title: Herpes zoster

paragraphs: Herpes zoster (also known as shingles or zona) is a disease in humans. The same virus that causes chickenpox also causes shingles. The symptoms are pain and a rash with blisters. The shingles vaccine reduces the risk of shingles. Antivirus medicine can reduce the seriousness and duration of shingles if started within 3 days of the rash.

paragraphs: Shingles is a viral disease produced by the (VZV), the same virus that causes chicken pox. Its symptoms include pain and a blistering rash that occurs along the nerves that contain dormant virus. You can not catch shingles. However, you can catch chicken pox through direct contact with someone who has shingles, by touching the area of the rash. Most people who get shingles are old. It sometimes infects younger people, or people with a weakened immune system. Stress may trigger shingles. The disease starts with tingling, itchiness, or pain on an infected person's skin. After a few days, the disease causes a blistering rash. This rash may be on the trunk or face. The rash grows into small blisters filled with fluid. These blisters dry out and crust over for several days. The rash causes anything from mild itching to extreme pain. The rash stays in one region of the body.

paragraphs: The shingles virus is contagious from person to person only by direct contact. For this reason, persons with shingles are advised to limit contact with those who are not immune to chicken pox, those with increased risk are young children and pregnant women. Contracting chickenpox when one is pregnant can be dangerous to the unborn child.

paragraphs: If people have had chickenpox, they cannot get chickenpox from someone else again. However, it is thought that contact with a shingles patient may trigger a person's own dormant chickenpox virus to become shingles.

paragraphs: Doctors recommend antiviral drugs, steroids, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and topical agents to treat shingles. The antiviral drugs acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famcyclovir can reduce the severity of shingles.

paragraphs: Shingles can be very painful and itchy. It is not very dangerous to healthy people, and it usually ends without major problems. The rash and pain last 3 to 5 weeks. Sometimes, serious problems like temporary, partial facial paralysis, ear damage, or

paragraphs: encephalitis may occur. Persons with shingles on the upper half of the face need immediate medical attention: the virus may cause serious damage to the eyes. Most people who have shingles have only one attack of the disease in their lifetime. However, people with AIDS, cancer or weak immune systems may have multiple attacks.


title: A Brief History of Time

paragraphs: A Brief History of Time (1988) is a book written by the scientist and mathematician Stephen Hawking. The subject of the book is cosmology, the story of the universe.

paragraphs: There are two other versions of this book: The "Illustrated A Brief History of Time" and "A Briefer History of Time". The Illustrated A Brief History of Time has pictures to help explain its ideas. It was also updated because new information was found. A Briefer History of Time is shorter than the first version and was also updated.

paragraphs: This book is very popular and well-known. This book was on the "London Sunday Times" bestseller list for over 4 years.

paragraphs: In this book, Hawking talks about many theories in physics. Some of the things that he talks about are the history of physics, gravity, how light moves in the universe, space-time, elementary particles (very small objects that make up things in the universe), black holes, the Big Bang (the theory that the universe started from one point), and time travel (the idea that travel can be done to the past and to the future.)

paragraphs: In the first part of the book, Hawking talks about the history of physics. He talks about the ideas of philosophers such as Aristotle and Ptolemy. Aristotle, unlike many other people of his time, thought that the Earth was round. He also thought that the sun and stars went around the Earth. Ptolemy also thought about how the sun and stars were located in the universe. He made a planetary model that described Aristotle's thinking. Today, it is known that the opposite is true; the earth goes around the sun. The Aristotle/Ptolemy ideas about the position of the stars and sun was disproved in 1609. The person who first thought of the idea about the Earth going around the sun was Nicholas Copernicus. Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler, two other scientists, helped to prove that Copernicus's idea was right. They looked at how the moons of some planets moved in the sky, and they used this to prove Copernicus right. Isaac Newton also wrote a book about gravity, which helped to prove Copernicus's idea right.

paragraphs: Hawking describes the motion of planets moving around the sun and how gravity works between the planets and the sun. He also talks about the ideas of absolute rest and absolute position. These ideas are about the thought that events stay in place over a period of time. This was found not to be true by Newton's laws of gravity. The idea of "absolute rest" did not work when objects move very fast (at the speed of light, or light speed).

paragraphs: The speed of light was first measured in 1676 by the Danish astronomer Ole Christensen Roemer. The speed of light was found to be very fast, but at a finite speed. However, scientists found a problem when they tried to say that light always travelled at the same speed. The scientists created a new idea, called the "ether", which tried to explain light's speed.

paragraphs: Albert Einstein said the idea of the ether was not needed if another idea, the idea of "absolute time" (or time that is always the same) was dropped. Einstein's idea was also the same as Henry Poincare's idea. Einstein's idea is called the theory of relativity.

paragraphs: Hawking also talks about light. He says that events can be described by "light cones". The top of the light cone tells where the light from the event will travel. The bottom tells where the light was in the past. The center of the light cone is the event. Besides light cones, Hawking also talks about how light can bend. When light goes past a big mass, like a star, the light changes direction slightly towards the mass.

paragraphs: After talking about light, Hawking talks about time in Einstein's theory of relativity. One prediction that Einstein's theory makes is that time will go by slower when something is near huge masses. However, when something is farther away from the mass, time will go by faster. Hawking used the idea of two twins living at different places to describe his idea. If one of the twins went to live on a mountain, and another twin went to live near the sea, the twin who went to live on the mountain would be a little bit older than the twin who went to live at the sea.

paragraphs: Hawking talks about the expanding universe. The universe is getting bigger over time. One of the things he uses to explain his idea is the "Doppler shift". The Doppler shift happens when something moves toward or away from another object. There are two types of things that happen in Doppler shift - "red shifting" and "blue shifting". Red shifting happens when something is moving away from us. This is caused by the wavelength of the visible light reaching us increasing, and the frequency decreasing, which shifts the visible light towards the red/infra-red end of the electromagnetic spectrum. Red-shift is linked to the belief that the universe is expanding as the wavelength of the light is increasing, almost as if stretched as planets and galaxies move away from us, which shares similarities to that of the Doppler effect, involving sound waves. Blue shifting happens when something is moving toward us, the opposite process of red-shift, in which the wavelength decreases and frequency increases, shifting the light towards the blue end of the spectrum. A scientist named Edwin Hubble found that many stars are red shifted and are moving away from us. Hawking uses the Doppler shift to explain that the universe is getting bigger. The beginning of the universe is thought to have happened through something called the "Big Bang". The Big Bang was a very big explosion that created the universe.

paragraphs: The uncertainty principle says that the speed and the position of a particle cannot be found at the same time. To find where a particle is, scientists shine light at the particle. If a high frequency light is used, the light can find the position more accurately but the particle's speed will be unknown (because the light will change the speed of the particle). If a lower frequency light is used, the light can find the speed more accurately but the particle's position will be unknown. The uncertainty principle disproved the idea of a theory that was deterministic, or something that would predict everything in the future.

paragraphs: How light behaves is also talked more about in this chapter. Some theories say that light acts like particles even though it really is made of waves; one theory that says this is Planck's quantum hypothesis. A different theory also says that light waves also act like particles; a theory that says this is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

paragraphs: Light waves have "crests" and "troughs". The highest point of a wave is the crest, and the lowest part of the wave is a trough. Sometimes more than one of these waves can interfere with each other - the crests and the troughs line up. This is called "light interference". When light waves interfere with each other, this can make many colors. An example of this is the colors in soap bubbles.

paragraphs: Quarks are very small things that make up everything we see (matter). There are six different "flavors" of quarks: the up quark, down quark, strange quark, charmed quark, bottom quark, and top quark. Quarks also have three "colors": red, green, and blue. There are also anti-quarks, which are the opposite of the regular quarks. In total, there are 18 different types of regular quarks, and 18 different types of anti quarks. Quarks are known as the "building blocks of matter" because they are the smallest thing that make up all the matter in the universe.

paragraphs: All elementary particles (for example, the quarks) have something called "spin". The "spin" of a particle shows us what a particle looks like from different directions. For example, a particle of spin 0 looks the same from every direction. A particle of spin 1 looks different in every direction, unless the particle is spun completely around (360 degrees). Hawking's example of a particle of spin 1 is an arrow. A particle of spin two needs to be turned around halfway (or 180 degrees) to look the same. The example given in the book is of a double-headed arrow. There are two groups of particles in the universe: particles with a spin of 1/2, and particles with a spin of 0, 1, or 2. All of these particles follow "Pauli's exclusion principle". Pauli's exclusion principle says that particles cannot be in the same place or have the same speed. If Pauli's exclusion principle did not exist, then everything in the universe would look the same, like a roughly uniform and dense "soup".

paragraphs: Particles with a spin of 0, 1, or 2 move force from one particle to another. Some examples of these particles are "virtual gravitons" and "virtual photons". Virtual gravitons have a spin of 2 and they represent the force of gravity. This means that when gravity affects two things, gravitons move to and from the two things. Virtual photons have a spin of 1 and represent electromagnetic forces (or the force that holds atoms together).

paragraphs: Besides the force of gravity and the electromagnetic forces, there are weak and strong nuclear forces. "Weak nuclear forces" are the forces that cause radioactivity, or when matter emits energy. Weak nuclear force works on particles with a spin of 1/2. "Strong nuclear forces" are the forces that keep the quarks in a neutron and a proton together, and keeps the protons and neutrons together in an atom. The particle that carries the strong nuclear force is thought to be a gluon. The gluon is a particle with a spin of 1. The gluon holds together quarks to form protons and neutrons. However, the gluon only holds together quarks that are three different colors. This makes the end product have no color. This is called "confinement".

paragraphs: Some scientists have tried to make a theory that combines the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force. This theory is called a "grand unified theory" (or a GUT). This theory tries to explain these forces in one big unified way or theory.

paragraphs: Black holes are stars that have collapsed into one very small point. This small point is called a "singularity".This singularity is a point of space-time which rotates at a high speed.That is the reason that black holes have no time. Black holes suck things into their center because its gravity is very strong. Some of the things it can suck in are light and stars. Only very large stars, called "super-giants", are big enough to become a black hole. The star must be one and a half times the mass of the sun or larger to turn into a black hole. This number is called the "Chandrasekhar limit". If the mass of a star is less than the Chandrasekhar limit, it will not turn into a black hole; instead, it will turn into a different, smaller type of star. The boundary of the black hole is called the "event horizon". If something is in the event horizon, it will never get out of the black hole.

paragraphs: Black holes can be shaped differently. Some black holes are perfectly spherical - like a ball. Other black holes bulge in the middle. Black holes will be spherical if they do not rotate. Black holes will bulge in the middle if they rotate.

paragraphs: Black holes are difficult to find because they do not let out any light. They can be found when black holes suck in other stars. When black holes suck in other stars, the black hole lets out X-rays, which can be seen by telescopes. Hawking talks about his bet with another scientist, Kip Thorne. Hawking bet that black holes did not exist, because he did not want his work on black holes to be wasted. He lost the bet.

paragraphs: Hawking realized that the event horizon of a black hole could only get bigger, not smaller. The area of the event horizon of a black hole gets bigger whenever something falls into the black hole. He also realized that when two black holes combine, the size of the new event horizon is greater than or equal to the sum of the event horizons of the two other black holes. This means that a black hole's event horizon can never get smaller.

paragraphs: Disorder, also known as "entropy", is related to black holes. There is a scientific law that has to do with entropy. This law is called the "second law of thermodynamics", and it says that entropy (or disorder) will always increase in an isolated system (for example, the universe). The relation between the amount of entropy in a black hole and the size of the black hole's event horizon was first thought of by a research student (Jacob Bekenstein) and proven by Hawking, whose calculations said that black holes emit radiation. This was strange, because it was already said that nothing can escape from a black hole's event horizon.

paragraphs: This problem was solved when the idea of pairs of "virtual particles" was thought of. One of the pair of particles would fall into the black hole, and the other would escape. This would look like the black hole was emitting particles. This idea seemed strange at first, but many people accepted it after a while.

paragraphs: Most scientists believe that the universe started in an explosion called the Big Bang. The model for this is called the "hot big bang model". When the universe starts getting bigger, the things inside of it also begin to get cooler. When the universe was first beginning, it was infinitely hot. The temperature of the universe cooled and the things inside the universe began to clump together.

paragraphs: Hawking also talks about how the universe could have been. For example, if the universe formed and then collapsed quickly, there would not be enough time for life to form. Another example would be a universe that expanded too quickly. If a universe expanded too quickly, it would become almost empty. The idea of many universes is called the "many-worlds interpretation".

paragraphs: Inflationary models are also discussed in this chapter, and so is the idea of a theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity.

paragraphs: Each particle has many histories. This idea is known as Feynman's theory of sum over histories. A theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity should have Feynman's theory in it. To find the chance that a particle will pass through a point, the waves of each particle needs to be added up. These waves happen in imaginary time. Imaginary numbers, when multiplied by themselves, make a negative number. For example, 2i X 2i = -4.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

paragraphs: Alexander Graham Bell (March 3, 1847 - August 2, 1922) was a teacher, scientist, and inventor. He was the founder of the Bell Telephone Company.

paragraphs: Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His family was known for teaching people how to speak English clearly (elocution). Both his grandfather, Alexander Bell, and his father, Alexander Melville Bell, taught elocution. His father wrote often about this and is most known for his invention and writings of Visible Speech. In his writings he explained ways of teaching people who were deaf and unable to speak. It also showed how these people could learn to speak words by watching their lips and reading what other people were saying.

paragraphs: Alexander Graham Bell went to the Royal High School of Edinburgh. He graduated at the age of fifteen. At the age of sixteen, he got a job as a student and teacher of elocution and music in Weston House Academy, at Elgin in Morayshire. He spent the next year at the University of Edinburgh. While still in Scotland, he became more interested in the science of sound (acoustics). He hoped to help his deaf mother. From 1866 to 1867, he was a teacher at Somersetshire College in Bath, Somerset.

paragraphs: In 1870 when he was 23 years old, he moved with his family to Canada where they settled at Brantford, Ontario. Bell began to study communication machines. He made a piano that could be heard far away by using electricity. In 1871 he went with his father to Montreal, Quebec in Canada, where he took a job teaching about "visible speech". His father was asked to teach about it at a large school for deaf mutes in Boston, Massachusetts, but instead he gave the job to his son. The younger Bell began teaching there in 1872. Alexander Graham Bell soon became famous in the United States for this important work. He published many writings about it in Washington, D.C.. Because of this work, thousands of deaf mutes in the United States of America are now able to speak, even though they cannot hear.

paragraphs: In 1876, Bell was the first inventor to patent the telephone, and he helped start the Bell Telephone Company with others in July 1877. In 1879, this company joined with the New England Telephone Company to form the National Bell Telephone Company. In 1880, they formed the American Bell Telephone Company, and in 1885, American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), still a large company today. Along with Thomas Edison, Bell formed the Oriental Telephone Company on January 25, 1881.

paragraphs: Bell married Mabel Hubbard on July 11, 1877. He died of diabetes at his home near Baddeck, Nova Scotia in 1922.

paragraphs: Bell's genius is seen in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve that he shared with others. These included fifteen for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aeronautics, four for hydrofoils, and two for a selenium cell. In 1888, he was one of the original members of the National Geographic Society and became its second president.

paragraphs: His past experience made him ready to work more with sound and electricity. He began his studies in 1874 with a musical telegraph, in which he used an electric circuit and a magnet to make an iron reed or tongue vibrate. One day, it was found that a reed failed to respond to the current. Mr. Bell desired his assistant, who was at the other end of the line, to pluck the reed, thinking it had stuck to the magnet. His assistant, Thomas Watson complied, and to his surprise, Bell heard the corresponding reed at his end of the line vibrate and sound the same - without any electric current to power it. A few experiments soon showed that his reed had been set in vibration by the changes in the magnetic field that the moving reed produced in the line. This discovery led him to stop using the electric battery current. His idea was that, since the circuit was never broken, all the complex vibrations of speech might be converted into currents, which in turn would reproduce the speech at a distance.

paragraphs: Bell, with his assistant, devised a receiver, consisting of a stretched film or drum with a bit of magnetised iron attached to its middle, and free to vibrate in front of the pole of an electromagnet in circuit with the line. This apparatus was completed on June 2, 1875. On July 7, he instructed his assistant to make a second receiver which could be used with the first, and a few days later they were tried together, at each end of the line, which ran from a room in the inventor's house at Boston to the cellar underneath. Bell, in the room, held one instrument in his hands, while Watson in the cellar listened at the other. The inventor spoke into his instrument, ""Do you understand what I say?"" and Mr. Watson rushed back into the upstairs and answered ""Yes."" The first successful two-way telephone call was not made until March 10, 1876 when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." and Watson answered back and came into the room to see Bell. The first long distance telephone call was made on August 10, 1876 by Bell from the family home in Brantford, Ontario to his assistant in Paris, Ontario, some 16 km (10 mi.) away.

paragraphs: On March 7, 1876, the U.S. Patent Office gave him patent #174465 for the "telephone".

paragraphs: Bell is also credited with the invention of an improved metal detector in 1881 that made sounds when it was near metal. The device was quickly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of U.S. President James Garfield. The metal detector worked, but did not find the bullet because of the metal bedframe the President was lying on. Bell gave a full description of his experiments in a paper read before the "American Association for the Advancement of Science" in August, 1882.

paragraphs: Bell was an active supporter of the eugenics movement in the United States. He was the honorary president of the "Second International Congress of Eugenics" held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York in 1921.

paragraphs: As a teacher of the deaf, Bell did not want deaf people to teach in schools for the deaf. He was also against the use of sign language. These things mean that he is not appreciated by some deaf people in the present day.


title: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

paragraphs: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist. In 1888 he discovered the radio waves previously predicted by Maxwell's equations. He also proved that light is a kind of electromagnetic waves. The unit for frequency is named after him.

paragraphs: Hertz was born in Hamburg in 1857. He studied engineering in Frankfurt and later at the University of Munich. He completed his PhD at the University of Berlin. He taught and continued research at the University of Bonn and University of Kiel.


title: Deep house

paragraphs: Deep house is a type of house music. It has influences from disco music and jazz music. The BPM of deep house is usually 100 - 128.


title: Cytokine

paragraphs: Cytokines are signalling molecules made by cells. They help to control the immune system and fight disease. They are similar to hormones and, as we learn more about each, distinctions between the two are fading.

paragraphs: Cytokines carry signals locally between cells, and these signals have an effect on other cells. They are made of proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The cytokines are a large family of polypeptide regulators that are produced throughout the body by many groups of cells.

paragraphs: Some well-known cytokines include interferon, prostaglandin and interleukins. Cytokines can be detected using the ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.

paragraphs: Cytokines work by signal transduction. Each cytokine has a matching cell-surface receptor. Then cascades of signals inside the cell changes cell functions. This may include the regulation of several genes, the production of other cytokines, or an increase in surface receptors for other molecules.


title: Bristol

paragraphs: Bristol is a city and ceremonial county in England. It is home to nearly 430,000 people. The River Avon runs through it to the Severn estuary.

paragraphs: It is between the counties of Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373, King Edward III ordered that it should be a county itself forever. However, it lost county status in 1974, the year after its 600-year celebrations. It became the largest district within the new Avon county. Avon was never popular and was abolished in 1996, when county status returned to Bristol, which became a unitary council.

paragraphs: The Bristol name means "the place where the bridge is" in Old English. It has been a port for 800 years. Now, ships are too big to reach it. It has a new seaport at Avonmouth.

paragraphs: It has many historic churches and other buildings. The Clifton Suspension Bridge crosses high above the river. The University of Bristol is also in Clifton.

paragraphs: Bristol was a centre for the slave trade. During the 2020 George Floyd protests, a crowd pushed down the statue of 17th century slave trader Edward Colston and threw it in the harbour.

paragraphs: Bristol was badly damaged during World War II. It now has many new factories and offices. The Concorde supersonic airliner was made here.

paragraphs: It is also the birthplace of the music genre trip hop., with 3 trip hop bands originating there: Massive Attack, Portishead (named after a North Somerset town) and Tricky.

paragraphs: Some of the most notable people who are currently living, or who are from the city include:


title: Bright Eyes (band)

paragraphs: Bright Eyes is an American indie rock music band. The people in the band are Conor Oberst, a singer-songwriter; Mike Mogis, a musician and producer; and other friends and session musicians from Omaha, Nebraska, USA.

paragraphs: Oberst's singing style and the words to the songs are called desperate or on the verge of tears. Many people think his songs are always about himself, but Oberst has said that they are not. For example, one song, "Padraic My Prince", tells the fictional story of a mother drowning her son in a bathtub. In interviews, Oberst has said that he sings about such things to make rich emotions.


title: Honeycomb

paragraphs: A honeycomb is a container made by bees out of wax that they produce. The bees make a honeycomb as a place to keep their honey. Bees make honey from nectar that they collect from flowers. After bees collect nectar from flowers, and make it into honey, the bees then put the honey in the small six sided areas of the honeycomb. Each hexagonal section tessellates with the rest.

paragraphs: Honeycomb wax can be used for making soap and candles. Some people eat honey that is still in the honeycomb. A worker bee grows wax in its abdomen. The wax appears as little spots. The bee pulls it off with its legs and chews it until it becomes soft. The wax is then used to make cells for the honeycomb. Smaller cells are used to raise worker bees. We can use honey present in honeycombs as remedy for cough etc.


title: Greek language

paragraphs: The Greek language is an Indo-European language. It is the official language of Greece (Hellas) and Cyprus.

paragraphs: It was first spoken in Greece and was also once spoken along the coast of Asia Minor (now a part of Turkey) and in southern Italy. It was also widely used in Western Asia and Northern Africa at one time. In Greek, the language is called Ελληνικά (elliniká).

paragraphs: Greeks write their language using the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet (used to write English and many other languages) came from the Greek alphabet. Many other alphabets around the world also came from the Greek one, such as the Cyrillic alphabet.

paragraphs: Greek has an unbroken history of being a written language for over 3,000 years. This is longer than any other Indo-European language spoken today. This history is often divided into three parts, ancient Greek, medieval Greek, and modern Greek. The years 330-1453 are called medieval Greek because that's the time of the Byzantine Empire.

paragraphs: Over 15 million people in the world speak Greek now. These speakers mostly live in Greece and Cyprus. There are also people in other countries around the world who speak the language. This is largely because people left Greece and emigrated, meaning they moved to other countries. Countries like the United States and Australia have a large Greek diaspora.


title: Kamishibai

paragraphs: Kami-shibai (Japanese: 紙芝居) is a storytelling performance with picture cards, and is a traditional Japanese entertainment for children. In Japanese "Kami" means paper and "shibai" means drama or enternainment. The performer tells a story and shows pictures from scene to scene. Kami-shibai is a bidirectional media which is comprised of actions and reactions between a performer and audiences. With the spread of television, kami-shibai went out of date.


title: Murasaki Shikibu

paragraphs: Murasaki Shikibu is a nickname; her real name is unknown.

paragraphs: Murasaki was born in Kyoto. She was born into the Fujiwara family. Her father, Fujiwara Tametoki, was not a very nice father and when Murasaki got older he confessed that he regretted she was not a boy.

paragraphs: In the year 997, Murasaki married her second cousin, Fujiwara Nobutake, at age 20. In 999, they had a daughter, Kenshi, who also became a poet. Fujiwara Nobutake died about 1001.

paragraphs: Murasaki started as a writer soon after her husband's unexpected death. She was recognized immediately, and she was asked to the imperial court as a tutor to Empress Shoshi ( Joto Mon'in, 988–1074), daughter of the statesman Fujiwara Michinaga (966–1027). Murasaki joined the court of Empress Shōshi in 1006, probably for her skills as an author.

paragraphs: Murasaki started writing her diary in 1008, and finished in 1010. Her diary describes her Chinese lessons with her brother Nobunori (980?–1011), daily life and how much she missed her husband after his death.

paragraphs: She died in Kyoto, around the year 1020.

paragraphs: "The Tale of Genji" is split into 54 different books, and is made up of 795 different poems. It is one of the earliest novels in Japanese, and is often thought of as the first novel in the world. It is a classic of Japanese literature. The masterpiece was about the court life of Prince Genji, and his wife, Aoi in 10th-century Japan. Prince Genji was the illegitimate son of an emperor, and the text is about his relationships in court. "The Tale of Genji" included many beautiful scroll paintings.


title: Pepsin

paragraphs: Pepsin is an enzyme. It acts on proteins in the stomach, which has a low pH because of the Hydrochloric acid. It works best at a pH of about 1.5. It will not work at a pH above 6.

paragraphs: It was the first animal enzyme to be discovered. Theodor Schwann discovered it in 1836.


title: PH

paragraphs: pH is a scale of acidity from 0 to 14. It tells how acidic or alkaline a substance is.

paragraphs: More acidic solutions have lower pH. More alkaline solutions have higher pH. Substances that aren't acidic or alkaline (that is, neutral solutions) usually have a pH of 7.

paragraphs: Acids have a pH that is less than 7. Alkalis have a pH that is greater than 7.

paragraphs: pH is a measure of the of protons (H) in a solution. introduced this concept in the year 1909. The p stands for the German "potenz", meaning power or concentration, and the H for the hydrogen ion (H).

paragraphs: The most common formula for calculating pH is:

paragraphs: [H] indicates the concentration of H ions (also written [HO], the equal concentration of ions), measured in moles per litre (also known as molarity).

paragraphs: However, the correct equation is actually:

paragraphs: where formula_3 indicates the activity of H ions. But, this equation in most cases provides the same value as the more common formula, so in introductory chemistry the previous equation is given as the definition of pH.

paragraphs: Most substances have a pH in the range of 0 to 14, although "extremely" acidic or alkaline substances may have pH < 0, or pH > 14.

paragraphs: Alkaline substances have, instead of hydrogen ions, a concentration of hydroxide ions (OH).

paragraphs: Certain dyes change colour depending on whether they are in an acid solution or an alkaline solution . pH indicator is a chemical compound added in small amounts to a solution so the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can be seen. The pH indicator is a chemical detector for hydronium ions (HO) or hydrogen ions (H). Normally, the indicator causes the colour of the solution to change depending on the pH.

paragraphs: Typical indicators are , , , , and . They each change colour at different points on the pH scale, and can be used together as a universal indicator.

paragraphs: Another way is to use litmus paper, which is based on a natural pH indicators. The paper can tell you how strong the chemical is, whether it is a stronger acid or a stronger base.

paragraphs: Neutralization can be summed up by the equation:


title: Tapeworm

paragraphs: Tapeworms are the class Cestoda of segmented flatworms (Platyhelminthes). They are normally found in off the truck meat which means that they need another larger creature as an animal or human to be the host.

paragraphs: Tapeworms symptoms may cause weight loss and the host will become weaker.

paragraphs: Tapeworms can be up to 30 or 36 feet (10–12 metres) long. They eat by absorbing material directly through their epidermis (outside layer). The head of a tapeworm has four suckers and two rings of hooks. The body of a tapeworm is in segments (pieces that are like each other). Each segment can produce eggs. Little segments of the tapeworm sometimes break off and pass out through the stool of the host, with the eggs. Little segments of its body fall off. They go out of the host body, and are eaten by the next host, which is another type of vertebrate.

paragraphs: Tapeworms are hermaphrodite, with both sexes. Cross-fertilization occurs between two tapeworms in the same intestine. They have a life cycle with a secondary or intermediate host. For example, human tapeworms have cows or pigs as intermediate hosts. The 'definitive' host (humans in this case) is the one where fertilization takes place.

paragraphs: Tapeworms don't have a gut, so they have to absorb nutrients directly across their skin.


title: Omnivore

paragraphs: An omnivore is an animal whose species gets its energy and nutrients from a diet made up foods that include plants, animals, algae, fungi and bacteria.

paragraphs: Many omnivores change their eating habits during their life cycle. They are sometimes called "life-history omnivores", because they are only omnivores if their whole life is considered.

paragraphs: Some species, such as grazing waterfowl like geese, are known to eat mainly animals at one stage of their lives, but plants at another. Also, many insects, such as the beatle family Meloidae, eat animal tissue when they are larvae, but eat plant matter after they mature.

paragraphs: All of these animals are omnivores, but have different feeding behaviors and favorite foods. Being omnivores gives these animals more food security in stressful times. It also makes it easier for them to live in less consistent environments; (those that change along with the season, for example).


title: Herbivore

paragraphs: Herbivores are animals that only eat plants. They are "herbivorous" animals.

paragraphs: Herbivores (such as deer, elephants, horses) have teeth that are adapted to grind vegetable tissue. Many animals that eat fruit and leaves sometimes eat other parts of plants, for example roots and seeds. Usually, such animals cannot digest meat. But some herbivorous animals will eat eggs and occasionally other animal protein.

paragraphs: Some animals are frugivores because they eat mainly fruit. Browsers eat mostly leaves and sometimes small tree branches. Animals that eat mostly grass are grazing animals.

paragraphs: The diets of some herbivorous animals change with the seasons. In the temperate zones of the Earth, some seasons are hot and some are cold, so different plants are available at different times of the year.

paragraphs: Humans are omnivores, because they eat meat as well as vegetable matter. People who eat mostly plants are usually called vegetarian or vegan.

paragraphs: Plant cell walls are mostly made up of cellulose. No animal can digest cellulose by itself. They make use of gut flora, some of which produce an enzyme called cellulase. This is an example of symbiosis.

paragraphs: According to the theory of predator-prey interactions, the relationship between herbivores and plants is cyclic. When prey (plants) are numerous their predators (herbivores) increase in numbers, reducing the plant population, which in turn causes herbivore number to decline. The prey population eventually recovers, starting a new cycle. This suggests that the population of the herbivore fluctuates around the carrying capacity of the food source, in this case the plant.

paragraphs: There will always be pockets of plants not found by herbivores. This is important for specialist herbivores which feed on only one species of plant: it prevents these specialists from wiping out their food source. Eating a second plant type helps herbivores’ populations stabilize. Alternating between two or more plant types provides population stability for the herbivore, while the populations of the plants oscillate. When an invasive herbivore or plant enters the system, the balance is thrown off and the diversity can change or even collapse.

paragraphs: In some ways it is easier to be an herbivorous animal than a carnivorous (meat-eating) animal. Carnivorous animals have to find and catch the animals that they eat, and sometimes the animals that they want to eat fight them. Herbivorous animals have to find the plants that they want to eat, but they do not have to catch them. Many plants have some defence against herbivores, such as spines, toxins (poisons), or a bad taste. There are many more herbivorous animals living in the world than carnivorous animals.

paragraphs: Herbivores' effects on plant diversity vary across environmental changes. Herbivores could increase plant diversity or decrease plant diversity.

paragraphs: People used to think herbivores increase plant diversity by avoiding dominance. Dominant species tend to exclude subordinate species as competitive exclusion. However, the effects on plant diversity caused by variation in dominance could be beneficial or negative. Herbivores do increase bio-diversity by consuming dominant plant species, but they can also prefer eating subordinate species according to plants’ palatability and quality. In addition to the preference of herbivores, herbivores' effects on plant diversity are also influenced by other factors, defense trade-off theory, the predator-prey interaction , and inner traits of the environment and herbivores.

paragraphs: One way that plants could differ in their susceptibility to herbivores is through defense trade-off. Defense trade-off theory is commonly used to be seen as a fundamental theory to maintain ecological evenness. Plants can make a trade-off response to resource allocation, such as between defense and growth. Defenses against herbivory on plant diversity can vary in different situations. It can be neutral, detrimental or beneficial for plant fitness. Even in the absence of defensive trade-offs, herbivores may still be able to increase plant diversity, such as herbivores prefer subordinate species rather than dominant species.

paragraphs: The predator-prey interaction, especially the “top-down” regulation. The predator-prey interaction encourages the adaptation in plant species which the predator prefers. The theory of “top-down” ecological regulation disproportionately manipulates the biomass of dominant species to increase diversity. The herbivore effect on plant is universal but still significantly distinguish on each site, can be positive or negative.

paragraphs: In a highly productive system, the environment provides an organism with adequate nutrition and resources to grow. The effects of herbivores competing for resources on the plant are more complicated. The existence of herbivores can increase plant diversity by reducing the abundance of dominant species, redundant resources can then be used by subordinate species. Therefore, in a highly productive system, direct consumption of dominant plants could indirectly benefit those herbivory-resistant and unpalatable species. But the less productive system can support limited herbivores because of lack of nutrients and water. Herbivory boosts the abundance of most tolerant species and decreases the less-tolerant species’ existence which accelerates the plant extinction. Mediate productive system sometimes barely has long-term effects on plant diversity. Because the environment provides a stable coexistence of different organisms. Even when herbivores create some disturbances to the community. The system is still able to recover to the original state.

paragraphs: Light is one of the most important resources in environments for plant species. Competition for light availability and predator avoidance are equally important. With the addition of the nutrients, more competition arises among plant species. But herbivores could buffer the diversity reduction. Especially large herbivores can enhance the bio-diversity by selectively excluding tall, dominant plant species, and increase light availability.

paragraphs: Body size of herbivores is a key reason underlying the interaction between herbivores and plant diversity, and the body size explains many of the phenomena connected to herbivore-plant interaction. Small herbivores are less likely to decrease plant diversity. Because small non-digging animals may not cause many disturbances to the plant and the environment. Intermediate-sized herbivores mostly increase plant diversity by consuming or influencing the dominant plant species, such as herbivore birds, that can directly use dominant plant species. While some herbivores enhance plant diversity by indirect effects on plant competition. Some digging animals at this size local community environmental fluctuations. And the adaptation of plant species to avoid predators can also adjust the vegetation structure and increase diversity. Larger herbivores often increase plant diversity. They use competitively dominant plant species, and disperse seeds and create disorder of the soil. Besides, their urine position also adjusts the local plant distribution, and prevent light competition.

paragraphs: Therefore, the mechanisms of herbivores’ effects on plant diversity are complicated. Generally, the existence of herbivores increases plant diversity. But varies according to different environmental factors, multiple factors combined together to affect how herbivores influence plant diversity.

paragraphs: TOPIC - TYPES AND SOURCES OF FIBRES-NOTES

paragraphs: Differentiate between fibre, yarn and fabric.

paragraphs: Explaining about natural and artificial fibres with examples.

paragraphs: Fibre is defined as raw material, available in the form of the thin and continuous strands.

paragraphs: How many different types of fibres are there?

paragraphs: Natural Fibres – Fibres naturally obtained from both plants and animals. Examples of Natural Fibres are cotton, wool and silk.

paragraphs: Synthetic Fibres — Fibres artificially produced within the industries. They are also called artificial or man-made Fibers. Examples of Synthetic Fibres are rayon, nylon, polyester etc.

paragraphs: Name the part of the plant from which cotton fibre is obtained?

paragraphs: Cotton is obtained from the seeds of the cotton plant.

paragraphs: Give examples of natural and synthetic fibre

paragraphs: Jute and cotton are examples of natural fibre. Polyester and nylon are examples of synthetic fibre


title: Dengue fever

paragraphs: Dengue fever (pronounced "DEN-gi") is a tropical infectious disease caused by the dengue virus. People get the dengue virus from mosquitoes. Dengue fever is also called break-bone fever, because it can cause so much pain that people feel like their bones are breaking.

paragraphs: Most people with dengue fever can get better just by drinking enough. However, a small number of people get dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome. These are medical emergencies and can kill a person if they do not get medical treatment.

paragraphs: There is no vaccine that can keep people from getting the dengue virus. There is also no treatment to cure dengue fever. Doctors can only provide "supportive care," which means they can only treat dengue's symptoms.

paragraphs: Since the 1960s, many more people have been getting dengue fever. Since World War II, dengue has become a problem around the world. It is common in more than 110 countries. Every year, between 50 million and 100 million people get dengue fever.

paragraphs: Most people who get the dengue virus (80%) have no symptoms, or have only mild symptoms (like a basic fever). About 5% of infected people (or 5 out of every 100) get much sicker. A small number of these people have symptoms that could kill them.

paragraphs: After a person gets the dengue virus from a mosquito, it takes between 3 and 14 days for them to get sick. (This is called the virus's incubation period.) Most often, people start to feel sick after 4 to 7 days.

paragraphs: Often, when children have dengue fever, their symptoms are the same as gastroenteritis (stomach flu), like vomiting and diarrhea, or the common cold. However, children are more likely to have bad complications from dengue fever.

paragraphs: Dengue fever happens in three stages: febrile, critical, and recovery.

paragraphs: In the "febrile stage", people with dengue usually have a high fever. ("Febrile" means that a person has a fever.) The fever is often over 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit). Sometimes the fever gets better, and then comes back.

paragraphs: During the febrile stage, people may also have:

paragraphs: The febrile stage usually lasts 2 to 7 days. This stage ends when a person's high fever is gone.

paragraphs: In about 5% of people with dengue fever, the disease goes into a "critical stage" next. ("Critical" means "very dangerous.") The critical phase usually lasts 1 to 2 days.

paragraphs: During this stage, plasma (the liquid part of blood) leaks out of the body's small blood vessels. The plasma can build up in the chest and abdomen. This is a serious problem for a few reasons.

paragraphs: Plasma carries blood cells, glucose (sugar), electrolytes (salts), and many other important things to the whole body. Every part of the body needs these things to survive. If too much plasma leaks out of the blood vessels, there will not be enough left to carry these things to the body's most important organs. Without these things, the organs cannot work normally. This is called dengue shock syndrome.

paragraphs: Plasma also carries platelets, which help the blood clot (they help stop bleeding). If a person does not have enough platelets, they can have dangerous bleeding. With dengue fever, this bleeding usually happens in the gastrointestinal tract. When a person has bleeding, leaking plasma, and not enough platelets, they have dengue hemorrhagic fever. ("Hemorrhage" means "dangerous bleeding.")

paragraphs: The recovery stage is when the patient's body is overcoming the disease process. In this stage, the plasma that leaked out of the blood vessels is taken back up into the bloodstream. This stage usually lasts 2 to 3 days.

paragraphs: During this stage, people with dengue often feel much better. However, they can have very bad itching and a slow heart rate.

paragraphs: Serious problems can also happen during the recovery stage. If a person's body takes too much fluid back up into the bloodstream, this can cause "fluid overload." This can cause fluid to build up in the lungs, which causes breathing problems. Fluid overload can also cause seizures or an altered mental status (changes in a person's thinking and behavior).

paragraphs: Every once in a while, dengue can affect other systems in the body. For example, dengue can cause:

paragraphs: Dengue fever is caused by the dengue virus. In the scientific system that classifies viruses, the dengue virus is part of the family "Flaviviridae" and the genus "Flavivirus". Other viruses that belong to the same family and can make humans sick include yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, and tick-borne encephalitis virus. Most of these viruses are spread by mosquitoes or ticks.

paragraphs: Dengue virus is spread mostly by mosquitoes from the "Aedes" genus, especially the "Aedes aegypti" species of mosquito. "Aides aegypti" is the most likely type of mosquito to spread dengue, because it likes to live close to humans and feed off of people instead of animals. A person can get the dengue virus from just one mosquito bite.

paragraphs: Sometimes, mosquitoes can also get dengue from humans. If a female mosquito bites someone with dengue, the mosquito may get the dengue virus from the person's blood. After about 8 to 10 days, the virus spreads to the mosquito's salivary glands, which make saliva (or "spit"). Now the mosquito will make saliva that is infected with the dengue virus. When the mosquito bites a human, its infected saliva goes into the human and can give that person dengue.

paragraphs: A person can also get the dengue virus if they get a blood transfusion or organ donation from someone who has the virus. In some countries where dengue is common, like Singapore, between 1.6 and 6 blood transfusions out of every 10,000 spread dengue.

paragraphs: The dengue virus can also be spread from a mother to her fetus during pregnancy, or when the child is born. This is called vertical transmission.

paragraphs: Dengue is usually not spread in any other ways.

paragraphs: Once a person gets the dengue virus from a mosquito, the virus attaches to and enters the person's white blood cells. (The white blood cells are part of the immune system, which defends the body by fighting off threats, like infections.) As the white blood cells move around the body, the virus makes copies of itself. The white blood cells react by making many special proteins, like interferon, which tell the immune system to work harder because there is a threat in the body. These proteins cause the fever, flu-like symptoms, and severe pains that happen with dengue.

paragraphs: If a person has a bad infection, the virus makes copies of itself much more quickly inside the body. Because there is a lot more of the virus, it can affect many more organs (like the liver and the bone marrow). The virus can stop the bone marrow from making platelets normally. This makes very bad bleeding much more likely to happen.

paragraphs: Babies and young children with dengue are more likely than adults to become very sick. Women are more likely than men to get very sick. Dengue can be life-threatening in people with chronic (long-lasting) diseases, like diabetes and asthma.

paragraphs: There are four different types of the dengue virus. Once a person has had one type of the virus, he usually is protected from that type for the rest of his life. However, he will only be protected against the other three types of the virus for a short time. If he later gets one of those three types of the virus, he will be more likely to have serious problems, like dengue shock syndrome or dengue hemorrhagic fever.

paragraphs: Usually, doctors diagnose dengue by examining the infected person and realizing that their symptoms match dengue. However, when dengue is in its early stages, it can be difficult to tell the difference between this disease and other infections caused by viruses.

paragraphs: The World Health Organization says that a person probably has dengue if:

paragraphs: The World Health Organization also says that in areas where dengue is common, any warning signs, plus a fever, usually signal that a person has dengue fever.

paragraphs: Some blood tests show changes when a person has dengue fever. The earliest change is a low number of white blood cells in the blood. A low number of platelets can also signal dengue. Special blood tests can look for the dengue virus itself; the virus's nucleic acids; or the antibodies that the immune system makes to fight off the virus. However, these special tests are expensive. Also, in many areas where dengue is common, most doctors and clinics do not have laboratories for blood tests or special machines.

paragraphs: It can be difficult to tell the difference between dengue fever and chikungunya. Chikungunya is a similar viral infection that has many of the same symptoms of dengue, and happens in the same parts of the world. Dengue can also have some of the same symptoms as other diseases, like malaria, leptospirosis, typhoid fever, and meningococcal disease. Often, before a person is diagnosed with dengue, their doctor will do tests to make sure they do not actually have one of these diseases instead.

paragraphs: In 1997, the World Health Organization (WHO) created a system for describing the different types of dengue fever. Eventually, the WHO decided that this old way of dividing dengue needed to be simpler. It also decided that not everyone with dengue fever fit into the old categories.

paragraphs: In 2009, the WHO changed its system for classifying (dividing) dengue fever. However, the older system often is still used.

paragraphs: The WHO's old system divided dengue into three categories:

paragraphs: In 2009, the WHO created a simpler system which divided dengue fever into two types:

paragraphs: There are no vaccines that can keep people from getting the dengue virus. The best ways to prevent dengue are to protect people from mosquito bites and to control the mosquito population.

paragraphs: The best way to control the mosquito is to get rid of its (the places it lives) The best way to do this is to get rid of areas with standing water (water that does not move). Mosquitoes like standing water and often lay its eggs, to prevent getting bitten by mosquitoes, people can:

paragraphs: The WHO suggests a program for preventing dengue (called an "Integrated Vector Control" program) that includes five different parts:

paragraphs: There are no specific treatments for dengue fever. No known anti-viral medications (medicines which kill viruses) will kill the dengue virus. Health workers can give "supportive treatment" - treat dengue's symptoms to try to make patients feel better.

paragraphs: Different people need different treatments, depending on their symptoms. Some people can get better just by drinking fluids at home, and checking with their doctor to make sure they are getting better.

paragraphs: Treating dehydration is very important. Sometimes, people are so dehydrated that they need intravenous fluids - fluids given through a needle placed into a vein. Usually, people only need intravenous fluids for a day or two.

paragraphs: Doctors can give medicines like acetaminophen (paracetamol) for fever and pain. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen and aspirin should not be used because they make bleeding more likely.

paragraphs: People with bad dengue may need blood transfusions. Having extra blood will help a person if their blood pressure is getting very low (like it does in dengue shock syndrome) or if they do not have enough red blood cells in their blood (because they are bleeding from dengue hemorrhagic fever).

paragraphs: When people reach the recovery stage of dengue, doctors usually stop giving intravenous fluids to prevent fluid overload (having too much fluid in the body). If a person gets fluid overload, doctors can give a type of medication called a diuretic, which will make the patient urinate out the extra fluid.

paragraphs: Most people with dengue recover and don't have any problems afterward.

paragraphs: Without treatment, 1% to 5% of infected people (1 to 5 out of every 100) die from dengue. With good treatment, less than 1% die. However, 26% of people with severe dengue die.

paragraphs: Dengue is common in more than 110 countries. Every year, it infects 50 to 100 million people around the world. It also causes half a million hospitalizations and about 12,500 to 25,000 deaths around the world each year. However, the World Health Organization says that dengue fever is not taken as seriously as it should be. It calls dengue one of 16 "neglected tropical diseases" - diseases which do not get enough attention. In every million people, dengue causes about 1600 years of life to be lost. This is about the same as other tropical and deadly diseases, like tuberculosis. However, the WHO says the neglected tropical diseases, like dengue, do not get the attention and money that is needed to find treatments and cures.

paragraphs: Dengue is becoming much more common around the world. It is the most common viral disease that is spread by arthropods. In 2010, dengue was 30 times more common than it was in 1960. Scientists think dengue may be getting more common because:

paragraphs: Dengue happens most around the equator. 2.5 billion people live in areas where dengue happens. 70% of these people live in Asia and the Pacific. In the United States, 2.9% to 8% of people who come back from traveling in areas where dengue happens, and have a fever, were infected while traveling. In this group of people, dengue is the second most common infection to be diagnosed, after malaria.

paragraphs: Dengue fever is probably a very old disease. An ancient Chinese medical encyclopedia from the Jin Dynasty (which existed from 265 to 420 AD) talked about a person who probably had dengue. The book talked about a "water poison" that had to do with flying insects.

paragraphs: Written records from the 17th century talk about what may have been epidemics of dengue (where the disease spread very quickly in a short time). The most likely early reports of dengue epidemics are from 1779 and 1780. These reports talk about an epidemic that spread across Asia, Africa, and North America. From that time until 1940, there were not many more epidemics.

paragraphs: In 1906, scientists proved that people were getting infections from "Aedes" mosquitoes. In 1907, scientists showed that a virus causes dengue. This was just the second disease that was shown to be caused by a virus. (The first was yellow fever.) John Burton Cleland and Joseph Franklin Siler kept studying the dengue virus, and figured out the basics of how the virus spreads.

paragraphs: Dengue began to spread much more quickly during and after World War II. Different types of dengue also spread to new areas. For the first time, people started to get dengue hemorrhagic fever. The first case of dengue hemorrhagic fever happened in the Philippines in 1953. By the 1970s, dengue hemorrhagic fever had become a major cause of death in children. It also spread to the Pacific and the Americas. Dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome were first reported in Central America and South America in 1981.

paragraphs: It is not clear where the word "dengue" came from. Some people think that it comes from the Swahili phrase "Ka-dinga pepo". This phrase talks about the disease being caused by an evil spirit. The Swahili word "dinga" is thought to come from the Spanish word "dengue", which means "careful." That word may have been used to describe a person having bone pain from dengue fever; that pain would make the person walk carefully. However, it is also possible that the Spanish word came from the Swahili word, and not the other way around.

paragraphs: Other people think that the name "dengue" comes from the West Indies. In the West Indies, slaves that had dengue were said to stand and walk like "a dandy." Because of this, the disease was also called "dandy fever."

paragraphs: The name "breakbone fever" was first used by Benjamin Rush, a doctor and United States "Founding Father." In 1789, Rush used the name "breakbone fever" in a report about the 1780 dengue outbreak in Philadelphia. In his official report, Rush mostly used the more formal name "bilious remitting fever".

paragraphs: The term "dengue fever" was not commonly used until after 1828. Before that, different people used different names for the disease. For example, dengue was also called "breakheart fever" and "la dengue." Other names were also used for severe dengue: for example, "infectious thrombocytopenic purpura", "Philippine," "Thai," and "Singapore hemorrhagic fever."

paragraphs: Scientists keep doing research on ways to prevent and treat dengue. People are also working on controlling mosquitoes, creating a vaccine, and creating drugs to fight the virus.

paragraphs: Many simple things have been done to control mosquitoes. Some of these things have worked. For example, guppies ("Poecilia reticulata") or copepods can be put in standing water to eat the mosquito larvae (eggs).

paragraphs: Scientists also keep working on creating antiviral drugs to treat attacks of dengue fever and keep people from getting severe complications. They are also working on figuring out how the virus's proteins are structured. This may help them create medications that work well for dengue.


title: Shrove Tuesday

paragraphs: Shrove Tuesday is a holiday in which the christian has ash put on their head in the shape of a cross the United Kingdom, Canada, The United States and Australia for the day before Ash Wednesday. Ash Wednesday is the first day of the Christian season of prayer and fasting called Lent.

paragraphs: On Shrove Tuesday people traditionally cook and eat pancakes. The reason for this was to use up foods such as fat, eggs and milk before Lent.

paragraphs: It is also called Pancake Tuesday or Pancake Day. In some other countries, such as the United States, it is called Mardi Gras.

paragraphs: In some cultures it has close ties with Mischief night.


title: Wright County

paragraphs: Wright County is a county in three different states of the United States:


title: Sicilian language

paragraphs: The Sicilian language ("") is a language spoken in Sicily island and central Calabria. It is currently spoken by the majority of the inhabitants of Sicily and by emigrants.

paragraphs: 10 million people speak the language. It has three stocks: the Sicilian, the Calabro-Sicilian and Salentinu.

paragraphs: Compared to Italian, it is a distinctly separate form of verbal communication patterned by many years of foreign influence. Efforts to force Sicilians to speak conventional Italian include schools, television and radio. Italians maintain that Sicilian is simply a subset dialect of Italian, while Sicilians see their spoken word as a true and separate language.


title: Portmanteau word

paragraphs: A portmanteau word () is made of other words, or parts of words. It comes from putting two (or more) other words together, like "motel", from "motor" and "hotel".

paragraphs: "Portmanteau" originally meant a type of suitcase with two separate parts for storage.

paragraphs: The first use as a word combination appeared in Lewis Carroll's book "Through the Looking-Glass". There Humpty Dumpty explains that some of the unusual words in "Jabberwocky" are other words packed together into one word, as two parts of a portmanteau suitcase are packed together.

paragraphs: "Portmanteau" itself is an example, combining the French words for carry (porter) and coat (manteau) into a coat carrier. "Wikipedia" is a portmanteau of wiki (Hawaiian for fast) and encyclopedia.


title: Installation (computer programs)

paragraphs: Installation means to put a program on a computer so that the computer can run it.

paragraphs: Most programs are stored in special ways to make them smaller, or to gather all the different pieces of a program up into one big piece. Before it can be used, though, the program needs to have these changes undone. Some programs also need to know extra information about the computer it is going to run on, so while it is installing, it will figure out what it needs to know and write it down for later.


title: Cohomology

paragraphs: Cohomology is something in higher math which is sometimes used to solve certain math problems.


title: Laplace transform

paragraphs: The Laplace transform is a way to turn functions into other functions in order to do certain calculations more easily. This way of turning functions to other functions is very similar to U Substitution. The aim of this change is to be able to turn the hard work of integration into a simple algebraic addition and subtraction, just as logarithms allow one to add and subtract instead of multiplying and dividing. An example of its use is in ruin theory, which is a subject of actuarial science with regards to insurance.

paragraphs: Functions usually take a variable (say "t") as an input, and give some output (say "f"). The Laplace transform converts these functions to take some other input ("s") and give some other output ("F"). Because of certain shared properties of Laplace transforms, this makes it very easy to manipulate the original function into something useful.

paragraphs: The Laplace transform of a function formula_1, written as formula_2 or formula_3, is often formulated as:


title: Lorentz factor

paragraphs: The Lorentz factor is the factor by which time, length, and mass change for an object moving at speeds close to the speed of light (relativistic speeds). It is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz.

paragraphs: where v is the speed of the object and c is the speed of light. The quantity (v/c) is often labeled formula_2 (beta) and so the above equation can be rewritten:

paragraphs: Classical or Galilean relativity is the idea that if you throw a ball at 50 mph while running at 5 mph, the ball travels 55 mph. Of course, the ball still moves away from you at 50 mph, so if one were to ask you, you "saw" the ball traveling 50 mph. Meanwhile, your friend Rory saw that you happened to be running at 5 mph. He would say that the ball was traveling 55 mph. Both of you are right, you just happened to be moving "with" the ball.

paragraphs: The speed of light, c, is 670,616,629 mph. So if you are in a car traveling half the speed of light (0.5c) and you turn on your headlights, the light moves away from you at 1 c... or is it 1.5 c? It ends up that c is c no matter what. The next section explains why it's not c - 0.5c.

paragraphs: When a clock is in motion, it ticks slower by a tiny factor of formula_4. The famous twin paradox says that if there were two twins and twin A stayed on earth while twin B traveled near c for a few years, when twin B got back to earth, he would be many years younger than twin A (because he experienced less time). For example, if twin B left when he was 20 and traveled at .9c for 10 years, then when he got back to earth, twin B would be 30 (20 years + 10 years) and twin A would be almost 43:

paragraphs: Twin B would not notice that time had slowed at all. To him, if he looked out a window, it would seem like the universe was moving past him, and therefore slower (remember, to him, he's at rest). So time is relative.

paragraphs: Things get shorter in the direction of movement when they travel at relativistic speeds. During twin B's journey, he would notice something strange about the universe. He would notice that it got shorter (contracted in the direction of his motion). And the factor by which things get shorter is formula_4.

paragraphs: Relativistic mass also increases. It makes them harder to push. So by the time you reach 0.9999c, you need a very big force to make you go faster. This makes it impossible for anything to reach the speed of light.

paragraphs: Still, if you travel a bit slower, say 90% of the speed of light, your mass only grows by 2.3 times. So, while it may be impossible to reach the speed of light, it may still be possible to get close to it—that is, if you have enough fuel.


title: Cyperaceae

paragraphs: The family Cyperaceae, or the sedges, is a taxon of flowering plants that superficially resemble grasses or rushes.

paragraphs: The family is large, with some 5,500 species described in about 109 genera. The largest is the "Carex" genus of "true sedges", with over 2,000 species.

paragraphs: Sedges include many wild marsh and grassland plants, and some cultivated ones such as water chestnut ("Eleocharis dulcis") and papyrus sedge ("Cyperus papyrus"). These species are widely distributed, with many in tropical Asia and tropical South America. Sedges may be found growing in almost all environments. Many are wetlands, or have poor soils. Ecological communities dominated by sedges are known as sedgelands.

paragraphs: Features distinguishing members of the sedge family from grasses or rushes are stems with triangular cross-sections (with occasional exceptions) and leaves that are spirally arranged in three ranks (grasses have alternate leaves forming two ranks).


title: Objective-C

paragraphs: Objective-C is an object-oriented programming language used to make computer programs for macOS and iOS devices.

paragraphs: Objective-C was created in the early 1980s by two programmers named Brad Cox and Tom Love. It didn't become popular, however, until it was bought by NeXT in 1988 for their NeXTSTEP operating system. After NeXT was bought by Apple in 1996, it became the main programming language for Mac OS X and later the iPhone, iPod touch and iPad.

paragraphs: Objective-C is a strict superset of C, meaning that any code that can be written in C can be used in Objective-C programs without being rewritten. However, it adds some features of its own that cannot be used in a traditional C program.

paragraphs: In Objective-C, functions are called using messages, a feature inspired by the SmallTalk programming language. Messages look like "blocks" of code similar to the on shown below:

paragraphs: These blocks can be nested inside of each other as well, for example:

paragraphs: Unlike other programming languages such as C and [[Java(programming language)|Java]], Objective-C "classes" are divided into two separate parts:

paragraphs: Usually, these are put in two different files, with the interface using the ".h" extension and the implementation using the ".m" extension.

paragraphs: Objective-C has variants that add features to the original Objective C programming language.

paragraphs: Objective-C++ allows for C++ code to be used in Objective-C applications.

paragraphs: Objective-C 2 is an improved version of Objective-C. It adds many features, such as garbage collection (automatic memory management), fast enumeration and properties (the automatic generation of variable methods).


title: ATLAS experiment

paragraphs: ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS) is the biggest experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

paragraphs: It is one of the seven particle detector experiments (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, TOTEM, LHCb, and LHCf) built at the LHC. LHC is a new particle accelerator at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland. ATLAS is 46 metres long and 25 metres in diameter, weighing about 7,000 tonnes. The project is led by Fabiola Gianotti. The project has 2,000 scientists and engineers at 165 institutions in 35 countries. The project began operation on 10 September 2008. ATLAS studies highly massive particles which could not be studied using earlier lower-energy accelerators. ATLAS may start new theories of particle physics beyond the Standard Model.


title: Taser

paragraphs: A Taser is a weapon that is not meant to kill. Tasers use electricity to shock people so they fall on the ground. If a person is shot by a Taser, they feel like they are hurt and cannot move their arms and legs. Tasers are used by police officers to stop people who want to hurt them, and to stop people who are running away.

paragraphs: Tasers shoot two small pieces of metal called prongs. These prongs are connected to long pieces of metal string. When the Taser is shot, the prongs hit the person and electricity moves along the metal string to shock the person.

paragraphs: If a person is very close, the prongs do not have to shoot but they will still shock.

paragraphs: Even though a Taser is a weapon that is not meant to kill, the prongs can still hurt people. There are some times when people die after they are shot with a Taser. This is because some people get hurt differently by electricity.

paragraphs: In many places, people cannot own a Taser. There are special rules to follow to own a Taser. This is because it is considered a weapon.

paragraphs: In Canada, France, Israel and the United Kingdom only police officers can have a Taser, but in the United States of America and Poland, most people can own a taser.


title: Wallpaper

paragraphs: Wallpaper is a kind of paper used to cover walls inside of houses and buildings. Wallpaper is used to decorate the inside of buildings instead of paint. It is sold in rolls and are put onto a wall using wallpaper paste. Wallpapers can come either plain (so that it can be painted), or with pictures or patterns.

paragraphs: "Wallpaper" is also a word for a picture on a computer monitor.

paragraphs: Wallpaper was first used in Europe around the year 1500. Wallpaper was made to look like rugs that hang on walls because they were like pictures. Soon after people started making wallpaper, England and France started making a lot of wallpaper. For a while in 1650, wallpaper was not used because the religious leader in England did not like it. However, by 1750 people were using wallpaper all the time and more people got better at making wallpaper.

paragraphs: Water is the easiest way to get rid of wallpaper. Water makes the wallpaper paste become not sticky, then the wallpaper falls off.

paragraphs: Sometimes the wallpaper paste is too strong for water, then special chemicals need to be used to make the paste not sticky. Most of the time only new wallpaper has to be taken off with chemicals.

paragraphs: Really hot water makes it easier to remove wallpaper. There are special machines that people can use to make water into steam and use it to remove wallpaper.


title: Animal trapping

paragraphs: Animal trapping, or simply trapping, is the use of a device to catch an animal. Animals may be trapped for a variety of purposes, including food, wildlife management, hunting and pest control.

paragraphs: There are many kinds. For a deadfall trap, a trapper digs a deep hole in the ground and hides it so the animal falls in the hole and can not get out. A snare is a noose that tightens around the neck or other part of the animal.


title: Minnetonka, Minnesota

paragraphs: Minnetonka is the fourteenth largest city in Minnesota. It has a population of 51,480 as of the 2000 census. It is located in Hennepin County, eight miles west of Minneapolis.


title: Ecclesiastical polity

paragraphs: Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a church or Christian denomination. It also denotes the ministerial structure of the church and the authority relationships between churches. Polity is closely related to Ecclesiology, the study of doctrine and theology relating to church organization.


title: Building material

paragraphs: Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic.

paragraphs: Bricks are man-made, and so is plaster, concrete, stucco and many other materials. However, they are usually still made out of natural materials, bricks being a good example. They are based on clay. Steel is based on natural types of iron.

paragraphs: One example of a man-made imitation is scagliola, which can imitate more expensive natural materials such as marble.


title: Leone Battista Alberti

paragraphs: Leon Battista Alberti (February 18, 1404 – April 25, 1472) was an Italian author, artist, architect, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher, and cryptographer, and general Renaissance humanist polymath. In Italy, this first name is usually spelled ""Leone"", but Alberti is known as Leon. Alberti's life was described in Giorgio Vasari's "Vite".

paragraphs: Alberti is often seen as a model of the Renaissance "universal man“.-

paragraphs: He was born in Genoa, because the Albertis had been expelled from their native city, Florence.

paragraphs: When he was a child the family moved to Venice.

paragraphs: In 1428 Leon visited Florence at first time.


title: Bernardo Rossellino

paragraphs: Bernardo di Matteo Gamberelli (1409–1464), better known as Bernardo Rossellino, was an Italian Florentine sculptor and architect, the elder brother of the sculptor Antonio Rossellino. He was part of the second generation of Renaissance artists and had helped further define the new change in art style.

paragraphs: He had worked to rebuild Pienza from a village called Corsignano.


title: Greek cross

paragraphs: The Greek cross is used especially by Eastern Orthodoxy and Early Christianity. It is also known as the crux immissa quadrata. It has all arms of equal length. Often the arms curve wider as they go out.


title: Pumice

paragraphs: Pumice is a term for a lightweight volcanic rock.

paragraphs: It is a solidified frothy lava, created when highly-heated, pressured molten rock is shot out from a volcano. Its light weight is due to air spaces, which are caused by fast cooling and loss of pressure. The loss of pressure makes bubbles by lowering the boiling point of the lava (like the bubble-creation when a carbonated drink is opened). The cooling then freezes the bubbles in the matrix.

paragraphs: Most famously, pumice stone has been used as a skin-scraper. It is used in pedicure to remove excess skin from the bottom of the foot, and on calluses (tough areas of skin).

paragraphs: It has also been used to make lightweight blocks for building, and as a powdered ingredient in polishing.


title: Giuliano da Sangallo

paragraphs: Giuliano da Sangallo (c. 1443 – 1516) was an Italian sculptor, architect and military engineer active during the Italian Renaissance.


title: Antonio da Sangallo the Younger

paragraphs: Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, born Antonio Cordiani (April 12, 1484 - August 3, 1546) was an Italian architect active during the Italian Renaissance.


title: Giulio Romano

paragraphs: Giulio Romano (c. 1499 – November 1, 1546) was an Italian painter and architect. He was a pupil of Raphael. His differences from high Renaissance classicism help define the 16th century style known as Mannerism.


title: Carlo Maderno

paragraphs: Carlo Maderno (1556 - January 30, 1629) was an Italian-Swiss architect, born in Ticino. He is remembered as one of the fathers of Baroque architecture. His façades of Santa Susanna, St. Peter's Basilica and Sant'Andrea della Valle were important in the evolution of the Italian Baroque. He is often referred to as the brother of sculptor Stefano Maderno, but this is not universally agreed upon.


title: Giacomo della Porta

paragraphs: Giacomo della Porta (c. 1533 – 1602) was an Italian architect and sculptor, who worked for many important buildings in Rome, including St. Peter's Basilica.


title: Domenico Fontana

paragraphs: Domenico Fontana (1543 – June 28 1607) was a Swiss-born Italian architect of the late Renaissance.


title: Travertine

paragraphs: Travertine is a terrestrial sedimentary rock. It is a natural chemical precipitate of carbonate minerals; aragonite or calcite. This happens from solution in ground and surface waters, and/or geothermally heated hot-springs. Similar (but extremely porous) deposits formed from ambient-temperature water are known as tufa.

paragraphs: The Colosseum built by the Romans, was made of travertine.


title: Agostino Cornacchini

paragraphs: Agostino Cornacchini (August 27, 1686-1754) was an Italian sculptor and painter of the Rococo period, active mainly in Rome.


title: Alabaster

paragraphs: Alabaster is a name applied to varieties of two distinct minerals. Gypsum is a hydrous sulfate of calcium, and calcite is a carbonate of calcium. Gypsum is the alabaster of the present day; calcite is generally the alabaster of the ancients. Both are easy to work. They are attractive to look at. Both have been used for making a variety of artworks and objects, especially small carvings.

paragraphs: The two kinds are easy to tell apart. One is harder than the other. Calcite is hard (Mohs hardness 3). Gypsum is soft (Mohs hardness 1.5 to 2). It can be easily scratched by a fingernail. Also, calcite effervesces when it is treated with hydrochloric acid. Gypsum does not.


title: Information security

paragraphs: Information security is about protecting information so that people who should not have access to it cannot distribute, see, change, or delete it. Although this has a lot in common with computer security, information risk management and information assurance, it is different from them. For example, computer security can focus on making sure that the computer is available when it is needed and that it works correctly but may not have anything to do with the data that it stores.

paragraphs: Information security has to do with the confidentiality, integrity and availability of data in any form e.g. electronic, print, or other forms. Organizations, including governments, private businesses and others have much information stored and processed on computers. Data that is lost or released to the wrong people or that is not properly secured could lead to legal and ethical problems for the organisation.

paragraphs: For an individual person, information security has a big effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently by people in different cultures.


title: San Pietro in Montorio

paragraphs: San Pietro in Montorio is a church in Rome, which includes in its courtyard "The Tempietto" (a small commemorative martyrium) built by Donato Bramante.

paragraphs: The "Tempietto of San Pietro in Montorio" is a small commemorative martyrium built by Donato Bramante, possibly as early as 1502, in the courtyard of "San Pietro in Montorio". It is considered a masterpiece of High Renaissance architecture.


title: Helena of Constantinople

paragraphs: Saint Helena () also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople ("ca". 250 – "ca". 330) was the consort of Emperor Constantius, and the mother of Emperor Constantine I. She is traditionally credited with finding the relics of the True Cross.


title: Saint Longinus

paragraphs: Longinus is the name given in medieval and modern Christian traditions to the Roman soldier who pierced Jesus in his side with a lance while he was on the Cross. The Longinus legend further identifies this soldier as the centurion present at the Crucifixion, who testified, "In truth this man was son of God." Longinus' legend grew over the years to the point that he was said to have converted to Christianity after the Crucifixion, and he is traditionally venerated as a saint in various Christian denominations.


title: Saint Veronica

paragraphs: Saint Veronica or Berenice, according to the ""Acta Sanctorum"" published by the Bollandists (under February 4), was a pious woman of Jerusalem. She moved with pity as Jesus carried his cross to Golgotha, gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead. Jesus accepted the offering and after using it handed it back to her, the image of his face miraculously impressed upon it.


title: Cheesesteak

paragraphs: A cheesesteak is a sandwich made in Philadelphia. It is made of a long roll, cut in half and filled with thin slices of steak and covered with melted cheese. Some cheesesteaks also have onions or green peppers. Pat's King of Steaks and Geno's are two famous places in Philadelphia that make cheesesteaks. Pat's is considered the place that invented the cheesesteak.


title: Laminar flow

paragraphs: Laminar flow is characterized by the smooth flow of a liquid. This tends to happen at low velocities when there are few disturbances, such as in a straight, smooth pipe. In laminar flow through a pipe, it is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the boundaries of the pipe and is at a maximum in the center; mathematically, the velocity profile is parabolic. Microscopically, the particles or pieces of the liquid flow in a straight line along the direction of the pipe and do not mix with other layers of fluid. The layers slide past one another like playing cards. This is in contrast to turbulent flow, when a fluid swirls around.

paragraphs: Even though there is no mixing, there is still some friction in the flow. This friction will cause a pressure drop and its numerical value is given by the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.


title: Juglandaceae

paragraphs: The Juglandaceae, also known as the Walnut Family, is a family of trees, or sometimes shrubs, in the order Fagales. The leaves are pinnately compound, or ternate, and usually 20-100 cm long.

paragraphs: There are eight genera in the family, including the commercially important nut-producing trees walnut (Juglans), pecan (Carya illinoinensis), and hickory (Carya).


title: Farid Suleman

paragraphs: Farid Suleman has been the chairman "(the person who leads the group of people that controls the company)" and CEO of Citadel Broadcasting since 2002. Before working at Citadel, he spent 16 years as CEO of Infinity Radio, owned by Viacom.

paragraphs: In late 2004, Suleman was in the news for cutting Howard Stern's radio show from four Citadel stations because of Stern's frequent discussions about Stern's move to Sirius Satellite Radio.

paragraphs: In 2007, he was put forward to get the Group Executive of the Year award by Radio & Records magazine. Other people who were close to getting the award included John Hogan of Clear Channel, Peter Smyth of Greater Media, David Field of Entercom, Lew Dickey of Cumulus, and Don Benson of Lincoln Financial.


title: Orbiting Carbon Observatory

paragraphs: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) was a NASA satellite mission that was supposed to provide world-wide observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide from space. (CO). It was lost in a launch failure on February 24, 2009, when the box of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to come off during launch. The added weight of the box it was in prevented the satellite from reaching its intended speed and height. After that it fell back into the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica.


title: Bulgarian Wikipedia

paragraphs: The Bulgarian Wikipedia () is the Bulgarian language edition of Wikipedia. It was founded on 6 December 2003. On 24 May 2010, it became the 32nd largest Wikipedia by size and it passed the "100,000" articles threshold. As of October 2015, it is the 36th largest edition.

paragraphs: Rules in Bulgarian Wikipedia are not regarded as flexible in disputes as they are on the English project. Difficult issues are resolved through the , which handles content disputes, blocks users or prohibit certain users from editing articles on certain topics. Misuse of administrator privileges is typically appealed through the Arbitration Committee; only this authority and have the power to remove administrator flags.

paragraphs: The Bulgarian Wikipedia was created on 6 December 2003. On November 24, 2005, the Bulgarian language Wikipedia added its 20,000th article, and was the 21st largest Wikipedia at the time. As of December 26, 2007 it is the 30th largest Wikipedia by article count, with over 50,000 articles.

paragraphs: In 24 May 2010, the distinctive Wikipedia globe logo for the Bulgarian Wikipedia was temporarily altered to include the number 100,000 to commemorate the 100,000 article milestone.


title: Similarity (psychology)

paragraphs: Similarity in the area of cognitive psychology refers to things or ideas that people put together in the same groups, or categories, in their minds. Many psychologists try to find out what rules people use when they decide that two things are similar.

paragraphs: One important tool used by psychologists to look into similarity is computer modeling. Scientists will, for example, ask people to rate a number of objects as more or less similar to each other. Then they will write a computer program that tries to simulate the same answers that the humans gave. For instance, a person might say that "cat" and "dog" are similar words, so a good computer model should be able to take the word "dog" and respond with the word "cat" in a list of similar words. Computer models do this by applying some set of rules to a large collection of real world text (called a corpus).

paragraphs: Once a model can respond with the correct (similar) words, then it is likely that the rules the computer program uses are the same rules that people use to decide whether words are similar.

paragraphs: Another way that psychologists look into similarity is by putting people in special situations and watching what they do. In other words, by using an experiment. When it comes to similarity, this might include listing words, using categories as clues for learning new words, sorting objects into groups, or other tasks that have to do with comparing things to one another.

paragraphs: Depending on how quickly people do these tasks, or how many mistakes they make, psychologists can find out what rules they are using to decide if things are similar.


title: Bix

paragraphs: BIX is a rock group from Lithuania. It was founded in 1987. They are one of the most experienced Baltic bands and traveled on tours to United States.


title: Cabinet (furniture)

paragraphs: A cabinet is a type of furniture with enclosed shelves and sometimes a door in front. It is usually made of wood. Metal may be used in industrial or public areas. Some cabinets stand alone; others are attached to a wall. Most kitchens have cabinets for storage of cooking materials and utensils.


title: Capillary action

paragraphs: Capillary action means either of two things:

paragraphs: Capillary action is a result of the surface tension of liquids.

paragraphs: An example of capillary action is what happens inside a drinking straw left in a cup of water. The force of adhesion which holds the water together and to the straw is a little stronger than gravity, so the water will rise inside the straw a little higher than the rest of the water.

paragraphs: Another example is what happens when putting a sponge in a puddle of water. The little bubbles in the sponge work like many straws gathered together. When the sponge is dipped in water, the water starts to go into the holes, and the bubbles that are inside the sponge pull on the water that they touch.

paragraphs: Capillary action also takes place inside the human body. For example, it removes tears from the eyes.


title: Liliales

paragraphs: Liliales is an order of flowering plants. This order of necessity includes the family Liliaceae, but both the family and the order have had a widely disputed history, with the circumscription varying greatly from one taxonomist to another. The best known representative of the order is the lily.


title: Drill

paragraphs: A drill is a type of electrical tool that has a spinning tip. It can be used for many different jobs depending on the attachment. If a drill bit is attached, the drill can be used to make holes in material. A driver bit can also be attached, allowing the drill to put screws into the desired material. A drill can run on a battery or be plugged into the wall, depending on the drill.


title: Liliaceae

paragraphs: The Liliaceae, or the lily family, is a family of flowering plants in the order Liliales.


title: Charles Nicolle

paragraphs: Charles Jules Henri Nicolle (September 21, 1866 - February 28, 1936) was a French doctor and microbiologist. He won the 1928 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the disease typhus.


title: Uma Thurman

paragraphs: Uma Karuna Thurman (born April 29, 1970 in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American movie actress. She is famous for her role in many movies. These include Quentin Tarantino's "Pulp Fiction" and "Kill Bill" Volume 1 and 2.

paragraphs: Thurman's mother, Nena von Schlebrügge, is a psychiatrist and former model. Her father, Robert Thurman, is Professor of Buddhism. Her father is of German, English, Irish and Scottish descent Her mother is of Swedish, Danish and German descent. Before her parents' marriage, her mother was married to Timothy Leary. One of her three brothers is Ganden Thurman, a Hollywood yoga guide. Thurman has three children. She has a daughter and son from her second husband, Ethan Hawke and a daughter from her partner, Swiss businessman Arpad Busson.


title: Jürgen Habermas

paragraphs: Jürgen Habermas (born June 18, 1929) is a German philosopher and sociologist, or someone who studies different societies. He uses a type of theory called critical theory, where he studies how people use power. He also uses the theory of American pragmatism, which studies if something is true or not by the effects of actions. He is known for his work on the theory of the public sphere. He studies power in democracy, and politics. He also studies how people develop a society through language and communication, and tries to understand how that society and the government work together.

paragraphs: Habermas was born in Düsseldorf, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.

paragraphs: Habermas lived in Gummersbach, near the city of Cologne until his graduation from gymnasium. Jürgen was raised in a Protestant religious family because his grandfather was in charge of the seminary, or religious school, in Gummersbach, Germany. Jürgen Habermas went to the universities of Göttingen (1949/50), Zürich (1950/51), and Bonn (1951/54). He earned a doctorate (PhD). from Bonn in 1954 with his work "" (The absolute and history: on the contradiction in Schelling's thought).

paragraphs: From 1956 on, he studied philosophy and sociology under the critical theorists Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main. Because Horkheimer had asked Habermas to make some changes to his dissertation. Habermas did not want to do this, and thought that the Frankfurt School was not correct in its views of modern culture. Habermas left the Frankfurt School (a school of thought rather than one made of bricks and mortar).

paragraphs: He finished his "habilitation", or highest academic degree, in political science at the University of Marburg under the Marxist Wolfgang Abendroth. His "habilitation" work was entitled, "" (published in English in 1989 titled "The structural transformation of the public sphere: an inquiry into a category of bourgeois society"). In 1961, he became a "privatdozent" in Marburg. He began working as a "extraordinary professor" (professor without a chair) of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg. Hans-Georg Gadamer and Karl Löwith got him this job. In 1964 Habermas returned to Frankfurt to take over Horkheimer's job in philosophy and sociology.

paragraphs: He was in charge of the Max Planck Institute in Starnberg (near Munich) in 1971, and worked there until 1983, two years after the publication of his main work, "The Theory of Communicative Action". Habermas then returned to his chair at Frankfurt as head of the Institute for Social Research. After retiring from Frankfurt in 1993, Habermas wrote many books and articles. In 1986, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the , which is the highest honour awarded in German research. He is a "Permanent Visiting" Professor at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, and "Theodor Heuss Professor" at The New School, New York.

paragraphs: Habermas was awarded The Prince of Asturias Award in Social Sciences for 2003. Habermas was also the 2004 Kyoto Laureate in the Arts and Philosophy section. He traveled to San Diego and on March 5, 2005, as part of the University of San Diego's Kyoto Symposium, gave a speech entitled "The Public Role of Religion in Secular Context", about the separation of Church and State. He received the 2005 Holberg International Memorial Prize (about € 520,000).


title: Keyhole Markup Language

paragraphs: Keyhole Markup Language is a file format for displaying data on maps.

paragraphs: In the same way that a Web browser displays web pages written with HTML, KML draws data on maps like Google Maps and virtual globes like Google Earth.

paragraphs: It is an international standard , maintained by the Open Geospatial Consortium .

paragraphs: Google, the previous maintainers of the specification, have information on writing KML on their website.


title: Martinsburg, West Virginia

paragraphs: Martinsburg is a city in West Virginia. It is the county seat of Berkeley County and with a 2000 population of 14,972, it is the ninth largest city in West Virginia as ranked by population.

paragraphs: Martinsburg was founded in 1778 by General Adam Stephen and named in honor of Colonel Thomas Bryan Martin. It was incorporated by the West Virginia legislature on March 30, 1868.

paragraphs: Major employers in Martinsburg include Quad/Graphics, Ecolab, Orgill, Sino-Swearingin, FedEx, and Quebecor World. Government employers include the Internal Revenue Service, the 167th Airlift Wing of the Air National Guard, and the BATF. The now defunct Norwalk car company was located in Martinsburg.


title: Monflanquin

paragraphs: Monflanquin is a commune in the Lot-et-Garonne department in southwestern France. It used to be a bastide.