title: Michael Jackson

paragraphs: Michael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, and dancer, who was one of the most famous and successful musicians of all time. He was referred to as the "King of Pop", and was one of the most influential entertainers in the history of pop music. He was the best-selling music artist during the year of his death. His contributions to music, dance, and fashion along with his publicized personal life made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades.

paragraphs: Jackson started performing with his older brothers Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon in The Jackson 5 in 1964. In 1971, he started a solo career while also being a member of The Jackson 5. He made the highest-selling album of all time, "Thriller" in 1982, with estimated sales of 66 million copies worldwide. The video for "Thriller" showed him dancing like a zombie and other dancers around him were zombies as well. "Thriller", which includes famous songs like "Beat It" and "Billie Jean" has sold 110 million copies worldwide. The popularity of these videos helped bring the television channel MTV to fame. Jackson wrote other well-known songs such as "Bad", "Black or White", "Heal the World" and "Earth Song". Through music videos and live performances, he is known for popularizing dance moves such as the robot and the moonwalk. He won a lot of awards and broke many records. Guinness World Records says he is the most successful entertainer of all time. Jackson is also remembered for giving money to charities and pioneering efforts in charitable fundraising in the entertainment industry. Jackson traveled the world attending events honoring his humanitarianism, and, in 2000, the "Guinness World Records" recognized him for supporting 39 charities, more than any other entertainer.

paragraphs: His other studio albums, including "Off the Wall" (1979), "Bad" (1987), "Dangerous" (1991), "" (1995) and "Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix "(1997) also rank among the world's best selling albums. He released his last studio album "Invincible" (2001).

paragraphs: Aspects of Jackson's personal life, including his changing appearance, personal relationships, and behavior, generated controversy. He was accused of child sexual abuse in 1993, but the case was settled out of court. In 2003, Jackson was charged with child sexual abuse by Garvin Arvizo. In 2005, Jackson was found not guilty of all charges. While preparing for his comeback concert series, "This Is It", Jackson died of an overdose of propofol on June 25, 2009 after having a cardiac arrest. Jackson's doctor, Conrad Murray, was convicted of involuntary manslaughter. On July 7, there was a memorial service for Jackson. It was on television and 2.5-3 billion people watched it. This made it the most watched funeral ever.

paragraphs: Michael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29, 1958, at St Mary's Mercy Hospital in Gary, Indiana to a family of Jehovah's Witnesses. He was the eighth of Katherine and Joe Jackson's ten children. Jackson's father Joseph was a steel mill worker.

paragraphs: On January 1 1964, Jackson and his brother Marlon joined their older brothers Jackie, Tito, and Jermaine's band, The Jackson Brothers, in the band's first public performance. Jackson was six years old.

paragraphs: When Jackson was 8, he started being the band's main singer with Jermaine. The group's name then changed to The Jackson 5. The group won an important talent show in 1966. In 1968 they were signed to a famous record label called Motown Records. Their first Motown single "I Want You Back" was No.1 in the US.

paragraphs: In 1971, Jackson released his first song singing on his own, "Got to Be There" from his album "Got to Be There". It reached No.4 in the "Billboard" 100. Three more singles were released from the album.

paragraphs: On August 4, 1972, his second album "Ben" was released. The single "Ben" was his first solo No.1.

paragraphs: In 1974, Jackson hosted the first American Music Awards with Donny Osmond, Rodney Allen Rippy, and Ricky Segall.

paragraphs: In 1975, The Jackson 5 left Motown. They were signed to CBS Records in June 1975. On CBS Records they changed their name to The Jacksons.

paragraphs: In 1976, The Jacksons got their own TV show on CBS. The show was cancelled in March 1977.

paragraphs: On October 24, 1978 a movie called "The Wiz" was released. The movie was a remake of "The Wizard of Oz" with all black actors. Jackson acted as Scarecrow.

paragraphs: On December 17 1978 The Jacksons' twelfth album was released. It was the first album they had produced. Jackson wrote the album's second single "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)" with Randy Jackson. It reached No.7 in the US Hot 100.

paragraphs: In December 1978, Jackson started making his first solo album on Epic Records, "Off the Wall" with Quincy Jones. It was released on August 10, 1979. The album got good reviews and a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance.

paragraphs: The Jacksons' thirteenth album "Triumph" was released 1980.

paragraphs: In 1982 Jackson made "Somewhere in the Dark" for the E.T. soundtrack. It won a Grammy for Best Recording for Children in 1984. That year Jackson won seven other Grammys for his album "Thriller".

paragraphs: On October 18 1982 the first single from "Thriller", "The Girl Is Mine", was released. It was sung with Paul McCartney. Some people thought that the album wasn't going to be very good because of the song.

paragraphs: Jackson's sixth solo album "Thriller" was released on November 30, 1982. Jackson didn't do a tour for the album. This album went on to become the best-selling album of all time.

paragraphs: In 1983 Jackson made three songs with Freddie Mercury.

paragraphs: "Somebody's Watching Me", a single by Rockwell with Jackson singing on the chorus, was released January 14, 1984. It reached number one in Spain and France.

paragraphs: On January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi Cola commercial. Michael's hair caught on fire and he was rushed to hospital. Pepsi gave Jackson $1.5 million. He gave it to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City, California. In May 1984 "Farewell My Summer Love", a song that Jackson made it 1973, was released as a single. It reached number seven in the UK Singles Chart.

paragraphs: The Jacksons' album "Victory" was released on July 2, 1984. Between July and December 1984 Jackson toured with his brothers. He won eight awards at the 1984 American Music Awards, the most anyone has ever won at once. He also won Best International Solo Artist and Best International Album at the BRIT Awards.

paragraphs: Jermaine Jackson released his tenth album, "Jermaine Jackson". Michael sang on a song from the album, "Tell Me I'm Not Dreaming' (Too Good to Be True)". It was nominated for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 1985 Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: In August 1985, Jackson bought music publisher ATV Music for $47.5 million. They owned the rights to The Beatles.

paragraphs: Jackson wrote "We Are the World" with Lionel Richie in 1985. The song was recorded by USA for Africa. It was released as a single around the world to make money to give to starving people in Africa. It sold over 20 million copies. It also won four Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: In August 1987, "Bad" was released. Jackson wanted it to sell 100 million copies. It has sold over 45 million copies. Five of the album's seven singles were No.1 in the US. They were "I Just Can't Stop Loving You", "Bad", "The Way You Make Me Feel", "Man in the Mirror" and "Dirty Diana". Until Katy Perry's success with her 2010 album "Teenage Dream", Jackson was the only musician to ever have had that many singles from one album be No.1. From September 1987 to January 1989, Jackson did the Bad World Tour. This was the first tour that he did on his own. In 1988 "Moonwalk", a book that Jackson wrote about his life, was published. It took Jackson four years to write. The book sold 200,000 copies. Jackson then released "Moonwalker", a movie he made. In 1989 some video games about the movie were released by U.S. Gold.

paragraphs: In 1986, Disneyland and EPCOT started showing a short film called "Captain EO" that had Jackson in it.

paragraphs: Jackson sang "You Were There" at Sammy Davis Jr.'s 60th birthday. He was nominated for an Emmy Award for it.

paragraphs: The Jacksons released their last album "2300 Jackson Street" in 1989. Michael sung on the album's second single "2300 Jackson Street" with his brothers and two of their sisters, Janet and Rebbie. Michael was also in the music video for the song.

paragraphs: Jackson won the Grammy Award for Best Music Video, Short Form in 1989 for "Leave Me Alone".

paragraphs: Jackson's eighth studio album "Dangerous" was released November 26 1991. It was produced with Teddy Riley. It is a new jack swing album. It was Jackson's first album to have a rapper on it. Nine singles were released from the album. On June 27, 1992 Jackson started the Dangerous World Tour. All of the money Jackson made from the tour was given to charities such as the Heal the World Foundation, having grossed $100 million, Jackson performed to 3.5 million people in 70 concerts. The tour was supposed to last until Christmas 1992. However, Jackson ended the tour on November 11, 1993 because he was ill and needed to go to hospital. Jackson performed at the halftime show at Super Bowl XXVII in January 1993.

paragraphs: "", Jackson's ninth studio album, was released July 16 1995. The album has two discs. The first disc is a collection of some of his greatest hits. The second disc is fifteen songs recorded in late 1994 and early 1995. Thirteen of the songs are new. Two of them are cover versions. In August 1995 the album's single "You Are Not Alone" became the first single ever to go straight to No.1 in the US. "HIStory" won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. The video for the single "Scream" went in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the most expensive short film ever made. In 1996, he started his HIStory World Tour and ended in 1997. Jackson performed 82 concerts in five continents, 35 countries and 58 cities to over 4.5 million fans, and grossed a total of $165 million, becoming Jackson's most successful tour in terms of audience figures. Jackson released a short film called Ghosts in 1997. He wrote it with Stephen King.

paragraphs: In 1997, "" was released. It is the best-selling remix album ever made. There were five new songs on the album. The album's first single was a new song called "Blood on the Dancefloor". The album and its first single were No.1 in the UK.

paragraphs: Jackson won Artist of the 1980s at the American Music Awards in 2000.

paragraphs: On October 30, 2001 "Invincible", Jackson's last studio album, was released. The album got good and bad reviews. It was No.1 in 12 countries and sold 13 million copies around the world. But compared to Jackson's earlier albums, it was unsuccessful. The album's first single "You Rock My World" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance.

paragraphs: Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century in 2002.

paragraphs: On November 17, 2003 an album called "Number Ones" was released. It is a collection of Jackson's hits. There is also a new song on the album called "One More Chance". It was released as a single. It reached number one in three countries. The album was released as a DVD too.

paragraphs: In 2006 Sony released twenty of Jackson's popular singles.

paragraphs: In March 2009, Jackson told the press that he was going to do a tour called This Is It. He said that he might stop making music after this. Jackson practiced his singing and dancing for the tour in Los Angeles with Kenny Ortega. Jackson died of an overdose of propofol on June 25, 2009 after having a cardiac arrest, and his personal physician, Conrad Murray, was convicted of involuntary manslaughter.

paragraphs: During an Interview on YouTube during the BBC UK Show featuring ""Michael Jackson's This Is It" Michael talked about the future of his career and that he "may" be retiring after his "This is It" Tour, but he wasn't sure if he would or not. However, due to his death in 2009, the show was cancelled. Some show-goers who paid for tickets wanted refunds but the Jackson Estate did not provide any.

paragraphs: Jackson's voice changed from boy soprano to high tenor between 1971 and 1975. He sang 'come on' wrongly on purpose so that it sounded like 'shamone'. Jackson had a three-octave vocal range. He is the most well-known musician to use the 'vocal hiccup'. He first used it in 1973 on "It's Too Late to Change the Time" on The Jackson 5's "" album.

paragraphs: Jackson lived a well-publicized personal life even though he tried to stay private. He was often in celebrity and tabloid magazines. Later in his life he was in magazines because of his personal life more than for his music.

paragraphs: In 1993, he was accused of child molestation, but there was no trial; the case was settled out of court.

paragraphs: In 2003, he was accused a second time of child molestation. This happened after a documentary called "Living with Michael Jackson" was shown on TV. In the documentary Jackson held hands with a 12-year-old boy called Gavin Arvizo and said that he shared his bed with children. His accuser was Gavin Arvizo. He was 13 years old when he made the allegations. This time Jackson went to court and was found not guilty of fourteen charges in 2005.

paragraphs: In May 2013, a dancer called Wade Robson appeared on the "Today" show. He alleged that Jackson sexually abused him for 7 years. Prior to this, Robson had vehemently defended Jackson. Including twice under oath.

paragraphs: He was married to Lisa Marie Presley, the daughter of Elvis Presley in 1994, before divorcing her in 1995 and marrying nurse Debbie Rowe in 1996. Three months after Rowe and Jackson's marriage she gave birth to a son, Michael Joseph Jackson Jr. The next year she gave birth to a daughter, Paris-Michael Katherine Jackson.

paragraphs: The couple divorced on October 8, 1999. Prince Michael II was born on February 21, 2002. Jackson never said who the mother was. He is better known as Blanket. When Blanket was 8 months old Jackson held him over a balcony. Blanket has a towel over his head. At the time, people did not know that he was called Blanket. Jackson made a public apology after people were upset. After Jackson died, his mother Katherine was made the guardian of his children. In August 2012 Jackson's cousin TJ was made the children's co-guardian.

paragraphs: Bubbles (born 1983) is a common chimpanzee, known for being the one-time pet of American recording artist Michael Jackson. Jackson bought the animal from a Texas research facility in the 1980s. The animal was a frequent travel companion to the singer, whose attachment to the animal led to media mockery and, among other factors, to a public perception of Jackson as an eccentric. The chimp, for example, was permitted to use Jackson's personal toilet.

paragraphs: Their human-animal bond, as well as the entertainer's other alleged eccentricities, contributed to the media epithet "Wacko Jacko", a nickname Jackson would eventually come to despise. The media often focused on Bubbles, rather than on Jackson's music, and published many false stories regarding the animal. One such story was an allegation that Bubbles was not a single ape, but one of several.

paragraphs: Over the years, his changing facial appearance and lightening skin color attracted much attention. From childhood Jackson had afro hair. His hair caught fire during the filming of a Pepsi commercial in 1983. Jackson got second-degree burns to his scalp. Jackson started taking painkillers for the very bad pain caused by the burns. Jackson always wore a wig in his later years. His autopsy found that his scalp was tattooed black so that it blended in with his wigs.

paragraphs: He claimed to have had only a little plastic surgery to his face. He said that puberty, weight loss, and his vegetarian diet had changed his face. People said that Jackson bleached his skin to make it lighter. In a television interview with Oprah Winfrey in 1993 he said he had a rare skin condition called vitiligo. When Jackson died, the autopsy found that he did have vitiligo. Jackson also had an immune condition called discoid lupus. Dr. Richard Strick said that this "had destroyed part of the skin of his nose". Jackson's nose was the body part that people talked about most.

paragraphs: Jackson was addicted to prescription drugs. In 2009 he died from an overdose of an anaesthetic called propofol. He was given propofol for his insomnia. The insomnia was a side effect of Jackson's addiction to Demerol. Jackson's doctor Conrad Murray said that Jackson took the overdose himself.

paragraphs: In his autopsy, it was found that he had an and osteoarthiritis. His lips were tattooed pink. He used a skin-bleaching cream called Benoquin.

paragraphs: Jackson was physically abused by his father when he was a child. He would also call Jackson "big-nose". As a teenager Jackson had acne. In "Living With Michael Jackson," Jackson told Martin Bashir how he went home and cried after a woman called him ugly because of his acne. Some medical professionals have said that they think Jackson had body dysmorphic disorder. The disorder is often triggered by appearance-related bullying. Some people think that Jackson had anorexia nervosa. In 1984, Jackson weighed 105 pounds. He was 5"9 tall. This would have made his BMI 15.5, which is very underweight. He weighed 136 lbs when he died. This is in the healthy range.

paragraphs: A biographer called Ian Halperin wrote that Jackson had a rare genetic disease called Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. By the time of his death, it had damaged his lungs so he could not sing. He also wrote that Jackson's genetic disease had caused him to lose 95% of the vision in his left eye.

paragraphs: Jackson's doctor Conrad Murray said that he thought Jackson was "legally blind" and had phlebitis.

paragraphs: Jackson was announced dead at age 50 on June 25, 2009 at 2:25 pm at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. It is thought that he went into cardiac arrest, which means his heart stopped. At 4:36 pm local time, the Los Angeles coroner confirmed Jackson's death. However, he was unresponsive by 12:15, even though he was not proclaimed dead at the time of hospital arrival, he already passed on by 1pm. Jackson died just two months before his 51st birthday. Rumors and news of Jackson's death broke web records causing a cyberspace traffic jam. The circumstances of his death and the outpouring of grief which was experienced around the world were on record scales never seen before. His death gave Google, Twitter, Facebook, and Yahoo the most page views they had ever encounted. Jackson arrived at the hospital not showing any signs of life.

paragraphs: A memorial service was held at the Staples Center in downtown Los Angeles on July 7, 2009. It began with a reading of a letter by Smokey Robinson of comments by Nelson Mandela, Diana Ross and other close friends of Michael Jackson who could not be at the memorial. Mariah Carey sang "I'll Be There" at the memorial service, followed by a speech given by Queen Latifah. Lionel Richie performed "Jesus is Love". Berry Gordy, Motown founder, spoke next, offering condolences. Kobe Bryant and Magic Johnson also spoke, with Magic describing the event as a "celebration of Jackson's life and works" rather than a funeral. Jennifer Hudson sung "Will You Be There" accompanied by a music video. Reverend Al Sharpton then gave a speech about how Jackson kept rising and "never stopped". John Mayer played the guitar as he did in Michael Jackson's song Human Nature. This was followed by Brooke Shields speaking. Jermaine Jackson, Jackson's older brother, then performed Smile, Michael's favorite song written by comic drama legend Charlie Chaplin. This was proceeded by speeches by Martin Luther King III and Bernice King. Congresswoman Sheila Jackson Lee was the next person who spoke at the memorial service, claiming "people are innocent until proven guilty," (reminding those who accused Jackson of unproven child molestations) saying that Jackson's humanitarian efforts need to be praised. Usher then sang "Gone Too Soon," followed by a montage of old videos of Jackson himself. Shahim sang next, with Kenny Ortega introducing him afterwards. Kenny Ortega explained that Michael Jackson saw the Staples Center as his home, a reason for the funeral service to be held there. This was followed by Kenny Ortega doing a tribute to him, including "We Are the World" and "Heal the World". The service ended with speeches by members of his family, including Jermaine, Marlon and daughter Paris who broke into tears and said that "Daddy was the best father anyone could have" and also that "I will miss him" then she left the microphone and turned into Janet Jackson's arms. The memorial lasted over 2 hours.

paragraphs: At first, Michael Jackson's custom made quarter million dollar golden casket, nicknamed "The Promethean" was not expected to appear at the memorial service, however, due to a change in the family's plans the casket was taken to the memorial service.

paragraphs: Viewing parties were held all over the world for the broadcast, including at several movie theaters, in Times Square, the Apollo Theater, Raleigh, and Berlin. The broadcast was replayed a few times the next day. An estimated 1 billion people tuned into the farewell concert.

paragraphs: Over 3,000 police officers were assigned to the event, the largest amount assigned to a single event since the 1984 Summer Olympics. It cost the City of Los Angeles 1.4 million dollars.

paragraphs: His funeral took place in Glendale California on September 3, 2009, 9 weeks after he died. He was laid to rest at 9:45pm in the mausoleum, above the ground. Mother Katherine decided on burial details but some family members and friends wanted him buried below ground in the mausoleum. Jermaine Jackson wanted him buried on Neverland ranch.

paragraphs: Although he died in 2009, Jackson is still often in the news. His music is also still popular.

paragraphs: Jackson won Entertainer of the Year at the 2009 Soul Train Awards. That year he also won five American Music Awards.

paragraphs: On October 26, 2009 a two-disc album called "Michael Jackson's This Is It" was released. The album's only single "This Is It" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance in 2011.

paragraphs: On October 28, 2009 "Michael Jackson's This Is It" was released. It was a documentary movie. The movie showed recordings of Jackson's rehearsals for his This Is It tour. Jackson died before he could do the tour. It made $72,091,016 in the United States. It has made $261,183,588 around the world. It got good reviews from movie critics. On 26 January 2010 the movie was released on DVD. It sold over 1.5million copies in the US in the first week it was released. This was more than any other music DVD had sold in its first week.

paragraphs: Jackson won the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2010. His children, Prince and Paris collected the award for Jackson.

paragraphs: A video game called "" was released in November 2010 for the Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable and Wii.

paragraphs: In April 2011 Mohamed Al-Fayed, who was friends with Jackson when he was alive, showed the public a 7 ft 6in statue of Jackson outside Craven Cottage football stadium. A lot of people did not like the statue. In July 2013 Fayed sold his football club to Shahid Khan. In September 2013 Khan chose to have the statue was removed. It was given back to Fayed. "Man in the Music: The Creative Life and Work of Michael Jackson", a book written by Joseph Vogel about Jackson's life, was published in 2011.

paragraphs: Jackson was voted as the Greatest Singer of All Time by people who did a poll on NME.com.

paragraphs: In 2011 there was a criminal trial for Jackson's doctor Conrad Murray. Murray was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter of Jackson. He was sentenced to four years in prison. On October 28, 2013 Murray was released from prison. He was interviewed by 60 Minutes. He said that he did not think that Jackson's death was his fault in any way. The journalist Liz Hayes asked Murray if he thought that Jackson was a pedophile. Murray stared at her for 13 seconds and would not give an opinion. He said that he would not answer because he did not want to make anything up.

paragraphs: An extinct species of hermit crab was called Mesoparapylocheles michaeljacksoni after Jackson in January 2012.

paragraphs: "Bad 25", a documentary movie about Jackson's album "Bad", was released in August 2012.

paragraphs: In 2012 he sold almost 819,000 albums in the United States. He is thought to have sold 2.7 million albums around the world in 2012. His estate makes $145 million a year.

paragraphs: Jackson made more money than any other dead celebrity in 2013.

paragraphs: In May 2013 Wade Robson said that Jackson sexually abused him from the age of 7 to 14. In 2005 he had been a defense witness for Jackson's child molestation trial. In June 2014 there will be a hearing where it is decided whether Robson can sue Jackson's estate over the abuse.

paragraphs: In November 2013 "Billboard" magazine's issue 44 did a cover with Michael on it. It said 'Life After Death'. Inside the magazine there was an article about the success of .

paragraphs: In January 2014 a judge ruled that Jackson's family could not have another trial against AEG Live. "Xscape" will be released on May 9, 2014.

paragraphs: Jackson recorded several songs before his death. He had recently released a compilation album called "Michael" featuring remixed songs and new songs such as "Hold My Hand" a duet between him and popular singer Akon, and "Monster", a strong song with lots of attitude and a hint of dislike for the paparazzi. Also "(I Like) The Way You Love Me", "Keep Your Head Up" and "Much Too Soon".


title: Portable

paragraphs: Something that is portable can be carried or easily moved. The word portable may also refer to:


title: History of graphic design

paragraphs: Graphics (from Greek ) are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or stone. It includes everything that relates to creation of signs, charts, logos, graphs, drawings, symbols, geometric designs and so on.

paragraphs: Graphic design is the art or profession of combining text and pictures in art, advertisements, publications, or websites. The aim of graphics is to brand, inform, and have a specific effect on its audience.

paragraphs: Hundreds of graphic designs of animals were made by primitive people in Chauvet cave, in the south of France, about 30,000 BC. Also, similar art was done in the Lascaux cave, France, about 14,000 BC. The art of primitive hunters is found in the rocks of Bhimbetka in India, drawn earlier than 7000 BC. Aboriginal rock art in Kakadu National Park of Australia, show that graphics has a long history in many parts of the world. This history (with writing, which emerged in 3000–4000 BC) are the foundation of graphic art.

paragraphs: Religious books have used graphics extensively. Among these books are Bibles that were created in the monasteries in Ireland, Scotland, and England. Spiralling and interlocking patterns, often including small figures, were part of the ancient graphic tradition of the British Isles. From the 6th century onwards these were applied to the decoration of illuminated gospels.

paragraphs: In Islamic countries the graphic designs can be found in their holy book, the Quran. The Quran was first wriiten an angled style called Kufi. This appeared in the 8th century, and reached its peak in the 10th century. Later on decoration of margin, page and other graphic techniques were added to beautify the book. In the 12th century the Naskh script was invented: it used curves instead of angled lines. Other styles were added later on.

paragraphs: From ancient times graphic design has been used for decoration of pottery and ceramics.

paragraphs: William Morris had an influence on modern graphics. In the second half of 19th century his Kelmscott Press produced many graphic designs, and created a collector market for this kind of art. In Oxford he was associated with artists like Burne-Jones, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. They formed the Pre-Raphaelites group, whose ideas influenced modern graphic design considerably.

paragraphs: The Dutch painter Piet Mondrian in the years 1920–21 courageously introduced the style of minimalism in painting. His simple geometric compositions, together with the use of only three basic colors, blue, yellow, and red, in combination with black and white created

paragraphs: a new venue for the graphic designers. He demonstrated that with simple relocation of these colors, and experimenting with the proportionality of various square surfaces, one can achieve extremely different ambiances and various feelings. For the graphic designers who intend to convey a message with a minimum interference from the extraneous elements his experiment in minimalism was a valuable gift.

paragraphs: A trademark, identified by the symbols ™ and ®, or mark is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, company or other entity to identify its products or services and to distinguish them from those of other producers. A trademark is a type of intellectual property, and typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements.

paragraphs: In 1921, Otto Neurath, an Austrian social scientist, introduced graphic design to help the understanding of social and economical data. In 1925, the Museum of Economy and Society used such graphics for the public. This style of presentation at the time was called the Viennese method, but now it is known as Isotype charts.

paragraphs: Placards and posters existed from ancient times. The Greek "axons" and the Roman "Albums", with their decorative designs and announcements, were quite similar to today's posters. In ancient Greece the names of athletes and games schedules were written on columns that were slowly turning on an axis. Romans used whitewashed walls in their markets in which sellers, money lenders, and slave traders wrote their announcements and advertised for their products, and to attract the attention of customers they added an attractive design.

paragraphs: With the invention of printing, in 1440, and particularly the development of the lithographic process, invented by a Czech named Alois Senefelder in 1798 in Austria, creation of posters became feasible. Although handmade posters existed before, they were mainly used for government announcements. William Caxton, who in 1477 started a printing company in England, produced the first printed poster.

paragraphs: In 1870, the advertising poster emerged.

paragraphs: After the Second World War, with the emergence of new color printing technology and particularly appearance of computers, the art of posters underwent a new revolutionary phase. People can create color posters on their laptop computers and create color prints at a very low cost. Unfortunately, the high cost of sophisticated printing processes can only be afforded mostly by government entities and large corporations. With the emergence of the internet, the role of posters in conveying information has greatly diminished. However, some artists still use chromolithography in order to create works of art in the form of print. In this regard the difference between painting and print has been narrowed considerably.

paragraphs: Today graphic design has penetrated into all aspects of modern life. In particular modern architecture has been influenced by graphics.


title: Pornography

paragraphs: Pornography (or porn) is the name for writing, pictures, and films which feature sex for the sole or primary purpose of arousing people sexually, either to help them masturbate, or to prepare them for sex with a partner.

paragraphs: When, however, writing, images, and movies feature or deal with sex, or images show naked people or persons engaged in a sexual act, not to arouse readers or viewers sexually, but to deal with sex as a reality that is moral, psychological, cultural, or aesthetic, people do not call such works "pornography," but "erotica."

paragraphs: In the law of most countries, showing naked people is not called "pornography" unless the people are doing something sexual; even so, material that counts as pornographic may still be legal. When people consider photographs or movies to harm or to disrespect the people depicted or the viewers, or to violate the community's moral or religious standards, they condemn the material as "obscene." Most countries have laws against obscenity. One type of pornography against the law in most countries is child pornography.

paragraphs: Pornography can made in different media. Some ways include photos, drawings, paintings, animations, and movies. Live shows (like sex shows or striptease) are usually not considered pornography. Pornography is made to entertain adults. Many people are involved in the industry of making, selling or showing pornography. People shown in pornographic movies are called pornographic actors (or actresses), and when they attain the popularity to appear in any films, they are called "porn stars."

paragraphs: In 2018, "lesbian" and "Japanese" were the most searched.

paragraphs: The word "pornography" comes from the Greek words meaning "prostitute" and "writing". The word was first used for stories about sex, but is now also used for photographs, paintings, illustrations, cartoons, and movies that depict sex to arouse people to sexual activity. It is also called "porn" or "porno" for short.

paragraphs: There are different ideas about what is and what is not pornography. Diana Russell, a psychologist, says that there is a difference between pornography and erotica. The word "erotica" is often used for pictures, movies or stories that focus on the beauty of sexuality. There is not often a clear difference between "erotica" and "pornography." The dispute over what is or is not pornography can even go to the courts.

paragraphs: Some people believe that anything that shows a naked body is a type of pornography. The laws of the United States and many other countries do not support this. There can be all sorts of reasons for showing a naked or partly undressed body. Some of these reasons include art work or a medical diagram.

paragraphs: There are different kinds of pornography. The term "soft porn" is sometimes used for pictures that show people who may or may not be naked, but who are posed in a sexy manner. Pictures of women like this are sometimes called "cheesecake," and pictures of men are called "beefcake." Pornographic pictures or movies which show people having sex are sometimes called "hard porn."

paragraphs: Businesses have been making pornography for many years. Until the 1970s, businesses making pornography were small because there were many laws against it. In the 1970s, pornographic magazines such as "Penthouse" became a huge and successful business. Pornographic movies also become popular at this time. In the 1980s, the creation of the video cassette recorder caused a rise in the pornography business. A number of companies began making pornographic videotapes in the United States. In the 1990s, as more people began using the Internet, businesses began selling pornographic pictures on the Internet. In the 2000s, the increased speed of computers allowed pornography companies to sell porn videos over the Internet. The pornography brand Mitchell Gaffney was the first website that contained such items.

paragraphs: Many different kinds of businesses make and sell pornography: magazines such as Playboy and Hustler, movie companies such as Vivid Video, and web sites, such as Pornhub, that make and sell porn. Since "pornography" is a word that many people consider to be the name for something that is morally wrong or ugly, businesses do not say that they are in "the business of pornography," but rather in the "adult entertainment" business.

paragraphs: In the nations of Western Europe and the United States, the law permits people who have reached the legal age of adulthood (the age of majority) to own, buy, sell, make, or participate in pornography. Laws about the public display of pornographic materials for sale may vary in the West: in The Netherlands the very liberal laws allow stores that sell pornography to display books, magazines, photographs, and the covers of videos openly, but in Canada and the United States the laws require that such stores keep pornographic material out of the sight of children. In many nations of the Middle East, however, like Indonesia, Iran, and Pakistan, making or owning pornography is a crime.

paragraphs: In the law of most countries, those people who have not reached the age of majority, or minors, may not buy, let alone sell, pornography of any sort. More importantly, there are laws against showing minors naked in photographs or films meant to arouse others sexually, or showing them engaged in sexual acts. Such material is called "child pornography," and is considered not just illegal, but a very serious crime. Because the laws against child pornography (also called "child porn") are meant to protect children against people who "use" or "exploit" them, the laws also require those who make pornographic photos or films to keep records to prove that their models, actors, and actresses are over the age of legal majority.

paragraphs: Since the 1970s, many women's groups and feminist writers have criticized pornography, especially hardcore pornography, arguing that such pornography degrades and humiliates women. Some psychologists who have talked with many people in jail for violent sex crimes believe that pornographic depictions of violent sex often make people less caring about other people's feelings, which might make them more likely to commit rape and other sex crimes. Many pedophiles, who sexually assault children, also have collections of child pornography.

paragraphs: Religious people believe that, because it depicts the sexual act without any relation to love and marriage, pornography is unholy. Most parents do not wish their children to see pornography because they believe that it will make them less capable of romantic love. Special computer programs can be installed on computers to block access to pornographic websites, or websites otherwise objectionable.

paragraphs: In the novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four" by George Orwell, pornography is described as a tool that is secretly pushed by some evil governments, who believe that use of pornography makes the public less likely to care about injustice, let alone to rebel.

paragraphs: Even though many countries have laws against child pornography, enforcement has become a problem because new computer technologies allow pornographers to make an adult in a photograph look like an adolescent, or in making a film can use actors and actresses who, although they have passed the age of majority, still look much younger. In addition, organized crime makes money from trafficking human beings; they force girls and women into prostitution, and sometimes force them to make pornography.


title: Nudity

paragraphs: Nudity (or nakedness) is when a person is not wearing clothes. The word "nudity" can also be used when only part of a person's body is uncovered. It is used particularly if the person's genitals (or a woman's nipples) can be seen, even if other parts of the body are covered.

paragraphs: Nudity can also mean that a person is wearing less clothing that other people would expect. This type of nudity is related to culture. People of different cultures wear different amounts of clothing, and keep different parts of the body covered. For some people nudity is a lifestyle, belief system or a default state of being, which is called naturism or nudism.

paragraphs: The word "nude" is often used in art. A "nude figure" is a figure without clothes on. The nude figure might be a live person who is posing for an artist. A painting or sculpture that shows a nude figure is often just called a "nude".

paragraphs: There are several things that affect how people and societies feel about nudity:

paragraphs: In most cultures it is normal to keep parts of the body covered. The feeling that a person has about covering their body is called modesty. Modesty is different in different cultures. Often, people feel shame if their body is not covered to match their culture's idea of modesty.

paragraphs: The amount of clothing needed to take away the feeling of shame is different for each culture. With some indigenous peoples like the Yanomami, a piece of string is enough to make that feeling go away.

paragraphs: In some cultures, people nearly always keep their bodies covered. In these cultures, nudity is only normal when a person is alone, for example, dressing or bathing. In other cultures, it is quite normal for people to be naked together, for example, when dressing or swimming. In still other cultures, particularly indigenous ones, people wear very few clothes, and complete nudity is normal.

paragraphs: Even with people from the same culture, different people can have different feelings about nudity. Some people in Western culture (for example the United States) do not mind if a family member sees them naked in the bath. Other people from the same culture would be uncomfortable if anyone saw them naked in the bath. Some women in a Western culture are happy to wear a bikini. Other women feel naked in a bikini and always wear a one-piece swimsuit.

paragraphs: Many societies have rules or laws about nudity, and where they allow it. For example, in some societies, the law allows nudity on a beach, but does not allow nudity in a public street. The same sort of laws can also allow people to be partly naked in some places but not in others, for example, women might be allowed to have naked breasts on the beach, but not in a shopping centre. When a woman uncovers her breasts on the beach, this is called toplessness (because her swimsuit is "topless"). This is allowed in many parts of Europe and Australia. In many other countries, it is not allowed.

paragraphs: The rules about dress and nudity may be set by a government, or by a church or some other organisation. For example, in some Christian churches, a woman must cover her shoulders and a man must not have bare legs. Another example is in many schools, a man must wear a jacket over his shirt, and a woman must wear a dress that has sleeves. Another example is that some hotels that are near beaches will not serve customers who are dressed only in swimsuits.

paragraphs: Some countries have very strict laws about whether a person can be nude in public, like Spain, and what parts of the body can be shown. In many countries, if a person breaks these laws, they can be charged with indecency (which means that they have acted in a rude way that upsets people). For example, if a man took his trousers off near a school, so that the children would see him, he would be charged with indecency. The reason why a person is nude, affects whether the law says that their nudity is indecent.

paragraphs: "Functional nudity" is when a person is nude for a reason. Even where nudity is generally not allowed, functional nudity often is.

paragraphs: An example of this is when a person at the beach changes from a wet swimsuit to their dry clothes. Often the person who is changing can use a towel so that other people do not see their nudity, and do not become embarrassed or angry.

paragraphs: Another type of functional nudity happens when a woman is breastfeeding in public. A woman who would not usually show her breasts because of modesty, might be quite happy to show her breast while she is feeding her baby.

paragraphs: A very similar thing is called contextual nudity. That means nudity is considered normal in a particular situation or place. For example, people sometimes are nude so their doctor to check if they are healthy or not.

paragraphs: In some countries, "functional nudity" is usual for people of different genders in some places. An example is in a mixed-gender public sauna.

paragraphs: In many cultures, "functional nudity" is usual in front of people of the same sex. Places where functional nudity happens, such as public toilets or changing rooms are usually separated by gender. There is one for men, and another one for women. In many cultures it is usual for people of the same sex to undress or take a shower in a public change room. In some cultures, such as Japan, open showers and open urinals in men's toilets are not allowed.

paragraphs: Among people of Western culture around the world, there are several influences on the way societies feel about nudity. In European society, it is not usual for older children or adults to be completely nude in public. In most European societies, when people swim in public, they cover their genitals, and women also cover their breasts. In most European societies, change rooms and toilets are separated for men and women.

paragraphs: Countries in Southern Europe, where the Catholic Church is very important, as well as English-speaking countries which have been affected by Puritanism usually have a lower tolerance towards nudity in public. Countries in Central Europe, and Scandinavia care less about public nudity.

paragraphs: "Naturism" (or "nudism") is a cultural and political movement. Followers of this movement think that nudity should get a higher value, both in the private as well as the public context. It is also a lifestyle based on personal, family and/or social nudity.

paragraphs: Naturists reject current standards of modesty. These standards discourage people from being nude with others, they say. They want to create a social environment where people feel comfortable in the company of nude people. They want a society in which people do not fear being seen nude, even by the general public.

paragraphs: The singer Janet Jackson was the cause of a scandal during the Super Bowl in 2004. She was performing during the half-time break, when her robe moved. Her left breast could be seen for a few seconds. Today, this is known as the "Wardrobe Malfunction" or "Nipplegate" by the media, the latter being a comparison to the Watergate scandal.

paragraphs: The Royal Academy of Arts runs some museums in London, and elsewhere. In 2008, they did an advertisement so that more people would visit their museums. In this advertisement, they showed a picture of a naked woman. This painting was done by Lucas Cranach the Elder in the 15th century. It is called "Venus" (shown above). The picture was printed on ads in the London Underground. It caused protests in London. Because of the protests, Transport for London refused to allow the ads to be used in the Underground. On December 7, 2008, the Internet Watch Foundation put the Wikipedia article on Virgin Killer, on their blacklist. This meant that most Internet users in Great Britain could no longer access the article. The foundation did this because they believed the original album cover could be child pornography. The cover is pictured on the Wikipedia article. It shows a naked ten-year-old girl in a sexual pose, with her breasts shown.

paragraphs: There are different traditions about nudity in Africa. Some of Africa south of the Sahara (called "sub-Saharan Africa") is similar to how they were after colonialism. In certain Togolese tribal areas, it is common for big families to not wear any clothes at all for certain festivities. Others do not wear any clothes below the waist. This makes it possible for young men to see women and girls whom they may marry. Stick-fighting tournaments are very popular places to do this.

paragraphs: Other people, like the Bantu do not like public nudity at all. A newspaper in Botswana once printed a photograph showing how a thief was punished. He was flogged on his bare buttocks. Many people did not like this. The problem was not the flogging, but the newspaper showing the picture.

paragraphs: The Ugandan Kavirondo tribes are a mix of Bantu and Nilotic immigrants. Traditionally, they went mostly naked. Over time, the men began wearing clothing similar to men in western culture.

paragraphs: Among many Muslim people, a woman is thought to be not properly dressed unless her legs, arms and hair are completely covered. In some Arabic countries, women wear a garment called a burqa. The burqa fully covers the woman and has only a slit for her eyes to see. If a woman does not wear this garment when she goes out but shows her face, hair and arms, she is thought to be naked. Not wearing the burqa brings shame on herself and family.

paragraphs: There are different levels of nudity. Societies have different moral values for these levels. One such level in English is called "full frontal nudity". This usually is a pose where the nude person faces the viewer. In this pose, there are no things covering parts of the body. Many societies see this as very bad. The image below called "Truth" shows this pose.

