title: Gujarat

paragraphs: Gujarat (, ) is a state within the Republic of India. Gandhinagar is the capital of Gujarat. This city is named after Mahatma Gandhi. Its area is 75,686 mi² (196,077 km²), excluding the Kori Creek of the Rann of Kachchh: which is disputed by Pakistan , but it includes the Kutch District, in terms of area it is bigger than Syria but smaller than Senegal.

paragraphs: In traditional Indian geography it falls under the West Indian zone. Ahmedabad, Baroda, Surat, Bharuch, Porbandar, Rajkot, Jamnagar are some important cities in Gujarat. Champaner, Gondal, Bhavnagar, Utelia, Zainabad, Bhuj, Sasangir are some tourist places. People in Gujarat are mainly engaged in Agriculture and business.

paragraphs: The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and the Arabian Sea and the Pakistani province of Sindh to the west. Its capital city is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is native place to the Gujarati-speaking people of India.

paragraphs: Gujarat is derived from the Sanskrit term "Gurjaradesa", meaning "The Land of the Gurjaras", who ruled Gujarat in the 8th and 9th centuries CE. Parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat have been known as "Gurjaratra" or "Gurjarabhumi" (land of the Gurjars) for centuries before the Mughal period.


title: Haryana

paragraphs: Haryana () is a state in the Republic of India. It is the birthplace of Hinduism. The main dialect spoken in the area is Haryanvi. The area is . It is larger than Denmark but smaller than Estonia. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North Indian zone.


title: Himachal Pradesh

paragraphs: Himachal Pradesh () (Punjabi: ਹਿਮਾਚਲ ਪ੍ਰਦੇਸ਼) is a state in northern India. Shimla is the capital of Himachal Pradesh. It covers an area of 56,019 km² (21,629 mi²), although the border with China is still disputed. The land contains high mountains. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North Indian zone. It borders the disputed Indian-occupied territory of "Indian-administered Kashmir" to the north.

paragraphs: Himachal Pradesh was part of Indian Punjab before 1966.

paragraphs: The State of HP is divided into three Divisions, namely Mandi Division, Kangra Division, Shimla Division. The divisions are further sub-divided into 12 districts. These are further divided into 55 sub-divisions, 82 tehsils and 35 sub-tehsils.


title: Jammu and Kashmir (state)

paragraphs: Jammu and Kashmir was the northmost state of India. The state covered and is mostly in the Himalayan mountains. Jammu and Kashmir used to be a British protectorate in 1860. Jammu and Kashmir borderd the states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south-east and south respectively. The other parts of state are administered by Pakistan as Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.

paragraphs: Jammu and Kashmir has been a subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947, and China since 1962.

paragraphs: Jammu and Kashmir has a Muslim majority population. Though Islam is practiced by about 67% of the population of the state and by 97% of the population of the Kashmir valley, the state has large communities of Buddhists, Hindus (inclusive of Meghwal and Sikhs).

paragraphs: Jammu and Kashmir consisted of three divisions: Jammu region, Kashmir Valley, and the Ladakh region. Srinagar is the summer capital, and Jammu its winter capital. The Kashmir valley, often called "paradise on Earth", is famous for its beautiful mountainous landscape. Jammu's numerous holy shrines attracts millions of Hindu pilgrims every year from all over the India. Ladakh, also known as "Little Tibet", is renowned for its remote mountain beauty and Buddhist culture.


title: Jharkhand

paragraphs: Jharkhand (, ) is a state in the Republic of India. About 20,000,000 people live there. The state covers . It is bigger than Sierra Leone but smaller than Panama. It has many villages and towns. Ranchi is the capital city. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the East Indian zone.


title: Madhya Pradesh

paragraphs: Madhya Pradesh is a state in the Republic of India. The state has an area of . It is bigger than Italy but smaller than Oman. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the West Indian zone. The capital of the state is Bhopal. The largest city is Indore.

paragraphs: Other main cities are Jabalpur and Ujjain. Ujjain is well known for mythological reasons. Mandav, Bhojpur and Panchmadi are the main tourist attractions.

paragraphs: To the north of Madhya Pradesh is the state of Uttar Pradesh and to the northwest is the state of Rajasthan, while Maharashtra is to the southwest.


title: Manipur

paragraphs: Manipur is a state within the Republic of India. It has area of 8,628 mi² (22,347 km²). In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North-east Indian zone.

paragraphs: The state is bordered by the Indian states of Nagaland to its north, Mizoram to its south and Assam to its west. Its eastern border is the Indian border with Myanmar. Manipur has a long recorded written history of kings ascended in the main throne of Kangla. The list of these kings can be found in a chronicle known as "Cheitharol Kumbaba". Cheitharol Kumbaba, also spelled Cheitharon Kumpapa, is the court chronicle of the kings of Manipur. It claims to trace the history of the Kingdom of Manipur from the founding of the ruling dynasty in 33 CE under king Nongda Lairen Pakhangba until the merger of the kingdom with India in 1949 and the subsequent abolition of monarchy. It ends with the last king of Manipur, Bodhchandra. The Cheitharol Kumbaba is probably the oldest chronicle of the region and is written on more than 1,000 leaves of "Meetei" paper in Meetei Mayek, an early Meitei script.


title: Meghalaya

paragraphs: Meghalaya () is a state within the Republic of India. Occupying an area of 8,660 mi² (22,429 km²), bigger than the State of Israel but smaller than Belize. Its capital is Shillong. Meghalaya's population is 2,318,822. The population of Shillong was 314,610 in 2001. There are problems in Meghalaya arise from the divide between tribals and non tribal settlers, identity issues and growing corruption besides the fear of being reduced to minority by native tribals. The activity status is classified as active. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North-east Indian zone.


title: Mizoram

paragraphs: Mizoram is a state in the Republic of India. It is in the eastern region beyond Bangladesh. It covers an area of . It is bigger than the nation of El Salvador but smaller than the State of Israel. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North-east Indian zone.

paragraphs: The word "Mizoram" means "land of the Mizo people". It is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India, sharing borders with the states of Tripura, Assam, Manipur and with the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh and Myanmar. Mizoram became the 23rd state of India on 20 February 1987. The capital of Mizoram is Aizawl.


title: Nagaland

paragraphs: Nagaland is a northeastern state in the Republic of India. It has an area of . It is bigger than East Timor but smaller than Eswatini. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North-east Indian zone.


title: Odisha

paragraphs: Odisha, formerly known as Orissa, is a state on the east coast of the Republic of India, with an area of , and 30 boroughs. The official languages of Odisha are Oriya, Hindi and English. It is about the same size as Bangladesh. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the East Indian zone. Odisha is the ninth largest Indian State and the eleventh most populous. Popular tourist destinations include Puri, Bhubaneswar and Konark (UNESCO World Heritage Listed). Other major cities are Cuttack, Sambalpur, Berhampur, Dhenkanal and Raurkela. Biju Patnaik International Airport (BBI) is Odisha's only airport. The current Chief Minister is Naveen Patnaik. Nearby states are West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkand. Odisha has successfully hosted several sports events as Asian Junior Women's Rugby Tournament, the 22nd Asian Athletics Championship, Men's Hockey World League and also 2014 Hockey Champions Trophy. It has identified sports as a sector to attract investments for and has also hosted the Men's Hockey World Cup in 2018.


title: Punjab, India

paragraphs: Punjab (, ) is a state in the northern Republic of India. About 24 million people live there. Its national capital city is Chandigarh. The city is a separate territory, because it is also used be the capital of Haryana. The state is in the Punjab region. It covers an area of 19,445 mi² or 50,362 km². It is bigger than Slovakia but smaller than Costa Rica. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North Indian zone. The state of Punjab has 22 districts. It is mainly known as the land of god/gurus, Punjab's culture is very rich and the dwellers of Punjab respect their culture . The half population of Punjab depends on agriculture, that's why its known as food-provider (anna-datta- in Punjabi). In Punjab people of all religions live with integrity and love .

paragraphs: The word "Doab" is a combination of the Indo-Iranian words "Doab" ("two") and "āb" ("water"), and thus the (land of) "two rivers". The two rivers are the Beas and Sutlej. Sometimes, in English, there can be a definite article before the name i.e. "the Doaba". The name is also sometimes spelled as "Duoab" or "Douaab" or "Doaab".

paragraphs: It originally contained 5 rivers before partition, British influence and the influence of the Indian government, so therefore its name came from the Punjabi word for five (Panj/Punj) and the word for river/water (ab).

paragraphs: All of India was once ruled by the British Empire. The Indians wanted freedom, but the Hindus, Sikhs and the Muslims of India always argued. So it was decided to divide the country into two parts—one part for Muslims and one part for Hindus and Sikhs. In 1947 Punjab (British India), which was a province of India, was divided into West Punjab and East Punjab (which the state is home to the active independence movement of Khalistan by the Sikh nationalists). East Punjab went to the Republic of modern India, and West Punjab went to Islamic Pakistan.


title: Rajasthan

paragraphs: Rajasthan () or the former : Rajputana is a state in northwestern India. It is the largest state of India in terms of land area; 132,150 mi² or 342,269 km². It is bigger than the Republic of the Congo but smaller than Germany. In traditional India geography it falls under the North Indian zone. The Thar Desert covers most parts of the state. The capital of the state is city of Jaipur.

paragraphs: Before Indian independence the area of Rajasthan was known as Rajputana; it consisted of many states of varying sizes ruled by Rajput princes.


title: Tripura

paragraphs: Tripura () () is a state in Northeast India. It covers an area of .It is the 3rd smallest state of India. It is bigger than Lebanon but smaller than Kosovo. The capital city is Agartala.

paragraphs: It is a Disputed Territory claimed as "Chittagonian Plains" by Bangladesh. Bangladesh says that as Tripura was an Independent Kingdom and never part of British India, the Republic of India had no right to annex the country after the death of its last King.


title: Uttarakhand

paragraphs: Uttarakhand (2000-2006: Uttaranchal); (Sanskrit:उत्तरखन्द्), is a state in northern India. The state had 8,479,562 people as of the 2001 census. It covers an area of . It is bigger than Bosnia and Herzegovina, but smaller than Croatia, although the border with China is still disputed. The land contains high mountains. In traditional Indian geography, it falls within the North Indian zone.


title: Uttar Pradesh

paragraphs: Uttar Pradesh (, ) is a state in northern India. For short, people call it UP. Lucknow is the capital city of UP.

paragraphs: The population of the state is 199,581,477 (census 2011). It covers an area of 93,933 mi² (243,286 km²). It is bigger than the United Kingdom but smaller than Guinea. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North Indian zone.

paragraphs: Uttar Pradesh has a long border with Nepal to the north. Next to it are also the Indian states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar. There are two geographical main regions:-

paragraphs: The climate of Uttar Pradesh is mostly subtropical. However weather conditions change a lot depending on where one lives and the season.

paragraphs: "Temperature": The average temperatures vary from 12.5–17.5°C (54.5–63.5°F) in January to 27.5–32.5°C (81.5–90.5°F) in May and June. The highest temperature recorded in the State was 49.9°C (121.8°F). It was at Gonda on May 8, 1958.

paragraphs: "Rainfall": Rainfall is between 1,000 and 2,000 mm (40–80 inches) in the east and between 600 and 1,000 mm (24–40 inches) in the west. Most of the rain is due to the southwest monsoon. It lasts from June to September. Consequently, floods are a problem during those seasons. They badly damage crops and property.

paragraphs: "Droughts": They occur when the monsoon does not come in the usual season. It leads to crop failure.

paragraphs: "Snowfall": In the Himalayan region of the State it usually snows from 3 to 5 metres (10 to15 feet) between December and March.

paragraphs: Airways: The state has four important airports and 23 air strips. They are in Agra, Kanpur, Lucknow and Varanasi. Lucknow is the biggest and most important airport of the state.

paragraphs: Railways: Almost all the major cities and even some smaller cities are linked. The state has the largest railway network in the country. Its total length is 8,546 km (2006). It has the sixth largest railway density.

paragraphs: Roadways: The state has the largest road network in the country. The biggest is Maharashtra. There are 31 National Highways (NH). In total they are of 4,942 km (8.5% of total NH length in India). It has the seventh highest road density in the India (1,027 km per 1000 km in 2002). It also has the largest surfaced urban road network in the country (50,721 km, as on 2002). Cities of Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Allahabad, Varanasi, Jhansi, Gorakhpur, Noida, Ghaziabad, Meerut, Mathura, Agra and Ghazipur are connected to many National Highways.

paragraphs: Waterways: The river Ganges - from Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh) to Haldia (West Bengal) - has been declared as National Waterway (NW)-I and 600 km of the total NW-I lies in Uttar Pradesh.


title: West Bengal

paragraphs: West Bengal () is a state in India. It is in the eastern part of the country. West Bengal is the fourth most populous state in India. It is also the seventh most populous sub-national entity in the world. West Bengal is the sixth largest contributor to India's GDP.

paragraphs: Both West Bengal and Bangladesh are parts of historical and geographic region of Bengal. Kolkata is the capital city of West Bengal. In 2001, 80,221,171 people lived in West Bengal. With an area of 34,267 mi² (88,752 km²), it is bigger than Serbia but smaller than Jordan. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the East Indian zone.

paragraphs: West Bengal has a tropical climate, so it is very hot and humid in summer and cool in winter. The people who live here are called Bengalis. Bengalis also live in Bangladesh. Bangladesh is a country to the east of West Bengal

paragraphs: All of India was once ruled by the British Empire. The Indians wanted freedom, but the Hindus and the Muslims of India always argued. So it was decided to divide the country into two parts—one part for Muslims and the other part for Hindus. In 1947 Bengal, which was a province of India, was divided into West Bengal and East Bengal,which is now called Bangladesh. West Bengal went to India, and East Bengal went to Pakistan and was called East Pakistan. In 1971, Bangladesh became independent, as a result of the Bangladesh Liberation War.


title: Szczecin

paragraphs: Szczecin () is a large city in Poland in West Pomeranian Voivodeship. As of 2005, 411,119 people live there. The city is on the river Odra (), near the border to Germany. It is one of the largest sea ports on the Baltic. It is the historical capital of the German province of Pomerania. Szczecin has got one of the biggest harbours on the Baltic Sea.

paragraphs: Szczecin borders with Police, a district town at the Oder River.


title: Metropolitan area

paragraphs: A metropolitan area is a city and its surrounding suburbs. The word "metropolitan" comes from two Greek language words meaning "mother" and "city". A metropolitan area may be much larger than its inner city, and its suburbs may be smaller towns and villages which are now connected to the larger city as it has grown. The biggest such metropolitan area is that of Tokyo. 8.5 million people live in Tokyo itself, 36.5 million live in the "metropolitan area".

paragraphs: A metropolitan area is a large urban area. The inner city may look little different from the surrounding area of buildings and lights. The entire built-up area is the metropolitan area. The inner city may be near the middle, or to one side. Some urban areas have more than one inner city.

paragraphs: Some places, such as in Australia, have metropolitan government. The entire metropolitan area is included as a part of the city, and the population of the suburban area is considered to be part of the city's population.

paragraphs: Sydney, for example, has a population of approx. 4.5 million people, which includes the population of the suburbs, although there are some places which are part of the Greater Sydney Area, whose population does not count toward the population of Sydney


title: Marathi language

paragraphs: Marathi ("") is the language spoken in Maharashtra, India. It is also Maharashtra's official language. The written script is Devanāgarī.

paragraphs: People living in Maharashtra and parts of neighboring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Chattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh, union-territories of Daman-diu and Dadra Nagar Haveli speak Marathi.


title: Gujarati language

paragraphs: Gujarati is an Indo-Aryan language. It is spoken in Gujarat, India and also in neighbouring Pakistan. It was the "mother tongue" of Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. There are millions of Gujaratis who speak it as their first language. Gujarati is the 20th most common language in the United States of America. Mahatma Gandhi, the India's leader, once said about the Gujarati language: "Bad handwriting is a sign of an uncomplete education".


title: Punjabi language

paragraphs: Punjabi is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the first language of about 130 million people, and is the 10th most spoken language in the world. Most of the people who speak this language live in the Punjab region of Pakistan and India. It is also widely spoken in Haryana, India Himachal Pradesh, India and Delhi, India. It is spoken by the majority of the population of Pakistan.

paragraphs: Punjabi developed from the ancient language of Sanskrit just like many other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Bengali, Urdu and Marathi. Punjabi is unusual among this group for being a tonal language.

paragraphs: Punjabi is written in two different scripts, called Gurmukhī and Shahmukhī. Punjabi is the main language spoken by the Sikhs. Most parts of the Guru Granth Sahib use the Punjabi language written in Gurmukhī, though Punjabi is not the only language used in Sikh scriptures. The "Janamsakhis", stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), are early examples of Punjabi literature.

paragraphs: Punjabi has many dialects. The dialects are similar enough to each other that speakers can understand most of the dialects that are related to theirs. In India, the main dialects of Punjabi are: Majhi, Doabi, Malwi and Pwadhi. In Pakistan, the main dialects are Majhi, "Shahpuri", "Jhangvi", "Dhanni", Pothohari and Hindko.

paragraphs: Majhi is Punjabi's standard dialect because it forms the standard for writing in Punjabi. It is spoken in the centre of Punjab, including the districts of Lahore, Sheikhupura, Kasur, Okara, Nankana Sahib, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Narowal, Gujrat, Pakpattan, Hafizabad and Mandi Bahauddin. In India it is spoken in Amritsar, Tarn Taran Sahib and Gurdaspur districts.

paragraphs: Other dialects of Punjabi include Pahari, Rachnavi, Chenavari, Chhachi, Jandali, Ghebi. The Saraiki, spoken in southern Punjab, and Dogri, spoken in Kashmir, are closely related to Punjabi. The relation of several dialects to languages other than Punjabi creates problems in assigning them to one or another "language".

paragraphs: Over 93% of people who speak Punjabi as their first language live in Pakistan and India. It is the most widely spoken native language in Pakistan. It is spoken as a first language by over 44% of Pakistanis. There were 76 million Punjabi speakers in Pakistan in 2008. In India, Punjabi is spoken as a native language by 3% of the population. This was about 33 million in 2011. It is the official language of the Indian states of Punjab and Haryana.

paragraphs: Punjabi is also spoken as a minority language in several other countries where large numbers of Punjabis have emigrated.In the United Kingdom, it is the second-most-commonly used language. In Canada, it is the fourth-most-spoken language. There were 2.2 million Punjabi speakers in the US in 2017. and 1.3 million in the UK in 2000.

paragraphs: There are three ways to write Punjabi: Gurmukhī, Shahmukhī, and Devanāgarī. In the Punjab province of Pakistan, the script that is most used is Shahmukhī. The Majhi dialect is the written standard for Punjabi in both parts of Punjab.


title: Sikhism

paragraphs: Sikhism is a faith whose followers are called "Sikhs". The word Sikh means Student or Discipline. Their holy book is the Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji.

paragraphs: Many sources call Sikhism a monotheistic religion, According to Eleanor Nesbitt, English renderings of Sikhism as a monotheistic religion "tend misleadingly to reinforce a Semitic understanding of monotheism, rather than Guru Nanak's mystical awareness of the one that is expressed through the many. However, what is not in doubt is the emphasis on 'one'".

paragraphs: An estimated 28 million people are followers of Sikhism, which then makes it the fifth largest religion in the world. A popular place where this religion is practiced is in Asia & America. Sikhs are usually identified by the Turban (which Sikhs call a Dastaar or Pagri), distinctive headgear which could be worn by both men and women. Sikhs arrived in North America in 1897 and played a pivotal role in the opening of the West and construction of the Panama Canal.

paragraphs: Sikhism was brought to the world around 1469 by Guru Nanak Dev, the first of the "Ten Gurus". Guru Nanak brought the Word of God to manifest upon Earth. Through his Hymns and Prayers (Shabads), he inspired and uplifted humankind to live a life of truth, righteousness and spirituality. These Hymns and Prayers were compiled into the Siri Guru Granth Sahib. Unique amongst the world's major religious scriptures, while compiling the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh Gurus incorporated not only their own writings, but also included the writings of other contemporary saints from Hinduism and Islam (including saints belonging to the lowest strata of untouchables in the Hindu Caste System), who believed in the unity of God and denounced superstition and caste. Further, the composition and compilation of the Guru Granth Sahib was performed by the Sikh Gurus themselves, rather than being performed by their adherents and followers.

paragraphs: In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh, the Tenth Guru, established the Khalsa and gave Sikhs a distinct identity and reinforced principles taught by all Gurus. This celebration took place on Vaisakhi and is commemorated each year. One of the most important ceremonies established by Guru Gobind Singh on that day is Khande di Pahul baptism ceremony, where Sikhs are initiated into the Khalsa and are required to keep the 5 Ks, kakkars or kakke which are articles of faith. Guru Granth Sahib was bestowed the Guruship by the last of the human form Sikh Gurus, Guru Gobind Singh Ji in 1708. Before passing away, Guru Gobind Singh Ji decreed that the Sikhs were to regard the Granth Sahib as their next and everlasting Guru. Guru Ji said – “Sab Sikhan ko hukam hai Guru Manyo Granth” meaning “All Sikhs are commanded to take the Granth as Guru”. So today, if asked, the Sikhs will tell you that they have a total of 11 Gurus. (10 Gurus in human form, and the eternal shabad Guru, the Siri Guru Granth Sahib).

paragraphs: Guru Granth Sahib is not just a holy book of Sikhs, it's respected and treated as a living being as it's officially The Eternal Guru (Teachers). Shri Guru Granth Sahib is not written by one human but by saints from all across societies and religions. It is a universal teacher for all religions giving the message of one God and respect to all humans of every religion.

paragraphs: Sikhism teaches that God lasts forever, cannot be seen, and has no body. Therefore, God has no gender. It is taught that God created the universe, can destroy it, and keeps it running. God is considered to be infinite, Alpha and Omega, no beginning and no end. Sikhs worship God, and meditate on God’s name through intense (passionate) repetition. They believe everything is a part of God and God is a part of everything. Good, bad, neutral are not applicable to God and for human beings, as Sikh philosophy indicates that human beings are born innately good.

paragraphs: Followers are all trying to reach salvation, meaning they are trying to break the process of rebirth and become one with God. The thing that is keeping people from reaching union is bad karma. Bad karma is taught to be caused by pride, anger, greed, attachment and lust. Sikhs try to stay away from these things. Sikhs also believe that a piece of God resides within everything in the world. Once an individual discovers the God within and stops searching else then can he reach salvation.

paragraphs: A Sikh temple is called a "Gurdwara" (meaning "the house of Guru"). It is the place of worship in the Sikh religion. Birth, death, baptism and marriage ceremonies are held in the temple. There are four doors for all religions. When a person enters the temple, their head must be covered. There are no chairs in the temple so people sit on the floor.

paragraphs: The temple also serves as a kitchen. The kitchen is where festival food is donated, prepared and cooked by volunteers. All the food that has been made there is shared with all the community who visit the temple on that day. The meal is vegetarian and is called the Langar.

paragraphs: The Golden Temple in Amritsar is the most famous temple in all of the Sikh faith. It is covered in gold.

paragraphs: In a Gurdwara, no special place or seat may be reserved or set aside for any dignitary, as all are considered equals. The service consists of singing of the liturgy, as well as the exposition of Sikh history, tradition, and theology. In traditional Indian society, people of high and low caste were rigidly segregated. To combat this social problem, the Sikh community kitchen, or "langar", requires everyone to sit side by side and eat together, thereby teaching the concept of equality by shattering all barriers of caste and class. Every major city in the United States and Canada has Sikh gurdwaras and they are open to all.

paragraphs: Vaisakhi is an important festival celebrated by Sikhs. Vaisakhi is also known as Basaki. It is the harvest festival in the Punjab region. Vaisakhi is celebrated on the first day of the Basak month, in the Sikh calendar.

paragraphs: The term guru comes from the Sanskrit "gurū", which means teacher, guide, or mentor. The traditions and philosophy of Sikhism were made by ten gurus from 1469 to 1708. Each guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous one. This resulted in the creation of the Sikh religion.

paragraphs: And the eternal Guru is the Sri Guru Granth Sahib, which is a not just a book but contains the writings of each Guru.

paragraphs: In addition to the above, Sikhs also believe in fifteen "bhagats" or saints, including ones from other creeds, whose words and deeds have been adopted into Sikhism by the great ten Gurus. Most notable of these "bhagats" is the Punjabi Sufi saint, Hazrat Baba Farid.

paragraphs: Khalsa is the military community of Sikhism. A Sikh must follow the 5 Ks:


title: Kaveri River

paragraphs: Kaveri is a river in south India. It flows from Karnataka to Tamil Nadu.


title: Bhopal

paragraphs: Bhopal is the capital of Madhya Pradesh, India, and the second largest city of the state, after Indore. Bhopal is also called the City of Lakes. It is the headquarters of Bhopal District. It is in the central part of India.

paragraphs: The city is believed to have first been called Bhojpal, named after the King of Bhoj. According to this theory, it was later changed to Bhopal.

paragraphs: Bhopal has an average elevation of 499 metres (1637 ft).

paragraphs: In 1984 a poisoned gas was leaked from a private chemical factory at night when a worker was cleaning out a clogged pipe connected with a tank containing gas. The tank had 42 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) that was leaked at midnight and leaving more than 5,000 people and animals dead. Many people also became sick and they are still suffering from deadly diseases. This has been called as "World's worst industrial disaster".


title: Dialect

paragraphs: A dialect is a form of a language spoken by a group of people. Sometimes people who live in the same place share a dialect. Sometimes people who are similar in some other way, such as social class, share a dialect.

paragraphs: There is no absolute difference between a dialect and a language. British English and American English are different standard dialects of English. They differ slightly in spelling, in pronunciation, and in vocabulary. However, they are "mutually intelligible", which means people who speak either variety can understand the other.

paragraphs: Deciding if something is a language or a dialect is sometimes a political decision as a way to make minority groups assimilate or become part of a nation's larger culture. Linguist Max Weinreich once joked, "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy."

paragraphs: Japanese and the Okinawan language are related, as they are Japonic languages, but they are not mutually intelligible. When Japan took over Okinawa during the Meiji Era, the Japanese government called the Okinawan language a dialect of Japanese. This was used to forbid Okinawans from speaking Okinawan and to force them to Japanese.

paragraphs: Catalan and Galician used to be considered as dialects of Spanish but are now recognized as languages. They are about as near to Portuguese and to Occitan, respectively, as they are to Spanish.

paragraphs: Hindi and Urdu are called different languages today, but they used to be the same language, Hindustani. After Pakistan became separate from India, Hindustani became called Urdu in Pakistan and Hindi in India. However, speakers of both can understand each other if they are using everyday speech. The two languages use different writing systems, but writing systems are not an accurate way to decide if languages are related.

paragraphs: English is definitely a language, but it once was Anglo-Saxon, a dialect of Old Saxon.

paragraphs: Chinese is called a language, but has hundreds of dialects, such as Mandarin, Cantonese, Wu, and Hokkien. Many of them are not mutually intelligible.

paragraphs: In past times, travel was difficult and so dialects developed in quite small regions. In Britain, there were dialects in the different parts of the country, and traces can stiill be heard today. The Romance languages were dialects of Latin that separated in that way.

paragraphs: In India, there are scores of dialects of Hindi language like Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, Chhattisgarhi, Magadhi, Haryanvi and others. Moreover,people whose native language is Hindi, may or maynot treat it as their mother tongue.


title: Thanjavur

paragraphs: Thanjavur is a town in Tamil Nadu, India. It was the capital of earlier Chola Kingdom. It is called the "Rice Bowl" of Tamil Nadu. Cauvery river flows through Thanjavur.


title: Oman

paragraphs: Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country in the southwestern part of Asia, on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the United Arab Emirates to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea to the south and east, and the Gulf of Oman to the northeast. The capital is Muscat.

paragraphs: The country is a monarchy, ruled by a Sultan, and the people are called Omanis. Right now, the sultan is Haitham bin Tariq Al Said. For a long time, the British have supported the sultans of Oman. In the 1960s and 1970s, some Omanis started a revolution to overthrow the sultan and end oppression, but the sultan defeated them with the help of Great Britain.

paragraphs: Since 28 October 2011, Oman is divided into eleven governorates ("muhafazah"):

paragraphs: Below the governorates, Oman is divided into provinces.

paragraphs: Oman has a hot climate and very little rainfall. Annual rainfall in Muscat averages , falling mostly in January. Dhofar is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October. While the mountain areas receive more rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching around (peak) in the hot season, from May to September.


title: Refugee

paragraphs: In 1951, the United Nations (UN) law called Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, said a refugee was a person who is forced to leave their country due to natural disasters or war and conflict

paragraphs: owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of their nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail him/herself of the protection of that country.

paragraphs: In 1967 the Conventions’ 1967 protocol and by regional conventions in Africa and Latin America to include persons who had fled war and violence in their country. A person who is seeking to be recognized as a refugee is an asylum seeker. In the United States a recognized asylum seeker is known as an asylee.

paragraphs: A refugee is a person who has to leave his or her country. This can be because of different reasons:


title: Copperbelt

paragraphs: Copperbelt is a province in the northern part of Zambia. It is named after the copper reserves. It has an area of 31,328 km. It occupies the upper portion of the Kafue river basin on the central plateau of southern Africa, 900 to 1,500 m above sea level.

paragraphs: It is one of the Zambia's ten provinces and the hub of the country.


title: Levy Mwanawasa

paragraphs: Levy Patrick Mwanawasa (September 3, 1948 – August 19, 2008) was a Zambian politician. He was the President of Zambia from January 2002 to his death.


title: Cherokee

paragraphs: The Cherokee ("ah-ni-yv-wi-ya" in Cherokee language) are Native Americans who at the time of European contact in the 16th century lived in the area that is now called the eastern and southeastern United States before most were forcefully moved to the Ozark hills. They were one of the tribes referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes.

paragraphs: Cherokee people did not live in tepees. They lived in houses made from wood. In the 19th century, a man named Sequoyah introduced a form of writing the Cherokee language. For this, he was awarded a medal.

paragraphs: The Cherokee tribe had two chiefs, a red and white chief. When the tribe was at war, the red chief would lead, and when there was peace within the tribe, the white chief would lead. Chief John Ross was the leader of the Cherokee tribe from 1818 until 1867. He lived in Georgia before being forced to move to the place now called Oklahoma.

paragraphs: There are three Cherokee tribes recognized by the U.S. government:


title: Soup

paragraphs: A soup is a kind of food. People make soups by boiling things in water. Then they put the things they boiled into a bowl and eat them. Vegetables are in most soups. You can also put meat in soups. Soups that are thicker than normal, with more meat or vegetables, are stews. The liquid in soup is broth.

paragraphs: Traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups: clear soups and thick soups. The traditional French types of clear soups are bouillon and consommé. Thick soups are classified by the type of thickening agent used. Purées are vegetable soups thickened with starch. Bisques are made from puréed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream. Cream soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce; and veloutés are thickened with eggs, butter, and cream. Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains. Many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes.


title: Hyderabad, India

paragraphs: Hyderabad (pronounced ( )) is the largestcapital of the state of Telangana. At over 12.2 million, it has the largest population of any city in the state Hyderabad is an A-1 city under the terms of development priorities. It is also known as "city of pearls" or "city of Nizams". The people of Hyderabad are called "Hyderabadis."

paragraphs: Hyderabad was founded in 1591 AD by Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah on the banks of river Musi. It was later ruled by the Mughal governor Nizam Asaf Jah I who then founded the Asaf Jahi Dynasty (Also known as The Nizams). There were a total of 10 Nizams with the last one being Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII.

paragraphs: The city is home to the Ramoji Film City which spans an area of over . The movieindustry here is called The "Hyderabad Deccan Urdu" film industry (also known as "Deccanwood").

paragraphs: Archaeologists have found Iron Age sites in Hyderabad that are 2,500 years old. These sites have been found near Haythnagar and Ramoji Film City, and have burials and tools. The Qutub Shahi kings ruled Hyderabad till 1687 when the city was taken over by the Mughals. Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah was a Qutub Shahi ruler who ordered the construction of the Charminar as a mosque. Nawab Abdul Hassan Shah who is popularly known as Tanisha was the last Qutub Shahi ruler of Hyderabad before Aurangzeb captured it in 1687. Asaf Jah was declared the governor of Hyderabad by Aurangzeb. This is how the Asaf Jahi Dynasty began which ruled Hyderabad till 1948.

paragraphs: Hyderabad became a princely state in 1947 after collaboration with India. But soon the Nizam had to sign an Instrument of Accession to the Union of India so that Hyderabad becomes a part of India. On 1 November 1956, the province of Hyderabad was divided into Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh on the basis of language. So, Hyderabad came into the Telugu speaking community and thus became the capital of Andhra Pradesh. The state of Telangana was formed on 2 June 2014 and separated from Andhra Pradesh retaining Hyderabad as it's capital.

paragraphs: The city has now developed in fields of IT with four IT colleges including JNTU (Jawaharlal Nehru's Technological University ). The rise of International Airport and real estate has a major impact on the development of Hyderabad.

paragraphs: Hyderabad is situated at the Deccan Plateau, 500 meters above the sea level and most of the area is rocky. Paddy is the main crop grown and other crops include Bengal gram, groundnut, sugar cane and sunflower. Hyderabad was found on the banks of Musi river in 1591. Today that area is known as old city where Mecca Masjid and Hussain Sagar Lake exist. The area has many official buildings and that area is very old. From the recent time, Hyderabad has been merged with Secunderabad. This has led a large, united and populous city with many villages surrounding it.

paragraphs: Hyderabad has a hot, wet and dry climate. The monsoon or rainy season is from late June until late October. On average, 32 inches of rain falls on the city each year. The highest temperature ever recorded was 51.5 °C (113.9 °F) on 2 June 1966. The lowest recorded temperature was 1.1 °C (43 °F) on 8 January 1946. It is cooler in the evenings and mornings because the city is high above sea level.

paragraphs: The city has a population of over four million. Hindus form the majority while Muslims are 40% of the population. The Muslim community of Hyderabad is largest in Telangana. Muslims are mainly located in and around the old city. Christians are small in number in the city. Famous churches include those around Abids and Secunderabad like St. Joseph's Cathedral.

paragraphs: Charminar is actually founded as a Mosque and later by archaeological department changed into a monument. Charminar has long been the icon of Hyderabad. The name means "Four minarets". The towers rise to a height of 48.7 m above the ground. There is a mosque with 45 prayer spaces in the upper storeys of the building.

paragraphs: The Golconda Fort was the capital of the Qutb Shahi kingdom. In the 16th century, it was the center of a busy diamond trade. The outer wall of the fort is 10 km around.

paragraphs: Mecca Masjid is one of the oldest mosques in the city. Muhammed Quli Qutub Shah began building it in 1617. Mughal emperor Aurangzeb finished the building in 1694. The mosque is made of granite. The main hall of the mosque is 75 feet high, 220 feet wide and 180 feet long. Ten thousand worshippers can fit inside at the same time. The entrance arches are made of single slabs of granite. It is believed that Muhammed Quli had bricks made from earth brought from Mecca. He used them the central arch of the mosque. This explains the name of the mosque.

paragraphs: The Chowmahalla Palace was Asaf Jahi dynasty capital. The Nizam entertained official guests and royal visitors here.

paragraphs: Nawab Viqar al-Umra built Falaknuma Palace in 1872. The palace includes sculptures by artists from Florence.

paragraphs: Telugu, Urdu and Hindi are mainly spoken in Hyderabad. English is also spoken among the educated people. The Telugu varies across the state but the language remains the same.


title: Manmohan Singh

paragraphs: Manmohan Singh (Punjabi:منموہن سنگھ/ਮਨਮੋਹਨ ਸਿੰਘ;Hindi:मनमोहन सिंह; born 26 September 1932) was the 13th Prime Minister of India. A famous economist, he is the only Prime Minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to return to power after completing a full five-year term, and the first Sikh to hold the office.

paragraphs: Singh was born on 26 September 1932 in Gah, Punjab, British India, into a Sikh family. He studied at Panjab University, Chandigarh, at St John's College, Cambridge, and at Nuffield College, Oxford. Singh has been married to Gursharan Kaur since 1958.


title: Indira Gandhi

paragraphs: Indira Gandhi (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician. She was Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977.She was the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, who was also Prime Minister of India. Her son, Rajiv Gandhi, later became Prime Minister of India. She married Feroze Gandhi, who was not related to the civil rights leader, Mahatma Gandhi.

paragraphs: Indira Gandhi was the first woman prime minister of India. Gandhi was assassinated in 1984 at the age of 66. In 1938, Indira joined the Indian National Congress Party. After the death of Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966, Indira Gandhi served as prime minister until India held the next election. She won that election in 1967 and became one of the first woman elected to lead a democracy.

paragraphs: Indira Gandhi was Prime Minister of India twice. She served the first time between 1966 and 1977 and the second time between 1980 and 1984. She also studied at the University of Oxford.


title: Nintendo 64

paragraphs: The Nintendo 64 (commonly abbreviated N64) was the third home video game console released by Nintendo. It was first released in Japan in June 1996 and was meant to compete against the Sony PlayStation and the Sega Saturn. The Nintendo 64 was Nintendo's first console made for 3D graphics. It uses plastic cartridges instead of CDs or disks, making load times faster. Because of this, the games cost more to make. The controller for the Nintendo 64 was shaped like an "M" and had 10 buttons and a joystick. Sony used the N64 joystick design to make their DualShock PlayStation controller. Out of the box, the Nintendo 64 had 4 MB of RAM, and it could be upgraded to 8 MB with the expansion pak.

paragraphs: Because making games for the Nintendo 64 was more expensive than making games for the PlayStation, many video game companies chose develop for the Playstation instead. Nintendo also did not like games that had a lot of blood or violence in them. Companies who made these kinds of games made them for the PlayStation instead. However, some game makers did make some violent games for the Nintendo 64, such as Rare's first-person shooter "Perfect Dark". Nintendo lost its lead over Sega and Sony because of these two things. Production for the system ceased in Japan in 2002 and in 2003 worldwide.

paragraphs: In 2015, IGN named the Nintendo 64 the ninth-greatest video game console of all time.

paragraphs: 5.54 million Nintendo 64 units were sold in Japan, 20.63 million in the Americas, and 6.75 million in other regions, a total of 32.93 million units.


title: Phobos

paragraphs: Phobos (Greek for "fear", is the root word of "phobia") is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology and the twin brother of Deimos. He is known as the god of fear, panic, flight and battlefield rout. He went with his father into battle, driving his chariot and spreading fear in his path. As a son of Aphrodite, goddess of love, each twin also represented the fear of loss.

paragraphs: The larger and innermost of Mars' two moons was named after him, and the other was named after Deimos.


title: Deimos

paragraphs: Deimos (; - "dread" or "terror") is the god of terror in Greek mythology. He is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite. He is the twin brother of Phobos, god of fear. He and his brother would often go with their father as he rode into battle in his chariot. Deimos, the smaller of Mars' two moons, is named after him.


title: Krakatoa

paragraphs: Krakatoa (Indonesian name: "Krakatau") is an active volcano in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia. There are many different ways the name has been spelled. The volcano has erupted repeatedly in known history. The best known of these events occurred in late August 1883.

paragraphs: On 22 December 2018 the central cone collapsed and caused a tsunami in the Sunda Strait. More than 400 people were killed.

paragraphs: The 1883 eruption ejected more than six cubic miles (25 cubic kilometers) of rock, ash, and pumice, and made the loudest sound ever recorded by human beings. The sound was heard as far away as Perth in Australia (3,500 km; 2,200 miles), and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (4,800 km; 3,000 miles). Many thousands of people were killed and injured by the eruption, mostly in the tsunami (giant wave) which followed the explosion.

paragraphs: The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on barographs around the world, which continued to register it up to 5 days after the explosion. The recordings show that the shock wave from the final explosion reverberated around the globe seven times.

paragraphs: The eruption destroyed two-thirds of what was then the island of Krakatoa. New eruptions at the volcano since 1927 have built a new island, called "Anak Krakatau" (child of Krakatoa).


title: Goldfish

paragraphs: Goldfish ("Carassius auratus") are a species of domesticated fish. Goldfish are in the carp family. They were domesticated in China during the Tang Dynasty. Goldfish can reach up to 59 cm in size, and 3 kg in weight. However, most goldfish grow to only half that size. In captivity, goldfish can live for up to 30 years. In the aquarium, however, most will die earlier. This is because the aquarium is too small. Goldfish need a lot of space so they have room to swim and so the water does not get dirty too fast.

paragraphs: Goldfish live best in temperatures between 10 degrees Celsius and 30 degrees Celsius.

paragraphs: It was once thought that goldfish have short memories, but scientists have proven that this is not true. In experiments, a goldfish was trained to kick a small ball under water. Another goldfish learned to swim through a maze.

paragraphs: There are many kinds of goldfish. The most common kind is golden-colored, but goldfish come in many different shapes and sizes. Many gold fish have fancy tails. Another common kind is called a black moor, which is black colored. Wild goldfish are called prussian carp and are silver-green in colour.

paragraphs: Goldfish are very sensitive and should not be touched. This can hurt them and make them sick. They may also get other health problems. Their stomachs can fill with liquids (water). They can get sick because of bad bacteria. Some lose control of swimming because a special organ in their belly, called a swim bladder, gets sick and stops working. However, sick goldfishes can be cured with medicine. Pet shops or veterinarians can help goldfish get better when they are sick. One simple way to help a goldfish if it has indigestion is to feed it peas, as this will help their digestive tract work properly.

paragraphs: The most anterior parts of a fish's brain are the olfactory bulbs. These connect to the two lobes of the cerebrum by stalks. The cerebrum is involved with the sense of smell. It also seems to control behaviors such as taking care of the young and exploring the natural environment. The optic lobes process information from the eyes. The cerebellum coordinates body movements. The medulla controls internal organ functions and helps maintains balance.

paragraphs: Farther back in the brain is the spinal cord, which is the hollow dorsal nerve cord that chordates have. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column. Between each set of vertebrae, a pair of spinal nerves exits the cord and connects to the internal organs and muscles. Most fish have well designed sense organs. Chemoreceptors (chemical) are located all over the head and much of the body surface. Most fish have ears inside their heads, but they do not hear well. However, a series of pores connected to canals beneath the skin cover the head and the sides of their body. This system, called the lateral line system, detects movement.

paragraphs: Once food is in the goldfish’s mouth, it’s pushed to the back of the throat where a set of teeth grind and crush it. The ground down food passes down a tube called the oesophagus, which squeezes out excess water. The oesophagus is lined with taste buds and cells that produce mucus to keep things moving on. The oesophagus empties into an expandable section of the goldfish’s digestive which is not to be confused with the stomach. It is simply a buffer zone to hold excess food as needed. Just before this expanded section, chemicals from the gallbladder and pancreas are pumped in with the food. The ones from the gallbladder make up bile, which is used to break down fats; the ones from the pancreas contain enzymes that are used to break down proteins. All along the digestive tract are cells that secrete enzymes that act on carbohydrates, breaking them down into sugars. From the expanded section to the goldfish’s anus, lots of mucus is produced and as much useful material as possible is absorbed into the bloodstream to be used for energy, growth, protection and repair.

paragraphs: Goldfish get their oxygen from water. As a fish swims, it gulps up water. The water which has oxygen goes through an opening in the fish’s throat that leads to the gills. Gills have many blood vessels within them. Oxygen moves from the water to the blood as the water flows over the gills. The blood vessels gather and store the oxygen that travels over the gills. At the same time, carbon dioxide moves out of the blood and into the water. Now, the water flows out of the slits beneath the gills. These gills are located under the operculum.

paragraphs: The circulatory system of fish is responsible for transporting blood and nutrients throughout the body. Blood travels across the body through the network of blood vessels. Unlike humans, fish have single cycle circulation, where the oxygen-deprived blood comes to the heart, from where it is pumped to the gills and then circulated to the entire body. The circulatory system of fish consists of a heart, blood and blood vessels. The heart of a fish is a simple muscular structure that is located between the posterior gill arches. In most fish, the heart consists of an atrium, a ventricle, a sac-like thin walled structure known as sinus venosus and a tube, known as bulbus arteriosus. In spite of containing four parts, the heart of a fish is considered two-chambered. The blood contains plasma (the fluid portion of blood) and the blood cells. The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that facilitates the transport of oxygen to the entire body, while the white blood cells are an indispensable part of the immune system. The thrombocytes help in blood clotting. Blood is circulated throughout the body with the help of arteries and veins (blood vessels). The arteries are responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body, while the veins return deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body to the heart.

paragraphs: The skeletal system of a goldfish is mainly to protect the goldfish, support its structure and leverage, and helps with its red blood cell production. A goldfish’s skeletal system is made of almost all small bones and cartilage and it barely has any big bones. The bones are made of almost all calcium. There are 3 main muscles in a goldfish’s muscular system, the tail and trunk muscles, the jaw muscles, and the fin muscles. In the tail and trunk muscles, there are myotomes which are muscles blocks and there are myosepta which are connective tissues that separate myotomes. The horizontal septum separates myotomes into two sections, ventral or dorsal. In the jaw muscles, the goldfish uses adductor muscles to close its jaw and abductor muscles to open its jaw. In a gold fish’s fin muscles, there are also adductor and abductor muscles. These muscles move a gold fish’s fins away from and close to its body. There are also erector muscles in the fins that help with the stability and flexibility of the fish’s fins.

paragraphs: Goldfish have a memory-span of at least three months and can distinguish between different shapes, colors and sounds. With positive reinforcement, goldfish can be trained to recognize and treact to light signals of different colors or perform tricks. Fish learn to anticipate feedings provided they occur at around the same time every day.


title: Premature ejaculation

paragraphs: Premature ejaculation (also known as PE) is a condition affecting many men. It is when during sexual intercourse (sex) the male can not stop himself from ejaculating after starting sex.

paragraphs: The condition is usually curable or at least treatable by a few exercises. (There are more exercises than these, however, these are the most common.)

paragraphs: One exercise is to create an erection and begin to lose it, then stimulate it again. This exercise is best done alone at first and then with a partner. Thrusting should not be used with a partner until very near the end of treatment. This treatment may take several weeks to fully cure the problem if it is used properly.

paragraphs: Another treatment involves using the muscle which stops urine. To locate the muscle, simply begin urinating and stop quickly before emptying the bladder. Doing that, will demonstrate how to use the muscle. Then whenever convenient use the muscle. You do not need to be urinating to use the muscle and it is suggested you are not. After a few weeks of both these treatments, the PE will become more like traditional ejaculation and after about one and a half to two and a half months, it should be absolutely normal.


title: Witch

paragraphs: A witch is a person, who practices witchcraft or magic. Traditionally, the word was used to accuse someone of bewitching someone, or casting a spell on them to gain control over them by magic. It is now also used by some to refer to those who practice various wise crafts such as Hedge witch Witches usually used spells for personal gain.

paragraphs: Although most indigenous peoples throughout history have had some beliefs about spirits and people believed to have power through herbs or spirits, these were not called 'witches' until contact with western ideas. Neither did they always have negative connotations.

paragraphs: In Europe, the panic over witchcraft was supported by the "Malleus Maleficarum", published in 1487 by Heinrich Kramer, a German Catholic clergyman. It taught the prosecution of witches and was greatly promoted by the new technology of the printing press. It saw 29 printings before 1669, second only to the Bible. The book says that three elements are necessary for witchcraft. These are the evil intentions of the witch, the help of the Devil, and the permission of God.

paragraphs: Many women in South America and throughout Europe were killed by witch hunts. The exact number is hotly debated because of a lack of record keeping and different opinions on the time frames and regions that ought to be included. Since the entire persecuting legal system, "judges, ministers, priests, constables, jailers, judges, doctors, prickers, torturers, jurors, executioners" were nearly all male and the victims were overwhelmingly female, the witch hunts are considered by many to be a "gynocide". In the documentary "The Burning Times", Thea Jensen calls this period in history a "Women's Holocaust".

paragraphs: In the 20th century, a new attempt has been made at understanding witchcraft. Many people say that witches were in fact wise women who were hunted down by the church (mostly for their knowledge of herbs to treat certain diseases). This has led to a new movement. Some of it is known as Wicca.

paragraphs: Heather Marsh has tied the persecution of witches to the fight of church and industry to control "the power of life and death" at a time when industry needed more workers. She also argues the persecution of witches was a fight for centralized power over the peasant rebellions and the ownership of knowledge by medicine and science which forbade the earlier teaching or practices by women and indigenous cultures. She writes that the persecution of witches has colored misogyny since the 1400s.

paragraphs: Silvia Federici tied the witch hunts to a history of the female body in the transition to capitalism.

paragraphs: Witchcraft and accusations of witchcraft are still very common in some parts of West Africa.

paragraphs: Control of procreation was a constant theme, as was medical knowledge:

paragraphs: "Concerning Witches who copulate with Devils. Why is it that Women are chiefly addicted to Evil superstitions?"

paragraphs: "Whether Witches may work some Prestidigatory Illusion so that the Male Organ appears to be entirely removed and separate from the Body."

paragraphs: "That Witches who are Midwives in Various Ways Kill the Child Conceived in the Womb, and Procure an Abortion; or if they do not this Offer New-born Children to Devils."

paragraphs: "How Witches Impede and Prevent the Power of Procreation."

paragraphs: "How, as it were, they Deprive Man of his Virile Member."

paragraphs: "Of the Manner whereby they Change Men into the Shapes of Beasts."

paragraphs: "Of the Method by which Devils through the Operations of Witches sometimes actually possess men."

paragraphs: "Of the Method by which they can Inflict Every Sort of Infirmity, generally Ills of the Graver Kind."

paragraphs: "Of the Way how in Particular they Afflict Men with Other Like Infirmities."

paragraphs: "How Witch Midwives commit most Horrid Crimes when they either Kill Children or Offer them to Devils in most Accursed Wise."


title: West Bank

paragraphs: The West Bank is a piece of land in the Middle East. It touches the Dead Sea and the River Jordan. The landscape is mostly hills or desert. The weather in the summer is hot and dry. It is cooler and rainy in the winter.

paragraphs: Right now, the area is under the control of Israel. Some Israelis and other nations disagree on whose it really is.

paragraphs: Since 1990 there are talks between the Israeli government and the Palestinians about what will happen in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in the future. Most people on the West Bank are Palestinians but there are also many Jewish settlers in settlements. There has been some controversy about these settlements.

paragraphs: The State of Palestine claims the West Bank with East Jerusalem included.

paragraphs: The West Bank is called "Judea and Samaria Area" by the Israeli government.


title: Jan Hus

paragraphs: Jan Hus, or John Huss (c.1370 - 6 July 1415) was born in Husinec, Bohemia (now Czech Republic). He was a Bohemian religious thinker and reformer. He started a religious movement that was strongly influenced by the beliefs of British scholar, John Wycliffe.

paragraphs: Hus studied at the University of Prague. In about 1400, he became a Catholic priest, and was soon accepted a position of preaching in Czech, the language spoken in Bohemia. While preaching, he studied Wycliffe’s writings, and came to like them, especially because of how authentic and real they were.

paragraphs: In 1403, Hus asked the church to undo the ban on Wycliffe's writings, and translated them into Czech. The church, led by archbishop Zbynek Zajíc, had different beliefs. In 1410, Zajíc ordered that Hus’ writings be burned and Hus and his followers, the Hussites be forced out of the church. Hus was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake on 6 July 1415, in Konstanz, Germany.

paragraphs: When Hus was killed his followers revolted and fought against the Catholics until they were defeated in 1431.

paragraphs: Many of his teachings were later taken up by Martin Luther.


title: Konstanz

paragraphs: Konstanz (English often Constance) is a university town with a population of around 80,000, on the shore of Lake Constance in the south-west corner of Germany, bordering Switzerland. The history of the city goes back to Ancient Rome. In the 15th century, the Council of Constance was held there. This ended the Western Schism. Jan Hus was burned as a heretic at the council.


title: Panther

paragraphs: All these animals belong to the Felidae family.


title: Instant messaging

paragraphs: Instant messaging (IM) is a way of chatting between two or more people by typing text. The text is then sent by computers over a network such as the Internet.

paragraphs: Instant messaging must have an instant messaging client that hooks up to a service that can send instant messages. Instant messaging is different from e-mail because conversations happen and can be read right away ("instantly"). A multiprotocol instant messaging application lets one connect to many IM networks.

paragraphs: Instant messaging services got many ideas from an older and still popular way to online chat named Internet Relay Chat (IRC). In early instant messaging programs, each letter appeared when it was typed and when letters were deleted to correct typos. These were also seen by the reader. This made it more like a telephone conversation than sending letters. In newer instant messaging programs, the other readers in the conversation generally only sees each line of text right after a new line is started. Most instant messaging programs have a way to set a status message. This works likes the message on a telephone answering machine. It shows whether or not people are online and want to chat.

paragraphs: Instant messaging offers real-time communication and allows easy collaboration, which might be considered more akin to genuine conversation than email's "letter" format. In contrast to e-mail, the parties know whether the peer is available. Most systems allow the user to set an "online status" or "away message" so peers are notified when the user is available, busy, or away from the computer. On the other hand, people are not forced to reply immediately to incoming messages. For this reason, some people consider communication via instant messaging to be less intrusive than communication via phone. However, not all popular systems allow the sending of messages to people not currently logged on ("offline messages"), thus removing much of the difference between IM and email.

paragraphs: Instant messaging allows instantaneous communication between a number of parties simultaneously, by transmitting information quickly and efficiently, featuring immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply. In certain cases IM involves additional features, which make it even more popular, i.e. to see the other party, e.g. by using ((web-cams)), or to talk directly for free over the internet.

paragraphs: It is possible to save a conversation to read later or look at again. Instant messages typically are may be logged in a local message history which closes the gap to the persistent nature of e-mails and facilitates quick exchange of information like URLs or document snippets (which can be unwieldy when communicated via telephone).

paragraphs: Instant messaging applications began to appear in the 1970s on multi-user operating systems like UNIX, initially to facilitate communication with other users logged in to the same machine, then on the local network, and subsequently across the Internet. Some of these used a peer-to-peer protocol (e.g. talk, ntalk and ytalk), while others required peers to connect to a server (see talker and IRC). Because all of these protocols were based inside a console window, most of those discovering the Internet in the mid-1990s and equating it with the web tended not to encounter them.

paragraphs: In the last half of the 1980s and into the early 1990s, the Quantum Link online service for Commodore 64 computers offered user-to-user messages between currently connected customers which they called "On-Line Messages" (or OLM for short). Quantum Link's better known later incarnation, America Online (AOL), offers a similar product under the name "AOL Instant Messages" (AIM). While the Quantum Link service ran on a Commodore 64, using only the Commodore's PETSCII text-graphics, the screen was visually divided up into sections and OLMs would appear as a yellow bar saying "Message From:" and the name of the sender along with the message across the top of whatever the user was already doing, and presented a list of options for responding. As such, it could be considered a sort of GUI, albeit much more primitive than the later Unix, Windows and Macintosh based GUI IM programs. OLMs were what Q-Link called "Plus Services" meaning they charged an extra per-minute fee on top of the monthly Q-Link access costs.

paragraphs: Modern, Internet-wide, GUI-based messaging clients, as they are known today, began to take off in the mid 1990s with ICQ (1996) being the first, followed by AOL Instant Messenger (AOL Instant Messenger, 1997). AOL later acquired Mirabilis, the creators of ICQ. A few years later ICQ (by now owned by AOL) was awarded two patents for instant messaging by the U.S. patent office. Meanwhile, other companies developed their own applications (Yahoo, MSN, Excite, Ubique, IBM), each with its own proprietary protocol and client; users therefore had to run multiple client applications if they wished to use more than one of these networks.

paragraphs: In 2000, an open source application and open standards-based protocol called Jabber was launched. Jabber servers could act as gateways to other IM protocols, reducing the need to run multiple clients. Modern multi-protocol clients such as Pidgin, Trillian, Adium and Miranda can use any of the popular IM protocols without the need for a server gateway.

paragraphs: Recently, many instant messaging services have begun to offer video conferencing features, Voice Over IP (VoIP) and web conferencing services. Web conferencing services integrate both video conferencing and instant messaging capabilities. Some newer instant messaging companies are offering desktop sharing, IP radio, and IPTV to the voice and video features.

paragraphs: The term "instant messenger" is a service mark of Time Warner and may not be used in software not affiliated with AOL in the United States. For this reason, the instant messaging client formerly known as Gaim or gaim announced in April 2007 that they would be renamed "Pidgin".

paragraphs: There have been several attempts to create a unified standard for instant messaging: IETF's SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) and SIMPLE (SIP for Instant Messaging and Presence Leveraging Extensions), APEX (Application Exchange), Prim (Presence and Instant Messaging Protocol), the open XML-based XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol), more commonly known as Jabber and OMA's (Open Mobile Alliance) IMPS (Instant Messaging and Presence Service) created specifically for mobile devices.

paragraphs: Sometimes, companies have tried to make one standard for all major IM providers (AOL, Yahoo! and Microsoft). These have not worked out, so each still uses its own proprietary protocol.

paragraphs: However, while discussions at IETF were stalled, Reuters head of collaboration services, David Gurle (the founder of Microsoft's Real Time Communication and Collaboration business), surprised everybody by signing the first inter-service provider connectivity agreement in September 2003. This historic agreement enabled AIM, ICQ and MSN Messenger users to talk with Reuters Messaging counterparts and vice-versa against an access fee. Following this breakthrough agreement between networks Microsoft, Yahoo! and AOL came to a deal where Microsoft's Live Communication Server 2005 (which is interestingly also used by Reuters for its Reuters Messaging service) users would also have the possibility to talk to public instant messaging users. This deal settled once for all the protocol for interconnectivity in the market as SIP/SIMPLE and established a connectivity fee for accessing public instant messaging clouds. Separately, on October 13, 2005 Microsoft and Yahoo! announced that by (the Northern Hemisphere) summer of 2006 they would interoperate using SIP/SIMPLE which is followed on December 2005 by the AOL and Google strategic partnership deal where Google Talk users would be able to talk with AIM and ICQ users provided they have an identity at AOL.

paragraphs: There are two ways to combine the many disparate protocols:

paragraphs: Some approaches, such as that adopted by the Sonork enterprise IM software or the Jabber/XMPP network or Winpopup LAN Messenger, allow organizations to create their own private instant messaging network by enabling them to limit access to the server (often with the IM network entirely behind their firewall) and administer user permissions. Other corporate messaging systems allow registered users to also connect from outside the corporation LAN, by using a secure firewall-friendly HTTPS based protocol. Typically, a dedicated corporate IM server has several advantages such as pre-populated contact lists, integrated authentication, and better security and privacy.

paragraphs: Some networks have made changes to prevent them from being utilized by such multi-network IM clients. For example, Trillian had to release several revisions and patches to allow its users to access the MSN, AOL, and Yahoo! networks, after changes were made to these networks. The major IM providers typically cite the need for formal agreements as well as security concerns as reasons for making these changes.

paragraphs: Mobile Instant Messaging (MIM) is a presence enabled messaging service that aims to transpose the desktop messaging experience to the usage scenario of being on the move. While several of the core ideas of the desktop experience on one hand apply to a connected mobile device, others do not: Users usually only look at their phone's screen — presence status changes might occur under different circumstances as happens at the desktop, and several functional limits exist based on the fact that the vast majority of mobile communication devices are chosen by their users to fit into the palm of their hand.

paragraphs: Some of the form factor and mobility related differences need to be taken into account in order to create a really adequate, powerful and yet convenient mobile experience: radio bandwidth, memory size, availability of media formats, keypad based input, screen output, CPU performance and battery power are core issues that desktop device users and even nomadic users with connected notebooks are usually not exposed to.

paragraphs: Several formerly untackled issues have been identified and addressed within IMPS, which was developed as part of an early mobile telephone industry initiative to kick off a broader usage of mobile instant messaging. The Open Mobile Alliance has taken over this standard, formerly called Wireless Village, as IMPS V1.0 in November 2002. Since then this standards has been further developed to IMPS V1.3, the latest candidate for release, and is expected to be released before the end of 2006.

paragraphs: There are downloadable mobile applications offered by different independent developers that allow users to chat within public (MSN, Yahoo!, Google Talk, AIM, ICQ) and corporate (LCS, Sametime, Reuters) IM services from mobile devices.

paragraphs: Among the advantages of using such IM clients over SMS are: IM clients use data instead of SMS text messages; IM-like chat mode, faster and quicker messaging. Some IM software allows group communication.

paragraphs: Several large scale mobile telephone industry companies are planning to jointly deliver a ubiquitous, interoperable presence enabled messaging service, built according to interoperability recommendations developed in the GSM Association. Because these organisations, as a group, have about 1.5 billion active Short Text Messaging (SMS) users, people wonder if such an initiative might also help the different industry factions to begin to work together soon. This would make Mobile Instant Messaging similar for all users.

paragraphs: In the meantime, other developments have proposed usage of downloadable applications with the intention to create their own approach to IM that runs on most mobile phones worldwide. Essentially, several of these clients are Java applications are instantly downloaded and then connected to back-end servers through GPRS/3G Internet Channels. Some of the implementations can connect to other IM services.

paragraphs: Instant messaging opens new methods of spontaneous communication for people that have an impairment in hearing, auditory processing, or speech. It is considered by many a powerful way to allow equal opportunities in communication, without the aid of special devices or services designed for users with hearing loss.

paragraphs: Instant Messaging may be done in a Friend-to-friend network, in which each node connects to the friends on the friendslist. This allows to communicate to friends of friends and build chatrooms for instant messages with all friends on that network.

paragraphs: Instant messaging has proven to be similar to personal computers, e-mail, and the WWW, in that its adoption for use as a business communications medium was driven primarily by individual employees using consumer software at work, rather than by formal mandate or provisioning by corporate information technology departments. Tens of millions of the consumer IM accounts in use are being used for business purposes by employees of companies and other organizations.

paragraphs: In response to the demand for business-grade IM and the need to ensure security and legal compliance, a new type of instant messaging, called "Enterprise Instant Messaging" ("EIM") was created when Lotus Software launched Lotus Sametime in 1999. Microsoft followed suit shortly thereafter with Microsoft Exchange Instant Messaging, and later created a new platform called Microsoft Office Live Communications Server. Since then, both IBM Lotus and Microsoft have introduced federation between their EIM systems and some of the public IM networks thus employees may use a single interface to both their internal EIM system and their buddies on AOL, MSN, and Yahoo!. Current leading EIM platforms include IBM Lotus Sametime, Microsoft Office Live Communications Server, and Jabber XCP.

paragraphs: The adoption of IM across corporate networks outside of the control of IT organizations creates many risks and liabilities for companies who do not effectively manage and support IM use. Companies implement specialized IM archiving and security products and services like those from Secure Computing, Akonix, Surfcontrol, and ScanSafe to mitigate these risks and provide safe, secure, productive instant messaging capabilities to their employees.

paragraphs: Although instant messaging has many good things, it also has risks and liabilities, especially when used in "workplaces". Among these are:

paragraphs: Hackers' use of instant messaging networks to deliver malicious code has grown consistently from 2004 to the present, with the number of discrete attacks listed by the IM Security Center having grown 15% from 347 attacks in 2005 to 406 in 2006. Hackers use two methods of delivering malicious code through IM: delivery of virus, trojan, or spyware within an infected file, and the use of "socially engineered" text with a web address that entices the recipient to click on a URL that connects him or her to a website that then downloads malicious code. Viruses, worms, and trojans typically propagate by sending themselves rapidly through the infected user's buddy list. An effective attack using a "poison URL" may reach tens of thousands of people in minutes when each person's buddy list receives messages appearing to be from a trusted friend. The recipients click on the web address, and the entire cycle starts again. Infections may range from nuisance to criminal, and are becoming more sophisticated each year.

paragraphs: In addition to the malicious code threat, the use of instant messaging at work also creates a risk of non-compliance to laws and regulations governing the use of electronic communications in businesses. In the United States alone there are over 10,000 laws and regulations related to electronic messaging and records retention. The more well-known of these include the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, HIPAA, and SEC 17a-3. Recent changes to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, effective December 1, 2006, create a new category for electronic records which may be requested during discovery (law) in legal proceedings. Most countries around the world also regulate the use of electronic messaging and electronic records retention in similar fashion to the United States. The most common regulations related to IM at work involve the need to produce archived business communications to satisfy government or judicial requests under law. Many instant messaging communications fall into the category of business communications that must be archived and retrievable.

paragraphs: Organizations of all types must protect themselves from the liability of their employees' inappropriate use of IM. The informal, immediate, and ostensibly anonymous nature of instant messaging makes it a candidate for abuse in the workplace. The topic of inappropriate IM use became front page news in October 2006 when Congressman Mark Foley resigned his seat after admitting sending offensive instant messages of a sexual nature to underage former House pages from his Congressional office PC. The Mark Foley Scandal led to media coverage and mainstream newspaper articles warning of the risks of inappropriate IM use in workplaces. In most countries, corporations have a legal responsibility to ensure harassment-free work environment for employees. The use of corporate-owned computers, networks, and software to harass an individual or spread inappropriate jokes or language creates a liability for not only the offender but also the employer. A survey by IM archiving and security provider Akonix Systems, Inc. in March 2007 showed that 31% of respondents had been harassed over IM at work. Companies now include instant messaging as an integral component of their policies on appropriate use of the World Wide Web, email, and other corporate assets.

paragraphs: In the early 2000s, a new class of IT security provider emerged to provide remedies for the risks and liabilities faced by corporations who chose to use IM for business communications. The IM security providers created new products to be installed in corporate networks for the purpose of archiving, content-scanning, and security-scanning IM traffic moving in and out of the corporation. Similar to the e-mail filtering vendors, the IM security providers focus on the risks and liabilities described above.

paragraphs: With rapid adoption of IM in the workplace, demand for IM security products began to grow in the mid-2000s. By 2007, the preferred platform for the purchase of security software had become the "appliance", according to IDC, who estimate that by 2008, 80% of network security products will be delivered via an appliance.


title: AOL

paragraphs: AOL Inc. (previously America Online) is a U.S.-based online service provider and Internet service provider. It has been in business since 1985. Important services in the early years were online chat and online games. Most connections were dial-up. In 2001 AOL bought Time Warner. In 2009 after a spin-off from Time Warner they changed their name to AOL Inc. It was announced in May 2015 that Verizon Communications purchased AOL.

paragraphs: AOL Instant Messenger was a service which allowed users to communicate with any user currently online. AIM had millions of users worldwide. There were also other computer programs that could be used to talk with your AIM account, for example Trillian, Pidgin, Digsby, and AIM+. AIM was shut down on December 15, 2017.

paragraphs: Other AOL products are AOL Spyware Protection, AOL Safety and Security Center, ICQ, AOl Computer Check-Up, AOL Explorer, AOL TopSpeed, AOL Dialer, AOL One-Click Fixes and AOL Openride.


title: Youssef Rzouga

paragraphs: Youssef Rzouga (born March 21, 1957) is a Tunisian poet. He was born in Mahdia, a Tunisian coastal city.

paragraphs: His first writing to be printed was a short story in the magazine "Radio et Télévision", in 1973.


title: Mailman

paragraphs: A mailman or mail carrier or postman is a person who brings people their postal mail. Normally he works for the post office of the respective country. Of course, there are also women doing this job. They are called mailwomen. For a layman, this occupation is called "letter carriers".

paragraphs: Fictional mailmen are traditionally shown as acting afraid of dogs, even to the point of shock.


title: Chinese postman problem

paragraphs: The Chinese postman problem is a mathematical problem of graph theory. It is also known as . Suppose there is a mailman who needs to deliver mail to a certain neighbourhood. The mailman is unwilling to walk far, so he wants to find the shortest route through the neighbourhood, that meets the following criteria:

paragraphs: If the graph travelled has an Eulerian path, this circuit is the ideal solution.

paragraphs: Alan Goldman of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards first coined the name 'Chinese Postman Problem' for this problem, as it was originally studied by the Chinese mathematician Mei-Ku Kuan in 1962.


title: Four color theorem

paragraphs: The four color theorem is a theorem of mathematics. It says that in any plane surface with regions in it (people think of them as maps), the regions can be colored with no more than four colors. Two regions that have a common border must not get the same color. They are called "adjacent" (next to each other) if they share a segment of the border, not just a point.

paragraphs: This was the first theorem to be proved by a computer, in a "proof by exhaustion". In proof by exhaustion, the conclusion is established by dividing it into cases, and proving each one separately. There may be a lot of cases. For example, the first proof of the four color theorem was a proof by exhaustion with 1,936 cases. This proof was controversial because most of the cases were checked by a computer program, not by hand. The shortest known proof of the four color theorem today still has over 600 cases.

paragraphs: Even though the problem was first presented as a problem to color political maps of countries, mapmakers are not very interested in it. According to an article by the math historian Kenneth May , “Maps utilizing only four colors are rare, and those that do usually require only three. Books on cartography and the history of map making do not mention the four-color property.”

paragraphs: Many simpler maps can be colored using three colors. The fourth color is needed for some maps, such as one in which one region is surrounded by an odd number of others, which touch each other in a cycle. One such example is given in the image. The five color theorem states that five colors are enough to color a map. It has a short, elementary proof and was proven in the late 19th century. Proving that four colors are all that is needed turned out to be much more difficult. Many false proofs and false counterexamples have appeared since the first statement of the four color theorem in 1852.

paragraphs: Intuitively, the four color theorem can be stated as 'given any separation of a plane into contiguous regions, called a map, the regions can be colored using at most four colors so that no two regions which are adjacent have the same color'. To be able to correctly solve the problem, it is necessary to clarify some aspects: First, all points that belong to three or more countries must be ignored. Secondly, "bizarre" maps with regions of finite area and infinite perimeter can require more than four colors.

paragraphs: For the purpose of the theorem every "country" has to be a simply connected region, or contiguous.

paragraphs: In the real world, this is not true: Alaska as part of the United States, Nakhchivan as part of Azerbaijan, and Kaliningrad as part of Russia are not contiguous. Because the territory of a particular country must be the same color, four colors may not be enough. For instance, consider a simplified map, such as the one shown on the left: In this map, the two regions labeled "A" belong to the same country, and must be the same color. This map then requires five colors, since the two "A" regions together are contiguous with four other regions, each of which is contiguous with all the others. If "A" had only three regions, six or more colors might be needed. In this way, it is possible to make maps that need an arbitrarily high number of colors. A similar construction also applies if a single color is used for all bodies of water, as is usual on real maps.

paragraphs: An easier to state version of the theorem uses graph theory. The set of regions of a map can be represented more abstractly as an undirected graph that has a vertex for each region and an edge for every pair of regions that share a boundary segment. This graph is planar: it can be drawn in the plane without crossings by placing each vertex at an arbitrarily chosen location within the region to which it corresponds, and by drawing the edges as curves that lead without crossing within each region from the vertex location to each shared boundary point of the region. Conversely any planar graph can be formed from a map in this way. In graph-theoretic terminology, the four-color theorem states that the vertices of every planar graph can be colored with at most four colors so that no two adjacent vertices have the same color, or for short, "every planar graph is four-colorable" (; ).

paragraphs: The first person to name the problem was Francis Guthrie, in 1852. He was a law student in England, at the time. He found that he needed at least four colors to color a map of the counties of England. Augustus de Morgan first discussed the problem, in a letter he wrote to Rowan Hamliton in August 1852. In the letter, de Morgan asks whether four colors are really enough to color a map, such that countries that are next to each other get different colors.

paragraphs: English mathematician Arthur Cayley presented the problem to the mathematical society in London, in 1878. Within a year, Alfred Kempe found what looked like a proof of the problem. Eleven years later, in 1890, Percy Heawood showed that Alfred's proof was wrong. Peter Guthrie Tait presented another attempt at a proof in 1880. It took eleven years to show that Tait's proof did not work either. In 1891, Julius Petersen could show this. When he falsified Cayley's proof, Kempe also showed a proof for a problem he called Five color theorem. The theorem says that any such map can be colored with no more than five colors. There are two restrictions: First, any country is contiguous, there are no exclaves. The second restriction is that countries need to have a common border; if they only touch in a point, they can be colored with the same color. Even though Kempe's proof was wrong, he used some of the ideas which would later permit a correct proof.

paragraphs: In the 1960s and 1970s, Heinrich Heesch developed a first sketch of a proof by computer. Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken improved this sketch in 1976 . They were able to reduce the number of cases that would need to be tested to 1936; a later version was made that relied on testing only 1476 cases. Each case needed to be tested by a computer .

paragraphs: In 1996, Neil Robertson, Daniel Sanders, Paul Seymour and Robin Thomas improved the method, and reduced the number of cases to be tested to 663. Again, each case needed to be tested by computer.

paragraphs: In 2005, Georges Gonthier and Benjamin Werner developed a formal proof. This was an improvement, because it allowed to use theorem-proving software, for the first time. The software used is called Coq.

paragraphs: The four color theorem is the first big mathematical problem that was proved with the help of a computer. Because the proof cannot be done by a human, some mathematicians did not recognize it as correct. To verify the proof, it is necessary to rely on a correctly working software and hardware to validate the proof. Because the proof was done by computer, it is also not very elegant.

paragraphs: The four color theorem has been notorious for attracting a large number of false proofs and disproofs in its long history. At first, "The New York Times" refused to report on the Appel–Haken proof. The newspaper did this as a matter of policy; it feared that the proof would be shown false like the ones before it .

paragraphs: Some proofs took a long time, till they could be falsified: For Kempe's and Tait's proofs falsifying them took over a decade.

paragraphs: The simplest counterexamples generally try to create one region which touches all the others. This forces the remaining regions to be colored with only three colors. Because the four color theorem is true, this is always possible; however, because the person drawing the map is focused on the one large region, they do not notice that the remaining regions can in fact be colored with three colors.

paragraphs: This trick can be generalized: If the colors of some regions in a map are chosen beforehand, it becomes impossible to color the remaining regions in such a way that in total, only four colors are used. Someone verifying the counterexample may not think that it may be needed to change the color of these regions. This will make the counterexample look valid, even though it is not.

paragraphs: Perhaps one effect underlying this common misconception is the fact that the color restriction is not transitive: a region only has to be colored differently from regions it touches directly, not regions touching regions that it touches. If this were the restriction, planar graphs would require arbitrarily large numbers of colors.

paragraphs: Other false disproofs violate the assumptions of the theorem in unexpected ways, such as using a region that has multiple disconnected parts, or not allowing regions of the same color from touching at a point.

paragraphs: In real life, many countries have exclaves or colonies. Since they belong to the country, they need to be colored with the same color as the parent country. This means that usually, more than four colors are needed to color such a map. When mathematicians talk about the graph associated with the problem, they say that is not planar. Even though it is easy to check if a graph is planar, finding the fewest number of colors needed to color it is very difficult. It is NP-complete, which is one of the most difficult problems that exist. The fewest number of colors needed to color a graph is known as its "chromatic number". Many of the problems that happen when trying to solve the four color theorem are related to discrete mathematics. For this reason, methods from algebraic topology are often used.

paragraphs: The four color theorem requires the "map" to be on a flat surface, what mathematicians call a plane. In 1890, Percy John Heawood created what is called Heawood conjecture today: It asks the same question as the four color theorem, but for any topological object. As an example, a torus can be colored with at most seven colors. The Heawood conjecture gives a formula that works for all such objects, except the Klein bottle.


title: Theorem

paragraphs: A theorem is a proven idea in mathematics. Theorems are proved using logic and other theorems that have already been proved. A minor theorem that one must prove to prove a major theorem is called a lemma. Theorems are made of two parts: hypotheses and conclusions.

paragraphs: Theorems use deduction, in contrast to theories which are empirical.

paragraphs: Some theorems are trivial, since they directly follow from the propositions. Other theorems are called "deep", because their proof is long and difficult. Sometimes, such proofs involve other areas of mathematics or show connections between different areas. A theorem might be simple to state and yet be deep. An excellent example is Fermat's Last Theorem, and there are many other examples of simple yet deep theorems in number theory and combinatorics (among other areas).

paragraphs: There are other theorems for which a proof is known, but cannot be easily written down. Among the best examples are the four color theorem and the Kepler conjecture. Both of these theorems are only known to be true by reducing them to a computational search which is then verified by a computer program. At first, many mathematicians did not accept this form of proof, but it has become more widely accepted over the years. The mathematician Doron Zeilberger has even gone so far as to claim that these are possibly the only nontrivial results that mathematicians have ever proved. Many mathematical theorems can be reduced to simpler computations, including polynomial identities, trigonometric identities and hypergeometric identities.