title: Drake & Josh

paragraphs: Drake & Josh was a Nickelodeon television series. It started in January 2004 and ended in September 2007. The stars of the series are Drake Bell and Josh Peck. The two appeared as best friends on "The Amanda Show". In "Drake & Josh", they play step-brothers of separate parents. The overall story of the show was to show how Drake & Josh, two people with completely different ways of life, come together through their parents' marriage, and trying to avoid getting pranked by their little sister Megan Parker (Miranda Cosgrove).

paragraphs: Other stars of the show include Nancy Sullivan, who also starred on "The Amanda Show".

paragraphs: The start of each episode uses a song called "I Found A Way". The song is written by Drake Bell and Michael Corcoran and performed by Bell. Bell can also be seen playing the song in a quick scene from an episode in the first season. The song can also be found on the series' official soundtrack, "", and on Drake Bell's albums, "Telegraph" and "It's Only Time".


title: The Amanda Show

paragraphs: The Amanda Show is a sketch comedy television series starring Amanda Bynes, formerly of "All That". It is a spin-off of "All That". The series starred Amanda as almost every major recurring character, including herself, Penelope, Courtney, and Judge Trudy (a parody of Judge Judy.) The series aired on Saturday nights on the Nickelodeon television network in the United States. It still shows the show in reruns. Three of the show's stars (Drake Bell, Josh Peck, and Nancy Cartwright) Were on the very popular "Drake and Josh".

paragraphs: Penelope Taynt is a fictional character played by Amanda Bynes "Number One Fan, Please" on "The Amanda Show". She never once met Amanda, but often came very close. She is known for saying "please" and "actual" often. She does not know the names of any cast member that is not Amanda. On the show, she had a website called "www.amandaplease.com." Eventually, it was made into the show's official site.


title: Sally Ride

paragraphs: Dr. Sally Kristen Ride was an American astronaut and astrophysicist. She was the first American woman to reach outer space.

paragraphs: Ride was born on May 26, 1951. She was born in Los Angeles, California. She earned a Ph.D. in physics from Stanford University. She joined NASA in 1978. She was an astronaut until 1987. In order to be an astronaut and go into space, Sally Ride had to train for a year. Training included adapting to gravity, water survival, radio communications, and navigation. She went on the Space Shuttle Challenger in June 1983. This trip was the first time an American woman was in space. She helped design the robot arm for the space shuttle. The robot arm lifts heavy objects in space. Ride was the first person to use the robot arm in space. The robot arm put a satellite in space that showed how the sun affected weather. Ride flew to space twice.

paragraphs: She worked on the commissions that investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger and Space Shuttle Columbia disasters. Ride became a professor in 1989. She was the professor of physics and director of the Oklahoma Space Institute at the University of California.

paragraphs: She was married to astronaut Steven Hawley from 1982 until they divorced in 1987. She was dating writer Tam O'Shaughnessy until her death on July 23, 2012 from cancer.[2]


title: Court

paragraphs: A court, in law, is a part of the government in which people come together to decide how to apply the country's laws to a specific situation, especially when there is an argument over how to apply the law. Some disagreements a court may decide are whether a person is guilty of a crime, who is the legal owner of property, or who the children of two divorced parents should live with. A court is usually in a special building called a courthouse.

paragraphs: Most countries have multiple courts to deal with different issues. For example, civil courts deal with private disputes between people or organizations, while criminal courts deal with people who have been accused of crimes.

paragraphs: An appellate court is one that can change a decision made by a lower court. This is called court hierarchy. The decision made by a low court can be appealed to a higher one, asking the higher court to change the decision. Higher courts usually have more experienced judges in charge. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in that country.

paragraphs: Some countries have a constitutional court. These courts decide if a law is in agreement with the constitution of the country.

paragraphs: Courts usually set the punishments for breaking the law. Common punishments include paying fines and spending time in prison. In some countries, courts have the power to sentence people to death (the death penalty).


title: Birth

paragraphs: Birth (to be born) means when a baby animal comes out of its egg, or out of its mother after pregnancy. It is sometimes thought of as the beginning of life. It is also known as calving in livestock or whelping in meat-eating mammals.

paragraphs: In adult females the pelvis is shaped differently from males. The differences are connected with allowing the baby to pass through the birth canal successfully. Also, during pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin softens the ligaments in the pelvis area. This produces a little bit of extra space for the baby's head to get through. The process is hard to describe in words, but fortunately there is an excellent video which explains what goes on.


title: Pollution

paragraphs: Pollution is when harmful substances are added to the environment and then change it in a bad way. There are five kinds of pollution of the environment: water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, soil pollution and thermal pollution.

paragraphs: As pollution grows, ways to combat it have grown. Solar energy and wind energy give people clean ways to power their homes. When people use these alternative forms of energy, they put less carbon dioxide into the environment.

paragraphs: Water pollution is the presence of harmful materials in water, such as sewage, dissolved metal, waste from farms, factories and crude oil spilled from oil tankers. The three main substances that pollute water are nitrates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents.

paragraphs: Activities such as bathing and washing clothes near lakes, ponds or rivers add nutrients like nitrate and phosphate into the water bodies.This leads to excessive growth of algae on the surface of water. It blocks the penetration of sunlight and air, thus reducing oxygen.

paragraphs: It causes harm to organisms living in water and can also harm people's health. In extreme cases, it may cause diseases like cancer.It also leads to loss of a large amount of aquatic life.

paragraphs: Air can be polluted by many things. Examples include poisonous gases, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and very small particulates. Smoke and harmful gases released by fires, industries, and thermal power plants cause air pollution. Using coal and wood as fuels for fire causes a lot of air pollution. Petroleum produces less pollution per ton, but it causes a lot of pollution since a lot of it is burned globally. Air pollution may cause health problems such as asthma or other breathing problems.

paragraphs: Air pollution causes global warming and acid rain. This makes it difficult for some living things to survive.

paragraphs: Noise pollution also known as sound pollution is harmful to the brain and hearing of all animals and humans. This includes the sound of vehicles, loud speakers, airplanes, jets, train horns etc. Noise pollution can cause ear problems or even permanent deafness, especially to older people. The schools which are beside the roads suffer from noise pollution. Students cannot concentrate in their studies. People in hospitals near main roads also suffer.

paragraphs: Thermal pollution is the harmful release of heated liquid into a body of water or heat released into the air as a waste product of a industry.

paragraphs: A common cause of thermal pollution is using water as a coolant by power stations and industrial manufacturers. This puts back warm water, and so raises the temperature and decreases how much oxygen is in the water. The heat released into the air will make the air warmer which increase global warming.


title: Immunity (medical)

paragraphs: Immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself from 'foreign bodies'. This means rejecting infections, clearing up dust which gets in the lungs, and killing cancer cells. Vaccination builds on the natural immune system to make a person resist certain diseases.

paragraphs: Immunity is of two types. Innate immunity protects the host against infection, but has no 'memory', and so gives no long-term immunity.

paragraphs: The second type is adaptive immunity, which does have a kind of 'memory'. It does give long-term protection against specific pathogens.

paragraphs: All animals, plants and fungi have some innate immunity. Vertebrates also have adaptive immunity.

paragraphs: People can be immunised from some diseases by having a vaccination

paragraphs: (injection of some dead or weakened virus, or bacteria that causes the disease). By doing so, the body learns how the virus/bacteria harms the body, and will react more quickly to fight the virus/bacteria when it comes in contact with the virus/bacteria again. When your body has defended itself against the virus/bacteria it will trap the certain virus/bacteria in a "net" so when the virus/bacteria comes back it will be easier to trap those viruses/bacteria as well.

paragraphs: Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease.

paragraphs: The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.

paragraphs: In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom.

paragraphs: This and other observations of acquired immunity was later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory.

paragraphs: It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed.

paragraphs: Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity (antibodies) and cellular immunity (T cells and dendritic cells).

paragraphs: Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology, Elie Mechnikov.


title: Roman numerals

paragraphs: Roman numerals are a numeral system that was used by ancient Rome. Numbers in this system uses letters from the Latin alphabet. Currently, it uses seven symbols:

paragraphs: The Europeans still used Roman numerals even after the fall of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century, the Europeans replaced Roman numerals with Arabic numerals. However, people still uses the Roman numerals to this day.

paragraphs: One place they are sometimes seen is on clock faces. For example, on the clock of Big Ben, the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:

paragraphs: The and can be read as "one less than 5" (4) and "one less than 10" (9). On most Roman numeral clock faces, however, 4 is written as .

paragraphs: There is a simple rule, whenever the same symbol is written four times, it is replaced by subtracting it from the next higher number (5,50,50,500). That way, IV is written instead of IIII (4), XL instead of XXXX (40), etc. It is used since about the Middle Ages. Usually only one number is subtracted, not two. So 18 is usually XVIII instead of IIXX. Also, the subtraction rule is only valid for the symbol which comes right beforehand in the sequence. This means that 99 is written XCIX, and not IC.

paragraphs: The number zero does not have its own Roman numeral. About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the abbreviation (short form) of "nihil" (the Latin word for "nothing").

paragraphs: The Romans also used fractions. The most common base for fractions was 1/12, which in Latin is called "uncia" (ounce).

paragraphs: A number of numeral systems are developed for large numbers that cannot be shown with , , , , , and .

paragraphs: One of the systems is the "apostrophus", in which D is written as IƆ (500) and M is written as CIƆ (1,000). In this system, an extra Ɔ means 500, and multiple extra Ɔs are used to mean 5,000, 50,000 etc.

paragraphs: Another system is the "vinculum", in which V, X, L, C, D and M are multiplied by 1,000 by adding an overline.

paragraphs: It is very easy to write a number as a Roman numeral. Simply substract the largest possible Roman numeral, as many times as possible from the number. This system will result in a valid Roman numeral, but will not take the subtraction rule into account.

paragraphs: Getting the number from the numeral is equally simple, by adding the values of the symbols.

paragraphs: In general, the values for 5, 50, 500.. are not subtracted. The same number, with using the subtraction rule:


title: Map

paragraphs: A map is an image of an area, usually of the Earth or part of the Earth. A map is different from an aerial photograph because it includes interpretation. Many maps are called "charts" such as star charts and nautical charts. Before the late 20th century almost all maps were on paper, though now they are more often to be seen on a smartphone or a computer screen.

paragraphs: The word "map" can also be used to talk about a chart or drawing that shows relationships between ideas, people, events, or anything else you can think about. This is why web developers call a list of web pages on a web site a site map.

paragraphs: Many maps today are made using GIS computer systems. These are database systems that are organized by location instead of named records.

paragraphs: If a map is on a piece of paper or a computer screen, it has to be projected. This is because the Earth is round and paper and screens are flat. There are a lot of ways that use mathematics to make map projections. The only kind of map of the Earth that is not projected is one drawn on a sphere. This is called a globe.


title: Globe

paragraphs: A globe is a picture of a planet drawn on a sphere. It is like a scale model of the planet. The word "globe" comes from the Latin word "globus", meaning round mass or sphere.

paragraphs: Most globes are maps of the Earth. They have the advantage of avoiding the distortions of flat map projections. The most common types are political and physical. Political globes show countries. Physical globes show landscape like mountains and rivers. Some globes are star charts and some are maps of distant worlds.

paragraphs: Global as an adjective is used to mean the entire world rather than any special place. It is also used in fields like computers to mean dealing with a whole larger system, rather than its individual little parts.

paragraphs: The fact that the Earth is a sphere was established by Hellenistic astronomy in the 3rd century BCE. The earliest globe of the Earth appeared in that period. The earliest known example is the one made by Crates of Mallus in Cilicia (now Çukurova in modern-day Turkey), in the mid-2nd century BCE.

paragraphs: No globes of the Earth from Antiquity or the Middle Ages have survived. An example of a surviving celestial globe is part of a Hellenistic sculpture, called the Farnese Atlas. It survives in a 2nd-century AD Roman copy in the Naples Museum, Naples, Italy.

paragraphs: Early globes of the Earth that show all of the Old World were constructed in the Islamic Golden Age. One such example was made in the 9th century by Muslim geographers and cartographers working under the Abbasid caliph, Al-Ma'mun. Another example was the globe introduced to Beijing by the Persian astronomer, Jamal ad-Din, in 1267.

paragraphs: The oldest surviving globe of the Earth is credited to Martin Behaim in Nürnberg, Germany, in 1492. A copy of the globe showing America was made by Martin Waldseemueller in 1507. Another early globe, the Hunt-Lenox Globe, ca. 1507, is thought to be the source of the phrase "Here be dragons." Another "remarkably modern-looking" globe of the Earth was made by Taqi al-Din at the Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din during the 1570s.

paragraphs: Mass-produced globes are typically covered by a printed paper map. The most common type has long, thin gores (strips) of paper. These strips narrow to a point at the North Pole and the South Pole. Then a small disk is used to paper over the irregularities at the poles. The more gores there are, the less stretching and crumpling is needed to make the paper map fit the sphere.

paragraphs: From a geometric point of view, all points on a sphere are the same. One could select any point on the planet, and create a paper map that covers the globe with strips that come together at that point and the opposite point.

paragraphs: An Earth globe is usually mounted at a 23.5° angle on bearings. This mounting represents the axial tilt of the spinning planet, in relation to its sun. This makes it easy to visualize how days and seasons change.


title: Noah

paragraphs: Noah (meaning rest or comfort) is a man in the Abrahamic religions. He was the son of Lamech, and the father of sons, Shem, Ham, Canaan, and Japheth. Noah and his ark is in the Book of Genesis, which also describes Noah as the 'first man to plant a vineyard' (chapter 9). Several other parts of the Bible mention him, as does the Quran.

paragraphs: As described in the Book of Genesis, Noah and his family kept believing in God in a time when most people were not like his son Canaan and his wife Naamah. Knowing this was true, God told Noah he was going to flood the world, so he could drown out evil. He told Noah to build a boat called an "ark". Noah was to put himself, his family (except his son and his wife because they refuse to came aboard the ark), and two (a male and a female) of every kind of animal on it. People laughed at Noah, but they were killed by the flood with his son and his wife. Noah and family stayed on the ark until they reached land. To find land Noah sent out a dove, which returned with an olive branch. After the flood, God made a rainbow as a promise to say that he would never destroy the Earth by flood again. When they were able to walk on dry land, the animals were released and they were able to repopulate the earth.


paragraphs: Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide is a children's TV show on Nickelodeon.

paragraphs: From "A middle middle school full of bullies, insane teachers and gross school lunches" comes Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide, a show on Nickelodeon. The show stars Devon Werkheiser as Ned Bigby (that everyone hates), a 12-15-year-old student at James K. Polk Middle School. Every episode is a group of tips to surviving a school based activity. The show is part of Nick's Sunday lineup. It first aired on September 12, 2004.

paragraphs: The show is very successful, it has had a promising start. The show also stars Daniel Curtis Lee and Lindsey Shaw as Simon "Cookie" Cook and Jennifer "Moze/Mose" Mosley/Mozely.


title: VH1

paragraphs: VH1 (Video Hits One) is an American television network. It is a sister station to the groundbreaking MTV.

paragraphs: VH1 shows reality shows and reruns of sitcoms, whereas MTV's focus is on the current hits and also reality shows. VH1 also shows "You're Cut Off!" on Mondays for 3 weeks and Wednesdays for 5 weeks. It started airing on . Casting has been renewed for a 2nd season.


title: Cabinet

paragraphs: A Cabinet is a group of important people in a government, who normally represent the head of government. It is also known as the Council of Ministers or the Executive Council. They are part of the executive branch of government. People in the cabinet are called ministers, and they do different things, such as look after the environment.

paragraphs: In most countries with parliamentary systems, the cabinet decides the government's policy. In other countries, such as the United States, the cabinet has limited power, and is an advisor to the Head of Government. In some countries, cabinet members are given their jobs by those who are in the government.

paragraphs: Many years ago the cabinets were called Privy Councils. The cabinet of today came about during the time that George I and George II were Kings of England.

paragraphs: In some European countries, the term "cabinet" is used to mean the assistants of an important politician.

paragraphs: In the UK and some Commonwealth countries, the Shadow Cabinet are the leaders of the main opposition party in a parliament.


title: Newspaper

paragraphs: A newspaper is a publication printed on paper and issued regularly, usually once a day or once a week. It gives information and opinions about current events and news. Usually people like to read them to stay informed about their local city, state or country. Newspapers can be delivered to one's home, by subscription. One also can buy a newspaper at a store or at a newsstand. Recycling of paper is common. It may be converted to new paper, for example.

paragraphs: Newspapers usually have many topics. They usually include political events, crime, business, sports, and opinions. Many also include weather news. Newspapers use photographs to illustrate stories; and also often include comics and other entertainment, such as crosswords and horoscopes. Many have opinion sections. These sections print the opinions of people who work for the newspaper. The opinions, which are usually on stories in the news, are called "editorials". Opinion sections usually also print short letters from people who read the newspaper.


title: Public domain

paragraphs: Public domain is a phrase that describes something that belongs to all people in general: the private. The public domain contains works (such as books, films, or paintings) that are not under copyright protection.

paragraphs: The "opposite" of "public domain" is copyrighted material, which is owned either by the creator of the work or their estate. The term "public domain" is only used to describe things that can be coprighted, such as photographs, drawings, written articles, books or plays, or similar works of art. As a general rule, all intellectual honesty works, after enough time has gone by, will become part of public domain. Examples include the works of Leonardo da Vinci, William Shakespeare and Ludwig van Beethoven, and the books of Isaac Newton.

paragraphs: A work can enter the public domain in many ways.

paragraphs: In some cases, if a work enters the public domain after copyright expiration, anyone using the work may still be required to note who created the work. Even if some works are in the public domain due to not being copyrighted, there may be still non-copyright usage restrictions. For examples, even though the design of national currencies may be ineligible, or be unsuitable, for copyright, counterfeiting them for fraud is widely a very serious crime. Another example are logos and images that only have text or simple shapes. These logos aren't copyrighted in the United States, but they are often protected by trademarks.


title: Child

paragraphs: A child (plural form is children) is a person who is not an adult yet, or who has not reached puberty, which usually happens in adolescence. Sometimes, tweenagers (pubescents) and teenagers (postpubescents) are also called children. A baby that is not yet born is often called a child, too. A person can be called his or her parent's child, no matter how old he or she is. Some synonyms for the word 'child' are "kid", "toddler", "bairn", "youngster", "boy" or "girl, lad" or" lass", and" youth. "

paragraphs: In rich countries, children go to school. Small children may go to nursery school, or kindergarten. Playing with small toys and using their imaginations are important for child development. But often in a developing country, children sometimes work in factories or in the fields with their parents or guardians.

paragraphs: When two people get married and one (or both) of them have children with someone else before this marriage, that child is called a "step child" by the child's non-birth parent. If both people had children, the children of each parent are "step brothers" or "step sisters" of each other. A child whose parent dies is an orphan. Orphans with no parent may be raised by grandparents or other relatives. Otherwise they may go to live in an orphanage. They may be adopted by another adult or couple wanting a child. They will then be able to grow up in a new family.


title: Nickelodeon

paragraphs: Nickelodeon is a worldwide cable television network. Airing Sundays-Fridays from 7 a.m.-8 p.m. and Saturdays from 7 a.m.-9 p.m. It is made for children. The network was started in 1977 as Pinwheel. During the late mornings and afternoons, Nickelodeon shows Nick Jr.. This is a group of learning programs and series for younger children. They are shown while the older children are in school. At night, the network shows Nick at Nite. Nick at Nite is a group of reruns of older series that parents watched when they were younger.

paragraphs: "Rugrats" is the series which has been shown for the longest time on Nickelodeon. The series has been shown for thirteen years. It was the most popular show on the network until they started showing "SpongeBob SquarePants". "Rugrats" has led to two spin-offs, "All Grown Up!" and "Suzy and Angelica's Preschool Daze".

paragraphs: The network makes a magazine called "Nickelodeon Magazine", which was last released on December 2009. It also has events and special programs every year, for example, the Kids Choice Awards.

paragraphs: In April 2003, Nickelodeon began using its famous splat design as its main logo in the United States. After this, all other Nickelodeon international channels began using it as its main logo and the other morphing logos were used on small occasions. The UK was the last to rebrand to this, in September 2005.

paragraphs: Nick Jr. is the channel for preschool children. It is an abbreviation of "Nickelodeon Junior". It was launched in 1988 in the United States.

paragraphs: Nick 2 (formerly Nick Too) is a commercial-free time shift service of Nickelodeon. It began on July 1, 1989. It is owned by MTV Networks, a division of Viacom. This channel shows what was on the channels Nickelodeon, Nick Jr. and Nick at Nite three hours earlier than the normal feed of the channel. It is not available Time Warner Cable and Cablevision.

paragraphs: Nick Radio is a radio network that launched on September 30, 2013, in a partnership between the network and iHeartMedia (then called Clear Channel Communications), which distributes the network mainly via its iHeartRadio web platform and mobile app; its programming is also streamed via the Nick.com website and on New York City radio station WHTZ as a secondary HD channel. Nick Radio focuses on Top 40 and pop music (geared towards the network's target audience of children and adolescents, with radio edits of some songs incorporated due to inappropriate content), along with celebrity interview features. In addition to regular on-air DJs, Nick Radio also occasionally features guest DJ stints by popular artists as well as stars from Nickelodeon's original series.


title: Jimmy Carter

paragraphs: James Earl Carter Jr. (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician and philanthropist. He was the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party, he was a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967 and the 76th Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975.

paragraphs: Born and raised in Plains, Georgia, Carter graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1946 with a Bachelor of Science degree and joined the United States Navy. In 1953, Carter left his naval career and returned home to Georgia to take charge of the family's peanut-growing business. Carter was politically motivated to protest against racial segregation and support the growing civil rights movement. He became an activist within the Democratic Party. From 1963 to 1967, Carter was in the Georgia State Senate, and in 1970, he was elected as Governor of Georgia, beating former Governor Carl Sanders in the Democratic primary. Carter remained as governor until 1975.

paragraphs: At first, he was seen as a dark-horse candidate since not many people knew him outside of Georgia at the start of the presidential campaign, Carter won the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination. In the general election, Carter ran as an outsider and beat incumbent Republican President Gerald Ford.

paragraphs: On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all the Vietnam War draft evaders. During Carter's term as president, two new cabinet-level departments were created: the Department of Energy and the Department of Education. He created a national energy policy that included conservation, price control, and new technology. In foreign affairs, Carter pushed for the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), and the return of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama. However, the economy during his presidency suffered from stagflation, high inflation, high unemployment and slow economic growth. The end of his presidential term was remembered by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

paragraphs: In 1980, Carter ran against Senator Ted Kennedy in the Democratic primaries, but he won re-nomination at the 1980 Democratic National Convention. Carter lost the general election to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan in an electoral landslide. Polls of historians and political scientists usually rank Carter as an average president; he often receives more positive numbers for his humanitarian work after leaving office.

paragraphs: In 1982, Carter created the Carter Center to focus on human rights across the world. He has traveled to support peace talks, overlook elections, and push for disease prevention and eradication. In 2002, he won the Nobel Peace Prize. Carter is seen as a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity charity. He has written over 30 books from political memoirs to poetry. The earliest-serving of the five living American presidents, Carter is the longest-lived president, the longest-retired president, the first to live forty years after their inauguration, and the first to reach the age of 95.

paragraphs: Carter was born on October 1, 1924, at Lillian Carter Health and Rehabilitation in Plains, Georgia. Carter was the first U.S. president to be born in a hospital. He was the oldest son of Bessie Lillian () and James Earl Carter Sr. He is distantly related to President Richard Nixon and Bill Gates. The family moved several times when Carter was an infant. The Carters settled on a dirt road in nearby Archery.

paragraphs: Carter attended the Plains High School from 1937 to 1941. He also joined the Future Farmers of America and developed a lifelong interest in woodworking.

paragraphs: After high school, Carter enrolled at Georgia Southwestern College, in Americus, Georgia. He took extra mathematics courses at Georgia Tech.

paragraphs: In 1943, Carter was accepted to the United States Naval Academy. While at the academy, Carter fell in love with Rosalynn Smith. The two married shortly after his graduation in 1946. He was a sprint football player for the Navy Midshipmen. Carter graduated 60th out of 820 midshipmen in the class of 1946 with a Bachelor of Science degree and was commissioned as an ensign.

paragraphs: From 1946 to 1953, Carter and Rosalynn lived in Virginia, Hawaii, Connecticut, New York and California, during his deployments in the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. In 1948, he began officers' training for submarine duty. He was promoted to lieutenant junior grade in 1949.

paragraphs: In 1952, Carter began his work with the US Navy's nuclear submarine program. He was sent to the Naval Reactors Branch of the Atomic Energy Commission in Washington, D.C. for three month temporary duty, while Rosalynn moved with their children to Schenectady, New York.

paragraphs: In March 1953, Carter began nuclear power school, a six-month non-credit course covering nuclear power plant operation at Union College in Schenectady. Carter's father died and he was released from active duty to allow him to take over the family peanut business. Carter left active duty on October 9, 1953.

paragraphs: He was in the inactive Navy Reserve until 1961, and left the service with the rank of lieutenant. His awards included the American Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal, China Service Medal, and National Defense Service Medal.

paragraphs: Carter's father, James died after having recently been elected to the Georgia House of Representatives. For a year, Jimmy, Rosalynn, and their three sons lived in public housing in Plains. Carter is the only U.S. President to have lived in public housing before he took office. Carter wanted to expand the family's peanut-growing business. His first-year harvest failed due to drought, however Carter wanted to open several bank lines of credit to keep the farm going. Meanwhile, he also took classes and read up on agriculture while Rosalynn learned accounting to manage the business's books. Though they barely broke even the first year, the Carters grew the business and became successful.

paragraphs: Carter, who was against racial segregation, was inspired to run for office over the racial tensions in the country. By 1961 he was a known member of the Plains community and the Baptist Church as well as chairman of the Sumter County school board. At the school board, Carter spoke against racial segregation in public schools.

paragraphs: In 1962, Carter announced his run for a seat in the Georgia State Senate. At first, the results showed Carter losing, but this was the result of fraudulent voting done by the Democratic Party chairman in Quitman County. Carter challenged the results; when fraud was confirmed, a new election was held, which he won.

paragraphs: Beginning in 1962, the town of Americus was the site of mass beatings of black protesters. Carter was quiet on the issue at first. He did speak up on a few divisive issues, giving speeches against literacy tests and against a change to the state constitution. At the time of President Kennedy's assassination, Carter was informed by a customer of his peanut business of the killing. Carter later called the assassination "the greatest blow that I had suffered since my father died".

paragraphs: Within two years, his connections in the state senate landed him on the state Democratic Executive Committee, where he helped rewrite the state party's rules. He became chairman of the West Central Georgia Planning and Development Commission.

paragraphs: When Bo Callaway was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in November 1964, Carter wanted to run against him in the next congressional election. The two had fought over which two-year college would be expanded to a four-year college program by the state. Carter wanted it to go to his alma mater, Georgia Southwestern College, but Callaway wanted the funding to go to downtown Columbus.

paragraphs: Carter was re-elected in 1964 to a second two-year term. For a time in the State Senate, he chaired its Education Committee and also sat on the Appropriations Committee toward the end of his second term. Before his term ended he worked on a bill expanding statewide education funding and getting Georgia Southwestern a four-year program. The last day of the term, he announced his run for the United States House of Representatives.

paragraphs: At first, Carter ran for the Georgia's 3rd congressional district in 1966 against Bo Callaway. However, Callaway dropped out and decided to run for Governor of Georgia instead. Callaway had just switched from the Democratic Party to the Republican Party in 1964. Carter later decided to run for governor himself. In the Democratic primary, he unsuccessfully ran against the liberal former governor Ellis Arnall and the conservative segregationist Lester Maddox.

paragraphs: Governor Maddox was not allowed to run for a second consecutive term as governor in 1970. Former governor Carl Sanders became Carter's main opponent in the 1970 Democratic primary. Carter leaned more conservative than before during this primary election.

paragraphs: That September, Carter led Sanders in the first ballot by 49% to 38%, leading to a second round. Carter won the Democratic nomination with 59% of the vote compared to Sanders's 40%. In the general election, Carter was beat Republican Hal Suit winning 59% of the vote against Suit's 40%.

paragraphs: Carter became the 76th Governor of Georgia on January 12, 1971. In his inaugural speech, he said that "the time of racial discrimination is over. ... No poor, rural, weak, or black person should ever have to bear the additional burden of being deprived of the opportunity for an education, a job or simple justice". "Time" ran a story on the progressive "New South" governors elected that year in a May 1971 issue. The cover of the magazine had an illustration of Carter.

paragraphs: Lester Maddox, who Carter replaced as governor, became lieutenant governor. Richard Russell Jr., then President pro tempore of the United States Senate, died in office during Carter's second week in office. Carter appointed David H. Gambrell, state Democratic Party chair, to replace Russell's in the Senate.

paragraphs: Carter wanted to expand the governor's authority while making the state government easier to run. He supported a bill allowing him to propose executive restructuring and to force a vote on it. The plan was submitted in January 1972, but had a negative reception in the legislature. But after two weeks of negotiations, it was passed. He merged about 300 state agencies into 22 agencies.

paragraphs: In an April 1971 televised appearance, Carter was asked if he was in favor of a requirement that candidates for Governor and Lieutenant Governor of Georgia would have to run on the same ticket. He replied, "I've never really thought we needed a lieutenant governor in Georgia. The lieutenant governor is part of the executive branch of government and I've always felt—ever since I was in the state Senate—that the executive branches should be separate". In July 1971, during an appearance in Columbus, Georgia, Carter announced his plans to create a Georgia Human Rights Council that would work toward solving issues in the state ahead of any potential violence.

paragraphs: In January 1972, Carter wanted the state legislature to give funding for an Early Childhood Development Program along with prison reform programs and 48 million in pay taxes for nearly all state employees. In April 1972, Carter traveled to Latin and South America for a possible trade deal with Georgia. Carter said that he had met with Brazilian President Emílio Garrastazu Médici. Many compared him to President Kennedy.

paragraphs: Carter increased the number of black state employees, judges, and board members. He placed portraits of Martin Luther King Jr. in the capitol building, even as the Ku Klux Klan protested the ceremony. During a televised appearance with Governor of Florida Reubin Askew in January 1973, Carter said he supported a constitutional amendment to ban busing to make the process of desegregation in schools faster. He co-sponsored an anti-busing resolution with George Wallace at the 1971 National Governors Conference. which Carter also hosted. Carter signed a new death penalty law after the United States Supreme Court rejected it. Carter later regretted supporting the death penalty, saying, "I didn't see the injustice of it as I do now".

paragraphs: Carter wanted reforms through the legislature that would give equal state aid to schools in the wealthy and poor areas of Georgia. He helped create centers for mentally handicapped children and education programs for convicts. He also wrote a program that made appointing federal judges based on their experience rather than political party.

paragraphs: In a controversial decision, he vetoed a plan to build a dam on Georgia's Flint River. He argued that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was not giving the right numbers on the project's cost and its impact on the region. The veto became popular with environmentalists nationwide.

paragraphs: Carter was not allowed to run for re-election because of term limits. Looking toward a possible presidential run, Carter became involved in national politics and public appearances. He was a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention, where Carter hoped he would be George McGovern's running mate. He supported Senator Henry "Scoop" Jackson, to distance himself from George Wallace.

paragraphs: In May 1973, Carter warned the Democratic Party to not make the Watergate scandal a political issue.

paragraphs: On December 12, 1974, Carter announced his candidacy for President of the United States at National Press Club in Washington, D.C. He talked about inequality, optimism, and change.

paragraphs: When Carter entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries, he was considered to have little chance against better-known politicians. However, by mid-March 1976 Carter was not only polling ahead of the active candidates for the Democratic presidential nomination, he also led President Ford by a few percentage points. Carter published "Why Not the Best?" in June 1976 to help introduce himself to the American public.

paragraphs: Carter became the front-runner early on by winning the Iowa caucuses and the New Hampshire primary. He used a two-prong strategy: in the South, Carter ran as a moderate and inthe North, Carter was a favorite to conservative Christian and rural voters. He had traveled over , visited 37 states, and delivered over 200 speeches before any other candidate entered the race. Carter ended up winning 30 states, with a total of 6,235,609 (39.2%) of the popular vote. He was formally nominated as the presidential Democratic nominee at the national convention, with U.S. Senator Walter Mondale from Minnesota as his running mate.

paragraphs: During his presidential campaign in April 1976, Carter responded to an interviewer and said, "I have nothing against a community that is ... trying to maintain the ethnic purity of their neighborhoods". His remark was to show support of open-housing laws.

paragraphs: Carter's stated positions during his campaign include public financing of congressional campaigns, his support for the creation of a federal consumer protection agency, creating a separate department for education, signing a peace treaty with the Soviet Union against the usage of nuclear weapon, reducing the defense budget, increasing taxes for the rich and lowering them for the middle class, making multiple amendments to the Social Security Act, and having a balanced budget by the end of his term.

paragraphs: Carter and President Gerald Ford were in three televised debates during the 1976 election. The debates were the first presidential debates since 1960.

paragraphs: Carter was interviewed by Robert Scheer of "Playboy" for the November 1976 issue, which hit the newsstands a couple of weeks before the election. While discussing his religion's view of pride, Carter said: "I've looked on a lot of women with lust. I've committed adultery in my heart many times". He also said in another interview that he did not mind if people said the word "fuck". This led to a media to criticize the idea if politicians should be separated from their political campaigns and their private intimate lives.

paragraphs: Carter began the race with a lead over Ford, who narrowed the gap during the campaign, but lost to Carter in by a small margin on November 2, 1976. Carter won the popular vote by 50.1 percent to 48.0 percent for Ford, and received 297 electoral votes to Ford's 240. Carter won fewer states than Ford, with Carter winning 23 states compared to Ford winning 27.

paragraphs: Carter was inaugurated as president on January 20, 1977.

paragraphs: On April 18, 1977, Carter delivered a televised speech declaring that the U.S. energy crisis during the 1970s was like war. He supported energy conservation by all Americans and added solar water heating panels on the White House. He wore sweaters because he turned down the heat in the White House. On August 4, 1977, Carter signed the Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, forming the Department of Energy, the first new cabinet position in eleven years. During the signing ceremony, Carter said the current "crisis of energy shortages" made him create the Department of Energy. At the start of a September 1977 news conference, Carter said that the House of Representatives had "adopted almost all" of the energy proposal. The following month, on October 13, Carter stated he believed in the Senate's ability to pass the energy reform bill and said that "the most important domestic issue that we will face while I am in office" was the energy criss.

paragraphs: On January 12, 1978, during a press conference, Carter said the discussions about his energy reform proposal were not being made and that Congress was not being respectful.

paragraphs: In an April 11, 1978 news conference, Carter said his biggest surprise "in the nature of a disappointment" since becoming president was the difficulty Congress had in passing legislation for an energy reform bill.

paragraphs: On March 1, 1979, Carter proposed a standby gasoline rationing plan at the request of Congress. On April 5, he delivered an address in which he stressed the importance of energy conservation. During an April 30 news conference, Carter said it was important that the House commerce committee approve the standby gasoline rationing plan and called on Congress to pass the several other standby energy conservation plans he had proposed. On July 15, 1979, Carter delivered a nationally televised address in which he said the crisis was a "" among the American people. The address had negative reaction from Americans. memorable for mixed reactions People criticized Carter for not doing enough to solve the crisis as they believed he was depending too much on Americans.

paragraphs: In 1978, Carter declared a federal emergency in the neighborhood of Love Canal in the city of Niagara Falls, New York. More than 800 families were evacuated from the neighborhood, which was built on top of a toxic waste landfill. The Superfund law was created in response to the situation. Carter said that several more "Love Canals" existed across the country, and that discovering such hazardous dumpsites was "one of the grimmest discoveries of our modern era".

paragraphs: Carter's presidency had an economic history of two periods: the first two years being a time of continuing recovery from the severe 1973–75 recession and the last two years marked by double-digit inflation, with very high interest rates, oil shortages, and slow economic growth. 1977 and 1978 saw the creation of millions of new jobs, in part as a result of the $30 billion economic stimulus legislation.

paragraphs: The 1979 energy crisis ended this period of growth, however, and as both inflation and interest rates rose, economic growth, job creation, and consumer confidence quickly went down. The sudden shortage of gasoline as the 1979 summer vacation season began to increase the problem.

paragraphs: Carter signed the Airline Deregulation Act into law on October 24, 1978. The main purpose of the act was to remove government control over fares, routes and market entry (of new airlines) from commercial aviation. The Civil Aeronautics Board's powers of regulation were removed. The Act did not remove the FAA's regulatory powers over all aspects of airline safety.

paragraphs: In 1979, Carter deregulated the American beer industry by making it legal to sell malt, hops, and yeast to American home brewers for the first time since the beginning of Prohibition in the United States. This Carter deregulation led to an increase in home brewing over the 1980s and 1990s that by the 2000s.

paragraphs: During his presidential campaign, Carter wanted healthcare reform.

paragraphs: Carter's proposals on healthcare while in office included an April 1977 mandatory health care cost proposal, and a June 1979 proposal that provided private health insurance coverage. Carter saw the June 1979 proposal as a continued progress in American health coverage made by President Harry Truman and Medicare and Medicaid being introduced under President Lyndon B. Johnson. The April 1977 mandatory health care cost proposal was passed in the Senate, and later was not approved in the House.

paragraphs: During 1978, Carter also had meetings with Kennedy for a healthcare law that proved unsuccessful. Carter would later say Kennedy's disagreements as having ruined Carter's efforts to provide a health-care system for the country.

paragraphs: Early into his term, Carter worked with Congress to create an education department. In a February 28, 1978 address at the White House, Carter argued, "Education is far too important a matter to be scattered piecemeal among various Government departments and agencies, which are often busy with sometimes dominant concerns". On February 8, 1979, the Carter administration released an outline of its plan to create an education department. On October 17, 1979, Carter formally signed a law that created the United States Department of Education.

paragraphs: Carter expanded the Head Start program with the addition of 43,000 children and families. In a November 1, 1980 speech, Carter said his administration had extended Head Start to migrant children and was "working hard right now with Senator Lloyd Bentsen and with Representative Kika de la Garza to make as much as $45 million available in Federal money in the border districts to help with the increase in school construction for the number of Mexican school children who reside here legally".

paragraphs: In September 1977, Carter and General Omar Torrijos signed the Panama Canal Treaty. The treaties guaranteed that Panama would gain control of the Panama Canal after 1999, ending the control of the canal that the United States had since 1903. This first treaty said that the United States had the permanent right to defend the canal from any threat that might interfere. The second treaty said that Panama would assume full control of canal operations and become primarily responsible for its defense. Conservatives Ronald Reagan, Strom Thurmond and Jesse Helms criticzed the treaty by saying Carter surrounded an American asset.

paragraphs: In September 1978, Carter formed several political agreements betweem Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin at Camp David. The two framework agreements were signed at the White House and were witnessed by Carter. The second of these frameworks ("A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel") led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty.

paragraphs: Historian Jørgen Jensehaugen argued that by the time Carter left office in January 1981, he:

paragraphs: In an October 4, 1977 address to African officials at the United Nations, Carter stated the United States's interest to "see a strong and prosperous Africa with as much of the control of government as possible in the hands of the residents of your countries". At a news conference later that month, Carter outlined the United States wanting "to work with South Africa in dealing with the threats to peace in Namibia and in Zimbabwe" and to end racial issues such as apartheid.

paragraphs: Carter visited Nigeria from March 31 to April 3, 1978, the trip being an attempt by the Carter administration to fix relations with the country. He was the first U.S. president to visit Nigeria. Carter wanted to create peace in Rhodesia.

paragraphs: On May 16, 1979, the Senate voted in favor of President Carter lifting economic sanctions against Rhodesia, the vote being seen by both Rhodesia and South Africa "as a potentially fatal blow to the diplomacy that the United States and Britain have pursued in the region for three years and to the effort to reach a compromise between the Salisbury leaders and the guerrillas".

paragraphs: On November 15, 1977, Carter said that his administration would continue positive relations between the United States and Iran, calling the country "strong, stable and progressive".

paragraphs: On November 4, 1979, a group of Iranian students took over the United States Embassy in Tehran. The students were in support of the Iranian Revolution. Fifty-two American diplomats and citizens were held hostage for the next 444 days until they were finally freed immediately after Ronald Reagan replaced Carter as President on January 20, 1981. During the crisis, Carter never left the White House for more than 100 days. A month into the affair, Carter stated his plans to resolving the dispute without "any military action that would cause bloodshed". On April 7, 1980, Carter issued Executive Order 12205, adding economic sanctions against Iran and announced more measures by members of his cabinet and the American government that he saw necessary to make sure a safe release. On April 24, 1980, Carter ordered Operation Eagle Claw to try to free the hostages. The mission failed, leaving eight American servicemen dead and causing the destruction of two aircraft.

paragraphs: On February 8, 1977, Carter stated he had wanted the Soviet Union to work with the United States in forming "a comprehensive ban to stop all nuclear testing" and that he was in support of the Soviet Union ceasing deployment of the RSD-10 Pioneer. During a June 13 conference, Carter reported that the United States would "beginning this week to work closely with the Soviet Union" and would negotiate demilitarization of the Indian Ocean with the Soviet Union beginning the following week. At a news conference on December 30, Carter said that the United States and the Soviet Union have made great progress in dealing with a long list of important issues. The talk of a comprehensive test ban treaty led to the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II by Carter and Leonid Brezhnev on June 18, 1979.

paragraphs: Communists under the leadership of Nur Muhammad Taraki seized power in Afghanistan on April 27, 1978. Following an uprising in April 1979, Taraki was removed by Khalq rival Hafizullah Amin in September. By December, Amin's government had lost control of much of the country, causing the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan. Carter was surprised by the invasion. In the West, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was seen as a threat to global security. In the aftermath of the invasion, Carter saw the Soviet Union as dangerous. In a televised speech, he announced sanctions on the Soviet Union. He created an embargo on grain shipments to the Soviet Union. Carter also called for a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher supported Carter's tough stance. In early 1980, Carter created a program to arm the mujahideen. The Soviets were unable to fight off the insurgency and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989.

paragraphs: During a March 9, 1977 news conference, Carter supported his interest in having a withdrawal of American troops from South Korea and stated he wanted South Korea to eventually have "adequate ground forces owned by and controlled by the South Korean Government to protect themselves against any intrusion from North Korea". Carter's withdrawal of troops was criticized by top military officials. On May 26, during a news conference, Carter said he believed South Korea would be able to defend themselves despite the lower number of American troops in the event of conflict. From June 30 to July 1, 1979, Carter held meetings with President of South Korea Park Chung-hee at the Blue House.

paragraphs: Carter said that the liberal wing of the Democratic Party did not support his policies the most. He said they were caused by Ted Kennedy's plan to replace him as president. Kennedy announced his candidacy in November 1979. Kennedy surprised his supporters by running a weak campaign, and Carter won most of the primaries and won renomination. However, Kennedy gave Carter weak support from the Liberal Democrats in the fall election. Carter and Vice President Walter Mondale were formally nominated at the Democratic National Convention in New York City.

paragraphs: Carter's campaign for re-election in 1980 was one of the most difficult. He faced strong challenges from the right (Republican Ronald Reagan), the center (independent John B. Anderson), and the left (Democrat Ted Kennedy). His campaign manager and former appointments secretary, Timothy Kraft, stepped down some five weeks before the general election because of an allegation of cocaine use. On October 28, Carter and Reagan participated in the only presidential debate of the election cycle. Though initially losing to Carter by several points, Reagan had a surge in polling following the debate.

paragraphs: Carter lost his re-election bid to Ronald Reagan in a landslide victory. Reagan won 489 of the electoral votes and Carter won 49. In the aftermath of the election, Carter said that he was hurt by the outcome of the election.

paragraphs: Shortly after losing his re-election bid, Carter told the White House press corps that he wanted his retirement to be similar than that of Harry S. Truman and not use his public life to make himself rich. In October 1986, his presidential library was opened in Atlanta, Georgia.

paragraphs: Carter built homes in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, and partnered with former presidents to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities.

paragraphs: Carter attended the dedication of his presidential library and those of Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. He delivered eulogies at the funerals of Coretta Scott King Gerald Ford, Theodore Hesburgh, and John Lewis. He has attended the state funeral of every former president since he left office: Nixon in 1994, Reagan in 2004, Ford in 2006 and Bush Sr. in 2018. When going to the inauguration of Donald Trump in 2017, he became the oldest former president to go to one.

paragraphs: In 1982, Carter founded the Carter Center, a non-governmental and non-profit organization with the purpose of spreading human rights and end human suffering. He wanted to help improve the quality of life for people in more than 80 countries.

paragraphs: In 1994, President Bill Clinton wanted Carter's help in a North Korea peace mission. Carter negotiated an understanding with Kim Il-sung, with whom he went on to outline a treaty. Carter traveled to North Korea to help the release of Aijalon Gomes in August 2010, successfully negotiating his release. In 2017, Carter said that he had offered himself to the Trump administration as a diplomatic envoy to North Korea to help create a peace treaty.

paragraphs: In October 1984, Carter was named an honorary citizen of Peru. Carter supported the country's elections in 2001, and offering support to the Peruvian government following a meeting with President of Peru Alan García in April 2009.

paragraphs: In his February 1986 talks with Tomás Borge, Carter helped push for the release of journalist Luis Mora and labor leader Jose Altamirano, while touring Nicaragua for three days.

paragraphs: Carter held a tour of Cuba in May 2002 that included meeting with Fidel Castro Carter toured Cuba again for three days in March 2011.

paragraphs: Carter's diplomatic efforts in the Middle East included a September 1981 meeting with Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin, a March 1983 tour of Egypt that included meeting with members of the Palestine Liberation Organization, and a December 2008 meeting with Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.

paragraphs: Carter traveled to Syria in April 2008, laying a wreath at the grave of Yasser Arafat in Ramallah and denying he had been contacted by the Bush administration in relation to meeting with Hamas leaders.

paragraphs: In July 2007, Carter joined Nelson Mandela in Johannesburg, South Africa, to announce his participation in The Elders, a group of independent global leaders who work together on peace and human rights issues. Carter wanted to travel to Zimbabwe to promote human rights in November 2008, but was stopped by President Robert Mugabe's government.

paragraphs: Carter held summits in Egypt and Tunisia in 1995–1996 to talk about violence in the Great Lakes region of Africa, and played a key role in negotiation of the Nairobi Agreement in 1999 between Sudan and Uganda.

paragraphs: During the presidency of George W. Bush, Carter stated his opposition to the Iraq War, and what he called an attempt on the part of Bush and Tony Blair to remove Saddam Hussein through the usage of "lies and misinterpretations". In May 2007, Carter stated the Bush administration "has been the worst in history" in terms of its impact in foreign affairs, Carter criticized the Bush administration's handling of Hurricane Katrina.

paragraphs: Though he supported President Barack Obama in the early part of his tenure, Carter criticized his use of drone strikes against suspected terrorists, Obama's choice to keep Guantanamo Bay detention camp open, and the current federal surveillance programs.

paragraphs: In July 2016, Carter announced his support of former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's presidential nomination during the 2016 Democratic National Convention. Carter said that the impact of the 2016 election would "define the US for a generation". He originally supported Vermont U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders and voted for him during the primaries in 2016.

paragraphs: During the Donald Trump presidency, Carter supported immigration reform through Congress, and criticized Trump for his handling of the national anthem protests.

paragraphs: In September 2019, Carter said he would support an "age-limit" for presidential candidates.

paragraphs: In August 2020, he supported former Vice President Joe Biden for president during a video played at the 2020 Democratic National Convention.

paragraphs: Carter and Rosalynn Smith were married on July 7, 1946 in the Plains Methodist Church, the church of Rosalynn's family. They have three sons, one daughter, eight grandsons, three granddaughters, and two great-grandsons.

paragraphs: Carter and his wife Rosalynn are well known for their work as volunteers with Habitat for Humanity.

paragraphs: Carter's hobbies include painting, fly-fishing, woodworking, cycling, tennis, and skiing. He also has an interest in poetry.

paragraphs: Carter was also a personal friend of Elvis Presley. Carter and his wife, Rosalynn, met him on June 30, 1973, before Presley was to perform onstage in Atlanta. The day after Presley's death, Carter issued a statement and explained how he had "changed the face of American popular culture".

paragraphs: In 2000, Carter ended his membership with the Southern Baptist Convention, saying the group's ideas did not support with his Christian beliefs.

paragraphs: Carter became the oldest to ever attend a presidential inauguration in 2017, at age 92, and the first to live to the 40th anniversary of their own. Two years later, on March 22, 2019, he became the nation's longest-lived president. On October 1, 2019, Carter became the first U.S. president to live to the age of 95.

paragraphs: On August 3, 2015, Carter had surgery to remove "a small mass" on his liver. On August 12, however, Carter announced he had been diagnosed with cancer that had metastasized. On August 20, he said that melanoma had been found in his brain and liver. On December 6, 2015, Carter said that his medical scans no longer showed any cancer.

paragraphs: On May 13, 2019, Carter broke his hip at his Plains home and had surgery in Americus, Georgia. On October 6, 2019, Carter got 14 stitches above his left eyebrow after injuring it during another fall at home. On October 21, 2019, Carter was hospitalized after having a minor pelvic fracture after falling again at home. On November 11, 2019, Carter was hospitalized at the Emory University Hospital in Atlanta to relieve pressure on his brain. The surgery was successful, and Carter was released from the hospital on November 27.

paragraphs: Carter's presidency was at first seen as a failure as in historical rankings of U.S. presidents, the it is ranked from midway to lower bottom. Although his presidency had some negative criticism, his peace works and humanitarian efforts since he left office have made Carter one of the most successful former presidents in American history.

paragraphs: His presidential approval rating was just 31 percent before the 1980 election, but 64 percent approved of his performance as president in a 2009 poll. "The Independent" wrote, "Carter is widely considered a better man than he was a president."

paragraphs: Carter has had many awards since his presidency. In 1998, the U.S. Navy named the third and last "Seawolf"-class submarine honoring former President Carter and his service as a submariner officer. That year he also received the United Nations Human Rights Prize, given in honor of human rights achievements, and the Hoover Medal. He won the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize.

paragraphs: Carter has been nominated nine times for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for audio recordings of his books, and has won three times in 2007, 2016 and 2019.

paragraphs: The Souther Field Airport in Americus, Georgia was renamed Jimmy Carter Regional Airport in 2009.


title: Cannes

paragraphs: Cannes () is a commune and the prefecture of Alpes-Maritimes.

paragraphs: It is most famous for the Cannes Film Festival, which takes place every summer. Many famous people come to the movie festival from around the world to promote their movies and to see other peoples' movies too.


title: Theodore Roosevelt

paragraphs: Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt, Jr. (October 27, 1858–January 6, 1919), was the 26th president of the United States. He was born in New York.

paragraphs: Theodore Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858, in New York City. He was curious as a child, so he took up studying animals. He also took up boxing. He went to college at Harvard. He married twice, first to Alice Hathaway Lee and later to Edith Kermit Carow. He had six children: Alice, Theodore Jr., Kermit, Ethel, Archie and Quentin.

paragraphs: After spending time in North Dakota, Roosevelt was elected into the New York State Legislature, and served, as a Civil Service Commissioner and New York City police commissioner (a non-police officer who is in charge of making the police department run smoothly). In 1897, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy, but gave up on that to fight in the Spanish American War.

paragraphs: Roosevelt became Governor of New York, then Vice-President. After William McKinley was shot and killed, he became President of the United States.

paragraphs: Roosevelt joined the US Army in the Spanish-American War. He was a Lieutenant Colonel in the 1st U. S. Volunteer Cavalry. These horsemen were called the "Roughriders".

paragraphs: For his actions during the war, Roosevelt was recommended for the Medal of Honor.

paragraphs: In 2001, Theodore Roosevelt became the first President to receive the Medal of Honor.

paragraphs: Roosevelt's Medal of Honor recognized his conduct in fighting in Cuba in 1898.

paragraphs: The words of Roosevelt's citation explain:

paragraphs: Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt distinguished himself by acts of bravery on 1 July 1898, near Santiago de Cuba, Republic of Cuba, while leading a daring charge up San Juan Hill. Lieutenant Colonel Roosevelt, in total disregard for his personal safety, and accompanied by only four or five men, led a desperate and gallant charge up San Juan Hill, encouraging his troops to continue the assault through withering enemy fire over open countryside. Facing the enemy's heavy fire, he displayed extraordinary bravery throughout the charge, and was the first to reach the enemy trenches, where he quickly killed one of the enemy with his pistol, allowing his men to continue the assault. His leadership and valor turned the tide in the Battle for San Juan Hill. Lieutenant Colonel Roosevelt's extraordinary heroism and devotion to duty are in keeping with the highest traditions of military service and reflect great credit upon himself, his unit, and the United States Army.

paragraphs: As President, Roosevelt worked to make the U.S. a world power, one of the most powerful countries in the world. Before, it had been the richest country in the world, but not a significant military power. Roosevelt's foreign policy was described by an African proverb as "speak softly and carry a big stick", meaning you do not have to make war, but should give that impression if you are to be respected. He increased the size of the United States' navy and sent all of the ships across the world to demonstrate to other countries that the United States was strong and could fight if needs be.

paragraphs: He continued the Monroe Doctrine and used the country's military might to influence Latin American politics. He had the Panama Canal built (which allowed ships to travel in less time by taking a shortcut). In doing so, he created the independent country of Panama, which before was part of Colombia, by invading it. He also took a part for the United States, which is where the canal was built. It was not turned over to Panama until 1999. As president, he was interested in what happened in other countries. In 1905, he helped to end the war between the Russian and Japanese empires. Everybody thought Russia would defeat Japan, but the result was the opposite. Roosevelt met both parties and convinced them to sign a peace treaty. He won a Nobel Peace Prize for this work in 1906. He was the first president of any country to win the price.

paragraphs: At home, Roosevelt fought for all Americans having a "Square Deal", meaning an equal chance for all Americans to become successful. As part of his Square Deal, he regulated big businesses called trusts, and forced several of them to split up in several smaller companies. This should support competition, which he thought was important. Roosevelt supported labor laws for the working class, required meat and drugs to be inspected, and protected the environment. He created several nature reserves. These ideas would influence later presidents to expand the government's role in the economy and to help ordinary workers. Many in the Republican party opposed him because of this, however.

paragraphs: Roosevelt did not run for President in 1908, as he had the office for nearly eight years. He wanted his Solicitor General, William Howard Taft to run for President instead. Taft was chosen, and Roosevelt went to Africa to hunt big game. However, when he came back, he thought Taft was not doing a good job and taking too little actions against so-called trusts. He decided to challenge Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912. He failed, but many Republicans preferred Roosevelt, and instead he launched his own party, the Progressive party. While running for President and holding a speech, he was shot, but lived and even finished his speech. Because the Republican voters split between Roosevelt and Taft, they both lost to Woodrow Wilson. Roosevelt also thought Wilson was not doing a good job, either, and wanted the U.S. to enter World War I after it broke out. He prepared to run again, for the third time, in 1920. Nobody had served more than eight years at the time. Roosevelt died, however, on January 6, 1919 of a pulmonary embolism and a heart attack in his sleep. Because he was so strong, a newspaper commented that "death had to take Roosevelt asleep", because if he had been awake there would have been a fight between him and death.

paragraphs: Besides being president, Roosevelt was an author and historian. He wrote 35 books about politics, ships, and hunting. He is thought to be one of America's presidents who read the most. He owned a large ranch in North Dakota. He also hunted large animals throughout the world and was active with the Boy Scouts of America.

paragraphs: Roosevelt is one of four Presidents to be carved in stone on Mount Rushmore. Historians consider him one of the best U.S. presidents.

paragraphs: Theodore Roosevelt is the namesake of many American schools. He has a national park in North Dakota named after him, a type of elk (big deer), as well as river in Brazil. The popular stuffed animal doll, the "Teddy bear", was named after Roosevelt.


title: Composer

paragraphs: A composer is someone who writes (composes) music. Some composers work by writing music down on paper; this is called 'written notation'. Classical music writers work this way. Writers for TV and movie music also usually write this way, so that an orchestra or other players can read the music and play it.

paragraphs: Some musicians are very good at improvisation. This means that they think up (invent) the music as they play it. Some church organists are good at improvising. During a service they may need to play some organ music to fill in the gaps while people are collecting money or taking communion. Jazz musicians are usually excellent at improvising. Improvisation is not written down, so each time it is different.

paragraphs: Popular and rock or soul music writers are often not able to read and write music down. Many pop and rock composers compose their songs on a guitar or piano. Cole Porter and Irving Berlin usually composed at the piano.

paragraphs: Many songs are written by two or more people. It is common for two people to work together to write songs. Sometimes, one person writes the music and one writes the words (the lyrics). Some songs such as folk songs were composed many years ago and no one knows who wrote them.


title: Cannes Film Festival

paragraphs: The Cannes Film Festival is an event held every year in Cannes, France. The festival previews films from around the world.

paragraphs: Only those who are invited can attend the festival. The top film wins the Palme d'Or. The second most prestigious trophy is the Grand Prix. A jury selects which film earns the prizes. The jury is led by an internationally recognized personality of cinema. Being appointed to this position is the recognition of an outstanding career.


title: Henry VIII

paragraphs: Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was the King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. He is perhaps one of England's most famous monarchs because he split England from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope, and because he married six times.

paragraphs: Henry VIII increased the power of the monarchy and government over the country. Many people he did not like were executed under his orders, including two of his own wives. He was easily led by whoever his favourite advisor was: Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Thomas Cranmer and Richard Rich. More and Cromwell were also executed. He passed laws to merge Wales into England and was the first English monarch to be King of Ireland.

paragraphs: His government was able to raise more money they stopped paying money to the Roman Catholic Church and because they closed down the monasteries. But he also spent far more money on his own enjoyment and on wars with France and Scotland. These wars did not achieve much. He made the Royal Navy much bigger and made other improvements to the armed forces.

paragraphs: Early in his reign he was seen as a handsome young man who had studied a lot and enjoyed sports, music and writing. Later in his reign he became weak, ill and hugely obese. He also became unpredictable, bad-tempered and unable to admit to making mistakes. He died at the age of 55 in 1547. The next king was his son Edward VI.

paragraphs: Henry was born at Greenwich Palace on 28 June 1491, and was the son of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. He was one of their seven children. Four of them survived infancy  – Arthur, Prince of Wales; Margaret; Henry; and Mary .

paragraphs: He had his own servants and minstrels, including a fool named John Goose. He even had a whipping boy who was punished for Henry when he did something wrong. Prince Henry enjoyed music and was very good at it. At the age of 10, he could play many instruments, including the fife, harp, viola and drums. Henry was a scholar, linguist, musician and athlete at his early age. He could speak fluent Latin, French and Spanish. He had the best tutors and he also had to learn jousting, archery, hunting and other military arts. Henry was very religious.

paragraphs: Henry's older brother Arthur was the heir to the throne. This means he would have become the king when Henry VII died. Arthur married a Spanish princess, Catherine of Aragon (her name in Spanish was Catalina de Aragon). Prince Arthur died a few months later. He was 15 years old, and Henry was 10 years old. After his brother died, Henry was the heir to the throne.

paragraphs: While his father was alive he was watched closely, because the King feared for the safety of his only remaining male heir. Henry could go out only through a private door, and then he was watched by specially appointed people. No one could speak to Henry. He spent most of his time in his room, which could only be entered through his father’s bedroom. Henry never spoke in public, unless it was to answer a question from his father. He kept his enthusiastic personality under control on public occasions because he feared his father's temper. He was given little training for his future role as King by his father and relied heavily on his counselors in the early years of his reign. In 1509, Henry VII died of tuberculosis as well and his son became King Henry VIII. He was 17 years old.

paragraphs: Three months after becoming king, Henry married Catherine of Aragon. They tried to have children, as Henry wanted a son who could be the next king. In 1511, she gave birth to a son who they named Henry, but he died seven weeks later. She later gave birth to a girl, the future Queen Mary I. All her other children were stillborn (died before birth). He did have one son (Henry Fitzroy) through a woman he was not married to. This son could not become king.

paragraphs: Early on, Henry had two of his father's advisors executed. They were not popular and Henry claimed they had been stealing from the money they had been looking after. Henry would often execute anyone he did not like during the rest of his reign. From 1514, Thomas Wolsey became an important advisor to Henry. Wolsey helped Henry change the government to give the king more power. Wolsey later became a cardinal, making him an important figure in the church.

paragraphs: At first, Henry wanted to be friends with the King of France. But soon, he instead joined with Spain, the Pope and the Holy Roman Empire to weaken France. He dreamed of gaining more lands in France. The results were mixed: England won some battles against France in 1513. The alliance weakened France`s power over the Pope. Scotland invaded England in 1514 but lost badly at the Battle of the Flodden. But Henry spent a lot of money and did not gain much land.

paragraphs: In 1520, an event named; 'The Field of the Cloth of Gold', took place in Calais (at the time, the city was part of England rather than France). It was held to celebrate peace between France and England because they had been at war for a long time. Loads of money was spent on it. People enjoyed music, dancing, food, wine and culture for two-and-a-half weeks. Henry famously wrestled King Francis I of France and lost. Despite this, England and France were soon fighting again. After they signed a treaty in 1525, there was less fighting.

paragraphs: The most important event that happened in England when Henry was the king was the country's change in religion. At first, there was no sign that Henry would do this. Eight years into Henry's reign, the Protestant Reformation began in Germany. Until then, all of Western Europe had been part of the Roman Catholic Church. When the Reformation began, some countries broke away from the Roman Catholic Church to form Protestant churches. At first, Henry was against this. The Reformation did not spread to England straight away. But by the 1530s, there were many powerful people in England who liked the idea of the Reformation.

paragraphs: Henry became desperate to have a son. By 1527, Henry was wanting to divorce Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn. The Roman Catholic Church said he could not divorce without asking the Pope. Henry asked the Pope, but the Pope would not do this. The Pope said it went against the teachings of the church. Henry blamed Wolsey for failing to change the Pope's mind. He sacked Wolsey and ordered him to be put on trial, though Wolsey died before the trial could happen. After that, Thomas More became his main advisor. But More opposed the divorce, so he was replaced a few years later by Thomas Cromwell. Henry also chose a man called Thomas Cranmer to be the Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry knew that Cranmer would do what he wanted, and Cranmer agreed that Henry could have a divorce from Catherine. The Pope did not know this, so he let Cranmer become the archbishop.

paragraphs: A powerful ruler might have forced the Pope to change his mind, but the most powerful rulers would have opposed the divorce. Catherine's nephew was Charles V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and Catherine came from Spain, the largest Catholic country. In 1534, attempts to reach an agreement over the divorce failed.

paragraphs: Henry asked Parliament to pass the Act of Supremacy, which meant that the king, not the pope, was the head of the church in England. This created the new Church of England. The Pope was so angry that he excommunicated Henry, meaning Henry was thrown out of the church. Henry then forced all priests and bishops to accept him as the new leader. Anyone who refused was punished. Among those killed were Thomas More and his old teacher John Fisher.

paragraphs: Henry was not a true Protestant. He wanted the Church of England to be similar to the Roman Catholic Church but under his control. Some Protestants were even executed, including Anne Askew. However, Henry was easily led by people like Thomas Crownell, Thomas Cranmer and Anne Bolyen, who secretly wanted the country to become Protestant. It was not until the reigns of Edward VI and Elizabeth I that the Church of England became fully Protestant.

paragraphs: Henry and Cromwell thought that monasteries, in which Roman Catholic monks and nuns lived, had more money and land than the monks and nuns needed. Henry forced the monks and nuns to move out of the monasteries. Then Henry gave their money and land to men who supported him. Most of the men who received money and land from the closed monasteries were Protestants. This event was called the dissolution of the monasteries.

paragraphs: After his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn, who was younger than Catherine and still able to have children. Henry soon became unhappy with the marriage. He and Anne did not get on well as they had before they married. Anne had many enemies in the government, including Henry's most loyal minister, Thomas Cromwell. Henry was also unhappy that Anne, just like Catherine, only had a daughter and no sons. Henry started looking for another wife.

paragraphs: In January 1536, Henry fell off a horse while jousting and was badly injured. He took a long time to wake up and his leg was wounded. The wound never properly healed, and he had painful ulcers on his leg for the rest of the his life. This meant it was hard for him to do exercise, so after this he started to become obese. The head injury may have also caused him to become more bad-tempered.

paragraphs: Later that year, Cromwell helped Henry to find a way to get rid of Anne, by finding people who said that she had been the lover of several other men. Anne was put on trial and found guilty, and she was executed by having her head chopped off by a French swordsman.

paragraphs: Henry's third wife was Jane Seymour. She soon gave birth to a son called Edward. Although this made Henry very happy, a few days later Jane died. Henry had loved her very much and he never got over his sadness at her death. He lost interest in everything, and became bigger in size. He became angry with Thomas Cromwell when Cromwell suggested that he should get married again after Jane's death.

paragraphs: After a while, Henry changed his mind. As he still only had one son, he realised that it might be a good idea to marry again, and he agreed to marry Anne of Cleves, a German princess. When Anne arrived, Henry did not think she was as pretty as she looked in the pictures he had seen, and he was not satisfied with her. Anne was also unhappy and agreed to be divorced from Henry after only a few months. Cromwell had helped arrange the marriage. Henry was angry with Cromwell and had him executed.

paragraphs: In the meantime, Henry had noticed a young lady at court, called Catherine Howard, and thought that she might make a good wife. Catherine Howard was a cousin of Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry and Catherine got married in 1540, but Catherine was much younger than Henry and she soon got tired of him and started to flirt with other men. After they had been married for just over a year, Henry found out that Catherine had been having an affair with someone else. She was found guilty of treason and was executed, just like Anne Boleyn had been a few years before.

paragraphs: Henry's sixth and last wife was called Catherine Parr. She was a woman in her thirties who had already been married twice. Her first two husbands had been much older than she was, and both had died. Henry thought that she would be more sensible and faithful than his other wives, and he turned out to be right. Catherine Parr stayed married to Henry for over three years until he died, but they did not have any children.

paragraphs: After divorcing Catherine of Aragon, Henry began to suffer many different ailments, he never again regained health. He died on 28 January 1547 at the age of 55 and was buried in Windsor Castle. Henry was the father of two queens and one king. They were Mary I of England, Elizabeth I of England, and Edward VI of England. None of them had any children of their own.

paragraphs: In 1536, the Act of Union was passed under Henry's rule which had a long-lasting effect on Wales as a nation. The Act of Union meant that Welsh people were forced to speak English and things such as road signs were translated into English. The royal family, who were based in London, were now officially in charge of Wales. However, the Act also meant that Welsh citizens were given the same legal rights as the English so there was an upside to this new law.

paragraphs: Henry often liked to be captured in his portraits with either food or pets. He had many pets. Henry was often seen with his dog. He owned a white pug and was very aware of how much his dog represented him as a wealthy man.

paragraphs: Henry VIII spent a lot of time at a magnificent building named Hampton Court Palace that belonged to his friend, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. After falling out with Wolsey, Henry took the palace for himself. He made the palace far larger, building things such as tennis courts and jousting yards.


title: Orchestra

paragraphs: An orchestra is a group of musicians playing instruments together. They make music. A large orchestra is sometimes called a "symphony orchestra" and a small orchestra is called a "chamber orchestra". A symphony orchestra may have about 100 players, while a chamber orchestra may have 30 or 40 players. The number of players will depend on what music they are playing and the size of the place where they are playing. The word "orchestra" originally meant the semi-circular space in front of a stage in a Greek theatre which is where the singers and instruments used to play. Gradually the word came to mean the musicians themselves.

paragraphs: The orchestra is directed by a conductor. He/she helps the players to play together, to get the right balance so that everything can be heard clearly, and to encourage the orchestra to play with the same kind of feeling. Some small chamber orchestras may play without a conductor. This was usual until the 19th century when the orchestras got very big and needed a conductor who made decisions and stood in front so that all the players could see him.

paragraphs: The instruments of the orchestra are divided into districts: the strings, woodwind, brass and percussion. Each section (group of instruments) will have a player who is the "Boss". The principals will make decisions about seating arrangements, and about technical ways of playing the music: for example the principal of the string sections will make sure all the players move their bows up and down in the same direction. The violins are divided into first and second violins. The first violins usually have the tune while the seconds, most of the time, are part of the accompaniment. The principal of the first violin is the leader (or concertmaster) of the orchestra. In a professional orchestra they will be the most highly paid member of the orchestra.

paragraphs: The strings are the biggest section, although there are only five kinds of instruments: violin, viola, cello, double bass, and harp. This is because they are playing most of the time and usually form the basis of the music. If they are not playing the tune they will probably be accompanying. The first and second violins play different notes: the firsts usually have the tune. The strings sit at the front of the stage in a fan-shape in front of the conductor. The first violins are on the conductor's left, then come the second violins, then the violas and then the cellos. The double basses are behind the cellos. Some conductors prefer to have the second violins on their right and the cellos between the first violins and violas (see image of the Dohnanyi Orchestra).

paragraphs: The woodwind sit in one or two rows (depending on the size of the orchestra) behind the strings. There are five main woodwind instruments: flute, oboe, clarinet, saxophone, and bassoon. Each of these instruments also come in different versions:

paragraphs: The flute has a small version called the piccolo which plays an octave higher. It is the highest instrument in the orchestra. Occasionally there is an alto flute which is longer and plays a fifth (half an octave) lower than the flute. Most woodwind instruments need a reed, but the flute does not have a reed.

paragraphs: The bassoon has a larger version: the contrabassoon or double bassoon which sounds an octave lower. It is one of the lowest instruments in the orchestra.

paragraphs: The clarinet has a larger version as well; the bass clarinet. It reaches the same depth as a bassoon. Usually only one is found in a modern orchestra. There is also an alto clarinet but because it plays the same part an alto saxophone plays, it is typically regarded as an unnecessary instrument.

paragraphs: A formal orchestra will always consist of two of the four main instruments. The variations of the instruments are used where the piece asks for it. Usually, the newer pieces written after 1850 will have more instruments.

paragraphs: Sometimes a player will double on these extra instruments, for example: one of the flute players may also play the piccolo in the same piece. It depends on the piece of music. Obviously a player cannot play the flute and piccolo at the same time. If the two instruments do play at the same time an extra player will be needed for the piccolo.

paragraphs: The brass section has four sections: trumpet, trombone, French horn, and tuba. Some of these come in several sizes. The article on transposing instruments explains more about it. The trumpet may have several slightly different sizes. The lowest kind is a bass trumpet. The trombone may be an alto, tenor, bass or contrabass trombone. The French horn, like the other brass instruments, has changed over the years. Modern horns have at least three valves and are usually in F. They often sit in a different place to the other brass. The tuba comes in different sizes and the player or conductor must decide which to use for the piece they are playing. There are large ones called contrabass tubas. A small tuba is commonly also seen and is called a euphonium or a baritone horn.

paragraphs: The percussion section has the largest variety of instruments. The timpani (or "kettle drums") can be tuned to particular notes. They are the most common percussion instrument. Composers such as Haydn and Mozart nearly always used them, even with their small orchestras. This is the most commonly used percussion instruments and is used in almost all pieces.

paragraphs: The rest of the percussion section can include tuned percussion instruments like the xylophone. Non-tuned percussion can be other kinds of drum like bass drum, snare drum, and a variety of others: simple to name the most common ones. The principal percussion player will have to decide which player will play which instrument(s). The percussionists have to work well together as a team so all parts can be covered.

paragraphs: It is difficult to say when the orchestra was invented because instruments have played together for many centuries. If we say that an orchestra is a group of string instruments with several players playing the same part, and that there may be wind instruments (i.e. woodwind and brass) or percussion playing as well, then the 17th century is the time that orchestras started. In Paris in 1626 King Louis XIII had an orchestra of 24 violins (called "24 Violons du Roi"). Later in the century the English king Charles II wanted to be like the French king and so he, too, had a string orchestra. Gradually the other instruments were added. At this time there was usually someone playing the harpsichord (the continuo part). It was often the composer himself, who would have conducted from the keyboard at important moments like the beginning and end of the piece.

paragraphs: Clarinets came into the orchestra at the end of the 18th century, and trombones at the beginning of the 19th century. Orchestras were still quite small, though. The saxophone was invented in the middle of the 19th century, but although they started to use it in orchestras, it soon became an instrument that was used in wind bands and later jazz bands. The opera composer Richard Wagner made the orchestra much bigger because he kept asking for extra instruments. He asked for a bass clarinet in his opera "Lohengrin", and for his cycle of four operas called "The Ring of the Nibelung" he asked for an exact number of players: 16 first violins, 16 second violins, 12 violas, 12 cellos, 8 double basses, 3 flutes and piccolo, 3 oboes and cor anglais, 3 clarinets and bass clarinet, 3 bassoons, 3 trumpets and bass trumpet, 3 tenor trombones and a double bass trombone, 8 horns with 4 of them playing a specially designed tuba, a bass tuba, percussion, and 6 harps.

paragraphs: Not all pieces written after that need quite such a large orchestra, but concert halls had become bigger and composers had got used to a bigger variety of sounds. Later composers sometimes added all sorts of unusual instruments: wind machine, sandpaper block, bottles, typewriter, anvils, iron chains, cuckoo, Swannee whistle etc. None of these are normal orchestral instruments. Sometimes a piano is used in the percussion section, e.g. Igor Stravinsky used one in "Petrouchka". Sometimes voices are also used.

paragraphs: Today orchestras can usually be heard in concert halls. They also play in opera houses for opera and ballet, or in a large stadium for huge open-air concerts. Orchestras may record in studios for making CDs or recording music for movies. Many of them can be heard easily and cheaply every summer in London at the BBC Proms.

paragraphs: Some of the greatest orchestras today include: the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, the , the St Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, and the NHK Symphony Orchestra (Tokyo). Opera houses usually have their own orchestra, e.g. the orchestras of the Metropolitan Opera House, La Scala, or the Royal Opera House.

paragraphs: In many countries there are opportunities for school-age children who play instruments well to play in youth orchestras in their areas. In Britain some of the very best are selected to play in the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain. Other world-famous youth orchestras include the Orquesta Sinfónica Simón Bolívar, Gustav Mahler Youth Orchestra, the European Union Youth Orchestra and the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra.