title: Thales

paragraphs: Thales of Miletus, about 624 BC – 546 BC, was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He was from Miletus in Asia Minor. Many, notably Aristotle, regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition.

paragraphs: According to Bertrand Russell, "Western philosophy begins with Thales". Thales attempted to explain natural phenomena without reference to mythology and was tremendously influential in this respect. Almost all of the other pre-Socratic philosophers follow him in attempting to provide an explanation of ultimate substance, change, and the existence of the world—without reference to mythology. Those philosophers were also influential, and eventually Thales' rejection of mythological explanations became an essential idea for science. He was also the first to define general principles and set forth hypotheses. As a result he has been called the "Father of Science", though maybe Democritus is more deserving of this title.

paragraphs: In mathematics, Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. Also, Thales was the first person known to have studied electricity.


title: Hardancourt

paragraphs: Hardancourt is a village in the Vosges département of northeastern France.


title: Anaximander

paragraphs: Anaximander (; "Anaximandros"; c. 610 – c. 546 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, a city of Ionia. He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded him and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and Pythagoras amongst his pupils.

paragraphs: Little of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies, although only one fragment of his work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man.


title: Anaximenes of Miletus

paragraphs: Anaximenes () of Miletus (c. 585 BC-c. 525 BC) was a Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher from the latter half of the 6th century, probably a younger contemporary of Anaximander, whose pupil or friend he is said to have been.

paragraphs: Anaximenes, like others in his school of thought, practised material monism, the idea that underlying reality is one single thing.

paragraphs: For him, the primary substance was air. it was an attempt to find a natural way to explain the world.


title: Eberhardt del’Antonio

paragraphs: Eberhardt del’Antonio (April 21, 1926 in Lichtenstein - February 22, 1997 in Dresden) was a German writer.

paragraphs: Eberhardt Del'Antonio was the son of a locksmith. He learned the job as an technical drawer. He was fighting for the German army during the Second World War.


title: Gorgias

paragraphs: Gorgias (, ca. 487-376 BC), Greek sophist, presocratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger.

paragraphs: His theory was subjected of critique by Plato in his work "Gorgias".


title: Sophism

paragraphs: Sophism can mean two very different things. In Ancient Greece, sophism was practiced by "sophists", who were a group of teachers of philosophy and rhetoric. In the modern definition, a sophism is a confusing or slightly incorrect argument used for deceiving someone.

paragraphs: The word "sophism" originated from the Greek word σόφισμα, "sophisma" (from σοφίζω, "sophizo" meaning "I am wise").

paragraphs: The similar Greek word σοφιστής, "sophistēs" means "wise-ist, one who does wisdom, one who makes a business out of wisdom" while σοφός, "sophós" means a "wise man".

paragraphs: The ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras

paragraphs: (ca. 490–420 BC) is often said to be the first of the sophists. Others include: Gorgias, Prodicus, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Lycophron, Callicles, Antiphon, and Cratylus.

paragraphs: Plato opposed those sophists because they only abused wisdom for their own interest and refused the truth and justice.

paragraphs: In modern usage, "sophism", "sophist", and "sophistry" are derogatory terms, due the influence of many philosophers in the past. Sophism and platonism were rival schools, as enemies of each other.

paragraphs: A "sophism" is a statement to deceive someone in a debate or conversation. It might be made to seem to make sense when really being wrong, or it might use difficult words and complicated sentences to intimidate the audience into agreeing. An argument "ad hominem" is an example of sophistry.

paragraphs: A "sophist" is a person who uses sophisms. "Sophistry" means using sophisms for subtly deceptive reasoning or argumentation.


title: Protagoras

paragraphs: Protagoras () (ca. 490–420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He is called one of the sophists by Plato, the Greek philosopher who followed Socrates. In Plato's dialogue "Protagoras", he credits Protagoras with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue.

paragraphs: It is thought that Protagoras used the phrase "Man is the measure of all things" (). By this, he meant that nothing is absolutely truth, but there are different truths for each person, and each person makes the truth for themselves. For example, one person might go outside on a cold day and feel some water in a bucket, and they will say that the water is warm. And another person might go outside on a hot day and feel the same water, but they will say that the water feels cold to them. Each person is right.


title: Pirate code

paragraphs: A pirate code is a code of conduct for pirates - a set of rules for how to behave. Some of these codes were used by real pirates; others are from movies.

paragraphs: In the second half of the 17th century, pirates started following rules. These rules had many different names, including Chasse-Partie, Charter Party, Custom of the Coast, or Jamaica Discipline. Eventually, they became known as Articles of Agreement, or the pirate's code. These changed from one captain to another. Sometimes they were different from one voyage (journey) to another. These rules included punishments for rule breakers and said how much treasure each crew member would receive.

paragraphs: Each crew member signed the articles (or if they could not write, they would make a mark to show they agreed). After the rules were signed, they were then posted in a common place, often the door of the grand cabin.

paragraphs: There are three known sets of these rules that still exist today. Most of these come from Charles Johnson's book "A General History of the Pyrates". Part of a code from Henry Morgan, a famous British pirate, is remembered in a book called "The Buccaneers of America" by Alexandre Exquemelin, who probably sailed with Morgan as a ship's doctor. Very few of these rules still exist today, because often pirates burned the papers before being caught. They did this to prevent these papers from being used against them.

paragraphs: One of the most famous sets of pirate rules was written in 1720 by the famous Welsh pirate Bartholomew Roberts.

paragraphs: I. Every man has a vote in affairs of moment; has equal title to the fresh provisions, or strong liquors, at any time seized, and may use them at pleasure, unless a scarcity (not an uncommon thing among them) makes it necessary, for the good of all, to vote a retrenchment.

paragraphs: "(This means that all crew members can vote on issues on the ship. All crew members can have any food or drink they have stolen, unless there is not much to go around.)"

paragraphs: II. Every man to be called fairly in turn, by list, on board of prizes because, (over and above their proper share) they were on these occasions allowed a shift of clothes: but if they defrauded the company to the value of a dollar in plate, jewels, or money, marooning was their punishment. If the robbery was only betwixt one another, they contented themselves with slitting the ears and nose of him that was guilty, and set him on shore, not in an uninhabited place, but somewhere, where he was sure to encounter hardships.

paragraphs: "(When the pirates stole money or other treasure, every pirate would get a share. But if one pirate defrauded the group by taking more than his share, he would be punished by marooning - being left alone on an island where there were no other people, with no food or water and no way to escape. If a pirate stole from one other pirate, the guilty pirate would be punished by having his ears and nose cut, and left on shore.)"

paragraphs: III. No person to game at cards or dice for money.

paragraphs: "(This means that crew members cannot gamble using money while playing cards or dice)"

paragraphs: IV. The lights and candles to be put out at eight o'clock at night: if any of the crew, after that hour still remained inclined for drinking, they were to do it on the open deck.

paragraphs: "(This means that all fires had to be put out by 8:00 PM. If crew members wanted to drink after 8:00 PM, then they had to do it on deck.)"

paragraphs: V. To keep their piece, pistols, and cutlass clean and fit for service.

paragraphs: "(This means that crew members' weapons had to be kept clean)"

paragraphs: VI. No boy or woman to be allowed amongst them. If any man were to be found seducing any of the latter sex, and carried her to sea, disguised, he was to suffer death;(so that when any fell into their hands, as it chanced in the Onslow, they put a sentinel immediately over her to prevent ill consequences from so dangerous an instrument of division and quarrel; but then here lies the roguery; they contend who shall be sentinel, which happens generally to one of the greatest bullies, who, to secure the lady's virtue, will let none lie with her but himself.)

paragraphs: "(This means that no young boys or women were allowed to be crew members. If a crew member took a woman out to sea in disguise, then he would be killed as punishment.)"

paragraphs: VII. To desert the ship or their quarters in battle, was punished with death or marooning.

paragraphs: "(This means that if a crew member ran away from battle, he would be killed or left on a deserted island.)"

paragraphs: VIII. No striking one another on board, but every man's quarrels to be ended on shore, at sword and pistol. (The quarter-master of the ship, when the parties will not come to any reconciliation, accompanies them on shore with what assistance he thinks proper, and turns the disputant back to back, at so many paces distance; at the word of command, they turn and fire immediately, (or else the piece is knocked out of their hands). If both miss, they come to their cutlasses, and then he is declared the victor who draws the first blood.)

paragraphs: "(This means that the crew members were not allowed to fight on the ship. If they had to fight, they would fight on shore. They would start with a duel where both pirates tried to shoot each other. If both of them missed, they would fight with their swords. They were not allowed any help from other crew members in their fight.)"

paragraphs: IX. No man to talk of breaking up their way of living, till each had shared one thousand pounds. If in order to this, any man should lose a limb, or become a cripple in their service, he was to have eight hundred dollars, out of the public stock, and for lesser hurts, proportionately.

paragraphs: "(This means that no crew member was allowed to leave the ship's crew until each member had 1000 pounds' share of plunder (stolen money or goods). If a crew member became seriously injured, he would be given 800 dollars.)"

paragraphs: X. The captain and quartermaster to receive two shares of a prize: the master, boatswain, and gunner, one share and a half, and other officers one and quarter.

paragraphs: "(The captain and the quartermaster each receive two shares of stolen money or goods (double what the regular pirates got). The master, boatswain, and gunner each receive one and a half shares of stolen money or goods. Other officers receive one and one fourth shares of stolen money or goods.)"

paragraphs: XI. The musicians to have rest on the Sabbath Day, but the other six days and nights, none without special favour.

paragraphs: "(Musicians could not play music on the Sabbath Day.)"

paragraphs: Captain John Phillips, captain of the "Revenge", also set a code for his men in 1724:

paragraphs: I. Every Man Shall obey civil Command; the Captain shall have one full Share and a half of all Prizes; the Master, Carpenter, Boatswain and Gunner shall have one Share and quarter.

paragraphs: "(Every pirate had to obey the rules and orders of the Captain and other people in charge. The Captain would get one and a half shares of any stolen money or goods. The Master, Carpenter, Boatswain, and Gunner would get one and a quarter shares.)"

paragraphs: II. If any Man shall offer to run away, or keep any Secret from the Company, he shall be marooned with one Bottle of Powder, one Bottle of Water, one small Arm, and Shot.

paragraphs: "(If any pirate talked about running away from the ship, or kept any secret from the group, he would be marooned. A pirate who was marooned by Captain Phillips would be left on a deserted island with one bottle of water, a small gun, a bottle of gunpowder and one bullet, so he could shoot and kill himself if he wanted to.)"

paragraphs: III. If any Man shall steal any Thing in the Company, or game, to the Value of a Piece of Eight, he shall be marooned or shot.

paragraphs: "(If a pirate stole anything from the ship that was worth more than a piece of eight (a Spanish dollar), he would be marooned or killed.)"

paragraphs: IV. If any time we shall meet another Marooner that Man shall sign his Articles without the Consent of our Company, shall suffer such Punishment as the Captain and Company shall think fit.

paragraphs: V. That Man that shall strike another whilst these Articles are in force, shall receive Moses’s Law (that is, 40 Stripes lacking one) on the bare Back.

paragraphs: "(A pirate who hit another pirate would be whipped 39 times on his bare back.)"

paragraphs: VI. That Man that shall snap his Arms, or smoke Tobacco in the Hold, without a Cap to his Pipe, or carry a Candle lighted without a Lanthorn, shall suffer the same Punishment as in the former Article.

paragraphs: "(A pirate that fired a gun when not in battle, smoked tobacco in the hold (where gunpowder was kept), or carried a candle that was not in a lantern, would be whipped 39 times on the bare back. These things were dangerous because they could start fires on the ship or make the gunpowder on the ship explode.)"

paragraphs: VII. That Man shall not keep his Arms clean, fit for an Engagement, or neglect his Business, shall be cut off from his Share, and suffer such other Punishment as the Captain and the Company shall think fit.

paragraphs: "(If a pirate did not keep his weapons clean and ready for battle, or did not do his job, he would not get a share of any stolen money or goods. He could also be punished in any other way that the Captain and other pirates decided.)"

paragraphs: VIII. If any Man shall lose a Joint in time of an Engagement, shall have 400 Pieces of Eight ; if a Limb, 800.

paragraphs: "(A pirate who lost a joint in battle would be given 400 pieces of eight. A pirate who lost an arm or a leg would be given 800 pieces of eight.)"

paragraphs: IX. If at any time you meet with a prudent Woman, that Man that offers to meddle with her, without her Consent, shall suffer present Death.

paragraphs: "(Any pirate that tried to rape a woman would be killed.)"

paragraphs: The "Boston News-Letter", an old newspaper published in the 1700s, printed these rules and said they were set by Captain Edward Low. The first eight of these articles are basically the same as the rules that Charles Johnson's book says Captain George Lowther used. Since Lowther and Low are known to have sailed together from about January 1, 1722 to May 28, 1722, Low and Lowther probably did use the same articles. Low's two extra articles were probably "ordinance", or amendment, adopted after the two crews separated.

paragraphs: I. The Captain is to have two full Shares; the [quarter] Master is to have one Share and one Half; The Doctor, Mate, Gunner and Boatswain, one Share and one Quarter.

paragraphs: II. He that shall be found guilty of taking up any Unlawful Weapon on Board the Privateer or any other prize by us taken, so as to Strike or Abuse one another in any regard, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall see fit.

paragraphs: "(A pirate who was found guilty of taking a weapon onto the ship with the goal of hurting another pirate would be punished. The punishment would be voted on by the pirates, and would be whatever the Captain and most of the pirates decided.)"

paragraphs: III. He that shall be found Guilty of Cowardice in the time of engagements, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit.

paragraphs: "(A pirate who was found guilty of being a coward - not being brave enough - during battle would be punished however the Captain and most of the other pirates decided.)"

paragraphs: IV. If any Gold, Jewels, Silver, &c. be found on Board of any Prize or Prizes to the value of a Piece of Eight, & the finder do not deliver it to the Quarter Master in the space of 24 hours he shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit.

paragraphs: "(If a pirate had any stolen money or goods that were worth more than a piece of eight, he had to give it to the Quarter-Master within 24 hours. If he did not, he would be punished however the Captain and most of the other pirates decided.)"

paragraphs: V. He that is found Guilty of Gaming, or Defrauding one another to the value of a Royal of Plate, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit.

paragraphs: "(If a pirate was found guilty of gambling for money, or stealing money from another pirate, he would be punished however the Captain and most of the other pirates decided.)"

paragraphs: VI. He that shall have the Misfortune to loose a Limb in time of Engagement, shall have the Sum of Six hundred pieces of Eight, and remain aboard as long as he shall think fit.

paragraphs: "(If a pirate lost an arm or a leg during battle, he would be given 600 pieces of eight. The pirate could decide whether to stay on the ship or leave.)"

paragraphs: VII. Good Quarters to be given when Craved.

paragraphs: VIII. He that sees a Sail first, shall have the best Pistol or Small Arm aboard of her.

paragraphs: "(The first pirate to see a ship that the pirates could attack would be given the best gun the pirates were able to steal from that ship.)"

paragraphs: IX. He that shall be guilty of Drunkenness in time of Engagement shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and Majority of the Company shall think fit.

paragraphs: "(A pirate who was drunk during a battle would be punished however the Captain and most of the other pirates decided.)"

paragraphs: In the Disney movie trilogy "Pirates of the Caribbean", all the featured pirates are governed by a single Code. While the Code has the force of law in Shipwreck Cove, where a codex containing the complete code is kept under the care of Captain Teague, elsewhere, the Code is treated more as a set of guidelines than as actual rules.


title: Hallelujah (Leonard Cohen song)

paragraphs: Hallelujah is a folk-rock song by Canadian singer/guitarist Leonard Cohen. It was first released on his 1984 album "Various Positions".

paragraphs: Following its increased popularity after being featured in the movie "Shrek" (2001), it has been re-recorded by many different artists including Jeff Buckley, Anand Bhatt, Rufus Wainwright, Allison Crowe, k.d. lang, Tori Kelly, and Damien Rice.

paragraphs: The song draws references to David ("there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord", "The baffled king composing Hallelujah") and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof") in its opening verses.

paragraphs: "Hallelujah" experienced renewed interest following Cohen's death in November 2016 and appeared on multiple international singles charts, including entering the American "Billboard" Hot 100 for the first time.

paragraphs: Cohen wrote around 80 draft verses for "Hallelujah", with one writing session at the Royalton Hotel in New York where he was reduced to sitting on the floor in his underwear, banging his head on the floor.

paragraphs: Cohen sang a different version when he played the song in concert starting in 1988. A lot of other people who sing it mix lyrics from both versions, and occasionally make direct lyric changes; for example, in place of Cohen's "holy dove", Canadian-American singer Rufus Wainwright changed it to "holy dark", while Canadian singer-songwriter Allison Crowe sang "holy ghost".

paragraphs: Canadian singer k.d. lang said in an interview shortly after Cohen's death that she considered the song to be about "the struggle between having human desire and searching for spiritual wisdom. It's being caught between those two places." Former Barenaked Ladies frontman Steven Page, who sang the song at Canadian politician Jack Layton's funeral, described the song as being "about disappointing people".


title: Islamic State of Afghanistan

paragraphs: The Islamic State of Afghanistan was the name given to the nation of Afghanistan during the rule of the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan government. After 2001, the country was renamed Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.


title: Leonard Cohen

paragraphs: Leonard Norman Cohen (September 21, 1934 – November 7, 2016) was a Canadian singer, songwriter, musician, poet, novelist, and painter. His work was mostly about religion, politics, sexuality, and personal relationships most notably seen in his best known work "Hallelujah".

paragraphs: Cohen was added into both the Canadian Music Hall of Fame and the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame as well as the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. He was a Companion of the Order of Canada, the nation's highest civilian honor. In 2011, Cohen received one of the Prince of Asturias Awards for literature and the ninth Glenn Gould Prize.

paragraphs: Cohen was born on September 21, 1934 in Westmount, Quebec into a middle-class Canadian Jewish family. His mother was Marsha (Masha) Klonitsky and his father was Nathan Cohen. Cohen's father died when he was nine years old.

paragraphs: During his high school years in Westmount, Cohen learned and played the guitar many times and wrote poems. He studied at McGill University.

paragraphs: Cohen started a career as a poet and novelist during the 1950s and early 1960s. Cohen did not start his music career until 1967, at the age of 33. His first album, "Songs of Leonard Cohen" (1967), was followed by three more albums of folk music: "Songs from a Room" (1969), "Songs of Love and Hate" (1971) and "New Skin for the Old Ceremony" (1974).

paragraphs: His 1977 record "Death of a Ladies' Man" was co-written and produced by Phil Spector. In 1979, Cohen returned with the more traditional "Recent Songs", which blended his acoustic style with jazz and Oriental and Mediterranean influences.

paragraphs: "Hallelujah" was first released on Cohen's studio album "Various Positions" in 1984. Cohen wrote around 80 draft verses for "Hallelujah", with one writing session at the Royalton Hotel in New York where he was reduced to sitting on the floor in his underwear, banging his head on the floor. This became Cohen's best known work. "I'm Your Man" in 1988 marked Cohen's most popular album with the song "Everybody Knows". In 1992, Cohen released its follow-up, "The Future", which had dark lyrics and references to political and social unrest.

paragraphs: Cohen returned to music in 2001 with the release of "Ten New Songs", which was a major hit in Canada and Europe. His eleventh album, "Dear Heather", followed in 2004. After a successful string of tours between 2008 and 2010, Cohen released three albums in the final four years of his life: "Old Ideas" (2012), "Popular Problems" (2014) and "You Want It Darker" (2016), the last of which was released three weeks before his death.

paragraphs: Though never married, Cohen had two children: Adam and Lorca with his girlfriend Suzanne Elrod. He was also romantically linked with Marianne Ihlen, Janis Joplin and Rebecca De Mornay.

paragraphs: Cohen died in 7 November 2016 of leukemia and from complications of a fall in his sleep at his home in Los Angeles, aged 82.

paragraphs: His funeral was held on November 10, 2016 in Montreal, at a cemetery on Mount Royal, his congregation Shaar Hashomayim confirmed.

paragraphs: As was his wish, Cohen was laid to rest with a Jewish rite, in a simple pine casket, in a family plot.

paragraphs: [[Category:Accidental deaths from falls in the United States]

paragraphs: [[Category:Cancer deaths in Los Angeles]]

paragraphs: [[Category:People from Westmount, Quebec]]


title: Jeff Buckley

paragraphs: Jeffrey Scott "Jeff" Buckley (November 17, 1966 – May 29, 1997) was an American singer and guitarist. His father was Tim Buckley. He was also a musician.

paragraphs: Buckley was born in Anaheim, California. He was the only son of Mary Guibert, a Panama Canal Zonian and Tim Buckley (1947-1975). Buckley is of Greek, French, Irish and Panamanian descent. Buckley was known as Scott "Scotty" Moorhead as a child. This name was based on his middle name and his stepfather's surname. His father died when he was eight years old.

paragraphs: Buckley died on the evening of May 29, 1997. His death was ruled as an accidental drowning after he went missing after going swimming in the Wolf River Harbor which is a slackwater channel of the Mississippi River.


title: Stigmata

paragraphs: Stigmata are marks on a person's body, that are like the wounds Jesus got from being crucified.

paragraphs: They supposedly happen to other religious people like Saint Francis of Assisi, as well as Jesus. The marks include nail holes in the hands and feet, as if the person had been crucified, but without that having happened.

paragraphs: Those who believe in stigmata say that actual nails were not used, but the holes just appear as a miracle. Those who do not believe say it is not a miracle. They have other ways to explain those stories.


title: Flag of Turkmenistan

paragraphs: The flag of Turkmenistan was adopted on January 24, 2001 as Turkmenistan's national flag. It is often described as the most detailed national flag in the world.

paragraphs: It features a green field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs) stacked above two crossed olive branches similar to those on the flag of the United Nations; a white waxing crescent moon, typical of Turkic symbology, and five white five-pointed stars appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe.

paragraphs: The green and red colors appear in this flag because they have been venerated historically by the Turkmen. The waxing crescent moon symbolizes the hope of the country for a shining future and the stars represent the five provinces (Welayatlar) of Turkmenistan-Ahal, Balkan, Dashhowuz, Lebap, and Mary.

paragraphs: The five traditional carpet designs along the hoist represent the five major tribes or houses, and form motifs in the country's state emblem and flag. These Turkmen tribes in traditional order (as well as top to bottom) are Teke (Tekke), Yomut (Yomud), Arsary (Ersary), Chowdur (Choudur), and Saryk (Saryq). The Salyr (Salor), a tribe that declined as a result of military defeat before the modern period, are not represented, nor are several smaller tribes or subtribes.

paragraphs: The wreath is one of the odder parts of the flag, added against the rules of heraldry and breaking up the carpet pattern. It was added as an afterthought to represent the "status of permanent neutrality," which was accepted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 12, 1995.


title: Philolaus

paragraphs: Philolaus (ca. 480 BC – ca. 385 BC, ) was a Greek Pythagorean and Presocratic. He argued that all matter is composed of limited and unlimited things, and that the universe is determined by numbers. He is credited with originating the theory that the earth was not the center of the universe.


title: Coat of Arms of Turkmenistan

paragraphs: The coat of arms of Turkmenistan was created after Turkmenistan gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. The eight-point green starburst (known as the star of Rub El Hizb (۞), a symbol of Islam, to which a majority of Turkmen profess) with golden edges features in its center a red circular disc which carries sheaves of wheat, five carpet guls, and centered upon that a smaller blue circle with a lifelike (rather than heraldized) depiction of an Akhal-Teke horse, a source of pride for the Turkmen people. A variant of the emblem, which included different colors and rounded, was used from 1992 until 2003.

paragraphs: The five traditional carpet motifs on the red disc represent the five major tribes or houses, and stand for the traditional and religious values of the country. These Turkmen tribes in traditional order are Teke (Tekke), Yomut (Yomud), Arsary (Ersary), Chowdur (Choudur), and Saryk (Saryq). The Salyr (Salor), a tribe that declined as a result of military defeat before the modern period, are not represented, nor are several smaller tribes or subtribes.

paragraphs: The green and red colors appear in this shield because they have been venerated historically by the Turkmen. The central elements are surrounded by sheaves of wheat that allude to the custom to welcome to guests with salt and bread. Atop the wheat and the red circle appear a waxing crescent moon of white, typical of Turkic symbology, and five five-pointed stars also of white. The waxing crescent moon symbolizes the hope of the country for a shining future and the stars represent the five provinces (Welayatlar) of Turkmenistan-Ahal, Balkan, Dashhowuz, Lebap, and Mary. Most of the elements of the coat of arms are present in the national flag.

paragraphs: Before independence from the USSR, Turkmenistan had a coat of arms similar to all other Soviet Republics. A single carpet "gul", not matching any of the tribal patterns, was represented on the Coat of arms of the Turkmen SSR.


title: Pre-Socratic philosophy

paragraphs: The Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers were active before Socrates. The popular usage of the term come from Hermann Diels' work "Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker" ("The Fragments of the Pre-Socratics", 1903).

paragraphs: Most of what we know about the pre-Socractic philosophers come from quotations by later philosophers and historians. While most of them produced significant texts, none of the texts have survived in complete form.

paragraphs: The standard reference works in English are:

paragraphs: The fundamental idea which motivated most of the presocratics (as they are called) is naturalism. This is the idea that questions about life and the world can be answered without using myths, and that "the natural world is the whole of reality".

paragraphs: With the Greeks we see rational thought and scientific reasoning emerge from the mists and myths of a pre-scientific age, not suddenly, but slowly and gradually.


title: Milesian school

paragraphs: The Milesian school was a school of thought founded in the 6th Century BC. The ideas associated with it are exemplified by three philosophers from the Ionian town of Miletus: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.


title: Pythagoreanism

paragraphs: Pythagoreanism is a term used for the esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans, who were much influenced by mathematics. They thought the world was made of numbers, and that various integers had distinct sacred meanings.

paragraphs: Later resurgence of ideas similar to those held by the early Pythagoreans are collected under the term Neopythagoreanism.


title: Anaxagoras

paragraphs: Anaxagoras (, fl. 480 BC – 450 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Anaxagoras was an Ionian Greek. He was born in Asia Minor, in Clazomenae. This was a town in what is now Turkey.

paragraphs: Anaxagoras was the first known atheist. He also introduced the concept of "νούσ" ("nous", or mind), the ordering force behind the Universe. But he did not take this idea any further.

paragraphs: He held that the Sun was not a god, but just material. It was a "red-hot mass many times larger than the Peloponnese". The Moon was a solid body with geographical features, and made of the same substance as the Earth.

paragraphs: Anaxagoras was eventually arrested and prosecuted for freethought. He was banished from Athens for impiety in 450 BC. However, his works were available in Socrates' day for a drachma.


title: Miletus

paragraphs: Miletus (mī lē' təs) (Ancient Greek: Μίλητος, literally transliterated "Milētos", Latin "Miletus") was an ancient city on the western coast of Anatolia (in what is now Aydin Province, Turkey), near the mouth of the Maeander River in ancient Caria.


title: Tooth fairy

paragraphs: The tooth fairy is a mythical figure found in modern folklore. Around the world, families have many different traditions to celebrate the loss of a child's tooth, especially a first tooth. Many of the traditions involve throwing a tooth on a roof, under a house, burying it under a tree, or leaving it for a rodent.

paragraphs: One of the most famous traditions is leaving a tooth under a pillow for the tooth fairy. This tradition is very popular in the United States as well as other countries. The tooth fairy is said to take the tooth away while the child is sleeping and leave some money in its place. Sometimes the tooth fairy may also leave a note. If the child does not go to sleep the tooth fairy will not come.

paragraphs: Some people tell the story that the tooth fairy is named Fatina and lives in Neverland. The belief is that Fatina creates a magic powder from children's teeth that protects the fairies from hawks who might otherwise eat them.


title: Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor

paragraphs: Frederick Barbarossa was born in 1122 in the monastery Weingarten. He was the son of Guelph Judith. Frederick had a cousin, called "Henry the Lion", who was his greatest enemy. In the year 1152, Frederick Barbarossa was crowned King of Germany.

paragraphs: Today people know Frederick Barbarossa as a powerful soldier, who tried to conquer Jerusalem and return it to the Christians.

paragraphs: He was born in 1122 in a monastery in Altdorf, which is now called Weingarten. During the Middle Ages, most women returned to their birth country, so it is very likely that Frederick’s mother had been born in Altdorf, too.

paragraphs: Frederick's nickname was "Barbarossa" (“Redbeard”). This was because of his remarkable beard, which was red. “Barba” is the Latin word for beard. “Rossa” is also Latin and means “red”.

paragraphs: Frederick was raised formally and strictly. On 4 March 1142, at the age of 20, Frederick was crowned King of Germany. His cousin, Henry the Lion, was Frederick’s enemy for many years. Henry wanted to become King of Germany, too and therefore was angry when he found out that Barbarossa was to be king and also Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

paragraphs: In 1156, he married Lady Beatrix. They had many children. Frederick participated in the third crusade. He never actually reached Jerusalem. It is said that he drowned in the River Saleph in 1190. His soldiers carried his dead body to Jerusalem and buried him there.


title: BBC Weather

paragraphs: BBC Weather is the BBC's department in charge of preparing and broadcasting weather forecasts and is now part of BBC News. The broadcast meteorologists are employed by the Met Office. The longest serving presenter of BBC weather was Michael Fish, now retired, who appeared for 30 years between 1974 and 2004.

paragraphs: The first BBC weather forecast was a shipping forecast read on the radio for the Met Office on 14 November 1922. The first daily weather forecast was broadcast 26 March 1923.

paragraphs: In 1936, the BBC experimented with the world's first weather maps on television. Weather maps were first published in "The Times" on 1 April 1875. The BBC started broadcasting the maps in 1949 after World War II. The map filled the whole TV screen, and an off-screen narrator would comment on the next day's weather.

paragraphs: On 11 January 1954, George Cowling was the first weather forecaster to stand in front of a weather map. To do this, the maps were drawn by hand in the London Weather Centre and were taken across London. The forecasts were presented by the same person who had made them, and were not always right.

paragraphs: In 1962, a fax machine and an electronic computer were bought by the Met Office. This gave better and quicker forecasting.

paragraphs: Satellite photography was available from 1964, but was of a poor quality and was given on paper, with the coastline etched in felt-tip pen. This did not change until 1973 when a new computer was bought. This made forecasts twice as accurate as earlier ones.

paragraphs: As computational capability improved, so did graphics technology. Early hand-drawn maps gave way to magnetic symbols, which in turn gave way to bluescreen (CSO) computer-generated imagery technology, each of which allowed the presenter greater control over the information displayed.

paragraphs: Early magnetic symbols tended to adhere poorly to the maps, and occasional spelling errors (such as the presenter writing 'GOF' instead of 'FOG') marred some broadcasts, but allowed the presenter to show how weather would change over time. The symbols were designed to be 'self-explicit', allowing the viewer to understand the map without a key or legend.

paragraphs: These were phased out in 1985 for computer graphics, although the basic design of symbols was kept the same. These forecasts were widely acclaimed for their simplicity, winning an award from the Royal Television Society.

paragraphs: Possibly the most famous of the forecasters is the now retired Michael Fish. Famous for his informal manner and eccentric dress sense (he once wore a blue and green blazer emblazoned with all the weather symbols), he was a viewer favourite despite an unfortunate comment before The Great Storm of 1987.

paragraphs: During a weather forecast some hours before the storm, Michael Fish started his forecast with the now famous line

paragraphs: Although he was actually referring to a Florida hurricane (Floyd), and went on to forecast stormy conditions over the South of England, the statement has gone down in popular culture as one of the worst mistakes made so publicly.

paragraphs: On 2 October 2000 BBC Weather underwent a more significant change. Whilst there was not much change to the existing weather symbols new symbols giving information Pollen and Sun levels were introduced. A new more detailed map of Britain was used based on satellite data.

paragraphs: 16 May 2005 saw the end of the weather symbols on television after 29 years and 9 months on air. They were replaced by a controversial format as the forecast underwent another redesign, with the flat map replaced by a 3D globe, and weather conditions shown by coloured areas. Cloud cover is indicated by the brightness of the map, while rain and snow are indicated by animated blue and white areas respectively.

paragraphs: The graphics are provided by Weatherscape XT, which was developed by the commercial arm of the New Zealand Metservice.

paragraphs: The move polarised opinion; some saw it as more accurate and modern, while others disliked the brown colour chosen for the landmass and the presumed high cost of the graphics. Poor angling of the map, in order to show the curvature of the Earth, led to Scotland appearing little larger than Devon, and Shetland being almost invisible while exaggerating London and the South East. This led to many Scottish commentators claiming the BBC was guilty of a London bias. As a result, the map was realigned, and the moving tour of the UK was lengthened.

paragraphs: The new look won a prestigious Silver Award at the Promax/BDA Awards in 2006. Criticism has been ongoing however, with some viewers complaining about the colour scheme, and of a lack of detail beyond 36 hours.

paragraphs: There have been continuous developments since May 2005. In 2006, a rippling effect was introduced to define seas and oceans.

paragraphs: The BBC Weather website provides outlook weather forecasts for UK and international locations using animated symbols and a format similar in design to that used for the televised broadcasts.

paragraphs: The website also runs frequent special features about seasonal sports, White Christmas, nature and meteorological science. It also has world weather, UK outlook and weather news. A new beta weather site is currently being developed, to fit in with the rest of the BBC site style.


title: Cheap Trick

paragraphs: Cheap Trick are a rock band from Illinois, USA. They were very popular in the 1970s and 80s. Some of their hits include: Surrender, Dream Police and I Want You to Want Me. They are still very big in Japan and are called the "American Beatles" in Japan.


title: Strychnine

paragraphs: Strychnine is a poisonous substance which is naturally produced by the plant "Strychnos nux-vomica". Together with brucine, another poison, strychnine is found in the leaves and seeds of this plant. They are a rather extreme example of the way some plants protect themselves against herbivores. The substances were discovered early in the 19th century, but it took about 150 years before Robert Robinson worked out their structure.

paragraphs: When purified, strychnine is a very toxic colorless crystalline alkaloid. It is very poisonous, the LD is about 10 mg. Strychnine is soluble in alcohol and chloroform, but not in water.

paragraphs: Strychnine has few uses today. It can act as a stimulant, much like caffeine, and is on the list of substances tested for doping in sports.

paragraphs: It was used as a pesticide, for killing small vertebrates such as birds and rodents.

paragraphs: Strychnine causes muscular convulsions. It leads to death through asphyxia or exhaustion. The most common source is from the seeds of the "Strychnos nux vomica" tree. Strychnine is one of the most bitter substances known. Its taste is detectable in concentrations as low as 1 ppm.

paragraphs: Between 30 and 120 mg can kill an adult human. Strychnine is rapidly absorbed by the mucous membranes. If it is given under the skin, or intravenously, a quantity of 15 mg may be enough to kill an adult. Benzodiazepines (such as Diazepam) are used by default for emergency treatment.

paragraphs: Unlike the illustrations given in fiction crime novels, Strychnine is not very good for killing someone (when given orally). This is because even diluted at 1:130.000 it can still be tasted. Despite this, some murders happened with Strychnine. Thomas Neill Cream, a serial killer, used it on some of his victims.

paragraphs: Because of its high toxicity and tendency to cause convulsions, the use of strychnine in medicine was eventually abandoned once safer alternatives became available.


title: Alkaloid

paragraphs: Alkaloids are chemical compounds that can be made naturally. They contain basic nitrogen atoms. The name comes from the word alkaline and was used to describe any alkaline containing nitrogen. Alkaloids are made by a large variety of organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from basic substances by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. Some alkaloids have a bitter taste.

paragraphs: All of the following alkaloids are produced by flowering plants. They are one of the main ways plants reduce or avoid being eaten by herbivores.


title: Quinine

paragraphs: Quinine is an alkaloid which can reduce fever, work against malaria, pain and swelling. The bark of the Cinchona family of trees contains quinine. Quinine can be made artificially, but this is more expensive than extracting it from the bark of the tree. This tree is found in the Andes, South America, Indonesia, and Congo.

paragraphs: Quinine was the first treatment for malaria, known from 1631 in Europe, and probably much earlier to the native peoples of South America. Even today, quinine is used to treat certain forms of malaria, when other drugs fail or are unavailable. In that way, quinine is currently one of the best treatments for "malaria tropica", which is caused by plasmodium falciparum. For the other forms of malaria, quinine is no longer used, as other drugs have replaced it.

paragraphs: Quinine relaxes muscles, and was used by the Inca of Peru to stop people from shivering. Europeans first reported using quinine against malaria in Rome in 1631.

paragraphs: The best type of quinine used to treat malaria was found by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1737. Quinine helped Europeans colonize Africa. A historian said that "it was quinine ... that gave colonists fresh opportunities to swarm into the Gold Coast, Nigeria and other parts of west Africa".

paragraphs: Quinine can cause cinchonism and even death (usually by pulmonary oedema) in some cases. Quinine can make someone paralyzed if it is injected into a nerve. It is very toxic in overdose.

paragraphs: Quinine has a bitter taste. It was first added to drinks like Bitter Lemon and Tonic Water Quinine was added to have some protection against Malaria. In China, it is sometimes added to drugs against the Common cold. Quinine is also often used to add a bitter taste to food. Usually this has to be declared though. Quinine can also stimulate the muscles of the uterus. For this reason, pregnant women should not take too much of it. Sometimes it is used in combination with Heroin.


title: Progressive bluegrass

paragraphs: Progressive bluegrass is a type of bluegrass music which became popular in the 1960s and 1970s. The four important elements (not always all present) of progressive bluegrass are instrumentation (usually including electric instruments, drums, piano, and more), songs imported or styles imitated from other musical genres (like jazz, rock and others), non-traditional chord progressions, and lengthy "jam band"-style improvisation.

paragraphs: Bands such as Nickel Creek produce music in this style.


title: Hot Country Songs

paragraphs: Hot Country Songs is a chart published weekly by "Billboard magazine" in the United States.

paragraphs: This 60-position chart lists the most popular country music songs, calculated weekly mostly by airplay and occasionally commercial sales. Currently, the chart does not count digital downloads towards chart tabulation (although singles that are only available as downloads do chart if they receive enough airplay).


title: Neverland

paragraphs: Neverland is a fictional island that is the setting for the novel Peter Pan by J.M. Barrie. Peter Pan, his gang of "Lost Boys" and Tinkerbell, the fairy, live on Neverland. A gang of pirates led by Captain Hook and a band of Native Americans ("redskins" in the story) also live on the island.

paragraphs: Neverland is a land of fantasy where no one gets older and Peter Pan remains a child forever. To reach Neverland, Peter Pan states one must fly "second to the right, and straight on till morning".


paragraphs: The International Bluegrass Music Association, or IBMA, is a trade association to promote bluegrass music.

paragraphs: Formed in 1985, IBMA established its first headquarters in Owensboro, Kentucky. In 1988 they announced plans to create the International Bluegrass Music Museum as a joint venture with RiverPark Center in Owensboro. In 1990 IBMA established the World of Bluegrass, a combination trade show, concert, and awards presentation. This was originally set in Owensboro, before moving to Louisville, Kentucky in 1997. Nashville, Tennessee hosted this event in 2005 and 2006, and will continue as the host location in the future. In 1991 IBMA established the International Bluegrass Music Hall of Honor at the International Bluegrass Music Museum to recognize lifetime contributions to bluegrass, both by performers and non-performers. In 2003 IBMA relocated its offices to Nashville, Tennessee.


title: Country Music Association Awards

paragraphs: The Country Music Association Awards, also known as the CMA Awards, or the CMAs, are music awards voted on by business members of the Country Music Association.


title: The Used

paragraphs: The Used are an American post hardcore band. They formed in the year 2000 and have released a number of albums since then. Their first album was called "The Used". Their latest album is called "Vulnerable", and was released in 2012.

paragraphs: They have always been signed to one record label named Reprise. In 2004, singer Bert McCracken's girlfriend at the time was pregnant with their child and she died from a drug overdose. For that reason, their second album was named "In Love and Death". Around that time, the band also took on a new drummer.


title: Bobo-Dioulasso

paragraphs: Bobo Dioulasso is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the second largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 435,543 people lived in the city; 215,968 were male and 219,575 were female.


title: Koudougou

paragraphs: Koudougou is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the third largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 82,720 people lived in the city; 40,229 were male and 42,491 were female.


title: Banfora

paragraphs: Banfora is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the fourth largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 72,144 people lived in the city; 36,392 were male and 35,752 were female.


title: Ouahigouya

paragraphs: Ouahigouya is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the fifth largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 70,957 people lived in the city; 35,017 were male and 35,940 were female.

paragraphs: In July 2010, the US Government warned Americans that there was a real danger that they might be kidnapped by terrorists in the city.


title: Chirality

paragraphs: Chirality is when an object is present in two forms which are mirror images of each other.

paragraphs: The two forms cannot be superimposed. Human hands are chiral. The left hand is a mirror image of the right hand. You cannot turn or move one of your hands to look exactly the same as the other. This is why you can not put a left handed glove on your right hand, or shake the right hand of a person using your left hand.

paragraphs: In chemistry, chirality refers to molecules. If a molecule is chiral it has two forms that are mirror images of each other but "otherwise identical".

paragraphs: Chemists call these "enantiomers" or "optical isomers". Because the difference between right and left hands is easy to understand, chemists call enantiomers either 'right-' or 'left-handed'. A mixture of equal amounts of the two enantiomers is called a "racemic mixture".

paragraphs: Molecular chirality is quite common. It is found in stereochemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, and biochemistry.

paragraphs: The symmetry of a molecule (or any other object) tells us whether it is chiral. A molecule is "achiral" (not chiral) if it has an axis of symmetry.

paragraphs: A racemic mixture is one which has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule.

paragraphs: Many biologically active molecules are chiral, including amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) and sugars. Most of these compounds are of the same chirality. Most amino acids are (left-handed) and sugars are . (right-handed). Proteins made of amino acids, are known as "left-handed proteins", whereas amino acids produce "right-handed proteins".

paragraphs: The origin of homochirality in the first place is much discussed. Most believe that the original origin of chiralities was purely random. They think if carbon-based life forms exist elsewhere in the universe, the chemistry might have different chirality. Other theories are possible.

paragraphs: Enzymes, which are chiral, usually only work with one enantiomer of a chiral substrate. Imagine an enzyme as having a glove-like cavity that binds a substrate. If this glove is right-handed, then one enantiomer will fit inside and be bound, whereas the other enantiomer will have a poor fit and is unlikely to bind.

paragraphs: It was economical for life-forms to adopt one form or the other of each type of chiral compound. That way we do not need two enzymes for every chemical reaction which involves chirality.


title: Londrina

paragraphs: Londrina is a city in Brazil. It is found in the northern area of the state of Paraná. It is 369 km away from the capital, Curitiba. Londrina has 510.707 people living in the city. This makes it the second biggest city of Paraná and the third biggest city in Southern Brazil.


title: Kaya

paragraphs: Kaya is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the sixth largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 51,778 people lived in the city; 25,898 were male and 25,880 were female.


title: Superimposition

paragraphs: In graphics, superimposition is when an image or video is put on top of an already-existing image or video. This is usually done to add to the overall image effect or to hide something (such as when a different face is superimposed over the original face in a photograph).

paragraphs: This technique is used in cartography to produce photomaps by superimposing grid lines, contour lines and other linear or textual mapping features over aerial photographs.

paragraphs: Superimposition of 2D images containing correlated periodic grid structures may produce moiré patterns. Superimposition of two correlated layers comprising parallel lines or curves may give rise line moiré patterns. The movement of one of the layers results in a faster movement of the line moiré superimposition image. Such optical acceleration is known as moiré speedup (check for the formulas of optical speedup for curved patterns). When superimposing two identical layers comprising randomly spaced parallel lines, at a small angle or with a small scaling difference random line moiré patterns, namely line Glass patterns (after Leon Glass, 1969) appear. Similarly, when superimposing two identical layers of randomly scattered dots at a small angle or with a small scaling difference random dot Glass patterns, namely random dot moiré, appears. When one of the layers embeds complex shapes, such as sequences of symbols forming a text, and another layer contains parallel lines or curves, the superimposition image may gives rise to magnified shapes, called shape moiré patterns.


title: Maringá

paragraphs: Maringá is the third largest city in the state of Paraná, in the Southern Region of Brazil. About 400,000 people live there. It has an area of 3,179.987 km² (1,227.8 sq mi).


title: Tenkodogo

paragraphs: Tenkodogo is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the seventh largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 40,839 people lived in the city; 20,093 were male and 20,756 were female.


title: Fada N'gourma

paragraphs: Fada N'gourma is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the eighth largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 40,815 people lived in the city; 20,796 were male and 20,019 were female.


title: Ponta Grossa

paragraphs: Ponta Grossa is a Brazilian city, in the southern region of the country, in the state of Paraná. With a population of over 300,000 inhabitants, it is the 4th most populated city of Paraná.

paragraphs: The city is home town of the "Parque Estadual da Vila Velha" ("State Park of Old Town"), a park made up of rocky formations formed over millions of years.

paragraphs: Other attraction of the city is the "Münchenfest" - A National Stout Festival with national and international concerts that lasts a whole week and occurs at late November and the beginning of December.


title: Dédougou

paragraphs: Dédougou is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the ninth largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 37,793 people lived in the city; 18,778 were male and 19,015 were female.


title: Houndé

paragraphs: Houndé is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the tenth largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 34,669 people lived in the city; 17,418 were male and 17,251 were female.


title: Foz do Iguaçu

paragraphs: Foz do Iguaçu (fɔs do igwa'su) is the 4th largest city of Paraná state, in the south region of Brazil. 309,000 people live there. It is about west of Curitiba, Parana's capital city, on the border with Argentina and Paraguay. The people who live there are known as "iguaçuenses".

paragraphs: The city is known for the Iguaçu Falls and the Itaipu Dam, the largest dam of the world was built.


title: Cascavel

paragraphs: Cascavel is a city in western Paraná state, in the south region of Brazil. It has, approximately 300.000 inhabitants.

paragraphs: The city is on a plateau 781 meters above sea level. It is 504 km west of the state capital of Curitiba, 605 km west of the sea port of Paranaguá and 140 km from Foz do Iguaçu/ the 3 borders (Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil).


title: Julen Guerrero

paragraphs: Julen Guerrero (born 7 January, 1974) is a former Spanish football player. He has played for Athletic Bilbao and Spain national team.


title: Emile Heskey

paragraphs: Emile William Heskey (born 11 January 1978) is an English footballer. He currently plays for Bolton Wanderers in the Football League Championship.

paragraphs: At the pinnacle of his career, he played for Leicester City, Liverpool and Birmingham City. he later he played for Wigan Athletic and Aston Villa, then Newcastle Jets in the Australian A-League. For a while he was a regular member of the England national team, striking up a good partnership with fellow forward Michael Owen, where he was often deployed as a 'Target Man' due to his immense strength, good first touch and passing skills.


title: Jan Koller

paragraphs: Jan Koller (born March 30 1973) is a Czech football player. He plays for Cannes and Czech Republic national team.


title: Rüştü Reçber

paragraphs: Rüştü Reçber (born 10 May 1973) is a Turkish football player. He plays for Beşiktaş and Turkey national team.


title: William Regal

paragraphs: Darren Kenneth Matthews (born May 10, 1968) also known by his ring name William Regal, is an English professional wrestler, currently signed to the World Wrestling Entertainment where he is the commissioner of the NXT brand.


title: Bryan Robson

paragraphs: Bryan Robson is a former football player born on 11 January 1957. He has played for England national team.


title: Robbie Fowler

paragraphs: Robbie Fowler (born 9 April 1975) is an English former professional football player.


title: Hernán Crespo

paragraphs: Hernán Crespo (born 5 July 1975) is an Argentine football player. He plays for Parma.


title: Kevin Keegan

paragraphs: Kevin Keegan (born 14 February 1951) is a former English football player. He has played for England national team in the seventies.


title: Bob Holly

paragraphs: Robert William "Bob" Howard (born January 29, 1963) better known by his ring name Hardcore Holly, is an American professional wrestler. He is best known for his 15-year job he had with World Wrestling Entertainment.

paragraphs: While in WWF/E, Holly has held the WWF/E Hardcore Championship six times, the WWF/E Tag Team Championship three times (with the 1-2-3 Kid, Crash Holly and Cody Rhodes), and the NWA World Tag Team Championship once with Bart Gunn.


title: Raúl González

paragraphs: Raúl González Blanco (born 27 June 1977) is a retired Spanish football player.

paragraphs: Raúl started his career as a professional football player at Real Madrid. He has won three UEFA Champions Leagues, six Spanish leagues, four Spanish Super Cups, one UEFA Super Cup and two Intercontinental Cups. At the moment, he is the top scorer at European competitions.


title: Luís Figo

paragraphs: Luís Filipe Madeira Caeiro Figo (born 4 November 1972) is a former Portuguese football player. He had played for Portugal national team and last played for Inter Milan.


title: Rudi Völler

paragraphs: Rudi Völler (born 13 April 1960) is a former German football player. He has played for Germany national team.


title: Freddy Adu

paragraphs: Freddy Adu (born June 2, 1989) is an American soccer player from Ghana. He plays for Aris Thessaloniki and the American national team.


title: Eamon Dunphy

paragraphs: Eamon Martin Dunphy (born 3 August 1945) is an Irish professional athlete. He is best known as a football player. He has played for Republic of Ireland national team.


title: Murat Yakin

paragraphs: Murat Yakin () is a former football player. He has played for Switzerland national team.


title: Salmonella

paragraphs: Salmonella is a genus of bacteria. It is a major cause of illness throughout the world. The bacteria are generally passed on to humans by eating or drinking food of animal origin which has the bacteria in it, mainly meat, poultry, eggs and milk. Bacteria from the genus "Salmonella" can cause diseases, such as diarrhea, cholera and typhus. These bacteria are zoonotic, meaning they can infect both animals and humans.

paragraphs: "Salmonella" is closely related to the "Escherichia" genus and are found worldwide in cold- and warm-blooded animals (including humans), and in the environment. They cause illnesses like typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, and foodborne illness.

paragraphs: "Salmonella" is also extremely dangerous, and like most diseases, weaker humans like the old and young could easily die from it. "Salmonella" can only be killed in food by cooking at high temperatures. This is called denaturation.


title: Paul Sturrock

paragraphs: Paul Sturrock is a former football player. He has played for Dundee United and Scotland national team.


title: Avi Ran

paragraphs: Avi Ran () was an football player. He has played for Maccabi Haifa and Israel national team. He was killed in a boat accident in the Sea of Galilee.


title: Mark Viduka

paragraphs: Mark Viduka (born 9 October 1975) is an Australian football player. He has played for Australia national team.


title: Baichung Bhutia

paragraphs: Baichung Bhutia (born 15 December 1976) is an former Indian professional footballer. He played for the India national football team.

paragraphs: Bhutia retired from international competition in 2011.


title: Matthew Le Tissier

paragraphs: Matthew Le Tissier is a former football player. He has played for Southampton and England national team.


title: Amarok (software)

paragraphs: Amarok is a music player for the KDE desktop environment. Unlike most KDE programs, it has its own schedule for releasing versions, so a new version of Amarok might not be released when a new version of KDE comes out. Amarok's first stable version was released in 2003. They are now on version 2.4.3.

paragraphs: Amarok cannot play videos. However, it can play most sound and music files in a large range of formats, like MP3, Ogg Vorbis, and WMA. Amarok also includes an internet radio tuner, and supports submitting a listener's music preferences to Last.fm. It can sync music to most MP3 players, like the iPod or ZEN.

paragraphs: Amarok was updated to version 2 along with the major upgrade of KDE3 to KDE4. The newer KDE4 version of Amarok is still missing some features when compared with the previous KDE3 version, but it does have some new features not included with the earlier one.

paragraphs: Many users of KDE3 Amarok believed it was the best software music player of any platform (Windows, Mac, Linux), and it had a great and loyal following. This loyalty has faded somewhat since the KDE4 release, though Amarok developers are still working hard to make certain the newer Amarok meets and exceeds all users' expectations.


Caesar


title: Ignoratio elenchi

paragraphs: Ignoratio elenchi (also known as irrelevant conclusion or irrelevant thesis) is the informal fallacy of presenting an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question. "Ignoratio elenchi" can be roughly translated by "ignorance of refutation", that is, ignorance of what a refutation is; "elenchi" is from the Greek , meaning an argument of disproof or refutation. (Some sources give "by ignorance of the issues" or even "by ignoring the issues" as a translation of ignoratio elenchi.)

paragraphs: Aristotle believed that an ignoratio elenchi is a mistake made by a questioner while attempting to falsify a respondent's argument. He called it an ignorance of what makes for a refutation. For Aristotle, ignoratio elenchi amounts to "ignorance of logic". In fact, Aristotle goes so far as to say that all logical fallacies can be reduced to what he calls ignoratio elenchi.

paragraphs: Modern use limits this term much more narrowly to the kind of mistake described in the first paragraph above.

paragraphs: Similar to ignoratio elenchi, a "red herring" is an argument, given in reply, that does not address the original issue. Critically, a red herring is a "deliberate" attempt to change the subject or divert the argument. This is known formally in the English vocabulary as digression which is a neutrally connotated "Red herring". The actual problem is eclipsed by the process of re-focusing on something else.

paragraphs: Maher: It's arbitrary, isn't it? If you had been born in Pakistan, you wouldn't be believing in Jesus Christ. You would have been told another fairy tale and you would have been believing that.

paragraphs: Scarborough: Well, Bill, that's your opinion.

paragraphs: "Whether Maher's argument is his opinion or not is irrelevant and does not address the argument made."

paragraphs: "The conclusion is ignoratio elenchi, since friendliness and charity are not the main qualifications for induction into the Hall of Fame."

paragraphs: "The existence of worse criminals is a secondary issue which has no bearing on whether the driver deserves a fine for recklessness. If the speaker were deliberately attempting to divert the issue, this would be an example of a red herring. While the argument about how the police should spend their time may have merit, the question of whom the police should prioritize pursuing and the question of what should be done with those the police have caught are separate questions."

paragraphs: "A red herring, the unrelated alleged affair, attempts to change the subject away from the popular policies. However, if the original discussion were of the prime minister's public integrity (encompassing both popularity and conduct), this argument could be perfectly valid. Such as if a politician's election campaign revolved around family values. Then an argument about such an affair would be valid, as it is in direct conflict with a family values platform."


title: Informal fallacy

paragraphs: An informal fallacy is an logical argument whose premises fail to support their conclusion. Informal fallacies often come about because of an error in reasoning. The premises are then incorrectly linked to the conclusion.

paragraphs: In contrast to a formal fallacy, the error has to do with issues of inference. Because language is used to state the propositions, natural language allows one to say more than formal logic can represent. All informal fallacies of deductive reasoning contain a disconnect between the premises and the conclusion. This makes the argument invalid. The disconnect happens because there is a hidden co-premise. If this co-premise were "stated", it would make the argument valid.

paragraphs: Inductive "informal" fallacies are rather different from their deductive counterparts. Their merit rests in the inductive strength of the premiseconclusion link, not the presence of hidden premises. For instance, the fallacy of hasty generalization, can be roughly stated as:

paragraphs: If the populations of "P" and "Q" are both too large to sample completely, then the statement is inductive. In such a case, a hasty generalization occurs when the number of "P"s and "Q"s does not represent the respective populations. It is important to distinguish between a principle of reasoning (deductive or inductive) and the premise of an argument.


title: Great Western Railway

paragraphs: The Great Western Railway (GWR) was a railway company in the United Kingdom, that was started in 1833. It was engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel.

paragraphs: The railway company also ran bus services and owned ships and hotels. In 1948, the government took control of the company and Great Western Railway then was renamed the Western Region of British Railways.

paragraphs: The first railway line built by the Great Western Railway opened in 1838. It started in London and ended in Maidenhead which was west. By 1841, the area of service had been made much longer and so their trains went farther west to the towns of Reading, Swindon, Bath and Bristol. By 1852, the railway line had become long and went to Penzance. Penzance railway station is both the farthest south and farthest west in Great Britain.

paragraphs: In 1923, the GWR took over several smaller railways (most of them in Wales) and became one of the Big Four British railway companies. In 1948, Britain's railways were nationalized and the GWR became the Western Region of British Railways.


title: Stimulant

paragraphs: Stimulants are drugs that can increase alertness and awareness, usually for a short time only. Most stimulants have more side-effects than other drugs. Some are classified as illegal drugs, most can cause addiction. For this reason, most legal stimulants are only available on prescription. Stimulants act on the nerves: Stimulants cause more neurotransmitters to the synapse (this is the gap between different nerves)

paragraphs: Most stimulants fall into one of the following groups:

paragraphs: Some of the substances mentioned above can be used to treat certain diseases. Some are mostly used as illegal drugs.


title: Benzylpiperazine

paragraphs: Benzylpiperazine, commonly referred to as BZP is an recreational drug. It is also available with trade names such as "A2", "Frenzy" and "Nemesis", It is a stimulant and may cause Euphoria. People believe it works in a way similar to MDMA. The effects produced by BZP are comparable to those produced by amphetamine. Side-effects include acute psychosis, problems with the kidneys

paragraphs: Adverse effects have been reported following its use including acute psychosis and seizures. It does not appear to be very addictive and no deaths have been reported following taking BZP once. There have been at least two deaths which resulted from the combination of BZP and MDMA. Its sale is banned in a few countries, including the United States, Australia, New Zealand and in parts of Europe. However, its legal status is currently less restrictive in some other countries such as Ireland and Canada. The European Union is currently changing its laws to regulate this substance more.


title: Turkish new lira

paragraphs: The Turkish new lira () is the currency of Turkey and the Turkish Northern Republic of Cyprus. The new lira is subdivided into 100 new kurush (yeni kuruş), the equivalent of American Cents or British Pennies. The symbol for the currency is YTL.

paragraphs: In the last few years the Turkish lira stabilised and even rose against the U.S. Dollars and the Euro.

paragraphs: In late December 2003, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey passed a law that allowed for the removal of six zeroes from the currency, and the creation of the new lira. It was introduced on 1 January 2005, replacing the previous lira (which remained valid in circulation until the end of 2005) at a rate of 1 new lira = 1,000,000 old lira.

paragraphs: The official name of the currency is "New Turkish Lira". According to the Central Bank, the word "new" (yeni) is only a "temporary" measure. The "new" was be removed on January 1, 2009. The banknotes have "different shapes and sizes to prevent forgery".


title: Oedipus

paragraphs: Oedipus is a mythical or fictional king in Greek mythology. He is adopted as a baby. Without knowing who they are, he marries his biological mother, Then they have a baby, But before this, he kills his biological father. The psychologist Sigmund Freud had a theory and he called it the Oedipus complex, after this story.

paragraphs: "Oedipus Tyranos", or Oedipus the King, is a well-known tragedy by Sophocles.

paragraphs: Oedipus has 4 children, Antigone, Polynices, Ismene and Eteocles. All of these are by his mother Jocasta. Later, they find out they are related to each other. Jocasta hangs herself and Oedipus rips out his eyes in disgust.


title: Gundam

paragraphs: Gundam is the collective name for all the different Japanese anime series about giant fighting robots called "Mobile Suits". There are many series, movies, comic books and video games based on the Gundam franchise. Gundam started what is called the Real Robot genre of anime, where the robots are more like machines than in Super Robot anime.


title: Self-injury

paragraphs: Self-injury (SI) or self-harm (SH) occurs when a person hurts their body on purpose. This kind of harm is not suicidal behavior. Many self-harmers hurt themselves because they feel it is the only way to stay alive. However, in some cases the self-harm becomes so bad it can lead to death, and those who self-harm are more likely to commit suicide than those who do not.

paragraphs: There are many different reasons why a person may hurt themselves, though it is often hard to find an exact cause. Sometimes, the self-harm helps relieve unbearable emotions, or feelings of unreality or numbness. Self-harm is often a symptom of other problems. These problems may include physical abuse, sexual abuse, or eating disorders. Self-harm may also stem from mental problems such as low self esteem or perfectionism.

paragraphs: Studying the causes of self-injury can be difficult or inaccurate, because many self-harmers try to hide their injuries.

paragraphs: Self-injury is a general term that includes many different types of deliberate harm to the body. There are many things that can be considered self-harm. If someone works their body too hard, for example, this can be seen as a mild form of self-injury. In other mild cases, a self-harmer may purposely pick off scabs to keep cuts or scratches from healing. Compulsive hair-pulling (trichotillomania) and compulsive skin-picking (dermotillomania) are impulse control disorders which are also mild forms of self-harm.

paragraphs: In more severe cases, a self-harmer could break or sprain a bone, or lose a dangerous amount of blood. Biting, burning, and cutting are other forms of self-injury. Overdosing on medication is another common type of self-harm.

paragraphs: Self-harm may get worse the longer a person has been doing it. This is because a person's body builds up tolerance to (gets used to) the pain from their injuries. Because of this, they have to hurt themselves more to get the same effect. In some cases, this can lead to fatal or near-fatal injuries.

paragraphs: A person may go through voluntary pain for other reasons that are usually not considered self-injury. A self-inflicted wound is when someone injures themselves to avoid something, not because of psychological problems. Some people give themselves a self-inflicted wound during wartime so that they do not have to serve in the military.

paragraphs: Some people go through pain to change the way they look, such as in ear piercing. This is called body modification. Body modification is not a form of self-injury.

paragraphs: Scarification is a type of body modification where someone cuts or burns their skin for decoration. This can include branding, which is common in some fraternities. It can also include cutting the skin repeatedly in a pattern or design. This will create very large scars. Some African tribes use scarification as a symbol of beauty and strength.

paragraphs: Experts estimate that about 1% of the population has self-harmed. While people of all ages and ethnic groups have self-harmed, some groups are more likely to self-harm than others. Age, gender, and race can be factors in the risk of self-injury. Some evidence suggests that self-injury is also more common in people who have a family history of suicide or self-injury.

paragraphs: In general, more young people are treated for self-injury than any other age group. According to one Australian study 30% of teenagers say they have self-injured. It is more widespread among those with mental illness. One in four (25%) of teenagers with mental illnesses have self-harmed. Self-harm in females is most common between the ages of 15-24. Males are most likely to self-harm through the ages 25-34.

paragraphs: Recent research focusing on young people suggests that 10 percent of 15 to 16 year olds have self-harmed. In this case, the self-harm was usually done by cutting.

paragraphs: A study in Oxford in the year 2000 found that approximately 300 per 100,000 (0.3%) of males aged between 15 and 24 years, and 700 per 100,000 (0.7%) of females of the same age, were admitted into a hospital after self-harming. Based on statistics like these, most agree that young white females are most likely to self-injure. Possibly because of this, it is usually believed that women have higher rates of self-harm than men. However, this may not be true because women are more likely to get help for their self-injury. Males may have the same or similar rates of self-injury as women. Some findings have even suggested that in the mid-30s age range, more men are treated for self-harm than women.

paragraphs: Minority groups who face discrimination are also more likely to self-injure. If someone is bullied because they are different (for example, because of their race, ethnicity or sexual orientation), this can lead to low self-esteem and a feeling of helplessness over emotions. This can lead some people to self-harm.

paragraphs: Studies have show that those who have been abused are more likely to self-injure. Sexual abuse, physical abuse, and emotional abuse can cause low self-esteem, especially in children. It can also cause other emotional problems. Some people may turn to self-harm to relieve these emotions. Low self-esteem in victims of abuse may lead them to believe that the abuse was their fault. They may turn to self-injury because of this.

paragraphs: Unstable living conditions such as unemployment or divorce may also make a person more likely to self-harm.

paragraphs: Prisoners are also more likely to self-harm. This may be because of the ongoing trauma that happens in prisons, including sexual and physical violence and intimidation. In an environment such as prison, where options for inmates are limited, prisoners may turn to self-injury. In England and Wales, a report from The Howard League says that over 22,000 prisoners harmed themselves in 2007.

paragraphs: Those with learning and developmental disabilities such as autism are more likely to self-harm. The cause of this is unclear. Some case studies have shown that it may be a form of self-stimulation. It may be that autistic children who self-harm are trying to express frustration that they cannot explain with words. Autistic children who self-harm may do so by head-banging or biting.

paragraphs: Self-harm is an addictive behaviour. Once someone starts self-injury, it is difficult for them to stop, even if they want to. This makes professional help and treatment an important part of recovery from self-injury.

paragraphs: The type of treatment that is most effective is different from person to person. There are many different types of therapy that have been used to help people that self-harm.

paragraphs: Cognitive-behavioural therapy may help a person understand why they self-harm. Cognitive-behavioural therapy is used to help patients understand the reasons for their problem. This is so that the patient may learn what is causing their self-harm, and learn how to deal with these problems in a way other than self-harm.

paragraphs: Therapies used for post-traumatic stress disorder may also help. This is because many people who self-harm have been victims of abuse. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing therapy (EMDR) is an example of this.

paragraphs: Drugs may also be used to help treat self-injury. It is thought that self-injury can release chemical endorphins into the brain. Over time, these chemicals can become addictive. There are some drugs that can help with this addiction, but they have not been proven to help people who self-injure. Naltrexone and naloxone are two drugs being researched for this kind of treatment. Research involving endorphins has been mostly done with animals. It is unclear if their brain chemistry changes the outcome of the research.


title: Guildford

paragraphs: Guildford is the county town of Surrey, in England. It is also the seat for the borough of Guildford.


title: Socratic method

paragraphs: The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate), is named after the Greek philosopher Socrates. It is a form of philosophical questioning.

paragraphs: The central technique of the Socratic method is called an elenchus. It means argument to disprove or refute (prove wrong).

paragraphs: Our knowledge of Socrates comes mainly from Plato, who was one of his pupils. No writing by Socrates survives.

paragraphs: Socrates was famous for not answering questions in a direct manner. "I know that I know nothing", he said. Socrates's stated position (as presented in Plato's dialogues) was that other person already knew the answer to a question. He (S.) only drew out what was already in the other's mind.

paragraphs: In Plato's early dialogues, the "elenchus" is the technique Socrates uses to investigate ethical concepts, such as justice or virtue. According to one scholar, it has the following steps:

paragraphs: The exact nature of the elenchus is subject to a great deal of debate. In particular, whether it is a positive method leading to knowledge, or a negative method used solely to refute false claims to knowledge.

paragraphs: According to W.K.C. Guthrie, the Socratic method was intended to demonstrate one's ignorance. Socrates, unlike the Sophists, did believe that knowledge was possible, but believed that the first step to knowledge was recognition of one's ignorance. Guthrie writes, "[Socrates] was accustomed to say that he did not himself know anything, and that the only way in which he was wiser than other men was that he was conscious of his own ignorance, while they were not. The essence of the Socratic method is to convince the interlocutor that whereas he thought he knew something, in fact he does not".


title: Bill Maher

paragraphs: William "Bill" Maher, Jr., (; born January 20 1956) is an American stand-up comedian, television host, political commentator, actor, and author. He hosted the late-night television talk show "Politically Incorrect" on Comedy Central and ABC, and is currently the host of "Real Time with Bill Maher" on HBO. The show has been nominated for more than ten Emmy Awards. On June 1, 2006, he also began hosting an Internet-exclusive talk show on Amazon.com entitled "Amazon Fishbowl".

paragraphs: In 2013 Maher became the producer of a HBO TV series called "Vice".

paragraphs: Mahrer is a supporter of the pro-animal welfare group, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. He has said that marijuana should be legal. He feels that more problems are caused by it being illegal than would be caused if it were legal.

paragraphs: Maher has disagreed with many religious beliefs. He says that they can create problems for society. He was the host of the documentary, "Religulous" that dealt with religion and how it affects society in the United States. Maher is also the creator of the website Disbeliefnet. He has said that morality and religion are not the same thing and that religion is used as a reason to oppose gay rights.


title: Friedrich Hund

paragraphs: Friedrich Hund (4 February 1896 31 March 1997) was a German physicist from Karlsruhe known for his work on atoms and molecules. He worked at the Universities of Rostock, Leipzig, Jena, Frankfurt am Main, Göttingen and was a member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science.

paragraphs: He had published more than 250 papers and essays and made contributions to quantum theory about the structure of the atom and the structure of molecular spectra. The Hund's rule was named after him and in 1926 he discovered the later so-called tunneling effect.

paragraphs: Hund worked with well known physicists as Schrödinger, Dirac, Heisenberg, Max Born, and Walter Bothe. At that time, he was Born's assistant, working with quantum mechanics.

paragraphs: After his studies of mathematics, physics, and geography in Marburg and Göttingen, he worked as a private lecturer in theoretical physics at Göttingen in 1925, professor at Rostock in 1927, Leipzig in 1929, Jena in 1946, Frankfurt/Main in 1951 and from 1957 again in Göttingen. Additionally he stayed in Copenhagen (1926) with Niels Bohr and lectured on the atom at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1928.

paragraphs: On the occasion of his 100th birthday, the book: Friedrich Hund: Geschichte der physikalischen Begriffe [history of physics terms] (Heidelberg, Berlin, Oxford), Spektrum, Akademie Verlag 1996, was published. A review was also written by Werner Kutzelnigg.

paragraphs: Friedrich Hund became an honorary citizen of Jena, and a street in Jena was named after him. Since June 2004, a part of the new building of the Physics Department was given the Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1 address. The same name was chosen for the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Göttingen.

paragraphs: The Hund's cases, which are particular regimes in molecular angular momentum coupling, and the Hund's rules, which govern electron configurations, are important in spectroscopy and quantum chemistry. In chemistry, the first of Hund's rules is especially important and is often referred to as simply Hund's rule.


title: Ubuntu Live USB creator

paragraphs: Ubuntu Live USB Creator is an official tool to create Live USBs of Ubuntu from an iso image. The tool is already included in the repositories of Ubuntu 8.10.


title: Shigella

paragraphs: Shigella is a genus of bacterium. It belongs to a small group of pathogens (including "E. coli" and "Salmonella") that can infect the gut after the ingestion of relatively few organisms. The bacteria can cause sudden and severe diarrhea in humans.


title: Puppet

paragraphs: Puppets are objects used in theatrical performances. They are similar to dolls. They often use strings or other means to make the puppet move and look alive. Some puppets are very simple, but others are more complicated and need skill to use. The person who works the puppet and makes it move is called a puppeteer. The audience cannot usually see this person but some, like a ventriloquist and dummy, are in full view of the audience. There are many different types of puppets to be found around the world. Puppetry is a special art form that is very important in some cultures.

paragraphs: Finger Puppet: A very simple type of puppet where the puppet is placed on a finger and worked by moving the finger.

paragraphs: Sock puppet: A sock or similar garment worn as a glove, with the thumb acting as a jaw.

paragraphs: Hand Puppet: Similar to a finger puppet, but larger. The puppeteer uses his or her fingers and hand to work the puppet. Punch and Judy are famous glove puppets.

paragraphs: Pop-up puppets: A cone with a rod through and a puppet inside. When the rod is pushed up, the puppet appears.

paragraphs: Paddle Puppet: The puppet is on the end of a paddle. When the puppeteer steps on the paddles back end the other end lifts up, making it seem that the puppet moves by itself.

paragraphs: Jumping Jack: A puppet where the arms and legs of the puppet are joined to a string. When the string is pulled down, the arms and legs go up.

paragraphs: Rod Puppet and Bunraku: The puppet is worked with rods joined to the puppets arms and legs, while another puppeteer moves the head and sometimes the mouth. Bunraku is a special type of Japanese rod puppetry.

paragraphs: Shadow Puppet: Another very simple puppet. A cut out figure on a rod is held in front of a light. Its shadow is projected onto a screen. The puppeteer moves the puppet around, giving it some life. Sometimes coloured paper is used to give a certain amount of colour to the puppet.

paragraphs: Marionette or String Puppet: This puppet is moved around with strings that hang from above the theatre. This is one of the more complex types of puppetry and is hard to master as some marionettes can have up to thirty strings.

paragraphs: Ventriloquist Figure or Dummy: This puppet is one of the few where the audience sees the puppeteer. The puppeteer moves the puppets head arms and mouth with his hands as well as with levers. The performance usually takes the shape of a conversation between the dummy and the puppeteer. The puppeteer speaks normally, then puts on a different voice when the puppet is supposed to be talking. His voice seems to be coming from his stomach (Latin: "venter"). His lips are not moving, but the puppet's lips may move, so it seems as if the puppet is talking.

paragraphs: Ticklebug: A type of Hand Puppet; a person uses their fingers as body parts to look like their hand is an animal. The center finger becomes the animal's head, the first and third fingers become the front legs, and the thumb and last finger are used as back legs.


title: Paranthropus

paragraphs: Paranthropus is an extinct genus of robust australopithecines. They probably descended from the gracile australopithecine "Australopithecus".

paragraphs: All species of "Paranthropus" were bipedal, and many lived during a time when species of the genus "Homo", such as "Homo ergaster" and "Homo erectus", were living.

paragraphs: "Paranthropus" first appeared roughly 2.7 million years ago. Most species of "Paranthropus" had a brain about 40 percent of the size of modern man. There was some size variation between the different species of "Paranthropus", but most stood roughly 1.3-1.4 m (4.26 to 4.59 feet) tall and were quite well muscled. "Paranthropus" is thought to have lived in wooded areas rather than the grasslands of the "Australopithecus".

paragraphs: "Australopithecus" and "Paranthropus" also looked very different from each other. These differences were only found in remains of the skull. The other parts of the skeleton were still very similar, so it is reasonable to think the difference was an adaptation to different food. "Paranthropus" was more massively built as to skull and teeth. It often had gorilla-like sagittal crests on the cranium which anchored massive temporalis muscles for chewing.

paragraphs: "Paranthropus" did not behave in the same way as "Homo". They lived on a diet of heavy-duty plant material: leaves, slim branches, grass, roots. The diet might be supplemented with insect grubs. Lacking our flexible behaviour, "Paranthropus" relied on the steady environmental conditions of the tropical forest. Members of the genus "Homo", such as "Homo habilis", had proportionately larger brains and more flexible behaviour. They were able to eat a much wider variety of foods.

paragraphs: Opinions differ whether the species "P. aethiopicus, P. boisei" and "P. robustus" should be included within the genus "Australopithecus". On Wikipedia, the genus "Paranthropus" is used for all articles which mention the species "P. aethiopicus, P. boisei" and "P. robustus".

paragraphs: For the most part the "Australopithecus" species "A. afarensis", "A. africanus", and "A. anamensis" either disappeared from the fossil record before the appearance of early humans or seem to have been the ancestors of "Homo habilis". "P. boisei" and "P. aethiopicus", on the other hand, continued to evolve along a separate path distinct and unrelated to early humans. "Paranthropus" shared the earth with some early examples of the "Homo" genus, such as "H. habilis", "H. ergaster", and possibly even "H. erectus".

paragraphs: Species of "Paranthropus" had smaller braincases than "Homo", yet they had significantly larger braincases than "Australopithecus". Paranthropus is associated with stone tools both in southern and eastern Africa, although there is considerable debate whether they were made and utilized by these robust australopithecines. Most believe that early "Homo" was the tool maker. Most "Paranthropus" species almost certainly did not have language or to have controlled fire, although they are directly associated with the latter at Swartkrans, South Africa.

paragraphs: A partial cranium and mandible of "Paranthropus robustus" was discovered in 1938 by a schoolboy, 70 km south west of Pretoria in South Africa. It was described as a new genus and species by Robert Broom of the Transvaal Museum. A date of at least 1.95 million years has been obtained for the site.

paragraphs: "Paranthropus boisei" was discovered by Mary Leakey in July 1959 at the site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Mary was working alone, as Louis was ill in camp. She rushed back to camp and at the news Louis made a remarkable recovery.

paragraphs: In his notes Louis recorded a first name, "Titanohomo mirabilis", reflecting an initial impression of close human affinity. Louis and Mary began to call it "Dear Boy". Recovery was halted on August 7. Dear Boy was in context with Oldowan tools and animal bones.

paragraphs: The fossil was published in "Nature" on 15 August 1959, but due to a strike of the printers the issue was not released until September. In it Louis placed the fossil in Broom's Australopithecinae family, creating a new genus for it, "Zinjanthropus", species "boisei". "Zinj" is an ancient Arabic word for the coast of East Africa and "boisei" referred to Charles Boise, an anthropological benefactor of the Leakeys. Louis based his classification on twenty differences from Australopithecus.

paragraphs: Broom had died in 1951 but Dart was still living. He is said to have wept for joy on Louis' behalf on being personally shown Zinj, which Louis and Mary carried around in a tin (later a box). Louis had considered Broom's "Paranthropus" genus, but rejected it because he believed Zinj was in the "Homo" ancestral stock but Paranthropus was not. He relied heavily on the larger size of Zinj's canines.

paragraphs: The battle of the name raged on for many years and drove a wedge between Louis and LeGros Clark, who took the "Paranthropus" view. On the other hand it brought the Leakeys and Dr. Melville Bell Grosvenor of the National Geographic Society together. The Leakeys became international figures and had no trouble finding funds from then on. The Zinj question ultimately became part of the "Australopithecus"/"Paranthropus" question (which only applied to the robust Australopithecines).


title: Lake Toba

paragraphs: Lake Toba is a lake in the caldera of a supervolcano. The lake is long and wide, and at its deepest point.

paragraphs: It is in the middle of the northern part of the Indonesian island of Sumatra with an elevation of about . The lake stretches from to . It is the largest lake in Indonesia and the largest volcanic lake in the world.


title: Fatimah Jinnah Park

paragraphs: Fatima Jinnah Park, sometimes known as F-9 park (pointing out the fact that the covered area is spread out through the entire sector), is a public recreational park situated in sector F-9 of Islamabad, Pakistan. The park is considered one of the largest (in terms of covered area) in South-central Asia. It was named after the revered ""Madre Millat"" (Mother of the Nation) Miss Fatima Jinnah- younger sister of the founder of Pakistan.


title: Hazratbal Shrine

paragraphs: The Hazratbal Shrine (Kashmiri: حضرت بل, literally: Majestic Place), is a Muslim shrine in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, Kashmir. It contains a relic believed by many Muslims of India to be a hair of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The name of the shrine comes from the Arabic word Hazrat, meaning holy or majestic, and the Kashmiri word bal, meaning place.

paragraphs: The shrine is on the left bank of the Dal Lake, Srinagar and is considered to be Kashmir's holiest Muslim shrine. The Moi-e-Muqqadas (the sacred hair) of Mohammed is believed to be preserved here. The shrine is known by many names including Hazratbal, Assar-e-Sharief, Madinat-us-Sani, or simply Dargah Sharif.


title: Jama Masjid, Srinagar

paragraphs: Jama Masjid Mosque is a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, Kashmir. The Jama Masjid of Srinagar is at Nowhatta, in the middle of the old city. It was built by Sultan Sikandar shah kashmiri shahmiri in 1394 AD Later, the son of Sultan Sikandar, Zain-ul-Abidin got the mosque extended the masurement of masjid is 381 ft by 384 ft built in area of 1,46,000 sqf The attractions of the Jama Masjid with is unique architecture,has mejistic courtyard and 378 wooden Deodar pillars supporting wooden ceiling with 346 pillars of 21 feet in height and 5 feet in girth and 32 pillars with 48 feet in height and 6 feet in girth. Another feature of the mosque is the peace and tranquility inside it, standing out against the hustle of the old bazaars around it. The masjid has a fountain also measurement of 33 feet by 34 feet which is also used for wadu (ablution) Thousands of Muslims assemble at the mosque every Friday to offer their prayers. This Jama Masjid of Kashmir, has seen a number of destructions till date. It got ruined thrice in fire and was reconstructed every time. The last restoration was carried out during the reign of Maharaja Pratap Singh.


title: Dachigam National Park

paragraphs: Dachigam National Park is a national park in India. It is from Srinagar, the capital city of Jammu and Kashmir. The park covers an area of . The name of the park means "ten villages".

paragraphs: The park has been a protected area since 1910. It was first created to ensure a supply of clean drinking water for the city of Srinagar. It was declared a National Park in 1981.


title: Hemis National Park

paragraphs: Hemis National Park (or Hemis High Altitude National Park) is a high altitude National Park in the Eastern Ladakh area of the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India. It is the only national park in India north of the Himalayas.

paragraphs: The park is home to about 200 snow leopards. Hemis is the only refuge in India with the Shapu. The Tibetan Wolf,the Eurasian Brown Bear, and the Red Fox are also in Hemis.


title: Kishtwar National Park

paragraphs: Kishtwar National Park is a national park in the Doda District of Jammu and Kashmir, Northern Pakistan.