title: Jesse Owens

paragraphs: James Cleveland Owens (September 12, 1913 – March 31, 1980) was an American athlete. He was from Oakville, Alabama and moved to Cleveland, Ohio. He won four NCAA Championships in 1935 and 1936. At the 1936 Summer Olympics, he won gold medals in the 100m, 200m, long jump and 4x100 relay. He died of lung cancer in Tucson, Arizona.

paragraphs: Owens was born in Oakville, Alabama and moved to Cleveland, Ohio when he was nine years old as the seventh of the eleven children of Henry and Emma Owens. Owens was the grandson of a slave and the son of a sharecropper. He was often sick with what his mother reportedly called ""the devil's cold"". He was given the name "Jesse" by a teacher in Cleveland who did not understand his accent when the young boy said he was called "J.C."

paragraphs: Throughout his life Owens attributed the success of his athletic career to the encouragement of Charles Riley, his junior-high track coach at Fairview Junior High, who had picked him off the playground and put him on the track team (see also Harrison Dillard, a Cleveland athlete inspired by Owens). Since Jesse worked in a shoe repair shop after school, Riley allowed Jesse to practice before school instead.

paragraphs: Owens first came to national attention when, as a student of East Technical High School in Cleveland, Ohio, he tied the world record of 9.4 seconds in the 100-yard dash and long-jumped 24 feet 9 1/2 inches (7.56 m) at the 1933 National High School Championship in Chicago.

paragraphs: Owens attended Ohio State University only after employment was found for his father, ensuring the family could be supported. He was affectionately known as the "Buckeye Bullet" and won a record eight individual NCAA championships, four each in 1935 and 1936. The record of four golds at the NCAA has only been equaled by Xavier Carter, in 2006, although his titles included relay medals too.

paragraphs: Owens's greatest achievement came in a span of 45 minutes on May 25, 1935 at the Big Ten meet in Ann Arbor, Michigan, where he set four world records. He tied the world record for the 100 yard (91 m) dash (9.4 seconds) and set world records in the long jump (26 feet 8¼ inches (8.13 m), a world record that would last 25 years), 220 yard (201 m) dash (20.3 seconds), and the 220 yard low hurdles (22.6 seconds to become the first person to break 23 seconds). This incredible feat is widely considered one of the most amazing athletic achievements of all time. In fact, in 2005 both NBC sports announcer, Bob Costas, and University of Central Florida Professor of Sports History, Richard C. Crepeau chose this as the most impressive athletic achievement since 1850.

paragraphs: Jesse Owens Memorial Stadium was completed in 2001 on The Ohio State University campus. It is a multi-sport facility that hosts the university's varsity track and field, lacrosse and soccer teams.

paragraphs: In 1936 Owens arrived in Berlin to compete for the United States in the Summer Olympics. Adolf Hitler was using the games to show the world a resurgent Nazi Germany. He and other government officials had high hopes German athletes would dominate the games with victories. Meanwhile, Nazi propaganda promoted concepts of "Aryan racial superiority" and depicted ethnic Africans as inferior.

paragraphs: Owens surprised many by winning four gold medals: On August 3 1936 the 100m sprint, defeating Ralph Metcalfe; on August 4, the long jump, after friendly and helpful advice from German competitor Lutz Long; on August 5, the 200m dash; and, after he was added to the 4 x 100m relay team, his fourth on August 9 (his performance wasn't duplicated until Carl Lewis won gold medals in the same events at the 1984 Summer Olympics).

paragraphs: On the first day, Hitler shook hands only with the German victors and then left the stadium (some claim this was to avoid having to shake hands with Cornelius Johnson, who was African-American, but according to a spokesman Hitler's exit had been pre-scheduled). Olympic committee officials then insisted Hitler greet each and every medalist or none at all. Hitler opted for the latter and skipped all further medal presentations.

paragraphs: On reports that Hitler had deliberately avoided acknowledging his victories, and had refused to shake his hand, Owens recounted:

paragraphs: Owens was cheered enthusiastically by 110,000 people in Berlin's Olympic Stadium and later ordinary Germans sought his autograph when they saw him in the streets. Owens was allowed to travel with and stay in the same hotels as whites, an irony at the time given that Negroes in the United States were denied equal rights. After a New York ticker-tape parade in his honor, Owens had to ride the freight elevator to attend a reception for him at the Waldorf-Astoria. He later recounted:

paragraphs: After the games he had difficulty making a living and became a sports promoter, essentially an entertainer. He would give local sprinters a ten or twenty yard start and beat them in the 100 yd (91 m) dash. He also challenged and defeated racehorses although as he revealed later, the trick was to race a high-strung thoroughbred horse that would be frightened by the starter's pistol and give him a good jump. His self-promotion eventually turned into a public relations career in Chicago, including a long stint as a popular jazz disc jockey there. In 1968, Owens received some criticism for supporting the racially turbulent XIX Olympic Games that year.

paragraphs: Jesse Owens was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1976 by Gerald Ford and (posthumously) the Congressional Gold Medal by George H. W. Bush on March 28, 1990. In 1984, a street in Berlin was renamed for him and the Jesse Owens Realschule/Oberschule (a secondary school) is in Berlin-Lichtenberg. His birthplace in Oakville dedicated a park in his honor in 1996, at the same time the Olympic Torch came through the community, 60 years after his Olympic triumph.

paragraphs: A pack-a-day smoker for 35 years, he died of lung cancer at age 66 in Tucson, Arizona. Owens is buried in Oak Woods Cemetery in Chicago.

paragraphs: The dormitory that Owens occupied during the Berlin Olympics has been fully restored into a living museum, with pictures of his accomplishments at the games.


title: 1999 UEFA Cup Final

paragraphs: The 1999 UEFA Cup Final was a football game that took place in Luzhniki Stadium, Moscow, on 12 May 1999 between Parma A.C. (Italy) and Olympique de Marseille (France). Parma A.C. won 3-0. So Parma A.C. won their second UEFA Cup title and fourth European trophy, having previously won the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Super Cup.

paragraphs: Parma A.C. defeated Atlético Madrid in the semi-finals with a 5-2 win. Olympique de Marseille defeated Bologna in the semi-finals with a 1-1 draw, but Marseille won with the penalty shootout.

paragraphs: Parma A.C. defeated Olympique de Marseille with a 3-0 win, with goals by Crespo, Vanoli, and Chiesa, most of the goals in the first half.


title: Video High Density

paragraphs: Video High Density (VHD) was a videodisc format which was marketed predominantly in Japan by JVC. There was also an audio-only variant, Audio High Density (AHD).

paragraphs: VHD discs are 25 cm (9 5/6 inches) in diameter, and store up to 60 minutes of video per side. Each disc is stored in a plastic case, similar to a CED's case, so that the user could not touch the disc itself. The entire case was put into the player, which would take out the disc, and then the now empty case could be taken back out. After one side has finished playing, the disc would have to be taken out, flipped, and put back in to continue playing.

paragraphs: Similar to the RCA's CED, the signal on the VHD is recorded by varying capacitance on the disc. However, unlike the CED, the VHD does not contain any groves and the needle is made of diamond instead of titanium. Instead of having grooves, the needle is kept on track electronically so the needle does not have to actually touch the disc therefore resulting in less wear on the disc and on the needle. In one rotation of the disc, 2 frames of picture and audio were read.

paragraphs: VHD was designed to be very interactive and was used in some video game systems as well as in car engine diagnostic tools.

paragraphs: The VHD was first demonstrated in 1978, and after many advertisements in National Geographic magazines, It was eventually released in Japan and in the USA in 1983. However, by this time both Laserdisc and CED were already not selling well compared to the VHS and Betamax VCR systems. As a result of this, JVC did not let the VHD be sold in North America, but made it available to the general public in Japan and commercially in the UK and the US.

paragraphs: During the time the VHD was made, it was mostly used for karaoke systems, anime video games, and interactive training systems. In the UK, the VHD was used for training, demonstration, and fault diagnostics.

paragraphs: In Japan, a 3D version of the VHD utilizes double speed discs and special glasses.

paragraphs: The VHD was not very successful as a consumer product, but it sold well for commercial purposes. In Japan, the CED is still somewhat popular and the discs and players are both still collected.


title: Rügen

paragraphs: Rügen "(lat. Rugia)" is the biggest island in Germany. There are several cities on the island. These include : Putbus, Garz, Binz, Bergen auf Rügen, Sassnizt, Glowe, Trent, Schaprode and Göhren. The island has a 77,000 population (according to the 2006 census). The island is about 926 square kilometers (or 357 square miles). The island is in the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Rügen is also one of the most famous places to go in Germany for vacation.

paragraphs: Rügen is in the northeast part of Germany in the Baltic Sea. The main landmass, Muttland, is surrounded my many peninsulas. There are also two national German park located on the island : Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park and Jasmund National Park.


title: McLafferty rearrangement

paragraphs: The McLafferty rearrangement is an organic reaction seen in mass spectrometry. A mass spectrometer breaks apart the molecule being studied. The molecule breaks apart in consistent ways that chemists can predict. Most times, a carbon-carbon bond breaks and the atoms do not jump across the break between the fragments. The McLafferty rearrangement is an example of a hydrogen atom jumping to the other fragment as a part of the process of the bond breaking. It happens in an organic molecule containing a keto-group.

paragraphs: The American chemist Fred McLafferty was the first to describe the reaction in 1959.

paragraphs: The keto-group undergoes β-cleavage, with the gain of the γ-hydrogen atom. This rearrangement may take place by a radical or ionic mechanism.


title: Maska za maskou

paragraphs: Maska za maskou (The Mask Behind the Mask) is the last studio album by the Czech underground band The Plastic People of the Universe. It was released in December 2009.


title: Xiaotingia

paragraphs: Xiaotingia is an extinct genus of "Archaeopteryx"-like theropod dinosaur from early Upper Jurassic deposits of western Liaoning, China.

paragraphs: The Chinese team claims the fossils dated to 155 million years ago (mya), whereas the Solnhofen limestone where "Archaeopteyx" was found is 144 mya in age. The new fossil "Xiaotingia" cannot be dated so accurately, as they were originally been purchased from a dealer. Prof Xu first saw the specimen at the Shandong Tianyu Museum. The other question to be asked of all early dinobirds is: could they fly?

