title: Stop-motion

paragraphs: Stop motion is a way of animation which makes it look like still objects are moving. Clay animation is a good example of how stop motion is used.

paragraphs: Stop-motion requires any camera that can make single frames (or photos). It works by shooting a single frame, moving the object a little bit, and capturing a frame again. Cartoons use a similar way; one of the main differences is that stop motion uses real objects instead of drawn.

paragraphs: Tim Burton, Will Vinton and the Aardman studio have used this method in their productions.


title: D.C. United

paragraphs: D.C. United is a Major League Soccer league soccer (or football) team that plays in Washington, D.C. in the United States. Its nickname is "the Black-and-Red".


title: Wendy Carlos

paragraphs: Wendy Carlos (born Walter Carlos, November 14, 1939) is an American composer and musician. She was born in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. She is known as one of the first people to use electric instruments to make music. In 1968, she released her music album "Switched on Bach". This album used many new electric instruments including the Moog Synthesizer. It won three Grammy Awards. She also did the music for movies. These include "A Clockwork Orange", "The Shining", and "Tron". In 1972, Carlos had a medical operation to change her body from male to female.


title: Boolean algebra

paragraphs: In mathematics, Boolean algebra is an algebra for binary digits (where 0 means false and 1 means true). It is equipped with three operators: conjunction (AND), disjunction (OR) and negation (NOT). It uses normal math symbols, but it does not work in the same way. It is named for George Boole, who invented it in the middle 19th century. Boolean algebra did not get much attention except from mathematicians until the 20th century when engineers began using it for logic gates.

paragraphs: The NOT operator is written with a bar over numbers or letters like this:

paragraphs: It means that the output is "not" the input.

paragraphs: The AND operator is written as formula_4 like this:

paragraphs: The output is true if and only if one and the other input is true.

paragraphs: The OR operator is written as formula_9 like this:

paragraphs: If one or the other input is true, then the output to be true (and false otherwise).

paragraphs: XOR basically means "exclusive or", meaning one input or the other must be true, but not both. It is also sometimes called NOR, which means the same thing.

paragraphs: The XOR operator is written as formula_14 like this:

paragraphs: In other words, the XOR operator returns true precisely when one or the other input is true—but not both.

paragraphs: Different gates can be put together in different orders:

paragraphs: It is not the same as a NOT then an AND: formula_20

paragraphs: Augustus De Morgan discovered that it is possible to preserve the truth values of Boolean expressions by changing a formula_9 sign to a formula_4 sign, while making or breaking a bar. That is:

paragraphs: These findings are commonly known as De Morgan's laws.


paragraphs: Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (published in the US under the title "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone") is the first book in the Harry Potter series, written by J.K. Rowling. It was published in 1997 and a movie version was shown in theaters in 2001.

paragraphs: This is the first book in a series of seven about the wizard Harry Potter, and therefore the author begins by setting the scene and introducing the reader to some of the characters.

paragraphs: At the start, Rowling describes how in an ordinary suburb, somewhere in an English town, people are suddenly surprised to see witches and wizards in odd clothing riding on public buses and appearing at places where people would not expect to suddenly meet a wizard. It is clear that something unusual has happened in the world of witches and wizards, and those people, who are normally quite secret, are out and about, enjoying themselves.

paragraphs: In this way, Rowling introduces the two worlds of her story, the world of ordinary people, called "Muggles", and the secret world of the magic folk who usually keep to themselves. Rowling then introduces the main character, Harry Potter, a little baby boy who is left on the doorstep of his aunt and uncle by an old wizard with a long white beard.

paragraphs: When the reader next meets Harry, he has grown to be a boy of eleven, living unhappily with his spiteful aunt, cruel uncle and bullying cousin Dudley. He is rescued from his misery by a huge bearded man upon his eleventh birthday. Harry Potter is a wizard without knowing it, and the giant man, Rubeus Hagrid, has come to help him buy his books and get ready to go to school. The school sounds most exciting. It is "Hogwart's School of Witchcraft and Wizardry".

paragraphs: On the long train journey north, Harry Potter meets the two people who are to become his best friends, Ronald Weasley and Hermione Granger. Ron and Hermione have very different characters. Hermione, who comes from "Muggle" (nonwizard) parents, is very intelligent and talented. She is such a know-it-all and so bossy that the boys do not like her at first. Ron, on the other hand, comes from an old family of wizards. He is number six in a family of seven children. He wears hand-me-down clothes and even his pet rat used to belong to his brother Percy. Ron knows all about Harry Potter.

paragraphs: The reason that Ron, and all the other people in the wizarding world, know all about Harry Potter is that Harry is famous, without even knowing it himself. The reason why he was left on the doorstep of his aunt and uncle is that both his parents are dead. They were murdered by an evil wizard who calls himself "Lord Voldemort". He is so evil that people are even afraid to say his name. Harry is famous because he survived the magical attack of the "He who must not be named", and since that day, Voldemort has gone into hiding.

paragraphs: Joanne Rowling then gives the reader a picture of the school that is to be Harry's home through seven books of the series, each one of which deals with a year in his life. The book describes the teachers, the lessons, the customs and the school sport so that it seems to be part of a real world. Even though the students learn magic and use magic, the book also describes Harry's growing up in a new and strange situation, just as any student must learn to fit in when they go to a new school among different people.

paragraphs: Harry soon discovers that while some magicians, such as the school principal Headmaster Professor Albus Dumbledore, and Deputy Headmistress Minerva McGonagal can be kind and encouraging, others, like the sinister Professor Snape with his greasy black hair and nasty comments, are very hard to trust. One of the subjects that Harry really needs to learn is "Defense against the Dark Arts" but unfortunately, the teacher, Professor Quirrell, is such a bumbling and nervous man that he does not seem to be able to teach Harry very much at all.

paragraphs: As the year goes by, Harry discovers that Hogwarts has, hidden away for safety, a very precious treasure. If it were to fall into the hands of Lord Voldemort, it would be very dangerous indeed. Harry also discovers that in solving problems and overcoming difficulties, having friends with very different talents can be extremely useful.

paragraphs: The movie was made by Warner Brothers. It was based closely on the book. In the United States, it was called "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone". Harry Potter was played by Daniel Radcliffe. Rupert Grint played Ron Weasley, and Emma Watson played Hermione Granger.


title: Justin Timberlake

paragraphs: Justin Randall Timberlake (born January 31, 1981) is an American pop musician, dancer and actor. Timberlake first became famous when he appeared in the television series "Mickey Mouse Club." He later became of part of the Grammy Award-winning boy band *NSYNC. He started his own career as a solo musician in 2002. He has recorded five studio albums, such as: Justified, FutureSex/LoveSounds,The 20/20 Experience,The 20/20 Experience – 2 of 2 and Man of the Woods.

paragraphs: Timberlake was born at St Jude's Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee, to Randall Timberlake and Lynn Harless (née Bomar). Timberlake's ancestors were English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Dutch, French, German, and Jersey (Channel Islander). He was raised in the Baptist religion. His parents divorced in 1985. He grew up in Millington, Tennessee, a small town north of Memphis.

paragraphs: In 1993, Timberlake joined "The Mickey Mouse Club". The show ended in 1994. In 1995 Timberlake was recruited for an all-male singing group organized by orlando based singer Chris Kirkpatrick and funded by boy band manager Lou Pearlman that eventually became 'N Sync.

paragraphs: Timberlake and JC Chasez were the two lead singers of the popular 1990s boy band 'N Sync. The group formed in 1995. Their first public performance happened the 22nd of October 1995 at Disney World's Pleasure Island. They started their career in 1996 in Europe, and hit it big in the United States in 1998 with the US release of their self-titled debut album "*NSYNC", which to date has sold over 14.8 million equivalent album sales.

paragraphs: Their album included a number of hit singles such as "Tearin' Up My Heart." For the next two years, encouraged by similar developments with the Backstreet Boys, 'N Sync engaged in a lengthy legal battle with manager Lou Pearlman.

paragraphs: Eventually the band signed with Jive Records. 'N Sync released a long-awaited album, "No Strings Attached "in March 2000, which became the fastest-selling album of all time at that time with 2.4 million copies sold in its first week and produced a #1 single, ""It's Gonna Be Me". " That record has since only been broken by Adele's 25 released in 2015. The release was followed by the band's third album, "Celebrity"", "which holds the title of the third-fastest selling album of all time with 1.8 million. In 2002, after the completion of the Celebrity Tour and the release of" "Girlfriend," "the third single from Celebrity, the group decided to take time off, at which point Timberlake began work on his first solo album and the group went into a hiatus. In its lifetime, 'N Sync was internationally famous and performed at the Academy Awards, the Olympics, and the Super Bowl, as well as selling more than 44 million equivalent album sales worldwide.

paragraphs: During late 1999, Timberlake made his acting debut in the Disney Channel original movie "Model Behavior", in which he played Jason Sharpe, a model who falls in love with a waitress after mistaking her for another model. It was released on March 12, 2000.

paragraphs: As a member of 'N Sync, Timberlake developed into a major celebrity in his own right in addition to achieving respect as a musician, since he was the writer or co-writer of all three singles from "Celebrity". The rise of his own stardom and the general decline in the popularity of boy bands led to a continuation of 'N Sync's hiatus, although the group has never officially disbanded.

