title: Jane Austen

paragraphs: Jane Austen (16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist. She wrote many books of romantic fiction about the gentry. Her works made her one of the most famous and beloved writers in English literature. She is one of the great masters of the English novel.

paragraphs: Austen's works criticized sentimental novels in the late 18th century, and are part of the change to nineteenth-century realism. She wrote about typical people in everyday life. This gave the English novel its first distinctly modern character. Austen's stories are often comic, but they also show how women depended on marriage for social standing and economic security. Her works are also about moral problems.

paragraphs: Jane Austen was born on 16 December 1775 at Steventon, near Basingstoke. Educated mostly by her father and older brothers, and also by her own reading, she lived with her family at Steventon. They moved to Bath when her father retired in 1801. After he died in 1805, she moved around with her mother. In 1809, they settled in Chawton, near Alton, Hampshire. In May 1817 she moved to Winchester to be near her doctor. She died there on 18 July 1817.

paragraphs: Jane Austen was very modest about her own genius. She once famously described her work as "the little bit (two Inches wide) of Ivory, on which I work with so fine a brush, as produces little effect after much labor". When she was a girl she wrote stories. Her works were printed only after much revision. Only four of her novels were printed while she was alive. They were "Sense and Sensibility" (1811), "Pride and Prejudice" (1813), "Mansfield Park" (1814) and "Emma" (1815). Two other novels, "Northanger Abbey" and "Persuasion", were printed in 1817 with a biographical notice by her brother, Henry Austen. "Persuasion" was written shortly before her death. She also wrote two earlier works, "Lady Susan", and an unfinished novel, "The Watsons". She had been working on a new novel, "Sanditon", but she died before she could finish it. She is now a well known great writer.

paragraphs: Biographical facts about Jane Austen are "famously scarce" (few). Only a few letters remain (it is estimated that only 160 out of Austen's 3,000 letters survive). Her sister Cassandra (to whom most of the letters were written) burned "the greater part" of the ones she kept. The letters she did not destroy she censored. Other letters were destroyed by the heirs of Admiral Francis Austen, Jane's brother. Most of the biographies written about her for 50 years after she died was by her relatives, who often described her as "good quiet Aunt Jane". Scholars have not been able to find much information after that.

paragraphs: Austen's parents, George Austen (1731–1805), and his wife, Cassandra (1739–1827), were both part of the gentry. Cassandra was a part of the important Leigh family. George Austen, however, was of a lower class of society. He had first met Cassandra at Oxford, while she was meeting her uncle Theophilus. George and Cassandra married on 26 April 1764 at Walcot Church in Bath.

paragraphs: Austen had a large family. She had six brothers—James (1765–1819), George (1766–1838), Edward (1767–1852), Henry Thomas (1771–1850), Francis William (Frank) (1774–1865), Charles John (1779–1852)—and one sister, Cassandra Elizabeth (1773–1845), who died without marrying. Jane deeply loved Cassandra, and they were both best friends. Of her brothers, Austen was most close to Henry, who helped spread and influence her writing. "Oh, what a Henry!" she once wrote. George was almost ten years older than Jane. He suffered from fits and was not able to develop normally. His father wrote of him, "We have this comfort, he cannot be a bad or a wicked child". He may also have been deaf and mute. Jane knew sign language (she mentioned talking "with my fingers" in a letter) and could have communicated with him. Charles and Frank served in the navy. Edward was adopted by his fourth cousin, Thomas Knight. He became "Edward Knight" instead of Edward Austen in 1812.

paragraphs: Austen was born on 16 December 1775 at Steventon rectory. She was christened at home and then, as the Book of Common Prayer directs, brought to church for the baptism to be certified in public on 5 April 1776. A few months after she was born, her mother hired a woman named Elizabeth Littlewood to nurse her. Littlewood took care of Austen for about a year. According to family tradition, Jane and Cassandra were sent to Oxford to be educated by Mrs. Ann Crawley in 1783. They moved with her to Southampton later in the year. Both girls caught typhus and Jane almost died. After that, Austen was educated at home until she went to boarding school with Cassandra early in 1785. She learned some French, spelling, needlework, dancing,music, and probably drama. In the winter of 1786, Jane and Cassandra went back home.

paragraphs: Austen also learned much by reading books. Her father and brothers helped choose the books she read. George Austen seemed to have let his daughters read the books in his large library freely. He also allowed Austen's experiments in writing, and gave her costly paper and other writing materials.

paragraphs: Jane Austen and her family also enjoyed acting out plays privately. Most of the plays were comedies. This might have been a way for Austen's comedic and satirical talents to develop.

paragraphs: Perhaps from as early as 1787, Austen began writing poems, short stories, and plays for fun. Austen later put together "fair copies" of 29 of these early works into three notebooks. They are now called the "Juvenilia". It has pieces which were first written down between 1787 and 1793. Jane Austen had arranged her writing during this time into three volumes, namely "Volume the First", "Volume the Second" and "Volume the Third". There is some proof that Austen continued to work on these pieces later in life. Her nephew and niece, James Edward and Anna Austen, may have made further additions to her work in around 1814. In these works were included "Love and Freindship" which was completed in 1790 and "Lesley Castle" which was completed in 1792. In "Love and Freindship", she laughed at popular sentimental novels. She also wrote "The History of England", which had 13 watercolour pictures by her sister Cassandra inside it.

paragraphs: Jane Austen started to feel increasingly unwell during 1816, which was the year when her novel "<nowiki>'Persuasion' </nowiki>"was published. On 24 May 1817, she moved to Winchester in search for a cure to her illness. She died on 18 July 1817, aged 41. Although there is no conclusive evidence to prove the cause of her death, it seems likely that it was Addison's disease that killed her. She was buried in Winchester Cathedral on 24 July 1817.


title: Charlotte Brontë

paragraphs: Charlotte Brontë (21 April 1816 – 31 March 1855) was an English novelist and poet.

paragraphs: She first published her works, including "Jane Eyre", under the pseudonym (false name) of Currer Bell. In 1846, Charlotte encouraged her sisters to print "Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell". They did not sell well. Her first novel, "The Professor", was rejected by many publishers. It was not printed until 1857. She is famous for her novel "Jane Eyre" (1847), which was very popular when it was printed.

paragraphs: "Jane Eyre" was a strong story of a plain, brave, clever woman struggling with her passions, reasons, and social condition. She later wrote the books "Shirley" (1849) and "Villette" (1853). She lived longer than her sisters, but she was only 38 when she died in pregnancy.

paragraphs: Charlotte Brontë was the third child of Patrick Brontë (formerly "Patrick Brunty"), an Irish Anglican clergyman, and his wife, Maria née Branwell. In April 1821, the family moved a few miles to Haworth. Patrick had been appointed Perpetual Curate there. Maria Branwell Brontë died of cancer on 15 September 1821. She left her five daughters and a son to be looked after by her sister Elizabeth Branwell.

paragraphs: In August 1824, Charlotte was sent with three of her sisters to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. She described it as Lowood School in her novel "Jane Eyre". The sisters were Emily, Maria and Elizabeth. The poor conditions of the school permanently affected Charlotte's health according to her. She thought it led to the early deaths of her two elder sisters, Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815). They died of tuberculosis in June 1825 soon after their father took them from the school on 1 June.

paragraphs: At home in Haworth Parsonage, Charlotte and the other living children (Branwell, Emily and Anne) began writing about the lives and struggles of the dwellers of their imaginary kingdoms. Charlotte and Branwell wrote Byronic stories about their country — Angria — Emily and Anne wrote articles and poems about theirs Gondal.

paragraphs: Charlotte went to school at Roe Head, Mirfield, from 1831 to 1832. There she met her lifelong friends, Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor. In 1833 she wrote her novella "The Green Dwarf" under the name of Wellesley. Charlotte returned as a teacher from 1835 to 1838. In 1839 she became a governess to various families in Yorkshire, a career she had until 1841.

paragraphs: In 1842 she and Emily travelled to Brussels to enroll in a pensionnat (boarding school) run by Constantin Heger (1809 – 1896) and his wife Claire Zoé Parent Heger (1814 – 1891). In return for this, Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the pensionnat was cut short when Elizabeth Branwell, their aunt, died in October 1842. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January 1843 to be a teacher at the pensionnat. This stay was not happy. She became lonely, homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Heger. She finally returned to Haworth in January 1844 and later used her time at the pensionnat as the inspiration for some of "The Professor" and "Villette".


title: Emily Brontë

paragraphs: Emily Jane Brontë (30 July 1818 – 19 December 1848) was a British author and poet. She is most famous for her only novel "Wuthering Heights" (published in 1847). She wrote under the pen name Ellis Bell. Brontë had two sisters, Charlotte and Anne, who were also writers. Her brother, Branwell, was a painter. She co-wrote the poetry collection "Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell" (1846), with her sisters. She was born in Thornton, West Riding of Yorkshire, England. She attended Cowan School with her sister Charlotte.

paragraphs: Brontë died of tuberculosis on 19 December 1848 in Haworth, West Riding of Yorkshire. She was 30.


title: Anne Brontë

paragraphs: Anne Brontë (17 January 1820 – 28 May 1849) was an English writer and poet. She is best known for writing "Agnes Grey" (1847) and "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall" (1848).

paragraphs: Anne was born on 17 January 1820 in Thornton, Yorkshire, England. She was the daughter of Patrick and Marie Brontë and the youngest of their six children. She was taught at her family's home in Haworth by her aunt Elizabeth Branwell. She worked as a governess in 1839 and then again between 1841 and 1845.

paragraphs: In 1846 Anne contributed 21 poems to "Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell". This was a joint work with her sisters, Charlotte and Emily. "Agnes Grey" was published in 1847 in three volumes with "Wuthering Heights", a book written by her sister Emily. "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall" was published in 1848 and sold well.

paragraphs: Anne Brontë died on 28 May 1849 in Scarborough, Yorkshire, England of tuberculosis.


