title: Mandaeism

paragraphs: Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Mandaic: Mandaiuta, "Mandā'iyya") is a monotheistic religion. The religion has a strong dualistic world view. Its followers, the Mandaeans, think highly of Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist.

paragraphs: Originally, Mandaeism was practiced mainly in the countries around the lower Euphrates and Tigris and the rivers that surround the Shatt-al-Arab waterway. Today, this area belongs to Iraq and Khuzestan Province in Iran. Because they were persecuted in that area, many Mandaeans have left that area and now live abroad. This is commonly called diaspora. Most left for Europe, Australia and North America.

paragraphs: There are thought to be between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide, and until the 2003 Iraq war, almost all of them lived in Iraq. The 2003 Iraq War reduced the population of Iraqi Mandaeans to approximately 5,000 by 2007. Most Iraqi Mandaeans fled to Syria and Jordan under the threat of violence by Islamic extremists and the turmoil of the war.

paragraphs: The Mandaeans have remained separate and intensely private—what has been reported of them and their religion has come primarily from outsiders, particularly from the Orientalists J. Heinrich Petermann, Nicholas Siouffi, and Lady Ethel Drower.

paragraphs: Mandeism is the religion of the Mandaean people. It is based on a common history and heritage. There is no fixed set of religious creeds and doctrines. A basic guide to Mandaean theology does not exist. The corpus of Mandaean literature is quite large. It also covers topics such as eschatology, the knowledge of God, and the afterlife. It only does this in an unsystematic manner. Apart from the priests, very few people know it.

paragraphs: According to E.S. Drower, the Mandaean Gnosis is characterized by nine features, which also appear in various forms in other gnostic sects:

paragraphs: Mandaeans believe in marriage and procreation, and in the importance of leading an ethical and moral lifestyle in this world. They put a high priority on family life. Consequently, Mandaeans do not practice celibacy or asceticism. Mandaeans will, however, abstain from strong drink and red meat. They look forward to a future liberated from the influence of the Torah, which they consider to be evil in origin. While they agree with other gnostic sects that the world is a prison governed by the planetary archons, they do not view it as a cruel and inhospitable one.

paragraphs: The Mandaeans have many religious texts. The most important of them is the "Genzā Rabbā" or Ginza. The Ginza is a collection of history, theology, and prayers. The "Genzā Rabbā" is divided into two halves — the "Genzā Smālā" or "Left Ginza" and the "Genzā Yeminā" or "Right Ginza".

paragraphs: Before the printing press was invented, people copied texts by hand. The people doing this were called scribes. Each person's handwriting is special in certain ways. This was the same with scribes. A scribe might join two letters in a certain way, or he might do the dots on those letters that have them in a special way. Jorunn J. Buckley looked at these special marks the copyists left in the Left Ginza. That way he was able to show that the copying of that text goes back to the to the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD. These special marks show that the Mandaeans existed during the late Arsacid period at the very latest. A legend called "Harrān Gāwetā" also strengthens this. According to this legend, the Mandaeans left Palestine after the destruction of Jerusalem in the 1st century AD and settled inside the Arsacid empire. Although the Ginza continued to evolve under the rule of the Sassanians and the Islamic empires, few textual traditions can lay claim to such extensive continuity.

paragraphs: Other important books include the "Qolastā", the "Canonical Prayerbook of the Mandaeans," which was translated by E.S. Drower. One of the most important works of Mandaean scripture is the "Draša d-Iahia" "the Book of John the Baptist". This book is accessible to both laymen and initiates. There are also many other religious texts such as ritual commentaries, which are generally only consulted by the members of the priesthood.

paragraphs: The language in which the Mandaean religious literature was originally written is known as Mandaic, and is a member of the Aramaic family of dialects. It is written in a cursive variant of the Parthian chancellory script. The majority of Mandaean lay people do not speak this language. Some members of the Mandaean community in Iran ( about 300-500 out of a total of ca. 5000 Iranian Mandaeans) continue to speak Neo-Mandaic, a modern version of this language.

paragraphs: Mandaeans have several prophets. Iahia or Iuhana "John the Baptist" has a special status, higher than his role in Christianity and Islam. Mandaeans do not consider John to be the founder of their religion. They only worship him as one of their greatest teachers. They trace their beliefs back to Adam.

paragraphs: Mandaeans maintain that Jesus was a "mšiha kdaba" "false messiah" who changed the teachings given to him by John. The Mandaic word "k(a)daba", however, comes from two roots: the first root, meaning "to lie," is the one traditionally given to Jesus; the second, meaning "to write," might provide a second meaning, that of "book". Some Mandaeans, who are motivated perhaps by an ecumenical spirit, maintain that Jesus was not a "lying Messiah" but a "book Messiah". The "book" in question presumably being the Christian Gospels. This seems to be a folk etymology without support in the Mandaean texts.

paragraphs: Likewise, the Mandaeans believe that Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad were false prophets, but recognize other prophetic figures from the monotheistic traditions, such as Adam, his sons Hibil (Abel) and Šitil (Seth), and his grandson Anuš (Enosh), as well as Nuh (Noah), his son Sam (Shem) and his son Ram (Aram). The latter three they consider to be their direct ancestors.

paragraphs: There is a strict division between Mandaean laity and the priests. According to E.S. Drower ("The Secret Adam", p. ix):

paragraphs: There are three grades of priesthood in Mandaeism: the "tarmidia" "disciples" (Neo-Mandaic "tarmidānā"), the "ganzibria" "treasurers" (from Old Persian "ganza-bara" "id.", Neo-Mandaic ') and the "rišamma" "leader of the people." This last office, the highest level of the Mandaean priesthood, has lain vacant for many years. At the moment, the highest office currently occupied is that of the ', a title which appears first in a religious context in the Aramaic ritual texts from Persepolis (ca. 3rd c. BCE) and which may be related to the "kamnaskires" (Elamite <qa-ap-nu-iš-ki-ra> "kapnuskir" "treasurer"), title of the rulers of Elymais (modern Khuzestan) during the Hellenistic age. Traditionally, any ' who baptizes seven or more ' may qualify for the office of "rišamma", though the Mandaean community has yet to rally as a whole behind any single candidate.

paragraphs: The contemporary priesthood can trace its immediate origins to the first half of the 19 century. In 1831, an outbreak of cholera devastated the region and eliminated most if not all of the Mandaean religious authorities. Two of the surviving acolytes ("šgandia"), Yahia Bihram and Ram Zihrun, reestablished the priesthood on the basis of their own training and the texts that were available to them.

paragraphs: According to the "Fihrist" of ibn al-Nadim, Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, was brought up within the Elkasaites ("Elcesaites" or "Elchasaite") sect. The Elkasaites were a Christian baptismal sect which may have been related to the Mandaeans. The members of this sect wore white and performed baptisms like the Mandaeans. They lived in east Judea and northern Mesopotamia. According to the "Harran Gawaitā" legend, the Mandaeans migrated to southern Mesopotamia from there. Mani later left the Elkasaites to start his own religion. Mandaean scholar Säve-Söderberg showed that Mani's "Psalms of Thomas" were closely related to Mandaean texts. This would imply that Mani had access to Mandaean religious literature.

paragraphs: Other groups which have been identified with the Mandaeans include the "Nasoraeans", described by Epiphanius, and the Dositheans, mentioned by Theodore Bar Kōnī in his "Scholion". Ibn al-Nadim also mentions a group called the "Mughtasila", "the self-ablutionists," who may be identified with one or the other of these groups. The members of this sect, like the Mandaeans, wore white and performed baptisms.

paragraphs: It is difficult to say if groups such as the Elkasaites, the Mughtasila, the Nasoraeans, and the Dositheans are related to the Mandaeans or to one another.

paragraphs: The names say that there are a number of different groups. Much of the teaching of these groups is secret. This makes it difficult to see the nature of these groups or the relationships between them.

paragraphs: Under Saddam Hussein, the Mandeans were recognised as a religious minority. Many of them are craftspeople, like smiths or traders of gold and silver. These people belonged to the middle classes. Since the change of government in Iraq, islamic extremists have harassed them. There are also reports of attacks on women who refuse to veil themselves. Most Iraqi Mandaeans have fled as a result, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.

paragraphs: In Iran, Mandeans do not have a problem with violence, but they are prohibited from fully participating in civil life because of "Gozinesh" Law. This law and other "gozinesh" provisions require a "religious screening" for people who want to access employment, education, and a range of other areas. A very important part of this screening procedure is devotion to the tenets of Islam. These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans.

paragraphs: There were over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s. In 2007, only about 5,000 to 7,000 remain there; over 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan. This is a result of the Iraq War. There are small Mandaean populations in Australia (c. 3,500 as of 2006), Canada, the USA (c. 1,500), the UK (c. 1,000) and Sweden (c. 5,000).

paragraphs: The current status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call for their government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, the New York Times ran an op-ed in which Swarthmore professor Nathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community:


title: Substitution box

paragraphs: In cryptography, a S-Box ("Substitution-box") is a basic component of symmetric-key algorithms. In block ciphers, the S-Boxes are used to make the relation between the key and the ciphertext (coded text) difficult to understand–Shannon's property of confusion. The S-Boxes are carefully chosen to resist cryptanalysis (decoding).

paragraphs: In general, an S-Box takes some number of input bits, "m", and transforms them into some number of output bits, "n": an "m"×"n" S-Box can be implemented as a lookup table with 2 words of "n" bits each. Fixed tables are normally used, as in the Data Encryption Standard (DES), but in some ciphers the tables are generated dynamically from the key; e.g. the Blowfish and the Twofish encryption algorithms. Bruce Schneier describes IDEA's modular multiplication step as a key-dependent S-Box.

paragraphs: One good example is this 6×4-bit S-Box from DES (S):

paragraphs: Given a 6-bit input, the 4-bit output is found by selecting the row using the outer two bits, and the column using the inner four bits. For example, an input "011011" has outer bits "01" and inner bits "1101"; the corresponding output would be "1001".

paragraphs: The 8 S-Boxes of DES were the subject of intensive studies for many years cause of a concern that a method of bypassing the DES cipher to obtaining access to the plaintext–a "vulnerability" ("susceptibility") known only to its designers–might have been "planted" (inserted) in the cipher. In 1994, the S-Box design criteria were finally published by its designers after the public rediscovery of differential cryptanalysis, showing that they had been carefully tuned the design to increase resistance against differential cryptanalysis attacks. Other research had already indicated that even a very small modification to one of the 8 S-Box used by the DES could weaken it very much.

paragraphs: The design of good S-Boxes was the subject of a great amount of research; now much more is understood about their use in block ciphers than when the DES S-Boxes were released.


title: Martigues

paragraphs: Martigues is a commune of 46,200 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles

paragraphs: Mas-Blanc-des-Alpilles is a commune of 373 people (1999). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.


title: Maussane-les-Alpilles

paragraphs: Maussane-les-Alpilles is a commune of 2,155 people (2004). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.


title: Meyrargues

paragraphs: Meyrargues is a commune in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 3,400 people lived there in 2006.


title: Meyreuil

paragraphs: Meyreuil is a commune of 4,450 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Mimet

paragraphs: Mimet is a commune of 4,400 people (2004). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.


title: Miramas

paragraphs: Miramas is a commune of 23,800 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Mollégès

paragraphs: Mollégès is a commune of 2,171 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Mouriès

paragraphs: Mouriès is a commune of 3,085 people (2008). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Noves

paragraphs: Noves is a commune of 4,845 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Orgon

paragraphs: Orgon is a commune of 2,913 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Paradou

paragraphs: Paradou is a commune of 1,162 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Pélissanne

paragraphs: Pélissanne is a commune of 9,268 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Les Pennes-Mirabeau

paragraphs: Les Pennes-Mirabeau is a commune of 19,043 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: La Penne-sur-Huveaune

paragraphs: La Penne-sur-Huveaune is a commune of 6,150 people (2008). It is in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Peynier

paragraphs: Peynier is a commune of 2,900 people (2005). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Peypin

paragraphs: Peypin is a commune of 5,097 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Peyrolles-en-Provence

paragraphs: Peyrolles-en-Provence is a commune of 4,286 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Plan-de-Cuques

paragraphs: Plan-de-Cuques is a commune of 10,503 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Plan-d'Orgon

paragraphs: Plan-d'Orgon is a commune of 2,738 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Confusion and diffusion

paragraphs: In cryptography, confusion and diffusion are two properties of the operation of a secure cipher.

paragraphs: Confusion and diffusion were identified by Claude Elwood Shannon in his paper, "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems" published in 1949. In Shannon's original definitions:

paragraphs: Diffusion is associated with the dependency of the output bits on the input bits. In a cipher with good diffusion, flipping an input bit should change each output bit with a probability of one half (this is termed the Strict Avalanche Criterion).

paragraphs: Substitution (a rule for replacing plaintext symbols by another) has been identified as a mechanism for primarily confusion (see S-box); on the other hand transposition using P-box (rearranging or swapping the order of symbols) is a technique for diffusion, although other mechanisms are also used in modern practice, such as linear transformations (e.g. in AES). Product ciphers use alternating substitution and transposition phases (rounds) to achieve both confusion and diffusion respectively.


title: Port-de-Bouc

paragraphs: Port-de-Bouc is a commune of 17,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône is a commune of 8,524 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Puyloubier

paragraphs: Puyloubier is a commune of 1,671 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade

paragraphs: Le Puy-Sainte-Réparade is a commune. It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France. 5,112 people lived there in (2006).


title: Rognac

paragraphs: Rognac is a commune of 11,900 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Rognes, Bouches-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Rognes is a commune of 4,194 people (1999). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.


title: Rognonas

paragraphs: Rognonas is a commune of 3,623 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: La Roque-d'Anthéron

paragraphs: La Roque-d'Anthéron is a commune of 4,722 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems

paragraphs: Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems is a paper published by Claude Shannon discussing cryptography from the viewpoint of information theory. It is one of the "foundational treatments" ("primitives") of modern cryptography. It is also a proof that all theoretically "unbreakable" ("un-crack-able") ciphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad encryption algorithm.

paragraphs: Shannon published an earlier version of this research in the classified report A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography, Memorandum MM 45-110-02, Sept. 1, 1945, Bell Laboratories.

paragraphs: In 1948, Shannon published his great paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which is considered one of the founding works of the field of information theory.


title: Come as You Are

paragraphs: "Come as You Are" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the second single from their second album, "Nevermind", the first was the enormously popular "Smells Like Teen Spirit". It is one of the band's most famous songs. "Rolling Stone" magazine named it as the 445th on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.

paragraphs: There was a music video for the song. It has a lot of random scenes, such as Kurt Cobain sitting on a chandelier hanging from a ceiling, a handgun floating in a swimming pool, and a baby swimming in that pool (a reference to the cover art of "Nevermind".)

paragraphs: After the single was released, the English post-punk band Killing Joke became angry at Nirvana for supposedly ripping off their song "Eighties".

paragraphs: Nirvana thought that "Smells Like Teen Spirit", the previous single from "Nevermind", would not be very popular, and that "Come as You Are" would be a big hit. However, "Smells Like Teen Spirit" became the band's most famous song and one of the most famous songs ever, even though Come as You Are was also popular.

paragraphs: On November 18, 1993, Nirvana played "Come as You Are" on their show on MTV Unplugged. The show contained mostly their unpopular songs and covers of other artists' songs; "Come as You Are" was the only hit they played.


title: International Data Encryption Algorithm

paragraphs: In cryptography, the International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) is a block cipher designed by Xuejia Lai and James Massey of ETH Zurich in 1991. It was meant to be a replacement for the Data Encryption Standard. IDEA very like an earlier cipher called Proposed Encryption Standard (PES), but with some improvements. Because of this, IDEA was first called IPES (Improved PES).

paragraphs: The cipher is patented in a number of countries but can be used by anyone for non-commercial use. The name "IDEA" is also a trademark. The patents will expire in 2010–2011. Today, IDEA is licensed worldwide by a company called MediaCrypt.

paragraphs: IDEA was used in Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) v2.0 after the cipher used in v1.0, BassOmatic, was found to be breakable. IDEA can be used with the OpenPGP standard.

paragraphs: IDEA operates on 64-bit blocks, using a 128-bit key. It contains a series of eight identical transformations ("rounds") and one output transformation (the "half-round"). It does this for a total of 8.5 rounds. The processes for encryption and decryption are similar.

paragraphs: IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different groups — modular addition and multiplication, and bitwise eXclusive OR (XOR) — which are chosen to be "algebraically incompatible".

paragraphs: Each of the eight round uses six sub-keys, while the half-round uses four; for a total of 52 sub-keys. Each sub-key is a 16-bit in length. The first eight sub-keys are extracted directly from the 128-bit key, with K1 being the lowest sixteen bits and K8 is the highest sixteen bits; further groups of eight keys are created by rotating the main key left 25 bits after the creation of the previous group; six rotations generate all sub-keys.

paragraphs: The designers analyzed IDEA to measure its strength against differential cryptanalysis and concluded that it is unsusceptible only under certain assumptions. No successful linear or differential attacks have been reported. Some classes of weak keys have been found — E.g. (Daemen "et al.", 1994) — but these are of little importance, being so rare to be explicitly avoided. As of 2007, the best attack which applies to all keys can break IDEA if reduced to 6 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds).

paragraphs: In 1996, Bruce Schneier wrote about IDEA, "In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time." ("Applied Cryptography", 2nd ed.) However, by 1999 he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster cryptographic algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents.


title: Luduş

paragraphs: Luduş (German: "Ludasch", Hungarian: "Marosludas") is a town in Mureş County, Romania. It is the fourth biggest city in the county by population. The name of the town in Hungarian means "gooses at Maros"


title: 2008 Yemen floods

paragraphs: The 2008 Yemen floods took place on October 23, leaving 65 dead and 20,000 without shelter. The Yemeni governorates of Hadhramaut, Lahij, Al Mahrah and Ta'izz were affected the worst by the floods, and most of the deaths were in Hadhramaut.

paragraphs: Before the flooding was several days of rain starting on October 23, as the remains of a tropical cyclone moved over the area. Rain continued, with weather systems coming in from neighbouring Saudi Arabia and northern Somalia, causing severe flooding in some areas of Yemen. Better conditions are expected by Sunday.

paragraphs: Thousands of families fled Hadhramaut alone; many schools were used as evacuee shelters, but these could only hold 10% of the affected. Search and rescue teams said that the number of deaths may increase due to the likelihood of people trapped in flooded houses. Electricity and telephone lines were cut off, and many homes were damaged.

paragraphs: The Yemeni government promised to supply tents as a means of emergency shelter, along with other emergency supplies, with six transport aircraft loaded with supplies taking off from Sanaa on Saturday and more scheduled for later. President Ali Abdullah Saleh ordered the creation of a committee to provide aid to affected civilians. Also, the United Arab Emirates declared their intent to provide relief. However, several residents in the city of Shibam say that government assistance and support, if any, is low.

paragraphs: The Organisation of the Islamic Conference declared the situation a "national catastrophe" and started a drive on Saturday to collect funds for the relief of flood victims.

paragraphs: Yemeni president Ali Abdullah Saleh said, "The damages... are great and the catastrophe is also great."

paragraphs: Along with deaths, about 730 homes were destroyed, along with businesses and other building projects. The severe thunder of the thunderstorms resulted in at least nine deaths from lightning in the Al Mahrah, Ta'izz and Lahij governorates. The rain also destroyed large amounts of farmland and killed large numbers of livestock.


title: Alexander Ramsey

paragraphs: Alexander Ramsey (September 8, 1815– April 22, 1903) was an American politician. He was born near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

paragraphs: Ramsey was elected from Pennsylvania as a Whig to the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the 28th and 29th congresses from March 4, 1843 to March 3, 1847. He served as the first Territorial Governor of Minnesota June 1, 1849 to May 15, 1853 as a member of the Whig Party.

