title: Operation Ichi-Go

paragraphs: Operation Ichi-Go (or "Operation Number One") was a series of battles between the armies of Japan and China. The battles happened between April and December 1944. There were three battles in the Chinese provinces of Henan, Hunan and Guangxi. The goals of Operation Ichi-go were to make a route to French Indochina and to capture bases that American bombers were using to attack Japan and her shipping.

paragraphs: There were two parts to the operation. In the first part, the Japanese secured the Railway between Beijing and Wuhan. In the second part they destroyed the US air forces in Hunan province and reached the city of Liuzhou. Liuzhou was near the border with Japanese-occupied Indochina.

paragraphs: 400,000 men, 12,000 vehicles and 70,000 horses took part in operation Ichi-Go. The Japanese army included the very well trained Kwantung Army units and equipment from Manchukuo, North China and Japan. It was the largest land operation by the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Many of the new American-trained Chinese units were fighting in Burma under General Joseph Stilwell using weapons leased from the United States. Chiang Kai-shek had agreed that Stilwell could manage the distribution of American arms.

paragraphs: In "Operation Kogo", 390,000 Chinese soldiers, led by General Tang Enbo, defended Luoyang. The Japanese 3rd Tank Division crossed the Yellow River around Zhengzhou in late April and defeated the Chinese near Xuchang. They then moved around to the right and put Luoyang under siege. Luoyang was defended by three Chinese divisions. The 3rd Tank Division began to attack on May 13 and won Luoyang on May 25.

paragraphs: The second part of Ichigo began in May. Japanese forces moved south and occupied Changsha, Hengyang, Guilin and Liuzhou. In December 1944, Japanese forces reached French Indochina and completed the operation. Despite this success, US air forces moved inland from the threatened bases near the coast. The U.S. Air Force often stopped the railway between Beijing and Liuzhou that had been started in Operation Ichigo. Japan continued to attack airfields where US air forces were stationed up to the spring of 1945.

paragraphs: USA's XX Bomber Command were using B-29 bombers like the ones that were attacking Japan. They were forced to move as well, but this affected their efficiency for only a short time. In early 1945 the Twentieth Air Force moved to newly established bases in the Marianas under the command of the newly established XXI Bomber Command.

paragraphs: The failure to hold the coastal airfields led to a loss of confidence in General Joseph Stilwell by Chiang Kai-shek. Stilwell was replaced in October 1944 by President Roosevelt. The new Chief of Staff to Chiang Kai-Shek and commander of the U.S. Forces in China was Major General Albert Wedemeyer. Stillwell's other responsibilities in China, Burma and India were given to other officers.

paragraphs: A very different version of events was that General Joseph Stilwell was asking for a fuller use of Chinese forces and had made diplomatic connections with the Chinese Red Army commanded by Mao Zedong. They had agreed to follow an American commander.

paragraphs: Because Chiang Kai-shek was ignored by the American general, he had Stilwell called back to the United States. "New York Times" reporter Brooks Atkinson wrote at the time: The decision to relieve General Stilwell represents the political triumph of a moribund, anti-democratic regime that is more concerned with maintaining its political supremacy than in driving the Japanese out of China. America is now committed... to support a regime that has become increasingly unpopular and mistrusted in China, that maintains three secret police services and concentration camps for political prisoners, that stifles free speech and resists democratic forces... The Chinese Communists... have good armies that are now fighting guerrilla warfare against the Japanese in North China... The Generalissimo regards these armies as the chief threat to his supremacy... has made no sincere attempt to arrange at least a truce with them for the duration of the war... No diplomatic genius could have overcome the Generalissimo's basic unwillingness to risk his armies in battle with the Japanese...

paragraphs: But the "Time Magazine" article in which Atkinson was quoted went on to talk about the true failure of Stilwell's goals by saying that: The Chinese, exhausted by seven years of almost singlehanded war against Japan, were reluctant to give General Stilwell the troops he wanted for the Burma offensive; the Japs might suddenly crack down on them in earnest. When the Japs began the drive that last week seemed on the verge of cutting China in two, Chiang Kai-shek's Government might well have felt that its go-slow policy was justified..."

paragraphs: This loss and the poor opinion in the U.S.A. caused the Americans to lose confidence in the Chinese troops. Instead the U.S. focused all its resources on the island-to-island war in the Pacific.


title: Jawaharlal Nehru

paragraphs: Jawaharlal Nehru (also referred to as "Pandit Nehru") (November 14 1889 - May 27 1964) was the leader (prime minister) of India for 17 years immediately after 1947, when India became independent. He was born in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India. He died of a heart attack in New Delhi.

paragraphs: Nehru was the first post British independence prime minister.

paragraphs: Under British rule, Nehru was jailed many times. During these periods, he used to write long letters to his daughter, Indira, on Indian and World history. These letters were remarkably well written and became very successful books when published later as "Glimpses of World History" and "The discovery of India".

paragraphs: His father Motilal Nehru, was also an important figure in the Indian freedom struggle, and his daughter Indira Gandhi and grandson Rajiv Gandhi went on to become prime ministers of India.


River Don


title: Black Sea

paragraphs: The Black Sea is a sea in Eurasia between Europe, Caucasus, and Anatolia. Many rivers flow to the Black Sea, including the big rivers, the Don, Danube, Dniester and Dnieper.

paragraphs: It is connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the Bosphorus strait, the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles strait, the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar. 90% of the sea has no oxygen. The water is saltwater but less salty than the ocean. During the last ice age, the Black Sea was a freshwater lake.

paragraphs: In Greek mythology, the Argonauts traveled on the sea. Greeks set up colonies around the sea because it was important to trade for many countries in ancient history. The Gallipoli Campaign during World War I was a fight for access to the Black Sea. It was also important in World War II.

paragraphs: The Black Sea sits on continental plates which have subsided. It is a geologic basin, and therefore is a genuine inland sea. Its maximum depth is about 2000 metres. The Black Sea is the world’s largest basin where the deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The upper layers are generally cooler, less dense and less salty than the deeper waters, as they are fed by large river systems, whereas the deep waters come from the warm, salty waters of the Mediterranean.

paragraphs: The Crimean Peninsula divides this sea. The Bosporus and Dardanelles connect the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.


title: Hey Monday

paragraphs: Hey Monday is an American Pop rock band. The band is from West Palm Beach, Florida. The band members are Cassadee Pope (lead vocals), Michael "Jersey" Moriarty (bass guitar), Mike Gentile (lead guitar), Alex Lipshaw (rhythm guitar) and Elliot James (drums).


title: The Shins

paragraphs: The Shins are an American indie rock band. The band members are singer, songwriter, and guitarist James Russell Mercer, bassist Ron Lewis, bassist/guitarist Dave Hernandez, drummer Joe Plummer, and Eric Johnson. They are influenced by many genres, including pop, alternative rock, alternative country, and folk. The Shins formed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, but are now based in Portland, Oregon.


title: PC bang

paragraphs: PC bang is a type of gaming center in South Korea where people can play multiplayer computer games. It is like a LAN gaming center. became very popular when Starcraft came out in 1998.

paragraphs: PC-bang users are usually young South Koreans. Most PC-bang users are students in grade school or college, mostly male. Inside PC bangs, people may smoke, eat, and drink. Most PC bangs sell ramen noodles, canned coffee, energy drinks, and other snacks.


title: The Jackson 5

paragraphs: The Jackson 5 was an American musical group who played R&B, soul, pop, and disco. The group was made up of the Jackson brothers Michael, Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, Randy and Marlon. Michael was the lead singer. They recorded on the famous Motown label for a long time. In 1975 they moved to another record label called CBS Records and changed their name to The Jacksons. Some of their songs were "I Want You Back", "ABC", "I'll Be There", "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town" and "I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus". Michael left The Jacksons in 1984.

paragraphs: The Jackson 5 started in Gary, Indiana. They performed for the first time in 1964. Michael was six years old. In 1966, the Jackson 5 won a talent contest at a high school in Gary.

paragraphs: In 1968 The Jackson 5 were signed to Motown.

paragraphs: In December 1969 Motown released The Jackson 5's first album, "Diana Ross Presents The Jackson 5". One single, "I Want You Back", was released from the album. It reached number one in the United States. The band's next two singles "ABC" and "The Love You Save" also reached number one. In 1970 the group had another number one, "I'll Be There". That year they released three studio albums, "ABC", "Third Album", and "Jackson 5 Christmas Album". In 1971 they released two studio albums. "Maybe Tomorrow" was number one in the American soul albums chart for six weeks. "Goin' Back to Indiana", a live album, was released in September. Motown also released the group's first Greatest Hits album.

paragraphs: Michael released his first album without his brothers, "Got to Be There" in January 1972. In 1972 the group released one album, "Lookin' Through the Windows". In 1973 The Jackson 5 released two studio albums, "Skywriter" and "Get It Together". They also released their second live album "The Jackson 5 in Japan". In 1974 "Dancing Machine" was released. "Dancing Machine" reached number two. In 1975 The Jackson 5's last album on Motown was released. Epic Records signed them. Jermaine left the band. His brother Randy took his place.

paragraphs: In 1976 the band released their first album as The Jacksons. It was their first album on Epic Records. It was written by Gamble And Huff. In 1977 "Goin Places" was released by Epic and Philadelphia International Records. Five singles were released from the album.

paragraphs: "Destiny" was released in 1978. It was written and produced by the brothers. "Blame It on the Boogie", a cover of a Mick Jackson song, was released as the first single from the album. The second single "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)" reached number seven in the US "Billboard" 100.

paragraphs: "Triumph" was released in 1980. It reached number-one on the "Billboard" R&B Albums chart. Four singles were released from the album. In 1984 The Jacksons released a single with Mick Jagger called "State of Shock". Later that year Michael left the band after his album "Thriller" became the best-selling album ever released and won eight Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: The Jacksons released their last album, "2300 Jackson Street" in 1989. Michael and Marlon were not in the album except on the single "2300 Jackson Street". Rebbie, La Toya, and Janet Jackson also sung on it.


title: Gabriela Mistral

paragraphs: Lucia Godoy Alcayaga, known by pen name Gabriela Mistral (7 April 1889 – 10 January 1957) was a Chilean educator, poet, diplomat, and feminist. In 1945, she received the Nobel Prize in Literature. Her best known works include "Tala", "Desolación", and "Lagar".


title: Vasily Vereshchagin

paragraphs: Vereshchagin (; 1842-1904) was a famous Russian painter of battle scenes, who has been making the war of the United States in Cuba and in the Philippines the subject of his latest work.


title: Star Trek (movie)

paragraphs: Star Trek is a 2009 science fiction movie directed by J. J. Abrams and made by Paramount Pictures. It is a reboot of the original "Star Trek" television series. It allows for massive changes in the storyline because of time traveling, which let its creators take the franchise in a new direction while still being faithful to the existing canon.

paragraphs: The movie is about the characters of the original series as they meet and assemble for the first time on the "Enterprise". Together, they must fight a Romulan named Nero, who is from the future.


title: WWF Fully Loaded

paragraphs: Fully Loaded was a yearly WWF event, which started in July 1998 and was held for another two years. In 2001, the event was replaced by Invasion, which was replaced by Vengeance in 2002.

paragraphs: Fully Loaded: In Your House took place on July 26, 1998 at the Selland Arena in Fresno, California.

paragraphs: Fully Loaded (1999) took place on July 25, 1999 at the Marine Midland Arena in Buffalo, New York.

paragraphs: Fully Loaded (2000) took place on July 23, 2000 at the Reunion Arena in Dallas, Texas.


title: Vengeance: Night of Champions

paragraphs: Vengeance: Night of Champions was the seventh yearly professional wrestling pay-per-view event by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) with the name Vengeance. It featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands. The event took place on June 24, 2007 at the Toyota Center in Houston, Texas. Every match on the card was contested for a championship. This event was notable for being on the weekend of the Chris Benoit double murder and suicide case. Benoit, who was originally booked to wrestle CM Punk for the vacant ECW World Championship, did not come to the event due to "personal reasons."

paragraphs: The main event featured the Raw brand. John Cena defended the WWE Championship against Mick Foley, Bobby Lashley, Randy Orton, and King Booker. Cena won the match and kept the WWE Championship after pinning Foley following an FU. The main match from the SmackDown brand was a "Last Chance match" for the World Heavyweight Championship between Edge and Batista, which Edge won by countout. The main match from the ECW brand was CM Punk versus Johnny Nitro for the vacant ECW World Championship, which Nitro won by pinfall after performing a corkscrew neckbreaker from the middle rope.

paragraphs: The main feud on the Raw brand going into the event was between John Cena, Bobby Lashley, King Booker, Mick Foley, and Randy Orton over the WWE Championship. The feud began when Lashley was drafted to the Raw brand and stripped of the ECW World Championship. After being stripped of the title, Lashley began to pursue the WWE Championship. On the June 18 episode of "Raw", Foley, Orton, Booker, and Lashley all said why they deserve to be the number-one contender to the WWE Championship. Cena also said who he believed deserved to be the number-one contender to the championship. Following this, Interim General Manager Jonathan Coachman announced that all five men would compete for the title in a match called the "WWE Championship Challenge" at Vengeance.

paragraphs: The main feud going into Vengeance on the SmackDown brand was between Edge and Batista over the World Heavyweight Championship. Their match was a rematch from their Steel cage match at One Night Stand, the pay-per-view three weeks before Vengeance, where Edge won by escaping the cage. On the June 8 episode of "SmackDown", WWE Chairman Vince McMahon announced that Edge would be defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Batista in a "Last Chance" match at Vengeance. On the June 22 episode of "SmackDown!", Batista and Ric Flair beat Edge and Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP). During the match, Flair and MVP brawled outside the ring, leaving Edge on his own against Batista. Batista gained the pinfall after giving a Batista Bomb to Edge.

paragraphs: The feud between The Hardys (Matt and Jeff) and Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch began at Backlash. At the event, The Hardys beat Cade and Murdoch to keep the World Tag Team Championship. At the next event, Judgment Day, Matt and Jeff beat Cade and Murdoch again to keep the title. On the June 4 episode of "Raw", Cade and Murdoch beat The Hardys to win the title.

paragraphs: (*) – Johnny Nitro was an event-day replacement added by WWE after Chris Benoit was a no-show, with the official statement a "family emergency". It was later discovered Benoit's CTE-related murders had taken place that weekend.</onlyinclude>


title: Young Poland

paragraphs: Young Poland (in Polish: "Młoda Polska") is a period modernist of Polish art, literature and music. This period covered about the years since 1890 until 1918. It was one of the effects of the strong opposition to the ideas of the positivism and developed the nature of decadence, of neoromanticism, of symbolism, of impressionism, and of the Art Nouveau.

paragraphs: The expression was known after one of the manifestos written by Artur Górski. The manifesto was published in the daily (newspaper) "Życie" ("Life"), seated in Cracow, in the year 1898, and was immediately accepted in all the parts of the divided Poland, by analogy with other similar expressions as Young Germany, Young Belgium, Young Scandinavia and so on.

paragraphs: Polish literature of the period was based on two main understandings:

paragraphs: Other important writers of the period were:

paragraphs: In music, the expression "Young Poland" is put into use to an informal group of composers which include Karol Szymanowski, Grzegorz Fitelberg, Ludomir Różycki and probably also Mieczysław Karłowicz. This group worked under the strong influence of the neoromanticism of the music, and especially of composers from another countries as Richard Strauss and Richard Wagner. The composers would be also strong links with the The Five, a group of composers Russian which included Modest Musorgski, Alexander Borodin and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov.

paragraphs: In the period of the Young Poland there were not any great artistic currents in Polish art. The painters and the sculptors attempted to continue in the romantic tradition, in bringing new ways of expression already popular in another countries. The more influential current was the Art Nouveau, even if the Polish artists started attempting also new forms of national style. The sculptura just like the painture of the period were strongly influenced by all the forms of the symbolism.


title: Hurricane Felix

paragraphs: Hurricane Felix was a strong Category 5 hurricane with fastest wind speeds of 175 mph. It was part of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season.


title: Hurricane Cesar-Douglas

paragraphs: Hurricane Cesar-Douglas was a Category 4 hurricane that crossed the Atlantic as Hurricane Cesar. The storm continue to move west to the Pacific as Hurricane Douglas. The storm was the strongest storm for the 1996 Pacific hurricane season. It was the second hurricane of the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season, in the Atlantic it was a category 1.

paragraphs: The start of this storm goes back to a tropical wave near Dakar, Senegal. It crossed the Atlantic and did not start until it was close to the Windward Islands. On July 24 it became Tropical Depression Three. Tropical Depression Three became Tropical Storm Cesar on July 25. Cesar did not strengthen much because it was close to land. It did start to strengthen more as it entered the Southwestern Caribbean Sea. After about half way between Nicaragua and South America, Tropical Storm Cesar became a hurricane on July 27. Hurricane Cesar reached its highest winds on July 28, which were at 85 mph. Later that day, Hurricane Cesar made landfall near Bluefields, in Nicaragua while it still had its highest winds. Cesar weakened into a tropical storm over Central America. But it did survive crossing Central America.

paragraphs: Late on July 28, Cesar reached the Pacific Ocean and was renamed Tropical Storm Douglas. By the next day, Tropical Storm Douglas became a hurricane. Later, on August 1, Hurricane Douglas reached its highest wind, which were at 130 mph. Douglas started getting weaker because of cooler waters. On August 5, Hurricane Douglas died.

paragraphs: The name "Cesar" was retired and the name "Douglas" was not retired. In 2002 and 2008 the name Cristobal was used instead, it was not retired. For the Pacific, the name "Douglas" used in 2002 and 2008, it still wasn't retired.


title: Georg Solti

paragraphs: Sir Georg Solti (pronounce: “George Shollti”), (born Budapest, 21 October 1912; died Antibes, France, 5 September 1997) was a Hungarian conductor who later became a naturalized British citizen.

paragraphs: Solti was born "György Stern" in Budapest to a Jewish family. His father changed his name from "György" to "Georg" and changed his family name to "Solti". This was so that his name did not look Jewish, because there was a lot of antisemitism in Europe.

paragraphs: He learned the piano but, when he was 14, he heard Erich Kleiber conduct Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 and he immediately wanted to be a conductor. He studied at the Franz Liszt Academy of Music, under Béla Bartók, Zoltán Kodály, Leo Weiner and Ernst von Dohnanyi. By 1935 he was becoming known as a conductor. He conducted "The Marriage of Figaro" at the Budapest Opera in 1938. It was the first time he had conducted there, and it was also to be the last time. That very day, Hitler annexed Austria. Life became dangerous for Jews in Hungary. In 1939, he moved to Switzerland, where he continued a career as a pianist and won the Geneva International Piano Competition, but he did not have many chances to conduct there. His father became ill and died, so he never saw him again.

paragraphs: After World War II Solti became music director of the Bavarian State Orchestra in Munich (where he gave the first performance in Germany of Paul Hindemith's opera "Mathis der Maler", which had been banned when the Nazis were in power. He conducted the Frankfurt Opera where he gave the first performance in Germany of Alban Berg's "Lulu". In 1951 he performed at the Salzburg Festival conducting Mozart's "Idomeneo".

paragraphs: Solti often conducted the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and it was arranged that he would be their main conductor (music director) from 1962. However, Solti changed his mind because they appointed Zubin Mehta as assistant conductor without telling Solti. Mehta became musical director instead.

paragraphs: In 1961 Solti became music director at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, and stayed there until 1971. He was a great conductor, but made the musicians work very hard. With his bald head he got the nickname "The Screaming Skull". He spent much of his time in Britain and the United States.

paragraphs: His first marriage ended in divorce. His second marriage was to Valerie Pitts, a British television presenter whom he met when she was sent to interview him. They had two daughters, Gabrielle and Claudia. He was given an honorary Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 1971. The next year he became a British citizen, and was then known as Sir Georg Solti.

paragraphs: Solti helped many young musicians, training them in workshops and giving them opportunities to perform.

paragraphs: Solti was music director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) from 1969 until 1991, when he was given the title of Music Director Laureate, the only CSO conductor to be given that title. He made them into a world class orchestra and took them on tours to other countries. He gave 999 performances with the CSO. He died before his 1,000th performance. A square near the Symphony Center in Chicago was called "Sir Georg Solti Place" in his memory.

paragraphs: Solti also had other jobs. He was music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1972 until 1975. From 1979 until 1983 he was principal conductor of the London Philharmonic Orchestra. During this time with the London Philharmonic he performed and recorded many works by Elgar including the two symphonies, the Violin Concerto with Kyung Wha Chung and the Cello Concerto with Julian Lloyd Webber. In 1983 he conducted Wagner's Ring Cycle at Bayreuth for the only time. For the 50th anniversary of the United Nations, Solti formed the World Orchestra for Peace, which consisted of musicians from 47 orchestras around the world.

paragraphs: Solti worked with Dudley Moore on a 1991 television series, "Orchestra!", which was made to explain to people all about the orchestra.

paragraphs: Solti never retired. He had many plans for concerts and recordings when he suddenly died of a heart attack on 5 September 1997 in Antibes, France He was given a state funeral, and was buried next to Bartók who had been his teacher and had helped him a lot. Solti’s widow and daughters began the Solti Foundation to help young musicians.


title: Leopold Stokowski

paragraphs: Leopold Anthony Stokowski, (born near London, 18 April 1882; died 13 September 1977) was a famous orchestral conductor. He conducted many of America's greatest orchestras. Many people will recognize him from Disney’s film "Fantasia" in which he conducts the orchestra and is seen shaking hands with Mickey Mouse. Stokowski had a long conducting career which started in 1909. He appeared in public for the last time in 1975 but continued making recordings until June 1977, a few months before his death at the age of 95.


title: Kenzaburō Ōe

paragraphs: Kenzaburō Ōe (born January 31, 1935 in Ehime) is a Japanese writer. He was the winner of the 1994 Nobel Prize in Literature.


title: Get Heavy

paragraphs: Get Heavy is the first album from the Finnish hard rock/heavy metal band Lordi.


title: The Monsterican Dream

paragraphs: The Monsterican Dream is an album from the Finnish hard rock/heavy metal band Lordi.


title: The Monster Show

paragraphs: The Monster Show is an album from the Finnish hard rock/heavy metal band Lordi.


title: The Arockalypse

paragraphs: The Arockalypse is an album from the Finnish hard rock/heavy metal band Lordi.


title: Deadache

paragraphs: Deadache is an album from the Finnish hard rock/heavy metal band Lordi.


title: Yuji Miyahara

paragraphs: Yuji Miyahara (born 19 July 1980) is a former Japanese football player.


title: Lee Dong-gook

paragraphs: Lee Dong-Gook (born 29 April 1979) is a South Korean professional athlete. He is best known as an association football player. He was a member of the Korean national team.


Yuhei Tokunaga


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

paragraphs: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) was the ruling political party in the Soviet Union, and the only legal one.

paragraphs: Before the creation of the Russian Communist Party in 1918, its members were part of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. They made up a group within that party, which was called the Bolsheviks. The first leader of the CPSU was Vladimir Lenin. The first General Secretary of the party was Stalin from 1922–52. The party led the 1917 October Revolution that overthrew the Russian Provisional Government during World War I. From 1918–25, the name of the party was Russian Communist Party. From 1925–52, the name was All-Union Communist Party. The Party took the name Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1952.

paragraphs: The Communist Party controlled all the government in the Soviet Union. The party supported communist movements in Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa. In 1990, during a big reform called "perestroika", or "restructuring", the party lost its position as the only party allowed. The CPSU was dissolved in 1991, and continued as the Communist Party of the Russian Federation. The new CPRF has sometimes been the largest in the Russian parliament, the State Duma.


title: Toroidal inductors and transformers

paragraphs: Toroidal inductors and transformers are a kind of electronic component. They typically consist of a circular, ring-shaped magnetic centre. The magnet is usually considered a monopole, although the central axis will have a dipole, and have the advantage of being wound continuously in a single direction, thus there is no inductive interference between windings as in a solenoid that is wound back and forth.


title: V-2

paragraphs: The V-2 rocket () was the world's first ballistic missile and first human object to fly in space. All modern rockets are based on the V2 design. The first successful launch was from Peenemünde on 3 October, 1942, reaching a height of 192 km. The V2 was designed by Nazis to bomb London, Antwerp and other European cities. It travelled at four times the speed of sound so was impossible to shoot down. The first V-2 used as a weapon exploded in Paris on 8 September 1944, with a second rocket exploding in London later that day. Over 3,000 V-2s were used by the German Wehrmacht against Allied targets in World War II, resulting in the death of an estimated 7,250 military personnel and civilians.

paragraphs: The victors used captured V-2 rockets to start space and missile programs. In the United States they were helped by the team of German rocket scientists from Peenemünde, led by Wernher von Braun, who had surrendered to the US at the end of the war. The first US assembled V-2, made from parts captured in Germany, was launched from White Sands, New Mexico, in April 1946. There were 66 V-2 rocket flights, the last on October 29, 1951.

paragraphs: In the late 1920s, a young Wernher von Braun bought a copy of Hermann Oberth's book, "Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen" ("The Rocket into Interplanetary Spaces"). Starting in 1930, he attended the Technical University of Berlin, where he assisted Oberth in liquid-fueled rocket motor tests. In 1933 he went to work for the Army designing and building rockets. The final, biggest rocket was the A-4, later called V-2.

paragraphs: On 22 Dec. 1942, Hitler signed the order for mass production, when Speer assumed final technical data would be ready by July 1943. However, many issues still remained to be solved even by the autumn of 1943.

paragraphs: Test launch was recovered by Polish resistance on 30 May 1944 and rocket from Blizna was transported to the UK during Operation Most III.


title: The Guardian Legend

paragraphs: "The Guardian Legend" got mixed reviews from "Electronic Gaming Monthly" and "Nintendo Power". People liked the game for how it looked, sounded, and felt. Other people did not like the game because the play was the same. It also had a very long password. The game was not well-known at first, but it is more known now. It is an example of a game where players do different things.

paragraphs: In "The Guardian Legend", the player controls the female guardian of Earth, a "robot transformer"; the Japanese version of the game calls her "Miria". The player is to destroy the alien moon Naju before it gets to Earth. The player needs to turn on the moon's self-destruct device and escape the moon before it gets to Earth. Five alien tribes who try to control the moon stand in the way of the player. To help players along, messages left by a person help guide them in finding the safety switches to turn on the self-destruct device. These messages also help players get to some other rooms.

paragraphs: The player controls the Guardian in human form while walking on Naju's surface, called the "Labyrinth". When in Naju, the Guardian turns into a spaceship in which the player can move around. The Guardian has a life meter that drops when hit by alien attacks. Players can pick up items to help fill the Guardian's life meter again. If the life meter runs out, then the Guardian dies, ending the game. The player can shoot at aliens with different types of weapons by pressing buttons on the gamepad. Players get different and better weapons during play.

paragraphs: Round, colored creatures in the game named "Landers" appear in the game to help players. Landers can help fill the Guardian's life meter and increase the number of times players can fire weapons. Blue Landers may sell weapons to players. They also give out passwords. Passwords let players stop the game and come back to it later.

paragraphs: The player goes through the Labyrinth and find entrances to the Dungeon. The ten safety devices are located in the Dungeon. The Labyrinth is made up of many rooms that are as big as the screen. Players can look at a map to see where they are at. This map can be looked at while the game is paused. Players can either walk from one room to another, or they can go to another room through a "warp panel". Some of these warp panels require the right key to go through. Many rooms contain aliens. Other rooms contain clues, shops, passwords, and entrances to the Dungeon.

paragraphs: The Dungeon contains areas in which the Guardian flies through as a spaceship. The Dungeon has many aliens to destroy. At the end of an area in the Dungeon, there is a boss, a very strong alien that must be destroyed. After destroying the boss, the Guardian flies out of the Dungeon and back into the Labyrinth. The player then gets a power-up. The player may also receive a key for a warp panel. Some entrances to the Dungeon are already open. Other entrances need a certain task completed before going in. Clues in the Labyrinth tell players how to get into these entrances.

paragraphs: "The Guardian Legend" was made for the Famicom and came out in 1988 in Japan. It came out for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America in 1989 and in Europe in 1990. The people who created the game were the same who created "Guardic", "Zanac", and "Puyo Puyo".

paragraphs: Reviewers liked the game for its multiple features. Some have compared the game to other Nintendo games like "The Legend of Zelda" and "Metroid". Mike Engler, who made "Retro Game Challenge", said that ""The Guardian Legend" is one of the best games ever released". The game was nominated by "Nintendo Power" magazine in 1989 for "Best Graphics & Sound", "Best Play Control", and "Best Overall" but did not win any of them. Some of the music of the game were remixed.


title: Vengeance (2006)

paragraphs: Vengeance (2006) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view event by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), which happened on June 25, 2006 at the Charlotte Bobcats Arena in Charlotte, North Carolina. It was the sixth yearly Vengeance event. Eight professional wrestling matches were featured on the event's card. The buildup to the matches and the situations that took place before, during, and after the event were planned by WWE's script writers. The event starred wrestlers from the "Raw" brand: a storyline expansion of the promotion where employees are assigned to a wrestling brand under the WWE banner.

paragraphs: The main event was a 5-on-2 Handicap match, a match consisting of one team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with more people such as three against two, or five against two, between D-Generation X (DX) (Triple H and Shawn Michaels) versus the Spirit Squad (Kenny, Johnny, Mitch, Nicky, and Mikey). Triple H and Michaels won the match after pinning Kenny and Mikey, respectively. Two other matches were on the card. In singles matches, John Cena beat Sabu in an Extreme lumberjack match, which featured wrestlers from the "Raw" and "ECW" brands at ringside. The other featured match was for the WWE Championship, in which Rob Van Dam beat Edge to keep his title.

paragraphs: Vengeance made over $400,000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 6,800 and received 320,000 pay-per-view buys, which helped WWE increase its pay-per-view revenue by $21.6 million compared to the year before. When the event was released on DVD, it reached the number one position on "Billboard's" DVD Sales Chart.

paragraphs: The event had eight professional wrestling matches with different wrestlers involved in scripted feuds, plots and storylines. Wrestlers played either villains or heroes as they followed a series of events, which lead to a wrestling match or series of matches. All wrestlers belonged to the "Raw" brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program, the other two being "SmackDown!" and "ECW".

paragraphs: The main event scripted into Vengeance was between D-Generation X (DX) Triple H and Shawn Michaels versus the Spirit Squad (Kenny <nowiki>[</nowiki>Ken Doane<nowiki>]</nowiki>, Johnny <nowiki>[</nowiki>Johnny Jeter<nowiki>]</nowiki>, Mitch <nowiki>[</nowiki>Nick Mitchell<nowiki>]</nowiki>, Nicky <nowiki>[</nowiki>Nick Nemeth<nowiki>]</nowiki>, and Mikey <nowiki>[</nowiki>Michael Brendli<nowiki>]</nowiki>) in a 5-on-2 Handicap match consisting of one team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with more people such as five against two. The story for the match began after Backlash, "Raw"'s previous pay-per-view event, where The McMahons (Vince and Shane) defeated Michaels and "God" in a tag team match, with help from the Spirit Squad in a no disqualification match, a match where neither wrestler can be disqualified, allowing for weapons and outside interference. For weeks on "Raw", Michaels got revenge on both Vince McMahon and the Spirit Squad, until the May 22 episode of "Raw", where the Spirit Squad were scripted to injure Michaels' left knee. Then, by orders of McMahon, Triple H was to "break Michaels' skull", with a sledgehammer. Triple H failed to do what McMahon ordered and instead attacked the Spirit Squad, thus turning into a hero. Two weeks later, McMahon put Triple H in a gauntlet match, against the Spirit Squad. In the match, Kenny grabbed a steel chair and put it on Triple H's left knee, similar to what the group did to Michaels. Mitch, who was the only member not participating in the match, was thrown out from the backstage curtain by Michaels. Then, Michaels joined Triple H in the ring as they began to beat down the four members of the Spirit Squad. This lead to Michaels and Triple H reforming D-Generation X for the first time since their teased reunion in 2002. That same night, McMahon scheduled the Spirit Squad and D-Generation X in a 5-on-2 handicap tag team match. On the June 19 episode of "Raw", DX marked their return, when the duo humiliated the Spirit Squad as DX dumped green slime onto the group and embarrassed the team afterward, by beating them.

paragraphs: One of the featured matches was between John Cena and Sabu in an Extreme lumberjack match, a standard match with the exception that the ring is surrounded by a group of wrestlers not directly involved in it and competed under hardcore rules. On the television debut of "ECW on Sci Fi" on June 13, a brawl broke out between Rob Van Dam and Edge. Edge, who tried to leave through the "ECW" crowd, was attacked by Cena, because he caused Cena to lose the WWE Championship at ECW's One Night Stand, and Cena wanted revenge against Edge. Following the attack, Cena went to ringside where he knocked ECW Representative Paul Heyman unconscious, after Heyman awarded the win to Van Dam at One Night Stand. Following the attack, Heyman announced that all ECW superstars would be at "Raw" the next week. The next week on "Raw", Heyman appeared alongside ECW superstar, Balls Mahoney, who was booked to wrestle Cena in a match. The match was won by Cena after he made Mahoney submit. After the match, Cena was attacked by ECW wrestler, Sabu, who, in the premiere of "ECW on Sci-Fi" won a 10-man Extreme Battle Royal, (a multi-competitor match type in which wrestlers are eliminated until only one is left and declared winner) where the winner would face Cena at Vengeance in a match. Sabu beat up Cena and performed a leg drop on him, diving onto Cena and putting him through the "Raw" announcers' table. The following night on an episode of "ECW on Sci-Fi", Cena went to the "ECW" locker room, where he challenged Sabu to an Extreme lumberjack match, which Sabu accepted.

paragraphs: The other featured match was between WWE Champion Rob Van Dam defending the title against Edge. The story for the match began on the television premiere of "ECW on Sci-Fi", when Van Dam was awarded the ECW World Heavyweight Championship by Paul Heyman, making Van Dam a double champion by holding both the ECW and WWE Championship. Van Dam's celebration was then interrupted by Edge and his girlfriend, Lita. Edge, who was number one contender for the title, told Van Dam that they both had a lot in common, meaning that they were both Money in the Bank winners and successfully became WWE Champions. Edge ended his speech by giving Van Dam some kind words and then attacking him. On the June 19 episode of "Raw", Van Dam attacked Edge, moments after Edge won a match against Ric Flair.


title: First aid kit

paragraphs: First aid kits are used to perform first aid on injured people.

paragraphs: A first aid kit often contains the following items:


title: Sarah Aaronsohn

paragraphs: Sarah Aaronsohn (January 5, 1890 in Zikhron Ya'akov – October 9, 1917 in Zikhron Ya'akov) was a Jewish spy who lived in Palestine.

paragraphs: She was a member of Nili (a ring of spies that worked for the British during World War I). She is sometimes called "the heroine of Nili".

paragraphs: After seeing thousands of Armenians being killed and tortured while she was traveling from Istanbul to Haifa, anything that reminded her of Armenians would lead her into a fit of hysteria. She started up Nili with her two brothers and a friend to help the British during World War I.

paragraphs: In September 1917 the Ottomans caught one of her carrier pigeons which they then worked out (decrypted) and found out where she was. After arresting lots of people, the Ottomans tortured Sarah Aaronsohn for four days before she managed to find a gun to shoot herself with. In her last written letter she said that she hopes her activities with Nili would help bring the Jews a home country.


title: Frank Abbandando

paragraphs: Frank Abbandando (July 11, 1910 – February 19, 1942), nicknamed "The Dasher", was an American contract killer (someone who murders for money) for a notorious gang called Murder, Inc.

paragraphs: He born in Brooklyn, New York City to a Italian family. He was found guilty of murder after several of the Murder, Inc. bosses were arrested. He was sentenced to death in 1941 and executed by electric chair in 1942 in Sing Sing, Ossining, New York.


title: Zombilation – The Greatest Cuts

paragraphs: Zombilation – The Greatest Cuts is an album from the Finnish hard rock/heavy metal band Lordi.


title: Firmin Abauzit

paragraphs: Firmin Abauzit (1679 – 1767) was a French scientist who is well known because he read and corrected Issac Newtons work on gravity.

paragraphs: King of England William III asked Abauzit if he would like to stay in England, but he declined and returned to Geneva, where he took a role as librarian. He lived in Geneva for the next 40 years until his death at age 87 in 1767.


title: Wyrzysk

paragraphs: Wyrzysk (former German "Wirsitz") is a town in Poland with 5,263 (2004) inhabitants. It is in Piła County, Greater Poland Voivodeship.

paragraphs: Commune Wyrzysk has a population of about 14,500 and an area of . It is on the northern edge of Greater Poland Voivodeship. On the east border is commune Sądki in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship.


title: Prussian House of Lords

paragraphs: The Prussian House of Lords () was the first chamber of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Prussia between 1850 and 1918. The second chamber was the Prussian House of Representatives ("Preußisches Haus der Abgeordneten", also called the "Abgeordnetenhaus").

paragraphs: The House of Lords was created on 31 January 1850. Its seat was on Leipziger Straße in Berlin at a building rebuilt by the architect Friedrich Schulze in 1904.

paragraphs: A member of the House of Lords was known as a "pair", or officially as a "member of the Prussian House of Lords" ("Mitglieder des preußischen Herrenhauses", or MdH).

paragraphs: The House consisted of hereditary peers, life peers appointed by the King of Prussia, peers by virtue of position, representatives of cities and universities, etc. The majority of members were nobles, although the House also had commoners as members, especially among the representatives of cities and universities.


title: Anime convention

paragraphs: An anime convention is an event where people who like anime and things that are Japanese come together. Most conventions take all weekend, and many of the people dress up like characters from anime and video games and go to many different kinds of events during the convention.

paragraphs: People who go to anime conventions do a lot of different things. Many of them dress up in costumes, play video games, sing in karaoke, and watch various anime that yet to be widely released.

paragraphs: A "dealer's room" is also often popular, and it usually has many people selling unique items related to anime, Japan, or video games. A similar room, called the "artist's alley", is also often available for local and beginning artists to promote themselves and sell their items as well.

paragraphs: Conventions also have talks about anime, video rooms, and places to meet artists.

paragraphs: Most conventions bring famous people to the convention who are called guests. The people who are at the convention can talk to these guests, get autographs, and sometimes take pictures.


title: Spiekeroog

paragraphs: Spiekeroog is one of the East Frisian Islands, off the North Sea coast of Germany. It is between Langeoog to its west and Wangerooge to its east. The island belongs to the municipality of the district of Wittmund, in Lower Saxony, Germany. The only village on the island is also called Spiekeroog.

paragraphs: Spiekeroog covers an area of 18.25 km², the shortest distance to the land is 5.7 km. The island is - with the exception of fire and rescue vehicles - free of cars. A daily ferry service with the harbour of Neuharlingersiel connects the island with the German mainland.


title: Eshtehard

paragraphs: Eshtehard municipality () is a city in Tehran Province in Iran.

paragraphs: It is around 100 km from the capital Tehran. Its population is about 30,000. Eshtehard is a part of Karaj County.


title: Bebo

paragraphs: Bebo is a social networking website. Bebo stands for "Blog early, blog often". It started in January 2005. It is mostly used by teenagers. It is now one of the main social networking sites on the Internet.

paragraphs: Bebo has many features that are available for its users, such as Gmail, Yahoo! Mail and AOL Mail, and media recommendations with these functions the individual has more choices for searching information on one website.

paragraphs: Also a new platform is available “Lifestream” automatically lets the user see updates from their friends and family, all profiles from Facebook, Myspace, YouTube, Flickr, Twitter are synced together. Which is a convenient tool to get instant updates, which include being able to share: photos, videos, stories, records, and scheduled appointments.

paragraphs: Bebo.com is available on a mobile device, which the user can log into their account to find out what new material has been posted by their friends and family. They can receive SMS updates and alerts, update their Bebo profile, add photos to their gallery, send virtual gifts and access exclusive mobile content.


title: Hurricane Andres (2009)

paragraphs: Hurricane Andres was the first named storm and hurricane of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season. Andres rapidly weakened on the morning of June 24 to a tropical storm. It again weakened to a tropical depression on the afternoon of June 24. Then it began to dissipate.


title: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

paragraphs: Ice Age 3: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (or Ice Age 3), is a computer animated comedy drama epic movie. It was released on July 1, 2009. It is the third movie in the "Ice Age" series. The movie was produced by Blue Sky Studios. It was distributed by 20th Century Fox. The movie was also released on RealD anywhere available.

paragraphs: In the movie, Manny, Diego, Ellie, Crash and Eddie travel in a underground dinosaurs's world. They want to save Sid who was taken by a female T-Rex for kidnapping her children. The group is helped by an eccentric one-eyed weasel named Buck.

paragraphs: This movie is the third sequel to the 2002 movie, "Ice Age". The other "Ice Age" movies are "" (2006), "" (2012) and "" (2016).

paragraphs: Queen Latifah recorded and performed a version of the song "Walk the Dinosaur" with John Leguizamo.

paragraphs: The movie was positively welcomed from audience, cost $90 million to make and it earned $886,686,817 worldwide. In 2017 the movie was ranked as the 47th highest earnings amount worldwide.

paragraphs: The characters are all prehistoric animals. The animals can talk to and understand each other.


title: Sarah Sutton

paragraphs: Sarah Sutton (born 12 December 1961 in Basingstoke, Hampshire, England) is an English actress. She is well known for her role as Nyssa in the BBC television series "Doctor Who". Nyssa was a companion of Tom Baker and Peter Davison's Doctors from 1981 to 1983. She was the youngest female actor to play a companion in the series.

paragraphs: Since leaving "Doctor Who" she has done very little acting. She has made appearances as Sarah Dryden in the BBC's medical drama series "Casualty" and as Wendy in the serial "Unnatural Pursuits". Earlier roles were "Alice Through the Looking Glass" (1974) as Alice, "The Moon Stallion" (1978) as Diana Purwell and "The Crucible" (1980) as Susannah Walcott.


title: Chuck Lorre

paragraphs: Chuck Lorre (born Charles Michael Levine on October 18, 1952) is an American television writer, director, producer and composer. He was born in Bethpage, Long Island, New York. He has worked on many American sitcoms, including "Grace Under Fire", "Dharma & Greg", "Two and a Half Men", "The Big Bang Theory" and "Mike & Molly".


title: Technical University of Berlin

paragraphs: The Technical University of Berlin (TU Berlin, German: Technische Universität Berlin) is located in Berlin, Germany. It was founded in 1879 and is one of the largest technical universities in Germany. It has the highest proportion of foreign students out of universities in Germany. The university alumni and professor list include eight Nobel Prize winners.


title: Leeds Rhinos

paragraphs: Leeds Rhinos (used to be Leeds RLFC) are a Rugby League team in Leeds, West Yorkshire. They play in Super League and last won it in 2015.

paragraphs: The Rugby Union club, Leeds St John's formed in 1870, however in 1895, when many teams broke off to form Rugby League, the club also switched codes. The club played as Leeds RLFC until 1995, when they changed their name to 'Leeds Rhinos'. This was done to mark the start of the Super League. Many other clubs made similar name changes. Leeds Rhinos have won the Super League in 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012 and 2015.

paragraphs: Leeds Rhinos play at the Headingley Carnegie Stadium, which has both Rugby and Cricket grounds. The rugby stadium has a capacity of 22,500. The stadium is located in the Headingley district of the city and is near both Headingley and Burley Park railway stations.

paragraphs: The club mascot is Ronnie the Rhino, who was introduced when the club changed names. As well as making appearances at the stadium on match days, Ronnie also travels around schools in Leeds promoting sport and healthy living. Ronnie has been popular with children who attend games, emphasizing the club's intention to cater for families.


title: Screwdriver

paragraphs: A screwdriver is a tool used to turn (or "drive") screws into something. It has an axial shaft with a tip of a certain shape that fits into the head of a screw. On the other end of the screwdriver is a cylindrical handle to be held by a person's hand. As the handle is rotated, it creates a torque that turns the tip via the screwdriver's shaft. There are many different sizes and kinds of screwdrivers. A screwdriver is usually identified by the shape of its tip. The tip is shaped in a certain way to match the groove cut into the head of a screw. A screwdriver is, therefore, a mechanism to apply torque to a screw and turn it in tight spaces.

paragraphs: Screwdrivers come in a large variety of shapes and sizes to match those of screws. If a screwdriver that is not the right size and type for the screw is used, it is likely that the screw will be damaged in the process of tightening it. Many screwdriver designs have a handle that can be used with different tips. The shaft and the tip can be removed from the handle, and a different one can be attached instead. The shaft and the tip are together called a "bit" (as with a drill bit). This allows a set of one handle and several heads to be used for a variety of screw sizes and types.

paragraphs: Most screwdrivers are operated manually, but there are some that use an electric or other motor to rotate the bit. They are used to drive screws quickly into various materials. There are different types of driver bits that let a drill drive different types of screws. The bit can be removed and swapped with another bit of a different shape. Many types of drills are able to be used as power screwdrivers. The best have a control over how much torque force is used, which allows the screws to be tightened to a specific level.


title: ETH Zurich

paragraphs: ETH Zurich () or Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich is a science and technology university in Zurich, Switzerland. Locals sometimes refer to it by the name "Poly", derived from the original name "Eidgenössisches Polytechnikum" or "Federal Polytechnic Institute".

paragraphs: ETH is ranked among the top universities in the world. It is a founding member of the IDEA League and the International Alliance of Research Universities (IARU).


title: Peenemünde

paragraphs: Peenemünde () is a village in the northeast of the German (Western) part of Usedom island. It is near the mouth of the Peene river, on the easternmost part of the German Baltic coast. The town became well known because of the V-2 development by Wernher von Braun.


title: Hollyfield School

paragraphs: Hollyfield is a school is Surbiton, London, England. It is a school that teaches classes about technology. It has three houses. Ofsted rate it as 'good'.


title: Alice in Wonderland (1951 movie)

paragraphs: Alice in Wonderland is a 1951 American animated movie produced by Walt Disney and based on the 1865 story Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll. It is the thirteenth Disney animated classic and includes the voices of Kathryn Beaumont (who also voiced Wendy Darling in the 1953 Disney movie "Peter Pan") as Alice, and Ed Wynn as the Mad Hatter.

paragraphs: A little girl named Alice is bored from her history lesson given by her sister. She, along with her kitten, Dinah, sneaks away and dream a world full of nonsense. However, Alice sees an unusual White Rabbit, who was holding large golden pocket watch and running off in a hurry. Curious to know where the Rabbit is going, Alice decides to follow him down the rabbit hole, where her adventures in Wonderland begin. Changing sizes from big to small, meeting bizarre people, like the Mad Hatter, the March Hare, the Cheshire Cat and the Caterpillar, Alice is tired from her adventures in Wonderland and wishes to go home.


title: Cable modem

paragraphs: A cable modem is a modem that can be used to deliver (usually digital) data over Cable television infrastructure. Most of the time, cable modems are used to get access to the internet using the cable television network. To do this, cable modems use some channels of the Cable TV network. A cable modem usually translates the signals it receives from Ethernet or USB into Radio frequency channels. With Voice over IP (VoIP) technology, most cable modems can now also provide telephone lines.

paragraphs: In terms of network technology, a cable modem is a network bridge. It operates at layer 2 of the OSI model.


title: Nobuhiro Ishizaki

paragraphs: Nobuhiro Ishizaki (born 14 March 1958) is a former Japanese football player. He has played for Toshiba.


title: Frank de Boer

paragraphs: Frank de Boer (born 15 May 1970) is a Dutch football manager and former soccer player. He played for Netherlands national team.


title: Ronald de Boer

paragraphs: Ronald de Boer (born 15 May 1970) is a former Dutch football player. He has played for Netherlands national team.


title: Ichi the Killer

paragraphs: Ichi the Killer is a Japanese movie by Takashi Miike. It was based on the manga by Hideo Yamamoto.

paragraphs: Ichi the Killer is a Japanese movie about a man named Kakihara who is part of a Japanese gang. He enjoys giving and receiving pain. When his gang boss goes missing, Kakihara is angry because he thinks nobody else will be able to give him as much pain and pleasure as his boss did. It turns out Kakihara's boss was murdered by a violent killer called Ichi (Japanese for the number one). 300 million yen was stolen by the group that arrived to clean the mess up. Kakihara has convinced himself that his boss is alive and tortures a member of a rival gang for information. The man turns out to be innocent and Kakihara is kicked out of his gang.

paragraphs: Kakihara hears about Ichi and becomes excited at the idea of somebody who can inflict more pain on him than his boss ever could. Kakihara becomes obsessed with finding Ichi.

paragraphs: He finally meets Ichi at the end of the movie. He is surprised and disgusted that Ichi is not the evil, cold man he imagined. He is a weak and scared teenager that only kills when he becomes upset about something. Ichi fails to kill Kakihara and lies on the floor crying. Kakihara realises Ichi cannot hurt him the way he wanted and tries to commit suicide by sticking pins in his ears. He loses his hearing and looks up to find Ichi jumping at him. Ichi knocks him off the edge of the building and Kakihara falls to his death. When we see Kakihara's body, he is apparently unharmed by Ichi's attacks. It is suggested that Kakihara imagined the attack as a result of poking his brain with the needles and fell off the building.


title: Wallisian

paragraphs: Wallisian language is a Polynesian language spoken in Wallis and Futuna. it is also named Uvea. It local name is Fakaʻuvea. Nine thousand peoples speak it in Uvea Island.


title: Google Chrome OS

paragraphs: Chrome OS is a project by Google to develop a light computer operating system. It is devoted to using the World Wide Web. The operating system was announced on July 7, 2009, and it is based on Google's Chrome web browser as it visually similar, and the Linux kernel. When first released, it was targeted at netbooks but has also been present on desktop computers (known as "Chromeboxes") and All-In-One PCs (known as "Chromebases"). It was released to technology journalists in December 2010 after being delayed. It runs on systems with either x86 or ARM processors.

paragraphs: Google had stated before release that the Google Chrome OS project will be open source by the end of 2009. Although it is based on the Linux kernel, it will use "a new windowing system" (a way to display applications on a computer screen).

paragraphs: Upon release, some technology journalists were unsure on what it could do that a Microsoft Windows PC with the Google Chrome browser installed could not.


title: Skew lines

paragraphs: Skew lines are straight lines that are neither parallel nor intersecting. Skew lines cannot be in the same plane. This means they exist only in at least three-dimensional geometry.


title: Saudi riyal

paragraphs: The riyal is the official money used in Saudi Arabia. A shorter name for it is SR (). The riyal is divided into 100 halala ().

paragraphs: The riyal has been Saudi Arabia's money since Saudi Arabia became a country. It was the currency of Hejaz before Saudi Arabia was a country.

paragraphs: There are 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 halala coins; and 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 500 riyal banknotes.

paragraphs: The riyal is fixed to be the same as 0.266667 United States dollars.


title: Pathology

paragraphs: Pathology is the study and medical diagnosis of disease, especially after death. A person who does this work is called a pathologist. Techniques include dissection, microscopic examination of tissues and chemical analysis of fluids. A pathologist may perform an autopsy, to discover the cause of death.

paragraphs: Pathology is a science that concerns with finding the cause (etiology) or presence of a disease by careful examination of a tissue or sample of any component of the body by scrutinizing it.


title: Cardiology

paragraphs: Cardiology (from Greek , "kardiā", "heart"; and , "-logia") is a medical field that deals with disorders of the heart and blood vessels. Physicians in this field are called cardiologists. Cardiologists are different from cardiac surgeons who do cardiac surgery.


title: Annual Tree Mallow

paragraphs: Annual Tree Mallow is a flowering plant. The genus "Lavatera" includes annual and perennials.


title: Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence

paragraphs: Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence, (November 29, 1338 — October 7, 1368), born in Antwerp, was the third son of Edward III. When he was only a child he was married to Elizabeth de Burgh (d.1363), daughter of William de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster (d.1332). The ceremony took place on August 15, 1342, at the Tower of London. He became properly married to her in 1352, when he was aged 14, and took over all her lands in Ireland. The famous English poet, Geoffrey Chaucer, was a page to Elizabeth.

paragraphs: He was Edward III's representative in England and in 1355 he was made the Earl of Ulster. He went to Dublin in 1361 to be the Chief Governor of Ireland. His father made him Duke of Clarence in 1362, and tried to have him made King of Scotland. Lionel and the government in Dublin were concerned about how the English settlers in Ireland were slowly become Irish. He brought in laws, the Statute of Kilkenny, in 1366, which made it against the law:

paragraphs: Lionel found it difficult to get control over Ireland and went back to England in 1367.

paragraphs: After the death of Elizabeth, Lionel married Violante, the daughter of Galeazzo Visconti, Lord of Pavia (d.1378), in Milan during June 1368. While travelling around Italy, Lionel became sick and died at Alba on October 7, 1368. He was buried at the Clare Priory, Suffolk, England.

paragraphs: His daughter, Philippa Plantagenet, married Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March (1351-1381), in 1368. This made Lionel an ancestor of Edward IV.


title: Ottmar Hitzfeld

paragraphs: Ottmar Hitzfeld (born 12 January 1949) is a former German football player and football manager.


title: Ligue 2

paragraphs: Ligue 2 is a football league which is second division in France.


title: Gilberto Carlos Nascimento

paragraphs: Gilberto Carlos Nascimento (born 14 June 1966) is a former Brazilian football player. He has played for Brazil national team.


Hideki Nagai


title: Cross-platform interchange

paragraphs: A cross-platform interchange is a type of interchange between different lines in a railway system.


title: Northern line

paragraphs: The Northern line is a deep-level tube line on the London Underground, coloured black on the Tube map. It carries more passengers than any other Underground line; 206,734,000 a year.

paragraphs: For most of its length it is a deep-level tube line. The portion between and opened in 1890 and is the oldest section of deep-level tube line on the Underground network. There were about 252 million passenger journeys recorded in 2011/12 on the Northern line, making it the second-busiest on the Underground. (It was the busiest from 2003 to 2010.) It is unique in having two different routes through central London. Despite its name, it does not serve the northern-most stations on the network, though it does serve the southern-most station, Morden, as well as 16 of the system's 29 stations south of the River Thames. There are 50 stations in total on the line, of which 36 have platforms below ground.

paragraphs: The line has a complicated history, and the current complex arrangement of two main northern branches, two central branches and the southern route reflects its genesis as three separate railways, combined in the 1920s and 1930s. An extension in the 1920s used a route originally planned by a fourth company. Abandoned plans from the 1920s to extend the line further southwards, and then northwards in the 1930s, would have incorporated parts of the routes of two further companies. From the 1930s to the 1970s, the tracks of a seventh company were also managed as a branch of the Northern line. An extension from Kennington to Battersea is currently under construction, which may either give the Northern line a second southern branch or may see it split into separate distinct lines with their own identities. It is coloured black on the current Tube map.

paragraphs: The City and South London Railway (C&SLR) was the first deep-level underground "tube" railway in the world, and the first major railway to use electric traction. The railway was originally intended for cable-hauled trains, but owing to the bankruptcy of the cable contractor during construction, a system of electric traction using electric locomotives—an experimental technology at the time—was chosen instead. Given the small dimension of the tunnels as well as the difficulty of providing sufficient ventilation, steam power, as used on London's other underground railways, was not feasible for a deep tube railway. Like Greathead's earlier Tower Subway, the CL&SS was intended to be operated by cable haulage with a static engine pulling the cable through the tunnels at a steady speed. Section 5 of the 1884 Act specified that:

paragraphs: The Patent Cable Tramway Corporation owned the rights to the Hallidie cable-car system first invented and used in San Francisco in 1873; trains were attached to the cable with clamps, which would be opened and closed at stations, allowing the carriages to disconnect and reconnect without needing to stop the cable or to interfere with other trains sharing the cable. There were to be two independent endless cables, one between City station and Elephant and Castle moving at 10 mph, and the other between Elephant and Castle and Stockwell, where the gradient was less, at 12 mph. However, the additional length of tunnel permitted by the supplementary acts challenged the practicality of the cable system.

paragraphs: It is reported that this problem with the CL&SS contributed to the bankruptcy of the cable company in 1888. However, electric motor traction had been considered all along, and much engineering progress had been made since the tunnel's construction had begun in 1886. So, CL&SS chairman Charles Grey Mott decided to switch to electric traction. Other cable-operated systems using the Hallidie patents continued to be designed, such as the Glasgow Subway which opened in 1896.

paragraphs: The solution adopted was electrical power, provided via a third rail beneath the train, but offset to the west of centre for clearance reasons. Although the use of electricity to power trains had been experimented with during the previous decade, and small-scale operations had been implemented, the C&SLR was the first major railway in the world to adopt it as a means of motive power. The system operated using electric locomotives built by Mather & Platt collecting a voltage of 500 volts (actually +500 volts in the northbound tunnel and −500 volts in the southbound) from the third rail and pulling several carriages. A depot and generating station were constructed at Stockwell. Owing to the limited capacity of the generators, the stations were originally illuminated by gas. The depot was on the surface, and trains requiring maintenance were initially hauled up via a ramp although, following a runaway accident, a lift was soon installed. In practice, most rolling stock and locomotives went to the surface only for major maintenance.

paragraphs: To avoid the need to purchase agreements for running under surface buildings, the tunnels were bored below roadways, where construction could be carried out without charge. At the northern end of the railway, the need to pass deep beneath the bed of the River Thames and the medieval street pattern of the City of London constrained the arrangement of the tunnels on the approach to King William Street station. Because of the proximity of the station to the river, steeply inclined tunnels were required to the west of the station. Because of the narrow street under which they ran, they were bored one above the other rather than side by side as elsewhere. The outbound tunnel was the lower and steeper of the two. The tunnels converged immediately before the station, which was in one large tunnel and comprised a single track with a platform on each side. The other terminus at Stockwell was also constructed in a single tunnel but with tracks on each side of a central platform.

paragraphs: When opened in 1890, the line had six stations and ran for in a pair of tunnels between the City of London and Stockwell, passing under the River Thames:

paragraphs: The original service was operated by trains composed of an engine and three carriages. Thirty-two passengers could be accommodated in each carriage, which had longitudinal bench seating and sliding doors at the ends, leading onto a platform for boarding and alighting. It was reasoned that there was nothing to look at in the tunnels, so the only windows were in a narrow band high up in the carriage sides. Gate-men rode on the carriage platforms to operate the lattice gates and announce the station names to the passengers. Because of their claustrophobic interiors, the carriages soon became known as "padded cells". These trains were however, preserved in London Transport Museum as the first static exhibit to the metro train.

paragraphs: The diameter of the tunnels restricted the size of the trains, and the small carriages with their high-backed seating were nicknamed "padded cells". The railway was extended several times north and south, eventually serving 22 stations over a distance of from Camden Town in north London to Morden in Surrey.

paragraphs: Although the C&SLR was well used, low ticket prices and the construction cost of the extensions placed a strain on the company's finances. In 1913, the C&SLR became part of the Underground Group of railways and, in the 1920s, it underwent major reconstruction works before its merger with another of the Group's railways, the Charing Cross, Euston & Hampstead Railway, forming a single London Underground line called the Morden-Edgware line. In 1933, the C&SLR and the rest of the Underground Group was taken into public ownership. Today, its tunnels and stations form the Bank Branch of the Northern line from Camden Town to Kennington and the southern leg of the line from Kennington to Morden.

paragraphs: The CCE&HR (commonly known as the "Hampstead Tube") was opened in 1907 and ran from Charing Cross (known for many years as Strand) via Euston and Camden Town (where there was a junction) to Golders Green and Highgate (now known as Archway). It was extended south by one stop to Embankment in 1914 to form an interchange with the Bakerloo and District lines. In 1913 the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL), owner of the CCE&HR, took over the C&SLR, although they remained separate companies.

paragraphs: During the early 1920s, a series of works was carried out to connect the C&SLR and CCE&HR tunnels to enable an integrated service to be operated. The first of these new tunnels, between the C&SLR's Euston station and the CCE&HR's station at Camden Town, had originally been planned in 1912 but had been delayed by World War I. The second connection linked the CCE&HR's Embankment and C&SLR's Kennington stations and provided a new intermediate station at Waterloo to connect to the main line station there and the Bakerloo line. The smaller-diameter tunnels of the C&SLR were expanded to match the standard diameter of the CCE&HR and the other deep tube lines.

paragraphs: In conjunction with the works to integrate the two lines, two major extensions were undertaken: northwards to Edgware in Middlesex (now in the London Borough of Barnet) and southwards to Morden in Surrey (then in the Merton and Morden Urban District, but now in the London Borough of Merton).

paragraphs: The Edgware extension used plans dating back to 1901 for the Edgware and Hampstead Railway (E&HR) which the UERL had taken over in 1912. It extended the CCE&HR line from its terminus at Golders Green to Edgware in two stages: to Hendon Central in 1923 and to Edgware in 1924. The line crossed open countryside and ran on the surface, apart from a short tunnel north of Hendon Central. Five new stations were built to pavilion-style designs by Stanley Heaps, head of the Underground's Architects Office, stimulating the rapid northward expansion of suburban developments in the following years.

paragraphs: The engineering of the Morden extension of the C&SLR from Clapham Common to Morden was more demanding, running in tunnels to a point just north of Morden station, which was constructed in a cutting. The line then runs under the wide station forecourt and public road outside the station, to the depot. The extension was initially planned to continue to Sutton over part of the route for the unbuilt Wimbledon and Sutton Railway, in which the UERL held a stake, but agreements were made with the Southern Railway to end the extension at Morden. The Southern Railway later built the surface line from Wimbledon to Sutton, via South Merton and St. Helier. The tube extension opened in 1926, with seven new stations, all designed by Charles Holden in a modern style. Originally, Stanley Heaps was to design the stations, but after seeing these designs Frank Pick, Assistant Joint Manager of the UERL, decided Holden should take over the project. With the exception of Morden and Clapham South, where more land was available, the new stations were built on confined corner sites at main road junctions in areas that had been already developed. Holden made good use of this limited space and designed impressive buildings. The street-level structures are of white Portland stone with tall double-height ticket halls, with the famous London Underground roundel made up in coloured glass panels in large glazed screens. The stone columns framing the glass screens are surmounted by a capital formed as a three-dimensional version of the roundel. The large expanses of glass above the entrances ensure that the ticket halls are bright and, lit from within at night, welcoming. The first and last new stations on the extension, Clapham South and Morden, include a parade of shops and were designed with structures capable of being built above (like many of the earlier central London stations). Clapham South was extended upwards soon after its construction with a block of apartments; Morden was extended upwards in the 1960s with a block of offices. All the stations on the extension, except Morden itself, are Grade II listed buildings.

paragraphs: The resulting line became known as the "Morden–Edgware line", although a number of alternative names were also mooted in the fashion of the contraction of Baker Street & Waterloo Railway to "Bakerloo", such as "Edgmor", "Mordenware", "Medgway" and "Edgmorden". With Egyptology very much in fashion after the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922, there was also a proposal to call the line the Tootancamden Line as it passed through both Tooting and Camden. It was eventually named the "Northern line" from 28 August 1937, reflecting the planned addition of the Northern Heights lines.

paragraphs: After the UERL and the Metropolitan Railway (MR) were brought under public control in the form of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) in 1933, the MR's subsidiary, the Great Northern & City Railway, which ran from Moorgate to Finsbury Park, became part of the Underground as the Northern City Line. In preparation for the Northern Heights Plan, it was operated as part of the Northern line, although it was never connected to it.

paragraphs: In June 1935, the LPTB announced the New Works Programme, an ambitious plan to expand the Underground network which included the integration of a complex of existing London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) lines north of Highgate through the Northern Heights. These lines, built in the 1860s and 1870s by the Edgware, Highgate and London Railway (EH&LR) and its successors, ran from Finsbury Park to Edgware via Highgate, with branches to Alexandra Palace and High Barnet. The line taken over would be extended beyond Edgware to Brockley Hill, Elstree South and Bushey Heath with a new depot at Aldenham. The extension's route was that planned for the unbuilt Watford and Edgware Railway (W&ER), using rights obtained from the earlier purchase of the W&ER (which had long intended an extension of the EH&LR Edgware route towards Watford). This also provided the potential for further extension in the future; Bushey's town planners reserved space in Bushey village for a future station and Bushey Heath station's design was revised several times to ensure this option would remain available in the future.

paragraphs: The project involved electrification of the surface lines (operated by steam trains at the time), the doubling of the original single-line section between Finchley Central and the proposed junction with the Edgware branch of the Northern line, and the construction of three new linking sections of track: a connection between Northern City Line and Finsbury Park station on the surface; an extension from Archway to the LNER line near East Finchley via new deep-level platforms below Highgate station; and a short diversion from just before the LNER's Edgware station to the Underground's station of the same name.

paragraphs: The peak-hour service pattern was to be 21 trains an hour each way on the High Barnet branch north of Camden Town, 14 of them via the Charing Cross branch and seven via the Bank branch. 14 would have continued on beyond Finchley Central, seven each on the High Barnet and Edgware branches. An additional seven trains an hour would have served the High Barnet branch, but continued via Highgate High-Level and Finsbury Park to Moorgate, a slightly shorter route to the City. It does not seem to have been intended to run through trains to the ex-Northern City branch from Edgware via Finchley Central. Seven trains an hour would have served the Alexandra Palace branch, to/from Moorgate via Highgate High-Level. In addition to the 14 through trains described, the ex-Northern City branch would have had 14 four-car shuttle trains an hour.

paragraphs: Work began in the late 1930s, and was in progress on all fronts by the outbreak of World War II. The tunnelling northwards from the original Highgate station (now Archway) had been completed, and the service to the rebuilt surface station at East Finchley started on 3 July 1939, but without the opening of the intermediate (new) Highgate Station, at the site of the LNER's station of the same name. Further progress was disrupted by the start of the war, though enough had been made to complete the electrification of the High Barnet branch onwards from East Finchley over which tube services started on 14 April 1940; the new (deep-level) Highgate station opened on 19 January 1941. The single track LNER line to Edgware was electrified as far as Mill Hill East, including the Dollis Brook Viaduct, opening as a tube service on 18 May 1941 to serve the barracks there, thus forming the Northern line as it is today. The new depot at Aldenham had already been built and was used to build Halifax bombers. Work on the other elements of the plan was suspended late in 1939.

paragraphs: Preparatory work including viaducts and a tunnel had been started but not completed on the Bushey extension pre-war. After the war, the area beyond Edgware was made part of the Metropolitan Green Belt, largely preventing the anticipated residential development in the area, and the potential demand for services from Bushey Heath thus vanished. Available funds were directed towards completing the eastern extension of the Central line instead, and the Northern Heights plan was dropped on 9 February 1954. Aldenham depot was converted into an overhaul facility for buses.

paragraphs: The implemented service from High Barnet branch gave good access both to the West End and the City. This appears to have undermined traffic on the Alexandra Palace branch, still run with steam haulage to Kings Cross via Finsbury Park, as Highgate (low-level) was but a short bus ride away and car traffic was much lighter than it would become later. Consequently, the line from Finsbury Park to Muswell Hill and Alexandra Palace via the surface platforms at Highgate was closed altogether to passenger traffic in 1954. This contrasts with the decision to electrify the Epping-Ongar branch of the Central line, another remnant of the New Works programme, run as a tube-train shuttle from 1957. A local pressure group, the Muswell Hill Metro Group, campaigns to reopen this route as a light-rail service. So far there is no sign of movement on this issue: the route, now the Parkland Walk, is highly valued by walkers and cyclists, and suggestions in the 1990s that it could, in part, become a road were met with fierce opposition. Another pressure group has proposed using the track bed further north, as part of the North and West London Light Railway. The connection between Drayton Park and the surface platforms at Finsbury Park was opened in 1976, when the Northern City Line became part of British Rail.

paragraphs: In 1975, the Northern City Line, known by that time as the Highbury branch, was transferred from London Underground to British Rail; it is now served by Great Northern. In the past, before the introduction of the 1995 stock, the Northern line was sometimes nicknamed the "Misery Line" in the press because of its perceived unreliability.

paragraphs: In 2003, a train derailed at Camden Town. Although no one was hurt, points, signals and carriages were damaged, and the junctions there were not used while repairs were under way: trains coming from Edgware worked the Bank branch only, and trains from High Barnet and Mill Hill East worked the Charing Cross branch only. This situation was resolved when the junctions reopened, after much repair work and safety analysis and testing by contractor, on 7 March 2004.

paragraphs: On 7 July 2005 a defective train on the Northern line (causing its subsequent suspension) saved a Northern line train from being blown up as part of a terrorist attack on the London Underground and bus systems. Three trains on the Circle and Piccadilly lines were blown up. The Northern line bomber-to-be instead boarded a bus, which he later blew up.

paragraphs: On 13 October 2005 the Northern line service was suspended due to maintenance problems with the emergency braking system on the entire train fleet. A series of rail replacement buses was used to connect outlying stations with other Underground lines. Full service was restored on 18 October.

paragraphs: From June 2006, the service between East Finchley and Camden Town was suspended for two non-consecutive weekends every month, with service on the Edgware branch suspended for the other two weeks. This was part of Tube Lines's redevelopment of some Edgware and High Barnet Branch stations, including replacement of track, signals, as well as station maintenance. This included refurbishment of all High Barnet branch stations from West Finchley to Camden Town. In October 2006, off-peak service between Mill Hill East and Finchley Central was cut back to a shuttle, except for a few weekend through trains.

paragraphs: On 13 August 2010, a defective rail maintenance train caused disruption on the Charing Cross branch, after it travelled four miles in 13 minutes without a driver. The train was being towed to the depot after becoming faulty. At Archway station, the defective train became detached and ran driverless until coming to a stop at an incline near Warren Street station. This caused morning rush-hour services to be suspended on this branch. All passenger trains were diverted via the Bank branch, with several not stopping at stations until they were safely on the Bank branch.

paragraphs: The Northern line was originally scheduled to switch to automatic train operation in 2012, using the same SelTrac S40 system as used since 2009 on the Jubilee line and for a number of years on the Docklands Light Railway. Originally the work was to follow on from the Jubilee line so as to benefit from the experience of installing it there, but that project was not completed until spring 2011. Work on the Northern line was contracted to be completed before the 2012 Olympics. It is now being undertaken in-house, and TfL predicted the upgrade would be complete by the end of 2014. The first section of the line (West Finchley to High Barnet) was transferred to the new signalling system on 26 February 2013 and the line became fully automated on 1 June 2014 with the Chalk Farm to Edgware via Golders Green section being the last part of the line to switch to ATO.


Circle Line


title: Circle line (London Underground)

paragraphs: The Circle line, coloured yellow on the tube map, is the eighth busiest line on the London Underground. It forms a loop line around the centre of London on the north side of the River Thames. Platforms are 120 metres long in the south and 130 metres long on the part of the track shared with the Metropolitan line.

paragraphs: In 1863 the Metropolitan Railway opened in London between Paddington and Farringdon. It was the world's first underground railway. It connected the Great Western Railway's relatively remote terminus at Paddington with Euston and King's Cross stations and the City, London's financial heart. In the same year a report recommended an 'inner circle' of railway lines between the London termini that had been built or were under construction. In the next year the Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) was formed to build and operate a railway from South Kensington to Tower Hill. The Metropolitan western extension opened in 1868 from a new station at Paddington to South Kensington. By May 1870 the District railway had opened its line from West Brompton to Blackfriars via Gloucester Road and South Kensington, services being operated at first by the Metropolitan. In 1871 the District had built a terminus at Mansion House, and on 18 November 1876 the Met opened its terminus at Aldgate. Due to conflict between the two companies it took an Act of Parliament before further work was done on the inner circle. In 1882 the Metropolitan extended its line from Aldgate to a temporary station at Tower Hill and the District completed its line to Whitechapel. On 6 October 1884 the temporary station was replaced with a joint station and the inner circle was complete. The Metropolitan provided the clockwise or 'outer rail' trains, the District the 'inner rail' or anti-clockwise.

paragraphs: As well as the inner circle, other routes circumnavigated London, although these were not complete loops. From 1872 the L&NWR began an "outer circle" service from Broad Street to Mansion House via Willesden Junction and Earl's Court, diverting an earlier service that had run to Victoria; and the GWR began a "middle circle" service from Moorgate to Mansion House via Latimer Road and Earl's Court. Both of these routes were cut back to Earl's Court: the "middle circle" in 1900 and the "outer circle" in 1909. The GWR service survived as a shuttle service from the Hammersmith & City line to Addison Road, now Kensington (Olympia), until 1940.

paragraphs: The Midland Railway briefly ran a "super outer circle" from St Pancras to Earl's Court from 1878 to 1880. Today London Overground runs services between Clapham Junction, Willesden Junction and Dalston Junction and between Dalston Junction and Clapham Junction.

paragraphs: Wooden carriages were originally hauled by steam locomotives leading to smoke-filled stations and carriages, unpopular with passengers. At the start of the 20th century the District and Metropolitan were seeing increased competition in central London from the new electric underground tube lines and trams, and conversion to electric traction was seen as the way forward. Experiments were carried out on the Earl's Court to High Street Kensington section, and a jointly-owned six-carriage train began passenger service in 1900. Following this an AC system was suggested, and this was accepted by both parties. However, the District was looking for a way to raise the finance needed and in 1901 found an investor, the American Charles Yerkes. He formed the Underground Electric Railways of London (UERL), and his experience in the United States led him to favour DC, with third-rail pick-up similar to that in use on the City & South London Railway and Central London Railway. After arbitration by the Board of Trade the DC system was taken up, and the railways began electrifying the routes, using multiple-unit stock.

paragraphs: The District and Metropolitan Railways bought different designs of electric multiple unit. Both had open saloons; the Metropolitan trains with gated ends, the District B Stock with sliding doors in the middle of each car. When their introduction was attempted on 1 July 1905, a Metropolitan train overturned the third rail on the District Railway, requiring all Metropolitan trains to be modified before running again on the District lines. Full electric service started on 24 September, initially with 6-car trains, later reduced to 4-car. The Metropolitan trains were soon modified to enclose the gated end and eventually to add sliding doors in the middle. Trains were increased to 5 cars in 1918 and the Metropolitan introduced new stock in 1921, with three pairs of sliding double doors on trailer cars. In 1926 the Metropolitan took over all inner circle workings except for three trains on Sundays.

paragraphs: On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan and the District Railways were amalgamated with other Underground railways, tramway companies and bus operators to form the London Passenger Transport Board. Metropolitan Railway electric multiple units were refurbished in 1934 at Acton Works to become eighteen 5-car trains of Circle Stock, at first painted red and cream, later painted red all over to reduce costs. These trains included first-class accommodation, but this was downgraded in 1940. From 1947 these were replaced by 5-car trains of O and P Stock, with doors remotely operated by the guard, released by the transfer of F Stock to the Uxbridge line. The 1933 London Underground Beck map shows a Metropolitan line north of and stations and a District line south of these points. On the 1947 map the Metropolitan and District lines were shown together in the same colour and two years later in 1949 the Circle line was shown separately on the map.

paragraphs: In 1959–1960 Circle line trains were increased to 6 cars, the same length as those operating on the Hammersmith & City line, and the stock of the two lines was integrated with maintenance concentrated at Hammersmith depot, allowing Neasden depot to concentrate on the new A Stock. Aluminium C Stock trains, with public address systems and originally unpainted, replaced these trains from 1970. One person operation of the trains was proposed in 1972 but, due to conflict with the trade unions, was not introduced until 1984. In 2003, the infrastructure of the Circle line was partly privatised in a public–private partnership, managed by the Metronet consortium. Metronet went into administration in 2007 and the local government body Transport for London took over responsibilities.

paragraphs: On 7 July 2005, at about 08:50, bombs exploded on two Circle line trains. One was travelling between Liverpool Street and Aldgate and the other was at Edgware Road. The bombs killed 15 people, including the two suicide bombers. Following the attacks, the whole of the Circle line was closed until 8 August.

paragraphs: A day before a ban on drinking alcohol on public transport in London came into force, a party was held on 31 May 2008, mainly on the Circle line. Thousands of people attended and 17 were arrested by police due to disorderly behaviour, eventually causing several stations to be closed.

paragraphs: Prior to 13 December 2009, Circle line trains travelled in both directions around a simple loop with 27 stations and of track. In 2006 there were fourteen trains in service on the line with an interval between trains of  minutes during peak hours and 8 minutes off-peak; the minimum running time around the circle off-peak was  minutes, although timetabled stops at stations extended this.

paragraphs: In December 2009 the Circle line was extended to include the Hammersmith & City route from Edgware Road to Hammersmith. Rather than continuously running around the circle, trains now travel from Hammersmith to Edgware Road, generally going around the circle once before terminating at Edgware Road, and returning via the same route; occasionally, trains may also continue clockwise through Edgware Road to additional stations. The change was made to improve reliability and increase the service frequency on the Hammersmith branch.

paragraphs: The first S7 Stock train entered passenger service on the Hammersmith & City line on 6 July 2012, running a shuttle service between Hammersmith and Moorgate, and first ran on the Circle line on 2 September 2013. By June 2014 all services were provided by S7 Stock trains.


title: Hammersmith & City line

paragraphs: The Hammersmith & City line is a line of the London Underground, colored salmon pink on the London Underground Map, running between Hammersmith in West London and Barking in East London.