title: Charles Dickens

paragraphs: Charles Dickens (7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was one of the great English writers of the 19th century.

paragraphs: Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth, England. His parents were John Dickens (1785-1851), a naval pay clerk, and Elizabeth Barrow (1789–1863).

paragraphs: When Dickens was born he had a rare disorder meaning he could not read or write properly like other kids. When Charles was twelve years old, his family moved to Camden, London. He worked in a blacking factory there while his father was in prison for debt. Dickens's hard times in the factory served as a foundation of ideas for many of his novels. Many like "Oliver Twist" soon became famous. When his great-grandmother died and transmitted money, Charles' father paid off his debts and was released from prison. Charles did not like working and wished to stop working after his father was released. However, his mother said that the family needed the money so Charles was forced to continue working. Charles then finished his schooling, and got a job as an office boy for an attorney. After finding that job dull, he taught himself shorthand and became a journalist that reported on the government. Dickens was a Unitarian.

paragraphs: Charles Dickens was once involved in a train crash near Staple ford, Kent.

paragraphs: His first book was "Sketches by Boz" in 1836, a collection of the short pieces he had been writing for the Monthly Magazine and the Evening Chronicle. This was followed by "The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club" in 1837. Both these books became popular as soon as they were printed.

paragraphs: Charles Dickens died of a stroke on June 9, 1870. He was buried in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.

paragraphs: Charles Dickens wrote many books, including:


title: Portsmouth

paragraphs: Portsmouth is a city in the south of England, in the county of Hampshire. About 280,536 people live there (As Of 2017). It is a port and is the home of the British Royal Navy. It's the second-largest city in the county of Hampshire, behind Southampton. It is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. Portsmouth is on Portsea Island and is narrowly separated from the mainland by a creek.

paragraphs: For centuries the city was one of the world's biggest places of shipbuilding. Some of its most famous ships that people can still see are HMS Victory and the HMS Warrior. People also visit Portsmouth to see the old ship Mary Rose. This was Henry VIII of England's ship, and it was under the water for a long time, from 1545 to 1982. Tourists also go to see Cumberland House, the birthplace of Charles Dickens, a British author (writer).

paragraphs: Charles Dickens, Rudyard Kipling and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, all British authors, are famous people who lived in Portsmouth.

paragraphs: It is home of the Football League Two side Portsmouth F.C. They play at Fratton Park.

paragraphs: Portsmouth has one university, the University of Portsmouth.


title: HMS Victory

paragraphs: HMS "Victory" is the oldest ship still in use. It is in Portsmouth, England with the HMS "Warrior" and the remains of the "Mary Rose", a ship belonging to Henry VIII of England.

paragraphs: Her most famous captains are Horatio Nelson, who died on the ship during the Battle of Trafalgar, and Samuel Hood.


title: HMS Warrior (1860)

paragraphs: HMS "Warrior" was the first battleship with a hull made of iron. It was built in response to the French ironclad warship "Gloire". It is in Portsmouth, England with the HMS "Victory" and the remains of the "Mary Rose", a ship belonging to Henry VIII of England.


title: Mary Rose

paragraphs: The Mary Rose was a ship which belonged to Henry VIII of England. She sank in 1545 in battle with a French fleet.

paragraphs: In 1979, the "Mary Rose" Trust was formed. In 1982 the "Mary Rose" Trust managed to get the "Mary Rose" out of the sea. In 1994, they started to preserve her.

paragraphs: The remains of the "Mary Rose" are currently in Portsmouth, England with the HMS "Victory" and HMS "Warrior".

paragraphs: It is not known the exact reason for the sinking. One of the theories is that she had the gun ports open to fire at the French. She then turned to fire at the other side, but the men on board failed to close the gun ports. Sea water got in the open gun ports, which tipped her over and she sank.

paragraphs: The "Mary Rose" sank because the wind blew and tipped her over.


title: Mary Tudor

paragraphs: The name Mary Tudor can refer to either:


title: Mutiny on the Bounty

paragraphs: The Mutiny on the "Bounty has become a famous story, leading to many books, movies, and songs. The HMS "Bounty was a small, three masted, fully rigged, sailing ship. The "Bounty" became famous when the crew (seamen) mutinied (took over) the ship on 28 April 1789. The captain of the "Bounty" was named William Bligh.

paragraphs: The ship was built in Hull, England in 1784 and was first called "Bethia". In 1787 the ship was rebuilt to carry breadfruit trees. Heat and water were added to the cabins so the trees would survive in cold weather. The British government was hoping the breadfruit trees growing wild in Tahiti could be grown in Jamaica. This would provide cheap food for the slaves working on the sugar farms. The ship was very small - 90 feet 10 inches (27.7 metres) long and 24 feet 4 inches (7.4 metres) wide. The tallest mast was 53 feet (16.1 metres) high.

paragraphs: The "Bounty" was captained by Lieutenant William Bligh and he took command on 16 August 1787. On 23 December, 1787, "Bounty" set off on the long trip to Tahiti. On the journey, William Bligh tried to go around Cape Horn. He tried for over a month but bad weather and winds stopped the ship. The "Bounty" was turned around and went the longer way around the Cape of Good Hope.

paragraphs: The "Bounty" reached Tahiti on 25 October 1788. She had been at sea for ten months. The crew stayed for five months and lived on the island. They collected 1015 breadfruit plants. The crew were very happy living in Tahiti and Fletcher Christian fell in love with a Tahitian girl named Maimiti. They did not want to have another long journey and go back to England.

paragraphs: The "Bounty" left Tahiti on 4 April 1789, on the way to Jamaica. On 28 April, near the Friendly Islands, Fletcher Christian led the mutiny (take over). Bligh and 18 sailors were left at sea in a small boat, while Christian and the "Bounty" went back to Tahiti. Christian and a small group of sailors, 11 Tahitian women, and 6 Tahitian men then went to the remote Pitcairn Island. After they arrived they took everything they could from the ship. A sailor called Matthew Quintal, burned and destroyed the "Bounty" on 23 January 1790.

paragraphs: Pitcairn Island is a remote island in the Pacific Ocean. The Polynesians knew about the island and people had once lived there. There was nobody living on Pitcairn when it was discovered by an English sailor, Philip Carteret on 2 July 1767. He made a mistake and marked it on the map 200 miles from its real location. The people from the "Bounty" had the remote island to themselves. There was a lot of fighting between the new settlers. Fletcher Christian, 4 other mutineers and all 6 of the Tahitian men were killed. One of the 4 surviving mutineers fell off a cliff while drunk. Matthew Quintal was killed by the remaining 2 mutineers after he attacked them. When the American seal-hunting ship "Topaz" visited the island in 1808 they found only 1 mutineer, John Adams, still alive along with 9 Tahitian women. In 1856, the British government moved all the island people to Norfolk Island. Most stayed on Norfolk, but about 22 people found their way back and their descendants still live on Pitcairn. Norfolk has about 1000 "Bounty" descendants, which is about half its population.

paragraphs: Lieutenant William Bligh was able to sail the small boat 6500 km back to Batavia. He returned to England and reported the mutiny to the Admiralty on 15 March 1790. On 7 November 1790, HMS "Pandora" was sent to Tahiti look for the "Bounty" and to bring back the mutineers for punishment. The "Pandora" was able to capture the mutineers left on Tahiti, but could find no sign of the group that was hiding on Pitcairn. The "Pandora" was wrecked on the way back to England.

paragraphs: The following list tells what happened to the crew of the "Bounty".

paragraphs: From the 19 left in the small boat, only 12 got back safely to England

paragraphs: One sailor was killed on the trip to Timor:

paragraphs: One sailor died from disease when they reached Timor:

paragraphs: Three sailors died from disease not long after getting to Batavia:

paragraphs: Two sailors died on their way home from Batavia to England:

paragraphs: Seven sailors were forced to stay on the "Bounty" after the mutiny. There was not room in the small boat. They were all taken prisoner in Tahiti by the "Pandora" to be taken back to England to be charged:

paragraphs: Two of the mutineers who stayed on Tahiti died before the "Pandora" arrived:

paragraphs: Three mutineers who were captured by the "Pandora", drowned in the wreck:

paragraphs: Four mutineers survived the wreck and were taken to England for trial:

paragraphs: Only two of the mutineers who went to Pitcairn died peacefully:


title: Political virtues

paragraphs: The political virtues were listed by Bernard Crick "In Defense of Politics", 1982. They included but were not limited to:

paragraphs: take one step, then see its results before taking another

paragraphs: making friends with people you have argued with

paragraphs: giving up some things you want to get those things that are most important to you

paragraphs: people want to have a number of choices that are different from each other

paragraphs: He sees these virtues as a way of avoiding ideology or "absolute-sounding ethic". More virtues will lead to less conflict. None of them can be forced on anyone.

paragraphs: Some other virtues have also been suggested:

paragraphs: and compassion. "Being brief" or "being positive" are sometimes claimed also to be virtues, but just as many people think they are bad things that only help avoid truth or serious problems.


title: Lady Jane Grey

paragraphs: Lady Jane Grey ( – 12 February 1554), also known as Lady Jane Dudley (after her marriage) and as "the Nine Days' Queen", was an English noblewoman and de facto Queen of England and Ireland from 10 July until 19 July 1553.

paragraphs: Jane was the great-granddaughter of Henry VII through his younger daughter Mary, and was a first cousin once removed of Edward VI. She had an excellent humanist education and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day. In May 1553, she married Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward's chief minister John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In June 1553, Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Roman Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England, whose foundation Edward claimed to have laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their claims under the Third Succession Act.

paragraphs: After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July 1553 and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew very quickly, and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. The Privy Council of England suddenly changed sides and proclaimed Mary as queen on 19 July 1553, deposing Jane. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason and executed less than a month later. Jane was held prisoner in the Tower and was convicted in November 1553 of high treason, which carried a sentence of death—though Mary initially spared her life. However, Jane soon became viewed as a threat to the Crown when her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, got involved with Wyatt's rebellion against Queen Mary's intention to marry Philip II of Spain. Both Jane and her husband were executed on 12 February 1554.

paragraphs: Lady Jane Grey was the eldest daughter of Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and his wife, Frances. The traditional view is that she was born at Bradgate Park in Leicestershire in October 1537, while more recent research indicates that she was born somewhat earlier, possibly in London, in late 1536 or in the spring of 1537. Frances was the elder daughter of King Henry VIII's younger sister, Mary. Jane had two younger sisters: Lady Katherine and Lady Mary. Through their mother, the three sisters were great-granddaughters of Henry VII; grandnieces of Henry VIII; and first cousins once removed of Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I.

paragraphs: Jane received a humanist education, studying Latin, Greek and Hebrew with John Aylmer, and Italian with Michelangelo Florio. Through the influence of her father and her tutors, she became a committed Protestant and also corresponded with the Zürich reformer Heinrich Bullinger.

paragraphs: Jane preferred book studies to hunting parties and regarded her strict upbringing, which was typical of the time, as harsh. To the visiting scholar Roger Ascham, who found her reading Plato, she is said to have complained:

paragraphs: For when I am in the presence either of father or mother, whether I speak, keep silence, sit, stand or go, eat, drink, be merry or sad, be sewing, playing, dancing, or doing anything else, I must do it as it were in such weight, measure and number, even so perfectly as God made the world; or else I am so sharply taunted, so cruelly threatened, yea presently sometimes with pinches, nips and bobs and other ways (which I will not name for the honour I bear them) ... that I think myself in hell.

paragraphs: In early February 1547, Jane was sent to live in the household of Edward VI's uncle, Thomas Seymour, who soon married Henry VIII's widow, Catherine Parr. Jane lived with the couple at Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire until Catherine's death in childbirth in September 1548.

paragraphs: Lady Jane acted as chief mourner at Catherine Parr's funeral; Thomas Seymour showed continued interest to keep her in his household, and she returned there for about two months before he was arrested at the end of 1548. Seymour's brother, the Lord Protector, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, felt threatened by Thomas' popularity with the young King Edward. Among other things, Thomas Seymour was charged with proposing Jane as a bride for the king.

paragraphs: In the course of Thomas Seymour's following attainder and execution, Jane's father was lucky to stay largely out of trouble. After his fourth interrogation by the King's Council, he proposed his daughter Jane as a bride for the Protector's eldest son, Lord Hertford. Nothing came of this, however, and Jane was not engaged until the spring of 1553, her bridegroom being Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland. The Duke, Lord President of the King's Council from late 1549, was then the most powerful man in the country. On 25 May 1553, the couple were married at Durham House in a triple wedding, in which Jane's sister Catherine was matched with the heir of the Earl of Pembroke, Lord Herbert, and another Katherine, Lord Guildford's sister, with Henry Hastings, the Earl of Huntingdon's heir.

paragraphs: The Third Succession Act of 1544 restored Henry VIII's daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession, although they were still regarded as illegitimate. Furthermore, this Act authorised Henry VIII to alter the succession by his will. Henry's will reinforced the succession of his three children, and then declared that, should none of them leave descendants, the throne would pass to heirs of his younger sister, Mary, which included Jane. For reasons unknown, Henry excluded Jane's mother, Frances Grey, from the succession, and also bypassed the claims of the descendants of his elder sister, Margaret, who had married into the Scottish royal house and nobility.

paragraphs: Both Mary and Elizabeth had been named illegitimate by statute during the reign of Henry VIII after his marriages to Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn had been declared void. When the 15-year-old Edward VI lay dying in the early summer of 1553, his Catholic half-sister Mary was still his heir presumptive. However, Edward, in a draft will ("My devise for the Succession") composed earlier in 1553, had first restricted the succession to (non-existent) male descendants of Frances Brandon and her daughters, before he named his Protestant cousin "Lady Jane and her heirs male" as his successors, probably in June 1553; the intent was to ensure his Protestant legacy, thereby bypassing Mary, who was a Roman Catholic. Edward's decision to name Jane Grey herself was possibly instigated by Northumberland.

paragraphs: Edward VI personally supervised the copying of his will which was finally issued as letters patent on 21 June and signed by 102 notables, among them the whole Privy Council, peers, bishops, judges, and London aldermen. Edward also announced to have his "declaration" passed in parliament in September, and the necessary writs were prepared.

paragraphs: The King died on 6 July 1553, but his death was not announced until four days later. On 9 July Jane was informed that she was now queen, and according to her own later claims, accepted the crown only with reluctance. On 10 July, she was officially proclaimed Queen of England, France and Ireland after she had taken up secure residence in the Tower of London, where English monarchs customarily resided from the time of accession until coronation. Jane refused to name her husband Dudley as king, because that would require an Act of Parliament. She would agree only to make him Duke of Clarence.

paragraphs: Northumberland faced a number of key tasks to consolidate his power after Edward's death. Most importantly, he had to isolate and, ideally, capture Mary Tudor to prevent her from gathering support. As soon as Mary was sure of King Edward's demise, she left her residence at Hunsdon and set out to East Anglia, where she began to rally her supporters. Northumberland set out from London with troops on 14 July to capture Mary. The Privy Council switched their allegiance and proclaimed Mary queen in London, on 19 July. The historical consensus assumes that this was in recognition of overwhelming support of the population for Mary. However, there is no clear evidence for that outside Norfolk and Suffolk, where Northumberland had put down Kett's Rebellion; hence, where princess Mary sought refuge. Rather, it seems that Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel—whom Northumberland had arrested and detained twice as an ally of Somerset, before rehabilitating—engineered a coup d'état in the Privy Council in Northumberland's absence.

paragraphs: Jane is often called the Nine-Day Queen, although if her reign is dated from the moment of Edward's death on 6 July 1553, her reign could have been a few days longer. On 19 July 1553, Jane was imprisoned in the Tower's Gentleman Gaoler's (Jailer's) apartments, her husband in the Beauchamp Tower. The Duke of Northumberland was executed on 22 August 1553. In September, Parliament declared Mary the rightful successor and denounced and revoked Jane's proclamation as that of a usurper.

paragraphs: Referred to by the court as Jane Dudley, wife of Guildford, Jane was charged with high treason, as were her husband, two of his brothers, and the former Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Their trial, by a special commission, took place on 13 November 1553, at Guildhall in the City of London. The commission was chaired by Sir Thomas White, Lord Mayor of London, and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. Other members included Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby and John Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Bath. As was to be expected, all defendants were found guilty and sentenced to death. Jane's guilt, of having treacherously assumed the title and the power of the monarch, was evidenced by a number of documents she had signed as "Jane the Quene". Her sentence was to "be burned alive on Tower Hill or beheaded as the Queen pleases" (burning was the traditional English punishment for treason committed by women). The imperial ambassador reported to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, that her life was to be spared.

paragraphs: The rebellion of Thomas Wyatt the Younger in January 1554 against Queen Mary's marriage plans with Philip of Spain sealed Jane's fate. Her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and his two brothers joined the rebellion, and so the government decided to go through with the verdict against Jane and Guildford. Their execution was first scheduled for 9 February 1554, but was then postponed for three days to give Jane a chance to convert to the Catholic faith. Mary sent her chaplain John Feckenham to Jane, who was initially not pleased about this. Though she would not give in to his efforts "to save her soul", she became friends with him and allowed him to accompany her to the scaffold.

paragraphs: On the morning of 12 February 1554, the authorities took Guildford from his rooms at the Tower of London to the public execution place at Tower Hill, where he was beheaded. A horse and cart brought his remains back to the Tower, past the rooms where Jane was staying. Seeing her husband's corpse return, Jane is reported to have exclaimed: "Oh, Guildford, Guildford." She was then taken out to Tower Green, inside the Tower, to be beheaded. According to the account of her execution given in the anonymous "Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary", which formed the basis for Raphael Holinshed's depiction, Jane gave a speech upon ascending the scaffold:

paragraphs: Good people, I am come hither to die, and by a law I am condemned to the same. The fact, indeed, against the Queen's highness was unlawful, and the consenting thereunto by me: but touching the procurement and desire thereof by me or on my behalf, I do wash my hands thereof in innocency, before God, and the face of you, good Christian people, this day.

paragraphs: While admitting to action considered unlawful, she declared that "I do wash my hands thereof in innocence". Jane then recited Psalm 51 ("Have mercy upon me, O God") in English, and handed her gloves and handkerchief to her maid. The executioner asked her forgiveness, which she granted him, pleading: "I pray you dispatch me quickly." Referring to her head, she asked, "Will you take it off before I lay me down?", and the axeman answered: "No, madam." She then blindfolded herself. Jane then failed to find the block with her hands, and cried, "What shall I do? Where is it?" Probably Sir Thomas Brydges, the Deputy Lieutenant of the Tower, helped her find her way. With her head on the block, Jane spoke the last words of Jesus as recounted by Luke: "Lord, into thy hands I commend my spirit!"

paragraphs: Jane and Guildford are buried in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula on the north side of Tower Green. No memorial stone was erected at their grave. Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk, was executed 11 days after Jane, on 23 February 1554. Her mother, the Duchess of Suffolk, married her Master of the Horse and chamberlain, Adrian Stokes, in March 1555. She was fully pardoned by Mary and allowed to live at Court with her two surviving daughters. She died in 1559.

paragraphs: "The traitor-heroine of the Reformation", as historian Albert Pollard called her, was only 16 or 17 years old at the time of her execution. During and in the aftermath of the Marian persecutions, Jane became viewed as a Protestant martyr for centuries, featuring prominently in the several editions of the "Book of Martyrs" ("Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Dayes") by John Foxe. The tale of Lady Jane grew to legendary proportions in popular culture, producing romantic biographies, novels, plays, operas, paintings, and films.