paragraphs: In 1855, he became the mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota. Ramsey was elected the second Governor of Minnesota after statehood and served from January 2, 1860 to July 10, 1863. Ramsey is credited with being the first Union governor to commit troops during the American Civil War (he happened to be in Washington, D.C. when fighting broke out). He resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator, having been elected to that post in 1863 as a Republican. He was re-elected in 1869 and held the office until March 3, 1875, serving in the 38th, 39th, 40th, 41st, 42nd, and 43rd congresses.

paragraphs: Ramsey served as Secretary of War from 1879 to 1881, under President Rutherford B. Hayes.

paragraphs: The Minnesota Historical Society preserves his home as a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Alexander Ramsey Park, located in Redwood Falls, Minnesota, is the largest municipal park in Minnesota. Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County, North Dakota, the city of Ramsey, Minnesota, the city of Ramsey, Illinois, Ramsey Park in Stillwater, Minnesota, and Alexander Ramsey Elementary School in Montevideo, Minnesota are also named for him.


title: Lounge Act

paragraphs: "Lounge Act" is a song by the American grunge band Nirvana. It was the ninth song on their second studio album, "Nevermind", which is credited with bring grunge music to the mainstream. The song is much like the post-grunge songs that were very popular starting in the mid-1990s, after Nirvana broke up.

paragraphs: The title "Lounge Act" came from when the band thought it sounded like a song they would play in a lounge.

paragraphs: It is one of the songs in the soundtrack of the video game "Skate.", a skateboarding video game from 2007 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.


title: Hurricane Dean

paragraphs: Hurricane Dean was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. It was also the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Wilma of 2005. Also, it made the third strongest Atlantic hurricane landfall. Dean moved west-northwest from the eastern Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lucia Channel and into the Caribbean Sea. It became into a very strong hurricane, reaching Category 5 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale before moving south of Jamaica on August 20. The storm moved onto land on the Yucatán Peninsula on August 21 as a Category 5 storm. It moved across the peninsula and entered the Bay of Campeche, as a weakened storm, but still a hurricane. It strengthened for a short time before making a second landfall in Veracruz near Tecolutla, Mexico, on August 22. Dean slowly moved to the northwest, weakening into a low pressure area which dissipated over the southwestern United States.

paragraphs: The hurricane's strong winds, waves, rains and storm surge caused over 45 deaths across ten countries and caused estimated damages of US$1.5 billion. First impacting the islands of the Lesser Antilles, Dean's path through the Caribbean severely damaged agricultural crops, especially those of Martinique and Jamaica. When it reached Mexico, Hurricane Dean was a Category 5 storm, but it missed large cities and its exceptional Category 5 strength landfall caused no deaths and less damage than in the Caribbean islands it passed as a Category 2 storm. Because of the damage, the name "Dean" was retired, and will not be used again for a tropical cyclone.


title: Amazon Basin

paragraphs: The Amazon Basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its branches. It is low-lying in relation to sea level.

paragraphs: The river has its origins high up in the Andes of Peru and Ecuador. Most of this drainage basin (54%) is in Brazil, including the lower part. The river also has tributaries from Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia. The Amazon rainforest is the largest in the world, covering about 8,235,430 km with dense tropical forest.

paragraphs: The Amazon Basin is one of the world's most important ecosystems.


title: Bixa orellana

paragraphs: Achiote ("Bixa orellana") is a shrub or small tree from the tropical area of the American continent. The name comes from the Nahuatl word for the shrub, "achiotl". It is also known as Aploppas, and its first Tupi name "urucu". It is grown there and in Southeast Asia, where it was brought by the Spanish in the 17th century. It is best known as the source of the natural pigment annatto, made from the fruit. The plant bears pink flowers and bright red spiny fruits which contain red seeds. The fruits dry and harden to brown capsules.


title: Xochiquetzal

paragraphs: In Aztec mythology, Xoːchiquetzal () was a goddess of flowers, fertility, games, dancing and agriculture (planting and harvesting), as well as craftsmen and pregnant women. She was first a moon and love goddess.


title: Tlatoani

paragraphs: Tlatoani ( ; plural ', ) is the Nahuatl word for the ruler of an "altepetl", a pre-Hispanic state. The word means "speaker", but may be translated into English as "king". A ' () is a female ruler.


title: José de Acosta

paragraphs: José de Acosta (September/October 1539 – February 15 1600), was a Spanish 16th-century Jesuit missionary and naturalist in Latin America. He wrote several works including and .


title: Catarrh

paragraphs: Catarrh () is a thick fluid of mucus and white blood cells caused by the swelling of the mucous membranes in the head because of an infection. It is a symptom usually from the common cold and coughs, but can also be found in people with infections of the adenoids, middle ear, sinus or tonsils.


title: Upper class

paragraphs: Upper class is an idea in sociology. It refers to the group of people at the top of a society. Members of an upper class often have great power over resources and governmental policy in their area.


title: Chocolate bar

paragraphs: A chocolate bar is a confectionery made of cocoa beans, cocoa butter, sugar, and milk. There are many types of chocolate, including milk chocolate, dark chocolate, white chocolate, peanut butter chocolate, and many more.

paragraphs: Chocolate contains a lot of calories, so it can give a person energy. However, most chocolate also contains a lot of fat.

paragraphs: Chocolate comes from the cacao tree. Cocoa pods grow on these trees. They get about as big as a melon. Once they are ripe, they turn from green to orange. Then workers can split them open and take out cocoa beans. Factories use machines to break down the cocoa beans into cocoa butter and chocolate. Then they add sugar and milk to make the chocolate taste better.

paragraphs: Cocoa farmers are some of the poorest people in the world. Many of them earn very little money.


title: Veracruz, Veracruz

paragraphs: The city of Veracruz is an important port city on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It has a population of 444,438 in the city according to the 2005 census.


title: Hans Sloane

paragraphs: Sir Hans Sloane, 1st Baronet, PRS (16 April, 1660 – 11 January, 1753) was an Ulster-Scot physician and collector. He donated his collection to the British nation. This collection became the beginning of the British Museum. He also created milk chocolate. Sloane Square in London is named for him.


title: Royal College of Physicians

paragraphs: The Royal College of Physicians of London was the first medical group in England to receive a Royal Charter. It was created in 1518 and is one of the most active of all medical groups. It was originally created as the College of Physicians by royal charter of King Henry VIII in 1518.


title: Coenraad Johannes van Houten

paragraphs: Coenraad Johannes van Houten (March 15, 1801 – 1887) was a Dutch chemist. He was known for creating a method for pressing the fat from roasted cacao beans to create cacao powder. He started a world-famous chocolate company.


title: Cocoa butter

paragraphs: Cocoa butter, also called theobroma oil, is the pale-yellow, pure vegetable fat of the cacao bean. It is used to make solid chocolate bars, and mixed with cocoa powder to make solid pieces of chocolate. Cocoa butter is removed from the cacao beans and can be used to make chocolate, pharmaceuticals, ointments, and toiletries. Cocoa butter has a mild chocolate flavor and smell. It is one of the most stable fats known, which means that it takes a long time to go rancid.


title: Pietro Longhi

paragraphs: Pietro Longhi (November 5, 1701 – May 8, 1785) was a Venetian painter of contemporary scenes of life.


title: Alex Turner (musician)

paragraphs: Alex Turner (born 6 January 1986) is a British musician. He is the lead singer and guitarist of the Arctic Monkeys. He is also a member of The Last Shadow Puppets. He was born and raised in Sheffield. His father was a music teacher and his mother was a German teacher.

paragraphs: The Arctic Monkeys have released 5 studio albums. The first was "Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not". The second was "Favourite Worst Nightmare". The third was "Humbug". The fourth was "Suck It and See", which was released late in 2011. The fifth was "AM", which was released in 2013.


title: Dodge

paragraphs: Dodge is an American automobile, SUV and truck maker. They are based in Auburn Hills, Michigan. Dodge was created by brothers Horace and John Dodge in 1900. Dodge was sold to Chrysler in 1928. In 2010 Dodge announced it would spin-off the Ram division making it its own brand.


title: Ordered pair

paragraphs: In mathematics, an "ordered pair" is a collection of two objects, where one of the objects is first (the "first coordinate" or "left projection"), and the other is second (the "second coordinate" or "right projection"). An ordered pair where the first coordinate is formula_1 and the second coordinate is formula_2 is usually written formula_3 (sometimes it is written formula_4). If formula_1 is different from formula_2, then the ordered pair formula_3 is different from the ordered pair formula_8 - this is why it is called "ordered".

paragraphs: If formula_9 and formula_10 are two ordered pairs, then the "characteristic" or "defining" property of ordered pairs is:

paragraphs: This means that two ordered pairs are equal if and only if: the first coordinates of the pairs are equal, and also the second coordinates of the pairs are equal.

paragraphs: There are many mathematical definitions of "ordered pair" which have this property. The definition given here is the most common one:

paragraphs: Kazimierz Kuratowski was the first person to make this definition.


title: Arts and crafts

paragraphs: Arts and crafts describes a wide variety of activities involving making things with one's own hands. Arts and crafts is usually a hobby. Some crafts (art skills) have been practised for centuries, others are more recent inventions. William Morris, John Ruskin and others promoted an "arts and crafts" movement in the late 19th century, which popularized the phrase.

paragraphs: Both children and adults enjoy arts and crafts. Children in schools may learn skills such as woodworking, wood carving, sewing, or making things with all sorts of material. Many community centres and schools have evening or day classes and workshops where one can learn arts and craft skills.


title: Chrysler

paragraphs: Chrysler (officially FCA US,LLC.) is a car manufacturer based in the United States. They are one of the oldest car manufacturers in the world. They own other car companies such as Dodge and Jeep.

