title: Qatar

paragraphs: Qatar (, , or ; ' ; local vernacular pronunciation: ), officially the State of Qatar ( '), is a sovereign country in Western Asia. It is on the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Its only land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait in the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island country of Bahrain, as well as sharing maritime borders with the United Arab Emirates and Iran.

paragraphs: Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate in the early 20th century until gaining independence in 1971. Qatar has been ruled by the House of Thani since the early 19th century. Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the founder of the State of Qatar. Qatar is a hereditary monarchy and its head of state is Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. Whether it should be called a constitutional or an absolute monarchy is a matter of opinion. In 2003, the constitution was overwhelmingly approved in a referendum, with almost 98% in favour. As of early 2017, Qatar's total population was around 2.6 million: 313,000 Qatari citizens and 2.3 million expatriates.

paragraphs: Qatar is a high income economy and is a developed country, with the world's third largest natural gas reserves and oil reserves. The country has the highest per capita income in the world. Qatar is classified by the UN as a country of very high human development and is the most advanced Arab state for human development. Qatar is a significant power in the Arab world, supporting several rebel groups during the Arab Spring both financially and through its globally expanding media group, Al Jazeera Media Network. For its small size, Qatar has a lot of influence in the world, and has been identified as a middle power. Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first Arab country to do so.

paragraphs: Qatar is either a constitutional or an absolute monarchy ruled by the Al Thani family. The Al Thani dynasty has been ruling Qatar since the family house was established in 1825. In 2003, Qatar adopted a constitution that provided for the direct election of 30 of the 45 members of the Legislative Council. The constitution was overwhelmingly approved in a referendum, with almost 98% in favour.

paragraphs: The eighth Emir of Qatar is Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, whose father Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani handed power to him on June 25, 2013. The supreme chancellor has the exclusive power to appoint and remove the prime minister and cabinet ministers who, together, constitute the Council of Ministers, which is the supreme executive authority in the country. The Council of Ministers also initiates legislation. Laws and decrees proposed by the Council of Ministers are referred to the Advisory Council (Majilis Al Shura) for discussion after which they are submitted to the Emir for ratification. A Consultative Assembly has limited power to draft and approve laws, but the Emir has final say on all matters. The current Council is made up entirely of members appointed by the Emir, as no legislative elections have been held since 1970 when there were partial elections to the body. Legislative elections are expected to be held in 2016.

paragraphs: Qatari law does not permit the establishment of political bodies or trade unions.

paragraphs: Sharia law is the main source of Qatari legislation according to Qatar's Constitution. In practice, Qatar's legal system is a mixture of civil law and Sharia law. Sharia law is applied to laws pertaining to family law, inheritance, and several criminal acts (including adultery, robbery and murder). In some cases in Sharia-based family courts, a female's testimony is worth half a man's. Codified family law was introduced in 2006. Islamic polygamy is allowed in the country.

paragraphs: Flogging is used in Qatar as a punishment for alcohol consumption or illicit sexual relations. Article 88 of Qatar's criminal code declares the punishment for adultery is 100 lashes. In 2006, a Filipino woman was sentenced to 100 lashes for adultery. In 2010, at least 18 people (mostly foreign nationals) were sentenced to flogging of between 40 and 100 lashes for offences related to "illicit sexual relations" or alcohol consumption. In 2011, at least 21 people (mostly foreign nationals) were sentenced to floggings of between 30 and 100 lashes for offences related to "illicit sexual relations" or alcohol consumption. In 2012, six expatriates were sentenced to floggings of either 40 or 100 lashes. Only Muslims considered medically fit were liable to have such sentences carried out. It is unknown if the sentences were implemented. More recently in April 2013, a Muslim expatriate was sentenced to 40 lashes for alcohol consumption. In June 2014, a Muslim expatriate was sentenced to 40 lashes for consuming alcohol and driving under the influence. Judicial corporal punishment is common in Qatar due to the Hanbali interpretation of Sharia Law.

paragraphs: Stoning is a legal punishment in Qatar. Apostasy is a crime punishable by the death penalty in Qatar. Blasphemy is punishable by up to seven years in prison and proselytizing can be punished by up to 10 years in prison. Homosexuality is a crime punishable by the death penalty.

paragraphs: Alcohol consumption is partially legal in Qatar; some five-star luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to their non-Muslim customers. Muslims are not allowed to consume alcohol in Qatar and Muslims caught consuming alcohol are liable to flogging or deportation. Non-Muslim expatriates can obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption. The Qatar Distribution Company (a subsidiary of Qatar Airways) is permitted to import alcohol and pork; it operates the one and only liquor store in the country, which also sells pork to holders of liquor licences. Qatari officials have also indicated a willingness to allow alcohol in "fan zones" at the 2022 FIFA World Cup.

paragraphs: Until recently, restaurants on the Pearl-Qatar (a man-made island near Doha) were allowed to serve alcoholic drinks. In December 2011, however, restaurants on the Pearl were told to stop selling alcohol. No explanation was given for the ban. Speculation about the reason includes the government's desire to project a more pious image in advance of the country's first election of a royal advisory body and rumours of a financial dispute between the government and the resort's developers.

paragraphs: In 2014, Qatar launched a modesty campaign to remind tourists of the modest dress code. Female tourists are advised not to wear leggings, miniskirts, sleeveless dresses and short or tight clothing in public. Men are advised against wearing only shorts and singlets.

paragraphs: According to the U.S. State Department, expatriate workers from nations throughout Asia and parts of Africa voluntarily migrate to Qatar as low-skilled laborers or domestic servants, but some subsequently face conditions indicative of involuntary servitude. Some of the more common labor rights violations include beatings, withholding of payment, charging workers for benefits for which the employer is responsible, restrictions on freedom of movement (such as the confiscation of passports, travel documents, or exit permits), arbitrary detention, threats of legal action, and sexual assault. Many migrant workers arriving for work in Qatar have paid exorbitant fees to recruiters in their home countries.

paragraphs: As of 2014, certain provisions of the Qatari Criminal Code allows punishments such as flogging and stoning to be imposed as criminal sanctions. The UN Committee Against Torture found that these practices constituted a breach of the obligations imposed by the UN Convention Against Torture. Qatar retains the death penalty, mainly for threats against national security. Use of the death penalty is rare and no state executions have taken place in Qatar since 2003.

paragraphs: Under the provisions of Qatar's sponsorship law, sponsors have the unilateral power to cancel workers' residency permits, deny workers' ability to change employers, report a worker as "absconded" to police authorities, and deny permission to leave the country. As a result, sponsors may restrict workers' movements and workers may be afraid to report abuses or claim their rights. According to the ITUC, the visa sponsorship system allows the exaction of forced labour by making it difficult for a migrant worker to leave an abusive employer or travel overseas without permission. Qatar also does not maintain wage standards for its immigrant labourers. Qatar commissioned international law firm DLA Piper to produce a report investigating the immigrant labour system. In May 2014 DLA Piper released over 60 recommendations for reforming the kafala system including the abolition of exit visas and the introduction of a minimum wage which Qatar has pledged to implement.

paragraphs: In May 2012, Qatari officials declared their intention to allow the establishment of an independent trade union. Qatar also announced it will scrap its sponsor system for foreign labour, which requires that all foreign workers be sponsored by local employers. Additional changes to labour laws include a provision guaranteeing that all workers' salaries are paid directly into their bank accounts and new restrictions on working outdoors in the hottest hours during the summer. New draft legislation announced in early 2015 mandates that companies that fail to pay workers' wages on time could temporarily lose their ability to hire more employees.

paragraphs: In October 2015 Qatar's Emir signed into law new reforms to the country's sponsorship system, with the new law taking effect within one year. Critics claim that the changes could fail to address some labour rights issues.

paragraphs: The country enfranchised women at the same time as men in connection with the 1999 elections for a Central Municipal Council. These elections—the first ever in Qatar—were deliberately held on March 8, 1999, International Women's Day.

paragraphs: As a small country with larger neighbors, Qatar seeks to project influence and protect its state and ruling dynasty. The history of Qatar's alliances provides insight into the basis of their policy. Between 1760 and 1971, Qatar sought formal protection from the high transitory powers of the Ottomans, British, the Al-Khalifa's from Bahrain, the Arabians, and the Wahhabis from Saudi Arabia. Qatar's rising international profile and active role in international affairs has led some analysts to identify it as a middle power. Qatar was an early member of OPEC and a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It is a member of the Arab League. The country has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.

paragraphs: Qatar also has bilateral relationships with a variety of foreign powers. Qatar hosts the Al Udeid Air Base, a joint U.S.-British base, which acts as the hub for all American and British air operations in the Persian Gulf. It has allowed American and British forces to use an air base to send supplies to Iraq and Afghanistan. Despite hosting this strategic military installation, Qatar is not always a strong Western ally. Qatar has allowed the Afghan Taliban to set up a political office inside the country and has close ties to Iran, including a shared natural gas field. According to leaked documents published in "The New York Times", Qatar's record of counter-terrorism efforts was the "worst in the region". The cable suggested that Qatar's security service was "hesitant to act against known terrorists out of concern for appearing to be aligned with the U.S. and provoking reprisals".

paragraphs: Qatar has mixed relations with its neighbors in the Persian Gulf region. Qatar signed a defence co-operation agreement with Iran, with whom it shares the largest single non-associated gas field in the world. It was the second nation, the first being France, to have publicly announced its recognition of the Libyan opposition's National Transitional Council as the legitimate government of Libya amidst the 2011 Libyan civil war.

paragraphs: In 2014, Qatar's relations with Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates came to a boiling point over Qatar's support for the Muslim Brotherhood and extremist groups in Syria.

paragraphs: This culminated in the three aforementioned countries withdrawing their ambassadors from Qatar in March 2014. When the ambassadors withdrew, the GCC was reportedly on the verge of a crisis linked to the emergence of distinct political blocs with conflicting interests. Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Bahrain were engaged in a political struggle with Qatar, while Oman and Kuwait represent a non-aligned bloc within the GCC. Relations between the countries improved after the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) announced Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE returned their diplomats to Qatar. Islam Hassan, a researcher in Persian Gulf Studies at Qatar University, claims that, with the resolution of the GCC crisis, Qatar reached a new level of political maturity. He goes on to assert that Qatar managed to bring an end to the crisis without changing any of its foreign policy principles or abandoning its allies.

paragraphs: In recent years, Qatar has been using Islamist militants in a number of countries including Egypt, Syria, Libya, Somalia and Mali to further its foreign policy. Courting Islamists from the Muslim Brotherhood to Salafist groups has served as a power amplifier for the country, as it believes since the beginning of the Arab Spring that these groups represented the wave of the future. David Cohen, the Under Secretary for terrorism and financial intelligence at the U.S. Treasury, said that Qatar is a "permissive jurisdiction for terrorist financing." There is evidence that these groups supported by Qatar include the hard-line Islamic militant groups active in northern Syria. , Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey are openly backing the Army of Conquest, an umbrella group of anti-government forces fighting in the Syrian Civil War that reportedly includes an al-Qaeda linked al-Nusra Front and another Salafi coalition known as Ahrar ash-Sham.

paragraphs: Qatar supported the democratically elected President Mohamed Morsi with diplomatic support and the state-owned Al Jazeera network before he was deposed in a military coup. Qatar offered Egypt a $7.5 billion loan during the year he was in power.

paragraphs: Qatar's alignment with Hamas, first reported in early 2012, has drawn criticism from Israel, the United States, Egypt and Saudi Arabia, "who accuse Qatar of undermining regional stability by supporting Hamas." However, the Foreign Minister of Qatar has denied supporting Hamas, stating "We do not support Hamas but we support the Palestinians." Following a peace agreement, Qatar pledged $1 billion in humanitarian aid to Gaza.

paragraphs: Qatar has hosted academic, religious, political, and economic conferences. The 11th annual Doha Forum recently brought in key thinkers, professionals of various backgrounds, and political figures from all over the world to discuss democracy, media and information technology, free trade, and water security issues. In addition, the forum has featured the Middle East Economic Future conference since 2006. In more recent times, Qatar has hosted peace talks between rival factions across the globe. Notable among these include the Darfur Agreement. The Doha Declaration is the basis of the peace process in Darfur and it has achieved significant gains on the ground for the African region. Notable achievements included the restoration of security and stability, progress made in construction and reconstruction processes, return of displaced residents and uniting of Darfur people to face challenges and push forward the peace process. Qatar donated £88.5million in funds to finance recovery and reconstruction in Darfur.

paragraphs: The Qatar Armed Forces are the military forces of Qatar. The country maintains a modest military force of approximately 11,800 men, including an army (8,500), navy (1,800) and air force (1,500). Qatar's defence expenditures accounted for approximately 4.2% of gross national product in 1993. In 2008 Qatar spent US$2.355 billion on military expenditures, 2.3% of the gross domestic product. Qatari special forces have been trained by France and other Western countries, and are believed to possess considerable skill. They also helped the Libyan rebels during the 2011 Battle of Tripoli.

paragraphs: Qatar has signed defence pacts with the United States and United Kingdom, as well as with France earlier in 1994. Qatar plays an active role in the collective defence efforts of the Gulf Cooperation Council; the other five members are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, the UAE, and Oman. The presence of a large Qatari Air Base, operated by the United States and several other UN nations, provides a guaranteed source of defence and national security.

paragraphs: The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI, found that in 2010–14 Qatar was the 46th largest arms importer in the world. However, SIPRI writes, Qatar's plans to transform and significantly enlarge its armed forces have accelerated. Orders in 2013 for 62 tanks and 24 self-propelled guns from Germany were followed in 2014 by a number of other contracts, including 24 combat helicopters and 3 AEW aircraft from the USA, and 2 tanker aircraft from Spain.

paragraphs: Qatar's military participated in Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis. In 2015, "Al Jazeera America" reported: "Numerous reports suggest that the Saudi-led coalition against opposition groups in Yemen has indiscriminately attacked civilians and used cluster bombs in civilian-populated areas, in violation of international law."

paragraphs: Since 2004, Qatar has been divided into seven municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah).

paragraphs: For statistical purposes, the municipalities are further subdivided into 98 zones (), which are in turn subdivided into blocks.

paragraphs: Qatar is a peninsula (a strip of land sticking out into the sea). It is joined to Saudi Arabia to the south, and all the other sides of it are surrounded by the waters of the Arabian Gulf.

paragraphs: Qatar is quite a small country and has an area of only 10,360 km². The peninsula is 160 km long. Much of the country is a low, barren plain, covered with sand. The Jebel Dukhan area has Qatar’s main onshore oil deposits. The natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.

paragraphs: The capital of Qatar is Doha. Over 90% of the people live in Doha. The other large city is Al Wakrah.

paragraphs: Qatar has an unelected, monarchic, emirate-type government. The position of emir is hereditary.

paragraphs: The Emir is the only one who can appoint and remove the prime minister and cabinet ministers. Together the ministers make up the Council of Ministers. They are the highest executive authority in the country.

paragraphs: People from Qatar are called Qataris. They are Arabs. The official language of Qatar is Arabic, but many people also speak English, especially when they are doing business.

paragraphs: About 2.6 million people live in Qatar; however, about 88% of these are "guest workers" (people from another country who are living and working there for a short time), mostly coming from South Asia, South East Asia and other Arab countries. 650,000 are Indians, 350,000 Nepalis, 260,000 Filipinos among a lot of other nationalities.

paragraphs: Nearly all of Qatar's economy comes from producing petroleum and natural gas.

paragraphs: The currency of Qatar is called the Qatari Riyal.

paragraphs: Almost all Qataris follow the religion of Islam. However, many of the guest workers follow other religions.

paragraphs: Football is the most popular sport in Qatar, closely followed by cricket. The Qatar under-20 national football team finished second in the 1981 FIFA World Youth Championship.

paragraphs: The Asian Football Confederation's 2011 AFC Asian Cup finals were held in Qatar in January 2011. It was the second time it has been hosted by Qatar, the other being the 1988 AFC Asian Cup.

paragraphs: Doha, Qatar, is also home to Qatar Racing Club a Drag Racing facility.

paragraphs: Khalifa International Tennis and Squash Complex in Doha, Qatar, hosted the WTA Tour Championships in women's tennis between 2008 and 2010. Doha holds the WTA Premier tournament Qatar Ladies Open each year.

paragraphs: On December 2, 2010, Qatar won their bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup.

paragraphs: Nasser Al-Attiyah of Qatar won the 2011 Dakar Rally and the Production World Rally Championship in 2006. In addition, he has also won gold medals at the 2002 Asian Games and 2010 Asian Games as part of the Qatari skeet shooting team.

paragraphs: Since 2002, Qatar has hosted the yearly Tour of Qatar, a cycling race in six stages. Every February, riders are racing on the roads across Qatar's flat land for six days. Each stage covers a distance of more than 100 km.


title: Salt water

paragraphs: Saline water (also called salt water, salt-water or saltwater) is water with a high amount of salt in it. It often means the water from the seas (sea water) and oceans. Almost all the water on Earth is saline.

paragraphs: Salt water used for making or preserving food, is usually saltier than sea water and is called brine. Drinking sea water alone is dangerous. A summary of 163 life raft voyages showed the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. Experiments on rats showed the danger.

paragraphs: When scientists measure salt in water, they usually say they are testing the salinity of the water: salinity is measured in "parts per thousand" or "ppt". Most sea water is about 35 ppt salt. Salt lakes can be up to ten times as salty. Above that level precipitation creates a salt plain.

paragraphs: Brackish water, in contrast, is less salty than seawater.

paragraphs: Salt water is more dense than fresh water. This means that it has more matter per its volume. Fresh water has a density of 1 g/ml, while salty seawater has an average density of about 1.025 g/ml.


title: Oceanography

paragraphs: Oceanography (also called oceanology or marine science) is the study of the ocean, its properties and its characteristics. This can include, and is not limited to, studying the marine life, the geography of the ocean floor, and the water itself. Many sciences are useful in oceanography, so it is a multidisciplinary field. Oceanographers spend much time on boats.

paragraphs: The study of oceanography may be divide branches:


title: Diamanto Manolakou

paragraphs: Diamanto Manolakou, born on 1 March 1959, is a Greek politician and member of the European Parliament for the Communist Party of Greece; part of the European United Left–Nordic Green Left.


title: Arthur C. Clarke

paragraphs: Sir Arthur Charles Clarke (Minehead, Somerset, 6 December 1917 – Colombo, Sri Lanka, 19 March 2008) was a British author and inventor. He was most famous for his science fiction novel "", and for working with director Stanley Kubrick on the movie of the same name. Clarke and Isaac Asimov were probably the two best-known science fiction writers of their day.

paragraphs: Some of Clarke's novels include "Childhood's End", "A Fall of Moondust", "The Songs of Distant Earth", "The Sands of Mars", and "Meeting with Medusa". He also wrote many short stories, and several serious works on science.

paragraphs: Clarke served in the Royal Air Force as a radar instructor and technician from 1941–1946. He proposed a satellite communication system in 1945 which won him the Franklin Institute Gold Medal in 1963.

paragraphs: He was the chairman of the British Interplanetary Society from 1947–1950 and again in 1953.

paragraphs: Clarke emigrated to Sri Lanka in 1956 largely to pursue his interest in scuba diving; That year, he discovered the underwater ruins of the ancient Koneswaram temple in Trincomalee. He lived in Sri Lanka until his death. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1998, and was awarded Sri Lanka's highest civil honour, Sri Lankabhimanya, in 2005.

paragraphs: Clarke died from heart and respiratory failure at the age of 90.


title: Anthony Burgess

paragraphs: Anthony Burgess (25 February 1917 – 22 November 1993) was an Englishman who wrote many long stories, called novels.

paragraphs: One of these was named "A Clockwork Orange". It was about evil. He had the idea for the story after a group of bad young men raped and beat his wife for no reason.

paragraphs: Burgess also made songs and music. And he wrote a lot about writers he loved, such as James Joyce, a novelist, and Gerard Manley Hopkins, a poet.

paragraphs: Burgess was born in Harpurhey, Manchester, in the north of England. Before he became a writer, he was a soldier, then a teacher. When he was 37 years old, he left his home country to work in Malaysia and Brunei. Later, he lived in the USA, Italy, and France.

paragraphs: He was born very poor, the son of a man who made a meagre living out of selling cigarettes to workmen. But when Burgess died, he had grown rich. This was because he worked so hard at his art, which is the art of literature. He wrote at least 1,000 words every day of his life. But he always found time to be kind to other writers. He was friendly to the many people who came to visit with him at his seaside home in Monaco.

paragraphs: Burgess died of lung cancer aged 76, in St John's Wood, London.

paragraphs: The books by Burgess that people say they like the most are called "Earthly Powers", about the Pope; "Enderby", about a poet; and "Nothing Like the Sun", about William Shakespeare.


title: Rape

paragraphs: Rape is usually defined as having sexual intercourse with a person who does not want to, or cannot consent. Consent is when someone agrees of their own choice without being forced to. In France it is more widely defined as 'unwanted sexual penetration'. Rape is a form of sexual assault. In most countries, rape is one of the most serious crimes. The International Criminal Court can also condemn it as a "crime against humanity", if done by a group. A person who rapes someone is a rapist. Rapists may use violence, drugs, or threats to get their way. People of any gender can be raped. This was not recognized by the United States law until 2011. Girls and women or boys and men may stay quiet about a rape because they might feel ashamed about it. Rapists can be both male or female but are usually male.

paragraphs: A person may be unable to consent (say yes to) to sexual intercourse or other sexual activity. Having sex with a person who cannot consent is rape.

paragraphs: Some adults are unable to consent to sex.

paragraphs: Marital rape is where the victim of rape is married to the person committing the rape. Unconsenting sex with a married partner is thought to be rape under the laws of some countries but not others. In the United Kingdom, marital rape was determined to be a crime in the case of "R v. R" (1991). Marital rape being illegal does not mean that the law is enforced. For example, in Ireland marital rape was made illegal in 1990, but by 2006 only one person had been convicted of it.

paragraphs: Rape is a medical emergency. People who are raped may be injured or have a sexually transmitted disease (STD). People may not know they are hurt or sick. Doctors can give medicine to treat an STD. HIV, an STD, can be prevented by early treatment. If seen quickly, a doctor can give medication called emergency contraception to prevent pregnancy. Rape is at least twice as likely to cause pregnancy as consensual sex. The reason for this is not known.

paragraphs: At the hospital, police can collect evidence from the victim and his/her clothing. Evidence may help find the rapist, and can help the police send him or her to jail. Waiting too long makes it hard to collect evidence. Also, taking a shower before telling the police or going to a hospital can wash off some of the DNA evidence.

paragraphs: Victims of rape often feel scared, sad, and/or guilty. They may think about the rape a lot, even when they do not want to. They may have nightmares about the rape. Many have post-traumatic stress disorder. People who are raped during childhood or adolescence often get borderline personality disorder. They may binge drink to cope. Talking to someone, like a counselor, can help. Rape counselors are trained to help rape victims. Sometimes doctors can give medicine to decrease fear and sadness. Calling a rape crisis center or hotline can help a victim find help.

paragraphs: Some people believe in 'rape culture'. For example, they say that the United States has a rape culture. Rape culture is a culture that lets rape happen. It even encourages it. In the US 97% of rapists are never put in prison for their crimes. Some people are worried about women lying about being raped and men getting unfairly punished. This happens much less often than people think. In a study of college athletes, they thought that women lie about being raped 50% of the time. A 2005 study by the British Home Office found that 2.5% of rape reports were false.

paragraphs: Part of rape culture is victim blaming. This is when people say that someone who has been raped is the person to blame for their rape. An example of this is people saying that a rape victim was 'asking for it' because they were wearing a short skirt. It can also be more subtle. Victim blaming has been linked to the just world fallacy. This is when people think that the world is fair, so bad things only happen to people who have done something wrong. Victim-blaming is also related to 'slut-shaming'.

paragraphs: The idea of rape culture has been criticized. Christina Hoff Sommers argues that rape is just one type of violent crime and America's culture of violence in general is what should be fought.

paragraphs: It is not easy to find out how many people have been raped or how many people have raped. A lot of rape victims don't tell anyone that they were raped. They may be scared that they will not be believed or feel too ashamed to talk about what happened. The conviction rate for rape is very low so they might think reporting to police is a waste of time. The 2006-07 British Crime Survey found that 1 in every 200 women suffered from rape in that period. The same year 800 people were convicted of rape. This means less than 1 in every 100 reports of rape led to a conviction. A survey by Mumsnet found that 68% of women would hesitate reporting a rape to the police because of low conviction rates.

paragraphs: So rape report statistics are not reliable. A person may be raped but deny or not realize that what happened to them is rape, so would not say 'yes' if they were asked in survey if they had been raped. A person is more likely to say they were raped or raped someone if the word 'rape' is not used in a survey question. Different countries have different legal definitions of rape. Marital rape or rape that is not male-female is not always counted in the law or statistics.

paragraphs: Some studies ask what people think about rape instead of or as well of if they have raped or been raped. This comes from the idea that rape is a social problem.

paragraphs: One in five women in the U.S. say they have been raped in their lives. One in three Native American women has been a victim of rape or attempted rape.

paragraphs: One in six men in the U.S. say they were raped or sexually abused before age 18.

paragraphs: Prostitutes have possibly the highest rape rate in the population. A 1996 study in San Francisco found that 70% of a sample of 200 female prostitutes had been raped.

paragraphs: Opinion Matters surveyed a random sample of 1061 people in London aged 18 to 50 online. 20% had been raped (23% of 712 women and 15% of 349 men).

paragraphs: In a 2005 poll 26% of people thought that a woman is partly or fully responsible for her rape if she was wearing sexy clothing. 4% thought that there are more than 10,000 women raped a year.

paragraphs: 60% of 1000 women in a Rape Crisis survey thought that rape is not rape if the woman does not say 'no'. 16% had been raped.

paragraphs: A 2009 study by NSPCC found that 1 in 16 girls between the age of 13 and 17 who were in relationships had been raped.

paragraphs: In a survey between 2010 and 2012 of adults living in Britain, 9.8% of women said they had been raped and 1.4% of men said they had been raped.

paragraphs: In 2013 the 'Savile effect' was described in the media. In 2012 there was a lot of media coverage about claims of child sexual abuse against Jimmy Savile. The number of sex crimes reported to police increased 9%. This was linked to the sexual abuse scandal.

paragraphs: In Finland convicted rapists get very short sentences compared to other countries. Between 2001 and 2003 the average sentence for rape was two years in prison.

paragraphs: In 2013 a study by the United Nations was published that asked 10,178 men in six countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka) if they had raped a woman who was not their partner. Over one in 10 said yes. When they were asked if they had raped a woman who was their partner, 1 in 4 said yes, making headlines. The highest rate was 62% of men in Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea who said they had raped a woman. 7.6% had raped a man. 14% of men from the area had took part in gang rape.

paragraphs: 2.8% of the whole sample reported having raped another man.

paragraphs: The lowest rate was 10 per cent in urban Bangladesh. The majority of the men who had raped did not face any legal consequences. 42.7% had first raped between the age of 15 and 19.

paragraphs: 73% said they raped because of sexual entitlement. 59% said they did it for fun. 38% said they had raped a woman to punish her. Alcohol was the least common reason. Men who had been sexually abused were more likely to rape.

paragraphs: 20.8% of 1,863 Cambodian men had raped. Gang rape was the least common kind of rape in Cambodia. In Cambodia it was more common than non-partner rape by a rapist on their own. 81.7 percent of Cambodian women said that if a woman does not physically fight back it is not rape.

paragraphs: Other research found that 87% of Cambodian girls and 87% of Cambodian boys don't think that gang rape of a prostitute by a group of men is wrong or actually rape.

paragraphs: 96.5% of Sri Lankan men who raped experienced no legal consequences.

paragraphs: 20% of 8000 Indian men in a survey by ICRW had committed marital rape.

paragraphs: In a survey by IUSSP 32% of Indian women said they had been raped in their lives. The conviction rate for rape in India is 24.21%.

paragraphs: South Africa has been described as the rape capital of the world. In a study in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal by the South African Medical Research Council over one in four of 1737 anonymously surveyed men said that they had raped. 4.6% had raped and 5.3% had attempted rape in the last year. 16.8% had attempted rape ever. 8.9% had engaged in gang rape in their lives. 46.3% of men who had raped had raped more than one woman or girl and 53.9% had raped more than once. 7.1% raped 6-10. 7.7% said they had raped more than ten women or girls. 45% did not feel guilty. 9.8% of rapists were under 10 years old and 16.4% were 10–14 years old the first time they raped a girl of woman. However the sample contained more young men than the general population. The men who raped were much more likely to have experienced bullying and bad relationships with their parents. The most common reason given by the rapists for raping was entitlement.

paragraphs: In another study in Gauteng, South Africa's wealthiest province, over 1 in 3 (37.4%) of the 487 men asked admitted to rape. Two thirds of men said they raped because of feeling entitled to sex. Other reasons given were that they wanted to have fun or to punish a woman. 25.3% of 511 women said they had been raped.

paragraphs: Community Information, Empowerment and Transparency (CIET) Africa says that in 1998, one in three of the 4,000 women they asked in Johannesburg were raped.

paragraphs: A 2013 study of grade-nine boys at 46 secondary schools in Cape Town and Port Elizabeth found that 17.2% had raped.

paragraphs: A study of 1370 rural South African men aged 15–26 from 70 villages found that 21% had raped. The average age of first rape was 17.

paragraphs: Other very different statistics have been reported.

paragraphs: In "The South African demographic and health survey of 1998" 4% of women aged 15 to 49 said they had been raped. The reason for the differences in the statistics are not known. Rape between men is not part of the legal rape definition in South Africa.

paragraphs: In a study of 1,049 women in Lesotho, 33% said they had been raped by the age of 18. In 66% of cases the rapist was a boyfriend.

paragraphs: A study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's largest city, found that 1 out of 5 women over the age of 12 (the age group studied) have been raped. 10% had reported their rapes to police.

paragraphs: A 2010 study estimated that 1,100 women are raped every day in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a statistic 26 times higher than the previous estimate.http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/05/2011511231649539962.html

paragraphs: An analysis of 2,565 patients who received medical care in the Médecins Sans Frontières sexual violence clinic in Ituri found that 96% were female. 73% were raped by armed men. 95.2% of the male victims were raped by armed men. 35.9% of females who were asked if they had became pregnant as a result of their rape said yes. 74.5% experienced gang rape (89.3% of male and 73.9% of female victims), usually involving 2-4 rapists. 48.6% of victims were raped while doing daily chores outside the home like collecting water and 12.3% in their own homes.

paragraphs: 10.3% of women in Botswana said that they had been raped in a 2011 study. 3.9% of men said they had raped.

paragraphs: 5% of Swaziland men in a study had raped. 11.4% of women had been raped.

paragraphs: A study in Addis Ababa of high school boys found that 4.3% had been raped in their lives.

paragraphs: In a sample of street females in Bahir-Dar town 24.3% had been raped in their lives and 11.4% were raped in the last year. 93.8% of the rapes were not reported. 19.1% became pregnant as a result of their rape.

paragraphs: A study of 374 female students at Wolaita Sodo University found that 23.4% had experienced attempted rape and 8.7% had been raped.

paragraphs: The World Health Organization (WHO) found among a sample of women in rural Ethiopia who had had sex, 17% said that the first time they had sex it was forced.

paragraphs: In a survey 8% of 2011 Ghanaian women had been raped. 5% of men had raped a wife or girlfriend.

paragraphs: Out of a sample of 295 female students from Ebonyi State University Abakaliki in Southeast Nigeria, 10.8% had been raped on campus. In another study of 12-19-year-old students from schools in Oyo State found that 68.3% of intellectually disabled females with sexual experience had been raped.

paragraphs: In a 2013 poll, 34% of 585 randomly chosen Nigerians said that 'indecent dressing' is the most common cause of rape in their society. 79% agreed with the statement 'most rapes in Nigeria go unreported'. In Nigeria raping someone you are married to (marital rape) is not recognized as a crime.


title: Emmet D. Boyle

paragraphs: Emmet Derby Boyle (July 26, 1879 - January 3, 1926) was a Governor of Nevada. He was a Democrat.

paragraphs: Boyle was born in Virginia City, Nevada in 1879. He was a mining engineer, and was the Governor between 1915 and 1923. He died in 1926 at the age of 46.


title: Carp

paragraphs: The Carp (plural: carp or carpes) is a fish that lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes. In Europe and Asia carp are loved as a fishing and eating fish. However, carp are a really big problem in countries such as the U.S. and Australia. They make the water dirty by causing the mud at the bottom to move and in these countries people hate them.

paragraphs: Some popular ornamental fishes like the koi and goldfish are also carp.


title: Christopher Walken

paragraphs: Ronald Walken (born March 31, 1943), simply known as Christopher Walken, is an American movie, television, and theatre actor. He is best known for playing evil or mentally damaged characters. He has sometimes used that image for comedic effect. He was born in Queens, New York to a German father and Scottish-born mother. Walken has been married to casting director Georgianne Walken since 1969.

paragraphs: Walken is a skilled dancer who in many of his movies dances, because he requests it. He has been in nearly one hundred movies and television shows since 1953, including "The Dead Zone" (1983), "Brainstorm" (1983), "A View to a Kill" (1985), "Batman Returns" (1992) "True Romance" (1993), "Pulp Fiction" (1994), "Nick of Time" (1995), "Mousehunt", (1997), Catch Me If You Can" (2002), "Around the Bend" (2004) and "The Jungle Book" (2016). He was George Lucas' second choice for Han Solo after Harrison Ford.

paragraphs: He won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in "The Deer Hunter" (1978) where he played a disturbed Vietnam veteran with Robert De Niro. He was nominated again in 2002 for "Catch Me if You Can".

paragraphs: Walken has been guest host on Saturday Night Live many times. He has played many well known characters on that show.


title: Gene Hackman

paragraphs: Eugene Alden Hackman (born January 30, 1930) is an American retired actor and novelist. Hackman was born in San Bernardino, California. His parents divorced while he was a child, and he moved from one place to another until he settled finally in Danville, Illinois, where he lived with his English-born grandmother. At the age of 16 he left home to join the Marines, where he served 3 years as a radio operator. Having finished his service, he moved to New York, where he worked in several minor jobs. He then studied television production and journalism at the University of Illinois.

paragraphs: Already over 30 years old, Hackman decided to become an actor, and joined the Pasadena Playhouse in California. It was in that school that Hackman became friends with another person who wanted to be an actor named Dustin Hoffman.

paragraphs: After working hard in many roles he became a well-respected actor. He has won two Academy Awards, and has played many well-known roles.


title: Brian Russell

paragraphs: Brian Russell (born November 30th, 1943) is an American music producer. He is the former husband of musician Brenda Russell. He is currently married to Cheryl Ladd. He has been married to Cheryl Ladd since January 3, 1981. He was previously married to Brenda Russell.


title: Cod

paragraphs: Cod is a teleost fish that lives in the ocean. Cod is a large predator. There about 12 different genera.

paragraphs: Cod is an important type of fish for professional fishing. It is also popular to eat, because it is mild in taste. The livers of cods are processed to get cod liver oil. Along with Haddock and Plaice, cod is a very common fish to use for fish and chips.

paragraphs: Cod has been traded about since the period of the Vikings. Cod grows to about 5 ft long. The biggest one ever caught weighed about 104 pounds.


title: U.S. 1st Infantry Division

paragraphs: The 1st Infantry Division of the United States Army—nicknamed the "Big Red One" after its shoulder patch—is the oldest division. Since the Division was made, it has served in almost all wars the American Army has been in. The division's official motto is "Duty First". Their unofficial motto is "No Mission Too Difficult, No Sacrifice Too Great".


title: Charles Manson

paragraphs: Charles Milles Manson (né Maddox; November 12, 1934 – November 19, 2017) was an American criminal and leader of a Californian cult which murdered several people in the late 1960s and early 1970s. His cult, of young women and men, was known as "The Family."

paragraphs: He planned and ordered the Family to commit several brutal murders. Most known is the murder by his followers on August 8, 1969 of Sharon Tate. She was expecting a baby, already 7 / 8 months. The same night they also murdered Steven Parent, a friend of the groundskeeper at the house; Jay Sebring, a hair stylist; Abigail Folger, an heiress and social worker; and Wojciech Frykowski, a Polish writer and actor. The next night, Manson and some of his followers murdered Leno La Bianca, a grocery store owner and his wife Rosemary. Manson and his followers were arrested for stealing cars, but soon it was found out that they were the ones who committed the murders.

paragraphs: Manson was in jail for life in California. He and four Family members were sentenced to death, but the death penalty was abolished in California shortly after that. Because of his violent, murderous, anti-social behavior and unstable mental state, he was refused parole in 2012 for the 12th time. He was 77 years old at the time. His next hearing had been set for 2027.

paragraphs: Manson released an album titled . It featured Manson's music. All profits of the 2006 revived ESP-Disk label version go to the family of Wojciech Frykowski. Allmusic rated the album 4 out of 5 stars.

paragraphs: Manson was a convicted criminal long before the infamous murders. When he was released for the second time, on March 21, 1967, he had spent more than half his 32 years in prisons and other institutions. He told the authorities that prison had become his home and he asked to stay. This fact was disclosed in a 1981 television interview.

paragraphs: On his release day, Manson was allowed to move to San Francisco. With the help of a prison friend he moved into an apartment in Berkeley. While in prison, a bank robber taught him to play the steel guitar. Living mostly by panhandling, he soon met Mary Brunner, a 23-year-old graduate of the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Brunner was working as a library assistant at University of California, Berkeley, and Manson moved in with her. Someone said in a secondhand report that he managed to talk her into allowing other women to live with them, even though she was against it. Before long, they were sharing Brunner's home with 18 other women.

paragraphs: Manson set himself up as a guru in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury. During 1967's "Summer of Love," it was becoming the most popular place for hippies to live and hang out. Preaching a philosophy that included some of the Scientology he had studied in prison, he soon had his first group of young followers, most of them female. When Manson was put in prison in July 1961 at the U.S. penitentiary in McNeil Island, Washington, he put "Scientologist" as his religion on a questionnaire.

paragraphs: Before the summer ended, Manson and eight or nine of his followers began to travel around in an old school bus. They went as far north as Washington state, then south through Los Angeles, Mexico, and the southwest. Returning to the Los Angeles area, they lived in Topanga Canyon, Malibu, and Venice—western parts of the city and county.

paragraphs: In the late spring of 1968, in some reports of the events, Dennis Wilson, of the Beach Boys, picked up two hitchhiking Manson followers. They were Patricia Krenwinkel and Ella Jo Bailey. Wilson brought them to his house in a rich neighborhood of Los Angeles for a few hours. After an all-night recording session, he came home in the early hours of the next morning. Wilson was greeted in his driveway by Manson, who came out of the house. Feeling afraid, Wilson asked the stranger if he was going to hurt him. Saying no, Manson then began to kiss Wilson's feet.

paragraphs: Inside his house, Wilson found 12 strangers (mostly women) who had moved in. Over the next few months, the number of members moving in continued to grow. The Family members who had made themselves part of Wilson's Sunset Boulevard household cost him about $100,000. This included a large doctor's bill for treatment of their gonorrhea and $21,000 for wrecking his uninsured car, which they had borrowed. Wilson spent a lot of time singing and talking with Manson, whose women were treated like domestic workers.

paragraphs: Wilson paid for recording studio time to work on songs written and performed by Manson. He also introduced Manson to friends of his in the entertainment business. One was Terry Melcher (the son of Doris Day), who was also a musician and record producer. Gregg Jakobson, another friend, also paid to record Manson material. He later wrote about this experience with Manson for "Rolling Stone" magazine. He used a fake name of "Lance Fairweather" for the article.

paragraphs: In his book "Manson in His Own Words", Manson says he first met Wilson at a friend's San Francisco house, where Manson had gone to buy cannabis. The drummer then gave Manson his Sunset Boulevard address and invited him to stop by when he would be in Los Angeles.

paragraphs: In August 1968, Manson established a base for the group at Spahn's Movie Ranch, not far from Topanga Canyon, after Wilson's manager told the Family to move out of Wilson's home. The entire Family then relocated to the ranch.

paragraphs: Family members did helpful work around the grounds. Also, Manson ordered the Family's women (including Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme) to have sex occasionally with the nearly blind, 80-year-old owner George Spahn. The women also acted as seeing-eye guides for Spahn. In exchange, Spahn allowed Manson and his group to live at the ranch for free.

paragraphs: In the first days of November 1968, Manson established the Family at alternative headquarters near Death Valley, where they occupied two unused or little-used ranches.

paragraphs: While back at Spahn Ranch, no later than December, Manson and Watson visited a Topanga Canyon acquaintance who played them the Beatles' "White Album", then recently released. Manson was obsessed with the group. At McNeil, he had told fellow inmates, including Alvin Karpis, that he could surpass the group in fame; to the Family, he spoke of the group as "the soul" and "part of 'the hole in the infinite'. "

paragraphs: For some time, he had been saying that racial tension between blacks and whites was growing and that blacks would soon rise up in rebellion in America's cities. He had emphasized Martin Luther King, Jr.'s assassination, which had taken place on April 4, 1968. On a bitterly cold New Year's Eve at Myers Ranch, the Family members, gathered outside around a large fire, listened as Manson explained that the social turmoil he had been predicting had also been predicted by the Beatles. The "White Album" songs, he declared, told it all, though in code. In fact, he said the album was directed at the Family itself, an elect group that was being instructed to preserve the worthy from the impending disaster.

paragraphs: In early January 1969, the Family escaped the desert's cold and positioned itself to monitor Los Angeles' supposed racial tension by moving to a canary-yellow home in Canoga Park, not far from the Spahn Ranch. Because this would allow the group to remain "submerged beneath the awareness of the outside world", Manson called it the Yellow Submarine, another Beatles reference. There, Family members prepared for the impending apocalypse, which, around the campfire, Manson had termed "Helter Skelter," after the song of that name.

paragraphs: By February, Manson's vision was complete. The Family would create an album whose songs, as subtle as those of the Beatles, would trigger the predicted chaos. Ghastly murders of whites by blacks would be met with retaliation and a split between racist and non-racist whites would yield whites' self-annihilation. Blacks' triumph, as it were, would merely precede their being ruled by the Family, which would ride out the conflict in "the bottomless pit"—a secret city beneath Death Valley.

paragraphs: At the Canoga Park house, while Family members worked on vehicles and pored over maps to prepare for their desert escape, they also worked on songs for their world-changing album.

paragraphs: A total of eight people are known to have been killed by the Manson Family and two other killings are suspected.

paragraphs: On July 25, 1969, Manson sent Bobby Beausoleil, Mary Brunner, and Susan Atkins to the house of acquaintance Gary Hinman to persuade him to turn over money Manson thought Hinman had inherited. The three held the uncooperative Hinman hostage for two days, during which Manson showed up with a sword to slash his ear. After that, Beausoleil stabbed Hinman to death, probably on Manson's instruction. Before leaving the Topanga Canyon residence, one of them used Hinman's blood to write "Political piggy" on the wall and to draw a panther paw, a Black Panther symbol.

paragraphs: On the night of August 8, Manson directed Charles Watson to take Susan Atkins, Linda Kasabian, and Patricia Krenwinkel to "that house where Melcher used to live" and "totally destroy everyone in [it], as gruesome as you can." He told the women to do as Watson would instruct them. Unknown to Manson, the tenants were now Sharon Tate and Roman Polanski. Polanski was in Europe at the time and Tate was at home with three other people. They were all killed, as was a delivery boy who turned up at an inopportune moment.

paragraphs: This event was the murder of a supermarket owner and his wife. On this occasion, Manson himself took charge of the murders and six Family members accompanied him. As with the other killings, there was no particular reason for the crime and the victims were unknown to the Family other than Manson.

paragraphs: On January 1, 2017, Manson was taken from Cochran State Prison to Mercy Hospital in downtown Bakersfield. He was suffering from gastrointestinal bleeding. The "Los Angeles Times" reported that Manson was seriously ill. Some reports suggest Manson was too weak for surgery. He was returned to prison by January 6. There was no report about whether he received any treatment.

paragraphs: On November 15, 2017, it was confirmed that Manson had returned to a hospital in Bakersfield. Four days later, he died at the hospital of natural causes and cardiopulmonary arrest complicated by colorectal cancer at the age of 83. It is currently unknown what fate his body will have.


title: Herring

paragraphs: A herring is a small teleost fish of the genus "Cluptea". Best-known of this family is probably the Atlantic Herring. There are 15 different species of herring. When herrings migrate in the water they usually do this in large numbers; this is then called a "school" of herring. Like other fish, they do this for protection: see shoaling and schooling.

paragraphs: Herrings can be eaten. They are often smoked or pickled.

paragraphs: A red herring is used to describe a plot device in mystery fiction that leads the reader to a wrong solution.


title: Ray

paragraphs: The rays are a group of Batoid cartilaginous fish containing more than 500 described species in thirteen families. The batoids include four orders.

paragraphs: They are mostly flattened in shape, and usually demersal, living and eating at the bottom of the sea. The group first appears in the Triassic period, after 95% of marine species had been wiped out by the P/Tr extinction event.

paragraphs: Rays look like bats in the water, and this is probably why they are called batoids. They have pectoral fins that are attached to their bodies from back to front, similar to the way a bat's wings attach from its shoulder to its feet.

paragraphs: The fins of the ray create a disk shape that can be round, triangular, or diamond-shaped. Rays use their pectoral fins to 'fly' through the water. Though a bony fish takes in water with its mouth, rays do not because they live at the bottom of the ocean. If they took in water through their mouths, they would probably just get a mouthful of sand. Because of this, they have breathing holes on top of their bodies called "spiracles". Rays use spiracles to take in water that is then sent over the gills.

paragraphs: Also, because they do not have a swim bladder, rays sink when they are not actively swimming.

paragraphs: Interestingly, rays are usually curious and social animals. Though they often live alone, they like swimming together in groups with other rays. Despite the fact that they are able to swim, most rays live at the bottom of the sea, eating benthic animals. In fact, they often flick sand on their backs to camouflage (disguise, or hide) themselves as they lie in the sand at the bottom of the ocean.


title: Tuna

paragraphs: Tuna, sometimes called tuna fish, are several species (kinds) of fish. They are in the family Scombridae, mostly in the genus Thunnus.

paragraphs: Tuna are fast swimmers. People have seen tuna swim at up to 77 km/h. Several species of tuna are warm-blooded. Most species of fish have white flesh. The flesh of the tuna is different. It is pink to dark red. This is because tuna muscle tissue contains greater quantities of myoglobin. Myoglobin is a molecule that binds oxygen. Some of the larger tuna species such as the Northern bluefin tuna can raise their blood temperature above the water temperature with muscular activity. This enables them to live in cooler waters and survive a wider range of circumstances.

paragraphs: Tuna is an important commercial fish. Some varieties of tuna, such as the bluefin and bigeye tuna are threatened by overfishing, dramatically affecting tuna populations in the Atlantic and northwestern Pacific Oceans. Other populations seem to support fairly healthy fisheries (for example, the central and western Pacific skipjack tuna), but there is mounting evidence that overfishing threatens tuna fisheries worldwide.

paragraphs: Some fishermen in Australia now grow Southern bluefin tuna in fish farms. Fish farms are areas of water with nets around them, where farmers raise (keep and grow animals) fish. Some tuna farms are circular nets 40 meters in diameter and 20 meters deep. The fishermen catch the tuna at sea, and then they keep the tuna in these farms. The tuna grow and get fatter for three to six months. There are also tuna farms in the Mediterranean, North America, and Japan that raise Northern bluefin tuna. Some environmental groups say that tuna farms use too much fish as food for the tuna, and that the farms pollute the water (make the water dirty).

paragraphs: Tuna are high up in the food chain. They eat animals that ate animals. Their diet leads to the accumulation of heavy metals in their flesh. Mercury levels can be relatively high in some of the larger species of tuna such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children to limit their intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish . However, most canned light tuna is skipjack tuna and is very low in mercury.

paragraphs: Sport fishermen like to catch tuna using rods and hooks.

paragraphs: Species of several other genera (all in the family Scombridae) have common names containing "tuna":


title: Fishing hook

paragraphs: Fishing hook is a hook used to catch fish. There are many types of fishing hooks. Most have a sharp point which sticks into the fish when it is caught. There are lots of types of fishing hooks, and they all depend on how powerful they can hold the line and the size.

paragraphs: Many hooks have different sizes for different fish.


title: Fishing rod

paragraphs: A fishing rod is a tool used for catching fish. The rod is often used to cast an artificial bait to where the fish are. This is the way people catch fish for fun or sport. Commercial fishing is usually done using fishing nets.

paragraphs: A fishing rod is basically a line with bait on it, fixed on a pole. There is usually some way to make the line longer or shorter, and the pole it is fixed on can bend a little.


Mammalia (taxonomy)


title: Nottuln

paragraphs: Nottuln is a town in Coesfeld county, 20 km west of Münster, Germany.

paragraphs: A church was founded in 860 by Ludger Liudger, as well as the first monastery in Westphalia.

paragraphs: After a big fire 1748 it was built up by Johann Conrad Schlaun.

paragraphs: The county of Nottuln is at the A43 and a railway.


title: Coesfeld

paragraphs: Coesfeld is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany and the capital of Coesfeld county.

paragraphs: Nepomucenum and St.-Pius-Gymnasium are highschools in Coesfeld.

paragraphs: Coesfeld was founded by the holy Ludgerus. Coesfeld has been a town since 1197.


title: St.-Pius-Gymnasium

paragraphs: St.-Pius-Gymnasium is a catholic private highschool in Coesfeld near Münster in Germany. It is held by the diocese of Münster and named after Pope Pius X. . Until 1976 the school was a boarding school only for boys. Since then it has been a "Gymnasium". Today, there are 791 pupils.

paragraphs: There is a statue of Pius X on the school ground to express solidarity with the patron. The school has a chapel and a pastor. There is a modern, well-equipped assembly hall, too.

paragraphs: St.-Pius-Gymnasium is associated with the Lyceé Notre-Dame in Guingamp (France), offers trips to Poole (England) and tries to establish a partnership with a school in Orlando (Florida, USA).

paragraphs: In Advent, the school publishes a yearbook named "Piusbrief". Its pupil magazine "Fünf vor Acht" got multiple honours.


title: Cell membrane

paragraphs: The cell membrane is a thin flexible layer around the cells of all living things. It is sometimes called the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane.

paragraphs: Its basic job is to separate the inside of cells from the outside.

paragraphs: In all cells, the cell membrane separates the cytoplasm inside the cell from its surroundings. Animal cells are contained in just a membrane. Bacteria, fungi and plants have strong cell walls as well, which support the cell and block the passage of large molecules.

paragraphs: The membrane is made up of a thin layer called the 'phospholipid bilayer'. This has two layers of phospholipid molecules with phosphate heads on the surfaces and lipid (oil) tails on the inside. The outside heads mix with water, but the tails reject water.

paragraphs: Other proteins and lipids can be added to the cell membrane. By these changes, the cell can adjust what it brings in or puts out. Some proteins are always stuck into it, these are called "integral" membrane proteins. It also has some which are only sometimes stuck onto it. These are called peripheral membrane proteins. The outer layer protecting the inner cell.

paragraphs: The membrane is selectively permeable. It is active and regulates (adjusts) what comes in and what goes out of the cell. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either "passive", occurring without the input of cellular energy, or "active", requiring energy.

paragraphs: Proteins within the membrane are key to its working. These proteins mainly transport chemicals and information across the membrane.

paragraphs: The membrane contains many proteins. The surface proteins can act as gates. They let some chemicals into the cell and let other chemicals leave the cell. It is estimated that up to a third of the human proteome may be membrane proteins. Some of these proteins are linked to the exterior of the cell membrane. An example of this is the CD59 protein, which identifies cells as “self” and thus inhibits their destruction by the immune system.