title: Carbocation

paragraphs: A carbocation is an ion with a positively-charged carbon atom. The charged carbon atom in a carbocation is a "sextet" (that is, it has only six electrons in its outer valence shell instead of eight valence electrons.) Carbon atoms with eight valence elections have the maximum stability (octet rule). Therefore, carbocations are often reactive, seeking to fill the octet of valence electrons as well as regain a neutral charge. Logic would say that carbocation have sp hybridization with an empty sp orbital giving positive charge. However, the reactivity of a carbocation more closely resembles sp hybridization with a trigonal planar molecular geometry.

paragraphs: A carbocation was previously often called a "carbonium ion" but chemists question the exact meaning. In present-day chemistry, a carbocation is any positively charged carbon atom. Two special types have been suggested: carbenium ions are trivalent and carbonium ions are pentavalent or hexavalent. University level textbooks only discuss carbocations as if they are carbenium ions, or discuss carbocations with a fleeting reference to the older phrase of carbonium ion or carbenium and carbonium ions. One textbook to this day stays with the older name of carbonium ion for carbenium ion and reserves the phrase "hypervalent carbenium ion" for CH.

paragraphs: In 1891, G. Merling reported that he added bromine to tropylidene (cycloheptatriene) and then heated the product to obtain a crystalline, water soluble material, . He did not suggest a structure for it; however Doering and Knox convincingly showed that it was tropylium (cycloheptatrienylium) bromide. This ion is predicted to be aromatic by the Hückel Rule.

paragraphs: In 1902, Norris and Kehrman independently discovered that colorless triphenylmethanol gave deep yellow solutions in concentrated sulfuric acid. Triphenylmethyl chloride similarly formed orange complexes with aluminium and tin chlorides. In 1902, Adolf von Baeyer recognized the salt-like character of the compounds formed.

paragraphs: He called the relationship between color and salt formation halochromy of which malachite green is a prime example.

paragraphs: Carbocations are reactive intermediates in many organic reactions. This idea, first proposed by Julius Stieglitz in 1899 was further developed by Hans Meerwein in his 1922 study of the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement. Carbocations were also found to be involved in the S1 reaction, the E1 reaction, and in rearrangement reactions such as the Whitmore 1,2 shift. The chemical establishment was reluctant to accept the notion of a carbocation and for a long time the "Journal of the American Chemical Society" refused articles that mentioned them.

paragraphs: The first NMR spectrum of a stable carbocation in solution was published by Doering et al. in 1958. It was the heptamethylbenzenonium ion, made by treating hexamethylbenzene with methyl chloride and aluminium chloride. The stable 7-norbornadienyl cation was prepared by Story et al. in 1960 by reacting norbornadienyl chloride with silver tetrafluoroborate in sulfur dioxide at −80 °C. The NMR spectrum established that it was non-classically bridged (the first stable non-classical ion observed).

paragraphs: In 1962, Olah directly observed the tert-butyl carbocation by nuclear magnetic resonance as a stable species on dissolving tert-butyl fluoride in magic acid. The NMR of the norbornyl cation was first reported by Schleyer et al. and it was shown to undergo proton-scrambling over a barrier by Saunders et al.

paragraphs: In organic chemistry, a carbocation is often the target of nucleophilic attack by nucleophiles like hydroxyl (OH) ions or halogen ions.

paragraphs: Carbocations are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of carbon atoms bonded to the ionized carbon. Primary carbocations have one or zero carbons attached to the ionized carbon, secondary carbocations have two carbons attached to the ionized carbon, and tertiary carbocations have three carbons attached to the ionized carbon.

paragraphs: Stability of the carbocation increases with the number of alkyl groups bonded to the charge-bearing carbon. Tertiary carbocations are more stable (and form more readily) than secondary carbocations; primary carbocations are highly unstable because, while ionized higher-order carbons are stabilized by hyperconjugation, unsubstituted (primary) carbons are not. Therefore, reactions such as the S1 reaction and the E1 elimination reaction normally do not occur if a primary carbocation would be formed. An exception to this occurs when there is a carbon-carbon double bond next to the ionized carbon. Such cations as "allyl" cation CH=CH–CH and "benzyl" cation CH–CH are more stable than most other carbocations. Molecules which can form allyl or benzyl carbocations are especially reactive.

paragraphs: Carbocations undergo rearrangement reactions from less stable structures to equally stable or more stable ones with rate constants in excess of 10/sec. This fact complicates synthetic pathways to many compounds. For example, when 3-pentanol is heated with aqueous HCl, the initially formed 3-pentyl carbocation rearranges to a statistical mixture of the 3-pentyl and 2-pentyl. These cations react with chloride ion to produce about 1/3 3-chloropentane and 2/3 2-chloropentane.

paragraphs: Some carbocations such as the norbornyl cation exhibit more or less symmetrical three centre bonding. Cations of this sort have been referred to as non-classical ions. The energy difference between "classical" carbocations and "non-classical" isomers is often very small, and there is generally little, if any activation energy involved in the transition between "classical" and "non-classical" structures. The "non-classical" form of the 2-butyl carbocation is essentially 2-butene with a proton directly above the centre of what would be the carbon-carbon double bond. "Non-classical" carbocations were once the subject of great controversy. One of George Olah's greatest contributions to chemistry was resolving this controversy.

paragraphs: Cyclopropylcarbinyl cations can be studied by NMR:

paragraphs: In the NMR spectrum of a dimethyl derivative, two nonequivalent signals are found for the two methyl groups indicating that the molecular conformation of this cation not perpendicular (as in A) but is bisected (as in B) with the empty p-orbital and the cyclopropyl ring system in the same plane:

paragraphs: In terms of bent bond theory, this preference is explained by assuming favorable orbital overlap between the filled cyclopropane bent bonds and the empty p-orbital.


title: Isodesmic reaction

paragraphs: An isodesmic reaction is a chemical reaction where the type of chemical bonds broken in the reactant are the same as the type of bonds formed in the reaction product. This type of reaction is often used as a hypothetical reaction in thermochemistry.

paragraphs: Equation 1 describes the deprotonation of a methyl halide by a methyl anion. The energy change associated with this exothermic reaction can be calculated using a computer. The energy change increases going from fluorine to chlorine to bromine and iodine. This shows that the CHI anion is the most stable and least basic of all the halides. Each of these reactions are isodesmic. The energy change in each example also depends on the difference in bond energy of the C-X bond in the base and conjugate acid. In other cases, the difference may be due to steric strain (the blocking of atoms by other atoms). The steric strain is small in fluorine (which is a small diameter atom) but large in iodine (in favor of the anion). So, the energy change grows between each example halide despite the fact that C-F bonds are stronger than C-I bonds.

paragraphs: The related term homodesmotic reaction also takes into account orbital hybridization. Homodesmotic reactions also have the same number of carbon to hydrogen (C-H) bonds. An example of a homodesmotic reaction is:


title: Spit

paragraphs: A spit is a depositional landform found off coasts. Spits connect to the beach, and extend into the sea. A spit forms because the sand on the beach is moved by the waves along the shore, and the sand collects at the end to form a spit. The process of the waves moving the sand along the shore is known as longshore drift.


title: Sawfish

paragraphs: The Sawfish are a family of rays which have a long body, like a shark. One feature that separates a sawfish from other rays is its long, saw-like snout. On either side of this "rostrum" are little teeth like a saw.

paragraphs: Sawfish have a mouth, nostrils, and gill slits under their body, just like a ray. Also, their pectoral fins are enlarged, like those of a ray. Also like rays, when they settle on the bottom, they take in water through two spiracles just behing the eyes. This gets water for the gills, without sand.

paragraphs: The sawfish's most distinctive feature is the saw-like rostrum. The rostrum is covered with motion- and electro-sensitive pores. These allow sawfish to detect movement and even heartbeats of prey hiding under the ocean floor. The rostrum serves as a digging tool to unearth buried crustaceans.

paragraphs: If a suitable prey swims by, the normally lethargic sawfish springs from the bottom and slashes at it with its saw. This generally stuns or injures the prey sufficiently for the sawfish to devour it. Sawfish also defend themselves with their rostrum, against predators such as sharks and intruding divers. The 'teeth' protruding from the rostrum are not real teeth, but modified tooth-like structures called "denticles".


title: Eagle ray

paragraphs: Eagle rays are cartilaginous fish in the ray family Myliobatidae. They are mostly large species living in the open ocean rather than on the sea bottom.

paragraphs: Eagle rays feed on molluscs and crustaceans, crushing their shells with their flattened teeth, while devil rays and manta rays filter plankton from the water.

paragraphs: They are excellent swimmers and are able to breach the water up to several metres above the surface. Compared with other rays, they have long tails, and well-defined diamond-shaped bodies. They are ovoviviparous, giving birth to up to six young at a time. They range from to in length.

paragraphs: The tail looks like a whip and may be as long as the body. It is armed with a sting. Eagle rays live close to the coast in depths of 1 to 30 metres and in exceptional cases they are found as deep as 300 m. The eagle ray is commonly seen cruising along sandy beaches in very shallow waters.

paragraphs: In Nelson's "Fishes of the World", the eagle rays are a subfamily, and are joined by the manta rays and the eagle rays. As Nelson sees it, there are seven genera in the family, in three subfamilies. In our classification, the three groups are families in the suborder Myliobatoidei.


title: Glasgow Prestwick Airport

paragraphs: Glasgow Prestwick Airport is the second airport serving Glasgow. It also serves the Greater Glasgow area. It is northeast of the town of Prestwick in South Ayrshire. It is 32 miles from the city centre of Glasgow.

paragraphs: Prestwick is Scotland's largest airport by size. However, Edinburgh Airport, Glasgow International and Aberdeen Airport all handle more passengers. The year with the most passengers passing through Prestwick was 2007. Since 2007, a lot less passengers pass through Prestwick. 1.3 million passengers passed through the airport in 2011. This was 22% reduction from 2010.

paragraphs: Douglas Fowler McIntyre and the Duke of Hamilton owned the airport at first. These people were the first to fly a plane to the top of Mount Everest in 1933. During and after World War II it was a Royal Air Force base. In 1952 it was made a United States Air Force base.

paragraphs: The airport was made bigger in the early 1960s: the runway was made longer and a new terminal building was made. The new, bigger airport opened in 1964. Today, Glasgow Prestwick is mostly used by Ryanair.

paragraphs: On 8 March 2012, Infratil, the company which owns Prestwick, said that they had placed the airport up for sale. The Chief Executive Marco Bogoievski said that he does not regret selling the airport.

paragraphs: The Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm uses part of the airport. It has 3 Sea King helicopters there for search and rescue. They cover Ben Nevis, the Lakes, Northern Ireland and 200 NM (370 km; 230 mi) past the Irish coast. This force is often called 'HMS Gannet'. 15 officers, 11 ratings, 28 civil servants and 50 civilian staff work at the base.


title: Shamarpa

paragraphs: Shamarpa or more formally Kunzig Shamar Rinpoche is Tibetan Buddhis teacher. Together with Karmapa he is the second lineage holder of the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. Shamarpa is regarded as manifestation of Amitabha Buddha. He also is the second lama who consciously incarnates in subsequent order of Buddhist teachers.

paragraphs: The first Shamar Rinpoche Khedrup Drakpa Senge (1284–1349) was the principal disciple of the 3rd Karmapa Rangjung Dorje.

paragraphs: The present (14th) Shamarpa is Mipham Chokyi Lodro, born in Derge, Tibet in 1952. At age four he was recognized by his uncle the 16th Karmapa.


title: Naropa

paragraphs: Nāropā (956–1041) was an Indian Buddhist teacher. He was the disciple of Tilopa and also brother and pupil of Niguma. Naropa was the main teacher of Marpa, the founder of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism.

paragraphs: Naropa was born a high status Brahmin and from an early age showed strong, highly intelligent mind. At the age of 28 Naropa entered the famous Buddhist University at Nalanda where he studied both Sutra and Tantra. He had the reputation of a great scholar and debater. Later Naropa became studend of Tilopa and spent twelve years with him. While studying and meditating with his teacher Naropa met and overcame twelve minor and twelve major hardships. Eventually he reached full realization and become teacher of Marpa.


title: Iodine deficiency

paragraphs: Iodine deficiency is when there is not enough iodine in the body. Iodine is an essential trace element. The thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodotyronine have iodine. In areas where marine food is not eaten, there is low iodine in the diet. This causes iodine deficiency which gives rise to

paragraphs: goiter (so-called endemic goiter), as well as cretinism, which results in developmental delays and other health problems.

paragraphs: "The Lancet" has said, "According to WHO, in 2007, nearly 2 billion individuals had insufficient iodine intake, a third being of school age. ... Thus iodine deficiency, as the single greatest preventable cause of mental retardation, is an important public-health problem." Iodine deficiency causes diseases of the oral and salivary glands.

paragraphs: In these areas,small amounts of iodine to table salt in form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide, and/or potassium iodate is added. This helps preventing iodine deficiency. This product is known as "iodized salt". Iodine compounds have also been added to other foods. This includes flour, water and milk in areas of deficiency. Seafood is also a well known source of iodine. Thus, iodine deficiency is more common in mountainous regions of the world where food is grown in soil poor in iodine.


title: John Haymes Newton

paragraphs: John Newton (born ) is an American actor. He is best known for his work on the television series "Superboy" and "Melrose Place".


title: William Griffiths (VC)

paragraphs: William Griffiths VC (1841–22 January 1879) was an Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross.


title: Trachea

paragraphs: The trachea, or windpipe, is the bony tube that connects the nose and mouth to the lungs, and is an important part of the vertebrate respiratory system. In mammals, the trachea begins at the lower part of the larynx and continues to the lungs, where it branches into the right and left bronchi. Inflammation of the trachea can lead to other conditions, such as tracheitis, which is the inflammation of the linings of the trachea.

paragraphs: The invertebrate trachea refers to the open respiratory system of terrestrial arthropods. It consists of spiracles, tracheae, and tracheoles that take metabolic gases to and from tissues. The distribution of spiracles varies, but in general each segment of the body has only one pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it.

paragraphs: The smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate cells and diffuse water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Gas may be moved actively or by passive diffusion. Unlike vertebrates, insects do not generally carry oxygen in their haemolymph.

paragraphs: This is one of the factors that may limit their size.

paragraphs: A tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of taenidia in various geometries such as loops or helices. In the head, thorax, or abdomen, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as grasshoppers and bees, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body. In some aquatic insects, the tracheae exchange gas through the body wall directly, in the form of a gill, or function as normal, via a plastron. Despite being internal, the tracheae of arthropods are shed during moulting (ecdysis).


title: Pete Smith (baseball, born 1966)

paragraphs: Peter John Smith (born February 27, 1966 in Abington, Massachusetts) is a former Major League Baseball starting pitcher. He was drafted by the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1st round (21st overall pick) in the amateur draft of 1984. Smith was signed on June 14, 1984 to play Minor League Baseball in the Philadelphia Phillies organization. He batted and threw right-handed during his baseball career.

paragraphs: The Philadelphia Phillies traded Smith to the Atlanta Braves, along with Ozzie Virgil, Jr., for Steve Bedrosian and Milt Thompson. Smith made his major league debut on September 8, 1987 with the Atlanta Braves at age 21. In 1988, Smith pitched 3 shutouts, the season after his rookie year. The Atlanta Braves hoped Smith would turn into an ace pitcher as John Smoltz and Tom Glavine were becoming. But in 1989, Smith's earned run average (ERA) was at 4.75 at the end of the season, higher than his ERA in 1988 when it was at 3.69. He played the 1987-1993 seasons with the Atlanta Braves before being traded to the New York Mets for Dave Gallagher. With the New York Mets, Smith only played the 1994 season before being granted free agency on October 25 of that year. On December 1, 1994, Smith was signed as a free agent with the Cincinnati Reds. He played with the Cincinnati Reds for only half of the 1995 season before being traded to the Florida Marlins on July 1, 1995 as a free agent. On December 23, 1995, Smith signed as a free agent with the San Diego Padres playing one season with them.

paragraphs: On June 9, 1998, Smith was traded to the Baltimore Orioles organization for minor leaguer, Eric Estes. He played his final game on September 24, 1998. He earned a career ERA of 4.55, striking out 640 batters. Smith also pitched 4 shutouts throughout his major league career.


title: Pete L. Smith

paragraphs: Peter Luke Smith (born March 19, 1940) is a former Major League Baseball pitcher who played from 1962 to 1963 for the Boston Red Sox.


title: Urban Dictionary

paragraphs: Urban Dictionary is a website which is a dictionary of slang words. The website was created in 1999 by California Polytechnic State University freshman, Aaron Peckham. The website was listed as #29 in Time's list of 50 best websites of 2008. The website has been featured on Tosh.0's "words of the week". As of January 2011, Urban Dictionary has a alexa rating of 688.


title: Electric ray

paragraphs: The electric rays are a group of rays, flattened cartilaginous fish with enlarged pectoral fins. They are the order Torpediniformes.

paragraphs: They can produce an electric discharge, ranging from as little as 8 volts up to 220 volts depending on species. There are 69 species in four subfamilies.

paragraphs: These rays have battery-like electric organs on both sides of their heads, which can make a powerful electric shock. They use this shock to stun their prey and for their own self defense.

paragraphs: Electric rays are found from shallow coastal waters down to at least depth. They are sluggish and slow moving, propelling themselves along with their tails, rather than using their disc-shaped bodies, as other rays do. They feed on invertebrates and small fish. They lie in wait for prey below the sand or other substrate, using their electricity to stun and capture it.

paragraphs: The electric rays are regarded as monophyletic, though in detail the group has been classified in several ways. This is one way the order can be classified.

paragraphs: The word torpedo comes from a genus of electric rays in the sub-family Torpedininae, namely "Torpedo", which in turn comes from the Latin "torpere" (to be stiff or numb).


title: Krispy Kreme

paragraphs: Krispy Kreme is the name of an international chain of doughnut shops that was made by Vernon Rudolph in 1937. The real parent company of Krispy Kreme is Krispy Kreme Doughnuts, Inc.

paragraphs: While selling all types of doughnuts, Krispy Kreme's signature is a glazed doughnut that is traditionally served warm.

paragraphs: Loblaws supermarkets and Petro-Canada gas stations in Canada have Krispy Kreme. In the United Kingdom Tesco supermarkets, Tesco Extra and Moto service stations carry Krispy Kreme products.

paragraphs: On May 6, 2008, the first Krispy Kreme shop in Puerto Rico opened, followed by two additional places in 2010 and one location in 2011.

paragraphs: In 2002, Krispy Kreme opened a restaurant-style shop in the Amarillo area in Texas.

paragraphs: The 18 stores that opened in Canada were reduced to four. Two of them are in Quebec while the other two stores are in Mississauga, Ontario and Delta, British Columbia. A small seasonal shop was recently opened in Wasaga Beach, Ontario. The Wasaga Beach receives its doughnuts from the Mississauga shop every morning. Another small store recently opened on November 3, 2010 in Toronto at Bathurst and Harbord Streets in the city's Harbord Village neighborhood. This store got shipments from the Mississauga store. Krispy Kreme's Canadian assets were put up for sale in 2005 seven weeks after the U.S.-based doughnut company had the firm that owns the stores in Canada placed under bankruptcy protection.

paragraphs: In Japan, over 27 shops of Krispy Kreme doughnuts opened around the country.


title: Infinite (Eminem album)

paragraphs: Infinite is the debut studio album by American rapper, Eminem. It was released on November 12, 1996. It was produced by Jeff & Mark Bass, Denaun Porter, DJ Head, Eminem and DJ Rec. The album was given 2.5 out of 5 stars by Allmusic.


title: The Slim Shady LP

paragraphs: The Slim Shady LP is the second studio album and the major-label debut by American rapper, Eminem. It was released on February 23, 1999 and was produced by Dr. Dre, Eminem, Mark & Jeff Bass, and Mel-Man. The album got critical and commercial success. It debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200 charts. The first single from the album is "My Name Is". It earned Eminem a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album and was included in "Rolling Stone Magazine"'s list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.


title: Gampopa

paragraphs: Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (1079–1153) is Tibetan Buddhist teacher - lama, holder of the Kagyu school, one of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

paragraphs: He was the most important (or sun like) student of Milarepa.

paragraphs: In his young years Gampopa was a physician in Dagpo region of S. Tibet. Before studying under Milarepa, Gampopa had studied the Kadampa tradition, which belongs to gradual Mahayana path. He searched for, and eventually met Milarepa, and attained realization of ultimate reality under his guidance.

paragraphs: Four of his disciples founded the four "major" Kagyu schools:


title: The Marshall Mathers LP

paragraphs: The Marshall Mathers LP is the third studio album by American rapper, Eminem. "The Marshall Mathers LP" was released on May 23, 2000 and was produced by Dr. Dre, Mel-Man, Bass Brothers, Eminem and The 45 King. The album was given 5 out of 5 stars by Allmusic. "The Marshall Mathers LP 2", the sequel to "The Marshall Mathers LP", was released on November 5, 2013.


title: Trill consonant

paragraphs: A trill consonant is a consonant that is made by vibrating an articulator, or hitting it many times against something else. For example, the <rr> in the Spanish word "perro" is an alveolar trill, where the tongue is hit many times against the alveolar ridge, or the place just behind the teeth. This vibration is caused by a flow of air.

paragraphs: There are three trill consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet. These are:


title: The Eminem Show

paragraphs: The Eminem Show is the fourth studio album by American rapper, Eminem. "The Eminem Show" was released on May 28, 2002 and was produced by Dr. Dre, Eminem, Jeff Bass and Mr. Porter. The album was given 4 out of 5 stars by Allmusic. On March 7, 2011, the album was certified ten-times-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over ten million copies.


title: Encore (album)

paragraphs: Encore is the fifth studio album by American rapper, Eminem. "Encore" was released on November 12, 2004 and was produced by Dr. Dre, Eminem, Luis Resto, Mike Elizondo and Mark Batson. The album was given 3 out of 5 stars by Allmusic. It was nominated for Best Rap Album, Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for the song "Encore" and Best Rap Solo Performance for "Mockingbird" at the 48th Grammy Awards.


title: Relapse (album)

paragraphs: Relapse is the sixth studio album by American rapper, Eminem. "Relapse" was released on May 15, 2009. It was produced by Dr. Dre, Eminem, Dawaun Parker, Mark Batson, Trevor Lawrence, Doc Ish, Boi-1da. The album was given 4 out of 5 stars by Allmusic.


title: Demersal

paragraphs: Demersal animals live on or near the bottom of the sea or lakes. The term is usually applied to fish.

paragraphs: They occupy the sea floors and lake beds, which usually consist of mud, sand, gravel or rocks. In coastal waters they are found on or near the continental shelf, and in deep waters they are found on or near the continental slope or along the continental rise. They are not generally found in the deepest waters, such as abyssal depths or on the abyssal plain, but they can be found around seamounts and islands. The word "demersal" comes from the Latin "demergere", which means "to sink".

paragraphs: Demersal fish are bottom feeders. They can be contrasted with pelagic fish which live and feed away from the bottom in the open water column. Demersal fish fillets contain little fish oil (one to four percent), whereas pelagic fish can contain up to 30 percent.


title: S&M Airlines

paragraphs: S&M Airlines is the second studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. "S&M Airlines" was released on September 5, 1989. The producer of the album was Brett Gurewitz. The last track on the album is a cover of the Fleetwood Mac song, "Go On Your Way".


title: Ribbed

paragraphs: Ribbed is the third studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. "Ribbed" was released on March 26, 1991. The producer of the album was Brett Gurewitz. "Ribbed" was also the last album produced for the band by Brett Gurewitz.


title: Contigo Quiero Estar

paragraphs: "Contigo Quiero Estar" () is a song by American singer Selena. It was released as the lead single from "Selena" (1989). The single was released by EMI Latin on May 27, 1989. The song "Quiero Ser" (English: "I Want To Be") is the b-side track. The song's lyrics are about a women who wants to be near her lover. It was written by Mexican songwriter Alejandro Montealegre. "Contigo Quiero Estar" is a Tejano song mixed with folk and ranchera music.

paragraphs: The song did not get good reviews from music critics. "Contigo Quiero Estar" was nominated for Single of the Year at the 1990 Tejano Music Awards. Selena performed "Where Did the Feeling Go?", which was a demo she recorded. Many critics liked the song more than "Contigo Quiero Estar". "Contigo Quiero Estar" reached number eight on the US "Billboard" Hot Latin Songs chart in 1989. Many other artists have made cover versions of the song.

paragraphs: In 1989, Selena signed a recording contract with EMI Latin. That same year, she began recording songs for her debut album with them. Selena's record producer—brother A.B. Quintanilla III—was not allowed to produce any songs for her new album. Quintanilla III was interviewed for the "Selena: 20 Years of Music" series. This was recorded by Brian "Red" Moore, a family friend. Quintanilla III told Moore that EMI Latin did not want the family to be involved. He then said that they were already gambling on releasing a Latin division. Quintanilla III said that EMI Latin believed that the family could hurt the sales of the album.

paragraphs: Selena's father and manager, Abraham Quintanilla, Jr. tried to persuade EMI Latin to give Quintanilla III a chance. Quintanilla Jr succeeded and Quintanilla III was allowed to produce the album, including the song "Contigo Quiero Estar". Mexican songwriter Alejandro Montealegre, sent in lyrics to EMI Latin. They then wanted Selena to record it. They believed it was similar with her other recorded songs.

paragraphs: The song is a mid-tempo Tejano song. It is mixed with folk and ranchera music. The song's instruments includes the drums, an electric keyboard, a french horn and the piano. The song's lyrics are about a women who wants to be next to her lover all the time. "Contigo Quiero Estar" was released as the lead single from "Selena" (1989). The b-side track included the song "Quiero Ser". They were released on May 27, 1989 by EMI Latin.

paragraphs: The song did not get good reviews from music critics. A writer for "The Atlanta Journal-Constitution" believed "Contigo Quiero Estar" is one of the worst songs Selena ever recorded. Sally Jacobs of "The Boston Globe" wrote that Selena made a "mistake with this song." Carmina Danini of the "San Antonio Express-News" liked the Tejano sounds on "Contigo Quiero Estar". Dave Hoekstra of the "Chicago Sun-Times" called "Contigo Quiero Estar" a "weak ranchera song". A writer for the "Austin American-Statesman" gave the song a score of 2 out of a possible 5 star rating.

paragraphs: "Contigo Quiero Estar" was nominated for Single of the Year at the 1990 Tejano Music Awards. Selena performed "Where Did the Feeling Go?" rather than "Contigo Quiero Estar", which was a demo she recorded. Many critics liked "Where Did the Feeling Go?". They believed it was a better choice for a single. Ben Tavera King of the "San Antonio-Express News" liked "Where Did the Feeling Go?" more than "Contigo Quiero Estar".

paragraphs: The song reached number eight on the US "Billboard" Hot Latin Songs chart in 1989. Mexican band Los Reyes de Mexico recorded a mariachi version of the song. It was included on their album "Reyes De Mexico Lo Lindo Ti". Puerto Rican band Orquesta Armonia Show recorded both a merengue and a cumbia version. It was included on their album "Merengues y Cumbias".

paragraphs: Credits were taken from the single's booklet.


title: Selena Etc.

paragraphs: Selena Etc. is American singer Selena's clothing store chain. She began designing and manufacturing in 1993 and opened two boutiques. The two stores were in Corpus Christi and the other in San Antonio. Both had beauty salons. "Hispanic Business" reported that the singer earned over $5,000,000 dollars from these boutiques. One was going to open in Monterrey, Mexico in 1995 but did not because of her death. In 2009, Chris Perez, widower of Selena, had to close the stores due to the recession of 2007.


title: Through the Years/A Traves de los Años

paragraphs: Through the Years/A Traves de los Años is a album by American singer Selena. The album contained an unreleased song called "Feelings". The song was recorded when Selena was only 7 years old.

paragraphs: The album peaked at number 28 on the Top Latin Albums Chart and was certified Gold by the RIAA.


title: Wet 'n Wild

paragraphs: Wet 'n Wild is a chain of waterparks including Wet 'n Wild Orlando and Wet 'n Wild Hawaii. Orlando's Wet 'n Wild is across the street from Universal Studios Orlando. Wet 'n Wild is owned by Universal Parks in Orlando.


title: Alice Paul

paragraphs: Alice Stokes Paul (January 11, 1885 – July 9, 1977) was an American suffragist and activist. Along with Lucy Burns and others, she led a successful campaign for women's suffrage. Her work resulted in the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920. Lucy Burns was part of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) and she had been treated badly as Alice Paul was but she went to save the women rights by suffering. Lucy Burns met Alice Paul in the police station in London when both were arrested because they were protesting Parliament

paragraphs: Paul was the original author of a proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution in 1923. The ERA would not get to the Senate for a vote until 1972. That year, it was approved by the Senate and submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. Approval by 38 states was required to ratify the amendment. Not enough states — only 35 — voted in favor before the deadline. However, people still work to have the states pass the ERA passed by Congress in the 1970s. Other people are working to add a new equality amendment to the US Constitution. Also, almost half of the U.S. states have adopted the ERA into their state constitutions. Alice paul was treated badly but she stood up for the women rights.


title: White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean

paragraphs: White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean is the fourth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. "White Trash, Two Heebs and a Bean" was released on November 5, 1992. The producer of the album was Donnell Cameron, NOFX. The original album title was going to be "White Trash, Two Kikes, and a Spic" but guitar player Eric Melvin changed it after feeling guilty. It is also the first album with guitar player El Hefe.


title: Punk in Drublic

paragraphs: Punk in Drublic is the fourth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. "Punk in Drublic" was released on July 19, 1994. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. It is NOFX's most successful album and peaked at #12 on "Billboard"'s Heatseekers chart.


title: Canton of Lucerne

paragraphs: Lucerne is a canton of Switzerland. It can be found in the centre of Switzerland. As of 31 December 2018, the canton has 409,557 people lived there. The capital is Lucerne.

paragraphs: The Canton of Lucerne has six districts:

paragraphs: The Canton of Lucerne has 82 municipalities ():


title: Basel-Landschaft

paragraphs: The Canton of Basel-Landschaft is a canton of Switzerland. The capital is Liestal.