paragraphs: It was created by Walter P. Chrysler in 1925 when he renamed the Maxwell Motor Company. From 1998 to 2007, Chrysler was part of DiamlerChrysler, a large German company. Then it was owned by Cerberus Capital Management. Chrysler declared Chapter 11 Bankruptcy on August 30, 2009. In 1979, Chrysler had similar problems. They got 1.5 billion dollars from the U.S. government. Lee Iacocca became CEO. Then, Chrysler created the K-car platform, invented the minivan, and sold many trucks to the army. Chrysler acquired American Motors in 1988, and rebranded the auto company as Eagle. They slowly recovered. Chrysler is currently owned by Italian automotive Fiat, the two companies merged forming Fiat Chrysler Automobiles or F.C.A for short. The company still trades as Chrysler in the United States.

paragraphs: At its peak, Chrysler owned Dodge, Jeep, Plymouth, DeSoto, Valiant, Imperial, and Eagle (AMC). Only Chrysler, Dodge, and Jeep survived. In 2010 Chrysler announced it would spin the Ram trucks off into its own division and Dodge would focus on performance status.


title: Nazia Hassan

paragraphs: Nazia Hassan () singer (April 3, 1965 - August 31, 2000) and Zohaib Hassan (), (born November 18, 1966) were a singing sensation and pioneers of the Pakistani pop music scene during the 1980s.


title: Bilawal Bhutto Zardari

paragraphs: Bilawal Bhutto Zardari () (born 21 September 1988) is co-chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), and the eldest child and only son of the late Pakistani politician and former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and her husband Asif Ali Zardari, the former President of Pakistan. Chairman Bhutto Zardari is also the grandson of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, a former Prime Minister of Pakistan. After completing his studies from the United Kingdom in 2013, Bilawal took over the formal charge of the PPP and made changes in it.

paragraphs: In the 2018 general election, he ran for Prime Minister of Pakistan but ended in third place loosing to Imran Khan.


title: Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq

paragraphs: Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq (, born 1953) is a prominent Pakistani politician and former Federal Minister for Religious Affairs of Pakistan.

paragraphs: Haq joined the Pakistan Army in 1971. He entered Pakistani politics following the 1988 death of his father, the military dictator and self-appointed President of Pakistan General Zia-ul-Haq.


title: Zille Huma

paragraphs: Zille Huma () is the daughter of the late Melody Queen Madam Noor Jehan and the only one of her four daughters to follow in her mother's footsteps. Today, she is a popular Pakistani pop singer.


title: Sonya Jehan

paragraphs: Sonya Jehan is a French-Pakistani Bollywood actress. Jehan's first movie was "" in 2005. Her original name was Sonya Rizvi. She changed it to Jehan to honor her grandmother, Noor Jehan, who is a legendary singer and Lollywood actress.


title: Aga Khan III

paragraphs: Sir Sultan Muhammed Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GCVO, PC (2 November 1877–11 July 1957) was the 48th Imam of the Shia Ismaili Muslims.

paragraphs: He became Imam at a very young age. He was seven years old when his father, Aga Khan II, died in 1885. He was one of the founders and the first president of the All-India Muslim League, and served as President of the League of Nations from 1937-38.

paragraphs: He was born in Karachi, in what was British India. He was given a religious education, and also a European education. He attended Eton and Cambridge University, and was a frequent visitor to Britain.

paragraphs: His followers celebrated his anniversaries as Imam in 1937, 1946 and 1954 by weighing him in gold, diamonds and platinum. The proceeds were spent on welfare and development in Asia and Africa. Girls schools were set up in the remote northern areas of what is now Pakistan. He was knighted by Queen Victoria, and later made a member of the Privy Council.

paragraphs: At the end of his life, Sir Sultan Mohammed did a remarkable thing. In his will, he disinherited his son, Aly Khan, in favour of his grandson, Karim. So the next Khan, Aga Khan IV, was a younger man better suited to the modern world.

paragraphs: The Aga Khan's mausoleum is near the Nile at Aswan, Egypt.


title: Iran-Pakistan barrier

paragraphs: The Iran-Pakistan barrier is a separation barrier which Iran has started building along its border with Pakistan replacing an intermittent tattered border fence.


title: William Sterndale Bennett

paragraphs: Sir William Sterndale Bennett (born Sheffield, 13 April 1816; died London, 1 February 1875) was a distinguished English composer of the Romantic period.

paragraphs: Bennett's father Robert Bennett, was organist of what is now Sheffield Cathedral. At the age of three he was an orphan, so he was brought up by his grandfather in Cambridge. At the age of seven he became a chorister at King's College Chapel Choir. In 1826 he entered the Royal Academy of Music, where he spent ten years studying. His piano teachers were W. H. Holmes, Dr William Crotch and later Cipriani Potter

paragraphs: In 1833 he was made organist of St Anne's Church, Wandsworth and in that same year met Felix Mendelssohn who invited him to Germany. He went there four times, making long tours. He was welcomed and admired by famous musicians including Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann. Schumann later dedicated his "Symphonic Studies" to Bennett. He also often performed at the Leipzig Gewandhaus.

paragraphs: Although he knew the works of Bach and Mozart very well, many of his compositions were clearly influenced by Mendelssohn. As well as being known as one of Europe's most brilliant pianists, his music was well known for its new ideas, excitement and poetic beauty. His compositions include four overtures, six piano concertos, four symphonies, a chamber trio, sextet, several piano works and two song cycles to be followed later in life by a cello duo, a late Symphony in G minor, a Cantata The May Queen for the opening of Leeds Town Hall in 1858, and an oratorio The Woman of Samaria for the 1867 Birmingham Triennial Music Festival.

paragraphs: Of his 80 published compositions, nearly half are now available on CD, the most popular being the Overture "The Naiades Op 15", the "Chamber Trio Op 26" and the "Piano concerto No 4 in F minor Op 19".

paragraphs: From 1844 for fifteen years he organized the popular Chamber Music Concerts in the Queen's Concert Rooms, Hanover Square in London introducing a number of famous soloists to the British public. In 1848 he became a founding Director of Queen's College London and in the following year of Bedford College, now part of London University. In this way he helped women to get equal opportunity in education.

paragraphs: In 1849 he formed the Bach Society (later to be reformed as the Bach Choir) in London to produce and conduct the first English performance of Bach's "St Matthew Passion" on 6 April 1854.

paragraphs: In 1856 he succeeded Wagner as conductor of the Philharmonic Society Orchestra. He was the first person to be given their Gold Medal. In 1866 he was chosen to be Professor of Music at Cambridge University having got an MA and Mus Doc. From 1866 until his death he was Principal of the Royal Academy of Music. A scholarship and Prize in his name continues to be awarded to this day. In 1870 Oxford University gave him an Hon DCL and a year later he was knighted.

paragraphs: He died on 1st February 1875 and is buried in Westminster Abbey.

paragraphs: Several of his family later became well known in music and theatre. Bennett left a large music library which is now at the Bodleian Library in collaboration with his great-great-grandson Barry Sterndale-Bennett (b 1939) which continues to be available for research purposes.

paragraphs: See: The Life of Sterndale Bennett by JR Sterndale Bennett (Cambridge University Press 1907) and William Sterndale Bennett- a Descriptive Thematic Catalogue by Rosemary Williamson (Clarendon Press 1996)


title: Grand Trunk Road

paragraphs: The Grand Trunk Road (commonly abbreviated to GT Road) is one of South Asia's oldest and longest major roads. For several centuries, it has linked the eastern and western regions of the Indian subcontinent, running from Bengal, across north Republic of India, into Peshawar in Pakistan.

paragraphs: It was built by Sher Shah Suri and is also known as ""Sadak E Sher Shah" named" after him.


title: Space-time tradeoff

paragraphs: In computer science, a space-time or time-memory tradeoff is a way of solving a problem or calculation in less time by using more storage space (or memory), or by solving a problem in very little space by spending a long time. Most computers have a large amount of space, but not infinite space. Also, most people are willing to wait a little while for a big calculation, but not forever. So if your problem is taking a long time but not much memory, a space-time tradeoff would let you use more memory and solve the problem more quickly. Or, if it could be solved very quickly but requires more memory than you have, you can try to spend more time solving the problem in the limited memory.

paragraphs: The most common condition is an algorithm using a lookup table. This means that the answers for some question for every possible value can be written down. One way of solving this problem is to write down the entire lookup table, which will let you find answers very quickly, but will use a lot of space. Another way is to calculate the answers without writing down anything, which uses very little space, but might take a long time.

paragraphs: A space-time tradeoff can be used with the problem of data storage. If data is stored uncompressed, it takes more space but less time than if the data were stored compressed (since compressing the data decreases the amount of space it takes, but it takes time to run the compression algorithm).

paragraphs: Larger code size can be used to increase program speed when using . This technique makes the program code longer for each iteration of a loop, but saves the computation time needed for jumping back to the beginning of the loop at the end of each iteration.

paragraphs: In the field of cryptography, using space-time tradeoff, the attacker is decreasing the exponential time required for a brute force attack. use partially precomputed values in the hash space of a cryptographic hash function to crack passwords in minutes instead of weeks. Decreasing the size of the rainbow table increases the time required to iterate over the hash space. The meet-in-the-middle attack attack uses a space-time tradeoff to find the cryptographic key in only formula_1 encryptions (and formula_2 space) compared to the expected formula_3 encryptions (but only formula_4 space) of the normal attack.

paragraphs: Dynamic programming is another example where the time of solving problems can be decreased by using more memory.


title: Substitution-permutation network

paragraphs: In cryptography, an SP-network, or substitution-permutation network (SPN), is a series of linked mathematical operations used in block cipher algorithms such as AES.

paragraphs: These networks consist of S-boxes and P-boxes that transform blocks of input bits into output bits.

paragraphs: S-boxes substitute or transform input bits into output bits. A good S-box will have the property that changing one input bit will change about half of the output bits. It will also have the property that each output bit will depend on every input bit. P-boxes permute or rearrange bits across S-box inputs. In addition, at each "round" the key is combined using some group operation, typically XOR.


title: Square (cipher)

paragraphs: In cryptography, Square (sometimes written S) is a block cipher invented by Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen. The design was published in 1997.

paragraphs: S is a predecessor to the Rijndael algorithm, which has been adopted in 2001 as the Advanced Encryption Standard by the U.S. government.

paragraphs: Square was introduced together with a new form of cryptanalysis discovered by Lars Knudsen, called the "Square attack".

paragraphs: The structure of Square is a substitution-permutation network with eight rounds, operating on 128-bit block size and using a 128-bit key size.


title: Permutation box

paragraphs: In cryptography, a permutation box (or P-box) is a method of bit-shuffling used to permute or transpose bits (rearrange or swap the order of bits) across S-boxes inputs, maintaining diffusion while transposing.

paragraphs: In block ciphers, the S-boxes and P-Boxes are used to make the relation between the plaintext and the ciphertext difficult to understand (see Shannon's property of diffusion).


title: Carnivorous plant

paragraphs: Carnivorous plants are plants which get nutrients from trapping and eating animals. They are often called insectivorous plants, because they usually trap insects. Since they get some of their food from animals, carnivorous plants can grow in places where the soil is thin, or poor in nutrients. This is true for soils with little nitrogen, such as acidic bogs and rock outcrops. Charles Darwin wrote the first well-known book on carnivorous plants in 1875.

paragraphs: This ability of plants to catch animals is true carnivory. There are more than twelve genera in five families. These include about 625 species that attract and trap prey, produce digestive enzymes, and use their nutrients. In addition, there are more than 300 species in several genera that show some but not all of these characteristics. These are usually called "protocarnivorous plants".

paragraphs: Insectivorous plants have leaves that are made like pitchers or bladders which catch insects. Today, five different ways of trapping are known

paragraphs: These traps are all classified as "active" or "passive". "Triphyophyllum" is a liana (a climber in tropical forests). It has three types of leaves. When needed, it puts out long leaves. These are passive 'flypapers' which hide mucus. The leaves of the plant do not grow or move as a response to moving prey. The Sundew "Drosera", on the other hand, is an active flypaper. All species of Sundew are able to move their sticky tentacles in response to a contact. The tentacles are very sensitive and will bend toward the center of the leaf in order to bring the insect into contact with as many stalked glands as possible. According to Darwin, the touch of legs of a small gnat with a single tentacle is enough to cause this response. This helps the catch and digestion of prey.

paragraphs: The Venus flytrap, "Dionaea muscipula", is one of a very small group of plants able to move fast. When an insect or spider crawls along the leaves and touches a hair, the trap closes "only if a different hair is contacted within twenty seconds of the first touch". The two-touch trigger avoids wasting energy on objects with no food value.

paragraphs: A carnivorous plant must attract, kill and digest prey. It must then also benefit from digesting the prey. In most cases, this will yield amino acids and ammonium ions. There are some cases, where plants catch the prey, but they do not digest it. Rather, they have a symbiosis with another organism, which feeds on the prey. One such case is the species of the sundew "Roridula", which forms a symbiosis with the assassin bug. The bugs eat the trapped insects. The plant benefits from the nutrients in the bugs' faeces.

paragraphs: Few fossil carnivorous plants have been found, and then usually as seed or pollen. Carnivorous plants are generally herbs, without wood or bark. True carnivoury has probably evolved independently at least six times.

paragraphs: Some think all trap types have a similar basic structure—the hairy leaf. Hairy leaves do catch and hold drops of rainwater, which helps bacterial growth. Insects land on the leaf, are caught by the surface tension of the water, and suffocate. Bacteria start to decay the insect, and release nutrients from the corpse. The plant then absorbs the nutrients through its leaves. This 'leaf feeding' can be found in many non-carnivorous plants. Plants that were better at holding water and insects therefore had a selective advantage. Rainwater can be retained by cupping the leaf, leading to pitfall traps. Alternatively, insects can be caught by making the leaf stickier, leading to flypaper traps.


title: Joe Kinnear

paragraphs: Joe Kinnear is a former football player. He has played for the Republic of Ireland national team. He also coaches football.


title: Matt Busby

paragraphs: Matt Busby was a Scottish footballer. He has played for Scotland national team.


title: Brett Emerton

paragraphs: Brett Emerton (born 22 February 1979) is an Australian football player. He plays for Blackburn Rovers and Australia national team.


title: David Rocastle

paragraphs: David Rocastle was a football player. He played for the England national team.


title: Fazilka Tehsil

paragraphs: Fazilka () is a city and a municipal council in Ferozpur District of the Punjab (India), 11 km from Pakistan border.


title: Flag of Azerbaijan

paragraphs: The flag of Azerbaijan () is one of the national symbols of Azerbaijan and consists of three equal horizontal bands, from top: blue, red, and green; a white crescent and an eight-pointed star (Rub El Hizb) are centered in the red band. The eight points of the star stand for the branches[?] of the Turkic peoples . The blue band is the colour of the Turks. the green is for Islam and red is for progress and Europeanisation. The official colours and size were adopted on February 5, 1991. The flag is used on land as the civil, state and war flag, and at sea as the civil, state and naval ensign and naval jack. The specific shades of the national flag were laid out in a 2004 law.


title: Coat of Arms of Azerbaijan

paragraphs: The Coat of arms of Azerbaijan mixes traditional and modern symbols. The focal point of the emblem is the fire symbol. This symbol comes from the fact that Azerbaijan has many everlasting fires which also gives the name "land of eternal fire".

paragraphs: The colors used in composing the emblem are taken from the national flag. These colors are found in the background behind the eight pointed star (۞ Rub El Hizb) upon which the flame is shown. The star itself stands for the eight branches of the Turkic peoples, and between each point of the star, there is a smaller eight pointed star found.

paragraphs: Like other post-Soviet republics whose arms do not predate the October Revolution, the current arms retains some components of the Soviet one. At the bottom of the emblem is a stalk of wheat, representing the main agricultural product of the nation, which was also part of the earlier arms. The other plant represented at the bottom is oak.


title: Roquefort-la-Bédoule

paragraphs: Roquefort-la-Bédoule is a commune of 5,016 people (2006). It is in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Roquevaire

paragraphs: Roquevaire is a commune of 8,299 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Rousset, Bouches-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Rousset is a commune of 4,025 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Le Rove

paragraphs: Le Rove is a commune of 4,070 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Andiol

paragraphs: Saint-Andiol is a commune of 3,138 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Antonin-sur-Bayon

paragraphs: Saint-Antonin-sur-Bayon is a commune of 137 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Cannat

paragraphs: Saint-Cannat is a commune of 4,684 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Chamas

paragraphs: Saint-Chamas is a commune of 7,268 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer

paragraphs: Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer is a commune of 2,478 people (1999). It is located in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Estève-Janson

paragraphs: Saint-Estève-Janson is a commune of 342 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Étienne-du-Grès

paragraphs: Saint-Étienne-du-Grès is a commune of 2,111 people (2006). It is located in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Marc-Jaumegarde

paragraphs: Saint-Marc-Jaumegarde is a commune of 1,093 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Martin-de-Crau

paragraphs: Saint-Martin-de-Crau is a commune of 13,097 people (2016). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Mitre-les-Remparts

paragraphs: Saint-Mitre-les-Remparts is a commune of 5,458 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Paul-lès-Durance

paragraphs: Saint-Paul-lès-Durance is a commune of 928 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Pierre-de-Mézoargues

paragraphs: Saint-Pierre-de-Mézoargues is a commune of 250 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

paragraphs: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence is a commune of 10,251 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Savournin

paragraphs: Saint-Savournin is a commune of 2,577 people (2002). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Saint-Victoret

paragraphs: Saint-Victoret is a commune of 6,530 people (2007). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Salon-de-Provence

paragraphs: Salon-de-Provence is a commune of 40,100 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Sausset-les-Pins

paragraphs: Sausset-les-Pins is a commune of 7,278 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Sénas

paragraphs: Sénas is a commune of 5,980 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Septèmes-les-Vallons

paragraphs: Septèmes-les-Vallons is a commune of 10,202 people (1999). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Simiane-Collongue

paragraphs: Simiane-Collongue is a commune of 5,570 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Le Tholonet

paragraphs: Le Tholonet is a commune of 2,267 people (1999). It is found in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Trets

paragraphs: Trets is a commune of 10,709 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Vauvenargues, Bouches-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Vauvenargues is a commune of 896 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Velaux

paragraphs: Velaux is a commune of 8,305 people (2007). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Venelles

paragraphs: Venelles is a commune of 8,156 people (2006). It is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in south France.


title: Ventabren

paragraphs: Ventabren is a commune of 8,431 people (2005). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Vernègues

paragraphs: Vernègues is a commune of 1,256 people (2004). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Verquières

paragraphs: Verquières is a commune of 786 people (2006). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Vitrolles, Bouches-du-Rhône

paragraphs: Vitrolles (also known as Vitròla or Vitrolo) is a commune of 37,760 people (2002). It is found in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the south of France.


title: Alphonse Daudet

paragraphs: Alphonse Daudet (13 May 1840 – 16 December 1897) was a French novelist. He was the father of Léon Daudet and Lucien Daudet. Outside France he is probably best known for his novel "Tartarin de Tarrascon". Daudet died of syphilis.


title: Gustave Flaubert

paragraphs: Gustave Flaubert ( in French) (12 December 1821 – 8 May 1880) was a French writer. He is known especially for his first published novel, "Madame Bovary" (1857). He was very devoted to what he did, and always looked for the word that would best fit the context. He died of a cerebral hemorrhage.


title: Roquefort

paragraphs: It is also the name of many different French communes:


title: Roquefort, Gers

paragraphs: Roquefort is a commune of 230 people (1999). It is located in the region Midi-Pyrénées in the Gers department in the southwest of France.


title: Roquefort, Landes

paragraphs: Roquefort is a commune of 1,894 people (1999). It is in the region Aquitaine in the Landes department in the southwest of France.


title: Lookup table

paragraphs: In computer science, a lookup table is a data structure, usually an array or associative array, used to replace a runtime computation (calculation) with a simple array indexing operation. The main purpose is in saving run time since retrieving a value from memory is often faster than undergoing a time consuming computation (see Space-time tradeoff). Lookup tables are also used to validate input values by matching against a list of valid (or invalid) items in an array.


title: Roquefort, Lot-et-Garonne

paragraphs: Roquefort is a commune in the Lot-et-Garonne department in south-western France.


title: Roquefort-sur-Soulzon

paragraphs: Roquefort-sur-Soulzon is a commune of 691 people (2007). It is in the region Midi-Pyrénées in the Aveyron department in the south of France. It is famous for its cheese (named after the village).


title: Corn, Lot

paragraphs: Corn is a commune of 157 people (1999). It is located in the region Midi-Pyrénées in the Lot department in the south of France. The commune of "Roquefort" was attached to it.


title: Roquefort-de-Sault

paragraphs: Roquefort-de-Sault is a commune of 113 people (1999). It is in the region Languedoc-Roussillon in the Aude department in the south of France.


title: Roquefort-des-Corbières

paragraphs: Roquefort-des-Corbières is a commune of 664 people (1999). It is located in the region Languedoc-Roussillon in the Aude department in the south of France.


title: Roquefort-les-Cascades

paragraphs: Roquefort-les-Cascades is a commune of 107 people (1999). It is located in the region Midi-Pyrénées in the Ariège department in the south of France.


title: Roquefort-les-Pins

paragraphs: Roquefort-les-Pins is a commune of 6175 people (2007). It is located in the region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the southeast of France.


title: Roquefort-sur-Garonne

paragraphs: Roquefort-sur-Garonne is a commune of 715 people (1999). It is located in the region Midi-Pyrénées in the Haute-Garonne department in the southwest of France.


title: Avalanche effect

paragraphs: The avalanche effect (“landslide effect”) is a property of block ciphers and cryptographic hash function algorithms. It is often desired in cryptography. The effect says that a lot of the output must change, even when the input changes only a little. In good block ciphers this means: A small change in the key or the plaintext should cause a strong change in the ciphertext.

paragraphs: This means that small changes can spread fast, when the algorithm uses iterations. Thus, every bit of the output depends on every bit of the input.

paragraphs: The term "avalanche effect" was first used by Horst Feistel (Feistel 1973). Later, the concept was identified by "Shannon's property of confusion".

paragraphs: If a block cipher or cryptographic hash function does not satisfy the avalanche effect to a significant degree, then it has poor randomization. Thus, a cryptanalyst can make forecasts about the input, if given only the output. This may be sufficient to partially or completely break (crack) the algorithm.

paragraphs: It is one of the primary design objectives when people create a strong cipher or cryptographic hash function. They try to build a good avalanche effect in it. Mathematically this uses the butterfly effect. This is why most block ciphers are product ciphers. It is also why hash functions have large data blocks.

paragraphs: The name comes from landslides. A small rock can fall down, go along with some snow and make a destructive landslide. The rock was small, but was able to cause a lot of destruction. This is the same as what this effect does. A small change in the input (the rock) should change the output (the landscape).

paragraphs: The Strict Avalanche Criterion (SAC; a “strong landslide criterion”) is a property of boolean functions. It is of importance to cryptography. It is satisfied if all output bits change with a probability of 50 percent, if a single input bit is changed.

paragraphs: The SAC was built on the concepts of evolution completeness and avalanche. It was introduced by Webster and Tavares in 1985. Nowadays it is a requirement for every modern cryptographic system. It was e.g. satisfied by all finalists of the AES competition.

paragraphs: The Bit independence criterion (BIC; a criterion independent from the bit) is a criterion. It goes: When a single input bit is changed (inverted), two output bits should change independently of each other. This applies to all bits.

paragraphs: It would e.g. not be satisfied, if the one output bit only changes, when the other output bit also changes. They might only change, because the input bit changed. Otherwise, the output bits would depend on each other.


title: Rocquefort

paragraphs: Rocquefort is a commune of 270 people (1999). It is in the region Haute-Normandie in the Seine-Maritime department in the northwest of France.


title: BBC Radio 1Xtra

paragraphs: BBC Radio 1Xtra (also known as 1Xtra) is a digital British contemporary black music station from the BBC. The station was launched at 6pm on August 16, 2002. It was called "Network X" during the planning period. It is the complement station to Radio 1 and is broadcast from the same building as Radio 1 - Yalding House in central London. This is part of the BBC's massive Broadcasting House complex of radio studios and other offices.

paragraphs: The playlist generally includes British, Caribbean, African and North American hip hop, grime, bassline, garage, dubstep, funky, drum and bass, bashment, soca, reggae, gospel music, bhangra, soul and R&B. It is available on digital radio (DAB), digital satellite television, digital terrestrial television (Freeview), and the Internet. It has its own news team: 1Xtra News.

paragraphs: 1Xtra's audience is usually aged between 15 and 30 years old. The upper age range is deliberately lower than sister station Radio 1 which is closer to 35.

paragraphs: According to the "Submission to the Secretary of State's review of digital channels" in March 2004, 1Xtra "provides music output 24 hours a day, punctuated by bespoke BBC

paragraphs: news bulletins and other speech output designed specifically to be pertinent to the


title: Barrel

paragraphs: Barrel is an old English word for a big holder of liquids, such as petrol, beer, wine or oil. Barrels are most commonly made of either wood or metal but many are plastic

paragraphs: Barrels are used to age wine, and other beverages such as whisky and beer. Most of those are made of oak wood.

paragraphs: A barrel is also used to measure liquids. One barrel of oil is 158.987 litres (42 US gallons). It is shortened as "bbl". This use may have come from the early Pennsylvanian oil fields where wooden barrels were used to store and move oil around. In 1866, the people of West Virginia started using it regularly. At this time, the amount was set to 42 American gallons. It was later world-wide for measuring amounts of oil and pricing it. Today, oil is rarely stored or transported in actual barrels, but the term "barrel" is still used to mean a 42-gallon measurement.

paragraphs: A barrel can also be used to measure dry goods. For example, a barrel can mean 196 pounds (about 89 kilograms) of flour.

paragraphs: The size of some standard barrels is not the same in all countries. Some countries have different sizes for different liquids.

paragraphs: The first people to start using barrels were the Celts about 350 BC. The Roman Empire started using barrels after trading with the Celts. Barrels remained popular for shipping items until the 20th century.


title: Claudio Ulpiano

paragraphs: Claudio Ulpiano (1932-1999) was a Brazilian philosopher and expert on the work of Gilles Deleuze. He taught at the Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro and Universidade Federal Fluminense.


title: Jorge Mautner

paragraphs: Jorge Mautner (born 1941 in Rio de Janeiro) is a Brazilian writer and singer of Jewish descent. He is the creator of the Moviment of Kaos.


title: Meshuggah

paragraphs: Meshuggah is an experimental metal band from Umeå in Sweden. They have been playing since 1987. Meshuggah are famous for using 8-string guitars in their last albums. Meshuggah's musical style contains the use of differing time signatures, however when most of the band, guitars, bass, vocals and bass drum, the other drums remain in common time, i.e. 1-2-3-4-1-2-3-4 etc. All allbums after "Nothing" were in the Billboard 200.


title: Andy McKee

paragraphs: Andy McKee is a fingerstyle guitarist from Topeka, Kansas. He became famous through his YouTube videos in 2006.


title: Beverly Hills Chihuahua

paragraphs: Beverly Hills Chihuahua is a 2008 movie by Walt Disney Pictures directed by Raja Gosnell. The first preview of the movie was seen next to "", and originally the movie was stanted for a September 26, 2008 release, but the release was moved to October 3. The story is about a chihuahua who gets dognapped in Mexico and has to escape from an evil Doberman. "Destino", a 2003 short movie made by Walt Disney Pictures based on an idea started by Walt Disney and Salvador Dalí in the 1940s, was thought to be seen before "Beverly Hills Chihuahua", but this didn't happen. Insteed, a sneak-peek of the Disney movie "Bolt" was seen.

paragraphs: The movie is about a spolied chihuahua from Beverly Hills named Chloe (voiced by Drew Barrymore). Her owner, "Aunt Viv" (Jamie Lee Curtis), has to go to Italy, so she leaves Chloe with her niece, Rachel Ashe Lynn (Piper Perabo). Rachel and her friends go on vacation to Mexico, and Chloe gets dognapped by an evil Mexican dognapper who at first wants to use her in dog fights but sees her value and wishes to put her at randsome (have the owners have to pay money to get her back). In the meantime, Papi (voiced by George Lopez), a male chihuahua who is in love with her is on the lookout for her. Chloe makes friendship with a lonely German Shepherd named Delgado (voiced by Andy Garcia) who travels with her to protect her from the evil Doberman (voiced by Edward James Olmos) who wants to kill her and steal her diamond collar to return it to the dognapper who owns him.

paragraphs: The music to "Beverly Hills Chihuahua" was written by composer Heitor Pereira, who recorded the score with the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Eastwood Scoring Stage at Warner Brothers.

paragraphs: "Beverly Hills Chihuahua" earned $29 million USD in its opening weekend. It was #1 in the box office for two weeks. Despite this, the movie was rather poorly received by critics.


title: Destruction (band)

paragraphs: Destruction is a thrash metal band from Lörrach in Germany. They have been playing since 1982. Together with Kreator and Sodom they form the "triangle of German thrash metal".


title: Hans-Christian Ströbele

paragraphs: Hans-Christian Ströbele (7 June 1939 in Halle) is a German politician and lawyer.

paragraphs: Ströbele made his school exam abitur in Marl (Westphalia).

paragraphs: Then he studied law in Heidelberg and Berlin (at the Free University of Berlin).

paragraphs: He has been a lawyer in Berlin (until 1990 West Berlin) since 1969.

paragraphs: He was involved in the student revolt of 1968.

paragraphs: He was one of the lawyers of the Rote Armee Fraktion (RAF) terrorists in the Stammheim trial.

paragraphs: From 1970 to 1974 he was member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany.

paragraphs: Later he was one of the founders of the "Alternative List for Democracy and Environmental Protection," which later became the Berlin section of the Green Party of Germany.


title: Banksy

paragraphs: Banksy is a British street and graffiti artist. He likes to remain anonymous and not let people know his true identity. He often draws in high visibility public places such as on buildings or train stations. His paintings are often about politics, war and other important topics.

paragraphs: His satirical street art and mind-hurting pictures combine dark humour with graffiti. The graffiti is done with a stencilling technique. Such works have been done on streets, walls, and bridges of cities throughout the world.

paragraphs: Banksy's work started in the Bristol underground scene, which had collaborations between artists and musicians. According to graphic designer Tristan Manco and the book "Home Sweet Home", Banksy "was born in 1974 and raised in Bristol, England. The son of a photocopier technician, he trained as a butcher but became involved in graffiti during the great Bristol aerosol boom of the late 1980s". His style is similar to Blek le Rat, who began to work with stencils in 1981 in Paris, and to members of the anarcho-punk band Crass, which did a graffiti stencil campaign on the London Underground system in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

paragraphs: Banksy displays his art on public surfaces such as walls and even going as far as to build physical prop pieces. He does not sell photos of street graffiti directly himself. However, art auctioneers have been known to attempt to sell his street art on location and leave the problem of its removal in the hands of the winning bidder. Banksy's first movie, "Exit Through the Gift Shop", billed as "the world's first street art disaster movie," made its debut at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival. The movie was released in the UK on 5 March 2010. In January 2011, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary for the movie.

paragraphs: There have been numerous rumours as to Banksy's identity. Names often suggested include Robert Banks and Robin Gunningham.

paragraphs: In 2004 an alleged photograph of him in Jamaica surfaced. In October 2007 the BBC website featured a photo allegedly taken by a passer-by in Bethnal Green, London, purporting to show Banksy at work with an assistant, scaffolding and a truck. From the pictures, Banksy's identity was thought to be Robin Gunningham, a man born in Bristol on 28 July 1973. Gunningham was educated at Bristol Cathedral Choir School and Leicester Polytechnic, now De Montfort University, and according to a former friend, was "extremely talented at art".

paragraphs: lived with artist Luke Egan. Around 2000, when Banksy moved from Bristol to London, Gunningham is known to have moved from Bristol to a London flat in Hackney, and a number of Banksy's most famous works appeared nearby. At that time, Gunningham lived with Jamie Eastman, who worked for a record label that used illustrations by Banksy.

paragraphs: In May 2009, the "Mail on Sunday" once again speculated about Gunningham being Banksy. This "new Banksy rat" story was also picked up by "The Times", and the "Evening Standard".

paragraphs: In response to reports that Banksy was Robin Gunningham, Banksy's agent refused to either confirm or deny the reports.

paragraphs: Simon Hattenstone from "The Guardian" is one of the very few people to have interviewed him face to face. Hattenstone describes him as "a cross of Jimmy Nail and British rapper Mike Skinner" and "a 28-year old male who showed up wearing jeans and a t-shirt with a silver tooth, silver chain, and one silver earring." In the same interview, Banksy claimed that his parents think he is a painter and decorator.


title: Rodney Mullen

paragraphs: Rodney Mullen (born August 17 1966 in Gainesville, Florida) is a professional freestyle skateboarder, and considered to be one of the most influential skaters in the history of the sport. He is credited with inventing many tricks, including the flat-ground Ollie (originally called the 'ollie pop'), the kickflip (originally called "magic flips"), the Heelflip, the 360 flip, and the Ollie Impossible (more often called the Impossible).

paragraphs: Mullen has invented many tricks. These are:

paragraphs: Rodney Mullen did many of the skateboarding stunts for Christian Slater in the 1989 skateboarding movie "Gleaming the Cube". He can be seen performing in order to look like Slater. At the end credits he can be seen from an overhead view riding his skateboard with the camera zooming in on his foot work.

paragraphs: Mullen has appeared in many video games related to the Tony Hawk Pro Skater (THPS) console games. These include:


title: Tony Hawk

paragraphs: Anthony Frank Hawk (born May 12, 1968) is an American retired professional skateboarder and actor. He is credited with being the first recorded skater to land the 900, which consists of two-and-a-half rotations (900°) in the air before landing back on the pipe during the televised June 27, 1999 X Games, for which he received an enormous amount of attention. He is also known for his "Tony Hawk's" video game series.


title: Santa Maria, Bulacan

paragraphs: Santa Maria is a municipality (town) in the province of Bulacan, Philippines. It lies 32 kilometers northeast of Manila and is located at the eastern portion of the province. It is surrounded by the towns of Angat and Pandi in the north; by San Jose del Monte City in the south; by Norzagaray in the east; and by Marilao and Bocaue in the west.

paragraphs: According to the 2007 Philippine national census (a total count of the country's population), it has 205,258 people.

paragraphs: It is divided into 24 barangays (villages). These barangays are:


title: Winton M. Blount

paragraphs: Winton Malcolm "Red" Blount, Jr. (February 1, 1921 – October 24, 2002) was the United States Postmaster General from 1969 to 1972. He is also known as the founder and Chief Executive Officer of construction giant Blount International.

paragraphs: He was the last Postmaster who led the Post Office as an Executive Department and held cabinet-member rank.


title: Richard Bache

paragraphs: Richard Bache (1737–1811) worked for the Postal Service under Benjamin Franklin from 1775–1776, and was Franklin's successor as Postmaster General, serving from 1776–1782 during the Revolutionary War. He also served on the Board of War.

paragraphs: He was born in Yorkshire, England and married the only daughter of Franklin in 1767, after immigrating to New York City in 1765. His wife, Sarah Franklin Bache (1743-1808), was widely known for patriotism and benevolent activities.

paragraphs: Their son, Richard Bache Jr., served in the Republic of Texas Navy and was elected as a Representative to the Second Texas Legislature in 1847. Another son was Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769-1798).


title: Mark Hughes

paragraphs: Leslie Mark Hughes (born November 1, 1963) is a Welsh football manager and former player. He is currently the manager of Queens Park Rangers. Hughes played for Manchester United, Chelsea, and Barcelona during the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Albert Gallatin

paragraphs: Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin (January 29, 1761 – August 12, 1849) was a Swiss-American ethnologist, linguist, politician, diplomat, Congressman, and the longest-serving United States Secretary of the Treasury. He was also a founder of New York University.


title: Henry Dearborn

paragraphs: Henry Dearborn (February 23, 1751 – June 6, 1829) was an American physician, and statesman. He was a veteran of both the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812.

paragraphs: He represented this district as a Democratic-Republican in the Third and Fourth Congresses (1793-1797). In 1801, President Thomas Jefferson appointed him Secretary of War, a post he held for eight years until March 7, 1809.

paragraphs: In 1803, Lewis and Clark named the Dearborn River in west-central Montana after Dearborn. Dearborn County, Indiana, Dearborn, Michigan and Dearborn, Missouri were also named for him, as was Fort Dearborn in Chicago, Illinois.

paragraphs: His son, Henry A. S. Dearborn, was a Congressman in 1831-1833.


title: Robert Smith (cabinet)

paragraphs: Robert Smith (November 3, 1757 – November 26, 1842) was the second United States Secretary of the Navy from 1801 to 1809 and the sixth United States Secretary of State from 1809 to 1811. He was the brother of Senator Samuel Smith.


title: Caesar A. Rodney

paragraphs: Caesar Augustus Rodney (January 4, 1772 – June 10, 1824) was an American lawyer and politician from Wilmington, in New Castle County, Delaware. He was a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, who served in the Delaware General Assembly, as well as a U.S. Representative from Delaware, U.S. Senator from Delaware, U.S. Attorney General, and U.S. Minister to Argentina. He was the nephew of Caesar Rodney, the signer of the Declaration of Independence who is pictured on the Delaware state quarter.


title: Derrick Pierce

paragraphs: Derrick Pierce (born March 1, 1974) is an American porn actor. He began his career in 2005. Pierce was born in Massachusetts. He moved to California at a young age. He grew up in the Sylmar area of the San Fernando Valley.

paragraphs: As of 2008, Pierce has appeared in over 100 movies, including "Chemistry 3" which is a unique reality show type of production, and "Upload", an adult sci-fi thriller. He has worked for just about every company that makes adult movies.

paragraphs: Before he started working in the adult movie industry, Pierce worked as a martial arts instructor in Southern California.

paragraphs: In 2008, Pierce was nominated for "Best Actor", "Best BDSM Release", "Best Couples Sex Scene", "Best Supporting Actor" and "Best Threeway Sex Scene" (twice) in the AVN Awards.


title: Topher Grace

paragraphs: Christopher John "Topher" Grace (born July 12, 1978) is an American actor. He is best known for playing the main character, Eric Forman, on the long-running Fox sitcom "That '70s Show". Grace also played the villain Eddie Brock, Jr. in the movie "Spider-Man 3.


title: Mirepoix (cuisine)

paragraphs: Mirepoix () is the French name for a condiment used for cooking. Mirepoix consists of onions, carrots and celery (either common Pascal celery or celeriac). Mirepoix is used in many dishes, such as stocks, soups, stews and sauces. It is used either raw, roasted or sautéed with butter. Mirepoix is known as the holy trinity of French cooking.

paragraphs: These three ingredients are commonly referred to as aromatics. Similar such combinations, both in and out of the French culinary repertoire, sometimes include leeks, parsnips, garlic, tomatoes, shallots, mushrooms, bell peppers, chilies, and ginger. For the combination "mirepoix au gras", or a "Matignon", ham or pork belly are used as additional ingredients. In Cajun cuisine, a mirepoix or trinity is a combination of onions, celery and bell peppers.

paragraphs: They may be used in different combinations, as dictated by the cuisine and the dish itself.

paragraphs: Traditionally, the ratio for mirepoix is 2:1:1 of onions, celery, and carrots. The ratio for bones to mirepoix for stock is 10:1. When making a white stock, or "fond blanc", parsnips are used instead of carrots to maintain the pale color.

paragraphs: Mirepoix derives its name, as many other elements of French cuisine do, from the patron of the chef who established it, in this case one of the house of Lévis, seigneurs of Mirepoix since the eleventh century and a famous name in Languedoc. The particular member of the house of Lévis whose chef is credited by the "Dictionnaire de l'Académie française" with giving a name to an old technique is Charles-Pierre-Gaston François de Lévis, duc de Lévis-Mirepoix (1699-1757), maréchal de France and ambassador of Louis XV.


title: Béchamel sauce

paragraphs: Béchamel sauce ( in English, in French, in Italian), also known as white sauce, is a basic mother sauce. It can be used to make other sauces, such as Mornay sauce, which is Béchamel and cheese. This basic sauce is usually made today by whisking scalded milk gradually into a white flour-butter "roux" (equal part clarified butter and flour), though it can also be made by whisking a kneaded flour-butter beurre manié into scalded milk. The thickness of the final sauce depends on the proportions of milk and flour. Escoffier adds salt and an onion stuck with a clove.


title: American Dad!

paragraphs: American Dad! is an American adult animated sitcom. It is produced by Underdog Productions and Fuzzy Door Productions for 20th Television.

paragraphs: The series was first made by Seth MacFarlane, the creator of "Family Guy", as well as two former "Family Guy" writers, Mike Barker and Matt Weitzman. The first episode aired in the United States on Fox on February 6, 2005, thirty minutes after the end of Super Bowl XXXIX. The regular series began May 1, 2005, after the season premiere of "Family Guy".

paragraphs: The series follows the events of CIA agent Stan Smith and his family. Stan Smith is a CIA agent who is very patriotic, as well as being part of the Christian right. Stan tries to be in charge of the family, but often the things he does don't work out. Stan has a wife, Francine, and two kids, Hayley and Steve. Hayley (Haylee) is in college and is much more liberal than her father. Steve is in high school and is always dreaming about girls. Rounding out the family is Klaus, a talking fish with a German athlete's brain; and Roger Smith the Alien. The show moved to TBS in 2014.


title: Landon Donovan

paragraphs: Landon Donovan (born 4 March 1982) is a former American soccer player. He played for the Los Angeles Galaxy and United States national team, and was the captain for both of them.

paragraphs: He is the former captain of The Los Angeles Galaxy and USMNT.

paragraphs: Donovan is the leader of assists for the US national team, and also the second place for most appearances (caps).


title: Coriander

paragraphs: Coriander, also known as cilantro, is a herb from the "Apiaceae" family. Coriander is originally from the southwestern Asia across to north Africa.

paragraphs: In the Sri Lankan Sinhalese language, it is called koththamuhlli. It is believed to have medicinal qualities, and is brewed and drunk to cure the common cold and fever.


title: Brad Friedel

paragraphs: Brad Friedel (born May 18, 1971) is an American soccer player. He has played for United States national team.


title: Nílton Santos

paragraphs: Nílton Santos (16 May 1925 – 27 November 2013) was a former Brazilian football player. He has played for Brazil national team.

paragraphs: Santos died from respiratory failure caused by a lung infection on 27 November 2013, aged 88, in Rio de Janeiro.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

paragraphs: DaMarcus Beasley (born May 24 1982 in Fort Wayne, Indiana) is an American soccer player. He plays for Rangers of the Scottish Football League and United States national team.


title: Alecko Eskandarian

paragraphs: Alecko Eskandarian is an American football player. He plays for Chivas USA and United States national team.


title: Smash Hits

paragraphs: Smash Hits was a pop music based magazine. It was made for children and young teenagers. The magazine was first published in the United Kingdom. It ran from 1978 to 2006 and was issued fortnightly for most of that time. The name survives as a brand for a related spin-off digital television channel, digital radio station, and website which have survived the end of the printed magazine.


title: Liga I

paragraphs: Liga I (previously called Divizia A) is the top division association football league in Romania.


title: Battle of the Mediterranean

paragraphs: The Battle of the Mediterranean was the name given to the naval campaign fought in the Mediterranean Sea during World War II.

paragraphs: For the most part, the campaign was fought between the forces of the Italian Royal Navy ("Regia Marina"), supported by other Axis naval forces, and the forces of the British Royal Navy, supported by other Allied naval forces.

paragraphs: Each side had three overall goals in this battle. The first was to attack the supply lines of the other side. The second was to keep open its own supply lines, the Axis to their own armies in North Africa and the Allies to supply the island of Malta. The third was to destroy the ability of the opposing navy to wage war at sea.

paragraphs: Outside of the Pacific ocean, the Mediterranean saw the largest conventional naval warfare during the war. In particular, Allied forces struggled to supply and retain the key naval and air base of Malta.

paragraphs: Italian warships had a general reputation as well-designed and good-looking. But some Italian cruiser classes were rather deficient in armour. All Italian warships lacked radar for most of the war, although this was partly offset by their good "rangefinder" and "fire-control" systems. In addition, whereas Allied commanders at sea had discretion on how to act, Italian commanders were closely and precisely governed by Italian Naval Headquarters ("Supermarina"). This could lead to action being avoided when the Italians had a clear advantage (e.g., During "Operation Hats"). Italian Naval Headquarters was conscious that the British could replace ships lost in the Mediterranean, whereas Italian Navy resources were limited and there was a terrible lack of fuel.

paragraphs: The Italian Navy entered the war with only one year of fuel required to operate normally. By 1943 the lack of fuel prevented naval operations far away from the coasts of Italy.

paragraphs: The Allies had "Ultra" intercepts from Bletchley Park, which predicted the Italian movements, and radar, which enabled them to locate the ships and to range their weapons at distance and at night. The better air reconnaissance skills of the "Fleet Air Arm" and their close collaboration with surface units were other major causes of the initial Italian defeats (like in the "Battle of Cape Matapan").

paragraphs: The Allied forces in this campaign were:-

paragraphs: On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France. On the following day, Italian bombers attacked Malta on what was to be the first of many raids.

paragraphs: The first clash between the rival fleets, the Battle of Calabria, took place on 9 July 1940, just four weeks after the start of hostilities. This was inconclusive (neither side won), and was followed by a series of small ship actions (the battle of the "Espero" convoy, battle of Cape Spada) during the autumn.

paragraphs: In spring 1940 the British Royal navy attacked at Mers el Kebir (Algeria) the French navy of Vichy, sinking two battleships and other minor ships.

paragraphs: In November, the RN mounted an aerial attack on the Italian fleet in Taranto harbour, crippling three capital ships and changing the balance of power in the Mediterranean.

paragraphs: Three months later the fleets clashed again at the Battle of Cape Matapan. This was a major Allied victory; three Italian cruisers were sunk, and a battleship damaged in a two-day battle ending in a night action.

paragraphs: Following this the Allies suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Crete, supporting the army when the island was invaded by the Germans.

paragraphs: In spring 1941 the Greek and Yugoslavian navy were destroyed and/or made captive by the Italians (with help from the German air force) during the Italo-German war in the western Balkans against Greece and Yugoslavia.

paragraphs: Following the battle of Crete in the summer of 1941, the Royal Navy got the better of things in the central Mediterranean in a series of successful convoy attacks, (such as the "Duisburg" convoy and the Battle of Cape Bon) until the events around the First Battle of Sirte and the Raid on Alexandria in December swung the balance of power in the Axis favour.

paragraphs: The Italian Navy's most successful attack was when divers planted mines on British battleships during the raid on Alexandria harbour (19 December 1941). HMS "Queen Elizabeth" and HMS "Valiant" were sunk (but ten months later raised and returned to active service). During those ten months the Italian Navy enjoyed a temporary control of the Mediterranean sea (called by Mussolini's propaganda the "Mare Nostrum", meaning "our sea").

paragraphs: A series of hard fought convoy battles (Second Battle of Sirte in March, Operations Harpoon and Vigorous in June, and Operation Pedestal in August) were victories for the Axis but ensured Malta's survival, until the Allies regained the advantage in November 1942.

paragraphs: In Sept 1943 with the Italian collapse and the surrender of Italian fleet, naval actions in Mediterranean became restricted to actions against U-boats and by small craft in the Adriatic and Aegean seas.

paragraphs: The following are the major amphibious operations staged during the Battle of the Mediterranean:


title: Cryptographic hash function

paragraphs: A cryptographic hash function is a hash function which takes an input (or 'message') and returns a fixed-size string of bytes. The string is called the 'hash value', 'message digest', 'digital fingerprint', 'digest' or 'checksum'.

paragraphs: The ideal hash function has three main properties:

paragraphs: Functions with these properties are used as hash functions for a variety of purposes, not only in cryptography. Practical applications include message integrity checks, digital signatures, authentication, and various information security applications.

paragraphs: A hash function takes a string of any length as input and produces a fixed length string which acts as a kind of "signature" for the data provided. In this way, a person knowing the "hash value" is unable to know the original message, but only the person who knows the original message can prove the "hash value" is created from that message.

paragraphs: A cryptographic hash function should behave as much as possible like a random function while still being deterministic and efficiently computable. A cryptographic hash function is considered "insecure" from a cryptographic point of view, if either of the following is computationally feasible:

paragraphs: An attacker who can find any of the above computations can use them to substitute an authorized message with an unauthorized one.

paragraphs: Ideally, it should be impossible to find two different messages whose digests ("hash values") are similar. Also, one would not want an attacker to be able to learn anything useful about a message from its digest ("hash values"). Of course the attacker learns at least one piece of information, the digest itself, by which the attacker can recognise if the same message occurred again.

paragraphs: In various standards and applications, the two most commonly used hash functions are MD5 and SHA-1.

paragraphs: In 2005, security defects were identified showing that a possible mathematical weakness might exist, like attacks, and recommending a stronger hash function.

paragraphs: In 2007 the National Institute of Standards and Technology announced a contest to design a hash function which will be given the name SHA-3 and be the subject of a FIPS standard.