title: Sophene

paragraphs: Sophene (Armenian: "") was a province of the Armenian Kingdom and of the Roman Empire, in the southwest of the kingdom. It is currently in modern-day southeastern Turkey.

paragraphs: According to Anania Shirakatsi's "Ashkharatsuyts" ("World Atlas," 7th century), Tsopk was the 2nd among the 15 provinces of Greater Armenia. It consisted of 8 cantons ("gavars"): Khordzyan, Hashtyank, Paghnatun, Balahovit, Tsopk (Shahunyats), Andzit, Degiq, and Gavreq (Goreq).

paragraphs: Tsopk was part of the kingdom of Urartu in the 8th-7th cc BC. After unifying the region with his kingdom in the early 700s BC, king Argishtis I of Urartu resettled many of its inhabitants to his newly built city of Erebuni (modern day Armenian capital Yerevan). Around 600 BC, Tsopk became part of the newly emerged ancient Armenian Kingdom of Orontids.

paragraphs: After Alexander the Great's campaigns in 330s BC and the subsequent collapse of the Achaemenid Empire, Tsopk remained part of the newly independent kingdom of Greater Armenia. In the early 200s BC, at the instigation of the Seleucid Empire, which was trying to weaken the Armenian kingdom, Tsopk, along with Commagene, split from Greater Armenia, forming the Hellenistic kingdom of Tsopk-Commagene. The kingdom was ruled by a branch of the Armenian royal dynasty of Orontids. Tsopk later split from the Tsopk-Commagene kingdom as well, forming an independent kingdom.

paragraphs: Around 200 BC, in his attempt to finally subjugate Armenia, Seleucian king Antiochus III conquered both Greater Armenia and Tsopk, installing Armenian generals Artaxias I and Zariadres as governors-strategoses respectively in each kingdom. Following Antiochus' defeat by Romans at the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, both Zareh and Artashes declared themselves independent kings. Zareh and his descendants ruled the kingdom of Tsopk until it was reunified with Greater Armenia by Tigranes the Great in the 80s BC.

paragraphs: Pompey gave Sophene to Tigranes, after defeating his father Tigranes the Great.

paragraphs: Sophene later become part of the Roman Empire, and was made into a province of the Roman Empire. The capital was Amida (modern Diyarbakır). Around 54, the province was ruled by Gaius Julius Sohaemus.

paragraphs: In 530, Sophene was included into the province of Armenia IV.


title: Seleucid Empire

paragraphs: The Seleucid Empire was a Hellenistic (or Ancient Greek) successor state of Alexander the Great's empire. At its greatest extent, the Empire covered central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, Turkmenistan, Pamir and the Indus Valley.

paragraphs: Primarily, it was the successor to the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, and was followed there by the Islamic Caliphate (Rashidun Empire) conquest and rule, from 650s to 660s AD. Later on, much of this area became part of the Umayyad Empire and then the Abbasid Empire.

paragraphs: There were over 30 kings of the Seleucid dynasty from 323 to 63 BC.

paragraphs: Alexander the Great had conquered the Persian Empire but later died young, leaving his huge empire of partly Hellenized culture without an adult heir.

paragraphs: The empire was put under the management of a regent named Perdiccas in 323 BC, and the territories were divided between Alexander's generals, who thereby became satraps, at the Partition of Babylon. Leaders who thought they should have more, started wars to get it. Soon the various parts of the empire were fighting each other.

paragraphs: Seleucus I Soter was one of Alexander's generals who received a portion of the huge empire Alexander had carved out. He received huge expanses of land in Syria, Babylon, Anatolia, even as far out as India. When Perdiccas was killed in a political assassination by Ptolemy of Egypt, the empire that was barely held together then splintered apart. The Seleucid Empire quickly expanded, eventually taking parts of Thrace in the west and advancing past the Indus in the East.

paragraphs: Seleucus I clashed several times with his southern rival for power, the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The Ptolemaic Dynasty controlled most of Egypt and the lands around it, and would fight the Seleucid Empire on many occasions for control of Syria. Seleucus I conquered much of Anatolia, and was preparing to invade Macedonia, when he was assassinated. This momentarily put an end to the Seleucid Empire's ambitions in Greece. After Seleucus I died, his heirs spent much of their time and money trying to maintain the enormous empire they had inherited. In this, they were rather successful, but the vastness of the empire defied attempts by the successors of Seleucus to control it effectively.


title: Westmorland

paragraphs: Westmorland (an older spelling is "Westmoreland", an even older spelling is "Westmerland") is an area of north west England and one of the 39 historic counties of England. It was an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now is part of Cumbria.

paragraphs: At the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 the county was said to form part of Yorkshire.

paragraphs: The historic county borders are with Cumberland to the north, County Durham and Yorkshire to the east, and Lancashire to the south and west.

paragraphs: The highest point of the county is Helvellyn at 950m (3,117 ft). According to the 1831 census its area was 485,990 acres.

paragraphs: Appleby, the historic county town, was also a historic borough until it was reformed in 1885.

paragraphs: According to the 1971 census, Westmorland was the second smallest administrative county with people in England, after Rutland. The spead of population was as follows:

paragraphs: In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the county was abolished and its former area was combined with Cumberland and parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire to form the new county of Cumbria. The former county now forms part of the districts of South Lakeland and Eden.


title: Historic counties of England

paragraphs: The historic counties of England are subdivisions of UK They were used for various functions for several hundred years and continue to form the basis of modern local government. They are alternatively known as "ancient counties" and "traditional counties".


title: Ceremonial counties of England

paragraphs: The Ceremonial counties of England are areas of England are defined by the government with reference to the metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England. They are also often called geographic counties.

paragraphs: † ceremonial county covers larger area than the non-metropolitan county

paragraphs: The Lieutenancies Act 1997 defines the "ceremonial counties" in terms of local government areas created by the Local Government Act 1972 as amended. Schedule 1, paragraphs 2–5 defines them as:


title: Counties of England

paragraphs: The counties of England are territorial divisions of England that have many different purposes, such as local government. Most counties began as Anglo-Saxon shires, and duchies.

paragraphs: The names, boundaries and functions of these divisions have changed many times. A series of local government reforms from the 19th century onwards has left the exact definition of the term 'county' unclear, and many counties have more than one definition in law.

paragraphs: Therefore, the term "counties of England" does not refer to a unique set of names or boundaries. There are specific sets of counties that serve a purpose in government (e.g. ceremonial county, registration county or former postal county) or are cultural regions that are sometimes loosely defined (e.g. historic county).

paragraphs: Two definitions have a purpose in present-day government:

paragraphs: For example, Leicester is not in the administrative county of Leicestershire, but is in the ceremonial county of Leicestershire.

paragraphs: The 39 historic, ancient or traditional counties, developed from the 12th to the 16th centuries, though many of the specific areas are much older. They were not used for census reporting since 1841. Most of the historic counties continue to form part of the local government structure, often with reformed boundaries.

paragraphs: Registration counties existed from 1851 to 1930 and were used for census reporting from 1851 to 1911.

paragraphs: Elected county councils were set up in England in 1889, taking over many of the administrative functions of the Quarter Sessions courts, as well as being given other powers over the years. A County of London was created from parts of Kent, Middlesex and Surrey. The counties were divided into administrative counties (the area controlled by a county council) and independent county boroughs. Some counties were covered by several administrative counties; they were Suffolk, Sussex, Northamptonshire, Hampshire, Cambridgeshire, Yorkshire and Lincolnshire.

paragraphs: 1965 saw a minor change as the original County of London became instead the 'administrative area' of Greater London.

paragraphs: On 1 April 1974 the Local Government Act 1972 came into force. This abolished the existing local government structure in England and Wales (except in Greater London) and replaced it with a new entirely two-tier system. It abolished the previously existing administrative counties and county boroughs (but not the previous non-administrative 'counties') and created a new set of 46 'counties' in England, 6 of which were metropolitan and 40 of which were non-metropolitan.

paragraphs: Some of the counties established by the Act were entirely new, such as Avon, Cleveland, Cumbria, Hereford and Worcester, and Humberside, along with the new metropolitan counties of Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands, and West Yorkshire. The counties of Cumberland, Herefordshire, Rutland, Westmorland and Worcestershire were abolished and the county boroughs as well.

paragraphs: A further local government reform in the 1990s grouped the counties into regions, created many small unitary authorities with county level status (re-establishing in effect if not in name the old county boroughs), and restored Herefordshire, Rutland and Worcestershire as administrative entities.

paragraphs: There are now 81 county level entities outside Greater London. Of these, 34 are so-called 'shire counties' with both county councils and district councils, and 40 are unitary authorities. Six are metropolitan counties. The remaining one is Berkshire, whose county council has been abolished and its districts have become unitary authorities.

paragraphs: Because of the local government reforms in the 1990s, the distinction between the counties used for local government and those used for Lieutenancy, abolished in 1974, was revived, and a new term, 'ceremonial county', coined. Most unitary authorities remained associated with the same county for Lieutenancy, and in a few areas the old ceremonial counties were restored (Bristol, East Riding of Yorkshire, Herefordshire, Rutland, Worcestershire).

paragraphs: These are also known as the geographic counties and are generally used to describe a place's location in England. They are also taken into consideration by the boundary commission when they draw up boundaries for constituencies, for example.

paragraphs: The former postal counties as used by the Post Office are no longer required on addresses. They included most of the 1974 changes, but did not acknowledge Greater Manchester or Greater London as postal counties. They went out of official use in 1996.


title: Lord Lieutenant

paragraphs: The title Lord Lieutenant is given to the British monarch's personal representatives around the United Kingdom, usually in a county, with varying tasks throughout history. Usually a retired local notable, senior military officer, peer or business person is given the post honourarily. Both men and women are eligible for the post.

paragraphs: In England and Wales and Ireland, the lord lieutenant was the principal officer of his county. His creation dates from the Tudors.

paragraphs: Lieutenants were first appointed to a number of English historic counties by Henry VIII in the 1540s, when the military functions of the sheriff were handed over to him. He raised was responsible for the efficiency of the local militia units of the county, and afterwards of the yeomanry, and volunteers. He was Commander of these forces and appointed their officers.

paragraphs: Lieutenancies became more organised soon, probably in the reign of his successor Edward VI, their establishment being approved by the English parliament in 1550. It was not until the threat of invasion by the forces of Spain in 1585 that lieutenants were appointed to all counties. After the defeat of the Spanish Armada, the need for lieutenants was reduced — and the lieutenancies of some counties were left vacant in the 1590s.

paragraphs: The three ridings (sub-divisions) of Yorkshire each got their own.

paragraphs: The official title of the office at this time was His or Her Majesty's lieutenant for the county, but as almost all office-holders were peers they were referred to as "lord-lieutenant".

paragraphs: The Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 established County Territorial Force Associations, of which the lord-lieutenant was to be head. So the combination of counties and county corporates as lieutenancy counties was restored.

paragraphs: Local Government reform in England in 1965 led to the appointment of lord-lieutenants to Greater London and Huntingdon and Peterborough, and the abolition of those of the County of London, Middlesex and Huntingdonshire.

paragraphs: A more fundamental reform of local government throughout England and Wales (outside Greater London) created a new structure of metropolitan, non-metropolitan and Welsh counties in 1974. Section 218 of the Local Government Act 1972 that established the new system stated: "Her Majesty shall appoint a lord-lieutenant for each county in England and Wales and for Greater London..." The Act appears to be the first statutory use of the term "lord-lieutenant" for lieutenants to counties.

paragraphs: In 1975 counties ceased to be used for local government purposes in Scotland. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 replaced the counties with regions, and each region was to have one or more lord-lieutenants appointed. The areas to which they were appointed approximated to the counties and were based and were defined in terms of the new local government districts.

paragraphs: In 1996 Scottish regions and districts were abolished on further local government reorganisation, and since that date lord-lieutenants have been appointed to lieutenancy areas.

paragraphs: Partial reform of local government in England since 1995 has led to the creation of so-called ceremonial counties to which lord-lieutenants are now appointed. The Lieutenancies Act 1997 is the most recent piece of primary legislation dealing with Lieutenancies in England and includes the definitive list of the current areas used. Ceremonial counties may be comprised of combinations of county council areas and unitary authorities.

paragraphs: Since the local government re-organisation of 1996 in Wales, lord-lieutenants are now appointed to preserved counties.

paragraphs: The City of London was unaffected by changes introduced since 1882. It has a Commission of Lieutenancy rather than a single Lord-Lieutenant. The Head of the Commission is the Lord Mayor of London.

paragraphs: The modern responsibilities of lord-lieutenants include:

paragraphs: As the sovereign's representative in his or her county, the Lord-Lieutenant remains non-political and holds no office in any political party. The usual age of retirement is 75. They are appointed for life, although the sovereign may remove them.

paragraphs: The Lord-Lieutenant is supported by a Vice Lord-Lieutenant and Deputy Lieutenants which he or she appoints.

paragraphs: They are unpaid, but receive minimal allowances for secretarial help, mileage allowance and a driver. Male Lord-Lieutenants receive an allowance for the ceremonial uniform, worn when receiving members of the royal family and on other formal occasions.

paragraphs: There is no uniform for a female Lord-Lieutenant, but there is a badge which can be worn on ceremonial occasions. Male Lord-Lieutenants wear a dark blue uniform in the style of an Army No. 1 dress along with a cap and sword with a steel scabbard. The uniform for a male Vice Lord-Lieutenant and Deputy Lieutenants is of a similar style, but with features to distinguish it from a Lord-Lieutenant.

paragraphs: The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland was the head of the British administration in Ireland until the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922.


title: Samus Aran

paragraphs: The makers said that the Metroid series is supposed to be like the 1979 film, "Alien", and Samus was like one of the film's characters, Ellen Ripley. Players thought Samus was a boy until the end of the original "Metroid" game. One of the makers said that it would be "kind of cool if it turned out that this person inside the suit was a woman". The rest of the makers liked it so it happened

paragraphs: Samus' suit is orange and red, and runs on Energy Tanks. It was made by creatures called Chozos, and can gain new powers and abilities. She has lots of other suits as well.

paragraphs: The "Metroid Prime" series takes place in between "Metroid" and "".

paragraphs: In "Metroid Prime", Samus has to go to the Frigate Orpheon, and meets Meta Ridley, the revived form of an enemy from "Metroid". She loses her powers on the frigate through an accident, and escapes to the planet Tallon IV. She eventually has to do battle with the final boss, Metroid Prime.

paragraphs: In "", Samus meets a creature called Dark Samus, which is Metroid Prime fused with a suit Samus got on Tallon IV.

paragraphs: In "", Samus and three other bounty hunters

paragraphs: Samus was the first female character to appear in the "Super Smash Bros." series, and has been in "Super Smash Bros.", "Super Smash Bros. Melee", "Super Smash Bros. Brawl", and "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U". She's only in her suit in the first two, but in the third and fourth, she can be in Zero Suit Samus form, which comes from "". In the fourth game, Samus in her power suit and her zero suit are listed as two separate characters. She takes many moves from the "Metroid" series, including the Charge Beam, Bombs, Screw Attack, and Missiles.


title: Metroid (series)

paragraphs: Metroid is a series of video games made by Nintendo. The series started in Japan in 1986. Its main character in the game is Samus Aran. Almost all of the games in the series have a certain kind of fictional creature called a "Metroid". This is where the name of the series comes from. Metroids look a lot like jellyfish except they can fly. They also have teeth instead of tentacles. They attack creatures and people by charging quickly towards them and sucking out all their life force.

paragraphs: The main character in the series is Samus Aran. She always wears a very powerful space suit. This suit lets her do things that normal humans cannot do, such as jump very high and fall long ways without being hurt. The right arm on Samus' suit has a large gun built into it. She is seen in this space suit almost all of the time. In many of the games, if the player finishes the game fast enough or collects enough items, they can see her without the suit on. When this happens, she is either wearing a tight jumpsuit, or something resembling a bikini.

paragraphs: The main enemies of the "Metroid" games are the Space Pirates. They are tall creatures who look like lizards that walk on two legs. The Space Pirate commander is a dragon named Ridley, who is Samus' worst enemy.

paragraphs: In most "Metroid" games, the player explores far away planets or space stations. The player, as Samus, starts the game with very few powers, and not many places to go. The player must explore to find items and powers that let him or her get to new areas. In the first "Metroid"; Samus had to defeat Ridley; a giant monster named Kraid; and then destroy the Space Pirate's computer, Mother Brain. In all "Metroid" games, there are different goals to achieve, but nearly all of them involve looking for items and exploring.


title: Michelson–Morley experiment

paragraphs: The Michelson–Morley experiment was a scientific experiment to find the presence and properties of a substance called aether, a substance believed to fill empty space. The experiment was done by Albert A. Michelson and Edward Morley in 1887.

paragraphs: Since waves in water need something to move in (water) and sound waves do as well (air), it was believed that light also needed something to move in. Scientists in the 18th century named this substance "aether", after the Greek god of light. They believed that aether was all around us and that it also filled the vacuum of space. Michelson and Morley created this experiment to try and prove the theory that aether existed. They did this with a device called an interferometer. This experiment is a test of Einstein's special relativity theory.

paragraphs: The Earth travels very quickly (more than 100,000 km per hour) around the Sun. If aether exists, the Earth moving through it would cause a "wind" in the same way that there seems to be a wind outside a moving car. To a person in the car, the air outside the car would seem like a moving substance. In the same way, aether should seem like a moving substance to things on Earth.

paragraphs: The interferometer was designed to measure the speed and direction of the "aether wind" by measuring the difference between the speed of light traveling in different directions. It measured this difference by shining a beam of light into a mirror that was only partially coated in silver. Part of the beam would be reflected one way, and the rest would go the other. Those two parts would then be reflected back to where they were split apart, and recombined. By looking at interference patterns in the recombined beam of light, any changes in speed because of the aether wind could be seen.

paragraphs: They found that there was, in fact, no substantial difference in the measurements. This was puzzling to the scientific community at the time, and led to the creation of various new theories to explain the result. The most important was the Lorentz factor, which is used in Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity.


title: Hydrogen sulfide

paragraphs: Hydrogen sulfide (British English: "hydrogen sulphide") is the chemical compound with the formula , is a colorless, toxic, flammable gas that is responsible for the foul smell of rotten eggs and flatulence. It often results when bacteria break down organic matter if there is no oxygen. This happens in swamps, and sewers (alongside the process of anaerobic digestion). It also happens in volcanic gases, natural gas and some well waters. This is the smell that people often think to be that of sulfur. But sulfur itself does not smell.

paragraphs: Hydrogen sulfide is also known as sulfane, sulfur hydride, sour gas, sulfurated hydrogen, hydrosulfuric acid, sewer gas and stink damp. IUPAC accepts the names "hydrogen sulfide" and "sulfane". When people speak of more complicated compounds they always use the term "sulfane".

paragraphs: Small amounts of hydrogen sulfide can be found in crude petroleum. Sour natural gas can contain up to 28%. But, sour natural gas must be cleaned before it can enter a long distance pipeline. Pipelines limit hydrogen sulfide to 3 grains per thousand cubic feet of natural gas. Volcanoes and hot springs give off some HS, where it probably is made by the hydrolysis of sulfide minerals, i.e. MS + HO to give MO + HS.

paragraphs: Normal average concentration in clean air is about 0.0001-0.0002 ppm.

paragraphs: Hydrogen sulfide is a highly toxic and flammable gas. Because it is heavier than air it tends to accumulate at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces.

paragraphs: Hydrogen sulfide is considered a broad-spectrum poison, meaning that it can poison several different systems in the body, although the nervous system is most affected. The toxicity of HS is comparable with that of hydrogen cyanide.


title: William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne

paragraphs: William Petty, 1st Marquess of Lansdowne, KG, PC (2 May 1737–7 May 1805) was a British Whig statesman and Prime Minister of Great Britain. He was born William FitzMaurice in Dublin in Ireland. Petty was known historically as The Earl of Shelburne.


title: William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland

paragraphs: William Henry Cavendish Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, (14 April 1738 – 30 October 1809) was a British Whig and Tory statesman and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Great Britain. After Ireland joined Great Britain to form the United Kingdom, he was again made Prime Minister. This time, he was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.


