title: Hannibal

paragraphs: Hannibal (Hǎnnibal Barca, 247 BC – ? 183/2/1 BC), was a Carthaginian statesman and general. He was the greatest enemy of the Roman Republic.

paragraphs: Hannibal is most famous for what he did in the Second Punic War. He marched an army from Iberia over the Pyrenees mountains and the Alps mountains into northern Italy and defeated the Romans in a series of battles. At the Battle of Cannae he defeated the largest army Rome had ever put together. The Roman army is reckoned at 16 legions and a total of 86,000 men. Over 80% of this army was killed or captured, including its commander.

paragraphs: He kept an army in Italy for many years. Eventually, a Roman invasion of North Africa made him return to Carthage. He lost, and the Romans made him leave Carthage. He lived at the Seleucid court, and convinced its Emperor to fight Rome. When he lost a naval battle, Hannibal fled to the Bithynian court. When the Romans told him to give up, he killed himself.

paragraphs: Hannibal is listed as one of the greatest military commanders in history. Military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge once called Hannibal the ""father of strategy"" because even his greatest enemy, Rome, copied his military ideas.

paragraphs: Hannibal's father Hamilcar was commander of the Carthaginian forces at the end of the First Punic War (264–241 BC). After Carthage lost the war, Hamilcar crossed to Hispania to conquer the tribes of what is now Spain. Carthage at the time was in a poor condition. Its navy could not carry its army to Iberia (Hispania). Hamilcar had to march towards the Pillars of Hercules and go across the Strait of Gibraltar. According to a story in Livy, Hamilcar made Hannibal promise that he would never be a friend of Rome. Hannibal told his father

paragraphs: In return, Hamilcar agreed to take Hannibal with him to Hispania. He spent two years finishing the conquest of Iberia south of the river Ebro. He died in 229/228 in battle, most likely drowning in the Jucar River. His son-in-law Hasdrubal took command, but was assassinated in 221 BC.

paragraphs: So, in 221 BC, Hannibal became the leader of the army. Rome feared the growing strength of Hannibal. They made an alliance with the city of Saguntum and claimed to be protecting the city. Saguntum was South of the river Ebro. Hannibal attacked the city because of this. It was captured after eight months. Rome wanted justice from Carthage. The Carthaginian government saw nothing wrong with Hannibal's actions. The war Hannibal wanted was declared at the end of the year.

paragraphs: Hannibal's army was made up of as many as 75,000 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen. Hannibal left "New Carthage" in late spring of 218 BC. He fought his way north to the Pyrenees. He defeated the tribes through clever mountain tactics and stubborn fighting. After marching 290 miles and reaching the Ebro river, Hannibal chose the most trustworthy and loyal parts of his army of Libyan and Iberian mercenaries to keep going with him. He left 11,000 troops to keep watch over the newly conquered region. At the Pyrenees, he let go of another 11,000 Iberian troops. Hannibal entered Gaul with 50,000 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen.

paragraphs: Hannibal needed to cross the Pyrenees, the Alps, and many important rivers. starting in the Spring of 218 BC, he fought his way to the Pyrenees. He made peace deals with the Gaulish leaders and reached the Rhône River. Arriving at the Rhône in September, Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 horsemen, and thirty-seven war elephants.

paragraphs: Hannibal got away from a Roman force sent to fight him in Gaul. He then went up the valley of one of the streams of the Rhône River. By Autumn, he reached the foot of the Alps. His journey over the mountains is one of the most famous achievements of any military force. After this journey, Hannibal came down from the foothills into northern Italy. He had arrived with only half the forces he had started with and only a few elephants. Hannibal had lost as many as 20,000 men crossing over the mountains.

paragraphs: Publius Cornelius Scipio commanded the Roman force sent to stop Hannibal. He did not expect Hannibal to cross the Alps. He expected to fight Hannibal in Spain. With a small army still in Gaul, Scipio tried to stop Hannibal. He moved his army to Italy by sea in time to meet Hannibal. Hannibal made the area behind him safer by defeating the tribe of the Taurini (modern Turin). The opposing forces fought at Carthage. Here, Hannibal forced the Romans to get out of the plain of Lombardy. This victory did much to weaken Roman control over the Gauls. The Gauls decided to join the Carthaginians. Soon all of northern Italy was unofficially allied. Gallic and Ligurian troops soon raised his army back to 40,000 men. Hannibal’s army was ready to invade Italy. Scipio retreated across the River Trebia. He camped at the town of Placentia and waited for more troops.

paragraphs: The Senate had ordered Sempronius Longus to bring his army from Sicily to meet Scipio and face Hannibal. Hannibal was in position to head him off. Sempronius avoided Hannibal and joined Scipio near the Trebbia River near Placentia. At Trebia, Hannibal defeated the Roman infantry by a surprise attack from an ambush on the flank.

paragraphs: Arriving in Etruria in the spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to lure the main Roman army led by Flaminius into battle. Hannibal found Flaminius camped at Arretium. He marched around his opponent’s left side and cut Flaminius off from Rome. Hannibal made Flaminius chase him. On the shore of Lake Trasimenus, Hannibal destroyed Flaminius's army in the waters or on the nearby slopes. He killed Flaminius as well. He had got rid of the only force that could stop him from getting to Rome. He realized that without siege engines he could not hope to take the capital, so he decided to continue into central and southern Italy. He hoped this show of strength would create a revolt against the Roman government. After Lake Trasimene, Hannibal said, "“I have not come to fight Italians, but on behalf of the Italians against Rome.”"

paragraphs: Rome was put into an immense state of panic. They appointed a dictator named Quintus Fabius Maximus. He was an intelligent and careful general.

paragraphs: Fabius adopted the "Fabian strategy". He refused open battle with his enemy, and put several Roman armies near Hannibal to limit his movement. Fabius sent out small forces against Hannibal’s foraging parties. Residents of small northern villages were told to post lookouts. They could gather their livestock and possessions and go to fortified towns. This would wear down the invaders’ endurance.

paragraphs: Hannibal decided to march through Samnium to Campania. He hoped that the destruction would draw Fabius into battle but Fabius refused to be drawn into battle. His troops became irritated by his "“cowardly spirit”". His policies were not liked. Romans were used to facing their enemies in the field and the people wanted to see a quick end to the war.

paragraphs: The rest of Autumn continued with frequent skirmishes. After six months, Fabius was removed from his position in accordance with the Roman law.

paragraphs: In the Spring of 216 BC Hannibal captured the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain, effectively placing himself between the Romans and their source of supply. The Roman Senate resumed their Consular elections in 216. They chose Caius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus as Consuls. The Romans raised largest army to this point in their history to defeat Hannibal. It's estimated that the total strength of the army was around 80,000 men.

paragraphs: The Roman army marched southward to Apulia. After a two days’ march, they found Hannibal at the Audifus River. Consul Varro was a reckless man full of pride and was determined to defeat Hannibal. Varro's arrogance got the better of him and allowed Hannibal to drew him into a trap. With brilliant tactics, Hannibal surrounded and destroyed most of this force.

paragraphs: It is estimated that 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured at Cannae. Among the dead were eighty senators. The Roman Senate was no more than 300 men – this was 25%–30% of the governing body. The Battle of Cannae one of the worst defeats in the history of Ancient Rome. It is also one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history in terms of the number of lives lost in a single day. After Cannae, the Romans refused to fight Hannibal in battles. They tried instead to defeat him by wearing him down. They relied on their advantages of supply and manpower.

paragraphs: Because of this victory most of southern Italy joined Hannibal's cause. During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily revolted against Roman control. The Macedonian king, Philip V supported Hannibal. This started the First Macedonian War against Rome. Hannibal made his new base in Capua, the second largest city of Italy.

paragraphs: Without the resources from his allies or reinforcements from Carthage, Hannibal could not do much more and began losing ground. He continued defeating the Romans whenever he could bring them into battle but was never able to score another decisive victory.

paragraphs: In 212 BC conspirators in Tarentum let Hannibal into the city. They then blew the alarm with some Roman trumpets. This let Hannibal's troops pick off the Romans as they stumbled into the streets. Hannibal told the Tarentines to mark every house where Tarentines lived so they wouldn't be looted. Even with the looting the citadel held out. This stopped Hannibal from using the harbor and Rome was slowly gaining ground over Hannibal. In the same year, he lost Campania.

paragraphs: In 211 BC the city of Capua fell. In summer of that year, the Romans destroyed the Carthaginian army in Sicily. Meanwhile, Hannibal had defeated Fulvius at Herdonea in Apulia, but lost Tarentum. With the loss of Tarentum in 209 BC and the Romans capturing of Samnium and Lucania, his hold on south Italy was almost lost.

paragraphs: In 207 BC he retired into Bruttium. These events marked the end to Hannibal's success in Italy. In 203 BC, Hannibal was recalled to Carthage to lead the defence of his homeland against a Roman invasion.

paragraphs: Both Scipio and Hannibal met on the field of Zama. Hannibal had about 50,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. Scipio had 34,000 infantry and 8,700 cavalry. For years, Hannibal had won victories with his experienced army. He now faced the best of the Roman army, while he led a makeshift army. They did not do well against the Romans.

paragraphs: Hannibal was defeated. 20,000 men of Hannibal’s army were killed at Zama. The same number of men were taken as prisoners. The Romans lost as few as 500 dead and 4,000 wounded. With their best general defeated, the Carthaginians accepted defeat and surrendered to Rome.

paragraphs: Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal went into voluntary exile. He journeyed to Tyre, the mother-city of Carthage, and then to Ephesus and Syria.

paragraphs: In 190 BC he was placed in command of a Phoenician fleet but was defeated in a battle off the Eurymedon River. Hannibal went to Crete, but he soon returned to the Asia Minor. At Libyssa on the eastern shore of the Sea of Marmora, he was going to be turned over to the Romans. Rather than letting himself be taken, he drank poison. The precise year of his death is not certain. It is believed to be 183 BC. He died in the same year as Scipio Africanus.


title: Veganism

paragraphs: Veganism is a philosophy that says people should not use animals. There are vegans who choose not to eat animals, and vegans who choose not to use them in any other way either.

paragraphs: Vegans avoid food that comes from animals, including meat, eggs and dairy products (like milk, cheese, and yogurt). A vegan diet is sometimes called a strict vegetarian diet. Some vegans also do not eat honey. Many vegans try not to use any other animal products, such as leather, wool, feathers, bone, or pearl. They also try to avoid buying and using products that have been tested on animals. They may believe in animal welfare and animal rights, and may campaign for these causes.

paragraphs: Vegans eat fruits, vegetables, beans, grains, nuts, and seeds, and types of food made from them like vegan sweets, vegan cheese and vegan cakes.

paragraphs: Some people become vegan because they disagree with the treatment of animals in the modern animal farm industry. Other reasons to become vegan are for health, religious reasons, to protect the environment, or because of world hunger. Animals eat a lot and take up a lot of resources. By not producing meat, milk, or eggs, a lot of food, land (as of 2006, 30% of the earth's land mass is used raising animals for food) and water can be saved. For instance, it takes about 16 pounds of grain to make 1 pound of grain-fed meat, so eating plants directly takes fewer resources. There is also the issue of antibiotic use in the industry. Animals are given antibiotics to such an extend that the risk of bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics is very possible in the near future.

paragraphs: Some vegans only eat foods that have not been cooked. Their diet is called raw veganism.

paragraphs: Another more restrictive type of veganism is fruitarianism. Fruitarians only eat foods that can be harvested without harming or killing a plant.

paragraphs: Vegans must make sure their diet includes an adequate supply of vitamin B, because it does not occur reliably in plant foods. Vitamin B deficiency can have serious bad effects on the person's health. These might include anemia and neurodegenerative diseases. California-based dietitian nutritionist Ashley Lytwyn said “Nutrients like B12 can be tough to get with a vegan diet, and the iron in vegetables isn’t as bioavailable as iron in animal proteins.” “Even if he ate enough iron-rich vegetables, the body can’t always absorb what it needs.” Vegan societies recommend that vegans either eat foods with added B or take a B supplement. Tempeh, seaweed, spirulina, organic produce, soil, and intestinal bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B for the dietary needs of vegans. Vitamin D deficiency is possible in the absence of dairy products (which are normally fortified with vitamin D). It can be prevented by supplements, and time spent outdoors.

paragraphs: Many people think that it is not healthy to be vegan. However, a vegan diet can have all of the nutrients needed for health. It is just more difficult to get the nutrients because there are fewer foods to choose from.


title: Necrophilia

paragraphs: Necrophilia is a paraphilia of being sexually attracted to dead bodies. Some necrophiliacs have sex with dead bodies. It is usually considered bad. It is illegal in many parts of the world, "but not all".


title: Strait of Magellan

paragraphs: The Strait of Magellan is a passageway from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. It is just south of mainland South America and north of Tierra del Fuego. It goes through Argentina and Chile and a for long time the two countries argued over which one owned the land around it. Chile now owns it. The strait is named after Ferdinand Magellan. It is very foggy and stormy.


title: Fenerbahçe S.K.

paragraphs: Fenerbahçe is a sports club in Istanbul, Turkey. It was officially founded in 1907.

paragraphs: Fenerbahçe's home stadium is the Fenerbahce Şükrü Saraçoğlu Stadium in Kadıkoy Istanbul.

paragraphs: They have won the Spor Toto Super League 19 times and Ziraat Turkish Cup 6 times.


title: Homo sapiens

paragraphs: Homo sapiens (Latin: "wise man") is the scientific name for the human species.

paragraphs: "Homo" is the human genus. "H. sapiens" is the only surviving species of the genus "Homo".

paragraphs: Modern humans are sometimes called "anatomically modern humans". "Homo sapiens" considers itself the most influential species on the planet. However, many kinds of life, especially plants and protists, have had a much greater effect on the air, the rocks, life, and natural environment on Earth.

paragraphs: The recent African origin of modern humans is the mainstream model of the origin and dispersal of anatomically modern humans.

paragraphs: The hypothesis that humans have a single origin was published in Charles Darwin's "The Descent of Man" (1871). The concept is supported by a study of present-day mitochondrial DNA, and with evidence based on physical anthropology of fossil humans. According to genetic and fossil evidence, older versions of "Homo sapiens" evolved only in Africa, between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, with members of one branch leaving Africa by 90,000 years ago and over time replacing earlier human populations such as Neanderthals and "Homo erectus".

paragraphs: The recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa is the near-consensus position held within the scientific community.

paragraphs: Sequencing of the full Neanderthal genome suggests Neanderthals and some modern humans share some ancient genetic lineages. The authors of the study suggest that their findings are consistent with Neanderthal admixture of up to 4% in some populations. The reason for this admixture is not known. In August 2012, a study suggested that the DNA overlap is a remnant of a common ancestor of both Neanderthals and modern humans.

paragraphs: The time frame for the evolution of the genus "Homo" out of the last common ancestor is roughly 10 to 2 million years ago, that of "H. sapiens" out of "Homo erectus" roughly 1.8 to 0.2 million years ago.

paragraphs: Scientific study of human evolution is mostly concerned with the development of the genus "Homo", but usually involves studying other hominids and hominines as well, such as "Australopithecus". "Modern humans" are defined as the "Homo sapiens" species, of which the only living subspecies is known as "Homo sapiens sapiens".

paragraphs: "Homo sapiens idaltu", the other known subspecies, is now extinct. "Homo neanderthalensis", which became extinct 30,000 years ago, has sometimes been classified as a subspecies, ""Homo sapiens neanderthalensis"". Genetic studies now suggest that the functional DNA of modern humans and Neanderthals diverged 500,000 years ago.

paragraphs: Similarly, the discovered specimens of the "Homo rhodesiensis" species have been classified by some as a subspecies, but this classification is not widely accepted.

paragraphs: Until recently it was thought that anatomically modern humans first appeared in the fossil record in Africa about 195,000 years ago. Studies of molecular biology suggested that the approximate time of divergence from the common ancestor of all modern human populations was 200,000 years ago. The broad study of African genetic diversity found the ǂKhomani San people had the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 "ancestral population clusters". The research also placed the origin of modern human migration in south-western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola.

paragraphs: In the 1960s an archaeological site at Jebel Irhoud in Morocco was dated as about 40,000 years old but it was re-dated in the 2000s. It is now thought to be between 300,000 and 350,000 years old. The skull form is almost identical to modern humans, though the jaw is different.

paragraphs: The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome show selection in the past 15,000 years.


title: Lake Tanganyika

paragraphs: Lake Tanganyika is large lake in the Great Rift Valley of central Africa. The lake is divided between four countries – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Tanzania and Zambia. It is the longest fresh water lake in the world and the second deepest.


title: Pinocchio (1940 movie)

paragraphs: Pinocchio is the second animated Disney movie, made by Walt Disney Productions and first released to movie theaters by RKO Radio Pictures on February 7, 1940. Based on the story "Pinocchio: Tale of a Puppet" by Carlo Collodi, it was made in response to the huge success of "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs".

paragraphs: The movie tells the story of Pinocchio, a wooden puppet made by a man named Geppetto and brought to life by the Blue fairy, after Geppetto wishes he could have a son. She tells him he can become a real boy if he proves himself "brave, truthful, and unselfish." Pinocchio must try to be good so he can become a real boy, with the help of his friend, Jiminy Cricket. Thus begins the adventures of the puppet into a real boy, which involve many encounters with a series of unpleasant characters.

paragraphs: The movie was adapted by Aurelius Battaglia, William Cottrell, Otto Englander, Erdman Penner, Joseph Sabo, Ted Sears, and Webb Smith from Collodi's book. The production was supervised by Ben Sharpsteen and Hamilton Luske, and the film's sequences were directed by Norman Ferguson, T. Hee, Wilfred Jackson, Jack Kinney, and Bill Roberts.

paragraphs: It features the song, "When You Wish Upon A Star", which has been used at the start of most Disney movies since 1985.

paragraphs: A man called Gepetto makes a wood puppet called Pinocchio. He wishes that Pinocchio was a real boy, and the Blue Fairy makes Gepetto's wish come true. But to become a real boy instead of a live puppet, Pinocchio has to prove that he's good. The Blue Fairy assigns a cricket named Jiminy Cricket to guide him and keep him out of trouble. This is a hard job, and Pinocchio does a lot of things wrong.

paragraphs: On his first day of school, two crooks, a fox named Honest John and his mute sidekick named Gideon, trick Pinocchio to join Stromboli's puppet show instead. Pinocchio is popular in the show, but Stromboli is cruel to him and locks him in a bird cage. The Blue Fairy asks Pinocchio how this happened, but Pinocchio lies, and his nose grows longer. With the help of the Blue Fairy and Jiminy, Pinocchio escapes from the cage.

paragraphs: The crooks trick Pinocchio again, and tell him to go to Pleasure Island. He meets Lampwick, a bad boy who convinces him to gamble, smoke, drink, vandalize and other bad things. The island is magical, and the boys who act like "jackasses" (donkeys) "turn into" donkeys. These donkeys are sold to work in the local salt mines.

paragraphs: Lampwick becomes a donkey, but Pinocchio only changes part way, with donkey ears and a donkey tail. He escapes from Pleasure Island and returns to Geppetto's house. But Geppetto is not there. He has gone to sea, to search for Pinocchio.

paragraphs: Pinocchio and Jiminy go looking for Geppetto, but they are eaten by the huge whale Monstro. Monstro has also swallowed Geppetto. Pinocchio builds a fire to make Monstro sneeze, and this frees them all. But they are lost in the ocean and Geppetto is drowning. He tells Pinocchio to swim to shore and save himself, but Pinocchio grabs Geppetto and carries him to shore. Geppetto survives, but Pinocchio appears to be dead.

paragraphs: Geppetto and Jiminy are sad and return home with Pinocchio's body. The Blue Fairy decides that Pinocchio has proved that he is good enough, and brings him back to life... and also turns him into a real boy. Everyone is happy and they celebrate. The movie ends with Jiminy Cricket getting a badge of soild gold and a chorus sings a reprise of the song "When You Wish Upon A Star".

paragraphs: The original plan for the movie was very different from what they made. Many characters and events from the original book were used in early versions. Producer Walt Disney was unhappy with this version and had them change a lot of the story and characters.

paragraphs: At first, Pinocchio was going to look like a real wooden puppet, with a long pointed nose, a pointed hat, and bare wood hands. He was going to act more grown-up and do bad things on purpose, instead of being tricked into doing bad things. But Walt Disney did not think that people would like this character, so they changed his appearance and the way he acted. They made him look more like a real boy, with a small nose, a child's hat, and regular hands with gloves. The only parts of him that still looked like a puppet were his arms and legs.

paragraphs: Jiminy Cricket (voiced by Cliff "Ukelele Ike" Edwards) became a more important character. He was not included in the first version of the story. When they added him, he looked more like a real cricket, but Walt wanted more people to like him, so Ward Kimball changed him into "a little man with no ears. That was the only thing about him that was like an insect."

paragraphs: With the re-release of "Snow White and then Seven Dwarfs" in 1944 came the tradition of re-releasing Disney movies every seven to ten years. "Pinocchio" has been theatrically re-released in 1945, 1954, 1962, 1971, 1978, 1984, and 1992. The 1992 re-issue was digitally restored by cleaning and removing scratches from the original one scene at a time, getrting rid of blurry sound, and making the color lighter. The movie also received four video releases (and two DVD releases), being a big-seller in 1985 (this print was re-mastered and re-issued in 1986). Then the more complex digital restoration that was done for the 1992 re-issue was released on VHS, followed by the final VHS release (which was also the movie's first release on Disney DVD as well as the first in the Walt Disney Gold Classics Collection VHS/DVD line) in 1999. The second Disney DVD release (a 60th anniversary) premiered the following year in 2000. The third DVD release and first Blu-ray Disc release (the second Blu-ray in the Walt Disney Platinum Editions series) were released on March 10, 2009 (March 11, 2009 in Australia), and like the 2008 Sleeping Beauty release, the Blu-ray package featured two discs, and a bonus DVD of the movie also included.

paragraphs: "Pinocchio" was not successful at the box office when first released, and Disney only earned $1.9 million against a $2.6 million budget. The movie made some success at the American box office, but was not able to profit, due to its poor performance in Europe. The timing of the move's release was a reason, with World War II cutting off European markets. Although the United States had not yet gotten into the war, people's interests may have not have meant much among Americans in seeing fantasy stories as they were in the days of "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs". It also lacked the romance element that had proven popular in "Snow White".

paragraphs: Nevertheless, there were positive reactions to the movie as well. Archer Winsten, who had criticized "Snow White", said that "The faults (mistakes) that were in "Snow White" no longer exist. In writing of "Pinocchio", you are limited only by your own power of expressing enthusiasm". Also, despite the poor timing of the release, the movie did do well both critically and at the box office in the United States. Jiminy Cricket's song, "When You Wish Upon a Star," became a major success and still is today, and is the fanfare for The Walt Disney Company. "Pinocchio" also won the Academy Award for Best Song and the Academy Award for Best Scoring of a Musical Picture. In 1994, "Pinocchio" was added to the United States National FilmRegistry as being very important in culture, history, or aesthetic. In 2001 Terry Gilliam picked it as one of the ten best animated movies of all time and in 2005 Time.com named it one of the 100 best movies of the last 80 years. Many movie historians consider this to be the movie that is the closest to technical perfection of all the Disney animated features.

paragraphs: Pinocchio earned $84,254,167 at the box office.

paragraphs: In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "Ten top Ten"—the best ten movies in ten "classic" American movie genres. After polling over 1,500 people from the creative community, "Pinocchio" was acknowledged as the second best movie in the animation genre, after "Snow White".

paragraphs: The songs in "Pinocchio" were composed by Leigh Harline, Ned Washington and Oliver Wallace, who had no screen credit as the film conductor while Paul J. Smith composed the incidental music score.

paragraphs: On , this includes "When You Wish upon a Star" on the , "Give a Little Whistle" on the , and "I've Got No Strings" on the .

paragraphs: And on Disney's Greatest Hits, this also includes "When You Wish upon a Star" on another blue disc, "I've Got No Strings" on the green disc, and "Give a Little Whistle" on the red disc.

paragraphs: Disney on ice "starring" Pinocchio, toured nationally & internationally from 1987 - 1992. A Shorter version of the story is also presented in the current Disney on ice production "100 Years of Magic"


title: Lubbock, Texas

paragraphs: Lubbock is a city in the United States. It is in the state of Texas. More than 212,000 people live there.

paragraphs: It is the home of Texas Tech University.


title: Pearl

paragraphs: Pearls are made of a kind of material made by mollusks, like oysters. Pearls are small and often white but sometimes in pale colors or even black. They are often round, but sometimes half-round, oval, or in different shapes. Pearls are often used for jewelry. The pearl is the birthstone for the month June.

paragraphs: A natural pearl is formed when nacre-producing cells are displaced from the mantle tissue of an oyster. These cells are genetically programmed to produce nacre, the substance that lines the inner sides of an oyster's shell. When the cells become displaced, often by a boring parasite or damage to the outer shell, they continue to do what they are programmed to do -- produce nacre and form a pearl.

paragraphs: They can be very tiny (as tiny as a peppercorn) or quite big (as big as a human's fist). The world's largest pearl, found in 1934 and called the Pearl of Lao-tze, is about the size of a basketball.

paragraphs: There are two kinds of pearls: saltwater pearls and freshwater pearls. Saltwater pearls come from oysters that live in the oceans. Freshwater pearls are found in mussels that live in rivers, lakes, or ponds.

paragraphs: There is also a "natural pearl" and a "cultured pearl." Natural pearls are made by oysters accidentally, and are very rare. Cultured pearls are made by inserting small and a piece of donor mantle tissue (in the case of saltwater pearls) into the reproductive organ of a saltwater oyster, or simply inserting a piece of donor mantle tissue (in the case of freshwater pearls) into a small incision in the mantle of a freshwater mussel.


title: Warner Bros.

paragraphs: Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. (commonly called Warner Bros.) is a large entertainment group and movie studio. It is owned by WarnerMedia. Warner Bros. is known for Looney Tunes. They own the copyrights to the Harry Potter movie series, the Batman movie series, and Superman movie series, the DC Extended Universe and the It duology. They also produced the TV show Friends.

paragraphs: Warner Bros. is a very large company. Warner Brothers was founded on April 04, 1918. Its founders were Jack L. Warner: Albert Warner: Harry Warner: and Sam Warner. It was founded in Hollywood, California. It has won several awards including the Academy Award for Best Picture.


title: Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi

paragraphs: Star Wars: Episode VI - Return of the Jedi is the sixth film in the "Star Wars" film series. The movie was released in 1983 and is a mix from science fiction, action and drama.

paragraphs: The Empire constructs a new Death Star. Luke, Leia, and the droids rescue Han Solo from Jabba the Hutt, an evil slug-like gangster. Later, Luke learns that Leia is his sister and must confront his father (Darth Vader) and return him to the good side. The movie is also famous for introducing a group of little creatures called Ewoks who help fight the Empire's troopers.


title: Freedom of religion

paragraphs: When people have the freedom of religion, they can either belong to any religion they choose, or belong to no religion

paragraphs: Where there is no freedom of religion, people can be punished and persecuted for not having the right religion. Communist countries such as Cuba, North Korea and China have also punished people for religious activities.


title: MDC (band)

paragraphs: MDC are an anarcho-punk and hardcore punk band that started in Austin, Texas in 1979. They helped make hardcore punk popular in Austin, but in 1982 they moved to San Francisco, California, where they continued to become popular in the hardcore punk community. In 1993 the band stopped playing music, but they began again in 2000 and still play music today.

paragraphs: Their lyrics were very political. They did not like the police, war, capitalism or racism. They did like gay people and thought that they should be treated fairly.

paragraphs: The name MDC is an abbreviation and has meant many things. The band changes what it means a lot. It has meant "Millions of Dead Cops", "More Dead Cops", "Millions of Dead Children", "Multi Death Corporations", "Millions of Damn Christians", "Missile Destroyed Civilization" and "Magnus Dominus Corpus".


title: Optimus Prime

paragraphs: Optimus Prime is a character from the "Transformers" franchise. Prime is the leader of the Autobots, a group of transforming robots from the planet of Cybertron. The Autobots are constantly at war with another group of transforming robots called Decepticons. According to Bob Budiansky, co-writer of the Transformers series, Dennis O'Neil made his name.


title: Comic strip

paragraphs: A comic strip is a series of panels with cartoon drawings in them that make a story. Sometimes comic strips are humorous, and sometimes they are serious. Famous examples of comic strips are:

paragraphs: There are comic strips in newspapers and on the web. Comic strips on the web are called webcomics. Penny Arcade and Xkcd are famous webcomics.


Franz Ferdinand


title: First ScotRail

paragraphs: ScotRail is a train operating company in the United Kingdom owned by Abellio operating the ScotRail franchise.

paragraphs: National Express operated the ScotRail franchise from March 1997 until October 2004.

paragraphs: On July 28 2003 Transport Scotland announced Arriva, First and National Express had been chosen to bid for the new franchise.

paragraphs: On June 11 2004 Transport Scotland awarded the new franchise to First with the services operated by ScotRail moving to First ScotRail on October 17 2004. It originally traded as "First ScotRail" before being rebranded as "ScotRail" in September 2008.

paragraphs: On October 8 2014, Abellio were awarded the franchise beating First. They started running the trains in April 2015.


title: Waste container

paragraphs: A waste container (known more commonly in British English as a dustbin, rubbish-bin or simply a bin, and American English as a trash can) is a container, usually made of plastic or metal, used to store refuse.

paragraphs: Rubbish (trash) is usually kept in these until it is emptied by collecters, who will take it to a landfill or incinerator.

paragraphs: Some bins are used specifically for recycling.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

paragraphs: The Vijayanagara empire was an Indian empire. From 1336 and afterwards, it was in the Deccan, in the peninsula and in southern India. It was founded by Harihara (Hakka) and his brother Bukka Raya. The empire is named after its capital city Vijayanagara, now Hampi in modern Karnataka, India. It began in 1336 and ended in 1660, though in its last century it began losing its power. Stories of the empire's creation and history are not certain, though tales of the empire's wealth and power were described by European travellers such as the Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Nuniz, and the Venetian traveler Niccolò Da Conti.

paragraphs: This list is based on the book by Robert Sewell (A Forgotten Empire).

paragraphs: Aravidu (dates are not known), includes these rulers. There is certainly more than one ruler under each name.


title: Delhi Sultanate

paragraphs: The Delhi Sultanate (دلی سلطنت), or Sulthanath-e-Hind (سلطنتِ ہند) or Sulthanath-e-Dilli (سلطنتِ دلی) were the Persian-speaking dynasties of Turkic and Afghan origin, which were controlling most of the Indian subcontinent from 1210 to 1526. Many of these dynasties ruled from Delhi. This includes the Slave dynasty (1206-90), the Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), the Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and the Lodi dynasty (1451-1526). Later on, after the region fell to the Mughals, there was again a brief period when Humayun, son of the Mughal Babur and father of Akbar the Great, was deposed by the Pathan Suri dynasty who enjoyed a short rule then, before Humayun was reinstated in 1555.

paragraphs: 1526-1540: Mughal rule after the First Battle of Panipat

paragraphs: 1555: Return to Mughal Rule after brief interregnum


title: Hoysala Empire

paragraphs: The Hoysala Empire (Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ) was an Indian empire. It controlled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346 A.D. Belur, Karnataka was the empire's capital. The Hoysala Empire is remembered today mostly because of its architecture. The hundreds of temples found across Karnataka are good examples of temples that were in the cities of Belur, Halebid and Somnathpura. The Hoysala kings were affected by Jainism and Hinduism. King Vishnuvardhana and the kings after him believed in Vaishnavism.

paragraphs: In the beginning, the Hoysalas were a small part of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. However, they began to grow until they made their own empire in Karnataka. The Hoysala period is known as one of the best times in the history of Karnataka, next only to the Vijayanagara Empire. Some famous Hoysala kings were Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II and Veera Ballala III. Kannada was the main language of the Hoysala kings. The Hoysalas helped to increase Kannada and Sanskrit writing.


title: Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

paragraphs: Macedonia or Macedon or the Macedonian Empire was an Ancient Macedonian kingdom of the Archaic and Classical Greece, and later the most powerful state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was established and was at first ruled by the royal Argead dynasty, which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties. Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, and bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.

paragraphs: Alexander the Great made it the most powerful kingdom in the Near East for a few years. When he died the empire fell apart and the Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonia as a small empire. Centuries later the Roman Empire conquered Macedonia and much of Alexander's empire.


title: Burger King

paragraphs: Burger King (often just called BK) is a chain of fast food restaurant that comes from the United States. It sells hamburgers, French fries, and soft drink. It was created in 1954 in Miami, Florida, by James McLamore and David Edgerton. Edgerton bought a restaurant named Insta Burger King and changed it to Burger King. More than 34 thousand people work for the company.

paragraphs: There are more than 15,000 Burger King restaurants world-wide in 100 countries, and almost all of them are franchises. But in Australia, since the name "Burger King" was already trademarked there, BK franchises there are called Hungry Jack's.

paragraphs: Burger King is owned mostly by 3G Capital, a Brazilian investment company. But it is also owned by shareholders and used to publicly trade on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker BKW. In 2014, the chain's operations was merged with that of Tim Hortons from Canada, under the name Restaurant Brands International (). Burger King is an American global chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in the unincorporated area of Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida–based restaurant chain.


title: Argead dynasty

paragraphs: The Argead dynasty (Greek: , ) was an ancient Macedonian royal house of Doric provenance. They were the founders and the ruling dynasty of the Archaic Greek kingdom of Macedon from about 700 to 310 BC. People of the Agread family were supposedly part of Heracles' family. Famous kings included Philip II of Macedon who joined the Greeks together and Alexander the Great who defeated the Persian Empire and created the Empire of Alexander. The Argead dynasty ended during the wars of the Diadochi when Alexander IV of Macedon and his mother Roxana were murdered.


title: Antipatrid dynasty

paragraphs: The Antipatrid dynasty was a Macedonian dynasty. It was created by Cassander in 302 BC, who was the son of Antipater. However it was not a long dynasty. It ended in 294 BC when it was taken over by the Antigonid dynasty.


title: Antigonid dynasty

paragraphs: The Antigonid dynasty was a Macedonian dynasty. The kings were part of the family of Alexander the Great's general Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed"). The dynasty ended when the Roman Empire conquered the area after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC.


title: Futurama

paragraphs: Futurama is an American animated science fiction sitcom created by Matt Groening and developed by Groening and David X. Cohen for the Fox Broadcasting Company. It is in "New" New York City during the 31st century. The shows were first shown on Fox Network on March 28, 1999, until August 10, 2003.

paragraphs: In 2008 Comedy Central began airing episodes. Comedy Central later said that the seventh season would be the final season. The series finale aired on September 4, 2013, though Groening has said he will try to get it picked up by another network. Also, 4 DVD movies were made.

paragraphs: The series is about Philip J. Fry (Billy West), a lazy New York City pizza delivery boy, who froze himself by mistake on New Year's Eve, 1999. He wakes up one thousand years later on New Year's Eve, 2999, and finds himself in "New" New York City. Fry wants to get a new job, though in the end he is forced to be a delivery boy. Fry tries to escape from his job and afterwards goes to Planet Express, a small delivery company that goes around the galaxy owned by his distant nephew, where he becomes a delivery boy. The series then describes the adventures of Fry and the other workers as they go around the universe making deliveries.

paragraphs: The first episode begins in the year 3000, a time where there are many technological advancements, as well as a place where 21st century problems are treated as everyday situations. In a jab at segregation, for example, the series depicts the human prejudice against mutants as being so great that the latter have been forced to live underground in the sewers. The characters' home on Earth is the city of New New York, built over the ruins of present-day New York City, referred to as "Old New York".

paragraphs: There is a fictional religion named Robotology in the television show. It is similar to United States black churches.

paragraphs: Old episodes are now seen on Adult Swim (a part of Cartoon Network) and Too Funny To Sleep (a part of TBS) in the United States, on Teletoon in Canada, on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom plus Sky One, Sky Two, Sky Three and TV6 in the UK and Republic of Ireland, on Fox8 and Network Ten in Australia, on Pro 7 in Germany and on Canal Fox in Latin America, including Colombia, Argentina, Mexico, etc.


title: Radar

paragraphs: Radar is a machine that uses radio waves for echolocation to find objects such as aircraft, ships, and rain.

paragraphs: By doing this, the radar can locate the object. Radar is used in many different ways. It can measure the speed and number of cars on a road, the amount of water in the air, and many other things.

paragraphs: Radar was first used in 1904 by Christian Hülsmeyer. He was given a patent for radar (Reichspatent Nr. 165546). Radar was vital in the Battle of Britain and other parts of World War II. The Axis countries failed to keep up with British and American radar technology during the war.

paragraphs: The word "RADAR" was created in 1942 as an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. This acronym replaced the British initialism "RDF" ("Radio Direction Finding"). The word is now thought of by many people as a regular word, no longer as an acronym.

paragraphs: The FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) use several kinds of radar:


title: GameSpot

paragraphs: GameSpot is a website that was created in June 1996 by Pete Deemer, Vince Broady and Jon Epstein.

paragraphs: In the beginning the website was mainly about PC games. Another similar site, videogamespot.com was created in December of the same year to talk about console video game systems. In 1997, videogamespot.com became videogames.com for a short time. Afterward in 1998, videogames.com and GameSpot.com joined together to become a single site.

paragraphs: GameSpot makes video game and PC reviews, previews, downloads, news, and information. It is known as one of the biggest game websites on the Internet. ZDNet bought GameSpot later on. However ZDNet was later bought by CNET Networks, who were then bought by CBS Corporation in March 2008. CBS Interactive are the current owners of GameSpot.

paragraphs: On October 3, 2005, GameSpot changed how the website looked, making it similar to what TV.com looks like.


title: TV.com

paragraphs: TV.com is a popular website owned by the CNET Games & Entertainment family of websites, which also includes GameSpot, GameFAQs and MP3.com. The website replaced the popular TV Tome website.

paragraphs: The website has information about television (mostly English-language television in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Ireland). Other than episode guides, TV.com also has news, reviews, photos, trailers and TV listings.

paragraphs: People can also get accounts on TV.com like other CNET websites. Users get a user page and can keep track of television shows. They can also add things like episode details and cast members.


title: Olive (color)

paragraphs: Olive is a color which looks like green or yellow. (when gray or black is added to yellow, the various shades of the color olive are produced). Some dark shades of olive can also be made by mixing a darker color (like brown) with green.

paragraphs: The most common place you will find the color olive is on an olive. It is the color of the outside of an olive. An olive's center is usually brown or sometimes orange or red.

paragraphs: There is a mineral called olivine that is colored a pale olive color.


title: South Asia

paragraphs: South Asia (or Southern Asia) is the southern part of the continent of Asia. It is also known as Indian subcontinent.

paragraphs: There are 8 countries in this region. It is surrounded by (clockwise) West Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southeastern Asia and the Indian Ocean. Major countries in this part of the world are as follows:

paragraphs: The natural resource most used by the people is the rich land. Most of the people living there are farmers. They produce lots of cashews, rice, peanuts, sesame seeds, and tea. Lots of natural gas are there, but these resources are usually underdeveloped. Many people there raise cattle and sheep. The cattle are raised for their milk or to carry things in Hindu areas. In India, the cattle are very important to the environment because the manure is a fertilizer for agriculturists.

paragraphs: The climate of South Asia can be divided into three basic kinds: tropical, dry, and temperate. The northeast is from tropical to subtropical (temperate). Moving west the moisture and elevation change, causing a steppe and a desert climate that is like the Middle East. There is also a part of steppe climate in the center of the lower peninsula. Two parts of the South Asia climate especially affect the people. One like the "monsoons". These changing winds bring lots of the area's rain, so when they do not come early, the land becomes very dry. Hurricanes also happen every year and sometimes destroy many things. In the extreme north of India and Pakistan, the climate is affected by the mountains. There is a mild climate near the Indus river where farmers grow crops like rice and tea.


title: Thermodynamics

paragraphs: Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that studies the movement of heat between different objects. Thermodynamics also studies the change in pressure and volume of objects. A branch of math called statistics is often used in thermodynamics to look at the motion of particles.

paragraphs: Thermodynamics is useful because it helps us understand how the world of the very small atoms connects to the large scale world we see everyday.

paragraphs: Thermodynamics also has two main branches called classical thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics. An important idea in thermodynamics is that of a thermodynamic system.

paragraphs: An example of a thermodynamic system is a brick. A brick is made up of many atoms which all have their own properties. All thermodynamic systems have two kinds of properties, "extensive" and "intensive". For the brick, the extensive properties are the ones you get by adding up all the atoms. Things like the volume, energy, mass, and charge are extensive because two of the same brick put together have twice as much mass as one brick. The intensive properties of the brick are the ones you get by looking at the average over all atoms. Things like temperature, pressure, and density are intensive because two of the same brick still has the same temperature as one brick alone.

paragraphs: There are four laws of thermodynamics that say how energy can be moved between two objects in the form of heat.

paragraphs: Earlier, thermodynamics was studied to make steam engines work better. Now, ideas from thermodynamics are used in everything from making engines to studying black holes.

paragraphs: Scientists use thermodynamics for many reasons. One is to make better engines and refrigerators. Another is to understand the properties of everyday materials so that they can make them stronger in the future. Thermodynamics is also used in chemistry to explain which reactions will work and which will not (this study is known as chemical kinetics). Thermodynamics is powerful because simple models for atoms work well in explaining the properties of large systems like bricks.


title: Brookhurst, Wyoming

paragraphs: Brookhurst is a census-designated place in Natrona County, Wyoming, USA. About 192 people live there.


title: Bollywood

paragraphs: Bollywood, an Indian Hollywood, refers to the Hindi language movie industry in India.

paragraphs: The word is often used to describe Indian cinema as a whole, but more precisely it means Hindi language movies only. The term "Bollywood" combines Bombay (where most Hindi movies are made) and Hollywood (where most American movies are made).

paragraphs: Bollywood makes many movies each year. Many Bollywood movies are called "Masala" movies. In Hindi, "Masala" means spice. These movies usually have higher levels of emotions, songs, revenge and differences between rich and poor in them.

paragraphs: The movies made in Bollywood are usually in Hindi and Urdu. Some are in English. Often, poetic Urdu words are used; see also Lollywood (Pakistan Cinema).

paragraphs: The number of dialogues and songs in English has increased lately. There are movies now where parts of the dialogue are in English. There is also a growing number of movies which are in English. Some movies are also made in more than one language. This is either done with subtitles, or by using several soundtracks.

paragraphs: In general, Bollywood movies are like musicals. The audience expects to hear music. There are usually song-and-dance numbers as a part of the script. Often, the success of a movie depends on the quality of these musical numbers. Very often, the movie music is released before the movie. It helps make the audience bigger.

paragraphs: A good entertainer is generally referred to as "paisa vasool". This means "money's worth". Songs and dances, love triangles, comedy and thrills are all mixed up. Such movies are called "masala" movies, after the Hindustani word for a spice mixture, "masala". Like "masalas", these movies are a mixture of many things.

paragraphs: Bollywood movies are often longer than those made in Hollywood. A normal Bollywood movie is about 3 hours long. Bollywood movies are movies made for the masses. Other Indian movies are made inside or outside of the Bollywood tradition. They sometimes try to set higher standards. They often lose out at the box office to movies with more mass appeal.

paragraphs: Bollywood plots are usually melodramatic. They often use common ideas such as star-crossed lovers and angry parents, love triangles, family ties, sacrifice, corrupt politicians, kidnappers, scheming villains, hookers with a heart of gold, long-lost relatives and siblings separated by fate, dramatic reversals of fortune, and convenient coincidences.

paragraphs: Bollywood songs are called Hindi film songs or filmi songs. Most of the movies have songs in them. Bollywood songs along with dances are a characteristic part of Hindi cinema. They give these movies their popular appeal, cultural value and context. Songs are sung by playback singers which actors and actresses lip sync on screen.

paragraphs: Bollywood ways of doing things are changing, however. A large Indian diaspora in English speaking countries, and increased Western influence at home, have moved Bollywood movies closer to movies made in Hollywood. Kisses in the movies are now allowed. Plots tend to show Westernised city people dating and dancing in discos instead of arranged marriages.

paragraphs: Movie critic Lata Khubchandani writes,""..our earliest movies...(had) liberal doses of sex and kissing scenes in them. Strangely, it was after Independence the censor board came into being and so did all the strictures.""

paragraphs: In 2001 five percent on Indian movies were shown in Britain.


title: Dinah Washington

paragraphs: Dinah Washington (born Ruth Lee Jones August 24, 1924 - December 14, 1963) was an American R&B and jazz singer. She was an African American who was born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama and raised in Chicago. She died of an accidental drug overdose in Detroit.


title: Robin Ward

paragraphs: Robin Ward (born Jacqueline McDonnell in 1941) was an American singer. She had a hit with her song "Wonderful Summer" in 1963.


title: Adrenal gland

paragraphs: The adrenal gland is a gland in most mammals. It is near the kidneys. Its name tells its position ("ad" – "near", and "renes" – "kidneys"). The gland is made up of two types of tissues: the centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla and outside this lies the adrenal cortex.

paragraphs: The adrenal glands are known as "suprarenal glands" in humans. In many animals the glands are next to the kidneys, but they are cap-like structures on top of the kidneys in humans.

paragraphs: The adrenal cortex produces three main types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance.

paragraphs: The adrenal gland makes hormones which control stress. It is involved in the production of steroid hormones. Among these hormones are cortisol and adrenaline.

paragraphs: The hormones secreted from the cortex region are called adrenocorticosteroids or corticoids. These are the hormones it makes:

paragraphs: The adrenal medulla, in the center of the gland, makes:


title: Chiswick

paragraphs: Chiswick is a district in the London Borough of Hounslow in West London. It is most famous as the home of the artist William Hogarth.


title: The Golden Girls

paragraphs: The Golden Girls was an American comedy television series. It ran from 1985 to 1992 on NBC. It was about a group of older women who lived in the same house in Miami, Florida. The series was produced by Paul Junger Witt.


title: Bark

paragraphs: Bark is the covering of the stems of woody plants, like trees. Bark protects the tree. Bark of different plants and trees can look very different, it can be rough or smooth and can have different colors. It is the outer layer of tree trunks.

paragraphs: Most of the bark grows from the vascular cambium. Some outer parts of the bark sometimes come from a cork cambium. In the bark are lenticels which allow gases to move in and out of those inner tissues which have living cells.

paragraphs: Bark of one kind or another has been on trees from the Carboniferous period. It is obvious on stems and branches, and on some kinds of storage organs.


title: Cowboy

paragraphs: Cowboy is a broad term for men who work on ranches. The word "cowboy" was used in England in the early 19th century but its use in the late 19th century in North America comes from the Spanish word vaquero. They sometimes participate in rodeos. Movies about cowboys are often called western movies. Movies often show them as fighting rather than working. Cowboys can be recognized by their big brown hats and lassos. Men who do similar work in Australia are called "stockmen".


title: Janet Reno

paragraphs: Janet Reno (June 21, 1938 – November 7, 2016) was the United States Attorney General from 1993 to 2001, under President Bill Clinton. She was the first woman to ever have this job.

paragraphs: Reno died on November 7, 2016 from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 78.


title: Alex Haley

paragraphs: Alexander Murray Palmer Haley (August 11, 1921 – February 10, 1992) was an African-American writer. He also had Irish and, according to his own telling, some Cherokee ancestry. He was born in Ithaca, New York. He is best known for "The Autobiography of Malcolm X", which he helped Malcolm X write, and his book "", which was about his family history and inspired a television mini-series. He died of a heart attack in Seattle, Washington.

paragraphs: Members of his family lineage that can be confirmed:

paragraphs: According to Haley, he based his novel "Roots" on oral tradition and research, including a visit to Africa.

paragraphs: About the first third of the book is of Haley's possible ancestor, Kunta Kinte, growing up in Africa in the 1700s. This part of the book describes the culture he lived in.

paragraphs: When Kinte is a teenager, he is kidnapped and taken across the Atlantic Ocean to Annapolis, Maryland. He is sold in Spotslvania County Virginia to John Waller and then to his brother William Waller. He tries to escape and fails. Part of his foot is cut off as punishment and so he cannot run away again. He marries a female slave cook named Bell. They have a daughter Kizzie who is sold at age sixteen. She is raped by Tom Lea and gives birth to a son, "Chicken George" Lea. Chicken George becomes a famous cockfighter, meaning he trains chickens for people to bet on as they fight. George marries and has six children, but his father sells him to a British man who takes him overseas. While George is away, his family is sold to a slave trader who sells them to the Murray family of Alamance County, North Carolina. George eventually returns to them. After the US Civil War of 1861-1865 rather than sharecrop, the family moves to Henning Tennessee. Chicken George's granddaughter Cynthia marries Will Palmer and they become Alex Haley's grandparents.

paragraphs: Roots won a Pulitzer Prize and a National Book award. It is unusual for a novel to do both.

paragraphs: At first, Haley said "Roots" was not a novel but non-fiction. But when scholars looked into his facts, they found many of them were wrong. Today, scholars think that the griot, the African scholar who talked to Haley, made up parts of the story. They think Haley was guessing or imagining things as well. Later, Haley would also admit that he copied parts of his book from a 1967 book called "The African".

paragraphs: Even though the book is not historically accurate, American scholars still say it is one of the most important novels in the country because it inspired African Americans to write more about Africa and slavery.

paragraphs: Trying to confirm the facts in Haley novel in regards to Africa and the Waller, Lea, and Murray families raised doubts.

paragraphs: Ironically, the Millses discovered a better fit to the Haley oral history in the written record than Haley himself had found. Dr. William Waller's father was "Colonel" William Waller, who owned a slave named Hopping George, a description consistent with a foot injury. Colonel Waller also owned a slave named Isbell, who may be the Bell in Haley family legend. Tom Lea's father lived in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, and he may have purchased some of Haley's ancestors from the Wallers. When the Lea family moved to North Carolina, they would have taken their slaves with them. The Leas lived in close proximity to the Murrays and Holts, and there are three Kizzies associated with the Lea and Murray families in the post-Civil War records.

paragraphs: Historian Henry Louis Gates Jr. was a friend of Haley, but years after Haley's death, Gates acknowledged doubts about the author's claims:

paragraphs: Most of us feel it's highly unlikely that Alex found the village whence his ancestors sprang. "Roots" is a work of the imagination rather than strict historical scholarship. It was an important event because it captured everyone's imagination." Gates later hosted the TV series "African American Lives" and "Finding Your Roots", which used DNA testing to corroborate family histories and genealogies. Haley wrote another novel in regard to his paternal grandmother Queen [Jackson] Haley but died before he could finish it; it was published posthumously as "". Ironically Subsequent DNA testing of Alex Haley's nephew Chris Haley revealed that Alec Haley, Alex's paternal grandfather (and Queen Haley's husband) was most likely descended from Scottish ancestors via William Harwell Baugh, an overseer of an Alabama slave plantation.


title: Harold Robbins

paragraphs: Harold Robbins (born Harold Rubin; May 21, 1916 – October 14, 1997) was an American author.


title: Baptism

paragraphs: Baptism is a rite or ceremony performed by most Christian churches and denominations. It is done as a cleansing symbol. It shows that the person being baptized has become a follower of Jesus. it can represent the joining of the Christian family

paragraphs: Roman Catholicism baptize infants to mark their becoming members of the church. It is a sacrament usually performed by a priest. In most other churches, it is when the person is old enough to decide that they are ready.

paragraphs: Some religious groups practice baptism by sprinkling a small amount of water on the person, usually their head. Other groups use full immersion, dipping the whole person in the water.

paragraphs: In the Old Testament, a similar washing ceremony was done when priests were ordained. Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist before he began his ministry. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the person to be immersed totally or partially. But sprinkling, or pouring, was also practiced at an early day with sick and dying persons when total or partial immersion was not practical.


title: Nationalities of China

paragraphs: There are many people in China, more than in any other country. They all have many different cultures, histories and beliefs. The Chinese government officially says there are 56 nationalities. They are called "zú" or "mínzú" in China. Of these, almost all of them (about 90%) are Han people (汉族 : Hàn Zú). The rest of these nationalities (called "ethnic minorities"), from biggest to smallest in population, are:


title: Shang Dynasty

paragraphs: The Shang Dynasty (existed from 1600BC - 1046BC) was the second dynasty in China following the Xia dynasty. Most of what we know about the Shang Dynasty is from reading pictures on oracle bones and bronze objects. A dynasty is a series of rulers which are considered to be part of the same family because they are ruling a country(s) over generations. According to tradition, the last Shang king was overthrown in 1046 BC. The succeeding dynasty was called the Zhou Dynasty.


title: King Tang of Shang of China

paragraphs: King Tang of Shang of China, in Chinese:"湯", born Zi Lu, in Chinese:"子履" (1617 BC - 1588 BC) was the first king of the Shang dynasty in Chinese history. He fought Jie, the last king of the Xia dynasty.

paragraphs: He was the leader of his "tribe", or group of people, for more than 17 years. While leader, he made many smart men officials to help fix his government.

paragraphs: When he saw that the Xia Dynasty was starting to be weak, Tang started 16 wars fighting the Xia Dynasty, getting many lands. Tang finally defeated the dynasty in 1600bc.

paragraphs: Many people of his country thought he was a good leader. He made taxes smaller and did not force his people to be soldiers for a long time. He affected many people from foreign places.


title: Bu Bing

paragraphs: King Bu Bing of Shang of China, in Chinese:"卜丙", born Zi Sheng, in Chinese:"子勝". He was the third king of the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC - 1046 BC). He was the second son of King Tang.

paragraphs: In Records of the Grand Historian, he was recorded as the second king of the Shang Dynasty. In that book he is given the name "Wai Bing", in Chinese:"外丙". But in the oracle script, he was recorded as the third king of the Shang Dynasty. In these records his name is "Bu Bing",in Chinese:"卜丙".


title: New Year's Eve

paragraphs: New Year's Eve is the holiday before New Year's Day, on December 31, the last day of the current year.

paragraphs: Today, Western countries usually celebrate this day with a party which ends with a group countdown to midnight. Party hats, noisemakers, fire crackers and drinking champagne are fairly common during this holiday.

paragraphs: Many towns also have firework shows or other noisy ways to start the new year. Places like Berlin, Chicago, Edinburgh, Los Angeles, London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney, Toronto, and Tokyo are well known for their New Year's Eve celebrations.

paragraphs: New Year's Eve is also a work holiday in some countries, such as Australia, Argentina, Brazil, France, Mexico, the Philippines, and Venezuela.


title: Chen dynasty

paragraphs: The Chen dynasty 陳朝 (557-589) was the fourth and the last of the southern dynasties in China. It was an ethnic Han dynasty.

paragraphs: Few records survive from the time of the Chen dynasty. However, the records that exist say that the dynasty was strong and rich. Legend says that the Chen dynasty had ten times more wealth than Europe at the time. The Chen dynasty's rulers had a tax system and ruling system similar to the Kang-Qian 'flourishing age'. (The Kang-Qian age was the last and richest Chinese feudal dynasty).

paragraphs: The Chen dynasty took in an enormous amount of silver, which was used as money at the time. The records that still exist say that the dynasty had as much as 30 million taels of silver in their reserves. (A silver tael weighed about 30 grams.) During the Chen dynasty, there was also a huge demand for Chinese silk, spices, porcelain, artwork, and many other products.

paragraphs: In the year 589, the Sui dynasty took over the Chen dynasty after the last Chen Emperor abdicated (gave up his position as Emperor).


title: Fighter aircraft

paragraphs: Fighter aircraft are small military planes that are made to fight other airplanes. They are often fast, having aerodynamic shapes (shapes that make them move through air easily) and very powerful engines for their size. They also usually are maneuverable (turn well). Fighters can carry many different kinds of weapons, including missiles, machine guns, and bombs. While fighters may be used as attack aircraft to attack vehicles, soldiers, or buildings on the ground, they are different from bombers because they are mainly designed to fight other airplanes. Specialized fighters have been made, such as night fighters, interceptors, and air superiority fighters.


title: Aircraft carrier

paragraphs: Aircraft carriers are warships that carry airplanes and other aircraft like helicopters. They are used by navies to allow aircraft to fight along with naval warships. Aircraft carriers are usually very large, carrying hundreds or thousands of sailors and tens or hundreds of aircraft.

paragraphs: The top of an aircraft carrier is called the flight deck and looks like a very small airport. Old aircraft carriers carried airplanes that could takeoff and land in the short distance of the flight deck without help. Similarly, small modern aircraft carriers only carry helicopters or specially designed airplanes such as the Harrier that can take off and land straight up and down or in the short distance of the flight deck.

paragraphs: The flight deck of a large, modern aircraft carrier has a landing area and a take-off area. The landing area is in the back and has a short runway. Airplanes stop by using a hook on the back of the airplane to grab wires stretched across the runway. In the front, the flight deck has a steam-powered catapult that connects to the front wheel of an airplane. The catapult pulls and throws the airplane off the deck, helping it take off quickly. So, aircraft carriers are basically small, floating, mobile airports.

paragraphs: Because they are big ships and need much electric power, big modern aircraft carriers have on-board nuclear power plants. Others are powered by oil-burning engines.

paragraphs: Except for their airplanes, aircraft carriers usually have few weapons, so other warships escort them. Together, the aircraft carrier and these warships form a carrier group.


title: Edward Kasner

paragraphs: Edward Kasner (1878–1955) is an American mathematician (person who studies math). He is famous for creating the word googol and the word googolplex.

paragraphs: Kasner went to Columbia University and received his Ph.D. (a degree (measure) of learning) in 1899.

paragraphs: Around 1920, Kasner decided to make a good, catchy name for a very big number (one, followed by a hundred zeros). While he was walking with his nephews Milton (c. 1911–1980) and Edwin Sirotta in New Jersey's Palisades, Kasner asked them to think of good names. Milton was the one who said "googol".

paragraphs: In 1940, with James Roy Newman, Kasner made a book about math called "Mathematics and the Imagination" . It was in this book that the name "googol" was first used.

paragraphs: The website Google was named after Kasner's number googol.


title: Bay of Bengal

paragraphs: The Bay of Bengal is a bay. It is in the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. The bay is also west of the Malay Peninsula and east of India. It looks like a triangle. It is called the "Bay of Bengal", because to the north are the Indian state of West Bengal and the country of Bangladesh.it is an extended part of the Indian ocean. But most of the part the see landed on part of Bangladesh. It has four sea port on part of Bangladesh. Bay of Bengal named on the history of Bangladesh.


title: Malay Peninsula

paragraphs: The Malay Peninsula (Malay: "Semenanjung Tanah Melayu") is a big peninsula in Southeast Asia. The place is divided into three political parts. This includes:


title: Jubilee line

paragraphs: The Jubilee line is a line on the London Underground. It runs from Stanmore in north-west London to Stratford in east London. The colour of the Jubilee line on tube maps is grey.

paragraphs: The line opened on 1 May 1979, taking over one of the Bakerloo Line's two branches to relieve the main part of the line. To the Baker Street to Stanmore part a new four-kilometre part into central London was added, terminating at a new station at Charing Cross railway station.

paragraphs: The old Charing Cross station, on the Circle, District, Bakerloo and Northern lines, was renamed Embankment. The new Charing Cross tube station created a new interchange, from the stations of Strand on the Northern Line and Trafalgar Square on the Bakerloo.

paragraphs: The Jubilee Line of 1979 was to be the first part of the project, but because of the lack of money the line stayed the same until the late 1990s. Phase 2 would have extended the line along Fleet Street to stations at Aldwych, Ludgate Circus, Cannon Street, Fenchurch Street, St Katherine's Dock, Wapping and then under the River Thames to New Cross, terminating at Lewisham. An alternative plan was created in the late 1970s to extend the Jubilee Line in parallel with the River Thames, this would taken the Line from Wapping to Thamesmead Via Surrey Docks North, Canary Wharf, North Greenwich, Custom House, Silvertown, Woolwich Arsenal and to Thamesmead. However the 'river line' extension as it was called was too expensive and construction of the extension never started.

paragraphs: Changes in land use, particularly the new areas in the Docklands area, caused the project to change considerably in the 1990s. The Jubilee Line Extension, opened in three stages in 1999, split from the existing line at Green Park, creating a one-station branch to Charing Cross, which is now closed (although it is still sometimes opened for occasional use as a film set). With the extension, the Jubilee Line is the only line on the London Underground network that crosses all other lines.

paragraphs: When the Jubilee Line was opened, it was run with 1972 trains. In 1984 the 1972 trains were replaced by the new 1983 trains. The old 1972 Stock were used on the Northern Line. The 1983 trains proved to be unreliable in service, with their single doors making passenger loading and unloading slower than on other trains with wider doors. With the opening of the Jubilee Line Extension, the opportunity was taken to introduce new trains, and today the line is worked by 1996 trains.


title: Medical emergency

paragraphs: A medical emergency is an injury or illness that poses an immediate threat to a person's long-term health or life. It needs to be treated immediately. Doctors that are trained in emergency medicine are taught how to react to medical emergencies, and how to resuscitate patients.

paragraphs: When there is a medical emergency, emergency medical services should be notified as soon as possible by calling for help using a local emergency telephone number, such as "911" in the United States or Canada, "112" in most of continental Europe and on GSM cell phones, "999" in the UK and most of its former colonies (112 works as well), "15" in France, "118" in Italy, "119" in South Korea and Japan, "000" in Australia, "101" in Israel and "111" in New Zealand. Calls to emergency services are usually free of charge; they can be made from any phone; in the case of a prepaid phone no credit is required.

paragraphs: The people that answer emergency calls, emergency medical dispatchers, will ask questions about the person who needs immediate treatment; some of the questions are whether the person is conscious, how badly injured they are, their name if it is known, and if they have any other illnesses. They will also ask some basic information about the called, such as the name of the person calling.

paragraphs: People that know first aid are expected to help as much as they can. Moving the victim to a safe place can sometimes do more harm than good, and should be left to people that know how to properly move injured people unless there is no alternative (for example, in wilderness first aid). Many states have laws that protect those helping.

paragraphs: If the victim is not breathing, or if a heartbeat cannot be felt, artificial respiration and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) could be needed to keep a person's blood circulating long enough for medics to attempt revival. Emergency medical technicians, Outdoor Emergency Care technicians or paramedics can use airway management techniques to help a person who is not breathing.

paragraphs: While in a hospital environment, staff members that are on duty are trained to deal with emergency situations. Emergency medical physicians are trained to deal with many medical emergencies, and have up-to-date cardiopulmonary resuscitation and advanced cardiac life support certificates. In major incidents, most hospitals have protocols to have staff that are not at work at the hospital to go on duty as fast as they can.

paragraphs: Emergency departments follow basic advanced cardiac life support protocols, which include keeping a patient's blood pressure and blood saturation at acceptable levels. Possible exceptions include the clamping of arteries in severe haemorrhage.

paragraphs: Most emergencies are quite unspectacular. They will happen close to home.


title: Southeast Asia

paragraphs: Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia, is the southeastern part of Asia. There are ten countries in this region. All the countries in Southeast Asia are a part of ASEAN, except for East Timor. Some of the countries are mostly on the Asian mainland; they were formerly called Indochina. The others are only on islands. All of the countries in Southeast Asia are in the tropics except for the northernmost areas of Myanmar, which is in the subtropics. These are the countries in Southeast Asia:

paragraphs: The United Nations also includes the region of North-east India and Bangladesh traditionally, due to ethnicity similarities and culturally as part of Southeast Asia.


title: Sprint

paragraphs: Sprints are short running races in athletics. They are events in which runners will not have to "pace themselves", but can run as fast as possible for the entire distance. These are often some of the more popular events in the Olympic Games. The most common distances are 60 meters, 100 meters, 200 meters ,400 meters and 1500 metres.


title: Boxer (dog)

paragraphs: The Boxer is a breed of dog. With good care, a Boxer can be an ideal pet and companion.

paragraphs: Boxers are good guard dogs. They are strong and like to run in open spaces. They can have a coat in various colors, such as fawn, brindle, fawn-brindle mix, white, white-fawn mix, and brindle-white mix. Males are 22-25 inches at the withers (tops of the shoulders) and the females are 21-24 inches at the withers. These dogs can range from medium size (65 lbs) to medium large (75 lbs). Boxers are one of the most popular breeds of dogs in the US and over-breeding is a concern.

paragraphs: Boxers are loyal dogs and unlike certain breeds, are not "one-person" dogs. They can become loyal to a person, family or group of persons and family friends. They make friends by nature and are curious dogs who love to explore. They are well-suited to be with children and elderly persons, though they can knock people down playing. These dogs may be feared because of their fearsome stance that can look intimidating. They rarely bark without a reason.

paragraphs: They have a high energy level and require lots of exercise. They love to play and have fun. Owners note that they act "puppy-like" their entire lifetime. Their temperament is jovial. Mean Boxers are a rarity. Boxers love to chase, run, play tag and get any form of attention whenever possible. Boxers are easy to train to do tricks, especially for rewards including attention, love and recognition. They are clever dogs with a good memory. They love to ride in vehicles and are good "road trip" dogs.

paragraphs: These dogs can have some neurotic behaviors and can become anxious if left alone. If they are left alone, "crate-training" is important. Dogs who are crate trained do not mind the practice and often feel secure in a den-like setting. But being in an open house may make the dog agoraphobic, causing them to destroy things. Boxers are easily trained and want to please. While not aggressive, they will show some protective behaviors over their owners and families, especially children. Boxers do well with other dogs and pets such as cats, if they are properly acquainted and socialized. Because Boxers are very bright dogs, they may challenge an owner mentally by being defiant or by being openly obstinate. This type of behavior requires training and patience.

paragraphs: Many veterinarians now refuse to crop (cut, bandage and splint to produce points) the Boxer's ears and many owners prefer the "naturally-floppy ears" to avoid painful and possibly cruel cosmetic surgery. Many owners like the cute appearance. Most Boxers have their tail cropped at birth. White Boxers, which were drowned at birth for much of the breed's span, are now sold or allowed to be distributed as pets, though most are neutered or spayed to prevent breeding.

paragraphs: Medical issues common to Boxers include hereditary conditions such as hip dysplasia, certain forms of heart defects and certain forms of cancer. A reputable breeder vs. a "puppy-mill" Boxer is recommended. All dogs should get all necessary and regular vaccinations, have regular veterinarian checkups and teeth cleanings, along with a good diet and plenty of exercise. The average lifespan of a healthy Boxer is 9–11 years. Many people get a Boxer and then may give it to a rescue or pound because they are not ready or willing to devote the time that Boxers require for training and attention. A Boxer will not be ignored and will go to great lengths to draw attention to itself, good or even bad. Jumping on people is a common complaint, so positive reinforcement training is a must. They are affable, lovable, clown-like, yet dedicated dogs who adore their owner(s).

paragraphs: The Boxer was bred in Germany and was originally bred for bull-bating and dog fights, but when that was ruled out they were used as hunting dogs and farm dogs and just regular house pets. The Boxer breed was created from the brabanter and Bullenbeiser. Though originally bred to fight and later used as a military sentry or police dog, Boxer owners will confirm that this type of role is no longer suitable for Boxers, as many decades of breeding had produced a dog that is too docile for this type of duty.


title: American Graffiti

paragraphs: American Graffiti is a 1973 American teen comedy-drama movie directed by George Lucas. This was Lucas' second movie and made him very well known. It is about what happens to a group of teenagers one night in August 1962 in Modesto, California while they are driving around town and listening to radio DJ Wolfman Jack.


title: Lake Vostok

paragraphs: Lake Vostok is the biggest of the seventy lakes in Antarctica that are under the ice. It is at 77° S 105° E. It is under Russia's Vostok Station. It is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) under Antarctica's surface.

paragraphs: The lake was found by Russian and British scientists. They used radar to find it.

paragraphs: The lake consists of fresh water. The temperature of the water is about -3 °C. The freezing point of water is at 0 °C, but the water in the lake remains liquid because of the high pressure of the ice.

paragraphs: There are two separate basins in the lake. These are separated by a ridge. It has been suggested that the ecosystems of the two basins are different.

paragraphs: Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment. It is supersaturated with oxygen. The levels of oxygen are fifty times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth.

paragraphs: The weight of the ice on top of Lake Vostok is believed to add to the high concentration of oxygen. Oxygen from the ice gets dissolved into the water of the lake. Deposits of oxygen and other gases are trapped in the lake as well. The structure that traps them is called a clathrate. Gases trapped in clathrates are enclosed in ice and look like packed snow. These structures form at the high-pressure depths of Lake Vostok; they would become unstable if brought to the surface.

paragraphs: No other natural environment on Earth is as rich in oxygen. For this reason, if there are any forms of life in the lake, they would probably need to have adapted to the high levels of oxygen to be able to survive. Some adaptations might include high concentrations of protective enzymes.

paragraphs: The environment in the lake is very similar to that on Jupiter's moon Europa or Saturn's moon Enceladus. Finding life in the lake would therefore make it more probable that life has existed on one of these moons.


title: Infrared

paragraphs: Infrared (IR) radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation (a wave with electricity) . The wave is longer than light which humans can see and shorter than microwaves. The word "infrared" means "below red". It comes from the Latin word "infra" (meaning "below") and the English word "red". (Infrared light has a frequency "below" the frequency of red light.) Red light has the longest wavelength that human eyes can see. Infrared waves cannot be seen by the eye.

paragraphs: Near-infrared waves are between 800 nm and 1.4 µm. Most infrared from the Sun is near-infrared. Thermal imaging is mostly done with thermal radiation waves between 8 and 15 µm.

paragraphs: Most remote controls use infrared to send the control signals. Many missiles for anti-aircraft warfare find their target by infrared.

paragraphs: Before Bluetooth was invented, some computers, personal digital assistants, and mobile phones used infrared technology to send files to other devices. Bluetooth replaced infrared in the early 2000s. Infrared is limited by the need to have both devices in a "line of sight" with each other.

paragraphs: Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.


title: Municipalities of Republika Srpska

paragraphs: In 1994, the "Law on Territorial Organization and Local Self-Government" was created. It made the Republika Srpska into 80 parts, called municipalities. However, because of the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1996, there are now 63 parts.


title: Republika Srpska

paragraphs: Republika Srpska (Serbo-Croatian: Република Српска / Republika Srpska) is one of the two parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The other part is the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and there is also a special city that is not in either, the Brčko District.

paragraphs: The Republika Srpska has seven main parts (called regions). They are:


title: Kenneth Branagh

paragraphs: Sir Kenneth Branagh (born 10 December 1960) is a British actor, movie director and television producer. He played Hamlet. He has directed and acted in many Shakespeare adaptations. He has acted alongside popular actors including: Emma Thompson, Keanu Reeves, Michael Keaton, Maggie Smith and Alan Rickman. Since Richard Attenborough's death in August 2014, Branagh has been the president of the Royal Academy of the Dramatic Arts in London.


title: Sculpture

paragraphs: Sculpture is a type of art. It must be three-dimensional (meaning it must have height, width, and depth like a cube). There are many kinds of sculptures from different parts of the world, like China and India, or from different time periods, like the renaissance and modern times. The pictures below are of sculptures:


title: Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

paragraphs: Charles V (24 February 1500–21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1519, King of Castile and Aragon from 1516, and Lord of the Low Countries as Duke of Burgundy from 1506.

paragraphs: Philip the Handsome (son of Maximilian I of Austria and Mary of Burgundy) and Joanna the Mad (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile) were his parents. He ruled Austria, Spain, Two Sicilies, Sardinia, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, Hungary, Bohemia, Croatia, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela.

paragraphs: "His Majesty" or "His Imperial Majesty" was first used when he was king. His Empire became large and was known as "in which the sun does not set". He was also known as "The Emperor of Universal Dominion."

paragraphs: He divided his empire between his brother Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II of Spain.


title: Renaissance

paragraphs: The Renaissance is a period in the history of Europe beginning in about 1400, and following the Medieval period.

paragraphs: "Renaissance" is a French word meaning "rebirth". The period is called by this name because at that time, people started taking an interest in the learning of ancient times, in particular, the learning of Ancient Greece and Rome. The Renaissance was seen as a "rebirth" of that learning. The Renaissance is often said to be the start of the "modern age".

paragraphs: During the Renaissance, there were many famous artists, many writers and many philosophers. Many people studied mathematics and different sciences. A person who is clever at a great number of things is sometimes called a "Renaissance man". Leonardo da Vinci, who was a painter, a scientist, a musician and a philosopher, is the most famous "Renaissance Man".

paragraphs: The Renaissance started in Italy but soon spread across the whole of Europe. In Italy, the time is divided into three periods:

paragraphs: Following the "Mannerist" period was the "Baroque" period which also spread across Europe from about 1600. Outside Italy, it can be hard to tell where the "Renaissance" period ends and "Baroque" begins.

paragraphs: In the Middle Ages, most artistic, legal, and historical production took place in and around books, which were produced in and belonged to monasteries, churches, universities, and the individuals who could afford them. Books were produced entirely by hand, which is why they were called manuscripts; illuminated manuscripts refer to those with hand-colored, drawn, and gilded pictures.

paragraphs: Most books at that time were written in Latin, Greek, and Roman which was used in the Catholic Church. Only priests and well-educated people read Latin then. People were forbidden by law from translating the Bible into Italian, English, German, French, or other "local" languages.

paragraphs: Around 1440 the first printed books were made in Europe. The way of printing quickly improved so that large books like the Bible could be made and sold cheaply. It took 300 calf skins or 100 pig skins to print the Bible. The printers then began to print everything that they thought was interesting:- Ancient Greek and Roman writings, poetry, plays, lives of the saints, mathematics textbooks, medical textbooks, Christian stories, erotic stories, books about animals and monsters, advice to princes as to how to rule their people and maps of the world.

paragraphs: Before the invention of the printing press, knowledge belonged to priests, monasteries, and universities. Suddenly, many thousands of people, even merchants could learn far more than they ever could before.

paragraphs: The time of Ancient Greece and Rome, when there were many philosophers, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and mathematicians was seen by people as a Golden Age, a time when things were beautiful, well-organised and well-run. This time had lasted from about 400 BC to about 400 AD.

paragraphs: In the year 1400, in the city of Rome, people would wander around looking up at the ruins of a city that had once been great. Inside the broken walls that had been smashed in 410 AD were the remains of huge temples, sports arenas, public baths, apartment blocks and palaces. Nearly all of them were ruined and could not be used. Nearly all of them were half-buried in the dirt. A lot of them were pulled down to use as building stone. But they showed people what great things could be done. Among the ruins of this once-great city, the people of Rome lived in cottages. They still went to church in the huge churches (basilicas) built by the first Christian Emperor, Constantine the Great, in the 4th century. They still held a market day in the Ancient Roman market place of "Campo Dei Fiori" ("Field of Flowers").

paragraphs: One day in 1402, into the middle of Rome, came a young man called Filippo Brunelleschi and a teenage boy called Donatello. They were fascinated by everything that they saw. They measured ancient ruined buildings, they drew things and they dug around for weeks looking for bits of broken statues and painted pottery that they could stick together. They were probably the world's first archaeologists. By the time they went back home to Florence, they knew more about Ancient Roman architecture and sculpture than anyone had known for about a thousand years. Brunelleschi became a very famous architect and Donatello became a very famous sculptor.

paragraphs: The city of Florence is really where the "Renaissance" began. In those days, Italy was not one single country. It was lots of little states, all governed in different ways and all fighting or making allies with each other all the time.

paragraphs: Rome was politically powerful because Rome had the Pope, the person in control of the Roman Catholic Church. Because of his very great importance as a spiritual leader, most people and most cities did not want to argue with the Pope, whichever Pope he might be. Because a new pope was elected when the old one died, everyone who was rich and powerful was always hoping it might be a member of their family. It was always a good idea to have several young men in the family trained as priests, just in case. It was also a good idea to be good friends with other rich families. One way to do this was to have lots of daughters and get them to marry rich powerful men from different cities. This was the way that politics worked.

paragraphs: Other cities that were powerful were Venice with its great big navy, Milan which controlled trade with Northern Europe and was very rich, Genoa which controlled trade with France and Spain and was very rich, and Florence, where many people say the Renaissance started.

paragraphs: The power of Florence was not founded on a strong army, on a strong fortress or a good position to control trade. It was founded on banking. The cleverness in business of one single-family was very important in making Florence powerful and the center of Renaissance learning. The family was called the Medici.


title: Lava

paragraphs: Lava is magma, hot molten rock that flows through holes in the Earth's crust and onto the surface. Like magma, lava can be either viscous (~thick) or fluid (~thin). Blocky lava is so thick and slow that it barely moves along the ground. Other types of lava, like "pahoehoe", "aa", and "pillow lava", are thinner and flow faster.

paragraphs: "Blocky lava" is cool, stiff lava that cannot travel far from where it was erupted. Blocky lava usually oozes out from a volcano only after an explosion has let out lots of the gas pressure from the place where there is magma. Blocky lava makes jumbled piles of sharp chunks.

paragraphs: Pronounced "pah HOY HOY", "pahoehoe" gets its name from the Hawaiian word for "ropy" because its surface looks like coils of rope. Pahoehoe lava flows slowly, like wax dripping down from a candle, making a glassy surface with round wrinkles.

paragraphs: "Aa" is a Hawaiian word that is pronounced "AH-AH". This lava that has a sharp, jagged surface. This stiff lava pours out quickly and makes a crust that breaks easily. The crust is torn into sharp pieces as the hot lava underneath still moves.

paragraphs: Pillow lava is made when lava erupts underwater. It makes round lumps that are the size and shape of pillows. Pillow lava has a round shape because the lava cools very quickly when it touches water.

paragraphs: They occur wherever mafic or intermediate lavas push out under water. This happens along marine hotspot volcano chains and the constructive plate boundaries of mid-ocean ridges. Pillow lavas occur in the oldest preserved volcanic sequences on earth, the Isua and Barberton greenstone belts. This shows that large bodies of water were on the Earth's surface early in the Archaean. Pillow lavas are used generally to show volcanism occurred underwater in metamorphic belts. Pillow lavas are also found where volcanoes were under ice early before an eruption.

paragraphs: A lava tube is a natural channel formed in flowing lava. The lava continues flowing under the tube's upper surface. Later, when the lava is cooled and solid, the tube remains as a feature in the landscape.


title: Greenwich Village

paragraphs: Greenwich Village is an area on the western part of southern/downtown Manhattan. It is sometimes called "The Village". The Village is mainly residential.

paragraphs: Greenwich Village is bordered by Broadway to the east, Hudson River to the west, Houston Street to the south and 14th Street to the north.

paragraphs: Originally, Greenwich Village was a hamlet separate to New York City. The grid plan for its streets is less orderly than in parts of Manhattan that were built later.

paragraphs: The village is located on what used to be marshland. In the 16th century, Native Americans called it "Sapokanikan" which means "tobacco field". In the 1630s, it was turned into pasture by the Dutch, who called it "Noortwyck". In 1664, when the English captured the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, and Greenwich Village developed as a hamlet.

paragraphs: In 1712, it officially became a village, and was named Grin'wich in the 1713 Common Council records. Following a yellow fever epidemic in 1822, many New York residents moved to the healthier air of Greenwich; where many stayed. In the 19th century, it was known as Washington Square.


title: Yoshiki

paragraphs: Yoshiki's solo career includes two classical studio albums: "Eternal Melody" (1993), and "Eternal Melody II" (2005).