title: Romanian language

paragraphs: The Romanian language is a Romance language, meaning it comes from Latin like French, Spanish and Italian. It has 66% Latin-based words and 20% Slavic-based words. The rest are newer and come from Dacian, Turkish, Greek, or English. There are about 28 million speakers: 24 million who speak it as their mother tongue and 4 million who have learned it as their second language.

paragraphs: Romanian is also the most spoken language in Moldova, which is northeast of Romania. The Moldovan language is a kind of Romanian with certain differences, such as the dialect and a Moldavian accent.


title: Ealing

paragraphs: Ealing is a town in the London Borough of Ealing, most famous for the Ealing Studios, a movie studio. In 2011, the population was estimated at 339,300 and contains seven distinct town centres – Ealing, Hanwell, Acton, Southall, Greenford, Perivale and Northolt.

paragraphs: The borough of Ealing has a total of 91 state-run schools and nurseries as well as four Non-League football clubs.


title: Ear

paragraphs: The ear is the part of the body which allows animals (including people) to hear. People and most mammals have ears. Non-mammals can also hear, but may have holes instead of external ears. The ear works by directing sound to the inner ear. These vibrations are sent to the brain by a network (organized group) of nerves. The whole system is called the auditory system.

paragraphs: The inner part of the ear is common to most vertebrates, but mammals have special adaptations for hearing which even other land vertebrates do not have. These include the external ear and the three little bones which transmit sounds (the ossicles). The part of the ear that sticks out and can be seen is called the "pinna."

paragraphs: Ears are also used in other ways. African elephants use their large ears to cool themselves when it is very hot. Bats rely on their ears to find prey by echolocation. Some animals use their ears for signalling to each other.

paragraphs: In ordinary language, "ear" refers to this receptor which conducts sound and sends signals to the brain. It does not refer to the many other methods of hearing found in fish and invertebrates. Many animals do not hear through ears. Spiders have small hairs on their legs that they can hear with.


title: Czech language

paragraphs: The Czech language is a Slavic language spoken by people in the Czech Republic. Ten million people speak it. It is very similar to the Slovak language; the differences between these two languages are small enough that speakers of Czech and Slovak usually understand each other.

paragraphs: It has three genders and is an inflected language like Latin. The grammar is much more complex than that of English.


title: William Howard Taft

paragraphs: William Howard Taft (September 15, 1857 – March 8, 1930) was the 27th President of the United States. He was the only President who also served as a Supreme Court justice. He was six feet tall and weighed over 350 pounds at the end of his Presidency.

paragraphs: Taft served as Solicitor General of the United States, a federal judge, Governor of the Philippines, and Secretary of War before being nominated for President in 1908 by the man who preceded him, Theodore Roosevelt. As a Republican President, Taft was most notable for trust-busting, in which he broke up large businesses that had too much control over the economy. Taft also expanded the civil service, improved the United States Postal Service and promoted world peace. Taft also started the tradition of the president pitching the first ball of the baseball season. Early in life, Taft had played baseball. He was a good second baseman and could hit with power.

paragraphs: In 1908, with Theodore Roosevelt's support, William Taft was nominated as the Republican candidate for President. He easily won against William Jennings Bryan in the 1908 general election, and became President.

paragraphs: In 1912, Theodore Roosevelt came back into politics and ran for President against William Taft. Many Republicans split their votes between Taft and Roosevelt, and the Democratic opponent Woodrow Wilson won the election.

paragraphs: In 1921, Taft was appointed by Warren Harding to be the 10th Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, making Taft the only former President to become Chief Justice. He retired from the job on February 3, 1930 due to bad health.

paragraphs: Taft was the most obese president. He was 5 feet, 11.5 inches tall and his weight was between 325 and 350 pounds toward the end of his presidency. He is thought to have had difficulty getting out of the White House bathtub, so he had a 7-foot (2.1 m) long, 41-inch (1.04 m) wide tub installed. This tub could accommodate four normal-sized people. It was replaced in 1952 with a modern tub of similar size.

paragraphs: Taft died on March 8, 1930 due to heart failure. Three days later, he became the first president to be buried at Arlington National Cemetery.


title: Underwear

paragraphs: Underwear are clothes worn under other clothes, often next to the skin. They keep outer clothes from being made dirty by sweat. They also shape the body and provide support for parts of it, and in cold weather help the wearer to keep warm. Underwear can be used to protect the wearer's modesty, as well as to make them look sexy. Special types of underwear have religious importance. Some items of clothing are made to be worn as underwear, while others such as T-shirts and certain types of shorts can be used both as underwear and as outer clothing. If made of suitable fabric, some types of underwear can serve as nightwear or swimsuits.

paragraphs: Items of underwear commonly worn by women today include brassieres (bras) and panties (also known as knickers), while men wear briefs, trunks, boxer shorts or boxer briefs. Items worn by both women and men include T-shirts, sleeveless shirts, bikini underwear, thongs, T-fronts and G-strings. In countries where the weather is cold, long underwear can be worn to keep warm.

paragraphs: There are a number of different words for underwear: 'underclothes', 'underclothing' and 'undergarments' are more formal words.

paragraphs: In casual situations, underwear may be called 'undies'. In Australia, one may hear underwear being called 'Reg Grundys' or 'Reginalds' (rhyming slang for 'undies'), while in the UK the word 'smalls' is sometimes used. Different types of women's undergarments are known together as 'lingerie' (pronounced "-zhur-ray"). They may also be called 'intimate clothing' or simply 'intimates'.

paragraphs: Words for the top half of female lingerie: 'bras', obviously. Note the use of 'teddy' for a one-piece close-fitting nightwear.

paragraphs: Words for the bottom half of female lingerie: pants (US) versus knickers, drawers or panties, but never pants! (UK). 'Briefs' is another possible. 'French knickers' = knickers with frills, looser-fitting. Note the French "cache-sex" as a prototype 'G-string. Other types of undergarments are spandex shorts common for women who workout. These shorts are used because it supports the behind and the back for good posture.

paragraphs: An "undershirt" is old word for a piece of underwear covering the torso, which has fallen out of usage in the UK, but is still commonly used in North America. "Vests" is by far the most common term in UK. "Underpants" or "pants" cover the part of the body where the sex organs are, but never "drawers". Most common words: "shorts " as in "boxer shorts" for the looser fit. "Y-fronts" for the tight fit (UK), "boxers" or "briefs" used for the same things in Canada and the USA.

paragraphs: These and other words for different types of underwear are set out in the table below. The slang word for a man going without underwear is called "free-balling". The slang word fo a bulge in a man's underwear is called "mooseknuckle"..

paragraphs: Underwear is worn for many reasons. They keep outer clothes from being made dirty by sweat. Men's briefs provide support for the male sex organs, and women's brassieres (bras) do the same thing for their breasts. Some people wear corsets to make their torsos a certain shape. For more support and protection when playing sports, people often put on underwear that fits more tightly for extra support. Men may wear jockstraps and trunks (which are a type of boxer shorts). Women may wear sports bras and pelvic protectors. Sports bras lessens the chance of damage to the ligaments of the chest during vigorous exercises such as jogging.

paragraphs: In countries where the weather is cold, underwear is one more layer of clothing that helps the wearer to keep warm. Underwear can be used to keep the wearer modest – for instance, some women wear camisoles and slips (petticoats) under clothes that are see-through. A camisole is an item of clothing without sleeves that covers the top part of a woman's body, while a slip or petticoat is a kind of skirt that is worn underneath an outer skirt. On the other hand, underwear can also be worn to make a person look more sexy. It is possible to buy underwear made specially to excite another person in a sexual way, such as underwear that can be eaten (it is usually made of small sweets stuck together) and underwear with holes cut into them.

paragraphs: Some items of clothing are designed to be worn as underwear, while others such as T-shirts can be used both as underwear and as outer clothing. Whether underwear can be used as outer clothing depends on a number of things, such as how warm it is indoors and outdoors, what other people in society find acceptable, fashion, and what the law allows. Some types of underwear can be used for sleeping in or as swimsuits, if they are made of suitable fabric.

paragraphs: The table below sets out types and styles of underwear that are commonfly worn.

paragraphs: A number of big clothes designers are well known for their underwear collections. Two of these are Calvin Klein and Dolce & Gabbana. There are also companies that make only underwear, such as 2(x)ist, Agent Provocateur, C-IN2, GapBody, Gilly Hicks, Ginch Gonch, La Senza, Fruit of the Loom, Lord, and Victoria's Secret.

paragraphs: Although most of the time underwear is kept hidden under other clothes, sometimes it is partly exposed for fashion reasons or to make other people feel sexually excited when they see it. A woman may, for instance, allow the top of her bra to peek out from under her collar, or wear a see-through blouse over it. Some men wear T-shirts underneath partly- or fully-unbuttoned shirts.

paragraphs: A common style among young men is to allow their trousers to sag or droop down below their waists. This fashion is called "sagging". When a person allows his trousers to sag, the waistband or a larger part of his underpants can be seen. A woman wearing trousers which expose the upper back portion of her thong underwear is said to show a "whale tail".

paragraphs: Not wearing underpants under one's outer clothing is known in American slang as "freeballing" for men or "freebuffing" for women. The term "going commando" is also used at times, for both sexes. Certain types of clothes, such as cycling shorts and kilts, are meant to be worn or are traditionally worn without underpants.


title: Monica Lewinsky

paragraphs: Monica Samille Lewinsky (born July 23, 1973 in San Francisco) is an American fashion designer, television personality and anti-bullying activist.

paragraphs: In 1998 she became well known for being part of a scandal between her and then President of the United States, Bill Clinton. The scandal involved claims that she had had a sexual relationship with President Clinton. He said they had not. In the end Clinton had to admit that sexual activity of some kind took place between them.

paragraphs: Lewinsky is of Jewish descent. She grew up in a luxury $1.6 million home in Beverly Hills. She is the daughter of Bernard Lewinsky, a medical researcher and photographer.

paragraphs: She worked in the mid 1990s as an intern at the White House and the Pentagon.

paragraphs: Lewinsky experimented with designing handbags and purses for her company, "The Real Monica".

paragraphs: On December 14, 2006, Lewinsky graduated with a Masters of Science degree in Social Psychology from the London School of Economics. Lewinsky's thesis is titled "In Search of the Impartial Juror: An exploration of the third person effect and pre-trial publicity". According to her publicist Barbara Hutson, Lewinsky was interviewing for jobs in the United Kingdom in early 2007.

paragraphs: In 2009, scholar Ken Gormley had communications with Lewinsky as a part of his in-depth study of the Clinton scandals. She said that Clinton had lied under oath when asked detailed and specific questions about his relationship with her.

paragraphs: In the 2010s, Lewinsky became an activist against cyberbullying, and gave a TED talk about it. BuzzFeed called her the Queen of Twitter.


title: William S. Burroughs

paragraphs: William Seward Burroughs (February 5, 1914 – August 2, 1997) was an American writer. He was a contemporary and friend of writers Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac.

paragraphs: Burroughs was a member of the family who owned the Burroughs Cash Register Company. A family trust paid him an income, so he did not have to work a regular job. Sometimes he lived in Mexico and other countries, because he could live there in more luxury than in the United States. One favorite apartment he had in New York City was a windowless basement, nicknamed "Bill's Bunker" by his friends. Many of them were emerging writers and artists.

paragraphs: Burroughs told interesting, colorful stories, but did not think he could be a writer. This changed as he came to terms with tragedy; he had killed his common law wife Joan, in an accident when they were both drunk. Burroughs began to write to work through his grief and feelings of guilt. He also abused drugs, including heroin, and it affected his writing. His first novel, "Naked Lunch", was a surreal work.

paragraphs: Besides writing, Burroughs also recorded spoken word and musical works. One of his works paired him with musician Kurt Cobain.


title: Uganda

paragraphs: The Republic of Uganda is a landlocked country in east Africa. Its capital and biggest city is Kampala.

paragraphs: The currency is the Ugandan Shilling. The official languages of Uganda are English and Swahili. The most common religion is Christianity. The President of Uganda is Yoweri Kaguta Museveni. The country is to the East of Africa. The population of Uganda is 32 million people. The area of Uganda is about 236,040 .

paragraphs: The literacy rate of Uganda is 68%, which mean people in Uganda who are at least 15 years old know how to read and write.

paragraphs: Uganda is among countries thought to be very corrupt by Transparency International. It is rated at 2.4 on a scale from 0 (the most corrupt) to 10 (the most clean). Uganda is one of the poorest nations in the world. 37.7 percent of the people live on less than $1.25 a day.

paragraphs: Uganda became independent from the United Kingdom on 9 October 1962.

paragraphs: Uganda is almost completely in the Nile basin. At the centre of the country is Lake Kyoga. Although landlocked, Uganda has many large lakes. Besides Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga, there are Lake Albert, Lake Edward and the smaller Lake George. Most important cities are in the south, near Lake Victoria, including the capital Kampala and the nearby city of Entebbe.

paragraphs: The climate is mostly equatorial. But it is not the same everywhere because there are some changes in altitude. The difference in altitude changes the climate. Southern Uganda is wetter with rain generally throughout the year. At Entebbe on the northern shore of Lake Victoria, most rain falls from March to June and in the November/December period. Further to the north a dry season slowly emerges. At Gulu about 120 km from the South Sudanese border, November to February is much drier than the rest of the year.

paragraphs: Because there are so many communities, culture in Uganda is diverse. Many Asians (mostly from India) who had to leave during the regime of Amin have returned to Uganda.

paragraphs: Football is the national sport in Uganda. Games with the Ugandan national football team usually attract large crowds of Ugandans. The Ugandan Super League is the top division of Ugandan football. There are 16 clubs from across the country. It was made in 1968. Uganda's most famous footballers are David Obua of Scottish club Hearts and Ibrahim Sekagya, who is the captain of the national team. Uganda's notable past greats of the game include Denis Obua, Majid Musisi, Fimbo Mukasa and Paul Kasule.

paragraphs: Cricket has become more popular. Uganda won the World Cricket League (WCL) Division 3 in 2007.

paragraphs: In 2007, the Uganda national rugby union team were victorious in the 2007 Africa Cup, beating Madagascar in the final.

paragraphs: Hockey is the only Ugandan field sport to date to have qualified for and represented the country at the Olympics. This was at the 1972 Summer Olympics. Uganda won gold medals at the Olympics in athletics with legendary hurdler John Akii-Bua in 1972 and marathon winner at the London 2012 Olympics Stephen Kiprotich.

paragraphs: In July 2011 Kampala, Uganda qualified for the 2011 Little League World Series. Due to visa trouble they were unable to attend the Series. In 2012, Uganda qualified again for the Little League World Series. This time they were able to attend.


title: Mike Judge

paragraphs: Mike Judge (born October 17, 1962) is an American animator, actor, writer, and producer. He is most famous for creating and starring in the animated television series "Beavis and Butt-head" and "King of the Hill". Judge also wrote, directed, and played a small part in the 1999 movie "Office Space", and directed the 2006 movie "Idiocracy", which starred Luke Wilson. He was born in Guayaquil, Ecuador, grew up in New Mexico, and lives in Austin, Texas.


title: Missing Persons

paragraphs: Missing Persons was an American New Wave group. They formed in the 1980s while working with Frank Zappa.


title: Blackpool

paragraphs: Blackpool is a seaside town in Lancashire, in the north west of England. The town is on the coast of the Irish Sea. Blackpool had a population of 142,283 as of the 2001 census.

paragraphs: Blackpool became important for tourism during the 19th century. It is known for its beaches and amusement parks. It is also the home to a famous international ballroom dancing competition.


title: Francisco Franco

paragraphs: Francisco Kalbolin Eustakio Pepe Sech Juan Karlos Franco (Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde Salgado Pardo de Andrade, 20 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish military leader who ruled as dictator of Spain from 1939 until his death. His song was called Cara al Sol.

paragraphs: He was friend of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolinni.

paragraphs: He was a leader of a coup d'état against the Spanish Second Republic in 1936. After this uprising the Spanish Civil War started. Franco was supported by fascists, big businesses, the church, conservative people and Spanish nationalists. This was because the Spanish Republic had a socialist government that wanted to make businesses and the church less powerful. The Republic also set up local parliaments in the regions of Spain. Spanish nationalists thought this was wrong and would make Spain weak. Franco remained neutral during World War II as Hitler did not accept his conditions for Spain to take part in it with the fascist and nazi regimes. He let a group of volunteer soldiers join the German Army to fight the Russians between 1941 and 1943. They were called the "División Azul" (Blue Division)

paragraphs: Franco died in Madrid on November 20, 1975, just after midnight of heart failure. Relatives, such as his daughter Carmen, had asked doctors to remove his life support systems. After Franco's death, Juan Carlos became king.


title: Police officer

paragraphs: A police officer is a serving member of a police force. Police officers arrest criminals, prevent crime, protect and help the public, and keep public order. Officers have legally authorised powers, which in Britain is called a "warrant".

paragraphs: A police officer's job is to protect the public, make sure people obey the law and make people feel safe. Not all police officers wear a uniform and patrol. Some police officers have specialist jobs, such as being a detective, a traffic officer or a police dog handler. In some countries, not all police carry guns, so a police officer could choose to become an armed police officer after a lot of experience.

paragraphs: As a part of their job, police officers have rights that other people do not have. This might include the power to arrest a person who they think has committed a crime, the power to search a person, the power to stop cars and direct traffic, the power to ask for a person's name and address, the power to give out tickets or fines or the power to make a person come to court. Without these powers the police would not be able to gain any sort of control over society.

paragraphs: Being a police officer can be dangerous. Police officers are sometimes killed or hurt by criminals when they are sent to incidents, so that is why the police have to carry the equipment needed to defend themselves. Police officers have the right to carry weapons, such as a gun or a baton in order to stop crime even if the weapon laws are strict and limited to the general public.

paragraphs: In different countries, police officers are given different equipment to deal with the crime that is in their country. Police officers are armed with weapons that they can use to defend themselves or other people that need help. Most police officers carry these things:

paragraphs: Police officers have to patrol and respond to emergencies as quickly as possible. Some police officers will walk on foot patrol, but often police officers will patrol in a police car. This is so that they can get to emergencies faster and carry more equipment. Sometimes officers patrol on bicycles, motorbikes or on horses if they are in a unit that does this.


title: Dutch people

paragraphs: The Dutch are the people who live in the Netherlands, or those that come from the Netherlands. Often the Netherlands is called Holland, but this is only part of the Netherlands. The Dutch culture and ethnicity are also found outside of the Netherlands, with large number of Dutch living in the United States of America, South Africa, Suriname, and Namibia.

paragraphs: Many inventors were Dutch, including Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, said to have invented the microscope and the telescope. Many famous painters have also been Dutch, among them Rembrandt van Rijn, Vincent van Gogh and Johannes Vermeer.

paragraphs: The definition of ethnicity is not always clear. One can count all people living in the Netherlands as Dutch, but many are not. This is because many people who live in The Netherlands were not born there. About 15.5 million people in the Netherlands actually have the Dutch nationality. About 1 million people living in the Netherlands do not have the Dutch nationality. To make things more confusing, people who live in the other parts of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, and the Caribbean Netherlands) also have Dutch nationality. Still, even more people in the Netherlands who were not born there can also be called "Dutch". According to some definitions, also people who were born in the Netherlands, but whose parents were not, cannot be called Dutch. This definition leaves almost 20% of the entire Dutch population to be 'foreign'.

paragraphs: Throughout the world there are about 30 million Dutch people:

paragraphs: During the last 150 years, the Netherlands saw a relatively quick population growth as compared to the rest of Europe. For comparison: The Belgian population grew from 50% more inhabitants in 1850 to a third less in 2000. The population of the Netherlands grew from 3 million in 1850, to 5 million in 1900, to 10 million in 1950, to 16 million in 2000.

paragraphs: The Dutch society in the present can be seen as a very multicultural society. About 20% of the entire Dutch population is not of Dutch origin (these people are called "allochtoon" in Dutch). Even most members of the Dutch Royal family are allochtoon. This comes from the fact that the Netherlands were tolerant of other nationalities and other religions since the beginning of the Dutch Republic (in 1588). In the 17th century, it was not odd, for instance for Muslims to live in Amsterdam. Starting in the 1960s many workers from Turkey and Morocco came to the Netherlands for temporary work. Many of these guest workers ("gastarbeiders") stayed on in the Netherlands. Therefore, The Netherlands have a large Turkish and Moroccan community. Immigration from especially the former colonies Suriname and Indonesia also led to the multi-cultural society of the present. Recent events (like the murder of Theo van Gogh by a radical Muslim) have led to negative views on "allochtonen" by some of the Dutch people.

paragraphs: The Dutch society is also famous for its liberal views. The Netherlands were the first country to legalize same-sex marriage (the marriage of homosexuals). The Netherlands have a strong gay-rights movement. Abortion and euthanasia are also legal in the Netherlands under strict conditions. The Netherlands are also the only country in the world where the use of marijuana is "gedoogd". This means it is not legal to produce but the laws against the use of it are not actively enforced.

paragraphs: The Netherlands are one of the busiest countries in the world. Some 17.2 million registered people live in the small country by July 2018. Most Dutch people live in cities, with a city being a place with at least 25,000 people living there. 8.7 million Dutch live in "agglomerations" (urban areas which are connected to each other, a sort of metropolitan area). That's about 54% of all the Dutch people. About 15% of the Dutch people live in city's which are not in an agglomeration. The other 30% live in villages (places with less than 25,000 people).

paragraphs: The Netherlands are a country where bicycles are used very much. Almost 30% of all travel is done by bicycle in the Netherlands. Bicycles are used so much so that throughout the Netherlands hundreds of bicycle parking lots ("fietsenstallingen") are built. In Amsterdam, there is even a 3-story high bicycle parking lot. Trains are also used very much (unlike in, for instance, the US). The biggest railway company (NS) has 1.1 million travellers per day. That's 7 percent of the entire Dutch population each day.


title: Liquid Paper

paragraphs: Liquid Paper, also called white out and correction fluid, is used to correct mistakes made in writing on typewriters and with ink. It was originally called Mistake Out and was invented by Bette Nesmith Graham in 1951, who was working at a bank in the U.S. state of Texas at time and had trouble when she typed on the typewriter, which was part of her job. She made the product by mixing the required substances with her blender and sold it to friends starting in 1956. She sold the product to the Gillette Corporation for 47.5 million US Dollars in 1979. When she died the following year, her son, Michael Nesmith, a famous musician, formally of The Monkees inherited the fortune.

paragraphs: Now people still use the correction fluid, but more seldom. With more advanced technology, people have computers allowing them to backspace easily, not needing to use it. Also, there is also another recent invention of the correction tape. To use the fluid, you squeeze the bottle, and let the fluid flow out to cover the mistakes. Usually you have to shake the bottle before using it, and after using, you need to wait for it to dry for a few minutes, which is considered quite fast. Then you can write on top of the dried fluid.


title: Doris Day

paragraphs: Doris Mary Ann Kappelhoff (April 3, 1922 – May 13, 2019) was an American singer, actress and animal welfare activist. She is known for her blonde, wholesome image. She was born in Cincinnati, Ohio. All her grandparents were German immigrants.

paragraphs: She sang with the big bands. She started with Les Brown & His Band of Renown. Her first hit song was Sentimental Journey. This song was popular with soldiers returning from World War 2.

paragraphs: She made (or appeared in) many movies from 1948 to 1968. Three of these movies also starred Rock Hudson.

paragraphs: Day was married to Al Jorden from 1941 until they divorced in 1943. She was married to George Weidler from 1946 until they divorced in 1949. She was married to Martin Melcher from 1951 until his death in 1968. She was married to Barry Comden from 1976 until they divorced in 1981. Day had a son, Terry Melcher (1942–2004), with Jorden.

paragraphs: Day died of pneumonia on May 13, 2019 in Carmel Valley, California.


title: Jack the Ripper

paragraphs: Jack the Ripper is the name given to an unidentified serial killer. He was active during the summer and autumn of 1888 in the Whitechapel district of London, England, which was known for its overpopulation and prostitution.

paragraphs: The main victims thought to be killed by the Ripper were five prostitutes:

paragraphs: Newspapers and police in London around this time started to get taunting letters. The letters were signed "Jack the Ripper". Other murders were reported around the same time, but were not thought to be done by Jack the Ripper. He was also known to have sex with his victims before he killed them.

paragraphs: Nobody knows who Jack the Ripper really was. Some think he might have been a doctor or a butcher because of how he killed and cut up the women, much like how a surgeon might perform surgery, or how a butcher might dissect an animal. All the murders happened on weekends, so it could have been someone who did not live in London but visited the city on weekends, or someone who worked during the week and was only free at the weekends.

paragraphs: In September 2014, a research group claimed that it had identified Jack the Ripper as a 23-year old Jewish immigrant from Central Europe named Aaron Kosminski.

paragraphs: The Ripper was famous for the brutality of his murders. He often mutilated his victims, usually killing them by slashing their throats open, almost to the point of decapitation, and stabbing them multiple times, especially in the abdomen. At about 23:00 on 30 August, Mary Ann Nichols was seen walking the Whitechapel Road; at 00:30 she was seen to leave a pub in Brick Lane, Spitalfields. An hour later, she was turned out of 18 Thrawl Street as she was lacking fourpence for a bed, implying by her last words that she would soon earn the money on the street with the help of a new bonnet she had acquired. She was later seen at the corner of Osborn Street and Whitechapel Road, at 02:30, an hour before her death, by Nelly Holland. Nichols claimed she had made enough money to pay for her bed three times over, but had drunk it all away, it was the last time she was seen alive. An hour later, she was found lying dead in front of a gated stable entrance in Buck's Row (since renamed Durward Street), Whitechapel, her throat cut and her abdomen ripped open. Nobody had seen or heard a thing, the killer struck again on 8 September, Annie Chapman was seen talking to a man at about 5:30 a.m. just beyond the backyard of 29 Hanbury Street, Spitalfields. Mrs. Long described him as over forty, and a little taller than Chapman, of dark complexion, and of foreign, "shabby-genteel" appearance. He was wearing a deer-stalker hat and dark overcoat, carpenter Albert Cadosch had entered the neighbouring yard at 27 Hanbury Street seconds later, and heard voices in the yard followed by the sound of something falling against the fence. Chapman's body was discovered at just before 6:00 a.m. on the morning of 8 September 1888 by a resident of number 29, market porter John Davis. She was lying on the ground near a doorway in the back yard. Her throat was cut from left to right, and she had been disembowelled, with her intestines thrown out of her abdomen over each of her shoulders. The morgue examination revealed that part of her uterus was missing. Chapman's protruding tongue and swollen face led Dr Phillips to think that she may have been asphyxiated with the handkerchief around her neck before her throat was cut.

paragraphs: Two weeks later, a letter was sent claimed to have been written by the killer himself. The letter, received on September 27 1888, was signed "Yours Truly, Jack the Ripper." The law enforcement and newspapers referred to him as the Ripper from that point on. The letter read:

paragraphs: The "From Hell" letter was received by George Lusk, leader of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee, on 16 October 1888. The handwriting and style is unlike that of the "Dear Boss" letter and postcard. The letter came with a small box in which Lusk discovered half of a kidney, preserved in "spirits of wine" (ethanol). Eddowes' left kidney had been removed by the killer. The writer claimed that he "fried and ate" the missing kidney half. There is disagreement over the kidney: some contend it belonged to Eddowes, while others argue it was nothing more than a macabre practical joke. The kidney was examined by Dr Thomas Openshaw of the London Hospital, who determined that it was human and from the left side, but (contrary to false newspaper reports) he could not determine its gender or age. Openshaw subsequently also received a letter signed "Jack the Ripper".

paragraphs: Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes were killed in the early morning of Sunday 30 September 1888. Stride's body was discovered at about 1 a.m., in Dutfield's Yard, off Berner Street (now Henriques Street) in Whitechapel. The cause of death was one clear-cut incision which severed the main artery on the left side of the neck. Uncertainty about whether Stride's murder should be attributed to the Ripper, or whether he was interrupted during the attack, stems from the absence of mutilations to the abdomen. Witnesses who said they saw Stride with a man earlier that night gave differing descriptions: some said her companion was fair, others dark; some said he was shabbily dressed, others well-dressed. Eddowes' body was found in Mitre Square, in the City of London, three-quarters of an hour after Stride's. The throat was severed, and the abdomen was ripped open by a long, deep, jagged wound. The left kidney and the major part of the uterus had been removed. A local man, Joseph Lawende, had passed through the square with two friends shortly before the murder, and he described seeing a fair-haired man of shabby appearance with a woman who may have been Eddowes. His companions, however, were unable to confirm his description. Eddowes' and Stride's murders were later called the "double event". Part of Eddowes' bloodied apron was found at the entrance to a tenement in Goulston Street, Whitechapel. Some writing on the wall above the apron piece, which became known as the Goulston Street graffito, seemed to implicate a Jew or Jews, but it was unclear whether the graffito was written by the murderer as he dropped the apron piece, or merely incidental.Police Commissioner Charles Warren feared the graffito might spark antisemitic riots, and ordered it washed away before dawn. The "Saucy Jacky" postcard was postmarked 1 October 1888 and received the same day by the Central News Agency. The handwriting was similar to the "Dear Boss" letter. It mentions that two victims were killed very close to one another: "double event this time", which was thought to refer to the murders of Stride and Eddowes. It has been argued that the letter was mailed before the murders were publicised, making it unlikely that a crank would have such knowledge of the crime, but it was postmarked more than 24 hours after the killings took place, long after details were known by journalists and residents of the area.

paragraphs: Mary Jane Kelly was seen with a man of "Jewish appearance". Kelly and the man headed for her room at 13 Miller's Court, Elizabeth Prater, who was woken by her kitten walking over her neck, and Sarah Lewis both reported hearing a faint cry of "Murder!" at about 4:00 a.m., but did not react because they reported that it was common to hear such cries in the East End. She claimed not to have slept and to have heard people moving in and out of the court throughout the night. She thought she heard someone leaving the residence at about 5:45 a.m. Kelly's gruesomely mutilated body was discovered the next morning lying on the bed at 10:45 a.m. on Friday 9 November 1888. The throat had been severed down to the spine, and the abdomen virtually emptied of its organs. The heart was missing.

paragraphs: After the murder of Mary Jane Kelly, the Ripper murders stopped suddenly. The identity of Jack the Ripper is unknown. Although many historians have different opinions and theories on who Jack the Ripper was, it will probably never be known who he was.


title: Johnny Rivers

paragraphs: Johnny Rivers (born John Ramistella on November 7, 1942 in New York City and grew up in Louisiana) is an American rock and roll musician. He was popular in the 1960s and 1970s for his songs like "Secret Agent Man", "The Poor Side of Town", "Baby I Need Your Lovin", "The Midnight Special", and "Swayin' To The Music (Slow Dancin')".


title: Dr. John

paragraphs: Malcolm John Rebennack (November 20, 1941 – June 6, 2019), better known as Dr. John, was an American musician from New Orleans. He was known for his singles "I Walk on Guilded Splinters", "Right Place, Wrong Time" and "Down in New Orleans".

paragraphs: Rebennack died on June 6, 2019 from a heart attack at the age of 77.

paragraphs: Over his career he won six Grammy Awards. Rebennack was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in March 2011.

paragraphs: In May 2013 Rebennack received an honorary doctorate of Fine Arts from Tulane University. On the university website, a comment was added about that 2013 ceremony: ""The passing of Dr. John reminded me of one of my favorite Tulane moments. It was Dr. John, Allen Toussaint and the Dalai Lama on the same stage for one of our commencements. The Dalai Lama danced to their music. What a treat!""


title: Death metal

paragraphs: Death metal is a style of heavy metal that is a very fast, brutal and energetic. It has very harsh singing. Most death metal has very fast guitar and drum beats. Almost every death metal drummer plays with two bass drums (or a type of pedal that has two beaters on one bass drum), so that they can play the bass drum beats faster. It is a music focused mainly on drums and guitars. The lyrics in death metal sometimes involve topics such as death, war and pain. Some bands choose to write about philosophy or religion. Some bands try to write about things that other death metal bands do not write about such as ancient history. Death metal vocalists usually grunt, growl or scream.

paragraphs: Some artists and groups of this genre are:


title: Suffolk

paragraphs: Suffolk is an East Anglian county in England (UK) The counties around Suffolk are Norfolk to the north, Cambridgeshire to the west and Essex to the south. The North Sea is on the east. The county town is Ipswich and other big towns include Lowestoft and Bury St Edmunds. Felixstowe is one of the largest container ports in Europe.

paragraphs: Suffolk is mostly flat and has very fertile soil which is good for both growing crops and grazing animals on.


title: Etymology

paragraphs: Etymology is the study of the origin and meaning of words and names. It tells us how words have changed over time, and what other languages they came from. For example, the etymology of the word "etymology" is from the Greek words ἔτυμον ("étymon", "true meaning", from "etymos" "true") and λόγος ("lógos", "word" or "study").


title: Mule

paragraphs: A mule is a horse-donkey hybrid (a mix of two different animals). It is the child of a female horse and a male donkey.

paragraphs: They are used mostly for pulling carts and transportation. Although it is extremely unlikely for a mule to become pregnant (less than 300 reported cases worldwide), it is possible. They will tend to be cautious which may lead people to think that they are stubborn. They must know what they are walking on or what they are about to cross. They will be scared of anything that is not normal.

paragraphs: As trucks with four-wheel drive have become common, mules are little used for transport except in places without roads. They are shown in show against horses or other mules. They are used in western riding and English riding, and really good for high-jumping.


title: Dead Sea

paragraphs: The Dead Sea is a lake between the West Bank and Jordan. It is below sea level. It is the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.

paragraphs: The Dead Sea is almost nine times as salty as the ocean. That makes it impossible for most life to exist in it. This is the reason for its name. However, it is not completely dead, because some types of bacteria are able to live in the water.

paragraphs: Because the water is so salty, it weighs more than fresh water. That lets people float in the Dead Sea without any effort. Tourists come from around the world to float in the water.


title: American black bear

paragraphs: The American black bear ("Ursus americanus") is North America's smallest and most common species of bear. Black bears are omnivores (eating both meat and plants). Black bears usually live in forested areas, but do leave forests in search of food. Sometimes they become attracted to human activity due to a lack of food. The American black bear is listed by the IUCN as Least Concern, because the species has a large global population estimated to be twice that of all other bear species combined. In the past century, only 37 people have been killed by these animals.

paragraphs: American black bears usually hibernate during winter. During this time, the black bear's metabolism and heart rate both decrease in relation to one another. In fact, during hibernation, an American black bear's heart can stop for twenty seconds. The body temperature of black bears also decreases to 31 °C (88 °F) during hibernation. When hibernation is over, the black bear's body temperature returns to normal. They are omnivores. Black bears eat fish, rodents, rabbits, carrion, fruit, nuts, grasses, deer and moose calves.


title: Fur

paragraphs: Fur is the hair of mammals. Different species may have quite different styles of hair, making them more or less suitable to the fur trade, but many are as follows:

paragraphs: Fur usually consists of two main layers:

paragraphs: Many large mammals have little hair, because their body mass radiates proportionately less heat (elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus). When elephants lived in arctic conditions they did have fur (woolly mammoths).

paragraphs: Marine mammals usually have little or no fur: the fur would become waterlogged. They have a layer of fat (blubber) underneath their skin. A special case is the naked mole-rat, whose hairlessness is probably an adaptation to their underground life-style.


title: Jackson Pollock

paragraphs: Jackson Pollock (January 28, 1912 – August 11, 1956) was an American painter. He became famous for painting in the abstract expressionist style. Pollock's most famous paintings were made by dripping and splashing paint on a large canvas. His nickname was Jack the Dripper. Because of the method, this style is often called "action painting". Pollock was helped by his wife, artist Lee Krasner, and her style was very new at the time. His real name is Paul.Jackson is his middle name.

paragraphs: Pollock was bitter, and had serious drinking problems with alcohol. His paintings are in museums all over the world, and his work is rated very high. Pollock has been the subject of many movies because of his interesting life. The most famous was a short documentary movie directed by Hans Namuth in 1951, and the 2000 movie about his life called "Pollock", made by and starring actor Ed Harris. Pollock was born in Cody, Wyoming. In 1956, he was killed in a car crash in Springs, New York at the age of 44 years old.

paragraphs: Pollock was introduced to the use of liquid paint in 1936 at an experimental workshop operated in New York City by the Mexican muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros. He later used paint pouring as one of several techniques on canvases of the early 1940s, such as "Male and Female" and "Composition with Pouring I." After his move to Springs, New York, he began painting with his canvases laid out on the studio floor, and he developed what was later called his drip technique.

paragraphs: Pollock described this use of household paints, instead of artist’s paints, as "a natural growth out of a need". He used hardened brushes, sticks, and even basting syringes as paint applicators. With this technique, Pollock was able to achieve a more immediate means of creating art, the paint now literally flowing from his chosen tool onto the canvas. By defying the convention of painting on an upright surface, he added a new dimension, literally, by being able to view and apply paint to his canvases from all directions.

paragraphs: Later, Pollock turned to synthetic resin-based paints called alkyd enamels, which, at that time, was a novel medium. In 1956, "Time" magazine called Pollock "Jack the Dripper" as a result of his unique painting style.

paragraphs: Influences on his dripping technique include the Mexican muralists and Surrealist automatism. Pollock denied "the accident"; he usually had an idea of how he wanted a particular piece to appear. His technique combined the movement of his body, over which he had control, the viscous flow of paint, the force of gravity, and the absorption of paint into the canvas. It was a mixture of controllable and uncontrollable factors. Flinging, dripping, pouring, and spattering, he would move energetically around the canvas, almost as if in a dance, and would not stop until he saw what he wanted to see.

paragraphs: Pollock's "No. 5, 1948" stands at the fifth highest price ever for a work of art. It was privately sold by Sotheby's for (price adjusted) US$163.8 million dollars. it was the most famous painting in whole entire world - which is phenomenal well done Paul (Jackson Pollock).


title: Otto Struve

paragraphs: Otto Struve (August 12 1897 – April 6 1963) was a Russian astronomer. He was the grandson of Otto Wilhelm von Struve and the great-grandson of Friedrich Wilhelm von Struve.

paragraphs: Struve's education at the University of Kharkov was interrupted by World War I and the Russian Civil War, which left him a refugee in Turkey. He went to the United States in 1921, obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago and eventually became head of the astronomy department there. In 1932, he was made joint director of the University's Yerkes Observatory and McDonald Observatory (which he founded and where a telescope is named after him). Struve may be regarded as the father of modern SETI. He was one of the few eminent astronomers in the pre-Space Age era to publicly express a belief that extraterrestrial intelligence was abundant.


title: Tamerlane

paragraphs: Timur or Tamerlane (8 April 1336 – 18 February 1405) was a Turco-Mongol conqueror in the 14th century who is regarded as one of history's greatest military leaders and strategists. He founded the Timurid Empire in 1370. The empire was large and included Transoxiana, parts of Turkestan, Afghanistan, Persia, Syria, Qurdistan, Baghdad, Georgia and Asia Minor. He successfully conquered southern Russia and parts of India. He invaded Delhi in 1398. He called himself "Sword of Islam". He is also known to have invented the Tamerlane Chess.

paragraphs: Not related to Genghis Khan but claiming to be his successor, he caused the death of thousands of people. Timur is considered the last of the great nomadic conquerors of the Eurasian Steppe. His empire led to the Gunpowder Empires in the 1500s and 1600s, most notably the Mughal Empire of India.

paragraphs: His real name is "Tīmūr bin Taraghay Barlas". He is also known by these names: Temur, Taimur, Timur Lenk, Timur-i Leng, Temur-e Lang, Amir Timur, Aqsaq Timur, and Tamburlaine.

paragraphs: He began his military career after conquering Transoxania (now Uzbekistan) through various political betrayals and military campaigns. In allegiance with other rulers in the area, he spent the next ten years fighting to gain territory, supporting the Khan empire against the Russians and defeating many large, imposing armies.

paragraphs: But this was only the beginning. In 1383, Tamerlane began conquering Persia, challenging several rival dynasties in an effort to preserve his empire and expand his territory.

paragraphs: After securing the majority of eastern Persia and defeating a major Mongol king, Tokhtamysh, Tamerlane and his army occupied Moscow for a year. During his time of absence from Persia, major revolts broke out. So he repressed them. Knowing his home territory of Samarkand was being handled by his military forces, Tamerlane then attacked India. He crossed the Indus River in 1398 and marched his army into Delhi where he reduced much of the city, an event that would cause a great setback for the region. As a result of this conquest, he left the territory with an immense quantity of spoil, using 90 captured elephants to carry treasure and stones from quarries to erect a mosque in his homeland.

paragraphs: In 1399, Tamerlane organized a new military expedition to attack the sultan of Egypt for territory infringement and marching on Syria, he stormed and sacked the city of Aleppo. In 1401, his army occupied the city of Damascus. He then moved on to storm Baghdad that same year and massacred 20,000 of its citizens, destroying all of its buildings and significant monuments in the process.

paragraphs: Timur and his army of 200,000 soldiers traveled through deep snow and frozen rivers toward China, eventually stopping in what is now Kazakhstan for a rest. Timur caught a cold and died on the journey. The trip to China stopped, and his body was taken home to Samarkand where it was buried beneath the dome of the Gur Amir mausoleum in a steel coffin under a slab of black jade six feet long. On the stone was inscribed, "“This is the resting place of the illustrious and merciful monarch, the most great sultan, the most mighty warrior, Lord Timur, Conqueror of the World.”"


title: Augustus

paragraphs: Augustus (Latin: "Imperator Caesar Dīvī Fīlius Augustus"; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD) was the first Roman Emperor, ruling from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He led Rome in its transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.

paragraphs: Octavian, as he was originally called, was the adopted son of the dictator of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar. Octavian came into power in the Second Triumvirate. This was three men ruling over the Roman Republic: Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavian.

paragraphs: All three were loyal to Julius Caesar, the assassinated dictator, killed in 44 BC. Following his death a civil war broke out across Rome, between those loyal to Caesar, and the conspirators, led by two of Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius.

paragraphs: At first, Octavian was the junior partner in the triumvirate. Lepidus was more experienced in government, and Mark Antony was a fine military leader. The triumvirate defeated Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi, 42 BC, largely due to Antony's leadership. Then they split the leadership of the Republic three ways. Antony took the east, Lepidus took Spain and part of North Africa, and Octavian took Italy.

paragraphs: Antony followed in Caesar's footsteps by going to Egypt and becoming Cleopatra's lover. They had three children together. His absence from Rome allowed the intelligent Octavian to build up support.

paragraphs: The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC, and disagreement turned to civil war in 31 BC. Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium and then at Alexandria. He committed suicide, as did his lover, Cleopatra VII of Egypt, in 30 BC. Lepidus was sidelined, blamed for a revolt in Sicily, and removed from government. He died peacefully in exile in Circeii in Italy in the year 13 BC.

paragraphs: After winning the power struggle, Octavian was voted as Emperor by the Roman Senate in 31 BC. He took the name "Augustus" (which meant 'exalted'). He ruled until AD 14, when his stepson and son-in-law Tiberius became Emperor in his place.

paragraphs: During his reign, some of those who were against his government were murdered (especially those senators who wanted to keep the Roman Republic). He promised to make Rome a Republic again, but instead proclaimed himself High Priest ("Pontifex Maximus"). Many temples in the provinces set up statues of him as one of their gods. The name of the month "August" in English (and most other European languages) comes from him.

paragraphs: His main accomplishment was the creation of the Roman Empire, a political structure that lasted for nearly five centuries more. He first recruited and set up the Praetorian Guard.

paragraphs: Historians often use the Res Gestae Divi Augusti as a source for Augustus. It was written by him as an inscription on his tomb which recorded all his achievements.

paragraphs: The historian Tacitus is often used by historians. He gives an anti-Augustan perspective, whereas many other sources and histories were written to flatter Augustus (propaganda). Some examples of writers like these are Velleius Paterculus, Virgil, Ovid. The most famous work of Augustan propaganda is the Virgil's Aeneid

paragraphs: Cassius Dio presents a quite impartial account of Augustus as emperor: he was writing in the reign of a later emperor.


title: Camel

paragraphs: Camels are a mammal of the Camelidae family. Camels form the genus Camelus. There are three living species of camels. Best-known are the dromedary (one hump) and bactrian (two humps) camels.

paragraphs: The camelids, as a family, include the "New World" camelids: the llama, the alpaca, the guanaco, and the vicuña.

paragraphs: The earliest known camel, called "Protylopus", lived in North America 40 to 50 million years ago, during the Eocene. It was about the size of a rabbit and lived in the open woodlands of what is now South Dakota.

paragraphs: Camels live in deserts, where it is hot and dry. Camels have adapted and found ways to help them survive in deserts. They have a thick coat of hair that protects them from the heat in the day, and keeps them warm at night. Their large feet spreads their weight on the sand when they are walking. When there is food and water, a camel can eat and drink large amounts of it and store it as fat in the hump. Then, when there is no food or water, the camel uses the fat for energy, and the hump becomes small and soft. A camel’s waste contains very little water. Even the water from the camel’s breath flows back into its mouth. The camels have bushy eyebrows that don't let the sand go in their eyes in a sandstorm. It has a long slender neck in order to reach high leaves such as palm trees, and rubbery patches on the belly and knees to protect the skin when kneeling and sitting on the hot sand. These form after five years of age.

paragraphs: A camel has a naturally adapted temperature regulation - it can change its bodily temperature by six degrees Celsius either way.

paragraphs: It has two sets of eyelashes, closing muscles in the nasal passages with slited nostrils, hairy ears and tough, leathery skin to protect the camels skin in vital emergencies such as a sandstorm. It has thick rubbery lips to eat dry, prickly plants and a large, haired tail to swat pests such as mosquitos and flies.

paragraphs: Camels live in groups, with one male, many females, and their young calves or calf. They are animals that use their hooves.

paragraphs: An unborn camel gestates about 9 to 11 months. There is usually one calf per birth. A camel calf can run only a few hours after it is born. Calves are weaned when they are about 1 year old.

paragraphs: In the desert, people feed camels with grass, grains, wheat and oats. When camels are travelling in the desert, food is often very hard to find. So the animal might have to live on dried leaves, seeds, and thorny twigs (without hurting their mouths). If there is not any regular food, camels will eat anything:, leather, even their owner's tent.

paragraphs: Camels are ruminants but camels do not chew their food very well before swallowing. The first stomach stores the food that is not completely chewed. Later, this food (or cud) returns to the camel's mouth, and the camel chews it again. Then the camel swallows the cud and it goes to the other parts of the stomach to be completely digested.

paragraphs: Camels have been domesticated by humans for about 5000 years. They are used for riding and to carry things, and for meat, milk and wool.

paragraphs: As domesticated animals they are used in Africa, Asia, and since the 19th century also in Australia. About 900-1000 wild Bactrian Camels still live in China, Tibetan Plateau and Mongolia. There are no wild dromedaries anymore, but there are escaped domestic dromedaries in Australia. Today there are about 700,000 dromedaries living wild in the outback in Australia.


title: 15th century

paragraphs: The 15th century is the century from 1401 to 1500.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 15th century are in "italics".


title: 14th century

paragraphs: The 14th century is the century from 1301 to 1400.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 14th century are in "italics".


title: 13th century

paragraphs: The 13th century is the century from 1201 to 1300.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 13th century are in "italics".


title: 12th century

paragraphs: The 12th century is the century from 1101 to 1200.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 12th century are in "italics".


title: Mammalogy

paragraphs: Mammalogy is the study of the mammals. Mammalogy has also been known as "mastology," "theriology," and "therology."

paragraphs: Mammals are a group of vertebrate animals. There are about 4,200 different species of animals which are considered mammals. The major branches to study in the mammalogy career include:

paragraphs: The approximate salary of a mammalogist varies from $20,000 to $60,000 a year, depending on their experience. Mammalogists are typically involved in activities such as conducting research, managing personnel, and writing proposals.


title: Antibiotics

paragraphs: An antibiotic (or antibacterial) is a chemical compound that kills bacteria or slows their growth. They are used as medicine to treat and cure diseases caused by bacteria. The first antibiotic discovered was Penicillin, a natural antibiotic produced by a fungus. Production of antibiotics first began in 1939, and in the modern day, they are made by chemical synthesis. Antibiotics can not be used to treat viruses.

paragraphs: Today, people worry that bacteria will not be affected by antibiotics. Bacteria do evolve, and already many strains of bacteria resist regular antibiotics. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some may have mutations which make them slightly less susceptible. These bacteria then multiply and make a large colony which is less affected by the antibiotic.

paragraphs: Part of this problem is caused by the over-use and misuse of antibiotics. If someone is sick with a virus, antibiotics will not affect the virus. Some doctors will still prescribe an antibiotic so the patient feels as though they are being treated for their illness.

paragraphs: The other problem is that many people do not use antibiotics correctly. People often stop taking the medicine when they start feeling better. But antibiotics don't kill all of the bad bacteria at once. Bacteria which are more resistant do not die right away. When someone stops taking the antibiotic too quickly, these resistant bacteria can reproduce and survive. Then the antibiotic does not work so well because the bacteria are less affected by it.

paragraphs: Antibiotics can be the most effective way of treating bacterial infections. A clue to this might been found in Pasteur's work. He had a culture of anthrax germs that were left exposed to air. They developed colonies of many fungi, but the anthrax bacilli disappeared. Medical science was not, at the time, ready to see the implication of this.

paragraphs: It was 1928 that the study of antibiotics started,a small chance beginning. Alexander Fleming, a London bacteriologist, was culturing "staphylococcus". In one Petri dish a mould appeared and spread On the nutrient gelatin of the dish each patch of mould was surrounded by clear ring, free of bacteria. Moreover, the extracted substance was able to clear up infected wounds.

paragraphs: The term "antibiotic" was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This definition cut out substances which kill bacteria, but are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides.

paragraphs: With advances in medicinal chemistry, most of today's antibacterials chemically are modifications of various natural compounds.

paragraphs: Certain bacteria are only affected by specific types of antibiotics. Antibiotics fight infection caused by bacteria.Patients might need different types or different amounts of antibiotics depending on what bacteria is causing their health problems. Because of this, antibiotics should always be used under the supervision of a medical doctor (or other certified medical practitioner). The doctor can also watch for side effects and change the patient's treatment when necessary. Antibiotics are very useful when your body is infected by a bacteria.

paragraphs: Antibiotics don't kill virus, so it is useless against a viral infection. A doctor must determine if a patient's infection is of viral or bacterial origin before taking antibiotics, this is another reason why a medical doctor should prescribe antibiotics instead of relying on self-medication.

paragraphs: Teixobactin is the first new antibiotic discovered in forty years. It is active against gram-positive bacteria, including "Staphylococcus aureus". It appears to be one of a new class of antibiotics.


title: Sexism

paragraphs: Sexism is generally defined as discrimination based on the gender of a person—looking down on people because they are male or female. Sexism may also include stereotyped roles for men and women. International laws, such as Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women or Yogyakarta Principles demand to abolish any kind of sexism. Sexism could affect a person attending a party, getting a job, joining a game, trying to get a promotion, being selected and so on.

paragraphs: The women's rights and men's rights movements claim to fight sexism.

paragraphs: Sexism is often associated with discrimination against women due to the history of sexism in the western world.

paragraphs: Hatred of women is called misogyny. Hatred of men is called misandry. Reverse sexism is misandristically being biased because you think you're disadvantaged.

paragraphs: Pauline M. Leet made the word "sexism" on November 18, 1965.

paragraphs: World literacy is lower for females than for males. On 9 October 2012 the Pakistani schoolgirl Malala Yousafzai was shot in the head on her schoolbus by Taliban gunmen because she did activism for girls' rights to education.


title: Go

paragraphs: Go is a board game for two players. It is called "Wei-k'i" (or Wei-chi) in Chinese, "Patok" or "Baduk" in Korean and "I-go" in Japanese.

paragraphs: Go is played on a board with black and white game pieces called stones. Players take turns placing a stone of their color on intersections of a 19x19 square grid. The player with the black stones goes first. A normal Go board has 19 rows and columns of lines. Some players use 9x9 or 13x13 boards too, such as new players, because smaller boards usually mean shorter, less complex games.

paragraphs: A game of Go ends when both players pass their turns without playing. This usually happens when adding another stone to the board doesn't change the score. The winner is the player whose stones surround more empty intersections (points), along with captured stones and "komi" (extra points added to the score of the player using the white stones because the player with black stones has the advantage of going first). A game can also end when a player gives up and resigns if they don't think they can win.

paragraphs: In a game against a skilled player, a less skilled player may be given a "handicap" of extra stones on the board at the start of the game as well as playing black. These rules help make the game and final score fair for both players.

paragraphs: Besides the order of play (Black plays first, then White plays, then Black plays, and so on) and handicap or scoring rules, there are only two rules in Go:

paragraphs: Some Go teachers tell their students that the stones represent armies. If the armies don't have empty spaces to move into, they can't survive against the enemy armies. Therefore, stones of one color that are completely surrounded by another color are captured and removed from the board. This is the only time that a stone can be moved after a player puts it on the board. Stones share liberties, so that a group of stones are all "alive" as long as one stone is next to an empty intersection. Stones with no liberties (no access to empty space) are captured and removed from the board. At the end of the game, the prisoners are usually deducted from the score of the player who lost them.

paragraphs: The second rule is called "Ko" (eternity). You can place stones on any clear intersection you want, as long it isn't taken off right after, or the board looks the same all over as it did before. This is to stop the game from going back and forth capturing the same stones forever. Players must make a move somewhere else on the board during a "ko fight" before they can re-capture a stone in the same position.

paragraphs: Its original Chinese name is "" (= wei qi or wei chi). It is also popular in Japan, and its common name "Go" comes from Japanese. In Korea the game is called "baduk". In these three countries the game is an important part of the culture, like chess is in many western countries.

paragraphs: Go and chess are both "board games" and "strategy games", though both may be used as gambling games as well. They both have no luck or secret information, unlike some other classic games like backgammon (dice are rolled) or poker and other card games which also have secret information.

paragraphs: There are many places to play Go on the Internet, as well as local clubs and national organizations in many countries around the world. A 2016 survey by the International Go Federation (IGF) found that there are over 20 million players around the world. Most players live in East Asia.

paragraphs: Go was invented in China but the specific time is not known. Some say it was invented more than 2,500 years ago and is the oldest board game still played today. The historian of board games, H.J.R. Murray, said:


title: Gulf War

paragraphs: The Persian Gulf War, sometimes just called the Gulf War, was a conflict between Iraq and 34 other countries, led by the United States. It started with the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on August 2, 1990. Iraq had long claimed Kuwait as part of its territory. The war ended the following spring when Iraq's armies were defeated. There were two military operations.

paragraphs: Operation Desert Shield brought troops to protect Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states that Iraq had not attacked.

paragraphs: Operation Desert Storm attacked Iraq's forces both in Kuwait and in Iraq. It started on 17 January, 1991 with an air strike. Ground operations started 24 February. Iraqi forces set fire to oil wells to slow the attack.The war ended on 28 February, 1991 with a ceasefire.

paragraphs: The long Iran–Iraq War had ended in August 1988. Iraq owed a great amount of money to Saudi Arabia and had difficulty paying it back. Saddam Hussein declared the neighboring country of Kuwait to be siphoning Iraqi crude oil from across the border, and on August 2nd, 1990 the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait started. On January 17, 1991 the US began the Persian Gulf War with a massive US led air offensive known as Operation Desert Storm.

paragraphs: The attacks were assisted by newly developed weapons, including stealth aircraft, cruise missiles and smart bombs.

paragraphs: After 42 days of fighting U.S. President Bush declared a ceasefire on February 28. By that time most Iraqi forces in Kuwait had either surrendered or fled.

paragraphs: Operation Desert storm included a bombing campaign that targeted Iraqi aircraft, anti-aircraft systems, oil refineries, weapon factories, bridges, and roads. The war was a lopsided victory for coalition forces. President George Bush decided not to depose Saddam Houssein.

paragraphs: Political issues after Operation Desert Storm lead to the second Persian Gulf War in 2003.


title: Point of view

paragraphs: A point of view, viewpoint or POV, is the following:


title: Sicily

paragraphs: Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean. Along with some smaller islands it is an autonomous region of Italy. The capital city of Sicily is Palermo. The population was about 5,087,000 (over 5 million) in 2004. Sicily is the biggest region in the nation of Italy.

paragraphs: Phoenician and Greek people colonized the island in the 8th Century BC and sometimes fought wars there. Carthage controlled most of the island until ancient Rome conquered it. In later centuries Saracens fought against the Byzantine Greeks, and Normans ruled it for a few centuries. Garibaldi in the Risorgimento conquered it and brought it into the Kingdom of Italy.


title: Donkey

paragraphs: A donkey or ass ("Equus africanus asinus") is a mammal of the Equidae family.

paragraphs: The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African wild ass, "E. africanus". The donkey has been used as a working animal for at least 5000 years. There are a number of other wild asses in different parts of the world.

paragraphs: The name 'donkey' is correct for the domesticated animal. It is the tame animal that people use for transportation and other work, such as pulling a carriage or plowing a field.

paragraphs: Donkeys can have hybrid children with a common horse. The child of a female horse and a male donkey is called a "mule". The child of a female donkey and a male horse is called a "hinny". Mules are more common, and have been used for transportation.

paragraphs: Donkeys, zebras and mules all look different from the common horses. One difference is the ears. Donkeys ears are much longer than a horse's. The necks are straighter and the croup and rump are also a different shape. The back is straighter.

paragraphs: The mane and tail of the donkey are rough. The mane is still and upright, almost always standing up, and the tail is more like a cow's, most of it covered with short body hair. Because their mane sometimes fly away, many donkeys wear their manes clipped short or shaved close to the neck.

paragraphs: Hoof shapes are different as well, donkey hooves are smaller and rounder, with more upright pasterns. The legs should have good bone, but lots of donkeys have long thin legs with tiny feet. Larger donkeys may appear opposite, with big, heavy legs and large round feet. Good legs and feet are very important for mules that are trying to find a mate. This is because, for breeding, a good foot is more liked than a large body on small legs and feet.

paragraphs: The donkey's voice is a very raspy kind, and it makes a loud "Ee - Aww" noise, known as braying (hence Eeyore in the "Winnie-the-Pooh" books). Although most people think donkeys are a gray color, sometimes they can have stripes, dark ear marks, as well as the "light points". This means that it has a white muzzle and white rings around its eyes, and a white belly and inner leg.

paragraphs: Colors of the donkey may be from gray to brown. Or sometimes they can be black, both red and gray, creamy white, or a unique spotted pattern. Donkeys come in lots of different sizes. Some, like the rare French donkey, has huge heads and ears, and very thick, shaggy curled black coat.

paragraphs: Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on breed and management. The height at the withers ranges from 7.3 to 15.3 hands (31 to 63 inches, 79 to 160 cm), and the weight from 80 to 480 kg (180 to 1,060 lb). Working donkeys in the poorest countries have a life expectancy of 12 to 15 years;

paragraphs: Good grass hay and pasture is usually what donkeys enjoy to eat. If the hay or grass is grained, the protein is best to be lower than 12%. However, if a donkey is overfed, it will have a "roll" on the neck. A roll is when fat bunches up and stays in a part of a donkey's body, and they usually happen on its neck or its hip. If they develop on the donkey, it will usually stay for its whole life. If the neck roll of fat gets too heavy, it will fall or "break over" to one side and never recover its balance again. This is why donkeys should not be fed too much. Many people do not like to work with donkeys. They think that donkeys are too stubborn and will kick them. However, a donkey that is nicely trained can be as easily managed as other horses.


title: Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince

paragraphs: Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was written by J. K. Rowling and published on 16 July 2005. The book is the sixth Harry Potter book.

paragraphs: In the sixth book Harry begins his sixth year at the magical school Hogwarts with his best friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. During the year he has help in his worst class by the mysterious Half-Blood Prince (also known as Severus snape), he has his first romance and learns several very important facts about his enemy, Voldemort.

paragraphs: The film, based on the book, was to be released on 21 November 2008, but on 14 August 2008, it was announced that the film would be pushed back to 17 July 2009. On 8 January 2009, the film was given a PG rating by the MPPA. The previous two installments, "Goblet of Fire" and "Order of the Phoenix," were rated PG-13.

paragraphs: The book starts at Severus Snape's house. Narcissa Malfoy is very unhappy that Voldemort has made her son, Draco, put on a mission. Voldemort is a very bad man who does not like half-blood or Muggle (non-magical) wizards and witches. He wants to kill them. Bellatrix, Narcissa's sister, and Narcissa go to Snape's house. There, Snape agrees and says he will help Malfoy complete whatever his mission is.

paragraphs: Headmaster Albus Dumbledore comes by Harry Potter's place to ask him to come with him. Harry says okay. They go to Horace Slughorn's house. Slughorn was the former professor of Potions over at the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. He does not want to come back, but when Dumbledore shows Harry, he says okay. On the train to Hogwarts, Slughorn gets together his club again. Slughorn likes to take a back seat and has a lot of influence, or power. Harry is one of the most famous wizards ever and Slughorn wants to be his friend. When school starts, the first thing Slughorn does is recreate his old Slug Club, filled with people who have power or a good name.

paragraphs: The Half-Blood Prince is of great mystery to Harry. Harry finds a book with the Prince's name on it and finds that it has many helpful tips for making potions. He follows the tips and is seen as very smart to Professor Slughorn. His friend Hermione is mad that Harry is getting credit for information that he does not really know. The old professor, Professor Snape, is now teaching Defense of the Dark Arts.

paragraphs: Dumbledore gives private lessons to Harry. They usually involve looking into a Pensieve, which holds old memories. In flashback, Harry learns that Voldemort was the product of an unhappy witch and a Muggle father that never loved him. The witch was named Merope and she had an older brother and father that were very bad to her. They made her work and crushed her spirit. A Ministry of Magic wizard came and arrested the father and brother. Merope left the house and gave a love potion to a young man she liked named Tom Riddle.

paragraphs: After she was pregnant with the baby, she stopped giving him the potion and he left her. Soon afterwards, she goes to an orphanage and gives birth to Voldemort, naming him Tom Marvolo Riddle, and dies shortly afterwards. Voldemort is a very bad kid. He steals items from the other kids and uses magic against them. Dumbledore comes one night to tell him that he has magic and invites him to attend Hogwarts.

paragraphs: One final memory shows Voldemort trying to apply for a job at Hogwarts. Dumbledore, who was the Transfiguration teacher at the time, was just made Headmaster. Voldemort wanted to be the new Defense Against the Dark Arts teacher. Dumbledore refused to make him a teacher. This angered Voldemort. Since then, no professor has held the Defense Against the Dark Arts job for more than a year and Dumbledore thinks it is because of this meeting.

paragraphs: Dumbledore tells Harry that Voldemort has six "Horcruxes," or pieces of his soul. While Voldemort has these Horcruxes, nobody can kill him. A couple of them have been destroyed. In Harry's second year, he stabbed Riddle's diary with a fang, destroying one. Before Harry's sixth year started, Dumbledore visited the old Marvolo home and found a ring and destroyed it but lost his hand as a result.

paragraphs: One night, Dumbledore and Harry go out to a cave area. Dumbledore thinks there is another Horcrux there. After getting there, they find a goblet. Dumbledore drinks the entire potion, which makes him dizzy. They find the locket and go back to Hogwarts, where they find that the Death Eaters and Malfoy have attacked. They take broomsticks and land at the top of one of the towers. Malfoy bursts where Harry and Dumbledore are. Harry is hiding under an invisibility cloak. Soon, other Death Eaters come up, but Malfoy cannot kill Dumbledore as Voldemort ordered him to do. Snape comes up and kills Dumbledore.

paragraphs: The Death Eaters all escape afterwards. Harry tries to get Snape, but Snape is too fast. When Harry tries to use some curses he found in the Half-Blood Prince's book, Snape fights back and then declares that he is the Half-Blood Prince. Later, Hermione says this is true, having found a newspaper article about a girl named Eileen Prince (a witch) marrying a man named Tobias Snape (a Muggle), making Snape a half-blood wizard.

paragraphs: Hogwarts holds a funeral for Dumbledore. Harry opens the locket, only to find that someone named R.A.B was there earlier and found and destroyed the Horcrux. He also says he will not be coming back to Hogwarts next year.


title: Persian language

paragraphs: Persian, also called Farsi, is a Western Iranian language. It is the official language of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It is also spoken by many people in Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and other neighbouring countries and by immigrants from Central Asia in Russia. Persian was also taught as a second language in schools in Pakistan until 2006. In the past, many of those places were parts of the Persian Empire.

paragraphs: Persian has many dialects and is officially called Farsi in Iran, Dari and Farsi in Afghanistan and Tajiki in Tajikistan. The literary language of each country is a little different, but people from each country can understand one another when they have a conversation. It has words from French in Iran and many from Russian Tajikstan.

paragraphs: The Persian alphabet has the following letters:

paragraphs: The Persian alphabet used in Iran and Afghanistan is similar to the Arabic alphabet, but since Persian in a different family from Arabic, their vocabulary and grammar are very different. Since the 1930s, in the countries that were in the Soviet Union, like Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, Persian has been written in the Cyrillic alphabet, like Russian. All Persian-speakers used to use the Arabic alphabet.

paragraphs: Persian is a very old language, and linguists use names for three different versions of Persian that were used in three different times. Old Persian was spoken in the first Persian Empire, under the Achaemenid kings, including Cyrus and Darius the Great. The empire existed from the 6th century BC to the conquest of Alexander the Great. The second Persian empire was ruled by the Sassanian kings from the 2nd century AD until the Muslim conquest of Iran by the Arabs in the 7th century and spoke Middle Persian, or Pahlavi.

paragraphs: New or Modern Persian is spoken today and was first written down in the 9th century, during the Samanid Empire, which was the first Muslim Persian kingdom and was based in Central Asia. The earliest writers of New Persian included poets like Rudaki, and Ferdowsi, who wrote an epic, a very long poem, called the "Shahname", translated as the "Book of Kings" in English. It has myths and historical stories from before the Arabs conquered Persia.

paragraphs: Many other famous writers in Persian language were poets too, a few being Saadi, Hafez, Rumi. The Persian language has been very important one for literature. After Arabic, it was the second most common written language in Muslim countries, especially in the East.


title: Copenhagen

paragraphs: Copenhagen is the capital city of Denmark. It is also the largest city in Denmark. In 2014, 1,246,611 people lived in the urban area. Copenhagen is on the island of Zealand and the smaller island named Amager.

paragraphs: Founded as a Viking fishing village. Copenhagen was built in the 12th century A.D. and got City rights in 1254. A few years later, it was destroyed nearly completely. In 1443, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark. In 1801, there were more than 100,000 inhabitants in Copenhagen for the first time. In the 1960s, more than 700,000 people lived in Copenhagen Municipality, and today there are 528,000 inhabitants in the municipality. Near the city centre there is the famous Freetown Christiania.


title: Nepali language

paragraphs: The Nepali language is the official language of Nepal. Besides Nepal it is spoken in India, Bhutan and parts of Burma. In the Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal also it is an official language. This language is also known as Gorkhali Language or Khaskura. It is believed to have originated from the ancient Sanskrit language from which it takes many words. It is written in Devanagari style of writing which is similar to Hindi. It is spoken throughout Nepal and is the mother tongue of more than half of the population. It is also used by the Government of Nepal for all official purposes. In Nepal it is compulsory to study Nepali language as a subject until Grade 10 (High School).


title: Kathmandu

paragraphs: Kathmandu is the capital city of Nepal. It is the largest city of Nepal. The population of the city is about 1.003 million. It has many Buddhist and Hindu temples and palaces.

paragraphs: Kathmandu has a humid subtropical climate ("Cwa" in the Köppen climate classification).

paragraphs: Kathmandu is home to several international and regional organizations.

paragraphs: International Buddhist Meditation Center operates in Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal.


title: 11th century

paragraphs: The 11th century is the century from 1001 to 1100.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 11th century are in "italics".


title: 10th century

paragraphs: The 10th century is the century from 901 to 1000.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 10th century are in "italics".


title: 9th century

paragraphs: The 9th century is the century from 801 to 900.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 9th century are in "italics".


title: 8th century

paragraphs: The 8th century is the century from 701 to 800.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 8th century are in "italics".


title: 7th century

paragraphs: The 7th century is the century from 601 to 700.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 7th century are in "italics".


title: 6th century

paragraphs: The 6th century is the century from 501 to 600.

paragraphs: Note: the 6th century officially started in 501.


title: 5th century

paragraphs: The 5th century is the century from 401 to 500, according to the Julian calendar in the Anno Domini era.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 5th century are in "italics".


title: 4th century

paragraphs: The 4th century is the century from 301 to 400.

paragraphs: Note: years before or after the 4th century are in "italics".


title: Benin

paragraphs: Benin (officially called the Republic of Benin) is a country in Africa. The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo. The seat of government is in Cotonou, the country's largest city. Most people live on the small southern coastline on the Bight of Benin.

paragraphs: The official language of Benin is French. Languages such as Fon and Yoruba are commonly spoken. The largest religious group in Benin is Roman Catholicism. This is followed closely by Islam, Vodun, and Protestantism.

paragraphs: Benin is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, La Francophonie, the Community of Sahel-Saharan States, the African Petroleum Producers Association and the Niger Basin Authority.

paragraphs: From the 17th to the 19th century, Benin was ruled by the Kingdom of Dahomey. It was called the Slave Coast from as early as the 17th century. This is because of the large number of slaves shipped to the New World. After slavery ended, France took over the country. They renamed it French Dahomey. In 1960, Dahomey gained full independence from France.

paragraphs: From 1972 to 1990 a Marxist–Leninist state called the People's Republic of Benin existed. The current Republic of Benin was formed in 1991.

paragraphs: Benin is a narrow country in west Africa. The country measures about at its widest point. It is between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer. Benin is bordered by Togo to the west, Burkina Faso and Niger to the north, Nigeria to the east, and the Bight of Benin to the south.

paragraphs: Reserve du W du Niger and Pendjari National Park attract tourists who want to see elephants, lions, antelopes, hippos, and monkeys. Historically Benin has been a home for the endangered Painted Hunting Dog, "Lycaon pictus";

paragraphs: Benin's climate is hot and humid. Yearly rainfall in the coastal area averages 1300 mm or about 51 inches. Benin has two rainy and two dry seasons per year. The main rainy season is from April to late July, with a shorter less strong rainy period from late September to November. The main dry season is from December to April, with a short cooler dry season from late July to early September. In Cotonou, the average maximum temperature is ; the minimum is .

paragraphs: Benin is divided into 12 Departments. Then it is divided into 77 communes.

paragraphs: Beninese literature had a strong oral tradition long before French became the main language. Felix Couchoro wrote the first Beninese novel, "L'Esclave" in 1929.

paragraphs: Singer Angélique Kidjo and actor Djimon Hounsou were both born in Cotonou, Benin. Composer Wally Badarou and singer Gnonnas Pedro are also from Benin.

paragraphs: In the 2010 census, 27.2% of the population of Benin were Christian, 24.4% were Muslim, 17.3% practiced Vodun, 6% other traditional local religious groups, 1.9% other religious groups, and 6.5% have no religious affiliation.

paragraphs: The literacy rate in Benin is one of the lowest in the world. In 2002 it was said to be 34.7%. At one time the education system was not free.

paragraphs: Beninese cuisine is known in Africa for its exotic ingredients and flavorful dishes. Beninese cuisine has lots of fresh meals with a variety of sauces. In southern Benin cuisine, the most common ingredient is corn. It is often used to prepare dough which is mainly eaten with peanut- or tomato-based sauces. Fish and chicken are the most common meats used in southern Beninese cuisine however Beef, goat, and bush rat are also eaten. The main food in northern Benin is yams. The northern provinces use beef and pork meat which is fried in palm or peanut oil or cooked in sauces. Cheese is used in some dishes. Couscous, rice, and beans are commonly eaten, along with fruits such as mangoes, oranges, avocados, bananas, kiwi fruit, and pineapples.

paragraphs: Meat is usually expensive. Meals are usually light on meat and generous on vegetable fat. Smoked fish is commonly prepared in Benin. Many people have outdoor mud stoves for cooking.


title: Dominican Republic

paragraphs: The Dominican Republic (Spanish: "República Dominicana") is a country on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola; the other country on the island is Haiti. Its capital, and largest city, is Santo Domingo. The national language is Spanish.

paragraphs: The country was part of the Spanish empire until the late 18th century. In the 19th century France, Spain and Haiti controlled it at various times, and later it was independent. It was occupied by the United States from 1916 to 1924. The Dominican Republic is a presidential democratic republic. The country has a tropical climate but modified by elevation and the "trade winds" (winds that come from the northeast, from the Atlantic Ocean).

paragraphs: The island of Hispaniola was discovered by Christopher Columbus on December 5th, 1492, but the first time that he saw part of the present Dominican Republic was on January 4th, 1493 when he saw a headland that he named "Monte Cristi" ("Mountain of Christ"). That mountain is called now "El Morro" and is near the city of Monte Cristi.

paragraphs: From Monte Cristi, Columbus went east along the north coast of the island and on 6 January, after visiting the Samaná Bay, he went back to Spain. In his second trip to America, he founded the first European city in the continent, "La Isabela", near the present city of Puerto Plata.

paragraphs: Later, Bartholomew Columbus founded the city of Santo Domingo, the oldest permanent European city in the Americas. From here, many Spaniards went to conquer other islands (Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico). Because Cuba was closer to the continent, many people moved there from Hispaniola, and then to the continent. Because of that, the population of the island grew very slowly. By the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, Spain gave the western third of the island to France and kept the eastern part, and so the island had two different colonies: the French "Saint-Domingue" and the Spanish "Santo Domingo". In 1795, France got the whole island but they could only control the eastern part because Haiti became independent very soon. In 1809, the French government gave back the old colony of "Santo Domingo" to Spain.

paragraphs: On 1 December 1821, the Spanish lieutenant governor José Núñez de Cáceres declared the independence from Spain. The new country had the name "Estado Independiente del Haití Español" ("Independent State of Spanish Haiti"). But on 9 February 1822, the Haitian army occupied the country and stayed for 22 years. Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society, "La Trinitaria", to fight for the Dominican independence. The Haitian occupation ended on 27 February 1844, when the inhabitants of the eastern part of the Hispaniola made a new country named "República Dominicana" ("Dominican Republic"). From 1861 to 1865, the country was again a Spanish colony. On 16 August 1863 began the "Restoration War" when the Dominicans fought to be free again. That war ended in 1865 when the Spanish left and the Dominican Republic was again an independent country.

paragraphs: The country was occupied by the United States from 1916 to 1924. In 1930, Rafael Trujillo became the president of the country through a coup d'état. Trujillo was a cruel dictator, killing thousands of people, among them many Haitians. Trujillo was killed in 1961. After the death of Trujillo, Juan Bosch was elected in 1962 and became, in 1963, the first elected president since 1930. But was Bosch was in power for only seven months. In 1965, there was a civil war between those that wanted Bosch back on power and those that were opposed to him. Then the country was invaded again by the United States.

paragraphs: Since the end of the civil war, the presidents of the Dominican Republic have been:

paragraphs: The Dominican Republic is a presidential democratic republic. The government is divided in three branches: the Executive, the Legislative and the Judiciary. The Executive branch is made up of the President, the Vice President and the Ministers who are called "Secretaries of State". The President is chief of state and head of government and is elected every 4 years. He nominates the cabinet. The current president is Danilo Medina Sánchez.

paragraphs: The Legislative branch makes the laws and is made up of the Congress, which is in Santo Domingo, the capital of the Dominican Republic. The Congress is divided into two groups: the Senate, with 32 members (one for every province and one for the National District), and the Chamber of Deputies with 178 members.

paragraphs: The Judicial branch is made up of the courts of the country, including the Supreme Court of Justice.

paragraphs: The Dominican Republic is a constitutional democracy ruled by a president. The president is elected every 4 years. The current president is Danilo Medina Sánchez, of the PLD.

paragraphs: There are 3 important political parties in the Dominican Republic:

paragraphs: There are several mountain chains in the Dominican Republic. The four main chains, from North to South, are:

paragraphs: Between those mountains, there are several important valleys, such as:

paragraphs: There are other smaller valleys in the mountains: Constanza, Jarabacoa, Bonao, Villa Altagracia.

paragraphs: The four most important rivers of the Dominican Republic are Yaque del Norte, Yuna, Yaque del Sur and Ozama. There are many lakes; the largest is the "Lake Enriquillo", in the "Hoya de Enriquillo".

paragraphs: The country has a tropical climate but modified by elevation and the "trade winds" (winds that come from the northeast, from the Atlantic Ocean). At sea level, the average temperature is 25°C, with small changes from one season to another. In the highest mountains, the temperature in winter can be as low as 0°C.

paragraphs: There are two wet seasons: April-June and September-November. The most dry period is from December to March. Rainfall varies greatly; eastern regions, like the Samaná Peninsula, get an average of over 2,000 mm in a year, but less than 500 mm fall in the southwest (Hoya de Enriquillo).

paragraphs: From June to November, hurricanes are frequent and can do much damage in the island.

paragraphs: The Dominican Republic has a total population, estimated for July 2009, of 9,650,054 inhabitants, for a density of 236.30 inhabitants per km².

paragraphs: About 64% of Dominicans live in cities and towns and 87% of people that are 15 years old or more can read and write.

paragraphs: The two largest cities are Santo Domingo (the capital city) with 1,817,754 inhabitants, and Santiago, in the Cibao Valley and with 908,250 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The ethnic composition of Dominicans is around 45% Mulatto, 40% Black, and 15% White

paragraphs: The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces. The national capital Santo Domingo de Guzmán is in the "Distrito National" that is like a province and elects one Senator.

paragraphs: The Dominican Republic has a mixed economy based mainly on agriculture, services (including tourism and finance), trade and money sent from the many Dominicans that live in other countries (United States, Europe). Agricultural production (mainly sugarcane, with smaller amounts of coffee, cacao, and tobacco) was the main economic activity but now is in third place after tourism and manufacturing in "zonas francas" ("free zones" where the industries do not pay taxes and all the production is sent to other countries).

paragraphs: Mining is also important, mainly ferronickel (nickel with iron) and gold.

paragraphs: The Dominican Republic suffers from poverty, with 83.3% of the population living below the poverty line in 2012. The wealth distribution is uneven: the richest 10% gets nearly 40% of national income.

paragraphs: The culture of the Dominican Republic, like in other Caribbean countries, is a mix of Taíno, African and European (mainly Spanish) cultures.

paragraphs: There are not many Taíno traditions in the modern Dominican culture; many places keep their Taíno names: Dajabón, Bánica, Haina, Yaque, Samaná, etc. Also many objects, plants and animals have a Taíno origin and their names have been included in other languages; for example: "canoa" (canoe, a small boat), "hamaca" (hammock, a simple bed), "maíz" (maize, corn), "yuca" (cassava, that comes from the Taíno word "casabe", a kind of cassava bread eaten in the Caribbean), and "batata" (sweet potato).

paragraphs: That mix of different traditions created a culture that is known as Creole (in Spanish: "Criolla"), common to all countries in the Caribbean, Louisiana and some parts of South America and Central America.

paragraphs: In the Dominican Republic, only Spanish is spoken, however; there are 3 major languages that are also spoken such as Haitian Creole, Samana English, and the West African Yoruba language known as Lucumi spoken by few. There is a local dialect or patois which is spoken by all Dominicans - see Dominican Spanish Creole.

paragraphs: The official religion is Roman Catholicism but there is freedom of religion. Protestant groups are important, representing about 15% of the total population. Each year major festivities called "fiestas patronales" are held. They are Catholic festivities in honor of the Patron saints of the towns and villages; it is a Spanish tradition to associate every town with a Catholic saint. The festivities includes church services, street parades, fire works, dance contests and other activities. Dominican Voodoo or Santeria is also practiced in large numbers as well as Dominican Palo, Dominican Kongo religion, and others.

paragraphs: African culture has the strongest influence in Dominican culture, especially in language, religion, food, and music.