title: Basel-Stadt

paragraphs: Basel-Stadt is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland. The capital is Basel. It is the smallest canton by area.


title: Canton of Neuchâtel

paragraphs: Neuchâtel is a French-speaking canton in western Switzerland. As of 2018, 176,850 people lived there. The capital is Neuchâtel.

paragraphs: To the northeast it borders the canton of Bern, to the northwest France (Bourgogne-Franche-Comté). Lake Neuchâtel lies southeast of the canton, while the canton of Vaud is southwest of the canton of Neuchâtel. The canton lies in the central area of the Jura Mountains.


title: PlayStation Vita

paragraphs: The is a handheld game console made by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the successor to the PlayStation Portable. It was released in Japan on December 17, 2011. It was released in Europe, North America, South America and Singapore on February 22, 2012. It was released in Australia on February 23, 2012.

paragraphs: It competes with the Nintendo 3DS. It is part of the eighth generation of gaming.

paragraphs: It was discontinued on Amazon on October 12, 2017.


title: La Salle University

paragraphs: La Salle University is a private, co-educational, Roman Catholic university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The university has about 7,554 students. It was founded in 1863. The current president of the university is Bro. Michael McGinniss.

paragraphs: The athletics teams of the university are called the Explorers. They have 23 varsity teams and they compete in the Atlantic 10 Conference.


title: George Washington University

paragraphs: The George Washington University is a private, coeducational university in Washington, D.C.. The university has about 24,531 students. It was founded on February 9, 1821. The current president of the university is Steven Knapp.

paragraphs: The athletics teams of the university are called the Colonials. They have 22 varsity teams and they compete in the Atlantic 10 Conference.


title: Feathered dinosaur

paragraphs: A feathered dinosaur is a dinosaur with feathers. It is now thought that all coelurosaurs, and perhaps all theropods, had feathers.

paragraphs: The possibility that dinosaurs are closely related to birds raised the possibility of feathers. Fossils of "Archaeopteryx" include well-preserved feathers, but it was not until the early 1990s that clearly non-bird dinosaur fossils were discovered with preserved feathers. About 40 genera of theropods are now known to be feathered.

paragraphs: Most of these fossils come from the Yixian formation in China. The fossil feathers of one specimen, "Shuvuuia deserti", have been tested positive for beta-keratin in immunological tests. This is the main protein in bird feathers.

paragraphs: After a century without clear evidence, well-preserved fossils of feathered dinosaurs were discovered during the 1990s, and more continue to be found. The fossils were preserved in a Lagerstätte — a sedimentary deposit exhibiting remarkable richness and completeness in its fossils — in Liaoning, China.

paragraphs: The area had repeatedly been smothered in volcanic ash by eruptions in Inner Mongolia 124 million years ago, during the Lower Cretaceous. The fine-grained ash preserved the living organisms that it buried in fine detail. The area was teeming with life, with millions of leaves, angiosperms (the oldest known), insects, fish, frogs, salamanders, mammals, turtles, lizards and crocodilians discovered to date.

paragraphs: The most important discoveries at Liaoning have been a host of feathered dinosaur fossils, with a steady stream of new finds filling in the picture of the dinosaur-bird connection and adding more to theories of the evolutionary development of feathers and flight. Quill knobs were found an ulna of "Velociraptor mongoliensis". These are associated with large, well-developed secondary feathers.

paragraphs: Behavioural evidence, in the form of an oviraptorosaur on its nest, showed another link with birds. Its forearms were folded, like those of a bird. Although no feathers were preserved, it is likely that these would have been present to keep eggs and juveniles warm.

paragraphs: The feathered tail of a non-avialan (non-bird) theropod has been found preserved in mid-Cretaceous (∼99 mya) amber from Kachin State, Myanmar (Burma). The BBC describe it as "perfectly preserved". Lida Xing found it at an amber market in Myitkina, Myanmar. The amber was already polished for jewellery: the seller thought it was plant material. However, it was the tail of a feathered dinosaur about the size of a sparrow. The feathers were not flight feathers. Dr Paul Barrett, from London's Natural History Museum, called the specimen a "beautiful fossil", describing it as a "really rare occurrence of vertebrate material in amber".

paragraphs: In 2011, samples of amber were discovered to contain preserved feathers from the Cretaceous period, with evidence that they were from both dinosaurs and birds. Initial analysis suggests that some of the feathers were used for insulation, and not flight.

paragraphs: A number of non-avialan dinosaurs are now known to have been feathered. Direct evidence of feathers exists for the following genera, listed in the order currently accepted evidence was first published.

paragraphs: The evidence consists of feather impressions, or convincing skeletal or chemical evidence. Skeletal evidence would be the presence of quill knobs (the anchor points for wing feathers on the forelimb) or a pygostyle (the fused vertebrae at the tail tip which often supports large feathers).

paragraphs: For comparison: "Archaeopteryx" (1861; avialan) definitely had working flight feathers with off-centre rachis (stem). Otherwise, apart from the front limbs, it was a typical small carnivorous dinosaur.


title: Monoculture

paragraphs: Monoculture is growing a single crop in a large area. Farmers decide what is the best crop, and grow only that. This is very common in modern agriculture, as it simplifies the farm and allows relatively few people to harvest large amounts. Monocultures have problems, however: Pests and diseases that attack only one kind of plant can spread more easily when they only find that kind. Each kind of plant also needs particular nutrients from the soil. Fertilizers are used to supply that nutrient. Farmers who don't understand farming may ruin their farm.


title: Rahonavis

paragraphs: Rahonavis is a genus of bird-like feathered dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous, 70–65 million years ago (mya) of what is now northwestern Madagascar.

paragraphs: It is known from a partial skeleton found in a quarry. "Rahonavis" was a small predator, at about long, with the typical "Velociraptor"-like raised sickle claw on the second toe.

paragraphs: "Rahonavis" has quill knobs on its ulna (forearm bone), which led at first to its inclusion among the birds. However, the rest of the skeleton is rather typically dromaeosaurid.

paragraphs: Makovicky and colleagues consider "Rahonavis" to be closely related to the South American dromaeosaurids "Unenlagia" and "Buitreraptor", and thus a member of the subfamily Unenlagiinae. Norell and colleagues (2006) also found "Rahonavis" to lie within the Unenlagiinae, as the sister taxon to "Unenlagia" itself. A 2007 study by Turner and colleagues again found it to be closely related to "Unenlagia". However, studies published since 2009 that have found many traditional "dromaeosaurids", including the unenlagiines, closer to Avialae than to dromaeosaurines. A cladistic analysis recovered "Rahonavis" as a probable relative of "Jeholornis" and "Jixiangornis".

paragraphs: "Rahonavis" was one-fifth larger than the closely related "Archaeopteryx", about the size of a modern raven.

paragraphs: Although numerous artists' reconstructions of "Rahonavis" show it in flight, it is not clear that it could fly. There is even been some doubt that the forearm material, which includes the quill knobs, belongs with the rest of the skeleton. Some researchers have suggested that "Rahonavis" represents a chimaera, with the forelimb of a bird mixed with the skeleton of a dromaeosaurid.

paragraphs: The nearby discovery of the primitive bird "Vorona berivotrensis" shows that the possibility of a mix-up cannot be entirely excluded. However, many other scientists, including the original describers of "Rahonavis", think its remains belong to a single animal. The wing bones are close to the rest of the skeleton. All the bones attributed to "Rahonavis" were buried in an area "smaller than a letter-sized page", according to co-describer Luis M. Chiappe in his 2007 book "Glorified Dinosaurs". Chiappe maintained that "Rahonavis" could probably fly, noting that its ulna was large and robust compared to "Archaeopteryx", and that this fact, coupled with the prominent quill knobs, suggest that "Rahonavis" had larger and more powerful wings than that earlier bird. In addition, "Rahonavis" shoulder bones show evidence of ligament attachments allowing the independent mobility needed for flapping flight. Chiappe concluded that "Rahonavis" was capable of flight, though it would have been more "clumsy in the air than modern birds".


title: Gran Turismo 2

paragraphs: Gran Turismo 2 is the second racing game in the "Gran Turismo" series. Game is developed by Polyphony Digital and published by Sony Computer Entertainment in 1999 for PlayStation. The game has over 500 cars and over 20 tracks.


title: Wii Party

paragraphs: Wii Party is a party video game for the Nintendo Wii games console. It was released in Japan on July 8, 2010, in North America on October 3, 2010, and in Europe on October 8, 2010. It takes elements from the "Mario Party" series, which is another video game series that is made by Nintendo. It has over 80 minigames, like Spin-Off, and House Party.

paragraphs: In the beginning the players play a minigame to set an order. The winner gets a normal dice plus a gold dice,the second placed

paragraphs: gets a silver dice, the 3rd place is playing with the bronze dice and the last one does not get anything. He has to play with only one normal dice. The gold dice has the numbers 1 - 6,the silver dice has the numbers 1 - 3,the bronze dice has the numbers 1 - 2 while the normal dice the normal 1 - 6. After the minigame the winner starts first. Then it is the turn of the second place. Place 3 plays as third one and the loser as last one. The object of the game is to reach the mountaintop as first. On the way to the goal there are many happening spaces which makes it harder or easier to win. After each player rolled the dices a minigame appears.

paragraphs: The players go on a journey around the world. But in contrast to the other game the player has to take card to move. He can go

paragraphs: 1,2 or 3 spaces. Each player gets 10 coins in the beginning, an Easter egg from the Mario Party series.The object is to reach special points on the globe (as example: Buy a fan in Japan or eat a Hamburger in the USA.)The visiting of a point costs 10 coins. With any visiting the player collects photos. The player who has the most at the end wins.

paragraphs: A game that makes always fun while playing. As a parody to the famous gambling Bingo. Each player chooses a card with Mii's faces on it. Then the game begins. A huge bingo machine drops balls in every round. The balls show Mii's faces. If a player has 3 faces in a row a voice calls 'Bingo!' and the player wins. So called Minigame balls make the players play a minigame. The winner can choose which face we wants to choose.

paragraphs: The players swap their Miis against Miis in the middle. The player who has two rows with 3 same Miis in it wins. It is a parody of the card game Thirty-one.

paragraphs: Players spin a wheel and get money. The player who has the surpreme amount of money wins.


title: UEFA Women's Championship

paragraphs: The UEFA Women's Championship is the women's version of the UEFA European Football Championship. Germany has had the most titles so far (eight titles). The first champion of the tournament was Sweden

paragraphs: The tournament was founded in 1984. The current champions are Germany. Three of the tournaments have been part of the European Competition for Representative Women's Teams and all the rest have been "UEFA Women's Championship".


title: Separatist movements of Pakistan

paragraphs: Pakistan was established in 1947 as a state for Muslims of colonial India. The driving force behind the movement for Pakistan was the educated Muslim in the Muslim minority states of United Province and Bombay Presidency, those of the Muslim majority areas such as Punjab region, Sindh or Bengal, parts of which eventually formed Pakistan were less enthusiastic and joined the cause of Pakistan in the last years before independence and partition. Its formation was based on the basis of Islamic nationalism. However, due to rampant corruption within the ranks of the government and bureaucracy, economic inequality between the country's two wings caused mainly by a lack of representative government and the government's indifference to the efforts of fierce ethno-nationalistic politicians like Mujeeb-ur-Rehman, colonial East Bengal (Eastern Pakistan) Civil war of and Partition of Pakistan the Bhola cyclone and the 1970 elections were the major factors, resulting in the formation of a new linguistic state of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.


title: Buddhism in Bangladesh

paragraphs: Buddhism is the third largest religion in Bangladesh with about 0.7% of population adhering to Theravada Buddhism. Most of the practitioners are from the south-eastern district of Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts.


title: Soweto

paragraphs: Soweto is a poor part of Johannesburg, South Africa. The name used to stand for Southwestern townships. The vast majority of its residents are black.


title: Synagogue of Besançon

paragraphs: The synagogue of Besançon () is a synagogue in the French city of Besançon, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It was built in the center of the city between 1869 and 1871 by Pierre Manotte, and has a Moroccan style.

paragraphs: This Jewish shrine replaced an old flad that held everyone in Besançon, about 600 persons in the 1860s. The new building just can hold about 200 persons. All rites are Sephardi.


title: Eurovision Song Contest 2012

paragraphs: The 57 Annual Eurovision Song Contest was held in Baku, Azerbaijan in May of 2012. It was held in Azerbaijan since they won in 2011 with their singers Ell & Nikki with their song ""Running Scared"" in Düsseldorf, Germany.

paragraphs: Forty-two countries announced their participation in this year's contest which less than the 2011 edition when that year, forty-three countries participated in the contest. This year's contest, saw the return of Montenegro after not being part in the Eurovision Song Contest since 2009 and the withdrawal of Armenia and Poland.

paragraphs: Sweden and its representative Loreen, won the contest with the song "Euphoria" with 372 points; ahead Russia, Serbia, the host of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012, Azerbaijan and Albania.


title: Helle Thorning-Schmidt

paragraphs: Helle Thorning-Schmidt (born 14 December 1966) is a Danish politician. She is the leader of the Danish Social Democrats and is the first female Prime Minister of Denmark. She left the government in 2015.

paragraphs: Helle Thorning-Schmidt was born in Rødovre to Holger Thorning-Schmidt and his wife Grete. Thorning-Schmidt's father was a lecturer in mathematics and national economics at the University of Copenhagen. Her parents were both politically conservative and she grew up in the Copenhagen suburb of Ishøj.

paragraphs: She was elected to Prime Minister of Denmark on September 15, 2011, and her government took over at October 3, 2011, from the liberal Lars Løkke Rasmussen.

paragraphs: She formed the government with the Social Liberal Party (Det Radikale Venstre) and the Socialist People's Party (Socialistisk Folkeparti). Together they had 77 seats, and with the support of their parliamentary basis, Unity (Enhedslisten), obtain the 89 seats. Furthermore, she has the support of the North Atlantic - two seats from Greenland and one from the Faroe Islands.

paragraphs: She is married to Stephen Kinnock, only son of British politician Neil Kinnock.


title: Samantha Stosur

paragraphs: Samantha Jane "Sam" Stosur (born 30 March 1984) is an Australian professional tennis player. She won the 2011 US Open singles title and was a finalist at the 2010 French Open. Stosur is ranked World No. 5 and her career high in singles is World No. 4, achieved on 21 February 2011. She is a former world No. 1 on the WTA Tour in doubles with Lisa Raymond from the United States.She is currently Australian Number 1.


title: Pallas

paragraphs: Pallas () was a Titan from Greek mythology. He was associated with war, killed by Athena in the contest to fight for Zeus. Most sources say he was the son of Crius and Eurybia, the brother of Astraeus and Perses, and the husband of Styx. He was the father of Zelus, Nike, Kratos, and Bia. In addition, he has been named as the father of Scylla, Fontes, and Lacus. Some say he was the son of Megamedes and father of Selene, and is also recorded as the father of Eos.

paragraphs: The city Pellene, in Achaea, was named after Pallas, as was the asteroid 2 Pallas.


title: Childhood obesity

paragraphs: Childhood obesity consists of excess body fat that adversely affects children's health and well being. Obesity for children is "especially" dangerous because many overweight children will become overweight adults. Health problems related to overweight kids include but are not limited to Type 2 diabetes in adolescence and young adulthood, heart disease, stroke and high blood pressure, diseases which until recently were not common in children and teenagers.


title: Fricative consonant

paragraphs: A fricative consonant is a consonant that is made when you squeeze air through a small hole or gap in your mouth. For example, the gaps between your teeth can make fricative consonants; when these gaps are used, the fricatives are called sibilants. Some examples of sibilants in English are , , , and .

paragraphs: English has a fairly large number of fricatives, and it has both voiced and voiceless fricatives. Its voiceless fricatives are [s], , [f], and [θ], and its voiced fricatives are [z], [ʒ], [v], and [ð]

paragraphs: In many languages, such as English, the glottal "fricatives," like the in English "hat", are not really fricatives because they are just vowels that are not voiced. However, in languages such as Arabic, they are true fricatives.


title: FIFA World Rankings

paragraphs: The FIFA World Rankings is a ranking of men's football teams selected by FIFA. Currently, the team ranked #1 is Belgium. The rankings were first made in 1993. The first team to receive first place was Germany.

paragraphs: A points system is used, with points being awarded based on the results of all FIFA-recognized full international matches.

paragraphs: FIFA announced in June 2018 that the ranking system would be updated following the 2018 World Cup. The calculation method to be adopted will be closely modeled after the Elo rating system and rankings of its member associations will be updated on a game-by-game basis. The weighting designated for each confederation for ranking purposes was removed. However, the new method does not account for home or away games and margin of the victory, unlike the Elo rankings. This produced a more altered ranking table, with Germany falling to 15th and 2018 World Cup champions France moving to the top of the ranking.

paragraphs: When the system was created, Germany began as the top-ranked team following their dominant period in which they had reached the three previous FIFA World Cup finals, winning one of them. Brazil took the lead in the run up to the 1994 FIFA World Cup after winning eight and losing only one of nine qualification matches, while on the way scoring twenty goals and conceding just four. Italy then led for a short time on the back of their own equally successful World Cup qualifying campaign, after which the top place was re-claimed by Germany.

paragraphs: Brazil's success in their 1993 qualifying campaign returned them to the lead for a brief period. Germany led again during the 1994 World Cup, until Brazil's victory in that competition gave them a large lead that would stand up for nearly seven years, until they were surpassed by a strong France team that captured both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2000 UEFA Euro.

paragraphs: Success at the 2002 FIFA World Cup restored Brazil to the top position, where they remained until February 2007, when Italy returned to the top for the first time since 1993 following their 2006 FIFA World Cup win in Germany. Just one month later, Argentina replaced them, reaching the top for the first time, but Italy regained its place in April. After winning the Copa América 2007 in July, Brazil returned to the top, but were replaced by Italy in September and then Argentina in October.

paragraphs: In July 2008, Spain took over the lead for the first time, having won UEFA Euro 2008. Brazil began a sixth stint at the top of the rankings in July 2009 after winning the 2009 Confederations Cup, and Spain regained the title in November 2009 after winning every match in qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.

paragraphs: In April 2010, Brazil returned to the top of the table. After winning the 2010 World Cup, Spain regained the top position and held it until August 2011, when the Netherlands reached the top spot for the first time, only to drop it the following month.

paragraphs: In July 2014, Germany took over the lead once again, having won the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In July 2015, Argentina reached the top spot for the first time since 2008, after reaching both the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, as well as the 2015 Copa America Final. In November 2015, Belgium became the leader in the FIFA rankings for the first time, after topping their Euro 2016 qualifying group. Belgium led the rankings until April 2016, when Argentina returned to the top. Brazil returned to the No. 1 spot in April 2017 for the first time since just prior to the 2010 World Cup, because they had already qualified for the 2018 World Cup as they were 1st in their qualification group with 4 match days still left to go. However, Germany regained the top spot in July after winning the Confederations Cup.

paragraphs: In the summer of 2018, FIFA updated their rating system by adopting the Elo rating system. The first ranking list with this system, in August 2018, saw France retake the top spot for the first time after nearly 16 years, having won the 2018 FIFA World Cup. One month later, for the first time, two teams were both leaders as Belgium reached the same ranking as France. This lasted only one month, and from September 2018 until now (), Belgium is leading the FIFA ranking.

paragraphs: The Best Mover of the Year was awarded to the team who made the best progress up the rankings over the course of the year. In the FIFA rankings, this is not simply the team that has risen the most places, but a calculation is performed in order to account for the fact that it becomes progressively harder to earn more points the higher up the rankings a team is.

paragraphs: The calculation used is the number of points the team has at the end of the year ("z") multiplied by the number of points it earned during the year ("y"). The team with the highest index on this calculation received the award. The table below shows the top three best movers from each year.

paragraphs: The award has not been an official part of the awards since 2006.

paragraphs: While an official award has not been made for movements since 2006, FIFA has released a list of the 'Best Movers' in the rankings since 2007.


title: Central limit theorem

paragraphs: In probability theory and statistics, the central limit theorems, abbreviated as CLT, are theorems about the limiting behaviors of aggregated probability distributions. They say that given a large number of independent random variables, their sum will follow a stable distribution. If the variance of the random variables is finite, then a Gaussian distribution will result. This is one of the reasons why this distribution is also known as "normal" distribution.

paragraphs: The best known and most important of these is known as "the central limit theorem". It is about large numbers of random variables with the same distribution, each with an identical finite variance and expected value.

paragraphs: More specifically, if formula_1 are "n" identical and independently distributed random variables with mean formula_2 and standard deviation formula_3, then the distribution of their sample mean, formula_4, as "n" gets large, is approximately normal with mean formula_2 and standard deviation formula_6. Furthermore, the distribution of their sum, formula_7, as "n" gets large, is also approximately normal, with mean formula_8 and standard deviation formula_9.

paragraphs: There are different generalisations of this theorem. Some of these generalisations no longer require an identical distribution of all random variables. In these generalisations, another precondition makes sure that no single random variable has a bigger influence on the outcome than the others. Examples are the Lindeberg and Lyapunov conditions.

paragraphs: The name of the theorem is based on a paper George Pólya written in 1920, "About the Central Limit Theorem in Probability Theory and the Moment problem".


title: MG 42

paragraphs: The MG 42 (shortened from German: "Maschinengewehr 42", or "machine gun 42") was a general-purpose machine gun. It was created in Nazi Germany. It began being used by the "Wehrmacht" in 1942. It was used with (and sometimes replaced) the MG 34 machine gun in the German Armed Forces. Both weapons were made and used until the end of the war.

paragraphs: The MG 42 was known for being reliable, simple and easy to use. However, it is best known for its very high rate of fire so the Germans called it "Hitlersäge", or "Hitler's saw". There were other automatic weapon designs with similar firepower. Some examples of these are the French Darne, the Hungarian-Gebauer, the Russian 7.62mm ShKAS and the British Vickers K machine gun. However, because the MG 42 got its ammunition from a belt and its barrel was easy to change, it could fire for longer periods of time than these weapons.

paragraphs: The MG 42 was used to create new weapons after Nazi Germany surrendered. The MG1 (MG 42/59) was nearly exactly the same as the MG 42. The MG1 became the MG1A3, which in turn became the MG 3. The Swiss MG 51, SIG MG 710-3, Austrian MG 74, and the Spanish 5.56mm Ameli light machine gun were all designed from the MG 42. The M60 and Belgian MAG also copied some features. The MG 42 was still used by many armed groups after the war.

paragraphs: During the 1930s, the German Army began using the MG 34. The MG 34 was thought to be the first general-purpose machine gun. The MG 34 had a barrel that could be changed quickly. It was also able to fire from big magazines or a belt. This meant that the MG 34 could fire for much longer than weapons like the Browning Automatic Rifle, Japanese Type 11, British Bren and French Châtellerault LMG. It was also much lighter than weapons like the Vickers machine gun and M1917 Browning machine gun. The MG 34 was also very changeable. It was able to fire from a belt and a drum magazine. It could also be fired from tripods or from armoured vehicles. It even became one of the main defensive guns for the "Luftwaffe" as the MG 81. It was also used as a second gun on tanks as the MG 34 Panzerlauf. However, the MG 34 did have some problems. An example of this is that the MG 34 broke down easily if it got dust on it. It was also quite expensive to make. The MG 34S was made as an improvement to the design.

paragraphs: So that these problems could be fixed, a contest was started to find a replacement for the MG 34. Three companies were asked to design this replacement. These were: Metall und Lackierwarenfabrik Johannes Großfuß AG, Rheinmetall-Borsig, and Stübgen. Großfuß AG's design turned out to be the best. Strangely, Großfuß did not make weapons. They mostly made metal lanterns. Ernst Grunow was one of the head design engineers with Großfuß. He did not know anything about machine guns when he was told he would be involved in the project. However, he knew a lot about the machines used to make a lot of a product (mass production). Grunow went to an army machine gunner's training course to help him understand machine guns more. He also asked some soldiers for information. He then used some ideas used by Mauser and added some features he learned about from talking to army machine gunners and things that happened early on in World War II. The new design, the MG 42, was much easier to build. It took 75 hours to make the new gun. However, the MG 34 took 150 hours. The new gun cost 250 RM. However, the MG 34 cost 327 RM. The MG 42 was also made out of stamped metal. This made it easier to make than other machine guns.

paragraphs: This gun ended up being called the MG 39. It was similar to the MG 34 overall. To the gunner, the only large change was that it could not fire from drum magazines anymore. This meant that the weapon had to fire from a belt or from a drum-shaped magazine that attached to the side of the gun and had a belt inside it.

paragraphs: The weapon was officially brought into service. The weapon began being made in 1942 as the MG 42. Großfuß, Mauser-Werke, Gustloff-Werke and some others were given contracts to make the MG 42.

paragraphs: The MG 42 had a very high rate of fire. It could fire about 1,200 rounds per minute. This was twice the rate of the British Vickers machine gun and American Browning. Soldiers were so terrified of the MG 42 that the United States Army made training movies to help the soldiers deal with the fear of going against the MG 42 in battle. At such a high rate, the human ear can not easily hear the sound of a single bullet being fired. This meant that the gun made a sound similar to "rrrrp". Allied soldiers nicknamed the MG 42 "Hitler's Buzzsaw".

paragraphs: When the MG 42 was fired for a long amount of time, it used a lot of ammunition. Because of this, a German MG 42 gunner would usually only fire the weapon in short bursts.

paragraphs: Because of the way the barrel was changed, the MG 42 could not be used on World War II German tanks. However, it could be used on one tank. This tank was called the Jagdpanzer IV.

paragraphs: During World War II, every German machine gun squad had an MG 42.

paragraphs: The MG 42 weighed 11.8 kg. This was lighter than the MG 34.

paragraphs: The MG 42 usually had a crew of six. These people were: the gun commander (the person who told the No.1 what to do with the gun), the No.1 who carried and fired the gun, the No.2 who carried the tripod, and Nos.3, 4, and 5 who carried ammunition, extra barrels and tools to dig foxholes in the ground. This big team was often cut to just three: the gunner, the loader (who loaded ammunition into the weapon and carried the barrels), and the spotter (the person who spotted targets for the gunner to shoot at). The leader of the squad and his assistant were given MP-40 submachine guns.

paragraphs: The MG 42 was used on nearly all German armoured vehicles. In combat, the gun's barrel could be changed in seconds.

paragraphs: The MG 42 was also very durable. To keep the gun working, all that was needed was some oil. The MG 42 could be dropped in mud or water and still work.

paragraphs: The job of many German riflemen was to support the machine gun. If the MG 42 and its crew moved, the riflemen would cover them to keep them safe. When the crew set up the MG 42, the riflemen would dig holes in the ground for the MG 42 crew to sit in. While the MG 42 was firing, the riflemen would carry ammunition to the gunners.

paragraphs: An MG 42 being used in a battle would usually use 3,000 rounds per day.

paragraphs: The MG 42 fires belt fed 7.92mm cartridges from an open bolt.

paragraphs: The MG 42 can only fire fully automatically. Single shots are very difficult even for people who are experienced with the MG 42. This is because of the weapon's high rate of fire.

paragraphs: The MG 42 barrel can be changed quickly. It has a device in the barrel to make this easier. This feature is similar to the Thompson Light Rifle.

paragraphs: In 1944, the Third Reich were getting short of materials. This led them to develop the MG 45 (or MG 42V). It had an even higher rate of fire and was easier to make.

paragraphs: The American military tried to copy the MG 42 during the war. They thought it could be a possible replacement for the Browning Automatic Rifle and the M1919A4 for foot soldiers. Saginaw Steering Gear made a prototype and called it the T24 machine gun. However, it was realised that the .30-06 cartridge that the gun would fire might be too long. There was also a design problem with the prototype. These problems meant that the project was ended.

paragraphs: Yugoslavia built the MG 42 at the Zavodi Crvena Zastava company as the M53 machine gun. They did this under a license. This gun still fired the 7.92 x 57mm Mauser cartridge. By doing this, the M53 was nearly an exact copy of the German MG 42. The only big difference is that the rate of fire is lower than the MG 42. Some M53s were sent to Iraq in the 1980s. They were also used a lot during both of the Gulf wars. M53 was known under nickname "Šarac".

paragraphs: The Beretta MG 42/59 was just the MG 42 with some small changes. This is still used by the Italian Army. The Rheinmetall MG 3 is also just the MG 42 with some changes. The MG 3 is used with the German armed forces ("Bundeswehr").

paragraphs: The last type of MG 42 is called the MG 74. It was developed in Austria. It has been the main machine gun of the Austrian Armed Forces since 1974.


title: Chocolate gravy

paragraphs: Chocolate gravy is a type of gravy made with fat, flour, cocoa powder and sometimes sugar. It is often served as a Sunday morning dish with biscuits.


title: Waziristan

paragraphs: Waziristan (Pashto and , "land of the Wazir") is a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering about . It is part of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, which is not part of any of the country's four provinces.

paragraphs: Though declared by the rebels as a "state" or "emirate", there are questions whether the region being should be called such. Those who support that the region is a state point to the facts that the federal government has little to no power in the region and that the area is ruled mostly by tribal elders. The Taliban are reported to control most of the region with its own style of Sharia rule, which the Pakistan government has been unable to stop. Such bold show of autonomy has led one writer in the "Wall Street Journal" to remark that Waziristan was a "state within a state."


title: Chemical biology

paragraphs: Chemical biology is a science that combines the fields of chemistry and biology. It involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.

paragraphs: This is a slightly different from biochemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of biological molecules. For example, a biochemist studies the three-dimensional structure of a protein and how that structure relates to the chemistry of the protein. Also, biochemistry studies the way enzymes work. Chemical biologists use chemical principles to modulate systems. They do this to either investigate biology relationships or create new functions. In this way, the research done by chemical biologists is often closer to that of cell biology than biochemistry. In short, biochemists deal with the chemistry "of" biology, chemical biologists deal with chemistry "applied to" biology.


title: Solid-state chemistry

paragraphs: Solid-state chemistry, (also called materials chemistry) is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials. It focuses on non-molecular solids. It has much in common with solid-state physics, mineralogy, crystallography, ceramics, metallurgy, thermodynamics, materials science and electronics. It focuses on the synthesis of new materials and their characterization.

