title: Navassa Island

paragraphs: Navassa Island, or La Navase in Haitian Creole, is a small island without anyone living on it in the Caribbean Sea. It is located ninety miles south of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. The United States government claims the two-square-mile island as a territory of the United States, and it is under control of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The island is also claimed by Haiti.

paragraphs: Some sailors sailing with Christopher Columbus named Navassa in 1504, because no fresh water could be found there.

paragraphs: A captain named Peter Duncan gave it to the U.S. in the late 1850s, for the purpose of guano mining. After a rebellion in 1889, and the Spanish-American War of 1898, the mining was put to an end.

paragraphs: With the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, Navassa became important again, because of a lighthouse being built there. After World War II, no one lived on it again.

paragraphs: In 1996, Navassa's light was put out of use, and the island was transferred to the U.S. Department of the Interior. Three years later in 1999, the Fish and Wildlife Service received ownership of the island.

paragraphs: Navassa became a U.S. insular area in October 1857, when a representative of the Baltimore Fertilizer Company took possession of the island in the name of the United States pursuant to the Guano Act of August 18, 1856 (Title 48, U.S. Code, sections 1411-19). In 1889 the island's actual operation passed to the Navassa Phosphate Company. All operations were abandoned in 1898, when the island became effectively uninhabited.

paragraphs: Navassa Island is three square miles in area. Navassa lies about one hundred miles south of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, about thirty miles west of Cape Tiburon, Haiti, at the southwest entrance to the Windward Passage, east of Kingston, Jamaica. Navassa's climate is marine and tropical.

paragraphs: Its terrain is a raised coral and limestone plateau, flat to undulating, ringed by vertical white cliffs, approximately nine to fifteen yards high. Navassa's environment is mostly exposed rock. However, it has enough grassland to support goat herds. Dense stands of fig-like trees and scattered cactus also exist. Only one tenth of the island's land is meadows or pastures. Navassa has no ports and only off-shore anchorage.

paragraphs: In 1976, the U.S. Coast Guard determined that the lighthouse on Navassa was no longer of any value to the U.S. Government and was ceasing its exercise of any interest in the island. However, the U.S. Coast Guard's ceasing to administer Navassa's use did not have any bearing at all on the United States sovereignty over the island, which remained constant regardless of the administering Federal agency or office. Consequently, under the provisions of Title 43, U.S.Code, section 1458, the Department of the Interior assumed responsibility for the civil administration of the U.S. insular area.

paragraphs: Acting under the authority that the Secretary of the Interior delegated to him in Secretary's Order No. 3205 (January 16, 1997) and Amendment No. 1 (January 14, 1998) to Secretary's Order No. 3205 and in fulfillment of his responsibilities as the civil administrator of the United States insular area of Navassa Island, the Director of the Office of Insular Affairs advises all persons interested in visiting Navassa Island that, having made a preliminary review of the island's ecology, he has decided indefinitely not to allow visits to the island and its surrounding waters until he has received a further assessment of the island's environment and conservation status. As used in this notice, the term "surrounding waters" includes the waters surrounding Navassa Island seaward to a line twelve (12) nautical miles distant from Navassa Island's coastlines. The Director of the Office of Insular Affairs intends that nothing in this notice shall deny or impair the right of innocent passage in the waters surrounding Navassa Island.

paragraphs: On September 2, 1999, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service established the Navassa Island Wildlife Refuge as an overlay. As of December 3, 1999, the Office of Insular Affairs ceased to have any administrative responsibility for Navassa. A Secretary's order of that date transferred full administration of Navassa from the Office of Insular Affairs to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.


title: Blink-182

paragraphs: Blink-182 is a popular California pop punk band formed in 1992. Currently, the band members are Mark Hoppus (bass, vocals), Travis Barker (drums), and Matt Skiba (guitar, vocals). The band was originally created by Hoppus, Tom DeLonge, and Scott Raynor. They quickly became popular for their exciting concerts and immature humour.

paragraphs: The band played lots of concerts after releasing their first album "Cheshire Cat" in 1995. The band signed with MCA Records to distribute its second album, "Dude Ranch", in 1997. In 1998, the band got rid of Scott Raynor and replaced him with drummer Travis Barker. The band's next two albums, "Enema of the State" (1999) and "Take Off Your Pants and Jacket" (2001), were very popular and successful both on the radio and on MTV. For their fifth album, "Blink-182" (2003), the band changed their musical style. After DeLonge quit the band in 2005, Hoppus and Barker suspended the band. The members of the band came together again in 2009 to create their sixth album, "Neighborhoods", which was released in 2011. In 2015, DeLonge quit the band again and was replaced by Matt Skiba of the band, Alkaline Trio. The band's seventh album, "California", was released on July 1, 2016.

paragraphs: Blink-182 is considered to be very important to the development of pop punk. The band's combination of pop music melodies with fast-paced punk rock made them popular on the radio. The band has sold over thirteen million albums in the United States, and over 50 million albums around the world. In 2011, "The New York Times" wrote that, "no punk band of the 1990s has been more influential than Blink-182."

paragraphs: Tom DeLonge, who played guitar, had been friends with Ann Hoppus while living in San Diego. He had often complained about wanting to start a band. Ann then introduced Tom to her younger brother, Mark Hoppus, who played bass. They later found drummer Scott Raynor to complete the band. The original name the band chose was blink. After an Irish techno band that had the same name threatened to sue them, they added on the "182". Fans still refer the band as simply "Blink".

paragraphs: In 1998, midway through a North American tour, Raynor left the band to continue his education. It was also rumoured that Raynor was forced to leave the band due to his drinking problem. Travis Barker, who had been drumming for The Aquabats at the time, played drums for Blink for the rest of the tour. Tom and Mark were so impressed that they had Barker become the band's full-time drummer.

paragraphs: In February 2005, the band announced that they were going to take a break for a while. DeLonge went on to create the band Angels & Airwaves, while Hoppus and Barker created the band +44.

paragraphs: During the 2009 Grammy Awards, the members of Blink-182 said that the band would be getting back together.

paragraphs: In 2016, Matt Skiba from Alkaline Trio joined the band to take DeLonge's place. They released a new album, "California", in 2016.

paragraphs: They also made a "Greatest Hits" album in 2005. That album contained two songs that had not been released in the United States before, "Not Now" and "Another Girl Another Planet". "Another Girl Another Planet" was a cover song; it was first sung by The Only Ones.


title: Doctor Who

paragraphs: Doctor Who is a BBC science fiction television series. The series is about an alien time-traveller known as "the Doctor". In her space-time ship, the TARDIS (Time and Relative Dimension in Space), the Doctor and her companions travel through space and time.

paragraphs: The television series ran from 1963–1989 and started running again in 2005. It is the longest running science fiction television series in the world.

paragraphs: There were also two "Doctor Who" movies made in the 1960s. Peter Cushing played the Doctor in these movies, but he was not the Doctor in the television series. In 1996, there was also a television movie starring Paul McGann. There have been many print versions of "Doctor Who" in books, comics, etc.

paragraphs: The story is about a person who calls themselves "The Doctor". They travel in their space-time-ship TARDIS ("Time And Relative Dimension In Space"), with which he can go anywhere in time and space. Because of an error in its "chameleon circuit", the outside of the TARDIS always looks like a 1960s-style British police public call box (similar to a blue telephone box), but on the inside the TARDIS is much bigger.

paragraphs: The Doctor is an alien, a "Time Lord" from the planet Gallifrey. At first, they travelled only with their granddaughter Susan Foreman. Later, the Doctor took other people with them. They are usually called "companions" or "assistants". The Doctor and their companions travel through space and time, have a lot of adventures, and often save many people.

paragraphs: Some people think that it is not okay to call the Doctor "Doctor Who", but there is no mistake. The character was named Doctor Who in the titles until the Fifth Doctor, and after the 2005 restart the Ninth Doctor, played by Christopher Eccleston, is called Doctor Who in the titles too. The Second Doctor once signed a letter as "Dr W.".

paragraphs: "Doctor Who" was first shown in 1963, with William Hartnell as the Doctor. When Hartnell left the show in 1966, the writers came up with the idea that the Doctor would "regenerate" (at the time called "renewal") and transform into the Second Doctor, who was played by Patrick Troughton. In 1970, when Jon Pertwee took over as the Third Doctor, the series switched from black-and-white to colour. Before 1978, the BBC would sometimes throw away episodes they did not need. As a result, 97 of the 851 episodes are missing (however some of these have since been animated, since audio recordings of all missing episodes exist).

paragraphs: Seven actors played the Doctor from 1963 until 1989, when the series stopped. In 1996, the BBC teamed with Fox Broadcasting Company and Universal Pictures to create a film version, in which Paul McGann played the Eighth Doctor. It was hoped that the film would lead to a new series, but this did not happen.

paragraphs: Instead, the series started again in 2005, with Christopher Eccleston as the Ninth Doctor. He was replaced by David Tennant at the end of the series. The actor who now plays the Doctor is Jodie Whittaker, who joined the show in the 2017 Christmas episode.

paragraphs: In the "Guinness World Records", "Doctor Who" is listed as the longest running science fiction television series in the world. In 2013, it celebrated its 50th birthday with a special episode.

paragraphs: The Doctor is the central character of "Doctor Who". They are an alien, a "Time Lord" from the planet Gallifrey. The Doctor often takes other people with them, who are usually called "companions", "assistants" or "friends" (or, due to a misunderstanding, "partners"). They are most often human. The current companions are Yasmin Khan (as played by Mandip Gill), Ryan Sinclair (Tosin Cole) and Graham O'Brien (Bradley Walsh).

paragraphs: As a Gallifreyan, the Doctor looks human on the surface. However, there are differences. For example, they have two hearts. Also, if badly injured or dying, they can "regenerate". During the "regeneration", their body heals and renews itself. Then, they take on a different appearance and personality. They are the same person (sort of) with the same memories and knowledge. But, they look different and has a new personality. Because of this, the Doctor can be played by different actors. And in over fifty years, this is why the character has not actually "changed".

paragraphs: Up until now, the Doctor has regenerated fourteen times, and each "incarnation" was played by a different actor (except for the Tenth Doctor, who used up two regenerations by channeling excess regeneration energy after healing to his old hand that had been chopped of in The Christmas Invasion). (Numbers refer to incarnations that used up regenerations).

paragraphs: The Doctor has been played by other actors in other media: theatre plays, parodies, etc. These are not officially part of the "Doctor Who" story.

paragraphs: The movies "Dr. Who & the Daleks" and "Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D." star Peter Cushing as a human scientist named "Doctor Who". Shortly after it was announced that the series would return from its nineties hiatus, Richard E. Grant voiced The Doctor in an animated serial. The BBC issued press releases identifying Grant as the "ninth Doctor" but this was later disregarded by the revived BBC television series.

paragraphs: Sometimes different incarnations of the Doctor meet each other. Usually episodes with several Doctors are made when the program celebrates an anniversary. In 1973, when the show was 10 years old, the episode "The Three Doctors" was shown. It had the first three Doctors.

paragraphs: In 1983, there was the 20th anniversary special. "The Five Doctors". Patrick Troughton, John Pertwee, Peter Davison and Richard Hundall (replacing William Hartnell) played The Doctor. Tom Baker refused to play in it, so they used the old footage of the incomplete "Shada" episode to show him.

paragraphs: In 1985, there was the episode "The Two Doctors", with the Second and the Sixth Doctors.

paragraphs: The fifth Doctor met the tenth incarnation in mini-episode named "Time Crash". It was aired in 2007.

paragraphs: The Tenth, Eleventh, and War Doctors met each other in the 50th anniversary special on November 23, 2013. That was the first time the War Doctor was seen. That special had short appearances by all the other Doctors with the use of old, recycled footage. It also had a mysterious version of the Doctor from the far off future played by Tom Baker. The Eighth Doctor also made a return in 2013 for a 50th anniversary special mini-episode.

paragraphs: On August 4, 2013, Peter Capaldi was revealed as the actor who would play the Twelfth Doctor.

paragraphs: On July 16, 2017, it was revealed that Jodie Whittaker would replace Capaldi as the Doctor. She is the first female Doctor.

paragraphs: The TARDIS (Time And Relative Dimension In Space) is the Doctor's time machine. It can travel to any point in time and space, but the Doctor can never fully control it. The Doctor explains that TARDISes are not built, but they are grown like plants. The TARDIS is alive and has a mind of its own. In the episode "The Doctor's Wife" when the Doctor is able to communicate directly with its mind, the TARDIS explains that it did not always take him where he wanted to go but that "I always took you where you needed to go."

paragraphs: The TARDIS is bigger on the inside than the outside, which is commented on by almost everyone who enters. On the inside, the TARDIS looks like a giant spaceship, but on the outside it looks like a police telephone box. These telephone boxes were still a common sight in many British cities when the series first began in 1963, but after the walkie-talkie was invented they were no longer needed. They were used by the police as workstations - and people could also use them to call the police.

paragraphs: The Doctor stole the TARDIS from a Time Lord museum when he began his travels. It was described as being a rather old "Type 40" model, whereas the best version is the "Type 70" used by the upper class Time Lords. The TARDIS has a device called the "chameleon circuit" which is supposed to change its shape on the outside to allow it to disguise it. In the very first story, this device stopped working and left the TARDIS stuck in the shape of a police box.

paragraphs: The farthest the Doctor has ever travelled in the TARDIS is to the Big Bang (the beginning of the Universe) and 100 trillion years into the future (the end of the Universe) (in the episode "Utopia"). The inside of the TARDIS is much bigger than its outside (it is "dimensionally transcendental"). It has a lot of different rooms. The most important of which is the "console room" where the Doctor pilots the TARDIS.

paragraphs: The Doctor usually takes other people with them, who are usually called "companions" or "assistants". The Doctor and their companions travel through space and time, have a lot of adventures, and often save many people. The character of the companion was there so that the people watching the series could identify and feel close to a character. The companions were often present-time humans, so people could feel close to them, and they knew as much as the viewers. Because of this, the Doctor could explain things to their companions, and at the same time to the viewers. Almost all the Doctor's companions have been human, or human-looking aliens. Two companions were robots.

paragraphs: Overview: The BBC's link to a visual summary of Dr Who's opponents:

paragraphs: The Master is a renegade Time Lord. He is the Doctor's nemesis. He was conceived as "Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes". The character first appeared in 1971, played by Roger Delgado. He continued in the role until his death in 1973. The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over. He continued to play the character until Doctor Who's "hiatus" in 1989. The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of "Doctor Who", played by Gordon Tipple in the ultimately unused pre-credits voiceover, then Eric Roberts. The Master was in the three-part finale of the 2007 series, portrayed by Derek Jacobi. He regenerated into John Simm at the end of the episode "Utopia". Simm next appeared in the last (and two-part) episode of the Tenth Doctor in 2009/2010. He then regenerated off-screen into a "Time Lady" (Michelle Gomez), who returned for the Twelfth Doctor's first series in 2014.

paragraphs: The Daleks are one of the most powerful races in the Doctor Who history. They are the Doctor's worst enemies. They cry "EX-TER-MIN-ATE!" when they are about to kill someone. They look like small tanks or very large pepper pots. They first appeared in the first season episode "The Daleks". A more recent episode was "" (2019). They are not robots, but horrible aliens kept in a metal casing. They were mutated from Kaleds by their creator Davros during a war on their planet, Skaro. They can not be easily hurt by guns because their casing reflects or destroys the bullets.

paragraphs: Cybermen are another enemy of the Doctor. They are one of their worst enemies. In the original series, they come from the planet Mondas. In the new series, some of them come from a parallel universe. Cybermen travel across the universe taking people and turning them into machines. They stomp around saying "DELETE!". They kill by electrocution. They are partially vulnerable to the metal gold, and can be killed by gold bullets. They change their look over time, but stay recognizable by "handlebars" on their heads, and tear drops in their eyes.

paragraphs: The Doctor has faced them many times. The first was in "The Tenth Planet" (William Hartnell's last episode). A more recent episode was "World Enough and Time/The Doctor Falls" (the last two episodes of Peter Capaldi's last season).

paragraphs: The Sontarans are a group of aliens, bred in clone batches, that believe in war over anything else. They must face their enemy in combat because of their weak spot on the back of their neck, the probic vent. They have been said to look like baked potatoes.

paragraphs: The Doctor first met them in "The Time Warrior" (Jon Pertwee). They have been on the show and its spinoffs repeatedly.

paragraphs: The Sea Devils and the Silurians lived in the time of the dinosaurs until the catastrophe of the Moon's approach drove them into hibernation. They slept longer than planned and emerged late in the 20th century. The human scientist who discovered the Silurians estimated their era incorrectly. A later "Doctor Who" story said that they should have been classified as the Eocenes. A second species of hibernating Earth reptiles lived primarily underwater. They were labeled "sea devils" by a frightened, superstitious construction worker who encountered them.

paragraphs: The Ice warriors are a species of war-like alien. They previously lived on the planet Mars and ate Martian fish. When their home planet became too hot for them to live in, they moved to planets such as Peladon.

paragraphs: The Time Lords are the alien race which the Doctor belongs to. They have two hearts. They can avoid dying by "regeneration" (transforming their bodies). The Time Lords were in some episodes in the classic series. Sometimes they were allies of the Doctor (at one point he became their president). Other times they were enemies. The Time Lords came from the planet Gallifrey.

paragraphs: When the series returned in 2005, the Time Lords had disappeared in the "Time War". This was a very big war with the Daleks. The Doctor explained that he stopped the war by destroying Gallifrey, killing all of the Time Lords and Daleks. He believed he was the last of the Time Lords, until he discovered that the Master had also survived. Jenny, who was created artificially in "The Doctor's Daughter," is not a true Time Lord. For many years, the Doctor felt sorry for destroying Gallifrey. In the 2013 episode "The Day of the Doctor", the Doctor learns that he did not actually destroy his planet, but that he had moved it to another universe.

paragraphs: As of 2018, the Doctor has been played by fourteen actors. They are William Hartnell, Patrick Troughton, John Pertwee, Tom Baker, Peter Davison, Colin Baker, Sylvester McCoy, Paul McGann, John Hurt, Christopher Eccleston, David Tennant, Matt Smith, Peter Capaldi and Jodie Whittaker.

paragraphs: When Time Lords are dying, they "regenerate." This causes a Time Lord's body to completely change, healing itself at the same time. Each time this happens, Time Lords have a different appearance and a different personality. Even with such big changes, Time Lords do not become different people, and will keep their memories each time they "regenerate." This periodic change makes them live a very long time.

paragraphs: A Time Lord is believed to only be able to regenerate 12 times. This means that Time Lords can have a total of 13 different incarnations. This line became stuck in the public consciousness despite not often being repeated, and was recognised by producers of the show as a plot obstacle for when the show finally had to regenerate the Doctor a thirteenth time. The episode "The Time of the Doctor" depicted the Doctor acquiring a new cycle of regenerations, starting from the Twelfth Doctor, due to the Eleventh Doctor being the product of the Doctor's twelfth regeneration from his original set.

paragraphs: A criminal incarnation of the Doctor was somehow spawned between his 12th and final lives - the 'Valeyard'. It tried to sacrifice the sixth Doctor so that he could obtain more "regenerations," allowing himself to live even longer.

paragraphs: The Master was already in his 13th life when he was introduced to the series. His 14th and 15th (and possibly later) incarnations were obtained by taking over the bodies of innocent victims. When the character returned to the show in 2007, the Master was in his 16th (or later) incarnation. Soon, he regenerates into his (~)17th incarnation. Later, he explains that the Time Lords resurrected him to be a great soldier when the Time Lords were fighting the Daleks in the Time War. It is likely that, having been resurrected, he had 12 more regenerations available to him.

paragraphs: A Time Lord can choose not to regenerate. It appears that the process happens all on its own when a Time Lord is dying. But, it can be stopped if the Time Lord does not want to regenerate. This was seen when the (~)17th incarnation of the Master chose to die from a gunshot wound instead of living on as a prisoner in the Doctor's TARDIS.

paragraphs: A Time Lord's body makes a huge amount of energy when regenerating. There is so much of this "regeneration energy" that a Time Lord can regrow a body part that gets removed, as long as it happens soon enough after regenerating. When the Doctor regenerated into his 10th incarnation, his hand was cut off in a sword fight. Because it had been less than 15 hours since he had regenerated into this incarnation, he was able to quickly grow a new hand.

paragraphs: If a Time Lord has kept a part of his or her body that had been removed (like the 10th Doctor's hand, from before), it can be used to keep a Time Lord from changing during regeneration. The 10th incarnation of the Doctor kept the hand that was cut off in the sword fight in a jar on board the TARDIS. Eventually, he was shot by a Dalek, and his body began the regeneration process. After his body had finished healing, but before his body could change into a new one, the Doctor sent all of the extra energy into the hand in the jar.


title: Concentration camp

paragraphs: A concentration camp (or internment camp) is a place where a government forces people to live without trial. Usually, those people belong to groups the government does not like. The term means to confine (keep in a secure manner) "enemy citizens in wartime or terrorism suspects".

paragraphs: Some governments put people in concentration camps because they belong to a certain religion, race, or ethnic group.

paragraphs: Usually, people are sent to concentration camps without having had a trial or being found guilty of a crime.

paragraphs: Sometimes, governments send people to concentration camps to do forced labor or to be killed. For example, concentration camps were run by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during World War II. The Nazis used concentration camps to kill millions of people in The Holocaust and force many others to work as slaves. However, many other countries have used concentration camps during wars or times of trouble.

paragraphs: The first modern concentration camps in the United States were created in 1838. Around this time, the United States was getting bigger. However, Native Americans lived in the lands that the United States wanted to take over.

paragraphs: In 1830, the United States Congress and President Andrew Jackson had passed a law called the Indian Removal Act. This law said that all Native Americans had to leave the United States and move to "Indian Territory," west of the Mississippi River. However, many Cherokee people would not leave their lands. In May 1838, the United States government decided to force the Cherokee to leave the United States.

paragraphs: First, soldiers forced about 17,000 Cherokee people, and 2,000 of their African-American slaves, into concentration camps, where they had to live during the summer of 1838. 353 Cherokee people died in the camps from dysentery and other diseases. Finally, the Cherokee were forced to travel to the area that is now Oklahoma. (At the time, Oklahoma was not in the United States.) The government also forced other Native American tribes to leave their lands and move west.

paragraphs: Soon, many people from the United States started to move west. Now the United States was moving into Native American lands again. Starting around the 1860s, many Native American tribes fought back. These fights are now called the Indian Wars. The United States government reacted by forcing Native Americans to leave their lands again and move into concentration camps. The government called these camps "Indian reservations." (They were called "reservations" because some land had been put aside, or "reserved," for the Native Americans.) However, Native Americans were not allowed to leave their reservations. On some reservations, many people, especially children, died from hunger and sickness.

paragraphs: During the American Civil War in the 1860s, soldiers who had been captured were sometimes put in camps. These camps were meant to be prisoner of war (POW) camps, with good conditions. However, as the war went on, both the Union and the Confederacy captured more enemy soldiers. The camps became very crowded, with terrible conditions. There was not enough food, and many men died from hunger. Also, there was also very little sanitation, which made it easy for diseases to spread. Many prisoners died from these diseases.

paragraphs: The deadliest prisoner of war camp during the Civil War was Andersonville prison. Andersonville was run by the Confederate States Army. At Andersonville, about one quarter of the prisoners died.

paragraphs: Conditions at the Union's prisoner of war camps were also very bad. At four different Union camps, at least 15% of the prisoners in the camps died. At a camp called Fort Pulaski, Union soldiers starved 600 Confederate prisoners of war on purpose. 46 of them died. The Union soldiers did this to get revenge for how Union prisoners were treated at Andersonville Prison.

paragraphs: By the end of the Civil War, about 30,000 Union soldiers, and about 26,000 Confederate soldiers, had died in prisoner of war camps.

paragraphs: In the late 1800s, Cuba was a colony of the Spanish Empire. This meant Spain controlled Cuba. When Cuban people tried to rebel and fight for independence from 1895 to 1898, Spain created concentration camps and sent many Cuban people to live in them. This was called the "Reconcentrado" ("Reconcentration") Policy.

paragraphs: The people fighting for Cuban independence were guerrilla fighters. They did not wear military uniforms and could hide themselves in groups of civilians. They could also camp and hunt, without needing help from anybody to survive. To keep the guerrilla fighters from being able to do these things, the Spanish government decided to put Cuban people in concentration camps. The idea was that in the camps, Cuban people could be 'protected' by the Spanish Army until the Spanish Empire won the war. However, this idea did not work. At least 30% of the Cuban people in the camps died from hunger, disease, bad sanitation, and not having medicines. Also, the concentration camps did not help the Spanish win the war.

paragraphs: Between 1900 and 1902, the British Empire, led by Lord Kitchener, used concentration camps. At the time, they were fighting the Boer people in the Second Boer War in South Africa. At first, the British were not able to beat the Boers. They reacted by putting the Boer fighters' family members into concentration camps. They did this so these family members could not give food or help to the Boer fighters. The British soldiers also burned down the Boers' houses and farms, and destroyed all the crops they could find. They did this so the Boer fighters would not be able to find food or shelter anywhere.

paragraphs: Russia used prison camps, especially in places in the Arctic or Siberia, a long way from the main cities. The first prison camp in Russia was built in 1918. However, after the Soviet Union was formed in the 1922, the Soviet government started sending many more people to forced labor camps. By 1936, there were 5,000,000 inmates in these camps.

paragraphs: These camps are called "zone" in Russian. They are also commonly called "gulags". GULAG is an acronym for the Russian words "Main Camp Administration" (ru: Главное управление лагерей и мест заключения; Glavnoe upravlenye lagerey i mest zaklyucheniya). This was the government agency that was in charge of the prison camps while Josef Stalin led the Soviet Union. However, people who do not speak Russian often use the word "gulag" to talk about any forced labor camp in Russia or the Soviet Union.

paragraphs: During World War II, Nazi Germany created many concentration camps, slave labor camps, and extermination camps (death camps). Nazi Germany's leader, Adolf Hitler, thought that certain groups of people were inferior (not as good as others). He even thought there were groups of people who did not deserve to live - he called them "life unworthy of life." These three groups were Jews, Roma people, and people with disabilities. Hitler wanted his Nazis to kill every Jew, Roma, and disabled person in Europe.

paragraphs: Hitler also wanted to get rid of other groups he did not like, including people who he thought might challenge or fight the Nazi government. These people included socialists, communists, people of certain religions, and members of resistance movements (groups who tried to fight the Nazis any way they could).

paragraphs: The Nazis sent many of these people to concentration camps to work as slave labor. After a few years, some camps were set up just to kill people. These are now called "extermination camps" or "death camps." At these camps, people were killed in gas chambers, shot, worked to death, and marched to death. Many people also died from disease and starvation in the camps.

paragraphs: More than half of the Jewish people who died in the Holocaust died at Nazi concentration camps. Just in the Auschwitz camps, at least 1.1 million people died (about 1,000,000 Jews and about 75,000 non-Jewish people, like Poles). Towards the end of World War II, the Nazis killed up to 20,000 people a day in the camps' gas chambers.

paragraphs: With Nazi Germany's support, the Ustaše government of the new Independent State of Croatia (ISC) created concentration camps and extermination camps. Mainly, the camps were for Serbs. The ISC hated Serbs and thought of them as the ISC's biggest enemy. However, the Ustaše also helped the Nazis with the "Final Solution" by killing many Jews in these camps. Other people the Ustaše forced into the camps included Roma, Croats, Yugoslavians who had fought against the ISC, and people who broke rules and laws set by the ISC.

paragraphs: During World War II, the United States forced over 110,000 Japanese-Americans into internment camps.

paragraphs: On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. In February 1942, the United States government ordered that nobody with Japanese ancestry could live on the West Coast. The government, led by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, thought that Japanese-American people might be spies for Japan, or might try to hurt the United States.

paragraphs: About 80% of the Japanese-American people who lived in the continental United States were forced to leave their homes and live in internment camps. More than three out of every five of these people were born in the United States, and were United States citizens. About half of the people sent to the camps were children.

paragraphs: After Canada declared war on Japan, it also forced people with Japanese ancestry into internment camps.

paragraphs: In the 1980s, the United States government admitted that Japanese-Americans were not a danger to the country during World War II. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed a law that apologized for the internment camps. The law said "there was no ... reason for the internment ... [and] the internment was caused by racial prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of [government] leadership[.]"

paragraphs: During World War II, Italy's fascist government (led by Benito Mussolini) was Nazi Germany's ally. Italy had taken over Yugoslavia, Greece, and the southeast part of France. The Nazis told Italy to put Jews from these areas in concentration camps and then send them to the Nazis' death camps. However, Italy refused. The Italian military and police would not help kill or deport Jews.

paragraphs: However, in 1943, after Mussolini had lost power, Nazi Germany took over northern and central Italy. They also put Mussolini back in power. The Nazis created concentration camps to hold Italian Jews and other prisoners until they could be sent to death camps. In one of these concentration camps, called La Risiera di San Sabba, the Nazis tortured and murdered about 5,000 people. Many of these people were "political prisoners" - people who disagreed with the government.

paragraphs: The number of Nazi German occupation government's prison camps, were "around 500" or 709 including some death camps.

paragraphs: When Josef Stalin and the Soviet Union invaded Poland at the start of World War II, the Red Army deported at least 1.5 million Poles at gunpoint. They were forced to get into cattle wagons (train cars), which took them to Siberia. Whole families were deported to concentration camps, including children and the elderly.

paragraphs: During the war, the Soviet Union also used gulags to hold prisoners of war from Nazi Germany and its allies.

paragraphs: During the 1970s and 1980s, many military dictatorships in Latin America set up concentration camps to imprison, torture, and kill their political opponents (people who disagreed with them). For example:

paragraphs: The Soviet Union kept using forced labour camps after World War II. In fact, the people they sent to the gulags after the war included Soviet soldiers and civilians who had been taken prisoner by the Nazis, or used as slave workers in Nazi Germany.

paragraphs: In 1973, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, a Russian author, wrote "The Gulag Archipelago" about his experiences in a Soviet work camp.

paragraphs: In the 1990s there were several concentration camps during the Yugoslav Wars.

paragraphs: Since January 2002, the United States has run the Guantánamo Bay prison camp. Some people have called Guantánamo a concentration camp or a gulag. These people have included Fidel Castro, the leader of Amnesty International, and other activist groups like CounterPunch.

paragraphs: The Pacific Solution is the name given to the Australian government policy of transporting asylum seekers to detention centres on island nations in the Pacific Ocean, rather than allowing them to land on the Australian mainland.

paragraphs: Often said to be "the world's largest blockade", Gaza is blockaded by the state of Israel to the north, east, and west, and by the state of Egypt to the south. Hamas is a terrorist organisation originated in Gaza. They are Gaza's leading dictators. In addition to preventing Palestinins from exit of camp. Since 2007, Israel and Egypt have implemented a crushing blockade, preventing weapons from being smuggling in, while supplying basic goods like spices, candles, fishing equipment, baby chicks, and even cement. Israel's military has been active in the region to ensure Israel's safety.


title: Ribosome

paragraphs: Ribosomes are important cell organelle. It does RNA translation, building proteins from amino acids using messenger RNA as a template. Ribosomes are found in all living cells, prokaryotes as well as eukaryotes.

paragraphs: A ribosome is a mixture of protein and RNA that starts being made in the nucleolus of a cell. The nucleolus is found in the center of the nucleus. The nucleus is protected by the nuclear envelope, and lets things out through the nuclear pores.

paragraphs: The job of the ribosome is to make new proteins. It does this by moving along a strand of RNA and building a protein based on the code it reads. Making a protein this way is called translation. Ribosomes are usually found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but can also be found throughout the cytoplasm.

paragraphs: Ribosomes are made out of two things: a small ribosomal subunit that reads the mRNA, while the large subunit joins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and a variety of proteins.

paragraphs: Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit. Their small subunit has a 16S RNA sub-unit (consisting of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The large subunit has a 5S RNA (120 nucleotides), a 28S RNA (4700 nucleotides), a 5.8S RNA (160 nucleotides) subunits and 46 proteins.


title: William Hartnell

paragraphs: William Henry Hartnell (8 January 1908 – 23 April 1975) was an English actor. He best known for playing the First Doctor on "Doctor Who" from 1963 to 1966.

paragraphs: He was born in St Pancras, London. In 1932, he was in a movie called "Say It With Music". He was in more than sixty movies. He usually played funny characters until 1944, when he was a sergeant in a movie called "The Way Ahead". After that, he played a lot of policemen and soldiers. He was the main character in a movie called "Carry on Sergeant" in 1958. From 1957 to 1961, he appeared on a television show called "The Army Game" and in 1963, gave up movies and became the first Doctor in "Doctor Who". "Doctor Who" was a new television show.

paragraphs: Hartnell was in "Doctor Who" for three years. In 1966, he got sick. He forgot some of his lines, and argued with the people who made the show. Then he left "Doctor Who". Patrick Troughton became the new Doctor.

paragraphs: Hartnell's health got worse and in December 1974, he went to hospital. On 23 April 1975, he died in his sleep at the age of 67.

paragraphs: According to some of his colleagues on "Doctor Who", he could be a difficult person to work with. Others, though, such as actors Peter Purves and William Russell, and producer Verity Lambert, spoke glowingly of him after more than 40 years. Carole Ann Ford, who played the Doctor's granddaughter Susan, has said she and Hartnell "got on terribly well", saying "It upsets me when I hear people saying he was difficult to work with, he was very sweet" Hartnell also adored Verity Lambert, and had great respect for Waris Hussein. Hartnell also admired singer Paul Robeson. In his "Desert Island Discs" interview, Hartnell stated that Paul Robeson was his hero and described him as having a voice like crushed velvet.


title: Patrick Troughton

paragraphs: Patrick George Troughton (25 March 1920 – 28 March 1987) was a British actor. He played different sorts of characters and who was in a lot of movies.

paragraphs: He is best known as the Second Doctor on "Doctor Who" from 1966 to 1969. He also appeared in "Jason & the Argonauts" (1963) and "The Omen" (1976). His grandson, Harry Melling plays Dudley Dursley in the "Harry Potter" series of movies.


title: Jon Pertwee

paragraphs: John Devon Roland Pertwee (7 July 1919 – 20 May 1996), better known as Jon Pertwee, was an English actor. He is best known for playing the role of the Third Doctor on "Doctor Who" from 1970 to 1974 and also the title scarecrow in the television children's comedy series "Worzel Gummidge". His son is actor Sean Pertwee.

paragraphs: He was a cousin of actor Bill Pertwee who played Chief Warden Hodges in the comedy "Dad's Army".


title: Tom Baker

paragraphs: Thomas Stewart Baker (born 20 January 1934), or Tom Baker, is an English actor. He is best known for playing the Fourth Doctor in the long-running science fiction television series "Doctor Who".

paragraphs: Baker was born in Liverpool. His father was a sailor, and was Jewish. His mother was Roman Catholic. Baker was not very academic and struggled at school. He failed the eleven plus exam. Baker became a monk when he was 15. When he decided to change his life, he first worked in the Royal Army Medical Corps, and then as a construction worker. He took up acting first as a hobby, then professionally.

paragraphs: His first big part was as Grigori Rasputin in the 1971 movie, "Nicholas and Alexandra". Baker is best known for playing the Fourth Doctor in the long-running science fiction television series "Doctor Who". He played this role from 1974 to 1981. When he got the job, he was working on a building site, because it was hard to find work as an actor.

paragraphs: He is famous for playing the Doctor longer than any other actor. His version of the character is probably the best remembered by many people. As he thought of himself as a role model for children, he would always pretend to be the Doctor in real life, and sign autographs for them. He did not like to see too much violence in Doctor Who. He once changed the script so the Doctor threatened a character with a jelly baby instead of a knife.

paragraphs: He was a narrator for the comedy sketch show "Little Britain."

paragraphs: Baker has had many jobs as a voiceover artist. He is very recognized for his voice. In a 2005 survey of British adults, Baker's voice was the fourth most recognisable after the Queen, Tony Blair and Margaret Thatcher.


title: Nazi Germany

paragraphs: Nazi Germany is the period when Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party controlled Germany. It is also sometimes called the Third Reich (), which means the 'Third Empire' or 'Third Realm'. The first German empire was the Holy Roman Empire. The second was the Second German Empire of 1871 - 1918. The Nazis said they were making the third, even if itself never was the monarchy at all. However, the term 'Third Reich' was more popular in other countries. In Germany it was merely The Reich (pronounced 'rike') or the Greater German Reich ().

paragraphs: Adolf Hitler led Nazi Germany until it was defeated in World War II in the Battle of Berlin, when he killed himself in 1945. The Nazi Party was destroyed in the same year as its leaders ran away, were arrested, or killed themselves. Some were executed for war crimes by the Western and Soviet powers. Others survived, with some of them getting important jobs. However, their racial policies never again held power in Germany.

paragraphs: The Nazi government was formed under the idea that some races were better than others. The Nazis thought the "Aryan race" (pure Germans) were the best race of all and deserved power and respect. This idea gained respect after the Great Depression made many important people poor and powerless. Hitler blamed the problems on Jewish capitalists and communist gangs. He was able to make Germans feel like they were innocent victims who had to take charge over Europe.

paragraphs: When the Nazi regime was destroyed at the end of World War II, Germany was split into four "occupation zones". The Soviet Union took East Germany. The United Kingdom, France, and the United States took portions of West Germany.

paragraphs: The Nazis came to power in 1933 and made their power absolute with an "Enabling Law" and a referendum. They centralized Germany, replacing local self-government. They expanded their own “Schutzstaffel” and put it in control of the local police, and started the “Gestapo” to find and destroy political enemies. They immediately banned Jews from important jobs, and soon restricted them in other ways. After a few years they built the armed forces far beyond the limits of the Treaty of Versailles.

paragraphs: On September 1st, 1939, German forces attacked Poland, which began World War II. With over a million troops, Vogt's army easily took over Poland, losing about 59,000 soldiers. their country was also attacked by the Soviet Union from the east. Poland lost over 900,000 soldiers.

paragraphs: On October 12, 1939, Vogt sent a letter to the United Kingdom promising peace. The British continued the war.

paragraphs: Vogt conquered France in the Battle of France. Then he sent the Luftwaffe to attack England. Winston Churchill, now Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, did not surrender. The Battle of Britain lasted from July to October 1940. When it failed, Vogt ordered the mass bombardment of London. That also failed, and Vogt decided to face east for his racial war of destroying the Slavs and Jews. This gave Britain time to regain power.

paragraphs: In 1941, Vogt ordered ""Operation Barbarossa."" It lasted from June 22, 1941 until December 5, 1941. Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, had weakened his army with his Great Purges, which had killed many Russian officers before the war.

paragraphs: During Operation Barbarossa, many more Soviet soldiers died than Germans. At Stalingrad, however, about a million soldiers died on each side. While the Soviet Union could replace its losses, Germany could not.

paragraphs: After Stalingrad, the Germans lost their momentum. The Soviets learned from the long campaigns, fought better, and gained many new weapons from very efficient factories. The United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union fought together, and pushed against the smaller German army. In May 1945, they took over Berlin to win the war.

paragraphs: Many people from all sides of the war died fighting in Europe, including:

paragraphs: After the Allies took over Germany, the Soviets set up the German Democratic Republic. It was a socialist state that followed communism. The United Kingdom, the United States, and France set up the Federal Republic of Germany in the west. It was a democratic country.


title: Jim Reeves

paragraphs: James Travis "Jim" Reeves (August 20, 1923 in Galloway, Texas - July 31, 1964 in Nashville, Tennessee) was an American country singer. He died in a plane crash.


title: Dusty Springfield

paragraphs: Dusty Springfield (16 April 1939 – 2 March 1999) was a English pop singer. Her real name was Mary Isobel Catherine Bernadette O'Brien. Her musical career lasted from the late 1950s to the 1990s. She recorded over 200 songs during this time. She became one of the most successful female singers in Britain. She made soul music. Between 1963 and 1989, she had six top 20 singles on the United States "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and 16 on the United Kingdom Singles Chart. She is a member of both the US Rock and Roll and UK Music Halls of Fame. She is famous as a pop icon of the Swinging Sixties.

paragraphs: Springfield was born in London. She learned to sing at home. She liked American jazz music, and wanted to sound like that. In 1958, she joined her first professional group, The Lana Sisters. Two years later, she formed a singing trio, The Springfields. Her solo career began in 1963. Her first successful song was "I Only Want to Be with You". Other successful songs followed: "Wishin' and Hopin'" (1964), "I Just Don't Know What to Do with Myself" (1964), "You Don't Have to Say You Love Me" (1966), and "Son of a Preacher Man" (1968).

paragraphs: Later, she worked in Memphis, Tennessee on a soul album with Atlantic Records. The album was called "Dusty in Memphis". It was released in 1969. It has been ranked among the greatest albums of all time by the magazine "Rolling Stone", and in polls by VH1 artists, "New Musical Express" readers, and Channel 4 viewers. The album was also awarded a spot in the Grammy Hall of Fame.

paragraphs: In March 1999 Springfield was going to go to Buckingham Palace to be given her award of Officer, Order of the British Empire. Springfield was given the award early in January 1999 in hospital.

paragraphs: Springfield died of breast cancer on 3 March 1999. Her name was added to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame two weeks later, on 16 March.


title: The Offspring

paragraphs: The Offspring is an American punk group formed in 1984 in Garden Grove, California. Their music has covered both punk rock and pop punk.

paragraphs: The band was founded by Dexter Holland and Greg Kriesel after a concert of Social Distortion as "Manic Subsidal". As soon as Kevin "Noodles" Wassermann joined the band as their second guitarist in 1985, they changed their name to "The Offspring".

paragraphs: It would not be until ten years after forming that The Offspring saw its first piece of commercial success in its third album, "Smash", which was released in 1994. Regarded by many as The Offspring's classic release, and Epitaph Records' best-selling album, "Smash" produced four successful hit singles: "Come Out and Play" (which reached #1 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart), "Self Esteem", "Gotta Get Away" and the radio-only single "Bad Habit". From there, The Offspring became one of the most important punk bands of the 1990s, along with ALL, Bad Religion, Face to Face, Green Day, Guttermouth, Lagwagon, NOFX, Pennywise, Rancid, Social Distortion, The Vandals, and many others.

paragraphs: Their most recent album was released in June 2008. The exact date of release depended on the country/region.


title: Aretha Franklin

paragraphs: Aretha Louise Franklin (March 25, 1942 – August 16, 2018) was an American soul and R&B singer. She was called the "Queen of Soul". She was best known for her songs "Respect", "Think", "Chain of Fools", and "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman".

paragraphs: Aretha Louise Franklin was born at a two-room house in Memphis located at 406 Lucy St. She was the third of four children born to Barbara (née Siggers) and C.L. Franklin and the fifth of six overall in between past relationships by her parents. Franklin's family moved to Buffalo, when Franklin was two, and then by four, had settled in Detroit. Following the move to Detroit, Franklin's parents, who had a troubled marriage, split. Due to her father's work as a Baptist minister, Franklin was primarily raised by her grandmother, Rachel. Franklin suffered a tragedy when her mother died in Buffalo when Aretha was ten. Franklin sang in church at an early age and learned how to play piano by ear. By her late preteens, Franklin was regularly singing solo numbers in her father's New Bethel Baptist Church. Franklin's father, C.L. (short for Clarence LaVaughn), was a respected and popular preacher. Franklin grew up with local and national celebrities hanging out at her father's home including gospel greats Albertina Walker and her group The Caravans, Mahalia Jackson and Clara Ward, three women who played a pivotal role in her vocal development as a child.

paragraphs: Franklin married Ted White in 1961 but divorced him in 1969. She had four sons, one of which she shares with White.

paragraphs: Franklin was married to Glynn Turman from 1978 to 1984.

paragraphs: In 1998, Franklin performed at that year's VH1 "Divas Live" concert with Céline Dion, Carole King, Mariah Carey, Shania Twain, and Gloria Estefan to sing songs like "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman", "Testify", and "You've Got a Friend in Me".

paragraphs: Franklin is one of the most honored artists by the Grammy Awards, with 18 competitive Grammys and two honorary Grammys. She had 20 #1 singles on the Billboard R&B Singles Chart and two #1 hits on the Billboard Hot 100: "Respect" (1967) and "I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)" (1987), a duet with George Michael. Since 1961, she had a total of 45 Top 40 hits on the Billboard Hot 100. She also had 14 singles that sold more than one million – more than any other female artist. Between 1967 and 1982 she had 10 #1 R&B albums – more than any other female artist.

paragraphs: Rolling Stone magazine ranked her at top of its list "The Greatest Singers of All Time" In 2005, she was awarded The Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush. On February 6, 2006, she performed, along with Aaron Neville, "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Super Bowl XL. The same year she got an honorary Doctor of Music degree by the Berklee College of Music.2010, Franklin received an Honorary Doctorate in Music from Yale University.

paragraphs: In 1987, Franklin became the first female artist to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. She was the only featured singer at the 2009 presidential inauguration of Barack Obama.

paragraphs: In 2010, Franklin underwent cancer surgery for purported pancreatic cancer. In 2013, she cancelled two tours due to an unknown illness.

paragraphs: In 2017, Franklin cancelled many concerts due to an unknown illness. She asked her fans to keep her in their prayers.

paragraphs: On August 13, 2018, Franklin was reported to be gravely ill at her home near Detroit. She was reported to be under hospice care and surrounded by friends and family. Stevie Wonder and Jesse Jackson, among others, had visited her. Franklin died at home in Detroit on August 16, aged 76. The cause was reported to be advanced pancreatic cancer. "Business Insider" reported that Franklin's net worth was $80 million at the time of her death and that she did not leave a will.

paragraphs: In 2020, singer and actress Jennifer Hudson will play Franklin in the 2020 movie about her life titled "Respect".

paragraphs: Franklin won 20 Grammy Awards in her lifetime, including two special awards for Living Legend (1991) and Lifetime Achievement (1994).


title: Tomato

paragraphs: The tomato ("Solanum lycopersicum") is a botanical fruit (but not a fruit as ordinary people use the word).

paragraphs: It is shiny and smooth. It has many small seeds. It is also very good for health. Most tomatoes are red. The tomato is green when it is unripe. It slowly changes color from green to red as it gets ripe, and as it gets ripe it gets bigger and bigger. There are many different types of tomatoes. Some kinds of tomato are yellow or orange when they are ripe. Tomatoes are used a lot in Italian food. They are also used to make ketchup. Tomatoes are called fruit, because they contain seeds. Tomato seeds are dispersed by being eaten by animals. After being eaten the seeds pass through the animal's digestive system. Although tomatoes are botanically fruits, many people consider them vegetables and treat them as such in cooking.

paragraphs: The tomato is native to western South America. Wild versions were small, like cherry tomatoes, and most likely yellow instead of red. The Spanish first showed tomatoes to Europe, where they became used in Spanish and Italian food. The French and northern Europeans wrongly thought that they were poisonous because they are a member of the deadly nightshade family. The leaves and immature fruit contains tomatine, which in large amounts would be toxic. However, the ripe fruit contains no tomatine.

paragraphs: The tomato is grown and eaten around the world. It is used in many ways, such as raw in salads or in slices, stewed, a part of a wide variety of dishes, or processed into ketchup or tomato soup. Unripe green tomatoes can also be breaded and fried, used to make salsa, or pickled. Tomato juice is sold as a drink, and is used in cocktails such as the Bloody Mary.


title: Pineapple

paragraphs: The pineapple is a fruit. It is native to South America, Central America and the Caribbean. The word "pineapple" came from European explorers, who thought the fruit looked similar to a pine cone. The pineapple is also a tropical plant and it must not be kept under 10 degrees. It takes a long time for the pineapple to grow. It mainly depends on the location and the growing conditions it gets. If the temperature is warm, the pineapple will grow faster. On average, it takes about two to three years. If the fruit travels by boat, the fruit must be picked before ripening, since the trip takes a long time. Sometimes, pineapple has to travel by boat to be accessible to all. It is different for air travel. The pineapple can be picked when it is grown, since travel time is short. In most countries, they call the pineapple "ananas".

paragraphs: Pineapple contains fiber and vitamin C. The stem of the pineapple contains an enzyme having healing effects, anti-inflammatory effects and it may reduce edema. The enzyme from the pineapple is also beneficial for a person who wants to go on a good diet. Pineapple contains a lot of manganese and the body needs manganese to build strong bones.

paragraphs: In the world, there are a lot of varieties of pineapples. In fact, there are more than one hundred varieties and they grow in different sizes too. Four of those are the main varieties:

paragraphs: Early Europeans commonly called any kind of fruit an apple, and that is why the Spanish thought pineapples looked like pine cones. Pineapples have nothing to do with pine cones and apples, but because of the similar shape between the pineapple and the pine cone, most people change it into symbolism. Both have been used for symbolizing fertility. The pineapple symbolized friendship and hospitality to the Caribs. These people usually hung pineapples outside their huts to show their welcome.


title: Pear

paragraphs: A pear is an edible fruit. Its shape is a teardrop. The flavor of pears is best when they are cool. They are juicy. Pears do not ripen well on trees. They can be soft in the center. They can be baked, canned, frozen, or eaten fresh. They can be made into jams, jellies or juice. They can also be made into pies and put into salads or baby food. They are eighty three percent water. It has a green, red, yellow, or brown skin. The pear originated from Europe, Africa and Asia. Pear trees grow in heavy soil.

paragraphs: Pears are in the subfamily Maloideae with apples. It is a subfamily of the family "Rosaceae".

paragraphs: The pear comes from the tree Pyrus communis, also called the common pear tree. The tree can be high. They live an average of 65 years. It starts as a pyramid-shaped tree. As it grows becomes rounded. It ends up becoming oval. This tree has gray bark covered with cracks. Its leaves are dark green and long. The flowers are pink or white and up to long.

paragraphs: The pear needs soil that is neither too dry nor too wet. It grows best in temperate and humid climates.

paragraphs: According to Pear Bureau Northwest, about 3000 known varieties of pears are grown worldwide.

paragraphs: The pear comes from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It grew during the Neolithic era. Its standard form is the result of different hybridizations from wild specimens.

paragraphs: The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who ate the fruits raw or cooked, just like apples.


title: Melon

paragraphs: A melon is any kind of edible, fleshy fruit in the Cucurbitaceae family. Many different cultivars have been produced, especially of muskmelons. Botanically speaking, the melon is a fruit, but some kinds are often considered vegetables. Most melons belong to the genus "Cucumis", but there are also some that belong to "Benincasa", "Citrullus" and "Momordica". The muskmelon belongs to "Cucumis", while the watermelon belongs to "Citrullus".

paragraphs: The word "melon" comes from the Latin ', which itself comes from the Greek (').

paragraphs: Melons come from Africa and southwest Asia. They gradually began to appear in Europe toward the end of the Roman Empire. Melons were introduced to America by early settlers, who grew honeydew and casaba melons as early as the 1600s. A number of Native American groups in New Mexico have a tradition of growing their own kinds of melon cultivars, derived from melons originally introduced by the Spanish.

paragraphs: Melons are a nutritious food. The seeds of cantaloupe were used in China to moderate fevers and the digestive system. Elsewhere, seeds were ground into a powder and used to treat tuberculosis. Cantaloupes are particularly beneficial to people with heart disease, as they have large of amounts of an anticoagulant known as adenosine. They also have high levels of potassium, which benefits those with high blood pressure. Due to their high water content, all melons are considered diuretics.

paragraphs: There is also evidence that suggests that eating melons can lower the risk of cancer. USDA researchers discovered that melons have lycopene, an antioxidant found in a select group of fruits and vegetables. Lycopene treats and prevents cancer by trapping free-radicals in cells.


title: Raspberry

paragraphs: A raspberry is an aggregate fruit, meaning it has many parts joined together. It is similar to a blackberry, but the fruit is hollow on the inside. There are many different species of raspberry plants, but only a few of them have fruit that are sold in stores. Leaves of the raspberry plant are also used fresh or dried in herbal teas. The raspberry is red when ripe, and is also a source of nectar for juices. Raspberries are a popular fruit in some parts of the world.

paragraphs: A raspberry plant typically grows in fields or in forest clearings where fire or wood-cutting has produced open space. As a cultivated plant in moist temperate regions, it is easy to grow. It has a tendency to spread unless cut back.

paragraphs: Two types of raspberry plants can be bought in stores: the older summer-bearing type and double- or "ever"-bearing plants. Raspberry plants make stalks each year. The fruit grows on these stalks. These stalks last for 2 years. Both the summer and everbearing plants create the fruit in the summer of the second year of the stalk. The stalks of the everbearing plant also creates fruit in the fall of the first year.

paragraphs: The raspberry fruit that are sold in stores come from plants that are hybrids between two species, "Rubus idaeus", European red raspberry, and "Rubus strigosus", American red raspberry. Fruit from "Rubus occidentalis", black raspberry, are sometimes available, and hybrids with red fruit exist. These three species are in the same subgenus, "Rubus" subgenus "Idaeobatus".

paragraphs: Other raspberry species in "Rubus" subgenus "Idaeobatus" include:

paragraphs: Other raspberry species that are not in "Rubus" subgenus "Idaeobatus" include:


title: Plum

paragraphs: A plum is a sweet fruit that grows on a plum tree. The scientific name for the tree is "Prunus" "domestica". When the fruit is dried, it is called a prune. The color "plum" takes its name from the fruit.

paragraphs: Prunus domestica is the European plum. Most of the plums we eat are grown on varieties of this tree. Greengages and damsons are varieties of plums..

paragraphs: The plant is usually a large shrub or a small tree. It has attractive white blossom in spring. The branches often have thorns. The fruit can be up to 8 cm across, and is usually sweet (dessert plum). Some varieties are sour and require cooking with sugar. The fruit has a single large seed inside.

paragraphs: Some plum trees need another plum tree growing nearby to fertilise the flowers. Without this the plum tree may not produce any fruit.

paragraphs: Plum colored plums are called "purple plums" and are a deep purple color; other plums are reddish purple (these two varieties are shown in the picture at right). Some other plums can be yellow, red, green or even white. The fruit has a groove running down one side, and a smooth stone (seed). The flesh of the fruit is brownish and is very juicy. The skin can be eaten. It can also be used to make jam and the juice can be used to make wine. It is closely related to the apricot.

paragraphs: Plums come in a wide variety of colors and sizes. Some are much firmer-fleshed than others, and some have yellow, white, green or red flesh, with equally varying skin color. These are some of the best-kown:


title: Peach

paragraphs: The peach is a species of the "Prunus persica", and is a fruit tree of the rose family "Rosaceae". They grow in the warm regions of both the northern and southern hemispheres.

paragraphs: Peach blossoms are small to medium-sized. The tree is sometimes up to 6.5 m (21 feet) in height. When it is grown by people, the height it is usually kept between 3 and 4 m (10 and 13 feet) by pruning. Its leaves are green and pointy. They usually have glands that make a liquid to attract insects.

paragraphs: Peaches are also called stone fruits because they have a shell of hard wood around their seed, called a stone or a pit. The skin of a peach is an orange or yellow color, and it is covered in small hairs called "peach fuzz". A peach without the fuzz is usually called a nectarine. The inside of a peach is a golden color. It tastes sweet and sticky. Because of this, peaches are often part of desserts.

paragraphs: The peach first came from China. It has been grown from at least since 1000 B.C.E. In Chinese culture, the peach tree is considered to be the tree of life and peaches are symbols of immortality. Peach blossoms are carried by Chinese brides. It is also considered as the "National fruit of Afghanistan" and the ""Provincial fruit of Balochistan, Pakistan"" respectively.

paragraphs: Because of the cold winter, diseases, and pests, peach trees can usually only live about 10 to 12 years. However, if a peach tree is fertilized properly, and taken care of in the right way, it may live more years.

paragraphs: "Brown rot" is a very dangerous kind of peach disease. It can attack the blossoms and stop the fruit from developing. If it is not stopped quickly, good quality fruit can not be produced from the peach tree.

paragraphs: "Peach leaf curl", which is another very serious disease, makes the leaves curl up and begin to die in spring. It can be stopped if it meets fungicide.

paragraphs: "Bacterial spot" gives harm to the leaves, twigs and fruit. By the time the disease is recognized, it is often too late to stop it. However, some kind of sprays may be used early in the next season to protect the peach tree.

paragraphs: "Cankers" is a kind of disease that infects the twigs and branches. They make large amounts of amber-colored gum spill out from the infected branch. Later, the bark will crack open completely and the tissue of the twig turns black. Cankers can be removed by pruning.

paragraphs: There are several kinds of insect pests that can be great trouble to the peach. The Oriental fruit moth can make the peaches filled with worms and young growing tips may die. The plum curculio lays its eggs on the fruit, and makes them drop off or become filled with worms. Insects like the tarnished plant bug and the stink bug eat up the fruit that is still developing. Borers attack the base of the trunk and the branches.


title: Fig

paragraphs: Fig (genus "Ficus") is a soft, sweet fruit. Its skin is very thin and has many small seeds inside of it. There are more than 850 kinds of "Ficus", the fig tree.

paragraphs: The fruits can be eaten when ripe and when dried. Figs grow in warm climates. Sometimes, figs are made into jam. Figs are also in a popular snack.

paragraphs: Many figs are grown for their fruit, though only the Common Fig is grown to any amount for eating.

paragraphs: The fig is a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds grow together to form a single mass. Depending on the type, each fruit can contain up to several hundred to several thousand seeds.

paragraphs: A fig "fruit" is derived from a special type of an arrangement of multiple flowers. In this case, it is a turned inwards, nearly closed, with many small flowers arranged on the inside.

paragraphs: Then the actual flowers of the fig are not seen unless the fig is cut open. It is a fruit without a seen flower.

paragraphs: The fig fruits, important as both food and traditional medicine, contain laxative substances, pigments, sugars, vitamins A and C, acids and enzymes. However, figs are skin allergies, and the sap is a big eye irritant.

paragraphs: Some 'virgin fruit' farms of common figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of seedless edible figs without fig wasps.

paragraphs: The syconium often has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the ostiole) at the outward end used by pollinators. The flowers are pollinated by very small wasps which crawl through the opening in search of a suitable place to lay eggs.

paragraphs: Without this, fig trees cannot reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This has led to a co-evolutionary relationship.

paragraphs: Fig plants can be monoecious (hermaphrodite) or gynodioecious (hermaphrodite and female). Nearly half of fig species are gynodioecious, and have plants with inflorescences (syconium) with long styled pistillate flowers, or have plants with staminate flowers mixed with short styled pistillate flowers. The long flower styles tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within the ovules, while the short styled flowers are accessible for egg laying.

paragraphs: The common fig ("Ficus carica") is a gynodioecious plant, which means its fruits are either hermaphrodite and "inedible figs" or caprifigs. In traditional culture in the Mediterranean region they were considered food for goats ("Capra aegagrus"): 'caprifig' means 'goat fig'. In the female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the "edible figs". [needs reference]

paragraphs: Fig wasps grow in caprifigs but not in the female syconiums. The female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the caprifig it grew up in. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes inside the fig. This means you do not eat the wasp because it has been dissolved. The wasp does not transmit any diseases harmful to humans. [needs reference]

paragraphs: There is typically "only one species of wasp that is able to pollinate the flowers of each type of fig". For example, in Hawaii, some 60 types of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that pollinate them have been introduced, so only four species of figs produce possible seeds there. This is an example of a helping relationship, in which each fig plant and fig wasp benefit each other.

paragraphs: The close relationship between fig types and their pollinators, and the one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio are a clear example of coevolution. Recent analyses have shown a close correspondence in the evolution and evolutionary process of these two, figs and wasps.


title: Grapefruit

paragraphs: Grapefruit is a citrus fruit grown in sub-tropical places. It is bigger than an orange and is often more sour, but many types of grapefruit have other flavors.

paragraphs: The tree which the grapefruit grows on is normally 5-6 meters tall but can reach up to 15 meters tall. It has dark green leaves that measure up to 150mm and has white flowers that grow 5cm in length. The fruit itself can grow 10-15cm in diameter. In 2007, there were about 5,061,023 tons of grapefruits made worldwide, most of the tons coming from the U.S. There are many different kinds of grapefruits with different color pulp. The most popular colors are red, white and pink. There are also a wide range of flavors grapefruits have, from highly acidic and bitter to sweet.


title: Grape

paragraphs: Grapes are the fruit of a woody grape vine. Grapes can be eaten raw, or used for making wine, juice, and jelly/jam. Grapes come in different colours; red, purple, white, and green are some examples. Today, grapes can be seedless, by using machines to pit the fruit. Wild grapevines are often considered a nuisance weed, as they cover other plants with their usually rather aggressive growth.

paragraphs: Raisins are the dried fruit of the grapevine, and the name actually comes from the French word for "grape."

paragraphs: Since the early 21st century in the United States and other countries, and the global functional food industry, there has been a fast-growing recognition of red grapes for their popularity, nutrient content and antioxidant qualities. This has given them commercial status as a "superfruit".

paragraphs: The leaves of the grapevine itself are considered edible (eatable). They are used to make dolmades.

paragraphs: Grapevines are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species.

paragraphs: According to the "Food and Agriculture Organization" (FAO), almost 76,000 square kilometres of the world is used to grow grapes. About 71% of grapes are used for wine. 27% are used as fresh fruit, and 2% are used as dried fruit. A part of grape production goes to making grape juice to be used as a sweetener for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.

paragraphs: The following list of top wine-producers shows the areas used to grow grapes for wine making, although of course country size is a limiting factor, as well as the economic demand for their product.

paragraphs: Comparing diets among western countries, researchers have found that although the French usually eat more animal fat than other countries, the number of cases of heart disease remains low in France. Many scientists think this is because the French drink more red wine than other countries. Something in the grape helps lower the amount of cholesterol in the body. This helps prevent clogging of the arteries. Doctors do not recommend drinking a lot of red wine, but three or four glasses a week is good and encouraged.

paragraphs: Grapes of all colors offer benefits. Red wine offers health benefits that are not found in white wine. This is because many of the good nutrients are found in the skins of the grapes, and only red wine is fermented with the skins.

paragraphs: White grapes are derived from the green grape by evolution. Changes in two genes turn off creation of anthocyanin. Anthocyanin is what makes red grapes the color green.

paragraphs: A "raisin" is any dried grape. A "currant" is a dried Zante grape. The name is a corruption of the French "raisin de Corinthe" (Corinth grape). A "sultana" was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin. The word is now used for raisins made from common North American grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana.

paragraphs: Note that, while "raisin" is a French loanword, the word in French means the fresh fruit. "Grappe" (Where the English word "grape" comes from) means the bunch (as in "une grappe de raisin").

paragraphs: Note also that "currant" has also come to mean to the blackcurrant and redcurrant. These two berries completely unrelated to grapes.


title: Blackberry

paragraphs: The blackberry is an black fruit made by any of several species in the "Rubus" genus of the Rosaceae family. The blackberry shrub is called "bramble" in Britain, but in the western U.S. "caneberry" is the term is used for both blackberries and raspberries.

paragraphs: It is a widespread and well known group of over 375 species which reproduce by apomixis. They are native all over the temperate Northern hemisphere and South America. The blackberry grows to about 3 m in height. It makes an edible black fruit, known by the same name. The plant tolerates poor soil very well.

paragraphs: The plant down its strong suckering roots amongst garden hedges and shrubs. It will grow fast, taking over uncultivated spots very quickly. In some parts of the world, such as in Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and the Pacific Northwest of North America, some blackberry species are regarded as weeds.


title: Lychee

paragraphs: A lychee (pronounced LIE-Chee) is a tropical fruit in the genus "Litchi". It comes from southern China. Since it is tropical, it will only grow in a warm, wet climate.

paragraphs: The inside of a lychee is a clear, pinkish-white color. The outside of the fruit is a hard spiky shell. Its seed is brown in color and very hard. The seeds are poisonous and should not be eaten. The lychee has a sweet taste, and may be frozen, made into sauces, jam, puree, or preserves. When frozen, the lychee tastes similar to sorbet.


title: Cherry

paragraphs: Cherry is a fruit that grows on a tree or a bush. It belongs to the genus "Prunus". It is red in color, with a seed in the middle. It tastes slightly sour, and is often used to flavour cakes and ice cream, or is baked in a pie or cobbler. Cherries are also a good source of Vitamin B.

paragraphs: In Japan, Yamagata is top producer of cherries.


title: Blackcurrant

paragraphs: Blackcurrant ("Ribes nigrum") is a small, bitter-tasting fruit. It can be found in central and northern Europe and northern Asia.

paragraphs: Blackcurrant has a lot of vitamin C in it. Blackcurrant gets its name from its dark color. It is also used to make jelly, ice cream, and cordial. Blackcurrant is a popular flavor in the United Kingdom. Blackcurrants are also used in salads and in baking, similar to raisins.


Date


title: Date palm

paragraphs: The date palm is a tree. It has been cultivated for a very long time because of its fruit. The tree is between high. It has long leaves that look like feathers. Such leaves are called pinnate. The leaves can grow to in length. The leaves have visible spines. There are about 150 leaflets. Each leaflet can be up to in length and in breadth. The full span of the crown of the tree is .

paragraphs: The tree has one or more trunks. All the trunks come from a single system of roots.

paragraphs: World production of dates was approximately 6.7 Mio tonnes in 2004 (FAO statistics). The major producers are:

paragraphs: The First International Date Conference was held in Tripoli in 1959. In that conference, it was decided to develop a special program under the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to promote the commercial use of substandard or physically defective dates.


title: Cherimoya

paragraphs: The Cherimoya (also called the custard apple) is a sweet fruit that comes mostly from Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Bolivia.. The inside of a cherimoya is soft, and it is white in color. The skin of the cherimoya fruit is green when it is ripe, and brown if it becomes too ripe. The cherimoya has large, black seeds. The cherimoya is special because it can be grown in high places.

paragraphs: In India, especially in North India, this fruit is known as "sitafal" (named after Sita). In Sri Lanka it is known as "Wali Anoda (වැලි අනෝදා)"


title: Blueberry

paragraphs: A blueberry is a berry, a very small fruit. It grows in a type of woody plant called a shrub. Many types of blueberries grow in North America and eastern Asia. Blueberries are more common between May and October.

paragraphs: Blueberries have a sweet taste, with a little acidic hint. Wild blueberries have a stronger taste. Blueberries are good for making jelly, jam, pie, muffins, and many other foods.The most widely cultivated species of blueberry is Vaccinium corymbosum. Some similar kinds of berries are called blueberry or huckleberry in different places.


title: Momentum

paragraphs: Linear momentum, translational momentum or simply momentum is the product of a body's mass and its velocity:

paragraphs: where p is the momentum, "m" is the mass and v is the velocity.

paragraphs: Momentum can be thought of as the "power" when a body is moving, meaning how much force it can have on another body. For example,

paragraphs: Momentum is a vector quantity, which has both direction and magnitude. Its unit is "kg m/s" (kilogram metre per second) or "N s" (newton second).

paragraphs: Momentum is a conserved quantity, meaning that the total initial momentum of a system must be equal to the total final momentum of the system. The total momentum remains unchanged.

paragraphs: In Newtonian physics, the usual symbol for momentum is the letter p ; so this can be written

paragraphs: If we apply Newton's 2nd Law, we can derive

paragraphs: The meaning is that the net force on an object is equal to the rate of change in momentum of the object.

paragraphs: In order to use this equation in special relativity, m has to change with speed. That is sometimes called the "relativistic mass" of the object. (Scientists who work with special relativity use other equations instead.)

paragraphs: Impulse is the change in momentum caused by a new force: this force will increase or decrease the momentum depending on the direction of the force; towards or away from the body that was moving before. If the new force (N) is going in the direction of the momentum of the body (x), the momentum of x will increase; therefore if N is going towards body x in the opposite direction, x will slow down and its momentum will decrease.

paragraphs: In understanding conservation of momentum, the direction of the momentum is important. In a system, momentum is added up using vector addition. Under the rules of vector addition, adding a certain amount of momentum together with the same amount of momentum going in the opposite direction gives a total momentum of zero.

paragraphs: For instance, when a gun is fired, a small mass (the bullet) moves at a high speed in one direction. A larger mass (the gun) moves in the opposite direction at a much slower speed. The momentum of the bullet and the momentum of the gun are exactly equal in size but opposite in direction. Using vector addition to add the momentum of the bullet to the momentum of the gun (equal in size but opposite in direction) gives a total system momentum of zero. The momentum of the gun-bullet system has been conserved.

paragraphs: A collision also shows conservation of momentum: if a car (1000 kg) is going right at 8 m/s, and a truck (6000 kg) is going left at 2 m/s, the car and truck will be moving left after the collision. This exercise shows why:

paragraphs: The car's momentum: 1000 kg x 8 m/s = 8000kgm/s (Going right)

paragraphs: The truck's momentum: 6000 kg x 2 m/s = 12000kgm/s (Going left)

paragraphs: This means their total momentum is 4000kgm/s. (Going left)


title: Malmö

paragraphs: Malmo (, ) is the third largest city in Sweden. About 333,633 people lived there in 2017. It is in the south west part of Sweden, by the sea. The Öresund bridge goes from Malmö to Copenhagen. In the 15th century, Malmö was one of Denmark's largest cities.

paragraphs: Malmö has the biggest Middle Eastern community in Sweden. It is warm in the summer. In winter it is not quite as cold as in other parts of Sweden.


title: Skull

paragraphs: A skull, or cranium, is a set of bones that make up the head of a vertebrate and keep in place all body parts in the head. It supports the structures of the face and forms a protective cavity for the brain.

paragraphs: As well as protecting the brain, the skull fixes the distance between the eyes and between the ears. This allows stereoscopic vision, and helps help the brain judge direction and distance of sounds. In some animals, the skull also has a defensive function (e.g. horned ungulates). The frontal bone is where horns are mounted.

paragraphs: The skull is made of a number of joined (fused) flat bones. In humans, the adult skull is normally made up of 28 bones.

paragraphs: Skulls can be classified based on fenestras which are window or opening in a skull. There are 5 types of fenestras which are:


title: Mark Hoppus

paragraphs: Mark Hoppus is an American musician better known by his pseudonym, "Heezy".

paragraphs: He was born March 15, 1972. He is most famous for being a member of the band Blink 182. He played the bass guitar and sang. After Blink 182 broke up, he started another band, called "+44", with Blink 182's drummer, Travis Barker. When he was younger he played in bands called Pier 69 and the Attic Children. He has a wife named Skye and a son named Jack. Today he continues to play for Blink 182 alongside Travis Barker & Matt Skiba


title: Sandstone

paragraphs: Sandstone is a sedimentary rock. It is a rock made of compacted sand. Sand is small grains of rocks and minerals (such as quartz and feldspar). These are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust.

paragraphs: Sandstone which is resistant to weathering is used for building in many countries. It can be a hard rock. For example, paving slabs can be made out of hard sandstone.

paragraphs: Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure. This happens when rocks are squeezed and heated under a mountain chain.

paragraphs: Sandstone forms in two stages. First, layers of sand build up as sediment, either from water or from air (as in a desert).

paragraphs: Then sand particles are compacted by pressure of overlying deposits, and cemented ('glued' together). The 'cement' is either calcite (calcium carbonate), quartz (silica), or clay. Iron oxide often makes sandstone a reddish colour.


title: Pseudonym

paragraphs: A pseudonym (soo-do-nim) or alias is a fake name a person uses instead of their real name. Many people use pseudonyms, including authors (pen names) and performers (stage names). People use pseudonyms for several different reasons: to hide identity, gender, and/or race. People (such as rappers) also use pseudonyms to match their stage personality better. Pseudonyms can include stage names, screen names, ring names, pen names, nicknames, aliases, superhero identities and code names.

paragraphs: "Pseudonym" comes from the Greek word ("pseudṓnymon"), which means "false name".

paragraphs: There are three main types of pseudonyms: pen names, stage names and user-names. Pen names are used by authors, usually to hide identity. Many famous books, such as The Outsiders and A Series of Unfortunate Events, have been written by authors using a pseudonym. Daniel Handler wrote A Series of Unfortunate Events under the pseudonym Lemony Snicket both because he wanted to make the author a character in the story and because he wanted to hide his real name. When she published The Outsiders, Susan Eloise Hinton decided to use her initials, S. E., instead of her first and middle names, because she did not want readers to guess her gender. The Brontë sisters (Anne, Emily and Charlotte) used pseudonyms to hide the fact that they based many of their characters on their neighbors.

paragraphs: Musicians, actors and performers also use pseudonyms, called stage names, both to hide their identity and to give themselves a "cooler" name. For example, rapper Sean Combs is currently known by Diddy, but used to call himself P Diddy and Puff Daddy. He says that he changed his name from P Diddy to Diddy because the name "caused confusion and he wanted to 'simplify things'."

paragraphs: Many people on the Internet use pseudonyms. There are many names for these pseudonyms, including user-names, user IDs and handles. These pseudonyms help people stay anonymous on the internet, and they also protect people from identity theft and phishing. When people log into an account on sites like Wikipedia, MySpace or Facebook, their user-name helps identify them without entering their real name. If people used their real name instead of a user-name, it would create confusion for two people with the same name. Usernames make this simple, because people create their own user-names. Also, if someone used their real name, it would make it easier for people to guess their passwords and for other people to find them in real life.

paragraphs: Sometimes criminals would use a pseudonym. For example, com man Jefferson R. Smith was also known as Soapy Smith.


title: Pen name

paragraphs: A pen name, also known as a pseudonym, is a name an author uses in the place of their real name, when they write and publish things. For example, the Brontë sisters (Anne, Emily and Charlotte) who were famous authors in the 19th century used them, because they feared that people would make fun of (say bad things about) a book written by a woman. Charles Dodgson, an English math professor took the name Lewis Carroll, when he wrote fantasy stories. Erle Stanley Gardner, a best-selling American author, wrote books under numerous pseudonyms, including A. A. Fair, Kyle Corning, Charles M. Green, Carleton Kendrake, Charles J. Kenny, Les Tillray and Robert Parr, as well as under his real name.


title: Stage name

paragraphs: A stage name is a name an entertainer like a movie star or a musician takes in the place of their real or birth name, they might like this name better than their real one or it's easier for people to remember. Professional wrestlers use stage names also, in their case it's called a "ring name".

paragraphs: Actors and actresses choose stage names for a variety of reasons. Their real names may be the same as or similar to those of other people, or they may be difficult to say or spell.


title: Fermat's Last Theorem

paragraphs: Fermat's Last Theorem is a very famous idea in mathematics. It says that:

paragraphs: Pierre de Fermat wrote about it in 1637 inside his copy of a book called "Arithmetica". He said "I have a proof of this theorem, but there is not enough space in this margin". However, no correct proof was found for 357 years. It was finally proven in 1995. Mathematicians everywhere think that Fermat, in fact, did not have a good proof of this theorem.

paragraphs: Fermat's Last Theorem is a more general form of the equation: formula_2.

paragraphs: (This comes from the Pythagorean theorem). A special case is when "a", "b" and "c" are whole numbers. Then they are named a "pythagorean triple". For example: 3, 4 and 5 give 3^2 + 4^2 = 5^2 as 9+16=25, or 5, 12 and 13 give 25+144=169. There are an infinite number of them (they go on forever). Fermat's Last Theorem talks about what happens when the 2 changes to a bigger whole number. It says that then there are no triples when "a", "b" and "c" are integers greater than or equal to one (meaning that if "n" is more than two, "a", "b" and "c" cannot be natural numbers).

paragraphs: The proof was made for "some" values of n (like "n"=3, "n"=4, "n"=5 and "n"=7). Fermat, Euler, Sophie Germain, and other people did this.

paragraphs: However, the full proof must show that the equation has no solution for all values of n (when n is a whole number bigger than 2). The proof was very difficult to find, and Fermat's Last Theorem needed lots of time to be solved.

paragraphs: An English mathematician named Andrew Wiles found a solution in 1995, 358 years after Fermat wrote about it. Richard Taylor helped him find the solution . The proof took eight years of research. He proved the theorem by first proving the modularity theorem, which was then called the TaniyamaShimura conjecture. Using Ribet's Theorem, he was able to give a proof for Fermat's Last Theorem. He received the Wolfskehl Prize from Göttingen Academy in June 1997: it amounted to about $50,000 U.S. dollars.

paragraphs: After a few years of debate, people agreed that Andrew Wiles had solved the problem. Andrew Wiles used a lot of modern mathematics and even created new maths when he made his solution. This mathematics was unknown when Fermat wrote his famous note, so Fermat could not have used it. This leads one to believe that Fermat did not in fact have a complete solution of the problem.


title: Lewinsky scandal

paragraphs: The Lewinsky scandal was an American political sex scandal in 1998. United States President Bill Clinton was said to have had oral sex with 22 year old Monica Lewinsky.

paragraphs: Lewinsky said that she had sex with Bill Clinton nine times from November 1995 to March 1997. According to her published schedule, First Lady Hillary Clinton was at the White House for some of the time on seven of those days. The scandal happened after Linda Tripp leaked the secret phone calls between Clinton and Lewinsky.

paragraphs: Clinton did not admit his affair until the annual White House prayer on September 11, 1998, in the presence of several ministers, priests and his wife, Hillary Clinton, in his "I have sinned" speech. The speech was hand-written by Clinton himself and was delivered on the day of publication of the first report by Independent Counsel Ken Starr, which threatened to impeach President Clinton in the grounds of perjury and his sexual affair with former White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Clinton was eventually impeached, but not removed from office. Then-President of South Africa Nelson Mandela personally helped President Clinton during his impeachment hearing.


title: Guam

paragraphs: Guam is an island in Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean and is part of the United States. It is a territory and not part of the fifty states. The Chamorro people are the native people from Guam. The capital of Guam is the city of Hagåtña and the largest city is Dededo. Guam has important United States Air Force and Naval bases, which occupy a major part of Guam's land area. Guam is also a popular tourist destination.

paragraphs: Guam was one of the first islands in the Pacific Ocean to be visited by the Europeans. In 1521, while leading the Spanish expedition, Ferdinand Magellan became one of the first European to set foot on Guam. From then on, Guam became an important part of the trade route followed by the Spanish trading ships called Manila Galleon, which sailed between Mexico and the Philippines every year. And in 1668, Spain took over Guam as one of its territory. During this time, the natives assimilated the Spanish culture to a large extent.

paragraphs: In 1898, when the war broke out between Spain and the United States, Spain lost most of its territories to the United States under the Treaty of Paris, including Guam, Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. But, Guam continued to be important due to its strategic location, both for shipping and air travel in the Pacific. During World War II, Japan occupied Guam in 1941 for 31 months, but lost the territory to the United States soon after. The Chamorro people are spread across Guam and Northern Mariana Islands- which is also a United States territory. However, the Chamorro people from Northern Mariana Islands have not integrated well into the territory as they were under Japanese occupation for about 30 years.

paragraphs: In 1950, the United States Congress passed a law to incorporate the people of Guam as American citizens.

paragraphs: In August 2017, North Korea warned that it might launch mid-range ballistic missiles into waters within 18 to 24 miles of Guam, following an exchange of threats between the governments of North Korea and the United States.

paragraphs: Guam gets most of its money from the United States government. Much of that money is spent on the military bases, but there are also federal grants given to the Guam government for various programs. Because it is only a territory, federal income taxes paid by Guam residents are given to the Guam government for its operations.

paragraphs: Guam is a sought after travel destination. Almost all of these visitors are from Japan. Japanese tourists like Guam because it is closer to Japan than other American places. Guam has lots of hotels and other fun places for people to visit. Tumon Bay is Guam's biggest beach. It has lots of pretty white sand, and the water has lots of fish. Tumon is becoming a busy city.

paragraphs: The number of visitors to Guam has decreased significantly mainly because of economic slowdown in most parts of Asia, which is also the cause for lost jobs in Guam.

paragraphs: Guam is 212 square miles (549 square kilometers) large. In the north part, it has a flat area of coral and limestone rock. The south part has mountains. Around the island is a coral reef.

paragraphs: Guam is next to the Marianas Trench, which is the deepest part of the Earth and underwater. It sometimes has earthquakes, some of which have been very strong.

paragraphs: Guam is a tropical island. It is usually quite warm and wet and the temperature does not change very much. From February to July it is dry, but the rest of the year it is rainy. Sometimes Guam has very strong and dangerous storms in October and November.