paragraphs: Jane Grey is the only English monarch in the last 500 years (though whether her short reign was legitimate is disputed) of whom no proven contemporary portrait survives. A painting in London's National Portrait Gallery was thought to be Jane for many years, but in 1996 it was confirmed to be of Catherine Parr. A portrait believed by some experts to be of Jane was discovered in a private home in 2005. Painted 40 to 50 years after Jane's death, the "Streatham portrait" (so called after the area of London in which it resided for decades) depicts a young woman dressed in a red gown, adorned with jewels and holding a prayer book. Historian and Tudor specialist David Starkey is sceptical, "It's an appallingly bad picture and there's absolutely no reason to suppose it's got anything to do with Lady Jane Grey."

paragraphs: Another portrait, a miniature, was shown to the news media in 2007 by Starkey who stated that he was "90 per cent certain" that it is of Lady Jane Grey. This painting had been discovered at the Yale Center for British Art in America.

paragraphs: The following chart illustrates Jane's relationship to the House of Tudor and other claimants to the English throne. Italics indicate people who predeceased Edward VI; Arabic numerals indicate the line of succession to Edward VI at the time of his death according to Henry VIII's will; and Roman numerals indicate the line of succession at the time of Edward VI's death according to Edward's will.


title: Tower of London

paragraphs: The Tower of London is an ancient Norman stone fortress in London, England. It stands on the bank of the River Thames, in the oldest part of the city.

paragraphs: The fortress was built by William the Conqueror, King William I, starting in 1078. The moat was built by Richard I, using water diverted from the River Thames.

paragraphs: The Tower had many uses. Its main function was to protect Norman rule in the years after the conquest. It was a prison, and a place of execution. Today, the Crown Jewels are kept there. This is the collection of jewels owned by the British state, and sometimes worn by the monarch. There is also a museum of armour.

paragraphs: Only the most important people were executed (by axe) inside the Tower of London. Among the most famous were:

paragraphs: The Tower of London has a collection of ravens, large black birds of the Crow family. They are taken care of by the staff who work there. The ravens' wing feathers are kept short so they cannot fly away. This is because a legend (story) says that if the ravens leave the Tower, the Tower and the Kingdom will fall.

paragraphs: The closest Underground station to the Tower of London is Tower Hill.


title: Anne Boleyn

paragraphs: Anne Boleyn (1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536) was the second wife of King Henry VIII of England and queen consort from 1533 until 1536. She was the mother of Elizabeth I of England. Anne has been called "the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had." It was because of Anne Boleyn that Henry VIII divorced Catherine of Aragon, and became independent from the Roman Catholic Church. After she was falsely accused of adultery, incest and high treason, she was executed.

paragraphs: There were many different opinions of Anne Boleyn's beauty. The Venetian diarist Marino Sanuto described Anne as "not one of the handsomest women in the world; she is of middling stature, swarthy complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised ... eyes, which are black and beautiful". Simon Grynée wrote to Martin Bucer in September 1531 that Anne was "young, good-looking, of a rather dark complexion". Lancelot de Carles called her "beautiful" with a good figure. A Venetian in Paris in 1528 also said that she was beautiful. The most well-known description of Anne was written by the Catholic Nicholas Sanders in 1586. He wrote it several years after Anne died. Even though this is the most famous, it is also probably the least correct description. "Anne Boleyn," he said, "was rather tall ... with black hair, and an oval face of a sallow complexion, as if troubled with jaundice. She had a projecting tooth under the upper lip, and on her right hand six fingers (which historians now say is not true). There was a large wen under her chin, and therefore to hide its ugliness she wore a high dress covering her throat ... She was handsome to look at, with a pretty mouth." Sanders said that it was because of Anne that Henry went away from the Catholic Church. Sanders' words about Anne made what Eric Ives called the "monster legend" of Anne Boleyn. Anne was also a good dancer. William Forrest, who wrote a modern poem about Catherine of Aragon, praised Anne's dancing. He said she had "passing excellent" skill as a dancer. "Here", he wrote, "was [a] fresh young damsel, that could trip and go."

paragraphs: Little is known for certain about Anne's early life, beginning with the date and location of her birth. She was born in either 1501 or 1507, as one source says she was 20 upon her return from France in 1521, and another that she was not yet 29 at the time of her death in 1536. The location was either Blickling Hall in Norfolk or Hever Castle in Kent. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, a courtier and later a diplomat, and his wife Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. She had two siblings; a sister Mary and a brother George.

paragraphs: Anne's early education was the same for girls of her class. Her academic education was limited to arithmetic, her family genealogy, grammar, history, reading, and writing. She had been given a strong upbringing in religion and the Scriptures as the Boleyns were a family of firm religious beliefs. Anne developed domestic skills such as dancing, embroidery, good manners and morals, household management, music, needlework, and singing and excelled in playing several musical instruments including the block flute, the harp, the lute, and the virginals. She learned to play games such as, cards, chess, and dice and outdoor pursuits such as archery, falconry, horseback riding, and hunting. Anne was also taught to have obedience to the men in her life was which first to her father and then to her husband once she was married.

paragraphs: In 1513, she was sent to Margaret of Austria's royal court in the Netherlands to complete her education. Anne learned to speak French and studied art, culture, dance, literature, music, and poetry while she was there. The following year, she was transferred to the French court on the occasion of the marriage of Princess Mary Tudor, younger sister of King Henry VIII, to the French King Louis XII. Anne remained in France after the death of Louis XII and served as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Claude upon the accession of Francis I. In Queen Claude's household, Anne completed her study of French and developed a thorough knowledge of French culture and etiquette. As well as English, French, and some Italian, Anne demonstrated a working knowledge of Latin. She also developed an interest in fashion and religious philosophy that called for reform of the Church. Anne stayed in France until late winter 1521.

paragraphs: Anne was called back to England to marry a distant cousin James Butler, in the hope to settle an inheritance dispute over the Earldom of Ormond. However, when the plan failed, Thomas Boleyn found a place for his daughter at the English court, as lady-in-waiting to Queen Katherine. There, Anne fell in love with Sir Henry Percy, who was the eldest son of the Earl of Northumberland, and they became secretly engaged to be married much to the displeasure of their respective families. Cardinal Wolsey ordered them to be separated. Anne was sent home to Hever Castle and Henry Percy was forced to marry Lady Mary Talbot, the daughter of Edward Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. Anne blamed Cardinal Wolsey for her lost love and was determined to have her revenge on him, because he had called her a "foolish girl".

paragraphs: Anne came back to the royal court and soon King Henry fell passionately in love with her. He wanted her to become his mistress, however she categorically refused, which made Henry's desire for her even greater.

paragraphs: King Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon had produced only one daughter, Princess Mary, not thought suitable to rule the country after his death. Henry needed a son to succeed him and to secure the Tudor dynasty, but Catherine was now too old to have children. Henry then came to see Anne as the answer to the problem of the succession, and decided to divorce Catherine, so that he could marry Anne instead and have male heirs.

paragraphs: He said that the marriage was not valid because Catherine had been married to his older brother Arthur, Prince of Wales before she had married Henry. Arthur had died a few months after the marriage at the age of fifteen, and a special dispensation from the Pope on the ground the marriage had never been consummated was issued so Catherine could marry Henry and the alliance between Spain and England would be kept. King Henry now thought that their marriage should not have been allowed in the first place and that they had been punished by not having any sons. He quoted a verse from the Bible that said "a man may not marry his brother's wife". He said he was doing what he thought was right, even though he still loved Catherine, but his conscience would not allow him to continue living in sin with her. The plans for the divorce caused a lot of gossip at court and abroad and became known as the "King's Great Matter".

paragraphs: A special court was held, with Wolsey leading it, to decide if the divorce should be allowed. An official from the Pope in Rome was brought over and a trial was held. The official stated that he could not decide what to do. He wanted the Pope to decide instead. The Pope was fearful to offend Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, nephew of Catherine, and what would happen if he allowed the divorce. He did not make a decision. In the meantime, Anne and King Henry were becoming more and more impatient.

paragraphs: After becoming Marquess of Pembroke in her own right, Anne felt secure enough and finally gave in to Henry in late 1532 and soon became pregnant. In order to have a legitimate heir to the throne, this meant that Anne and Henry needed to legalize their union quickly and therefore were secretly married on January 25, 1533, even though the divorce had not come through.

paragraphs: No longer hoping for the Pope to grant him a divorce, Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon was declared illegal in the following May by the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, former chaplain of the Boleyns. Catherine was sent away from court with the title of Dowager Princess of Wales as if she had never been married to Henry.

paragraphs: Now recognized as Henry's legal wife, Anne was formally crowned Queen of England on June 1, 1533. All that was needed now was the birth of a son and her triumph would be complete.

paragraphs: Anne gave birth to a daughter, the future Elizabeth I of England, on September 7, 1533. King Henry was very disappointed, after all his troubles, the problem of the succession was still not resolved. However, Anne soon became pregnant again but that ended in a miscarriage in the summer of 1534. Henry started to worry that Anne could not give him a healthy male child. Feeling the king's displeasure, Anne became more and more insecure and ever more difficult and Henry began tiring of her. The situation only deteriorated when the king began to pay special attention to a lady of the court named Jane Seymour.

paragraphs: When, on January 29, 1536, Anne gave birth to a stillborn male child, Henry felt betrayed and completely turned against her, accusing her of having bewitched him.

paragraphs: Henry's new secretary, Thomas Cromwell, looked for a way to get rid of Anne so that Henry could marry again to his mistress Jane Seymour. He found people who said that Anne had been the lover of other men while she was married to King Henry. She was put on trial and found guilty of treason, adultery and incest, although she was probably innocent. The men who were accused of being her lovers were Sir Francis Weston, her musician Mark Smeaton, Sir Henry Norris, William Brereton, and her brother Viscount Rochford George Boleyn. All of them were condemned and executed.

paragraphs: Anne was executed on 19 May 1536 in the Tower of London, London, England. She was buried in the Chapel Royal of Saint Peter ad Vincula, within the Tower of London.


title: Mona Lisa

paragraphs: Mona Lisa (also known as La Gioconda or La Joconde) is a 16th-century portrait painted in oil by Leonardo da Vinci during the Renaissance in Florence, Italy. Many people think Mona Lisa's smile is mysterious. It is so often studied, recognized, and copied that it is the most famous painting . The Louvre says that about 80 percent of its visitors come to see the painting of Mona Lisa.

paragraphs: Giorgio Vasari, who was Leonardo's first biographer (a person who writes about the life of another person), thought the painting was of a person named Lisa Gherardini. Speculation over the painting's model was solved in 2008 by Dr Armin Schlechter, a manuscript expert. Notes discovered in Heidelberg University Library which were written by Agostino Vespucci, a Florentine city official, reinforced Vasari's earlier identification of the model. Lisa was the wife of Francesco del Giocondo a rich silk merchant, who lived in Florence.

paragraphs: Although the sitter has traditionally been identified as Lisa del Giocondo, a lack of definitive evidence has long fueled alternative theories, including Leonardo's mother Caterina in a distant memory and glorified as the Virgin Mary, and the possibility that Leonardo used his own likeness.

paragraphs: Leonardo began painting the "Mona Lisa" in 1503 or 1504 in Florence, Italy. According to Da Vinci's contemporary, Giorgio Vasari, "...after he had lingered over it four years, left it unfinished...".

paragraphs: The painting was brought to France by Leonardo in 1516 and it was bought by Francis I of France.

paragraphs: The "Mona Lisa" used to hang in the Chateau Fontainebleau and was then moved to the Palace of Versailles. After the French Revolution, Napoleon I of France had it hanging in his bedroom in the Tuileries Palace, but it was later moved to the Louvre where it is still hanging today.

paragraphs: On August 21, 1911, the "Mona Lisa" was stolen. The Louvre museum thought it was being photographed, but when they checked, it was not there. The Louvre closed for one week to help look for it.

paragraphs: People thought Guillaume Apollinaire, a French poet, stole it. He was put into jail, and tried to make people think his friend Pablo Picasso did it, and he was questioned. It was not either of them, though.

paragraphs: It was lost for two years, and everybody thought it would be lost forever. A worker at the Louvre, named Vincenzo Peruggia, had actually stolen it. He had hidden it in his coat and walked out with it after the museum had closed. He wanted the painting to go back to Italy and be shown in an Italian museum. After hiding it in his apartment for two years, he grew impatient and tried to sell it to a gallery in Florence, but was caught. It was shown all over Italy before going back to the Louvre. People thought Vincenzo was a hero who loved Italy, so he only spent a few months in jail.


title: Tangsudo

paragraphs: Tangsudo, dangsudo or tang soo do () is a Korean martial art. It is considered as Korean karate.

paragraphs: The name "tangsudo" means "the way of Chinese hands". In the Korean peninsula several schools of martial arts had been prohibited by Japanese invaders for 35 years, and they went out from secret at the end of the Second World War. They were known as schools of tangsudo. In the modern Korea, the first school of tangsudo was Chungdokwan, founded in 1944 by the master WonKukLee. As a result of the liberation of Korean nation, which was happened 15th August 1945, other four schools were opened: Mudokkwan, Songmukwan, Chidokwan, and Changmukwan. Other schools ("kwan") were added to the list after the end of the civil war between north and south (1950-1953). In December 1955, with the approval of the president of Republic of South Korea, Singman Rhee, a meeting of the founders of the main schools was called. The intention of this meeting was to unify the different schools and to give the name and the form to the national martial art. The name should be related neither with China, nor with Japan ("tangsu"="Chinese hands" and its Japanese pronunciation is "karate").

paragraphs: Among a lot of already postulated names there was "Taekwondo", proposed by a General named Choi Hong Hee. In 1961 the "Korean Association of Taesudo" rises. Mudukkwan of Hwang Kee and Ydokwan of Byong Yun Kwei remained anchored to the tradition. The new organization dismembered the technical inheritance of the old tangsudo in 1962. The sporting combat with the use of jumps, kicks and fists formed taesudo briefly; the techniques of personal defense with the use of levers and throws (grappling) became "hapkido". On the other hand, the techniques of "neikung" (internal work), which control breathing, energy (Ki) and the mental concentration, became not very noticeable. In 1964 the organization changed its name once again into "Korean Association of Taekwondo". That name remain ultimate.

paragraphs: In 1966, "International Taekwondo Federation" is born. Its aim was to spread out the new-born discipline in the rest of the world. Its founder is the Korean general Choi. In 1971 Taekwondo becomes national sport of South Korea for presidential decree of the president Park Chung Hee. In 1973, "World Taekwondo Federation" is born, presided by Dr Un Yong Kim. It was founded in opposition to the ITF. The ITF, after a series of continual changes, will have the support of the North Korea. Meanwhile, the WTF of Doctor Kim reaches the Olympic Games: Seoul 1988, Barcelona 1992. So, it is an official Olympic sport and no more martial art. The schools, which were faithful to tangsudo had to choose the strategy of the emigration, by installing them outside of Korea, in America, Europe, Southern Africa, etc., to maintain live and unaltered the message of the ancient, wise men of Orient.

paragraphs: There are many stances in the tangsudo. Some of them are basic, for example "the stance of preparation"; the others need more balance, such as "the stance on one foot" or "the stance of the crane".

paragraphs: Basic techniques are simple and effective. The students learn all the basic techniques (blocks, blows, kicks) which can be found in the traditional art of tangsudo. "Dojang" (schools of the tangsudo), gives special importance to the "art", not only to fighting. The hand techniques involve, amongst others, many different fist techniques and "knife-hand" techniques. Each of them has a correct form and special practical use, and they are used in blocking and in attack. The tangsudo is the martial art which gives much attention to foot techniques and to flexibility. They are also used for both blocking and attacking.

paragraphs: In the traditional method, the student has to learn the basics first of all, later he does repeatedly the fight of one step and the fight of three steps. The fight of one step teaches how to direct attention, but the fight of three steps teaches him how to move forward and to move backward, as well as how to use a distance. Together, they give the belief in student's abilities, and the student needs this belief in order to successfully block and attack in the free fight.

paragraphs: The teachers give attention to the importance of the Principles and Creed of Tangsudo, the students learn discipline and respect. The self-confidence, the concentration and the control are also underlined, because they are important aspects of everyday life.

paragraphs: The students do regularly the basic techniques with marching almost during every lesson. This helps them to understand the dynamics of a movement and this improves the technique by repetition. The basics teach them good balance and good stance.

paragraphs: The forms are the sequences of the basic techniques. They are fixed in advance. The forms in the tangsudo are obtained from different styles of martial arts. Indeed, the majority of them is the versions of karate kata. They show the special practical use of all the basic techniques in a variety of situations. The form is considered as if the performer of the form were defending himself against many enemies. The "hyong" are arranged patterns of techniques which the students do regularly at all levels. The study of the forms increases abilities of understanding, of learning, and of remembering. Forms change the shape of the basic techniques and they teach the strategy, the tactics, the choosing of the right moment, and the balance. If the tangsudo is treated as "the art for the art", the forms are easily learned and they are similar to a kind of dance in presentation. While the student advances in ability, the "hyong" become more complicated and become the challenge. Forms are a part of the training of tangsudo which a student can easily do regularly almost anywhere.

paragraphs: The fight of training gives the chance to use freely all the techniques against one or some opponents. Self-control is important. Proper choosing of the right moment, position and methods of passing through the defenses of an opponent are also exercised. Although students may use helmets, gloves and boots filled with soft material, the rule of avoiding any contact is respected.

paragraphs: This exercise lets the person who is being trained practice techniques of self-defence against a known attack in a controlled way. The aim is the development of responses to certain situation without conscious thought. This allows to learn correct distance and choosing of the right moment, which are two factors of deciding importance in a real fight. This also gives self-confidence and control. This is a way of practising that is very controlled, safe, and without contact.

paragraphs: The free fight allows make continuous use of the techniques against the other person in a controlled environment. The aim is to defend oneself in an unknown situation. Attention is given to safety at all times. According to the traditional method, the student need not hit a heavy bag to increase the power of his blows and to prepare himself for free fight. That is because the students uses of control, not contact. The students stop their blows close to the target. Therefore, if in a real fight they decide to hit the target, they can do it easily.

paragraphs: According to the traditional theory, if the student makes contact constantly, it will be difficult to control his actions when he needs. But if he always makes continuous use of control, he can easily hit when he needs. If the student constantly makes contact during free fight, his mind will become wild. But if the student makes continuous use of controlled fight, his mind will become more controlled. Both states of mind can spread over his life outside of class. Because full contact is not allowed, the students have no need to use strong protectors (things that protect). Using boxing gloves and thick feet protectors leads them to hit strongly. And when they hit while wearing such things, they does not feel whether their technique is correct. In order to avoid this problem, the traditional masters should make a choice the light protectors of fists and of insteps. They suffice to prevent injury when the contact accidentally occurs.

paragraphs: According to the modern method, the free fight is similar to fights in kickboxing. The students use boxing gloves, protectors of the feet, and protectors of the head.

paragraphs: Whether free fight is aimed at competition or at fight on the street, the student should make a great effort to improve his endurance (power of enduring). That is a reason that the student needs to have good basics and good skills of the fight of one step and of three steps; they develop the student's endurance. It will not happen immediately; usually two or three months are necessary in order to develop the endurance. The important part of it is proper breathing. The student has to breathe at the right time when he hits or he blocks. If he stops his breath when he does an action, he can still do the action, but he will become gradually tired as time passes. Finally he will lose his ability to continue. On the other hand, each time he breathes in and breathes out correctly, he extends the amount of time when he can continue to fight.

paragraphs: Training of self-defence teaches a student how to defend himself against grabs, holds and locks. It also contains how to deal with situations where it is necessary to defend oneself without causing permanent physical wound to his attacker and how to use pressure points. "Jayu-daeryeon" is perfect in order to improve the self-defence ability. The student can combine any techniques: kicks, punches, blows to feet (sweeps), takedowns and overthrows.

paragraphs: Breaking of the boards is a favorite occupation of many students and spectators. Breaking shows the level of the students' techniques and it helps them understand what effect their techniques can have on a target. It is used during tests of movement to a higher rank and attention is given to safety at all times. This occupation teaches to focus the mind and to direct attention correctly towards the technique. This also helps the students to pass their barriers of the mind, and improves their belief in their abilities.


title: Annie Hall

paragraphs: Annie Hall is a 1977 American romantic comedy movie from United Artists. Woody Allen directed and stars in it. At first it was called "Anhedonia", then "It Had To Be Jew", but these titles would not sell the movie. "Annie Hall" has been considered a biography of Allen's real life, but the actor has denied this claim.

paragraphs: The movie takes place in New York City and the latter half in Los Angeles, California. It tells the story of Alvy Singer, a comedian from Brooklyn, who is obsessed with death. He has an affair with the title character, Annie Hall (played by Diane Keaton) and the two embark on a romance. He encourages Annie to further her career as a nightclub singer.

paragraphs: Alvy recalls how his Brooklyn house was below a roller coaster on Coney Island. His father was the owner of a place that had bumper cars, something that reflected the marriage between Alvy's father and Alvy's mother.

paragraphs: Throughout the film, many flashbacks are included, often humourously; however, when Alvy recalls his times with Annie, the comedic mood turns nostalgic and Alvy is left wondering what could have happened differently if his insecurities were not in the way.

paragraphs: Alvy asks Annie to marry him after they split. She tells him no, as she wants to stay friends.

paragraphs: "Annie Hall" is noted for its use of special elements such as double exposure (two pictures in one) and magic themes in a real setting.

paragraphs: There is an animated scene with a cartoon version of Allen, and the Witch from Disney's "Snow White".

paragraphs: The movie won one Golden Globe Award, for Best Actress in Musical or Comedy (Diane Keaton). It was nominated for three more: Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy), Best Director (Woody Allen), and Best Actor in Musical or Comedy (Woody Allen). The film also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film and the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.

paragraphs: It has been called one of the best comedy movies of all time. It has appeared on IMDb's Top 250 List, and was number thirty on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list. In 1992, it was selected to keep in the United States National Film Registry.

paragraphs: Many of today's romantic comedy movies have been influenced by "Annie Hall". The tie that was worn by Keaton's character was popular at the time of the movie's release.

paragraphs: Christopher Walken, who would later become more famous, had a role as the title character's brother.


title: Hayao Miyazaki

paragraphs: His company made the animated movies "Spirited Away" (2001), "My Neighbor Totoro" (1988), "Kiki's Delivery Service" (1989), "Porco Rosso" (1992) and "Princess Mononoke" (1997).

paragraphs: His company is named Studio Ghibli. In 2001, he won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature for "Spirited Away". It was the first anime to win the award in that category.

paragraphs: During a press conference at Italy's Venice Film Festival, he announced that he was going to retire from the production of feature-length films.

paragraphs: Miyazaki announced his retirement on September 2, 2013.


title: Gasoline

paragraphs: Gasoline , or petrol , is a toxic, clear liquid that is mostly used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It is made by boiling petroleum, a fossil fuel. In a distillation process, petroleum is heated to a very high temperature, then it separates into its components, one of them is gasoline. This is an expensive process. It is made mostly of octane (CH), a hydrocarbon.

paragraphs: Gasoline is sold at gas stations (petrol stations). In order to burn properly in high-compression internal combustion engines, each brand of gasoline includes gasoline additives. So, the exact make up of gasoline is different at different stations. Gasoline is graded by its octane rating that measures how well it will burn. Most car engines can burn "regular" gasoline which has an octane rating of 87. Precision-made engines require or prefer "premium" gasoline with an octane rating of 93. Most stations offer three different mixtures of gasoline with three separate octane ratings and prices.

paragraphs: Gasoline is most often used in vehicles like cars, vans, etc. Gasoline can be used in a wide variety of other things that we use every day, such as lawnmowers, leaf blowers, and small boat motors. Some larger vehicles like trucks or ships may use diesel fuel instead of gasoline.

paragraphs: Gasoline is very dangerous. It can explode when an electric spark lights it. It is also harmful if a human drinks it or if it gets on the skin. It hurts the environment and human health by creating poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide. If a gasoline engine is used indoors or in a closed space, the carbon monoxide can cause death in minutes. Many people die every year from using gasoline-powered generators indoors, or leaving vehicles running inside a garage.

paragraphs: The US accounts for about 44% of the world’s gasoline consumption. In 2003 The US consumed , which equates to 1.3 gigalitres of gasoline each day (about 360 million US or 300 million imperial gallons). The US used about 510 billion litres (138 billion US gal/115 billion imp gal) of gasoline in 2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.

paragraphs: Unlike the US, countries in Europe impose substantial taxes on fuels such as gasoline. For example, price for gasoline in Europe is more than twice that in the US.

paragraphs: Because of the low fuel taxes, the retail price of gasoline in the US is subject to greater changes (than outside the US) when calculated as a percentage of cost-per-unit. From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline was between $1 and $2 USD per U.S. gallon. After 2004, the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, then dropped approximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon as of September 2009. Recently, the U.S. has experienced an upswing in gas prices of 13.51% from Jan 31st to March 7, 2011.

paragraphs: Most consumer goods have posted prices that exclude tax; taxes are added based on a percentage of the purchase price. Because of primitive gasoline pumps in the 1920s, United States gasoline prices are posted with taxes included and the taxes are set on cents per gallon. Taxes are added by federal, state and local governments. (These taxes collect the cost of maintaining the roads.) As of 2009, the federal tax is 18.4¢ per gallon for gasoline and 24.4¢ per gallon for diesel (excluding red diesel). Among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, as of January 2011, are California (47.7¢/gal), New York (47.3¢/gal), Hawaii (45.8¢/gal), and Connecticut (45.2¢/gal). The federal government and many states fail to increase their gasoline taxes over time with inflation. However, some states also charge a sales tax as a percentage and vary in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline.

paragraphs: About 9% of all gasoline sold in the US in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy Information Administration. Some car manufacturers "recommend" premium gasoline but have computer-controlled engines that adjust the timing to avoid knocking. So, most cars can burn regular grade gasoline but at a slightly reduced performance. The Associated Press said premium gas–which is a higher octane and costs several cents a gallon more than regular unleaded–should be used only if the manufacturer says it is “required”.

paragraphs: To reduce the use of imported oil, the US uses Gasohol (10% ethanol) and E85 (85% ethanol) ethanol/gasoline mixtures.

paragraphs: Brazil has the largest national fuel ethanol industry. Gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol (about 95% ethanol and 5% water) can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new cars sold in the country. Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration.


title: Tropical cyclone

paragraphs: A tropical cyclone is a circular air movement that starts over the warm ocean waters in the warm part of Earth near the Equator. Most tropical cyclones create fast winds and great rains. While some tropical cyclones stay out in the sea, others pass over land. They can be dangerous because of flooding and because the winds pick up objects, including things as big as small boats. Tropical cyclones can throw these things at high speeds.

paragraphs: Tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons form when convection causes warm, moist air above the ocean to rise. They begin as a group of storms when the water gets as hot as 80 °F (27 °C) or hotter. The Coriolis effect made by the Earth's rotation causes the winds to rotate. Warm air rises quickly. Tropical cyclones usually move westward in the tropics, and can later move north or south into the temperate zone. The "eye of the storm" is the center. It has little rain or wind. The eye wall has the heaviest rain and the fastest winds. It is surrounded by rain bands which also have fast winds.

paragraphs: Tropical cyclones are powered by warm, humid ocean air. When they go onto land, they weaken. They die when they spend a long time over land or cool ocean water.

paragraphs: The term "tropical cyclone" is a summary term. In various places tropical cyclones have other local names such as "hurricane" and "typhoon". A tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean is called a hurricane. The word hurricane is also used for those that form in the eastern, central and northern Pacific. In the western Pacific a tropical cyclone is called a typhoon. In the Indian Ocean it is called a "cyclone".

paragraphs: Tropical cyclones are usually given names because it helps in forecasting, locating, and reporting. They are named once they have steady winds of 62 km/h. Committees of the World Meteorological Organization pick names. Once named, a cyclone is usually not renamed.

paragraphs: For several hundred years hurricanes were named after saints. In 1887, Australian meteorologist Clement Wragge began giving women's names to tropical cyclones. He thought of history and mythology for names. When he used men's names, they were usually of politicians he hated. By World War II cyclone names were based on the phonetic alphabet (Able, Baker, Charlie). In 1953 the United States stopped using phonetic names and began using female names for these storms. This ended in 1978 when both male and female names were used for Pacific storms. In 1979 this practice was added for hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic.

paragraphs: In the past these storms sank many ships. Better weather forecasting in the 20th century helped most ships avoid them. When tropical cyclones reach land, they may break things. Sometimes they kill people and destroy cities. In the last 200 years, about 1.5 million people have been killed by tropical cyclones.

paragraphs: Wind can cause up to 83% of the total damages of a storm. Broken wreckage from destroyed objects can become deadly flying pieces. Flooding can also occur when a lot of rain falls and/or when storm surges push water onto the land.

paragraphs: There is a possibility of "indirect" deaths "after" a tropical cyclone passes. For example, New Orleans, Louisiana suffered from poor health conditions after Hurricane Katrina hit in 2005.

paragraphs: Tropical cyclones are classified into different categories by their strength and location. The National Hurricane Center, which observes hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean and Eastern and Central Pacific Ocean, classifies them using the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale.

paragraphs: Tropical cyclones in other places such as the Western Pacific Ocean or the Southern Hemisphere are classified on scales that are quite a bit like the Saffir-Simpson Scale. For example; if a tropical storm in the western Pacific reaches hurricane-strength winds, it is then officially called a "typhoon".

paragraphs: A tropical depression is an organized group of clouds and thunderstorms with a clear circulation in air near the ocean and maximum continuing winds of less than 17 m/s (33 kt, 38 mph, or 62 km/h). It has no eye and does not usually have the spiral shape that more powerful storms have. Only the Philippines are known to name tropical depressions.

paragraphs: A tropical storm is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a very clear surface circulation and continuing winds between 17 and 32 m/s (34–63 kt, 39–73 mph, or 62–117 km/h). At this point, the cyclonic shape starts to form, although an eye does not usually appear in tropical storms. Most tropical cyclone agencies start naming cyclonic storms at this level, except for the Philippines which have their own way of naming cyclones.

paragraphs: A hurricane or typhoon or a cyclone is a large cyclonic weather system with continuing winds of at least 33 m/s (64 kt, 74 mph, or 118 km/h). A tropical cyclone with this wind speed usually develops an eye, which is an area of calm conditions at the center of its circulation. The eye is often seen from space as a small, round, cloud-free spot. Around the eye is the eye wall, an area where the strongest thunderstorms and winds spin around the storm's center. The fastest possible continuing wind speed found in tropical cyclones is thought to be around 85 m/s (165 kt, 190 mph, 305 km/h).


title: Aymara language

paragraphs: The Aymara language is spoken by the Aymara tribe in Bolivia, Peru, and north of Chile. In Chile, only a third of thribe say that they speak it well. An inflected language, it is one of the few Native American languages that has over one million speakers.


title: Michelle Bachelet

paragraphs: Verónica Michelle Bachelet Jeria AC (; born 29 September 1951) is a Chilean politician. She served as the President of Chile from 11 March 2014 to 11 March 2018. She was also President of Chile from 11 March 2006 to 11 March 2010. She was the first woman president of Chile.

paragraphs: In 2010, Bachelet became the president of UN Women. In 2013, she resigned from that position.

paragraphs: Bachelet is a socialist. Her father was general Alberto Bachelet (1923–1974) and her mother was archaeologist Ángela Jeria (1926–2020).


title: Zhou

paragraphs: It is also the Chinese word for "U. S. state".

paragraphs: Zhou (周) is also a common Chinese surname. Famous people with that name include:


title: Politician

paragraphs: A politician (from Classical Greek πόλις, "polis") is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking office in government. In democratic countries, politicians seek elective positions within a government through elections or, at times, temporary appointment to replace politicians who have died, resigned or have been otherwise removed from office. In non-democratic countries, they employ other means of reaching power through appointment, bribery, revolutions and intrigues.

paragraphs: Some politicians are experienced in the art or science of government. Politicians propose, support and create laws or policies that govern the land and, by extension, its people. The word politician is sometimes replaced with the euphemism statesman. Basically, a "politician" can be anyone who seeks to achieve political power in any bureaucratic institution.

paragraphs: Politicians have always used language, as in speeches or campaign advertisements. They use common themes to develop their political positions in terms familiar to the voters. Politicians become experts at using the media With the rise of mass media in the 19th century they made heavy use of newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets, as well as posters. The 20th century brought radio and television, and television commercials became the single most expensive part of an election campaign. In the 21st century, they have become increasingly involved with social media based on the Internet and smartphones.


title: Sendero Luminoso

paragraphs: Sendero Luminoso, (English:Shining Path, official complete name: Partido Comunista del Peru-Sendero Luminoso, PCP-SL), is a Peruvian Maoist group which is based on communist ideology. Their leader, Abimael Guzmán, and several important members of the group were captured on September 12, 1992. Since then, the group has not been as powerful.


title: Fat

paragraphs: Fat is one of the three main types of nutrient. Fats are found in many foods.They are made of macromolecules called lipids. Lipids are based on long-chain fatty acids. Some of these are essential because the body cannot make them.

paragraphs: There are three different types of fats : Unsaturated fats, Saturated fats, and Trans fats.

paragraphs: Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. They are considered useful fats because they can improve blood cholesterol levels, and ease heart rhythms. Most vegetable oils are liquid at room temperature have unsaturated fats. There are two kinds of unsaturated fats, Mono-unsaturated fats, and polyunsaturated fats. We can commonly find them in avocados, nuts, peanuts, seeds, fish, and canola oil.

paragraphs: Saturated fats will likely have no benefits; they are mainly found in animal foods, but a few plant foods are also high in saturated fats. Too much saturated fat in your diet can lead to heart disease and other health problems, such as gaining weight or increasing the risk of heart disease or stroke. People should not eat too much saturated fats. You should limit saturated fat to less than 10% of your daily calories. It can usually be found in dairy products, meat products, grain-based desserts.

paragraphs: Trans fatty acids are commonly called trans fats. There are two types of trans fats, naturally-occurring and artificial trans fats. Naturally-occurring trans fats are found in the guts of some animals and foods which are made from these animals. Artificial trans fats are made in an industrial process. The process adds hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils to make them more solid. Trans fats are worse for cholesterol levels than saturated fats. They are most likely found in frying, baked goods, and processed foods.

paragraphs: Fats are used to absorb or get nutrients, like Vitamins for humans. It is used as a source of backup energy in cases when carbohydrates are not available, or people can not use it at that time. People need more than 20 to 35% of daily calories from fat. Also, fats play a role in helping people's body maintain or keep the core (center) temperature. However, they are also harmful, in other words, they have bad effects on human's bodies.

paragraphs: Bad fats, in other words, trans fats, have no known health benefits and will damage someone's heart and take them away from healthy. People might get diseases like blindness, which means they can not see anything because of having too much cholesterol and other fats. Most of the foods that contain these types of fats are solid at room temperature, such as butter and animal meat. On the other hand, good fats are naturally found in foods and will not damaged human's organs. The example foods of good fats are avocados, eggs, and nuts.

paragraphs: Unsaturated fatty acids are very important. They are called by where their double bond is placed. Omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3) and omega-6 fatty acids (ω-6) are essential: you need them both. They help build longer molecules which do cell signaling in different tissues. There are over 20 different signaling paths that control a wide array of bodily functions.

paragraphs: Medium-chain triglycerides are good for burning fat. They are easily absorbed, digested, and reused as energy. Eating milk fat, palm oil, and coconut oil will burn burn fat because they contain medium-chain triglycerides.

paragraphs: Fat can be important for people, but too much fat is bad. The fat we eat can provide energy for us. Not all fatty foods are good for you, such as pizza, french fries, and hamburgers. The fat from those may cause you became fatter, and your health may become terrible.

paragraphs: Fats also provide long-term energy for humans and, in cold climates, a layer of insulation to keep the body warm. They help the body use the vitamins found in foods. Fats are also good for the skin and hair. Olive oil is an especially healthy fat. Many types of fish also contain healthy fat, for example salmon, sardines, herring, and tuna. But if too much fat collects in the body, a person can become too heavy. The energy given by fats is used by moving around or exercising. Some vegetables like celery or carrots contribute much less to the bodies fat supply. Though being very important for the human body, it can also harmful in large amounts.

paragraphs: Too much fat in the body can cause diseases. Indeed, obesity, meaning too much fat, is sometimes called a disease itself. One disease from excess fat is called "fatty liver". It is a condition which can be resolved by eating different food. Fatty liver is when someone has too many fats in his liver but it can also associate by alcohol or metabolic syndrome. Fatty liver can be fixed by exercise and better diet. This is one of the hidden danger of fats.

paragraphs: Another hidden danger of fats is that it can cause some heart diseases. One example is Heart Failure.Heart Failure is an illness that does not have enough heart pumps blood. It lowers the leading of blood flow. The blood stuck in veins and lungs.The main ways to avoid these issues are exercise and good eating. Exercise reduces excess body fat and strengthens the body. Healthy diet keeps nutritious balance in your body and helps remove the fats in your body.


title: Saturated fat

paragraphs: Saturated fat is a kind of fat. It contains no double bonds. It contains carbon atoms that are fully saturated with hydrogen. Saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature. They have no double bonds, while unsaturated fat has one or two.

paragraphs: Is saturated fat a risk factor for heart disease (CVD)? This is a question with many controversial views. Although most in the mainstream heart-health, government, and medical communities hold that saturated fat is a risk factor for CVD, some recent studies have produced conflicting results.

paragraphs: Saturated fats are a kind of fat. For a long time scientists have believed that eating saturated fat was a leading cause for heart attack, cancer, or other diseases. However, new research have shown that there is no connection between how much saturated fat you eat and heart diseases. This is still a controversial question.

paragraphs: Things like butter, nuts, chocolate and meat have lots of saturated fat.

paragraphs: Saturated means that it holds all the hydrogen atoms that it can, meaning that all of the carbon (c) atoms have two hydrogen (H) atoms attached to it.


title: Mackinac Bridge

paragraphs: The Mackinac Bridge is a 5-mile-long (8-km.-long) bridge that carries a four-lane interstate highway, Interstate 75. It was built by the U.S. state of Michigan and connects that state's Upper Peninsula and Lower Peninsula together.

paragraphs: The Mackinac Bridge passes over a strait of water that connects two Great Lakes, Lake Michigan (to the west of the bridge) and Lake Huron (to the east).

paragraphs: At the center of the Mackinac Bridge is a long suspension span, in which the bridge, made of steel and concrete, hangs from wires that run down from two huge, curved cables.

paragraphs: The government agency that runs the Mackinac Bridge charges motor vehicles a toll to drive over it. In 2020, the toll was $4.00 for a passenger car.

paragraphs: The government hangs colored lights from the big cable, and turns them on at night so that the bridge can be seen from many miles away.

paragraphs: The Mackinac Bridge was opened in 1957, and this started a major economic boom in northern Michigan as tourists drove from all over North America to see the bridge, the Great Lakes, and the northern forests.


title: Unsaturated fat

paragraphs: Unsaturated fat is a kind of fat. It is different from saturated fat in that it is liquid at room temperature while saturated fat is more solid. Its molecules contains double bonds whose carbon atoms that are not fully saturated with hydrogen. There are two types:

paragraphs: In cellular metabolism, an unsaturated fat molecule contains somewhat less energy (that is fewer calories) than the saturated fat molecule of the same length.

paragraphs: Examples of unsaturated fats are palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, myristoleic acid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. Foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils such as canola and olive oils. Meat products contain both saturated and unsaturated fats.

paragraphs: Unsaturated fat is better for people than saturated fat. Some testing has shown that it can raise a person's HDL ("good" cholesterol) levels.

paragraphs: Unsaturated fat is also very important for a healthy brain.

paragraphs: People think that unsaturated fats are 'healthier' than saturated fats. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended that the amount of unsaturated fat consumed should not exceed 30% of one's daily caloric intake (or 67 grams given a 2000 Calorie diet). The new dietary guidelines have eliminated this recommendation at the request of the meat and dairy industries.

paragraphs: Most foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fats. Food packages promote only one or the other, depending on which is the largest share in the product. So, various unsaturated fat vegetable oils, such as olive oils, also contain saturated fat.


title: Cold fusion

paragraphs: Cold fusion is nuclear fusion at room temperature and normal pressure. Nuclear fusion is the process by which many nuclei, the center of an atom, containing protons and neutrons, are forced to join together to form a heavier nucleus (singular of nuclei) and during that process, energy is released. Some scientists hope that this may be Earth's future energy source, but most scientists do not agree.

paragraphs: For nuclear fusion to take place, a large amount of energy is needed. With this energy, the atoms are pushed together, which are repelled by the electrostatic force (a force between protons which are particles in the nucleus of the atom and have a positive electrical charge). But once this force is overcome and the nuclei are pushed close enough together, another much more powerful force will take over: the strong nuclear force. It only operates at short distances, so when the nuclei are close enough, they attract each other because of the strong nuclear force which is stronger than the electrostatic force. It is hoped that the energy released by cold fusion is much greater than the energy used to push the atoms together.

paragraphs: In 1989 two scientists, Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann, published a paper in "Nature", an important science journal, claiming to have created cold fusion. This was a very important story at the time. Other scientists were not able to repeat their experiments. This is why cold fusion is not generally accepted by scientists at the moment. Several dozen scientists are still working on cold fusion research. They publish in peer-reviewed journals and other academic sources regularly, but most are not convinced.


title: Cusco

paragraphs: Cusco is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Huatanay Valley (Sacred Valley) in the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of Cusco Region. The city has a population of about 300 000, triple the population it contained just 20 years ago. Alternate spellings include Qusqu (in old Quechua), Cusco, (after the Spanish arrived), and current Quechua. Cusco is the preferred way to spell it in Spanish.

paragraphs: Cusco was the capital of Tahuantinsuyu (or Inca Empire). The city was planned to be shaped like a puma. The city had two areas: the "hurin" and "hanan", which were further divided to each be part of two of the four provinces of the Inca Empire: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Cuntisuyu (SW), and Collasuyu (SE).

paragraphs: A road led from each of these quarters to the corresponding quarter of the empire. Each local leader was required to build a house in the city and live part of the year in Cusco, but only in the quarter of Cusco that corresponded to the quarter of the empire he had territory in.

paragraphs: According to Inca legend, the city was built by Sapa Inca Pachacuti, the man who transformed the Kingdom of Cusco from a sleepy city-state into the vast empire of Tahuantinsuyu. But archaeological evidence points to a slower, more organic growth of the city beginning before Pachacutieven though he did initiate growth in the city after defeating the Chancas as a monument to Incan glory. There was however a city plan, and two rivers were changed to flow around the city.

paragraphs: The first Spanish soldiers arrived in the city on November 15, 1533. Spanish "conquistador", or "conqueror", Francisco Pizarro, however, officially refounded Cusco on March 23, 1534, naming it the "Very noble and great city of Cusco". The many buildings constructed after the Spanish conquest have Spanish influence with a mix of Inca architecture. The Spanish made a new city on the foundations of the old Inca city, replacing Incan temples with churches and palaces for the Spanish. In the colony, the city of Cusco was very rich, thanks to the agriculture, cattle raising, mining and trade with Spain. Many churches and convents were built, and even a Cathedral, and the Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco.

paragraphs: The major earthquake that hit Cusco in 1950 badly destroyed the Dominican Priory and Church of Santo Domingo, which were built on top of the impressive Koricancha (Temple of the Sun). The city's Inca architecture, however, survived the earthquake. Many of the old Inca walls were thought to have been lost after the earthquake, but the granite walls of the Koricancha were exposed, as well as many walls throughout the city. While some wanted to restore the buildings to their colonial splendor, some of Cusco citizens urged city officials to retain the exposed walls. Eventually they won out and now tourists from around the world enjoy looking at these ruins within the living city. The 1950 earthquake was the second time that the Dominican Priory had been destroyed, the first being in 1650 when another major earthquake struck Cusco.

paragraphs: Other nearby Inca sites are: Pachacuti's presumed winter home Machu Picchu, which can be reached by a lightly maintained Inca trail; the "fortress" at Ollantaytambo; and the "fortress" of Sacsayhuaman which is approximately two kilometers from Cusco. Other less visited ruins include Inca Wasi, the highest of all Inca sites at 3,980 m (13,134 feet), and Old Vilcabamba the capital of the Inca after the Spanish took over Cusco.

paragraphs: The surrounding area, in the Huatanay Valley, is strong in agriculture. There is corn, barley, quinoa, tea, and coffee grown.

paragraphs: Cusco's main stadium, Estadio Garcilaso de la Vega, attracted many tourists during South America's continental soccer championship, the Copa América 2004, which was held in Peru.


title: Cusco Region

paragraphs: Cusco is a region in Peru. The capital is the city of Cusco.

paragraphs: Cusco Region is home to Machu Picchu, one of the most famous landmarks in South America.


title: Midnight Cowboy

paragraphs: Midnight Cowboy is a 1969 American drama movie, released by United Artists. John Schlesinger directed it, and Waldo Salt wrote the screenplay based on the James Leo Herlihy novel. It stars Dustin Hoffman (in his first starring role after "The Graduate"), along with Jon Voight in the title role.

paragraphs: It is the only X-rated movie to win an Academy Award for Best Picture. Schlesinger won a Best Director Award; both Hoffman and Voight were nominated for Best Actor.

paragraphs: In 1971, it was given the "R" rating by the MPAA. Apart from this, nothing was changed in the movie.

paragraphs: Joe Buck (played by Voight, in his first major acting role) was raised by his grandmother in Texas. She died after Joe grew up, when he was drafted into the US Army. He had a girlfriend, who was called Crazy Annie, but she had been sent to a psychiatric hospital. With both women gone from his life, Joe had no-one in his life. After he left the Army, he worked as a dishwasher, and dreamed of moving to New York City, to become a "hustler" – a male prostitute. He saved money to make the trip, bought some stylish cowboy clothes, and travels to NYC on a bus.

paragraphs: Joe knows little about the realities of both New York and his chosen job, and he soon finds himself homeless, with no money and only rare chances to earn any. When he first meets Rico "Ratso" Rizzo (Hoffman's character), Ratso (tricks) Joe out of $20, but when they met again, Ratso offered to share his "place", which turned out to be a room in a condemned building. The two became friends. Ratso shares what he knew about New York with Joe, and became his "manager" (pimp), and Joe shares any money he makes with Ratso. Ratso is sick, probably with tuberculosis, and as time goes on he depends more and more on Joe. Ratso plans to move to Florida before winter starts.

paragraphs: The weather turns cold as the year ended, but Joe and Ratso got a break, when they were invited to a big party. Along with eating (and stashing for later) as much of the food there as they could, Joe meets a who finally treated him the way he had always wanted to be, in New York City, and paid him likewise. Ratso, however, became even more ill, and was unable to walk or stand for long. He refuses to go to a doctor or a hospital, and insists Joe takes him to Florida.

paragraphs: Joe tries to set up another encounter with the socialite, to raise travel money, but failed. He donated blood to get grocery money, and by chance meets a traveling . The salesman invites Joe to spend the night with him, but later feels guilty, and sends Joe home with a St. Christopher medal. When Joe finds Ratso sicker than ever, he returns to beat and rob the salesman, for the money they needed.

paragraphs: Joe and Ratso leaves for Florida on a bus, headed to Miami. Joe buys new clothes for them both, and throws away his cowboy clothing. "I ain't no kinda hustler," Joe decided, and he plans to find a regular job once they reached Florida. Joe and Ratso talk and joke during the trip, but Ratso dies before they arrived. Joe realizes how much he had cared about Ratso as a person, and that what he had missed most in his life was someone to be close with. Joe had lost his grandmother and his sweetheart. Now he had lost his best friend, and Joe is scared to go on alone.

paragraphs: The movie won Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Adapted Screenplay. Both Hoffman and Voight were nominated for Best Actor awards and Sylvia Miles was nominated for Best Supporting Actress. Miles had one of the shortest performances ever nominated (clocking in under four minutes of screen-time).

paragraphs: The film won six BAFTA Awards. It was also entered into the 19th Berlin International Film Festival.

paragraphs: John Barry, who supervised the music and composed the score for the movie, won a Grammy for Best Instrumental Theme. Fred Neil's song "Everybody's Talkin'" also won a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance, for Harry Nilsson.

paragraphs: In 1994, the movie was picked by the Library of Congress to keep in the United States National Film Registry.