paragraphs: Most movies try not to show this type of nudity. This is often done by putting an object somewhere. This object will hide the pubic area of the naked actor or actress. This kind of nudity can also be seen in the picture "Woman Bathing".

paragraphs: Since the very early ages, nudity has been a subject of the arts. One of the earliest works of art known is the Venus of Willendorf. It is a statuette (a small statue) of a nude woman. The face of the woman is not visible. The belly of the woman as well as her breasts are exaggerated. It is not known what the statuette meant to the people who made it, or what importance it had. From the Renaissance onward, nude figures were shown in works of art more often. Michelangelo is one of the Renaissance artists known for doing this.

paragraphs: Since the beginning of photography, people have taken photographs of nude people. Some people simply photographed nude people. Some of the photographs were made to sexually arouse people. These are generally called pornography. Some people also photographed nude people because they thought the human body was something beautiful to show. These photos are usually not sexual in nature, and are known as nude photography. The kind of photography that is in between is called erotic photography.

paragraphs: Fashion was relatively constant in Ancient Egypt, and did not change much. In general, Egyptians did not wear much clothing. Men were often topless and bare-footed. They usually wore a tunic around the waist. Women wore loose clothes. People who were showing spectacles, usually did not wear any clothes. This applied to both men and women. In general, children did not wear any clothes, until they reached puberty, that is, until they were about twelve years old. Later cultures did not like these clothing rules.

paragraphs: Europeans also did not like these clothing rules. When Meyers Konversationslexikon (an encyclopedia) was published in the 1880s, the depiction of murals in the Tomb of Ti was changed to the image that can be seen on the right. Other publications were also changed in the same way.

paragraphs: The creation story in the Old Testament of the Bible mentions nudity as a sign of innocence. Only after Adam and Eve have eaten from the tree of knowledge do they become aware of their nudity, and start to feel ashamed. Theologians see this feeling of shame as a consequence of the fall from grace. Because of this, they are later chased away from the Garden of Eden. The Bible does not make a distinction between shame as a consequence of not obeying a rule, and the shame resulting from nudity.

paragraphs: The Old Testament often sees nudity as a consequence of being poor or of being a social outcast. It is not seen as a result of breaking rules, and accepted. Later Orthodox Judaism sees nakedness as a bad thing.

paragraphs: In Ancient Greece, especially Ancient Athens, people did not see a problem with nude men. Nude women were seen as bad, though, and women were forbidden from being nude in public. The Cynics taught that it was bad to have worldly goods. Feelings like shame were also seen as bad. There was nothing wrong with being naked.

paragraphs: The Gymnasion shows by its name alone that public nudity was not common in Ancient Greece. The name comes form "gynós", which means "naked". The gymnasion was used for sports. In Ancient Greece most sports were done totally naked. In most places in Ancient Greece, women were forbidden from doing sports, or from attending sports events.

paragraphs: The only place were women were allowed to do sports was Sparta. There, they also did sports, like the men, but separated from these. They were also naked while doing sports.

paragraphs: Another place where nakedness was tolerated was in the arts.

paragraphs: In Ancient Rome, nudity was nothing special or unusual. It was seen more as a sign of not needing much. People did not attach sexual feelings to it. When the Romans had conquered Ancient Greece, they did not think it was necessary to discuss or forbid that the Olympic Games were done in the nude. Cato the Elder mentions that usually the virtuous Roman worked nude during the summer months.

paragraphs: The Celtic and Germanic tribes bathed nude in rivers and lakes together and sometimes children grew up nude. Romans also tell us that some of them fought the Romans in the nude.

paragraphs: Both Jainism and Hinduism have special monks. In Jainism these are called Digambars (or Digambarras), in Hinduism they are called Sadhus. Both lead an ascetic lifestyle, and are well-respected in their community. Part of this lifestyle is that they wear little or no clothes.

paragraphs: Many cultures that expect some level of modesty associate nudity with sexuality. These cultures usually know striptease in some form. When the difference between the sexes is shown in the main stream media of these cultures this is often seen as sexually related. In Latin cultures the common definition of modesty does not generally allow genital nudity, but the definition of what is lewd has changed and women's breasts are now commonly exposed or depicted without scandal.

paragraphs: Nudity in front of a sexual partner is widely accepted, but there may be restrictions—for example, only at the time and place of sex, or with subdued lighting, during bathing with the partner or afterwards, covered by a sheet or blanket, or while sleeping.

paragraphs: In Ancient Greece it was seen as normal that the athletes taking part in sporting events, like the Olympic Games were nude, for most events. At that time, women were not allowed to take part or in the games or watch them. Nudity with women was frowned upon.

paragraphs: In the 20th century, it was very common for boys to swim nude in the United States. Boys usually found rivers, ponds or lakes to swim in. If there were no girls or adults there, boys just took off their clothes to go swimming. In the United States, recreational (fun) nude swimming (but not school nude swimming) is often called skinny dipping. Boys didn't care if other boys saw them without clothing. Poor boys and farm boys did not even own a bathing suit. Some teenagers, usually boys, still go skinny dipping. It is most common outside of cities.

paragraphs: Until the mid-1960s boys were usually nude in swimming pools. From the 1890s until 1962, men and boys used to swim nude at the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association.) The YMCA is an organization with many swimming pools in the United States. After women were allowed to join the YMCA, the rule changed. Nobody could swim nude there.

paragraphs: At school swimming pools and public swimming pools there were different hours for boys and girls to swim. Sometimes the pool had bathing suits for girls to wear. Many families did not have money to buy bathing suits for children then.

paragraphs: Teachers told boys to swim without a bathing suit at most high schools in the United States. It was normal for boys. Swimming nude at school was usually not allowed for girls. (A few schools had nude swimming for girls. At some schools, girls were not allowed to swim at all.) The boys had to swim nude in high schools in Houston, Texas from 1930 or earlier until the mid-1960s. In Chicago, Illinois schools, boys were required to swim nude until in the early 1970s.

paragraphs: Until the 1960s, nude swimming was the rule for men at many colleges and universities. Some colleges had only male students. Other colleges had only female students. At colleges with men and women, there were separate pools or different swimming times for men and women.

paragraphs: In the United States and Canada, there is not nude swimming at school now.

paragraphs: There are some places where people swim nude. People swim nude at special clothing optional beaches. Usually these are called nude beaches. It is not as common in the United States and Canada as in Europe. Sometimes a city or county owns the beach. Sometimes a state or province owns the beach. Sometimes the federal (national) government owns the beach. Optional means people can swim nude or with a bathing suit. Usually the government does not tell people they must be nude. Each person can choose what to wear.

paragraphs: Some people have a pool in their house. Some people have an outdoor pool or a pond in their backyard. Some people swim nude in their own pool or pond. Sometimes neighbors complain. Some people swim nude in lakes or rivers when they go camping. Some public pools have special hours or special days for nude swimming. That is more common in indoor public pools.

paragraphs: Clubs for people who like to be nude usually have nude swimming. These are usually called naturist clubs or naturist retreats. A retreat is like a camp or park. It is usually away from the city. Many years ago they were usually called nudist clubs. The name nudist club is less common now. If there is enough space, the club may have other nude sports. They sometimes have nude volleyball or nude basketball. They sometimes have nude soccer (football) if they have a big space. Sometimes people use boats without clothes. People sometimes use a sailboat, rowboat or canoe nude. Sometimes a camp or retreat owned by a church has nude swimming or other sports.

paragraphs: If there is a swimming pool or pond at a house, sometimes teenagers are happy to swim nude with their teenaged friends or with their brothers or sisters. They might not want to be seen nude by their parents. They might not want to be seen nude by much younger brothers or sisters. Sometimes parents are happy to swim nude with other adults. They might be happy to swim nude with young children. But they might not want to be seen nude by teenagers.

paragraphs: Sometimes people have different rules (sometimes called social norms) at different places. For example, people in a family might not be naked at home. They might always put a towel around themselves after a shower or bath. But if they go somewhere else, the rules might change. Families sometimes go camping or to a cabin (also called a lake house or beach house or cottage in some places) for a vacation (holiday). The people in that family might swim or lie in the sun nude there. They might eat breakfast together nude. Same people. Different place. What is normal, expected, or comfortable for them changes with the place or situation.

paragraphs: Some families with an outdoor swimming pool at their house have a no nudity inside the house rule. They swim nude, lie in the sun nude, but they put clothes or a towel on when they come inside the house. The rule may be to show politeness or respect for others. A fancy expression for this is a matter of decorum. It is comparable to a rule like "mobile devices (like phones) can be used at breakfast but not at the evening meal."

paragraphs: At least since the early 20th century there is a movement of people wanting to do some things together, while they were nude. Sometimes it was just seen functionally, like a common bath in a pond or lake. Some people do other activities together (in the nude), where being naked is usually not required. For instance, some people prefer nude sunbathing when otherwise a swimsuit could be worn. There are some nude bicycle tours. This movement is generally known as naturism or nudism. In 2009, Appenzell Innerrhoden, a small Swiss canton, voted to stop nude hiking. German tourists have been walking nude through the Alps wearing only boots, socks, and a back pack. The canton will fine nude hikers 200 Swiss francs.

paragraphs: The Naturism movement of the 20th century claims that being nude is healthy. Starting in 1853, reformer Arnold Rikli said that "Sun- and air-bathing" is a good thing, and that it can only give its full potential when done in the nude. Many of these views have been proved wrong today. Not smoking or drinking alcohol is good for health, regardless of whether clothing is worn or not. People suffering from being exposed too little to the sun will also be so if they are clothed. Wearing wet clothes can lead to cystitis (an infection of the urinary bladder).

paragraphs: Some doctors recommend sleeping in comfortable clothes, or sleeping naked. At some points in time, fashion dictates very tight-fitting clothes. These can be bad for health.

paragraphs: In many countries in Europe, being naked in public is not a punishable offense, as long as no one feels molested. Being naked near places where people change clothes is common, and legal in many jurisdictions. Nudity in a public space is often handled by special laws (made for police). In this case, what often happens is the police will fine the offenders, and tell them to go elsewhere. Certain places have started to pass laws, which forbid nudity in certain settings. A well-known case is that of the Canton of Appenzell Inner Rhodes passing a law against hiking naked.

