paragraphs: Article Five of the United States Constitution outlines how the Constitution can be changed. Changes to the Constitution are called Constitutional amendments.

paragraphs: Article Five also says that there are certain clauses, or parts, of Article One of the Constitution that could not be amended right away. These clauses are explained in the "Protected clauses" section.

paragraphs: Before the Constitution was approved, the United States was covered by its first constitution, the Articles of Confederation.

paragraphs: Under the Articles of Confederation, amendments had to be approved by a unanimous vote in all 13 state legislatures. Not only did every state legislature have to agree on the amendment. If a single state Senator or Representative in the country disagreed with an amendment, the amendment would fail. This made it basically impossible to get any amendments passed.

paragraphs: When the Founding Fathers wrote Article Five, they were trying to make sure changing the Constitution was not too hard, but not too easy either. James Madison later explained that the amendment process in the Constitution "guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults."

paragraphs: In Simple English, Madison meant that the amendment process protects equally against:

paragraphs: There are two steps in the process for changing the Constitution. The first step is proposing (formally suggesting) an amendment. Article Five of the Constitution allows this to be done in two different ways.

paragraphs: The first way is the most common way. Any member of Congress can suggest an amendment. However, two-thirds (67%) of both the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives have to agree that the amendment is needed. If this happens, the proposed amendment moves to Step 2 in the process.

paragraphs: As of 2016, the second way has never been used. However, it exists to protect the rights of the state legislatures. If two-thirds of the state legislatures ask them to, Congress has to call a Constitutional Convention. Delegates would come to the Convention from each state. The Constitutional Convention could propose as many amendments as they wanted to. All of the amendments they proposed would move to Step 2 in the process.

paragraphs: At first, when the Founding Fathers were writing the Constitution, they were only going to give Congress the power to propose amendments. However, some of the Founders, like Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, worried that this gave Congress too much power. Madison and Hamilton re-wrote Article Five to add the second option for proposing an amendment, and the rest of the Founders agreed. Adding the second option helped make sure the states had power too the power to propose amendments if enough of their legislatures agreed.

paragraphs: Step 2 starts when an amendment has been proposed, either by Congress or by a Constitutional Convention. The proposed amendment now has to be ratified. Like with Step 1, Article Five gives two choices for how an amendment can be ratified. Congress gets to choose which way to use.

paragraphs: Congress has almost always chosen the first way: letting the state legislatures ratify the amendment. If three-fourths (75%) of the state legislatures ratify the amendment, it becomes part of the Constitution.

paragraphs: The second option is for Congress to ask each state to create a "ratifying convention." This is a group of people not members of the state legislature who would decide whether or not to ratify the amendment. If ratifying conventions in three-fourths of the states ratify the amendment, it becomes part of the Constitution.

paragraphs: Congress has only used the second option once: after it proposed the 21st Amendment. (This amendment cancelled the 18th Amendment, which made alcohol illegal in the United States. The 21st Amendment made alcohol legal again.)

paragraphs: At the time, Congress thought that this would be the more democratic option. A large majority of the people in the United States wanted the 21st Amendment to pass. However, Congress thought the state legislators would refuse to pass the amendment because of pressure from powerful groups that were against alcohol. In other words, Congress did not think that the state legislatures would vote the way the people of the United States would want. This example shows why the Founding Fathers included the "ratifying convention" option in the amendment process. If the state legislatures get too powerful, or do not represent what the people who elected them want, the people have the power to pass amendments too.

paragraphs: Article Five protects two clauses in Article One from being amended until 1808. These clauses are:

paragraphs: Article Five also puts one absolute limit on Constitutional amendments. It completely protects Section 3, Clause 1 of Article One. This clause says that every state will have the same number of United States Senators. It does not set a time limit on how long this clause is protected for. It just says: "no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate." As of 1808, when the protections on the other two clauses expired, this is the only limit that the Constitution puts on suggested amendments. Any amendment, about anything else, could be suggested.

paragraphs: Article Five gives all of the power for creating Constitutional amendments to the Legislative Branch: the United States Congress and the state legislatures. The President of the United States cannot amend the Constitution. He has no part in the process of changing the Constitution. The United States Supreme Court confirmed this in a 1798 case called "Hollingsworth v. Virginia". In its decision, the Court wrote: "[T]he President ... has nothing to do with the proposition, or adoption, of amendments to the Constitution." However, the Supreme Court cannot create an amendment either.

paragraphs: This is an example of the separation of powers (also called "checks and balances") that the Founding Fathers built into the new American government. If the President or the Supreme Court could change the Constitution any time they wanted to, they would have too much power. One person (or nine Supreme Court Justices) could make decisions that would affect every American.

paragraphs: Instead, the Founders gave the job of creating Constitutional amendments to the Legislative Branch. By requiring that two-thirds of both Houses of Congress, and three-quarters of the states, approve of every Constitutional amendment, they made sure that there would have to be a lot of debate, compromise, and thought before an amendment was approved. Also, because so many legislators have to approve every amendment, it is very difficult for small "special interest" groups (like people who only care about a certain part of the country, or a certain issue) cannot control the vote.

paragraphs: The Founders even put checks and balances on the Legislative Branch's powers. If Congress gets too powerful, the states can make it call a Constitutional Convention. If the states get too powerful, ordinary Americans can vote on a Constitutional amendment through ratifying conventions. As a legal scholar wrote later: "The ratification of the Twenty-First Amendment [by ratifying conventions] might be called one of the most democratic moments in American history. ... Almost all voters in America had the unprecedented opportunity to [support] or condemn a federal constitutional amendment directly. ... The conventions ratified the choices of the people without fail."

paragraphs: Almost right away, the amendments process became very important. North Carolina and Rhode Island refused to ratify the Constitution without a Bill of Rights. This meant they would not be a part of the new United States Government. In 1789, James Madison wrote the Bill of Rights. They were ratified together, as the first ten amendments to the Constitution, in 1791. Having a Bill of Rights convinced North Carolina and Rhode Island to ratify the Constitution.

paragraphs: The amendments process set out in Article Five has allowed for many other important amendments to be added to the Constitution. For example, these amendments have included:

paragraphs: If Article Five had made the Constitution too hard to change, African-American people might still be slaves, and women might still not have the right to vote.


paragraphs: Article Two of the United States Constitution creates the executive branch of the United States government. The executive branch includes the President; the Vice President; the Cabinet; executive departments, like the Department of State; independent agencies, like the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA); and other things like committees and commissions.

paragraphs: Section One begins by giving federal executive power to the President only. This is part of the separation of powers that the Founding Fathers built into the Constitution. To prevent any part of the government from getting too powerful, they split the power between three branches. This clause gives executive power to the President. Another clause in Article One of the Constitution gives federal legislative (law-making) power to the United States Congress only. A third clause in Article Three gives judiciary power to the federal courts. No branch is allowed to do a job that the Constitution has given to another branch. For example, the President cannot make laws; that is the Legislature's job.

paragraphs: This clause says the President is the head of the Executive Branch. It also mentions the Vice President, though the Constitution does not give him any executive powers. However, the Constitution does say that the President and Vice President must be elected at the same time, for the same term (amount of time), and by the same constituency. The Founding Fathers wanted to make sure the Executive Branch would survive, and stay independent, if the Vice President had to become the President.

paragraphs: Under the U.S. Constitution, the President and Vice President are chosen by Electors. The Constitution allows each state legislature to decide how they will choose Electors. Since the 1820s, state legislatures have usually chosen Electors through an indirect popular vote. This means that people in the state will get to vote on which Electors they want. The ballot that people use to vote will have the Electors' names on it. Usually, it will also say what Presidential and Vice Presidential candidates they plan to support. This allows the people to choose Electors who support the candidates they like.

paragraphs: Each state has two United States Senators and a certain number of United States Representatives representing them in Congress. (The number of Representatives depends on how many people live in the state.) Each state gets a number of Electors that is equal to the number of Members of Congress the state has. (For example, if a state has 2 Senators and 10 Representatives, they have 12 total Members of Congress, so they get 12 Electors.)

paragraphs: The only people who cannot be Electors are Senators, Representatives, and federal officers. This is meant to make sure that the Electoral College is made up of regular Americans, not politicians.

paragraphs: This clause talks about Electors and how they choose a President. Once they are chosen, the Electors meet in their states to vote for the President and Vice President. Originally, candidates only ran for President; there were no candidates for Vice President. Each Elector voted for two different candidates for President. They had to vote for at least one candidate who did not live in the Elector's home state. The candidate who got more than half of the votes became President. The candidate who got the next highest number of votes (the second-place winner) became Vice President.

paragraphs: This clause gives instructions for several possible problems:

paragraphs: The Twelfth Amendment changed this process in a few ways:

paragraphs: Article Two allows Congress to set a national Election Day.

paragraphs: This clause simply means that to be President, a person must meet three requirements:

paragraphs: If a person does not meet all of these requirements, they cannot be President.

paragraphs: Two later amendments changed these rules about who can be President and Vice President:

paragraphs: This clause talks about the possibility that the Presidency might become "vacant". This might happen because:

paragraphs: If the Presidency becomes vacant, the Vice President becomes President. If the Vice President is "also" unable to be President, Congress can decide who will become President. Whoever takes over the Presidency will act as President until the actual President gets better (if he is sick or disabled), or until a President is elected in the next Presidential election.

paragraphs: Congress has come up with a "line of succession" a list of the people who would become President, and in what order, if both the Presidency and Vice Presidency became vacant. As of 2016, the order is: the Speaker of the House of Representatives; the President "pro tempore" of the Senate; and then the fifteen Cabinet Secretaries, in order of when their Departments were first created.

paragraphs: This clause was partially changed by the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967. That Amendment creates a process for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President. It also says that the Vice President can become Acting President (temporary President) if:

paragraphs: If the President declares himself unable to discharge his duties, he can take the Presidency back at any time. For example, in 2002, George W. Bush became the first President to formally use the Disability Clause. He gave power to his Vice President for about two hours while he had a medical test which required anesthesia. Once he felt ready to be President again, Bush took back the Presidency.

paragraphs: If the Vice President and the Cabinet say a President is unable to do his job, the President can still try to take control back. However, if the Vice President and the Cabinet still think the President cannot do his job, they can challenge the President's return. If two-thirds of both the House and Senate agree, the President is declared unable to discharge his duties and the Vice President stays in control of the Presidency.

paragraphs: This means the President can receive a salary. However, the salary cannot be changed during the President's four-year term in office. Also, the President cannot receive any other salary, either from the federal government, or from any state government.

paragraphs: Before he becomes President, Clause 8 requires the new President to take an oath, promising that he will do his best as President, and will also do his best to protect and defend the Constitution. Usually, the Chief Justice of the United States gives the oath ("swears in" the new President) at the President's inauguration.

paragraphs: Section 2 talks about the powers that Article Two grants to the President.

paragraphs: The Constitution gives the President the most powers in areas that have to do with national security and protecting the country.

paragraphs: The President is the military's Commander-in-Chief. However, as part of the system of checks and balances in the Constitution, Article One says that only Congress can declare war. Still, the President can take actions like sending soldiers to certain places without needing Congress's approval, or a declaration of war.

paragraphs: The President may ask the "principal (head) officer" of any executive department to give him advice in writing. The Constitution actually does not require a formal Cabinet. However, America's first President, George Washington, organized his principal offices into a Cabinet, and every President has done the same since.

paragraphs: The President may grant pardons or reprieves to people who were convicted of crimes (except when the person was impeached). A "reprieve" cancels or changes a punishment for example, changing a death sentence to a sentence of life in prison.

paragraphs: This part of Section 2 is called the "Advice and Consent Clause". It gives the President powers, but he has to use them with the "advice and consent" (agreement) of the Senate. This is another example of checks and balances in the Constitution.

paragraphs: Here, the Constitution gives the President the power to make treaties with other countries. However, two-thirds of the Senators must agree with the treaty for it to take effect. If two-thirds of the Senate does not agree with the treaty, it is not approved, and there is nothing the President can do about it.

paragraphs: The Constitution does not say how the United States can "end" a treaty. Since the Constitution has passed, the government has done this in a few ways. In 1798, the first time the government wanted to end a treaty (the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France), Congress passed a law ending the treaty. Other times, in the 1800s, a few Presidents ended treaties after Congress asked them to. The first time a President ended a treaty without Congress's approval was in the 1970s, when President Jimmy Carter ended a treaty with the Republic of China. In a lawsuit called "Goldwater v. Carter", members of Congress asked the Supreme Court to clarify whether a President could end a treaty on his own. The Supreme Court could not agree on a decision, and the case was dismissed (ended without a decision).

paragraphs: The President may also choose judges, ambassadors, consuls (diplomats), ministers, and other officers; but again, he needs the advice and consent of the Senate.

paragraphs: If Congress chooses, it can let the President, heads of executive departments, or the courts appoint less important officials on their own, without needing Congress's approval.

paragraphs: Once the Senate gives advice and consent to the President (approves the President's choice for a job), and that person is given the job, the Senate cannot go back and change its mind. It cannot take away its advice and consent once the person gets the job.

paragraphs: However, after the Senate grants advice and consent, the President "can" change his mind, and decide not to give the job to the person he nominated.

paragraphs: It is not clear whether the President can fire a person who was hired with the advice and consent of the Senate. Congress has limited this power many times. For example, during the Reconstruction Era, President Andrew Johnson wanted to fire people that Congress had approved. Congress passed a law saying he could not do that, but Jackson ignored the law. Later, Congress impeached him, but the Senate did not convict him.

paragraphs: A Supreme Court case called "Bowsher v. Synar" (1986) decided that Congress can fire a person it approved. Congress can do this by repealing the law that gave the President permission to appoint that person.

paragraphs: Clause 3 has to do with Senate recesses (times when the Senate is not meeting). In the past, fast transportation was not available, and it could take a long time for members of Congress to get to Washington, D.C. Because of this, Congress would usually meet only during planned "sessions," so everyone would have time to get there. After the planned sessions were over, the Senate would go into recess, and all the Senators would go home.

paragraphs: During Senate recesses, the President may appoint officers to stand in for the missing Senators. However, these officers are temporary, and their permission to act as Senators expire (end) when the Senate finishes its next session.

paragraphs: Clause 1 of Section 3 is called the "State of the Union Clause". It says that "from time to time," the President must give Congress information on the "State of the Union." ("State of the Union" basically means "The Situation in the United States.")

paragraphs: Originally, Presidents personally delivered State of the Union Addresses to Congress every year. Thomas Jefferson thought this was too much like a King speaking from a throne. Instead, he would send Congress written messages, and clerks (assistants) would read them. Other Presidents did the same for over 100 years, until President Woodrow Wilson went back to speaking in front of Congress. Every President since Wilson has kept doing that .

paragraphs: The purpose of the State of the Union is to make sure the President shares information with Congress, as well as the entire country. This information helps Congress decide whether anything is happening that they need to pass laws for. It also lets the people in the country know what is happening in their government.

paragraphs: The President has the power to suggest to Congress anything he thinks is "necessary [needed] and expedient [appropriate]". This is called the "Recommendation Clause".

paragraphs: The Recommendation Clause is another part of the checks and balances in the Constitution. The President cannot just do anything he thinks is needed; he has to get Congress's approval. If the President gives recommendations to Congress, Congress can approve them. However, if the President gives no suggestions to Congress, Congress has no power to force him to.

paragraphs: Also, just by asking Congress, the President shows that he respects them as equals, and is not more powerful or important than they are, like a King would be. One scholar explains: "The Recommendation Clause empowers the President to represent the people before Congress, by recommending measures for the reform of government, for the general welfare, or for the redress of grievances [for problems to be fixed]."

paragraphs: Clause 3 gives the President the right to call one or both Houses of Congress "on extraordinary Occasions." This clause is meant to allow the government to act quickly in case a major emergency comes up when Congress is not in session. If the two Houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for when to adjourn a special session, the President may adjourn both Houses whenever he thinks it is appropriate.

paragraphs: Presidents have called extraordinary sessions 27 times in history to deal with crises like wars or emergencies with the economy. The last time this happened was in 1948, when President Harry S Truman called a special session to try to get civil rights, Social Security, and health care laws passed.

paragraphs: After airplane travel became common around the 1950s, Congress began meeting year-round. Since that time, no President has had to call a special session.

paragraphs: The President receives (greets and hosts) all foreign Ambassadors. This clause of the Constitution is called the "Reception Clause".

paragraphs: The President must "take care that the laws be faithfully executed [used and followed]." This clause in the Constitution is sometimes called the "Take Care Clause", the "Faithful Execution Clause," or the "Faithfully Executed Clause".

paragraphs: This clause gives the President power, limits, and a duty, all at the same time:

paragraphs: Supreme Court cases have focused on the duties and limits the Take Care Clause puts on the President. For example:

paragraphs: The President commissions "all the Officers of the United States." (This means he gives these officers the power to do their jobs.) These include officers in both the military and foreign service (people who work for the United States government in other countries, like Ambassadors). However, Article One of the Constitution, Section 8, gives each state the power to appoint officers in their own militias.

paragraphs: The Constitution also allows some government officials to be removed from office (fired). The President, Vice President, Cabinet Secretaries, and other executive officers, as well as judges, may be impeached by the House of Representatives, and then tried in the Senate.

paragraphs: Anyone who is convicted by impeachment is fired immediately. The Senate may also choose to prevent the person from holding any federal office in the future. These are the only punishments that an impeachment proceeding can give. However, the person can still be tried for civil and criminal charges in the courts, and punished if they are found guilty.

paragraphs: Impeachment is a power that only Congress has. In "Nixon v. United States" (1993), the Supreme Court ruled that even they cannot review or change the Senate's decision in an impeachment trial. Its impeachment powers give Congress a way to make sure that no executive officials or judges are getting corrupt.

paragraphs: The Constitution says clearly that officials can be impeached for treason or bribery. But it does not say exactly what "High crimes and Misdemeanors" includes or does not include. "High crimes" is a phrase from old British law that means crimes committed by people with political power. However, in British history, "high crimes and misdemeanors" could include many different things (even losing a ship by not tying it up). After the Constitution was written, Alexander Hamilton explained in "The Federalist Papers" what kind of causes for impeachment the Founders had in mind: "offences which [come] from the abuse or violation of some public trust. [They cause] injuries done immediately to the society itself."

paragraphs: Congress has made the meaning of "high crimes and misdemeanors" clearer by who they have chosen to impeach, and why. Since the Constitution was ratified, the House of Representatives has impeached 18 people - mostly judges, but also two Presidents. All but three of these 18 were impeached for crimes other than treason or bribery. For example:


title: Dissenting opinion

paragraphs: A dissenting opinion (or dissent) is an opinion in a legal case. It is written by one or more judges expressing disagreement with the majority opinion of the court. In some cases, they simply declare a disagreement with the majority opinion. In other cases they may be used to instruct, prod, or otherwise try to convince other justices of the point of view expressed by the minority.

paragraphs: When not necessarily referring to a legal decision, this can also be referred to as a minority report.

paragraphs: Dissenting opinions are normally written at the same time as the majority opinion and any concurring opinions. They are also delivered and published at the same time. A dissenting opinion does not create binding precedent nor does it become a part of case law. However, they can sometimes be cited as a form of persuasive authority in subsequent cases when arguing that the court's holding should be limited or overturned. In some cases, a previous dissent is used to spur a change in the law. A later case may result in a majority opinion adopting a particular rule of law formerly advocated in dissent. As with concurring opinions, the difference in opinion between dissents and majority opinions can often highlight the precise holding of the majority opinion. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes stated in 1936: "A dissent in a Court of last resort is an appeal".

paragraphs: The dissent may disagree with the majority for any number of reasons: a different interpretation of the existing case law, the application of different principles, or a different interpretation of the facts.


title: Legal opinion

paragraphs: In law, a legal opinion is usually a written explanation by a judge or group of judges that accompanies an order or ruling in a case. Legal opinions may also be written by legal experts. A legal opinion is used to lay out the rationale (reasons for) and legal principles for the ruling.

paragraphs: Opinions are usually published at the direction of the court. They may be used to reinforce, explain, change, establish, or overturn legal precedent. If a court decides that an opinion should be published, the opinion is included in a volume from a series of books called law reports or case reports. Published opinions of courts are also collectively referred to as case law, which is one of the major sources of law in common law legal systems.


title: Judicial opinion

paragraphs: A judicial opinion is a form of legal opinion written by a judge or a panel of judges explaining how they resolved a legal dispute. It cites the decision reached to resolve the dispute. A judicial opinion usually includes the reasons behind the decision. Where there are three or more judges, it may take the form of a majority opinion, minority opinion or a concurring opinion.


title: Concurring opinion

paragraphs: In law, a concurring opinion is a written opinion by one or more judges of a court which agrees with the decision made by the majority of the court, but states different (or additional) reasons for the decision. It may also be used to add comments. When no absolute majority of the court can agree on the basis for deciding the case, the decision of the court may be contained in a number of concurring opinions. The concurring opinion joined by the greatest number of judges is called the plurality opinion.

paragraphs: Having failed to receive a majority of the court's votes, concurring opinions are not binding precedent (common law) and cannot be cited as such. But concurring opinions can sometimes be cited as a form of persuasive precedent (assuming there is no binding precedent already in effect). The conflict in views between a majority opinion and a concurring opinion can assist a lawyer in understanding the points of law in the majority opinion. Occasionally, a judge will use a concurring opinion to signal that he or she is open to certain types of "test cases" that would allow the development of a new legal rule. In turn, such a concurring opinion may become more famous than the majority opinion in the same case. A well-known example of this phenomenon is "Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co." (1944).

paragraphs: In some courts, such as the Supreme Court of the United States, the majority opinion may be broken down into numbered or lettered parts. Concurring justices may state that they join some parts of the majority opinion, but not others, for the reasons given in their concurring opinion. In other courts, such as the Supreme Court of California, the same justice may write a majority opinion "and" a separate concurring opinion to express additional reasons in support of the judgment


title: Seriatim

paragraphs: In law, seriatim (Latin for "in series") indicates that a court is addressing multiple issues in a certain order, such as the order that the issues were originally presented to the court.

paragraphs: A seriatim opinion describes an opinion delivered by a court with multiple judges, in which each judge reads his or her own opinion rather than a single judge writing an opinion on behalf of the entire court. This is a practice generally used when a legal case does not have a majority opinion.

paragraphs: Use of the word, and other Latin phrases, has become less frequent in legal communications as a result of, among other factors, efforts by groups such as the Plain Language Movement to promote the use of "plain English" in legal discourse.

paragraphs: In modern use pleadings is used for "one by one in sequence". For example, in English civil cases, defence statements generally used to conclude with the phrase "save as expressly admitted herein, each allegation of the plaintiffs is denied as if set out in full and traversed herein "seriatim"." This formulation is now discouraged under the English Civil Procedure Rules, especially rule 16.5 (3)-(5).

paragraphs: It is sometimes seen in older deeds and contracts as a more traditional way of using terms of reference. For example "the railway by-laws shall apply to the contract as if set out herein "seriatim"." It is sometimes found as part of the longer phrase "brevatim et seriatim", meaning "briefly and in series".

paragraphs: The term is also used when replying to a communication that contains a number of points, issues or questions to show that the responses are in the same order in which they were raised in the original document: "To deal with your queries seriatim..."

paragraphs: During the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Marshall, 1801 to 1835, the practice of judicial opinions being delivered in seriatim was discontinued.

paragraphs: In 2009, Title III, Rule 15(a)(1) of the U.S. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure regarding Amended and Supplemental Pleadings (part of pretrial procedure) was amended to allow three changes in the time previously allowed to make one change.

paragraphs: This provision will force the pleader to consider carefully and promptly the wisdom of amending to meet the arguments in the motion... and will expedite determination of issues that otherwise might be raised "seriatim".

paragraphs: The right to make changes now ends 21 days after service of a motion.


title: Memorandum opinion

paragraphs: In law, a memorandum opinion is usually an unpublished legal opinion that cannot be cited as precedent. It is formally defined as: "[1] unanimous appellate opinion that succinctly states the decision of the court; an opinion that briefly reports the court's conclusion, usu. without elaboration because the decision follows a well-established legal principle or does not relate to any point of law." There is no elaboration or explanation because the decision either follows a well-known legal principle or it does not relate to a point of law. A memorandum opinion is also not subject to appeal.

paragraphs: Generally, memorandum opinions follow ordinary rules, including the application of precedent and the rule of "stare decisis".


title: Per curiam decision

paragraphs: In law, a "per curiam" decision (or opinion) is a ruling issued by an appellate court in which the decision rendered is made by the court (or at least, a majority of the court) acting collectively and unanimously. In contrast to regular opinions, a "per curiam" does not list the individual judge responsible for authoring the decision, but minority dissenting and concurring decisions are signed.

paragraphs: "Per curiams" are not the only type of decision that can reflect the opinion of the court. Other types of decisions can also reflect the opinion of the entire court, such as unanimous decisions, in which the opinion of the court is expressed with an author listed. The Latin term "per curiam" literally means "by the court".

paragraphs: The decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court are usually not "per curiam". Their decisions more commonly take the form of one or more opinions signed by individual justices which are then joined in by other justices. Unanimous and signed opinions are not considered "per curiam" decisions, as only the court can officially designate opinions as "per curiam". "Per curiam" decisions tend to be brief in length. The designation is stated at the beginning of the opinion.

paragraphs: The notable exception to the usual characteristics for a "per curiam" decision is the case of "Bush v. Gore". Although it was per curiam, there were multiple concurrences and dissents.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court of California occasionally releases decisions in the name of "The Court". But these are not necessarily unanimous. Sometimes an opinion in the name of the Court may be accompanied by extensive concurring and dissenting opinions.

paragraphs: The Supreme Court of Canada also attributes some decisions to "The Court" but does not use the phrase "per curiam". In the U.S. the term is used primarily for uncontroversial cases. In Canada, however, it has been used for important and controversial cases to emphasize that the entire Court is speaking with a single voice.


title: Anita Brookner

paragraphs: Anita Brookner, CBE (16 July 1928 – 10 March 2016) was a British award-winning novelist and art historian. She was Slade Professor of Fine Art at the University of Cambridge from 1967 to 1968. She was the first woman to hold this visiting professorship. She was awarded the 1984 Man Booker Prize for her novel "Hotel du Lac".


title: John W. Cahn

paragraphs: John Werner Cahn (January 9, 1928 – March 14, 2016) was an American scientist and recipient of the 1998 National Medal of Science.

paragraphs: He was a professor in the department of Materials Science at MIT from 1964 to 1978. Since 1977, he has held a position at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (formerly the National Bureau of Standards, NBS).Cahn has applied the basic laws of thermodynamics to describe and predict a wide range of physical phenomena.


title: Tamara Grigsby

paragraphs: Tamara D. Grigsby (November 19, 1974 – March 15, 2016) was an American social worker. She was a university professor from Wisconsin. She served as a Democratic Party member of the Wisconsin State Assembly, representing the 18th Assembly District, from 2005 until 2013.

paragraphs: Grigby's staff announced on December 22, 2011 that she was hospitalized in intensive care, battling cancer. In April 2012, Grigsby announced she would be retiring from the Assembly to recover her strength.

paragraphs: Her death was announced on March 15, 2016.


title: Earline W. Parmon

paragraphs: Earline W. Parmon (Nonember 18, 1943 – March 15, 2016) was an American Democratic member of the North Carolina General Assembly. She represented the state's seventy-second House district

paragraphs: Parmon has served five terms in the state House. She announced in 2012 that she would run for a seat in the North Carolina Senate. Parmon served in the North Carolina State Senate and resigned in 2015. Parmon also served as Forsyth County, North Carolina commissioner.

paragraphs: Parmon died on March 15, 2016 from a short-illness in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. She was aged 72.


title: Asa Briggs

paragraphs: Asa Briggs, Baron Briggs (7 May 1921 – 15 March 2016) was an English historian. He was a leading specialist on the Victorian era. He was a well-known historian of broadcasting in Britain. He was made a life peer in 1976. Briggs was born in Keighley, West Riding of Yorkshire.

paragraphs: Briggs died in Lewes, East Sussex on 15 March 2016. He was aged 94.


title: Pharisees

paragraphs: Pharisees were Jewish leaders who composed and enforced religious law at a certain period in Jewish history. At times, the Pharisees were a political party, a social movement, and a school of thought. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD, Pharisaic beliefs became the foundation for Rabbinic Judaism. The term 'Judaism' today almost always refers to Rabbinic Judaism.

paragraphs: Paul of Tarsus, disciple of Jesus, was a Pharisee prior to his religious conversion to Christianity.


title: Seru Rabeni

paragraphs: Ratu Seru Raveive Rabeni (27 December 1978 – 15 March 2016) was a Fijian rugby union player. He played as a centre or wing. He played for the Fiji national rugby union team from 2000 through 2011. Rabeni was known in both club and international level for his physicality and bone crunching tackles, earning him the nickname "Rambo".

paragraphs: Rabeni died in Fiji from a heart attack on 15 March 2016, aged 37.


title: Results of the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries

paragraphs: This article will show the current results of the Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2016. The Democratic Party presidential primary is a process of choosing delegates, or people that represent someone, to go to the 2016 Democratic National Convention. People in each state will vote on who they think will be good for the presidency, and each candidate gets a certain amount of delegates based on the number of votes they receive.

paragraphs: The primaries began on 1 February 2016 in Iowa. The remaining candidates are former first lady and secretary of state and senator Hillary Clinton and senator Bernie Sanders.

paragraphs: On June 6, 2016, the Associated Press reported that senator Hillary Clinton has gotten enough delegates to become the presumptive Democratic nominee. However, their count includes some superdelegates. Since superdelegates can vote however they want at the Democratic convention, their votes could change at any time before then, so it is possible (but only remotely possible) that Clinton will not get the nomination. Bernie Sanders endorsed Clinton on 12 July 2016.


title: Armenian calendar

paragraphs: The Armenian calendar was the main calendar used in Armenia during the medieval period. The year in this calendar is exactly 365 days long, divided into twelve months of thirty days each, plus five extra days that are called ""aveleacʿ"" in the Armenian language, which are not a part of any month. The first year in the Armenian calendar is equal to the year 552 AD in the Gregorian calendar. This calendar was mainly used in the medieval era, but is also used in modern times by some Armenian nationalists.

paragraphs: This calendar has no leap days. For that reason, it shifts backwards against the Gregorian calendar over a period of 1,461 years.

paragraphs: The twelve months in the calendar have differen names to the months usually used in English.


title: Kim Philby

paragraphs: Harold Adrian Russell "Kim" Philby (1 January 1912 – 11 May 1988) was a British intelligence officer who worked as a spy for the Soviet Union, before defecting in 1963. Of the five spies in the Cambridge Five spy ring, Philby was believed to have been the most successful at passing information to the Soviet Union.


title: Sylvia Anderson

paragraphs: Sylvia Anderson (27 March 1927 – 16 March 2016) was an English producer and actress. She was born in London, England. She was known for voicing Lady Penelope in "Thunderbirds".

paragraphs: She was married to producer Gerry Anderson from 1960 until they divorced in 1981. They had a daughter and son.

paragraphs: On March 16, 2016, Anderson died of a short illness in her home in Bray, Berkshire at age 88.


title: Hua Mulan

paragraphs: Hua Mulan () is a legendary warrior from China. The stories about her are set during various times in China's history. She was first written about in a ballad called the "Ballad of Mulan" (). In the ballad, Hua Mulan takes her father's place in the army. She practiced martial arts such as kung fu, and was skilled with a sword. She fought for twelve years and became famous, but she refused any reward.

paragraphs: Hua Mulan is a real person and did save China.


title: Yassmin Abdel-Magied

paragraphs: Yassmin Abdel-Magied is a writer, social advocate, and an engineer. She helps women, youth, and ethnic minorities develop their communities. At 16 years old, Abdel-Magied created "Youth Without Borders", an organization that provides programs, opportunities, and support for youth to create positive changes in their communities.

paragraphs: Abdel-Magied was born on March 3, 1991 in Sudan and moved to Australia with her parents just before she turned two years old

paragraphs: She received the Dean’s Excellence Scholarship from the University of Queensland. In 2011, she graduated from the University of Queensland with a Bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering

paragraphs: In 2012, Abdel-Magied started working on oil and gas rigs as a field engineer (Measurement and specialist). In 2014, she moved to Perth, Australia to work as a drilling engineer on offshore rigs.

paragraphs: Abdel-Magied has served on multiple boards and councils, including the boards of the Queensland Museum, the Australian Multicultural Council, the Queensland Design Council, United Nations Youth Australia and others. She currently sits on the board of ChildFund Australia, the Council of Australian-Arab Relations and OurWatch.

paragraphs: In December 2014, Abdel-Magied presented her first TED Talk about implicit bias. She published her first book, "Yassmin’s Story" , in 2016 with Random House.

paragraphs: In 2007, Abdel-Magied received the Young Australian Muslim of the Year award. In 2010 she received the Young Queenslander of the Year award, in 2011 she was a finalist for the Queensland Young Australian of the Year Award. She was the winner of the Youth Leader category in the 2012 Australian Financial Review and Westpac 100 Women of Influence Awards and the youngest woman on the list. In 2015, Abdel-Magied was one of the finalists in Young Australian of the Year, being named Queensland Young Australian of the Year.

paragraphs: Abdel-Magied founded Youth Without Borders in 2007 and has been the chair of the organization since its establishment. The organization provides programs, opportunities, and support for youth to create positive changes in their communities. One of the projects is a library for children and youth on a motorcycle. This motorcycle travels to villages that do not have access to libraries in Indonesia.


title: San Sebastián Street Festival

paragraphs: San Sebastián Street Festival, also known as “San Se”, is a very popular Puerto Rican festivity that takes place in the Old San Juan. It is a four-day event that starts the third Thursday of January through Sunday. This festive is in honor of Saint Sebastian. January 20th is the day that Catholic Church celebrates the life of this Saint. More than 200,000 people participate in this festival, making this activity be recognized internationally. Also, some Puerto Ricans have started this festive in the United States. Also they celebrate the Rivera Family, next year Paris Rivera will be the starter of the festival.

paragraphs: Father Juan Manuel Madrazo, the priest of the San José Church in the 1950’s, was the first person who organized the festival. The purpose of this festival was to commemorate the life of this Saint and raise money to repair the church. When the father was moved out of San Juan, this festival came to an end. It was not until 1970 when a historian and anthropologist named Ricardo Alegría proposed to Rafaela Balladares de Brito, a resident of San Sebastian street, to revive this tradition. Balladares de Brito with the help of her neighbors began to reorganize the festival and recollect money for an elementary school directed by Sisters of Charity.

paragraphs: During the past celebrations, a group of musicians in the early morning of the first days walked and announced the festivity though the street. People in costumes of Spanish Kings, Queen Isabel and King Fernando, wear huge mask over their heads and were called “Cabezudos”, also participated in the parade. During the procession, people carried the Saint’s Image from San Sebastian Street and ended at the San José Church. In addition, the neighbors decorated their home’s balcony and the streets. They also prepared typical food, wore dresses and participated as host of the music shows.

paragraphs: In the present, the addition of artisans has acquired more importance, as well as music and dance in the nights. Also, artists perform at different stages localized around the Old San Juan. “Cabezudos” now include characters representing the Puerto Rican folklore that pass through the streets dancing and singing followed by the public. Now, the parade is longer than the past ones and the municipality of San Juan is responsible in organizing the entire festival. Festivities vary year by year, but mainly include the ones mentioned above.

paragraphs: In the recent years, several of San Sebastian Festivals have been celebrated in different areas of Florida and in DFW, Texas. This has been a result of many Puerto Ricans moving to the United States and wanting to maintain a connection with their typical island traditions. The festivals programed in Florida and Dallas, Texas have a duration of one to two days compared to the one celebrated in Puerto Rico which last four days. These festivals also have Puerto Rican food and rums, “Cabezudos”, artisan market, and music.

paragraphs: In DFW, Texas since January 2018, a group of Puerto Ricans - Traigo esta Trulla, start to organize the first Fiestas de la San Se- DFW with more than 6,000 participants.


title: Least developed country

paragraphs: A least developed country (LDC) is a country that the United Nations considers to be the least developed out of all the countries in the world. They normally have the lowest ratings on the Human Development Index. The idea to name LDCs started in the late 1960s. The first group of LDCs was listed by the UN in November 1971.

paragraphs: Indicators are used to determine whether a country is a least devleoped country.

paragraphs: To be considered a least developed country, a country must have high levels of poverty, low human resources and a vulnerable economy. The UN looks at indicators, such as gross national income, nutrition, health, education and literacy. Economic vulnerability is recorded on the Economic Vulnerability Index.

paragraphs: LDC criteria are reviewed every three years. Countries may stop being considered an LDC when indicators show that they have become developed enough. Since the LDC category was created, four countries have graduated to "developing country" status. The first country to do this was Botswana in 1994. The second was Cape Verde, in 2007. Then Maldives in 2011, and Samoa in 2014. It is expected that Equatorial Guinea and Vanuatu will be the next countries to be promoted from LDC status.

paragraphs: , there are 48 least developed countries. There are also three countries which meet the criteria for LDC status, but have asked to not be included in the index: Ghana, Papua New Guinea and Zimbabwe.

paragraphs: The "least developed countries" according to the United Nations:


title: Constitutional Convention (United States)

paragraphs: The Constitutional Convention (also known as the Philadelphia Convention) was held from May 25 to September 17, 1787 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, it became clear from the beginning that many members, including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, intended to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the creation of the United States Constitution. This makes the meeting one of the most significant events in the history of the United States.

paragraphs: Most of the disputes were about the makeup and election of the Senate. Other disagreements concerned how "proportional representation" was to be defined (whether to include slaves or other property). They needed to decide whether to divide the executive power between three persons or invest the power into a single president. They also had to work out how to elect the president, how long his term was to be and whether he could stand for reelection. There were issues over what offenses should be impeachable. Most of the time during the Convention was spent on deciding these issues, while the powers of legislature, executive, and judiciary were not heavily disputed. Once the Convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the Convention, then they agreed on Madison's Virginia Plan and began to modify it. A Committee of Detail assembled during the July 4 recess and produced a rough draft. Most of this rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution. After the final issues were resolved, the Committee on Style produced the final version, and it was voted on and sent to the states.

paragraphs: James Madison had spent the winter of 1787 making a study of various confederations throughout history. He came to Philadelphia armed with a wealth of knowledge and an idea for what the United States government should be. His plan was presented to the Convention by Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia. It became the broad outline of what would be a new government under the U.S. Constitution. His plan called for three branches of government with checks and balances to prevent any one branch from abusing their power. Madison's idea for a legislature had two houses. One would feature members elected by the people for a three-year term. The other would have its members elected by the state legislatures and would serve for 7 years. Both would have the seats determined by the population of the country.

paragraphs: After debating the Virginia plan for two weeks, William Patterson presented his plan called variously, the New Jersey Plan, the Patterson Plan and the Small State Plan. It was very similar to the Articles of Confederation and featured a unicameral (one house) legislature. All states would have one vote. He had one idea that was kept; that state laws that ran counter to federal laws would be voided.

paragraphs: A third plan was offered by Alexander Hamilton. It was a copy of the British Constitution. It also was bicameral with an upper house and a legislature in which members served on their good behavior.

paragraphs: Finally they worked out a compromise between all three plans. The new government would have an upper house, having an equal number of delegates from each state, and a lower house with representation based on population. The executive branch would have most of the responsibilities of foreign affairs while other important powers, like ratifying treaties, would be the responsibility of the legislative branch. After the new Constitution was ratified by the states, it went into effect in 1789.


paragraphs: Article Four of the United States Constitution outlines the relationship between the various states, as well as the connection between the states and the federal government.

paragraphs: The first section requires states to recognize the "full faith and credit" of the public acts, records and court proceedings of other states.

paragraphs: This clause makes certain that any judicial decisions made in courts of one state are recognized and honored in all other states. This eliminates the practice of "forum shopping", the practice of having a legal case heard in the court thought most likely to provide a favorable judgment. It also prevents someone moving from one state to another to escape a judgment.

paragraphs: In "Mills v. Duryee" (1813), the United States Supreme Court ruled that the merits of a case, as settled by courts of one state, must be recognized by the courts of other states. state courts may not reopen cases which have been conclusively decided by the courts of another state. Later, Chief Justice John Marshall suggested that the judgment of one state court must be recognized by other states' courts as final. However, in "McElmoyle v. Cohen" (1839), the court heard a case where one party obtained a judgment in South Carolina and sought to enforce it in Georgia, which had a statute of limitations that barred actions on judgments after a certain amount of time had passed. The court upheld Georgia's refusal to enforce the South Carolina judgment. The court found that out-of-state judgments are subject to the procedural law of the states where they are enforced, notwithstanding any priority it may be given in the state in which they it was issued.

paragraphs: Clause One of Section 2 requires interstate protection of "privileges and immunities". The apparent ambiguity of the clause has given rise to a number of different interpretations. Some contend that the clause requires Congress to treat all citizens equally. Others suggest that citizens of states carry the rights accorded by their home states while traveling in other states.

paragraphs: Neither of these theories has been endorsed by the Supreme Court. A state may not discriminate against citizens of other states in favor of its own citizens. But certain exceptions are allowed. For example a state may give their own citizens the right to buy a hunting or fishing license at a lower cost than to nonresidents.

paragraphs: Clause Two requires that fugitives from justice may be extradited on the demand of executive authority of the state from which they flee. The Supreme Court has held that it is not compulsory for the fugitive to have fled after an indictment was issued, but only that the fugitive fled after having committed the crime. The Constitution provides for the extradition of fugitives who have committed treason, felony or other crime. That phrase incorporates all acts prohibited by the laws of a state, including misdemeanors and small, or petty, offenses.

paragraphs: In "Kentucky v. Dennison" (1860), the Supreme Court held that the federal courts may not compel state governors to surrender fugitives through the issue of writs of mandamus. The "Dennison" decision was overruled by "Puerto Rico v. Branstad" (1987). Now, the federal courts may require the extradition of fugitives. Alleged fugitives generally may not challenge extradition proceedings.

paragraphs: Pierce Butler and Charles Pinckney, both from South Carolina, submitted this clause to the Constitutional Convention. James Wilson and Roger Sherman both objected and Butler withdrew the clause. However, on the next day the clause was reinstated and adopted by the Convention without objection. At the last moment the language was changed from "Person legally held to Service or Labour in one state" to read "Person held to Service or Labour in one state, under the Laws thereof".

paragraphs: In 1865, the Fugitive Slave Clause was repealed by the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery.

paragraphs: The First Clause of Section Three grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This latter provision was designed to gave Eastern states that still had claims to Western lands (e.g., Virginia and North Carolina) to have a veto over whether their western counties (which eventually became Kentucky and Tennessee) could become states. It would later be applied with regard to the formation of Maine (from Massachusetts) and West Virginia (from Virginia).

paragraphs: This clause, commonly known as the "Property" or "Territorial" Clause, grants Congress the constitutional authority for the management and control of all territories or other property owned by United States. Additionally, the clause also proclaims that nothing contained within the Constitution may be interpreted to harm (prejudice) any claim of the United States, or of any particular State. The exact scope of this clause has long been a matter of debate.

paragraphs: The federal government owns or controls about thirty percent of the land in the United States. These holdings include national parks, national forests, recreation areas, wildlife refuges, vast tracts of range and public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management, reservations held in trust for Native American tribes, military bases, and ordinary federal buildings and installations. Although federal property can be found in every state, the largest concentrations are in the west, where, for example, the federal government owns over eighty percent of the land within Nevada.

paragraphs: This clause, sometimes referred to as the Guarantee Clause, has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens compared to those of the government. The Guarantee Clause mandates that all U.S. states must be grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed. By ensuring that all states must have the same type of government (a republic), the Guarantee Clause is one of several portions of the Constitution which mandates symmetric federalism between the states.

paragraphs: Section Four requires the United States to protect each state from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot, but was not invoked.


title: Norma Cruz

paragraphs: Norma Angélica Cruz Córdoba (Norma Cruz) is a Guatemalan human rights activist who works to stop violence against women. Cruz is the head of the "Fundación Sobrevivientes" (Survivors' Foundation), a women's rights organization in Guatemala City. In 2009, the US Department of State gave Cruz an International Women of Courage Award.

paragraphs: Norma Cruz was born in Guatemala City in 1962. Her father was a shoemaker and her mother was a cook. As a teenager, Cruz was a student leader and a missionary. When she was 15 years old, Cruz joined a convent. Two years later, she left the convent, because she wanted a more political life.

paragraphs: Cruz started the organization "Fundación Sobrevivientes" on July 3, 1996. It started as a women's support center. Now it has a shelter for up to 20 women, teenagers, and children. In 2009, 110 people stayed at the shelter. The organization also gives legal help to women who want to take legal action in the courts.

paragraphs: Fundación Sobrevivientes (Survivors' Foundation)


title: Caroline Herschel

paragraphs: Caroline Herschel (16 March 1750 – 9 January 1848) was a German astronomer who spent most of her life in England. She was the first female astronomer that we know of.

paragraphs: She was the first woman to receive a salary as a scientist. She was the first woman in England to hold a government position. She was the first woman to be awarded a Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1828), and to be named an Honorary Member of the Royal Astronomical Society (1835, with Mary Somerville). She was also named an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy (1838). The King of Prussia presented her with a Gold Medal for Science on the occasion of her 96th birthday (1846).

paragraphs: Caroline was born on March 16, 1750 in Hanover, Germany. She was encouraged by her father to get an education. She learnt geometry on her own. She had a hard life because people that she loved died. After her father's death, her brother William Herschel suggested she join him in England. She left Hanover for England on August 16, 1772, with her brother.

paragraphs: In England, Caroline's neighbour taught how to cook, market, and to speak English. This expanded her horizons. William encouraged her to be independent. She signed up to learn how to sing and to play the harpsichord. This led her to being a part of William’s musical shows in small gatherings. Herschel and William discussed astronomy in their free time. This caused her interest to grow. Caroline began including English society in her everyday life. She eventually decided to devote her time to astronomy. This helped William: he needed Caroline’s talents in copying papers.

paragraphs: When they were in England, Caroline helped her brother in his scientific work. She helped him to discover Uranus with a six-foot telescope. William was credited with the discovery of Uranus. He was knighted because of his discovery, and she was his assistant. She recorded and completed tasks for him. Her calculations and record keeping were always accurate. They saved her brother a lot of time. Caroline often worked on discoveries of her own. She independently discovered the second companion of the Andromeda Galaxy (Messier 110; NGC 205) and another, new, nebula. She also discovered eight comets in 17861795.

paragraphs: She reworked Flamsteed's "Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars". The result was published by the Royal Society in 1798 and contained an index of every observation of every star made by Flamsteed, a list of errata, and a list of more than 560 stars that had not been included. In 1825, Caroline donated the works of Flamsteed to the Royal Academy of Göttingen.

paragraphs: She was the first woman to discover a comet. She discovered seven more comets between 1789 and 1797. The comet 35P/Herschel-Rigollet is named in her honor, as well as the lunar crater C. Herschel, and the planetoid (281) Lucretia. She also is famous for her work with her brother. She aided him in his studies. She reorganized John Flamsteed's "British Catalogue", which listed nearly 3,000 stars.

paragraphs: Herschel's brother died in 1822 and left her without his financial support. She returned to Hanover after his death and received her stipend from the British Royal Family. She also helped her brother's son finish his father's work.

paragraphs: Caroline Herschel was awarded a gold medal for her works in science from the Royal Astronomical Society in 1828. She was made an honorary member at the Royal Astronomical Society ten years later. Herschel also received a similar award from the Royal Irish Academy. She was awarded the gold medal for science by the King of Prussia on her ninety-sixth birthday.

paragraphs: Toward the end of Caroline's life, she arranged two-and-a-half thousand nebulae and star clusters into zones of similar polar distances. Her nephew, John Herschel, re-examined them systematically. The list was eventually enlarged and renamed the New General Catalogue. Many non-stellar objects are still identified by their NGC number.

paragraphs: Herschel died on January 9, 1848 in Germany. She died at the age of 97. Herschel was never married.

paragraphs: An asteroid was discovered in 1888. It was called Lucretia, Herschel's middle name. Herschel continued to have a legacy after her death because she discovered several comets.


title: Frank Sinatra Jr.

paragraphs: Francis Wayne Sinatra (January 10, 1944 – March 16, 2016), professionally known as Frank Sinatra, Jr., was an American singer, songwriter, conductor and actor. He was born in Jersey City, New Jersey. He was the son of Frank Sinatra. He was known for his song "That Face!" and for appearing on some shows with Dean Martin. In later years, he was in some episodes of "Family Guy".

paragraphs: He had an older sister, Nancy Sinatra and a younger sister, Tina Sinatra.

paragraphs: Sinatra was kidnapped, at the age of 19, on December 8, 1963 at Harrah's Lake Tahoe (room 417). Sinatra was released two days later after his father paid the $240,000 ransom demanded by the kidnappers.

paragraphs: Sinatra died suddenly of cardiac arrest in Daytona Beach, Florida on March 16, 2016. He was aged 72.


title: Marion Patrick Jones

paragraphs: Marion Patrick Jones (16 August 1930 – 2 March 2016) was a Trinidadian novelist. She wrote about library science and social anthropology. She was also known by the names Marion Glean and Marion O'Callaghan (her married name). She was the author of two notable novels: "Pan Beat", first published in 1973, and "J’Ouvert Morning" (1976). She was born in Port of Spain.

paragraphs: Jones died at her home in Port-of-Spain of heart failure on 2 March 2016 at the age of 85.


title: Ralph C. Johnson

paragraphs: Ralph C. Johnson (1953 or 1954 – March 15, 2016) was an American politician and businessman. He was born in Greensboro, North Carolina. Johnson served as a Democratic member of the North Carolina House of Representatives from 2015 until his death in 2016. He represented the 58th district.

paragraphs: Johnson died in a hospital in Greensboro, North Carolina after suffering a stroke. He was aged 62.


title: Alexander Esenin-Volpin

paragraphs: Alexander Sergeyevich Esenin-Volpin (also written Ésénine-Volpine and Yessenin-Volpin in his French and English publications; ; May 12, 1924 March 16, 2016) was a Soviet-born American poet and mathematician. He was a known dissident, political prisoner and a leader of the Soviet human rights movement. He spent a total of fourteen years incarcerated and repressed by the Soviet authorities in prisons, psikhushkas and exile. He worked at Boston University.

paragraphs: In 1973 he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto. In 2005, Esenin-Volpin participated in "They Chose Freedom", a four-part television documentary on the history of the Soviet dissident movement.


title: James Darren

paragraphs: James William Ercolani (born June 8, 1936), known by his stage name James Darren, is an American television and movie actor, television director, and singer. He was known for his roles as Moondoggie in "Gidget", Tony Newman in "The Time Tunnel", and as Vic Fontaine in "".

paragraphs: Darren was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.


title: Lexa

paragraphs: Léa Cristina Lexa Araújo, better known by the stage name "Lexa", is a singer, composer and Brazilian dancer. Her first single, the "Posso Ser" song, was released in December 2014 and became one of the most played tracks on Brazilian radio in 2015. This song is part of the EP of the same title released by Lexa in March 2015 and disclosed as a preview of her first studio album. In September 2015, the singer released her debut album, titled Disponível.

paragraphs: Lexa was discovered by Batutinha music producer, who, after watching it on YouTube, introduced her to entrepreneur Kamilla Fialho, who hired through K2L Entertainment Artistic agency. Thus, in December 2014 is released the first single from Lexa, the "Posso Ser" song, which reached the Top 30 on parade Hot 100 Airplay, Billboard Brazil, and became the 93rd most played song in the Brazilian radio stations in 2015.


title: Merrick Garland

paragraphs: Merrick Brian Garland (born November 13, 1952) is an American federal judge. He is the chief judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. He has served on that court since 1997.

paragraphs: Garland was born in Chicago, Illinois. He graduated from Harvard College and from Harvard Law School.

paragraphs: Garland practiced corporate litigation at Arnold & Porter and worked as a federal prosecutor in the U.S. Department of Justice, where he played a leading role in the investigation and prosecution of the Oklahoma City bombers.

paragraphs: In 1995, Garland was appointed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and (following a delay in Senate confirmation) took the bench in 1997. In 2009 and 2010, Garland was considered by President Barack Obama for two openings on the Supreme Court.

paragraphs: On March 16, 2016, Obama nominated Garland to serve as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, to fill the vacancy created by the death of Antonin Scalia.

paragraphs: Garland has more federal judicial experience than any Supreme Court nominee in history. He is the oldest Supreme Court nominee since Lewis F. Powell, Jr. in 1971.

paragraphs: After Republicans refused to give Garland a confirmation hearing, Garland's nomination was expired in January 2017 shortly before the inauguration of Donald Trump. Trump said he will announce his Justice nominee for the Supreme Court on January 31, 2017.

paragraphs: Garland married Lynn in 1977. He lives in Bethesda, Maryland.


paragraphs: Article Three of the United States Constitution creates the judicial branch of the United States government. It creates the Supreme Court of the United States, and allows the United States Congress to create less powerful federal courts. It also sets out the powers that these courts have.

paragraphs: Section 1 of Article Three starts out by creating the Supreme Court one court that will be more powerful than any other court in the country. It also gives Congress the power to create "inferior" (less powerful) federal courts.

paragraphs: It allows judges in these courts to get a regular salary for their work. Section 1 protects the judges by saying that their salaries will not be decreased while they are in office (working as a federal judge).

paragraphs: Section 1 says that judges "shall hold their Offices [keep their jobs] during good Behavior." This is meant to protect federal judges, and also to make sure that the federal judiciary is independent.

paragraphs: Before it won its independence in the American Revolutionary War, America was a colony of the British Empire. The Founding Fathers wrote the Constitution just four years after the War ended. They still remembered what the courts in the American colonies were like. As Thomas Jefferson wrote in the Declaration of Independence, Britain's King George III "made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries."

paragraphs: This meant that the judges could not be independent or impartial. If they made a decision that King George did not like, they could be fired, or not paid. Judges who wanted to keep their jobs made decisions based on what King George would want, not based on what the law said. If judges are cannot be independent, or do not follow they law, courts are not fair, and there is no way for regular people to get justice.

paragraphs: The Constitution makes sure that this will not happen to United States federal judges. By saying judges "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior," Section 1 is basically allowing judges to keep their jobs for the rest of their lives. In , the Constitution does say that Congress can take away a judge's job but only after being convicted in a trial, and only for "Treason, Bribery, or other High crimes and Misdemeanors." (This is what Section 1 means by behavior that is not "good.") In other words, the Constitution makes sure that all judges will lose their jobs for making even the slightest unpopular decision. This denies judges the freedom to be independent, and to make the decisions that they think are fair, and makes them choose between right and reelection.

paragraphs: Article III clearly allows only one Supreme Court. However, it does not say how many Supreme Court Justices (judges) there should be. Congress solved this problem in 1948 by passing a law. The law says that the Supreme Court will have 9 Justices, including one Chief Justice.

paragraphs: In both Section 1 and in , the Constitution gives Congress the right to create courts that are "inferior" to the Supreme Court. However, the Constitution does not say how many "inferior" courts there should be, or how they should be set up. It leaves those decisions to Congress. Congress decided to create two different kinds of "inferior" courts (also called "lower courts"). In the Judiciary Act of 1789, they created:

paragraphs: Clause 1 of Section 2 explains the powers the federal court has, and the limits of those powers.

paragraphs: Clause 1 gives the federal courts the power to hear and judge actual "cases and controversies" only. For example, they cannot hear a case about a situation that might come up in the future.

paragraphs: When Clause 2 talks about "jurisdiction," it is talking about who has the power to hear a case.

paragraphs: "Original jurisdiction" is the power to hear a case first, before any other court. Clause 2 gives the Supreme Court original jurisdiction in:

paragraphs: In all the other cases mentioned in Clause 2, the Supreme Court has "appellate jurisdiction." That means another court has the power to hear the case first. If somebody appeals that court's decision, the Supreme Court can take the case on appeal. Clause 2 gives the Supreme Court the power to hear appeals on:

paragraphs: However, the Supreme Court can only review a case on appeal if it thinks the lower court's decision breaks a law or goes against the Constitution.

paragraphs: There is one specific power that Clause 2 does not give the federal judiciary. Clause 2 says that the federal judiciary has power over "the laws of the United States." However, it does "not" say that the federal courts have power over the laws of "individual" states. Also, when Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, they also never gave the federal courts this power. This means that the federal courts can only review or change the decisions of state supreme courts if the state decision may have broken a federal law or the Constitution. The federal courts had no power to review or change state supreme court decisions that were just based on state laws. Basically, this gave each state supreme court the final say over the laws in their state. Different states could decide completely different things, so the laws might be completely different in one state than another.

paragraphs: In 1795, the Eleventh Amendment changed part of Clause 2. It took away the federal judiciary's power to get involved in lawsuits between states and citizens of other states or countries.

paragraphs: In "Marbury v. Madison" (1803), the Supreme Court ruled that Congress cannot change the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction. However, the appellate jurisdiction of the Court is different. Congress is able to make the rules for the federal courts' appellate division, including rules about their jurisdictions.

paragraphs: "Marbury v. Madison" also created an important power called judicial review. This is the Supreme Court's ability to review whether a law, treaty, or executive rule breaks a law that already exists, a state Constitution, or the United States Constitution. After "Marbury", the Supreme Court started keeping an eye on what the state and federal governments were doing, instead of just trying cases that people brought to them.

paragraphs: Clause 2 says that the Supreme Court has "judicial power [over] all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution [and] the Laws of the United States..." However, it does not say exactly what this means. The Supreme Court clarified this in a case called "Osborn v. Bank of the United States" (1824). Supreme Court Justice John Marshall wrote an opinion about what a "federal" case is, and what "arising under" the Constitution or federal laws means. Basically, he said a case is federal and under the federal courts' original jurisdiction if:

paragraphs: Clause 3 of Section 2 says that federal crimes have to be tried in front of a jury, unless the defendant does not want a jury. The only type of federal crime that is not tried before a jury is an impeachment. (Article One, Section 3 of the Constitution says that only the United States Senate can try impeachment cases.)

paragraphs: Clause 3 also says the person's trial must be held in the state where they did the crime. If they did not do the crime in any particular state, then Congress gets to choose where the trial will be held.

paragraphs: Several of the Constitutional Amendments in the Bill of Rights talk more about the rights of people who are on trial in criminal or civil court.

paragraphs: The last section of Article 3 talks about treason and how it should be punished. The Founding Fathers wanted to make sure that Americans' rights were protected. They also knew that in the past, in England, some kings had gotten rid of their political opponents just by accusing them of treason. For these reasons, the Founders wanted to make sure the Constitution said specifically what crimes were treason; what would be needed to find people guilty; and what the punishments could be.

paragraphs: The Constitution is very specific about what crimes are treason:

paragraphs: Section 3 also makes it clear that treason must be an "overt act." This means that to commit treason, a person must actually do something, not just plan to do it. For example, if a group of people got together and planned to attack part of the United States, that would not be treason because they had not actually done anything yet to hurt the country. If they did attack the United States, that would be an overt act, and it would be treason.

paragraphs: It also says that there are only two ways for a person to be convicted of treason. Two different witnesses must say in court that they saw the person do that overt act. If there are not two witnesses, then the person must admit in court that they committed treason. If neither of these things happen, the person cannot be found guilty of treason. Parts of this rule came from a British law called the Treason Act 1695.

paragraphs: Finally, Section 3 talks about punishment for people found guilty of treason. It gives Congress the power to decide the punishment. However, there is one punishment that the Constitution does not allow: punishing a person's family and descendants for that person's crime. In English law, if a person was convicted of treason, their punishment would include an "Attainder" (also called a "Corruption of Blood"). This meant that not only the person, but their family and heirs, would be punished and thought of as guilty. Once a person was "attainted," they would be executed. However, their heirs would also lose the right to inherit that person's land, property, or money.

paragraphs: The end of Section 3 specifically says that this punishment is not allowed. When the Founders wrote "no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted," they meant: "No heirs may be punished, and Congress can make the traitor forfeit (give up) their property, but only during their lifetime." Their heirs would have to be able to inherit their property when the traitor died.


title: Ralph Ketner

paragraphs: Ralph W. Ketner (September 20, 1920 – May 29, 2016) was an American businessman and philanthropist. He was known for being the founder of Food Lion (founded as Food Town). He founded the grocery store chain in the 1950s. During his career, Ketner has given away 35% of his profit to charity.

paragraphs: Ketner was born in Rimertown, North Carolina. He grew up during the Great Depression. He studied at Tri-State College in Angola, Indiana. Ketner is married to Anne Blizzard. They have two children. In March 2016, Ketner was hospitalized and diagnosed with colon cancer. He died on May 29, 2016 in Salisbury, North Carolina from the disease at the age of 95.


title: Samuel H. Young

paragraphs: Samuel Hollingsworth Young (December 26, 1922 – September 23, 2017) was an American politician. He was a U.S. Representative from Illinois. He represented Illinois's 10 congressional district as a Republican. He served as a representative from January 3, 1973 through January 3, 1975. He was replaced by Abner J. Mikva.

paragraphs: Young was born in Casey, Illinois. He studied at the University of Illinois. Young died at his home in Glenview, Illinois on September 23, 2017 from complications of Alzheimer's disease at the age of 94.


title: Louise Arner Boyd

paragraphs: Louise Arner Boyd (September 16, 1887 – September 14, 1972) was an American explorer. She explored Greenland and the Arctic. She wrote many articles about her journeys and published two successful books.

paragraphs: Boyd was a photographer on the trip over the Arctic Ocean in 1941. The crew on the trip to the Arctic called her the "Ice Woman".

paragraphs: Boyd was the first person to fly over the North Pole. She did this in 1955.

paragraphs: She was born in San Rafael, California. She died in San Francisco.


title: Ranulph Fiennes

paragraphs: Sir Ranulph Twistleton-Wykeham-Fiennes (born 7 March 1944) is an English explorer.

paragraphs: Fiennes was born in Windsor, Berkshire. He was educated at Eton College.

paragraphs: Fiennes wrote many books. He wrote 'The sett','Mad,bad and dangerous to know' , 'The secret Hunters' and much more.

paragraphs: He led over 30 expeditions. Ranulph did the first unsupported walk across Antarctica. He is the worlds greatest living explorer. Fiennes holds many records for his 52,000-mile expedition. It ended successfully on August 29, 1982. Fiennes is the only man alive ever to have travelled around the Earth's circumpolar.

paragraphs: He became an English explorer after joining the armed forces.

paragraphs: Fiennes was brought up in South Africa and lived in England for the rest of his life. He climbed Mount Everest successfully in 2009.


title: State ratifying conventions

paragraphs: State ratifying conventions are one of the two ways established by Article Five of the United States Constitution for ratifying proposed constitutional amendments. Ratifying conventions have only been used on one occasion. This was in 1933 and was used to ratify the 21st Amendment. All other proposed constitutional amendments have been offered to the state legislatures for ratification.

paragraphs: The Constitution also provides that state ratifying conventions may also be used to propose a constitutional amendment. However, to date, none of the 27 amendments to the Constitution have been proposed by state conventions. A state ratifying convention may be called by a two-thirds vote by a state legislature.


title: Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?

paragraphs: Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? (""; ) is an Indian soap opera. It is shown during the daytime on weekdays, on Star Plus. It originally ran from 6 June 2011 until 30 November 2012. The show is mainly about the romance between Arnav Singh Raizada (Barun Sobti) and Khushi Kumari Gupta (Sanaya Irani).

paragraphs: The series is done in Hindi. The actors' voices have been recorded over (dubbing) in Tamil (as "Idhu Kadhala"), Telugu (as "Chuppulu Kalisina Shubhavela"), Malayalam (as "Mounam Sammadham"), Turkish (as "Bir Garip Ask") and Arabic (as "Men Nazra Thanya").

paragraphs: The show stopped being made in 2012. This was because Sobti, who plays the main character, quit the show. Three years later, in November 2015, a web series of eight episodes was released. It continued the story, and Sobti returned to play Arnav. The web series was successful. Because of its success, the television series was renewed for another 30 episodes. It is to be shown on Star Plus in March 2016.

paragraphs: For his role as Arnav, Sobti won "Favorite TV Drama Actor" at the People's Choice Awards in 2012, and "Best Actor Popular" at the Indian Television Academy Awards in 2012. Sobti and Irani also won the Indian Telly Award for "Best Onscreen Couple" in 2012.

paragraphs: Arnav Singh Raizada (Barun Sobti) is a successful businessman in India. He is the owner of AR Designs. He is popularly known as ASR in the business world. He is ruthless and egoistic though sophisticated in his behaviour. He believes that money is the most important thing in the world. He is an atheist and does not believe in rituals, customs and traditions. He does not believe in marriage and wanted to maintain a living relationship with his ex-girlfriend Lavanya Kashyap. Besides this, he loves his elder sister Anjali (Daljeet Kaur Bhanot) and respects his elders. He suffers from diabetes from an early age. He has hobbies of planting and gardening. However his arrogant and ruthless attitude changes when he falls in love with Khushi Kumari Gupta (Sanaya Irani).

paragraphs: Khushi is hired as Arnav's assistant. She is a simple, traditional girl. She is also an orphan, but she believes in the power of love and maintains a strong faith in God. Despite their differences, they are attracted to each other. They eventually get married.


title: Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution

paragraphs: Validated on December 5, 1933, the Twenty-first Amendment (Amendment XXI) to the United States Constitution canceled the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and ended the Prohibition Era in the United States. It is the only Amendment to repeal another amendment. It is also the only Amendment to have been ratified by state ratifying conventions rather than by state legislatures.

paragraphs: The Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution had started a period in the US known as Prohibition. During this time the manufacture, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages was illegal. Passage of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919 was the chief goal of the temperance movement. but it soon proved highly unpopular. Crime had soared under Prohibition as gangsters, such as Chicago's Al Capone, became rich from a very profitable black market for alcohol. The federal government was unable to enforce the Volstead Act. In 1932, wealthy industrialist John D. Rockefeller, Jr. stated in a letter: As more and more Americans opposed the Eighteenth Amendment, a political movement grew for its repeal. However, repeal was complicated by grassroots politics. Although the U.S. Constitution provides two methods for ratifying constitutional amendments, only one method had been used up until that time. This was ratification by the state legislatures of three-fourths of the states. However, the wisdom of the day was that the lawmakers of many states were either obligated to or simply afraid of the temperance lobby. For that reason, when Congress formally proposed the repeal of Prohibition on February 20, 1933, it chose the "other" ratification method established by Article V. That is by state conventions.

paragraphs: The second section bans the importation of alcohol in violation of state or territorial law. This has been interpreted to give states essentially absolute control over alcoholic beverages. Many U.S. states still remained "dry" (with state prohibition of alcohol) long after its ratification. Mississippi was the last, remaining dry until 1966. Kansas continued to prohibit public bars until 1987. Many states now delegate the authority over alcohol granted to them by this Amendment to their municipalities or counties (or both), which has led to many lawsuits over First Amendment rights when local governments have tried to revoke liquor licenses.

paragraphs: Section 2 has been the source of every Supreme Court ruling directly addressing Twenty-first Amendment issues. Early rulings suggested that Section 2 enabled states to legislate with exceptionally broad constitutional powers.

paragraphs: In "State Board of Equalization v. Young's Market Co.", (1936), the Supreme Court held that a state could require a license fee for importing beer from other states and also for manufacturing beer within the state. The court recognized that "Prior to the Twenty-first Amendment it would obviously have been unconstitutional" for a state to require a fee for such a privilege.

paragraphs: In "Craig v. Boren" (1976), the Supreme Court addressed the issue of proposed legislation with different ages for males and females regarding alcohol consumption in Oklahoma (age 18 for females, age 21 for males). The Court overturned the motion because of a presumed violation of the Equal Protection Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment.

paragraphs: In "South Dakota v. Dole" (1987), the Supreme Court upheld the withholding of some federal highway funds to states in which the legal drinking age is less than twenty-one years of age is lawful. The Court held that the limitations on spending power in the Twenty-First Amendment did not prohibit Congress to indirectly achieve federal objectives.

paragraphs: In "44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island" (1996), Rhode Island passed a law that banned liquor advertising from places that did not sell liquor. The petitioners based their suit on their First Amendment right to free speech. In a unanimous decision the Court held that states cannot use the Twenty-first Amendment to abridge freedom of speech protections under the First Amendment. However, the Court acknowledged the state was empowered to regulate the sale of liquor under the Twenty-First Amendment.


title: United States presidential election

paragraphs: The election of the President and Vice President of the United States is an indirect vote in which citizens cast ballots for a set of members of the U.S. Electoral College. These electors then cast direct votes for the President and Vice President. If both votes result in an absolute majority, the election is over. If a majority of electors do not vote for President, the House of Representatives chooses the President; if a majority of electors do not vote for Vice President, the Senate votes. Presidential elections occur quadrennially on Election Day, which since 1845 has been the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, coinciding with the general elections of various other federal, state, and local races. The most recent United States presidential election was held on November 8, 2016.

paragraphs: To be eligible to be president, a candidate must:


title: Litomyšl

paragraphs: Litomyšl is a town in the Czech Republic. It has a population of 10,000. It is situated in the Pardubice Region in eastern Bohemia. A famous composer, Bedřich Smetana, was born there in 1824. Litomyšl Castle is on the UNESCO Heritage List.

paragraphs: The most important landmarks there are Litomyšl Castle, Knights´ Hall, Church of the Raising of the Holy Cross, Piarist Church of the Discovery of the Holy Cross and Piarist college, New Church of the Church of the Brethren, Portmoneum (Museum), Smetana´s Cultural House, Indoor swimming pool.

paragraphs: The dominant feature of Litomyšl is a monumental Renaissance castle. It was built from 1568 to1581 by the House of Pernštejn. Litomyšl Castle was originally a Renaissance arcade-castle of the Italian type. Its design and decoration is fantastic. There is a rich sgraffito decoration on the walls. Later, the Baroque features were added in the 18th century. The architect of the building was Giovanni Battista Aostalli. The first owner and the donator was Vratislav II. from Pernštejn. In the castle grounds there is Castle Brewery, too. In Catle Brewery there was born Bedřich Smetana, a famous composer. The castle was written on the UNESCO Heritage list in 1999. The International Smetana´s Opera Festival takes place there every June.

paragraphs: This is one of the most beautiful houses in Litomyšl square. It was built by a stonemason Blažek after a fire in 1540. It was finished in 1546. The stone facade is decorated with decorative and figurative motives. On the sides of the middle window there are 2 statues of the knights. They are famous from story by a popular writer Alois Jirásek. The house is decorated with other figures (a merchant, a mermaid, a lion, a unicorn). There is a town gallery today.

paragraphs: The church was founded in 1378 (638 years ago) in gothic style. Most of equipment is from the second half of the 18th century. The main altar was built in 1767, sculpture decoration was made by František Pacák. The altar image of the Holy Cross was painted by Ignác Raab. There was a massive renovation of the building from 1995 to 2000. In May 2000, the new organs were instaled there The church is a dominant of the historical part of the town, now.

paragraphs: This church is located opposite Litomyšl Castle. The church was built in baroque style. It was designed by Giovanni Battista Alliprandi. He was a famous architect from Italy. The church was constructed from 1716 to 1726. There is a former piarist college on the left of the church.

paragraphs: It is a Catholic church. It was demaged in the 20th century. The renovation was done at the beginning of the 21st century. Now people come here to pray, listen to the concerts and visit exhibitions. You can climb up to the roof and have a look around the historical town centre.

paragraphs: In front of the church there is Regional Museum Litomyšl. The museum building used to be a grammar school.

paragraphs: Behind the church there is Monastery garden. It is a renovated garden which is a very popular park now.

paragraphs: This modern building was built from 2008 to 2010. The church was designed by an architect Zdeněk Fránek. There are artworks by Karel Malich and Vojtěch Cígler as well. The church has got a room for 150 people, 2 clubs and a social lobby. Worship takes places there every Sunday at 9:30. Sometimes you can visit concerts or exhibitions there. Eeverybody can come there.

paragraphs: The history of the Museum of Jan Vachal began in 1920 when an artist Váchal decorated a house of his friend. Vachal's wall paintings in the Portmoneum are very complicated.The paintings are citations from Váchal´s stories. The painted topics are a country and a number of devils, spirits and ghosts. The museum was opened thanks to the Paseka publishing house in the honour of Vachal's work. It was opened in 1993. It was called the Portmoneum after the house owner Portman.

paragraphs: The construction of this cultural hall began in 1903. The chief builder was J. Kreml from Litomysl. The foundation stone was laid on April 4, 1903. Smetana’s house is named after a famous composer Bedřich Smetana. He was born in Litomyšl in 1824. Smetana’s house is a theater and a cultural centre. Smetana’s house consists of a big auditorium, a small auditorium and a lounge. Its style is the Art Nouveau. You can visit concerts, balls and theatre performances there.

paragraphs: The building of the museum was originally the piaristic grammar school. Alois Jirásek taught there. It is situated next to the Piaristic Church and opposite the castle. There was a big reconstruction of the building from 2012 to 2014. Today you can visit a new interactive display show of the history of the town, smaller displays of the Cabinet ancient history or Guild of shooters to target. Other contemporary exhibitions often take place there.