title: Airbus A320 family

paragraphs: The Airbus A320 family is a family of jet airliners. It only has two rows of seats, which means it is a narrow-body plane. The family is made by Airbus and it is made up of the A318, A319, A320 and A321, as well as the ACJ business jet. The A320 family is made in Toulouse, France, and Hamburg, Germany. Since 2009, an airplane plant in Tianjin in the People's Republic of China has also been making aircraft for Chinese airlines. In June 2012, Airbus said that it would start making some A319, A320, and A321 planes in Mobile, Alabama. The planes in the family can hold up to 220 passengers and they have a range of . The range depends on the model.

paragraphs: The first plane in the A320 family was the A320, which was launched in March 1984. It first flew on 22 February 1987 and the first A320 was delivered in 1988. The family got bigger over time, and there are now three other aircraft in the family: the A321 (first delivered 1994), the A319 (1996) and the A318 (2003). The A320 was the first airliner to have fly-by-wire flight control systems. It was also the first commercial airliner to have side-stick controls. (A side-stick is a small joystick which is used to fly the plane instead of a yoke.)

paragraphs: On 1 December 2010, Airbus announced a new version of the plane, called the A320neo. With the A320neo, new engines will be used (the CFM International LEAP-X and the Pratt & Whitney PW1000G) and some improvements have been made to the outside of the plane. Winglets have also been added, which Airbus calls "Sharklets". The A320neo will use 15% less fuel than the current A320. Virgin America is the A320neo's launch customer. As of 31 December 2011, 1,196 A320neo aircraft have been ordered by 21 airlines, which makes it the fastest-selling commercial aircraft in history.

paragraphs: As of June 2013, 5,635 Airbus A320 family aircraft have been delivered, and 5,443 of these are still being used. As well as this, 4,014 planes are on order. The A320 family's main rivals are the Boeing 737, 717, 757 and the McDonnell Douglas MD-80. Although the 717 is not used on most airlines.

paragraphs: The A320 was the world's first commercial jet to use a small joystick, also called a "sidestick", to fly it instead of a normal yoke (a steering-wheel like device). This matched the new digital 'fly-by-wire' system, the first use of this in a civilian aircraft, which makes the A320 much easier and safer to fly.

paragraphs: The A320 also has a full "glass-cockpit", where most instruments in the cockpit (the front part of the plane where the pilot is) have been replaced by television screens. Most of the technology first used on the A320 has been used in other Airbus aircraft made afterwards. Other manufacturers, like Boeing, have also used much of the technology like a glass-cockpit and fly-by-wire in the Boeing 777.

paragraphs: The A319, A320 and A321 have engines made by two different companies; International Aero Engines (IAE) supply the V2500 and CFM International provide the CFM56. Over 54% of A320s in the air today have CFM engines.

paragraphs: The significantly smaller A318 has either Pratt and Whitney PW6000 engines or CFM56-5. The PW6000 was not as good as expected and this may have reduced the number of sales; several airlines cancelled their orders before the more efficient CFM engine arrived.

paragraphs: The A320 has been shortened to produce the A319 and stretched to produce the A321. Recently it was shortened even more to make the A318. However this version has not sold as well and the only large operator is Frontier Airlines.

paragraphs: These different versions are known as "A320 derivatives". When talking about all of them, they are known as the "A320 family" or "A32x".

paragraphs: Changes in size are done by removing or adding sections of fuselage (the part of the aircraft passengers sit in) and adjusting the power of the engines. Airbus try to keep the airplanes the same where possible, to reduce operating costs.

paragraphs: Pilots only need one licence (called a type rating) to fly all A320 derivatives.

paragraphs: The A320 has been very reliable in service. Many early problems were caused by pilots not being use to the new "glass cockpit" and "fly-by-wire", but these no longer happen. In recent years, the A320 has had a number of problems involving its front undercarriage. The following accidents are some of those which have occurred since 1988:

paragraphs: Seven incidents of nose gear malfunction, including JetBlue Airways Flight 292.


title: Priest

paragraphs: A priest or priestess is a person who is allowed to do religious rites. Their office or position is the priesthood, a word which can also be used for such persons collectively. In most religions and cultures in history there have been priests, although they have a lot of different names, and follow different rules.

paragraphs: A priest is a member of a church that has been told to look after his (spiritual) community. He is the head of a parish.

paragraphs: To become a Catholic priest, you are required to study Theology. The Orthodox and Protestant Churches also have laymen as clergy.

paragraphs: Catholic priests are not allowed to marry meaning that they have to be celibate. Orthodox priests can be married, but they must not marry after they become a priest. Anglican priests can get married before or during the time they are a priest.

paragraphs: The Catholic Church does not allow women to become priests. However, some Anglican Churches allow women to be priests.

paragraphs: Higher priests are called Bishops and Archbishops in the Anglican Church. John Sentamua and Rowan Williams are the archbishops of York and Canterbury. In some denominations only men can become priests.

paragraphs: The Orthodox Church has a higher priest called a Patriarch. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, like the Roman Catholic Church has a Pope, Pope Tawadras.

paragraphs: Many Protestant churches have ministers or pastors instead of priests.

paragraphs: In Japan there are Buddhist priests and nuns, Shinto priests and priestesses ("kannushi") as well as clergy in the Christian traditions.


title: Red Sea

paragraphs: The Red Sea, also known as the Gulf of Arabia, is a sea between the Arabian Peninsula of Asia in the northeast and Africa in the southwest. It is a part of the Indian Ocean. The Red Sea is about 2200 km long, but its width is less than 330 km. Many ships go through the Red Sea because the Suez Channel at the north end connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Bab-el-Mandeb at the south end is a gate to the Indian Ocean. Ports include Suez, Port Sudan, Massawa, Yanbu al-Bahr, Jeddah, Aqaba and Eilat.

paragraphs: The Red Sea has that name because it sometimes looks red from the red algae. The water has more salt and is clearer than water of most other seas because almost no rivers run into it.

paragraphs: The climate is dry and warm. Many people, including those from Europe, like to vacation there. Some of them are divers and want to see the beautiful coral reefs and fish. Seaside resorts include Sharm el-Sheikh, Eilat or Hurghada.

paragraphs: The countries next to the Red Sea are Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Israel.

paragraphs: According to the book of Exodus, God parted it for Moses and the Israelites so they could escape from the Egyptian Army.


title: Charles Lindbergh

paragraphs: Charles Augustus Lindbergh (February 4, 1902 – August 26, 1974), known as "Lucky Lindy" and "The Lone Eagle", was a pioneering United States airplane pilot. He became famous for making the first solo non-stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927.

paragraphs: Lindbergh was born in Detroit, Michigan. His parents were Swedish immigrants. He grew up in Little Falls, Minnesota. His father, Charles August Lindbergh, was a lawyer and later a U.S. congressman, who was against the United States entering into World War I. His mother was a teacher. While he was young, he was interested in machines. In 1922 he joined a pilot training program with Nebraska Aircraft, bought his own airplane, and became a stunt pilot. In 1924, he started training as a pilot with the United States Army Air Corps.

paragraphs: After finishing first in his class, Lindbergh took his first job as pilot of an airmail route in St. Louis. He flew the mail in an airplane.

paragraphs: In April 1923, while visiting friends in Lake Village, Arkansas, Lindbergh made his first ever flight over Lake Village and Lake Chicot.

paragraphs: Lindbergh gained fame around the world as the first pilot to fly solo (alone) and non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean. He flew from Roosevelt Airfield (Nassau County, Long Island), New York, USA to Paris, France on May 20-21, 1927 in his single-engine airplane "The Spirit of St. Louis". He needed 33.5 hours for the trip. When he arrived back in the United States, many warships and aircraft escorted him to Washington, D.C. where President Calvin Coolidge gave him the Distinguished Flying Cross.

paragraphs: Lindbergh's act won him the "Orteig Prize", which was 25,000 US dollars. A parade was held for him on 5th Avenue in New York City on June 13, 1927. At the end of the year, he was named "Time"'s first Man of the Year.

paragraphs: He served on a variety of national and international boards and committees, including the central committee of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in the United States.

paragraphs: Lindbergh's Medal of Honor recognized that he had done something unique. This is one of only two medals given for conduct during peacetime.

paragraphs: The words of Lindbergh's citation explain:.

paragraphs: For displaying heroic courage and skill as a navigator, at the risk of his life, by his nonstop flight in his airplane, the "Spirit of St. Louis," from New York City to Paris, France, 20-21 May 1927, by which Capt. Lindbergh not only achieved the greatest individual triumph of any American citizen but demonstrated that travel across the ocean by aircraft was possible.

paragraphs: Lindbergh married Anne Morrow in 1929. In 1932 he made headlines again, when his baby son, Charles Lindbergh III, was kidnapped and murdered. Bruno Hauptmann was convicted of the crime and later put to death in the electric chair. The Lindberghs later moved to Europe. He died of lymphoma on August 26, 1974 in Hawaii.

paragraphs: Lindbergh is honored in aviation for mapping out polar air-routes, flying at high altitudes, and decreasing fuel use.

paragraphs: Lindbergh's legacy is, in part, his unique solo flight which changed public opinion about the value and significance of aircraft and air travel. In greater part, his legacy developed from what he did with his status and fame. He used his celebrity to advance aviation across the world.

paragraphs: A developing Lindbergh legacy is in life sciences.


title: Pilot

paragraphs: A pilot is a person that drives a vehicle (form of transportation) such as an airplane, spacecraft, or boat. All types of pilots must pass a number of tests and obtain a license before they can operate the vehicle. The pilot of a flying machine is usually in charge for the whole trip. A ship pilot usually only guides the ship through an especially difficult place such as a harbor.


title: Charles August Lindbergh

paragraphs: Charles August Lindbergh, Sr. (January 20, 1859 – May 24, 1924), was a United States Congressman for 6th District of Minnesota from 1907 to 1917. He was the father of Charles Lindbergh.


title: Faroe Islands

paragraphs: The Faroe Islands or Føroyar (that meaning "Sheep Islands") are a group of eighteen islands in the north Atlantic Ocean between Scotland, Norway, and Iceland.

paragraphs: They are a part of the Kingdom of Denmark, but have had local (autocratic) rule since 1948, and people in the Faroe Islands have had the right to do business with people from all countries since 1856. Most government matters are controlled by the Faroese government, except for military defense.

