title: Chopper Read

paragraphs: Mark Brandon "Chopper" Read (November 17, 1954 - October 9, 2013) was an Australian mobster who was born in Melbourne, Victoria. During his criminal career in the Melbourne mafia scene, he was convicted of many crimes, including armed robbery, assault, attempted murder, arson, impersonating a police officer and kidnapping. Read retired from a life of crime and wrote a series of fiction books based on his life as a criminal.

paragraphs: Read started his criminal career as a child; robbing drug dealers as a teenager. During this time he was the leader of a gang. While in prison as an adult, Read made another prisoner cut off his ears so he could leave prison where a gang wanted to have him killed. Read claims that he killed 19 people during his time as a criminal. His first book was written in 1991 while he was in prison. In 2000, a movie called Chopper was made about Read's life and based on his books, it stars Eric Bana as Read.

paragraphs: Read has stated that he had attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, hepatitis C, cirrhosis and liver cancer. He died of liver cancer in Melbourne.


title: Elle McFeast

paragraphs: Elle McFeast was a fictional character played by Australian comedienne Libbi Gorr, who started off on a show with Andrew Denton about sport in Australia called "Live and Sweaty". Gorr made up her character's name to make fun of Australian model Elle Macpherson. "McFeast" was the name of a hamburger from McDonald's.

paragraphs: McFeast had her own show for many years in Australia. She talked about many scary things, like jails and criminals, and made fun of them. One day she interviewed Chopper Read on her show. He was so scary that she had to stop her show.


title: Elle Macpherson

paragraphs: Elle Macpherson (born Eleanor Nancy Gow on 29 March 1964, in Killara, New South Wales, Australia) is an Australian supermodel and actress. She first became famous because of her advertisements for Coca-Cola where she wore a string bikini. She became a supermodel and became very famous. She is part owner of a cafe in America. She has been in a movie called "Sirens". Macpherson is nicknamed "the body" because some people say she has a perfect body.

paragraphs: In 2010, she became the host and executive producer of "Britain & Ireland's Next Top Model". She is currently the host and an executive producer NBC's "Fashion Star".

paragraphs: Macpherson met Gilles Bensimon in 1984 on a photo-session for "Elle" magazine. They were married in May 1986, and divorced in 1989.

paragraphs: Macpherson has two sons, Arpad Flynn Alexander Busson (born 14 February 1998), and Aurelius Cy Andrea Busson (born 4 February 2003). The father is her former partner, French financier Arpad Busson.

paragraphs: Macpherson lives most of the time in Britain along with her two sons. She speaks fluent French and conversational Italian and Spanish.

paragraphs: From 2010 to early 2012, Macpherson was in a relationship with property developer Jeff Soffer.


title: Andrew Denton

paragraphs: Andrew Christopher Denton is an Australian comedian and television presenter who likes to make fun of politics. Andrew Denton used to have a television programme about sports in Australia called "Live and Sweaty". He now has a programme called "Enough Rope" where he interviews people about politics. Denton is a very smart man. The Australian media use him in many news stories. One of Denton's interviews was with Rene Rivkin, who police said had cheated in the stock market to make money. Rivkin was very sad, and after the interview he went to jail. Rivkin killed himself in jail. Denton says that he feels very sorry for interviewing Rivkin. Denton says that he does not want to interview someone like that again.


title: Rene Rivkin

paragraphs: Rene Rivkin (June 6, 1944 – May 1, 2005) was an Australian man, born in Shanghai, who made much money by buying stocks and shares on the Australian stockmarket. Rivkin had his own television show and magazine to help people to make money. Rivkin had cheated to make money from the stock market. Rivkin became depressed. Rivkin was put in jail. He was released, and killed himself in Sydney. Before killing himself, Rivkin said on a television show called "Enough Rope" with Andrew Denton that if he went to jail he would kill himself. Andrew Denton has said that he is very sad about this.


title: Eric Bana

paragraphs: Eric Bana (born Eric Banadinović on 9 August 1968) is an Australian actor. He was a comedian for a long time, and he was in a show called "The Comedy Company". He then became a serious actor in the movie "Chopper" which is a biopic of criminal Chopper Read. Bana also acted in the movies "Troy" and "Hulk".


title: African-American Vernacular English

paragraphs: African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a name for the way some Afro-American people talk. Linguists (people who study language) gave AAVE its name. Some non-black people use this dialect, too. Some of its pronunciations and grammar resemble the way people talk in West Africa.

paragraphs: It first came about in the 16th and 17th centuries. African American Vernacular English became famous in 1996, when some educators in Oakland, California said they wanted to use AAVE to help teach black kids. They called it Ebonics. However, Ebonics often has a negative connotation.

paragraphs: There are many rules that govern how the sounds of AAVE are different from Standard English. Some have to do with pronunciation and vocabulary (or lexicon). Most have to do with grammar. This includes verb tenses and sentence structure.

paragraphs: Hip hop music has made AAVE more famous since the 1980s. Some people think it is cool and they try to speak it or learn it even if they are not really familiar with it. Some non-black people can speak it well.


title: Joe Vialls

paragraphs: Joe Vialls (1944 – 2005) was an Australian Internet journalist and conspiracy theorist. He was once a policeman and detective, but became a private investigator. He is most famous for writing many stories on the Internet about famous things that have happened around the world.

paragraphs: On April 17, 1984, a police woman called Yvonne Fletcher was killed while she was in London. Joe Vialls told people that he knew why she was really killed. Because of Joe Vialls, police in London spent a long time trying to find out what really happened. In the end, police agreed with Joe Vialls, and they said that they had found out what really happened because of Joe Vialls.

paragraphs: In April 1996, Joe Vialls said that he knew who had really killed people in the Port Arthur massacre, and that it was not Martin Bryant, who police said had killed people. Joe Vialls talked to Wendy Scurr who was there, and Stewart Beattie who was a gun expert, and he also talked to Martin Bryant's mother, to find out what really happened. Joe Vialls wrote a book and had many articles talking about what he thinks really happened. You can see 9 articles that Joe Vialls wrote here. Joe Vialls says that the Australian government killed people so that they could take guns away from people. This is the same story that the Australian National Rifle Association says.


title: Tatts Group Limited

paragraphs: Tatts Group Limited, formerly known as Tattersalls, is the name of a company in Australia that helps people to bet money. Tattersalls has made lots of money. A woman named Helen Harvey owned Tattersalls and had lots of money. When she died, she gave the money to her friend Martin Bryant. When Bryant went to jail after he killed people in the Port Arthur massacre, he had to give all of the money to people who were killed or injured there.


title: Tsukuba, Ibaraki

paragraphs: Tsukuba is a new city in Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan. It is 50 km northeast of Tokyo and 40 km from Narita International Airport.

paragraphs: It has been recognized as a special city since 2007.


title: Narita International Airport

paragraphs: The airport is east of Tokyo Station and east-southeast of Narita Station in the city of Narita in Chiba Prefecture.


title: Pup

paragraphs: Pup means the babies of several species of animals, such as:


title: Monitor

paragraphs: The word monitor is a Latin word for "warner" or "suggester". The many uses of the word are listed below.


title: Chest

paragraphs: The chest is the front part of the torso. It is between the neck and abdomen.

paragraphs: In mammals, the parts that make up the thorax are the sternum, the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs. It starts from the neck and stops at the diaphragm.

paragraphs: In insects and crustaceans, it is the middle of the three main body sections. The walking legs are usually on the thorax.


title: Blackburn

paragraphs: Blackburn is a town in Lancashire, England. The town has a population of about 105,000 people.

paragraphs: Blackburn is mentioned in one of the Beatles' songs. The town's football team is Blackburn Rovers F.C.


title: National Security Agency

paragraphs: The National Security Agency (NSA) is a part of the United States government. It was started in 1952, and the main office is in Maryland, USA.

paragraphs: Their stated goal is to protect the US people. They do this by


title: Robert Wadlow

paragraphs: Robert Pershing Wadlow (February 22, 1918 – July 22, 1940) was the tallest person who ever lived.

paragraphs: Robert Pershing Wadlow was born to Addie Johnson and Harold Wadlow in Alton, Illinois on February 22, 1918, and was the oldest of five children. During elementary school, they had to make a special desk for him because of his size. In 1936, after graduating from Alton High School, he enrolled in Shurtleff College with the intention of studying law.

paragraphs: Robert Wadlow was normal at birth but started growing abnormally when he was two, after a double hernia operation. He was six feet tall at age six. By the time he was 17, he was eight feet tall. Because he was so tall, he got lots of attention and became very famous, but his bones were very weak and he had to wear leg braces. In 1940, he was walking in a Fourth of July parade, when one of his braces made his ankle get infected; he died on the 15th of that month. When he died he was 8' 11.1". Robert was 6' 5" on his knees.

paragraphs: Wadlow died at the age of 22. Four days later, at his funeral, 40,000 people attended and it took 12 people to carry his coffin. People remember him as the "Gentle Giant" and there is a statue of him at the . People now say Wadlow had something called gigantism, which made him so tall.


title: Code

paragraphs: A code is a way of changing information into something else. Sometimes this is done as a way of keeping a message secret. This is called encryption or cryptography.

paragraphs: One source gives this explanation: a code is "a word, number or some other symbol used to represent a word, phrase or syllable in plaintext". It is one of the earliest forms of cryptography. Contrast code with cypher, in which the individual letters are encrypted (changed).

paragraphs: Sometimes it is done as an easier way of sending a message. For example, when people on two different boats want to send a message, they may be too far away to shout, but they can send messages with a flag code. Another code that people use is called Morse code, which changes letters to dots and dashes, like this:

paragraphs: Computers use codes, by changing letters into 1's and 0's. This method was invented for punched tape. Now the usual alphanumeric code is ASCII.

