title: Heinrich Schütz

paragraphs: Heinrich Schütz (born Köstritz, Saxony, 8 October 1585; died Dresden, Germany, 6 November 1672) was the greatest German composer of his time. As a young man he travelled to Italy to learn the art of composition from the great Italian composers. He had lessons from Giovanni Gabrieli. When Gabrieli died in 1612 Schütz returned to Germany. He visited Italy a second time in 1628 to learn from the music of Claudio Monteverdi. He also visited Copenhagen. For much of his life he was a court composer at the Electoral Chapel in Dresden. Most of his work consists of choral works especially motets and madrigals. He was very good at writing counterpoint and his music has some very striking effects. His "Christmas Oratorio " is particularly famous.


title: Domenico Scarlatti

paragraphs: Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti (born Naples, Italy, on 26 October 1685; died Madrid, Spain, on 23 July 1757) was an Italian composer and harpsichordist. He was the son of the famous composer Alessandro Scarlatti. Part of his life he spent in Venice and Rome. His father Alessandro was a famous composer who wrote many operas. Domenico became famous for his sonatas for harpsichord. He wrote over 550 of them. They are mostly quite short pieces in one movement, most written in an early Classical style, which influenced many future Classical composers. He had some unusual effects in his music such as the crossing of hands as they leap wildly from one end of the keyboard to another. He also liked crunchy chords which sound like the strumming of Spanish guitars. He gave harpsichord lessons to the Infanta Maria Barbara at the Royal Court in Lisbon in Portugal. When she married she took Scarlatti, her harpsichord teacher, with her to Madrid in Spain where he spent the rest of his life.


title: Wilhelm Friedemann Bach

paragraphs: Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (born Weimar 22 November 1710–Berlin 1 July 1784) was a famous German composer and organist.

paragraphs: He was the son of Johann Sebastian Bach, who taught him to play the harpsichord and organ. Johann Sebastian wrote some pieces and put them in a book called "Notebook for Wilhelm Friedemann Bach". Although they are in order of increasing difficulty, it is not known if these were used to teach him to play, or how to write music. The book does contain two allemandes and four preludes written by Wilhelm Friedemann. He also learned to play the violin.

paragraphs: Wilhelm Friedemann was an excellent organist, and took over teaching some of his father's students. In 1733 he was appointed as the organist at the Dresden Sophienkirche (St. Sophia's Church). While living in Dresden he continued to write music including harpsichord concertos, sinfonias, trio sonatas, harpsichord sonatas, and other smaller works for keyboard. He published his first music in 1745.

paragraphs: In 1746 became organist of the Liebfrauenkirche at Halle. This was an important position and he was paid twice as much as he had earned at Dresden. He was expected to provide music for feast days, and so he began to compose cantatas which could be reused each year. He still visited his father, and often used parts of his music. After his father's death in 1750, Wilhelm Friedemann inherited as lot of his father's music, and tried to make people think they were his compositions. He was in trouble with the church when he went to Leipzig to sort out his father's estate. They felt that he was away for too long and was not fulfilling his proper duties.

paragraphs: In 1764, after arguing with a lot of people, he left the job in Halle, remaining unemployed and living a life of poverty until his death.

paragraphs: He had a lot of talent which he did not use. He was a very good improviser, but was careless when playing music by other composers, including his father's.


title: Indiana Jones

paragraphs: Dr. Henry "Indiana" Jones, Jr. is a fictional American professor, archaeologist, and adventurer.

paragraphs: He originally appeared in a series of movies produced by George Lucas and directed by Steven Spielberg in the 1980s, in which he was played by actor Harrison Ford.

paragraphs: Indiana Jones is noted for his trademark bullwhip, his fedora hat, and his great fear of snakes.

paragraphs: "Indiana Jones" is also the general name given to the series as a whole, which has four movies, a TV series, novels, comics, video games, and other media.


title: Lord Protector

paragraphs: A Lord Protector is a British title for heads of state. It has two different meanings at different times in history.

paragraphs: The title of "Lord Protector" was first used by royal princes or other nobles who ruled as regent while the English monarch was still too young to rule or was not able to rule for some other reason, in this case the Lord Protector would make all the decisions for the country, and the young monarch would decide whether they agree or not.

paragraphs: The Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland was the title of the head of state during the Interregnum, following the first period of the Commonwealth under Council of State government. It was held by Oliver Cromwell (December 1653 – September 1658), leader of the roundheads and his son Richard Cromwell (September 1658 – May 1659) during what is now known as the Protectorate.


title: Fantasy

paragraphs: Fantasy is a genre of fiction (make believe) that shows some form of magic, or supernatural force.

paragraphs: Often fantasy also means that the story happens in a fictional place, a world different from our own (e.g. Middle-earth or Narnia). Although the word fantasy is most often applied to low-tech worlds, it also can depict high tech worlds, overlapping with science fiction (e.g. Star Wars). Or it is used for historical fiction, if it is magical in some way.


title: Materialism

paragraphs: Materialism is the philosophical belief that the world is made of material, and that there are no other types of entity (things). Everything is composed of material. Things that are not made of material, such as consciousness, are the result of actions by material. In other words, matter is the only real substance. "Physicalism" is a related term.

paragraphs: Especially, a materialist does not believe in gods or other supernatural entities. The materialist thinks the idea of a spirit is either meaningless, or not scientifically proven. Therefore, by definition, materialists are also atheists, though not all atheists are materialists.

paragraphs: Modern philosophical materialists extend the definition to include other basic entities proven by science, such as energy, forces, and the curvature of space. Matter and energy are known to be interchangeable, and much else, such as gravity, is caused by matter. However, the concept of matter is itself not entirely clear.

paragraphs: Other types of philosophy share some of the aims of materialism. Examples would include reductionism, logical positivism and empiricism.

paragraphs: The origin of materialism is in a type of Ancient Greek philosophy. Thales, Epicurus, and Lucretius are early materialist philosophers. The idea also appeared in other ancient cultures.


title: Northern Cyprus

paragraphs: Northern Cyprus officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (Turkish: ') (TRNC), is a partially recognised country in the northern third of the island of Cyprus. Three hundred thousand people live in its 3,335 km². Turkey is the only country which recognizes the territory as an independent republic.

paragraphs: Cyprus was conquered and became part of the Ottoman Empire from 1570–1914. Many Turks became settlers. As the Ottoman Empire sided against the British empire in World War I, the British annexed Cyprus. In 1923 by the treaty of Lausanne Turkey gave up the island to the British Empire which in 1925 converted it to a crown colony. The British administered it from 1878 until 1960.

paragraphs: In 1974 some of the Greek Army supported a coup against the Archbishop and President Makarios. The Turkish army invaded Cyprus. This had the effect that over two hundred thousand Greek and Turkish Cypriots abandoned their homes and become refugees in the other part of their own country. Many settlers from mainland Turkey came from Turkey into the northern part of the island. Some native Turkish Cypriots left the TRNC to find a better life in the U.K and other countries.

paragraphs: As the Turkish army stayed the possibility of a negotiated settlement became nearly impossible. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was formed in 1983 and Rauf Denktash became the first president. Negotiations for a unified island have been held several times without success. The standard of living in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is lower than in the Republic of Cyprus.


title: New Caledonia

paragraphs: New Caledonia (; popular name: "Le caillou") () is a ""sui generis" collectivity" (in practice an overseas territory) of France, made up of a main island ("Grande Terre") and several smaller islands. It is in the region of Melanesia in the southwest Pacific. At about half the size of Taiwan, it has a land area of 18,575.5 square kilometres (7,172 sq mi). At the 2004 census, 230,789 people lived there. It has an internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) of .nc. The capital and largest city of the territory is Nouméa. The currency is the CFP franc. The inflation rate is -0.6%. The unemployment rate is 17.1%

paragraphs: A referendum was held in November 2018 to see if New Caledonia should declare independence from France. The results were more people wanted to stay in France than leave.


title: Dam

paragraphs: A dam is a large wall or barrier that blocks or stops the flow of water, forming a reservoir or a lake. Most dams have a section called a spillway or weir over which, or through which, water flows, either sometimes or always.

paragraphs: Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water. The tallest dam in the world is the 300 meter high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

paragraphs: Some of the first dams were built in Mesopotamia up to 7,000 years ago. Modern dams are built with arched walls of steel rod-reinforced concrete. The arched wall is a very strong shape which helps the wall to withstand the huge weight of the water.

paragraphs: There are a number of reasons that people build dams. Some countries build dams to control the flow of water in the downstream river systems, and prevent flooding. Other countries build dams to generate electricity using hydroelectric turbine generators. Other countries use dams to store water for use in irrigation (for farming) or drinking by people.


title: David Beckham

paragraphs: David Beckham (born 2 May 1975) is an English retired association football player. The teams he played for were Manchester United, Real Madrid, Los Angeles Galaxy, Preston North End, AC Milan, Paris Saint-Germain, and the England national team.

paragraphs: David was born at Whipps Cross University Hospital in Leytonstone, London, He was son of Ted and Sandra Beckham.

paragraphs: Beckham's parents insisted that he finish his secondary school education before he could join a professional team but he chose to play football.

paragraphs: He grew up in the Manchester football youth system along with Ryan Giggs, Nicky Butt, Phil Neville,Gary Neville and Paul Scholes who all turned out to be famous footballers. Since his move from [[Manchester United F.C to [[Real Madrid C.F.|Real Madrid]], [[Spain]] in 2003, he has been the highest paid footballer in the [[earth|world]]. In June 2003, [[Queen Elizabeth II]] gave Beckham an [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]]. In January 2005, Beckham became a [[UNICEF]] ambassador. He retired from playing football at the end of the 2012/13 season. His most recent club was [[Paris Saint-Germain F.C.|Paris Saint-Germain]].

paragraphs: He played for [[England national football team|England]] for 13 years. He was dropped from the England team after giving up his England captaincy. But regained his place in the England squad when Fabio Capello became the England manager.

paragraphs: From 1993 through 2003, he played for [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester]] in [[England]].

paragraphs: After leaving [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], he signed a four-year contract with [[Real Madrid C.F.|Real Madrid]] which ended in June, 2007.

paragraphs: He played for [[Paris Saint-Germain F.C.|Paris Saint-Germain]] in [[Ligue 1]] until the end of the 2012/13 season.

