title: Kurt Vonnegut

paragraphs: Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., (; November 11, 1922 – April 11, 2007) was an American writer. He influenced many other writers. He combined satire, black comedy, and science fiction in his writing. Some of his works include "Slaughterhouse-Five" (1969), "Cat's Cradle" (1963), and "Breakfast of Champions" (1973). He was known for his humanist beliefs and was honorary president of the American Humanist Association.

paragraphs: Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, United States. His parents were Kurt Vonnegut, Sr., and Edith Lieber. He was the youngest of three children. His ancestors had come to America from Germany in 1855. They were prosperous, originally as brewers and merchants. Both his father and his grandfather attended Massachusetts Institute of Technology and were architects in the Indianapolis firm of Vonnegut & Bohn. His great-grandfather was the founder of the Vonnegut Hardware Company, an Indianapolis institution.

paragraphs: Vonnegut graduated from Shortridge High School in Indianapolis in May 1940. He went to Cornell University that autumn. He studied Chemistry, but he was Assistant Managing Editor and Associate Editor of the university newspaper called "The Cornell Daily Sun". He was a member of the Delta Upsilon Fraternity just like his father. Vonnegut joined the U.S. Army while he was at Cornell. The Army transferred him to the Carnegie Institute of Technology and the University of Tennessee to study Mechanical Engineering. On Mothers' Day in 1944, his mother committed suicide with sleeping pills.

paragraphs: Kurt Vonnegut's experience as a soldier and prisoner of war (POW) had a deep and powerful effect on his writing. During the war, he was a soldier with a low rank. He was a private with the 423rd Infantry Regiment, 106th Infantry Division. Vonnegut was captured during the Battle of the Bulge on December 19, 1944. He was in prison in the German city of Dresden. He became a leader among the prisoners because he could speak German a little bit. But, he told German guards "...just what I was going to do to them when the Russians came…". The guards beat Vonnegut and stopped him from being a leader. He experienced the fire bombing of Dresden in February 1945 which destroyed most of the city.

paragraphs: Vonnegut's group of American prisoners of war survived the attack. The Germans had kept them in an underground room for storing meat at a slaughterhouse. The Germans called the building "Schlachthof Fünf" (Slaughterhouse Five) and the Allied POWs used that name for their prison. Vonnegut said the result of the attack was complete destruction and death that nobody could understand. This experience gave him ideas for his famous novel, "Slaughterhouse-Five". His experience of death and destruction is a central theme in at least six of his other books. In "Slaughterhouse-Five" he described the city as looking like the surface of the moon after the bombing. He told about how the Germans making the prisoners work. They had to break into basements and bomb shelters to gather bodies. They had to bury these dead people all together in large holes while German people threw rocks at them and shouted curses. Vonnegut said later, "There were too many corpses to bury. So instead the Germans sent in troops with flamethrowers. All these civilians' remains were burned to ashes."

paragraphs: Vonnegut was freed by Red Army troops in May 1945 at the Saxony-Czechoslovakian border. The U. S. Army gave him a Purple Heart. But he said it was funny because he was not hurt badly at all. He wrote in "Timequake" that he was given the award for getting "frostbite".

paragraphs: After the war, Vonnegut became an anthropology graduate student at the University of Chicago. He also worked at the City News Bureau of Chicago. Vonnegut admitted that he was a not a good student. One professors said that some of the students were going to be professional anthropologists but he was not one of them. In the book "Bagombo Snuff Box", Vonnegut wrote that the university rejected his first thesis. It was about Cubist painters and the leaders of Native American uprisings. The university said it was "unprofessional."

paragraphs: He moved from Chicago to Schenectady, New York. He worked in public relations for General Electric. His brother Bernard worked in the research department at the same company. While in Schenectady, Vonnegut lived in a tiny village called Alplaus. Vonnegut rented an upstairs apartment across the street from the Alplaus Volunteer Fire Department. He was an active Volunteer Fire-Fighter for a few years. That apartment still has his desk in it. He wrote many of his short stories at that desk carved his name into the bottom of it. The University of Chicago later accepted his novel "Cat's Cradle" as his thesis because they said the story was anthropological. They gave him an M.A. degree in 1971.

paragraphs: In the mid 1950s, Vonnegut worked for "Sports Illustrated" magazine for a very short time. He was asked to write about a racehorse that had jumped a fence and tried to run away. Vonnegut stared at the blank piece of paper on his typewriter all morning. Then, he typed, "The horse jumped over the fucking fence," and left. He was almost going to quit writing, but the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop asked him to teach. While he was there, "Cat's Cradle" became a best-seller, and he began "Slaughterhouse-Five". That book is now called one of the best American novels of the 20th century. It is on the 100 best lists of "Time" magazine and the Modern Library. In 1961, he published the famous short story Harrison Bergeron.

paragraphs: Vonnegut moved to Barnstable, Massachusetts, a town on Cape Cod. He was the manager of the first Saab dealership in the U.S.

paragraphs: After coming home from World War II, Kurt Vonnegut married Jane Marie Cox. They had loved each other since they were very young. He wrote about their early relationship in several of his short stories. The couple separated in 1970. He did not divorce Cox until 1979, but from 1970 Vonnegut lived with another woman, the photographer Jill Krementz. She became his second wife after Vonnegut divorced Cox.

paragraphs: He raised seven children. Three were from his first marriage to Cox. He adopted one daughter named Lily with Krementz. Three were his sister Alice's children. Vonnegut adopted them after she died of cancer.

paragraphs: Of Vonnegut's four adopted children, three are his nephews: James, Steven, and Kurt Adams. Vonnegut adopted them after a terrible week in 1958. During that week the children's father James Carmalt Adams was killed in a train crash and their mother died two days later. In his novel "Slapstick", Vonnegut told how Alice's husband had died two days before she did. Her family tried to keep her husband's death a secret. However, she found out when another patient gave her a newspaper one day before she died. The three boys had a younger brother named Peter Nice. He was a baby when their parents died. Peter went to live with their father's cousin in Birmingham, Alabama.

paragraphs: On January 31, 2001, a fire destroyed the top story of Vonnegut's home. He had smoke inhalation and was in the hospital in critical condition for four days. He survived, but his personal papers were destroyed.

paragraphs: Vonnegut smoked unfiltered Pall Mall cigarettes. He called this habit a "classy way to commit suicide".

paragraphs: Vonnegut fell down at his home in Manhattan and injured his brain. He died on April 11, 2007.


title: Nebula Award for Best Novel

paragraphs: The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America gives awards for good Science Fiction writing. Each year they give the Nebula Award for Best Novel. In this list, the year means the year that the book was published; awards are given the next year.

paragraphs: Also a winner of the Hugo Award for Best Novel.


title: Nebula Award for Best Short Story

paragraphs: The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America gives awards for good Science Fiction writing. Each year they give the '“Nebula Award for Best Short Story”'. In this list, the year means the year that the book was published; awards are given the next year. The first title is the winner. Titles below the winner are other nominees (stories that were suggested as possible winners).


title: Hamiltonian mechanics

paragraphs: Hamiltonian mechanics is a mathematical way of understanding the way something mechanical will behave. It was invented in 1833 by Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton.

paragraphs: The value of the Hamiltonian is the total energy of the thing being described. For a closed system, it is the sum of its kinetic and potential energy. There will be a set of differential equations known as the Hamilton equations which show how the thing changes through time.

paragraphs: Hamiltonians can be used to describe such simple systems as a bouncing ball, a pendulum or an oscillating spring in which energy changes between kinetic and potential energy and back again over time. Hamiltonians can also be used to study the orbits of planets and in the behaviour of atoms using the principles of quantum mechanics.


title: Bathilde d'Orléans

paragraphs: Bathilde d'Orléans (Louise Marie Thérèse Bathilde;9 July 1750 – 10 January 1822), was a French princess. She was sister of Philippe Égalité, the mother of the executed "duc d'Enghien" and aunt of Louis-Philippe King of the French. She was known as "Citoyenne Vérité" during the French Revolution. By birth and marriage she held the rank of a princess of the blood.

paragraphs: Descended from both Louis XIV of France and his younger brother, Philippe of France, "Duke of Orléans", Bathilde was born a "princesse du sang" and baptised with the names "Louise Marie Thérèse Bathilde". She was the youngest child of Louis Philippe d'Orléans and Louise Henriette de Bourbon. Bathilde was born at the Château de Saint-Cloud on 9 July 1750.

paragraphs: Her mother died in 1759 when Bathilde was just eight years old. Her father, pressured by his mistress, Madame de Montesson, sent her to a convent. During her time at the convent, she became a very spiritual person.

paragraphs: Initially, Bathilde was considered as a possible bride for a distant cousin, Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, the favourite grandson of King Louis XV of France, however, that marriage never materialised.

paragraphs: Finally, in 1770, when she was twenty years old, she was allowed to leave the convent and marry her younger cousin, the "Louis Henri de Bourbon", son and heir of Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince of Condé and his wife Charlotte Élisabeth Godefride de Rohan.

paragraphs: The scandal of her husband's adultery came out in 1778, and the consequences fell entirely on her shoulders. The couple separated in 1780. As a separated spouse, she was never received at court and was forced to reorganise her life at the Château de Chantilly.

paragraphs: In her isolation, she discreetly had an illegitimate daughter with a marine officer. Later, she passed the child off as the daughter of her secretary, in order to keep the little girl close to her. In 1787, she purchased the Élysée Palace from Louis XVI and had a hamlet constructed there.

paragraphs: During the French Revolution, just like her brother Philippe Égalité, Bathilde discovered democracy. She fell out with her royalist husband and son, who both chose to leave France after the storming of the Bastille. As the "Ancien Régime" crumbled, she took the name, "Citoyenne Vérité", "Citizeness Truth". Threatened by the new revolutionary government, she offered her wealth to the First French Republic before it could be confiscated.

paragraphs: In April 1793, her nephew, the young Duke of Chartres (future Louis Philippe of the French), fled France and sought asylum with the Austrians. In retribution, the National Convention decreed the imprisonment of all Bourbons remaining in France. While other members of the Orléans family still in France were kept under house arrest, Bathilde, Philippe Égalité and his sons were imprisoned in the Fort Saint-Jean in Marseille. Badly rewarded for her fidelity to the democratic ideals of the Revolution, she survived a year and a half in a prison cell. In November of the same year, her brother was guillotined. Miraculously spared during the Reign of Terror, Bathilde was freed during the Thermidorian Reaction and returned to her Élysée residence in Paris. Poverty-stricken, she was forced to rent out most of the palace.

paragraphs: In 1797, the Directoire decided to exile the last of the Bourbons still living in France. With her sister-in-law, Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon, she went to Spain with her illegitimate daughter. Despite being forty-seven years old at the time, during the months which this journey took, she had an amorous intrigue with a handsome twenty-seven year old police officer ("gendarme") under whose responsibility she had been put. The two maintained a correspondence during her exile.

paragraphs: Relegated to a place near Barcelona, Bathilde founded, despite her small means, a pharmacy and dispensary for the poor, and her house became a gathering place for those who needed aid. She became completely republican during this time period, despite her exile.

paragraphs: In 1804, she learned that Napoléon I, whom she admired, had had her only son, Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien, kidnapped, and executed by firing squad in the moat of the Château de Vincennes. For ten years, the emperor kept the mother of his most famous victim from setting foot in France. Bathilde got her revenge in 1814, when the people, seeing in her the mother of the "Martyr of Vincennes," cheered her as she travelled the route back to Paris.

paragraphs: In 1815, at the start of the Bourbon Restoration, she returned to France. Louis XVIII traded with her the Hôtel Matignon for the Élysée Palace. Bathilde promptly installed a community of nuns on the premises and charged them with praying for the souls of the victims of the Revolution. Her family, in the new moral order of the day, wanted to see her rejoin her husband after a separation of thirty-five years, but she refused. Instead, she resumed her affair with the police officer who had escorted her to Spain in 1797.

paragraphs: In 1822, while she was taking part in a march towards the Panthéon, she lost consciousness, and drew her last breath in the home of a law professor who taught at the Sorbonne. After her death, her nephew, Louis-Philippe, wanting to give an air of respectability to her bohemian lifestyle, burned the manuscript of her memoirs and a file on her young police officer located in the war archives.

paragraphs: She was buried in the Orléans family chapel the Collégiale de Dreux.


title: Robert Del Naja

paragraphs: Robert Del Naja (pron. ; born 21 January 1966, in Bristol, England), also known as 3D, is an English artist and musician. Originally famous as a graffiti artist and a member of the Bristol group known as "The Wild Bunch", Del Naja went on to become a founding member of the band Massive Attack where he is active to this day. However he has also admitted that he got his own way by "being stubborn, throwing tantrums — the usual fucking childish behaviour."


title: Sue Gardner

paragraphs: Sue Gardner (born 1967) is the former executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in San Francisco from 2007 to 2014. She was the director of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's website and online news outlets. She is currently the executive director of The Markup.

paragraphs: Gardner grew up in Port Hope, Ontario, Canada. She is the daughter of an Anglican minister and school principal. Gardner earned a degree in journalism from Ryerson University. She began her career on Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) radio in 1990. She worked on the program "As It Happens" at first. Gardner worked for more than a decade as a producer, reporter and documentary-maker for CBC Radio current-affairs. She also worked for Newsworld International. Her time at Newsworld dealt mainly with pop culture and social issues.

paragraphs: In March 2006, she replaced Claude Galipeau as Senior Director. She was in charge of 150 people who worked on CBC.ca, the CBC website.

paragraphs: In May 2007, Gardner left CBC. Soon after that, she started working with the Wikimedia Foundation. She helped as an advisor on how the foundation worked and how it was governed.

paragraphs: In December 2007, she was hired as the Foundation's Executive Director. Over the next two years, the number of employees of the foundation grew. This included the addition of a fundraising team. She also guided the foundation as it moved its office from Tampa to San Francisco.

paragraphs: In October 2009, the "Huffington Post" said Gardner was as one of ten 'media game changers of the year'. They said this because of the affect she had on new media because of her work for Wikimedia.


title: Chiba Lotte Marines

paragraphs: Chiba Lotte Marines are the baseball team in Chiba, Japan. Their stadium, QVC Marine Field, is placed in Makuhari, Chiba Prefecture.

paragraphs: They were founded in 1950 as the "Mainichi Orions". In 1958, they changed their name to the "Daimai Orions", the "Tokyo Orions" in 1964, the "Lotte Orions" in 1969, and finally the Chiba Lotte Marines since 1992. Chiba Lotte Marines has been a Pacific league champion six times, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1974, 2005, and 2010. Then, 4 times they won Japan series, 1950, 1974, 2005, and 2010.

paragraphs: Tsuyoshi Nishioka entered into Chiba Lotte Marines in 2002 and played for 8 years in Japan. He was a captain of Chiba Lotte Marines in the 2010 season. He transferred to the Minnesota Twins after Chiba Lotte Marines won the Japan series in 2010. He is well known as switch hitter and recorded high averaged hitting in WBC-2006.


title: Na+/K+-ATPase

paragraphs: Na/K-ATPase is an enzyme found in the plasma membrane. It is sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase, also known as the 'Na/K pump', 'sodium-potassium pump', or simply 'sodium pump', for short. It was first discovered by Jens Christian Skou who won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1997.

paragraphs: The enzyme moves Na (sodium) ions out of the cell and replaces them with K (potassium) ions. This keeps the Na+ ions outside of the cell membrane, and keeps the K+ ions on the inside of the cell membrane. The process works in the opposite direction of diffusion.

paragraphs: For every three sodium ions that get pumped out of the cell, two potassium ions get pumped into the cell. One phosphate group is still bound to the pump.


title: Man Bites Dog

paragraphs: Man Bites Dog is a 1992 Belgian mockumentary crime movie. It was released in 1993 in the United States. This movie is rated NC-17 due to strong graphic violence.

paragraphs: The story of the movie is a crew of movie makers who follow a serial killer. They record his horrific crimes for a documentary they are making. At first they are only watching. Then they find themselves caught up in the increasingly chaotic and nihilistic violence. Since its release the picture has become an international cult film.


title: Basin (geology)

paragraphs: A geological basin is a large low-lying area. It is often below sea level.

paragraphs: Geological basins are one of the two most common places inland which collect sediment (the other is lakes). The type of rocks which form there tell about the palaeoclimate of the continent. The geology is of interest to oil prospectors, hydrologists and palaeontologists.

paragraphs: Starting around 16 million years ago in the Miocene, and continuing into the present, a large part of the North American Plate has been stretched by being pulled apart. The result has been the creation of a large and still-growing region of relatively thin crust; the region grew an average of per year initially and then slowed to per year in the last 5 million years. Geologists call this region the Basin and Range Province.

paragraphs: Pulling forces causes rock at depth to stretch like silly putty and rock closer to the surface to break along normal faults into downfallen basins called grabens.

paragraphs: Because the basin is low-lying, it collects sediment. Rivers may run down into the basin from surrounding mountains. Floods or lakes may form with no outlet to the sea. Evaporation occurs; more sediment arrives, and so on. The strata which forms gives clues as to the palaeoclimate.

paragraphs: Other terms that are used to describe a basin are: "drainage basin", "catchment", "catchment area", "catchment basin", "drainage area", "river basin", "water basin", "endorheic basin" and "watershed".

paragraphs: Some basins, such as the Great Basin, do not drain to the sea. The water may drain into underground aquifers, or evaporate to form salt lakes.

paragraphs: Most basins, however, are drainage basins with rivers bringing their water into the sea. Many such rivers meander through a web of islands at the river delta, and bring along a huge amount of sediment in the form of mud, clay and sand. The Amazon and the Mississippi river systems are like this. The strata which form are quite different from inland basin lakes.


title: Auger electron spectroscopy

paragraphs: Auger electron spectroscopy is a way of telling what chemical elements are at the surface of an object.

paragraphs: When an electron is removed from a core level of an atom, a higher energy level electron may fall in the vacancy. If the energy released by the fall is transferred to another electron, the latter (called Auger electron) will be emitted from the atom, in what is called the Auger effect, after the French physicist who discovered the phenomenon, Pierre Auger. The kinetic energy levels of the Auger electrons depend on the type of the atoms from which the electrons were ejected, and the chemical environment of the atoms. AES consists of bombarding a sample with energetic electrons and measuring the energy of the Auger electrons, obtaining a spectra that can be used to get information about the identity and environment of the emitting atoms.


title: Lee Fogolin

paragraphs: Lee Joseph Fogolin (born February 7, 1955 in Chicago, Illinois and raised in Thunder Bay, Ontario), is a retired defenceman who played in the National Hockey League. He played for the Buffalo Sabres and the Edmonton Oilers, playing in 924 NHL regular season games between 1974 and 1987, winning the Stanley Cup in 1984 and 1985.

paragraphs: Fogolin was born in Chicago while his father, Lee Fogolin Sr., was a member of the Chicago Blackhawks. His son, Michael Fogolin, played for the Prince George Cougars in the WHL and died in his sleep on May 26, 2004 of a possible heart condition.

paragraphs: Fogolin played from 1972–1974 with the Oshawa Generals of the OHA, scoring 52 points in 102 games with 240 PIM. He was drafted in the first round, 11th overall, of the 1974 NHL Entry Draft by the Buffalo Sabres.

paragraphs: Although Fogolin was raised in Canada, he was chosen to play for Team USA in the 1976 Canada Cup, since he was born in the U.S.. He was invited again in 1984, but this time chose not to play.

paragraphs: Fogolin played his first professional season (1974–75) in Buffalo, but played parts of the next season with the Sabres and the AHL Hershey Bears. He was acquired by the Edmonton Oilers for the 1979–1980 season.

paragraphs: Fogolin played seven full seasons with Edmonton, and was named as captain for the 1981–82 season. He would be the first of four captains to lead the Oilers to the Stanley Cup finals, in 1983, where they lost to the New York Islanders. While a solid defenceman in his own right, he was overshadowed by many of the young stars on the Oilers' roster, most notably scoring superstar Wayne Gretzky. Fogolin gave up the captaincy to Gretzky for the 1983–84 season onwards. Fogolin was a member of the Oilers' Stanley Cup wins in 1984 and 1985. Fogolin also played in the 1986 National Hockey League All-Star Game.

paragraphs: Fogolin was re-acquired by the Sabres near the end of the 1986–87 season, and retired after completing the season with them.


title: Tony Hrkac

paragraphs: Anthony J. "Tony" Hrkac () (born July 7, 1966 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre currently playing for the Houston Aeros of the AHL.


paragraphs: The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover is a 1989 British independent movie starring Richard Bohringer, Alan Howard, Michael Gambon and Helen Mirren and directed by Peter Greenaway. This movie was originally tagged by the MPAA under an X rating, due to which commercial distribution of this movie was limited. The X rating was then surrendered, and this movie was released with no rating. It was later released onto video with two versions, one rated NC-17, and the other under an R rating.


