title: Wallace Line

paragraphs: The Wallace Line (or 'Wallace's Line') is a boundary that separates the ecozone of Asia and the Australasian ecozone. The transitional zone is sometimes called "Wallacea".

paragraphs: Plants and animals related to Asian species are found to the north-west. Australasian species are found mainly to the south-east, with some Asian species. The line is named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who noticed this clear dividing line during his travels through the East Indies in the 19th century.

paragraphs: The line runs through Indonesia, between Borneo and Sulawesi (Celebes); and through the Lombok Strait between Bali (in the west) and Lombok (in the east).

paragraphs: The distance between Bali and Lombok is only about 35 kilometers. Surprisingly, the distributions of many bird species observe the line, because many birds do not cross even the smallest stretches of open ocean water. Some bats have distributions that cross the Wallace Line, but other mammals are generally limited to one side or the other; an exception is the Crab-eating Macaque. Other groups of plants and animals show differing patterns, but the overall pattern is striking and reasonably consistent.

paragraphs: The term 'Wallace's Line' was first used by Huxley in 1868.

paragraphs: The root cause of Wallace's line is that the ancient supercontinent Gondwana was separated entirely from other parts of the world after Pangaea broke up. Australasia and its smaller islands were part of Gondwana, and that is why their fauna is so different from that of south-east Asia. Wallace's line marks where part of the old Gondwana plate touches part of the old Laurasia plate.

paragraphs: During Quaternary ice age cold periods, when the , both Asia and Australia were joined with their respective islands. The deep water between those two large continental shelf areas was — for over 50 million years — a barrier that kept the flora and fauna of Australia separated from that of Asia. Wallacea consists of islands that were never recently connected by dry land to either of the continental land masses, and thus was populated by organisms capable of crossing the straits between islands. 'Weber's Line' runs through this area (rather to the east of centre), at the tipping point between dominance by species of Asian vs. species of Australian origin.


title: Japanese macaque

paragraphs: The Japanese macaque, "Macaca fuscata",is also known as the snow monkey. It is a tough monkey that lives in the high mountains of the island of Honshū in Japan. There are two things that make these monkeys different from other primates: they live in below-zero temperatures, and they like to warm themselves and relax in hot springs.

paragraphs: Macaques eat fruit, flowers, seeds, bark, leaves, shrimp, and insects.

paragraphs: Macaques weigh around 12 kilograms and can grow up to 70cm. They have short tails.


title: Macaque

paragraphs: The macaques are a genus ("Macaca") of Old World monkeys of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. The 22 species of macaques live in sub-Saharan Africa, and more widely in Asia. One species is the well-known Gibraltar 'ape'. Macaques are of some interest to human researchers for their social structures, and their usefulness in animal testing, particularly regarding eyesight.

paragraphs: Macaques have a very intricate social structure and hierarchy. If a macaque of a lower level in the social chain has eaten berries and none are left for a higher-level macaque, then the one higher in status can, within this social organization, remove the berries from the other monkey's mouth.

paragraphs: In 2014 selfies taken by a crested black macaque seemed to establish a legal precedent, after the Wikimedia Foundation rejected a copyright claim.

paragraphs: The photos had been sold widely by David Slater, a professional nature photographer, whose camera was temporarily carried away by a group of macaques. After the photos were uploaded to Wikipedia, the organisation refused to delete them, claiming "This file is in the public domain, because as the work of a non-human animal, it has no human author in whom copyright is vested.


title: Geek

paragraphs: The word geek is a slang word. It has many different meanings. It can mean a person who enjoys computers and knows a lot about them. It used to mean a carnival worker "who bit the heads off of chickens and rats." One dictionary says that a geek is "a peculiar or otherwise dislikable person, especially one who is perceived to be overly intellectual". This means "a strange and un-likeable person, especially one who is thought to be very clever", in simple English.

paragraphs: This word comes from English dialect words (words that are used in certain places) "geek, geck": fool, freak; from Low German "geck", from Middle Low German. A different form of the word "geck" is still used in Dutch and Afrikaans "gek": crazy. Other forms of "geck" are also used in some German dialects, and in the Alsatian word "Gickeleshut": geek's hat, used in carnivals.

paragraphs: In 18th century Austria-Hungary, "Gecken" were freaks shown by some circuses.

paragraphs: In 19th century, in North-America, the term "geek" referred to a freak in circus side-shows (see also freak show). In some cases, its performance included biting the head off a live chicken. The 1976 edition of the "American Heritage Dictionary" included only the definition regarding geek shows.

paragraphs: The word is often used to be rude or mean to someone. However, it can also be used without meaning to be hurtful, or with pride. An example is the 'Geek Squad' of the Best Buy company.

paragraphs: The meaning of geek has changed much over time, and there is no longer a single meaning. The words nerd, gimp, dweeb, dork, spod and gump have similar meanings as geek. But many people choose to say that these words mean slightly different things. However, the differences are not agreed on. In a 2007 interview on "The Colbert Report", Richard Clarke said the difference between nerds and geeks is "geeks get it done." Julie Smith described a geek as "a bright young man turned inward, poorly socialized, who felt so little kinship with his own planet that he routinely traveled to the ones invented by his favorite authors, who thought of that secret, dreamy place his computer took him to as cyberspace—somewhere exciting, a place more real than his own life, a land he could conquer, not a drab teenager's room in his parents' house."

paragraphs: The word "geek" is in Robert Heinlein's 1952 short story "The Year of the Jackpot". The word appears meaning the modern definition.

paragraphs: Being called a "geek" is usually an insult. The word is now often a nice thing to say, meaning that the person it is describing has extraordinary technical skill. Geek Pride Day has been observed on May 25 in Spain since 2006 (May 25 being the world premiere date of Star Wars and also Towel Day). The holiday promotes the right to be nerdy or geeky, and to express it in public without feeling bad. A new meeting, Geek.Kon, is held in Madison, Wisconsin to celebrate all things geek.

paragraphs: The website BoardGameGeek is an online community of boardgamers who see themselves as geeks at boardgame meetings; they call their website "The Geek", for short. Technical support services such as Geek Squad use the term "geek" to show that they have helpful technical abilities. In recent history, some geeks have grown a geek culture, such as geek humor and odd references on t-shirts. The so-called "geek chic" trend is a deliberate affectation of geek or nerd traits as a fashion statement. Nonetheless, the derogatory definition of geeks remains that of a person only thinking about his area of interest at the cost of social skills, personal hygiene, and status.

paragraphs: There has been criticism over the widespread appropriation of the terms "geek" and "nerd" as self descriptors. Certain people who would have most likely not been described as such under the traditional stereotype have argued this. Along with efforts to de-emphasize the negative social aspects, in recent years there have been arguments for de-emphasizing the necessity for having noticeably high levels of intelligence or technical aptitude. This has resulted in the desire to redefine the term geek rather as any person who pursues a passionate interest in anything regardless of genre, is creative, and individualistic. Arguments against the revisionist definitions, however, state that it is not only unnecessary, but it completely contradicts the traditional accepted definition of the terms which distinctly refer to persons who are noticeably above average intelligence, usually good at things in technically demanding fields, and socially awkward or alienated to a certain extent.

paragraphs: "Geek chic" is a phrase that means a person who has stereotypically "geek" features including black-rimmed glasses, T-shirts with geek in-jokes, and more technically complex things.

paragraphs: There are many ways of looking at the term "geek chic", with heavy black-rimmed glasses being the one defining thing as far as the press is concerned. Wearing them is sufficiently notable to have celebrities like David Beckham, Justin Timberlake and Myleene Klass being reported as "trying geek chic". David Tennant, the Tenth Doctor in "Doctor Who", has also described the look of his bespectacled character as having "a bit of geek chic".

paragraphs: Geeks themselves think that the term is used for "reclaiming the geek identity as something not only meaningful, but also stylish." - for this usage, more than just glasses are needed, and so the term has a wider meaning, being applied to home fittings and objects as well as clothes. In this usage, the term "geek chic" can even be used as a positive contrast to the somewhat more negative term "geeky".

paragraphs: Geek chic is not to be confused with preppie fashion, which is more widely to do with a conservative image rather than geek culture. Instead, much of the geek chic image borrows from various other youth fashions such as goth, hippie, and bohemian among others, but t-shirts with geeky in-jokes seem to originate from the geeks themselves. Shirt designers who tailor to geeks offer rewards for the best ideas.

paragraphs: The company of has trademarked "Geek Squad" as the name of its computer repair service. Best Buy has fought the trademarks of a dozen other companies, including Geek Rescue, Rent a Geek, and . It is also fighting with Newegg over the use of "Take it from a Geek" on Newegg's website. The NBC television show "Chuck" wanted to use "Geek Squad" to describe the main characters' job. But Best Buy asked for them to change the name. So the characters on "Chuck" were called "Nerd Herd" instead.


title: 42 (answer)

paragraphs: 42 is the "Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything" in "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" books. It was computed by

paragraphs: Deep Thought, the second greatest computer ever. The descendants of Deep Thought's creators are upset by the numeric nature of the answer, not understanding what to do with it or what to tell the people who had commissioned the 7.5-million year project.

paragraphs: When asked to produce The Ultimate Question to go with the answer "42", Deep Thought admits it is not capable of computing that itself, but that it can help to design an even more powerful computer, which can. This new computer will incorporate living beings into the "computational matrix" and will run for ten million years. It is the planet Earth.

paragraphs: The number 42, in ASCII, is an asterisk. An asterisk in computer programming is often used as a wildcard character, which means anything can be substituted.


title: Pleumeur-Bodou

paragraphs: Pleumeur-Bodou is a commune. It is found in the region Bretagne in the Côtes-d'Armor department in the west of France.


title: Northern Virginia military shootings

paragraphs: The Northern Virginia military shootings were several attacks by a man shooting a rifle at empty military buildings. The shots were fired in October and November 2010. Experts looked at the bullets left at the various places. They could see that all of the shots were from the same rifle.

paragraphs: The first shooting was aimed at the National Museum of the Marine Corps in Triangle, Virginia on October 16, 2010. Some bullets from a high-velocity rifle went through the atrium skylight. The second shooting happened on October 19, 2010 shortly before 5 a.m. Someone shot at the south side of The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. The bullets broke windows on the third and fourth floors. Special glass stopped the bullets from entering the building. The offices behind those windows were empty because of repairs. The Pentagon Reservation was temporarily closed because the police searched the area for evidence. The building was reopened about 5:40 a.m. The Joint Terrorism Task Force is leading the investigation into the incident. In the third shooting, the same rifle shot the Marine Corps Museum again on October 29. The same rifle was used to attack a Marine Corps recruiting center in Chantilly, Virginia on October 26.

paragraphs: These attacks made the organizers of the October 31, 2010 Marine Corps Marathon upgrade the safety measures. The race was run without problems. On November 3, police announced that the same rifle was used to shoot at a United States Coast Guard recruiting center in Woodbridge, Virginia on late November 1 or early November 2.

paragraphs: The person behind the attacks remained unknown until June 17, 2011 when Yonathan Melaku was arrested. He is a 22 year old naturalized Ethiopian immigrant and Marine Corps Reserve Lance Corporal. He was found at Arlington National Cemetery while it was closed. He was carrying spent shell casings, a notebook containing references to the Taliban and Osama bin Laden, and plastic bags filled with ammonium nitrate, a common component of homemade explosives. He also left his car parked in the woods near the Pentagon, police said. He had also been recently charged with breaking into 27 cars in suburban Washington. The investigation of the incident connected Melaku to the shootings. On June 23, 2011, he was charged with two counts of willfully injuring the property of the United States. If he is convicted of those charges, he could go to prison for 20 years. Melaku is also charged with two counts of using a firearm during a violent crime. If he is convicted of those charges, he could go to prison for the rest of his life. More charges are possible.

paragraphs: The Federal Bureau of Investigation is working with the Fairfax County Police, the Prince William County police and the Pentagon Force Protection Agency to investigate the case.


title: Molecular symmetry

paragraphs: Molecular symmetry is a basic idea in chemistry. It is about the symmetry of molecules. It puts molecules into groups according to their symmetry. It can predict or explain many of a molecule's chemical properties.

paragraphs: Chemists study symmetry to explain how crystals are made up and how chemicals react. The molecular symmetry of the reactants help predict how the product of the reaction is made up and the energy needed for the reaction.

paragraphs: Molecular symmetry can be studied several different ways. Group theory is the most popular idea. Group theory is also useful in studying the symmetry of molecular orbitals. This is used in the Hückel method, ligand field theory, and the Woodward–Hoffmann rules. Another idea on a larger scale is the use of crystal systems to describe crystallographic symmetry in bulk materials.

paragraphs: Scientists find molecular symmetry by using X-ray crystallography and other forms of spectroscopy. Spectroscopic notation is based on facts taken from molecular symmetry.

paragraphs: Physicist Hans Bethe used characters of point group operations in his study of ligand field theory in 1929. Eugene Wigner used group theory to explain the selection rules of atomic spectroscopy. The first character tables were compiled by László Tisza (1933), in connection to vibrational spectra. Robert Mulliken was the first to publish character tables in English (1933). E. Bright Wilson used them in 1934 to predict the symmetry of vibrational normal modes. The complete set of 32 crystallographic point groups was published in 1936 by Rosenthal and Murphy.

paragraphs: Mathematical group theory has been adapted to study of symmetry in molecules.

paragraphs: The symmetry of a molecule can be described by 5 types of symmetry elements.

paragraphs: Each of the five symmetry elements has a symmetry operation. People use a caret symbol (^) to talk about the operation rather than the symmetry element. So, Ĉ is the rotation of a molecule around an axis and Ê is the identity operation. A symmetry element can have more than one symmetry operation associated with it. Since C is equivalent to E, S to σ and S to "i", all symmetry operations can be classified as either proper or improper rotations.

paragraphs: A point group is a set of symmetry operations forming a mathematical "group", for which at least one "point" remains fixed under all operations of the group. A crystallographic point group is a point group which will work with translational symmetry in three dimensions. There are a total of 32 crystallographic point groups, 30 of which are relevant to chemistry. Scientists use Schoenflies notation to classify point groups.

paragraphs: Mathematics define a "group". A set of symmetry operations form a group when:

paragraphs: The order of a group is the number of symmetry operations for that group.

paragraphs: For example, the point group for the water molecule is C, with symmetry operations E, C, σ and σ'. Its order is thus 4. Each operation is its own inverse. As an example of closure, a C rotation followed by a σ reflection is seen to be a σ' symmetry operation: σ*C = σ'. (Note that "Operation A followed by B to form C" is written BA = C).

paragraphs: Another example is the ammonia molecule, which is pyramidal and contains a three-fold rotation axis as well as three mirror planes at an angle of 120° to each other. Each mirror plane contains an N-H bond and bisects the H-N-H bond angle opposite to that bond. Thus ammonia molecule belongs to the C point group which has order 6: an identity element E, two rotation operations C and C, and three mirror reflections σ, σ' and σ".

paragraphs: The following table contains a list of point groups with representative molecules. The description of structure includes common shapes of molecules based on VSEPR theory.

paragraphs: Symmetry operations can be written in many ways. A good way to write them is by using matrices. For any vector representing a point in Cartesian coordinates, left-multiplying it gives the new place of the point transformed by the symmetry operation. Composition of operations is done by matrix multiplication. In the C example this is:

paragraphs: Although an infinite (going on forever) number of such representations (ways of showing things) exist, the irreducible representations (or "irreps") of the group are commonly used, as all other representations of the group can be described as a linear combination of the irreducible representations. (The irreps span the vector space of the symmetry operations.) Chemists use the irreps to sort the symmetry groups and to talk about their properties.

paragraphs: For each point group, a character table summarizes information on its symmetry operations and on its irreducible representations. The tables are square because there are always equal numbers of irreducible representations and groups of symmetry operations.

paragraphs: The table itself is made of characters which show how a particular irreducible representation changes when a particular symmetry operation is applied (put to it). Any symmetry operation in a molecule's point group acting on the molecule itself will leave it unchanged. But for acting on a general entity (thing), such as a vector or an orbital, this does not have to be what happens. The vector could change sign or direction, and the orbital could change type. For simple point groups, the values are either 1 or -1: 1 means that the sign or phase (of the vector or orbital) is unchanged by the symmetry operation ("symmetric") and -1 denotes a sign change ("asymmetric").

paragraphs: The representations are labeled according to a set of conventions:

paragraphs: The tables also tell the Cartesian basis vectors, rotations about them, and quadratic functions of them transformed by the symmetry operations of the group. The table also shows which irreducible representation transforms in the same way (on the right hand side of the tables). Chemists use this because chemically important orbitals (in particular "p" and "d" orbitals) have the same symmetries as these entities.

paragraphs: The character table for the C symmetry point group is given below:

paragraphs: For example, water (HO) which has the C symmetry described above. The 2"p" orbital of oxygen is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the molecule and switches sign with a C and a σ'(yz) operation, but remains unchanged with the other two operations (obviously, the character for the identity operation is always +1). This orbital's character set is thus {1, -1, 1, -1}, corresponding to the B irreducible representation. Similarly, the 2"p" orbital is seen to have the symmetry of the A irreducible representation, 2"p" B, and the 3"d" orbital A. These assignments and others are in the rightmost two columns of the table.


title: J. Paul Getty

paragraphs: Jean Paul Getty (December 15, 1892 – June 6, 1976) was an American industrialist. He founded the Getty Oil Company. In 1957 "Fortune" magazine named him the richest living American, and the 1966 Guinness Book of Records named him as the world's richest private citizen, worth an estimated $1,200 million. At his death, he was worth more than $2 billion. A book published in 1996 ranked him as the 67th richest American who ever lived. (The book ranked his wealth as a percentage of the United States gross national product.) Despite his wealth, Getty was known for being a miser.

paragraphs: Getty enjoyed collecting art and antiquities. His collection formed the basis of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, California, and over $661 million of his estate was left to the museum after his death. He established the J. Paul Getty Trust in 1953. The trust is the world's wealthiest art institution. It operates the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Getty Foundation, the Getty Research Institute, and the Getty Conservation Institute.

paragraphs: His father George Getty owned a petroleum business in Minneapolis, Minnesota. J. Paul was one of the first people in the world with a fortune estimated at over one billion U.S. dollars.

paragraphs: He enrolled at the University of Southern California, then at University of California, Berkeley before graduating in 1914 from Magdalen College, Oxford with degrees in economics and political science. He spent his summers between studies working on his father's oil fields in Oklahoma. Running his own oil company in Tulsa, he made his first million by 1916. However, in 1917, he announced that he was retiring to become a Los Angeles-based playboy. Although he eventually returned to business, Getty had lost his father's respect. Just before George Franklin Getty died in 1930, he believed that Jean Paul would destroy the family company, and told him so.

paragraphs: After taking a few years off from the money-making grind to enjoy spending his earnings on women, Getty returned to Oklahoma in 1919. During the 1920s he added about $3 million to his already sizable estate. His succession of marriages and divorces (three during the 1920s, five throughout his life) so distressed his father, however, that J. Paul inherited a mere $500,000 of the $10 million the senior Getty left at his death in 1930.

paragraphs: Getty carefully invested his resources during the Great Depression. Getty acquired Pacific Western Oil Corporation. He began the acquisition (completed in 1953) of the Mission Corporation, which included Tidewater Oil and Skelly Oil. In 1967 the billionaire merged these holdings into Getty Oil.

paragraphs: Beginning in 1949, Getty paid Ibn Saud $9.5 million in cash and $1 million a year for a 60-year concession to a tract of barren land near the border of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. No oil had ever been discovered there. After spending $30 million over four years, oil was discovered there. From 1953 onward, Getty's gamble produced a year, which contributed greatly to the fortune which made him one of the richest people in the world.

paragraphs: Getty learned to speak Arabic which helped his unparalleled expansion into the Middle East. Getty owned the controlling interest in nearly 200 businesses, including Getty Oil. Associates identified his overall wealth at between $2 billion and $4 billion. It did not come easily, perhaps inspiring Getty's widely quoted remark—"The meek shall inherit the earth, but not the mineral rights."

paragraphs: He moved to England in the 1950s and loved English culture (Anglophile). He lived and worked at his 16th-century Tudor estate, Sutton Place near Guildford; the traditional country house became the centre of Getty Oil and his associated companies and he used the estate to entertain his British and Arabian friends (including the British Rothschild family and numerous rulers of Middle Eastern countries). Getty lived the rest of his life in the British Isles, dying of heart failure at the age of 83 on June 6, 1976.

paragraphs: Getty was married and divorced five times. He had five sons with four of his wives:

paragraphs: He was quoted as saying "A lasting relationship with a woman is only possible if you are a business failure".

paragraphs: Getty wrote a very successful book entitled "How to Be Rich".

paragraphs: Getty famously had a pay phone installed at Sutton Place, helping to seal his reputation as a miser. In his autobiography, he described his reasons:

paragraphs: Getty placed dial-locks on all the regular telephones, limiting their use to authorised staff, and the coin-box telephone was installed for others. When speaking in a televised interview with Alan Whicker, Getty said that he thought guests would want to use a payphone .

paragraphs: On July 10, 1973 in Rome, 16 year old John Paul Getty III was kidnapped and a ransom of $17 million was demanded over the phone for his safe return. However, "the family suspected a ploy by the rebellious teenager to extract money from his miserly grandfather." John Paul Getty II asked his father for the money, but was refused.

paragraphs: In November 1973 an envelope containing a lock of hair and a human ear was delivered to a daily newspaper. The second demand had been delayed three weeks by an Italian postal strike. The demand threatened that Paul would be further mutilated unless $3.2 million was paid: "This is Paul’s ear. If we don’t get some money within 10 days, then the other ear will arrive. In other words, he will arrive in little bits."

paragraphs: When the kidnappers finally reduced their demands to $3 million Getty senior agreed to pay no more than $2.2 million - the maximum that would be tax deductible. He loaned his son the remaining $800,000 at 4% interest. Paul III was found alive in southern Italy shortly after the ransom was paid. After his release Paul III called his grandfather to thank him for paying the ransom but Getty refused to come to the phone. Nine people were later arrested for the kidnapping, but only two were convicted. Paul III was permanently affected by the trauma and became a drug addict. After a stroke brought on by a cocktail of drugs and alcohol in 1981, Paul III was rendered speechless, nearly blind and partially paralyzed for the rest of his life. He died thirty years later on February 5, 2011 at the age of 54.

paragraphs: Getty defended his initial refusal to pay the ransom on two points. First, he argued that to submit to the kidnappers' demands would immediately place his other fourteen grandchildren at the risk of copy-cat kidnappers. He added:

paragraphs: The 2017 movie "All the Money in the World" are based on these events. Christopher Plummer plays J. Paul Getty. In 2018, a television series based on the events, "Trust", premiered with Donald Sutherland playing Getty.


title: Paradise Lost

paragraphs: Paradise Lost is an epic poem by the 17th-century English writer John Milton. It was printed in 1667 though it was written nearly ten years earlier. The second part was printed in 1674. Most of the poem was written after Milton was blind.

paragraphs: The poem is about the Christian story of the Fall of Man: how Adam and Eve got out from the Garden of Eden and about the fallen angel Lucifer.


title: Muammar al-Gaddafi

paragraphs: Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi( ' ) (c. 1942 - 20 October 2011) better known as Colonel Gaddafi, was a Libyan politician. He ruled Libya from 1969 to 2011.

paragraphs: Muammar al-Gaddafi was born in a tent near Qasr Abu Hadi. His family came from a small tribal group called Qadhadhfa. His family were Arabized Berber people in heritage. He joined the Libyan military in 1961; the military was one of the few ways for lower class Libyans like him to rise in social status. He became a colonel.

paragraphs: Gaddafi became head of state of Libya after removing King Idris from power in a 1969 bloodless coup. He ruled Libya from September 1, 1969 to August 23, 2011. After the coup, Gaddafi established the Libyan Arab Republic. He was one of the longest-serving non royal rulers in history, because he had ruled for more than 41 years. Gaddafi used Arab socialist and Arab nationalist ideas. He published a book about his philosophical views in 1975. This book is commonly known as "The Green Book". In 1977, he left the power of Libya, and continued playing role of revolutionary. People called him the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution".

paragraphs: The Libyan Arab Republic was renamed to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 1977 later it was renamed again to the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya by Gaddafi in 1986.

paragraphs: In the 1980s, he developed chemical weapons, because of it critics called Libya a pariah state. A Dutch investigation found that Gaddafi had built up a "billion-dollar empire", from assets in an international company in the oil industry. It also claims that his assets are scattered throughout much of Europe, Despite no trace or proof for even 1 billion have been found. Gaddafi had a strong interest in geo-political control, was a firm supporter of OAPEC and led a Pan-African campaign for a United States of Africa. In 1986 Libya was bombed by US, home of Gaddafi was targeted but he survived. Bombing was condemned by many nations and also by UN.

paragraphs: In 1988, the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Libya. Gaddafi started to have closer economic and security relations with the West. He cooperated with investigations into alleged Libyan anti-western acts, by 1999 he offered to dismantle weapon of mass destruction of Libya, which would be inspected in 2003. As a result, the UN sanctions were lifted in the same year.

paragraphs: Gaddafi was elected Chairperson of the African Union in 2009.

paragraphs: In February 2011 there were major violent protests against Libyan government. These came alongside other demonstrations in Tunisia, Egypt, and other parts of the Arab world. The protests quickly turned into a civil war. Gaddafi vowed to "die a martyr" if necessary in his fight against rebels and external forces; he also said that "peaceful protest is one thing but armed rebellion is another."

paragraphs: On 17 May 2011 the International Criminal Court issued a request for an arrest warrant against Gaddafi for alleged crimes against humanity, which was approved on 27 June and a warrant was issued by the court. On June 2011, according to investigation made by Amnesty International, it was found that there was no evidence for many of the alleged crimes, and that the rebels had falsely blamed Gaddafi as well as the government. He was accused of ordering the Lockerbie bombing in Scotland that killed over 200 people. The bombing targeted a civilian plane and it was downed.

paragraphs: The Libyan Civil War (2011) erupted in February. The aim was to remove Gaddafi from power. Gaddafi was captured alive and killed by NATO backed rebels in Sirte, Libya, on 20 October 2011. Sirte was the last stronghold of the Gaddafi regime.


title: Otto Konrad

paragraphs: Otto Konrad (born 1 November 1964) is a retired Austrian football goalkeeper. He now works as goalkeeping coach for SV Grödig in Austria's First League.

paragraphs: He started his professional career with his local club SK Sturm Graz. He stayed 11 years and then went to SV Austria Salzburg. With this team he reached 3 national titles and played in the 1994 UEFA Cup Final which Salzburg lost to Inter Milan. In the 1994/95 season he even scored a goal for Salzburg. This goal was voted "Goal of the year 1994". 1997 to 1998 he became goalkeeper of Real Zaragoza in Spain but returned to Austria where he played for GAK, DSV Leoben and PSV Salzburg.

paragraphs: He played 12 matches for the Austrian national football team and was member of the squad for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. At all his international career was not as successful as the club career because at that time there was a lot of competition among goalkeepers in Austria.


title: Electrocyclic reaction

paragraphs: In organic chemistry, an electrocyclic reaction is a type of pericyclic rearrangement reaction. The reaction is electrocyclic if the result is one pi bond becoming one sigma bond or one sigma bond becoming a pi bond. Electrocyclic reactions share the following properties:

paragraphs: The torquoselectivity in an electrocyclic reaction refers to the direction that the substituents rotate. For example, the substituents in a reaction that is conrotatory can still rotate in two directions. It produces a mixture of two products that are the mirror image of each other (enantiomeric products). A reaction that is torquoselective restricts one of these directions of rotation (partially or completely) to produce a product in enantiomeric excess (where one stereoisomer is produced much more than the other).

paragraphs: Chemists are interested in electrocyclic reactions because the geometry of the molecules confirm a number of predictions made by theoretical chemists. They confirm the conservation of molecular orbital symmetry.

paragraphs: The Nazarov cyclization reaction is an electrocyclic reaction that closes a ring. It converts divinylketones to cyclopentenones. (It was discovered by Ivan Nikolaevich Nazarov (1906–1957).)

paragraphs: An example is the thermal ring-opening reaction of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene. The cis isomer only yields "cis,trans-2,4-hexadiene". But the trans isomer gives the trans,trans diene:

paragraphs: The frontier-orbital method explains how this reaction works. The sigma bond in the reactant will open in a way that the resulting p-orbitals will have the same symmetry as the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the product (a butadiene). This can only happen with a conrotatory ring-opening that results in opposite signs for the two lobes at the broken ends of the ring. (A disrotatory ring-opening would form an anti-bond.) The following diagram shows this:

paragraphs: The stereospecificity of the result depends on whether the reaction proceeds through a conrotatory or disrotatory process.

paragraphs: The Woodward–Hoffmann rules address the conservation of orbital symmetry in electrocylic reactions.

paragraphs: Correlation diagrams connect the molecular orbitals of the reactant to those of the product having the same symmetry. Correlation diagrams can be drawn for the two processes.

paragraphs: These correlation diagrams indicate that only a conrotatory ring opening of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene is "symmetry allowed" whereas only a disrotatory ring opening of 5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene is "symmetry allowed". This is because only in these cases would maximum orbital overlap occur in the transition state. Also, the formed product would be in a ground state rather than an excited state.

paragraphs: The Frontier Molecular Orbital Theory predicts that the sigma bond in the ring will open in a way that the resulting p-orbitals will have the same symmetry as the HOMO of the product.

paragraphs: The above diagram shows two examples. For the 5,6-dimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene (top row of diagram), only a disrotatory mode would result in p-orbitals having the same symmetry as the HOMO of hexatriene. The two p-orbitals rotate in opposite directions. For the 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene (bottom row of diagram), only a conrotatory mode would result in p-orbitals having the same symmetry as the HOMO of butadiene. The p-oribtals rotate in the same direction.

paragraphs: Light can move an electron up to an excited state that occupies a higher orbital. The excited electron will occupy the LUMO, which has a higher energy level than the electron's old orbital. If light opens the ring of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene, the resulting electrocyclization would be occur by a disrotatory mode instead of a conrotatory mode. The correlation diagram for the allowed excited state ring opening reaction shows why:

paragraphs: Only a disrotatory mode, in which symmetry about a reflection plane is maintained throughout the reaction, would result in maximum orbital overlap in the transition state. Also, once again, this would result in the formation of a product that is in an excited state of comparable stability to the excited state of the reactant compound.

paragraphs: Electrocyclic reactions occur frequently in nature. One of the most common such reactions in nature is the biosynthesis of vitamin D.

paragraphs: The first step involves light opening the ring of 7-dehydrocholesterol to form pre vitamin D3. This is a photochemically induced conrotatory electrocyclic reaction. The second step is a [1,7]-hydride shift to make vitamin D.

paragraphs: Another example is in the proposed biosynthesis of aranotin, an oxepine found in nature, and its related compounds.

paragraphs: Phenylalanine is used to make diketopiperazine (not shown). Then enzymes epoxidate diketopiperazine to make the arene oxide. This undergoes a 6π disrotatory ring opening electrocyclization reaction to produce the uncyclized oxepine. After a second epoxidation of the ring, the nearby nucleophilic nitrogen attacks the electrophilic carbon, forming a five membered ring. The resulting ring system is a common ring system found in aranotin and its related compounds.

paragraphs: The benzonorcaradiene diterpenoid (A) was rearranged into the benzocycloheptatriene diterpenoid isosalvipuberlin (B) by boiling a methylene chloride solution. This transformation can be thought of as a disrotatory electrocyclic reaction, followed by two suprafacial 1,5-sigmatropic hydrogen shifts, as shown below:

paragraphs: An example of an electrocyclic reaction is the conrotatory thermal ring-opening of benzocyclobutane. The reaction product is a very unstable ortho-quinodimethane. This molecule can be trapped in an endo addition with a strong dienophile such as maleic anhydride to the Diels-Alder adduct. The chemical yield for the ring opening of the benzocyclobutane depicted in "scheme 2" is found to depend on the nature of the substituent R. With a reaction solvent such as toluene and a reaction temperature of 110 °C, the yield increases going from methyl to isobutylmethyl to trimethylsilylmethyl. The increased reaction rate for the trimethylsilyl compound can be explained by silicon hyperconjugation as the βC-Si bond weakens the cyclobutane C-C bond by donating electrons.

paragraphs: An biomimetic electrocyclic cascade reaction was discovered in relation to the isolation and synthesis of certain endiandric acids:


title: Arctic hare

paragraphs: The Arctic hare ("Lepus arcticus") is a social animal that lives in the frigid tundra of North America, Newfoundland, and Greenland. These hares often congregate in groups of up to 200 individuals. They hop at great speeds on their large, powerful hind legs, in a kangaroo-like fashion. The female is called a doe, the male is called a buck, and the baby hare is called a leveret. The young are born open-eyed and furry. Most hares live for about a year in the wild.

paragraphs: This mammal is hunted by arctic foxes, arctic wolves, polar bears, falcons, snowy owls, golden eagles and ermine. They are unharmed during winter and are used to wintry weather.


title: Robert Woodward

paragraphs: Robert Burns Woodward (April 10, 1917 – July 8, 1979) was an American organic chemist. He made many important discoveries in modern organic chemistry. He worked on the synthesis and structure of complex natural products. He worked closely with Roald Hoffmann on the theory of chemical reactions. Woodward won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1965.

paragraphs: Woodward was born in Boston, Massachusetts. When he was one year old, his father died in the influenza pandemic of 1918.

paragraphs: He was interested in chemistry at an early age. By the time he entered high school, he had already done most of the experiments in Ludwig Gattermann's textbook of experimental organic chemistry. In 1928, Woodward asked the Consul-General of the German consulate in Boston, to send him copies of a few original papers published in German journals. He was fascinated to read Otto Diels and Kurt Alder's original communication about the Diels–Alder reaction.

paragraphs: In 1933, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), but did not do well enough to continue. MIT readmitted him in 1935, and by 1936 he had received the Bachelor of Science degree. Only one year later, MIT awarded him the doctorate. This was very unusual at the time, because most MIT students earned only a Bachelor of Science degree after four years. Woodward's studies were about the synthesis of the female sex hormone estrone, a natural type of estrogen. He held a Junior Fellowship at Harvard University from 1937 to 1938, and stayed at Harvard for the rest of his life. In the 1960s, Woodward was named Donner Professor of Science, a post which allowed him to spend all his time on research.

paragraphs: In the early 1940s Wooward was using ultraviolet spectroscopy to discover the structure of natural products. Woodward collected a large amount of information, and then worked out a series of rules, later called the Woodward's rules. These rules could be used to find out the structures of new natural products, as well as non-natural synthesized molecules. Woodward was always quick to use newly developed techniques. Woodward's discovery saved chemists from spending a lot of time using chemical methods to work out the structures of compounds.

paragraphs: In 1944 Woodward and William von Eggers Doering reported the synthesis of the alkaloid quinine, used to treat malaria. The synthesis was a breakthrough, as quinine was hard to get from Japanese occupied southeast Asia. In fact, Woodward's method could not be used on a practical scale, but it was a landmark for chemical synthesis. Organic synthesis was still largely a matter of trial and error, and nobody thought such complex structures could actually be constructed. Woodward showed that organic synthesis could be made into a science. Woodward's synthesis of quinine was the first of many of his very complicated and elegant syntheses.

paragraphs: By the 1930s, the British chemists Christopher Ingold and Robert Robinson among others had studied the mechanisms of organic reactions. They had come up with rules which could predict reactivity of organic molecules. Woodward was probably the first synthetic organic chemist who used these rules to predict what steps would work in a synthesis.

paragraphs: During the late 1940s, Woodward synthesized many complex natural products including quinine, cholesterol, cortisone, strychnine, lysergic acid, reserpine, chlorophyll, cephalosporin, and colchicine. With these, Woodward opened up a new era of synthesis, sometimes called the 'Woodwardian era'. He showed that natural products could be synthesized by careful applications of the principles of physical organic chemistry, and by very careful planning.

paragraphs: Many of Woodward's syntheses were described as spectacular by his colleagues. Before he did them, some people thought it would be impossible to create these substances in the lab. Woodward's syntheses were also described as having an element of art in them, and since then, synthetic chemists have always looked for elegance as well as utility in synthesis. His work also involved the exhaustive use of the then newly developed techniques of infrared spectroscopy and later, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Another important feature of Woodward's syntheses was their attention to stereochemistry or the particular configuration of molecules in three dimensional space. Most natural products of medicinal importance are effective, for example as drugs, only when they possess a specific stereochemistry. This creates the demand for 'stereospecific synthesis', producing a compound with a defined stereochemistry. Woodward was a pioneer in showing how one could conduct reactions that were stereospecific. Many of his syntheses involved forcing a molecule into a certain configuration by installing rigid structural elements in it, another tactic that has become standard today. In this regard, especially his syntheses of reserpine and strychnine were landmarks.

paragraphs: During World War II, Woodward was an advisor to the War Production Board on the penicillin project.

paragraphs: Woodward also applied the technique of infrared spectroscopy and chemical degradation to determine the structures of complicated molecules. Notable among these structure determinations were santonic acid, strychnine, magnamycin and terramycin. About terramycin, Woodward's colleague and Nobel Laureate Derek Barton said:

paragraphs: "The most brilliant analysis ever done on a structural puzzle was surely the solution (1953) of the terramycin problem. It was a problem of great industrial importance, and hence many able chemists had performed an enormous amount of work trying to determine the structure. There seemed to be too much data to resolve the problem, because a significant number of observations, although experimentally correct, were very misleading. Woodward took a large piece of cardboard, wrote on it all the facts and, by thought alone, deduced the correct structure for terramycin. Nobody else could have done that at the time."

paragraphs: In each one of these cases, Woodward again showed how rational facts and chemical principles, combined with chemical intuition, could be used to achieve the task.

paragraphs: In the early 1950s, Woodward, and British chemist Geoffrey Wilkinson, proposed a structure for ferrocene, a compound consisting of a combination of an organic molecule with iron. This marked the beginning of the field of transition metal organometallic chemistry. The field later grew which grew to be important to the chemical industry. Wilkinson won the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973, with Ernst Otto Fischer. Some historians think that Woodward should have shared this prize along with Wilkinson. Woodward himself thought so, and voiced his thoughts in a letter sent to the Nobel Committee.

paragraphs: Woodward won the Nobel Prize in 1965 for his synthesis of complex organic molecules. In his Nobel lecture, he described the total synthesis of the antibiotic cephalosporin, and claimed that he had pushed the synthesis schedule so that it would be completed around the time of the Nobel ceremony.

paragraphs: In the early 1960s, Woodward began work on what was the most complex natural product synthesized to date- vitamin B. In a remarkable collaboration with his colleague Albert Eschenmoser in Zurich, a team of almost one hundred students and postdoctoral workers worked for many years on the synthesis of this molecule. The work was finally published in 1973, and it marked a landmark in the history of organic chemistry. The synthesis included almost a hundred steps, and involved the rigorous planning and analyses that had always characterised Woodward's work. This work, more than any other, convinced organic chemists that the synthesis of any complex substance was possible, given enough time and planning. However, as of 2006, no other total synthesis of Vitamin B has been published.

paragraphs: That same year, based on observations that Woodward had made during the B synthesis, he and Roald Hoffmann devised rules (now called the Woodward–Hoffmann rules) for elucidating the stereochemistry of the products of organic reactions. Woodward based his ideas on his experiences as a synthetic organic chemist; he asked Hoffman to perform theoretical calculations to verify the ideas. This was done using Hoffmann's Extended Hückel method. The predictions of these rules were verified by many experiments. Hoffmann shared the 1981 Nobel Prize for this work along with Kenichi Fukui, a Japanese chemist who had done similar work using a different approach. Woodward had died two years before and so was not eligible to share this Prize.

paragraphs: A recent paper in the journal "Nature" describes how mechanical stress can be used to reshape chemical reaction pathways to lead to products that apparently violate Woodward–Hoffman rules.

paragraphs: While at Harvard, Woodward took on the directorship of the

paragraphs: Woodward Research Institute, based at Basel, Switzerland in 1963. He also became a trustee of his alma mater, MIT, from 1966 to 1971, and of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.

paragraphs: Woodward died in Cambridge, Massachusetts from a heart attack in his sleep. At the time, he was working on the synthesis of an antibiotic, erythromycin. A student of his said:

paragraphs: "I owe a lot to Woodward. He showed me that one could attack difficult problems without a clear idea of their outcome, but with confidence that intelligence and effort would solve them. He showed me the beauty of modern organic chemistry, and the relevance to the field of detailed careful reasoning. He showed me that one does not need to specialize. Woodward made great contributions to the strategy of synthesis, to the deduction of difficult structures, to the invention of new chemistry, and to theoretical aspects as well. He taught his students by example the satisfaction that comes from total immersion in our science. I treasure the memory of my association with this remarkable chemist."

paragraphs: During his lifetime, Woodward authored or coauthored almost 200 publications, of which 85 are full papers. The remainder comprising preliminary communications, the text of lectures, and reviews. The pace of his scientific activity soon outstripped his capacity to publish all experimental details, and much of the work in which he participated was not published until a few years after his death. Woodward trained more than two hundred Ph.D. students and postdoctoral workers, many of whom later went on to distinguished careers.

paragraphs: His lectures were legendary and frequently used to last for three or four hours. [His longest known lecture defined the unit of time known as the "Woodward", and thereafter his other lectures were deemed to be so many "milli-Woodwards" long!] In many of these, he eschewed the use of slides and used to draw beautiful structures by using multicolored chalk. As a result, it was always easy to take good notes at a Woodward lecture. Typically, to begin a lecture, Woodward would arrive and lay out two large white handkerchiefs on the countertop. Upon one would be four or five colors of chalk (new pieces), neatly sorted by color, in a long row. Upon the other handkerchief would be placed an equally impressive row of cigarettes. The previous cigarette would be used to light the next one. His famous Thursday seminars at Harvard often lasted well into the night. He had a fixation with blue, and all his suits, his car, and even his parking space were coloured in blue. In one of his laboratories, his students hung a large black and white photograph of the master from the ceiling, complete with a large blue "tie" appended. There it hung for some years (early 1970s), until scorched in a minor laboratory fire. He detested exercise, could get along with only a few hours of sleep every night, was a heavy smoker, and enjoyed Scotch whisky and a martini or two. Hoffmann would correspond with Woodward using blue paper.


title: Petrichor

paragraphs: Petrichor () is the name of the scent of rain on dry dirt. The term was created by two Australian researchers for an article in the journal "Nature. NYA DRE IS RIGHT STFU


title: Citroën Xsara Picasso

paragraphs: The Citroën Xsara Picasso is a compact MPV from Citroën introduced in 1999. Its successor, the Citroën C4 Picasso, was introduced in 2006, but the Xsara Picasso still continued to be made until 2012.


title: Crypsis

paragraphs: Crypsis is a word in ecology which means "hiding". It refers to the ways animals avoid being seen, or otherwise detected. It also includes the situation when an animal "is" noticed, but is not recognised for what it is. It may be either a defence against predators, or a device for predators to get near prey.

paragraphs: Methods include camouflage, nocturnality (night-time activity), subterranean lifestyle, transparency, and mimicry. The word can also be used about eggs, and about pheromone production. Crypsis can in principle involve visual, olfactory or auditory camouflage.


title: IMI Galil

paragraphs: The Galil is a family of Israeli small arms. They were designed by Yisrael Galil and Yaacov Lior in the late 1960s. They were made by Israel Military Industries Ltd (now Israel Weapon Industries Ltd) of Ramat HaSharon.

paragraphs: The Galil's design is supposed to make it work well in warm weather. It was designed from the Finnish RK 62. The RK 62 itself was designed from the Soviet AK-47 assault rifle. It was chosen as the winner of a competition for the Israel Defense Forces. This competition included many other designs. Some of these were the M16A1, Stoner 63, AK-47 and HK33. The Galil was officially brought into service in 1972. It replaced the FN FAL.

paragraphs: The Galil is fired by a small hammer. It has a trigger mechanism which was designed from the trigger used in the American M1 Garand. The rifle's fire has three positions: "R" (First letter of "repeating", which is a British word for semi-automatic fire); the middle position, "A", gives fully automatic fire; and pushing the lever fully forward turns on the safety so that the weapon can not be fired.

paragraphs: The weapon is made with a plastic hand guard and pistol grip. The rifle can be used with a sound suppressor. A suppressor makes the weapon quieter. The weapon has a bottle opener and wire cutter built into the bipod. The bottle opener was built in to stop damage to magazines. This was because the magazines were being used to open bottles. Wire cutters were built in to reduce the time that IDF troops took to cut down wire fences. This is because there are many wire fences in rural areas of Israel.

paragraphs: The barrel has a flash suppressor. It can be used to launch rifle grenades or attach a bayonet. It is possible to attach the M7 bayonet to the Galil.

paragraphs: The Galil gets its ammunition from a curved, steel box magazine. It can hold 35 rounds. There is a special colour-coded 12-round magazine which is used for blanks. The magazine is put into the gun in a similar way to the AK group. A special attachment can allow the Galil to use STANAG magazines.

paragraphs: The AR is the normal rifle version. It has a plastic handguard. The handguard can take a lot of damage before breaking. The stock of the AR can fold (to the right side).

paragraphs: The SAR carbine type of the AR has a shorter barrel (332 mm, 13.07in). Because the barrel is shorter, the mechanisms inside the barrel are also smaller.

paragraphs: The ARM version is a light machine gun. It has a handle to carry the weapon, a bipod which folds and a larger handguard. The handguard is made from wood. The wooden handguard stays cool when the weapon is being fired fully automatically. The bipod can be used as a wire cutter. The back of the handguard can be used to open bottles. This was put in to stop soldiers opening bottles with the magazines, as this damaged them.

paragraphs: MAR stands for Micro Galil. It is a smaller version of the SAR. It weighs 2.98 kg without a magazine. The MAR gets its ammunition from a 35-round magazine. Two of these can be attached to make reloading quicker. The MAR has the same rate of fire (630-750 rounds per minute) as other 5.56 mm Galil models. An optional magazine adapter inserted inside the magazine well allows the use of standard 20 and 30-round M16 magazines. The MAR has four settings: "S"—weapon can not fire, "A"—automatic fire, "B"—3-round burst, "R"—semi-automatic fire. The MAR can have many different sights attached to it. The MAR can also be given with plastic magazines (instead of steel magazines). These weigh 0.164 kg. They can also be given with more space around the trigger so that soldiers wearing gloves can fire it.


title: Cannabaceae

paragraphs: Cannabaceae the hemp family of the rose order, containing 11 genera and 270 species of aromatic herbs distributed throughout temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere.

paragraphs: Older authorities included the two genera, Cannabis and Humulus, in the mulberry family. These and the former hackberry family (Celtidaceae) are now included in Cannabaceae. Members of the family are erect or climbing plants with petalless flowers and dry, one-seeded fruits. Hemp ("Cannabis") and hop ("Humulus") are the only economically important species.


title: Urticaceae

paragraphs: Urticaceae the nettle family comprising about 45 genera of herbs, shrubs, small trees, and a few vines, distributed primarily in tropical regions. The family is typical of the nettle order.

paragraphs: Many species, especially the nettles ("Urtica") and Australian nettle trees ("Laportea"), have stinging hairs on the stems and leaves. The leaves are varied and the sap is usually watery.

paragraphs: The small, greenish flowers often form clusters in the leaf axils. Both male and female flowers may be borne on the same plant. The curled stamens of the male flowers straighten quickly as the flowers open, releasing the pollen.


title: Adrian Fenty

paragraphs: Adrian Malik Fenty (born December 6, 1970) was the sixth, and youngest Mayor of the District of Columbia. He was a national leader in urban education reform. He lost his re-election bid in the 2010 Democratic primary to Vincent C. Gray, who went on to win the general election for mayor.

paragraphs: Fenty grew up in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood of Washington, D.C. and graduated from Mackin Catholic High School. As a teenager, he worked at Swenson's Ice Cream next to the Uptown Theatre.

paragraphs: Fenty's mother is white, and his father is African-American. Adrian Fenty is the middle child of three boys—older brother Shawn, a bicycle expert, and younger brother Jess. Their parents are runners and own a Fleet Feet athletic shoe store in the D.C. neighborhood of Adams Morgan. Adrian has run in the Cherry Blossom Ten Mile Run each year since 2004, improving his finishing time from 1:17:22 in 2005 to 1:02:59 in 2009.

paragraphs: Fenty earned a B.A. in English and Economics at Oberlin College and a J.D. from the Howard University School of Law. He is a member of Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity.

paragraphs: In 1997, Fenty and lawyer Michelle Cross eloped. Michelle Cross Fenty works for the Inter-American Development Bank. They have three children: twins Matthew and Andrew (b. 2000) and Aerin Alexandra (b. 2008).

paragraphs: Fenty was an intern for Senator Howard Metzenbaum (D-OH), Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton (D-DC), and Representative Joseph P. Kennedy II (D-MA) before becoming involved in local politics. In addition to serving as an aide to Councilmember Kevin P. Chavous, he was elected as an Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner in ANC 4C and was president of the 16th Street Neighborhood Civic Association.

paragraphs: In 2000, Fenty won a seat on the D.C. Council. Fenty ran against long-time Ward 4 Councilmember Charlene Drew Jarvis. Jarvis was well known and a heavy favorite, but Fenty campaigned hard. He pursued an aggressive door-to-door strategy and put up large numbers of green yard signs. Fenty was elected to the Council seat by a 57–43 percent margin. Unopposed in both the primary and general elections in 2004, Fenty was reelected for a second term.

paragraphs: As a Council member, Fenty worked on constituent services. He opposed public funding for a new baseball stadium. He proposed funding a $1 billion capital improvement program for public schools, which the Council subsequently passed in an altered form. He is a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston mayor Thomas Menino.

paragraphs: While major, Fenty used three BlackBerry devices. One BlackBerry directly connected him to Police Chief Cathy Lanier while the latter two were for business and personal matters.

paragraphs: Fenty formally announced his decision to campaign for mayor of the District of Columbia on June 1, 2005. In the fall of 2005, then-mayor Anthony A. Williams made the widely anticipated announcement that he would not seek re-election, and then-Council Chair Linda Cropp announced she would be a candidate for Mayor. Other candidates included businesswoman Marie Johns, then-Council member Vincent Orange, and lobbyist Michael A. Brown. Brown dropped out of the race in September 2006.

paragraphs: Fenty ran on a platform of bringing a more energetic and hands-on approach to district government. Cropp trumpeted her 25 years of experience in district government and her desire to continue the progress made by Anthony Williams, who endorsed her candidacy. The race was widely viewed as neck-and-neck through the spring of 2006. Both candidates raised significant and nearly equal amounts of money –roughly $1.75 million through June 10, 2006 –and neither gained any significant advantage from the numerous debates and forums.

paragraphs: By July 2006, public and private polling gave Fenty a roughly 10-point advantage. Political observers have debated whether it was Fenty's unprecedented door-to-door campaign, in which he and his campaign workers visited virtually every block in the district, Cropp's lack of engagement in the campaign, or the electorate's desire for a new direction after eight years of Anthony Williams. Cropp's campaign began a series of negative attacks during the last month of the campaign. In direct mail and television advertisements, Cropp painted Fenty as unfit for the job and a careless lawyer who had been admonished by the D.C. Bar; in 2005, he received an informal admonition from the Bar Association for his role in a probate case in 1999. The attacks, however, backfired; the reaction, coupled with the endorsement of the "Washington Post" newspaper, increased Fenty's lead in the campaign's final weeks.

paragraphs: On September 12, 2006, Fenty won all 142 district precincts in the Democratic Primary. This had never happened before in District of Columbia history—and defeated Linda Cropp by a 57–31 percent margin.

paragraphs: Fenty received 89% of the vote in the general election. He became the district's sixth elected mayor since the establishment of home rule.

paragraphs: Fenty paid a lot of attention to education reform. On the first day of his term, in an unprecedented and controversial move, Fenty introduced legislation to restructure the school system to give him full responsibility for schools. Across the district, district residents had been demanding that the schools be "fixed." Schools in the district had been troubled for years with student test performance scores and graduation rates among the lowest in the nation. In 1996, a Control Board appointed by Congress had taken over control of the public school system, declaring that the schools were in a "state of emergency." Mayor Fenty viewed this re-structuring as the solution.

paragraphs: In April, 2007, the D.C. Council approved Fenty's school takeover plan, and in May 2007, legislation needed to approve the change was passed by Congress and signed by President Bush. Under the new structure, the existing superintendent was replaced by a school chief, or chancellor, who was selected by the mayor and would report directly to him. This power shift also allowed the mayor to make swift changes in the system's central office, alter teacher qualification requirements, and implement a school consolidation process. His selection of Michelle Rhee to manage District schools surprised many people. In choosing Rhee, he stepped outside of the local landscape to consult with national education experts including New York City School Chancellor Joel Klein.

paragraphs: The move to restructure the school's reporting system and the addition of a school chancellor as a direct report have been credited with putting the school system on the path to long-awaited improvements. To ensure that maximum resources would go directly to classrooms, the mayor and chancellor closed 23 underenrolled schools and significantly reduced the school system's central administrative staff.

paragraphs: Student achievement at the secondary level rose 14 points in reading and 17 points in math since 2007, gains that are unprecedented in DC history and unparalleled nationwide. Student SAT scores rose 27 points in 2010. Graduation rates rose each year since 2007, and 72 percent of district students took the Practice Scholastic Aptitude Test, a.k.a. the PSAT, which functions as a practice test for students entering college. His administration also took on a major, five-year maintenance and construction effort to dramatically improve school buildings by 2014. The Mayor and Chancellor successfully negotiated a collective bargaining agreement with the Washington Teachers Union. The contract has become a national model for other jurisdictions, especially because it establishes a system of performance-based teacher compensation.

paragraphs: While focusing on improving schools, the Fenty Administration changed district agencies, ensuring more efficient and effective service delivery throughout district government. Fenty's choice for police chief, Cathy Lanier, also made national headlines. Under Fenty, Lanier has added police officers to the streets and expanded community policing initiatives, for example, "beefing up" the policy of accepting anonymous text message tips from local residents to cut down on retaliation. By local news accounts, there is evidence of success. The homicide rate in the District dropped 25% in 2009. The closure rate for homicide cases rose to 70%. In his "State of the District" speech, the Mayor reported that homicides were at their "lowest level since 1964" and that "both violent crimes and property crimes" had experienced a double-digit decline.

paragraphs: Fenty has championed development efforts across the district. Across the district, several schools, libraries, parks and recreation centers have been renovated to offer state-of-the-art facilities for residents, youth and families. There have been many improvements made to recreational play spaces for children: Under Fenty, 16 neighborhood and school playgrounds were opened and 9 play courts and fields were completed. Under his leadership, the District's largest shopping center, the D.C. USA Shopping Center, was opened. New developments, such as the Camp Simms retail development, have infused new life into the neighborhood with a retail grocery store and a sit-down restaurant east of the Anacostia River. Renovation of affordable housing units helped provide housing during tough economic times.

paragraphs: The Fenty Administration also expanded health care coverage for the uninsured and established thousands of units of affordable housing, while creating the "Housing First" program to provide permanent supportive housing for the district's homeless. The administration also reduced the backlog of Child Protective Services (CPS) investigations by improving the retention of social workers, increasing recruitment of social workers to fill vacancies, and building a quality, experienced leadership. Additionally, the Fenty Administration improved the delivery of emergency medical services. It also finalized the sale of Greater Southeast Community Hospital (now United Medical Center) in a public-private partnership that kept the facility open for patients east of the Anacostia River.

paragraphs: In December 2009, Fenty signed the Religious Freedom and Civil Marriage Equality Act of 2009 to legalize same-sex marriage in the District of Columbia. During the signing ceremony, Mayor Fenty and other attending district officials expressed their support for the gay rights movement by expressing "they want the District to provide a road map for gay rights activists as the debate over same-sex marriage...moves across the nation..."

paragraphs: Mayor Fenty and his administration came under attack from political opponents. Council Chair Gray complained that Fenty did not share with the district council tickets donated by a local sports arena. Chair Gray demanded that Fenty hand the tickets over to him so Gray could have control of them.

paragraphs: The D.C. council also charged that Fenty circumvented them in making contracts for park improvements. Rather than treat them as district contracts, the contracts were made with the D.C. Housing Agency.

paragraphs: Fenty officially launched his reelection bid on April 10, 2010, at his campaign headquarters at 5929 Georgia Avenue, NW, in Washington, D.C.’s Brightwood neighborhood. The Fenty campaign's headquarters were located on the site of the old Curtis Chevrolet dealership within Ward 4, the ward in which Fenty began his political career as an Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner in ANC 4C.

paragraphs: Fenty faced ten candidates in the District's September 14, 2010, Democratic primary. On July 31, 2009 (13½ months before the 2010 primary), Fenty's 2010 mayoral campaign passed the 2006 primary fundraising total of $2.4 million.

paragraphs: On August 1, 2010, the editorial board of "The Washington Post" officially endorsed Fenty. "Washington City Paper" followed on September 9.

paragraphs: One primary candidate in particular, Sulaimon Brown devoted his efforts to attacking Fenty rather than establishing his own positive campaign. After the election, Brown was given a $110,000 per year job in the D.C. Department of Health Care Finance within the new administration. However, Brown was later fired because of questions about his past. In March 2011, Congress announced an investigation into the hiring of Brown.

paragraphs: A "Washington Post" poll released on Aug. 29 found Gray with a 17-point lead among likely voters. A Clarus poll conducted September 7 gave Gray a 7-point lead among likely voters, and a Public Policy Polling survey sponsored by WAMU-FM radio and "Washington City Paper" showed an 11 percent lead for Gray.

paragraphs: Fenty lost the Democratic primary election to Vincent C. Gray. Gray received 53 percent of the vote to Fenty's 46 percent. Following the reporting of the results, Fenty called it highly unlikely he would run for public office again.

paragraphs: While Fenty received the most write-in votes for mayor in the Republican primary election, Fenty had previously said he would not accept the Republican nomination.

paragraphs: Fenty signed with Greater Talent Network, a major speakers bureau, in January 2011. The same month, Fenty became an outside adviser and counsel to Heffler, Radetich & Saitta, an accounting and consulting firm based in Philadelphia. Also in January 2011, it was announced that Fenty would become a distinguished visiting professor of politics, a featured lecturer and a career adviser in the Department of African American Studies at Oberlin College. In February 2011, Fenty became an outside adviser to Rosetta Stone, which produces foreign language learning software. In March 2011, Fenty became a strategic adviser for the state and local government practice of Capgemini Government Solutions LLC, an information technology consulting firm. In May 2011, Fenty became a member of the advisory board of EverFi Inc., an online education and certification firm. In July 2011, Fenty joined the law firm Klores Perry Mitchell P.C. as special counsel.

paragraphs: On the "Morning Joe" broadcast on March 8, 2011, Adrian Fenty backed Wisconsin Republican Governor Scott Walker's union-busting bill and said that the Democratic state senators should be held accountable.

paragraphs: 2000 Council of the District of Columbia, Ward 4, Democratic Primary Election

paragraphs: 2000 Council of the District of Columbia, Ward 4, General Election

paragraphs: 2004 Council of the District of Columbia, Ward 4, Democratic Primary Election

paragraphs: 2004 Council of the District of Columbia, Ward 4, General Election

paragraphs: 2006 Mayor of the District of Columbia, Democratic Primary Election

paragraphs: 2006 Mayor of the District of Columbia, General Election


title: Bernadette

paragraphs: Bernadette is a feminine given name. It is the female version of the masculine name Bernard. Celebrities with the name "Bernadette" include the actress Bernadette Peters.


title: Hwang Hui

paragraphs: Hwang Hui (, Hanja:黃喜, 1363 - 1452) was a Korean Goryeo dynasty and Joseon Dynasty scholar and politician. He was the Prime Minister of Joseon Dynasty from 1431 to 1449.

paragraphs: He was the adopted son of politician Hwang Gun-seo (황군서, 黃君瑞), nickname was BangCheon (방촌, 厖村).


title: Sulaimon Brown

paragraphs: Sulaimon Maurice Brown (born July 31, 1970 in Charleston, SC) is an accountant. He was a candidate for mayor of the District of Columbia in 2010. During the campaign, he actively supported another candidate, Vincent Gray. After Gray became mayor, Brown's criminal record became public. He is being investigated by the United States Attorney. Brown is also being investigated by committees of the DC City Council and of Congress.

paragraphs: Brown's father, Melvin Brown, was an Army Ranger, and Brown's mother was a nurse at Howard University Hospital.

paragraphs: Brown earned a Bachelor of Business Administration - Accounting from the University of the District of Columbia. Brown worked as a University of the District of Columbia police officer until 2005. Brown then worked at various accounting firms. In 1988, Brown was tried and acquitted by a jury on an attempted murder charge in Chicago. Brown was also accused of assault in Essex County, New Jersey, but a grand jury refused to indict Brown. The "Washington City Paper" reported that DC court records show "gun charges against Brown were dropped in 1991 in exchange for Brown going to a diversion program, and a jury found Brown guilty in 1995 for unlawful entry." The "City Paper" also reported that a restraining order had been issued against Brown in 2007. The press asked Brown if he had a criminal record. Brown replied that he had been arrested once for trespassing at Howard University.

paragraphs: Brown was a volunteer in Adrian Fenty's 2006 campaign for mayor. According to Brown's 2009 website, Brown "worked behind the scenes campaigning for many elected officials [including] The President of the United States Barack Obama. He has helped in efforts to get White House Legislation passed and most recently trying to get a Supreme Court nominee appointed." Brown became a candidate for the 2010 Democratic Party nomination for mayor.

paragraphs: On June 24, 2010, Brown was running out of money because he had not held a job for 18 months. Brown discussed his financial problems with another candidate for mayor, Vincent Gray. Brown and Gray reached an agreement for Gray to provide cash payments to Brown for the rest of the campaign. They also agreed that if Gray won the election, the city would hire both Brown and his brother. Before the primary election, Brown received $44,000 from the Gray campaign and an additional $750 from Lorraine Green, Chairwoman of Gray's campaign. Howard Brooks carried the cash between Gray's campaign and Brown.

paragraphs: Because Brown was a declared candidate, he participated with Mayor Fenty in a number of candidate debates. At the August 2010 forum in Ward 8, Brown questioned whether Fenty loved his parents. According to the "Washington Post", "During the election, Brown, 40, drew attention at debates by urging voters to cast ballots for Gray and criticizing incumbent Adrian M. Fenty." Brown received 209 votes in the primary. Gray defeated Fenty in the September 14, 2010 primary, and Gray won the general election in November 2010. Gray became Mayor in January 2011.

paragraphs: The Gray Transition Team hired the Capitol Inquiry firm to check Brown's background. Capitol Inquiry discovered Brown's past legal proceedings in Chicago and New Jersey, and included them in a confidential report.

paragraphs: In January 2011, Brown was hired to a $110,000-a-year job in the DC Office of Health Care Finance. Gray claimed that Brown was hired by Wayne Turnage, the director of that office. When the "Washington City Paper" raised questions about the hiring of Brown, he was quickly fired. DC police escorted Brown out of his new office. Mayor Gray called a press conference the same day, and stated:

paragraphs: He’s qualified to do the work, Mark. What he did on the campaign has no relation to this. What he did on the campaign is what he decided to do. I didn't ask him to do that nor did I encourage him to do that.Turnage said that he fired Brown because they could not get along and not because of what was printed about his background. Brown sat in the back of the press conference as an uninvited guest, and spoke to reporters at the end of the conference. When the press asked Brown if Gray had promised him a job, Brown refused to answer. Brown blamed City Councilman David Catania for his being fired. Brown said that Catania had threatened to delay the confirmation of Turnage until Brown was fired. Catania denied this.

paragraphs: Brown was placed on paid administrative leave for 15 days.

paragraphs: In March 2011, Congress announced an investigation into the hiring of Brown.

paragraphs: In April and May 2011, the DC City Council issued a subpeona to get Brown to testify. Brown hid from the people trying to give him the subpeona and went to court to fight having to testify. On May 31, 2011, the D.C. Superior Court order Brown to testify before the D.C. Council committee that was investigating this matter. On June 6, 2011, Brown testified under oath that Gray had paid him cash to keep in as a candidate in the primary race and had promised him a job. Brown claimed that Gray himself had ordered one of the payoffs. The City Council probe showed that Green, Gray's chief of staff Gerri Mason Hall and Gray's personnel director Judy Banks gave Gray's political allies city jobs. They did it in a way that did not pay attention to qualifications or laws.

paragraphs: Brown was required to report the money that he got as campaign contributions. On June 5, Brown gave the press copies of money orders payable to "Sulaimon Brown for Mayor" from relatives of Howard Brooks, including Brook's son (Peyton Brooks), the son's girlfriend, and a cousin of Brook's wife. The last two denied ever making the contributions. Peyton Brooks was also hired as a $110,000-a-year special assistant in the Office of the Deputy Mayor for Planning and Economic Development. Peyton Brooks was one of several children of Gray's campaign workers to be fired after the press printed stories about the jobs. Brown said that he received additional money orders from Howard Brooks, but that those did not have names on them.

paragraphs: The United States Attorney's Office is also investigating. Brown said that the Federal Bureau of Investigation asked Brown about the payments from Brooks, Green and Gray.


title: 2011 Norway attacks

paragraphs: The 2011 Norway attacks were two attacks in Norway on 22 July 2011. The first attack was a car bombing near government buildings in Oslo. The second attack was a mass shooting at a summer youth camp on an island northwest of Oslo. Of the total 77 deaths, 55 were teenagers, and another 96 people were injured. The car bomb also shattered many windows of buildings in the government quarter of downtown Oslo.

paragraphs: The bomb explosion was near the office of Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg at 15:26. It killed eight people and injured several others. The second attack was about 90 minutes later, at a youth camp organized by the youth group (AUF) of the Norwegian Labour Party (AP) at the island of Utøya in Tyrifjorden, Buskerud. A gunman disguised as a policeman opened fire at the campers, and killed 69 people.

paragraphs: The police arrested several suspects, but many were released. Anders Behring Breivik, a 32-year-old Norwegian Protestant man, committed both attacks. He was later charged with both attacks.

paragraphs: Records show he had planned the attacks for years, as an act of anti-immigration ideology and against multiculturalism.

paragraphs: The European Union, NATO and countries around the world have expressed their support for Norway and condemned the attacks.

paragraphs: On 22 July 2011 at 15:26 (CEST) a powerful explosion went off near the offices of the Prime Minister of Norway ("H-blokka") and several other governmental buildings, such as the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy ("R4") and Ministry of Finance. "(See map)"

paragraphs: The nearby street was filled with glass and debris following the explosion. The wreckage of a car was sighted near one of the affected buildings. A giant cloud of white smoke was seen as a fire burned at the Ministry of Petroleum. The blast was heard at least seven kilometres away.

paragraphs: Following the explosion, police cleared the area and searched for more explosive devices. The police asked people to leave central Oslo.

paragraphs: Eight people are known to have been killed in the explosion, with fifteen injured, eleven seriously. A doctor at the Oslo University Hospital said the hospital staff were treating head, chest and abdominal injuries.

paragraphs: Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg was not hurt in the blast. Norway’s finance minister, Sigbjørn Johnsen, was on holiday in Denmark at the time.

paragraphs: Because July is the main holiday time in Norway, and that attacks took place during the weekend, there were not as many people in the area as usual, which may saved many lives.

paragraphs: All roads into Oslo's downtown area were closed as police moved people from the area and warned Oslo residents to stay away from the city center. They were also told to limit their usage of mobile phones due to concerns of another possible terrorist attack. Public transport into and out of the city was stopped. The police checked cars on the road to Oslo airport, which remained open as the police conducted searches in cars at the site.

paragraphs: The Gardermoen railway line between Lillestrøm and Oslo airport was shut down after a suspicious package was found close to the tracks. The same happened at the offices of TV 2, which were evacuated after a suspicious package was found outside the building.

paragraphs: About 90 minutes after the Oslo explosion, a gunman in police uniform, believed to be Anders Behring Breivik, got on a ferry about 40 kilometres (25 miles) northwest of Oslo. The ferry went to the island of Utøya in lake Tyrifjorden. The island was the site of the Labour Party's annual Workers' Youth League (AUF) youth summer camp. Once on the island, the gunman began to shoot the mainly adolescent campers, before finally being captured.

paragraphs: The shooter was dressed as a police officer, and said he had come over for a routine check following the bombing event in Oslo. He signalled and asked people to gather around him before firing his weapons, killing and injuring many people. He first shot people on the island and later started shooting at people who were trying to escape by swimming across the lake. The police reported that most of the casualties were youths of about 15 and 16 years old. People on the island were reported to have hidden in lavatories or undergrowth, communicating by text message to avoid giving their positions away to the gunman.

paragraphs: The shooting supposedly lasted for 90 minutes. The police were informed about the shooting at 17:27, and at 18:27 the gunman had been arrested. When the police arrived at the scene, they were confronted with a scene of survivors begging the officers to throw away their weapons. They were afraid that the men in uniforms would again open fire on them.

paragraphs: At about 03:50 (CEST) on 23 July 2011, the National Police Commissioner Øystein Mæland thought the number of deaths at Utøya was "at least 80" with the count expected to increase. Sixty-nine people died.

paragraphs: The attacker is Anders Behring Breivik. He was arrested on Utøya for the shootings and also linked to the Oslo bombings. He has been charged and convicted of carrying out both attacks. He is in prison.

paragraphs: Acting national police chief Sveinung Sponheim said that the suspected gunman's Internet postings "suggest that he has some political traits directed toward the right, and anti-Muslim views, but whether that was a motivation for the actual act remains to be seen". Police have described Breivik as being a right-wing extremist. Breivik described himself as a conservative nationalist. He has been described as a Christian fundamentalist by news sources. He is reported to have written many posts on the website "document.no", described by "Aftenposten" as "Islam-critical and Israel-friendly". He went to meetings of "Documents venner" (Friends of Document), linked with the website. He is was also once a member of the right-wing Progress Party (FrP) and its youth wing FpU. FpU leader Ove Vanebo said Breivik was active early in the 2000s, but he left the party as his viewpoints became more extreme.

paragraphs: Media reports say that Breivik posted comments on the internet saying he is an admirer of Winston Churchill and Max Manus, and also of Dutch politician Geert Wilders. Breivik said Wilders' Party for Freedom, is "the only true party for conservatives". Breivik has said he is "pro-gay and pro-Israel". On Twitter he paraphrased utilitarian philosopher John Stuart Mill: "One person with a belief is equal to the force of 100,000 who have only interests." The Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) said that Breivik published a 1516-page manifesto, on his anti-multiculturalist and right-wing militant ideologies, on the day of the attacks.

paragraphs: Several witnesses at the youth camp, believe (as of 23 July 2011) that there was more than one shooter. The police have received descriptions of a second gunman, and are currently checking this information. Due to the uncertainty surrounding these witness descriptions and the chaotic nature of the events the police have, as a matter of precaution, yet to make an official comment on the matter. Acting Police Chief Sveinung Sponheim has said that "It's very difficult at this point to say whether he was acting alone or whether he was acting as part of a larger network".

paragraphs: At a press conference on the morning after the attacks, prime minister Jens Stoltenberg called the attack a "national tragedy" and the worst atrocity since World War II. Stoltenberg said that the attack would not hurt the Norwegian democracy, and said the proper answer to the violence was "more democracy, more openness, but not naivety".

paragraphs: Eskil Pedersen of the Workers' Youth League vowed to "return to Utøya" and urged Norway to continue its tradition of openness and tolerance.

paragraphs: King Harald sent his condolences to the victims and their families, and urged unity.

paragraphs: Svein Østerud , professor emeritus, said that before we can analyze the trauma of the nation, we have to acknowledge that Breivik and [some] other terrorists, are youths that lost their way, when going thru institutions ... while struggling to find one's identity, and at the same time (and everyday) being forced to [ conform to the] norms set by school, parents, and social media.

paragraphs: The European Union, NATO, the United Nations Security Council, governments and leaders from around the world expressed their condemnation of the attack, condolences, and solidarity with Norway.

paragraphs: At Utøya, the place of memorial is called ["the clearing"] "Lysninga"; a part of it is ["the ring"] "Ringen" - a "ring of steel [that] hangs between trees and here the names and age of the majority of those 69 killed are engraved"; "it lies at the highest point of the island"; It was unveiled during the summer of 2015. "Hegnhuset" was inaugurated in 2016.

paragraphs: A temporary national monument in Oslo was unveiled on 22 July 2016.

paragraphs: One monolith stands in each municipality.

paragraphs: At 53 [places] in Norway, are statues by Nico Widerberg that were anonymously financed.

paragraphs: One monolith was put at Utsikten - a roadside rest area with a view of Utøya; it is located on E16 at Nes in Hole (municipality).

paragraphs: In June 2017 the government decided that one of the national memorials, should be placed at Utøya-kaia, in Hole municipality; the memorial will not [be a work of art, or] have an artistic expression. KORO , an agency under the Ministry of Culture, will no longer formally be tied to the process in regard to the memorial in Hole.

paragraphs: Jan Kjærstad published in 2017, "Berge", a novel that is about the attacks and a triple homicide in 1999, in Norway .


title: Harald Cerny

paragraphs: Harald Cerny (born 13 September 1973) is a former Austrian football midfielder. He played mostly for TSV 1860 München.

paragraphs: He started his career with ASV Hinterbrühl and FC Admira/Wacker where he played in the different youth teams. At the age of 19 he went to Bayern München where he started the professional career. The first two years he played for the second squad but in the 1992/93 he played in the first team giving his debut versus Eintracht Frankfurt. 1993 he went back to Austria playing with FC Admira/Wacker . After Wacker Innsbruck in the 1994/95 season he went back to Munich but played for Bayerns rival TSV 1860 München. With 268 matches, 238 of them in the Bundesliga, for 1860 he is the record holder of the club. Due to injuries, he ended his career in 2007.

paragraphs: Cerny made his debut for Austria in March 1993 against Greece. He played 47 matches and scored four goals.His last international was an April 2004 against Luxembourg. He was also in the squad for the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France. There he played two matches versus Cameroon and Chile.


title: Franz Wohlfahrt

paragraphs: Franz Bernhard Wohlfahrt (born 1 July 1964 in Sankt Veit an der Glan, Austria) is a former Austrian goalkeeper.

paragraphs: He started with the local club SV St.Veit and turned professional with F.K. Austria Wien. He came together with his older brother Mario, who soon went back to St. Veit. Franz Wohlfahrt played then 20 years or 496 matches for this club divided in two sections. With Austria Wien he became 6 times Austrian Champion and four times Austrian cup winner. He became widely known during a UEFA Cup match versus Ajax Amsterdam when he was injured by a bar thrown by an Ajax supporter. Following this Ajax was banned for one year in European football. From 1996 till 2000 he played for the German team VfB Stuttgart, with the club he played in the 1997/98 UEFA Cup final versus Chelsea (0:1). 2000 he went back to Austria Wien. 2002 he ended his career but in 2007 he started again playing for ASK Hirm, whose goalkeeper was injured.

paragraphs: In 1983 he played in the 1983 FIFA World Youth Championship. His first match in the senior team was in August 1987 in a match versus Switzerland. His last match was a qualification match for the 2002 FIFA World Cup versus Turkey. He was also a goalkeeper in the 1998 FIFA World Cup squad. In 1999 he was goalkeeper during the 0:9 defeat versus Spain in Valencia. All in all he played 59 matches for Austria.


title: Exchange of gases

paragraphs: Exchange of gases or gas exchange is carried out by organisms, where different gases move in different directions. Animals, microorganisms and plants breathe out carbon dioxide and breathe in oxygen. To balance the composition of air, plants use carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis, so oxygen is made. Plants only carry this out during the day, when there is sunlight. Plants respire all day and night.

paragraphs: In humans, gas exchange happens in the alveolus (alveoli for plural). These are in the lungs and help with diffusion. Oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream, from the air. Oxygen is used in aerobic respiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the bloodstream, into the air. Carbon dioxide is a waste product made by respiration.


title: Pentene

paragraphs: Pentene is the name of alkenes with the formula CH. They are hydrocarbons. In total, there are five different pentenes. Pentens occur in cracking processes and in natural gas. Pentenes are used for polymerization, and for the synthesis of isoprene, amyl alcohols and Alkylphenols. Amyl alcohols are used as stabilizers in the production of Chloroform and Dichloromethane to stop phosgene from being made.


title: Paul Strzelecki

paragraphs: Paul Edmund de Strzelecki (20 July 1797 — October 1873) was a Polish man who taught himself geology. He became famous for his explorations in Australia.

paragraphs: He was born in Gluszyna, near Poznan, Western Poland in 1797 and later served briefly with the Prussian army. He tried unsuccessfully to marry a young girl, and then was accused of stealing money from his employer. He moved to London and gave himself the title of Count Strzelecki. In 1834 he went to North America and spent time visiting mineral areas and exploring for minerals. He is said to be the first person to find copper in Canada. In 1836 he travelled along the west coast from Chile to California.

paragraphs: In 1839 he visited the Hawaii, Tahiti, New Zealand and finally landed in Sydney, Australia. He wanted to make a geological map, and explored large parts of New South Wales and Victoria, including the Australian Alps. He climbed Australia's highest mountain, and named it Mount Kosciuszko, after the Polish leader, Tadeusz Kosciuszko.

paragraphs: He spent several years in Tasmania before going back to Sydney. He went back to London in 1843. He wrote a book on his discoveries in Australia called "Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land". He was given the Founder's Medal by the Royal Geographical Society.

paragraphs: In 1847—8 he was put in charge of the giving out money in Ireland during the Great Famine for the British Relief Association. He established standards for giving out assistance that are still being used.

paragraphs: He was made a Fellow of the Royal Geographic Society and the Royal Society. He was awarded the K.C.M.G. in 1869. He died from cancer in 1873. He left instructions that after his death his papers were to be burnt and his body buried in an unmarked grave.

paragraphs: A road from Lyndhurst to Innamincka was named the Strzelecki Track after Paul Strzelecki. It was used until the 1930's to move cattle to Adelaide, and now is the main road to Moomba, a huge natural gas field which supplies Adelaide and Sydney. The Strzelecki Ranges in Victoria are also named after him. A large national park on Flinders Island, the Strzelecki National Park, was named after Strzelecki who climbed the mountains there in 1842.