paragraphs: Technology helps solid-state inorganic chemistry. Solid-state chemistry works to make materials used in commerce. Researchers serve industry, as well as answering academic questions. There were many important discoveries in the 20th century: zeolite and platinum-based catalysts for petroleum processing in the 1950s, high-purity silicon as a core component of microelectronic devices in the 1960s, and “high temperature” superconductivity in the 1980s. William Lawrence Bragg invented X-ray crystallography in the early 1900s, which brought further discoveries.

paragraphs: Carl Wagner's worked on oxidation rate theory, counter diffusion of ions, and defect chemistry. This work showed how reactions proceed at the atomic level in the solid state. Because of this, he has sometimes been referred to as the "father of solid state chemistry".

paragraphs: A diverse variety of syntheic methods are used to make solid-state compounds. For organic materials, such as charge transfer salts, the methods operate near room temperature and are often similar to the methods of organic synthesis. Redox reactions are sometimes conducted by electrocrystallisation. For example, Bechgaard salts can be made from tetrathiafulvalene.

paragraphs: For materials that can withstand heat, chemists often use high temperature methods. For example, chemists use tube furnaces to prepare bulk solids. This allows reactions to be conducted up to around . For higher temperatures up to , chemists use special equipment such as ovens made with a tantalum tube through which an electric current is passed. Such high temperatures are at times required to induce diffusion of the reactants. But this depends strongly on the system studied. Some solid state reactions already proceed at temperatures as low as .

paragraphs: Chemists often melt the reactants together and then later anneal the solidified melt. If volatile reactants are involved, the reactants are often put in an ampoule and then all air is removed. Often, the chemists keep the reactant mixture cold (for example, by keeping the bottom of the ampoule in liquid nitrogen) and then seal the ampoule. The sealed ampoule is then put in an oven and given a specified heat treatment.

paragraphs: Solvents can be used to prepare solids by precipitation or by evaporation. At times the solvent is used under pressure at temperatures higher than the normal boiling point (hydrothermally). Flux methods add a salt of relatively low melting point to the mixture to act as a high temperature solvent in which the desired reaction can take place.

paragraphs: Many solids react readily with reactive gases such as chlorine, iodine, oxygen or others. Others solids form adducts with other gases, (for example CO or ethylene). Such reactions are often carried out in a tube with open ended on both sides and through which the gas flows. A variation of this is to let the reaction take place inside a measuring device such as a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In that case stoichiometric information can be obtained during the reaction. That information helps identify the products. (By accurately measuring the amount of each reactant, chemists can guess the ratio of the atoms in the final products.)

paragraphs: A special case of a gas reaction is a chemical transport reaction. These are often carried out by adding a small amount of a transport agent (for example, iodine) to a sealed ampoule. The ampoule is then placed in a zone oven. This method can be used to obtain the product in the form of single crystals suitable for structure determination by X-ray diffraction (XRD).

paragraphs: Chemical vapor deposition is also a widely used high temperature method for the preparation of coatings and semiconductors from molecular precursors.

paragraphs: Many solids attract water (hygroscopic) and/or sensitive to oxygen. For example, many halides absorb water and can only be studied in their anhydrous form if they are handled in a glove box filled with dry (and/or oxygen-free) gas, usually nitrogen.

paragraphs: Because a new synthetic method produces a mixture of products, it is important to be able to identify and characterize specific solid-state materials. Chemists try changing the stoichiometry to find which stoichiometries will lead to new solid compounds or to solid solutions between known ones. A prime method to characterize the reaction products is powder diffraction, because many solid state reactions will produce polycristalline ingots or powders. Powder diffraction will help the identification of known phases in the mixture. If a pattern is found that is not known in the diffraction data libraries an attempt can be made to index the pattern, that is to identify the symmetry and the size of the unit cell. (If the product is not crystalline the characterization is much more difficult.)

paragraphs: Once the unit cell of a new phase is known, the next step is to establish the ratio of the elements (stoichiometry) of the phase. This can be done in a number of ways. Sometimes the composition of the original mixture will give a clue, if one finds only one product (a single powder pattern) or if one was trying to make a phase of a certain composition by analogy to known materials. But this is rare.

paragraphs: Often chemist work hard to improve the synthetic methodology to get a pure sample of the new material.

paragraphs: If chemists can separate the product from the rest of the reaction mixture, then chemists can use elemental analysis on the isolated product. Other ways involve Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the generation of characteristic X-rays in the electron beam. The easiest way is to solve the structure is by using single crystal X-ray diffraction.

paragraphs: Improving the preparative procedures requires chemists to study which phases are stable at what composition and what stoichiometry. In other words, the chemists draw the phase diagram of the substance. An important tools in finding the phase diagram data are thermal analysis such as DSC or DTA and increasingly also, thanks to the advent of synchrotrons temperature-dependent power diffraction. Increased knowledge of the phase relations often leads to further refinement in synthetic procedures which repeats the cycle. New phases are thus characterized by their melting points and their stoichiometric domains. Identifying stichiometric domains is important for the many solids that are non-stoichiometric compounds. The cell parameters obtained from XRD are particularly helpful to characterize the homogeneity ranges of non-stoichiometric compounds.

paragraphs: In many cases new solid compounds are further characterized by a variety of techniques from solid-state physics.

paragraphs: For non-metallic materials, chemists try to get ultra-violet/visible spectra. In the case of semiconductors that will give an idea of the band gap.

paragraphs: Four-point (or five-point) probe methods are often applied either to ingots, crystals or pressed pellets to measure resistivity and the size of the Hall effect. This gives information on whether the compound is an insulator, semiconductor, semimetal or metal and upon the type of doping and the mobility in the delocalized bands (if present). So, important information is obtained on the chemical bonding in the material.

paragraphs: Magnetic susceptibility can be measured as function of temperature to establish whether the material is a para-, ferro- or antiferro- magnet. This tells the bonding in the material. This is particularly important for transition metal compounds. In the case of magnetic order, neutron diffraction can be used to find the magnetic structure.


title: Abdominal obesity

paragraphs: Abdominal obesity, also called central body obesity, is a condition involving excess fat surrounding the abdomen and an increase in waist size in humans. Obesity in this area is linked to Type 2 Diabetes, insulin resistance and heart disease in humans of both genders.


title: Alveolar consonant

paragraphs: An alveolar consonant is a consonant with the tongue close to the , which is the part just behind our teeth. Alveolar consonants that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue, like in English, are called while those pronounced using the blade of the tongue which is the flat part of the tongue behind the tip, are called . Alveolar consonants in English are , , , , and . The alveolar consonants , the , and , the , are the most common sounds in human languages.

paragraphs: The alveolar/coronal consonants identified by the IPA are:


title: John George Kemeny

paragraphs: John George Kemeny (31 May 1926 - 26 December 1992) developed BASIC with Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College, in 1964.


title: Odontochelys

paragraphs: Odontochelys is the oldest known turtle to have been discovered. It was first described from three 220 million year-old specimens excavated in Upper Triassic rocks in Guizhou, China.

paragraphs: As a primitive turtle, "Odontochelys" differed from modern turtles in several ways. Modern turtles possess a horny beak without any teeth in their mouth. In contrast, "Odontochelys" fossils had teeth in their upper and lower jaws.

paragraphs: One of the most striking features of turtles, both modern and prehistoric alike, are their dorsal shells, forming an armored carapace over the body of the animal. "Odontochelys" only had the bottom portion of a turtle's armor, the plastron. It did not yet have a solid carapace as most other turtles do. Instead of a solid carapace, "Odontochelys" had broadened ribs like those of modern turtle embryos that still have not started developing the ossified plates of a carapace.

paragraphs: In a comparison of skull proportions, the skull of "Odontochelys" is far more elongated in front of the eyes compared to other turtles. The tail of the prehistoric turtle was longer in proportion to its body than other turtles. In addition, the transverse processes found in the tail are not fused such as in later turtles.

paragraphs: Taken together, these anatomical differences mean that "Odontochelys" has some of the most primitive features ever seen in a turtle and is somewhat of a transitional fossil. Some scientists, however, are skeptical of this idea. Reisz and Head suggest that "Odontochelys" does not represent a turtle with a partly evolved shell, but that it is a descendant of an older, land–living turtle, and that the shell became reversed. Such shells can be seen on modern turtles, like the leatherback turtles (the genus "Dermochelys").

paragraphs: It is likely that "Odontochelys" was aquatic, as the fossil specimens were found in marine deposits full of conodonts and ammonites. The primitive turtle swam in shallow marine waters close to shore.

paragraphs: The species' name, "Odontochelys semitestacea" literally means "toothed turtle with a half-shell" - an apt description of its most striking physical characteristics.


title: Band gap

paragraphs: A band gap, also called a bandgap or energy gap, is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist. The term is used in solid-state physics and chemistry.

paragraphs: Band gaps can be found in insulators and semiconductors. In graphs of the electronic band structure of solids, the band gap is the energy difference (in electron volts) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. This is the same as the energy needed to free an outer shell electron from its orbit about the nucleus to become a mobile charge carrier. The free electron is able to move freely within the solid material. So the band gap is a major factor determining the electrical conductivity of a solid. Substances with large band gaps are generally insulators, those with smaller band gaps are semiconductors. Conductors either have very small band gaps or no band gap if the energy levels of valence and conduction bands overlap.

paragraphs: Scientist use the band gap to predict if a solid will conduct electricity. Most electrons (called valence electrons) are attracted to the nucleus of just one atom. But if an electron has enough energy to fly away from its nearest nucleus, it can join in the flow of electric current across the many atoms that make up the solid. The electrons that are not tightly attached to just one nucleus are called the conduction band.

paragraphs: In semiconductors and insulators, quantum mechanics show that electrons are only found in a number of bands of energy. Electrons are forbidden from other energy levels. The term "band gap" refers to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. Electrons are able to jump from one band to another. However, an electron needs a certain amount of energy to jump from a valence band to a conduction band. The amount of energy needed differs with different materials. Electrons can gain enough energy to jump to the conduction band by absorbing either a phonon (heat) or a photon (light).