title: Howard Zinn

paragraphs: Howard Zinn (August 24, 1922 – January 27, 2010) was an American historian and professor from Brooklyn, New York. Zinn considered himself to be a radical. 1980, he wrote "A People's History of the United States", which is a book that tells the history of the United States from the perspective of common people instead of people who were in power. This included people who were oppressed. As of the time of Zinn's death, the book had sold almost two million copies.

paragraphs: Zinn died of a heart attack while swimming on January 27, 2010 in Santa Monica, California, aged 87.


title: Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia

paragraphs: Charles Emmanuel III (27 April 1701 – 20 February 1773) was the Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia from 1730 until his death.

paragraphs: He was born a Prince of Savoy in Turin to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy and Anne Marie d'Orléans. His maternal grandparents were (Prince) Philippe of France and his first wife Henrietta of England, daughter of Charles I of England and Queen Henrietta Maria.

paragraphs: At the time of his birth, Charles Emmanuel was styled the Duke of Aosta as his older brother Victor Amadeus, Prince of Piedmont was the Heir apparent. His older brother, the Prince of Piedmont died in 1715 and "then" Charles Emmanuel became Heir apparent.

paragraphs: In 1730 his father abdicated on 3 September leaving the throne to Charles. He was not loved by Victor Amadeus, and consequently received an incomplete education. He however acquired noteworthy knowledge in the military field along his father. A god ruler, he married three times and had eleven children in total. Charles Emmanuel died in Turin in 1773. He was buried in the Basilica of Superga.

paragraphs: He married three times, but his three wives all died before their 30th birthday. There were plans for him to marry Charlotte Aglaé d'Orléans but his mother declined the offer. Amalia d'Este was also a candidate, daughter of Rinaldo d'Este, Duke of Modena.


title: Rickettsia

paragraphs: Rickettsia is a unique genus classified between a virus and a bacteria. The organism is unique in that it has a cell wall and exists only in living cells like a virus, but is susceptible to antibiotics like bacteria.

paragraphs: The method of growing "Rickettsia" in chicken embryos was invented by Ernest William Goodpasture and his colleagues at Vanderbilt University in the early 1930s.


title: Richard Holbrooke

paragraphs: Richard Charles Albert Holbrooke (April 24, 1941 - December 13, 2010) was an American diplomat. He became well-known when he helped broker the Dayton peace agreement, together with Carl Bildt. This agreement of 1995 helped end the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

paragraphs: He died of a torn aorta on December 13, 2010.

paragraphs: Holbrooke was born to Dan and Trudi Holbrooke on April 24, 1941 in Manhattan, New York. He had a brother, Andrew, who

paragraphs: He attended Scarsdale High School, before going to Brown University and the Princeton University.


title: Ryan Johnson

paragraphs: Ryan M. Johnson (born June 14, 1976) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who is currently a free agent in the National Hockey League. Johnson also played for the Florida Panthers from 1996 to 2000, the Tampa Bay Lightning in 1999 to 2001, another stint with the Florida Panther from 2001 to 2003, the St. Louis Blues from 2002 to 2008, the Vancouver Canucks from 2008 to 2010 and the Chicago Blackhawks in 2010.


title: Louis, Duke of Burgundy

paragraphs: Louis of France (16 August 1682 – 18 February 1712) was the eldest son of Louis, Dauphin of France, known as "le Grand Dauphin" and, as such, was known as "le Petit Dauphin". He became Dauphin of France upon his father's death in 1711.

paragraphs: Louis de France was born in the Palace of Versailles, the eldest son of Louis, "le Grand Dauphin", and his wife Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria. At birth, he received the title of Duke of Burgundy.

paragraphs: Louis grew up with his younger brothers; Philippe, Duke of Anjou and Charles, Duke of Berry.

paragraphs: At the age of 15, he married his second cousin, Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy and Anne Marie d'Orléans. This match had been decided as part of the Treaty of Turin, which ended Franco-Savoyard conflicts during the Nine Years' War. The marriage took place on 7 December 1697 at the Palace of Versailles. The two were in love with one another, a rarity at the court of Versailles.

paragraphs: Louis became Dauphin of France upon the death of his father in 1711.

paragraphs: In February 1712, his wife contracted measles and died on the 12th of that month.

paragraphs: The Duke of Burgundy, who dearly loved his wife and who had stayed by her side throughout the fatal illness, contracted the disease and died on 18 February, six days after her at the Château de Marly. Both of his sons also became infected, the eldest, Louis, Duke of Brittany, the latest in a series of Dauphins, succumbed to it on 8 March. The only one to survive was the two-year old Duke of Anjou, the future King Louis XV of France.


title: Dauphin of France

paragraphs: The Dauphin was the heir apparent to the throne of France from 1350–1791, and from 1824–1830.

paragraphs: Guy VIII, Count of Vienne, had a dolphin on his coat of arms and had been nicknamed "le Dauphin" (French for "dolphin"). The title of Dauphin of Viennois descended in his family until 1349, when Humbert II sold his signeurie, called the Dauphiné, to King Philippe VI on condition that the heir of France assumed the title of "le Dauphin" and govern this territory. The Dauphin retained the title only. The estates belonged to the crown. On the death of the Dauphin, his eldest son inherits the title. If there is no son, his oldest brother succeeds him. If the king does not have a son the title does not go to anyone. It is never given to a brother of the king. The wife of the Dauphin was known as the "Dauphine". The first French Dauphin was Charles V. The title is roughly equivalent to the English title "Prince of Wales". The Dauphin was entitled to the use of the style of Royal Highness but this was only ever used in written form.

paragraphs: The title of "Dauphin of Auvergne" was used by the Count of Clermont.


title: Plague doctor costume

paragraphs: The plague doctor's costume was the clothes worn by a plague doctor to protect him from diseases spread through the air. The costume was made up of a coat which went down to the ankles and a mask. The mask looked like a bird's beak. The beak was often filled with things which smelled sweet or strong (often lavender). Along with this, gloves, boots, a hat and something else to go over the jacket was worn.

paragraphs: The beak was held in front of the doctor's nose by straps. There were two holes in the mask, filled with glass at eye level, so that the doctor could see properly. The mask had two smaller holes for the doctor to breathe. It was a type of respirator which was often filled with strong, nice smelling things. Dried flowers (such as roses and carnations), herbs (such as mint), spices, camphor or a vinegar sponge could all be placed in the beak. The mask was supposed to keep away bad smells. At that time, it was thought that bad smells caused infection. Doctors believed the herbs would take away the "evil" smells of the plague and stop them from getting it.

paragraphs: The costume had a wide brimmed leather hood to show that they were doctors. They used wooden canes to point out areas needing medical attention. This was also used to look at patients without touching them. The canes were also used to keep people away, to take clothes off plague victims without having to touch them and to take a patient's pulse.

paragraphs: Wearing these clothes actually helped make sure that the doctors were not infected by fleas or rats. Fleas could not bite through the leather jacket and infected people could not touch the doctor, which was also because of his leather jacket.

paragraphs: Some modern writers have said that fourteenth-century plague doctors wore masks which looked like birds. However, medical historians say that the plague doctor costume was invented by Charles de Lorme. In 1619 he used the idea of full head-to-toe protective clothing. It was modelled after a soldier's armour. This was made up of a bird-like mask and a long leather (Moroccan or Levantine) or waxed-canvas gown. The gown went from the neck to the ankles. The clothing which went on top of the gown, as well as leggings, gloves, boots and a hat, were made of waxed leather. The garment was impregnated with similar fragrant items as the beak mask.

paragraphs: This poem was written in the seventeenth century. It describes the plague doctor's costume.

paragraphs: Jean-Jacques Manget, in his 1721 book "Treatise on the Plague", written just after the Great Plague of Marseille, talks about the costumes that plague doctors wore at Nijmegen in 1636-1637. A picture of the costume is at the front of the book. The plague doctors of Nijmegen also wore beaked masks. Their robes, leggings, hats, and gloves were made of morocco leather.

paragraphs: This costume was also worn by plague doctors during the Plague of 1656. This plague killed 145,000 people in Rome and 300,000 in Naples. The costume made people very scared because it was a sign that they would die soon.

paragraphs: The costume was worn by a "commedia dell'arte" character called "Il Medico della Peste" (the Plague Doctor). He wears a special plague doctor's mask. The Venetian mask was normally white. It was made up of a beak and round eye-holes. The eye-holes were covered with clear glass. It is one of the most unique masks worn during the Carnival of Venice.


title: Puzzle Bobble 2

paragraphs: Bust-A-Move 2 is the first sequel to "Bust-A-Move", and is also known as Puzzle Bobble 2 outside Europe and North America. Released into the arcades in 1995, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Nintendo 64 and PC conversions followed. The game was included in "Taito Legends 2", but the US arcade version was included on US PS2 version instead. The game is a spin-off from "Bubble Bobble".

paragraphs: The game builds on the original by adding a tournament style variation on the two player game for play against the computer and by adding a branching map to the one player game, allowing the player to periodically select one of two groups of five levels to play next, leading to different game endings. Some of the contestants in the new tournament mode are based on characters from Bubble Bobble, including variations on a "Monsta" and a "Mighta".

paragraphs: Some versions of the game, including the PlayStation, feature time trial competitions in which a single player attempts to finish simple rounds quickly enough to beat previous time records or two players simultaneously attempt to beat the records and each other.

paragraphs: Completion of the single player game gives the player a code which can be entered to unlock 'Another World' for the single player game, which features subtle changes to the existing levels to increase their difficulty and changes to all backdrops to resemble levels from Bubble Bobble. The various enemies from Bubble Bobble also make an appearance in the background of the credits sequence.

paragraphs: Taito later repacked "Bust-A-Move 2" with an optional alternative set of levels and some new attract mode animations (including holiday-themed ones) as "Bust-A-Move 2X" (Also known as Puzzle Bobble 2X).

paragraphs: Ports of "Bust-A-Move 2" to the PC and Sega Saturn are of "Bust-A-Move 2X" and additionally include a level editor/designer. A port of 2X was made to the PlayStation but was not released until some time after a port of Bust-A-Move 2 was released; therefore, it is not so well known.

paragraphs: This game has become notorious for one version of its cover art. The original US version of the Saturn edition featured a picture of several large balls with screaming, blue, human faces with white sticks forcing their eyes open. This cover earned it a place on Gamespy.com's Top Ten Worst Covers list.


title: Sally Field

paragraphs: Sally Margaret Field (b. November 6, 1946) is an American actress, singer, producer, director, and screenwriter. She has been in many movies. These include "Norma Rae", "Murphy's Romance", "Forrest Gump", "Steel Magnolias", "The Amazing Spider-Man", and "Lincoln". She has also acted in television programs and won many awards for her movies and acting.

paragraphs: Field married Steven Craig in 1968. The couple had two sons; Peter Craig, a novelist, and Eli Craig, an actor and director. Craig and Field divorced in 1975.

paragraphs: Sally Field was romantically involved with Burt Reynolds for many years. During this time they co-starred in several movies. She married movie producer Alan Greisman in 1984. They had one son, Sam, in 1987. Field and Greisman divorced in 1993.

paragraphs: Field has osteoporosis. She has become a vocal advocate for women's health issues, encouraging early diagnosis of such conditions through technology, such as bone density scans.


title: Staple (fastener)

paragraphs: A staple is a fastener that is usually made out of metal and is used to fasten paper to other paper or paper to special walls called bulletin boards. Some large staples may be used for industrial uses, such as masonry, roofing, corrugated boxes and other heavy-duty uses.


title: W and Z bosons

paragraphs: W and Z bosons are a group of elementary particles. They are bosons, which means that they have a spin of 0 or 1. Both had been found in experiments by the year 1983. Together, they are responsible for a force known as "weak force." Weak force is called weak because it is not as strong as the strong force. There are two W bosons with different charges, the normal W, and its antiparticle, the W . Z bosons are their own antiparticle.

paragraphs: W bosons are named after the weak force that they are responsible for. Weak force is what physicists believe is responsible for the breaking down of some radioactive elements, in the form of Beta decay. In the late '70s, scientists managed to combine early versions of the weak force with electromagnetism, and called it the electroweak force.

paragraphs: W and Z bosons are only known to be created under Beta decay, which is a form of radioactive decay.

paragraphs: Beta decay occurs when there are a lot of neutrons in an atom. An easy way to think of a neutron is that it is made of one proton and one electron. When there are too many neutrons in one atom nucleus, one neutron will split and form a proton and an electron. The proton will stay where it is, and the electron will be launched out of the atom at incredible speed. This is why Beta radiation is harmful to humans.

paragraphs: The above model is not entirely accurate, as both protons and neutrons are each made of three quarks, which are elementary particles. A proton is made of two up quarks (+2/3 charge), and one down quark (-1/3 charge). A neutron is made of one up quark and two down quarks. Because of this, the proton has +1 charge and the neutron 0 charge.

paragraphs: Weak force is believed to be able to change the flavour of a quark. For example, when it changes a down quark in a neutron into an up quark, the charge of the neutron becomes +1, since it would have the same arrangement of quarks as a proton. The three-quark neutron with a charge of +1 is no longer a neutron after this, as it fulfills all of the requirements to be a proton. Therefore, Beta decay will cause a neutron to become a proton (along with some other end-products).

paragraphs: When a quark changes flavour, as it does in Beta decay, it releases a W boson. On average, W bosons only last for 3x10 seconds before themselves decaying into other particles, which is why we had not discovered them until less than half a century ago. Surprisingly, W bosons have a mass of about 80 times that of a proton. Keep in mind that the neutron that it came from has almost the same weight as the proton. In the quantum world, it is not uncommon for a more massive particle to come from a less massive particle; the extra mass comes from stored energy via Einstein's famous formula, formula_1. After the 3x10 seconds has passed, a W boson decays into one electron and one neutrino. Since neutrinos rarely interact with matter, we can ignore them from now on. The electron is propelled out of the atom at a high speed. The proton that was produced by the Beta decay stays in the atom nucleus, and raises the atomic number by one.

paragraphs: Z bosons are also predicted in the Standard Model of physics, which successfully predicted the existence of W bosons. Z Bosons decay into a fermion and its antiparticle, which are particles such as electrons and quarks which have spin in units of half of the reduced planks constant.


title: J/ψ particle

paragraphs: J/ψ mesons (pronounced jeɪ/saɪ, English jay/sigh) are subatomic particles made of one charm quark and one charm antiquark. Mesons are a family of composite particles which are made of one quark and one antiquark. It was discovered by Burton Richter. The discovery of J/ψ mesons was huge because it revealed the existence of the fourth known quark of the time, the charm quark. J/ψ mesons were used in an attempt to learn more about quark-gluon plasmas, but no conclusive results were found. The name J/ψ comes from the chosen names from the two labs that found them, one of which chose the letter J, while the other chose the Greek letter ψ (psi).


title: Toxic shock syndrome

paragraphs: Toxic shock syndrome or TSS is a non-common, deadly infection caused by toxins from bacteria.

paragraphs: Toxic shock syndrome is usually caused by "Staphylococcus" bacteria, but it can also be caused by "Streptococcus" bacteria.

paragraphs: Symptoms of toxic shock syndrome can show up suddenly, and the disease can be deadly. The symptoms are different when the toxic shock syndrome is caused by different bacteria. When it is caused by "Staphylococcus aureus", the symptoms are generally high fever, low blood pressure, confusion, and malaise. If the disease is not treated, someone with toxic shock syndrome caused by "Staphylococcus aureus" can go into a coma.

paragraphs: When toxic shock syndrome is caused by "Streptococcus pyogenes", it usually is a rash that was already there getting worse. People with toxic shock syndrome caused by "Streptococcus pyogenes" have pain where the rash is, then the symptoms below happen very quickly.

paragraphs: The symptoms of toxic shock syndrome include:

paragraphs: Toxic shock syndrome can be caused by many things. The most common reasons are injuries to the skin that allow bacteria to get into the bloodstream and tampons.

paragraphs: Many people with toxic shock syndrome have to stay in the hospital. If it is very bad, they might have to go to the intensive care unit so that doctors can make sure that they are getting good care. If the reason that they have toxic shock syndrome is because of tampon use, doctors will make sure that they take the tampon out. If the reason that they have toxic shock syndrome is an injury (an abscess or other infection), the injury has to be drained.

paragraphs: Antibiotics like cephalosporin, penicillin, and vancomycin are used to stop the bacteria from growing. Clindamycin and gentamicin stop the toxins from being produced.

paragraphs: In 1978, Procter and Gamble (a United States company that sells many different products) started selling tampons called Rely. Rely tampons could be left in for a whole menstrual cycle, which is from 2 to 8 days. Women who used Rely tampons sometimes got toxic shock syndrome because of this. Other tampons that are left in for a long time can also cause toxic shock syndrome.


title: Charles Blanvillain

paragraphs: Charly B (born Charles Blanvillain, 28 September 1981) is a French reggae artist, author, composer, interpreter, performing internationally.

paragraphs: Born in Rome, Italy from a family of musicians, he is from French, German and Armenian origins. At the age of 4 he moves to Geneva (Switzerland) where he spends most of his childhood. Music is then everything to him, and he discovers reggae at the age of 15, when he spends one year in Jamaica at IONA High School, hosted in a Jamaican family, having obtained a scholarship from the American Field Service. Later on, after passing his international baccalaureate, he studies sound techniques at the School of Recording Arts, Canada and at the Sound and Audio Engineering School in Geneva, Switzerland.

paragraphs: He starts to be interested in Reggae music very early, and at the age of 15, he composes his first song. His musical studies in Canada, long stays in Jamaica, and time spent living in France near the Swiss border form the cultural triumvirate from which Charly B draws his artistic vision. He has been singing with legends of dancehall like Capleton, Kiprich, De Marco and Anthony B.

paragraphs: In 2002, at the age of 21, he wins the first prize for the best Geneva (Switzerland) Singjay In 2003, he writes a song for the movie Destination Jamaica by George Tait (Jungle George) In 2004, his song "My Queen" appears in the DVD sold with the Austrian surfers' magazine Methodmag, published in 60,000 copies. In 2005 he wins the 1st prize for best Singjay in Switzerland organized by Giddeon Productions Unfortunately, he cannot take advantage of the prize (concert on the main stage of Rototom Sunsplash Festival 2005) in Italy, as he is expected in Jamaica that summer, and therefore gives his prize to the number 2 in the competition, Elijah. In 2007, Eliane Dambre from the Ateliers du Funambule sponsored by Michel Fugain, which studios are based in Nyon, decides to present his candidacy to the Eurovision for Switzerland, against DJ Bobo to represent Switzerland, but his candidacy is too late to be retained. More recently, in 2009, he has won the price for the best reggae song at the competition organized by Reggae Europe. He has deposited to SACEM over 100 titles entirely composed by him (music and lyrics), in French, English and Jamaican patois.

paragraphs: In summer 2009, he makes what he calls "a crucial encounter" with the producer Jon Baker, and records at Geejam Studios his album Forever, which will be released in 2011 under the label Geejam Recordings/ Forward Recordings. This encounter with Jon Baker is very important for the artist; the British producer (a friend of Chris Blackwell, founder of Island Records), has discovered many talents, among which recently the reggae singer Alborosie and The Jolly Boys. Moreover, he gains the confidence of Reggae Europe who partners with Geejam Recordings for the album Forever.

paragraphs: At the end of 2009, he is invited in Germany (Leipzig) to meet with Pionear from Germaican records then invited by Stylordz in Toronto and New York for the anniversary of Zulu Nation. In Toronto he shoots the clip of the song "Ooh No". In 2010, invited by the CAMA Festival in Hanoï, Vietnam, he makes a Vietnam tour (Hanoï and Ho Chi Minh City) and upon his return, attends the ROTOTOM Sunsplash Festival in August 2010. He is travelling between Jamaica and France, working on his last album Forever, which will be released in 2011.

paragraphs: Vietnam Tour Vietnam in May 2010, Hanoï and Ho Chi Minh City interview Cama Festival télé Hanoï


title: Kids (movie)

paragraphs: Kids is a 1995 American movie set in New York City. The movie is directed by Larry Clark and written by Harmony Korine. It is about teenagers, drugs and HIV. The movie caused serious controversy when it was released. Starring in the movie are Chloë Sevigny and Rosario Dawson. This movie was rated NC-17, though the rating was surrendered and the movie was released with no rating.


title: Henry & June

paragraphs: Henry & June was a 1990 American movie. It is based on a book by French writer Anaïs Nin. The movie is about Nin's relationship with American writer Henry Miller and his wife June. The movie stars Fred Ward, Uma Thurman, and Maria de Medeiros. It was the first movie to be given the MPAA's rating of NC-17. The movie was released during the autumn of 1990.


title: John Ford

paragraphs: John Ford (February 1, 1894 – August 31, 1973) was an American movie director. He is best known as a director of western movies. He was born in Cape Elizabeth, Maine.

paragraphs: Ford was a soldier in World War II. He served for the United States Navy as the leader of the photography division. On D-day, Ford and his soldiers crossed the English Channel. The soldiers arrived at Omaha Beach and watched the first boats land on the shore. Ford went on to the beach and filmed the battle take place.

paragraphs: Ford started directing movies in 1917 after he moved to California. His first movies were made during The Silent Era, an era where there was no recorded sound in any movies. In 1956, Ford finished making a popular movie called "The Searchers". The movie starred John Wayne as the hero. "The Searchers" is widely known today for its cultural and historical significance.

paragraphs: In the early 1970s, Ford broke his hip and had to be put in a wheelchair. Ford died on August 31, 1973 at his home Palm Desert, California from stomach cancer, aged 79.


title: Setsubun

paragraphs: Setsubun is a traditional event in Japan and it celebrates the end of winter and the beginning of spring. It takes place on February 3 or 4 and there are a lot of ways to celebrate the day. People take part in a traditional "mame-maki" ceremony. People throw roasted soybeans ("mame") and shout ‘‘"Oni wa Soto Fuku wa Uti"’’(Get out Ogre! Come in Happiness!). After the ceremony, each person eats the number of beans that is the same as their age in order to get happiness in the coming year. Another traditional custom is putting a head of a sardine and "hiiragi" on the door to get rid of "Oni" (ogre). In addition, people living in the "Kansai" area eat "Nori Maki" (a special "sushi" roll) while facing the ‘’lucky direction’’ and not saying a word .

paragraphs: Setsubun means “division of the seasons” in the literal sense. In ancient times the beginning of each season was called Setsubun. On the Setsubun day, various rituals were conducted to drive away devil’s sprits. Nowadays, however, Setsubun only refers to "Risshun" (beginning of spring) because the day is the most important than the other Setsubun day since the day is a new year’s day in lunar calendar.It is said that both of beans and rice have spiritual power in it, and to throw these things is a good way to drive demons from our own and our house. People used to throw rice in ancient time, but people started to throw beans instead of rice since Chinese folkway was introduced. Since then, people throw beans to drive demons on Setsubun day.

paragraphs: As we said above, people usually eat an "Ehomaki", which is a kind of "makizushi", on Setsubun. "Makizushi" means “call over happiness”. We usually eat it without cutting because if we cut it, it implies “break up”. People usually put 7 kinds of ingredients in it after the Seven Gods of Fortune.

paragraphs: We eat it without saying anything. Generally, it’s because it would be rudeness for the Seven Gods of Fortune if we are talking while we eat it, but anyone doesn’t know the fact.

paragraphs: "Setsubun" means separating seasons, and indicated each day before the first day of spring, summer, autumn and winter.

paragraphs: However, the event "Setsubun" is very famous, so it became the word to indicate the day before the first day of spring

paragraphs: Setsubun was a ceremony to drive of ancient China and gods who brought misfortune. Originally, it was the folk event

paragraphs: to hope talisman and good crop of private sector. This ceremony came down to Japan in the "Nara" era.

paragraphs: In the "Hiean" era, "Tsuina" that the event of New Year's Eve held in the palace, changed into the ceremony to drive demons.

paragraphs: It died out in the "Muromachi" era, but the event gradually spread among commoner and remained as "Mamemaki" of Setsubun.

paragraphs: In the evening of Setsubun, people set up branches of holly with sardine at the entrance of house, and scatter parched beans.

paragraphs: However, nowadays households which adorn with them decreased, and only scatter parched beans.

paragraphs: In the meantime, "Ehomaki" started as a custom to pray for te prosperous business at the harbor of "Osaka" in the end of "Edo" era. The custom died out temporarily, but "Osaka Nori Kyodo Kumiai" revived it in the event of "Dotonbori" in the late 1970's. Therefore, it was famous in the "Kansai" district. Also, it began to sell in the part of supermarkets and convenience stores in 1990's. In addition, it became rapidly popular among the whole country because "Ehomaki" was advertised considerably in stores.

paragraphs: There are a lot of events related to Setsubun in big shrines. For example, "Narita-san Shinsho-ji" in "Chiba" holds on big events every year. Some believers of "Toshi-otoko" (a man who was born in a year with the same sign of the Chinese Zodiac as the current year.) or big names are invited to the event and they perform "mame-maki" ceremony to gather people. Because of the bad economy in Japan, these events are crowed with a lot of people who try to call in happiness.


title: Komodo National Park

paragraphs: The Komodo National Park is a national park in Indonesia. It is on several islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands. The park is in the area between the East Nusa Tenggara and West Nusa Tenggara provinces. The park includes three larger islands: Komodo, Padar and Rincah. It also includes 26 smaller ones for a total area of 1,733 km² (603 km² of it land). The national park was founded in 1980 to protect the Komodo dragon. This animal is the world's largest lizard. Later it began protecting other species, including some in the ocean. In 1991 the national park was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

paragraphs: The park is spread over several islands. It includes part of western coast of Flores, the three larger islands of Komodo, Padar, Rincah, and 26 smaller islands. It also includes ocean areas such as the Sape Straights. The islands of the national park are volcanic. The land is generally rugged, with some rounded hills to 735m. The climate is one of the driest of Indonesia. Each year between 800mm and 1000mm of rain falls in the park area. Temperatures in the dry season from May to October are around 40 °C.

paragraphs: The Park is hot and dry. There are many savannah plants that make it a good place for the Komodo dragon.

paragraphs: Cloud forests are in only a few areas above 500 metres. These forests are good places for some local plants. There are mangrove forests in some of the quiet bays of the three larger islands.

paragraphs: Large and complex coral reefs are along the north-east coast of Komodo. The park has many animals that live in the ocean, including whale sharks, ocean sunfish, manta rays, eagle rays, pygmy seahorse, false pipefish, clown frogfish, nudibranchs, blue-ringed octopus, sponges, tunicates, and coral.

paragraphs: The island of Padar and part of Rinca were made nature reserves in 1938. Komodo Island became a nature reserve in 1965. UNESCO also began to protect the island in 1977. The three islands were named a national park in 1980. The park was extended to include the nearby parts of the ocean and a part of Flores in 1984. In 1991 the national park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since 1995, the national park authority has been supported by an American environmental organization called The Nature Conservancy (TNC).

paragraphs: Komodo National Park has been selected as one of 28 finalists to become one of the New7Wonders of Nature.

paragraphs: About 4,000 people live within the park. Scuba diving is popular because of the many different kinds of life living in the water. Ecotourism in the ocean is the main way to get money to support the park

paragraphs: However, several fishermen died since the 1980s. People disagree about what happened to them. Park patrol and military said they needed to protect themselves. Fishermen living in the area say the park management killed the fishermen on purpose.


title: Hōtō

paragraphs: The adjoining prefectures, Nagano, Shizuoka and Gunma have similar noodle dishes with soy sauce. They are called "Okkirikomi", "Niboutou" etc. More recently, such Hoto culture has been promoted to encourage profit from tourism.

paragraphs: There are many different stories about the history of Hoto. In the old days, in Yamanashi, rice fields were replaced by mulberry fields, to grow silkworms. Then, cultivation of wheat become popular and dishes which use flour developed. In all of the dishes, Hoto was economical because it used many vegetables and stock. Also, its taste was good. Therefore, Hoto spread throughout Yamanashi.

paragraphs: First, knead flour with a little water in a bowl. Then spread the dough with a stick. Fold the dough and cut widely. You do not need to let it sit, or add salt. Nowadays, you can buy Hoto noodles around Yamanashi prefecture. The soup tastes like soybean paste. Adding pumpkin paste into the soup is popular. The stock is made from dried small sardines. The main ingredient is vegetables. In summer, leeks, onions, potatoes and so on are used. In winter, pumpkins, taro, carrots, napa cabbage and so on are used. Sometimes pork or chicken are used.


title: Pion

paragraphs: A pion or π meson is a meson, which is a subatomic particle made of one quark and one antiquark.

paragraphs: There are six types of quark (called "flavours") but only two "flavours" go together to make a pion. These flavours are called up and down. Quarks have charge, so two quarks of the same flavour (both up or both down) make a neutral pion. But when the two quarks have different flavours (up and down), the pion will have a charge. This charge is positive when an up quark pairs with a down antiquark. The charge is negative when a down quark pairs with an up antiquark.

paragraphs: Pions do not exist for a long time. (On average, charged pions exist for around 26 nanoseconds; neutral pions last a tiny fraction of this). Pions are significant to our lives because they are one of the ways for strong force interactions to take place between nucleons like the protons and neutrons of ordinary matter. These interactions hold the nucleus together.

paragraphs: Pions are the lightest hadrons (particles made up of quarks) and pions with a positive or negative charge are the mesons with the longest "mean lifetime" (the average time that passes before they "decay" into leptons).

paragraphs: The three types of pion have the Greek letter pi in their symbols:

paragraphs: The (superscript) , , or simply refers to the (electromagnetic) charge of the pion.

paragraphs: Up quarks have a charge of + and down antiquarks have a charge of +, so π has charge of +1 (like a proton).

paragraphs: Antiparticles have charge opposite to their particles, so up antiquarks have a charge of − and down quarks have a charge of −. This means that π has charge of −1 (like an electron).

paragraphs: Because π pairs quarks of the same flavour with their antiquarks, both up quark (+) paired with up antiquark (−) and down quark (+) paired with down antiquark (−) leave it with zero charge (like a neutron).

paragraphs: Quarks and antiquarks also have a different kind of charge called "color", unrelated to electromagnetic charge. This comes from the strong interaction that holds the quarks together. As in all mesons, the color charges in a pion must be equal and opposite: "blue" with "anti-blue", "green" with "anti-green", or "red" with "anti-red". The effect of these color–anticolor pairings is that the pion's color charge is "colorless" (like a neutron is neutral). At the smallest distances, typically within an atomic nucleus, a small effect of the color charge remains and acts as the nuclear force that holds the nucleus together. Within the nucleus, then, "virtual" pions (and other "virtual" mesons) are exchanged between nucleons (protons and neutrons), pulling them together.

paragraphs: Antiquarks are antimatter, so they will annihilate a quark of the same "flavour" that is near enough. This means that the quark and the antiquark will turn one another into energy.

