title: Lady Frances Brandon

paragraphs: Lady Frances Brandon (16 July 1517–20 November 1559) was the daughter of Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. She was married to Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk and had three daughters: Jane, Mary and Katherine. Her daughter Jane became the Queen of England for nine days.

paragraphs: Frances Brandon was a cruel, abusive mother to her children and a bold wife to her husband, Henry Grey. She had spent her childhood with her mother and was very close to Catherine of Aragon, so she was against Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. In 1533, she married Henry Grey and soon she had two children who died young before having Lady Jane Grey in 1537, Katherine in 1540, and Mary in 1545.

paragraphs: In 1554, just weeks after her daughter Lady Jane Grey's and her husband Henry Grey's execution, Frances married again. This time it was to Adrian Stokes. Many people were shocked about this marriage, because Adrian was far below Frances's status. Historians believe that Frances was pregnant at the time of their marriage because she gave birth to a child about six months later. This child did not survive and Frances had two others. None of these last three children lived past a year.

paragraphs: Frances became increasingly large similar to her great-uncle Henry VIII. Because of this, she died in 1559 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.


title: Henry II of France

paragraphs: Henry II of France (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois. Henry was crowned King in Rheims, France, on July 25, 1547.

paragraphs: Henry was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on March 31, 1519. His parents were Francis I of France and Claude of France.

paragraphs: Henry was married to Catherine of Medici on October 28, 1533 when he was only 14 years old. Their children were:

paragraphs: Henry did not love Catherine of Medici. He spent most of his time with his mistress, who was called Diane de Poitiers.

paragraphs: Henry died on July 10, 1559 after a jousting accident. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. The next King was Francis II of France.


title: Francis I of France

paragraphs: Francis I of France (September 12, 1494 - March 31, 1547) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois.

paragraphs: Francis was born in Cognac, France on September 12, 1494. His parents were Charles, Duke of Angoulême and Louise of Savoy.

paragraphs: Francis I married Claude of France on May 18, 1514. They had seven children, two died before turning eight, two died at the ages of eighteen to twenty-three. Those who lived to adulthood were:

paragraphs: Francis was very interested in art and liked the artist Leonardo da Vinci.

paragraphs: Francis died on March 31, 1547. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.


title: Madeleine of Valois

paragraphs: Madeleine of France (10 August 1520 – 2 July 1537) was the daughter of Francis I of France and Claude of France. She was married to James V of Scotland on 1 January 1537 in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France.

paragraphs: Madeleine got sick with tuberculosis when she went to live in Scotland and died when she was only 16 years old. She is buried in Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh, Scotland.


title: Holyrood Abbey

paragraphs: Holyrood Abbey is in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is a ruined Augustine Abbey and was built by David I of Scotland in 1128.


title: The Muppets

paragraphs: The Muppets are puppet characters created by Jim Henson. The characters include Kermit the Frog and the Muppet cast of Sesame Street. Jim Henson started work with the Muppets in the 1950s and continued until his death in 1990. The Muppets are known for an absurd burlesque and humorous style of variety-sketch comedy.

paragraphs: The Muppets are now owned by The Walt Disney Company. The term "muppet" is trademarked and owned by The Walt Disney Company. Puppets used in Sesame Street are still called muppets at times, and have special permission to use that name from The Walt Disney Company.

paragraphs: Jim Henson said the name "muppet" came from combining the words "puppet" and "marionette," but he also said that he just liked the way the word sounded. There is no defined difference between a muppet and a puppet other than the link to Jim Henson. Many of Jim Henson's muppets have large eyes, round noses, and large mouths that go from one end of the face to the other (almost ear to ear). Muppets are often made out of foam with felt on top. Puppeteers usually control the muppet with one hand in the head and the other hand controls the muppets arms. Sometimes the arms have a stick that is used to move the hand and arm - this is called the "arm rod." Puppeteers hold the arm rod at one end and the other end touches the muppet hand. Some muppets have hands that are gloves. Puppeteers put their hands in the gloves of these muppets so the muppet can move its fingers. For this reason, most muppets appear to favor their left hands.


title: Wilhelm II of Germany

paragraphs: Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert von Hohenzollern, Wilhelm II of Prussia and Germany, (27 January 1859 – 4 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and the last King of Prussia, ruling from 1888 to 1918. He went to live in the Netherlands and abdicated (resigned) as King and Emperor. He died at Huis Doorn and is buried there because he ordered that he not be buried in Nazi Germany. Wilhelm died on June 4, 1941.

paragraphs: Kaiser Wilhelm II was born on 27 January 1859. He was the oldest child in his family. His father was Prince Frederick of Prussia. His mother was Princess Victoria, the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. He was born with a disabled left arm. He got married in 1881. His wife was Augusta Victoria. They had seven children. He studied at the Kassel Gymnasium, and later at the University of Bonn. He became leader of Germany in 1888 after his father died. He disagreed with his father's long-time Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, and dismissed him in 1890.

paragraphs: Wilhelm believed in strengthening Germany’s armed forces, especially the Navy. He led Germany during World War I.


title: Catherine de' Medici

paragraphs: Catherine de' Medici (Italian: "Caterina de Medici", ; French: "Catherine de Médicis", ; 13 April 1519 – 5 January 1589), was the wife of Henry II of France.

paragraphs: Catherine was the daughter of Lorenzo II de' Medici. She was born in Florence, Italy. She was born "Caterina Maria Romula de' Medici".

paragraphs: Catherine was married to Henry II of France when she was 14 years old. Their children were:

paragraphs: Catherine is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.


title: Francis II of France

paragraphs: Francis II of France (January 19, 1544 – December 5, 1560) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois.

paragraphs: Francis was born in Fontainebleau, France, on January 19, 1544 . His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine of Medici.

paragraphs: Francis was married to Mary, Queen of Scots, on April 24, 1558. They had no children.

paragraphs: Francis died in Orleans, France, on December 5, 1560 because of an ear infection. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica, next to King Charles IX of France.


title: Adela of Normandy

paragraphs: Adela of Normandy (c. 1067 – c. 8 March 1137) was the daughter of William I of England and Matilda of Flanders. She was married to Stephen, Count of Blois between 1080 and 1084 and became the mother of:

paragraphs: She lived long enough to see her son, Stephen, become King of England, but died soon afterwards.


title: Stephen of England

paragraphs: Stephen of England (c. 1096–25 October 1154) was King of England from 1135 until 1154. He became the King after the death of his uncle Henry I. Stephan was the King until his own death in Dover, Kent. Stephen was crowned at Westminster Abbey on the 26 December 1135. Stephen is buried at the Clunaic Monastery in Faversham, Kent.

paragraphs: King Stephen was born in Blois, France, in 1096. He was the son of Stephen, Count of Blois and Adela of Normandy. His mother, Adela, was the daughter of William I of England and Matilda of Flanders. Stephen married Matilda of Boulogne in about 1125. They had five children. He fought a civil war with Henry I's only daughter, Matilda, from 1139-1153. This ended with the Treaty of Wallingford in 1153 after the death of Stephen's son and heir, Eustace IV. The treaty said that Stephen would be King for the rest of his lifetime. After his death, the throne passed to Henry, son of Matilda, and not Stephen's other son William Died on 25 of October in 1154.))


title: Eleanor of Aquitaine

paragraphs: Eleanor of Aquitaine (c. 1122 – March 31, 1204) was the daughter of William X of Aquitaine. She had a younger sister called Petronilla of Aquitaine. She brought the province of Aquitaine to England when she married Henry II of England. It stayed under English control for 300 years.

paragraphs: Eleanor inherited land in France at the age of 15. She married Louis VII of France on July 22, 1137, and had two daughters:

paragraphs: The marriage was later annulled, as there were no male children.

paragraphs: Eleanor then married Henry II of England on May 18, 1152, and had eight children, including:

paragraphs: Eleanor was greatly known for her work in the Second Crusade, for she inspired many people to join.

paragraphs: Eleanor supported a revolt by her children against their father's rule in 1173. This revolt was unsuccessful, and King Henry II was so furious that he locked her away in a prison. In 1189, after King Henry II died and her son, Richard, came to be the king, Eleanor was freed. Shortly after, Richard died so she supported her son John to take the English throne against the claim of her grandson Arthur of Brittany. In 1202 during the campaign at Mairebeau, she continued to thwart Arthur. Emerging triumphant, Eleanor retired to a monastery. She died there on April 1, 1204.


title: John of England

paragraphs: King John (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216) was the son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was King of England from 6 April 1199, until his death. He became King of England after the death of his brother Richard I (Richard the Lionheart).

paragraphs: His reign was marked by disputes between John and his barons and bishops. Because of this the nobles forced him to observe the agreement called Magna Carta, to limit his power. The Magna Carta was a significant legal document in English history, as well as the first English “bill of rights”. It introduced the idea that monarchs had limited rights and had to follow certain laws, and it gave the nobles more say in the government. It not only affected English government, but inspired governments of other countries.

paragraphs: John's reign as king was important, but not considered successful from England's historical point of view. He tried several times to get back land in France which had been lost, but did not succeed.

paragraphs: As the fourth son of Henry II, John could expect no inheritance. Henry II divided his land among his sons before John was born. Later, John was expected to receive Ireland as a kingdom. Henry’s other sons strongly disagreed with this plan. When Henry died, John’s brother, Richard received all of Henry’s possessions, and John accepted Ireland as a feudal holding from Richard. His family life was tumultuous, as his older brothers all became involved in rebellions against Henry. His mother, Eleanor, was imprisoned by Henry in 1173, when John was about five years old.

paragraphs: As a young man, John already had a reputation for treachery. He conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers, Henry, Richard and Geoffrey. In 1184, John and Richard both claimed that they were the rightful heir to Aquitaine, one of many unfriendly encounters between the two.

paragraphs: Richard, now King Richard I of England was absent on the Third Crusade from 1190 to 1194. John attempted to overthrow William Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely, who was Richard's designated 'chief justiciar' (like a Regent or Prime Minister). This was one of the events which led later writers to cast John as the villain in the legend of Robin Hood.

paragraphs: John was more popular than Longchamp in London. In October 1191 the leading citizens of the city opened the gates to John while Longchamp was confined in the tower. John promised the city the right to govern itself as a commune in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive.

paragraphs: As he returned from the Crusade, Richard was captured by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, and handed over to Henry VI, the Holy Roman Emperor, who held him for ransom. Meanwhile, John had joined forces with Philip Augustus, King of France. They sent a letter to Henry asking him to keep Richard away from England for as long as possible, offering payment to keep Richard imprisoned. Henry declined their offer, and got his ransom from Eleanor of Aquitaine (who had to pawn the Crown Jewels). Richard was set free. John then begged forgiveness from Richard, who granted it and named him heir presumptive.

paragraphs: On Richard's death (6 April 1199) John was accepted in Normandy and England. He was crowned king at Westminster on 27 May, Ascension Day.

paragraphs: However, Anjou, Maine, and Brittany declared for Arthur of Brittany, son of his elder brother Geoffrey. Arthur fought his uncle for the throne, with the support of Philip II of France. The conflict between Arthur and John had serious consequences for both. Finally, Philip recognised John over Arthur. The price paid was John's agreement to be Philip's vassal in Normandy and Angevin.

paragraphs: Nevertheless, conflicts continued until in 1202 Philip declared all John's French lands and territories, except Gascony in the southwest, and immediately occupied them. Philip gave Arthur all the land he had taken from John, except for Normandy, and betrothed him to his daughter Marie.

paragraphs: John now needed to fight to get back 'his' land in France. In 1203 John ordered all shipyards in England to provide at least one ship, with the newly-built Portsmouth Naval Base to provide several. He made Portsmouth the new home of the navy. By the end of 1204, John had 45 large ships available to him, and from then on an average of four new ones every year. He also created an Admiralty of four admirals, responsible for various parts of the new navy. During John's reign, major improvements were made in ship design. He also created the first big transport ships. John is sometimes credited with the founding of the modern Royal Navy.

paragraphs: As part of the war, Arthur attempted to kidnap his own grandmother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, at Mirebeau, but was defeated and captured by John's forces. Arthur was imprisoned first at Falaise and then at Rouen. After this, Arthur's fate remains unknown, but it is believed that he was murdered by John. Assuming that he was murdered, Brittany, and later Normandy, rebelled against John. John also imprisoned his niece, Eleanor. Through deeds such as these, John acquired a reputation for ruthlessness.

paragraphs: In 1203, John exempted the citizens and merchants of Bordeaux from the "Grande Coutume", which was the principal tax on their exports. In exchange, the regions of Bordeaux, Bayonne and Dax pledged support against the French Crown. The unblocked ports gave Gascon merchants open access to the English wine market for the first time. The following year, John granted the same exemptions to La Rochelle and Poitou.

paragraphs: In June 1204, the fall of Rouen allowed Phillip to annex Normandy and also take parts of Anjou and Poitou.

paragraphs: John needed money for his army, but the loss of the French territories, especially Normandy, greatly reduced the state income. A huge tax would be needed to reclaim these territories. He imposed the first income tax, raising the (then) huge sum of £70,000.

paragraphs: When Archbishop of Canterbury Hubert Walter died on 13 July 1205, John became involved in a dispute with Pope Innocent III. The Canterbury Cathedral Chapter claimed the sole right to elect Hubert's successor, and favoured Reginald, a candidate out of their midst. However, both the English bishops and the King wanted someone else to have this powerful office. The king wanted John de Gray, one of his own men. When their dispute could not be settled, the Chapter secretly elected one of their members as Archbishop. A second election imposed by John resulted in another nominee. When they both appeared in the Vatican, Innocent disavowed (rejected) both elections, and his candidate, Stephen Langton, was elected despite the objections of John's observers. John was supported in his position by the English barons and many of the English bishops, and refused to accept Langton.

paragraphs: John expelled (dismissed) the Canterbury Chapter in July 1207, to which the Pope reacted by placing an interdict on the kingdom which meant that no one could receive religious blessings. John retaliated by closing down the churches. He confiscated (on paper) all church possessions, but individual churches were able to negotiate terms for managing their own properties and keeping the produce of their estates. After his excommunication, John tightened these measures and he got plenty from the income of vacant sees and abbeys. For example, the church lost an estimated 100,000 marks to the Crown in 1213. The Pope gave permission for some churches to hold Mass behind closed doors in 1209. In 1212, they allowed last rites to the dying. While the interdict was a burden to many, it did not result in rebellion against John.

paragraphs: In November 1209 John was excommunicated, and in February 1213, Innocent threatened stronger measures unless John submitted. The papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the papal legate Pandulph in May 1213 (according to Matthew Paris, at the Knights Templar Church at Dover); in addition, John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to God and the Saints Peter and Paul for a feudal service of 1,000 marks annually, 700 for England and 300 for Ireland. With this submission, written in a document, John gained the support of his papal overlord in his new dispute with the English barons.

paragraphs: After settling his dispute with the papacy, John turned his attentions back to France. The European wars ended in defeat at the Battle of Bouvines in July 1214, which forced the king to accept an unfavourable peace with France.

paragraphs: The heavy scutage levy for the failed campaign was the last straw, and when John attempted to raise more in September 1214, many barons refused to pay. The barons no longer believed that John was capable of regaining his lost lands.

paragraphs: In May 1215, Robert Fitz Walter led forty barons to renounce homage to the king at Northampton. The so-called 'Army of God' marched on London, taking the capital as well as taking Lincoln and Exeter.

paragraphs: John met their leaders and with their French and Scots allies at Runnymede, near London, on 15 June 1215. There they sealed the Great Charter, called in Latin "Magna Carta". It established a council of 25 barons to see John kept to the clauses like protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, parliamentary assent for taxation, and scutage limitations.

paragraphs: Because he was forced to seal the charter, John sought approval to break it, from his overlord the Pope. Denouncing it as "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust", the Pope agreed. This provoked the First Barons' War. The barons invited a French invasion by Prince Louis VIII of France and Louis accepted the offer of the crown of England as a reward for his support.

paragraphs: John travelled around the country to oppose the rebel forces, and directed a two-month siege of the rebel-held Rochester Castle. While a small force arrived in rebel-held London in November, the Scots under their king, Alexander II, invaded northern England. By the end of December, John was leading a murderous expedition in the north, culminating with the sacking of Berwick-upon-Tweed.

paragraphs: The French retook Rochester and much of the south, although the royalists held on to Windsor and Dover.

paragraphs: With the momentum swinging from John, some of his generals, including his half-brother William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, went to the rebel side. By the end of the summer, Louis held a third of the country and had the support of two-third of the barons. In September, Alexander II travelled down to pay homage to Louis at Dover, where the French pretender had being laying siege to Dover Castle.

paragraphs: Retreating from the French invasion, John took a safe route around the marshy area of The Wash to avoid the rebel held area of East Anglia. His slow baggage train (including the Crown Jewels), took a direct route across it and was lost to the incoming tide. This dealt John a terrible blow, which affected his health and state of mind. Succumbing to dysentery and moving from place to place, he died at Newark Castle. He was buried at Worcester Cathedral, in the West Midlands.

paragraphs: When King John died on 18 October, 1216 his nine-year-old son, Henry was too young to rule the kingdom. William Marshal was appointed as Regent to Henry III to make decisions on Henry’s behalf until he came of age. The barons switched their allegiance to the new king, forcing Louis to give up his claim and sign the Treaty of Lambeth in 1217.

paragraphs: King John's reign began with military defeats – he lost Normandy to Philip II of France in his first five years on the throne. His reign ended with England torn by civil war and himself on the verge of being forced out of power. In 1213, he made England a papal fief to resolve a conflict with the Catholic Church, and his rebellious barons forced him to seal Magna Carta in 1215, the act for which he is best remembered.

paragraphs: John is responsible for the creation of another English cultural icon, the historic, medieval London Bridge. To finance the construction of a large bridge across the Thames, King John allowed houses, shops, and a church to be built on top of the bridge.

paragraphs: John was an efficient ruler, but he lost approval of the barons by taxing them in ways outside those traditionally allowed by feudal overlords. The tax known as scutage became particularly unpopular. John was a fair-minded and well informed king, however. He often sat as a judge in the Royal Courts, and his justice was much sought after. Also, John's employment of an able Chancellor and clerks resulted in the first proper set of records.

paragraphs: Winston Churchill summarised the legacy of John's reign: "When the long tally is added, it will be seen that the British nation and the English-speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns". Medieval historian C. Warren Hollister called John an "enigmatic figure":

paragraphs: In 1189, John was married to Isabel of Gloucester. They had no children. John had their marriage annulled, and she was never acknowledged as queen. John remarried, on 24 August 1200, , who was twenty years his junior. John had kidnapped her from her fiancé, Hugh X of Lusignan.

paragraphs: John had many illegitimate children. Matthew Paris accuses him of seducing the more attractive daughters and sisters of his barons and relatives. John had these illegitimate children:

paragraphs: The surname "Fitzroy" is Norman-French for 'son of the king'.

paragraphs: John is also famous for his part in the Robin Hood stories where he plays one of Robin's enemies. Popular culture suggests that many people did not like him, but actually we do not know what ordinary people thought in the 13th century. William Shakespeare wrote a play about him. It was mostly about Arthur of Brittany and did not mention Robin Hood or Magna Carta.


title: 13 (number)

paragraphs: Thirteen is a number. It comes after twelve and before fourteen. It is an odd number.

paragraphs: Many people think thirteen is an unlucky number, especially when Friday is the thirteenth day of the month. This is a superstition. There is no proof that thirteen is an unlucky number.

paragraphs: Floors in tall buildings often skip floor thirteen, or reserve it for a mechanical floor. The idea of thirteen as an unlucky number is from pagan Norse mythology. It was believed to be unlucky to have thirteen people sitting at a table at a meal, and death is number thirteen in the tarot deck.

paragraphs: In Roman numerals, 13 is written as XIII.


title: Weekend

paragraphs: The weekend is a time when fewer people go to work or school. Traditional Christians believe that Sunday is a day of rest or Sabbath, and Jews believe the day of rest is the seventh day, Saturday, and start the week with Sunday. Friday is also considered the beginning of the weekend, and it is a day of rest for Muslims.


title: Alexandria

paragraphs: Alexandria (Arabic: الإسكندرية) is the second largest city in Egypt. It was founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια ("Alexandria"). It is on the Mediterranean Sea, only 225 km (140 miles) northwest of Cairo.

paragraphs: Alexandria has 3.8 million people. It is the main port of Egypt. It has two airports and three big stadia: Alexandria stadium, Harras el hadoud stadium and Borg el-Arab stadium in the Borg el-Arab industrial city.

paragraphs: The fourth Wikimania was hosted in this city in 2008.

paragraphs: Alexandria, named after Alexander the Great, was founded around 331 BC. For nearly 300 years, it was the capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Some famous ancient Greek scientists, such as Euclid of Alexandria and Eratosthenes, lived there or studied there. It was home to the largest library in the ancient Western world, the Library of Alexandria.

paragraphs: It was a wealthy city in its heyday, and remained the main way Egyptian grain went by sea to Ancient Rome. Rome depended greatly on Egyptian grain. Much of Alexandria sank below the sea in the 4th century. Some of her history is in the Mediterranean.

paragraphs: After the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, they did not want to have their capital at Alexandria, because it was too far away from Arabia. So the Islamic invaders made a new capital on the east side of the Nile, and called it Fustat. Alexandria became less important.


title: Celtic League

paragraphs: The Celtic League is a group of people from the six modern Celtic nations of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall and the Isle of Man. They want their countries to be free. These six countries each have a native Celtic language and the Celtic League supports the learning of these languages. The six Celtic languages are Irish, Gaelic (Scottish), Welsh, Breton, Cornish, and Manx.


title: Oprah Winfrey

paragraphs: Oprah Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American media proprietor, talk show host, actress, producer, and philanthropist. Winfrey is best known for her multi-award-winning talk show, "The Oprah Winfrey Show" which was the highest-rated program of its kind in history and was nationally syndicated from 1986 to 2011. She has also acted in several movies including "The Color Purple", "The Butler" and "A Wrinkle in Time".

paragraphs: Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954 in Kosciusko, Mississippi. Winfrey was named "Orpah" after a character in the Book of Ruth. People made the mistake of calling her "Oprah". She decided to keep this name. Her parents are Vernita Lee, a maid, and Vernon Winfrey, a barber. She went to Tennessee State University in 1971. She started to work in radio and television in Nashville. She hosted television programs in Baltimore and Chicago.

paragraphs: In 1986, Winfrey's own talk show "The Oprah Winfrey Show" went on the air. She was liked by audiences for her warmth. She came to own the show.

paragraphs: Winfrey now runs the Oprah Winfrey Network. On January 15, 2008, Winfrey and Discovery Communications announced plans to change Discovery Health Channel into a new channel called OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. It was scheduled to launch in 2009, but was delayed, and actually launched on January 1, 2011. She also hosts the "Oprah's Next Chapter" show on the network.

paragraphs: She endorsed Barack Obama in 2006 for the 2008 election. One estimate said it delivered one million votes in the 2008 Democratic primary race.

paragraphs: Nikyra Rucker loaned Oprah Winfrey money to start her business. Oprah Winfrey now has a lot of money. She gives to many charities. She gives to girls' education in South Africa. In 2013, she was named one of the 400 richest people in the United States. She is the only African-American among this group. She was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama in 2013 and an honorary doctorate degree from Harvard.


title: Colognian dialect

paragraphs: The Colognian dialect, or Kölsch is a variety of the German languages. People in and around the city of Cologne in the West of Germany use Kölsch. Nowadays most of them have High German as their primary language or secondary language.

paragraphs: About 250,000 people actively speak Kölsch.

paragraphs: More than 2,500,000 people understand Kölsch well and use some Kölsch, or a variant, somehow.

paragraphs: An estimated 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 people understand it partially.

paragraphs: How to say "Kölsch"? Take the beginning from "kernel" or "colonel"; next take a real dark, long "l" as in "bold", or "ball"; then append a "sh" as in "shrimps", or "ti" as in "nation". That's the sound "Kölsch". However, the German "ö" is not exactly the same as an English "o", but a sound between "o" and "e".

paragraphs: The word 'Kölsch' comes from the Name of the City of Cologne.

paragraphs: It is 'Köln' in native tongue, yet 'Kölle' in Kölsch.

paragraphs: Now by ordinary German word building rules, 'kölnisch' means 'belonging to Cologne', 'related to Cologne', 'in Cologne', 'from Cologne'—as in 'kölnisch Wasser' ("Eau de Cologne"). The word 'kölnisch', or 'köllesch', shortened to 'kölsch' in local tongue, became a shorthand noun for the local beer and the local language, or dialect.

paragraphs: Today's name of the city stems from ancient times of the Roman occupation of Northern Germany 100 years before Christ, and later. In the place of a longer existing German tribal settlement, the Romans built a fort or castle —

paragraphs: then, approximately under the reign of Julius Caesar, enhanced it to a colony (Latin: "colonia") with religious and city rights.

paragraphs: Part of its Roman name stuck, 'Colonia Clavdia Ara Agrippinensivm Oppidvm Vbiorum' became 'Köln' over the centuries.

paragraphs: Although Kölsch speakers occasionally claim that it is rooted in pre-Roman times, Kölsch's ripuarian base developed from a mix of Lower German and Middle High German in medieval times. It learned from other languages through political and trade connections during the times of the Hanse, and from various waves of immigration. In modern times, there were:

paragraphs: Kölsch has outstanding or unique properties. Here are some:

paragraphs: After the Second World War, Cologne took up and integrated a huge number of former inhabitants from the former East German regions, which now are part of Poland.

paragraphs: That has not had a remarkable impact on the Kölsch language; but on the immigrants.

paragraphs: They soon began to integrate into the social life and otherwise, they began to learn Kölsch.

paragraphs: Naturally they initially were not perfect speakers.

paragraphs: The Kölsch language recognized that, and quickly created a word for them: "imi" ('imitating' or 'imitated' Kölsch).

paragraphs: As they lerned Kölsch well over the years, you could hear the word 'imi' less often.

paragraphs: It came back recently, when the wall that separated East and West Germany was taken down.


Kölsch


title: Past tense

paragraphs: Past tense is a verb form which is marked by time (tense).

paragraphs: The past tense is used for actions in a time which has already happened. In order to explain and understand past tense, it is useful to imagine time as a line on which the past, the present tense and the future tense are positioned.

paragraphs: Words in English have several tenses, including many common past tenses. The two that are used the most are the simple past tense and the perfect tense

paragraphs: The simple past tense is used for action in past time. It usually uses for story telling or there is in narrative and recount text.

paragraphs: Different verbs change in different ways to make the past tense. The most common way is by ending with "ed" or we usually says REGULAR VERB.

paragraphs: Many other verbs are "irregular", this means that there is no pattern and no easy way to know how the verb changes.

paragraphs: If we want to make a past sentence, here are the formula:

paragraphs: (+) S + to be ( was / were) + Noun/adjective/adverb

paragraphs: (- ) S + to be (was / were) + not +Noun/adjective/adverb

paragraphs: (?) To be (was / were) + Noun/adjective/adverb

paragraphs: The Perfect is about "completion": actions which are completed. The tense refers to a period in the past. In English the Perfect is made by have + -ed or variations of that form.

paragraphs: Verb endings: -ed = finished; -ing = continuing


title: Freeview

paragraphs: Freeview is a free television service in the United Kingdom, and is sent to people's home using a digital signal. It includes more channels than normal analogue television provides. Over 30 television channels and 24 radio stations are on it at the moment. The service was put on air on October 30, 2002 in the early morning. ITV Digital was the previous service but the service had to be replaced because they were having financial problems.

paragraphs: Some TVs can receive Freeview automatically, but most people have to buy a special box to connect to their TV. In March 2006 over 6 million people had Freeview in their homes.

paragraphs: The service replaced the analogue signal in the United Kingdom in 2012.


title: Mark Addy

paragraphs: Mark Addy (born 14 January 1964, in York, England) is an English actor. The best known works by Addy are as Detective Boyle in the British sitcom "The Thin Blue Line", Dave in the movie "The Full Monty", father Bill Miller in the US sitcom "Still Standing" and more recently as King Robert Baratheon in the HBO fantasy epic "Game of Thrones".

paragraphs: Addy has played many different roles in both television and in movies. In 2013 he played Hercules, a medieval King, and a modern-day alcoholic with family problems.

paragraphs: Addy received the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture for "The Full Monty". He was also nominated for a BAFTA, Chlotrudis Award and Satellite Award. For "Game of Thrones" he was nominated for a Scream Award for Best Ensemble and an ensemble Screen Actors Guild Award.


title: Tuba

paragraphs: The tuba is the biggest of all the brass musical instruments. They are the newest part of the symphony orchestra, first showing up in the mid-19th century. Most orchestras have a tuba now. The standard tuba has about 16 feet of tubes.

paragraphs: Tubas are normally in the key of F, E"b", CC, or BB"b" and can have 3 to 6 valves. Because they are so big, some tubas have a "compensating system". This means a fourth, fifth or sixth valve is used to make the instrument sound more in tune - especially the lowest notes.

paragraphs: It takes a lot of breath to play the tuba. It is one of the loudest instruments in the orchestra but can also play very quietly.

paragraphs: The tuba usually plays the bass (lowest sounding) part even though it can play relatively high as well.

paragraphs: The tuba is used in all sorts of music and can be found in orchestras, wind bands, brass bands, jazz groups, pop groups, brass ensembles and even in tuba quartets (in groups of 4).


title: Garden gnome

paragraphs: The first garden gnome was created in Switzerland. It was later introduced to the United Kingdom in 1847 by Sir Charles Isham, when he brought 21 terracotta figures back from a trip to Germany and placed them around the gardens of his home at Lamport Hall in Northamptonshire. Only one of the original batch of gnomes survives: Lampy as he is known, is on display at Lamport Hall, and is insured for one million pounds.

paragraphs: Garden gnomes have become a popular accessory in many gardens, but they are not loved by all. They can be the target of pranks. People have been known to "return to the wild" these garden gnomes, most notably France's "Front de Liberation des Nains de Jardins" and Italy's "MALAG" (Garden Gnome Liberation Front). Some kidnapped garden gnomes have been sent on trips around the world, being passed from person to person and photographed at different famous landmarks, with the photos being returned to the owner. This practice is featured in the 2001 French film, "Amélie" and in an advertising campaign for Travelocity.com . Non-conventional gnome statues have also been made, such as a flashing gnome in a raincoat, or a gnome couple in love.

paragraphs: A sub-culture exists among those who collect garden gnomes. This phenomenon is frequently made fun of in popular culture.


title: Kentucky

paragraphs: Kentucky is a state in the United States. Its capital is Frankfort. It touches the states of Missouri (by the Mississippi River), Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia (by the Ohio River), Tennessee and Virginia. There are many rivers in Kentucky

paragraphs: Some people call it the "Bluegrass State" because of a special kind of grass that grows there. There are also horses in Kentucky that eat this blue grass. Kentucky is very famous for its horse farms. The Kentucky Derby, a well-known horse race. It is held in the city of Louisville, which is also the largest city in the state. Other well-known places are Fort Knox, The Cumberland Gap, Cumberland Falls, Mammoth Cave, Red River gorge, and Land Between the Lakes.

paragraphs: Some well-known towns and cities are Louisville, Lexington, Owensboro, Bowling Green, Covington, Florence, Maysville, Georgetown, Paducah, Murray, Bardstown, Morehead, Midway, Berea, Richmond, Danville, Versailles, Elizabethtown, Radcliff, Corbin, Somerset, Ashland, and Middlesboro.

paragraphs: Hodgenville, Kentucky is famous for being the birthplace of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln.


title: Gary Busey

paragraphs: Gary Busey (born June 29, 1944) is an American actor. He has appeared in many movies and television shows since the 1970s. In 1988, He was involved in a motorcycle accident, but he recovered. He was born in Goose Creek, Texas and grew up in Oklahoma. He was a heavy cocaine user for many years, before giving it up and becoming a born-again Christian. His elder son Jake Busey (born 1971) is also an actor.

paragraphs: Busey was a contestant in two celebrity series of "The Apprentice" (2011 and 2013). He won the August-September 2014 series of "Celebrity Big Brother" "UK".


title: Montana

paragraphs: Montana is a state in the United States. Its capital is Helena, and the largest city is Billings. Montana has many mountains in the western half of the state. Most of the eastern part of the state is prairie.

paragraphs: Montana and Canada share a 545-mile (877-km) part of the world's longest undefended (which means there are no soldiers or armies on either side) border. The state borders the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, more provinces than any other U.S. state.

paragraphs: To the east of Montana is North Dakota; to the southeast is a short border with South Dakota. In the south is Wyoming, and on the west and southwest is Idaho.

paragraphs: At one point, Montana was liberal in federal elections and conservative in state elections. Today, the opposite is true. Although Montana is very conservative in presidential elections (it has not voted for a Democrat since 1964), it is more liberal than most states in the upper Rocky Mountains region. As one example of this, Montana is represented by one Democrat and one Republican in the Senate. There are no Democratic senators from Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, North Dakota or South Dakota. The Montana House of Representatives, which has 100 members, includes 58 Republicans and 42 Democrats, making it more liberal than any state legislature in Wyoming or Idaho.


title: Wool

paragraphs: Wool is the hair of certain mammals. Most wool comes from sheep and goats, but wool is also taken from camels, llamas, and special rabbits. Wool is a natural material. People use wool fiber to make clothing, blankets, and other things to keep warm. It is usually used to make outer clothing but is also used to make blankets, socks, sweaters and fine clothing. Rabbit wool is called angora wool. Cashmere and mohair come from goats, qiviut from musk oxen, and other types of wool from camelids.

paragraphs: Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped and elastic. Wool fabrics clean easily. Wool also absorbs moisture and insulates against heat and cold.

paragraphs: Wool can be spun or made into yarn. The yarn is used to weave fabric or material. The yarn of wool can also be knitted into fabric or clothing like jumpers.Alpaca, mohair, angora, camel, cashmere and vicuna are all separate types of wool.

paragraphs: Wool can also be made into felt after it is boiled in hot water and rubbed together. Felt is a kind of fabric that is not woven. Felt can be used to make clothes to keep warm in cold weather.

paragraphs: Australia is the world's largest producer of raw wool, growing about 30 percent of the total world supply. Less wool is produced than in the middle 20th century, because people use more synthetic fibers.

paragraphs: Sheep were domesticated (tamed) in southwestern Asia about 11,000 years ago and now about 1 billion are now widely bred around the world.

paragraphs: Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber, Kemp (wool), medullated fibers and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out.

paragraphs: Rag is a sturdy wool fiber made into yarn and used in many rugged applications such as gloves. Worsted is a strong, long-staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface. Woolen is a soft, short-staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting


title: Saw

paragraphs: There are many kinds of saw. Some of them are hand tools that work with muscle power, like the saw in the picture. Some saws have other sources of power and can be very powerful, such as a chainsaw that is used to cut down trees.

paragraphs: The work carried out with a saw is usually noisy. Using a saw to cut materials is "dangerous" because of sharp teeth. Care must be taken not to let sharp edges touch the skin. Parts of the material being cut can fly off the work and become a hazard to breathing, to eyes and to the skin.

paragraphs: Or hand powered saws. These use the motion of a person's arm to make a cut.

paragraphs: Many saws are designed to cut on the push stroke (when the saw is pushed forward).

paragraphs: The is a type of saw used in woodworking. These saws typically cut on the pull stroke (when the saw is pulled backwards).

paragraphs: There are several kinds of powered saws. Some are powered by electricity from a . Others are powered by batteries. Still others can be powered by Internal combustion engines, steam, or water power.

paragraphs: A saw designed to cut down trees or cut branches from trees is a chainsaw. A chainsaw is named for the row of teeth attached to a flexible chain. The cut is often very rough and often has splinters.

paragraphs: Circular saws use a round blade, usually between 7 and 10 inches. They are often very powerful and can cut through hard or soft wood. They use interchangeable round blades. The blade can be designed to cut any of a number of kinds of materials from steel, to wood, to masonry.

paragraphs: Jig saws move the blade up and down to cut through materials. The stroke (or up and down movement) is usually less than one inch (25.4 mm). These saws are very good for making curved cuts. Jig saws use a variety of interchangeable blades for cutting different materials. Some blades make very smooth cuts.


title: Tennessee

paragraphs: Tennessee is a state in the United States. Its capital is Nashville, which is also the country music center of America. It is the home of the Smoky Mountains which are a famous tourist attraction. Other well known cities and towns are Memphis, Knoxville, Chattanooga, Oak Ridge, Lynchburg, Carthage, Lawrenceburg, Clarksville, Lebanon, Pigeon Forge, Murfreesboro, and Gatlinburg. Tennessee touches eight states: Kentucky and Virginia to the north; North Carolina to the east; Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi on the south; Arkansas and Missouri (by the Mississippi River) to the west. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states.

paragraphs: Tennessee was the 16th state to join the nation, on June 1, 1796

paragraphs: Several professional sports teams play there, including the Tennessee Titans of the NFL, the Memphis Grizzlies of the NBA, and the Nashville Predators of the NHL.


title: Connecticut

paragraphs: Connecticut is a state in the United States. Its capital is Hartford, and its largest city is Bridgeport.

paragraphs: The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state. The highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet (42° 3' N; 73° 29' W), on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts.

paragraphs: The Connecticut River cuts through the center of the state, flowing into Long Island Sound, Connecticut's outlet to the Atlantic Ocean. Further information: List of Connecticut rivers

paragraphs: The state, although small, has regional variations in its landscape and culture from the wealthy estates of Fairfield County's "Gold Coast" to the rolling mountains and horse-farms of the Litchfield Hills of northwestern Connecticut. Connecticut's rural areas and small towns in the northeast and northwest corners of the state contrast sharply with its industrial cities, located along the coastal highways from the New York border to New Haven, then northwards to Hartford, as well as further up the coast near New London. Many towns center around a small park, known as a "green," (such as the New Haven Green). Near the green may stand a small white church, a town meeting hall, a tavern, and several colonial houses. Forests, rivers, lakes, waterfalls and a sandy shore add to the state's beauty.

paragraphs: The northern boundary of the state with Massachusetts is marked by the distinctive Southwick Jog/Granby Notch, an approximately 2.5 mile (4.0 km) square detour into Connecticut slightly west of the center of the border. Somewhat surprisingly, the origin of this anomaly is uncertain, with stories ranging from surveyors who were drunk, attempting to avoid hostile Native Americans, or taking a shortcut up the Connecticut River; Massachusetts residents attempting to avoid Massachusetts' high taxes for the low taxes of Connecticut; Massachusetts' interest in the resources represented by the Congamond Lakes which lie on the border of the jog; and the need to compensate Massachusetts for an amount of land given to Connecticut due to inaccurate survey work. Perhaps the only suggested reason which can be safely ruled out is that the jog is necessary to prevent Massachusetts from sliding out into the Atlantic Ocean! In any event, the dispute over the border retarded the development of the region, since neither state would invest in even such basic amenities as schools for the area until the dispute had been settled.

paragraphs: The southwestern border of Connecticut, where it abuts New York State, is marked by a panhandle in Fairfield County, containing Greenwich, Stamford, Fairfield, Westport, Wilton, and Darien, housing some of the wealthiest residents in the world. This irregularity in the boundary is the result of territorial disputes in the late 1600s, culminating with New York giving up its claim to this area, whose residents considered themselves part of Connecticut, in exchange for an equivalent area extending northwards from Ridgefield, Connecticut to the Massachusetts border as well as undisputed claim to Rye, New York.

paragraphs: Areas maintained by the National Park Service include Appalachian National Scenic Trail; Quinebaug & Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor; and Weir Farm National Historic Site.

paragraphs: The name "Connecticut" comes from the Mohegan Indian word "Quinnehtukqut". It means "Long River Place" or "Beside the Long Tidal River." The first explorer from Europe to come to Connecticut was Adriaen Block, from the Netherlands. After he explored this region in 1614, Dutch fur traders sailed up the Connecticut River (Named Versche Rivier by the Dutch) and built a fort near present-day Hartford, which they called "House of Hope" (Dutch: Huys de Hoop).

paragraphs: The first English settlers came in 1633. They were Puritans from Massachusetts, who were led by the Reverend Thomas Hooker. They founded the Connecticut Colony. Colonies were also established at Old Saybrook and New Haven, which later became part of Connecticut. Historically important colonial settlements included: Windsor (1633), Wethersfield (1634), Saybrook (1635), Hartford (1636), New Haven (1638), and New London (1646).

paragraphs: Because the Dutch were outnumbered by the English settlers, they left their fort in 1654. Connecticut's first constitution, the "Fundamental Orders," was adopted on January 14, 1639, while its current constitution, the third for Connecticut, was adopted in 1965. Connecticut is the fifth of the original thirteen states.

paragraphs: The western boundaries of Connecticut have been subject to change over time. According to a 1650 agreement with the Dutch, the western boundary of Connecticut ran north from the west side of Greenwich Bay "provided the said line come not within 10 miles [16 km] of Hudson River." On the other hand, Connecticut's original Charter in 1662 granted it all the land to the "South Sea," i.e. the Pacific Ocean. This probably added confusion to the early forefathers because the Pacific Ocean is located on the west coast of the United States. Agreements with New York, the "Pennamite Wars" with Pennsylvania over Westmoreland County, followed by Congressional intervention, and the relinquishment and sale of the Western Reserve lands brought the state to its present boundaries.


title: Wyoming

paragraphs: Wyoming is a state in the western United States. Most of the state is in the Rocky Mountains, a large mountain range in the United States. Wyoming is the least populated U.S. state with a population of 576,412 people. Its capital and biggest city is Cheyenne. It borders Montana, South Dakota, Nebraska, Utah, Idaho, and Colorado.

paragraphs: Wyoming is known for many things including Yellowstone National Park, Cowboys, the Teton Mountains and coal.

paragraphs: Agriculture has always been an important part of the state economy of Wyoming. The main things grown in Wyoming are livestock (beef), hay, sugar beets, grain (wheat and barley), and wool.

paragraphs: The gross state product for Wyoming was $27.4 billion in 2005.


title: Mississippi

paragraphs: Mississippi is one of the states of the United States. Its capital and largest city is Jackson. The state flower and tree are the magnolia. Other large cities are Biloxi, Greenville, Gulfport, Hattiesburg, Meridian, Pascagoula, Southaven, Tupelo, Starkville, and Vicksburg. It touches Arkansas (by the Mississippi River), Louisiana, Tennessee, and Alabama. Mississippi has a large African American population due to slavery.


title: Delaware

paragraphs: Delaware () is a state in the United States. It is sometimes called the "First State" because it was the first colony to accept the new constitution in 1787. Its capital is Dover and its biggest city is Wilmington. It is the second smallest state in the United States.

paragraphs: The Dutch first settled Delaware. The Swedish then took over in the mid-1600s.

paragraphs: Delaware is long and ranges from to across, totaling , making it the second-smallest state in the United States after Rhode Island. Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania; to the east by the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west and south by Maryland.

paragraphs: Delaware is on a level plain, with the lowest mean elevation of any state in the nation. Its highest elevation, located at Ebright Azimuth, near Concord High School, is less than above sea level.

paragraphs: The transitional climate of Delaware supports a wide variety of vegetation. In the northern third of the state are found Northeastern coastal forests and mixed oak forests typical of the northeastern United States. In the southern two-thirds of the state are found Middle Atlantic coastal forests. Trap Pond State Park, along with areas in other parts of Sussex County, for example, support the northernmost stands of bald cypress trees in North America.

paragraphs: Delaware provides government subsidy support for the clean-up of property "lightly contaminated" by hazardous waste, the proceeds for which come from a tax on wholesale petroleum sales.

paragraphs: Delaware's sister state in Japan is Miyagi Prefecture.


title: Idaho

paragraphs: Idaho is a state in the northwestern United States, and the 43rd admittance to the union.

paragraphs: Idaho became a state in 1890, and it is the 11th largest state in land area, and the 14th largest in total area (land and water). Despite this, the population of Idaho was estimated at only 1,787,065 by the United States Census Bureau in 2019, making it ranked the 39th largest state by population.

paragraphs: Idaho is bordered by Washington and Oregon on the west, Montana and Wyoming on the east, Utah and Nevada on the south and the country of Canada (British Columbia) on the north side. Idaho is known for its vast mountainous landscapes, and it is literally covered from north to south by the Rocky Mountains. Idaho is also home to the massive Snake River, which comes from the Grand Tetons in Wyoming and eventually flows to meld with the Columbia River in Washington state. This river dissects Hell's Canyon, the deepest gorge in America, which lies the state's Oregon border, and flows through south central Idaho. This river provides a fertile plain which is the base for most of the state's agricultural industries, and the production of the potatoes for which Idaho is known. Idaho's state nickname is the "Gem State", despite also being known as the "Spud State", because of a man named who claimed it was derived from a term.

paragraphs: Idaho's most prominent universities are Boise State University located in its capital, Idaho State University located in Pocatello, and the University of Idaho located in Moscow.

paragraphs: Idaho's state motto is "Esto perpetua", which is Latin for "Let it be forever".

paragraphs: Idaho was formerly Idaho Territory, until July 27, 1890, when it became the 43rd state. In the 1930s, Idaho suffered a lot economically as as a result of the Great Depression. Prices plummeted for Idaho's major crops: in 1932, a bushel of potatoes was worth only ten cents compared to $1.51 in 1919, while Idaho farmers´ annual income of $686 in 1929 fell to just $250 by 1932.

paragraphs: Today, Idaho is a very conservative state. In the 2016 election, just two counties in Idaho supported Hillary Clinton. Idaho as a whole last voted Democratic in 1964, and that by a narrow margin of less than 2 percent. Both of Idaho´s senators (Jim Risch and Mike Crapo) are Republican.


title: Manila

paragraphs: Manila is the capital city of the Philippines. It is one of the largest cities in the Philippines. Manila is on the biggest island of the Philippines, Luzon. Manila is by a bay named "Manila Bay". The metropolitan area, called Metro Manila, is much larger. It stretches across a thin strip of land (called an isthmus) to a lake called "Laguna de Bay". Manila has a population of 1.78 million people.


title: DiC

paragraphs: DiC Entertainment (DiC) was an international/Canadian-American movie and television production company founded in 1971 as D.i.C. Audiovisuel by Jean Chalopin in France. In 2008 Cookie Jar Group bought out DiC and then merged it with Cookie Jar Entertainment. Dic Entertainment is now owned by DHX Media. In the 1985-1988 DiC theme, the 7th Yamaha DX7 internal factory patch "Marimba" or 7th Yamaha DX7 internal factory patch "Marimba" mixed with the synth noise/noise/Fairlight CMI III (1984-1989) patch "Choir" that is similar to the Roland D-50 synth noise/Roland D-50 noise.

paragraphs: Its American arm was started in 1982 as DiC Enterprises. The company's United States headquarters were in Burbank, California.

paragraphs: In 1986, Andy Heyward bought the company, making the US headquarters the main base of operations.

paragraphs: In 1993, DiC Animation City (as it was then known) and Capital Cities/ABC formed DIC Entertainment LP and in 1995 it became a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company.

paragraphs: In 2000 with an investment by Bain Capital, Heyward re-purchased DiC Enterprises (as it was then known). He purchased Bain Capital's part in 2004.

paragraphs: In 2003 DiC started a syndicated children's programming block called DiC Kids Network.

paragraphs: In early 2006, DiC Entertainment and CBS Corporation signed a multi-year deal for a new 3-hour long programming block for Saturday mornings on CBS. The resulting "KOL Secret Slumber Party on CBS" was started the following fall.

paragraphs: In April 2007, DiC Entertainment, Corus Entertainment's Nelvana and Sparrowhawk Media Group announced plans to start KidsCo, a new international children's entertainment network.

paragraphs: On June 20, 2008, it was announced that DiC would be bought out by Cookie Jar Group. On July 23, 2008, Cookie Jar completed the buy out of DiC Entertainment, and then it was merged with Cookie Jar Entertainment.

paragraphs: See List of Cookie Jar Entertainment programs


title: The Hobbit

paragraphs: The Hobbit, or There and Back Again, is a book written by J. R. R. Tolkien. It was first published on September 21, 1937. Tolkien wrote it in the 1930s for his children as a bedtime story. The story takes place before "The Lord of the Rings".

paragraphs: The plot is about the hobbit (a small race of people invented by Tolkien) Bilbo Baggins who goes on an adventurous quest with a group of dwarves and the wizard Gandalf, in order to fight the dragon Smaug, which has stolen the treasures and home of the dwarves.

paragraphs: Although Tolkien borrowed (for example names and background) from his own Middle-earth storyline, "The Hobbit" was at first not intended to be part of it. Only later, when Tolkien wrote "The Lord of the Rings", did he integrate the story of both "Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings" into his Middle-earth world.

paragraphs: Bilbo Baggins is a hobbit, who lives a quiet life in the Shire, who goes on an unexpected adventure during the book. He is visited by the wizard Gandalf the Grey, who enlists him to travel with a group of 13 dwarves, as a burglar.

paragraphs: Thorin Oakenshield is the leader of the group of dwarves, and true King under the Mountain of the old Dwarven kingdom of the Lonely Mountain. The dwarves are on an adventure to get their old kingdom back from the dragon Smaug, who conquered the Lonely Mountain and made the dwarves flee years before. The other dwarves are and Thorin's young nephews Fíli and Kíli, Thorin's cousins Balin and Dwalin, Óin and Glóin, Dori, Nori, Ori, and the dwarves Bifur, Bofur and Bombur.

paragraphs: Along their travels they met many people and creatures: Elrond, a wise elf in Rivendell; goblins; Gollum, a creature with a magic ring; speaking Great Eagles; Beorn the bear shapeshifter; the Elvenking of Mirkwood; Bard the Bowman, and many more.

paragraphs: The hobbit Bilbo Baggins lives a quiet and peaceful life. One day the wizard Gandalf comes to him, and with him thirteen dwarves: Thorin Oakenshield, Fíli and Kíli, Balin, Dwalin, Óin, Glóin, Dori, Nori, Ori, Bifur, Bofur, and Bombur.

paragraphs: The dwarves tell their story: A long time ago they lived in the Lonely Mountain. Thorin's father was their king, the "King under the Mountain". But one day the dragon Smaug came to the Lonely Mountain and killed all of the dwarves he found. The dragon took their treasure and now lives in the Lonely Mountain. But some of the dwarves could flee.

paragraphs: Now the dwarves want to go back the Lonely Mountain, and get back their home and treasures from the dragon. Gandalf wants Bilbo to come with them, and work as a master thief. At first Bilbo does not want to, but later he goes with them.

paragraphs: Gandalf, the dwarves, and Bilbo start to go east on their journey to the Lonely Mountain. After Gandalf saves the group from three trolls, they find the trolls' cave. Among the trolls' things there is some gold and swords. Gandalf, Thorin, and Bilbo each get a sword. The group continues on to the elven city Rivendell. Its master, Elrond, gives them helpful information.

paragraphs: As the group travels east over the Misty Mountains, they are attacked by Goblins (Orcs). The Goblins take the dwarves and Bilbo into their caves. Gandalf saves them and the group flees. During their flight Bilbo gets lost, and tries to find a way out by himself. In the tunnels Bilbo finds a ring, which he puts in his pocket. By an underground lake, Bilbo meets the creature Gollum. Gollum and Bilbo play a game of riddles. If Bilbo wins the game, Gollum will show him the way out; if Gollum wins, he will eat Bilbo. When Bilbo does not know another riddle to ask Gollum, he finds the ring in his pocket and asks himself: "What have I got in my pocket?" Gollum thinks this is a riddle, but cannot answer it, and so Bilbo wins the game. Gollum is angry and does not want to help Bilbo. Gollum then goes away to get something he owns: a magical ring, which turns the wearer invisible. Gollum cannot find his ring, and realizes that Bilbo has it. Gollum goes back, but Bilbo is afraid and runs away. While running, the ring slips on Bilbo's finger and he becomes invisible. Gollum runs past Bilbo, towards the way out of the caves. Bilbo realizes that the ring makes him invisible. With the help of the ring he can follow Gollum and get out of the caves. Outside, Bilbo again meets Gandalf and the dwarves.

paragraphs: The group is attacked by Goblins and Wargs, but saved by the Great Eagles. The group comes to the home of Beorn, a big man that can become a bear. After staying at Beorn's house, they continue to the forest Mirkwood. At the border of Mirkwood, Gandalf leaves the group. Bilbo and the dwarves have go through Mirkwood without him. The dwarves are attacked and captured by giant spiders. With the help of his ring and his sword, Bilbo saves them. Bilbo names his sword "Sting". The Wood-Elves capture the dwarves. Bilbo again uses the ring and saves the dwarves. He frees them and puts them into barrels, which he lets swim down a river out of Mirkwood. The group comes to Lake-town, a human city near the Lonely Mountain.

paragraphs: The dwarves and Bilbo travel to the Lonely Mountain. They can find the secret door into the mountain, and open it. Bilbo goes in two times and meets the dragon Smaug. Bilbo steals a golden cup, and finds out that Smaug has a weak place on his left chest. Bilbo tells this to the dwarves, but a thrush (a bird) also hears it. Smaug is angry and goes out to destroy Lake-town. But in Laketown the thrush tells the archer Bard of the dragon's weak point, and Bard shoots the dragon. A big part of Laketown is destroyed, but Smaug is killed.

paragraphs: The dwarves are happy to be back in their old home, and to have their old treasures back. Thorin sends a message to the dwarves of his people, and tells them to come. But soon the people from Laketown and the Mirkwood-Elves arrive. Both peoples want a part of the treasure, but the dwarves do not want to give them anything. The humans and elves start a siege of the Lonely Mountain. After a while the other dwarves of Thorin's people come: Dáin II Ironfoot and an army of dwarves.

paragraphs: The three armies almost start to fight each other, but then the wizard Gandalf appears. Gandalf tells them that an army of Goblins is coming to the Lonely Mountain, and because of that the humans, elves, and dwarves have to fight the Goblins together. The "Battle of Five Armies" is long and hard, but is finally won with the help of the Great Eagles and Beorn. Thorin's nephews Fíli and Kíli are killed in the battle. Thorin is wounded and dies afterwards. Dáin becomes "King under the Mountain". Everyone gets a part of the dwarves' treasure. In the end Bilbo returns home, and lives happily everafter.

paragraphs: "The Hobbit" has been adapted many times.


title: The Lord of the Rings

paragraphs: The Lord of the Rings is a book written by J. R. R. Tolkien. It was first published in 1954. It is split in three parts (or volumes), which are named "The Fellowship of the Ring", "The Two Towers", and "The Return of the King".

paragraphs: "The Lord of the Rings" takes place in Tolkien's fictional world, called Middle-earth. Middle-earth has its own geography, several different races and peoples (elves, dwarves, humans, hobbits, ents), their languages, and a history that is thousands of years old.

paragraphs: The plot of "The Lord of the Rings" is about the war of the peoples of Middle-earth against a dark lord (who is the 'Lord of the Rings' of the title). At the same time they try to destroy a ring which would give the dark lord a lot of power if he got it, but the only place to destroy the ring is deep into the territory of the enemy.

paragraphs: "The Lord of the Rings" has also been made into films, the most well-known is the film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson.

paragraphs: "The Lord of the Rings" began as a sequel to Tolkien's earlier fantasy book, "The Hobbit", but quickly became a much larger story. He also moved its (and "The Hobbit"'s) story into his fictional world Middle-earth, which he had already invented long before he wrote "The Hobbit".

paragraphs: Tolkien wrote the story between 1937 and 1949. It was originally published in three parts in the years 1954 and 1955. Since then, "The Lord of the Rings" has been translated into 38 languages. It is one of the most popular stories in 20th-century literature and has been an important book for the fantasy genre.

paragraphs: "The Lord of the Rings" is often called a trilogy, because the publisher split the book into three parts because of the book's size. Tolkien himself had sub-divided "The Lord of the Rings" into six parts, called Book I-VI, according to the plot. Tolkien never liked it being published in three parts or called a trilogy.

paragraphs: The backstory of "The Lord of the Rings" begins thousands of years before the action in the book.

paragraphs: In the Second Age, the Dark Lord Sauron wanted to rule Middle-earth. He disguised himself as Annatar, the "Lord of Gifts", and pretended to be good. As Annatar he told the elves how to make magical rings which give power to their wearers.

paragraphs: Sauron and the elves together made sixteen rings. The Elves also made three rings by themselves, called Vilya, Nenya and Narya. These nineteen rings were the "Rings of Power". But Sauron secretly forged a Great Ring of his own, the "One Ring". In this Ring Sauron put half of his power. He planned to control the wearers of the other rings with this One Ring. But the Elves finally realized that Annatar really was the evil Sauron and hid the Rings of Power.

paragraphs: Sauron then started a war. During this war he took back the sixteen rings which he had made together with the Elves. Seven of these rings he gave to the kings of the dwarves, and nine rings he gave to human kings. These human kings became the "Nazgûl", the Ringwraiths, ghostly servants of Sauron.

paragraphs: Led by Gil-galad and Elendil, the Elves and the Men of Gondor and Arnor formed the "Last Alliance of Men and Elves" to fight Sauron. There was a long war and siege of Sauron's fortress Barad-dûr. In the last battle, Gil-galad and Elendil were killed by Sauron. After his father's death, Elendil' son Isildur cut off the One Ring from Sauron's hand. Sauron was defeated and the war ended.

paragraphs: Because half of Sauron's power was in the One Ring, Sauron did not die fully. His spirit still existed as long as the Ring existed. The elves told Isildur to destroy the One Ring, but Isildur did not want to and kept it.

paragraphs: The One Ring was lost when Isildur was attacked by Orcs. Isildur tried to escape, but he was killed when he lost the Ring. In the Third Age, the Ring was found by the Stoor hobbit Déagol, who was killed by his friend Sméagol over the Ring. Sméagol went to live under the Misty Mountains, where he kept the Ring for five hundred years, and he became known by the name Gollum.

paragraphs: In "The Hobbit" the Ring is found by the hobbit Bilbo Baggins. He thinks it is an unimportant 'magic ring' that simply makes its wearer invisible. Bilbo keeps it, and brings it back with him to the Shire at the end of his journey. There the One Ring stayed until the beginning of the story of "The Lord of the Rings".

paragraphs: The book begins in the Third Age of Middle-earth, in the Shire, the land of the hobbits. Sixty years after his adventures in the book "The Hobbit", Bilbo Baggins is living in the Shire with his adopted cousin Frodo Baggins. But Bilbo wants to make another long journey. After a birthday party for his 111th birthday, and Frodo's 33rd birthday, Bilbo leaves the Shire. His home, Bag End, and the One Ring now belong to Frodo. For another eighteen years nothing happens in Frodo's life.

paragraphs: In April of the year 3018, the wizard Gandalf the Grey, who is a friend of Bilbo and Frodo, comes to Bag End. He tells Frodo that his 'magic ring' is really the One Ring of Sauron, and tells him its backstory. Sauron is returning and getting more powerful, because he could not die while the Ring still existed. Sauron is now also searching for the Ring. Gandalf tells Frodo that he has to leave the Shire and take the One Ring to Rivendell, an Elven city. Samwise Gamgee, Frodo's gardener and servant, will go with Frodo. Gandalf promises to meet the two hobbits halfway in the town Bree. Then Gandalf leaves.

paragraphs: Frodo and Sam prepare to leave the Shire in September 3018. On their way to leave the Shire they are already followed by Sauron's Ringwraiths. Frodo's cousins, Meriadoc "Merry" Brandybuck and Peregrin "Pippin" Took also come with them. The four hobbits journey eastwards through the "Old Forest", and over the "Barrow-downs". They come to Bree, but Gandalf is not there. They meet a man named Strider, and they get a letter from Gandalf. In the letter they are told to go with Strider, who is really named Aragorn.

paragraphs: The hobbits continue their journey to Rivendell with Aragorn. On the mountain Weathertop they are attacked by the Ringwraiths, and Frodo is badly wounded by their leader, the Witch-king. Aragorn can defend them, and helps Frodo to stay alive. Along the way they meet the elf Glorfindel. Shortly before Rivendell they are attacked again. Frodo can flee on Glorfindel's horse, followed by the Ringwraiths. Frodo crosses the river Bruinen, beyond which is Rivendell, but the Ringwraiths still follow him. Suddenly the river floods, which carries the Ringwraiths away. Frodo falls unconscious because of the stab wound.

paragraphs: Frodo wakes up in Rivendell. He has been healed by the elven lord Elrond, and Frodo's friends are also well. Gandalf is in Rivendell, as are messengers from other peoples. Frodo also meets Bilbo again, who has lived in Rivendell for the past years.

paragraphs: The next day the "Council of Elrond" is held. The messengers of the different peoples all tell the stories why they have come, which are connected to Sauron's doings. Elrond tells them of Sauron and the One Ring. Many other things are told and revealed. Aragorn is the descendant of Isildur. The wizard Saruman has betrayed the free peoples and turned to evil. Also, the One Ring cannot be used by anyone except Sauron. The One Ring turns normal people invisible, but it also corrupts them, makes its wearer power-hungry, and the ring only does evil.

paragraphs: The Council decides that the One Ring has to be destroyed, which will also truly kill Sauron forever. But the One Ring can only be destroyed if it is thrown into the volcano Mount Doom in Sauron's land Mordor, where the One Ring was made.

paragraphs: The Council sends Frodo, the Ring-bearer, to destroy the Ring, and eight companions to help him. These nine people are the "Fellowship of the Ring": the four hobbits Frodo, Sam, Merry, and Pippin, the elf Legolas, the dwarf Gimli, the two men Aragorn and Boromir, and Gandalf the Grey.

paragraphs: At the beginning of the year 3019 the Fellowship begins their long journey. Before they go, Bilbo gives his sword "Sting" and his Mithril-armour to Frodo. With Gandalf as their leader, the Fellowship first goes southwards through the land "Hollin". They try to go east over the Misty Mountains through the "Redhorn Pass", but there is too much snow. The Fellowship decides to go under the mountains, through the old Dwarven mines, which are called Khazad-dûm or Moria. They almost manage to go through Moria without anything happening, but near the end they are attacked by Orcs. There is also a Balrog, a demonic evil creature from the First Age. Gandalf protects the Fellowship, but he and the Balrog fall into an abyss. Aragorn leads the rest of the Fellowship out of Moria.

paragraphs: Now east of the Misty Mountains, the remaining Fellowship comes to the forest Lothlórien, the land of the Galadhrim, a wood-elven people. The Fellowship is welcomed by Lady Galadriel and Lord Celeborn, the rulers of Lothlórien. The Fellowship stay for a while.

paragraphs: When the Fellowship leaves Lóthlórien, the elves give them boats with which they can travel down the river Anduin. Each member of the Fellowship also gets a present from Lady Galadriel.

paragraphs: The Fellowship travel down the river Anduin until they reach the Emyn Muil and the waterfall Rauros. There they stop to decide where to go now: south to Boromir's home city Minas Tirith, or east to Mordor. Frodo goes for a walk to help him decide. He meets Boromir, who says that the Fellowship should go to Minas Tirith. Boromir also begins to talk about using the Ring against Sauron. Frodo realizes that Boromir is influenced by the One Ring. Boromir tries to take the Ring from Frodo, but Frodo puts the Ring on, becomes invisible and escapes. Boromir becomes himself again and is very sorry for what he tried to do.

paragraphs: Frodo decides that he will go alone to Mordor, so that the Ring cannot influence or hurt anyone else. The rest of the Fellowship are worrying where Frodo is. When Boromir comes and tells them that Frodo has run away, all of the Fellowship go and search for him.

paragraphs: Sam thinks about the situation, and realizes that Frodo wants to go to Mordor alone. Sam runs back to the boats, and catches Frodo leaving. In the end Frodo and Sam go east to Mordor together, to destroy the One Ring, and hoping that their friends in the Fellowship will be well.

paragraphs: The book begins with Aragorn, who finds a dying Boromir. Boromir tells him that they were attacked by Orcs, who took Merry and Pippin with them. Boromir says he is sorry for everything and dies. Legolas and Gimli arrive. As a funeral, the three put Boromir's body in one of their boats, which they let fall down the waterfall Rauros. They find out that Frodo and Sam left them to go to Mordor, and that the Orcs that attacked them were Saruman's Orcs, who have taken Merry and Pippin. They decide to follow the Orcs westwards to save Merry and Pippin. West of the Emyn Muil they come into the land Rohan, home of the Rohirrim, the "Horse-lords". They meet a group of Rohirrim led by Éomer, nephew of King Théoden of Rohan. Éomer and his men have killed the Orc group on the border of the forest Fangorn, but did not see Merry or Pippin. Éomer gives them two horses, and Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli ride to the Fangorn forest.

paragraphs: Merry and Pippin were caught and taken away by a group of Saruman's Orcs, the Uruk-hai. When the Orcs are surrounded and killed by the Rohirrim group, the two hobbits escape into the Fangorn Forest. There they meet Treebeard, an "Ent". Ents are giant tree-like creatures. Treebeard takes the hobbits with him, and they tell him what happens in the world outside Fangorn. The Ents have a meeting called the "Entmoot". During the "Entmoot", the Ents decide to fight Saruman. Treebeard, the other Ents, and the two hobbits go to Isengard, Saruman's home.

paragraphs: In Fangorn, Aragon, Legolas and Gimli meet Gandalf. He had died, but was sent back to Middle-earth as Gandalf the White, to further help the fight against Sauron. Gandalf tells them that Merry and Pippin are well. They then go to Edoras, the capital of Rohan. Gandalf tells King Théoden that they have to go to war against Saruman. Gríma Wormtongue, a spy and servant of Saruman, is cast out. The people of Edoras, led by Éomer's sister Éowyn, flee to Dunharrow in the White Mountains, while the army of the Rohirrim goes to their fortress at Helm's Deep. Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli go with the Rohirrim warriors, but Gandalf leaves once more without notice. Saruman sends his army of ten thousand Uruk-hai, Orcs, and Dunland men to Helm's Deep. The next morning Gandalf arrives with another Rohirrim army. They defeat Saruman's army, and win the "Battle of the Hornburg".

paragraphs: Gandalf, his friends, and a small group of Rohirrim then go to Isengard, Saruman's home. But when they arrive it has already been destroyed by the Ents. They also meet Merry and Pippin there. They talk to Saruman, who still hides in his indestructible tower Orthanc. Gandalf cast him from the Order of Wizards. They find the palantír, which was thrown from the tower by Gríma. The Palantíri are magical black stones with which one can see far away things, and communicate with other palantíri. The group leaves Isengard and rests. Pippin steals the palantír and looks in, and because of this is discovered by Sauron. The group flees the place before the Nazgûl find them. Gandalf and Pippin go to Minas Tirith, while the Rohirrim and other members of the Fellowship go back to Helm's Deep.

paragraphs: Frodo and Sam are in the Emyn Muil mountains and journey eastwards to Mordor. While they are still in the Emyn Muil, they are attacked by Gollum. But the hobbits can defeat and catch him. Gollum has to promise to show them the way into Mordor. They go through the Dead Marshes and come to the Morannon, the Black Gate of Mordor. They cannot go in, but Gollum says he knows a secret way into Mordor.

paragraphs: Frodo, Sam, and Gollum travel south through Ithilien. There they see a battle between a group of Southrons from Harad and a group of Rangers of Gondor. The hobbits are caught by the Gondorian group, which is led by Faramir, who is Boromir's brother. But the next day Faramir lets the hobbits leave, because he also believes that the One Ring has to be destroyed.

paragraphs: Gollum leads the hobbits into Cirith Ungol in the Mountains of Shadow, but leaves the hobbits there alone. They are hunted by Shelob, a giant spider living in these tunnels. After almost escaping, Shelob stings Frodo, but is wounded and driven off by Sam. Sam believes Frodo is dead, and takes the Ring to continue the quest and destroy it. Frodo's body is found and taken away by a group of Orcs. Sam follows them. The leaders of the Orc group are talking, and Sam hears them say that Frodo is paralyzed, but still alive.

paragraphs: Gandalf and Pippin arrive in Minas Tirith, the capital of Gondor. There they meet Denethor II, Steward of Gondor, and father of Boromir and Faramir. Pippin becomes a member of the "Guards of the Citadel". Minas Tirith prepares for war.

paragraphs: The Rohirrim and Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and Merry are on their way to Helm's Deep. Along the way they meet the "Grey Company" coming from Rivendell. It is a group of thirty Dúnedain, which are Aragorn's people. With the group are also Elladan and Elrohir, the sons of Elrond. Aragorn uses the palantír. Aragorn decides to take to the "Paths of the Dead". Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and the Grey Company go to Edoras, Dunharrow, and through the "Paths of the Dead" through the White Mountains. There Aragorn calls an army of dead spirits to help him. The Grey Company and the "Dead Men of Dunharrow" then go east.

paragraphs: The Rohirrim and Merry come to Dunharrow. King Théoden takes the Rohirrim armies and goes to help Gondor in the war. Merry is not allowed to go with them, but he secretly goes with a warrior named Dernhelm.

paragraphs: In Minas Tirith they meet Faramir, who tells them of his meeting with Frodo. The next day Faramir goes off to defend the old city Osgiliath, but the city falls, and so do the outer defenses of Minas Tirith. During the retreat Faramir is badly wounded. Minas Tirith is besieged by the armies of Mordor, led by the Witch-king, the leader of the Nazgûl who (it was said) could not be killed by any man. Denethor goes insane and burns himself, and almost also kills the injured Faramir, but this is prevented by Pippin and Gandalf.

paragraphs: The Rohirrim arrive. The armies of Gondor and Rohan fight the armies of Mordor in the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields". There, King Théoden is killed. Dernhelm, who was really Éowyn (a woman), kills the Witch-king with Merry's help. Aragorn comes with a fleet of black ships and another army of men from southern Gondor up the river Anduin. Together they win the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields".

paragraphs: Aragorn heals the wounded and sick Faramir, Éowyn, Merry, and many others, proving that he is the rightful King of Gondor. Legolas and Gimli go into Minas Tirith and meet Merry and Pippin again. There they also tell how they got the black ships with the help of the Army of the Dead. The leaders of the armies of Men decide to attack Mordor, as a distraction so that Frodo can destroy the One Ring. Aragorn and Gandalf lead an army of 7000 men to the Black Gate of Mordor. There they fight the "Battle of the Morannon" against the overwhelmingly large army of Sauron. During the battle Pippin falls unconscious, but he hears that the Great Eagles have come to help them.

paragraphs: Samwise comes to the Tower of Cirith Ungol, but the different Orc groups in it had a fight and almost all of them are now dead. Sam frees Frodo and gives him back the One Ring. The two hobbits disguise themselves as orcs, escape from the Tower and continue their journey through Mordor. It is a hard journey, and the Ring's influence on Frodo is very strong now. One time the hobbits are forced to walk with an army of orcs, but they can escape without being discovered.

paragraphs: The hobbits come to Mount Doom, where they are attacked by Gollum, who still wants the One Ring. Frodo goes on alone into Mount Doom, but Sam has pity for Gollum and lets him live. Sam follows Frodo into Mount Doom. Frodo is finally overpowered by the One Ring, says it belongs to him and puts the Ring on, which makes Sauron know that he and the Ring are there. Gollum comes back once more and fights with Frodo. Gollum bites off Frodo's finger with the Ring. Gollum is happy to have his Ring back, but makes a mistake: Gollum and the One Ring fall into the volcano, and the Ring is destroyed. Sauron fully dies and his fortress Barad-dûr is destroyed.

paragraphs: At the "Battle of the Morannon", the Orcs and other evil creatures no longer know what to do and are defeated easily, and the Battle is won. Gandalf calls three of the Eagles, who then rescue Frodo and Sam.

paragraphs: They all return to Minas Tirith. Aragorn becomes King of Gondor and Arnor. Elves from Rivendell and Lothlórien come to Minas Tirith. Aragon marries Arwen Undómiel, daughter of Elrond. The Fellowship, the elves, and the Rohirrim go back to Rohan. King Théoden is buried. Éomer officially becomes King of Rohan, and Éowyn and Faramir are married. They go on to Helm's Deep, were the fellowship finally splits. Aragorn goes back to Minas Tirith, and Legolas and Gimli also leave to travel to their homes in the northeast. The elves, hobbits and Gandalf go on. At Isedgard they are told that Saruman has left. Galadriel and the Lothlórien-elves leave the group to go back home east over the mountains. The others come to Rivendell, where the hobbits meet Bilbo again.

paragraphs: The four hobbits and Gandalf leave Rivendell, to travel back to the Shire. Gandalf leaves the hobbits after Bree. The four hobbits come to the Shire, but Saruman with his men has taken over the land. Frodo, Sam, Merry and Pippin lead the other hobbits in the fight against them, and they free themselves and the Shire. After a battle, the four hobbits find Saruman and Gríma at Bag End. Frodo wants to send them away unhurt, but Saruman is killed by Gríma. Gríma is shot by hobbit archers.

paragraphs: Some years later Frodo and Sam go to meet Bilbo, Elrond, and Galadriel, and some other elves. They all go to the Grey Havens, where they meet Gandalf, and also Merry and Pippin. The Ring-bearers Bilbo and Frodo, together with Gandalf and the elves, leave Middle-earth, and go west across the sea to Valinor. The Fourth Age of Middle-earth begins. The three remaining hobbits go back to the Shire, and Sam returns to his wife and child.

paragraphs: "The Lord of the Rings" has been adapted, or made into a movie, a musical, a radio play, and has been made into an animated and three live-action films. Most known is probably "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy (2001–2003) directed by Peter Jackson.


title: Extinction

paragraphs: Extinction is when a species of animal, plant, or other organisms are no longer living. Extinction is one of the major features of evolution.

paragraphs: All species become extinct sooner or later. The end of a species may happen for many reasons. It may be caused by habitat loss or by being overhunted, or by a major extinction event. An example of an animal that is now extinct is the Dodo, from over-hunting. Another quite different way for a species to end is by species-splitting, known as cladogenesis. The species living today probably were not living in the Cambrian period, but their ancestors were.

paragraphs: Endangered species are those which may become extinct. A report from Kew Gardens suggests that one fifth of plant species may be at risk of extinction. Fossil species sometimes reappear millions of years after they were thought to be extinct. These cases are called Lazarus taxa. Humans are to blame due to cutting down animals’ natural habitat such as forests.

paragraphs: The average duration of species varies according to the groups studied. A study of benthic (deep water) foraminifera showed an average of 16 million years if they lived above 200 metres, but 25my if they lived below 200 metres. On the other hand, the average survival time for mammalian species over the past 20my has been 2.33my.

paragraphs: It is estimated that 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are now extinct. More than half of the plants and animals that have become extinct in the last 200 years have been in Australia. There the arrival of Europeans with (accidentally or deliberately) introduced species has damaged the native biota. Especially, the introduction of eutherian mammals has caused the extinction of many marsupial forms.

paragraphs: Naturally, higher categories such as genera, families, orders, classes and phyla last longer, because they are composed of more species. As far as we know, no phylum has gone completely extinct since the Cambrian, but quite a few classes went extinct in one or other of the 'big five' extinction events. Examples of higher categories of animal now extinct are: placoderm fish, trilobites, ammonites, pelycosaurs, non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs.

paragraphs: Darwin thought that most extinctions occurred because some organisms became more effective, and replaced their less advanced competitors. No doubt that does occur, but the view now is that environmental change is more important. Organisms become adapted to the environments they live in. The environment certainly does change, and sometimes quite dramatically. When it does, some organisms can adapt to the changes. Others cannot.

paragraphs: The Earth's environment can stay rather stable for long periods of time. Then the rate of extinction is usually quite low. Then changes occur, sometimes quite rapidly. In these times the rate of extinction can be much higher. The rate of extinction is therefore a useful thing to measure.


title: Minehead

paragraphs: Minehead is a seaside town and civil parish in Somerset, England. It is in the borough of Somerset West and Taunton.

paragraphs: In 2011, the town had a population of 11,981. It is close to the border with Devon.

paragraphs: The town is 21 miles (34 km) north-west of Taunton, Somerset's county town.

paragraphs: It is close to the Exmoor National Park.

paragraphs: Minehead is famous for being the location of Butlin's Minehead, a popular holiday camp owned by Butlin's.

paragraphs: The town is the starting point of the South West Coast Path, the longest countryside walking trail in the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: Minehead has one twin town. It is twinned with:


title: Hank Azaria

paragraphs: Henry Albert "Hank" Azaria ( ; born April 25, 1964) is an American actor, voice actor, comedian and producer. He voiced many characters in the Fox animated television series "The Simpsons". He also appeared in movies such as "The Birdcage" (1996), and on stage as Sir Lancelot in the Monty Python-inspired musical, "Spamalot". He married Helen Hunt from 1999 to 2000. Azaria makes a relationship with Katie Wright. He starred in Showtime's original series "Huff".


title: Mexico City

paragraphs: Mexico City () is the capital and largest city of Mexico. It is also one of the most populous and polluted cities in the world. The Aztec people were here before the Spanish came and made Mexico City. It was founded in 1521 by Hernán Cortés. Today, about 8.5 million people live in the city, and about 18 million live in the Greater Mexico City urban area. The city of Mexico City ceased to exist in 1928. Since then, there is only the Federal District.

paragraphs: Mexico City has 18.1 million people. It is the city with the second highest number of people in the world after Tokyo in Japan and just slightly more populated than Mumbai in India.

paragraphs: Mexico City was first built in the 1520s after Hernán Cortés destroyed the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan. The Spaniards then emptied the basin of Lake Texcoco to keep it from flooding. By the late 1700s, Mexico City had over 100,000 people. However, there were many slums, which caused epidemics. There were political problems in the mid 1800s after Mexico became independent. More than 40 people ruled in the 40 years after the country became independent. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, electric light and gas were brought to the city. But there was a big difference between the rich western part of the city and the poor eastern part of the city. By 1930, Mexico City had 1,000,000 people. The city kept growing quickly. In 1968, the Olympic Games were in Mexico City. In 1985, an earthquake hit the capital. In the past few decades, there have been problems with crime and corruption.

paragraphs: Mexico City has a high population density. It is also surrounded by mountains. This causes problems with air pollution.

paragraphs: Mexico City is in the Valley of Mexico at around 2,300 meters (7,800 feet) above sea level.

paragraphs: Mexico City its divided by 16 boroughs: Álvaro Obregón, Azcapotzalco, Benito Juarez, Coyoacán, Cuajimalpa, Cuauhtémoc, Gustavo A. Madero, Iztacalco, Iztapalapa, Magdalena Contreras, Miguel Hidalgo, Milpa Alta, Tláhuac, Tlalpan, Venustiano Carranza and Xochimilco.

paragraphs: Mexico City was originally built on a lake, Lake Texcoco, which is now mostly drained. The ecology of the area has been much changed by the draining. Many of its native species, such as the Axolotl, are extinct, or endangered.

paragraphs: The mountains Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl are nearby.

paragraphs: Mexico City is in the tropics. But because its elevation is so high, it has a subtropical highland climate ("Cwb" in the Köppen climate classification). This means temperatures are warm or mild year-round. It is a lot wetter in the summer than in the winter. Some parts of the city get frost in the winter.


title: John Hinckley Jr.

paragraphs: John Warnock Hinckley, Jr. (born May 29, 1955) is the man who attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan. On March 30, 1981, shortly after Reagan was elected, Hinckley shot at Reagan in Washington, D.C. Reagan was injured, but recovered quickly. Hinckley was tried, but was found not guilty, due to his insanity. He said the reason he shot the President was to get the attention of actress Jodie Foster, of whom he was a fan.

paragraphs: Hinckley has schizophrenia, dysthymia, narcissistic personality disorder and schizoid personality disorder. He also has borderline and passive-aggressive features. He was born in Ardmore, Oklahoma.


title: Tampico, Illinois

paragraphs: Tampico is a village in Whiteside County, Illinois. The 2000 census said the village had a total population of 772.

paragraphs: On February 6, 1911, Ronald Reagan, who used to be President of the United States was born in a two story apartment over the local bank. The building where the apartment is near the main street (Illinois Highway 172). Reagan was born in the front bedroom of the apartment.

paragraphs: The United States Census Bureau says the village has a total area of 1.0 km² (0.4 mi²). None of it is water-covered.

paragraphs: Tampico is about 50 miles east of the Quad Cities (the cities of Davenport, Bettendorf, Iowa, Moline and Rock Island, Illinois). It's about 130 miles west of Chicago.

paragraphs: The census of 2000 says there are 772 people, 292 households, and 205 families living in the village. The population density is 745.2/km² (1,941.3/mi²). There are 315 houses at an average density of 304.1/km² (792.1/mi²). The village is 99.74% White.

paragraphs: There are 292 households out of which 33.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.2% are married couples living together, 9.2% is a single women, and 29.5% are not families. 24.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.64 and the average family size is 3.1.

paragraphs: In the village the population is spread out with 28.9% under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 23.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females there are 102.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 102.6 males.

paragraphs: The average income for a household in the village is $40,221, and the average income for a "family" is $43,646. Males have an average income of $30,667 versus $18,409 for females. The per person income for the village is $14,467. 8.5% of the population and 6.4% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 10.2% of those under the age of 18 and 4.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

paragraphs: The city was also the birthplace of Admiral Joseph M. Reeves.


title: Surface area

paragraphs: Surface area the measure of the total area that the surface of the object occupies (3D) object. The surface area of a polyhedron is found by finding the sum of the area of all of the faces. The surface area is found between many three-dimensional shapes using formulas.

paragraphs: The surface area is useful because it tells you how much material is required in order to cover the object—for example, how much paint is needed to paint a table.Surface area is the sum of the faces, or surfaces, of a three dimensional shape.

paragraphs: Surface area increases rate of evaporation because there are more molecules touching the surface. There the surface molecules can draw heat energy from the surroundings, which makes the molecules heat up faster and escape faster. This process is also known as evaporation. For example, a bowl filled with water will evaporate much faster than a flask filled with the same amount.


title: Al Hirschfeld

paragraphs: Al Hirschfeld (June 21, 1903 - January 20, 2003) was an American cartoonist and illustrator. He was known mostly for his caricatures (funny drawings) of entertainers and famous people.


title: Mobile Army Surgical Hospital

paragraphs: A Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (or M.A.S.H. or MASH) was a medical center used during wars, to care and fix injured soldiers who got hurt in the fighting. They were an alternative to field hospitals and real hospitals which were used in World War II. During the Korean War, thanks to these kinds of hospitals, soldiers had a 97% chance of surviving an injury. They were also used in the Vietnam War and the first Gulf War, but were gradually replaced by Combat Support Hospitals or CSHs which are used today.

paragraphs: Many people know about these places due to a well-known movie and later TV show called "M*A*S*H", which was set was a hospital like this during the Korean War.