paragraphs: The Faroes have similarities to Iceland, Shetland, the Orkney Islands, the Outer Hebrides and Greenland. The island group, or archipelago, left Norway in 1815. The Faroes have their own representatives in the Nordic Council.

paragraphs: Administratively, the islands are divided into 34 municipalities within which there are 120 or so cities and villages. Traditionally, there are also the six "sýslur" ("regions"; Norðoyar, Eysturoy, Streymoy, Vágar, Sandoy and Suðuroy).

paragraphs: The Faroe Islands are eighteen islands off the coast of Northern Europe, between the Norwegian Sea and the north Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 1,399 square kilometres (540 sq. mi), and has no major lakes or rivers. There are 1,117 kilometres (694 mi) of coastline, and no land boundaries with any other country. The only island that does not have anybody living on it is Lítla Dímun.

paragraphs: Fish, raising sheep, and tourism are important parts of the economy of the Faroe Islands. The economy was in trouble around 1990. Unemployment decreased in the later 1990s. It was down to about 6% at the end of 1998. By June 2008 unemployment had declined to 1.1%, before rising to 3.4% in early 2009. However, since fishing is so important to the economy, if there are problems with fishing, the economy could be in trouble Since 2000, new business projects have been created in the Faroe Islands to attract new investment. The introduction of Burger King in Tórshavn was widely publicized but no one knows how things will go for this company. Trades on the islands are easy by the bridges or the tunnels that connect 80% of the population in the islands.

paragraphs: The national holiday Ólavsøka, is on 29 July. It commemorates the death of Saint Olaf. The celebrations are held in Tórshavn. They start on the evening of the 28th, and go until 31 July.

paragraphs: The official part of the celebration starts on the 29th, with the opening of the Faroese Parliament. In the day there is a procession with many people from the churches in the islands.

paragraphs: The Nordic House in the Faroe Islands () is the most important cultural institution in the Faroes. It supports Nordic and Faroese culture, locally and in the Nordic region. The House is managed by a director changed every four years.

paragraphs: In the islands there are many artists and musicians, with the most famous listed below:

paragraphs: In the Islands,there are music festivals,where international musicians participating, like

paragraphs: Traditional Faroese food is mainly based on meat and potatoes and uses few fresh vegetables. A very important meat in the islands is lamb, the first ingredient of many dishes. Other typical dishes from the islands are fresh fish, blubber, whale, seabirds, and Faroese puffins and their eggs.

paragraphs: The climate is defined as Maritime Subarctic, with not hot summers, and with cold winters. Usually there is fog or a heavy wind that causes air traffic problems.

paragraphs: Many species of birds live sometimes in the islands, like Eider, Starling, Wren, Guillemot, and Black Guillemot. Only a few species of wild land seals live in the Faroe Islands today, the Grey Seals. Sometimes tourists can see whales,in the waters near the islands.

paragraphs: Grey Seals are very common around the Faroese shores. The natural vegetation of the Faroe Islands is like in the Scottish islands or in Ireland. It is mostly wild flowers, grasses, moss and lichen.


title: Faroese language

paragraphs: Faroese is the Germanic language of the Faroe Islands spoken by about 70,000 people. The language came from Old Norse which was spoken in the Middle Ages. Faroese is the most similar to Icelandic. The alphabet has 29 letters that come from the Latin alphabet.


title: Laura Ingalls Wilder

paragraphs: Laura Ingalls Wilder (February 7, 1867 - February 10, 1957) was an American writer. She was born in Wisconsin and spent her childhood in Missouri and Kansas. She became a teacher in South Dakota at age 16.

paragraphs: Wilder is best known as the author of "Little House on the Prairie" series of books. A TV series, "Little House On the Prairie", was inspired by the story of her life as told in her books. The series starred Melissa Gilbert as Laura and Michael Landon as Charles 'Pa' Ingalls.


title: Mestizo

paragraphs: Mestizo (meh-STEE-tzo) is a Spanish term for a person who is of mixed European (usually Spanish) and Indigenous ancestry.

paragraphs: Mestizos have existed since the time when Spain controlled what is now Latin America. A mestizo was usually the son of a Spanish father and a Native American mother. Mestizos form the largest part of the population in some Latin American nations, a large minority of mestizos makes up most of the population in Mexico, which is the Spanish-speaking nation with the largest population in the world.

paragraphs: During the colonial era, many Native Americans were converted to Roman Catholicism and began using the Spanish language instead of their traditional one. This was because of the concept that existed in the Spanish colonies which gave more "value" to European people over Native Americans and Africans. Because of this, many Native Americans gained better social status by calling themselves "mestizos" instead of "indios."

paragraphs: Indo-Mestizo (also known as Cholo) is a Spanish term for a person who is around 3/4 Native American and 1/4 Caucasian ancestry.

paragraphs: Indo-Mestizos are mostly found in Eastern and Southern Mexico, much of Northern Central America, Ecuador,south of Peru, and Bolivia

paragraphs: Indo-Mestizos usually have more Native American traits, but may have a light pigmentation with completely Native American features, or a dark pigmenation with some obvious Caucasian features.

paragraphs: Famous Indo-Mestizos include Maya Zapata, George Lopez, and Danny Trejo. They are so called because of their appearance, not because of known genetic background.


title: Royal Air Force

paragraphs: The Royal Air Force (sometimes called RAF, its acronym), is the air force of the United Kingdom. The RAF began in 1918 when the Royal Flying Corps (spoken as 'core') and the Royal Naval Air Service joined together. It is the oldest air force in the world. The first man to lead the RAF was Hugh Trenchard. The RAF has many bases across the world, including the UK, Falkland Islands, Cyprus and Gibraltar. Some examples of the UK bases are RAF Lossiemouth in Scotland, RAF Valley in Wales, RAF Aldergrove in Northern Ireland and RAF Linton-on Ouse in England. The RAF has very new planes including the Eurofighter Typhoon, Panavia Tornado and the BAe Systems Hawk. The Hawk is used to train fast-jet pilots.

paragraphs: The RAF were very busy during World War II. Many important planes were built for the RAF. The Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricane helped defend Britain during the Battle of Britain. The Avro Lancaster bomber attacked Germany with strategic bombing. The RAF lost great numbers of pilots and aircraft, fighting around the world and especially against the "Luftwaffe", the German Air Force.


title: Tequila

paragraphs: Tequila is a Latin American drink from Mexico that contains alcohol. It is made from a plant called agave. It contains about 40 percent alcohol, and is often used in bars and nightclubs to make mixed drinks such as the "tequila sunrise" or the Margarita. It is also muggish


title: The Book of One Thousand and One Nights

paragraphs: The Book of One Thousand and One Nights is an old cycle (or group) of stories that mostly come from Arabia and Persia, and a few also from India, Central Asia and China. All these stories were later collected together. There are different layers of the stories:


title: Coup d'état

paragraphs: A coup d'état (pronounced []), or just coup ([]) for short, is the removal of a head of state and/or head of government from power (overthrow). Unlike a revolution, which usually takes large numbers of people to take over, a coup can be done by a small number of people. Even one person can cause a coup who, Idi Amin for example, controls the country's army. Coups can also be done by other countries, such as the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. One well-known failed coup was the Beer Hall Putsch, where Adolf Hitler tried to take over the government of the state of Bavaria in Germany.

paragraphs: The term comes from French for "a (sudden) blow (or strike) to a state".

paragraphs: Informally, "coup" is sometimes used to refer to takeovers, or wins, in places other than government, such as inside a company or corporation.


title: Walt Disney

paragraphs: Walter Elias Disney (December 5, 1901 - December 15, 1966) was an American business entrepreneur, animator, cartoonist, producer, screenwriter, entrepreneur, and voice actor. Disney was an important person in the American animation industry and throughout the world. He is regarded as an international icon, and philanthropist. He is well known for his influence and contributions to the field of entertainment during the 20th century. Along with his brother Roy Disney, he was the founder of Walt Disney Productions. The corporation is now known as The Walt Disney Company.

paragraphs: As an extraordinary animator and entrepreneur, Disney was well known as a film producer and a showman, as well as an innovator in animation and theme park design. He and his staff created some of the world's most well-known fictional characters including Mickey Mouse. He provided the original voice for Mickey Mouse. He received four honorary Academy Awards and won 22 Academy Awards from a total of 59 nominations, including a record four in one year. It gave him more awards and nominations than any other person in history. Disney also won seven Emmy Awards. He gave his name to the Disneyland, and Walt Disney World Resort theme parks in the United States, as well as international resorts like Tokyo Disney Resort, Disneyland Paris, and Hong Kong Disneyland.

paragraphs: He died on December 15, 1966 from lung cancer. A year later, construction of the Walt Disney World Resort began in Florida. His brother Roy Disney inaugurated the Magic Kingdom in 1971.

paragraphs: Walter Elias Disney was born on December 5, 1901 at 2156 North Tripp Avenue in Hermosa, Chicago, Illinois. His father Elias Disney had Irish-Canadian ancestry and his mother, Flora Call Disney had German and English ancestry.

paragraphs: His great-grandfather, Arundel Elias Disney, had emigrated from Gowran, County Kilkenny, Ireland where he was born in 1801. Arundel Disney was a descendant of Robert d'Isigny, a Frenchman who had traveled to England with William the Conqueror in 1066. The d'Isigny name was anglicized as "Disney" and the family settled in a village now known as Norton Disney, south of the city of Lincoln, in the county of Lincolnshire.

paragraphs: About the time Disney was entering high school, his family moved to the big city of Chicago. Disney took classes at the Chicago Art Institute and drew for the school newspaper. When he was sixteen, Disney decided he wanted to help fight in World War I. Since he was still too young to join the army, he dropped out of school and joined the Red Cross. He spent the next year driving ambulances for the Red Cross in France.

paragraphs: Disney's best-known creation is the cartoon character, Mickey Mouse. Disney even provided the voice for Mickey Mouse for many years. Donald Duck is another famous creation. Minnie Mouse and Pluto are also his creations. Disney was once fired from a newspaper company in Kansas City, Missouri because of his lack of creativity.

paragraphs: Disney began as a cartoonist in the 1920s. He created Oswald the Lucky Rabbit but lost ownership of the character due to a contract problem. He then created Mickey Mouse. Disney started the Walt Disney Studios and created the first full-length animated movie when he created "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" (1937). The movie was a huge success. The money from the movie helped Disney create many more cartoons and movies such as "Fantasia, Pinocchio" (both 1940)", Dumbo" (1941), and "Bambi" (1942). New animated and live-action films followed after World War II, including the critically successful "Cinderella" (1950), "Peter Pan" (1953), and "Mary Poppins" (1964), the latter of which received five Academy Awards. He earned 32 academy awards. Disney once refused an offer from Alfred Hitchcock to make a movie at Disney World after Hitchcock filmed "Psycho". He also served as the host of The Wonderful World of Disney, a weekly variety show that had Disney cartoons and some live-action skits.

paragraphs: In the 1950s, Disney created Disneyland in Anaheim, California. Disneyland was the first modern theme park. Disney also bought the land for Walt Disney World Resort in Florida. Disney did not see Walt Disney World finished though because he died before it opened. Both Disneyland and Walt Disney World (and now other Disney theme parks) are famous for their design, level of detail, being very clean, and animatronics.

paragraphs: On December 15, 1966, Disney died of lung cancer in Burbank, California at the age of 65. His movies and theme parks are still enjoyed by millions of people. His company continues to produce very successful new theme parks and films.

paragraphs: After Disney's death, many rumors were spreading that Disney's body was cryonically frozen, and that his frozen corpse was stored beneath the Pirates of the Caribbean ride at Disneyland. In reality, he was cremated on 17 December 1966. His ashes were in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park cemetery in Glendale, California.

paragraphs: Some people have accused Disney of being racist and antisemitic. This was because he made some insensitive comments and included ethnic stereotypes in his cartoons and movies, even though he employed a lot of Jews and people of different backgrounds.


title: Eucharist

paragraphs: The Eucharist, also called holy communion, the sacrament, or the Lord's supper, is a kind of religious ritual in many Christian churches. It started when Jesus Christ told his followers to eat bread (His body) and drink wine (His blood) in memory of him, at the Last Supper.

paragraphs: According to the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist is the true presence of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. During a Mass, through the act of transubstantiation, the bread and wine offered change, and are no longer bread and wine. They become the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ. The bread and wine do not change appearance, but they are the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, which Catholics in good standing (not in the state of mortal sin) come and receive Christ—they consume Him. This follows what was said by Christ "Eat my Body and Drink my Blood" (John ch.6). Most Protestant denominations believe that this was meant as a symbol, while the Catholic Church bases its beliefs on the tradition handed down through the church.

paragraphs: First century St. Ignatius of Antioch, disciple of the beloved disciple John, in speaking of "the heretics plaguing the church" in their day, wrote: "They abstain from the Eucharist because they do not confess that the Eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ" (Smyrnaeans, 7).

paragraphs: From the second century, St. Justin Martyr wrote:

paragraphs: "This food we call Eucharist, which no one is allowed to share except the one who believes that our teaching is true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and so lives as Christ has handed down. For we do not receive these as common bread and common drink; but just as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise we have learned that the food over which thanks has been given by the prayer of the word which comes from him, and by which our blood and flesh are nourished through a change, is the Flesh and Blood of the same incarnate Jesus" (The First Apology).

paragraphs: In most Protestant churches, not including Lutheranism, the sacrament of communion involves eating small wafers or Matzos and drinking wine or grape juice, and not believing that it is the actual body and blood of Jesus, but as a very important symbolic observance, and fulfillment of what Christ commanded. Some churches offer it daily, some weekly, some monthly, and some a few times a year.

paragraphs: Unlike the Catholic teaching, Lutherans teach that the bread and wine is Jesus' body and blood, but is bread and wine also (consubstantiation).

paragraphs: In the Latter Day Saints or "Mormon" Church, followers eat small pieces of bread and drink water. They believe that this is a symbol of the body and blood of Jesus, and they call it the Sacrament. They also believe that it helps them to make the promises of baptism all over again.


title: Little House (book series)

paragraphs: Little House on the Prairie is a book written by Laura Ingalls Wilder in 1935. It is one part of series of books about Wilder's childhood in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Kansas during the late 19th century. The books have been made many times into movies and television series. Some other writers have also written books about Laura and her relatives.

paragraphs: The books became famous during the 20th century. During the 21st century, scholars began to look at them closely as literature and as art. Wilder has been criticized for the way she shows Native Americans and black Americans.

paragraphs: "Pioneer Girl" was one of the first books Ingalls-Wilder wrote, but she could not find a publisher that wanted to print it. "Pioneer Girl" is a nonfiction story of Wilder's life. Her daughter told her to write fictional stories instead. The Little House series is a different from the true story of Ingalls-Wilder's life. She was trying to tell a happy story and to show manifest destiny as a good thing. She wanted the story to make sense, so she left things out if they did not fit her ideas. The fictional books do not talk about when her family moved east to Iowa or her little brother who died young. She also invented fictional characters and made combination characters: Nellie Olson is one person in the fictional books but she was based on more than one person in real life.

paragraphs: In 2015, an edited version of "Pioneer Girl" was published. It has many footnotes explaining things for twenty-first-century readers.

paragraphs: In 2018, the Association for Library Service to Children changed the name of its "Laura Ingalls Wilder Award" to the "Children’s Literature Legacy Award" because people did not like the way Wilder wrote about Native Americans in "Little House on the Prairie". They said the book had "dated cultural attitudes toward Indigenous people and people of color that contradict modern acceptance, celebration, and understanding of diverse communities." For example, in the book, one white character says "the only good Indian is a dead Indian." Some of the words Ingalls use to describe Native Americans makes them sound like non-human animals. Other people disagreed, saying the book showed how complicated things between Native Americans and white settlers were. For example, it shows that the Ingalls family is on Indian land illegally, which means they must leave. It shows Laura asking her parents why they are in Indian territory if they don't want to be near Indians.


title: Piccolo Coro dell'Antoniano

paragraphs: Piccolo Coro dell'Antoniano is an Italian choir of children. It was created in Bologna in 1963 by Mariele Ventre. The children had to help singing children at Zecchino d'Oro festival. In 1995, Mariele Ventre died and the choir has a new director - Sabrina Simoni - and a new name - "Piccolo Coro "Mariele Ventre" dell'Antoniano".


title: Ward Cunningham

paragraphs: Howard G. "Ward" Cunningham (born May 26, 1949) is an American computer programmer. He started the first wiki website on March 25, 1995, and is considered the inventor of that software. He currently lives in Beaverton, Oregon.

paragraphs: Ward Cunningham got a Bachelor's degree in electrical engineering and computer science from Purdue University, and then got his master's degree in computer science from there as well. he has worked for Tektronix Computer Research Laboratory, the Eclipse Foundation, and Microsoft, among other places. In 2009, he joined AboutUs, an editable guide to websites.


title: Chain

paragraphs: A chain is like a rope, but made up of several elements called links.


title: Rope

paragraphs: A rope is made out of several threads. The material can be organic, like flax, or it can be small threads of steel (in case of a steel rope, wire or cable). A rope can be used to lift, or pull things, like pulling a ship into a harbor with another ship, or fixing the ship so it does not move away. The twisting of fibers in rope is what leads to its high tensile strength (meaning it's very difficult to pull apart) and this innovation allowed the rope to become a construction staple that has been used for millennia. Ropes have been used for thousands of years, from the Egyptians using them in 4000BCE and modern-day construction that relies heavily on the strength of this tool.


title: The X-Files

paragraphs: The X-Files is an American science fiction television series set in Maryland. It ran from its creation in 1993 until 2002, lasting for nine seasons. On January 24, 2016, a new season began airing. The series is about two FBI agents, Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) and Fox Mulder (David Duchovny). Together, they work to find answers to strange cases. Many of these cases have to do with aliens and the paranormal.

paragraphs: "The X-Files" was a very popular show; it is the second longest running science fiction show behind "Stargate SG-1". It also won awards like the Emmy Awards and the Golden Globe Awards.

paragraphs: The plot of the show has to do with finding the answer to mysteries, or X-Files. Mulder believes that the answers to many of these mysteries have to do with aliens and the paranormal, while Scully believes that the answer can be found using science. Sometimes, there are monsters that are introduced into the show. Episodes with monsters in them are called "Monster-of-the-week" episodes.

paragraphs: There is a plot in the show about Mulder's sister, Samantha Mulder. She was taken by aliens when she was little. Mulder spends a lot of time looking for her. In season seven, Mulder finds out that both the aliens and the government took his sister for experiments. They wanted to make an alien-human hybrid and used Samantha as a test subject.

paragraphs: Mulder and Scully believe that there is a part of the government that is helping the aliens. They find out this is true. The part of the government that helps the aliens is called "The Syndicate." The Syndicate helps the aliens to take over Earth.

paragraphs: Eventually, Mulder is taken by the aliens and is replaced in the series by John Doggett, another FBI agent. Doggett and Scully then work together in season eight. In season nine, Scully is replaced by Monica Reyes.

paragraphs: In 1998, a movie called "" was made. In the plot of the series, it is between seasons five and six. It is mainly about aliens. It was directed by Rob Bowman.

paragraphs: Another movie, called "", was made in 2008, six years after the season ended. The movie is more like a horror story than a story about aliens. It was directed by Chris Carter. It earned $20,982,478 in the US, earned $47,386,956 in countries outside the US, and in total earned $68,369,434.


title: Patent

paragraphs: A patent gives an inventor the right to stop other people making or using their invention. If someone makes or uses that invention without being allowed to, the inventor can sue that person in court to make them stop. The inventor can sell the patent to another person or company.

paragraphs: A patent lasts for up to 20 years, depending on the country. After that, anyone can copy the invention.

paragraphs: Each country has its own patents. China gives Chinese patents. India gives Indian patents. The United States gives United States patents. An inventor can get a patent in any country the inventor wants. An inventor can get patents in many different countries for the same invention. Each patent in each country costs money to get.

paragraphs: The rules for patents are similar in most countries.

paragraphs: To get a patent, the inventor must ask the government by describing the invention in writing. This is called a patent application. The inventor can write the patent application, but it is usually written by a person trained to write patent applications. This person is called a patent agent or, if the person is a lawyer, a patent attorney.

paragraphs: The government does not usually just give the inventor a patent. Instead, the government tries to confirm whether the idea is actually new. This is called patent examination. The government will try to find books, stories, or other patents that show that the idea was not new. The inventor, or his or her patent attorney, then tries to show how the inventor's idea is actually new and is different from anything that the government finds.

paragraphs: If the government finds that the inventor's idea is new, it will give the inventor a patent. The government will also send the inventor a copy of his or her patent application with a special seal. This copy is the patent.

paragraphs: The inventor must also pay the government a tax to get a patent. Usually, an inventor pays money to ask for the patent, and the inventor pays money when they get a patent. In some countries, the owner of a patent must also pay money to keep the patent. Some can be cheap and some can be expensive.

paragraphs: The owner of a patent can stop other people from using their invention. If someone other than the patent owner uses the patent, this is called infringing a patent. If the owner knows that someone is infringing his or her patent, the patent owner can ask a court to stop them. If the court agrees that the other person was using the patent, the court can make that person pay a fine to the patent owner.

paragraphs: The patent owner can give other people permission to use their patent. This is called a patent license. A person who wants to use another person's patent will usually pay money to the patent owner.

paragraphs: Patents most often cover products or processes that contain 'new' functional or technical ideas. They are concerned with how things work, how they are made, or what they are made of. Patents cover many different things such as electronics, medicines, agriculture and transport – anything in fact, from a small detail in an electric switch to an entire power station.

paragraphs: Usually, to get a patent there are three rules that the idea needs to follow:

paragraphs: Often a product is marked with a text saying 'patent pending' or 'pat. pending', which means that a patent has been asked for (part of) the product. Then people are warned that they should not copy the invention.

paragraphs: Patents are usually very long. They include a number of smaller parts. A patent usually includes a section that briefly describes the idea called the abstract. It also may include a section that describes other people's inventions and how the inventor's idea is different called the "background of the invention."

paragraphs: The patent also includes a long description of the idea itself called a "detailed description." In this section, the inventor tries to describe every detail of his or her invention.

paragraphs: The patent also has a number of pictures called the "figures." The figures are usually drawn by people called draftsman that are trained to draw in a special way. The pictures are labeled with numbers to show different parts of the invention.

paragraphs: At the end of most patents is a section called the claims. These are usually numbered. They include a short statement that lists all of the things needed for the invention. A court will use the claims to decide if another person is "infringing" the patent.


title: The Wizard of Oz

paragraphs: The Wizard of Oz is an American musical movie. It was produced by MGM and released by RKO in 1939. The movie is based on the children's book "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" by L. Frank Baum. This book was first published in May 1900. The book and movie are about a little girl's adventures in the land called Oz. This is still watched from 1939 to 2017.

paragraphs: The song "Over the Rainbow" won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. The movie was first televised in 1956. It became an annual Thanksgiving television special for many years. The movie was named the most-watched motion picture in history by the Library of Congress.

paragraphs: In 1998, the movie was sixth on the American Film Institute's 100 Years... 100 Movies list. The movie has been chosen for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

paragraphs: Dorothy (Judy Garland) lives on a drab Kansas farm with her Auntie Em and Uncle Henry (Clara Blandick and Charlie Grapewin). A powerful storm sweeps her away to the Land of Oz. She accidentally kills a wicked witch. She wants to go home, but only the Wizard of Oz (Frank Morgan) can send her home. She must go to the Emerald City to see him. She sets off on the Yellow Brick Road wearing the witch's ruby slippers. She makes three friends on the road: a Scarecrow, a Tin Man, and a Cowardly Lion (Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, and Bert Lahr).

paragraphs: On the way to Emerald City, the friends are tormented by The Wicked Witch of the West (Margaret Hamilton). She is the sister of the witch Dorothy killed. She wants the ruby slippers. Dorothy won't give the slippers to the witch. The friends arrive in Emerald City. The Wizard sends them off to kill the witch. The friends are captured by the witch. Dorothy throws a pail of water over the witch. The witch melts.

paragraphs: In the Emerald City, the four friends are welcomed as heroes. The Wizard prepares his hot air balloon to take Dorothy back to Kansas. The balloon takes off without her. A good witch called Glinda (Billie Burke) tells Dorothy she can go home by just clicking the heels of the ruby slippers together and thinking about home. She does this. She wakes up in her bed. Her adventures have been a dream.


title: Assassination

paragraphs: Assassination is the murder of an important or popular person. Usually the person is a political leader, like the head of a country or a political party. Assassinations are usually done for political reasons or for payment. A person who assassinates someone is called an assassin.

paragraphs: Throughout history, assassinations have happened for many different reasons. Sometimes assassinations have been used to take over governments. Other times, assassinations have been used to kill military leaders during wars, or for religious reasons. Some assassins want revenge, or just want to be famous.

paragraphs: Assassinations have happened ever since people started living in group societies.

paragraphs: The Old Testament of the Bible talks about assassinations in the Books of Judith, Kings, Samuel, and Chronicles.

paragraphs: An ancient Indian writer named Chanakya, who lived from about 350 283 BC, wrote a lot about assassinations in a book called "Arthashastra". One of his students later assassinated some of his enemies, including two of Alexander the Great's generals.

paragraphs: Famous victims of assassinations include Philip II of Macedon (336 BC), Alexander the Great's father, and Julius Caesar (44 BC). Emperors of the Roman Empire were often assassinated so that a different leader could take their place.

paragraphs: In the Middle Ages, many kings in the Eastern Roman Empire were killed by assassinations so that new kings could take power.

paragraphs: During the Renaissance, assassinations became more common in Western Europe. Kings William the Silent of the Netherlands (1584), Henry III of France (1589), and Henry IV of France (1610) were all assassinated.

paragraphs: The first American use of state assassination (where a government planned to assassinate someone) happened in 1620. It happened in Plymouth in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, where the Pilgrims had landed. Native Americans had lived there before the Pilgrims landed, but the Pilgrims wanted the land to themselves. Myles Standish invited a local Native American tribal chief, the chief's 18-year-old brother, and two other Native Americans to a feast. Then they locked the door, killed the three older men, and hanged the teenager in public as a warning to the other Native Americans to stay away.

paragraphs: Assassinations have been common in modern history. This section does not list every assassination that has happened in modern history. It lists some examples of world leaders who were assassinated, and explains some of the reasons why these assassinations happened.

paragraphs: In Imperial Russia, two emperors were assassinated within 80 years: Paul I (1801) and Alexander II (1881).

paragraphs: In the United States, four presidents were assassinated within 100 years. They were Presidents Abraham Lincoln (1865), James Garfield (1881), William McKinley (1901), and John F. Kennedy (1963).

paragraphs: After Abraham Lincoln was killed, Andrew Johnson became President. He was President for four years. During that time, 12 people who held important political jobs were assassinated. The next president, Ulysses S. Grant, led the United States from 18691877. During that time, 11 government leaders were assassinated; another 9 were attacked, but survived.

paragraphs: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated in 1914. Some historians say this assassination started World War I.

paragraphs: In the 1930s and 1940s, Josef Stalin's NKVD assassinated many people outside of the Soviet Union, including Leon Trotsky. These were mostly people who Stalin thought were against him or could take power from him. He wanted to make sure to keep the power he had, so he killed many of his opponents.

paragraphs: Between 1934 and 1944, different individuals and groups tried 27 different times to assassinate Adolf Hitler, the leader of Nazi Germany during The Holocaust and World War II. These people wanted to stop Hitler from taking over so many countries and killing so many people. However, he always survived.

paragraphs: During World War II, the Allies used assassinations to kill important Nazi and Japanese leaders:

paragraphs: Some famous human rights activists were also assassinated in the next few decades. They were assassinated by people who did not like the things they were doing to work for human rights. The most famous activists who were assassinated include:

paragraphs: Between 1960 and 1965, the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) tried at least eight times to assassinate Cuban leader Fidel Castro. Around this time, the CIA also made plans to assassinate Patrice Lumumba, the only democratically elected leader of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

paragraphs: Between 1960 and 1970, the CIA also encouraged and in some cases helped with assassination plans against:

paragraphs: In 1979, the Iranian Revolution turned Iran into an Islamic Republic. A group called Iran Human Rights Documentation Center says that between 1979 and the 1990s, leaders of the Iranian government had 162 people assassinated, in 19 different countries. The group says Iran stopped the assassinations because a German court put out an arrest warrant for the head of Iranian military intelligence.

paragraphs: Anwar Sadat, the President of Egypt, was assassinated in 1981 at a parade. He was killed by people who wanted to take over the country and make it into an Islamic Republic.

paragraphs: In 1983, Benigno Aquino, Jr. was assassinated. Aquino was against Ferdinand Marcos, the dictator who ruled the Philippines. The people of the Philippines were so upset that they started the non-violent People Power Revolution. This led to the end of Marcos's government. Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino, became President of the Philippines.

paragraphs: In India, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984. Her son Rajiv Gandhi became the next Prime Minister. He was assassinated in 1991. (They were not related to Mohandas Gandhi.)

paragraphs: Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated in 1995. The Israelis and Palestinians were working on a peace agreement. Rabin was killed by an Orthodox Jew who did not agree with the peace treaty. Many historians think Rabin's murder is one of the main reasons the peace talks fell apart.

paragraphs: In Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated in 2007. Bhutto had been the first woman ever elected to lead a Muslim country. An Al-Qaeda leader said that Al-Qaeda assassins had killed Bhutto. He said they did this because Bhutto was trying to get rid of violent Jihadist militia groups in Pakistan. He said this made her important to the United States, so Al-Qaeda killed her.

paragraphs: One research study looked at assassinations of national leaders (leaders of countries, like presidents or prime ministers). The study showed that:

paragraphs: Another study looked at all assassinations between 1946 and 2013. It included not just national leaders, but also other members of government (including local governments), and people who were against the government. This study found that between 1946 and 2013, a total of 954 people were assassinated in 758 different attacks.

paragraphs: This study also looked at who was most likely to be assassinated. Of those 954 people who were assassinated:


title: Gillian Anderson

paragraphs: Gillian Leigh Anderson, (born August 9, 1968) is an American-British film, television and theatre actress, activist and writer. Her credits include the roles of FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the long-running and widely popular series "The X-Files", ill-fated socialite Lily Bart in Terence Davies' film "The House of Mirth" (2000), and DSI Stella Gibson on the BBC crime drama television series "The Fall". Among other honours, Anderson has won a Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.

paragraphs: After beginning her career on stage, Anderson achieved international recognition for her role as FBI Special Agent Dana Scully on the American sci-fi drama series "The X-Files" for all ten seasons (1993–2002, 2016). Her film work includes the dramas "The Mighty Celt" (2005), "The Last King of Scotland" (2006), "Shadow Dancer" (2012) and two "X-Files" films: "The X-Files: Fight the Future" (1998) and "The X-Files: I Want to Believe" (2008). Her other notable television credits include: portraying Lady Dedlock in the successful BBC production of Charles Dickens' "Bleak House", Wallis Simpson in "Any Human Heart", portraying Miss Havisham in "Great Expectations" (2011) and Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier on "Hannibal". In 2013, Anderson began starring as DSI Stella Gibson on the critically acclaimed BBC crime drama television series "The Fall". She has been serving as an executive producer from its second series. She will be appearing as goddess Media in the upcoming TV series "American Gods". Anderson is the co-writer of "The EarthEnd Saga" novel trilogy and the self-help guide book "WE: A Manifesto for Women Everywhere".

paragraphs: Aside from film and TV, Anderson has taken on the stage and has received both awards and critical acclaim. Her stage work includes "Absent Friends" (1991) – for which she won a Theatre World Award for Best Newcomer, "A Doll's House" (2009) – that earned her a Laurence Olivier Award nomination, and a portrayal of Blanche DuBois in "A Streetcar Named Desire" (2014, 2016) – for which she won the "Evening Standard" Theatre Award for Best Actress and received her second Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress.

paragraphs: Anderson has been active in supporting numerous charities and humanitarian organizations. She is an honorary spokesperson for the Neurofibromatosis (NF) Network and the co-founder of South African Youth Education for Sustainability (SAYes). Anderson was appointed an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2016 for her services to drama.


title: Debt

paragraphs: Debt is what someone owes to someone else. Usually, debt is in the form of money, but it can also be items, services, favors, or other things. Thus if you make an agreement to give or do something for someone else, you now owe a debt.

paragraphs: Goods, services or money borrowed with the intent of repayment (in kind or not) creates a debt. Debt can be secured or unsecured in nature.

paragraphs: A secured debt uses "collateral", which is an asset that is promised to the debt-holder until the debt has been repaid. If the repayment is not made in full, the lender gets the collateral asset. For instance, a car loan typically creates a secured debt. If you still owe money on the car loan and do not make timely payments, the note-holder can take back (or repossess) the car and sell it to get the money still due. A home mortgage is similar.

paragraphs: An unsecured debt is more risky to the debt-holder (the lender, also called creditor). In the event of non-payment of the debt, the lender cannot take assets. Credit card debt is typically unsecured. If you charge items to a credit card and do not make the monthly payments, the credit card issuer can report the non-payment to the credit-reporting agencies. That will reduce your credit score so others will not lend you money. But usually they cannot take back whatever you bought with the card.


title: Uranium

paragraphs: Uranium is a chemical element (a metal) on the periodic table. It has an atomic number of 92, which means that a uranium atom has 92 protons in its center, which is called a nucleus. Uranium that is dug out of the ground will be made from three different isotopes: three different types of uranium with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Most of it is Uranium-238; uranium-235 is less common; uranium-234 is the rarest. Pitchblende is the main ore that is mined for uranium.

paragraphs: Uranium-235 can be used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons by making a nuclear chain reaction. This turns the uranium-235 into uranium-236 and splits the nucleus into two smaller nuclei. This makes two completely different elements with smaller atomic numbers. This process is called nuclear fission and creates lots of heat. This heat makes it very useful for making steam in nuclear reactors, or for making explosions with nuclear weapons. But most such weapons use Plutonium made from uranium-238. Uranium is a bit radioactive.

paragraphs: Uranium which has had its uranium-235 taken out of it is called depleted uranium. It is used in anti-tank weapons. Uranium can also be used as a dye for stained glass or pottery, which is how it was used before people found out that it was radioactive.

paragraphs: Uranium is a dangerous substance. Because Uranium is radioactive it is often seen with the hazard sign for radioactive elements, a group of three triangles with curved outer edges pointing in towards the middle (as you can see on the left). Some people believe that Uranium is light green, and glows, due to the way it is depicted in many movies. However, this is not true. Uranium is a shiny white metal, but is usually seen in its oxide form which is black. Spent or partially spent uranium fuel rods kept underwater, for example inside a nuclear reactor or in a spent fuel pool, can glow blue due to Cherenkov radiation. In addition to being radioactive, uranium is a heavy metal and is chemically toxic.


title: The Graduate

paragraphs: The Graduate is a 1967 American movie based on a novel by Charles Webb, and directed by Mike Nichols. It is set in Southern California.

paragraphs: In the movie and book, a recent college graduate (played by Dustin Hoffman) is seduced by Mrs. Robinson (Anne Bancroft), the wife of his father's business partner. He later falls in love with their daughter Elaine (Katharine Ross).

paragraphs: The movie was Hoffman's first major role (it was his second role). He was nominated for an Academy Award for his performance.

paragraphs: The soundtrack album contained music by folk duo Simon and Garfunkel, and replaced The Beatles's "White Album" for the number one position (most sales) on the music charts.

paragraphs: Scenes from "The Graduate" have been well-remembered by many people, since it appeared. In one of them, one-word advice for corporate success ("Plastics") is given by a family friend of Benjamin's. (Reportedly, sales of stock in plastics companies jumped in the months after the movie appeared.) Another scene, where Ben tries to stop Elaine from marrying another man, has been imitated and parodied in television programs, including the cartoon series "Daria".

paragraphs: In 1998, a play based on the movie premiered in London and on Broadway; its stars included Kathleen Turner, Alicia Silverstone and Morgan Fairchild.

paragraphs: Anne Bancroft, Dustin Hoffman, and Katharine Ross earned Oscar nominations for their performances.

paragraphs: Along with the acting nominations, the movie received nominations for Best Cinematography, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Picture. Mike Nichols won the Academy Award for Best Director.

paragraphs: The movie won the BAFTA Award for Best Film, the BAFTA Award for Best Editing (to Sam O'Steen) and the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.

paragraphs: In 1996, "The Graduate" was picked to keep in the U.S. National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.

paragraphs: The movie is listed in the 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die book.

paragraphs: Alfa Romeo made a "Graduate" edition Alfa Romeo Spider, the car Benjamin drives in the movie.


title: Aquitaine

paragraphs: Aquitaine (Occitan: "Aquitània"; ; ) used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. With over 41,000 square kilometers, it is one of the largest region of mainland France (the largest of all French regions is French Guiana, in South America).

paragraphs: Its capital was Bordeaux, the largest city. The French name of the people living in the region is "Aquitain".

paragraphs: The five departments in the region were Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne, and Pyrénées-Atlantiques.

paragraphs: The Aquitaine region was the third largest region of Metropolitan France, after Midi-Pyrénées and Rhône-Alpes. Its area was . It bordered with three French regions: Poitou-Charentes to the north, Limousin to the northeast and Midi-Pyrénées to the east. To the south is Spain (Aragon and Navarre) and to the west the Atlantic Ocean. The coast along the Atlantic Ocean, part of the Bay of Biscay, is called the Côte d'Argent ("Silver Coast").

paragraphs: The Greenwich Meridian passes through Aquitaine.

paragraphs: Most of Aquitaine is in the Aquitanian basin, a relatively flat and geologically young landscape. High mountains are found only in the south of Aquitaine, in the Pyrenees mountain range. The Pic Palas (), at , is the highest point of Aquitaine; it is on the border with Spain.

paragraphs: The main rivers of the region are the Garonne, that flows through the Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; the Dordogne, that flows through the Dordogne and Gironde departments; the Lot, that flows through the Lot-et-Garonne department; the Dropt, that flows through the Dordogne, Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; and the Adour, that flows through the Landes department.

paragraphs: The climate is mild - except in the high mountains - all year round. On the Atlantic coast, the annual average temperature is above 15 °C, in Bordeaux is about 14 °C and on the border of Limousin is still 11 °C. Rainfall is relatively high and is higher in the south of the region.

paragraphs: In the Middle Ages Aquitaine was at times a kingdom and a duchy. Various wars made it larger and smaller. Aquitane came into the control of England when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152. It remained in English control until 1453 at the end of the Hundred Years' War.

paragraphs: The Aquitaine region is formed by five departments:

paragraphs: The Aquitaine region had a population, in 2012, of 3,285,970, for a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: The 10 most important cities in the department are:


title: Frances Winfield

paragraphs: Frances Winfield is the wife of an American politician, L. Paul Bremer III. They have two children.

paragraphs: She is an author. She was born in Connecticut. She met her husband at a music concert. They fell in love in college. They got married in 1966. Both she and her husband are strong Roman Catholics. They are ministers in their home state of Maryland.


title: Nightmare

paragraphs: A nightmare is a very powerful dream that the sleeper finds disturbing or frightening. Nightmares usually have either physiological causes, like a high fever, or psychological ones, like trauma or stress in the sleeper's life. Nightmares are common, but nightmares that happen very often can cause problems with sleep. They may cause people to get medical help.

paragraphs: Nightmares usually happen during REM sleep.

paragraphs: In earlier times, people thought that such nightmares were really the work of demons. They thought people were having nightmares because an Incubus was sitting on the chest of the sleeper. This can also be seen on the image. Sometimes people also thought magic and demonic possession were involved.

paragraphs: In the 19th century, people thought their diet was responsible. When Ebenezer Scrooge sees a ghost in A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens, he thinks ""... an undigested bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese, a fragment of an underdone potato..."" is responsible. Similarly, the "Household Cyclopedia" (1881) offers this advice about nightmares:


title: Melilla

paragraphs: Melilla is a city in North Africa, right opposite Spain. It belongs to Spain, and is all surrounded by Morocco, which believes it should belong to them. Ceuta is another such city.

paragraphs: Its surface is about 20 square kilometers, and there are almost 70,000 people living there.


title: Ceuta

paragraphs: Ceuta is a Spanish city in North Africa, at the Strait of Gibraltar. The City area is about 20 square kilometers, and there are over 82,000 people living in the city. The city is surrounded by a border fence, which has been built to keep the Moroccans (and other Africans) from moving there unlawfully. Ceuta is part of Spain (and therefore the European Union). Until it became a self-governing city in 1994, it belonged to the Cadiz Province.

paragraphs: It was built by the Phoenicians at a strategic position.


title: Burkina Faso

paragraphs: Burkina Faso is a country in West Africa. It used to be called Upper Volta and the name was changed to Burkina Faso in 1984. The country was once ruled by France, but it has been independent since 1960. The capital is Ouagadougou.

paragraphs: In 2005, about 13,228,000 people lived in the country. It is next to Mali, Niger, Benin, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. It does not have any coast with an ocean or sea. People from Burkina Faso are called Burkinabé (pronounced burr-KEE-na-bay).

paragraphs: People have lived in the area of Burkina Faso for thousands of years. At first, they were hunter-gatherers, hunting animals and collecting fruits and vegetables. Later they became farmers. People called the Mossi arrived between the 11th and 13th centuries. They ruled the area until the end of the 19th century. In 1896 France beat the Mossi kingdom and became the colonial rulers of Burkina Faso. After World War I, the country was called Upper Volta.

paragraphs: In 1960, Upper Volta became independent from France. The first president of the new country was Maurice Yaméogo. After he became the president, Yaméogo banned other political parties. For several years the people of Upper Volta were very unhappy with the government and in 1966 the military took over in a military coup. In 1983 the government was taken over again by military men called Thomas Sankara and Blaise Compaoré. Sankara became president. In 1984, he changed the name of the country to Burkina Faso. It means "land of honest people".

paragraphs: In December 1985, Burkina Faso went to war for five days with near-by country Mali. In 1987, there was another military coup and Sankara was assassinated (murdered). Blaise Compaoré became the president.

paragraphs: On 28 October 2014 protesters began to march and demonstrate in Ouagadougou. Compaoré was ready to change the constitution and extendhis 27-year rule. On 30 October 2014, some protesters set fire to the parliament. They also took over the national television headquarters. On 31 October 2014, President Compaoré, resigned after 27 years in office.

paragraphs: In 2015 the country held their first election. Roch Marc Christian Kabore, a former Prime Minister, was elected as President.

paragraphs: Burkina Faso is divided into thirteen regions, forty-five provinces, and 301 departments. The regions are:

paragraphs: Below is a list of the largest cities in Burkina Faso. For other cities see List of cities in Burkina Faso.

paragraphs: Burkina Faso is made up of two major types of countryside. The larger part of the country is covered by a peneplain. It has a gently undulating landscape with a few isolated hills. The southwest of the country forms a sandstone massif. The highest peak, Ténakourou, is found at an elevation of . The area is bordered by sheer cliffs up to high. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is . The difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than . Burkina Faso is a mostly flat country.

paragraphs: Burkina Faso has a tropical climate with two distinct seasons. In the rainy season, the country receives between of rainfall. In the dry season, the harmattan – a hot dry wind from the Sahara – blows. The rainy season lasts about four months, from May/June to September. It is shorter in the north of the country.

paragraphs: Burkina Faso's natural resources include manganese, limestone, marble, phosphates, pumice, salt and small deposits of gold.

paragraphs: Burkina Faso's fauna and flora are protected in two national parks and several reserves.

paragraphs: Literature in Burkina Faso is based on the oral tradition, which remains important. Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina Faso with many more writers being published.

paragraphs: There is also a large artist community, especially in Ouagadougou. Much of the crafts produced are for the growing tourist industry.

paragraphs: The food of Burkina Faso, typical of west African cuisine, is based around staple foods of sorghum, millet, rice, maize, peanuts, potatoes, beans, yams and okra. The most common sources of protein are chicken, eggs and fresh water fish.


title: Battle of Waterloo

paragraphs: The Battle of Waterloo was a battle that was fought between the French army and the British and Prussian armies.

paragraphs: Napoleon was crowned as Emperor of France in 1804, and then launched the successful Napoleonic Wars. France soon had an empire that stretched from Spain to the Russian border. Defeated at the Battle of Leipzig and elsewhere, he accepted exile on the island of Elba in 1814. In February 1815 he again took control of the French Army. He attacked his enemies in Belgium and was defeated at Waterloo. It was the last battle of the Napoleonic Wars.

paragraphs: Napoleon seemed unstoppable until two separate campaigns failed. He gathered a huge army to invade and conquer Russia in 1812. His army was caught by the Russian winter and destroyed by the weather and lack of food. The countries of Eastern Europe, led by Austria and Prussia, began to ally against him, forcing his troops back towards France. Meanwhile, a small army in Portugal and Spain, led by Arthur Wellesley (later to become Duke of Wellington) began to push Napoleon’s troops out of Spain.

paragraphs: By 1814, Napoleon faced total defeat, with invasions from all sides. A peace treaty was arranged. Napoleon would abdicate (give up the throne) and live on a small Mediterranean island called Elba, with a small army. He was replaced as ruler of France by Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI.

paragraphs: On the island of Elba, Napoleon was not content. He had been promised money by the new French government, but the money did not come. His wife (an Austrian princess) and his sons were forbidden to visit him.

paragraphs: Messages from France showed that his enemies were quarreling. He seized his opportunity, going by ship in February 1815 and landing in France again. His welcome was very mixed. Many French were tired of war and the death and suffering that it made. However, others wanted a return to the power and glory of the old days and saw Napoleon as their best hope.

paragraphs: His first days were tense but, by personal leadership and persuasion, Napoleon managed to gain the support of the army. When the king panicked and fled the country, there was little to stop Napoleon returning to Paris and resuming his title of Emperor.

paragraphs: What Napoleon needed now was a period of time to organize himself and the French army. The allies were caught completely by surprise and their only chance to stop him lay with two small armies in Belgium: a British and Dutch army commanded by the Duke of Wellington and a Prussian (German) army commanded by Marshall Blücher.

paragraphs: Napoleon decided on a further gamble. He gathered an army and prepared a surprise attack on Wellington and Blucher, hoping to catch them unprepared. His plan was successful at first and he crossed the Belgian border before Wellington and Blucher could join forces.

paragraphs: His first battle was at Ligny and, after a fierce day’s fighting, he defeated the Prussian army, forcing it to retreat. Thinking that Blucher would retreat back to Prussia, Napoleon turned his attention towards Wellington. There had already been a small battle at Quatre Bras, as Wellington tried to delay the French advance. This had given Wellington enough time to prepare a full defensive position across the road leading to Brussels, near the village of Waterloo.

paragraphs: The French army advanced towards them and set up their camp on a ridge facing the combined British and Dutch (Anglo-Dutch) army. Heavy rain caused delays and confusion and both armies settled down for the night in the mud to await the dawn and the forthcoming battle.

paragraphs: Napoleon’s army faced the Duke of Wellington’s Anglo-Dutch army near Waterloo on 18th June 1815. Wellington’s troops were deployed behind a low ridge, partially protecting them from the French massed artillery.

paragraphs: At around 11.00 Napoleon ordered his guns to open fire. French infantry began an attack against the Château of Hougoumont, defended by the British Foot Guards. This was intended to draw Wellington’s reserves away from the centre, where Napoleon’s main attack would fall.

paragraphs: According to records Hougomont was considered to be a vital key to winning the Battle Of Waterloo.

paragraphs: At 13:30 Napoleon launched an infantry attack against Wellington’s centre. Men of the King’s German Legion resolutely defended the farm of La Haye Sainte. This disrupted the French attack. British artillery and musketry succeeded in checking the French assault and the British Household and Union heavy cavalry brigades charged after the wavering Frenchmen. Elated by their success, the British cavalry pursued their enemy too far and in turn suffered terrible casualties at the hands of the French lancers and light cavalry.

paragraphs: At 15.00 the Anglo-Dutch army appeared to be retreating after the heavy bombardment they had received all day, so Napoleon's general Marshal Ney led a massed French cavalry attack against Wellington’s centre. However, the British infantry had only been moving back to regroup and tend the wounded, and they were able to form squares to defend themselves from cavalry attack. The French took terrible casualties as they circled these impregnable formations of infantrymen.

paragraphs: The situation further deteriorated for Napoleon as Blucher's Prussian troops launched an attack at Plancenoit to his rear at 16.30.

paragraphs: By early evening the French attack at Hougoumont, intended as a diversion, was now having the opposite effect. The French committed more and more troops to the bitter fighting around the château, which was held by only a small force of British Guardsmen. More French reserves were being sent to meet the Prussian threat to the rear of Napoleon’s army at Plancenoit. However, the French had at last succeeded in capturing the farm of La Haye Sainte, only a short distance from Wellington’s centre.

paragraphs: At approximately 19.30 Napoleon committed his last reserves in a final effort to obtain victory. As Prussians arrived to bolster Wellington’s flank, veterans of the French Imperial Guard advanced to 'finish the job'. The British infantry, exhausted from the continuous cannonade they had received all day, rose to meet them. The musketry of the British Guards Brigade defeated Napoleon’s finest troops. They fled, and the whole French army joined them in retreat. Wellington ordered his entire line to advance and the French were driven from the field.


title: São Tomé and Príncipe

paragraphs: The Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe is the second-smallest African country.

paragraphs: It is made up of two islands: São Tomé and Príncipe.

paragraphs: They are about 140 km apart and about 250 and 225 km, respectively, off of the northwestern coast of Gabon.

paragraphs: The islands were a Portuguese colony, but have been independent since July 1975. Portuguese is the official language.

paragraphs: The Portuguese arrived in São Tomé Island on December 21, 1471, and Príncipe Island on January 17, 1492. As these were days dedicated to saints, both islands had saints’ names. S. Antão Island, the former name of Príncipe Island, changed in 1500 to honor the Prince of Portugal.

paragraphs: The official historical version says that the country was uninhabited before the arrival of the Portuguese sailors.

paragraphs: The first successful Portuguese settlement in the archipelago was in 1493. The volcanic soil of the islands proved to be good for sugar crops. Hard work was needed to grow and harvest the sugar crops. Slaves were brought from Portugal to do the work. Because other countries began producing more sugar, the islands were not able to make money from it. Instead it became a stopping place for the slave trade.

paragraphs: In the 19th century, crops of coffee and cocoa were grown. These became successful. By 1908 the country was the largest producer of cocoa. It is the most important crop for the country.

paragraphs: On February 3, 1953, the Batepá massacre occurred. In the massacre hundreds of local people were killed by Portuguese settlers. The Portuguese wanted workers for the crops. The locals said they were being used as slaves. The governor told the military to take any locals who did not want to work.

paragraphs: In the late 1950s a group wanted independence. They were called the MLSTP (Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe). In 1974 they succeeded in removing Marcelo Caetano as their leader. On 12 July 1975 São Tomé and Príncipe became an independent country. The first president was Manuel Pinto da Costa. He was the MLSTP`s General Secretary.

paragraphs: Until 1990 the MLSTP was the only political party. They changed the constitution to allow other political parties. The new Party of Democratic Convergence (PCD) won the most seats in the National Assembly. Miguel Trovoada was elected president.

paragraphs: The president is elected for a five-year term and can be re-elected. The prime minister is elected for a four-year term. The thirteen members of the cabinet (the group of ministers) are chosen by them. All adult citizens can vote in the elections. They vote by secret ballot.

paragraphs: São Tomé and Príncipe is divided into 2 provinces: Príncipe and São Tomé.

paragraphs: The provinces are further divided into seven districts, six on São Tomé and one on Príncipe (with Príncipe having self-government since April 29, 1995).

paragraphs: São Tomé and Príncipe is formed by two volcanic islands - the biggest of which is S. Tomé - and several islets. It is in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial coast of Africa. Both islands belong to the Cameroon volcanic mountain line.

paragraphs: The archipelago is 1,001km2 in size. The equator line passes through the Rolas’s Islet which is in the south of S. Tomé Island. The tallest peak is the Peak of S. Tomé at 2,024m tall.

paragraphs: The climate is tropical, hot and humid, with an annual average temperature of 27 C. There are two main seasons. Gravana is the driest season. It has little or no rainfall and the temperatures are lower. Gravana lasts from June to August. The rainy season is from October to May.

paragraphs: Since the archipelago´s discovery, its economy has been based on agriculture and fishing. Cocoa is 95% of the country’s exports. Other exports are copper, palm oil and coffee. Another economic activity is tourism.

paragraphs: After independence, the country’s economy was nationalized, it was then privatised in the early 1990s. Now the government budget is mainly based on foreign assistance from donors such as the UN Development Programme, the World Bank, and country donors.

paragraphs: The main importers of the archipelago's production are Portugal with 51%, France with 14%, Angola with 11%, and Japan with 10%.

paragraphs: In 2001, petroleum was found in the waters claimed by the archipelago and Nigeria.

paragraphs: According to the 2010 census, about 163,000 people lived in São Tomé and Príncipe. 52,000 lived in the capital and less than seven thousand lived on Príncipe Island.

paragraphs: São Tomé is the country’s capital and main city.

paragraphs: The people of S. Tomé and Príncipe are divided into the following ethnic groups: mixed-blood, descendents of Portuguese settlers and African slaves; Forros, the biggest ethnic group and descendents of freed slaves; Angolares, descendents of Angolan slaves; Tonga, mixed blood of Forros and hired workers from Angola, Mozambique and Cape Verde; and Cape Verdean descendents.

paragraphs: The country’s official language is Portuguese. Other languages spoken are Forro, a creole spoken by 80% of S. Tomé Island`s people; Angolar, spoken mainly on the southeast of S. Tomé Island; Lung`ié, spoken in Príncipe Island; and Creole from Cape Verde.

paragraphs: Almost everyone is Christian: Roman Catholic, Evangelical Protestant and Seventh-Day Adventist.

paragraphs: The country’s culture is the product of Portuguese and African cultural influence. Typical dances on the islands are Ússua, Socopé, Dêxa, and Puita. Tchiloli, Danço Congo and Auto dos Floripes are public theatrical performances, examples of the Portuguese cultural legacy.

paragraphs: Alda Neves da Graça do Espírito Santo was a famous poet from São Tomé.

paragraphs: Children are required to attend school for four years. The National Lyceum (São Tomé and Príncipe) and the University of São Tomé and Príncipe are the two colleges.


title: Equatorial Guinea

paragraphs: The Republic of Equatorial Guinea is a nation in west central Africa, and one of the smallest countries in Africa. It borders Cameroon on the north, Gabon on the south and east, and the Gulf of Guinea on the west. In the past, it was the Spanish colony of Spanish Guinea. The country's territory is both on the continent and on islands. The continental part is known as Río Muni. On one island, Bioko, is the capital, Malabo.

paragraphs: Equatorial Guinea is the only country in Africa where Spanish is an official language.

paragraphs: Equatorial Guinea is divided into seven provinces (capitals appear in parentheses):

paragraphs: The provinces are further divided into districts.


title: Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo

paragraphs: Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (born June 5 1942) has been the President of Equatorial Guinea since 1979. Mbasongo did the military academy in Zaragoza, Spain. He came to power in a military coup, deposing the former leader Francisco Macías Nguema. Ngema had ruled the country for the previous decade. He was known to be very cruel. Ngema was sentenced to death and executed by a firing squad. Mbasonga promised to start over and to do a better job at governing the country.

paragraphs: In 1982, a new constitution was made. MBasogo was given the newly created post of president. He was re-elected in 1989, 1996 and 2002. In 1989 he was the only candidate, in the 1996 and 2002, international observers said the election results were false.

paragraphs: Obiang's regime kept clear authoritarian characteristics even after other parties were legalized in 1991. Most domestic and international observers consider his regime to be one of the most corrupt, ethnocentric, oppressive and undemocratic states in the world. Equatorial Guinea is now essentially a single-party state, dominated by Obiang's Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE). In 2008 American journalist Peter Maass called Obiang Africa's worst dictator, worse than Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe. The constitution grants Obiang wide powers, including the power to rule by decree. Nonetheless, Obiang has far less power than Macías. For the most part his rule has been considerably milder. Notably, there have been none of the atrocities that characterized the Macías era.

paragraphs: All but one member of the 100-seat national parliament belong to the PDGE or are aligned with it. The opposition is severely hampered by the lack of a free press to express their views. Around 90% of all opposition politicians live in exile, 550 anti-Obiang activists have been jailed unfairly, and several killed since 1979.

paragraphs: In July 2003, state-operated radio declared Obiang to be a god who is "in permanent contact with the Almighty" and "can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell." He personally made similar comments in 1993. Despite these comments, he still claims that he is a devout Catholic and was invited to the Vatican by John Paul II and again by Benedict XVI. Macías had also proclaimed himself a god.


title: Lord Voldemort

paragraphs: Lord Voldemort (born Tom Marvolo Riddle) is a fictional character in the Harry Potter series of children's books. The books were written by J.K. Rowling. Voldemort first appears in the 1997 fantasy novel "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone". In the "Harry Potter" movies, Voldemort is played by actors Richard Bremmer, Christian Coulson, Ralph Fiennes, Hero-Fiennes Tiffin, and Frank Dillane.

paragraphs: "Voldemort" means "flight of death" in French. J.K. Rowling apologized for this in 2009, saying that she did not mean that French people were bad: "I can assure you that no anti-French feeling was at the origin of this choice. As a Francophile, I have always been proud of my French blood. But I needed a name that evokes both power and exoticism." She also said that Voldemort himself was "100 percent English".

paragraphs: In the world of "Harry Potter" some people are wizards and can do magic. "Wizarding society" hides from non-magical people, whom they call "muggles". Wizards have separate governments and separate schools where they teach their children magic in addition to normal things like history.

paragraphs: Voldemort's mother named him Tom Marvolo Riddle. His mother, Merope Gaunt, is a descendant of the famous ancient wizard Salazar Slytherin, but by the time she is a young woman, the family is poor. Merope casts a love spell on a handsome and rich young non-wizard named Tom Riddle. They run away and got married. After the love spell wears off, Tom Riddle leaves Merope. She gives birth to a son and names him Tom Marvolo Riddle. She dies right after that.

paragraphs: Tom Marvolo Riddle grows up in an orphanage in England. He does not know about wizards or magic but does know he can do things other children cannot. He like to scare the other orphans, kill their pets and steal their things from them. When he is 11 years old, a teacher at the wizard school Hogwarts named Albus Dumbledore comes to his orphanage and tells him he is a young wizard and can go to the school.

paragraphs: Tom Marvolo Riddle goes to Hogwarts, learns magic, and becomes an adult. He also collects rare objects, sometimes by stealing them. Other people make Tom Marvolo Riddle their leader and he starts calling himself Lord Voldemort. Over the years, Voldemort makes magical objects called horcruxes and puts part of his soul in each one. This keeps him from dying all the way and makes it possible for his friends to bring him back to life.

paragraphs: Voldemort believes wizards should rule the world and conquer non-magical people instead of hiding from them. He also thinks that "pure-blood wizards", wizards who do not have any non-magical parents or ancestors, are better than other people. He thinks this even though he is a "half-blood" wizard himself. He starts a war to make himself the leader of the wizarding world.

paragraphs: Voldemort and his followers kill many wizards and non-magic people. Voldemort hears part of a prophecy saying that a specific boy might grow up and kill him one day. He decides this boy must be Harry Potter, then still a baby. He finds Harry's family, kills his parents, and tries to kill Harry, but the spell backfires. Because of his horcruxes, Voldemort does not really die. He is "less than the meanest ghost" but he is still in the world. His spirit runs away and hides. Even with Voldemort gone, most wizards are still so afraid of him that they do not want to say his name. They call Voldemort "You-Know-Who" or "He Who Must Not Be Named".

paragraphs: In the first book, "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", Voldemort sneaks back into Hogwarts School by partially possessing the body of his secret follower, Professor Quirrell. He and Quirrell try to steal the philosopher's stone to bring Voldemort back to life. Harry and his friends stop them.

paragraphs: In the second book, "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets", one of Voldemort's horcruxes, his childhood diary possesses the body of another student and lets a monster called a basilisk into the school. The basilisk turns several people and a cat to stone. Harry and his friends stop it.

paragraphs: Voldemort does not appear in the third book, "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban".

paragraphs: In the fourth book, "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire", Voldemort's followers trick Harry into coming to them so they can use him to cast a spell that brings Voldemort back to life.

paragraphs: In the fifth book, "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", Voldemort and his followers start trying to take over the wizarding world again, but they are hiding while they do it. Harry Potter and his friends prove to the rest of the wizarding world that Voldemort really is alive again.

paragraphs: In the sixth book, "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince" Voldemort and his followers fight and take over much of the wizarding government in Britain.

paragraphs: In the seventh book, "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows", Harry Potter and his friends find all of Voldemort's horcruxes and defeat him. He dies for real.

paragraphs: Experts generally say Voldemort is a metaphor for fascism and fear of outsiders. He has also been compared to Rick Perry, Dick Cheney. Many people, including author J.K. Rowling, compared Donald Trump to Lord Voldemort after his 2015 proposal to forbid Muslims from entering the United States.


title: Hogwarts

paragraphs: Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry is a fictional boarding school in J. K. Rowling's best-selling "Harry Potter" series. It is a school of magic for witches and wizards between the ages of eleven and seventeen living in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and Scotland.

paragraphs: Gryffindor house was started by Godric Grand Gryffindor, from whom it gets the name. The house especially values courage. Its symbol (animal) is the lion and its colours are scarlet (red-purple) and yellow / goldish yellow. Nearly Headless Nick is the house ghost. The Gryffindors always compete with the Slytherins.

paragraphs: The Gryffindor Common Room (the place where the Gryffindor students spend their time and do their homework) is in one of the castle's towers, at the seventh floor. At the door, there is the Fat Lady, or the Lady who is fat. She lets the students in only after they give her the password (which changes from the beginning of the school year to the end of the school year). The Fat Lady wears a blue dress. In the room there is a place with fire, many chairs and tables, and two pair of stairs which take the girls and boys to their sleeping rooms.

paragraphs: The head of Gryffindor house is Minerva McGonagall.

paragraphs: Hufflepuff house was started by Helga Hufflepuff, from whom it gets the name. The house especially values hard work, patience, friendship and fair play. Its symbol (animal) is the badger and its colours are black and yellow. The Fat Friar is the house ghost.

paragraphs: The Hufflepuff Common Room door is near the kitchens, in the dungeons. It is a quite cozy and welcoming place, not at all like a dungeon. In the room there are yellow hangings and fat armchairs, with little underground tunnels that take the students to their sleeping rooms. The tunnels have round doors like barrel-tops.

paragraphs: The head of Hufflepuff house is Pomona Sprout.

paragraphs: Ravenclaw house was started by Rowena Ravenclaw, from whom it gets its name. The house especially values intelligence. Its symbol (animal) is the eagle and its colours are blue and bronze, the house's saying is "Wit beyond measure is man's greatest treasure". The Grey Lady is the house ghost and when she was alive she was Helena Ravenclaw, daughter of Rowena Ravenclaw.

paragraphs: The Ravenclaw Common Room is in Ravenclaw Tower, on the west side of the Castle. At the door the students must answer a riddle that the eagle-shaped door knocker asks them.

paragraphs: The head of Ravenclaw house is Filius Flitwick.

paragraphs: Slytherin house was started by Salazar Slytherin, from whom it gets the name. The house especially values ambition and determination. Its symbol (animal) is the snake and its colours are green and silver. The Bloody Baron is the house ghost.

paragraphs: The Slytherin Common Room is in the dungeons of Hogwarts and is placed under The Black Lake, in the school grounds.

paragraphs: The house has a negative reputation, with a lot of people saying that it is the house from where almost all dark wizards in Britain, notably Tom Riddle (Voldemort), came from.

paragraphs: The house is usually in competition with the Gryffindor house, as they "don't like each other on principle".

paragraphs: The head of Slytherin house is Severus Snape and in the 7th book Horace Slughorn.


title: Toronto Maple Leafs

paragraphs: The Toronto Maple Leafs are an ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL).

paragraphs: They were formed in 1917 as one of the six original NHL teams. They were called the Toronto Arenas, but changed their name to St. Patricks, then to Maple Leafs, in the 1920s. The maple leaf is a symbol of Canada. The hockey team was actually named for an older team, a minor league baseball team called the Toronto Maple Leafs.

paragraphs: The Maple Leafs have won the Stanley Cup championship 13 times, more than any team except the Montreal Canadiens. However, they have not won since 1967.

paragraphs: They won in their first year, 1918, and then again in 1922 and 1932. In their early years, they had many NHL scoring champions: "Babe" Dye in 1923 and 1925, "Ace" Bailey in 1929, Harvey "Busher" Jackson in 1932, Charlie Conacher in 1934 and 1935, and Gordie Drillon in 1938. However, no Toronto player has been scoring champion since then.

paragraphs: They were a strong team in the 1940s. They won the Stanley Cup in 1942 against the Detroit Red Wings, four games to three, even though they were losing three games to none at one point. This was the first of six championships in ten years; they also won in 1945, then three years in a row: 1947, 1948, and 1949, and again in 1951. Some of their best players in that time included goaltender Turk Broda, forward Syl Apps, and defence "Babe" Pratt, who won the Hart Trophy as the most valuable player in 1944. Ted "Teeder" Kennedy won the Hart Trophy in 1955; but no other Maple Leaf has won that award.

paragraphs: The team won four Stanley Cups in the 1960s: three in a row - 1962, 1963, and 1964 - and again in 1967. Frank Mahovlich, a left winger, was the star player. They were also led by defenceman Tim Horton (who began the Tim Horton's doughnut shops), center Dave Keon, goaltender Johnny Bower, and winger George Armstrong. Keon won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the top player in the playoffs in 1967.

paragraphs: In the late 1970s, the Maple Leafs were a good team, with players such as centre Darryl Sittler (who scored a record 10 points in one game) and Swedish defence Borje Salming (one of the first Europeans to play in the NHL). However, there were 18 NHL teams by then, so it was hard to come first. Wendel Clark was a strong player in the 1980s; he became the team's all-time top scorer. Mats Sundin was another Swedish star in the 1990s and 2000s. They also had some good goaltenders around this time: Curtis Joseph, then Ed Belfour.


title: Detroit Red Wings

paragraphs: The Detroit Red Wings are an ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL).

paragraphs: The Red Wings were formed in 1926. The Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL) folded that year, and many of the players from the WCHL's Victoria Cougars went to play for Detroit. As a result, the team was first called the Detroit Cougars, then later it changed to Detroit Falcons, before becoming known as the Red Wings.

paragraphs: In the late 1940s, the line of Sid Abel, Gordie Howe, and Ted Lindsey became very important to the team. Abel won the Hart Trophy in 1949, and Lindsey won the Art Ross Trophy as scoring champion in 1950. Howe then won six Hart and six Art Ross Trophies between 1951 and 1963. Terry Sawchuck was a star goaltender, who ended up with more career shutouts than any other goalie (103). Red Kelly won the first ever Norris Trophy as best defence. As a result of having such great players, the Red Wings won four Stanley Cups in six years: 1950, 1952, 1954, and 1955. Two of these were very close: they were won in overtime of the 7th and deciding game in 1950 (against the New York Rangers) and 1954 (against the Montreal Canadiens). These are the only two times the NHL championship has gone to overtime of game seven.

paragraphs: The Red Wings continued to be a strong team throughout the 1960. They lost the NHL Finals five times between 1956 and 1966. Norm Ullman was their star center in the 1960s.

paragraphs: They were not a strong team again until the late 1980s. Steve Yzerman became a star at this time. Sergei Fedorov became the first Russian to win the Hart Trophy in 1994. The Red Wings won the President's Cup as top team in the NHL regular season in 1995, 1996 (with a record number of wins), and 2002. They won the Stanley Cup in 1997, 1998, and 2002. Nicklas Lidstrom won the Norris Trophy as best defenceman three times beginning in 2001. The team was one of the richest in the NHL, which helped them get many good players.

paragraphs: The Red Wings have won eleven Stanley Cups, the third most of any team, and the most of the United States teams. They first won in 1936 and 1937, and again in 1943. Ebbie Goodfellow won the Hart Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player in 1940. Sid Howe was also a star on the team at this time.


title: Wayne Gretzky

paragraphs: Wayne Gretzky (born January 26, 1961 in Brantford, Ontario) known as "The Great One", was a Canadian ice hockey player in the National Hockey League (NHL) for 20 seasons. He was coach and part-owner of the NHL's Phoenix Coyotes until he stepped down on September 24, 2009. He also managed Canada's Olympic hockey teams in 2002 and 2006, as well as Canada's 2004 World Cup of Hockey team.

paragraphs: Gretzky was a star junior player with the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds of the Ontario Hockey League. When he was a boy he went from a bad first season, to great improvement. But this success also brought criticism because his father pushed Gretzky's success over other young players'. In 1978, when he was 17, he began playing as a professional with the Indianapolis Racers of the World Hockey Association (WHA), but was sold to the Edmonton Oilers after only a few games. He was third in WHA scoring and rookie of the year.

paragraphs: The WHA folded in 1979, and the Oilers team joined the NHL. At the age of 19, Gretzky won his first Hart Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player (MVP). He won this trophy nine times. In 1981, he won his first of ten Art Ross Trophies as NHL scoring champion. He set many records in the 1980s, including most goals (92), assists (163), and points (215) in a season. In the 1981-82 season, he scored 50 goals in 39 games, when the record had been 50 games. He was named as Sports Illustrated athlete of the year in 1982. He was also called "the greatest player of all time" in "Total Hockey: The Official Encyclopedia of the NHL".

paragraphs: Gretzky won four Stanley Cup championships with the Edmonton Oilers: 1984, 1985, 1987, and 1988. He won the Conn Smythe Trophy as MVP in the playoffs in 1985 and 1988. Then, in 1988, he was traded to the Los Angeles Kings. He helped them to the finals in 1993. In 1996, he was traded to the St. Louis Blues, and signed with the New York Rangers at the beginning of the 1996-97 season. He retired, and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame, in 1999.

paragraphs: When he retired, he had 2857 career points, over 1000 more than the next highest player. To this day, no one else has reached 2000. He still holds the record for most career goals (894) and assists (1963) (he has more assists than anyone else has points). He holds many other records, such as most 100-point seasons (15), most points in the playoffs (47 in one year and 382 career), and most games in a row with at least one point (51). He was named to the first or second all-star team 15 times and was MVP of the NHL all-star game three times. He had 61 official NHL records when he retired.

paragraphs: Gretzky's number, #99, was retired by the entire league. He was named Canada's male athlete of the 20th century. He has also been honoured with Canada's highest honour for a civilian: the Order of Canada.

paragraphs: Gretzky married American actress Janet Jones in 1988. They have five children: Paulina, Ty, Trevor, Tristan, and Emma.