paragraphs: Force-carriers are particles that are responsible for the action of forces, such as electromagnetism. Just as photons are responsible for electromagnetic force, so mesons are responsible for some of the lower energy ("residual") strong force interactions that occur between nucleons. (Strong force is also known as nuclear force or "residual strong force" when its action is between nucleons.) At an even smaller level, gluons are responsible for the strong force interactions between quarks.

paragraphs: Decay of charged pions always produces leptons, like electrons.

paragraphs: A neutral pion, π, will usually decay into two highly-energized photons.

paragraphs: However, there is some probability (from <0.1% to 1.2%) involved with the decay of some pions, as they can also decay into different forms. For π, the second most likely decay product is one positron (an anti-electron) and one electron neutrino. π will sometimes decay into one electron and one electron antineutrino. π will sometimes decay into one highly-energized photon, one electron, and one positron. (Keep in mind that positrons and electrons can annihilate each other, and this annihilation produces highly-energized photons).

paragraphs: Since the decay of pions is due to weak force, yet another force carrier is introduced. During the decay, a W boson is created, which lasts for 3x10 seconds. After this incredibly short amount of time, the W boson will decay into the leptons that the pion would naturally decay to. However, it is important to draw this distinction, as it includes weak force.


title: Labyrinthodont

paragraphs: Labyrinthodont is a term which was used for fossil amphibia. Although it is no longer a formal term in taxonomy, it is still useful as an evolutionary grade, a kind of catch-all term. "Labyrinth" mean a maze and "dont" means tooth.

paragraphs: Labyrinthodonts are often called Temnospondyls.

paragraphs: The Labyrinthodontia is not a clade, because it is not monophyletic. It has been replaced in the classification by more correct terms.

paragraphs: The labyrithodonts were some of the dominant animals from the Devonian to the Lower Triassic (about 390 to 210 million years ago). The group is an evolutionary grade (a polyphyletic or paraphyletic group) of species which look rather similar.

paragraphs: The name describes the pattern of infolding of the dentine and enamel of the teeth, which often fossilise. They are also have a heavily armoured skull roof (so they also have an even older name "Stegocephalia"), and complex vertebrae.

paragraphs: The labyrinthodonts flourished for more than 200 million years. Although there was much variation, these traits make their fossils distinct and easy to recognise:

paragraphs: Early tetropods are now classified as lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii). This is because we now know they were aquatic when the limbs first evolved (see Tetrapod).

paragraphs: The informal term "fishapods" is often used for this group of Devonian animals.

paragraphs: A more formal term, used by Clack, is "stem-group tetrapods".


title: Puntland

paragraphs: Puntland is a province of Somalia in the Horn of Africa. Officially it is called the Puntland State of Somalia. Its capital is Garowe. To the east of Puntland is Khatumo. To the south is Galmudug.

paragraphs: The economy is centered around Boosasso. The province covers about a third of Somalia, and about a third of the population of Somalia lives in the province. Puntlanders want some degree of autonomy, but Puntlanders also want to stay within Somalia, and find a solution for the whole country.


title: Frauzio

paragraphs: Frauzio was a comic book Brazil floor monthly, created in 2001 by Marcatti distributed by Publisher SCALE.

paragraphs: Was launched with a circulation of 30 thousand copies and distributed at newsstands around the Brazil, became the first magazine underground to be published in an industrial scale worldwide.

paragraphs: In 2003, published four editions of the magazine Misadventures of Frauzio by Publisher PRO-C. In the same year the album special edition is published by Frauzio Opera Graphica. The book, under the titleQuestion of paternity, brings a Frauzio adventure inspired by the book Lolita of Nabokov.


title: Daddy G

paragraphs: Daddy G, (born Grantley Evan Marshall, , Bristol, UK), is an English musician and a founding member of the band, Massive Attack.

paragraphs: Marshall joined the Bristol music scene as a member of the DJ group The Wild Bunch in the 1980s, which included two other Massive Attack members, Robert Del Naja and Andrew Vowles. In 1986, The Wild Bunch dissolved. Del Naja, Vowles, and Marshall then formed the trip-hop group Massive Attack, which is considered to have pioneered the "Bristol Sound" along with Portishead and Tricky.

paragraphs: In addition to appearing on Massive Attack's albums, Marshall has also mixed a for the "DJ-Kicks" mix series.


title: Tau lepton

paragraphs: Tau (τ) leptons (aka tauons, tau particle) are one of the very small elementary particles. This means that they are believed to be so small that they can not be divided any more. Tau leptons can be thought of as very heavy electrons, as they are both leptons. This is because they have about 3,500 times as much mass as electrons, and about 17 times as much mass as muons. Since they only live for 2.9x10 seconds, they do not have a significant role in the regular world. However, they are very important in the decay of subatomic matter.

paragraphs: Like the other two basic leptons, tauons have a neutrino named after them (the tau neutrino).

paragraphs: Tau have a charge of -1, and can be written as τ. Since antimatter has the opposite of charge of regular matter, anti-tauons have a charge of +1, and can be written as τ. Tauons themselves are unstable, and can decay. Also, τ and τ can annihilate each other in a form of decay. When a single tauon decays, it is the only lepton that can decay into hadrons (things made of quarks). τ and τ can be formed by an electron-positron (antielectron) pair combining. The two tauons then decay into an electron and a positron or a muon and an antimuon, and four of the various neutrinos. However, a single tauon decays differently than a tauon and an antitauon.

paragraphs: A τ will quickly decay into a tau neutrino and a W boson. The W boson will exist for 3x10 seconds, before it decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino, a muon and a muon antineutrino, or a down quark and an up antiquark.


title: Thallium(I) bromide

paragraphs: Thallium(I) bromide, also known as thallous bromide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlBr. It has thallium and bromide ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) bromide is a yellow-white solid. It is similar to silver bromide. It gets darker when light shines on it. It is very toxic, like all thallium compounds. It does not dissolve in water.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) bromide is made by reacting thallium and bromine or by reacting sodium or potassium bromide with any thallium compound.

paragraphs: It is used in semiconductors and gamma ray and X-ray detectors.


title: Thallium(III) hydroxide

paragraphs: Thallium(III) hydroxide, also known as thallic hydroxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl(OH). It has thallium and hydroxide ions in it. The thallium is in its +3 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(III) hydroxide is a weak base. It is a white solid. It is highly toxic. It is also an oxidizing agent. It breaks down to thallium(III) oxide when heated. If it is heated more, it breaks down to oxygen and thallium(I) oxide.


title: Julian Assange

paragraphs: Julian Paul Assange (born 3 July 1971) is an Australian computer programmer, publisher and journalist. He is a spokesman and editor-in-chief of WikiLeaks, which is a website that posts news leaks. He started the website in 2006. He was born in Townsville, Queensland. He also made a program called Rubberhose to hide secret information in a specific way that protects against torture.

paragraphs: Assange was the Readers' Choice for Time Person of the Year in 2010 after getting the most Internet votes. However, Mark Zuckerberg, who started Facebook, won the actual award.

paragraphs: In 2012, facing extradition to Sweden, he was granted political asylum by Ecuador and took refuge at the Embassy of Ecuador, London.

paragraphs: On 11 January 2018, it was announced that Assange had held Ecuadorian citizenship since 12 December 2017.

paragraphs: Ecuadorian President Lenín Moreno said on 27 July 2018 that he had begun talks with British authorities to withdraw the asylum for Assange. On 11 April 2019, Ecuador withdrew Assange's asylum and he was arrested by the Metropolitan Police shortly afterwards. His lawyers said they will fight extradition to the United States

paragraphs: In November 2019, it was reported that Assange is in bad health, has depression and "could die in prison" if not hospitalized.

paragraphs: The extradition to the United States hearing for Assange began in London on February 24, 2020. The next set of hearings is scheduled for May.


title: Kaon

paragraphs: Kaons are a specific type of meson (mesons are particles made of one quark and one antiquark). What makes kaons unique is that they are made of one up quark or down quark, and one strange quark. (One of the two quarks that make of a kaon must be an antiquark, and the other must be normal matter. For example, a kaon can be made of one up quark and a strange antiquark). The discovery of kaons was significant because it proved the existence of yet another flavour (type) of quark, the strange quark.

paragraphs: There are four types of kaons, but two of them are relatively easy to understand. There is the K and the K. The + and 0 above the letter K refer to whether the charge is positive, or 0 (neutral). The K is made of one up quark, and one strange antiquark. Since antiparticles have the opposite charge of their counterpart (and since normal strange quarks have a charge of -1/3), 2/3 + 1/3 = a +1 charge, or simply a + charge. (Also because antiparticles have the opposite charge of their counterpart, if you change the up quark in a K to an up antiquark and the strange antiquark to a normal strange quark, you get the opposite charge, forming a K). Since down quarks and strange quarks have the same charge, if either one of them is an antiparticle, the overall charge is zero. Therefore, a K can either be made of one down quark and strange antiquark, or one down antiquark and one normal strange quark.


title: Thallium(III) oxide

paragraphs: Thallium(III) oxide, also known as thallic oxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlO. It has thallium and oxide ions in it. The thallium is in its +3 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(III) oxide is a white powder. It is very heavy and very toxic. It is a semiconductor. It reacts with acids to make other toxic thallium compounds. It does not dissolve in water.

paragraphs: It is made by oxidation of thallium(I) oxide.


title: Thallium(I) chloride

paragraphs: Thallium(I) chloride, also known as thallous chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TlCl. It has thallium and chloride ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) chloride is a colorless odorless solid. It is very toxic. It is insoluble (does not dissolve) in cold water but dissolves a little in hot water. Otherwise, it is somewhat similar to potassium chloride in being colorless and silver chloride in being insoluble in water.

paragraphs: Thallium(I) chloride is made by reacting any soluble chloride such as hydrochloric acid with thallium(I) sulfate. This makes a thallium(I) chloride solid. It can also be made by reacting thallium metal with hydrochloric acid.

paragraphs: It is the result of a certain way to make hexafluorophosphates from chlorides.


title: Fredric Wertham

paragraphs: Fredric Wertham (20 March 1895 – 18 November 1981) was a Jewish German-American psychiatrist. He was an author who wrote about images in media. He thought that violent imagery in mass media and comic books was harmful to children. His best-known book was "Seduction of the Innocent" (1954). After this book became popular, the United States Congress took a close look at the comic book industry. Also, the Comics Code was made in response. He called television "a school for violence".

paragraphs: He was born on 20 March 20 1895 in Munich. He studied medicine in Germany and England. He and Sigmund Freud wrote letters to each other, and Wertham chose to study mainly psychiatry. In 1922 he was asked to come to the United States and to join the Phipps Psychiatric Clinic at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. He became a United States citizen in 1927. He moved to New York City in 1932. He became the director of a psychiatric clinic connected with the New York Court of General Sessions. All people who were convicted of serious crimes had a psychiatric examination there. The report from those examinations were used in court. In 1935 Wertham spoke in court for the defense in the trial of Albert Fish, a serial killer. Wertham said Fish was insane.

paragraphs: In "Seduction of the Innocent", Wertham wrote about clear or hidden violence, sex, drug use, and other adult topics in "crime comics". Wertham used the words "crime comics" to mean popular comics about criminals and murder that were popular at that time. But, he also included superhero and horror comics in the same group of comics. He said that reading violent comics made children violent. However, this idea was from stories he had heard, not careful research.

paragraphs: Comics, especially the crime and horror titles started by EC Comics had many shocking or ugly images. Wertham often reproduced these pictures. He pointed out themes about death such as "injury to the eye" that he thought were common. One example Jack Cole's "Murder, Morphine and Me" in Magazine Village's "True Crime Comics" Vol. 1, #2 (May 1947). The story showed a character named Mary Kennedy who was a drug dealer. In her dream, she was almost stabbed in the eye with a needle by a drug addict.). Many of his other ideas seemed like nonsense to the comics industry. Wertham thought he saw hidden sexual themes in comics such as nude women hidden in drawings of muscles and tree bark. He also thought Batman and Robin were gay partners. Wertham's idea that Wonder Woman had a hidden story of bondage did have some facts to support it. Her creator William Moulton Marston had said the same thing. However, Wertham also claimed that Wonder Woman's strength and independence made her a lesbian.

paragraphs: Wertham's book had many problems. He did not clearly record information with citations or a bibliography. There was no way of knowing if the stories in his book were true. In 2012, Carol Tilley, a professor of library and information science, found that Wertham was not honest in "Seduction". He changed many facts such as making children in the book younger than they really were.

paragraphs: Wertham's views on mass media have largely overshadowed his broader concerns with violence and with protecting children from psychological harm. His writings about the effects of racial segregation were evidence in the important Supreme Court case "Brown v. Board of Education". Part of his 1966 book, "A Sign for Cain", was about medical professionals and their actions in the Holocaust. He talked about the book on a popular TV program. Parts of these programs were shown at the 2003 Comic-Con International: San Diego

paragraphs: Beaty writes that in 1959 Wertham tried to sell an another book to follow "Seduction of the Innocent". It was called "The War on Children". The book was about the effect of television on children. Wertham was unhappy that no companies wanted to publish it.

paragraphs: Wertham always said he did not want censorship of comics. In the 1970s he was more interested in the good side of comics fan groups. In his last book, "The World of Fanzines" (1974), he concluded that fanzines were a good way to be creative. Wertham was asked to speak to the New York Comic Art Convention. Most comics fans still had bad opinions about him. They did not trust him and yelled at him during his speech. He soon stopped writing about comics.

paragraphs: Before he retired, Wertham had several jobs. He became a professor of psychiatry at New York University. He was a senior psychiatrist in the New York City Department of Hospitals and a psychiatrist and the director of the Mental Hygiene Clinic at the Bellevue Hospital Center.

paragraphs: He died on November 18, 1981 at his retirement home in Kempton, Pennsylvania. He was 86 years old.

paragraphs: The Library of Congress keeps his papers. People were able to study them starting May 20, 2010. The library has a list of all of his writing. This list shows Wertham's many different interests.


title: Shuzo Matsuoka

paragraphs: He was a tennis player on the Japanese national team at the Summer Olympic Games in 1988 at Seoul, in 1992 at Barcelona and in 1996 at Atlanta.

paragraphs: Stella-Artois Queen's Club grass court tournament:


title: Bully (video game)

paragraphs: Bully (PAL region PlayStation 2 version is called Canis Canem Edit) was released on 17 October 2006 by Rockstar Games. Because the game became very popular, Rockstar released the remake called Bully: Scholarship Edition. This version was for the Xbox 360, Wii and Microsoft Windows. There are not many differences between the classic "Bully" and the "Scholarship Edition", however there are 4 new classes available: Biology, Music, Math and Geography.


title: Poxviridae

paragraphs: Poxviridae are family of large complex DNA viruses, including the vaccinia and variola viruses, that are pathogenic to humans and animals and have an affinity for skin tissue. Smallpox is in the family Poxviridae.

paragraphs: Four genera of poxviruses may infect humans: orthopox, parapox, yatapox, molluscipox. Orthopox: variola virus, vaccinia virus, cowpox virus, monkeypox virus, smallpox (eradicated); Parapox: orf virus, pseudocowpox, bovine papular stomatitis virus; Yatapox: tanapox virus, yaba monkey tumor virus; Molluscipox: molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV).


title: Edward Drinker Cope

paragraphs: Edward Drinker Cope (July 28, 1840 – April 12, 1897) was an American biologist. He was notable for his work on fossil animals of North America. Cope was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

paragraphs: Cope was a paleontologist, comparative anatomist, herpetologist and ichthyologist. He wrote many papers. His parents were rich Quakers.

paragraphs: His father wanted him to be a farmer, but he became a scientist. He married his cousin. Later, they owned a museum in Philadelphia.

paragraphs: Mostly, he read books on his own to learn science and found things out himself. He was not a teacher. He did field work, and wrote a lot. In the 1870s and 1880s, went to the American West to report what the land was like to the government. He was often on a mapping team sent by the United States Geological Survey.

paragraphs: For a while he and Othniel Charles Marsh were competing to find dinosaurs. This fight between them is called the Bone Wars. Sometimes being a scientist cost him more money than he could afford. In the 1880s, Cope lost so much money in his silver mines that he had to sell a lot of his fossil collection in 1886. In the 1890s he was no longer poor, but he died when he was only 57.

paragraphs: 1,400 of his articles were published in science journals. He found over 1,000 species of extinct animals. He wrote about hundreds of kinds of ancient fish. He found dozens of dinosaurs. He wrote about the evolution of mammalian molars teeth, and produced two huge works on the amphibia and reptiles of North America.

paragraphs: Cope showed that horses evolved to be larger as they moved from woodland onto grassland. The fact that the fossils show the mammals getting bigger over time is called Cope's rule.

paragraphs: Cope was the first son of Alfred and Hanna Cope. His father was a serious Quaker and ran the shipping business started by his father, Thomas P. Cope. The business was started in 1821. His parents took him to gardens, museums, and zoos. They taught him to read and write and draw.

paragraphs: He started going to school when he was 9 years old. When he was 12, his parents sent him away to a Quaker boarding school. At 15 years old he studied biology (natural history) and often visited the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. They had a Natural history museum.

paragraphs: His letters home show he felt farm work was not for him. Cope’s father made him get a summer job on a farm when he was 14 and 15. When he was 16 he was not sent to the boarding school any more because his father wanted him to be a farmer. His father wanted him to get more exercise, so he bought him a farm. Cope rented out the land to farmers and worked on farms.

paragraphs: When he was 18 years old he, began working at the Academy of Natural Sciences part-time. He took classes. His father paid for them. Still, his father said he should farm. Until he was 23, his letters to his father kept saying he did not want to be a farmer and that he wanted to be a scientist.

paragraphs: He worked at the Academy of Natural Sciences for two years, and became a member. He sometimes had to visit the Smithsonian Institution where he met Spencer Baird, who knew all about fish and birds. He also joined the American Philosophical Society. The Academy and the Society published journals, and they accepted his articles.

paragraphs: In 1861 when he was 21 years old, he wrote about classifying salamanders. A salamander is an amphibian. He then took a comparative anatomy class from a famous teacher at the University of Pennsylvania. Cope then asked his father if he could learn German and French so he could read science books and novels in German and French.

paragraphs: At the beginning of the American Civil War Cope tried to get a job helping in a field hospital. Then, when he was 22, he wanted to somehow help out the freed blacks. That year, 1863, he and his fiancée broke up and he was sad. He went to Ireland, England and Europe. During his trip, he met famous scientists.

paragraphs: While in Germany, he first met his rival, scientist Othniel Charles Marsh. On February 11, 1864, he wrote to his father, “I shall get home in time to . . . be caught by the new draft. I shall not be sorry for this . . . certain persons . . . would be mean enough to say that I have gone to Europe to avoid the war".

paragraphs: Cope’s return home to Philadelphia was before the end of the Civil War. He married a Quaker girl he knew, Annie Pim. She lived on a farm and the wedding was held at her house.

paragraphs: Cope wrote papers on fish, whales, and one on a fossil frog with a tail. Cope’s father gave money to a small Quaker college called Haverford College. The college gave Cope an honorary master's degree and hired him to teach Zoology.

paragraphs: Cope went on scientific trips to the American west and wrote letters to his parents and to his wife and daughter while on those trips. He told his father that teaching took up too much of his time for him to make scientific discoveries. He quit his job at the college. He and his wife and daughter then moved to Haddonfield to be closer to the fossil beds in western New Jersey.

paragraphs: In Haddonfield, New Jersey were marlpits, where a dinosaur skeleton was discovered in 1858 by William Foulke and named "Hadrosaurus foulkii" by Dr. Leidy of Philadelphia's Academy of Natural Sciences. Cope found more fossils in the marlpits there. For example, he described "Elasmosaurus platyurus" and "Laelaps" in 1868. Edward Cope also went on expeditions to caves; the last cave he visited was the Wyandotte Caves in Indiana in 1871.

paragraphs: In his 30s the Quaker wrote a lot of scientific papers that were published. Charles Sternberg said that in the fossil fields of Kansas Cope had a "severe attack of nightmare . . . every animal of which we had found trace during the day played with him at night . . . sometimes he would lose half the night in this exhausting slumber".

paragraphs: Cope also looked for fossils in the west of the United States. In 1872 he explored Eocene rocks. The rocks were 55 to 38 million years old. That year, he worked too much and had a breakdown. In 1873 he studied the "Titanothere" beds (strata) of northeastern Colorado. "Titanothere" was a large extinct herbivore.

paragraphs: In 1874 Cope volunteered for the Wheeler Survey. These geological mapping trips were led by George Montague Wheeler. They mapped parts of the United States west of the 100th meridian. The 100th meridian west is the boundary between the dry West and the rainy East of the United States.

paragraphs: In 1874 Cope discovered the Puerco formation in New Mexico during the Wheeler Survey. The Puerco formation was a layer of soft rock 500 feet thick along the upper Puerco River near Cuba, New Mexico. It was green and black marl (that contained chemicals used in making fertilizer). Fossils were later found by someone at a similar formation west of there in a different county. Cope said it was like those fossils came from his Puerco formation, which he discovered. His cliff may have been dug by the river over a long time and it looked like it had been there a long time. It was something the scientists he knew had not seen before him. As part of the Wheeler Survey, he was able to shop at commissaries. He was able to get his finding in the reports the survey published. He brought his wife and daughter along on one trip of the survey, renting a house for them. As a volunteer, he paid his own way.

paragraphs: When Cope was 35, his father died, leaving him a quarter of a million dollars. The next year, 1876, Cope moved his wife and daughter from their house by the apple orchard in Haddonfield, New Jersey back to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – this time to a row house in the City. He bought two units and used the one next door as a paleo-lab for his fossil collection. He stopped doing field work to catch up on his writing. He hired teams to look for fossils for him. And, he helped the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition set up their fossil displays. In 1877 he was able to buy half of the "American Naturalist."

paragraphs: He published papers so fast his rival, Professor Marsh, had doubts about when Cope’s fossils were found. In August 1878 when he was 38, Cope sailed to the British Isles to attend a scientific convention in Dublin Ireland. He then sailed to France to go to a two-day scientific convention there. At one of the conventions he decided to buy some boxes of Argentine fossils, maybe for the museum in Philadelphia.

paragraphs: When Cope came back, two years-worth of collecting by his man Lucas awaited him. This included a "Camarasaurus", a sauropod.

paragraphs: Cope introduced his (then) friend Marsh to the marl pit owner, Albert Vorhees, when the two visited the site. Later he discovered that Marsh had gone—behind Cope's back and made a private agreement with Vorhees: any fossils that Vorhees's men found were sent back to Marsh at New Haven.

paragraphs: In 1868 Professor Marsh said Cope put the skull of dinosaur at the tail end. It was "Elasmosaurus", a long-necked plesiosaur. It turned out Marsh was right, and Cope was humiliated.

paragraphs: The feud lasted for the rest of Cope’s life. Both became less wealthy trying to keep the other’s men from digging for fossils. Each criticized the other’s work in the New York Herald. Another time Marsh tried to keep Cope from getting his articles and books published, so Cope hired two fossil-finders away from Marsh.

paragraphs: In 1889, U.S. Geological Survey stopped giving grants to Cope. Marsh persuaded John Wesley Powell to ask Cope to give the Survey the specimens Cope found back in 1874. Cope did not want to give the fossils to the Survey because when he found them he was a volunteer paying his own way. So, he spoke to the "New York Herald". The first article was on January 12, 1890. Cope said Marsh underpaid his workers, and said some of what Marsh wrote was really written by others. Also, he said Powell was spending tax money wrong and had made mistakes in classifying fossils. Later, another article gave their side of the story. As a result of the articles, the Survey lost its funding for fossil-finding. Marsh got fired from the Survey. And, Cope almost got fired from the University of Pennsylvania. Cope wondered if people thought of him as “a liar . . . actuated by jealousy and disappointment.” He seemed sorry Marsh had been fired, writing to Paleontologist Henry Osborn, “I think Marsh is impaled on the horns of "Monoclonius sphenocerus".

paragraphs: In 1882 Cope wrote a paper about a fossil pelycosaur "Edaphosaurus". It looked like a lizard with a huge fin along its back. In 1886 Professor Cope fired his fossil diggers and started selling some of his large fossil collection to museums. He also wrote forty more scientific reports about their findings that year.

paragraphs: In 1889 he reported "Coelophysis", a slender dinosaur from the Upper Triassic. This little carnivore is one of the earliest dinosaurs found. The same year, he succeeded Joseph Leidy, who had died the previous year, as professor of zoology at the University of Pennsylvania.

paragraphs: In 1892, Cope (then 52 years old) was granted expense money for field work from the Texas Geological Survey. With his finances improved, he was able to publish a massive work on the "Batrachians of North America", which was the most detailed work on the continent's frogs and amphibians ever done, and the 1,115-page "The Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North America".

paragraphs: In the 1890s his publication rate increased to an average of 43 articles a year. His final expedition to the West took place in 1894, when he prospected for dinosaurs in South Dakota and visited sights in Texas and Oklahoma.

paragraphs: In 1895 Cope re-hired Sternberg, who knew about the nightmares he had about dinosaurs, to look for fossils for him.

paragraphs: Cope sold fossils to museums. For example, in 1895 the American Museum of Natural History in New York City bought his collection of about 10,000  fossil mammals.

paragraphs: Cope sold three other collections for $29,000. Although his collection still contained more than 13,000 specimens, Cope's fossil hoard was much smaller than Marsh's collection, which was valued at over a million dollars.

paragraphs: In 1896 Cope got sick, and he died on April 12, 1897. His friends told of how they remembered him. They then held the reading of his will. The "American Journal of Science" had an obituary about Cope. The "Naturalist" had a longer one. And, the National Academy of Sciences' journal had one years later.

paragraphs: Edward D. Cope was a Quaker. His biographer Henry Osborn wrote, “If Edward... (had) doubts about the... Bible... he did not (tell) them in his letters to his family, but there can be little question... that he shared the intellectual unrest of the period". Cope was conservative about women working or voting. He felt the husband should be able to take care of his wife and that married women would vote the same as their husbands.

paragraphs: He was remembered as not liking the Negro accent, and he believed that if "a race was not white then it was inherently more ape-like".

paragraphs: Although his daughter Julia burnt many of his private papers, many of his friends have written about him. Charles R. Knight, a former friend, said that Cope's language was so filthy that "in [Cope's] heyday no woman was safe within five miles of him".

paragraphs: People said Cope had great energy and activity and was always interesting, kind and helpful. Others said he had a temper and said he was a "militant paleontologist". Some say he was well-liked by those who lived when he did.

paragraphs: Cope said Charles Darwin's book "The Voyage of the Beagle" had "too much geology in it".

paragraphs: Over his lifetime Cope's views on evolution shifted. His original view, described in the paper "On the Origin of Genera" (1868), held that while Darwin's natural selection may affect the preservation of superficial characteristics in organisms, natural selection alone could not explain the formation of genera.

paragraphs: Cope's beliefs became one with an increased emphasis on continual and utilitarian evolution with less involvement of a Creator. He became one of the founders of the Neo-Lamarckism school of thought, which holds that individuals can pass on traits acquired in its lifetime to offspring. Although the view has been shown to be incorrect, it was common among paleontologists in Cope's time. In 1887, Cope published his own "Origin of the Fittest: essays in evolution", detailing his views on the subject. He was a strong believer in the law of use and disuse—that an individual will slowly, over time, favor an anatomical part of its body so much that it will become stronger and larger as time progresses down the generations. This theory fails because use and disuse does not affect the genetic code of the gametes, something which became clear in the generations after his death.


title: National Science Foundation

paragraphs: The National Science Foundation (NSF) is a United States government agency where discoveries begin and supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health. With an annual budget of about US$6.87 billion (fiscal year 2010), the NSF funds approximately 20 percent of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States' colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics and the social sciences, the NSF is the major source of federal backing.

paragraphs: The NSF's director, deputy director, and the 24 members of the National Science Board (NSB) are appointed by the President of the United States, and confirmed by the United States Senate. The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of the foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies.


title: Y tu mamá también

paragraphs: Y tu mamá también ("And your mother too") is a 2001 award-winning Mexican road movie. It was directed by Alfonso Cuarón and written by him and his brother Carlos Cuarón.

paragraphs: It was released without a rating in the United States because the movie's distributors believed a market-limiting NC-17 was unavoidable. This movie was released during 2002 in the US.


title: Adriaan Blaauw

paragraphs: Adriaan Blaauw (April 12 1914—December 1 2010) was a Dutch astronomer. He was an expert on the development of groups of young stars and how they expand away from each other. He discovered that some massive stars, known as runaways, can be moving at speeds of hundreds of kilometers per second. He was the scientific director of the European Southern Observatory and later became it's Director General. From 1976 to 1979 he was the President of the International Astronomical Union.


title: Drosophila pseudoobscura

paragraphs: Drosophila pseudoobscura is a species of fruit fly, used extensively in lab studies of the genetics of natural populations.

paragraphs: It was first used by Theodosius Dobzhansky and his colleagues. They collected samples from populations in western North America and Mexico, and grew them in 'population cages' in the laboratory. They were interested in natural selection, genetic drift, and other aspects of population genetics.

paragraphs: In 1989 Diane Dodd gave laboratory populations of "D. pseudoobscura" two different food types, starch and maltose. They rapidly evolved into two distinct groups after only eight generations with the different foods. As the two groups both showed a strong preference for mating with their own type, this was claimed as an example of speciation by reproductive isolation. Dodd's experiment has been repeated by others, and works with other kinds of fruit flies and foods.

paragraphs: In 2005, "D. pseudoobscura" was the second "Drosophila" species to have its genome sequenced, after "Drosophila melanogaster".


title: Substitute teacher

paragraphs: A substitute teacher is a person who is paid to teach a school class when the normal teacher cannot be there. This may be if the normal teacher is sick or out of town. The term "substitute teacher" is often used in the United States, but in the United Kingdom, the term supply teacher is often used. In Victoria, Casual relief teacher (CRT) is the term used.


title: Dana Delany

paragraphs: Dana Welles Delany (born March 13, 1956) is an Emmy Award-winning American movie and television actress. She is well known for her role as Colleen McMurphy on the ABC television show "China Beach" (1988–1991), "Katherine Mayfair" on "Desperate Housewives" (2007–2010) and "Megan Hunt" on "Body of Proof" (2011–present).


title: Fastball

paragraphs: Fastball is an American rock band from Austin, Texas. It started in the 1990s with the name Magneto U.S.A., but later changed its name to Fastball.

paragraphs: Fastball became popular around Austin, Texas. It released its first album, "Make Your Mama Proud", in 1996. However, the band did not became famous until it released its second album, "All The Pain Money Can Buy" in 1998. The first song on this album, "The Way", became a hit. This song was about an elderly couple who got lost while traveling to a family reunion and died. However, band member Tony Scalzo, who wrote the song, gave the story a happier ending in the lyrics. The album had another big hit, "Out Of My Head", and the song "Fire Escape" also was played on the radio. The band's next albums, "The Harsh Light Of Day", "Keep Your Wig On", and "Little White Lies", did not sell as many copies as "All The Pain Money Can Buy".