title: Prisoner of war

paragraphs: A prisoner of war (short form: POW) is a non-combatant who has been captured by the forces of the enemy, during an armed conflict. In past centuries, prisoners had no rights. They were usually killed or forced to be slaves. Nowadays prisoners of war have rights that are stated in the Geneva Conventions and other laws of war.

paragraphs: The Third Geneva Convention gives prisoners of war many different rights. Here are some examples:

paragraphs: If they are very sick or hurt, prisoners of war have the right to be let go. After a war ends, all prisoners must be let go quickly.

paragraphs: Prisoners of war also have the right NOT to:

paragraphs: Not all people who are caught while fighting wars are "prisoners of war." The Third Geneva Convention has a strict definition of what a prisoner of war is. For example, it says that to be "prisoners of war," soldiers must:

paragraphs: According to the Geneva Conventions, if soldiers do not meet these requirements, they are not "prisoners of war." They are "unlawful combatants" (which means "people who fight in ways that are against the law). This means they do NOT have the rights that are listed in the Geneva Conventions.

paragraphs: This caused controversy in the early 21st century. For example, in June 2002, the United States was fighting the War in Afghanistan. The Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld, announced that the people the U.S. had captured were "unlawful combatants [who] do not have any rights under the Geneva Convention[s]." The U.S. said these people were unlawful combatants, not prisoners of war, because:

paragraphs: The U.S. brought some of these people to a prison in Guantánamo Bay. Because they were enemy combatants, the inmates at Guantánamo did not get the rights that the Geneva Conventions give to prisoners of war.

paragraphs: When a country, or a group of people, does not give prisoners of war their rights, they are committing a war crime. However, punishing those war crimes has not always been easy.

paragraphs: The Geneva Convention lists the rights that prisoners of war have. However, there is nothing in the Geneva Convention that says how people should be punished when they do not give prisoners of war these rights.

paragraphs: In the past, when a country broke the Geneva Convention by not giving prisoners of war their rights, many different things might happen. For example, after World War II ended, the countries that won the war set up military tribunals called the Nuremberg Trials and the Tokyo Trials. At these trials, military leaders from Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan were tried for crimes against prisoners of war (and many other things). Many of them were convicted and sentenced to death or to life in prison.

paragraphs: However, at other times, crimes against prisoners of war might be tried in the same country where the crimes happened. This might happen before or after the war ended. Sometimes crimes against prisoners of war were not punished at all.

paragraphs: In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was created to look into war crimes around the world, and punish people for them, if possible.

paragraphs: The ICC has a long list of crimes that are defined as war crimes. Some war crimes against prisoners of war are:

paragraphs: If a country, or a group of people, commit a war crime against prisoners of war, the ICC can put them on trial and punish them if they are found guilty.


title: Jackson's chameleon

paragraphs: Jackson's Chameleons are a species of chameleon found in the forests of Kenya and Tanzania. They have been introduced to the United States with large populations being found in Hawaii. They live and breed naturally there now.

paragraphs: Males are easily recognized, they have two horns above their eyes and one horn on their nose. If males are kept together in a cage, they get stressed, and eventually die. But they have been know to live together, it all depends on the chams themselves.

paragraphs: Females do not have horns, or if they do they are very small. Their biggest size is 15 inches. This species gives birth to live young with a gestation period of about 5-10 months.


title: Resuscitation

paragraphs: Resuscitation is a thing to do in a medical emergency. It is first aid which is given to a person who is unconscious, and where breathing or pulse can not be detected. It is done to make oxygen continues to reach the heart and the brain. That way, a doctor may be able to restart the heart, possibly without damaging the brain.

paragraphs: The most common cause for a stopping heart is a heart attack.


title: Aubergine

paragraphs: The aubergine (also called eggplant) is a plant. Its fruit is eaten as a vegetable. The plant is in the nightshade family of plants. It is related to the potato and tomato. Originally it comes from India and Sri Lanka. The Latin/French term aubergine originally derives from the historical city of Vergina (Βεργίνα) in Greece. The aubergine eggplant is estimated to have reached Greek soils around 325 BC after the death of Alexander the Great in Babylon. Discovering this new vegetable during his conquest, Alexander the Great wished to bring it back to his country on his return. After his death, members of his army brought back seeds of the vegetable back to Greece and specifically to the city of Vergina (Βεργίνα). The Latin/French term aubergine (au·ber·gine) (\ˈō-bər-ˌzhēn\) is estimated around 1505 AD and is coined to Franco-Catalan gastronomist Sergius Rosario Silvestri, co-traveller and close friend to Amerigo Vespucci. Upon arrival to the historical site of Vergina (Βεργινα) and wanting to try the local delicacies, Silvestri came across the plant of aubergine. Not knowing its name, he referred to it as aubergine (au Bergine or au Vergine) which in French means "at Vergina" or "found at Vergina".


title: Coral Sea Islands

paragraphs: The Coral Sea Islands (or Coral Sea Islands Territory) is a group of islands on the Great Barrier Reef, in the country of Australia. Some islands have automatic weather stations or lighthouses on them. Willis Island is the only island where people live; four people there run a weather station. They are in the Coral Sea, northeast of Queensland.


title: Pernambuco

paragraphs: Pernambuco is a state of Brazil. The capital city of the state is Recife. About 8 million people live in Pernambuco with 1.5 million of those living in Recife. The economy is largely based on agriculture, its main exports are sugar cane and manioc. It has a mainly tropical climate.


title: Manioc

paragraphs: Manioc (or Cassava, or Yuca, especially in Latin America) is a shrub. It belongs to the Spurge family of plants and it grows in tropical climates. It is cultivated for its edible root. The manioc must be cooked properly to detoxify it before it is eaten and can be used in dumplings, soups, stews and gravies.


title: Life cycle

paragraphs: Life cycle means the stages a living thing goes through during its life.

paragraphs: In some cases the process is slow, and the changes are gradual. Humans have various stages of growth during their lives, such as zygote, embryo, child and adult. The change from a child to an adult is slow and continuous. In many societies it is marked by ceremonies at puberty.

paragraphs: In most insects the transition is sharp and well-defined: egg > larva > pupa > imago (adult).

paragraphs: In some animals, the parent generation looks different from the child. The most common case is that there are two different forms. One form will have sexual reproduction, the others might not reproduce, or might reproduce asexually.

paragraphs: Some plants and a few other organisms have a system called "alternation of generations" which is not quite the same because one form is haploid and the other is dipoid.

paragraphs: Parasites are organisms that benefit from harming other organisms. The organism they profit from is usually called host. Many parasites have complex life cycles, where they need different hosts for different stages of their development. As an example, the cycle egg > snail host > mammal host is common for parasites of herbivorous mammals. Malaria is caused by single-celled parasites. These parasites go through two stages in their development. One stage is in the blood of mosquitoes, the other in the blood of humans.

paragraphs: Examples of this can also be found in the Cnidaria. These animals live in the sea or in freshwater and the structure of most is relatively simple. Some live as single animals, others form colonies. In a colony, many animals live together. Often, each animal in a colony is specialized, and needs the other animals of the colony to survive.

paragraphs: A well-known example where different generations have different forms is the jellyfish. It has two:

paragraphs: In a complete cycle, the offspring of a medusa will develop into a polyp, and the offspring of a polyp will be a medusa.

paragraphs: Sometimes the cycle is modified or incomplete. Anthozoa is a group of the Cnidaria which contains sea anemones and corals. In the anthozoa, there is only a polyp stage, and no medusa stage.

paragraphs: The box jellyfish form another small group in the Cnidaria. In the box jellyfish, the polyp transforms into the medusa. In some cases, only part of the polyp transforms, the part that is left regenerates to form a new polyp. People have also talked about the box jellyfish because many of them produce poison that is very effective, and that can be dangerous to humans.

paragraphs: In the stalked jellyfish, there is only one form, which has been interpreted as a sessile medusa.


title: Yucca

paragraphs: Yucca is a family of shrubs and trees, related to the agaves. There are between 40 and 50 different kinds of Yucca. All come from the hot and dry places in North and Central America, as well as the Caribbean.

paragraphs: They have a very special way of pollination. There is an animal, the Yucca moth, which does the pollination. It also lays its eggs in the plant. The larvae will eat some of the seeds, but not all of them.

paragraphs: In many parts of the world, yuccas are grown as ornamental flowers.


title: Herb

paragraphs: Herbs are plants that are grown either as a food (usually as a condiment), or because they have some use in treating diseases (or making them better), or for spiritual reasons (for example, their smell). Some herbs may act as an aphrodisiac.

paragraphs: The word herb comes from the Latin word "herba", meaning grass, green stalks, or blades. Botanists use the word to mean any plant with soft, succulent tissues. But many people use the word to mean only herbs with some economic value.

paragraphs: Herbs are small plants that have a fleshy or juicy stem when they are young. The stems of some herbs develop hard, woody tissue when they grow old.

paragraphs: Most herbs are perennials. This means that the tops of the plants die each growing season, but the roots remain alive and produce new plants year after year.

paragraphs: Some herbs are annuals. They live for only one growing season and must be raised from seed each year.

paragraphs: The leaves, stems, or seeds of herbs can be used fresh, or they can be dried for later use. Dried herbs can be pounded to a fine powder, placed in airtight containers, and then stored.

paragraphs: Some herbs are used in cooking to flavor foods. Others give scents to perfumes. Still others are used for medicines. Some herbs, such as balm and sage, are valued for their leaves. Saffron is picked for its buds and flowers. Fennel seeds are valuable in relishes and seasoning. Vanilla fruit pods yield vanilla flavoring. Ginseng is valued for its aromatic roots.

paragraphs: People often grow herbs in their gardens. Some people grow herb gardens for the patterned beds that they can create with these plants. Many other gardeners grow herbs for the flavor that the fresh or dried plants add to food.

paragraphs: Herb seeds and seedlings are inexpensive, and the plants grow easily. People who do not have enough outdoor space for herb beds can grow most kinds of herbs in containers.

paragraphs: Many kinds of herbs can also be grown indoors. The plants grow well with little care. Gardeners plant herbs in good soil that has been well-cultivated. They choose a sunny spot near a window.


title: Podcasting

paragraphs: Podcasting is a way to share information as digital audio files. People often subscribe, download, and share podcasts using a computer and listen to them on an MP3 player.

paragraphs: Many podcasts are similar to broadcast radio news or discussion programs. Some use other formats such as a continuing story, comedy show, lecture, or audiobook.

paragraphs: Podcasts can be found for almost anything. Radio shows, do it yourself projects, special interest groups, religious sermons, comedy sketches, cartoons, and just about anything else can be found. Once a podcast is found, it can be subscribed to like a magazine or newspaper and then downloaded. Once it is downloaded, it can be stored on an MP3 player to be listened to.

paragraphs: Podcasting has become so popular that many people who write for magazines or report news on television have also been putting out their own podcasts.


title: Alexander Fleming

paragraphs: Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 - 11 March 1955) was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. His father Hugh, died at 59 when Alexander was only seven. He is best known for discovering the antibiotic substance penicillin in 1928. He shared Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 for this discovery with Howard Walter Florey and Ernst Boris Chain. His accidental finding of penicillin in the year 1928 marked the start of today's antibiotics.

paragraphs: Fleming was a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War I. He saw many soldiers die of infection after being wounded, and after the war did research in bacteriology. After accidentally finding penicillin he studied ways to use it.

paragraphs: Fleming died of a heart attack in London. He was buried in St. Paul's cathedral.


title: Litter box

paragraphs: A litter box (sometimes called a sand box, a litter tray or a litter pan) is a place for cats and some other pets to use as a toilet. Litter boxes usually need to be cleaned regularly. Cats, for example, wish to have their box cleaned every two to three days. Some cats create litterboxes in places like playgrounds and sandpits. Litterboxes usually produce bad smells, which can be avoided by special litter. Many people buy a special kind of clay to fill the box, for this reason.


title: Playground

paragraphs: A playground is an area used by children to play in. They usually have equipment such as slides, swings and seesaws for children to play on. They are usually outside, but sometimes they are in a building.

paragraphs: The equipment may be made of metal, wood or plastic. The ground beneath the equipment will not be hard in case a child falls. It may be a rubber floor, or there may be woodchips or sand.

paragraphs: Playgrounds give children a place for physical exercise. This helps them get and keep physical fitness and be strong and healthy. Daily exercise reduces the risks of obesity.


title: Woodstock Festival

paragraphs: The Woodstock Music and Art Festival was a rock music festival at 's 600 acre (2.4 km²) dairy farm in the town of Bethel, New York from 15–18 August 1969. It might be the most famous rock concert and festival ever held. For many, it showed the counterculture of the 1960s and the "hippie era".

paragraphs: Many of the most famous musicians at the time showed up during the rainy weekend, as can be seen in a 1970 movie, "Woodstock". Joni Mitchell's song "Woodstock", about the event, also became a major hit song for Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. In recent years, a number of attempts were made to recreate it, but the original Woodstock festival of 1969 has proven to be legendary.

paragraphs: The festival was called "Woodstock", because the investment group that backed the concert was called "Woodstock Ventures." It was originally planned for Saugerties, and then the Town of Wallkill, in Orange County (not to be confused with the Hamlet of Wallkill, in Ulster county). People in the Town of Wallkill, meaning those on the Town Board, quickly passed a law that required a permit to hold any gathering for over 5,000 people. A permit was applied for, but it was denied because the portable toilets proposed were considered to be inadequate. A Sullivan County farmer named Max Yasgur heard about the festival and the problems and offered his farm in the Town of Bethel. He was paid $10,000 for the three days.

paragraphs: Although all the municipalities were told there would be no more than 50,000, the organizers thought they would get as many as 150,000, and by best counts, there were more than three times that number over the three days. Most did not pay to get in, and the festival lost money as a result. The roads to the concert were jammed with traffic. People left their cars and walked for miles to get to the concert area. The weekend was rainy and overcrowded, and fans shared food, alcoholic drinks, and drugs. Some people who lived there, including those at nearby Camp Ma-Ho-Ge, gave blankets and food to some concert-goers.

paragraphs: After two days of rain, there was deep mud in many places. There was almost no water for washing, and not enough toilets. Many of the concert-goers had brought small tents to sleep in; some of these turned into piles of cloth and mud. Even though this may not have been the most comfortable place, the crowd kept up kindness and good cheer among themselves. As the half-million people in the audience became aware of this, a warm feeling of friendship spread to everyone.

paragraphs: Some of the music stars of Woodstock were The Who and Jimi Hendrix. Because of arguments about getting paid, The Who did not play on the stage until about 4:00 in the morning. One part of The Who's show was the song "See Me, Feel Me", when the sun rose just as lead singer Roger Daltrey started to sing the chorus. When The Who was still playing, Abbie Hoffman jumped on the stage stopping the show, and tried to stir up the crowd with political slogans, but he was knocked off the stage by the guitar of the band's leader, Pete Townshend, to the delight of the audience. At the end of The Who's set, Townshend slammed his guitar into the stage and threw it into the crowd. This helped set up The Who as super-stars, and caused their album "Tommy" to sell multi-platinum.

paragraphs: Jimi Hendrix had a big show with the songs he played, including a new version of "The Star Spangled Banner". The song caused some disagreements, because the Vietnam War was going on, and the sounds that Hendrix made with his guitar were like the sounds of the violence of the war. Fans remember these two acts as some of the greatest in rock history, although both The Who and Hendrix thought of their performances as not the best.

paragraphs: Woodstock was put on by Michael Lang, Artie Kornfeld, John Roberts and Joel Rosenman. Roberts was the financer, backed by a trust fund; his friend Rosenman, a graduate of Yale Law, was an amateur guitarist. Their friends were Kornfeld, vice-president at Capitol Records, and Michael Lang. Lang was a light-hearted hippie who had owned a head shop, and hoped to build a studio in the Woodstock area to serve singers such as Bob Dylan and Janis Joplin, who had homes nearby. When Lang and Kornfeld told the idea to Rosenman and Roberts, Rosenman got the idea of a rock concert with the same musicians. They picked the slogan "Three Days of Peace and Music". They hired artist Arnold Skolnick to design the artwork for the poster with the bird. It wasn't until years later, after the release of the 3-LP album and the documentary-like movie that the original investors began to recoup their investment.

paragraphs: In 1997, the concert place and 1,400 surrounding acres were bought by Alan Gerry, and have become the Bethel Woods Center for the Arts. It opened on July 1, 2006 with the New York Philharmonic playing. On August 13, 2006, Crosby Stills Nash & Young amazed 16,000 fans at the new Center—exactly 37 years after they played at Woodstock.


title: Phishing

paragraphs: Phishing is a way that criminals get sensitive information (like usernames or passwords). It is a method of social engineering. Very often, phishing is done by electronic mail. This mail appears to come from a bank or other service provider. It usually says that because of some change in the system, the users need to re-enter their usernames/passwords to confirm them. The emails usually have a link to a page that looks almost like that of the real bank.

paragraphs: Phishing allows criminals to get access to bank accounts, or other accounts like shopping, auction or gaming accounts. It can also be used for identity theft.

paragraphs: Phishing grew by 42% in January of 2005: 8,829 E-mails with phishing were sent in December of 2004 but that grew to 12,845 by end of January 2005.

paragraphs: The number of web pages with phishing grew from 1,740 to 2,560 in the same period.

paragraphs: Some people who do this started using pictures of text to make it harder for anti-phishing filters to see it. This sometimes works because the filters look for words often used in phishing emails/messages. However, people have invented better filters that can still read the text using OCR (optical character recognition).

paragraphs: Some anti-phishing filters can even read cursive, hand-written, upside-down, distorted (for example, wavy or stretched) text, as well as writing on colored backgrounds.


title: Edward Heath

paragraphs: Sir Edward Richard George Heath (9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005), often known as Ted Heath, was a British Conservative politician. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1970 until 1974. Heath was also the leader of the Conservative Party from 1965 until 1975.

paragraphs: Heath was educated at Balliol College, Oxford.

paragraphs: In 1937, as a student when he was travelling in Nuremberg, Heath met three of Adolf Hitler's top Nazi leaders Hermann Goering, Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler. He described Himmler as the most evil man he had ever met. Heath also travelled to Barcelona in Spain in 1938 at the time of the Spanish Civil War. In 1939, Heath went again to Germany, and returned to Britain before the outbreak of World War II.

paragraphs: Heath was a lifelong bachelor. He never married. His sexual orientation was a matter of dispute during his lifetime, and since. There were rumours that he was gay. Heath never spoke about his sexuality.

paragraphs: He was also a classical organist and conductor and a sailor.

paragraphs: In August 2015, ten years after his death, it was claimed that five police forces were investigating Heath about allegations of child sexual abuse. Writing in "The Independent", Heath's biographer John Campbell said: "If he had any inclinations that way he would have repressed them; he was too self-controlled and self-contained to do anything that would have risked his career".

paragraphs: Edward Heath was from a working class family, the son of a carpenter and a maid. He was the first of two important post-World War II prime ministers to come from the lower ranks of society (the other being Margaret Thatcher). Heath went to a grammar school in Ramsgate, and won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. Heath was a talented musician, and won the college's organ scholarship in his first term. This enabled him to stay at the university for a fourth year. He eventually graduated with in philosophy, politics and economics (PPE) in 1939.

paragraphs: Heath served in the army in WWII, starting as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. In 1944 he took part in the Normandy Landings. Heath was eventually demobilised (left the army) as a lieutenant-colonel in 1947.

paragraphs: After a spell in the Civil Service, Heath won a seat as Member of Parliament (MP) for Bexley in the February 1950 general election.

paragraphs: Heath's early appointments were as a whip in the Conservative Party in the House of Commons. He rose to be Chief Whip and Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury from 1955 to 1959. Harold Macmillan appointed him Minister of Labour, a Cabinet post, in 1959.

paragraphs: In 1960 Macmillan gave Heath responsibility for negotiating the UK's first attempt to join the European Economic Community (as the European Union was then called). After extensive negotiations, the British entry was vetoed by the French President, Charles de Gaulle.

paragraphs: From 1965 to 1970 Heath was Leader of the Opposition when the Labour Party were in power. Then he was elected Prime Minister in the General Election of 1970.

paragraphs: During his premiership the UK government passed through parliament some quite radical changes.

paragraphs: Since Anglo-Saxon times, the currency of England (and so later the UK) was based on the pound sterling, at a rate of 240 pence to £1. On 15 February 1971, known as Decimal Day, the United Kingdom and Ireland decimalised their currencies.

paragraphs: This change had many consequences, but it was eventually accepted by most people. It was an expensive change. Not only was the whole of the currency in circulation changed, but many mechanical gadgets also had to be changed. Every cash register in the country, every commercial machine which took coins, every public notices of monetary charges, and so on.

paragraphs: The other change, which happened at roughly the same time, was metrication of the old imperial system of weights and measures. This idea dated to before Heath, and was continued after him by the next Labour government. It was never fully completed. Speed limits are still in miles per hour, and measurements of length are still in traditional yards, feet and inches, with metric as an alternative. Once again, the changes were hugely expensive. It meant an almost complete retooling in the machine tool industry.

paragraphs: It was mainly done because joining the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973 obliged the United Kingdom to take into its law all EEC directives. These included the use of a prescribed SI-based set of units for many purposes within five years. However, metric measures are not much used in everyday life in the UK.

paragraphs: Heath took the United Kingdom into Europe with the European Communities Act 1972 in October.

paragraphs: Once de Gaulle had left office, Heath was determined to get the UK into the (then) European Economic Community. The EEC economy had also slowed down and British membership was seen as a way to revitalise it. After a 12-hour talk between Heath and French President Georges Pompidou Britain's third application succeeded.

paragraphs: Heath failed to control the power of the unions. Two miners' strikes damaged the economy. The 1974 strike caused much of the country's industry to work a three-day week to conserve energy. That was enough for the electorate to put the government out of office. The loss of the 1974 general election ended Heath's career at the top. The Conservative Party replaced him with Margaret Thatcher.

paragraphs: Heath never married. He had been expected to marry childhood friend Kay Raven, who reportedly tired of waiting and married an RAF officer whom she met on holiday in 1950. In a four-sentence paragraph of his memoirs, Heath claimed that he had been too busy establishing a career after the war and had "perhaps ... taken too much for granted". In a 1998 TV interview with Michael Cockerell, Heath admitted that he had kept her photograph in his flat for many years afterwards.

paragraphs: His interest in music kept him on friendly terms with a number of female musicians including Moura Lympany. Lympany had thought Heath would marry her, but when asked about the most intimate thing he had done, replied, "He put his arm around my shoulder." Bernard Levin wrote at the time in "The Observer", forgetting two other prime ministers who were bachelors with no known romantic interests, that the UK had to wait until the emergence of the permissive society for a prime minister who was a virgin. In later life, according to his official biographer Philip Ziegler, Heath was "apt to relapse into morose silence or completely ignore the woman next to him and talk across her to the nearest man".

paragraphs: John Campbell, who published a biography of Heath in 1993, devoted four pages to a discussion of the evidence concerning Heath's sexuality. Whilst acknowledging that Heath was often assumed by the public to be gay, not least because it is "nowadays ... whispered of any bachelor" he found "no positive evidence" that this was so "except for the faintest unsubstantiated rumour". Campbell concluded that the most significant aspect of Heath's sexuality was his complete repression of it.


title: One Magic Christmas

paragraphs: One Magic Christmas is a 1985 Christmas movie released by Walt Disney Pictures, starring Harry Dean Stanton and Mary Steenburgen. The other cast is Gany Basaraba, Elisabeth Harnois, Arthur Hill, Wayne Robson, Elias Koteas, Michelle Meyrink, Sarah Polley.

paragraphs: The genre of this movie is family, drama, fantasy movie. The director is Phillip Borsos.


title: Kidney failure

paragraphs: Kidney failure (also called renal failure) is a term used to describe when a person's kidneys stop working properly, or fail. Kidney failure can be divided into two categories: chronic renal failure, and acute renal failure.

paragraphs: Chronic renal failure develops slowly, and there are not many noticeable symptoms at first.

paragraphs: Chronic renal failure can be a sign of other diseases, like IgA nephritis, glomerulonephritis, chronic pyelonephritis, and urinary retention.

paragraphs: Chronic renal failure will eventually develop into end-stage renal failure if it is left untreated. End-stage renal failure can only be treated with dialysis or a kidney transplant.

paragraphs: Acute renal failure develops in a short time, and symptoms are more noticeable. Symptoms include:

paragraphs: The cause of acute renal failure needs to be found quickly. Dialysis is often needed to prevent permanent damage to the body while the cause is being found.

paragraphs: It is possible to have acute renal failure on top of chronic renal failure. This is called "acute-on-chronic renal failure."


title: Raoult's law

paragraphs: Raoult's law states that the vapour pressure of a binary solution containing a non-volatile solute is directly related to the mole fraction of solvent (i.e. volatile) in the solution.

paragraphs: Also, it states that the vapour pressure of each component in a binary solution containing volatile components is directly related to its respective mole fraction in the solution.

paragraphs: Relative going-down of vapour pressure is equal to mole fraction of non volatile and non-electrolytic solute. This is known as Raoult's law.


title: Overdose

paragraphs: An Overdose is when someone takes too much of a certain drug. This may be done voluntarily (as an attempt of suicide) or involuntarily. The drug may be a drug taken to treat some medical condition, or it may be a drug taken for recreation. Overdoses are considered to be poisoning, usually. They may lead to death, depending on the drug used.

paragraphs: If someone is thought to have had an overdose it is important to get them to a doctor, or hospital. It can be very hard to see what kind of drug was taken. Therefore, it can be hard for the doctor to find an antidote to give. For this reason, a packet (even if it is empty) of the drug should be taken.


title: Kargil War

paragraphs: Kargil War also called as the Kargil conflict, was an armed conflict between Indian and Pakistani forces. It took place between May and July 1999 in the Kargil district of Kashmir and along the Line of Control. The cause of the war was a series of past events that worsened the already existing Indo-Pak deteriorated relations. India had violated agreements concerning the Kashmir conflict before. The Simla Agreement signed by India and Pakistan in 1972 states that ""in Jammu and Kashmir, the Line of Control resulting from the cease-fire of December 17, 1971, shall be respected by both sides without prejudice to the recognized position of either side. Both sides refrain from the threat of use of force in violation of this Line."" India's move into Siachen in 1984 was a flagrant violation of this agreement. It had breached the agreement of LOC by perpetuating aggression in Neelum Valley as well and finally in Kargil. To put a stop to India's actions, the Pakistan army went on, although without proper coordination with its government. Pakistan clearly did not win the war militarily as well as politically and diplomatically. However, confusions still remain to this day as to who won the war but based on military action alone it was a decisive victory for India As India succesfully regained most of the intruded territory and was also succesful in pushing back both pakistani and pakistani based millitants back on the other side of LoC. Pakistani soldiers and Pakistan backed militants got into areas on the Indian side of the Line of Control (LoC) to occupy military posts vacated in the winter. India responded by launching a military and diplomatic offensive to drive out the Pakistani forces. The Indian Army launched a number of patrols to the area to estimate the extent of the infiltration. The Indian Army recaptured majority of the positions on the Indian side of the LOC with the help of the US within two months of the conflict according to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian while Pakistan lost all control over the Kargil area due to orders to withdraw from the Kargil area. Fearing large-scale increase in seriousness in the military conflict, the international community, led by the United States, increased diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to withdraw forces from remaining Indian territory. The Pakistani casualties in the war were around 400 while the Indian casualties during the conflict stood at more than 587 soldiers.

paragraphs: The conflict officially came to an end on July 26, with India regaining its earlier hold on Kargil.

paragraphs: The Kargil war is one of the most recent examples of high-altitude warfare in mountainous terrain.


title: Shock (circulatory)

paragraphs: A person is in shock when blood is not sufficient to bring oxygen to the brain. The shock is progressive and can be deadly if it is not quickly made well.

paragraphs: The normal first aid action is the "Trendelenburg position", the person is lying face upward, with his legs lifted. The blood is forced to flow to the brain.


title: David Lloyd George

paragraphs: David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was the British Prime Minister during the last half of World War I. He was Prime Minister for six years, between 1916 and 1922.

paragraphs: Lloyd George was born in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, Lancashire, England to Welsh parents. His father, who died before Lloyd George was two-years old, was a teacher and a farmer. When he was young, he lived with his mother and his brother. When he was 21, Lloyd George became a lawyer and opened an office in the back of his brother's house.

paragraphs: Lloyd George's law practice was a success. Shortly after opening it, Lloyd George became interested in politics. He began working with the Liberal Party. He was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) on 13 April 1890. Lloyd George would serve as an MP until 1945. In the House of Commons, Lloyd George worked to promote Welsh issues, fought against the Second Boer War and campaigned for education reform.

paragraphs: In 1905, Lloyd George was selected to become a cabinet minister. He served as President of the Board of Trade (1905–1908) and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908–1915). After World War I started, he held the positions of Minister of Munitions (1915) and War Secretary (1916).

paragraphs: By the end of 1916, the war was going badly for Great Britain. Lloyd George gathered together a coalition (a type of political team) of Liberal and Conservative MPs to form a new government. On 5 December 1916, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith resigned, and Lloyd George took his place. Lloyd George's government introduced conscription (forcing men to join the armed forces) and rationing (placing limits on the amount of food someone can buy) by the end of the war.

paragraphs: After the war, Lloyd George represented Britain at the Versailles Peace Conference and helped create the Irish Free State. By 1922, Lloyd George's coalition was breaking apart. In October 1922, the Conservative Party led by Andrew Bonar Law won the election. Lloyd George remained an MP, however, until 1945.

paragraphs: In 1945, he was given the titles Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor and Viscount Gwynedd. He was to take a seat in the House of Lords, but he died before he could do so.


title: Big Ben

paragraphs: Big Ben is the nickname of a bell that hangs in the clock tower at the northern end of the Houses of Parliament in Westminster, London, England. Officially, the tower itself is called Elizabeth Tower. It was previously known as just the Clock Tower, but was renamed in September 2012 as a tribute to the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. However, most people, including those that live in London, call the tower "Big Ben" because it is very large.

paragraphs: Designed by Edmund Beckett Denison, the clock took 13 years to build and it was completed in 1859. It has worked continuously since then except for a few months in 1976 when it broke down and had to be fixed.

paragraphs: Big Ben is one of England’s best-known landmarks. Some believe it got its name from Sir Benjamin Hall. The Elizabeth Tower which it is located in has become one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and is often in the establishing shot of films set in London.

paragraphs: Since August 2017, repair work is being done on the clock, which will take four years. For the safety of those doing this work, Big Ben no longer rings out every hour. It will still be heard on special occasions, such as the New Year and Remembrance Day.

paragraphs: The Elizabeth Tower is over high and the turret clock mechanism that drives the clock alone weighs about 5 tons (5.08 tonnes). The clock on it has four faces that are in diameter, making it one of the largest in the world for a clock that chimes and strikes every hour. The figures on the clock face are about long and the minute spaces are long. There are, however, clocks with much bigger faces that Big Ben. One of these is the Abraj Al Bait, a hotel in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Its faces are more than ten times bigger than Big Ben.

paragraphs: The bell known as Big Ben weighs 13 tons and is the biggest of the five bells in the Elizabeth Tower. Big Ben only sounds at the top of every hour, and at that time it rings once for every hour (for example, it rings three times at 3 o'clock). The other four bells in the tower are smaller and play a short melody every 15 minutes. This melody, which is broadcasted live on BBC Radio 4 at 6 pm and midnight every day, can be heard in many other clocks around the world and is called the Westminster Chimes.

paragraphs: The bells are struck by hammers that are connected to the clock mechanism, which is powered by large weights that are wound three times a week. It does not use any electricity except for winding and to light the faces so that the clock could be seen when it is dark.


title: Strontium

paragraphs: Strontium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Sr. It has the atomic number 38. It is a metal. The colour of the metal is silver-white or yellow-silver. The metal is soft, and highly reactive chemically.

paragraphs: In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkaline earth metals. Strontium has a high chemical reactivity. The metal turns yellow when exposed to air. Strontium has properties similar to those of its two vertical neighbours in the periodic table, calcium and barium.

paragraphs: It is found naturally in the minerals celestite and strontianite. The Sr isotope is present in radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28.9 years.

paragraphs: Strontium forms salts which make a red flame when they burn. They are used in flares for signalling the position of survivors or shipwrecks and to make the red colour in fireworks.

paragraphs: It is named after the village of Strontian, Scotland.


title: Alkaline earth metal

paragraphs: The alkaline earth metals are the second group of metals on the periodic table. They are related to the Alkali metals, but they do not react as much because they need more energy to remove their two electrons, So they do not have to be stored in petrol. As ions they have a charge of +2a. The alkaline earth metals are mostly silver colored, soft metals, which react readily with "halogens" and water to form salts, though not as rapidly as some of the alkali metals, to form" alkaline hydroxides". many "prokatates and hantates" can be found in the crust of these metals.

paragraphs: The alkaline earth metals are: beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. Radium is very radioactive.


title: Dag Hammarskjöld

paragraphs: Dag Hammarskjold (Swedish: Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjöld) (29 July 1905 – 18 September 1961) was a Swedish diplomat and the second Secretary-General of the United Nations. He served as Secretary-General from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in what is now Zambia, on 18 September 1961. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize after his death in 1961.


title: My Belarusy

paragraphs: My Biełarusy (written as "Мы, беларусы" in Belarusian and Russian Cyrillic; meaning 'We Belarusians') is the national anthem of Belarus. It uses the same tune (music) as the previous anthem when the country was part of the Soviet Union. That anthem's lyrics (words for music) were written by Michaś Klimkovič and set to music by Nieścier Sakałowski, and it was originally adopted in 1955. After the Soviet Union was gone, new lyrics (words) written by Klimković and Uładzimir Karyzna were adopted in 2002.

paragraphs: Because Russian is a second state language of Belarus, a translation is provided below. This version is a literal, verbatim (word for word) translation of the original; note the similarities of the two East Slavic languages.


title: Yorkshire pudding

paragraphs: Yorkshire pudding is a British food. It is usually served with roast meat and vegetables.


title: Extraterrestrial life

paragraphs: Extraterrestrial life is life that is not from the planet Earth. It is alien life. It is reasonable that planets rather like ours exist, and that life might evolve there also. So far none has been found, though it is possible that life once existed on Mars.

paragraphs: Searches have been made for signals from extraterrestrial life-forms. No signals have been received.

paragraphs: It is not a new idea. Quite a few philosophers have speculated on the existence of other planets like ours, with the idea that what happened here could also happen there. One thing we do know is that many other star systems do have exoplanets.


title: Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry

paragraphs: Christian Apologetics Research Ministry (CARM) is a religious organization that was created in 1995 by Matt Slick. It is an internet apologetics ministry. It writes things against what he considers cults. On the CARM website there is a chat room and internet forum. This lets people to talk to other people about things related to CARM and its teachings. On the CARM website there is a theology and apologetics school that is online. There is a cost to join the school. Matt Slick also has the website The Calvinist Corner.


title: American University of Beirut

paragraphs: The American University of Beirut (AUB; ) is the first American university to be built in Beirut, Lebanon. Its old name was the Syrian Protestant College, and it was built in the year 1866. The name was changed to American University of Beirut on November 18, 1920.


title: Caliph

paragraphs: In Arabic, caliph means "a successor to the prophet". This is what leaders of the Islamic faith came to be called. Their rule is called a caliphate.

paragraphs: Some of the early leaders of the Muslim community following Muhammad's (570–632) death called themselves ""Khalifat Allah"", meaning "representative of God". But the other title of ""Khalifat rasul Allah"", meaning the successor to the prophet of God, became the common title. Some academics write the term as "Khalīf".

paragraphs: Caliphs were often also called "Amīr al-Mu'minīn" (), "leader of the Muslims". This title has since been shortened to "emir". It is also found as a personal name in some countries.

paragraphs: After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was used by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, as well as by other dynasties in Southern Pakistan, Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves sultans or emirs, and the caliph himself often had very little real authority. The title was not used after the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman caliphate in 1924.


title: Bensheim

paragraphs: Bensheim is a city in Hesse, Germany. It is at the edge of the Odenwald and near to the river Rhine. It had 39,642 inhabitants in 2005 and is the biggest city of the Bergstraße district.

paragraphs: Economically it is in an area where wine grapes are grown. Many small businesses in the areas such as electronics, software development or services can be found.

paragraphs: The city has also factories/offices of Sirona former known as Siemens, Tyco International, Akzo Nobel, Suzuki and SAP SI.

paragraphs: The ”Fürstenlager” near Bensheim-Auerbach are simple buildings built like a village around the Good Well in the middle of a landscaped park. Its owners sought the peace of a rural idyll far removed from the court.

paragraphs: To the West, Bensheim borders Lorsch and Einhausen; to the North Zwingenberg; to the East Lautertal; and to the South Heppenheim.

paragraphs: It is also known for its good traffic connections to other nearby cities. In the North Darmstadt and Frankfurt am Main; in the East Worms; and in the South Heidelberg, Mannheim and Ludwigshafen are all within an hour's drive.


title: False prophet

paragraphs: A false prophet is a person who claims to be a true prophet but really is not. A false prophet is also someone who uses prophecy to do evil.

paragraphs: The term is also used outside religion to describe someone who fervently promotes a theory which the speaker thinks is false.

paragraphs: In Christianity, false prophets are thought of as being inspired by Satan, or the Devil. False prophets are the opposite of prophets. False prophets try to deceive people and bring them away from god. They use false information to lead people away from god. There are many false prophets in the Bible.


title: Paul Dirac

paragraphs: Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, OM (August 8, 1902 in Bristol – October 20, 1984 in Tallahassee) was an English physicist.

paragraphs: Dirac's father came from the French-speaking part of Switzerland.

paragraphs: Dirac worked out a formulation of quantum mechanics, which includes Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics and Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics in 1926. In 1928 he found the Dirac equation and he found out that spin in quantum mechanics is an effect of relativity. The Dirac equation allowed Dirac to predict the existence of antimatter, which is the opposite of matter.

paragraphs: In 1933 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics.

paragraphs: Dirac was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics chair at Cambridge University from 1932 until his retirement in 1969. He was Professor of Physics at Florida State University from 1972 until his death in 1984.


title: Emperor of Japan

paragraphs: The Emperor of Japan or the is the Head of state of Japan, The monarch is the symbol of the Japanese nation and the unity of its people.

paragraphs: In the Japanese constitutional monarchy, the emperor does not have any political power. In world politics, he is the only current emperor.

paragraphs: The current emperor is his Majesty emperor Naruhito. He has been on the Chrysanthemum Throne since his father Akihito abdicated in 2019.

paragraphs: The amount of power belonging to the emperor of Japan has changed a lot throughout Japanese history. The Emperor of Japan has sometimes been a cleric with mostly symbolic powers and sometimes an actual ruler. Some believe that the emperor is descended from gods.

paragraphs: Since the mid-1800s, the Imperial Palace has been located on the former site of Edo Castle （江戸城）in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier emperors lived in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries.

paragraphs: The earliest monarch listed as an emperor who is believed by historians to have existed in history was Emperor Ojin.

paragraphs: The imperial dynasty that rules Japan today began as a local kingship in Central Japan in the 500s. It slowly increased its power over its neighbors. This led to a more centralized state made up of almost all of the central areas of what is now Japan. The remote areas were outside its borders.

paragraphs: The emperor's role is defined in Chapter I of the 1947 Constitution of Japan.

paragraphs: The emperor of Japan has no reserve powers.

paragraphs: While the emperor does serve as head of state, many people question if the emperor is a true monarch in a political sense. Efforts in the 1950s by conservative powers to change the constitution to actually name the emperor as head of state were rejected. Regardless, the emperor does do all the diplomatic functions of a head of state and is recognized as one by foreign powers.

paragraphs: Succession is now controlled by laws passed by the Japanese Diet. The current law does not let females take the throne. A change to this law was considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to a son.

paragraphs: Until the birth of a son to Prince Akishino on September 6, 2006, there was a potential succession problem. No male child had been born into the imperial family since Prince Akishino in 1965. Following the birth of Princess Aiko, some felt they needed to change the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005 Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi created a group of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study the problem.

paragraphs: On October 25, 2005 they recommended changing the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On January 20, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi made an announcement that they would change the law to allow women to ascend the throne. However, after finding out that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi decided to wait. Her son, Prince Hisahito, is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession.

paragraphs: Naming the emperors of Japan is difficult because of differences between Japan and the Western world. The Japanese use "{name} tennō" (for the past emperors) or "Kinjō Heika" (今上陛下） for the current one). Problems occur because emperors are named "{name} tennō" after their death.

paragraphs: Some Japanese once thought it was rude to call a person of noble rank by their given names. This belief is not commonly followed today, but still used for the imperial family. The current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to simply as "Tennō Heika" (天皇陛下, lit. "His Majesty the Emperor") or formally as Kinjō Heika (今上陛下).

paragraphs: In English, the recent emperors are called by their personal names.

paragraphs: For example, the previous emperor is usually called Hirohito in English, but after his death he was renamed "Shōwa Tennō" and is now only called by this name in Japanese. However, when he was in power, he was never called Hirohito or "Shōwa Tennō" in Japanese. Rather, he was simply called "Tennō Heika" (meaning "His Majesty the Emperor").


title: Pipe (smoke)

paragraphs: A pipe is a tool that people use to smoke tobacco and other drugs. Pipe smokers do not usually breathe in the smoke. They let it go into their mouths and then exhale it. Pipe smoking is not a healthy alternative to cigarette smoking.

paragraphs: Tobacco pipes are used to smoke tobacco. In some Middle Eastern countries, people smoke tobacco with water pipes, which cool the smoke in water. Different types of pipes are also used to smoke marijuana, hashish, and crack cocaine. Some people who smoke marijuana or hashish use a special water pipe called a bong.

paragraphs: Native American tobacco pipes had two parts: a stone bowl and a wooden stem. Japanese "kiseru" pipes have a metal bowl and mouth piece with a wooden stem. Arabian "midwakh" pipes may be made from different materials. European tobacco pipes have been made from clay, tree root wood, meerschaum stone or even maize cobs.

paragraphs: Pipes to smoke opium may have clay or metal bowls with a wooden stem. Pipes for marijuana or hashish may be metal, wood or glass. Pipes to smoke other drugs may also be made of glass.

paragraphs: Pipes were first used by Native Americans in religious ceremonies. When the English came to North America, they tried pipe smoking and liked it. They sent tobacco back to England.


title: Thomas Tallis

paragraphs: Thomas Tallis (born c.1505; died Greenwich November 23 1585) was the most important English composer of his generation.

paragraphs: We know very little about Tallis’s youth. He may have started his career as organist at Dover and then Waltham Abbey. After the Dissolution of the monasteries he had a job at Canterbury Cathedral for a short time. He was soon made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He had a job in the royal household until his death. He worked for four monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I.

paragraphs: Tallis was an organist and composer. He had to write music for the royal chapels. He was given the lease of a big house in Kent and a salary of £91 12s a year (12s is 60p in modern money). That was a very good salary in those days. In 1575, Queen Elizabeth I gave Tallis and William Byrd a licence which meant they were the only people allowed to print and publish music in England (music printing was a very new invention at the time). Tallis owned a house in Greenwich where he died in 1585.

paragraphs: In the early 16th century church music was often very polyphonic. Voices imitated one another and sang different things at the same time. Tallis wrote church music which was much simpler. In a lot of his music the choir sing homophonic music instead of using the older polyphony. For a short time, during the reign of the Catholic Mary Tudor, polyphonic music was in fashion again. This was the time when Tallis wrote an antiphon “Gaude gloriosa Dei mater” and a mass musical setting|mass “Puer natus est nobis”. These two works are once more very complicated polyphonic works. After that his works become simpler once more, but he was always keen to try out new ideas from the continent of Europe. He wrote some very fine anthems. Many of his works are settings of Latin words, but he also made settings of English texts.

paragraphs: One of his works is called "Spem in Alium". The choir divide into forty parts i.e. the choir need at least 40 people to sing it, and each person sings a different line. It is possible that he wrote it for Queen Elizabeth I’s 40th birthday in 1573, but we cannot be sure.

paragraphs: His "Diliges Dominum" is a collection of contrapuntal exercises which includes a very famous canon often simply called “Tallis’s canon”.


title: Homophony

paragraphs: Homophony means music in which the voices or instruments sing or play chords (chords are when two or more notes are played together.) In homophonic music all the choir (sopranos, altos, tenors and basses) are singing the same words at the same time. There is a tune on top and the lower parts are the accompaniment. This is what happens in hymn singing. The opposite is polyphony. Polyphonic writing is more complicated: the choir sing different melodic lines at the same time (see counterpoint). The terms "homophony" (literally: "one sound") and "polyphony" (literally: "many sounds") are mostly used for choir music.

paragraphs: In homophonic music it is easy to hear the words that are being sung. In polyphonic music it is much harder for the listener to understand the words. Composers often used polyphony when writing music for the mass because everyone knew the words anyway. Homophonic music became more important when composers started to write operas and madrigals where a story is being told and the words must be heard clearly.


title: Technetium

paragraphs: Technetium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Tc. It has the atomic number 43. The color of technetium is silvery-grey. It is radioactive. It is a crystaline metal. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. The chemistry of technetium is somewhere between rhenium and manganese.

paragraphs: The isotope Tc is used in nuclear medicine. It is used for many diagnostic tests. It has a short half-life. Tc is used as a source of beta particles without emitting gamma rays. The ion that has oxygen and technetium bonded together (TcO) is named the pertechnetate ion. The pertechnetate ion could be used as to prevent anodic corrosion in steel.

paragraphs: Before the element was found, many of the properties of element 43 were predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Mendeleev saw a gap in his periodic table. He named the element in the gap ekamanganese. In 1937 the technetium isotope Tc was the first element to be artificially produced. This gave the element its name. In Greek τεχνητος means "artificial". Most technetium made on Earth is a by-product of fission of uranium-235 in nuclear reactors. It is extracted from nuclear fuel rods. On earth, technetium occurs naturally only in uranium ores as a product of spontaneous fission. The amount of technitium in the ore is very small but has been measured. No isotope of technetium has a half-life longer than 4.2 million years (Tc). This means that its detection in red giants in 1952 helped support the theory that stars can produce heavier elements. it is the first man made element in periodic table


title: Monastery

paragraphs: Monasteries are places where monks live. Although the word "monastery" is sometimes used for a place where nuns live, nuns usually live in a convent or nunnery. The word abbey (from the Syriac word ': "father") is also used for a Christian monastery or convent. The monk in charge of an abbey is called an abbot; the nun in charge of an abbey is an abbess.

paragraphs: Several religions have a system of monasteries. Christian monasteries have a chapel for the monks to worship. Monks are not allowed to marry (celibacy). They are also not allowed to own anything. Everything they use, including their clothes, belongs to the monastery. During the Middle Ages after the Roman Empire was defeated, monasteries were some of the few places where knowledge still existed.

paragraphs: Some monasteries were built in places far away from where other people lived. The monks who live there live very isolated lives, growing their own food and looking after one another. Other monasteries were in or near towns. Monks do a lot of work in the community, including as teaching, medical care or telling people about God. Few monks live isolated lives nowadays.


title: Windows Neptune

paragraphs: Windows Neptune is a version of Microsoft Windows that was being made during 1999 and January 2000. Windows 2000 was released as an operating system for businesses and people that know how to use computers well. Windows Neptune was going to be a version of Windows 2000 that was easier for home users to use. Nobody knows if Microsoft was ever going to release Windows Neptune. After Microsoft stopped developing it, some of its features were merged with Windows 2000's and a new project, "Whistler", was formed. "Whistler" was later released as Windows XP.

paragraphs: Only one known confirmed version of Windows Neptune exists. which is Windows Neptune Build 5111. Windows Neptune Build 5111 exists on the Internet, and is a confirmed built. It used to be hard to find, but now it can easily be found.


title: Alexander Lukashenko

paragraphs: Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (born 30 August 1954) is the President of the country of Belarus. He has been its leader since 1994. He was the first leader of the country to be chosen by Belarus citizens.

paragraphs: Before becoming the leader, he belonged to the law making section of the government. He was also in the military of the Soviet Union and ran a factory that made things to help farming.

paragraphs: He has been called "Europe's last dictator".

paragraphs: His re-election in 2020 was seen as controversial with many saying it was rigged and unfair. His re-election caused many to protest against the election results.

paragraphs: In July 2020, he said that he had COVID-19 after telling people that to avoid the disease they should drink vodka.


title: Shelf

paragraphs: A shelf is a piece of furniture that is used for storing items.


title: Throat

paragraphs: The throat is a part of the body. The throat is connected to the mouth at the top and to the stomach at the bottom. The throat is where food travels after being eaten and chewed by the teeth. Fluid drinks, such as water, also travel through the throat to the stomach and on to the rest of the body.


title: Safe

paragraphs: The word safe has more than one meaning.


title: Jelly

paragraphs: Gelatin or Jelly is a dessert item. Gelatin can come in different taste choices, or flavors, depending on what fruit or artificial flavor. Jelly is a cold and solid food that is normally made from hot water and powder.

paragraphs: Jelly can be added to foods like a peanut butter and jelly sandwich.

paragraphs: Depending on where you live, gelatin may be called different things. In the United States and Canada, jelly is often called 'Jell-O'. Jell-O is a brand of gelatin that has become a generic, or typical, name for a lot of gelatin. Like the United States, in Canada "Jell-O" is a normal name for gelatin. In Commonwealth Nations like the United Kingdom and New Zealand, almost all gelatin is called jelly. Also, it is spelled gelatine.

paragraphs: Sometimes, alcohol is added to jelly. You can make jello shots with almost any type of alcohol. Jello shots can be served in small glasses and can be any color depending on the other ingredients put into the Jell-O shot. The jello shot is also known as the poison rainbow.


title: Biogeography

paragraphs: Biogeography is the study of how species are distributed. It aims to show where organisms live, and why they are (or are not) found in a certain geographical area.

paragraphs: The basic issue is that animals and plants are adapted to the places they live in, but similar places often have quite different animals and plants. One might expect to find, for example, that the animals in a tropical rain forest would be almost the same in Amazonia, equatorial Africa and Southeast Asia. But that is not the case.

paragraphs: There must be reasons for this situation. Those reasons are the subject of research in biogeography. At first, from about 1800–1855, natural historians made lists of species in various regions of the world. These lists were published as tables in their books. A revolution started with Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, who published the idea of evolution by natural selection. They had travelled in tropical countries, and wrote about the life in those countries. They said that evolution was the key to understanding geographical distribution.

paragraphs: New species usually come about by an earlier species splitting in two: speciation. This takes place at a certain time and place. From that place, the new species may travel. It will be blocked by geographical features (seas, mountains...) and by climate. Thus, a species may never get to other places where it might be a great success. That, in general, is the reason why lands with similar climate often have quite different animals and plants. Classic examples are Australian marsupials and the Great American Interchange.

paragraphs: Of course, different types of animals and plants have different mobility. It is easier for birds and insects to travel by flight and, in the sea, fish can easily travel. All the same, there are limits. Fish on either side of the Americas are usually different species; and fresh-water fish do not disperse much. So it comes about that:

paragraphs: The scientific theory of biogeography grows out of the work of Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804–1881), Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), Philip Lutley Sclater (1829–1913), and other biologists and explorers.

paragraphs: Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the Amazon Basin and the Malay Archipelago in the mid-19th century. Wallace and Sclater saw biogeography as a source of support for the theory of evolution. Key findings, such as the sharp difference in fauna either side of the Wallace Line, can only be understood in this light. Otherwise, the field of biogeography would be a purely descriptive one.

paragraphs: Both Darwin (Galapagos Islands) and Wallace gave a great deal of attention to oceanic islands as offering examples of evolution, especially speciation. This interest was revived by "The theory of island biogeography" by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson in 1967. They showed that the species richness of an area could be predicted if one knew the habitat area, immigration rate and extinction rate.

paragraphs: Also, it was realised that habitat fragments are rather like islands. They can be investigated by the same methods. This spurred the development of conservation biology.

paragraphs: Genome analysis allows scientists to test theories about the origin and dispersal of populations, such as island species. It allows biologists to test theories about where the species come from.


title: Biophysics

paragraphs: Biophysics is a science where the laws of physics are used to study biology, the science on life and living things. Unlike biochemistry and molecular biology, sciences where macromolecules or "large" groups of molecules are studied, biophysicists study single or small groups of molecules.


title: Macromolecule

paragraphs: A macromolecule is a molecule with a large number of atoms. The word is usually used only when describing polymers, molecules which are made up of smaller molecules called monomers. All organic monomers are based on carbon, usually with hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. There are inorganic macromolecules based on other monomers.


title: Dendrology

paragraphs: Dendrology is the science of trees and other woody plants such as shrubs or lianas. The word "dendrology" comes from Greek words δένδρον meaning "tree" and λόγος meaning "study".


title: Entomology

paragraphs: Entomology is the science of insects. People who study insects are called entomologists. Insects have been studied since prehistoric times, but it was not until as early as the 16th century that insects were scientifically studied.

paragraphs: Some entomologists study how insects are related to each other. Others study how insects live and reproduce because we do not know very much about some kinds of insects. Other entomologists study ways to keep insects away from crops that people use for food. There are billions of unknown species throughout the world and taxonomists categorize the newly found.

paragraphs: Entomologists meet to talk about their study of insects and to share ideas, just as all scientists do.


title: Ethology

paragraphs: Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour (U.S. "behavior"), and a sub-topic of zoology. Ethology overlaps, to some extent, with psychology. Psychology is a social science which studies human behaviour, but many psychologists have done experiments on learning in animals. Ethology studies animal behaviour, but many ethologists have been interested in human behaviour.

paragraphs: An American specialist on ants, William Morton Wheeler, first used the term 'ethology' in English in 1902.

paragraphs: The study of animal behaviour, which had been going on in an anecdotal way since Aristotle, had its roots in natural history. It became more scientific during the 19th century. The French zoologist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire was the founder of ethology in Europe, and his son Isidore produced a three-volume encyclopaedia "Histoire Naturelle Générale". In the third volume he talked about animal behaviour in almost modern terms. The entomologist J.-H Fabre (1823–1915) was a remarkable observer of natural life. His popular writing on natural history kept ethology alive in Europe.

paragraphs: Douglas Spalding (1841–1877) was a British biologist who was the first to notice the effect called imprinting. Instinct and imprinting were the first scientific concepts in ethology.

paragraphs: He was able to prove that the behaviour of chicks after hatching from the egg happened even when they had no experience, practice or even information from the senses. Therefore, the capacity was inherited.

paragraphs: Studies by Charles Otis Whitman, Oskar Heinroth and Julian Huxley set the tone in the 20th century. This work was mostly on bird behaviour, especially mating behaviour. The behaviour of birds played a big part in early ethology, but there was a start to studying our nearest relatives. Wolfgang Köhler's "Mentality of Apes" was a landmark in the study of primates. In 2020, Dr. Tobias Starzak and Professor Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum proposed that animals may have beliefs despite these being more difficult to determine than humans.

paragraphs: The next generation began during the 1930s with the work of Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, and the Dutch biologist Niko Tinbergen. The three men were joint winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1973.

paragraphs: Lorenz is famous for his 'longitudinal' studies: he lived with the animals he researched, and made observations throughout their lives. Then he wrote about what he had discovered in long, very readable papers. He researched instinctual behaviour, which he called 'fixed action patterns' (FAPs). Lorenz popularized FAPs as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of specific stimuli (called sign stimuli or releasing stimuli). von Frisch worked on communication in honey bees: the famous 'bee dances'. Tinbergen experimented with the stimuli which trigger fixed action patterns. He found out that artificial super-stimuli could often work better than the natural stimuli.

paragraphs: Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines—e.g., neuroanatomy, ecology, evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

paragraphs: In the 1960s Nico Tinbergen set out a framework for research on behaviour. It involved four questions and their answers.

paragraphs: The only scientific explanation for an animal’s behaviour is that it is well adapted for survival and reproduction in its environment. A trait is the result of its past contribution to survival. In practice, this is simple. For instance, birds fly south in the winter to find food and warmth, and mammalian mothers nurture their young, thereby having more surviving offspring.

paragraphs: Phylogeny explains why some adaptation is less than perfect. From where it is, there are always some possibilities which a particular species can never get to. This is because all stages in evolution must be viable, else extinction occurs.

paragraphs: All instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions – for example to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients – without realizing that the reason people experience hunger (causation) is because it causes them to acquire nutrients (function).


title: Henry III of England

paragraphs: Henry III (1 October 1207–16 November 1272) became King of England in 1216 when he was less than ten years old. He continued to be king for 56 years until he died in 1272. He was married to Eleanor of Provence. He is creditied for re-developing certain aspects of Westminister Abbey and his interest in architecture and decoration. He improved the Tower of London's defences and kept lions, an elephant and a polar bear in the tower. Discovered after his death, his tomb reveals Henry III was about 5’ 6” tall and had a drooping left eyelid. Henry was an unpopular monarch.


title: Edward I of England

paragraphs: Edward I (17 June 1239–7 July 1307), also "Longshanks" (meaning 'long legs') and the "Hammer of the Scots", was a Plantagenet King of England. He became king on 21 November 1272, until his death in 1307. His mother was Queen Eleanor of Provence and his father was King Henry III of England. As a younger man, Edward fought against Simon de Montfort in defence of his father's crown. He went on a Crusade, and his father died as Edward was on his way back. As a ruler, he improved the laws and made Parliament regular, and more important. He conquered Wales, and subdued the Welsh by brutal policies. He was determined to control Scotland through puppet kings and just managed to do it during his lifetime. He expelled the Jewish people from England.

paragraphs: Edward was born at Westminster in June 1239, and was named after an earlier king, Edward the Confessor. He had a good education. His mother, a French princess, loved the arts, and his father, the king, was interested in history. Edward was taught in Latin and French.

paragraphs: In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English province of Gascony induced Edward's father to arrange a marriage between his fourteen-year-old son and Eleanor, the half-sister of King Alfonso X of Castile.

paragraphs: Eleanor and Edward were married on 1 November 1254 in Castile. As part of the marriage agreement, the young prince got grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year. Though the endowments King Henry made were sizable, they offered Edward little independence. He had received Gascony as early as 1249, but Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, as royal lieutenant, drew the income. In practice, Edward derived neither authority nor revenue from this province. The grant he received in 1254 included most of Ireland, and much land in Wales and England, including the earldom of Chester, but the king kept control over the land, particularly in Ireland, so Edward's power was limited there as well, and the king got most of the income from those lands.

paragraphs: The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War, in which baronial forces led by Simon de Montfort fought against those who remained loyal to the king. The first scene of battle was the city of Gloucester, which Edward managed to retake from the enemy. When Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby, came to the assistance of the rebels, Edward negotiated a truce with the earl, the terms of which he later broke. Edward then captured Northampton from de Montfort's son, also Simon. The baronial and royalist forces finally met at the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May 1264. Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of de Montfort's forces. Unwisely, however, he followed the scattered enemy in pursuit, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated. By the agreement known as the Mise of Lewes, Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as prisoners to de Montfort.

paragraphs: Edward remained in captivity until March, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance. Meanwhile, de Montfort used his victory to set up a "de facto" government. He even summoned the Parliament of 1265, known as de Montfort's Parliament.

paragraphs: Then, on 28 May 1265, Edward managed to escape his custodians and joined up with the Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the king's side. Montfort's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with relatively little effort. Meanwhile, Montfort had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon.

paragraphs: Edward managed to make a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle, before moving on to cut off the earl of Leicester.

paragraphs: The two forces then met at the second great encounter of the Barons' War the Battle of Evesham, on 4 August 1265. Montfort stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field.

paragraphs: The war did not end with Montfort's death, and Edward continued campaigning. At Christmas, he came to terms with the younger Simon de Montfort and his associates at the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire. In March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports. A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth. In April it seemed as if Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came an agreement. Edward, however, was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars; at this point his main focus was on planning his upcoming crusade.

paragraphs: Edward took the crusader's cross in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund and cousin Henry of Almain. Among others who committed themselves to the Ninth Crusade were some of Edward's former adversaries. There was great difficulty raising funds for the expedition.

paragraphs: Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre, but before they could do this, several disasters happened to the French. The French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, took the life of King Louis himself. By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the emir, and there was little else to do but return to Sicily. The crusade was postponed until next spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded Charles of Anjou and Louis's successor Philip III from any further campaigning.

paragraphs: Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finally landed at Acre. By then, the situation in the Holy Land was a precarious one. Jerusalem had fallen in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Christian area. The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars, and were now threatening Acre itself. An embassy to the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which helped to distract Baibar's forces.

paragraphs: In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun, which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but both the Mongol invasion and the attack on Qaqun failed. Things now seemed increasingly desperate. Finally, an attack by a Muslim assassin in June forced him to abandon any further campaigning. Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and became severely weakened over the following months.

paragraphs: It was not until 24 September that Edward left Acre. Arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November. Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards. The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king at his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary. In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell. The new king embarked on an overland journey through Italy and France, where among other things he visited the pope in Rome and suppressed a rebellion in Gascony. Only on 2 August 1274 did he return to England, and was crowned on 19 August.

paragraphs: Edward's reign had two main phases. The first phase was administration of a now peaceful country. The second phase was warfare against Wales and Scotland.

paragraphs: His first concern was to restore order and re-establish royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father. To do this, he changed the administrators. He appointed Robert Burnell as chancellor, who held the post until his death in 1292. Edward then replaced most local officials, such as the sheriffs. This was done to prepare for an inquiry which would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers. Laws were made to define rights about ownership of land, recovery of debts, trade and local peacekeeping.

paragraphs: Edward reformed English Parliament and made it a source for generating revenue. Edward held Parliament regularly in his reign. In 1295 a significant change occurred. For this Parliament, in addition to the lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned. Before, the commons had been expected simply to assent (say 'yes') to decisions already made by the rulers. Now they would meet with the full authority ("plena potestas") of their communities, to give assent to decisions made in Parliament. The king now had full backing for collecting 'lay subsidies' from the entire population. Lay subsidies were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen. Historians have called this the "Model Parliament".

paragraphs: Llywelyn ap Gruffudd was the main Welsh leader. He refused to do homage to Edward, and married Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de Montfort. In November 1276, war was declared. Initial operations were launched under the captaincy of Mortimer, Edmund Crouchback (Edward's brother) and the Earl of Warwick. Support for Llywelyn was weak among his own countrymen.

paragraphs: In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500 of whom 9,000 were Welshmen. The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender. By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd, though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales.

paragraphs: When war broke out again in 1282, it was entirely different. For the Welsh, this war was over national identity. It had wide support, especially after attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects. For Edward, it became a war of conquest. The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd (Llywelyn's younger brother), who was discontented with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277. Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially the Welsh experienced military success. The Welsh advances ended on 11 December, however, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge. The conquest was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury and executed as a traitor next autumn.

paragraphs: Further rebellions occurred in 1287–8 and in 1294. In both cases the rebellions were put down. By the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan, Wales was incorporated into England and was given an administrative system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs.

paragraphs: English law was introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own laws in some cases of property disputes. After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a full-scale project of English settlement of Wales. He created new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth, and Rhuddlan.

paragraphs: Edward started a big program of building castles, to keep the Welsh under control. His castles started the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle, and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design.

paragraphs: In 1284, King Edward's son Edward the later Edward II was born at Caernarfon Castle. In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales.

paragraphs: Scotland and England were at peace in the 1280s. Alexander III of Scotland and Edward had an understanding whereby Alexander held land in England. This gave him the excuse to acknowledge Edward as his lord, and left ambiguous whether or not this applied to Scotland as well.

paragraphs: The heir to the throne was his granddaughter Margaret. Unfortunately, Alexander died in 1286, followed by young Margaret in 1290. This left Scotland without a king, which started all the problems.

paragraphs: There were fourteen claimants; John Balliol and Robert de Brus (the grandfather of the famous Robert the Bruce) had the best cases. The competitors agreed to hand over the realm to Edward until a decision was made. John Balliol was chosen in 1292.

paragraphs: Edward continued to push his claim as overlord of Scotland. He interferred in some of the legal affairs of Scotland, and insisted the Scots provided military service in his army. This caused the Scots to make an alliance with France. They then attacked Carlisle.

paragraphs: Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick in a particularly bloody attack. At the Battle of Dunbar, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed. Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone– and brought it to Westminster, deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London, and installed Englishmen to govern the country. The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would only be temporary.

paragraphs: Although the Scottish conflict seemed settled in 1296, it was started again by William Wallace, who came from one of the notable families. Wallace was a warlord rather than a politician, and soon started a rebellion. He defeated a large English force at Stirling Bridge in 1297 while Edward was in Flanders. In 1298 Edward defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk. After that the Scots avoided open battle in favour of raiding England with small groups.

paragraphs: Edward's next move was political: in 1303 a peace agreement was made between England and France, breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance. Robert de Brus and most of the other nobles pledged allegiance to Edward. Wallace was betrayed and handed to the English. He was publicly executed.

paragraphs: The situation changed again, in 1306, when de Brus murdered his rival John Comyn and had himself crowned King of Scotland by Isobel, sister of the Earl of Buchan. Edward, in ill health, sent armies north under other commanders. Brus was beaten at the Battle of Methven in June 1306. After the battle, Edward followed with brutal suppression of the allies of de Brus. In response this fueled more rebellions. This conflict was still in progress when Edward died in 1307.

paragraphs: Eleanor of Castile died on 28 November 1290. Unusual for such marriages, the couple loved each other. Edward was deeply affected by her death. He erected twelve Eleanor crosses, one at each place where her funeral cortège (procession) stopped for the night. As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry the French princess Margaret. The marriage took place in 1299.

paragraphs: Edward and Eleanor had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen. Of these, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one boy outlived Edward– the future King Edward II.

paragraphs: Edward was concerned with his son's failure to live up to expectations, and at one point exiled the prince's favourite Piers Gaveston. Edward may have known his son was bisexual but he did not throw Gaveston from the castle battlements as shown in "Braveheart".


title: Cell nucleus

paragraphs: The cell nucleus (plural: cell nuclei) contains the cell's genes and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It has a double layered nuclear membrane round it. The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus is small and round, and works as the cell's control center. It contains chromosomes which house the DNA. The human body contains billions of cells, most of which have a nucleus.

paragraphs: All eukaryote organisms have nuclei in their cells, even the many eukaryotes that are single-celled. Bacteria and Archaea, which are prokaryotes, are single-celled organisms of a different type and do not have nuclei. Cell nuclei were first found by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century.

paragraphs: The nucleus has a membrane around it but the things inside it do not. Inside it are many proteins, RNA molecules, chromosomes and the nucleolus. In the nucleolus ribosomes are put together. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA into proteins.

paragraphs: When a cell is dividing or preparing to divide, the chromosomes become visible with a light microscope. At other times when the chromosomes are not visible, the nucleolus will be visible.

paragraphs: Large molecules cannot get through the double-layer nuclear membrane. However, nuclear pores exist. They control the movement of molecules across the membrane. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel. The larger molecules are actively transported by carrier proteins, and there is free movement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes.

paragraphs: Within the nucleus is a structure called a nucleolus. It is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR). This is a chromosomal region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. These are exported through the nuclear pore complexes to the cytoplasm. There they work to build proteins. They become attached to the endoplasmic reticulum if they are making membrane proteins.


title: Scotland Yard

paragraphs: Scotland Yard is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police in London. This police force is responsible for the security in Greater London.

paragraphs: New Scotland Yard is in a 20-story office block on Broadway and Victoria Street in Westminster, about 450 metres away from the Houses of Parliament. The famous rotating sign, which is seen on television and in films, is outside the main doors on Broadway.

paragraphs: Founded on 29 September 1829, on a street of Whitehall, Scotland Yard was called "New Scotland Yard" when moved, in November 1890, to the Victoria Embankment, beside the Ministry of Defence. In 1967, New Scotland Yard moved to the present 20-story building at 10 Broadway.

paragraphs: Scotland Yard got its name by its previous location which was on Great Scotland Yard. As the Metropolitan police grew more famous, people started referring to the house as Scotland Yard.


title: Antimony

paragraphs: Antimony is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Sb. The symbol Sb is from the Latin name of 'stibium' for the element. It has the atomic number 51. Its atomic mass is 121.8. It is a blue-gray element that is somewhat toxic.

paragraphs: Antimony has four allotropes. The common allotrope of antimony is a blue-white metalloid. It looks black when powdered. It is brittle, soft, and shiny. Yellow and black antimony are unstable nonmetals. Yellow antimony is only found at very cold temperatures. It is made by oxidation of stibine. It turns into black antimony when light is shined on it or when it is warmer. Black antimony is normally made by heating metallic antimony until it boils and then cooling the vapors very quickly. It can ignite spontaneously (without any ignition source like a spark or a flame). It also corrodes easily. There is another explosive form of antimony that is made by electrolysis of antimony trichloride. This antimony explodes when changing into the metallic form. There is no chemical reaction; the atoms in the antimony crystal are rearranging themselves. When antimony is talked about it normally means the blue-white metalloid form, since it is most common.

paragraphs: Antimony is found as two stable (not radioactive) isotopes naturally. Sb- 123 and Sb-121

paragraphs: Antimony is a rather unreactive element. It does not dissolve in acids easily. It can dissolve in oxidizing acids like nitric or sulfuric acid. It does not corrode easily in air, although the black allotrope can corrode. Antimony burns in air to make antimony trioxide. In excess air, it burns to antimony tetroxide.

paragraphs: Antimony forms chemical compounds in three oxidation states: -3, +3, and +5. -3 compounds are called antimonides. They are made by reacting antimony with other metals. They react with acids to make the toxic and unstable gas stibine. +3 compounds are the most common. They are weak oxidizing agents. They are somewhat covalent, having low melting points. Antimony trichloride is a colorless and soft solid that has a strong odor. Antimony trioxide is a white solid that dissolves a little in water. The other antimony(III) halides all react with water except for antimony trifluoride. +5 compounds are strong oxidizing agents. Antimony pentafluoride is highly reactive, as well as antimony pentoxide.

paragraphs: -3 compounds are reducing agents. The antimonides have properties between alloys and salts.

paragraphs: +3 compounds are weak oxidizing agents. They are covalent. Most of them are colorless or light yellow solids. They are the most common antimony compounds.

paragraphs: Antimony tetroxide has antimony in both its +3 and +5 oxidation state.

paragraphs: +5 compounds are strong oxidizing agents. They are rare.

paragraphs: Antimony sulfide was known for a long time. Some things plated with antimony and made out of antimony were found in Egypt and Chaldea. The first time antimony was mentioned in Europe was in the 1540. The first native antimony was found in Sweden in 1783. Antimony sulfide and antimony were confused sometimes in antiquity. There is a question over what "stibium", the original name of antimony, meant.

paragraphs: Antimony is not common. It is found about as often as thallium. It is quite easy to get, though and is in many minerals. Antimony is sometimes found as an element, but normally it is found as stibnite, an antimony sulfide mineral. Stibnite is the main ore of antimony. China is the biggest maker of antimony; it makes 84% of all antimony. Other countries that make antimony are South Africa, Bolivia, and Kyrgyzstan. Antimony is not used in the human body.

paragraphs: Antimony is made from stibnite by heating it with air. This makes antimony trioxide. Since it gets so hot, the antimony trioxide is evaporated. Other metal oxides in the stibnite ore do not evaporate. The antimony trioxide gas is condensed in a container. The antimony trioxide is then heated with carbon to make carbon dioxide and antimony. Another way to make antimony is to heat stibnite with scrap iron. This makes iron(II) sulfide and antimony. The antimony is separated and used.

paragraphs: About half of all antimony is used to make antimony trioxide for flame proofing.

paragraphs: It makes an alloy with lead. This alloy, 5% antimony and 95% lead, is harder than pure lead. It is used in lead acid batteries, as well as some other things. It is used as an alloy with lead in the pipes of pipe organs. Pewter has antimony in it. Some lead-free solder has antimony in it. It is used as an alloy with lead in ammunition for small arms and in covering of cables as well. It is also used in some alloys that have very little friction like Babbitt metal.

paragraphs: Another use is in a catalyst for making some plastics. Antimony(III) oxide is added to some glass to remove bubbles for things like television screens. Antimony is used as a dopant in electronics. Some antimony compounds were used as medicines to kill protozoans. The antimony pill was a chunk of antimony that was supposed to heal diseases. It is used in medicines for pets. Antimony sulfide is used in matches.

paragraphs: Antimony is toxic. Its toxicity is similar to arsenic, although it is less toxic than arsenic. Breathing in antimony dust can be very dangerous. Antimony reacts with strong oxidizing agents. Small amounts of antimony come out of plastic bottles where antimony was used as a catalyst. Some people were concerned that too much antimony was coming out.


title: Buckingham Palace

paragraphs: Buckingham Palace is a palace in the City of Westminster, which is part of central London, England in the United Kingdom. It is the official residence where the British monarch lives and works. The palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality, and has been a focus for the British people at times of national rejoicing and crisis.

paragraphs: Buckingham Palace was built in 1703 by John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normandy, as a townhouse (a residence in London). It was bought by the British royal family in 1761. It became the official London home of the family in 1837 and was greatly expanded in the 19th century. It has 775 rooms, 19 staterooms, and 78 bathrooms. Leading up to it is a ceremonial road called The Mall. A German bomb damaged the Palace during the London blitz.

paragraphs: The palace's guard is changed every day at 11am.


title: Amherst, Massachusetts

paragraphs: Amherst is a town in the American state of Massachusetts. It is in Hampshire County. There are three colleges in Amherst. It is named after Sir Jeffrey Amherst. It has a population of about 30,000 people.


title: Conservative

paragraphs: Conservative means wishing or tending to save something old. Thus, culturally conservative is saving cultural heritage. Other kinds of conservative include: