title: Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009

paragraphs: The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 (LLFPA) is an Act of Congress about pay discrimination that was signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 29, 2009.

paragraphs: The bill amends the Civil Rights Act of 1964 stating that the 180-day statute of limitations for filing an equal-pay lawsuit regarding pay discrimination resets with each new discriminatory paycheck. The law was a direct answer to the "Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.", , a U.S. Supreme Court decision holding that the statute of limitations for presenting an equal-pay lawsuit begins on the date that the employer makes the initial discriminatory wage decision, not at the date of the most recent paycheck, as a lower court had ruled.

paragraphs: A first bill to amend the statutory limitations period and supersede the "Ledbetter" decision was introduced in the 110th United States Congress but was never enacted, as after having been passed by the House it failed to survive a cloture vote in the Senate due to the opposition of most of the Republican Senators.

paragraphs: During the campaign for the 2008 elections, the Democrats criticized Republicans for defeating the 2007 version of the bill, citing Republican presidential candidate John McCain's opposition. Then-candidate Barack Obama supported the bill.

paragraphs: After the 2008 election gave the Democratic Party control of both the House and Senate, a new version of the bill was introduced in the first session of the 111th United States Congress and quickly passed both bodies. It became the law signed by the new President Obama after he took office on January 20.

paragraphs: Lilly Ledbetter, a production supervisor at a Goodyear tire plant in Alabama, filed an equal-pay lawsuit seeking back pay for pay discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. She worked for that company for many years without learning that she was paid much less than the men holding the same job. She filed the lawsuit six months before her early retirement in 1998. The District court said her lawsuit was filed on time, but the Court of Appeals said her lawsuit was too late. Ledbetter appealed the decision to the United States Supreme Court. The Supreme Court ruled in 2007 by a 5-4 majority vote that Ledbetter's complaint was filed too late because the discriminatory decisions relating to pay had been made more than 180 days prior to the date she filed her charge, as explained by Justice Samuel Alito. The minority position explained by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg proposed an interpretation according to which the law runs from the date of any paycheck that contains an amount affected by a prior discriminatory pay decision.

paragraphs: The "Ledbetter" decision was cited by federal judges in 300 cases before the LLFPA was passed. These cases involved not only Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, but also the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Fair Housing Act, Patsy T. Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act and Eighth Amendment to the Constitution.

paragraphs: The case had never received much attention before going to the Supreme Court, but the Court's ruling ignited legal groups on the left and Democrats that took action to transform the "Ledbetter" case into a rallying issue for the left. Some activists saw Lilly Ledbetter as an ideal standard-bearer in their attempt to persuade the public that the Supreme Court was moving too far to the right.

paragraphs: Among the first to criticize the Court's decision was Marcia Greenberger, president of the National Women's Law Center, that saw in the ruling a "setback for women and a setback for civil rights" and called Ginsburg's opinion a "clarion call to the American people that this slim majority of the court is headed in the wrong direction." Debra Ness, president of the National Partnership for Women & Families, also condemned the decision, saying, “If employers can keep the discrimination hidden for a period of time, they can continue to discriminate without being held accountable.” On the other side, the majority's findings were applauded by the US Chamber of Commerce, that called it a "fair decision" that "eliminates a potential wind-fall against employers by employees trying to dredge up stale pay claims."

paragraphs: The House Democrats were fast to react. On June 12, the caucus spoke against the Supreme Court decision. Claiming lead from Justice Ruth Ginsburg's minority opinion, which invited the Congress to take action by amending the law, the Democrats announced their intention to intervene: House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer and Education and Labor Committee Chairman George Miller said that a bill was to be passed to avoid future court rulings in line with "Ledbetter", clearly putting that "a key provision of the legislation will make it clear that discrimination occurs not just when the decision to discriminate is made, but also when someone becomes subject to that discriminatory decision, and when they are affected by that discriminatory decision, including each time they are issued a discriminatory paycheck", as said by Rep. Miller.

paragraphs: Republicans immediately opposed the bill as drafted, with Education and Labor Committee ranking member Howard McKeon raising the issue that companies would be held liable for actions taken by managers who were not leading the company anymore: "At the end of the day, such a loophole conceivably could allow a retiring employee to seek damages against a company now led by executives who had nothing to do with the initial act of discrimination".

paragraphs: The issue divided lawyers. The American Bar Association passed a resolution supporting the new bill. Other lawyers, such as Neal Mollen, argued that extending the term limit would put a strain on the chances of an adequate defense for the employers, as to defend themselves one "has to rely on documents and the memory of individuals, and neither of those is permanent. If a disappointed employee can wait for many years before raising a claim of discrimination ... he or she can wait out the employer, that is ensure that the employer effectively unable to offer any meaningful defense to the claim".

paragraphs: Organizations that supported the bill included the: American Civil Liberties Union, AFL-CIO, American Federation of Teachers, National Education Association, American Rights at Work, American Library Association, People For the American Way, Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, National Employment Lawyers Association, Hadassah, National Women's Law Center, National Network to End Domestic Violence, Center for Inquiry - Washington DC

paragraphs: American Association of University Women, Alliance for Justice, Legal Momentum, Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law, National Partnership for Women and Families, Coalition of Labor Union Women, Moms Rising, National Organization for Women, American Association of Retired Persons, Women's Voices, Women Vote Action Fund, 21st Century Democrats, 9to5, National Association of Working Women, the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism, and Women Employed.

paragraphs: Organizations that opposed the bill include the: U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Eagle Forum, Society for Human Resource Management, National Association of Manufacturers, American Bakers Association, College and University Professional Association for Human Resources, Associated Builders and Contractors, and American Housing & Lodging Association.

paragraphs: The bill ( and ) was defeated in April 2008 by Republicans in the Senate who cited the possibility of frivolous lawsuits in their opposition of the bill and criticized Democrats for refusing to allow compromises.

paragraphs: The bill was re-introduced in the 111th Congress (as and ) in January 2009. It passed in the House of Representatives with 247 votes in support and 171 against. The vote was nearly perfectly split along party lines, with only three Republicans voting in favor (Ed Whitfield of Kentucky, Don Young of Alaska and Chris Smith of New Jersey) and three Democrats voting nay (Travis Childers of Mississippi, Allen Boyd of Florida, and Parker Griffith of Alabama).

paragraphs: The Senate voted 72 to 23 to invoke cloture on S. 181 on January 15, 2009. (The vote to invoke cloture ends debate on a bill, and usually leads to a final vote within a few days.) The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act passed the Senate, 61-36, on January 22, 2009. The votes in favor included every Democratic senator (except Edward Kennedy of Massachusetts, who was absent from the vote because of health issues) and five Republican senators.

paragraphs: As president, Obama actively supported the bill. The official White House blog said:

paragraphs: President Obama has long championed this bill and Lilly Ledbetter's cause, and by signing it into law, he will ensure that women like Ms. Ledbetter and other victims of pay discrimination can effectively challenge unequal pay.

paragraphs: House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer announced that the House would vote on S.181 (the bill passed by the Senate) during the week of January 26, getting the bill to President Obama's desk sooner rather than later. On January 27, the House passed S.181 by a 250-177 margin.

paragraphs: On January 29, Obama signed the bill into law. It was the first act he signed as president, and it fulfilled his campaign pledge to nullify "Ledbetter v. Goodyear". However, some newspapers criticised him for signing it only two days after it was passed by the House. The "St. Petersburg Times" which mentioned his campaign promise to give the public five days of notice to comment on legislation before he signed bills. The White House through a spokesman answered that they would be "implementing this policy in full soon", and that currently they were "working through implementation procedures and some initial issues with the congressional calendar".


paragraphs: The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) is an international agricultural research center to improve the understanding of national agricultural and food policies to promote the adoption of innovations in agricultural technology. Additionally, IFPRI researches the role of agricultural and rural development in the overall development of a country.

paragraphs: According to its website, IFPRI "seeks sustainable solutions for ending hunger and poverty."

paragraphs: IFPRI is an international research institutes funded in part by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). CGIAR is funded by governments, private businesses and foundations, and the World Bank.

paragraphs: IFPRI carries out food policy research. IFPRI communicates in publications, bulletins, conferences, and other initiatives. IFPRI was organized as a District of Columbia non-profit, non-stock corporation on March 5, 1975 and its first research bulletin was produced in February 1976. IFPRI has offices in several developing countries, including China, Ethiopia, and India. IFPRI has research staff working in many more countries around the world.

paragraphs: IFPRI's strategy has the areas: research, capacity strengthening, and policy communication.

paragraphs: Research topics have included low crop and animal productivity, and environmental degradation, water management, fragile lands, property rights, collective action, sustainable intensification of agricultural production, the impact of climate change on poor farmers, the problems and opportunities of biotechnology, food security, micronutrient malnutrition, microfinance programs, urban food security, gender and development, and resource allocation within households.

paragraphs: IFPRI also analyzes agricultural market reforms, trade policy, World Trade Organization negotiations in the context of agriculture, institutional effectiveness, crop and income diversification, postharvest activity, and agroindustry.

paragraphs: IFPRI measures the Millennium Development Goals project and supports governments in the formulation and implementation of development strategies.

paragraphs: Further work includes research on agricultural innovation systems and the role of capacity strengthening in agricultural development.

paragraphs: IFPRI publishes books, research reports, but also newsletters, briefs, and fact sheets. It is also involved in the collection of primary data and the compilation and processing of secondary data.

paragraphs: In 1993 IFPRI introduced its 2020 Vision Initiative. IFPRI wants to reach food security for the world by 2020.

paragraphs: As of 2006 IFPRI produces the Global Hunger Index (GHI) yearly measuring the progress and failure of individual countries and regions in the fight against hunger. The GHI is a collaboration of IFPRI, the Welthungerhilfe, and Concern Worldwide.

paragraphs: IFPRI has produced the related Hunger Index for the States of India (ISHI) (2008) and the Sub-National Hunger Index for Ethiopia (2009).

paragraphs: IFPRI is made up of the Office of the Director General, a Communications Division and the Finance and Administration Division, and 5 research divisions:

paragraphs: CGIAR and its agencies, including IFPRI, have been criticized for their connections to Western governments and multinational agribusiness, although its research publications have also been cited by critics of agribusiness and Genetically Modified Organisms in agriculture. IFPRI describes itself as "neither an advocate nor an opponent of genetically modified crops."


title: Arena rock

paragraphs: Event Centre rock (also known as arena rock, corporate rock, industry rock,or stadium rock) is a word to describe a form of rock music which is played, or intended to be played, in large venues, such as event centres, arenas, stadia, and open-air concert spaces. In such a way, genres which traditionally fall within the categories of event centre rock tend to be (yet not always) loud and anthemic; event centre rock is most traditionally associated with heavy metal, progressive rock, hard rock, glam metal or pop rock genres. Often, yet not always, event centre rock is categorised as being more mass-scale, commercially appealing, and radio-oriented music. Due to the often commercial nature of event centre rock, it is occasionally called corporate rock.

paragraphs: Event centre rock is generally associated with the grand shows that artists and groups within the style would hold. At these performances, large sound systems, and often elaborate lighting, additional effects and fireworks, would be included. The 1970s and 80s were a major period in event centre rock.

paragraphs: Whilst event centre rock has seen large popularity over the years, especially from the 1960s to the 1980s, it has also been criticised for its often commercial and extravagant nature, especially with regards to the shows and concert tours that event centre rock bands and artists would have. To some extent, genres such as pub rock, punk rock, indie rock and alternative rock grew as a reaction against the nature and aesthetic of event centre rock, opting for a less commercial and over-the-top style.

paragraphs: Famous bands associated with event centre rock include Queen, Kiss, Aerosmith, Journey, and Styx, amongst several others.


title: Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.

paragraphs: Martin Luther King Jr., a prominent American leader of the civil rights movement and Nobel Peace Prize winner, was fatally shot at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968, at the age of 39. King was rushed to St. Joseph's Hospital, where he died at 7:05 that evening. He was a prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement who was known for his use of nonviolence and civil disobedience.

paragraphs: James Earl Ray, a fugitive from the Missouri State Penitentiary, was arrested and charged with King's murder. He was sentenced to 99 years in the Tennessee State Penitentiary. He died in prison at the age of 70 due to liver failure.

paragraphs: The King family and others believe that a United States government conspiracy killed King, as Loyd Jowers said in 1993. They believe that Ray was a scapegoat. In 1999, the King family filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Jowers for $10,000,000. During the trial, both the King family and Jowers gave evidence accusing the government of a conspiracy. The government agencies that were accused could not defend themselves or respond, because they were not named as defendants. Based on the evidence, the jury concluded that Jowers and "others were part of a conspiracy to kill King."

paragraphs: King had clearly made enemies in his rise to fame. The Ku Klux Klan did what they could to hurt his reputation, especially in the South. Even the FBI kept a close eye on him.

paragraphs: On the evening of April 4, 1968, King was standing on the balcony of his motel room in Memphis, Tennessee. He was planning to lead a protest march to support garbage workers that were on strike. At 6:01 p.m., King was shot. The bullet entered through his right cheek, and travelled down his neck. It cut the major vein and arteries in his neck before stopping in his shoulder. Unconscious, he fell violently backwards onto the balcony.

paragraphs: King was rushed to St. Joseph's Hospital. His heart had stopped. Doctors cut open his chest and massaged his heart to try to keep blood and oxygen pumping through his body. However, King never became conscious again. He died at 7:05 p.m. According to Taylor Branch, King's autopsy showed that though he was only 39 years old, he had the heart of a 60-year-old man.

paragraphs: Civil disorder, including riots, happened after King's murder in at least 110 U.S. cities. Washington, Chicago, and Baltimore had the most damage.

paragraphs: On June 10, 1968, James Earl Ray was arrested in London at Heathrow Airport. Ray was extradited to the United States and charged with killing King. On March 10, 1969, Ray told the court he was guilty, and was sentenced to 99 years in the Tennessee state penitentiary. Ray later tried many times to take away his guilty plea and be tried by a jury, but he was unsuccessful.

paragraphs: The United States House of Representatives Select Committee on Assassinations was created in 1976 to look into the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr., and the shooting of Governor George Wallace. The Committee investigated until 1978, and put out a final report in 1979. About the King assassination, the Committee decided:

paragraphs: In 1999, Coretta Scott King, King's widow, and the rest of King's family won their wrongful death lawsuit against Loyd Jowers and "other unknown co-conspirators" (other people who were part of the conspiracy). Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 to arrange King's assassination. The jury of six whites and six blacks found Jowers liable for King's murder. They also found that governmental agencies were part of the assassination plot.

paragraphs: James Earl Ray died in prison on April 23, 1998, at the age of 70.

paragraphs: In 2000, the Department of Justice completed the investigation about Jowers' claims. They did not find evidence to support the accusations about conspiracy. The investigation report recommends no more investigation unless some reliable new facts are presented.

paragraphs: The Lorraine Motel is now a civil rights museum.


title: December 2011 Northern Nigeria attacks

paragraphs: On 25 December 2011, there were a number of attacks on Christmas Day during church services in northern Nigeria. There were bomb blasts and shootings at churches in Madalla (near the capital, Abuja), Jos, Gadaka and Damaturu. At least 39 people were killed. The attacks were claimed by the Islamist group Boko Haram.


title: Albert Leo Schlageter

paragraphs: Albert Leo Schlageter (12 August 1894 — 26 May 1923) was a member of the German Freikorps. His activities sabotaging French occupying troops after World War I led to his arrest and eventual execution by French forces. His death created an image of martyrdom around him, which was cultivated by German nationalist groups, in particular the Nazi Party. During the Third Reich, he was widely commemorated as a national hero.


title: Magnetic reluctance

paragraphs: Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is a measurement used in the analysis of magnetic circuits. It is like resistance in an electrical circuit, but rather than dissipating magnetic energy it stores magnetic energy. As an electric field causes an electric current to follow the path of least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux to follow the path of least magnetic reluctance. It is a scalar,

paragraphs: extensive quantity, like electrical resistance.

paragraphs: The term was coined in May 1888 by Oliver Heaviside. The notion of “magnetic resistance” was first mentioned by James Joule and the term "magnetomotive force” (MMF) was first named by Bosanquet. The idea for a magnetic flux law, similar to Ohm's law for closed electric circuits, is attributed to H. Rowland.

paragraphs: The total reluctance is equal to the ratio of the "magnetomotive force” (MMF) in a passive magnetic circuit to the magnetic flux in this circuit. In an AC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the amplitude values for a sinusoidal MMF and magnetic flux. (see phasors)

paragraphs: It is sometimes known as Hopkinson's law and is analogous to Ohm's Law with resistance replaced by reluctance, voltage by MMF and current by magnetic flux.

paragraphs: Magnetic flux always forms a closed loop, as described by Maxwell's equations, but the path of the loop depends on the reluctance of the surrounding materials. It is concentrated around the path of least reluctance. Air and vacuum have high reluctance. Easily magnetized materials such as soft iron have low reluctance. The concentration of flux in low-reluctance materials forms strong temporary poles and causes mechanical forces that tend to move the materials towards regions of higher flux so it is always an attractive force (pull).

paragraphs: The reluctance of a uniform magnetic circuit can be calculated as:

paragraphs: The inverse of reluctance is called "permeance".

paragraphs: Its SI derived unit is the henry (the same as the unit of inductance, although the two concepts are distinct).


title: Triglav

paragraphs: Triglav is a mountain in the Alps. It is the highest mountain in Slovenia. It is also the highest peak of the Julian Alps, in the southeastern part of the Alps.

paragraphs: Its name means "three-headed" in Slovene. While this can describe the mountain, it is more likely the mountain was named for the Old Slovene god, Triglav. The mountain is shown on the Flag of Slovenia.


title: Ampère's circuital law

paragraphs: Ampère's circuital law, discovered by André-Marie Ampère in 1826, relates the magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop. It is now one of Maxwell's equations, which form the basis of classical electromagnetism.

paragraphs: The law relates magnetic fields to electric currents that produce them. A scientist can use Ampere's law to determine the magnetic field associated with a given current or current associated with a given magnetic field, if there is no time changing electric field present.

paragraphs: In its original form, Ampère's Circuital Law relates the magnetic field to its electric current source.

paragraphs: The law can be written in two forms, the "integral form" and the "differential form". The forms are equivalent, and related by the Kelvin–Stokes theorem. It can also be written in terms of either the B or H magnetic fields. Again, the two forms are equivalent (see the "proof" section below).

paragraphs: Ampère's circuital law is now known to be a correct law of physics in a magnetostatic situation: The system is static except possibly for continuous steady currents within closed loops. In all other cases the law is incorrect unless Maxwell's correction is included (see below).

paragraphs: In SI units (the version in cgs units is in a later section), the "integral form" of the original Ampère's circuital law is:

paragraphs: See below for further explanation of the curve "C" and surface "S". There are a number of ambiguities in the above definitions that require clarification and a choice of convention.

paragraphs: First, three of these terms are associated with sign ambiguities: the line integral formula_5 could go around the loop in either direction (clockwise or counterclockwise); the vector area dS could point in either of the two directions normal to the surface; and "I" is the net current passing through the surface "S", meaning the current passing through in one direction, minus the current in the other direction—but either direction could be chosen as positive. These ambiguities are resolved by the right-hand rule: With the palm of the right-hand toward the area of integration, and the index-finger pointing along the direction of line-integration, the outstretched thumb points in the direction that must be chosen for the vector area dS. Also the current passing in the same direction as dS must be counted as positive. The right hand grip rule can also be used to determine the signs.

paragraphs: Second, there are infinitely many possible surfaces "S" that have the curve "C" as their border. (Imagine a soap film on a wire loop, which can be deformed by moving the wire). Which of those surfaces is to be chosen? If the loop does not lie in a single plane, for example, there is no one obvious choice. The answer is that it does not matter; it can be proven that any surface with boundary "C" can be chosen.

paragraphs: By the Kelvin–Stokes theorem, this equation can also be written in a "differential form". Again, this equation only applies in the case where the electric field is constant in time; see below for the more general form. In SI units, the equation states:

paragraphs: The electric current that arises in the simplest textbook situations would be classified as "free current." For example, the law can apply to the current that passes through a wire or battery. In contrast, "bound current" arises in the context of bulk materials that can be magnetized and/or polarized. (All materials can to some extent.)

paragraphs: When a material is magnetized (for example, by placing it in an external magnetic field), the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms, but behave as if they were orbiting the nucleus in a particular direction, creating a microscopic current. When the currents from all these atoms are put together, they create the same effect as a macroscopic current, circulating perpetually around the magnetized object. This magnetization current J is one contribution to "bound current".

paragraphs: The other source of bound current is bound charge. When an electric field is applied, the positive and negative bound charges can separate over atomic distances in polarizable materials, and when the bound charges move, the polarization changes, creating another contribution to the "bound current", the polarization current J.

paragraphs: The total current density J due to free and bound charges is then:

paragraphs: with J the "free" or "conduction" current density.

paragraphs: All current is fundamentally the same, microscopically. There are often practical reasons for wanting to treat bound current differently from free current. For example, the bound current usually originates over atomic dimensions, and one may wish to take advantage of a simpler theory intended for larger dimensions. The result is that the more microscopic Ampère's law, expressed in terms of B and the microscopic current (which includes free, magnetization and polarization currents), is sometimes put into the equivalent form below in terms of H and the free current only. For a detailed definition of free current and bound current, and the proof that the two formulations are equivalent, see the "proof" section below.

paragraphs: Two issues regarding Ampère's law are important. First, there is an issue regarding the continuity equation for electrical charge. There is a theorem in vector calculus that states the divergence of a curl must always be zero. Hence

paragraphs: and so the original Ampère's law implies that

paragraphs: which is non-zero for a time-varying charge density. An example occurs in a capacitor circuit where time-varying charge densities exist on the plates.

paragraphs: Second, there is an issue regarding the propagation of electromagnetic waves. For example, in free space, where

paragraphs: To treat these situations, the contribution of displacement current must be added to the current term in Ampère's law.

paragraphs: James Clerk Maxwell conceived of displacement current as a polarization current in the dielectric vortex sea, which he used to model the magnetic field with water (hydrodynamically) and with mechanical systems (mechanically). He added this displacement current to Ampère's circuital law at equation (112) in his 1861 paper "" .

paragraphs: In free space, the displacement current is related to the time rate of change of electric field.

paragraphs: In a dielectric the above contribution to displacement current is also present, but a major contribution to the displacement current is related to the polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material. Even though charges cannot flow freely in a dielectric, the charges in molecules can move a little under the influence of an electric field. The positive and negative charges in molecules separate under the applied field, causing an increase in the state of polarization, expressed as the polarization density P. A changing state of polarization is equivalent to a current.

paragraphs: Both contributions to the displacement current are combined by defining the displacement current as:

paragraphs: where the electric displacement field is defined as:

paragraphs: where ε is the electric constant, "ε" the relative static permittivity, and P is the polarization density. Substituting this form for D in the expression for displacement current, it has two components:

paragraphs: The first term on the right hand side is present everywhere, even in a vacuum. It doesn't involve any actual movement of charge, but it nevertheless has an associated magnetic field, as if it were an actual current. Some authors apply the name "displacement current" to only this contribution.

paragraphs: The second term on the right hand side is the displacement current as originally conceived by Maxwell, associated with the polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material.

paragraphs: Maxwell's original explanation for displacement current focused upon the situation that occurs in dielectric media. In the modern post-aether era, the concept has been extended to apply to situations with no material media present, for example, to the vacuum between the plates of a charging vacuum capacitor. The displacement current is justified today because it serves several requirements of an electromagnetic theory: correct prediction of magnetic fields in regions where no free current flows; prediction of wave propagation of electromagnetic fields; and conservation of electric charge in cases where charge density is time-varying. For greater discussion see Displacement current.

paragraphs: Ampère's equation was extended by including the polarization current, thereby remedying the limited applicability of the original Ampère's circuital law.

paragraphs: Treating free charges separately from bound charges, Ampère's equation including Maxwell's correction in terms of the H-field is (the H-field is used because it includes the magnetization currents, so J does not appear explicitly, see H-field and also Note):

paragraphs: (integral form), where H is the magnetic H field (also called "auxiliary magnetic field", "magnetic field intensity", or just "magnetic field", D is the electric displacement field, and J is the enclosed conduction current or free current density. In differential form,

paragraphs: On the other hand, treating all charges on the same footing (disregarding whether they are bound or free charges), the generalized Ampère's equation (also called the Maxwell–Ampère equation) is (see the "proof" section below):

paragraphs: In both forms J includes magnetization current density as well as conduction and polarization current densities. That is, the current density on the right side of the Ampère–Maxwell equation is:

paragraphs: where current density J is the "displacement current", and J is the current density contribution actually due to movement of charges, both free and bound. Because , the charge continuity issue with Ampère's original formulation is no longer a problem. Because of the term in "ε∂E / ∂t", wave propagation in free space now is possible.

paragraphs: With the addition of the displacement current, Maxwell was able to hypothesize (correctly) that light was a form of electromagnetic wave. See electromagnetic wave equation for a discussion of this important discovery.

paragraphs: In cgs units, the integral form of the equation, including Maxwell's correction, reads

paragraphs: The differential form of the equation (again, including Maxwell's correction) is


title: United States Air Force Academy

paragraphs: The United States Air Force Academy ("USAFA" or "Air Force") is an American military college. It was created in 1954. The Acadey is an accredited college for the undergraduate education of people who want to be officers for the United States Air Force. The college is north of Colorado Springs in El Paso County. The Academy's goal is "to educate, train, and inspire men and women to become officers of character, motivated to lead the United States Air Force in service to our nation." It is the youngest of the five United States service academies. The Academy had its first graduation in 1959. Graduates of the Academy's four-year program get a Bachelor of Science degree. Most become second lieutenants in the United States Air Force.

paragraphs: The Academy is one of the largest tourist attractions in Colorado. More than a million people visit it each year. Students are called "cadets".

paragraphs: The Air Force Academy is one of the most selective colleges in the United States. "U.S. News and World Report" recently ranked it tied for 5th place in the category Undergraduate Engineering Programs. "Forbes" magazine, in 2009, ranked the Academy the #2 public college in the United States and the #7 college overall in its "America's Best Colleges 2009" publication. People wanting to study at the Academy are judged on their academic achievement, leadership, athletics and character. They must pass a fitness test, pass a medical examination, and be nominated by the member of Congress where they live. Recent classes have had about 1,400 cadets. Normally, under 1,000 of the cadets will graduate. The cost of going to the Academy, Housing and food are paid for by the U.S. government. Cadets are paid monthly while at the Academy but they must be a part of the military for a number of years after they graduate.

paragraphs: The program at the Academy is based on the Air Force's core values. These are ""Integrity First, Service Before Self, and Excellence in All We Do"". They are also based on four "pillars of excellence": military training, academics, athletics and character development. Cadets study military training and large curriculum in engineering, humanities, social sciences, basic sciences, military studies and physical education. All cadets take part in athletics. The academy has a character development and leadership curriculum.

paragraphs: The National Security Act of 1947 started the Air Force within the United States military. Secretary of the Air Force W. Stuart Symington made an agreement where up to 25% of West Point and Annapolis graduates could ask to become officers in the new Air Force. This was only meant to happen for a short time. Disagreements between the parts of the military led to the creation of the Service Academy Board. It was created by Secretary of Defense James Forrestal. In January 1950, the Service Academy Board was controlled by Dwight D. Eisenhower. He was the president of Columbia University at the time. The board said that the two U.S. service academies were not able to train enough officers for the Air Force. They decided that an air force academy was needed. President Eisenhower signed a law on 1 April 1954 to begin building the Air Force Academy.

paragraphs: On 7 October 1975, President Gerald R. Ford signed a law that let women study at the United States service academies. On 26 June 1976, 157 women went to the Air Force Academy. . On 28 May 1980, 97 of them finished the program and graduated from the Academy. They made up about 10% of the graduating class. Women now make up about 20% of the classes.

paragraphs: The first Honor scandal happened in 1965. A cadet who was leaving the Academy said that more than 100 cadets had been part of a cheating ring. One hundred and nine cadets had to leave the Academy. Cheating scandals were at the Academy again in 1967, 1972, 1984, 2004. and 2007. After each scandal, the Academy tried to learn why the cheating took place. They also looked at complaints that the academic system put too much pressure on the cadets. Changes were made to try to reduce the events from happening again.

paragraphs: In 2005, there were complaints that some Evangelical Christian cadets and staff were trying to convert others to their religion at the Academy. Because of this and how the Air Force deals other religious issues, Academy graduate Michael L. Weinstein filed a lawsuit against the Air Force.


title: Climbing route

paragraphs: A climbing route is a trail that a mountain climber uses to go up a mountain.

paragraphs: Examples : on and on are climbing routes.

paragraphs: The difficulties and lengths of climbing routes (as well as descriptions and photographies) can be found in books called climbing guides. For instance, is a climbing guide that describes climbing routes of North America.


title: Chillán

paragraphs: Chillán is a city and commune of the central south of Chile. It has a population of 161.953 people (2002 census). the city was founded in 1580 as "San Bartolomé de Chillán". It is the capital of the Ñuble Region.


title: Summit

paragraphs: The summit is the top of a mountain or hill. In geography, the elevation of mountains is measured. The elevation is the difference in height between sea level and the top of a mountain or hill. A peak is a pointed mountain, though not always.


title: Femoral artery

paragraphs: The femoral artery is the large artery that takes oxygen rich blood to a human's legs. Coming from the heart the blood flows along the iliac artery which then divides into the two (bifurcates) femoral arteries, to supply blood to each leg. The artery is very close to the surface where it passes through the groin.


title: Enterotype

paragraphs: An enterotype is a classification of gut flora. It is based on the ecosystem in the human intestinal system. The classification is done by identifying the bacteria and protists which live there. This is called the "human gut biome".

paragraphs: Research shows there are three distinct ecosystems in the guts of people. People can be classified into one of three groups based on the bacteria in their intestines. The enterotype of each person is set while the person is an infant.

paragraphs: The enterotype affects how well a person can digest food or absorb drugs. Chimpanzees have enterotypes that look similar to human enterotypes.

paragraphs: Type 1 has high levels of "Bacteroides". "Prevotella" are common in Type 2. Type 3 has high levels of "Ruminococcus".


title: Amy Pond

paragraphs: Amelia Jessica 'Amy' Pond is a fictional character on the British science fiction television series "Doctor Who". She is played by Karen Gillan. Amy is a companion of the main character, The Doctor, in his eleventh form. Much of Amy's part in the story is about her relationship with Rory Williams. They get married in the sixth series, and Amy gives birth to their daughter, Melody. It is later shown that Melody grows up to be the character River Song.

paragraphs: Amelia Pond is first seen in the first episode of the 2010 series, "The Eleventh Hour". She is a seven-year-old girl living with only her aunt, Sharon. She asks the Doctor to look at a strange crack in her wall. He is interrupted by the TARDIS. The Doctor tells Amelia that he will be back in five minutes. He does not get back for twelve years. During this time, Amelia's family and friends think The Doctor is her imaginary friend. She is treated by four psychiatrists because she keeps telling people that the "Raggedy Doctor" is real. She bites them when they tell her the Doctor is imaginary. When the Doctor returns, Amy is nineteen years old. She is working as a kissogram. Amy helps the Doctor save Earth from the Atraxi. Because of the unusual condition of the TARDIS, Amy does not see the Doctor again for two years. He asks her to travel with him. She says she will go with him, but only if he will bring her back by the next morning. She does not tell him that her wedding is the next day.

paragraphs: At the end of "Flesh and Stone", Amy tells the Doctor about her wedding to Rory. Because of "pre-wedding jitters", she tries to seduce him. The Doctor then finds Rory and takes him and Amy to 16th century Venice. At this point in time, Rory travelling with them. In "Amy's Choice", Amy has to deal with her feelings for the Doctor and Rory. She sees how much she loves Rory. At the end of "Cold Blood", Rory is killed and removed from history by the cracks in the universe. Amy no longer remembers him. The Doctor takes Amy to her favourite places because he feels guilty about Rory. In 19th century France, Amy forms a friendship with painter Vincent Van Gogh. Van Gogh shows a romantic interest in Amy. In "The Pandorica Opens", Rory is found in 102 AD as a Roman centurion. Amy starts to remember him.,As she remembers, it is shown that the centurion Rory is only an Auton—living plastic that looks and acts like Rory. It was made from Amy's memories to trap the Doctor. Rory tries to fight his programming but fails. He shoots and kills Amy. Amy's body is put in the Pandorica. It is a "perfect prison". It was built to keep any person trapped in it alive forever. Auton Rory guards the Pandorica while Amy is inside. She is kept inside while her body is healed. In 1996, the Pandorica is finally opened, and she is set free, by the younger Amy Pond.

paragraphs: The Doctor learns that Amy is connected to the cracks in the universe. He sees that they come from a temporal explosion on the date of her wedding. He talks to Amy about her house. He tells her that it is too big for only her and her aunt. Amy learns that her family had been erased by the crack in her wall. She had forgotten them. The Doctor helps her remember them. He uses the Pandorica to reset the universe and finds the sleeping Amelia on the night they met. He tells her the story of how he borrowed the TARDIS from his own people. He tells her that it is "old and new," and "big and small" and "the bluest blue that there is". He then steps into the crack in her wall to closes the cracks forever. Amy wakes up on her wedding day and is reunited with her parents. She marries Rory. At the reception, she sees that River Song's diary about time spent with the Doctor is now empty. This causes Amy to start remembering things. She says that her "Raggedy Doctor" was real and her memory of him brings him back to reality. After this, Amy and Rory choose to go with the Doctor again. They are dropped off at a "honeymoon planet" between the end of "The Big Bang" and the start of "Death of the Doctor". Part of their honeymoon is on an interstellar cruise ship that the Doctor stops from crashing into a populated planet.

paragraphs: In the 2011 series, after an unknown amount of time, Amy and Rory return to the present. They go back to living a normal life until Amy gets an anonymous "TARDIS blue" invitation to the Utah desert. In the desert, she and Rory find the Doctor. He has aged almost 200 years since they left the TARDIS. They learn that River Song was also invited to this place. They group sees the Doctor's killed by an astronaut. They learn that the older Doctor also invited a younger version of himself. They travel with him to 1969 Washington, D.C. to investigate strange things involving the Silence. The silence is an alien race who cannot be remembered. After a person met one of the silence, they would forget everything about them as soon as they could no longer see them. While there, Amy tells the Doctor she is pregnant. She later shoots a person in an astronaut suit trying to save the future Doctor's life. She sees that the person in the suit is just a little girl. When the Doctor asks Amy later about the pregnancy, she tells him that she was wrong. The Doctor tries to learn more but learns nothing. In "Day of the Moon", Amy finds strange pictures of the astronaut girl in an old orphanage. In one of the pictures, She is holding a baby. She sees the little girl again as well as two Silence. Amy is kidnapped by the Silence. She is set free by the Doctor, Rory, and River a few days later.

paragraphs: During the first six episodes, Amy keeps having strange visions of a woman in an eye-patch. The woman keeps saying that "she must be dreaming". In "The Almost People" it is shown that the Amy with the Doctor is actually an avatar version. It was created with "the Flesh" brought to life by Amy's consciousness. The Doctor destroys it and he and Rory go to find the real Amy. She is, at that time, beginning to have her baby. Amy gives birth to her daughter Melody Pond. In "A Good Man Goes to War", the baby is kidnapped by the eye-patched woman, Madame Kovarian. Korvarian replaced the baby with a "Flesh" version. It is shown at the end of the episode that the name Melody Pond, when translated into an alien language is River Song. River is Amy and Rory's daughter. "Let's Kill Hitler" shows how Melody had regenerated into Mels. Mels was the childhood friend of Amy and Rory. Amy named her daughter after Mels. The episode does not show her true identity until she regenerates into River Song after being shot by Hitler. The episode also shows how Amy and Rory fell in love. In "The God Complex" the Doctor has to break Amy's faith in him. He learns that she is the reason they are brought to a prison for a being that kills by feeding on faith. The Doctor says goodbye to Rory and Amy after giving them a house and car. In "Closing Time" Amy makes a cameo appearance. It is shown that she has become a model and the face of Petrichor perfume.

paragraphs: In "The Wedding of River Song," Amy leads a secret organisation. Rory works for her. The Doctor and River meet again in an alternate reality after River stopped the Doctor being killed by the astronaut. Amy remembers all of her past with the Doctor but cannot remember Rory. Amy finally remembers Rory when she saves him from the Silence. She kills Madame Kovarian for taking away Melody. Reality is restored when the Doctor and River marry. Amy and Rory are back at home. They have had no contact with the Doctor since "The God Complex," but they still remember the alternate events. Later River tells Amy that the Doctor did not die in Utah and is in fact alive.

paragraphs: In December 2011, the BBC's Steven Moffat confirmed that Amy and Rory would be leaving the series in 2012 in "heartbreaking" circumstances.

paragraphs: "Doctor Who" executive producer and main writer Steven Moffat came up with the name for the character. In an interview with Kat Angus of "Dose" magazine, "Doctor Who" writer Russell T Davies said, "So when the new series starts next year with the new Doctor, you don’t just get Matt Smith coming on, you also get Karen Gillan as his new companion. I think Amy Pond will be hugely welcomed, because ... I think he does need someone. A lot of these stories prove that. There’s been a huge, empty space on the TARDIS for a long time now and I think her arrival will be every bit as big as Matt’s. It’s really exciting, and everything I’ve heard about Karen is that she’s brilliant. It’s one of our plans that I’m most pleased with, actually. We’ve held off on companions for a long time, so you’ll get rewarded with a great, big, strong character in Amy Pond, when she arrives. I think that plan’s been good." Gillan said in an interview with the "Radio Times" that she was to play Amy Pond with her natural Scottish accent, She auditioned for the part in both her natural accent and with an English one. Gillan has said that she feels using her Scottish accent better fits the character.

paragraphs: Gillan, like some of the people who had been the Doctor's companion before her, had already been on "Doctor Who" in a smaller role. Gillan was a soothsayer in the episode "The Fires of Pompeii". It was broadcast in 2008.

paragraphs: Steven Moffat said of the casting for the character,

paragraphs: Gillan said she was happy to have been cast in the role. She says, "I am absolutely over the moon at being chosen to play the Doctor's new companion. The show is such a massive phenomenon that I can't quite believe I am going to be a part of it. Matt Smith is an incredible actor and it is going to be so much fun to act alongside him – I just can't wait to get started." The role of the young Amelia was played by Gillan's 10-year-old cousin, Caitlin Blackwood. Gillan asked producers to let her cousin play the part, but Blackwood still had to audition. On set was the first time Gillan and Blackwood had actually met each other.

paragraphs: When "The Eleventh Hour" was first shown, two viewers quoted in "The Telegraph" said that Amy's character was too "sexy" for a family programme like "Doctor Who". Executive producer Piers Wenger said that Amy was meant to be "feisty and outspoken and a bit of a number. Amy is probably the wildest companion that the Doctor has travelled with, but she isn’t promiscuous."

paragraphs: In an online poll, with 3,000 people, taken in late 2010, Amy Pond was listed as the fifth most popular companion.


title: Emperor Kōnin

paragraphs: Before he became the monarch, this prince's personal name ("imina") was

paragraphs: Kōnin had five wives and seven Imperial sons and daughters.

paragraphs: Emperor Kōnin is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates "Tahara no Higashi no Misasagi" in Nara as the location of Kōnin's mausoleum.

paragraphs: The years of Kōnin's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name ("nengō").


title: Monroe, Louisiana

paragraphs: Monroe is the eighth-largest city in the U.S. state of Louisiana. It is the parish seat of Ouachita Parish. In 2010, 48,815 people lived there.


title: Terrazzo

paragraphs: Terrazzo is a building material that has the cross-section of polished rock chips decorating its appearance.

paragraphs: It is a composite material made up of chips surrounded by a binder. It is poured in place or precast. It is used for floors or walls. It consists of marble, quartz, granite, glass or other suitable chips, sprinkled or unsprinkled, and poured with a binder that is cement-like, chemical or a combination of both. Terrazzo is cured, ground and polished to a smooth surface. Sometimes, it is finished to produce a uniformly textured surface that is not flat.

paragraphs: Terrazzo artisans create walkways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete or epoxy-resin. Much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of cement masons. Marble-chip, cementitious terrazzo requires three layers of materials. First, cement masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches (7.6 cm to 10 cm) deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers add a 1-inch (2.54 cm) layer of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal divider strips in the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place into each of the panels a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-pigmented. While the mixture is still wet, workers toss additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a lightweight roller over the entire surface.

paragraphs: In the 1970s, polymer-based terrazzo was introduced and is called thin-set terrazzo. Initially polyester and vinyl ester resins were used as the binder resin. Today, most of the terrazzo installed is epoxy terrazzo. The advantages of this material over cement-based terrazzo include: a wider selection of colors, 1/4 inch to 3/8 inch (.63 cm to .95 cm) installation thickness, lighter weight, faster installation, impermeable finish, higher strength, and cracking less. The disadvantage of epoxy resin based terrazzo is that it can only be used inside, not outside buildings. Epoxy-based terrazzo will lose its color and slightly peel when used outdoors. Cement-based terrazzo will not.

paragraphs: In addition to marble aggregate blends, other aggregates have been used such as mother of pearl and abalone shell. Recycled aggregates include: glass, porcelain, concrete and metal. Shapes and medallions can be fabricated on site by bending divider strips or off site by water-jet cutting.

paragraphs: When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry (or cured in the case of thin-set terrazzo), helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder, which is somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier. Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand-troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo contractors then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a finish that shines.

paragraphs: Venetian construction workers invented terrazzo for use as a low cost flooring material using leftover marble chips from upscale jobs. The workers would usually set them in clay to surface the patios around their living quarters. Consisting originally of marble chips, clay, and goat milk (as the sealer), production of terrazzo became much easier after the 1920s and the introduction of electric industrial grinders and other power equipment.

paragraphs: Newly-set terrazzo will not look like marble unless it is wet. So, they used the goat's milk to act as a sealer and preserving the wet and marble-like look.

paragraphs: Archaeologists use the word "terrazzo" to describe the floors of early neolithic buildings (PPN A and B, ca. 9,000–8,000 BC) in Western Asia, that are constructed of burnt lime and clay, colored red with ochre and polished. The embedded crushed limestone gives it a slightly mottled appearance.

paragraphs: The use of fire to produce burnt lime, which was also used for the hafting of implements, predates the use of pottery by almost a thousand years.

paragraphs: In the early Neolithic settlement of Cayönü in eastern Turkey ca. 90 m² of terrazzo floors have been uncovered. The floors of the PPN B settlement of Nevali Cori measure about 80 m². They are 15 cm thick, and contain about 10-15 % lime.

paragraphs: Other sites with terrazzo floors include Nevali Cori, Göbekli Tepe, Jericho, and Kastros (Cyprus).

paragraphs: Terrazzo flooring is an original recycled product, created centuries ago by Venetian workers using the waste chips from slab marble processing. Today Terrazzo continues to provide environmentally friendly durability and low maintenance, typically lasting the life of the building. With no volatile organic compounds (VOC), it earns further point on indoor air quality ratings. Recycled content is still a standard feature of modern terrazzo.

paragraphs: Terrazzo aggregates, binders and finished flooring systems can contribute to U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) credits, under the LEED-NC rating system, version 2.2.

paragraphs: The evaluation of a construction product for its environmental impact considers the longevity of the material, the composition, recycled materials, maintenance requirements, embodied energy, and lifetime environmental impact.

paragraphs: Durability is at the core of green construction. Terrazzo flooring can be refinished repeatedly, reusing instead of replacing materials. It can be restored to its original luster at a fraction of the cost of replacement. Even century-old floors have generally proven need little more than minor repairs and refinishing to return them to their original beauty.

paragraphs: Terrazzo flooring (both cement and thin-set epoxy) also requires only minimal, low-cost maintenance. Routine maintenance should be no more than dry and damp mopping, with an occasional spray buffing. Waxing or chemical cleaners only serve to cloud or damage the finish. Annual stripping and resealing can be done with water-based products.

paragraphs: Terrazzo is composed of naturally occurring aggregates, recycled glass or plastic and processed cement or epoxy binders. The binders constitute 25-30 percent of the volume of a floor; the remainder is composed of aggregates, pigments and fillers.

paragraphs: Post-consumer recycled glass or post-industrial stone from slab granite and marble processing increase the amount of recycled content in Terrazzo, along with recycled aluminum divider strips.

paragraphs: Both cement-based and thin-set epoxy Terrazzo systems are made of zero VOC materials. Terrazzo produces little or no off-gassing over the life of a cured floor. The non-porous Terrazzo finish resists microbial growth and moisture.

paragraphs: The potential for local sourcing is another environmental strength of Terrazzo. Manufactured on site, Terrazzo installations generally produce minimal post-commercial waste and save on transportation costs.

paragraphs: On typical projects, Terrazzo can realistically contribute to five LEED credits: MRcr4 (2), MRcr5 (2) EQcr4 (1). Terrazzo may also potentially contribute to MRcr1 (1), and in extreme cases, ldcr1 (1), for a total of eight points.


title: Henry (unit)

paragraphs: In physics, and electronics, the henry (symbol H) is the SI unit of inductance. It is named after Joseph Henry (1797–1878), the American scientist who discovered electromagnetic induction. (In England, Michael Faraday (1791–1867) discovered the same thing independently. They discovered it at about the same time.) The magnetic permeability of a complete vacuum is 4π×10 H/m (henry per meter).

paragraphs: The National Institute of Standards and Technology provides guidance for American users of SI to write the plural as henries. People do not capitalize unit names.

paragraphs: If the rate of change of current in a circuit is one ampere per second and the resulting electromotive force is one volt, then the inductance of the circuit is one henry. Other equivalent combinations of SI units are as follows:


title: Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C.

paragraphs: Maccabi Tel Aviv Football Club (; "Moadon Kaduregel Maccabi Tel Aviv") is an Israeli football club. It is one of the oldest clubs in Israeli football. The club is also the most successful. They have won 18 championships, 22 national cups, 2 Asian Champions Cups and 3 Toto cups. The homeground of the team is the Bloomfield Stadium in Tel Aviv-Yafo, where also the city rival Hapoel Tel Aviv is playing.

paragraphs: The club was founded in 1906. It was the first Jewish football club in Ottoman Palestine. The name was then Rishon Lezion-Yaffo. The first match was a 3-0 win against a team of French sailors. After the foundation of Tel Aviv in 1909 the clubs name was changed into Maccabi Tel Aviv. Maccabi was founding member of the Palestine Football Association and the Palestine League.

paragraphs: In 1936 the club was invited to play in the United States. On the way Maccabi played in France versus Racing Paris and Olympique Lille. In the United States they played against an All-star team of New York City at Yankee Stadium. Maccabi also defeated the American Soccer League team in Brooklyn and Philadelphia on their home ground 1–0. Other matches were against St. Louis Stars and the Boston Celtics. They played also in Canada, where they drew 1–1 with Toronto All-Stars. In 1939 they played 18 matches in Australia.

paragraphs: After the independence in 1948 Tel Aviv was the most successful club in Israel's top league.

paragraphs: The 1950s decade is considered to be their "golden age" because they won 5 league championships and 4 cups. The club was almost relegated in 1976 but beat Beitar Jerusalem in the relegation play-off.

paragraphs: In the 2011/12 season they reached the group stage of the UEFA Europa League. The team played versus PSV Eindhoven, Rapid Bucharest and Legia Warsaw. They failed to reach the next stage (2 wins, 1 draw, 3 lost).

paragraphs: In an Israel team only 5 foreigners are allowed. The foreigners are:


title: Ceiling balloon

paragraphs: A ceiling balloon is used by meteorologists to determine the height of the base of clouds above ground level during daylight hours. The principle behind the ceiling balloon is a balloon with a known ascent rate (how fast it climbs) and determining how long the balloon rises until it disappears into the cloud. Ascent rates yield the ceiling height.


title: ASTech

paragraphs: ASTech Paris Région is a French group of aerospace engineering companies and research centres. It is in the region of Île-de-France in the middle of France and is mainly concentrated in and around the city of Paris.

paragraphs: There are over 500 companies, including Dassault Aviation, EADS and Air France Industries. About 100.000 people work there in the aviation and space flight industries.

paragraphs: The headquarters of ASTech is in Meudon. The chairman of the group is Gérard Laruelle.


title: Shantungosaurus

paragraphs: Shantungosaurus, meaning "Shandong Lizard", is a genus of hadrosaurid dinosaurs found in the Upper Cretaceous Wangshi Formation of the Shandong Peninsula in China.

paragraphs: It is one of the longest and largest known hadrosaurids. The composite skeleton of a medium-sized individual mounted at the Geological Institute of China in Beijing measures in length, and the type skull is long. The weight of this genus is estimated at up to . With a composite mounted skeleton 16.6 meters long (54.5 ft) it is the largest known ornithischian and the largest non-sauropod dinosaur.

paragraphs: It had an unusually long tail, presumably to counterbalance the great weight of the body at the animal's hips.

paragraphs: Like all hadrosaurs its beak was toothless, but its jaws were packed with around 1,500 tiny chewing teeth. A large hole near its nostrils may have been covered by a loose flap, which could be inflated to make sounds.

paragraphs: First described in 1973, "Shantungosaurus" is known from over five incomplete skeletons.


title: Tera Patrick

paragraphs: Tera Patrick (born July 25, 1976) is a former American pornographic actress and adult model. Her real name is Linda Ann Hopkins. She has also used the aliases Tara Patrick, Sadie Jordan, Brooke Thomas and Tera Hopkins. Tera Patrick was born in Great Falls, Montana. She acted in about 120 adult movies.

paragraphs: Patrick has been in "Playboy" and "Penthouse". In "Penthouse" she was the "Pet of the Month" for February 2000.


title: Rhabdodontidae

paragraphs: Rhabdodontids were herbivorous ornithopod dinosaurs from the Cretaceous. They were similar to large, robust hypsilophodonts, with deep skulls and jaws. The family were defined as "the most recent common ancestor of "Zalmoxes robustus" and "Rhabdodon priscus" and all the descendants of this common ancestor". In 2005, Paul Sereno defined the family as "the most inclusive clade containing "Rhabdodon priscus" but not "Parasaurolophus walkeri"". The Rhabdodontidae includes the type genus "Rhabdodon", "Zalmoxes", "Mochlodon", and possibly "Muttaburrasaurus". Rhabdodontid fossils have been found in Europe and Australia in formations from 100 to 65 million years ago.


title: White Citizens' Council

paragraphs: The White Citizens' Council was an American group of people who believed that white people were better than black people (white supremacy). It began on July 11, 1954. After 1956, it was called the Citizens' Councils of America. With about 60,000 members, mostly in the South, many people knew the group because it opposed racial integration during the 1950s and 1960s. It responded to integration efforts with economic boycotts and other intimidation against black activists, including depriving them of jobs. The WCC was a part of the "massive resistance" in the South against court decisions that required racial integration.

paragraphs: Federal civil rights legislation passed in the mid-1960s over the opposition of the WCC. By the 1970s, the federal government was working hard to enforce those laws. So, the influence of the WCC dropped very much. People in the WCC went on to found the Council of Conservative Citizens in the 1985.


title: United States Naval Academy

paragraphs: The United States Naval Academy (also known as USNA, Annapolis, or Navy) is a four-year coeducational federal service academy in Annapolis, Maryland. Secretary of the Navy George Bancroft began it in 1845. It is the second-oldest of the United States' five service academies. It educates officers mostly to join the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The campus is on the former grounds of Fort Severn where the Severn River flows into Chesapeake Bay. It is about east of Washington, D.C. and southeast of Baltimore, Maryland. The entire campus is a National Historic Landmark. The campus has many historic sites, buildings, and monuments. One monument is the Herndon Monument, once a year the upper three classes add grease and challenge the freshmen to reach the tip (usually unsuccessfully).

paragraphs: Candidates for admission generally must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a congressman. The candidates lacking in academics can potentially receive a nomination to the Naval Academy Preparatory School located in Newport, Rhode Island. Students are officers-in-training and are called "Midshipmen". The Navy pays for the Midshipmen's college expenses in exchange for the students serving in the military upon graduation. About 1,300 "plebes" enter the Academy each summer for the orientation program, this class consists of not only high school students but also enlisted Sailors and Marines. Only about 1,000 Midshipmen graduate after the four years. Graduates are usually commissioned as Ensigns in the Navy or Second Lieutenants in the Marine Corps, and occasionally as officers in the US Air Force, US Army, and U.S. Coast Guard. The academic program grants a bachelor of science degree. Midshipmen get grades on a broad academic program, military leadership performance, and mandatory participation in competitive athletics. Midshipmen are required to adhere to the Academy's Honor Concept.

paragraphs: On 3 June 1949 Wesley A. Brown became the first African-American to graduate. On 8 August 1975, Congress authorized women to attend service academies. The class of 1980 was inducted with 81 women midshipmen.

paragraphs: Annapolis has a very broad sports program. All students must play at least one sport each semester, either at intramural (within the school) or intercollegiate (against other schools) level.

paragraphs: The intercollegiate sports teams are known as the Navy Midshipmen. Most of the Academy's teams play in the Patriot League. The football team plays at the top level, known as Division I FBS, in the American Athletic Conference.


title: Weber (unit)

paragraphs: In physics, the weber (symbol: Wb; , , or ) is the SI unit of magnetic flux. A "flux density" of one Wb/m (one weber per square meter) is one tesla.

paragraphs: The weber is named for the German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804–1891).

paragraphs: The weber may be defined in terms of Faraday's law, which relates a changing magnetic flux through a loop to the electric field around the loop. A change in flux of one weber per second will induce an electromotive force of one volt (produce an electric potential difference of one volt across two open-circuited terminals).

paragraphs: Weber (unit of magnetic flux) — The weber is the magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one turn, would produce in it an electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 second.

paragraphs: In SI base units, the dimensions of the weber are (kg·m)/(s·A). Many times, the weber is expressed in terms of other derived units as the Tesla-square meter (T·m), volt-seconds (V·s), or joules per ampere (J/A).


title: Criticism of Buddhism

paragraphs: The criticism of Buddhism is much like the criticism of any other religion. It is mainly done by people who do not agree with what the religion says and what it believes. The criticism often come from agnostics, skeptics, materialist philosophy, people who follow other religions, or by Buddhists who want change.

paragraphs: Criticisms include some beliefs that are only found in some Buddhist cultures and institutions. These are not all true to original Buddhist principles. Sam Harris, a New Atheism supporter, and believers in Buddhist meditation say that many followers of Buddhism treat it as a religion in the wrong way. They say that their beliefs are often "naive, petitionary, and superstitious". ("Petitionary" means making a petition, or a request, as when asking for help.) They think this stops the followers from living the true Buddhist principles.

paragraphs: Some critics say that Buddhist followers and leaders have been interested in property and money. They think that they are corrupt and are more interested in wealth and power rather than Buddhist principles. There have been many sex scandals involving teachers in Western Buddhist groups.

paragraphs: Michael Jerryson believes that Buddhism has been connected to government since its start. He thinks that the inability to understand the idea of a country without Buddhism leads to a kind of religious nationalism. He feels this is found in many Buddhist conflicts. In medieval Southeast Asia, there were many Buddhist states. These included the Pagan Kingdom, the Sukhothai Kingdom, and the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa. In Sri Lanka, modern monks often took part in the politics of the country. They did this even though the Buddha only believed in helping others make their own choice in the government. Peace activists such as A. T. Ariyaratne have also used Buddhism for ways of doing things.

paragraphs: East Asian Mahayana Buddhists also often get money from the government. The Zen priest Brian Daizen Victoria wrote in his book "Zen at War" that Buddhist groups justified Japanese militarism. He said that they helped the Japanese Army on the battlefield. Because of the book, several groups said sorry for their actions.

paragraphs: After the 2008 problems in the Tibetan area of the PRC, China claimed that the Dalai Lama helped to create the problems and violence. A Chinese spokesperson said that a large number of guns and explosives had been found in monasteries in the capital of Tibet.

paragraphs: Buddhism has been criticized because it treats women as less than men. This mainly deals with women monks. Most schools of Buddhism have more rules for Bhikshuni (nuns) than bikshu (monks). Buddhists say that in the time of the Buddha, nuns had more problems like their safety. Monks often traveled in the forest and between cities. Because of this, more rules were created for nuns, for instance: nuns are not allowed to travel alone.

paragraphs: At the 2007 Hamburg congress, The Dalai Lama said that men and women have equal rights, but at times, culture affects how things are done.


title: Iguanodont

paragraphs: The iguanodonts are members of the proposed group (superfamily) Iguanodontia. This is a group of ornithopod families which some palaeontologists think are closely related:

paragraphs: That is all the ornithopods except for the small, fast-running "Hypsilophodon". This is placed in the family Hypsilophodontidae. However, the important reference work "Vertebrate Paleontology" is not yet in support of this trend, and lists the families separately as Ornithopods. The proposal is therefore still under discussion.


title: Warka

paragraphs: Warka is a small city in Poland in Masovian Voivodeship. The Pilica river runs through the city. 11,435 people live there.


title: Dark adaptor goggles

paragraphs: Dark adaptor goggles are used in the field of meteorology. They are used for either adapting the eyes to the dark before an observation at night or to help with the identification of clouds during bright sunshine or glare from snow. The goggles are made with red-tinted plastic lenses. The goggles are designed to be worn inside but some people find walking, especially up and down stairs, to be hard.


title: Digital Visual Interface

paragraphs: The Digital Visual Interface (or DVI) is a video interface standard. It is used to send video between a source (such as a personal computer) and a display (such as a monitor). This interface cannot be used to transmit audio unless it is connected to a High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) converter. HDMI and DVI use the same protocol for signalling, named Transition-minimized differential signaling.

paragraphs: The DVI standard has is widely used in the personal computer industry. Many desktop personal computers and monitors can use it. Most desktop personal computers and liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors sold in stores today have more than one video interface, including DVI. Many other devices (such as projectors and televisions) can use DVI as part of HDMI.

paragraphs: HDMI is a newer video interface standard. Many laptops still have an old-fashioned VGA connector. Many models in the 2010s have HDMI ports. Fewer laptops have DVI.

paragraphs: DVI was created by the Digital Display Working Group (DDWG). It was created to replace the "legacy analog technology" VGA connector standard. DVI is designed to carry uncompressed digital video data to a display. It works very well with the HDMI standard in digital mode (DVI-D), and VGA in analog mode (DVI-A). It is also found in some television sets even though it has been widely replaced by HDMI.


title: Kōnin (era)

paragraphs: This era is part of "Kōnin-jōgan", which is a historical period from 810 to 877. The importance of Buddhism and the arts was notable during this time.


title: Hessian (soldier)

paragraphs: The Hessians were German soldiers who were hired to fight for the British Empire.

paragraphs: Some princes in Germany agreed to give Great Britain men to fight in return for money and were made rich by their soldiers' services.


title: Tenchō


title: Riverside Stadium

paragraphs: The Riverside Stadium is a football stadium in Middlesbrough, England. The stadium is the homeground of Middlesbrough F.C. since its opening. Its present capacity is 34,742 all seated. There is provisional permission to expand the stadium to 42,000 if it is needed.

paragraphs: The stadium was built in 1994/95. It replaced Ayresome Park. After the Taylor Report from 1990 all top league clubs must have all seater stadiums. Because the space was limited to enlarge Ayresome Park the club decided to built a new stadium. This stadium was built in only 32 weeks on the Middlehaven site by the River Tees.

paragraphs: The building had 30 000 seats but was enlarged to its present capacity in 1998. 4 900 seats were built in the north and west corners.

paragraphs: During the construction of the new Wembley stadium the English nationalteam toured the country. The Riverside was chosen to host the Euro 2004 qualifying match against Slovakia on 11 June 2003. But also some U21 matches were held.


title: Jōwa (Heian period)

paragraphs: There were disturbances when Emperor Junna abdicated; and this time was called "Jōwa no Hen."

paragraphs: Coins minted from 835 to 847 were known as "Jōwa-shōhō".


title: American Contract Bridge League

paragraphs: The American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) is a contract bridge federation in North America. It is the largest contract bridge organization in North America. It promotes the game of bridge in the United States, Mexico, Bermuda, and Canada. It is a member of the World Bridge Federation.

paragraphs: It was established in 1937 in New York City. Its headquarters are now in Horn Lake, Mississippi. It has a full-time staff of 75 employees in the headquarters, plus about 170 tournament directors throughout the country.


title: United States Chess Federation

paragraphs: The United States Chess Federation (USCF) is the national chess federation in the United States. It is the U.S. member of FIDE. It was established in 1939, and at present It based in Crossville, Tennessee.

paragraphs: USCF organizes or sanctions over 20 national championships. It provides the main rating system for tournament chess in the United States. It does this together with about 2,000 affiliates, mostly chess clubs and local chess organizations. It publishes a magazine, "Chess Life", for its members and for general sale. Its membership is about 80,000.


title: Spoken word

paragraphs: Spoken word is a type of poetry that is used to express words without any form of music. Spoken words are used in studio albums with typically the artist speaking about their experience on writing the album or any memories they share with writing the album.


title: United States Backgammon Federation

paragraphs: The United States Backgammon Federation (USBGF) is an organisation who are in charge of backgammon in the United States. They were founded in 1939.


title: Trend

paragraphs: A trend or a fad is a type of behavior that develops in a large population. A trend happens when a large group of people begin liking an object, thing, hobby or a person in a short period of time. This can also include fashion, when a large group of people like a type of clothing and having it "sold out" in a short period of time.


title: Latin pop

paragraphs: Latin pop is a type of popular music that originated in Spanish-speaking countries. Latin pop songs are songs recorded in an up-tempo form. These songs are usually recorded in Spanish. Latin pop songs that have a lot of airplay can peak in "Billboard" charts such as the Hot Latin Tracks, Latin Pop Songs, Latin Pop Airplay and the Tropical/Salsa Songs charts.


title: Music of Mexico

paragraphs: Music of Mexico has a lot of different forms of music genres that are performed by Mexican musicians.

paragraphs: Folk musicbutthead is the bum and he iss a type of narrative song that tells a story. Corridos are recorded as a ballad and sometimes as a duet with another artist. Traditional folk music is a type of folk music that is sung by ordinary people. In popular music, this can include the ranchera, mariachi and conjunto music. Mexican folk music are based on instruments such as the violin and guitar. Mexican sones are a type of ranchera music that developed when the Spanish evaded Mexico. Tejano music is a type of folk music mixed with R&B and country. Tejano (or Tex-Mex music) is popularized in South Texas and North Mexico. Tejano began when the Germans settled in South Texas during the 1600s and brought musical instruments to the native people. Ever since, Tejano has grown to become the most widely known type of music in Mexico and has its own music awards held annually in San Antonio, Texas. "The Queen of Tejano music" is Selena and "The King of Tejano music" is Emilio Navaria. Banda and Norteño are two music genres that formed from Tejano music.

paragraphs: The cumbia music is also popular in Mexico and was brought by the Cubans. "Bolero", which originated from Puerto Rico, is popular in Mexico as a mixed style with cumbia music. In recent year, Mexican Pop music has seen the rise in popularity beginning in the 2000s.


title: Surveyor General

paragraphs: The Surveyor General is a government's official surveyor. They would be responsible for surveying a particular country or area. These would once have been military jobs, but now they are mainly civilian positions.

paragraphs: The following Surveyor General positions exist, or have existed historically:

paragraphs: Surveyor Generals are also known from former centralized markets enterprises and divisions created after finish of 2nd WW. They controled organized development of industrial areas based on coordination of existing plants layouts with future investment projects. Example as former VSZ n.p., etc.


title: Australian National Botanic Gardens

paragraphs: The Australian National Botanic Gardens (ANBG) are in Canberra. They are under the control of the Australian Government's Department of the Environment and Heritage.

paragraphs: The botanic gardens are the largest living collection of native Australian plants. The garen was set up to study and promote Australia's plants. The garden keeps a wide variety of resources for researchers and grows native plants threatened in the wild.

paragraphs: The Advisory Council of Federal Capital Territory recommended the setting up of a National Botanic Garden in 1933. A large site for the gardens was set aside on Black Mountain. In September 1949, the first trees were planted by Prime Minister Ben Chifley and Director of Kew Gardens, Sir Edward Salisbury. The Gardens were officially opened in October 1970 by Prime Minister John Gorton.

paragraphs: The Gardens has over on Black Mountain. About have been used for the Botanic Gardens. Plans for the development of the remaining land are on hold until money is available.

paragraphs: The gardens is organised in sections; plants are grouped by shared taxonomy or are presented in groupings that exist in nature. More than 5,500 species are cultivated. Displays include:

paragraphs: The Australian National Herbarium is at the National Botanic Gardens. The Herbarium houses the largest collection of pressed, dried plant specimens in Australia. The Herbarium is operated jointly with the CSIRO as part of a joint research facility, the Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research. It is not open to the public. The Australian National Herbarium is participating in the creation of Australia's Virtual Herbarium (AVH), a web based record of botanical information. This includes six million specimen records displaying geographic distribution, images, descriptive text and identification tools.

paragraphs: The Gardens manages several large plant databases, including What's its Name? This is a simple point of access to the more complex 'Australian Plant Name Index' APNI listing all the scientific names ever used for Australia's plants. A large collection of photographs is also available.

paragraphs: The Gardens' library has important collections of botanical books, journals, CD-ROMs and maps. The library is open to students and the public by appointment.


title: Tokyo Mew Mew

paragraphs: Tokyo Mew Mew (also known as Mew Mew Power in English) is a manga/anime series by Mia Ikumi and Reiko Yoshida. The series is about five girls who are able to change into superwomen based on endangered species. The girls fight a group of three aliens, Quiche, Pie, and Tart, who plan to take over Earth. The aliens attack the girls by creating "chimera animals" that the girls fight.

paragraphs: The manga was published from 2000 to 2003. The anime was broadcast from April 6, 2002 until March 29, 2003. It was broadcast on both TV Aichi and TV Tokyo.


title: Local ordinance

paragraphs: A local ordinance is a law usually found in a municipal code.

paragraphs: In the United States, these laws are enforced locally in addition to state law and federal law. In some states, the state legislature has limited the scope of local ordinances. This approach was made popular by John Forrest Dillon called the "Dillon Rule". The law in such states says that local governments could only adopt ordinances when the state gives them authority on particular subjects. States that do not follow the Dillon Rule believe that local government has inherent (unstated) powers of self-government. In those states, local government can make ordinances on any subject not prohibited by the state legislature.

paragraphs: In Japan, any prefecture or municipality may pass under authority granted by Article 94 of the Constitution.

paragraphs: There must generally be a statutory basis for an ordinance, the ordinance must be in compliance with any overlapping statutes (although it may impose a stricter standard or penalty), and the ordinance must be related to the affairs of the local government in question.

paragraphs: Ordinances must generally be approved by a local assembly and promulgated by the mayor or governor of the local government in question, who may demand a second vote but may not veto the ordinance.

paragraphs: Under the Local Autonomy Law, an ordinance may impose a penalty of up to two years imprisonment and/or 1 million yen in fines, although any penalty under an ordinance must be prescribed in accordance with the Code of Criminal Procedure. There are even some ordinances, such as bans on smoking on the street, for which the police in some districts state that there is no penalty for failure to obey the ordinance.

paragraphs: All laws enacted by the legislature of British colonies are referred to as "Ordinances", which sometimes delegate power to other parties (usually government departments) to make subsidiary legislations that supplement the Ordinances. In Hong Kong, all laws enacted by the territory's Legislative Council remain to be known as "Ordinances", despite the transfer of the territory to the People's Republic of China in 1997.


title: Beitar Jerusalem F.C.

paragraphs: Beitar Jerusalem Football Club (Hebrew: מועדון כדורגל בית"ר ירושלים, Moadon Kaduregel Beitar Yerushalayim) is an Israeli football club from Jerusalem. The club has been controversial because of its links with the right wing politics and to the Likud party since it was created. The fans chant racist things towards Arabs.

paragraphs: The club was founded in 1936 by David Horn. He was the head of the local Betar movement. The Betar movement was a Zionist youth organisation. Most of the early players came from this group. In 1938 the club stopped playing because the manager and some of the players were arrested and deported by the British authorities in Palestine. In 1943, they were able to play again, but in 1947 the British blocked the games on the day the 1948 Arab-Israeli War started. A player was also killed when he entered a British camp. During his existence the club was very successful. The team has never been relegated from the Israeli Premier League. It was one of the original 14 Israeli Premier League teams at the time of its foundation in 1999. In the all-time table of the league Beitar ranks 4th.

paragraphs: The farthest they have ever gone in a European competition was in the 2016-17 Europa League where they made it to the play off round.

paragraphs: The club first home was the "Banana Field" close to Beitar youth group's "nest". In the 1950s the club moved to the YMCA Stadium. Later it was shared with Hapoel Jerusalem. The YMCA was nicknamed the sandbox because the field was in a very poor condition.

paragraphs: In 1991 both clubs moved to the Teddy Stadium, named after longtime Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek. Initially the stadium was two-sided and held 12,000 spectators. This was increased to 21,600 when a third side was completed in 1997.


title: John Gardner (composer)

paragraphs: John Linton Gardner, (born Manchester, 2 March 1917; died Liss, Hampshire, 12 December 2011) was an English composer of classical music. He is particularly remembered for his church music, especially for his setting of the carol "Tomorrow shall be my dancing day".

paragraphs: Gardner was born in Manchester, England and brought up in Ilfracombe, North Devon. His father was a doctor and amateur composer who was killed while fighting at the end of the First World War.

paragraphs: Gardner went to school at Eagle House and Wellington College and studied at Exeter College, Oxford. He enjoyed jazz, but concentrated on classical music and soon started to compose. An "Intermezzo for Organ" was published by Oxford University Press in 1936. In the same year he got an organ scholarship to Exeter College, Oxford. He got to know the composer Arthur Benjamin and dedicated his "Rhapsody for Oboe and String Quartet" (1935) to him. At Oxford he became friendly with Theodor Adorno with whom he played piano duets.

paragraphs: Gardner went to Repton School to teach music, but after two terms World War II started and he joined the RAF. He conducted the RAF band and played the piano for the dance band. He enjoyed playing jazz and started a swing band. Later in the war he was a navigator in the fighting.

paragraphs: After the war Gardner got a job as repetiteur at the Royal Opera House. He rejected all the music he had composed (although he did not throw it away) and started again by calling his next piece his opus 1. His First Symphony was numbered opus 2. It was a mature work and made him famous. He resigned from his job at the opera house and he had time to concentrate on composing. He wrote "Cantiones Sacrae" for the Three Choirs Festival in 1952 and an opera "The Moon and Sixpence" which was performed at Sadler’s Well in 1957.

paragraphs: In 1956 he was invited by Thomas Armstrong to teach at the Royal Academy of Music. For 30 years he was professor of harmony and counterpoint there. A few years later he also had a part-time job as Director of Music at St Paul's Girls' School in London, where Gustav Holst and Herbert Howells had taught.

paragraphs: Gardner wrote a lot of music for his pupils and also worked on holiday programs. He composed a total of about 300 works. The carol "Tomorrow shall be my Dancing Day" is particularly famous. It has a lively rhythm with time signatures that keep changing.

paragraphs: He was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1976.

paragraphs: He married in 1955 and had one son and two daughters.


title: Sadler's Wells Theatre

paragraphs: Sadler's Wells Theatre is a performing arts theatre in London. It is in Rosebery Avenue, Clerkenwell in the London Borough of Islington. The theatre which now stands is the sixth building that has been there since 1683. There are two performance spaces: a 1,500 seat main auditorium and the Lilian Baylis Studio. There are many rehearsal rooms and technical facilities. Sadler's Wells is one of the most important theatres for dance in the United Kingdom. Several dance companies perform there.

paragraphs: During World War II the theatre was closed and the dance and opera companies toured to many parts of the United Kingdom. After World War II the dance company was renamed Sadler's Wells Ballet. The opera company became the English National Opera. When the theatre reopened they performed Benjamin Britten's opera "Peter Grimes".

paragraphs: In 1946 the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden reopened and the ballet company was invited to become the resident company there. A second ballet company was formed to perform at Sadler's Wells. This was called the Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet. In 1956 the Sadler's Wells company later moved to Covent Garden where it became The Royal Ballet Touring Company. After a number of years as a touring group, it returned to Sadler's Wells in 1976, becoming the Sadler's Wells Royal Ballet.

paragraphs: In 1990 the Sadler's Wells Royal Ballet moved to Birmingham and changed its name to Birmingham Royal Ballet. Since then there has not been a resident ballet company at Sadler's Wells.

paragraphs: The opera company moved out of Sadler's Wells Theatre to the London Coliseum in 1968 and was later renamed English National Opera. Sadler's Wells Theatre was used by foreign companies and by dancers at the beginning of their careers. The Lilian Baylis Theatre opened in 1988.

paragraphs: The theatre that now stands was opened in 1998. The first performance was of "Iolanthe" and was given by Rambert Dance Company.


title: John Forrest Dillon

paragraphs: John Forrest Dillon (December 25, 1831 – May 6, 1914) was an American judge. He served on both federal and Iowa state courts. He wrote an important book on the power of states about municipal governments.

paragraphs: Dillon was born in Northampton, Montgomery County, New York. He studied medicine at the University of Iowa at the age of 19. Shortly after beginning to work as a doctor, he switched to studying law, and was admitted to the Iowa bar in 1852. He was elected as the Scott County prosecutor after a brief private practice in 1853, and was then elected to a judgeship in Iowa's 7th Judicial Circuit in 1858. He joined to the Iowa Supreme Court in 1862 and served until 1869, when he was appointed by President Grant to the United States Circuit Court.

paragraphs: While Dillon was a federal judge, he wrote "Municipal Corporations" (1872), which was one of the earliest books to present the subject, and people still study it today. He was also the author of "Removal of Cases from State Courts to Federal Courts" and "Municipal Bonds", both in 1876. On February 17, 1876, Justice Dillon ruled Ulysses S. Grant's deposition for Orville E. Babcock was admissible in court during the Whiskey Ring graft prosecutions. After leaving the Circuit Court, Dillon was a professor at Columbia Law School from 1879 until 1882, where he taught real estate and equity. He then taught at Yale Law School from 1891 until 1892. While at Yale, he also was the president of the American Bar Association. Dillon then returned to private practice until his death in 1914 in New York City.

paragraphs: A memorial fountain to Dillon was built in downtown Davenport, Iowa in 1918. Sculptor Harry Liva carved it out of Indiana limestone in Romanesque style.

paragraphs: Dillon's oldest son, Hiram Price Dillon (1855 – 1918), also became a lawyer in Iowa, and a Master of Chancery in federal court. Dillon's sister was the grandmother of baseball manager Casey Stengel.

paragraphs: The theory of state preeminence over local governments was called the "Dillon Rule" in an 1868 case: "Municipal corporations owe their origin to, and derive their powers and rights wholly from, the legislature. It breathes into them the breath of life, without which they cannot exist. As it creates, so may it destroy. If it may destroy, it may abridge and control." "Clinton v Cedar Rapids and the Missouri River Railroad",(24 Iowa 455; 1868). As opposed to the Dillon Rule, the Cooley Doctrine expressed the theory of an inherent right to local self-determination. In a concurring opinion, Michigan Supreme Court Judge Thomas M. Cooley in 1871 stated: “[L]ocal government is a matter of absolute right; and the state cannot take it away.” "People v. Hurlbut", (24 Mich 44, 95; 1871).

paragraphs: In "Municipal Corporations" (1872), Dillon explained that in contrast to the powers of states, which are unlimited but for express restrictions under the state or federal constitution, municipalities only have the powers that the state legislature expressly gives to them. This formulation of the scope of municipal power came to be known as the "Dillon Rule". It says that municipal governments only have the powers that are expressly granted to them by the state legislature, those that are necessarily implied from that grant of power, and those that are essential and indispensable to the municipality's existence and functioning. If the legislative grant of power is unclear, it should be read narrowly. Courts should assume that the legislature did not mean to give a power unless that power was clearly spelled out in a law. However, when the state has not specifically directed the method by which the municipality may implement its granted power, the municipality has the discretion to choose the method so long as its choice is reasonable.

paragraphs: Hundreds of U.S. court decisions to the present day have employed the Dillon Rule to determine the scope of municipal powers and rights. Critics of the rule say that it imposes unreasonable constraints on the ability of communities to govern themselves and so undermines democracy, and even that local self-government is a matter of natural right that does not need to be conferred by higher political structures. It has also been suggested that Dillon's approach came from the view at that time that cities were inherently corrupt political organs. Corruption was widespread during his time, especially considering the extensive business ties and even investments of numerous cities and their leaders in the late 19th century. Today, most states in the United States follow the Dillon Rule. This is true even though most people no longer believe that cities have corruption problems.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court of the United States cited Dillon's book "Municipal Corporations" and fully adopted Dillon's emphasis on state power over municipalities in "Merrill v. Monticello," 138 U.S. 673 (1891), reaff'd. "Hunter v. Pittsburgh", 207 U.S. 161 (1907), which upheld the power of Pennsylvania to consolidate the city of Allegheny into the city of Pittsburgh, despite the wishes of the majority of Allegheny residents to be a separate city. The Court's ruling that states could alter or abolish at will the charters of municipal corporations without infringing upon contract rights relied upon Dillon's separation of public, municipal corporations from private ones.