title: Haut-Rhin

paragraphs: Haut-Rhin is a department in the Grand Est region of France, named after the Rhine river that flows along its eastern border. Its name means "Upper Rhine". The prefecture (capital) of Haut-Rhin is Colmar.

paragraphs: Haut-Rhin is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was divided in three districts: Altkirch, Belfort and Colmar, with Colmar as is capital.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the three districts were changed into five "arrondissements": Colmar, Altkirch, Belfort, Delémont and Porrentruy. The "arrondissements" Delémont and Porrentruy were eliminated in 1814 and transferred to Switzerland.

paragraphs: The subprefecture of Altkirch was moved to Mulhouse in 1857.

paragraphs: The Haut-Rhin department was eliminated in 1871 when the territory became part of Germany except for a part that forms the Territoire de Belfort.

paragraphs: In 1919, Haut-Rhin is again an department when the territory became part of France with the "arrondissements" Colmar-Ville, Colmar-Campagne, Altkirch, Guebwiller, Mulhouse, Ribeauvillé and Thann. Its capital is Colmar.

paragraphs: The "arrondissements" Colmar-Ville and Colmar-Campagne were combined in 1934 to form the "arrondissement" of Colmar.

paragraphs: In 2015, the "arrondissements" of Guebwiller and Ribeauvillé were eliminated and the name of the "arrondissements" of Thann and Colmar were changed to Thann-Guebwiller and Colmar-Ribeauvillé.

paragraphs: Haut-Rhin is the smaller and less populated of the two departments of the former administrative Alsace region. It is in the Grand Est region and borders 3 departments in 2 regionsː

paragraphs: To the east, the department borders Germany along the Rhine river, and to the south it borders with Switzerland.

paragraphs: Haut-Rhin has an area of . Its highest point is Grand Ballon () in the Vosges Mountains, in the eastern part of the department; it is high. The lowest point is high along the Rhine river.

paragraphs: The area around Colmar, at an altitude of about , is characterized by climates with few extremes of temperature. The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Strasbourg is a "Marine West Coast Climate" and of the subtype "Cfb".

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Strasbourg is . The month with the most precipitation on average is June with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: Haut-Rhin is managed by the "Departmental Council of Haut-Rhin" in Colmar. The department is part of the Grand Est region.

paragraphs: There are 4 "arrondissements" (districts), 17 "cantons" and 366 "communes" (municipalities) in Haut-Rhin.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 17 cantons of the Haut-Rhin department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of the Haut-Rhin department are known, in French, as "Haut-Rhinois" or (women: "Haut-Rhinoises"),

paragraphs: Haut-Rhin had a population, in 2014, of 760,134, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Mulhouse, with 350,032 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Haut-Rhin

paragraphs: The 10 "communes" with more inhabitants in the Haut-Rhin department are:


title: Rhône (department)

paragraphs: Rhône is a department in the center of France in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region. Its prefecture is Lyon and about 1,646,000 people live there (2006 estimation).


title: Haute-Saône

paragraphs: Haute-Saône is a department in the east of France. It is in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. It is named after the Saône river and its capital (prefecture) is the city of Vesoul.

paragraphs: Haute-Saône is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was formed from part of the old province of "Franche-Comté".

paragraphs: It was divided in six districts: Jussey, Luxeuil, Lure, Vesoul, Gray and Champlitte with the capital in Gray alternating with Vesoul. In 1794, only Gray remained as the capital.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the six districts were changed into three "arrondissements": Vesoul, Gray and Lure; the capital was moved from Gray to Vesoul.

paragraphs: After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), the department was occupied by the Austrian army from June 1815 to November 1818.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Gray was eliminated.

paragraphs: Haute-Saône is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department borders with 6 other departments in two regions:

paragraphs: The main river in the department is the Saône, that flows through the department from northeast to southwest. The highest mountain in the department is "Ballon de Servance" (), high; it is in the "commune" Servance-Miellin.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Lure is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Lure is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month, on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Lure is . The month with the most precipitation on average is August with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is March with an average of .

paragraphs: Haute-Saône is managed by the "Departmental Council of Haute-Saône" in Vesoul. The department is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

paragraphs: There are 2 "arrondissements" (districts), 17 "cantons" and 542 "communes" (municipalities) in Haute-Saône.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 17 cantons of the Haute-Saône department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Haute-Saône are known, in French, as "Haut-Saônois" (women: "Haut-Saônoises").

paragraphs: Haute-Saône had a population, in 2014, of 238,347, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Vesoul, with 129,622 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Haute-Saône

paragraphs: The cities with more than inhabitants in the department are:


title: Saône-et-Loire

paragraphs: Saône-et-Loire is a department in the centre of France. It is in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. It is named after the two main rivers in the department: the Saône and the Loire rivers.

paragraphs: The largest city in the department is Chalon-sur-Saône. The prefecture (capital) is the smaller city of Mâcon.

paragraphs: Saône-et-Loire is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790 with Mâcon as its capital. It was formed from combined parts of the old provinces of southern "Burgundy" and "Bresse", uniting lands which have no true geographical unity.

paragraphs: It was divided in seven districts: Autun, Bourbon-Lancy, Chalon-sur-Saône, Charolles, Louhans, Mâcon and Semur-en-Brionnais. That same year, the name of the district Semur-en-Brionnais was changed to Marcigny.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the seven districts were changed into five "arrondissements": Mâcon, Autun, Chalon-sur-Saône, Charolles and Louhans.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Louhans was eliminated but in 1942 it became again an "arrondissement" of the department.

paragraphs: Saône-et-Loire is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. It has an area of ; the seventh largest department of France.

paragraphs: The department borders with 7 other departments in two regions:

paragraphs: There are five natural regions in the department:

paragraphs: The main rivers in the department are the Loire, that makes most of the western border of the department and that flows to the north, into the Atlantic Ocean; and the Saône, in the eastern part of the department and that flows to the south and joins the Rhône river at Lyon.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Charnay-lès-Mâcon is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Charnay-lès-Mâcon, to the west of Mâcon and where is the local airport, is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month, on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Charnay-lès-Mâcon is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is August with an average of .

paragraphs: Saône-et-Loire is managed by the "Departmental Council of Saône-et-Loire" in Mâcon. The department is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

paragraphs: There are 5 "arrondissements" (districts), 29 "cantons" and 567 "communes" (municipalities) in Saône-et-Loire.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 29 cantons of the Saône-et-Loire department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Saône-et-Loire are known, in French, as "Saône-et-Loiriens" (women: "Saône-et-Loiriennes").

paragraphs: Saône-et-Loire had a population, in 2014, of 555,788, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Chalon-sur-Saône, with 200,084 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Saône-et-Loire


title: Sarthe

paragraphs: Sarthe is a department found in the west of France in the Pays de la Loire region. Its prefecture is Le Mans and its population is about 543,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.


title: Savoie

paragraphs: Savoie is a département in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of southeastern France, bordering Italy.

paragraphs: Before 1860, the territory of the modern Haute-Savoie and Savoie departments had been part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, as a Duchy, since 1713. Annexation of the region by France was made in 1860. In that year, the Emperor Napoléon III divided the territory in two departments: "Savoie", to the south, with the city of Chambéry, and "Haute-Savoie", to the north, with the city of Annecy.

paragraphs: The department of Savoie was created in 1860 from the southern part of the Duchy of Sardinia with four "arrondissements": Chambéry, Albertville, Moûtiers and Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne. The capital was Chambéry.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Moûtiers was eliminated.

paragraphs: During World War II, the department was occupied by fascist Italy from November 1942 to September 1943.

paragraphs: The Savoie is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department borders with the Ain, Isère and Haute-Savoie departments in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, the Hautes-Alpes in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region and with Italy (Piedmont region).

paragraphs: Much of Savoie is covered by mountains; the highest mountain in the department is "La Grande Casse" () in the Alps; it is high.

paragraphs: The main rivers in the department are the Isère and its tributary Arch; both flow through the department from east to west. They are within the watershed of the Rhône river. The main lake in the department is the "Lac du Bourget", the largest and deepest lake entirely in France.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Chambéry is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype Cfb.

paragraphs: Savoie is managed by the "Departmental Council of Savoie" in Chambéry. The department is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region.

paragraphs: Savoie is a member of the UNPO (Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization) and maintains relations with several other underrepresented and unrepresented nations.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 19 "cantons" and 285 "communes" (municipalities) in Savoie.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 19 cantons of the Savoie department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Savoie are known, in French, as "Savoyards" (women: "Savoyardes").

paragraphs: Savoie had a population, in 2014, of 426,924, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Chambéry, with 271,647 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Haute-Savoie

paragraphs: The "communes" in the department with more inhabitants are:


title: Seine-Maritime

paragraphs: Seine-Maritime is a department found in the northwest of France in the Normandy region. Its prefecture is Rouen. Its population is about 1,245,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.


title: Seine-et-Marne

paragraphs: Seine-et-Marne is a department found in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Melun and its population is about 1,260,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.


title: Yvelines

paragraphs: Yvelines is a department in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Versailles. About 1,395,000 people live there (2006 estimation).


title: Deux-Sèvres

paragraphs: Deux-Sèvres is a department in western France, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region.

paragraphs: "Deux-Sèvres" means literally "Two Sèvres": the Sèvre Nantaise and the Sèvre Niortaise; these are two rivers which flow through the department.

paragraphs: Deux-Sèvres is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790.

paragraphs: The new department had six districts: Melle, Niort, Saint-Maixent, Parthenay, Thouars and Châtillon (today Mauléon). The capital (now prefecture) was Niort alternating Saint-Maixent and Parthenay but soon only Niort was the only capital.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the six districts were changed into four "arrondissements": Melle, Niort, Parthenay and Thouars. Thouars was changed by Bressuire in 1804.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissements" of Bressuire and Melle were eliminated. On 1 June 1942, Bressuire was again an "arrondissement".

paragraphs: The borders of the department were changed in 1973 when the inhabitants of the little commune of "Puy-Saint-Bonnet" joined the commune of Cholet in the neighbouring department of Maine-et-Loire.

paragraphs: Deux-Sèvres is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The highest point of the department is "Terrier de Saint-Martin", high, in the "commune" of Saint-Martin-du-Fouilloux.

paragraphs: The department is bordered by the departments: Maine-et-Loire, Vienne, Charente, Charente-Maritime and Vendée.

paragraphs: The climate of Niort is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Niort is . The month with the most precipitation on average is September with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Niort is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Deux-Sèvres" in Niort. Deux-Sèvres is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 17 "cantons" and 293 "communes" (municipalities) in Deux-Sèvres.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 17 cantons of the Deux-Sèvres department, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Deux-Sèvres are known, in French, as "Deux-Sévriens" (women: "Deux-Sévriennes").

paragraphs: Deux-Sèvres has a population, in 2014, of 373,553, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Niort, with 212,425 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Bressuire and Parthenay, have respectively 96,703 and 64,425 inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Deux-Sèvres

paragraphs: The 10 main cities in the department are:

paragraphs: The department is still a very rural area, with a large proportion of the land of the department used for farming. Wheat and oats are the main products grown, as well as potatoes, apples, and walnuts. There are many vineyards in the north.


title: Somme

paragraphs: Somme is a department found in the north of France in the Hauts-de-France region. Its prefecture is Amiens. Its population is about 559,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.


title: Tarn

paragraphs: Tarn () is a French department in the Occitanie region in the southwest of France named after the Tarn river.

paragraphs: Its prefecture and largest city is Albi.

paragraphs: Tarn is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was created from a part of the old province of Languedoc.

paragraphs: The new department had five districts: Albi, Castres, Lavaur, Gaillac, Lacaune. The capitals (now prefectures) were, alternatively, Albi and Castres but, from 1790 to 1797, the capital was only Albi; in 1797, the capital was moved to Castres.

paragraphs: In 1800, Albi became again the capital of the department and the "arrondissements" were created; the department had four "arrondissements": Albi, Castres, Gaillac and Lavaur. In 1926, the "arrondissements" of Gaillac and Lavaur were eliminated.

paragraphs: Tarn is part of the Occitanie region and has an area of .

paragraphs: The department borders with 5 departments, all in the Occitanie region:

paragraphs: While the valley of the Tarn river, the main river of the department, forms a plain, the central part of the department has many hills. The main mountain ranges are the Monts de Lacaune, in the southeast, and the Montagne Noire in the south.

paragraphs: The Monts de Lacaune ("Mountains of Lacaune") mountain range is near the town of Lacaune; its highest point, and the highest of the Tarn department, is "Puech de Rascas", (), at above sea level.

paragraphs: The Montagne Noire (, "Black Mountain") is a mountain range in central southern France. It is at the southwestern end of the Massif Central in the border area of the Tarn, Hérault and Aude departments. Its highest point is the Pic de Nore () at high. The mountain is within the Haut-Languedoc Regional Natural Parc ().

paragraphs: The main river in the department are the Tarn and its tributary, the Agout river.

paragraphs: The climate of Albi is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Albi is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Albi is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Tarn" in Albi. Tarn is part of the region of Occitanie.

paragraphs: There are 2 "arrondissements" (districts), 23 "cantons" and 320 "communes" (municipalities) in Tarn.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 23 cantons of the Tarn department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Tarn are known, in French, as "Tarnais" (women: "Tarnaises").

paragraphs: Tarn has a population, in 2014, of 384,474, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Castres, with 194,373 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants. The "arrondissement" of Albi has 190,101 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The city with more people living in it is the capital, Albi (49,531). The subprefecture of Castres has 41,382 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The cities with more than 6,000 inhabitants in the department are:


title: Tarn-et-Garonne

paragraphs: Tarn-et-Garonne is a department in the southwest of France, in the Occitanie region. It is named after the Garonne river and its tributary Tarn. Its prefecture and largest city is Montauban.

paragraphs: Tarn-et-Garonne is not one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was created on 4 November 1808 during the First French Empire by Napoleon I.

paragraphs: It was formed out of territories belonging to neighboring areas. More than half of the territory was taken from the Lot (including Montauban and Moissac), over one-third was taken from Haute-Garonne (including Castelsarrasin), and the rest from the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Gers, and Aveyron.

paragraphs: The new department had three "arrondissements": Montauban, Castelsarrasin and Moissac. The prefecture was Montauban. On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Moissac was eliminated.

paragraphs: Tarn-et-Garonne is part of the Occitanie region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department borders with 6 departments:

paragraphs: The highest point in the department, at , is the Puech des Carts - Sommet Nord (), in the commune of Castanet.

paragraphs: Even if Tarn-et-Garonne is one of the smallest departments of Metropolitan France, there is a great diversity of landscapes in the department; for example, the plains between the Tarn and Garonne rivers and in the valley of the Aveyron river, the hills of the Lomagne region (southwest of the department) and in the north, including the "Causse" (a limestone plateau) of the northeast.

paragraphs: The main rivers in the department are the Garonne and its tributaries Tarn and Aveyron.

paragraphs: The climate of Montauban is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Montauban is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Montauban is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: Tarn-et-Garonne is managed by the "Departamental Council of Tarn-et-Garonne" in Montauban. The department is part of the region of Occitanie.

paragraphs: There are 2 "arrondissements" (districts), 15 "cantons" and 195 "communes" (municipalities) in Tarn-et-Garonne.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 15 cantons of the Tarn-et-Garonne department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Tarn-et-Garonne are known, in French, as "Tarn-et-Garonnais" (women: "Tarn-et-Garonnaises").

paragraphs: , Tarn-et-Garonne had a population of 252,578, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Montauban, with 175,756 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants. The "arrondissement" of Castelsarrasin has 76,822 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The city with more people living in it is the capital, Montauban (58,826). The subprefecture of Castelsarrasin has 13,765 inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Tarn-et-Garonne

paragraphs: The cities with more than 5,000 inhabitants in the department are:


title: Var (department)

paragraphs: The Var is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in Provence in southeastern France. It takes its name from the river Var, which used to flow along its eastern border, but the border was moved in 1860.

paragraphs: Var is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790 with Toulon as is capital. It was formed with part of the former province of Provence.

paragraphs: It was divided in nine districts: Toulon, Grasse, Hyères, Draguignan, Brignoles, Saint-Maximin, Fréjus, Saint-Paul-lès-Vence and Barjols.

paragraphs: The capital was moved, in 1793, from Toulon to Grasse and, in 1795, from Grasse to Brignoles. In 1797, the capital was moved again, to Draguignan.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the nine districts were changed into four "arrondissements": Brignoles, Draguignan, Grasse and Toulon.

paragraphs: After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), the department was occupied by the Austrian army from June 1815 to November 1818.

paragraphs: On 15 June 1860, the "arrondissement" of Grasse passed to the new department of Alpes-Maritimes. With this change, the Var river does not flow any longer through the department named after it.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Brignoles was eliminated but in 1974 Brignoles was made again an "arrondissement" and the capital was moved from Draguignan to Toulon. The Var is the only French department that has had four different capitals: Toulon, Grasse, Brignoles and Draguignan; now Toulon is the prefecture (capital) and Brignoles and Draguignan are subprefectures. Grasse is now a subprefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department.

paragraphs: During World War II, the department was occupied by the fascist Italy, from November 1942 to December 1943. In 1944, the German army occupied the territory of the Var department.

paragraphs: Var is part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department borders with 3 other departments, all in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region:

paragraphs: It also borders the Vaucluse department, to the nortwest, but only for a very short distance.

paragraphs: The highest point of the department is "Mont de Lachens" () with an altitude of high.; it is in the "commune" of Mons in the northeast of the department near the border with the Alpes-Maritimes department.

paragraphs: The "Îles d'Hyères" is a group of three islands off Hyères. The islands are named Porquerolles, Port-Cros, and Île du Levant. Together, they make up an area of . They can be reached by boat from either Hyères or Toulon.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Toulon is a "Mediterranean climate" and of the subtype "Csa".

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Toulon is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Toulon is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: Var is managed by the "Departmental Council of Ardennes" in Toulon. The department is part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 23 "cantons" and 153 "communes" (municipalities) in Var.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 23 cantons of the Var department, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of the Var department are known, in French, as "Varois" (women: "Varoises"),

paragraphs: Var had a population, in 2014, of 1,038,212, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Toulon, with 565,669 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants.

paragraphs: The "communes" with more inhabitants in the department are:


title: Vendée

paragraphs: Vendée is a department found in the west of France in the Pays de la Loire region. Its prefecture is La Roche-sur-Yon and its population is about 577,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.


title: Vienne

paragraphs: Vienne is a department in southwestern France in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It is named after the Vienne river, the most important river in the department.

paragraphs: Vienne is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created from parts of the old provinces of Poitou, Touraine and Berry, until the 15th century part of the Duchy of Aquitaine.

paragraphs: The new department had six districts: Châtellerault, Civray, Loudun, Lusignan, Montmorillon and Poitiers. The capital (now prefecture) was Poitiers.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the six districts were changed into five "arrondissements": Châtellerault, Civray, Loudun, Montmorillon and Poitiers.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissements" of Civray and Loudun were eliminated.

paragraphs: Vienne is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The highest point of the department is "Signal de Prun", high, in the "commune" of Adriers, in the Massif Central.

paragraphs: The department is bordered by 6 departments in three regions:

paragraphs: The main river in the department is the Vienne that gives its name to the department; it is one of the main tributary of the Loire river. The Vienne river flows through the department from north to south.

paragraphs: The climate of Poitiers is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Poitiers is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is August with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Poitiers is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Vienne" in Poitiers. Vienne is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 19 "cantons" and 274 "communes" (municipalities) in Vienne.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 19 "cantons" of the Vienne department, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Vienne are known, in French, as "Viennois" (women: "Viennoises").

paragraphs: Vienne has a population, in 2014, of 433,203, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Poitiers, with 246,038 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Châtellerault and Montmorillon, have respectively 112,313 and 74,852 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The 10 main cities in the department are:


title: Haute-Vienne

paragraphs: Haute-Vienne () is a department of France in the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is named after the Vienne river that flows through the department.

paragraphs: Haute-Vienne is one of the 83 French departments made during the French revolution, on 4 March 1790. It was created from parts of the old province of Limousin, its southern half, and of the county of Marche, its northern half, as well as some parts of Angoumois and Poitou.

paragraphs: The new department had six districts: Limoges, Le Dorat, Bellac, Saint-Junien, Saint-Yrieix and Saint-Léonard. The capital (now prefecture) was Limoges.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the six districts were changed into four "arrondissements": Limoges, Bellac, Rochechouart and Saint-Yrieix.

paragraphs: On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissement" of Saint-Yrieix was eliminated.

paragraphs: Haute-Vienne is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It has an area of .

paragraphs: The department is bordered by 6 departments of 2 regions:

paragraphs: The department is in the nortwestern border of the Massif Central. Its altitude is high; the lowest point is in the valley of the Vienne river and the highest is in the mountains near the "Vassivière" lake. The highest point in the department is Puy de Crozat (), that is high.

paragraphs: The main rivers in the department are the Vienne, that gives its name to this the deparment and to Vienne, and the Gartempe, a tributary of the Creuse river.

paragraphs: The climate of Limoges is an oceanic climate with template summers, Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) in the Köppen climate classification.

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Limoges is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Limoges is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The department is managed by the "Departamental Council of the Haute-Vienne" in Limoges. Haute-Vienne is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 21 "cantons" and 200 "communes" (municipalities) in Haute-Vienne.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 21 cantons of the Haute-Vienne department, in France, following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Haute-Vienne are known, in French, as "Haut-Viennois" (women: "Haut-Viennoises").

paragraphs: Haute-Vienne has a population, in 2013, of 376,199, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Limoges, with 298,578 inhabitants, is by far the largest. The other two, Bellac and Rochechouart, have respectively 39,744 and 37,877 inhabitants.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Haute-Vienne

paragraphs: The 10 most important cities in the department are:


title: Vosges

paragraphs: Vosges is a department found in the east of France in the Grand Est region. Its prefecture is Épinal. Its population is about 382,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.


title: Yonne

paragraphs: Yonne is a department in the centre of France, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. The largest city in the department, and its prefecture (capital), is Auxerre.

paragraphs: The department is named after the Yonne river, a tributary of the Seine, that flows through the department. The Celts name of the river was "Ica-onna" () and from this name come the name of the river and of the people living in the department: "Icaunais".

paragraphs: During the Roman times, the main city in the territory of the present department was Sens, the capital of one Roman province.

paragraphs: Yonne is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790 with Auxerre as its capital. It was formed from combined parts of the old provinces of "Burgundy", "Champagne" and "Île-de-France".

paragraphs: It was divided in seven districts: Auxerre, Sens, Joigny, Saint-Fargeau, Avallon, Tonnerre and Saint-Florentin.

paragraphs: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the seven districts were changed into five "arrondissements": Auxerre, Avallon, Joigny, Sens and Tonnerre. On 10 September 1926, the "arrondissements" of Joigny and Tonnerre were eliminated.

paragraphs: Yonne is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. It has an area of . The highest point of the department is Bois de la Pérouse (), high.

paragraphs: The department borders with five departments in four regions:

paragraphs: The northern part of the department is formed by plains that are part of the great plain of Paris. The mountains of the "Morvan" and the hills of the "Auxerrois" (the region around the city of Auxerre) are in the southern half of the department.

paragraphs: The main river in the department is the Yonne, a tributary of the Seine river that flows through the department from south to north. Other rivers that flow through the department are the Armançon, Loing, Ouanne and Serein rivers.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Auxerre is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype "Cfb".

paragraphs: The average temperature for the year in Auxerre is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month, on average is January, with an average temperature of .

paragraphs: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Auxerre is . The month with the most precipitation on average is December with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is April with an average of .

paragraphs: Yonne is managed by the "Departmental Council of Yonne" in Auxerre. The department is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

paragraphs: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 21 "cantons" and 428 "communes" (municipalities) in Yonne.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 21 cantons of the Yonne department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Yonne are known, in French, as "Icaunais" (women: "Icaunaises").

paragraphs: Yonne had a population, in 2014, of 341,814, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Auxerre, with 179,922 inhabitants, is the "arrondissement" with more inhabitants.

paragraphs: The cities with more than 5,000 inhabitants in the department are:


title: Zwentendorf power plant

paragraphs: The Zwentendorf power plant is a nuclear power plant in Zwentendorf an der Donau in Austria. It has never been used. This is because the people of Austria voted against using it in 1978.

paragraphs: Today, the plant is used to get replacement parts to other plants of the same type (mainly in Germany), and for staff training. It is not possible to visit the power plant. Because the nuclear power plant was never in use, a coal power plant was built in 1987 to replace it.

paragraphs: The plant is now owned by Austrian energy company and used as a Solar Power Plant.


title: Territoire de Belfort

paragraphs: Territoire de Belfort is a department in eastern France, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. The largest city in the department, and its prefecture (capital), is Belfort.

paragraphs: The Territoire de Belfort was made a French department on 11 March 1922.

paragraphs: Territoire de Belfort is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region; it is in the northeast of the region. It has an area of , the fifth smallest department of France (after Paris and its suburbs Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Val-de-Marne).

paragraphs: Rhw Territoire de Belfort borders with 4 departments in 2 regions:

paragraphs: It also borders, to the southeast, with Switzerland for a distance of about .

paragraphs: The highest point of the department is Ballon d'Alsace (), high, in the "Vosges Mountains", "commune" of Lepuix.

paragraphs: The lowest point in the department, high, is where the "Savoureuse" river leaves the department in the "commune" of Châtenois-les-Forges.

paragraphs: Territoire de Belfort is managed by the "Departmental Council of Territoire de Belfort" in Belfort. The department is part of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

paragraphs: There is 1 "arrondissement" (districts), 9 "cantons" and 102 "communes" (municipalities) in Territoire de Belfort.

paragraphs: The following is a list of the 9 cantons of the Territoire de Belfort department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Territoire de Belfort are known, in French, as "Terrifortains" (women: "Terrifortaines").

paragraphs: Territoire de Belfort had a population, in 2014, of 144,334, for a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Evolution of the population in Territoire de Belfort


title: Essonne

paragraphs: Essonne is a department to the south of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Évry. About 1,172,000 people live there (2006 estimation).


title: Hauts-de-Seine

paragraphs: Hauts-de-Seine is a department which is the western inner suburbs of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Nanterre and its population is about 1,517,000 (2006 estimation).


title: Seine-Saint-Denis

paragraphs: Seine-Saint-Denis is a department. It is in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Bobigny. About 1,459,000 people live there (2006 estimation).


title: Val-de-Marne

paragraphs: Val-de-Marne is a department in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Créteil. About 1,279,000 people live there (2006 estimation).


title: Val-d'Oise

paragraphs: Val-d'Oise is a department to the north of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Cergy. About 1,139,000 people live there (2006 estimation).


title: Quimper

paragraphs: Quimper () is a town in France. It is the prefecture of the Finistère department in the Brittany region. Its population is around 65,000 (2006).


title: Georges Cuvier

paragraphs: Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier (23 August 1769–13 May 1832), usually called Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist.

paragraphs: Cuvier was a very important figure in scientific circles in Paris during the early 19th century. He helped establish the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology by comparing living animals with fossils. He proved extinction was a fact. He was the most influential person believing in catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century. His most famous work is the "Règne animal distribué d'après son organisation" 1817; translated into English as "The Animal Kingdom".

paragraphs: Cuvier was a member of the elite Académie française and the French Academy of Sciences. He is remembered for strongly opposing the evolutionary theories of Lamarck and Geoffroy. Cuvier believed there was no evidence for the evolution of organic forms, but there was evidence for successive creations after catastrophic extinction events.

paragraphs: Some of Cuvier's most influential followers were Louis Agassiz, and Richard Owen. His is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

paragraphs: He was the elder brother of Frédéric Cuvier (1773–1838), also a naturalist. Cuvier died in Paris, of cholera.


title: George W. Campbell

paragraphs: George Washington Campbell (February 9, 1769–February 17, 1848) was an American statesman. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives as the Representative from Tennessee's at-large congressional district in 1803. He served in the House from 1805-1809, in the 8th, 9th, and 10th Congresses. During the 10th Congress, he was the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. He was also one of the managers appointed in 1804 to conduct the impeachment hearings for John Pickering, judge of the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire, and later in the same year, the impeachment hearings against Samuel Chase, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

paragraphs: Born in Scotland, he immigrated to North Carolina in 1772 with his parents. He graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1794 and began studying law. He was admitted to the bar in North Carolina and began practicing in Knoxville, Tennessee.

paragraphs: He left Congress in 1809 to become judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court, serving until 1811.

paragraphs: He served as a United States Senator from Tennessee twice, once from 1811 to 1814, having been elected to fill the seat of Jenkin Whiteside, and again from 1815 to 1818. His first service was from October 8, 1811 to February 11, 1814, when he resigned to accept appointment as the United States Secretary of the Treasury. He returned to the Senate on October 10, 1815. He served as the first chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and its predecessor from December 4, 1815, until his resignation from the Senate on April 20, 1818; on this occasion to accept appointment as United States Ambassador to Russia, a position he held from 1818-1821. Campbell served as a member of the French Spoliation Claims Commission in 1831.

paragraphs: Appointed Secretary of the Treasury by James Madison, he faced national financial disorder brought on by the War of 1812. Congress had failed to recharter the First Bank of the United States after its charter expired in 1811, and appropriations for the war were unavailable, so Campbell had to convince Americans to buy government bonds. He was forced to meet to lenders terms, selling government bonds at exorbitant interest rates. In September, 1814 the British occupied Washington, D.C. and the credit of the government was lowered even further. Campbell was unsuccessful in his efforts to raise money through additional bond sales and he resigned that October after only eight months in office, disillusioned and in bad health.

paragraphs: He died in 1848 and is buried at Nashville City Cemetery in Nashville, Tennessee.

paragraphs: Campbell County, Tennessee, is named in his honor.


title: Samuel Chase

paragraphs: Samuel Chase (April 17, 1741 – June 19, 1811), was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court and earlier was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Maryland.


title: Chloroform

paragraphs: Chloroform (also called trichloromethane) is a chemical substance. It is an organic compound. Chloroform is one of the intermediate substances that occur in the production of Polytetrafluoroethylene, better known as "Teflon". Chloroform is used as a solvent. In the 19th century, it was a widely used anaesthetic.

paragraphs: The first who reported to have produced Chloroform was the French chemist Eugène Soubeiran, in 1831. Soubeiran took acetone and ethanol, and used bleach powder for the reaction. The American physician Samuel Guthrie prepared gallons of the material and described its "deliciousness of flavor." Independently, Justus von Liebig also described it. Chloroform was named and chemically characterised in 1834 by Jean-Baptiste Dumas. Starting in the 1850s factories made large amounts. Its use as an anesthetic declined in the early 20th century as safer chemicals were more used.

paragraphs: Chloroform is produced by mixing methane and chlorine at a temperature of 400 to 500°C. In this reaction, the result is a mix of chloromethane, dichloromethane, trichloromethane and tetrachloromethane.

paragraphs: The four compounds get then separated with a distillation.

paragraphs: In laboratories, chloroform can be produced by mixing sodium hypochlorite and acetone together. This is an exothermic reaction, meaning it makes a lot of heat.

paragraphs: Chloroform was used as an anaesthetic during childbirth and surgery, from about 1847. It replaced ether which was used before. Chloroform is very poisonous, and can cause breathing problems, and problems with the heart. Death from chloroform can come from cardiac arrest. When Chloroform is stored for a longer time period, it can decay into Phosgene. Phosgene was a chemical weapon (poison gas) used during the First World War. Chloroform can cause birth defects and lead to miscarriages. It may cause cancer.


title: Santa Cruz, Bolivia

paragraphs: Santa Cruz de La Sierra, also known as Santa Cruz, is the largest city in Bolivia, capital city of the Santa Cruz department (in the eastern region of the country). The municipality's population was 1,528,683 inhabitants , and the urban population was 1,545,161.

paragraphs: Santa Cruz is not only the most populated city in Bolivia, but the department is also the richest, with over 30% of the national GDP. The city is a major center of petrochemical production in Bolivia, especially because the production of natural gas that exports to neighboring countries. The main sectors that drive the economy are the oil, forestry and agrobusiness firms.


title: Arithmetic logic unit

paragraphs: In computing, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a basic building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, even the simplest microcontrollers contain one for purposes such as timing.

paragraphs: Now, modern microprocessors, microcontrollers and CPUs have very powerful and very complex ALUs. Also, more recent CPUs may contain up to more than 4 ALUs (see superscalar CPUs).

paragraphs: Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945.


title: Floating point unit

paragraphs: A floating point unit (FPU) is a part of a computer system specially designed to carry out operations on floating point numbers. Typical operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and square root.

paragraphs: Some systems can also perform more advanced functions as exponential or trigonometric functions calculations, however in most modern processors these functions are done with software library routines, not by hardware.

paragraphs: In most modern general purpose CPUs, one or more FPUs are integrated inside the CPU; however many embedded microcontrollers, especially older designs, do not have hardware support for floating point operations.

paragraphs: In the past, some systems as the Intel 8086 have implemented floating point via a coprocessor that is controlled by the CPU rather than as an integrated unit.

paragraphs: Most modern computers have integrated FPU hardware; but not all. In the absence of an FPU, many FPU functions can be emulated, which saves the added hardware cost of an FPU but is significantly slower.


title: Eating disorder

paragraphs: An eating disorder is when someone begins eating too much, or when someone begins to avoid eating. This affects one's mental and physical health. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are two of the most well known eating disorders today. Eating disorders affect 5-7% of American women, and only a small percent of men are affected.

paragraphs: Eating disorders involve more than just food. Many people with eating disorders are very sad and feel alone. They get depressed and do not want to eat in front of other people. They might use food as a way to cope, or they might restrict their food intake as a means of control. They might eat a lot of food in a very short period of time. They might throw up their food because they feel guilty. They might eat very little because they want to lose weight, even if they are already dangerously underweight (weighing less than what it is considered healthy). Even if they are underweight, they might see themselves as very fat. Many people with eating disorders suffer physical complications, like malnutrition (not getting enough nutrients that the body needs to be healthy), or electrolyte imbalances (a change in the amount of elements such as sodium or potassium that causes problems in the body's ability to work properly). Eating disorders can cause death.

paragraphs: On 1 December 2013 the "Daily Telegraph" reported that the number of children under thirteen treated in hospital for eating disorders in the UK had tripled.


title: Derealization

paragraphs: Derealization (DR) is a change in the way someone views the world so that it seems unreal. Derealization can also make someone feel as if their environment does not have emotion or depth. This is a symptom of other problems, such as sleeping disorders, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders. It can also be caused by drug intoxication.

paragraphs: Similar to derealization is depersonalization, but the two are different. Depersonalization is a sense of unreality about oneself. Derealization is a sense of unreality of the outside world.

paragraphs: Derealization often happens during a traumatic or tragic event.


title: Paresthesia

paragraphs: Paresthesia (pron. ; paraesthesia in British English, pron. ) is a feeling of tingling, prickling, or numbness with no permanent effects. It is commonly called "pins and needles". This feeling may last a short while, or may be more long-lasting. A long-term effect means there is something wrong with neurons in the body.

paragraphs: An example of this can be felt when sitting cross-legged for a long time and your foot "falls asleep". The tingling feeling you get when you move is paresthesia.

paragraphs: Paresthesia has many known causes, including the following:


title: Perfectionism

paragraphs: Perfectionism is the belief that one can and should be perfect. A person who believes this is called a "perfectionist". Perfectionists believe that anything less than perfect is unacceptable. While this can lead people to achieve great accomplishments and give people motivation, it is considered to be a mostly unhealthy belief. Perfectionism can lead to procrastination ("I can't do this project until I can do it the "right" way."). This can mean low productivity. Perfectionism may also cause low self-esteem and anxiety.


title: Garonne river

paragraphs: The Garonne is a river that runs through northern Spain and the southwest France. Its mouth is at the Atlantic Ocean. It is long.


title: Physical abuse

paragraphs: Physical abuse is a form of abuse which causes feelings of pain, injury, or other physical suffering. Physical abuse may lead to low self-esteem and other mental problems.

paragraphs: Physical abuse has many forms. A few examples of physical abuse are:


title: Sexual abuse

paragraphs: Sexual abuse (also called sexual molestation) is when one person forces another person to unwillingly commit any sexual act, harassment or any sexual assault. A person who commits sexual abuse is called a molester, abuser, or sexual abuser. When a victim of sexual abuse is under the age of consent, it is known as child sexual abuse.

paragraphs: Sexual abuse can lead to many psychological problems, including low self-esteem, clinical depression, and other mental disorders, especially if the victim is a child and/or the abuse is severe.

paragraphs: Some groups of people are more likely to be sexually abused than others. It is common knowledge that girls and women are sexually abused more often than boys and men, and that abusers are usually men. Disabled people, especially disabled girls, are much more likely than non-disabled people to be sexually abused. They are often abused by authority figures in their lives, such as carers. Disabled people are more vulnerable to sexual assault for a number of reasons. People of different races have different rates of being sexually abused. African American girls and women 12 years old and older experience higher rates of sexual abuse.


title: Saka

paragraphs: The Sakas were a population of Iranian nomadic tribesmen lived in the plains of Eurasia from Eastern Europe to China, from the Old Persian Period to the Middle Persian Period. Then Turkic language speakers took their place.

paragraphs: The ancient Greeks called the Sakas the Scythians.

paragraphs: Sakas came to Western India and overan Sind and Saurashtra( near Gujrat) .They finally settled down in Kathiawar and malwa. They were often in war with the Satavahanas. Rudradaman, one of their best known king was the one who stopped the expansion of Sata ahana power to the north of river Narmada. The Sakas themselves could not expand to the north as they would have liked to, because Kushanas held them back.


title: Hill Auditorium

paragraphs: Hill Auditorium is the largest performance place on the University of Michigan campus in Ann Arbor in the United States. The auditorium was named after Arthur Hill (1847-1909), who was a regent of the university from 1901 to 1909. He gave 200,000 dollars to the university to build it. Opened in 1913, the auditorium was designed by Albert Kahn and Associates. It was recently fixed up by the same firm beginning in 2002 and was re-opened in 2004.


title: Goulburn, New South Wales

paragraphs: Goulburn is a city in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia. It is 190 km south-west of Sydney on the Hume Highway. It is 690 metres above sea-level. In 2006 there were 20,127 people living in Goulburn. Goulburn calls itself as "Australia's first inland city". The city of Bathurst also claims to be the first inland city in Australia.

paragraphs: Goulburn was named by James Meehan after Henry Goulburn, a British politician. The Governor Lachlan Macquarie approved the choice of name. The Aboriginal name for Goulburn is Burbong. This is a Murring/Wiradjuri word meaning a special place.

paragraphs: Goulburn has a railway station on the Main Southern railway line. It is a service centre for the many farms in the area. It also provides a rest stop for those travelling on the Hume Highway. It has a central park and many historic buildings, including old houses near the railway station on Sloane Street. It also has two 19th-century cathedrals. It is home to the "Big Merino", the world's largest cement sheep.


title: Women's suffrage

paragraphs: Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote and to be elected to an office. The right has generally been given after long political campaigns. In many countries, it was recognised before universal suffrage. Before the late 19th century, no woman had the right to vote in any political election.

paragraphs: The modern movement for women to gain the right to vote started in France in the late-18th century. The French Republic had been founded after a revolution, and political scientist Antoine Condorcet and activist Olympe de Gouges campaigned for women to be allowed to vote in the national election.

paragraphs: In early cases of women's suffrage, only those women who met certain requirements were given the right to vote in certain kinds of elections. In Sweden, there was conditional women's suffrage during the Age of Liberty (1718–1771). Unmarried women who owned property could vote in New Jersey from 1776 to 1807. In the 1792 election in Sierra Leone, all heads of household—one-third of whom were women—could vote.

paragraphs: Several British colonies recognised women's suffrage before most countries. The female descendants of the "Bounty" mutineers who lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838. This right was kept when they were resettled on Norfolk Island in 1856. Women in South Australia allowed to vote in local elections from 1861, and those on the Isle of Man could vote in parliamentary elections from 1881. In 1893, New Zealand became the first independent country to give all adult women the right to vote in national elections. The women in South Australia got the same right in 1894, and became the first to get the right to stand (run) for seats in parliament.

paragraphs: Many countries did the same soon after, following similar battles. Limited voting rights were also gained by women in several Western countries in the late 19th century, including Sweden, Finland and the United Kingdom. Russian Empire was the first European country to introduce women's suffrage, in 1906. It also elected the world's first female members of parliament in its 1907 elections. At that time it was a part of the Russian Empire. In the years before World War I, women in Norway (1913) and Denmark (1915) also won the right to vote, as did women in the other Australian states. In most other Western countries, women's suffrage came at the end of World War I.

paragraphs: Ceylon, now called Sri Lanka, recognised the right in 1931. It elected the world's first female head of government, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, in the country's 1960 elections. Women's suffrage was explicitly recognised as a right by the United Nations in 1979.


title: Grenfell, New South Wales

paragraphs: Grenfell is a country town in the central west of New South Wales, Australia. It is in the Weddin Shire. It is west of Sydney. It is close to Forbes, Cowra and Young. In 2006 there were 1,994 people living in Grenfell.

paragraphs: The Grenfell area was the home of the Wiradjuri Aborigines. Europeans first settled when gold was found at Emu Creek. The town was renamed after John Grenfell, the Gold Commissioner at Forbes. He had been killed in 1866 when bushrangers attacked a stagecoach on which he was travelling.

paragraphs: By 1870-71 more gold was found at Grenfell than in any other town in NSW. By the middle of the 1870s the gold was running out. Wheat was first grown in the area in 1871. The railway reached Grenfell in 1901.

paragraphs: The Grenfell area has been badly affected by drought since 2001.

paragraphs: The poet and story writer Henry Lawson was born on the gold fields at Grenfell. On the Queen's Birthday weekend in June every year, the town has "The Henry Lawson Festival of Arts". Thousands of people come from all over Australia for the art, poetry and writing competitions. Over the years, famous visitors have included Chips Rafferty, Barry Humphries, Patrick White and Sigrid Thornton.

paragraphs: In June 2007, the "Spirit of the Bush Concert" was held. It was organized by Australian of the Year, Lee Kernaghan, local and international star Steve Forde and the Flange, Adam Brand, Leo Sayer, Diesel, and The McClymonts.

paragraphs: Cricketer Stan McCabe, cyclist Reggie "IronMan" McNamara and tennis player Jan Lehane and Creative Writer Adam Burn were born in Grenfell.


title: Mike Vernon

paragraphs: Michael "Mike" Vernon (born 24 February 1963 in Calgary, Alberta, Canada) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player. For 21-years he played in the National Hockey League, he played as a goaltender for the Calgary Flames, Detroit Red Wings, San Jose Sharks and the Florida Panthers. He won the Stanley Cup twice as a member of the Flames in 1989 and then again in 1997 with the Red Wings, where he also won the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP. In 2002 he retired and he currently works as a Special Assistant to the Vice President of Hockey Operations for the Tampa Bay Lightning.

paragraphs: Mike Vernon holds the following Calgary Flames franchise records:


title: 1997 United Kingdom general election

paragraphs: The UK general election, 1997 was an election held on 1 May 1997 to elect 659 members to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The three main candidates to become Prime Minister are shown to the right:

paragraphs: The Labour Party and its leader Tony Blair gained the majority of seats and created the first Labour government since 1979. The Labour Party won 418 seats which was the highest majority of seats for any party since the Conservatives in the 1931 General Election. The Conservative Party suffered it's lowest number of seats since 1906 and lost all of its seats in Scotland and Wales. Several prominent Conservative politicians lost their seats such as Defence Secretary Michael Portillo, Foreign Secretary Malcolm Rifkind, Scottish Secretary Michael Forsyth as well as Edwina Currie, David Mellor and Ian Lang.

paragraphs: The Liberal Democrats won 46 seats, which was the highest number of seats for a third party since 1929. The Referendum Party ran on the single issue of taking Britain out of the European Union and won 2.6% of the vote but no seats.


title: Metropolitan France

paragraphs: Metropolitan France ( or "la Métropole") is the part of France that is in Europe. It can also be described as mainland France plus the island of Corsica. By contrast, Overseas France ("France d'outre-mer") is the collective name for all of the French overseas departments, territories and collectivities and New Caledonia. Metropolitan France and Overseas France together form the French Republic.

paragraphs: Metropolitan France covers an area of 551,695 km² (213,011 sq. miles). Excluding the territory of Adélie Land in Antarctica, this is 81.8% of the nation's territory. As of January 1, 2011, 63,136,180 people lived in metropolitan France. This is 95.9% of the nation's population.

paragraphs: The five overseas departments – Martinique, Guadeloupe, Réunion, French Guiana, and Mayotte – have the same political status as the departments in metropolitan France. Metropolitan France and these five overseas departments together are sometimes called "France entière" ("entire France") by the French administration, especially by INSEE. This grouping does not include the French overseas collectivities and territories, which have more autonomy than the overseas departments.


title: Overseas France

paragraphs: Overseas France () is the part of France that is outside of the European continent. It consists of all overseas departments, territories and collectivities. These territories have several different legal statuses and levels of autonomy. Overseas France includes island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, French Guiana in South America, and Adélie Land in Antarctica. Each inhabited territory is represented in both the French National Assembly and the French Senate (which together make up the Parliament of France).

paragraphs: 2,685,705 people lived in the overseas departments and territories in January 2011.

paragraphs: Overseas departments and regions are completely part of France.

paragraphs: The category of "overseas collectivity" was created by changes made to France's constitution in 28 March 2003. Each overseas collectivity has its own written laws.

paragraphs: The overseas departments and territories are represented by 27 "députés" in the French National Assembly and 21 senators in the French Senate. This is 4.7% of the 577 "députés" and 6% of the 343 senators.

paragraphs: The 11 French Overseas Territories are :

paragraphs: Lands generally uninhabited, except by researchers in scientific stations.


title: Justin Raimondo

paragraphs: Justin Raimondo (born Dennis Raimondo; November 18, 1951 – June 27, 2019) was an American writer and the editorial director of the website Antiwar.com. He was born in White Plains, New York.

paragraphs: Raimondo died on June 27, 2019 in Sebastopol, California from lung cancer at the age of 67.


title: Group (mathematics)

paragraphs: In mathematics, a group is a kind of algebraic structure. A group has a set and an operation. The group's operation can put together any two elements of the group's set to make a third element, also in the set. A familiar example of a group is the set of integers with the addition operator.

paragraphs: Instead of "an element of the group's set", mathematicians usually save words by saying "an element of the group".

paragraphs: Mathematicians use capital letters to stand for groups. They often use "G", "H", or "K".

paragraphs: They also use lower-case letters to stand for group elements. For example, they would say ""a" is in "G"" to mean ""a" is an element of "G"".

paragraphs: They write group operations with symbols like • or *, or by writing two elements next to each other. So ""a" • "b"", ""a" * "b"", and ""ab"" can all mean "the element formed when the group's operation combines "a" and "b"".

paragraphs: Not every set and operation make a group. A group's set and operation must obey some special rules. These are called group axioms. The following list has each axiom in both words and mathematical symbols.

paragraphs: To name the group, one should say all three parts: ("G", •, "e"). But when it is clear, one may just say that "G" is a group.

paragraphs: It is possible to find that for two elements "a" and "b" in a group, "a" • "b" is different from "b" • "a". For example, maybe "a" • "b" = c, but "b" • "a" = d.

paragraphs: For some groups, however, "a" • "b" = "b" • "a" for every "a" and "b" in the group. These special groups have a special name. They are called Abelian groups and their operation is said to be commutative"."

paragraphs: The number of elements in a group is called the group's "order".

paragraphs: One everyday example of a group is the set of integers with the addition operation and zero (the identity). It is easy to see that when adding two integers, the result is always an integer. So closure is true. The identity element for this group is zero. Because the order of additions does not matter (in other words, formula_1), associativity is true. And the inverse of any integer is its opposite number. This group is also an abelian group. It is an infinite group (also called a group of "infinite order") because it has an infinite number of elements: the integers.

paragraphs: The set of integers with the multiplication operation is not a group, because with multiplication, most integers have no inverse that is also an integer.

paragraphs: Another important example of a group is a group of symmetries, where each symmetry of an object is an element of the group. One can also think of this group as the set of bijections on "n" elements—with function composition as the operation. The symmetric group on "n" elements is often written as formula_2.

paragraphs: The "operation" of the group is this: make the change of the one symmetry and then make the change of the other symmetry. The combination is also a symmetry, and that means that there is "closure".

paragraphs: The "identity element" is the symmetry in which nothing changes.

paragraphs: Any symmetric change can be undone by reversing the change. That reverse is the "inverse element".

paragraphs: Symmetry groups provide many examples of groups. For example, here are all of the symmetries of a square: turn the square clockwise 90, 180, or 270; turn the square counter-clockwise 90, 180, or 270; reflect the image of the square in a vertical mirror, or in a horizontal mirror, or a diagonal mirror to the right or the left; or leave the square unchanged. This is a "finite" group (or a group of finite order). It is a non-abelian group because it can make a difference which order when making a turn and a reflection.

paragraphs: It can be proved that every group of finite order is a group of symmetries. For this reason, group theory is called the mathematical study of symmetry.

paragraphs: Many things in mathematics are groups. For example, equations. The ways of solving equations can be a group. Physical things can be studied as groups. There are important symmetries about physical things which are groups.

paragraphs: Sometimes, part of the group is also a group. In that case, the part is called a "subgroup". For example, there is this subgroup of the group of symmetries of a square: only the turns of the square and the identity (not the reflections in a mirror). Many useful things can be proved about groups and their subgroups.


title: Chelsea Clinton

paragraphs: Chelsea Victoria Clinton (born February 27, 1980) is the only child of Bill Clinton, former President of the United States, and his wife, former Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton.

paragraphs: Clinton was born at Baptist Health Medical Center in Little Rock, Arkansas. She moved in to The White House when she was twelve years old when her father, Bill Clinton, became president. She has helped her mother, Hillary Clinton, many times by campaigning for people to elect her mother as the first woman President of the United States.

paragraphs: Clinton has a Bachelor of Arts in History. She also has a Master of Philosophy qualification. She went to university at Oxford University and Stanford University.

paragraphs: On November 30, 2009, it was announced that Clinton was engaged to Marc Mezvinsky, an investment banker. They married on July 31, 2010. On November 14, 2011, Clinton announced joining as a "special correspondent" for NBC News. She will continue as a PhD student.

paragraphs: On September 2014, Clinton gave birth to a daughter Charlotte. She was gave birth to a eldest son Aiden on June 2016.

paragraphs: Her youngest son, Jasper, was born in New York on July 2019.


title: Crich

paragraphs: Crich ( "kryech") is a village in the English county of Derbyshire. It is the home of the National Tramway Museum in the Crich Tramway Village.

paragraphs: At the top of Crich Hill is a tower. The tower was built to remember members of the regiment who died in battle, particularly in World War I.

paragraphs: The tower was built in 1923 on the site of an older tower called Crich Stand. The Memorial Tower is the end of an annual pilgrimage on the first Sunday in July. It is above sea level. The tower has 52 steps to the top. From the top of the tower, eight counties and landmarks such as the Humber Bridge and Lincoln Cathedral can be seen.

paragraphs: Crich is mentioned in 1009 by Ethelred the Unready when he gives away Weston-on-Trent to his minister.

paragraphs: A workhouse opened in 1734 and had 40 people. The workhouse accepted poor people from places, including Melbourne, Pentrich, Willington, Mercaston and Denby.

paragraphs: The television series "Peak Practice" and the 2007 movie ""And When Did You Last See Your Father"" were filmed in Crich.


title: Edwardian period

paragraphs: The Edwardian era in the United Kingdom is the period which included the reign of King Edward VII (1901–1910). The "Edwardian era" usually includes some years before and after his reign, up to the First World War.

paragraphs: King Edward VII was very different from Queen Victoria. Victoria had become almost a recluse after her husband died. On the other hand, Edward was an important leader. Edward and his fashionable friends followed the art and fashions of other European countries. Edward enjoyed travelling, and his visits to Paris improved relations between the two countries.

paragraphs: The United Kingdom was a powerful nation in the nineteenth century. There was progress in British science and industry at this time. The British Empire was large. The Royal Navy was the most powerful navy in the world at that time.

paragraphs: The prosperity of the Edwardian era was built on trade and manufacturing. These were the main industries at the time:

paragraphs: The extent of this trade was big. Railways all over the world were built by the British. They were equipped with machinery made in Britain. Germany also became a powerful nation, and the United States was already becoming an industrial giant. By Edward VII's time. Both of these countries were as industrially advanced.

paragraphs: Most British people in the "Edwardian era" were sure that British progress would continue. They were certain that the United Kingdom would continue to be very powerful. The era came to an unexpected end with the First World War. Economically and in human terms, this was a disaster for most of the European nations.

paragraphs: There was a lot of inequality in society in the United Kingdom in the Edwardian era, as there always had been. Rich people and poor people had very different living standards at this time.

paragraphs: Most adult men could vote, but women could not. Suffragettes were fighting for the right to vote.


title: Objectivity (philosophy)

paragraphs: Objectivity is a philosophical opinion or method that believes that reality exists outside of the human mind. People can separate their own ideas and opinions from the observations they make. Objective observations are true no matter who makes the observation. Being objective helps people focus on things that everyone can agree on.

paragraphs: The Scientific method claims objectivity but see epistemology, the philosophy of science and the work of Karl Popper. The opposite of objectivity is subjectivity.


title: Rod Paige

paragraphs: Roderick Raynor "Rod" Paige (born June 17, 1933), served as the 7th United States Secretary of Education from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African American to serve as the nation's education chief. He earned a bachelor's degree from Jackson State University in Mississippi and a Master's degree and an Ed.D from Indiana University Bloomington. He also holds an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Houston presented to him in 2000.

paragraphs: Paige was sitting with George W. Bush at the Emma E. Booker Elementary School in Sarasota, Florida, when Bush received the news that a second plane had hit the World Trade Center in the September 11, 2001 attacks.

paragraphs: On November 15, 2004, Paige announced his resignation after overseeing the President's education agenda for four years. White House domestic policy adviser Margaret Spellings was nominated as his successor. The U.S. Senate confirmed her on January 20, 2005 after Bush's inauguration for a second term.


title: Joshua Bolten

paragraphs: Joshua Brewster Bolten (born August 16, 1954) was the White House Chief of Staff serving U.S. President George W. Bush. Bolten replaced Andrew Card on April 14, 2006.


title: Alan Stephenson Boyd

paragraphs: Alan Stephenson Boyd (July 20, 1922 – October 18, 2020) was an American politician and lawyer. He was the first United States Secretary of Transportation, appointed by Lyndon Johnson in November 1966.

paragraphs: He was appointed to the Civil Aeronautics Board in 1959 by Dwight Eisenhower and promoted to chairman by John F. Kennedy.

paragraphs: When the Richard M. Nixon administration took power, Boyd left the government and became the president of the Illinois Central Railroad, a position he held from 1969 to 1972.

paragraphs: Boyd died at a retirement home in Seattle, Washington on October 18, 2020 at the age of 98.


title: Mary Peters (politician)

paragraphs: Mary E. Peters (born December 4, 1948) was the United States Secretary of Transportation. She is the second woman and first Arizonan to hold the position. Peters joined the Arizona Department of Transportation in 1985, and was appointed by Gov. Jane Dee Hull to serve as its director in 1998. In 2006, President Bush appointed Peters as the Co-Vice Chairwoman of the National Surface Transportation Policy and Revenue Study Commission.


title: President-elect

paragraphs: A President-elect is a political candidate who has been elected president but who has not yet taken office.


title: Flag of Australia

paragraphs: The flag of Australia is a national flag. In 1901, Australia became a single country, instead of six separate colonies. A competition was held to design a new flag for the new country. The winning flag has a blue background, the Union Jack, and six stars. Five stars are in the shape of the constellation the Southern Cross, the other is the Commonwealth Star. The flag has been used from 1903, but did not become the official flag of Australia until 1953.

paragraphs: On 29 April 1901, some private companies with the support of the Australian Government set up a competition to design a new flag for Australia. The prize money was ₤200 including ₤75 from a magazine and ₤50 from a tobacco company. There were 32,823 designs entered into the competition. These were put on show in Melbourne at the Royal Exhibition Building. The judges, from the army, navy, merchant navy, and pilot service, to choose the best flag were:

paragraphs: The judges took eight days to choose a winning flag.

paragraphs: Five flags were almost the same, and they shared first prize. The Prime Minister of Australia, Edmund Barton, announced the winners on 3 September 1901. The winners were:

paragraphs: The winning flag was flown from the top of the Exhibition Building. The Prime Minister Edmund Barton wrote to the Governor-General to get approval from the King for the new flag. This was officially announced on February 20, 1903.

paragraphs: Some of the winning flags had different numbers of points on the stars of the Southern Cross. This was simplified to seven points for the four largest stars and five for the small one. The Commonwealth Star had six points for the six states. This was the design in 1903. In 1912, an extra point was added to the Commonwealth Star for the Territories of Australia.

paragraphs: In 1934, the government published how the Australian flag should be made. The flag of the United Kingdom, the Union Jack was still the official flag in Australia until 1954. By law, only the Australian government was allowed to fly the blue Australian flag. Everyone else that wanted to use an Australian flag used the red one, called the Red Ensign. In 15 March 1941, the Prime Minister of Australia, Robert Menzies, gave permission for the blue flag to be used on public buildings, schools and by the public. Australian ships would use the Red Ensign.

paragraphs: In 1954, the Australian Flag became the official Australian National Flag. The Australian flag is the most important flag flown in Australia, and must be given more importance than flags from other countries. When it is raised or lowered people should face the flag and not talk. It should only be used properly, for example, it can not be used to cover a table or a seat, and it can not be allowed to touch the ground.

paragraphs: The Royal Australian Navy has had its own flag from 1 March 1967. This looks like the national flag but has a white background with blue stars, called the Australian White Ensign. The Royal Australian Air Force got its own flag in 1949. This was changed in 1981 to feature a red kangaroo.

paragraphs: The Queen of Australia has her own flag for use when she visits Australia. The Governor-General of Australia also has a flag which is flown from his or her official house and from his or her car.


title: 2000 United States presidential election

paragraphs: The United States presidential election of 2000 was a contest between Democratic candidate Al Gore, then-Vice President, and Republican candidate George W. Bush, then-governor of Texas and son of former president George H. W. Bush.

paragraphs: Incumbent Democratic President Bill Clinton was not eligible to serve a third term, and Vice President Gore was able to secure the Democratic nomination. Bush was seen as the early favorite for the Republican nomination, and despite a contentious primary battle with Senator John McCain and other candidates, secured the nomination by Super Tuesday. Many third party candidates also ran, most prominently Ralph Nader. Bush chose former Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney as his running mate, and Gore chose Senator Joe Lieberman as his. Both candidates focused primarily on domestic issues, such as the budget, tax relief, and reforms for federal social insurance programs, though foreign policy was not ignored. Clinton and Gore did not often campaign together, a deliberate decision resulting from the Lewinsky scandal two years prior.

paragraphs: Bush narrowly won the November 7 election, with 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266. There was a disagreement over who won Florida's 25 electoral votes, the recount that happened there, and the uncommon event that the winner got fewer popular votes than the loser. The Court's contentious decision in Bush v. Gore announced on December 12, 2000, ended the recounts, effectively awarding Florida's votes to Bush and granting him the victory.


title: 2004 United States presidential election

paragraphs: The United States presidential election of 2004 is a political event which took place on November 2, 2004. During that day the President of the United States and Vice President of the United States were selected. President George W. Bush won against Democratic Party candidate John Kerry, the junior U.S. Senator from Massachusetts. Foreign policy was the biggest issue during the election campaign, mainly, the War on Terrorism and the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

paragraphs: Since the last presidential election, there were concerns about voting. The winner was not determined until the following day, when Kerry decided not to dispute Bush's win in the state of Ohio. The state held enough electoral votes to determine the winner of the presidency. Both Kerry and Democratic National Committee Chairman Howard Dean have stated their opinion that voting in Ohio did not proceed fairly and that, had it done so, the Democratic ticket might have won that state and therefore the election.

paragraphs: Only three states changed political parties. New Mexico and Iowa voted Democratic in 2000, but those states Republican in 2004. New Hampshire voted Republican in 2000 but the state voted Democratic in 2004. In the Electoral College, Bush received 286 votes, and Kerry received 252 votes.


title: Register renaming

paragraphs: In computer engineering, register renaming refers to a technique used to avoid unnecessary serialized execution of program instructions because of the reuse of the same registers by those instructions.

paragraphs: Programs are composed of instructions which operate on values. The instructions must name these values in order to distinguish them from one another. A typical instruction might say, add X and Y and put the result in Z. In this instruction, X, Y, and Z are the names of storage locations.

paragraphs: In order to have a compact instruction encoding, most processor instruction sets have a small set of special locations which can be directly named. For example, the x86 instruction set architecture has 8 integer registers, x86-64 has 16, many RISCs have 32, and IA-64 has 128. In smaller processors, the names of these locations correspond directly to elements of a register file.

paragraphs: Different instructions may take different amounts of time (e.g., CISC architecture). For instance, a processor may be able to execute hundreds of instructions while a single load from main memory instruction is in progress. Shorter instructions executed while the load is outstanding will finish first, thus the instructions are finishing out of the original program order. Out-of-order execution has been used in most recent high-performance CPUs to achieve some of their speed gains.

paragraphs: Consider this sequance of instructions running on an out-of-order CPU:

paragraphs: Instructions 4, 5, and 6 are independent of instructions 1, 2, and 3, but the processor cannot finish 4 until 3 is done, because 3 would then write the wrong value.

paragraphs: We can remove this restriction by changing the names of some of the registers:

paragraphs: Now instructions 4, 5, and 6 can be executed in parallel with instructions 1, 2, and 3, so that the program can be executed faster.

paragraphs: When possible, compilers do this renaming. But compilers are limited by the number of register inside the CPU. Many high performance CPUs have more physical registers than may be named directly in the instruction set and they can rename registers in hardware to achieve better instruction level parallelism.

paragraphs: Anything that is read and written can be renamed. While the general-purpose and floating-point registers are the most, flag and status registers or even individual status bits are commonly renamed as well.

paragraphs: Memory locations can also be renamed, although it is not commonly done to the level used in register renaming.

paragraphs: When more than one instruction references a particular location for an operand, either reading it (as an input) or writing it (as an output), executing those instructions in an order different from the original program order can cause to three kinds of problems, also known as hazards:


title: Chesterfield

paragraphs: Chesterfield is a market town and borough in the county of Derbyshire in the East Midlands of England. It is on the River Rother and the River Hipper. It is Derbyshire's largest town (Derby is a city).

paragraphs: It is a very old town and was founded between 70–100 AD. The town received its market charter from King John in 1204.

paragraphs: It is 24 miles (39 km) north of Derby and 11 miles (18 km) south of Sheffield.

paragraphs: The town is located on the A61 between Derby and Thirsk in North Yorkshire. It is 6 miles (9.7 km) from the M1.

paragraphs: A 2019 census estimated that the borough has around 104,900 residents.

paragraphs: Chesterfield's most famous landmark is Church of St Mary and All Saints. It is famous because of its "crooked spire". The town's football club, Chesterfield F.C., are nicknamed "The Spireites" due to this.

paragraphs: Chesterfield railway station is on the Midland Main Line. Passengers can get local trains to towns and villages around the East Midlands as well as long-distance trains, operated by East Midlands Railway, to London, Sheffield and Nottingham. CrossCountry trains also stop at Chesterfield, providing passengers with direct trains to Birmingham, the North East, Scotland and Cornwall.


title: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

paragraphs: The formation and evolution of the Solar System describes how the Solar System began, and how it will go on changing. The accepted idea is that 4.6 billion years ago, there was a very big cloud of gas nearby our area of space, known as a nebula.

paragraphs: All things with mass come together, or gravitate towards one another. This pulled all the gas towards the center. Eventually the pressure at the center raised the temperature so that hydrogen atoms fused together to make helium. This began the star we know as the Sun. The process by which solar systems are created is called "the nebular theory".

paragraphs: The spin of the planets around the Sun, and each around its own axis, was first caused by the original gas cloud having different density in different places. The spin increased because of the contraction under gravity (conservation of energy). So did the flatness of the solar system's shape. As the collapse continues, conservation of angular momentum means that the rotation accelerated. This largely prevents the gas from directly accreting (sticking) onto the central core. The gas is forced to spread outwards near its equatorial plane, forming a disk, which in turn accretes onto the core.

paragraphs: Gravity caused the atoms in the Sun to become very close to each other. All this energy eventually made our star: the Sun. The leftover gas mostly went to the gas giants—also known as Jovian planets.

paragraphs: Because of the Sun's huge mass (99.86% of the whole mass of the Solar System), it had very strong gravity. The centrifugal force of the planets going round the Sun balances the gravitational pull of the Sun. The huge density at its core causes a fusion reaction which turns hydrogen into helium with the radiation of heat, light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

paragraphs: Rock and dust makes the terrestrial planets, their moons, asteroids and all other objects in the Solar System. The gas giant planets also do have rocky or metallic centres. This is known from the data-gathering by satellites. This rocky material cannot come from the Sun, because the Sun is all hydrogen plus some helium.

paragraphs: The next issue is: if the Sun turns hydrogen into helium, where do all the other elements come from? There is only one possible answer: these higher elements came from earlier generations of stars. Huge supernovas which exploded billions of years ago in the neighbourhood of the young Solar System produced the higher elements. Huge stars run through their life cycle much faster than smaller stars. That is caused by the even higher pressures and temperatures inside them as compared with an average main sequence star like the Sun.

paragraphs: The nebular hypothesis, as it was called, was first worked out in the 18th century. Three men worked on it:

paragraphs: Swedenborg first had the idea, and Kant worked it up into a proper theory. In 1755 Kant published his "Universal natural history and theory of the heavens" (in German, of course). He argued that gaseous clouds, nebulae, slowly rotate, gradually collapse and flatten due to gravity. They eventually form stars and planets.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, a similar model was developed independently and proposed in 1796 by Laplace. in his "Exposition du systeme du monde". He thought that the Sun originally had an extended hot atmosphere throughout the volume of the Solar System. His theory had a contracting and cooling protosolar nebula. As this cooled and contracted, it flattened and spun more rapidly, throwing off (or shedding) a series of gaseous rings of material; and according to him, the planets condensed from this material. His model was similar to Kant's, except more detailed and on a smaller scale. Unfortunately, there was a problem with Laplace's version. The main problem was the angular momentum distribution between the Sun and planets. The planets have 99% of the angular momentum, and this fact could not be explained by the nebular model. It was quite a long time before this was understood.

paragraphs: The birth of the modern widely accepted theory of planetary formation – the solar nebular disk model (SNDM) – is due to the Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov. His book "Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the planets", translated to English in 1972, had a big effect. In this book almost all major problems of the planetary formation process were formulated and some of them solved. Safronov's ideas were further developed. There are still quite a few aspects of the Solar System which need to be explained.

paragraphs: Although it originally applied only to our own Solar System, the SNDM is now thought to be the usual way of star formation throughout the universe. As of August 2017, over 3000 extrasolar planets have been discovered in our galaxy.