title: Nucleophile

paragraphs: A nucleophile is a species that donates an electron-pair to an electrophile to form a chemical bond in a reaction. All molecules or ions with a free pair of electrons can be nucleophiles. This pair of electrons is called lone pair. Because nucleophiles donate electrons, they fit the definition of Lewis bases.

paragraphs: Nucleophilic describes the attraction of a nucleophile to the nuclei. Nucleophilicity, sometimes referred to as nucleophile strength, refers to a substance's nucleophilic character and is often used to compare the attraction of atoms.

paragraphs: Neutral nucleophilic reactions with solvents such as alcohols and water are called "solvolysis". Nucleophiles may take part in nucleophilic substitution reactions. In those reactions, a nucleophile becomes attracted to a full or partial positive charge.

paragraphs: The terms "nucleophile" and "electrophile" were introduced by Christopher Kelk Ingold in 1929, replacing the terms "cationoid" and "anionoid" proposed earlier by A. J. Lapworth in 1925.

paragraphs: The word nucleophile is derived from nucleus and the Greek word φιλος, philos for love.

paragraphs: In general, within a row across the periodic table, the more basic the ion (the higher the pK of the conjugate acid) the more reactive it is as a nucleophile. In a given group, polarizability is more important in the determination of the nucleophilicity. In other words, the easier it is to distort the electron cloud around an atom or molecule, the more readily it will react. For example, the iodide ion (I) is more nucleophilic than the fluoride ion (F).

paragraphs: Examples of nucleophiles are anions such as Cl, or a compound with a lone pair of electrons such as NH (ammonia).

paragraphs: In the example below, the oxygen of the hydroxide ion donates an electron pair to bond with the carbon at the end of the bromopropane molecule. The bond between the carbon and the bromine then undergoes heterolytic fission, with the bromine atom taking the donated electron and becoming the bromide ion (Br). This is a S2 reaction occurs by backside attack. This means that the hydroxide ion attacks the carbon atom from the other side, exactly opposite the bromine ion. Because of this backside attack, S2 reactions result in a reversal of the configuration of the electrophile. If the electrophile is chiral, it typically keeps its chirality, though the S2 product's configuration is flipped as compared to that of the original electrophile (Walden inversion).

paragraphs: An ambident nucleophile is one that can attack from two or more places, resulting in two or more products. For example, the thiocyanate ion (SCN) may attack from either the S or the N. For this reason, the S2 reaction of an alkyl halide with SCN often leads to a mixture of RSCN (an alkyl thiocyanate) and RNCS (an alkyl isothiocyanate). Similar mixtures will happen in the Kolbe nitrile synthesis.

paragraphs: Alkyl metal halides are carbon nucleophiles found in the Grignard reaction, Blaise reaction, Reformatsky reaction, and Barbier reaction, organolithium reagents, and anions of a terminal alkyne.

paragraphs: Enols are also carbon nucleophiles. The formation of an enol is catalyzed by acid or base. Enols are ambident nucleophiles, but, in general, nucleophilic at the carbon atom next to the carbons with double bond (alpha carbon atom).

paragraphs: Enols are commonly used in condensation reactions, including the Claisen condensation and the aldol condensation reactions.

paragraphs: Examples of oxygen nucleophiles are water (HO), hydroxide anion, alcohols, alkoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide, and carboxylate anions.

paragraphs: Of sulfur nucleophiles, hydrogen sulfide and its salts, thiols (RSH), thiolate anions (RS), anions of thiolcarboxylic acids (RC(O)-S), and anions of dithiocarbonates (RO-C(S)-S) and dithiocarbamates (RN-C(S)-S) are used most often.

paragraphs: In general, sulfur is very nucleophilic because of its large size, which makes it readily polarizable, and its lone pairs of electrons are readily accessible.

paragraphs: Nitrogen nucleophiles include ammonia, azide, amines, and nitrites.


title: Taishō period

paragraphs: The , also known as the Taishō era, was a after "Meiji" and before "Shōwa." This period started on July 30, 1912 and ended on December 25, 1926. During this time, the emperor was .

paragraphs: The "nengō" "Taishō" means "Great Justice" or "Great Righteousness".

paragraphs: The years in which Taishō was the Japanese monarch comprise this period or era.


title: Lanarkshire derby

paragraphs: The Lanarkshire Derby is a football rivalry in Lanarkshire, Scotland, and matches are played between two of Motherwell, Hamilton Academical, Airdrie United and Albion Rovers.

paragraphs: This game is the biggest Lanarkshire derby, and big crowds usually come to watch this match, at either Fir Park or Excelsior Stadium. For a very long time, Motherwell and Airdrieonians were the two biggest teams in Lanarkshire, up until Airdrie went out of business in 2002. There has only been one game between these two teams since Airdrie re-formed as Airdrie United, in the 2007 Scottish Cup. A Richie Foran goal won it for Motherwell that day, in front of a crowd of 5,924, the highest ever for an Airdrie United match. Also, this match had often been the final of the Lanarkshire Cup, a competition where teams from all-over Lanarkshire played in. This competition stopped in 1996.

paragraphs: This game is the second-biggest Lanarkshire derby, and the most Southern of all the derbies. Up until 2008, both teams were mostly in different divisions. Then Hamilton got promoted to the SPL and both teams were to play each other a lot. This ended when Hamilton got relegated in 2011, meaning that Motherwell are now the only SPL team in Lanarkshire.

paragraphs: This game is between the two middle-rated teams in Lanarkshire, and is not as big as when one of the teams play Motherwell. Both teams have usually been in a league lower than the SPL, so this is not thought to be a big derby.

paragraphs: This game is big for both teams, as they were both in the Monklands area, until Airdrie moved to a new stadium in the Petersburn area in 1998. The first match between Albion and Airdrie (as United), was in 2010, when Airdrie beat Albion Rovers 1-0 at Cliftonhill. Since that game, both teams are in the same division in the 2011-12 season.

paragraphs: This is not a big derby match, as both teams have been in different divisions for most of their existence. They were in the same league in 2001, but have not met each other since, making this derby the smallest. Coatbridge and Hamilton are 6 miles apart.

paragraphs: This is the least remembered of the derbies, as Albion have been in the lower divisions for most of their existence, whilst Motherwell have been in the top division. There is also no bad feeling between the two, as a few young Motherwell players have gone out on loan to Albion Rovers over the years.


title: Camposaurus

paragraphs: Camposaurus is a dinosaur from the Late Triassic of North America. It is a relative of "Coelophysis". This relationship was upheld by a recent phylogenetic anlysis.

paragraphs: With fossils dating back to 205–210 million years ago (mya), it is the oldest known neotheropod. It is known from partial lower leg bones and other fragmentary material.

paragraphs: A study of "Camposaurus arizoniensis" by Ezcurra and Brusatte discovered two unique features. This meant the specimen was a valid genus and species. "Camposaurus" is definitely a neotheropod. Based on phylogenetic analysis, its closest known relative is "Megapnosaurus rhodensis", because they share similarities in the tibia, and ankle. Spielman et al. (2007) put "Camposaurus" in the family Coelophysidae.


title: Staurikosaurus

paragraphs: Staurikosaurus is a genus of Upper Triassic theropod dinosaurs found in Brazil. It was a small, lightly built carnivore.

paragraphs: The rarity of "Staurikosaurus" remains may be a result of it being uncommon while alive, or because it lived in an environment such as a forest, where fossils rarely form.

paragraphs: At just , 80 centimetres tall (31 in), and weighing just 30 kilograms (66 lb), "Staurikosaurus" was tiny in comparison to later theropods like "Megalosaurus". "Staurikosaurus" and the related "Herrerasaurus" are definitely theropods and evolved after the sauropod line had split from the theropods.

paragraphs: The fossil record of "Staurikosaurus" is poor, but the skeletal structure of the legs is known. "Staurikosaurus" was a quick runner for its size. It also had just two vertebrae joining the pelvis to the spine, a distinctly primitive arrangement.

paragraphs: The available teeth for Staurikosaurus strongly suggest a carnivorous diet.

paragraphs: The tail of "Staurikosaurus" was relatively long (with more than 40 vertebrae) compared to the rest of its body and was held straight and off the ground as it ran. The rear part of "Staurikosauruss tail is stiffened by features of the tail vertebrae. Ostrom thought this was a dynamic stabilizer to help balance while leaping and running.


title: Ostend manifesto

paragraphs: The Ostend Manifesto was an 1854 document describing the reasons for the United States to buy Cuba. Cuba was to be added as a slave state of the United States.


paragraphs: Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was an early British computer. It was made by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England. EDSAC was the first stored-program electronic computer. It was also the first to run a computer game.

paragraphs: Later the project was supported by J. Lyons & Co. Ltd., a British company. They were rewarded with the first commercial computer, LEO I. LEO I was based on the EDSAC design. EDSAC ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculated a table of square numbers and a list of prime numbers.


title: Voting age

paragraphs: Voting age is the age when a person is allowed to vote in political elections by governments. The majority of countries set it at 18, but ages ranging from 16 to 21 exist. Iran is the only sovereignty to ever have a voting age below 16 in recent history, setting it at 15 until it was raised to 18 recently. When the voting age was first established it was usually set at 21, but in the latter half of the twentieth century most countries, including the United States, lowered it to 18. A few jurisdictions today, such as Austria and the Isle of Man, have lowered it to 16.


title: Shrek the Halls

paragraphs: Shrek the Halls is a television Christmas special. It was first shown on the American television network ABC on Wednesday, November 28, 2007. The special is based on the characters from the "Shrek" movies. It is thirty minutes long. The cast includes Mike Myers, Eddie Murphy, Cameron Diaz and Antonio Banderas. The television special was released on iTunes on November 2, 2008. It was shown again on December 9, 2009, December 4, 2010, December 9, 2010, and November 28, 2011 on ABC.

paragraphs: The special is set shortly after the events of "Shrek the Third" and before the events of "Shrek Forever After". It takes place when Shrek and Fiona's children are still infants.

paragraphs: Shrek (Mike Myers) is quietly living in the swamp with his family when the Christmas season arrives. Donkey (Eddie Murphy) convinces Shrek to tell Princess Fiona (Cameron Diaz) to expect a special Christmas surprise. Shrek goes to the local bookstore in Far, Far Away to try to find a present for Fiona. Because he does not know what Christmas is all about, the shopkeeper (Marissa Jaret Winokur) gives Shrek a copy of the book "Christmas For Village Idiots". It is a step-by-step guide to celebrating the holiday.

paragraphs: Shrek does what the book say to do by decorating the house and getting a tree. He plans to have a quiet Christmas Eve with his family. Donkey brings the entire "family" to the swamp. This ruins Shrek's plans.

paragraphs: Shrek tries to tell his own version of "A Visit from St. Nicholas (The Night Before Christmas)". Gingy, Donkey, and Puss in Boots (Antonio Banderas) interrupt and each tell their own version of a Christmas story. Donkey tells of floats coming to the swamp. At the end, Donkey tells of licking a very large Santa figure that is made out of waffles. Puss tells his version of the story of Santa Claus. He ends up playing with the with one of the baubles from the Christmas tree. Gingy's story is not happy. It is very scary. He tells about how his girlfriend Suzy got eaten by Santa Claus.

paragraphs: DOnkey finds Shrek's "Christmas for Village Idiots" book. In a fight over the book, all of Shrek's decorations, furniture and the tree are destroyed. Shrek gets angry and tells everyone to leave the house.

paragraphs: In a bad mood, Fiona and Shrek have a talk. After they talk, she takes the children and leaves the swamp to go and apologize to their friends. Shrek feels very bad that Christmas Eve did not go as he hoped it would.

paragraphs: Fiona finds their friends and explains to Donkey what Shrek had wanted for Christmas. Shrek joins them and tells them he is sorry for getting mad. Donkey is surprised to learn that this is Shrek's first Christmas, because "ogres don't celebrate anything." Donkey says he is sorry for being annoying. He says that Christmas never goes as planned and according to his mother, "'Christmas ain't Christmas until somebody cries', and that's usually me."

paragraphs: After a snowball fight, the friends return to the swamp. Shrek tells his story. It is about Ogre Claus, not Santa Claus. Soon they hear bells. They go outside to see Santa and his reindeer. Gingy runs back inside screaming in fear.

paragraphs: "Shrek the Halls" was produced by DreamWorks Animation at the PDI/DreamWorks studio. Gary Trousdale directed the special at first, but he was later replaced by Mark Baldo. The movie was produced by Teresa Cheng, Gina Shay and Aron Warner. The screenplay was written by Bill Riling, Theresa Cullen, Gary Trousdale and Sean Bishop.

paragraphs: "Shrek the Halls" was released on DVD in the United States on November 4, 2008. It was first sold by itself, or combined with "Shrek the Third".


title: Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas

paragraphs: Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas is a television Christmas special that was first shown on the American television network ABC on Thursday, November 24, 2011. It is based on characters from the movie "Ice Age". The entire cast from the movies all play the same characters; Ciara Bravo is the voice of Peaches, who is now a young kid. There are new characters voiced by Billy Gardell, T. J. Miller, and Judah Friedlander.

paragraphs: In the middle of decorating for the holiday season, Sid (John Leguizamo) accidentally destroys Manny's (Ray Romano) favorite decoration, the traditional Christmas rock (predating the Christmas tree). Sid, convinced by Manny that he's now on Santa's naughty list, takes off with Crash (Seann William Scott), Eddie (Josh Peck), and Peaches (Ciara Bravo) — who's still a young child — for the North Pole to get him off the naughty list. On their journey, they befriend one of Santa's reindeer Prancer (T. J. Miller).

paragraphs: When they arrive at the North Pole, Sid and his crew accidentally destroy Santa's (Billy Gardell) workshop. When Manny, Ellie, and Diego (worried over Peaches' safety) arrive at the North Pole, they reunite to save Christmas. With the help of an army of mini-sloths (who had attacked Sid and his crew before), the Sub-Zero Heroes make enough new toys for every child on Earth. Santa is then able to distribute presents on a worldwide basis after Prancer and his whole family volunteer to pull his sleigh. Santa has also left Scrat (Chris Wedge) a present: A small acorn, which he then loses again.

paragraphs: "Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas" got many positive reviews.


title: Mick Wingert

paragraphs: Michael "Mick" Wingert (born July 4, 1974) is an American stand-up comedian, voice actor, comedian, and actor. He is best known as the new voice of Master Po in "". He took over from Po's original voice actor Jack Black.

paragraphs: Wingert was born Michael Wingert in Lemoore, California.


title: Shōwa period

paragraphs: The , also known as the Shōwa era, was a after "Taishō" and before "Heisei." This period started on December 25, 1926 and ended on January 7, 1989. During this time, the emperor was , also known as

paragraphs: The "nengō" "Shōwa" means "Brilliant Harmony"

paragraphs: This was the longest period or era in Japanese new history.

paragraphs: The years in which Shōwa was the Japanese monarch comprise this period or era.

paragraphs: World War II was an important part of the era.


title: 2016 United States presidential election

paragraphs: The 2016 election for the President of the United States took place on Tuesday, November 8, 2016. On the 45th President and the 48th Vice President of the United States. Former president Barack Obama was unable to seek re-election for a third term according to the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states that a president may only serve up to two terms.

paragraphs: After the election, Donald Trump was named President-elect of the United States while his running mate Mike Pence was named Vice President-elect of the United States. Trump received 304 electoral votes, 34 more votes than what was needed to win, while Clinton received 227. Even though Clinton won the popular vote, the electoral votes decide the actual winner of the election. Trump took office on January 20, 2017.

paragraphs: of the United States Constitution provides that for a person to be elected and serve as President of the United States, the individual must be a natural-born citizen of the United States, at least 35 years old, and a resident of the United States for a period of no less than 14 years.

paragraphs: Candidates for the presidency typically seek the nomination of one of the various political parties of the United States, in which case each party devises a method (such as a primary election) to choose the candidate the party deems best suited to run for the position. The party's delegates then officially nominate a candidate to run on the party's behalf.

paragraphs: Ballot access to all 538 electoral votes

paragraphs: Ballot access to 207 electoral votes ("451 with write-in"): –

paragraphs: Ballot access to 493(451) electoral votes: Ballot access currently in process: North Dakota, Rhode Island, Wyoming

paragraphs: States currently under litigation for ballot access: Nevada, Oklahoma

paragraphs: States with no ballot access: South Dakota As "write-in":

paragraphs: Ballot access to 147 electoral votes ("305 with write-in")

paragraphs: Ballot access to 84 electoral votes ("451 with write-in"):

paragraphs: Battleground states during the election were: Nevada, Georgia, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Florida, New Hampshire, Maine, Ohio and North Carolina. Trump won Georgia, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, North Carolina, Florida and a congressional district in Maine. Clinton won Nevada, New Hampshire and Maine. Wisconsin, Michigan and Pennsylvania were seen as likely 'Blue' states, but Trump won all three states in what was seen as a political upset.

paragraphs: On April 1, 2015, the Commission on Presidential Debates a (CPD) announced that each of the following 16 locations are under consideration to host one of the three presidential debates and one vice presidential debate:

paragraphs: The three locations which will host the presidential debates and the one location selected to host the vice presidential debate are to be announced by the CPD in the fall of 2015.

paragraphs: The following table shows the swing in each state compared to the 2012 election.


title: Lucy Liu

paragraphs: Lucy Liu (born December 2, 1968) is an American actress, artist, and movie producer. She was born in Jackson Heights, Queens, New York City. Her parents are from Taiwan. Liu has been in many movies and many television programs.


title: Christina Crawford (wrestler)

paragraphs: Christina Crawford (born October 17, 1988) is an American dancer and professional wrestler. She is best known for working for WWE where she wrestled in their developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling and NXT, under the ring name Caylee Turner.

paragraphs: Crawford first became well known on WWE's "Tough Enough". It is a reality television series. The winner of "Tough Enough" would get WWE contract. She did not win, but did well enough that WWE gave her a job.

paragraphs: In June 2010, Crawford signed a contract with WWE. She was later sent to Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW). She first appeared on July 8, 2010 in a bikini contest. On November 20 that she made her first wrestling appearance using the new ring name Caylee Turner. It was a 6 diva tag team match with Rosa Mendes and Aksana. Her team lost the match to AJ Lee, Kaitlyn and Naomi Knight. In February 2011, Crawford was let go from her WWE contract.

paragraphs: In March 2011, Crawford was listed as one of the fourteen people on the new version of "Tough Enough". On the May 16th edition of "Tough Enough", Christina was in a match with A.J. Kirsch where she hurt her ankle. She was taken to the emergency room. On the May 23rd edition of "Tough Enough", Christina was cut from the competition as was with A.J. Kirsch.

paragraphs: After leaving "Tough Enough", Crawford went back to work for FCW. On June 22, 2011, she teamed up with Leah West to face Audrey Marie and Sonia in a tag team match but lost. On the August 7, 2011 episode of FCW television, she teamed up with A.J. and Kaitlyn. They beat the team of Sonia, Audrey Marie, and Raquel Diaz. On August 14 edition of FCW, Caylee teamed up with Naomi to defeat the team of Kaitlyn & Audrey Marie. On August 14, 2012, WWE released Crawford from her contract.

paragraphs: Crawford is of African American descent. She graduated from the University of Central Florida in 2011. She studied interpersonal communications. She has an older sister named Victoria, who is a professional wrestler for WWE, under the ring name Alicia Fox.


title: Christian symbolism

paragraphs: Christian symbolism gives objects or actions a meaning that shows Christian ideas. Religious symbolism has an effect when it affects both the intellect and the emotions. The choice of actions and objects for symbolism is very small. This makes it hard to chose a symbol that other religions and traditions do not use.

paragraphs: Elemental symbols were often used by the early Church. Water is an important symbol to Christians. Water is symbolic in baptism. It may also mean cleansing or purity. Fire symbolizes both the Holy Spirit and light. It is often used in the form of a candle flame. The sources of these symbols comes from the Bible. Examples include the "tongues of fire" that symbolized the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, Jesus' description of his followers as "the light of the world", and "God is a consuming fire" found in .

paragraphs: The fish was the most important symbol to early Christians. The symbolic fish was familiar to Christians from the earliest times. It can be seen in Roman monuments such as the Capella Greca and the Sacrament Chapels of the catacomb of St Callistus. The fish was used as a Christian symbol in the first decades of the 2nd century. The symbol may come from the miracle Jesus is said to have performed by multiplying loaves of bread and fishes on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. Its popularity is thought to mainly come from an acrostic made of the first letters of five Greek words "Iesous CHristos THeou Yios Soter". These form the Greek word "Ichthys" which means fish. "Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter" translates as "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour".

paragraphs: The cross is one of the most well known symbols in the world. It was used as a symbol from the earliest times. This is shown in arguments against Christianity shown in the "Octavius" of Minucius Felix

paragraphs: In the early 3rd century, Clement of Alexandria, used the phrase "" (the Lord's sign) to mean the cross. He used the phrase when discussing that the number 318 (in Greek numerals, ΤΙΗ) in was a foreshadowing of the cross and Jesus. T is the Greek number fore 300. ΙΗ, the first two letters of Jesus's name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, means 18. Tertullian called the Christian believers "crucis religiosi", "i.e." "devotees of the Cross". In his book "De Corona", Tertullian tells how it was a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads.

paragraphs: The crucifix was not used until the 5th century. French Medievalist historian M.-M. Davy has described in great details Romanesque Symbolism as it developed in the Middle Ages in Western Europe.

paragraphs: Ancient people believed that the flesh of a peafowl did not decay after death. It became a symbol of immortality. This symbolism was used by early Christianity. Many early Christian paintings and mosaics show the peacock. The peacock is still used in the Easter season in the east.

paragraphs: Some of the oldest symbols in the Christian church are the sacraments. The number of sacraments is different in each denominations. All denominations have Eucharist and baptism. Others which may or may not be used are ordination, unction, confirmation, penance and marriage. The rites are seen as a symbol of the spiritual change or event that takes place. In the Eucharist, the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus. In Roman Catholicism, they become the "actual" Body of Christ and Blood of Christ through Transubstantiation. This represent salvation brought by the death of Jesus. The rite of baptism is symbolic of the cleansing of the sinner by God. Where baptism is by immersion, it symbolizes spiritual death and resurrection. Different groups believe the sacraments mean different things. Some Protestant denominations think they are only symbolic. Roman Catholics, Orthodox, some Anglicans, and some Lutherans feel that, by the power of God, the sacraments have an actual effect."


title: Bohemia at the Olympics

paragraphs: Kingdom of Bohemia, took part in some of the early modern Olympic Games. It was an autonomous part of Austria-Hungary until 1918. The team began taking part in the Olympics at the 1900 Summer Olympics. After World War I, Bohemia became part of Czechoslovakia. Bohemian athletes competed for Czechoslovakia at the Olympics. After Czechoslovakia was split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993, Bohemian athletes competed for the Czech Republic at the Olympics. Bohemian athletes have missed only three Olympics: the first in 1896, the 1904 Summer Olympics (the first not to take place in Europe) and the boycotted 1984 Summer Olympics.

paragraphs: Hedwiga Rosenbaumová also won a bronze medal with Archibald Warden of Great Britain (GBR) in the mixed doubles event in tennis at the 1900 Summer Olympics. This medal is listed as being won by a mixed team instead of split between Bohemia and Great Britain.


title: American Vampire

paragraphs: American Vampire is an Eisner Award-winning comic book series. It was created by writer Scott Snyder and Rafael Albuquerque.

paragraphs: In the series, the vampire population is made up of many different species. Most people do not know vampires exist. The series shows how vampires evolve and deal with conflict between the species throughout history. The series is mostly about a new American species of vampires. This group was born American West in the late 1800s. The first of this new species is an outlaw named Skinner Sweet. After becoming a vampire, Sweet leans that he is a new kind of vampire. He is stronger and faster than other species. Sunlight does not hurt him. He has new strengths. He also has different weaknesses. The series shows his movements through several decades of American history. It also follows the only vampire he is known to have created, Pearl Jones. Jones is a young woman who was trying to work as an actress in the 1920s silent film industry. She was attacked by a group of European vampires who were hiding in Hollywood. Sweet saved her by giving her his blood. This turned her into an American vampire like him. After this, tried to get revenge on the vampires who attacked her. The relationship between Jones and Sweet is an important part of the series.

paragraphs: The first five issues had two stories in each issue. One story was by Snyder and the other by Stephen King. Both stories were drawn by Rafael Albuquerque. As of the sixth issue, Scott Snyder became the only writer. In its second year of publication, a spin-off mini-series was created. It was titled "American Vampire: Survival of the Fittest". This mini-series was drawn by Sean Murphy. It is about a vampire-hunting organization from the main series.

paragraphs: The series was first published on March 17, 2010. This is the first comic using original Stephen King writing.


title: Basal

paragraphs: 'Basal' is a term in biology for 'primitive' or 'ancestral'. Basal is preferred because it is neutral and non-judgmental. This terminology came into use with cladistics. The term is used in evolution and classification to mean the group which gave rise to later forms. It is a term which works at any level: a basal species gives rise to derived species, and a basal group gives rise to derived groups.

paragraphs: 'Derived' is the correct term in biology for "specialised" or "advanced". It is used for groups which have evolved from a more basal group. A derived trait is a trait that is present in an organism, but was not in the last common ancestor of the group being considered. Simplicity is often secondarily derived. For example, no mitochondria in the anaerobic protist "Entamoeba histolytica" is a result of their secondary loss.

paragraphs: In the last example, note that apes are "derived" from monkeys but "basal" with respect to our own genus. The status of being basal or derived is relative, though living species can only be derived. In any basal-derived pair, the basal member must have evolved before the derived member, with evidence that some of its species gave rise to (evolved into) the derived member.


title: Electronic dance music

paragraphs: Electronic dance music, often simplified as EDM, (occasionally referred to as electronica or dance) is a form of electronic music which is meant to be danced to, often in the setting of a nightclub, discothèque or party. Generally, electronic dance music is created by producers and composers, and is then used by DJs, or disc jockeys, in the above settings. Electronic dance music takes many forms and styles. As a genre, it is generally up-tempo music created by electronic software and machines, such as synthesizers, drum machines, keyboards, samplers, sequencers and computers. Occasionally, the term "techno" is used to describe electronic dance music in general, despite being a generalisation as techno is a distinguishable subgenre of EDM.

paragraphs: Being quite a generic term, EDM has a variety of 'origins' and derivations. EDM can be said to stem from a fusion between regular dance music and electronic music. One notable example can be Donna Summer's 1977 single "I Feel Love", which combined elements of disco with electronic music. The innovative blend helped trigger several major EDM genres, such as Hi-NRG, Eurodance and techno music. Giorgio Moroder, who co-wrote the song and was also one of its producers, additionally created some of the earliest forms of electronic dance music. Kraftwerk are also credited as influencing electronic music. Whilst a lot of electronic dance music originates from disco, this is not the case for all EDM.

paragraphs: The song which has been credited as bringing EDM into mainstream popular music is Madonna's 1998 single "Ray of Light". Whilst it is attributed as helping bring the genre mainstream, electronic dance music existed and had enjoyed popularity years before the single's release; house music, for instance, had been popular in the United States since the early 1990s (its popularity can also be attributed to another Madonna single, 1990's "Vogue").

paragraphs: There are different types of EDM, each varying in style and sound. This is a list of some of the major electronic dance music genres (each genre may additionally have further subgenres, which have not been looked at in too much detail for this section)


title: Heisei period

paragraphs: , also known as the Heisei era, is the after "Shōwa and before Reiwa". This period started in February 1989 and ended on April 30, 2019 with the emperor's abdication. During this time, the emperor was ,

paragraphs: The years in which Akihito has been the Japanese monarch comprise this period or era.


title: E pluribus unum

paragraphs: "E pluribus unum" is a traditional motto of the United States. It means "out of many, one" in Latin. It has been placed on the U.S. dollar bill, and other related items.

paragraphs: The motto was suggested by the first Great Seal committee in 1776. Consultant and artist Pierre Du Simitière chose the Latin motto, and his design expresses this theme.

paragraphs: This motto was well known to literate Americans of the 18th century. It had appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine, published monthly in London since 1731, with copies reaching the colonies. The legend "E pluribus unum" was used on the title pages of the magazine's annual complication volumes.

paragraphs: In Thomson's 1782 sketch, for the final design, Charles Thomson put this motto on a scroll held in the bald eagle's beak.

paragraphs: "E pluribus unum" is a clear reference to the Thirteen Colonies united into one nation – symbolized by the shield on the eagle's breast. As explained in the official description of the Great Seal, the thirteen vertical stripes "represent the several states all joined in one solid compact entire, supporting a Chief, which unites the whole & represents Congress. The Motto alludes to this union."


title: An Outcast of the Islands

paragraphs: An Outcast of the Islands is the second novel by Joseph Conrad. It was published in 1896. It was based on Conrad's experience working on a steamer (ship), the "Vigar".

paragraphs: The novel tells about the fall of Peter Willems. He is a bad man, and has a bad reputation. On the run from a scandal in Makassar, he finds a place to hide in a hidden native village. However, he betrays the people who are helping him, because of lust for the tribal chief's daughter. The story features the character Tom Lingard, who Conrad uses lots, and also appears in "Almayer's Folly" (1895) and "The Rescue" (1920). It shares other characters with those novels.

paragraphs: This novel was made into a movie in 1952 by director Carol Reed, starring Trevor Howard as Willems, Ralph Richardson as Lingard, Robert Morley, and Wendy Hiller.

paragraphs: The work was quoted in T. S. Eliot's "The Hollow Men": "Life is very long.".


title: Scipionyx

paragraphs: Scipionyx samniticus is one of the most important recent dinosaur finds. It is a tiny theropod (meat-eater) fossil found in Cretaceous limestone in southern Italy near Naples. Although it was unearthed thirty years ago in 1981, its true importance was not realized until 1994. It is a very important specimen in that it has fossilized remains of many of its internal organs and muscles. This type of detail is rare in fossils since the soft tissues from an animal do not usually fossilize; they almost always rot before mineral replacement can take place. This new fossil will yield a lot of information about dinosaurs' anatomy and physiology as it is studied.

paragraphs: The fossil is a theropod, perhaps a compsognathid (related to "Compsognathus"). It is a hatchling 9.5 inches (24 cm) long. It is from 113 million years ago (during the Cretaceous period) and has been named "Scipionyx samniticus". During the Cretaceous period it lived near a shallow lagoon.


title: Battle of Messines

paragraphs: The Battle of Messines was a battle which happened in the Western front of the First World War. It began on 7 June 1917 when the British Second Army, which was commanded by General Herbert Plumer, attacked near the village of Mesen (Messines) in West Flanders, Belgium. The attack was meant to capture a ridge which ran north from Messines village, past Wytschaete village. This ridge was a natural place where you could keep safe southeast of Ypres. One thing which happened during the battle which was unusual was that 19 mines were set off just before the infantry attack. This was a tactic which made German defences disorganised. This allowed the troops to do what they were supposed to do very quickly. The attack also came before the much larger battle, the Third Battle of Ypres, usually known as Passchendaele, which began on 31 July 1917.


title: Döbereiner's lamp

paragraphs: Döbereiner's lamp is one of the first lighters. It was developed in 1823 by the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner. The lighter was produced until around 1880. The Heidelberg Castle and also the Deutsches Museum ("German Museum") still have original Döbereiner lamps to show.

paragraphs: The lighter works based on a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. In the glass cylinder ("a" in the picture on the right) is sulfuric acid. In the open bottle ("b") is zinc and at the top is a valve. With the lever ("f"), the bottle will be opened. Then, the sulfuric acid flows into the bottle. When it reaches the Zinc, a reaction starts. It produces hydrogen.

paragraphs: The hydrogen can go out of the bottle at the top. Next to the valve, there is platinum. The hydrogen gas has to bypass the platinum. The hydrogen and the oxygen from the air react because of the catalytic effect of platinum. The gas mixture (called oxyhydrogen) then burns, because the reaction is exothermic, and produces water.

paragraphs: To stop this reaction, the bottle only needs to be closed, that means the lever needs to be released. The hydrogen can no longer go out of the bottle and pushes the sulfuric acid back into the glass cylinder.


Shotoku


title: Macron

paragraphs: A macron ( ¯ ), from the Greek ("makrón"), meaning "long", is a diacritic mark commonly placed above a single character or symbol (particularly vowels).

paragraphs: In the romanization of Japanese, a letter with macron represents a long vowel.

paragraphs: In the written Hawaiian language, the "kahakō" is shown by a macron.

paragraphs: In mathematics, a macron (or overline) is often placed above a symbol to refer to a complex conjugate, a sample mean and a logical negation.


title: Bulgaria at the Olympics

paragraphs: Bulgaria was first at the Olympic Games at the very first Games in 1896.

paragraphs: The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Bulgaria is BUL.

paragraphs: The Bulgarian Olympic Committee was formed in 1923. They first sent a team to the Summer Olympic Games in 1924. The nation has been in every Summer Games since except for 1932 (during the Great Depression), 1948 (after World War II), and 1984. Bulgaria was first in the Winter Olympic Games in 1936, and has been in every Winter Games since then.

paragraphs: Bulgarian athletes have won a total of 218 medals, with wrestling and weightlifting the most.


title: WYSIWYM

paragraphs: WYSIWYM is an acronym that stands for What you see is what you mean. This was positioned to not be confused with WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get). The idea behind WYSIWYG is to display text on screen in much the same way as they will appear when printed on paper. WYSIWYM is different from this: The content is structured. When the content is entered, this meaning is added to the text. This will mean that presentation is separated from the content. The content is translated before it is rendered. This also means that it can be translated differently, the same content can lead to different output formats. More importantly though, the person editing the document can focus on the content, and is not easily distracted by what the content looks like. One of the drawbacks of the method is that the user is forced to think ahead. LaTeX is an example of a document processing system that uses WYSIWYM.


title: Phantom island

paragraphs: A phantom island is an island that was thought to exist at some point in time. Because of this, the island was shown on a map. Later, the islands were removed from maps. Some islands are described and later on change their name, or with the description given it is possible to associate a real island. Other islands sink below sea level because of natural causes such as erosion. Such islands still exist. Two examples are Earnest Legouve Reef and Maria-Theresa Reef in the South Pacific. Because they are far away from ships' routes, their existence can not be proved so far. In the year 1908, Robert Peary claimed to have found a lost continent, called Crocker Land.

paragraphs: People such as João Vaz Corte-Real were rewarded for finding islands that turned out to be phantom islands. In the case given, the phantom island was Bacalao. The island showed up on maps in the early 16th century. Baccalieu Island is probably named after the phantom island.

paragraphs: Some phantom islands were later "found". That way Baja California was first thought to be an island. Later, people found it was in fact a peninsula. Thule was discovered in antiquity; in modern times, people who found it may have talked about Norway, the Orkney Islands, Shetland or Scandinavia. Other interpretations include Iceland, Greenland, or the island Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea.

paragraphs: Other phantom islands may exist because of mistakes in navigation, or optical illusions, such as superior mirage. One example of this is New South Greenland, which was observed in the Weddell Sea in 1823, and has not been seen since.

paragraphs: Some phantom islands may have existed, but they have been destroyed, or are no longer above the water line. These include Thompson Island in the South Atlantic, and Bermeja, off the coast of Yucatán.


title: Aerogel

paragraphs: Aerogel is a gel in which the liquid part has been replaced with a gas (usually air). It was invented in 1931 by Samuel Stephens Kistler. The most common type of aerogel is silica aerogel, which is made from the same molecule as glass. It is a solid material that is almost as light as air. It is the world's lightest material. Its melting point is 1200 degrees Celsius, which is comparable to crocidolite asbestos. Aerogel is the best thermal insulator available and can be used in construction in place of fiberglass insulation. It allows better insulation with less material, although it is much more expensive than fiberglass. It is also brittle, making it more difficult to install than fiberglass. Most aerogel is not water-resistant, and even small amounts of water can destroy it. It is also safer than fiberglass or asbestos because it is not known to cause cancer if inhaled into the lungs. Some aerogel insulation, however, contains fiberglass to increase its flexibility.


title: Red Bull GmbH

paragraphs: Red Bull GmbH is an Austrian company that sells the Red Bull energy drink. Billions of cans are sold in over 161 countries. The company has 7,758 employees and earned 3.78 billion euros in 2010. The headquarters of Red Bull GmbH are in Fuschl am See, Austria.

paragraphs: Dietrich Mateschitz started the company with Chaleo Yoovidhya. The company brought the energy drink Krating Daeng from Thailand to Europe and around the world. Krating Daeng means "red bull" in Thai. Mateschitz runs the company and Yoovidhya and his son are silent partners. Red Bull GmbH made a new “Austrian” Red Bull drink in 1987. It is carbonated and not as sweet as the Thai drink. The Austrian version of the drink has almost half of the U.S. market for energy drinks. It has up to 80% of the market in some other countries.

paragraphs: The company supports many sports teams. It also puts its logos on many airplanes and sports cars to attract attention.


title: 2013 Atlantic hurricane season

paragraphs: The 2013 Atlantic hurricane season was an event that occurs when tropical cyclones develop in the Atlantic basin. The season started on June 1 and ended on November 30. The season began when Tropical Storm Andrea formed on June 5, 2013. It became a subtropical storm on June 7 before making a landfall 310 miles (500 km) southwest of Tampa, Florida. Seventeen days later, Tropical Storm Barry developed. It became a post-tropical storm on June 7. On July 8, Tropical Storm Chantal formed. It later became a post-tropical system on July 10. The season finished on November 30, 2013. The season was the first Atlantic Hurricane season since 1994 to end with no known major hurricanes.

paragraphs: Tropical storm Andrea developed on the 5th of June within the southern gulf of Mexico. The storm slowly strengthen as it moved northeastward making landfall around 2200z on the 6th in northeastern Florida. The system maximum intensity hit 55 knots.

paragraphs: Tropical storm Barry developed as a depression within the gulf of Honduras from a westward moving tropical wave on the 17th of June. The system later that day made landfall within Belize and moved across the Yucatán the next few days...The system moved into the bay of Campeche and the hurricane hunters found tropical storm force winds on the 19th before landfall.

paragraphs: The following names will be used for named storms that form in the North Atlantic in 2013. The names not retired from this list will be used again in the 2019 season. This is the same list used in the 2007 season, except for Dorian, Fernand, and Nestor which replaced Dean, Felix, and Noel.

paragraphs: On April 12, 2014, the name Ingrid was retired and was replaced by Imelda for the 2019 season.


title: Wakulla County, Florida

paragraphs: Wakulla County is a county in the U.S. state of Florida. As of 2000, 22,863 people lived there. The U.S. Census Bureau 2005 estimate for the county was 28,212 people. Its county seat is Crawfordville. Wakulla County is part of the Tallahassee, Florida, Metropolitan Statistical Area.

paragraphs: In 1528, Panfilo de Narvaez found what would be Wakulla County. He had left Tampa, Florida and was camping where the Wakulla River and St. Marks River joined together. Narvaez felt this was a good place to build a fort. In 1539, Hernando de Soto followed with his soldiers. They created San Marcos de Apalache.

paragraphs: The area was an active place in the early 19th century. A former British officer named William Augustus Bowles led 400 Creek Indians in an attack to take control of San Marcos. This angered Spain. A Spanish flotilla got to the area about 5 weeks later. The Spanish took control of San Marcos. In 1818, General Andrew Jackson attacked (Wakulla) and took control of San Marcos. Two British people, Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot, were said to have started Indian raids. They were found guilty of the crime and killed. This caused large diplomatic problems between the United States and England. In 1821, Florida was became a part of the United States. San Marcos controlled by U.S. troops. In 1824, the fort was no longer used. Control of it was given to the Territory of Florida. By 1839, the fort was returned to the U.S. A federal marine hospital was built. The hospital helped people with yellow fever in the area.

paragraphs: Wakulla County was created from Leon County in 1843. It may be named for the Timucuan Indian word for "spring of water" or "mysterious water." This is because of Wakulla County's best natural attraction, Wakulla Springs. Wakulla Springs is one of the world's largest freshwater springs. In 1974, the water flow was measured at per day. This is the greatest recorded flow ever for a single spring.

paragraphs: At one time, the town of Port Leon was a very busy cotton-shipping hub. It had a railroad that carried over 50,000 tons of cotton a year. This cotton was sent to ship which mostly went to Europe. Port Leon was the sixth-largest town in Florida. 1,500 people lived there. A hurricane and its storm surge destroyed the town. New Port (today known as Newport) was built two miles (3 km) up river. It never did as well as Port Leon.

paragraphs: During the Civil War, Wakulla County was blockaded from 1861-1865. Confederates took control of San Marcos de Apalache. They changed the name to Fort Ward. The Battle of Natural Bridge stopped the Union force that tried to take Fort Ward and nearby Tallahassee. Tallahassee was the last Confederate state capitol that the Union had not captured. The Union forces were not able use all their soldiers. They still had more soldiers than the Confederates. The Confederates chose to fight at a place where the St Marks River goes underground. This was the "Natural Bridge' the battle was named for. The Confederates had over a day to get ready for the battle. The Union could not win and left. Most of the people who died in the battle were African-American soldiers fighting for the Union. A celebration was held in Tallahassee. It was stopped when a telegram arrived telling them about General Lee's surrender at Appomattox.

paragraphs: From the early 1900s to 1966, Wakulla was very poor. It had no doctor and no dentist. There were only a small number of stores in the county. The county newspaper was printed just once a month on a mimeograph machine. Today, Wakulla has several doctors and dentists, There are several supermarkets and retailers. The county has a golf resort and a very good seafood business.

paragraphs: The county has a total area of . (or 82.46%) of this area is land and (or 17.54%) is water. Wakulla County is part of the Tallahassee Metropolitan Statistical Area.

paragraphs: As of the census of 2000, there were 22,863 people, 8,450 households, and 6,236 families living in the county. There were 38 people for each square mile (15/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 86.10% White, 11.51% Black, 0.59% Native American, 0.25% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.29% from other races, and 1.23% from two or more races. 1.94% of the people were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

paragraphs: Wakulla County is unusual in that it has almost no municipal population. The two very small municipalities have about 3 percent of the people. The county seat, Crawfordville, is the only unincorporated county seat of Florida's 67 counties.

paragraphs: There are no Interstate highways in Wakulla County. Several large roads do go through the area. These include U.S. Route 98 and U.S. Route 319. Other important roads in the county include State Road 267, State Road 363 and County Road 375.

paragraphs: There are currently no railroads in Wakulla County. In the past, the Georgia, Florida and Alabama Railroad passed through Sopchoppy moving between Tallahassee and Carrabelle. The use of this railroad ended in 1948, The Tallahassee Railroad, the first railroad in Florida, stopped being used in 1983.

paragraphs: The Wakulla County Airport (2J0)is south of Panacea. It is a small public-use airport. The airport has with a single , north-south turf runway.

paragraphs: St. Marks is a small commercial seaport. In the past, it had some importance in the oil industry. It is currently used mainly by commercial fishermen.


title: Kanpō

paragraphs: , also known as Kampō, was a , also known as Kampō, after "Genbun" and before "Enkyō." This period started in February 1741 and ended in February 1744. During this time, the emperor was .


Weston


Weston (surname)


title: Madison

paragraphs: James Madison was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Many things were named for him:


title: Edward Weston (chemist)

paragraphs: Edward Weston (May 9, 1850 – August 20, 1936) was an English-born American chemist noted for his achievements in electroplating and his development of the electrochemical cell, named the Weston cell, for the voltage standard. Weston was a competitor of Thomas Edison in the early days of electricity generation and distribution.

paragraphs: Born in Oswestry, Shropshire, England, in 1850 to a merchant family, Weston first studied medicine but grew interested in chemistry. He emigrated to the United States after receiving his medical diploma in 1870. He then found a job in the electroplating industry. He saw the need for a constant source of current. He developed an interest in power generation and invented several dynamos and generators. He eventually co-founded the Weston Electric Light Company in Newark, New Jersey and later got the contract to light the Brooklyn Bridge. Weston was a founding member of the board of trustees of what later became the New Jersey Institute of Technology. Some of his inventions, instruments, and writings are maintained at the university's library and at its Weston Museum. Weston was president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers from 1888-89.

paragraphs: He invented two alloys, constantan and manganin. Weston developed measurement instruments for electrical current—the modern foundation for the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter. In 1888, he formed the Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation which was known for its voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, ohmmeters, frequency meters, transformers, and transducers. Weston developed a method for producing a "true" permanent magnet. Weston conceived of and built a magnetic speedometer. Weston also developed the dashboard ammeter for Harley-Davidson motorcycles.

paragraphs: Weston invented and patented the saturated cadmium cell in 1893. The cathode in the cell is an amalgam of cadmium with mercury. The anode is of pure mercury, and the electrolyte is a solution of cadmium sulphate. The Weston cell is a wet-chemical cell that produces a highly stable voltage suitable as a laboratory standard for calibration of voltmeters. The temperature coefficient was reduced by shifting to an unsaturated design, the predominant type today. When the Weston cell became the International Standard for EMF in 1911, Weston waived his patent rights.

paragraphs: Weston died in Montclair, New Jersey in 1936. He got 309 United States patents during his life.

paragraphs: Weston's son Edward Faraday Weston (1878–1971) received several patents regarding exposure meters, also manufactured by the Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation and widely distributed since the 1930s, and established the system of the Weston film speed ratings for the measurement of film speeds.


title: Springfield, Missouri

paragraphs: Springfield is the third largest city in the state of Missouri and the county seat of Greene County. According to the 2010 census data, the population was 159,498, an increase of 5.2% since the 2000 census. The Springfield Metropolitan Area has a population of 436,712 and includes the counties of Christian, Dallas, Greene, Polk and Webster. Springfield's nickname is the Queen City of the Ozarks and is known as the Birthplace of Route 66 as well as the home of several universities including Missouri State University.

paragraphs: Springfield’s economy is based on health care, manufacturing, retail, education and tourism. With a Gross Metropolitan Product of $13.66 billion in 2004, Springfield's economy makes up 6.7% of the Gross State Product of Missouri.

paragraphs: Total retail sales exceed $4.1 billion a year in Springfield and $5.8 billion in the Springfield MSA. Its largest shopping mall is Battlefield Mall. According to the Springfield Convention & Visitors Bureau, an estimated three million overnight visitors and millions of day-trippers visit the city annually. The city has more than 60 lodging facilities and 6,000 hotel rooms. The Convention & Visitors Bureau spends more than $1 million annually marketing the city as a travel destination.

paragraphs: Positronic, Bass Pro Shops, John Q. Hammons Hotels & Resorts, BKD, Noble & Associates, Prime, Inc., and O'Reilly Auto Parts have their national headquarters in Springfield.

paragraphs: Two major American Christian denominations are based in Springfield: General Council of the Assemblies of God in the United States of America (one of the largest of the Pentecostal denominations) and Baptist Bible Fellowship International (a fundamentalist Baptist denomination with roots to J. Frank Norris).

paragraphs: Springfield is called the "Birthplace of U.S. Route 66". It was in Springfield on April 30, 1926 that officials first proposed the name of the new Chicago-to-Los Angeles highway.

paragraphs: John T. Woodruff of Springfield was elected as the first president of the U.S. Highway 66 Association. It was organized in Tulsa, Oklahoma in 1927. Its purpose was to get U.S. 66 paved from end to end and to promote tourism on the highway. In 1938, Route 66 became the first completely paved United States Numbered Highways in America. Called the “Mother Road”, it stretched from the Great Lakes to the Pacific Coast.

paragraphs: A placard in Park Central Square was dedicated to the city by the Route 66 Association of Missouri. Traces of the Mother Road are still visible in Downtown Springfield along Kearney Street, Glenstone Avenue, College and St. Louis streets and on Missouri 266 to Halltown. The red booths and gleaming chrome in mom and pop diners, the stone cottages of tourist courts and the many service stations along this route saw America fall in love with the automobile. Red's Giant Hamburg, said to be the birthplace of the drive-up order window, was located on the route.


title: Crocker Land

paragraphs: Crocker Land is the name for a supposed eighth continent in the Arctic Ocean. In the year 1906, Robert Peary thought he had seen a landmass, which he named after George Crocker, a member of Peary Arctic Club. He thought that the land was about 130 miles (210 km) north of Ellesmere Island, at 83 degrees north and 100 degrees west.

paragraphs: In 1913, the Crocker Land expedition started, to find Crocker Land. This expedition turned out to be a failure. The captain of the first ship became drunk and ran aground on the rocks. Later an Inuit guide was deliberately shot and killed by one of the expedition members under suspicious circumstances. The expedition eventually became stranded and was not rescued until four years later.

paragraphs: The MacGregor Arctic Expedition in 1937–1938 also took aerial photographs. These show that there is no land at that location. Despite this, some pseudo-scientific organizations still try to present a case for its possible existence.

paragraphs: The expedition did not find Crocker Land. Later, satellite images showed that the continent did not exist, and could not be found. Today, it is believed that what Peary saw, was a fata morgana mirage.


title: Bradley Land

paragraphs: Bradley Land is the name of a landmass Frederick Cook claimed to have seen during a expedition in 1909. He said, the land between positions () and (). He described it as two masses of land with a break, a strait, or an indentation between. The land was named for John R. Bradley, who had sponsored Cook's expedition.

paragraphs: Cook published two photographs of the land and described it as follows: "The lower coast resembled Heiberg Island, with mountains and high valleys. The upper coast I estimated as being about one thousand feet high, flat, and covered with a thin sheet ice."

paragraphs: It is now known there is no land at that location. Cook's observations were based on either a misidentification of sea ice or an outright fabrication. Cook's Inuit companions reported that the photographs were actually taken near the coast of Axel Heiberg Island.


title: 2015 Atlantic hurricane season

paragraphs: The 2015 Atlantic hurricane season had a little less storms than usual, 11 storms, and four of them reached hurricane status. It officially started on June 1 and ended on November 30. This is when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic. However the first named storm, Ana, developed nearly a month before the official start of the season, the first time this has happened since 2012’s Beryl and the earliest a hurricane has happened since 2003’s Ana. The season ended with the diminish of Kate 18 days before the official end.

paragraphs: Due to a strong El Niño, most agencies predicted that only 6–10 tropical cyclones would form; however, the number of tropical cyclones that formed this season was higher than what the agencies predicted.

paragraphs: In the spring of 2016, the WMO (World Meteorological Organization) had retired the names "Erika" and Joaquin. Those names will not be used again in the Atlantic. Elsa and Julian were chosen to replace those names for the 2021 season.


title: Genroku

paragraphs: The years of "Genroku" are generally considered to be the Golden Age of the Edo period. A century of peace and seclusion created good economic conditions and cultural growth.

paragraphs: The "nengō" "Genroku" means "Origin of Good Fortune"


title: Anthony Horowitz

paragraphs: Anthony Craig Horowitz (born 5 April 1956) is an English novel writer and screenwriter. He has written many children's novels, including "The Power of Five", "Alex Rider" and "The Diamond Brothers" series. He has written over fifty books. He has also written many things for television. He has adapted many of Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot novels for the ITV series. He is the creator and writer of the ITV series "Foyle's War", "Midsomer Murders" and "Collision".

paragraphs: Anthony Horowitz was born in 1956 in Middlesex. His family were Jewish and rich. When he was young, he lived an upper-class lifestyle.<nowiki></nowiki> Horowitz was overweight and unhappy. He enjoyed reading books from his father's library. At the age of eight, Horowitz was sent to a boarding school. The school was called Orley Farm. It was in Harrow, Middlesex. There, he entertained others by telling them the stories he had read. Horowitz said that his time in the school was "a brutal experience". He said that he was often beaten by the headmaster John Ellis.

paragraphs: Horowitz's father was a "fixer" for prime minister Harold Wilson. Because he was nearly bankrupt, he moved his money into Swiss bank accounts. He died from cancer when his son, Anthony, was 22. The family was never able to find the missing money, even though they had tried for years. Horowitz loved his mother. She showed him "Frankenstein" and "Dracula". She also gave him a human skull for his 13th birthday. Horowitz said in an interview once that it reminds him to get to the end of each story because he will soon look like the skull. From the age of eight, Horowitz knew he wanted to be a writer, realising "the only time when I'm totally happy is when I'm writing". He graduated from the University of York with a BA in English literature in 1977.

paragraphs: In at least one interview, Horowitz said that believes H. P. Lovecraft based his fictional "Necronomicon" on real writing, and to have read some of that writing.

paragraphs: Horowitz lives in North London with his wife Jill Green. He married her in Hong Kong on 15 April 1988. Green produces "Foyle's War". Horowitz writes this series for ITV. They have two sons. They are Nicholas Mark Horowitz (born 1989) and Cassian James Horowitz (born 1991). The family have a dog named Lucky, that has been run over 3 times. Horowitz says that his family has a lot to do with his success in writing. This is because he says they help him with ideas and research. Horowitz is a patron of child protection charity Kidscape.


title: Keiō

paragraphs: The "nengō" "Keiō" means "Joyous Concord"

paragraphs: In 1868, the emperor moved his Imperial court to Tokyo; and Edo castle became an Imperial palace. In this way, the capital of Japan moved from Kyoto to Tokyo.

paragraphs: Keio University was named after this era. It is the oldest existing institution of higher learning in Japan.


title: Tulisa Contostavlos

paragraphs: Tula Paulinea Contostavlos (born 13 July 1988) is an English singer-songwriter and actress who performs under the name of Tulisa. Her father is Greek; her mother is Irish. She is best known for being a member of the Camden-based hip hop group N-Dubz. She was in the band with her cousin Dappy and their friend Fazer. Contostavlos was a judge on the eighth series of "The X Factor". She mentored the "Groups" category. They included Little Mix, the first group to win the competition.

paragraphs: As a recording artist, Contostavlos has recorded three studio albums with N-Dubz, "Uncle B" (2008), "Against All Odds" (2009) and "Love.Live.Life" (2010). In 2011, she started work on a solo album. In 2012 it was released. "The Female Boss" got a lot of bad reviews and didn't chart well. Three singles were released from the album. The first single, "Young", entered the UK Singles Chart at number one.

paragraphs: In June 2013, Costostavlos, along with rapper Mike GLC were arrested on suspicion of supplying class A drugs.

paragraphs: In July 2014, Contostavlos' trial for supplying cocaine collapsed. Later the same month, she was convicted of common assault.


title: Alexandra Stan

paragraphs: Alexandra Stan (born June 10, 1989 in Constanța, Romania as Alexandra Ioana Stan) is a Romanian singer-songwriter, model and occasional dancer. She begun her career by releasing her debut single ""Lollipop (Param Pam Pam)"", which was diffused by radio stations around the world, but failed to enter any international chart. Her next single ""Mr. Saxobeat"" was also distributed by her long-time managers and producers' label MAAN Studio. It became a worldwide success when it reached number-one on nine international charts and got Gold and Platinum certification awards around the world for selling an estimate of 10,000,000 copies of it worldwide. Her next records entitled ""Get Back (ASAP)"" and ""One Million"" were also praised and seen in charts around the world, especially in Eastern Europe. She released her debut album ""Saxobeats"" in late 2011. The record gained major sales and reached the top-forty in several album charts. 2013, Stan rose to fame after it was reported by worldwide newspapers that she was beaten by her manger Marcel Prodan, which she later sued for blackmailing and injuring.


title: Thompson Island (South Atlantic)

paragraphs: Thompson Island is a phantom island, in the South Atlantic. It was thought to be about 150 km north-northeast of Bouvet Island.

paragraphs: Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier discovered Bouvet Island in 1739. In 1808, James Lindsay of the "Snow Swan" discovered Bouvet Island again, and named it "Lindsay Island". The next time, George Norris of the "Sprightly" sighted Bouvet on 10 December 1825. He landed on 16 December, and took possession of the island, which he named Liverpool Island, for King George IV of the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: Between December 13 and December 16, Norris sailed the waters northeast of Bouvet Island, where he discovered another island. It was much smaller, and the sea around it was much rougher. Three miles southeast of the newly discovered island, he found three rocks. In his log, he named the newly found island Thompson Island, and the rocks "chimneys", because of their form. He also marked the position of his discoveries on a map. Unfortunately, the positions of the islands on the map did not match those written down in the log. In 1853 the discoveries of Thompson Island, Bouvet Island, and the Chimneys showed up on an official map of the British admiralty.

paragraphs: In 1893, Captain Joseph J. Fuller reported another sighting of Thompson Island, on his ship, "Francis Allyn".

paragraphs: The Valdivia expedition wanted to find the exact position of Bouvet and Thompson Island, in November 1898, but was unable to find Thompson Island.

paragraphs: In 1915, a German ship, the "Meteor", gave a depth of the sea of 1579 m at the position where Thompson had been reported. If Thompson ever existed, it is probable that it disappeared in a volcanic eruption sometime in the 1890s.

paragraphs: The Norwegian Arctic Expedition (1928/29) failed to find Thompson Island, and declared it did not exist.

paragraphs: Thompson Island continued to appear on maps published as late as 1943.

paragraphs: The only person to have seen Thompson Island was probably Norris. Fuller's description of Thompson Island matches more or less that given of Bouvet Island in Norris' diary, and is therefore questionable.


title: Daniel Carleton Gajdusek

paragraphs: Daniel Carleton Gajdusek (September 9, 1923 - December 12, 2008) was an American physician and medical researcher. He and Baruch S. Blumberg won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1976. They got the Nobel for work on kuru. Kuru is the first human prion disease shown to be infectious.

paragraphs: Gajdusek's father, Karol Gajdusek, was from Büdöskö, Kingdom of Hungary, now Smrdáky, Slovakia. He was an ethnic Slovak who was a butcher. His mother's parents from Debrecen, Hungary. Gajdusek was born in Yonkers, New York. He graduated from the University of Rochester in 1943. Gajdusek studied physics, biology, chemistry and mathematics. He got an M.D. from Harvard University in 1946. His postdoctoral research was done at Columbia University, the California Institute of Technology, and Harvard. In the early 1950s, Gajdusek was drafted into the military as a research virologist at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 1954 he went to work at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research in Melbourne, Australia. In Australia, he began the work that led to his getting the Nobel Prize.

paragraphs: Gajdusek's best-known work was on kuru. This disease was affecting many people among the South Fore people of New Guinea in the 1950s and 1960s. Gajdusek felt there was a connect between the spread of the disease and the funerary cannibalism by the South Fore people. He lived among the Fore and studied their language and culture. He also performed autopsies on people who died of kuru.

paragraphs: Gajdusek thought that kuru was spread by the ritualistic eating of the brains of dead family members. He proved this idea by infecting primates with the disease and showing that it had an very long incubation period of several years. When the cannibalism was stopped, kuru stopped spreading in just one generation. This was the first time it was shown that a non-inflammatory degenerative disease could be spread in humans.

paragraphs: Gajdusek was not able to identify what exactly spreads kuru. Other research by Stanley Prusiner and others led to the finding of proteins called prions that caused these disease and other similar diseases.

paragraphs: Some people in the medical community, do not think that cannibalism was still practiced when Gajdusek did his research. Willam Arens, an anthropologist, says that Gajdusek never saw cannibalism himself. Researchers who worked with the Fore in the 1950s say that cannibalism was stopped in 1948. This was almost a decade before Gajdusek went to New Guinea. Many other researchers, including Robert Klitzman, S. Lindenbaum, R. Glasse, and researchers at the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research have made reports that say that the cannibalism still happened.

paragraphs: Gajdusek became head of the laboratories for virological and neurological research at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1958. He was made a part of the National Academy of Sciences in 1974.

paragraphs: During his trips in the South Pacific, Gajdusek had brought 56 children back to live with him in the United States. He gave them the chance to have high school and college education. Later, as an adult, one of these children said that Gajdusek molested him as a child.

paragraphs: Gajdusek was charged with child molestation in April 1996. This was based on things in his own diary and what the victim told police. He said this was true in 1997 and was sent to jail for 12 months. After he got out of jail in 1998, he went to Europe. He never returned to the United States and lived in Amsterdam, Paris, and Tromsø. Gajdusek openly admitted molesting boys and his approval of incest.

paragraphs: Gajdusek died December 12, 2008 in Tromsø, Norway, at the age of 85.


title: GIS

paragraphs: GIS may stand for Geographic Information Sciences or for Geographic Information System. These are two different but related things in geography. The Geographic Information Sciences include many fields of knowledge that help to understand geographic information while a Geographic Information System is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data and allow for the study of "layers" of geographic information.

paragraphs: GIS also known as geographic information system is a computer system made for capturing and displaying positions on the earth’s surface and portraying data in many different ways on maps. Its main job is to help in analyzing groups of data and in finding correlations or patterns. For example a map could use GIS to find out the amount of rubbish in one area, and also include how many factories and types of factories are in that area.

paragraphs: GIS can store information about a location and help provide knowledge on many different topics in a location. Users can specify a place via latitude and longitude, postal code or address. Then GIS can provide information about the people in that area including: income, population and education levels. It can also tell about physical things such as soil types, vegetation, water sources, manmade structures like buildings and roads.


title: Mike Pelino (ice hockey)

paragraphs: Mike Pelino (born November 13, 1959 in Welland, Ontario) is a Canadian Ice hockey coach. He has been an assistant coach for the New York Rangers from 2004 until 2009. Pelino started his coaching career in the NHL as an assistant coach for the Florida Panthers in 2003. In 2010, he became the head coach of the Peterborough Petes in the OHL.

paragraphs: Since 2013, he has been working for the Metallurg as an assistant coach in KHL. In the 2013/2014 season the team won Gagarin's Cup and became the KHL champions.


title: Carl Sandburg

paragraphs: Carl Sandburg (January 6, 1878 – July 22, 1967) was an American poet. He won several awards, including three Pulitzer Prizes. He also wrote a biography of Abraham Lincoln. The majority of his poems were about the city of Chicago. He was born in Galesburg, Illinois.


title: Hard Again

paragraphs: Hard Again is a album by Muddy Waters. It was produced by Johnny Winter who also played guitar. The record was his first for Blue Sky Records. It was also the first studio album after he left Chess Records

paragraphs: The recordings lasted three days. For the recordings Muddy used his then current touring band of guitarist Bob Margolin, pianist Pinetop Perkins, and drummer Willie "Big Eyes" Smith. James Cotton played harmonica and Charles Calmeses the bass.

paragraphs: Three of the songs on the album – "Mannish Boy", "I Want to Be Loved", and "I Can't Be Satisfied" – were re-recordings of songs for Chess Records. One of the songs recorded, "The Blues Had a Baby and They Named It Rock and Roll, Pt. 2", was co-written by Brownie McGhee and another song, "Bus Driver", was co-written by T. Abrahamson.

paragraphs: An outtake from the recording sessions, "Walking Through the Park", appeared on the 2004 Legacy Recordings reissue CD, while several more unused tracks appeared on "King Bee" in 1981.

paragraphs: The album has been well received by several critics. Dan Oppenheimer of "Rolling Stone" magazine said that "Mannish Boy" sounded like it was recorded live while both Oppenheimer and Daniel Gioffre of Allmusic state how powerful Willie "Big Eyes" Smith's drumming is. Oppenheimer, Gioffre, and Robert Christgau all share the opinion that "Hard Again" is Muddy Waters comeback album.

paragraphs: "Hard Again" peaked at #143 on the "Billboard" 200, which was his first appearance on the chart since "Fathers and Sons" in 1969.

paragraphs: All songs written by McKinley Morganfield, except where others are noted.

paragraphs: The following people contributed to "Hard Again":


title: First Boer War

paragraphs: In the 19th Century Scramble for Africa, the British Empire tried to control all of southern Africa. They won control of the Cape of Good Hope in 1815 at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Many Boers (Dutch, German and French farmers) did not like Britain controlling the area. The British taxed them, made English the official language, and in 1834 abolished slavery. Some of the Boers moved north in the Great Trek and made a new country called the Orange Free State. In 1877 the British Army moved in to control the Orange Free State in pursuit of diamonds, one of the Orange Free State's rich natural resources. On 16 December 1880 the First Boer War began. It took ten weeks in 1880 and 1881. The British were defeated.

paragraphs: From 1896 to 1899 Governor of the Cape and High Commissioner for South Africa, Alfred Milner made preparations for another war in order to gain the wealth of the Orange Free State and in September 1899 British troops arrived in South Africa. Paul Kruger president of the Transvaal sent Britain an ultimatum asking strongly for their departure.

paragraphs: Boer farmers from Sandspruit, Volksrust, the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal fought in the war. As the Boers lost men in battle they recruited young boys and old men to fight. Black people also fought alongside the Boers in the war and they made up 20 to 25 percent of total Boer manpower. The German Empire was friendly to their cause, and the Boers used Krupp guns. Much of the fighting was on horseback. As the Boers lost battle after battle they were eventually forced to make peace on the 23rd of March, 1902, and surrender to British authority.


title: Lilly Ledbetter

paragraphs: Lilly Ledbetter (born Lilly McDaniel April 1938) was the plaintiff in the American employment discrimination case "Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co." She has since become a women's equality activist.

paragraphs: Goodyear paid Ledbetter significantly less than men holding the same job. This violated the Equal Pay Act of 1963 which said that she could sue to get the pay difference. Her lawsuit eventually reached the Supreme Court. The court said that she waited too long to sue Goodyear. In response to the court decision, Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, which is named after her. Under the new law, other women will be able to get backpay after employers keep pay discrimination secret.

paragraphs: United States Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsberg stated:Lilly

paragraphs: Ledbetter was a supervisor at Goodyear Tire and Rubber’s plant in Gadsden, Alabama, from 1979 until her retirement in 1998. For most of those years, she worked as an area manager, a position largely occupied by men. Initially, Ledbetter’s salary was in line with the salaries of men performing substantially similar work. Over time, however, her pay slipped in comparison to the pay of male area managers with equal or less seniority. By the end of 1997, Ledbetter was the only woman working as an area manager and the pay discrepancy between Ledbetter and her 15 male counterparts was stark: Ledbetter was paid $3,727 per month; the lowest paid male area manager received $4,286 per month, the highest paid, $5,236.

paragraphs: On August 26, 2008 (Women's Equality Day), Ledbetter spoke at the Democratic National Convention, on the topic of pay equity.

paragraphs: In June 2011, she dined with New York Congresswoman Carolyn Maloney, who introduced the Equal Rights Amendment the previous month, and Eleanor Smeal.


title: East Germany at the Olympics

paragraphs: The German Democratic Republic (GDR), or East Germany, sent athletes to the Olympic Games from 1956 until 1988. They have taken part in both the Summer and Winter Games. From 1956 through 1966, East German athletes were a part of a combined team from both East and West Germany. After 1966, the East Germans were a separate team. They won a total of 519 medals at the Olympics.

paragraphs: Germany was divided after World War II. Three separate states were created. German athletes tried to take part in the 1948 games but the Allies did not let this happen. Finally, in 1949, the National Olympic Committee for Germany was founded in the Western Federal Republic of Germany. The IOC accepted it as both of the larger two larger German states. The small, French-occupied Saarland and its NOC were separate until after 1955.

paragraphs: East German authorities of the "Nationales Olympisches Komitee für Ostdeutschland" did not send their athletes to the 1952 games in an all-German team. The wanted a team of their own. This was not allowed by the IOC.

paragraphs: East Germany agreed to take part in the 1956 Games. German athletes from the East and West Germany took part in the games in 1956, 1960 and 1964 as the United Team of Germany. This team was just called Germany at the time.

paragraphs: The GDR renamed their NOC to "Nationales Olympisches Komitee der DDR" in 1965. It was accepted by the IOC in 1968. At this point East Germany sent its own team to the Games. They did not take part in the in 1984 Summer Olympics due to the Soviet boycott.

paragraphs: Although East Germany had a small population of about 16 million, they did very well. From 1976 to 1988, they won the second most medals in each of their three summer Olympics, behind the Soviet Union. They did much better than the West Germany. In five winter games, they placed second four times and first in the 1984 Winter Olympics.

paragraphs: Many think that doping (mainly anabolic steroids) allowed East Germany to a world leader in sports for two decades. They won many Olympic and world gold medals but many athletes failed doping tests or were believed to be taking performance enhancing drugs. In many cases where doping was believed to happen, no proof was found so most of records and medals won by East German athletes still stand. Aside from doping, East Germany soent a lot of money on sporta - mainly Olympic sports. They did this for prestige, propaganda and rivalry with West Germany. The government did a lot of work to find and train athletes and coaches that they believed would do very well. This made it hard say that it was doping rather than very good performance that was the reason for them winning so much.

paragraphs: In 1990, the German reformed back into Germany. The "NOC of the GDR" joined the "NOC of Germany" on 17 November 1990. The German athletes took part in the Olympic Games in a single team again from 1992 forward. During the first decade after this, athletes from the Eastern part of Germany still won many of Germany's medals. This shows that doping was not the only reason East Germany did so well in the Olympics. It shows that their training conditions were also very important. As trainers and athletes started to move freely around the country, this difference between east and west became smaller.


title: Sonar

paragraphs: Sonar is a machine that uses underwater sound waves to find other objects in the sea. A sonar can work by sending out sound and listening for echoes (active sonar), like a radar, or by listening for sound made by the object it is trying to find (passive sonar).

paragraphs: The first use of passive sonar was in 1490 by Leonardo da Vinci, when he put a tube onto water and listened. Active sonar was first used in 1917 by Paul Langevin. The word "SONAR" was created during the Second World War as an acronym for Sound Navigation and Ranging. This acronym replaced the British acronym ASDIC. The word is now thought by many people as a regular word, no longer as an acronym.


title: Rococo

paragraphs: Rococo is an artistic style which originated in the 18th century in France. Often referred to merely as Late Baroque, the Rococo developed from the Baroque artistic movement. Whilst it kept several characteristics of the original style, including elaboration and ornate themes, it was also more playful and asymmetrical. The Rococo is associated with the reign of French king Louis XV (Louis XIV is associated with the Baroque, whilst Louis XVI with Neoclassicism, albeit his style started off as Rococo at the beginning of reign). Rococo's popularity was at its height towards the middle of the 18th century, fading out by the end in favour of Neoclassicism.

paragraphs: Rococo art and architecture was feminine, graceful, florid and ornate. Creamy and pastel-like colours were used for paintings, unlike the darker shades in Baroque art. Religion and politics were no longer necessarily the core theme of Rococo art, unlike the Baroque, and everyday life became more commonly represented. In such a way, Rococo art revolved around themes such as love, romance, fun, landscapes, and mere portraits. Additionally, Far Eastern themes became popular in Rococo, especially Chinoiserie. Famous Rococo artists include Boucher, Watteau and Fragonard, amongst several others.

paragraphs: The Rococo has been the focus of much discussion, analysis and criticism by art historians throughout history. It has been criticised over the years for being over-the-top, superficial and frivolous; in such a way, the term has even been used derogatively in various points of history. Nevertheless, Rococo art and theatre has also received praise for the elegance, "beauty", and "charm" of its artwork.


title: Azerbaijani food

paragraphs: Azerbaijani food is what people cook and eat in Azerbaijan. Foods from different cultures have influenced Azerbaijani food. However, it remained different from foods in other countries. Many foods that started in Azerbaijan are now part of other cultures. For the Azerbaijanis, food is an important part of the country's culture and is very connected with the history, traditions and values of the nation.

paragraphs: Out of 11 climate types in the world, Azerbaijan has nine. This adds to the fertility of the soil, so there are many kinds of vegetables used according to seasons and the dishes. The climate helps to create the richness of the food. Fresh herbs, including mint, coriander, dill, basil, parsley, tarragon, leek, chive, thyme, marjoram, green onion and watercress, are very popular and are often put in the main dishes. The Caspian Sea has many edible species of fish, including the sturgeon, Caspian salmon, kutum, sardines, grey mullet, and others. Black caviar from the Caspian Sea is one of Azerbaijan’s best known delicacies wanted in many parts of the world.

paragraphs: The main courses of Azerbaijani cuisine are over 30 kinds of soups, including those prepared from plain yogurt. One of the most famous dishes is plov. Plov is a saffron-covered rice, served with different herbs. The Azerbaijani cuisine has more than 40 different plov recipes. Other second courses include many kinds of kebabs and shashliks, including lamb, beef, chicken, and fish ("baliq") kebabs. Sturgeon, a common fish, is normally skewered (skewer is a thin metal or wood stick used to hold pieces of food together) and grilled as a shashlik, being served with a tart pomegranate sauce called "narsharab". Dried fruits and walnuts are used in many dishes. The traditional condiments are salt, the spices black pepper, sumac, and especially saffron. Much of the saffron comes from the Absheron Peninsula.

paragraphs: Black tea is the national drink, and is drunk after food is eaten. It is also popular on its own or with dried fruits.

paragraphs: Another popular drink is sherbet, a sweet cold drink made of fruit juice mixed or boiled with sugar, often perfumed with rose water. Azerbaijani sherbet is not sorbet, the cold dessert.


title: Genji

paragraphs: The "nengō" "Genji" means "original rule".


title: Kde domov můj?

paragraphs: "Kde domov můj" ( [ɡdɛ ˈdomof muːj] ) is the national anthem of the Czech Republic. It—combined with the lyrics of "Nad Tatrou sa blýska"—was used as the anthem of Czechoslovakia, and after Czechoslovakia splitted into Czechia and Slovakia, "Kde domov můj" became the anthem of the former (Czechia, the short-form name for the Czech Republic). It was created by Josef Kajetán Tyl and František Škroup in 1834 and was first published in the play "Fidlovačka aneb žádný hněv a žádná rvačka".

paragraphs: The lyrics were written by Fidlovačka in 1834. Only the first verse is used as the anthem.

paragraphs: This version was translated into English by Czech poet Václav Sládek (1845–1912).

paragraphs: Between 1918 and 1938 there was an official version in German by Karl Wenzel Ernst.

paragraphs: Between the same years there was an official version in Hungarian.


title: Synchrotron

paragraphs: A synchrotron is a type of particle accelerator where particles travel around many times in a circle. It uses a magnetic field to turn the particles in the circle and an electric field to speed up the particles. The components are carefully matched up with the travelling particle beam so that the circle stays the same size while the particles go faster. Mark Oliphant invented the proton synchrotron. Vladimir Veksler was the first to publish the idea. Edwin McMillan constructed the first electron synchrotron.

paragraphs: The synchrotron is an improvement over the cyclotron where the particles travel in a spiral pattern. A cyclotron uses a constant magnetic field and a constant-frequency applied electric field. (One of these is varied in the synchrocyclotron). Both of these fields are varied in the synchrotron to change the path from a spiral to a circle. By carefully making the fields bigger as the particles gain energy, the width of the circular path can be kept the same as the machine accelerates the particles. This allows the vacuum chamber for the particles to be a large thin circular pipe torus (donut shape). It is easier to use some straight sections between the bending magnets and some bent sections within the magnets giving the torus the shape of a round-cornered polygon. A path that acts like a very large circle can be constructed using simple straight and curved pipe segments, unlike the disc-shaped chamber of the cyclotron type devices. The shape also requires the use of multiple magnets to bend the particle beams. Straight sections are required at spacings around a ring for both radiofrequency cavities, and in third generation setups space is allowed for insertion of energy extraction devices such as wigglers and undulators. Most synchrotrons use two types of magnets: dipole magnets to bend the particle beam and quadrupole magnets to focus the beam.

paragraphs: The maximum energy that a cyclic accelerator can impart is typically limited by the strength of the magnetic field(s) and the minimum radius (maximum curvature) of the particle path. So, over time, physicist have built accelerators with bigger magnets and larger circles to reach higher particle energy levels.

paragraphs: In a cyclotron, the maximum radius is quite limited as the particles start at the center and spiral outward. So, the entire path must be a self-supporting disc-shaped vacuum chamber. Since the radius is limited, the power of the machine becomes limited by the strength of the magnetic field. In the case of an ordinary electromagnet the field strength is limited by the saturation of the core (when all magnetic domains are lined up the same way, the field cannot not be further increased to any practical extent). The arrangement of the single pair of magnets the full width of the device also limits the economic size of the device.

paragraphs: Synchrotrons overcome these limits, using a narrow beam pipe which can be surrounded by much smaller and more tightly focusing magnets. The ability of this device to accelerate particles is limited by the fact that the particles must be charged to be accelerated at all, but charged particles under acceleration emit photons (light particles), which makes them lose energy. The limiting beam energy is reached when the energy lost to the lateral (bending) acceleration required to maintain the beam path in a circle equals the energy added each cycle. More powerful accelerators are built by using large radius paths and by using more numerous and more powerful microwave cavities to accelerate the particle beam between corners. Lighter particles (such as electrons) lose a larger fraction of their energy when turning. Practically speaking, the energy of electron/positron accelerators is limited by this radiation loss, while it does not play a significant role in the dynamics of proton or ion accelerators. The energy of those is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost.

paragraphs: Particles are injected into the main ring at substantial energies by either a linear accelerator (linac) or by an intermediate synchrotron which is in turn fed by a linear accelerator. The "linac" is in turn fed by particles accelerated to intermediate energy by a simple high voltage power supply, typically a Cockcroft-Walton generator.

paragraphs: Particles are designed to leave the linac at a specified speed ("injection velocity") for entry into the synchrotron. The operators calculate the magnetic field strength needed to steer particles with the injection velocity on the path of the synchrotron. The operators give the electromagnets enough current to create the right amount of magnetic field strength.

paragraphs: Starting from that initial magnetic field strength, the magnetic field is then increased. The particles pass through an electrostatic accelerator driven by a high alternating voltage. At particle speeds not close to the speed of light the frequency of the accelerating voltage can be made roughly proportional to the current in the bending magnets. A finer control of the frequency is performed by a servo loop which responds to the detection of the passing of the traveling group of particles. At particle speeds approaching light speed the frequency becomes more nearly constant, while the current in the bending magnets continues to increase. The maximum energy that can be applied to the particles (for a given ring size and magnet count) is determined by the saturation of the cores of the bending magnets (the point at which increasing current does not produce additional magnetic field). One way to obtain additional power is to make the torus larger and add additional bending magnets. This allows the amount of particle redirection at saturation to be less and so the particles can be more energetic. Another means of obtaining higher power is to use superconducting magnets, these not being limited by core saturation.

paragraphs: When the particles have reached their maximum energy, they are steered out of the synchrotron and aimed at a target. Early synchrotrons used stationary targets. In order to double the energy of a collision, physicists in the 1970s began to collide two particle beams travelling in the opposite direction instead of just one beam and a stationary target. To have two beams that are travelling in the synchrontron in opposite directions, they used particles with the same mass but with the opposite sign. For example, electrons and positrons or protons and antiprotons.

paragraphs: One of the early large synchrotrons, now retired, is the Bevatron, constructed in 1950 at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. The name of this proton accelerator comes from its power, in the range of 6.3 GeV (then called BeV for billion electron volts; the name predates the adoption of the SI prefix giga-). A number of heavy elements, unseen in the natural world, were first created with this machine. This site is also the location of one of the first large bubble chambers used to examine the results of the atomic collisions produced by the machine.

paragraphs: Another early large synchrotron is the Cosmotron built at Brookhaven National Laboratory which reached 3.3 GeV in 1953. The first Cornell University synchrotron was built before 1950 with a power of 300 MeV.

paragraphs: Until August 2008, the highest energy synchrotron in the world was the Tevatron, at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, in the United States. It accelerates protons and antiprotons to slightly less than 1 TeV of kinetic energy and collides them together. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which has been built at the European Laboratory for High Energy Physics (CERN), has roughly seven times this energy (so proton-proton collisions occur at roughly 14 TeV). It is housed in the 27 km tunnel which formerly housed the Large Electron Positron (LEP) collider, so it will maintain the claim as the largest scientific device ever built. The LHC will also accelerate heavy ions (such as lead) up to an energy of 1.15 PeV.

paragraphs: The largest device of this type seriously proposed was the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC), which was to be built in Texas. This design, like others, used superconducting magnets which allow more intense magnetic fields to be created without the limitations of core saturation. Its planned ring circumference was 87.1 kilometres (54.1 mi) with an energy of 20 TeV per beam of protons. Construction was begun in 1991 but later cancelled in 1994. The project had been poorly managed. Some people say that the end of the Cold War resulted in a change of scientific funding priorities that contributed to its ultimate cancellation.

paragraphs: While there is still potential for yet more powerful proton and heavy particle cyclic accelerators, it appears that the next step up in electron beam energy must avoid losses due to synchrotron radiation. This will require a return to the linear accelerator, but with devices significantly longer than those currently in use. There is at present a major effort to design and build the International Linear Collider (ILC), which will consist of two opposing linear accelerators, one for electrons and one for positrons. These will collide at a total center of mass energy of 0.5 TeV.

paragraphs: However, synchrotron radiation also has a wide range of applications (see synchrotron light) and many 2nd and 3rd generation synchrotrons have been built especially to harness it. The largest of those 3rd generation synchrotron light sources are the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, the Advanced Photon Source (APS) near Chicago, USA, and SPring-8 in Japan, accelerating electrons up to 6, 7 and 8 GeV, respectively.

paragraphs: Synchrotrons which are useful for cutting edge research are large machines, costing tens or hundreds of millions of dollars to construct, and each beamline (there may be 20 to 50 at a large synchrotron) costs another two or three million dollars on average. These installations are mostly built by the science funding agencies of governments of developed countries, or by collaborations between several countries in a region, and operated as infrastructure facilities available to scientists from universities and research organisations throughout the country, region, or world. More compact models, however, have been developed, such as the Compact Light Source.