title: La Borinqueña

paragraphs: La Borinqueña is the national anthem of Puerto Rico. The current official music and words were made up in 1903 and have been taught in schools and accepted by the public. The music was officially made the national anthem by the government in 1952, and the words in 1977. The title refers to the Taíno (Native American) name for the island of Puerto Rico, "Boriken" or "Borinquen".


title: Boy (album)

paragraphs: Boy was Irish rock group U2's first album, from the year 1980.

paragraphs: Before this album came a single, a song that is played on its own, called "I Will Follow". It became popular and was played on college radio stations and made people know who U2 were. "I Will Follow" was thought of as a Christian song. This was because most of the members of U2 were Christians. None of the band members has said that that is true. This album is somewhat about Bono's life as a child, and his mother's death when he was 14.

paragraphs: At first, the producer of band Joy Division, Martin Hannett, was supposed to produce (help record) the album, but he was sad about the suicide of Ian Curtis, so he did not help record the album. It was produced by Steve Lillywhite, and recorded in a Dublin studio called Windmill Lane Studios. Some songs were written in the studio, like "An Cat Dubh" and "The Ocean". Some other songs had already been written, and U2 were performing them often, like the songs "Stories for Boys", Out of Control", and "Twilight". The Edge, U2's guitarist, recorded all of the songs using his Gibson Explorer guitar and his Fender Stratocaster guitar.

paragraphs: "Boy" reached #63 on the Billboard album charts, a list of the most popular albums in the U.S., and was not on the popularity charts in the United Kingdom. The song "I Will Follow" reached #20 on a popularity chart called the Mainstream rock charts. People said that their live shows were too predictable and that Bono, the singer, used too much echo in his singing, but their playing showed that they could play very well. People also said that Bono was a "charismatic and passionate" singer, meaning that he sang very emotionally and that people could connect to him. "Boy" is the only U2 album that every song has been played live, including all of the b-sides (songs that are extra songs on a single). On the list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, made by the rock magazine Rolling Stone, "Boy" was 417th on the list.

paragraphs: The boy on the cover of the album is a boy named Peter Rowen. He is the brother of Bono's friend Guggi, and he is a famous Irish photographer. He has been on other U2 album covers, including "Three" and "War". The person who took the picture has made other U2 covers, too. In case that the band could be blamed for pedophilia, they changed the cover to a stretched picture of the four band members.

paragraphs: All of the songs were written by U2, and all of the lyrics were written by Bono.

paragraphs: There were two singles released from this album. They were "I Will Follow" and "A Day Without Me". The album that came before "Boy" was called "Three". On very early copies of "Boy", there is a 30-second instrumental piece that is am early version of "Fire", which was on a later album called "October".


title: Ergastic substance

paragraphs: Ergastic substances are non-protoplasm materials that one can find in cells. These are usually products of metabolism.

paragraphs: Ergastic substances include crystals, oil drops, gums, tannins, resins and other compounds. Some of these substances help the organism function, keep up cell structure, or are just stored food material such as oil or fat. During the life of a cell, they can appear and disappear. Ergastic substances may appear in the protoplasm, in vacuoles, or in the cell wall.

paragraphs: Ergastic substances are usually absent in tissue with dividing cells, such as meristem tissue in plants. Plant cells often store noxious substances in leaf cells as a kind of defence against herbivory. In animals storing noxious substances is done as defence against predation. Storing venom for use in biting or stings is common in some groups of animals.

paragraphs: In general, if animals need quantity of a liquid substance they produce it with special cells in a gland, and send the product to where it is needed or stored.


title: Adenine

paragraphs: Adenine is one of the nucleobase or basic molecules which form DNA and RNA. They are usually called Nitrogenous bases in genetics.

paragraphs: In DNA, adenine sticks to thymine with two hydrogen bonds to help in making the nucleic acid structures stronger. In RNA, which is used in the cytoplasm for protein synthesis, adenine sticks to uracil.

paragraphs: Adenine was sometimes called Vitamin B, but no longer. However, two B vitamins, niacin and riboflavin, bind with adenine to form the essential cofactors NAD and FAD respectively.

paragraphs: Some think that, at the origin of life on Earth, the first adenine was formed by the polymerization (joining) of five hydrogen cyanide (HCN) molecules. This is not generally accepted.


title: Trial and error

paragraphs: Trial and error is a primitive method of solving problems. It is characterised by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the agent stops trying. It is an unsystematic method, which does not employ insight, theory or organised methodology.

paragraphs: According to W.H. Thorpe, the term was devised by C. Lloyd Morgan after trying out similar phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice". Under Morgan's canon, animal behaviour should be explained in the simplest possible way. Where behaviour seems to imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by trial and error learning. An example is the skilful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behaviour. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.

paragraphs: Edward Thorndike showed how to manage a trial and error experiment in the laboratory. In his famous experiment, a cat was placed in a series of puzzle boxes in order to study the law of effect in learning. He plotted learning curves which recorded the timing for each trial. Thorndike's key observation was that learning was promoted by positive results, which was later refined and extended by B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning.


title: Harris Scarfe

paragraphs: Harris Scarfe is an Australian department store. It sells items including clothing, pots and pans, cutlery. The store went bankrupt in 2001, but has since bounced back.

paragraphs: In 2004, Harris Scarfe bought the Allens group of seven department and five homewares stores. They continued to trade under the Allens name in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, until 2008 when they got merged with Harris Scarfe.

paragraphs: Harris Scarfe has stores located in most Australian states. In New South Wales and the ACT they used to trade as Allens. They were acquired by Harris Scarfe in 2004, but continued to trade under the Allens name. In late 2008, the name of these stores was being changed from Allens to Harris Scarfe.

paragraphs: The main store for the company is located in Rundle Mall, Adelaide. The store is five stories tall. The main store for Tasmania is in Hobart and it is three stories tall.

paragraphs: Harris Scarfe sells items in two main groups, "In Style" (which includes all clothing) and "At Home" (all other goods, such as homewares & linen). The Adelaide store sells more goods than the other stores. Many of the Allens stores sell less goods than other stores.


title: Flushing, Queens

paragraphs: Flushing is a neighborhood in the Queens borough of New York City. Flushing is the largest urban center in New York. New York's second-biggest Chinatown is there.


title: Atlas

paragraphs: An atlas is a collection of maps or manifolds, traditionally bound into book form, but also found in multimedia formats.

paragraphs: It may show geographic features and political boundaries, but often social, religious and economic statistics as well.

paragraphs: The earliest atlases were not called by that name at the time of their publication. The first book that could be called an atlas was constructed from the calculations of Claudius Ptolemy, a geographer who worked in Alexandria circa A.D. 150. The first edition was published in Bologna in 1477 and was illustrated with a set of 27 maps, though scholars say that it is not known whether the printed maps were engraved versions of original maps made by Ptolemy, or whether they were constructed by medieval Greek scholars from Ptolemy's text.

paragraphs: From about 1544, many maps were produced, especially in the important trading centers of Rome and Venice. Each publisher worked independently. They produced maps based upon their own needs. The maps often varied dramatically in size. Over time, it became common to bind the maps together into one book. Although the term atlas was not in use in 1544, these works are now called "IATO" atlases - (Italian, Assembled to Order) or more frequently "Lafreri atlases" after one of the leading publishers of the period.

paragraphs: With the coming of the global market, publishers in different countries can reprint maps from plates made elsewhere. This means that the place names on the maps often use the designations or abbreviations of the language of the country in which the feature is located, to serve the widest market. For example, islands near Russia have the abbreviation "O." for "ostrov", not "I." for "island". This practise differs from what is standard for any given language.

paragraphs: Some cartographically or commercially important atlases include the following:

paragraphs: See Other websites below for online modern atlases and digitized historical atlases. The collection of digitized world atlases at DavidRumsey.com lists many significant atlases of the 18th-20th centuries.


title: T-Mobile Team

paragraphs: T-Mobile Team ("UCI Team Code:" TMO) is a professional cycling team competing in international road bicycle races.

paragraphs: It is named after its chief sponsor - the T-Mobile company. The team takes part in many editions of the annual Grand Tours of cycling, such as the Tour de France and the Giro d'Italia. Since 2005, the team has been one of 20 teams that compete in the new UCI ProTour.

paragraphs: In December 2007 T-Mobile decided to pull out of cycling sponsorship, and end their sponsorship immediately although they had promised to carry on until 2010.

paragraphs: The team was founded in 1991 as Team Telekom, sponsored by T-Mobile's parent Deutsche Telekom - but in 2004 their name changed to the current Team T-Mobile . It has 29 riders, 9 physiotherapists or nurses, 9 mechanics, and has 22 partners. The team is managed of Olaf Ludwig and Eddy Vandenhecke, and its sports directors, sometimes caleed "directeurs sportifs" Brian Holm, Tristan Hoffman, , Valerio Piva and Jan Schaffrath.

paragraphs: Founded as "Team Telekom" in 1991 with Walter Godefroot the team manager, the team soon became important presence in international cycling. In 1994, the German sprinter Erik Zabel won the first UCI Road World Cup victory in the history of the team, the Paris-Tours. A year later, in 1995, Zabel won two stages in the 1995 Tour de France.

paragraphs: The next two years saw the international breakthrough of the team. Godefroot brought in Danish rider Bjarne Riis, finished third in the 1995 Tour, and he went on to win the 1996 Tour de France. Jan Ullrich was then a support rider, and finished in second place. In the 1997 Tour de France Ullrich as he won the race with support from Riis, who had earlier won the Amstel Gold World Cup race . Team Telekom also won the team classification, as the overall strongest team of the 1997 Tour.

paragraphs: In both 1997 and 1998, Zabel won the Milan-Sanremo, while Ullrich finished second in the 1998 Tour de France. Ullrich went on to win the 1999 Vuelta a España, but missed the 1999 Tour de France due to a knee injury. The next year, Zabel won the overall World Cup victory, having won the Milan-Sanremo and Amstel Gold Race, while Ullrich placed second again in the 2000 Tour de France to Lance Armstrong. In 2001, Zabel won Milan-Sanremo for the fourth time. Ullrich came in second in the 2001 Tour de France, while Zabel won six stages combined in the 2001 Tour and Vuelta. Kazakh rider Alexandre Vinokourov won the Paris-Nice stage race in 2002, a feat he would duplicate in 2003, also winning the Amstel Gold Race and Tour de Suisse that year. As Ullrich left the team to form Team Bianchi in 2003, Vinokourov became team leader for the 2003 Tour de France. He finished in third place, just below the second placed Ullrich. Zabel won the 2003 Paris-Tours, while Italian rider Daniele Nardello took the Züri-Metzgete.

paragraphs: In 2004, the team changed its name to T-Mobile. Jan Ullrich returned to the team, and raced the 2004 Tour de France as team leader, but Vinokourov did not ride in the Tour. Ullrich finished fourth, while Andreas Klöden was the best placed rider of the team in second place. Team T-Mobile was again the strongest team overall. In the spring of 2005, Vinokourov won the Liège-Bastogne-Liège classic race. Ullrich, as the team leader, finished 3rd overall in the 2005 Tour de France. Alexandre Vinokourov rode in support, and finished fifth as well as winning two stages, including the final stage on the Champs-Elysees. Italian rider Giuseppe Guerini also won a stage and the team once again winning the team classification.

paragraphs: In July 2005, during the 2005 Tour, Vinokourov's contract was running out and speculation was abundant if he was to stay with T-Mobile. With four days left of the 2005 Tour, he announcedt that he would leave the team to try to win the Tour de France as a team captain and after the Tour he joined the Liberty Seguros team. After 13 years with Team Telekom and T-Mobile Team, Erik Zabel also left in 2005 to ride for the newly formed Team Milram. Before the 2006 season, Olaf Ludwig took over from Walter Godefroot as team manager.

paragraphs: Thirteen riders were expelled from the 2006 Tour de France because of a Spanish doping scandal. The day before the prologue of the 93rd edition Jan Ullrich, one of the favourites to win the race, was among those excluded from the Tour. Another T-Mobile rider, Oscar Sevilla, was also expelled, leaving the team starting with only seven riders.

paragraphs: On 9 July, the team sacked sporting director Rudy Pevenage because he was linked with Jan Ullrich in the doping scandal. "The contract linking T-Mobile to Pevenage has been retrospectively stopped on 30 June," the team's general manager, Olaf Ludwig, said.

paragraphs: On July 21, 2006, Jan Ullrich was fired. investigation.

paragraphs: At the 2006 Tour de France, T-Mobile won the team classification for the third consecutive year, Andreas Klöden reached the podium (3rd place) for the second time, Matthias Kessler won Stage 3, Serhiy Honchar won two individual time trials (Stages 7 and 19) and wore the yellow jersey for 3 days (after Stages 7–9).

paragraphs: In May 2007, several former riders admitted using banned substances (include EPO) while riding for the team in the mid 1990s, including Erik Zabel, Rolf Aldag, Brian Holm, Bjarne Riis, Bert Dietz, Udo Bölts and Christian Henn including the seasons in which Riis and Ullrich won the Tour de France. Team doctors Andreas Schmid and Lothar Heinrich has also confessed to helping and administering banned substances. Heinrich was Team Telekom's sporting director until May 3, 2007 when he was suspended following allegations published in former team member Jef d'Hont's book.

paragraphs: To present a new image the team brought a young team to the 2007 Tour de France, and drug-free attitude and image. However, Patrik Sinkewitz tested positive for higher than normal level of testosterone during a training camp. The results were only announced when Sinkiewitz was in hospital because of a crash. He was still dismissed on 31 July 2007.

paragraphs: In 2005 a film titled "Hell on Wheels" was released. It is a record of the 100th anniversary (but only the 90th running because of World War I and World War II) of the Tour de France in 2003 from the perspective of the then-Team Telekom.


title: T-Mobile

paragraphs: T-Mobile is a mobile (cell phone) network operator headquartered in Bonn, Germany. It was founded in 1990 and is a part of Deutsche Telekom and belongs to the FreeMove alliance.

paragraphs: T-Mobile is a group of mobile phone companies (all owned by Deutsche Telekom) that operate GSM and UMTS networks in Europe and the United States. The "T" stands for "Telekom". Most subsidiaries (companies) of Deutsche Telekom have names beginning with "T-" like T-Home and T-Online. T-Mobile also owns parts of mobile operators in Eastern Europe. Globally, T-Mobile has 101 million subscribers, making it the world's sixth largest mobile phone service provider by subscribers and the third largest multinational after the United Kingdom's Vodafone and Spain's Telefonica.

paragraphs: T-Mobile International has a large presence in eleven European countries: Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, North Macedonia, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and the United Kingdom as well as in the United States.

paragraphs: Deutsche Telekom recently tried to buy rival mobile network operator O2, but it was eventually bought by Spain's Telefonica.

paragraphs: As well as football kit sponsors for FC Bayern Munich, Ferencvárosi TC, The Blues City and Borehamwood, T-Mobile is also a sponsor of several sports events, some of which carry the company name. For example, it sponsors its own cycling team, the T-Mobile Team, and the Austrian first division football competition, the T-Mobile Bundesliga. It was also the official global mobile phone carrier for the 2006 FIFA World Cup (football) in Germany.


title: Simplified English

paragraphs: Simplified English is a set of approved words and writing rules. Its makers made it to help engineers write manuals (instruction books) so that people all over the world can read them.

paragraphs: The rules say to only use the words in simplified English in approved ways. This decreases misunderstanding. For example, the rules approve the use of the verb "close" ("Do not close the door"). The rules approve the use of the adjective "closed", meaning "not open" ("The door is not closed"). The adjective "close" means near ("Do not go close to the door"). The rules disapprove the use of the adjective "close". The rules approve the use of the adjective "near" ("Do not go near the door") for this meaning. The rules specify the use of the adjective "near" instead of the adjective "close". This way, the reader can be sure if the instructions say to keep the door open or to stay far from the door.

paragraphs: People started developing simplified English in the 1970s. People continue developing simplified English today. AECMA is the "European Association of Aerospace Manufacturers". AECMA began work on simplified English. ASD is the "AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe". ASD has a Maintenance Group called STEMG that continues work on simplified English. STEMG is the "Simplified Technical English Maintenance Group". STEMG maintains the ASD-STE100, the latest simplified English.


title: Thymine

paragraphs: Thymine, or 5-methyluracil, is a pyrimidine base found in the nucleic acid DNA.

paragraphs: In RNA thymine is swapped for uracil to represent the same genetic information. In DNA, thymine (T) connects to adenine (A) by two hydrogen bonds. These pair bonds hold the two strands of the DNA double helix structure together.


title: Probability distribution

paragraphs: Probability distribution is a term from mathematics. Suppose there are many events with random outcomes. A probability distribution is the theoretical counterpart to the frequency distribution. A frequency distribution simply shows how many times a certain event occurred. A probability distribution says how many times it "should" have occurred in the long run (that is, its probability). The probability distribution of a random variable formula_1 is often written as formula_2 (or simply formula_3). Such a distribution can either be discrete, taking a discrete (or countable) amount of values, or continuous, taking an uncountable amount of values (as from a continuous interval).

paragraphs: As an example, the probability distribution for a single roll of a normal 6-sided dice can be presented by:

paragraphs: where result is the outcome of the dice roll, and the probability shows the chances of that result occurring. If we roll a dice 60 times, then in the long run, we should expect to have each side appear 10 times on average.

paragraphs: There are different probability distributions. Each of them has its use, its benefits and its drawbacks. Some common probability distributions include:


title: Exponential distribution

paragraphs: The exponential distribution with rate formula_1, written formula_2, is a probability distribution defined only on the positive real numbers. It is the continuous analogue of geometric distribution. Exponential distribution is used in reliability applications, and its main use is to assess the duration of random time intervals. Examples where it can be used include:


title: Binomial distribution

paragraphs: In probability and statistics, the binomial distribution is a probability distribution which models the probabilities of having a certain number of successes among "n" identical trials (each having "p" as the probability of success). It is also written as formula_1. The variables n and p are thus the two parameters of a binomial distribution.

paragraphs: The binomial distribution has discrete values. It counts the number of successes in yes/no-type experiments. Each of these experiment, also called Bernoulli trial, either results in success or failure. Examples of binomial distribution include:

paragraphs: In order to use the binomial distribution, the following must be true about the problem:


title: Poisson distribution

paragraphs: In probability and statistics, Poisson distribution is a probability distribution. It is named after Siméon Denis Poisson, who discovered it in 1838. It measures the probability that a certain number of events occur within a certain period of time. The events need to be unrelated to each other. They also need to occur with a known average rate, represented by the symbol formula_1 (lambda).

paragraphs: More specifically, if a random variable formula_2 follows Poisson distribution with rate formula_1, then the probability of the different values of formula_2 can be described as follows:

paragraphs: Examples of Poisson distribution include:


title: Samaná Province

paragraphs: Samaná is a Dominican province. It is in the northeastern part of the country. It takes up the whole Samaná Peninsula. Its capital city is Santa Bárbara de Samaná, usually called just "Samaná". It is one of the main tourist regions of the country with several important resorts.

paragraphs: The word "Samaná", written as "Xamaná" centuries ago, is the Taíno name of the region. The meaning of the word is unknown.

paragraphs: Samaná was visited by Christopher Columbus in January 1493, during his first travel to the Americas. At that moment, Samaná was occupied by "Ciguayos", a tribe of Native Americans with the same culture of the Taínos but a different language. They were the first Indians that fought against the Europeans.

paragraphs: After the conquest of the Hispaniola island by the Spaniards, Samaná was occupied by different groups of Europeans, mainly French people. Some groups of "" (runaway slaves) lived in the mountains for many years.

