title: Age of consent

paragraphs: The age of consent is the age at which a person can legally consent to have sexual intercourse. This is also the minimum age of the other person legally permitted to engage in sexual activity. Having sex with a person who is younger than the age of consent (but who agrees to have sex) is called statutory rape. The person below the minimum age is regarded as a victim, and their sex partner as the offender. Different countries have different laws regarding the age of consent. Some are as low as 12 or as high as 21. Most countries have ages set between 14 and 16. But worldwide, the average age of consent is 16 years of age.

paragraphs: Most jurisdictions allow minors above a certain age to marry with parental and/or government permission. In jurisdictions which allow this, a minor who is married is an exception to the law. For example, in Wisconsin the age of consent for sex is 18. Marriage is an exception. Marriage usually prevents a party to the marriage from being charged under sexual assault laws, as long as both husband and wife are at least 16 years, although not if one of the parties is younger than this age and one is older. This varies from country to country. In some places kissing is considered a sexual activity. Other places only count sexual intercourse. Most countries have laws that say what the legal age of consent is. This is usually a fixed age. For example, in France the age of consent is set at 15, which means having sex with anyone below that age by anyone over that age is illegal. However, some jurisdictions use sexual maturity instead of age to determine capacity for consent. For example, when Russia was a part of the Soviet Union, its age of consent was having reached "sexual maturity".

paragraphs: There are exceptions to age of sexual consent laws. Although most jurisdictions have a fixed age set as the law, where no one over that age can be with anyone under that age, some states have close in age exceptions. For example, in Indiana the age of consent for sex is 16, but there is a close in age exception that makes it legal for a person younger than 18 but above 16 to still be able to have sex with a 14 year old without being guilty of a crime. Indiana also allows a defense against the law in court if the victim is married or was married in the past, and allows pregnant females who are 15 or older to marry the man who impregnated. This is with parental and government approval as an alternative to prosecuting the defendant.

paragraphs: The age of consent varies between states and countries. The laws in different areas range as low as 13 years to 20 years old. The laws are almost always affected by a nation's culture. Nations with Islamic law tend to have lower ages. European countries generally range from 14 years to 16 years. In the United States, the age varies from 16 to 18. In many areas, there is a "close-in-age" part of the laws. This allows for people under of consent but above a certain age to have sex with people as long as there older partner is either less than a certain age or the difference in age is a certain number of years. The age of consent may also vary if one of the people is in a position of authority over the other. For example, if the older person was a teacher of the victim, the age may be higher than for other people, an example of this is Indiana where the age where a person can have sex is 16 except if the older partner is a teacher at the victim's high school, in which case the age limit is 18. If the two people are married, the age is often lower. Age of consent can also be affected by the type of sex or the sex of the person. Many areas have different ages for homosexual sex as well as anal sex. There are areas which also have different ages depending on if the person is male or female.

paragraphs: If a person is caught having sex, or any other sexual act, with someone who is below the age of consent, the person may be punished as a sex offender. The violator may be sent to prison, or jail, or fined. In Wisconsin having sex with a person beneath 16, a felony (serious crime), carries prison time, but having sex with a minor who is 16 or over but under 18, which is a misdemeanor (a non-serious crime), carries jail time and a fine. An example of punishing age of consent violations occurred in 2011, an American swimming teacher was sent to prison for 16 months for having sex with a 15-year-old student. The law usually applies to both males and females having sex with a minor.


title: Andy Richter

paragraphs: Paul Andrew "Andy" Richter (born October 28, 1966) is an American comedian and actor. He is best known for his former role as Conan O'Brien's sidekick on "Late Night with Conan O'Brien". Richter was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He is the second of four children. He was raised in Yorkville, Illinois. While attending Columbia College, Chicago, he played in several Chicago comedy groups, including the Annoyance Theatre, before getting on Late Night.

paragraphs: Richter left Late Night in 2000. He said he wanted to focus on an acting career. His first major work was FOX's critically acclaimed but little watched "Andy Richter Controls the Universe". It was cancelled after two short runs. His next FOX sitcom, "Quintuplets", was not liked by the critics. It lasted only one season. He is married to actress Sarah Thyre. They have two children.

paragraphs: In addition to his television work, Richter has appeared in movies such as "Seeing Other People", Olsen Twins' "New York Minute", "Madagascar", and "Cabin Boy".


title: Jennifer Granholm

paragraphs: Jennifer Granholm (born February 5, 1959) is a Canadian born American politician. She was the governor of the state of Michigan from 2003 to 2011. Granholm was born in Canada and raised in California. She ran for governor of Michigan in 2002, even though she had lived in the state for less than 15 years.


title: Sandra Day O'Connor

paragraphs: Sandra Day O'Connor (born March 26, 1930) is a retired justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. She was the first woman to serve as justice on the Supreme Court, as well as the first from Arizona.

paragraphs: One of her ideas on the Supreme Court was the endorsement test. It was a way to check if the government was supporting religion.

paragraphs: O'Connor was appointed to the Supreme Court in 1981 by President Ronald Reagan. Reagan said while running for president that he wanted a woman to be on the supreme court and promised to nominate a woman for the job the first chance he got. One of her biggest supporters was Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, who helped make sure that all 100 Senators voted to confirm her. While on the Supreme Court, she was involved in several major supreme court decisions including: Bush v. Gore, which had to do with a disputed election; Planned Parenthood v. Casey which involved a woman's right to privacy, and Lawrence v. Texas, a case about whether burning a US flag was free speech. She retired from the court in 2006. Sam Alito was chosen to replace her. On August 12, 2009, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor of the United States, by President Barack Obama.

paragraphs: She has a school named after her in North Phoenix, Arizona.

paragraphs: In October 2018, O’Connor announced her effective retirement from public life after disclosing that she was diagnosed with the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease.


title: John Paul Stevens

paragraphs: John Paul Stevens (April 20, 1920 – July 16, 2019) was an American lawyer. He was a United States Supreme Court justice. He was nominated by President Gerald Ford in 1975. He voted with minority in Bush v. Gore case (2000). He also voted with majority in Furman v. Georgia case (1976), but later became against the death penalty. In 2010, he announced his retirement in the Supreme Court.

paragraphs: Stevens died on July 16, 2019 from problems caused by a stroke while under hospice care in Fort Lauderdale, Florida at the age of 99.


title: Antonin Scalia

paragraphs: Antonin Gregory Scalia (March 11, 1936 – February 13, 2016) was a Conservative jurist on the Supreme Court of the United States. He was an Associate Justice. Scalia was put on the Court in 1986 by Ronald Reagan and was the longest-serving justice on the Court. Before becoming a justice, he was on the District of Columbia Court of Appeals and was a law professor. He was a Roman Catholic born to Italian American parents. He was the first Italian-American on the Court.

paragraphs: Scalia was born in Trenton, New Jersey, but grew up in Queens, New York. Scalia went to Georgetown University, the University of Fribourg, Switzerland, and Harvard Law School. He began his career in Cleveland, Ohio and traveled to Chicago, Illinois during his early life.

paragraphs: Scalia was noted for holding a conservative approach to the law. He also believed in originalism. This means he wanted the Constitution interpreted exactly as its framers had wanted it. Scalia and fellow judge Clarence Thomas often had the same viewpoints. He was friends with justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg.

paragraphs: Scalia died in his sleep on February 13, 2016 at a ranch in Shafter, Texas at the age of 79. His death left a split in the court with 4 conservatives and 4 liberals. President Barack Obama said he would choose Scalia's successor in "due time". President Obama, former Governor of Texas Rick Perry, Governor of Ohio John Kasich, former Presidents George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, Senators Ted Cruz, Marco Rubio, and Bernie Sanders, and Vice president Joe Biden all reacted to his death.

paragraphs: On March 16, 2016, President Obama nominated Merrick Garland to replace Scalia. After Republicans refused to give Garland a confirmation hearing, his nomination expired in January 2017. On January 31, 2017, President Donald Trump nominated Judge Neil Gorsuch to replace Scalia. Gorsuch was sworn into office on Monday, April 10, 2017, in two ceremonies.

paragraphs: In November 2018, Scalia received a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Donald Trump.


title: Anthony Kennedy

paragraphs: Anthony McLeod Kennedy (born July 23, 1936) is a former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was nominated by President Ronald Reagan on November 11, 1987, and took the oath of office on February 18, 1988, serving until July 31, 2018.

paragraphs: Kennedy became the most senior Associate Justice on the court following the death of Antonin Scalia in February 2016. Since the retirement of Sandra Day O'Connor in 2006, he has been the swing vote on many of the Court's 5–4 decisions. He has authored the majority ruling in many of these cases, including "Lawrence v. Texas", "Boumediene v. Bush", "Citizens United v. FEC", and "Obergefell v. Hodges".

paragraphs: On June 27, 2018, Kennedy announced his retirement from the Supreme Court, effective July 31.

paragraphs: Kennedy was born in Sacramento, California, on July 23, 1936. He went to Harvard University, Stanford University, and the London School of Economics. He was a private lawyer, a professor, and in 1975, he was appointed by Gerald Ford to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. In 1988, Ronald Reagan nominated him for the Supreme Court. He became a member of the court on February 18, 1988. He has two sons and a daughter.


title: David Souter

paragraphs: David Hackett Souter (; born September 17, 1939) is a retired Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He served from October 1990 until his retirement in June 2009. Appointed by President George H. W. Bush to fill the seat left by William J. Brennan, Jr., Souter sat on both the Rehnquist and Roberts courts and came to vote reliably with the court's liberal members.

paragraphs: He was the only Justice during his time on the Court with court experience outside of a federal appeals court. He served as a prosecutor (1966–1968), in the New Hampshire Attorney General's office (1968–1976), as the Attorney General of New Hampshire (1976–1978), as an Associate Justice of the Superior Court of New Hampshire (1978–1983), as an Associate Justice of the New Hampshire Supreme Court (1983–1990) and briefly as a Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (1990).

paragraphs: Following Souter's retirement announcement in May 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Sonia Sotomayor as his replacement.


title: Clarence Thomas

paragraphs: Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Thomas has been a Justice since 1991. He is the only African-American currently on the court. He is also the second African American to ever serve on the court. The only other African American was Thurgood Marshall. During his confirmation process, Professor Anita Hill accused Thomas of sexual harassment. Regardless, Thomas was confirmed in October 1991.

paragraphs: Clarence Thomas was born in Pin Point, Georgia. His father left his family when he was only two years old. He did not meet his son Clarence again until Clarence was nine years old. This left his mother, Leola Anderson, to take care of the family.

paragraphs: Clarence and his brother were sent to live with his mother's parents in Savannah, Georgia. His grandfather wanted him to become a priest. Thomas was sent to St. John Vianney Minor Seminary, an all-white boarding school near Savannah. In 1968 he transferred to the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts. He gave up all ideas of becoming a priest after the death of Martin Luther King Jr.. Thomas then obtained a law degree at Yale University.

paragraphs: After Yale he returned to Missouri and worked for State Attorney General, John Danforth. in 1977 Danforth was elected to the U.S. Senate. Thomas became a corporate lawyer for the Monsanto Company. Two years later he became Danforth's legislative aide in Washington, D.C.. President Ronald Reagan offered Thomas a job as the assistant secretary for civil rights in the U.S. Department of Education. He then became the chairman of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Thomas was appointed to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in 1990 by President George H. W. Bush. In 1991, Thurgood Marshall retired from the Supreme Court. Bush nominated Thomas to replace him.

paragraphs: He had a hard time getting approved so that he could become a Supreme Court justice. This was partly because one of his former employees, Anita Hill, claimed that he sexually harassed her. Thomas said that was not true. The Senate confirmed his nomination by a vote of 52-48. All Republicans, except Bob Packwood of Oregon and James Jeffords of Vermont, voted for confirmation.


title: Stephen Breyer

paragraphs: Stephen Gerald Breyer (; born August 15, 1938) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was appointed by President Bill Clinton in 1994. Breyer is generally associated with the more liberal side of the Court.

paragraphs: Breyer is of Jewish descent. He has been an Associate Justice since 1994. Breyer generally favors a liberal interpretation of the law; he is pro-choice and pro-civil liberties. Breyer had the second-longest tenure as the most junior justice on the bench. Breyer is also the only justice to appear on a quiz show ("Wait Wait Don't Tell Me"). Before being a judge, he was a professor at Harvard Law School and a judge on the First Circuit Court of Appeals. Breyer is an Eagle Scout.


title: Ruth Bader Ginsburg

paragraphs: Ruth Joan Bader Ginsburg (March 15, 1933 – September 18, 2020) was an American jurist. She was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1993 until her death. She was nominated by President Bill Clinton. She was known as a feminist icon and was nicknamed "The Notorious R.B.G.".

paragraphs: Ginsburg died on September 18, 2020 in Washington, D.C.

paragraphs: Ginsburg was appointed by President Bill Clinton and took the oath of office on August 10, 1993. She was the second female justice (after Sandra Day O'Connor) and the first Jewish female justice. Ginsburg was considered a member of the more liberal side of the Supreme Court.

paragraphs: Ginsburg wrote notable majority opinions, including "United States v. Virginia", "Olmstead v. L.C.", and "Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc."

paragraphs: She was known as "The Notorious R.B.G.", in reference to the rapper known as "The Notorious B.I.G.".

paragraphs: When John Paul Stevens retired in 2010, Ginsburg became the oldest justice on the court at age 77.

paragraphs: Ginsburg had surgery for colon cancer in 1999 and for pancreatic cancer in 2009. On November 8, 2018, she was hospitalized after fracturing three ribs in a fall.

paragraphs: On August 24, 2019, it was revealed that Ginsburg underwent radiation treatment for pancreatic cancer over the summer. In July 2020, she announced that she had liver cancer.

paragraphs: On September 18, 2020, Ginsburg died from problems caused by metastatic pancreatic cancer in Washington, D.C. at the age of 87.


title: John G. Roberts

paragraphs: John Glover Roberts, Jr. (born January 27, 1955) is the seventeenth and current Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Appointed by President George W. Bush, Roberts is generally considered a member of the more conservative wing of the court. However since the retirement of Justice Anthony Kennedy, he has been seen as the moderate and tie-breaker in some major Supreme Court cases during the Presidency of Donald Trump.

paragraphs: Before joining the Supreme Court on September 29, 2005, Roberts was a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit for two years.

paragraphs: Roberts has been portrayed as a consistent advocate for conservative principles by analysts such as Jeffrey Toobin.

paragraphs: Roberts was first nominated by President George W. Bush to replace Sandra Day O'Connor as an Associate Justice, but Chief Justice William Rehnquist died before Roberts's confirmation so Bush nominated Roberts to replace Rehnquist instead. Roberts was confirmed by the full United States Senate on September 29 by a margin of 78–22.


title: Tacna Region

paragraphs: Tacna Region is the most southern region in Peru. The capital city is Tacna.


title: Tacna

paragraphs: Tacna is a city in Peru. It is the capital of Tacna Region.


title: Franz Kafka

paragraphs: Franz Kafka (born Prague July 3, 1883 – died near Vienna June 3, 1924) was a Czech-born, German-speaking writer. His best known works are "The Metamorphosis" and the novels "The Trial" and "The Castle". Not much of his work was published during his lifetime. He asked his friend to make sure that all his writings which were not published, including his three novels, would be destroyed when he died. Fortunately his friend did not destroy them, and they were published after Kafka’s death.

paragraphs: Kafka’s writings are about the frightening world around him which he often did not understand. A typical situation in his books might be someone who has gone somewhere to take a message, but he does not know what the message is or who it is for. The people he meets confuse him even more. Sometimes, when people find themselves in strange, nightmarish situations like this, they are described as Kafkaesque situations.

paragraphs: Kafka was born into a middle-class Jewish family. His father was a merchant. He was very strict and unkind to his family. Kafka’s stories often have fathers who are very brutal and unkind. Kafka spent most of his life living at home. He never married or became free from his parents. He felt that he had no will of his own. He wrote about people who are dominated by some mysterious power. He found it difficult to make friends, he hated his job and everyone around him. He often felt that he belonged nowhere. He was German-speaking but lived in a Czech-speaking country (Bohemia, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now part of the Czech Republic). He was different because he was Jewish, but he did not become part of the Jewish community either. He said that he was a socialist and an atheist, but although he was interested in politics he never took part in political activity. He supported Czechs who wanted to rule their own country and let their culture flourish, but he was not one of them because he himself was brought up in a German culture.

paragraphs: It was while he was studying law at the University of Prague that he met Max Brod who was to become his friend. Brod was a writer himself, and he later wrote a biography of Kafka.

paragraphs: After his studies Kafka took a job in an insurance company. He was good at his job although he hated it. He found the office work boring, and he spent his nights writing. In 1917 he got tuberculosis. Gradually he became more and more ill. He had to retire in 1922. He spent some time in hospital. He died in Klosterneuburg in 1924.

paragraphs: Several publishers realized how good Kafka’s writings were and asked him whether they could publish his works. Kafka reluctantly let a few things be published. One of these works was a story called " Metamorphosis" (German: "Die Verwandlung"). It is about a man called Gregor Samsa (the name “Samsa” means "loner" or "lonely"). Gregor wakes up one morning to find he has changed into a giant cockroach. His family becomes ashamed of him and they stop looking after him so that he slowly dies. Stories like these are a kind of fable. They are full of strange and frightening situations.

paragraphs: His novel "Amerika" (published in 1927) is about a man who arrives in America looking for a father figure to protect him. He is quiet and timid and other people use him. In the end he dies.

paragraphs: In "The Trial" (German: "Der Prozess", published in 1925), a man who works in a bank is arrested and taken to court. He is never told what he has done wrong. Even the priest tells him that if he asks what he has done wrong it proves that he is guilty. Finally he is executed.

paragraphs: In "The Castle" (German: "Das Schloss") a man who is simply called “K” (the first letter of “Kafka”) arrives at a castle saying that he has been given a job there, but the people there say they have not been told about his appointment. Kafka never finished the novel, but Max Brod says that Kafka was going to end it with K receiving permission to stay at the castle just as he was dying. The German word “Schloss” has two meanings: “castle” and “lock”. K becomes locked (trapped) in this strange situation.

paragraphs: At the time of his death only a few people understood Kafka’s writings. Max Brod saved all the unpublished books which would otherwise have been lost. Kafka is now thought of as one of the most important writers of the 20th century. His works had a lot of influence on German literature.


title: Eva Braun

paragraphs: Eva Anna Paula Braun (6 February 1912 – 30 April 1945) was the longtime girlfriend of Adolf Hitler. She met him in Munich when she was 17 years old. They married the day before they committed suicide (killed themselves), Braun killed herself by using cyanide. Hitler used cyanide and at the same time shot himself. When she was married, she was known as Eva Anna Paula Hitler. She was born in Munich, Germany and died in Berlin, Germany at the age of 33. Her body was burned as well as Adolf Hitler.


title: Computer recycling

paragraphs: Computer recycling means taking things from old computers and using them in new computer things. The phrase is also used to mean that computers need to be thrown away in a special way, as they often have things that are bad for the environment or dangerous inside them that can cause problems if they are thrown away like usual waste (garbage).

paragraphs: Sometimes people are worried that the information inside a computer will be stolen when the computer is thrown away. For example, if you have a product design on an old computer, somebody might copy your design. Big companies have a lot of computers, with a lot of private information on them. They will often pay other companies to remove all the information from a computer before it is thrown away. This usually involves physically destroying the drive. It is possible to non-destructively erase the data on a hard drive by overwriting the entire drive with random numbers. With this method, only the data is destroyed, not the drive itself. This allows the drive to be reused.


title: Nagasaki

paragraphs: Nagasaki is in the southwest of the island Kyushu.

paragraphs: It has been recognized as a core city since 1997.

paragraphs: Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the late 16th century. During the Edo period, Nagasaki was the only port in which trade with other countries was permitted because of the national isolation policy ("sakoku").

paragraphs: In the 1870s, Nagasaki became the capital city of the prefecture which evolved from the former province.

paragraphs: Nagasaki was unfounded by the United states in the mid 20th century. Because she was the second of two Japanese cities which were destroyed with an atomic bomb near the end of the Second World War.


title: Ayyavazhi

paragraphs: Ayyavazhi (, "path of the father"), is a religion with one god that started in South India in the middle of the 19th century. The 'zhi' () in the word, 'Ayyavazhi', is a retroflex, ri.

paragraphs: Ayyavazhi is considered as a branch of Hinduism, officially. It is widespread in Tamil Nadu's southern districts of Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, and Tuticorin. As one of the fastest growing faiths of southern India, its growth had been noted in the Christian missionary reports of the mid-19th century.

paragraphs: The ideas and philosophy of the religion are based on the teachings of Ayya Vaikundar and the religious texts Akilattirattu Ammanai and Arul Nool. Most followers of Ayyavazhi do not regard themselves as different from Hinduism.

paragraphs: Ayyavazhi began to be seen firstly by the large number of people gathering to worship Ayya Vaikundar at Swamithoppe, which is at that time "poovandanthoppe". The majority of the followers of Ayyavazhi were from the poor group of the society. For the Christian missionaries it gives a big challenge in their converting mission from its beginning. Although the majority of these followers were from the Chanar cast, apart from Ayyavazhi sources, some outer sources too says that a large number of people from other castes also followed this religion.

paragraphs: By the middle of nineteenth century, Ayyavazhi had come to be recognised as a separate religion, grown well in the region of South Travancore and South Tirunelveli. The growth in its number of followers had increased speedly from 1840s. After the death of Vaikundar, the religion was spread on the basis of his teachings and the religious books "Akilattirattu Ammanai" and "Arul Nool". The five Citars, who were the deciples of Ayya Vaikundar, and their descendants travelled to several parts of the country and carried the mission of Ayyavazhi. At that time the Payyan dynasty started ruling of Swamithoppe pathi, while other Pathis came under the control of the followers of Ayya. Hundreds of Nizhal Thangals (places of worship) were built across the country. Currently Bala Prajapathi Adikalar, one of descendant of Payyan dynasty is said to be as the leader of Ayyavazhi. He has laid foundations for a large number of Nizhal Thangals all over South India. And now seeing the growth of the religion the day of birth of Vaikundar, Ayya Vaikunda Avataram was announced as a holiday by the government for the districts of Tirunelveli and Tuticorin from this year while the district of Kanyakumari was announced as a holiday earlier.

paragraphs: The holy books of Ayyavazhi are the Akilattirattu Ammanai and the Arul Nool, and they are the source of the religion's mythology. The holy book states that the "Akilattirattu Ammanai" was written down by Hari Gopalan Citar by hearing the contents of Akilam told by Narayana to his wife Lakshmi. There was no definite history about the beginning of Arul Nool; but the followers believe that it was written by Citars and by those who get possessed by divine power. It contains the prayers, hymns and ways for the worship in Ayyavazhi, religious practices, prophesies and also many rules.

paragraphs: To the Ayyavazhi devotees, there are five holy places, called Pathis, with "Panchappathis" as the most important. The temple of Swamithoppepathi is the head of the Ayyavazhi religion. The Vakaippathi, where 700 families were sent to Thuvayal Thavasu by Vaikundar was approved as a Pathi in Akilam although this place has no direct association with the activities of Vaikundar. There is a big disagreement within the followers of Ayyavazhi as to the holiness of some of the places of worship. The Avatharappathi in Thiruchendur was accepted by the book "Akilam" as a Pathi, but as some of the followers believe that the place at which the present temple is located is not the exact place where Ayya Vaikundar incarnated from the sea, they disagree with the other devotees. There are also some followers which strongly quarrel Thiruchendur as a Pathi though they accept it as a secondary holy site.


title: Akilattirattu Ammanai

paragraphs: Akilathirattu Ammanai (; from "akilam" (world) + "thirattu" (collection) + "ammanai" (ballad)), also called Thiru Edu (venerable book), is the main religious book of the Southern Indian Ayyavazhi, officially a branch of Hinduism. The title is shortened as Akilam. This is the largest Ammanai work.

paragraphs: According to the book, Hari Gopalan Citar wrote this book on the twenty-seventh day of the Tamil month of Karthikai (November/December) in the year 1016 ME (1841 CE). The author says that God woke him up during his sleep and ordered him to take the first words from what he said. Akilathirattu was recorded on palm leaves. Then in 1939 it was given printed form.

paragraphs: According to the author, the book is the story of God coming in this age, the Kali Yukam or Iron Age, to rule the world by transforming it into that of Dharma Yukam. This story of faith has woven together the historical facts about Ayya Vaikundar and his activities, with mixing of episodes from the Hindu Puranas (mythologies) and Itihasas (epics). It is presented as if Vishnu is telling the whole story to his consort Lakshmi.

paragraphs: Though the Citar Hari Gopalan wrote the book Akilam, as per him, he did not know any thing about the contents of the book. He woke up in the morning as usual and he did not know what he had written the day before.

paragraphs: As soon as Ayya Vaikundar attained Vaikundam, the tied-up palm leaf text, which was until then not opened. It was there the regulations of Ayyavazhi contains. As per the instructions found there in Akilam, Ayyavazhi was preached by the Citars far and wide.


title: Ayya Vaikundar

paragraphs: Ayya Vaikundar () is a Manu (father, sovereign) avatar (the incarnation of a deity) of the Lord Narayana according to Akilattirattu Ammanai the holy book of the Ayyavazhi religion, officially a Tamil Hindu branch.

paragraphs: The physical human body of Ayya Vaikundar was born with the name Muthukutty. However, Muthukutty is referred to as Sampooranathevan, a deva (a deity), in the religious book Akilam. Ayya Vikundar is a combination of the spirit of Narayana, the soul of the Supreme God, Ekam (God beyond conciouseness) and the body of an ordinary human being (Muthukutty).

paragraphs: The Ekam as soul incarnated with the spirit of Narayana in the body of Muthukutty.


title: Pathi

paragraphs: The worship centers of Ayyavazhi are called Pathis. The activities of Vaikundar is historically jointed with this Pathis. There are five Pathis:


title: Planck mass

paragraphs: The Planck mass is a small unit of mass used in physics. It is derived using an equation involving Planck's constant, the speed of light in a vacuum, and the gravitational constant. It is approximately 21.76 μg, which is about the mass of a grain of rice.

paragraphs: The idea was to have a definition based only on fundamental universal constants.


title: Human sexuality

paragraphs: Human sexuality is the ability of people to have sexual experiences and feelings. This involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors. The most common form of human sexuality is heterosexuality, but homosexuality, bisexuality and asexuality exist too. An abnormal form of sexuality is called a paraphilia, while a normal one is called a normophilia.


title: War and Peace

paragraphs: War and Peace () is a famous novel written by Leo Tolstoy, a Russian writer. It is about four families of noblemen in Russia during the wars with Napoleon, and how they deal with the war and with one another.

paragraphs: Tolstoy described "War and Peace" as "not a novel, even less is it a poem, and still less an historical chronicle."

paragraphs: The book describes Russian life in the 19th century, and also tells about Tolstoy's own idea about free will, history, and how events unfold.

paragraphs: There are 580 characters in "War and Peace", but these are the main characters:


title: Bay City, Michigan

paragraphs: The American city of Bay City is a small city in the state of Michigan, United States. In the 2000 census it had more than 35,000 people living in it.

paragraphs: Although small, Bay City is one of the largest port cities on Lake Huron, one of the North American Great Lakes. It is part of a triangle of small cities in Central Michigan. The other two cities are Saginaw, Michigan, and Midland, Michigan.

paragraphs: Bay City was the birthplace in 1958 of Madonna Ciccone, a well-known American singer. The Scottish Pop group Bay City Rollers are said to have gotten their name from the city as well.


title: Zirconium

paragraphs: Zirconium is a chemical elemental metal. It is a greyish-white in color. It is atomic number 40 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Zr. And it is in the family of four (4). Zirconium alloys are used as cladding for nuclear fuel rods.


title: Yttrium

paragraphs: Yttrium is a chemical elemental metal. It is atomic number 39 on the periodic table. It is silvery-white and tends to form crystals. In chunk form, it is unreactive in air, but powdered yttrium may burn at 400 degrees Celsius. It has several uses, which include lasers, TV's, and metallurgy.


title: Windows 98

paragraphs: Windows 98 is an operating system for computers. Released on June 25, 1998 by Microsoft, it is an updated version of Windows 95. It succeeded Windows NT 4.0 in NT, and Windows 95 in major versions. It preceded Windows 2000 in NT, and Windows Me in major versions.

paragraphs: Windows 98 was seen by many as an upgrade to Windows 95, rather than a rebuilt version of Windows. The biggest changes were:

paragraphs: Because Microsoft made Internet Explorer such an important part of Windows 98, the company was taken to court by the United States Government. This was because they felt it was unfair to other companies who made web browsers.

paragraphs: It is not supported anymore, but many people still use it on older computers that will not run Windows XP, Windows 7, or later versions of Windows.

paragraphs: Before the release of Windows 98, there was a press demonstration at Comdex in April 1998. Microsoft CEO Bill Gates was highlighting the operating system's ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play (PnP). When presentation assistant Chris Capossela plugged a scanner in and attempted to install it, Windows 98 displayed a Blue Screen of Death. Gates remarked after applause and cheering from the audience, "That must be why we're not shipping Windows 98 yet." Video footage of this event became a popular Internet phenomenon.

paragraphs: Windows 98 Second Edition (SE) was released in 1999. This was an official upgrade to Windows 98 which allowed people to use more types of computer hardware, like monitors and printers, and also let more than one machine on a network use the same Internet connection.


title: Waste

paragraphs: Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use.

paragraphs: It may be no longer useful as it has served its purpose, and at the end of the process have no further use, and it is generally discarded. It is unwanted materials and objects that people have thrown away. It is often also called trash, "garbage", "rubbish", or junk. It can be solid, liquid, or gas, or it can be waste heat. There are many different kinds of waste. Garbage is the waste we produce daily in our homes, including old or unwanted food, chemical substances, paper, broken furniture, used containers, and other things.

paragraphs: When waste is a liquid or gas, it can be called an emission. This is usually pollution. Sanitation is proper handling of human waste.

paragraphs: Waste can also be something abstract (something that you cannot touch), for example "a waste of time" or "wasted opportunities". When people use the words "waste" or "wasted" in this way, they are saying (directly or indirectly) that something has been used badly (using too much of it or using it incorrectly).

paragraphs: People have thrown away waste in heaps for thousands of years. In modern homes and businesses, garbage is normally placed in waste containers of some sort. It is then moved to the street, where it can be collected and taken to a place designed to hold, destroy or recycle garbage. Some waste materials, such as paper, wood, glass, metals, and plastic containers, can be recycled (reused). Materials that cannot be recycled are either burned ("incinerated") or heaped into landfills.

paragraphs: Plant matter, such as fruit and vegetable scraps, is biodegradable. It can usually be heaped into a compost, where it will decompose relatively quickly. This kind of waste is often called "wet" or "green" waste.

paragraphs: Very often, waste is not collected in containers. It may instead be thrown onto the ground or dumped somewhere. This is called "littering".

paragraphs: A description about the different sources of waste including classification of waste.


title: Republic of the Congo

paragraphs: The Republic of the Congo is a country in Africa. Its capital city is Brazzaville. The country was a former colony of France; it became independent on 15 August 1960.

paragraphs: The north of the country has very large areas of rainforest, but in the south are many farms which grow cashcrops like bananas, peanuts.

paragraphs: Congo is in the central-western part of sub-Saharan Africa. It is along the Equator. To the south and east of it is the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also bordered by Gabon to the west, Cameroon and the Central African Republic to the north, and Cabinda (Angola) to the southwest. It has a short Atlantic coast.

paragraphs: The capital, Brazzaville, is on the Congo River, directly across from Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

paragraphs: The Republic of the Congo is divided into 12 Departments. Departments are divided into communes and/or districts.


title: Gabon

paragraphs: The Gabonese Republic, or Gabon, is a country in Africa. It is located on the equator. It has borders with Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, and the Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Libreville, which is also the largest city in the country. Gabon has an area of almost . 1.5 million people live in Gabon.

paragraphs: Gabon was a colony of France. It became a new country on August 17, 1960. Since 1960, the country has had only 3 presidents. At first it had one-party rule. In the early 1990s, the country switched to a multi-party government.

paragraphs: Gabon is one of the richest countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. It has 4th highest HDI and third highest GDP per capita (PPP) in the region. Gabon has high levels of income inequality, and there are significant amounts of poverty in the country.

paragraphs: The first people who lived in the country were pygmies. Later, Bantu people took over the area. Bad weather did not let people form a local culture, as had happened in the south (Congo) or north (Benin).

paragraphs: In the 15th century, the first Europeans came to the area. Starting from the 16th century, the coast was used for slave trade.

paragraphs: In the 19th century, French explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza organized the first journey to the Gabon-Congo area in 1875. After 10 years, France took over the whole country. At that time a small amount of Bantu people lived in the country.

paragraphs: In 1910 Gabon was one of the French colonies which formed the French Equatorial Africa (together with Congo, Central African Republic and Chad). French Equatorial Africa lasted to 1959. On 17 August 1960, Gabon became a new country.

paragraphs: Since 1960, Gabon has only had 3 presidents. In 1961 Léon M'ba became the first president. In 1967 after his death Omar Bongo became the president and ruled the country to 2009. In 2009, Omar Bongo died and his son Ali Bongo Ondimba took over as president.

paragraphs: Gabon is on the Atlantic coast of central Africa. It is on the equator. Gabon generally has an equatorial climate. Rainforests cover 85% of the country. There are three distinct regions: the coastal plains (ranging between 20 and 300 km from the ocean's shore), the mountains (the Cristal Mountains to the northeast of Libreville, the Chaillu Massif in the centre, culminating at 1575 m with Mont Iboundji), and the savanna in the east. The coastal plains form a large section of the World Wildlife Fund's Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion and contain patches of Central African mangroves especially on the Muni River estuary on the border with Equatorial Guinea.

paragraphs: Gabon's largest river is the Ogooué which is 1200 km long. Gabon has three karst areas where there are hundreds of caves in the dolomite and limestone rocks. Some of the caves include Grotte du Lastoursville, Grotte du Lebamba, Grotte du Bongolo, and Grotte du Kessipougou. Many caves have not been explored yet. A National Geographic Expedition visited the caves in the summer of 2008 to document them (Expedition Website).

paragraphs: The first Gabonese president was Leon Mba. His successor was Omar Bongo, from 1967 until his death in 2009. Under his governance Gabon had just one political party between 1968 and 1990. It was called PDG.

paragraphs: Gabon is divided into nine provinces. The provinces are divided into 37 departments.

paragraphs: Gabon has nine states. The soil of Gabon is rich in the metals uranium, manganese, and petrolium. Therefore, these three elements, such as metal exploited in Port-Gentil, Iranium in Munana, and the manganese in Franceville.

paragraphs: Gabon has a wide culture. Before colonialism, Gabon's people believed their ancestral spirit as religion, like bwiti, mvett, djobi.

paragraphs: After colonialism, others religions such as Christianity and Islam came to be added to the first animist believers.

paragraphs: The Gabon national football team has represented the nation since 1962. Gabon were joint hosts, along with Equatorial Guinea, of the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations. They were the only hosts of the competition's 2017 tournament.

paragraphs: Gabon has excellent recreational fishing. It is considered one of the best places in the world to catch Atlantic tarpon.


title: Tamil Nadu

paragraphs: Tamil Nadu () is one of the states in India. The capital of this state is Chennai. Tamil is the language spoken in Tamil Nadu. Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Thanjavur and Thoothukudi are other large cities of Tamil Nadu. It is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal on the east and the Indian Ocean on the south and also by the Arabian Sea in the west for a smaller area. Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are its neighbouring states. The Tamilians are very proud of their language and heritage. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the South Indian zone.

paragraphs: The current chief minister of the state is Edapadi K. Palaniswamy from the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam(AIADMK). Its leader of the opposition is M.K.Stalin, who is also the leader of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam(DMK). These two Dravidian parties have been in power alternately in Tamil Nadu, since 1967.

paragraphs: The eastern and western tips of the state are defined by the Point Calimere and Mudumalai wildlife sanctuaries while the southernmost tip is Kanniya Kumari, also called Cape Comorin. The Indian peninsula's southernmost point. With an area of 130,058 km and over 62 million people. Tamil Nadu is the 11th largest state in India. The major river is Kaveri which meets the needs of agriculture. The other important rivers are south Pennar, Palar, Vaigai, Tamira bharani, Manimuthar, Noyyal and Bhavani.Tamil Nadu, a South Indian state, is famed for its Dravidian-style Hindu temples.The three ancient Tamil empires of Chera, Chola, and Pandya were of ancient origins.In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE

paragraphs: Area 50,180 mi² or 129,966 (km²), it is bigger than North Korea but smaller than Greece


title: Duck

paragraphs: Ducks are birds in the family "Anatidae". Ducks are closely related to swans and geese, which are in the same family. Ducks are not a monophyletic group. They are a 'form taxon', since swans and geese (in the same family) are not called ducks. The main difference is that ducks have shorter necks, and are smaller.

paragraphs: Other swimming and diving birds, like grebes and loons, are not ducks. A baby duck is called a "duckling", and a male duck is called a "drake". Most ducks are aquatic birds. They can be found in both saltwater and fresh water.

paragraphs: Ducks lay eggs once a year and are omnivorous, eating aquatic plants and tiny animals. Dabbling ducks feed on the surface of water or on land, or as deep as they can reach by up-ending without completely submerging. Along the edge of the beak there is a comb-like structure called a "pecten". This strains the water squirting from the side of the beak and traps any food. The pecten is also used to preen feathers. Diving ducks dive deep to get their food.

paragraphs: Many ducks are migratory. This means that they spend the summer months in a different place than the winter months. Ducks show a cosmopolitan distribution, they can be found all over the world, except for Antarctica. Some duck species live on the South Georgia and Auckland Islands, which are subantarctic. Many species have established themselves on remote islands, such as Kerguelen or Hawaii.

paragraphs: Some ducks are bred and kept by humans. They are not wild ducks. They are kept to provide food (meat and eggs), or to use their feathers for pillows and other items in the house. Especially in Asia, many people like to eat duck.

paragraphs: Ducks are sometimes kept as pets. They are often kept by groups of people on public ponds for their beauty and calming nature. People commonly feed ducks in ponds stale bread, thinking that the ducks will like to have something to eat. However bread is not healthy for ducks and can kill them.

paragraphs: The popular fictional ducks include Daffy Duck from Looney Tunes and Donald Duck from Disney.


title: North by Northwest

paragraphs: North by Northwest is a 1959 movie thriller from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Alfred Hitchcock directed it, and Cary Grant starred in it.

paragraphs: Like other Hitchcock movies, the music for "North by Northwest" was composed by Bernard Herrmann.

paragraphs: The famous opening sequence was created by Saul Bass.


title: Nightwish

paragraphs: Nightwish is a symphonic metal band from Finland. They formed in July 1996 and played acoustic mood music. The band's keyboardist and composer Tuomas Holopainen had the idea of forming a band. He asked Tarja Turunen to sing and Emppu Vuorinen to play guitar.

paragraphs: At the beginning of 1997, the band started playing stronger music. Jukka Nevalainen joined the band to play the drums. Vuorinen used an electric guitar instead of an acoustic guitar. In May 1997, Nightwish signed a contract (binding agreement) with Spinefarm Records and they released their first album 'Angels Fall First'.

paragraphs: In 1998, Sami Vänskä joined the band to play bass guitar. The same year Nightwish released 'Oceanborn', which was quite different to

paragraphs: In May 2000 they released 'Wishmaster', which was similar to 'Oceanborn'. They also entered the contest to be Finland's representatives for the Eurovision Song Contest, with the song 'Sleepwalker'. They won the phone vote but the judges disagreed so they came second.

paragraphs: The other band members asked Tarja to leave the group in 2005 after their "End of an Era" tour. Tuomas wrote an open letter to her, stating the reasons why she had to leave. He then put the letter on the official website. In 2007, Swedish singer Anette Olzon became the new singer, and Nightwish released a single, 'Amaranth'. A few months later, they released the album 'Dark Passion Play'.


title: Sierra Leone

paragraphs: Sierra Leone is a country in West Africa. Its capital is Freetown. The official language is English.

paragraphs: The country was first made as a place where freed slaves could live. From 1991 until 2000, there was a civil war in Sierra Leone between rebels and the government. The war is now over. Sierra Leone is known for its blood diamonds. These were mined and sold during the civil war. This was in order to buy the weapons for the civil war.

paragraphs: There are 71,740 square kilometres of land in Sierra; In terms of land area it is similar in size to Ireland.

paragraphs: Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. The country is among the largest producers of titanium and bauxite, and a major producer of gold. The country has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile. Sierra Leone is also home to the third largest natural harbour in the world. Shipping from all over the globe goes to Freetown's famous Queen Elizabeth II Quay. Despite this natural wealth, 70% of its people live in poverty.

paragraphs: Sierra Leone is a mostly Muslim country.

paragraphs: The country has 2,090 known species of higher plants, 147 mammals, 626 birds, 67 reptiles, 35 amphibians, and 99 fish species.

paragraphs: The country is bordered by Guinea to the north and northeast, Liberia to the south and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

paragraphs: Mount Bintumani reaches . It is the highest point in the country.

paragraphs: The climate is hot, tropical and humid all year round, with two seasons. The rainy season is from May to November, and the dry season is from December to May.

paragraphs: March & April are the hottest months and daytime temperatures are around 38 °C (100 °F) - 41 °C (106 °F) with a solid 82% humidity. Night time temperatures do not vary a lot and may fluctuate by 2 °C - 4 °C.

paragraphs: December and January are prefably the best times to visit Sierra Leone as temperatures and humidity are much lower and reasonable due to the hammattan breeze from the sahara desert, although afternoon temperatures can still climb up to 40 °C and above, the hammattan breeze stops it from getting too humid, even though it will still be hot, humidity would be can be lowered down to 39% meaning you'll sweat less during this time than you would when the climate goes back to its original state, so therefore the heat would be more endurable especially around coastal areas.

paragraphs: When the hammattan breeze has lowered the heat and the humidity to its base, the highest average daily temperature in December and January will only reach a maximum of 31 °C (88 °F) and night time temperatures will be 24 °C (75 °F), although it can seldomly drop down to 21 °C (70 °F) at night, and sometimes in the morning which is the lowest the temperature can get. During this time, humidity is 70% & it is pleasantly warm and enjoyable.

paragraphs: The rainy season from May-November, average temperatures are 27 °C (81 °F) - 29 °C (84 °F) with humidity 95% - 100%. Some days when it doesn't rain, temperatures can climb up to 32 °C (90 °F) and humidity can be moderate around 75%.

paragraphs: Rainfall can be torrential, so if you're travelling to Sierra Leone around this time of the year, it is advisable to bring water proof clothing as it can rain for a whole week without interruption from sunlight.

paragraphs: Education in Sierra Leone is legally required for all children for six years. A shortage of schools and teachers has made this impossible. Two thirds of the adult population of the country are not able to read. The Sierra Leone Civil War caused the destruction of 1,270 primary schools. In 2001, 67% of all school-age children were out of school. This has been better since the end of the civil war.

paragraphs: The country has three universities: Fourah Bay College, University of Makeni and Njala University. Teacher training colleges and religious seminaries are found in many parts of the country.

paragraphs: The Republic of Sierra Leone has four regions the Northern Province, Southern Province, the Eastern Province and the Western Area. The first three provinces are divided into 12 districts. The districts are further divided into 149 chiefdoms.

paragraphs: Rice is the staple food of Sierra Leone. It is eaten at nearly every meal daily. The rice is prepared in many ways, and topped with different sauces made from some of Sierra Leone's favorite toppings. These include potato leaves, cassava leaves, crain crain, okra soup, fried fish and groundnut stew.

paragraphs: Along the street of towns and cities one can find snacks such as fresh mangoes, oranges, pineapple, fried plantains, ginger beer, fried potato, fried cassava with pepper sauce; small bags of popcorn or peanuts, bread, roasted corn, or skewers of grilled meat or shrimp.

paragraphs: Poyo is a popular Sierra Leonean drink. It is a sweet, lightly fermented palm wine. Poyo bars are areas of lively informal talk about politics, football, entertainment and other issues.

paragraphs: Football is by far the most popular sport in Sierra Leone. Children, youth and adult are often seen playing street football across Sierra Leone.

paragraphs: The Sierra Leone national football team, popularly known as the Leone Stars, represents the country in international competitions. It has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup. They were in the 1994 and 1996 African Cup of Nations. Many of the national team footballers are celebrities across Sierra Leone. They are often well known by most of the country's general population. Some well known Sierra Leonean international footballers include Mohamed Kallon, Mohamed Bangura, Rodney Strasser, Ibrahim Teteh Bangura, Alhassan Bangura, Sheriff Suma, Mohamed Kamara, Umaru Bangura and Kei Kamara.


title: Door

paragraphs: A door is a hard, flat object a person can open and close so that person can go into a room or other place. It is found in houses and other buildings. Doors are also found in cars and cages.

paragraphs: A revolving door is a group of doors that turn in a circle as a person pushes one. The person can go through, but wind and rain cannot get in.

paragraphs: A blind door is a fake door that is really part of the wall. People use them to make a room look nice.

paragraphs: An up-and-over door is often used in garages. Instead of hinges, it rolls up on rails so that it stays above the opening.

paragraphs: A fire door is a door that does not let fire go through. They are usually made of heavy steel.

paragraphs: A doggie door is a small door for dogs or other small pets. They are usually on the bottom of people-sized doors.


title: Boeing 737

paragraphs: The Boeing 737 is a twin jet narrow-body airliner built by Boeing. At first, Boeing was making it to be a shorter, cheaper airliner than its 707 and 727. However, the 737 has become a family of nine different models. The number of passengers it can carry ranges from 85 to 215. The 737 is the only narrow-body airliner that Boeing is making. The only types of 737 that Boeing is still making are the -700, -800 and -900ER. A version of the 737 with new engines and a new design, the 737 MAX, came into service in 2017 but was grounded in 2019 as unsafe.

paragraphs: Boeing began designing the 737 in 1964. The very first 737-100 flew in 1967. It was first used by an airline in February 1968. The 737-200 started being used in April 1968. The -200 was basically just a longer version of the 737-100. In the 1980s Boeing made the -300, -400, and -500 models. Boeing called these models the Boeing 737 Classic series. The 737 Classics could carry more passengers, and they had new engines: CFM56 turbofans. The 737 Classic planes also had some improvements made to the wings. In the 1990s, Boeing brought out the 737 Next Generation. The 737 Next Generation planes also had redesigned wings, a better cockpit and a new cabin. The 737 Next Generation is made up of the -600, -700, -800, and -900ER models. These models go from to in length.

paragraphs: The 737 is the best-selling jet airliner in history. Boeing has never stopped making 737s since 1967. 7,283 aircraft have been delivered, and the 737 still has 2,759 orders that have not been delivered yet (). Boeing 737s are built at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington. The 737's main rival is the Airbus A320 family. On average, 1,250 737s are in the air at any time and two land or leave somewhere every five seconds.

paragraphs: Boeing was looking at designs for aircraft which flew short distances. Boeing wanted to make another aircraft to replace the 727 on short flights. It began designing the 737 on May 11, 1964. Boeing did a lot of research and found that airlines wanted an airliner which could hold 50 to 60 passengers. This airliner would also be able to fly routes long. Lufthansa was the first airline to order a Boeing 737 on February 19, 1965. They ordered 21 aircraft, worth $67 million (1965, $190.28 million in 2008). After Boeing spoke to Lufthansa in winter 1964, they made the 737 bigger so that it could hold 100 passengers.

paragraphs: On April 5, 1965, Boeing announced that United Airlines had ordered 40 737s. United wanted a plane which was a bit bigger than the 737-100. Boeing made a different type of 737 for United, which was longer. This other plane was called the 737-200. Boeing changed the name of the original 737 to the 737-100.

paragraphs: The first 737s were made near Boeing Field (now officially called King County International Airport) because the factory in Renton was too busy building the 707 and 727. After 271 aircraft were made at Boeing Field, Boeing moved the 737s to Renton. This was in 1970.

paragraphs: The first Boeing 737-100 prototype was ready in 1966. It made its first flight on April 9, 1967. On December 15, 1967 the Federal Aviation Administration said that the -100 was allowed to fly with passengers. They gave it the Type Certificate A16WE. Lufthansa got its first 737 on December 28, 1967. On February 10, 1968, Lufthansa became the first non-American airline to fly a new Boeing aircraft. It was the only large airline which bought the 737-100. Only 30 -100s were ever made.

paragraphs: The 737-200 first flew on August 8, 1967. The FAA allowed it to fly with passengers on December 21, 1967. The first flight it made for United Airlines was on April 28, 1968. It flew from Chicago to Grand Rapids, Michigan. Airlines liked the 737-200 much more than the 737-100.

paragraphs: A "thrust reverser" is a part of the engine of a plane. It changes the flow of air through the engine so that it ends up trying to push the plane backwards instead of forwards. The first thrust reversers on the 737 were not very good. They were said to lift the aircraft off the runway when they were used. This meant that the wheels were not being pushed down onto the ground very much, which made the brakes less useful. In 1968, Boeing improved the thrust reverser. This improvement was put onto all aircraft after March 1969. Aircraft which were made before the improvement could have it installed. Boeing also improved the flaps. This improvement allowed the flaps to be used more during takeoffs and landing. All these changes meant that the 737 could hold more cargo and fly further. In May 1971, after the 135th aircraft was built, all of these improvements, as well as better engines and more fuel, were put into the 737-200. This gave it 15% more payload and range than the first 737-200s. This type of 737-200 became known as the 737-200 Advanced.

paragraphs: In 1970, Boeing only got 37 orders for 737s. Since Boeing were running out of money, they thought about stopping making 737s and selling the design to Japanese companies. Boeing cancelled the Boeing Supersonic Transport and started making less Boeing 747s. By doing this, Boeing kept enough money to keep the 737 project going.

paragraphs: In 1988, Boeing stopped making 737-200s. 1,114 aircraft were made and the last one was delivered to Xiamen Airlines on August 8, 1988.

paragraphs: In 1979, Boeing started working on a large improvement for the 737. Boeing wanted to allow the aircraft to hold more passengers and travel further. It also wanted to make improvements to make the aircraft more modern. However, it also wanted to keep it similar to the older 737s. In 1980, information on this new type of 737 (called the 737-300) was given at the Farnborough Airshow.

paragraphs: The CFM56-3B-1 engine was chosen to be the engine for this new 737 type. This engine burned much less fuel and was much less noisy. However, it was also difficult to fit these engines to the aircraft. This was because the 737's wings were not very high above the ground, and the CFM56 had a bigger diameter than the original engines. Boeing and CFM solved the problem by putting the engine slightly ahead of the wing, instead of right under it. They also moved some parts of the engine, which would normally go on the bottom, to the sides. This made the engine look a bit like a hamster pouch, because the engine is not shaped like a circle.

paragraphs: The plane could now carry 149 passengers, because the fuselage of the plane was made bigger. Many changes were made to the wings. The tip of the wing was made longer by . The wingspan was also made bigger. The flaps on the wings were changed. The flight deck (cockpit) was improved with electronic displays. However, airlines could choose not to have these in their planes. The main cabin (where the passengers sit) was also made better. It looked similar to the cabin of a Boeing 757. The prototype of the 737-300 first flew on 24 February 1984. Its pilot was Jim McRoberts.

paragraphs: In June 1986, Boeing said that it was working on the 737-400. The 737-400 made the fuselage even bigger (by ). This change meant that the -400 could carry 170 passengers. The 737-400's first flight was on February 19, 1988. The first airline to use it was Piedmont Airlines.

paragraphs: Boeing made a 737-500 because its customers wanted one. It was a replacement of the 737-200. The -500 is longer than the 737-200. Up to 132 passengers can travel on the 737-500. Cockpits with electronic displays could be installed on the -500, but airlines could choose the use the older cockpit if they wanted.

paragraphs: The 737-500 was first ordered by Southwest Airlines in 1987. Southwest Airlines ordered 20 aircraft. The 737-500 flew for the first time on June 30, 1989. On February 28, 1990, Southwest Airlines got their first delivery.

paragraphs: After the Boeing 737 Next Generation planes were brought into service, Boeing named the 737-300/-400/-500s the 737 Classic series.

paragraphs: In 1991, Boeing started working on an updated group of 737s. They did this so they could have a plane to rival the Airbus A320. Boeing said that the 737 Next Generation (NG) program had begun on November 17, 1993. The -600, -700, -800, and -900 models are all part of the 737 Next Generation program. The 737 was changed so much by the 737NG program that it is almost like a new aircraft. However, some important parts of the plane were kept similar to the older 737s.

paragraphs: The wing was changed again. Many different changes were made. An example of one is a bigger wingspan (made bigger by ). Since the wings were made bigger, 30% more fuel could fit in the plane. CFM56-7B engines were used, which were newer, quieter and burned less fuel. The improvements to the wing, engine and fuel mean that the 737NG can travel 900 nautical miles further. This means it can travel over in total, which means that the 737NG can travel between different continents. Winglets can be added to most 737NG models. The flight deck was given modern electronics (called avionics). The main cabin was also improved.

paragraphs: The first NG to be built was a 737-700. It was finished on December 8, 1996. This aircraft was 2,843rd 737 built. It first flew on February 9, 1997. The prototype 737-800 was finished on June 30, 1997 and first flew on July 31, 1997. The smallest of the 737NGs, the -600, is the same size as the -500. It was the last NG to be launched (it was launched in December 1997). It first flew on January 22, 1998. The FAA certified it on August 18, 1998. A

paragraphs: Boeing delivered the 5,000th 737 to Southwest Airlines on February 13, 2006. The 6,000th 737 was delivered to Norwegian Air Shuttle in April 2009. The Airbus A320 family has sold more planes than the 737NG over the past ten years. However, this total includes sales for the A321 and A318. The A321 has been the rival of Boeing's 757 and the A318 has been the rival of the 717. The Next Generation series helped make sure the 737 stayed the bestselling airliner family since it first flew.

paragraphs: Since 2006, Boeing has been thinking about replacing the 737 with a completely new design. This was named the Boeing Y1 by people who worked at Boeing. This re-design would be launched after the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. Boeing did not decide on whether or not to go ahead with this. They said they would decide in 2011.

paragraphs: On July 20, 2011, Boeing said that they were working on a new 737 version, which would have the CFM International LEAP engine. American Airlines said they would order 100 of these aircraft. On August 30, 2011, Boeing said that a new 737 would definitely be launched. It was called the 737 MAX. It would also definitely have CFM International LEAP-1B engines.

paragraphs: The MAX 8 first carried paying passengers in May, 2017. In 2019 two MAX 8 aircraft crashed, killing all aboard and causing aviation authorities to ban commercial operation of the 737 MAX until they are fixed.

paragraphs: The 737's main landing gear (wheels) go into holes at the bottom of the plane. The wheels do not have a door to close over them. The tyres can be seen easily when a 737 is taking off or is flying low-down.

paragraphs: 737s do not have fuel dump systems. A fuel dump system is a system which gets rid of any unneeded fuel if the aircraft needs to make an emergency landing while it still has a lot of fuel on board. This is useful because aircraft can only land safely at a certain weight or below. Getting rid of unneeded fuel helps to get to a safe weight for the plane to land. The first 737s were too small to need these systems. Adding a fuel dump system to the bigger 737s would make the plane much heavier. Instead, if the emergency is not very serious, 737s fly around in circles to get rid of fuel. If the emergency is serious, the 737 just needs to land at an unsafe weight. If it has to land at an unsafe weight, the plane needs to be looked at for damage. If there is no damage, the plane can be put back into service.

paragraphs: Engines on the 737 Classic series (300, 400, 500) and Next Generation series (600, 700, 800, 900) are not shaped like a circle like most planes. The 737 Classics had CFM56 turbofan engines. These burned much less fuel and made much less noise than the Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines which were used on the -100 and -200. However, because the 737's wings and fuselage are not very high above the ground, it was impossible to get the engines to fit on the wings. Boeing and CFM fixed this problem by putting the engines slightly ahead of the wings instead of putting them right underneath. They also moved some parts of the engines which would normally go at the bottom to the sides. This is what makes the engines non-circular.

paragraphs: The gearbox of the engine was moved from the bottom of the engine to the side. The gearbox makes the engine look a bit like a triangle. Since the engine is close to the ground, it is possible that they can be damaged by things lying on the ground. The CFM56-7 engine on the 737 Next Generation burns even less fuel than the engines on the 737 Classics. The Boeing 737 MAX aircraft will have CFM International LEAP-1B engines. These engines are supposed to burn 10-12% less fuel than the CFM56-7B engines on the 737 Next Generation family.

paragraphs: The 737's controls are very safe. If the hydraulics or both engines fail, servo tabs will be automatically used. Servo tabs are small hinges which move important parts of an aircraft. The tabs are controlled by the yoke (the thing used to steer the plane). For the 737 Next Generation, a new cockpit with LCD displays was made. These cockpits also have modern avionics (autopilot etc.).

paragraphs: Most 737 cockpits have "eyebrow windows". These are smaller windows which are above the main windows. There are two on each side. Eyebrow windows were used on the Boeing 707. They helped the pilot see better when the plane was turning. However, because autopilot, advanced radar etc. exist, they are no longer needed. They were removed from the 737 cockpit in 2004. However, 737s used by the military still have them installed. If the customer likes, Boeing will install eyebrow windows for them.

paragraphs: Winglets can be fitted to 737s which do not have them already installed. They can also be added when the aircraft is built. The winglets are about tall. They are fitted at the end of the wing and help the engines to burn less fuel because they reduce drag. They also help make less noise on takeoff. Winglets can help a plane burn up to 5% less fuel.

paragraphs: How the cabin looks was changed in each different type of 737 (Classic and Next Generation). The cabin design of the 737 Original was changed 737 Classic using designs from the 757. Designs from the Boeing 777 were used to design the cabin for the Next Generation 737. The newest cabin design is called the Sky Interior. It has curved walls. It also has redesigned windows. The Sky Interior has more headroom and LED mood lighting. Overhead bins which move have been installed. These bins are similar to the bins on a 777 and Boeing 787 Dreamliner. They have more space for luggage than the other designs. The Sky Interior is also designed to make the cabin less noisy by 2–4 dB. The first 737 with the Sky Interior was delivered to Flydubai in 2010. Malaysia Airlines, TUIFly and Continental Airlines have also ordered 737s with the Sky Interior.

paragraphs: The 737 are split into three "generations". These are Original, Classic and Next Generation. The "Original" models are the 737-100, 737-200/-200 Advanced. The "Classic" models are the 737-300, 737-400 and 737-500. The "Next Generation" models are the 737-600, 737-700/-700ER, 737-800, and 737-900/-900ER.

paragraphs: The fourth generation of 737 is called the 737 MAX. It is still being worked on, but when it is finished, it will be made up of the 737-MAX-7, 737-MAX-8 and 737-MAX-9. The MAX-7 will replace the 737-700, the MAX-8 will replace the 737-800 and the MAX-9 will replace the 737-900 and 739-900ER.

paragraphs: The very first 737 model was the 737-100. It was first ordered by Lufthansa in 1965. The -100 was finished on January 17, 1967. It entered service in 1968. The aircraft is the smallest type of 737. Only 30 737-100s were ordered and delivered. No 737-100s are still being used by airlines. The 737-100 prototype is in the Museum of Flight in Seattle.

paragraphs: The 737-200 is a 737-100 with a larger fuselage. It was created because of an order from United Airlines in 1965. The -200 was finished on June 29, 1967. It entered service in 1968. The 737-200 Advanced is an improved version of the -200. Its first user was All Nippon Airways. It began using the -200 Advanced on May 20, 1971. The -200 Advanced has many improvements. For example, more powerful engines and more fuel. The 737-200 Advanced can also fly further than the 737-200. The last delivery of a 737-200 aircraft was in August 1988 to Xiamen Airlines. This was the 1,095th 737-200 built. Many 737-200s are still used by airlines.

paragraphs: After 40 years the last 737-200 aircraft in the United States were retired on March 31, 2008. This happened with the last flights of Aloha Airlines.

paragraphs: The Boeing 737 Classic is the name of the 737-300/-400/-500. However, they were only called the 737 Classics after the 737 Next Generation (737-600/700/800/900) aircraft were made. Until then, the 737 Classics were called the 'new generation' of the 737. The 737 Classics were made from 1984 to 2000. 1,988 aircraft were delivered in that time. As of January 1, 2001, 1,945 are in service.

paragraphs: The 737-300 was brought into service in 1981. It was used by both US Airways and Southwest Airlines. The 737-300 is the first model of the 737 Classic series. The -300 can usually hold 128 passengers. The 737-300 series was made until 1999. The last -300 was delivered to Air New Zealand on 17 December 1999. This was the 1,113th 737-300 made.

paragraphs: The 737-400 brought into service in 1985. It was just a longer version of the 737-300. Piedmont Airlines was the launch customer. They ordered 25 aircraft in 1986. The first 737-400s were brought into service in 1988 with Piedmont. The last -400 was delivered to CSA Czech Airlines. This was the 486th -400 built.

paragraphs: The 737-400F was a 737-400 changed into a cargo plane. The -400F was not delivered by Boeing. They were changed into cargo planes by the airlines that owned them. Alaska Airlines was the first airline to change a -400 to a -400F. It could carry 10 pallets of cargo.

paragraphs: The 737-500 was finished 1987. It was brought into service with Southwest Airlines in 1990. The 737-500 is around the same length of the 737-200. It was a modern, complete replacement of the 737-200. The last 737-500 was delivered to All Nippon Airways on July 26, 1999. This was the 389th built.

paragraphs: In the 1990s, Boeing realised that the Airbus A320 family was a serious threat. Boeing could lose customers because of it. In November 1993, Boeing began the Next Generation program. The Next Generation aircraft would replace the 737 Classics. The 737-600, 737-700 and 737-800 planes were planned.

paragraphs: The 737-600 replaced the 737-500. It was also supposed to replace the McDonnell Douglas DC-9. The 737-600 was finished in 1995. The first aircraft was delivered to Scandinavian Airlines on September 18, 1998. The 737-600 is the only Boeing 737 still being made that cannot be fitted with winglets.

paragraphs: The 737-600's rivals are the Airbus A318, Embraer 195 and Sukhoi Superjet 100. The Bombardier CSeries will also be a rival. 69 -600s have been delivered. There have been no orders that have not been delivered (as of 2010).

paragraphs: The 737-700 was added to the Next Generation planes when Southwest Airlines ordered one in November 1993. The -700 was based on the 737-300. It was brought into service in 1998. It replaced the 737-300. Its main rival is the A319. 126 people can fit into the 737-700 if there are two classes (first class and economy). However, 149 can fit in if the aircraft only has an economy class. Boeing launched the 737-700ER on January 30, 2006. "ER" stands for "extra range". This means that the plane can fly further than a normal 737-700. All Nippon Airways was the launch customer for the -700ER. It has the body of a 737-700, but the wings and landing gear of a 737-800. It can fly for 5,510 nautical miles (10,205 kilometers). 126 passengers can fit onto the plane.

paragraphs: In July 2008, Delta Air Lines got the first -700 that had Messier-Bugatti's carbon brakes.

paragraphs: The 737-800 is a longer version of the 737-700. It replaces the 737-400. The -800 was finished in 1994. It entered service with Hapag-Lloyd Flug (now TUIfly) in 1998. 162 passengers can fit into a 737-800 if it has two classes. Up to 189 can fit into a 737-800 if it only has one class. Its main rival is the A320.

paragraphs: The 737-900 is the longest 737. Alaska Airlines was the launch customer for the 737-900 when it was launched in 1997. It got its first aircraft on May 15, 2001.

paragraphs: The 737-900ER is the newest and biggest Boeing 737. It was made so that it could replace the 757-200. It was also made to be a rival to the Airbus A321. 180 passengers can fly on a 737-900ER with two classes. 215 passengers can fly if the plane only has one class. The -900ER can carry more fuel and has winglets. It can fly for around 3200 nm. The 737-900 is no longer made; Boeing only makes the 737-900ER now.

paragraphs: In 2011, Boeing said that it was working on the 737 MAX program. Boeing will make three types of 737 MAX. These are the MAX-7, MAX-8 and the MAX-9. The MAX-7 will replace the 737-700, the MAX-8 will replace the 737-800 and the MAX-9 will replace the 737-900ER. The 737 MAX will have CFM International LEAP-1B engines. The wheel in the nose of the plane has been made longer. Deliveries are supposed to start in 2017. Southwest Airlines became the launch customer on December 13, 2011. Lion Air and others have made orders for 737 MAX planes.

paragraphs: The 737 is used by more than 500 airlines. 737s fly to 1,200 places in 190 countries. Over 10,000 737s have been ordered by airlines. 7,283 have been delivered. Over 4,500 are still being used by airlines. On average, there are always 1,250 737s flying. On average, a 737 takes off or lands every five seconds. 25% of the world's jet airliners are Boeing 737s.

paragraphs: As of July 2010, 383 Boeing 737-200s are still being used by airlines.

paragraphs: Many countries use the 737 as a military plane. Some countries with 737s are:

paragraphs: Over 7,400 Boeing 737s have been built and delivered. This is correct as of December 31, 2012.

paragraphs: , over 10,400 Boeing 737s have been ordered. 3,020 planes still need to be delivered. This is a list of how many planes have been built for each type of 737.

paragraphs: As of April 2012, the 737 has been in 315 incidents. 159 of these have been "hull loss accidents". A hull loss accident is when the plane is damaged so much it can not be used anymore, or if the plane was completely destroyed. 4,236 people have died because of these crashes. The 737 has also been in 106 hijackings. 324 people have died in hijackings.

paragraphs: This information comes from: Boeing 737 specifications, 737 Airport Planning Report, b737.org.uk site.


title: Tsar

paragraphs: Tsar is the title for the supreme ruler of Bulgaria in 913–1422, later usage in 1908–1946, the supreme ruler of Serbia in 1346—1371 and the emperor of Russia from 1546 until 1721. Since 1721 the title of Russian emperors was "imperator", but the word "tsar" remained in common use until the Russian Revolution 1917. It is also spelled Tzar, Czar, and Csar, and is the Eastern European word for Caesar, that can be translated to Emperor. The system of government used during the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire was called Tsarist autocracy, also known as Tsarism.

paragraphs: The last Tsar to Rule Serbia was Tsar Stephen Uroš V.

paragraphs: The last Tsar to Rule Russia was Tsar Nicholas II.

paragraphs: The last Tsar to Rule Bulgaria was Tsar Boris III.


title: Engelbert Dollfuss

paragraphs: Engelbert Dollfuss ("German": Dollfuß) (October 4, 1892 – July 25, 1934) was the Chancellor of Austria from 1932 until 1933. He led the country as a dictator from early 1933 until 1934.

paragraphs: He studied law in Vienna, and Economics in Berlin. During World War I, he served in the Alps and briefly became a Prisoner of War in 1918.

paragraphs: He became Chancellor on May 20, 1932 as head of a right-wing coalition government. He wanted to solve the problems caused by the Depression. He had problems finding majorities in parliament. The measures he liked to take to deal with inflation were not well liked. In March 1933, he suspended the Austrian parliament. He then governed by decree.

paragraphs: With Adolf Hitler as Chancellor in Germany, Dollfuss feared that the influence of the NSDAP would grow. This would then lead to a growth in popularity for its Austrian counterpart. Because of this, he banned the NSDAP in June 1933. He also banned the SDAPÖ in February 1934.

paragraphs: In September 1933 he formed an umbrella grouping to support the regime, the "Vaterländische Front" (Fatherland Front) and merged the Christian Social Party with the para-military Heimwehr (Home Guard), a Nationalist paramilitary group. The regime which was put into power by him and remained in power until 1938 is often called "Austrofascism". The form of state he employed was called the "Ständestaat".

paragraphs: On July 25, 1934, eight Austrian Nazis entered the Chancellery building and shot and killed Dollfuss in an attempted coup, as a prelude to Anschluss. The Nazis surrendered and were executed. Kurt Schuschnigg became the new dictator of Austria.


title: Language isolate

paragraphs: A language isolate is a language that is not known to be related to any other language.

paragraphs: Many languages are related to other languages by coming from an older language, and both are still similar. Languages that are related are language families. Most languages known to belong to a language family. However, some are not known to be related to other languages and are called language isolates.

paragraphs: Some language isolates are Basque and Zuni.


title: Species

paragraphs: A species is a kind of organism. It is a basic unit of biological classification, and a formal rank in taxonomy. Originally, the word was used informally in a rather vague way, but now there are at least 26 different ways it is used.

paragraphs: All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves ("Canis lupus") are one species. Humans ("Homo sapiens") are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called "Felis catus". However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried.

paragraphs: Species is a word for a particular kind of living thing, for example, a jackdaw. Jackdaws and ravens are similar, so they are together in a larger group (taxon) called a genus, in this case "Corvus". Then there is a family (such as the crow family, which includes crows and ravens as well as jays and magpies). Families are put together into orders such as the songbirds, which includes many families of birds. The next group is the class; all birds are in the same class. After that is the phylum, such as vertebrates, which is all animals with backbones. Last of all is the kingdom, like the animal kingdom. These are ways to classify living things.

paragraphs: There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".

paragraphs: Take as an example the bird called a Common Loon or Great Northern Diver:

paragraphs: There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species.

paragraphs: Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species).

paragraphs: It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution.

paragraphs: The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas.

paragraphs: According to the most recent estimate, there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses.

paragraphs: Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete.


title: Ancestor

paragraphs: An ancestor is a person from whom one is descended. Usually it refers to a remote person, rather than the immediate parents or grandparents. A very similar word is forebear. A female ancestor may be called an ancestress. The line of people from whom a person's descends is referred to as their ancestry.

paragraphs: A second meaning relates to evolution. There, it is used of an animal or plant from which others have evolved. In a similar way, it can be used for an early prototype or forerunner of a later device.

paragraphs: In law an ancestor can mean the person from whom an estate is lawfully obtained. No blood relationship is necessarily implied. More commonly, however, it is the person from whom an estate is obtained based on law and blood.

paragraphs: Two people have a genetic relationship if one is the ancestor of the other, or if they share a common ancestor. Each of someone's ancestors will have contributed to their DNA. In evolution, species that have evolved from the same ancestor are said to be of common descent. However, this concept of ancestry does not apply to some bacteria and other organisms capable of horizontal gene transfer. DNA testing is used in determining ancestry. This can be for testing, to determine the parents of a child for legal purposes. DNA is also used to better understand the ancestry and history of all humans over the last 50,000 years. This was one of the benefits of the Human genome project.

paragraphs: In some cultures ancestors may have relatively little importance. Many today have no knowledge of their own great-great-grandparents. China is an example of a culture that in general has a deep respect for ancestors. Korea is an example of a culture that engages in ancestor worship where ancestors are revered. But genealogy (the study of one's ancestors) is growing in popularity and includes both amateur and professional genealogists.


title: River dolphin

paragraphs: River dolphins are five species of dolphin which live in fresh water rivers and estuaries. Three species live in fresh water rivers. The La Plata Dolphin lives in salt water estuaries and the ocean.

paragraphs: Both river dolphins and marine dolphins belong to a group of mammals called cetaceans. The snout of a river dolphin measures about 58 centimeters (2 ft) long, approximately four times as long as that of most marine dolphins. They use their long snout to search for fish on the muddy bottom of the river. River dolphins have smaller eyes than marine dolphins, and their vision is poorly developed because they live in dark, muddy water. River dolphins are less active than marine dolphins because they do not need to search so widely to find fish. Marine dolphins work in pods (packs) because when they find a shoal of fish then they work together to make the most of their find. River dolphins work mostly as individuals or small groups.

paragraphs: The following is the taxonomy of river dolphins, or how dolphins are classified:


title: Estuary

paragraphs: An estuary is where a river meets the sea. There, saltwater mixes with freshwater. The river becomes wider and wider and flows slowly to the ocean.

paragraphs: Bays, marshes, swamps, and inlets can all have estuaries. A view of an estuary from the air is usually an interesting sight: many estuaries meander (curve and bend) to find their way to the sea. Estuaries come in all sizes and shapes, each according to its location and climate. Where rivers meet the sea and fresh water mixes with salt water, the mixture is called brackish water.

paragraphs: Some estuaries are very large. They may be large ocean bays that have more than one river flowing into them. For example, Chesapeake Bay is a large estuary, and several different rivers meet the Atlantic Ocean there.

paragraphs: In simple terms it is where a river meets with a large body of water only with ((one)) outlet and not many like a ((delta)).

paragraphs: Estuaries are usually filled with shallow waters, and sunlight reaches all levels of the water. Marsh grasses, algae, and other kinds of plants live in estuaries and provide food for a variety of fish, crabs, oysters, and shrimp. Estuaries are especially important since they act as nurseries for many different types of young fish and other animals before they head out toward the open ocean. Many sea birds also nest in estuaries.

paragraphs: The United States government has a program to study and protect the natural environment in many different estuaries, called the National Estuarine Research Reserve System. One reason that the natural environment in so many estuaries is in danger is because they are also good places for people to live and build cities. Unfortunately, many of world's largest cities are at or near estuaries.


title: James Bond

paragraphs: James Bond is a fictional British spy and action movie created by Ian Fleming in 1953.

paragraphs: In 1953, Fleming wrote "Casino Royale", the very first James Bond novel. The novel made a lot of money, and he continued to write one James Bond novel each year until he died in 1963. In a 1956 South African radio program "Moonraker" he was voiced by Bob Holness. In 1962 Albert. R. "Cubby" Broccoli and Harry Saltzman started to produce the first James Bond movie, Dr. No, starring Sean Connery as James Bond. The movie became extremely popular, and they continued to make more Bond movies. In the end of the 1960s Connery did not want to do any more Bond movies, and many thought that Bond was now dead. In 1969, George Lazenby appeared in one movie as the Bond character, but the movie was not successful.

paragraphs: In 1971 Sean Connery stepped back into the role for one movie "Diamonds are Forever". After this in 1973, producers came up with the "Live and Let Die" movie, starring Roger Moore as Bond. The movie became a very big success. The series continued throughout the 1970s and 1980s with Roger Moore playing the role of Bond.

paragraphs: In the 1980s, Bond movies were not as successful at the box office. Unlike the 1960s and 1970s, in the 1980s there were many other action movies being produced that could compete with the Bond series.

paragraphs: After Moore left the role as Bond, he was replaced with Timothy Dalton in the late 1980s. Dalton tried to make a serious, "down to earth" Bond, closer to the Fleming novels. Fans did not like Dalton's interpretation of the Bond character, and the movies made little money.

paragraphs: The Cold War ended in 1991. Since Bond almost always fought Communists, many now thought that the Bond series of movies was finally dead.

paragraphs: In 1995, producers developed the Goldeneye movie, starring Pierce Brosnan as Bond. This film made the Bond character well known in the 1990s. Brosnan appeared in several Bond movies.

paragraphs: In 2002, the James Bond character was used in the 20th movie, Die Another Day, the 40th anniversary of the movies and the 50th anniversary since Fleming wrote his first Bond novel.

paragraphs: In 2006, the 21st movie, Casino Royale, was released. Pierce Brosnan, who played James Bond in the previous four movies, was replaced by Daniel Craig, the first James Bond to have blonde hair. The movie is based on the first Ian Fleming novel of the same name, but is set in the present day. The movie features a cameo appearance by Richard Branson, a British billionaire. It has a new model of Aston Martin DB9, the car that made James Bond so famous in the 1960s. Many fans think that whilst this movie is different than other movies, it is much better, and movies in the future (however few there will be) will be in this new format. In 2008, Craig appeared in a second Bond movie, "Quantum of Solace" and a third, "Skyfall", in 2012. His fourth appearance as Bond was with "Spectre" in 2016. His fifth and final appearance as Bond will be the Darren Aronofsky directed "Bond 25" in 2019.

paragraphs: Many of the James Bond movies were massive hits. However, there are two movies classed as unofficial Bond films and not recognised as part of the series. The 1967 version of "Casino Royale" was a spoof, featuring "Jimmy Bond". Also, "Never Say Never Again" was not made by Albert R. Broccoli's production company, EON Productions. Connery is the tallest actor to play James Bond to this day.


title: A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 movie)

paragraphs: A Streetcar Named Desire is a 1951 movie. It is based on the 1947 play by Tennessee Williams. The movie stars Marlon Brando and Vivien Leigh.


title: Tetrahedron

paragraphs: A tetrahedron (triangular pyramid) is a three-dimensional shape. It has four corners. It looks like a pyramid. It has six equally long edges, four corners and four equilateral triangular faces. Every two edges meet on one of those corners forming a sixty-degree angle. All of its sides are triangles.

paragraphs: A regular tetrahedron is a tetrahedron where all of its edges are the same length. If the length of an edge is "a":


title: Robert Hooke

paragraphs: Robert Hooke FRS (Isle of Wight, 18 July 1635 – London, 3 March 1703) was an English naturalist, architect and polymath. Hooke played an important role in the birth of science in the 17th century with both experimental and theoretical work. He was a colleague of Robert Boyle and Christopher Wren, and a rival to Isaac Newton. Hooke was a leader in the plans to rebuild after the Great Fire of London in 1666.

paragraphs: There is no surviving portrait of Hooke.

paragraphs: He discovered Hooke's Law of elasticity. He designed and ordered the making of telescopes and microscopes, and used both instruments. He reported on this work in a book called "Micrographia" in 1665. He was the first person to see biological cells. He made drawings of bodies in the Solar System, and made the first attempts to measure the distance of certain stars.

paragraphs: Robert Hooke was appointed the Royal Society's first Curator of Experiments in 1662, and he rose to be Secretary of the Royal Society. He took responsibility for experiments performed at its weekly meetings. This was a position he held for over 40 years.

paragraphs: In 1664 Hooke also was appointed Professor of Geometry at Gresham College in London and Cutlerian Lecturer in Mechanics.

paragraphs: On 8 July 1680, Hooke observed the nodal patterns associated with the mode of vibration of glass plates. He ran a bow along the edge of a glass plate covered with flour, and saw the nodal patterns emerge.

paragraphs: Hooke did some fundamental work on gravitation and the motion of the planets. Forever after, he was convinced that Newton and the world had cheated him of the credit

paragraphs: He was also known for his work in natural history (biology and geology). He reported on his microsope use in a book called "Micrographica" in 1665. He was the first person to see biological cells, and was the first to use the word 'cell' to describe them.

paragraphs: In 1668, in a talk to the Royal Society, he recognised that fossil shells of unknown marine animals suggested that some species had become extinct.

paragraphs: Hooke achieved fame in his day as Surveyor to the City of London and chief assistant of Christopher Wren. Hooke helped Wren rebuild London after the Great Fire in 1666.

paragraphs: He also worked on the Royal Greenwich Observatory, and the infamous Bethlem Royal Hospital (which became known as 'Bedlam'). Many other buildings were designed by Hooke, including the Royal College of Physicians (1679).

paragraphs: Hooke's collaboration with Christopher Wren included St Paul's Cathedral, whose dome uses a method of construction conceived by Hooke. Hooke also participated in the design of the Pepys Library, which held the manuscripts of Samuel Pepys's diaries, the most frequently cited eyewitness account of the Great Fire of London.

paragraphs: In the reconstruction after the Great Fire, Hooke proposed redesigning London's streets on a grid pattern with wide boulevards and arteries, a pattern later used in the renovation of Paris, Liverpool, and many American cities. This proposal was thwarted by arguments over property rights, as property owners were surreptitiously shifting their boundaries. Hooke was in demand to settle many of these disputes, due to his skill as a surveyor and his tact as an arbitrator.


title: Emission

paragraphs: Emission is a word that originally comes from Latin. Originally it means something that is sent out. Several things can be sent out: