title: Rubik's Cube

paragraphs: Rubik's Cube is a puzzle cube, and the world's biggest selling toy of all time with over 300,000,000 (300 million) sold. It was invented in 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. In a classic Rubik's Cube, each of the six faces is covered by nine stickers, each of one of six solid colours: white, red, blue, orange, green, and yellow. In currently sold models, white is opposite yellow, blue is opposite green, orange is opposite red, and some might replace blue with black or purple.

paragraphs: The standard Rubik's Cube is 3x3x3. 3 blocks across, 3 blocks down, and 3 blocks deep. Cubes can be made in 2x2, 4x4, or larger versions. the largest cube is 33 x 33, which is also 3d printed.

paragraphs: Cuboids are cubes with uneven sides. Some options are the 3x2x2 or 3x5 or 4x3. Some cuboids can "shapeshift" or "jumble". That means the cube goes out of its original shape. To solve a shapeshifting cube it must return to the original shape before it is considered solved.

paragraphs: Gear cubes include gears which cause both sides of a cube to turn.

paragraphs: Other versions include the Megaminx, Pyraminx, Rubik's clock, Mirror Cube, and Square 1.

paragraphs: A Rubik's Cube is a cube split into a number of smaller cubes with different colored faces attached to a rotating piece of metal in the middle. Total, there are 26 small cubes. The Rubik's Cube have six sides with 9 little cubes attached to it and each side has one color: red, yellow, blue, orange, white and green are the most common colors.

paragraphs: The cubes can be rotated and twisted along rows and faces. The aim of the puzzle is to make each face of the cube have the same color. Solving a Rubik's Cube requires logic and thinking. There are many different ways to learn how to solve a Rubik's cube.

paragraphs: There are many methods that people use to solve a Rubik's Cube. Today the most common one is called CFOP, also called Fridrich Method, named after the popularizer Jessica Fridrich. In this method first the white cross is solved, then F2L(First 2 Layers) followed by OLL(Orientation of Last Layer) and PLL(Permutation Of Last Layer). Other methods include Petrus, ZZ, Roux, Keyhole and others.

paragraphs: The record for one Rubik's Cube solve is 3.47 seconds by Yusheng Du at the Wuhu Open 2018 (in China). Feliks Zemdegs holds the record for the average of 5, which is 5.53 seconds, set at Odd Day in Sydney 2019.


title: Flag of Sierra Leone

paragraphs: The flag of Sierra Leone was created in 1961.


title: Flag of Scotland

paragraphs: The Flag of Scotland is a white X-shaped cross, which represents the cross of the patron saint of Scotland, Saint Andrew on a blue sky. The flag is called the Saltire or the Saint Andrew's Cross.

paragraphs: According to legend, in 832 A.D. King Óengus (II) (or King Angus) led the Picts and Scots in battle against the Angles under a king named Athelstan near modern-day Athelstaneford in East Lothian. King Angus and his men were surrounded and he prayed for deliverance. During the night Saint Andrew, who was martyred on a saltire cross, appeared to Angus and assured him of victory. On the following morning a white saltire against the background of a blue sky appeared to both sides. The Picts and Scots were heartened by this, but the Angles lost confidence and were defeated. This saltire design has been the Scottish flag ever since.

paragraphs: Material evidence of the saltire's use dates from somewhat later. In 1385 the Parliament of Scotland decreed that Scottish soldiers should wear the saltire as a distinguishing mark. The earliest surviving Scottish flag consisting solely of the saltire dates from 1503: a white cross on a red background. By 1540 the legend of King Angus had been altered to include the vision of the cross against a blue sky. Thereafter, this saltire design in its present form became the national flag of Scotland.

paragraphs: There are five flagpoles outside the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh. The Saltire is flown every day, alongside the Union Flag and the EU Flag. The fourth flagpole is used for special occasions such as Commonwealth Day and United Nations Day. The fifth pole is used for the Royal Standard of Scotland.

paragraphs: Edinburgh Castle is managed by Historic Scotland, but it still has a military garrison of the British Army. Like all British Army bases, it flies the Union Flag (in ratio 5:3) and the Army flies it every day from the Clock Tower. The Saltire is flown every day at the Half Moon Battery.

paragraphs: The flying of the Union Flag at Edinburgh Castle has sometimes caused controversy. In 2001, a group of 20 Scottish National Party MSPs called for the Union Flag to be replaced by the Saltire.

paragraphs: The Scottish Government has decreed that the Flag will fly on all its buildings every day from 8 am until sunset. An exception is made for "national days". On these days, the Saltire shall be lowered and replaced with the Union Flag. These days are the same as the flag days of the United Kingdom with the exception of 3 September (Merchant Navy Day), which is a specific flag day in Scotland and during which the Red Ensign may also be used.

paragraphs: Another difference with the UK days is that on Saint Andrew's Day, the Union Flag will only be flown if the building has more than one flagpole – the Saltire will not be lowered to make way for the Union Flag if there is only one flagpole. This difference arose after Members of the Scottish Parliament complained that Scotland was the only country in the world that could not fly its national flag on its national day.

paragraphs: The flag can be flown at any time by any individual, company, local authority, hospital or school. There is no need to get consent to fly the flag from a vertical flagpole. The flagpole itself may need planning permission.

paragraphs: In recent years, embassies of the United Kingdom have flown the Saltire to mark St Andrew's Day.

paragraphs: Most local authorities in Scotland fly the Saltire. Glasgow City Council fly the flag from the City Chambers building in George Square, while the City of Edinburgh Council fly the flag from their own city chambers.

paragraphs: In 2007 Angus Council led by Robert Myles decided to scrap the Saltire and replace it with a new Angus flag. This move led to public outcry across Scotland with more than 7,000 people signing a petition opposing the council's move, leading to a compromise whereby the Angus flag would not replace but be flown alongside the Saltire on Council buildings.

paragraphs: At various times throughout history colours as light as sky blue or as dark as dark navy blue have been used (a selection apparently motivated by which colour of blue dye was available at the time). When incorporated as part of the Union Flag, the navy blue colour used was that of the Blue ensign belonging to the historic 'Blue Squadron' of the British Royal Navy. Dark blue was primarily used for reasons of expediency—it suffered less from the effects of fading resulting from prolonged exposure to the elements (namely sunlight and salt spray).

paragraphs: Although this navy blue colour was used specifically for depicting the Union Flag on maritime flags on the basis of durability, it soon became standard on Union Flags, both on land and at sea. This navy blue colour trend was adopted for the Saltire itself by many flag manufacturers, resulting in a variety of shades of blue being depicted on the flag of Scotland ranging from "sky blue" to "royal blue" to "navy blue". Eventually, this situation resulted in calls to standardise the colour of Scotland's national flag.

paragraphs: In 2003, a committee of the Scottish Parliament met to examine a petition that the Scottish Government adopt the Pantone 300 colour as a standard. (Note that this blue is of a lighter shade than the Pantone 280 of the Union Flag). Having taken advice from a number of sources including the office of the Lord Lyon King of Arms, the committee recommended that the optimum shade of blue for the Saltire should be Pantone 300 (that is, 0, 101, 189 in the RGB color model, or #0065BD as hexadecimal web colors). Recent versions of the Saltire have therefore largely converged on this official recommendation, though dark blue has continued in use.

paragraphs: The flag's proportion is not fixed, but is generally taken as 1:2, 2:3, 3:5 or 4:5. The bars in the cross should be 1/5 (i.e., 20%) the width of the flag.

paragraphs: Inverse representations (blue saltire on a white field) of the Scottish Saltire are also used outside Scotland. In Canada, an inverse representation of the Saltire, combined with the shield from the Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland, forms the modern flag of the Canadian Province of Nova Scotia, the first colonial venture of the Kingdom of Scotland into the Americas.

paragraphs: In Russia, during the period before and after the Soviet Union, the naval ensign of the Russian Navy has been an inverse representation of the Cross of Saint Andrew. (Saint Andrew is also a patron saint of Russia). The very same Saltire was also flown as the flag of Galicia in Spain until 1891, when Russia requested the Galician flag to be modified in order to avoid confusion between Galician ships and Russian Navy ships. The current Galician flag is actually the original blue-over-white saltire but without one of the arms of the cross.

paragraphs: The U.S. state of Alabama's flag is officially "a crimson cross of St. Andrew on a field of white," but the reference is used only to describe the shape without using the vexillological term saltire as that flag's origins are from either or both of the Confederate Battle Flag or the , both of which have saltires and are associated with the history of that state. Similarly, the Spanish island of Tenerife and the remote Colombian islands of San Andrés and Providencia also use the saltire on their flags.

paragraphs: The Scottish Saltire is also used unofficially by students and graduates of Xavier University because of the university's blue and white official colors and the resemblance of the flag to the letter "X". It is also the flag for St. Andrew's Scots School, Argentina (founded in 1838) and its "spinoff" university Universidad de San Andrés.

paragraphs: The Dutch municipality of Sint-Oedenrode, named after the Scottish princess Saint Oda, also uses the Saltire as the basis of its flag.

paragraphs: The Scottish Saltire and field is one of the key components of the Union Flag. The Union Flag has been used in a variety of forms since 1606, when the flags of the Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of England were first merged to symbolise the Union of the Crowns. (The Union of the Crowns having occurred in 1603.) In Scotland, and in particular on Scottish vessels at sea, historical evidence suggests that a separate design of Union Flag was flown to that used in England. However, following the Acts of Union of 1707, which united the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England, the 'English' version of the Union Flag was adopted as the official flag of the unified Kingdom of Great Britain.

paragraphs: From 1801, in order to symbolise the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, a new design was adopted for the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The 1801 design, having remained unchanged despite the partition of Ireland in 1921 and creation of the Irish Free State, continues to be used as the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

paragraphs: The Royal Standard of the King of Scots, also known as the Royal Flag of Scotland or the Lion Rampant, is the flag used historically by the King of Scots. It remains the personal banner of the monarch and use of this flag is restricted under the Act of the Parliament of Scotland 1672 cap. 47 and 30 & 31 Vict. cap. 17.

paragraphs: Despite the legal restrictions concerning the use of this flag, it is often regarded as a second, albeit unofficial, national flag for Scotland, most often seen at sporting events.


title: Scanning tunneling microscope

paragraphs: Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is a way to view atoms. It was developed in 1981. It was invented by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zürich. They won the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing it in 1986. For STM, good resolution is 0.1 nm lateral resolution (how accurately it can see features on the surface) and 0.01 nm depth resolution (how accurately it can see the height of bumps on the surface). The STM can be used not only in a vacuum but also in air and various other liquids or gases, and at most common temperatures.

paragraphs: The STM is based on quantum tunneling. When a metal tip is brought very near to a metal or semiconducting surface, a voltage between the two can allow electrons to flow through the vacuum between them. Changes in current as the probe goes over the surface is what makes the picture. STM can be a hard thing to do, as it needs very clean surfaces and sharp tips.

paragraphs: First the tip is brought very close to the thing being looked at, about 4-7 angstroms. Then the tip is moved very carefully across the thing being tested. This change in current when it is moved can be measured (constant height mode). The height of the tip where it always has the same current can be measured, too (constant current mode). Using a constant height mode is faster.

paragraphs: The parts of an STM are: scanning tip, something that moves the tip, something that stops it from vibrating, and a computer.


title: Energy level

paragraphs: Simply defined as the different states of potential energy for electrons in an atom. A quantum mechanical system can only be in certain states, so that only certain energy levels are possible. The term energy level is most commonly used in reference to the electron configuration in atoms or molecules. In other words, the energy spectrum can be quantized (see continuous spectrum for the more general case).

paragraphs: As with classical potentials, the potential energy is usually set to zero at infinity, leading to a negative potential energy for bound electron states.

paragraphs: Energy levels are said to be degenerate, if the same energy level is obtained by more than one quantum mechanical state. They are then called degenerate energy levels.

paragraphs: The following sections of this article gives an overview over the most important factors that determine the energy levels of atoms and molecules.

paragraphs: Assume an electron in a given atomic orbital. The energy of its state is mainly determined by the electrostatic interaction of the (negative) electron with the (positive) nucleus. The energy levels of an electron around a nucleus are given by :

paragraphs: where formula_2 is the Rydberg constant (typically between 1 eV and 10 eV), "Z" is the charge of the atom's nucleus, formula_3 is the principal quantum number, "e" is the charge of the electron, formula_4 is Planck's constant, and "c" is the speed of light.

paragraphs: The Rydberg levels depend only on the principal quantum number formula_3.

paragraphs: Fine structure arises from relativistic kinetic energy corrections, spin-orbit coupling (an electrodynamic interaction between the electron's spin and motion and the nucleus's electric field) and the Darwin term (contact term interaction of s-shell electrons inside the nucleus). Typical magnitude formula_6 eV.

paragraphs: Spin-nuclear-spin coupling ("see hyperfine structure"). Typical magnitude formula_7 eV.

paragraphs: If there is more than one electron around the atom, electron-electron-interactions raise the energy level. These interactions are often neglected if the spatial overlap of the electron wavefunctions is low.

paragraphs: The interaction energy is: formula_8 with formula_9

paragraphs: This takes both the magnetic dipole moment due to the orbital angular momentum and the magnetic momentum arising from the electron spin into account.

paragraphs: Due to relativistic effects (Dirac equation), the magnetic moment arising from the electron spin is formula_10 with formula_11 the gyro-magnetic factor (about 2).

paragraphs: The interaction energy therefore gets formula_13.

paragraphs: Interaction with an external electric field ("see Stark effect").

paragraphs: Roughly speaking, a molecular energy state, i.e. an eigenstate of the molecular Hamiltonian, is the sum of an electronic, vibrational, rotational, nuclear and translational component, such that:

paragraphs: where formula_15 is an eigenvalue of the electronic molecular Hamiltonian (the value of the potential energy surface) at the equilibrium geometry of the molecule.

paragraphs: The molecular energy levels are labelled by the molecular term symbols.

paragraphs: The specific energies of these components vary with the specific energy state and the substance.

paragraphs: In molecular physics and quantum chemistry, an energy level is a quantized energy of a bound quantum mechanical state.

paragraphs: Crystalline materials are often characterized by a number of important energy levels. The most important ones are the top of the valence band, the bottom of the conduction band, the Fermi energy, the vacuum level, and the energy levels of any defect states in the crystals.


title: Atomic nucleus

paragraphs: The nucleus is the center of an atom. It is made up of nucleons called (protons and neutrons) and is surrounded by the electron cloud. The size (diameter) of the nucleus is between 1.6 fm (10 m) (for a proton in light hydrogen) to about 15 fm (for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium). These sizes are much smaller than the size of the atom itself by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen). Although it is only a very small part of the atom, the nucleus has most of the mass. Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus with a very small contribution from the orbiting electrons.

paragraphs: Neutrons have no charge and protons are positively charged. Because the nucleus is only made up of protons and neutrons it is positively charged. Things that have the same charge repel each other: this repulsion is part of what is called electromagnetic force. Unless there was something else holding the nucleus together it could not exist because the protons would push away from each other. The nucleus is actually held together by another force known as the strong nuclear force.

paragraphs: The word "nucleus" is from 1704, meaning “kernel of a nut”. In 1844, Michael Faraday used nucleus to describe the “central point of an atom”. The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The use of the word "nucleus" in atomic theory, however, did not happen immediately. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in his famous article "The Atom and the Molecule" that "the atom is composed of the "kernel" and an outer atom or "shell"".

paragraphs: The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons (two types of baryons) joined by the nuclear force. These baryons are further made up of sub-atomic fundamental particles known as quarks joined by the strong interaction. The nucleus is more or less a spheroid and may be somewhat prolate (long) or oblate (flat) or otherwise not entirely round.

paragraphs: If the nucleus can be considered to have a radius of the order of 5 fm (= 10 × 10 m), this means its cross-section is of the order of 10 m, and its volume is about 10 m.

paragraphs: The isotope of an atom is based on the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Different isotopes of the same element have very similar chemical properties. Different isotopes in a sample of a chemical can be separated by using a centrifuge or by using a mass spectrometer. The first method is used in producing enriched uranium from regular uranium, and the second is used in carbon dating.

paragraphs: The number of protons and neutrons together determine the nuclide (type of nucleus). Protons and neutrons have nearly equal masses, and their combined number, the mass number, is about equal to the atomic mass of an atom. The combined mass of the electrons is very small when compared to the mass of the nucleus; protons and neutrons weigh about 2000 times more than electrons.

paragraphs: The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first sign that the atom had internal structure. At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays. The problem would later lead to the discovery of the neutrino (see below).

paragraphs: In 1906 Ernest Rutherford published "Radiation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through Matter". Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing α particles through air, aluminum foil and gold foil. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger, In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.

paragraphs: Around the same time that this was happening (1909) Ernest Rutherford performed a remarkable experiment in which Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under his supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. He was shocked to discover that a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases. The discovery, beginning with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, eventually led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom has a very small, very dense nucleus consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge. As an example, in this model nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons, and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.

paragraphs: The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons had a spin of 1/2, and in the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14 the 14 protons and six of the electrons should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final electron should have left the nucleus with a spin of 1/2. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 has a spin of one.

paragraphs: In 1930 Wolfgang Pauli was unable to attend a meeting in Tübingen, and instead sent a famous letter with the classic introduction "Dear Radioactive Ladies and Gentlemen". In his letter Pauli suggested that perhaps there was a third particle in the nucleus which he named the "neutron". He suggested that it was very light (lighter than an electron), had no charge, and that it did not readily interact with matter (which is why it had not yet been detected). This desperate way out solved both the problem of energy conservation and the spin of nitrogen-14, the first because Pauli's "neutron" was carrying away the extra energy and the second because an extra "neutron" paired off with the electron in the nitrogen-14 nucleus giving it spin one. Pauli's "neutron" was renamed the neutrino (Italian for little neutral one) by Enrico Fermi in 1931, and after about thirty years it was finally demonstrated that a neutrino really is emitted during beta decay.

paragraphs: In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a massive particle that he called the neutron. In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons and that there were no electrons in it, and Francis Perrin suggested that neutrinos were not nuclear particles but were created during beta decay. To cap the year off, Fermi submitted a theory of the neutrino to "Nature" (which the editors rejected for being "too remote from reality"). Fermi continued working on his theory and published a paper in 1934 which placed the neutrino on solid theoretical footing. In the same year Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together.

paragraphs: With Fermi and Yukawa's papers the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).

paragraphs: The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the most important of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.

paragraphs: A nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.

paragraphs: Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer. Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.

paragraphs: Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of American footballs) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator.

paragraphs: Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.

paragraphs: If a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time. For example, nitrogen-16 atoms (7 protons, 9 neutrons) beta decay to oxygen-16 atoms (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron by the weak nuclear force. The element of the atom changes because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen). Many elements have multiple isotopes which are stable for weeks, years, or even billions of years.

paragraphs: When two light nuclei come into very close contact with each other it is possible for the strong force to fuse the two together. It takes a great deal of energy to push the nuclei close enough together for the strong force to have an effect, so the process of nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high densities. Once the nuclei are close enough together the strong force overcomes their electromagnetic repulsion and squishes them into a new nucleus. A very large amount of energy is released when light nuclei fuse together because the binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62. Stars like our sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The "uncontrolled" fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. Research to find an economically viable method of using energy from a "controlled" fusion reaction is currently being undertaken by various research establishments (see JET and ITER).

paragraphs: For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. This splitting of atoms is known as nuclear fission.

paragraphs: The process of alpha decay may be thought of as a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.

paragraphs: For certain of the heaviest nuclei which produce neutrons on fission, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a so-called chain reaction. [Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions]. The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs such as the two that the United States used against Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.

paragraphs: For a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions (these conditions slow and conserve neutrons for the reactions). There is one known example of a natural nuclear fission reactor, which was active in two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain-reactions.

paragraphs: As the Universe cooled after the big bang it eventually became possible for particles as we know them to exist. The most common particles created in the big bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons (hydrogen) and electrons (in equal numbers). Some heavier elements were created as the protons collided with each other, but most of the heavy elements we see today were created inside of stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process.

paragraphs: Progressively heavier elements are made during the evolution of a star.

paragraphs: Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron, energy is only released in fusion processes occurring below this point. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion costs energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called "s" process) or by the rapid, or "r" process. The "s" process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The "r" process is thought to occur in supernova explosions because the conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter are present. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers). The "r" process duration is typically in the range of a few seconds.


title: Fred McDowell

paragraphs: Fred McDowell (January 12 1904 - July 3 1972) (also known as Mississippi Fred McDowell) was a Delta blues singer and guitar player. His parents died when he was young.

paragraphs: McDowell was born in Rossville, Tennessee, near Memphis. He started playing guitar when he was 14 and played at parties around where he lived.

paragraphs: McDowell moved to Memphis in 1926 where he played for money. Soon after, he moved to Como, Mississippi in 1940 or 1941 and worked as a farmer. He still played at parties.

paragraphs: Mostly, he played slide guitar using a pocket knife and then a slide made from a beef rib bone, later switching to a glass slide. He played with the slide on his ring finger.

paragraphs: In the 1950s, people became more interested in Blues Music and McDowell became more famous. He recorded for the first time in 1959 with Alan Lomax and Shirley Collins. He started playing on electric guitar rather than acoustic but said "I do not play no rock and roll". He taught Bonnie Raitt the slide guitar technique, and was written about by The Rolling Stones'.

paragraphs: McDowell's first album came out in 1969, called "I Do Not Play No Rock 'N' Roll".

paragraphs: McDowell died of cancer in 1972 and is buried at Hammond Hill M.B. Church, between Como and Senatobia.


title: Taurus Mountains

paragraphs: Taurus Mountains (Turkish: "Toros Dağları") are a mountain range in Turkey, from which the Euphrates (Turkish: Fırat) and Tigris (Turkish: Dicle) descend into Syria and Iraq. The Manavgat River comes from its southern slopes.

paragraphs: The mountain range extends along a curve from Lake Eğirdir in the west to the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris in the east. It has many peaks rising above 10,000–12,000 ft (3,000–3,700 m), with the Demirkazık summit in the region known as Aladağlar, at 3,756 meters (12,322 ft.) as the highest point. Another important peak is Medetsiz (3,524 m/11,561 ft) in the Bolkar Dağları section.

paragraphs: This mountain range divides the Mediterranean region of southern Turkey from the central plateau.

paragraphs: Limestone has eroded to form karstic landscapes of waterfalls, underground rivers, and the largest caves of Asia.

paragraphs: At Kestel is a Bronze Age archaeological site where early evidence of tin mining was found.


title: Montes Taurus

paragraphs: Montes Taurus is a mountainous region on the Moon. These peaks are on a highland region to the east of the Mare Serenitatis, in the northeastern quadrant of the Moon's near side. The selenographic coordinates of this range are , and they have a diameter about 170 km. Some of the peaks within the range achieve heights of 3.0 km.

paragraphs: A number of craters lie within this range. At the southwestern edge of the range is Römer crater, and Newcomb crater is in the northeastern section. Several satellite craters also lie throughout the Montes Taurus.

paragraphs: The Montes Taurus were named by Johannes Hevelius for the Taurus mountains in southern Turkey.


title: Sassari

paragraphs: Sassari is a city in the region of Sardinia in Italy. It is the capital of the "Province of Sassari." About 130,000 people live in Sassari. This makes it the second largest city in Sardinia.

paragraphs: The first time that the city appeared in a map was in 1131 with the name Jordi de Sassaro, in 1135 the name was Tathari. The city grown up very fast and in 1294, became a "libero comune" (independent municipality). In the early 14th century the island of Sardinia was occupied by the Aragonese, the municipality sent a delegation to the court of Aragon, but they did not achieve any agreement. So with the support of the Republic of Genoa and the Doria's family, the people of Sassari rose up against the invaders, until 1417 when the king Alfonso V granted an acceptable status to the town. In 1617 in town the Jesuits founded the University. In 1713, after the Treaty of Utrecht, in the island of Sardinia started the brief period of the Austro-Hungarian administration. In fact since 1720 the island was annexed by the House of Savoy and since then was born the Kingdom of Sardinia. But in 1793, after years of political struggle, in the island started an uprising, called “Sarda rivoluzione” (Sardinian revolution), led by the patriot Giovanni Maria Angioy, who entered triumphantly in the city of Sassari, followed by thousand of revolutionaries coming from all over the island. But the Savoy, stifled the rebellion with ferocity, reconquered the town. But the rebellion in town will continued until the middle of the 19th century.

paragraphs: In 1861 the Kingdom of Sardinia, after the campaign to unify Italy and the annexation of many small states, it became the founding state of the new Kingdom of Italy. Since then Sassari is an Italian city.

paragraphs: "(Via Roma 64)" also called "Museo Sanna" - Sito


title: Bull Hill

paragraphs: Bull Hill, sometimes called Mount Taurus, is a mountain in the U.S. state of New York. It is north of the village of Cold Spring on the Hudson River, in Putnam County. It is part of the mountain range known as the Hudson Highlands.

paragraphs: An old quarry can be seen on its south ridge.

paragraphs: The mountain may have gotten its name from a bull that farmers chased down it. The bull's fall gave the Breakneck Ridge its name.


title: Forlì

paragraphs: Forlì is a city in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy. It is the capital of the "Province of Forlì-Cesena". About 110,000 people live in Forli. It has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa" in the Koeppen climate classification).

paragraphs: Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy during World War Two, was born near Forli, in Predappio.


title: Zagros Mountains

paragraphs: The Zagros Mountains (, ), make up Iran's and Iraq's largest mountain range. They have a total length of 1 500 km. The north end is in northwestern Iran and they run near the border with Iraq and along the north coast of the Persian Gulf. The mountain range ends at the Straits of Hormuz. The highest points in the Zagros Mountains are Zard Kuh (4 548 m) and Mt. Dena (4 359 m).

paragraphs: The Zagros region is an important part of Persian Gulf oil production.


title: Latina, Lazio

paragraphs: Latina is a city in the region of Lazio. It is the capital of the "Province of Latina". About 110,000 people live in Latina. This makes it the second largest city in Lazio.


title: Monza

paragraphs: Monza is a city in the region of Lombardy. In 2009 it will become the capital of the "Province of Monza and Brianza". About 120,000 people live in Monza. This makes it the third largest city in Lombardy.


title: Giugliano in Campania

paragraphs: Giugliano in Campania is a city the region of Campania in Italy. It is the largest city in Italy that is not a capital of a province. About 105,000 people live there.


title: French Revolution of 1848

paragraphs: The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852).

paragraphs: The revolution established the principle of the "right to work" ("droit au travail"), and decided to establish "National Workshops" for the unemployed. At the same time a sort of industrial parliament was established at the Luxembourg Palace, under the presidency of Louis Blanc. Tensions between liberal Orleanist and Radical Republicans and Socialists would cause the June Days Uprising a few months later.

paragraphs: Meanwhile the revolution inspired other European Revolutions of 1848.

paragraphs: The era of revolution in France came to an end when Louis Napoleon dissolved the National Assembly without having the constitutional right to do so, and became the sole ruler of France. In 1852 he reestablished the empire and took the title Emperors Napoleon III.


title: Nyon (district)

paragraphs: The District of Nyon is a district in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. The seat of the district is the city of Nyon.

paragraphs: On 1 September 2006, Nyon was reorganized. There are now fewer municipalities.


title: Skip James

paragraphs: Nehemiah Curtis "Skip" James (June 21, 1902 – October 3, 1969) was an American Delta blues singer, guitarist, pianist and songwriter.

paragraphs: James was born near Bentonia, Mississippi. He worked on road construction in the early 1920s, and wrote what his earliest song, "Illinois Blues", about his experience as a worker. He began playing guitar in open D-minor tuning with three fingers.

paragraphs: Skip James traveled to Grafton, Wisconsin to record for Paramount. James recorded blues and spirituals and cover versions of other songs.

paragraphs: The Great Depression happened just as James' records were put on the market. Not many people bought them because of this and James had to give up Blues music and worked in a church with his father.

paragraphs: For the next thirty years, James did not record any songs. In July 1964, James started playing again and he recorded for the Takoma, Melodeon, and Vanguard labels and played until his death in 1969.


title: Nirvana (band)

paragraphs: Nirvana was an American rock band formed in Aberdeen, Washington, in 1987. It was founded by singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic. Nirvana had many drummers, but the final and most well known drummer was Dave Grohl, who joined in 1990. The band ended in 1994 after the death of Cobain. Since they formed, they have sold over 75 million records all over the world.

paragraphs: Nirvana were part of a rock music genre from Seattle called grunge. The genre comes from both punk rock and heavy metal. They released their first album, called "Bleach", for record label Sub Pop in 1989. Nirvana's style was songs with quiet verses and loud choruses. After signing to record label DGC Records, in 1991, Nirvana became very popular after releasing the song "Smells Like Teen Spirit". This song was the first single from their second album "Nevermind" (1991), which sold over 30 million copies worldwide. Nirvana becoming popular also made alternative rock popular. Cobain was then called by some people the "spokesman of a generation".

paragraphs: After many tours and the 1992 compilation album "Incesticide" and EP "Hormoaning", Nirvana released their third studio album "In Utero" (1993). It was well liked by critics and sold 15 million records worldwide. Nirvana ended after the death of Kurt Cobain in 1994. Some live albums have been released since. "MTV Unplugged in New York" (1994) won a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album in 1996.

paragraphs: Singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic met while they were at Aberdeen High School. Cobain said they didn't speak much while there. They became friends after high school while they were both often in the pracrtising space of the Melvins Cobain wanted to start a band with Novoselic, but Novoselic did not answer for a long time. Cobain sent him a demo of his band Fecal Matter. Three years later, Novoselic told Cobain he had listened to the tape and said they should start a band.

paragraphs: After Nirvana broke up, Dave Grohl started a new band called the Foo Fighters. Krist Novoselic became interested in politics and also kept making music. He was the bassist for Flipper, which Kurt Cobain was a fan of, but later left the band. Novoselic later founded alternative rock band Giants in the Trees in 2017.


title: Olaf Kölzig

paragraphs: Olaf Kölzig (born April 6, 1970) is a South African-born German retired professional ice hockey goaltender. He played a career total of 14 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). He played for the Washington Capitals and the Tampa Bay Lightning.

paragraphs: Kölzig was born in South Africa, but he grew up in several cities across Canada and his family moved to Union Bay, British Columbia, Canada, when he was a teenager. Kölzig never applied for Canadian citizenship, which, combined with his German parentage and German passport, allows him to represent Germany internationally. In May 2008 Kolzig announced that he would not return to the Capitals.


title: WrestleMania I

paragraphs: WrestleMania (chronologically known as WrestleMania I) was the first WrestleMania professional wrestling event produced by the World Wrestling Federation. It took place on March 31, 1985 at Madison Square Garden in New York, New York. The attendance for the event was 19,121 fans. The event was viewed by over one million fans through closed circuit television, making it the largest event on closed-circuit television in the United States at the time. The event was the start of the Rock 'n' Wrestling gimmick, which brought together professional wrestling and the music industry.

paragraphs: For the first WrestleMania, Vince McMahon began cross promoting with MTV and several celebrities like Muhammad Ali, Liberace and Cyndi Lauper appeared during the build up to and at the event. To build up the show, the WWF aired two wrestling specials on MTV. The first one was The Brawl to End it All, aired on July 23, 1984, in which a match from a live MSG broadcast was shown on MTV. Wendi Richter defeated The Fabulous Moolah to win the WWF Women's Championship on the card, with Lauper on her side. At The War to Settle the Score, which aired on February 18, 1985, Leilani Kai, accompanied by Moolah, defeated Richter, again accompanied by Lauper, to win the Women's Championship.

paragraphs: In the months leading up to the first WrestleMania, Roddy Piper began a talk-show segment on WWF television entitles "Piper's Pit". On one episode of the show, he hit Jimmy Snuka over the head with coconut, leading to a feud between the two men. As part of the storyline, Piper recruited Cowboy Bob Orton to be his bodyguard. On another episode of "Piper's Pit", Piper spoke out against the burgeoning Rock 'n' Wrestling connection, which led to a confrontation with Hulk Hogan. In February 1985, the two men faced each other at The War to Settle the Score, where Hogan won by disqualification. Their on-going feud led to their match at WrestleMania.

paragraphs: WWF announcer Gene Okerlund did the singing of the National Anthem, with Gorilla Monsoon and Jesse "The Body" Ventura calling the action. Gene Okerlund also did interviews backstage, with "Lord" Alfred Hayes doing interviews near the entrance to the locker room, right outside the ring. Howard Finkel began the first of his many times ring announcing WrestleMania events, on this broadcast. The opening theme for the event was the instrumental portion of the Phil Collins and Philip Bailey hit "Easy Lover", while the closing theme for the credits was "Axel F." by Harold Faltermeyer. Celebrity guests in attendance for this WrestleMania included Billy Martin, Cyndi Lauper, Mr. T, Muhammad Ali, and Liberace accompanied by The Rockettes.

paragraphs: The first match was between Tito Santana and The Executioner. Santana won the match after slamming The Executioner from the apron into the ring and then performing a flying forearm. This caused The Executioner to submit. Following the match, King Kong Bundy, accompanied by Jimmy Hart, and Special Delivery Jones made their way to the ring. After performing an avalanche and big splash, Bundy defeated Jones in record making time. The WWF's official time for the match is nine seconds.

paragraphs: The next match was between Ricky Steamboat and Matt Borne. Steamboat took the early advantage in the match-up, until Borne performed a belly-to-belly suplex on Steamboat. In retaliation, Steamboat used a several knife-edged chops, a belly-to-back suplex, and a flying double chop off of the ropes. After performing a flying crossbody, Steamboat pinned Borne for the win. After the match ended, David Sammartino, accompanied by his father Bruno Sammartino, and Brutus Beefcake, accompanied by Johnny Valiant, made their way to the ring. The action favored both contestants, as each wrestler alternated having the advantage. After Beefcake threw David Sammartino out of the ring, Valiant performed a body slam on him onto the cement floor. He then pushed Sammartino back into the ring. A short while later, all four men began fighting in the ring, and the match ended in a no-contest.

paragraphs: The first championship defense of WrestleMania was between Junkyard Dog (JYD) and the reigning WWF Intercontinental Champion Greg Valentine, who was accompanied to the ring by his manager Jimmy Hart. JYD began the match in the offensive position, performing headbutts and roundhouse right hands on Valentine. As the action went back and forth, Hart climbed on the ring apron, where Valentine accidentally hit him. Later, Valentine pinned JYD with his feet on the ropes for leverage, which is an illegal maneuver. As a result, Tito Santana ran down to the ring and explained what had happened to the match's official. The match was restarted, and JYD eventually won the match by count-out. Valentine, however, kept his title as titles do not change hands through count-out. The following match was a for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Nikolai Volkoff and Iron Sheik, accompanied to the ring by Freddie Blassie, challenged the reigning champions, The U.S. Express (Mike Rotundo and Barry Windham), who were accompanied by Lou Albano. The U.S. Express dominated the early part of the match until Volkoff and The Sheik began to gain the offensive advantage over Rotundo. After Rotundo tagged in his partner Windham, Windham performed a bulldog on The Sheik. After nearly being pinned, The Sheik hit Windham in the head with Blassie's cane as the referee had his back turned. After Volkloff got the pin, Volkoff and The Sheik were crowned as the new tag champions.

paragraphs: The next match on the card was a $15,000 Body Slam Challenge between André the Giant and Big John Studd, who was accompanied by Bobby Heenan. The stipulation of the match was that André the Giant had to body slam Studd to win $15,000, and if he failed, he would be forced to retire. After beginning the match in the defensive position, André countered with chops and a headbutt. After weakening his knees with multiple kicks, André was able to lift Studd over his shoulders and execute a body slam to win the match. After André collected his prize money, he threw some of it into the audience. Heenan, however, grabbed the bag holding the remainder of the winnings and ran from ringside. As a result of the match, André was able to continue his undefeated streak unscathed. After all the men had left ringside, it was time for the WWF Women's Championship match between Wendi Richter, managed by singer Cyndi Lauper, and Leilani Kai, managed by former champion The Fabulous Moolah. Shortly after the match began, Moolah grabbed Richter as she was outside on the floor, but Lauper saved her from an attack. Kai then performed a flying crossbody from the top rope, but Richter used Kai's momentum to roll-up Kai in a pinning position. With this pin, Richter became the new Women's Champion.

paragraphs: The main event and last match of the night pitted Hulk Hogan, the reigning WWF Champion, and Mr. T, accompanied by Jimmy Snuka, against Roddy Piper and Paul Orndorff, accompanied by Cowboy Bob Orton. Professional boxer Muhammad Ali was the special guest referee. First, Piper, Orndorff, and Orton made their way to the ring as drums and bagpipes played, causing the crowd to boo. Crowd favorites Hogan, Mr. T, and Snuka made their way to the ring next. The match began with Mr. T and Piper in the ring and the two traded blows. Mid-way through the match, all four men began brawling in the ring, and Muhammad Ali punched Piper in an attempt to restore order. After the match's order was restored, Orndorff and Piper had the offensive advantage. As Orndorff locked Hogan into a full nelson, Orton climbed the top rope to attempt to knock out Hogan. Instead, Orton mistakenly hit Orndorff, and Hogan pinned him to win the match. In frustration, Piper knocked out the other official, Pat Patterson, and went backstage.

paragraphs: Approximately three months after WrestleMania, Nikolai Volkoff and Iron Sheik lost the title back to The U.S. Express (Mike Rotundo and Barry Windham). They held the title until August, when the team of Brutus Beefcake and Greg Valentine became the new champions. The duo, later known as The Dream Team, revitalized the WWF's tag team scene and feuded with The British Bulldogs.

paragraphs: After André the Giant defeated Big John Studd at the event, Studd formed a tag team with King Kong Bundy, and the duo faced André and Hulk Hogan on a number of occasions.

paragraphs: In late 1985, Wendi Richter was defeated by The Fabulous Moolah, losing her WWF Women's Championship in controversial fashion. Moolah, who wrestled as a masked female wrestler known as The Spider Lady, won the title after convincing an official to call the match in her favor, but Richter was unaware of the planned title change. Richter left the WWF shortly after, and Moolah held the title for approximately two years.

paragraphs: In a new storyline after WrestleMania, Roddy Piper began training Cowboy Bob Orton as a boxer. Hulk Hogan accepted a challenge on the behalf of Mr. T to face Orton in match on an episode of "Saturday Night's Main Event". After Mr. T won the match, Orton and Piper attacked him, leading to a boxing match at WrestleMania II between Piper and Mr. T. At the second annual WrestleMania, Piper was disqualified in the third round.

paragraphs: A technical glitch ended the closed circuit broadcast early into the showing at the Civic Arena in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. To appease angry fans who pelted the screen with garbage, WrestleMania was broadcast in its entirety on a local television station two weeks later.


title: León, Guanajuato

paragraphs: Léon is a city in the state of Guanajuato in Mexico. About 1,150,000 people live in Léon. This makes it the seventh largest city in Mexico and the largest city in Guanajuato.


title: Jim Carey (ice hockey)

paragraphs: Jim Carey (born May 31, 1974 in Dorchester, Massachusetts) is a American retired ice hockey goaltender.


title: Ciudad Juárez

paragraphs: Ciudad Juárez is a city in the Mexician state of Chihuahua. About 1,300,000 people live in Ciudad Juárez. This makes it the fifth largest city in Mexico and the largest city in Chihuahua. It is at the border to the USA, opposite El Paso.


title: San Cristóbal Ecatepec

paragraphs: San Cristóbal Ecatepec (or "Ecatepec de Morelos") is a city in the state of México in Mexico. About 1,700,000 people live there. This makes San Christóbal de Ectatepec the second largest city in Mexico and the largest in the state of México.


title: Jacques Plante

paragraphs: Joseph Jacques Omer "Jake the Snake" Plante (January 17, 1929 – February 27, 1986) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender. He grew up in Shawinigan Falls, Quebec, and began to play hockey in 1932. Plante started to play organized hockey at age 12, and his first professional game was at age 18. He played for the Montreal Canadiens from 1953 to 1963; during this time, the team won the Stanley Cup six times, including five wins in a row.

paragraphs: Plante first retired in 1965, but he was asked to come back to the NHL to play for a new team, the St. Louis Blues, in 1968. Plante was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1970, and then to the Boston Bruins in 1973. He joined the World Hockey Association, first as coach and general manager for the Quebec Nordiques in 1973–74. After his time with Quebec was not successful, Plante played goal for the Edmonton Oilers in 1974–75. Plante retired for the last time during training camp in the 1975-76 season.

paragraphs: Plante is considered one of the most important inventors in ice hockey. Most importantly, Plante was the first NHL goaltender to always wear mask when playing. With the help of other experts, he made and tested many versions of the goalie mask, including a version of today's mask/helmet combination. Plante was the first goaltender to regularly play the puck outside his crease in support of his team's defencemen, and often instructed his teammates from behind the play, as the goaltender usually has the best view of the game.

paragraphs: Plante was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1978. He was chosen as the goaltender of the Canadiens' "dream team" in 1985. He was inducted into the Quebec Sports Pantheon in 1994. Lastly, the Montreal Canadiens retired Plante's sweater, #1, in 1995.

paragraphs: Plante was the eldest of 11 children. In 1949, he married Jacqueline Gagné; they had two sons, Michel and Richard. In 1970, Plante met his second wife, Raymonde Udrisard, with whom he eventually moved to Switzerland. He died in Geneva, on February 27, 1986, shortly after he had been diagnosed with untreatable stomach cancer. He was buried in Sierre.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

paragraphs: The Hockey Hall of Fame () is in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is both a sports history museum and a hall of fame. It holds displays about players, teams, National Hockey League (NHL) records, and NHL trophies, including the Stanley Cup. First opened in Kingston, Ontario, the Hockey Hall of Fame was first began in 1943 by James T. Sutherland. The first group of members was selected in 1945, before the Hall of Fame had a permanent location. It moved to Toronto in 1958 after the NHL took away its support for the Kingston location. Its first permanent building opened at Exhibition Place in 1961. Because the Hall was getting too big for its location, it was moved to an old Bank of Montreal building in downtown Toronto in 1993, where it currently is.


title: Léo Dandurand

paragraphs: Joseph Viateur "Leo" Dandurand (July 9, 1889 – June 26, 1964), was the owner of the Montreal Canadians in the National Hockey League and in the league that evolved into the Canadian Football League.

paragraphs: Dandurand was born in Bourbonnais, Illinois. He moved to Canada with his family when he was 16 years old and attended Collège Sainte-Marie de Montréal. He was a referee in the National Hockey Association and was involved with minor hockey in the Montreal, Quebec area.

paragraphs: On November 2, 1921, Dandurand and his partners, Joseph Cattarinich and Louis Letourneau, purchased the Montreal Canadiens hockey club from the widow of George Kennedy for $11,000. Under Dandurand's ownership, the Canadiens won the Stanley Cup in 1924, 1930, and 1931. Letourneau sold his stake in the club in 1930, and Dandurand and Cattarinich continued as owners until selling the team in 1935 for $165,000.

paragraphs: Along with hockey, Dandurand and his partners were heavily involved with horse racing. In 1932, they bought Blue Bonnets Raceway in Montreal. They owned 17 tracks in Quebec, Ontario, New York, Ohio, Delaware, Illinois, Utah, and Louisiana at the time of Cattarinich's death in 1938. Dandurand was also a boxing and wrestling promoter in Montreal and a director of the Montreal Royals baseball team.

paragraphs: In 1946, Dandurand founded the Montreal Alouettes football team with Eric Cradock and Lew Hayman. The team played in the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union, which later became the CFL's east division.

paragraphs: In his later years, Dandurand owned a successful restaurant in downtown Montreal. He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1963 and died of a heart attack on June 26, 1964 at age 75.

paragraphs: The Leo Dandurand Trophy is a CFL award presented each year to the most outstanding lineman in the East Division.


title: Billy Smith

paragraphs: William John "Battlin' Billy" Smith (born December 12, 1950, in Perth, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey goaltender and is best known for winning four Stanley Cups and being the first goalie to be score a goal.


title: Bill Durnan

paragraphs: William Ronald Durnan (January 22, 1916 – October 31, 1972) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender. He played 7 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). He played his entire NHL career with the Montreal Canadiens. Until Roberto Luongo was named captain of the Vancouver Canucks on September 30, 2008, Durnan was the last goaltender to be a captain in the National Hockey League, and one of only seven ever. Bill Durnan was ambidextrous, meaning he could catch with either hand. This star goalie is one of the greatest Montreal Canadiens in history. He won the Stanley Cup twice with the Canadiens and was a six-time Vezina Trophy winner. Durnan was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964.

paragraphs: Played in NHL All-Star Game in 1947, 1948, 1949


title: 1925–26 NHL season

paragraphs: "Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals For, GA = Goals Against, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: "Note: Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold"

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points"

paragraphs: "GP = Games played, GA = Goals against, SO = Shutouts, GAA = Goals against average"

paragraphs: "Montreal wins total goals series 6 goals to 4"

paragraphs: "Montreal wins total goals series 2 goals to 1."

paragraphs: "Montreal Maroons win best-of-five series 3 games to 1 for the Stanley Cup"

paragraphs: The following is a list of players of note who played their first NHL game in 1925–26 (listed with their first team, stars(*) mark debut in playoffs):

paragraphs: The following is a list of players of note that played their last game in the NHL in 1925–26 (listed with their last team):


title: 1926–27 NHL season

paragraphs: "Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF= Goals For, GA = Goals Against, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played; MIN = Minutes played; GA = Goals against; SO = Shut outs; AVG = Goals against average"

paragraphs: "Montreal Canadiens win total-goals series 2–1"

paragraphs: "Boston wins total-goals series 10 goals to 5"

paragraphs: The following is a list of players of note who played their first NHL game in 1926–27 (listed with their first team, stars(*) mark start was in playoffs):

paragraphs: The following is a list of players of note that played their last game in the NHL in 1926–27 (listed with their last team):


title: 1961–62 NHL season

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: "Note: GP = Games played, G = Goals, A = Assists, PTS = Points, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

paragraphs: The following is a list of players of note who played their first NHL game in 1961–62 (listed with their first team, stars(*) mark debut in playoffs):

paragraphs: The following is a list of players of note that played their last game in the NHL in 1961–62 (listed with their last team):


title: Night of Champions (2008)

paragraphs: WWE Night of Champions was the second yearly Night of Champions professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Though it was the eighth yearly event, it was the second yearly event under the Night of Champions name. It took place on June 29, 2008 at American Airlines Center in Dallas, Texas and featured talent from the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands. The official theme song was "Devour" by Shinedown. As a tradition, every championship in WWE was defended at the event.


title: William M. Jennings Trophy

paragraphs: The William M. Jennings Trophy is an award in the National Hockey League (NHL) given each year to "to the goalkeeper(s) having played a minimum of 25 games for the team with the fewest goals scored against it. Winners are selected based on regular-season play." Up until 1981, the Vezina Trophy had been awarded under that definition, but it was later changed and replaced by the Jennings Trophy. Since it began in 1982, it has been awarded at the end of 25 seasons to 27 different players. The most recent winners are Corey Crawford of the Chicago Blackhawks and Carey Price of the Montreal Canadiens, who both allowed only 189 team goals against for their teams in the 2014–15 NHL season.

paragraphs: Until the 1980–81 season, the Vezina Trophy was awarded to the goaltender(s) of the team allowing the fewest goals during the regular season. However, it was discovered that this often meant the trophy went to the goaltender of the better team rather than the individual, so they changed it to offer the Vezina to the most outstanding goaltender, as voted by the NHL General Managers. The William M. Jennings Trophy was created as a replacement and is given to the goaltender(s) playing for the team with the fewest goals scored against them.

paragraphs: The Jennings Trophy was donated by the NHL's board of governors and first handed out at the end of the 1981–82 season. It is named for the late William M. Jennings, who was a governor and president of the New York Rangers and who helped build ice hockey in the United States. Normally the lowest number of games a goaltender must play to be eligible for the trophy is 25, but for the lockout shortened 1994–95 season, the lowest was fourteen games.

paragraphs: Five players have won both the Jennings and Vezina Trophy for the same season: Patrick Roy (1988–89 and 1991–92), Ed Belfour (1990–91 and 1992–93), Dominik Hasek (1993–94 and 2000–01), Martin Brodeur (2002–03 and 2003–04) and Miikka Kiprusoff (2005–06). Roy has won the trophy five times, the most of any goaltender. Belfour and Brodeur are tied for second, having each won the trophy four times. It has been won most often by the Montreal Canadiens, on 5 occasions. The New Jersey Devils have won four times, and Buffalo Sabres and Chicago Blackhawks have three wins each.

paragraphs: Bold Player with the fewest goals ever scored against in a season.

paragraphs: "For the 2002–03 season, there was a tie between Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils and Robert Esche and Roman Cechmanek of the Philadelphia Flyers. This is the only time that there has been a tie between players from different teams."


title: Gemsbok

paragraphs: The gemsbok or gemsbuck ("Oryx gazella") is an African plains antelope. They are found all over Africa, especially Tanzania, Namibia and South Africa.

paragraphs: Gemsboks live in a herd of 10-40. The herds are usually set up with a dominant male and female as leaders of the herd. The males have striaght pointed horns and have been known to attack and kill lions and other predators by impaling them. The females are the same, but sometimes have curved horns.

paragraphs: There are two varieties of gemsbok. A Northern Gemsbuck and a Southern Gemsbok. The northern variety have black fringed ears and live in the more northern parts of Africa. The Southern variety have longer horns and live in the southern parts of Africa.


title: The Left Hand of Darkness

paragraphs: The Left Hand of Darkness is a science fiction book that was written by Ursula K. Le Guin in 1969. It won the 1969 Nebula and 1970 Hugo awards.


title: Akan language

paragraphs: Akan is a language group spoken by related peoples in mainly Ghana and eastern Côte d'Ivoire. It is understood by roughly 99% of Ghana's population.


title: Akkadian language

paragraphs: Akkadian (') or Assyro-Babylonian was a Semitic language (part of the Afro-Asiatic language family) that was spoken in ancient Iraq. The first-known Semitic language, it used the cuneiform writing system from ancient Sumer.

paragraphs: Akkadian is divided into several varieties based on geography and historical period:

paragraphs: The earliest known Akkadian inscription was found on a bowl at Ur. It was addressed to a very early pre-Sargonic king of Ur by his queen Gan-saman, who is thought to have been from Akkad.

paragraphs: The Akkadian Empire, established by Sargon of Akkad, introduced the Akkadian language (the "language of Akkad") as a written language. It used Sumerian cuneiform orthography (writing method) for the purpose. During the middle Bronze Age (Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian period), the language displaced Sumerian. Sumerian probably became extinct as a living language by the 18th century BC.


title: Afar language

paragraphs: The Afar language () (also known as ’Afar Af, Afaraf, Qafar af) is a lowland East Cushitic language spoken by the Afar people in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti. It is thought to have 1.5 million speakers. Its most similar language is the Saho language.


title: Abkhaz language

paragraphs: Abkhaz is a Northwest Caucasian language spoken mostly in Abkhazia (Georgia) and Turkey. It is the official language of Georgia's Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, where around 100,000 people speak it.


title: Adyghe language

paragraphs: The Adyghe language is one of the two main languages of the Republic of Adygea in the Russian Federation. It is spoken by many tribes of the Adyghe people. The language is called by its speakers ""Adygebze"" or ""Adəgăbză"", and can also be spelled in English as "Adygean", "Adygeyan" or "Adygei". It is also called "Circassian".


title: WWE Brand Extension

paragraphs: The World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment (WWF/E) Brand Extension was a draft first used in 2002 by WWE with the purpose of dividing WWE Superstars into two brands, "RAW" and "SmackDown!". In 2006 "ECW" was added to the draft.

paragraphs: After buying World Championship Wrestling (WCW), its business opponent through the 1990s, in March 2001, the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) wanted to find a way to split itself into two separate brands, because of the numbers of Superstars that it had gotten as part of WCW's purchase. On March 18, 2002, Linda McMahon announced the "brand extension" in which the company would be split into two distinct brands.

paragraphs: In terms of storyline, Ric Flair had become co-owner of the WWF following Survivor Series 2001 where Shane and Stephanie McMahon sold their stocks to Flair in order to buy WCW and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW). Vince McMahon did not like having to share his creation with Flair and looked for a way to stop their partnership. After entering a feud with The Undertaker, Flair sought a match with him at WrestleMania X8. However, the WWF Board of Directors would only allow the match if Flair were to give all control of the WWF to McMahon. Flair agreed, however, the Board also reserved the right to review the ownership status of the WWF following WrestleMania. Their decision was to split the entire WWF roster into two separate brands, with Vince McMahon in control of the SmackDown! brand and Ric Flair in control of the RAW brand. A draft was started the following week on "RAW". Each owner would get a total of thirty picks. The brand extension officially began on April 1, 2002. By having two brands in place, the WWF was able to increase the number of live events held each year from 200 to 350.

paragraphs: The 2002 World Wrestling Federation (WWF) Brand Extension Draft took place at Penn State University in State College, Pennsylvania on March 25, 2002. The first half of the draft was televised live on TNN for two hours, on WWE's flagship program, Raw. The second half, or the supplemental draft, was conducted over the internet on WWF's official website, WWF.com. There were thirty draft picks, with sixty superstars drafted overall by co-owners of the WWF, Ric Flair and Vince McMahon, onto their respective brands, RAW and SmackDown!. For the televised half of the draft, ten brand selections were manually made by Flair and McMahon. The supplemental draft was however conducted as a draft lottery, with each brand receiving twenty random draft selections.

paragraphs: On the March 18, 2002 episode of "RAW", Vince McMahon won a coin toss to determine who would receive the first draft selection.

paragraphs: On the June 10, 2002 edition of "Raw", McMahon became the only owner of World Wrestling Entertainment when he defeated Flair in a No Holds Barred match.

paragraphs: After World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) bought all of Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) in 2003, the company began releasing DVDs showing the original ECW. Soon afterwards, the company promoted two ECW reunion shows for ECW Alumni entitled, ECW One Night Stand in 2005 and in 2006.

paragraphs: On May 26, 2006, WWE announced a new brand, ECW, a revival of the 1990s show. The new brand debuted on its current network, the SCI FI Channel on June 13 2006.

paragraphs: The 2006 World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) Brand Extension Draft took place from the Tacoma Dome in Tacoma, Washington on May 29, 2006, where ECW representative, Paul Heyman, drafted two superstars, one from SmackDown! and one from RAW onto the new ECW brand.

paragraphs: In late 2007, SmackDown! and ECW superstars began to appear on both shows as part of a (kayfabe) deal between ECW General Manager Armando Estrada and SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero.

paragraphs: Interbrand competition was kept at a minimum, with superstars from all brands competing together only at pay-per-view events. However, in 2003, all pay per view events became brand exclusive, leaving the "big four" pay-per-views (WrestleMania, SummerSlam, Survivor Series, and the Royal Rumble) as the only interbrand shows.

paragraphs: Starting in late 2006, in an attempt to add more star power to the shows, interbrand matches became more common. Most notably, MNM and The Hardys reformed, despite the fact that the teammates were on separate brands. Bobby Lashley is also notable for his interbrand action, who was involved in a storyline with the WWE Chairman, Vince McMahon. The return of "Saturday Night's Main Event" to NBC has also lead to more interaction between the brands.

paragraphs: The separation of the WWE roster between two brands also intended to split the pay-per-view offerings, which began with Bad Blood in June 2003. The original idea had the "major" pay-per-view events at the time (Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, Survivor Series, and WrestleMania) would contain the only instances where wrestlers from different brands would interact with each other, and even among the four shows only the Royal Rumble and WrestleMania would have wrestlers from different brands competing against each other. Wrestlers, as a result, appeared only in 2/3 of the shows. Eventually, WWE abandoned the practice of single-brand pay-per-view events following WrestleMania 23. December to Dismember and New Year's Revolution were cancelled following the announcement.

paragraphs: Initially, the WWE Undisputed Championship and WWE Women's Championship were available to both brands. The other championships were exclusive to the brand the champion was a part of. With several specialty championships being exclusive to one brand, numerous wrestlers were left with no title to fight for.

paragraphs: This issue was solved in September 2002 when the Undisputed Championship became the WWE Championship again and was moved to SmackDown! while Eric Bischoff created the World Heavyweight Championship for RAW.<ref name="WWE/World"></ref> Shortly thereafter, SmackDown! created their own

paragraphs: Raw created WWE Raw Tag Team Championship, revived the United States Championship, and became the exclusive home of the Cruiserweight Championship. Meanwhile, Smackdown became the exclusive brand for WWE's original WWE SMACKDOWN TAG TEAM Championship, the Intercontinental Championship, and the Women's Championship. The end result was each brand having four championships. When ECW was revived in 2006, the ECW Championship was re-established and is that brand's world title.


title: Alemannic German

paragraphs: Alemannic German () is a group of dialects of the Upper German branch of the Germanic language family. It is spoken by about ten million people in six countries including southern Germany, Switzerland, France, Austria, Liechtenstein, and Italy. In Switzerland it is sometimes called Swiss German.

paragraphs: In contrast to other languages, Alemannic German is only a spoken language; there is no fixed orthography for the language.


title: Royal Rumble

paragraphs: The Royal Rumble is a yearly professional wrestling pay-per-view event, aired every January by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). The show's main event is a Battle Royal-type match, named the Royal Rumble match. The pay-per-view is part of WWE's "Big Four", along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series. The Royal Rumble is also one of WWE's more popular pay-per-views.

paragraphs: Since 1993, the winner of the Rumble match has received a title match at that year's WrestleMania.

paragraphs: The idea behind the Royal Rumble match is credited to Pat Patterson. Before the match begins, the contestants draw spots in the Rumble. The match consists of thirty men, beginning with the two men who chose entry numbers one and two in the ring. At regular timed intervals, usually ninety seconds, one of the remaining 28 wrestlers enters the ring. Participants must eliminate all other opponents, and the winner of the event is the last wrestler remaining after all others have been eliminated.

paragraphs: Similar to a Battle Royal, a wrestler is eliminated when thrown over the top rope, with both feet touching the floor. A referee, who is seated at ringside, must see an elimination in order for it to be valid. A wrestler who is eliminated without a referee noticing may sometimes sneak back into the match. For example, Stone Cold Steve Austin was eliminated during the 1997 event, but he re-entered without the referees' seeing and eventually won the match. A wrestler who leaves the ring without going over the top rope is not eliminated from the match. During the 1999 Rumble match, both Vince McMahon and Steve Austin left the ring, only to return later in the match. In the 1994 match, the last two wrestlers, Bret Hart and Lex Luger were declared co-winners when it was decided that both of their feet touched the floor at the same time. A similar situation occurred in the 2005 match, however the match was restarted after Batista and John Cena eliminated each other at the same time. Batista eliminated Cena afterwards to win the match.

paragraphs: The reward for the 1992 Royal Rumble was the WWF Championship. The tradition of granting a WWE Championship match at WrestleMania started in 1993. Beginning in 2004, the winner had their choice of a World Heavyweight Championship or WWE Championship match at WrestleMania. Due to the revival of the ECW World Championship as a brand championship in mid-2006, the 2007 Rumble added this championship as a choice to the winning wrestler. From 2001 to 2007 the Royal Rumble match winner has gone on to win a World Championship title at WrestleMania. After winning the 2008 match, John Cena became the first to use his championship opportunity at an event other than WrestleMania. He also became the first man since 2000 to win the Royal Rumble match but fail to win the title in his championship opportunity as a result.

paragraphs: The Royal Rumble is a pay-per-view consisting of the Royal Rumble match, championship matches, and various other matches. The first Royal Rumble took place on January 24, 1988 and was broadcast live on the USA Network. The following year, the event became a pay-per-view. It is part of WWE's "classic five" pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, Survivor Series, SummerSlam, and King of the Ring.

paragraphs: The Royal Rumble match is usually at the top of the card. However, it is not always the case, as the 2006 event had the match in the middle of the pay-per-view.

paragraphs: The first Rumble match featured only twenty men, and it was called the Rumble Royale. It lasted about 33 minutes of the 2-hour broadcast. Today, Rumble matches are much longer, with the longest match, at the 2002 event, lasting over 1 hour and 9 minutes of a 3-hour pay-per-view.

paragraphs: With the brand extension introduced in mid-2002, the 30 entrants from 2003 to 2006 had 15 wrestlers from both the RAW and SmackDown! brands. At first, the winner of the match received a shot at his brand's champion. Starting in 2004, the Rumble winner had the option of challenging either brand's champion. For instance, Chris Benoit switched brands in 2004 and won the World Heavyweight Championship. The 2007 Royal Rumble marked the first year participants from the ECW brand competed along with the RAW and SmackDown! brands. The winner of the Royal Rumble now has the option to challenge for the ECW World Championship as well.

paragraphs: The 2008 Royal Rumble was the first WWE pay-per-view to be aired in HD.

paragraphs: On March 13, 2007, WWE released a full DVD box-set called "Royal Rumble: The Complete Anthology", which showcases every Royal Rumble event in its entirety.


title: WrestleMania XX

paragraphs: WrestleMania XX was the twentieth WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It took place on March 14, 2004 at Madison Square Garden in New York. It was a joint-promotion pay-per-view event, with performers from the Raw and SmackDown! brands. The tagline for WrestleMania XX was ""Where it all Begins... Again"". The official theme song for the event was ""Step Up"" by Drowning Pool. The secondary theme song was ""Touché"" by Godsmack. The event was the third WrestleMania at Madison Square Garden, but the fourth to take place in the New York metropolitan area (after WrestleMania I, WrestleMania 2, and WrestleMania X). The celebrated return made more than $2.4 million in ticket sales, making the Pay-Per-View the highest grossing WWE event ever to be at Madison Square Garden. A sold-out Madison Square Garden had more than 20,000 people from 16 countries, and 48 states. Fans from more than 90 countries watched the event on television.

paragraphs: The card for the event has two main events. The main match for the Raw brand was a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Champion Triple H, Shawn Michaels and Chris Benoit. Benoit won the match, doing the Crippler Crossface, making Triple H let him win after that. The main match for the SmackDown! brand has Eddie Guerrero versus Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship. Guerrero won it after a Small package. The event also had the returning Undertaker beat Kane after a Tombstone Piledriver.

paragraphs: The main feud at the start of the pay-per-view was on the Raw brand, with Triple H, Shawn Michaels and Chris Benoit feuding over the World Heavyweight Championship. Triple H was the champion going into the event. At the Royal Rumble event two months before, Triple H and Michaels had fought each other with the World Heavyweight Championship, they were both trying to win the Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a draw after neither of them could answer a ten-count when Michaels did the Superkick. As a result, Triple H kept the title. Also at the pay-per-view, in the real Royal Rumble match, SmackDown!'s Benoit won the contest, eliminating The Big Show last. The next night, on the January 26 edition of "Raw", Michaels and Triple H had a in-ring promo when Raw's Sheriff, Stone Cold Steve Austin then came into the ring. He said that, even though Michaels should have a rematch, he had to "enforce the law." He also said that, in the rules it says that the winner of the Royal Rumble may face either the WWE Champion or World Heavyweight Champion. The winner of the Royal Rumble, Benoit went into the ring, and said that he would be fighting the World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania XX. On the February 2 edition of "Raw", Benoit was booked to play in his first contest on the brand, defeating Mark Henry, while making him submit to the Crippler Crossface in front of Triple H, who tried to distract Benoit. Both Triple H and Michaels were also in singles action later in night, defeating Spike Dudley and Randy Orton respectively. After the Michaels fought Orton, Triple H tried to attack Michaels, but Benoit chased Triple H away. Benoit and Michaels then went on to shake hands. The next week on "Raw", after Benoit defeated Ric Flair, a contract signing for the World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XX took place. Triple H signed the contract for the match, but just as Benoit was about to sign the contract to confirm the match, Michaels made his way to the ring. Michaels stated that he wanted to finish his long-running feud with Triple H at Madison Square Garden. As Benoit was about to say that is not going to happen, Michaels cut him off by Superkicking him. Michaels then went on to sign the contract. On the February 16 edition of "Raw", Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff said that Triple H should defend his championship against either Michaels and Benoit on that night, but Triple H rejected the proposal. Benoit, however, made his way to the ring, and put Triple H in the Crossface submission maneuver. Because Triple H rejected the proposal, Bischoff booked a match between Michaels and Benoit for the main event. Benoit looked set to win, but Triple H distracted him, allowing Michaels to perform the Superkick on Benoit. Triple H began to celebrate with Michaels, but instead did the Pedigree on Michaels. Moments later, Austin came to ringside, and said that Triple H would defend the title against both Michaels and Benoit at WrestleMania in a Triple Threat match.

paragraphs: The event began with the Boys Choir of Harlem singing "America the Beautiful". The first match that aired was a singles match between The Big Show and John Cena for the WWE United States Championship. In the beginning of the match Cena scoop slammed The Big Show twice. Cena then grabbed his signature chain and attacked Big Show with it. However the referee saw Cena and took the chain from him. With the referee holding the chain with his back turned, Cena hit Big Show with hidden brass knuckles. And then did his signature FU maneuver. Cena then quickly pinned The Big Show to win the match and the United States Championship. This match was the first time that the United States Championship had been defended at a WrestleMania.

paragraphs: The next match was a Fatal Four-Way tag match between Rob Van Dam and Booker T, Garrison Cade and Mark Jindrak, The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray and D-Von) and La Résistance (René Duprée and Rob Conway) for the World Tag Team Championship. The match ended when Conway was pinned by Van Dam after Booker T used his Scissor kick maneuver on Conway. That was followed by Van Dam's Five-Star Frog Splash. Booker T and Rob Van Dam kept the titles as a result.

paragraphs: The third match was between Christian and Chris Jericho. Christian won the match after Trish Stratus hit Jericho on the face with her elbow. Next up was a Handicap match with Evolution (Randy Orton, Batista and Ric Flair) and The Rock 'n' Sock Connection (The Rock and Mick Foley). Evolution won the match when Orton pinned Foley after successfully executing an RKO.

paragraphs: "Mean" Gene Okerlund then introduced the WWE Hall of Fame Class of 2004. This was followed by a Playboy Evening Gown Match with Torrie Wilson and Sable against Stacy Keibler and Miss Jackie. Wilson pinned Jackie for the win. The next match was a Cruiserweight Open for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship. Cruiserweight fighter stood outside the ring, while two fighters wrestled in the ring. As one wrestler lost, another one e went in the ring. Último Dragón pinned Shannon Moore, but was then pinned by Jamie Noble. The next person to lose was Funaki, who was pinned by Noble. Nunzio then lost by count out when he was unable to return to the ring after doing a dive through the ropes onto Noble. Billy Kidman then entered the match, pinning and eliminating Noble. Kidman was then pinned and eliminated by Rey Mysterio. Tajiri was next to fight, but was pinned by Mysterio. Akio was the next scheduled fighter, but was not able to compete because he was inadvertently attacked by Tajiri when Mysterio ducked. The Crusierweight Champion, Chavo Guerrero was the final entrant and pinned Mysterio to win with the assistance of his father Chavo Guerrero, Sr., thus keeping the WWE Cruiserweight Championship.

paragraphs: The seventh match had Brock Lesnar and Goldberg with special guest referee, Steve Austin. The beginning of the match began with both men staring each other down, making much heat from the fans throughout the match. Goldberg then took Lesnar down with a Spear, that would only draw a two count after a pin attempt. Lesnar then did the F-5 maneuver on Goldberg, but also resulted in a two-count pin attempt. Afterwards, Lesnar missed an attempt to knock Goldberg down, allowing Goldberg to execute another spear and a successful Jackhammer maneuver that led to a three count for Goldberg, thus winning the match. After the match, Steve Austin did a Stone Cold Stunner on both fighters to the crowd's delight and celebrated with beer in the ring.

paragraphs: The eight match was the encounter of Victoria and Molly Holly for the WWE Women's Championship, where Holly would have to be shaved bald if she lost. Victoria would counter a Widow's peak maneuver attempt by Holly into a Backslide pin, drawing a three count, thus winning the match and retaining the WWE Women's Championship. Holly tried running towards the backstage area to escape the match's stipulation, but was eventually stopped by Victoria who would knock her out and place her onto the barber's chair, shaving her bald.

paragraphs: The next match had Eddie Guerrero and Kurt Angle fighting over the WWE Championship. Guerrero used a DDT and Frog Splash maneuver on Angle that would result in a two-count pin attempt. Angle then secured Guerrero with an Ankle lock hold. However, Guerrero escaped the hold by rolling through it and throwing Angle out of the ring. As Angle was outside, Guerrero loosened his ring boot to relieve the pain. As Angle returned to the ring, he applied another Ankle lock on Guerrero that would end up being unsuccessful with Guerrero escaping the hold by pushing Angle off with his other foot leaving Angle holding the Guerrero's loosened ring boot. With Angle confused, Guerrero did a Roll-up pin maneuver leading to a successful pinfall, thus winning the match and retaining the WWE Championship.

paragraphs: The tenth match of the event was the encounter of The Undertaker and Kane, which would be Undertaker's first match since he was buried alive at Survivor Series 2003. The Undertaker made his return under his "Deadman" gimmick, as he was accompanied to the ring by Paul Bearer. The two wrestlers brawled in the beginning of the match, until Kane used a Chokeslam maneuver on Undertaker, which made no effect as Undertaker sat up immediately afterwards. The Undertaker then retaliated by Chokeslamming Kane and executing a Tombstone piledriver into a successful pinfall, thus winning the match and remaining undefeated at WrestleMania with a 12-0 record.

paragraphs: The main event was a Triple threat match over the World Heavyweight Championship between Triple H, Chris Benoit, and Shawn Michaels. This was the seventh title defense of the night, the most in WrestleMania history. Benoit gained control over Michaels when he did the Crossface hold. As Michaels was about to submit, Triple H would save the match. Triple H and Michaels teamed up to suplex Benoit through the announcer's table. Michaels then attempted to hit Benoit with a Sweet Chin Music maneuver, but Benoit countered it, throwing Michaels out of the ring. As this occurred, Triple H attempted to Pedigree Benoit. However, Benoit also countered it and held Triple H with Crossface hold that would force Triple H to submit. As a result, Benoit won the match and the World Heavyweight Championship.

paragraphs: Even though WWE tried hard to promote the Brock Lesnar versus Goldberg contest, some critics were not happy with the match. Many in Madison Square Garden booed the fighters, and only cheered for Steve Austin because both of the fighters were leaving the WWE after the event.

paragraphs: At Backlash, the original main event match was between Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels for the World Heavyweight Championship. But on the March 29 edition of "Raw", after being traded to SmackDown! and brought back to Raw, Triple H said that the match at Backlash be changed to Benoit against Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship. Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff liked the idea of the match, but ended by saying that he made a promise to Michaels to give him a World title match at Backlash; instead, Bischoff booked a Triple Threat match between Benoit, Michaels and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship. At Backlash, Benoit kept the World title, after he made Michaels submit to the Sharpshooter.

paragraphs: The feud between Kurt Angle and Eddie Guerrero continued. On the March 25 edition of "SmackDown!", Angle was made the on-screen General Manager of SmackDown!, as part to the storyline of Angle's legit neck problems. This angle would also play on the April 15 edition of "SmackDown!", when he said talked abou the injuries he got when The Big Show chokeslammed Angle off a ledge. In reality Angle said that he would be heaving neck surgery in May and would not be fighting until August. At The Great American Bash, Angle cost Guerrero the WWE title in a Texas Bull Rope match against John "Bradshaw" Layfield, after Angle changed the result of the match when Guerrero looked to have won the title. In the same month, Angle's position as General Manager of SmackDown! came to an end when he was fired by WWE Chairman Vince McMahon, after McMahon had exposed that Angle was not really injured. At SummerSlam, Angle and Guerrero were booked in a match, in which it saw Angle defeat Guerrero after he made Guerrero submit to the Ankle lock.