paragraphs: Band member Lance Bass who was trying to go into space during the group's hiatus, has stated that he believes the group is finished, and is openly critical of Timberlake's actions in his memoir "Out of Sync". On the other hand, Chris Kirkpatrick remarked in August 2008 that the five remain friends, and he believed a reunion was possible: he repeated that opinion in October 2009. In September 2008, Bass also made conciliatory comments..

paragraphs: The group would briefly reunite at the 2013 MTV Video Musixc Awards when Timberlake received the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award and at the 2019 Coachella Festival this time sans Timberlake who was finishing his 115-show Man of the Woods Tour.

paragraphs: Group member JC Chasez would later reveal during an interview with Lance Bass on March, 2020 that he discussed the possible performance with Timberlake over the phone and was given a positive response, stating Timberlake urged the group to perform without him and recounting that "Ariana (Grande) can sing my parts".

paragraphs: In August 2002, after months of recording "Justified", his debut solo album, Timberlake performed at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards, where he premiered his first single, ""Like I Love You"," a sparse dance track produced by The Neptunes. The song reached number eleven on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Following the single, Timberlake released "Justified" on November 5, 2002. It debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200 album chart, selling 439,000 copies in its first week of release. It eventually went on to sell more than three million copies in the U.S. and more than seven million copies worldwide. The album also received critical acclaim, thanks to its heavy R&B influence provided by hip-hop producers The Neptunes and Timbaland. It spun off hits throughout late 2002 and 2003, including the top ten singles ""Cry Me a River"" and ""Rock Your Body"." Timberlake supported the album by co-headlining the Justified/Stripped Tour with Christina Aguilera in the summer of 2003. At the end of the year, Timberlake recorded a song entitled "I'm Lovin' It." It was used by McDonald's as the theme to its "I'm Lovin' It" campaign. The deal with McDonald's earned Timberlake an estimated $6 million. A tour entitled Justified and Lovin' It Live was included with the deal as well. Timberlake was featured on Nelly's song, ""Work It"", which was remixed and included on Nelly's 2003 remix album.

paragraphs: In February 2004, during the halftime show of the Super Bowl XXXVIII broadcast on the CBS television network, Timberlake performed with Janet Jackson before a television audience of more than 140 million viewers. At the end of the performance, as the song drew to a close, Timberlake tore off a part of Jackson's black leather costume in a "costume reveal" meant to accompany a portion of the song lyrics. According to CBS, "both Jackson and Timberlake had confirmed they planned it 'independently and clandestinely' without informing anyone." Part of the costume detached, and Jackson's breast was briefly exposed. Timberlake later apologized for the incident, stating he was "sorry that anyone was offended by the wardrobe malfunction during the halftime performance of the Super Bowl..." The phrase "wardrobe malfunction" has since been used by the media to refer to the incident and has entered pop culture. As a result of the controversy, Timberlake and Jackson were threatened with exclusion from the 2004 Grammy Awards unless they agreed to apologize on screen at the event. Timberlake attended and issued a scripted apology when accepting the first of two Grammy Awards he received that night (Best Pop Vocal Album for "Justified" and Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for "Cry Me a River"). He had also been nominated for Album of the Year for "Justified", Record of the Year for ""Cry Me a River"", and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Where Is the Love?" with The Black Eyed Peas.

paragraphs: After the Super Bowl controversy, Timberlake put his recording career on hold to act in several movies, having starred in a few feature movies earlier in his music career. The first role he took during this time was as a journalist in the thriller "Edison Force", which was filmed in 2004 and received a direct-to-video release on July 18, 2006. He also appeared in the movies "Alpha Dog", "Black Snake Moan", Richard Kelly's "Southland Tales", and voiced Prince Artie Pendragon in the animated movie "Shrek the Third", released on May 18, 2007. He also appeared as a young Elton John, in the video for John's song "This Train Don't Stop There Anymore". Timberlake was considered to play the role of Roger Davis in the movie version of the rock musical "Rent", but director Chris Columbus had insisted that only the original Broadway members could convey the true meaning of "Rent".

paragraphs: He continued to record with other artists. After "Where Is the Love?", he again collaborated with the Black Eyed Peas on the 2005 track "My Style" from their album "Monkey Business". When recording the 2005 single "Signs" with Snoop Dogg, Timberlake discovered a throat condition. Nodules were subsequently removed from his throat in an operation that took place on May 5, 2005. He was advised not to sing or speak loudly for at least a few months. In the summer of 2005, Timberlake started his own record company, JayTee Records.

paragraphs: Timberlake made a cameo in the video for Nelly Furtado and Timbaland's single "Promiscuous", released on May 3, 2006.

paragraphs: Timberlake released his second solo album, "FutureSex/LoveSounds", on September 12, 2006. The album, which Timberlake created in 2005, debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 album chart, selling 684,000 copies its first week. It is the biggest album for pre-orders on iTunes, and beat Coldplay's record for the biggest one-week sales of a digital album. The album was produced by Timbaland and Danja (who produced a bulk of the album), will.i.am, Rick Rubin and Timberlake himself, and features guest vocals by Snoop Dogg, Three 6 Mafia, T.I. and will.i.am. A studio representative described it as being "all about sexiness" and aiming for "an adult feel".

paragraphs: The album's lead single, "SexyBack", was performed by Timberlake at the opening of the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, where it remained for seven consecutive weeks. "My Love", the album's second single, also produced by Timbaland and featuring rapper T.I., reached number one on the Hot 100, as did third single What Goes Around.../...Comes Around Interlude. The song is reported to have been inspired by the break-up of his childhood friend and business partner, Trace Ayala, with actress Elisha Cuthbert. In October 2006, Timberlake said that he would focus on his music career rather than his movie roles, specifying that leaving the music industry would be a "dumb thing to do at this point". He was the special guest performer at the 2006 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show for being where he sang SexyBack.

paragraphs: In January 2007, Timberlake embarked on the FutureSex/LoveShow tour. "Summer Love/Set the Mood Prelude" was the fourth U.S. single off the album, and the next single in the UK was "LoveStoned/I Think She Knows Interlude". The song "Give It to Me", a Timbaland single on which Timberlake guests with Nelly Furtado, reached the Hot 100 number-one spot.

paragraphs: In February 2008, Timberlake was awarded two Grammy Awards. At the 50th Grammy Awards Ceremony, Timberlake won the "Male Pop Performance" Award for "What Goes Around...Comes Around", and the "Dance Recording" Award for "LoveStoned/I Think She Knows".

paragraphs: In April 2007, Timberlake was seen entering a London studio with Madonna, thus confirming rumors that he was collaborating with her. A song ""4 Minutes"", was first played by Timbaland at Philadelphia's Jingle Ball on December 17, 2007. When released on March 17, 2008, "4 Minutes" was revealed to be a duet between Timberlake and Madonna, with backing vocals by Timbaland. It was lead single from Madonna's eleventh studio album "Hard Candy", which featured four other songwriting collaborations with Timberlake. The single was an international hit, and topped the charts in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, and reached the Top 5 in Austria, France, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand and the United States. Timberlake also appears in the music video, which was directed by Jonas & François. On March 30, 2008, Timberlake performed the song at Madonna's Hard Candy Promo Show at Roseland Ballroom in New York City. On November 6, 2008, Timberlake performed the song with Madonna on the Los Angeles stop of her Sticky & Sweet Tour.

paragraphs: Around June 2007 Timberlake co-wrote, produced and provided vocals for the songs "Nite Runner" and "Falling Down" for Duran Duran's album "Red Carpet Massacre", released on November 13, 2007. "Falling Down" had been released as a single in the UK on the previous day.

paragraphs: Also in 2007, Timberlake made an appearance on 50 Cent's third album, "Curtis". Timberlake, along with Timbaland, is featured on a track called "Ayo Technology", which was the album's fourth single. Also, another possible collaboration was to occur with Lil Wayne for his album "Tha Carter III" with Nelly Furtado and Timbaland.

paragraphs: With the wrapping up of the FutureSex/LoveSounds tour of Australasia and the Middle East in November 2007, Timberlake resumed his movie career. Projects underway early in 2008 were starring roles in Mike Myers' comedy "The Love Guru" (released June 20, 2008) and Mike Meredith's drama "The Open Road" (released August 28, 2009). In March 2008 it was announced that he was be an executive producer in an American adaptation of the hit Peruvian comedy "My Problem with Women" for NBC.

paragraphs: On November 20, 2008, "TV Guide" reported that Timberlake's next single, "Follow My Lead", which also featured vocals by Timberlake's protégée, former YouTube star Esmee Denters, would be available for exclusive download through MySpace. All proceeds would go to Shriners Hospitals for Children, a charity dedicated to improving pediatric care for sick children.

paragraphs: In 2008, a collaboration between Timberlake and T.I., "Dead and Gone" featured on T.I.'s sixth studio album, "Paper Trail", and was released as its fourth single late in 2009. In November 2008, it was confirmed that Timberlake would make a guest appearance and produce some tracks on R&B/pop singer Ciara's upcoming album "Fantasy Ride" due out May 5, 2009. Timberlake featured on Ciara's second single "Love Sex Magic", the video being shot on February 20, 2009. The single became a worldwide hit, reaching the top ten in numerous countries and peaking at number one in several countries including Taiwan, India, and Turkey. The single is now nominated for "Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals" at the 52nd Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: Timberlake and his production team The Y's, along with Mike Elizondo, produced and co-wrote the song "Don't Let Me Down" for Leona Lewis's second studio album, "Echo", released (in the US) on November 17, 2009.

paragraphs: Timberlake also co-wrote and performed on "Carry Out," the third single from Timbaland's album "Shock Value II", released on December 1, 2009.

paragraphs: In June 2012 Timberlake began working on a new album, "The 20/20 Experience". It was released on March 19, 2013. The album came top of the Irish charts in the first week. The single "Mirrors" was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 2014 Grammy Awards. The album also included the successful single "Suit & Tie" with rapper Jay Z.

paragraphs: Timberlake later released the albums "The 20/20 Experience" and "The 20/20 Experience – 2 of 2" together in the box set, "The 20/20 Experience – The Complete Experience".

paragraphs: He recorded the song "Can't Stop the Feeling!" for the upcoming DreamWorks animated film, "Trolls". The song entered the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 at number one.

paragraphs: Timberlake had a relationship with Britney Spears when they met at the "Mickey Mouse Club". This relationship gained high public attention. It ended suddenly in 2002 when Timberlake claimed that Spears cheated on him with choreographer Wade Robson.

paragraphs: Later in 2002, he dated actress-dancer Jenna Dewan and actress-singer Alyssa Milano. In April 2003, he started dating actress Cameron Diaz after they met at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards. There were many rumors afterwards that the two broke up. He stated on December 16, 2006 on "Saturday Night Live" that they had split up.

paragraphs: In 2007, it was revealed that he had a romantic relationship with actress Jessica Biel. They married in 2012. Their son, Silas Randall Timberlake, was born on April 11, 2015.

paragraphs: In 2008, Timberlake stated that he has attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

paragraphs: Timberlake also works in the movie industry. He is the voice of King Arthur in animated movie "Shrek the Third". He is also in the movies "Alpha Dog" and "Black Snake Moan". In 2008, he acted in movie "The Love Guru".


title: Aramaic language

paragraphs: Aramaic is a Semitic language. It has been written for 3100 years and has been spoken for longer than that.

paragraphs: It is one of the Northwest Semitic languages. The Semitic languages include Aramaic, Hebrew, Arabic and many other languages.

paragraphs: Aramaic is the language of long parts of the two Bible books of Daniel and Ezra. It is the language of the Jewish Talmud.

paragraphs: Words are written with the 22 characters of the Aramaic alphabet, which was widely adopted for other languages and is an ancestor to the Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic alphabets.

paragraphs: In the 12th century BC, the first speakers of Aramaic started to live in what is now Syria, Iraq and eastern Turkey. As the bureaucratic language of the Achaemenid Empire, it became the most important language in the Middle East. Jewish speakers took the language with them to North Africa and Europe. Christian speakers took the language with them to Persia, India and even China.

paragraphs: In the 7th century AD, Aramaic stopped being the most important language in the Middle East. The Arabic language became the new important language. Aramaic is still spoken by scattered communities of Jews, Mandaeans and some Christians. Small groups of people still speak Aramaic in different parts of the Middle East. The wars of the last two centuries have made many speakers leave their homes to live in different places around the world. Today, between 500.000 and 850.000 people speak Aramaic languages.

paragraphs: Aramaic is not one language without any changes. Because many different people over many centuries spoke and wrote it, there are many different types of Aramaic languages, called dialects, but some of them are so different that they are like different languages.

paragraphs: The different dialects make two groups: an Eastern group and a Western group. The division between them is around the River Euphrates.

paragraphs: The dialects are divided also by time. Old Aramaic is the name of the oldest dialects, which only scholars learn. Middle Aramaic is the group of dialects, which are used not every day but for special things like writing and religion. Modern Aramaic is the group of dialects that is used every day by some groups.


title: Libya

paragraphs: Libya ( ', Berber: ⵍⵉⴱⵢⴰ "Libya"), officially the State of Libya, is a country in North Africa. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west. It covers an area of almost . It is the 17th largest country in the world.

paragraphs: Libya's borders touch the countries of Egypt, Sudan, Chad, Algeria, Niger, and Tunisia. To its north is the Mediterranean Sea. The capital of Libya is Tripoli, which is a port on the sea. Tripoli has about one million people. Libya covers an area of about .

paragraphs: The highest point in Libya is Bikku Bitti 2,267 m above sea level and the lowest point is Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 m at below sea level. Most of the country is flat, with large plains. Because it is so dry, only 1.03% of the land is suitable for farming.

paragraphs: The area around Tripoli is called "Tripolitania", and it was the most developed during the Ottoman occupation.

paragraphs: Cyrenaica is an area of the north east coast. It is divided from Tripolitania by the Gulf of Sirte. It was named by the Greeks who built the city of Cirene in 630 BC. It includes the cities of Tobruk and Benghazi.

paragraphs: The Fezzan is an area of desert in south west Libya which the Italians made a part of Tripoli in 1912. After the war this area was governed by France, who wanted to annex to their Empire.

paragraphs: The population of Libya in 2011 was said to be about 6,597,960. This is not a large number for a country that has such a large area, so the population density of Libya is low. This is because much of Libya is in the Sahara Desert. Most people in Libya live in cities on the coast. People from Libya are called Libyans.

paragraphs: Libyans are mostly Arabs, though many are Berbers, a group which includes the nomadic Tuareg of North Africa. About 95% of Libyans are of Arab-Berber origin. Nearly all Libyans are Sunni Muslims.

paragraphs: Since 2007 Libya has been divided into 22 districts.

paragraphs: Oil was discovered in Libya in 1958 and is about 95% of the country's export income. Oil is about 25% of Libya's GDP. Other exports include natural gas, salt, limestone and gypsum. Because so much of the country is desert, Libya has to import about 75% of its food. It does grow wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, peanuts, soybeans and many vegetables. In 1984, a pipeline was started to bring underground water from the Sahara to coastal areas for irrigation. The pipeline which will take 25 years to complete has been estimated to cost about $25 billion. It is called the Great Man-made River, and is the largest water development scheme in the world.

paragraphs: The money of Libya is called the Libyan dinar. It was made to take the place of the old money, the Libyan pound, in 1971. There are 1000 dirhams in a dinar. Dinar is the name of the money in many Islamic countries. The name comes from an old Roman coin, the denarius.

paragraphs: Libya is made up of three regions, Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and the Fezzan. Tripolitania is the area on the north west coast, once called the Kingdom of Tripoli. It was ruled by Turks from the Ottoman Empire. The USA went to war with the Kingdom of Tripoli in 1805 over the problems of piracy in the Mediterranean. The USA had refused to pay increased "protection" money to the Turkish rulers.

paragraphs: Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were captured by the Italians during the Italian-Turkish War of 1911-1912. The reason for the war was to set up a colony for Italy. They said that this area was once part of the Roman Empire and belonged to Italy. The Italians were the first country to use aeroplanes to drop bombs when they attacked Tripoli in 1911.

paragraphs: Many thousands of Italian settlers moved to Libya to set up businesses and farms, which were going to supply food and produce for Italy and its Empire Libyans had some of their land in Cyrenaica taken from them by force and about 70,000 people died during the battles, starved, or were decimated by the terrible epidemic (called "Spanish flu") of 1918. Many thousands escaped to Egypt, but soon moved back when the new Italian governor Italo Balbo started a friendly attitude toward Arabs.

paragraphs: Italian Libya enjoyed in the late 1930s a huge development, with the creation of new railways, ports, hospitals, airports, roads. In those years the agricultural economy boomed, thanks to the creation of many dozens of new villages for Italian & Arab farmers. There was even an international race-car competition outside Tripoli ("Grand Prix of Tripoli" ).

paragraphs: Much of the North African Campaign of World War II was fought in Libya, including the Battle of Tobruk. The British captured Tripolitania in 1942 and ruled it until 1951.

paragraphs: After World War II, the regions of Libya were ruled by military governors from both Britain and France. The United Nations made Libya an independent country, the United Kingdom of Libya, in 1951. This was to be a constitutional monarchy, ruled by King Idris I and his successors. Idris (Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi) (13 March 1890—25 May 1983) had been the Emir of Cyrenaica, but went into exile in Egypt in 1922. At the end of the war, he returned as emir, with support of Britain. He was also asked to be Emir of Tripolitania. He was able to unite the three regions and became the king of the United Kingdom of Libya on 24 December 1951.

paragraphs: The problems facing Libya were huge. The country was poor, with little in the way of goods to export. Only 250,000 people could read. There were only 16 Libyan college graduates, no Libyan doctors, engineers, pharmacists, or surveyors. The United Nations estimated that 10% of the people were blind from eye diseases, especially trachoma. Idris was a religious leader did not take much interest in the affairs of government. His government was seen to be corrupt, and did nothing about an increasing rise in Arab nationalism which had brought Nasser to power in Egypt in 1952. Once oil was discovered, Libya became one of the largest oil producing countries in the world. Many Libyans felt that Cyrenaica was getting more of the oil money than the rest of the country. A lot of the money from oil was also going to overseas companies.

paragraphs: In the early morning of 1 September 1969, a group of military officers took over the government in a coup d'état. Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi was named as chief of staff of the military. From 1970-1972 he served as Prime Minister. He began a political system named "The Third Universal Theory". This is a mix of socialism and Islam, based on tribal government. It was to be put in place by the Libyan people themselves in a unique form of "direct democracy." Al-Gaddafi called this "jamahiriya".

paragraphs: Some of his first actions were to take back control of the oil and send the remaining Italian settlers back to Italy. He also closed down the American USAF base.

paragraphs: In 1977 Libya became "Al-Jamahiriya al-`Arabiyah al-Libiyah ash-Sha`biyah al-Ishtirakiyah al-Uzma" . In English, the name means the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya".

paragraphs: Libya was alleged to have sponsored anti-western groups. Gaddafi openly supported independence movements like Nelson Mandela's African National Congress, Palestinian Liberation Organization, the Irish Republican Army, the Polisario Front (Western Sahara) and more. Because of this Libya's foreign relations with several western nation were negatively effected, and it would become a reason for US to bomb Libya in 1986. Gaddafi survived the bombing, the action of US was condemned by many countries and UN general assembly.

paragraphs: Libya had also supplied weapons and money to the Irish Republican Army during its fight with the British government in Northern Ireland. Gaddafi developed a good relationship with revolutionary Colombian Marxist–Leninist guerrilla group called FARC. Activities also included such as Libyan contribution towards Falklands War, where Gaddafi had provided 20 launchers, 60 SA-7 missiles, machine guns, mortars and mines to the Argentinian government. Libya was alleged to have role in bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988 and French UTA Flight 772 in 1989, despite the investigation found no evidence which involves any Libyan role.

paragraphs: The United Nations put economic sanctions in place against Libya in 1992. These sanctions stopped other countries selling weapons, investing money, or even allowing their people to visit Libya. After six days when US had captured Iraq's Saddam Hussein, Gaddafi renounced Libya's weapons of mass destruction programs and welcomed international inspections to verify that he would follow through on the commitment. Gaddafi said he hopes that other nations would follow his example. UN removed the sanctions in the same year. Gaddafi solved the Lockerbie plane crash issue by paying US$2.7 billion to the families of the victims. Prime Minister of Libya Shukri Ghanem, told in the interviews that Gaddafi was "paying the price for peace" with the West, and suggested that Libya had no role in the case. United Nations observers would acknowledge such statement and cast doubt towards the whole issue.

paragraphs: Gaddafi also set about having normal relations with other countries. Western European leaders and many working-level and commercial delegations were able to visit the country. He made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled to Brussels in April 2004. He reattached the ties with Russia once again, which had remained idle since the collapse of the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: By 2010, Libya's Human Development Index was highest in Africa, the country ranked at #53 overall as 'High standard' on living bases. Libya remained a debt-free nation. In 2011, Human rights in Libya were praised by the U.N. Human rights council. However, after civil war the human rights seems to be getting worse. On March 2013, according to the Barnabas Fund, at least 48 Christians were tortured inside Libya, one died in custody.

paragraphs: Every Libyan who is older than 18 can vote. This means that voting (also known as "suffrage") in Libya is "universal".

paragraphs: In February 2011, a civil war broke out in Libya when rebels fought against Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi and his government. NATO intervened in the war in favor of the rebels. However, some rebels had links with al-Qaeda. NATO ended its mission in October after Colonel al-Gaddafi was reported to have been killed. In the aftermath of the civil war, a low-level rebellion by al-Gaddafi loyalists continued. Armed militias filled the gap left by the revolution. Two different national governments were organized in Tripoli and Tobruk and many fighters did not follow either of them.


title: Population density

paragraphs: The population density of a country or city or other place is a number showing how crowded that place is. It is calculated by dividing the population by the area. For example, France has a population of 60,561,200, and an area of 551,695 square kilometres, so its population density is about 109.8 persons per square kilometre.

paragraphs: A number of factors can affect population density. For example, the climate. Greenland has a very low population density because it is very cold there, so not many people want to live there.

paragraphs: Many cities were built near rivers, because the first settlers wanted somewhere close to water to start a society, so areas around rivers often have a high population density.

paragraphs: Some places, such as cities, have very high population densities, so they are quite crowded. The population density of New York City is 10,292 persons per square kilometre. Other places, such as large countries, can have very low population densities. The population density of Canada is only 3.8 persons per square kilometre because it is such a big country.

paragraphs: The country with the highest population density in the world is Monaco, with 16,620 persons per square kilometre. The country with the lowest is Greenland, which has only 0.03 persons per square kilometre.


Joey


title: Saturday Night Fever

paragraphs: Saturday Night Fever is a 1977 American drama movie. It stars John Travolta as a 19 year old working-class Italian American man named Tony Manero. Manero lives with his parents and works in a dead-end job at a small hardware store. He tries to escape his problem-filled life in Brooklyn by dancing at a nightclub in New York City. The soundtrack (an album that has songs that were heard in the movie) of the movie includes music by the Bee Gees and many other artists. Both the album and movie were very popular. There are two versions of the movie: the original R-rated version and the PG-rated version which came out a year later so the movie could be popular with younger people. A sequel called "Staying Alive" was released in 1983.


title: Greyhound

paragraphs: A Greyhound is a dog breed that is skinny, has long legs, and runs faster than any other breed of dog. It is one of the oldest breeds of dogs. For centuries, people have raced them in some parts of the world. Greyhound racing is a bit like horse racing in many ways. In recent years, many Greyhounds have been mistreated or killed especially after they get too old to race, but many animal rights rescue groups try to stop that and to help them be adopted by people to keep as pets.


title: Grand unification theory

paragraphs: Grand unification theory or GUT is a model that tries to describe the universe. It says that three forces - electromagnetic, weak and strong forces - were once combined into a single force. These are three of the fundamental four forces of nature, which are responsible for all of the pushes and pulls in the universe. If gravity is also combined with these forces, then the GUT will become the proposed Theory of Everything.

paragraphs: Because GUT models have more dimensions than currently known, there has not been a single GUT. Particle accelerators, like the Large Hadron Collider have been built to test these GUTs indirectly, as it is too complex to observe effects on particles without them.

paragraphs: GUT was first proposed by researchers from CERN in the 1970s. The discovery of the Higgs Boson and other such recent discoveries will get scientists closer to knowing which GUT is correct, and ultimately know the Theory of Everything. This theory was given by Pakistani scientist Abdus Salam, who shared the Noble Prize with Weinberg and Glashow for it in 1979.


title: Factory

paragraphs: A factory is a building where workers use machines to make things for sale. It usually means a building where companies use mass production to make different things. Many of the same thing are made in a short amount of time.

paragraphs: People who work in factories are losing their jobs because machines can do their work more easily. (Automation) Now some factories are lights-out, which means they can run without any workers.

paragraphs: Factories during the Industrial Revolution had horrible working conditions.


paragraphs: United States Declaration of Independence is an important document in the history of the United States of America. It was ratified on July 4, 1776. It says that the Americans were no longer under British rule. Instead, the thirteen British colonies came together to become a union of new free and independent states.

paragraphs: Before 1776, the United States of America was not a country. The individual states were colonies of the British Empire. They were called British Colonies. This means that the King and Parliament of Great Britain ruled the Colonies.

paragraphs: During this time, many American people were angry at Great Britain. Many Americans did not like paying taxes to Great Britain when they did not have anyone to speak for them in Parliament. The American people wanted to be treated like British citizens. When they were not treated like everyone should have the right to have the freedom of speech and that all men and women are created equal

paragraphs: Responding to actions taken by Great Britain, including the Intolerable Acts, the different colonies formed a Continental Congress to make decisions for all of the colonies. They met in the American city of Philadelphia. During a meeting of the Second Continental Congress, on June 11, 1776, they chose five people to write a document that would become the Declaration of Independence. These people were:

paragraphs: The committee decided that one person would write the document, while the rest would give him advice on what to write. John Adams decided that Thomas Jefferson should write the document. He bought him a few drinks and told him that he was more qualified to write it because he was a Virginian and he was simply a better writer. Jefferson got to work.

paragraphs: In the Declaration, Jefferson starts by writing about people's rights, and what the government should and should not do. This part of the Declaration is called the Preamble. He then lists specific bad things that the British government did to the colonies. He says these included putting people in jail with no reason; making taxes that were too high; and not respecting people who lived in the colonies.

paragraphs: On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress argued about the Declaration and made some changes to it. After making changes, they approved the Declaration. They declared their independence from the British Empire that day, at the Pennsylvania State House.

paragraphs: However, the Continental Congress did not officially approve the Declaration until July 4. On that day, twelve of the thirteen groups that represented the colonies approved and ordered the Declaration to be printed. (The Province of New York did not vote.) This version of the Declaration was signed only by the President of the Congress, John Hancock.

paragraphs: On July 15, the New York group agreed with the rest of the colonies' groups. This meant that everyone in the Congress agreed on the Declaration.

paragraphs: On July 19, the Declaration's title was changed from "A Declaration of the Representatives of the United States of America in General Congress assembled" to "the unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America."

paragraphs: Overall, 56 men signed the Declaration. However, some people signed at different times. Many people signed a parchment paper copy of the Declaration on July 2. Many of these signers were not there when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. One signer, Matthew Thornton, from the Province of New Hampshire, signed on November 4, 1776.

paragraphs: The Declaration of Independence had many different effects.

paragraphs: When the King of Great Britain, King George III, and Parliament heard about the Declaration, they were angry. Great Britain and the people in America had already been fighting in a war called the American Revolution. America won the war, and in 1783 Great Britain had to recognize the independence of the new country, the United States, at the Treaty of Paris.

paragraphs: The people of America know that the Declaration of Independence is very important. Every year on July 4, they have a holiday called 'Independence Day'. They celebrate this holiday to remember the day that the Declaration was approved, and the day that the United States of America became its own country. They often celebrate with parades, fireworks, and songs.

paragraphs: The Declaration of Independence also talks about the simple ideas that the people who started the United States believed in. It says that every person in this U.S has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It also says that the government has to listen to its own people. These things were what made America a free independent country.

paragraphs: The initial text says that a declaration of independence must be well-reasoned:

paragraphs: When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

paragraphs: The preamble of the declaration is the best-known part.

paragraphs: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.

paragraphs: The Declaration of Independence can be viewed at the National Archives Museum near the National Mall in Washington, D.C.


title: Jordan

paragraphs: Jordan is a country in the Middle East. Its official name is "The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan".

paragraphs: Jordan has borders with the countries of Saudi Arabia, Israel, Syria and Iraq. It also has a very short coast on the Red Sea, and a longer coast along the Dead Sea.

paragraphs: Most of Jordan is desert and the country is very dry. The northwest of Jordan is its highest part, and its lowest part is the Dead Sea. This is the lowest place on the Earth that is open to the sky.

paragraphs: Jordan is divided into 12 Governorates. The governorates are divided into 54 departments or districts named Nahias.

paragraphs: People from Jordan are called Jordanians. Most of them speak Arabic as their first language. The population of Jordan is about 10.5 million people.

paragraphs: Jordan is a constitutional monarchy and has a king. The King is the head of state, but he does not have all the power in the country. King Abdullah II has been the King of Jordan since February 1999. Most Jordanians are Muslim. There are around 200-400 000 Christians.

paragraphs: Jordan's national meal is mansaf. The most popular sport is football.

paragraphs: Unlike some of the countries around it, Jordan has little petroleum and natural gas. Some of its economy comes from mining instead. Jordan is the largest producer of the mineral phosphate in the world.

paragraphs: Jordan is a Member of the OECD since 2019 as the first Arab Country to do so.

paragraphs: The currency of Jordan is called the Jordanian dinar.


title: Prejudice

paragraphs: Prejudice means preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience. The word comes from the Latin "pre" (before) and "judge". People may prejudge any question, but the word is often used for an opinion about a person or group of people. English understanding of the Latin has changed in past centuries. In old English the word "prejudice" denotes the use of "good judgment" before an event, e.g., "I decided (showed prejudice) not to run with the bulls because I could have been hurt.

paragraphs: The word "prejudice" is often used when people dislike another group of people that are different from them. They may decide they do not like them because of their skin color (this is "racial prejudice"), religion (religious prejudice) or nationality. Such prejudices can lead to discrimination, hatred or even war.

paragraphs: Judges in a court of law should not be prejudiced when deciding whether someone is guilty. They should have an "open mind" so that they can make a fair decision (this is also known as not having a bias; most judges in a court of law have sworn to be unbiased when deciding a penalty). For example, if that person is the judge's friend then the judge would be prejudiced because he (or she) would not want his (or her) friend to get into trouble. In many other situations it is important not to be prejudiced, such as serving as an adjudicator in a competition or a juror in a trial.

paragraphs: Modern people sometimes use "prejudice" to mean "bigotry." This leaves them with two words for one thing, and none for the other.


title: Inflation

paragraphs: Inflation means that the general level of prices is going up, the opposite of deflation. More money will need to be paid for goods (like a loaf of bread) and services (like getting a haircut at the hairdresser's). Economists measure inflation regularly to know an economy's state. Inflation changes the ratio of money towards goods or services; more money is needed to get the same amount of a good or service, or the same amount of money will get a lower amount of a good or service. Economists defined certain customer baskets to be able to measure inflation. There can be positive and negative effects of inflation.

paragraphs: When the total money in an economy (the money supply) increases too rapidly, the quality of the money (the currency value) often decreases. Economists generally think that the increased money supply (monetary inflation) causes the price of goods/services price to increase (price inflation) over a longer period. They disagree on causes over a shorter period.

paragraphs: The Demand-Pull inflation theory can be said simply "too much money chasing too few goods." In other words, if the will of buying goods is growing faster than amount of goods that have been made, then prices will go up. This is most likely happens in economies that are growing fast.

paragraphs: Whenever a product is bought or sold beyond its real price for its worth, then Inflation of money occurs. If a company, for example, makes a small amount of goods which are sold over high quantity then it has to increase the prices so that it can manage the product quantity.

paragraphs: The Cost-Push inflation theory says that when the cost of making goods (which are paid by the company) go up, they have to make prices higher to make profit out of selling that product. The higher costs of making goods can include things like workers' wages, taxes to be paid to the government or bigger costs of raw materials from other countries.

paragraphs: However, Austrian School economists think this is wrong, because if people have to pay higher prices, this just means they have less to spend on other things.

paragraphs: Almost everyone thinks excessive inflation is bad. Inflation affects different people in different ways. It also depends on whether inflation is expected or not. If the inflation rate is equal to what most people are expecting (anticipated inflation), then we can adjust and the cost is not as high. For example, banks can change their interest rates and workers can negotiate contracts that include automatic wage hikes as the price level goes up.

paragraphs: Problems arise when there is unanticipated inflation:


title: Obsessive–compulsive disorder

paragraphs: Obsessive–compulsive disorder (often shortened to OCD) is a mental disorder that causes repeated and unwanted thoughts and/or feelings (obsessions) and actions (compulsions). Anxiety is one of the most common symptoms and can lead the individual to believe that if a task is not completed, something bad may happen. Such a task may be washing hands many times. This belief leads to more anxiety and tension. The actions that someone takes to stop the thoughts and feelings can take more than an hour every day. OCD can limit one's ability to take part in relationships, the workplace, and in society in general. OCD affects around 1.2% of the world's population, and it affects the lives of around 15%. In the United States, about one in fifty adults has OCD.

paragraphs: Someone with obsessive–compulsive disorder has thoughts called obsessions. A thought that is an obsession will happen many times and is a thought that the person does not want to have. Different people will have different obsessive thoughts. Some people have obsessions about God, the Devil, or another religious figure hurting them or someone they love. Other people have obsessions about sex. They may think about things like kissing, having sex with, or touching people around them. People with OCD may worry that they will act on these thoughts.

paragraphs: Some people have obsessive–compulsive disorder without compulsions. This is called "primarily obsessional OCD", or "pure-O". It is thought that up to half of all people with obsessive–compulsive disorder have primarily obsessional OCD. People with primarily obsessional OCD may have a third type of obsession; that is aggressive thoughts. People with aggressive thoughts may have obsessions about hurting or killing themselves or people around them. Instead of performing compulsions, people with primarily obsessional OCD may act out compulsions in their mind or avoid the things and places that cause the obsessions.

paragraphs: Many people with obsessive–compulsive disorder act in a certain way to stop the obsessive thought. These specific actions are known as compulsions. To someone with obsessive–compulsive disorder, doing these compulsions are a way to stop the obsessive thought. They may also think that doing the compulsion will stop something bad from happening to them or someone they care about.

paragraphs: Many compulsions are similar to body tics, and up to 40% of people with obsessive–compulsive disorder have a tic disorder. Some examples of compulsion include:

paragraphs: People with obsessive–compulsive disorder usually know that their compulsions do not make sense, but do them anyways to stop the feelings of panic or anxiety. People with obsessive–compulsive disorder may do their compulsions for hours every day. Their compulsions can also hurt them, such as compulsive hand washing making their hands red and cut.

paragraphs: The cause of obsessive–compulsive disorder is unknown. There is evidence that genes have a strong role in developing the disorder. If the disorder starts in childhood, it is more likely that other family members will have OCD than if the disorder starts in adulthood. It is thought that obsessive–compulsive disorder is the result of things humans did when they were evolving.

paragraphs: There are four DSM diagnostic criteria for obsessive–compulsive disorder:

paragraphs: There is another mental disorder similar to obsessive–compulsive disorder called Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder or OCPD. The difference between the two is that people with obsessive–compulsive disorder know that something is wrong and become stressed because of their obsessive thoughts. People with obsessive–compulsive personality disorder do not know that something is wrong, and they like their obsessions and compulsions.

paragraphs: Behavioral therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are used to help people with obsessive–compulsive disorder. The therapy works by making people be in places where they have their obsessive thoughts. They are then made to not do their compulsion. Over time, the person becomes used to the place or things that causes them to have their obsessive thoughts. An example of this is someone who is afraid of dirt having dirt put on their hands without being able to wash it off.

paragraphs: The medicines that are usually used are called "selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors", or SSRIs. These medicines work by stopping a chemical in the brain called serotonin from working. This causes the obsessive thoughts to happen less. In adults, SSRIs are used for people with moderate or severe issues. In children, SSRIs are used after or with therapy for people with severe issues.

paragraphs: If SSRIs do not work, it is possible for a doctor to give someone with obsessive–compulsive disorder anti-psychotic medicines. Doctors may use both medication and counseling for those with the disorder, and they find that this approach works best.

paragraphs: Surgery can be used to help people if other treatments do not work. In the United States, surgery is not done unless medicine and therapy have not worked multiple times. In the United Kingdom, surgery cannot be done unless cognitive behavioral therapy has not worked.

paragraphs: Therapy can be used to reduce the compulsions in children and young adults. Family involvement is very important in treating children. Family also can give the child positive reinforcement for not doing their compulsive behaviors.

paragraphs: In Europe from the 14th to 16th centuries, it was thought that people who had obsessive thoughts were possessed. They would treat these people by performing sometimes dangerous exorcisms to remove the Devil or evil spirit from the person. In the 1910s, a doctor named Sigmund Freud said that obsessive–compulsive disorder was because of fighting in someone's head. He said that these fights start in childhood when someone gains a "touching phobia", which fights with the natural want to touch things.

paragraphs: There are several movies and television shows that show people with obsessive–compulsive disorder. The movie "The Aviator" shows the life of Howard Hughes. Hughes was afraid of germs, and his obsessions and compulsions were about keeping germs away. English footballer David Beckham has talked about his obsessive–compulsive disorder. Television hosts Howie Mandel and Marc Summers have also talked about their obsessions and compulsions.


title: Industrial Revolution

paragraphs: The Industrial Revolution is the name historians have given to the period in history when there was a large and rapid change in the way things were made. This meant that instead of things being hand made in small workshops, they were made more cheaply in large quantities by machines in factories. Products being made in large quantity now meant that they were sold for less.

paragraphs: Many people began to move from an agricultural based life in the country to the towns where the factories offered more and better paid work.

paragraphs: The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 18th century. Many of the technological innovations were of British origin. In particular, the County of Shropshire was important, for it had both minerals (e.g. iron ore and coal) and transport on the River Severn. This led to the group of industries near the Ironbridge Gorge and the town of Coalbrookdale.

paragraphs: In the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation. It controlled a global trading empire with colonies in North America and Africa, and with some political influence on the Indian subcontinent, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution.

paragraphs: The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history. Almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. Average income increased, and population grew rapidly. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, but others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.

paragraphs: The revolution spread to Europe and the Americas, especially the United States, by the early 19th century. Samuel Slater, who had been an apprentice in an English cotton factory, disguised himself and came to America. He reconstructed a spinning machine from memory and built a factory of his own.

paragraphs: New ideas and inventions were also taken up and used in mining, the working of metals, and in the transport of goods. Around the same time new ideas in farming were leaving some farm workers without jobs. They added to the move to the industrial towns where they sought out work in factories.

paragraphs: The most important new invention of the industrial revolution was the steam engine. The steam engine, improved by James Watt around 1776, was used to power the factories and pump out the deeper mines. It was also used in railway engines. The heat from burning coal became the main source of power.

paragraphs: Living standards rose and people generally became richer and healthier and had more children who survived to be adults instead of starving. The resulting population growth in England caused new problems. Where only a few people had been rich because they owned land, now more became very rich thanks to industry. More, however, were still poor and lived in poor conditions. Children and women had to work for a long time for little pay. Often several families crowded into very small apartments. Working at different times, family members would take turns sleeping when they were not working. Families were usually unable to get together. 12, 14, or even 18-hour workdays were common. The Industrial Revolution brought problems of its own.

paragraphs: During the industrial revolution, new technology brought many changes. For example:


title: Botswana

paragraphs: Botswana (officially called the Republic of Botswana) is a country in southern Africa. The capital of Botswana is Gaborone.

paragraphs: The countries that border Botswana are Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Namibia. It is also possible to travel from Botswana directly into Zambia by crossing the Zambezi River by ferry.

paragraphs: Botswana is landlocked. All of Botswana's trade must be brought in over land or by airplane.

paragraphs: The two most important geographical features in Botswana are the Okavango Delta and the Kalahari Desert.

paragraphs: People from Botswana are called "Batswana". The population of Botswana is about 2.2 million. This is only 2.7 persons per km², a small number for a country of this size. This is because most of the country is desert and very dry.

paragraphs: Botswana has two official languages: Setswana and English. Setswana is the national language (also called "Tswana").

paragraphs: Botswana is a democracy. The people vote for their political leaders. Those leaders vote for the president. In 2008 Ian Khama became the fourth president of Botswana.

paragraphs: President Khama won elections in 2009 and 2014. The current President of Botswana is Dr. Eric K. Mokgweetsi who took over from Dr. Ian Khama Seretse Khama in 2018.

paragraphs: The economy of Botswana has been growing very fast since it became an independent country in 1966. The people of Botswana have had the world's fastest growth in standard of living since that time.

paragraphs: Botswana's economy comes mostly from mining. This includes diamonds, metals (including copper) and minerals (including salt). Botswana is the highest producer of diamonds by value in the world. In 1999, Botswana produced over 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of diamonds from the three Debswana mines. That is about 25% of worldwide production.

paragraphs: Tourism is also important to the country. Many people come to Botswana each year to see its wildlife.

paragraphs: The currency of Botswana is called the "pula" (which means rain). It is made up of 100 "thebe" (which means shield). In 2017, one US dollar was about 10.32 pulas.

paragraphs: The "No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency" books by Alexander McCall Smith are set in Botswana. The HBO television series based on the books was filmed in Botswana.


title: Ferry

paragraphs: Ferry is a boat or ship that is used to take people, vehicles or goods across large bodies of water, such as seas, lakes and rivers.

paragraphs: In many places around the world, ferries are very important for public transport. Some of these places can only be reached by ferry, because they have no roads or railways with bridge or tunnels that join them to nearby places, nor do they have any locations at which to land airplanes, whether it is an airport or only an airfield.

paragraphs: Sometimes the trip in a ferry is free and sometimes it must be paid for. Many ferries also carry cars, some even have own rail tracks, allowing the ferry to carry trains on board.

paragraphs: The word 'ferry' can also mean 'to take someone or something by ferry'.

paragraphs: The Herald of Free Enterprise disaster, in which 193 people died near Zeebrugge in 1987, was one of the worst ferry accidents of recent times. It was caused by a crew member forgetting to close the bow doors of the ferry.


title: Rapa

paragraphs: Rapa or Oparo is an island in French Polynesia. It is sometimes called Rapa Iti to distinguish it from Rapa Nui (Easter Island).

paragraphs: The first European, who visited the island, was the captain George Vancouver. He visited the island in 1791. The island had an estimated population of about 2000 inhabitants. Four tribes inhabited the island. There were many tribal wars on the island.

paragraphs: The Rapan people were converted to Christianity in 1826, when six embassadors were sent from Tahiti. Soon after that some slaves were brought to Rapa. It caused an epidemy and in 1867 the island's population had declined to about 120. Since late 1800s, the island's population has steadily grown.

paragraphs: The main village of Rapa is Haurei. Nearly all inhabitants of Rapa are living in Haurei. The Bay of Haurei, which is on the western end of the island, is named after the village. The bay's original name was, however, "Oparo" or "Paro". Smaller villages include 'Area.

paragraphs: Rapa's nearest inhabited neighbor island is more than five hundred kilometers away. Together with Marotiri and some smaller islets, Rapa forms the Bass Islands. Marotiri is 46 miles away from Rapa.

paragraphs: To the southeast is the uninhabited islet Motu Tauturu.

paragraphs: Many mountains are in Rapa. The highest of them is Mt. Perau (650 m). Rapa has a land area of forty km².

paragraphs: Rapa is 1240 kilometers away from Tahiti, the main island of French Polynesia.

paragraphs: Most inhabitants of Rapa are Polynesians. Polynesians are believed to inhabit the island in about 1000 BC.

paragraphs: Rapa has a population of 521 inhabitants (1996). Most of them are fishermen. The most spoken language of the island is Rapan. Most children and youth can also speak French.

paragraphs: Rapan is however an endangered language. It is sometimes considered to be a dialect of Tubuaian.

paragraphs: The most common form of Rapan folk music is himene tarava. The band The Tahitian Choir is from Rapa and its songs are sung in the Rapan language.


title: Jo Whiley

paragraphs: Johanne "Jo" Whiley (born 4 July, 1965 in Northampton) is an English radio DJ on BBC Radio 1, and television presenter. She had a weekday lunchtime show, called "The Jo Whiley Show" and later "The Lunchtime Social". When Simon Mayo left Radio 1 for Radio Five Live in February 2001, Whiley's show was moved to mid-morning.

paragraphs: In July 2009, Whiley published her autobiography, "My World in Motion", on CD from Random House Audiobooks.


title: Windows Vista

paragraphs: Windows Vista is the 6th version of the Microsoft Windows operating system from Microsoft. While it was being made, it was called Longhorn. On July 28, 2005, Microsoft gave out its real name, which was Windows Vista. Microsoft stopped supporting Windows Vista on April 11, 2017.

paragraphs: Microsoft had worked on Vista for more than five years, so it came with many new features, such as improved graphics, new built-in programs, and stronger defenses against computer viruses. However, Vista introduced many changes to the way the operating system worked, which caused some older programs to stop working.

paragraphs: Vista was released in November 2006 for computer makers and January 30, 2007 for home users. The four main editions of Windows Vista are:

paragraphs: There are 2 special versions called Starter Edition, and Enterprise Edition. Starter is basically the same as XP Starter, and is for low budget countries. Enterprise Edition is for big companies that need computers that have good performance. Vista needs at least 512 MB of RAM to run on all computers. Some new parts of Vista need 1 GB of RAM to work and for better performance

paragraphs: For stability and performance, more than 1 Gigabyte of main memory (RAM) is always helpful with a large operating system such as this.

paragraphs: Microsoft releases service packs to update software and fix problems.

paragraphs: Windows Vista Service Pack 1 (SP1) was released on February 4, 2008 alongside Windows Server 2008 to OEM partners, after a five-month beta test period. The first use of the service pack caused a number of machines to continually reboot, making them unusable. This caused Microsoft to temporarily stop release of the service pack until the problem was resolved. The same release date of the two operating systems showed the merging of the workstation and server kernels back into a single code base for the first time since Windows 2000. MSDN subscribers were able to download SP1 on February 15, 2008. SP1 became available to current Windows Vista users on Windows Update and the Download Center on March 18, 2008. Initially, the service pack only supported 5 languages - English, French, Spanish, German and Japanese. Support for the remaining 31 languages was released on April 14, 2008.

paragraphs: Service Pack 2 for Windows Vista was released to manufacturing on April 28, 2009, and released to Microsoft Download Center and Windows Update on May 26, 2009. In addition to security and other fixes, a number of new features were added. However, it did not include Internet Explorer 8.


title: The Gambia

paragraphs: The Gambia is officially called the Republic of the Gambia. This country is also known as Gambia. It is a country in West Africa. It is surrounded by Senegal. It is the smallest country on mainland Africa.

paragraphs: Banjul is the capital city. The largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama.

paragraphs: The geography of Gambia is unusual. It is a long, thin country. Except for its coastline it is completely surrounded by the country of Senegal. The River Gambia flows from Senegal through its centre and into the Atlantic Ocean.

paragraphs: The Gambia has a tropical climate. A hot and rainy season normally lasts from June until November.

paragraphs: The Gambia gained independence from the United Kingdom on 18 February 1965. It was ruled by Dawda Jawara and his People's Progressive Party (PPP) from 1965 to 1994. There was a military take-over in 1994. In 1996, Yahya Jammeh became President. Then in 2016, Adama Barrow was elected.

paragraphs: The Gambia is divided into eight local government areas. They are:

paragraphs: As of 2013, these are then divided into 43 districts.

paragraphs: The population of The Gambia is about 1.7 million. People from The Gambia are called Gambians. A number of people from different cultures and backgrounds live in The Gambia. Some of the largest groups are called "Mandinka", "Fula", "Wolof" and "Jolo", in that order.

paragraphs: English is the official language, but people speak other languages as well.

paragraphs: Most Gambians follow the religion of Islam.

paragraphs: The American writer Alex Haley, who wrote the book "Roots", found that his family came from The Gambia in the 1760s.


title: Londonderry

paragraphs: Derry is the second largest city in Northern Ireland (after Belfast) and the fourth largest city on the island of Ireland (after Dublin, Belfast and Cork. The population is about 100,000. The city was founded in 542. It has old city walls which are still complete. The city is located in County Londonderry, near the border with the Republic of Ireland's County Donegal.

paragraphs: The city was originally called Doire (pronounced "duhruh") which is an Irish word for a group of oak trees. In English, this word became "Derry". After the Ulster Plantations, the London Companies gave money for the building of the Port and Walls in Derry.

paragraphs: In 1984 the city council changed the name of the local government area back to its original title of Derry but the city's official name is still Londonderry.

paragraphs: People from the Republic of Ireland call the city "Derry. "Many people (mostly Catholics/republicans) from Northern Ireland also call it "Derry. "Many people from Northern Ireland who want Northern Ireland to stay in the UK call the city "Londonderry".


title: Federal Reserve

paragraphs: The Federal Reserve (sometimes called "The Fed") is a large central bank in Washington, D.C. that was founded in 1913. It lends money to other, smaller banks. The "Federal Reserve Board" is a group of financial leaders who work for the Federal Reserve and decide how much to charge these banks for borrowing money (this charge is called an "interest rate"). The Federal Reserve interest rate is decided by the Federal Reserve Board after studying the condition of the US economy.

paragraphs: When the economy is growing too fast, the Federal Reserve makes borrowing more expensive by increasing the interest rate, which means people and companies spend less, which discourages inflation. When economic growth slows, the interest rate is decreased so that borrowing will increase and there will be growth.


title: Trent Reznor

paragraphs: Trent Reznor (born Michael Trent Reznor) (May 17, 1965) is an American singer and musician. He is the creator of the band Nine Inch Nails. For a long time, he was the only member of Nine Inch Nails. That changed in 2016, when Atticus Ross became an official member of the band. He sings and plays most of the music himself. He also writes all of the lyrics.

paragraphs: Reznor started playing music when he learned the piano, which he started when he was five years old. He was so good he could maybe have become a pianist if he had wanted to. He also learned saxophone and tuba.

paragraphs: He joined his first band when he was in college, called Option 30. He moved to Cleveland, Ohio, USA in 1985 and joined a band called The Innocent where he played keyboard. In 1986 he joined another band, The Exotic Birds.

paragraphs: He got a job as a cleaner at a music recording studio called Right Track Studio which is now called Midtown Recording. He sometimes used the studio to record songs which later went on his first album "Pretty Hate Machine". When the studio heard how good he was, he quit his job as a cleaner and made the band Nine Inch Nails. Their albums since then have been "Broken" (1992), "The Downward Spiral" (1994), "The Fragile" (1999), "With Teeth" (2005), "Year Zero" (2007), "Ghosts I-IV" (2008), "The Slip" (2008), " Hesitation Marks "(2013), and "Bad Witch" (2018).


title: Oklahoma

paragraphs: Oklahoma () is a state that is in the southern part of the Central United States. It had a population of about 3,751,351 people in 2010. The state has a land area of about . Oklahoma is the 28th largest state by population and the 20th largest state by area. The name of the state comes from the Choctaw words "okla" and "humma". It means "Red People". It is also known by its nickname, "The Sooner State." The state was formed from Indian Territory on November 16, 1907. It was the 46th state to become part of the United States. The people who live in the state are known as "Oklahomans" or "Okies". The state's capital and largest city is Oklahoma City.

paragraphs: In the past, Oklahoma was used as a path for cattle drives, a place for southern settlers, and a government-made territory for Native Americans.

paragraphs: The state is a large producer of natural gas, oil and food. It has large industries in aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. The state has one of the fastest growing economies in the nation. Between 2005 and 2006, it had the third highest percentage of income growth and the highest percentage in gross domestic product growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa are the main economic areas of Oklahoma. Almost 60 percent of Oklahomans live in these two metropolitan statistical areas.

paragraphs: Oklahoma has small mountain ranges, prairies, and eastern forests. Most of Oklahoma is in the Great Plains. It is regularly hit by severe weather.

paragraphs: The cultural heritage of Oklahoma is made from by a population descending from many cultures. These include German, Irish, British and Native American people. There are more than 25 Native American languages are spoken in Oklahoma, more than in any other state. Many people in Oklahoma believe in evangelical Christianity. The state is part of the Bible Belt. Oklahoma is one of the most politically conservative states, but voter registration is largest for the Democratic Party.

paragraphs: Oklahoma has only been a state for a little over a century, but its history is much longer. Arrow heads from the Clovis culture, Native Americans who traveled through Oklahoma have been found near the city Anadarko. These arrow heads are about 11,000 years old. The Spiro Mound Building Indians were the state's first permanent settlers. In 1541 the Spanish explorer Coranado traveled through Oklahoma while in search of the Lost City of Gold. During the 1830s, the Five Civilized Tribes were forced to move from the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) on the Trail of Tears.

paragraphs: During the American Civil War (1861–1865), several Indian tribes sided with the Confederacy. The tribes owned slaves. They agreed with the ideas of the states that seceded from the United States. Also, the tribes were not happy that the federal government did not do what it told them it would do. Not all the tribes sided with the Confederacy. Some tribes had taken control of several forts. This caused much of the Indian Territory to be under Confederate control, but Oklahoma did not become a Confederate state. The Battle of Honey Springs near Fort Gibson on July 17, 1863 was won by the Union forces. This ended the Confederate control of Indian Territory.

paragraphs: On April 22, 1890, the western part of the state was opened to almost 50,000 settlers for the Oklahoma Land Run. During this land run Oklahoma got its nickname, "The Sooner State". The nickname came from the settlers who crossed the territory's borders before the land was opened by the government. A year later, the western part of the territory was turned into Oklahoma territory. The northeastern part, which was home to the Five Civilized Tribes, stayed under the control of the tribes. On November 16, 1907, the western and eastern territories joined together. They became the 46th state of the United States.

paragraphs: The newly formed state became an important place for the oil industry. The oil pools in the area caused the population of towns to grow very quickly. Tulsa became known as the "Oil Capital of the World" for most of the 20th century. The oil was a large part of the state's early economy.

paragraphs: In 1927, Tulsa businessman Cyrus Avery, known as the "Father of Route 66", began a movement to make U.S. Route 66. Avery used section of highway that was already built between Tulsa and Amarillo, Texas to make the original portion of Highway 66. He was the main person responsible for making the U.S. Highway 66 Association to watch over the building of Route 66.

paragraphs: During the 1930s, northwestern Oklahoma went through a period of time called the Dust Bowl. The area had little rainfall and high temperatures. This caused thousands of farmers to go into poverty and forced them to move to other parts of the United States. From 1930 to 1950, the state saw its only loss in population. It lost 6.9 percent of the people who lived there. Because of the Dust Bowl, the state made hundreds of reservoirs and man-made lakes. By the 1960s, more than 200 man-made lakes had been made. This is the most in the United States.

paragraphs: The song "Oklahoma!" was made the official song of the state in 1953. The song comes from the 1943 Broadway musical play "Oklahoma!". The story is set in Oklahoma Territory in 1906 just before Oklahoma became a state.

paragraphs: On April 19, 1995, the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City was bombed by Timothy McVeigh. 168 people were killed in the bombing. This was the worst terrorism attack in the United States before the World Trade Center attacks on September 11, 2001. McVeigh and his partner, Terry Nichols, were both convicted of the bombing. Some people think other people were involved. McVeigh was later sentenced to death and executed by lethal injection on June 11, 2001. His partner, Nichols, was convicted of 161 counts of first degree murder. Nichols is spending the rest of his life in prison without the chance of being released.

paragraphs: The name "Oklahoma" comes from the Choctaw phrase "okla" "humma". This means "red" ("humma") "people" ("okla"). Choctaw Chief Allen Wright gave it that name in 1866 during treaty talks with the federal government about the use of Indian Territory. He dreamed of an all-Indian state with power held by the United States Superintendent of Indian Affairs. "Okla humma" was a phrase in the Choctaw language that meant the same as the English word "Indian". It was used to describe the Native American people all together. "Oklahoma" later became the "de facto" name for Oklahoma Territory. It was officially accepted in 1890, two years after the area was opened to white settlers.

paragraphs: Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States. It covers an area of ( are land and are water). The state is shaped like a pan with a long, thin section on the west side. This section, known as the "Panhandle", is from west to east, and from north to south.

paragraphs: It is one of six states on the Frontier Strip. The state is partly in the Great Plains near the center of the 48 continental states. It shares borders with Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas.

paragraphs: The highest point in the state is the Black Mesa, in the Panhandle at . The lowest point is Little River east of Idabel in the southeast part of the state at above sea level. There are four mountain ranges in Oklahoma. They are the Ouachita, Arbuckle, Wichita and Kiamichi ranges. All of the ranges are in the southern part of the state. Forests make up about 24 percent of the state. The state is also known for having more man-made lakes than any other state in the country. These lakes cover more than with water.

paragraphs: By the start of the 21st century, conservative Republicans are the growing force in Oklahoma, but Democrats are still a major factor in statewide politics. In 2006, the incumbent Democrat governor won re-election by 66% over a former Republican Congressman. Despite the landslide victory for the Democrats, the Republicans gained two seats in the State Senate, making a 24 Democrat, 24 Republican tie in the senate, and increased their lead in the house of 57-44.

paragraphs: Oklahoma is in a temperate area of the country. The state sometimes sees extreme temperatures and rain that is commonly found in a continental climate. All of the state frequently has temperatures above or below .

paragraphs: It snows in Oklahoma. In the northwest near the Colorado border, the area can get nearly in snowfall during the winter. The southeastern part of the state usually gets less than in snowfall.

paragraphs: Most of the state is in an area known as Tornado Alley. This is because there is a lot of contact between cold and warm air masses which makes severe weather. Oklahoma has an average of 54 tornadoes each year. This is one of the highest rates in the world. The state is home to the National Storm Prediction Center of the National Weather Service, in Norman.

paragraphs: Oklahoma had 549 populated places in 2006. It had three cities over 100,000 in population and 40 over 10,000. Two of the fifty largest cities in the United States are in Oklahoma. They are Oklahoma City and Tulsa. More than half of Oklahomans (58%) live in the two cities.

paragraphs: Oklahoma City is the state's capital and largest city. It had 1,269,907 people living inside its metropolitan area in 2008. Tulsa, the second largest city, had a metropolitan area population of 905,755.

paragraphs: Between 2005 and 2006, the Tulsa suburbs of Jenks, Bixby, and Owasso had the biggest population growth in the state. The population of Jenks grew by 47.9%, Bixby grew by 44.56%, and Owasso grew by 34.31%.

paragraphs: Oklahoma's largest cities in 2007 were: Oklahoma City (547,274), Tulsa (384,037), Norman (106,707), Lawton (91,568), Broken Arrow (90,714), Edmond (78,226), Midwest City (55,935), and Moore (51,106). Seven of the state's ten largest cities are in the metropolitan areas of Oklahoma City and Tulsa. Only Lawton has a metropolitan area of its own.

paragraphs: Oklahoma law says that populated areas are divided into two groups. Cities are areas with more than 1,000 people. Towns have fewer than 1,000 people. Both have legislative, judicial, and public power inside their populated areas. Cities can choose between a mayor-council, council-manager, or strong mayor form of government. Towns are run through an elected officer system.

paragraphs: Oklahoma has minor league sports teams in basketball, football, arena football, baseball, soccer, and ice hockey. These teams are in Oklahoma City, Tulsa, Enid and Lawton. Tulsa is home to the Tulsa 66ers. They are part the NBA Development League. The Tulsa Revolution, playing in the American Indoor Soccer League, is also in Tulsa. The NBA's New Orleans Hornets became the first major league sports team to play in Oklahoma. This happened after the team was forced to move to the Ford Center in Oklahoma City for two seasons after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In July 2008, the Seattle SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City. They play their home games at the Ford Center under the new team name, Oklahoma City Thunder. They are the state's first permanent major league team.

paragraphs: Oklahoma's state symbols are recognized by state law. The Oklahoma Senate or House of Representatives may add others for special events and to help organizations.


title: Terry Jacks

paragraphs: Terry Jacks (born March 29, 1944) is a Canadian musician. He was born and raised in Winnipeg. He now works as an environmental activist.

paragraphs: Jacks is most famous for his song "Seasons in the Sun". The song was ranked number one in multiple countries in 1974. It is one of the fewer than forty all-time singles to have sold 10 million copies worldwide.


title: Sark

paragraphs: Sark is one of the Channel Islands. Around 600 people live on Sark. Sark also has its own language called "Sercquiais." Only 400 people speak it. No cars are allowed on Sark, anyone on the island that want to go somewhere must either walk, go on a bicycle, or go by horse and cart. It became a democracy in 2008.


title: Robert Crumb

paragraphs: Robert Crumb (born August 30, 1943) is a famous American cartoonist and musician. He founded the underground comics movement in the 1960s and early 1970s. He is most famous for the album cover for Big Brother and the Holding Company's "Cheap Thrills", the catchphrase "Keep on Truckin'" and "Fritz the Cat", which was made into a movie without his approval. He also collects 78 rpm phonograph records and plays the mandolin. He was the subject of an award-winning documentary movie made in 1994 called "Crumb".


title: Renée Zellweger

paragraphs: Renée Kathleen Zellweger (born April 25, 1969) is an American actress, producer and voice artist. She won two Academy Awards for her role in the movie "Cold Mountain" and as Judy Garland in "Judy". She has acted in many movies, including "Jerry Maguire", "Bridget Jones's Diary", "Chicago" and "Cinderella Man".

paragraphs: Zellweger was born in Katy, Texas. Her father, Emil Erich Zellweger, is from a small town in the canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland, and is a mechanical and electrical engineer who worked in the oil refining business. Her mother, Kjellfrid Irene (née Andreassen), a native of Norway, is of Norwegian, Finnish, Swedish, and possible Sami, ancestry. Kjellfrid grew up in Kirkenes and Ekkerøy, and is a nurse and midwife who moved to the United States to work as a governess for a Norwegian family in Texas. Zellweger has described herself as being raised in a family of "lazy Catholics and Episcopalians".

paragraphs: Zellweger took acting classes because she wanted to make certain she graduated from the University of Texas at Austin with a literature degree.

paragraphs: Zellweger appeared in many television shows, for example "A Taste for Killing" and "Shake, Rattle and Rock". Her first part in a movie was in "Dazed and Confused" followed by Ben Stiller’s "Reality Bites".


title: Meryl Streep

paragraphs: Meryl Streep (born Mary Louise Streep; June 22, 1949) is an American actress. She has appeared in many movies, including "Falling in Love", "The Bridges of Madison County", and "The House of Spirits". She was born in New Jersey. Streep is considered one of the best actresses of her time. She has won three Academy Awards and has been nominated for twenty-one in total. President Barack Obama awarded her the 2010 National Medal of Arts.

paragraphs: Streep was born in Summit, New Jersey. Her mother, Mary Wolf (née Wilkinson; 1915–2001), was a commercial artist and an art editor, and her father, Harry William Streep, Jr. (1910–2003), was a pharmaceutical executive. She has two brothers, Dana David and Harry William III. Her patrilineal ancestry traces back to Loffenau, Germany, from where her second great-grandfather, Gottfried Streep, emigrated to the United States, and where one of her ancestors served as mayor. Another line of her father's family was from Giswil in the canton of Obwalden, a small town in Switzerland. Her mother had English, German, and Irish ancestry. Some of Streep's maternal ancestors lived in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island, and were descended from 17th century immigrants from England. Her eighth great-grandfather, Lawrence Wilkinson, was one of the first Europeans to settle Rhode Island. Streep is also a distant relative of William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, and records show that her family is among the first purchasers of land in the state. One of Streep's maternal great-grandmothers, Grace Strain, was from Creeslough, County Donegal, Ireland.

paragraphs: Streep is married to Don Gummer since September 30, 1978. They have four children, son Henry Wolf Gummer (born November 13, 1979) and daughters Mary Willa Gummer (born August 3, 1983), Grace Jane Gummer (born May 9, 1986), and Louisa Jacobson Gummer (born June 12, 1991).


title: Bench

paragraphs: A bench is a kind of chair, a place where people can sit. Benches are long and often found outside, and more than one person can sit on them. Benches are usually made of wood, metal, stone, and other synthetic things. Many benches have no back.