paragraphs: A cladistic analysis by Xu and his team showed that "Xiaotingia" formed a clade with "Archaeopteryx", the Dromaeosauridae and the Troodontidae. This clade excludes other birds. They therefore (re)defined the concepts of Deinonychosauria and Avialae so "Archaeopteryx" and "Xiaotingia" belonged to the Deinonychosauria and "Archaeopteryx" no longer was an avian (bird). This led to popular reports that ""Archaeopteryx" is no longer a bird".

paragraphs: However, the team explicitly allowed for a traditional Aves with "Archaeopteryx" as a specifier. Such a clade would in their opinion include the Deinonychosauria.


title: John Zorn

paragraphs: John Zorn (born September 2, 1953 in New York City, New York, United states) is an American avant-garde composer, arranger, record producer, saxophonist and multi-instrumentalist. He is collaborated with Lou Reed, Weird Little Boy, Laurie Anderson and others.


title: Collegium Musicum

paragraphs: Collegium Musicum is a Slovak art rock band formed by Marián Varga in Czechoslovakia in late 1969. The band is reformed in 2008 and still plays.


title: Double bond

paragraphs: A double bond in chemistry is when two chemical elements are joined together in a chemical bond and share four bonding electrons instead of the usual two. The most common double bond is between two carbon atoms, and can be found in alkenes. There are many types of double bonds, such as in a carbonyl group with a carbon atom and an oxygen atom. Other common double bonds are found in azo compounds (N=N), imines (C=N) and sulfoxides (S=O). In skeletal formula the double bond is shown as two parallel lines (=) between the two joined atoms. When this formula is printed, the equals sign is used.

paragraphs: Double bonds are stronger than single bonds and double bonds are also shorter. The bond order is two. Double bonds are also electron-rich, which makes them more reactive.

paragraphs: The two pairs of electrons involved in the bond do not behave in exactly the same way. One pair of electrons forms a stronger "sigma"bond, noted by σ and drawn as a straight line between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. While the other pair form a pi bond, π, drawn as two cloud-like areas where the electrons exist, as "orbitals".


title: Magny-Cours

paragraphs: Magny-Cours is a commune in the Nièvre department in central France.

paragraphs: It is best known as the home of the "Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours", a famous Auto racing circuit. It formerly hosted the Formula One French Grand Prix. A campus of the Institut supérieur de l'automobile et des transports is also located on the city.


title: Fiat Ducato

paragraphs: The Fiat Ducato is a series of vans and minibuses made by Fiat. There have been three generations since 1981. It is built in cooperation with Citroën and Peugeot.

paragraphs: The first generation Fiat Ducato came out in July 1981.

paragraphs: In 1986, Alfa Romeo, Peugeot, Citroën, Fiat, Talbot and Zastava all made the same vehicle but with different names, The names were: Alfa Romeo AR6, Peugeot J5, Citroën C25, Fiat Talento, Talbot Express and Zastava Ducato.

paragraphs: Between 1985 and 1990, the model was improved at the front and back, It had a new grille and different headlamps.

paragraphs: The second generation Fiat Ducato came out in 1993,

paragraphs: In 1993, Citroen and Peugeot made the same vehicle but with different names, The names were: Citroën Jumper, Citroën Relay and the Peugeot Boxer.

paragraphs: In February 2002, the model was improved at the front and back, It had a new grille, new bonnet, new bumper and different headlamps and breaklights.

paragraphs: The third generation Fiat Ducato came out in 2006.

paragraphs: In 2006, Citroen, Peugeot and Ram Trucks made the same vehicle but with different names, The names were: Citroën Jumper, Citroën Relay, Peugeot Boxer and Ram ProMaster

paragraphs: In 2014, the model was improved at the front and back, It had a new grille, new bonnet, new bumper and different headlamps and breaklights.


title: Jim Henson's Muppet Babies

paragraphs: Muppet Babies is an American children's animated series produced by The Jim Henson Company and Nick Jr. Productions, Kermit The Frog Productions and Marvel Productions which ran on Nickelodeon from 1992-1999, winning the Outstanding Animated Series Emmy for four consecutive years. The concept of presenting familiar Muppet characters as babies was introduced in a sequence of "The Muppets Take Manhattan". The movie featured puppet versions of Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, Gonzo, Fozzie Bear, Scooter, and Rowlf as babies (the puppet versions later returned one more time, for a home movie sequence in "A Muppet Family Christmas").


title: Cyclohexene

paragraphs: A cyclohexene is a six-sided (hexagonal) shaped hydrocarbon ring made when carbon atoms join with hydrogen atoms. It is flammable, toxic, and colourless liquid which does not dissolve in water. It will, however, dissolve in alcohol.


title: Mass spectrometry

paragraphs: Mass spectrometry (MS) is a process that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles.

paragraphs: You can use it to find out the mass of particles, and to find the basic chemicals in a sample or molecule. It can also tell you the chemical structures of molecules, such as peptides and other chemical compounds.

paragraphs: There are 5 main steps a mass spectrometer takes:

paragraphs: Using the information which the method can collect, you can find the "mass-to-charge ratio" of the particles, and the "relative abundance" (how many atoms of each type were in the sample you put in).

paragraphs: The first mass spectroscope was invented by the British physicist J. J. Thomson in 1912. His student Francis Aston developed the mass spectroscope for practical use. They are now widely used for agriculture, brewing, food processing, geology, petroleum exploration, medical drugs measurements and space exploration. They are often used with a chromatography system which helps prepare the sample for mass spectrometry.


title: Ashleigh Ball

paragraphs: Ashleigh Ball (born March 31, 1983 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada) is a Canadian voice actress and singer who is best known for voicing "Applejack" and "Rainbow Dash" in the television series and the character "Allura" in the television show Voltron Force. Ball is also the lead singer of the Vancouver-based indie pop/acoustic band Hey Ocean!.

paragraphs: She was the subject in the documentary "Brony: the Movie", which followed her through her first interactions with the Brony community at BronyCon 2012.


title: Ivan Kral

paragraphs: Ivan Kral (born Ivan Král; May 12, 1948 in Prague, Czechoslovakia – February 2, 2020) was a Czech-American guitarist, bass guitarist and songwriter. He has worked with Patti Smith and Iggy Pop. His songs recorded U2 and David Bowie.


title: Tornado warning

paragraphs: A tornado warning is an alert that means that a tornado or funnel cloud has been spotted around the area, and that people should take cover. When tornadoes have been spotted, the tornado sirens make sound in that place, letting people know that they have been seen.

paragraphs: Tornado warnings are higher than the warning of a Tornado watch, but there is an even "higher" level, which is a tornado emergency.


title: Tornado watch

paragraphs: A tornado watch is a warning that means that weather conditions are right for tornadoes to form. So people should be careful.

paragraphs: A tornado watch must not be confused with a tornado warning. It does not mean that a tornado has been seen; it just means that you should be careful because the weather is perfect for a tornado.


title: Dust devil

paragraphs: Dust devils are twirling masses of air that form in the desert and send sand spinning. The height of a dust devil can range from a few meters tall to more than tall. They are usually harmless, but occasionally they can cause some damage to both people and property.

paragraphs: A dust devil forms when hot air near the ground rises quickly through a small pocket of cooler, low-pressure air above it. If conditions are just right, then the air may begin to rotate. As the air rapidly rises, the hot air is stretched vertically and because of angular momentum, the spinning gets much more intense. Because the hot air cools when it rises, it eventually goes down to the base and expands horizontally, while more hot air shoots up the column to replace the lost air. The air that is displaced falls to the ground around the dust devil, creating a balancing force. Thus, a dust devil is formed.

paragraphs: Certain conditions help the formation of dust devils:

paragraphs: 1. Flat barren, desert terrain: Flat terrain and hot conditions help the hot air "fuel" being always available. The dust and sand helps the dust devil be seen.

paragraphs: 2. Clear skies or lightly cloudy conditions: The surface needs a lot of solar energy to heat the air.

paragraphs: 3. Light or no wind, and cool temperature in the atmosphere: Without a cool atmosphere and hot surface, the dust devil with never form. Wind will not keep the dust devil stable.

paragraphs: A dust devil "dies" when it eventually sucks in cool air from the surface. Cool air destroys the dust devil because it quickly discourages the rising of air through the column. This usually happens when the dust devil becomes weak, or moves across a new terrain were the surface temperatures are cooler.

paragraphs: Dust devils occur on the planet of Mars as well. They can be ten times higher than ones on Earth, and fifty times as wide. They can pose a threat to technology placed on Mars.

paragraphs: However, not all dust devils are damaging. Mission members keeping an eye on the Mars Spirit rover reported that on March 12, 2005, a lucky encounter with a dust devil had cleaned the solar panels of that robot. Power levels dramatically increased, and much more scientific work was able to be done.


title: Samaritan Pentateuch

paragraphs: The Samaritan Pentateuch or Samaritan Torah is a special version of the Torah used by the Samaritans. This version was created at the latest 127 BC, when the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, and the Samaritans split from the other group in the Temple. As the name says, this version contains the first five books of Moses, or the Torah.

paragraphs: Scholars use the Samaritan Pentateuch when they want to find the meaning of words in the original Pentateuch or if they want to learn about the history of the different versions of the Bible. Some scrolls among the Dead Sea scrolls look like Samaritan Pentateuch.

paragraphs: Samaritan practices are based on their version of the Five Books of Moses, which is slightly different from the Masoretic text or the Greek Septuagint texts. Some differences are small, such as the ages of different people mentioned in genealogy, while others are major, such as the commandment to only have one wife which appears in the Samaritan text but not in the other versions. (See .)

paragraphs: Special importance is attached to the "Abisha Scroll", which is used in the Samaritan synagogue of Nablus. The Samaritans claim it was penned by Abishua, great-grandson of Aaron (), thirteen years after the entry into the land of Israel under the leadership of Joshua, son of Nun. But modern scholars have observed that the scroll appears to include work by different scribes from different centuries, with the oldest texts dating to the 12th century A.D.


title: John Jacob Astor

paragraphs: John Jacob Astor (July 17, 1763 – March 29, 1848), born Johann Jakob Astor, was a German-American businessman. He was born in Germany and moved to London and then to New York City in 1784. He started a business trading furs. By 1800, he had made half a million dollars trading furs. His company was called The Pacific Fur Trading Company. In the early 1800s, his company was trading furs in Oregon. His fur traders found the pass through which the Oregon Trail passes. He made even more money in New York real estate. When he died in 1848, he was worth over $50 million. Today, his fortune would be over $150 billion. The city of Astoria, Oregon was named for him. So was the neighborhood Astoria, Queens and Astor Place in Manhattan.


title: Pi bond

paragraphs: In chemistry, pi bonds (π bonds) are covalent chemical bonds where the orbital path of one electron crosses (overlaps) with the path of another. The electrons have a lobe shaped figure of eight path (see picture). There are two areas of overlap as the paths overlap on both lobes. Only one of the orbital's nodal planes passes through both of the involved nuclei.

paragraphs: The Greek letter π in their name refers to p orbitals. The orbital symmetry of the pi bond looks the same as the p orbital when seen down the bond axis. P orbitals usually have this sort of bonding. D orbitals are also assumed to use pi bonding but this is not necessarily what happens in reality. The idea of bonding d orbitals fits in with the theory of hypervalence.

paragraphs: Pi bonds are usually weaker than sigma bonds. Quantum mechanics says this is because the orbital paths are parallel so there is much less overlap between the p-orbitals.

paragraphs: Pi bonds happen when two atomic orbitals are in contact through two areas of overlap. Pi-bonds are more spread out bonds than the sigma bonds. Electrons in pi bonds are sometimes called pi electrons. Molecular fragments joined by a pi bond cannot rotate about that bond without breaking the pi bond. The rotation destroys the parallel paths of the two p orbitals.

paragraphs: Atoms that are joined by a double bond have one sigma bond and one pi bond. If they are joined by a triple bond they have one sigma bond and two pi bonds.

paragraphs: A pi bond is weaker than a sigma bond, but the combination of pi and sigma bond is stronger than either bond by itself. The extra strength of a multiple bond versus a single (sigma bond) is shown in many ways. The most obvious is a contraction in bond lengths. For example in organic chemistry, carbon-carbon bond lengths are in ethane (154 pm), in ethylene (134 pm) and in acetylene (120 pm). More bonds make the total bond shorter and stronger.

paragraphs: Electronic configuration is based on S,P,D,and f -Block.

paragraphs: Pi bonds do not necessarily join a pair of atoms that are also sigma-bonded.

paragraphs: In certain metal complexes, pi interactions between a metal atom and alkyne and alkene pi antibonding orbitals form pi-bonds.

paragraphs: In some cases of multiple bonds between two atoms, there is no sigma bond at all, only pi bonds. Examples include diiron hexacarbonyl (Fe(CO)), dicarbon (C) and the borane BH. In these compounds the central bond has only pi bonding. In order to get the most orbital overlap the bond distances are much shorter than expected.


title: Being and Time

paragraphs: Being and Time (, 1927) is a book that was written by the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. It is his best known book and is said to be one of the most important philosophical works of the 20th century. It has greatly influenced 20th-century philosophy, particularly existentialism, hermeneutics and deconstruction.


title: Supertec

paragraphs: Supertec was a Formula One engine supplier in 1999 and 2000. Supertec supplied engines that were designed by Renault F1. They took engines built by Mecachrome from the 1998 season, and updated them for 1999 and 2000. Supertec then put their name on the engines.


title: Chesil Beach

paragraphs: Chesil Beach, sometimes called Chesil Bank, in Dorset, southern England is one of three major shingle structures in Britain. Its name is derived from the Old English "ceosel" or "cisel", meaning "gravel" or "shingle".

paragraphs: It is a kind of offshore barrier which has joined the mainland with Portland Bill. The lagoon between the chesil and the mainland is called The Fleet or The Fleet Lagoon.

paragraphs: The shingle beach is 18 miles long (29km), 220 yards wide (200m) and 50 feet high (15m). The beach and the Fleet are part of the Jurassic Coast, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the location for a book, "On Chesil Beach" by Ian McEwan.

paragraphs: At the eastern end of the beach at the village of Chiswell, against the cliffs of the Isle of Portland, the beach curves round sharply to form Chesil Cove. This part of the beach protects the low-lying village from flooding. Westwards the shingle forms a straight line along the coast, enclosing the Fleet, a shallow tidal lagoon. The lagoon is 9½ feet (3m) at its deepest.

paragraphs: The beach provides shelter from the prevailing winds (from the west) and waves for the town of Weymouth and the village of Chiswell, which would otherwise probably not exist

paragraphs: Varying with the Bank's unbroken increase in height, to , above mean high water, the size of the flint and chert shingle varies from pea-sized at the north-west end (by West Bay) to orange-sized at the south-east end (by Portland). It is said that smugglers who landed on the beach in the middle of the night could judge "exactly where they were" by the size of the shingle.


title: Polina Sidikhina

paragraphs: Polina Eugenyevna Sidikhina (; born on October 26, 1988) is a Russian stage and movie actress.

paragraphs: Polina Eugenyevna Sidikhina was born on October 26, 1988 in Leningrad, Russian SFSR, USSR (now Moscow, Russia) to actors Eugeny Sidikhin (b.1964) and Tatyana Borkovskaya (b.1965). She has two younger sisters, Aglaya Sidikhina (b.1998) and Anfisa Sidikhina (b.2007).

paragraphs: Graduated from Saint Petersburg State Theatre Arts Academy in 2010.


title: Happy Valley Shanghai

paragraphs: Happy Valley Shanghai () is an amusement park in Songjiang, Shanghai, People's Republic of China. The park is about 40 kilometers (25 miles) from downtown Shanghai. It covers an area of 863,500 square meters (213 acres). Happy Valley contains seven big areas, each with different themed zones, including Sunshine Beach, Happy Times, Typhoon Bay, Gold Mine Town, Ant Kingdom, Shanghai Beach and Shangri-la Woods. There are more than 100 rides in the park.

paragraphs: The park was opened on August 16, 2009. In the beginning of the park's operation, many people didn't like it because of long waiting times and being dangerous. Most of the rides were broken, the lines were too long, and many people were hurt not only from riding the rides, but from walking around the park. Three people were hurt when a big sign board fell on top of them.

paragraphs: The park currently has six roller coasters. Five of them were opened when the park began its operation while the mine train coaster opened in October 2009.


title: Nani

paragraphs: Luís Carlos Almeida da Cunha "Nani" (born 17 November 1986) is a Portuguese footballer currently playing for Manchester United and the Portugal national team.


title: Radiator

paragraphs: A radiator is a device used to move heat from one location to another location. Some radiators are used to cool things, such as a car engine. Some radiators are used to heat

paragraphs: Most cars use a radiator to cool the engine. To produce power, engines must burn a fuel. This creates a lot of heat. If the heat is not removed, the engine will overheat and stop running. The radiator is connected to the engine with hoses.

paragraphs: A liquid flows into the engine. Heat is moved from the engine to the liquid. The heat moves because of Newton's Law of Cooling. This law says that heat will move from something hot to something cooler.

paragraphs: The liquid then moved into the radiator. The radiator has many small tubes for the liquid to flow through. Air moves around to the tubes to cool them. This cools the liquid. The liquid then return to the engine. This is a closed loop.

paragraphs: Many houses are located in areas that get cold. Heat needs to be added to the house so the people are comfortable. A radiator is placed in a room to add heat to the room. The heat is created by a furnace. A heating radiator works just like a cooling radiator. The heat from the furnace moves to the radiator. The room is cooler than the radiator. The heat moves from the radiator into the room to warm the room.


title: David de Gea

paragraphs: David de Gea Quintana (born 7 November 1990) is a Spanish footballer. He plays as a goalkeeper for Manchester United and the Spain national team. Many people think he is among one of the best goalkeepers in the world.

paragraphs: He started playing at the senior level for Atlético Madrid in 2009. He has been playing for United since 2011 and has won a Golden Glove in the 2018/19 season during his career with them.

paragraphs: De Gea made his debut for the Spain national team in 2014 and played with them at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.


title: Zvonko Bušić

paragraphs: Zvonko Bušić (23 January 1946 – 1 September 2013) is a terrorist, mastermind of the 1976 hijacking of TWA Flight 355 and a bombing at Grand Central Station in New York. For this crime he was sentenced to the mandatory minimum term of life imprisonment. He spent 32 years in prison before being released on parole in July 2008.

paragraphs: Bušić was born in Gorica, a village in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia, and finished high school in Imotski. At the age of 20, he emigrated to Vienna. In Vienna, three years later, in 1969, he met the American student, Julienne Eden Schultz, who was studying German there and who soon thereafter became involved in the activities of the Croatian emigration. In coordination with Zvonko Bušić, she and a friend traveled to Zagreb and threw anti-Yugoslav leaflets on Republic Square, after which they were arrested and imprisoned. After release, Julienne returned to Vienna and in 1972, Julienne and Zvonko married in Frankfurt. Later they moved to the U.S. where he became a member and leader of the Croatian terrorist group called Croatian National Resistance.

paragraphs: A group of Croatian terrorists made up of Zvonko and his wife, Julienne Bušić, Petar Matanić, Frane Pešut and Slobodan Vlašić hijacked a commercial Trans World Airlines plane on September 10, 1976. It was Boeing 727 Flight 355, heading from New York City to Chicago. The mastermind of this terrorist group, Zvonko Bušić delivered a sealed letter to the pilot, Captain Carey. The letter informed the Captain that the airplane had been hijacked. It said that the hijackers had five gelignite bombs, and that a bomb had been planted in a locker across from the Commodore Hotel on 42nd Street in New York with the further instructions that the U.S. authorities should follow. The hijackers demanded heading the plane in the direction of London. Their ultimate demands, given in the instructions, were:

paragraphs: The terrorists' first demand was that thousands of copies of a "Declaration of the Croatian Liberation Forces" be scattered from the air over New York, Chicago, Montreal, Paris, London, and the site of a popular festival in Croatia. This declaration was written for this purposes by a Croatia's dissident, Bruno Bušić.

paragraphs: The plane took refueling stop in Montreal, and flew to Paris, France. During the new refueling stop in Newfoundland, the terrorist agreed to release thirty passengers. Bušić reminded Captain Carey that the aircraft could be blown up at any time if the demands were not met and that the passengers released at Newfoundland, if failed to distribute leaflets as ordered, the remaining passengers' fate would be on their consciences.

paragraphs: In Paris, the hijackers got information that their demands had been met. So they surrendered to the French police, which extradited them to the United States. During efforts to deactivate the explosives four hours later at the detonation site, American policeman Brian Murray died, and three other officers were wounded.

paragraphs: Zvonko Bušić was charged with and convicted of air piracy resulting in death, which carried a mandatory life sentence. Three years after the trial, Judge John Bartels declared Bušić eligible for parole after Dec. 31 1979.

paragraphs: On April 17, 1987 Bušić escaped from the Otisville Correctional Institution, a medium-security Federal prison in Orange County, N.Y. Two days later, Bušić was caught and surrendered peacefully.

paragraphs: On June 13, 1989, Bartels wrote a letter-opinion to the U.S. Parole Commission, in which he stated that the death of the police officer was partly due to the police's negligence and that he had no recommendation to the Commission nor objection to Bušić's release. However, the Commission rejected this parole.

paragraphs: His second request for parole was denied in 2006, after service of 30 years, although the others in the group had already been free for at least 17 years. After this parole denial, Croatian government along with the Croatian Helsinki Committee, launched a campaign to secure his release on humanitarian grounds, arguing that Bušić had served out his sentence and therefore should be released.

paragraphs: Bušić spent his last two years of imprisonment at the Federal Correctional Complex in Terre Haute, Indiana, transferred there from Allenwood, Pennsylvania.

paragraphs: Croatian National Resistance (Otpor) idealized Bušićes and their gang. Marin Sopta, the former North American Otpor leader, said: "The Bušićes were our heroes. They did more to promote the Croatian cause than anyone else". Sopta visited Zvonko Bušić regularly when he was serving time in Pennsylvania.

paragraphs: Bušić was granted parole in July 2008 and turned over to immigration authorities for deportation proceedings. A condition of his parole was that he could not return to the U.S.

paragraphs: Freeing this terrorist from a life sentence and shipping him to his homeland caused the disgust of relatives of the city cop he murdered more than 30 years ago.

paragraphs: Lt. Terence McTigue, who was blinded in the blast that killed Murray, had spoken against the release of Bušić and his crew at earlier parole hearings but, he said, he was never notified of the last, fateful one. McTigue saw this event as a political favor done for the Croatian government and said, "It is like killing Brian Murray and injuring me all over again." Sen. Chuck Schumer (D-N.Y.) protested Bušić's release without hearing from the victims, to Attorney General Michael Mukasey.

paragraphs: Zvonko Bušić had been the object of suspicion of many of those who looked into the La Guardia bombing which happened on December 29 1975. The suspicion was raised by Lt. McTigue, Edwin T. Dreher, who, as a deputy police chief at the time, was put in charge of solving this case, Frank McDarby, a detective who interrogated Zvonko Bušić in an F.B.I. office 33 years ago; the crime writer Kevin F. McMurray, who spoke with Zvonko Bušić for three hours in 1997 in a visitors’ room at the federal penitentiary in Lewisburg, Pa.; and Robert K. Tanenbaum, a former prosecutor from the Manhattan district attorney’s office. Each of them reviewed this case anew and wondered anew if Zvonko Bušić escaped punishment for one of the biggest unsolved terrorist acts in the USA. Zvonko Bušić denied any involvement in the La Guardia bombing. But Lt. McTigue was struck by the similarities in the two bombings:

paragraphs: "Both bombs were in a public locker in a transportation facility, a few days after a holiday, and both were large and heavy," Mr. McTigue said. He noted that both devices utilized dynamite and "a 9-volt battery, possibly for a lantern."

paragraphs: Bušić died by suicide on 1 September 2013 with firearm in his apartment near Zadar, Croatia. He was discovered by his wife Julienne.


title: Luna 1

paragraphs: Luna 1 (also known as the First Cosmic Ship, Cosmic Rocket and Mechta (, Literal translation: "Dream")) was a space probe of the Soviet Union. It was the first mission in the Luna programme and it was the first spacecraft to reach the Moon. Luna 1 made some key scientific discoveries and it is one of the best achievements of the Soviet Union space programme.

paragraphs: The spacecraft was sphere-shaped. Five antennae came out of one end. Instrument ports came out of the surface of the sphere. It also had various metallic emblems with the Soviet coat of arms.

paragraphs: Luna 1 had radio equipment, a tracking transmitter and a telemetering system for communication with Earth. The spacecraft carried several scientific devices too. These included a magnetometer, a device for measuring magnetic fields, a scintillation counter, a device for detecting high energy particles and a geiger counter, a device for measuring radiation. Luna 1 also carried a micrometeorite detector and other equipment.

paragraphs: The space probe was launched on January 2, 1959 at Baikonur Cosmodrome by a SS-6 Sapwood rocket. The launch was successful and Luna 1 became the first man-made object ever to reach the escape velocity of the Earth.

paragraphs: On January 3, 1959, the spacecraft released a cloud of sodium gas so that astronomers could track the probe and also to serve as an experiment on the behaviour of gas in space.

paragraphs: Luna 1 was intended to impact the Moon's surface. However, on January 4, 1959, it passed within 5995 km of the Moon and began to orbit the Sun between the orbits of Earth and Mars, where it is still orbiting now, on a 450 day orbit. Thus, Luna 1 became the first spacecraft to orbit the Sun.


title: Lyonel Feininger

paragraphs: Lyonel Charles Feininger (July 17, 1871– January 13, 1956) was a German-American painter. He also drew cartoons (caricaturist).

paragraphs: Lyonel Feininger's father was the German violinist Karl Feininger. His mother was the American singer Elizabeth Feininger. Feininger grew up in New York City.

paragraphs: Feininger married Clara Fürst, the daughter of the painter Gustav Fürst. They had two daughters. He also had several children with Julia Berg whom he later married. His sons, Andreas Feininger and T. Lux Feininger, both became artists. Andreas was a photographer and T. Lux became a photographer and a painter.

paragraphs: He moved to Berlin in 1887 to study at the Königliche Akademie Berlin under Ernst Hancke. Then he studied at art schools in Berlin with Karl Schlabitz, and in Paris with sculptor Filippo Colarossi. He started as a caricaturist in 1894 for several German, French and American magazines. These included "Harper's Round Table", "Harper's Young People", "Humoristische Blätter", "Lustige Blätter", "Das Narrenschiff", "Berliner Tageblatt" and "Ulk".

paragraphs: In February of 1906, James Keeley, editor of The "Chicago Tribune" traveled to Germany. He was looking for artists to draw cartoons for his newspaper. He recruited Feininger to draw two comic strips ("The Kin-der-Kids" and "Wee Willie Winkie's World") for the "Chicago Tribune". People liked the comic strips for their humor and experimental drawing style. Fenininger also worked as a commercial caricaturist for 20 years for various newspapers and magazines in both the USA and Germany. Later, Art Spiegelman wrote in "The New York Times Book Review," that Feininger's comics have “achieved a breathtaking formal grace unsurpassed in the history of the medium.”

paragraphs: Feininger's art was chosen to be a part of the annual Berlin Secession art show in the years 1901 through 1903.

paragraphs: Feininger started to work as a fine artist at the age of 36. He was a member of the "Berliner Sezession" in 1909. He was associated with expressionist group Die Brücke, the Novembergruppe, Gruppe 1919, the Blaue Reiter circle and The Blue Four. When Walter Gropius founded the Bauhaus in Germany in 1919, Feininger became the master artist in charge of the printmaking workshop. He designed the cover for the Bauhaus 1919 manifesto: an expressionist woodcut 'cathedral'. He taught at the Bauhaus for several years. Among the students who attended his workshops were Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack (German/Australian, 1893–1965), Hans Friedrich Grohs (German 1892 - 1981) and Margarete Koehler-Bittkow (German/American, 1898–1964)

paragraphs: In 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. Feininger's wife was partly Jewish, and they decided to leave Germany. The Nazi Party declared his work to be "degenerate." They moved to America after his work was exhibited in the 'degenerate art' ("Entartete Kunst") in 1936, but before the 1937 exhibition in Munich. After moving to the United States, Feininger taught at Black Mountain College.

paragraphs: In addition to drawing, Feininger created art with painted toy figures being photographed in front of drawn backgrounds.

paragraphs: Feininger also worked sometimes as a pianist and composer. Music historians still keep several of Feininger's piano compositions and fugues for organ.


title: Margaret Olley

paragraphs: Margaret Olley ( 24 June, 1923, Lismore, New South Wales - 26 July, 2011, Paddington, New South Wales) was an Australian artist. She was well known for generous gifts of paintings and money to public art galleries in Australia. These gifts included works by Cezanne and Picasso. She is also famous for being the model for portraits. Two paintings of her won the Archibald Prize; William Dobell's painting in 1948, and Ben Quilty's in 2011. She was described by Julia Gillard, the Prime Minister of Australia, as a great artist and a true Australian national treasure.

paragraphs: She grew up on sugarcane farms in Queensland, and her artistic talent was noticed at school. Her teachers convinced her parents she should study art at the Brisbane Technical College. She then moved to Sydney and studied art at the East Sydney Technical College. She held the first of her 90 exhibitions in 1948. Many of her paintings were of things around her home such as flowers and bowls of fruit. In 1996 she was given Australia's highest honour, the Companion of the Order of Australia.


title: William Dobell

paragraphs: Sir William Dobell (24 September 1899, Newcastle, New South Wales - 13 May 1970, Lake Macquarie, New South Wales) was a famous Australian artist, well known for his portrait painting. He won the 1943 Archibald Prize with a portrait of another artist, Joshua Smith. The painting became the centre of a court case when two other artists said it was not a portrait, but a caricature. They said this meant it should not have won the prize. Dobell won the legal case, but it caused him many health problems and led to a nervous breakdown. He kept away from people and went to live in his parent's holiday house, Wangi Wangi, on the shores of Lake Macquarie.


title: Proteales

paragraphs: Proteales is the botanical name of an order of flowering plants. Such an order has been recognized by almost all taxonomists.


title: Archibald Prize

paragraphs: The Archibald Prize is the most important prize for portraits in Australia. It was first awarded in 1921. The money for the prize was left by J. F. Archibald, the editor of "The Bulletin" magazine who died in 1919. The prize is awarded by the Trustees of the Art Gallery of New South Wales for the best portrait of a person famous in Art, Letters, Science or Politics. The artist must have lived in Australia for at least one year. The Archibald Prize is awarded every year. In 2015 the prize was worth A$100,000.

paragraphs: The first prize awarded in 1921 was worth £400. Early winners included William Beckwith McInnes, John Longstaff, and William Dargie. Dargie's painting which won in 1942 had been painted when he was an official war artist during World War 2 in Syria. The ship carrying the painting back to Australia sank and the painting was underwater for some time.

paragraphs: In 1946 the trustees selected works for instead of displaying all the entries. Less than a third of the entries were chosen for exhibition.

paragraphs: Dargie also won the 1956 prize with a portrait of Australia's celebrated Aboriginal painter Albert Namatjira. The portrait was done while Albert Namatjira was visiting Sydney from the Central Desert.

paragraphs: In 1964 and 1980 the prize was not awarded as there were no works that the trustees thought were good enough.

paragraphs: There are usually about 700 entries in the Archibald Prize, but only about 40 are selected as finalists for display. Some of the winning artists have had to enter for many years before they made the final display of paintings.

paragraphs: Portraits in 2006 included a painting of one of The Wiggles by Patrick Whiteley

paragraphs: politician Steve Bracks by Garry Anderson,

paragraphs: cricketer Dennis Lillee by Melinda Mackay,

paragraphs: musician and TV personality Wilbur Wilde by Phillip Howe,

paragraphs: Peter Slipper by Wayne Strickland. The 2010 prize winner was Sam Leach with his painting of musician Tim Minchin.

paragraphs: The prize has often been the centre of argument and there have even been several court cases. The most famous case was in 1943 when William Dobell's winning painting of artist Joshua Smith was claimed to be a caricature and not a portrait.

paragraphs: The Archibald is one of the few art prizes in which the artist's signature is covered up. The judges do not know who did the paintings. This is to try and stop the judges, some of whom are artists, from simply giving the prize to their friends and not the best painting.

paragraphs: Max Meldrum criticised the Archibald Prize winner in 1938, saying that women could not be expected to paint as well as men. Nora Heysen was the first woman to win the Archibald Prize, with a portrait of Madame Elink Schuurman, the wife of the Consul General for the Netherlands.

paragraphs: In 1953 several art students including John Olsen protested William Dargie's winning portrait. It was the seventh time he had won the prize. One protester tied a sign around her dog which said "Winner Archibald Prize – William Doggie". Dargie went on to win the prize again in 1956.

paragraphs: After Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was dismissed he refused to sit for the traditional portrait which is done of Australian Prime Ministers. He said that the 1972 Archibald Prize winning portrait by Clifton Pugh be used instead. This is now on display at New Parliament House in Canberra.

paragraphs: In 1975, John Bloomfield's portrait of Tim Burstall was rejected because it had been painted from a photograph, and not from life. The prize was then given to Kevin Connor. John Bloomfield took action in 1981 saying that the winner that year, Eric Smith had not painted his subject from life. In 1983 John Bloomfield went to court to try to get back the 1975 prize but was unsuccessful. In 1995 the application form of the Archibald Prize was changed to make it clear that the subject must be painted from life.

paragraphs: In 1985, control of the trust was given to the Art Gallery of New South Wales after a court case. In 1997 the painting of the Bananas in Pyjamas television characters by Evert Ploeg not allowed because it was not a painting of a person. Hundreds of portraits each year are not accepted as finalists.

paragraphs: The 2000 Archibald winner, Adam Cullen, took action against the American Broadcasting Company who had used his painting, "Portrait of David Wenham", in a television commercial.

paragraphs: In 2002, head packer Steve Peters chose a painting of himself by Dave Machin as a possible winner for the Packing Room Prize. It did not win, but it was on display outside the Archibald exhibition. After this, portraits of the head packer were no longer allowed.

paragraphs: In 2004 Craig Ruddy's portrait of actor David Gulpilil, won both the main prize and the "People's Choice" award. It was challenged because it was a charcoal sketch rather than a painting. The claim was dismissed in the Supreme Court in June 2006.

paragraphs: In 2008 Sam Leach's portrait of himself as Hitler made the front page of Melbourne's newspaper "The Age". This started a national argument about of his choice of subject matter. The prize money was also changed to $50 000

paragraphs: Since 1988 there have been two extra awards added to the Archibald prize event. In 1991 the Packing Room Prize was established. The staff who receive the portraits and put them in the gallery, vote for their choice of winner. Although the prize is said to be awarded by the staff, the gallery's head storeman – , Steve Peters – holds 51% of the vote. The other award is the Peoples Choice Award in which votes from the viewing public are collected to find a winner. This award also comes with a prize of $2,500. To date, there has never been a matching Archibald Prize winner and a Packing Room Prize chosen in the same year, but there were two Peoples Choice Awards given to Archibald Prize winners in 1988 and 2004.

paragraphs: Twice there has been a matching Packing prize winner and Peoples choice award (neither won the main prize). The first was Paul Newton's portrait of Roy Slaven and HG Nelson in 2001, and second was Jan Williamson's portrait of singer/songwriter Jenny Morris the following year in 2002.

paragraphs: The Archibald is held at the same time as the Sir John Sulman Prize, the Wynne Prize, the recent Australian Photographic Portrait Prize and was held with the Dobell Prize before 2003. The Archibald Prize is the next richest portrait prize in Australia, after the Doug Moran National Portrait Prize. However, the Archibald is the only artist's prize that receives much attention in the general press. Part of the reason is probably that many of the paintings feature well known Australians such as actors, sportspeople, and politicians, making the art more accessible than other genres. It is also longer running with a richer tradition than the newer established portrait prizes.

paragraphs: In 1978 Brett Whiteley won the Archibald, Wynne and Sulman Prizes all in the same year, the only time this has happened. It was his second win for the Archibald and the other prizes as well.

paragraphs: Some paintings which do not make the Archibald Prize finalists are shown at the S. H. Ervin Gallery in the Salon des Refusés exhibition, which began in 1992.

paragraphs: The satirical Bald Archy Prize, supposedly judged by a cockatoo, was started in 1994 at the Coolac Festival of Fun as a parody of the Archibald Prize; it attracted so many visitors that it has moved to Sydney.


title: Geraniales

paragraphs: The Geraniales are a small order of flowering plants in the rosid subgroup of dicotyledons.

paragraphs: In addition, the order includes some small families, with altogether less than 40 species. Most Geraniales are herbaceous, but there are also shrubs and small trees.


title: Pithole, Pennsylvania

paragraphs: Pithole or Pithole City is a ghost town in Cornplanter Township, Venango County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. It is about from Oil Creek State Park and the Drake Well Museum. The first oil well was in that area. The quick growing of Pithole and then fast decline made it one of the most famous of the oil boomtowns.

paragraphs: Oil was found at wells close to Pithole in January 1865. A large number of people moved to the area. Many of these people were land speculators. The town was built in May. By December, the area became an official town with about 20,000 people living in it. Pithole had at least 54 hotels, 3 churches, the third biggest post office in Pennsylvania, a newspaper, a theater, a railroad, the world's first pipeline, and a red-light district "the likes of Dodge City's". By 1866, less oil was being made in Pithole. Oil was found in other towns near Pithole. This made many people from Pithole leave to live in those places. By 1877, the town no longer existed.

paragraphs: The site was cleared of plants and was given to the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in 1961. A visitors center with information about the history of Pithole, was built in the 1970s. Pithole was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.


title: Cornales

paragraphs: Cornales is an order of flowering plants, basal among the asterids, containing about 600 species. Plants within Cornales usually have four-parted flowers, drupaceous fruits, and inferior gynoecia topped with disc-shaped nectaries. Under the APG system, Cornales includes the following families:


title: Cornplanter Township, Venango County, Pennsylvania

paragraphs: Cornplanter Township is a township in Venango County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 2,687 at the 2000 census.


title: Venango County, Pennsylvania

paragraphs: Venango County is a county in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, 54,984 people lived there. Its county seat is Franklin.


title: Pablo Escobar

paragraphs: Pablo Emilio Escobar Gaviria (December 1, 1949–December 2, 1993) was a Colombian drug lord. He is known as one of the "World's Greatest Outlaws". Escobar was the hardest cocaine dealer to catch. He is probably the richest and most successful criminal in world history. Some sources say that he was the second richest criminal ever, after Amado Carrillo Fuentes. In 1989, "Forbes" magazine said that Escobar was the seventh richest man in the world. The magazine said that he had about US $25 billion. He owned many luxury residences and automobiles. In 1986, he entered Colombian politics with success. He had to stop his political career because he was charged as criminal

paragraphs: Escobar was born in Rionegro in Antioquia, Colombia. He was the third of seven children to Abel de Jesus Escobar and Hemilda Gaviria. His father was a farmer and his mother an elementary school teacher. Escobar and his family lived in an adobe hut. They had no electricity and no running water. Pablo Escobar and his brother's school once sent them home because they had no shoes and no money to buy them. Pablo Escobar studied political science at a university nearby. He had to stop studying because he could not pay the fees. This was when he began his criminal career. He started to steal gravestones and removed the words from them to resell them. His brother, Roberto Escobar, said that this was not the truth. He said that the gravestones came from cemetery owners whose clients had stopped paying for site care. Escobar then studied for a short time at the University of Antioquia.

paragraphs: After this, Pablo started doing whatever else he could do to make money. He sold illegal cigarettes and fake lottery tickets. He even stole money from people when they left the bank. At the age of 20, he was already a famous car thief. In the early 1970s, he was a thief and bodyguard. He made $100,000 for kidnapping an executive from Medellín. Then he entered the drug trade. His next aim was to become a millionaire. Therefore, Escobar worked for the multi-millionaire and smuggler, Alvaro Prieto. Escobar became a millionaire at the age of 22.

paragraphs: The book "The Accountant's Story" which Pablo Escobar's brother published, Roberto Escobar, discusses how his brother became rich. It explains how he rose from poverty. The book also says how Escobar became one of the richest men of the world. He led the largest and most successful criminal enterprise in world history. At times, the Medellín drug cartel was smuggling 15 tons of cocaine a day. This was worth more than half a billion dollars. They sent it to the United States and sold it there. According to Roberto Escobar, Pablo Escobar's accountant, they spent $2,500 a month for buying rubber bands to wrap the stacks of cash. They had more illegal money than they could store in banks. Therefore, they stored the bricks of cash in their warehouses. About 10% were destroyed each year because of rats.

paragraphs: In 1975, Escobar started to develop his cocaine trade. He even flew a plane himself several times, mainly between Colombia and Panama. He smuggled a plane load into the United States. Escobar later bought 15 newer and bigger airplanes (including a Learjet) and 6 helicopters. .

paragraphs: There were no drug cartels then and only a few drug barons. There was a lot of business for everyone. They bought the cocaine paste in Peru. They refined it in a laboratory in a two-story house in Medellín. At first, they smuggled the cocaine in old planes. The pilot could earn as much as £500,000 for each flight depending on how much he could smuggle.

paragraphs: Soon the demand for cocaine in the United States increased. Escobar started to organize more smuggling ships and routes. He also improved the sale networks in South Florida, California and other parts of the USA. Escobar and Carlos Lehder worked together to develop a new drug center in the Bahamas, called Norman's Cay. Lehder and Robert Vesco bought most of the land on the island. This included an airstrip, a harbor, hotels, houses and boats. They also built a warehouse to store the cocaine. From 1978 to 1982, this was used as a central smuggling route for the Medellín Cartel. Escobar bought of land, which included Hacienda Napoles, for several million dollars. He created a zoo, a lake and other things for his family and organization. At one point, about 70 to 80 tons of cocaine were brought from Colombia to the United States every month. At the peak of Escobar's power in the mid-1980s, he sent about 11 tonnes per flight in planes to the United States. In addition to using the planes, Roberto Escobar said he also used two small submarines to transport the massive loads.

paragraphs: In 1982, Escobar was elected as a deputy (alternative) representative to the Chamber of Representatives of Colombia's Congress. He was part of the Colombian Liberal Party. During the 1980s, Escobar became known internationally because his drug network became famous. The Medellín Cartel controlled a large part of the drugs that entered the United States, Mexico, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. The cocaine was mostly from Peru and Bolivia. The Colombian coca was not of best quality. Escobar's product reached many other nations, mostly around the Americas. His network reportedly reached as far as Asia.

paragraphs: Corruption characterized Escobar's dealings with the Colombian system. He had an effective way of dealing with law enforcements and the government. This is often referred to as ""plata o plomo"" (literally "silver or lead"or "accept money or face bullets"). This resulted in the deaths of hundreds of individuals. This included civilians, policemen and state officials. At the same time, Escobar bribed many government officials, judges and other politicians. Escobar was responsible for the murder of Colombian presidential candidate Luis Carlos Galán. The "Cartel de Medellín" was also involved in a deadly drug war, their enemy was the Cartel de Cali.

paragraphs: Pablo Emilio Escobar Gaviria once said that the cocaine business was "simple - you bribe someone here, you bribe someone there, and you pay a friendly banker to help you bring the money back." In 1989, his Medellín cartel controlled 80% of the cocaine that was sent to the United States.

paragraphs: The United States and Colombian governments saw Escobar as an enemy. At the same time, Escobar was a hero to many people in Medellín, especially to the poor people as he built houses for them. He was a sports fan, and built football fields and multi-sports courts. He also sponsored children's football teams.

paragraphs: Escobar was responsible for the construction of many hospitals, schools and churches in western Colombia. This made him popular with the local Roman Catholic Church. He worked hard for his "Robin Hood" image. Escobar often gave money to the poor through housing projects and other civic activities. The population of Medellín often helped Escobar by watching the police. They also hid information from the authorities, and did whatever else they could do to protect him.

paragraphs: Despite his popular image among Medellín's community, Escobar was well-known among his business associates to be a calm and sensible partner to deal with. He preferred to use his money before his gun. His brother said that Pablo Escobar knew that money generated more loyalty than fear. Violence was often unnecessary.

paragraphs: The Colombian cartels quickly managed to make Colombia the world’s capital for murder with 25,100 violent deaths in 1991 and 27,100 in 1992. Escobar gave money to his hitmen as a reward for killing police officers. 600 officers died this way. Today, other countries, such as Guatemala, South Africa and Venezuela have more murders than Colombia.

paragraphs: In March 1976 when he was 26, Escobar married Maria Victoria. She was 11 years younger than him. Together they had two children: Juan Pablo and Manuela. Escobar built and lived in a luxurious house with his family. He wanted to construct a Greek-style citadel near it. They began the construction of the citadel but never finished. The ranch, the zoo and the citadel were expropriated by the government. They were given to poor families in the 1990s under a law called "extinción de dominio" (domain extinction).

paragraphs: After the murder of Luis Carlos Galán, a presidential candidate, the administration of César Gaviria moved against Escobar and the drug cartels. Eventually, the government talked with Escobar. They wanted him to to capitulate and to stop all criminal activity.

paragraphs: Escobar declared an end to a series of previous violence and terrorism, and turned himself in. He was held in what became his own luxurious private prison, "La Catedral". Before Escobar gave himself up, the government approved the extradition of Colombian citizens. This was controversial. People suspected that Escobar or other drug lords influenced members of the government.

paragraphs: Escobar continued his criminal activities. He began to influence the media. The government discovered that Escobar was continuing his criminal activities within La Catedral. They wanted to move Escobar to another prison on July 22, 1992. Escobar's influence allowed him to discover the plan in advance and escape. He was still worried that he could be sent to the United States.

paragraphs: In 1992, United States Special Forces joined the manhunt for Escobar. They trained and advised a special Colombian police task force, called the Search Bloc. It was created to locate Escobar. Later, as the conflict between Escobar and the governments grew, a group known as "Los Pepes" (Los Perseguidos por Pablo Escobar) formed. His rivals and former associates financed it. They wanted to find Escobar. Los Pepes carried out a bloody campaign and more than 300 of Escobar's associates were killed. Also, a lot of his cartel's property was destroyed.

paragraphs: Rumors said that members of the Search Bloc and of the Colombian and the United States intelligence agencies cooperated with "Los Pepes". One of the leaders of "Los Pepes" was Diego Murillo Bejarano, also known as "Don Berna". Before, he was a Medellín Cartel associate.

paragraphs: The fight against Escobar ended on December 2, 1993. The police used radio triangulation technology to find Escobar. The United States provided this technology to a Colombian electronic surveillance team. The group was led by Brigadier Hugo Martinez. The team found him hiding in a middle-class barrio in Medellín. With the permission from authorities, a firefight with Escobar and his bodyguard, Alvaro de Jesús Agudelo AKA "El Limón", happened. They tried to escape by running across the roofs of nearby houses to reach a back street, but both were shot and killed by Colombian National Police. Escobar suffered gunshots to the leg, torso, and the fatal one in his ear. It is not known who actually fired the final shot into Escobar's head. It is also unknown whether this shot was made during the gunfight or as part of possible execution. There is wide speculation about this. Some of the family members believe that Escobar could have committed suicide. His two brothers, Roberto Escobar and Fernando Sánchez Arellano, believe that he shot himself through the ears. "He committed suicide, he did not get killed. During all the years they went after him, he would say to me every day that if he was really cornered without a way out, he would shoot himself through the ears." The autopsy showed that there was no stippling pattern found around the ear, which suggested that the shot which killed Escobar was fired from further than an arm's length away.

paragraphs: After Escobar's death and the fragmentation of the Medellín Cartel, the rival Cali Cartel rose to power.

paragraphs: On October 28, 2006, Escobar's body was exhumed by request of his nephew Nicolás Escobar. This was two days after the death of mother Hermilda Gaviria, who opposed the exhumation. Nicolás Escobar wanted to verify that the body in the tomb was in fact that of Escobar. Escobar's nephew also collect DNA for a paternity test claim. According to the report by the "El Tiempo" newspaper, Escobar's widow Maria Victoria was present recording the exhumation with a video camera.

paragraphs: On July 4, 2006, Virginia Vallejo, the television news speaker offered information in the trial against former Senator Alberto Santofimio to the Colombian Attorney General Mario Iguaran. Vallejo was romantically involved with Escobar between 1983 and 1987. The Senator was accused of conspiracy in the 1989 murder of Presidential Candidate Luis Carlos Galán. Iguaran said that, although Vallejo contacted his office on the 4th, the judge had decided to close the trial on the 9th. This was several weeks before the prospective closing date and, in (Iguaran's) opinion, "too soon".


title: Art Institute of Chicago

paragraphs: The Art Institute of Chicago (AIC) is an art museum in Grant Park, Chicago. The Art Institute owns one of the world's best collections of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art. It also owns important American art, Old Masters, European and American decorative arts, Asian art and modern and contemporary art. The museum is linked with the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. James Cuno is its Director and President. Its buildings have one million square feet (92,903,040 m) of space. It is the second largest art museum in the United States. Only the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City has more space.

paragraphs: In 1866, a group of 35 artists founded the Chicago Academy of Design in a studio on Dearborn Street. The group wanted to run a free school with its own art gallery. The organization was modeled after European art academies, such as the Royal Academy. People who worked there were called Academians and Associate Academians. The Academy's charter was granted in March 1867.

paragraphs: Classes started in 1868. Classes met every day. Students paid the school US$10 per month. The new Academy was a success. The school next built a five story stone building at 66 West Adams Street, which opened on November 22, 1870.

paragraphs: When the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the building in 1871, the Academy began to owe a lot of money. The Academy tried and failed by renting facilities. By 1878, the Academy owed $10,000. Members tried to rescue the weak institution by making deals with local businesses. Some people gave up in 1879 and started a new new organization, named the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. When the Chicago Academy of Design went bankrupt the same year, the new Chicago Academy of Fine Arts bought its assets in an auction.

paragraphs: In 1882, the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts changed its name to the current name, Art Institute of Chicago. The same year, it purchased a lot on the corner of Michigan Avenue and Van Buren Street for $45,000. The school rented the property's existing building, and a new building was constructed behind it to house the school's facilities.

paragraphs: While Chicago planned how to host the 1892–93 World's Columbian Exposition (World's Fair), the Art Institute wanted a new building. The Art Institute proposed that the city build a permanent building on the lakefront for the fair and give the new building to the Institute afterwards. The city agreed, and the building was completed in time for the second year of the fair. Construction costs were paid by selling the Michigan/Van Buren property. On October 31, 1893, the Institute moved into the new building. This building is now called the Allerton Building. It faces Michigan Avenue on the west and the Illinois Central Railroad track on the east.

paragraphs: From the 1900s to the 1960s, the school offered with the Logan Family (members of the board) the Logan Medal of the Arts. The Logan Medal became one of the most distinguished awards presented to artists in the US. In 1924, the museum building expanded to the east by bridging over the railroad tracks with a new wing on the east side of the tracks.

paragraphs: Between 1959 and 1970, some people did not think that photos (art and documentary photography) were serious art that should be shown in art galleries. The Institute fought to change people's minds to accept such photos. Photo curator Hugh Edwards lead this fight.

paragraphs: As Director of the museum starting in the early 1980s, James N. Wood conducted a major expansion of its collection and oversaw a major renovation and expansion project for its facilities. "The New York Times" called Wood "one of the most respected museum leaders in the country". Wood created major exhibitions of works by Paul Gauguin, Claude Monet and Vincent Van Gogh that set records for attendance at the museum. He retired from the museum in 2004.

paragraphs: In 2006, the Art Institute began building its new "The Modern Wing". The new wing is on the southwest corner of Columbus and Monroe. Pritzker Prize winning architect Renzo Piano designed the new wing. It opened to the public on May 16, 2009. The building makes the Art Institute the second largest art museum in the United States. The building houses the museum’s world-renowned collections of 20th- and 21st-century art, specifically modern European painting and sculpture, contemporary art, architecture and design, and photography.

paragraphs: The collection of the Art Institute of Chicago covers more than 5,000 years of human expression from cultures around the world. The museum owns more than 260,000 works of art. The art institute holds works of art ranging from as early as the Japanese prints to the most updated American art.

paragraphs: Today, the museum is most famous for its collections of Impressionist, Post-Impressionist, and American paintings. There are more than 30 paintings by Claude Monet in the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist collection. These include six of Monet's "Haystacks" and a number of his "Water Lilies". Also in the collection are important works by Pierre-Auguste Renoir such as "Two Sisters (On the Terrace)" and Henri Matisse's "The Bathers", Paul Cézanne's "The Basket of Apples", and "Madame Cézanne in a Yellow Chair." "At the Moulin Rouge" by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec is another highlight, as are Georges Seurat's "Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte" and Gustave Caillebotte's "Paris Street; Rainy Day". Non-French paintings of the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist collection include Vincent Van Gogh's "Bedroom in Arles" and "Self-portrait, 1887". The museum also has American art works including Grant Wood's "American Gothic," Edward Hopper's "Nighthawks" and Mary Cassatt's "The Child's Bath." In September 2010, the Art Institute launched its first mobile application. This application is a catalogue (guide) to this Impressionist and Post-Impressionist collection.

paragraphs: The Art Institute also shows a number of works that are not paintings. The Thorne Miniature Rooms hold 1:12 scale interiors showcasing American, European and Asian architectural and furniture styles from the Middle Ages to the 1930s (when the rooms were constructed).

paragraphs: The Touch Gallery of the museum is specially designed for people who cannot see. It has several works which museum guests are encouraged to experience though the sense of touch instead of through sight as well as specially designed description plates written in braille. The American Decorative Arts galleries contain furniture pieces designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and Charles and Ray Eames. The Ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman galleries hold the mummy and mummy case of Paankhenamun, as well as several gold and silver coins.

paragraphs: The Terra Museum (now the Terra Foundation) was a separate Chicago art museum that closed in October 2004. Since April 2005, approximately fifty paintings from that museum have been on loan to the Department of American Art at the Art Institute of Chicago. The combined collections of the Terra and the Art Institute are located in a new suite of galleries. They provide one of the nation’s most comprehensive presentations of American art. The foundation’s collection of American works on paper are in the Department of Prints and Drawings at the Art Institute.

paragraphs: Art Institute of Chicago promotes the study of art made by African-Americans. Its collection provide a historical illustration of the progress made by African Americans. Works also show African Americans' continuing struggle. The collection includes items dating from the Civil War era, from the Harlem Renaissance, from the civil rights struggles following World War II and from the contemporary period.

paragraphs: The Art Institute owns a collection of medieval art made in Europe during the years 800-1300 AD. It features both religious works and daily life objects. It includes painting and sculpture, luxury metalwork and stained glass, textiles and manuscript illumination. The museum owns major collections of arms and armor, jewelry, ceramics, and tapestries. The museum owns items from the Renaissance era (1300-1600) in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the Netherlands.

paragraphs: Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge of Boston, Massachusetts designed the Allerton Building in the Beaux-Arts style. It was built for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition as the World's Congress Auxiliary Building with the intent that the Art Institute occupy the building after the fair closed.

paragraphs: Two bronze lion statues are on the sides of the Art Institute's western entrance on Michigan Avenue. Their sculptor Edward L. Kemeys gave them unofficial names: the south lion is "stands in an attitude of defiance," and the north lion is "on the prowl." When a Chicago sports team plays in the championships of their respective league (that is, the Super Bowl or Stanley Cup Finals, not the entire playoffs), the lions are frequently dressed in that team's uniform. Evergreen wreaths are placed around their necks during the Christmas season.

paragraphs: The east entrance of the museum is marked by the stone arch entrance that was moved from the old Chicago Stock Exchange building. Louis Sullivan designed the Exchange in 1894. The Exchange was torn down in 1972. But saved portions of the original trading room were rebuilt inside the Art Institute.

paragraphs: The Art Institute building is unusual because it is two sets of buildings linked by a two-story bridge over open-air railroad tracks. The construction of Millenium Park moved the Metra Electric and South Shore railroad lines underground. This made room for the new Modern Wing and exterior courtyards. Before this change, the lower level of the bridge building was formerly the windowless Gunsaulus hall, but is now home to the Alsdorf Galleries showcasing Indian, Southeast Asian and Himalayan Art. The renovation added windows facing north toward Millennium Park. Renzo Piano designed the gallery space in conjunction with his design of the Modern Wing. The gallery features the same window screening used there to protect the art from direct sunlight. The upper level of the bridge building formerly held the modern European galleries, But it was renovated in 2008. The galleries now show Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art.

paragraphs: On May 16, 2009, the Art Institute opened the Modern Wing, the largest expansion in the museum's history. The addition, designed by Renzo Piano, makes the Art Institute the second-largest museum in the US. The Modern Wing is home to the museum's collection of early 20th-century European art, including Pablo Picasso’s "The Old Guitarist", Henri Matisse’s "Bathers by a River", and René Magritte’s "Time Transfixed." The Modern wing also houses contemporary art from after 1960; new photography, video media, architecture and design galleries. Those galleries show original renderings by Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Bruce Goff. The Modern wing also has temporary exhibition space; shops and classrooms; a cafe and a restaurant, "Terzo Piano", that overlooks Millennium Park from its terrace. In addition, the Nichols Bridgeway connects a sculpture garden on the roof of the Modern wing with the adjacent Millennium Park to the north and a courtyard designed by Gustafson Guthrie Nichol.

paragraphs: In 2009, the Modern Wing won a Chicago Innovation Awards.

paragraphs: The Ryerson & Burnham Libraries are on the ground floor of the museum. The Libraries' collections cover all periods of art, but is most known for its large collection of 18th-20th century architecture. The Libraries serve the museum staff, college, and university students, and the general public. The Friends of the Libraries is a support group for the Libraries. It offers events and special tours for its members.

paragraphs: Note that other notable works are in the collection but the following examples are ones in the public domain and for which pictures are available.


title: Kerberos (moon)

paragraphs: Kerberos (formerly known as S/2011 (134340) 1 and informally as P4) is a small moon of the dwarf planet Pluto. The satellite was discovered on 28 June 2011. It is the fourth moon of Pluto to be discovered. The others are Charon, discovered in 1978, Nix and Hydra, which were discovered in 2005, and Styx, discovered in 2012.

paragraphs: The moon was discovered by a Hubble Space Telescope observing team led by Mark Showalter, while they were trying to find out if Pluto had any rings. Kerberos was first seen in a photo taken with Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3, on June 28, 2011. More photos were taken on July 3 and July 18, 2011, to confirm that it exists. The moon was officially verified and announced on July 20, 2011. Kerberos was not seen in earlier Hubble photos because the exposure times were shorter. The moon may have appeared as a very faint smudge in photos taken in 2006, but was ignored because it was not clear. Kerberos is possibly also visible in images taken in 2010.

paragraphs: Kerberos has an estimated diameter of 13–34 km (8–21 miles).

paragraphs: Kerberos and Pluto's other moons are thought to have been created by a cosmic collision between the dwarf planet and another celestial body early in the Solar System's history.


title: Defence against predators

paragraphs: For most animals, defence against predators is vital. Being eaten is not the only threat to life: parasites and diseases may also be fatal. But animals, especially small animals, are often eaten.

paragraphs: Since life is about reproduction, anything that keeps a creature alive long enough for it to reproduce will be selected for. The next generation comes from the fertilised eggs of the previous generation.

paragraphs: Not surprisingly, then, animals have developed a wide range of defences against predation. Some of these defences apply also to plants: herbivory on plants can be very damaging, and reduce a plant's fertility. Many plants have some defence against herbivores.

paragraphs: Primary defences make it less likely that there will be a meeting between the predator and the prey. In many cases this means the predator has not noticed or recognised the prey.

paragraphs: There are various definitions of what a primary defence is:

paragraphs: If the prey is good to eat, it must either make itself scarce, or it must look as though it is not good to eat. A third possibility is that the prey is too small to bother with. In other words, the effort of catching and eating it would not be worth the effort expended by the predator.

paragraphs: Defences may be of two kinds. Either the prey is uneatable because it has some kind of chemical defence, or its body is protected by spines or stings. In that case the predator will reject it so long as the prey advertises its defence.

paragraphs: The second kind of defence is very obvious. It is to carry armour and/or offensive weapons like horns. These are permanent visible defences. For larger prey animals this can be effective if linked to another defence. Thus, in natural habitats, elephants have tusks, and they also have huge size. Antelope have horns, and can also run fast. Almost all large herbivores live in herds, which undoubtedly is safer than living alone.

paragraphs: These work when a predator detects a prey, or when a prey notices a predator. The function of secondary defences is to increase the chance of the prey surviving the encounter (meeting).

paragraphs: Everything costs something. All defences incur costs. For survival, an animals needs food, and needs to stay alive to reproduce. Energy and time spent on defence can be considerable, but justified if it makes reproduction more likely. There are these kinds of costs:


title: Boomtown

paragraphs: A boomtown is a place that has very quick population and economic growth. Boomtowns are usually mining towns where an important mineral resource such as gold, silver, or petroleum has been found. It can happen, for example in a gold rush. Gold rush towns usually shrink and disappear after the gold is dug up. They become ghost towns.

paragraphs: The word can also be used for places that grow for other reasons. This can be the town being near a major city, in a nice climate or near a popular attraction.


title: Alexander (movie)

paragraphs: Alexander is a 2004 epic drama war movie about Alexander III of Macedon. It was directed by Oliver Stone.

paragraphs: The budget of this movie was about 155 million dollars. Its box office was about 167 million dollars.

paragraphs: The story is about Alexander III of Macedon and his battles against Great Persian Empire and his victories, in the beginning, movie shows early life of Alexander and what happened in his young ages and what his father King Philip II did. When Philip died Alexander was King of Macedon and decided to fight with Persian Empire and at last he conquered Persia. When he wanted conquer India in a battle he wounded and died.


title: Karaj

paragraphs: Karaj (Persian: کرج) is an Iranian city and main city of Alborz province. The city has about 1,370,000 inhabitants.


title: Plymouth, Montserrat

paragraphs: Plymouth was a town in Montserrat. It was founded in the 1700s and named for Plymouth, England. It served as the capital of Montserrat. It was also the island's main port. It was destroyed by a volcano in 1997.


title: Cognitive bias

paragraphs: A cognitive bias happens when someone makes a bad choice that they think is a good choice. This bias is an important part of the study of cognitive psychology. Cognitive biases are often because of evolution. Some behaviors were good for primitive humans and animals that seem foolish today. The scientific method limits the results of cognitive bias.


title: Definitely Maybe

paragraphs: Definitely Maybe is the first album by Oasis. It was released under the label Creation Records on the August 30, 1994.


title: SN 1987A

paragraphs: SN 1987A was a [[supernova]] in a [[Large Magellanic Cloud|small galaxy]] that is orbiting our Milky Way galaxy. The supernova was 168,000 light years away, and so happened 168,000 years ago. But it was 1987 when it was first seen. It was close enough that scientists found [[neutrino]]s before the light got to Earth.

paragraphs: SN 1987A is the only supernova that has been that close in modern times, It was the brightest object seen from Earth in over 400 years. There have been many others that were closer but they were before scientists had the tools to help them understand what was happening.


title: Kepler's Supernova

paragraphs: SN 1604 was a supernova seen in 1604. It was seen in the constellation Ophiuchus. SN 1604 is sometimes called Kepler's Nova or Kepler's Supernova or Kepler's Star since Johannes Kepler studied it. SN 1604 is the last supernova to have been seen in our galaxy.


title: Scott Stewart (director)

paragraphs: Scott Stewart (alias Scott Charles Stewart) is an American movie director, writer, movie producer and special effects maker.

paragraphs: Stewart worked at the special effects business called The Orphanage. Stewart directed and wrote the movie "Legion". "Legion" is an action movie and horror movie about the end of the world, also called the apocalypse. He directed the vampire and western horror movie "Priest". He has had actor Paul Bettany star in his first two movies.


title: Rhinoplasty

paragraphs: Rhinoplasty is an operation performed to change the shape, size or appearance of the human nose.


title: Chinstrap penguin

paragraphs: The chinstrap penguin ("Pygoscelis antarctica") is a penguin that gets its name from the narrow band of black feathers that goes under their "chin" from ear to ear. They are sometimes called the ‘stone-cracker penguin’ because of their squeaky and high pitched call. Chinstrap penguins are found in polar, shallow seas and coastal areas. Some penguins are born very pale and are called ‘Blonde’ penguins. There are more chinstrap penguins than any other penguins in the world.

paragraphs: They feed mainly on krill and fish. The chinstrap penguins make nests in round shapes made from small stones and take turns in sitting on the eggs, they can be left on the nest for 10 days.

paragraphs: These little penguins are only about tall and weigh about . Chinstraps may be small, but they are the boldest penguins of all.


title: Adélie penguin

paragraphs: The Adélie penguin ("Pygoscelis adeliae") is a Antarctic penguin that has a black head and back with a white chest and belly, and a white ring around each of their eyes. There are about 2.5 million Adélie penguins in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica. Adélie penguins travel the furthest to breed because they build their nests from stones and need to find stones. Adélies come ashore to breed in the summer. In the winter, they live on ice that floats off the Antarctic shore.

paragraphs: Adélie parents take turns keeping their chicks warm and fed. While one watches the nest, the other goes into the ocean to catch krill. The penguins carry the krill back to the nest in their stomachs. Then they regurgitate it to feed their chicks.

paragraphs: Most Adélie penguins incubate two eggs at a time. The little chicks hatch out at about the same time. One is usually stronger than the other and has a better chance of surviving.

paragraphs: When first born, the chicks are kept warm by their parents. But after two or three weeks, they grow a thick, woolly gray down. Then they join other chicks in creches, or nursery groups.

paragraphs: Adélie penguins are the smallest penguins in Antarctica. They weigh only about , or the weight of a typical house cat. They are about .


title: Katabatic wind

paragraphs: A katabatic wind is a very strong wind which blows downhill. They can be warm winds like the "föhn" wind on the north slopes of the Alps in Europe or the Chinook which blows down the Rockies in the US. They can also be very cold winds like those in Antarctica or Greenland. They are made when cold, dense air flows down from the ice cap to the coast. Sometimes these winds are called "fall winds". Along the Adriatic coast, the cold katabatic wind is called the "bora", and in France it is called the "mistral".


title: Galápagos penguin

paragraphs: Galápagos penguins ("Spheniscus mendiculus") live on the Galápagos Islands. Because these islands are at the equator, the waters are warm not all penguins live in cold climates. They do not migrate.

paragraphs: Galapagos penguins have two bands of brown feathers on their faces and their beaks are thin and slender.

paragraphs: They weigh five pounds and are one and a half feet tall.


title: Macaroni penguin

paragraphs: Macaroni penguins are crested penguins that get their names from their crest. Macaroni penguins are known for their black faces and the orange-yellow crests that create a band across their foreheads.

paragraphs: Macaroni penguins live on islands on the edge of Antarctica, as well as on islands that lie south of Africa and the Americas. They make their nests on cliffs and hillsides.

paragraphs: Macaroni penguins weigh 10 pounds and are a little over 2 feet tall. As predators, Macaroni penguins eat fish, squid, and krill, but they mostly eat krill as their food. Mothers and fathers of their chicks will feed their young by regurgitating the food into their mouth. Penguins get their food by diving into the ocean and chasing after their food. Penguins can survive up to 40 days without food. When penguins go hunting for their food, they swim from down in the water. Sometimes when they are hunting at night, they swim up to . But that is really rare. They usually swim for 2 minutes before coming up for air. Macaroni penguin chicks do not get any food until they are a week old.

paragraphs: Macaroni penguins usually live on bumpy or flat ground. They don't really live in places with many plants, but some penguins make their nests around grass. Macaroni penguins generally live by the water because they eat seafood.

paragraphs: Macaroni penguins have many different ways of communicating. They might make noisy, shrieking sounds or they might bobble their heads. Sometimes, they even flap their wings. They make their head feathers wave when they are excited.

paragraphs: Penguins use their feet and tail to help them swim. They can swim up to 15 miles per hour. Swimming that fast helps them get away from predators that might eat them. Penguins spend a lot of their time swimming. Penguins are slow on land because they waddle their feet instead of walking. They sway their body from side to side while they waddle their feet. Sometimes, they also slide down hills on their belly which is much faster than waddling. Sliding helps them get to places faster.


title: Little penguin

paragraphs: The Little penguin ("Eudyptula minor"), also called the fairy penguin, little blue penguin, and blue penguin. They are a species of penguin that lives near the coasts of Australia and New Zealand. The little penguin is the smallest of all penguins.

paragraphs: The penguins weigh around 0.9 kg (2 lbs) and are up to 40 cm (15 in) tall. On average, they are 33 cm (13 in) tall.

paragraphs: The little penguin is slate gray or indigo along the head and back, with a white belly and neck. The flippers - wings - are dark blue, with a white edge along the back. Males and females of the species are very similar but males have a curve on the end of their beak. Juvenile little penguins, which are younger than adults, have lighter colors. Little penguin chicks have blue-grey bellies and brown feathers.

paragraphs: Originally, the Eudyptula genus included two different species of penguin, the little penguin ("E. minor") and the fairy penguin ("E. undina"). In 1976, scientists combined these two species into one species ("E. minor") with six subspecies. However, new research on the penguins' mitochondrial DNA shows that the DNA of populations in the Australia and southern New Zealand region are very different from those of little penguins in northern New Zealand. Because of those discoveries, some researchers still argue about whether these two populations should be divided into two different species. Another common argument is over the classification of the white-flippered penguin. While most believe the white-flippered penguin is a subspecies of the little penguin, some argue that it is a different species. Others argue that it is not a subspecies at all, but a morph that just has different colors.

paragraphs: The six subspecies of the little penguin are:

paragraphs: The little penguin has different common names depending on their location. In Australia, they are often called fairy penguins because the Australia population was originally considered a part of that species. In New Zealand, they are called little blue penguins or blue penguins because their gray feathers look more blue in the sun. They are also called 'Kororā' in Māori, the language of New Zealand natives.

paragraphs: Little penguins live in sandy burrows at night and go to the ocean during the day. They can be found right around the south coast of Australia, from Perth in the west to Coffs Harbour on the east coast. They are found all around Tasmania. The largest little penguin colonies in New South Wales are on Montague Island, Tollgate Island and Brush Island.

paragraphs: The little penguin is known for its wide variety of calls. In fact, one of the main ways scientists identify different little penguin subspecies is by the differences in the noises the penguin groups make.

paragraphs: Because little penguins live together in large groups, called colonies, it is important they can tell each other apart. Little penguins can find their mates, even in crowded and loud areas, by the distinctive call that each penguin makes.

paragraphs: Little penguins have one call that changes to mean different things. Most calls have a rhythm of two repeated sounds.

paragraphs: Little penguins are the only penguin species that breeds nocturnally - that is, at night.

paragraphs: At Phillip Island off the coast of Victoria, there is a "Penguin Parade" where lights and viewing stands have been set up so that people can watch the penguins return to their homes at dusk. Over 500,000 visitors from around the world visit each year.


title: Jared Leto

paragraphs: Jared Joseph Leto (born December 26, 1971) is an American actor and musician. he is known for acting in movies such as "Fight Club"; "Girl, Interrupted"; "Panic Room"; "American Psycho"; "Alexander"; "Requiem for a Dream"; "Lord of War"," Prefontaine", "Mr. Nobody" and "Suicide Squad".

paragraphs: He started a rock band called Thirty Seconds to Mars in 1998 with his brother Shannon Leto. Leto is the singer. The band has released four albums.