inter-colonial body, the Federal Council of Australasia, in 1885. This Federal Council could make laws on certain subjects, but did not have a permanent office, an executive, or its own source of income. New South Wales, the largest colony, would not take part.

paragraphs: Henry Parkes, the Premier of New South Wales, pushed for a series of conferences in the 1890s to talk about federalism. The first was in Melbourne in 1890, and another, the National Australasian Convention, in Sydney in 1891. These were attended by colonial leaders. By the 1891 conference, many people wanted a federal system. Most of the discussion was about how this federal system would work. With help from Sir Samuel Griffith, a draft constitution was written. These meetings did not have popular support. The draft constitution also left out important, but difficult, issues, such as tariff policy. The draft of 1891 was given to colonial parliaments but was not supported by New South Wales. Without New South Wales, the other colonies were unwilling to continue.

paragraphs: In 1895, the six premiers of the Australian colonies agreed to set up a new Convention by popular vote. The Convention met over the course of a year from 1897 to 1898. The meetings produced a new Constitution that was the same as the 1891 draft, but with added provisions for responsible government. To get popular support, the draft was voted on by the electors of each colony. After one failed attempt, a changed draft was given to the electors of each colony except Western Australia. Five colonies passed the Bill that was then sent to the Westminster Parliament with a letter requesting the Queen to make it into law.

paragraphs: The British government made one change before the Bill was passed. The Chief Justices of the colonies wanted the right to appeal decisions of the High Court to the Privy Council on constitutional matters. They were worried that the limits of the powers of the Commonwealth or States could be changed by parliament. The British Parliament passed the "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act" in 1900. Western Australia finally agreed to join the Commonwealth in time for it to join the Commonwealth of Australia, which officially began on 1 January 1901.

paragraphs: In 1990, the Public Records Office in London loaned the original copy 1900 of the "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act" to Australia. The Australian government wanted to keep the copy. The British parliament agreed by passing the "Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990".

paragraphs: Although Federation made Australia independent of Britain, legally the Commonwealth was a creation of the British Imperial Parliament, through the "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act" 1900 (Imp), which applied to Australia. As a result, there was continued uncertainty as to whether British Imperial laws still applied to the Commonwealth. This was fixed by the "Statute of Westminster 1931", adopted by the Commonwealth via the "Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942". The Statute of Westminster freed the Dominions, including the Commonwealth, from Imperial laws and controls. Legally, this is the moment of Australia's national independence.

paragraphs: However, British laws were still more important in Australian states. This was fixed by the "Australia Act 1986", which was passed by the parliaments of Australia, the United Kingdom, and each of the states. This law stopped the British Parliament's power to make laws over Australian states. It also stopped appeals from the Australian courts to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. As this was a very important document, Queen Elizabeth II travelled to Australia to sign the proclamation of the law.

paragraphs: One result of these two laws is that Australia is now a fully independent country. The Constitution is now different from the original Act, as the Australian people can change the Constitution, by referendum. However, the original Act remains on the UK's law book with a note saying, "The Constitution is not necessarily in the form in which it is in force in Australia". Even if the United Kingdom Parliament were to remove the "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900", it would have no effect on Australia.

paragraphs: The "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900" (Imp) contains a Preamble, and nine sections. Sections 1– 8 are the laws to set up the Commonwealth. Section 9, starting with the words "The Constitution of the Commonwealth shall be as follows ...", contains the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Constitution itself is in eight chapters, with 128 sections.

paragraphs: Chapter I sets up the Parliament of Australia. This has three parts:

paragraphs: Section 1 says that legislative power belongs to the Parliament. It is the most powerful part of government.

paragraphs: Part II of Chapter 1 is about the Senate. Senators are to be "directly chosen by the people of the State", voting as a single electorate. Each State is to have the same number of senators. Currently, there are 12 senators for each State, and 2 each for the mainland territories, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory.

paragraphs: Part III of Chapter 1 is about the House of Representatives. Section 24 says the House must have twice as many members as the Senate, each elected by a single electorate. This is called the 'Nexus'. It designed to prevent swamping of the senate's power in the case of a joint sitting (see Section 57 below). The number of electorates in a State is to be based on its share of the national population.

paragraphs: Part IV of Chapter 1 says who can vote, who can be elected to the parliament, how much members can be paid, parliamentary rules and related matters.

paragraphs: Part V of Chapter 1 is about the powers of the parliament. Section 51 deals with powers of the Commonwealth parliament and are called "specific powers". There are also "concurrent powers", and both the Commonwealth and the States can make laws on these subjects. Federal law is more important if the laws are different (Section 109). Of the thirty-nine parts of section 51, a few have become very important in deciding how much power the Commonwealth government has in law. These include the Trade and Commerce Power, the Corporations Power and the External Affairs Power. Section 52 deals with powers that belong only to the Commonwealth parliament. States cannot make laws on these subjects.

paragraphs: Chapter II sets up the executive branch of government. Executive power is to be exercised by the Governor-General, advised by the Federal Executive Council. The Governor-General is the commander in chief. He or she may appoint and dismiss the members of the Executive Council, ministers of state, and all officers of the executive government. These powers, along with the powers to dissolve (or refuse to dissolve) parliament (Section 5, Section 57), are termed "reserve powers". The use of these powers is by convention. Generally, the Governor-General acts only on the advice of the Prime Minister. There has been only one instance of the Governor-General not taking the Prime Minister's advice. Governor-General Sir John Kerr, acting on his own, dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.

paragraphs: Reserve powers in all Westminster nations are only "extremely" rarely exercised outside of the understood conventions. However, in contrast with the constitutions of other Commonwealth Realms such as Canada, which formally grant extensive reserve powers to the Monarch, even the formal powers of the Queen of Australia are extremely limited, and most powers can be used only by the Governor-General.

paragraphs: Section 68 says that the Command in chief of Australia's naval and military forces "is vested in the Governor General as the Queen's representative". The Commander in chief of the Australian Defence Force is now Her Excellency Quentin Bryce as the Governor General of Australia. The Queen of Australia is not in command of the military.

paragraphs: Chapter III sets up the judicial branch of government. Section 71 gives judicial power to a "Federal Supreme Court" called the High Court of Australia. The Parliament can also make new federal courts or give other courts federal powers. Such courts, called "Chapter III Courts", are the only courts that can use federal judicial power. Sections 73 and 75-78 outline the original and appellate jurisdiction of the High Court. Section 74 explains how an appeal can be made to the Queen in Council. Section 79 allows Parliament to limit the number of judges able to exercise federal jurisdiction and section 80 guarantees trial by jury for indictable offences against the Commonwealth.

paragraphs: Chapter IV deals with finance and trade in the federal system. Section 81 says that all Commonwealth revenue shall form the Consolidated Revenue Fund. Parliament can make laws as to the how its money is spent (Section 53). Unlike most other powers of the parliament, laws made under this power cannot usually be challenged. Section 90 gives the Commonwealth exclusive power over duties of custom and excise.

paragraphs: Section 92 provides that "trade, commerce, and intercourse among the States shall be "absolutely free"". The precise meaning of this phrase is the subject of a considerable body of law.

paragraphs: Section 96 gives the Commonwealth power to give money to States "on such terms and conditions as the Parliament thinks fit". This power is not limited by any other part of the Constitution, such as Section 99 that forbids giving preference to one State or over another State. It is subject only to Section 116, freedom of religion, and possibly other such freedoms. This power, which was only meant to be used ("during a period of ten years ... and thereafter until the Parliament otherwise provides"), has been used by the Commonwealth to encourage cooperation by the States to various extents over the years.

paragraphs: Section 101 sets up an Inter-State Commission, a body which is no longer exists, but which was meant to have a significant role in the federal structure.

paragraphs: Chapter V says what the States can do in a federal system. Sections 106-108 preserve the Constitution, the powers of the Parliament, and the laws in force of each of the States.

paragraphs: Section 109 says that, where a State law is different to a federal law, the federal law applies.

paragraphs: Section 111 says that a State can give up any part of its lands to the Commonwealth. This has happened several times. South Australia gave the Northern Territory to the Commonwealth.

paragraphs: Section 114 stops any state from having its own military force. It also stops the State or the Commonwealth taxing each other's property.

paragraphs: Section 116 sets out "freedom of religion", by stopping "the Commonwealth" from making any law to start a religion, to impose any religious observance, or to stop a religion, and by stopping religious discrimination for public office.

paragraphs: Chapter VI allows new states to be made, or to join the Commonwealth. Section 122 allows the Parliament to provide for the representation in Parliament of any new territory. Section 123 says that changing the boundaries of a State needs the support of the Parliament of that State and must pass a referendum in that State.

paragraphs: No new states have joined the Commonwealth since federation.

paragraphs: Chapter VII says that the seat of government of the Commonwealth (now Canberra) shall be in New South Wales but no less than one hundred miles from Sydney, and that the Governor-General may appoint deputies. Section 127 first said that Aborigines cannot be counted in any Commonwealth or State census. This section was changed in 1967.

paragraphs: Chapter VIII sets out how the Constitution can be changed. Section 128 says that changes must be approved by a referendum. A successful change needs:

paragraphs: The Governor-General must put the referendum bill to the people between two and six months after passing parliament. After the constitutional amendment bill has passed both the parliament and the referendum, it then receives Royal Assent from the Governor-General. This makes it the new law and the wording of the Constitution is changed.

paragraphs: An exception to this process is if the amendment bill is rejected by one house of Federal Parliament. If the bill passes the first house and is rejected by the second, then after three months the first house may pass it again. If the bill is still rejected by the second house, then the Governor-General may choose to still put the bill to the people's vote.

paragraphs: As mentioned above, changing the Constitution requires a referendum in which the "Yes" vote achieves a majority nationally, as well as majorities in a majority of states.

paragraphs: Forty-four proposals to change the Constitution have been voted on at referendums. Eight have been approved. The following is a list of changes that have been approved.

paragraphs: As well as the written Constitution and Letters Patent issued by the Crown, conventions are an important part of the Constitution. These have developed over the years and define how various constitutional mechanisms work in practice.

paragraphs: Conventions play a powerful role in the operation of the Australian constitution because of its set-up and operation as a Westminster system of responsible government. Some important conventions include:

paragraphs: However, because conventions are not written down, their existence and practice are open to debate. Real or alleged violation of convention has often led to political controversy. One extreme case was the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975, in which the operation of conventions was seriously tested. The ensuing constitutional crisis was resolved dramatically when the Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed the Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, appointing Malcolm Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister pending the 1975 general election. A number of conventions were said to be broken during this episode. These include:

paragraphs: In line with the common law tradition in Australia, the law on the interpretation and application of the Constitution has developed largely through judgments by the High Court of Australia. In a number of important cases, the High Court has developed several "doctrines" which underlie the interpretation of the Australian Constitution. Some examples include:

paragraphs: The vast majority of constitutional cases before the High Court deal with characterisation: whether new laws are part of the power granted to the Commonwealth government by the Constitution.

paragraphs: The Australian Constitution does not include a Bill of Rights. Some people at the 1898 Constitutional Convention wanted a Bill of Rights like the United States Constitution, but the majority felt that the traditional rights and freedoms of British subjects were enough. These would be protected by the Parliamentary system and independent judiciary which the Constitution would create. As a result, the Australian Constitution has often been criticised for not protecting rights and freedoms.

paragraphs: In 1992 and 1994, the High Court of Australia found that the Constitution gave an "implied" right to freedom of political communication, in a series of cases including the "Australian Capital Television" case and the "Theophanous" case. This was seen as a necessary part of the democratic system created by the Constitution. The application of this "implied right" has, however, been restricted in later cases, such as "Lange v ABC". It is in no way equivalent to a freedom of speech, and only protects individuals against the government trying to limit their political communication: it offers no protection against other individuals.

paragraphs: In 2007, the High Court of Australia in "Roach v Electoral Commissioner" said that sections 7 and 24 of the Constitution, by providing that members of the House of Representatives and the Senate be "directly chosen by the people", created a limited right to vote. This means that there is a universal franchise in principle, and limited the Federal Parliament's legislative power to change it. In the case, a legislative change to stop all prisoners from voting (as opposed to only those serving sentences of three years or more, as it was before the amendment) was rejected as breaking that right.

paragraphs: Other attempts to find other "implied rights" in High Court cases have not been successful.

paragraphs: While a "pro forma" preamble prefaces the Imperial "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900", the Australian Constitution itself does not have a preamble. There have been some calls to add one to express the spirit and aspirations embodied in the constitution. However, there has been fierce opposition, usually on the basis of the content of the preamble, as well as possible legal ramifications of this text. In 1999, a proposed preamble, written by John Howard, the then Prime Minister, was defeated in a referendum held concurrently with the Republic referendum. The "Yes" vote (in favour of the insertion of the preamble) did not achieve a majority in any of the six states.

paragraphs: There have been many people who have wanted Australia to become a republic. On 6 November 1999, Australians did not support a law to remove the Queen and replace the Governor-General with a President. The President was to be appointed by a two-thirds majority of the members of the Commonwealth Parliament. Opinion poll results said that the majority of Australians were in favour of some form of a republic. Many voters who voted against the 1999 referendum wanted to be able to vote for a President. In research and polling following the 1999 referendum, people said that an appointed President would not be able to act independently of the Parliament. By being able to appoint the President, rather than having the people elect a President, many felt that too much power was being given to Parliament with no check or balance on that power. Support for holding another referendum in the near future seems to be growing, and another referendum may be held. Former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd said the current (2012) situation "no longer reflects either the fundamental democratic principles that underpin the Australian nation or its diversity". He was thinking about a referendum for an independent, elected President. He went on to say that "over the next year there would be an "accelerated public debate" about the monarchy question".

paragraphs: Constitution Day is celebrated on 9 July, the date the Constitution became law in 1900. The date is not a public holiday. Constitution Day was first held on 9 July 2000 to mark the centenary of the Constitution as part of the Centenary of Federation. The celebrations were not big and have not been widely held after 2001. Constitution Day was revived in 2007 and is jointly organised by the National Archives of Australia, which holds the original Constitution documents, and the Department of Immigration and Citizenship.


title: Wildlife management

paragraphs: Wildlife management is a general term for the process of keeping wild species at desirable levels as determined by wildlife managers. Wildlife management can include game keeping, wildlife conservation and pest control. Wildlife management has become an integrated science using disciplines such as mathematics, chemistry, biology, ecology, climatology and geography to gain the best results.

paragraphs: Wildlife conservation aims to halt the loss of species. It does this by taking using ecological principles to balance the needs of wildlife with the needs of people. Most wildlife is concerned with the preservation and improvement of habitats. Techniques can include reforestation, pest control, irrigation, coppicing and hedge laying.

paragraphs: Game keeping is the management or control of wildlife for the wellbeing of game birds. It may include killing other animals which share the same niche or predators to maintain a high population of the more profitable species, such as pheasants introduced into woodland. In his 1933 book "Game Management", Aldo Leopold, one of the pioneers of wildlife management as a science, defined it as "the art of making land produce sustained annual crops of wild game for recreational use".


title: Drift velocity

paragraphs: Drift velocity is the average velocity with which free particles, for example electrons, are pulled towards an electric field.


title: Alex Auld

paragraphs: Alexander Auld (born January 7, 1981) is a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender currently playing for the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League (NHL). Auld has also played for the New York Rangers, Vancouver Canucks, Florida Panthers, Phoenix Coyotes, Boston Bruins, Ottawa Senators and Dallas Stars of the NHL. He has appeared internationally for Team Canada on three occasions – the 2001 World Junior Championships, the 2004 Spengler Cup, and the 2006 World Championships.


title: Grove (nature)

paragraphs: A grove is a small group of trees with little or no undergrowth. For example: a sequoia grove, or a small orchard planted for the cultivation of fruits or nuts. Other words for groups of trees include "woodland", "copse", "woodlot", "thicket" or "spinney".


title: Igor Sikorsky

paragraphs: Igor Ivanovich Sikorsky (, "Ígor' Ivánovič Sikórskij"; May 25, 1889 – October 26, 1972) was a Russian–American aviation pioneer in both helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft. He built and improved upon the first helicopter that could be used.

paragraphs: His helicopter was first shown to be useful when he added a winch on it. Soon after this, it saved the lives of two sailors during a hurricane.

paragraphs: He also started Sikorsky Aircraft, a huge helicopter manufacturing company which produces famous helicopters such as the Sea King and Skycrane.

paragraphs: Since his death, his office at Sikorsky Aircraft has been left exactly as it was when he died.


title: Food poisoning

paragraphs: Food poisoning is when someone gets sick from eating food or drink that has gone bad or is contaminated.

paragraphs: There are two kinds of food poisoning: poisoning by toxic agent or by infectious agent. Food infection is when the food contains bacteria or other microbes which infect the body after it is eaten. Food intoxication is when the food contains toxins, including bacterially produced exotoxins, which can happen even when the microbe that produced the toxin is no longer present or able to cause infection. Even though it is commonly called "food poisoning", most cases are caused by a variety of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, prions or parasites that contaminate food, rather than chemical or natural toxins which are what we usually call poison. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 76 million people in the United States become ill from the food they eat, and about 5,000 of them die every year.

paragraphs: Symptoms start within hours to many days after eating. Depending on what the cause of the poisoning was, they can include one or more of the following: nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, gastroenteritis, fever, pain in the head or fatigue.

paragraphs: In most cases the body is able to permanently get better after a short period of acute discomfort and illness. Food borne illnesses can result in permanent health problems or even death, especially for people at high risk, including babies, young children, pregnant women (and their fetuses), elderly people, sick people and others with weak immune systems.

paragraphs: Food borne illness due to "Campylobacter", "Yersinia", "Salmonella" or "Shigella" infection is a major cause of reactive arthritis, which typically occurs 1–3 weeks after diarrheal illness. Similarly, people with liver disease are especially susceptible to infections from "Vibrio vulnificus", which can be found in oysters or crabs.

paragraphs: Tetrodotoxin poisoning from reef fish and other animals shows up very quickly in symptoms such as numbness and shortness of breath, and is often fatal.


title: Rungrado May Day Stadium

paragraphs: The Rŭngrado May First Stadium, or May Day Stadium, is a multi-purpose stadium in Pyongyang, North Korea, completed on May 1, 1989.

paragraphs: The stadium was built as a main stadium for the 13th World Festival of Youth and Students in 1989.

paragraphs: It is currently used for football matches, a few athletics matches, but most often for Arirang performances (also known as the Mass Games). The stadium can seat 150,000, which is the largest stadium in the world that is not used for auto racing.

paragraphs: Its name comes from the place where it is, Rungra Islet in the Taedong River, and May Day, the international day celebrating labour.

paragraphs: The stadium is most famous for being the place where large shows celebrating Kim Il-sung and the North Korean nation were held. In June-July 2002, the "Arirang" gymnastic and artistic performances were held there. There were 100,000+ people taking part —double the number of people watching— and was open to foreigners, which is rare. These performances now happen every year, usually in August and September. The "Guinness Book of Records" has recognized these events as the largest in the world.

paragraphs: In 2000, Kim Jong-Il used the stadium to entertain Madeleine Albright, the U.S. Secretary of State under President Bill Clinton.


title: Badwater Basin

paragraphs: Badwater Basin is a basin in Death Valley National Park, Death Valley, California. The water which goes into it does not flow into any ocean.

paragraphs: Badwater Basin is the lowest point in North America, at below sea level. Mount Whitney, the highest point in the 48 states, is only 76 miles west of the Basin. It is one of the lowest places in Death Valley.

paragraphs: Badwater Basin has a small natural pool of undrinkable water next to the road. The water comes from a spring. It is called 'Badwater' because people cannot drink the water. This is because so much salt has built up from the basin. The pool does have animals and plants living there, including pickleweed, insects, and the Badwater snail.

paragraphs: The pool is not actually the lowest point of the basin. The lowest point is several miles to the west, the exact point which is lowest changes. However, the salt flats are dangerous to travel across (in many cases being only a thin white crust over mud), therefore the sign states that the lowest point is at the pool, where people can see it. Some people say that it is the lowest point in the Western Hemisphere, but this is not true. The lowest point is actually Laguna del Carbón in Argentina at -105 meters (-344 feet).

paragraphs: At Badwater Basin, big rainstorms sometimes flood the bottom of the valley. They cover the salt pan with a thin sheet of standing water. This makes new lakes, but the lakes do not last long. This is because the average of rain that falls every year is much lower than the a 150-inch annual evaporation rate, so all the water evaporates away. This means that even a 12-foot-deep, 30-mile-long lake would dry up in a single year. While the basin is flooded, some of the salt dissolves and goes back into the basin as clean crystals when the water evaporates.

paragraphs: Painted on the cliff above Badwater is a sign that says "Sea Level" which people visiting like to look at.

paragraphs: During the Holocene, when the regional climate was less dry, streams that ran from mountains in the area slowly filled Death Valley until it was 3 feet (1m) deep. Eventually, there was a long lake, Lake Manly.

paragraphs: The wet times with much rain did not last. The temperature got warmer, and there was less rain. The lake began to dry up, and as the water evaporated, the lake became saltier. Eventually, only a soup of brine was left. Salts (95% table salt: NaCl) began to turn into crystals, covering the surface with a thick crust from three inches to five feet thick (1-1.7m).


title: Brian Campbell

paragraphs: Brian Wesley Campbell (born May 23, 1979 in Strathroy, Ontario) is a former Canadian ice hockey defenceman. He played for the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League (NHL). He also played for the Chicago Blackhawks, San Jose Sharks, and Buffalo Sabres.

paragraphs: He also played in the NHL with the Buffalo Sabres for 8 seasons, the San Jose Sharks for 1 season and the Chicago Blackhawks for 3 seasons. He was drafted by the Buffalo Sabres with the 156th overall pick in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft. He also played 4 seasons in the OHL for the Ottawa 67's and 1 season in SM-liiga for Jokerit.

paragraphs: He won the Stanley Cup with the Chicago Blackhawks in 2010.


title: Bush Doctrine

paragraphs: The Bush Doctrine is a term which many people use to describe several foreign policy and national defense decisions that President George W. Bush made.

paragraphs: The Bush Doctrine is usually used to describe how Bush invaded Iraq in what is known as pre-emptive war (which means to attack the enemy before they can attack you).

paragraphs: George W. Bush did not make up this term and he never said what he thought about the term.

paragraphs: There are other United States presidential doctrines also.


title: Truman Doctrine

paragraphs: A speech was made by American President Harry S. Truman to the U.S. Congress on 12 March 1947. In this speech he said he thought that The United States should help Greece and Turkey to stop them being 'Totalitarianists' although he meant Soviet Communism. This became known as the Truman Doctrine. Some Historians believe that this was the start of the Cold War.

paragraphs: This speech was made after The United Kingdom said that they would stop helping Greece and Turkey in February 1947 since The United Kingdom was also poor after the cost of World War II. This meant that Greece and Turkey would still be poor and Truman believed that a poor Eastern Europe would convert to a Communist government more easily unless helped by The United States.Truman wrongly thought that the Soviets were helping the Greek Communist partisans when there was no clear proof.

paragraphs: This plan was a big change to American politics. Political historian Walter LaFeber wrote that 'the doctrine became an ideological shield' which means that he believed that The United States used the doctrine as an excuse or reason. The Marshall Plan came after because of this.


title: God Defend New Zealand

paragraphs: "God Defend New Zealand", called "Aotearoa" (simply "New Zealand") in Māori, is the title of the most popular national anthem of New Zealand. It was originally a poem written by Thomas Bracken in the 1870s until it was set to music by John Joseph Woods as part a competition for ten guineas in 1876. Two years later, Thomas Henry Smith wrote the lyrics in Māori—one of the country's official languages. The anthem was adopted in 1977.

paragraphs: "God Save the Queen", the national anthem used for the United Kingdom and used as a royal anthem for a number of countries and territories, is also a national anthem of New Zealand.

paragraphs: According to copyright law of New Zealand, the English lyrics are no longer copyrighted since the beginning of 1949 or the end of the 50-year mark of Bracken's death, and since the 1980s, the rights to the musical score are in the public domain.

paragraphs: The meaning of the Māori lyrics are slightly different from the English lyrics.


title: Troy Hudson

paragraphs: Troy Hudson (born March 13, 1976 in Carbondale, Illinois) is a former American professional basketball player at the point guard position.


title: Target Center

paragraphs: The Target Center is an arena in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota. It is sponsored by Target Corporation. The arena has 702 club seats and 68 suites.

paragraphs: The center is home to the National Basketball Association's Minnesota Timberwolves. From 1994–1996, it was home to the Minnesota Arctic Blast of RHI. In 1996, it was home to the Arena Football League team Minnesota Fighting Pike. The Women's National Basketball Association's Minnesota Lynx also play in the arena.


title: John Joseph Woods

paragraphs: John Joseph Woods was a New Zealand teacher and songwriter. He is best known for winning a competition to set "God Defend New Zealand", a poem by Thomas Bracken, to music. By doing this, he composed the tune to what later became New Zealand's national anthem. Woods was also the Tuapeka County Council clerk for 55 years.

paragraphs: Woods was born in Tasmania in 1849 into an Irish family with fourteen other children, seven boys and seven girls. His father was a soldier. After teaching in Tasmania for nine years, he came to New Zealand as a young man and worked for a time in Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin and Invercargill. Eight years teaching in New Zealand led to a position as the head teacher of St Patrick's School in Lawrence, Otago, and he moved there from Invercargill in 1874. Woods was known as a good musician. He was choirmaster of the local Catholic church, and could play twelve different instruments, though he was best known for his skill on the violin. Singing a solo at his own wedding, Woods showed that he was also a good singer.

paragraphs: While in Lawrence, Woods taught with an Irish widow called Harriet Conway (née Plunket) who already had two sons. They were married in September 1874 and had four children together, three sons and a daughter named Mary.

paragraphs: In 1902, Woods built a house of brick and wood on the corner of Lismore and Lancaster Streets. He lived there until he died in 1934. It is now under the care of the Historic Places Trust, which mounted a plaque on the street-facing back wall to remember his composition of the national anthem.

paragraphs: One night in the winter of June 1876, Woods read about the competition in the "Saturday Advertiser". According to tradition, he usually met the coach that delivered the news in the main street of Lawrence to pick up his paper. It was already 9 pm, but he went straight to his piano and in that one sitting composed the tune for what later became the national anthem. In a later letter to A.H. Reed, he explained that the words inspired him so much he had to write music for them. He entered his composition under the pen name of "Orpheus". The "Advertiser" sent it off with the eleven other submissions to Melbourne, where it was judged. In October 1876, it was announced that the three judges all agreed that Woods' composition was the clear winner. The prize was ten guineas.

paragraphs: The rules of the competition meant that the copyright of the music would belong to the "Saturday Advertiser", which gave the manuscript to the Dunedin-based Charles Begg & Co to publish, but a nine-month delay in sending it to a publisher was followed by two months of waiting for it to be printed. The end result was a very poor edition with only one verse, which was thrown out by the "Advertiser". When promises of reprint failed to come true, the "Advertiser" was forced to hand the copyright back over to Woods. He immediately arranged for it to be printed by Hopwood and Crew in London, with Bracken's blessing. Bracken did not mean for his poem to become the national anthem, and it was Woods who had always used the word "anthem" where Bracken called it a "hymn".

paragraphs: Being a choirmaster, Woods' focus in composing the melody was to make it simple and easy for children to sing. This proved to help its success when the Premier George Grey visited Lawrence on 11 March 1878 and was welcomed by six hundred local schoolchildren singing what was by then beginning to be labelled as the "national anthem". Grey was very taken by the music and immediately sent a telegram to Bracken congratulating him.

paragraphs: In 1877, Woods stopped teaching and became the county clerk for the Tuapeka County Council. He was known for working 13-hour days and keeping accounts of such a high standard that he was accepted as a fellow of the Registered Accountants of New Zealand. Serving in this role, he also became known as an authority on county law, sought out by the council and clerks of other regions. He also organised the decoration of council office buildings to mark Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897.

paragraphs: He served in that role for 55 years until ill health forced him to retire in 1932, aged 83.

paragraphs: Woods was deeply involved in the affairs of the town. He was a member of many local clubs and societies. He was also known as an expert on cultivating daffodils, of which his collection was the largest in the area. In 1884, Woods was elected first president of the local choral society.

paragraphs: When Woods was made an Honorary Freeman of New Zealand, he was commended for his "efficiency, integrity and devotion to duty".