paragraphs: For historical reasons, many English-speaking countries are less tolerant towards naked people. Exhibitionists get sexual pleasure from showing themselves naked or partly naked. In the context of the law, exhibitionism is often handled differently.

paragraphs: Some Western countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, have no laws stopping nude swimming in public areas. In Canada there are many small lakes with few houses or people around. People sometimes swim nude in them. People often swim nude at night or very early in the morning.

paragraphs: In the United States there is no federal (national) law against nudity at national beaches. But sometimes there are local laws that say people cannot be nude. Sometimes local police arrest people on federal lands or beaches. Sometimes police use general laws, saying that nudity is disturbing the peace.

paragraphs: Some people use the nudity as a form of protest, like a movement in the United States that wants equal treatment of bare-chested men, and women. This movement fights for the right of women to be topless. Often this is done with topless demonstrations.

paragraphs: One example that nudity was used as a form of protest, even in the Middle Ages is the story of Lady Godiva. She is said to have ridden through Coventry totally naked, only covered by her long hair. She did this to protest against the high taxes.

paragraphs: Nudity is often used to draw the attention of customers to a given product. That way, nude people or people with very little clothing are often shown on covers of magazines, even if the content of the magazine has nothing to do with nudity. Naked people, sometimes in connection with body painting are used to distribute fliers at events.

paragraphs: This uses erotic stimuli, especially to people of the opposite sex. On the other hand, nudity seems to work all by itself in such contexts. Nudity in public places is rare, and people generally do not expect it. The more it is used however, the less it will act on people. At some point it will have become normal.

paragraphs: Most children do not develop a feeling of shame until they are about five years old. For this reason there have been discussions. These discussions try to answer two basic questions:

paragraphs: Different people have different opinions on the subject.

paragraphs: Works of art, such as paintings, statues, or photographs have shown nude children, or nude children with nude adults. In recent years, showing nude children has become more and more problematic, especially with photographs. In a few cases, photographs taken by parents showing their toddler or small child naked have been seen as child pornography by courts. In May 2008, police in Sydney, Australia, raided an exhibition by the photographer Bill Henson. This exhibition showed images of naked children. The raid was done on allegations of child pornography. Incidents such as this one sent a strong message to the community.

paragraphs: People cannot agree if parents should appear naked in front of their children. Gordon and Schroeder say that there is a wide variation on parental nudity from family to family. According to them, "there is nothing (..) wrong with bathing with children or otherwise appearing naked in front of them". In their opinion, doing so may provide an opportunity for parents to give important information. They note that by ages five to six, children begin to develop a sense of modesty, and recommend to parents who wish to be sensitive to their children's wishes that they limit such activities from that age onwards.

paragraphs: Bonner recommends against nudity in the home where children are showing sexual behaviour considered problematic.

paragraphs: A study by Alfred Kinsey found that 75% of the participants stated that there was never nudity in the home when they were growing up, 5% of them said that there was "seldom" nudity in the home, 3% said "often", and 17% said that it was "usual". The study found that there was no significant difference between what was reported by men and by women with respect to frequency of nudity in the home.

paragraphs: In a 1995 review of the literature, Paul Okami concluded that there was no reliable evidence linking exposure to parental nudity to any negative effect. Three years later, his team finished an 18-year longitudinal study that showed that, if anything, such exposure was associated with slight beneficial effects, particularly for boys.

paragraphs: Different cultures have different opinions on whether children should see people other than their parents, and other children naked. In general the opinions are also different, depending on how old the child is, and what context the nudity is placed in.

paragraphs: Many countries have made laws that should protect children from seeing sex scenes on television by accident. That way, such scenes may usually not be shown during the day. British TV must not show such scenes between 5.30am and 9pm. The time when content not suitable for children may be shown is called "watershed". The Broadcasting Code requires that "Nudity before the watershed must be justified by the context."

paragraphs: Sometimes the nudity of children in front of other children has been an issue. In Europe, it is common that all students take a shower together after sports classes. Usually showering is segregated by sex.

paragraphs: In the United States and some of English-speaking Canada, students at tax funded schools have historically been required to shower with classmates of the same sex after physical education classes. In the United States, public objections and the threat of lawsuits have resulted in a number of school districts in recent years changing policy to make showers optional. Now showering together (sometimes called communal nude showering) after sports is not common anymore at schools in the United States or Canada. Many students wear shorts in the shower. At new schools there are separate (individual) shower stalls (closets) for each student to shower in. At many older schools the showers are never used. Students go to the next class sweaty and smelly. Communal nude showering is still common at colleges, public pools, universities and health clubs.

paragraphs: At some public swimming pools, men and women cannot use the same shower room as boys and girls respectively. (These rules are common in Canada and the United States.)

paragraphs: A court case in the State of Colorado noted that students have a reduced expectation of personal privacy in regards to "communal undress" while showering after physical education classes. According to an interview with a middle school principal, most objections to school showers that he had heard were actually from the student's parents rather than from the student.

paragraphs: The change in thinking also involves issues of bullying, consideration for gay and other LGBTQ students, and body image (such as very big or very thin students feeling uncomfortable when people see them nude.)

paragraphs: Most people feel uneasy or ashamed when they are nude (outside a social context where this is acceptable). This fact has been used both as a means of torture and as a punishment. That way, during witch-hunts, the alleged witches were stripped to discover what was called the witches' mark. It was believed that the devil left this mark as part of the pact the witch had with him. When the mark was found, this was then used as evidence in the trials.

paragraphs: Nakedness can also be part of a punishment or a public humiliation. Torture manuals sometimes make a difference, as men and women react differently when they are disrobed.

paragraphs: The United States and its allies invaded Iraq in 2003. After they had done this, members of the United States Army Reserve abused prisoners. Photographs were circulated that showed that prisoners had to pose naked, were sometimes bound by ropes, and intimidated that way.


title: Kingdom

paragraphs: A kingdom is a country with a king or queen. The type of government is a Monarchy.

paragraphs: For example Great Britain is a kingdom with a Queen as head of state.


title: Protestantism

paragraphs: Protestantism is a form of Christian faith and practice. It began in northern Europe in the early 16th century. At that time, they were against some parts of Roman Catholicism. Together with Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, Protestantism became one of the three greatest forces in Christianity. Protestantism much influenced the culture, beliefs, and economy of the place it became important in.

paragraphs: The word "Protestantism" had its origin when German princes and free cities at the Diet of Speyer (1529), petitioned or "protested" against the the imperial ban adopted by the Diet against Martin Luther and its stance against the Reformation. Lutherans in Germany began using it. Swiss and French more often used "Reformed". The Anglicans use "Catholic", "Reformed" and "Protestant", however the Anglican Church is not always regarded as part of Protestantism because it kept most of the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church from which it separated.

paragraphs: Martin Luther, a doctor of theology and a monk, said that the church should return to its roots, and give more weight to what is written in the Bible (Sola scriptura). Luther thought that the Church had gone too far away from the original teachings. He published 95 theses on the way the Catholic Church was then. Some say, he stuck them onto the door of the church of Wittenberg, but others say this is not true. The 95 theses were published in 1516 or 1517. With the theses, he started the Protestant Reformation.

paragraphs: Protestant churches with a big following are:


title: Algiers

paragraphs: Algiers is the capital city of Algeria, which is a country in northern Africa. It is on the northern coast of the country. The population of the city is 1,519,570.

paragraphs: Algiers has many twin towns all over the world:


title: Arles

paragraphs: Arles is a city in the south of France. It was built in the 6th century BC by the Greeks. Today more than 50,000 people live there. In the 1880s, the famous painters, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin lived there. Vincent van Gogh painted his famous Sunflowers in Arles.

paragraphs: The city is at the heart of the Camargue. Not many people live in this region, so there is a lot of free land around Arles. Because of this, Arles is the city in France to have the largest area (nearly 760 square kilometres).


title: Certificate

paragraphs: A certificate is a document for authentication of something. It may be an award that can be given to people. The certificate can be given to people for graduation, for good working skills, or to thank someone who has done good things. Other items, such as patches, badges, lapel pins, watches, and medals can also come with the certificate.

paragraphs: Many other kinds exist. A certificate of authenticity says a thing is real. For example, it can say that a painting was made at a particular time by a particular artist and is not a forgery. A certificate of occupancy says a building is fit for use. A certificate of deposit says someone has money in a bank. A birth certificate is one of the kinds of vital record.


title: Daily Mail

paragraphs: The Daily Mail is a large, well-known newspaper. It started in 1896. It is published every weekday and Saturday from a factory in London, England. It is not printed on Sundays. Its sister paper, the "Mail on Sunday", is printed instead.

paragraphs: It is the second-most sold newspaper in the United Kingdom. It sells more than a million copies a day. Its political opinion is right-wing, and it supports the Conservative Party in elections. The newspaper is available in many countries outside the United Kingdom, such as Egypt and the US. There is a different Scottish edition of the newspaper, which is sold in Scotland only and differs mainly in the Sport pages. There is also an Irish version of the newspaper, but the main international version is the English one.

paragraphs: It is the principal publication of the Daily Mail and General Trust, but the company also prints the "Evening Standard", "London Lite" and "Metro" newspapers in the UK.

paragraphs: People are often critical of The "Daily Mail, "because a lot of people think it's racist and sexist.

paragraphs: The "Daily Mail" was first published by Lord Northclife in 1896. It started as a broadsheet. It is now a tabloid.


title: Rhineland-Palatinate

paragraphs: Rhineland-Palatinate () is one of 16 states () of Germany. It has an area of and 4.073 million people living in it. The capital is Mainz.

paragraphs: Rhineland-Palatinate was created on 30 August 1947. It was formed from the northern part of the French Occupation Zone (the Rhenish Palatinate or which had been a part of Bavaria) as well as the southern parts of the Prussian Rhine Province, Birkenfeld which formerly belonged to Oldenburg, parts of the Prussian Province of Nassau (see Hesse-Nassau), and parts of Hesse-Darmstadt as well as Rheinhessen on the western banks of the Rhine.

paragraphs: The people of the new state voted to accept the boundary changes in a referendum on 18 May 1947.

paragraphs: Rhineland-Palatinate borders on (from the north and clockwise) North Rhine-Westphalia (another German state), Hesse (another German state), Baden-Württemberg (another German state), France, Saarland (another German state), Luxembourg, and Belgium.

paragraphs: The main axis of the state is the Rhine river, that forms the border with Baden-Württemberg and Hesse in the southeast before running across the northern part of Rhineland-Palatinate.

paragraphs: The Rhine Valley is bounded by mountains with some of the historically most significant places of Germany.

paragraphs: In the northwest there are the southern parts of the Eifel mountains. Farther south there is the Hunsrück mountain, which is continued by the Taunus mountains on the opposite side of the Rhine.

paragraphs: The hilly lands in the south of the state are called the Palatine Forest ("Pfälzerwald").

paragraphs: These mountains are separated from each other by the tributaries of the Rhine: the Moselle ("Mosel"), the Lahn and the Nahe.

paragraphs: Rhineland-Palatinate is a parliamentary democracy. Every five years, all Germans over the age of 18 elect the members of the Rhineland-Palatinate Parliament, . This regional parliament or legislature then elects the premier and confirms the cabinet members. Rhineland-Palatinate is the only German Bundesland (state) to have a cabinet minister for winegrowing.

paragraphs: This is only some of the castles in Rhineland-Palatine:

paragraphs: There are 7 universities and 13 "Fachhochschulen".

paragraphs: Rhineland-Palatinate is divided into 24 districts, grouped into the three administrative regions: Koblenz, Trier and Rheinhessen-Pfalz.


title: Rhine River

paragraphs: The Rhine River (, , ) is long. The Rhine is the second longest river in Europe. Its name comes from the Celtic word ""renos"", which means 'raging flow'.

paragraphs: The Rhine is an important waterway. can be used by ships, and boats can go to the Black Sea using the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. Many goods are transported over the Rhine, and the Rhine valley is also an important wine producing region. The river Rhine begins at "Tomasee", a lake in the canton of Graubünden in Switzerland, and runs through Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands. It is the border between Switzerland and Liechtenstein and also the border between Germany and France. It is also the border between Switzerland and Austria. It is also the border between the Netherlands and Germany. It is the border between France and Switzerland. It runs through Basel, Bonn, Cologne and Duisburg. It also separates the cities of Mainz and Wiesbaden.

paragraphs: The river runs through only one lake on its way, Lake Constance, which is on the border of Switzerland, Germany and Austria.

paragraphs: Along the banks of the Rhine are several castles which notorious robber barons lived in during the 15th–18th centuries.

paragraphs: Before the Industrial Revolution hit Europe, and factories set up along its banks and emptied all their waste into the River. The Salmon left and every living thing died. Then after World War II, the Rhine Action Programme was set up to boost the Rhine's wildlife and reduce the pollution there.

paragraphs: Together with the Danube it formed most of the northern frontier of the Roman Empire.

paragraphs: These are large cities that are found near the Rhine:

paragraphs: Smaller cities that are found near the Rhine:


title: Robber baron

paragraphs: The term robber baron was first used in the 12th and 13th centuries to describe rich men who lived in large castles along major transportation rivers, like the Rhine in Europe. They would send ships out onto these rivers to stop anybody who was traveling through who did not know better and collect a tax from them on any money or goods on these ships. They were not officially allowed to collect these taxes. It was only the Holy Roman Emperor who could decide what taxes to be charged, how much and who could charge it.

paragraphs: Second, it is a slang term used of certain rich and ruthless industrialists and bankers, especially in the late 19th and early 20th century U.S.A.


title: Winery

paragraphs: A winery is a place or business that makes wine.


title: Sugar

paragraphs: Sugar is the common name for a number of chemical substances, some of which have a sweet taste. Mostly, it refers to either sucrose, lactose, or fructose. Sugar is contained in certain kinds of food, or it is added to give a sweet taste. Sugar is extracted from certain plants, such as sugarcane or sugar beet.

paragraphs: Regular sugar (the one commonly added to food) is called "sucrose". Fructose is the sugar that is in fruits. As chemicals, sucrose and fructose are both made by two smaller sugars. Glucose is the more common of these smaller sugars. The human body changes regular sugar into the smaller sugars.

paragraphs: Sugars are a kind of carbohydrate. This is because sugars are made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates can be "simple carbohydrates" or "complex carbohydrates". Simple carbohydrates are made of only one or a few of the smallest sugars. Complex carbohydrates are made of "many" of the smallest sugars.

paragraphs: Starch is a chemical found in foods such as bread, crackers, and potatoes. It is a "complex carbohydrate" that is made from many glucose molecules. When starch is eaten, the human body breaks it apart into smaller sugars. An enzyme is added in the mouth, but it only begins to work in the stomach. Pure starch is actually tasteless in the mouth.

paragraphs: Brazil produces the most sugar per person and India's total consumption of sugar is the highest for a country.

paragraphs: There are other chemical substances that can be used to produce a sweet taste, but that are not sugar. One of them, commonly called Stevia, is gained from a plant with the same name. Others, like aspartame, are completely synthetic. In general, these substances are known as artificial sweeteners, or sugar substitutes. People eat them to avoid health problems that sugar causes.

paragraphs: Sugar can be different colours. For example, brown sugar has molasses in it, and is often used in baking.


title: Canterbury

paragraphs: Canterbury is a city in Kent, England. It is about from London. It was made famous by a book called "The Canterbury Tales". It is also famous for Canterbury Cathedral. Thomas Becket was assassinated by knights who came from Sandlings.

paragraphs: There are two railway stations in the city; Canterbury East and Canterbury West. The A2 road passes near the city. It goes west to London and south-east to Dover.

paragraphs: The city has an estimated 31,000 students. This is the highest student/permanent resident ratio in the UK. There are three universities, and several other higher education institutions and colleges. At the 2001 census, 22% of the population aged 16–74 were full-time students, compared with 7% throughout England. The three universities: the University of Kent, Canterbury Christ Church University, and the University for the Creative Arts.

paragraphs: The St Lawrence Ground is the home ground of Kent County Cricket Club. It has hosted several One Day Internationals, including one England match during the 1999 Cricket World Cup.

paragraphs: The Canterbury area has been lived in since prehistoric times. Paleolithic stone axes, and Neolithic and Bronze Age pots have been found in the area. Canterbury was once the main settlement of the Celtic tribe of the Cantiaci, which lived in most of modern-day Kent. In the 1st century AD, the Romans captured the settlement and named it Durovernum Cantiacorum. The Romans rebuilt the city, with new streets in a grid pattern, a theatre, a temple, a forum, and public baths. Its position on Watling Street on route to the major Kentish ports of Rutupiae (now Richborough), Dubrae (now Dover), and Lemanae (now Lymne) made it important.


title: Huddersfield

paragraphs: Huddersfield is a town in West Yorkshire, England. It is famous for its textile industry, Choral Society and as the birthplace of Rugby League.

paragraphs: In the 20th Century it was the birthplace for the Labour Party prime minister, Harold Wilson. It is also known for its football team, who became the first team to win the football league first division title three years in a row (1924-26).

paragraphs: In Huddersfield there are 22 districts, Almondbury, Aspley, Molgreen, Bradley, Clayton West, Scisset, Crosland Moor, Deighton, Brackenhall, Dalton, Rawthorpe, Denby Dale, Edgeerton, Farnley Tyas, Fartown, Holme, Holmbridge, Holmfirth, Honley, Hepworth, Jackson Bridge and Lowerhouses


title: Anti-tank dog

paragraphs: Anti-tank dogs were dogs with explosives placed on their backs. These dogs were trained to run under enemy tanks. The explosives were then remotely detonated in order to destroy the target tank.

paragraphs: These dogs were trained by the Soviet Union during World War II to be used against German armored vehicles. They were trained on Russian tanks, which used diesel fuel. In battle, the dogs often ran toward the smell of diesel fuel from the Soviet tanks instead of the intended German targets.

paragraphs: The German Army soon learned about the dogs, so all Russian dogs were shot on sight by the Germans. Very few dogs remained in the Eastern Front as a result of this.

paragraphs: After the war better weapons against tanks were made. Therefore, it is unlikely that anti-tank dogs will ever be used again.


title: Eyeglasses

paragraphs: Eyeglasses (U.S), or spectacles (Brit.) are pieces of glass or clear plastic, called lenses, in a frame that holds them in front of someone's eyes.

paragraphs: "Corrective" lenses let some people see or read better if they have problems seeing. This is used by person who have poor eyesight. Contact lenses also help people see better.

paragraphs: Glasses can also protect the eyes. Goggles and safety glasses are strong and protect the eyes from flying objects. Sunglasses keep too much sunlight from getting in people's eyes. Some eyeglasses block blue light from a computer, game, smart phone and TV.

paragraphs: Eyeglasses have many models. So it may be worn for fashion.


title: Goa

paragraphs: Goa (गोवा) is a state within the Republic of India. It is India's smallest state. It has the second smallest number of people. The total area is 1,430 mi² (3,702 km²), it is bigger than Samoa but smaller than the Georgian territory of South Ossetia. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the South Indian zone. It is on the west coast of India, in the region known as the Konkan. The state of Maharashtra is its neighbour to the north, and Karnataka to the east and south. The Arabian Sea makes up the state's west coast. Panjim is the state's capital, and Margao its largest town.

paragraphs: Portuguese merchants first landed in Goa in the 16th century but soon after, colonised it. It was a part of the Portuguese empire for about 450 years. In 1961 India took control of Goa by sending its army and defeating Portuguese army.

paragraphs: The 1961 Indian annexation of Goa, was an action by India’s armed forces that ended Portuguese rule in its Indian enclaves in 1961. The armed action, code named Operation Vijay by the Indian government, involved air, sea and land strikes for over 36 hours, and was a decisive victory for India, ending 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule in Goa. One of the problems vexing the Indian prime minister Jawarhalal Nehru in the 1950s was what to do about Goa. The situation began to come to a head in 1955 when a group of Goanese and Indian protesters staged a ‘liberation march’ in Goa and more than 20 of them were shot and killed.

paragraphs: He announced that Portuguese control of Goa could be tolerated no longer and instituted a blockade, which the Portuguese regime evaded by building an airport into which to fly supplies and by opening up trade with Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Portuguese dictator, Antonio Salazar tried to drum up international support from world leaders. President Kennedy wrote to Nehru advising him not to use force and the Portuguese ambassador in London reminded the British government that under the terms of the Anglo-Portuguese alliance of 1899 it was obliged to come to Portugal’s assistance if any Portuguese colony was attacked.

paragraphs: There were more incidents and in November 1961 the Portuguese in Goa opened fire on Indian fishing boats. Nehru lost patience and mounted a military, naval and air attack on Goa using overwhelming force on December 17th. The Portuguese governor, who had at the most 3,000 men to oppose an Indian army of 30,000, blew up a few bridges to delay the invaders but his situation was plainly hopeless and he hoisted the white flag and surrendered. There had been almost no resistance and few casualties.

paragraphs: Bounded on one side by the foothills of the Sahyadri range and on the other by the Arabian Sea Goa is a green natural paradise and best tourist spots in India. It is very truly said that living in Goa is a 365-day vacation. Goa is one of the best beach destinations in India due to the picturesque sunsets, beaches, historic forts, and laid-back life. Goa serves travelers of varied tastes, whether it's witnessing the majestic 600m high Dudhsagar Falls or trying your luck at Casino Royale. From the famous Fort Aguada to the blue waters. It is from the beaches of Dona Paula and Sinquerim, there is no shortage of points of interest in Goa.


title: Second language

paragraphs: A second language is a language that a person learns in addition to their first language. A second language may be learned in a formal or informal way, such as at school or in a family. A person may speak two or more second languages.

paragraphs: Adults do not learn languages the same way that children do. Learning a second language is difficult for adults, who rarely speak it as well as their native language because it is much easier for children to learn a second language.

paragraphs: Some children have native multilingualism and so speak several languages, such as by living in a foreign country or having a father speaking a different language from their mother.


title: Ido

paragraphs: Ido is a constructed language, a so-called reformed Esperanto, which was developed in 1907. Ido was made by a group of people that thought Esperanto was too hard to be a world language. They did not like how Esperanto used letters with special diacritic marks over them, because that made it hard to type, and they thought that a world language should be easy to learn and write.

paragraphs: Ido is not as popular as Esperanto, but still about 100-200 people in the world speak it. They have a conference every year where people come together and speak the language.

paragraphs: Each word in Ido comes from a smaller word called a "root word". A root word has a root and an ending. The speaker can take the root and put it on another word to make a new one. For example, "urbo" means "city" and "-estro" means "leader". The root of "urbo" is "urb-", and if -estro is put on the end, it becomes "urbestro", which means mayor (leader of a city). Or the speaker can put something on before; chef- means chief or leader, and if the speaker puts that before the word it becomes "chefurbo", which means capital city.

paragraphs: Pronouns are the words in a language like I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, they, and so on. Ido was made from Esperanto, and all of Esperanto's pronouns end in -i. The people that made Ido thought that they sounded too much the same and that it might be too difficult to hear sometimes. Also, most languages have two ways of saying "you" so they decided to have two ways of saying you. Lastly, they decided to make a pronoun that can mean "he" or "she". Some languages like the Finnish language and the Estonian language have something like this.

paragraphs: Here is a chart of all the pronouns in English, Ido, and Esperanto.

paragraphs: Ido is a language that came from Esperanto, so they look very similar. Since Esperanto has more speakers than Ido, most people that know Ido first learned Esperanto and then later learned that Ido is a language, too. Sometimes Idists (people who speak Ido) and Esperantists (people who speak Esperanto) do not agree with each other. Luckily they both agree that making a language that everybody can learn is a good idea. Most Idists and Esperantists can understand most of each other's language.

paragraphs: Here are samples of the language Ido to show what the language looks like. On the right is a page from a magazine in Ido called "Adavane!" (forward), written by an Ido group in Spain every two months. This is a page from a diary by a girl named Anne Frank, a Jewish girl from the Netherlands that was killed in 1944 by the German government of Adolf Hitler.

paragraphs: Below is a small part of the book "The Little Prince" called "La Princeto" in Ido.

paragraphs: This was a song by a bard from Russia named Alexandr Sukhanov; he used words from the poetry of another Russian person named Yunna Mortis. This is the Ido version, sung with guitar.

paragraphs: People who know Ido come together for a few days every year to meet each other and speak the language. Most Ido speakers live in Europe and so the conventions (a meeting of people) have taken place in Europe.

paragraphs: Information on Ido conferences (the section that says raporto is the report on the convention written in Ido).


title: Javier Solana

paragraphs: Francisco Javier Solana de Madariaga (born July 14, 1942 in Madrid) is a Spanish physicist, politician and diplomat.

paragraphs: He is the former Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and also the former European Union foreign policy chief.

paragraphs: Solana was studying in both the United Kingdom and the United States before returning to Spain with Nicolás Cabrera, and becoming a Professor of solid state physics in the Complutense University.

paragraphs: Having already joined the banned PSOE left-wing party in 1964, he became one of its leaders when it became legal in 1977. He became a Cabinet Minister, serving first as Minister for Culture and party spokesman, then Minister for Education, then Minister for Foreign Affairs, before being made NATO boss in December 1995, just as the Dayton agreement saw the IFOR NATO peacekeeping mission enter the former Yugoslavia. He was also involved in the Kosovo bombings, and the negotiations that led to an eventual peace.

paragraphs: In March 2020, Solana tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Paragraph

paragraphs: A paragraph is a group of words put together to form a group that is usually longer than a sentence. Paragraphs are often made up of several sentences. There are usually between three and eight sentences. Paragraphs can begin with an indentation (about five spaces), or by missing a line out, and then starting again. This makes it easier to see when one paragraph ends and another begins.

paragraphs: In most organized forms of writing, such as essays, paragraphs contain a topic sentence . This topic sentence of the paragraph tells the reader what the paragraph will be about. Essays usually have multiple paragraphs that make claims to support a thesis statement, which is the central idea of the essay.

paragraphs: Paragraphs may signal when the writer changes topics. Each paragraph may have a number of sentences, depending on the topic.

paragraphs: A pilcrow mark (¶) is sometimes used to show where a paragraph begins.


title: Lansing, Michigan

paragraphs: Lansing is the capital city of the U.S. state of Michigan. It is about 1 to 2 hours west of Detroit. It is in the center of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan.

paragraphs: The landscape is flat. There is a lot of agriculture.


title: Parody

paragraphs: Parodies make fun of another piece of art by mocking it.

paragraphs: The parody is an imitation of the original, but exaggerating it, showing clichés which have been used, to make the original look ridiculous or to make a comment about an issue affecting society.

paragraphs: For example, in a serious Western movie, the good guys always seem to shoot better and faster than the bad guys. In a Western parody, this might be exaggerated by showing a good guy firing a single shot, and a dozen of the bad guys falling from their horses as a result.

paragraphs: Mel Brooks is a director who has made many movies which are parodies:

paragraphs: The website Uncyclopedia is also a parody of Wikipedia.

paragraphs: Parodies can be anything from songs to poems to books to movies.

paragraphs: Newspaper columnists are well known for their strip cartoons which can very often parody public opinion on major issues affecting society, such as the recent credit crunch.


title: Fact

paragraphs: A fact is a statement that is real or true,

paragraphs: A fact is something that has really happened or is actually the case. The usual test for a statement of fact is whether it can be seen to be true. Standard reference works are often used to check facts. Scientific facts are verified by careful observation or measurement (by experiments or other means).

paragraphs: A fact is a "statement" (what a person says) about something that is true. A fact can answer questions like, "what color is it?" or "who made that?"

paragraphs: An opinion is different from a fact. But you can say facts about a person's opinion. For example, someone can ask a question like "What is Alice's opinion about the book?" You can answer this question with a fact, for example "Alice said she likes the book." Then it is a fact that Alice "says" she likes the book. But maybe Alice does not like the book. So it not a fact that Alice likes the book, but it is a fact that Alice "says" she likes the book.

paragraphs: It is sometimes hard to know if something a person said is a fact or is an opinion. If you want to learn a fact, is important to ask many different people the same question. Every person will have a different story. But the parts of the story that are the same are possibly facts. The parts of the story that are different are possibly opinions.

paragraphs: One very good way to learn a fact is if a person can help you see it. For example, if you ask, "do you have my book?" To answer this question, a person can let you see your book. Then you can know it is a fact that this person has your book.

paragraphs: A scientific theory is knowledge of important facts about a natural thing. The facts in a scientific theory always have evidence that shows that the fact is not false.

paragraphs: A person who understands the scientific method can test to see if the facts of a scientific theory are correct. When statements have been tested and shown to be not false, they are said to be "true". The facts of each scientific theory have usually been questioned and tested for a very long time by many people. However, the critical point is that an agreed method has been used to show that the statement is not false. Because of this, we know that the knowledge of a scientific theory is fact and not opinion. Examples of scientific theories include the theory of relativity and the theory of evolution.


title: Victim

paragraphs: Victim is a term used for a person who suffers adverse circumstances, often in relation to having a crime committed against them. If someone is robbed, he or she is the victim. If someone is killed, that person is the victim. The person who committed the crime is the culprit.

paragraphs: Victim blaming is saying that it is the fault of the victim that a crime was committed against them.


title: Culprit

paragraphs: A culprit is a person who commits a crime. If someone robs a person, the robber is the culprit, while the person who was robbed is the victim.