paragraphs: To fight against those European groups, Spain brought galleys (a galley was a narrow war ship where prisoners and slaves were used to move the ship), and founded in 1756 the town of Santa Bárbara de Samaná on the northern coast of Samaná Bay, with people from the Canary Islands.

paragraphs: When the eastern part of the Hispaniola (the "Santo Domingo" colony) was given to France in 1795, the French government tried to develop the region, and many French families moved to Samaná to grow coffee; many places in Samaná have French names. Most of those French families left Samaná when Spain took again the colony in 1809.

paragraphs: During the Haitian Occupation (1822 - 1844), a fort was built in Los Cacaos (west of Santa Bárbara de Samaná) to control the Samaná Bay; another small fort was built in El Limón, on the northern coast.

paragraphs: Jean-Pierre Boyer, President of Haiti, sent some Haitian families to live in Tessón, to the north of Santa Bárbara de Samaná. Boyer brought ex-slaves from Philadelphia to live in the country, and 200 of them were taken to live in Samaná. Both the Haitian and the American populations kept their languages and traditions.

paragraphs: After the Independence, several Dominican governments tried to sell or rent the Samaná Bay, with the peninsula, to several foreign governments but without any result.

paragraphs: In 1888, the railway from Sánchez to La Vega (in the La Vega province) began to run across the rich region of the Cibao. Sánchez became the most important port of the country during the rest of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. The railroad worked until 1966.

paragraphs: It was created as a Maritime District (a special administrative category that has been abandoned) on 4 June 1867. The 1907 Dominican Constitution changed its status to province with the municipalities of Samaná and Sánchez. In 1966, Las Terrenas was made the third municipality of the province.

paragraphs: El Limón became a municipal district in 2001, Arroyo Barril in 2003 and Las Galeras in 2005.

paragraphs: To the north and east of the peninsula (and province) is the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. To the south is the Samaná Bay. Samaná shares borders with the Duarte and María Trinidad Sánchez provinces (west). It also shares a short border with the Monte Plata province.

paragraphs: In (last national census), there were people living in the Samaná province, and 44,190 () living in towns and cities. The population density was persons/km².

paragraphs: Its population represents of the total population of the country and the province is ranked as the 22nd (out of 31 plus the National District) more populated province.

paragraphs: , the total estimated propulation of the province is 108,238 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The largest city of the province is Samaná, its head municipality or capital, with an urban population (in ) of 13,857 inhabitants.

paragraphs: More than 95% of the population is black.

paragraphs: A mountain chain called "Sierra de Samaná" runs across the province, from west to east; only in the western part, west of Sánchez, there is flat land because it is an estuary. The Sierra de Samaná gets to the coast, except in some places where there are very good beaches. The highest mountain in the province is in the eastern part of the peninsula and is called "La Meseta", high.

paragraphs: The altitude of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, provincial capital, is above sea level.

paragraphs: There are many rivers and creeks but all are very short because the mountains get very close to the coast. There are more rivers on the southern part of the province but the most important rivers ("Limón", "Cantón" and "San Juan") are on the northern part, flowing to the Atlantic Ocean;

paragraphs: In the southwestern part of the province is the "Yuna" river, one of the most important river of the country; it flows into the Samaná Bay.

paragraphs: Samaná has a wet tropical climate, with temperature of , on average. The yearly rainfall on the Sierra de Samaná is above .

paragraphs: There are 3 municipalities and 3 municipal districts (M.D.) in the province.

paragraphs: The most important economic activity of the province is agriculture; Samaná is the biggest producer of coconut in the country but the demand for that product is diminishing. Cacao and rice are produced in the western part of the province.

paragraphs: Even if fishing was a very important activity, its importance has been reduced because the Yuna River has been filling the Samaná Bay with solid material.

paragraphs: Tourism is very important in the province because of the beautiful beaches in the province. Whale-watching is an important economic activity because many tourists come the province to watch the humpback whales that come in late winter and early spring to breed in the warm waters of the Samaná Bay.


title: Interpreter (computing)

paragraphs: In computer science, an interpreter is a computer program that performs commands written in a computer programming language. Interpreters are one of the two most important ways a program can be run, the other being compilation.

paragraphs: The interpreter is a language processor which converts a HLL(High-Level Programming Language) program into machine language by "converting and executing it line-by-line." If there is any error in any line, it reports it at the same time and program execution cannot resume until the error is rectified.

paragraphs: Interpreter must always be present in the memory every time the program is executed as every time the program is run, it is first interpreted and then executed. For error debugging, interpreter is very much useful as it reports the error(S) at the same time. But once errors are removed, unnecessary usage of memory takes place as it has to be present in the memory always.


title: Common cold

paragraphs: The common cold (also known as nasopharyngitis, rhinopharyngitis, acute coryza, or a cold) is an easily spread infectious disease of the upper respiratory system. It damages mostly the nose and throat. The symptoms include cough, painful throat, runny nose (rhinorrhea), and fever. These symptoms usually last seven to ten days, but sometimes up to three weeks. Over two hundred different viruses can cause the common cold, but rhinoviruses are the most common cause.

paragraphs: Acute infections of the nose, sinuses, throat or larynx (upper respiratory tract infections, URI or URTI) are sorted by the areas of the body that are mostly hurt. The common cold mostly hurts the nose, pharyngitis the throat, and sinusitis the sinuses. The symptoms come from the immune system's response to the infection, not from direct destruction by the viruses themselves. Hand washing is the main way to keep the common cold from happening. Wearing face masks might also help.

paragraphs: There is no cure for the common cold, but the symptoms can be treated. It is the most frequent infectious disease in humans. The average person gets two to three colds every year. The average child gets between 6 and 12 colds every year. These colds have been with humans for thousands of years.

paragraphs: The most common symptoms of a cold are a cough, runny nose, a stuffy nose, and a sore throat. Other issues are sore muscles, feeling tired, headache, and not wanting to eat. Around 40% of people with colds have a sore throat, while around 50% have a cough. Muscle ache happens in about half of the cases. A fever is an uncommon symptom in adults, but it is common in infants and young children. The cough caused by a cold is usually mild compared to a cough caused by influenza (the flu). A cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of the flu in adults. A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in no symptoms. The color of the mucus that is coughed up from the lower airways (sputum) may vary in color from clear to yellow to green. This color does not indicate if an infection is caused by viruses or bacteria.

paragraphs: A cold usually begins with feeling tired, a feeling of being chilled, sneezing, and a headache. Additional symptoms such as runny nose and cough follow within two or more days. Symptoms typically reach their worst two to three days after the infection begins. Symptoms usually end after seven to ten days, but can last up to three weeks. The cough lasts for more than ten days in 35% to 40% of cases involving children. It lasts for more than 25 days in 10% of cases involving children.

paragraphs: The common cold is an easily spread infection of the upper respiratory tract. The rhinovirus is the most common cause of the common cold. It accounts for 30% to 80% of all cases. A rhinovirus is an RNA-containing virus of the family Picornaviridae. There are 99 known types of viruses in this family of viruses.

paragraphs: Other viruses can also cause the common cold. The "Coronavirus" causes 10% to 15% of cases. The flu causes 5% to 15% of cases. Other cases may be caused by human parainfluenza viruses, human respiratory syncytial virus, adenoviruses, "Enteroviruses", and metapneumovirus. Frequently, more than one virus is present and causing the infection. In total, over two hundred different viruses[k2] are associated with colds.

paragraphs: The common cold virus is usually spread in one of two main ways. By breathing or swallowing droplets in the air containing the virus; or by contacting infected nasal mucus or contaminated objects. The most common method of transmitting the cold virus has not been determined. The viruses may survive for a long time in the environment. Viruses may then be transmitted from the hands to the eyes or nose where infection occurs. People sitting close together appear at greater risk of becoming infected. Transmission is common in day cares and at schools, due to the closeness of many children with little immunity and frequently poor hygiene. These infections are then brought home to other members of the family. There is no evidence that the air on commercial flights transmits cold viruses. Rhinoviruses are most infectious in the first three days of cold symptoms. They are much less infectious afterwards.

paragraphs: The traditional theory was that the disease spread to someone staying too long in cold weather, rain, or winter conditions. This is how the disease got its name. The role of body cooling as a risk factor for the common cold is controversial. Some common cold viruses are seasonal, found more often in cold or wet weather. This is believed to mostly be due to more time spent indoors, close to each other; specifically children returning to school. Still, changes in the respiratory system may result in easier infections. Dry air may increase transmission rates by allowing small easily spread droplets to spread farther and stay in the air longer.

paragraphs: Herd immunity, immunity that occurs when an entire group of people become immune to a particular infection, occurs from previous exposure to cold viruses. Thus younger populations have greater rates of respiratory infections and older populations have lower rates of respiratory infections. Poor immune function is also a risk factor for disease. Lack of sleep and poor nutrition have also been associated with a greater risk of developing infection following rhinovirus exposure. This is believed to be due to their effects on immune function.

paragraphs: The symptoms of the common cold are believed to be mostly related to the immune response to the virus. The mechanism of this immune response is virus-specific. For example, the rhinovirus is typically acquired by direct contact. It binds to human ICAM-1 receptors through unknown methods to trigger the release of inflammatory mediators. These inflammatory mediators then produce the symptoms. It does not generally cause damage to the nasal epithelium.

paragraphs: In contrast, the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is contacted by both direct contact and airborne droplets. It then replicates in the nose and throat before frequently spreading to the lower respiratory tract. RSV does cause epithelium damage.

paragraphs: Human parainfluenza virus typically results in inflammation of the nose, throat, and airways. In young children, when it affects the trachea it may produce croup, a hoarse cough and difficulty breathing. This is due to the small size of the airway in children.

paragraphs: The distinction between different upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) is loosely based on the location of the symptoms. The common cold primarily affects the nose, pharyngitis primarily affects the throat, and bronchitis primarily affects the lungs. The common cold is frequently defined as inflammation of the nose and may include varying amounts of throat inflammation. Self-diagnosis is common. Isolation of the actual viral agent involved is rarely performed. It is generally not possible to identify the specific virus through symptoms.

