title: Lofoten

paragraphs: Lofoten is an archipelago and a traditional district in the county of Nordland, Norway. Though lying within the Arctic Circle, Lofoten has one of the world's largest higher temperature anomalies relative to its high latitude.

paragraphs: Lofoten is well known for its natural beauty within Norway. Lofoten includes the municipalities of . The main islands, running from north to south, are

paragraphs: whilst further to the south are the small and isolated islands of Værøy and Røst. The total land area amounts to 1,227 km², and the population totals 24,500.

paragraphs: Between the mainland and the Lofoten archipelago is the vast, open Vestfjord, and to the north is Vesterålen. The main towns in Lofoten are Leknes in Vestvågøy and Svolvær in Vågan.

paragraphs: The islands have for more than 1,000 years been the centre of great cod fisheries, especially in winter, when the cod migrate south from the Barents Sea and gather in Lofoten to spawn. In the lowland areas, particularly Vestvågøy, agriculture is important and has been so since the Bronze Age.


title: Black hole information paradox

paragraphs: The black hole information paradox is a phenomenon in astrophysics. It is when quantum mechanics and general relativity are put together.

paragraphs: This phenomenon states that the information a physical system has can be lost when it enters a black hole. The object that falls into a black hole, only keeps information about its spin, mass and charge. However, the quantum mechanics says that information cannot be lost. This makes it a paradox.


title: Sabena Flight Academy

paragraphs: CAE Global Academy Brussels Sabena Flight Academy is a Belgian flight school created in 1953. It is in Steenokkerzeel (Brussels Airport). The school trains airline pilot and is part of CAE Global Academy.

paragraphs: The origins of the creation of a school providing training for future airline pilots start in 1953, when the Belgian government, which owns the aircraft, contracted the operation thereof to Sabena under the name "École d’aviation civile" (EAC). The theoretical and flight training parts are conducted at the airfield of Grimbergen in a building which no longer exists. Basic training is done through the De Havilland DH82A "Tiger Moth" replaced in 1968 by Siai Marchetti SF260, while the advanced training is entrusted to the Saab Safir 91B, replaced in 1958 by the Cessna 310B and in 1981 by the Embraer Xingu.

paragraphs: In 1991, the government gives the "École d’aviation civile" to Sabena airline. It is renowned first Belgian Aviation School and then Sabena Air Training Center, and the school moved into a new building at Brussels National Airport. It was decided to carry out practical training in flight to Phoenix in U.S.A because the weather in Arizona allows flights 365 days per year in a high and complex air traffic. Despite the bankruptcy of Sabena in 2001, the activities didn't stop. In 2004, the school was sold to two former managers of Sabena and became the Sabena Flight Academy.

paragraphs: It is finally absorbed in 2008 by the Canadian group CAE. The acquisition of SFA by CAE was conducted as part of a larger program to complete a global training network: the CAE Global Academy.


title: 1988 Pacific hurricane season

paragraphs: The 1988 Pacific hurricane season officially started May 15, 1988 in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, 1988 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1988. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean.

paragraphs: Despite there being twenty-three tropical cyclones, there were very few notable storms this year. Only four storms came anywhere near to threatening land. Tropical Storm Aletta and Hurricane Kristy both caused minor flooding in Mexico. Elsewhere, Uleki was a central north Pacific hurricane that crossed the dateline and became a typhoon. In addition, Tropical Depression Seventeen-E and Tropical Storm Miriam both entered from the Atlantic Ocean, were they were called Hurricane Debby and Hurricane Joan, respectively.


title: Period 5 element

paragraphs: A period 5 element is an element in the fifth period (row) of the periodic table. It contains 18 elements, beginning at Rubidium and ending at Xenon.


title: Period 6 element

paragraphs: A period 6 element is element in the sixth period (row) of the periodic table. It contains 32 elements, beginning at Caesium and ending with Radon. The Lanthanides (also called the rare earth elements) are part of this period. From lanthanum(57) to lutetium(71)


title: Period 7 element

paragraphs: A period 7 element is an element in the seventh period (row) of the periodic table. It contains 32 elements, beginning at Francium and ending with Oganesson. The Actinides are part of this period. They are all really radioactive.


title: Caroline Wozniacki

paragraphs: Caroline Wozniacki (born 11 July 1990) is a Danish professional tennis player. As of January 2018, she is the number 2 ranked female tennis player in the world. She used to be world number one. In her career, she has won one Grand Slam (2018 Australian Open) and 23 singles tournaments on the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) Tour. She also reached the finals of the 2009 and 2014 U.S. Open. She lost to Kim Clijsters and Serena Williams.

paragraphs: Wozniacki was born in Odense to Polish Catholic immigrant parents. She was engaged to golfer Rory McIlroy until 2014.


title: Algeciras

paragraphs: Algeciras is a city in the south of Spain. Is on the Mediterranean coast, in the Bay of Gibraltar. It is also the most important port in the country.

paragraphs: In 2009, about 116,209 people lived in the city. The municipal area is 86 km². It is approximately 20 km to the north of Africa.

paragraphs: The city has a long history. It was founded by phoenicians. Named Iulia Traducta by the Romans in the First Century.

paragraphs: In 711, Arab from the North of Africa invaded the city and renamed it "Al-Yazirat al-Hadra" (green island). In 1344 the city was conquered by Alfonso XI of Castile but it was reconquered by moors in 1369, ten years before Algeciras was destroyed.

paragraphs: In 1704 the city was refounded by Gibraltarians refugees.


title: Luke Mitchell

paragraphs: Luke Mitchell (born 17 April 1985) is an Australian actor from Queensland. Now living in Sydney, he is known for his role as Romeo Smith on the soap opera "Home and Away". He is presently dating his co-star Rebecca Breeds who plays Ruby Buckton on Home and Away.


title: Chris Smalling

paragraphs: Christopher Lloyd Smalling (born 22 November 1989) is an English footballer who plays for Manchester United.


title: Jonny Evans

paragraphs: Jonathan (Jonny) Grant Evans (born 2 January 1988) is a Northern Irish footballer who plays for Manchester United and Northern Ireland.


title: Danny Welbeck

paragraphs: Daniel (Danny) Nii Tackie Mensah Welbeck (born 26 November 1990) is an English international footballer who plays for Manchester United. He is of Ghanaian descent. Welbeck debuted for Manchester United in a league match against Sunderland.


title: Rafael Pereira da Silva

paragraphs: Rafael Pereira da Silva (born 9 July 1990) is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Manchester United.


title: Fábio Pereira da Silva

paragraphs: Fábio Pereira da Silva (born 9 July 1990) is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Manchester United.

paragraphs: He's the twin brother of Rafael Pereira da Saliva


title: Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty

paragraphs: An Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) is an area of countryside considered to have significant landscape value in England, Wales or Northern Ireland. Natural England designates them on behalf of the United Kingdom government. The Countryside Council for Wales designates them on behalf of the Welsh Government. The Northern Ireland Environment Agency designates them on behalf of the Northern Ireland Executive.

paragraphs: The chief purpose of the AONB designation is to conserve and enhance the natural beauty of the landscape, with two secondary aims: meeting the need for quiet enjoyment of the countryside and having regard for the interests of those who live and work there. To achieve these aims, AONBs rely on planning controls and practical countryside management.

paragraphs: As they have the same landscape quality, AONBs may be compared to the national parks of England and Wales. AONBs are created under the same legislation as the national parks, the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. Unlike AONBs, national parks have their own authorities, have special legal powers to prevent unsympathetic development, and are well known to many inhabitants of England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

paragraphs: There are 35 AONBs in England, four in Wales, one (Wye Valley) that is in both England and Wales and nine in Northern Ireland. The first AONB was awarded in 1956 to the Gower Peninsula, south Wales. The most recently confirmed is the Tamar Valley AONB in 1994. The smallest AONB is the Isles of Scilly (1976), , and the largest AONB is the Cotswolds (1966), . The AONBs of England and Wales together cover around 18% of the countryside in the two countries.


title: Chaturanga

paragraphs: Chaturanga is the earliest known form of chess, 6th century AD.

paragraphs: This precursor of modern chess originated in the northern Indian subcontinent during the Gupta empire. 'Chaturanga' translates as 'the four divisions', meaning infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry. They were the four divisions of an Indian army at the time, and no doubt the game was thought of as a war-game. At that time the game had no female piece: what we now call the queen was called "Mantri", meaning a minister or advisor.

paragraphs: The game eventually spread to the rest of the world after the Muslim conquest of Persia. It was then called Shatranj.

paragraphs: From the beginning until the end of the 15th century the pieces we call bishops and queens had limited movement, and it took longer to get the pieces into action. In modern chess, the original pieces evolved into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively.<ref name="H/W">Hooper, David and Whyld, Kenneth 1992. "The Oxford Companion to Chess" 2nd ed, Oxford University Press. </ref>


title: Shatranj

paragraphs: Chatrang, or Shatranj, was the name given to the early game of chess when it travelled to Persia and then to the Arab world.

paragraphs: In Sassanid Persia around 600 the name became Chatrang and the rules were developed further, and players started calling "Shāh!" (Persian for 'King') when threatening the opponent's king, and "Shāh māt!" (Persian for 'the king is finished') when the king could not escape from attack. These exclamations persisted in chess as it traveled to other lands.

paragraphs: The game was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia, with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names; in Arabic "māt" or "māta" مَاتَ means "died", "is dead". In Arabic, the game became Shatranj. In all other languages, the name of the game is derived either from "shatranj" or from "shah".

paragraphs: One interesting fact is that the Arabs divided their game into the same three stages which we do today: opening, middlegame and endgame.

paragraphs: At the start of a game, the Arabic masters took a number of moves before the pieces were in contact with the other side.

paragraphs: The following table provides a glimpse of the changes in the names and character of chess pieces, as they passed from one culture to another, from India through Persia to Europe:


title: Ice cap

paragraphs: Ice caps cover less than 50 000 km² of land area. Sheets of ice covering more than 50 000 km² are called ice sheets.

paragraphs: Ice caps are usually in high areas, but they are not limited to them.


title: Carbon–hydrogen bond activation

paragraphs: Carbon–hydrogen bond activation or C-H activation is a reaction that breaks a carbon–hydrogen bond. Most times, the reaction involves organometallic complexes. The reaction path has coordination of a hydrocarbon to the inner-sphere of the metal atom (“M”). The reaction path includes either an intermediate “alkane or arene complex” or as a transition state leading to a "M-C" intermediate. The reaction path makes C-H activation different from other reactions. During the C-H breaking event the hydrocarbyl group remains linked in the inner-sphere and under the influence of the metal atom.

paragraphs: Chemists study C-H activation because for many years chemists believed that C-H bonds were unreactive. Both theoretical studies as well as experiments now show that C-H bonds can be broken. This is done by a nearby metal atom changing the electron distribution of the C-H bond (coordination). Much chemical research looks at the design and synthesis of new reagents and catalysts that can affect C-H activation. The goal of this research is the conversion of cheap and abundant alkanes into valuable functionalized organic compounds.

paragraphs: Historians say that Otto Dimroth discovered the first C-H activation reaction. In 1902, he reported that benzene reacted with mercury(II) acetate (See: organomercury), but some scholars do not view this reaction as being a C-H activation. Goldman & Goldberg later wrote, C-H activation looks like H-H activation: both can be achieved by electrophilic or oxidative addition. The first true C-H activation reaction was reported by Joseph Chatt in 1965 with insertion of a ruthenium atom ligated to dmpe in the C-H bond of naphthalene.


title: Egyptian literature

paragraphs: Egyptian literature is some of the earliest known literature. The Egyptians were the first culture to develop the book.

paragraphs: The ancient Egyptians wrote on papyrus. They also wrote on walls, tombs, pyramids, obelisks, and more. A well-known example of ancient Egyptian literature is the Story of Sinuhe;

paragraphs: Alexandria became an important center of early Christianity from around the 1st to 4th century CE. Writing by Coptic Christians was important to Christian literature at that time.The Nag Hammadi library protected some books from being lost or destroyed.

paragraphs: Muslim Arabs controlled Egypt by the eighth century. Libraries and literature were important in Arab Egypt. Several important changes for writers happened at this time. Cloth paper replaced papyrus. Writers began using calligraphy. Also, writers began to write mostly about Islam. The earliest novel written in Egypt was Ibn al-Nafis' "Theologus Autodidactus". It was an early science fiction and religious novel.

paragraphs: In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Arab world experienced a cultural change like the Renaissance. This was called al-Nahda movement. It touched nearly all areas of life, including literature. One of the most important people from this time was Naguib Mahfouz. He was first Egyptian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Another important modern writer was Muhammad Husayn Haykal. He wrote "Zaynab" in 1914. It is an Islamic novel and is called the first modern Egyptian novel.


title: Phormium tenax

paragraphs: Phormium tenax ("harakeke" in Māori, New Zealand flax) is an evergreen perennial plant from New Zealand and Norfolk Island. It is an important fibre plant and also a popular garden plant.

paragraphs: The plant grows as a clump of long, straplike leaves up to two meters long. It grows a much taller flowering shoot, with dramatic yellow or red flowers.

paragraphs: The fibre from the plant was used by the Māori of New Zealand to make baskets. It was also used in rope and sail making. after the arrival of Europeans up until at least WWII

paragraphs: In other countries "Phormium tenax" is an invasive species. On Saint Helena it is taking over the land from the critically endangered species "Elaphoglossum dimorphum".

paragraphs: The jumping spider "Trite planiceps" lives in the rolled-up leaves of this species. "Phormium tenax" grows on the coast where it is important in the breeding habitat for the endangered Yellow-eyed Penguin.

paragraphs: Several forms of this species have been selected for cultivation as decorative garden plants including: The Royal Horticultural Society in England gave an Award of Garden Merit to the plant.


title: Extensive reading

paragraphs: Extensive reading is a way of learning a language, especially a second or foreign language, by reading large mount of texts.

paragraphs: "Free voluntary reading" is one name for extensive reading in first language education. Learners can choose a book that they like and to read it quickly or slowly. A free voluntary reading program is to help students to enjoy reading, so there are often no grades. In some schools this approach is also called "Drop Everything and Read" (DEAR).

paragraphs: In 1988, Day and Bamford described extensive reading for learning a second or foreign language. Students read as much as possible. Reading materials should use simple grammar and vocabulary so learners feel comfortable. Learners should read many different kinds of writing about different subjects.

paragraphs: Many extensive reading programs use special series of books. These books use simplified grammar and vocabulary. They may be original stories, but many are shorter, easier versions of classic books.

paragraphs: Many teachers and some learners believe that extensive reading alone is enough to improve vocabulary. McQuillan and Krashen also believe this.However, other researchers say that extensive reading alone is not enough. Cobb and Parry have done research to show that there is a limit. Extensive reading may not improve vocabulary as much as people thought, especially for less common words.


title: 30 Minutes or Less

paragraphs: 30 Minutes or Less is a 2011 action-comedy-crime movie that was produced by Stuart Cornfeld, Ben Stiller and Jeremy Kramer and was directed by Ruben Fleischer. "30 Minutes or Less" was released on August 12, 2011 in North America. The movie received mixed reviews with a 45% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 51 out of 100 from Metacritic.


title: Chemical education

paragraphs: Chemistry education is the study of the teaching and learning of chemistry. Topics in chemistry education include understanding how students learn chemistry and how best to teach chemistry. Researchers in chemistry education try to improve learning results by improving teaching methods and training chemistry teachers. Researchers study many teaching modes, including: classroom lecture, demonstrations, and laboratory activities.

paragraphs: There is a world-wide shortage of chemistry teachers. This is because people with science training can get jobs that pay more outside of teaching. It is hard to keep science teachers. More than 45,000 math and science teachers left teaching in the United States just after the 1999–2000 school year.

paragraphs: There are several different ways of thinking about chemistry education. One is a "practitioner’s perspective". The people who teach chemistry define chemistry education by their actions.

paragraphs: Another is defined by a self-identified group of "chemical educators" (faculty members and instructors who focus on teaching rather than focus on chemical research). Dr. Robert L. Lichter, then-Executive Director of the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation, speaking in a plenary session at the 16th Biennial Conference on Chemical Education (recent BCCE meetings: ,), posed the question “why do terms like ‘chemical educator’ even exist in higher education, when there is a perfectly respectable term for this activity, namely, ‘chemistry professor.’" One criticism of this view is that few professors bring any formal preparation in education or background about education to their jobs. Most chemistry professors do not have a professional perspective on teaching and learning efforts. They may not know about effective teaching methods and how students learn.

paragraphs: A third perspective is "chemical education research" (CER). Following the example of physics education research (PER), CER tends to take the theories and methods developed in pre-college science education research and applies them to understanding comparable problems in post-secondary settings. (CER also tries to improve pre-college chemistry instruction). Like science education researchers, CER practitioners tend to study the teaching practices of others as opposed to focusing on their own classroom practices. Chemical education research is typically carried out "in situ" using human subjects from secondary and post-secondary schools. Chemical education research collects both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative methods typically involve collecting data that can then be analyzed using various statistical methods. Qualitative methods include interviews, observations, journaling, and other methods common to social science research.


title: SC Rheindorf Altach

paragraphs: The SC Rheindorf Altach is a football club from Altach,Vorarlberg. The club is playing in the Austrian First league, the second division in Austrian football. The official name is Cashpoint Sportclub Rheindorf Altach, due to sponsorship of Austrian sports betting company Cashpoint.

paragraphs: The second team (SC Altach Amateure) is playing in the Regionalliga West (3rd level).

paragraphs: The club was founded on 26 December 1929 as the football section of the gymnastics and sports club Turnerbund Altach. 1930 they started to play in Vorarlberg football. In 1937 the club was dissolved and started again in 1946 as Sportvereinigung Altach . In 1949 this club was dissolved and the football section started under today's name SC Rheindorf Altach.

paragraphs: In 1986 they won the Landesliga for the first time and were promoted to Regionalliga West (3rd division). After some up and downs they could establish themselfe in the first league at the beginning of the 2000s. 2005/06 they won the league and were promoted to the Bundesliga where they played till the 2008/09 season. Since then they played again in the first league where they always played for the champion title but they failed every time marginal . In the 2010/11 season they finished second only one point behind Admira/Wacker Mödling.

paragraphs: The club has also a amateur team playing in the Regionalliga West (3rd division). A football academy is also part of the club. ( AKA Hypo Vorarlberg).

paragraphs: The team is playing in the Cashpoint Arena (Stadion Schnabelholz).


title: Hurricane Irene

paragraphs: Hurricane Irene was a 2011 Atlantic hurricane, which reached Category 3 on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale, that struck the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola and the Bahamas, resulting in very serious damage. It also struck the East Coast of the United States and Canada. It formed on August 20 and dissolved on August 29. In summer/autumn 2011, the name Irene was retired from future use. It was replaced by Irma for 2017.


title: Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse

paragraphs: Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse (1741—1788) was a French navigator who explored the Pacific Ocean. He died when his ship was wrecked in the New Hebrides during 1788. He met the English when they arrived in Australia with the First Fleet in January 1788. After a short stay in Botany Bay, he sailed away into the Pacific.


title: Anna Hazare

paragraphs: Kisan Baburao Hazare known as Anna Hazare (born 15 June 1937) is an Indian social activist. He is known for developing a village called Ralegaon Siddhi in India. He played a large part in the 2011 Indian anti-corruption movement. He has served in the Indian Army. He won the third highest award in India, the Padma Bhushan.

paragraphs: In April 2011, he started an indefinite hunger strike to pressurize the Indian Government to accept his demands on corruption. The Government accepted his demands later, and he ended his fast.

paragraphs: In August 2011, he started another hunger strike. This time, he wanted the Government to pass an Ombudsman bill. He ended the fast after the Parliament of India accepted his demands. This movement got a lot of support from city people across India.

paragraphs: Hazare has been criticized for many things like his strong views on justice, and forced vasectomy to control population.

paragraphs: He was born as kisan baburao hazare in ralegon siddhi village near ahmednagar as a eldest son of baburao hazare and laxmi bai. his father was an unskilled laborer and the family struggled to make end meet. Anna hazare tooks upon himself the responsibility of education and took him to mumbai where he was admitted into local school. however, due to financial strains the relative had to stop the boy's education while in seventh standard. Anna hazare strat his livlehood by selling flowers on railway stations.

paragraphs: He was the only one man behind the transformation of village ralegan siddhi from the poverty ridden, hopeless place with huge population of alcoholics and drug addict to a "model village" based on sustainable development. he played a key role in persuading the Government of India to pass the The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013. Anna hazare had been campaigning for years, often going on indefinite fasts in his bid to make the government take action towards creating a strong anti-corruption act.


title: Simone Weil

paragraphs: Simone Weil (3 February 1909 in Paris, France – 24 August 1943 in Ashford, Kent, England), was a French philosopher, gnostic, Christian mystic, and activist for social justice of Jewish descent.


title: BBC Knowledge Magazine

paragraphs: BBC Knowledge Magazine was a magazine made by the BBC. It had articles about science, nature and history. The magazine was launched in North America, in 2008. It closed in November 2012. It reprinted articles from "BBC Focus Magazine", "BBC History Magazine" and "BBC Wildlife Magazine". It was available in many countries and was edited by different people. A digital version of "BBC Knowledge Magazine" was available.

paragraphs: The magazine was chosen as one of the top ten magazines of 2008 by Library Journal.


title: Norman Manley International Airport

paragraphs: Norman Manley International Airport , formerly Palisadoes Airport, is an airport in Kingston in Jamaica. It is operated by NMIA Airports Limited. It is one of Air Jamaica's hubs, Sangster International Airport being the other. It is also one of Caribbean Airline's hubs, and is the hub for Skylan Airways. It was named in honour of Norman Washington Manley, one of Jamaica's national heroes. More than 130 international flights leave Norman Manley International Airport each week. The airport is on the Palisadoes tombolo in outer Kingston Harbour; it fronts the city on one side and the Caribbean Sea on the other.


title: Song Jin-woo

paragraphs: Song Jin-woo ( Hanja 宋鎭禹, May 8 1889-December 30 1945), the Republic of Korean (대한민국; 大韓民國) politician, educationist, journalist, and founder of Korean Democratic party (한국민주당; 韓國民主黨), the Dong-A Ilbo(동아일보; 東亞日報). He is also known by his pen name Goha (고하; 古下).

paragraphs: when 1945, He was assassinated Provisional Government of Republic of Koreas(대한민국 임시정부; 大韓民國임시정부) Guard a terrorist organizations Baekuisa(백의사; 白衣社), aged 56. After he died he was given the Order of Merit for National Foundation(건국훈장; 建國勳章) in 1962.


title: Karl Decker

paragraphs: Karl Decker (September 5, 1921 - September 27, 2005) was an Austrian footballer and football coach. He played most of his active time for First Vienna FC as midfielder.

paragraphs: He started with minor clubs in Vienna and came to First Vienna FC in 1937. He played in this team until 1952. During the occupation of Austria by Nazi-Germany he and his team were very successful. They won three times the Gauliga Donau-Alpenland of the Ostmark, as Austria was called at this time (1942, 1943, 1944), and the Tschammer-Pokal (German Cup) in 1943. 8 times he played for the German football national team. After the end of the war he played 25 matches for the Austrian team between 1945 and 1952. 1944 and 1950 he was the top scorer of the league. He also played for S.K. Sturm Graz, then for Sochaux in France and for Grenchen in Swizerland.

paragraphs: He was coach of Sturm Graz (1952–1954),FC Grenchen (1956–1958) and SK Rapid Wien (1968–1970). With Rapid he reached the Quarterfinals of the European Champion Cup and won in the third round against Real Madrid. In the quarterfinals they lost versus Manchester United.

paragraphs: Between 1958 and 1964 he was coach of the Austrian national football team. In this time the team was very successful. They won versus Scotland(4:1), UdSSR (3:1 and 1:0), Spain(3:0 in front of 90.726 visitors-this is the record in Austria), Italy(2:1), England (3:1) and Hungary(2:1 and 2:1). They qualified for the 1962 FIFA World Cup in Chile but the ÖFB had not enough money to send the team to the competition. Nevertheless the era Decker was one of the best for Austria's national football team.


title: Mohammed bin Hammam

paragraphs: Mohammed bin Hammam (Arabic: محمد بن همّام; born 8 May 1949) is a Qatari who used to be a football administrator and the AFC President (1 August 2002 to 14 June 2011).

paragraphs: During the 2022 FIFA World Cup bidding, Mohammed bin Hammam was rumored to have bribed officials, so that Qatar can host.


title: Bisphenol A

paragraphs: Bisphenol A (BPA) is an organic compound which has two phenol functional groups. It is used to make polycarbonate plastic, epoxy resins, and other things.

paragraphs: Scientist discovered in the mid 1930s that people and animals react to BPA in the same way that they react to hormone (oestrogen-like effects.) Some stores stopped selling products made with BPA in 2008 because government reports said BPA was not safe for humans. Many news stories wrote about BPA safety.

paragraphs: A 2010 report from the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) said that contact with BPA could hurt fetuses (unborn children), infants and young children. In September 2010, Canada became the first country to say that BPA was a toxic substance. In the European Union and Canada, BPA cannot be used to make baby bottles.

paragraphs: Bisphenol A damages the way hormones regulate (control) the human body (endocrine disruptor). BPA can pretend to be the body's own hormones. BPA may cause health problems. Very young children are most sensitive to BPA. Some studies have shown that there is a link (connection) between BPA exposure before birth (prenatal) and later problems of the nervous system. Health organizations have decided how much BPA (in a substance) is safe for people. But new studies have caused other scientists and health organizations to disagree with these decisions. A 2011 study that investigated the number of chemicals to which pregnant women in the U.S. are exposed found BPA in 96% of women.

paragraphs: In 2009, The Endocrine Society said it was worried about current human exposure to BPA.

paragraphs: In 2011, the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency's chief scientist said "the evidence [is] that BPA is rapidly absorbed, detoxified, and eliminated from humans – therefore is not a health concern."

paragraphs: In 2007, 38 experts on bisphenol A wrote a consensus statement which said average levels in people are above those that cause harm to many animals in laboratory experiments. However, the experts noted that 1) BPA is not persistent in the environment or in humans, 2) biomonitoring surveys indicate that exposure is continuous, 3) it is hard to use acute animal exposure studies to estimate daily human exposure to BPA, and 4) no studies that had examined BPA pharmacokinetics in animal models had followed continuous low level exposures. The measurement of BPA levels in human serum and other body fluids suggests that either BPA intake is much higher than previously thought or that BPA can bioaccumulate in some conditions such as pregnancy, or both. A 2011 study, the first to examine BPA in a continuous low level exposure throughout the day, did find an increased absorption and accumulation of BPA in the blood of mice.

paragraphs: In 2007, 153 government-funded BPA experiments on lab animals and tissues found adverse effects and 14 did not. In contrast, all 13 studies funded by chemical corporations reported no harm. The studies indicating harm reported a variety of deleterious effects in rodent offspring exposed in the womb: abnormal weight gain, insulin resistance, prostate cancer, and too much mammary gland development.

paragraphs: A panel convened by the U.S. National Institutes of Health in 2007 determined that there was "some concern" about BPA's effects on fetal and infant brain development and behavior. The concern over the effect of BPA on infants was also heightened by the fact that infants and children are estimated to have the highest daily intake of BPA. A 2008 report by the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) later agreed with the panel, expressing "some concern for effects on the brain, behavior, and prostate gland in fetuses, infants, and children at current human exposures to bisphenol A," and ""minimal" concern for effects on the mammary gland and an earlier age for puberty for females in fetuses, infants, and children at current human exposures to bisphenol A." The NTP had ""negligible" concern that exposure of pregnant women to bisphenol A will result in fetal or neonatal mortality, birth defects, or reduced birth weight and growth in their offspring."


title: Joe Clark

paragraphs: Charles Joseph "Joe" Clark (born June 5, 1939) is a politician from Canada. He served as Canada's Prime Minister from 1979-1980. He was elected Prime Minister when he was 40 years old, making him the youngest Prime Minister in Canadian history.


title: Norfolk Broads

paragraphs: The Broads are a network of mostly navigable rivers and lakes in the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. The Broads, and some nearby land were made into a special protected area (like a national park) by "The Norfolk and Suffolk Broads Act" of 1988. The Broads Authority has managed the area since 1989.

paragraphs: The total area is , mostly in Norfolk, with over of navigable waterways. There are seven rivers and 63 broads, mostly less than deep. Thirteen broads are generally open to navigation, with a further three having navigable channels.

paragraphs: Although the terms Norfolk Broads and Suffolk Broads are used to identify specific areas within the two counties respectively, the whole area is frequently referred to as the "Norfolk Broads".


title: Boko Haram

paragraphs: Boko Haram is a branch of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. It has been active in Nigeria since 2009. The name of the group means "Western" or "non-Islamic" education is a sin. The group is active in the north of Nigeria, and wants to impose Islamic law as the only law in Nigeria. It also wants to outlaw education that is not based on Islam in the country. The group sees itself as similar to the Taliban, which are active in Afghanistan. Locally, the group is known as the "Taliban". The official name of the group is "Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati wal-Jihad", which in Arabic means "People Committed to the Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and Jihad." They also call themselves 'Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP)'.

paragraphs: The group was formed in Maiduguri in 2002. They follow Sunni Islam. Local residents of the area soon called the group Boko Haram. Loosely translated from the local Hausa language, this means Western education is forbidden. Residents gave it the name because of its strong opposition to Western education, which it sees as corrupting Muslims. The term "Boko Haram" comes from the Hausa word 'boko' meaning "Animist, western or otherwise non-Islamic education" and the Arabic word 'haram' figuratively meaning "sin" (literally, "forbidden").

paragraphs: Boko Haram opposes not only Western education, but Western culture and modern science as well. The group also forbids the wearing of shirts and pants and the act of voting in elections. In its view, the Nigerian state is run by non-believers.

paragraphs: In a 2009 BBC interview, Mohammed Yusuf, the group's leader at the time, said he rejects the fact that the earth is a sphere and views it as contrary to Islam, along with Darwinism and the fact that rain comes from water evaporated by the sun.

paragraphs: There are a number of terrorist activities for which Boko Haram have claimed responsibility:

paragraphs: Boko Haram is not associated with the group Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta which fights against the oil industry in the Niger Delta, since 2006.

paragraphs: On April 14 2014, Boko Haram kidnapped 276 schoolgirls. Boko Haram killed at least 100 people in Baga in January 2015. About 620 buildings were damaged or destroyed by fire.

paragraphs: Boko Haram became part of Islamic State in March 2015.


paragraphs: The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta is one of the largest militant groups in the Niger delta. Many people in the delta are poor. The Nigerian government has contracts that allow international companies to extract crude oil in the delta. This extraction causes massive damage to the environment. According to the magazine "The Economist", the organization wants more of the profit of the oil extraction to go to the poor region, where the oil is extracted.

paragraphs: According to the magazine, the organisation is used by several armed groups; these groups are sometimes paid to launch attacks. The payment is done either with weapons or with money.

paragraphs: MEND has been linked to attacks on petroleum operations in Nigeria as part of the Conflict in the Niger Delta, engaging in actions including sabotage, theft, property destruction, guerrilla warfare, and kidnapping.

paragraphs: MEND's stated goals are to localize control of Nigeria's oil and to secure reparations from the federal government for pollution caused by the oil industry. In an interview with one of the group's leaders, who used the alias Major-General Godswill Tamuno, the BBC reported that MEND was fighting for "total control" of the Niger Delta's oil wealth, saying local people had not gained from the riches under the ground and the region's creeks and swamps."

paragraphs: In a January 2006 email, MEND warned the oil industry, "It must be clear that the Nigerian government cannot protect your workers or assets. Leave our land while you can or die in it... Our aim is to totally destroy the capacity of the Nigerian government to export oil." Additionally MEND has called upon President Olusegun Obasanjo to free two jailed Ijaw leaders — Mujahid Dokubo-Asari, who is jailed and charged with treason, and Diepreye Alamieyeseigha, a former governor of Bayelsa State convicted of corruption. Obasanjo's successor, President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua authorised the release of Dokubo-Asari and Alamieyeseigha in 2007.


title: Urbanization

paragraphs: Urbanization (or urbanisation) is a term from geography. The base of the word is the Latin "urbs", which means city. The term urbanisation means that lifestyle that is common in a city becomes prevalent. This can happen in two different ways:

paragraphs: Physical urbanization has been observed for centuries. In developing countries this is the main form of urbanization. In developed countries, functional urbanization is the main form of urbanization. With functional urbanization, people living in the city center move to the countryside, next to the city; this is known as suburbanization.

paragraphs: Environmental scientists are studying the urban heat island. The urban heat island is made when industrial and urban areas are developed and heat becomes plentiful.

paragraphs: Environmental impacts also include reducing soil moisture and intensification of carbon dioxide emissions.

paragraphs: Stewart Brand's book "Whole Earth Discipline" argues that urbanization helps the environment overall. First, the birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate, and keeps falling. This can prevent overpopulation in the future. Secondly, it puts a stop to destructive subsistence farming methods, like slash and burn agriculture. Finally, it reduces land use by humans, leaving more for nature.


title: Moliniana

paragraphs: Moliniana was a botanical journal issued between 1955 and 1966 in Santiago, Chile. Its contents were botany, phytochemistry and related topics. Gunckel, Looser and Navas were writers.


title: You Suffer

paragraphs: "You Suffer" is a song by the British grindcore band Napalm Death. It is from their debut album, "Scum". "Guinness Book of Records" has mentioned the song as the shortest recorded song ever. It is precisely 1.316 seconds long.

paragraphs: The song was written by band members Nicholas Bullen and Justin Broadrick. This was during the sessions for the "From Enslavement to Obliteration" demo recording in March 1986. The song is featured on the album "Scum", released in 1987.

paragraphs: According to Broadrick, "You Suffer" was meant as a joke. He called it "retarded", "ridiculous" but "hilarious". He added that they played the song "in front of 30 local kids, like, every weekend." for about thirty times.

paragraphs: Nic Bullen said that the short length of the song was inspired by Wehrmacht's 1985 song "E!"

paragraphs: Zak Smith quotes the lyrics to the song, which he describes as the ""shortest" punk song on the subject of suffering (or any subject)" at the conclusion of his memoir "We Did Porn".

paragraphs: A music video produced by Earache records was released for the song in March 2007. This was on the same day that the "Scum" dualdisc was released.


title: Frankie Fredericks

paragraphs: Frank "Frankie" Fredericks (born 2 October, 1967) is a Namibian runner.

paragraphs: Fredericks was born in Windhoek. He went to college at Brigham Young University in the United States.

paragraphs: Fredericks won silver medals in the 100m and 200m in the 1992 and 1996 Olympics. He won gold medals at the World Championships and World Indoor Championships. He used to be the 200m world record holder, and is still the 200m indoor record holder. He finished 4th at the 2004 Olympics, even though he was 36 years old.

paragraphs: After the 2004 Olympics, he retired and became a member of the International Olympic Committee. He is the only person from Namibia to medal at the Olympics. He has also ran the 200m in less than 20 seconds more times than anyone else.


title: Jagged Little Pill

paragraphs: Jagged Little Pill is the third studio album and the first to be released internationally by Canadian singer-songwriter Alanis Morissette. The album saw Morissette changing her style and genre. Morissette's sound in the album was rock, but her previous songs were dance pop. The title is a metaphor for lessons of life that are hard to accept. The album was Morissette's breakthrough album, and contained six hits, "You Oughta Know", "Ironic", "You Learn", "Hand in My Pocket", "Head over Feet", and "All I Really Want". The album spent twelve weeks at number one on the U.S. "Billboard" 200 albums chart. By 2009, the album had sold 33 million units worldwide. It was ranked by the "Billboard" 200 as the number one selling album of the 1990s.

paragraphs: During the three consecutive years in the late 1990s of Grammy Awards, Morissette received five wins out of nine nominations from the album. In 1996, she won the Album of the Year & Best Rock Album. Her 1997 nominations such as "Ironic" for Record of the Year & Best Music Video in Short Form did not win her an award. But in 1998, she won again for Best Music Video in Long Form from her release of "Jagged Little Pill, Live". In October 2002, "Rolling Stone" ranked it number 31 on its "Women In Rock - The 50 Essential Albums" list, and in 2003 the magazine ranked it number 327 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". The album also holds a title in "The Definitive 200 Albums" list, in which it is placed at number 26.


title: Jack Layton

paragraphs: John Gilbert "Jack" Layton (July 18, 1950 – August 22, 2011) was a Canadian politician and the Leader of the Official Opposition. He was the leader of the New Democratic Party from 2003 to 2011, and previously sat on Toronto City Council. He was the Member of Parliament for the riding of Toronto—Danforth from 2004 until his death.

paragraphs: He was a son of Progressive Conservative cabinet minister Robert Layton (1925-2002). He was born in Montreal and raised in Hudson, Quebec. He rose to prominence in Toronto municipal politics where he campaigned tirelessly for the needs of ordinary citizens and for environmental issues. Eventually, he became head of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities. In 2003, he was elected leader of the NDP on the first ballot of the convention, and the NDP almost doubled its popular vote in the 2004 election.

paragraphs: Thirty seven NDP MPs were elected under Layton in the 2008 election. In the 2011 federal election, he led the NDP to a historic total of 103 seats and formed the Official Opposition. Although recovering from illness, Layton campaigned tirelessly, and inspired many people. Importantly, the NDP had increased its number of Quebec MPs from one to fifty-nine seats, almost eliminating the previous Bloc Québécois MPs.

paragraphs: Layton died at his home in Toronto on August 22, 2011, aged 61, after suffering from cancer of unknown primary origin. Layton's body had a lying-in-state before a state funeral was held in Toronto. He was married to fellow MP Olivia Chow.


title: Green politics

paragraphs: Green politics is a kind of politics that has been on the rise since the 1970s. The parties and movements that follow these ideas are usually called "green":

paragraphs: Greens have been most successful in Germany.


title: QRpedia

paragraphs: QRpedia is a web system for mobile devices, like mobile phones. It uses QR codes to show Wikipedia articles to people. The articles are shown in the user's own language.

paragraphs: A user uses their mobile device to scan a QRpedia QR code. The device decodes the QR code into a web address. The address has the domain name "qrwp.org". The last part of the web address is the title of a Wikipedia article.

paragraphs: The device sends a request for the article to the QRpedia web server. It also transmits the name of the language used by the device.

paragraphs: The QRpedia server then uses Wikipedia's API to find out if there is a version of the specified Wikipedia article in the language used by the device. If there is, it sends back the article in a mobile-friendly format. If there is no translation of the requested article, then the QRpedia server offers a choice of the available languages. It also offers a Google translation.

paragraphs: In this way, a single QRcode can be used to find the same article, in many languages. QRpedia also records usage statistics.

paragraphs: QRpedia was invented by Roger Bamkin, then chairman of Wikimedia UK, and Terence Eden. who is a mobile web consultant. It was unveiled on 9 April 2011 It was unveiled at Derby Museum's "Backstage Pass" event. The event was part of the GLAM/Derby collaboration between Derby Museum and Art Gallery and Wikipedia. During the collaboration, over 500 Wikipedia articles were also created. The articles were in several languages. The project's name is a made-up word, using the initials "QR" from "QR (Quick Response) code" and "pedia" from "Wikipedia".

paragraphs: The project's source code is has a MIT License. This means that anyone can use it, free.

paragraphs: QRpedia is also used in other kinds of places. For example, the Occupy movement uses it on their posters.


title: Gun Hägglund

paragraphs: Karin Gunvor Sjöblom Hägglund (2 March 1932–19 August 2011) was Swedish television star. She is better known as Gun Hägglund. Hägglund is the first female in Sweden who presented news on television. She was the news presenter of Aktuellt in 1958.

paragraphs: Hägglund was born in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden and died in Visby. She was married to the Swedish news editor Karl-Axel Sjöblom. Both hosted and moderated the popular Swedish TV show "Halv sju". Her husband died in 1982. Hägglund died in 2011 after a short illness.

paragraphs: Her career started in 1955 when she started working for the Swedish radio. She was a secretary and program announcer. In 1958, she moved to television shows and became the first female in Sweden to present the news. Hägglund presented the national news show Aktuellt. Furthermore, she worked as a translator. She translated movies and TV shows.

paragraphs: For 30 years, until 1997, Hägglund was involved in the "Swedish National Association of Promotion of Cycling". First she was Secretary-General and later Executive Chairman. In that position, she published some books about cycling.


title: Conrotatory and disrotatory

paragraphs: These terms describe two classes of an electrocyclic reaction (a type of organic chemical reactions). In a conrotatory mode, the substituents located at the ends of a conjugated double bond system move in the same (clockwise or counterclockwise) direction during ring opening or ring closure. In a disrotatory mode, they move in opposite directions.

paragraphs: An example is the conversion of trans-cis-trans-2,4,6-octatriene to cis-dimethylcyclohexadiene (top of figure). The orbital mechanics of the reaction needs a disrotatory mode. The orbital symmetry of the octatriene's highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) requires for the end pi orbitals to move in opposite directions to form the correct symmetry found in the sigma bond.

paragraphs: Thermal rearrangements of all conjugated systems containing 4n + 2 pi electron are stereospecific. This is based on preservation of orbital symmetry in the highest occupied molecular orbital. Systems containing 4n pi electrons show the opposite conrotatory mode. This is also true for rearrangements of 4n + 2 pi (where n is a whole number) electrons driven by light (photoinduced). Photoinduced rearrangements of 4n pi electron systems (where the number of electrons is divisible by 4) follow the disrotatory rule.

paragraphs: The Woodward–Hoffmann rules summarize the above different reactions.

paragraphs: The following picture also shows the difference between conrotatory and disrotatory reactions:


title: Catherine Deneuve

paragraphs: Catherine Deneuve (born 22 October 1943) is a French actress. She is the daughter of two well-known actors. She has two sisters; Françoise Dorléac (1942-1967) and Sylvie (born 1946), also both actresses, the former was killed in a car accident. She has a maternal half-sister, Danielle (born 1937).

paragraphs: She began acting on movies as a teenager. Her first major role is in Jacques Demy's 1964 movie "Les Parapluies de Cherbourg". She has since then worked with some of the greatest movie directors, notably Roman Polanski's in "Repulsion" (1965), and Luis Buñuel's in "Belle de Jour" (1967) and "Tristana" (1970) and François Truffaut's in "Le Dernier Métro" (1982). She made a commercial for the perfume "Chanel No 5". She is a close friend of fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent.

paragraphs: She married British photographer David Bailey from 1965 to 1972. She has had relationships with movie director Roger Vadim (1928-2000), with whom she had a son, Christian Vadim (born 1963), and Italian actor Marcello Mastroianni (1924-1996), with whom she had a daughter, Chiara Mastroianni (born 1972). Both her children are actors.


title: Samir Bargachi

paragraphs: Samir Bargachi, ( , (born 10 September 1987) is a Moroccan LGBT rights activist. He is the founder and leader of Kifkif, the first LGBT organization in Morocco.


title: Odontoceti

paragraphs: The Odontoceti is a suborder of the cetaceans. They are the toothed whales.

paragraphs: The Odontoceti includes all the whales which eat prey larger than plankton. Examples are: sperm whales, beaked whales, dolphins, and others. As the name suggests, the suborder has teeth rather than the baleen of Mysticeti whales. This means they are predators of small to large sized prey.

paragraphs: The Sperm Whale "Physeter", the Killer Whale "Orca" and the Pilot Whale "Globicephala" all take large prey. By means of co-operation, Killer Whales can take prey larger than themselves, up to and including Blue Whale calves. Sperm Whales are specialist feeders on giant squid.


title: Allen Telescope Array

paragraphs: The Allen Telescope Array (ATA) was developed by the SETI Institute and the Radio Astronomy Laboratory (RAL) at the University of California, Berkeley to construct a radio interferometer that is dedicated to radio astronomy observations. At the same time, it is also used for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

paragraphs: The ATA is at the Hat Creek Radio Observatory, northeast of San Francisco, California. The goal is to have 350 antennas. To start, 42 antennas (ATA-42) were put to work on 11 October 2007. However, a lack of money stopped operations in April 2011. In August 2011, ATA got short-term funding. In 2012 UC Berkeley quit the project.

paragraphs: It is named after Paul Allen, the co-founder of Microsoft. Its old name was the One Hectare Telescope (1hT).


title: Herring gull

paragraphs: The herring gull ("Larus argentatus" or European herring gull) is a large gull (up to 26 inches or 66 cm long). It is the most abundant and best known of all gulls along the shores of western Europe. It breeds across Northern Europe, Western Europe, Scandinavia and the Baltic states.

paragraphs: Some herring gulls, especially those resident in colder areas, migrate further south in winter, but many are permanent residents, e.g. in the British Isles, Iceland, or on the North Sea shores. European herring gulls are also abundant around inland garbage dumps, and some have even adapted to life in inland cities.

paragraphs: The taxonomy of the herring gull / lesser black-backed gull group is very complicated, with different authorities recognising between two and eight species.

paragraphs: This group has a ring distribution around the northern hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, herring gull and lesser black-backed gull, are clearly different species.


title: Lesser black-backed gull

paragraphs: The lesser black-backed gull ("Larus fuscus") is a large gull that breeds on the Atlantic coasts of Europe. It is migratory, wintering from the British Isles south to West Africa. It is a regular winter visitor to the east coast of North America, probably from the breeding population in Iceland.

paragraphs: This species breeds in colonies on coasts and lakes. It makes a lined nest on the ground or a cliff. Normally, three eggs are laid. In some cities the species nests in towns and cities, often with herring gulls.

paragraphs: They are similar in size but slightly smaller than the herring gull. The taxonomy of the herring gull / lesser black-backed gull group is very complicated. Different authorities recognise between two and eight species. This group has a ring distribution around the northern hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, herring gull and lesser black-backed gull, are clearly different species.

paragraphs: The only species it might be confused with in Europe is the great black-backed gull. Lesser is a smaller bird, with slimmer build, yellow rather than pinkish legs, and smaller white "mirrors" at the wing tips.

paragraphs: The bill is yellow with a red spot. When the young peck the red spot, The adults feed them by regurgitation. This is an inherited behaviour called a fixed action pattern or releaser.


title: Arab Indonesians

paragraphs: Arab Indonesians are citizens of Indonesia. Their origin is Arab, and they are mainly from Hadrami. Until 1919, they were part of Dutch East Indies' law. Some people later gained economic power through real estate investment and trading. Currently, most of them can be found in Java and South Sumatra. They are almost all (generally orthodox) Muslims.

paragraphs: Indonesia has had contact with the Arab world for hundreds of years. This was even before the development of Islam in Indonesia. Most contact was with spice traders. The first Arab settlements in the archipelago may have started in the fifth century. These early communities took over much of the local culture. Some of them disappeared completely while others formed ethnic groups.

paragraphs: Modern Arab Indonesians are descended from Hadramis, who came to Indonesia during the Dutch colonial period. The men often married native women. They were classified as "foreign orientals" along with Chinese Indonesians. This class stopped them from going to certain schools and also restricted their travel. They were also only allowed to live in special Arab districts, called "kampung Arab" in Indonesian. These laws were removed in 1919.

paragraphs: The community elites began to build economic power through trade and real estate investment. They bought large amounts of real estate in Batavia (modern-day Jakarta), Singapore and other parts of this area. Arab Indonesians did charity work, and built and protected their social capital. Eventually, some Arab Indonesians joined the "Volksraad", the people's council of the Dutch East Indies.

paragraphs: During the Indonesian National Awakening, Arab Indonesians began to oppose native Indonesians and the Dutch. This caused the formation of organizations which were only for Arab Indonesians in 1913. These organizations viewed the Arabian peninsula as their homeland. In 1934, Abdurrahman Baswedan founded an Arab Indonesian nationalistic movement, Persatoean Arab Indonesia.

paragraphs: Azyumardi Azra described Arab Indonesians as people who wish to remove local religious elements from Indonesian Islam. Indonesian critics of Arab influence in Indonesia point to the founding of the radical group Jemaah Islamiah (JI). Their leader is Laskar Jihad (LJ). After the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001 and the 2002 Bali bombing, the community came under suspicion.

paragraphs: First generation immigrants are called "wulāytī" or "totok". They are a small minority of the Arab Indonesian population. The majority, "muwallad" (plural form: "muwalladīn"), were born in Indonesia and may be of mixed heritage.

paragraphs: The majority of Arab Indonesians live on Java, mostly in East Java. Some live in South Sumatra.

paragraphs: Arab Indonesians are almost all Muslim. According to the 2000 census, 98.27 percent of Arab Indonesians are Muslim, compared to 88.22 percent of the whole population. Historically, most have lived in "kauman", or the area around mosques, but this has changed in recent years. The majority are Sunni, people who follow the Shafi'i school of Islamic law. The Shia are a growing minority. Children are often sent to madrasahs.

paragraphs: The Islam practiced by Arab Indonesians is more orthodox than the local, indigenous-influenced forms like "abangan". Many Arab Indonesians try to convince local Muslims to follow a more orthodox form of Islam as well.


title: Christina Aguilera (album)

paragraphs: Christina Aguilera is the first album by American singer Christina Aguilera, released on August 24, 1999. The success of this album made Aguilera the Best New Artist at Grammy Awards of 2000.


title: Alien hand syndrome

paragraphs: Alien Hand Syndrome (also known as anarchic hand, AHS or Doctor Strangeglove Syndrome) is a condition that seems to cause a person's hand to move on its own.


title: Christina Aguilera discography

paragraphs: This is the discography for Christina Aguilera. She has released six studio albums, twenty solo singles, four video albums, and twenty-seven music videos.


title: My Kind of Christmas

paragraphs: My Kind of Christmas is a Christmas collection by Christina Aguilera, released on October 24, 2000.


title: Stripped

paragraphs: Stripped is the fourth studio album by American singer Christina Aguilera. The album sold over 13 million copies. Music critics gave it mixed reviews.

paragraphs: It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2004 Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: "Dirrty" was released as the album's first single. The video was directed by Dave LaChapelle. It was protested in Thailand.

paragraphs: The album's second single "Beautiful" won a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance in 2004.

paragraphs: The third single, "Fighter", got good reviews from music critics.

paragraphs: "Can't Hold Us Down" had Lil' Kim rapping in it. It was nominated a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 Grammy Awards.

paragraphs: The album's last single "The Voice Within" was released October 27, 2003.


title: Back to Basics

paragraphs: Back to Basics is the fifth studio album by Christina Aguilera. Released on August 10 2006.


title: Keeps Gettin' Better: A Decade of Hits

paragraphs: Keeps Gettin' Better – A Decade of Hits is the first greatest hits by American singer Christina Aguilera, released on 2008.


title: Bionic

paragraphs: Bionic is the sixth studio album by American pop singer Christina Aguilera, released on June 4 2010, the album was produced by new group of producers.


title: Burlesque (soundtrack)

paragraphs: Burlesque: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the studio album by Christina Aguilera and Cher. It was recorded for the movie "Burlesque".


title: Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg

paragraphs: Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg (Dorothea Sophie; 5 July 1670 – 15 September 1748) was a Countess Palatine of Neuburg by birth and later the wife of the two sons of Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma.

paragraphs: Married to the Hereditary Prince of Parma in 1690, she was the mother of two children including the future Queen Elisabeth of Spain. Her first husband died after just three years of marriage. Remaining in Parma she was engaged to her brother-in-law, the new Duke of Parma.

paragraphs: Retiring from the court at the death of her last husband, her grandson the future Charles III of Spain conquered Parma after the extinction of the Farnese and Dorothea Sophie acted as regent of the state till his official majority in January 1735. She died aged seventy-eight just weeks before her second grandson Infante Felipe of Spain became the next duke of Parma.


title: F.C. Blau-Weiß Linz

paragraphs: FC Blau-Weiß Linz is a Austrian football club from Linz, Upper Austria. The team is playing in the Austrian Football First League .

paragraphs: The club was founded in 1997 as follow up team for FC Linz and SV Austria Tabak Linz. They played with the licence of SV Tabak in the Upper Austrian Landesliga (4th division). After three years they reached the title and were promoted to the Regionalliga Mitte. In the 2003/04 season the won this league but failed in the relegation matches versus BSV Bad Bleiberg, so they stayed in the league. After this there was a decline they were even relegated to the Landesliga, but came back the following season. In the 2010/11 season they finished second behind the LASK Juniors, which were not allowed to promote. In the relegation matches they won versus WSG Wattens after penalty shooting and were promoted to the First League.

paragraphs: The club is thought as successor to the former club VOEST Linz.This team merged with LASK to FC Linz but soon was inhaled by LASK. The club colours blue and white are that of former VOEST Linz. Also the fans see themself in this tradition.


title: Yinghuo-1

paragraphs: Yinghuo-1 was a Chinese spacecraft. People planned for it to be China's first interplanetary mission. Yinghuo-1 was supposed to orbit and study the planet Mars. It was launched with the Russian spacecraft Phobos-Grunt. The spacecraft got into space, but something went wrong and it could not escape earth's gravity.

paragraphs: The name"Yinghuo" means firefly in Chinese.


title: Aldershot

paragraphs: Aldershot () is a town in the English county of Hampshire, about 60 km (37 miles) southwest of London. The town is administered by Rushmoor Borough Council. The town has a population of 33,840, while the Aldershot Urban Area, a loose conurbation (which also includes other towns, such as Camberley, Farnborough, and Farnham) has a population of 243,344, making it the 30th-largest urban area in the UK

paragraphs: Aldershot is known for its connection with the British Army. This led to rapid growth from a small village to a Victorian town. Today, Aldershot is known as the ""Home of the British Army"".


title: Cuckoo (Mineral, Virginia)

paragraphs: Cuckoo is a Federal style house in the small unincorporated area Cuckoo, Virginia near Mineral, Virginia. The house was built in 1819 for Henry Pendleton. On August 19, 1994, Cuckoo was added to the list of National Register of Historic Places. The house is near the U.S. Route 33, which curves around the house. Cuckoo has Federal details and Colonial Revival elements from the early 20th century. The house is known for its design, prominence and its association with the Pendleton family of doctors. The house was named for the Cuckoo Tavern. The Pendleton family owns the house since its construction.

paragraphs: The first construction had a two storied front section with a one-story extension to the rear. The dining room and the winter kitchen were in the one-story section. Between 1839 and 1907 the house was owned by Dr. Philip Barbour Pendleton. He added a second floor to the rear part of the house and extended the main roof to cover the new rooms of the house. A later generation of Pendletons rebuilt the house in the Colonial Revival style after 1910. They added the present Neoclassical portico. The next owners, Anne Pendleton Forrest and Dr. William Mentzel Forrest, added to the back a design by architect Stanislaw J. Makielski of Charlottesville. The complex includes a number of outbuildings, including two separate doctor's office buildings, a garage, barn, a house for smoking, and the Pendleton family cemetery.

paragraphs: Cuckoo is a house made of bricks. It has two floors and a center-hall which is divided into three parts. Single rooms are flanking the stair hall. The house has a porch on its entire front. A semicircular closet with a small window is between the fireplaces of the rooms to the right of the center hall. The fireplaces and chimneys are on both sides of the elevation. The Makielski addition to the back of the house has a porch that echoes the curve of the closet. The addition includes a back stairway.

paragraphs: The small doctor's office was probably built in the early-to-mid 19th century for Dr. Robert Barret. It is to the north of Cuckoo, and was moved to Cuckoo by Dr. Philip Barbour Pendleton before the American Civil War. The large doctor's office was built around 1888 for Dr. Eugene Pendleton. It was expanded to also include his son's practice around 1908. It was moved to Cuckoo in 1910 when Eugene moved there. The office was moved again in 1972 when the highway was built, and was used as a medical office by Dr. Eugene Barbour Pendleton until 1979. A house for smoking was built in the late 19th century, and a barn in the early 20th century. A garage was built in the 1930s.

paragraphs: The Pendleton cemetery is in an oak grove at the top of a small rise about 1/4 mile from the house. It is surrounded by a low stone wall. The cemetery has three gravestones and several unmarked graves.

paragraphs: Cuckoo was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 19, 1994. The house was damaged in the 2011 Virginia earthquake. The tall chimneys broke down.


paragraphs: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) are a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services. CDC main office is in Druid Hills, a neighborhood in northeastern Atlanta, Georgia. It works to protect public health and safety. It provides information to enhance health decisions. It promotes health as a partner with state health departments and other organizations. When an infectious disease or bad food can cause health problems, the CDC will tell the nation how to fight it. The CDC works on environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention and education activities designed to improve the health of the people of the United States.

paragraphs: The CDC Foundation is separate from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization. It is incorporated in the State of Georgia. Section 399F of the Public Health Service Act created the foundation to help the CDC work with the private sector.


title: Maria Anna of Austria

paragraphs: Maria Anna of Austria (Maria Anna Josepha; 7 September 1683 – 14 August 1754) was an Archduchess of Austria as she was a daughter of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. She would become Queen consort and regent of Portugal by her marriage to John V of Portugal. She was the Regent of Portugal from 1742 until 1750 during the illness of her spouse. In Portugal she was commonly known as "Mariana".

paragraphs: The fifth of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperors children by Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, she was baptised "Maria Anna Josepha". She was born in Linz as the Austrian royal family had to flee Vienna from the Turkish army which destroyed the capital. Maria Anna was a sister of two future Holy Roman Emperors Joseph I and Charles VI. Through Charles VI, she was an aunt of Empress Maria Theresa. Her first cousins included Elisabetta Farnese as well as Charles II of Spain.

paragraphs: On 27 October 1708 she married her first cousin John V of Portugal. Both of their mothers were sisters. Maria Anna thus became Queen of Portugal as the wife of the ruling king. She was the mother of six children:

paragraphs: In 1742 Maria Anna took over power as regent after her husband suffered a stroke, which left him partially paralyzed. When John V died on 31 July 1750 she gave up power to their eldest son Joseph I of Portugal. She died at he Palace of Belém in 1754. Her body was buried in Lisbon, her heart was brought to Vienna and buried there in the imperial crypt.


title: In the Zone

paragraphs: In the Zone is the fourth studio album by Britney Spears, released on November 13, 2003. She wrote or co-wrote some songs of the album: "Me Against the Music", "Showdown", "Early Mornin", "Touch of My Hand", "The Hook Up", "Shadow", "Brave New Girl" and "Everytime".


title: Brooklyn Botanic Garden

paragraphs: Brooklyn Botanic Garden (BBG) is a park in the borough of Brooklyn in New York City. The park has many different plants from many parts of the world. It is near the Prospect Heights, Crown Heights, and Park Slope neighborhoods. The area of the garden is . It includes several special gardens or plant collections. The Steinhardt Conservatory which has the C.V. Starr Bonsai Museum is also there. The garden was founded in 1910.


title: SKN St. Pölten

paragraphs: Sportklub Niederösterreich St. Pölten is a football club from St. Pölten the capital of the Austrian federal state Lower Austria. St. Poelten plays in the Austrian Football First League, the second division in the Austrian football league system.

paragraphs: SKN St. Poelten was founded in June 2000. The new club took over all belongings of the predecessor, FCN St. Poelten .Most important was the ownership of the Bundesliga junior center. Through this the club did not enter in the lowest class but was allowed in the 2nd League West, the fifth level of Austrian football.

paragraphs: The next two seasons they won the championships and reached the Regionalliga Ost(3rd division).In the 2003/04 season the club reached the 4th place. The following season the club reached sixth place in the league reached in the Austrian Cup the quarter-finals. They won over SV Wörgl (3-0), SW Bregenz (2–1) and a sensational 5-1 victory overAustria Salzburg in the third round. In the quarter-finals, St. Poelten, was beaten by Austria Wien 6-0.

paragraphs: In autumn 2009 the club could present the plans for the new stadium which is currently built in the Ratzersdorf district of St.Pölten.

paragraphs: In the 2007/08 season they won the Regionalliga and were promoted to the First League.

paragraphs: The SKN St. Poelten currently has ten youth teams for children from the age of 7 to 15, with a total of 150 children and youths. In addition to the junior teams, the club has a second team (SKN II), which plays their games in the Mid Western League, with the squad mostly consisting of squad players under the age of 18.


title: House of Bourbon-Parma

paragraphs: The Bourbons of Parma are a royal family who ruled the Duchy of Parma from 1748 till 1860 when Italy was created. The family was founded by the Infante Philip of Spain, third son of Philip V of Spain and Elisabetta Farnese. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of the Austrian Succession, and gave the land to Philip.

paragraphs: Philip married Louise Élisabeth of France and the present pretending duke of Parma (Carlos/Carlo of Parma) is a direct descendant. The duchy was taken by the House of Savoy when the state of Italy was created.


title: English poetry

paragraphs: The history of English poetry stretches from the middle of the 7th century to today. Over this period, English poets have written some of the longest-surviving poems in Western culture. The language and its poetry have spread around the world.

paragraphs: The earliest surviving poetry from the area now called England was probably transmitted orally (or passed from person to person by mouth, without being written down). It was then written down in versions that do not now survive. Because of this, it is difficult to say which poems were the earliest. There is a lot of controversy over this issue.

paragraphs: A number of major national poetries have developed. These include American, Australian, New Zealand, Canadian and Indian poetry. It may be controversial to describe Irish literature as English or British, even though it is in the English language.


title: Rearrangement reaction

paragraphs: A rearrangement reaction are organic reactions where the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged. The result is a structural isomer of the original molecule. Often a substituent moves from one atom to another atom in the same molecule. In the example below, the substituent R moves from carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 2:

paragraphs: Intermolecular rearrangements also take place.

paragraphs: Sometimes chemists draw diagrams with arrows that show how electrons are transferred between bonds during a rearrangement reaction. Many organic chemistry text books have such diagrams. But they do not tell the full story of the reaction mechanism. The actual mechanism of a rearrangement with an alkyl group moving is for the group to slide smoothly along a bond, not ionic bond-breaking and forming. One example of this is the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement:

paragraphs: In pericyclic reactions, the orbital interactions are important. The reactions can not be explained by a series of simple discrete electron transfers. But, the curved arrows showing a sequence of discrete electron transfers can give the same result as a rearrangement reaction. Yet, the diagrams are not necessarily realistic. In allylic rearrangement, the reaction is ionic.

paragraphs: Three important rearrangement reactions are 1,2-rearrangements, pericyclic reactions and olefin metathesis.

paragraphs: A 1,2-rearrangement is an organic reaction where a substituent moves from one atom to another atom in a chemical compound. In a 1,2 shift, the substituent moves between two adjacent atoms. But moves over larger distances are possible. Examples are the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement:

paragraphs: A pericyclic reaction is a type of reaction with multiple carbon-carbon bond making and breaking. The transition state of the molecule has a cyclic geometry. The reaction progresses in a concerted fashion. Examples are hydride shifts

paragraphs: Olefin metathesis is a formal exchange of the alkylidene fragments in two alkenes. It is a catalytic reaction with carbene. It has transition metal carbene complex intermediates.


title: Computational chemistry

paragraphs: Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer science to help solve chemical problems. These programs calculate the structures and properties of molecules and solids. Computational chemistry normally complements the information obtained by chemical experiments. It can predict chemical phenomena that have not yet been observed. It is widely used in the design of new drugs and materials.

paragraphs: Computational chemistry can predict structure (that is, the expected positions of the molecule's atoms), absolute and relative (interaction) energies, electronic charge distributions, dipoles and higher multipole moments, vibrational frequencies, reactivity or other spectroscopic quantities, and cross sections for collision with other particles.

paragraphs: Computational chemistry looks at both static and dynamic systems. In all cases, as the size of the system being studied grows, the computer time and other resources (such as memory and disk space) used also grows. That system can be a single molecule, a group of molecules, or a solid. Computational chemistry methods range from highly accurate to very approximate. Highly accurate methods are typically feasible only for small systems.


title: Polymer chemistry

paragraphs: Polymer chemistry (also called macromolecular chemistry) is the science of chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. According to IUPAC recommendations, macromolecules refer to the individual molecular chains and are the domain of chemistry. Polymers describe the bulk properties of polymer materials and belong to the field of polymer physics (a part of physics).

paragraphs: The different kinds of macromolecules include:

paragraphs: Polymers are formed by polymerization of monomers. Chemists describe a polymer by its degree of polymerization, molar mass distribution, tacticity, copolymer distribution, the degree of branching, by its end-groups, crosslinks, and crystallinity. Chemists also study a polymer's thermal properties such as its glass transition temperature and melting temperature. Polymers in solution have special characteristics for solubility, viscosity and gelation.

paragraphs: Polymer chemistry started by studying the long fibers in plants. The work of Henri Braconnot in 1777 and the work of Christian Schönbein in 1846 led to the discovery of nitrocellulose. Nitrocellulose treated with camphor makes celluloid. Chemists dissolve celluloid in ether or acetone to make collodion. Doctors have used collodion as a wound dressing since the U.S. Civil War. Cellulose acetate was first prepared in 1865. In 1834, Friedrich Ludersdorf and Nathaniel Hayward independently discovered that adding sulfur to raw natural rubber (polyisoprene) helped prevent the material from becoming sticky. In 1844 Charles Goodyear received a U.S. patent for vulcanizing rubber with sulfur and heat. Thomas Hancock had received a patent for the same process in the UK the year before.

paragraphs: In 1884, Hilaire de Chardonnet started the first artificial fiber factory based on regenerated cellulose, or viscose rayon, as a substitute for silk, but it was very flammable. In 1907 Leo Baekeland invented the first synthetic polymer, a thermosetting phenol-formaldehyde resin called Bakelite. Around the same time, Hermann Leuchs reported the synthesis of N-carboxyanhydrides and their high molecular weight products upon reaction with nucleophiles. But Leuchs did not call them polymers, possibly due to the strong views held by Emil Fischer, his direct supervisor, denying the possibility of any covalent molecule exceeding 6,000 daltons. Cellophane was invented in 1908 by Jocques Brandenberger who squirted sheets of viscose rayon into an acid bath.

paragraphs: In 1922, Hermann Staudinger (a German chemist) proposed that polymers were long chains of atoms held together by covalent bonds. He also proposed to name these compounds "macromolecules". Before that, scientists believed that polymers were clusters of small molecules (called colloids), without definite molecular weights, held together by an unknown force. Staudinger received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1953.

paragraphs: Wallace Carothers invented the first synthetic rubber called neoprene in 1931. Neoprene was the first polyester. Carothers went on to invent nylon, a true silk replacement, in 1935. Paul Flory was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 for his work on polymer random coil configurations in solution in the 1950s. Stephanie Kwolek developed an aramid, or aromatic nylon named Kevlar, patented in 1966.

paragraphs: There are now a large number of commercial polymers. They include composite materials such as carbon fiber-epoxy, polystyrene-polybutadiene (HIPS), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). Chemists design commercial polymers to combine the best properties of their various components. For example, special polymers used in automobile engines are designed to work at high temperatures.

paragraphs: It took a long time before universities introduced teaching and research programs in polymer chemistry.

paragraphs: An "Institut fur Makromolekulare Chemie was founded in 1940 in Freiburg, Germany under the direction of Hermann Staudinger. In America a "Polymer Research Institute" (PRI) was established in 1941 by Herman Mark at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now Polytechnic Institute of NYU). Several hundred graduates of PRI played an important role in the US polymer industry and academia. Other PRI's were founded in 1961 by Richard S. Stein at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, in 1967 by Eric Baer at Case Western Reserve University and in 1988 at the University of Akron.


title: Chemical synthesis

paragraphs: In chemistry, chemical synthesis means using chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations. Often, several different chemical reactions are used; one after another. In modern laboratory usage, a chemical synthesis is reproducible (if the experiment is done a second time, it will have the same results as the first time), reliable (not broken by small changes in conditions), and established to work in multiple laboratories.

paragraphs: Chemists start to design a chemical synthesis by selecting compounds to combine. These starting chemicals are known as reagents or reactants. Chemists do various things to these reagents to synthesize the product, or an intermediate product. This requires mixing the compounds in a reaction vessel. The vessel can be a chemical reactor or a simple flask. Many reactions require some form of work-up procedure before the final product is isolated.

paragraphs: The amount of product in a chemical synthesis is the reaction yield. Typically, chemical yields are expressed as a weight in grams or as a percentage of the total theoretical quantity of product that could be produced. A side reaction is an unwanted chemical reaction taking place that reduces the yield of the wanted product.

paragraphs: The chemist Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe was the first to use the word "synthesis" in its present-day meaning.

paragraphs: In most cases, a single reaction will not convert a reactant (starting chemical) into the desired reaction product. Chemists have many strategies to find the best sequence of reactions to make the desired product. In cascade reactions multiple chemical changes take place within a single reactant. In multi-component reactions up to 11 different reactants form a single reaction product. In a telescopic synthesis, one reactant goes through multiple transformations without isolating intermediates after each step.

paragraphs: Organic synthesis is a special type of chemical synthesis. Only organic compounds are created in organic synthesis. The total synthesis of a complex product may take many steps to reach the goal product. These steps can take too much time. Chemists want to have skill in organic synthesis and being able to find a synthesis path with the least number of steps. The synthesis of very valuable or difficult compounds has earned chemists, such as Robert Burns Woodward, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

paragraphs: If a chemical synthesis starts from basic laboratory compounds and yields something new, it is a "purely synthetic process". If it starts from a product isolated from plants or animals and then proceeds to a new compounds, the synthesis is called a "semisynthetic process".

paragraphs: Most times, chemical synthesis means the overall, many step procedure for making a desired product. Sometimes, chemists use "chemical synthesis" to mean just a "direct combination reaction". In a direct combination reaction, two or more reactants combine to form a single product. The chemical equation for a direct combination reaction is:

paragraphs: where A and B are elements or compounds, and AB is a compound consisting of A and B. Examples of combination reactions include:


title: Organic synthesis

paragraphs: Organic synthesis is a special part of chemical synthesis. It builds organic compounds using organic reactions. Organic molecules can have a higher level of complexity compared to inorganic compounds. So, the synthesis of organic compounds has developed into one of the most important parts of organic chemistry. There are two main areas of research fields within the general area of organic synthesis: "total synthesis" and "methodology".

paragraphs: A total synthesis is the complete chemical synthesis of complex organic molecules from simple, commercially available (petrochemical) or natural precursors. In a "linear" synthesis—often used for simple structures—several steps are performed one after another until the molecule is complete. The chemical compounds made in each step are usually called "synthetic intermediates". For more complex molecules, a different approach may be preferable: convergent synthesis involves the individual preparation of several "pieces" (key intermediates), which are then combined to form the goal product.

paragraphs: Robert Burns Woodward, who received the 1965 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for several total syntheses (for example, his 1954 synthesis of strychnine), is regarded as the father of modern organic synthesis. Some latter-day examples of total synthesis include Wender's, Holton's, Nicolaou's and Danishefsky's synthesis of Taxol.

paragraphs: Each step of a synthesis involves a chemical reaction, and reagents and conditions for each of these reactions need to be designed to give a good yield and a pure product, with as little work as possible. A method may already exist in the literature for making one of the early synthetic intermediates, and this method will usually be used rather than "trying to reinvent the wheel". However most intermediates are compounds that have never been made before. These will normally be made using general methods developed by methodology researchers. To be useful, these methods need to give high yields. They must also be reliable for a broad range of substrates. For practical applications, additional requirements include industrial standards of safety and purity. Methodology research usually involves three main stages: "discovery", "optimization", and studies of "scope and limitations". The "discovery" requires extensive knowledge of and experience with chemical reactivities of appropriate reagents. "Optimization" is where one or two starting compounds are tested in the reaction under a wide variety of conditions of temperature, solvent, reaction time, etc. Researchers try different conditions until they find the best conditions for product yield and purity. Finally, researchers try to extend the synthesis method to a broad range of different starting materials, to find its scope and limitations. Total synthesis (see above) are sometimes used to highlight the new method and demonstrate its value in a real-world application. Major industries focused especially on polymers (and plastics) and on pharmaceuticals have used this research.

paragraphs: Most complex natural products are chiral. Each enantiomer can have a different bioactivity. Traditional total syntheses targeted racemic mixtures, i.e., as an equal mixture of both possible enantiomers. The racemic mixture might then be separated via chiral resolution.

paragraphs: In the latter half of the twentieth century, chemists began to develop methods of asymmetric catalysis and kinetic resolution. These reactions could be directed to produce only one enantiomer rather than a racemic mixture. Early examples include Sharpless epoxidation (K. Barry Sharpless) and asymmetric hydrogenation (William S. Knowles and Ryōji Noyori). For their achievement, these workers went on to share the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001. Such reactions gave chemists a much wider choice of enantiomerically pure molecules to start an organic synthesis. Previously only natural enantiomer starting materials could be used. Using techniques pioneered by Robert Burns Woodward and other new synthetic methods, chemists became more able to make complex molecules without unwanted racemisation. This is called stereocontrol. This allowed the final target molecule to be synthesised as one pure enantiomer without any resolution being necessary. Such techniques are referred to as asymmetric synthesis.

paragraphs: Elias James Corey brought a more formal approach to synthesis design, based on retrosynthetic analysis, for which he won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1990. In this approach, the research is planned backwards from the product, using standard rules. The steps are shown using retrosynthetic arrows (drawn as: =>), which in effect means "is made from". Computer programs have been written for designing a synthesis based on sequences of generic "half-reactions".


title: Alexander Morozevich

paragraphs: Alexander Morozevich (born Moscow, 18 July 1977) is a Russian chess Grandmaster. He was ranked second, in the July 2008 FIDE rating list, but is now ranked ninth.

paragraphs: Morozevich has been one of the best chess players in the world for nearly a decade. He is famous for employing unusual openings, for example the Chigorin Defense (1. d4 d5 2. c4 Nc6), and more recently the Albin Countergambit (1.d4 d5 2.c4 e5); both systems are hardly ever seen at the top level. He is also well known for preferring complicated rather than clear positions. Perhaps because of his style, which produces relatively few draws, Morozevich is popular among chess fans.

paragraphs: Among his most notable results are 7.5/10 at the 2000 Chess Olympiad (winning Bronze Medal for board 2) and 7/11 at the 2002 Chess Olympiad. He took first place in the overall standings at the Amber tournament in 2002, 2004 (shared with Kramnik) and 2006 (shared with Anand); first place in Biel tournament three times: 2003, 2004 and 2006; and twice winning the Russian championship (1998 and 2007).


title: Peter Leko

paragraphs: Peter Leko (; born 8 September 1979 in Subotica, Yugoslavia) is the leading Hungarian chess grandmaster.

paragraphs: He became a grandmaster in 1994 at the age of 14 years (a world record at the time). He was the challenger in the Classical World Championship 2004 against Vladimir Kramnik. He tied with Kramnik 7-7, but this meant Kramnik retained his title. Leko's best world ranking was fourth, first achieved in April 2003.


title: Abilene Ruff Riders

paragraphs: The Abilene Ruff Riders are an American football team. They play their games at the Taylor County Expo Center in Abilene, Texas. Their team colours are red, black and white. The team logo (the picture they have on their shirts) is a cowboy on a horse. They have a team mascot called Rowdy the Ruffrider, who is a cowboy too.

paragraphs: At first, the Ruff Riders were called the Katy Ruff Riders, because they played their games in a city called Katy, Texas. In 2008, they moved to Abilene and changed their name. They were part of the Intense Football League until 2010. For the 2010 - 2011 season, they were part of the Southern Indoor Football League, but now they are a part of the Lone Star Football League.


title: Kifkif

paragraphs: The Association of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals and Transgenders persons in Morocco (KIFKIF) is a Moroccan non-profit organization working on improving the legal and social status of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. It was founded in 2005 in and is the first LGBT advocacy group in North Africa. Kifkif means equal in Arabic.


title: Jerry Koosman

paragraphs: Jerry Koosman (born December 23, 1942) is a former baseball player with the New York Mets, Minnesota Twins, Chicago White Sox and Philadelphia Phillies. He was a pitcher. He won more than 200 games in his career. In 1969, he was on the Mets team that won the baseball championship the World Series. Koosman won two games for the Mets in the 1969 World Series.

paragraphs: In 1968, Koosman finished 2nd by one vote to Johnny Bench in the voting for National League Rookie of the Year, given to the best first year player in the league. In 1976, Koosman finished 2nd to Randy Jones in the voting for National League Cy Young Award, given to the league's best pitcher. Koosman won at least 20 games in both 1976 and 1979.


title: Tom Cleverley

paragraphs: Thomas (Tom) William Cleverley (born 12 August 1989) is an English footballer. He was born in Basingstoke, Hampshire and grew up in Bradford, West Yorkshire.

paragraphs: Cleverley plays for Premier League club Everton and the England national team.


title: Johnny Bench

paragraphs: Johnny Bench (born December 7, 1947) is a former baseball player who played for the Cincinnati Reds. He mostly played catcher. He hit 389 home runs. He was the National League Most Valuable Player in both 1970 and 1972. He was also the National League Rookie of the Year, or best first year player, in 1968. He was chosen for the All Star Game 14 times.

paragraphs: He won the baseball championship, the World Series, with Reds in both 1975 and 1976, and was voted the Most Valuable Player of the World Series in 1976. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1989.

paragraphs: Most analysts think either Bench or Iván Rodríguez is the greatest catcher of all time.


title: Gali Akish

paragraphs: ALI AKISH (January 14, 1918, Hailar, China - July 17, 2011, Ankara, Turkey) is a famous journalist, one of the leaders of the Tatar nationalist movement, the Honorary President of the World League of Tatars.

paragraphs: Ali Aksih was a preeminent leader of the Tatar nationalist movement in diaspora. He was born in the city of Hailar (Manchuria), where he attended a local Tatar elementary school before entering a Russian lycee. After completing the lycee in 1936, he went to study at Al-Azhar University in Cairo (Egypt), and in 1938, along with another young nationalist, Ahat Ginish, went to Poland. Akish and Ginish served as technical assistants to Ayaz Iskhaki at the Idel-Ural National Center, where the newspaper “Yanga Milli Yul" (New National Path) was published. Their work was interrupted by the invasion of Poland by the Nazi and Soviet forces.

paragraphs: Akish lived from 1940 to 1966 in Turkey where he was involved with the diaspora national movement. His pamphlet “Problems of Idel-Ural and Soviet Imperialism” printed in 1963 received great attention and provoked repercussions in the USSR in the form of two books, one ostensibly written by the President of the Tatar ASSR, Salikh Batiyev in 1977. In 1966 Ali Akish joined the Tatar-Bashkir Service of Radio Liberty, Inc. In 1983, he retired from this position and went again to Ankara. Over the years he wrote numerous articles in emigree publications and other forums such as Turk Kulturu, and in 1985 published a 59 page booklet, similar to his first, called "Idel-Ural'da Hurriyet Mucadelesi" (Struggle for Freedom in Idel-Ural).

paragraphs: In 1994, after reading Vladimir Zhirinovsky's book "Last Thrust to the South," he wrote an article for the Turkish newspaper "Milliyet" in which he denounced the Russian nationalists' imperial and anti-Turkish aspirations. The article was highly significant as one of the first published in Turkey critical of Zhirinovsky and his views.

paragraphs: He was able to visit Kazan, the capital of the Republic of Tatarstan in Russia. On his first visit to Kazan he brought, at his own expense, a computer that he donated to the Tatar Public Center. Akish dedicated his whole life to the liberation of the Tatar people from colonial oppression. The World Tatar League named him honorary president in recognition of his achievements. A school was named in his honor in the city of Chally (Naberezhniye Chelny) in Tatarstan.


title: Yield (chemistry)

paragraphs: In chemistry, yield (also called chemical yield or reaction yield) is the amount of product resulting from a chemical reaction. The "absolute yield" gives the weight in grams, and the "molar yield" gives the number of moles.

paragraphs: The "fractional yield", "relative yield", or "percentage yield" shows how completely a synthetic procedure worked. It is calculated by dividing the amount of product by the "theoretical yield" (the unit of measurement for both must be the same):

paragraphs: To get the "percentage yield", one must multiply the fractional yield by 100% (e.g., 0.673 × 100% = 67.3%).

paragraphs: The ideal percentage yield of a chemical reaction is 100%, but it cannot be achieved because measurements are never completely accurate. Yields around 100% are "quantitative", yields above 90% are "excellent", yields above 80% are "very good", yields above 70% are "good", yields above 50% are "fair", and yields below 40% are "poor".


title: Alexis Sánchez

paragraphs: Alexis Alejandro Sánchez Sánchez (born 19 December 1988), is a Chilean footballer who currently plays for English club Manchester United FC and the Chile national team.

paragraphs: In July 2014, Sanchez signed for Arsenal on a long-term contract for an undisclosed fee, reported to be around £35 million. In January 2018, he joined The Red Devils after Henrikh Mkhitaryan swapped clubs with him to Arsenal FC.