title: Natural resource

paragraphs: A natural resource is what people can use which comes from the natural environment. Examples of natural resources are air, water, wood, oil, wind energy, natural gas, iron, and coal.

paragraphs: The dividing line between natural resources and man-made resources is not clear-cut. Hydro-electric energy is not a natural resource because people use turbines to convert the energy from moving water. Petroleum and iron ores are natural, but need work to make them into usable refined oil and steel. Atomic energy comes from metallic nuclear fuels, like fissionable uranium and plutonium, but natural rocks need technical work to make them into these nuclear fuels.

paragraphs: We often say there are two sorts of natural resources: renewable resources and non-renewable resources.

paragraphs: Most natural resources are limited. This means they will eventually run out. A perpetual resource has a never-ending supply. Some examples of perpetual resources include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy. There may be a limit to how much can be taken in a given day or year, but that amount can be taken again next day or next year.

paragraphs: Some of the things influencing supply of resources include whether it is able to be recycled, and the availability of suitable substitutes for the material. Non-renewable resources cannot be recycled. For example, fossil fuels cannot be recycled.

paragraphs: The demand for resources can change with new technology, new needs, and new economics (e.g. changes in cost of the resources). Some material can go completely out of use, if people do not want it any more. Demand of many natural resources is very high, but availability of some, such as precious metals, is very low.

paragraphs: Different places have different natural resources. When people do not have a certain resource they need, they can either replace it with another resource, or trade with another country to get the resource. People have sometimes fought to have them (for example, spices, water, arable farmland, gold, or petroleum).

paragraphs: When people do not have some resources, their quality of life can get lower. So, people protect resources. When they can not get clean water, people may become ill; if there is not enough wood, trees will be cut and the forest will disappear over time (deforestation); if there are not enough fish in a sea, people can die of starvation. Renewable resources include crops, wind, hydroelectric power, fish, and sunlight. Many people carefully save their natural resources so that others can use them in future.


title: Negentropy

paragraphs: Negentropy is reverse entropy. It means things becoming more in order. By 'order' is meant organisation, structure and function: the opposite of randomness or chaos. One example of negentropy is a star system such as the Solar System. Another example is life.

paragraphs: As a general rule, everything in the universe tends towards entropy. Star systems eventually become dead. All energy has gone, and everything in the system is "at the temperature of the surrounding space". The opposite of entropy is negentropy. It is a temporary condition in which certain things are hotter and more highly organised than the surrounding space. This is the second law of thermodynamics:

paragraphs: Life is considered to be negentropic because it converts things which have less order, such as food, into things with more order, such as cells in the body, tissues, and organs. In doing so, it gives off heat. Another example of negentropic things are societies, or social systems, because they take disorderly things such as communications, and make them more orderly and useful.


title: North America

paragraphs: North America is a large continent in the Northern and Western Hemispheres of Earth. It is to the east of the Pacific Ocean, the west of the Atlantic Ocean, the south of the Arctic Ocean, and it is the northern part of the Americas. The southernmost part is Central America. It is the third largest continent in the world, after Asia and Africa.

paragraphs: Hundreds of millions of years ago, North America was part of a larger ancient supercontinent named Laurasia. A few million years ago, a new land bridge arose and connected North America to South America. Beringia connected North America to Siberia a few times during ice ages in the past 20,000 years. North America has a population of 527 million and is the 4th most populous continent in the world.


title: Neptune

paragraphs: Neptune (), is the eighth and last planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It is a gas giant. It is the fourth largest planet and third heaviest. Neptune has four rings which are hard to see from the Earth. It is seventeen times heavier than Earth and is a little bit heavier than Uranus. It was named after the Roman God of the Sea.

paragraphs: Neptune's atmosphere is mostly made up of hydrogen and helium. It also contains small amounts of methane which makes the planet appear blue. Neptune's blue color is much darker compared to the color of Uranus, which has a similar amount of methane, so there might be another reason why Neptune is blue. Neptune also has the strongest winds of any planet in the solar system, measured as high as 2,100 km/h or 1,300 mph.

paragraphs: Neptune was discovered by the astronomers Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams. They were both honored for the discovery. The planet was the first to be discovered by mathematical calculations instead of using a telescope. Uranus was moving oddly in its orbit around the Sun, so astronomers searched for another new planet.

paragraphs: The planet was visited by only one spacecraft, "Voyager 2" on August 25, 1989. Neptune once had a huge storm known as the "Great Dark Spot" which was discovered in 1989 by Voyager 2. However, the dark spot was not seen in 1994, and new spots were found since then. It is not known why the dark spot disappeared. Visits by more space probes have been proposed.

paragraphs: The first possible sighting of Neptune is thought to be by Galileo as his drawings showed Neptune near Jupiter. But Galileo was not credited for the discovery since he thought Neptune was a "fixed star" instead of a planet. Because of Neptune's slow movement across the sky, Galileo's small telescope was not strong enough to detect Neptune as a planet.

paragraphs: In 1821, Alexis Bouvard published the astronomical tables of the orbit of Uranus. Later observations showed that Uranus was moving in an irregular way in its orbit, making some astronomers think of another large body being the cause of the irregular motions of Uranus. In 1843, John Couch Adams calculated the orbit of an eighth planet that would possibly be influencing the orbit of Uranus. He sent his calculations to Sir George Airy, the Astronomer Royal, who asked Adams for an explanation. Adams began to make a copy of the reply, but never sent it.

paragraphs: In 1846, Urbain Le Verrier, who was not working with Adams, made his own calculations but also failed to get much attention from French astronomers. However, in the same year, John Herschel began to support the mathematical method and encouraged James Challis to search for the planet. After much delay, Challis began his unwilling search in July 1846. Meanwhile, Le Verrier had convinced Johann Gottfried Galle to search for the planet.

paragraphs: Although Heinrich d'Arrest was still a student at the Berlin Observatory, he suggested that a newly drawn map of the sky, in the region of Le Verrier's predicted area, could be compared with the current sky to look for the change of position of a planet, as compared to a fixed star. Neptune was then discovered that very night on September 23, 1846, within 1° (one degree (angle) of where Le Verrier had predicted it to be, and about 10° from Adams' prediction. Challis later found out that he had seen the planet twice in August, failing to recognize it owing to his careless approach to the work.

paragraphs: After the news of the discovery of Neptune spread, there was also a lot of arguing between the French and the British about who was to deserve credit for the discovery. Later, an international agreement decided that both Le Verrier and Adams together deserved credit. However, historians reviewed the topic after the rediscovery in 1998 of the "Neptune papers" (historical documents from the Royal Greenwich Observatory), which had seemingly been stolen and kept by astronomer Olin Eggen for nearly three decades and were only rediscovered (in his ownership) shortly after his death. After reviewing the documents, some historians now think that Adams does not deserve equal credit with Le Verrier.

paragraphs: Shortly after its discovery, Neptune was temporarily called "the planet exterior to Uranus" or "Le Verrier's planet". The first suggestion for a name came from Galle. He proposed the name "Janus". In England, Challis suggested the name "Oceanus". In France, Arago suggested that the new planet be called "Leverrier", a suggestion which was met with a lot of opposition outside France. French almanacs promptly reintroduced the name "Herschel" for "Uranus" and "Leverrier" for the new planet.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, on separate and different reason, Adams suggested changing the name "Georgian" to "Uranus", while Leverrier (through the Board of Longitude) suggested "Neptune" for the new planet. Struve gave support of that name on December 29, 1846, to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Soon "Neptune" was internationally agreed among many people and was then the official name for the new planet. In Roman mythology, Neptune was the god of the sea, identified with the Greek god, Poseidon.

paragraphs: At 10.243 kg, Neptune's mass puts the planet between Earth and the largest gas giants; Neptune has seventeen Earth masses but just 1/18th the mass of Jupiter. Neptune and Uranus are often considered to be part of a sub-class of gas giant known as ""ice giants"", given their smaller size and big differences in composition compared to Jupiter and Saturn. In the search for extrasolar planets, Neptune has been used as a reference to determine the size and structure of the discovered planet. Some discovered planets that have similar masses like Neptune are often called "Neptunes". just as astronomers refer to various extra-solar "Jupiters."

paragraphs: The atmosphere of Neptune is made up mostly of hydrogen, with a smaller amount of helium. A tiny amount of methane is also detected in the atmosphere. Important absorption bands of methane happen at wavelengths above 600 nm, in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum. This absorption of red light by the atmospheric methane gives Neptune its blue hue.

paragraphs: Because Neptune orbits so far from the Sun, it gets very little heat with the uppermost regions of the atmosphere at and is the coldest planet in our solar system. Deeper inside the layers of gas, however, the temperature rises slowly. Like Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the differences are larger: Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun, yet its internal energy is strong enough to create the fastest winds seen in the Solar System. Several possible explanations have been suggested, including radiogenic heating from the planet's core, the continued radiation into space of leftover heat made by infalling matter during the planet's birth, and gravity waves breaking above the tropopause.

paragraphs: The structure of the inside of Neptune is thought to be very similar to the structure of the inside of Uranus. There is likely to be a core, thought to be about 15 Earth masses, made up of molten rock and metal surrounded by a mixture of rock, water, ammonia, and methane. The heavy pressures keep the icy part of this surrounding mixture as solids, in spite of the large temperatures near the core. The atmosphere, extending about 10 to 20% of the way towards the center, is mostly hydrogen and helium at high altitudes. More mixtures of methane, ammonia, and water are found in the lower areas of the atmosphere. Very slowly this darker and hotter area blends into the superheated liquid interior. The pressure at the center of Neptune is millions of times more than that on the surface of Earth. Comparing its rotational speed to its degree of oblateness shows that it has its mass less concentrated towards the center unlike Uranus.

paragraphs: One difference between Neptune and Uranus is the level of activity that has been observed (seen or measured). When the Voyager spacecraft flew by Uranus in 1986, that winds on that planet were observed to be mild. When Voyager flew by Neptune in 1989, powerful weather events were observed. The weather of Neptune has extremely active storm systems. Its atmosphere has the highest wind speeds in the solar system, thought to be powered by the flow of internal heat. Regular winds in the equatorial region have speeds of around 1,200 km/h (750 mph), while winds in storm systems can reach up to 2,100 km/h, near-supersonic speeds.

paragraphs: In 1989, the Great Dark Spot, a cyclonic storm system the size of Eurasia, was discovered by NASA's "Voyager 2" spacecraft. The storm resembled the Great Red Spot of Jupiter. However, on November 2, 1994, the Hubble Space Telescope did not see the Great Dark Spot on the planet. Instead, a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in the planet's northern hemisphere. The reason why the Great Dark Spot has disappeared is unknown. One possible theory is that heat transfer from the planet's core disrupted the atmospheric balance and existing circulation patterns. The Scooter is another storm, a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot. Its nickname was given when it was first noticed in the months leading up to the "Voyager" encounter in 1989: it moved faster than the Great Dark Spot. Later images showed clouds that moved even faster than Scooter. The Wizard's Eye/"Dark Spot 2" is another southern cyclonic storm, the second most strongest storm seen during the 1989 encounter. It originally was completely dark, but as "Voyager" came closer to the planet, a bright core developed and is seen in most of the highest resolution images.

paragraphs: Unlike other gas giants, Neptune's atmosphere shows the presence of high clouds making shadows on a thick cloud deck below. Though Neptune's atmosphere is much more active than that of Uranus, both planets are made up of the same gases and ices. Uranus and Neptune are not exactly the same type of gas giants like to Jupiter and Saturn, but are rather ice giants, meaning they have a larger solid core and are also made of ices. Neptune is very cold, with temperatures as low as −224 °C (−372 °F or 49 K) recorded at the cloud tops in 1989.

paragraphs: Neptune also has similarities with Uranus in its magnetosphere, with a magnetic field strongly tilted comparative to its rotational axis at 47° and offset at least 0.55 radii (about 13,500 kilometres) from the planet's physical center. Comparing the magnetic fields of the two planets, scientists think the extreme course may be characteristic of flows in the interior of the planet and not the result of Uranus' sideways rotational movement.

paragraphs: Very small blue colored rings have been discovered around the blue planet, but they are not as well known as the rings of Saturn. When these rings were discovered by a team led by Edward Guinan, originally they thought that the rings may not be complete rings. However, this was proven wrong by "Voyager 2". Neptune's planetary rings have a weird "clumpy" arrangement. Although the cause is currently unknown but some scientists think that it may be because of the gravitational contact with small moons that orbit near them.

paragraphs: Proof that the rings are incomplete first began in the mid-1980s, when stellar occultation were found to rarely show an extra "blink" just before or after the planet occulted the star. Pictures from "Voyager 2" in 1989 solved the problem, when the ring system was found to have several faint rings. The farthest ring, Adams, has three famous arcs now named "Liberté", "Egalité", and "Fraternité" (Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity).

paragraphs: The existence of arcs is very hard to understand because the laws of motion would predict that arcs spread out into a single ring in a very short time. The gravitational effects of Galatea, a moon just inward from the ring, are now thought to have created the arcs.

paragraphs: Several other rings were discovered by the "Voyager" cameras. Also with the thin Adams Ring about 63,000 km from the center of Neptune, the Leverrier Ring is at 53,000 km and the wider, smaller Galle Ring is at 42,000 km. A very small outward expansion to the Leverrier Ring has been named Lassell; it is surrounded at its outer edge by the Arago Ring at 57,000 km.

paragraphs: New Earth-based observations published in 2005 appeared to show that Neptune's rings are a lot more unstable than thought before. To be exact, it looks like that the "Liberté" ring might disappear maybe quickly in less than 100 years. The new observations seems to puzzle our understanding of Neptune's rings into a lot of confusion.

paragraphs: Neptune has a total of 14 known moons. As Neptune was the Roman god of the sea, the planet's moons were named after lesser sea gods or goddesses. The largest, and the only one big enough to have the shape of a sphere is Triton, (pronounced:) discovered by William Lassell just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune itself. Unlike all other large planetary moons, Triton has a retrograde orbit, showing that the moon was probably captured, and maybe was once a Kuiper belt object. It is close enough to Neptune to be locked into a synchronous orbit, and is slowly moving into Neptune and will one day be torn apart when it passes the Roche limit. Triton is the coldest object that has been measured in the solar system, with temperatures of −235 °C (38 K, −392 °F). Its diamter is 2700 km, (80% of Earth's Moon, Luna), its mass is 2.15×1022 kg (30% of Luna), its orbital diameter is 354,800 km (90% of Luna) and its orbital period is 5.877 days (20% of Luna).

paragraphs: Neptune's second known moon (by order of distance), the odd moon Nereid, has one of the most unusual orbits of any satellite in the solar system.

paragraphs: From July to September 1989, "Voyager 2" discovered six new moons of Neptune. Of these, the lumpy-shaped Proteus is the biggest known object that has not been shaped into a sphere by its own gravity. Although it is the second most massive Neptunian moon, it has only one quarter of one percent of the mass of Triton. Neptune's closest four moons, Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, and Galatea, orbit close enough to be inside Neptune's rings.

paragraphs: The next farthest out, Larissa was originally discovered in 1981 when it had occulted a star. The moon was credited for causing Neptune's ring arcs when "Voyager 2" observed Neptune in 1989. Five new unusual moons discovered between 2002 and 2003 were announced in 2004. The latest moon was discovered from examining Hubble Telescope imags on July 16, 2013. It is only 12 miles across, allowing it to evade detection even by the Voyager 2 spacecraft.

paragraphs: Neptune cannot be seen with naked eye alone, since Neptune's normal brightness are between magnitudes +7.7 and +8.0, which can be out-shined by Jupiter's Galilean moons, the dwarf planet Ceres, and the asteroids 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, 7 Iris, 3 Juno and 6 Hebe. A telescope or strong binoculars will show Neptune as a small blue dot, similar in appearance to Uranus. The blue color comes from the methane in its atmosphere. Its small obvious size has made it difficult to study visually; most telescopic data was quite limited until the arrival of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics.

paragraphs: With an orbital period (sidereal period) of 164.88 Julian years, Neptune will soon return (for discovery) to the same place in the sky where it was discovered in 1846. This will happen three different times, also with a fourth in which it will come very close to being at that position. These are April 11, 2009, when it will be in prograde motion; July 17, 2009, when it will be in retrograde motion; and February 7, 2010, when it will be in prograde motion. It will also come very close to being at the same point since the 1846 discovery in late October through early-mid November 2010, when Neptune will turn from retrograde to direct motion on the exact degree of Neptune's discovery and will then stop for a moment along the ecliptic within 2 arc minutes at that point (closest on November 7, 2010). This will be the last time for about the next 165 years that Neptune will be at its point of discovery.

paragraphs: This is explained by the idea of retrogradation. Like all planets and asteroids in the Solar System beyond Earth, Neptune goes through retrogradation at certain points during its synodic period. In addition to the start of retrogradation, other events inside the synodic period include astronomical opposition, the return to prograde motion, and conjunction to the Sun.

paragraphs: In its orbit around the Sun, Neptune returned to its original point of discovery in August 2011.

paragraphs: Currently, only one spacecraft has visited Neptune. NASA's "Voyager 2" probe made a quick flyby of the planet with its closest encounter on August 25, 1989, and was the last planet to have been visited by at least one spacecraft.

paragraphs: Some of "Voyager 2""s important discoveries was its very close fly-by of Triton where took pictures of several parts of the moon. The probe also discovered the Great Dark Spot, although it has now disappeared after when the Hubble Space Telescope took pictures of Neptune in 1994. Originally thought to be a large cloud or cyclonic storm system, it was later guessed just to be a hole in the visible cloud deck.

paragraphs: Neptune turned out to have the strongest winds of all the solar system's gas giants. In the outer regions of the solar system, where the Sun shines over 1000 times fainter than on Earth (still very bright with a magnitude of -21), the last of the four giants did happen as what the scientists actually expected. One might think that the farther a planet is from the Sun, the less energy and heat there would be to create and run the very strong winds around. The winds on Jupiter were already hundreds of kilometres per hour. Rather than seeing slower winds, the scientists found faster winds (over 1600 km/h) on more distant Neptune.

paragraphs: One possible guess for the cause of the faster wind speeds is that if enough energy is produced, turbulence is created, which slows the winds down (like those of Jupiter). At Neptune however, there is so little solar energy that once winds are started they meet very little resistance, and are able to keep very high speeds. Anyhow, Neptune gives out more energy than it gets from the Sun, and the internal energy source of these winds remains undetermined.

paragraphs: The pictures sent back to Earth from "Voyager 2" in 1989 became the basis of a PBS all-night program called "Neptune All Night".


title: Now

paragraphs: Now is the time span between the past and the future. It can be long (like an eon in geologic time) or short (like a picosecond) but it is almost always used to refer to the span between the present instant to some time horizon when a decision must be made. It can be used to ask or demand that someone make a decision even if they want to delay.

paragraphs: "Now is the time for all good people to come to the aid of their country."

paragraphs: Mathematics and measurement assume that everything used in one equation equals the same quantities at the beginning of calculation or axiomatization as at the end. That means it is mathematically correct to say that the idea of "equal" means "equal from the time the process starts to the time it ends." In General Semantics and E Prime the words equal, remain (for the past until now) and become (for now into the future) replace the verb "to be" for this reason.

paragraphs: Algebra is now often called snapshot algebra or algebra of seeing because of this dependence on time. If any action or event were possible between steps in algebraic analysis, then, in theory, one would have to start over as if one had no knowledge of the new state at all. For these reasons the idea of statistics and also knowledge and knowledge management are sometimes questioned, for instance, in the book "Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics". A major issue is the comparing of numbers gathered in the past, and now, after some key conditions change.


title: New York City

paragraphs: New York (shortened to NY), often called New York City (shortened to NYC), is the largest city in the United States, located in the state of New York. New York’s population is similar to London in the United Kingdom with over 8 million people currently living in it, and over 22 million people live in the bigger New York metropolitan area. It is in the south end of the state of New York, which is in the northeastern United States. It is the financial capital of the US since it is home to the nation's stock market, Wall Street, and the One World Trade Center. A leading global city; New York exerts culture, media and capital internationally, as well as attracting great numbers of international travelers. It is also the home of the United Nations Headquarters.

paragraphs: Being on one of the world's largest natural harbors, New York City is made up of five boroughs, each of which is a county of the State of New York. The five boroughs—Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island—were combined into one city in 1898. The city and its metropolitan area are an important place for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. New York has more than 3.2 million people born outside the United States, the biggest foreign-born population of any city in the world as of 2016.

paragraphs: New York City started as a trading post created by colonists from the Dutch Republic in 1624 on Lower Manhattan; the post was named New Amsterdam in 1626. In 1664, the English controlled the city and the areas around it, and were renamed "New York" after King Charles II of England gave the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. New York was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790, and has been the biggest U.S. city since 1790. The Statue of Liberty welcomed millions of immigrants as they came to the U.S. by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and it is a symbol of the U.S. and its ideals of liberty and peace. In the 21st century, New York has grew into a global hub of creativity and entrepreneurship and environmental sustainability, and as a symbol of freedom and cultural diversity. In 2019, New York was voted the best city in the world in a survey of over 30,000 people from 48 cities worldwide, because of its cultural diversity.

paragraphs: Many districts and landmarks in New York City are well known, including three of the world's ten most visited tourist places in 2013. A record 62.8 million tourists came to New York City in 2017. Times Square is the colorful area of the Broadway Theater District, one of the world's busiest pedestrian intersections, and a famous area for the world's entertainment industry. Many of the city's landmarks, skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattan's real estate market is one of the most expensive in the world. New York has more ethnic Chinese people outside of Asia than anywhere else in the world, with many Chinatowns across the city. The New York City Subway is the biggest single-operator rapid transit system worldwide, with rail stations. The city has over 120 colleges and universities, including Columbia University, New York University, Rockefeller University, and the City University of New York system, which is the biggest urban public university system in the United States. The world's two largest stock exchanges, the New York Stock Exchange, located on Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, and NASDAQ, headquartered in Midtown Manhattan, are both in Manhattan.

paragraphs: In 1664, the city was named after the Duke of York, who would become King James II of England. James's older brother, King Charles II, had chosen the Duke proprietor of the former territory of New Netherland, including the city of New Amsterdam, which England had recently taken from the Dutch.

paragraphs: The oldest part of the city, the island of Manhattan, still has its original Le-nape Native American name. Although Native people such as the Le-nape and Canaries had lived there for many thousands of years, New York City was first explored by Europeans in the 1500s. Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano found the entrance to New York Harbor in the year 1524 he gived to this site the name of New Angoulême in the honor of Francois 1st. In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson rediscovered New York Harbor while looking for the Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company. Hudson's first mate described the harbor as "a very good Harbour for all windes" and the river as "a mile broad" and "full of fish".

paragraphs: The first non-Native American person to live in what would become New York City was Juan Rodriguez (transliterated to Dutch as "Jan Rodrigues"). He was a merchant from Santo Domingo. He was born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent, and he came to Manhattan during the winter of 1613–14. He trapped for pelts and traded with the local people as a representative of the Dutch. Broadway, from 159th Street to 218th Street in Upper Manhattan, is named Juan Rodriguez Way in his honor.

paragraphs: New York City was settled by Europeans from The Netherlands in 1624. The Dutch called the whole area of New York Netherland (New Netherland) and they named a fort and town on the south end of Brooklyn.

paragraphs: In 1626, the Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit, acting for the Dutch West India Company, bought the island of Manhattan from the "Canarsie", a small Lenape band. He paid "the value of 60 guilders" (about $900 in 2018). A false story says that Manhattan was bought for $24 worth of glass beads.

paragraphs: After the purchase, New Amsterdam grew slowly. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant started his job as the last Director-General of New Netherland. During this time, the number of people of New Netherland grew from 2,000 to 8,000.

paragraphs: Island New Amsterdam (New Amsterdam), after the capital city of the Netherlands, which was to become present-day New York. The English took over the colony in 1664 during the second Anglo-Dutch War. They changed the name to New York, to honor the Duke of York, who later became King James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The Dutch surrendered Nieuw Amsterdam without fighting.

paragraphs: By the time the English took New York, there were many other Dutch towns in what would become New York City, including Breukelen (Brooklyn), Vlissingen (Flushing), and Nieuw Haarlem (Harlem). There were already some English towns in the area also, such as Gravesend in Brooklyn and Newtown in Queens. Dutch, English and other people had been living together in New York for a long time.

paragraphs: New York became more important as a trading port while under British rule in the early 1700s. It also became a center of slavery. 42% of households owned slaves by 1730, the highest percentage outside Charleston, South Carolina.

paragraphs: The 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger, who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby, helped to create the freedom of the press in North America. In 1754, Columbia University was created under charter by King George II; it was called King's College, and it was in Lower Manhattan.

paragraphs: New York quickly grew to become a large and important port city. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765, as the Sons of Liberty. It organized in the city, and they skirmished over the next ten years with British troops stationed there. The important Battle of Long Island of the American Revolution was fought in Brooklyn in 1776; it was the biggest battle of the war. The Americans lost the battle. The British used the area as its headquarters for the war in North America.

paragraphs: New York was the capital of the United States under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1788. When the US Constitution was made, it stayed as the capital from 1789 until 1790. In 1789, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was inaugurated; the first United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States each met for the first time, and the United States Bill of Rights was written, all at Federal Hall on Wall Street. By 1790, New York grew bigger than Philadelphia, so it become the biggest city in the United States. By the end of 1790, because of the Residence Act, Philadelphia became the new capital.

paragraphs: During the nineteenth century, New York City's population grew from ~60,000 to ~3.43 million. The number of black people in New York City reached more than 16,000 in 1840.

paragraphs: The Great Irish Famine brought a many Irish immigrants; more than 200,000 were living in New York by 1860, more than a quarter of the city's population. There was also many people from German provinces, and Germans made up another 25% of New York's population by 1860.

paragraphs: In 1898, the cities of New York and Brooklyn came together with the Bronx, Staten Island, and the western towns in Queens County to make Greater New York. This is the total area of the City of New York today. Around this time, many new immigrants came into New York City. They came in at Ellis Island, an island in New York's harbor near the Statue of Liberty. Many of them then moved to the Lower East Side neighborhood in Manhattan, which had over a million people living in just a few square miles.

paragraphs: Early in the twentieth century, with better transportation, more people moved to outer parts of the greater city, and many commuted to Manhattan. Many skyscrapers and other big buildings were put up to provide places to work.

paragraphs: In the 1970s, many jobs were lost due to industrial restructuring. This caused New York City to have economic problems and high crime rates. Though the financial industry grew, which greatly helped the city's economy in the 1980s, New York's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into the beginning of the 1990s. By the mid 1990s, crime rates started to drop a lot due to different police strategies, better economic opportunities, gentrification, and new residents, both Americans and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America. Important new sectors, such as Silicon Alley, started in the city's economy. New York's population reached all-time highs in the 2000 census and then again in the 2010 census.

paragraphs: New York had most of the economic damage and biggest loss of human life from the September 11, 2001 attacks. Two of the four planes taken over that day were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, destroying them and killing 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 police officers. The North Tower became the tallest building ever to be destroyed anywhere.

paragraphs: Hurricane Sandy brought a destructive storm surge to New York City on the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels and subway lines in Lower Manhattan and other areas of the city and cutting off electricity in many parts of the city and its suburbs.

paragraphs: During the Wisconsin glaciation, 75,000 to 11,000 years ago, the New York City area was at the edge of a big ice sheet over deep. Erosion and the ice moving lead to the creation of what is now Long Island and Staten Island. It also left bedrock at a shallow depth, providing a solid foundation for most of Manhattan's skyscrapers.

paragraphs: New York City is located in the Northeastern United States, in southeastern New York State, approximately halfway between Washington, D.C. and Boston. The city includes all of Manhattan Island and Staten Island, and the western end of Long Island. There are also many smaller islands.

paragraphs: Water divides several parts of the city. The Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay. Between New York City and Troy, New York, the river is an estuary. The Hudson River separates the city from the U.S. state of New Jersey. Part of the Hudson River forms the border between Manhattan and the Bronx on one side, and the State of New Jersey on the other side. The East River forms the border between Manhattan on one side, and Brooklyn and Queens on the other side. The Harlem River forms the border between Manhattan and the Bronx (except for a small part of Manhattan that is on the mainland). Part of Long Island Sound separates the Bronx and Queens. Newtown Creek is part of the border between Brooklyn and Queens. Some parts of the city are very separate from the others because of water, such as Rockaway in Queens and City Island in the Bronx. A small piece of land in Manhattan is international territory and belongs to the United Nations Headquarters. The Bronx River, which flows through the Bronx and Westchester County, is the only entirely fresh water river in the city.

paragraphs: The city's total area is , including of land and of this is water. The tallest place in the city is Todt Hill on Staten Island. It is at above sea level, and it is the tallest place on the Eastern Seaboard that is south of Maine. The summit of the ridge is mostly woodland as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt.

paragraphs: The hallmark of New York city is its many skyscrapers, especially in Manhattan. In New York City there are about 5600 skyscrapers. 48 of them are over 200 metres tall, which is the highest number of skyscrapers in one area in the world.

paragraphs: New York City has five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten Island.

paragraphs: Manhattan (New York County) is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough. It has Central Park and most of the city's skyscrapers. It is sometimes locally known as "The City".

paragraphs: Brooklyn (Kings County), on the western end of Long Island, has the most people living in it than any other borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, unique neighborhoods, and unique architecture.

paragraphs: Queens (Queens County), on Long Island north and east of Brooklyn, is geographically the biggest borough and the most ethnically diverse county in the United States. It is also the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world.

paragraphs: The Bronx (Bronx County) is New York City's northernmost borough. It is the only New York City borough with most of the land being on the mainland United States. The Yankee Stadium, the baseball park of the New York Yankees, and the biggest cooperatively owned housing complex in the United States, Co-op City, are in the Bronx. The Bronx Zoo, the world's largest metropolitan zoo, is also in the Bronx. It is big and has more than 6,000 animals. Rap and hip hop culture were created in the Bronx. Pelham Bay Park is the biggest park in New York City, at .

paragraphs: Staten Island (Richmond County) is the most suburban of the five boroughs. Staten Island is connected to Brooklyn by the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge. It is connected to Manhattan by way of the free Staten Island Ferry, a daily commuter ferry which has clear views of the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, and Lower Manhattan. In central Staten Island, the Staten Island Greenbelt is about big, including of walking trails and one of the last untouched forests in the city.

paragraphs: Under the Köppen climate classification, New York City experiences a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa") that borders a humid continental climate ("Dfa"). The average temperature in January, the area's coldest month, is . However, temperatures in winter could for a few days be as low as and as high as . Summers are typically hot and humid with a July average of . New York City gets some snow in winter.

paragraphs: New York City currently has over 9 million people. Over 20 million people live in the New York metropolitan area including the city. The majority of the people in New York City belong to ethnic groups that are minorities in the US. New York City has had large numbers of immigrants for centuries. In the early 19th Century, they came from Ireland and Germany. Later in the 19th century, they came from Italy, Russia and Eastern Europe. Today, many are from Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Colombia.

paragraphs: New York City is a global hub of business and commerce, as a center for banking and finance, retailing, world trade, transportation, tourism, real estate, new media, traditional media, advertising, legal services, accountancy, insurance, theater, fashion, and the arts in the United States. The Port of New York and New Jersey is also a big part of the economy. It received a record cargo volume in 2017, over 6.7 million TEUs. New York City's unemployment rate fell to its record low of 4.0% in September 2018.

paragraphs: Many Fortune 500 companies are headquartered in New York City, as are many multinational corporations. One out of ten private sector jobs in the city is with a foreign company. New York City has been ranked first among cities around the world in getting capital, business, and tourists. New York City's role as the top global center for the advertising industry can be seen with "Madison Avenue". The city's fashion industry has about 180,000 employees with $11 billion in annual wages.

paragraphs: Chocolate is New York City's biggest specialty-food export, with up to $234 million worth of exports each year. Entrepreneurs were creating a "Chocolate District" in Brooklyn , while Godiva, one of the world's biggest chocolatiers, continues to be headquartered in Manhattan.

paragraphs: New York City's most biggest economic part is the U.S. financial industry, also known as "Wall Street". The city's securities industry, which has 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to be the biggest part of the city's financial sector and an important economic part. In 2012, Walls Street made 5.0 percent of the city's private sector jobs, 8.5 percent ($3.8 billion) of its tax revenue, and 22 percent of the city's total wages, including an average salary of $360,700.

paragraphs: In Lower Manhattan, there is the New York Stock Exchange, on Wall Street, and the NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway, representing the world's biggest and second biggest stock exchanges, respectively. Investment banking fees on Wall Street totaled about $40 billion in 2012, while in 2013, senior New York City bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as $324,000 every year. In fiscal year 2013–14, Wall Street's securities industry made 19% of New York State's tax revenue.

paragraphs: Many of the world's biggest media conglomerates are also in the city. Manhattan had more than 500 million square feet (46.5 million m) of office space in 2018, making it the biggest office market in the United States. Midtown Manhattan, with 400 million square feet (37.2 million m) in 2018, is the biggest central business area in the world.

paragraphs: New York is an important place for the American entertainment industry, with many movies, television series, books, and other media being set there. , New York City was the second biggest center for filmmaking and television production in the United States, making about 200 feature films every year, making about 130,000 jobs. The filmed entertainment industry has been growing in New York, providing nearly $9 billion to the New York City economy as of 2015. By amount, New York is the world leader in independent film production—one-third of all American independent films are created there. The Association of Independent Commercial Producers is also based in New York.

paragraphs: New York City is also an important place for the advertising, music, newspaper, digital media, and publishing industries, and it is the biggest media market in North America. Some of the city's media conglomerates and companies include Time Warner, the Thomson Reuters Corporation, the Associated Press, Bloomberg L.P., the News Corporation, The New York Times Company, NBCUniversal, the Hearst Corporation, AOL, and Viacom. Seven of the world's top eight global advertising agency networks have their headquarters in New York. Two of the top three record labels' headquarters are in New York: Sony Music Entertainment and Warner Music Group. Universal Music Group also has offices in New York.

paragraphs: More than 200 newspapers and 350 magazines have an office in the city, and the publishing industry has about 25,000 jobs. Two of the three national daily newspapers with the biggest circulations in the United States are published in New York: "The Wall Street Journal" and "The New York Times", which has won the most Pulitzer Prizes for journalism. Big tabloid newspapers in the city include "The New York Daily News", which was created in 1919 by Joseph Medill Patterson, and "The New York Post", created in 1801 by Alexander Hamilton. The city also has a many ethnic presses, with 270 newspapers and magazines published in more than 40 languages. "El Diario La Prensa" is New York's biggest Spanish-language daily newspaper, and it is the oldest in the United States. "The New York Amsterdam News", published in Harlem, is a big African American newspaper. "The Village Voice", historically the biggest alternative newspaper in the United States, announced in 2017 that it would end publication of its print version, and it will only publish online.

paragraphs: New York is also an important place for non-commercial educational media. The oldest public-access television channel in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network, created in 1971.

paragraphs: The New York City Public Schools system, managed by the New York City Department of Education, is the biggest public school system in the United States. It serves about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 different primary and secondary schools.

paragraphs: The New York City Charter School Center helps the creation of new charter schools. There are about 900 additional private secular and religious schools in the city.

paragraphs: More than 600,000 students are enrolled in New York City's more than 120 colleges and universities, which is the most of any city in the United States and more than other major global cities such as London, and Tokyo. More than half a million are just in the City University of New York (CUNY) system , including both degree and professional programs. New York City's colleges and universities had also higher average scores than those two cities in 2019, according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities. New York City has many famous private universities such as Barnard College, Columbia University, Cooper Union, Fordham University, New York University, New York Institute of Technology, Rockefeller University, and Yeshiva University; many of these universities are ranked as some of the best universities in the world.

paragraphs: The mayor of New York is Bill de Blasio, a Democrat. The city also has a City Council that makes some local laws. Most laws in New York City are set by the state government in Albany.

paragraphs: Subway transportation is provided by the New York City Subway system, one of the biggest in the world. Pennsylvania Station, the busiest train station in the United States, is here.

paragraphs: John F. Kennedy International Airport, which is in the Queens borough of New York, is one of the busiest airports in the United States.


title: October

paragraphs: October (Oct.) is the tenth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between September and November. It has 31 days. The name comes from the Latin "octo" for "eight". It was the eighth month of the year before January and February were added to the beginning of the year.

paragraphs: October begins on the same day of the week as January in common years, but doesn't begin on the same day of the week as any other month in leap years. October always ends on the same day of the week as February, and additionally, January in common years.

paragraphs: October is the tenth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming after September and before November. It has 31 days. Its name comes from Latin "octo", meaning eight, as it was the eighth month of the year in the Old Roman Calendar before January and February were added to the beginning of the year, though its name did not change. The tenth month at the time was December.

paragraphs: October is an Autumn (Fall) month in the Northern Hemisphere and a Spring month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each Hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of April in the other.

paragraphs: October begins on the same day of week as January in common years, but no other month in leap years begins on the same day of the week as October. October ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and February every year, as each other's last days are 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively.

paragraphs: In common years, October starts on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August of the previous year. In common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and November of the previous year.

paragraphs: In years immediately before common years, October starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September and December of the following year. In years immediately before common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year.

paragraphs: October is the month of the Rosary devotion.

paragraphs: October 31/November 1 is Samhain in old Pagan tradition. Several current observances at this time are believed to be related to it. They are: Halloween (October 31) in many western traditions, All Saints Day (November 1), All Souls Day (November 2), and the Day of the Dead (October 31 to November 2), which is celebrated in Mexico.


title: Of

paragraphs: Of is a preposition used in the English language to show a possessive relationship. For example, the phrase "book of maps" means that the book has maps. The phrase "father of Mike" means the father that is being mentioned is Mike's father.


title: 1 (number)

paragraphs: One (1) is a natural number after zero and before two.

paragraphs: A human typically has one head, nose, mouth, and navel (belly-button).

paragraphs: In mathematics, 1 is the multiplicative identity of common numbers. It is sometimes called the "unity". It is also the only number for which these special facts are true.

paragraphs: In mathematics, 0.999... is a repeating decimal that is mathematically equal to 1. Many proofs have been made to show this is correct.

paragraphs: The number "one" is important for computer science, because the binary numeral system uses only 1s and 0s. In machine code and many programming languages, one means true and zero means false.


title: O Canada

paragraphs: O Canada is the national anthem of Canada.

paragraphs: Calixa Lavallée wrote the music; Adolphe-Basile Routhier wrote the words in French. It was first sung in French in 1880. Robert Stanley Weir wrote English words for the song in 1908.

paragraphs: It was sung as the national anthem for many years before the government made it official on 1 July (Canada Day) in 1980.

paragraphs: Here are the words, explained in Simple English:

paragraphs: Here are the words in French. The words in French and English do not mean the same thing.


title: Oahu

paragraphs: Oahu (or Oʻahu) is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. It means "the gathering place" (a place where people meet) in the Hawaiian language. Most of the people of Hawaii live there (1.2 million of the state's 1.7 million in the mid-1990s). The total land area is . Honolulu, the capital city of Hawaii, is on this island. Other well-known places on Oahu are Waikiki, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kaneohe Bay, and both the North Shore and Makaha (which are famous for very big ocean waves).

paragraphs: Kamehameha I made Oahu his capital when he became the first king of Hawaii. Iolani Palace was built later on by others of the royal family. It is the only royal palace on American soil.

paragraphs: Oahu was perhaps the first of the Hawaiian Islands which the crew of "HMS Resolution" saw on 18 January 1778. This was during Captain James Cook's third Pacific Ocean trip. Europeans did not land on Oahu until 28 February 1779 when Captain Clerke of the "HMS Resolution" stepped ashore at Waimea Bay. Clerke took command of the ship after Captain Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14.

paragraphs: Today, Oahu has become a tourism and shopping center. Almost 7 million visitors (mainly from the American mainland and Japan) go there every year to enjoy the special island holiday found only in Hawaii.

paragraphs: Oahu can be seen in hundreds of movies and TV shows. Some of them are "Magnum, P.I.", "Lost", "Hawaii Five-O" and "Jake and the Fatman".


title: Open content

paragraphs: Open Content is when someone creates something and lets others copy it or change it without having to ask for permission. Any media can be open content, from text and pictures to video and sound.

paragraphs: When someone creates something (like a picture or book), they can make that work "open". This means that other people are allowed to copy it and change it if they want. Something that is open content may be free of charge, but it does not have to be.

paragraphs: The Simple English Wikipedia is open content. So are other Wikipedias. If a person changes open content or makes new open content, everyone can give it to anyone else, or even sell it. It is never needed to ask permission to do this, because the people who wrote the text already gave their permission when they clicked the "save" button.

paragraphs: The rules that say how people can use, change and pass around open content are called a license. A license explains exactly what you are allowed to do with the content that falls under it. Licenses are often written in difficult lawyer language (legal jargon), but many licenses have summaries that are much easier to understand.

paragraphs: The makers of open content get to choose what license to use for their work, and everyone else has to follow it. Only the maker, who owns the copyright, can change it to another license. Most open content licenses say that when others change the work, they must also declare it to be open and under the same license. This is called "share-alike" and means that anything based on work will always be open content.

paragraphs: All the content in Wikipedia is open under the rules of the , a very well-known open content license. Another well-known open content license is the .


title: Orthography

paragraphs: Orthography is an official or correct way to write a particular language. It includes rules of spelling. Orthography may also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, and diacritics (e.g. accents). In English, spelling is a problem for all learners, and is the main issue in orthography.

paragraphs: Some languages have someone to decide the correct spelling, such as the Académie française. English does not. English orthography was the work of the early printers. They had to decide how particular words would be spelled in their books. Gradually the number of alternative spellings began to drop. The word which is "merry" today was spelled in about 30 ways in written sources from the 9th to the 16th century.

paragraphs: English orthography, or English spelling, is the way the 26 letters of the alphabet are used to write down the 36 (IPA) sounds of English. The first manuscripts in Old English were written using the Latin alphabet. It had 24 letters.

paragraphs: No alphabet fits its language exactly. One reason for this is that there are always more sounds than letters. In English there are far more vowel sounds than vowels. The ancient Greeks, who were the first to use letters for vowels, decided to use only a few letters for their vowel sounds. This choice influenced all later alphabets:

paragraphs: English would need about 20 vowels to represent the vowel phonemes (~sounds) in common use, and some languages do have more letters for vowels. The Georgian language has a total of 41 letters. A shorter alphabet works by using two or three letters for a single sound, or one letter for several sounds.

paragraphs: The English alphabet has only three consonants which have one sound, cannot be produced by other combinations and are never silent: n, r and v. The English language uses 22 to 26 consonant phonemes.

paragraphs: The other reason that alphabets never exactly fit languages is dialect. A spoken language varies from place to place and from time to time. This is very obvious with English, as the pronunciation is so different in different parts of the world. A written language will always be less flexible than its spoken parent. It has a different function, and is produced mechanically. It must serve everyone who speaks the language, and it does this by keeping the spelling similar from one time to another.

paragraphs: Therefore, all alphabets have sounds which are difficult to represent with the letters in use. And English also has other problems: sounds that can be written in different ways, and spelling which can be pronounced in different ways. This all gives rise to problems of spelling.

paragraphs: Differences between American English and British English spelling came about mainly as the result of one man. Noah Webster (1758–1843) wrote a "Grammar", a "Spelling" book, and finally an "American dictionary of the English language". In the course of this, he proposed a number of simplifications in spelling. In his dictionary, he chose "s" over "c" in words like "defense", he changed the "re" to "er" in words like "center", he dropped one of the Ls in "traveler". At first he kept the u in words like colour or favour but dropped it in later editions. He also changed "tongue" to "tung": that did not stick. His main reason was to help children learn to read and write. Webster's dictionary contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before.

paragraphs: Webster did create a slightly different identity for American English. But, because his efforts did not address some of the most glaring problems, his variations make little difference to the way the language is used. An example of the real problems in English orthography is the word ending "-ough", which is pronounced several different ways: tough, bough, cough... The root causes of spelling variation are historical. Loan words come with their own (foreign) spelling. Some French loan words are still spelled in the French way; others have been changed.

paragraphs: English spelling reform has been proposed by many people since Webster, such as George Bernard Shaw, who proposed a new phonetic alphabet for English. In some cases Webster's changes have been widely adopted in Britain: the spelling "programme" came from the French; US "program" is clearly simpler, and more consistent with word endings in English. In our modern world, English orthography is still a problem. In some countries (notably, France) a national committee can give advice and direction as to spelling. English has long escaped from national custody.

paragraphs: Modern British spelling and use was greatly influenced by the two great English dictionaries, Samuel Johnson's "A dictionary of the English language" (1755), and James Murray's "Oxford English Dictionary". Johnson's dictionary was hugely influential, abroad as well as at home. The dictionary was exported to America.

paragraphs: For American lexicographers, the dictionary was impossible to ignore:

paragraphs: Some people argue which language is the easiest to spell. People who learn a second language tend to think that their first (native) language is the easiest. However, for the learner, programmatic languages, with well-defined rules, are easier to start with than English. The spelling of the English language is by far the most irregular of all alphabetic spellings and thus the most difficult to learn. English is, in its origin, a Germanic language. From its early roots as Anglo-Saxon, it has borrowed words from many other languages: French (a Romance language) and Latin are the most frequent donors to English.

paragraphs: Languages that use phonetic spelling are easier to learn to spell than others. With phonetic spelling the words are spelled as they are pronounced. The Italian word "orologio" for instance is pronounced oh-ro-LO-jo ("gi" always making a "j" sound.) In English, one comes across the word "knife". In "knife", the "k" is not spoken, even though in English it's more common to pronounce "K"s when they are in words.

paragraphs: One of the problems we have is that similar sounding words may be spelt quite differently. Rough and ruff; meet and meat; great and grate. Words with complicated spelling may be pronounced simply: Leicester is pronounced 'Lester'. Even what rules we do have are frequently broken. ""i" before "e" except after "c"" has over 100 exceptions. Almost all these problems have come about for historical reasons. English has been changing for the last thousand years, and as the language changes, so parts of it get stuck with different spellings.

paragraphs: Here are some of the causes of English orthography:

paragraphs: English has a huge number of words, but its spelling comes from many different sources. "The large and varied lexicon of English has been bought at the expense of an increasingly deversified graphology".

paragraphs: Some languages have a high correspondence between phonemes and letters. That means they get close to one letter for each sound. If there was a perfect correspondence, that language would have "phonemic orthography". English is highly non-phonemic. It has almost every kind of deviation known:

paragraphs: This field of study is called "orthographic depth". The orthographic depth of an alphabetic script is the degree to which a written language deviates from simple one-to-one letter–phoneme correspondence. It shows how easy it is to predict the pronunciation of a word from its spelling. Shallow orthographies are easy to pronounce based on the written word, and deep orthographies are difficult to pronounce based on how they are written. In shallow orthographies, the spelling-sound correspondence is direct: given the rules of pronunciation, one is able to "say" the word correctly.

paragraphs: Most other international languages have similar problems: in French, Arabic or Hebrew, new readers have difficulty learning to decode words. As a result, children learn to read more slowly. In both Spanish and Italian there is a more direct connection between spelling and pronunciation. Those are languages with low orthographic depth.


title: Oil

paragraphs: The word oil is used for many different kinds of liquids. Oil usually does not mix with water.

paragraphs: Vegetable oils are made from plants. Many are used in foods and for cooking. Some kinds of plant oils that people use are palm oil, maize ("corn"), olive, peanut, soy, and sunflower.

paragraphs: Other kinds of oil are made from crude oil ("petroleum") which comes from under the ground. People use large oil wells to bring the oil up to the surface. The oil is sent in special ships called tankers or in pipelines to factories called refineries where it is distilled into LPG, gasoline ("petrol"), diesel fuel, and fuel oil. Plastics are among the Petrochemicals made from crude oil or natural gas. Oils from crude oil are also used as fuels for engines or as lubricants to make the parts of machines work together without sticking or stopping.

paragraphs: Different kinds of oils are also used for many other things, for example to make cosmetics, medicines, paints, and detergents, like washing up liquids. Soap(s) are similar to detergents, but they are generally made from animal fat(s) rather than oils.

paragraphs: Oil is also made for various purposes including synthetic fuel and lubricant.


title: OK

paragraphs: OK (okay) is a word in the English language. It is used to mean that something is good or correct.

paragraphs: It can often be used instead of the word Yes. It is not certain where the word "OK" originally comes from, but some experts say it came from a funny way of writing "Ol Korrect" (All correct).

paragraphs: It is also the two-letter abbreviation for the state of Oklahoma in the United States of America.

paragraphs: You also find the phrase "Ola kala" in Greek, which means something like "Everything fine".

paragraphs: The term appears to have achieved prominence in the United States in 1840, when supporters of the American Democratic political party claimed during the 1840 United States presidential election that it stood for "Old Kinderhook," a nickname for a Democratic presidential candidate, Martin Van Buren, a native of Kinderhook, New York. "'Vote for OK' was snappier than using his Dutch name." In response, Whig opponents attributed "OK", in the sense of "Oll Korrect," to Andrew Jackson's bad spelling. The country-wide publicity surrounding the election appears to have been a critical event in "okay"'s history, widely and suddenly popularizing it across the United States.


title: Oxymoron

paragraphs: An oxymoron is a term for a figure of speech. It is made up of two or more words that seem to be opposite to each other, or actually are opposite.

paragraphs: For example, the words "Wise fool", "Warm freezer", "Legal murder" all have two words. In each one, the one word looks like the opposite of the other word.

paragraphs: You can have words that look opposite, but are right. For example, a "warm freezer" could be right. A freezer could be warm if it was turned off or left open.

paragraphs: The word oxymoron is an oxymoron; 'oxy' comes from the Greek word that means 'sharp', while 'moron' comes from the Greek word that means 'dull'.

paragraphs: Words that really are opposite to each other, would be words that just cannot be put together. For example, a "round square" could not happen because squares are not round.

paragraphs: Oxymorons sometimes appear in jokes. Sometimes, the joke is just to say that a pair of words are an oxymoron. For example, a joke that says that "honest politician" is an oxymoron. This means that politicians are dishonest, if the word 'politician' is opposite to 'honest'.


title: Operating system

paragraphs: An operating system (or OS) is a group of computer programs, including device drivers, kernels, and other software that lets people interact with a computer. It manages computer hardware and software resources. It provides common services for computer programs. An OS can be small (like MenuetOS), or large (like Microsoft Windows). Different operating systems can be used for different purposes. Some are used for everyday things like on a personal computer. Others are mobile operating systems or are used for specialized work.

paragraphs: An operating system has many jobs. It makes sure that all the programs can use the CPU, system memory, displays, input devices, and other hardware. Some also give the user an interface to use a computer. An OS is also responsible for sending data to other computers or devices on a network.

paragraphs: Some examples of commonly used operating systems are macOS, Linux, and Microsoft Windows.

paragraphs: The first operating system was used with the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). It was very hard to make ENIAC do work. How the operating system worked was based on how the switches and cables were put together and depending on this factor punch cards would make a result. While this was an operating system of a kind, it is not what is thought of as one in modern times.

paragraphs: The first operating system that looked and felt like operating systems in the modern age was UNIX, made in 1969 by Bell Labs. It had a small kernel and many tiny programs that could be put together to work with user input and data. Many of its features were taken from Multics, an older operating system made in 1964.

paragraphs: A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time. A multitasking operating system can run more than one program at the same time. Multi-tasking is done by dividing processor time. The processor gives a little bit of its time to each program.

paragraphs: Single-user operating systems cannot distinguish between users, but may allow multiple programs to run simultaneously. A multi-user operating system permits multiple users to interact with the system at the same time.

paragraphs: A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine.

paragraphs: In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a single virtual machine as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual machines. The technique is common in large server warehouses.

paragraphs: Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and are able to operate with a limited number of resources. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.

paragraphs: A real-time operating system guarantees processing of events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.

paragraphs: A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system provides, such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries and composed with the application and configuration code to construct a unikernel: a specialized, single address space, machine image that can be deployed to cloud or embedded environments.


title: Philosophy

paragraphs: Philosophy develops interest in wisdom which is different from knowledge. Philosophy is a way of thinking about the world, the universe, and society. People do philosophy by asking questions about the world and about how people think. The ideas in philosophy are often general and "abstract". But this does not mean that philosophy is not about the real world. Ethics, for example, asks about how to be good in our day-to-day lives. Metaphysics asks about how the world works and what it is made of.

paragraphs: Sometimes people talk about how they have a ‘personal philosophy’, which means the way a person thinks about the world. This article is "not" about people's ’personal philosophies’. This article is about the ideas that have been discussed by philosophers (people who think and write about ways of thinking) for a long time.

paragraphs: One philosophical question is this: "Is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable man could doubt it?". Other questions asked by philosophers are these:

paragraphs: The etymological meaning of the word 'Philosophy' is 'love of wisdom'. It comes from the Greek word "'Philosophia'", with "'Philo'" meaning "'beloved'" and "'Sophia"' meaning "'wisdom"'.

paragraphs: There are different types of philosophy from different times and places. Some philosophers came from Ancient Greece, such as Plato and Aristotle. Others came from Asia, such as Confucius or Buddha and Laozi. Some philosophers are from the Middle Ages in Europe, such as William of Ockham or Saint Thomas Aquinas.

paragraphs: Philosophers from the 1600s, 1700s, and 1800s included Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant. Philosophers from the 1900s included Søren Kierkegaard, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Jean-Paul Sartre.

paragraphs: Philosophy is the study of humans and the world by thinking and asking questions. It is a science and an art. Philosophy tries to answer important questions by coming up with answers about real things and asking "why?"

paragraphs: Sometimes, philosophy tries to answer the same questions as religion and science. Philosophers do not all give the same answers to a question. Many types of philosophy criticize or even attack the beliefs of science and religion.

paragraphs: In his work "Critique of Pure Reason", Immanuel Kant asked the following questions:

paragraphs: The answers to these questions gives the different domains or categories of philosophy.

paragraphs: Philosophy can be divided into different groups, based on the types of questions that it asks. Below is a list of questions split into groups. One possible list of answers to these questions can be called a 'philosophy'. There are many different 'philosophies', because all of these questions have many different answers according to different people. Not all philosophies ask the same questions. These are the questions that are usually asked by philosophers from the Western world:

paragraphs: Metaphysics is sometimes split up into ontology (the philosophy of real life and living things), the philosophy of mind and the philosophy of religion; but these sub-branches are very close together.

paragraphs: Other divisions include eschatology, teleology and theology. In past centuries natural science was included in philosophy, and called "natural philosophy".

paragraphs: Does philosophy do any good? Very few people would dispute this. It is easy to argue that philosophy is a good thing, because it helps people to think more clearly. Philosophy helps people to understand the world and the way people act and think. Philosophers believe that asking philosophical questions is useful because it brings wisdom and helps people to learn about the world and each other. Some philosophers might even argue that the question "Is philosophy good or bad?" is a philosophical question itself.

paragraphs: However, some people think that philosophy is harmful, as philosophy encourages free-thinking and often questions the beliefs that others hold. For example, philosophies such as some existentialist views say that there is no meaning to life or human existence, except the meaning that we make up or invent. People from some religions do not agree with the beliefs of existentialism.

paragraphs: It should be noted that every major science, including physics, biology, and chemistry are all disciplines that originally were considered philosophy. As speculation and analysis about nature became more developed, these subjects branched away. This is a process that continues even today; psychology only split in the past century. In our own time, subjects such as consciousness studies, decision theory, and applied ethics have increasingly found independence from philosophy as a whole. Because of this, philosophy seems useful because it makes new kinds of science.

paragraphs: Philosophers ask questions about ideas (concepts). They try to find answers to those questions. Some thinkers find it very hard to find those words that best describe the ideas they have. When they find answers to some of these questions philosophers often have the same problem, that is how to best tell the answers they found to other people. Depending on the meaning of the words they use, the answers change.

paragraphs: Some philosophers are full-time thinkers (called academics), who work for universities or colleges. These philosophers write books and articles about philosophy and teach classes about philosophy to university or college students.

paragraphs: Other philosophers are just "hobby" thinkers who think about philosophy during their free time. A small number of hobby thinkers have thought so much about philosophy that they are able to write articles for philosophy magazines. Other people approach philosophy from another job. For example, monks, artists, and scientists may think about philosophical ideas and questions.

paragraphs: Most philosophers work by asking questions and looking for good definitions (meanings) of words to help them understand what a question means.

paragraphs: Some philosophers say the only thing needed to answer a question is to find out what it means. The only thing that makes philosophical questions (such as those above) difficult is that people do not really know what they mean. Ludwig Wittgenstein believed this.

paragraphs: Philosophers often use both real and imaginary examples to make a point. For example, they may write about a real or fictional person in order to show what they think a good person or a bad person is like.

paragraphs: Some philosophers look for the simplest way to answer a question and say that is probably the right answer. This is a process called Occam's razor. Others believe that complicated answers to questions can also be right. For an example of a philosophical problem, see the God paradox.

paragraphs: Philosophers use logic to solve problems and answer questions. Logical consistency is a cornerstone of any acceptable theory. Philosophers who disagree with a theory will often try to find a logical contradiction in a theory. If they find a contradiction, this gives them a reason to reject that theory. If they do not find an inconsistency, the philosopher might show that the theory leads to a conclusion which is either unacceptable or ridiculous. This second approach is usually called reductio ad absurdum.

paragraphs: People listed here should be genuine philosophers, rather than social or political campaigners. The lists are not meant to be complete.


title: Physics

paragraphs: Physics is a branch of science. It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines. The main goal of physics is to explain how things move in space and time and understand how the universe behaves. It studies matter, forces and their effects.

paragraphs: The word "physics" comes from the Greek word ἡ φύσις, meaning "nature". Physics can also be defined as "that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events".

paragraphs: Astronomy, a part of physics, is the oldest natural science. In the past it was a part of 'natural philosophy' with other fields of science, such as chemistry and biology. During the scientific revolution, these fields became separate, and physics became a distinct field of knowledge.

paragraphs: Physics is very important in the development of new technologies, such as airplanes, televisions, computers and nuclear weapons. Mechanics, a branch of physics, helped develop the mathematical field of calculus.

paragraphs: Modern physics connects ideas about the four laws of symmetry and conservation of energy, momentum, charge, and parity.

paragraphs: Astronomy is the oldest natural science. The Sumerians, and Ancient Egyptians studied the stars, mostly with a view to prediction and religion. The first Babylonian star maps date from about 1200 BC. That astronomical events are periodic also dates back to the Babylonians. Their understanding was not scientific, but their observations influenced later astronomy. Much astronomy came from Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Ancient Egypt, and Ancient Greece. Astronomers from Egypt built monuments that showed how objects in the sky moved, and most of the names for the constellations in the Northern hemisphere came from Greek astronomers.

paragraphs: Natural philosophy started in Greece around 650 BC when a movement of philosophers replaced superstition with naturalism, which refuted the spiritual. Leucippus and his student Democritus suggested the idea of the atom around this period.

paragraphs: Islamic scholars continued to study Aristotelian physics during the Islamic Golden Age. One main contribution was to observational astronomy. Some, like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna, worked on optics and vision. In "The Book of Optics", Ibn al-Haytham rejected previous Greek ideas concerning vision and proposed a new theory. He studied how light enters the eye, and developed the camera obscura. European scientists later built eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras from this book.

paragraphs: Physics became a separate field of study after the scientific revolution. Galileo's experiments helped to create classical physics. Although he did not invent the telescope, he used it when he looked into the night sky. He supported Copernicus' idea that the Earth moved around the Sun (heliocentrism). He also investigated gravity. Isaac Newton used Galileo's ideas to create his three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. Together these laws explained the motion of falling bodies near the earth and the motion of earth and planets around the sun.

paragraphs: In a couple centuries, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing and many more discoveries were made in many fields of science. The laws of classical physics are good enough to study objects that move much slower than the speed of light, and are not microscopic. When scientists first studied quantum mechanics, they had to create a new set of laws, which was the start of modern physics.

paragraphs: As scientists researched particles, they discovered what classical mechanics could not explain. Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light varied, but experiments showed the speed of light stayed the same. This was predicted by Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity. Einstein predicted that the speed of electromagnetic radiation through empty space would always be the same. His view of space-time replaced the ancient idea that space and time were quite separate things.

paragraphs: Max Planck came up with quantum mechanics to explain why metal releases electrons when you shine a light at it, and why matter emits radiation. Quantum mechanics applies for very small things like the electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up an atom. People like Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, and Paul Dirac continued to work on quantum mechanics and eventually we got the Standard Model.

paragraphs: Physics is the study of energy and matter in space and time and how they are related to each other. Physicists assume the existence of mass, length, time and electric current and then define (give the meaning of) all other physical quantities in terms of these basic units. Mass, length, time, and electric current are never defined but the standard units used to measure them are always defined. In the International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Système International), the kilogram is the basic unit of mass, the metre is the basic unit of length, the second is the basic unit of time, and the ampere is the basic unit of electric current.

paragraphs: In addition to these four units, there are three other ones: the mole, which is the unit of the quantity of matter, the candela which measures the luminous intensity (the power of lighting) and the kelvin, the unit of temperature.

paragraphs: Physics studies how things move, and the forces that make them move. For example, velocity and acceleration are used by physics to show how things move. Also, physicists study the forces of gravity, electricity, magnetism and the forces that hold things together.

paragraphs: Physics studies very large things, and very small things. For instance, physicists can study stars, planets and galaxies but could also study small pieces of matter, such as atoms and electrons.They may also study sound, light and other waves. As well as that, they could examine energy, heat and radioactivity, and even space and time.

paragraphs: Physics not only helps people understand how objects move, but how they change form, how they make noise, how hot or cold they will be, and what they are made of at the smallest level.

paragraphs: Physics is a quantitative science because it is based on measuring with numbers. Mathematics is used in physics to make models that try to predict what will happen in nature. These predictions are compared to the way the real world works. Physicists are always working to make their models of the world better.

paragraphs: Classical mechanics contains major topics such as Newton's laws of motion, Lagrangian mechanics, Hamiltonian mechanics, kinematics, statics, dynamics, chaos theory, acoustics, fluid dynamics, continuum mechanics. Classical mechanics is all about forces acting on a body in nature, balancing forces, maintaining equlibrium state, etc .

paragraphs: Electromagnetism is study of charges on a particular body. It contains subtopics such as Electrostatics, electrodynamics, electricity, magnetism, magnetostatics, Maxwell's equations, optics .

paragraphs: Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics are related with temperature. It includes main topics such as Heat engine, kinetic theory. It uses terms such as heat(Q), work(W), and internal energy (U). First law of thermodynamics gives us the relation them by the following equation (ΔU = Q − W)

paragraphs: Quantum mechanics is the study of particle at the atomic level taking into consideration the atomic model. It includes subtopics Path integral formulation, scattering theory, Schrödinger equation, quantum field theory, quantum statistical mechanics.

paragraphs: Physics is the science of matter and how matter interacts. Matter is any physical material in the universe. Everything is made of matter. Physics is used to describe the physical universe around us, and to predict how it will behave.

paragraphs: Physics is the science concerned with the discovery and characterization of the universal laws which govern matter, movement and forces, and space and time, and other features of the natural world.

paragraphs: The sweep of physics is broad, from the smallest components of matter and the forces that hold it together, to galaxies and even larger things. There are only four forces that appear to operate over this whole range. However, even these four forces (gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force associated with radioactivity, and the strong force which holds protons and neutrons in an atom together) are believed to be different parts of a single force.

paragraphs: Physics is mainly focused on the goal of making ever simpler, more general, and more accurate rules that define the character and behavior of matter and space itself.

paragraphs: One of the major goals of physics is making theories that apply to everything in the universe. In other words, physics can be viewed as the study of those universal laws which define, at the most basic level possible, the behavior of the physical universe.

paragraphs: Physics uses the scientific method. That is, data from experiments and observations are collected. Theories which attempt to explain these data are produced. Physics uses these theories to not only describe physical phenomena, but to model physical systems and predict how these physical systems will behave. Physicists then compare these predictions to observations or experimental evidence to show whether the theory is right or wrong.

paragraphs: The theories that are well supported by data and are especially simple and general are sometimes called scientific laws. Of course, all theories, including those known as laws, can be replaced by more accurate and more general laws, when a disagreement with data is found.

paragraphs: Physics is more quantitative than most other sciences. That is, many of the observations in physics may be represented in the form of numerical measurements. Most of the theories in physics use mathematics to express their principles. Most of the predictions from these theories are numerical. This is because of the areas which physics has addressed work better with quantitative approaches than other areas. Sciences also tend to become more quantitative with time as they become more highly developed, and physics is one of the oldest sciences.

paragraphs: Classical physics normally includes the fields of mechanics, optics, electricity, magnetism, acoustics and thermodynamics. Modern physics is a term normally used to cover fields which rely on quantum theory, including quantum mechanics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, particle physics and condensed matter physics, as well as the more modern fields of general and special relativity, but these last two are often considered fields of classical physics as they do not rely on quantum theory. Although this difference can be found in older writings, it is of little new interest as quantum effects are now understood to be of importance even in fields that before were called classical.

paragraphs: There are many approaches to studying physics, and many different kinds of activities in physics. There are two main types of activities in physics; the collection of data and the development of theories.

paragraphs: The data in some subfields of physics is amenable to experiment. For example, condensed matter physics and nuclear physics benefit from the ability to perform experiments. Experimental physics focuses mainly on an empirical approach. Sometimes experiments are done to explore nature, and in other cases experiments are performed to produce data to compare with the predictions of theories.

paragraphs: Some other fields in physics like astrophysics and geophysics are mostly observational sciences because most of their data has to be collected passively instead of through experimentation. However, observational programs in these fields use many of the same tools and technology that are used in the experimental subfields of physics.

paragraphs: Theoretical physics often uses quantitative approaches to develop the theories that attempt to explain the data. In this way, theoretical physicists often use tools from mathematics. Theoretical physics often can involve creating quantitative predictions of physical theories, and comparing these predictions quantitatively with data. Theoretical physics sometimes creates models of physical systems before data is available to test and support these models.

paragraphs: These two main activities in physics, data collection, theory production and testing, use many different skills. This has led to a lot of specialization in physics, and the introduction, development and use of tools from other fields. For example, theoretical physicists use mathematics and numerical analysis and statistics and probability and computer software in their work. Experimental physicists develop instruments and techniques for collecting data, using engineering and computer technology and many other fields of technology. Often the tools from these other areas are not quite appropriate for the needs of physics, and need to be changed or more advanced versions have to be made.

paragraphs: It is frequent for new physics to be discovered if experimental physicists do an experiment that current theories cannot explain, or for theoretical physicists to generate theories which can then be put to the test by experimental physicists.

paragraphs: Experimental physics, engineering and technology are related. Experiments often need specialized tools such as particle accelerators, lasers, and important industrial applications such as transistors and magnetic resonance imaging have come from applied research.


title: Politics

paragraphs: Politics is the way that people living in groups make decisions.

paragraphs: Politics is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries. In large groups, such as countries, some people may spend a lot of their time making such agreements. These people are called politicians. Politicians, and sometimes other people, may get together to form a government. The study of politics in universities is called political science, political studies, or public administration.

paragraphs: In everyday life, the term "politics" refers to the way that countries are governed, and to the ways that governments make rules and laws. Politics can also be seen in other groups, such as in companies, clubs, schools, and churches.

paragraphs: The government tries to lead the whole group. Governments do things such as:

paragraphs: One of the ways the government leads the group is by making laws and rules which tell everybody what they can and can not do. The government makes these laws so that society will be safe and well-ordered. The law that "you must not drink alcohol while driving a car" stops people from drunk driving, which could kill people. The law "you must wear a helmet on a motorcycle" makes sure that people protect themselves

paragraphs: The government can also control people and what happens in a country in other ways besides making laws.

paragraphs: Politics is often compared to ethics (ideas about right and wrong). Ethics is a more abstract study of right and wrong. Ethics is usually more concerned with principle than law or politics or diplomacy, so many people think ethics is not practical. But without some agreement on ethics, there is probably no way to even have a debate, laws or an election. There is always some agreement on ethics and personal conduct in a political system.

paragraphs: In most countries, people have formed political parties to put forward their ideas. There is usually some disagreement between people within a party, but they work together because they feel that they agree on enough things, and they will have more power if they join together. They agree to take the same position on many issues, and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties. Some examples of parties are the Liberal party, the Labor party and the Greens.

paragraphs: The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote that humans are a political animal and that ethics and politics are closely linked.

paragraphs: Niccolò Machiavelli wrote, in his 1532 book, The Prince, that politics was firstly about having and keeping power. He said that without power, a leader could do nothing.

paragraphs: In 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote "Leviathan", a book about politics. Hobbes wrote that people living in groups often give up some of their rights in exchange for some protections from a government.

paragraphs: In the 1800s, John Stuart Mill developed the "liberal" idea of politics. Mill said that democracy is the most important political development of the 1800s. He said that there should be more protection for individual rights against the government.

paragraphs: Bernard Crick wrote a list of the political virtues, which were about best practices of politics itself.

paragraphs: There are also disagreements between different countries. Attempts to solve the problem with meetings are called diplomacy. This is politics between nations instead of politics within nations. If the problems are not resolved by diplomatic meetings they can lead to war or terrorism.


title: Value (personal and cultural)

paragraphs: A value (or principle) usually means an abstract rule, one that can be seen to apply in many experiences, or can be applied by choice in a lot of situations. It can also mean a moral choice one makes often and consistently, for example, some Buddhists avoid eating meat as a matter of principle.

paragraphs: Many groups of people agree on lists of principles. They may also try to agree on the order in which they are to apply, that is, which principles should be violated before which other ones. They might also try to list best practices which reflect the principles in the right order, and provide more practical (less abstract) instruction.