paragraphs: The only effective way to prevent the common cold is by physically preventing the spread of the viruses. This primarily includes hand washing and wearing face masks. In the health care environment, gowns and disposable gloves are also worn. Isolating infected individuals is not possible because the disease is so widespread and symptoms are not specific. Vaccination has proved difficult because there are so many viruses involved and the viruses undergo rapid change. Developing a broadly effective vaccine is very unlikely.

paragraphs: Regular hand washing reduces the spread of cold viruses. It is most effective and is especially recommended for use in children, due to a lack of evidence supporting the effectiveness of over-the-counter cold medicines for children, and due to the risk for harm from those medicines. In 2009, Canada restricted the use of over-the-counter cough and cold medication in children six years old and younger due to concerns regarding risks and unproven benefits. The misuse of dextromethorphan (an over-the-counter cough medicine) has led to its ban in a number of countries.

paragraphs: In adults, the symptoms of a runny nose can be reduced by first-generation antihistamines. However, first-generation antihistamines are associated with adverse side effects such as drowsiness. Other decongestants such as pseudoephedrine are also effective in adults. Ipratropium nasal spray may reduce the symptoms of a runny nose, but there is little effect on stuffiness. Second-generation antihistamines do not appear to be effective.

paragraphs: Due to the lack of studies, it is not known whether drinking more fluids improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illness. A similar lack of data exists for the use of heated humidified air. One study found chest vapor rub to be effective in providing some symptomatic relief of night-time cough, congestion, and sleep difficulty.

paragraphs: Antibiotics have no effect against viral infections and thus have no effect against the common cold. Antibiotics are often prescribed even though antibiotic side effects cause overall harm. Antibiotics are commonly prescribed because people expect doctors to prescribe them, and doctors want to help people. Prescribing antibiotics also happens because it is difficult to exclude causes of infection that may be managed by antibiotics. There are no effective antiviral drugs for the common cold, even though some preliminary research has shown benefit.

paragraphs: While there are many alternative treatments used for the common cold, there is not enough scientific evidence to support the use of most treatments. As of 2010, there is not enough evidence to recommend for or against either honey or nasal irrigation. Zinc supplements may reduce the severity and duration of symptoms when taken within 24 hours of their onset. The effect of vitamin C on the common cold, while extensively researched, is disappointing. Evidence about the usefulness of echinacea is inconsistent. Different types of echinacea supplements may vary in their effectiveness.

paragraphs: The common cold is generally mild and goes away on its own with most symptoms improving in one week. Severe complications, if they occur, are usually in the very old, the very young, or those who are immunosuppressed (have a weakened immune system). Secondary bacterial infections may occur resulting in sinusitis, pharyngitis, or an ear infection. It is estimated that sinusitis occurs in 8% of cases. Ear infections occur in 30% of cases.

paragraphs: The common cold is the most common human disease and people are affected all around the world. Adults typically have two to five infections per year. Children may have six to ten colds per year (and up to twelve colds per year for school children). Rates of symptomatic infections increase in the elderly due to a weakening immune system.

paragraphs: While the cause of the common cold has been known since only the 1950s, the disease has been with humanity since ancient times. Its symptoms and treatment are described in the Egyptian Ebers papyrus, the oldest existing medical text, written before the 16th century BC. The name "common cold" came into use in the 16th century, due to the similarity between its symptoms and those of exposure to cold weather.

paragraphs: In the United Kingdom, the Common Cold Unit (CCU) was set up by the Medical Research Council in 1946, and it was here that the rhinovirus was discovered in 1956. In the 1970s, the CCU demonstrated that treatment with interferon during the incubation phase of rhinovirus infection provided some protection against the disease. No practical treatment could be developed. The unit was closed in 1989, two years after it completed research of zinc gluconate lozenges in the prevention and treatment of rhinovirus colds. Zinc was the only successful treatment developed in the history of the CCU.

paragraphs: The economic impact of the common cold is poorly understood in much of the world. In the United States, the common cold leads to 75 million to 100 million physician visits annually, costing at least $7.7 billion per year (by conservative cost estimates). Americans spend $2.9 billion on over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. Americans spend an additional $400 million on prescription medicines for symptomatic relief. More than one-third of people who saw a doctor received an antibiotic prescription. The use of antibiotic prescriptions has implications for antibiotic resistance. An estimated 22 million to 189 million school days are missed each year due to a cold. As a result, parents missed 126 million workdays to stay home to care for their children. When added to the 150 million workdays missed by employees suffering from a cold, the total economic impact of cold-related work loss exceeds $20 billion per year. This accounts for 40% of time lost from work in the United States.

paragraphs: A number of antivirals have been tested for effectiveness in the common cold. As of 2009, none have been both found effective and licensed for use. There are ongoing trials of the antiviral drug pleconaril. It shows promise against picornaviruses. There are also ongoing trials of BTA-798. The oral form of pleconaril had safety issues and an aerosol form is being studied.

paragraphs: Researchers from the University of Maryland, College Park and the University of Wisconsin–Madison have mapped the genome for all known virus strains that cause the common cold.


title: Qajar dynasty

paragraphs: The Qajar dynasty (, - or دودمان قاجار - "Qâjâr") was a ruling Turkic dynasty of Iran from 1781 to 1925.

paragraphs: Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar (1909-1925) was the last ruling Shah. Among many other members of the Qajar family are


title: Zenwalk Linux

paragraphs: Zenwalk (formerly Minislack), or Zenwalk Linux, is a Linux distribution started by Jean-Philippe Guillemin. It was at first based on Slackware. Since its creation, the distribution has become very different from Slackware while still still being able to use its binary packages. Zenwalk aims to be a Linux distribution with many uses by focusing on Internet applications, multimedia and programming tools.

paragraphs: The Zenwalk Project aims to create a Linux operating system that can be used on old and slow computers through the use of the latest software available for a stable release, optimization for a specific processor architecture to increase execution speed, and introduces a very powerful package management system with dependency resolution.

paragraphs: There are four main versions of Zenwalk:

paragraphs: Zenwalk (full version ~ 420 MB iso download) is a distribution aimed at mainstream desktop use. Designed to be a stand-alone operating system, it installs to the hard drive by way of a ncurses-based installer. It includes all of the officially released software packages that are deemed most useful for their tasks. This collection may change with every release.

paragraphs: Zenwalk Core (~ 230 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built with customization in mind. Released with no X Window System binaries, its aim is to allow a skilled user to build a system fit for his or her needs. The project's lead developer is Emmanuel Bailleul.

paragraphs: ZenLive (~ 476 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built on a Live CD design. ZenLive follows the progress made by the full Zenwalk system closely, thus mirroring the version number, and attempts to stay true to the original distribution's goals. In addition, it includes all of the necessary libraries and applications to develop and compile software, a particularly rare feature in Live CD distributions. Project members include Pierrick Le Brun, creator, Mauricio Tricoli, project lead, and Michael Verret, artwork.

paragraphs: Zenserver (~ 263 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk Core-derived system specifically designed for servers. The main goals are to create a secure, reliable, easy to use, easy to configure, expandable and dependable server operating system, in the best Zenwalk tradition. The distribution development team is led by Teran McKinney.

paragraphs: There are currently four Zenwalk-based distributions:


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

paragraphs: In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium when it is in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, radiative equilibrium, and chemical equilibrium. The local state of a system at thermodynamic equilibrium is determined by the values of its intensive parameters, as pressure, temperature, etc. Specifically, thermodynamic equilibrium is characterized by the minimum of a thermodynamic potential.[1]


title: Thermodynamic potential

paragraphs: In thermodynamics, thermodynamic potentials are parameters associated with a thermodynamic system and have the dimensions of energy. They are called "potentials" because in a sense, they describe the amount of potential energy in a thermodynamic system when it is subjected to certain constraints. The different potentials correspond to different constraints to which the system may be subjected. The four most common thermodynamic potentials are:

paragraphs: where "T" = temperature, "S" = entropy, "p" = pressure, "V" = volume. The Helmholtz free energy is often denoted by the symbol "F", but the use of "A" is preferred by IUPAC (See Alberty, 2001). formula_1 is the number of particles of type "i" in the system. For the sake of completeness, the set of all formula_1 are also included as natural variables, although they are sometimes ignored.

paragraphs: Thermodynamic potentials are very useful when calculating the equilibrium results of a chemical reaction, or when measuring the properties of materials in a chemical reaction. The chemical reactions usually take place under some simple constraints such as constant pressure and temperature, or constant entropy and volume, and when this is true, there is a corresponding thermodynamic potential which comes into play. Just as in mechanics, the system will tend towards lower values of potential and at equilibrium, under these constraints, the potential will take on an unchanging minimum value. The thermodynamic potentials can also be used to estimate the total amount of energy available from a thermodynamic system under the appropriate constraint.


title: Thermal efficiency

paragraphs: The thermal efficiency (formula_1) is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an internal combustion engine, a boiler, or a furnace, for example.

paragraphs: The input, formula_2, to the device is heat, or the heat-content of a fuel that is consumed. The desired output is mechanical work, formula_3, or heat, formula_4, or possibly both. Because the input heat normally has a real financial cost, a memorable, generic definition of thermal efficiency is

paragraphs: From the first and second law of thermodynamics, the output can not exceed what is input, so

paragraphs: When expressed as a percentage, the thermal efficiency must be between 0% and 100%. Due to inefficiencies such as friction, heat loss, and other factors, thermal efficiencies are typically much less than 100%. For example, a typical gasoline automobile engine operates at around 25% thermal efficiency, and a large coal-fueled electrical generating plant peaks at about 36%. In a combined cycle plant thermal efficiencies are approaching 60%.

paragraphs: When transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy, the thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of energy that is transformed into work. Thermal efficiency is defined as

paragraphs: or via the first law of thermodynamics to substitute waste heat rejection for the work produced,

paragraphs: For example, when 1000 joules of thermal energy is transformed into 300 joules of mechanical energy (with the remaining 700 joules dissipated as waste heat), the thermal efficiency is 30%.