paragraphs: Some people write codes as a kind of game. They think it is fun to make ciphers, and fun to break them. Breaking a code means taking it apart to understand how it works, and then you can understand messages that are written in that code. Cryptanalysis is also serious business. Nations and other organizations have been breaking each other's ciphers for many centuries.

paragraphs: The algorithm (code) for making a message secret is called the encryption algorithm. To change a secret message back a decryption algorithm is needed.


title: Goaltender

paragraphs: The goaltender (also known colloquially as goalie or netminder) in ice hockey is the player who defends his team's goal net by stopping shots of the puck from entering his team's net, thus stopping the other team from scoring. They usually stay close to the net.

paragraphs: At the very end of a game, if a team is losing by one goal, teams may take their goaltender out of the game and replace him with another player. This makes it more likely that they will score a goal, however, it is also much easier for the other team to score without anybody defending the goal.


title: Wikispecies

paragraphs: Wikispecies is a sister project of Wikipedia, and so it is a wiki supported by the Wikimedia Foundation. It is a free directory of species that wants to make a full catalogue of all living things. It tells of how "species" are classified into groups (taxonomy), and how those groups are similar to one another. It calls itself the "directory of life".

paragraphs: It is supposed to be written and used by scientists, not by normal people. The people who write Wikispecies do not need to show their education but need to show their general understanding in the area.

paragraphs: It was started in August 2004, with biologists around the world invited to help. Now, the project has become a good directory listing the Linnaean taxonomy with links to Wikipedia articles on individual species since April 2005. The links are provided in different languages.

paragraphs: The articles in Wikispecies are all written in the Latin names, so that scientists around the world, no matter what language that use, can use the website. There is information in the article telling people what the article's living thing is called in every other language that has a common name for it. Still, Wikispecies is mostly in English; its main page is in English, and it is run in English.

paragraphs: The taxoboxes in Wikipedia come from Wikispecies, where people in Wikipedia can go to refer.

paragraphs: As of July 1, 2014, Wikispecies has over 400,000 articles.


title: Lopp Lagoon

paragraphs: Lopp Lagoon is a tidal lake on Cape Prince of Wales (the westernmost tip of the Seward Peninsula) in the U.S. state of Alaska. Many creeks empty into it, but the most water comes from the Mint River. Some salt water from the Pacific Ocean also enters the lagoon through several channels between it and the Bering Strait.

paragraphs: It was named in 1900 for William Thomas "W.T." Lopp, the civilian leader of the 1897–8 Overland Expedition.

paragraphs: Historically, Lopp Lagoon has been an important source of food (salmon and waterfowl) for people living in the Wales, Alaska area.


title: Welsh people

paragraphs: The Welsh are people from Wales, a country in the United Kingdom. Welsh people speak two languages, Welsh and English. They can also speak other languages occasionally.


title: League of Nations

paragraphs: The League of Nations (French: La Société des Nations) was the predecessor to the United Nations. The League was founded in 1920, after World War I, but failed to maintain peace during World War II. The League had a Council of the great powers and an Assembly of all the member countries.

paragraphs: The League of Nations was thought up by Woodrow Wilson, the American President during the First World War. It was to be a group of nations that worked together to keep peace. One of the reasons for its downfall was that, after a vote, the American public refused to join. The League did not have the power it needed to enforce any of the rules that made it up. This later proved to be a fatal flaw in the League's structure.

paragraphs: Another flaw in the League was that it was not representative enough: no more than 65 nations were members at any given time, and the interests of the leading members (notably Britain and France) often outweighed those of smaller, less powerful members.

paragraphs: The League also had no troops of its own, and decisions it made were often slow. For example, when the Empire of Japan invaded Manchuria (North-East China) in 1931, the League took a whole year to make a decision. When it came, Japan ignored it. When Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935, the League condemned it more quickly but Italy merely quit the League and continued its conquest. After these disasters the League was thought to be weak and powerless and stopped operations in 1939.

paragraphs: The League did not fail completely: it had prevented a few conflicts in Europe in the 1920s and worked hard to relieve various public health and social problems around the world.

paragraphs: In 1946, the already inactive League of Nations formally ended. The United Nations was established, and still today does many of the same things the League of Nations did.

paragraphs: President Woodrow Wilson arranged a plan for a "government of governments", or rather an international peacekeeping force. The idea of his plan was to settle problems between nations peacefully. Wilson tried to persuade the international community that the league would discourage aggression and tackle the underlying problems that often lead to war, such as poverty. Wilson was however unable to convince the American public into supporting the League. The United States did not want to be part of Wilson’s approach for three reasons:

paragraphs: First, the United States had many German immigrants who hated the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles blamed Germany and its allies for the war and said they must pay heavy war reparations. To join The League of Nations, a country had to agree and accept the Treaty of Versailles. German Americans did not accept this.

paragraphs: Second, Americans did not want to risk more Americans dying in a European war, as they had in World War I. They also felt that it would result in pointless actions such as sending soldiers all around the globe to sort out small disputes. This attitude was called isolationism. Most Americans felt it would be best to avoid European and British affairs completely.

paragraphs: Third, the granting of women's voting rights in the United States brought a huge new voting block that overwhelmingly desired to turn inward towards 'isolation'.

paragraphs: These countries joined League of Nations in 1920:

paragraphs: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,


title: Audiolingual method

paragraphs: The Audiolingual Method is a method for teaching foreign languages. Linguists at the University of Michigan invented this method in the late 1950s. In the Audiolingual method, students first hear a language. Later, they speak the language, and after that, they read and write in it. This way of language teaching is similar to the Direct Method. Like the Direct Method, the Audiolingual Method does not use the students’ native language. For example, if you are in an English class in Turkey, the teacher only speaks English, and no Turkish. However, unlike the Direct Method, the Audiolingual Method does not teach vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drills grammar. In the Audiolingual method, grammar is most important for the student. In other words, the student must repeat grammar patterns after the teacher. The students do not learn lots of vocabulary. This method also uses psychology. The students get a reward for speaking correctly. They get punishment if they speak incorrectly; because it is based on habit formation, which is establishesd by stimulus, response and reinforcement. It gives priority to speaking the target language, and using the native language is not allowed.


title: Montenegro

paragraphs: Montenegro (meaning Black Mountain) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is on the Adriatic Sea, between Albania (to the South) and Croatia to the North. Inland (to the East and South-East) it also has a common border with Serbia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

paragraphs: The country came to exist when its people decided to split from the country Serbia and Montenegro on May 21, 2006. For most of the 20th century it was part of Yugoslavia. It had also been independent before World War I and existed as a kingdom. Its leader is Filip Vujanović.

paragraphs: The national song is called "Oj, svijetla majska zoro"Montenegrin Cyrillic: Ој, свијетла мајска зоро""Oh, Bright Dawn of May.""

paragraphs: The size of the economy's GDP is $4.114 billion and it has a population of 625,000 people. The traditional old capital of Montenegro is "Cetinje", but Podgorica is the new one. The country adopted the Euro unilaterally as Montenegro does not have its own currency, but the adoption has raised the national debt to 57 percent of GDP in 2011.


title: Solar eclipse

paragraphs: As seen from Earth, a solar eclipse /"ee-klips"/ happens when the Moon is directly between the Earth and the Sun. This makes the Moon fully or partially (partly) cover the sun. Solar eclipses can only happen during a new moon. Every year there are about two solar eclipses. Sometimes there are even five solar eclipses in a year. However, only two of these can be total solar eclipses, and often a year will pass without a total eclipse.

paragraphs: The area in which an eclipse is total is only a narrow track along the Earth. Totality lasts only a few minutes. Outside this path, all eclipses are partial, and places far from the track get no eclipse at all. The track can be predicted many years before it happens. The last total eclipse was the solar eclipse of June 21, 2020. The next will be on 14 Dec 2020.

paragraphs: A total solar eclipse is a natural phenomenon (event). Long ago, solar eclipses were thought to happen because of something supernatural or as a sign that something bad was going to happen. This is still believed in some cultures today. A total solar eclipse can frighten people who do not know what it means, because the Sun seems to disappear during the day and the sky turns dark in just a few minutes. Other people like to go to the eclipse path for a good view.

paragraphs: Solar eclipses happen somewhere on Earth almost every year, and very similar solar eclipses happen every 18 years, 11.3 days. This period is called the Saros cycle.

paragraphs: There are four different types of solar eclipses:

paragraphs: The Sun's distance from the Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, and the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as big as the Moon's. This is why the Sun and Moon seem to be about the same size from Earth.

paragraphs: Looking directly at the bright surface of the Sun itself can hurt the retina of the eye greatly because of the radiation that comes from the Sun. It can even blind people. The retina does not feel pain, so damage may not be felt for hours.

paragraphs: The Sun is usually so bright that it is hard to look at it directly. However, when the Sun is covered in an eclipse, it is easier to look at it. Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is equally dangerous, except in the very short time when the Sun's surface is completely covered. Looking at the Sun's surface through binoculars, a telescope, or even a camera is extremely dangerous and can damage the eye in less than a second.

paragraphs: Looking at the Sun without an eclipse does not usually hurt the eye very greatly, because the pupil of the eye closes down and makes everything darker. If the Sun is almost completely covered, the pupil opens because there is not as much light. However, the parts of the Sun that can be seen are still equally bright, and can hurt the eye very much.


title: Kate Fischer

paragraphs: Kate Fischer (born November 30, 1973) is an Australian model and actress. She was a very famous model for a long time. She had a job working on television on a cartoon program with a puppet called "Agro". She was in a movie called "Sirens" with Elle Macpherson and Sam Neill.


title: Alton, Illinois

paragraphs: Alton is a city in Madison County, Illinois, in the United States. About 34,500 people lived in Alton as of the year 2006.


title: Minneapolis

paragraphs: Minneapolis is a large city in Minnesota next to St. Paul. St. Paul and Minneapolis are called the Twin Cities because they are right next to each other. Minneapolis is the biggest city in Minnesota with about 392,000 people. People who live here enjoy the lakes, parks, and river. The Mississippi River runs through the city.

paragraphs: We know the American Indians first lived in Minneapolis around Lake Calhoun and St. Anthony Falls waterfall. They are called the Dakota or Ojibwe. They thought St. Anthony Falls was a spiritual place. Dakota hunted, fished, and planted food. The United States wanted the land in 1800 and bought it with the Louisiana Purchase. The army built Fort Snelling. Soon, people from the East Coast or "Yankees" came to Minneapolis. They used the waterfall for their flour mills. They named the new city Minneapolis. It comes from the Dakota (American Indian) words for "waterfall" or "Minne ha-ha" and the Greek word for "city" or "polis." Thus Minneapolis means "City of Waters." A nearby city called St. Anthony then joined with Minneapolis. The first mayor was Dorilus Morrison.

paragraphs: Minneapolis is flat near the river and hilly away from it. The city is also in the middle of the country. The weather is like many places in America with hot summers and cold winters. The winter is very long, very cold, and there is almost no spring. Summers are humid, meaning a lot of water is in the air, so it feels very muggy. Mosquitos are frequent in the city.

paragraphs: Some people say that Minneapolis residents are "Minnesota Nice." That means that they are generally more polite than other people. Most residents of Minneapolis live in houses and apartments, and some now live in tall buildings called condos. Kids and parents work and play in the city. Many different people make up what is Minneapolis today. After the Dakota Indian were people from Britain, French Canada, and Spanish Mexico. They were followed by Scandinavians who are from Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. Soon people from almost all parts of the world started arriving including East Europe, Russia, and Asia. Today the newcomers are from East Africa (Somali) and Southeast Asia (Hmong). Once Minneapolis was even larger than it is today with 520,000 people. But many people moved away to suburbs using new highways.

paragraphs: Lots of big companies are in Downtown in tall skyscraper buildings. These include lawyers, doctors and people in banks. They work near Nicollet Mall where there are restaurants and shops. Minneapolis also has neighborhoods. People there work in small stores too, like barber, grocery, hardware, and coffee shop. Anyone in Minneapolis can get internet to their laptop too.

paragraphs: There are lots of art and shows in the city. The biggest theater is the Guthrie Theater, and the Children's Theatre Company puts on productions directed at younger audiences. There are also art museums, such as the Minneapolis Institute of Arts and the Walker Art Center.

paragraphs: Minneapolis hosts lots of sport teams for the state. The Minnesota Vikings play at US Bank Stadium. The Minnesota Twins at Target Field. Nearby is the Target Center where the Minnesota Timberwolves play.


title: St. Louis

paragraphs: St. Louis is a large and major city in the U.S. state of Missouri. It is by the Mississippi River. It was founded by the French. It was named after King Louis IX of France, who is also a Saint. It is often called the "Gateway City" because it was important to settlers traveling out west. Its most famous landmark is the Gateway Arch.

paragraphs: St. Louis has the highest murder rate in the United States.

paragraphs: St. Louis has a hot-summer continental climate ("Dfa" in the Köppen climate classification) and experiences four distinct seasons. Summers are often hot and humid with temperatures in July between 70 and 90 degrees.

paragraphs: St. Louis is famous for a number of dishes made local such as toasted ravioli and pork steaks.

paragraphs: St. Louis has two major sports both playing in the downtown area; the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, and the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League. St. Louis had a National Football League team from 1995 to 2015, named the St. Louis Rams, which moved back to Los Angeles, California after that season.

paragraphs: There are many colleges and universities in and around St. Louis. Some of these are Washington University in St. Louis, Saint Louis University, Fontbonne University, and Lindenwood University.


title: Albert Coady Wedemeyer

paragraphs: General Albert Coady Wedemeyer (1897–1989) was an American army officer during World War II.

paragraphs: Wedemeyer was born in Omaha, Nebraska on 9 July 1897. He studied at the United States Military Academy in West Point and graduated in 1919. After the start of World War II, he was made a temporary Lieutenant Colonel in 1941. Between 1941 and 1943, he served as a staff officer in the war-plans division of the U.S. War Department. He was the chief author of the 1941 Victory Program which advocated the defeat of the German armies in Europe. When the U.S. entered the war this plan was adopted and expanded. He helped plan the invasion of Normandy.

paragraphs: In 1943, Wedemeyer was made Chief of Staff to Lord Mountbatten, the supreme Allied commander of the South East Asia Command (SEAC) in the Southeast Asian Theatre.

paragraphs: Between 1944 and 1946, he was Chief of staff to General Chiang Kai-shek and commander of U.S. forces in China under the command SEAC. The China Burma India Theatre assigned to Joseph Stilwell was split in two with command of the Burma–India theatre going to General Daniel Sultan. Wedemeyer had been commander of the U.S. China Theatre (USFCT) in 1944–1945. He had an intimate knowledge of the Allied airlift from India over the Himalayas into China. This airlift was both to supply the Nationalist Chinese Army and the U.S. Twentieth Air Force engaged on Operation Matterhorn.

paragraphs: In 1948, as the Army Chief of Plans and Operations, Wedemeyer supported Lucius D. Clay's intention to create an airbridge during the Berlin Crisis. His expertise in this area was considerable as he had been U.S. Army theater commander in China during World War II and had been supplied by air over the mountains from India by army transport planes. This earlier operation had been commanded by Lieutenant General William H. Tunner, who was later named to head the Berlin Airlift operation.

paragraphs: Wedemeyer retired in 1951. He was promoted to general in 1954. He died 17 December 1989 in Fort Belvoir, Virginia. His son Albert Dunbar Wedemeyer was a captain in the U.S. army and a Central Intelligence Agency operative.


title: William H. Tunner

paragraphs: Lt. General William H. Tunner (July 14, 1906 - April 6, 1983) was an American general.


title: Sarasota, Florida

paragraphs: Sarasota is a city on the West coast of Florida, in the United States. It is the place where the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus has its home. In 2000, 52,715 people lived there (US. Census 2000). Many famous people have lived in the city, such as: Tom Cruise (actor), Brian Johnson (band singer), and Paul Reubens (the actor, "Pee-wee Herman").


title: Paul Reubens

paragraphs: Paul Reubens (born Paul Rubenfeld; August 27, 1952) is an American actor, writer, movie producer, game show host, and comedian, best known for portraying Pee-wee Herman. He is of Jewish descent. He appeared in many movies and television series in the late 1970s and early 1980s and worked with a group called "The Groundlings". Around this time, Reubens created Pee-Wee for a stage show, which was a parody of old kids programs. In 1985, he starred in a movie called "Pee-ee's Big Adventure", which was very successful. The next year, he got his own television program, "Pee-wee's Playhouse". It was very popular.

paragraphs: He was born in Peekskill, New York and grew up in Sarasota, Florida.

paragraphs: In 1991, Reubens was arrested for masturbating in an adult movie theatre. This ended the Pee-Wee craze and forced Reubens to stop playing the character.

paragraphs: He has since appeared in many other movies and there have been rumors that he would return as Pee-wee. These rumours have not been denied by any official.


title: Peekskill, New York

paragraphs: Peekskill is a city in the U.S. state of New York. It is the birthplace of New York Governor, George Pataki. Other famous people born there include Paul Reubens and Mel Gibson.


title: Małkinia Górna

paragraphs: Małkinia Górna is a village in Małkinia Dolna Community, Ostrowian County (head town of the county: Ostrów Mazowiecka), Masovian Voivodeship, Poland. There is probably the greatest village in Europe (by population) and one of the greatest places without town status.


title: John C. Calhoun

paragraphs: John Caldwell Calhoun (March 18, 1782 – March 31, 1850) was the Vice President of the United States for John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. Calhoun was Vice President under two different presidents. George Clinton is the only other Vice President to serve under two presidents. Calhoun's father was an Irish immigrant.

paragraphs: Calhoun is probably best remembered for his strong beliefs in slavery and nullification, which said any US state had the right to reject a federal law if it was unconstitutional. Jackson hated nullification and this disagreement started the feud between him and President Andrew Jackson. Calhoun was the first vice president in U.S. history to resign from office, doing so on December 28, 1832.


title: Pelvis

paragraphs: The pelvis (plural: "pelves") is the part of the vertebrate body to which the legs attach. It has a very ancient history. This article is only about the human pelvis.

paragraphs: Pelvis can mean the lower part of the trunk of the human body, between the abdomen and the thighs. Or it can mean just the bones in that region.

paragraphs: The pelvis is at the lower end of the spine. The pelvic skeleton is, at the back, the sacrum and the coccyx. At the front and to the left and right sides, there is a pair of hip bones. The legs are attached at the pelvis.

paragraphs: The pelvis protects the organs used for digesting and for reproduction. It has many muscles attached. The muscles are mostly to do with keeping the body upright and with walking and running. Muscles attach to the bones with tendons. The bones of the pelvis are attached to each other by and to the sacrum by ligaments.

paragraphs: The pelvis bones are symmetrical, the same on both sides.

paragraphs: Male and female human pelves are different. The female pelvis is wider and more shallow than the male pelvis. There is not much difference in young children before puberty. After puberty, the female pelvis is significantly larger than in males.

paragraphs: The function of this change is to make the female pelvis able to function in childbirth, when the foetus is born through the pelvis. The space is called the 'birth canal'. There are many variations between one female and another in the structure of the pelvis. These differences have been studied in detail. These days by using ultrasound, the pelvis of pregnant women can be assessed to see if natural birth is likely to go ahead with no problems. The study is part of the medical speciality known as obstetrics.


title: Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace

paragraphs: Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace is a movie released in 1999. This movie is the fourth movie that director George Lucas made in the "Star Wars" series.

paragraphs: Two Jedi Knights, Master Qui-Gon Jinn and his apprentice Obi-Wan Kenobi, are sent on a mission by the Galactic Republic to engage in peace talks with the greedy Trade Federation of Neimoidia. They learn that the Neimoidians are sending a blockade to the planet of Naboo. In order to warn the people of Naboo, they transport themselves on Trade Federation battleships, after their ship was destroyed purposely. They reach the swamps of Naboo, separately. Qui-Gon Jinn meets Jar Jar Binks, and they find Obi-Wan. Qui-Gon Jinn asks Jar Jar to tell them of a safe place to hide from the attacking droids. Jar Jar takes them to Otoh Gunga, his birthplace, but Jar Jar was sent into exile from Otoh Gunga years ago. As such, when he returned, Boss Nass, the Gungan leader, ordered Jar Jar to be executed. Obi-Wan, following his master's instructions, rescues Jar Jar and flees to the city of Theed on a bongo, a water transport system. They find the Queen, Amidala, who escapes with them to the Republic, but in the blockade, their ship's engine was damaged.

paragraphs: They barely had enough power to reach Tatooine, and still needed a new T-14 hyperdrive generator so as not to be stuck on the planet forever. They were not able to afford any, as the planet concentrates only on money, not galactic credits. Luckily, they met Anakin Skywalker, a young slave, who helped them gain the money by participating in a very dangerous podracing event. Finding abnormal midi-chlorians in the boy, Qui-Gon attempts to take Anakin as his Padawan, but was disallowed by the Jedi Council. On the other hand, war at Naboo breaks out and during the war, Qui-Gon, who faced a battle with a Sith apprentice named Darth Maul, died in the battle. Obi-Wan agrees to train Anakin as his Padawan. Anakin turns out to be a very successful padawan and later loses his mom.


title: Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones

paragraphs: Star Wars: Episode II - Attack of the Clones is an American movie produced by Lucasfilm and 20th Century Fox. This is the fifth movie that George Lucas made in the "Star Wars" series. It shows the reasons why Anakin Skywalker eventually became Darth Vader.

paragraphs: It has been 10 years after the events of the blockade of Naboo and the Senate is deciding to build an army for the Republic as there aren't enough Jedi's to protect the Galaxy and several planets chose to leave the Republic and join the Separtist. As a Bounty Hunter is hired to kill Senator Padme Amidala and Obi-Wan Kenobi and his padawan Anakin Skywalker and after some investigation Obi-Wan Kenobi discovers the creation of a clone army on a planet Kamino in the name of a Jedi killed a decade ago!

paragraphs: Senator Padmé Amidala is nearly killed by an unknown assassin, and Supreme Chancellor Palpatine assigns two Jedi knights - Obi-Wan Kenobi and his apprentice Anakin Skywalker - to protect her. Anakin falls in love with Senator Padmé, and a war is started by the Separatists, who are led by the evil Count Dooku. Meanwhile, Obi-Wan Kenobi discovers the army of clone troopers made in the Planet Kamino, which, according to the makers, was ordered by a Jedi Master who was killed ten years back. While chasing the bounty hunter Jango Fett (whose DNA was used to make the clone army), Obi-Wan was captured by the Separatists in Geonosis and was sent off to be executed.

paragraphs: Anakin, meanwhile, was in his home planet of Tatooine, after dreaming of his mother. He tried to rescue his mother but was too late. He later began to hate the Sand People who took and killed his mother.

paragraphs: Padmé comforted him, and later asked him to save Obi-Wan in Geonosis. They too were sentenced to be executed but other Jedi knights came to save them. Master Yoda later arrived, bringing the Clone Troopers along to help the Jedi. But Anakin and Obi-Wan had to fight Count Dooku after they suffered injuries. Yoda comes to their rescue, but Count Dooku gets away.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, in the capital, Coruscant, Supreme Chancellor Palpatine gains more power because of the war.


title: Cyprus Mail

paragraphs: The Cyprus Mail is a newspaper written in English based in Cyprus. It is made every day, except Monday. Some of its news can be found on its website.


title: Collision

paragraphs: A collision occurs when two objects come in contact with each other. All collisions have the same momentum before and after a collision. Examples of collisions include car crashes, bouncing a ball, and playing pool. Collisions are made from two smaller sections called elastic and inelastic collisions.

paragraphs: In the case of playing pool or bouncing a ball, an elastic collision occurs. An elastic collision generally occurs when an elastic or hard object experiences a collision that bounces off another elastic or hard object, where the kinetic energy and momentum are the same before and after the collision. In an experiment, a small amount of energy will still be lost because of the friction between the surface and the objects.

paragraphs: In the case of a car crash, an inelastic collision occurs. An inelastic collision generally occurs when a soft object experiences a collision that does not result in a bounce. Kinetic energy is lost during this type of collision because the energy is transformed into other forces. The momentum is the same before and after the collision.

paragraphs: In the case of a two dimensional collision, the rules in elastic and inelastic collision are still the same, but vectors are used to find the momentum before or after a collision.

paragraphs: Duncan, Tom. "Advanced Physics for Hong Kong: Volume 1 Mechanics & Electricity". John Murray Ltd, 1995.

paragraphs: Wai, Loo Kwok. "Longman A-Level Course in Physics: Volume 1". Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd, 2003.


title: Belgrade

paragraphs: Belgrade is the capital city of the country of Serbia. Before the wars of the 1990s, it was the capital of Yugoslavia.

paragraphs: Belgrade is also one of the most popular travel destinations in Southeastern Europe. It is famous for a very busy nightlife and a lot of entertainment activities.

paragraphs: The main tourist attractions in Belgrade are:


title: Puncknowle

paragraphs: Puncknowle is a village in Southwest Dorset, England, United Kingdom. In 2001, 491 people lived in it.


title: Hydrogen economy

paragraphs: A hydrogen economy is a hypothetical future economy in which the primary energy used for automobiles and other vehicles as well as creating electricity comes from hydrogen and renewable energy sources, like windmills and solar panel.

paragraphs: The reason to use this is to replace the use of petroleum. It would also stop the use of fossil fuels which causes carbon dioxide along with many other greenhouse gases, such as carbon monoxide and methane, to be created. These float up into the atmosphere, damaging it. This is bad for the ecology.


title: Brachiosaurus

paragraphs: Brachiosaurus (meaning ""Arm lizard"") was a herbivorous dinosaur genus that lived in the Upper Jurassic period. The name comes from the fact that the Brachiosaur's front legs were longer than its back legs. Most other dinosaurs had back legs that were longer than their front legs or arms. "Brachiosaurus" was about 25 m (82 feet) long and 13 meters (42 feet) tall. It was one of the biggest dinosaurs.

paragraphs: Brachiosaurus was a sauropod. Its fossils were found in North America. At full stretch, Brachiosaurus could reach heights of up to 16 meters (52 feet). The "Brachiosaurus" skeleton in the Humboldt Museum in Berlin, Germany is both the tallest and largest complete sauropod skeleton. This means that it is also the tallest and largest complete dinosaur skeleton.


title: Barnacle

paragraphs: A barnacle is a cirripede, a kind of crustacean. It is covered with hard plates of calcium carbonate, and lives stuck to hard surfaces.

paragraphs: It does not look like a crustacean, and for many centuries it was thought to be a mollusc. In the 1830s, J.V. Thompson found their larvae, and followed their development through to their adult form. They have a nauplius larva, typical of crustaeans. Later Charles Darwin, who spent eight years working on barnacles, found that Thompson had been right.

paragraphs: Barnacles grow on hard surfaces like piers, boats, rocks, and on other animals such as turtles and whales. Barnacles are a different group from crabs and shrimps. They are considered a nuisance to the shipping industry and private boat owners.

paragraphs: Barnacles are suspension feeders, sweeping small food into their mouth with their curved 'feet'. They are cemented to rock (usually), and covered with hard calcareous plates, which they shut firmly when the tide goes out. The barnacles reproduce sexually, and produce little nauplius larvae which disperse in the plankton. Eventually, the larvae change into cypris form, and attach on other hard surfaces to form new barnacles. Their comparative anatomy was worked out in detail by Charles Darwin.

paragraphs: Barnacles have the largest penis to body size ratio of the animal kingdom. A few forms have become fully parasitic on larger crustacea.

paragraphs: Barnacles are by far the commonest animals on rocky sea shores. Their numbers on a shore in the Isle of Man have been estimated as a thousand million (10), and they produce body material of 12 hundrededweight (~600 kg) of tissue, weighed after drying. Each year they let go a huge number of larvae, estimated as a million million (10).

paragraphs: Darwin set his work out in four parts: There were the barnacles on stalks (pedunculated), and those that sat on hard substrate (the sessile barnacles). Each of these was divided into living and fossil barnacles.


title: International organization

paragraphs: An international organization is an organization, active in more than one country. These organizations can not command countries and citizens in a way a government can. Many are intergovernmental organizations meaning that rather than having people as members, they have individual countries as members. They make rules that the different governments follow. The United Nations is such an organization.

paragraphs: Some International organizations operate in many countries but do not have governments as members. The he Red Cross is that kind of organization.


title: Weapon of mass destruction

paragraphs: Weapons of mass destruction are weapons that can cause a lot of damage to many people. In general, people see the following as weapons of mass destruction:


title: Port Arthur, Tasmania

paragraphs: Port Arthur is a small town on the Tasman Peninsula, in Tasmania, Australia. It is about 80 km south east of the state capital, Hobart. It was settled as a penal colony (a very large prison for convicts). Port Arthur is now one of Australia's most important historic areas. In 2010 it was included on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites as one of the Australian Convict Sites. It is officially Tasmania's top tourist attraction. In 1996 the worst mass murder in Australian history took place here.

paragraphs: At the 2006 Census, Port Arthur and the local area had a population of 499.

paragraphs: Port Arthur was named after Van Diemen's Land lieutenant governor George Arthur. It started as a place to cut down timber from the forests in 1830. It is best known for being a penal colony. From 1833, until 1853, criminals from United Kingdom and Ireland were sent to Port Arthur as convicts. The prisoners were kept busy ship with jobs including building the prison, shoemaking, smithing, timber and brick making. In the 1840s there were more than 1100 prisoners. In 1842 the prisoners built a hospital and a big flour mill and grain store. At the time it was built, it was the biggest building in Australia. This was later turned into a cell block. After 1853 convicts from other prisons in Australia were sent to Port Arthur if they did more crimes, or would not behave properly.

paragraphs: In 1864 they started building the Asylum to hold the prisoners who had become insane. During the 1860s and 1870s the prisoners left at the prison were either too old, too sick, or insane to keep working. The prison closed in 1877.

paragraphs: For many years, researchers could not work out whether or not the fossils discovered at Port Arthur were remnants of the dinosaur era.

paragraphs: Port Arthur has the best example of a "Separate Prison" system. This system was started at Pentonville prison in London. The Separate Prison (sometimes called the Model Prison) was started in 1848, finished in 1853 and made bigger in 1855. It has 80 prison cells built in the shape of a cross. In the centre is a hall and a chapel. There are exercise yards built between the arms of the cross. The Separate system was a change in the way that prisoners were treated. Instead of physical punishment the system used psychological (mind) punishment. It was thought that physical punishment, such as whippings, only made prisoners worse. It did not turn bad people into good people. In the Separate prison they used the "Silent System". Prisoners wore a hood over their heads. They were not allowed to talk or make any noise. The guards wore special shoes and walked on mats so they wouldn't make any noise. Even in the chapel, each prisoner was kept in a separate wooden box where they could only see the altar. The prisoners were supposed to use the quiet time to think about the bad things they had done. Port Arthur was seen as the best prison in Australia.

paragraphs: Port Arthur was a natural prison. It is on the Tasman Peninsula which is almost completely surrounded by the sea. It is joined to the rest of Tasmania by a small narrow piece of land about 30 metres wide. This is called Eaglehawk Neck. The Neck had a fence, prison guards, and savage dogs to stop prisoners from leaving. There was no contact between visiting seamen and prisoners. Ships had to give the guards their sails and oars when they arrived to stop people leaving without permission. A semaphore message system was also set up between Port Arthur and Hobart. Messages could be sent in just 15 minutes.

paragraphs: Escape from Port Arthur was said to be impossible, like Alcatraz Island in the United States. Some prisoners did try to escape. One prisoner, George "Billy" Hunt, covered himself with a kangaroo skin and tried to get across the Neck. The hungry guards on duty tried to shoot him to make an extra meal. When he saw them pointing their guns, Hunt gave himself up. He was whipped 150 times. Bushranger Martin Cash successfully escaped along with two others.

paragraphs: The British Empire's first boys' prison was built on Point Puer, 3 kms across Opossum Bay from Port Arthur. Puer is the Latin word for boy. It was for young boys, some as young as 9, like James Lynch, arrested for stealing toys. The boys were kept away from the main convict area. About 3,500 boys were sent to Point Puer. Like the adults, the boys were given hard work such as stone cutting and building. There was also a school run by 2 ex-convicts. One prisoner was James Gavagan. When he was 11 he stole some umbrellas. He was sent to Tasmania for 7 years. He arrived at Point Puer in 1835. When he turned 17, he was sent to the main prison at Port Arthur. He was released in March 1842. There is only a few stones left to mark the site of the boys' prison. Point Puer Excavation

paragraphs: The convicts built one of Australia's first non-denominational churches, built in a gothic style. All prisoners had to go to the church every Sunday. People who did not like the new prison system said that this did not seem to make the prisoners into good people.

paragraphs: Port Arthur was seen as a much better prison, and would make the convicts better people. But life at Port Arthur was just as hard and brutal as other penal colonies. Some critics might even say that its use of psychological punishment, together with no hope of escape, made it one of the worst. Some stories say that prisoners would murder others to escape the prison. Murder would be punished by death. Isle of the Dead is a small island in the bay near Port Arthur. Everyone who died at the penal colony was buried on the island. There are 1646 graves on the island, but only 180, mainly those of prison staff, have a headstone.

paragraphs: The first railway in Australia was a human powered railway at Port Arthur. The railway was built in 1836. The line ran from the beach at Taranna, Tasmania for 7 kms to Port Arthur. It carried both people and supplies. It meant that ships from Hobart could unload in the calm water and not have to travel right around Cape Raoul to Port Arthur through rough seas. The carriage was pushed along the tracks by 4 convicts. Very little sign of the railway has survived. The State Library of Victoria has a drawing of the convict railway.

paragraphs: When the penal colony closed in 1877 the area was renamed "Carnavon". During the 1880s the was sold and a small town was started. Many buildings were pulled down and the bricks sent to make new buildings in Hobart. Fires burned the area in 1895 and 1897 and ruined many of the old prison buildings. Some buildings were changed for the new town to make a post office and town hall.

paragraphs: Tourism started as soon as the prison closed. This brought money into the new town. Some of the old convicts gave guided tours of the prison. In 1927 tourism had grown so much the area's name was changed back to Port Arthur. 1916 saw the start of the Scenery Preservation Board (SPB) which looked after the Port Arthur site. By the 1970s the National Parks and Wildlife Service took over the site.

paragraphs: In 1979 the government gave money to protect the site as a tourist area, because of its historical importance. The post office and town hall of Port Arthur were moved to nearby Nubeena. Several grand sandstone buildings, built by convicts were cleaned up. These buildings include the Separate Prison, the Round Tower, the church, and the remains of the main prison building. The buildings are surrounded by green grass.

paragraphs: The mass graves on The Island of the Dead also attract visitors. The air about the small bush-covered island is described as being sad and peaceful by visitors.

paragraphs: Tourists can either walk around the area themselves, or go on a guided tours. There are also late night ""ghost tours"". There is a museum, with written records, tools, clothing and other interesting things from convict times.

paragraphs: Since 1987 the site has been managed by the Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority, paid for by the Tasmanian Government.

paragraphs: On 28 April 1996, Martin Bryant killed 35 people and hurt 37 others at Port Arthur. He was captured by the police. This is now called the Port Arthur massacre. This led to a national ban on semi-automatic shotguns and rifles. It also made a link between the Port Arthur and Dunblane, a Scottish town which also had a shooting that year.


title: Odysseus

paragraphs: In Greek mythology, Odysseus was the great grandson of the Greek god Hermes. He was the king of the island Ithaca. He was married to Penelope. Odysseus and Penelope had a son called Telemachos. Odysseus is a major character in Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey".

paragraphs: Odysseus fought in the Trojan War. He invented the Trojan Horse, which helped the Greeks win the war. After the war, his adventurous journey home took 10 years. The story of that journey is told in the "Odyssey". Odysseus angered Poseidon, the god of seas, when he half blinded his cyclops son Polyphemos. In anger, Poseidon stopped him from leaving the island. The Latin name for Odysseus is "Ulysses".

paragraphs: There have been many movies about Odysseus, because of his heroic and intelligent battle strategies.


title: Cast iron

paragraphs: Cast iron is an alloy of iron. The term is usually used for grey cast iron. There are two main types of cast iron: "grey cast iron" and "white cast iron". The differences between the two are mainly based on the amount of silicon in the alloy. All cast iron has about 95% iron in it. Grey cast iron has 3% silicon and 2% carbon. White cast iron has less silicon.

paragraphs: The silicon in grey cast iron causes the carbon to change into graphite. This causes it to have a dark grey or almost black color. With less silicon, the carbon in white cast iron changes to cementite or "iron carbide" (FeC). This causes white fractures to form on the surface and give white cast iron the name.

paragraphs: Grey cast iron is very good at conducting heat. Because of this, it is often used to make cookware.


title: Incest

paragraphs: Incest means sexual intercourse between people who are closely related. Usually, this means members of the same family. In many societies, it is forbidden by law and religion. Which relatives it is forbidden to have sex with depends on the law, religion and culture. If pregnancy is a risk, there may be reasons based on health. Children that result from incest between blood relatives are more likely to have birth defects.

paragraphs: The exact definition of the incest relationship varies. In some societies it is immediate relations, such as parents and their children; or brothers and sisters of the same parents. It sometimes includes extended family like aunts, nephews, nieces and uncles. That way, intercourse between cousins is legally permitted in the large majority of the world, but is disliked in many countries. In some U.S. states, such as Texas, the legal definition of incest includes first cousins, but not second cousins. A person who engages in incest is called an "incestophile" or "incestualist".

paragraphs: Other societies define it much more widely, to include all "blood relatives", or all who live in the same household, or belong to the same clan. Some religions say that sex between people related by marriage is incest. For example, the Old Testament forbids sex between siblings-in-law. In South Africa, sex between a parent-in-law and child-in-law is illegal.

paragraphs: The type of incest most often reported in the Western world is father-daughter incest. Incest between adults and children is a form of child sexual abuse. This form has been shown to cause one of the worst forms of childhood trauma, a trauma that often causes serious and long-term psychological damage, especially in the case of parental incest. Stepparents are more likely to abuse stepchildren than biological parents are to abuse their children, because people typically care about their own children more than they care about their stepchildren the Cinderella effect. It is suggested that the Westermarck effect prevents a person being attracted to anyone whom he lived in the same house as during his childhood, hence most people are never sexually attracted to their siblings or parents.

paragraphs: The term is often used to apply to less serious sexual relationships between related people. It is difficult to say how frequent incest is, but researchers have estimated that between 10% and 15% of people have at least one "incest experience" (this means some kind of sexual relationship falling short of actual incest). Less than 2% of these involve intercourse or attempted intercourse. Among women, research by Russell (1986) and Wyatt (1985) has given estimates as high as twenty percent (for such 'incest experience'). In a survey of women in San Francisco, of those who had grown up with a stepfather, 17% (1 in 6) said that he sexually abused her. In the same study, 2.5% (1 in 40) of the women said that they had been sexually abused by their father. Cousincest refers to incest with a cousin. Siblingcest refers to incest with a sibling.

paragraphs: Incest between consenting adults is very rare, or rarely reported. Willing incest between adults is a crime in most countries. It is seen by some as a victimless crime. A reason why it is prohibited is because severely handicapped children are often born to parents who are blood-related. Other reasons for it being illegal are religion and to try to prevent sexual predation.

paragraphs: Most societies have some form of incest avoidance. The incest taboo is and has been one of the most common of all cultural taboos, both in current nations and many past societies, with legal penalties imposed in some jurisdictions. Most modern societies have legal or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages. However, in some societies, such as that of Ancient Egypt, brother–sister, father–daughter, and mother–son relations were practiced among royalty. In addition, the Balinese and some Inuit tribes have altogether different beliefs about what constitutes illegal and immoral incest.


title: The Canterbury Tales

paragraphs: The Canterbury Tales is a book of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer. It was written in the 14th century. It was one of the first books to be written in Middle English. The book is about a group of pilgrims travelling from London to Canterbury. As they travel along, each person tells a story to pass the time. Chaucer planned to write 120 stories, with each person telling two stories on the way there and two on the way back. However, only 23 were completed, and one was partially finished. Two of the stories are written in prose. The others are written in verse. They were so popular that he was invited to read his stories to the king and royal court.

paragraphs: "The Canterbury Tales" is about a group of people who are pilgrims. They are travelling to an important sacred site. In the Middle Ages, many Christian people went on pilgrimages to Jerusalem, Rome, Santiago de Compostela and Canterbury. Canterbury Cathedral was a famous pilgrimage site because it contained the "shrine" (a place for remembering) of Saint Thomas Becket.

paragraphs: Thomas Becket had been the Archbishop of Canterbury in the 1100s. He had an argument with his old friend, King Henry II, and in 1170 he was murdered by some of the King's knights on order from the King. The King felt very sad and guilty. He had a magnificent tomb built for his old friend.

paragraphs: People began to visit the tomb. Soon, some people said that Thomas Becket was a saint, and that his bones could work miracles. He is regarded as a martyr for the Christian faith and as a saint by both the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. In the late Middle Ages his shrine made Canterbury one of the four most important pilgrimage places in Europe.

paragraphs: Many pilgrims used to meet together in London. "The Canterbury Tales" tells of the meeting of a group at an inn in Southwark, which was a village south of the Thames River and now making up part of London. This was a good place to meet because people from the north could cross the Thames River by London Bridge.

paragraphs: Canterbury is in the south-east of England. Pilgrims used to gather in groups because it was dangerous to travel alone. In the days before modern banking, every traveller had to carry a lot of money to pay for food and accommodation (a place to sleep). Robbers often attacked people along the roads.

paragraphs: When pilgrims gathered in a group, the group could be made up of many different kinds of people, both rich and poor, noble and humble. The groups often contained a number of religious people such as priests, monks and nuns. In Chaucer's story, the most noble person is a knight.

paragraphs: "The Canterbury Tales" begins with a Prologue (which means "a few words to begin"). In the prologue Chaucer describes the time of year, which is April, when the weather begins to get warmer after winter. He says that it is at this time that people begin to go on pilgrimage. Chaucer tells the reader about the people who are gathered at the inn. He describes the people so clearly that many of them have become famous characters in English Literature, and have often been shown in paintings. Chaucer describes how each person tells a story to entertain the other as they travel along.

paragraphs: Some of the tales (stories) are serious and others are funny. Some of the funny stories are vulgar (sexually rude). A lot of the tales talk about the Christian faith. Sometimes the "theme" (main idea) of one story is followed into the next story, as a new story-teller responds (or answers) to a story they have just heard. All of the tales are about the way that people think and behave towards each other.

paragraphs: "The Canterbury Tales" is written in the type of English that most ordinary people used in Chaucer's day. Chaucer was one of the first authors (writers) who wrote stories in English. Before, stories were written in Latin or French. Some other writers of Chaucer's time also wrote in English. Some of these writers were John Gower, William Langland, and the Pearl Poet.

paragraphs: Chaucer planned the stories before he wrote them but he did not finish his plan. He planned that each character would tell four stories: two while going to Canterbury and two while returning to London. If Chaucer had finished, he would have written 120 stories. He only actually wrote 24. Chaucer began to write the stories in the 1380s. He stopped writing them in the 1390s. Some think that he deliberately did not write the total 120 stories.

paragraphs: Chaucer was an important person in the royal court. Some people think that, in the stories, Chaucer was saying things about court politics. Some people think that Chaucer based his characters on people that he really knew and who were at the royal court.

paragraphs: Some people think that Chaucer copied ideas from others peoples’ writings because some of the stories in "The Canterbury Tales" are very similar to them. The characters, however, are very different. The characters have different occupations and personalities. They all tell different types of stories and they tell them in different ways.The big story is about many pilgrims traveling to Canterbury. They are riding horses and the trip takes several days. Chaucer does not say much about the big story and most of the writing is about the stories told by the pilgrims.

paragraphs: The two earliest manuscripts (hand-written copies) of "The Canterbury Tales" are the Hengwrt manuscript and the Ellesmere manuscript. There are also 84 manuscript and four printed copies of "The Canterbury Tales" that were made before 1500. There are quite a lot of differences in the different copies. Some experts on Chaucer have started The "Canterbury Tales Project". The project is to read all these copies of "The Canterbury Tales", find out the differences and write the most accurate copy.

paragraphs: With the exception of the Innkeeper/host Harry Bailey, the various manuscripts of The Canterbury Tales had various drawings of each of the Pilgrims who told a tale; other Pilgrims mentioned who did not tell a tale or who were illustrated were the knight's yeoman, a haberdasher, a carpenter, a weaver, a dyer, a tapestry weaver; a plowman. The original intenent was that each pilgrim was to tell two tales to Canterbury and two on the way back for a free meal; that would have been an estimated 120 tales-instead of the 23 in the book. Indeed, the only Pilgrim who tells two tales is Chaucer himself: Sir Thopas [unfinished] and Tale of Melibee.

paragraphs: North Reading Room, west wall. Detail of mural by Ezra Winter illustrating the characters in the Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. Library of Congress John Adams Building, Washington, D.C


title: Sweat

paragraphs: Sweat, or perspiration, is a liquid made by the skin when the body is hot. Sweat is made in sweat glands under the surface of the skin. It comes out of tiny holes in the skin called pores. Sweat is mostly water, but it also contains some salts.

paragraphs: The body makes sweat to cool itself down. It is part of the body's thermoregulation. The sweat takes the heat from the body when it evaporates (turns to gas).

paragraphs: Some people think sweat makes a person smell bad. Many people use special sprays to stop this from happening. Deodorants hide the odor of sweat. Anti-perspirants stop the body from sweating.

paragraphs: The sweat glands in our skin contains two different groups of sweat glands: apocrine sweat glands and merocrine sweat glands.

paragraphs: Perspiration, or sweat, is your body's way of cooling itself, whether that extra heat comes from hardworking muscles or from overstimulated nerves. The average person has over 4 million sweat glands in their skin. Sweat glands are distributed over the entire body, except for the lips, nipples and external genital organs. The sweat gland is in the layer of skin called the dermis along with other "equipment," such as nerve endings, hair follicles and so on.

paragraphs: The sweat gland is a long, coiled, hollow tube of cells. The coiled part in the dermis is where sweat is made, and the long part is a duct that connects the gland to the opening or pore on the skins's outer surface. Nerve cells from the sympathetic nervous system are connected to the sweat glands. There are two types of sweat glands:

paragraphs: We are constantly sweating, even though we may not notice it. Sweating is your body's major way of getting rid of excess body heat, which is produced by metabolism or working muscles. The amount of sweat produced depends upon our states of emotion and physical activity. Sweat can be made in response to nerve stimulation, hot air temperature, and/or exercise. First, let's concentrate on how sweat is made in an eccrine sweat gland.

paragraphs: When the sweat gland is stimulated, the cells secrete a fluid (primary secretion) that is similar to plasma -- that is, it is mostly water and it has high concentrations of sodium and chloride and a low concentration of potassium -- but without the proteins and fatty acids that are normally found in plasma. The source of this fluid is the spaces between the cells (interstitial spaces), which get the fluid from the blood vessels (capillaries) in the dermis. This fluid travels from the coiled portion up through the straight duct. What happens in the straight duct depends upon the rate of sweat production or flow:

paragraphs: Sweat is produced in apocrine sweat glands in the same way. However, the sweat from apocrine glands also contains proteins and fatty acids, which make it thicker and give it a milkier or yellowish color. This is why underarm stains in clothing appear yellowish. Sweat itself has no odor, but when bacteria on the skin and hair metabolize the proteins and fatty acids, they produce an unpleasant odor. This is why deodorants and anti-perspirants are applied to the underarms instead of the whole body.

paragraphs: The maximum volume of sweat that a person who is not adapted to a hot climate can produce is about one liter per hour. Amazingly, if you move to a hot climate such as the American desert southwest or the tropics, your ability to produce sweat will increase to about two to three liters per hour within about six weeks! This appears to be the maximum amount that you can produce.

paragraphs: When sweat evaporates from the surface of your skin, it removes excess heat and cools you. This is actually due to a neat principle in physics, which goes like this. To convert water from a liquid to a vapor, it takes a certain amount of heat called the heat of vaporization. This heat energy increases the speed of the water molecules so that they can escape into the air. For water, this value is 540 calories/gram or 2.26 x 106 joules/kilogram. So, if you can produce one liter of sweat, which is equal to 1000 g or 1 kg (density of water is 1 g/ml or 1 kg/l) in one hour, then 540,000 calories of heat can be removed from your body. This is an extreme example using the maximum amount of sweat that a person can make. Typically, all of the sweat does not evaporate, but rather runs off your skin. In addition, not all heat energy produced by the body is lost through sweat. Some is directly radiated from the skin to the air and some is lost through respiratory surfaces of the lungs.

paragraphs: A major factor that influences the rate of evaporation is the relative humidity of the air around you. If the air is humid, then it already has water vapor in it, probably near saturation, and cannot take any more. Therefore, sweat does not evaporate and cool your body as efficiently as when the air is dry.

paragraphs: Finally, when the water in the sweat evaporates, it leaves the salts (sodium, chloride and potassium) behind on your skin, which is why your skin tastes salty. The loss of excessive amounts of salt and water from your body can quickly dehydrate you, which can lead to circulatory problems, kidney failure and heat stroke. So, it is important to drink plenty of fluids when you exercise or are outside in high temperatures. Sports drinks contain some salts to replace those lost in the sweat.

paragraphs: Sweating responds to emotional state. So when you are nervous, anxious or afraid, there is an increase in sympathetic nerve activity in your body as well as an increase in epinephrine secretion from your adrenal gland. These substances act on your sweat glands, particularly those on the palms of your hand and your armpits, to make sweat. Thus, you feel a "cold" sweat. Also, the increased sympathetic nerve activity in the skin changes its electrical resistance, which is the basis of the galvanic skin response used in lie detector tests.

paragraphs: Excessive sweating usually occurs on the palms of the hand or the armpits. If it is not caused by emotional or physical activity it is called "diaphoresis" or hyperhidrosis. It is often an embarrassing condition. The cause or causes are unknown. The condition may be due to the following:


title: Adult Swim

paragraphs: Adult Swim (also called [adult swim]) is the late-night counterpart to Cartoon Network. It began on September 2, 2001 and was created by Williams Street Studios. On March 28, 2005, Nielsen Media Research shows that Adult Swim is now separate from Cartoon Network (like Nickelodeon's Nick at Nite). Adult Swim is part of Turner Broadcasting System. It is known for showing mature, adult anime, or Japanese-style animation.


title: WESC

paragraphs: WESC is a Swedish company. The company makes clothing, like jeans and shirts. Many people like these clothes, and they can buy them in many countries, for example in the United States, Japan and Germany. Because some famous people use the clothes, other people want to buy them too.


title: Ozámiz

paragraphs: Ozámiz is a city in the Philippines, in the province of Misamis Occidental. There were 141,828 people living there according to the 2015 census.

paragraphs: Ozámiz is named after Senator José F. Ozámiz, a hero of the Philippine resistance against the Japanese during World War 2.


title: Tillage

paragraphs: Tillage is the process in which soil is loosened and softened by tillers or harrows pulled by a tractor or by a plough pulled by an animal or human. The plough breaks the upper crust of the soil so that air and sunlight enter into the soil. This makes the soil more fertile but too much or frequent tillage may make it less fertile.


title: Yarmouth

paragraphs: Yarmouth could mean one of the following places.


title: Yarmouth, Nova Scotia

paragraphs: Yarmouth is a town in the province of Nova Scotia in the country of Canada. In 2011, the population of Yarmouth was 6,761.


title: Spleen

paragraphs: The spleen is an organ in vertebrates. The spleen is part of the lymphatic system. In people, it is on the left side of the body, under the heart. The spleen helps fight infections and keeps the blood cells healthy.

paragraphs: The spleen cleans out old blood cells from the blood and recycles them. It helps save the iron and the amino acids from the old blood cells. The spleen also holds a supply of extra blood, in case the body needs some quickly. The spleen works together with the circulatory system (the system which brings blood to the body).

paragraphs: A study published in 2009 using mice found that the spleen is a reservoir which holds over half the body's monocytes. These monocytes move to injured tissue (such as the heart after myocardial infarction), turn into dendritic cells and macrophages, and promote tissue healing. The spleen is rather like a large lymph node. Its absence makes certain infections more likely.

paragraphs: The spleen is shaped like a loose fist. It is tucked under the left side of the diaphragm, close by the heart.The average adult spleen weighs 0.44 lbs.

paragraphs: The spleen can get bigger when a person is digesting food or is sick. If a person's spleen gets big enough, it can break open. If this happens, the person needs medical care right away. Emergency surgery might be needed to control the bleeding.

paragraphs: Some of the diseases that cause the spleen to get bigger are:

paragraphs: In the past, many people believed the spleen helped control emotions. For example, if a person was upset or angry, people would think it was because of a spleen problem.


title: Placenta

paragraphs: The placenta is a temporary organ found in eutherian female mammals while they are pregnant.

paragraphs: The placenta is connected to the fetus by the umbilical cord, which is made of blood vessels and connective tissue. When the fetus is delivered, the placenta is delivered afterwards. The placenta is often called the afterbirth.

paragraphs: One of the placenta's jobs is to make sure blood from the mother and fetus never mixes. The placenta acts as an exchange surface between the mother and the fetus. Nutrients and oxygen are passed over by diffusion only. If the mother's and fetus's blood mixed, it could be deadly for both of them. If the mother and the fetus had different blood types, they might both die if their blood mixed.

paragraphs: The placenta has two parts, one of which is genetically and biologically part of the fetus, the other part of the mother. It is implanted in the wall of the uterus, where it receives nutrients and oxygen from the mother's blood and passes out waste. This forms a barrier called the placental barrier, which filters out some substances which could harm the fetus.

paragraphs: However, the placental barrier is not able to protect the fetus from everything that could hurt it. For example, alcohol goes through the placental barrier into the fetus. This is why drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. The placenta is also unable to filter out many other things. Chemicals that can cross the placental barrier and hurt the fetus are called teratogens.

paragraphs: Some infectious diseases may also cross this barrier and infect the fetus.

paragraphs: Prototherial (egg-laying) and metatherial (marsupial) mammals produce a type of placenta that provides nutrients mostly from the egg sac, instead of from the mother's blood. It is positioned in the female's body similar to eutherian mammals. Some snakes and lizards have evolved a system of internal development with a placenta-like tissue: this is an example of convergent evolution.


title: Glorious Revolution

paragraphs: The Glorious Revolution was an event in the history of England and Scotland in 1688. The people of England and Scotland did not like the Catholic King James II because he would not let them vote or practice the religion of their choice. They invited the Protestant William III of Orange-Nassau to take over as king. William was King James II's nephew and Mary's first cousin. He came to England with his wife Queen Mary, the daughter of King James II. They let the old king escape, and he moved to France out of fear.

paragraphs: William signed the "Bill of Rights" and became king, and England became a constitutional monarchy.

paragraphs: On the surface, this is a story about religion. However, it is also about the balance between monarch and Parliament. A civil war had been fought because Charles I tried to rule as an absolute monarch. Charles II had been accepted back because he agreed to limit his powers. However, his brother, James II, made it clear he wanted to get back the absolute power that their father Charles I had.

paragraphs: When Charles II died without any legitimate children in 1685, his brother the Duke of York became King as James II in England and Ireland. He also became James VII in Scotland. He tried to give freedom of religion to non-Anglicans. He did this by making the acts of Parliament invalid by Royal Decree. The public did not like this. Several Protestant politicians and noblemen began talking with Mary's husband as early as 1687. In May 1688, James forced Anglican clergymen to read the Declaration of Indulgence. The Declaration of Indulgence was a statement that gave religious freedom to those who did not agree with the Church of England. This made him much less popular.

paragraphs: Protestants became even more fearful when James's wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son–James Francis Edward–in June 1688. They were afraid because the son, unlike Mary and Anne, would be raised a Roman Catholic. Some said that the boy had been secretly carried into the Queen's room in a bed-warming pan instead of her stillborn baby. There was no strong proof to support this story, but Mary publicly doubted the boy's legitimacy. She sent a list of suspicious questions to her sister, Anne, about the boy's birth.

paragraphs: On 30 June, the Immortal Seven secretly asked William, who was in the Netherlands with Mary, to come to England with an army. William, who was jealous of Mary's position and power, did not want to go at first. But Mary told William that she did not care about political power. She said "she would be no more but his wife, and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him King for life".

paragraphs: William agreed to attack. He declared that James' newborn son was the "pretended Prince of Wales". He also gave a list of what the English people wanted, and said that he only wanted to have "a free and lawful Parliament assembled". The Dutch army, which had been turned back by a storm in October, landed on 5 November. The English Army and Navy went over to William. At this time, the English people's confidence in James was very low. They did not even try to save their King. On 11 December, the King tried to run away, but failed. He tried to run away again on 23 December. This second attempt was successful, and James escaped to France. He lived there in exile until his death.

paragraphs: Though Mary was sad because of the deposition of her father, William ordered her to look happy when they arrived in London. Because of this, people thought she was being cold to her father. James also thought his daughter was unfaithful to him. This hurt Mary deeply.

paragraphs: In 1689, a Convention Parliament called by the Prince of Orange came together to discuss what they should do. William of Orange felt uncomfortable about his position. He wanted to rule as a King, not simply as a husband of a Queen. The only example of joint monarchy was from the sixteenth century. This was Queen Mary I and the Spanish Prince Philip. When they married, it was agreed that Prince Philip would take the title of King. But Philip II was King only during his wife's lifetime. He also did not have much power. William wanted to remain King even after his wife's death. Some important people suggested making Mary the only ruler. But Mary, who was faithful to her husband, refused.

paragraphs: On 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Declaration of Right. In this declaration, it said that James, by trying to run away on 11 December 1688, had abandoned the government, so no one at the time was king. Normally, James's oldest son, James Francis Edward would have been the heir. However, Parliament offered the crown to William and Mary as joint Sovereigns instead. But it was added that "The sole and full exercise of the regal (royal) power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives." The declaration was later extended to take out all Catholics. This was because "It hath been found (discovered) by experience that it is inconsistent (not in harmony) with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince".

paragraphs: William and Mary were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689. The Archbishop of Canterbury usually performed coronations. But William Sancroft, the Archbishop at that time, felt that James II's removal had been wrong. Therefore, the Bishop of London, Henry Compton, crowned them instead. On the day of the Coronation, the Convention of the Estates of Scotland declared at last that James was no longer King of Scotland. William and Mary were offered the separate Scottish Crown. This was because the two kingdoms were not united until the Acts of Union in 1707. They accepted on 11 May.

paragraphs: Even after this was declared, there was still strong support for James in Scotland. John Graham of Clevehouse, the Viscount of Dundee, raised an army and won a victory at Killiecrankie on 27 July. But Dundee's army suffered great losses, and he was seriously wounded at the start of the battle. This stopped the only effective resistance to William, and the revolt was quickly crushed. The next month, there was a great defeat at the Battle of Dunkeld.


title: Electromagnetism

paragraphs: Electromagnetism is the study of the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. The electromagnetic force pushes or pulls anything that has an electric charge, like electrons and protons. It includes the electric force, which pushes all charged particles, and the magnetic force, which only pushes moving charges.

paragraphs: The electromagnetic force comes from something called an electromagnetic field. In physics, a field is how we keep track of things that might change in space and time. It is like a set of labels for every point in space. For instance, the air temperature in a room could be described by a field, where the labels are just numbers saying how hot it is at that point in the room. We could have more complicated labels as well. On a map of wind speeds, the label could be a number saying how strong the wind is and also an arrow saying which way it is blowing. We call this a vector field because each label is a vector - it has a direction (the arrow) and a magnitude (its strength).

paragraphs: Electric and magnetic fields are also fields. Instead of keeping track of temperature or wind speed, they tell us how much push or pull a charged particle will feel at that point in space, and which direction it will be pushed. Like wind speeds, electric fields are also vector fields, so they can be drawn as arrows. The arrows point which way a positive particle, like a proton, will be pushed if it is in the field. Negative particles, like electrons, will go in the opposite direction as the arrows. In an electric field, arrows will point away from positive particles and towards negative ones. So a proton in an electric field would move away from another proton, or towards an electron. Similar charges repel (push away from each other), while opposite charges attract (are pulled together).

paragraphs: Magnetic fields are a little different. They only push on moving charges, and they push more on charges that are moving faster. But they do not push at all on charges that are sitting still. However, a changing magnetic field can produce an electric field, and an electric field can push on any charges. This idea, called electromagnetic induction, is used to make electric generators, induction motors, and transformers work. Together, electric and magnetic fields make up the electromagnetic field.

paragraphs: Before 1800, people thought that electricity and magnetism were two different things. However, this changed during the 19th century when scientists like Hans Christian Ørsted and Michael Faraday proved that electricity and magnetism are actually connected. In 1820, Ørsted found that when he turned the electric current from a battery on and off, it moved the needle on a nearby compass. When he studied this effect more carefully, he discovered that the electric current was producing a magnetic field. That is, when electric charges are moving, they can produce a force that pushes on magnets. Ørsted had found one of the first connections between electricity and magnetism.

paragraphs: Faraday continued studying this connection, running tests with loops of wire and magnets. He found that if he set up two loops of wire and ran electricity through just one of them, he could (for a little while) produce an electric current in the other loop as well. Faraday also discovered that he could produce a current by moving a magnet through a loop of wire, or by moving the wire over a magnet. What Faraday had shown was that magnets could push back on moving electric charges, and that moving magnets could push on charges sitting still. This was like what Ørsted had found, but in reverse.

paragraphs: in 1873, James Clerk Maxwell summed up these connections in his theory of "classical electromagnetism," electricity and magnetism together. This theory was based on a set of four equations called Maxwell's equations, and the Lorentz force law. Maxwell's equations told us how to relate electricity and magnetism. They said that charges sitting still could push on other charges, but moving charges could produce magnetic fields that push on magnets. On the other hand, magnets sitting still can only push on moving charges, but moving magnets can push on any electric charges.

paragraphs: What's more, Maxwell's studies showed that light could be described as a ripple in the electromagnetic field. That is, light moves like a wave. However, Maxwell's work did not agree with classical mechanics, the description of forces and motion originally developed by Newton. Maxwell's equations predicted that light always moves through empty space at the same speed. This was a problem because in classical mechanics, velocities are "additive"-- if a person A on a train moving at speed X throws a ball with speed Y, then a person B on the ground sees the ball moving with speed X+Y. According to Maxwell, if person A turns on a flashlight, they will see the light moving away from them at speed "c". But person B on the ground must also see the light moving at speed "c", not "c"+X. This led to the development of the theory of special relativity by Einstein, which explained how the speed of light could be the same for everyone, and why classical mechanics does not work for things moving very fast.

paragraphs: Albert Einstein's work with the photoelectric effect and Max Planck's work with blackbody radiation did not work with the traditional view of light as a continuous wave. This problem would be solved after the development of quantum mechanics in 1925. This development led to the development of quantum electrodynamics which was developed by Richard Feynman and Julian Schwinger. Quantum electrodynamics was able to describe the interactions particles in detail.

paragraphs: Electromagnetic radiation is thought to be both a particle and a wave. This is because it sometimes acts like a particle and sometimes acts like a wave. To make things easier we can think of an electromagnetic wave as a stream of photons (symbol γ).

paragraphs: A photon is an elementary particle, meaning that it cannot be broken down into smaller particles. It is the particle that light is made up of. Photons also make up all other types of electromagnetic radiation such as gamma rays, X-rays, and UV rays. The idea of photons was thought up by Einstein. Using his theory for the photoelectric effect, Einstein said that light existed in small "packets" or parcels which he called photons.

paragraphs: Photons have energy and momentum. When two charged objects push or pull on each other, they send photons back and forth. So photons carry the electromagnetic force between charged objects. Photons are also known as messenger particles in physics because these particles often carry messages between objects. Photons send messages saying "come closer" or "go away" depending on the charges of the objects that are being looked at. If a force exists while time passes, then photons are being exchanged during that time.

paragraphs: Fundamental electromagnetic interactions occur between any two particles that have an electric charge. These interactions involve the exchange or production of photons. Thus, photons are the carrier particles of electromagnetic interactions.

paragraphs: Electromagnetic decay processes can often be recognized by the fact that they produce one or more photons (also known as gamma rays). They proceed less rapidly than strong decay processes with comparable mass differences, but more rapidly than comparable weak decays.


title: Acton, Massachusetts

paragraphs: Acton is a town in the U.S. state of Massachusetts. It is 21 miles away from Boston.


title: Urbana, Illinois

paragraphs: Urbana is a city in the U.S. state of Illinois. It is the twin city of Champaign, Illinois and is separated by a single street. The main campus of the University of Illinois is in Urbana and Champaign. As of 2019, it has population of 42,214.


title: Bill Oddie

paragraphs: William Edgar (Bill) Oddie OBE (born 7 July 1941) is a British comedian, actor, writer and television personality.

paragraphs: Oddie was born in Rochdale, Lancashire and grew up in Birmingham. He read English Literature at Pembroke College, Cambridge where he gained an MA. He is most famous for his birdwatching and conservation work. In the 1970s, he was a member of the BBC One television comedy series, The Goodies. Doctors found that his mother, Lilian, had schizophrenia. Oddie says that he does not remember her living at home because she spent a lot of her life in mental hospitals.


title: Montgomery Ward

paragraphs: Montgomery Ward was an American department store chain.

paragraphs: It started as a mail-order catalog (called a "Wish Book") and department store in 1872. It owned Jefferson Ward discount stores. Jefferson Ward stores in the northern US were sold to Bradlees in 1985. The rest closed in 1988. All its stores closed in 2000. In 2004, it reopened as an online store.

paragraphs: Montgomery Ward was founded by Aaron Montgomery Ward, a Chicago entrepreneur.


title: Toe

paragraphs: Toes are the "digits" of the foot of an animal. Many animal species walk on their toes, and are called "digitigrade". Humans, and other animals that walk on the soles of their feet, are "plantigrade"; hoofed animals are "unguligrade".

paragraphs: In humans, the bones of each toe continue all the way to the heel, although in from the base of the toes they come together in the body of the foot. The inside toe is by far the thickest, and is called the "big toe", "great toe", or "hallux".

paragraphs: The one on the other end is short and thin. The toes, especially the big toe, play an essential role in walking, although a loss of the smallest toe will not affect the way people move.


title: AFC Champions League

paragraphs: The AFC Champions League is a football competition between the best club teams in Asia. The teams are selected because of good performances in matches. South Korea is the country that has the most titles for a team. Pohang Steelers got the most titles.