title: Tony Iommi

paragraphs: Frank Anthony "Tony" Iommi (born 19 February 1948, in Birmingham, England) is an English guitarist and songwriter. He is most famous for starting the heavy metal band Black Sabbath. He is the only person who has stayed a member of the band since it began in 1968. He lost two finger tips in a work accident, and made two fake finger tips from a plastic bottle. This helped give Black Sabbath their heavy sound.

paragraphs: In 2003, Iommi was listed at number 86 in Rolling Stone Magazine's ""100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time"" issue.

paragraphs: Along with Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin, Iommi is oft considered one of the greatest riff writers of all time. Iommi used several riffs in Black Sabbath's songs.

paragraphs: In 2006 Tony Iommi was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


title: Yellow River

paragraphs: The Yellow River (Huáng Hé 黄河) is the second longest river in China (after Yangtze River) and the sixth longest in the world. The river is 5464 km long and it drains at the Bohai Sea, a gulf of the Yellow Sea. The river is often called the "Mother River of China" and "the Cradle of the Chinese civilization" in China. In Chinese mythology, the river is home to the deity Hebo.


title: Rebellion

paragraphs: A rebellion is when people refuse to obey orders and fight against authority. Those who do this are "rebels". They may be citizens of a country who try to take over the government by force because they do not trust the current system. Some rebels in history were slaves who fought back against their masters or against slavery in general. Leader of slave rebellions include Spartacus and Nat Turner.

paragraphs: An example would be the Zhou dynasty in China who made the rulers of other Chinese states that they captured live with their own families in the Zhou capital, Anyang. However, they failed to stop rebellion this way because it brought together groups of lords who might rebel under their control. The Zhou dynasty declined because other lords that were ruling parts of China rebelled.

paragraphs: Rebellion is a usual method of secession.


title: Battle

paragraphs: A battle is a fight between two or more groups where each group is trying to defeat (beat) the others. Battles are most often fought during wars, military campaigns, or two or more people fighting. If two armies fight many battles over period of time it is called a war. The ground on which a battle is fought is called a battlefield.

paragraphs: Battles can very important, for example the 1389 Battle of Kosovo, which was a draw in military terms, changed the history of the Balkans, Europe, and the entire world. The outcome changed Ottoman politics and had influence in the region for well over 500 years.


title: Device

paragraphs:
Devise could also mean:
Or see the placename Devizes


title: Edward IV of England

paragraphs: Edward IV of England was a king of England. He was born on April 28, 1442. He was King of England from March 4, 1461 until his death on April 9, 1483.

paragraphs: Edward was the eldest of the four sons of Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York. The Duke of York was a very powerful man, and had a claim to the throne of England. He became more popular than the existing king, Henry VI of England, who was thought to be weak. When the duke tried to take the throne from Henry VI, the Wars of the Roses broke out. By the time Edward was eighteen, he and his brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, who was seventeen, were old enough to take part in the fighting, and Edward turned out to be a very good soldier. He was helped by Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, a clever nobleman who fought for the Duke of York. At the Battle of Wakefield in 1460, Edward's father, and his brother Edmund, were both killed. As his father's heir, he now claimed the throne. In March 1461, he entered London with his army and was crowned king, although he was only nineteen. King Henry VI was put into prison.

paragraphs: For a while, Edward ruled the country well, with help from the Earl of Warwick. Then Edward met a woman called Elizabeth Woodville, whom he wanted to marry. The Earl of Warwick did not know about their romance, and he wanted King Edward to marry a foreign princess in order to make an alliance with another country, which would have made his position stronger. Elizabeth and Edward got married secretly in about 1464, and they had ten children in the nineteen years of their marriage.

paragraphs: When the Earl of Warwick learned of Edward's marriage, he was angry. He grew even more angry as time went on, because Elizabeth's family became powerful and the king no longer respected Warwick as he had done in the beginning. In 1459 he rebelled against the king, with help from another of Edward's younger brothers, George, Duke of Clarence; George was married to the Earl of Warwick's elder daughter, Isabel. The rebels went to France and made an alliance with Queen Margaret, who was the wife of King Henry VI. The Earl of Warwick managed to defeat King Edward in battle in 1471, and freed King Henry VI from prison. Henry was now king again, and Edward had to escape to Burgundy, while his wife and children went into hiding.

paragraphs: The Duke of Burgundy was married to Edward's sister Margaret, so he was willing to help raise more troops. When Edward returned to England, he defeated the Earl of Warwick in battle and killed him. Shortly afterwards, Queen Margaret and her son arrived in England. They were also defeated in battle by King Edward, and his throne was safe. To make sure of this, Edward arranged for King Henry VI to be killed.

paragraphs: While Edward was away in Burgundy, his wife Elizabeth had given birth to a son, Edward, who was given the title of Prince of Wales. He would be the next king. Edward ruled with help from his two brothers. George, who had once rebelled against him, was now loyal, and the youngest brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, had always been loyal. There were still quarrels between them and the powerful Woodville family. George and Richard also quarrelled with each other, and in the end King Edward had to put George in prison, where he died.

paragraphs: Edward IV died very suddenly at the age of forty. His son became King Edward V of England, but his reign did not last long. Edward's brother, Richard, thought that it would not be a good idea for a boy to be king, and he took the throne himself. No one really knows what happened to Edward's two sons, the Princes in the Tower.


title: Pterosaur

paragraphs: Pterosaurs were flying reptiles which lived in the Mesozoic era at the same time as the dinosaurs. Most pterosaurs were quite small, but in the Upper Cretaceous some grew larger than any other flying animals. The pterosaur "Quetzalcoatlus" had a wing-span of up to 12 metres (~40 feet).

paragraphs: The first fossils occur in the Upper Triassic, and the group continues until the K/T extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous (220 to 65.5 million years ago). Pterosaurs are the earliest vertebrates known to have evolved powered flight. Their wings were made from a flap of skin between their bodies and a big fourth finger (sometimes called the "wing finger"). The pterosaurs fall into two groups. The earlier Rhamphorhynchoids (e.g. "Rhamphorhynchus") had long tails and toothed jaws; The pterodactyloids (e.g. "Pterodactylus") had short tails, and many had beaks with no teeth.

paragraphs: The first pterosaur fossil was discovered in the Late Jurassic Solnhofen limestone in Germany in 1784. This was exactly the same place as "Archaeopteryx" was found years later. Georges Cuvier first suggested that pterosaurs were flying creatures in 1801. Since the first pterosaur fossil was found, twenty-nine species of pterosaurs have been found in those deposits alone. A famous early UK find was an example of "Dimorphodon" by Mary Anning, in 1828 at Lyme Regis, Dorset, England. The name Pterosauria was coined in 1834.

paragraphs: Pterosaurs were genuine fliers, able to flap or soar. Their bodies were covered with fine hairs, so they were able to regulate their temperature (they were warm-blooded). They are a close sister-group to the dinosaurs, part of the Archosauria.

paragraphs: This early group did well from the Upper Triassic to the Lower Cretaceous. When we first see them in the fossil record they have developed three families, so biologists know their early evolution is not yet revealed. These three families are represented by the three genera "Rhamphorhynchus", "Dimorphodon" and "Eudimorphodon". At least one more family appears at the start of the Jurassic, the Anurognathidae.

paragraphs: The group had a long tail, usually stiffened by rod-like bony tendons to keep it straight. This shows that their flight was extremely stable, which means it kept on course, rather than darted about. This feature is also found in "Archaeopteryx" and in early bats, and in insects like dragonflies.

paragraphs: To understand this, it helps to know some basic things about flight aerodynamics and stability. Early planes were highly stable, and so are airliners. To dart about quickly requires special advanced brains and reflexes, which later birds and pterosaurs had, but early ones did not. The analogy in planes would be fighter planes, which need such fast reactions that the details are worked out by computer, with the pilot indicating where to go. It requires more brains to control unstable flight than it does stable flight.

paragraphs: All species in the group have teeth. This again has a parallel with birds; "Archaeopteryx" and many Cretaceous birds have teeth; modern birds do not. The disadvantage of teeth is that they are quite heavy; when the animal can do without them, they will gradually get selected out. Obviously, without teeth food cannot be chewed, but there are ways around that. Stones in the gizzard or stomach do the grinding in some birds.

paragraphs: For a long time it was thought that the group died out at the end of the Jurassic, which was a minor extinction event. Even near the end of the Jurassic, "Rhamphorhynchus" was the most common pterosaur found at the famous "Archaeopteryx" site at Solnhofen in Bavaria, Germany, and now it is known that the group survived until the Lower Cretaceous. "Until recently, it was thought that rhamphorhynchoids died out at the end of the Jurassic, but new finds in the Jehol sequence of northeast China [show] that in this part of the world they survived until at least the middle of the Lower Cretaceous".

paragraphs: A single specimen of the insect-eating "Anurognathus" was also found at Solnhofen. It had a shorter tail than any other rhamphorhynchoid. This suggests its need to dodge about to catch insects: "agile and highly manoeuvrable".

paragraphs: Fossil pterodactyloids appear in the Upper Jurassic. They were short-tailed pterosaurs, suggesting that they had more sophisticated control of their flight, which no doubt gave them some advantages. 2–300 specimens of 17 different species of pterosaur has been found at Solnhofen from eight different genera. They include the earliest examples of "Pterodactylus", and "Germanodactylus", a genus which is also found in England and China. "Ctenochasma", also from Solnhofen, had a comb of 260 thin teeth showing it to be a filter-feeder that may have waded or swam in the water. There were several other genera with similar life-styles.

paragraphs: In the Lower Cretaceous there were many pterodactyloids, mostly quite small. Gradually, larger versions evolved, and by the Upper Cretaceous most pterosaurs had huge wing-spans and clearly covered huge distances soaring on upcurrents in a warm environment. "Pteranodon", with a wing-span of over 20 feet (7m), and "Quetzalcoatlus", with a wingspan of 40 feet (12m) are famous examples. The question of their eating habits is still undecided.

paragraphs: Since birds were already common in the Lower Cretaceous, they would have competed vigorously with the smaller pterodactyloids. That may explain the extinction of the smaller pterosaur species, though the lack of fossils from the forested areas makes it difficult to judge. The huge Upper Cretaceous types clearly lived a different life-style from the smaller species, and one which was not yet accessible to birds. As the climate changed in the Upper Cretaceous, becoming colder and more seasonal, the number of pterosaurs became fewer. Like most of the larger species on Earth, the huge pterosaurs did not survive the K/T extinction event. At least some families of birds did. So ended the competition between the two types of flying reptile through the long 79 million years of the Cretaceous period.

paragraphs: There are many adaptations of the head and jaws of pterosaurs, so it is quite certain that different forms used different feeding methods, as birds do. Overall, most fossils have been found in marine strata, which suggests that they could fly well over water, and that fish were on the menu for many species. The jaws of fish-eaters was long and often held forward-pointing teeth, good for catching fish (see "Anhanguera"). Remains of a last fish supper have been found in "Pteranodon".

paragraphs: Fossils show that one pterosaur, the "Pterodaustro" found in Argentina, had comb-like strainers in its mouth. The pterosaur probably ate by filling its lower jaw with water and pushing the water out of its mouth through the strainers. The strainers could catch any plankton or other small creatures that were in the water, and when the water was gone, the animal could eat what was left. Other species had long, compressed lower jaws, which suggest they were skimmers at the top of the water.

paragraphs: The other main item of diet was the insects. Flying insects were abundant in the Mesozoic, and many pterosaur species give clear signs that this was their food. These have a broad mouth, often with short peg-like teeth.

paragraphs: For a long time people thought pterosaurs could only glide and soar, and were not strong enough to flap their wings. In the 20th century, after aeroplanes had been invented, our understanding of flight advanced. English palaeontologists showed that pterosaurs could fly, and Tilly Edinger showed that by the end of the Jurassic, pterosaur brains were more like that of modern birds than of "Archaeopteryx". Recent work has used working model to simulate their flight. The wing membrane was about 1mm thick, with a tough skin and had long fibres reinforcing it. This can be clearly seen in some of the fossils. The structure helped the wings survive the stresses of flight. The larger pterosaurs were mainly soarers, as is the case with birds today.

paragraphs: How pterosaurs moved on the ground has been something of a mystery. It is most likely that they walked on four legs while on the ground, as fossil tracks have been found showing they used both their legs and hands to support them..

paragraphs: Pterosaurs also had special bones. They were extremely light (even more than bird's wings – some were almost as thin as a piece of paper), and some were almost hollow. Tiny holes in the bones are evidence of air sacs which extended into the vertebrae and limb bones, as it does with birds. Also present were supporting struts which made these bones stronger. With these special bones, even the largest of pterosaurs, "Quetzalcoatlus", probably weighed less than 200 pounds.

paragraphs: Pterosaurs were probably egg-layers, and some eggs have been found at pterosaur sites. There is evidence that some species, such as "Pteranodon", had sexual dimorphism (sexes looked different). The skeletons with large cranial (head) crests and small pelvic canals were presumably males. Where several specimens occur at the same location, adults can be distinguished from juveniles. Evidence of tooth wear in "Eudimorphodon" suggests the young were insectivorous, while the adults ate fish. Development took place rapidly in these warm-blooded reptiles, and much of their life-style parallels that of birds. The high energy-level needed for flight explains why both reptilian forms (pterosaurs and birds) developed similar metabolism. In many respects, birds and pterosaurs are good examples of convergent evolution.


title: Quetzalcoatlus

paragraphs: Quetzalcoatlus was a huge pterosaur, the largest animal ever to fly. It had a 10 to 12 meters wing-span (33/40 feet), but was light in construction (~200 pounds).

paragraphs: "Quetzalcoatlus" had an unusually long neck, and when it stood on the ground it was as tall as a giraffe.

paragraphs: Its fossil record is from the Upper Cretaceous of North America, 70–65.5 million years ago. "Quetzalcoatlus" became extinct at the K/T extinction event.

paragraphs: A college student found the first "Quetzalcoatlus" fossil in Big Bend National Park in Texas. His name was Douglas Lawson, from the University of Texas in Austin. When he was in the park, he saw a bone sticking out of a rock. Since the bone looked hollow, like the bone of a bird, he thought it was part of a flying creature – and he was right. With his professor's help, he kept digging until lots of bones from an arm and wing were found. The rest of the animal's body was missing. Many others have looked for the rest of that huge pterosaur, but it has never been found. Other fossils of "Quetzalcoatlus" have been found, but none are as big as the one Lawson found.

paragraphs: Since "Quetzalcoatlus" was so large, two researchers suggested it was too heavy to fly. This would have been astonishing, because in the whole fossil record there is no flightless pterosaur. It has been thought their mobility on the ground was too poor for them to survive without flight. However, a recent discussion of this idea concluded they probably could fly after all. Another analysis suggested their flight was quite strong. Since we have only a few bones, the question of weight cannot be settled at present.

paragraphs: The feeding habits of "Quetzalcoatlus" (which had a long beak with no teeth) are unknown. This question, and its flight, are still being discussed. The lack of a more detailed skeleton is the main problem in reaching conclusions. Two theories have been proposed.

paragraphs: One idea is that it ate fish, by flying with its jaw in the water, and snapping up fish when it hit them. Texas was largely covered by the Western Interior Seaway at the time. "Of these proposed lifestyles, in-flight piscivory [fish-eating] appears to have gained the most acceptance, with skim-feeding being a frequently suggested foraging method.

paragraphs: The other theory is that it fed on land, partly as a carrion feeder, like vultures and buzzards, and foraged for small animals. This view is gaining ground, because the jaw does not show the adaptations for skimming found in modern birds who catch fish this way.

paragraphs: In flight, it was certainly a soarer, flying on up-currents of air in a warm environment, and its remains come from a site which was far inland in the Cretaceous.

paragraphs: "Quetzalcoatlus" was shown in the movie "When Dinosaurs Roamed America" eating a dead "Triceratops" carcass.


title: Mozilla (web browser)

paragraphs: Mozilla was a web browser that was made open source. It was developed by Mozilla Foundation. It was the base of Mozilla Firefox.


title: Fedora (operating system)

paragraphs: Fedora is a distribution (or "distro") of Linux developed by the community-supported Fedora Project and sponsored by Red Hat. It is designed to be safe and is used by companies and governments. Fedora's mission statement is: "Fedora is about the rapid progress of Free and Open Source software."

paragraphs: Linus Torvalds, author of the Linux kernel, says he uses Fedora because it had fairly good support for PowerPC when he used that processor architecture. He became used to the operating system and continues to use it.

paragraphs: "Fedora Core 1" was the first version of Fedora and was released on November 6, 2003, and was codenamed Yarrow. Fedora Core 1 was based on Red Hat Linux 9 and shipped with version 2.4.19 of the Linux kernel, version 2.4 of the GNOME desktop environment, and version 3.1.4 of KDE (the K Desktop Environment).

paragraphs: "Fedora Core 2" was released on May 18, 2004, codenamed Tettnang. It shipped with Linux 2.6, GNOME 2.6, KDE 3.2.2, and SELinux XFree86 was replaced by the newer X.org, a merger of the previous official X11R6 release, which additionally included a number of updates to Xrender, Xft, Xcursor, fontconfig libraries, and other significant improvements.

paragraphs: "Fedora Core 3" was released on November 8, 2004, codenamed Heidelberg. This was the first release of Fedora Core to include the Mozilla Firefox web browser, as well as support for the Indic languages. This release also replaced the LILO boot loader with GRUB. SELinux was also enabled by default, but with a new targeted policy, which was less strict than the policy used in Fedora Core 2. Fedora Core 3 shipped with GNOME 2.8 and KDE 3.3. It was the first release to include the new Fedora Extras repository.

paragraphs: "Fedora Core 4" was released on June 13, 2005, with the codename Stentz. It shipped with Linux 2.6.11, KDE 3.4 and GNOME 2.10. This version introduced the new Clearlooks theme, which was inspired by the Red Hat Bluecurve theme. It also shipped with the OpenOffice.org 2.0 office suite, as well as Xen, a high performance and secure open source virtualization framework. It also introduced support for the PowerPC CPU architecture, and over 80 new policies for SELinux.

paragraphs: The last two cores introduced specific artwork for that version. This is a trend that has continued in later Fedora versions.

paragraphs: "Fedora Core 5" was released on March 20, 2006, with the codename Bordeaux, and introduced the Fedora Bubbles artwork. It was the first Fedora release to include Mono and tools built with it such as Beagle, F-Spot and Tomboy. It also introduced new package management tools such as pup and pirut ("see Yellow dog Updater, Modified"). This release replaced the old LinuxThreads, with the Native POSIX Thread Library.

paragraphs: "Fedora Core 6" was released on October 24, 2006, codenamed Zod. This release introduced the Fedora DNA artwork, replacing the Fedora Bubbles artwork used in Fedora Core 5. The codename is derived from the infamous villain, General Zod, from the Superman DC Comic Books. This version introduced support for the Compiz compositing window manager and AIGLX (a technology that enables GL-accelerated effects on a standard desktop). It shipped with Firefox 1.5 as the default web browser, and Smolt, a tool that allows users to inform developers about the hardware they use.

paragraphs: None of these distributions are maintained by the Fedora Project.

paragraphs: Fedora 10, codenamed "Cambridge", was released on November 25, 2008.

paragraphs: Fedora's official software package repository includes, for example, UNetbootin.


title: Bagel

paragraphs: Bagels are a type of bread made with flour. They look like doughnuts, and they are leavened with yeast. They have a crisp, shiny crust and a dense inside. Bagels are glazed, and in a ring-shaped roll. They are different from doughnuts because they are boiled before baked. Bagels are sometimes called "the cement doughnuts".

paragraphs: The bagel is regarded as a special kind of Jewish food. They are eaten usually for breakfast or a snack.

paragraphs: Bagels are made from the basic bread ingredients of flour, yeast, salt, and sweet kinds of spices. Flour gives the bread its chewy taste, which can be made more light by eggs, milk, and butter. They are the only bread product that is boiled before it is baked.

paragraphs: Bagels are often toasted in a toaster and then paired with foods like cream cheese (a soft cheese that tastes a little sweet) and jam, or with butter. Bagels can also be used to make sandwiches, with meat (for example smoked salmon) and egg and cheese. Bagel sandwiches are usually eaten for breakfast or lunch.

paragraphs: Some people think that the first bagel was made in 1683 when a baker from Vienna in Austria was grateful to the King of Poland for saving Austria from the Turkish people. The story says that the baker changed the local bread so that it would look like the King’s stirrup. This story is not true, because bagels have been made in Poland since at least 1610.

paragraphs: Bagels were formally an obscure ethnic treat found only in the city's Jewish neighourhoods. Bagels were first sold in grocery stores in the 1950s. Frozen bagels were first introduced in 1960.

paragraphs: When Polish Jews went away to America, they brought the beugel with them. The first beugel bakeries were founded in New York City in the 1920s. Later the name was changed and called a bagel. Bagels have been used as a symbol of the continuous cycle of life—without beginning and without end.

paragraphs: In the East End of London, the bagel is known as a beigel, and poplar in many of the areas where many Jewish immigrants first arrived in Lonson in the 19th Century, such as Whitechapel and Spitalfields, and Brick Lane in particular, home to the Beigel Bake.


title: Doughnut

paragraphs: A doughnut (spelled donut in American English) is a type of deep fried dessert food made out of dough or batter.

paragraphs: Ring doughnuts are made by joining the ends of a long, thin piece of dough into a ring or by using a doughnut cutter, which perfectly cuts the outside and inside shape, leaving a doughnut-shaped piece of dough and a doughnut hole from dough removed from the center. This smaller piece of dough can be cooked or re-added to the batch to make more doughnuts. A disk-shaped doughnut can also be stretched and molded into a torus until the center breaks to form a hole. Or, a doughnut depositor can be used to place a circle of liquid dough (batter) into the deep fryer. Doughnuts can be made from a yeast-based dough for more puffy doughnuts or a special type of cake batter. Yeast-raised doughnuts contain about 25% oil by weight, whereas cake doughnuts' oil content is around 20%, but they have extra fat in the batter before frying. Cake doughnuts are fried for about 90 seconds at about 190 °C to 198 °C, turning once. Yeast-raised doughnuts absorb more oil because they take longer to fry, about 150 seconds, at 182 °C to 190 °C. Cake doughnuts normally weigh between 24 g and 28 g, whereas yeast-raised doughnuts normally are 38 g and are mostly larger when finished. Some types of cake doughnuts are also baked, as opposed to fried, which greatly reduces the fat content.

paragraphs: The two most common types of doughnut are ring doughnuts, which are shaped like rings, and filled doughnuts, which are round and have jam, jelly, custard, whipped cream, or chocolate inside them. There are also "doughnut holes" or "munchkins" which come in the shape of small balls. Most doughnuts have an icing (also called a "frosting") made with icing sugar, water, and flavourings (such as chocolate). Some doughnuts are rolled in sweet foods such as sugar or shredded coconut.

paragraphs: Doughnuts are often eaten in the morning, along with a cup of hot coffee. Doughnuts are sold at doughnut shops, bakeries, or grocery stores. People also eat doughnuts as a dessert, or as a snack.

paragraphs: Doughnuts can cause health problems if they are eaten too often. One of these problems is that doughnuts contain a large amount of fat. Eating too much fat can lead to clogged arteries. When the arteries get clogged, blood does not go through them easily, this can cause a Heart Attack. Also, doughnuts contain a large amount of sugar and white flour, which are turned into fat when they come inside our body. Doughnuts are a health concern in Canada where each person eats more doughnuts per year than any other country.


title: Mary II of England

paragraphs: Mary II (30 April 1662 – 28 December 1694) was Queen regnant of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1689 until her death. Mary was a Protestant. She became queen after the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in the deposition of her Roman Catholic father, James II and VII. Mary ruled together with her husband, William III and II. He became the ruler of both countries when she died in 1694. Popular histories usually call their joint reigns as those of "William and Mary". Mary had less power than William when William remained in England. When William went to military campaigns, however, she governed alone. She was a powerful, firm, and effective ruler. She gave most of her authority to her husband, but he greatly depended on her. She was very active in the Church of England, ruling it as its Supreme Governo

paragraphs: Mary was born at St. James Palace in London on 30 April 1662. Her father was James, Duke of York, and her mother was his first wife, Lady Anne Hyde. She was their oldest daughter. Mary's uncle was Charles II. Her grandfather by her mother's side was Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. He served for a long time as Charles's chief advisor. Her mother gave birth to eight children, but only Mary and her younger sister Anne lived to adulthood.

paragraphs: The Duke of York became a Roman Catholic in 1668 or 1669, but Mary and Anne had a Protestant education, as Charles II had commanded. Mary's mother died in 1671, and her father married again in 1673. He took Mary of Modena, a Catholic, as his second wife. She was also known as Mary Beatrice d'Este. Before her marriage, Mary wrote many letters to Frances Apsley, the daughter of James II's hawks keeper. However, she did not return Mary's interest.

paragraphs: When she was 15, Lady Mary became betrothed to her first cousin, the Protestant William, Prince of Orange. William was the son of Mary, Princess Royal and Prince William II of Nassau. At first, Charles II did not want Mary to marry William. He wanted Mary to marry the heir to the French Throne, the Dauphin Louis, instead. This was because he hoped that England would become friends with France. He also wanted to have a Catholic successor to the throne. But because of Parliament's pressure, he later approved their marriage. He thought that it would make the Protestants like him more, but he was wrong. Mary and William married in London on 4 November 1677. It was reported that Mary wept through the whole ceremony.

paragraphs: Mary went to the Netherlands and lived there as William's wife. The Dutch people liked her because of her lively, friendly nature, and Mary loved William deeply. However, the marriage was often unhappy. Her three pregnancies ended in miscarriage or stillbirth, and Mary was very sad that she did not have a child. Her husband was often cold to her, and he had an affair with Elizabeth Villiers, one of Mary's ladies-in-waiting, for a long time. After some time, though, he grew warmer towards Mary.

paragraphs: When Charles II died without any children in 1685, the Duke of York became King as James II in England and Ireland. He also became James VII in Scotland. He tried to give freedom of religion to non-Anglicans. He did this by making the acts of Parliament invalid by Royal Decree. The public did not like this. Several Protestant politicians and noblemen entered into negotiations (trying to reach agreements through discussion) with Mary's husband as early as 1687. In May 1688, James forced Anglican clergymen to read the Declaration of Indulgence. The Declaration of Indulgence was a statement that gave religious freedom to those who did not agree with the Church of England. This made him much less popular. Protestants became even more fearful when his wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son–James Francis Edward–in June 1688. They were fearful because the son would, unlike Mary and Anne, be raised a Roman Catholic. Some said that the boy had been secretly carried into the Queen's room in a bed-warming pan instead of her stillborn baby. There was no strong proof to support this story, but Mary publicly doubted the boy's legitimacy. She sent a list of suspicious questions to her sister, Anne, about the boy's birth.

paragraphs: On 30 June, the Immortal Seven secretly asked William, who was in the Netherlands with Mary, to come to England with an army. William, who was jealous of Mary's position and power, did not want to go at first. But Mary told William that she did not care about political power. She said "she would be no more but his wife, and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him King for life".

paragraphs: William agreed to attack. He declared that James' newborn son was the "pretended Prince of Wales". He also gave a list of what the English people wanted, and said that he only wanted to have "a free and lawful Parliament assembled". The Dutch army, which had been turned back by a storm in October, landed on 5 November. The English Army and Navy went over to William. At this time, the English people's confidence in James was very low. They did not even try to save their King. On 11 December, the King tried to run away, but failed. He tried to run away again on 23 December. This second attempt was successful, and James escaped to France. He lived there in exile until his death.

paragraphs: Though Mary was sad because of the deposition of her father, William ordered her to look happy when they arrived in London. Because of this, people thought she was being cold to her father. James also thought his daughter was unfaithful to him. This hurt Mary deeply.

paragraphs: In 1689, a Convention Parliament called by the Prince of Orange came together to discuss what they should do. William of Orange felt uncomfortable about his position. He wanted to rule as a King, not simply as a husband of a Queen. The only example of joint monarchy was from the sixteenth century. This was Queen Mary I and the Spanish Prince Philip. When they married, it was agreed that Prince Philip would take the title of King. But Philip II was King only during his wife's lifetime. He also did not have much power. William wanted to remain King even after his wife's death. Some important people suggested making Mary the only ruler. But Mary, who was faithful to her husband, refused.

paragraphs: On 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Declaration of Right. In this declaration, it said that James, by trying to run away on 11 December 1688, had abandoned the government, so no one at the time was king. Normally, James's oldest son, James Francis Edward would have been the heir. However, Parliament offered the crown to William and Mary as joint Sovereigns instead. But it was added that "the sole and full exercise of the regal (royal) power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives." The declaration was later extended to take out all Catholics. This was because "it hath been found (discovered) by experience that it is inconsistent (not in harmony) with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince".

paragraphs: William and Mary were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689. The Archbishop of Canterbury usually performed coronations. But William Sancroft, the Archbishop at that time, felt that James II's removal had been wrong. Therefore, the Bishop of London, Henry Compton, crowned them instead. On the day of the Coronation, the Convention of the Estates of Scotland declared at last that James was no longer King of Scotland. William and Mary were offered the separate Scottish Crown. This was because the two kingdoms were not united until the Acts of Union in 1707. They accepted on 11 May.

paragraphs: Even after this was declared, there was still strong support for James in Scotland. John Graham of Clevehouse, the Viscount of Dundee, raised an army and won a victory at Killiecrankie on 27 July. But Dundee's army suffered great losses, and he was seriously wounded at the start of the battle. This stopped the only effective resistance to William, and the revolt was quickly crushed. The next month, there was a great defeat at the Battle of Dunkeld.

paragraphs: In December 1689 Parliament passed one of the most important documents in English history. This was the Bill of Rights. This measure gave several rights to Parliament and the people. Among other things, it declared that the Sovereign could not break laws passed by Parliament, demand taxes if the Parliament did not agree, raise an army during a time of peace if the Parliament did not agree, or punish members of the House of Parliament for anything they said during discussions.

paragraphs: After either William III or Mary II died, the other was to continue to rule. The person who would become the monarch after them would be any of their children. After the children would be Mary's sister Anne and her children. Last of all would be any children William III might have had from any marriage after that.

paragraphs: From 1690, William was often away from England, at first fighting Jacobites in Ireland. While her husband was away, Mary took care of the government. She was a firm ruler, and ordered her own uncle, Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl of Clarendon, to go to prison for trying to put James II back onto the throne. In 1692, she fired and put John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, in prison for similar reasons. This made her much less popular. It also damaged her relationship with her sister, Anne. Anne had been strongly influenced by Churchill's wife, Sarah. She appeared at court with Sarah and supported Churchill, which made Mary very angry. She demanded that Anne make Sarah go away. Mary did not visit Anne during her pregnancy after that. After the baby was born, Mary did visit Anne, but she spent her time berating Anne for her friendship with Sarah. The sisters never saw each other again.

paragraphs: William had crushed the Irish Jacobites by 1692, but he continued with campaigns away from England to begin a war against France in the Netherlands. When William was away, Mary acted in her own name but on his advice. When he was in England, Mary never joined in political matters, as had been agreed in the Bill of Rights. However, she did join in the affairs of the Church, and all church matters passed through her hands.

paragraphs: Mary died of smallpox at Kensington Palace on 28 December 1694. She was buried at Westminster Abbey. When she died, Henry Purcell was called to write her funeral music, titled "Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary". William had grown to depend on Mary more and more, and was very sad when she died. It is reported that he said that "from being the happiest" he was "now going to be the miserablest creature on earth".

paragraphs: After Mary II's death, William III continued to rule as King. Princess Anne's last living child, William, Duke of Gloucester, died in July 1700. Parliament saw that William would have no more children. Because of this, it passed the Act of Settlement 1701. After Anne, the Crown would go to their nearest Protestant relative, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and her Protestant heirs. When William III died in 1702, he was succeeded by Anne. She was succeeded by the son of Electress Sophia, George I.

paragraphs: Mary gave money to the College of William and Mary (in the present day Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693. She also began the Royal Hospital for Seamen, Greenwich.

paragraphs: William III and Mary II called themselves "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc." when they began their rule. On 11 April 1689, the Estates of Scotland recognized them as Sovereigns. From then on, William and Mary called themselves "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc.".

paragraphs: The arms used by the King and Queen were: "Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon Azure billetty and a lion rampant Or (for the House of Orange-Nassau)".


title: Goal

paragraphs: Goal can mean more than one thing. These meanings are listed below:


title: 1936 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: The 1936 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad, were held in Berlin, Germany.

paragraphs: The games were thought to be successful. The costs of the games was mostly paid for by the German government.

paragraphs: A total of 49 nations sent athletes to compete at the Berlin games.


title: Mesopotamia

paragraphs: Mesopotamia (Ancient Greek: Μεσοποταμία - "land between rivers") is a historical region in the Middle East. It included most of today’s Iraq, and parts of modern-day Iran, Syria and Turkey. The 'two rivers' of the name referred to the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers.

paragraphs: The land was called 'Al-Jazirah' ("the island") by the Arabs, and Egyptologist J.H. Breasted later included it in the "Fertile Crescent". The region is bounded in the northeast by the Zagros Mountains and in the southeast by the Arabian Plateau.

paragraphs: The area is often called the "cradle of civilization". The ancient writing called cuneiform was first used around 3000 BC by the Sumerians. Historically important cities in Mesopotamia included Uruk, Ur, Nippur, Nineveh, and Babylon.

paragraphs: Major territorial states were the Akkadian kingdom, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the Assyrian Empire. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon of Akkad (the founder of the Akkadian kingdom), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), and Tiglath-Pileser I (who started the Assyrian Empire).

paragraphs: Many advances in technology were made by the ancient Sumerians, such as irrigation, trade by river, and flood control. Sumerians had agriculture and domesticated animals, or livestock, from the earliest records. Babylon is likely the first city built by settled people. Mesopotamia was also the place where the wheel was first used. First it was a potter's wheel that was used to make clay pots, then Sumerians adapted it for transport.

paragraphs: Mesopotamia is made up of different regions. Northern Mesopotamia is made up of hills and plains. The land is quite fertile due to seasonal rains, and the rivers and streams that come from the mountains. Early settlers farmed the land and used timber, metals, and stone. Southern Mesopotamia is made up of marshy areas and wide, flat, plains. Cities developed along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers which flow through the region. Early settlers had to irrigate the land along the banks of the rivers in order for their crops to grow.

paragraphs: Mesopotamia has been conquered many times by many different people. It was the heartland of the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires. As each new group moved into the region they adopted some of the culture, traditions, and beliefs of the people who had come before. It was conquered by Alexander the Great (332 BC), the Parthians (150 BC), the Romans, the Persian Empire, and the Arabs (7th century). It is still one of the most fertile (and therefore valuable) parts of the Middle East.

paragraphs: Ancient Mesopotamia begins in the late 6th millennium BC, and ends with either the rise of the Achaemenid Persians in the 6th century BC or the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia in the 7th century CE. This long period may be divided as follows:

paragraphs: The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient story about a relationship between Gilgamesh and his close companion, Enkidu. Enkidu is a wild man created by the gods as Gilgamesh's equal to distract him from oppressing the citizens of Uruk. Together they undertake dangerous quests that incur the displeasure of the gods. Firstly, they journey to the Cedar Mountain to defeat Humbaba, its monstrous guardian. Later they kill the Bull of Heaven that the goddess Ishtar has sent to punish Gilgamesh for turning down her advances.

paragraphs: The second part of the epic is about Gilgamesh's distressed reaction to Enkidu's death, which takes the form of a quest for immortality. Gilgamesh attempts to learn the secret of eternal life by undertaking a long and perilous journey to meet the immortal flood hero, Utnapishtim. The words addressed to Gilgamesh in the midst of his quest foreshadow the end result:


title: Joss Whedon

paragraphs: Joss Hill Whedon (born June 23, 1964) is an American writer, director and producer. He was born Joseph Hill Whedon in New York City. He created the well-known television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Angel", and "Firefly", and has also written several movie scripts and several comic book series. After graduating from high school in 1982, he went to Winchester College in England. He received a film degree from Wesleyan University in 1987. Whedon is the director of the films "The Avengers" (2012) and "" (2015).

paragraphs: Whedon and Zack Snyder directed "Justice League" (2017).

paragraphs: After moving to Los Angeles, Whedon got his first writing job on the television series "Roseanne". After working on movie scripts for several years, he went back to television, where he created three television series. Joss has had a couple of cameos (brief 'fun' appearances) in his series "Buffy", "Angel", and "Firefly". He has also been in an episode of "Veronica Mars".

paragraphs: Whedon has been said to be the world's first third-generation television writer. His father is Tom Whedon, a writer for "The Electric Company" in the 1970s and "The Golden Girls" in the 1980s. His grandfather is John Whedon, a writer for "The Donna Reed Show" in the 1950s. His brother, Zack Whedon, is a writer on HBO's "Deadwood".

paragraphs: The movie "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", filmed by director Fran Rubel Kuzui after a script of Whedon's, was not well-liked by critics and audiences. Years after, Whedon picked up its idea again and turned it into a hugely successful television series, also called "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".

paragraphs: The episode "Hush" (written by Whedon) got an Emmy Award nomination for Best Writing in a Drama Series in 2000. Another episode that got an Emmy Award nomination was "Once More, With Feeling", written and directed by Whedon. This was a musical episode, in which the actors were singing and dancing.

paragraphs: The series aired on The WB Network for five seasons, then moved to UPN for its last two seasons. It was the first series in television history to change networks between seasons without being cancelled and then picked up by a different network. Though "Buffy" first aired on Mondays at 9pm, from the middle of the second season it ran on Tuesdays at 8pm. In the musical episode, Buffy makes the comment, "Dawn's in trouble. Must be Tuesday."

paragraphs: "Angel" was a spin-off of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". The series was named after Buffy's vampire-with-a-soul boyfriend. It was created by Whedon and David Greenwalt. Tim Minear also helped at times. First shown in September 1999 on the WB, the series was on after "Buffy" on Tuesday evenings. When "Buffy" switched networks in 2001, "Angel" aired in a number of different time slots. The series' last episode had more people watching than the final "Buffy" episode. Joss Whedon was briefly in the series as the character 'Numfar' in its second season. The WB cancelled the series in May 2004 while it was in its fifth season. As Whedon had not planned to end "Angel," he had to change the story and ending of both the final season and the series.

paragraphs: The series "Firefly" did not go smoothly. Fox cancelled it in 2002, after airing only 11 of the 14 episodes and airing them out of order. The original two-hour pilot was the last episode aired. The contract with Fox did not allow the series to be shown by another network. Because of how Fox handled "Firefly", Whedon has said that he will not work with Fox again, under any circumstances.

paragraphs: Whedon had been writing a movie script about the "Firefly" series for Universal Studios. When the television series came out on DVD, the sales of the DVD were good enough to make sure the movie could be produced. In early 2004 Whedon said that a "Firefly" movie had been accepted by Universal, and shooting started in July 2004. The movie, called "Serenity", was in movie theaters in the United States on September 30, 2005. It was well liked by critics and fans, but did not make much money in theaters.

paragraphs: Although Whedon has said that he would not work with Fox again, it was announced on November 1, 2007 that this was changed. Whedon was hired to create seven episodes of a new series named "Dollhouse" starring Eliza Dushku. Dushku and Whedon have worked together before on "Buffy". The series is about people who have memories, skills and even complete personalities put into their minds for special jobs. After the job, their minds are erased until the next job. "Dollhouse" tells the story of Dushku's character, Echo, as she starts to remember things about herself even though her mind is constantly being erased. The series is about her trying to learn who she really is.

paragraphs: "Dollhouse" first aired on February 13, 2009.

paragraphs: Whedon has written and helped write several movies including "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", "Toy Story", "" and "Titan A.E.". He was nominated for an Academy Award for "Toy Story"'s screenplay.

paragraphs: He also wrote helped edit and rewrite the scripts of "Speed", "Waterworld", "Twister" and "X-Men". Except for "Speed", not much of Whedon's work stayed in the final versions of any of these screenplays. He has said that he had a good script for "Alien: Resurrection", which was ruined by its director Jean-Pierre Jeunet. His "Waterworld" script was thrown out. Only two of his lines were kept in the final script of "X-Men". Even the "Buffy" movie was very different from what he originally wrote. According to Graham Yost, the writer of "Speed", Whedon wrote most of its dialogue.

paragraphs: He wrote and directed 2005's "Serenity", based on his television series "Firefly". "Serenity" won the 2006 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form.

paragraphs: In 2006, Whedon was scheduled to write and direct Warner Bros.' version of "Wonder Woman". He eventually stopped working on the script. Universal Pictures agreed to a script by Whedon called "Goners" which he will also direct.

paragraphs: Parts of the storyline in the movie "" are very similar to what he wrote in the Marvel comic book "Astonishing X-Men". The idea of a cure for mutation was his story. The scientist who finds the cure in the movie is named Dr. Kavita Rao. This is the same name as the scientist in the comic book. Simon Kinberg has said someone at the studio who had read Whedon's comics asked the writers to use a mutant cure idea in their script.

paragraphs: In an interview with Empire Online, Whedon said he would like to direct a Harry Potter movie. However, he has not seen any of the movies and will not watch any until J.K. Rowling is done writing the series

paragraphs: In 2012, two movies produced by Whedon were released. The horror movie "Cabin in the Woods" was released in April. Whedon wrote the script for the movie with director Drew Goddard. On May 4th, the Marvel Comics superhero movie "The Avengers" was released in the United States. Whedon wrote and directed the movie. "The Avengers" was released internationally one week before it was released in the United States. This release did not include some of the largest international markets, including China, Russia and Japan. It still made $185M in it international opening week. It was the 9th highest foreign opening ever.

paragraphs: Whedon has loved comic books all his life. He wrote the Dark Horse Comics series "Fray". The story takes place in the far future of the Buffyverse.

paragraphs: He was also involved with the "Buffy" comic book series. He wrote the main storyline of the five-issue mini-series "Tales of the Vampires" and three stories in the "Tales of the Slayers". One of those stories was about Melaka Fray from "Fray".

paragraphs: The three-issue mini-series "" was based on the "Firefly" series. It took place just before the movie "Serenity". It was released from June to August of 2005. The first two issues sold out before going into a second printing.

paragraphs: Whedon has said that more "Serenity" comics are planned for the near future.

paragraphs: Whedon and other "Buffy" writers write more for the "Buffy" series. These stories would take place after the final episode. They would be considered "Season 8". The first 6-issues are due out in March 2007. Both projects will be published by Dark Horse Comics. In August 2007, Dark Horse Comics began a series on online comics on MySpace. One of the series shown, "Sugarshock", is written by Whedon

paragraphs: Whedon is also writing "Astonishing X-Men" in Marvel Comics' popular series about the X-Men. This has been one of Marvel's best-selling comics in 2006. It has been nominated for many awards. It won the award for "Best Continuing Series" in 2006.

paragraphs: It has also been said that Whedon helped writers with the ending to the comic "Civil War".

paragraphs: Whedon will become the new writer of the Marvel comic "Runaways" when series creator Brian K. Vaughan finishes his run. Whedon is actually a fan of the series. He had a letter published in the first volume. The letter was included in the Volume 1 hardcover version.

paragraphs: Whedon sees himself as a feminist. Feminist themes are common in his work. The best example is what he says is his habit of writing about "teenage girls with superpowers". This is seen in "Buffy", "Firefly", and "Serenity". Whedon says his mother is the reason for his feminist idea. When Roseanne Barr asked him how he could write so well for women, he replied, "If you met my mom, you wouldn't ask."

paragraphs: The character Kitty Pryde from the X-Men comic was an early model for Whedon's strong teenage girl characters: "If there's a bigger influence on Buffy than Kitty, I don’t know what it was. She was an adolescent girl finding out she has great power and dealing with it." Many of Whedon's young female characters went through the same type of thing. Whedon has now come full circle, writing the character of Kitty Pryde in the "Astonishing X-Men" comic.

paragraphs: Whedon is interested in the homosexual community. He is strongly for LGBT rights. In his works, including "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", he has gay characters as both the major and the minor characters. In "Buffy", he used scenes that suggested that either Xander Harris or Willow Rosenberg might be homosexual. At the time, he did not know which character he wanted to be gay. He decided that Willow would take part in a lesbian relationship with another young woman, fellow college student Tara Maclay. Two more minor characters in the series, Larry and Scott, were also homosexuals. In "Angel", the script hinted at a homosexual experience between Spike and Angel. In "Firefly", Inara Serra was shown as being bisexual. She accepted both male and female clients.

paragraphs: The dialogue in Joss Whedon's series and movies is notable. It is often very witty and has many pop culture references. Some are easy to notice other are more difficult. He also likes to turn nouns into adjectives by adding a "y" at the end of the word ("Vampires are fangy"). According to one of the "Buffy" writers, "It's just the way that Joss actually talks."

paragraphs: Many characters die in Whedon's series. This is very true in "Buffy". It is common for extras and even minor characters to die in action-based series and movies. Whedon also kills off main characters. He gets the audience to care about the character before their death. It is a part of "doing [his] job". On the 'Serenity' DVD commentary, Whedon says that he'd rather have fans say 'Why'd they kill (that guy)? I liked him!' than 'Oh. He's dead. Turn the page'. Whedon often kills off characters right after something very good happens to them.

paragraphs: As seen in "Buffy," "Firefly," and "Angel", nearly all of the romantic relationships Whedon series end badly. One member in the relationship will usually end up dying or turning evil. The break-up will end up being very painful.

paragraphs: There is a strong theme that family is the group of people that a person lives their life with, not the people who raised them as a child. This is a major theme for the main characters in all of his television series.

paragraphs: Whedon often shows fathers in a bad way. Most of them are not around. Wes' father was shown several times to be abusive. While mothers play a big part in his works, characters rarely talk about or seem to be ever affected by their fathers. Whedon's characters often find someone to take the place of a father in their lives.


title: Guanajuato City

paragraphs: Guanajuato is a Mexican city. It is one of Mexico's safest cities. Guanajuato is the capital of Guanajuato state.


title: Bathurst, New South Wales

paragraphs: Bathurst is a city in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is about 200km west of Sydney. Bathurst has a campus of Charles Sturt University and a cathedral.


title: Songhai Empire

paragraphs: The Songhai Empire dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th century.

paragraphs: At its peak the empire was one of the largest in both Islamic and African history. The Songhai people were the ruling elite in the empire. Gao was the capital of the empire. Other important cities in the empire were Timbuktu and Djenné, conquered in 1468 and 1475 respectively. Trade flourished in those towns.

paragraphs: Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (c. 1464–1493), but it was later replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493–1591).


title: SeaMonkey

paragraphs: SeaMonkey is a free and open source Internet application suite, which uses the Gecko rendering engine. It works on many operating systems. It is very useful, and includes an e-mail client, a calendar, a HTML editor, an IRC client, and a web browser. It is made by the SeaMonkey Council, formerly by Mozilla Foundation.

paragraphs: On March 10, 2005 the Mozilla Foundation said that they will not develop the Mozilla Application suite, including the Netscape web browser, because Firefox and Thunderbird were more popular. The SeaMonkey Council renamed the project SeaMonkey and continued its development. The newest version of its main release version is 2.46.

paragraphs: The web browser of SeaMonkey contains a lot of features used in new web browsers like tabbed browsing, pop-up blocking, e-mail, newsgroups, web editing software, spell checking, and an address book.

paragraphs: Optionally included in the SeaMonkey suite is an IRC chat application.


title: Proceratosaurus

paragraphs: Proceratosaurus was a small dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic, about 165 million years ago. It was found in Gloucestershire, England, in 1910. It was a carnivorous theropod.

paragraphs: "Proceratosaurus" was first believed to be an early ancestor of "Ceratosaurus", but it was actually an ancestor of the coelurosaurs. Thus, it was an early ancestor of "Tyrannosaurus" and its relatives in the Upper Cretaceous.

paragraphs: The animal in life was about 3m long and weighed up to 60kg.


title: Cowboy Bebop

paragraphs: Cowboy Bebop is a Japanese anime television show aired from 1998 to 1999. It was created by Sunrise and directed by Shinichiro Watanabe. The show is about a group of bounty hunters who travel in outer space to catch criminals. It has 26 episodes. The series has received a "TV-14" rating in the United States, while six episodes received a TV-MA and three episodes receiving a TV-PG.

paragraphs: The series first aired in the United States in 2001 on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim. It was the first anime to be aired on Adult Swim. It was very successful. It was so successful that Cartoon Network decided to put more anime on Adult Swim. There is a movie, a manga, and two video games based on the show. The movie is called "". The video games are for Playstation and Playstation 2 were not released in the United States. The series is inspired by American culture. Jazz music is mostly played in the show. The episodes are called "Sessions."

paragraphs: In 2071, the members of the space ship Bebop travel through outer space trying to catch criminals. Bounty hunters are known as "Cowboys". If they catch the criminals alive then they get a reward. If the criminals die, the cowboys get nothing. The criminals are called bounties. Most episodes are about catching a bounty. Some episodes are about the characters' pasts and lives. At the beginning there are two main heroes, Spike and Jet. Later they would meet with others. They had become the crew of the space ship Bebop. Other members of the Bebop are Faye, computer hacker Ed, and a dog named Ein.


title: The Vision of Escaflowne

paragraphs: The Vision of Escaflowne is a Japanese anime television show that aired in Japan on April 2, 1996. It is called Tenkuu no Escaflowne in Japanese which means "Escaflowne of the Heavens". It was made by Sunrise and directed by Kazuki Akane. Escaflowne has 26 episodes.

paragraphs: "Escaflowne" has two mangas based on it, a videogame that was made for Playstation, and a movie.

paragraphs: Episode 19 Operation: Golden Rule of Love


title: Fusion

paragraphs: Fusion means to merge or combine. It could also mean:


title: Fir

paragraphs: Firs ("Abies") are about 45-55 species of evergreen trees in the family "Pinaceae". Fir trees can reach heights of 10–80 m tall and trunk diameters of 0.5–4 m when mature. The difference between firs and other members of the pine family is that their needle-like leaves are attached to the twig by a base that resembles a small suction cup, and by erect, cylindrical female cones 5–25 cm long that release the winged seeds. The male cones are normally much smaller and spread through the tree so that the wind can help pollinate the female cones.

paragraphs: Like all members of the pine family, these trees have a sticky sap called resin.

paragraphs: Fir wood is not good to use in buildings because it is not very resistant to insects and decay. It is usually cut or squeezed into thin sheets or pieces and made into plywood or for indoor or temporary outdoor use. However, fir trees are used widely in gardening. They can be used as shelter trees to protect other plants from wind or grown alone as decorative trees.


title: Conifer cone

paragraphs: A cone (or pine cone) is an organ on plants in the division Pinophyta (conifers) that contains the reproductive structures. It is the part of a tree that lets the tree reproduce. Its formal name in botany is strobilus, plural "strobili".

paragraphs: The familiar woody cone is the female cone, which produces seeds. The male cones, which produce pollen, are usually smaller and much less conspicuous even at full maturity. The individual plates of a cone are known as scales.

paragraphs: The male cone (microstrobilus or pollen cone) is structurally similar across all conifers, differing only in small ways (mostly in scale arrangement) from species to species. Extending out from a central axis are microsporophylls (modified leaves). Under each microsporophyll is one or several microsporangia (pollen sacs).

paragraphs: Conifer cones and their seeds have been used for lots of different purposes. They are often used for decorations. Some seeds, for example, the seeds of pinyon pines, are used in prepared foods and baking.

paragraphs: Most mature cones are closed when wet and open when dry. In a few species, it takes fire to open the cones.


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title: Punch and Judy

paragraphs: Punch and Judy is a very popular puppet show which children in Britain love to watch. It is traditionally performed at the seaside in a small booth which can easily be transported. The characters are all glove puppets. The story is told by a man who calls himself “The Professor”. He cannot be seen, but he wears the puppets on his hand like gloves and makes them move.

paragraphs: Punch wears a jester's motley. He is hunchbacked and his hooked nose almost meets his curved chin. He has a big stick and hits the other characters with his stick, saying "That's the way to do it!". He speaks in a funny way called a "swazzle". There is also a baby, a crocodile, a policeman and a string of sausages. The simple kind of humour used is called “slapstick”.

paragraphs: The Punch and Judy show has its origins in the 16th century Italian commedia dell'arte. This sort of comedy always had the same people in the stories (“stock characters”). The figure of Punch comes from the stock character of Pulcinella, called "Punchinello" in English. Punch's wife was originally "Joan".

paragraphs: May 9, 1662 is said by 'Professors' to be Punch's UK birthday, for that was the first known date on which the figure who later became Mr. Punch was seen in Britain. The diarist Samuel Pepys saw a puppet show using an early version of the Punch character near St. Paul's Church in London's Covent Garden.

paragraphs: The British show developed into "Punch and Judy". In other countries the stories developed differently. In Germany, Punch is called "Kasper" and Judy is "Grete". The characters date back to the 18th century in German-speaking countries. In The Netherlands Punch is called "Jan Klaassen" and Judy is "Katrijn"; in Denmark "Mester Jackel"; in Italy "Pulcinella" (with "Teresina" as the female part); in Russia "Petruschka"; in Romania "Vasilache "; and in France "Polichinelle".

paragraphs: In 1827, "The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Punch and Judy" became the first published Punch and Judy script. In 2006, the Punch and Judy show was named one of 12 icons of Englishness by the British government’s Department for Culture, Media and Sport.


title: Boomerang (TV channel)

paragraphs: Boomerang is the name of at least four television networks owned by Cartoon Network. Boomerang was one of the two actual spin-offs of Cartoon Network, showing classic animated cartoons and animated television series from the Hanna-Barbera archives.

paragraphs: Formerly a segment of programming within the Cartoon Network, the channel was launched at the end of the 20th century and introduced to satellite in April 1, 2000. In 2003 there were bumpers telling you what was coming up next.


title: Boomerang

paragraphs: A boomerang is a flying tool that is best known for its ability to return to the thrower. In the past, it was made of wood, but most of the modern boomerangs are made of other materials.

paragraphs: Most people know that Australian Aborigines used boomerangs for hunting. But the oldest boomerang was found in a cave in Poland and is more than 20,000 (twenty thousand) years old. This kind of boomerang does not return to the thrower, but it can fly longer distances and more stably than other things which can be thrown. These days (returning) boomerangs are usually used for recreation.

paragraphs: Most of the boomerangs do not have the classical "L"-shape. The modern boomerang is special in that it will return to the one who threw it, if it is thrown correctly. However, some boomerangs do not return because their wings do not have the right profile. Most of the boomerangs are made for right-handed use. Left-handed people have to use other boomerangs that are mirror-inverted, or have to throw with their right hand.

paragraphs: A boomerang is not thrown like a frisbee. It has to be thrown almost vertically, with an inclination of about 10–20 degrees and with a lot of rotation (spin). When facing the wind, throw with an angle of 30–45 degrees to the right (left-handed: to the left) of the wind. Be sure to choose a field that is big enough. Watch out for passers-by, and do not throw when people are standing in the range of the boomerang. See also the link provided in the section below.

paragraphs: There are a lot of boomerang clubs in many countries all over the world. These clubs organise workshops and tournaments. The best boomerang-throwers come from Australia, France, Germany, Japan, Switzerland and the United States of America. A few years ago, the International Federation of Boomerang Associations (IFBA) was founded to help to spread knowledge about boomerangs.


title: Niflheim

paragraphs: Niflheim is the world of frost and cold of Norse Mythology. Frost Giants live there. The river Hvergelmir also is there. Yggdrasil has one of its roots in the spring of the river. The serpent Nidhogg gnaws at this root.

paragraphs: Niflheim is ruled by the Giantess Angrboda.


title: Baldur

paragraphs: Baldr (also Balder, Baldur or Baldor) is the god of light and radiance, peace and forgiveness in Norse mythology. A member of the Æsir, he is the son of Odin and Frigg, and twin brother to the blind god of darkness, Höðr. His wife is called Nanna, with whom he had a son named Forseti, god of justice. Prior to his death, Baldr possessed a ship called Hringhorni, said to be the largest ship ever built. His hall is called Breidablik.

paragraphs: Based on the Merseburg charms, his Germanic name may have been Phol.

paragraphs: Baldr once had a nightmare that he would be killed. His mother, Frigg, made all the things across the Nine Realms vow not to hurt him. The mistletoe did not vow, however, as Frigg considered it to be so unimportant that she thought nothing of it. Loki found out that the mistletoe had not vowed, and thus made a spear out of the dreaded plant, as he tricked Höðr into throwing it at Baldr. Beings from all across the Nine Realms will come to attend his funeral, and Baldr's wife Nanna soon dies of grief. Loki is soon caught and sentenced to punishment; he is bound by the entrails of one of his sons, to face torture as the venom of a massive serpent drips from its fangs onto Loki's eyes. This causes him unimaginable pain, writhing in agony. (The goddess Skaði is responsible for placing the serpent above him). His wife Sigyn is stationed nearby, collecting the drips of venom that escape from Loki's eyes into a bowl. When the bowl is full, she pours its contents onto the Trickster, causing him even greater pain as the venom gradually eats away at his flesh, burning at the other corners. Loki's escape from this predicament is the catalyst of Ragnarök, as upon his being freed, he will lead the forces of Jötunheimr and Svartálfheimr in a final assault against the gods.

paragraphs: During Ragnarök, the veils/barriers between the realms will be broken, so Baldr will be able to escape from Helheimr. After the death of Odin at the fangs of the monstrous wolf Fenrir, Baldr and Höðr came back to life, meeting with the other survivors in the" "fields of Iðavöllr (Old Norse: "Iðavǫllr" - "splendour-plain"), where Asgard once lay. There, they shall rule in place of their father.


title: Prophecy

paragraphs: A prophecy is a claim of what the future will be like, which is not based on any ordinary source of information. In some ways, prophecies are similar to religion. Not all people believe in prophecy. People that do think they come from God or a god. They are often hard to understand and need interpretation. Very often, they concern one very specific event. People who make prophecies are called prophets. In Ancient Greece, people who made prophecies were called oracles, most notably the Oracle of Delphi. Since then, people like Nostradamus have made prophecies.

paragraphs: To prophesy is to make a prophecy. The two words are spelled differently and pronounced differently. "Prophesy" is a verb, and "prophecy" is a noun.

paragraphs: There are many prophecies in the Bible. Some of these warn of punishments to come. There are two kinds of Bible prophecies. Some are conditional, that is, they include the possibility that the punishment can be avoided based on the hearers changing their ways. An example of this is found in the Book of Daniel. Other prophecies are unconditional. That means that the event will happen no matter what the hearers do to avoid it. There are also Bible prophecies that tell of future blessings. Blessings are good things that happen because of God's mercy and forgiveness. Some prophecies contain both punishment and blessings. Jesus made prophecies like this, warning people to believe in Him and live right, to get the blessing instead of the punishment. While some of the prophecies in the bible about future events are hard to understand, the moral warnings from Jesus are not hard to understand. For this reason, some preachers, like Moses, Jesus and other religious leaders who tell people to live a good life are called prophets by their followers even though they may not tell about future events. Muslims consider Muhammad to be a prophet. Even some modern religious leaders have been called prophets by their followers, such as Joseph Smith, Jr., Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Rev. Billy Graham.


title: Anatotitan

paragraphs: Anatotitan is now called "Edmontosaurus".


title: Ornithomimus

paragraphs: Ornithomimus was a lightly built fast-running North American feathered dinosaur.

paragraphs: "Ornithomimus" had three toes on each foot, long arms and neck, but a small head. It also had claws on each hand and foot. It had no teeth and weak jaws, which might mean it was omnivorous.

paragraphs: "Ornithomimus edmonticus" was the largest species, 12 ft (3.5 meters) long, 7 feet (2.10 meters) high and weighed about 100-150 kg. It walked on two legs and looked slightly like an ostrich, except for its long tail.

paragraphs: There has been trouble with naming. Some speciments are put in other genera, like Dromiceiomimus and "Struthiomimus".

paragraphs: In 1995, 2008 and 2009, three "O. edmontonicus" specimens with evidence of feathers were found. Two adults had quill knobs on the lower arm, indicating the former presence of bird-like feather shafts. A juvenile had impressions of long fluffy feathers in the form of hair-like filaments covering the rump, legs and neck.

paragraphs: The feather imprints were found in sandstone, previously thought to not be able to support such impressions.


title: Book of Job

paragraphs: The Book of Job () is the 18th book in the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament. It is one of the books in the class of poetry.

paragraphs: The Bible says "In the land of Uz" there lived a man whose name was Job. He feared God and shunned evil. He had seven sons and three daughters, and he owned seven-thousand sheep, three-thousand camels, five hundred yoke of oxen and five hundred donkeys, and had a large number of servants. He was the greatest man among all the people of the East."

paragraphs: "When a period of feasting had run its course, Job would send and have them purified. Early in the morning he would sacrifice a burnt offering for each of them, thinking, "Perhaps my children have sinned and cursed God in their hearts. This was Job's regular custom."

paragraphs: The Bible also says that Job was a pious, rich, loyal and a man who loved God.

paragraphs: One day Satan and the Angels of God went to God. God tells Satan about his servant Job and how good he is. Satan says that the only reason why he is like that is because God was good to him and gave him sons and daughters and many animals. Satan asks if he can test Job and God lets him. God tells Satan not to kill Job.

paragraphs: The first test Satan did was to take away all of Job's animals, killing the servants that were with the animals, and killing all of Job's sons and daughters while they were eating together. Even though Satan did these things to Job, Job did not curse God like Satan wanted Job to do.

paragraphs: Satan and the Angels went to meet God again. Like before, God talked about how good his servant Job is. Satan says that Job will curse God if he makes Job sick, which he did. This is the last meeting with Satan, the Angels.

paragraphs: Satan afflicted sores all over Job's body. Job's wife told him to curse God and die. Job told her that if he said that, that would be foolish. Even though Job lost everything he had and suffered from painful sores all over his body, he did not sin against God by cursing him. Satan had failed in trying to make him sin. This is the final time Satan is mentioned in the Book of Job.

paragraphs: When Job's friends heard about the things that happened to him they went to comfort him. Most of the book tells about Job and his friends talking. The names of his friends are Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar. Towards the end of the book, Job's friends start to think that Job is not good because a lot of bad things are happening to him. Job keeps on saying that he is good but he starts to wonder if God really is good.

paragraphs: After God speaks to Job and his three friends, God asks Job where he was when He created the earth and filled it with amazing things (meaning that it is not possible for man to understand God's ways). God gets very angry at Job's friends for thinking that Job was not a good man and for saying things about God they did not know about, and Job prays for his friends: God answers his prayer. God blesses Job because he did not curse Him. God gives him more than he had before.


title: Abide with Me

paragraphs: Abide with Me is a religious song or hymn. It was written by Henry Lyte in 1847. The hymn was sung at the wedding of King George VI of the United Kingdom and the wedding of Queen Elizabeth II. The song is sung at the start of the FA Cup finals.

paragraphs: The darkness deepens; Lord with me abide.

paragraphs: When other helpers fail and comforts flee,

paragraphs: Swift to its close ebbs out life’s little day;

paragraphs: Earth’s joys grow dim; its glories pass away;

paragraphs: Not a brief glance I beg, a passing word;

paragraphs: But as Thou dwell’st with Thy disciples, Lord,

paragraphs: Come not in terrors, as the King of kings,

paragraphs: But kind and good, with healing in Thy wings,

paragraphs: Tears for all woes, a heart for every plea—

paragraphs: Come, Friend of sinners, and thus bide with me.

paragraphs: Thou on my head in early youth didst smile;

paragraphs: And, though rebellious and perverse meanwhile,

paragraphs: Thou hast not left me, oft as I left Thee,

paragraphs: What but Thy grace can foil the tempter’s power?

paragraphs: Who, like Thyself, my guide and stay can be?

paragraphs: Through cloud and sunshine, Lord, abide with me.

paragraphs: I fear no foe, with Thee at hand to bless;

paragraphs: Ills have no weight, and tears no bitterness.

paragraphs: Where is death’s sting? Where, grave, thy victory?

paragraphs: Hold Thou Thy cross before my closing eyes;

paragraphs: Shine through the gloom and point me to the skies.

paragraphs: Heaven’s morning breaks, and earth’s vain shadows flee;

paragraphs: In life, in death, O Lord, abide with me.


title: Hail Mary

paragraphs: Hail Mary is a Christian prayer to Mary, the mother of Jesus. Most of the prayer comes from the Gospel of Luke. Some things were also added to the prayer during the 13th century (the 1200s). When a person says a Hail Mary, he asks Mary to pray for him.

paragraphs: In Roman Catholicism, the Hail Mary makes up the most important part of the Rosary. The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox also use the prayer. So do many other groups within Christianity, including Anglicans, Independent Catholics, and Old Catholics. Some Protestant denominations also use the Hail Mary.

paragraphs: The Hail Mary uses two phrases from Saint Luke's Gospel. The first is "Hail, full of grace, the Lord is with thee, blessed art thou amongst women" (). (In Simple English, this means: "Be glad. You are full of grace. You are with God. You are blessed.") The second is "Blessed art thou amongst women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb" (). (This means: "You and your child (Jesus) are both blessed.")

paragraphs: When the Hail Mary was first created, it was much shorter than it is now. In Western Europe, in the mid-13th century, the prayer was just a few words. The word "Mary" was added after the word "Hail." The entire prayer was "Hail Mary, full of grace." We know this from Saint Thomas Aquinas's writings about the prayer.

paragraphs: In the first phrase from Saint Luke's Gospel, the Angel Gabriel is greeting Mary. Like all of Saint Luke's Gospel, this phrase was first written in Koine Greek. The first word of greeting, , "chaíre", is translated "Hail." This means "Rejoice" or "Be glad." This was a normal greeting in Koine Greek. These greetings are still used in modern Greek.

paragraphs: The Hail Mary prayer used by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches is written: This means:

paragraphs: The same thing can be translated differently into English:

paragraphs: "Theotokos" is the title given to Mary in the Eastern Churches. It is a Greek word that means "the one who gives birth to God."

paragraphs: There are different ideas about when the Hail Mary was changed to today's version. The Catholic Encyclopedia says that the Hail Mary was not changed until about 1050.

paragraphs: Saint Thomas Aquinas said that by the mid-thirteenth century, the Western churches had added only one word - "Mary" - to the Biblical verses the prayer came from. Adding her name made it clear that Mary was the person the prayer talked to. However, around the same time, the name "Jesus" was also added. This made it clear that Jesus was "the fruit of [Mary's] womb."

paragraphs: This means that the Western version of the Hail Mary did not come from the Greek version. The Greek version has very different words, like "for thou hast given birth to the Saviour of our souls," which never appeared in the Western version.

paragraphs: Before the 16th century, the Hail Mary greeted and praised Mary. However, during the 16th century, new words were added. These new words asked Mary for help. In 1555, a Dutch Jesuit named Petrus Canisius added these words to his catechism: "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners." By the time of the Council of Trent eleven years later, this sentence, and some new words, had been added to the Hail Mary. In 1566, the Catechism of the Council of Trent included this sentence in the prayer: "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death. Amen."

paragraphs: This is the last change that has been made to the Hail Mary.

paragraphs: In Latin, the prayer is written this way (the macrons are given for pronunciation only and do not appear in the Latin language):

paragraphs: For translations from the Latin into various languages, see Wikisource.

paragraphs: The Syriac Orthodox Church uses a different version of the Hail Mary. This version is much closer to today's Western form than the Greek form.

paragraphs: In this prayer, a leader starts the prayer and everyone else says the rest:

paragraphs: In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, the Hail Mary is very common. It is said in the Greek form, or in translations from the Greek form. The prayer is not said quite as often as in the West. However, it is well-known and is still used often. It also appears in several canons of prayer. It is usually sung three times at the end of Vespers during an All-Night Vigil. It is also said many times during daily prayers.

paragraphs: There are two different versions of the Hail Mary in Church Slavonic:

paragraphs: The first version is older. The Old Believers still use this version. So do the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church and the Ruthenian Catholic Church.

paragraphs: The second version was created in 1656, as part of changes to liturgy made by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow. This version is used by the Russian Orthodox Church, the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church.

paragraphs: The Hail Mary is the most important part of the Rosary. The Rosary is a way of praying. It is often used by Latin Rite (Western) Catholics. It is also used in the East (but only by Latinised Ukrainian and Maronite Catholics).

paragraphs: When praying the Rosary, Catholics pray ten sets of Hail Marys. Before each set, they pray one Our Father (also called the "Pater Noster" or The Lord's Prayer). After each set of Hail Marys, they pray one 'Glory Be' ("Gloria Patri"). One set of these prayers is called a "decade." Usually, Catholics say five decades when they pray the Rosary.

paragraphs: While praying each decade, Catholics think about the four different Mysteries of the Rosary. Each of the Mysteries has to do with things that happened in Jesus' and Mary's lives. The Mysteries include:

paragraphs: The Hail Mary is also the most important part of the Angelus. This is a prayer that many Catholics say three times every day. Some Anglicans and Lutherans say the Angelus too.

paragraphs: Traditional Anglicans also use the Hail Mary, in mostly the same way as Roman Catholics do. Both groups use the Rosary and say the Angelus. Anglican churches often have statues of the Virgin Mary.

paragraphs: Many Anglicans pray the Hail Mary. However, in different areas, the prayer may be used differently. This is because the Catholic and Anglican Churches have some different beliefs.

paragraphs: Many people have written music for the Hail Mary (also called the "Ave Maria").

paragraphs: During the Renaissance, the Hail Mary very often set to music by composers, like Jacques Arcadelt, Josquin Desprez, Orlando di Lasso, and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. However, at this time (before the Council of Trent), there were still different versions of the prayer. Because of this, some of the earlier Renaissance pieces have different words than today's Hail Mary. For example, Josquin Desprez actually created more than one musical version of the "Ave Maria".

paragraphs: One of the most famous musical versions of the prayer was created by Charles Gounod in 1859. He added melody and words to Johann Sebastian Bach's first prelude (the beginning piece of music) from "The Well-Tempered Clavier".

paragraphs: Other famous musical versions of the Hail Mary were written by:

paragraphs: Protestant Christianity, like Catholicism, does not worship Mary. Some Protestants have used musical versions of the "Ave Maria," but changed the words. For example, "Ave Redemptor" uses the music of the "Ave Maria," but focuses on Jesus instead:


title: Studio

paragraphs: A studio is a place where an artist can work. Studios can be used for many things, such as making photos, movies, television shows, cartoons, or music. The word comes from the Latin word, "studium", which means to eagerly want something.

paragraphs: A music studio is a room or group of rooms that are used for practicing music. Most music studios have a piano and a mirror.

paragraphs: A recording studio is used for recording music, speech, or other kinds of sound. Many recordings become works of art in themselves.


title: Electric Light Orchestra

paragraphs: The Electric Light Orchestra, also known as ELO, were a popular English rock band from the 1970s and early 1980s. Their leader was musician and songwriter Jeff Lynne. Lynne wrote and sang most of their songs. He also produced their recordings. Other members included Richard Tandy on keyboards, Bev Bevan on drums, Mike D'Albuquerque and later Kelly Groucutt on bass guitar. Hugh McDowell, Mik Kaminski, and Melvyn Gale played violin and cello. The orchestra's name is a joke on "electric light" and a "Light Orchestra" (an orchestra that plays light music).

paragraphs: The band began as a side project of another band, The Move, by musicians Roy Wood and Jeff Lynne. While The Move had added touches of classical music to their pop hits, Wood and Lynne wanted to blend rock music and classical music more closely. Move drummer Bevan joined their project. Wood played nearly all the non-rock instruments on their first album. They made the most of recording studio technology, including multitrack recording and overdubbing.

paragraphs: Their first album was titled "Electric Light Orchestra". It was released with that name in the United Kingdom. When the album was released in the United States, their American record label, United Artists, did not know the album was titled after the group. They phoned ELO's British label to ask for the title. When nobody answered, "No Answer" was written down. Mistaken later for the title, the album appeared in America as "No Answer". The band's first single was titled "10538 Overture". It became an FM radio favourite. In time, ELO's music became more popular than The Move's had been. The Move disbanded, and Electric Light Orchestra became a full-time group.

paragraphs: Roy Wood decided to leave ELO partway through the recording of the second album. He started another band called Wizzard. Jeff Lynne took over leadership, and McDowell, Kaminski and Gale joined. The album, "ELO 2", was finished and released, but was not as well liked as the first. A single on the album was a cover version of Chuck Berry's "Roll Over Beethoven". It added parts of many Beethoven compositions to Berry's song. It became another radio hit.

paragraphs: Their third album, "On the Third Day", included a rock interpretation of "In the Hall of the Mountain King". The album had another hit single, titled "Showdown". ELO began to tour the United States. They started with small audiences. They became more popular with time, and added theatrical touches to their shows. New contact microphones made it possible for the classical musicians to move around and even dance on stage, as pop musicians did. The audiences enjoyed watching them.

paragraphs: By their fourth album, "Eldorado", ELO had gone from overdubbing their small membership to recording with real orchestras. They had problems when they worked in their native England. British classical musicians usually kept more to union rules than to the job of making music. They sometimes walked out during recordings. This hurt the process of making their records, so ELO tried a studio called Musicland in Munich, Germany. They liked the way the studio worked, and the German musicians were more devoted. ELO used Musicland many more times.

paragraphs: Their next album, "Face the Music" (1975), yielded two hit singles, "Strange Magic" and "Evil Woman". ELO became even more popular. A compilation album, "Olé ELO", featured most of their early singles. Three songs from their 1976 album, "A New World Record", became worldwide hits. These were "Telephone Line", "Livin' Thing", and "Do Ya", which was a remake of a Move song.

paragraphs: ELO recorded a double album in 1977, "Out of the Blue", which included "Turn to Stone", "Sweet Talkin' Woman", and "Mr. Blue Sky", which also became hit records. The band toured worldwide, with a stage set that looked like a UFO, which opened to reveal the band performing inside. Their shows included lots of stage lighting, and laser effects.

paragraphs: Their next new album, "Discovery", did not appear until 1979. ELO's record label, Jet Records, changed distributors from United Artists to Columbia Records, and this was part of the delay. "Discovery" included two singles, "Shine a Little Love" and "Don't Bring Me Down". "Don't Bring Me Down" was the first ELO single to not include any classical instruments. Columbia issued a "Greatest Hits" album, which overlapped some of the "Olé ELO" songs with later ones.

paragraphs: ELO became less popular during the 1980s. They had fewer hits. They recorded the "Xanadu" soundtrack with singer Olivia Newton-John. They also released the albums "Time" (with the title song and "Hold On Tight" as singles) in 1981, "Secret Messages" (with "Stranger") in 1983, and finally "Balance of Power", which included "Calling America", in 1986. By this time the classical musicians had left. Lynne now was recording their parts with synthesizers or session players.

paragraphs: Jeff Lynne was now producing other recording artists, including The Everly Brothers, and stopped working with Electric Light Orchestra in 1986. Most of the remaining members, though, wanted to continue working together and regrouped, first as a band named OrKestra, then later as "ELO Part II". These lineups toured for years, playing ELO's old hits and releasing two albums of new material, while Lynne continued his producing career. Lynne also released a solo album, "Armchair Theatre", in 1990, and formed the Traveling Wilburys with former Beatle George Harrison.

paragraphs: Lynne recorded an album, "Zoom", in 2001, again using the ELO name, but with a new set of musicians. He made a handful of television appearances with the new lineup. They played both old and new songs. He also planned to tour with them. Interest in the band was not strong, though, and most of the shows were cancelled.

paragraphs: Electric Light Orchestra's music had only a weak presence in popular culture from the mid-1980s until the early 2000s. Their blend of classical and rock music made their music hard to put in radio play lists. ELO's music has made a comeback in the 2000s through its use in movie soundtracks, and also in commercials such as for Monster.


Vicious


title: Ash

paragraphs: The term Ash can have different meanings:


title: Ash tree

paragraphs: Ash trees are medium to large trees of the genus Fraxinus of the family Oleaceae (Olive-tree like). The family contains between 45 and 65 species. Some of them are evergreen, but most are deciduous. They grow in most parts of the world. The seeds are commonly known as "keys" in English. They are a type of fruit known as a . Most of the ash species have light-green, oval shaped, leaves. The central stem of the compound leaf has 9 – 13 leaflets (small leaves) in pairs, with one at the tip. There are no stalks to the side leaflets. The leaflets are pointed and toothed, with hairs on the lower surface. The leaves appear relatively late in spring, and are amongst the first to be shed in autumn.

paragraphs: The buds are black, sooty or velvety in appearance and are sometimes compared to a Bishop’s Mitre in shape.

paragraphs: Ash wood is used to make various tools, handles, baseball and softball bats and bows. It also makes very good firewood. Ash trees are also perfect material for old fashion shafts for bow and arrows.

paragraphs: In Norse Mythology, the world tree Yggdrasil is commonly thought to be an ash tree. The first man, Askr, was formed from an ash. The first woman was made from an alder.

paragraphs: The emerald ash borer ("Agrilus planipennis") is a wood-boring beetle. It was accidentally introduced to North America from Asia by solid wood packing material in the late 1980s. It has killed tens of millions of trees in 15 states in the United States and adjacent Ontario in Canada. Research is being done with three Asian wasps which are natural predators of the beetle biological control.

paragraphs: The European ash, "Fraxinus excelsior", has been affected by the fungus which causes "ash dieback". The disease has infected about 90% of Denmark's ash trees. In October 2012 ash dieback was found in mature woodland in Suffolk. In 2016, the ash tree was reported as in danger of extinction in Europe.


title: Ash Wednesday

paragraphs: Ash Wednesday is the first day of Lent in the Western Christian calendar. It occurs 46 days before Easter. The date is different each year because the date of Easter varies. It can fall as early as February 4 and as late as March 10.

paragraphs: Those able to and willing to should fast voluntarily between Ash Wednesday and Easter. There are exceptions, though. Pregnant women, sick people, children, and the old usually don't have to.

paragraphs: Ash Wednesday is a very important part of Lent.


title: Valkyrie

paragraphs: The Valkyries (Old Norse: "Valkyrjur," singular "valkyrja" - “choosers of the slain”) are a host of female figures in Norse mythology; they are a group of warrior maidens in service to the chief god Odin. Fierce and respected warriors, they are responsible for choosing who live and die in battle, singling out those worthy of paradise. In the aftermath of battle, the Valkyries carry those whom they have chosen off to Valhalla, an enormous and majestic hall that lies in Asgard. Once there, these eïnherjar, as they are now called, are shared between Odin and Freyja, with half of them going to Valhalla and the other to Fólkvangr, Freyja's realm. In Valhalla, the eïnherjar feast and make revelry, as they are served and cared for by the Valkyries themselves.

paragraphs: The old Norse people thought that Valkyries rode giant wolves, and that they had black wings which correspond to ravens; these two creatures both scavenge corpses on the battlefield symbolizing death and destruction. With the spread of Christianity the idea of what a Valkyrie was like changed more and more to a Romantic description of a beautiful woman.

paragraphs: Richard Wagner composed some operas, featuring Valkyries (German: "Walküren", singular: "Walküre"). These operas are "Die Walküre", "Siegfried", and "Götterdämmerung". They feature a story of a valkyrie Brünnhilde, her punishment for disobeying her father, and her falling in love with Siegfried. The music for the opening of Act Three of "Die Walküre" is very famous. It is called the "Ride of the Valkyries".


title: Zosterops

paragraphs: Zosterops is a type of bird. There are many different species of Zosterops around the world.


title: Dimorphodon

paragraphs: Dimorphodon was a prehistoric flying pterosaur from the early Jurassic period. It had a big head, a small brain, a tall beak, and two types of teeth. Variation in teeth is rare in pterosaurs.

paragraphs: Like "Rhamphorhynchus", "Dimorphodon" is only found in Jurassic strata. It was the first pterosaur found in England, by Mary Anning, in 1828.


title: Cryolophosaurus

paragraphs: Cryolophosaurus is a theropod dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic period. It is the only theropod to be found in Antarctica. "Cryolophosaurus" was discovered in the Jurassic Hanson Formation in the Transantarctic Mountains. The find of this dinosaur was significant because it proves that the dinosaurs lived on all continents and that high latitude climates were tolerated by dinosaurs at that time.

paragraphs: "Cryolophosaurus" is also significant because it is the oldest known tetanuran from any continent: it is the only one from the early Jurassic.

paragraphs: "Cryolophosaurus" had a large crest on the top of the skull, above the eyes. It extends upwards from the skull.

paragraphs: "Cryolophosaurus" was found about from the South Pole but then it was about or so farther north. Also found were the remains of "Glacialisaurus" (a large basal sauropodomorph), a crow-sized pterosaur, synapsids, and another unknown theropod. There are also the remains of many plant genera around the same age as fossils of "Cryolophosaurus", proving that dense plant matter had once grown on Antarctica's surface before it drifted southward.