title: Newbie

paragraphs: Newbie is a slang term for a new person in a community, group, or video game, and especially on the internet. "Newb" is short for newbie and another slang term that comes from the word "new". A noob usually means a bad player in a game, or someone who does not know the rules of a community yet. Being called a noob is usually not a good thing.

paragraphs: The use of the word "newbie" originated in World War II. It was a word veterans used to describe new recruits.

paragraphs: In recent years, however, the term has been used more often in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG)s or other internet based games. It can also mean someone who has a high level in a game, but is not a skilled player. A person new to a game or a younger player can be referred to as a newbie.

paragraphs: Many places, such as internet forums or online communities, use the word "noob" differently than the word "newbie". A newbie is simply someone who is new to the forum or game. But a noob or n00b is someone who has been around long enough to know better, but doesn't. A noob is thought of as having no respect for the rules and does not seem to want to do anything for himself. So noob has become an offensive term on the internet. To behave like a noob can mean getting disrespect and a lack of interest from other players.

paragraphs: Noobs are usually referred to by the 1337 (pronounced "leet") or skilled players, who have marginally higher experience in the game. When a leet soundly defeats a noob, he is said to be "pwning noobs". Recently "noob" is used mainly just as a name to refer to other players in various online games. It's usually a derogatory term, but can be exchanged as a friendly greeting. A noob is sometimes confused with a "choob" (a low skilled person in a game, but having acquired nice things as a result of playing).


title: Bodhisattva

paragraphs: A bodhisattva is a Buddhist who is on their way to become a Buddha. They have attained a certain level of enlightenment, but decide not to enter Nirvana so that they can continue helping living beings in the world.

paragraphs: The word Bodhisattva can also refer to certain specific bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri and Vajrapani.

paragraphs: Many bodhisattvas made a special vow that defines their personality or method of helping people. For example, Kshitigarbha vowed not to attain enlightenment until there were no more beings in hell. Some Buddhas, such as Amitabha, made certain vows when they were bodhisattvas. He became a Buddha when these vows were fulfilled.


title: Tackey and Tsubasa

paragraphs: Tackey & Tsubasa (タッキー&翼) is a Japanese pop duo from Johnny & Associates. Its two members are Hideaki Takizawa (Japanese: 滝沢秀明, "Takizawa Hideaki") and Tsubasa Imai (今井翼, "Imai Tsubasa"). They are known for their Japanese television dramas and they have been successful with numerous hit singles, especially "Kamen" and "Venus". Their records are produced by Avex Trax.


title: Fruits Basket

paragraphs: Fruits Basket(フルーツバスケット) is a Japanese manga and anime series about an eponymous student. The manga series ran from 1999 to 2006. An anime television series adaptation aired in 2001.

paragraphs: Tohru Honda comes to live with the mysterious Sohma family. She discovers a terrible secret about them - 13 members of the family turn into twelve animals of the Chinese Zodiac, and the cat who was left out of the Chinese Zodiac. Whenever they are hugged by members of the opposite sex or become weak, they turn into each animals.


title: Middle-earth characters

paragraphs: This article is about the fictional characters from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth universe.

paragraphs: Manwë Súlimo is the leader of the Valar. He is the lord of air and sky. His wife is Varda. He lives on the mountain of Taniquetil in Valinor, which is far west of Middle-earth.

paragraphs: Melkor was originally the most powerful of the Valar, but he became evil. He was then named Morgoth (Sindarin: "Black Enemy"), and "Morgoth Bauglir" (Sindarin: "Oppressor"). Morgoth was the greatest enemy of all the peoples of Middle-earth during the First Age. He is the main villain of "The Silmarillion".

paragraphs: Sauron is a Maia who became evil. He became the Dark Lord Morgoth's chief lieutenant. In the Second Age he disguised himself as Annatar and told the elves how to make the Rings of Power. He created the One Ring in the volcano Mount Doom, in his land Mordor. Since then he is the Lord of the Rings.

paragraphs: He was killed in the Downfall of Númenor, but again took form in Mordor. He was again defeated by the "Last Alliance of Men and Elves". Later in the Third Age, Sauron again came to life, searching for the Ring, and starting the "War of the Ring". Sauron is mentioned as the Necromancer in "The Hobbit".

paragraphs: The Istari (Quenya: "Wise Ones"; singular: Istar) are a group of five Maiar. They came to Middle-earth in the Third Age, in the form of old human men. The names of the Istari are (in order of rank) Saruman the White, Gandalf the Grey,Radagast the Brown, Alatar the Blue and Pallando the Blue. The peoples of Middle-earth gave them many names, and called them "wizards".

paragraphs: Gandalf the Grey is a main character in the books "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". In the Third Age Gandalf came to Middle-earth as one of the Istari (or wizards). He worked much to help in the destruction of the One Ring, and in the War of the Ring. Gandalf is also known by other names: Olórin, Mithrandir, Tharkûn, Incánus. Círdan gave Gandalf the Elven Ring Narya, the Ring of Fire, which he had been given by Gil-galad. At the end of the Third Age, Gandalf left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with the bearers of the other two Elven Rings and the Ring-bearers of the One Ring.

paragraphs: Saruman the White is a character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". In the Third Age Saruman came to Middle-earth as one of the Istari. Saruman is also known as Curumo and Curunír.

paragraphs: Radagast the Brown is a character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". In the Third Age Radagast came to Middle-earth as one of the Istari. Radagast is also known as Aiwendil.

paragraphs: Alatar and Pallando are the Blue Wizards. They went into the east of Middle-earth. Almost nothing is known about them.

paragraphs: Celeborn was the husband of Galadriel and father of Celebrían. Together with his wife he ruled as Lord over the elven realm Lothlórien.

paragraphs: Celebrían was the daughter of Galadriel and Celeborn. At the beginning of the Third Age she married Elrond Half-elven, and they had the twin sons Elladan and Elrohir, and their daughter Arwen. In 2509 T.A. Celebrían was captured by orcs, but she was rescued by her sons. The year after she left Middle-earth for Valinor.

paragraphs: Galadriel was the youngest child of Finarfin and Eärwen. She married Celeborn, and they had a daughter named Celebrían. In the Second and Third Age she ruled as Lady over the elven realm Lothlórien. Gil-galad gave Galadriel the Elven Ring Nenya, the Ring of Water. At the end of the Third Age, Galadriel left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with the bearers of the other two Elven Rings and the Ring-bearers of the One Ring.

paragraphs: Ereinion Gil-galad was the last High King of the Noldor in Middle-earth. He was the leader of the elves in the Last Alliance against Sauron, but was killed in the war at the end of the Second Age.

paragraphs: Haldir was an Elf of Lothlórien; he was guarding its northern borders. When the Fellowship of the Ring arrived in Lothlórien they met Haldir and his companions. Haldir then led the Fellowship to the city Caras Galadhon.

paragraphs: Legolas, son of Thranduil, is a main character in "The Lord of the Rings". He is an elf from Mirkwood. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". He is sometimes also called "Legolas Greenleaf". During the Fellowship's journey, he made friends with the dwarf Gimli, despite the fact that dwarves and elves do not usually get along.

paragraphs: Thranduil, son of Oropher, was king of the elves of Mirkwood (Middle-earth)Mirkwood during the Third Age. He fought under the command of his father in the Last Alliance, but when Oropher was killed, Thranduil became king. Thranduil is the father of Legolas. In the book "The Hobbit", Thranduil is only called the Elvenking.

paragraphs: Elrond Peredhel ("Elrond Half-elven"), is the son of Eärendil and Elwing. In the Third Age, Elrond is the Lord of Rivendell, and an important and wise leader among the elves. Elrond appears in the books "The Hobbit", "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Silmarillion".

paragraphs: Elrond was a Half-elf born at the end of the First Age, as the son of Eärendil and Elwing. His brother was Elros Tar-Minyatur, who chose to become a mortal human.

paragraphs: In the Second Age Elrond founded Rivendell. Under the command of Gil-galad he fought in the "Last Alliance" against Sauron.

paragraphs: At the beginning of the Third Age he married Celebrían, daughter of Galadriel, and they had the twin sons Elladan and Elrohir, and their daughter Arwen. Gil-galad gave Elrond the Elven Ring Vilya, the Ring of Air. At the end of the Third Age, Elrond left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with the bearers of the other two Elven Rings and the Ring-bearers of the One Ring.

paragraphs: Elros was the son of Eärendil and Elwing, and brother of Elrond. Elros and his brother were born at the end of the First Age. They were half-elves, and Elrond chose to be an elf, while Elros chose to become a mortal human. Elros became the first King of Númenor, and took the ruling name Tar-Minyatur. He died in 442 in the Second Age, at age 500. His son Vardamir Nólimon and his grandson Tar-Amandil became Kings after him.

paragraphs: Elladan and Elrohir are the twin sons of Elrond Half-elven and Celebrían. They are of the Half-elven who lived during the Third Age.

paragraphs: Arwen Undómiel ("Arwen Evenstar"), is the daughter of Elrond and Celebrían, and is one of the Half-elven who lived during the Third Age. She is a character in "The Lord of the Rings". At the end of the Third Age she falls in love with the human Aragorn. They marry after the War of the Ring. Arwen becomes Queen of Arnor and Gondor, and gives birth to her son Eldarion, and several daughters.

paragraphs: Elendil, son of Amandil, was the last Lord of Andúnië, and founder of Arnor. He was also known as Elendil the Tall and Elendil the Faithful.

paragraphs: Elendil was born in Númenor, and became Lord of Andúnië after his father. He had two sons, Isildur and Anárion. After the destruction of Númenor, Elendil fled to Middle-earth. He and his ships landed in the northern part of Middle-earth, where he founded the realm of Arnor. Elendil led the humans in the "Last Alliance of Elves and Men" to fight Sauron. Elendil was killed by Sauron. His son Isildur and grandson Valandil became Kings of Arnor after him.

paragraphs: Isildur, son of Elendil, was the co-founder of Gondor.

paragraphs: After the destruction of Númenor, Isildur and his brother Anárion fled to Middle-earth. They and their ships landed in the southern part of Middle-earth, where they founded the realm of Gondor. Isildur fought in the "Last Alliance of Elves and Men" under the command of his father Elendil. Isildur cut off the One Ring from Sauron's hand. Elrond and Círdan told Isildur to destroy the One Ring, but Isildur did not want to and kept it. It was decided that Isildur would rule the northern kingdom Arnor afer his father. When Isildur journeyed north, he and his company were attacked by Orcs. Isildur was killed and the One Ring was lost. His oldest sons Elendur, Aratan, and Ciryon were also killed. Isildur's youngest son Valandil became King of Arnor after him.

paragraphs: Anárion, son of Elendil, was the co-founder of Gondor.

paragraphs: After the destruction of Númenor, the brothers Isildur and Anárion fled to Middle-earth. They and their ships landed in the southern part of Middle-earth, where they founded the realm of Gondor. Anárion fought in the "Last Alliance of Elves and Men" under the command of his father Elendil, and was killed. His son Meneldil became king of Gondor after him, while Isildur went to rule the northern kingdom Arnor.

paragraphs: Aragorn II, son of Arathorn, is a main character in "The Lord of the Rings". He is the son of Arathorn II and Gilraen. After his father's death he becomes "Chieftain of the Dúnedain".

paragraphs: He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". After the War of the Ring, at the end of the book, Aragorn becomes King Elessar Telcontar of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor. Aragorn marries Arwen, and becomes the father of a son named Eldarion, and several daughters. His son Eldarion becomes king after him.

paragraphs: Boromir is a main character in "The Lord of the Rings". Boromir is the son of Denethor II, the Steward of Gondor. Boromir led Gondor's soldiers in the fight against Sauron, before he went to Rivendell. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". At Amon Hen, he goes slightly insane over the Ring. He dies after protecting Merry and Pippin from Saruman's Orcs.

paragraphs: Denethor II is the Steward of Gondor, and rules Gondor at the time of the "War of the Ring". He married Finduilas of Dol Amroth, and is the father of Boromir and Faramir. During the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields" he goes insane and burns himself, thinking they would lose the war and get killed anyway.

paragraphs: Eldarion is the son of Aragorn II and Arwen Undómiel. After his father's death he becomes King of Arnor and Gondor.

paragraphs: Faramir son of Denethor II, brother of Boromir. Faramir also led Gondor's soldiers in the fight against Sauron's Orcs and Men, and did so often in Ithilien. He became Steward of Gondor after his father's death. After the War of the Ring, Aragorn made him Prince of Ithilien. He married Éowyn.

paragraphs: Théoden was King of Rohan at the time of the "War of the Ring". He died at the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields". His nephew Éomer became king after him.

paragraphs: Éomer, son of Éomund, brother of Éowyn, was the nephew of King Théoden. In the War of the Ring, Éomer fought in the Battle of the Hornburg, the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, and the Battle of the Morannon. Éomer became the next King of the Rohirrim after Théoden.

paragraphs: Éowyn, daughter of Éomund, sister of Éomer, was the niece of King Théoden. With the help of the hobbit Meriadoc Brandybuck, she killed the Witch-king of Angmar in the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields". After the War of the Ring she married Faramir, and became the Lady of Ithilien.

paragraphs: Gríma, son of Galmod, called Wormtongue, was at first servant of King Théoden. But then he secretly worked for Saruman. Gríma became Théoden's advisor, and worked to weaken him. When Gandalf made the King better, Gríma fled to Isengard. In the end, he goes with Saruman to the Shire. After the hobbit uprising, Gríma kills Saruman; Gríma is killed by hobbit archers.

paragraphs: In The Lord of the Rings movie series, Gríma kills Saruman in Isegard, then he is shot and killed by Legolas.

paragraphs: Bard the Bowman was a man from Lake-town. He was an archer. In "The Hobbit" he shoots the dragon Smaug and kills him. Afterwards, Bard becomes King of Dale, and old city at the foot of the Lonely Mountain that had been abandoned because of the dragon.

paragraphs: Balin son of Fundin is one of the dwarves in Thorin Oakenshield's company during the Quest of Erebor. He is the elder brother of Dwalin.

paragraphs: Dáin II Ironfoot was King under the Mountain in the dwarven realm Erebor after Thorin Oakenshield. Dáin was killed during the War of the Ring. His son, Thorin III Stonehelm, became king after him.

paragraphs: Gimli son of Glóin, is a main character in "The Lord of the Rings". He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring".

paragraphs: Glóin son of Gróin is one of the dwarves in Thorin Oakenshield's company during the Quest of Erebor. He is the younger brother of Óin. Glóin's son is Gimli.

paragraphs: Fíli and Kíli were the nephews of Thorin Oakenshield. They were the sons of Dís, Thorin's sister. They went with their uncle on the Quest of the Lonely Mountain, told in "The Hobbit". They were killed in the "Battle of Five Armies", while they were defending Thorin.

paragraphs: Thorin Oakenshield, son of Thráin II, was leader of Durin's folk and "King under the Mountain". He is the leader of the group that tries to take back the Lonely Mountain from the dragon Smaug in "The Hobbit". He is wounded in the "Battle of Five Armies" and dies. Dáin II Ironfoot becomes "King under the Mountain" after him. Thorin has a sister, Dís, who has two sons Fíli and Kíli.

paragraphs: Bilbo Baggins is a main character in the books "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". Bilbo goes on an adventure with the dwarves, the Quest of Erebor. During this journey he finds the One Ring. He also gets a small sword which he names "Sting", and a small Mithril-shirt. Bilbo later adopts Frodo Baggins. On his 111th birthday, Bilbo leaves the Shire and goes to Rivendell, giving the Ring to Frodo.

paragraphs: At the end of the Third Age, Bilbo left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with Frodo and the bearers of the Elven Rings.

paragraphs: Frodo Baggins is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". Frodo is adopted by his uncle Bilbo Baggins. He inherits Bilbo's home "Bag End" and the One Ring from Bilbo. Frodo is the Ring-Bearer and a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". With the Fellowship, Frodo goes on the quest to destroy the One Ring.

paragraphs: At the end of the Third Age, Frodo left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with Bilbo and the bearers of the Elven Rings.

paragraphs: Meriadoc Brandybuck, called Merry, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's cousin. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". At the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields" he helps Éowyn kill the Witch-king of Angmar. He becomes a Knight of Rohan. After the war he marries Estella Bolger, and becomes Master of Buckland.

paragraphs: Samwise Gamgee, called Sam, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's gardener and servant. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring".

paragraphs: When the Fellowship breaks at Amon Hen, Sam is the only one who goes on with Frodo on their journey to Mordor. If not for Samwise Gamgee, Frodo would not have made it into Mordor or destroyed the Ring. After the War of the Ring, Sam marries Rose Cotton and lives in Bag End.

paragraphs: Peregrin Took, called Pippin, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's cousin. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring".

paragraphs: Gollum is an important character in "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". Originally he was a hobbit named Sméagol, who found the One Ring after Isildur lost it. Gollum went to live under the Misty Mountains; there he kept the Ring for over 500 years, and in that time the Ring changed him to look less like a hobbit. He often called the Ring his "precious". Gollum lost the One Ring, which was then found by Bilbo Baggins in "The Hobbit".

paragraphs: In "The Lord of the Rings", it is told that after this Gollum left the Misty Mountains to search for the "thief Baggins" who had stolen his Ring. Sauron learned from Gollum that the One Ring was in the Shire and owned by a Baggins. Gollum was released by Sauron. Gollum then again went to search for his Ring. Gollum found the Fellowship in Moria and followed them. Frodo and Sam captured Gollum, and Gollum promised to lead them into Mordor. He later tried to trick them, leaving them with the spider Shelob. Gollum attacked Frodo on Mount Doom, and took back the Ring. But Gollum was careless and fell into the volcano, which killed him and destroyed the One Ring.

paragraphs: Ancalagon the Black is a dragon. He appears in the "Silmarillion". Ancalagon was made by Morgoth, and was the biggest and most powerful of all dragons. He was killed by Eärendil, in the War of Wrath in the First Age. When he fell, he crushed the Towers of Thangodrim, heralding the end of Morgoth's tyranny.

paragraphs: Glaurung is a dragon. He appears in the "Silmarillion". Glaurung was a dragon made by Morgoth. He was the first dragon ever created, and he was extremely powerful. He was killed in the First Age by Túrin Turambar.

paragraphs: Smaug is a dragon. He appears in "The Hobbit". Smaug attacked the Lonely Mountain, killed the dwarves living there, and took their treasure and home. Later in the book Smaug was killed by Bard the Bowman.

paragraphs: Beorn is a shape-shifter. He usually is like a big man, but he can change to become a bear. He lives between the Misty Mountains and Mirkwood. He helped at the "Battle of the Five Armies".

paragraphs: The Nazgûl, Ringwraiths or Úlairi are servants of Sauron. They were human kings and leaders in the Second Age. Sauron gave to them nine of the Rings of Power. With time they became like undead ghosts. They are invisible, but their eyes can sometimes be seen as a red light. They wear black cloaks, and usually ride black horses. Later in the "Lord of the Rings" they ride winged creatures called "fell beasts". When riding a fell beast they are also called "Winged Nazgûl".

paragraphs: The Witch-king of Angmar, also known as Lord of the Nazgûl or the Black Captain is the leader of the Nazgûl. He was the commander of Minas Morgul. He was killed in the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields" by Éowyn and Meriadoc Brandybuck.

paragraphs: Khamûl is one of the Ringwraiths, and the only Ringwraith whose name is given by Tolkien. He was called the Black Easterling, and was the commander of the fortress Dol Guldur.

paragraphs: Shelob is a giant spider-like creature. She appears in "The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers". Shelob stings Frodo Baggins, but is wounded by Samwise Gamgee.

paragraphs: Treebeard is an "Ent", a tree-like being. He and other Ents live in the forest Fangorn. In the War of the Ring Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took come to Fangorn and meet Treebeard. This causes the Ents to go out and fight against the wizard Saruman in his fortress Isengard. The Ents are accompanied by an army of "Huorns" (normal trees that have come alive). After Isengard is conquered, the Huorns go to Helm's Deep, to help the Rohirrim there fight and win against Saruman's army.

paragraphs: There have been many adaptations of Tolkien's books, for example films like The Lord of the Rings movie series. In them characters appear that were newly created and are not in Tolkien's works.

paragraphs: Tauriel is an elf from Mirkwood that appears in The Hobbit movie series.


title: Feudalism

paragraphs: Feudalism is a system of land ownership and duties. It was used in the Middle Ages. With feudalism, all the land in a kingdom was the king's. However, the king would give some of the land to the lords or nobles who fought for him, called vassals. These gifts of land were called fiefs.

paragraphs: Under feudalism, taxes were not paid with money. They were paid in products and services. Presents and taxes had to be given to the lords by their vassals. At harvest time, the vassals gave shares of their crops to the lords. The vassals would grind their grain at the noble's granaries. They would give part of the grain to their lord. When animals were killed for food, part of the meat was given to the lords. The lords promised to give protection, peace, and safety to their vassals.

paragraphs: Manors were completely owned by the nobles. They were given from one generation to another. The noble's firstborn son took it all when his father died. Each manor had its own pasture lands, mill, wine press, church, and village. A manor had to let many people live there. Lords gave their servants food and a place to sleep, but they did not pay their servants money.

paragraphs: The villein was in a poorer class. They had to serve the lords, but was free in other ways. They had work to do for the lord or the town. Then they went back to their little houses with floors made of earth and a thatched roof. On the walls of their houses, the villeins hung meats, tools, and dried vegetables.

paragraphs: A villein was more free than slaves or serfs, but they still were not completely free. They could not move or marry if the lord didn't say yes. They also could not leave the manor lands if the lord said no. If they escaped, they could run away to a town where they could try to live quietly without being known, until he is discovered. If they did this, they become a free men. If they wanted to help the Catholic Church, they needed special permission. As a member of the church, their position could get higher. However, if this did not work, they could join a band of outlaws.

paragraphs: The serf was in the lowest class. He was only a little better than slaves. He could not be sold away from the land, but was always sold "with" the land.

paragraphs: But villeins and serfs had rights as well. They could cultivate grain and vegetables for sale, and the lord had duty to protect them and provide them land to cultivate. If they got wealthy enough, they could buy their freedom from the lord. They also did not need to serve in levy (that is: army mustered up by conscription) and they did not need to pay state taxes. They usually paid 10% of their income to the Church and 10% to the feudal lord, which was called a tithe.


title: Leo III of Armenia

paragraphs: Leo (or Leon) III of Armenia (c.1236-1289) was king of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, ruling from 1270 to 1289. He was the son of Hethum I of Armenia and Queen Isabella of Armenia.

paragraphs: In 1262 Leo married Keran (Kir Anna), the daughter of Prince Hethum of Lampron.

paragraphs: In 1266 Leo was captured and his younger brother Thoros killed while fighting the Mamluk invaders. Leo was ransomed by his father, who gave up the throne for him shortly after. He was known as a pious king, devoted to Christianity.

paragraphs: In 21 years of marriage Leo had 15 children by his wife Keran, eight sons and seven daughters. Two sons and two daughters died at an early age:

paragraphs: 5 of his 15 children, Hethum, Thoros, Sembat, Constantine, and Oshin, later became the Armenian kings, who often fought each other to gain the throne.


title: Armens

paragraphs: Armens (Armenian: Արմեններ, Առամեններ), were Armenian tribes, the people are called Arman, Armenic or Armanen. They correspond with the Hayasa-Azzi Tribes. The Armans united with the tribes of Hayasi. Recent linguistic studies present strong evidence that the Indo-European language group originates in Anatolia. According to most accounts, the Armens were generally tall, blond-haired, and blue-eyed in appearance, in contrast to their Urartian cousins who tended to be slighter with black hair and black eyes. The Urartian state, which existed there prior to the coming of the

paragraphs: Indo-European-speaking "Armen" tribes from the west, was a federation of many peoples.

paragraphs: At the end of the second millennium BC, another Indo-European ethnic group, closely related to Thracians and Phrygians and referred to by the Greeks as Armens, migrated to the Armenian Highland from Northern Balkans.

paragraphs: One theory suggests that the Armens were of Thracian origin, and related to the Phrygians. The Armens were near the head waters of the Halys, to the west of the Euphrates. The Armens seemed to have mixed blood with another Asiatic element whose patronymic Hai, became in time their national designation. The country where the Armens settled were a mountainous region, traversed by deep valleys and smiling plains.

paragraphs: The word Armani, (mentioned in Akkadian inscriptions as early as 2400 BC) an early form of Armen-Armin or Arman denotes the national affiliation, as with many cultures standing for the particular nation thus, the God AR being the primary deity in the Indo-European (aka Aryan) pantheon - thus AR MAN denotes—Men of Ar or Children of Ar, again initially AR standing for ARAREL-ARARICH [hence Ar-Ar-At the Place of ARAR] -- Create-Creator, also Sun, Light, Life and Love.


title: History of Armenia

paragraphs: The history of Armenia and Armenians is very ancient and can go back at least 2000 BC. Archaeologists say the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region, and Armenia today, as the earliest known prehistoric culture in the area, carbon-dated to around 6000 - 4000 BC. But, a newer discovered tomb has been dated to 9000 BC. Another early culture in the Armenian Highlands and surrounding areas—the Kura-Araxes culture is in the period of ca. 4000 - 2200 BC, and is believed to have to go into the Trialeti culture (ca. 2200 - 1500 BC), and meaning Armenians are one of the oldest Indo-European subgroups.

paragraphs: Urartu was an ancient kingdom in the Armenian Highlands.

paragraphs: Some experts say that the Armenians started as a mixture of the different peoples to move through the area in history: The Hurrians, Urarteans, Luvians and Mushki. This last group, also knowns as Phrygians may have brought their Indo-European language to Armenia. The Armenian language today is Indo-European, but shows a lot of influence from the earlier languages, especially Urartean.

paragraphs: The Armenians had friendly relations with the Parthian empire. The fighting between the Roman Empire and Parthia was centered in Armenia. Armenia was in between Parthian and the Roman Empire. The Armenians had already played a role in the early history of the Roman-Parthian relations. Tigranes put military and political relations with Rome and Parthia on an international legal foundation. The Parthians were allies to Armenians in many times. Many Parthian noble families had moved out and they went to Armenia.


title: First Republic of Armenia

paragraphs: The First Republic of Armenia, 1918–1920, was the first modern establishment of an Armenian republic. The country was created after the Russian Tsarist empire that began with the Russian Revolution of 1917 that lost power. Its creation with borders were the Democratic Republic of Georgia in the north, the Ottoman Empire to the west, the Persian Empire to the south, and Azerbaijan Democratic Republic to the east.

paragraphs: Armenia gave way to communist power in late 1920. In September 1920, the Turkish revolutionaries moved in on the capital. First an armistice was concluded, on November 18, and then a full peace treaty - Treaty of Alexandropol on 2nd and/or 3rd of December 1920.

paragraphs: During that time, the Soviet 11th Red Army invasion started on the 29th of November 1920. The actual transfer of power took place on December 2 in Yerevan. Armenian leadership approved an ultimatum, presented to it by the Soviet plenipotentiary Boris Legran - who was at work as one of major Russian diplomats on Caucasus at that time. Armenia decided to join the Soviet sphere, while the Soviet Russia agreed to protect its remaining territory from the advancing Turkish army. Soviets also pledged to take steps to rebuild the army, protect the Armenians, not to pursue non-communist Armenians. None of these promises were kept.

paragraphs: On December 4, 1920, the Red Army entered Yerevan, the government of Armenian Republic effectively stopped working. On December 5, the Armenian Revolutionary Committee (Revkom; made up of mostly Armenians from Azerbaijan) also entered the city. Finally, on the following day, December 6, Felix Dzerzhinsky's dreaded secret police, the Cheka, entered Yerevan, thus effectively ending the existence of the Democratic Republic of Armenia.

paragraphs: The rest of Armenia was under control of the communist government. The part by Turkey remained for the most part theirs - by the subsequent Treaty of Kars. Soon, the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed, under the leadership of Aleksandr Miasnikyan. It was to be included into the newly created Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic.


title: Georgian language

paragraphs: Georgian (Ⴕⴀⴐⴒⴓⴊⴈ Ⴄⴌⴀ, "khartuli ena") is the official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus.

paragraphs: Georgian is the primary language of about 3.9 million people in Georgia itself (83 percent of the population), and of another 500,000 abroad (chiefly in Turkey, Iran, Russia, USA and Europe). It is the literary language for all ethnographic groups of Georgian people, especially those who speak other South Caucasian languages (or "Kartvelian languages"): Svans, Megrelians, and the Laz. Gruzinic, or "Kivruli", sometimes considered a separate Jewish language, is spoken by an additional 20,000 in Georgia and 65,000 elsewhere (primarily 60,000 in Israel).


title: Mount Ararat

paragraphs: Mount Ararat (Turkish: Ağrı Dağı; Armenian: Արարատ) is the tallest peak in the Armenian Highlands and modern-day Turkey. The mountain is always capped with snow, and it is a dormant volcano. It is in Iğdır Province, near the northeast corner of Turkey, 16 km west of Iran and 32 km south of the Armenian border.

paragraphs: The people and area who lived in this area was the Armenian kingdom of Ararat (in Assyrian: Urartu). The former lived here for nearly 3000 years. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne put Ararat placed in the administration of Turkey. It is a national symbol of Armenia and an object of irredentism.


title: South Caucasus

paragraphs: South Caucasus, also referred to as Transcaucasia or Transcaucasus, is the southern area of the Caucasus region between Europe and Asia, going from the Greater Caucasus to the Turkish and Iranian borders, between the Black and Caspian Seas.

paragraphs: All of Armenia is in Transcaucasia; the majority of Georgia and Azerbaijan, including the exclave of Naxçıvan, fall within this area. The countries in the region produce oil, manganese ore, tea, citrus fruits, and wine.

paragraphs: The region is one the most complicated in the post-Soviet area, and has three heavily disputed areas – Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia, and Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan.

paragraphs: The region was combined togerther twice – during the Russian Civil War (Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic) from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and under the Soviet rule (Transcaucasian SFSR) from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936.

paragraphs: The area of Transcaucasia, which is where modern day Azerbaijan,Georgia and Armenia are located, is one of areas where the wine producing vines "vitis vinifera" grow. Some experts think that this may be where wine was produced for the first time. Archeological excavation and carbon dating of grape pips from the area have dated back to 7000-5000BC.


title: Mongols

paragraphs: The name Mongols (Mongolian: "Mongol") explains one or more ethnic groups. A hard definition includes the Mongols proper (self-designation "Monggol"), which can be split into eastern and western Mongols. In a bigger sense, the Mongol peoples also people who speak a Mongolic language but use other self-designations, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.

paragraphs: The name "Monggol" has its meaning in the Tungusic languages and usually means "the invincible ones". At first it was applied to a small and still insignificant tribe in the area of the Onon river. In the 13th century it grew into an umbrella term for a large group of tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.

paragraphs: The polytheistic (believing in many gods) Mongols thought that good and evil spirits controlled the world. They also believed in a sky god, who ruled all the spirits. They called him "Tengri" (TENG gree), which means, "the great god of heaven". The Mongols lived in fear of the spirits and hoped for blessings from them.

paragraphs: Every yurt had small idols made of felt. The wives and daughters of the nobles made these idols at sewing parties. The Mongols believed that these idols protected their families and animals. Before every meal they put food and drink on the idols' lips. They also prayed to them.

paragraphs: The Mongols believed that some men, called "shamans" (SHAH muns), had power over the spirits. The shamans were the priests of the traditional Mongol religion, called "shamanism" (SHAH muh NIZ um). The shamans were medicine men and witch doctors who used a special language when doing their magical . The Mongols talked to their shamans before making big choices and followed their advice.

paragraphs: The later empire of the Mongols had many people with many religions, including Christians. The most important Christian group in the Mongol Empire was the Nestorian Church, sometimes called the Church of the East. These Christians were named for Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople.


title: La Liga

paragraphs: La Liga, commonly known La Liga Santander for sponsor reasons, is a football league which is the top division in Spain.


title: Stanley Marcus

paragraphs: Stanley Marcus (born April 20, 1905 – died January 22, 2002) was the president of the Neiman-Marcus company, a store in the United States that sells expensive clothing and . He became famous for inventing many new ways to sell products and new ways to tell people about his store.

paragraphs: Mr. Marcus created an award for people who designed clothing. He also began art shows in his store, to make people want to visit the store to see the art. In 1939, the company started a catalog, which is a book that shows all the products that people can buy from the store. In 1951, the catalog listed unusual gifts for people to buy. Many people started to read the catalog every year to see the unusual gifts.

paragraphs: In the 1940s, at the time of the Second World War, the government of the United States asked Mr. Marcus for help. The government wanted to make sure there would be enough fabric to make clothes for the military, so they asked Mr. Marcus to make rules about clothes for ordinary people. He made rules for companies that made clothes so that popular styles for women and men would not change every year. With these rules, people would not need new clothes so often. Also, he said that men's socks should not use rubber to make elastic to hold the socks in place. This rule made sure the government could use rubber for military products that were needed for the war.

paragraphs: Mr. Marcus married Mary "Billie" Cantrell in 1932. When he met her, Billie was working in the Neiman-Marcus store. She continued to work for four years. She retired in 1936 after she gave birth to a baby; they named the baby Jerrie. In 1938, she gave birth to twins, Richard and Wendy.

paragraphs: Mr. Marcus collected art and books. His favorite artists from Mexico were Rufino Tamayo, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Diego Rivera, and Antonio Ruíz. He became friends with Rivera and Tamayo. Mr. Marcus also liked American artists, such as Alexander Calder, who made sculptures, and Georgia O'Keeffe, who was a painter. He gave large amounts of money to a museum that showed O'Keeffe paintings.

paragraphs: The Degolyer Library at Southern Methodist University has a collection of things related to Mr. Marcus. The collection includes photographs, letters, and newspaper articles. Mr. Marcus also gave the library a collection of more than 5,000 miniature books. (Miniature books are very small books, small enough for a doll.)


title: Collectivity of Saint Martin

paragraphs: Saint Martin (French: "Saint-Martin"), officially the Collectivity of Saint Martin (French: "Collectivité de Saint-Martin"), is a new overseas collectivity of France. It was created on 22 February 2007. It is in the northern parts of the island of Saint Martin and nearby small islands. The southern half of the island is a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

paragraphs: The French part of the island has a land area of . At the 2011 census, the population in the French part of the island was 36,286 (up from only 8,072 inhabitants at the 1982 census), which means a population density of in 2011.

paragraphs: Saint Martin was for many years a French commune. It was part of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas "région" and overseas "département" of France. Because of this, it is in the European Union. In 2003 the population of the French part voted for a split from Guadeloupe. They wanted to make a separate overseas collectivity (COM) of France. On February 9, 2007, the French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both the French part of Saint Martin and neighbouring Saint-Barthélemy. The new took effect when the law was published in the Official Journal.

paragraphs: Saint Martin remains governed as it was when a commune within Guadeloupe—by a mayor and a municipal council elected by the European citizens living on the French side of the island. As is the case in metropolitan France since the promulgation of the Maastricht Treaty, nationals of any member state of the European Union are allowed to vote at the municipal elections. Nationals from countries not part of the European Union, which represent a large part of the population on the French side of the island, are not allowed to vote in the elections. In 2003, the people of the French part of the island voted to seperate from Guadeloupe. In 2007, the French Parliament voted to make Saint Martin a overseas collectivity (COM) of France. The new status took effect on 15 July 2007, once the local assemblies were elected,

paragraphs: Saint Martin remains part of the European Union. The official currency in Saint Martin is the euro (though the United States dollar is also widely accepted).


title: Sint Maarten

paragraphs: Sint Maarten (or Saint Martin) is a country that is part of the Netherlands. It is on the southern half of the island of St. Martin in the Caribbean.

paragraphs: The "Island area of St. Martin" () was part of the Netherlands Antilles, until the Antilles was dissolved in October 2010, when Sint Maarten became a "country" ("land") within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Government of the Netherlands is responsible for defence, foreign affairs and nationality law. Although part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the territory of Sint Maarten is not part of the European Union; however, its people are citizens of the European Union.


title: French overseas collectivities

paragraphs: The Overseas collectivities (French: "collectivité d'outre-mer" or "COM"), are an administrative division of France. These territories include some former overseas territories and other French overseas holdings with a particular status. All of these were given the name "collectivités d'outre-mer" because of a constitutional reform on March 28, 2003.

paragraphs: As of March 31, 2011, there are five of these communities:


title: Saint Barthélemy

paragraphs: Saint-Barthélemy, officially the Collectivity of Saint-Barthélemy (French: "Collectivité de Saint-Barthélemy"), is a new overseas collectivity of France. It was created on 22 February 2007. It consists of the island of Saint-Barthélemy and neighboring small islands.

paragraphs: The island of Saint-Barthélemy, also known as Saint Barts, Saint Barths, or Saint Barth, is in the Caribbean among the Leeward Islands. Its land area is 21.0 km² (8.1 sq. miles). Administratively, the whole island of Saint-Barthélemy was a French copmmune ("commune de Saint-Barthélemy"). It was part of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas "région" and overseas "département" of France. For this reason, it is part of the European Union. In 2003, the people voted in favour of becoming independent from Guadeloupe. They wanted to form a separate overseas collectivity (COM) of France. On February 7, 2007 the French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both Saint-Barthélemy and neighbouring Saint-Martin. The new status took effect on 22 February 2007, when the law was published in the Official Journal.

paragraphs: St. Barts has long been considered a playground of the rich and famous and is known for its beautiful pristine beaches, gourmet dining in chic bistros and high-end designer shopping.

paragraphs: Saint-Barthélemy is about 150 miles east of Puerto RicoIt is near the islands of Saint Martin, Saba and Anguilla.

paragraphs: Gustavia, which is the main town of the island, was named after King Gustav III of Sweden, and remains as a reflection of the Swedish period.

paragraphs: The oldest settlement still remaining is the village of Lorient (or L'Orient), although scattered in every cemetery on the island are Swedish grave markers. Lorient's sister village on the French mainland is the city of Lorient on the northern coast of Brittany.

paragraphs: Of the 20 beaches on the small island, several are seen as especially inviting. On the southern side of the island, Saline and Governor beaches are pristine beaches with no development on them. On the western edge of the island is Colombier beach. This beach is only reachable by boat or a hike. St. Jean, Flammands and Grand-Cul-de-Sac beaches are also popular and attractive beaches which have hotels and other establishments on them. Shell Beach is popular for families with kids as it has little surf, and lots of tide pools.

paragraphs: St. Barths has a tidal difference of only 3 - 5 inches. The beaches vary according to ocean currents—the weather travels onto the island following the sun from the East. One of the main surfing beaches (Toiny) is known for its riptide, while Grand Fond is one of the island's only non-swimming beaches. Although tourism does not allude to it, there are a small variety of warm water sharks in the Caribbean. So, swimming at dusk and dawn or in murky waters is not recommended. Otherwise, scuba and snorkeling are a great way to see the nurse sharks, lobsters, conch and green sea turtles that abound in the waters surrounding St. Barths.

paragraphs: The beach of Grand Cul-de-Sac is the easiest beach in the Caribbean to learn to sail, windsurf or kitesurf on, as it has a reef which closes off the entire bay. The current that passes outside the reef here also carries the migrating whales and dolphins.

paragraphs: Saint-Barthélemy was first claimed by France in 1648. It was sold to Sweden in 1784. Sweden sold it back to France in 1878. The Swedish period left its mark in the names of many of the streets and the town (in honor of King Gustav III). It also left its national arms, the three crowns along with the grey heron, in the island's coat of arms.

paragraphs: At the 1999 census, Saint-Barthélemy had 6,852 people. There were 326 people per square kilometer. Unlike most Caribbean islands, most of the people are white.

paragraphs: Many of the people who live there all the time are French citizens who work at the various establishments on the island. French is the primary language spoken, but many locals also speak English, particularly at the hotels and restaurants.

paragraphs: Saint Barts has a small airport (IATA identifier SBH) is served by small regional commercial aircraft and charters. Most visiting aircraft carry fewer than twenty passengers, such as the Twin Otter, a common sight around Saint Barths and throughout the northern West Indies. The short airstrip is at the base of a steep hill ending directly on the beach. The arrival descent is extremely steep over the hilltop traffic circle and departing planes fly right over the heads of sunbathers (although small signs advise sunbathers not to lie directly at the end of the runway). The nearest commercial jet airport is on the neighboring island of Saint Martin.

paragraphs: There are also charters to St. Barths from San Juan, Puerto Rico available through Tradewind Aviation. The current mayor's airline, called St. Barths Commuter, offers non-prohibitive cost one-way/roundtrip travel between both of St. Maarten's airports and St. Barths. It is also an excellent service for charters. A favorite island business for an extra fee is via St. Barths Services, as they offer full-service attention.

paragraphs: Ferries to and from Saint Martin are the only other real option (although the passage from St. Maarten to St. Barths is often rough), unless one is arriving by private charter boats/yachts.

paragraphs: St. Barts has about 25 hotels, most of then with 15 rooms or fewer, and the largest, the Guanahani has just 70 rooms. Hotels are classified in the traditional French manner 3 Star, 4 Star and 4 Star Luxe.

paragraphs: Villa vacations are extremely popular and there are hundreds of villas terraced into the hillsides throughout the island as well has many beachfront locations. Villas here by definition can range from one-bedroom bunglalows to large luxurious homes. St. Barth Properties and Wimco are the two main villa rental agencies on the island.

paragraphs: Singer Jimmy Buffett is a frequent visitor on the island, and owns a house there. He also owned a hotel, the Author de Rocher, before it burned down.

paragraphs: Saint-Barthélemy has its own bobsled team. To date the team has not achieved competitive success. The island also competes in carotchie.

paragraphs: The junior national French surf champion was named recently in the winter of 2006, and he is from Lorient.


title: Hispaniola

paragraphs: Hispaniola is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It is the second largest island (after Cuba) of the West Indies, east of Cuba and west of Puerto Rico.

paragraphs: The Republic of Haiti occupies the western three-eighths, the Dominican Republic the rest. Hispaniola is one of two Caribbean islands in which there are two countries; the other is Saint Martin.

paragraphs: When Columbus arrived to America, some groups of native people, coming from northern South America, had lived in the Caribbean Islands since a very long time. That movement from South America to the Caribbean islands was not continuous but it happened in several waves during almost twelve centuries.

paragraphs: Archeological studies suggests that those people from South America came to the Caribbean islands during four periods.

paragraphs: The first period began around 5000 B.C. For most Caribbean islands, this period ended around 2000 years ago except in Cuba and Hispaniola where there were some small populations in western Cuba and southwestern Hispaniola when the Europeans arrived to these islands. They were called Ciboney or Siboney by the Taínos, meaning "man that lives among rocks" ("Ciba" means stone and "eyeri" man).

paragraphs: The second group was the Igneri, the first Arawak Indians to come to the Caribbean Islands. They displaced the Ciboney people and, later, they were displaced by another group of Arawak Indians, the Taínos. Taínos occupied all the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) and they developed a culture different from the culture of the Arawaks of South America. They were the first people that the Spanish met in the Americas.

paragraphs: The fourth and last group was the Carib. The Carib were also Arawaks but with a different language. Even if they used to go to Puerto Rico and the Hispaniola to fight against the Taínos, they lived only in the Lesser Antilles when Columbus got to America.

paragraphs: At the moment when the Spanish came to the Hispaniola, most of the island was occupied by Taínos; only in the western tip of the Southern Peninsula (in modern Haiti), there were some small groups of Ciboney In the northeastern part of the island (Samaná Peninsula and north of the Northern mountain range), there was a group called Ciguayos, and sometimes Macorix, with the same culture of the Taínos but a different language. It seems that they were Carib that took the Taíno culture. They were the first Indians that fought against the Europeans.

paragraphs: Christopher Columbus arrived to the island on December 5, 1492, naming it as La Española, meaning "The Spanish Island". When Peter Martyr d'Anghiera wrote in latin about this island, he wrote "Hispaniola", meaning "Small Spain"; that was not correct. Because the book of Anghiera was translated into English very soon, the name Hispaniola is the most used in English-speaking countries and in scientific works.

paragraphs: For centuries, other names were used for the island. The most common were "Santo Domingo Island" (the Dominican constitution still uses that name) and "Haiti".

paragraphs: Hispaniola was the only island that Columbus visited in all his four travels to the Americas. He saw the island for the first time on December 5, 1492 but he stayed on his ship during the night; the next day, he went to land. The Spaniards spent the rest of December traveling along the north coast of Haiti; on December 12, Columbus took possession of the island in the name of the King and Queen of Spain and named the island as "La Española".

paragraphs: On Christmas Eve, December 24, the main ship ("Santa María") was badly damaged. The next day, Christmas Day, Columbus gave orders to use the wood of the ship to build a small fort on what is now Môle Saint-Nicolas, Haiti. That fort was named "La Navidad" ("Navidad" means Christmas) and was the first European building on American soil. Columbus left 39 men there because there was not space in the other two ships for all the people.

paragraphs: From "La Navidad", they traveled east along the north coast of the island and in Samaná they had a small fight with some natives ("Ciguayos", not Taíno Indians) and named the bay as "Golfo de las Flechas" (Gulf of the Arrows), but now is called "Samaná Bay". From there, they went back to Spain.

paragraphs: In 1493, Columbus found, when he returned in his second trip, that "La Navidad" was destroyed by the Indians and all Spaniards killed. Then he went to the east, founding the first European city in the American continent, near the present city of Puerto Plata; he named the city "La Isabela" in honor of Queen Isabella of Castile. The first Catholic mass in America was celebrated at La Isabela on January 6, 1494. From La Isabela, Columbus sent groups of persons to explore and take control of the island.

paragraphs: Because La Isabela was an unhealthy site, Bartholomew Columbus, brother of Christopher, established a new city, "La Nueva Isabela" (The New Isabela) on the south coast of the island, on the left side of the Ozama river. Because a hurricane destroyed the city, it was built again but on the right side of the river and with the new name of Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European city in the Americas.

paragraphs: The Taíno population of the island decreased very fast because a combination of new diseases, like smallpox, and abuses by the Spaniards. Even if some black slaves were brought from Spain since 1501, the colony began to import African slaves when the colony began to grow sugar cane, around 1516, to produce sugar.

paragraphs: Spain kept conquering new regions of the Americas and, for the Spanish people, those new regions were more interesting because there was more gold; the population of the island grew very slowly. By the early 17th century, the island and its smaller neighbors (above all, the Tortuga island) became places often visited by Caribbean pirates. In 1606, the king of Spain gave the order that all inhabitants of Hispaniola had to move close to the city of Santo Domingo, to avoid interaction with pirates and Protestant people. This resulted in French, British and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the abandoned north and west coasts of the island.

paragraphs: In 1665, the presence of French people on the island had the official approval of the French king Louis XIV and he named Bertrand d'Ogeron as the governor of the western part of Hispaniola (in French, Saint-Domingue). By the Treaty of Ryswick, Spain gave the western third of the island to France and kept the eastern part. The development of the French "Saint-Domingue" was very fast, both in wealth and population, and it became the richest colony in the Caribbean. The eastern, Spanish colony of "Santo Domingo" remained poor and with a very low population.

paragraphs: The island of Hispaniola has an area of . There are two countries: the Republic of Haiti is in the western part of the island and the Dominican Republic in the eastern part. These two countries are separated by an artificial border, except in the northern and southern extremes where they are separated by the rivers Dajabón and Pedernales, respectively.

paragraphs: The island is separated from Cuba by the Windward Passage (81 km from Punta Maisí in Cuba to Cape Saint-Nicolas in Haiti), from Jamaica by the Jamaica Channel ( from Point Morante in Jamaica to Cape Irois in Haiti) and from Puerto Rico by the Mona Channel, as from Punta Higüero in Puerto Rico to Punta de Agua in the Dominican Republic.

paragraphs: The maximun length, east to west, is from Cape Engaño to Cape Irois. The maximum width, north to south, is from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata. The highest point of the island, and of the Caribbean is Duarte Peak ("Pico Duarte") in the Dominican Republic with ; the lowest point is in the Enriquillo Lake, which is about under sea level.

paragraphs: There are many smaller islands around the Hispaniola. The largest are:

paragraphs: The Hispaniola is an island with many mountains, and the highest peaks of the West Indies are here. The chains of mountains show a direction northwest-southeast, except in the Southern peninsula (in Haiti) where they have a direction west-east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction.

paragraphs: From north to south, the mountain ranges and valleys are:

paragraphs: The sources of the longest rivers of Hispaniola are in the mountains of the "Cordillera Central" (Dominican Republic) - "Massif du Nord" (Haiti).

paragraphs: The 10 longest rivers of the island are:

paragraphs: The largest lake of the Hispaniola, and of the West Indies, is the "Lake Enriquillo". It is in the "Hoya de Enriquillo" with an area of 265 km². There are three small islands within the lake. It is around 40 meters below sea level and is a saline lake with a higher concentration of salt than the sea water.

paragraphs: The second largest lake, "Étang Saumâtre" (also known as "Lake Azuei"), is close to Lake Enriquillo but in Haiti, in the "Cul-de-Sac". It is also a saline lake with an area of around 170 km².

paragraphs: Others lakes are "Rincón" (fresh water, area of 28.2 km²), "Oviedo" (brackish water, area of 28 km²), "Redonda" "Limón", "Étang de Miragoâne".

paragraphs: Hispaniola has a tropical climate but modified by elevation and the "trade winds" (winds that come from the northeast, from the Atlantic Ocean). At sea level, the average temperature is 25 °C, with small changes from one season to another. In the highest mountains, the temperature in winter can be as low as 0 °C.

paragraphs: There are two wet seasons: April-June and September-November. The most dry period is from December to March.

paragraphs: Rainfall varies greatly; eastern regions, like the Samaná Peninsula, get an average of over 2,000 mm in a year, but less than 500 mm fall in the southwest (Hoya de Enriquillo - Cul-de-Sac).

paragraphs: From June to November, hurricanes are frequent and can do much damage in the island.

paragraphs: Hispaniola has a total population, estimated for July 2013, of 20,113,564 inhabitants, for a density of 263 inhabitants per km².

paragraphs: In Haiti, 95% of the population belongs to the black ethnic group, and in the Dominican Republic it is about 70% of the population.

paragraphs: In the Dominican Republic, only Spanish is spoken (except for groups of immigrants) even if Haitian Creole is gaining importance because the massive immigration from Haiti. Both French and (Haitian) Creole are spoken in Haiti, and both are official languages.

paragraphs: In both countries, the main religion is Roman Catholicism. Protestant groups are important, more in Haiti (15% of the population) than in the Dominican Republic (5%).

paragraphs: The most important cities in the island are Santo Domingo (capital of Dominican Republic), Port-au-Prince (capital of Haiti), Santiago (Dominican Republic), Carrefour (Haiti).


title: Juventus F.C.

paragraphs: Juventus F.C., sometimes known as Juve, is an Italian football club that plays in Serie A. It was founded in 1897 and they play their home games at the Juventus Stadium in Turin.

paragraphs: The club is the most successful team in the history of Italian football. Overall, the club has won 51 official trophies, more than any other team in the country; 40 in Italy, which is also a record, and 11 in European and world competitions. The "Old Lady" is the third most successful club in Europe and the sixth in the world with the most international titles officially recognized by one of the six continental football confederations and FIFA.

paragraphs: The club was the first Italian to win the UEFA Cup. In 1985, Juventus, the only team in the world to have won all official international cups and championships became the first club in the history of European football to have won all three major UEFA club competitions.

paragraphs: In Italy, Juventus is the club which has the biggest fan base, having also one of the largest numbers of supporters in the world, with a total of 170 million Juventus supporters (Italian "tifosi") worldwide. The club is a founding member of the European Club Association, which was formed after the dissolution of the G-14, a collection of Europe's most elite clubs. The Torinese side is also recognized for its huge contribution to the Italian national team.

paragraphs: According to the all-time ranking published in 2009 by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics, an organization recognized by FIFA, Juventus were Italy's best club and second in Europe of the 20th century.

paragraphs: In more than 110 years of corporate history, at the helm of Juventus 23 presidents have come and gone and two management committees. The first president was Eugenio Canfari Juventus, one of the founding members.

paragraphs: The longest period in office was dominated by Giampiero Boniperti, at the helm of Juventus for 19 years from 1971 to 1990 [117]; Boniperti, like its successor Caissotti di Vittorio Chiusano, president from 1990 to 2003, boasts the largest trophy the history of the club.

paragraphs: The businessman Umberto Agnelli, who became chairman less than 21 years of age, in 1955, was the youngest to hold this office. Also noteworthy is the presidencies of the Swiss Alfred Dick and Giuseppe Hess and Frenchman Jean-Claude Blanc, the only non-Italian to become presidents of the club. In particular, Dick was the President of the "Bianconeri's" first championship (1905).

paragraphs: Currently, the contractor in charge of Juventus is Andrea Agnelli, who was elected president on April 28, 2010 by the shareholders at the club.


paragraphs: William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, KG, PC (8 May 1720-2 October 1764) was a British Whig statesman who was Prime Minister of Great Britain for a short period of time.


title: John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute

paragraphs: John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, KG, PC (25 May 1713 - 10 March 1792) was a Scottish nobleman. He was Prime Minister of Great Britain (1762–1763) under King George III.


title: Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington

paragraphs: Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington, KG, KB, PC (1674–2 July 1743) was a British Whig statesman and Prime Minister of Great Britain.

paragraphs: Compton served in government from 1715, and as the head of government from 1742 until his death in 1743.

paragraphs: Compton worked closely with Lord Carteret, to get the support of the various factions making up the Government. Lord Carteret, was the Secretary of State for the Northern Department, which later became the Home Office.


paragraphs: Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, KG, PC (13 May 1730-1 July 1782) was a British Whig statesman. He is most notable for his two terms as Prime Minister of Great Britain. He served in two high offices during his lifetime (Prime Minister and Leader of the House of Lords).


title: Frederick North, Lord North

paragraphs: Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford, KG, PC (13 April 1732–5 August 1792), more often known by his courtesy title, Lord North, was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. North also had a major part in the American Revolution.


title: Flyweight

paragraphs: In boxing, the term flyweight is used for a specific group of people based on weight. A flyweight is a boxer weighing above 49 kg (108 lb) and up to 52 kg (112 lb). Boxing organizations created many divisions so that fighters could fight people of the same size. Most divisions only separate each other by few lbs.

paragraphs: The flyweight division was the last of boxing's eight traditional weight classes. Before 1909, anyone below featherweight was considered a bantamweight. In 1911, the organization that eventually became the British Boxing Board of Control held a match that crowned Sid Smith as the first flyweight champion of the world. Jimmy Wilde, who reigned from 1914 to 1923, was the first boxer recognized both in Britain and the United States as a flyweight champion.

paragraphs: Other notable flyweights include Pancho Villa, Walter McGowan, Pascual Pérez, Pone Kingpetch, Fighting Harada, Masao Ohba, Chartchai Chionoi, Efren Torres, Erbito Salavarria, Miguel Canto, Dave McAuley, Charlie Magri, Gabriel Bernal, Santos Laciar, Sot Chitalada, Yong-Kang Kim, Yuri Arbachakov, Danny Romero, Mark "Too Sharp" Johnson, Manny Pacquiao, Jorge Arce, Vic Darchinyan, Nonito Donaire and Pongsaklek Wonjongkam.


title: Newtonian telescope

paragraphs: A Newtonian telescope is a type of telescope that was invented by the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton. The telescope sends an image to the back of the tube and then reflects it off an angled mirror back up the tube. The image then goes into an eyepiece and into the person's eye. The eyepiece uses one or more lenses that are used to make the image larger.

paragraphs: Early newtonian telescopes were made for real science work. Now, newtonians are mostly used by amateur astronomers. The most popular type is the Dobsonian, which is on a simple rockerbox mount. People like them because they are cheap to make and easy to use.


title: Project management

paragraphs: Project management is the way a person organizes and manages resources that are necessary to complete a project. People that manage projects are known as Project Managers.

paragraphs: A project is a piece of work which is not a process or an operation. It has a start, an end, and goals. Projects can be very simple, like organising a party, or very complex, like building a space rocket.

paragraphs: Projects are common in the construction industry, the telecommunications industry and the IT industry.

paragraphs: The management of a project requires special skills.

paragraphs: Project managers must ensure that the project is delivered within the existing limitations. These limitations can be time, cost, people, risk, and many more. Project managers must also ensure the best possible distribution of resources.

paragraphs: A project manager works mainly with people. They need to have people management skills, a good understanding of the tasks and skills needed on a project, an understanding of how long tasks will take, good organising skills, good communication skills, and good efficiency skills.

paragraphs: Project managers do not need to know how to do all of the work that may be needed in a project. For instance, a building project manager does not need to know how to pour concrete. However, they need to know how to manage people that pour concrete, and they need to know how long concrete takes to pour, how much it costs, what needs to happen before concrete is poured, and what needs to happen after concrete is poured.


title: Vitré

paragraphs: Vitré is a city in the east of Brittany, France. Its name in the Breton language is "" and Gallo is "Vitræ". It has about 18,000 people. There are medieval streets, castles, churches, chapels and parks. It is a good example for a city of the Middle Ages.


title: Shiver me timbers

paragraphs: Shiver me timbers is an expression of disbelief that was mostly used by pirates. Originally, the phrase was Shiver my timbers.


title: Carcharodontosaurus

paragraphs: Carcharodontosaurus was a giant carnivorous dinosaur of the Cretaceous period, 100–93 million years ago. It was about 13 meters long and had a weight of about six tons. Fossils of "Carcharodontosaurus" were found in Africa.

paragraphs: "Carcharodontosaurus" was closely related to the slightly larger "Giganotosaurus", its cousin from Argentina; they are both carcharodontosaurid carnosaurs. Recent discoveries of "Carcharodontosaurus" put its adult length at 39 – 44 feet, making it the largest carnivorous dinosaur in Africa, after "Spinosaurus".

paragraphs: Only two "Carcharodontosaurus" fossils have been found. Two teeth were found in the 1920s. Other parts were found in Egypt in the 1930s. They were destroyed in bombing raids on Munich in World War II while they were on display.

paragraphs: A skull was uncovered in 1996: its length estimates were larger than the older ones and so was its skull, which measured 5.2 feet or 1.6 metres. Its jaws are narrow like those of "Giganotosaurus". Its teeth were up to 7 inches long.


title: Nastika

paragraphs: Astika (Sanskrit: : "orthodox") and Nastika: ("heterodox") are technical terms in Hinduism used to classify philosophical schools and persons, according to whether they accept the authority of the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as "astika" schools; while Charvaka, Jainism and Buddhism are considered "nastika" schools.

paragraphs: In non-technical usage, the term "astika" is sometimes loosely translated as "theist" while "nastika" is translated as "atheist". However this interpretation is distinct from the use of the term in Hindu philosophy. Notably even among the "astika" schools, "samkhya" and the early "mimamsa" school do not accept a God (see Atheism in Hinduism) while accepting the authority of the Vedas; they thus are "atheistic "astika" schools".

paragraphs: The three main heterodox schools of Indian philosophy do not base their beliefs on Vedic authority:

paragraphs: The use of the term "nastika" to describe Buddhism and Jainism in India is explained by Gavin Flood as follows:

paragraphs: At an early period, during the formation of the Upanişads and the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, we must envisage a common heritage of meditation and mental discipline practiced by renouncers with varying affiliations to non-orthodox (Veda-rejecting) and orthodox (Veda-accepting) traditions... These schools [such as Buddhism and Jainism] are understandably regarded as heterodox ("nāstika") by orthodox ("āstika") Brahmanism.

paragraphs: The Tantric traditions in Hinduism, have both "astika" and "nastika" lines; as Banerji writes in ""Tantra in Bengal"":

paragraphs: Tantras are ... also divided as "āstika" or Vedic and "nāstika" or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the "āstika" works are again divided as Śākta, Śaiva, Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava.