title: Kansas

paragraphs: Kansas () is a state in the Midwestern United States of America. Kansas has a total population of 2.9 million, with an area of , making Kansas the 34th largest state by population and the 15th largest state by area. The name of the state comes from the Kansa Native Americans, whose name comes from a Siouan-language phrase meaning "people of the south wind". The land that would become Kansas was bought in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Kansas became the 34th state to be admitted to the United States on January 29, 1861. Kansas' capital is Topeka, and its biggest city is Wichita.

paragraphs: Kansas was first settled by Americans in 1827 when Fort Leavenworth was built. In the 1850s, many more people came to live in Kansas. This was also when people were fighting about slavery. People were allowed to move to Kansas in 1854 due to the Kansas–Nebraska Act. When this happened, anti-slavery Free-Staters from New England and pro-slavery people from Missouri quickly came to Kansas. They wanted to decide whether Kansas would become a free state or a slave state. Because of this, a lot of fighting happened, and it was known as Bleeding Kansas. The anti-slavery people won. On January 29, 1861, Kansas entered the Union as a free state.

paragraphs: Kansas is in a region known as "America's Breadbasket". Like other states in this area, Kansas is a large producer of corn, sorghum, soybeans, and wheat; they make one-fifth of all wheat grown in the United States. In addition agriculture, Kansas has other industries including aviation and communications. Kansas has an area of , which is the 15th-biggest state by area and is the 34th most-populous of the 50 states because it has 2,913,314 people living there. People who live in Kansas are called "Kansans". Mount Sunflower is Kansas's highest place at .

paragraphs: The terrain of Kansas consists of prairies and forests. All of Kansas is in the Great Plains.

paragraphs: In 1539, Marcos de Niza, a friar, reported rumors of Cíbola, a city of gold, to Spanish colonial officials in Mexico City. Niza said the city was in modern-day New Mexico. In response to the rumors, two years later, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, with an army of 3000 Spaniards and 8001 Mexicans, marched northward from Culiacán in hopes of finding the city.When Coronado did not find the city in New Mexico, he continued northeast into the Mississippi Valley, crossing the present area of Kansas diagonally. This made Conrado and his army the first Europeans to see the Great Plains, including Kansas. Later, Juan de Oñate also traveled to Kansas in 1601.

paragraphs: In 1682, Marquette, Joliet, Hennepin and other French leaders took formal control of the Mississippi Valley, including the land that would become Kansas. This land, known as the Louisiana territory, was used to organize trade with Native Americans. In 1763, France ceded the Louisiana territory to Spain.

paragraphs: Between 1763 and 1803 the territory of Kansas was integrated into the Spanish Louisiana. The governor Luis de Unzaga 'le Conciliateur', during that period, promoted expeditions and good relations with the indians tribes, among the explorers were Antoine de Marigny and others who continued trading across the Kansas River, especially at its confluence with the Missouri River, tributaries of the Mississippi River.

paragraphs: However, in 1803, Spain receded the territory back to France in the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. On April 30, 1803, Napoleon sold the Louisiana territory to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase. In the early 1800s, Kansas was used to hold Native Americans that were removed from their native lands.

paragraphs: On May 30, 1854, the Congress signed the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The Kansas-Nebraska Act stated that Kansas and Nebraska were both territories of the United States. It also stated that Kansans would vote on the legality of slavery.

paragraphs: Upon hearing this, about 1,200 armed New Englanders came to Kansas to vote against slavery. However, thousands of southerners, mostly from Missouri, came to vote for slavery. The final vote was to make slavery legal, and Kansas adopted most of Missouri's slave laws. There was fighting between Southerners and Northerners in Kansas. In one fight, John Brown and his men killed five people in the Pottawatomie Massacre. Later, Southerners destroyed Lawrence, Kansas. Kansas was called "Bleeding Kansas".

paragraphs: Between 1854 and 1861, Kansas proposed four state constitutions. Out of the four proposed constitutions, three did not allow slavery. Finally, in July 1859, Kansas passed the Wyandotte Constitution, which was anti-slavery. The constitution for statehood was sent to the U.S. government in April 1860 to be voted on. The constitution was passed by the House of Representatives, but rejected by the Senate. This is because southern voters in the Senate did not like that Kansas would become a state without slavery. In 1861, after the Confederate states formed, the constitution gained approval from the Union, and Kansas became a state.

paragraphs: Four months after Kansas became a state, the Civil War started. Out of the 381 battles in the Civil War, four were fought in Kansas. Throughout the war, Kansas remained a Union state.

paragraphs: On August 21, 1863, William Clarke Quantrill led a force of 300 to 400 Confederates into the town of Lawrence, Kansas. Quantrill and his troops burned, looted, and destroyed the anti-slavery town. This battle became known as the Lawrence Massacre. In total, 164 Union soldiers and 40 Confederate soldiers died in the Lawrence Massacre. In the Battle of Mine Creek, on October 25, 1864, Union soldiers attacked Confederates as they were crossing the Mine Creek. The Union surrounded the Confederates, and captured 600 men and two generals. 1,000 Confederate soldiers and 100 Union soldiers died in the battle. In total, 8,500 people from Kansas died or were wounded in the Civil War.

paragraphs: After the Civil War, many free slaves came to Oklahoma and Kansas. In fact, between the years of 1879 and 1881, about 60,000 African Americans came to this region. This is because the slaves wanted economic opportunities, which they believed awaited them in Kansas. African Americans also came to Kansas for better political rights and to escape sharecropping. These people were called "Exodusters."

paragraphs: From 1930 to 1936, Kansas went through a period of time called the Dust Bowl. During this time, Kansas had little rainfall and high temperatures. Thousands of farmers became very poor and had to move to other parts of the United States. In total, 400,000 people left the Great Plains area. The years from 1930 to 1940 was the only time the population of Kansas went down. The number of people living in Kansas decreased 4.3 percent.

paragraphs: During the 1950s, school segregation was required in fifteen U.S states. However, Kansas was not one of these states. Instead, school segregation was permitted by local option, but only in elementary schools. In 1896, the ruling from "Plessy v. Ferguson" stated that segregation was allowed, but equal facilities should be made available for blacks and whites. Often, however, black schools received less funding and had fewer textbooks than white schools.

paragraphs: For these reasons, Linda Brown and her family sued the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Brown won the case, and the ruling was to overturn the "Plessy v. Ferguson" decision. This was considered by many a landmark case in the civil rights movement.

paragraphs: Kansas is the 15th-largest state in the United States. It covers an area of 82,282 square miles (213,109 km). Of this, about 462 square miles (1196.57 km) are water. This makes up 0.60% of the total area of the state.

paragraphs: Kansas shares borders with Nebraska to the north, Oklahoma to the south, Missouri to the east, and Colorado to the west. Kansas is just as far away from the Pacific Ocean as it is the Atlantic Ocean. The geographic center of the main 48 states is near Lebanon, Kansas. The geographic center of Kansas is in Barton County.

paragraphs: The underground of Kansas is made of dipping sedimentary rocks, and they are slightly slanted west. A series of Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, and Permian rocks are found in the eastern and southern parts of the state. In the western part of Kansas, Cretaceous can be found sticking up from the ground. This happened because of the erosion from the geologically uplifted Rocky Mountains west of Kansas. Northeastern Kansas was affected by glaciation during the Pleistocene.

paragraphs: All of Kansas is in the Great Plains, where the land is mostly flat with prairies and grasslands. Eastern Kansas has hills and forests, like the Flint Hills and the Osage Plains in the southeastern part of the state.

paragraphs: Kansas increases in elevation from east to west. The highest place in the state is Mount Sunflower near the Colorado border. Mount Sunflower is 4,039 ft (1,231 m) tall. The lowest point is the Verdigris River in Montgomery County, at 679 ft (207 m) above sea level. It is a common misconception that Kansas is the flattest state – in 2003, a tongue-in-cheek study famously said the state is "flatter than a pancake". Kansas has a maximum topographic relief of . This makes Kansas the 23rd flattest U.S. state.

paragraphs: About of the Kansas's northeastern border is the Missouri River. The Kansas River is created by the junction of the Smoky Hill River and Republican River. This happens at Junction City. The Kansas River then joins the Missouri River at Kansas City. It goes across the northeastern part of the state.

paragraphs: The Arkansas River (pronunciation varies) starts in Colorado. It goes for about across the western and southern parts of Kansas.

paragraphs: Kansas's has other rivers. There is the Saline River and the Solomon River. They are tributaries of the Smoky Hill River. The Big Blue River, the Delaware River, and the Wakarusa River flow into the Kansas River. The Marais des Cygnes River is a tributary of the Missouri River. Spring River is between Riverton and Baxter Springs.

paragraphs: The Köppen climate classification says that Kansas's climate has three types depending on where in the state it is: it has humid continental, semi-arid steppe, and humid subtropical. The eastern 2/3 of the state (especially the northeastern part) has a humid continental climate. This means it has cool to cold winters and hot, often humid summers. Most of the precipitation happens during both the summer and the spring.

paragraphs: The western 1/3 of the state – from about U.S. Route 83 to west of it – has a semiarid steppe climate. Summers are hot, often very hot, and generally less humid. Winters vary a lot. Winters can be anything between warm and very cold. The western region gets an average of about of precipitation per year. Chinook winds in the winter can warm western Kansas all the way into the range.

paragraphs: The far south-central and southeastern parts of Kansas, including the Wichita area, have a humid subtropical climate. This means it has hot and humid summers, and it has milder winters. It also has more precipitation than other places in Kansas. Some things about three climates can be found in most of Kansas. Many parts can get droughts and varied weather. Places can be dry or humid. Places can get both warm or cold in the winter.

paragraphs: Temperatures in many areas in the western half of Kansas reach or hotter on most days of June, July, and August. Because of the high humidity, the heat index can be deadly, especially in Wichita, Hutchinson, Salina, Russell, Hays, and Great Bend. Temperatures are often high in Dodge City, Garden City, and Liberal, but the heat index in those three cities is usually lower than the actual air temperature.

paragraphs: Temperatures of or higher are not as common in the eastern half of Kansas. However, higher humidity and the urban heat island effect make most summer days reach between and in Topeka, Lawrence, and the Kansas City metropolitan area. During the summer, the low temperatures each night in the northeastern part of the state don't get colder than very often. Also, because of the humidity being between 85 and 95 percent, dangerous heat can be felt all day.

paragraphs: Kansas has a varied climate with an average yearly temperature of 56°F (13°C). The highest temperature ever in Kansas is 121 °F (49.4 °C). This happened in Fredonia on July 18, 1936, and in Alton on July 24, 1936. The lowest temperature ever in Kansas is -40 °F (-40 °C). This occurred in Lebanon on February 13, 1905. Kansas is in a temperate area of the country. Like other states in this region, Kansas has four distinct seasons.

paragraphs: Kansas can have extreme weather in all four seasons. For example, in spring and autumn, Kansas has many tornadoes. In fact, Kansas gets about 55 tornadoes per year. This is because Kansas is in the area known as Tornado Alley, where cold and warm air masses come together to make severe weather.

paragraphs: In summer, Kansas has experienced severe droughts. For example, in 1934, 1936, and 1939, Kansas had less than average rainfall and widespread dust storms as a part of the Dust Bowl.

paragraphs: In winter, Kansas has snow in most parts of the state. The average snowfall in the northern half of the state is 16 inches, with the average snowfall in the southern half of the state being 8 inches. Blizzards and related snowstorms are rare in Kansas.

paragraphs: Kansas had 627 cities in 2008. The largest city in Kansas is Wichita, which had a population of 382,368 in 2010. The other largest cities in Kansas are: Overland Park, 173,372; Kansas City, 145,786; Topeka, 127,473; and Olathe, 125,872. Between the years of 2000 and 2010, the Kansas population increased 6.1 percent.

paragraphs: The 2010 Census says that the people of Kansas were:

paragraphs: Ethnically 10.5% of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin (they may be of any race). They are mostly in southwest Kansas. Many black people in Kansas were from the Exodusters, free black people who left the South.

paragraphs: As of 2011, 35.0% of Kansas's population younger than one year old were part of a minority group (i.e., did not have two parents who were non-Hispanic white).

paragraphs: English is the most-spoken language in Kansas. About 95% of people only speak English. Spanish is second.

paragraphs: The northeastern part of the state, going from the eastern border to Junction City and from the Nebraska border to south of Johnson County, has more than 1.5 million people in the Kansas City (Kansas portion), Manhattan, Lawrence, and Topeka metropolitan areas. Overland Park is the biggest city in the county. Johnson County Community College is there, and the corporate campus of Sprint Nextel is also there. In 2006, Overland Park was ranked as the sixth best place to live in America; the nearby city of Olathe was 13th.

paragraphs: Olathe is the county seat of Johnson County. Olathe, Shawnee, De Soto, and Gardner are some of Kansas's fastest growing cities.

paragraphs: There are many universities and colleges in the northeast. Baker University is the oldest university in the state (created in 1858), and it is in Baldwin City. Benedictine College is in Atchison. MidAmerica Nazarene University is in Olathe. Ottawa University is in Ottawa and Overland Park. Kansas City Kansas Community College and KU Medical Center are in Kansas City. The KU Edwards Campus is in Overland Park. Lawrence has the University of Kansas, the biggest public university in Kansas. Lawrence also has Haskell Indian Nations University.

paragraphs: Topeka is the state capital, and about 250,000 people live in the metropolitan area. Washburn University and Washburn Institute of Technology are in Topeka.

paragraphs: In south-central Kansas, the Wichita metropolitan area has over 600,000 people. Wichita is the biggest city in the state in terms of both land area and number of people. 'The Air Capital' is a major manufacturing area for the aircraft industry. It's also where Wichita State University is. Before Wichita was 'The Air Capital' it was a cowtown. Wichita's population growth has grown by more than 10%. The nearby suburbs are some of the fastest growing cities in Kansas. The number of people in Goddard has grown by more than 11% per year since 2000.

paragraphs: Wichita was one of the first cities to add the city commissioner and city manager in their form of government. Wichita is also home of the nationally recognized Sedgwick County Zoo.

paragraphs: Southeast Kansas is different in that it was a coal-mining region. It has many places on the National Register of Historic Places. Pittsburg is the biggest city in the region. It is where Pittsburg State University is. Frontenac in 1888 was where one of the worst mine disasters in Kansas happened; an underground explosion killed 47 miners. Fort Scott has a national cemetery. It was designated by President Abraham Lincoln in 1862.

paragraphs: Salina is the biggest city in central and north-central Kansas. South of Salina is the small city of Lindsborg. Lindsborg has many Dala horses. Abilene was where President Dwight D. Eisenhower lived. It is where his Presidential Library is. It also has the tombs of the former President, First Lady and son who died in infancy.

paragraphs: The city of Hays is the biggest city in the northwest as it has about 20,000 people living there. Hays is where Fort Hays State University is. It also has the Sternberg Museum of Natural History.

paragraphs: There are very few people that live west of Hays. There are only two towns that have at least 4,000 people: Colby and Goodland.

paragraphs: Dodge City was famous for the cattle drives it had in the late 19th century. It was built along the old Santa Fe Trail route. The city of Liberal is along the southern Santa Fe Trail route. The first wind farm in the state was built east of Montezuma. Garden City has the Lee Richardson Zoo.

paragraphs: The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Kansas's total gross domestic product in 2014 was billion. In 2015, the job growth rate in was .8%. This was one of the lowest rate in America with only "10,900 total nonfarm jobs" added that year. The Kansas Department of Labor's 2016 report found the average yearly wage was $42,930 in 2015. In April 2016, the state's unemployment rate was 4.2%.

paragraphs: The State of Kansas had a $350 million budget deficit in February 2017. In February 2017, S&P downgraded Kansas's credit rating to AA-.

paragraphs: Farming has always been an important part of the state economy of Kansas. The main crop grown in Kansas is wheat. In fact, Kansas farmers produce about 400 million bushels of wheat per year. Kansas also ranks first in the United States in grain sorghum produced, second in cropland, and third in sunflowers produced. However, farming is not the only important part of the economy of Kansas. Many parts of airplanes are made in the city of Wichita. Also, many important companies are near Kansas City, Missouri. For example, the Sprint Nextel Corporation is one of the largest telephone companies in the United States. Its main operational offices are in Overland Park, Kansas.

paragraphs: About 90% of Kansas's land is used for farming. Kansas's agricultural products are cattle, sheep, wheat, sorghum, soybeans, cotton, hogs, corn, and salt. As of 2018, there were 59,600 farms in Kansas, 86 (0.14%) of which are certified organic farms. The average farm in the state is about 770 acres (more than a square mile). In 2016, the average cost of running the farm was $300,000.

paragraphs: The industrial products are transportation equipment, commercial and private aircraft, food processing, publishing, chemical products, machinery, apparel, petroleum, and mining.

paragraphs: The median household income for Kansas was $47,709 in 2009. The gross domestic product (GDP) for Kansas was $122,700,000,000 ($122.7 billion) in 2008. Overall, Kansas' GDP accounts for less than 1 percent of total U.S. economy.

paragraphs: Kansas has three big military bases: Fort Riley, Fort Leavenworth, and McConnell Air Force Base. The US Army reserve has about 25,000 soldiers at these bases, and they also have about 8,000 civilian employees there.

paragraphs: During his campaign for the 2010 election, Governor Sam Brownback said he would get rid of the state income tax. In May 2012, Governor Brownback signed into law the Kansas Senate Bill Substitute HB 2117. Starting in 2013, the "ambitious tax overhaul" lowered income tax, got rid of some corporate taxes, and created pass-through income tax exemptions. He raised the sales tax by one percent to make up for the loss of the other taxes. However, the sales tax was not enough to make up for it. He made cuts to education and some state services to make up for the lost revenue. The tax cut led to years of budget shortfalls. The worst was a $350 million budget shortfall in February 2017. From 2013 to 2017, 300,000 businesses were considered to be pass-through income entities and benefited from the tax exemption. The tax reform "encouraged tens of thousands of Kansans to claim their wages and salaries as income from a business rather than from employment."

paragraphs: The economic growth that Brownback hoped for never happened. He argued that it was because of "low wheat and oil prices and a fewer aircraft sales." The state general fund debt load was $83 million in fiscal year 2010. By fiscal year 2017 the debt load sat at $179 million. In 2016, Governor Brownback earned the title of "most unpopular governor in America". Only 26 percent of Kansas voters approved of his job performance. 65 percent said they did not. In the summer of 2016, S&P Global Ratings downgraded Kansas's credit rating. In February 2017, S&P lowered it to AA-.

paragraphs: In February 2017, a bi-partisan group wrote a bill that would repeal the pass-through income exemption, the "most important provisions of Brownback's overhaul", and raise taxes to make up for the budget shortfall. Brownback vetoed the bill but "45 GOP legislators had voted in favor of the increase, while 40 voted to uphold the governor's veto." On June 6, 2017 a group of Democrats and newly elected Republicans overrode Brownback's veto. They increased taxes to an amount that is close to what it was before 2013. Brownback's tax plan was described in a June 2017 article in "The Atlantic" as the United States' "most aggressive experiment in conservative economic policy". The tax cuts had made schools and infrastructure difficult to get funding in Kansas.

paragraphs: There are two interstate highways in Kansas. The first part of the interstate highway opened on Interstate 70 west of Topeka. It opened on November 14, 1956.

paragraphs: Interstate 70 is an important east–west highway. People can go from Kansas City, Missouri to Denver, Colorado. Cities on this highway include Colby, Hays, Salina, Junction City, Topeka, Lawrence, Bonner Springs, and Kansas City.

paragraphs: Interstate 35 is a major north–south highway from Oklahoma City, Oklahoma to Des Moines, Iowa. Cities on this highway include Wichita, El Dorado, Emporia, Ottawa, and Kansas City (and suburbs).

paragraphs: Kansas's only major commercial (Class C) airport is Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport. It is along US-54 on the western part of Wichita. Manhattan Regional Airport in Manhattan has flights every day to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport and Chicago's O'Hare International Airport. This would it the second-biggest commercial airport in Kansas. Most air travelers in northeastern Kansas fly out of Kansas City International Airport, which is in Platte County, Missouri. Some also use the Topeka Regional Airport in Topeka.

paragraphs: In the state's southeastern part, people often use Tulsa International Airport in Tulsa, Oklahoma or Joplin Regional Airport in Joplin, Missouri. People in the far western part of the state often use the Denver International Airport. Connecting flights are also available from smaller Kansas airports in Dodge City, Garden City, Hays, Hutchinson, Liberal, or Salina.

paragraphs: The "Southwest Chief" Amtrak route goes through the state on its route from Chicago to Los Angeles. Stops in Kansas include Lawrence, Topeka, Newton, Hutchinson, Dodge City, and Garden City. An Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach connects Newton and Wichita to the Heartland Flyer in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Amtrak may change the Southwest Chief route from using train service for the entire route. Plans call for shortening the route to Los Angeles to instead end in Albuquerque. Buses would replace the train on the route between Albuquerque and Dodge City, where train service east to Chicago would continue.

paragraphs: Kansas has four Class I railroads, Amtrak, BNSF, Kansas City Southern, and Union Pacific, as well as many shortline railroads.

paragraphs: Executive branch: The executive branch has the governor, the lieutenant governor, the attorney general, the secretary of state, the treasurer, and the insurance commissioner.

paragraphs: Legislative branch: The legislative branch is the Kansas Legislature. It is a bicameral legislature. It has the Kansas House of Representatives and the Kansas Senate. The House has 125 members, and the Senate has 40 members.

paragraphs: Judicial Branch: The judicial branch is headed by the Kansas Supreme Court. The Kansas Supreme Court has seven judges. If there is a spot open, the governor picks who to replace them.

paragraphs: Since the middle of the 20th century, Kansas has been socially conservative. In 1999 and 2005, the Board of Education voted to stop teaching evolution in schools. In 2005, Kansas banned same-sex marriage. In 2006, Kansas made the lowest age to marry 15 years old.

paragraphs: Kansas allowed women's suffrage in 1912. This was nearly a decade before the United States allowed it.

paragraphs: The state's current delegation to the Congress of the United States includes Republican Senators Pat Roberts of Dodge City and Jerry Moran of Manhattan; and Republican Representatives Roger Marshall of Great Bend (District 1), Steve Watkins (District 2), Ron Estes of Wichita (District 4), and Democratic Representative Sharice Davids (District 3).

paragraphs: Kansas has been strongly Republican. The Republican Party was very strong since Kansas became a state. This is because Republicans were very anti-slavery, and Kansas was also anti-slavery. Kansas has not elected a Democrat to the United States Senate since 1932.

paragraphs: Abilene has the childhood house of Republican president Dwight D. Eisenhower. Two Republican presidential candidates, Alf Landon and Bob Dole, were also from Kansas.

paragraphs: Primary and secondary schools are controlled by the Kansas State Department of Education. Public colleges and universities are controlled by the Kansas Board of Regents.

paragraphs: In 1999 and 2005, the Board of Education voted to teach intelligent design in science classes. Both times, they changed their decision after the next election.

paragraphs: The rock band Kansas was created Topeka. Many of the band's members are from there.

paragraphs: Joe Walsh, guitarist for the famous rock band the Eagles, was born in Wichita.

paragraphs: Danny Carey, drummer for the band Tool, was raised in Paola.

paragraphs: Singer Melissa Etheridge is from Leavenworth. Singer Martina McBride is from Sharon. Singer Janelle Monáe is from Kansas City.

paragraphs: In 1947, Kansas chose "Home on the Range" as their state song.

paragraphs: Kansas's most famous appearance in a book was as the home of Dorothy Gale. She is the main character in the book "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" (1900).

paragraphs: The Plaza Cinema in Ottawa, Kansas was built on May 22, 1907. It is listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest operating movie theater in the world.

paragraphs: The group that governs college sports in the United States is the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Their headquarters were in Johnson County, Kansas from 1952 until moving to Indianapolis in 1999.

paragraphs: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:


title: James Buchanan

paragraphs: James Buchanan Jr. (April 23, 1791 - June 1, 1868) was the 15th President of the United States. He was the only President not to have married. His niece, Harriet Lane, stood in as First Lady. He was an experienced politician and he became president in 1857. Many historians think that Buchanan was the worst president, because he did nothing to prevent the Civil War.

paragraphs: James Buchanan was Born on April 23, 1791 in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania, into a prosperous merchant family. He had four sisters and three brothers, and studied at the Old Stone Academy before entering Dickinson College in 1807. There he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He was engaged to Anne C. Coleman but she died before they were married, and he never had children. He served in both the House and Senate, representing Pennsylvania, as well as the Minister to Russia, under Andrew Jackson, before stepping taking the presidential career.

paragraphs: During the beginning of his presidency, he called slavery an issue of little importance. This was clearly not the case at the time; Northerners and Southerners were very divided on slavery, almost to the point of war. Buchanan is the only United States President who was never married.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court declared that African Americans were not American citizens and that the states were allowed to keep slavery legal. James Buchanan supported that decision because he did not want the pro-slavery states to stop being part of the United States.

paragraphs: Buchanan supported the rights of slave owners to keep their slaves and wanted Kansas to adopt a constitution that allowed slavery. Because of that, the Democratic Party was divided on that issue and after the 1858 Congressional election, there were more Republicans in Congress than Democrats. He did not get along with the Republicans.

paragraphs: He ordered troops to fight against Utah based on untrue information that Utah was planning a revolt. Buchanan later realized that he made a mistake and apologized.

paragraphs: During his term, the country was becoming more and more divided over the slavery issue. A few months before his term ended, some of the southern states decided that they were going to not be a part of the United States any more.

paragraphs: Buchanan believed that it was a bad thing, but he did nothing about it because he felt that using force against the south was against the Constitution. He did not even prepare the country for war.

paragraphs: At the end of his term, he left the next president, Abraham Lincoln, to face the greatest crisis in United States history, the Civil War.


title: Hand

paragraphs: A hand is the part of the body at the end of an arm. Most humans have two hands. Each hand usually has four fingers and a thumb. On the inside of the hand is the palm. The five bones inside this part of the hand are called metacarpals. The wrist connects the hand to the arm. The hand has 27 bones including the wrist bones.

paragraphs: When the fingers are all bent tightly, the hand forms a fist. The joints that are the hardest part of the fist are called knuckles. Many other animals, especially other primates, have hands that can hold things. Human hands can do things other hands cannot.


title: Rule

paragraphs: When something always does the same thing, one can say that there is a rule that it does what it does.

paragraphs: The word "rule" has many uses, including the following:

paragraphs: A "rule" in mathematics is a formula which allows a person to work out parts of the solution if he or she has certain information. For example, Pythagoras' theorem is a rule which states that if a person knows the lengths of two sides of a right-angled triangle he or she can work out the length of the third.

paragraphs: Rules, however, can also means laws created aby people in power - for example, school rules are the "laws" of a specific school.


title: 1910s

paragraphs: The 1910s was the decade that started on January 1, 1910, and ended on December 31, 1919.


title: Bahrain

paragraphs: Bahrain (officially called Kingdom of Bahrain) is an island country in the Persian Gulf. Saudi Arabia is to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the King Fahd Causeway, and Qatar is to the south across the Persian Gulf. The Qatar-Bahrain Friendship Bridge, not yet built, will link Bahrain to Qatar as the longest fixed bridge in the world.Qatar and Bahrain's flag is the same design but not the same colors because Qatar is white and maroon and Bahrain is white and red.

paragraphs: People have lived in Bahrain before there was writing. It has been ruled and influenced by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Persians, and the Arabs, who made the island Muslim. Bahrain was in old times known as Dilmun, Tylos, Awal and Mishmahig.

paragraphs: The islands of Bahrain, set in the middle south of the Persian Gulf, have attracted many invaders in history. The word "Bahrain", "Two Seas", means that the islands contain two kinds of water, sweet water springs and salty water in the sea.

paragraphs: A location between East and West, fertile lands, fresh water, and pearls made Bahrain important in history. About 2300 BC, Bahrain started trading with Mesopotamia (now Iraq) and the Indus Valley (now near India). It was then called Delmon, and was linked to the Sumerian Civilization about 2000 BC. Bahrain also became part of the Babylonian empire about 600 BC. Historical records called Bahrain the "Life of Eternity", "Paradise", the "Pearl of the Persian Gulf" and other names.

paragraphs: Until 1521, Bahrain also ruled Al-Hasa and Qatif (both are now the eastern province of Saudi Arabia) and Awal (now the Bahrain Islands). The country had all of the land from what is now Kuwait to Oman. This was called "Iqlim Al-Bahrain" (Province of Bahrain). In 1521, the Portuguese took Awal (now Bahrain) from the rest and since then the name of Bahrain only means today's Bahrain.

paragraphs: The modern history of Bahrain begins with Great Britain exploring the area, trying to keep Iran from taking more land. The British gave support to the Al-Khalifa family, who made a power base in the island and allied with the British to keep the island from Iran. The British got free passage to the Persian Gulf through this agreement. In November of 1957, the Iranian parliament declared that Bahrain was the Fourteenth Province of Iran. Later the British would become involved in the politics of Bahrain by choosing an Emir of the island. Iran and Britain later agreed that the United Nations Secretary General would judge the political situation in Bahrain. In a Plebiscite to decide the country's future, the majority of the people of Bahrain chose to reject Iran's claims, and to define their country and their culture to be Arabic, and not Persian.

paragraphs: Oil was found in the early 20th century and brought modern improvements to the country. Relations with the United Kingdom also became closer, and the British brought more military bases to the nation. British influence grew, until Charles Belgrave became an advisor; Belgrave brought modern education to Bahrain.

paragraphs: After World War II, anti-British feeling spread through the Arab world and led to riots in Bahrain. The British left Bahrain in 1971, making it an independent country. The sales of more oil in the 1980s brought money to Bahrain, but even when the sales of oil decreased in later years, it did not cause as many problems in Bahrain as in other oil countries, because the economy of Bahrain had grown into other areas.

paragraphs: In 1973 the election of first parliament was done but the government stopped & dissociate the parliament in 1975 which result in strong protests by the Bahraini opposition (Moderate Islamic & non-Islamist opposition).

paragraphs: In 1994, many highly educated Bahraini people signed a letter to Prince of Bahrain at that time Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa

paragraphs: to re-establish the parliament life which is strongly refused & the leader of the opposition at that time Sheikh Abdulamir Aljamri was jailed then a huge protest & conflicts occurs between Bahraini nation & the armed forces.

paragraphs: In 1999, Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa followed his father as head of state and called for elections for parliament to resolve the congestion that occurred over that last period. The women were given the right to vote and the new ruler released all political prisoners in 2001.

paragraphs: In 2002 the King released a new constitution without any voting from the nation & canceled 1973 constitution which caused strong refuse from the most of nation parties & opposition.

paragraphs: The situations became worse later & some of political activists were jailed like Abdulhadi Al-Khuwajah, Hasan Mushaima.

paragraphs: Many political websites that refused these changes were blocked like Bahrain online forum (the most popular website in Bahrain): www.bahrainonline.org Until 2009 there were many riots & conflicts especially from Shia group which faces a huge organized discrimination according to Human Rights Watch & US Congress.

paragraphs: Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the King, Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa; the head of government is the Prime Minister, Shaikh Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa. He has a cabinet of 15 members. Bahrain has a bicameral legislature with a lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, elected by all of the people and the upper house, the Shura Council, appointed by the King. Both houses have forty members. The first elections were held in 2002, with Members of Parliament serving four year terms.

paragraphs: Women were given the right to vote and stand in national elections for the first time in 2002's election, but no women were elected to office that year, and Shia and Sunni Islamists won a majority of seats. Because no women were elected, six were appointed to the Shura Council, which also includes members of the Kingdom’s Jewish and Christian people.

paragraphs: The King recently created the Supreme Judicial Council to organise the country's courts and the government offices.

paragraphs: Bahrain is split into five governorates. Until July 3 2003, it was divided into twelve municipalities.

paragraphs: For further information, see: Decree-Law establishing governorates from the Bahrain official website.

paragraphs: Other towns include: Awali, Diraz, Hidd, Sar, Bani Jamrah.

paragraphs: In Bahrain, petroleum (oil product) producing and processing is about 60% of the money from export, 60% of government money, and 30% of Gross Domestic Product. The economy has changed as the sales of oil have changed since 1985, for example, during and after the Persian Gulf War of 1990 - 1991. Bahrain has high quality communications and transport, and so the country is home to many international companies with business in the Persian Gulf. A large part of the country's income comes from petroleum products made from imported crude oil. There are several major industrial projects being built. Unemployment, especially among young people, and the decrease of both oil and water resources are major economic problems.

paragraphs: Bahrain is a flat and dry archipelago, with a low desert plain rising gently to a low central hill, in the Arabian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia. The highest point is the 122 meter Jabal ad Dukhan ("Mountain of Smoke").

paragraphs: Bahrain has a total area of 620 km², which is a few square kilometres larger than the Isle of Man. As an archipelago of 33 islands, Bahrain does not share a land border with any other country, but it does have a 161 km coast line and claims a further 12 nm of territorial sea and a 24 nm contiguous zone. Bahrain enjoys mild winters and has very hot, humid summers.

paragraphs: Bahrain's natural resources include large amounts of oil natural gas as well as fish. Only 1% of the country includes land where crops can be grown. 92% of Bahrain is desert, and droughts and dust storms are the main natural dangers.

paragraphs: Environmental problems in Bahrain include desertification, which is causing the land where crops can be grown to decrease, and damage to coast lines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation caused by oil spills from large tankers and oil refineries.

paragraphs: The official religion of Bahrain is Islam; most of the people are Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, but there are also small Jewish and Christian minorities. Most Bahrainis are Arabs, although some tribes came from Persia. Today, many of the people in Bahrain are guest workers who come from Iran, South Asia and Southeast Asia. A "Financial Times" article from 31 May 1983 found that "Bahrain is a polyglot (speaking many languages) state, both religiously and racially. Leaving aside the temporary immigrants of the past 10 years, there are at least eight or nine communities (groups of people) on the island".

paragraphs: The present communities may be classified as Al-Khalifa, Arab tribes allied to Al-Khalifa, the Baharnah (Shia Arabs), the Howilla (Sunni Arabs from Persia), Sunni Arabs (from the mainland), Ajam (Persian Shia), Indians who traded with Bahrain and settled before the age of oil (used to be called Banyan), a tiny Jewish community, and a group which contains everyone else.

paragraphs: Manama, Bahrain's capital city, is as modern as other cities in the world. But life in the island's many villages (and in parts of Manama itself) remains traditional. Where there is tradition in the Persian Gulf area, there is Islamic conservatism: women cover themselves from head to foot and women travellers are expected to wear long skirts and one-piece bathing suits. Bahrain's population is 85% Muslim and Islam is the state religion. Arabic is the official language, but many people speak English.

paragraphs: Traditional folk art continues in several places around Bahrain: dhows (fishing boats) are built near Manama and Muharraq, cloth is made at Bani Jamrah and pottery is made at A'ali. A few goldsmiths still work in the Manama souk, though much of the work is now done in other countries. One of the important parts of Bahraini culture is the drinking of traditional Arabian coffee. Traditional Arabian street food like shawarma (lamb or chicken cut from a large spit and served in pita bread) and desserts such as baklava are also found.

paragraphs: Bahrain is the home of Formula One racing in the Middle East, hosting the Bahrain Grand Prix.


title: William Christopher

paragraphs: William Christopher (October 20, 1932 – December 31, 2016) was an American actor. He was best known for playing Father Mulcahy on the television series "M*A*S*H". He also played Private Lester Hummel on "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C."

paragraphs: Christopher was born in Evanston, Illinois. He studied at Wesleyan University. His wife was Barbara O'Connor; together they wrote a book, "Mixed Blessings", about their experiences raising their autistic son. He retired in 2012.

paragraphs: Christopher died on December 31, 2016 in Pasadena, California from small-cell carcinoma, aged 84.


title: Boxer shorts

paragraphs: Boxers shorts are men's underwear. They are shorts with a stretchy band, and named after the shorts worn by boxers.

paragraphs: They were first made in the 1930s, but did not become popular until 1947. These days, briefs (Y-fronts) are sold more than boxer shorts.

paragraphs: Some boxer shorts have openings with a snap button for using the toilet (urinating). Others just have an elastic waistband and can be pulled on or off like briefs. They can be made in different colors or patterns. Television displays more men in boxer shorts than in other underwear.


title: Compact disc player

paragraphs: A CD player is a device that can read the binary data on a CD (compact disc) and turn that into sound waves.

paragraphs: A CD player has a laser and an optical sensor. A CD has tracks and bumps on the tracks. The CD player passes a laser beam along the track of the CD. The areas that are reflected (without the bumps) are 1s to the player and the areas that are reflected (with the bumps) are 0s to the player. When the 1's and 0's are added to the CD a complicated coding is used that enables error corrections to prevent the CD "skipping" in the event of a small scratch. The CD player converts the series of 1's and 0's into sound waves by sending a varying voltage into an amplifier which then drives a speaker. The conversion of digital data into an analogue signal is achieved through the use a matrix(maths not the movie), imaginary numbers and trigonometric functions.


title: Fluid dynamics

paragraphs: Fluid Dynamics talks about how fluids (liquids and gases) work. It is one of the oldest parts of the study of Physics, and is studied by physicists, mathematicians, and engineers. Mathematics can describe how fluids move using mathematical formulas called equations. The fluid dynamics of gases are called aerodynamics.

paragraphs: Understanding how fluids behave helps us understand things like flight or ocean currents. For example, fluid dynamics can be used to understand weather, because clouds and air are both fluids. Fluid dynamics can also be used to understand how aeroplanes fly through the air or how ships and submarines move through water.

paragraphs: Computer programs can use the mathematical equations of fluid dynamics to model and predict the actions of moving fluids. Computers have helped us understand fluid dynamics very much, and some people study how to model or simulate fluids only with a computer. Studying how fluid dynamics can be done with computers is called computational fluid dynamics (or CFD for short).

paragraphs: The mathematical equations that govern fluid flow are simple to think about but very hard to solve. In most real life cases there is no way to get a solution that can be written down and a computer must be used to calculate the answer instead. There are three fundamental equations based on three rules.

paragraphs: Conservation of mass: mass is neither created nor destroyed, it simply moves from one place to another. This gives the mass conservation equation. Sometimes this may not apply such as a flow involving a chemical reaction.

paragraphs: Conservation of energy: this is the first law of thermodynamics, energy is never created or destroyed, it just changes form (i.e. kinetic energy into potential energy) or moves around.

paragraphs: Conservation of momentum: this is Newton's Second Law and it states that Force = rate of change of momentum. Momentum is mass times velocity. The momentum equations are the equations that make it hard to solve problems in fluid dynamics. There are a number of different versions that include a number of different effects. The Navier-Stokes equations are momentum equations, and the Euler equations are the Navier-Stokes equations but with viscosity not included. There is one momentum equation in a 1D problem and three, one in each space direction, in 3D.

paragraphs: To solve the equations more information is often needed in the form of an equation of state. This relates thermodynamic properties (usually pressure and temperature) to each other for a specific type of fluid. An example is the "Ideal Gas" equation of state that relates pressure, temperature and density and works well for gases under normal pressures (like air at atmospheric pressure).


title: Ernest Hemingway

paragraphs: Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 - July 2, 1961) was an American writer. He is generally thought to be a member of the Lost Generation. Some people say that, of the many characters he created in his books, the author himself was his best creation.

paragraphs: Ernest Hemingway was born in 1899. He grew up in Oak Park, Illinois, near the midwestern city of Chicago. He was the second child in a family of six. His father was a doctor. His mother was a painter and a pianist.

paragraphs: Each summer, the family travelled to their holiday home in northern Michigan. Ernest's father taught him how to catch fish, hunt, set up a camp, and cook over a fire.

paragraphs: At home in Oak Park, Ernest wrote for his school newspaper. He tried to write like a famous sports writer, Ring Lardner, and he made his writing skills better.

paragraphs: In 1917, Hemingway decided not to go to a university. The United States had just entered World War I and he wanted to join the Army, but they rejected him because his eyesight was not good enough.

paragraphs: Ernest found a job with the "Kansas City Star" newspaper in Kansas City, Missouri. He reported news that happened at the hospital, police headquarters, and the railroad station. One reporter said: ""Hemingway liked to be where the action was.""

paragraphs: The Kansas City Star told its reporters to write short sentences, and to report unusual details of an incident. Hemingway quickly learned to do both.

paragraphs: Hemingway worked for the newspaper for nine months. He then joined the Red Cross to help on the battle fields of Europe. His job was to drive an ambulance and to take wounded soldiers off the battlefield.

paragraphs: The Red Cross sent him to Italy. There, he soon saw the first wounded. This was when a weapons factory in Milan exploded. Later, he was sent to the battle front. He went close to the fighting to see how he could act in the face of danger. Soon, he was seriously wounded.

paragraphs: Soon after healing, the war ended. Hemingway returned to the United States. After less than a year he had changed forever: he needed to write about what he had seen. Hemingway wrote many short stories about people who experienced World War I.

paragraphs: Some time later, Hemingway left home for Chicago to prove to himself, and to his family, that he could earn a living from his writing.

paragraphs: But he ran out of money and began to write for a newspaper again. The Canadian newspaper, the Toronto Star, loved his reports in Chicago. They hired him and paid him well.

paragraphs: In Chicago, Hemingway also met Sherwood Anderson. Anderson was one of the first American writers to write about common people. Hemingway saw that Anderson's stories showed life as it really was. This was similar to what he wanted to do.

paragraphs: Anderson gave Hemingway advice about his writing. He told Hemingway to move to Paris. Life was less costly there. Anderson said that Paris had many young artists and writers from many nations.

paragraphs: Hemingway decided to move to Paris. Before he did, in America, he married a woman he had recently met. Her name was Hadley Richardson.

paragraphs: Paris was cold and grey when Hemingway and his new wife arrived in 1921. They lived in one of the poorer parts of the city. Their rooms were small and they did not have water from pipes. But the "Toronto Star" employed him as its European reporter, so they had enough money for the two of them to live. That job gave Hemingway time to write his stories.

paragraphs: Hemingway enjoyed exploring Paris, learning French customs, and meeting friends. Some of these new friends were artists and writers who had come to the city in the 1920s. Among them were poet, Ezra Pound, and writers Gertrude Stein, John Dos Passos, and F. Scott Fitzgerald. Seeing that Hemingway was a good writer, they helped him publish his stories in the United States. He was thankful for their support at the time, but later denied that he had received their help.

paragraphs: Hemingway travelled all over Europe. He wrote about politics, peace conferences, and border disputes, as well as sports, skiing, and fishing. Later he would write about bullfighting in Spain. The "Toronto Star" was pleased with his work, and wanted more of his reports, but Hemingway was busy with his own writing.

paragraphs: He said this: "Sometimes, I would start a new story and could not get it going. Then I would stand and look out over the roofs of Paris and think. I would say to myself: 'All you have to do is write one true sentence. Write the truest sentence you know.' So finally, I would write a true sentence and go on from there. It was a wonderful feeling when I had worked well."

paragraphs: Hemingway's first book of short stories was called "In Our Time". One of its stories, "Big Two Hearted River," told of the effects of war on a young man who was taking a long fishing trip in Michigan. Hemingway had learned from his father, when he was a boy, about living in the wild.

paragraphs: The story is about two kinds of rivers. One is calm and clear, and is where the young man fishes. The other is a dark, threatening swamp. The story shows its main character trying to forget his past, as well as the war. He does not talk much about the war. The reader learns about the young man, not because Hemingway tells his readers what the man thinks, but because he shows that man learning about himself. Many people believe it is one of the best modern American stories of all time. Because of this, "Big Two Hearted River" is often published in collections of best writing.

paragraphs: After the book was published in 1925, Hadley and Hemingway returned to the United States for the birth of their son, after which they quickly returned to Paris.

paragraphs: Hemingway was working on a long story. He wanted to publish a novel so he would be recognized as a serious writer. And he wanted the money a novel would earn.

paragraphs: The novel was called "The Sun Also Rises". It is about young Americans in Europe after World War One. The war had destroyed their dreams and had given them nothing to replace those dreams. The writer Gertrude Stein later called these people members of "The Lost Generation."

paragraphs: The book was an immediate success. At the age of 25 Ernest Hemingway was famous. Many people, however, did not like Hemingway's art because they did not like what he wrote about.

paragraphs: Hemingway's sentences were short, the way he had been taught to write at the Kansas City Star newspaper. He wrote about what he knew and felt. He used few descriptive words. His statements were clear and easily understood.

paragraphs: He had learned from earlier writers, like Ring Lardner and Sherwood Anderson, but Hemingway brought something new to his writing. He was able to paint in words what he saw and felt. In later books, sometimes he missed. Sometimes he even looked foolish. But when he was right he was almost perfect.

paragraphs: With the success of his novel, Hemingway became even more popular in Paris. Many people came to see him. One was an American woman, Pauline Pfeiffer. She became Hadley's friend. Then Pauline fell in love with Hemingway.

paragraphs: Hemingway and Pauline saw each other secretly. One time, they went away together on a short trip. Years later, Hemingway wrote about returning home after that trip:

paragraphs: "When I saw Hadley again, I wished I had died before I ever loved anyone but her. She was smiling and the sun was on her lovely face. "

paragraphs: But the marriage was over. Ernest Hemingway and Hadley separated. She kept their son. He agreed to give her money he earned from his books.

paragraphs: In later years, he looked back at his marriage to Hadley as the happiest time of his life.

paragraphs: At twenty-five, Hemingway was living in Paris. He was a famous writer. But the end of his first marriage made him want to leave the place where he had first become famous.

paragraphs: Much later he said, "the city was never to be the same again. When I returned to it, I found it had changed as I had changed. Paris was never the same as when I was poor and very happy."

paragraphs: Hemingway and his new wife returned to the United States in 1928. They settled in Key West, an island with a fishing port near the southern coast of Florida.

paragraphs: Before leaving Paris, Hemingway sent a collection of his stories to New York to be published. The book of stories, called "Men Without Women", was published soon after Hemingway arrived in Key West.

paragraphs: One of the stories was called "The Killers." In it, Hemingway used a discussion between two men to create a feeling of tension and coming violence. This was a new method of telling a story:

paragraphs: Nick opened the thingy and went into the room. Ole Andreson was lying on the bed with all his clothes on. He had been a heavyweight prizefighter and he was too long for the bed. He lay with his head on two pillows. He did not look at Nick.

paragraphs: "I was up at Henry's," Nick said, "and two fellows came in and tied me up and the cook, and they said they were going to kill you."

paragraphs: It sounded silly when he said it. Ole Andreson said nothing, "they put us out in the kitchen," Nick went on. "They were going to shoot you when you came in to supper."

paragraphs: Ole Andreson looked at the wall and did not say anything. "George thought I ought to come and tell you about it."

paragraphs: "There is not anything I can do about it," Ole Andreson said.

paragraphs: Any new book by Hemingway was an important event for readers. But stories like "The Killers" shocked many people. Some thought there was too much violence in his stories. Others said he only wrote about gunmen, soldiers, fighters, and drinkers.

paragraphs: This made Hemingway angry. He felt that writers should not be judged by those who could not write a story.

paragraphs: Hemingway was happy in Key West. In the morning he wrote, in the afternoon he fished, and at night he went to a public house and drank. One old fisherman said: "Hemingway was a man who talked slowly and very carefully. He asked a lot of questions. And he always wanted to get his information exactly right."

paragraphs: Soon afterwards, he heard that his father had killed himself. Hemingway was shocked. He said, "My father taught me so much. He was the only one I really cared about."

paragraphs: When Hemingway returned to work there was a sadness about his writing that was not there before.

paragraphs: His new book told about an American soldier who served with the Italian army during World War One. He meets an English nurse, and they fall in love. They flee from the army, but she dies during childbirth. Some of the events are taken from Hemingway's service in Italy. The book is called "A Farewell to Arms".

paragraphs: Part of the book talks about the defeat of the Italian army at a place called Caporetto:

paragraphs: "At noon we were stuck in a muddy road about as nearly as we could figure, ten kilometres from Udine. The rain had stopped during the forenoon and three times we had heard planes coming, seen them pass overhead, watched them go far to the left and heard them bombing on the main highroad. . . .

paragraphs: "Later we were on a road that led to a river. There was a long line of abandoned trucks and carts on a road leading up to a bridge. No one was in sight. The river was high and the bridge had been blown up in the center; the stone arch was fallen into the river and the brown water was going over it. We went up the bank looking for a place to cross. . . . we did not see any troops; only abandoned trucks and stores. Along the river bank was nothing and no one but the wet brush and muddy ground. "

paragraphs: "A Farewell to Arms" was very successful. It earned Hemingway a great deal of money. It permitted him to travel.

paragraphs: One place he visited was Spain, a country he loved. He said, "I want to paint with words all the sights and sounds and smells of Spain. And if I can write any of it down truly, then it will represent all of Spain."

paragraphs: He wrote a book called "Death in the Afternoon". It describes the Spanish custom of bull fighting. Hemingway believed that bull fighting was an art, just as much as writing was an art. And he believed it was a true test of a man's bravery, something that always concerned him.

paragraphs: Hemingway also travelled to Africa. He had been asked to write a series of reports about African hunting. He said, "Hunting in Africa is the kind of hunting I like. No riding in cars, just simple walking and feeling the grass under my feet."

paragraphs: The trip to Africa resulted in a book called "The Green Hills of Africa" and many smaller stories.

paragraphs: One story is one of Hemingway's best. The story, called "The Snows of Kilimanjaro", tells of Hemingway's fears about himself. It is about a writer who betrays his art for money and is unable to remain true to himself.

paragraphs: In 1936, the Civil War in Spain gave him a chance to return to Spain and test his bravery again. He agreed to write about the war for an American news organization.

paragraphs: It was a dangerous job. One day, Hemingway and two other reporters were driving a car near a battlefield. The car carried two white flags to show they were not fighting. But rebel gunners thought the car was carrying enemy officers. Hemingway was almost killed. Later he said that "bullets are all the same. If they do not hit you, there is no story. If they do hit you, then you do not have to write it. "

paragraphs: The trip to Spain resulted in two works: a play called "The Fifth Column", and a novel called "For Whom the Bell Tolls". The novel tells the story of an American who has chosen to fight against the fascists. He realizes that there are lies and injustice on his side. But he sees no hope except the victory of his side. During the fighting, he escapes his fear of death and of being alone. He decides that "he can live as full a life in seventy hours as in seventy years."

paragraphs: The book was a great success. Hemingway enjoyed being famous. His second marriage was ending. He divorced Pauline and married reporter Martha Gellhorn. He had met her while they were working in Spain. They decided to live in Cuba, near the city of Havana. Their house looked out over the Caribbean Sea.

paragraphs: But this marriage did not last long. Hemingway was changing. He began to feel that whatever he said was right. Martha went on long trips to be away from him. He drank heavily to forget his loneliness.

paragraphs: When America entered World War Two, Hemingway went to Britain as a reporter. Later he took part in the invasion of Europe and the freeing of Paris.

paragraphs: During the war, Hemingway met another reporter, Mary Walsh. In 1945, when his marriage to Martha was legally over, he married Mary.

paragraphs: After the war, Hemingway began work on his last important book, "The Old Man and the Sea". It is the story of a Cuban fisherman who refuses to be defeated by nature.

paragraphs: Hemingway said, "I was trying to show the experience of the fisherman so exactly and directly that it became part of the reader's experience."

paragraphs: In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize for Literature. But he was too sick to take part in the ceremony.

paragraphs: Ernest Hemingway was 60 years old, but he said he felt like he was 86. Even worse, he felt that he no longer was able to write. He seemed to be living the story about the writer who had sold his writing skill in order to make money.

paragraphs: In 1961, Ernest Hemingway shot himself dead. Among the papers he left was one that described what he liked best:

paragraphs: "To stay in places and to leave. . . to trust, to distrust. . . to no longer believe and believe again. . . to watch the changes in the seasons. . . to be out in boats. . . to watch the snow come, to watch it go. . . to hear the rain. . . And to know where I can find what I want."

paragraphs: Ernest Hemingway owned many cats, especially cats with extra toes. Today these cats are sometimes called "Hemingway cats" in his honor. His house in Key West, Florida is now a home for his cats and their kittens.

paragraphs: The article above is a rewriting of public domain material, provided by Voice of America Special English


title: MSN

paragraphs: MSN (formerly the Microsoft Network), is a web portal (a website used to enter the Internet).

paragraphs: The web portal launched on August 24 1995 by Microsoft. The site was launched at around the same time as Windows 95. Through MSN, people can create an e-mail account using MSN Hotmail, a blog using MSN Spaces, a group using MSN Groups and plenty more. It is now the #2 visited site in the world behind Yahoo!. Many people have come across this site in one way or another because it is the default main page of Internet Explorer.

paragraphs: MSN is also the name for MSN Messenger (now called Windows Live Messenger). It is an instant messenger, which allows people to communicate through conversations over an internet connection. As well as conversations using text, this program also allows voice and video conversations. You can even use small "emoticons" to express what you are trying to say. Messages are sent and received very quickly from around the globe. Its current messenger client is Windows Live Messenger.

paragraphs: Hotmail is a free email service from MSN. It started in 1995. It was bought by Microsoft in 1997. Microsoft Hotmail accounts are used to log in to MSN Messenger.


title: Reed (instrument)

paragraphs: A reed is a piece of dry bamboo that is used in some musical instruments such as saxophones, clarinets and oboes. The musician blows air through the mouthpiece where the reed is firmly placed, and the air makes the reed vibrate; this vibration in the mouthpiece produces sound all along the instrument, which is changed into specific musical notes depending on the physical nature of the instrument.

paragraphs: Musical instruments that use reeds are members of the woodwind family, because many years ago the instruments were all made of wood. Today the instruments can be made of metal (brass, silver, gold), wood, or a hard plastic made to look like wood.

paragraphs: The bassoon family of instruments and the oboe family of instruments play with a double reed. Players play through blowing air through the double reed, making the reeds vibrate. A mouthpiece is not needed.

paragraphs: Other reeds can be made from metal or plastic.


title: Nuuk

paragraphs: Nuuk (Danish: Godthaab or Godthåb) is the capital of Greenland. It is around the mouth of island Nuup Kangerlua (Danish: "Godthåbsfjorden") on the west coast of Greenland, about 240 km (150 mi) south of the Arctic Circle. The city has a population of 15,047 people.

paragraphs: It was founded in 1728 by the Norwegian missionary Hans Egede. Egede named the city Godthåb which means "Good Hope". Today, the people of Nuuk are mainly Inuit and Danes.

paragraphs: Nuuk is the location of the University of Greenland.


title: Lumberjack

paragraphs: A lumberjack is a person who cuts down trees to be made into lumber. Lumberjacks used to cut with axes, but now lumberjacks use chainsaws.


title: Muhammad

paragraphs: Muhammad (; ; – 8 June 632) was the founder of Islam. Muslims and Baha'is believe he was a messenger and a prophet of Allah (God). He is believed to be a descendant of Ishmael, a son of Abraham, and the last of all prophets ("the seal of the prophets"). He is seen as an example for all Muslims to follow.

paragraphs: Muhammad was born about 570 AD in Mecca. His father, whose name was Abdullah, died six months before Muhammad's birth. His mother, Amina, died when he was seven years old. So, his grandfather, Abdul-Muttalib, took care of him after the death of Amina but he too died two years later when Muhammad was nine. After his grandfather's death, his uncle Abu Talib took care of him, and was a support to him for many years of his adult life.

paragraphs: In 610 AD, when Muhammad was forty years old, he went for a walk to the mountain of Hira near Mecca. According to Muslims, the angel Jibrail (Gabriel) spoke with him in a cave on the mountain. The story says that when Muhammad first saw the angel Gabriel, he fainted, because Gabriel was so large. This is what Jibrail said to Muhammad:

paragraphs: "Read... in the name of God Who made man from a drop of blood... God is Most Rewarding... He Who taught man to write with pen... and taught man what he knew not."

paragraphs: Muhammad went back home to his wife Khadijah, and told her what had happened. New revelations came to him commanding him to preach what was being sent "down" from God. When Muhammad first started teaching, many of the people of Mecca, who worshipped idols, did not like the things that Muhammad said. But there were also people who listened to his preaching and obeyed his messages. These people were the first of the followers of Islam. Leaders of Mecca punished and tortured the followers of Islam. Some followers of Islam were executed. Muhammad resisted this and continued to teach Islam.

paragraphs: After Muhammad finished in Mecca, he took his message to Medina, where some people learned about him and his followers. They welcomed him into their city, and Muhammad wanted them to convert to Islam. They agreed, and many of his followers went to Medina. This movement from Mecca to Medina is called the "Hijrah". The Hijra was also the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Muhammad stayed behind until all of his people left Mecca safely.

paragraphs: As Muhammad stayed in Mecca, his uncle Abu Lahab trained seven men to kill Muhammad in his sleep. According to the history, they did not see him leave Mecca. The men went into his house and found his cousin, Ali. Abu Lahab and his horsemen went to the desert to look for him and his friend, Abu Bakr.

paragraphs: Muhammad and Abu Bakr arrived in Medina. Some people welcomed Muhammad to their homes. He used his camel to show everyone where he would build his house. Also, the first mosque of Medina, a small place for prayer, was built in the back of this house.

paragraphs: The people in a strong Jewish tribe in Medina disagreed with the teachings and rules set by Muhammad. This tribe told their allies in Mecca to sell of all the things and homes that Muslims of Mecca left behind. The Muslims and those from Mecca were advised to fight for their property. Muhammad told them not to do that.

paragraphs: Muslims were called all over Medina to gather at a mosque that Muhammad prayed in. They were told to fight against the people of Mecca who burned down their homes and stole their property.

paragraphs: The Quraysh pagans of Mecca heard about this, and they sent a larger army numbering 1000 warriors to fight the Muslims. They met in Badr, but the pagans were defeated and Abu Jahl, one of the pagan leaders, was also killed.

paragraphs: But, the Muslims lost the second battle at Uhud. One year after the fight at Badr, the army of Mecca had outside help. Muslim archers failed to listen to Muhammad's instructions and Khalid ibn al-Walid cleverly took advantage of that. Hamza, Muhammad's last uncle, was killed when a slave from Mecca threw a spear into his chest. Muhammad himself was injured.

paragraphs: Then in 627, Abu Sufyan led the Quraysh and its allies to attack Medina itself. However, they could not pass the trench that the Muslims had dug around Medina. After several weeks, the coalition broke up and went home. The Medinians were considered victors.

paragraphs: After the pagans of Mecca failed to gain control of Medina, the Muslims became stronger. The pagans then decided to sign a truce with the Muslims. This means that they would not fight each other for ten years. The Muslims used this as a chance to talk to other people all over Arabia. In three years, many people changed their religions to Islam.

paragraphs: But, this truce did not last for long. After three years of it, a small group of horsemen from Mecca attacked a Muslim camp and killed a few of them. The Muslims in Medina heard of this, and the truce was cancelled. Abu Sufyan, third leader of Mecca in Muhammad's lifetime, tried to resume the truce, but Muhammad politely refused the offer. Muhammad told his followers to be ready to capture Mecca. After Mecca was captured, they went on to capture the Torkan.

paragraphs: In 630, most people in Arabia had become Muslims, and they became part of Muhammad's large army to capture Mecca. Because of the big size of the army, the people of Mecca were afraid to fight back. Abu Sufyan, who was feeling unhappy over the broken truce, went to Muhammad's camp outside Mecca to ask for forgiveness. Muhammad did not say that he would forgive him, so he returned home. While he was with Muhammad, he changed his religion to Islam by saying the Testimony (ash-Ashaada):

paragraphs: "I testify that there is no other god but Allah, and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah."

paragraphs: The next day, the Muslim army walked towards Mecca. Everyone ran to their homes and closed all doors and windows. They were afraid that the Muslims were going to kill them, because of the bad things they did to the Muslims many years ago. But, the Muslims went towards the Ka'aba, believed to be built by Abraham and his elder son, Ishmael. Bilal ibn Ribah, a former Ethiopian slave, shouted out loud to the people of Mecca that they were all safe: "All those who lay down arms are safe. All those in the house of Abu Sufyan are safe. All those behind closed doors are safe."

paragraphs: Abu Sufyan heard this in his home. From this, he learns that Muhammad forgave him. At that time, Muhammad and his followers removed and broke all idols from the Kaaba. The idols were statues that were worshiped as gods. Muhammad forgave all citizens of Mecca. At the end, Bilal climbed to the top of the Kaaba and called for prayer. This was Muhammad's victory in spreading Islam all over Arabia. But, because he was old, he would not live for long.

paragraphs: In 632 AD, on June 8, Muhammad became very sick, due to poisoning by a Jewess. Before he died, he told his followers about his death. He is buried in the chamber of his wife Aisha in Medina, where the Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) is. In Medina, his friend Abu Bakr went to the Masjid al-Nabawi and shouted to the people:

paragraphs: "If any of you worship Muhammad, you should know that Muhammad is dead. But those of you who worship Allah(swt) (God), let it be known that Allah(swt) (God) is alive and cannot die."

paragraphs: Although Muhammad died, Islam soon spread all over the Middle East. Then, centuries later, it continued till it reached Africa, Asia and Europe. Islam has become one of the world's biggest and fastest growing religions.

paragraphs: When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with "Peace and Blessings be upon him" (Arabic: "sall-Allahu `alayhi wa sallam"). For example, "Muhammad (Peace and Blessings be upon him)". In printed matter, a calligraphic symbol is frequently used instead of printing the phrase. Sunnis believe that Abu Bakr succeeded Muhammad. Shias believe that Ali should have succeeded.

paragraphs: Most Muslims do not make or show images of Muhammad. The Qur'an does not state that images of Muhammad must not ever be made, but it does contain passages that forbid the creation of idols. There are also passages against the creation of images of God in the Hadith. Muslims, especially Sunni Muslims, believe there should be no pictures of Muhammad. When people create images of Muhammad, some Muslims may view this as disrespectful, offensive and emotionally injurious.

paragraphs: In 2005, a Danish newspaper published political cartoons of Muhammad. More than 100 people died during ensuing demonstrations. Johan Galtung, a Norwegian mathematician and peace activist, tried to help both sides come together and talk about this. According to Galtung, the attacks against Danish institutions ended after the government had invited talks.

paragraphs: On 7th January, 2015 the Kouachi brothers, hooded and armed with Kalashnikovs, burst into the editorial meeting of the magazine Charlie Hebdo, shooting at the assembled people. They killed cartoonists Cabu, Charb, Honoré, Tignous and Wolinski, psychoanalyst Elsa Cayat, economist Bernard Maris, proof-reader Mustapha Ourrad, police officer Frank Brinsolaro who was protecting Charb, Michel Renaud, founder of the Rendez-vous du Carnet de voyage festival invited to the meeting, and caretaker Frédéric Boisseau. They also seriously wounded cartoonist Riss, journalists Philippe Lançon and Fabrice Nicolino and webmaster Simon Fieschi.

paragraphs: As they left the building, just before killing policeman Ahmed Merabet who was lying on the pavement wounded and begging for mercy, the terrorists shouted: “We’ve avenged the prophet Muhammad”.

paragraphs: In addition the following murders have been officially linked to the Charlie Hebdo massacre: Clarissa Jean-Philippe, 27, a policewoman was killed in the suburb of Montrouge. As were four people taken hostage at a supermarket in the east of Paris. These were Yohan Cohen, 20, worked at the supermarket, Philippe Braham, 45, a business manager for an IT firm, Yoav Hattab, 21, a student and the youngest supermarket victim, Francois-Michel Saada, 64, was a former pension fund manager.

paragraphs: Amedy Coulibaly, 32, the hostage-taker in the supermarket, has also been linked by Paris prosecutors to the shooting and wounding of a 32-year-old jogger in a park in south-west Paris, on the day of the Charlie Hebdo attack.

paragraphs: A list of his wives' names in chronological order

paragraphs: Abdullah ibn Jafar reported that he heard Sayyiduna Ali saying in Kufa that Allah's Messenger, (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said, "The best of the women of her time was Maryam, daughter of Imran, and the best of women of her time was Khadijah, daughter of Khuwaylid."she was 45 years old when they got married.

paragraphs: Sawda bint Zam'a was the first woman to immigrate to Abyssinia in the way of Allah.

paragraphs: Aisha was a young girl. She is described as very intelligent with a very good memory. Aisha spent the next nine years of her life with Muhammad, she remembered all that she saw and heard with great clarity, and reported a great deal of Muhammad's narrations. She married Muhammad when she was six years old.

paragraphs: By marrying Hafsa, Muhammad strengthened the ties between two of his closest Companions, the two who would become the first two rightly guided khalifs after his death. He was now married to the daughter of Abu Bakr, A'isha and to the daughter of Umar, Hafsa.

paragraphs: She offered herself in marriage to Muhammad who accepted her proposal and married her. Zaynab bint Khuzayma was seen by the community as very generous to orphans and the poor, later becoming known as the 'Mother of the Poor'. She died only eight months after.

paragraphs: She was not the only wife to have been widowed as a result of the battle of Uhud, and because of this marriage, many of the Companions followed Muhammad's example, marrying widows and bringing them and their children into the circle of their families, instead of leaving them to struggle on their own.

paragraphs: As with all the marriages of Muhammad, there was much for all the Muslims to learn from it. This one was to show that Zayed ibn Haretha was not Muhammad's son and to demonstrate that the social level matters when it comes to marriage. She bragged about the fact that her marriage had been arranged by Allah. It was at this point that Muhammad changed her name from Barra to Zaynab.

paragraphs: Muhammad was thinking of how to save her and all her tribe from danger. By marrying Juwayriyya, the Banu Mustaliq would be able to enter Islam with honor, and with the humiliation of their recent defeat removed, so that it would no longer be felt necessary by them to embark on a war of vengeance that would have continued until one of the two parties had been annihilated.

paragraphs: She said that once Muhammad said to her, "A house will be built in Heaven for anyone who, in the space of a day and a night, prays twelve voluntary prayers;" and she added, "I have never stopped doing this since"

paragraphs: The only person who could save her from becoming a slave after having enjoyed such a high position was Muhammad. Although her father had planned to assassinate Muhammad after the battle of Uhud, and had conspired with the Banu Qurayza to exterminate all the Muslims during the battle of al-Khandaq. Muslims believe that this was characteristic of Muhammad, as he is believed to not have any grudges.

paragraphs: Muhammad gave her the name, Maymuna, meaning "blessed", and Maymuna lived with Muhammad for just over three years, until his death. She was said to be very good natured and is said to have got on well with everyone and no quarrel or disagreement with any of Muhammad's other wives has been related to her. Aisha said, "Among us, she had the most fear of Allah and did the most to maintain ties of kinship."

paragraphs: Maria is said to have been honored and respected by Muhammad and his family and Companions. She spent three years of her life with Muhammad, until his death, and died five years later. For the last five years of her life, she remained a recluse and almost never went out except to visit the grave of Muhammad or her son's grave. After her death, Umar ibn al Khattab led the prayer over her and she was buried in al Baqi.


title: Ford Mustang

paragraphs: The Ford Mustang is a very popular American sports car built by the Ford Motor Company beginning in 1964. The first cars were built in Ford's Dearborn, Michigan factory on March 9 of that year and the car was first shown to the public on April 17 at the New York World's Fair. It did not cost a lot of money, but it was still very fancy and looked like a much more expensive car. People could order their Mustang with many options and body styles, such as a convertible, 2+2 (fastback), or coupe. Many different engines were available, from the 170 CID six-cylinder to some of Ford's biggest and most powerful V-8 engines in later years. This meant car buyers could have a Mustang that saved gas or a more powerful and fast car. More than one million Mustangs were sold in only two years. The Mustang is still being sold today and is still very popular. It was so popular and so different when it was introduced that the Mustang and other cars from other makers which looked like the Mustang were given the name "ponycar."

paragraphs: The so-called "1964 1/2" Mustang was designed by Joe Oros and Dave Ash of Ford's Mercury division, was based on another Ford car, the Falcon and was proposed by Ford's president, Lee Iacocca. The Falcon was not expensive to build and that helped Iacocca get the Mustang the approval it needed to be built. The people who ran the Ford company did not want to take a chance on a car like that because they lost a lot of money on another car, the Edsel, just a few years back. It set sales records and became one of the best selling cars of all time. It would remain mostly the same until 1966. So popular was the Mustang that three Ford assembly plants worked to build it. Not only was the Mustang built in Dearborn, but in Metuchen, New Jersey and San Jose, California as well.

paragraphs: The very first Mustang built to be sold to the public was a white convertible with a black interior and a V-8 engine. It was purchased by a pilot from Newfoundland. Ford offered the one millionth Mustang to the owner in exchange for the first one. That first Mustang, serial number 5F08F100001, is still on display at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn.

paragraphs: Its second body style came out in 1967, its third in 1969 and its fourth in 1971. Bigger, more powerful engines were offered starting in 1967, making some Mustangs into musclecars. Some of those special Mustangs had special names such as Mustang GT, Mach 1, Boss 302, Boss 351, Boss 429 and 429 SCJ, or "Super Cobra Jet." By 1971, the Mustang had become a much larger car. The car grew in size so that Ford could put its biggest engines in it, but insurance companies were charging very high prices to insure powerful cars and sales began to drop. Many people missed the original, smaller Mustang.

paragraphs: A new Mustang came out in 1974 called Mustang II and was based on the Ford Pinto, although far less than the original car had been based on the Falcon. This new car was almost the same size as the original car, but emissions controls and the Arab oil embargo meant that the Mustang II was not a very powerful car. 1974 was not only the first time Ford had built a car which looked like an older model, it was also the first American car to be built on the metric system. The short, low hood meant that neither the inline six-cylinder engine nor V-8 would fit, so engine choices were changed to a 2.3 liter four-cylinder engine built by Ford in Brazil and a more expensive V-6 engine built by Ford in Germany. A 5.0 liter V-8 engine was offered in 1975 which meant that Ford engineers had to redesign much of the car to make it fit. No matter which engine was used, the Mustang II was a heavier car than the 1964-66 model.

paragraphs: The Mustang II helped keep the ponycar alive between 1974 and 1978. General Motors almost stopped building their popular Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird; Chrysler Corporation stopped building the Dodge Challenger and Plymouth Barracuda during that time. General Motors stopped building the Camaro in 2002, but they brought back a new version in 2009. Chrysler brought back a new Challenger in 2008 as well; they, like today's Mustang, are made to look like older models.

paragraphs: The new Mustang that came out in 1979 may have been the most important Mustang ever. One reason was the return of a powerful V-8 in 1982 which was developed in later years into an even more powerful engine. The basic design carried all the way through the 2004 model year, but with hundreds of thousands of improvements over the years. Very few parts except for some minor chassis parts stayed unchanged.

paragraphs: The 2005 model was the first all-new Mustang since 1979. Because the original Mustang was and is one of the most popular cars ever, Ford made the new Mustang coupe and convertible look very much like the first Mustangs, especially the 1967 and 1968 models. The engines of the 2005 Mustang were based on the older engines, but had more power. The 4.0-liter V6 engine made 210 hp and the 4.6-liter V8 300 hp, which rose to 315 hp on the 2008 Bullitt. All models were available with manual and automatic transmissions.

paragraphs: Both Ford and Carroll Shelby recently brought back the a new version of the very fast Shelby GT-500 Mustang in 2007. Mr. Shelby helped create the special Shelby GT-350 and GT-500 versions of the Mustang beginning in 1965. The 2007 Shelby GT500 had a 5.4-liter V8, which produced 500 hp. In 2008 a KR version with 540 hp was added.

paragraphs: The 2010 Mustang in turn looks much like the 2005-09 model, but all the body parts except for the roof are different. The rear turn signals of the 2005-2010 cars blink in a one-two-three sequence like the 1967-68 Mercury Cougar and 1964-66 Ford Thunderbird. Power for the V8 rose to 315 hp. In 2011, the Mustang received new engines, a 3.7-liter V6 base engine with 305 hp and a new 5.0-liter engine with 412 hp. Power on the Shelby GT500 rose to 550 hp and later to 662 hp in 2013. A Boss 302 performance version powered by a 444 hp V8 was introduced for 2012.

paragraphs: For 2015, a completely new Ford Mustang was introduced. This included a 5.0 V8 engine which produced 435hp, and was really a stylish and morden look.

paragraphs: That was the Ford Mustang in 2015 but in 2016, Shelby decided to boost the 6th generation Mustang by creating the all new Shelby GT350R which had a 5.2 litre V8 with 526hp at 7500RPM. This was a great increase in performance since the 2015 Mustang. It also included many carbon fibre pieces that were put into the car to reduce its weight. The stock rims in fact were the first ever carbon fibre rims created by NASA, a space station in the USA. The GT350R also had a mounted carbon fibre spoiler and quad exhaust pipes. The same Mustang will be sold in America until 2018, where Ford is rumoured to give us a brand new facelifted Mustang...

paragraphs: Beginning with the 2021 model year, Ford will also use the Mustang name on a new, large electric crossover model called the Mach-E.


title: Red Hat Linux

paragraphs: Red Hat Linux is a discontinued Linux operating system, replaced by RHEL (Red Hat Enterprise Linux).

paragraphs: Red Hat made it public in the past and it was used by many Linux users. The last publicly-released version was Red Hat Linux 9 in April, 2003. Red Hat then decided to discontinue a future release of Red Hat Linux and started the paid "Red Hat Enterprise Linux" instead. There are some redistributions of RHEL, though such as CentOS which are free and come without Red Hat's branding, logos etc. due to trademark restrictions.

paragraphs: Red Hat Linux 7.3 version is still widely used around the world for servers and workstations.

paragraphs: Around 2005, The Red Hat company released their system as Fedora Core, intended to be a test platform for new technologies. It is now called just 'Fedora' and its present release acts as a base for the next release of RHEL.


title: Sacavém

paragraphs: Sacavém is a city in Portugal, near the capital Lisbon. There is about eighteen hundred people living there. Sacavém is on the border of the River Tagus. It confines with the parishes of "Bobadela", "Camarate", "Moscavide", "Portela", "Prior Velho" and "Unhos".

paragraphs: Sacavém is very well known for its ceramics.


title: Shooter

paragraphs: A shooter is a kind of video game. The aim of the game is to beat enemies by shooting (or otherwise killing) them. The enemies shoot back.

paragraphs: Many of the oldest computer games were shooters; the first video game ever made was a shooter called "Computer Space". And one of the first games that many people played was a shooter called "Space Invaders".

paragraphs: There are lots of different kinds of shooter. Now many people like first-person shooters. But there are other kinds too. In Japan many people play shooters where the enemies fire lots of bullets. The bullets make beautiful patterns on the screen. This kind of shooter is called a "barrage shooter" or a "curtain fire shooter". It is also called by the Japanese name, "danmaku".


title: Sushi

paragraphs: The word "Sushi" comes from the Japanese word meaning vinegar, and ", meaning rice.

paragraphs: Sushi is made with specially prepared rice, called . The rice is mixed with vinegar, salt, and sugar. Sushi is known for having raw or cooked seafood in it, but it sometimes has non-fish foods such as vegetables. Some sushi is wrapped in a sheet of seaweed called .

paragraphs: There are many different kinds of sushi. The most common sushi in Japan is : fish meat that is placed on top of a small portion of "sumeshi". Sometimes you may find other ingredients on top of the "sumeshi", such as roe (fish eggs), and sea urchin meat, instead of fish. Another type of sushi, , consists of "sumeshi" rolled around fish and/or vegetables. In the US, "makizushi" is more popular than "nigirizushi". Another type is known as or a hand roll. This kind of sushi comes in a cone-shape, created by the "nori" wrapped around the ingredients inside. They are usually filled with a mixture of "sumeshi", fish, and vegetables.

paragraphs: Sushi is eaten with your bare hands or chopsticks. Soy sauce and wasabi are commonly eaten with sushi. "Gari" (sweet, pickled ginger) can often be found alongside a plate of sushi and also a little bit of wasabi, used as a palate cleanser.

paragraphs: In Japan, sushi is sometimes sold in "conveyor-belt shops" called "kaiten zushi" (回転寿司), where plates of sushi are put on a moving belt that passes by the customers. People freely take the sushi they want as it passes. The color of the plate shows the price of the sushi. This way of serving sushi is becoming more popular in other countries as well.

paragraphs: As with most foods, eating sushi has some health risks. However, most can be minimized with proper preparation. Some large fish, such as tuna (especially bluefin), can contain high levels of mercury. Tuna can cause mercury poisoning when consumed in very large quantities over time. Parasite infection by raw fish is not common in the modern world (less than 40 cases per year in the US). Infections can generally be avoided by boiling, burning, preserving in salt or vinegar, or freezing to a certain temperature. Although "nigirizushi" will almost always appear in a raw form, often much of the fish has been previously frozen to specific temperatures to prevent parasites.

paragraphs: There are many different types of sushi. There are also many ingredients to put in the sushi.

paragraphs: These are not all the types of sushi. There are many more types of Japanese sushi, and other countries, like the US, also created types of sushi, like the California Roll.

paragraphs: Although sushi mainly has the foods below inside of it, virtually anything can be used in sushi, even chocolate or chicken.

paragraphs: There are many types of fish and other meat used in sushi, such as:

paragraphs: Other meat, such as roe (fish eggs), is also used in sushi.

paragraphs: Like the meat, there are many types of vegetables used in sushi, such as:


title: The Thinker

paragraphs: The Thinker () (1902) is a bronze statue. It was made by the sculptor Auguste Rodin. It depicts a man sitting and thinking with his arms bent on his knee and his chin on his hand. Rodin first called the statue "The Poet". It was part of a commission by the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris to create a huge gate based on the epic poem "The Divine Comedy" of Dante. Each of the statues in the piece represented one of the main characters in the poem. "The Thinker" was originally meant to depict Dante himself in front of the Gates of Hell considering his great poem. Over twenty casts of the sculpture exist. They are now in museums around the world. Some of those copies are enlarged versions of the original work, while others have somewhat different proportions.


title: Nazko Cone

paragraphs: Nazko Cone is a small volcano in central British Columbia, Canada. It is approximately 75 km west of the town of Quesnel. It is in the eastern part of the Anahim Volcanic Belt. The most recent eruption of Nazko Cone was 7200 years ago.

paragraphs: A series of small earthquakes occurred in the area of Nazko Cone beginning on October 10, 2007. Most of these earthquakes were magnitude 1.0 or less; some as strong as magnitude 3.2 were centered 25 kilometers below the surface. The cause of these earthquakes is believed to be the rising of molten magma because there are no faults or tectonic plate boundaries. The source of this magma is from the Anahim hotspot and continues to this day.


title: Anahim Volcanic Belt

paragraphs: The Anahim Volcanic Belt is a nearly east-west line of volcanoes stretches from the west coast of British Columbia, Canada, just north of Vancouver Island, and reaches into the Interior Plateau near Quesnel. The farther away from the coast, the younger the volcanoes tend to be. These volcanoes are thought to have formed because of the North American continent sliding westward over the Anahim hotspot. Volcanoes in this belt include the Rainbow, Ilgachuz, and Itcha Ranges, and the Nazko Cone, which last erupted about 7200 years ago.


title: Chilcotin Group

paragraphs: Chilcotin Plateau basalts cover a large area in British Columbia. Basaltic lava formed a volcanic plateau running parallel with the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, about 150 km from the ocean.

paragraphs: During the Miocene and Pliocene, a volcanic field occurred in British Columbia's Interior Plateau. The basalt is assumed to cover up to 50,000 km of the Pacific Northwest. It forms a medium-sized large igneous province, of volume 3300 km.

paragraphs: Volcanism still continues from time to time. Eruptions were most vigorous 610 million years ago (mya) and 23 mya, when most of the basalt was released. Smaller eruptions continued from 1.6 mya to 0.01 mya.


title: Garibaldi Volcanic Belt

paragraphs: The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is the northern part of the Cascade Volcanic Belt. It is in British Columbia and the northwestern United States. Its volcanos are the most explosive in Canada.

paragraphs: The volcanoes are also the closest to British Columbia's densely populated southwest corner. These volcanoes are the result of subduction of the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate: the plates meet just seaward of the west coast of Vancouver Island. The volcanoes of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt are stratovolcanoes typical of subduction zones, and include Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley and Mount Meager. Meager's eruption 2,350 years ago is the youngest explosive eruption in Canada. It was similar to that of Mount St. Helens in 1980 and the ongoing eruption of Montserrat in the Caribbean.