paragraphs: Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia (, , – 17 July 1918) was the youngest daughter of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and his wife Alexandra Fyodorovna. Anastasia was murdered with her family on 17 July 1918 by the Bolshevik secret police. She was a sister of Grand Duchess Olga, Grand Duchess Tatiana, Grand Duchess Maria, and Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia.

paragraphs: During the years of Communist rule nobody knew where she was buried. This led to many stories that she could have escaped and still be alive. The bodies of the Tsar, Tsarina, and three daughters were found in a grave near Yekaterinburg in 1991; however, the bodies of Alexei Nikolaevich and one of his sisters (either Anastasia or Maria) were not there.

paragraphs: In January 2008, Russian scientists said that the remains of a young boy and woman found near Yekaterinburg in August 2007 might be the missing bodies. On 30 April 2008, Russian scientists used DNA testing to prove that they were the Tsarevich Alexei and his sister. In March 2009, the last results of the DNA testing were published by Dr. Michael Coble of the US Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory. This proved that all four Grand Duchesses were murdered.

paragraphs: Several women have claimed to have been Anastasia. The most famous was Anna Anderson. However, DNA testing in 1994 on pieces of Anderson's tissue and hair showed that she was not related to the Imperial family.

paragraphs: When Anastasia was born, her family was disappointed. They had hoped for a son who would be heir to the throne. In honor of her birth, her father forgave the students who had been put in prison for joining in riots in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Because of this, Anastasia's name means "the breaker of chains" or the "prison opener". It can also mean "of the resurrection". People often spoke of this when there were stories that she had not died. Anastasia was a Grand Duchess. Because this made Anastasia an "Imperial Highness", she was higher in rank than other Princesses in Europe who were "Royal Highnesses".

paragraphs: The Tsar's children lived very simply. They slept on hard camp cots without pillows when they were healthy, took cold baths in the morning, and had to clean their rooms and sometimes sew. Most of their servants usually called Anastasia by her first name instead of calling her "Her Imperial Highness". Sometimes they called her "Anastasie", "Nastya", "Nastas", or "Nastenka". Anastasia was also called "Malenkaya", meaning "little (one)", or "shvibzik", the Russian word for "imp".

paragraphs: Anastasia was a bright, lively child. People described her as short and plump, with blue eyes and blonde hair. Margaretta Eagar, Anastasia's governess, said that somebody had once called young Anastasia the most charming child he had ever seen. Lili Dehn said that Anastasia was "pretty", but had "more of a clever face, and her eyes were wells of intelligence".

paragraphs: Anastasia was clever, but she was never much interested in studying. Pierre Gilliard, Sydney Gibbes, and ladies-in-waiting Lili Dehn and Anna Vyrubova said that Anastasia was funny and good at acting. Some people did not like her sharp, quick remarks.

paragraphs: Anastasia's playful behavior was often punished. According to Gieb Botkin, "in naughtiness she was a true genius". He was the son of the court doctor Yevgeny Botkin, who later died with the family at Ekaterinburg. Anastasia tripped the servants, tricked her teachers, and climbed trees and refused to come down. Once at a snowball fight, she rolled a rock into a snowball and threw it at her older sister, Tatiana. Princess Nina Georgievna, Anastasia's cousin, said that "Anastasia was nasty to the point of being evil". She said that Anastasia would get angry when her friends won games, or when the younger Nina was taller than she was. She also cared less about her looks than her sisters. Hallie Erminie Rives, an American writer, described how Anastasia ate chocolates without taking off her white opera gloves at the St. Petersburg opera house when she was 10-years-old.

paragraphs: Anastasia's family called Anastasia and her older sister Maria "The Little Pair". This was because they shared a room, often wore the same dress, and played together a lot. Their older sisters Olga and Tatiana were known as "The Big Pair", because they shared a room as well. The four girls sometimes signed letters with their nickname, OTMA. They made this nickname from the first letters of their first names, Olga, Tatiana, Maria, and Anastasia.

paragraphs: Anastasia was very energetic, but she was often sick. She had "hallux valgus" (bunions), which hurt both of her big toes. Anastasia also had a weak muscle in her back. Because of this, she had to be massaged twice every week. She disliked this, and when it was time to be massaged, she would hide under her bed or in cupboards. Anastasia's older sister, Maria, is said to have hemorrhaged in December 1914 during an operation to remove her tonsils. The doctor performing the operation was so shocked that Maria's mother, Tsarina Alexandra, had to order him to continue. Olga Alexandrovna said all four of her nieces bled more than was normal. She believed they had the hemophilia gene, like their mother. Some carriers of the gene are not hemophiliacs themselves, but they can have signs of hemophilia, like bleeding more than most people. DNA testing on the remains of the royal family proved in 2009 that Alexei suffered from Hemophilia B. His mother and one of his sisters were carriers. The Russians thought this sister was Maria, and Americans thought it was Anastasia. If Anastasia had lived, she could have passed on the disease to her children. Anastasia, like everyone else in her family, loved "Baby" Tsarevich Alexei very much. Alexei often had attacks of hemophilia and nearly died several times.

paragraphs: Her mother trusted Grigori Rasputin, a Russian peasant and wandering "holy man". She thought his prayers had saved her son when he was sick many times. Anastasia and her sisters were told to treat Rasputin as "Our Friend" and to tell him their secrets. In the autumn of 1907, Anastasia's aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia went to the nursery with the Tsar to meet Rasputin. Anastasia, her sisters and brother Alexei were all wearing their long white nightgowns.

paragraphs: "All the children seemed to like him," Olga Alexandrovna said later. "They were completely at ease (comfortable) with him." Rasputin's friendship with the Imperial children can be seen in some of the messages he sent to them. In February 1909, Rasputin sent them a telegram, saying, "Love the whole of God's nature, the whole of His creation in particular this earth. The Mother of God was always occupied with flowers and needlework."

paragraphs: But in 1910, Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva told other people in the family that Rasputin was allowed to see the four girls when they were wearing their nightgowns. Rasputin's visits to the children were completely innocent, but the family was shocked and angry. Tyutcheva told Nicholas's sister, Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia, that Rasputin visited and talked to the girls while they were getting ready for bed, and hugged and patted them. Tyutcheva said the children did not talk about Rasputin with her and kept his visits a secret. Tatiana wrote to her mother on 8 March 1910, that she was "so afr(aid) that S.I. (governess Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva) can our friend something bad". Xenia wrote on 15 March 1910 that she did not understand "the attitude (behavior) of Alix and the children to that sinister Grigory". Nicholas asked Rasputin not to go into the nursery after that, and Alexandra later fired Tyutcheva.

paragraphs: In the spring of 1910, Maria Ivanovna Vishnyakova, a royal governess, said that Rasputin had raped her. The empress did not believe her, saying that "everything Rasputin does is holy". Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna was told that they had made an investigation to see if what Vishnyakova said was true, but that "they caught the young woman in bed with a Cossack of the Imperial Guard." Vishnyakova was kept from seeing Rasputin after she claimed that he raped her. She was fired in 1913.

paragraphs: But rumors still spread. People suggested that Rasputin had seduced the Tsarina and her four daughters. Rasputin had written warm, but completely innocent letters to the Tsarina and her four daughters. He released the letters, which made people gossip even more. "My dear, precious, only friend," wrote Anastasia. "How much I should like to see you again. You appeared to me today in a dream. I am always asking Mama when you will think of you always, my dear, because you are so good to me ..."

paragraphs: Soon after, pornographic cartoons were printed about Rasputin having relations with the Empress, her four daughters and Anna Vyrubovna. After the scandal, Nicholas asked Rasputin to leave St. Petersburg for a time. Rasputin went on a pilgrimage to Palestine. Alexandra was very angry at this. However, though the rumors continued, the imperial family continued to be friendly with Rasputin until he was murdered on 17 December 1916. "Our Friend is so contented (happy) with our girlies, souls have much developed," Alexandra wrote to Nicholas on December 6, 1916.

paragraphs: Later, A.A. Mordvinov reported in his memoirs that the four Grand Duchesses looked "cold and visibly terribly upset" by Rasputin's death. He added that they sat "huddled up closely together" on a sofa on the night they heard he was killed. Mordvinov remembered that they were sad and seemed to feel the beginning of great political troubles. Rasputin was buried with an icon signed on the back by Anastasia, her mother and her sisters. Anastasia went to his funeral on December 21, 1916. Her family planned to build a church over Rasputin's grave. After they were killed by the Bolsheviks, it was discovered Anastasia and her sisters were all wearing amulets with Rasputin's picture and a prayer on it.

paragraphs: During World War I Anastasia and her sister Maria visited hurt soldiers at a hospital at Tsarskoye Selo. Because they were too young to become Red Cross nurses like their mother and older sisters, they played checkers and billiards with the soldiers and tried to make them happy instead. Felix Dassel, who was treated at the hospital, remembered that Anastasia had a "laugh like a squirrel", and walked quickly "as though she "tripped" along."

paragraphs: In February 1917, Nicholas II resigned from the throne. Anastasia and her family were placed under house arrest at the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo during the Russian Revolution. As the Bolsheviks came nearer, Alexander Kerensky moved them to Tobolsk, Siberia. The Bolsheviks grew more and more powerful. Anastasia and her family were moved to the Ipatiev House (House of Special Purpose), at Yekaterinburg.

paragraphs: Anastasia felt sad about her captivity. "Goodby," she wrote to a friend in the winter of 1917. "Don't forget us." At Tobolsk, she wrote a sad theme for her English teacher, filled with spelling mistakes, about "Evelyn Hope", a poem by Robert Browning about a young girl. "When she died she was only sixteen years old," Anastasia wrote. "Ther(e) was a man who loved her without having seen her but (k)new her very well. And she he(a)rd of him also. He never could tell her that he loved her, and now she was dead. But still he thought that when he and she will live [their] next life whenever it will be that ..."

paragraphs: At Tobolsk, she and her sisters sewed jewels into their clothes. This was because Alexandra, Nicholas and Maria had had their things taken away when they arrived in Ekaterinburg. Demidova wrote to Tegleva about this, using code words for the jewels such as "medicines" and "Sednev's belongings". Anastasia and her sisters dressed simply, and all three had their hair cut short. It had been cut when they were ill with measles in 1917, and they had kept it short. Pierre Gilliard remembered his last sight of the children: "The sailor Nagorny, who attended to Alexei Nikolaevitch, passed my window carrying the sick boy in his arms, behind him came the Grand Duchesses loaded with valises and small personal belongings. I tried to get out, but was roughly pushed back into the carriage by the sentry. I came back to the window. Tatiana Nikolayevna came last carrying her little dog and struggling to drag a heavy brown valise. It was raining and I saw her feet sink into the mud at every step. Nagorny tried to come to her assistance (help); he was roughly pushed back by one of the commisars ..." Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden, too, spoke of her last sad memory of Anastasia: "Once, standing on some steps at the door of a house close by, I saw a hand and a pink-sleeved arm opening the topmost (highest) pane. According to the blouse the hand must have belonged either to the Grand Duchess Marie or Anastasia. They could not see me through their windows, and this was to be the last glimpse that I was to have of any of them!"

paragraphs: But even in the last months of her life, Anastasia could be happy. She and other members of her family performed plays for their parents and others in the spring of 1918. Her tutor Sydney Gibbes said that Anastasia's acting made everyone laugh. On 7 May 1918, Anastasia wrote a letter from Tobolsk to her sister Maria in Yekaterinburg. In the letter, she described a moment of joy, even though she was sad, lonely, and worried about her sick brother Alexei: "We played on the swing, that was when I roared with laughter (laughed loudly), the fall was so wonderful! Indeed! I told the sisters about it so many times yesterday that they got quite fed up (tired)", adding, "One could simply shout with joy." In his memoirs, Alexander Strekotin, one of the guards at the Ipatiev House, called Anastasia "very friendly and full of fun". Another guard said Anastasia was "a very charming devil! She was mischievous and, I think, rarely (not often) tired. She was lively, and was fond of (enjoyed) performing comic mimes with the dogs, as though they were performing in a circus." Another guard, however, called her "offensive and a terrorist" and complained about some of her sharp remarks. Anastasia and her sisters learned to wash their own clothes and make bread at the Ipatiev House.

paragraphs: In the summer, however, the whole family became much sadder. According to some accounts, Anastasia once became so unhappy about the locked, painted windows that she opened one to get fresh air. A guard is said to have seen her and fired, almost hitting her. She did not try to open the windows again.

paragraphs: On 14 July 1918, local priests at Yekaterinburg held a private church service for the family. They later said that Anastasia and her family fell on their knees during the prayers for the dead, which they had not done before. They also noted that the girls had become very sad and did not reply to the service. One of the priests said, "Something has happened to them in there." But the next day, on 15 July 1918, Anastasia and her sisters seemed happier. They joked and helped move the beds in their shared bedroom so that the cleaning women could clean the floors. Helping the women scrub the floors, they whispered to them when the guards were not watching. Anastasia even stuck her tongue out at Yakov Yurovsky, the head of the guards, when he turned his back and left the room.

paragraphs: Anastasia was executed with her family by a firing squad in the early morning of 17 July 1918. They had been killed by the Bolshevik secret police, commanded by Yurovsky.

paragraphs: In October 1917, the Bolshevik revolution struck Russia. A civil war began shortly after that. Plans to release the Romanovs slowed down. As the Whites (people who were still faithful to the Tsar and autocracy) came more toward Yekaterinburg, the Reds felt afraid. They knew that the well-prepared White Army would win. When the Whites reached Yekaterinburg, the Imperial Family were gone. It is thought that the family had been executed.

paragraphs: The "Yurovsky Note" was found in 1989 and described in Edvard Radzinsky's 1992 book "The Last Tsar". The "Yurovsky Note" was a description of the event by Yurovsky after the execution. According to the note, on the night of the murders the family was awakened and told to dress. They were told they were moving to a new place for their safety. They claimed it was because of the possible violence which might happen when the White Army reached Yekaterinburg. When they were dressed, the family and the few servants were led to a small room in the house's basement. They were told to wait there. Alexandra asked for chairs for herself and Alexei, and she sat next to her son. After a short time, the executioners entered the room, led by Yurovsky. Yurovsky quickly told the Tsar and his family that they were going to die. The Tsar cried "What?" and turned to his family, but was immediately killed when several bullets hit his chest. The Tsar, the empress, and two servants were killed in the first round of shooting. Maria, Dr. Botkin and Alexandra's maid Demidova were hurt. Thick smoke and dust filled the room from the shooting, so the gunmen left the room for a few minutes. They soon came back and shot Dr. Botkin. A gunman named Ermakov tried to shoot Tsarevich Alexei, but the jewels in the boy's clothes protected him. Ermakov tried to kill Alexei with a bayonet but failed again. At last, Yurovsky fired two shots into the boy's head. Tatiana and Olga were near the wall. They were holding onto each other and crying for their mother. Tatiana was killed by a shot to her head. Olga died when Ermakov shot her in the jaw.

paragraphs: Maria, Anastasia, and the maid Demidova were on the floor under the room's one window. Ermakov said that he killed Maria by shooting her head. Ermakov then tried to stab Anastasia, failed, and said he killed her by shooting her head. Maria's skull does not have any bullet wounds, though. It is unclear how she died. Ermakov was drunk during the murders, and it is possible his shot did not go entirely through her head. She might have become unconscious and bled greatly, but remained alive. Then, as the bodies were taken away, two of the grand duchesses moved. One sat up and screamed, throwing her arm over her head. The other, bleeding from the mouth, moaned and moved. When Olga and Tatiana were shot, they were killed instantly, so Maria was probably the one who screamed. Anastasia might still have been able to move. Ermakov told his wife that Anastasia was killed by a bayonet, and Yurovsky wrote that as the bodies were carried out, one or more of the girls cried out and were hit on the back of the head with a club. However, the back of Maria's skull does not show any signs of having been clubbed. The remains of Anastasia's burnt body do not show details of how she died.

paragraphs: One of the greatest mysteries of the 20th century was if Anastasia had survived or not. From 1920 to 1922, Anna Anderson, the most famous person who pretended to be Anastasia, grew very famous. She claimed that she had pretended to be dead, then escaped with the help of a kind guard that saved her from the dead bodies after seeing she was still alive. Her legal struggle to be recognized as Anastasia from 1938 to 1970 was a controversy for her whole life. It was the longest running case ever heard by the German courts. At last, the courts decided that there was not enough proof.

paragraphs: Anderson died in 1984 and her body was cremated. In 1994, a tissue sample from Andersen in a hospital was used for DNA tests with the blood of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Prince Philip was a grandnephew of Empress Alexandra. Dr. Gill, who did the tests, decided that if "you accept that these samples came from Anna Anderson, then Anna Anderson could related to Tsar Nicholas or Tsarina Alexandra." Anderson's DNA matched with a great-nephew of Franziska Schanzkowska, a missing Polish factory worker. Some people who supported Anderson agreed that the DNA tests showed she could not have been the Grand Duchess.

paragraphs: At least 10 women claimed to be Anastasia. Less famous people who pretended to be Anastasia were Nadezhda Ivanovna Vasilyeva and Eugenia Smith. A priest took care of two young women who said that they were Anastasia and her sister Maria in the Ural Mountains in 1919. They lived there as nuns until they died in 1964. They were buried with the names Anastasia and Maria Nikolaevna.

paragraphs: People reported that trains and houses were being searched for 'Anastasia Romanov' by soldiers and secret police. When she was put in prison for a short time at Perm in 1918, Princess Helena Petrovna, the wife of Anastasia's distant cousin, Prince Ioann Konstantinovich of Russia, said that a guard took a girl who called herself Anastasia Romanova to her cell and asked her if the girl was the Tsar's daughter. When she did not recognize the girl, the guard took her away. Others in Perm later said that they saw Anastasia, her mother and sisters in Perm after they were killed, but this was only a rumor. Surprisingly, the rumors that had started to hide the fact that the family was dead helped the rumors that they were alive. A few days after they had been killed, the German government sent telegrams to Russia asking for "the safety of the princesses of German blood". Russia had signed a peace treaty with the Germans and did not want to tell them that the women were dead. Instead, they told them they had been moved to a safer place. This could have been why the 'Perm stories' began.

paragraphs: Another time, eight people said that they saw a young woman being captured at a railway station at Siding 37 in September 1918 after trying to escape. These people were Maxim Grigoyev, Tatiana Sitnikova and her son Fyodor Sitnikov, Ivan Kuklin and Matrina Kuklina, Vassily Ryabov, Ustinya Varankina, and Dr. Pavel Utkin. Some of these people said that the girl was Anastasia when they saw photographs of the grand duchess by White Russian Army investigators. Dr. Pavel Utkin also told the investigators that the girl, whom he had helped in Perm when she was hurt, had said, "I am the daughter of the ruler, Anastasia." During that time, there were similar stories of young people in Russia saying that they were Romanovs who had escaped. Boris Soloviev, the husband of Rasputin's daughter Maria, defrauded many important Russian families by asking for money for a Romanov to escape to China. Soloviev was helped by young women who pretended to be one of the grand duchesses to help trick the families.

paragraphs: Some suggest that there might have been a way for a guard to save anyone in the family who still lived. Yakov Yurovsky ordered the guards to come to his office and give him the things they had stolen after the murder. At that time, it is said that there was a short time when the killed bodies were left in the truck and in the basement of the house. Some guards who had not joined in the murders and had felt sorry for the grand duchesses were left in the basement with the bodies.

paragraphs: There were also stories from Bulgaria that Anastasia and her brother were still alive. In 1953, Peter Zamiatkin told a 16-year-old person being treated at a hospital that he had taken Anastasia and Alexei to the village where he was born near Odessa. He said he was a member of the guard of the Romanovs, and that the Tsar had asked him to do this. Zamiatkin said that after the rest of the family had been killed, he escaped with the children on a ship. "Anastasia" and "Alexei" lived under false names in the Bulgarian town of Gabarevo. The Bulgarian "Anastasia" called herself Eleonora Albertovna Kruger. She died in 1954.

paragraphs: In 1991, the place where the Imperial family and their servants were supposedly buried as found in the woods outside Yekaterinburg. It had actually been found almost ten years earlier, but had been kept hidden by the people who discovered it. They did not want the Communists, who still ruled Russia at that time, to know where the grave was. The grave only had nine bodies instead of 11. DNA and studies on their skeletons showed that they were the bodies of Tsar Nicholas II, his wife, and three of the Grand Duchesses (Olga, Tatiana, and Maria). The other remains had different DNA. They were the bodies of the family's doctor (Yevgeny Botkin), valet (Alexei Trupp), cook (Ivan Kharitonov) and Alexandra's maid (Anna Demidova). Dr. William Maples decided that the Tsarevitch Alexei and Anastasia's bodies were missing. Russian scientists did not agree with this. They claimed that it was the body of Maria was missing, not Anastasia's. The Russians used a computer program to compare photos of Anastasia with the skulls from the grave. When some of the pieces of bone in the skulls were missing, they guessed how long or wide it was instead. American scientists thought this way of studying the bodies was wrong.

paragraphs: American scientists thought the missing body was Anastasia's. This was because none of the female skeletons showed signs that it was not fully grown yet. The remains of the Imperial Family were buried in 1998. At that time, a body that measured about 5 feet, 7 inches (170 cm) was buried as the body of Anastasia. Photographs of her standing next to her sisters six months before she died show that Anastasia was a few inches shorter than all of them.

paragraphs: The "Yurovsky Note" showed that two of the bodies were taken from the main grave and burned secretly to hide the burials of the Imperial family. However, people could not find the place where the bodies were burnt for many years. However, on 23 August 2007, a Russian archaeologist declared that he had found two burned skeletons near Yekaterinburg, at a place which seemed to match what was described in Yurovsky's writings. The archaeologists said that the bones were from a boy who was about 10 to 13, and a young woman who was between 18 and 23 years old. Anastasia was 17 years and one month old when she was killed; Maria was 19 years, one month old, and Alexei was just two weeks before his fourteenth birthday. Anastasia's older sisters, Olga and Tatiana, were 22 and 23 when they died. They used metal detectors to find the bones.

paragraphs: Many international laboratories such as the Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory and Medical University of Innsbruck did DNA tests. They proved that the remains were from the body of Tsarevich Alexei and one of his sister. They agreed that everyone in the family, including Anastasia, died in 1918. All the parents and children has his or her own special DNA.

paragraphs: In 2000, Anastasia and her family were canonized as passion bearers by the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1981, they had already been canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad as holy martyrs. The bodies of Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, and three of their daughters were buried in the St. Catherine Chapel at St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 17 July 1998. This was 80 years after they had been murdered.

paragraphs: The stories of how Anastasia might have escaped became the subject of theatrical and television movies. The earliest, made in 1928, was called "Clothes Make the Woman". The story was about a woman who acts the character of Anastasia in a Hollywood movie, and is later recognized by the Russian soldier who saved her.

paragraphs: In 1956, a movie called "Anastasia" was made. Ingrid Bergman acted Anna Anderson, Yul Brynner was General Bounine (a fictional character based on several real men), and Helen Hayes as the Dowager Empress Marie, Anastasia's grandmother. The movie is about a woman from an asylum who came to Paris in 1928 and was captured by some Russian émigrés who use her so that they can fool Anastasia's grandmother into thinking Anderson actually is her granddaughter. This is because they want to get a Tsarist fortune. After some time, they begin wondering if "Madame A. Anderson" really is the missing Grand Duchess.

paragraphs: This story was also used for the short 1965 musical "Anya".

paragraphs: In 1986, NBC began a mini-series inspired by a book published in 1983 by Peter Kurth called "Anastasia: The Riddle of Anna Anderson". The movie, "", was a series with two parts. It began with the young Anastasia Nicholaievna and her family being sent to Yekaterinburg, where they are killed by Bolshevik soldiers. The story then moves to 1923, saying that Anna Anderson is Anastasia. Amy Irving was the actress for Anna Anderson.

paragraphs: The most recent movie is 1997's "Anastasia". This was an animated musical adaptation of the story of Anastasia's fictional (not real) escape from Russia and how she tried to be recognized. The movie often used wrong historical facts.

paragraphs: In "The Romanov Prophecy," a 2004 novel by Steve Berry, Anastasia and Alexei are saved by guards and taken away to the United States. There, they live under false names with a family paid by Felix Yusupov. In the novel, both children died in the 1920s because they became sick. However, before they died, Alexei married and had a son.


title: Anna Anderson

paragraphs: Anna Anderson (December 16, 1896 – February 12, 1984) was a woman who claimed she was Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia. The real Anastasia had been murdered in Ekaterinburg with the rest of her immediate family on July 17,1918. Her remains have been found and extensively tested using DNA samples from Anastasia's family comparing them to Anderson. There was no match at all. Anderson attempted to kill herself in 1920 in Berlin, Germany. She was taken to a mental hospital. A short time later she began to tell her false story of escape to people there. Some people believed her. Most people did not. Her false claims were pushed for 70 years. Movies were made about her story. She married Jack Manahan and called herself Anastasia Manahan. They lived in Charlottesville, Virginia, where she died of pneumonia in 1984.


title: Celtic F.C.

paragraphs: The Celtic Football Club is a professional football club based in Glasgow, Scotland, that plays in the Scottish Premiership.

paragraphs: Celtic is half of the Old Firm, alongside Rangers F.C.. This is a term that used to describe both Rangers and Celtic together. It is now consigned to history after Rangers were liquidated in the summer of 2012.


title: Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia (1899–1918)

paragraphs: Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia ("Maria Nikolaevna Romanova"; Russian: Великая Княжна Мария Николаевна, – July 17, 1918) was the third daughter of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and Tsarina Alexandra Fyodorovna (Alix of Hesse). After she was murdered in the Russian Revolution of 1917, she was canonized as a passion bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church.

paragraphs: When she lived, Maria was not old enough to be a Red Cross nurse like her sisters. Instead, she was patroness of a hospital and visited wounded soldiers. She was very interested in the lives of the soldiers, and had several innocent crushes on the young men she met. She wanted to marry and have a big family. She was known to be flirtatious at a young age.

paragraphs: She was an older sister of Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia. Her sister Anastasia was famous for stories about her escape from the murder of the royal family for almost 90 years. In the 1990s, it was suggested that the Grand Duchess whose remains were not in the Romanov grave might be Maria. However, further remains were discovered in 2007, and DNA proved at last that the entire Imperial family had been murdered in 1918.

paragraphs: People described Maria as a pretty, flirtatious girl. She was plump, with light brown hair and big blue eyes that her family called "Marie's saucers". Her French teacher Pierre Gilliard said Maria was tall and healthy, with rosy cheeks. Tatiana Botkina thought Maria's eyes were "soft and gentle." While her elder sister Tatiana was considered the most elegant, Maria was thought to be the beauty of the family. When she was a baby, people compared her to one of Botticelli's angels. Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia called her "The Amiable (Good-hearted) Baby".

paragraphs: When she was young, Maria once ran away from her bath and ran naked (without clothes) all around the palace. Her Irish nurse, Margaretta Eager, who was talking about politics with a friend, did not even notice. "Fortunately, I arrived just at that moment, picked her up and carried her back to Miss Eagar," remembered her aunt Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia. Her older sisters did not like to let Maria join in their games. They once even called Maria their "stepsister". This was because she was so good and never got into trouble, according to Margaretta Eagar. However, even the sweet Maria could be mischievous sometimes. Once, when she was young, she stole some biscuits from her mother's tea table. The governess and Alexandra wanted her to go to bed as a punishment, but Nicholas said no. He said, "I was always afraid (fearful) of the wings growing. I am glad to see she is only a human child." Eagar remarked that Maria loved her father deeply. She often tried to run away from the nursery to "go to Papa". When her father was ill with typhoid, Maria covered a small picture of him with kisses every night.

paragraphs: She was raised very simply. She shared a room with her sister Anastasia, where the walls were painted gray, and the ceiling was painted with butterflies. The furniture was simple and in white and green colors.


paragraphs: Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia (b. June 10, 1897, Russia) was a daughter of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and Tsarina Alexandra Fyodorovna. She was a sister of Olga, Anastasia, Maria, and Tsarevich Alexei of Russia. Her friends said she was more beautiful than her sisters. She was a Red Cross nurse during World War I. She was practical and liked to help her mother. Her religion was Russian Orthodox. She spoke Russian, English and French fluently.

paragraphs: Tatiana was killed by Bolsheviks on July 17, 1918 with the rest of her family and some of their servants, during the Russian Revolution. Their mass grave was found later in Siberia after some speculation that one of her sisters, mainly presumed to be Anastasia, had escaped. Tatiana and her family were then buried in St. Petersburg, Russia on July 17, 1998. They were made saints by the Russian Orthodox Church in 2000.


title: Rally-X

paragraphs: Rally-X is a arcade video game released by Namco in 1980. The player moves a car around a maze. The player tries to collect 10 "flags".

paragraphs: In "Rally-X", there are two types of flags: regular flags and special flags. Special flags double the players points after collecting it. It will only work if the player does not lose a life. In "New Rally-X", there is another flag called a lucky flag. It fills up the car's fuel tank if it is empty. There is only one special flag or lucky flag.


title: Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia

paragraphs: Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia (Olga Nikolaevna Romanova) (; , November 16 after 1900 – July 17, 1918) was the oldest daughter of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the last sovereign of Imperial Russia, and his wife Alexandra Fyodorovna.

paragraphs: Olga's future marriage was the subject of much speculation inside Russia while she was alive. There were stories about matches with Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia, Crown Prince Carol of Romania, Edward, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Britain's George V, and with Crown Prince Alexander of Serbia. Olga wanted to marry a Russian and stay in her home country. During World War I, Olga nursed wounded soldiers at a military hospital until she became ill herself. After that, she managed administrative duties at the hospital.

paragraphs: Olga was murdered with her family on July 17, 1918 by the Bolshevik secret police. The Russian Orthodox Church canonized her as a passion bearer after her death. Later, many people falsely claimed to be surviving members of the royal family. A woman named Marga Boodts claimed to be Grand Duchess Olga, but she was not taken seriously. Historians believe that Olga was killed with her family at Ekaterinburg. Her remains were identified through DNA testing. They were buried in a funeral ceremony in 1998 at Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg with those of her parents and two of her sisters.

paragraphs: Olga's sisters were Grand Duchesses Tatiana, Maria, and Anastasia. She also had a brother, Tsarevich Alexei of Russia. Olga’s title ("Velikaya Knyazhna" Великая Княжна) is best translated as "Grand Princess". This meant that Olga, as an "Imperial Highness", was higher in rank than other Princesses in Europe who were "Royal Highnesses". "Grand Duchess" became the most well-known translation of the title into English from Russian. Olga's friends and family usually called her simply Olga Nikolaevna. They also called her "Olishka" or "Olya". Queen Victoria was her great-grandmother. Olga was very close to her sister Tatiana. They shared a room, dressed similarly, and were known as "The Big Pair". The younger sisters, Maria and Anastasia, were known as "The Little Pair".

paragraphs: Olga was known for her compassion and kindness from when she was young. But she also had a quick temper and often spoke what she thought plainly. Once, when she was a small child, she became impatient while posing for a portrait painter and told him, "You are a very ugly man and I don't like you one bit!" Pierre Gilliard, her French teacher, said that when he first saw Olga when she was 10 years old, she was "very fair, and with sparkling, mischievous examined me with a look which seemed from the first moment to be searching for the weak point in my armor, but there was something so pure and frank (truthful) about the child that one liked her straight off."

paragraphs: The Tsar's children lived very simply. They slept on hard camp cots without pillows when they were healthy. This tradition had been started in the rule of Catherine the Great when she first made her grandson Alexander do so. They took cold baths in the morning, and had to clean their rooms and do needlework. Most people living with them, including servants, usually called the Grand Duchess by her first name, Olega Nikolaevna, instead of her title or "Her Imperial Highness". However, once on a visit to a museum where state carriages were displayed, Olga ordered one of the servants to prepare the largest and most beautiful carriage for her daily drive. She was not obeyed. She also felt oldest children should be respected. When she was told the Biblical story of Joseph, she felt sorry for the older brothers instead of Joseph. She also sympathized with Goliath rather than David in the story of David and Goliath. Olga loved reading. Unlike her sisters, she also liked school work. Pierre Gilliard said that Olga had a very "quick brain", with "good reasoning powers" and "a very independent manner, and a gift for swift (quick) and entertaining (funny) repartee (replies)." She enjoyed reading about politics in newspapers. Olga also liked choosing books from what her mother read. When she was found reading a book before her mother had read it, Olga joked that her mother must wait until Olga had made sure that it was a proper book for her to read.


title: Physical compression

paragraphs: Physical compression means that a material under compressive stress reduces its volume.

paragraphs: There are different uses of compression in physics and engineering. By compression it is possible to measure mechanical properties of materials such as compressive strength or modulus of elasticity. Scientists do this with press machines.

paragraphs: When gases are compressed, their volume becomes smaller as seen in the Ideal gas law. This compression is used in gas engines, for example in the Diesel engine as in any internal combustion engine and in the steam engine.


title: Compressive strength

paragraphs: Compressive strength measures the pushing force that one needs to break a material.

paragraphs: When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are crushed. Concrete can be made to have high compressive strength e.g. many concrete floors have compressive strength of 3000 p.s.i..


title: Strength of materials

paragraphs: The strength of materials is a topic important for the study of solids in many applications. It describes the mechanical behaviors of materials in response to forces that act on objects (such as stress, deformation, strain and stress-strain relations). Usually, the strength of a material is described with units of pressure, because then the value can be applied to many different shapes. For example, a wire and a rod made out of the same steel may have the same tensile strength but the thicker rod will require more force to break.

paragraphs: Strength is considered in terms of compressive strength, tensile strength, and shear strength, but other properties are often considered, like impact strength and fracture toughness. The strength of materials will also change depending on the environment, such as when it is hot or cold, or humid or dry. Sometimes, the environment, or use over time will change the strength of materials over many hours, days, months, or even years. For example, some metals and metal alloys can become stronger or weaker after being used for many years, especially at high temperatures, because their microstructure, or structure on a very small scale, will change. In almost all materials, the microstructure is what is studied to understand and guess what the strength of a material will be, and it is also what scientists and engineers can modify to change a material (especially a metal). For plastics, many conditions can affect them by causing chemical changes: for example, water will make many plastics softer and weaker, and UV radiation from the Sun can damage many plastics and make them brittle and weak, including Kevlar.


Compression


title: Funeral Blues

paragraphs: "Funeral Blues" is a poem written in 1936 by W. H. Auden.

paragraphs: "Funeral Blues" is a simple poem about death, isolation (loneliness), emptiness and longing. The death of a lover may or may not be a literal event (actually happened). The poem is also about the end of a romantic relationship with somebody other than the person's spouse/partner. In four stanzas it moves from the time before the funeral (Stop all the clocks, Silence the pianos...), during the funeral itself (Bring out the coffin, let the mourners come...), after the funeral (He was my North, my South...), and the loneliness and grief that comes with it.


title: W. H. Auden

paragraphs: Wystan Hugh Auden (21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973) was a Anglo-American poet. He was born in York and moved to Harborne, Birmingham in 1908, then to New York City in 1939. He wrote several famous poems such as "Funeral Blues", and As I Walked Out One Evening. He signed his works W. H. Auden. He died in Vienna, Austria and is buried in Kirchstetten.

paragraphs: Auden was an Anglican and was gay. He married Erika Mann in 1935 to enable her to escape Nazi Germany. His partner from 1946 until his death was Chester Kallman (1921–1975).


title: Parsley

paragraphs: Parsley is a fresh flavored bright green herb. It used on food as a garnish and as a seasoning in soups,sauces and salads. Some people eat parsley to get their breath to smell better. Parsley can be easily grown in gardens, as well as inside the home, wherever there is plenty of indirect sunlight. Parsley needs good, light soil, good drainage and frequent watering to thrive indoors. To harvest parsely, cut the most mature stalks near the base that are still bright green. New shoots will grow for some time from the base of an established plant. Parsley is extraordinarily rich in vitamins C and A, minerals (especially potassium),beta-carotene, folate and dietary fiber. The following chart provides information on the nutritional values and caloric composition of parsley:

paragraphs: Calorie content of Food (kcals per 100g/3.5oz) 36

paragraphs: Fat content (lipids) (grams per 100g) 1.2

paragraphs: Carbohydrate content (grams per 100g) 8.0

paragraphs: Dietary Fiber content (grams per 100g) 4.1


title: Édith Piaf

paragraphs: Édith Piaf (aka. "La Môme Piaf") (December 19, 1915 – October 11, 1963) was one of France's most-loved singers. Her real name was Édith Giovanna Gassion. She became a national icon. Her music was an image of her tragic life. Piaf was known for singing ballads in a heartbreaking voice.

paragraphs: As child at her grandmother's in Normandy, she suffered from keratitis, but

paragraphs: 1925 - 10 A pilgrimage to Lisieux in the Normandy honoring Saint Thérèse of Lisieux / (Sainte Thérèse de l'Enfant-Jésus), and the intense devoutness of the family resulted in a miraculous healing, Édith said.

paragraphs: 1930 – 15 Her manager gave her the stage name "", "la Môme", Édith Piaf, or just Piaf. She was only tall and puny, but sharp and lively like a sparrow. She always wore a black dress on the stage.

paragraphs: She sang first in Pigalle, then in "Le Gerny", the nightclub of Louis Leplée near the Champs-Élysées.

paragraphs: She met Raymond Asso (1901-1968) and Marguerite Monnot (1903-1961), who wrote and composed her best songs; she stroke up an acquaintance with actor and singer Maurice Chevalier.

paragraphs: 1948 – 32 The love of Piaf's life, the boxer Marcel Cerdan, middleweight champion of the world, died in a plane crash in October 1949, in the Azores, while flying from Paris to New York City to meet her.

paragraphs: 1952 – 36 Piaf married Jacques Pills in 1952 (her matron of honour was Marlene Dietrich). She divorced him in 1956. In 1962, she wed Théo Sarapo (Theophanis Lamboukas), a Greek hairdresser who was 20 years her junior.

paragraphs: She suffered from different illnesses during her life, especially after several car crashes.

paragraphs: 1963 – 47 Piaf died of liver cancer at Plascassier, near Grasse (Département Alpes-Maritimes), on 10 October 1963.

paragraphs: Among her most famous songs are ""Mon légionnaire"" (1936), ""Le fanion de la Légion"" (1936), ""La vie en rose"" (1946), ""Hymne à l'amour"" (1949), ""Padam... Padam..."" (1951), ""l'Accordéoniste"" (1955), ""Les amants d'un jour"" (1956),""La foule"" (1957), ""Milord"" (1959) and ""Non, je ne regrette rien"" (1960).

paragraphs: Although she was denied a solemn funeral mass, her funeral procession from her residence, Boulevard Lannes (Paris, XVI arr.) drew tens of thousands of mourners onto the streets of Paris, that caused a huge traffic jam. The ceremony at the cemetery‚ Le Père-Lachaise (Paris, XX arr.), was attended by more than 100,000 fans.


title: Weed

paragraphs: A weed is a plant that people think is bad, because it is growing in the wrong place. Only smaller plants are often called weeds.

paragraphs: A person may grow a plant because it has beautiful flowers, but other people may think that this plant is a weed for some reason. This may be for one of these reasons:

paragraphs: If someone is farming a plant and it then moves outside the farm, the plant may then be called a weed.

paragraphs: Some plants are very hard to stop once they start growing. These are called invasive weeds.

paragraphs: Weed is also a name for any wild plant, one that people do not use for anything.


title: Ternopil

paragraphs: Ternopil () is a city in western Ukraine. It is also the administrative centre of the Ternopil region. The city has about 245,000 inhabitants (2004) and lies on the Siret River.

paragraphs: The city was part of the Austrian Habsburg Empire from 1772 until 1918, and it belonged to Poland before 1772. When the Austrain empire fell in 1918, Turnopil beccame part of the short-lived ZUNR (Western Ukrainian National Republic). After heavy battles between Polish troops and Ukrainian Galician Army troops, the city was occupied by Poland in 1920. However, it was only part of Poland for less than 20 years, and in September 1939, it was taken by Soviet troops and annexed to the USSR. Ternopil became part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, it became a part of Independent Ukraine.


title: Justin Lee Collins

paragraphs: Justin Lee Collins (born 28 July 1974) is an English television and radio presenter and former stand-up comedian from Bristol. Collins co-hosted "The Friday Night Project" on Channel 4 with Alan Carr.


title: Alan Carr

paragraphs: Alan Carr (born 14 June 1976) is an English television presenter and stand-up comedian. Carr was born in Weymouth, Dorset, and grew up in Northampton. He presented Channel 4's The Friday Night Project with Justin Lee Collins. Carr is openly gay. He hosts "Alan Carr: Chatty Man".


title: Cremation

paragraphs: Cremation is the act of burning a body after it has died. Cremation is a popular option to dispose of (get rid of) a body instead of burying it. The place where cremations take place is called a crematorium or crematory.

paragraphs: Religions which approve cremation include Christianity, Jehovah's Witnesses, Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Shinto, and Neopaganism. Judaism and Mormonism strongly discourage cremation. Islam, Neo-Confucianism, and Zoroastrianism disapprove it.

paragraphs: Cremated remains (also called "ashes") are returned to the person's family. The family then has a few options of what to do with the remains. Usually the ashes are buried in an urn at a cemetery plot just as a coffin is buried in normal earth burial. Many religions require the ashes to be handled in dignified manner. In Scandinavia it is customary to bury the ashes ín an urn in a family grave (a grave which contains the remains of many family members). Family graves are also popular in Japan and Thailand.

paragraphs: Sometimes the cremated person has thought about what they want to be done with their remains and have shared their desires with their family. Cremated remains can be kept in a container called an urn, which in turn can be buried on cemetery plot or placed in a depot called "columbarium", or thrown into the air or water of a place that was special to the cremated person, or buried anonymously in the ground. These are the most popular choices of what to do with remains. There are also other, less common, options of how to dispose of the remains. Some examples of ways to scatter the remains are: through fireworks, shot from guns, or dropped from an airplane or hot air balloon. Remains can even be sent into space or turned into a diamond. The latter can be done because humans and diamonds are both made largely from carbon.

paragraphs: Queen Victoria is the most well-known mourner because she went into a state of mourning for several decades. To honour her late Prince Albert, Queen Victoria “took to wearing black jet jewelry, from Whitby, in Yorkshire. As a limited and fairly difficult medium to work with, jet was expensive. It’s a hard material, requiring skilled craftsmanship to avoid breakage during carving”


title: Spartacus

paragraphs: Spartacus (circa 120 BC – circa 70 BC, at the end of the Third Servile War), according to Roman historians, was a gladiator-slave who became the leader of an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Roman Republic.


title: George Africanus

paragraphs: George John Scipio Africanus (1763—1834) was a West African slave who became a successful businessman in Nottingham, England.


title: Booker T. Washington

paragraphs: Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856, – November 14, 1915) was an American political leader, teacher and author. He was born into slavery, but was eventually freed. He was one of the most important people in African American history in the United States from 1890 to 1915.

paragraphs: Washington helped start the Tuskegee Institute, which was a university for African-American students, after attending the Hampton Institute. Washington believed that in order to create a peaceful post-slavery society, black and white people needed to "cast down the bucket" and become friends with each other. He saw violence and protests against discrimination of blacks as holding grudges between the races. Washington also stated that freed blacks should not aim for Congress right away, they needed to start by being able to support themselves economically.

paragraphs: Washington was invited to dinner by President Theodore Roosevelt. The President wanted to appoint Washington to advise him on issues of race. This upset some American people. African Americans had visited the White House before but had never been asked to dine there. In reaction several newspapers published a racist poem called "Niggers in the White House". The poem was published again when the wife of Representative Oscar DePriest had tea with wife of President Hoover.


title: Scipio Africanus

paragraphs: Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and a politician of the Roman Republic. He was best known for defeating Hannibal of Carthage.

paragraphs: Scipio won the battle of Zama in North Africa. He got the last name "Africanus" and became known as one of the best commanders in military history. The battle was a complete disaster for Carthage, who had to beg for peace, and were given humiliating terms by Rome.


title: Blessing

paragraphs: A blessing is way to wish good luck for a person. Sometimes, in religious rituals, it is said the God blesses those who are good, or people can bless God. In Judaism, they bless God over wine. The priests can also bless religious objects in order to make them become holy.

paragraphs: The saying "bless you" is commonly used when someone sneezes. This is done because there is a tradition carried by the superstition that a person's soul will come out of their mouth and nose if they sneeze. People believed that saying "God bless you," or "bless you" for short, would make the soul go back inside. They are wishing the person good luck so that their soul is able to come back.

paragraphs: People also think that if unusual good luck or a miracle comes to them, it is a blessing. For example, if some people wanted a child badly but are having difficulty conceiving, it could be considered a blessing from God if they end up having a child.

paragraphs: To "give your blessing" to someone is to give permission to them. For example, a man can ask his girlfriend's parents' for their blessing before he asks her to marry him.

paragraphs: Blessings are often thought of as the opposite of a curse.


title: Karel Svoboda

paragraphs: Karel Svoboda (19 December 1938 – 28 January 2007) was a Czech composer of popular music. He wrote music for many TV series in the 1970s.

paragraphs: Karel Svoboda was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia (now Prague, Czech Republic) and began his career as a pop composer after stopping studying medicine in his third year of university. He became a member of the rock band "Mefisto" in the 1950s. Later, he composed music for the "Laterna Magica" theatre in Prague and for many Czech singers. In 1969 he wrote "Lady Carneval" for Karel Gott, a major Czech pop star. Svoboda wrote a total of 80 songs for him.

paragraphs: Svoboda composed TV scores for the German channel ZDF for over 30 years. He wrote the scores to many TV series in the 1970s that a whole generation of Europeans grew up with. Some examples of these TV series are Vicky the Viking, Maya the Bee and The Wonderful Adventures of Nils.

paragraphs: Svoboda wrote scores for almost 90 films and TV series.

paragraphs: Svoboda was found fatally shot in the garden of his villa at Jevany on January 28, 2007. It is believed that he committed suicide.


title: Third Servile War

paragraphs: The Third Servile War, also called the Gladiator War and The War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last of several slave rebellions against the Roman Republic.

paragraphs: These are called the Servile Wars. The Third Servile War was the only which was dangerous for Italia itself and was doubly alarming to the Roman people because the slaves won several battles against the Roman army between 73 and 71 BC. The rebellion was defeated at last in 71 BC by Marcus Licinius Crassus. The rebellion had indirect effects on Roman politics for many years.

paragraphs: In 71 BC, a band of slaves escaped. At first a small group of about 78 gladiators escaped. The band grew to over 120,000. Men, women and children wandered throughout Italy, and raided with relative impunity. Their leaders included the famous gladiator-general Spartacus.

paragraphs: The able-bodied adults of this band were a surprisingly effective armed force. They showed they could withstand the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols, to the Roman militia, and to trained Roman legions under consular command. Plutarch described the actions of the slaves as an attempt by Roman slaves to escape their masters and flee through Cisalpine Gaul, while Appian and Florus depicted the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves waged a campaign to capture the city of Rome itself.

paragraphs: The Roman Senate's grew alarmed about the military successes of this band, and their damage to Roman towns and the countryside. Eventually, after several defeats, the Senate put an army of eight legions under the harsh but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus. The war ended in 71 BC when the armies of Spartacus, after long and bitter fighting, retreated before the legions of Crassus. Realizing that the legions of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to trap them, they launched their full strength against Crassus' legions and were utterly destroyed.

paragraphs: The Third Servile War was significant to the broader history of ancient Rome mostly in its effect on the careers of Pompey and Crassus. The two generals used their success in putting down the rebellion to further their political careers, using their public acclaim and the implied threat of their legions to sway the consular elections of 70 BC in their favor. Their actions as Consuls damaged Roman political institutions and led, after Caesar's death, to events which turned the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.


title: Vibrating string

paragraphs: A vibration in a string is a wave. A vibrating string mostly produces a sound with constant frequency. As frequency characterizes the pitch, the sound produced is a constant note.

paragraphs: Vibrating strings are the basis of any string instrument like guitar, cello, or piano.


title: Angular momentum

paragraphs: The angular momentum or rotational momentum ("L") of an object rotating about an axis is the product of its moment of inertia and its angular velocity:

paragraphs: There are two kinds of angular momentum: the spin angular momentum and the orbital angular momentum.

paragraphs: The spin angular momentum is a kind of angular momentum for objects turning around an axis that goes through the object, like a top spinning around its center.

paragraphs: Objects that are very spread out from the axis of rotation are very hard to start spinning, but once they get going, they are also hard to stop. We say, that is, it has a large moment of inertia. Similarly, it is easier to start an object spinning slowly (a small angular velocity) than it is to start it spinning fast (a large angular velocity). This is why the spin angular momentum depends both on how spread out the object is (moment of inertia) and how fast it is spinning (angular velocity).

paragraphs: The other kind of angular momentum is orbital angular momentum. This is the kind of angular momentum that planets orbiting around the Sun have, but that tops spinning about their axes do not.

paragraphs: We use orbital angular momentum when we talk about an object (like a planet) orbiting around some axis that is not moving (like the Sun). That is, part of its motion is in a direction that is neither towards nor away from the axis; at least part of its motion is going around the axis. The orbital angular momentum also measures how hard it would be to stop the object from continuing to orbit around the axis.

paragraphs: Angular momentum is a conserved quantity—an object's angular momentum stays constant unless an external torque acts on it.


title: Axle

paragraphs: An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. In some cases the axle may be fixed in position with a bearing or bushing sitting inside the hole in the wheel or gear to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. In other cases the wheel or gear may be fixed to the axle, with bearings or bushings provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type is referred to as a spindle.

paragraphs: Axles are an important structural component of a wheeled vehicle. The axles maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body. Since for most vehicles the wheels are the only part touching the ground, the axles must bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo.


title: Gear

paragraphs: Gears are mechanical parts with cut teeth designed to fit with teeth on another part so as to transmit or receive force and motion. Gears are also sometimes called toothed wheels or cogged wheels or cogs. The cut teeth are also sometimes called cogs.

paragraphs: Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder-metallurgy and even plastics are used in the manufacture of gears. However steels are most commonly used because of their high strength to weight ratio and high cost.


title: Gearshift

paragraphs: A gearshift (US English), gearstick, or gear lever (both UK English) is a metal rod connected with the manual transmission of an automobile that is used to choose the gear. In an automatic transmission, the same rod is usually called a gear selector.


title: Transmission

paragraphs: In mechanics, a transmission or gearbox means gears working together. The most common transmission is the transmission in a car.

paragraphs: In a car, the engine makes the crankshaft spin. The crankshaft makes the transmission's gears spin, which spin some more parts, which make the wheels spin. But the wheels do not spin as fast as the engine makes the crankshaft spin. That is because the gears are made to slow down the spinning. The gears also give the spinning more force (or to be more scientifically exact, more torque), so the wheels can make the entire car move. most transmissions have a breather vent to let hot air escape.

paragraphs: A transmission has some gears that change the torque more than other gears. That is why a transmission has a first gear, second gear, third gear, and sometimes more gears. There is also a reverse gear and neutral. An automatic transmission shifts between gears by itself (except reverse gear, and a parking gear). A manual transmission needs the driver to decide when to shift gears. Manual transmission is also called standard transmission. This is confusing because almost all cars in the U.S. have automatic transmission. In other words, since the late 20th century "standard" transmission has been unusual. A manual transmission usually has a clutch pedal, which the driver must press while shifting gears. An automatic transmission has a fluid coupling called a torque converter instead of a clutch. Some cars have a "clutchless" manual (semi-automatic) transmission, which has an automatic clutch (no clutch pedal), but does not shift gears by itself.

paragraphs: A layshaft is the middle shaft within a gearbox (transmission). When the clutch is engaged, the layshaft turns constantly. All gears on the layshaft turn at the same rate and are permanently attached. It carries gears but does not transfer the primary drive of the gearbox in of the gearbox or out of the gearbox. Layshafts are mostly known through their use in car gearboxes. The oil level in a gearbox is set to layshaft height. That way the spinning gears distribute oil to all the gears.

paragraphs: Not all transmissions are in cars. For example, bicycles have transmissions. You can see the gears, so it is easier to see how it works.


title: Hydraulics

paragraphs: Hydraulics is a topic of science and engineering subject dealing with the mechanical properties of liquids.

paragraphs: One of the founders of modern hydraulics was Benedetto Castelli, a student of Galileo Galilei.

paragraphs: Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties.


title: Tom Vilsack

paragraphs: Thomas James Vilsack (born December 13, 1950) is a former Governor of Iowa and a former Democratic candidate for President of the United States. Vilsack was the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture from 2009 to 2017.

paragraphs: Vilsack was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. At college, he met and married his wife, Christie. They moved to Iowa after graduation. They have two children.

paragraphs: Vilsack served in the Iowa State Senate before he ran for governor in 1998. He won that election and the next one in 2002. He chose not to run again in 2006.

paragraphs: In December 2006, Vilsack said he would run for president. He dropped out of the race a few months later. He endorsed New York Senator Hillary Clinton.


title: Actinide

paragraphs: The actinide series is the 15 chemical elements between actinium and lawrencium on the periodic table. They have the atomic numbers between 89 and 103. The actinide series is named after actinium. All of the elements are radioactive. Uranium is the most common natural actinide, and thorium second.


title: Opera Software

paragraphs: Opera Software is a company in Oslo, Norway that makes Opera, a set of tools for using the Internet.


title: Latin Grammy Award

paragraphs: The Latin Grammy Awards are awards given yearly by the Latin Recording Academy (an association of professionals who work in the Latin music industry) for outstanding work in the Latin music field. The award process is very similar to its American counterpart, the Grammy Awards. The Latin Grammy Awards was created because its organizers thought that the many musical styles of Latin music was too big to fit on the Grammy Awards. The Latin Grammy Awards focuses on music that comes from Latin America, Spain, Portugal, and the United States. One major difference between the Grammy Awards and the Latin Grammy Awards is that a recording that does not have to be released in the United States. To be considered for a Latin Grammy nomination, the song or album must be sung in Spanish or Portuguese.


title: Tiananmen Square

paragraphs: Tian'anmen Square (Tian'anmen Guangchang) is a large plaza near the center of Beijing, China. It is named after the Tian'anmen ("Gate of Heavenly Peace") which sits to its north, separating it from the Forbidden City (Zijincheng). Outside of China, the square is well known for the Tian'anmen Square protests of 1989.

paragraphs: The square is 880 meters south to north and 500 meters east to west, a total area of 440,000 square meters. It is the largest open-urban square in the world.


title: Hot sauce

paragraphs: Hot sauce, chili sauce, or pepper sauce are all spicy condiments made from chili peppers.


title: University of Prishtina

paragraphs: The University of Prishtina is at present the name of two disjoint public universities in Kosovo, sharing the same history up to a point of separation, which took place in 1999. The university was founded in the city of Prishtina 1970 and as result of pervasive ethnic-based polarisation segregated. The two separate, disjoint institutions are using the same name, in Prishtina (Priština) and Mitrovica.


title: Kosovska Mitrovica

paragraphs: Kosovska Mitrovica is a town in North Kosovo, Serbia. Over 71,601 people live in Kosovska Mitrovica, mostly in the south. The town used to be called Titova Mitrovica. Originally it was named after Saint Dimitrije.

paragraphs: There is the University of Pristina in Kosovska Mitrovica.


title: Bending

paragraphs: "This article is about the structural behavior. For other meanings see Bending (disambiguation)."

paragraphs: In engineering and mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a structural element subjected to a lateral load (i.e. at right angles to its length).

paragraphs: A structural element subjected to bending is known as a beam. Stiffness is its ability to resist bending.

paragraphs: A closet rod sagging under the weight of clothes is an example of a beam experiencing bending.


Torsion


title: Torsion (mechanics)

paragraphs: In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object that is result of an applied torque. In circular sections, the resultant shearing stress is perpendicular to the radius.

paragraphs: The shear stress at a point on a shaft is:

paragraphs: "T" is the applied torque, "r" is the distance from the center of rotation, and "J" is the polar moment of inertia.

paragraphs: The angle of twist can be found by using:


title: Polar moment of inertia

paragraphs: The polar second moment of area (also referred to as "polar moment of inertia") is a measure of an object's ability to resist torsion as a function of its shape. It is one aspect of the linked through the where the planar second moment of area uses a beam's cross-sectional shape to describe its resistance to deformation (bending) when subjected to a force applied in a plane parallel to its neutral axis, the polar second moment of area uses a beam's cross-sectional shape to describe its resistance to deformation (torsion) when a moment (torque) is applied in a plane perpendicular to the beam's neutral axis. While the planar second moment of area is most often denoted by the letter, formula_5, the polar second moment of area is most often denoted by either, formula_6, or the letter, formula_7, in engineering textbooks.

paragraphs: The calculated values for the polar second moment of area are most often used describe a solid or hollow cylindrical shaft's resistance to torsion, as in a vehicle's axle or drive shaft. When applied to non-cylindrical beams or shafts, the calculations for the polar second moment of area becomes erroneous due to warping of the shaft/beam. In these instances, a should be used, where a correctional constant is added to the value's calculation.

paragraphs: The polar second moment of area carries the units of length to the fourth power (formula_8); meters to the fourth power (formula_1) in the metric unit system, and inches to the fourth power (formula_2) in the imperial unit system. The mathematical formula for direct calculation is given as a multiple integral over a shape's area, formula_11, at a distance formula_12 from an arbitrary axis formula_13.

paragraphs: In the most simple form, the polar second moment of area is a summation of the two planar second moments of area, formula_15 and formula_16. Using the Pythagorean theorem, the distance from axis formula_13, formula_12, can be broken into its formula_19 and formula_20 components, and the change in area, formula_21, broken into its formula_19 and formula_20 components, formula_24 and formula_25.

paragraphs: Given the two formulas for the planar second moments of area:

paragraphs: The relation to the polar second moment of area can be shown as:

paragraphs: In essence, as the magnitude of the polar second moment of area increases (i.e. large object cross-sectional shape), more torque will be required to cause a torsional deflection of the object. However, it must be noted that this does not have any bearing on the torsional rigidity provided to an object by its constituent materials; the polar second moment of area is simply rigidity provided to an object by its shape alone. Torsional rigidity provided by material characteristics is known as the , formula_32. Linking these two components of rigidity, one can calculate the angle of twist of a beam, formula_33, using:

paragraphs: Where formula_35 is the applied moment (torque) and formula_36 is the length of the beam. As shown, higher torques and beam lengths lead to higher angular deflections, where higher values for the polar second moment of area, formula_37, and material shear modulus, formula_32, reduces the potential for angular deflections.


title: Burial

paragraphs: Burial is the act of placing an object or dead body into the ground.

paragraphs: Human bodies are usually buried in a cemetery. It is common practice in many places to put bodies into a coffin and place the coffin into a grave. The grave is then usually marked with a headstone so that people know who is there and can visit them.

paragraphs: In the past, often during times of war, many bodies have been placed into the same grave without coffins. This is called a "mass burial" or a "mass grave".


title: Gila monster

paragraphs: The Gila monster () is a venomous desert lizard. The Gila monster’s name comes from the Gila River in Arizona, USA.

paragraphs: The Gila monster is heavy and slow for a lizard. It can grow up to 2 feet(60 cm) long. Its skin looks like beads and is black, pink, orange, and yellow. It looks a lot like the Mexican beaded lizard, which is its closest relative.

paragraphs: The Gila monster can bite quickly and hold on tightly, but it does not kill humans. It usually eats small rodents, young birds and eggs. The lizard chews its prey, injecting its venom (poison) into the animal through teeth in its lower jaw. The Gila monster can also store food in its tail.

paragraphs: In 2005 a medicine to treat diabetes was made from the Gila monster’s saliva. Some people who take it call it "lizard spit" as a joke.


title: Elizabeth Smart

paragraphs: Elizabeth Ann Smart (born November 3, 1987) is an American woman who was kidnapped when she was 14 from her home in Salt Lake City, Utah on June 5, 2002. She was found alive on March 12, 2003 about 20 miles from her home. She was found with two homeless adults, Brian David Michell and Wanda Barzee. Barzee was Mitchell's legal wife. Police believe that Elizabeth was taken to be Mitchell's second wife.

paragraphs: Smart has put the kidnapping behind her. She is now studying harp at Brigham Young University. She would like to play harp in an orchestra or teach the harp to others. She has appeared on television in support of laws that would give child sex offenders a harsher punishment. She has said very little publicly about her kidnapping. She has also made it clear that she does not want to publicly comment very much about her ordeal.


title: Bury

paragraphs: Bury is a town in the north of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester in North West England.

paragraphs: Bury is between Rochdale and Salford; the town is a dormitory town in a northern suburb of Manchester. It is just west of the M66 motorway, and is the largest settlement of the Metropolitan Borough of Bury. It has a population of 60,718.


title: Salma Hayek

paragraphs: Salma Hayek Jiménez (born September 2, 1966) is an Academy Award-nominated Mexican actress, Emmy-winning director, movie producer and television producer. She is the most successful Latin-American actress in Hollywood since Carmen Miranda. Hayek has appeared in more than thirty movies and worked as an actress outside of Hollywood in Mexico and Spain.

paragraphs: Hayek's charitable work includes increasing awareness on violence against women and discrimination against immigrants.

paragraphs: Salma Hayek was born in Coatzacoalcos, Mexico. Her father, Sami Hayek is Libanese and was a politician. Her mother, Diana Jiménez is a Mexican and was an opera singer. Salma left the town with 12 years and went to a catholic boarding school in Louisiana. She had a bad manners and had to leave the school. She moved to her aunt in Texas and stayed until she was 17 years old. After the graduation, she went back to her hometown and studied international relations and drama in Mexico City.

paragraphs: Hayek longed to be an actress and ended the study. She had her first appearance in the Mexican telenovela "Teresa". There, she played a main role. Using this role, she was known in Mexico. Later, she left the Show.

paragraphs: In 1991, she went to Los Angeles and started a career there, but she had little knowledge of English. There, she did drama and elocution lessons. In January 1993, she got a supporting role in "Mi Vida Loca". In 1995, she played in "Desperado" with Antonio Banderas. She got an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award nomination for her role in "Frida" as best actress in 2003.

paragraphs: On 9 March 2007, she confirmed her engagement with the French businessman François-Henri Pinault and her pregnancy. In September 2007, she got a daughter, Valentina Paloma Pinault on the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California. In July 2008, they separated. They reconciled and married in February 2009. They married for the second time in April 2009.

paragraphs: She speaks Spanish, Arabic, Portuguese and English.


title: Pellagra

paragraphs: Pellagra is a disease caused by a lack of niacin (vitamin B3). Niacin is found in most foods. A person can die from pellagra if it is not treated. The main results of pellagra can be remembered as "the four D's": diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death.Some symptoms of pellagra according to a few sources are abdominal cramping,depression,diarrhea,headache,loss of appetite,mucus membrane inflammation,dilated cardiomyopathy. It is also caused due to cellular deficiency of niacin, chronic alcoholism or gastro-intestinal malabsorption. It can be prevented by adequate intake of niacin or foods rich in vitamin B3 and dietary advice to vulnerable groups.


title: Dermatitis

paragraphs: Dermatitis means "inflammation of the skin." It looks like a red rash in most cases. It most often refers to eczema.


title: Chet Culver

paragraphs: Chester John "Chet" Culver (born January 25, 1966) is the former Governor of Iowa.

paragraphs: Culver was born in Washington, D.C.. His father, John Culver, was a United States Senator. Before entering politics, Culver was a teacher.

paragraphs: In 1998, Culver won election to be the Iowa Secretary of State. He was reelected in 2002. After Governor Tom Vilsack said he would not run for Governor in 2006, Culver became a Democratic candidate for Governor. In November of 2006, he defeated his Republican opponent, Jim Nussle, and in January he became Governor of Iowa. He lost to Terry Branstad in the 2010 election.


title: Duel

paragraphs: A duel is a fight between two people who have similar deadly weapons and have agreed to a set of rules before the fight takes place. The fight is usually about a matter of honor. The goal of a duel is not usually to kill the opponent but to restore the honor of the man who declared the duel. Duels are not official laws, they are carried out by individuals.

paragraphs: Duels were practiced from the 15th to 20th century in Western societies. For example, in 1804 in the United States the politicians Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton had a duel. Since the American Civil War, all U.S. states have criminalized dueling, with punishments for dueling ranging from not being allowed to run for public office to the death penalty. Dueling was outlawed because groups against dueling formed and were successful.

paragraphs: Duels could be fought with swords or pistols.

paragraphs: The person who felt offended or dishonored had to "challenge" his opponent to a duel. This was usually done by throwing his glove down in front of the opponent or by hitting him in the face with a glove. Each person had to then find a person to be his "second". The job of the seconds was to choose a place to duel and to decide whether or not the weapons were equal.

paragraphs: The person who declared the duel got to choose when the duel would be finished. Common endings to duels were:


title: The Castle (movie)

paragraphs: The Castle is a 1997 Australian movie which was popular in Australia. Some people outside Australia did not understand some of the humour. "The Castle" starred Michael Caton and Anne Tenney and was filmed in Melbourne, Australia.

paragraphs: "The Castle" was made in 11 days for about AUD$750,000. Some people have said that "The Castle" is a very simple movie because it was filmed cheaply and quickly. However, fans of the movie generally appreciate it because it is a good movie that was made on a low budget.

paragraphs: The story is about the Kerrigan family, who have been living in their home—their "castle"—for years. Their house is next to the local airport. The airport wants the Kerrigans to move so that they can build a new building on the Kerrigans' land. Darryl Kerrigan is the father. He does not want to leave his house, so he fights the airport in court. At first he loses in court because his lawyer is not very good. Then he meets a very good lawyer (a Queen's Counsel). The Queen's Counsel argues very well and the Kerrigans can keep their house.

paragraphs: "The Castle" is funny to Australians because the movie is about ordinary people. They are not rich or stylish, but they are good people. Australians like the idea of "the little Aussie battler", someone who is hard-working even when life is tough. The movie title is named for the English saying, which is said many time during the movie, "A man's home is his castle." The movie also talks about the land rights movement of the Australian Aborigines. Darryl Kerrigan compares his problem to the Aboriginals problems about land. The movie talks about famous Australian Constitutional Law Cases, like Mabo and the Tasmanian Dams Case.

paragraphs: It is common in Australia to humorously quote lines from ""The Castle"". Some of the most popular of these are:


title: Documenta

paragraphs: documenta is one of the most important exhibitions of modern art in the world. Since 1955, it takes place every five years in Kassel, Germany. More than 1.2 million people visited the last one, documenta 14, which was held in 2017. The next one, documenta 15, will be from June 18 to September 25, 2022.


title: Al Pacino

paragraphs: Alfredo James "Al" Pacino (born April 25, 1940) is an American actor. He has won an Academy Award for Best Actor an Emmy Award, and two Tony Awards. He is known for movie roles in "Scarface" and "The Godfather". Pacino is the co-president, along with Ellen Burstyn and Harvey Keitel, of the Actors Studio.

paragraphs: Pacino has three children. The eldest, Julie Marie (born 1989), is his daughter with acting coach Jan Tarrant. He also has twins, son Anton James and daughter Olivia Rose (born 2001), with actress Beverly D'Angelo. They had a relationship from 1996 to 2003. Pacino had a relationship with Diane Keaton, his co-star in the Godfather Trilogy. Other women he has had relationships with include Tuesday Weld, Marthe Keller, Kathleen Quinlan and Lyndall Hobbs. Pacino has never married.

paragraphs: Pacino has been nominated and has won many awards during his acting career. These include eight Oscar nominations (winning one), 15 Golden Globe nominations (winning four), five BAFTA nominations (winning two), two Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on television, and two Tony Awards for his work on the stage. In 2007, the American Film Institute awarded Pacino with a lifetime achievement award. In 2003 British television viewers voted Pacino as the greatest movie star of all time in a poll for Channel 4.


title: Balfour Declaration of 1917

paragraphs: The Balfour Declaration of 1917 was a policy by the government of the United Kingdom to discuss the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. The declaration also said that Britain supported plans for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The issuance of the Declaration had many long lasting consequences, and was a key moment in the lead-up to the Arab–Israeli conflict, often referred to as the world's "most intractable conflict".

paragraphs: The Balfour Declaration was a letter from British government minister Arthur Balfour to Jewish leader Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, dated 2 November 1917.


title: Radius

paragraphs: In geometry, the radius of a circle or sphere, written as formula_1, is the shortest connection between the center and the boundary. It is either the distance from the center to the perimeter (in the case of a circle), or the distance from the center to the surface (in the case of a sphere). It is half of the diameter. That is, when "r" is the radius and "d" is the diameter:

paragraphs: The relationship between the radius formula_2 and the circumference formula_3 of a circle is

paragraphs: The area formula_5 of a circle of radius


title: Morality

paragraphs: Morality is the concept of doing the right thing. Morals are basic guidelines for living.

paragraphs: Many people have written about ways of choosing what the right thing is. Some believe that there is an objective (true even if you do not agree with it) morality, often thinking it was set by God or another similar being; others think that morality is subjective (that what is good or bad is a community choice).

paragraphs: People can learn morals from religion, parents, friends, school, books, or from ethical traditions. People that teach or follow morals are called moralists.

paragraphs: It can also be a lesson that someone learns in a book or story. It is usually one line at the end of the story ("The moral of this story is..."). Fables are stories with a moral.

paragraphs: The opposite of "moral" is "immoral", meaning the wrong thing to do. "Amoral" means something that is not related to morality, or has no morally good or bad aspect to it. It is the same as "morally neutral". Morality means that you can tell between a right and a wrong thing.


title: Saliva

paragraphs: Saliva is the watery substance made in the mouths of humans and many animals. Saliva begins digesting food in the mouth, and moistens food to make swallowing easier. Saliva consists of 99.5% water.

paragraphs: The mouth is obviously the point of entry to the whole alimentary canal. It follows from this that saliva must both help digestion, and protect against infections.

paragraphs: The digestion part is by three enzymes, one each for carbohydrates, fats and proteins. The digestion started here carries on in the stomach. There are some other 'minor' enzymes as well, and we do not know the full story about them yet. Also there is a pain-killing opiorphin, and a wrap-around haptocorrin which keeps vitamin B12 safe from stomach acids. Finally, there are a set of anti-bacterial proteins which make life difficult for any bacteria which get in with the food.


title: Villarosa

paragraphs: Villarosa is a town in the province of Enna, in the region of Sicily in southern Italy.


title: Maria Sharapova

paragraphs: Maria Sharapova (born 19 April 1987) is a Russian tennis player. She was born in Nyagan, Western Siberia, RSFSR. Her parents had moved from Belarus to protect themselves from the Chernobyl nuclear accident. The Sharapov family moved again in 1989, when Maria became interested in tennis, when watching her father play, and played tennis with a second-hand racquet. She would practice tennis by hitting the tennis ball against the wall every day, and her dad soon noticed that she was very good at the sport.

paragraphs: Maria's tennis coaches told the Sharapovs that they should move to Moscow, Russia, to get better training. The Sharapovs moved again, from Moscow, to follow Maria's coach, Martina Navratilova's advice, to move to the United States.

paragraphs: There was a problem, though. Sharapova's mother, Yelena, could not get a visa to go to the United States. Meanwhile, Maria and her father tried to get Maria to go to a famous sports school, and they also had to learn English. Maria showed so much talent that soon, she got a full scholarship to attend the school. At first though, Maria's dad had to pay for Maria to stay at the famous school, doing all sorts of jobs so that they could be able to pay for the school.

paragraphs: Sharapova trained harder and harder. She was videotaped when practicing, and her every move was recorded. Then, she would watch the videos with her coaches to watch her form, emotions, and expressions.

paragraphs: She began to win tournaments and many people started to notice her. Her games improved, and Maria gained more fans.

paragraphs: She has won 35 singles titles in her career, including five Grand Slam championships: Wimbledon in 2004, the US Open in 2006, the Australian Open in 2008 and the French Open in 2012 and 2014. She won an Olympic silver medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. She is the world number 3 women's tennis player as of September 2015. In 2005, she was ranked world number 1 for the first time, and in 2012 for the last time.

paragraphs: In March 2016, Sharapova revealed she had failed a drug test at the 2016 Australian Open, admitting to testing positive for meldonium, a substance banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) at the start of 2016. On June 8, 2016, she was suspended from playing tennis for two years by the International Tennis Federation (ITF).

paragraphs: In Russia, female surnames are changed so that their gender can be identified, so Sharapov becomes Sharapova.


title: True bug

paragraphs: The true bugs are an order of insects. Biologists call true bugs the Hemiptera. There are around 80,000 species of true bugs. The word "bug" by itself can have other meanings.

paragraphs: There are many different kinds of true bugs, some of which are aphids, cicadas, planthoppers, shield bugs, and others. All of these are true bugs. Their size is from 1 mm to over 10 cm. All true bugs have similar mouthparts, which they use to suck up plant sap.

paragraphs: Bugs have piercing, sucking mouthparts: this defines the Hemiptera. They pierce plants with their long, tube-like mouth, called a proboscis or a beak. They cannot chew. The true bug pumps saliva through this mouth, to partly digest their food. It then sucks up the food, which is usually plant sap.

paragraphs: The name "Hemiptera" is from the Greek: it means "hemi" (half) and "pteron" (wing). Most true bugs have half of their front wings hardened and have the other half soft. These wings are called "hemelytra" (singular "hemelytron"), because they halfway look like the hard wings (elytra) of beetles. The hind wings are totally soft and are shorter than the front wings.

paragraphs: The antennae of bugs usually have five segments. The tarsi (foot parts) of their legs have three or fewer segments.


Bug


title: Dayton, Ohio

paragraphs: Dayton is a large city in the American state of Ohio. It is where Orville and Wilbur Wright grew up. The Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, also near Dayton, gets part of its name from the Wright brothers. The National Museum of the United States Air Force is inside the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.

paragraphs: Dayton has a humid continental climate ("Dfa" in the Koeppen climate classification).

paragraphs: Ten people were killed in a mass shooting in Dayton on 4 August 2019.


title: Native Esperanto speakers

paragraphs: Native Esperanto speakers are people who learned Esperanto as one of their first languages. Esperanto is not spoken in any countries as an official language, so they must become bilingual, trilingual, or multilingual. Native Esperanto speakers can use this language completely and more fluently than non-native Esperanto speakers. There are not very many native Esperanto speakers. It is thought that no more than one or two thousand people speak Esperanto as their first language.

paragraphs: Children who learned Esperanto as one of their first languages speak with grammar like the other languages they learned.


title: Soldering iron

paragraphs: A soldering iron is a device used to attach pieces of metal together with solder, which is called soldering. Soldering irons are used mainly for attaching electronic components onto a circuit board with tin, but can also be used for other tasks such as fixing jewelry. There are several different kinds of soldering irons, such as ones that are hotter than others, and ones that use electricity or natural gas.

paragraphs: A soldering iron stand can be used to hold the iron. That is a flat metal stand with a coil that holds the iron.


title: Hungarian Vizsla

paragraphs: Hungarian Vizsla is a dog breed. Vizslas are known for being affectionate and not aggressive. They originated in Hungary and are an excellent hunting dogs.

paragraphs: The breed was developed from dogs used by Hungarian tribes. Vizslas were owned by sporting nobility of Hungary who use to hunt with them. They were used to hunt deer, wild boar and wolf. The breed almost disappeared during the First World War and Second. Dogs were smuggled out of Hungary during the Second World War. These dogs were used later to breed in other countries.

paragraphs: Hungarian Vizsla's have a dark gold coat. Some dogs may also have small white marks on their feet and/or chest.

paragraphs: They are active, enthusiastic, friendly. Vizslas need human company to stay happy. They do not make good kennel dogs.

paragraphs: Daily exercise and mental tasks are necessary. Outside they are very active. Indoors, Vizslas can be quite inactive. The dogs prefer to rest beside their owners. Some are quite demanding of attention. If Vizslas do not receive enough exercise, they will become bored. If bored, they may choose to do to amuse themselves with digging or chewing on things.


title: Drawing (manufacturing)

paragraphs: Drawing is a manufacturing process for producing a wire, bar or tube by pulling on a material until it increases in length. This is typically accompanied by a thinning out of the material, usually through a reduction in the girth.

paragraphs: This technique has long been used to produce flexible metal wire by drawing the material through a series of holes of decreasing size. More recently drawing has been used with molten glass to produce high quality optical fibers.


title: Manufacturing

paragraphs: Manufacturing is producing goods out of raw materials. It is a branch of industry. It includes making very big, complicated things that take a lot of steps to finish. Often machines are involved in manufacturing.

paragraphs: In the past products were made by handicraft workers using tools and manual labor. In modern times, most manufacturing jobs got replaced by automated manufacturing machines, which made the products much faster and in turn - cheaper than humans could.


title: Finished goods

paragraphs: Finished goods are goods that have completed required manufacturing process and are ready to be fitted/mixed/processed with final product. The final product itself could also be called finished goods.

paragraphs: Examples: cars, clothing, food, furniture etc.

paragraphs: In manufacturing there are three different sorts of stuff:

paragraphs: Something bought as a "raw material" is used to manufacture a product. A thing that is not completed during the manufacturing process is called "work in process". When the manufacturing of the thing is completed but it is not yet sold or distributed to the end-user, it is called a "finished good".

paragraphs: "Finished good" is a relative term. Finished goods of a supplier can be the raw material of the buyer. For example, a paper mill sells paper to a book publisher who uses it as raw material.


title: Good (economics)

paragraphs: A good in economics is any object or product (factors of production) that is useful. A commodity is one kind of good.

paragraphs: A good that cannot be used by consumers directly, such as an office building or capital equipment, can be called a good because it can be useful if it is sold. A 'good' in economic usage does not necessarily mean that the object is good in a moral sense.

paragraphs: If an object or service is sold for a positive price, then it is a good since the purchaser considers the utility of the object or service more valuable than the money. Some things are useful but not scarce such as air and are referred to as "free goods" and "common goods".

paragraphs: In macroeconomics and accounting, a good is contrasted with a service. A good here is defined as a physical product that one can deliver to a buyer. The service is not an object, but an action that benefits someone. A more general term that preserves the distinction between goods and services is 'commodities'. In microeconomics 'good' is often used in this more inclusive sense of a commodity.


title: Ruslana

paragraphs: Ruslana Stepanivna Lyzhychko (May 24, 1973) is a popular Ukrainian pop singer, composer, producer, conductor and dancer. She was born in the city of Lviv in Ukraine. She won the Eurovision Song Contest in Istanbul in 2004. She is also a former Member of Parliament serving as deputy in the Ukrainian parliament (Verkhovna Rada) for the Our Ukraine Party.

paragraphs: In 2014, Ruslana became a leader in the Maidan movement for human rights and democratic reform in Ukraine. During the demonstrations, Ruslana stayed on the streets. At night she slept in a cold tent. Every night she sang the Ukrainian national anthem for the protestors. When the government police came, she stayed on the stage. She told the protesters to stay calm. She told the police to respect human rights.

paragraphs: Ruslana was also in the 2004 Orange Revolution. She was UNICEF National Ambassador in Ukraine in 2005. In 2008 she spoke for green energy.

paragraphs: In 2014 Ruslana received the International Women of Courage Award form the U.S. Department of State.


title: Mustard plant

paragraphs: The word mustard is used to refer to several species of plants. These plants belong to the genera "Brassica" or "Sinapis". They have tiny seeds. These seeds can be used as a condiment. When they are first ground, and then mixed with water, vinegar and other ingredients, a condiment called mustard can be made. The seeds can also be pressed, to give a kind of oil called "mustard oil". Some kinds of mustard plants have edible leaves. These leaves are known as "mustard greens".

paragraphs: Mild white mustard ("Sinapis hirta") grows wild in North Africa, the Middle East and Mediterranean Europe and has spread farther by long cultivation; brown or Indian mustard ("B. juncea"), originally from the foothills of the Himalaya, is grown commercially in the UK, Canada and the US; black mustard ("B. nigra") in Argentina, Chile, the US and some European countries.

paragraphs: In addition to the mustards, the genus "Brassica" also includes cabbages, cauliflower, rapeseed and turnips.

paragraphs: There has been recent research into varieties of mustards that have a high oil content for use in the production of biodiesel, a renewable liquid fuel similar to diesel fuel. The biodiesel made from mustard oil has good cold flow properties and cetane ratings. The leftover meal after pressing out the oil has also been found to be an effective pesticide.

paragraphs: An interesting genetic relationship between many species of mustard have been observed.

paragraphs: The mustard plant is in no way related to mustard gas, an agent for chemical warfare.