title: William H. Crawford

paragraphs: William Harris Crawford (February 24, 1772–September 15, 1834) was an important American politician, as well as a judge, during the early 19th century. He served as United States Secretary of War from 1815 to 1816 and United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1816 to 1825, and was a candidate for President of the United States in 1824.

paragraphs: In 1875, Crawford appeared on the 50 cent bill.

paragraphs: The town of Crawfordsville, Indiana, as well as Crawford County, Illinois; Crawford County, Iowa; Crawford County, Missouri; Crawford County, Arkansas; Crawford County, Wisconsin; Crawfordville, Georgia; and Crawford County, Georgia, are named for Crawford.


title: James McHenry

paragraphs: James McHenry (November 16, 1753– May 3, 1816) was an early American statesman. McHenry was a signer of the United States Constitution. He was from Maryland. Fort McHenry was named for him. He was also a delegate to the Continental Congress from Maryland, and the third United States Secretary of War from January 27, 1796 to May 13,1800, under Presidents George Washington and John Adams.


title: Timothy Pickering

paragraphs: Timothy Pickering (July 17 1745 – January 29 1829) was a politician from Massachusetts who served in a variety of roles, most notably as the third United States Secretary of State, serving in that office from 1795 to 1800 under Presidents George Washington and John Adams.


title: John Jay

paragraphs: John Jay (December 12, 1745 – May 17, 1829) was an American politician, statesman, revolutionary, and diplomat. He was a Supreme Court Chief Justice and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Jay served in the Continental Congress and was elected President of that body. During and after the American Revolution, he was a minister (ambassador) to Spain and France, helping to fashion American foreign policy and to secure favorable peace terms from the British and French. He co-wrote the "Federalist Papers" with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.

paragraphs: Jay served on the U.S. Supreme Court as the first Chief Justice of the United States from 1789 to 1795. In 1794 he negotiated the Jay Treaty with the British. A leader of the new Federalist party, Jay was governor of New York from 1795 to 1801. He was the leading opponent of slavery and the slave trade in New York. His first attempt to pass emancipation legislation failed in 1777 and failed again in 1785, but he succeeded in 1799, signing the law that eventually emancipated the slaves of New York; the last were freed before his death.


title: Evan Longoria

paragraphs: Evan Michael "Longo" Longoria is a third baseman for the Tampa Bay Rays. He won the 2008 American League Rookie of the Year award. In 2009, he won the Silver Slugger and Gold Glove awards for American League third basemen.


title: Nucleolus

paragraphs: A nucleolus (plural: nucleoli) is the part of a eukaryotic cell where ribosomes are made. Seen under a microscope, the nucleolus is a dark spot inside the cell's nucleus. It is made up of dense RNA and proteins. Prokaryotic cells also have ribosomes, but they don't make as many as eukaryotes do, and there is no visible nucleotatius. There is usually more than one nucleolus in a eukaryote cell. The nucleolus is not bounded by a membrane.

paragraphs: The nucleolus is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR), which is a chromosome region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. Ribosomes are molecular machines that synthesizes proteins. The ribosomes are exported through the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm, where they do their work.

paragraphs: Nucleoli play a role in the cell's response to stress. They also help in the assembly of signal recognition particles. Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause of several human diseases.


title: Candice Bergen

paragraphs: Candice Bergen (born 9 May, 1946) is an American actress. In 1980, she was nominated for an Academy Award for "Best Actress in a Supporting Role" for her role in "Starting Over". Bergen later acted as the title character in "Murphy Brown". (1988-98, 2018-present).


title: Duke Nukem 3D

paragraphs: Duke Nukem 3D is a first-person shooter video game. It was made by 3D Realms and sold by Apogee Software. It was first sold on January 29, 1996. "Duke Nukem 3D" is based on the main character from the platform games "Duke Nukem" and "Duke Nukem II" which were also published by Apogee. The character is voiced by Jon St. John.

paragraphs: In the game, players control Duke Nukem, an action hero from Earth. Players must fight invading aliens that want to take over Earth. The game is made up of 28 levels spread over three chapters. An add-on pack called "The Plutonium Pak", later added a fourth episode of 11 new levels, new enemies, and one new weapon.

paragraphs: The game is a first person shooter, so the player sees the game from Duke's eyes. Instead of following the character around like a third-person shooter, Duke Nukem is like being "inside" Duke, and the player can see Duke's hands and weapons on the screen. The player fights the aliens, most often by shooting at them with different guns, but Duke can also kick, and throw pipe bombs like grenades. The player must also sometimes solve puzzles to find the way through the level.

paragraphs: "Duke Nukem 3D" is set "sometime in the early 21st century", starting in a badly worn down Los Angeles. The game moves on to places such as lunar space stations. An alien transgenic species has invaded Earth while Duke has been fighting in space. Duke crash lands back on Earth and finds most humans are gone. Only a few women remain as slaves for the aliens. America has been turned into a wasteland, and pornography has become the only entertainment.

paragraphs: The levels of "Duke Nukem 3D" take the player outdoors and indoors, on the street, inside military bases, deserts, flooded cities, space stations, moon bases and Japanese villas. Levels were designed with many routes so that players can climb through air ducts, back doors and sewers to avoid enemies or find hidden secrets. This makes the levels well suited to multiplayer deathmatchs. The secret items also include (light switches to make it easier to see, water fountains and broken hydrants provide some health points) or simply provide a touch of diversion and strippers who Duke tells jokes to and sometimes they open up their clothes.

paragraphs: The game includes a range of weapons, some of which, even today, are still unique to the "Duke Nukem" series. They range from Duke's foot for kicking, a pistol, a "Chain gun" (similar in design to the Nordenfelt gun), pipe bombs, freeze- and shrink-rays, and laser-trip-mines.

paragraphs: Aside from weapons, Nukem can also find 'medkits' to heal himself whenever the player chooses. Steroids make the player move faster, as well as removing the effects of the shrink-ray. Nightvision goggles allow players to see enemies in the dark. The "HoloDuke" device projects a fake hologram of Duke that can be used to trick enemies. Protective boots allow the player to cross dangerously hot or toxic floors. For underwater scenes, scuba gear (an aqua-lung) can be used to let Duke breathe. One of the favorite items is the jetpack which allows the player to fly up in the sky, often to reach hidden weapons or extra health. Many of the secret items such as the jetpack, the scuba gear and the night vision goggles only last for a short time. Weapons also have a limited number of ammunition.

paragraphs: There are many monsters in the game. Some of these are aliens, others mutated humans (the LAPD has been turned into monster pigs). Similar to many first-person shooter games, Nukem encounters a large number of weaker enemies, and a small number of boss enemies (extremely powerful). Like Duke, these "boss" enemies have a wide range of weapons and equipment (some weaker enemies have jet packs).

paragraphs: In 1996, at the time of the game's release, Internet-based gaming was just beginning and "Duke Nukem 3D" could be played on IPX LAN or modem. "Duke Nukem 3D" players often used the IPX network utility Kali or the Total Entertainment Network (TEN) online service. Kali allowed users to join a chat room to find opponents. The Total Entertainment Network had hundreds of Duke 3D players online at any time, but players had to pay money monthly for it. The game's levels are often used as the battlegrounds for these online players, bur users are able to create their own levels ("maps"). The game also features co-operative play (co-op) which allows players to fight against the aliens instead of each other. In the "Atomic" version, a new game play mode was introduced: Duke Tag, a "capture the flag" style mode.

paragraphs: Ken Silverman's Build engine allowed complicated levels. The game could use slopes in the floors. It also supports upwards and downwards mouse aiming (though aiming up and down distorts the graphics due to not having perspective correction).

paragraphs: Duke Nukem 3D "Build" engine had doors/walls that can move sideways. The "Build" scripting system allows a whole string of moving and sliding parts with sound effects, such as buildings falling down, earthquakes, and walls that break apart when hit with explosives. One of the more advanced effects is the horizontal sliding platform that can move the player inside a small sliding room, which made it possible to create subway cars moving in a timed sequence around a ring-shaped track.

paragraphs: The "Build" engine makes horizontally moving platforms possible by allowing several objects to pass through the same 2D space. While inside one of these spaces, it is not possible to see into the other space, and so the Byuild 2.5D engine has no problem rendering one space or the other even though the map data literally shows the two areas to be occupying the same place. Several "Duke Nukem 3D" maps use this feature to create bizarre mind-bending maps where multiple large rooms all seem to be occupying one 3D space. One secret level in particular ("Lunatic Fringe" from episode 2, Lunar Apocalypse) has a map where the player can travel 720 degrees around a circle and not cross their path. This would be much more difficult to duplicate with modern true-3D map editors and engines.

paragraphs: An early beta (testing) version of "Duke Nukem 3D" called LameDuke was released by 3D Realms as a "bonus" one year after the release of the official version. It has been released as is, with no support.

paragraphs: LameDuke features four episodes. Some weapons were removed and/or altered from the original versions.

paragraphs: "Duke Nukem 3D" is often thought of as one of the first videogames to have adult humor and sexual themes, especially in the first-person shooter genre. Jokes about American consumerism, Hollywood culture, and sex in the media are made all through the game. Duke's world is out of control and virtually all forms of entertainment in this future have been reduced to pornography by the aliens.

paragraphs: The game has been heavily attacked by some critics, who claim that it supports pornography and murder. Media Watch made the following comments about the game.

paragraphs: ""Duke Nukem 3D" moves the 'shooter' through pornography stores, where Duke can use XXX sex posters for target practice. Duke throws cash at a prostituted woman telling her to 'Shake it, Baby' his gun ever ready. In the game bonus points are awarded for the murder of these mostly prostituted and partially nude women. Duke blows up stained glass windows in an empty church or goes to strip clubs where Japanese women lower their kimonos exposing their breasts. Duke is encouraged to kill defenseless, often bound women."— Media Watch, Teaching Boys To Kill"

paragraphs: In reality, Duke Nukem 3D does not contain a "bonus points" system; even accidental shooting of innocents in the game is, sometimes, punished by a sudden group of enemies attacking.

paragraphs: "Duke Nukem 3D" was banned in Brazil, along with "Quake", "Doom" and several other violent first-person shooters. As a response to complaints, censored versions of the game were sold in some countries to avoid being banned. In Germany, the BPjM placed the game on the "List of Media Harmful to Young People".

paragraphs: Many spin-offs and modifications to the original "Duke Nukem 3D" were produced after the game's initial launch.

paragraphs: Plutonium PAK/Atomic Edition: The Atomic Edition of "Duke Nukem 3D" was first sold in November 1996, and contained the original 3 episode game as well as a new eleven-level fourth episode. The Plutonium PAK was also sold as an upgrade package to convert the first available version of "Duke Nukem 3D" (v1.3d) to the new Atomic Edition (v1.4, later upgraded again to v1.5). It includes three new enemies: the Protector Drone, the Pig Cop Tank, and a new boss known as The Alien Queen. It also includes a new weapon, the Microwave Expander, with its own special ammunition. It also has several improvements to the software of the game, which allow the game's players to create new enemies and items. Also this version includes a computer controlled second player to simulate multiplayer games.

paragraphs: EDuke ("Enhanced Duke Nukem 3D"): created by Matthew Saettler was given away as a patch for Atomic Edition users on July 28, 2000. On this version 3D Realms removed the copyrights from the software so that players could do anything they liked with it and included a demo mod made by several beta testers. The demo included new Sector-Based Effects, Sprite-Based Elevators, Ladders, a Bouncing Particle Fountain, a Personal Teleporter, and a Sophisticated Translucent Water Effect. Saettler has kept records of his original Eduke site hee for reference.

paragraphs: Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach: This is an add-on created by Sunstorm Interactive. Duke relaxes on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own "vacation" there. This unofficial add-on has a sunny Caribbean atmosphere, nice beaches and hotels as well as some of the original Duke Nukem 3D stuff fit in. It includes levels created by Charlie Wiederhold, who later worked for 3D Realms to work on "Duke Nukem Forever", the upcoming sequel to "Duke Nukem 3D".

paragraphs: Duke it out in D.C.: In this storyline, President Bill Clinton is captured by alien forces, and it is up to Duke to save him. This pack has levels that are based on real locations of Washington DC, such as the White House, the FBI headquarters, the Smithsonian museum, and the Washington Monument and others. This game was also developed by Sunstorm Interactive.

paragraphs: Duke: Nuclear Winter: This one was developed by Simply Silly Software. In the storyline, Santa Claus is mind-controlled by aliens into causing trouble on Earth. Several of the levels take place near the North Pole. This game has sometimes been criticized for using content from the original Duke Nukem 3D.

paragraphs: Duke Xtreme: An add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and contained 50 levels and many items. This version had many technical problems.

paragraphs: Duke!Zone (Parts 1 and 2): Was sold by WizardWorks and had over 500 levels made by fans of Duke Nukem 3D. "Duke!ZONE II", contained three episodes designed by WizardWorks.

paragraphs: "Duke Nukem 3D" has been included in several compilations. A bundle called "East Meets West" included the full versions of "Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition" and "Shadow Warrior". A bundle called "Duke Nukem: Kill-A-Ton Collection" featured "Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition", "Duke Xtreme", "Duke!ZONE II", "Duke Nukem I" ("Duke Nukum"), "Duke Nukem II", and various other utilities. Both of these compilations are no longer sold. Earlier packages of "Duke Nukem 3D" also included the complete versions of "Duke Nukem" I and II as a bonus.

paragraphs: In 1998, 3D Realms filed a lawsuit against Micro Star over its add-on pack

paragraphs: The source code to the "Duke Nukem 3D" v1.5 executable, which uses the Build engine, was released as free software under the GPL on April 1, 2003. The artwork remains copyright protected. Many programmers altered so that it can be played on modern computers. As of 2007, these projects gave the game a second life in multiplayer games through the Internet and a growing community is still actively playing.

paragraphs: The first modern "Duke Nukem 3D" project was from icculus.org. It is a cross-platform project that allows the game to be played on BeOS, FreeBSD, Linux, Mac OS X, Solaris, Windows and prossibly others. The icculus.org software would later be used in the Rancidmeat, and later, the xDuke projects.

paragraphs: One popular project is Jonathon Fowler's JFDuke3D, which the original creator of "'Duke Nukem 3D", Ken Silverman, gave support to, in December 2003. Fowler and Silverman produced a new version of JFDuke3D using Polymost, an OpenGL software product for Build, which uses much more advanced 3D models, and 32-bit color. Another project JFDuke3D called xDuke (not related to the xDuke project by icculus.org/duke3d) was created for play on the Xbox.

paragraphs: Silverman has helped Fowler with a lot of other software work related to the game.

paragraphs: Here is a list of some of the most popular "Duke Nukem 3D" versions played in 2008:

paragraphs: Projects such as the "Duke Nukem 3D High Resolution Pack" were started to give the game the same quality as modern games. There are plans to continue enhancing the "'Duke Nukem 3D" software but no new versions of JFDuke3D have appeared since 2005.

paragraphs: A few projects have been created from the EDuke version (most notably WinEDuke and EDuke 2.1.1), but it was not until the release of Richard Gobeille's EDuke32 (a version of JFDuke3D using Saettler's EDuke software) in 2004 that EDuke became a the most popular with programmers. EDuke32 has been capable of playing OGG music since September 2007. A pack of music was compiled is planned to be part of future versions of the High Resolution Pack. In June 2008, EDuke32 became the first "Duke Nukem 3D" project to be played as 64-bit software thanks to the DOSBox team.

paragraphs: In 1997, "Duke Nukem 3D" versions were sold for all the major consoles of the time.

paragraphs: The PlayStation version, "Duke Nukem: Total Meltdown", includes six extra areas and a secret level, which was also included in the PC version. It has some music from the PC version, some from the original, in Streaming XA-Audio made by Mark Knight, new enemies and a new boss.

paragraphs: The Sega Saturn version was created by Lobotomy Software and sold by Sega. It uses Lobotomy's "SlaveDriver" software. This version uses the Sega NetLink for online play, and is played with the Saturn's analog pad. It also includes a hidden multiplayer mini-game called "Death Tank Zwei". The Nintendo 64 version was named "Duke Nukem 64" and can be played by four players on a split-screen. There is no music in this version and many items have been renamed to avoid drug and sex references. Other changes include a fully 3D model for the final boss.

paragraphs: In 1998, a Sega Mega Drive version was sold by Tec Toy. The artwork is very simple and only one third of the original game was included. This version was sold in Brazil only.

paragraphs: A version of "Duke Nukem 3D" was also released for the Game.com, Tiger's handheld system.

paragraphs: A Duke Nukem 3D version has been sold for Xbox Live since September 24, 2008. This version includes the ability to "rewind" the game to any point if Duke gets killed, video recording and online multiplayer games. The music is slightly better quality using modern MIDI tools.


title: William Rehnquist

paragraphs: William Hubbs Rehnquist (October 1, 1924 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin – September 3, 2005 in Arlington, Virginia) was an American lawyer, jurist, and a political figure. He was an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States and later as the Chief Justice of the United States. Considered a conservative, Rehnquist favored a federalism under which the states meaningfully exercised governmental power. Under this view of federalism, the Supreme Court of the United States, for the first time since the 1930s, struck down an Act of Congress as exceeding federal power under the Commerce Clause.


title: Hyderabad State

paragraphs: Hyderābād and Berar (, ) under the Nizams, was the largest Princely state in the erstwhile Indian Empire. The Berar region of present-day Vidarbha in Maharashtra was merged with the Central Provinces in 1903, to form Central Provinces and Berar.

paragraphs: Hyderabad state was in south-central India from 1724 until 1948. It was ruled by the hereditary Nizam. During the Partition of British India in 1947, the Nizam of Hyderabad declared his intentions of not joining either newly formed India or Pakistan. Sensing trouble, India launched Operation Polo which resulted in the absorption of Hyderabad into the Indian Union, in 1948.

paragraphs: The forebears of the Asaf Jahi Dynasty came to India from Samarkand, in Central Asia, but the family actually originated from Baghdad. In 1724, the Mughal Governor of the Deccan, Asaf Jah, Nizam ul-Mulk, Qamar ud-din Khan, established himself as an independent ruler of Deccan. Aurangabad was its first capital city, later Hyderabad became the capital and later lent its name to the state he had created. The first Nizam's successors became closely allied to the British colonialists, assisting them in subduing their enemies, the Maratha dynasty, Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and the French. In later years, the Nizam's troops invariably took part in all the main campaigns of the British Indian Army. Large numbers of his troops took part in the First and Second World Wars. These contributions earned for the Nizam unequalled titles and honours from a grateful Emperor.

paragraphs: The state was the largest and premier of all princely states within the British Indian Empire. After the Pakistani and Indian Independences, the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad, Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII decided that the Princely state of Hyderabad will not join the New Dominion of India or Dominion of Pakistan. His decision found favour with Pakistan but not with India. The Nizam’s state was a prosperous one and had its own army, railway and airline network, postal system and radio network. On 15th August, 1947, India declared itself an independent nation. And so did Hyderabad.

paragraphs: At the time of the Independence movement of India, the State of Hyderabad was the largest of the princely states in India. The Nizams of Hyderabad ruled over lands extending to cover 82,698 mi² (214,190 km²) of fairly homogenous territory, bigger than Belarus but smaller than Guyana. The Nizam ruled over a cosmopolitan population of roughly 16.34 million people (as per the 1941 census). These advantages persuaded the Nizam to attempt an Independent existence, when the British withdrew from the sub-continent in 1947. He refused to join either a Hindu India or a Muslim Pakistan, preferring to form a separate Kingdom within the British Commonwealth of Nations. Hyderabad State had its own Army, Airline, Telecommunication system, railway network, postal system, currency and Radio broadcasting service.

paragraphs: In Hyderabad, where no official Referendum was held and where the ruler did not accede, the forced accession to India brought about by Military action, was presumed to have the tacit approval of the predominantly Hindu population. It was one of several annexations by India, with various rationales.

paragraphs: Historical dates of Hyderabad Deccan State:

paragraphs: These were the 4 Divisions and 17 Districts combined which most of the former Princely state is as follows:

paragraphs: After the states were captured they reorganised in 1956, Aurangabad became part of Maharashtra, and Gulbarga became part of Karnataka, the remainder became Andhra Pradesh.


title: Two-nation theory

paragraphs: The two-nation theory (Urdu: دو قومی نظریہ "do qaumī nazariya") is the basis of the creation of Pakistan. The two-nation theory in its simplest way means that cultural, political, religious, economic and social dissimilarities between the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims of the Subcontinent. These differences of outlook, in fact, were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of the sub-continent into two independent states. The two-nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology of Pakistan as a Muslim nation-state in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947.

paragraphs: The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims and Hindus was postulated by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan. As a consequence, it spawned creation of many Hindu nationalist organisations, with causes including working towards making India a similar state for the majority of Hindus residing there.

paragraphs: There are varying interpretations of the two-nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications. One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim-majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e. Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together). A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct and frequently antagonistic ways of life and that therefore they cannot coexist in one nation." In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e. the total removal of Hindus from Muslim-majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu-majority areas) is a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "cannot coexist in a harmonious relationship".

paragraphs: Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The first is the concept of a single Indian nation, of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities. Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in India. The second source of opposition is the concept that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Muslims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the relatively homogeneous provincial units of the subcontinent which are true nations and deserving of sovereignty across the subcontinent.


title: Samuel Osgood

paragraphs: Samuel Osgood (February 3, 1747 – August 12, 1813) was an American merchant and statesman from Andover, Massachusetts. He served in the Massachusetts and New York state legislatures, represented Massachusetts in the Continental Congress and was the first Postmaster General under the United States Constitution.


title: William Bradford (Attorney General)

paragraphs: William Bradford (September 14, 1755 – August 23, 1795) was an American lawyer and judge. He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Bradforn was the second United States Attorney General in 1794-1795.


title: Charles Lee (Attorney General)

paragraphs: Charles Lee (1758 – June 24, 1815) was an American lawyer from Virginia. He served as United States Attorney General from 1795 until 1801.

paragraphs: President George Washington appointed Lee the Attorney General after William Bradford died in office. After Senate approval he took office on December 10, 1795 and served through the rest of the administration. He was continued in office by John Adams and served through the entire Adams administration until February 19, 1801.


title: Benjamin Stoddert

paragraphs: Benjamin Stoddert (1751 – December 13, 1813) was the first United States Secretary of the Navy from May 1, 1798 to March 31, 1801.


title: Joseph Hewes

paragraphs: Joseph Hewes (January 23, 1730 – November 10, 1779), was a native of Princeton, New Jersey, where he was born in 1730. Hewes’s parents were part of the Quaker Society of Friends. Immediately after their marriage they moved to New Jersey, which became Joseph Hewes’s home state. Hewes was formally educated at Princeton University and after college he became an apprentice to a merchant. After finishing his apprenticeship he earned himself a good name and a strong reputation, which helped him become one of the most famous signers of the Declaration of Independence for North Carolina, along with William Hooper and John Penn. After a few years as a successful merchant, he became very rich. Hewes moved to Edenton, North Carolina at the age of 30 and won over the people of the state with his charm and honorable businesslike character. Hewes was elected to the North Carolina legislature in 1763, only three years after he moved to the state. Second to the delegates of Massachusetts, Hewes was a pioneer of independence who influenced his state to be more rebellious during the years leading up to the American Revolution. After being re-elected many times to the legislature, Hewes focused on a new and more ambitious job as a Continental Congressman.


title: Candela

paragraphs: A candela is the SI base unit of luminous intensity. It measures how bright something is. It is one of the basic units of science. A light bulb is bright, but the Sun is much brighter, so the Sun has more candelas than the light bulb.

paragraphs: The frequency chosen for measuring candelas is in the visible spectrum near green. This is a wavelength of about 555 nanometres. The human eye is most sensitive to this frequency, when adapted for bright conditions.


title: Hongwu Emperor

paragraphs: The Hongwu Emperor (October 21, 1328– June 24, 1398), known in China as , was the first emperor of the Ming part of China's history.

paragraphs: The Hongwu Emperor's real name was . It is written in Chinese writing. His given name was Chongba and his family were the Zhus, but Chinese people write their family names first. His name means "Double Eight", which is a lucky number in Chinese culture. People say his parents called him that because their ages at the time added together to make 88. He was also their eighth child.

paragraphs: In old China, there were many rules about names and who could use them. People used boys' real names but, when they became men at age 20, only older members of their families could call them that. Other people used a special courtesy name to be polite. When he became a man, Zhu Chongba chose the name Xīngzōng, meaning that he wanted to bring success in honor of his dead family members. This name is written in the traditional writing used on Taiwan and Hong Kong and in the easier writing now used by the PRC. When he started to become a successful leader, he started to use a third name: . This name is written in Chinese writing. He also sometimes used the courtesy name Guóruì, meaning "National Luckiness".

paragraphs: In old China, the Chinese emperors did not number their years from one place. Instead, they gave names to eras (groups of years) any time they wanted. Some emperors made 10 or more eras while they led China. Zhu Yuanzhang started his era when he took Khanbaliq (now Beijing) from the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür in 1368. He said this was the 1st year of the "Very Warlike Era", which sounds like "Hóngwǔ" and is written in Chinese. He only had this one era when he was emperor, so people also called him the "Emperor of the Hongwu Era" or "Hóngwǔdì" ().

paragraphs: When he was the emperor of China, Chinese people just called him the "Emperor". If they met him, they used very polite terms like "Bìxià" (, "Your Highness") to speak to him. After he died, the next emperors gave him a new, long, and very polite name and called him "Míng Tàizǔ" (), the "Greatest Dead Family Member" of the Ming. After the Xinhai and Communist changes in government of China, people are less polite when they talk about the old emperors. They usually just call him by his everyday name Zhu Yuanzhang like a common person. In English, it's more common to talk about him as the Hongwu Emperor.

paragraphs: Zhu Chongba was born on October 21, 1328, during the Yuan part of China's history. His father ZhuWusi () or ZhuShizhen () and his mother Chen Erniang were farmers near a small town called Zhongli near the Huai River in central China. Today, it's within Fengyang, Anhui. His family had so little money that they had no land themselves and needed to borrow other people's farmland. They could not feed all their children and had to give away some of them to other people.

paragraphs: When Zhu was 16 years old, there was no rain for a long time. Because only a little food could grow, everyone left in his family died except for Zhu and one of his brothers. Not knowing what else to do, he joined the Huangjue Buddhist temple as a monk. It did not have much money either and could not give him food for very long, so he soon left. He walked around, asking people for money or food, for about 3 years. Then he went back to Huangjue Temple and stayed there until he was 24. The other monks at the temple taught him to read and write.

paragraphs: People were very angry with the Yuan leaders of China at the time. They were Mongolian people, but most Chinese were Han. Many people started fighting the government. The Yuan army would stop them but hurt many people as they did. Then more people joined in fighting the government. Zhu was one of these. An army destroyed his temple and he started joining the people fighting against them in 1352. He quickly became a leader and joined his fighters with the Red Turbans. In 1356, he took Nanjing and made it the capital of his own small country. He made laws and kept his people mosty safe, so many more people left to join him. This made him even stronger.

paragraphs: In 1368, he took Khanbaliq (today's Beijing) and started the Ming Empire in place of the Yuan.

paragraphs: He died on June 24, 1398, and was followed as emperor by his grandson Zhu Yunwen, who became the Jianwen Emperor.


title: Soulja Boy

paragraphs: DeAndre Cortez Way, also known as Soulja Boy Tell 'Em or simply Soulja Boy, is an American Hip hop artist. He is widely known for the songs "Crank That (Soulja Boy)" and "Tell 'Em".

paragraphs: He has brought out two albums, called "souljaboytellem.com" and "iSouljaBoyTellEm". Most critics dislike his music, with Entertainment Weekly called souljaboytellem.com a "teenage wasteland" and Artistdirect stating that iSouljaBoyTellEm "falls flat."

paragraphs: Soulja Boy also had an argument with rapper Ice-T, after the argument rappers such as Kanye West and 50 Cent defended Soulja Boy and rappers such as Snoop Dogg and Method Man defended Ice-T.


title: Hadron

paragraphs: A hadron, in particle physics, is any subatomic (smaller than the atom) particle or antiparticle which is made of quarks.

paragraphs: Quarks are fundamental particles which among other properties have an electrical charge and a name (e.g. 'up', 'down', 'strange'). The electrical charge of a single quark is always a fraction (e.g. 2/3). Quarks combine to make a hadron of integer charge, for example, the charges of two 'down' quarks and one 'up' quark combine like this -1/3 -1/3 +2/3 = 0 to make a "neutrally" charged "neutron". Quarks do not appear alone, they exist in groups and are held together by the strong nuclear force. The word to describe the different types of quarks is "flavours." According to the current standard model there are 6 flavours of quarks. There are two known ways quarks can combine, to give the two categories of hadrons:

paragraphs: Hadrons are also characterized by being affected by the strong nuclear force, which holds them tightly together over a short distance. At the center of an atom is a nucleus (a cluster of protons and neutrons).

paragraphs: These are the most commonly discussed hadrons. There are many more: , .

paragraphs: These are predictions for different ways quarks may be put together. There is not any solid evidence for them existing yet.


title: Zlatko Zahovič

paragraphs: Zlatko Zahovič (born 1 February 1971) is a former Slovenian football player. He has played for Slovenia national team.


title: Francis Lee

paragraphs: Francis Lee is a former football player. He has played for England national team.


title: Shaun Goater

paragraphs: Shaun Goater is a football player. He plays for Bermuda Hogges.


title: Primera División Argentina

paragraphs: Primera División Argentina is a football league which is top division in Argentina.


title: Vladimír Šmicer

paragraphs: Vladimír Šmicer (born 24 May 1973) is a former Czech football player. He has played for Czechoslovakia national team and Czech Republic national team.


title: Dietmar Hamann

paragraphs: Dietmar Hamann (born 27 August 1973 in Waldsassen) is a German football player. He has played for Germany national team.


title: Arthur Rowley

paragraphs: George Arthur Rowley, (21 April 1926 – 19 December 2002) was an English football striker. He holds the record for the most career goals in The Football League, 434 from 619 games. He was the younger brother of Manchester United legend Jack Rowley. He was shortlisted for inclusion into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2008.


title: Laurie Cunningham

paragraphs: Laurie Cunningham is a former football player. He has played for England national team.


title: Glenn Hoddle

paragraphs: Glenn Hoddle (born 27 October 1957) is a former English football player. He has played for England national team.


title: Al-Saadi Qadhafi

paragraphs: Al-Saadi Qadhafi (born 25 May 1973), is a former football player. He played for the Libya national team. He is the third son of former leader Muammar Gaddafi. In 2011, he was the commander of Libya's Special Forces. He was involved in the Libyan civil war.


title: Robert Pirès

paragraphs: Robert Pirès (born 29 October 1973) is a French football player. He plays for Villarreal in Spain, but he has also played for many other teams like Arsenal and Olympique Marseille, and he has also won the World Cup and the European championship with France. He is known for his quick dribbling, thinking and passing skills, and he has also scored some great goals in his career. He usually plays on the left wing so that he can cross balls into the penalty box that strikers can score with.


title: Zoran Mirković

paragraphs: Zoran Mirković is a former football player. He has played for the Serbia and Montenegro national team.


title: Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink

paragraphs: Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (born 27 March 1972) is a former Dutch football player. He has played for the Netherlands national football team. He won the 1998–99 Premier League Golden Boot, along side Dwight Yorke and Michael Owen. This made him the joint first foreign Golden Boot winner.


title: Andrew Cole

paragraphs: Andrew Cole (born 15 October 1971) is a former English football player. He has played for England national team.


title: F.C. Porto

paragraphs: Futebol Clube do Porto (pron. ) – short: FC Porto or FCP – is a Portuguese sports club best known for its football team. It was created in Porto in 1893. It holds the best International record by a Portuguese team (7 international titles), having won the European Cup and the Intercontinental Cup twice each. In 2003, it brought Portugal's first UEFA Cup and in 1987 it brought Portugal's first UEFA Supercup. Domestically they hold the best record of five titles in a row, having won the Portuguese Liga 26 times, the Portuguese Cup 16 times and Portuguese Supercup 18 times.

paragraphs: It was founded in the northern city of Porto on September 28, 1893, by wine-salesman António Nicolau d'Almeida who had his first contact with the game of football on one of his trips to England. The club was revived in 1906 by José Monteiro da Costa.


title: F.C. Zenit Saint Petersburg

paragraphs: FC Zenit Saint Petersburg (Russian: ФК "Зенит" Санкт-Петербург) is a Russian football club from Saint Petersburg. Founded in 1925 (or in 1914 according to some Russian sources), the club plays in the Russian Premier League and currently is the richest in the country, due to the sponsorship of Gazprom.

paragraphs: Zenit are the 2007 champions of the Russian Premier League, the holders of the 2008 UEFA Cup and of the 2008 UEFA Super Cup after beating Manchester United 2-1 in Monaco. Zenit won Russian Cup in 2010. They defeated Sibir in the final with the score 1-0.


title: Steve Bruce

paragraphs: Steve Bruce (born 31 December 1960) is an English football manager and former player. He was born in Corbridge, Northumberland. He is currently the manager of Newcastle United F.C.. Bruce was best known for playing for Manchester United where he was captain.


title: Stockport County F.C.

paragraphs: Stockport County F.C. is an English football club. They currently play in the Blue Square North, in English football. The club plays their home games at Edgeley Park. At home they play in Blue.


title: Grand Theft Autumn / Where Is Your Boy

paragraphs: "Grand Theft Autumn / Where Is Your Boy" (or "Grand Theft Autumn", "Where Is Your Boy?") is the second single by rock band Fall Out Boy. It is from their album "Take This to Your Grave".


title: Cornthwaite Rason

paragraphs: Sir Cornthwaite Hector William James Rason (18 June 1858 – 15 March 1927) was the 7th Premier of Western Australia from 25 August 1905 until 7 May 1906.


title: Henry Daglish

paragraphs: Henry Daglish (18 November 1866 – 16 August 1920) was the 6th Premier of Western Australia from 10 August 1904 to 25 August 1905. He was the first Western Australia Premier from the Labor Party and the first from any organised political party.


title: Walter James

paragraphs: Sir Walter Hartwell James (29 March 1863 – 3 January 1943) was the 5th Premier of Western Australia from 1 July 1902 to 10 August 1904.


title: Alf Morgans

paragraphs: Alfred Edward Morgans (17 February 1850 – 10 August 1933) was the 4th Premier of Western Australia from 21 November to 23 December 1901.


title: George Leake

paragraphs: George Leake (3 December 1856 – 24 June 1902) was the 3rd Premier of Western Australia from 27 May 1901 to 21 November 1901 and then from 23 December 1901 to 24 June 1902.


title: George Throssell

paragraphs: George Lionel Throssell (23 May 1840 – 30 August 1910) was the 2nd Premier of Western Australia from 15 February 1901 to 27 May 1901.


title: John Forrest

paragraphs: Sir John Forrest (22 August 1847 – 2 September 1918) was the 1st Premier of Western Australia from 29 December 1890 – 14 February 1901. He helped to make sure that Western Australia joined the federation of Australian states. After federation, he went into federal politics. He served as Minister for Defence, Minister for Home Affairs, Treasurer and acting Prime Minister.


title: Into the Fire

paragraphs: Into the Fire is the fifth studio album by the Canadian rock artist Bryan Adams. Released on March 30, 1987 through A&M Records, the album was a huge commercial success selling over 2 million units worldwide, peaking at number 7 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart and reaching high positions in charts worldwide. It was recorded at Adams' home in London, England.

paragraphs: Six singles were released from the album: "Heat of the Night", "Hearts on Fire", "Victim of Love", "Only the Strong Survive", "Into the Fire" and "Another Day".

paragraphs: On May, 1987 Adams started the "Into the Fire" tour. His first performance was in Shreveport, Louisianna with his backing band. Adams first stop of the UK leg of the tour at the Prince’s Trust charity concert at Wembley Stadium, London. Adams later went back to the United States to continue the American leg of the tour He appeared on The David Letterman Show. Adams sold out two nights in a row at Madison Square Garden in New York City and was visited backstage by Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys. He got a sold-out show in Toronto, Ontario. The tour continued through the Western United States. Adams headed back to the UK on October 13 in Newcastle, England. Adams sold out four nights in a row at Wembley Arena in London. Adams started his tour in mainland Europe and Adams previous album "Reckless" achieved gold status in Sweden and "Into The Fire" achieves gold status in Switzerland and later he traveled to Dublin, Ireland. Adams started the Asian leg of the tour and ended up selling out ten concerts, five of which were in Tokyo's Budokan. "Into the Fire" was certified platinum with sales over 100,000 copies sold in Japan. Adams headed back to Europe and played in East Berlin and later West Berlin. The last concert part of the "Into the Fire" tour was in Locarno, Switzerland.


title: UK Albums Chart

paragraphs: The UK Albums Chart is a list of albums ranked by sales in the United Kingdom. It is formulated by Official Charts Company and a Top 200 published in ChartsPlus (only the Top 100 is counted in data sources).


title: Attack model

paragraphs: Attack models or attack types specify how much information a cryptanalyst has access to when "breaking" or "cracking" an encrypted message, commonly known as codebreaking or cracking the code. Some common attack models are:

paragraphs: The ciphertext-only attack model is the weakest because it implies that the cryptanalyst has just the encoded message.

paragraphs: Different attack models are used for other cryptographic systems, or more generally for all kind of security systems. Examples for such attack models are:


title: Cuts Like a Knife

paragraphs: Cuts Like a Knife is the third album by the Canadian rock artist Bryan Adams. Released on January, 1983 through A&M Records, the album became a big hit in Canada when it was released. Outside Canada and the United States the album did not sell as well. After the release of Reckless the album would chart on the British album chart and would later be a Silver Record by the BPI. It was made at Little Mountain Sound, in Vancouver, Canada.

paragraphs: Three singles were released from the album: "Straight from the Heart", "Cuts Like a Knife" and "This Time", the three made Adams very popular.


title: You Want It You Got It

paragraphs: You Want It You Got It is the second album by Bryan Adams, and was released in 1981 (see 1981 in music). The album was to be called "Bryan Adams Hasn't Heard Of You Either" but the record company wanted him to change the title to something safer.

paragraphs: The first single, "Lonely Nights", was a big hit in the US. Two other singles "Coming Home" and "Fits Ya Good" were top 40 hits in Canada.

paragraphs: Many songs from this album were covered by other artists, they are "Lonely Nights" by Uriah Heep, "Jealousy" by Prism, "Tonight" by Randy Meisner and "Fits Ya Good" by Tove Naess and others.

paragraphs: After Dave Taylor listened to this album, he decided to become Bryan Adams' bass player.


title: Bryan Adams (album)

paragraphs: Bryan Adams is the first album by Canadian rock singer Bryan Adams. It was released in February 1980 by A&M Records. "Hidin' From Love" went to #64 on Canada's RPM 100 Singles chart and "Give Me Your Love" went to #91 on the same chart.

paragraphs: In early 1978, Bryan Adams and Jim Vallance made a song-writing duo together. They made the album in 1979 and released it in February 1980.

paragraphs: The first single was "Hidin' from Love" in 1980 (#43 on the Billboard dance charts) the next one was "Give Me Your Love" and then "Remember".


title: Known-plaintext attack

paragraphs: The known-plaintext attack (KPA) is an attack model for cryptanalysis where the attacker has samples of both the plaintext and its encrypted version (known as ciphertext version) then they can use them to expose further secret information after calculating the secret key.

paragraphs: Encrypted file archives such as ZIP are very prone to this attack. For example, an attacker with an encrypted ZIP file needs only one unencrypted file from the archive which forms the "known-plaintext". Then using some publicly available software they can instantly calculate the key required to decrypt the entire archive.

paragraphs: Classical ciphers are typically susceptible to known-plaintext attack. For example, a Caesar cipher can be solved using a single letter of corresponding plaintext and ciphertext to decrypt entirely.


title: 18 til I Die

paragraphs: 18 til I Die is a rock album by the Canadian singer and songwriter Bryan Adams. It was released in 1996 (see 1996 in music). It is the second album Adams co-produced with Robert Mutt Lange and features a more raw rock style, including some Blues style music.


title: On a Day Like Today

paragraphs: On a Day Like Today is an album by Canadian singer-songwriter Bryan Adams, released in 1998 (see 1998 in music).


title: Room Service

paragraphs: Room Service is a rock album by Canadian singer/songwriter Bryan Adams released internationally in 2004 and in the U.S. the following year. "Open Road" was the first single taken from the album, followed by "Flying", "Room Service" and, as an American release, "This Side of Paradise". In the summer of 2005, "Open Road" was used the theme song in ESPN's SportsCenter series 50 States in 50 Days.

paragraphs: "East Side Story" was originally going to be released on Chicane's canceled Album "Easy To Assemble" with Bryan Adams on vocals, although with a completely different composition.


title: 11 (album)

paragraphs: 11 is the eleventh studio album by the Canadian rock artist Bryan Adams. It was released on March 7, 2008 through Universal Music Group. The album was a number 1 hit in Canada, Switzerland and India and on number 6 in the UK. It was recorded at The Warehouse Studio, Vancouver, Canada, and additionally at hotel rooms and backstage concerts around Europe.

paragraphs: Three singles have been released from the album: "I Thought I'd Seen Everything", "Tonight We Have the Stars" and "She's Got a Way". The album was also released in the US exclusively through Wal-Mart and Sam's Club retail stores on May 13, 2008. To promote the album, Adams toured around Europe on the "11 Days, 11 Cities" acoustic tour, playing new songs and old classics.

paragraphs: In support of the release of "11", Adams started the ‘11 concerts, 11 cities’ tour, having concerts in 11 different countries in just 11 days. The intimate shows at some spectacular venues will see Adams perform an acoustic set, on stage, with just his guitar and harmonica. The London show was on March 11, 2008 at St. James Church in Piccadilly. The last stop of his 11 days concert tour was in Copenhagen, Denmark on 17 March. After the ‘11 concerts, 11 cities’ Adams went and acoustic tour where he toured with Foreigner and Rod Stewart to support his new album. Zimbio asked Adams: "With the acoustic tour, which of your songs do you feel sound best acoustically?"


title: Chosen-plaintext attack

paragraphs: A chosen-plaintext attack (CPA) is a model for cryptanalysis which assumes that the attacker can choose random plaintexts to be encrypted and obtain the corresponding ciphertexts. The goal of the attack is to gain some further information which reduces the security of the encryption scheme. In the worst case, a chosen-plaintext attack could expose secret information after calculating the secret key.

paragraphs: Modern cryptography is implemented in software or hardware and is used for a diverse range of applications; for many applications, a chosen-plaintext attack is often very feasible. Chosen-plaintext attacks become extremely important in the context of public key cryptography, where the encryption key is public and attackers can encrypt any plaintext they choose.

paragraphs: Any cipher that can prevent chosen-plaintext attacks is then also guaranteed to be secure against known-plaintext and ciphertext-only attacks; this is a conservative approach to security.

paragraphs: Two forms of chosen-plaintext attack can be distinguished:


title: Ciphertext-only attack

paragraphs: In cryptography, a ciphertext-only attack (COA) or known ciphertext attack is an attack model for cryptanalysis where the attacker is assumed to have access only to a set of ciphertexts.

paragraphs: The attack is completely successful if the corresponding plaintexts can be deduced (extracted) or, even better, the key. The ability to obtain any amount of information from the underlying ciphertext is considered a success.

paragraphs: Every modern cipher attempts to provide protection against ciphertext-only attacks. The process of selecting a new cipher design standard usually takes many years and includes exhaustive testing of large quantities of ciphertext for any statistical different approach from random noise. On the other hand, poor cipher depends on home-grown proprietary algorithms that have not been subjected to extensive testing and inspection; for this reason, many computer-age encryption systems are still subject to ciphertext-only attack but still in use. Examples include:


title: Chosen-ciphertext attack

paragraphs: A chosen-ciphertext attack (CCA) is an attack model for cryptanalysis in which the cryptanalyst gathers information, at least in part, by choosing a ciphertext and obtaining its decryption under an unknown key.

paragraphs: When a cryptosystem is susceptible to chosen-ciphertext attack, implementers must be careful to avoid situations in which an attackers might be able to decrypt chosen ciphertexts (i.e., avoid providing a decryption scheme). This can be more difficult than it appears, as even partially chosen ciphertexts can permit subtle attacks. Additionally, some cryptosystems (such as RSA) use the same mechanism to sign messages and to decrypt them. This permits attacks when hashing is not used on the message to be signed. A better approach is to use a cryptosystem which is provably secure under chosen-ciphertext attack, including (among others) RSA-OAEP, Cramer-Shoup and many forms of authenticated symmetric encryption.

paragraphs: Chosen-ciphertext attacks, like other attacks, may be adaptive or non-adaptive. In a non-adaptive attack, the attacker chooses the ciphertext or ciphertexts to decrypt in advance, and does not use the resulting plaintexts to inform their choice for more ciphertexts. In an adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack, the attacker makes their ciphertext choices adaptively, that is, depending on the result of prior decryptions.

paragraphs: A specially noted variant of the chosen-ciphertext attack is the "lunchtime" or "midnight" attack, in which an attacker may make adaptive chosen-ciphertext queries but only up until a certain point, after which the attacker must demonstrate some improved ability to attack the system. The term "lunchtime attack" refers to the idea that a user's computer, with the ability to decrypt, is available to an attacker while the user is out to lunch. This form of the attack was the first one commonly discussed: obviously, if the attacker has the ability to make adaptive chosen ciphertext queries, no encrypted message would be safe, at least until that ability is taken away. This attack is sometimes called the "non-adaptive chosen ciphertext attack"; here, "non-adaptive" refers to the fact that the attacker cannot adapt their queries in response to the challenge, which is given after the ability to make chosen ciphertext queries has expired.

paragraphs: Many chosen-ciphertext attacks of practical importance are lunchtime attacks, including, for instance, when Daniel Bleichenbacher of Bell Laboratories demonstrated a practical attack against systems using the PKCS#1; invented and published by RSA Security.

paragraphs: A (full) adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack is an attack in which ciphertexts may be chosen adaptively before and after a challenge ciphertext is given to the attacker, with ONE condition that the challenge ciphertext may not itself be queried. This is a stronger attack notion than the lunchtime attack, and is commonly referred to as a CCA2 attack, as compared to a CCA1 (lunchtime) attack. Few practical attacks are of this form. Rather, this model is important for its use in proofs of security against chosen-ciphertext attacks. A proof that attacks in this model are impossible implies that any practical chosen-ciphertext attack cannot be performed.

paragraphs: Cryptosystems proven secure against adaptive chosen-ciphertext attacks include the Cramer-Shoup system and RSA-OAEP.


title: Kambly

paragraphs: Kambly is a Swiss biscuit factory. It was founded in 1910 by Oscar Kambly.

paragraphs: He got to know a girl that lived in Trubschachen. It was a real lovestory. When he went at her home he had the idea to make a biscuit after his grandmother's recipe, this was in 1906. In 1910 he could absorb the store of his instructor.

paragraphs: Today, Kambly is Switzerland's largest biscuit producer and leading exporter.

paragraphs: Kambly is represented in more than 30 different countries.

paragraphs: It is the most famous and most liked biscuit brand of Switzerland's.

paragraphs: There are two factories, one in Trubschachen and one in Lyss, both in the canton of Berne.

paragraphs: Today it's Oscar Kambly the third who administrates the factory, he has done this since 1983.

paragraphs: Oscar Kambly who founded the factory leaded it from 1910-1953.

paragraphs: The first factory was only in Trubschachen, but because Kambly bought

paragraphs: the Arni AG in Lyss in 1999, they now have got another station.

paragraphs: There are 420 employees. 2007, there was a conversion of 164 million Swiss francs. Kambly got the award "Brand Excellence Swiss Trophy" in 2003. In 2003, 2005,2007 & 2008 the international price "Saveur de l'Année".

paragraphs: There are 2 factory stores. One in Lyss and another one in Trubschachen.

paragraphs: There you can buy the biscuits much cheaper.

paragraphs: The oldest product is the "Bretzeli", that has been produced since 1906 and that was invented by Oscar Kambly the first.

paragraphs: Some other known products are: "Biscuits Butterfly", "Caprice", "Mignon" and the "Petit Beurre".


title: Differential cryptanalysis

paragraphs: Differential cryptanalysis is a general form of cryptanalysis applicable to block ciphers, but also can be applied to stream ciphers and cryptographic hash functions. It is the study of how differences in the input can affect the resultant differences at the output. In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques and methods for tracing differences through the network of transformations, discovering where the cipher demonstrates non-random behaviour, and extend such properties to recover the secret key.

paragraphs: Differential cryptanalysis attacks are usually chosen plaintext attacks, meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain encrypted ciphertexts for some set of plaintexts of his choosing.


title: Linear cryptanalysis

paragraphs: In cryptography, linear cryptanalysis is a general form of cryptanalysis based on finding affine approximations to the action of a cipher. Attacks have been developed for block ciphers and stream ciphers. Linear cryptanalysis is one of the two most widely used attacks on block ciphers; the other being differential cryptanalysis.

paragraphs: A variety of refinements to the attack have been suggested, including using multiple linear approximations or including non-linear expressions.

paragraphs: Evidence of security against linear cryptanalysis is usually expected of new cipher designs.


title: Julianne Moore

paragraphs: Julianne Moore (born Julie Anne Smith; December 3, 1960) is a an American actress with Scottish origins. She was born in Fayetteville, North Carolina. She has been nominated for four Oscars, six Golden Globes, three BAFTAs and nine Screen Actors Guild Awards.

paragraphs: After studying theatre at Boston University Moore began her acting career in 1983 with minor roles. She then joined the soap opera "As the World Turns". She had several supporting roles in movies. Her performance in "Boogie Nights" (1997) brought her fame.

paragraphs: Her success continued with movies such as "The Big Lebowski" (1998), "The End of the Affair" (1999) and "Magnolia" (1999). She received particular praise for acting as a betrayed wife in "Far from Heaven" (2002). This won several awards. The same year, she was also nominated for several awards for her work in "The Hours". The critics have liked her for her recent performances in "The Kids Are All Right" and portraying Sarah Palin in "Game Change".

paragraphs: She won an Oscar for Best Actress for her performance in Still Alice (2014).

paragraphs: Moore was born to an American father and a Scottish mother.

paragraphs: Moore was married to John Gould Rubin from 1986 until they divorced in 1995.

paragraphs: Since August 23, 2003 she has been married to Bart Freundlich. They have a son, Caleb Moore Freundlich (born on December 4, 1997) and a daughter, Liv Helen Moore Freundlich (born on April 11, 2002).

paragraphs: Her mother had emigrated from Scotland. Her father was a military in the US Army.


title: Tropical Storm Cristobal (2008)

paragraphs: Tropical Storm Cristobal was the third tropical storm of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season. It began on July 19 as a weather system away from the Southeast U.S. Coast. It became a tropical storm later that day. Cristobal stayed away from land, and reached its highest strength as a strong tropical storm on July 21. It moved to the northeast next to the U.S. East Coast and died out on July 23 near Nova Scotia. Because it was a weak storm and never moved onto land, Cristobal's damages were mostly moderate rainfall. The storm dropped 3.43 in (87 mm) of rain in Wilmington, North Carolina, where minor flooding happened. Also, the remnants helped produce rainfall on Nova Scotia, which caused some flooding on roads and in basements.

paragraphs: On July 14, 2008 a weakening weather system stretched across northern Florida, causing thunderstorms. A weak low pressure area formed on July 15 near Tallahassee, which moved towards the southeast into the Gulf of Mexico. Late on July 16, it moved onto land near Tampa, and strengthening was not expected. However, late on July 17, thunderstorms became stronger around the low pressure area, and the system started to get better organized. Late on July 18, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) said that a tropical depression was forming. At 11 p.m. EST on July 18 (0300 UTC July 19), it was classified as Tropical Depression Three, about 65 miles (105 km) to the southeast of Charleston, South Carolina.

paragraphs: It was located between an area of high pressure to its southeast and another one to the northwest, the depression moved slowly towards the northeast. It became a weak tropical storm during the early afternoon of July 19. In the beginning, the storm was not strong, with few strong thunderstorms. Dry air in the middle- to-upper-levels of the atmosphere caused the storm to not strengthen. However, late on July 20 thunderstorms became more active. Cristobal stayed as a weak tropical storm during the time that it moved close to the South Carolina and North Carolina coast, and the storm never moved onto land. It reached its highest intensity as a strong tropical storm on July 21 while it passed east of Cape Hatteras, and stayed the same over the warm Gulf Stream. The storm started to enter cooler waters, and the cyclone quickly moved towards the east-northeastward on July 21 and July 22. In the afternoon of July 22, Cristobal began to weaken while to the south of Nova Scotia. The storm's cloud pattern became weak, and on July 23, it became an extratropical cyclone, and was no longer a tropical storm. The National Hurricane Center issued its last advisory on the system at 5:00 am EDT (0900 UTC) on July 23.

paragraphs: Before the storm, the National Hurricane Center started a tropical storm warning from Cape Lookout, North Carolina to the Virginia–North Carolina border. Before Cristobal formed, it produced light rain in Florida. At Lake Wales, about 6 inches (150 mm) of rainfell, mostly in a two hour period. The rain clogged storm drains, which caused light flooding. The rain caused no serious problems, and helped get rid of dry conditions. The storm dropped in Wilmington, North Carolina. Minor flooding happened there. Because most of the storm stayed out to sea, winds along the coast were light. On the coast, storm surge reached above normal. Winds that were of tropical storm-strength were reported offshore. No severe damage was reported.

paragraphs: Cristobal helped produce heavy rain and flooding in Atlantic Canada. At Baccaro Point on the southern tip of Nova Scotia, 224 mm (8.8 in) of rain fell. There was flooding to basements and streets in Cape Sable. A sailor from Connecticut was rescued to the southeast of Halifax by a Canadian helicopter, because his ship capsized in the strong waves.


title: Rijndael key schedule

paragraphs: AES (Rijndael) uses a key schedule to expand a short key into a number of separate round keys. This is known as the Rijndael key schedule.


title: Gorillaz

paragraphs: Gorillaz are an animated British rock band. The band was invented by Damon Albarn, a member of the band Blur, and Jamie Hewlett, who has worked on the comic book series "Tank Girl". Even though the band members are fictional, they have released a large amount of albums and music videos. The band's animated members are 2D, Noodle, Russell Hobbs, and Murdoc Niccals.

paragraphs: The band's genre is mostly a combination of alternative rock, alternative hip hop, and electronica. It also has elements of experimental, trip hop, dub, and psychedelic rock.

paragraphs: Since they are an animated group, they cannot perform live, like other bands can. At Gorillaz concerts, the real members of the band stand behind screens which show computer-generated images of the animated group performing.

paragraphs: Despite the animated performances, the actual band members did go on tour as the Gorillaz (which the animated band referred to as "that Gorillaz tribute band"), playing at various venues across the states, headlining at Coachella. The live Gorillaz band played at the 2010 Glastonbury Festival, performing in place of u2 due to Bono's emergency back surgery. Nevertheless, they were a hit with the crowd.


title: Pantanal

paragraphs: The Pantanal is the world's largest wetland or swamp.

paragraphs: It covers a region of 140,000 km, larger than the area covered by the country Greece.

paragraphs: The Pantanal is in South America and shared by Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay.

paragraphs: There are many threats to the Pantanal such as pollution, mercury from gold mining and ranching. Although the Pantanal can wash some of the chemicals away, the increased amount is becoming a concern.

paragraphs: In winter nearly 80% of the area is flooded.


title: Balliol College, Oxford

paragraphs: Balliol College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford in England. It was founded in 1263 by John Balliol, father of King John Balliol of Scotland.

paragraphs: Usually, the undergraduate students are among the most politically active students in the university. The college's alumni include Boris Johnson, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and several former prime ministers. Adam Smith, a graduate student of the college, is one of its best known students. In 2006, 45.1% of finalists got First Class Honours degrees. This is a higher percentage than any other Oxford college has ever had. The college was placed second in the Norrington Table.


title: Erich Mende

paragraphs: Erich Mende (28 October 1916 - 6 May 1998 in Bonn) was a German jurist and politician for the Christian-Democratic Union of Germany and the Free Democratic Party of Germany.

paragraphs: Mende was born in Groß Strehlitz, near Oppolne.

paragraphs: 1936 he made his abitur. Afterwards he had to do his working service for the state and then his military service.

paragraphs: Up from 1938 he was an officer. At the end of World War II he was major.

paragraphs: After he was set free as prisoner of war, his hometown was made Polish. He found a new home in the Ruhr area. Then he studied laws in Cologne and Bonn.

paragraphs: In 1949 he finished his doctorade thesis.

paragraphs: He was Secretary for Intra-German Relations (Bundesminister für gesamtdeutsche Fragen) from 1963 to 1966.

paragraphs: In the same time he was Vice Chancellor of West Germany.


title: Petra Kelly

paragraphs: Petra Karin Kelly (November 23, 1947 – October 1, 1992) was a German politician, peace activist and one of the founders of the Green Party of Germany.

paragraphs: Kelly was born in Günzburg. Her stepfather was a US officer. Her original father and her mother were German.

paragraphs: From 1966 to 1970 he studied political sciences in Washington, D.C..

paragraphs: Kelly campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy in the 1968 U.S. elections.

paragraphs: She admired Martin Luther King and was an anti-Vietnam War protester.

paragraphs: She graduated in 1970 in Washington and got another exam in 1971 in Amsterdam.

paragraphs: She worked for the European Commission in Brussels from 1971 to 1983.

paragraphs: She was one of the founders of the Green Party in Germany in 1979 – the first Green Party worldwide.

paragraphs: From 1983 to 1990 she was a member of the Bundestag for the Greens.

paragraphs: Kelly received the Right Livelihood Award in 1982.

paragraphs: Petra Kelly, who was seriously ill, died in Bonn in 1992, aged 44. She had been shot by her partner, politician and former general Bert Bastian, who committed suicide afterwards.


paragraphs: Along the River During Qingming Festival is a well known panoramic Chinese painting by artist Zhang Zeduan (1085-1145). It was painted during the Song Dynasty. The painting is among the most famous of all Chinese paintings. It is kept at the Forbidden City, also known as the "Palace Museum" in Beijing.


title: Kaiserswerth

paragraphs: Kaiserswerth is a settlement with a more than 1,000-year history.

paragraphs: It is one of the oldest parts of Düsseldorf.

paragraphs: It is in the north of Düsseldorf, next to the river Rhine.

paragraphs: Kaiserswerth has 7,712 inhabitants and an area of 4.71 km².

paragraphs: About the year 700 the monk St. Suitbert founded a Benedictine-abbey there.

paragraphs: The Kaiserpfalz (temporary seat of the Holy Roman Emperor) was built in 1045.

paragraphs: In 1062 the young German King Heinrich IV (still a child) was kidnapped by the archbishop of Cologne.

paragraphs: In 1174 Friederick I Barbarossa moved the Rhine customs collection to Kaiserswerth. So the bishop took over control over the whole empire.

paragraphs: Following emperors used Kaiserswerth as temporary seat like as prison for high-range prisoners.

paragraphs: Between 1212 and 1215 the Count of Berg tried to get out prisoners and made the ground around the Castle dry.

paragraphs: In 1273 the Emperor pledged Kaiserswerth to the archbishop of Cologne.

paragraphs: In 1689 Kaiserswerth was particularly destroyed by France during the War of the Palatine Succession. During the Spanish war of succession the Bishop of Cologne stayed with France.

paragraphs: Kaiserswerth got a French garrison. In 1702 the city was therefore besieged by the Grand Alliance. After that war the castle was mostly destroyed.

paragraphs: In the 19th century Kaiserswerth was famous by its deaconess clinic. Florence Nightingale visited in 1850 and learned from Pastor Theodor Fliedner and the deaconesses working there for the sick and the deprived. Nightingale published "The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc." in 1851 - her first publication.

paragraphs: Kaiserswerth became a part of Düsseldorf in 1929.


title: Vichy

paragraphs: Vichy () is a "commune" in central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, along the Allier river. It is the "commune" in the department with second largest population after Montluçon. It is in the historic province of "Bourbonnais".

paragraphs: Vichy has lots of Spas and resorts. This site was inhabited before the Roman conquest of Gaul.

paragraphs: In 1861, Napoleon III visited Vichy several times.

paragraphs: During World War II, it was the capital city of Vichy France.

paragraphs: The "commune" of Vichy is on the southern part of the Allier department. The city is on the right side of the Allier river.

paragraphs: The "commune" has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

paragraphs: The distances from Vichy to other cities are:

paragraphs: Vichy is surrounded by the "communes" Creuzier-le-Vieux, Cusset, Le Vernet, Abrest, Bellerive-sur-Allier and Charmeil.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Vichy is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype "Cfb".

paragraphs: The inhabitants of Vichy are known, in French, as "Vichyssois" (women: "Vichyssoises").

paragraphs: With a population of 25,279, Vichy is the second largest city of the Allier department. It has a population density of inhabitants/km.

paragraphs: Vichy is a subprefecture of the Allier department since 1941; before that year, the subprefecture was in Lapalisse. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Vichy and the administrative centre () of two cantons:

paragraphs: It is part of the intercommunality "Vichy Communauté".


title: Indochina

paragraphs: Indochina, or the Indochinese Peninsula, is a region in Southeast Asia.

paragraphs: It lies roughly east of India, south of China.

paragraphs: Indochina comprises the territory of the following countries:

paragraphs: These countries have been known as Indochina since the time of French Colonialism.

paragraphs: Often also included in the scope of the term are:


title: Wadi Halfa

paragraphs: Wadi Halfa is a small city in the northern part of Sudan by Lake Nubia (the Sudanese section of Lake Nasser).

paragraphs: It has 6 neighborhoods with inhabitants of 18,000 people. There is a highway under construction which will connect it with Aswan in Egypt and via Dongola with Khartoum.

paragraphs: Wadi Halfa is now one of fastest growing cities in Sudan.

paragraphs: in 1964 when the Aswan Dam was built, the old city of Wadi Halfa was flooded and Nubians were forced to relocate in New Halfa. Now there is a huge number of Nubians are immigrating back to their mother land.

paragraphs: Wadi Halfa is a home of Geology and earth science college with student body of more than 500 students.


title: Mechanical energy

paragraphs: In physics, mechanical energy describes the potential energy and kinetic energy present in the components of a mechanical system.

paragraphs: When a given amount of mechanical energy is transferred (such as when throwing a ball, lifting a box, crushing a soda can, or stirring a beverage) it is said that this amount of mechanical work has been done. Both mechanical energy and mechanical work are measured in the same units as energy in general. It is usually said that a component of a system has a certain amount of "mechanical energy" (i.e. it is a state function), whereas "mechanical work" describes the amount of mechanical energy a component has gained or lost.

paragraphs: The conservation of mechanical energy is a principle which states that under certain conditions, the total mechanical energy of a system is constant. This rule does not hold when mechanical energy is converted to other forms, such as chemical, nuclear, or electromagnetic. However, the principle of general conservation of energy is so far an unbroken rule of physics - as far as we know, energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form ..


title: Vitiligo

paragraphs: Vitiligo is a skin disease that causes the skin to lose its color. It occurs when the melanocytes, cells that give skin their color, die or do not work. This is a problem because these cells protect against the light from the sun.

paragraphs: The exact cause of vitiligo is complex and not fully understood. It may be caused by the immune system, genetic, and environmental factors.

paragraphs: Vitiligo may also be caused by stress that affects the immune system, leading the body to react and start eliminating skin pigment.

paragraphs: People over 20 years old rarely develop this disease. These patches often occur to both sides symmetrically and may change shape.

paragraphs: This disease can also affect the mental state of the patient.

paragraphs: As of 2020, doctors do not understand what causes the disease, so right now, it can not be cured. Some things can be done to fight its effects, though. Makeup or cosmetics can cover up the parts of the skin with vitiligo. Also, staying out of the sun to prevent tanning is good. But the treatment given by most skin doctors is cortico steroid cream.

paragraphs: Breakthrough discovery in 2004 allowed for the transplant of melanocytes to vitiligo affected areas, repigmenting the region.


title: Virtue

paragraphs: Virtue (Latin "virtus"; Greek ἀρετή) is a kind of behaviour which is thought to be good. The adjective is "virtuous". Someone who lives a virtuous life is someone who leads a good moral life, doing things that society thinks are good. The opposite of virtue is vice.

paragraphs: Philosophers throughout the ages have written their ideas about what they think virtue is. The Ancient Greek philosophers from Plato onwards said that virtue consisted of four things: Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation. In the Christian religion the three virtues were Faith, Hope and Charity. These are mentioned in the Bible in the First Epistle to the Corinthians chapter 13 verse 13. These virtues are also very important in the Judaic and Muslim traditions.


title: Greyhound Lines

paragraphs: Greyhound Lines (commonly called "Greyhound") is a company in the United States that runs bus services between cities. It was founded in 1914. Its parent company is on the London Stock Exchange. The buses use air brakes and hold over 200 gallons of diesel.


title: Twofish

paragraphs: In cryptography, Twofish is a symmetric key block cipher with a block size of 128 bits and key lengths up to 256 bits.

paragraphs: In 1997, the NIST announced for competition to choose a successor to DES to be known as AES, Twofish was one of the "five finalists" of the Advanced Encryption Standard competition, but was not selected as a standard.

paragraphs: Twofish is related to the earlier block cipher Blowfish. Twofish's main features are the use of pre-computed key-dependent S-boxes, and a relatively complex key schedule. One half of an n-bit key is used as the actual encryption key and the other half of the n-bit key is used to modify the encryption algorithm (key-dependent S-boxes). Twofish uses some elements from other designs; for example, the pseudo-Hadamard transform (PHT) from the SAFER family of ciphers. Twofish uses the same Feistel structure as the DES.

paragraphs: On most software platforms Twofish is slightly slower than Rijndael (the chosen algorithm for Advanced Encryption Standard) for 128-bit keys, but somewhat faster for 256-bit keys.

paragraphs: Twofish was designed by Bruce Schneier, John Kelsey, Doug Whiting, David Wagner, Chris Hall, and Niels Ferguson; the "extended Twofish team" who met to made further cryptanalysis of Twofish and other AES competitors included Stefan Lucks, Tadayoshi Kohno, and Mike Stay.

paragraphs: Twofish algorithm is free for anyone to use without any restrictions whatsoever. The Twofish cipher has not been patented and the software example of its specification has been placed in the public domain. However, Twofish is not widely used like the Blowfish, which has been available for a longer period of time.

paragraphs: As of 2008, the best published cryptanalysis on the Twofish block cipher is a truncated differential cryptanalysis of the full 16-round version. The paper claims that the probability of truncated differentials attacks is 2 per block and that it will take about 2 chosen plaintexts (32 PiB worth of data) to find a good pair of truncated differentials.

paragraphs: Bruce Schneier responds in a 2005 blog entry that this paper does not present a full cryptanalytic attack, but only some hypothesized differential characteristics: "But even from a theoretical perspective, Twofish is not even remotely broken. There have been no extensions to these results since they were published" in 2000.


title: Truncated differential cryptanalysis

paragraphs: In cryptography, truncated differential cryptanalysis is a generalization of differential cryptanalysis, an attack model against block ciphers. In 1994 Lars Knudsen designed the technique, during this period ordinary differential cryptanalysis analyzes the full difference between two texts, the truncated version considers differences that are only determined to some extent. It has been applied to SAFER, IDEA, Skipjack, E2, Twofish, Camellia, CRYPTON, and the stream cipher Salsa20 as well.


title: Fatimid Caliphate

paragraphs: The Fatimid Caliphate was ruled by the al-Fātimiyyūn () dynasty from 5 January 909 to 1171. It was an Arab Shi'a dynasty It ruled the fourth and final Arab caliphate. In different times different areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, and the Levant belonged to the caliphate.

paragraphs: Egyptian city of Cairo was made the capital. The term "Fatimite" is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate as well. The ruling elite belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders were also Shia Ismaili Imams. They had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of Caliph, as recognized by most Muslims, the only period in which the Shia Imamate and the Caliphate were united to any degree. There was only one other exception: the Caliphate of Ali himself.

paragraphs: The Fatimids were famous for religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Coptic Christians, but there were some exceptions nevertheless.

paragraphs: The Fatimids came from Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria. The dynasty was founded in 909 by , who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband , the first Imām, hence the name "al-Fātimiyyūn" "Fatimid".

paragraphs: Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his newly-built capital in Tunisia.

paragraphs: In the 1040s, the Zirids (governors of North Africa under the Fatimids) declared their independence from the Fatimids and their conversion to Sunni Islam, which led to the devastating Banū Hilal invasions. After about 1070, the Fatimid hold on the Levant coast and parts of Syria was challenged first by Turkic (Seljuk) invasions, then the Crusades, so that Fatimid territory shrank until it consisted only of Egypt.

paragraphs: After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160s, the Zengid ruler Nūr ad-Dīn had his general, Shirkuh, seize Egypt from the vizier Shawar in 1169. Shirkuh died two months after taking power, and the rule went to his nephew, Saladin. This began the Kurdish Ayyubid Dynasty.


title: Maghreb

paragraphs: The Maghreb ( ) is the western part of the Arab world. It is in North Africa. The term is generally applied to all of Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, but in older Arabic usage meant only the area of the three countries between the high ranges of the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). Historically, some writers also included Muslim ruled regions in Spain, Portugal, Sicily and Malta in the definition. Malta, in particular, still speaks a language based on its own Maghrebi Arabic variety: Maltese.


title: Plaintext

paragraphs: In cryptography, plaintext is the information which the sender want to transmit to the receiver(s).

paragraphs: Before computers, plaintext meant text in the language of the communicating parties. Since computers, the definition has been expanded. It now includes not only the electronic representation of text, such as emails and word processor documents, but also the computer representation of speech, music, pictures, videos, ATM and credit card transactions, sensor data, and so forth. That is basically any information which the communicating parties might wish to hide from others. The plaintext is the normal representation of the data before any action has been taken to hide it.

paragraphs: The plaintext is used as input to an encryption algorithm; the output is termed ciphertext. Some systems, however, use a cascade of layers of encryption (called 'rounds') in which case the ciphertext output of one encryption algorithm becomes the plaintext input to the next. Triple DES is an example.


title: Ciphertext

paragraphs: In cryptography, ciphertext (or cyphertext) refers to the output of the encryption process. Plaintext is turned into ciphertext using an algorithm (cipher). This makes it unreadable to anyone except those who own unique information about it, usually referred to as a key.

paragraphs: Decryption is the reverse process of encryption. It takes the unreadable ciphertext as an input and makes it readable again in the form of plaintext.


title: Azad Kashmir Day

paragraphs: Azad Kashmir Day celebrates the 67th day of the Azad Jammu Kashmir government, created on 24 October 1947. However, most people celebrate it on 26 October as they class it as a lucky day once all the papers were signed and settled.


title: Stream cipher

paragraphs: In cryptography, a stream cipher is a symmetric key cipher where plaintext bits are combined with a pseudorandom cipher bit stream (keystream) using an exclusive-or (xor) operation. In a stream cipher the Plaintext digits are encrypted one at a time, and the transformation of successive digits varies during the encryption state. An alternative name is a state cipher, as the encryption of each digit is dependent on the current state. In practice, the digits are typically single bits or bytes.

paragraphs: Stream ciphers represent a different approach to symmetric encryption from block ciphers. Block ciphers operate on large blocks of fixed length. Stream ciphers typically execute at a higher speed than block ciphers and have lower hardware requirements. However, stream ciphers can be susceptible to serious security problems if used incorrectly; for example, in particular, the same starting state must never be used twice.

paragraphs: A stream cipher makes use of a much smaller and more convenient cryptographic key, for example 128 bits keys. Based on this key, it generates a pseudorandom keystream which can be combined with the plaintext digits in a similar way to the one-time pad encryption algorithm. However, because the keystream is pseudorandom, and not truly random, the security associated with the one-time pad cannot be applied and it is quite possible for a stream cipher to be completely insecure.

paragraphs: A stream cipher generates successive elements of the keystream based on an internal state. This state is updated in two ways:

paragraphs: In a synchronous stream cipher a stream of pseudo-random digits is generated independently of the plaintext and ciphertext messages, and then combined with the plaintext (to encrypt) or with the ciphertext (to decrypt). In the most common form, binary digits(bits) are used, and the keystream is combined with the plaintext using the exclusive or operation (XOR). This is termed a binary additive stream cipher.

paragraphs: In a synchronous stream cipher, the sender and receiver must be in synchronous for decryption to be successful. If digits are added or removed from the message during transmission, synchronisation is lost. To restore synchronisation, various offsets can be tried systematically to obtain the correct decryption. Another approach is to mark the ciphertext with markers at regular points in the output.

paragraphs: If, however, a digit is corrupted in transmission, rather than added or lost, only a single digit in the plaintext is affected and the error does not propagate to other parts of the message. This property is useful when the transmission error rate is high; however, it makes it less likely that the error would be detected without further mechanisms. Moreover, because of this property, synchronous stream ciphers are very susceptible to active attacks — if an attacker can change a digit in the ciphertext, he might be able to make predictable changes to the corresponding plaintext bit; for example, flipping a bit in the ciphertext causes the same bit to be flipped(Toggled) in the plaintext.

paragraphs: Self-synchronizing stream ciphers is another technique that uses part of the previous "N" ciphertext digits to compute the keystream. Such schemes are known also as asynchronous stream ciphers or ciphertext autokey (CTAK). The idea of self-synchronization was patented in 1946, and has the advantage that the receiver will automatically synchronise with the keystream generator after receiving "N" ciphertext digits, making it easier to recover if digits are dropped or added to the message stream. Single-digit errors are limited in their effect, affecting only up to "N" plaintext digits. It is somewhat more difficult to perform active attacks on self-synchronising stream ciphers rather than synchronous counterparts.

paragraphs: An example of a self-synchronising stream cipher is a block cipher in cipher-feedback mode (CFB).

paragraphs: Binary stream ciphers are often constructed using linear feedback shift registers (LFSRs) because they can be easily implemented in hardware and can be quickly analysed mathematically. However, the use of LFSRs only is insufficient to provide good security. Various schemes have been designed to increase the security of LFSRs.

paragraphs: Because LFSRs are inherently linear, one technique for removing the linearity is to feed the outputs of a group of parallel LFSRs into a non-linear Boolean function to form a "combination generator". Various properties of such a "combining function" are important for ensuring the security of the resultant scheme, for example, in order to avoid correlation attacks.

paragraphs: Normally LFSRs are stepped regularly. One technique to introducting non-linearity is to have the LFSR clocked irregularly, controlled by the output of a second LFSR. Such generators include the stop-and-go generator, the alternating step generator and the shrinking generator.

paragraphs: The stop-and-go generator (Beth and Piper, 1984) consists of two LFSRs. One LFSR is clocked if the output of a second is a "1", otherwise it repeats its previous output. This output is then (in some versions) combined with the output of a third LFSR clocked at a regular rate.

paragraphs: The shrinking generator uses a different technique. Two LFSRs are used, both clocked regularly in the following way:

paragraphs: This technique suffers from timing attacks on the second generator, since the speed of the output is variable in a manner that depends on the second generator's state. This can be improved by buffering the output.

paragraphs: Another approach to improving the security of an LFSR is to pass the entire state of a single LFSR into a non-linear "filtering function".

paragraphs: Instead of a linear driving device, one may use a nonlinear update function. For example, Klimov and Shamir proposed triangular functions (T-Functions) with a single cycle on n bit words.

paragraphs: To be secure, the period of the keystream (the number of digits output before the stream repeats itself) needs to be large enough. If the sequence repeats, then the overlapping ciphertexts can be aligned against each other ""in depth"", and there are techniques which allow extraction of the plaintext form ciphertexts generated using these methods.

paragraphs: Stream ciphers are often used in applications where plaintext comes in quantities of unknowable length as in secure wireless connections. If a block cipher were to be used in this type of application, the designer would need to choose either transmission efficiency or implementation complexity, since block ciphers cannot directly work on blocks shorter than their block size. For example, if a 128-bit block cipher received separate 32-bit bursts of plaintext, three quarters of the transmitted data need padding. Block ciphers must be used in ciphertext stealing or residual block termination mode to avoid padding, while stream ciphers eliminate this issue by operating on the smallest transmitted unit (usually bytes).

paragraphs: Another advantage of stream ciphers in military cryptography is that the cipher stream can be generated by an encryption device that is subject to strict security measures then fed to other devices, e.g. a radio set, which will perform the xor operation as part of their function. The other device can be designed for used in less securely environments.

paragraphs: RC4 is the most widely used stream cipher in software; others include:


title: Nyon

paragraphs: Nyon is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is found 25 kilometers north of Geneva, and is part of the Geneva metropolitan area. The town has (as of 2006) 17,267 people.

paragraphs: Nyon was built by the Romans between 50 BCE and 44 BCE, and was called "Colonia Iulia Equestris" or "Colonia Equestris Noiodunum". It grew to be one of the most important Roman colonies in modern-day Switzerland, with a forum, a basilica and an amphitheater that was discovered in 1996.

paragraphs: Today, Nyon has a high school (Gymnase de Nyon), a hospital, a movie theatre, hotels, restaurants, cafes and a popular tourist attraction - the castle.

paragraphs: In the last week of July each year, Nyon hosts the Paléo Festival - a huge music festival.


title: Letterkenny

paragraphs: Letterkenny () is a town in County Donegal of the Ireland. It is on the River Swilly and has a population of 17,586.

paragraphs: In 1824, when the first description of Letterkenny as a modern town was written, it was stated that: ""Within half a mile is the Port of Ballyraine, whither vessels of 100 tons bring iron, salt and colonial produce and whence they export hides and butter"". Nothing is left of the port now except the warehouses.

paragraphs: Letterkenny achieved town status in the early 1920s following the partition of Ireland.


title: Thalwil

paragraphs: Thalwil is a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland.

paragraphs: Early Middle Ages Thalwil was Alemannic farmland.

paragraphs: Thalwil was originally four "Wachten", or hamlets:

paragraphs: In the Middle Ages, most income was made in farming, vineyards and a small amount of fishing on the lake.

paragraphs: Thalwil also has the oldest wood corporation in the Canton of Zurich, the "Bannegg-Waldung". It was first mentioned in 1483.

paragraphs: Today, the economy of Thalwil is mostly some small and medium-sized businesses, and a wide range of shops. Most of the shops are located around Gotthardstrasse- the town centre.

paragraphs: The main source of Thalwil's wealth lies with its 7,000 commuters. These people live in Thalwil, but work in Zurich city. Today, Thalwil has left most of its farming past behind in exchange for a town of commuters, with its public transportation links, low tax and good quality of life.


title: Hearth

paragraphs: A hearth (har-th) is a brick or stone lined fireplace or oven that is used for cooking and heating. Historically, the hearth was the center of the home, as it provided heat for the house. Its Latin name is "focus". That is why "focus" is used for many kinds of central point.

paragraphs: In more modern times, the hearth may be section of the fireplace that can be seen. This often includes tiles around the base of the fireplace and the floor.


title: Jack-o'-lantern

paragraphs: A Jack-o'-lantern is a carved pumpkin, turnip, beet, or potato. In the 19th and 20th centuries people in Scotland and Ireland carved Halloween lanterns from large yellow turnips. This custom has become less prevalent in recent years as supermarkets have begun selling the larger and easier-to-carve American pumpkins.

paragraphs: In Irish lore, the Jack-o'-lantern is from the story of Stingy Jack. Jack was a clever man who cheated the devil several times. Once when Jack was leaving hell, the devil threw him a glowing coal to light his way. Jack put the coal in a hollowed-out turnip to make the first "Jack-o'-lantern". Lore says Jack can still be seen wandering the world with his turnip lantern, especially around All Saints Day, November 1.

paragraphs: In the United States, the carved pumpkin was first associated with the harvest season in general, long before it became an emblem of Halloween. In 1900, an article on Thanksgiving entertaining recommended a lit Jack-o'-lantern as part of the festivities.

paragraphs: To make a Jack-o'-lantern, the top of the pumpkin surrounding the stump of the vine is cut off. This top will be used as a "lid" when the Jack-o'-lantern is completed. The seeds and pulp inside the pumpkin are scooped out using a spoon or one's hands. The seeds may be roasted in a hot oven, and then salted to make a snack.

paragraphs: Once the inside of the pumpkin is clean, a face is carved into one side of the pumpkin. The eyes and nose are usually triangles. The mouth is usually filled with jagged teeth. A candle, devotional candle in a candle-holder, or a flashlight is put inside the Jack-o'-lantern and lit. The "lid" is replaced. The lid may be placed slightly askew to keep the candle alit.

paragraphs: In the United States, a completely carved and lit Jack-o'-lantern is put on the porch, the porch steps, or in a window to welcome trick-or-treaters on Halloween. Once the pumpkin is carved, it is good for nothing else and lasts only a day or two before it starts to rot. Pumpkins used to make Jack-o'-lanterns are inedible. In the United States, mischief-makers steal the Jack-o'-lanterns of their neighbors. The pumpkins are smashed in the street, dropped from a bridge, or otherwise destroyed.