paragraphs: Beckham's wife is singer [[Victoria Beckham]]. Some people call her [[Posh Spice]] because she was a member of the [[Spice Girls]]. The couple have three sons: Brooklyn Joseph Beckham (born 4 March 1999 in London), Romeo James Beckham (born 1 September 2002 in London), and Cruz David Beckham (born 20 February 2005 in Madrid, Spain), and a daughter Harper Beckham (born 2 July 2011). She is also the youngest member of the Beckham family.

paragraphs: [[Category:1998 FIFA World Cup players]]

paragraphs: [[Category:2002 FIFA World Cup players]]

paragraphs: [[Category:2006 FIFA World Cup players]]

paragraphs: [[Category:Manchester United F.C. players]]


title: Sonata

paragraphs: A sonata is a piece of music for one instrument or one instrument with another instrument accompanying. The word comes from the Italian “sonare” which means “to sound”.

paragraphs: A composer could call any solo instrumental piece “sonata” if he or she wants to, but usually a sonata is quite a long piece with several movements. A sonatina is a simple and short sonata.

paragraphs: The term "sonata" was used in the 16th century to mean anything that was not sung.

paragraphs: In the Baroque period (17th and early 18th centuries) many composers like Arcangelo Corelli wrote sonatas with several movements. There were two types: “sonata da camera” (“room sonata” i.e. “chamber sonata”) which were for playing in people’s homes, and “sonata da chiesa” (“church sonata”) which were for being played in churches. The first type would have harpsichord accompaniment and the second type organ accompaniment. There would also be a cello playing the bass line. The solo instrument might be a violin, flute, recorder or oboe.

paragraphs: At the end of the Baroque period Domenico Scarlatti wrote over 500 sonatas for harpsichord. These are all short pieces in binary form (two sections).

paragraphs: By the time we come to the Classical period sonatas have become longer pieces with three or four movements. They would usually start with a fast movement, then a slow one, and then a fast one at the end. If there were four movements the extra one would be a minuet and trio or a scherzo, either before or after the slow movement. The first movement would be in sonata form. The most important composers of sonatas at this time were Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven

paragraphs: Many composers in the Romantic period wrote sonatas, for example: Brahms wrote piano sonatas as well as sonatas for violin and piano, cello and piano, and clarinet and piano.

paragraphs: In the 20th century composers who have written sonatas include Bartok, Tippett and William Walton.


title: Sonata form

paragraphs: Sonata form is a way of organizing a piece of music. It has been used in several pieces since the Classical period (from the middle of the 18th century onwards). Listening to pieces of music in sonata form will help to understand it fully and it is helpful to know something about the different keys.

paragraphs: Sonata form is not just used in sonatas. It can be the form for movements from symphonies, concertos, overtures etc.

paragraphs: In the Baroque period composers like Bach and Handel wrote pieces with dance movements such as minuets. These were in “binary form”. This meant that there were two sections. The two sections were often the same length, and were separated by a double bar line which meant that each section was repeated. The music would not be in the same key all the time. The first section could modulate (change key) and then the second section would gradually modulate back again so that it sounded finished at the end.

paragraphs: Domenico Scarlatti wrote sonatas for harpsichord also in binary form, but long and with additional complexity. The first section would start with a theme in the main key, and then modulate to another key for contrast. The second section might be longer than the first second, starting off by modulating to remote keys before arriving back to repeat the main theme. This kind of piece is the beginning of sonata form.

paragraphs: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven developed the idea of sonata form. A movement in sonata form has three sections called: “exposition”, “development” and “recapitulation”.

paragraphs: This way of building a piece of music was used by almost every composer from the mid 18th century onwards – well into the 20th century. It gives scope for a very dramatic piece. Of course, composers sometime use it differently. There is often a sense of development during the whole piece, not just during the so-called “development section”. The first movement of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony spends all the time developing the famous idea heard at the beginning: the first four notes (short-short-short-long). Even the other three movements carry on developing this idea.


title: Aria

paragraphs: An aria is a long song accompanying a solo voice. An aria is usually in an opera. It is an Italian word of the 18th century meaning “air” (i.e. a tune).

paragraphs: A small amount of text is used in an aria. Characteristics include the use of melismas, repetition and sequences. Typically there would be full accompaniment to the solo voice in the aria although this is not the case in Purcell's Dido and Aeneas where the majority of its arias are only accompanied by the continuo part.

paragraphs: In operas of the Baroque period most of the music was either “recitative” or “aria”. Recitative (from a word meaning: “to recite” i.e. “to tell”) was sung quickly, almost as if it were being spoken. The singer was accompanied just by a few supporting chords, usually on a harpsichord. The story was being told in the recitative.

paragraphs: Once the situation in the story had changed there would be an aria. The singer would sing a song which expressed his or her feelings. The aria had more musical interest than the recitative. Arias were usually in what we call “ABA” form or “Da Capo” form. There was a main section, then a middle part, then the main section was repeated (“Da Capo” means: “back to the beginning”). In the Da Capo section the singer usually improvised, adding many embellishments and ornaments. The aria gave performers the opportunity to show off their virtuosity.

paragraphs: The word “aria” is not just used in opera. Arias can be found in cantatas or just by themselves. Sometimes pieces for instruments are called “aria”. These are often a tune with variations, such as Handel's famous "Air with Variations" for harpsichord, also known as .

paragraphs: In the 19th century the difference between recitative and aria in opera started to disappear. Composers like Richard Wagner made the music much more continuous. He did not want audiences clapping in the middle of his operas. He wanted the music to develop dramatically and continuously.


title: Elijah Wood

paragraphs: Elijah Jordan Wood (born January 28, 1981, in Cedar Rapids, Iowa) is an American actor.

paragraphs: A professional actor since the age of nine, Wood is best known for his role of Frodo Baggins in the "Lord of the Rings" movie trilogy.


title: Ian McKellen

paragraphs: Sir Ian Murray McKellen (born 25 May 1939) is an English actor in theatre and movies. He got a Tony Award and two Oscar nominations.

paragraphs: He was born in Burnley, Lancashire. In 1939, he moved to Wigan. In 1951, he moved to Bolton.

paragraphs: His work has spanned genres from serious Shakespearean and modern theatre to popular fantasy and science fiction movies.

paragraphs: In a television movie role in 1970 titled "Edward II", he and his co-star, James Laurenson kissed in British television's first gay kiss.

paragraphs: Best known for his roles as Gandalf in the 2001-2003 "Lord of the Rings" movie trilogy, as Sir Leigh Teabing in "The Da Vinci Code", and as Magneto in the "X-Men" series of movies.

paragraphs: He is openly gay and is a prominent activist for the rights of LGBT people. He said that the reason why he took the role in the "X-Men" movies was because of his sexuality. He said: "Mutants are like gays. They’re cast out by society for no good reason".

paragraphs: He was made a CBE in 1979 and knighted in 1990 for his outstanding work and contributions to the theatre. In 2008 he was made a Companion of Honour.

paragraphs: McKellen said in 2012 that he was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2006.

paragraphs: McKellen once signed an autograph to a fan stating “Fuck off, I’m gay.” The person given the autograph was politician Michael Howard.


title: Viggo Mortensen

paragraphs: Viggo Peter Mortensen, Jr. (born October 20, 1958, in New York City) is an American theater and movie actor, poet, musician, photographer and painter. He is best known for his role as Aragorn in Peter Jackson's "Lord of the Rings" movie trilogy.


title: Sean Astin

paragraphs: Sean Astin (born February 25, 1971 in Santa Monica, California, U.S.) is an American movie actor. Astin is also a director and Oscar nominated producer. He is the son of Patty Duke and John Astin.

paragraphs: Astin married Christine Harrell on July 11, 1992. They have three daughters, Alexandra (born November 27, 1996), Elizabeth (born August 6, 2002) and Isabella (born July 22, 2005), all with the same middle name of Louise.


title: Ian Holm

paragraphs: Sir Ian Holm Cuthbert CBE (12 September 1931 – 19 June 2020), known professionally as Ian Holm was an English actor.

paragraphs: Ian Holm was born at Goodmayes Hospital in Goodmayes, Essex, He was son of James Harvey Cuthbert and his wife Jean Wilson (née Holm), The hospital was his father working there .

paragraphs: He married to four times, He had five children in his life.

paragraphs: He died in a London hospital on 19 June 2020 from Parkinson's disease-related problems, at the age of 88.


title: Luigi Boccherini

paragraphs: Luigi Boccherini (born in Lucca, 19 February 1743; died Madrid, 28 May 1805) is an Italian cellist and composer. As a boy he showed great talent and was sent to Rome to study music. When he returned to Lucca he entered the theatre orchestra and the town band. He travelled a lot, visiting France, Spain, and Germany. In Berlin he was offered the job of chamber composer to the King of Prussia. He took the job, but had to promise only to work for the king, and no one else. When the king died he found himself without a job, so he went back to Madrid. There he found work at times, but a lot of the time he was very poor.

paragraphs: Boccherini is famous for his chamber music. He wrote more than 100 quintets for 2 violins, viola and 2 cellos. He also wrote 4 cello concertos.

paragraphs: Boccherini is sometimes nicknamed "Haydn’s wife" because his music sounds similar to that of Haydn. They may have known one another, but we cannot be sure.


title: George Frideric Handel

paragraphs: George Frideric Handel (German (Deutsche) : Georg Friedrich Händel) (23 February 1685 – 14 April 1759) was a German composer who went to live in England when he was a young man and later became a naturalised Briton. Johann Sebastian Bach and Handel were born in the same year. They were the greatest composers of their time, but they never met. Handel changed his name to George Frideric Handel when he became British; he removed the dots above the "a" and changed the spelling of Georg and Friedrich. The German spelling of his name (Georg Friedrich Händel) is still used by German writers.

paragraphs: Although they both lived in the late Baroque period, Bach and Handel’s music developed differently. Handel wrote many operas and oratorios and by them became very famous. He took many trips, including to Italy where he learned a lot about composition. Bach never left central Germany, and most of the time he was a church musician who was not well known by the general public.

paragraphs: Handel wrote over 42 operas. Later he wrote oratorios. His most famous oratorio is the "Messiah". He wrote anthems, chamber music and orchestral music including "the Water Music" and "Music for the Royal Fireworks".

paragraphs: Handel was born in Halle in the northeast of Germany, in today's Saxony-Anhalt. His father was a barber and a surgeon. He started playing the harpsichord and the organ when he was very young. He was given a clavichord when he was seven and he used to practice it in the attic where his father could not hear him. At the age of nine he was already composing. He had a teacher called Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow who was the organist of the big church, the Marienkirche, in Halle. He learned the organ, harpsichord and violin as well as composition, harmony.

paragraphs: Handel’s father did not want him to study music; he wanted him to be a lawyer. Although Handel's father died in 1697, Handel enrolled at the University of Halle in 1703. He studied law for a year because his father wanted him to do so. After that year, Handel was unhappy studying law. He decided to stop studying law and become a musician. He became organist at the Protestant Cathedral in Halle. The next year he moved to Hamburg where he got a job as violinist and harpsichordist in the orchestra of the opera-house. Here his first two operas, "Almira" and "Nero", were produced early in 1705. Two other early operas, "Daphne" and "Florindo", were produced at Hamburg in 1708.

paragraphs: Handel was becoming a good opera composer, but he wanted to learn more, so he went to Italy in 1707. He spent four years there. His opera "Rodrigo" was produced in Florence in 1707, and his "Agrippina" at Venice in 1709. "Agrippina" was very popular and had 26 performances. It made Handel famous. He also had three oratorios produced in Rome. He wrote sacred music (church music) and other pieces in an operatic style, e.g. "Dixit Dominus" (1707).

paragraphs: In 1710 Handel became "Kapellmeister" (music director) to George, Elector of Hanover, who would soon be King George I of Great Britain. The Elector agreed that Handel could have an immediate leave of 12 months so that he could go to London. He visited London for eight months. His opera "Rinaldo" was performed in 1711. It was the first time an Italian opera had been performed in England. It was an immediate success. Handel returned to Hanover in the summer of 1711 and spent a year writing chamber and orchestral music because there was no opera in Hanover. He was also trying to learn English. In 1712 the Elector allowed him to make another visit to England. In England he had patrons (rich people who gave him money). He had a yearly income of £200 from Queen Anne (while Bach earned as little as eighty pounds in a year). He was having a lot of success, and so stayed in England instead of returning to his job in the Hanover Court.

paragraphs: In 1712 Queen Anne died and the Elector of Hanover became King of Great Britain. Handel might have been in trouble for staying in Britain. According to one story the King forgave Handel because he wrote some lovely music called "Water Music" which was performed on a boat on the Thames at a royal water party. This story about the king forgiving Handel is probably not true. George would have known that Queen Anne was about to die and he would become King of Great Britain and therefore Handel's master again. In fact, the new king doubled Handel’s salary. A few years later his salary increased again when he taught music to Queen Caroline’s daughter.

paragraphs: In 1724 Handel moved into a newly built house in 25 Brook Street, London, which he rented until his death in 1759, 35 years later. The house is now called Handel House Museum and is open to the public. It was here that Handel composed some of his most famous music such as "Messiah", "Zadok the Priest", and "Fireworks Music".

paragraphs: In 1729 Handel's opera "Scipio" (Scipio) was performed for the first time. The march from this work is now the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards. In the next year he took on British nationality.

paragraphs: In 1731 Handel was commissioned to write four anthems for the coronation ceremony of King George II. One of these, "Zadok the Priest", has been sung at every coronation ceremony since.

paragraphs: Handel spent most of his time working on operas. From 1722-1726 he was director of the Royal Academy of Music. This was an organisation that put on opera performances. It had nothing to do with the academy which is called the Royal Academy of Music today where young students study music. Handel also worked in the management of the King's Theatres and many of his operas were performed in the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden. He sometimes travelled to Italy to find new Italian singers and persuade them to come to London. London became world famous for operas. In spite of everything Handel was doing for opera he had many enemies as well as friends. There was a lot of rivalry, especially with a composer called Bononcini whose music is forgotten today. Handel gave up operatic management in 1740, after he had lost a lot of money in the business.

paragraphs: In April 1739, age 54, he had a stroke. It was probably this which left his right arm paralysed for a while so that he could not perform, but he made an excellent recovery after six weeks at a health spa in Aix-la-Chapelle. At this time he started to write oratorios instead of operas. In 1742 his oratorio "Messiah" was first performed in Dublin. Surprisingly, it was not successful in London until 1750 when it was performed in aid of the Foundling Hospital Chapel. Handel performed it every year there, which brought the hospital about £600 for each performance. Handel spent most of his time in these later years composing and producing oratorios. "Judas Maccabaeus" was particularly popular. The singers for these oratorios were English and Italian. They were not world-famous virtuosos but singers whom Handel had trained himself.

paragraphs: In August, 1750, on a journey back from Germany to London, Handel was seriously injured when his carriage overturned. In 1751 he started to lose his eyesight. He died, in 1759, in London. The last concert he went to was his own "Messiah". More than 3,000 mourners went to his funeral. He was buried with full state honours in Westminster Abbey. Handel never married, and kept his personal life very private. He left £20,000 which was a lot of money for those days (Approximately 2800000 pounds today) His niece inherited most of his money. He also left some of it to friends, servants, relations and charities. His autographs (the original copies of the music that he wrote) are now mostly in the British Museum.

paragraphs: Handel adopted the spelling "George Frideric Handel" on his naturalization as a British subject, and this spelling is generally used in English speaking countries. The original form of his name (Georg Friedrich Händel) is usually used in Germany, but he is known as "Haendel" in France. There was another composer with a similar name, Handl, who was a Slovene and is more commonly known as . This can be very hard for cataloguers (people trying to make a list of his music)


title: Richard Wagner

paragraphs: Richard Wagner (22 May 1813 in Leipzig – 13 February 1883 in Venice) was a German opera composer. He was one of the most important opera composers in Germany during the Romantic period. Apart from some music that he wrote as a student he wrote ten operas which are all performed regularly in opera houses today. Most of his operas are about stories from German mythology. He always wrote the words himself.

paragraphs: Wagner changed people’s ideas of what operas should be. He thought that the drama (the story that is being told with all its tensions) was very important, and he chose the singers for his operas himself, so that he could train them into his way of thinking. The music in his operas did not give the audience a chance to applaud after big solos as it had done in the 18th century: it continues throughout the whole act. He made his music tell the story by using what he called “leitmotifs”. These were melodies or short musical phrases which belonged to particular characters in the opera, or to particular ideas. He had more influence on other composers than anybody else in his time, largely because of his harmonies which became more and more chromatic (using lots of sharps and flats), with many changes of key. He built an opera house to his own design in the German town of Bayreuth. Nearly all musicians in Europe tried to make a journey to Bayreuth to hear Wagner’s music. The Wagner festival still takes place every year there.

paragraphs: He studied at the University of Leipzig, although he was not allowed to be a full student because he did not have proper school qualifications. Although he lived a wild life he worked hard at his music. He studied the scores of Beethoven’s string quartets and symphonies and he wrote his own symphony which was performed in 1833 at the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus. He wrote his first opera, "Die Feen" ("The Fairies") in Würzburg. He became the conductor of a travelling opera group and fell in love with one of the singers called Minna Planer and he married her in 1836. His second opera, "Das Liebesverbot", based on Shakespeare’s play "Measure for Measure" was a failure.

paragraphs: Wagner always liked spending money, and he soon found he owed money to a lot of people, so he went away to Paris where he lived for three years. He was not successful at all there, none of the French musicians showed any interest in him and he was very poor. He still managed to write an opera "Rienzi" in 1841, and this was soon followed by "Der fliegende Holländer", ("The Flying Dutchman"), which still remains a favourite to opera lovers today. It was first performed in Dresden in 1843. The audience did not like it much because they were used to operas like "Rienzi" which were written in the old way. Wagner was given the job of court opera composer in Dresden. He stayed there until 1849. During that time he worked very hard to make opera performances better, improve the orchestra and train the singers. In 1845 he wrote another great opera, "Tannhäuser". People gradually started to understand the way that Wagner’s music was telling the drama of the story. After this all his operas were great successes, although there always remained some people who hated his music, e.g. the music critic Eduard Hanslick.

paragraphs: In 1848 he finished working on "Lohengrin" but it was not performed because he was supporting the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, joining in the demonstrations. Although he did join the fighting he was going to be arrested, so Franz Liszt helped him to escape to Switzerland. He lived in Zürich until 1858. There he wrote about music, conducted, and read stories from Norse mythology. He was starting to think about writing operas about these stories. It was something that would take him over 25 years to complete. They were to become the four operas known as "Der Ring des Nibelungen" ("The Ring of the Nibelung") which, together, tell one long story. The four operas which make up this famous Ring cycle are "Das Rheingold" (The Rhinegold), "Die Walküre" ("The Valkyrie"), "Siegfried" and "Götterdämmerung" ("Twilight of the Gods"). Because of the political situation in Germany at the time, Wagner expected the rise of a socialist state. The operas in the Ring cycle were a new kind of music drama (which Wagner simply called “drama”). These operas can be seen as describing a new kind of world in which humans are free. The music used the idea of leitmotif (in English: “leading motive”), where musical ideas represent characters or emotions, and help the development and understanding of the story.

paragraphs: By 1857 Wagner had written the first two operas as well as Acts One and Two of "Siegfried". However, the third Act of "Siegfried" was not written until many years later, because he could see that at that time there was no suitable opera house to have these operas performed. He fell in love with a woman called Mathilde Wesendonk, whose husband was very rich. This affair led to a separation with his wife, Minna. He wrote an opera about an unhappy love affair: "Tristan und Isolde" ("Tristan and Isolde").

paragraphs: Meanwhile, he wrote another opera: "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg" ("The Mastersinger of Nűrnberg"). It is the only comedy Wagner wrote.

paragraphs: It is set in medieval Germany and is about a song contest.

paragraphs: By 1864 Wagner was in debt once more. He fled to Stuttgart to avoid being put into prison (Germany at that time was still made up of many small countries, each with their own laws). Then he had a big stroke of luck. The new king of Bavaria, Ludwig II, who was only 18 years old, adored the music of Wagner. He had read the poem about the Ring of the Nibelungs (Wagner had written the words, but had not finished the music). King Ludwig invited Wagner to finish the Ring cycle for performances in Munich. He gave him somewhere to live, and his new operas were performed in Munich: "Tristan und Isolde" in 1865, "Die Meistersinger von Nűrnberg" in 1868, "Das Rheingold" in 1869 and "Die Walkűre" in 1870. There were plans for a new opera house in Munich, but it was never built because people were angry with Wagner for being in debt in spite of having lots of money from the king. Another thing people did not like was that he fell in love with the wife of the man who had conducted his operas, Hans von Bülow. Her name was Cosima. Her father was the composer Franz Liszt who had not been married to Cosima’s mother. Wagner had already left Munich in 1865, but the king still supported him, making it possible for him to live in a large house called Triebschen on Lake Lucerne. Cosima divorced von Bülow in 1870 and married Wagner in the same year.

paragraphs: By now Wagner was working hard at the Ring cycle again. He had promised the king that the four operas would be performed in Munich when they were ready, but he realized that they would need a special kind of opera house. So he designed his own opera house and had it built in the town of Bayreuth. He spent a lot of time travelling and conducting in order to raise money for this huge project. The King Ludwig also gave him a lot of money, and a lovely new house in Bayreuth which Wagner called "Wahnfried" (the name of the house means something like: "Peace from the mad world"). Finally, the complete cycle of four operas was performed in August 1876 in the new opera house, the (Bayreuth Festspielhaus). The third and fourth operas of the cycle, "Siegfried" and "Götterdämmerung " were being performed for the first time.

paragraphs: Wagner spent the rest of his life living in "Wahnfried". Sometimes he travelled. He went to London and made several trips to Italy. He wrote his last opera, "Parsifal", which almost has a religious feeling to it. The story is related to the legends about King Arthur and the Holy Grail. Wagner dictated his memoirs to his wife. His autobiography is called "Mein Leben" ("My Life"). He died of a heart attack when he was staying in Venice. He was buried in the grounds of "Wahnfried".

paragraphs: Wagner had enormous influence on the development of music. Many composers imitated his harmonies, or let themselves be influenced by them. By the early 20th century some composers like Arnold Schoenberg had gone even farther in making more and more complicated harmonies, and composers had to find new ways of composing.

paragraphs: Wagner made his orchestras much bigger than usual. The woodwind, for example, need four of each instrument (four flutes, four oboes etc.), and there are extra instruments like the bass clarinet and Wagner tubas. His ideas about music drama were very important. His music helps the drama to be told because it develops all the time, like the music in a symphony.

paragraphs: Wagner was anti-semitic. Wagner's writings on Jews, including ‘Jewishness in Music’, corresponded to some existing anti-semitic trends of thought in Germany during the 19th century. The published essay attacks two Jewish composers and Jews in general.

paragraphs: Wagner died long before the Nazis arose. Wagner’s widow and heirs established direct political links with the Nazis. Their actions to belittle Jewish artists and involvement in anti-semetic organisations after 1914 helped prepare the ground for state-organised expulsion of Jewish artists after 1933.

paragraphs: When Hitler came to power in the 1930s he liked Wagner’s music and thought that it was something typically German. Wagner’s ideas in "Die Meistersinger von Nűrnberg" about German art suited some of Hitler’s thoughts. After the war, the music was wrongly thought of as being something of the Nazis. Wagner wrote things that freely expressed his dislike of Jewish composers, although he praised Felix Mendelssohn for his Hebrides Overture. Wagner also had some Jewish friends. Wagner's music is played very rarely in Israel. Daniel Barenboim made people in Israel angry by conducting Wagner’s music at a Jerusalem festival in 2001.


paragraphs: A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court is a novel. It was written by Mark Twain. It was published in 1889. It is one of the first stories about time travel.

paragraphs: Hank Morgan is an American from late 19th-century Connecticut. He travels back in time to King Arthur's Camelot. He has a lot of knowledge of science and technology. He becomes very powerful. People call him "The Boss". He tries to improve medieval society according to the morals and technologies of his time. In the end, Merlin puts Hank in a magic sleep. Hank wakes in his own time.


title: Juno (mythology)

paragraphs: Juno (), in Roman mythology, is the wife of Jupiter and the queen of the gods. She was later identified with the goddess Hera, the wife of Zeus in Greek mythology. She was the goddess of marriage and childbirth. She was called Juno Regina ("Queen"). She was the patron goddess of Rome and a protector of the state. With Jupiter and Minerva, she was part of the Capitoline triad of gods.

paragraphs: Juno, Roman goddess and Hera, Greek goddess, are the same person just believed to be different.


title: Excalibur

paragraphs: Excalibur is a legendary sword, in the mythology of Great Britain. It was owned by King Arthur. The sword and its name have become very widespread in popular culture, and are used in fiction and films. Excalibur is a symbol of divine kingship and great power.

paragraphs: The sword was obtained by the king with the advice of his wizard-adviser Merlin. But it was considered that there existed two Excalibur swords. The first was the one Merlin put into the stone and said that the throne will be taken by the one who will take the sword out of the stone. Young Arthur was the one to do it. The second Excalibur was the one to which Merlin took the King. The sword was located at a magical lake where the Lady of the Lake gave it to Arthur. The Excalibur was made by an Avalonian elf. Later the sword was stolen by his sister and it was the time when the scabbard (sword coverage) was lost. In the battle of Camlann, Arthur was hurt, and he told Bedwyr (Griflet) to return the Excalibur to the lake.

paragraphs: One of the earliest names of King Arthur's sword was Caladfwlch. It is a Welsh word that comes from Calad-Bolg (Hard Lightning). Later it was changed to Caliburn by Geoffrey of Monmouth. And today we know it as Excalibur, due to French.

paragraphs: The legend of Excalibur is similar to the Irish hero, Cú Chulainn who had a sword named Caladbolg; or to Norse Legend of Sigurd. All these swords were made by an elf. Sometimes he is named Wayland (Saxon myth); and Gofannon (Celtic myth).

paragraphs: Clarent is one of King Arthur's two mythic swords. The first is Excalibur – the sword of war, and the second Clarent – the sword of peace. Clarent sword is less known because it was used for peaceful acts, whereas the Excalibur was well known for it was used to defend Camelot. But by the legend the Clarent Sword play a very important role. It was stolen by the traitor Mordred, who later used it against Arthur and cut him to death.

paragraphs: In some versions of the story of Excalibur, it is said that the sword was forged in dragon fire, though it is not commonly told of.

paragraphs: "No government should be based on old hags handing out swords!!"-Sir Galahad, Monty Python's, Spamalot


title: Georg Philipp Telemann

paragraphs: Georg Philipp Telemann (March 14, 1681 in Magdeburg - June 25, 1767 in Hamburg) was a German baroque composer. He wrote over 601 pieces of music, many of which were published. As publishing cost much money at that time, this was quite unusual. He mostly taught himself musically and knew how to play 10(gay)instruments. During his life people thought he was one of the greatest composers. He also wrote lots of church music, most of which is not common today.


title: Giovanni da Palestrina

paragraphs: Giovanni da Palestrina (born Palestrina, (c.1525 – February 2, 1594 in Rome) was a very important Italian composer of church music of his time. He lived in the period called the Renaissance. Most of his music was choral (written for choirs). It is very polyphonic. This means that the different voices (sopranos, altos, tenors or basses) are often singing different words and different parts of the tune at the same time. Many composers since have studied the way that Palestrina wrote, because this is an excellent way to learn to write contrapuntal music.

paragraphs: Palestrina took his name from the town where he was born. We are not sure of the exact date of his birth. Any records of his birth were destroyed when the town burned in 1577. He was probably a choirboy in Palestrina. When he was grown up he got a job as organist and choir director at the Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. He was not earning much money, but he married a lady who came from a very rich family, so he was comfortably off. Pope Julius III heard about how good this young composer was. He asked him to come and meet him. He was given the job of master of the Capella Juliana, the choir that sang at the services in St Peter’s, Rome. This was the top job in Italy and he was only 26. Of course, Palestrina composed a mass in the pope’s honour.

paragraphs: Palestrina composed 93 masses (these are musical settings of the words of the communion service). He also wrote motets and madrigals. Palestrina and Lassus were the two greatest composers of the late Renaissance.


title: The Prince and the Pauper

paragraphs: The Prince and the Pauper is a book by Mark Twain. It was published in 1882. The story has been adapted to stage, television, and movies.

paragraphs: The story takes place in England, in the year 1547 when the King has a glorious and much rejoiced birth of the son he awaited, Edward the fourth, after many sisters (Mary and Elizabeth)and still births. By chance, Prince Edward, son of King Henry VIII of England and Jane Seymor, and Tom Canty, a pauper (poor boy), find out that they look exactly the same, like identical twins. After they put on each other's clothes for fun, the prince is thrown out of the palace, while people think that Tom is the prince. Now both Edward and Tom have to live in a world where they are treated different and which they do not understand.

paragraphs: Tom lives the life of a prince. On the streets of London, Edward is saved by the nobleman Miles Hendon. Edward travels with Miles around England. There Edward sees and has to live with the poverty and cruel treatment in the life of the poor people.

paragraphs: Then King Henry VIII dies. People prepare to make Tom the next King. At the crowning ceremony, Edward arrives and says that he is the real Prince. In the end, Tom and Edward can clear everything up. Edward becomes King of England. Tom Canty becomes "The King's Ward", a position in which he can live comfortably for the rest of his life. Miles Hendon is made an Earl. King Edward's rule is very good to the common and poor people, because he has lived that way for a while and knows how hard it is. But Edward dies when he is still very young.


title: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

paragraphs: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is a book written by Mark Twain, published in 1876. There is also a sequel, the "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn".

paragraphs: It is the story about the boy Tom Sawyer who lives in America in the first half of the 19th century, and his everyday life has awsome adventures.

paragraphs: Tom Sawyer is 12 years old and lives with his Aunt Polly, his half-brother Sid and his cousin Mary in St.Petersburg, a small town along the Mississippi River.

paragraphs: Because Tom went to school and made his clothes dirty in a fight, he gets punished and he had to whitewash the fence. Because he does not want to do this, he tells some boys what a “pleasure” it is to do the work. His plan works and the boys even pay him for this.

paragraphs: As the story goes on, Tom falls in love with Becky Thatcher, the Judge’s daughter. He convinces her to get “engaged” to him but when she finds out that she is not the first girl he is engaged to, she breaks up with him.

paragraphs: One night, Tom goes with Huckleberry Finn, the town drunk’s son, to the graveyard to try out a “cure” for warts. When they arrive there at midnight, they see Injun Joe murdering Dr. Robinson. The murderer blames his drunken companion Muff Potter for committing the crime and in addition to that, Injun Joe’s accomplice gets arrested the next day. Because Tom and Huck are afraid of him, they swear not to tell anybody about what they have seen.

paragraphs: Some days later, Tom, Huck and their friend Joe Harper run away to an uninhabited island on the Mississippi. They want to become pirates there. The boys are having a great time there and do not care about their families and friends. After some days, their families search their bodies in the river because they think the boys are drowned. Because Tom wants more information, he returns home without being seen and overhears his aunt and some other people from town talk about the boys’ funeral. Afterwards he goes back to the island to tell his friends about his idea to return home at their funeral. Huck and Joe are convinced that this will be a big surprise and agree. As they expect, everybody is surprised and happy that they are back. After their return all classmates admire them.

paragraphs: After this incident, Becky is interested in Tom again and they continue where their relationship first ended.

paragraphs: Then the trial of Cheyenne Frazier started. At this moment, Tom feels guilty for not telling the truth. So he tells that Injun Joe is the real murderer but he does not mention that Huck also saw the crime. After this, Muff Potter comes free and Injun Joe flees through a window. Now, Tom is afraid that Injun Joe could kill him.

paragraphs: Sometime later, Tom and Huck see Injun Joe and his companion when they find a box full of gold coins in the “haunted house”. The boys follow him to see where they hide the treasure but it does not work. When they find out that Injun Joe hangs out in a room in the “Temperance Tavern”, Huck shadows the murderer each night.

paragraphs: One night, Tom and Becky go on a picnic with their classmates to McDougal’s cave. Both told their families that they spend the night at a friend’s house because they want to stay the night together. Later that night, they separate from the others and get lost in the cave. Nobody notices that they are gone, so their families miss them just the next morning.

paragraphs: The same night, Huck follows Injun Joe who hides the box of gold. Huck hears him and his companion talking that they want to kill the widow Douglas. Afterwards, he goes to the Welshman who helps to chase the criminals away.

paragraphs: In the meantime, Tom sees a person in the cave and first thinks of help, but it turns out that it is Injun Joe. He does not tell Becky about that and after a long time Tom finds a small hole where they can escape.

paragraphs: After some days, Tom wants to visit Becky and her father tells him that the hole has been closed. The boy tells the Judge that he saw Injun Joe inside the cave. So the townspeople go to the cave where they find the dead body of Injun Joe.

paragraphs: Tom shows Huck the hole where he got out of the cave and both search and finally really find the treasure inside.

paragraphs: In the end, the Widow Douglas adopts Huck Finn. First Huck does not like it but Tom tells him that he can just join his robber band if he stays. Finally, Huck agrees.


title: Billy Boyd

paragraphs: Billy Boyd (born 28 August 1968, in Glasgow) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing Peregrin Took in the "Lord of the Rings" movie trilogy (2001–2003) and Barrett Bonden in Peter Weir's movie "" (2003).

paragraphs: As well as being an actor, he can sing, and play the guitar, bass, and drums. He wrote and sang a song in Peter Jackson's "".

paragraphs: He worked as a book-binder for 6 years before becoming an actor. One of the books he bound was "The Lord of the Rings".

paragraphs: He lives in a house in Lesmahagow with his girlfriend, Alison McKinnon. On 26 April 2006, he and McKinnon had their first child: Jack William Boyd.


title: Turing machine

paragraphs: Turing machine is a term from computer science. A Turing machine is a system of rules, states and transitions rather than a "real" machine. It was first described in 1936 by English mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing. There are two purposes for a Turing machine: deciding formal languages and solving mathematical functions. Turing machines are one of the most important formal models in the study of computer science.

paragraphs: A Turing machine consists of the following components (simplified):

paragraphs: Also, a working-alphabet (set of characters) has to be defined.

paragraphs: When a Turing machine is started, a word (out of the working-alphabet) must be present on the infinite tape of the machine. The read/write-device on the first character now reads the first character and depending on the current state of Turing machine the read/write-device overwrites the character with a new one or moves one cell to the left or to the right. Furthermore, the current state of the machine can be switched.

paragraphs: For decidability theory a Turing machine is said to "decide a language" if it is always able to determine whether a given word is contained in a certain language or not. Therefore, the machine usually has two special states marked as "Accept" and "Reject". After a while one of the two states will be reached (depending on the input word) and the machine is halted. If only one of the two states will ever be reached, the Turing machine is said to "semi-decide" a language.

paragraphs: If a Turing machine is used for the computation of functions it only has one "end state". When the machine comes to that state it is halted and the result of the function (depending on the input) can be found on the tape.

paragraphs: Turing machines were not invented to be built in reality, but they are very important for theoretical computer science as they are one of the simplest models for computers. The Church-Turing thesis states that all computers are only as powerful as Turing machines. This can be used to prove if a problem is solvable by a computer or not.


title: Canadian football

paragraphs: Canadian football is football generally played in Canada and follows much the same general rules as American Football. Compared to American football, the field is slightly longer and wider, 110 by 65 yards (101 by 59 m) rather than 100 by 53 1/3 yards (91 by 49 m), and the endzones are 10 to 15 yards deeper. There are also only 3 downs instead of 4, and the field goal posts are at the front of the endzone instead of the back. There are 12 players per team on the field during play. More than one player may be in motion before the snap of the ball and the rules are less strict about players position relative to the line of scrimmage.


title: John Rhys-Davies

paragraphs: John Rhys-Davies (born 5 May 1944, in Ammanford, Carmarthenshire, Wales) is a British actor. Although he has played in many movies, Rhys-Davies is probably best known for his characters in two blockbuster movie series: Sallah in the "Indiana Jones" movies and the dwarf Gimli in the "Lord of the Rings" movie trilogy.


title: Sean Bean

paragraphs: Sean Bean (born as Shaun Mark Bean on 17 April 1959) is an English actor. As an actor, he adopted the Irish/Scottish spelling "Sean" of his first name. He was born in Handsworth, Sheffield, West Riding of Yorkshire.


title: Tripoli, Greece

paragraphs: Tripoli () is a city in Greece. It is in the center of the Peloponnese. It is built at an altitude of about 600 meters, at the bottom of Mainalo mountain. It had 28,876 people according to the 2001 census. Tripoli is the capital of Arcadia prefecture.

paragraphs: Tripoli is connected to the capital city Athens by a motorway between Corinth-Tripoli-Kalamata, which is a part of the E65.


title: 2006 FIFA World Cup

paragraphs: The 2006 FIFA World Cup was a football (soccer) sporting event that was held in Germany from June 9 to July 9, 2006. 32 teams took part from many countries. Italy won the trophy after beating France in the final. Germany got third place at home.


title: Polynesia

paragraphs: Polynesia is a group of over 1,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean.

paragraphs: Polynesia is the islands in a triangle in the Pacific Ocean. The top of the triangle is Hawai'i, the bottom left is New Zealand and the bottom right is Easter Island. All the islands inside the triangle are Polynesia.


title: Cocaine

paragraphs: Cocaine (also cocain) is a drug that is made from coca leaves. Cocaine is usually a white powder. Most cocaine is used as an illegal drug. Because it is a stimulant, cocaine gives people energy. It also makes people feel very happy when it is taken. When used this way, cocaine is very addictive. However, cocaine can also be used as a local anesthetic if it is applied topically (onto the skin or gums).

paragraphs: Cocaine is taken from the leaves of the coca plant. Coca plants are mostly grown in South America, in countries like Brazil or Argentina. When Spanish conquistadors (explorers) discovered coca plants, they sent them back to Europe. People started using cocaine as a medicine, as well as in drinks and food. This was because they did not know how damaging and addictive the drug could be when used.

paragraphs: In America, cocaine was used during surgery, or to treat toothaches. It was also put into drinks. When Coca-Cola was first made in 1885, it got the first part of its name from the "handful of coca leaves" added to the drink for energy. (The caffeine in the drink came from the kola nut, so the name "Coca-Cola" was chosen.) Cocaine was taken out of Coca-Cola completely by the 1920s because of pressure from groups in the United States.

paragraphs: When cocaine is applied topically (onto the skin or gums), it causes numbness.

paragraphs: When cocaine is chewed or eaten, inhaled into the nose ("snorted"), or injected into the veins, it causes people to feel euphoric (very happy), alert, very confident, and full of energy. This feeling is called being "high." Some people who take cocaine also have unpleasant feelings. They may feel worried, anxious, or even paranoid. They may also have physical symptoms, like shaking, a high heart rate, and high body temperature.

paragraphs: Cocaine cannot be smoked in its normal form. It must react with another chemical to form crack cocaine, which can be smoked. This is because burning normal cocaine destroys it, so the user does not get the effect they want.

paragraphs: In most countries, it is illegal to make, sell, or use cocaine (unless it is being used for approved medical reasons).

paragraphs: As an illegal drug, cocaine can be used in its powder form, or it can be made into crack cocaine. Usually, crack is made by adding baking soda and water to cocaine and then heating the mixture. Crack is usually less expensive than the normal form of cocaine. Crack is usually smoked. It gives users a high that is very strong, but does not last as long as the high from regular cocaine. Both forms of cocaine are addictive, although crack cocaine is thought to be more addictive as it is usually smoked.

paragraphs: If people use cocaine, they may take too much and get sick or even die. This is called an "overdose". When people take cocaine, they get intoxicated as well. When a person is intoxicated, they may do dangerous things, such as having unsafe sex with a person they do not know, or getting into a violent fight with a person.

paragraphs: If a person uses cocaine for a long time, they can start to get strange feelings, like there are bugs crawling under their skin, or they can get paranoia (a feeling that there are people that want to hurt them).

paragraphs: Cocaine is a very addictive drug. It can lead to psychological and/or physical dependence. When a person is addicted to a drug, they might do bad or criminal acts in order to get money for more drugs, such as crimes (for example theft, robbery, fraud, or prostitution). If the person tries to stop using cocaine, they will go through cocaine withdrawal.

paragraphs: Another danger from using cocaine is the risk of infection when using unsafe ways of taking cocaine (like using dirty needles when injecting cocaine). A person can get infectious diseases like HIV or Hepatitis C when they use cocaine in these ways.

paragraphs: Cocaine is also occasionally used as a legal medicine in Australia and some parts of Europe, if a person has a prescription from a doctor. Doctors sometimes prescribe cocaine for people who want to lose weight, because cocaine decreases the appetite.

paragraphs: Dentists in countries like Australia sometimes use forms of cocaine in dental operations, as an anaesthetic. Anaesthetics are medicines or drugs which stop a person from feeling pain. Doctors, surgeons, and dentists use anaesthetics when they are doing operations, so that the patient will not feel pain. Dentists put the cocaine on the patient's mouth so that the patient will not feel pain in their mouth during the operation.


title: Viola

paragraphs: A viola ( ) is a musical instrument which is similar to the violin and cello. The viola sounds lower than a violin, but higher than a cello. It has four strings, called the C, G, D, and A strings. The highest string is the A. The viola is played with a bow in the right hand. Playing with the bow is called arco. Sometimes the strings may be plucked (pizzicato).

paragraphs: When people see the viola, sometimes they think it is a violin. This is because the viola is only a little larger than a violin, and like the violin, the viola is held on the player's left shoulder. It is also because the sound of the viola is only five notes lower than the sound of the violin. The biggest difference between the viola and the violin is the different sound. The viola's lowest string is the "C" string and its highest string is the "A" string. So, to see whether a violin-like instrument is a violin or viola, one will need to pluck the thinnest string. The violin's lowest string is the "G" string and its highest string is the "E" string. Even though the viola and violin can play many of the same notes, they each have a special sound quality. Sometimes people describe the viola's sound as more "dark", "earthy", or "mellow" than the violin's sound.

paragraphs: The person that makes and repairs violas is called a luthier.The Viola is also known as the Cinderella of the orchestra, due to it being unfairly neglected when it comes to popularity to the public and choice of famous classical music. Lionel Tertis and William Primrose were the two famous violist that helped the viola gain popularity and right to be a solo instrument.

paragraphs: People who write music often use the viola for harmony notes. It is one of the main instruments in a string quartet, along with two violins and a cello. The viola is found in chamber ensembles of string instruments only, and also in full symphony orchestras where strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion instruments play together. The viola can also be a solo instrument, but is mostly used in an orchestra. The viola comes in many sizes. The sizes are measured in inches, such as a 14-inch viola. The size of the viola is measured from the bottom to the neck of it (its body's length).


title: String

paragraphs: Generally, string is a thin piece of rope or twine which is used to tie, bind, or hang other objects. String can be made from a variety of fibres.


title: Windsor, Berkshire

paragraphs: Windsor is a town in Berkshire, England. It is near the River Thames. The Queen has a castle in Windsor called Windsor Castle.


title: Windsor Castle

paragraphs: Windsor Castle is the largest inhabited castle in the world. It is in Windsor, Berkshire, England. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom lives there for part of the year. The castle was built in the 11th century by William the Conqueror as a motte-and-bailey castle for the protection of England; it has been expanded and rebuilt many times. It was a military headquarters during the English Civil War. In 1992, there was a fire at the castle.

paragraphs: Windsor Castle is near the River Thames.


title: Peugeot 206

paragraphs: The Peugeot 206 is a small car made by the French company Peugeot from 1998 to 2013 in Europe with production ongoing in some markets. The car came in 3 or 5-door hatchback models with a hard-top convertible version added in 2000 and an estate version added in 2002, in 2006 it was replaced by the 207 but the 206 stayed as a budget model, in 2009 a heavily facelifted version called the 206+ arrived although this wasn't sold in the UK.


title: Renault Clio

paragraphs: The Renault Clio is a small car made by Renault since 1990. There are four generations of the Renault Clio. The Renault Clio was a replacement for the Renault 5. The car was intended to compete against established rivals in the European supermini market such as the Ford Fiesta, Vauxhall/Opel Corsa, Volkswagen Polo, Rover Metro and the Fiat Uno.

paragraphs: The first Clio was produced from 1990 until 1998. The design was facelifted twice. It was 3700 millimeters long, 1670 millimeters wide and 1410 millimeters high. This Clio was voted European Car of the Year in 1991. The car went on sale somewhat cheaper than most of its rivals but had a basic interior. The previous Renault 5 continued to sell up until 1996 as a cheaper alternative to the Clio, being badged as the 'Renault 5 Campus'.

paragraphs: A sports version of the Renault Clio I with a 2.0l petrol engine was launched in 1992. This was called the 'Clio Williams' and was designed to compete with other 'hot'hatches' such as the Peugeot 205 GTI.

paragraphs: Sales of the Renault Clio I were strong throughout Europe, and it is often credited as the first Renault car to break into the British market as many previous models had sold poorly in the United Kingdom. The Clio did not have to compete with the smaller Renault Twingo in the United Kingdom as this was only made available in continental Europe.

paragraphs: The second Clio was produced from 1998 until 2012. Its design was facelifted three times, the first in 2001, the second in 2006 and the third in 2009. The latter two being called the 'Renault Clio Campus and marketed alongside the Clio III. The rounded design of the Clio II contrasted with the 'square' Clio I. Certain issues with the previous design were addressed, for instance, the front wings were made of plastic, following problems with corrosion on the previous model.

paragraphs: In 1999, the "Renault Sport" or "Clio RS" was launched as a 'hot-hatch' and as a replacement for the previous "Renault Clio Williams". This was entirely based on the Clio II.

paragraphs: A saloon version of the Renault Clio II was launched in South America and Eastern Europe, however was unavailable to customers in Western Europe.

paragraphs: The third generation of the Clio has been produced since 2005. In 2007 the Clio Sportourer, the station wagon version was launched. The design was facelifted in 2009. The Clio III achieved a 5-star NCAP safety rating, leaving only the Twingo and the Kangoo in the range without one. It's replacement arrived in late 2012.

paragraphs: The Clio entered its fourth generation in late 2012. There's no longer a 3-door model in the range but it's available as a 5-door and a wagon, the latter isn't sold in the UK.

paragraphs: The Clio 'Papa and Nicole' adverts featuring a young promiscuous woman and her slow witted father ran throughout the cars early years and were voted one of the favourite adverts on television in the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: A safety issue where the bonnet of the Clio II could come open whilst driving was highlighted by BBC consumer affairs programme, Watchdog. Some of these models were recalled by Renault. Problems were also highlighed where hazard warning light could come on without notice being unable to be switched off.


title: Trojan Horse

paragraphs: The Trojan Horse is a large wooden horse from the Trojan War in Greek mythology. In the Trojan War, the Greeks were fighting against the city of Troy. The war started when Helen, the queen of Sparta, was kidnapped by Paris, prince of Troy. The Greeks waged war on Troy to win Helen of Troy back.

paragraphs: The Greeks could not enter the city or win the war. Because of this, Odysseus, one of the Grecian leaders, thought of a way to trick the Trojans. The Greeks built a large wooden horse out of a ship and left it outside the gates of the city as a present for the Trojans, then sailed away. The Greek ships hid behind a nearby land mass. The Trojans took the horse and put it inside their city, thinking it was a victory gift from the Greeks. The Trojans had a festival to celebrate their victory. Odysseus chose a horse so that Athena (goddess of wisdom and strength) would grant them good luck after the battle. After the Trojan victory festival ended, the Greeks, who were hiding inside the horse, came out. They opened the city gates to let the other Greeks enter Troy. The Greeks easily overpowered the unsuspecting Trojans and took control of the city. Because of the Trojan Horse, the Greeks won the Trojan War.

paragraphs: Today the word "Trojan horse" is used for things that are similar to that story: something that looks good, but in truth has another purpose, usually bad. An example for this is a type of computer virus called a Trojan horse.


title: Tesco

paragraphs: Tesco is a multinational retailer from the United Kingdom. It was started by in 1919 by Jack Cohen, who opened the first Tesco grocery store in 1931 near London, England. His business grew very quickly and there were 100 Tesco stores by 1939. At first, Tesco only sold food in its stores, but in the 1990s it began to sell other things like mobile phones, DVDs and videos, clothing, and books. It now also operates petrol stations, banks, and is an Internet service provider in the UK since 2012.

paragraphs: There are different brands of Tesco stores, which are all different sizes. They go from small convenience stores to large hypermarkets. With more than 3,000 stores in the UK alone, it is one of the biggest retailers in the country. Tesco's website was also one of the first to let people buy things from the Internet.

paragraphs: The company that owns Tesco is called Tesco plc (public limited company) and is listed on the London Stock Exchange. It has opened stores in other countries in Europe and Asia. Countries with Tesco stores include Ireland, Hungary, Malaysia, and Thailand. Today, Tesco is the third-largest retailer in the world when measured by profit and the fifth-largest by revenue.


title: Fiat Panda

paragraphs: The Fiat Panda is a small car made by Fiat from 1980 until 2003. It has four seats and two doors.

paragraphs: Normally it is bought by small families or young adults because the car is quite cheap and also the tax is not very high.

paragraphs: The second series of the car has sold since 2003 and was the European Car Of The Year in 2004. It entered its third generation in 2011.


title: Fiat Croma

paragraphs: Fiat Croma is the name of two different large cars made by Fiat. The first was made between 1985 and 1996, and the design of it was changed in 1991. The second generation has been built between 2005 and 2010. Both have five seats and four doors.


title: Fiat Ulysse

paragraphs: The Fiat Ulysse was a large car with seven seats made by Fiat in two generations between 1994 and 2010. It is the only Eurovan in the PSA/Fiat joint vesture to have retained the same name in the second generation.


title: Fiat Punto

paragraphs: The Fiat Punto is a automobile produced by Fiat in three generations since 1993.


title: Volkswagen Polo

paragraphs: The Volkswagen Polo is a small car made by the German company Volkswagen since 1975. It has five seats and can have two to five doors, and entered its fifth generation in 2009. The first generation was made from 1975 to 1981 with a facelift in 1979. The second generation was made between 1981 and 1994 and was facelifted in 1990. The third generation was made from late 1994 to early 2002 with a facelift in early 2000. The fourth generation launched in early 2002 and featured distinctive twin round headlamps, they were dropped when it was facelifted in mid-2005. The fifth generation arrived in 2009 and was facelifted in mid-2014. The sixth generation has recently been revealed and will go on sale later in 2017.


title: Volkswagen Fox

paragraphs: The Volkswagen Fox is a small car made by the German company Volkswagen. It has four seats, four wheels and two doors. The car is similar in size to the Ford Ka.


title: Proton Savvy

paragraphs: The Proton Savvy is a small car made by the Malaysian company Proton. It has five seats and five doors.


title: Peugeot 107

paragraphs: The Peugeot 107 is a small car made by the French company Peugeot in the Czech Republic since 2005. It has four seats and either two or four doors. The car is related to the Toyota Aygo and the Citroën C1. It was facelifted in early 2009 and again in early 2012. It was replaced in 2014 with the 108.


title: Toyota Aygo

paragraphs: The Toyota Aygo is a small car made by the Japanese company Toyota in the Czech Republic since 2005. It has four seats and either two or four doors. The car has a 1-litre petrol or 1,4-litre diesel engine. The car is similar to the Peugeot 107 and Citroën C1. It entered its second generation in 2014.


title: Airbus A380

paragraphs: The Airbus A380 (also called "Super-jumbo-jet") is a four-engined, double-decked airplane manufactured by Airbus. It is the world's biggest passenger airplane, larger than the Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet. However, it is not the biggest airplane in the world; the Antonov An-225 super-freighter is bigger.

paragraphs: The Airbus A380 can carry up to 850 passengers (but it usually carries about 525), and weighs over 550 tonnes. It has four Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines or four Engine Alliance GP7000 engines. The companies General Electric and Pratt & Whitney make alliance engines.

paragraphs: Hundreds of A380-800 airplanes have been ordered by 20 airlines. One has been ordered by a Saudi Arabian Prince, Al-Walid bin Talal and 10 by a company called ILFC (who gives other airlines airplanes for rent).

paragraphs: Emirates Airlines (an airline from the United Arab Emirates) will have the most A380 aircraft, because they have ordered 162 aircraft. Singapore Airlines took delivery of the first A380, which flew to Sydney in Australia on October 25, 2007. Singapore Airlines now have 19 A380s and are still waiting for 5 more.

paragraphs: Other airlines which have ordered the A380 are Qantas (from Australia, currently operating 7), Air France (whick has four), China Southern Airlines, Lufthansa (the German airline, which has four), Kingfisher Airlines (from India), Korean Air (from South Korea), Thai Airways, Malaysia Airlines, British Airways, Qatar Airways, Etihad Airways (from the United Arab Emirates), Virgin Atlantic (from the United Kingdom) and Air Austral (France).

paragraphs: More than 200 A380 have been delivered, including 15 in 2017 and 12 in 2018.

paragraphs: Airbus was going to make a version of the A380 to carry cargo instead of people. This would look almost the same as the normal passenger version, but with no windows and much bigger doors. Some cargo companies ordered the plane, like FedEx and UPS. Because Airbus took too long to make the A380, those orders were canceled. Because Airbus has not got any orders for the plane anymore, they decided to not make the freighter version for a while and focus on making the passenger version of the A380.

paragraphs: The Airbus A380 had 1 incident, with no deaths.

paragraphs: 2. The A380 was built to contend with the Boeing 747 "Jumbo Jet"

paragraphs: 3. It's officially dead. Airbus are planning to stop A380 production by 2021.


title: Paris (mythology)

paragraphs: Paris, also called Alexandros, is a person in Greek mythology. He is an important person in the Trojan War, and Homer's "Iliad".

paragraphs: Alexandros (Paris) was the son of King Priam of Troy and his wife Hecuba. Because it was prophesied that he would bring the end and destruction of Troy, he was left to die in the wilderness. But Alexandros was found by another man, who took him as a son and named him Paris.

paragraphs: Three goddesses, Hera, Aphrodite, and Athene, had a beauty contest. They all bribed Paris with different offers. Hera offered him power, Athene offered him wisdom, and Aphrodite promised him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen.

paragraphs: The problem was that Helen was already married to Menelaus. Paris used a trick to take Helen home with him to Troy. This caused the Trojan War.

paragraphs: During the war, Paris killed Achilles by shooting his heel with a poisoned arrow.

paragraphs: Late in the war, Paris was killed by Philoctetes.


title: Helen of Troy

paragraphs: In Greek mythology, Helen, also known as Helen of Troy (Ancient Greek: Ἑλένη, Helénē), was said to have been the most beautiful woman in the world. The queen of Sparta, Helen was married to Menelaus, but later eloped with Prince Paris of Troy (most often depicted as being kidnapped) and taken to Troy, resulting in the Trojan War as the Achaeans set out to bring her back to Sparta. She was believed to be the daughter of Zeus and Leda, the wife of King Tyndareos of Sparta, and was the sister of twins Castor and Polydeukes, and Clytemnestra.


title: RSA algorithm

paragraphs: RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is an algorithm used by modern computers to encrypt and decrypt messages. It is an asymmetric cryptographic algorithm. Asymmetric means that there are two different keys. This is also called public key cryptography, because one of the keys can be given to anyone. The other key must be kept private. The algorithm is based on the fact that finding the factors of a large composite number is difficult: when the factors are prime numbers, the problem is called prime factorization. It is also a key pair (public and private key) generator.

paragraphs: RSA involves a public key and private key. The public key can be known to everyone- it is used to encrypt messages. Messages encrypted using the public key can only be decrypted with the private key. The keys for the RSA algorithm are generated the following way:

paragraphs: The public key is made of the modulus formula_4 and the public (or encryption) exponent formula_6.<br>

paragraphs: The personal key is made of p,q and the private (or decryption) exponent formula_16 which must be kept secret.

paragraphs: Alice gives her public key (formula_4 & formula_6) to Bob and keeps her private key secret. Bob wants to send message M to Alice.

paragraphs: First he turns M into a number formula_50 smaller than formula_51 by using an agreed-upon reversible protocol known as a padding scheme. He then computes the ciphertext formula_52 corresponding to:

paragraphs: This can be done quickly using the method of exponentiation by squaring. Bob then sends formula_52 to Alice.

paragraphs: Alice can recover formula_55 from formula_52 by using her private key formula_16 in the following procedure:)

paragraphs: Given formula_55, she can recover the original distinct prime numbers, applying the Chinese remainder theorem to these two congruences yields

paragraphs: Here is an example of RSA encryption and decryption. The prime numbers used here are too small to let us securely encrypt anything. You can .

paragraphs: <br>The public key is (formula_73, formula_68). For a padded message formula_55the encryption function formula_76 becomes:

paragraphs: The private key is (formula_73, formula_71). The decryption function formula_80 becomes:

paragraphs: <br>For example, to encrypt formula_82, we calculate

paragraphs: Both of these calculations can be computed fast and easily using the square-and-multiply algorithm for .

paragraphs: RSA can easily be derived using Euler's theorem and Euler's totient function.

paragraphs: Starting with Euler's theorem,formula_86we must show that decrypting an encrypted message, with the correct key, will give the original message.

paragraphs: Given a padded message "m", the ciphertext "c", is calculated byformula_87Substituting into the decryption algorithm, we haveformula_88We want to show this value is also congruent to "m".

paragraphs: The values of "e" and "d" were chosen to satify,formula_89Which is to say, there exists some integer "k", such thatformula_90Now we substitute into the encrypted then decrypted message,formula_91We apply Euler's theorem, and achive the result.formula_92

paragraphs: When used in practice, RSA must be combined with some form of padding scheme, so that no values of "M" result in insecure ciphertexts. RSA used without padding may have some problems:

paragraphs: In practice, the first two problems can arise when short ASCII messages are sent. In such messages, "m" might be the concatenation of one or more ASCII-encoded character(s). A message consisting of a single ASCII codice_1 character (whose numeric value is 0) would be encoded as "m" = 0, which produces a ciphertext of 0 no matter which values of "e" and "N" are used. Likewise, a single ASCII codice_2 (whose numeric value is 1) would always produce a ciphertext of 1. For systems which conventionally use small values of "e", such as 3, all single character ASCII messages encoded using this scheme would be insecure, since the largest "m" would have a value of 255, and 255 is less than any reasonable modulus. Such plaintexts could be recovered by simply taking the cube root of the ciphertext.

paragraphs: To avoid these problems, practical RSA implementations typically embed some form of structured, randomized padding into the value "m" before encrypting it. This padding ensures that "m" does not fall into the range of insecure plaintexts, and that a given message, once padded, will encrypt to one of a large number of different possible ciphertexts. The latter property can increase the cost of a dictionary attack beyond the capabilities of a reasonable attacker.

paragraphs: Standards such as PKCS have been carefully designed to securely pad messages prior to RSA encryption. Because these schemes pad the plaintext "m" with some number of additional bits, the size of the un-padded message "M" must be somewhat smaller. RSA padding schemes must be carefully designed so as to prevent sophisticated attacks. This may be made easier by a predictable message structure. Early versions of the PKCS standard used constructions, which were later found vulnerable to a practical adaptive chosen ciphertext attack. Modern constructions use secure techniques such as Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP) to protect messages while preventing these attacks. The PKCS standard also has processing schemes designed to provide additional security for RSA signatures, e.g., the Probabilistic Signature Scheme for RSA (RSA-PSS).

paragraphs: Suppose Alice uses Bob's public key to send him an encrypted message. In the message, she can claim to be Alice but Bob has no way of verifying that the message was actually from Alice since anyone can use Bob's public key to send him encrypted messages. So, in order to verify the origin of a message, RSA can also be used to sign a message.

paragraphs: Suppose Alice wishes to send a signed message to Bob. She produces a hash value of the message, raises it to the power of "d" mod "n" (just like when decrypting a message), and attaches it as a "signature" to the message. When Bob receives the signed message, he raises the signature to the power of "e" mod "n" (just like encrypting a message), and compares the resulting hash value with the message's actual hash value. If the two agree, he knows that the author of the message was in possession of Alice's secret key, and that the message has not been tampered with since.

paragraphs: Note that secure padding schemes such as RSA-PSS are as essential for the security of message signing as they are for message encryption, and that the same key should never be used for both encryption and signing purposes.


title: Hector

paragraphs: Hector (, "Hektōr") was a Trojan prince and one of the central figures of the "Iliad". The first-born son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba, Hector was the heir apparent to the throne and the greatest of Troy's warriors in the defense of the city. Hector fought against a various number of the Greeks through the course of the Trojan War, including Protesilaus and Ajax. He was married to Andromache, with whom he had a son, Astyanax, whom the Trojans called Scamandrios.

paragraphs: Hector is eventually killed by Achilles (Book XXII of The Iliad).


title: Hecuba

paragraphs: Hecuba (also Hekuba or Hekabe) was a person in Greek mythology. She was the wife of King Priam of Troy.

paragraphs: Her children with Priam were: Sons: Hector, Paris, Deiphobos, Helenos, Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Polydoros. And daughters: Ilione, Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, and Kassandra.

paragraphs: After the Trojan War she became a slave of Odysseus.


title: Priam

paragraphs: Priam (Priamos or (Latin) Priamus) is a person in Greek mythology. He was the King of Troy during the Trojan War.

paragraphs: Priam had several wives, but his principal wife was Hecuba. With her he had his favourite son Hector; and Paris the cause of the war.

paragraphs: In Book II of Virgil's "Aeneid", he was killed during the destruction of Troy by Achilles' son Neoptolemus.


title: Achilles

paragraphs: Achilles (Ancient Greek: Ἀχιλλεύς, "Akhilleus") was a hero of the Trojan War and is the central character of Homer's "Iliad". The son of the mortal hero Peleus and the Nereid Thetis, he is the leader of the Myrmidons, and is described as the greatest of all the Achaean warriors. The "Iliad", which is set in the ninth year of the Trojan War, starts with a quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek forces.

paragraphs: Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was his slaying the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy, as revenge against Hector for killing his lover, Patroclus. While Achilles' death is not presented in the "Iliad" (as the poem ends with Hector's funeral), other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the war by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow.

paragraphs: Later stories depict Achilles as being invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel, as that is where his mother Thetis held him when she dipped him in the River Styx as an infant. As such, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a point of fatal weakness. Because of that, his heel was still vulnerable. However, the "Iliad" does not say this.

paragraphs: According to the legend, Achilles was killed by Paris, who shot his heel with a poisoned arrow. Achilles was shot many times by the arrows of Paris but the only arrow found on his body was through his heel.


title: Nymph

paragraphs: A nymph is a kind of female nature entity/spirit in Greek mythology. They are often companions of Greek gods and goddesses. Nymphs can be divided into different kinds, such as:


title: Romantic music

paragraphs: Romantic music is music written in the 19th century. This was the period called the “Romantic period” by musicians. In literature and some other arts the “Romantic period” is often said to begin and finish earlier: around mid 18th to mid 19th century.

paragraphs: In the Classical period artists liked to see clear forms. 18th century architecture nearly always shows a lot of symmetry. The gardens of the palace at Versailles are a good example of this with their very tidy patterns of straight paths, circular ponds and neatly clipped hedges.

paragraphs: In music the Classical composers such as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert liked to compose music which had a clear plan like sonata form.

paragraphs: In the Romantic period artists thought that feeling and passions were more important than formal plans. This can be seen in the gardens designed by Capability Brown, e.g. in at Blenheim Palace, Oxford. The gardens are made to blend into nature.

paragraphs: In music the Romantic composers may still use plans like sonata form, but feelings and passions are important. They often write what is called programme music which means: music that describes something or tells a story. Beethoven’s Sixth Symphony is called the “Pastoral” which means that it is about the countryside. Although Beethoven is usually called a composer of the Classical period he is also an early Romantic. Later composers such as Felix Mendelssohn wrote pieces like "Hebrides Overture" which describes the sea coming into Fingal’s Cave in the Inner Hebrides Islands in Scotland. Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) wrote a lot of music which tells a story. His "Symphonie Fantastique" is about an artist madly in love. Berlioz’s whole way of life was wild and romantic. He fell in love with an actress he saw on stage playing the part of Juliet in Shakespeare’s "Romeo and Juliet" and he actually married her! Other composers who wrote a lot of programme music include Franz Liszt (1811-1886) and Richard Strauss (1864-1949). Strauss always wrote in a late-Romantic style even although he lived well into the 20th century.

paragraphs: The Romantic period was also the period of Nationalism. "Nationalism" means being proud of one's country. In the 19th century a lot of European countries as we know them were being formed. In music a lot of composers were writing music which was typical of their country. They often did this by using folk music. Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904) and Bedřich Smetana (1824-1884) wrote music which sounds very Czech. Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) wrote music with Russian folk songs in them. Gustav Mahler (1860-1911) used German folk songs in his symphonies, and Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958) collected English folk songs and put them in his music. One of those pieces was a Fantasy on the famous tune "Greensleeves".


title: Nereid

paragraphs: In Greek mythology, the Nereids ( "Nereides") are sea nymphs, the fifty daughters of Nereus, the Old Man of the Sea, and the Okeanid Doris.


Romance


title: Romanticism

paragraphs: Romanticism (the Romantic era or Romantic period) is a movement, or style of art, literature and music in the late 18th and early 19th century in Europe.

paragraphs: The movement said that feelings, imagination, nature, human life, freedom of expression, individualism and old folk traditions, such as legends and fairy tales, were important. It was a reaction to the aristocratic social and political ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution.

paragraphs: It was also a reaction against turning nature into a mere science.

paragraphs: The movement showed most strongly in arts like music, and literature. However, it also had an important influence on historiography, education, and natural history.

paragraphs: Romanticism in Britain was notable as the country was an early adopter of industrialization and science, and included such figures as:

paragraphs: During the same period as Britain, there was a notable romantistic movement in Germany. Important motifs in German Romanticism are traveling, nature, and Germanic myths. Involved were such figures as:


title: Seveso disaster

paragraphs: The Seveso disaster was a chemical accident on 10 July 1976, at the small Italian town of Meda, 20 km from Milan in Lombardy. There was an explosion at a chemical factory which released a lot of the toxic poison dioxin, "TCDD", into the air. The cloud of poison gas covered an area 6 km long and 1 km wide. It was named after the municipality of Seveso. It resulted in the highest known exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in residential populations There were many studies and new regulations after the accident. The European Union directive covering the protection against such accidents is known as Seveso-II-directive today.

paragraphs: The company where the accident happened was called Icmesa. It was owned by Givaudan, who is owned by Roche. Icmesa produced Trichlorophenol, which is used to produce the disinfectant Hexachlorophene. The company was located in four communes; one of them Seveso.

paragraphs: None of the 20,000 people who lived in Seveso died, but the poison killed 3,000 farm animals and pets. Another 70,000 animals had to be killed to stop the dioxin from getting into the food chain.

paragraphs: Thirty years after the accident, scientists reported that babies born in the area affected by the dioxin were six times more likely to have thyroid problems. The affected children are being studied to see if this has stopped them growing properly, or having problems with intellectual development (IQ).


title: Junichiro Koizumi

paragraphs: Junichiro Koizumi is the former Prime Minister of Japan. He was born on January 8, 1942 in Japan. He stepped down in 2006.

paragraphs: Born in Yokosuka, Kanagawa on 8 January, 1942, Koizumi was taught at Yokosuka High School and Keio University, where he studied economics. He went to University College London before returning to Japan in August 1969 when his father died.

paragraphs: While he was prime minister of Japan, he made China and South Korea very angry by continuing to visit the Yasukuni Shrine. He was succeeded by Shinzo Abe.


title: Majulah Singapura

paragraphs: "Majulah Singapura" is the national anthem of Singapore. It was written and composed by Singaporean musician Zubir Said in 1958. Seven years later, the anthem was adopted. This song must be sung in Malay, although there are translations provided in the country's three other official languages—English, Mandarin Chinese, and Tamil.

paragraphs: Singaporeans are encouraged to sing the national anthem during times of national celebration or at important national events such as at the National Day Parade, at National Day observance ceremonies held by government departments and educational institutions such as schools and universities, and at sports events that Singapore teams take part in.


title: Abruzzo

paragraphs: Abruzzo is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in Southern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is the city of L'Aquila.

paragraphs: The region is located in Southern Italy bordered by Marche to the north, Lazio to the west, Molise to the south and the Adriatic Sea to the east.

paragraphs: Abruzzo is the 13th largest region in Italy, with a total area of . The main rivers in the region are:

paragraphs: The Tronto river is long but flows mainly in the Marche region.

paragraphs: The highest mountain in the region is Corno Grande (), in the Teramo province, with an altitude of .

paragraphs: The region is divided into four provinces:

paragraphs: The 10 communi of the region with more people living in it are:


title: Aegean Sea

paragraphs: The Aegean Sea is part of the Mediterranean Sea. It is between Greece and Anatolia. It is connected (attached) in the north to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The large islands of Rhodes and Crete mark the south end.

paragraphs: In ancient times two groups of people lived near the sea the Minoans of Crete, and the Myceneans of the Peloponnese. The city-states of Athens and Sparta came later and were part of Ancient Greece. Persians, Romans, the Byzantine Empire, the Venetians (people from Venice), the Seljuk Empire, and the Ottoman Empire later started around the Aegean Sea. The people near the Aegean were very advanced (powerful and clever) in Ancient history and they sailed across it to talk to each other.

paragraphs: There are seven groups of Aegean islands: the Thracian Sea group, the East Aegean group, the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades, the Saronic Islands (or Argo-Saronic Islands), the Dodecanese and Crete. The word archipelago used to mean these islands. Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of islands, are part of the mountain ranges on the mainland. One chain goes across the sea to Chios, another one goes across Euboea to Samos, and a third one goes across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes. This one divides (splits, cuts) the Aegean from the Mediterranean. Many of the islands have safe harbours and bays, but sailing in the sea is difficult. Many of the islands are volcanos, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The bigger islands have some green valleys and plains. Two big islands on the Aegean Sea are part of Turkey: Bozcaada () and Gökçeada ().


title: William de Wiveleslie Abney

paragraphs: William de Wiveleslie Abney (24 July 1843 – 3 December 1920) was an English astronomer, chemist, and photographer. Abney was a member of many scientific organizations.

paragraphs: He was best known for his discovering and measuring the effect of adding white to a hue, in 1910. The effect is generally known as the Abney effect. For example, adding white to red makes it slightly bluish (bluish red is known as pink), and adding white to yellowish green hues makes them less yellowish and thus greener.


title: Giacomo Casanova

paragraphs: Giacomo Girolamo Casanova (2 April 1725—4 June 1798) was a famous Venetian adventurer and writer. He was born in Venice. He is best known for having had many affairs with women. He died in Dux, Bohemia, (now Duchcov, Czech Republic).


title: Colima, Colima

paragraphs: Colima is the capital city of the Mexican state Colima. About 240,000 people live in this town.