paragraphs: For an energy conversion device like a boiler or furnace, the thermal efficiency is

paragraphs: So, for a boiler that produces 210 kW (or 700,000 BTU/h) output for each 300 kW (or 1,000,000 BTU/h) heat-equivalent input, its thermal efficiency is 210/300 = 0.70, or 70%. This means that the 30% of the energy is lost to the environment.

paragraphs: An electric resistance heater has a thermal efficiency of at or very near 100%, so, for example, 1500W of heat are produced for 1500W of electrical input. When comparing heating units, such as a 100% efficient electric resistance heater to an 80% efficient natural gas-fueled furnace, energy prices must be compared to find the lower cost.

paragraphs: Heat pumps, refrigerators, and air conditioners, for example, move heat, rather than convert it, so other measures are needed to describe their thermal performance. The common measures are the coefficient-of-performance (COP), energy-efficiency ratio (EER), and seasonal-energy-efficiency ratio (SEER).

paragraphs: The Efficiency of a Heat pump (HP) and Refrigerators (R)*:

paragraphs: If temperatures at both ends of the Heat Pump or Refrigerator are constant and their processes reversible:

paragraphs: The 'thermal efficiency' is sometimes called the energy efficiency. In the United States, in everyday usage the SEER is the more common measure of energy efficiency for cooling devices, as well as for heat pumps when in their heating mode. For energy-conversion heating devices their peak steady-state thermal efficiency is often stated, e.g., 'this furnace is 90% efficient', but a more detailed measure of seasonal energy effectiveness is the Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE).


title: Thermodynamic state

paragraphs: A thermodynamic state is the macroscopic condition of a thermodynamic system as described by its particular thermodynamic parameters. The state of any thermodynamic system can be described by a set of thermodynamic parameters, such as temperature, pressure, density, composition, independently of its surroundings or history.

paragraphs: The parameters required to specify the state depend on the characteristics of the system. There is an optimal ensemble of parameters that uniquely specify the state, and all other parameters can be derived from these. The "state postulate" says that the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.


title: Thermal physics

paragraphs: Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and kinetic theory. This umbrella-subject is typically designed for physics students and functions to provide a general introduction to each of three core heat-related subjects. Other authors, however, define thermal physics loosely as a summation of only thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.

paragraphs: Thermal physics, generally speaking, is the study of the statistical nature of physical systems from an energetic perspective. Starting with the basics of heat and temperature, thermal physics analyzes the first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics from the statistical perspective, in terms of the number of microstates corresponding to a given macrostate. In addition, the concept of entropy is studied via quantum theory.

paragraphs: A central topic in thermal physics is the canonical probability distribution. The electromagnetic nature of photons and phonons are studied which show that the oscillations of electromagnetic fields and of crystal lattices have much in common. Waves form a basis for both, provided one incorporates quantum theory.

paragraphs: Other topics studied in thermal physics include: chemical potential, the quantum nature of an ideal gas, i.e. in terms of fermions and bosons, Bose-Einstein condensation, Gibbs free energy, Helmholtz free energy, chemical equilibrium, phase equilibrium, the equipartition theorem, entropy at absolute zero, and transport processes as mean free path, viscosity, and conduction.

paragraphs: There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure.

paragraphs: A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that it does not appreciably alter its state parameters when brought into contact with the test system.

paragraphs: It is important that these two types of instruments are distinct. A meter does not perform its task accurately if it behaves like a reservoir of the state variable it is trying to measure. If, for example, a thermometer, were to act as a temperature reservoir it would alter the temperature of the system being measured, and the reading would be incorrect. Ideal meters have no effect on the state variables of the system they are measuring.


title: Statistical mechanics

paragraphs: Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force.

paragraphs: It provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics and mechanics (classical and quantum) at the microscopic level. In particular, it can be used to calculate the thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from the spectroscopic data of individual molecules.

paragraphs: This ability to make macroscopic predictions based on microscopic properties is the main asset of statistical mechanics over thermodynamics. Both theories are governed by the second law of thermodynamics through the medium of entropy. However, entropy in thermodynamics can only be known empirically, whereas in statistical mechanics, it is a function of the distribution of the system on its micro-states.


title: Kinetic theory

paragraphs: Kinetic theory or "kinetic theory of gases" attempts to explain overall properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. The theory basically states that pressure is not caused by molecules pushing each other away, like earlier scientists thought. Instead, pressure is caused by the molecules colliding with each other and their container. Kinetic theory is also known as "kinetic-molecular theory" or "collision theory".

paragraphs: There are three main components to kinetic theory:


title: Frik

paragraphs: Frik was an Armenian poet who lived in the 13th and 14th centuries, at the time of Mongolian control over Armenia.


Mongolian


title: Yeghishe Charents

paragraphs: Yeghishe Charents (born Yeghishe Soghomonian, ) (13 March 1897, Kars - 29 November 1937, Yerevan) was an Armenian poet killed in Stalin's purges.

paragraphs: From 1904 to 1912 Yeghishe Soghomonian he was at school in Kars. Amid the upheavals of the First World War and the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, he volunteered in 1915 for the Caucasian Front. In 1917-1918 he was in Karin Erzurum during the bitter fighting. Some of his experiences would later appear in his poetry.

paragraphs: Yeghishe Charents (Soghomonian), one of the nation's favourite poets - a famous philanderer who apparently sought the USSR Kremlin's favours - produced a now famous poem called "The Message". Its praise of Uncle Joe might grind the average set of teeth down to the gum; it included the following: "A new light shone on the world... It is only this sunlight/Which for centuries will stay alive." And more of the same.

paragraphs: Undiscovered by the USSR Kremlin's censors for many months, however, Charents (1897 - 1937) had used the first letter of each line to frame a quite different "message", which read: "O Armenian people, your only salvation is in the power of your unity." Whoops! Like the distant Mount Ararat, it was a brave, hopeless symbol, as doomed as it was impressive. Yeghishe Charents was "disappeared" by the NKVD (KGB) in 1937 after being denounced by the architect Alexsandr Tamanyan - now hard at work building Yerevan's new Stalinist opera house - the moment Yeghishe Charents' schoolboy prank was spotted. Then Alexsandr Tamanyan fell from the roof of his still unfinished opera house, and even today Armenians - with their Arab-like desire to believe in "заговор" the plot - ask the obvious questions.

paragraphs: "Three songs to the sad and pale girl", poems (1914)

paragraphs: "Country of Nayiri" (Yerkir Nayiri) (1926)


title: Kars

paragraphs: Kars (, ) is a city in northeast Turkey and is the capital of the Kars Province, before at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzurum. Population: 8,672 (1878); 20,891 (1897); 54,000 (1970); 142,145 (1990); 130,361 (2000).

paragraphs: The early history of Kars is little known, beyond that it had its own dynasty of Armenian rulers and was the capital of a region known as Vanand. At some point in the 9th century (at least by 888) it became part of the territory of the Armenian Bagratids. For a short time (from 928 to 961) Kars became the capital of their kingdom. It was during this period that the Cathedral, later known as the Church of the Apostles, was built.


title: Kars Province

paragraphs: Kars is a province of Turkey. It is in the northeastern part of the country. It shares part of its border with the Republic of Armenia.

paragraphs: From 1878 until 1917 most of the present-day Turkish province of Kars was part of the Russian oblast of Kars.

paragraphs: In 1919 and 1920 the province came under the control of the Democratic Republic of Armenia as the Vanand province (with the city of Kars as its capital). Its territory was ceded to Turkey by the Soviet Union in the Treaty of Kars.

paragraphs: Kars province is divided into 8 districts ("ilçe"), each named after the administrative center of the district:


title: Manny Gamburyan

paragraphs: Manvel Gamburyan (was born in 1981) is a mixed martial artist with a history in judo. Manvel was chosen as a participant on the reality show "The Ultimate Fighter 5". He fights on Jens Pulver's team. Manny defeated Noah Thomas in the preliminary round.

paragraphs: In May, 1991, Manvel's family relocated from Armenia to United States. Shortly after his arrival, Manvel began training in judo at Gokor Chivichyan's Hayastan MMA Academy and quickly became one of the top judokas in the country, winning junior nationals less than two years later. He went on to win junior nationals eight times, the junior Olympics once, and was a member of the 2000 judo junior world team.


title: The Mickey Mouse Club

paragraphs: The Mickey Mouse Club was an American variety television series that began in 1955, ran intermittently, and left the air in 1996. It was directed by Walt Disney Productions.

paragraphs: Over the years, the series featured many stellar teenage performers including Annette Funicello, Britney Spears, and Justin Timberlake. The original series ran newsreels, cartoons, talent segments, and Disney produced serials such as The Hardy Boys with Tommy Kirk and Tim Considine.

paragraphs: "Mickey Mouse Club" was hosted by Jimmie Dodd, a songwriter and the Head Mouseketeer. He provided leadership both on and off screen. In addition to his other contributions, he often provided short segments encouraging young viewers to make the right moral choices. These little sermons became known as "Doddisms".


title: Fanta

paragraphs: Fanta is an orange soda drink. It was created in Germany in 1940. Fanta was created during World War II in Nazi Germany by the German Coca Cola (GmbH) bottling company. Because of the war, there was no shipping between Nazi Germany and the United States. Therefore, the German bottling plant could no longer get Coca Cola syrup. The manager of the plant, Max Keith, needed to do something to keep the plant going. He came up with a fruit flavored drink made from whatever he could find. Using apple fiber left over from lollipops and whey, from cheese makers, Fanta was created and became quite popular. The original German Fanta had a yellow color and tasted different from today's Fanta Orange; the flavor would change during the war, depending on what ingredients could be found.

paragraphs: The name 'Fanta' came during an employee contest to name the new beverage. Keith told them to let their Fantasie (German for imagination) run wild. On hearing that, salesman Joe Knipp thought of the name "Fanta".

paragraphs: After the war, Fanta was brought to the United States by Coca-Cola, and in 1960 they bought the trademark. Fanta Orange is the most popular Fanta flavor. It is available in 180 countries. In terms of volume, Brazil is the largest consumer of Fanta in the world. Fanta is more popular in Europe and South America than in the United States.

paragraphs: There are over 90 different flavors worldwide. Most of them are only available by region in some countries. For example, in Romania (and some other countries), there is "Fanta Shokata" based on the traditional Romanian drink "Socată". This drink is made from Elderberry. In Switzerland and the Netherlands the local fruit, blackcurrant is used to make Fanta as well. Some identical flavors have different names in different markets. The classic orange, for example, was renamed "Fanta Funky Orange" in 2003 for the Nordic countries and Belgium, while other countries have kept the older "Fanta Orange" brand name. As of the year 2005, the Fanta brand has been connected with the word "Bambaacha" (or "Bamboocha"), which is often seen in the Fanta commercials. TaB diet Cola was originally produced by the Fanta division of Coca-Cola. It was available in different non-cola flavors as well. Later in 2005, Fanta branched out into new Fanta Zero (diet versions) varieties in Great Britain and in other countries as well.


title: Parameter

paragraphs: In some non-technical contexts or in jargon, "parameter" may simply be a synonym for criterion.

paragraphs: In mathematics, statistics, and the mathematical sciences, parameters (L: "auxiliary measure") are quantities that define certain relatively constant characteristics of systems or functions.

paragraphs: Most commonly represented θ in general form, other symbols carry standard, specific meanings. When evaluating the function over a domain or determining the response of the system over a period of time, the independent variables are modulated, while the parameters are held constant. The function or system may then be reevaluated or reprocessed with different parameters, to give a function or system with different behavior.

paragraphs: Loosely speaking, the term parameter is used for an argument which is intermediate in status between a variable and a constant.

paragraphs: Suppose that you and a friend are both working for the same boss making the same money working the same hours, that the formula would become:

paragraphs: In engineering (especially involving data acquisition) the term "parameter" sometimes loosely refers to an individual measured item. For example, an airliner flight data recorder may record 88 different items, each termed a parameter. This usage is not consistent, as sometimes the term "channel" refers to an individual measured item, with "parameter" referring to the setup information about that channel.

paragraphs: "Speaking generally, properties are those physical quantities which directly describe the physical attributes of the system; parameters are those combinations of the properties which suffice to determine the response of the system. Properties can have all sorts of dimensions, depending upon the system being considered; parameters are dimensionless, or have the dimension of time or its reciprocal." John D. Trimmer, 1950, Response of Physical Systems (New York: Wiley), p. 13.

paragraphs: The term can also be used in engineering contexts, however, as it is typically used in the physical sciences. The data that one computer program gives to another are sometimes called parameters.


title: Agavaceae

paragraphs: Agavaceae is a family of plants. Many of these plants grow in dry, hot climates. Some grow in the desert. Well-known plants of this family are the agave, yucca, and Joshua tree. The family includes about 550-600 species in around 18 genera. It is widespread in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world.

paragraphs: It is not quite clear how large the family really is. There are genera which some biologists leave out of the family. This includes for example "Cordyline" and "Dracaena", which are sometimes separated off into a separate family, Dracaenaceae. Recent research has tended to incorporate these into a larger family Ruscaceae, though. "Nolina", "Beaucarnea", and "Dasylirion" are sometimes recognized as Nolinaceae or placed in Ruscaceae. Conversely, data from molecular systematics now suggest that Agavaceae should be broadened to include a number of genera previously classified elsewhere. Among them are "Chlorogalum", "Camassia" and the family Anthericaceae. This would enlarge the family with anything up to 22 genera. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's APG II classification places Agavaceae, along with a number of other families (including Ruscaceae) in an expanded family Asparagaceae. However, APG II allows the alternative of keeping some of these families, including Agavaceae, separate. In this case, it recommends expanding the family to include the genera currently classified in Anemarrhenaceae, Anthericaceae (with "Anthericum" and "Paradisea"), Behniaceae and Herreriaceae. Most references have retained Agavaceae (in varying circumscriptions) as a family distinct from Asparagaceae. "Hesperocallis", sometimes placed in its own family, Hesperocallideaceae, has recently been shown to be closely related and its inclusion in Agavaceae has been recommended (Pires et al. 2004).

paragraphs: Some species are succulent. In general, Agavaceae leaves occur as rosettes at the end of a woody stem, which may range from extremely short to tree-like heights, as in the Joshua tree. The leaves are parallel-veined, and usually appear long and pointed, often with a hardened spine on the end, and sometimes with additional spines along the margins.

paragraphs: "Agave" species are used to make pulque and mezcal, while others are valued for their fibres. They are quite popular for xeriscaping, many types having showy flowers.


title: Succulent plant

paragraphs: Succulent plants are plants that have adapted to very dry climates. They have adapted in such a way that they can store water, either in their leaves, stems or roots. Very often, they look different than plants that do not do this. Their leaves may look more fleshy. A very good example of succulents are the cacti. Almost all cacti are succulents. Not all succulents are cacti though. Other plant families with this property are the agavaceae (Agave family), Azioaceae and Crassulaceae. Other well-known succulents are the Aloe and the Bottle tree.


title: Lu Xun (Three Kingdoms)

paragraphs: Lu Xun (183-254) was a general in Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period in ancient China.

paragraphs: He showed his skills by helping defeat Guan Yu with the Wei army. Sun Quan saw his potential and promoted him to main strategist in the Wu army after the death of Lu Meng. He showed his talents at Yiling where his tactics and fire attack lead Wu to victory. He soon developed a name for himself when at Hefei castle his tactics crushed Wei and Cao Pi leaving only Shu and Liu Bei's son Liu Chan alive, who retreated and Wu gained full control of the land.


title: Moons of Saturn

paragraphs: The planet Saturn has 53 named moons, and another 29 which are still being studied. Many of the moons are very small: 33 are less than in diameter and thirteen moons are less than . Many of the moons are named after Titans, Giants, or minor Greek or Roman gods. Some of Saturn's moons are very large; the moon Titan is bigger than the planet Mercury.

paragraphs: Very recently, there have been 20 new discoveries of moons on saturn that have not yet been named.

paragraphs: The following objects (observed by "Cassini") have not been confirmed as solid bodies. It is not yet clear if these are real satellites or merely persistent clumps within the F Ring.

paragraphs: Two moons were claimed to be discovered by different astronomers but never seen again. Both moons were said to orbit between Titan and Hyperion.


title: Vande Mataram

paragraphs: Vande Mataram is the national song of India. It is not to be confused with the national anthem of India. The lyrics were written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, in a mix of Sanskrit and Bengali. The song was written in 1876, but published in 1882. The title means "Long live the Mother[land]". The first version of the Flag of India had "वन्दे मातरम्" (Vande Mataram) written on it.

paragraphs: Jana Gana Mana was chosen over "Vande Mataram" as the National Anthem of independent India in January 24, 1950, although before this date, "Vande Mataram" was treated as such. Vande Mataram was rejected because it offended Muslims by calling India "Mother Durga" (a Hindu goddess), equating the nation with Hinduism, and by its origin as part of "Anandamatha", a book they felt had an anti-Muslim message.

paragraphs: Who hath said thou art weak in thy lands

paragraphs: When swords flash out in seventy million hands

paragraphs: With many strengths who art mighty and stored,

paragraphs: Showering wealth from well-stored hands!

paragraphs: सुजलां सुफलां मलयजशीतलाम्

paragraphs: सस्य श्यामलां मातरम् |

paragraphs: शुभ्र ज्योत्स्ना पुलकित यामिनीम्

paragraphs: फुल्ल कुसुमित द्रुमदलशोभिनीम्,

paragraphs: सुहासिनीं सुमधुर भाषिणीम्

paragraphs: सुखदां वरदां मातरम् ||


title: King (chess)

paragraphs: The king is the most valuable chess piece in a game of chess. It can move left, right, up, down or diagonally. It can only move one square at a time. When recording chess games, king is shortened to K.

paragraphs: The object of the game is to checkmate (capture the king). If a player's king is attacked by an opponent's piece, it is called check. The player with the attacked king must move so that the king is no longer in check. If the king cannot do this, it is in checkmate, and that side loses the game.

paragraphs: With a rook, the king may make a special move called 'castling'. This is when the king moves two squares toward one of its rooks and then the rook is placed on the other side of the king. Castling consists of moving the king two squares on its first rank toward either one of the first rooks, then moving the rook onto the square over which the king crossed. Castling is only allowed when the king nor the castling rook has moved already, when no squares between them are occupied, when the king is not in check, and when the king will not move across or end its movement on a square that puts the king in check.

paragraphs: If a player's move places the opponent's king under attack, that king is "in check", and the player in check is made to stop the attack. There are three possible ways to remove the king from check:

paragraphs: If none of these three ways are possible, the player's king has been "checkmated" and the player with the checkmated king loses the game.

paragraphs: A stalemate is when the player to move has no legal move, but is not in check.

paragraphs: In the opening and middlegame, the king will mostly not play an active role in the development of an attacking or position. Instead, a player will usually castle and find safety on the edge of the board behind pawns. In the endgame, however, the king may comes out of hiding to play an active role as an offensive piece as well as helping in the promotion of their remaining pawns.


title: Work (thermodynamics)

paragraphs: In thermodynamics, work transfer is an energy transfer in which temperature is not considered during energy transfer. Unit is always in Joules. It is also a result of force acting through the distance. W=FxD

paragraphs: Work, i.e. "weight "lifted" through a height", was originally defined in 1824 by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in his famous paper "Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire". Specifically, according to Carnot:

paragraphs: In 1845, the English physicist James Joule wrote a paper "On the mechanical equivalent of heat" for the British Association meeting in Cambridge. In this work, he reported his best-known experiment, in which the work released through the action of a "weight "falling" through a height" was used to turn a paddle-wheel in an insulated barrel of water.

paragraphs: In this experiment, the friction and agitation of the paddle-wheel on the body of water caused heat to be generated which, in turn, increased the temperature of water. Both the temperature change ∆T of the water and the height of the fall ∆h of the weight mg were recorded. Using these values, Joule was able to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat. Joule estimated a mechanical equivalent of heat to be 819 ft•lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal). The modern day definitions of heat, work, temperature, and energy all have connection to this experiment.

paragraphs: According to the "First law of thermodynamics", it is useful to separate changes to the internal energy of a thermodynamic system into two sorts of energy transfers. Work refers to forms of energy transfer which can be accounted for in terms of changes in the "macroscopic" physical variables of the system, for example energy which goes into expanding the volume of a system against an external pressure, by driving a piston-head out of a cylinder against an external force. This is in contrast to heat energy, which is carried into or out of the system in the form of transfers in the "microscopic" thermal motions of particles.

paragraphs: The concept of thermodynamic work is slightly more general than that of mechanical work because it includes other types of energy transfers as well. The electrical work required to move a charge against an external electrical field can be measured, as can the work required to move heat against a temperature gradient. Thermodynamic work need not have any mechanical component to be considered such.


title: Internal energy

paragraphs: In thermodynamics, the internal energy of a thermodynamic system, or a body with well-defined boundaries, denoted by "U", or sometimes "E", is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion of molecules (translational, rotational, vibrational) and the potential energy associated with the vibrational and electric energy of atoms within molecules or crystals. It includes the energy in all the chemical bonds, and the energy of the free, conduction electrons in metals.

paragraphs: The internal energy is a thermodynamic potential and for a closed thermodynamic system held at constant entropy, it will be minimized.

paragraphs: One can also calculate the internal energy of electromagnetic or blackbody radiation. It is a state function of a system, an extensive quantity. The SI unit of energy is the joule although other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the (small and large) calorie for heat. (Calories that are on classic food labels are actually kilo-calories.)

paragraphs: "Internal" energy does not include the translational or rotational kinetic energy of a body "as a whole". It also does not include the relativistic mass-energy equivalent "E" = "mc". It excludes any potential energy a body may have because of its location in external gravitational or electrostatic field, although the potential energy it has in a field due to an induced electric or magnetic dipole moment does count, as does the energy of deformation of solids (stress-strain).

paragraphs: The principle of equipartition of energy in classical statistical mechanics states that each molecular degree of freedom receives 1/2 "kT" of energy, a result which was modified when quantum mechanics explained certain anomalies; e.g., in the observed specific heats of crystals (when "h"ν > "kT"). For monatomic helium and other noble gases, the internal energy consists only of the translational kinetic energy of the individual atoms. Monatomic particles, of course, do not (sensibly) rotate or vibrate, and are not electronically excited to higher energies except at very high temperatures.

paragraphs: From the standpoint of statistical mechanics, the internal energy is equal to the ensemble average of the total energy of the system.


title: Physical law

paragraphs: A physical law, scientific law, or a law of nature is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations of physical behavior. Empirical laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments over many years, and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. The production of a summary description of nature in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.

paragraphs: Laws of nature are distinct from the law, either religious or civil, and should not be confused with the concept of natural law.

paragraphs: Nor should 'physical law' be confused with 'law of physics' - the term 'physical law' usually covers laws in other sciences (e.g. biology) as well.

paragraphs: Some extremely important laws are simply definitions. For example, the central law of mechanics "F" = "dp"/"dt" (Newton's second "law" of mechanics) is often treated as a mathematical definition of force just like Newton's first law of mechanics (an object that is at rest stays at rest and an object that is in motion stays in motion unless acted by an out side force). Although the concept of force predates Newton's law, there was no mathematical definition of force before Newton. The principle of least action (or principle of stationary action), Schroedinger equation, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, causality and a few other laws also fall into this category (of mathematical definitions).


title: Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney

paragraphs: Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is a visual novel/adventure game developed and published by Capcom. The game was originally a Japan-only Game Boy Advance title called Gyakuten Saiban. However, the Nintendo DS remake Gyakuten Saiban Yomigaeru Gyakuten was translated and released in 2005 outside of Japan. The DS remake features a bonus case called Rise From The Ashes which was not in the original GBA version.

paragraphs: Phoenix Wright is the main protagonist of the game. He is a defense attorney who must prove that his falsely-accused clients are not guilty.

paragraphs: Mia Fey is Phoenix's boss and mentor. She is killed in the second case. However, her spirit can be channelled by Maya and sometimes she reappears to give Phoenix help or advice.

paragraphs: Maya is Mia's little sister. She is Phoenix's assistant. She is also a spirit medium and can sometimes channel Mia's spirit.

paragraphs: Miles Edgeworth is a prosecutor, and Phoenix Wright's rival. He is the prosecutor in every case in the game except for The First Turnabout and Turnabout Goodbyes.

paragraphs: Larry Butz is Phoenix's client in the first case of the game, where he is accused of murder. He is also a witness in the fourth case.

paragraphs: Winston Payne is the prosecutor of the first case. He has appeared in every Ace Attorney game except Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney - Dual Destinies. He is normally the prosecutor of the Tutorial cases of each game.

paragraphs: Dick Gumshoe is a detective who is usually in charge of investigating the cases that Phoenix takes on.

paragraphs: Manfred von Karma is the prosecutor in case 4 of the game, and is Edgeworth's mentor.

paragraphs: Phoenix defends Larry Butz, who is accused of murdering his girlfriend.

paragraphs: Phoenix's mentor, Mia Fey, is killed. Phoenix defends her sister, Maya Fey, who is accused of murdering her.

paragraphs: Will Powers, an actor who potrays the Steel Samurai, is accused of murdering Jack Hammer. Phoenix defends him in court.

paragraphs: A man is killed on a boat at Gourd Lake, and Miles Edgeworth is accused of the murder. Phoenix defends him.

paragraphs: Lana Skye is accused of the murder of Bruce Goodman. Her sister, Ema Skye, convinces Phoenix Wright to take her case.

paragraphs: The game is split into 2 segments, Investigation segments and Trial segments.

paragraphs: During Investigation sections Phoenix visits the crime scene, looks for evidence that might be useful in the trial, and talks to witnesses.

paragraphs: Phoenix has to defend his client, and Cross Examine witness testimonies.


title: Pipe (material)

paragraphs: A pipe is a tube or hollow cylinder for the transport of fluid. The terms 'pipe' and 'tube' can be used for the same objects. 'Pipe' is generally specified by the internal diameter (ID) whereas 'tube' is usually defined by the outside diameter (OD) but may be specified by any combination of dimensions (OD, ID, wall thickness). 'Tube' is often made to custom sizes and may often have more specific sizes and tolerances than pipe. The terms 'tube' and 'tubing' are more widely used in the USA and 'pipe' elsewhere in the world.

paragraphs: Both "pipe" and "tube" imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas a " is usually portable and flexible.


title: Cameron Diaz

paragraphs: Cameron Michelle Diaz (born August 30, 1972) is an American retired actress and former fashion model. She was nominated for four Golden Globe Awards in 1999, 2000, 2002 and 2003.

paragraphs: Cameron Diaz was born in San Diego, California. Her mother, Billie Joann (née Early), is an import-export agent. Her father, Emilio Luis Diaz (1949–2008), worked for the California oil company UNOCAL for more than 20 years as a field gauger. Diaz has an older sister, Chimene. Her father's family were Cubans, and settled in Tampa's Ybor City, later moving to California, where Emilio was born. Her mother has English, German, and Scots-Irish ancestry. Diaz was raised in Long Beach, California.


title: Bacon number

paragraphs: The Bacon number of an actor or actress is the number of degrees of separation (see Six degrees of separation) they have from actor Kevin Bacon, as defined by the game known as Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon. It applies the Erdős number concept to the movie industry. The higher the Bacon number, the farther away from Kevin Bacon the actor is.

paragraphs: For example, Kevin Bacon's Bacon number is 0. If an actor works in a movie with Kevin Bacon, the actor's Bacon number is 1. If an actor works with an actor who worked with Kevin Bacon in a movie, the first actor's Bacon number is 2, and so forth.

paragraphs: 2. "Modern Family", "Daddy Issues" (2018)


title: Pondicherry

paragraphs: Pondicherry is the capital of the Indian union territory of Puducherry. It is also known as Puducherry since 2006.


title: Zanzibar

paragraphs: Zanzibar is the name of an archipelago in the Indian Ocean 25–50 km off the coast of East Africa. There are many small islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, sometimes informally referred to as 'Zanzibar') and Pemba Island.

paragraphs: The archipelago was once the separate state of Zanzibar, which united with Tanganyika to form Tanzania (derived from the two names). Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous within the union, with its own government.

paragraphs: The capital of Zanzibar is Zanzibar City. It is on the island of Unguja. The city's old quarter, known as Stone Town, is a World Heritage Site.

paragraphs: The people are mostly African Bantu, with some Asians of Indian origin.

paragraphs: Zanzibar has its own government, known as the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar. It is made up of the Revolutionary Council and House of Representatives.

paragraphs: The main Parties are the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) and the Civic United Front (CUF). Since the early 1990s, the politics of the archipelago have been marked by repeated violent clashes between these two political parties.

paragraphs: In October 2009, Zanzibar President Amani Karume met with CUF Secretary Seif Shariff Hamad at the State House to discus how to save Zanzibar from future political turmoil and to end the backlash between them, a move which was welcomed by many people including the USA and political parties. It was the first time CUF agreed to recognize Karume as the legitimate president of Zanzibar.

paragraphs: The relationship between Zanzibar government and Tanzanian Mainland has not been good in recent years since Tanzania Prime Minister Mizengo Pinda's remark about the Isles' sovereignty. He said that Zanzibar is not an independent country outside the Union Government, within which it can only exercise its sovereignty.

paragraphs: Members from both the ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), and the opposition Civic United Front (CUF) disagreed with Mr Pinda's interpretation and stand firmly in recognizing Zanzibar as a fully autonomous and full state. The move was not recognized by the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania.

paragraphs: In 2008, Tanzanian president Jakaya Kikwete tried to silence the debate when he addressed the nation in a live conference by saying that "Zanzibar is a state internal but semi-state international". There the matter rests for the time being.

paragraphs: A proposal to amend Zanzibar’s laws to allow rival parties to form governments of national unity was adopted by 66.4 per cent of voters, after official results of a referendum which was held on July 31, 2010.

paragraphs: Zanzibar is 95% Islamic in religion, and has been so for hundreds of years. It was once part of the Persian Empire, then under the Caliphate of Oman. It was ruled by a Sultan. Zanzibar was conquered by the British in the late 19th century. The islands were involved in the Arab slave trade, and the British conquest was an attempt to stop this. They appointed puppet rulers, and Zanzibar became a 'protectorate', not a colony.

paragraphs: Zanzibar gained independence on 10th December 1963 from the British.

paragraphs: Zanzibar's main industries are spices (which include cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon and pepper), raffia, and tourism. Zanzibar is also the home of the endemic Zanzibar Red Colobus and the elusive Zanzibar Leopard.

paragraphs: The word "Zanzibar" probably derives from the Persian زنگبار, "Zangi-bar" ("coast of the blacks") and it is also known as Zanji-bar in Arabic. Zanzibar is sometimes referred to as the "Spice Islands," a term that is more often used for the Maluku Islands in Indonesia. Pemba Island is the only island apart from Zanzibar that still produces cloves on a major basis which is the primary source of spice income for the islands.

paragraphs: The islands are poor, and the economy is in trouble. Zanzibaris are living a hard life compare to the mainland. In 2000, the annual income per capita was US$220.

paragraphs: During May and June 2008, Zanzibar suffered a major failure of its electricity system, which left the island without electricity for nearly a month. Another blackout happened from December 2009 to March 2010, due to a problem with the submarine cables and the local plant. This led to a serious and ongoing shock to the island's fragile economy, which is heavily dependent on foreign tourism.

paragraphs: Zanzibar's economy is based primarily on the production of cloves (90% grown on the island of Pemba), the principal foreign exchange earner. Exports have suffered with the downturn in the clove market.

paragraphs: The clove, originally from the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), was introduced to Zanzibar by the Omani sultans in the first half of the XIX century. Zanzibar, mainly Pemba Island, was once the world's leading clove producer, but annual clove sales have plummeted by 80% since the 1970s. Zanzibar's clove industry has been crippled by a fast-moving global market, and international competition.

paragraphs: Tanzania's failed experiment with socialism in the 1960s and 1970s, when the government controlled clove prices and exports, is also a factor. Zanzibar now ranks a distant third with Indonesia supplying 75% of the world's cloves compared to Zanzibar's 7%.

paragraphs: Zanzibar exports spices, seaweed and fine raffia. It also has a large fishing and dugout canoe production.

paragraphs: Tourism is a major foreign currency earner. A number of new hotels and resorts having been built in recent years.

paragraphs: The Government of Zanzibar legalized foreign exchange bureaux on the islands. The effect was to increase the availability of consumer commodities. The government has also established a free port area. This stimulates trade and support services. There is a management system for re-exportation of goods.

paragraphs: There is also a possibility of oil exploration in Zanzibar on the island of Pemba. Oil would help boost the economy of Zanzibar, but there have been disagreements about dividends between the Tanzanian mainland and Zanzibar, the latter claiming the oil should be excluded in Union matters. A Norwegian consultant has been sent to Zanzibar to investigate its oil potential.


title: Enya

paragraphs: Enya (born Eithne Patricia Ní Bhraonáin on 17 May 1961 in Gweedore, County Donegal, Ireland) is an Irish singer. She is famous for hits such as "Orinoco Flow" (1988) and "Anywhere Is" (1995).

paragraphs: She has also won four Grammy Awards and has become one of the world's most successful female singers. Her vocal range is mezzo-soprano.

paragraphs: She grew up speaking the Irish language, and did not speak English until she attended primary school.

paragraphs: Her first works were soundtracks for "The Frog Prince" movie by David Puttman and "The Celts" documentary by BBC.

paragraphs: Enya is very popular and has sold more than 75 million albums worldwide. Her best selling album is "A Day Without Rain" (2000).

paragraphs: She has also recorded music for the following movie soundtracks:


title: Downing Street

paragraphs: Downing Street is a street in London. It is close to Whitehall and Buckingham Palace. The official residences of the two most senior Government ministers are here. These are the Prime Minister, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

paragraphs: Downing Street is a few minutes' walk from the Houses of Parliament. The street was built in the 1680s by Sir George Downing, 1st Baronet (1632–1689) on the site of a mansion called Hampden House. The Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the Chief Whip all have official residences in buildings along one side of the street. The houses on the other side were all replaced by the Foreign Office in the nineteenth century.


title: Armenian illuminated manuscript

paragraphs: Armenian illuminated manuscripts make a different tradition, related to other forms of Medieval Armenian art, but also to the Byzantine tradition. The earliest surviving examples date from the Golden Age of Armenian art and literature in the 5th century. The Library at Yerevan, has the largest collection of Armenian manuscripts, including the Mugni Gospels and Echmiadzin Gospel.


title: Alcatraz Island

paragraphs: Alcatraz Island (sometimes just called Alcatraz or The Rock) is a small island in San Francisco Bay in California. It was first a lighthouse, then a military fort, then a military prison, and finally a federal prison. In 1963, it became a museum.

paragraphs: The name Alcatraz comes from the original Spanish name of the island, "Isla de los alcatraces" ("Island of the pelicans"). It was given that name when a Spanish explorer, Juan Manuel de Ayala, noticed the great amount of pelicans roosting on the island.

paragraphs: The famous Alcatraz prison opened in August 1934 and closed on 21 March 1963. At first, the island served as a war prison for confederate soldiers during the Civil War. At the turn of the century, it would become the most famous and posthumously, most infamous prison in American history. Some of the most famous inmates at Alcatraz are Al Capone and George 'Machine Gun' Kelly. The prison was eventually shut down in 1963 after the State of California and the US Congress agreed that it costs too much to run. Soon after, Native American Indians used the prison and the island for a huge protest in favor for Native American rights. After being kicked out from the grounds, the prison was vacated and was never used again.

paragraphs: People still love to go see the prison. It draws in millions into the San Francisco area. People enjoy the tales of possible ghost encounters on the prison grounds. It has been a huge haunting site because spirits are said to have left behind wandering the prison.

paragraphs: Alcatraz Island is one of many islands in the San Francisco Bay area.


title: Illuminated manuscript

paragraphs: An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript where text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, like decorated initials, borders and miniature illustrations. Most are from the Middle Ages of Europe; some are from the Renaissance.


title: Manuscript

paragraphs: A manuscript is any document that is written by hand, not printed or made in some other way. The early history of writing is intimately connected with the history of writing materials, of which the manuscript is one. Early printing made use of many ideas which developed in the era of manuscripts.


title: Matenadaran

paragraphs: Mesrop Mashtots' Matenadaran Institute of Ancient Manuscripts in Yerevan, Armenia, is one of the richest depositories of manuscripts and books in the world.


title: Blue Mosque, Yerevan

paragraphs: The Blue Mosque () is a mosque in Yerevan, Armenia. It was built in 1766 during the reign of Huseyn Ali.


title: Plainview

paragraphs: Plainview is the name of several places in the United States of America:


title: San Marino City

paragraphs: San Marino is the capital of the tiny nation of San Marino. It is the third largest city in the country, after Dogana and Borgo Maggiore.


title: Fort Worth, Texas

paragraphs: Fort Worth is the fifth largest city in Texas. It is the 16th largest city in the United States. It has gotten so big that it has overlapped the next biggest city next to it, Dallas, Texas. Because of this, the area is often referred to as Dallas/Ft. Worth, or DFW.

paragraphs: Fort Worth is the county seat of Tarrant County. Texas Motor Speedway is also in Fort Worth.

paragraphs: There are a few interesting landmarks in Fort Worth. One is Sundance Square, a popular place to enjoy in downtown. Another is West 7th, an entertainment destination. At last, there is the Fort Worth Stockyards, where rodeos are held.


title: Akdamar Island

paragraphs: Akdamar Island (also known as "Aghtamar", "Ahktamar", and "Aght'amar"; Armenian: "Աղթամար", Kurdish: "Axtamar") is a small island in Lake Van in Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey.


title: Gandzasar monastery

paragraphs: The Gandzasar monastery (Armenian: Գանձասար) is an Armenian monastery in Nagorno-Karabakh, in the Mardakert region, near the village of Vank. Gandzasar means treasure mountain in Armenian.


title: Deportation

paragraphs: Deportation, means the removal of someone from a country. People may be deported from a country for many reasons. For example, one may be deported from a country if he has got into the country illegally, or without a visa (permission).

paragraphs: Deportation can also happen inside a country. A person or a group of people may be forced to move to a different part of the country, as a punishment.


title: Vahe

paragraphs: Vahe was a legendary king of Armenia (351 BC–331 BC). He was the last offspring of the Hyke dynasty. He revolted against Alexander the Great and fought a war for Darius the Great of Persia.


title: Rhadamistus

paragraphs: Rhadamistus (other names Ghadam or Radamisto) was an Iberian prince who reigned in Armenia from 51 to 53 and 54 to 55 CE.


title: Construction

paragraphs: Construction is the process of erection or assembly of any building or infrastructure on a site. In general, there are three types of construction:

paragraphs: Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. Industrial construction, though a relatively small part of the entire construction industry, is a very important component.

paragraphs: The first buildings were huts and shelters, constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, these were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.

paragraphs: Modern construction is consistently made of materials such as glass, steel, concrete and bricks. So it is easy to build simple forms like simple cubic forms. The new style of architecture is based on the economic basic principle: