title: Kamikaze

paragraphs: Kamikaze (Japanese: 神風; literally: ""god-wind""; usual translation: ""divine wind"") is a word of Japanese origin. It comes from the name the Japanese gave to a typhoon that destroyed the Mongol ships in the 13th century and saved the country from invasion. In Western culture, the word "kamikaze" is used to mean the suicide pilots of the Empire of Japan. Those pilots attacked the ships of the Allied Powers in the final years of World War II, during which they flew their planes into enemy ships. It has also come to mean other kinds of suicide attacks.

paragraphs: Most people in Western culture believe the word "kamikaze" was the name used by the Japanese military for pilots, but that is not true. Their correct name was "tokubetsu kōgeki tai" (特別攻撃隊), which literally means ""special attack team."" This is usually abbreviated "tokkōtai" (特攻隊) in a shortened form. The suicide attacks made by Navy pilots were called "shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai" (神風特別攻撃隊, ""divine wind special attack team""). The American translators used a different style of pronunciation of the Japanese language by mistake, and read the word "shinpū" (""divine wind"") as "kamikaze", as those Japanese characters can be read both ways. The name became well known so, after the war, the Japanese also started using it.

paragraphs: After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Japanese Navy and its Air force were defeated in several important battles, like Midway and the Philippine Sea. They lost many ships (including nearly all the Japanese aircraft carriers), hundreds of fighter aircraft, and many of their best pilots. The Japanese industry was small and very poor compared to the American industry. For this reason, the United States replaced their lost ships and planes with better ones very quickly; but Japan could only make few, and of poor quality. During 1943-44, the Allied forces were moving towards Japan. At the Battle of the Philippine Sea, on June 19-20, 1944, the Japanese forces were pushed back to the Philippines.

paragraphs: On July 15, Saipan (in the Northern Mariana Islands) was captured by Allied forces. The capture of Saipan made it possible for the United States Army Air Force to attack Japan itself, using B-29 Superfortress bombers. After the fall of Saipan, the Japanese commanders knew that the Allies would try to capture the Philippines next. The Philippines were very important because they were located between the oil fields of Southeast Asia and Japan. If Japan lost control over the Philippines, they would have little fuel left for their ships. On October 17, the Allies started the attack on the Philippines in the Battle of Leyte Gulf.

paragraphs: Vice Admiral Takijiro Onishi was in charge of the Japanese Air Force in Manila. He understood that it was impossible to win the battle with so few aircraft and trained pilots. For this reason, he decided to form a suicide attack force, the Special Attack Unit. A group of 24 student pilots volunteered for the mission. The Special Attack force was organized into 4 groups, "Unit Shikishima", "Unit Yamato", "Unit Asahi", and "Unit Yamazakura". These names were taken from a patriotic poem ("waka" or "tanka"), written by the Japanese classical poet, Motoori Norinaga: (敷島の 大和心を 人問はば 朝日に匂う 山桜花). The poem reads: ""Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana"

paragraphs: The Japanese were defeated at the battle of Leyte Gulf, but the Special Attack force had great success. The first "kamikaze" attack took place on October 21, 1944, against the flagship of the Royal Australian Navy, HMAS "Australia". 30 sailors died in the attack, including its Captain Emile Dechaineux, and many more were wounded. By October 26, 47 more Allied ships had been attacked. Most of them were badly damaged or sunk, like the United States aircraft carrier USS "St. Lo".

paragraphs: This early success convinced the Japanese commanders to continue the "kamikaze" attacks. Many more pilots were recruited to act as "kamikaze". Over the next few months, more than 2,000 planes made such attacks. When the Japanese stock of airplanes began to run low, new models of low quality were built for these missions. Some of them, like the Nakajima Ki-115 "Tsurugi", were made mostly of wood and used stocks of older engines. The plane's landing gear was usually dropped by the pilot after takeoff so it could be used by other aircraft, because he would not be landing again. Similar suicide attack programs were planned, including rocket bombs with pilots (called "Ohka") and submarine torpedoes ("Kaiten").

paragraphs: The high point of "kamikaze" attacks came from April 6 to May 25, 1945 during the Battle of Okinawa, in "Operation Kikusui" (""floating chrysanthemums""). In that time, seven important waves of attacks took place, with more than 1,500 "kamikaze" planes. Because their training had been too short and their airplanes were poorly made, "kamikaze" pilots were easy targets for the experienced Allied pilots, who also had much better planes. But still, the "kamikaze" who escaped the anti-aircraft fire and the enemy fighter airplanes did great damage to the Allied fleet. The Allies won the battle, but they lost many ships and men because of "kamikaze" attacks. By the end of the battle, at least 21 American ships had been sunk by "kamikazes". Some ships from other Allied navies were also sunk, and dozens more were damaged.

paragraphs: Hundreds of extra "kamikaze" planes were ready to defend Japan from invasion. However, with Japan's surrender on August 15 after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the declaration of war by the Soviet Union, they were never used again.

paragraphs: The most important effect of the attacks was creating fear among the Allied troops. When the American ships went to the last battles, the crews were very afraid of "kamikaze" pilots. By the end of World War II, the Japanese Navy had sacrificed 2,525 "kamikaze" pilots, and the Air force had lost 1,387. The Japanese government said, the missions sank 81 ships and damaged 195. They also claimed that the "kamikaze" attacks were the cause of 80% of Allied deaths in the last years of the War.

paragraphs: The American sources claim that "kamikaze" sunk less ships than the Japanese say. But still, they agree that they did very important damage. According to a U.S. Air Force source, the "kamikaze" attackers sunk 34 Navy ships, damaged 368 others, killed 4,900 sailors, and wounded over 4,800. In a 2010 book, the historian Robin Rielly said that about 60 U.S. ships were sunk by kamikazes, and over 400 were damaged by them.

paragraphs: Many "kamikaze" pilots offered themselves as volunteers for the mission. They were usually very young, between 18 and 24 years old. Their belief was that dying when striking the enemies of Japan and the Emperor down was a very honorable death. This principle was traditional since the days of the samurai, and gave great importance to the sense of duty and obedience. This idea was called "Giri" (""Obligation""), and was part of the code of conduct of the Japanese warriors since the Middle Ages, the "Bushido". Many young men sacrificed themselves by their free will because these beliefs and their love for the home land were the most important things for them. The "tokkōtai" pilot's manual told pilots to never close their eyes. This was because if a pilot closed his eyes he would miss his target. In the final moments before the crash, the pilot was to shout ""Hissatsu!"" (""Critical Strike!"") as loud as he could.

paragraphs: However, many others did so because of social pressure. Not offering oneself as a volunteer was a sign of cowardice and dishonor. Several professional pilots who were ordered to do suicide attacks did it because of military obedience, not because of honor. One of the first "kamikaze" pilots, Lieutenant Yukio Seki, wrote after nearly being forced to volunteer:

paragraphs: A special ceremony before going to combat usually took place. Pilots drank sake and ate a ball of rice. They were given medals, and a katana sword. They put on a headband with the rising sun, and a "sennibari", a ""belt of a thousand stitches"" made by a thousand women, who made one stitch each. Many times, they took prayers written by their families with them. According to legend, young pilots on "kamikaze" missions many times flew southwest from Japan over the 922-metre (~3000 ft) Mount Kaimon. Suicide mission pilots looked over their shoulders to see this, and said farewell to their country. Another legend says that "kamikaze" pilots dropped flowers from the air, as they departed on their final missions. Some places, like the hills near Kikajima airport, are said to have beds of cornflower that bloom in early May from those days.

paragraphs: Some important military men who survived the war criticized the "kamikaze" plan years after. Saburo Sakai, a war time ace pilot said:


title: Ü

paragraphs: Ü or ü is a letter not used in English. It is commonly used to represent the . It started as an U with an E above it. It is heavily used in the Turk languages, such as Turkish. In German, the letter can be replaced by "Ue" or "ue" respectively, if it is not available on the keyboard.

paragraphs: Ü or ü is one of the 4 extra letters used in German. It can be replaced by using the letters Ue or ue. In English language newspapers it is often written as U or u but this is not correct.

paragraphs: Internet addresses are written as "ue" because the internet address system can only understand ordinary English letters.

paragraphs: German is one of the official languages of Switzerland, people from Switzerland who speak German normally use the extra letter.


title: Umlaut

paragraphs: The umlauts are a group of sounds in German. They are written ä, ö, ü (or ae, oe, ue).

paragraphs: Without the diaeresis (the dots) those three letters are said [a], [o], and [u]. But when the dots are put over them, Ä, Ö, and Ü the sounds change to be said like [ɛ], [œ]/[ø] and [y]/[ʏ].

paragraphs: When a word that has umlaut letters with dots is changed into English, the letters are usually written as ae, oe, or ue instead of ä, ö, or ü.


title: Ö

paragraphs: Ö or ö is not a letter used in English, but is used in some other languages, such as German, Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian, Turkish and Swedish.

paragraphs: Ö or ö is one of the 4 extra letters used in German. It can be replaced by using the letters Oe or oe. In English language newspapers it is often written as O or o but this is not correct.

paragraphs: Internet addresses are written as "oe" because the internet address system can only understand ordinary English letters.

paragraphs: German is one of the official languages of Switzerland. It has its own dialect (Swiss-German or Schweizerdeutsch). The Ö or ö is used in the Swiss dialect as well.


title: Ä

paragraphs: Ä or ä is not a letter used in English, but is used in some other languages. Ä and ä are both just "a"s with umlauts.

paragraphs: Ä or ä is one of the 4 extra letters used in German. It can be replaced by using the letters Ae or ae. In English language newspapers it is often written as A or a but this is not correct. Ä and ä are usually pronounced like the "e" in "bed".

paragraphs: Internet addresses are written as "ae" because the internet address system can only understand ordinary English letters.


title: Ulyanovsk

paragraphs: Ulyanovsk (Russian: Улья́новск), formerly Simbirsk (Симби́рск), is a city on the Volga River in Russia. It was founded in the year 1648. Ulyanovsk had a population of 638,300 in 2005. It is the administrative center of Ulyanovsk Oblast. In 1924, the city was renamed Ulyanovsk after Vladimir Ulyanov, better known as Lenin, who was born there.


title: Age of Enlightenment

paragraphs: The Age of Enlightenment was an 18th century cultural movement in Europe. It was most popular in France, where its leaders included philosophers like Voltaire and Denis Diderot. Diderot helped spread the Enlightenment's ideas by writing the "Encyclopédie", the first big encyclopedia that was available to everyone. The Enlightenment grew partly out of the earlier scientific revolution and the ideas of René Descartes.

paragraphs: The Enlightenment's most important idea was that all people can reason and think for themselves. Because of this, people should not automatically believe what an authority says. People do not even have to believe what churches teach or what priests say. This was a very new idea at the time.

paragraphs: Another important idea was that a society is best when everyone works together to create it. Even people with very little power or money should have the same rights as the rich and powerful to help create the society they live in. The nobility should not have special rights or privileges any more.

paragraphs: These were very new ideas at the time. They were also dangerous thoughts for the people in power. Many Enlightenment philosophers were put in prison or were forced to leave their home countries.

paragraphs: Many of the Founding Fathers of the United States believed the Enlightenment's ideas. For example, the idea that a government's job is to benefit all of a country's people not just the people in power was very important to them. They made this idea about a government "for the people" one of the most important parts of the new United States Constitution and the new American government they created.

paragraphs: The Enlightenment's ideas were also important to the people who fought in the French Revolution of 1789.

paragraphs: In some countries, kings and queens took some of the Enlightenment's ideas and made changes to their governments. However, they still kept power for themselves. These kings and queens were called "enlightened despots." Examples include Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Gustav III of Sweden.

paragraphs: During the Age of Enlightenment, as more and more people began to use reason, some began to disagree with the idea that God created the world. This caused conflicts - and, later, war.

paragraphs: Many ideas that are important today were created during the Enlightenment. Examples of these ideas include:

paragraphs: The Enlightenment's ideas about thinking with reason, having personal freedoms, and not having to follow the Catholic Church were important in creating capitalism and socialism.

paragraphs: Important people in the Enlightenment came from many different countries and shared ideas in many different ways. Some of the best-known Enlightenment figures, organized by home country, are:


title: Hawk

paragraphs: A hawk is a common term for a medium to large-sized birds of prey. Its usage varies in different places.

paragraphs: Accipitrine hawks generally take birds as their primary prey. They have also been called "hen-hawks", or "wood-hawks" because of their woodland habitat. Within the hawk species, the female is generally larger than the male. Like most birds, the hawk migrates in the autumn and the spring.

paragraphs: Hawks, like most vertebrates, have four types of colour receptors in the eye. They can see not only the visible range, but also the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Other adaptations let them detect polarised light and magnetic fields.

paragraphs: They have many photoreceptors in their retina, and an exceptional number of nerves connecting the receptors to the brain. There is an indented fovea, which magnifies the central portion of the visual field.

paragraphs: Hawks have always been known to have sharp vision and to be very able hunters.


title: Bird of prey

paragraphs: Birds of prey (also called raptors) are birds that mainly use their claws (called "talons") to seize prey. They are not classified into one natural family or group. They have strong sharp, hooked beaks and claws and have sharp eyesight. The behaviour evolved many times in different groups. This is an illustration of convergent evolution.

paragraphs: Those bird of prey that are active during the day (diurnal) are classified into five families in two orders. The orders are the Falconiformes and Accipitriformes.

paragraphs: Nocturnal birds of prey – the owls – are classified separately, as members of two families of the order Strigiformes.


title: O RLY?

paragraphs: O RLY? is an Internet meme often used in chat rooms or Forums. It is short for "Oh, really?". O RLY is used as a response to an above post or comment to show (sarcastically) that it is obvious, clear, or apparent. O RLY? is usually followed by "YA RLY", then "NO WAI". This sarcasm is not to be confused with trolling, disrupting a forum, or a chat room. The meme has spread on many forums, across the Internet. It is usually seen with pictures of animals with open mouths.


title: World Peace One

paragraphs: World Peace One (WP1) is a ten-year idea for promoting peace. It includes lots of inventive global campaigns, programs and activities that are meant to help the world in "ending all wars" and have "permanent peace". It is a huge world peace movement, that focuses on human re-inspiration, re-education and redirection—to get rid of war. All of WP1's programs are being organized by WP1 Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization based in Florida, United States. WP1 is preparing a series of "peace ambassador" programs. These are targeted towards governments, religious groups, corporations, schools and universities, as well as celebrity groups, women's organizations, sports organizations and world youth.

paragraphs: The WP1 Global SuperConcert is an musical event that will take place in twelve cities across the world. The concert date is to be announced. The purpose of the event is to move humanity toward "ending all war," in favor of "permanent peace.".

paragraphs: The WP1 Global SuperConcert is planned to be held in twelve countries and broadcast to over 190 countries.


title: Jeffrey Buttle

paragraphs: Jeffrey Buttle (born September 1, 1982) is a figure skater from Canada.

paragraphs: Buttle has won the national championships for Canada three times. He won the bronze medal (third place) at the 2006 Winter Olympics. He won the World Championships in 2008. He has twice won the Four Continents Figure Skating Championships, a competition for skaters from countries that are not in Europe.

paragraphs: Buttle retired from competitions in 2008. Nowadays, he shows his skating acts in ice shows and makes skating programs for other skaters.

paragraphs: Buttle is known for very good skating skills. The edges of his skating blades are leaned very deep, making his skating fun to watch even when he does not perform any jumps. He is known for his spread eagle and his Ina Bauer, skating movements on ice.


title: Ina Bauer

paragraphs: An Ina Bauer is a figure skating element. It is named after a figure skater from Germany named Ina Bauer, who invented the position.

paragraphs: The Ina Bauer is performed by placing the feet in the fourth position in ballet. The front leg is bent forwards at the knee and the back leg is extended behind the skater. The front leg can be either on an inside edge or an outside edge. An outside edge Ina Bauer is harder to do. While the skater skates in a curve across the ice (necessary because of the skate positions), the back can be bent backwards. This is not mandatory, but it does add to the element.

paragraphs: The Ina Bauer is a famous move in Japan because it was performed by Shizuka Arakawa during her long program at the 2006 Winter Olympics, which she won. Because she bends back so far during the move, the term in Japanese has come to mean anything having to do with bending backwards.


title: Shawn Sawyer

paragraphs: Shawn Sawyer (born January 14, 1985 in Edmundston, New Brunswick) is a Canadian figure skater. He won the bronze medal two times at the Canadian national championships. He skated at the 2006 Winter Olympics and came in 12th.

paragraphs: Unlike most figure skaters who spin on the ice and during their jumps in a counter-clockwise motion, Sawyer is one of few skaters who jumps and spins in a clockwise direction. Other skaters who rotate "lefty" are Johnny Weir and Alissa Czisny.

paragraphs: Sawyer is known for his great flexibility and his artistry on the ice. Most male skaters do not perform spirals during competition because they do not get credit for doing them. Sawyer uses them to highlight his skating and as difficulty entrances. They are also a major part of his non-competitive ("exhibition") programs. Sawyer's spirals and flexible spins have given him a different look from most other skaters and have helped his popularity.

paragraphs: Sawyer is often compared to Canadian Olympic bronze medalist Toller Cranston. When Sawyer was 12, Cranston was about to retire from show skating. Cranston put together a televised show in which he and other top ranked skaters, including Scott Hamilton, skated with Sawyer and gave him advice. Cranston still advises Sawyer.

paragraphs: Sawyer can perform a backflip on ice. He was taught this move by Brian Orser.

paragraphs: Sawyer has performed the Biellmann spin in exhibition when he was a junior-level skater, but has since stopped training it. Still, he remains one of the few male skaters to have ever performed this move.


title: Brian Orser

paragraphs: Brian Orser, OC (born December 18, 1961 in Belleville, Ontario, Canada) is a Canadian figure skater. He won two silver medals (second place) at the Olympics: the first in 1984 and the second in 1988.

paragraphs: At the 1988 Olympics, he was part of the "Battle of the Brians". He and American Brian Boitano were both favorites to win the competition. Boitano won it in a very close call over Orser.

paragraphs: In 1998, an ex-boyfriend of Orser announced in a court of law that Orser is gay. Orser did not want this known at first. He thought that people knowing that he was gay would affect his career in a negative way. However, he has since embraced being "outed".

paragraphs: Orser retired from show skating in 2007. He now is a co-director of skating at a rink in Toronto.


title: Yuna Kim

paragraphs: Kim Yu-Na (, IPA: [kimjʌna]; born September 5, 1990 in Bucheon, Gyeonggi-do) is a South Korean figure skater.

paragraphs: She is the 2010 Olympic champion in ladies singles, the 2009 World champion, the 2009 Four Continents championship, a three-time (2006–2007, 2007–2008, 2009–2010) Grand Prix Final champion, the 2006 World Junior champion, the 2005–2006 2005–2006 ISU Junior Grand Prix|Junior Grand Prix Final champion, and a four-time (2002–2005) South Korean national champion.

paragraphs: Kim is the first South Korean figure skater to get a medal at the Olympic Games. She is one of the most well known athletes in South Korea.

paragraphs: As of April 2010, she became the first in the world by the International Skating Union. She was also the first female skater to pass the 200-point mark under the ISU Judging System.

paragraphs: Kim Yu-Na was born in 1990 in Bucheon, Gyeonggi-do, and moved to Gunpo when she was six. In March 2007, she went to Canada to train for her figure skating with her judge, Brian Orser. In 2009, Kim went into Korea University, but she still continued her training in Canada.

paragraphs: The right spelling of her name is 'Kim Yeona'. However, when she applied for a passport, she wanted her name written as 'Yun-a', but the official made a mistake and wrote her name as 'Yu-na'. In Korean 'Yu-na' would be written as "유나" and not "연아".

paragraphs: Kim began skating when she was seven years old. At that time, her coach, Ryu Jong-Hyeon, approved of Kim's talent. Because of this, he asked Kim's mother that Kim should continue to learn how to skate, saying that she would become a wonderful figure skater in the future.

paragraphs: In 2002, she competed internationally for the first time at the Triglav Trophy, and won a gold medal there. A year later, when she was 12 years old, she won the senior title at the South Korean Figure Skating Championships. She was the youngest skater ever to win that title. She won her second international contest at the Golden Bear of Zagreb.

paragraphs: In the 2004–2005 season, as a junior skater, Kim competed at the ISU Junior Grand Prix, which is a junior complement to the ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating. She won a silver medal at the event in China and a gold medal at the event in Hungary. She won a silver medal at the 2005 Junior Grand Prix Final with an overall score of 137.75 points.

paragraphs: She retained her National Championship title for the third year in a row on her way to the 2005 World Junior Figure Skating Championships. At that competition, she won a silver medal again, earning 158.93 points.

paragraphs: For the 2005–2006 season, Kim was not old enough to compete at the 2006 Olympics.

paragraphs: So instead, she went to the 2005–2006 Junior Grand Prix and won both of the contests, in Bulgaria and Slovakia. At the 2006 Junior Grand Prix Final, she won the competition by getting 28.34 points more than Aki Sawada, who had gotten the silver medal. During her freeskate, she made seven triple jumps, including a triple flip.

paragraphs: At the 2006 World Junior Figure Skating Championships, she was the rival of Mao Asada, a Japanese figure-skater, and won the gold medal. When she won this medal, she had made 177.54 points.

paragraphs: In order to prepare for her next contest in the 2006–2007 season, Kim practiced very much at the Skating and Curling Club of Toronto in Canada during the summer of 2006. She was trained by Brian Orser and David Wilson.

paragraphs: Kim won a bronze medal at the 2006 Skate Canada after earning a score of 168.48 points. She won the 2006 Trophée Eric Bompard with a score of 184.54 points, 10.10 ahead of Miki Ando, the skater who got the silver medal. Those performances made Kim be allowed to the Grand Prix Final in St. Petersburg, Russia. At this place, Kim won, earning 184.20 points, which was 11.68 points more than Mao Asada, who earned the silver medal.

paragraphs: Kim was forced to stop because she got hurt at the 2006–2007 South Korean Championships. Because of this, she had to go to the hospital.

paragraphs: Kim was picked to compete at the 2007 World Figure Skating Championships. During the World Championships in Tokyo, Japan, Kim won the short program with 71.95 points, setting a world record. She placed fourth in the long program scoring 114.19 points, and finished the third one with 186.14 points behind Miki Ando and Mao Asada of Japan. Kim's points helped two more South Korean ladies come for the 2008 World Figure Skating Championships.

paragraphs: In March 2007, Brian Orser became Kim's new full-time coach. Because she liked the training environment in Toronto, Kim made Toronto her training home. Her coaches included at that time Brian Orser, Astrid Shrubb, David Wilson, and Tracy Wilson.

paragraphs: Kim started off the 2007–2008 season by winning the 2007 Cup of China with a score of 180.68 points, which was 24.34 ahead of Caroline Zhang, who had gotten the silver medal. At the 2007 Cup of Russia, Kim won both the short program scoring 63.50 points and the free skate with 133.70 points. So she set a world record for the free skate score under the ISU Judging System. She also did a flip jump-toe loop put together, a loop jump, a lutz jump-toe loop jump, an axel jump-toe loop jump, and a triple lutz jump.

paragraphs: She was allowed to the 2007–2008 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final in Turin, Italy. She won the short program with 64.62 points. With a score of 196.83 points, Kim won her second Grand Prix Final.

paragraphs: Kim did not attend the 2007–2008 South Korean Nationals and also did not go to the 2008 Four Continents Figure Skating Championships because of a hip injury. Even though she still had back pain, she went to the 2008 World Figure Skating Championships in Gothenburg, Sweden. She was placed fifth in the short program with 59.85 points. She scored 183.23 points overall, and won her second bronze medal.

paragraphs: Kim was assigned to the 2008 Skate America and the 2008 Cup of China Grand Prix for the 2008–2009 ISU Grand Prix season.

paragraphs: At the 2008 Skate America, Kim was placed first in the short program with a score of 69.50. She went on to get the ladies title by winning the free skate with a score of 123.95. She won the event with 193.45 points, which was more than 20 points ahead of Yukari Nakano of Japan, who won the silver medal.

paragraphs: Kim continued to win and earn medals at the 2008 Cup of China, where she received a score of 63.64 in the short program and 128.11 in the free skate, winning first in both of them. The became all together 191.75. Her performance let her into the 2008–2009 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final|2008–2009 Grand Prix Final.

paragraphs: During the 2008–2009 Grand Prix Final, which was held in Goyang, South Korea, she was placed first in the short program with 65.94 points and second in the free skate where she earned 120.41 points. She won silver medal with a total score of 186.35 points, 2.20 points behind Mao Asada of Japan.

paragraphs: Kim contested in the 2009 Four Continents Figure Skating Championships in Vancouver, Canada. She set a new world record of 72.24 points in the short program. She also scored 116.83 in the free skating program, winning the gold medal.

paragraphs: During the 2009 World Figure Skating Championships, held in Los Angeles, United States, she set another new world record of 76.12 points, surpassing her previous record by almost four points. She performed a triple flip-triple toe loop combination, a triple lutz jump and a double axel jump. At the same time, she earned a level four on all her spins. She also won the free skating program, scoring 131.59 points and showing great skills with her artistry and her musical abilities. Because of these, she set a new world record of 207.71 as well as winning her first World Championship title and she became the first female skater to go over 200 points under the ISU Judging System. Her score was 16.42 points ahead of Joannie Rochette, the woman who earned the silver medal. She was the only competitor who earned eights in program components marks in both the short program and the free skate at the competition. Kim was the only female skater whose triple-triple combination was seen by the judges in both the short and free programs during the 2008–2009 season.

paragraphs: Kim was assigned to the 2009 Trophée Eric Bompard and the 2009 Skate America in the 2009–2010 ISU Grand Prix season.

paragraphs: At the 2009 Trophée Eric Bompard, she won first in the short program with the score of 76.08 points, 16.44 points ahead of Yukari Nakano. Her three spins were all graded as a level four. Showing great artistic skills, she won the free skate scoring 133.95 points. She won the event with 210.03 points, 36.04 ahead of Mao Asada. Kim set world records for the free skate.

paragraphs: At the 2009 Skate America, Kim won first again, which was 17.48 points more than Rachael Flatt. She received +2.20 points for her triple lutz-triple toe loop combination. This was the highest point ever given for jumps by the ISU in ladies' figure skating. She also won second in the free skate with the score of 111.70 points, because of her mistakes in her jumps. Although it was one of her lowest scores, she still won the event with 187.98 points, beating Rachael Flatt. At the competition, she set a new world record again.

paragraphs: Her victories in both Grand Prix events qualified her for the 2009–2010 Grand Prix Final in Tokyo, Japan, in December 2009. At the event, she placed second in the short program with 65.64 points, 0.56 behind Miki Ando. The next day, she won the free skate with 123.22 points. Because of all these, Kim finally won her third Grand Prix Final title with a score of 188.86 points.

paragraphs: In February 2010, Kim competed at the 2010 Winter Olympic Games, where she won gold medal.

paragraphs: In March 2010, Kim competed at the 2010 World Figure Skating Championships in Turin, Italy. Kim said she had tried but had a hard time with competing. She won seventh in the short program with 60.30 points. She opened with a triple lutz-triple toe loop, but had problems with her spinning. In the end, She won the silver medal totalling 190.79 points.

paragraphs: Kim competed in the ladies event at the 2010 Winter Olympic Games, which was held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

paragraphs: In the short program on February 23, she made a triple lutz-triple toe loop combination, a triple flip and a double axel. She set a new world record.

paragraphs: On February 25, she won the free skate with a score of 150.06 points, 18.34 points more than Asada, who also came in second place. Kim was the only one who earned nines in marks. She set a new world record. Overall, Kim totaled 228.56 points, shattering her personal best and own old world record by a margin of 18 points. She won the gold medal, becoming the first South Korean skater to medal in any contests of figure skating at the Olympic Games. Kim's gold medal was South Korea's first medal at the Winter Olympics in a sport other than speed skating or short track.

paragraphs: The places Kim advertised for are Anycall (mobile phone), Hauzen (air conditioner), Hyundai Motor Company (automobiles), Kookmin Bank, Korean Air, Lac Vert (cosmetics), Maeil Dairies Co.Ltd (Dairy products), Nike, Saffron (fabric softener).

paragraphs: Her skating music and other favorites were put and sold in the album "Yuna Kim ~ Fairy On ICE ~ Skating Music" (Universal Music Korea, 2008).

paragraphs: She was the headliner of the 2008 and 2009 Festa On Ice, which presented other world class figure skaters. IB Sports, Kim's agency, produced the ice show. The 2010 Festa On ice is going to be on April 16–18, 2010. IB Sports produced another ice show, Ice All Stars 2009, which took place in Seoul on August 14–16, 2009. Michelle Kwan, who is Kim's idol, joined the ice show.

paragraphs: Kim was also named as an ambassador for the 2010–2012 Visit Korea Year.

paragraphs: Kim has appeared on many commercials in South Korea. She sings in some commercials. Her commercial for a new touchscreen haptic phone from Samsung Electronics, dubbed as "Yuna's Haptic" (SPH-W7700), was done in South Korea on May 24, 2009. In the commercial, she plays a rock singer, a teenager, and a writer to show off various features of the phone. Samsung Electronics has sold over one million devices in a record seven months.

paragraphs: "(Small medals for short program and free skating awarded only at World, Four Continents, and World Junior Championships.)"


title: Christopher Mabee

paragraphs: Christopher Mabee (born on August 26, 1985 in Tillsonburg, Ontario) is a figure skater from Canada. He won the silver medal (second place) at the 2007 national championships. This earned him a spot to the 2007 World Championships, his first time ever at that competition.

paragraphs: Mabee is a good friends with Jeffrey Buttle. They train together and have the same coach.

paragraphs: Mabee's rise to the top of Canadian skating has been slow and steady. In the 2003/2004 season, he won the bronze medal at the Junior Grand Prix Final. He is the second Canadian man to ever win a medal at that competition (after Fedor Andreev).

paragraphs: Mabee just barely missed a place to the 2006 Winter Olympics. However, instead of going to that competition, he went to the 2006 Four Continents Figure Skating Championships, a competition for skaters from countries that are not in Europe. He won the silver medal at that competition.

paragraphs: Mabee is well liked by the crowds in exhibition. He is known for his humor on the ice. He often chooses music that makes fun of himself or is light-hearted. At the 2006 Four Continents, he skated a program to "Play that funky music, white boy". At the 2006 Nationals, he started his exhibition with a funny song about his home town of Tillsonburg.


title: Tanith Belbin

paragraphs: Tanith Jessica Louise Belbin (born July 11, 1984 in Kingston, Ontario, Canada) is a Canadian-American ice dancer. She is a citizen of both Canada and the United States. Her skating partner is Benjamin Agosto.

paragraphs: Belbin was born in Canada and lived in various places like Montreal until she was thirteen years old. At the age of thirteen, she moved to the United States to skate with Agosto. They are coached by Igor Shpilband. He is the one who paired them together.

paragraphs: Belbin & Agosto had success immediately on the Junior level. They won a medal of every color at the World Junior Figure Skating Championships between 2000 and 2002. They qualified to skate for the United States at the 2002 Winter Olympics. However, in order to do this, both partners would need to be citizens of the United States and Belbin had not yet gotten American citizenship.

paragraphs: In 2004, Belbin and Agosto won their first national title.

paragraphs: In 2005, Belbin and Agosto won their first World medal. This was the first World medal for the United States in ice dancing in 20 years. Their silver medal at this competition, along with how well the other American team did, earned the United States three spots on the Olympic team. However, this would not have done them any good because Belbin was still not an American citizen. If she had applied for citizenship, she would have gotten her citizenship in time for the 2006 Olympics. Because of rules changes after she had applied, she could not go back and take advantage of other rules, so she and Agosto thought they would have to miss the 2006 Olympics. But a special law was passed allowing her to take advantage of the sped-up process. Belbin was sworn in as an American citizen on December 31, 2005.

paragraphs: At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Belbin and Agosto won the first ice dancing medal (a silver) for the United States since 1976.

paragraphs: Belbin and Agosto are known for their connection, lifts, and skating skills. They have very good footwork.


title: Benjamin Agosto

paragraphs: Benjamin Alexandro "Ben" Agosto (born January 15, 1982, in Chicago, Illinois) is an American ice dancer. His skating partner is Tanith Belbin.

paragraphs: Agosto originally skated with Katy Hill in the Chicago area. In 1998, he moved to Michigan and he teamed up with Belbin. They are coached by Igor Shpilband. Shpilband is the one who paired them together.


title: Ice dancing

paragraphs: Ice dancing is a form of figure skating related to ballroom dancing. Its first competition was at the World Figure Skating Championships in 1952, but it did not become a Winter Olympic Games medal sport until 1976. As in pair skating, dancers compete as a couple, a man and a woman.

paragraphs: Ice dancing is different from pair skating because it limits the figures to those which are imitative of dance. Skaters must stay close together, and may not perform jumps. There are set dances, in which the style must be appropriate for the type of dance, and there is a Free Dance section which allows lifts up to shoulder level.

paragraphs: Ice dancing is the only form of figure skating to allow vocal music in official competitions.


title: Charlie White

paragraphs: Charlie White is an ice dancer from the United States. His skating partner is Meryl Davis. They won the junior title at the United States national championships in 2006. In 2007, they won the bronze medal (third place) on the senior level, becoming the first team since Tanith Belbin & Benjamin Agosto to go from being junior national champions to World team members in one season.

paragraphs: Davis and White have skated together since 1997. They are the longest-lasting team still skating in the United States.

paragraphs: In 2006, Davis and White won the bronze medal at the World Junior Figure Skating Championships. Later that year, they became the first team in the world to get the highest level of difficulty for one of their programs. This happened at the 2006 NHK Trophy and put them immediately into the skating spotlight.

paragraphs: In 2007, they won the bronze medal at Nationals. At the World Championships, they placed 7th. This was the highest placement for a US team at their first World Championships since 1980.

paragraphs: Davis and White are coached by Igor Shpilband and Marina Zueva.

paragraphs: White previously competed internationally as a single skater and nationally as a hockey player. He gave up hockey after breaking his ankle doing it and making him and Davis miss most of the 2004-2005 competitive season. He gave up single skating in 2006 to focus on ice dancing at the senior level.


title: Meryl Davis

paragraphs: Meryl Davis is an ice dancer from the United States. Her skating partner is Charlie White. They won the junior title at the United States national championships in 2006. In 2007, they won the bronze medal (third place) on the senior level, becoming the first team since Tanith Belbin & Benjamin Agosto to go from being junior national champions to World team members in one season.


title: Treaty of Shimonoseki

paragraphs: The Treaty of Shimonoseki (, ) was signed between the Qing Dynasty and Empire of Japan at Shimonoseki in 1895. It ended the First Sino-Japanese War (1894 - 1895).


title: Tessa Virtue

paragraphs: Tessa Virtue is an ice dancer from Canada. Her skating partner is Scott Moir. Virtue and Moir have been skating together since 2008. In the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics, the duo won the gold medal in the ice dancing competition; which was not only a first for them, but also for the country of Canada. They went on to win two silver medals in 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics and two gold medals in 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympics. They are now the most decorated figure skaters in Olympic history.

paragraphs: Virtue and Moir were the most successful junior-level Canadian ice dancers ever. They won Canada's first gold medal in ice dancing at the World Junior Figure Skating Championships in 2006. In that year, they also won the bronze medal at the Four Continents Figure Skating Championships, a senior-level competition for skaters who are from countries that are not in Europe.

paragraphs: In their first full season skating at the senior level, Virtue and Moir won the silver medal (second place) at the Skate Canada International and again at Nationals. Their debut at the World Championships was the highest debut by any team in over two decades when they placed 6th. This made them immediately seeded skaters going into the 2007/2008 season.

paragraphs: Virtue and Moir are known for their artistry, musicality, and grace on the ice. They often look as if they were dancing, not skating. They have a close connection. While most of their programs have been soft and romantic, Virtue and Moir have also done humorous programs in exhibition.

paragraphs: Virtue and Moir were coached by Igor Shpilband and Marina Zueva.


title: Scott Moir

paragraphs: Scott Moir is an ice dancer from Canada. His skating partner is Tessa Virtue. Virtue and Moir have been skating together since 1997. In the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics, the duo won the gold medal in the ice dancing competition; which was not only a first for them, but also for the country of Canada. They went on to win two silver medals in 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics and two gold medals in 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympics. They are now the most decorated figure skaters in Olympic history.

paragraphs: Virtue and Moir are coached by Igor Shpilband and Marina Zueva.

paragraphs: Moir comes from a family of skaters. His older brother Danny competed internationally on the junior level with one of his cousins. That cousin now skates competitively as a synchronized skater. Other relatives of Moir's are judges and coaches.


title: Albena Denkova

paragraphs: Albena Denkova (born December 3, 1974 in Sofia) is an ice dancer from Bulgaria. Her skating partner and fiancee is Maxim Staviski.

paragraphs: Denkova and Staviski are the first Bulgarian skaters to win Worlds, which they did in 2006 and 2007.

paragraphs: In 2006, Denkova was elected as the president of the Bulgarian figure skating federation.

paragraphs: After 2007 Worlds, Denkova and Staviski did not announce if they would retire, leaving it open. However, in the summer of 2007, Staviski was involved in a fatal car crash that killed a man and left someone else in a coma. Staviski survived unharmed. However, he was legally drunk. Denkova and Staviski have withdrawn from the Grand Prix events they were scheduled to attend. Denkova has not made an official announcement as to their retirement, but if Staviski goes to jail, they will be unable to compete.

paragraphs: Denkova's younger sister Ina Demireva is also an ice dancer.

paragraphs: Denkova and Staviski are known for being pioneers of dance lifts. They invented or popularized most of the ice dance lifts currently in use at the international level.


title: Maxim Staviski

paragraphs: Maxim Staviski () (born November 16, 1977, in Rostov-on-Don, Soviet Union (now Russia)) is an ice dancer from Bulgaria. His skating partner and fiancee is Albena Denkova.

paragraphs: Staviski originally competed for the Soviet Union and later Russia. He moved to Bulgaria when he started skating with Denkova. He has acquired Bulgarian citizenship and considers himself wholly Bulgarian. He was insulted when a reporter told him he was the only Russian skater to win a gold medal at the 2006 World Championships.


title: First Sino-Japanese War

paragraphs: The First Sino-Japanese War (, ; 1 August 1894–17 April 1895) was a war between the Qing Dynasty and the Empire of Japan. Finally, the Empire of Japan won the war. They signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.

paragraphs: There were totally 65 warships in China before the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War. They were divided into four fleets (Beiyang Fleet, the Nanyang Fleet, the Guangdong Fleet and the Fujian Fleet). However, the Beiyang Fleet was the only fleet participated in the war. In order to save their ships, the other fleets' commanders were opposed to join the war.

paragraphs: In the Beiyang Fleet, there were 25 warships. Dingyuan and Zhenyuan were the most powerful warships in the fleet. Dingyuan had 6,000 horsepower and displaced 7,670 tons loaded. Nevertheless, as Empress Dowager Cixi wanted to build a grand garden she embezzled the money originally allocated for expanding the Beiyang Fleet, the commanders did not have enough money to buy the latest weapons for the fleet. Most of the warships in the fleet were not well equipped before joining the war.

paragraphs: There were totally 240,616 soldiers could be mobilized in Japan before the outbreak of the war. Also, there were 32 battleships and 24 torpedo boats in the Imperial Japanese Navy. All of them had the latest, and newest weapons.

paragraphs: On 17 September 1894, the Beiyang Fleet and the Imperial Japanese Navy fought at the Yalu River, the border between China and Korea. In this battle, the commander of the Beiyang Fleet was Ding Ruchang, originally a cavalryman, and Sukeyuki Ito was the commander of Japanese fleet. The battle lasted 5 hours. Finally, 4 battleships of the Beiyang Fleet was destroyed and 1,000 soldiers were killed. Only 1 battleship was lost in the Imperial Japanese Navy. The commander of the Beiyang Fleet retreated to the port of Lushun.

paragraphs: On 17 September 1894, the Japanese armies occupied the fortresses with powerful cannons and cities in Lushun and Dalian. The Japanese troops entered the cities and killed 20,000 Chinese civilians within 4 days. This incident was historically called Port Arthur massacre.

paragraphs: In January 1895, the Japanese armies invaded Weihaiwei. The Beiyang Fleet was fairly defeated. 11 battleships of the team was seized.


title: Johnny Weir

paragraphs: Johnny Weir (born July 2, 1984 in Coatesville, Pennsylvania) is an American figure skater. He won the United States national championships three times. In a memoir released in January 2011, he wrote that he was gay.

paragraphs: Weir had a late start in skating, starting at the age of 12. He had previously competed as an equestrian.

paragraphs: Weir and his family moved to Delaware so he could skate. Weir originally trained at the University of Delaware. Despite his late start, Weir was the World Junior Champion in 2001 at the age of sixteen. He and Evan Lysacek won the top two medals that year, becoming the first time since 1987 that the US had gone one-and-two at Junior Worlds.

paragraphs: In 2003, Weir was in second place after the short program at the national championships in Dallas. However, he literally hit the wall during the program and then had a bad fall on a jump. He withdrew in the middle of the program. As he left, he got a hug from Lysacek, who told he would see him back the next year.

paragraphs: Following that bad competition, Weir left the University of Delaware club and moved to The Pond ice arena. His coach Priscilla Hill came with him.

paragraphs: In 2004, Weir won the National championships and again in 2005 and 2006. For the 2005/2006 season, Weir had a short program to The Swan. It was mocked during the movie Blades of Glory and became iconic of the 2006 Olympics. Weir had the most success of his career with this short program. At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Weir was second after the short program. After a long program in which he omitted the eighth jumping pass and did two combinations when three were allowed, he dropped to fifth place overall.

paragraphs: In 2007, Weir won the bronze medal at Nationals. After that season he switched coaches to Galina Zmievskaya, who previously coached Viktor Petrenko and Oksana Baiul to Olympic gold medals.

paragraphs: Weir lives and trains in New Jersey. He also works as a model. He has appeared in spreads in fashion magazines and walked the catwalk during New York Fashion Week.


title: Nobunari Oda

paragraphs: Oda is a descendant of Oda Nobunaga who was an important daimyo during Japan's Sengoku period.

paragraphs: Oda won the 2005 World Junior Figure Skating Championships.

paragraphs: In 2009, he was the Japanese national champion figure skater.

paragraphs: Oda was a member of the Japanese team at the 2010 Winter Olympics at Vancouver in Canada.


title: The Simpsons Movie

paragraphs: The Simpsons Movie is a 2007 animated comedy movie. It is based on the television programme "The Simpsons". The movie is mainly about environmental disaster. The movie stars the main television cast of Dan Castellaneta, Julie Kavner, Nancy Cartwright, Yeardley Smith, Hank Azaria, and Harry Shearer.

paragraphs: Homer adopts a pig, which he names Spider Pig, a parody of Spiderman. Lisa starts a campaign with a new boy named Colin, who is Irish. They want to stop the people of Springfield from dumping in the lake. Everyone agrees to this and the lake is cleared up. Marge questions Homer about Spider pigs 'leavings'. He says he has put them in a silo. This causes Marge to say "Get rid of the silo properly." Homer agrees to this, and Marge says he is allowed to take Spider Pig with him. To which Homer tells Marge "He's not Spider Pig anymore, he's Harry Plopper". This is a reference to Harry Potter. The pig even has the lightning bolt scar and the thick glasses, just like Harry Potter. Homer drives to the waste site to get rid of the silo. Homer's friend and co-worker Lenny calls him from a donut store and tells him that they are giving out free donuts. Homer, with his love for donuts, tries to find a different way to getting rid of his silo. He then drives to the now clean lake. He ignores the "No Dumping" signs and dumps the silo into the lake. The lake then bubbles up and turns into a "Toxic Nightmare".


title: Male enhancement

paragraphs: Male enhancement supplements work by increasing the amount of blood flow the genital region receives and the volume of blood that it can retain. In a flaccid state, the penis, like any other part of the body, receives a normal amount of blood flow. When an erection occurs, the penis is surged with a rich supply of blood which is then trapped in the spongy tissues of the Cavernosa and Spongiosum.

paragraphs: Male enhancement supplements can be synthetic or herbal. Synthetic ones may have more side-effects.

paragraphs: The time it takes to see results, said to be a matter of weeks, depends on a man's body type, eating habits, overall health, genetics, and other factors.

paragraphs: Supplements which are said to have effect, may be made from herbs such as:


title: Californication (TV series)

paragraphs: Californication is an American television series. The series is shown on the Showtime television network. "Californication" was created by Tom Kapinos and stars David Duchovny as Hank Moody. It is about a troubled novelist who moves to Los Angeles, California. The series deals with problems with his job that cause problems with his relationships with his partner Karen (Natascha McElhone) and daughter Becca (Madeleine Martin). The series was first shown on television on August 13, 2007. Channel Five in the UK and Network Ten in Australia have bought the rights to this television series.

paragraphs: It was announced that after the seventh season, that Californication would end. The seventh season started airing on April 13, 2014.


Californication


title: Honour

paragraphs: Honour, spelt honor in the United States, is the idea of the trustworthiness and social status of a person by the society, by judgement of his actions. The idea of honour, like most cultural things, is very different from place to place, and through time. In Europe in the Middle Ages, honour took form in the code of Chivalry. In Japan, a similar thing happened with Bushido. As time passed, the honour of a gentleman and his family was generally expressed in the practice of duelling. The idea has declined in Modern times, but still exists, mostly as an approval of one's actions by the society.


title: Oil field

paragraphs: An oil field is a region with many oil wells extracting petroleum (oil) from below ground. Because the oil reservoirs usually extend over a large area, possibly several hundred kilometres across, the only way to completely exploit the field is with many wells in different parts of the field. Other than wells, there may be pipelines to transport the oil elsewhere, and support buildings for the workers and for repairs.


title: Takeoff

paragraphs: Takeoff is the part of flight in which an aircraft goes from moving along the ground (taxiing) to flying in the air, usually on a runway. For balloons, helicopters and some special aircraft (such as the Harrier), no runway is needed. Takeoff is the opposite of landing.


title: Brian Joubert

paragraphs: Brian Joubert (born September 20, 1984 in Poitiers) is a French figure skater. He won the 2007 World Championships, the 2004, 2007 & 2009 European Championships, and has won the French Nationals seven times. He competed in the 2002, 2006, 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics.

paragraphs: Joubert did not have a good junior career, but this was due to him going senior at 15, as soon as he was able to.

paragraphs: Joubert won the bronze medal (third place) at the 2002 Nationals, but did not immediately qualify for the 2002 Olympic team because France had only two spots to the Olympics. But at the 2002 European Championships, Joubert won the bronze medal, placing ahead of the other French skaters at the competition, and he was put on the Olympic team. He placed 14th at the Olympics.

paragraphs: Joubert is one of two men (with Emanuel Sandhu) who has beaten Evgeni Plushenko between the 2002 Olympics and the 2006 Olympics. Joubert beat him at the 2004 European Championships. Joubert then went on to place 2nd at Worlds, winning his first World medal.

paragraphs: Joubert has had an up-and-down career. He has switched coaches many times. He was briefly coached by Alexei Yagudin. He is now coached by Jean-Christophe Simond. At the 2005 World Championships, he placed sixth. Nevertheless, he was seen as a threat for an Olympic medal. But at the Olympics, he placed 6th. He was criticized harshly in the French press for this. After the 2006 Worlds, where he won the silver medal, he said he felt pressured to do it in part because of the way the French press had turned on him.

paragraphs: In the 2006/2007 season, Joubert swept the season. He won every competition he entered, including the Grand Prix Final, the European Championships, and the World Championships. At the Cup of Russia, he became one of the few skaters in history to perform three quadruple jumps in one program.

paragraphs: Joubert is known for the power in his skating. He is a very fast skater with very big jumps. He has been criticized in the past for having very bad spins, but he has been working to correct this, working with spinning coaches like Lucinda Ruh. Joubert has also been criticized for his lack of artistry, which has led him to seek out new choreographers, such as Kurt Browning, who are able to take Joubert's strength and force on the ice and work it into a good program for his style.


title: Pap

paragraphs: Pap or Pop is a city in Uzbekistan. It is in the Namangan district in the eastern part of the country. The city is near the Syr Darya river. Pap has over 22,750 people.


title: Gift

paragraphs: A gift or a present is something (usually money or a good) which is given to someone. People give gifts voluntarily and do not expect anything in return. A gift is usually something that family or friends give to each other on special occasions like a birthday or holiday. For example you will give and / or receive gifts and presents at Christmas time, or chocolate (most commonly chocolate eggs) for Easter. Gifts are usually something that you really want to have. If it is a birthday gift, it would be money or an item that is not costly. A small gift is usually wrapped in wrapping paper while a big gift is most likely to be just given to the receiver or in a box without wrapping.


title: Timothy Goebel

paragraphs: Timothy Goebel (born September 10, 1980 in Evanston, Illinois) is an American figure skater. He is Catholic and was adopted as an infant.

paragraphs: Goebel is the first skater to perform a quadruple salchow jump and the first American skater to perform a quadruple jump of any kind. Goebel is also the first skater to perform three quadruple jumps in one program. At the 2002 Olympics, he became the first skater to land a quadruple salchow jump in combination at the Olympics. He is the first and so far only skater to land 6 quadruple jumps in one competition.

paragraphs: He has landed 76 career quadruple jumps, the most of any skater.

paragraphs: Because of these things, he was nicknamed the "Quad King". However, after the 2003-2004, Goebel began having problems with the quad. He did not land it correctly at all in the 2005-2006 season.

paragraphs: Goebel won the bronze medal at the 2002 Olympics. It was a close call for the silver between him and World Champion Evgeni Plushenko. That would happen again at the 2003 World Championships where Plushenko beat Goebel out for the gold.

paragraphs: Goebel dealt with injuries in later seasons. An injury forced him to not finish competing at the 2004 Nationals and give up on the rest of the season. At the 2005 Nationals, the mother of Angela Nikodinov, a good friend of Goebel, died in a car crash. Goebel spent much of time at that competition in mourning. With Nikodinov watching, Goebel started crying partly through his free skate. He finished the performance in tears. He placed 2nd.

paragraphs: Goebel was not able to qualify for the 2006 Olympic team. He retired from competitive skating after the 2006 Nationals. In May 2010, he graduated with a bachelor's degree in mathematics from Columbia University's School of General Studies. He works as a technical specialist, the person who watches a skating program and tells the judges what each move was and how difficult it was.

paragraphs: During his career, Goebel was known mainly as a "jumping bean", a skater whose skating is mostly jumps. But Goebel worked hard to change this. His free skate in the 2002 season was the best of his career and led Goebel to a different kind of artistry.

paragraphs: Goebel was also known for his hydroblading maneuvers. He was one of the skaters who popularized this move in the United States.


title: Angela Nikodinov

paragraphs: Angela Nikodinov (born May 9, 1980 in Spartanburg, South Carolina), is an American figure skater. She is the 2000 Four Continents Champion.

paragraphs: Nikodinov is the daughter of Bulgarian immigrants. She speaks Bulgarian fluently. She was born in Spartanburg, South Carolina. Her family moved to southern California when she was very young. She was raised in San Pedro, Los Angeles, California.

paragraphs: Nikodinov trained at Lake Arrowhead, California. She also trained in Detroit for one season (1999-2000) but moved back to California in fall 2000. Her coaches included John Nicks, Peter Oppegard, Frank Carroll, Elena Tcherkasskaia, Richard Callaghan, Igor Pashkevich. Her coach Tcherkasskaia, with whom she was very close, died of cancer in November 2001.

paragraphs: Nikodinov missed the 2002-2003 season. She injured her shoulder in February 2002 and again in September. She also had a virus. She had shoulder surgery in February 2003 and was off the ice for seven months. After missing two seasons, Nikodinov returned to win the 2004 Skate America.

paragraphs: While in Portland, Oregon, for the 2005 U.S. National Championships, she and her family were in a car accident that killed her mother. Nikodinov did not return to competition after the accident.

paragraphs: Nikodinov coached Bulgarian figure skater Ivan Dinev in the 2005-2006 season. They are now coaching together in the Los Angeles area. Nikodinov and Dinev were married in July 2008. Along with her coaching duties, she skates in shows and was a guest skater on the Stars on Ice tour. The pairs team of Bianca Butler & Joseph Jacobsen and Tenile Victorsen are among her and Dinev's former students that have qualified for the U.S. Figure Skating Championships at the Senior level.


title: Alberto Gonzales

paragraphs: Alberto Gonzales (born August 4, 1955) is an American jurist who is the 80th Attorney General of the United States. Gonzales was appointed to the position in February 2005 by President George W. Bush. While Bush was Governor of Texas, Gonzales was part of his general counsel, and later was the Secretary of State of Texas and then was on the Texas Supreme Court. From 2001 to 2005, Gonzales served in the Bush Administration as White House Counsel.

paragraphs: On August 27, 2007, Gonzales announced that he is quitting his position as Attorney General, and that his last day will be September 16, 2007. He did not say why he is leaving. He is the highest-ranking Hispanic ever in the United States federal government.


title: Cantilever

paragraphs: A Cantilever is a figure skating move. It is considered a "field move" because it is not a jump, a spin, or a spiral.

paragraphs: A cantilever is performed by a skater traveling on a deep lean across the ice, either in a spread eagle or a Besti squat position. The skater then bends backwards, so their back is parallel to the ice, while remaining on the deep lean. The hands can be draped across the ice or not. This is a very dramatic move on the ice.

paragraphs: It was invented by Werner Groebli, better known as "Mr. Frick", a long-time show skater with Ice Follies. It was brought back and popularized by Ilia Klimkin of Russia, who performed it a lot in competition over many years.


title: Indian independence movement

paragraphs: The Indian independence movement was a movement from 1857 until 15 August 1947, when India got its independence from the British Raj. The movement spanned a total of 90 years (1857–1947)..

paragraphs: Vasco da Gama of Portugal had discovered a sea route to India. He had reached Kozhikode (Calicut, Kerala) in 1498. After this, many Europeans started coming to India for trading. They made their offices and forts in various parts of India. The British East India Company became the major force in India. The Company's troops led by Robert Clive defeated the rulers of Bengal in 1757. This battle became famous as the Battle of Plassey. That was the beginning of British rule, known as the British Raj, in India. In 1764, the Battle of Buxar was won by the English forces. After "this", the British got control over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

paragraphs: The Parliament of the United Kingdom passed many laws to help the British East India Company. The , , and the Charter Act of 1813 were designed to help trade with India.

paragraphs: Before the First War of Independence (1857), Indians in different parts of India had revolted against the British. Many such of the revolts and armed struggles had taken place in this Some examples include:

paragraphs: India's First War of Independence (by this name later a book was published by V.D Savarkar) was a revolt of Indian soldiers and people(rulers and peasants) against British rule. Historians had used the terms like the Indian Mutiny or the Sepoy Mutiny to describe this event. The rebellion by Indian troops of the British Raj started in May 1857 and continued until December 1858. Many reasons had combined to result in this rebellion.

paragraphs: The British rulers continued to forcibly take regions ruled by Indians and made these regions part of the British Raj. They did not give any respect to old royal houses of India like the Mughals and the Peshwa. They also made the Indian soldiers of their army use a special type of cartridge (immediate cause of the rebel). The soldiers had to open the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their guns. The cartridges supposedly used cow and pig fat. For Hindus the cow is a sacred animal and they do not eat beef. Similarly, Muslims do not eat pork. Thus, the use of these cartridges made soldiers of both the religions turn against the British. Although the British tried to replace the cartridges, the feelings against them stayed.

paragraphs: Rebellion broke out when a soldier called Mangal Pandey attacked a British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. General Hearsey ordered another Indian soldier to arrest Mangal Pandey but he refused. Later the British arrested Mangal Pandey and the other Indian soldier. The British killed both by hanging them.

paragraphs: At the beginning the British were slow to respond. Then they took very quick action with heavy forces. They brought their regiments from the Crimean War to India. They also redirected many regiments that were going to China from India. The British forces reached Delhi, and they surrounded the city from 1st July 1857 until 31st August 1857. Street-to-street fights broke out between the British troops and the Indians. Ultimately, they took control of Delhi. The massacre at Kanpur (July 1857) and the siege of Lucknow (June to November 1857) were also important. The last important battle was at Gwalior in June 1858 in which the Rani of Jhansi was killed. With this, the British had practically suppressed the rebellion. However, some guerrilla fighting in many places continued until early in 1859 and Tantia Tope was captured and executed until April 1859.

paragraphs: India's First War of Independence was a major event in the history of modern India. The Parliament of the United Kingdom withdrew the right of the British East India Company to rule India in November 1858. The United Kingdom started ruling India directly through its representative called the Viceroy of India(earlier governor-general of India). It made India a part of the British Empire. They promised "the Princes, Chiefs, and People of India," equal treatment under the British law.

paragraphs: The British sent Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal Emperor, out of India, and kept him in Rangoon (now called Yangon in Burmese), Burma where he died in 1862. The Mughal dynasty, which had ruled India for about four hundred years, ended with his death.

paragraphs: The British also took many steps to employ Indian higher castes and rulers into the government. They stopped taking the lands of the remaining princes and rulers of India. They stopped interference in religious matters. They started employing Indians in the civil services but at lower levels. They increased the number of British soldiers, and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery.

paragraphs: The period following India's First War of Independence was an important period in the Indian independence movement. Many leaders emerged at the national and provincial levels, and the Indians became more aware of their rights. Social movements also helped in shaping people's outlook, tried for social changes, and tried to remove bad social practices and evils like illiteracy and caste system. During this period, many social and religious leaders worked to inspire the Indian society. They included men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna , Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji. They spread the message of self-confidence, removing of social evils, and making India free from domination of foreign power. Lokmanya Tilak was one such leader who was not very modest in his views. The British arrested him. In the court he declared: "Swaraj (independence) is my birthright". This concept of Swaraj later became a main policy and philosophy of India's independence movement in the following decades until India became independent.

paragraphs: In 1885, at the suggestion of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay. They founded the Indian National Congress. The delegates represented educated Indians in professions such as law, teaching, and journalism. A few years before, Dadabhai Naoroji had already formed the East India Association. It merged with the Indian National Congress to form a bigger party.

paragraphs: To begin with, the Indian National Congress was not a very active political party. It met annually and gave some suggestions to the rulers of the British Raj. The suggestions generally related to civil rights and opportunities for Indians in the government jobs. Despite its claim to represent all Indians, it represented only the educated and higher class of the society. But, it failed to attract all Muslims. Many Muslims had become distrustful of Hindu reformers who raised their voice against matters like religious conversion and killing of cows for their meat. For Hindus, the cow is a sacred animal not to be killed. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a separate movement for Muslims, and founded in 1875 a college in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh state, India. Later, this college became Aligarh University in 1921. The objective of the college was to give modern education to India's Muslims. By 1900, the Indian National Congress had become a national party, but did not represent all groups of Indian society, particularly the Muslims.

paragraphs: In 1905, Lord Curzon (George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston), the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899-1905) of India divided Bengal province into two provinces: Eastern Bengal & Assam, with its capital at Dhaka, and West Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta (Kolkata). At that time Calcutta was the capital city of the British Raj. The people became very angry at that partition (division), and created the phrase "divide and rule" for the policy followed by the British Empire. The leading intellectual figures of India at that time expressed their unhappiness at this partition. For example, Rabindranath Tagore, the most famous Indian poet (originally from Bengal) composed a poem against this partition.

paragraphs: During the First World War, Indians gave support to the United Kingdom. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers went to many parts of Europe, Africa, and the Middle East to fight. Many Indians, including the princes and rich people of India, contributed money and materials to the war funds of the United Kingdom. However, many Indian soldiers died in foreign lands. In India, flu spread like an epidemic killing many people. The tax rates increased in India, and prices also increased. The Indians became restless.

paragraphs: In August 1917, Edwin Samuel Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, announced in the British Parliament about many steps to give more rights to Indians. A new law named the Government of India Act of 1919 gave many rights to the Indians in the provincial government. These rights related to farming, local government, health, education, and public works. The British administrators kept matters like taxation, finance, and law and order under their control.

paragraphs: In 1919 the British made a new law named the Rowlatt Act. Under this law, the government got many powers, including the ability to arrest people and keep them in prisons without a trial. They also obtained the power to stop newspapers from reporting and printing news. The people called this act the Black Act. Indians protested against this law in many places.

paragraphs: The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission, which had been appointed to investigate "seditious conspiracy." The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work ("hartal") was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent.

paragraphs: The agitation reached a peak in Amritsar (Punjab, India). In Amritsar, on 13th April 1919, about 10,000 Indians had assembled to protest against the Rowlatt Act. The British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire at the civilians without any warning. The troops fired 1,650 times. Some historians estimate that the troops killed 379 and injured about 1,137 people. This incident came to be known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. With this killing of innocent people, the British lost the trust of the Indian people.

paragraphs: congress forced Britishers to investigate massacre of jallianwala later, a tehkikat committee was made by congress.

paragraphs: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as Mahatma Gandhi) had received his education at London. He was a barrister (lawyer). In 1893, he went to South Africa. After Gandhi was thrown off a train because he was a colored person sitting in a first-class seat, he took that emotion and used it to begin to fight the injustices that many people of color faced at the time. He became successful and the government of South Africa removed most of such rules and restrictions. Gandhi led the Salt March, an act of protest.

paragraphs: When Gandhi returned to India in 1915, few people knew him. Under the leadership of Gandhi, Indians began to use a different method to get freedom over the next few years.

paragraphs: In December 1929, the Indian National Congress Party agreed to start a movement for complete independence from British rule. The Party decided to start a movement named to disobey the British rule. It became the civil disobedience movement. They decided to observe 26th January 1930 as the complete Independence Day (this is the reason why India celebrate republic day on 26 January). Many other political parties and revolutionaries came together to support this movement.

paragraphs: Gandhi started this movement, leading 72 people on a 400 kilometer route from Ahmedabad to Dandi (both in the Indian state of Gujarat), on the coast of the Arabian Sea. There they made salt from the seawater and broke a law of British India prohibiting making salt without paying taxes, so this event is referred to as the Salt March. Thus the civil disobedience movement began, and it soon spread throughout India. Indians started to break unfair laws in a peaceful manner in protest against the British rule.The effect of civil disobedience movement in Kerala was at Payannur and Beypore.

paragraphs: Many Indians did not believe in such peaceful protests, claiming that the British would not give independence to Indians so easily. They believed in armed struggle was necessary to oust the British from India. In some way, this had continued for years after the partition of Bengal in 1905. Many revolutionaries and leaders emerged from time to time.

paragraphs: The rulers of the British Raj made a new law to govern India, named the Government of India Act 1935. This law aimed at constitutional process to govern India. It had three major aims: to establish a federal system with many provinces, to give self-ruling position (autonomy) to the provinces, and to give the Muslim minority protection through giving them some separate electorates. In such separate electorates only Muslims could stand for elections. In February 1937, elections took place for the provincial assemblies. The members of the Indian National Congress won in five provinces, and held upper position in two more provinces. The Muslim League's performance in the election was not good.

paragraphs: During the Second World War, the rulers of the British Raj declared India to be a party to the war. They did not discuss the matter with Indians and their leaders. The Indians and their leaders became divided over this matter. Some supported the British, while many did not. British rulers of India wanted the Indians to fight and die in the name of freedom, yet they had denied this freedom to India and the Indians for more than a hundred years. This created a lot of dissatisfaction among Indians, and two big movements for India's independence took shape. The first was the Indian National Army of Subhas Chandra Bose. The second was Quit India Movement of Mohandas Gandhi.

paragraphs: Subhas Chandra Bose and many leaders did not like the British decision to drag India into the Second World War. He had twice (in 1937 and 1939) become president of the Indian National Congress Party, the leading Indian political party of that time. However, he and many other leaders of the Indian National Congress Party differed on many matters. He resigned and formed a new party named All India Forward Bloc. The British government of India put him under house arrest, but he escaped in 1941. He reached Germany and secured the support of Germany and Japan to fight the British in India. In 1943, he traveled in submarines of Germany and Japan, and reached Japan. He organised the Indian National Army. The INA fought the troops of the British Raj in northeastern India. Despite many difficulties, INA recorded many victories. However, with the surrender of Japan in 1945, INA's operations stopped. Bose died in a plane crash, but circumstances of his death are not clear.

paragraphs: The British government of India put on trial three Indian National Army officers at the Red Fort in Delhi. The British had chosen for this trial one Hindu, one Sikh, and one Muslim of the INA. This made many Indians of all religions very angry. A naval mutiny also broke out in Bombay. Ultimately, the British ruled that these officers were guilty, but they set them free seeing the public anger. When India became independent, the government of India did not allow the former officers and soldiers of the INA to join the armed forces of the independent India. However, the government granted them very good pensions and other facilities. The Indian public also gave them much respect.

paragraphs: Many consider Nethaji Subhas Chandra Bose a controversial figure due to his association with the Axis Powers. But, in India, people consider him a patriotic hero of the Indian independence movement.

paragraphs: On 8th August 1942, the leaders of the Indian National Congress Party met in Bombay (Mumbai). The leaders adopted a policy to force the British out of India. Gandhi's slogan "Do or Die" became a national slogan, and the movement became the Quit India Movement. At the beginning of the Second World War, the Indian National Congress Party had supported the British, but they had demanded freedom for India after the war. The British did not agree to this proposal. On 14th July 1942, the Indian National Congress Party passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British rule. However, this did not have support of some other political parties.

paragraphs: Gandhi had asked the people to keep the Quit India Movement as a peaceful movement. Many people started the movement in many places of India. But at some places, the movements turned violent. Gandhi refused to eat until the violence stopped. He was successful in ending the violence.

paragraphs: The British action was very quick. They arrested over 100,000 people. They levied fines on many people. They dropped bombs on the people who demonstrated against the British Raj. The troops of the British Raj even beat people with sticks and caned them. The British arrested all the leaders of the Congress Party. Gandhi's wife, Kasturba Gandhi, died during detention, as well as his secretary Mahadev Desai. Gandhi's health had also become very bad. In 1944, the British set him free fearing that Gandhi's death might result in a very large protest by Indians. Gandhi continued to oppose the British, and demanded that all other leaders be set free.

paragraphs: The Second World War had reduced the economic, political, and military strength of the British Empire. They were also aware that after the war Indians would begin a larger movement for independence. The mood of the British people and the British Army had also changed. After the Second World War, most of them were no longer willing to support the British ruling class in India. That position was now clear to the leaders of the United Kingdom. By early 1946, those leaders set free all the political prisoners held in India and opened independence discussions with the Indian National Congress Party. On the 14th of August 1947 Pakistan gained independence and a day later on the 15th of August India gained its independence as well.

paragraphs: On midnight of 15th August 1947, Britain handed India its formal political Independence. A short time after that, Gandhi, who was aging and ill, died from a bullet fired by a Hindu extremist named Nathuram Godse. The national leadership was then passed to his chief lieutenant, Jawaharlal Nehru. On 3rd June 1947, the Viceroy Lord Mountbatten announced partition of India into two countries: union of India, and an Islamic Pakistan. In this partition, many people died while others were separated from their families. On 26th January 1950, India adopted their constitution, the longest constitution in the world.


paragraphs: The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel is a document that announced the establishment of the independent and sovereign state (country) of Israel.

paragraphs: This term describes the announcement of establishment of a Jewish state, named State of Israel. This State of Israel was established on 14th May 1948. In Hebrew language, "" means the State of Israel. The British Mandate of Palestine was a part of the British Empire. This was the land where the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah had once been. The State of Israel covered more or less the same land.

paragraphs: Some persons call this as the beginning of "Third Jewish Commonwealth". The "First Jewish Commonwealth" ended with the destruction of Solomon's Temple, and the second with the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem two thousand years ago.

paragraphs: On November 29th 1947, the United Nations had adopted a resolution. The resolution recommended the establishment of an Arab State and a Jewish State in Palestine. The resolution recommended taking steps to establish such a state.

paragraphs: On May 12th 1948, the Jewish national administration met at Tel Aviv Museum of Art. They had gathered to decide acceptance of an American proposal for a truce or to declare a new state of Israel. Six of the ten voting members supported declaration of a state of Israel. Two days later, on May 14th 1948, the Jewish National Council (Vaad Leumi) met at Tel Aviv. At mid night of May 14th, 1948, a member of the Council read the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel.

paragraphs: The declaration followed a style generally seen in the United Nations documents. First few sentences stated the reasons for the declaration and the right of the Jews for an independent country. Then, the sentences gave the features and characteristics of the new Jewish state.

paragraphs: The United States, the Soviet Union, and many other major countries of the world accepted the state of Israel. Using terms of international law, these countries recognized the state of Israel. However, many Arab countries and countries of the Middle East opposed the establishment of Israel. They did not recognize the state of Israel as a sovereign state, that is, an independent country. Many countries of the world did not recognize Israel, but establish trading and other relations with it.


title: Parvati

paragraphs: According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Parvati is considered to be a mother goddess by many people. Parvati is a word in the Sanskrit language that means "daughter of the mountain". Hindu teachings call Parvati the daughter of the Himalayas Mountains, where she is said to live. She has two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya with her husband Shiva. Shiva is one of the main gods of the Hindu religion.

paragraphs: Parvati has four arms. In her arms she carries prayer beads, a mirror, a bell and citron. But when she sits by the side of her husband Shiva, Parvati has only two arms. In her form with two arms, Parvati holds her right hand up in blessing and holds a lotus flower in her left hand.

paragraphs: Parvati's conveyance (vahana) is a lion or tiger. This means that Parvati rides a lion or a tiger.

paragraphs: In Hindu scriptures, Parvati is mentioned many times. She is called by many other names. Some of them are:


title: Estádio Palestra Itália

paragraphs: Estádio Palestra Itália, also known as Parque Antártica, is the name of the football stadium of Palmeiras. It is located in São Paulo, Brazil, and has a capacity of 32,000.


title: 1963 Pan American Games

paragraphs: The 4th Pan American Games were held in 1963 in São Paulo, Brazil.


title: Pan American Games

paragraphs: The Pan American Games are a multi-sport event, held every four years between competitors from all nations of the Americas.

paragraphs: Pan American Games were going to be started in 1932, but World War II caused the first Pan American Games to happen on 1951. From that time, the Games are held every four years.

paragraphs: More than 5000 athlets from more than 40 countries have attended the recent Games. USA has won most gold, silver and bronze medals in total. Hopefully, that will change because it's unfair that they always win. Everyone else has barely any people and then they send in 800 to compete.


title: Campinas

paragraphs: Campinas (IPA: ) is a Brazilian city in the state of São Paulo. In 2005, 1,045,706 people lived there. It is about from the city of São Paulo. Campinas has an area of .


title: Multilingualism

paragraphs: Multilingualism is the ability to speak more than one language. The ability to speak two languages is "bilingualism," a type of multilingualism. Many immigrants are bilingual and speak languages of both their old and their new country. Multilingualism is useful in many kinds of work, partly because international trade is more common than in past centuries. Some Countries and organization having more than one official language hire people who speak more than one, so they can work with more people.

paragraphs: Most people have a first language that they learned as babies. Other languages are usually learned much later.

paragraphs: Some linguists think there are more multilingual people in the world than monolingual people, who speak only one language

paragraphs: People who can speak several languages are called "polyglots". Those who can speak many, such as Heinrich Schliemann and Ghil'ad Zuckermann, are called "hyperpolyglots".


title: Fall/Liberation of Saigon

paragraphs: The Fall/Liberation of Sàigòn happened on April 30, 1975. It was the capture of Saigon (Vietnamese:Sài Gòn) by the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam and the Vietnam People's Army, marking the end of the Vietnam War. It also resulted in the name of Saigon being changed to Ho Chi Minh City, in honour of former President Ho Chi Minh.


title: Between Friends

paragraphs: Between Friends is a comic strip from Canada created by Sandra Bell-Lundy. It features three women with troubles with parenting and life. Sometimes they go back in time to simpler days. For example, at a department store, they compared themselves as teenage girls buying outfits to enhance sex appeal in the 1970s to buying conservative clothes in the 1990s.


title: Patrice Lumumba

paragraphs: Patrice Émery Lumumba (July 2, 1925 – January 17, 1961) was the only elected leader of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (called the "Republic of the Congo" at the time, but this should not be confused with today's Republic of the Congo). The official position of the US government, as seen in the U.S. News & World Report, associated Lumumba's ideas of African socialist democracy as an African brand of communism. Thus, the Americans had plans to kill him. He was murdered by the Katangans on January 17, 1961, just months after independence.

paragraphs: Lumumba's son, François is now a political figure in the Congo. He has created a small Lumumbist group.


title: Ho Chi Minh

paragraphs: Hồ Chí Minh, born Nguyễn (a common Vietnamese last name) Sinh Cung, (May 19, 1890 - September 2, 1969) was the leader (Prime Minister from 1945-1955, and President from 1945-1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (later the Socialist Republic of Vietnam).

paragraphs: 'Hồ Chí Minh', meaning 'Hồ with the will of light', was not his real name. He took this name around the time of the August Revolution in 1945. His name was Nguyễn Sinh Cung when he was born. At age ten, he changed his name to Nguyễn Tất Thành, according to Confucian tradition. He would later use many 'pseudonyms' (false names). Other than 'Hồ Chí Minh', his most famous name was probably Nguyễn Ái Quốc meaning 'Nguyễn (by far the most common Vietnamese last name) who loves his country'. Vietnamese people commonly refer to him as Bác Hồ (Uncle Hồ).

paragraphs: Nguyễn studied in Paris from 1919-23. In those four years, he started following communism, and began to believe that Vietnam- then a French colony-should be independent. During this time he wrote a letter, which was ignored, to United States President Woodrow Wilson, asking for U.S. military aid to help overthrow the French colonial rulers. He joined the French Communist Party, and started visiting Moscow regularly, as a member of the Asian branch of the Comintern.

paragraphs: Hồ led a revolution against the French rulers of Vietnam from 1945-1954. After overthrowing the French, a Communist regime, supported by the Soviet Union and China, was set up in the northern half of the country, with himself leading the country as both President and Prime Minister. A non-Communist government, supported by the United States, was set up in the southern half of the country, because the United States did not want all Vietnam to be Communist. This was because the United States was then fighting the Cold War.

paragraphs: When South Vietnam and America did not keep their promise to hold an election and unite the two halves into one country, Hồ led Vietnam into a military and political struggle to bring the rice fields of the South under his Communist rule. Two decades of war followed, killing millions of Vietnamese. The United States supported South Vietnam with military aid, while the Soviet Union (led by Nikita Krushchev and then Leonid Brezhnev) and People's Republic of China (led by Mao Zedong) continued to support North Vietnam's war effort.

paragraphs: In the end, North Vietnam won the war several years after Hồ Chí Minh died.

paragraphs: Suffering from diabetes and heart problems, Hồ Chí Minh died on the morning of September 2, 1969, of a heart attack.

paragraphs: In his will he said he wished to be cremated and have his ashes be buried in hills in the north, center, and south of Vietnam. After he died however, his followers embalmed his body and put it in a tomb, the mausoleum, where he is still worshipped today.

paragraphs: In 1976, in the style of the Soviet Union, the victorious Communist North renamed the capital of the non-Communist South, Saigon, to Ho Chi Minh City, in honour of their leader.


title: Vietnamese Declaration of Independence

paragraphs: The Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was a speech read by Ho Chi Minh on September 2, 1945, in Ba Dinh Square, Hanoi, Vietnam, which proclaims the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from France and Japan Empire after the Second World War.

paragraphs: During the August Revolution, Ho Chi Minh wrote the speech at 48 Hang Ngang Street, Hanoi, at the home of a bourgeoisie family that donated 5,147 taels of gold to the Revolutionary Government headed by Ho Chi Minh. The Declaration was written with the advise of OSS Detachment 101 Maj. Archimedes Patti.

paragraphs: It is based on the American Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.


title: Khmer Rouge

paragraphs: The Khmer Rouge (Khmer: ""; French for "Red Khmer") were a Stalinist, Maoist militant group in Cambodia. They took over the capital, Phnom Penh, on 17 April 1975. It was led by Pol Pot, who was called Saloth Sar before the take over. They named the country Democratic Kampuchea. They immediately forced everyone out of the cities, effectively turning the whole country into a giant labor camp. They were defeated by the Vietnamese in January of 1979. During the Khmer Rouge Years, between 1.7 million and 2 million people were killed (20–30% of the population) in a genocide comparable to the Holocaust. The international community continued to recognize the Khmer Rouge as the government of Kampuchea for a decade after they were defeated. Therefore, the Khmer Rouge held a seat in the United Nations until 1989.

paragraphs: Pol Pot died, probably by suicide, in 1998. . He was cremated without any ceremony. By 1999, the Khmer Rouge disbanded.

paragraphs: A leading source summarised the Khmer Rouge as follows:

paragraphs: "...The Khmer Rouge regime [was] the ultimate twentieth-century paradigm of the totalitarian state. Using sheer violence and terror, a small clique [took] power. [It saw itself] as the messianic mission to bring happiness and prosperity faster than any of its revolutionary model and competitors. It came to control every aspect of social and private life. No one was allowed to nurse, let alone express, any form of opposition".

paragraphs: The same source summarises the effect: "Between 17 April 1975 and 7 January 1979 the death toll was about 25% of a population of some 7.8 million; 33.5% of men were massacred or died unnatural deaths as against 15.7% of the women, and 41.9% of the population of Phnom Penh".


title: Juche

paragraphs: Juche () is the group of ideas developed by North Korean leader Kim Il-Sung, "Juche" means self-reliance. According to its supporters, the idea was developed from Marxism and Leninism. In many cases, it is noticeably different from both. At its base, the idea states that the interests of the people and their nation are more important than those of Leninism or Marxism. A strong leader is required to undertake the necessary reforms. The nation of (North) Korea is special, and should be the focus of interest. Every nation needs to drive forward its own revolution. Three things are necessary for this:

paragraphs: It is the role of the state to make sure these three things are there. According to this idea, man himself is responsible for designing what the world should look like. The welfare of many people (which form the nation) is more important than the fate of the individual.

paragraphs: Juche also says that intellectuals are important.

paragraphs: Certain people have described these ideas as a philosophy, others see it as a religion.


title: Kigali

paragraphs: Kigali (pronounced either as 'Kigali' or 'Chigali' or 'Cyigali') is the capital city of Rwanda.