title: Volcano

paragraphs: A volcano is a mountain that has lava (hot, liquid rock) coming out from a magma chamber under the ground, or did have in the past. Volcanoes are formed by the movement of tectonic plates.

paragraphs: The Earth's crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates. These float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Volcanoes are often found where tectonic plates are moving apart or coming together.

paragraphs: Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, e.g., in the East African Rift. Volcanoes are usually not found where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

paragraphs: Volcanism away from plate boundaries is caused by mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are thought to arise from upwelling magma from the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.

paragraphs: Most volcanoes have a volcanic crater at the top. When a volcano is active, materials come out of it. The materials include lava, steam, gaseous sulfur compounds, ash and broken rock pieces.

paragraphs: When there is enough pressure, the volcano erupts. Some volcanic eruptions blow off the top of the volcano. Sometimes, the magma comes out quickly and sometimes it comes slowly. Some eruptions come out at a side instead of the top.

paragraphs: Volcanoes are found on planets other than Earth. An example is Olympus Mons on Mars.

paragraphs: Volcanologists are scientists who study volcanoes using methods from geology, chemistry, geography, mineralogy, physics and sociology.

paragraphs: The world's biggest volcano is named Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is part of the five volcanoes on Hawaii's 'Big Island'. The most recent time this volcano erupted was in 1984. It erupted 33 times in the last 170 years. Like all the other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate which moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's mantle. Mauna Loa is 4,196 meters tall. It is a shield volcano. The largest recent eruption from Mauna Loa left a lava trail long.

paragraphs: The lava and pyroclastic material (clouds of ash, lava fragments and vapor) that comes out from volcanoes can make many different kinds of land shapes. There are two basic kinds of volcanoes.

paragraphs: These volcanoes are formed by fluid low-silica mafic lava.

paragraphs: Shield volcanoes are built out of layers of lava from continual eruptions (without explosions). Because the lava is so fluid, it spreads out, often over a wide area. Shield volcanoes do not grow to a great height, and the layers of lava spread out to give the volcano gently sloping sides. Shield volcanoes can produce huge areas of basalt, which is usually what lava is when cooled.

paragraphs: The base of the volcano increases in size over successive eruptions where solidified lava spreads out and accumulates. Some of the world's largest volcanoes are shield volcanoes.

paragraphs: Even though their sides are not very "steep", shield volcanoes can be huge. Mauna Kea in Hawaii is the biggest mountain on Earth if it is measured from its base on the floor of the sea.

paragraphs: A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a tall, conical volcano. It is built up of many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash.

paragraphs: Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes have a steep profile and periodic eruptions. The lava that flows from stratovolcanoes cools and hardens before spreading far. It is sticky, that is, it has high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, with high-to-intermediate levels of silica, and less mafic magma. Big felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as .

paragraphs: Two famous stratovolcanoes are Japan's Mount Fuji, and Vesuvius. Both have big bases and steep sides that get steeper and steeper as it goes near the top. Vesuvius is famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 AD, killing thousands.

paragraphs: A caldera is a basin-like feature formed by collapse of land after a volcanic eruption. This happens after a huge stratovolcano blows its top off. The base of the crater then sinks, leaving a caldera where the top of the volcano was before. Krakatoa, best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883, is much smaller now.

paragraphs: Volcanoes are made when two tectonic plates come together. When these two plates meet, one of them (usually the oceanic plate) goes under the continental plate. This is the process of subduction. Afterwards, it melts and makes magma (inside the magma chamber), and the pressure builds up until the magma bursts through the Earth's crust.

paragraphs: The second way is when a tectonic plate moves over a hot spot in the Earth's crust. The hot spot works its way through the crust until it breaks through. The caldera of Yellowstone Park was formed in that way; so were the Hawaiian Islands.

paragraphs: A traditional way to classify or identify volcanoes is by its pattern of eruptions. Those volcanoes which may erupt again at any time are called active. Those that are now quiet called dormant (inactive). Those volcanoes which have not erupted in historical times are called extinct.

paragraphs: An active volcano is currently erupting, or it has erupted in the last 10,000 years. An example of an active volcano is Mount St. Helens in the United States (US).

paragraphs: A dormant volcano is "sleeping," but it could awaken in the future. Mount Rainier in the United States is considered dormant.

paragraphs: An extinct volcano has not erupted in the past 10,000 years. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is located on top of an extinct volcano.

paragraphs: The Earth's largest volcano has been discovered. It is 2 km below the sea on an underwater plateau known as the Shatsky Rise. This is about 1,600 km east of Japan. The previous record-holder, Mauna Loa in Hawaii, is still the largest volcano on land.

paragraphs: The 310,000 km (119,000 sq mi) volcano, Tamu Massif, is comparable in size to Mars' vast Olympus Mons volcano, which is the largest in the Solar System. It was formed about 145 million years ago when massive lava flows erupted from the centre of the volcano to form a broad, shield-like feature. That suggests the volcano produced a flood basalt eruption.

paragraphs: The Tamu Massif extends some 30 km (18 miles) into the Earth's crust. The researchers doubted the submerged volcano's peak ever rose above sea level during its lifetime and say it is unlikely to erupt again.


title: Big Bang

paragraphs: The Big Bang is a scientific theory about how the universe started, and then made the stars and galaxies we see today. The Big Bang is the name that scientists use for the most common theory of the universe, from the very early stages to the present day.

paragraphs: The universe began as a very hot, small, and dense superforce (the mix of the four fundamental forces), with no stars, atoms, form, or structure (called a "singularity"). Then about 13.8 billion years ago, space expanded very quickly (thus the name "Big Bang"). This started the formation of atoms, which eventually led to the formation of stars and galaxies. It was Georges Lemaître who first noted (in 1927) that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point. The universe is still expanding today, and getting colder as well.

paragraphs: As a whole, the universe is growing and the temperature is falling as time passes. Cosmology is the study of how the universe began and its development. Scientists who study cosmology have agreed that the Big Bang theory matches what they have observed so far.

paragraphs: Fred Hoyle called the theory the "Big Bang" on his radio show. He did not believe the Big Bang was correct. Scientists who did not agree with him thought the name was funny and decided to use it.

paragraphs: Scientists base the Big Bang theory on many different observations. The most important is the redshift of very far away galaxies. Redshift is the Doppler effect occurring in light. When an object moves away from Earth, its color rays look more similar to the color red than they actually are, because the movement stretches the wavelength of light given off by the object. Scientists use the word "red hot" to describe this stretched light wave because red is the longest wavelength on the visible spectrum. The more redshift there is, the faster the object is moving away. By measuring the redshift, scientists proved that the universe is expanding, and they can work out how fast the object is moving away from the Earth. With very exact observation and measurements, scientists believe that the universe was a singularity approximately 13.8 billion years ago. Because most things become colder as they expand, scientists assume that the universe was very small and very hot when it started.

paragraphs: Other observations that support the Big Bang theory are the amounts of chemical elements in the universe. Amounts of very light elements, such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium seem to agree with the theory of the Big Bang. Scientists also have found "cosmic microwaves background radiation". This radiation is known as radio waves, and they are everywhere in the universe. This radiation is now very weak and cold, but a long time ago it was very strong and very hot.

paragraphs: It can be said that time had no meaning before the Big Bang. If the Big Bang was the beginning of time, then there was no universe before the Big Bang, since there could not be any "before" if there was no time! Other ideas state that the Big Bang was not the beginning of time 13.8 billion years ago. Instead, some believe that there was a completely different universe before the Big Bang, and it may have been very different from the one we know today.

paragraphs: Nonetheless, in November 2019, Jim Peebles, awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics for his theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology. noted, in his award presentation, that he does not support the Big Bang Theory, due to the lack of concrete supporting evidence, and stated, "It's very unfortunate that one thinks of the beginning whereas in fact, we have no good theory of such a thing as the beginning."

paragraphs: Many things happened in the first picosecond of the universe's time:


title: Gmail

paragraphs: Gmail is a free e-mail service that is run by Google. It can be accessed on the web, by POP3, or by IMAP. Some of the competitors to Gmail are Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail/Windows Live Mail, and Inbox.Com. The space given to any Gmail member is increased a small amount every second, and as of July 26, 2012, Google provides each account with about 10272 MB of space.

paragraphs: Google Apps is a service from Google that was created in February 2006 as Gmail for your domain. It is to allow system administrators of a company or organisation to create email accounts for their own domain.

paragraphs: In the United Kingdom (UK), the trademark "Gmail" was owned by another company before Gmail by Google was started. Thus, the United Kingdom uses a domain of "googlemail.com" for their users, and the logo has the words of "Google Mail" instead of the normal "Gmail".

paragraphs: In September 2009 Google began to change the branding of UK accounts back to Gmail following the resolution of the trademark dispute.


title: Astronomer

paragraphs: An astronomer is a scientist who studies astronomy. Observational astronomers work in observatories with telescopes to collect information from things in outer space such as planets, stars, or galaxies. Theoretical astronomers study the collected information, and use it to help us understand how the universe behaves.


title: Analysis

paragraphs: Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though "analysis" as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.

paragraphs: The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις ("analusis", "a breaking up", from "ana-" "up, throughout" and "lysis" "a loosening").

paragraphs: In this context, Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is to bring ideas together.

paragraphs: The following concepts are closely related to this basic idea:


title: Foolishness

paragraphs: Foolishness is when someone acts without wisdom or sense. A foolish decision is one made without careful reasoning or judgement. An act of foolishness is called folly. A person who shows foolishness may be called a fool. It is different to stupidity, which is the lack of intelligence.

paragraphs: A "fool's errand" is a useless piece of work.

paragraphs: A "fool's paradise" a happy state for which there is no good reason.

paragraphs: The "wise fool" is a common literary character, a person who appears at first to be unintelligent but then reveals him or herself to possess a grest deal of wisdom. An example of this is Sancho Panza in Cervantes' "Don Quixote". Sancho is an uneducated peasant who at first seems to have little sense or experience. However, as the tale unfolds, he reveals himself to possess a wealth of common sense, first expressed through endless proverbs, but then through his own skill. In this sense he provides a comic juxtaposition to Quixote himself, who is highly educated but insane; both of them supply what the other lacks.


title: Aristotle

paragraphs: Aristotle (Stagira, Macedonia, 384 – Chalicis, Euboea, Greece, 7 March 322 ) was a Greek philosopher. He was one of the most important philosophers in the history of Western civilization. It is said that Aristotle wrote many books, but only a much smaller number survive. Aristotle was the boyhood tutor of Alexander the Great, who later sent him plants and animals from parts of his new empire.

paragraphs: Aristotle's father, Nicomachus, was a soldier of King Amyntas of Macedonia. From his eighteenth to his thirty-seventh year, Aristotle lived in Athens, as a metic and student of Plato.

paragraphs: At about the age of eighteen, he went to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years, not leaving until after Plato's death in 347 BC. He then traveled with Xenocrates to Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander the Great in 343 B.C.

paragraphs: Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was ethnocentric. In one famous example, he advises Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.

paragraphs: By 335 he had returned to Athens, starting his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle taught courses at the school for the next twelve years. It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 when Aristotle is believed to have written many of his works. Aristotle wrote many dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are in fairly rough form. They are generally thought to be lecture notes for his students.

paragraphs: Aristotle's combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person to know everything there was to be known in his own time.

paragraphs: Near the end of Alexander's life, he began to suspect plots, and threatened Aristotle in letters. Aristotle was vocal about his dislike for Alexander's claim of divinity, and the king executed Aristotle's grandnephew Callisthenes as a traitor. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 without ever having returned to his native land. Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens once again flared up, and Aristotle fled the city. However, he died in Euboea of natural causes that same year, 322 .

paragraphs: The three greatest ancient Greek philosophers were Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. Socrates taught Plato, then Plato taught Aristotle. These three thinkers turned early Greek philosophy into the beginnings of Western philosophy as it is today. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great, who later conquered the entire Middle East.

paragraphs: Plato's main ideas were that knowledge from the senses was always confused and not pure. True knowledge can be gotten from the thinking soul that turns away from the world. Only the soul can have knowledge of "Forms", the real way things are. The world is only a copy of these "Forms" and is not perfect.

paragraphs: Aristotle thought differently. He thought that knowledge from the senses was more important. These thoughts became some of the roots of the scientific method after hundreds of years. Most of the things Aristotle wrote that we still have today are notes from his speaking and teaching. Some of his important writings are "Physics", "Metaphysics", "(Nicomachean) Ethics", "Politics", "De Anima (On the Soul)", and "Poetics".

paragraphs: He also had problems with the atomic theory. He did not believe in Democritus' theories about the atomic theory. He believed that all matter was continuous whereas Democritus stated the all matter was made up of tiny indivisible things called "atoms". Democritus was proved right by physicist John Dalton in 1804.

paragraphs: Aristotle created a form of logic. His logic is called "sentential logic" because it uses sentences for the syllogism.

paragraphs: Aristotle's logic influenced the history of Western thought. It was Aristotle's logic which was copied and used in the Arabic and Latin mediaeval traditions. It was dominant for two and a half thousand years, until the late 19th century. Then modern logic was started by Gottlob Frege, Charles Sanders Peirce and others.

paragraphs: Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. He certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works "History of Animals", "Generation of Animals" and "Parts of Animals" have observations and interpretations, along with some myths and mistakes.

paragraphs: The most striking passages are about the sea-life round Lesbos. As well as live observation, he got specimens from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish ("Torpedo") and angler-fish are detailed. His writing on cephalopods such as "Octopus", "Sepia" (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus ("Argonauta argo") are accurate. His description of the hectocotyl arm, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (Selachimorpha).

paragraphs: Another good example of his methods comes from the "Generation of Animals" in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated.

paragraphs: He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the ovoviviparous egg development of the houndshark "Mustelus mustelus".

paragraphs: The works are traditionally listed in this sequence:

paragraphs: Aristotle is still one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every kind of knowledge in his day, and he started many new fields.

paragraphs: Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and helped to develop scientific method.

paragraphs: Despite these achievements, Aristotle's errors are thought by some, such as Peter Medawar, to have held back science considerably. Bertrand Russell notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's "Ethics" as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell says these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers what an advance he made on his predecessors.

paragraphs: The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school of philosophers. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him, on his expedition, biologists and researchers.


title: Carl Sagan

paragraphs: Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 - December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer. He tried to make science popular. He thought about what life from other planets would be like. He said that people should look for life on other planets (SETI). He is world famous for his popular science books and the television series Cosmos, which he co-wrote and presented. He said people should use the scientific method.

paragraphs: Carl Sagan was born in Brooklyn, New York City where his father, Sam Sagan, was a Jewish clothes maker and his mother, Rachel Molly Gruber, was a housewife. Sagan attended the University of Chicago earning two degrees in physics. He followed with a doctorate in Astronomy in 1960 and taught at Harvard University until 1968, when he moved to Cornell University.

paragraphs: Sagan became a teacher and director at Cornell in 1971. He helped many unmanned spacecraft to explore outer space. He thought of the idea of putting a message on spacecraft which could be understood by any life from another planet that might find it. The first message sent into space was a large gold-plated label on the space probe Pioneer 10. He continued to make the messages better. The last message he helped with was the Voyager Golden Record that was sent out with the Voyager space probes.

paragraphs: He was well known as a writer who warned of the dangers of nuclear winter. He helped people learn about the atmosphere of Venus, seasonal changes on Mars, and Saturn's moon Titan. He showed that the atmosphere of Venus is very hot and dense. He also said that global warming was a growing, man-made danger like the natural development of Venus into a hot and dangerous planet with greenhouse gases. He suggested that the seasonal changes on Mars were due to dust storms.

paragraphs: Sagan was among the first to guess that Titan and Jupiter's moon Europa might have oceans or lakes, which means that life could be there. Europa's underground ocean was later confirmed by the spacecraft Galileo.

paragraphs: Sagan thought the search for life on other planets was a good idea. He said scientists should listen with large radio telescopes for signals from other planets. He thought sending probes to other planets was a good idea. Sagan was editor "Icarus" (a magazine about space exploration) for 12 years. He helped start the "Planetary Society" and was a member of the SETI Institute Board of Trustees.

paragraphs: Sagan also believed that the Drake equation suggested that many kinds of intelligent life could form, but that the lack of evidence (the Fermi paradox) suggests that intelligent beings destroy themselves rather quickly. This made him keen to talk about ways that humanity could destroy itself, in the hope of avoiding such destruction.

paragraphs: Under the name "Mr. X," Sagan wrote about pot smoking in the 1971 book "Reconsidering Marijuana". Lester Grinspoon (the book's editor), told this to Keay Davidson, Sagan's biographer. Sagan said that marijuana helped him write some of his books.

paragraphs: Sagan was very good at helping people to understand the cosmos. He gave the 1977/1978 Christmas Lectures for Young People at the Royal Institution. He wrote (with Ann Druyan, who became his third wife) and made the very popular thirteen-part PBS television series ""; he also wrote books to help science become more popular ("The Dragons of Eden", which won a Pulitzer Prize, "Broca's Brain", etc.) and a novel, "Contact", that was a best-seller and was made into a film starring Jodie Foster in 1997. The film won the 1998 Hugo Award.

paragraphs: After "Cosmos", Sagan was linked with the catchphrase "billions and billions", which he never used in the television series (but he often used the word "billions"). He wrote "Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space", which was chosen as a notable book of 1995 by The "New York Times".

paragraphs: Not all scientists agreed with him. Although they all liked the way he made science popular, some were afraid that people would think that his personal opinions might be confused with real science. What he said about the Kuwait oil well fires during the first Gulf War were shown later to be wrong.

paragraphs: Later in his life, Sagan's books showed his skeptical, naturalistic view of the world. In his book "The Demon-Haunted World", Sagan gave a list of mistakes he had made as an example of how science is self-correcting. The compilation "Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the End of the Millennium", published after Sagan's death, contains essays written by Sagan, such as his views on abortion, and Ann Druyan's account of his death as a non-believer.

paragraphs: After a long and difficult fight with myelodysplasia, Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62, on December 20, 1996, at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington. Sagan was very important, because he made science popular, and changed the way science was organized, and because he defended humanism, and argued against seeing things from only one point of view.

paragraphs: The landing site of the unmanned Mars Pathfinder spacecraft was renamed the "Carl Sagan Memorial Station" in honor of Dr. Sagan on July 5, 1997. Asteroid 2709 Sagan is also named in his honor.

paragraphs: The 1997 movie "Contact" (see above), based on Sagan's novel of the same name, and finished after his death, ends with the dedication "For Carl."


title: Matsuo Basho

paragraphs: Matsuo Munefusa, known as Matsuo Bashō (, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems.

paragraphs: According to Japanese custom, he is usually called "Basho" without his family name, and his signature as a poet does not include his house name. He signed usually "はせを". He is one of the greatest writers of the Edo period, and he raised the haiku form to its highest level.

paragraphs: He was born in Iga, now a part of Mie prefecture in a samurai (Japanese warrior) family. After many years of samurai life he found that poetry would be his life work, and gave up being a samurai. He started his life as a poet when he served his lord as a samurai. Matsuo became educated in classical Japanese poems. First he named himself "Tosei" (桃青) meaning "unripe peach in blue". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means "plum in white".

paragraphs: He quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master (""Sosho"") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant ("basho-an"). He planted the plant and called himself "Basho" because it became his favorite tree in his garden.

paragraphs: In his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making "renga", a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.

paragraphs: His most famous book is "Oku no Hosomichi" ("The Narrow Road Through the Deep North"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.

paragraphs: Basho died because of disease in early autumn of 1694 in Osaka, while staying at a house of his disciple on a trip. Before his death, he made a haiku as his last words:


title: Colonization

paragraphs: Colonization is the act of one country settling another place, in order to become the new rulers of the new country, and to live in the new country. An early example is the settlers who went from the cities of Ancient Greece to start new cities.

paragraphs: In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in The Americas. This is how the Europeans learned that North America and South America were there. The Europeans colonized the Americas. Because of this, and the killing of lots of Native Americans, most people now living in North America are the descendents of Europeans.

paragraphs: Sometimes, science fiction stories talk about humans colonizing outer space on space stations or planets other than Earth. Some science fiction stories like The Matrix speak of the robots the human beings made, taking over, and colonizing Earth.


title: Choreography

paragraphs: Choreography (dance-writing) is the art of making dances. It tells dancers how they should dance and move. The word has been used since the late 18th century to mean the art of composing dance.

paragraphs: A person who does choreography is called a "choreographer". A choreographer makes a dance based on music or a synopsis (a writing of what occurs in the dance). They may also act as trainers for professional dancers in ballet, stage shows and competitive ballroom dance. Their ideas may be recorded in dance notation, or on videos.

paragraphs: Choreography is also used in other types of performances. In Ice skating and Ice dancing, the choreographer designs the moves the skates does. In theater, movies and television, a choreographer is used to design fight scenes. For example, Bob Anderson designed many of the sword fight scenes in the "Lord of the Rings" movies as well as some of the "Star Wars" movies. A person who does this type of choreography is usually called a "fight choreographer".


title: Electrical cell

paragraphs: An electrical cell is a device used to generate electricity, or to make chemical reactions by applying electricity. A battery is one or more cells, connected. This cell is also known as electrochemical cell.

paragraphs: The simple electrical cells were first developed in 1800s. They are also called "galvanic cells", because an Italian scientist named Luigi Galvani invented these cells.

paragraphs: Special chemical reactions which occur inside the electrical cell, result in oxidation and reduction of the substances inside the cell. This produces electrical energy. Normal batteries work like this.

paragraphs: Some electrical cells produce electricity without using chemical energy. For example, solar cells produce electricity when they are exposed to sun light.

paragraphs: A plate of zinc and a plate of copper immersed in a dilute solution which contains acid or salt is an example of the chemical reaction based cell. The solution acts as an electrolyte (electric conductor). When the two plates are connected to a current meter with a wire, electric current will pass; this is because oxidation and reduction processes take place in this chemical reaction turning the zinc plate to a negative electrode and the copper plate to a positive electrode, and so the electrons flow from zinc to copper.

paragraphs: Some chemical reactions need high energy to happen. An example is the breakdown of water into hydrogen and oxygen. An electrical cell (or an "electrolytic cell") is used for these reactions. It is a container which has to have a chemical reaction involving electrodes. The chemical substances are exposed to electrical power, and the electrolysis reaction happens inside the electrical cell.

paragraphs: Two pieces of metal are placed in water that has a little electrolyte such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, sodium bicarbonate, or sodium hydroxide added to it. An electric current is applied and gas comes out of each electrode. Some greenish-brown color may be seen too if iron was used.

paragraphs: There may also be a chemical reaction which will result in the explosion of the iron and has a strong blast radius (safety goggles recommended).


title: Dry cell

paragraphs: Dry cells are a type of chemical cells. Dry cells are commonly used today in the form of batteries. Dry cells are used in many electrical appliances.

paragraphs: Primary cells are not rechargeable. They have to be thrown away after their chemicals are used.

paragraphs: Secondary cells are rechargeable. They can be used again.


title: Vietnam War

paragraphs: The Vietnam War (also known as Second Indochina War or American War in Vietnam) lasted from 1 November 1955–30 April 1975, (19 years, 5 months, 4 weeks and 1 day). It was fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union, China and North Korea, while South Vietnam was supported by the United States, South Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines. People from other countries also went to fight but not in their own national army. This conflict between communist and capitalist countries was part of the Cold War.

paragraphs: The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), was a South Vietnamese communist force helped by the North. It fought a guerrilla war against the anti-communist forces in the South. The People's Army of Vietnam (also known as the North Vietnamese Army) engaged in a more conventional war, at times putting large forces to battle.

paragraphs: The Vietnam War was very controversial, especially in the United States, and it was the first war to feature live television coverage. It was also the first major armed conflict that the United States lost. The war became so unpopular in the United States that President Nixon eventually agreed to send American soldiers home in 1973.

paragraphs: France began to colonize Vietnam between 1859 and 1862, when they took control of Saigon. By 1864 they controlled all of Cochinchina, the southern part of Vietnam. France took control of Annam, the large central part of Vietnam, in 1874. After France defeated China in the Sino-French war (1884–1885), they took over Tonkin, the northern part of Vietnam. French Indochina was formed in October 1887 from these three areas of Vietnam (Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin), as well as the Kingdom of Cambodia. Laos was added after a war with Thailand, the Franco-Siamese War, in 1893.

paragraphs: During World War II, after Nazi Germany defeated the French in 1940, French Indochina was controlled by the Vichy French government, a puppet government approved by Nazi Germany. In March 1945 Imperial Japan launched the Second French Indochina Campaign. Japan occupied Indochina until their surrender in August 1945.

paragraphs: After the defeat of Nazi Germany, the Vichy government was no longer in control of France or its territories. The newly formed Provisional Government of the French Republic attempted to take back control of its former colonies in Indochina by force if necessary. But the French efforts at regaining their colony in Vietnam were opposed by a Vietnamese army called the Viet Minh.

paragraphs: The Viet Minh had been founded in 1941 by the communist party and was led by Hồ Chí Minh. This led to the First Indochina War between France and the Viet Minh. The fighting started with the French bombardment of Haiphong Harbor in November 1946 and ended with a triumph of the Viet Minh at Dien Bien Phu.

paragraphs: In July 1954, France and the Viet Minh signed the Geneva Peace Accord. This resulted in dividing Vietnam along the 17th parallel into a northern section, under the control of the communists led by Ho Chi Minh as president, and a southern section led by the Catholic anti-communist Ngo Dinh Diem. The partition was to be temporary until elections in 1956. However, Diem started arresting suspected communist sympathizers in 1956 to keep power for himself. The elections were never held, and in 1957 the north Vietnamese began guerrilla warfare against the south.

paragraphs: The United States supported the anti-communist government in South Vietnam. It began to send military advisors to help train and support the South Vietnamese army. The South was fighting against the Viet Cong, a communist party based in South Vietnam which was allied with North Vietnam. The Viet Cong began a campaign of assassination in 1957. In 1959, North Vietnam dramatically increased its military assistance to the Viet Cong, which then began attacking South Vietnamese military units. In the American domino theory they feared that if communism took hold in Vietnam, it would spread to other countries nearby.

paragraphs: On 2 August 1964, the destroyer USS "Maddox" was in the Gulf of Tonkin, on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam's coast. The US said that three North Vietnamese torpedo boats attacked the destroyer. The Maddox fired back and damaged the three torpedo boats. The US then claimed that two days later, the torpedo boats again attacked the "Maddox" and the destroyer USS "Turner Joy". In this second attack the US ships did not actually see the torpedo boats, but said they had found them using the ship's radar.

paragraphs: After the alleged second attack the U.S. launched air strikes against North Vietnam. The Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Joint Resolution (H.J. RES 1145) on 7 August 1964. This gave the president the power to run large-scale military operations in Southeast Asia without declaring war. There was little to no proof of these attacks and it was believed by some that they were an excuse for expanded U.S. involvement in Indochina.

paragraphs: The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong were supplied by a vast network of hidden trails, known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Which was hidden very well and many attempts were made by the U.S. to bomb and destroy it. Supplies and soldiers from North Vietnam were sent through Laos to communists forces in South Vietnam. American planes heavily bombed the Ho Chi Minh Trail; of bombs were dropped on Laos. It slowed down but did not stop the trail system.

paragraphs: Severe communist losses during the 1968 Tet Offensive, made it possible for the U.S. to withdraw many soldiers. As part of a policy called "Vietnamization", South Vietnamese troops were trained and equipped to replace the Americans who left. By 1973, 95 percent of the American troops were gone.

paragraphs: A peace treaty was signed in Paris in January 1973 by all the parties, but fighting continued until 1975.

paragraphs: There were some large-scale battles during the Vietnam War however most of the fighting was guerilla warfare. This type of warfare is different from the large-scale battles fought between armies, like those in World War II.In guerilla warfare, small units fight limited battles against an enemy force, set up ambushes, make surprise attacks, and then retreat back into the countryside or blend into the local population. It also includes making it difficult for the enemy to operate by engaging in sabotage and harassing the enemy with lethal means such as land mines and booby traps. The communist troops more often engaged in guerilla warfare against the South Vietnamese and American troops.

paragraphs: Although most traps were non-explosive, there were a few explosive traps which all used grenades. A trip wire was placed and if a soldier tripped over the wire, a grenade pin was pulled out and the grenade would blow, killing the soldier.

paragraphs: Another style of trap was nicknamed “Venus Flytrap”. It had about eight barbs attached to a rectangular frame sitting on a small hole. The barbs were facing down so when the soldier’s leg got caught in it, it wouldn’t hurt until he pulled his leg out. When he pulled his leg out the barbs would rip through his leg.

paragraphs: Another Vietcong trap was the Punji trap. Two wooden platforms were placed and covered with leaves to camouflage it. There were spikes on the inside of the wood. When a soldier came along and walked on the wood, it caved in and the spikes would go through the soldier’s foot. These traps were the most common because they were the cheapest and very effective. They also were often contaminated so that the soldier would also become infected.

paragraphs: Besides hurting or killing people, these traps were good at causing fear and lowering soldier morale.

paragraphs: The Fall of Saigon was the capture of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, by the People's Army of Vietnam and the National Liberation Front on April 30, 1975. This marked the end of the Vietnam War and the beginning of the formal reunification of Vietnam into a communist state.

paragraphs: Before the city fell the few American civilian and military personnel left Vietnam, along with tens of thousands of South Vietnamese soldiers and civilians had fled.

paragraphs: North Vietnamese forces under the command of General Văn Tiến Dũng began their final attack on Saigon, which was commanded by General Nguyen Van Toan on April 29, with a heavy artillery bombardment of Tân Sơn Nhứt Airport which killed the last two American servicemen who died in Vietnam, Charles McMahon and Darwin Judge.

paragraphs: By the afternoon of the next day, North Vietnamese troops had occupied the important points within the city and raised their flag over the South Vietnamese presidential palace. The government of South Vietnam formally gave up shortly after.

paragraphs: Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City, after communist leader Ho Chi Minh.

paragraphs: Any Americans that were in Saigon at the time were evacuated by helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft. The surrender of Saigon was told by the South Vietnamese president himself, General Duong Van Minh. He said "We are here to hand over to you the power in order to avoid bloodshed." General Minh had become South Vietnam’s president for two days as the country crumbled.


title: Sahel

paragraphs: The Sahel is a narrow belt of land in West Africa. It is a strip of dry land about 5500 kilometers long and 450 kilometres wide. It lies at the southern edge of the Sahara Desert and is located between the dry desert land to the north and the forest areas to the south. The Sahel has a tropical semi-arid climate. The temperature is high throughout the year. There is little rainfall in the Sahel (between 100-150 mm and 600mm). It is concentrated during summer months and can be unreliable. It may be very dry in some years, especially if a large area of low pressure, which brings rain, is not carried North over the Sahel by strong winds.

paragraphs: The Sahel is the Arabic word for 'edge' or 'shore'.

paragraphs: The Sahel is facing a big problem, Desertification.

paragraphs: As the climate of Sahel was mainly dry and hot and leads to a high evaporation rate and also little rainfalls. The distribution of rainfall in the Sahel region is uneven. The rainfall in the region has been below average since 1970. The Sahel is becoming drier on the whole. The problem of drought affects most of the countries. As a result, crops and animals die. There is no vegetation to protect the soil, which is then removed by flash floods and strong wind. This leads to soil erosion. Finally, the desert spreads towards the surrounding areas.

paragraphs: With better medical services, the birth rate increases and the death rate decreases in the Sahel. As a result, the population in the Sahel is growing. To meet the ever-increasing demand for firewood, a lot of trees have been cut down. More land has become barren. This is called deforestation.

paragraphs: Furthermore, people farm intensively in order to grow more crops, the soil becomes infertile and lack of nutrients. If this process continues for a long time, no crops can be grown. This is called overcultivation.

paragraphs: People keep animals for food due to the lack of good soil, the animals will have to eat grass and etc. But as the animals eat the grass, they also dug up the soil. As the people keep too many animals, the demand of grass is too much, and while the animals keep digging the soil up as they eat, and the wind and rain will blow away the soil, which causes soil erosion, this process is called overgrazing.

paragraphs: As a solution, more modern solutions can be used to give out a better agricultural result in the Sahel. We can try drip irrigation or hybrid. We should stop using excessive water (e.g. Having long baths) and consider our actions, to save the Sahel and lake Chad before it is too late.


title: Chemical change

paragraphs: A chemical change (chemical reaction) is a change of materials into other, new materials with different properties, and one or new substances are formed. Burning of wood is a chemical change as new substances which cannot be changed back (e.g. carbon dioxide) are formed. For example, if wood is burned in a fireplace, there is not wood anymore but ash. Other examples include burning of a candle, rusting of iron, baking a cake, etc. Special details that describe how a chemical change takes place are called chemical properties.

paragraphs: Compare: Physical change - The opposite of a chemical change is a physical change. Physical changes are a change in which no new substances are formed, and the substance which is changed is the same. For instance, if a stick of wood is broken, there is still a stick of wood; it is just broken.

paragraphs: More examples include changes of shape, changes of states, passing electricity through a copper wire, breaking of wood, shattering of glass, pouring of water, etc. Special details which do not change in a substance without new substances being formed are called physical properties.


title: Physical change

paragraphs: A physical change is a change in which no new substance are formed. Physical changes affect the "form" of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Mixtures can be separated into their parts by physical methods, such as spinning in a centrifuge. It cannot be used to separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds.

paragraphs: All physical changes are reversible and their mass does not change. Some examples are changes of shape, changes of states, and passing electricity through a copper wire. Physical changes could be: melting, freezing, boiling/evaporating, condensing, deposition and sublimation.

paragraphs: Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change. It is not reversible in some cases such as tearing of paper , melting of wax


title: Ronald Reagan

paragraphs: Ronald Wilson Reagan (; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American actor and politician. He was the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975. Reagan was the 9th and 13th President of the Screen Actors Guild, from 1947 to 1952 and again from 1959 to 1960. Reagan was a movie, television and radio actor before he began his career in politics.

paragraphs: Reagan was born in Tampico, Illinois. Reagan had a successful career in Hollywood. He was in fifty-three movies. He married actress Jane Wyman in 1940. The couple divorced in 1949. They had three children. Reagan then married Nancy Davis in 1952. They had two children. Their marriage lasted until Reagan's death in 2004.

paragraphs: Before winning his presidental election in 1980, Reagan ran for president two times in 1968 and in 1976. At 73 years old when re-elected in 1984, he is the oldest person elected president of the United States. He is known as the "Great Communicator" because he was a good public speaker. Reagan was also known as the "Teflon president" because any criticism or scandals against him never stuck or affected his popularity. Reagan still remains one of the most popular presidents in American history because of his optimism for the country. Reagan was the first president of the United States to have been divorced.

paragraphs: Reagan was inaugurated in January 1981. As president, Reagan helped create a new political and economic idea. He created the supply-side economic policies. It was later called Reaganomics. Reagan's economic policy lowered tax rates. It created an economic growth and lowered inflation. In his first term he also survived an assassination attempt. Reagan also declared a War on Drugs. Reagan ordered an invasion of Grenada to end a Communist coup.

paragraphs: He was re-elected in a landslide victory in 1984. During his second term, Reagan worked on ending the Cold War. He also ordered the 1986 bombing of Libya. In 1987, the Reagan administration faced a political scandal. It was the Iran–Contra affair. Reagan worked with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev during his second term. This led to the signing of the INF Treaty. It decreased nuclear weapons in the United States and the Soviet Union. Reagan left office in January 1989.

paragraphs: Reagan was originally a Democrat. In 1962 he changed to the Republican party. He is ranked high in presidential opinion polls.

paragraphs: Reagan died on June 5, 2004 at his Bel Air, Los Angeles home from pneumonia after a ten-year battle with Alzheimer's disease. He was 93 years old.

paragraphs: Reagan was born to Jack and Nelle Reagan on February 6, 1911 in a small apartment building in Tampico, Illinois. He had an older brother named Neil. His father was a Roman Catholic of Irish descent. His mother was a Protestant of English and Scottish descent.

paragraphs: The family moved to different places in Illinois when Reagan was a child. They moved to Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. His family finally settled in Dixon, Illinois. They lived in a small house in Dixon. His family was very poor. Reagan did not have much as a child. In high school, Reagan enjoyed acting. Reagan was athletic. He became a lifeguard and saved 77 lives.

paragraphs: Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. He became a sports announcer at news radio station WHO. Reagan was also a broadcaster for the Chicago Cubs. He was good at recreating baseball games. He made them interesting. At this time, the radio station would get only the scores. He was fired for not mentioning the show's sponsors. Reagan was soon re-hired. Station executives could not find anyone as capable as Reagan to re-create baseball games.

paragraphs: His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie "Love Is on the Air". He then starred in many movies such as "Dark Victory" with Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart. Before the movie "Santa Fe Trail" with Errol Flynn in 1940, he played the role of George "The Gipper" Gipp in the movie "Knute Rockne, All American". From his role in the movie, he got the lifelong nickname "the Gipper". In 1941, experts voted him the fifth most popular star from the younger generation in Hollywood.

paragraphs: Reagan's favorite acting role was as a double amputee in 1942's "Kings Row". In the movie, he says the line, "Where's the rest of me?" It was later used as the title of his 1965 autobiography. Many movie critics thought "Kings Row" to be his best movie. Even though the movie was popular, it received bad reviews by "New York Times" critic Bosley Crowther.

paragraphs: Although Reagan called "Kings Row" the movie that "made me a star", he was unable to keep up on his success. This was because he was ordered to active duty with the U.S. Army at San Francisco two months after the movie's release.

paragraphs: During World War II, Reagan was separated for four years from his movie career. He served in the First Motion Picture Unit. After the war, Reagan co-starred in such movies such as in, "The Voice of the Turtle", "John Loves Mary", "The Hasty Heart", "Bedtime for Bonzo", "Cattle Queen of Montana", "Juke Girl", "This Is the Army", "The Winning Team", "Tennessee's Partner", and "Hellcats of the Navy", in which he worked with his wife, Nancy. Reagan's last movie was a 1964 movie "The Killers". Throughout his movie career, his mother, Nelle, often answered much of his fan mail.

paragraphs: Reagan was also a spokesperson. He hosted the "General Electric Theater" since it was first shown in 1953. He was fired in 1962.

paragraphs: Reagan was first elected to the board of directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941. After World War II, he quickly returned to Screen Actors Guild. Reagan became the 3rd vice-president of the Screen Actors Guild in 1946.

paragraphs: Reagan was nominated in a special election to become president of the Screen Actors Guild. Reagan was elected in 1947. Reagan was re-elected president in 1959. He served only a year before resigning in 1960.

paragraphs: Reagan led the Screen Actors Guild through labor disputes, the Taft–Hartley Act and the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era.

paragraphs: During the late 1940s, Reagan and his then-wife Jane Wyman gave the FBI names of actors whom they believed were communists. Reagan even spoke at a special meeting at Congress on communism in Hollywood as well.

paragraphs: Despite not supporting giving out names of actors who were suspected communists. Reagan said:

paragraphs: Reagan was very active in politics near the end of his acting career. Reagan used to be a Democrat. He strongly supported the New Deal. He admired Franklin D. Roosevelt. Over time, Reagan became a conservative Republican. This was because he felt the federal government had too much power and authority. He made a famous speech speaking out against socialized medicine (government run health care).

paragraphs: Reagan endorsed Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard Nixon for the United States presidency. The last time Reagan supported a Democrat was when Helen Gahagan Douglas ran for the United States Senate.

paragraphs: During the 1964 presidential election, Reagan supported Republican candidate Barry Goldwater. He made a famous speech called "A Time for Choosing" to support Goldwater. In the speech he spoke against government programs and high taxes. Even though Goldwater did not win the election, Reagan gained popularity from it. In his speech, Reagan said,

paragraphs: After Reagan gave this speech, many businesspeople thought that Reagan could run for Governor of California.

paragraphs: After giving a speech of Barry Goldwater's presidential campaign in 1964, he was persuaded to run for governor. Reagan ran as a Republican against the then governor, Pat Brown during the 1966 gubernatorial election. Reagan won the election with 3,742,913 (57.55%) of the vote while Brown won 2,749,174 (42.27%) of the vote. Reagan was inaugurated on January 2, 1967.

paragraphs: During his years as Governor, Reagan stopped hiring government workers. He did this to slow the growth of California's workforce. Reagan also approved tax increases to balance the state budget. Reagan worked with the Democratic Party majority in the state legislature to help create a major reform of the welfare system in 1971. The reform helped give money to the poor and increase the pay of the rich. During his term as governor, Reagan served as the President of the Republican Governors Association from 1968 to 1969. In 1967, Reagan signed an act that did not allow the public carrying loaded guns. In 1968, a petition to force Reagan into a recall election failed.

paragraphs: Reagan ran briefly for president in 1968. He was not nominated by the Republican Party at the 1968 Republican National Convention as Richard Nixon was nominated.

paragraphs: On May 15, 1969, during the People's Park protests at the University of California, Berkeley, Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to fight off the protests, in an event that became known as "Bloody Thursday". Reagan then called out 2,200 state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks in order to crack down on the protesters.

paragraphs: Reagan ran for re-election in the 1970 gubernatorial election against assemblyman Jesse M. Unruh. Reagan won 3,439,174 (52.83%) of the vote while Unruh won 2,938,607 (45.14%) of the vote.

paragraphs: During his final term as governor, he played a major role in California's educational system. He raised student loans. This caused a massive protest between Reagan and the college students. Reagan would soon be criticized of his views of the educational system. In 2019, a 1971 audio recording of a conversation between Reagan and President Nixon was released in which Reagan called Africans diplomats at the United Nations "monkeys".

paragraphs: Reagan left office on January 6, 1975 when Jerry Brown, Pat Brown's son, succeeded Reagan as governor.

paragraphs: In 1976, Reagan said he would run against President Gerald Ford to become the Republican Party's candidate for president. Reagan soon became the conservative candidate with the support of organizations such as the American Conservative Union, which became key supporters of his political run, while Ford was considered a more moderate Republican.

paragraphs: During his 1976 campaign, Reagan controversially used the pejorative phrase "welfare queen" to describe Linda Taylor who illegally misused her welfare benefits in 1974. He used Taylor and her criminals activities to defend his criticisms about social programs in the United States.

paragraphs: Reagan selected United States Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate.

paragraphs: Reagan won a few primaries early such as North Carolina, Texas and California, but soon failed to win key primaries such as New Hampshire, Florida, and his native Illinois.

paragraphs: During the 1976 GOP convention, Ford won the nomination with 1,187 delegates to Reagan's 1,070. Ford would go on to lose the 1976 presidential election to the Democratic nominee, Jimmy Carter.

paragraphs: Though he lost the nomination, Reagan got 307 write-in votes in New Hampshire, 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming's ballot, and a single electoral vote from general election from the state of Washington.

paragraphs: In November 1979, Reagan announced his plans to run for president again in the 1980 presidential election against incumbent President Jimmy Carter. His campaign slogan, "Make America Great Again", was heavily used in the 1980 election and in Reagan's 1984 re-election campaign. The slogan would be used by Presidents Bill Clinton and Donald Trump in their presidential campaigns. Reagan faced primary challenges from former Director George H. W. Bush, United States representatives John B. Anderson and Phil Crane, United States senators Bob Dole, Howard Baker, Larry Pressler and Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., Governor Harold Stassen, former Treasury Secretary John Connally and to Republican executive Ben Fernandez. In May 1980, Reagan won enough delegates to win the Republican Party nomination. At the 1980 Republican National Convention, Reagan named Bush as his running mate.

paragraphs: Reagan's presidential campaign focused on lowering taxes to grow the economy, less government in people's lives, states' rights, and a strong national defense.

paragraphs: His relaxed and confident appearance during the televised Reagan-Carter debate on October 28, grew his popularity, and helped to expand his lead in the polls.

paragraphs: On November 4, Reagan won the election winning 44 states and 489 electoral votes, to Carter's 49 electoral votes from six states plus the District of Columbia. He won the popular vote by a larger margin, winning 50.7% to Carter's 41.0%, with independent John B. Anderson winning 6.6%.

paragraphs: Reagan was first sworn in as president on January 20, 1981. In his inaugural address (which Reagan himself wrote), he talked about the country's economic problems, arguing:

paragraphs: In 1981, Reagan became the first president to propose a constitutional amendment on school prayer. In 1985, Reagan expressed his disappointment that the Supreme Court ruling still bans a moment of silence for public schools, and said he had "an uphill battle." In 1987 Reagan renewed his call for Congress to support voluntary prayer in schools and end "the expulsion of God from America's classrooms." People who did not support this said it is not right for any government force to be included in schools.

paragraphs: Reagan was nearly killed in an assassination attempt that happened on Monday, March 30, 1981. 69 days after becoming President, he was leaving after a speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel in Washington, D.C. He was shot by John Hinckley. Hinckley shot six bullets.

paragraphs: White House Press Secretary James Brady was shot in the head. Brady later recovered, but was paralyzed. Two other bullets shot officer Thomas Delahanty in the back, also paralyzing him, and Secret Service agent Timothy McCarthy in the chest. McCarthy took a bullet for Reagan. No one was killed during the event.

paragraphs: Reagan was taken to the George Washington University Hospital, which was nearest hospital from the hotel and White House. He suffered a punctured lung and a broken rib bone. He lost about 3/4 of his blood. Reagan soon made a fast recovery after doctors performed surgery. It was later said that the bullet was one inch away from his heart.

paragraphs: This made Reagan the only President of the United States to have been shot and survive afterwards.

paragraphs: Reagan believed that the government should be small, not big. This means that the government should not interfere in people's lives very much or interfere with what businesses do. He believed in supply-side economics, which was also called Reaganomics and Voodoo economics (by people who didn't like it) during his term. He lowered everybody's income taxes by 25% and cut spending in many government departments.

paragraphs: He also lowered inflation from 14% to 4% and he vetoed 78 bills. Reagan's economic plan resulted in a bad economy during the year 1982, but the economy turned around in 1983. The economy soon recovered. Reagan called it "Morning in America". During his presidency the United States declared a "War on Drugs".

paragraphs: In the summer of 1981, the union of federal air traffic controllers went on strike. They broke a federal law that does not allow government unions from striking. Reagan said that if the air traffic controllers "do not report for work within 48 hours, they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated". They did not return and on August 5, Reagan fired 11,359 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order, and used supervisors and military controllers to handle the nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained.

paragraphs: The Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis in the United States in 1981. AIDS research was underfunded during Reagan's administration. There were requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), but they were routinely denied. By the end of the first 12 months of the epidemic, more than 1,000 people had died of AIDS in the United States.

paragraphs: By the time President Reagan gave his first speech on the epidemic in 1987, 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS and 20,849 had died of it. By the end of 1989, the year Reagan left office, 115,786 people had been diagnosed with AIDS in the United States, and more than 70,000 of them had died of it.

paragraphs: On August 20, 1981, Reagan was the honorable guest of Captain Dennis Brooks, commanding officer of the USS "Constellation" (CV-64). President Reagan arrived on the USS "Constellation" (CV-64) by helicopter. He spoke to the ship's crew, ate lunch with them and watched a United States Navy tactical display at sea.

paragraphs: President Reagan then re-enlisted some US Navy personnel. He then was introduced to Special Agent Craig Goodwin of the Naval Investigative Service (NIS). He was the Special Agent who was assigned aboard the USS "Constellation" (CV-64). Special Agent Goodwin was later awarded one of the highest civilian medals for his intelligence work, the Meritorious Civilian Service Medal.

paragraphs: Reagan's "Evil empire" speech was delivered to the National Association of Evangelicals in Orlando, Florida on March 8, 1983. It is his first recorded use of the phrase. Speaking about the nuclear arms race he said that the Soviet Union as evil.

paragraphs: Audio and text of this speech is available here .

paragraphs: In 1983, Reagan sent forces to Lebanon to stop the threat of the Lebanese Civil War. On October 23, 1983, a group of American forces in Beirut were attacked. The Beirut barracks bombing killed 241 American servicemen and wounded more than 60 others by a suicide truck bomber. Reagan withdrew all the Marines from Lebanon.

paragraphs: In September 1983, Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down by the Soviet Union. It killed one politician and many more Americans. Reagan was angry at the Soviets. Reagan addressed the nation. As a result, Reagan proposed that the American military's GPS would be allowed for civilian use. In his address, Reagan said,

paragraphs: On October 25, 1983, Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada, code named Operation Urgent Fury. Reagan said that there was a "regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean" in Grenada.

paragraphs: "Operation Urgent Fury" was the first major military operation done by U.S. forces since the Vietnam War. Some days of fighting started, but it resulted in a U.S. victory. In mid-December, U.S. forces withdrew from Grenada after a new form of government was created there.

paragraphs: Reagan originally did not support making Martin Luther King Jr.'s birthday a national holiday, because of cost concerns. But on November 2, 1983, Reagan signed a bill to create a federal holiday honoring King. The bill had passed the Senate by a count of 78 to 22 and the House of Representatives by 338 to 90. The holiday was observed for the first time on January 20, 1986. It is observed on the third Monday of January.

paragraphs: Reagan was once again nominated for president at the 1984 Republican National Convention. His Democratic opponent, was former Vice President Walter Mondale of Minnesota.

paragraphs: During the first presidential debate, many said Reagan lost the debate and there were rumors about Reagan's health citing his confusion on stage. Many thought Reagan was showing the early stages of Alzheimer's disease. In the second debate, Reagan improved his performance and when asked about questions of his age, he said:

paragraphs: Reagan's statement made the entire audience laugh including from moderators and Mondale himself. Reagan also repeated his 1980 debate phrase: "There you go again".

paragraphs: Reagan was re-elected in 1984 in a landslide victory. Reagan won 49 out of the 50 states. He carried more electoral votes than any other president in American history.

paragraphs: Reagan was sworn in as president once again on January 20, 1985 at the White House this time due to cold weather. In the coming weeks, he changed his staff by moving White House Chief of Staff James Baker to Secretary of the Treasury and naming Treasury Secretary Donald Regan to Chief of Staff.

paragraphs: Reagan became friends with the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher. Both of them held meetings about the Soviet Union's threat and how to end the Cold War. Reagan became the first American president to ever address the British Parliament.

paragraphs: In foreign policy, Reagan ended detente (the policy of being friendly to the Soviet Union) by ordering the largest peacetime military buildup in American history. The U.S. government had to borrow a lot of money to pay for it. He had many new weapons built. Soon, the U.S. began to research on a missile defense system which would destroy missiles. It was to prevent a nuclear war from happening. The program was called Strategic Defense Initiative. It was nicked named "Star Wars".

paragraphs: He directed money to anti-communist movements all over the world that wanted to overthrow their communist government. He ordered multiple military operations including the invasion of Grenada and the Libya bombing.

paragraphs: In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the new leader of the Soviet Union (which was in bad shape and soon to collapse). Reagan had many talks with him. Their first meeting together was at the Reykjavík Summit in Iceland. They became good friends.

paragraphs: In May 1985, Reagan and Chancellor Helmut Kohl were scheduled to visit a military cemetery in Bitburg, Germany to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the end of World War II. The visit caused controversy as the cemetery had members of the Waffen-SS buried there and Reagan did not schedule a visit to a concentration camp. As a result, a trip to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp was added to Reagan's schedule where he made a few remarks about the Holocaust and the end of the war. Reagan responded about the controversy,

paragraphs: Reagan announced a War on Drugs in 1982, because of concerns about the increasing number of people using crack. Even though Richard Nixon declared a war on drugs during the 1970s, Reagan used more militant policies.

paragraphs: In 1986, Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill that budgeted $1.7 billion to fund the War on Drugs. It created a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses. The bill was criticized for created racial inequalities and mass imprisonment of African-Americans. As a result, First Lady Nancy Reagan created her "Just Say No" campaign to promote anti-drug usage to children.

paragraphs: During the Reagan presidency, relations between Libya and the United States were mixed. In early April 1986, relations were escalated when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque. It resulted in the injury of 63 American military personnel and death of one serviceman. In the late evening of April 15, 1986, the United States launched many attacks in Libya.

paragraphs: The UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the U.S. Air Force to use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, only if that the UK was supporting America's right to self-defense supported by the United Nations. The attack was done to stop Gaddafi's "ability to export terrorism", offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior". The president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the attacks started, he said

paragraphs: Many countries and the United Nations did not like Reagan's decision to bomb Libya. The United Nations said that Reagan violated "the Charter of the United Nations and of international law".

paragraphs: Reagan's reputation was badly hurt by the political scandal Iran-Contra Affair. The government illegally sold weapons to Iran. It later used the profits to support a Nicaraguan terrorist group called the Contras. Reagan told the American people he didn't know anything about the scandal. Reagan funded the Contras to fight off the Communist regime of Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, but when it became too expensive, Congress made it illegal to pay the Contras. As a result, the scandal at the center of the affair and the cover up was using illegal profits to break the law a second time by supporting terrorists.

paragraphs: His United States National Security Advisor John Poindexter was charged with multiple felonies and later resigned. Reagan later nominated former Ambassador Frank Carlucci to replace Poindexter. His Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger was thought to be guilty, but resigned before a trial could begin. Reagan later nominated Carlucci to serve as Defense Secretary for the rest of his term. Oliver North, a member of the United States National Security Council, resigned and was indicted for his involvement in the affair. In February 1987, White House Chief of Staff Donald Regan also resigned because of an ongoing feud between Regan and First Lady Reagan about his handling of the affair.

paragraphs: Soon, he told the American people that it was his fault. After Reagan told the truth, he became more popular. In his apology, Reagan said,

paragraphs: In the end, fourteen administration officials were indicted and eleven convictions resulted, some of which were vacated on appeal. The rest of those indicted or convicted were all pardoned by President George H. W. Bush, who had been Vice President at the time of the affair.

paragraphs: In the 1980s, apartheid in South Africa was becoming more violent and a global issue. The Democrats in the Senate tried to pass the Anti-Apartheid Act in September 1985, but could not overcome a Republican filibuster. Reagan saw it as an act to lower his authority to plan foreign policy. He created own set of sanctions, but Democrats saw them to be "watered down and ineffective".

paragraphs: The bill was re-introduced in 1986 and brought up for a vote despite Republican efforts to block it to give Reagan's sanctions time to work. It passed the House with Reagan publicly against it. Later the Senate approved of the bill with a 84-14 vote.

paragraphs: On September 26, 1986, Reagan vetoed the bill saying that it would cause an "economic war". Republican Senator Richard Lugar led the Senate of override Reagan's veto. The veto was reverse by Congress (by the Senate 78 to 21, the House by 313 to 83) on October 2. The veto override was the first one on a presidential foreign policy veto in the 20th century.

paragraphs: In response to the veto override, Reagan said:

paragraphs: In 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded killing everyone on board. The entire country was shocked. Reagan postponed his 1986 State of the Union Address as a result of the tragedy. It was the first time that a President of the United States postponed a State of the Union Address. Afterwards, Reagan addressed the nation. Reagan famously said,

paragraphs: In November 1986, Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act. It helped some immigrants to get jobs and become legal citizens. In that same year, the Statue of Liberty was just re-opened after being renovated. Reagan was at the opening ceremony when he said,

paragraphs: During his 1980 campaign, Reagan promised that, if elected, he would nominate the first female Supreme Court Associate Justice. On July 7, 1981, he nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to replace the retiring Justice Potter Stewart. Reagan said of O'Connor:

paragraphs: O'Connor was confirmed by the United States Senate with a vote of 99–0.

paragraphs: In his second term in 1986, Reagan nominated William Rehnquist to replace Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice. He named Antonin Scalia to fill the empty seat left by Rehnquist.

paragraphs: After Associate Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr. announced his retirement in June 1987, Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to replace him in 1987. Senator Ted Kennedy was strongly against Bork. Kennedy accused Bork of not being strong on states', civil or women's rights. Kennedy said that if Bork was confirmed:

paragraphs: Bork's nomination was rejected by the United States Senate with a vote of 58–42. Reagan then nominated Douglas H. Ginsburg, but Ginsburg withdrew his name from consideration after it was revealed he used cannabis. Reagan later nominated Anthony Kennedy to replace Powell, Jr. and was confirmed with a vote of 97–0.

paragraphs: In 1987, Reagan travelled to Berlin to give a speech at the Berlin Wall. That is where he gave one of his greatest speeches of his presidency. Referring to the Brandenburg Gate and the Berlin Wall he said,

paragraphs: In January 1987, U.S. Representative Tom Foley introduced the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 to Congress as a way to give reparation to Japanese-Americans who were interned by the United States during World War II. It passed the House in September 1987 and was sent to the Senate were it was passed in April 1988.

paragraphs: Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act into law on August 10, 1988 granting USD $20,000 with payments beginning in 1990. A total of 82,219 Japanese-Americans received checks.

paragraphs: During his term as president, Reagan saw the change in the direction of the Soviet leadership with Mikhail Gorbachev. Months after his Berlin Wall speech, Gorbachev announced his plans to work with Reagan for a big arms agreements. Reagan and Gorbachev signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty which banned nuclear weapons being launched between the United States and the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: When Reagan visited Moscow for the fourth summit in 1988, he was seen as a celebrity by the Soviets. A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire. "No", he replied, "I was talking about another time, another era". In November 1989, ten months after Reagan left office, the Berlin Wall was torn down, the Cold War was officially declared over at the Malta Summit on December 3, 1989, and two years later, the Soviet Union collapsed.

paragraphs: Reagan left office with high rankings on January 20, 1989 when his Vice President George H. W. Bush became president. Reagan and his wife, Nancy, soon returned home in Bel Air, Los Angeles, California. In the years after he left office, Reagan's time in office was seen as one of the best and is compared to that of Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy.

paragraphs: After leaving office, Reagan and his wife Nancy lived in Bel Air, Los Angeles. They also visited their ranch, Rancho del Cielo. Reagan gave a speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention giving his support for Bush's re-election campaign in the 1992 presidential election.

paragraphs: In November 1991, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public in Simi Valley, California.

paragraphs: In June 1989, Reagan was honored with Honorary Knighthood and received the Order of the Bath presented by Queen Elizabeth II. He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1993 by President George H. W. Bush. He was the first former living president to receive the honor. Soon afterwards the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation created the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award for people who made a big change for freedom.

paragraphs: In 1990, Reagan wrote an autobiography titled, "An American Life".

paragraphs: Even after when he left office, Reagan had a close friendship with both Thatcher and Gorbachev. They would often visit him at his home.

paragraphs: In May 1994, Reagan, along with former presidents Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter, wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives in support of banning "semi-automatic assault guns."

paragraphs: On April 13, 1992, Reagan was assaulted by an anti-nuclear protester during a speech while accepting an award from the National Association of Broadcasters in Las Vegas. The protester was Richard Paul Springer. He smashed a 2-foot-high (60 cm) 30-pound (13.5 kg) crystal statue of an eagle that the broadcasters had given to Reagan. Pieces of glass hit Reagan, but he was not injured.

paragraphs: Springer was the founder of an anti-nuclear group called the "100th Monkey". Following his arrest on assault charges, a Secret Service spokesman did not say how Springer got past the agents. Later, Springer pled guilty to the federal charge of interfering with the Secret Service, but other felony charges of assault and fighting against officers were dropped.

paragraphs: Early in his presidency, Reagan started wearing a hearing aid, first in his right ear and later in his left as well. In 1985, he had colon cancer and skin cancer removed at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland. In 1987, Reagan had surgery to remove polyp of the nose. Also in that year, Reagan went into surgery for an enlarged prostate.

paragraphs: In 1994, Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease.

paragraphs: On November 5, 1994, Reagan wrote a public letter about having Alzheimer's disease, writing:

paragraphs: After announcing his disease, many people sent supporting letters to his California home. There was also an opinion based on unfinished evidence that Reagan had showed symptoms of mental decline while still in office.

paragraphs: In 1995, the Ronald and Nancy Reagan Research Institute was dedicated in Chicago, Illinois. It is an institution that can help people with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.

paragraphs: Reagan fell at his Bel Air home on January 13, 2001. He broke his hip. The fracture was repaired the next day. Reagan, 89 years old, returned home later that week, but he then had to do difficult physical therapy at home.

paragraphs: In her memoirs, former CBS White House correspondent Lesley Stahl remembers about her final meeting with the president in 1986,

paragraphs: But then, at the end, he regained his alertness. As she described it,

paragraphs: As the years went on, the Alzheimer's disease slowly destroyed Reagan's mental capacity. He was only able to recognize a few people, including his wife, Nancy. He remained active during his last years. He took walks through parks near his home and on beaches, played golf regularly, and until 1999 he often went to his office in nearby Century City.

paragraphs: On February 6, 2001, Reagan reached the age of 90, becoming the third former president to do so (the other two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover, with Gerald Ford, George H. W. Bush, and Jimmy Carter later reaching 90).

paragraphs: Reagan's public appearances became much less frequent with the progression of the disease. His family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife Nancy. Nancy Reagan told CNN's Larry King in 2001 that very few visitors were allowed to see her husband because she felt that "Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was." In that same year, Reagan's daughter, Maureen Reagan, died from melanoma at the age of 60.

paragraphs: The USS "Ronald Reagan" (CVN-76) was finished in 2001. A ceremony was held in March 2001. Reagan's wife, Nancy lead the ceremony. She christened the ship. Reagan could not go because he was very sick.

paragraphs: Following her husband's diagnosis and death, Nancy became a stem-cell research advocate. She urged Congress and President George W. Bush to support federal funding for embryonic stem cell research. President Bush opposed the idea. In 2009, she praised President Barack Obama for lifting restrictions on such research. Mrs. Reagan believed that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's. Nancy died on March 6, 2016 at the age of 94.

paragraphs: On June 5, 2004, Reagan died at the age of 93 of pneumonia, caused by Alzheimer's disease, in his home in Bel Air, Los Angeles, California. A short time after his death, Nancy Reagan released a statement saying, "My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has died after 10 years of Alzheimer's disease at 93 years of age. We appreciate everyone's prayers."

paragraphs: Reagan was granted a state funeral. Reagan's state funeral was the first in the United States since Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973. It was held at the Washington National Cathedral on June 11 and presided by former Missouri United States senator John Danforth. President George W. Bush and former presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton went to the funeral. First Lady Laura Bush and former first ladies Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter, and Barbara Bush also went.

paragraphs: Former First Lady Lady Bird Johnson did not go to the funeral because of poor health. Reverend Billy Graham, who was Reagan's first choice to lead the funeral, could not go because he was recovering from surgery. Supreme Court justice Sandra Day O'Connor also went to the funeral and delivered a passage from the Bible. The funeral was led by Reagan's close friend and pastor Michael Wenning.

paragraphs: Foreign leaders also went to Reagan's funeral, Mikhail Gorbachev, Prime Minister of United Kingdom Tony Blair, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan and Ghazi al-Yawer of Iraq. Former Prime Minister of United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher, former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and both former President George H. W. Bush and President George W. Bush gave eulogies.

paragraphs: Reagan was buried later that day in an underground vault at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. His tomb reads,

paragraphs: Reagan met Jane Wyman while filming "Brother Rat" in 1938. He asked Wyman to marry him at the Chicago Theatre. They were married on January 20, 1940 in Glendale, California. They had two children: Michael (adopted) and Maureen Reagan. They had a third child, Christine Reagan, but she was stillborn. With Reagan's growing political career and the death of their child, Wyman filled for divorce in 1948. The divorce was final in 1949.

paragraphs: In 1949, months after divorcing Wyman, Reagan met Nancy Davis. Davis was an actress who was accidentally listed as a communist and asked Reagan to help. After Reagan helped Davis, the two began dating. Three years later, Reagan asked Davis to marry him in Beverly Hills, California. They were married on March 4, 1952 in Hollywood, California. Together, they had two children: Ron and Patti Reagan.

paragraphs: Wyman died of natural causes on September 10, 2010. She was aged 90. Nancy outlived her husband by eleven years. She died on March 6, 2016 of heart failure. She was aged 94.

paragraphs: In 2000, Ronald and Nancy Reagan received the Congressional Gold Medal in "recognition for their service to their nation".

paragraphs: In August 2004, a tribute to Reagan was shown at the 2004 Republican National Convention presented by his son, Michael Reagan.

paragraphs: In June 2007, Reagan received the Order of the White Eagle from Poland's president, Lech Kaczyński, for Reagan's work to end communism in Poland. Nancy Reagan travelled to Warsaw to accept the award for her husband.

paragraphs: On June 3, 2009, a statue of Reagan was added in the United States Capitol rotunda. The statue represents the state of California in the National Statuary Hall Collection. Following Reagan's death, both major American political parties agreed to place a statue of Reagan instead of that of Thomas Starr King.

paragraphs: Also in June 2009, President Obama signed the Ronald Reagan Centennial Commission Act into law. It created a commission to plan activities to mark the upcoming centenary of Reagan's 100 birthday.

paragraphs: On July 4, 2011, a statue of Reagan was presented in London. It is outside of the American Embassy in Grosvenor Square. The ceremony was supposed to be attended by Reagan's wife Nancy, but she did not attend. Former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice took her place and read a statement from her. British Prime Minister during Reagan's presidency, Baroness Thatcher, was also unable to attend due to poor health.

paragraphs: A statue of Reagan was presented in November 2011 in Warsaw, Poland. President of Poland Lech Wałęsa was there.

paragraphs: In 2011, Reagan was added to the National Radio Hall of Fame.

paragraphs: Since 2011, February 6 has been known as Ronald Reagan Day in 21 states across the United States in honor of his birthday.

paragraphs: In 2016, Ronald and Nancy Reagan were honored in the Presidential $1 Coin Program in August 2016. He was the last president honored in the program.

paragraphs: In August 2017, Secretary of Labor Alexander Acosta honored Reagan at the Labor Hall of Honor as the 2017 edition to the monument.

paragraphs: In the 1991 crime/thriller movie "Point Break", a face-mask of Reagan is worn by the leader (Patrick Swayze) of the "Ex-Presidents", gang of robbers who wear face-masks of former Presidents during bank robberies.

paragraphs: In the 2000 psychological horror movie "American Psycho", Reagan was discussed towards the end of the movie as to whether he is a psychopath or an innocent old man in regards to the Iran-Contra affair.

paragraphs: In 2001, Richard Crenna played Reagan in the Oliver Stone television movie "The Day Reagan Was Shot". In 2007, the edited version of his diary was published entitled "The Reagan Diaries". It became the New York Times Best Seller.

paragraphs: Voice actor Hank Azaria voiced Reagan three times (1993, 1994, and 2012) in "The Simpsons". Harry Shearer said that "Simpsons" character Mr. Burns is inspired by Reagan. Seth MacFarlane voiced Reagan in "American Dad!" and on "Family Guy" for special episodes.

paragraphs: During the history of "Saturday Night Live", Reagan has been played by Phil Hartman, Randy Quaid and Robin Williams. In a 2010 short comedy video, "Presidential Reunion", actor Jim Carrey played the spirit of Reagan trying to speak to Barack Obama about bank companies and the media.

paragraphs: In 2014, Reagan was played by British actor Alan Rickman in Lee Daniels' "The Butler".

paragraphs: In 2015, Bill O'Reilly published "Killing Reagan", the fifth book of his "Killing" series. It covers the assassination attempt on Reagan in March 1981. A year later, National Geographic Society announced they were making a television movie based on the book. "Killing Reagan" was premiered on National Geographic on October 16, 2016, with actor Tim Matheson playing Reagan. In late 2015, actor Bruce Campbell played Reagan in the second season of Fox's criminal suspense drama series "Fargo".

paragraphs: In March 2018, it was confirmed that actor Dennis Quaid would play Reagan in an upcoming movie, titled "Reagan", which will be based on Reagan's life. David Henrie will play a younger Reagan in the movie.

paragraphs: In October 2018, the Reagan library publicly launched three Reagan holographs: one where Reagan is in the Oval Office, one where he is in a train during his 1984 campaign and one at his Rancho del Cielo.

paragraphs: Old footage of Reagan and his likeness was used for the 2020 first-person shooter video game "".

paragraphs: Reagan, by public opinion, is one of the most popular American presidents. His legacy is strongly admired among many conservatives and Republicans. Those who do admire Reagan are sometimes called Reagan coalitionists.

paragraphs: According to USA Today, "Reagan transformed the American presidency in ways that only a few have been able to." His role in the Cold War made his image more popular as a different kind of leader as both Reagan and Gorbachev wanted to end nuclear tensions and the war.

paragraphs: Reagan ranked third of post–World War II presidents in a 2007 Rasmussen Reports poll, fifth in an ABC 2000 poll, ninth in another 2007 Rasmussen poll, and eighth in a late 2008 poll by British newspaper "The Times". In 2011, British historians released a survey to rate American presidents. This poll of British experts in American history and politics said that Reagan is the eighth greatest American president.

paragraphs: Reagan was the oldest president up to that time and was supported by young voters, who began to support the Republican party as a result.

paragraphs: Reagan is even admired by people of the opposite party, the Democratic Party. Democrats who support Reagan are called Reagan Democrats. His presidency is sometimes called the Reagan Era because of the changes it brought during Reagan's time as president. In his home state of California, Reagan is seen as a hero. Reagan is known for his witty charm and his warm optimism.

paragraphs: The legacy of his economic policies is still divided between people who believe that the government should be smaller and those who believe the government should take a more active role in regulating the economy. While some of his foreign policies were controversial, many thank Reagan for peacefully ending the Cold War.


title: United Nations

paragraphs: The United Nations (UN) is an organization between countries established on 24 October 1945 to promote international cooperation. It was founded to replace the League of Nations following World War II and to prevent another conflict. When it was founded, the UN had 51 Member States; there are now 193. Most nations are members of the UN and send diplomats to the headquarters to hold meetings and make decisions about global issues.

paragraphs: After World War I, the nations of the world formed the League of Nations. This organization was a place where nations could talk through their differences calmly. However, some countries like Germany, Italy and Japan ignored the League and tried to solve their problems through war. Members of the League of Nations did not want to go to war to protect other members and the League failed. A Second World War soon started.

paragraphs: The Allies of World War II often called themselves "the United Nations" (united against the Axis Powers). After the War, the winners formed a new organization for world peace. On 25th April 1945 in San Francisco, they decided on the name '"United Nations". In June they signed the United Nations Charter saying how the organization would work. The UN was created on 24 October 1945 and its first meeting was held in January 1946. Since 1947 the 24th of October has been called “United Nations Day”.

paragraphs: All organs of the United Nations are based in New York City, USA, except the International Court of Justice which is located at The Hague in the Netherlands.

paragraphs: The main building for the United Nations is in New York City in the United States of America, but the UN also has important offices in Geneva (Switzerland), Nairobi (Kenya) and Vienna (Austria). The UN tries to be peaceful, but sometimes when talks do not work the UN, unlike the League of Nations, will fight too. In the 1950s the UN helped South Korea in a war against North Korea, and in the 1990s the UN helped to force Iraqi soldiers out of Kuwait. At other times, the UN has formed 'peacekeeping' forces. UN peacekeepers travel to troubled places in the world and try - sometimes successfully, sometimes not - to keep the peace. Today there are UN peacekeepers working in Afghanistan, Cyprus, Haiti, Liberia and several other countries.

paragraphs: Through a series of goals, resolutions and declarations adopted by member nations of the United Nations, the world has a set of commitments, actions and goals to stop and reverse the spread of HIV and scale up towards universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care and support services.

paragraphs: The United Nations has six "principal organs":

paragraphs: Additionally there are so-called "special agencies of the United Nations". Some are older than the United Nations. Here are a few of them:


title: Marco Polo

paragraphs: Marco Polo was born in 1254 and died on January 8,1324. He was an Italian trader and explorer. He was one of the first Europeans to explore Central Asia and East Asia. Many other explorers, including Christopher Columbus, looked up to him. He could speak four languages.

paragraphs: Marco Polo was known for the book, "Travels of Marco Polo," where he talked about Asia.

paragraphs: Marco Polo was born in Venice, one of the most successful trading cities. Polo's mother died when he was very young and he was raised by his aunt and uncle. His father and uncle returned from their Silk Road travels when Marco was about 15 years old. Two years later, the three of them set out on a journey to Cathay (China). His family were well-known merchants, not explorers. He learned about writing, reading, and arithmetic, and how to do business.

paragraphs: Polo went on a 24-year trip to China with his father and uncle during the Mongol Dynasty. He left Venice at the age of 17 on a boat that went through the Mediterranean Sea, Ayas, Tabriz and Kerman. Then he travelled across Asia getting as far as Beijing. On the way there he had to go over mountains and through terrible deserts, across hot burning lands and places where the cold was horrible. He served in Kublai Khan's court for 17 years. He left the Far East and returned to Venice by sea. There was sickness on board and 600 passengers and crew died and some say pirates attacked. Nevertheless, Marco Polo survived it all.

paragraphs: Some scholars believe that while Marco Polo did go to China, he did not go to all of the other places described in his book. He brought noodles back from China and the Italians came up with different sizes and shapes and called it pasta. Polo returned to Venice with treasures like ivory, jade, jewels, porcelain and silk.

paragraphs: His father had borrowed money and bought a ship. He became wealthy because of his trading in the near East.

paragraphs: Soon after Polo returned from his journeys he fought in a war against Genoa, got captured and put in prison. When he was in prison, he became friendly with a fellow prisoner, Rusticello, who was a writer of romances and novels. He told the writer about all his adventures, which became a book called "The Travels of Marco Polo". The published version was written by Rustichello da Pisa, based on what Polo had told him. It became famous throughout Europe. In the book he said that Kublai Khan's wealthy new empire had a postal system. He also talked about the Chinese people. China used paper money that was made from mulberry bark.

paragraphs: Marco Polo’s nickname was Marco Il Milione, due to an ancestor of his called Emilione. He was actually quite wealthy.