paragraphs: A semiconductor is a material with a small but nonzero band gap which behaves as an insulator at absolute zero temperature (0 K) but allows heat to excite electrons enough to jump into its conduction band at temperatures which are below its melting point. In contrast, a material with a large band gap is an insulator. In conductors, the valence and conduction bands may overlap, so they may not have a band gap.

paragraphs: The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is strongly dependent on the band gap. The only available carriers for conduction are the electrons which have enough thermal energy to be excited across the band gap.

paragraphs: Band gap engineering is the process of controlling or altering the band gap of a material by controlling the composition of certain semiconductor alloys, such as GaAlAs, InGaAs, and InAlAs. It is also possible to construct layered materials with alternating compositions by techniques like molecular beam epitaxy. These methods are used in the design of heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs), laser diodes and solar cells.

paragraphs: It is hard to draw a line between semiconductors and insulators. One way is to think of semiconductors as a type of insulator with a narrow band gap. Insulators with a larger band gap, usually greater than 3 eV, are not put into the semiconductor group and generally do not exhibit semiconductive behavior under practical conditions. Electron mobility also plays a role in determining a material's informal grouping as a semiconductor.

paragraphs: The band gap energy of semiconductors tends to decrease with increasing temperature. When temperature increases, the amplitude of atomic vibrations increase, leading to larger interatomic spacing. The interaction between the lattice phonons and the free electrons and holes will also affect the band gap a little. The relationship between band gap energy and temperature can be described by Varshni's empirical expression,

paragraphs: In a regular semiconductor crystal, the band gap is fixed owing to continuous energy states. In a quantum dot crystal, the band gap is size dependent and can be altered to produce a range of energies between the valence band and conduction band. It is also known as quantum confinement effect.

paragraphs: Band gaps also depend on pressure. Band gaps can be either direct or indirect, depending on the electronic band structure.

paragraphs: Classically, the ratio of probabilities that two states with an energy difference "ΔE" will be occupied by an electron is given by the Boltzmann factor:

paragraphs: At the Fermi level (or chemical potential), the probability of a state being occupied is ½. If the Fermi level is in the middle of a band gap of 1 eV, this probability is "e" or about 2.0⋅10 at the room-temperature thermal energy of 25.9 meV.

paragraphs: Electrons can be excited by light as well as by heat. The band gap determines what portion of the solar spectrum a photovoltaic cell absorbs. A luminescent solar converter uses a luminescent medium to downconvert photons with energies above the band gap to photon energies closer to the band gap of the semiconductor comprising the solar cell.

paragraphs: In photonics band gaps or stop bands are ranges of photon frequencies where, if tunneling effects are neglected, no photons can be transmitted through a material. A material exhibiting this behaviour is called a "photonic crystal".

paragraphs: Similar physics applies to phonons in a phononic crystal.


title: Deal or No Deal (UK game show)

paragraphs: Deal or No Deal is the British version of the game show franchise of the same name. It is presented by Noel Edmonds, and produced by Endemol. It began showing in 2005. Players can win £250,000 (US$388,800). The odds of winning it is only 4 in 1715 (1 in 429, or 2 in 858). This is because a player might take a offer from the banker.

paragraphs: The show is on Channel 4 at 4p.m. on weekdays. It runs for 60 minutes, including adverts.

paragraphs: Before the game starts, different amounts of money are packed randomly into 22 suitcases. A player is selected, and the case that they have is randomly selected.

paragraphs: In front of the player is a game board with all the possible amounts that could be in his/her box. The player then opens 5 boxes. Five possible amounts that could be in the player's box are gone. Based on the amounts left (that could be in the players box), the "banker" may make an offer to buy the box from the player. The offer depends on the possible amounts that could be in the player's box according to what is left on the board. So if there are high amounts that are on the board (that could be in the person's box), the banker will pay more to buy the box. He might offer £10,000 instead of £3,500 or £1500. The player may take the offer by saying "deal" of refuse it by saying "no deal".

paragraphs: The player then opens 3 more boxes, and the banker will make another offer. If after 6 offers, the player says "no deal", they win whatever is in their box. If they says "deal" at an offer, the player takes home the offer. The game ends, but they play on to see what would have happened otherwise.


title: Moves Like Jagger

paragraphs: "Moves Like Jagger" is a dance pop single released by American pop rock band Maroon 5 on June 22, 2011 internationally and digitally. The single features pop singer-songwriter Christina Aguilera and was produced by Shellback, Benny Blanco, and Ari Levine. The song was later put on the Maroon 5 album "Hands All Over" in July of 2011 for the re-release. The song peaked at number-one on the Billboard Hot 100 singles' chart for four weeks and number-one on the Billboard Digital Songs chart for three weeks. The song will not feature on the upcoming fourth studio album "Overexposed", which is scheduled for release on June 26, 2012.

paragraphs: The song's lyrics refer to a male protagonist's ability to impress a female with his dance moves, which he compares to those of The Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger. The song received a positive critical appreciation, many of them complimented the vocal chemistry between Levine and Aguilera and labeled it "an irresistible summer hit".

paragraphs: The music video for "Moves Like Jagger" was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and filmed in Los Angeles, California on July 8, 2011. On July 9, Aguilera posted an image of herself from the video shoot via Twitter, saying, "Always great to see Jonas Akerlund. He created the perfect feel for the song. Expect a fun video." The image showed Aguilera performing with a band in front of a background of the American flag. Four shirtless images of Levine from the shoot were also released online the same day. More images from the video shoot were released online on July 11, showing Levine and Aguilera performing in front of an American and British-themed backdrop with confetti falling from the ceiling. Another image showed Aguilera performing in front of a black backdrop with her name "Christina" shown in pink. Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger made an appearance in the video "via archive footage." The music video premiered on August 8 on E!


title: David Walliams

paragraphs: David Edward Walliams (born Williams; 20 August 1971) is a British comedian, writer and actor, known for his partnership with Matt Lucas on the TV sketch show "Little Britain" and its predecessor "Rock Profile". More recently he and Lucas wrote and starred in "Come Fly with Me".

paragraphs: David Walliams also was a judge for BGT(Britain's Got Talent). In September 2011, he swam the entire 140 mile length of the River Thames, raising over £1,000,000 for a charity called Sport Relief.He also made and played in a couple of movies like Billionare Boy and Gangster Granny

paragraphs: Born in the London Borough of Merton on 20 August 1971 to Peter, a London Transport engineer, and Kathleen Williams, a lab technician, Williams was brought up in Banstead. His parents appeared on "The Friday Night Project" when he was the guest star on the show.

paragraphs: He was educated at Collingwood Boys' School in Wallington (now Collingwood School) and the independent Reigate Grammar School (where he was a contemporary of Robert Shearman).

paragraphs: He was a member of the National Youth Theatre, where he met Matt Lucas. Williams studied drama at the University of Bristol from 1989 to 1992, one year below Simon Pegg.

paragraphs: Williams changed his name to Walliams () when he joined the actors' trade union, Equity, as there was already a member named David Williams. This was spoofed in a mock interview on "Rock Profile", when Robbie Williams was continuously referred to as 'Robbie Walliams'.


title: Luton

paragraphs: Luton is a large town in Bedfordshire, England. It is about north of London. It is on the M1 motorway and has mainline trains from King's Cross and St Pancras stations. It is an industrial town which has diversified from its original base as a manufacturer of hats and cars. Its fine communications means it has many people who commute to work in London. It has a population of 213,052 (mid-2019 estimate).

paragraphs: Luton was started in about the 6th century by the Saxons, based by the River Lea. It has a history of industry: making hats and Vauxhall cars for example.

paragraphs: Luton is a unitary authority, which means it is governed locally by its own council, Luton Borough Council. It is represented by two members of parliament.

paragraphs: Its football club is in the English football league and play at Kenilworth Road. Their nickname is 'The Hatters'. They are called this because of Luton's history of making straw hats.

paragraphs: Luton town has a large immigrant population, which consists mainly of people of Pakistani and Bengali origin.


title: Superbase

paragraphs: In chemistry, a superbase is an extremely strong base. It is a compound that has a high affinity for protons.

paragraphs: Hydroxide ion is the strongest base possible in water (aqueous) solutions, but superbases are much stronger than aqueous bases. Such bases are useful in organic synthesis and are fundamental to physical organic chemistry.

paragraphs: Superbases have been described and used since the 1850s. Reactions involving superbases often require special techniques since they are destroyed by water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen in the air. Inert atmosphere techniques and low temperatures minimize these side reactions.

paragraphs: IUPAC defines superbases simply as a "compound having a very high basicity, such as lithium diisopropylamide".


title: Argyria

paragraphs: Argyria is a medical condition caused by the exposure to silver. People with this condition may have a change in skin color to pale or "greyish".


title: Windows Task Manager

paragraphs: Windows Task Manager is a task manager application. It is part of the Microsoft Windows NT family of operating systems. Windows Task Manager gives detailed information about computer performance and applications that are currently running. It also gives information about processes and CPU usage, commit charge and memory information, network activity and statistics, logged-in users, and system services. The application can be used to set process priorities, processor affinity, forcibly terminating (ending) processes. In Windows XP only, the application can be used to shut down, restart, hibernate or log off from Windows.


title: Chemical species

paragraphs: Chemical species are atoms, molecules, molecular fragments, ions, etc., being subjected to a chemical process or to a measurement. Generally, a chemical species can be defined as an ensemble of chemically identical molecular entities that can explore the same set of molecular energy levels on a defined time scale. Chemists also use chemical species to mean a set of chemically identical atomic or molecular structural units in a solid array.

paragraphs: For example, when molecules of NaCl dissolve in water we don't really have any NaCl as such in the solution. We have Na and Cl ions because NaCl dissociates. We say the species present in solution are Na(aq) and Cl(aq). In this case, the species present in solution are the ions. In other cases, where the molecules don't dissolve in water, we would have molecular species in solution rather than ionic species.

paragraphs: In supramolecular chemistry, chemical species are those supramolecular structures whose interactions and associations are brought about by forming or breaking intermolecular bonds. Studying these actions is the main topic of supramolecular chemistry.


title: Task manager

paragraphs: A task manager is a computer program that is used to show information about the processes and programs running on a computer. Task managers also show the general status of the computer. They can be used to terminate (end) processes and programs, as well as change the processes priority. An example of a task manager is Windows Task Manager.