title: Dry cleaning

paragraphs: Dry cleaning (or dry-cleaning) is any cleaning process for clothing and textiles using a chemical solvent (a chemical that can dissolve certain compounds) rather than water. The solvent used is usually tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene). The solvent is called "perc" in the industry and "dry-cleaning fluid" by the public. It is often used instead of hand washing delicate fabrics. People use dry cleaning because it takes less work than hand washing.

paragraphs: The ancient Romans used a chemical called ammonia (derived from urine) and fuller's earth (a clay that can absorb grease and oil.) to clean their woolen togas. "Fullonicae" were very famous, with at least one in every town of any notability, and frequently the largest employer in a district. These laundries got their urine from farm animals, or from special pots situated at public bathrooms. The workforce made so much money that fuller's guilds (a group that works in solely one job, in this case, making fuller's earth, this special clay.) were an important political force. Also, the government taxed the collection of urine and sent people to jail for wetting their pants.

paragraphs: Modern dry cleaning uses solvents that do not use water to remove dirt and stains from clothing. Jean Baptiste Jolly discovered that petroleum-based solvents (chemicals based on fuel like gasoline or kerosene.) can be used for dry-cleaning in the mid-19th century. Jolly was a French dye-works owner. He noticed that his tablecloth became cleaner after his maid spilled kerosene on it. Because of this, he developed a service cleaning people's clothes this way, which became known as "nettoyage à sec," or "dry cleaning".

paragraphs: Early dry cleaners used petroleum-based solvents, such as <nowiki>gasoline (petrol)</nowiki> and kerosene. Fire concerns led William Joseph Stoddard, a dry cleaner from Atlanta, to develop Stoddard solvent as a slightly less flammable alternative to gasoline-based solvents. The government started to control dry cleaners because the highly flammable petroleum solvents caused many fires and explosions.

paragraphs: After World War I, dry cleaners began using chlorinated solvents. These solvents were much less flammable than petroleum solvents and had improved cleaning power. By the mid-1930s, the dry cleaning industry had adopted tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), widely called "perc," as the best solvent. It has excellent cleaning power and is stable, nonflammable, and gentle to most clothing. However, perc was also the first chemical to be classified as a carcinogen (a chemical that can cause cancer.) by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (a classification later withdrawn). In 1993, the California Air Resources Board adopted regulations to reduce perc emissions from dry cleaning operations. The dry cleaning industry is in the process of replacing perc with other chemicals and/or methods.

paragraphs: Traditionally, the actual cleaning process was carried out at centralized "factories"; high street cleaners shops received garments from customers, sent them to the factory, and then had them returned to the shop, where the customer could collect them. This was due mainly to the risk of fire or dangerous fumes created by the cleaning process. At this time, dry-cleaning was carried out in two different machines — one for the cleaning process itself and the second to dry the clothing.

paragraphs: Machines of this era were called "vented"; their fumes and drying exhausts were sent into the air, in the same way as with modern tumble dryer exhausts. This added to environmental contamination. Also much potentially reusable perc was lost to the atmosphere. Much stricter controls on solvent emissions have ensured that all dry cleaning machines in the western world are now fully enclosed. No solvent fumes are vented to the atmosphere. In enclosed machines, solvent recovered during the drying process is returned condensed and distilled. So, it can be reused to clean further loads, or safely thrown away. The majority of modern enclosed machines also incorporate a computer-controlled drying sensor, which automatically feels when most traces of perc have been removed from the load during the drying process. This system ensures that only the smallest amount of perc fumes will be released when opening the door at the end of the cycle.

paragraphs: A dry-cleaning machine is similar to a combination of a domestic washing machine, and clothes dryer. Garments are placed into a washing/extraction chamber (referred to as the basket, or drum). The chamber is the core of the machine. The washing chamber contains a horizontal, perforated drum that rotates within an outer shell. The shell holds the solvent while the rotating drum holds the clothing. The basket can hold between about 10 and 40 kg (20 to 80 lb).

paragraphs: During the wash cycle, the chamber is filled approximately one-third full of solvent and begins to rotate, agitating the clothing. The solvent temperature is maintained at 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit), as a higher temperature may damage it. During the wash cycle, the solvent in the chamber is filtered and then fed back into the chamber. This is known as the cycle and is continued for the wash duration. The solvent is then removed and sent to a distillation unit that has both a boiler and condenser. The condensed solvent is fed into a separator unit where any remaining water is separated from the solvent and then fed into the 'clean solvent' tank. The ideal flow rate is one gallon of solvent per pound of garments (roughly 8 litres of solvent per kilogram of clothing) per minute, depending on the size of the machine.

paragraphs: Operators also check clothing for foreign objects before placing them into the machine. Items such as plastic pens will dissolve in the solvent bath and may damage textiles beyond recovery. Some textile dyes are "loose" (red being the main problem), and will release dye during solvent immersion. Operators will dry clean red clothing separately from lighter-color textiles to avoid color transfer. The solvent used must be distilled to remove impurities that may transfer to clothing. Operators checked clothing for dry-cleaning compatibility, including fasteners. Many fasteners that decorate clothing either are not dry cleaning solvent proof or will not withstand the mechanical action of cleaning. Operators will remove them and restitched them after the cleaning. Or, operators will wrap them in a small padded protector. Fragile items, such as feather bedspreads or tasseled rugs or hangings, may be enclosed in a loose mesh bag. The density of perchloroethylene is around 1.7 g/cm³ at room temperature (70% heavier than water), and the sheer weight of absorbed solvent may cause the textile to fail under normal force during the extraction cycle unless the mesh bag provides mechanical support.

paragraphs: Many people believe that all marks or stains can be removed by dry cleaning. Not every stain can be cleaned just by dry cleaning. Some need to be treated with spotting solvents; sometimes by steam jet or by soaking in special stain remover liquids before garments are washed or dry cleaned. Also, garments stored in soiled condition for a long time are difficult to bring back to their original color and texture. Natural fibers such as wool, cotton, and silk of lighter colors should not be left in dirty or soiled condition for long amounts of time as they absorb dirt in their texture and are unlikely to be restored to their original color and finish.

paragraphs: The main reason that washing in water has a different result than dry cleaning is that water is a polar solvent while dry cleaning uses a non-polar solvent.

paragraphs: A typical wash cycle lasts for 8–15 minutes depending on the type of garments and degree of soiling. During the first three minutes, solvent-soluble soils dissolve into the perchloroethylene and loose, insoluble soil comes off. It takes approximately ten to twelve minutes after the loose soil has come off to remove the ground-in insoluble soil from garments. Machines using hydrocarbon solvents require a wash cycle of at least 25 minutes because of the much slower rate of solvation of solvent-soluble soils. A dry-cleaning surfactant "soap" may also be added.

paragraphs: At the end of the wash cycle, the machine starts a rinse cycle wherein the garment load is rinsed with fresh distilled solvent from the pure solvent tank. This pure solvent rinse prevents discoloration caused by soil particles being absorbed back onto the garment surface from the "dirty" working solvent.

paragraphs: After the rinse cycle, the machine begins the extraction process, which recovers dry-cleaning solvent for reuse. Modern machines recover approximately 99.99% of the solvent that was used. The extraction cycle begins by draining the solvent from the washing chamber and accelerating the basket to 350 to 450 rpm, causing much of the solvent to spin free of the fabric. Until this time the cleaning is done in normal temperature, the solvent is never heated in dry cleaning process. When no more solvent can be spun out, the machine starts the drying cycle.

paragraphs: During the drying cycle, the garments are tumbled in a stream of warm air (60-63°C/140-145°F) that circulates through the basket, evaporating any traces of solvent left after the spin cycle. The air temperature is controlled to prevent heat damage to the garments. The exhausted warm air from the machine then passes through a chiller unit where solvent vapors are condensed and returned to the distilled solvent tank. Modern dry cleaning machines use a closed-loop system in which the chilled air is reheated and recirculated. This results in high solvent recovery rates and reduced air pollution. In the early days of dry cleaning, large amounts of perchlorethylene were vented to the atmosphere because it was regarded as cheap and believed to be harmless.

paragraphs: After the drying cycle is complete, a deodorizing (aeration) cycle cools the garments and removes even more of the solvent, by circulating cool outside air over the garments and then through a vapor recovery filter made from activated carbon and polymer resins. After the aeration cycle, the garments are clean and ready for pressing/finishing.

paragraphs: In fact, dry cleaning does not remove all of the solvent. There are no government standards for how much solvent is allowed to remain in the fabric. Detectable amounts of the solvent remain in clothes, with wool clothes retaining the most solvent.

paragraphs: Working solvent from the washing chamber passes through several filtration steps before it is returned to the washing chamber. The first step is a button trap, which prevents small objects such as lint, fasteners, buttons, and coins from entering the solvent pump.

paragraphs: Over time, a thin layer of filter cake (called muck) accumulates on the lint filter. The muck is removed regularly (commonly once per day) and then processed to recover solvent trapped in the muck. Many machines use "spin disc filters," which remove the muck from the filter by centrifugal force while it is back washed with solvent.

paragraphs: After the lint filter, the solvent passes through an absorptive cartridge filter. This filter is made from activated clays and charcoal and removes fine insoluble soil and non-volatile residues, along with dyes from the solvent. Finally, the solvent passes through a polishing filter, which removes any soil not previously removed. The clean solvent is then returned to the working solvent tank.

paragraphs: To enhance cleaning power, small amounts of detergent (0.5%-1.5%) are added to the working solvent and are essential to its functionality. These detergents help dissolve hydrophilic soils and keep soil from redepositing on garments. Depending on the machine's design, either an anionic or a cationic detergent is used.

paragraphs: Since the solvent recovery is less than 100%, and because dry-cleaning does not remove water-based stains well, entrepreneurs have developed the wet cleaning process, which is, in essence, cold-water washing and air drying, using a computer-controlled washer and dryer. In general, wet cleaning is still being improved and developed, although low-tech versions of it have been used for centuries.

paragraphs: People who make clothes have special symbols to say how they should be cleaned. The international GINETEX laundry symbol for dry cleaning is a circle. It may have a letter P inside to indicate perchloroethylene solvent, or a letter F inside to indicate a hydrocarbon solvent. A bar underneath the circle means that only mild cleaning processes should be used. A crossed-out empty circle means the clothes should not be dry cleaned.

paragraphs: Cooked Powder Residue — the waste material generated by cooking down or distilling muck. Cooked powder residue is a hazardous waste and will contain solvent, powdered filter material (diatomite), carbon, non-volatile residues, lint, dyes, grease, soils, and water. Laws say how this material can be discarded.

paragraphs: The waste sludge or solid residue from the still contains solvent, water, soils, carbon, and other non-volatile residues. Material removed from the bottom of the stills at chlorinated solvent dry cleaning operations are hazardous wastes.

paragraphs: Perc is classified as a hazardous air contaminant by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and must be handled as a hazardous waste. To prevent it from getting into drinking water, dry cleaners that use perc must take special precautions against site contamination. Landlords are becoming increasingly reluctant to allow dry cleaners to operate in their buildings. When released into the air, perc can contribute to smog when it reacts with other volatile organic carbon substances. California declared perchloroethylene a toxic chemical in 1991, and its use will become illegal in that state in 2023.

paragraphs: Some alternatives such as CO avoids the toxic risks of perc. But, CO does not clean some forms of grime as well as perc.

paragraphs: Various commercial products on the marketplace today, such as Procter & Gamble's Dryel, allow elements of the dry cleaning process to be performed in the household using home laundry machines. Though not the complete process that would be performed by a professional dry cleaner, they allow the convenience of home laundry and work for certain types of garments.


title: Evolution of cetaceans

paragraphs: The Cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) are mammalian marine descendants of land mammals. Their terrestrial origins are indicated by:

paragraphs: The question of how land animals evolved into ocean-going leviathans was a mystery until recent discoveries in Pakistan revealed several stages in the transition of cetaceans from land to sea.

paragraphs: After many years when palaeontologists thought whales had evolved from mesonychids, DNA sequence analysis showed the closest relationship was with artiodactyls, the even-toed ungulates. A new clade was created to include Cetacea and their nearest relatives, the hippopotamus family. This clade is called the Cetartiodactyla.

paragraphs: Hippo fossils are not found until the Miocene, but whale ancestors have been found from the Eocene. This leaves a gap of nearly 30 million years where no hippo ancestors are found. The most recent hypothesis is that hippos and whales shared a common semi-aquatic ancestor which branched off from other Artiodactyls around 60 million years ago (mya). This ancestral group probably split into two branches around 54 mya. One branch evolved into cetaceans, possibly beginning with the proto-whale "Pakicetus" from 52 mya. These early cetaceans gradually became adapted to life in the sea. They became the completely aquatic cetaceans.

paragraphs: "Indohyus" is a small deer-like creature, which lived about 48 million years ago in Kashmir. It belongs to the artiodactyls family "Raoellidae", and is believed to be the closest sister group of Cetacea.

paragraphs: About the size of a raccoon or domestic cat, this herbivorous creature shared some of the traits of whales. It also showed signs of adaptations to aquatic life, including a thick and heavy outer bone coating. This is similar to the bones of modern creatures such as the hippopotamus, and reduces buoyancy so that they can stay underwater. This suggests a similar survival strategy to the African mousedeer or water chevrotain which, when threatened by a bird of prey, dives into water and hides beneath the surface for up to four minutes.

paragraphs: Scientists from the University of Plymouth studied many animals that dive and hold their breath, from insects to whales, and they found that larger animals can hold their breath longer than smaller animals because they can store more oxygen for their size, and this difference was much bigger for warm-blooded animals than for cold-blooded animals. They said this may be why modern whales and extinct diving animals like plesiosaurs became so large.


title: Coal ball

paragraphs: Coal balls are permineralised life forms that are full of calcium, magnesium and occasionally iron sulfide. They generally have a round shape. Coal balls are not made of coal, even though they have the name "coal ball".

paragraphs: In 1855, two English scientists, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney, found coal balls in England. Because of that, the initial research on coal balls was done in Europe. Coal balls were found and identified in North America in 1922. Since then, coal balls have been found in other countries and several theories on their formation have been proposed.

paragraphs: Marie Stopes and D.M.S. Watson also examined coal ball samples. They agreed that coal balls formed "in situ". They also added that interaction with a marine environment was necessary for a coal ball to form.

paragraphs: Coal balls are in coal seams across North America and Eurasia. North American coal balls are in more places than in Europe. The oldest coal balls were found in Germany and former Czechoslovakia.

paragraphs: In 1962, Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson found signs of marine animal remains in North American coal balls.

paragraphs: The quality of the preservation of organic material depends on the speed of the burial process and the degree of compression before undergoing permineralisation. Generally, coal balls resulting from remains that have a quick burial with little decay and pressure have a higher preservation degree. However, plant remains in most coal balls show various signs of decay and collapse.

paragraphs: Thin sectioning was an early procedure used to analyse fossilised material contained in coal balls. The ball was cut into thin sections with a diamond saw. Then it was flattened and polished with an abrasive. Then it was examined under a microscope. This is the procedure which was carried out by Hooker and Binney. The time needed, and the poor quality of samples produced, led to a more convenient method.

paragraphs: The new method, first used in 1928, is called the "liquid peel technique".


title: Napster

paragraphs: Napster was a computer program that allowed people to share music over the Internet. It was shut down as the result of a lawsuit by the RIAA. Napster has since reopened with some changes


title: Paul Flory

paragraphs: Paul John Flory (June 19, 1910 – September 9, 1985) was an American chemist and Nobel laureate. He worked in the field of polymers, or macromolecules. He was a leading pioneer in understanding how polymers dissolve in solutions. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 "for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules."

paragraphs: He graduated from Elgin High School in Elgin, Illinois in 1927. Flory received a bachelor's degree from Manchester College (Indiana) in 1931 and a Ph.D. from the Ohio State University in 1934. His first position was at DuPont with Wallace Carothers.

paragraphs: Flory's earliest work in polymer science was in the area of polymerization kinetics at the DuPont Experimental station. Most chemists studying condensation polymerization believed that the reactivity of the end group decreased as the macromolecule grew. Flory argued that the reactivity was independent of the polymer's size. He showed that the number of polymer chains present decreased with size exponentially.

paragraphs: Flory introduced the important concept of chain transfer to the study of addition polymerization. This improved chemists' understanding of the kinetic equations. It also helped chemists to understand the distribution of the polymer sizes.

paragraphs: In 1938, after Carothers' death, Flory moved to the Basic Science Research Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati. There he developed a mathematical theory for the polymerization of compounds with more than two functional groups. He also developed the theory of polymer networks or gels.

paragraphs: In 1940, he joined the Linden, NJ laboratory of the Standard Oil Development Company. He developed a statistical mechanical theory for polymer mixtures there.

paragraphs: In 1943, he left to join the research laboratories of Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company as head of a group on polymer fundamentals. In the Spring of 1948 Peter Debye, then chairman of the chemistry department at Cornell University, invited Flory to give the annual Baker Lectures. He then was offered a position with the faculty in the Fall of the same year. At Cornell, Flory expanded and refined his Baker Lectures into his best work (magnum opus), "Principles of Polymer Chemistry" which was published in 1953 by Cornell University Press. This quickly became a standard text for all workers in the field of polymers, and is still widely used to this day.

paragraphs: Flory introduced the concept of excluded volume to polymers. (Werner Kuhn had already invented the term in 1934 for molecules in general.) "Excluded volume" refers to the idea that one part of a long chain molecule can not occupy space that is already occupied by another part of the same molecule. Excluded volume causes the ends of a polymer chain in a solution to be further apart (on average) than they would be were there no excluded volume. The recognition that excluded volume was an important factor in analyzing long-chain molecules in solutions provided an important conceptual breakthrough. Excluded volume explained several puzzling experimental results of that time. It also led to the concept of the theta point, the set of conditions at which an experiment can be conducted that causes the excluded volume effect to be neutralized. At the theta point, the chain reverts to ideal chain characteristics – the long-range interactions coming from the excluded volume are eliminated. This allows experimenters to more easily measure short-range features such as structural geometry, bond rotation potentials, and steric interactions between near-neighboring groups. Flory taught another advantage of performing the experiment at the theta point: the chain dimension in polymer melts would have the size computed for a chain in ideal solution. This works because excluded volume interactions are neutralized at the theta point.

paragraphs: He also invented an original method for computing the probable size of a polymer in good solution. He invented the Flory-Huggins Solution Theory. He derived the Flory exponent, which helps characterize the movement of polymers in solution.

paragraphs: Flory won the Perkin Medal and the Priestley Medal.

paragraphs: In modeling the position vectors of atoms in macromolecules it is often necessary to convert from Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) to generalized coordinates. The Flory convention for defining the variables involved is usually employed. For an example, a peptide bond can be described by the x,y,z positions of every atom in this bond or the Flory convention can be used. Here one must know the bond lengths formula_1, bond angles formula_2, and the dihedral angles formula_3. A three-dimensional structure can be described using the Flory convention by applying a vector conversion from the Cartesian coordinates to the generalized coordinates.

paragraphs: He became a professor at Stanford University in 1961. He became the Jackson-Wood Professor there in 1966. He retired from Stanford in 1975. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 "for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules." He remained active after his retirement, and consulted for IBM for some years. He and his wife Emily Catherine Tabor (now dead) had three children, Susan, Melinda and John. Susan has two children, Elizabeth and Mary. Elizabeth has three children, Katy Greer, Margaret Greer, and Sam Greer. Paul J Flory died of a heart attack in Big Sur, California in 1985.


title: Alpine butterfly knot

paragraphs: The alpine butterfly loop is a knot used to form a loop in the middle of a rope. Once tied, the loop will not shift up and down the rope. It is good for adding a stationary loop in a continuous piece of rope, without bending the rope.


title: Reef knot

paragraphs: The reef knot (or square knot) is a knot that is often used to tie two ropes together.


title: Sheet bend

paragraphs: The sheet bend is a knot made to join two ends of rope together.


title: Extinction (astronomy)

paragraphs: Interstellar extinction is when the electromagnetic radiation of an astronomical object is blocked and/or scattered by other astronomical objects and cosmic dust.

paragraphs: Also known as galactic extinction when the object is in the Milky Way.


title: Astronomical object

paragraphs: Astronomical object refers to something that astronomers study. It may be any body or structure in the observable universe. This includes objects like nebulas, star clusters, galaxy clusters, galaxies, stars, protostars, planets, satellites, comets, asteroids. Objects on the Earth are not usually included, except sometimes recently landed meteorites.


title: Masala (movie genre)

paragraphs: Masala (; ) is a word used in South East Asia, mainly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. It is used for a style of Indian movies where there is a mix of various styles of movies in one movie. For example, a movie can show action, comedy, drama, and romance. This movie style is used very often in South Indian films as it helps make the movies appeal to more viewers. Famous masala directors include S. Shankar, Perarasu and K. S. Ravikumar.


title: Sharaf Khan Bidlisi

paragraphs: Sharaf Khan Bidlisi (, 1543 - 1603), was a Kurdish prince and historian. In 1597 he wrote a book on Kurdish history, Sharafnama.


title: Informal economy

paragraphs: The informal economy is that part of economy which is not reported in official statistics such as the gross domestic product of a country. The informal economy is not taxed, and includes the black market. In developing countries over 70% of the people work in this form of economy. They are self-employed, because it is difficult to find an employer to hire them. People working in this form of economy have no social benefits or social security, which are usually only given by the state to those who have made tax contributions.

paragraphs: Usually, most people working in this form of economy are women; they work in the most erratic and corrupt segments of the job market.

paragraphs: Sixty percent of female workers in developing countries are employed by the informal sector. There are two main reasons why this is the case: First, the kind of employment that is available caters mostly to women. Secondly, most women either work from home, because they also have to take care of children, or they work as street vendors; both of these kinds of work are classified in the informal sector.

paragraphs: What is more, most people at the top positions of the sector are men, and most people in the bottom positions are women.

paragraphs: For example, very few women are employers who hire others and more women are likely to be involved in smaller scale operations. Labor markets, household decisions, and states all propagate this gender inequality. The gender gap in terms of wage is even higher in the informal sector than the formal sector.


title: Two half-hitches

paragraphs: Two half-hitches is a knot that is often used to attach rope to poles or other objects. It is one of many knots that are called hitches. When a clove hitch is tied around a rope, it forms the two half-hitches.


title: Clove hitch

paragraphs: A clove hitch is a knot that is tied around an object. It is a kind of hitch knot. When a clove hitch is tied around a rope, it forms a knot called Two half-hitches.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996 movie)

paragraphs: The Hunchback of Notre Dame is a 1996 American animated musical drama movie based on Victor Hugo's novel of the same name. It was produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 34th Disney animated movie. The story is about Quasimodo, the deformed bell-ringer of Notre Dame, and his struggle to gain acceptance into society.

paragraphs: Directed by Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale and produced by Don Hahn, the movie's voice cast features Tom Hulce, Demi Moore, Tony Jay, Kevin Kline, Paul Kandel, Jason Alexander, Charles Kimbrough, David Ogden Stiers, and Mary Wickes in her final movie role. Produced during a period known as the Disney Renaissance, the movie is considered to be one of Disney's darkest animated movie because its narrative explores such mature themes as infanticide, lust, damnation, genocide, and sin, despite the changes made from the original source material in order to ensure a G rating received by the MPAA. The musical score was written by Alan Menken, with songs written by Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz, who had previously collaborated on "Pocahontas", released the year before.

paragraphs: "The Hunchback of Notre Dame" was released on June 21, 1996 to largely positive reviews and was a commercial success, grossing over $325 million worldwide and becoming the fifth highest-grossing release of 1996. The movie received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Menken's musical score. A darker, more Gothic stage adaptation of the movie, was rewritten and directed by James Lapine and produced by Walt Disney Theatrical in Berlin, Germany, as "Der Glöckner von Notre Dame", and ran from 1999 to 2002. A direct-to-video sequel, "The Hunchback of Notre Dame II", was released in 2002.

paragraphs: In 1482 in Paris, Clopin (Paul Kandel), a Gypsy puppeteer tells a group of children the origin of the titular hunchback. Twenty years previously, a group of gipsies are attacked by Judge Claude Frollo (Tony Jay), the corrupt Justice Minister, who pursues a woman with the group, believing she has stolen goods. He chases her to Notre Dame Cathedral, where he kills her, only to discover her "stolen goods" are her deformed baby. He tries to drown the child but is stopped by the archdeacon, who orders him to atone for his sin by raising the child. Frollo agrees to become the child's guardian, raising him in the cathedral and naming him Quasimodo.

paragraphs: Twenty years later, Quasimodo (Tom Hulce), has grown into a goodhearted but isolated young man, having spent his whole life living in the cathedral. His only friends are a trio of sentient gargoyles-Victor (Charles Kimbrough), Hugo (Jason Alexander) and Laverne (Mary Wickes)-who encourage him to attend the annual Feast of Fools, but Frollo attempts to discourage him from attending telling him he would be shunned for his deformities. Undeterred, Quasimodo attends the Festival where he is celebrated for his deformities but is humiliated afterwards when Frollo's thugs start a riot. Frollo refuses to intervene, but the kind Gypsy dancer Esmeralda (Demi Moore) frees the hunchback and uses magic to evade capture. Frollo then confronts Quasimodo and he returns to the cathedral.

paragraphs: Esmeralda follows Quasimodo into the cathedral but is followed by Phoebus (Kevin Kline), the captain of the guard, who refuses to have her arrested for witchcraft, and has her confined to the cathedral. Esmeralda finds Quasimodo and forms a friendship with him; as thanks for saving him, he helps her escape the cathedral, and she gives him a pendant with a map to the Court of Miracles, the home of the gypsies. Frollo develops lustful feelings towards Esmeralda, calling on the Virgin Mary to protect him from her spell and avoid eternal damnation. Upon discovering Esmeralda has escaped, Frollo goes on a manhunt for her, bribing and arresting gypsies, and burning down houses in his wake. Phoebus stands up to Frollo when he attempts to burn down an innocent family's home, and he is sentenced to death. As he flees, Phoebus is struck by an arrow and falls into the Seine, but is rescued by Esmeralda and taken to the cathedral for refuge. The gargoyles encourage Quasimodo to admit his true feelings for Esmeralda but Quasimodo is heartbroken to discover that Esmeralda has feelings for Phoebus.

paragraphs: When Frollo returns later that night, he discovers Esmeralda has escaped, and bluffs to Quasimodo that he knows the location of the gypsy hideout and intends to attack at dawn with a thousand men. Using Esmeralda's map, Quasimodo and Phoebus travel to the Court of Miracles to warn the gypsies, but Frollo follows them there and takes the gipsies into custody.

paragraphs: Frollo prepares to burn Esmeralda at the stake after she rejects him, but she is saved by Quasimodo and is brought into the cathedral. Phoebus releases the gypsies and unites the citizens of Paris to battle Frollo and his men, who try to break into the cathedral. Quasimodo and the gargoyles pour molten lead into the streets to deny entrance to the cathedral but Frollo manages to sneak inside and pursues Quasimodo and Esmeralda onto the balcony, where he reveals to Quasimodo that he killed his mother. Frollo falls to his death into the lake of molten copper, and Quasimodo is saved by Phoebus. Quasimodo then gives Esmeralda and Phoebus his blessing and the two start a relationship, and Quasimodo is accepted into Parisian society.


title: Biological engineering

paragraphs: Biological engineering (also known as biotechnological engineering and bioengineering) is any type of engineering that is applied to living things.


title: Audi A8

paragraphs: The Audi A8 is the largest automobile produced by Audi. It replaced the Audi V8 in 1994, and is available with either short or long wheelbase. The range incorporates 6-, 8-, 10- and 12-cylinder petrol engines and 6- and 8-cylinder diesel engines. A more sporty version is the Audi S8.


title: Mariner 3

paragraphs: Mariner 3 was a NASA spacecraft. It was the third spacecraft in the Mariner program. It was designed to take photos of the planet Mars after an eight month journey studying interplanetary (between planet) space. However, the spacecraft lost power eight hours after launch, and it never achieved the correct Mars trajectory. It eventually entered a heliocentric (Sun-centred) orbit.


title: Selenography

paragraphs: Selenography is the study of the physical features of the Moon.


title: Sorption

paragraphs: When two chemical substances come in contact with each other, through what is called a phase, they will interact with each other in that phase. They may also have an interface. If a substance accumulates within a phase this is called absorption, if the same process happens on the interface, it is called adsorption. In the year 1909, James William McBain introduced the word Sorption to describe such a process, in the case where it is not easy or meaningful to make a difference between absorption and adsorption.

paragraphs: Examples of where the concept of sorption is important are measuring the pollution of the environment; using sorption it is possible to bind pollutants to small particles in the air (called aerosols), or in the soil (where they bind to colloids). Sorption makes these bindings possible. In much the same way, polluants can be transported over long distances.

paragraphs: Machines and processes that use sorption include the absorption refrigerator and solar air conditioning.


title: Dreaming of You (song)

paragraphs: "Dreaming of You" is a song by Mexican-American Tejano pop singer Selena. It was released as the second single from "the album of the same name" (1995).


title: Selenology

paragraphs: Selenology is the science of the Moon. It is a branch of astronomy.


title: Fobos-Grunt

paragraphs: Fobos-Grunt (also spelled Phobos-Grunt, also called Phobos Sample Return Mission) was an unmanned Russian spacecraft. It was an attempted sample return mission to Phobos, a moon of the planet Mars. Scientists intended Phobos-Grunt to orbit and study Mars. It was meant to look at Mars' atmosphere and dust storms, plasma and radiation. Then, Phobos-Grunt should have landed on Phobos and returned a 200 g soil sample to Earth.

paragraphs: The spacecraft was the first Russian interplanetary mission since Mars 96. It was launched on 8 November 2011 (UTC), aboard a Zenit rocket, at Baikonur Cosmodrome. It was sent with the Chinese spacecraft Yinghuo-1 and with the Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment.

paragraphs: The name "Phobos-Grunt" () is Russian for "Phobos-Soil".


title: Wade Belak

paragraphs: Wade Belak (July 3, 1976 – August 31, 2011) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player that played a career total of 18 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was drafted by the Quebec Nordiques with the 12th overall pick in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft. Belak retired from the NHL on March 8, 2011 and remained with the Predators in an organizational role. On August 31, 2011, He was found dead in his condo at the One King Street West hotel in Toronto. His death was later treated as a suicide by Toronto police. Before his death he was preparing to take part in the upcoming season of Battle of the Blades.


title: Skate (video game)

paragraphs: Skate (marketed as skate.) is a skateboarding video game that was published by Electronic Arts. It is available for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 systems. The game is also featured as a mobile phone game which can be downloaded. The game is the first in the "Skate" video game series. It was followed by Skate 2 in 2009 and Skate 3 in 2010.


title: Skate 2

paragraphs: Skate 2 is a skateboarding video game that was published by Electronic Arts. It is available for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 systems. The game was the second in the "Skate" video game series. It was followed by "Skate 3" which was released in 2010. The game got very good reviews with a 7.5 out of 10 from GameSpot and a 83 out of 100 from Metacritic.


title: Skate 3

paragraphs: Skate 3 is a skateboarding video game that was published by Electronic Arts. It is available for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 video game systems. The game was the third in the "Skate" video game series. The game takes place in the city of Port Carverton. The city also embraces skateboarding which was unlike the second game where they had a "skateboarding is a crime" mentality. The game got good reviews with a 7.5 out of 10 from GameSpot and a 80 out of 100 from Metacritic.


title: Materials science

paragraphs: Materials science studies the properties of matter to solve science and engineering problems. It uses applied physics and chemistry. Supersmall nanotechnology has got attention in recent years. There are many inventions of new material. Work on why structures fail or break down is very important to engineering.

paragraphs: The important material of a given era is often its defining point. Examples are the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

paragraphs: Materials science originally studied ceramics and metallurgy. These ancient crafts make materials science one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science. A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs showed that the physical properties of a material were related to its atomic structure. As the phases changed, so did the physical properties of the material.

paragraphs: Important elements of modern materials science are a product of the space race: the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in the construction of space exploration vehicles.

paragraphs: Materials science is now linked to the development of plastics, semiconductors, ceramics, polymers, magnetic materials, medical implant materials and biological materials.

paragraphs: The material scientist/engineer also deals with the extraction of materials and their conversion into useful forms. So, ingot casting, foundry techniques, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a metallurgist/engineer. Often the presence, absence or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will have a great impact on the final properties of the materials produced, for instance, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extraction and purification techniques employed in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace will have an impact of the quality of steel that may be produced.

paragraphs: The study of disasters in the 19th and 20th century led to some important discoveries. A.A. Griffith (1893–1963) discovered that real materials never get near their theoretical strength. This was a groundbreaking discovery which led to changes in many industries. As an example, steel gets almost 1/10th of its theoretical strength, but most solids are 100 to 1000 times weaker than expected.

paragraphs: Griffith's insights were developed further by J.E. Gordon (1913–1998). Gordon said that all simple solids are by their nature brittle. Toughness – resistance to fracture – has to be designed into materials. The usual way is to add other material to the pure substance. This makes its structure more complex, and that makes it less likely to fail. A good example is bulletproof glass, where a plastic layer stuck to glass make it many times stronger than either material would be separately. The personal armour based on Kevlar is another example. Biological materials have this feature naturally. Bones do bend a little before they reach breaking point, and tree trunks also have some "give".

paragraphs: The industrial study of metal alloys is a large part of materials science. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels. An iron carbon alloy is only considered steel if the carbon level is between 0.01% and 2.00%. For the steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carbon present. Increasing carbon levels leads to lower ductility and toughness. Heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering can significantly change these properties however. Cast Iron is defined as an Iron-Carbon alloy with more than 2.00% but less than 6.67% carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy with greater than 10% by weight alloying content of chromium. Nickel and molybdenum are also found in stainless steels.

paragraphs: Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and magnesium. Copper alloys have been known for a long time (since the Bronze Age), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently developed. Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively recently. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic shielding. These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering applications.

paragraphs: Polymers are also an important part of materials science. They are the raw materials used to make what we commonly call plastics. Plastics are really the final product. They are made when polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing. The mixture is then shaped into a final form. Common polymers are, include polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and polycarbonates.

paragraphs: PVC (polyvinyl-chloride) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are large. It lends itself to an incredible array of uses, from artificial leather to electrical insulation and cabling, packaging and containers. It is simple to make. It accepts a wide range of plasticisers and other additives, which give it differing properties.

paragraphs: Another application of the material sciences is the structures of glass and ceramics, typically associated with the most brittle materials. Ceramics and glasses use covalent bonds and ionic-covalent bonds with SiO, silica or sand, as a fundamental building block. Ceramics are as soft as clay and as hard as stone and concrete. Usually, they are crystalline in form. Most glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica. At high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid. Glass forms into an amorphous structure when it is cooled. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples. Fibers of glass are also available. Diamond and carbon in its graphite form are considered to be ceramics.

paragraphs: Engineering ceramics are known for their stiffness, high temperature, and stability under compression and electrical stress. Alumina, silica carbide, and tungsten carbide are made from a fine powder of their constituents in a process of sintering with a binder. Hot pressing provides higher density material. Chemical vapor deposition can place a film of a ceramic on another material. Cermets are ceramic particles containing some metals. The wear resistance of tools is derived from cemented carbides with the metal phase of cobalt and nickel typically added to modify properties.

paragraphs: Another application of material science in industry is the making of composite materials. Composite materials are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic phases. Applications range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermally insulative tiles which play a key and integral role in National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Space Shuttle thermal protection system which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. One example is Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC), The light gray material which withstands re-entry temperatures up to 1510 °C (2750 °F) and protects the Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap. RCC is a laminated composite material made from graphite rayon cloth and impregnated with a phenolic resin. After curing at high temperature in an autoclave, the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with furfural alcohol in a vacuum chamber, and cured/pyrolized to convert the furfural alcohol to carbon. In order to provide oxidation resistance for reuse capability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to silicon carbide.

paragraphs: Other examples can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and similar objects. These plastic casings are usually a composite material. It is a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibers or carbon fibers have been added for added strength, bulk, or electro-static dispersion. These additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose.

paragraphs: A new magnetic material has been discovered. It could transform computer hard drives and energy storage devices.

paragraphs: A highly sensitive metal bilayer needs only a small shift in temperature to dramatically alter its magnetism. This is a very useful property in electronic engineering. "No other material known to man can do this. It's a huge effect. And we can engineer it", said Ivan Schuller, of the University of California, San Diego.

paragraphs: The material combines thin layers of nickel and vanadium oxide. This is a structure which is surprisingly responsive to heat. "We can control the magnetism in just a narrow range of temperature without applying a magnetic field. And in principle we could also control it with voltage or current", said Prof Schuller.

paragraphs: Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, each of which may constitute a separate field. Materials are sometimes classified by the type of bonding present between the atoms:


title: Catwalk

paragraphs: A catwalk is a raised walkway. The term is most often used for fashion shows, where models walk along showing off the clothes. A catwalk on a ship is a passageway above decks. A similar term is runway, but it need not be off the ground.

paragraphs: "Catwalk", a documentary on life on the fashion runways, was filmed in 1993 by director Robert Leacock. The movie followed models Christy Turlington, Naomi Campbell, Yasmin Le Bon, Kate Moss, and Carla Bruni as they jetted around London, Milan, Paris, and New York during Spring Fashion Week, including behind-the-scenes footage. The movie was shot in black and white and colour, and featured many top designers at work, like a young John Galliano, Justin Thomas, Karl Lagerfeld, and Gianni Versace four years before his death.


title: About a Girl (song)

paragraphs: "About a Girl" by the grunge band Nirvana is the third song on Nirvana's first album "Bleach". It was one of Kurt Cobain's less heavy songs of the ones he wrote for the band. Compared to "Blew" and "Downer" it is considered quite mild.


title: The Rescuers

paragraphs: The Rescuers is a 1977 American animated comedy-drama adventure movie. It was produced by Walt Disney Productions. It was first released to movie theaters on June 22, 1977, by Buena Vista Distribution. It is the 23rd Disney animated movie. The movie is about the Rescue Aid Society, an international mouse organization in New York City and shadowing the United Nations. They are dedicated to helping abduction victims around the world at large. Two of these mice, shy janitor Bernard (Bob Newhart) and his co-agent, the elegant Miss Bianca (Eva Gabor), set out to rescue Penny (Michelle Stacy), an orphan girl who is being held prisoner in Devil's Bayou by treasure huntress Madame Medusa (Geraldine Page).

paragraphs: The movie is based on a series of books by Margery Sharp, mainly "The Rescuers" and "Miss Bianca". The movie was very successful. Later Disney released a sequel called "The Rescuers Down Under" in 1990. This made this movie the first Disney animated movie to have a sequel.


title: Logan Medal of the Arts

paragraphs: The Logan Medal of the Arts was an arts prize started in 1907. Art Institute of Chicago helped to award the prize. From 1917 through 1940, 270 awards were given.

paragraphs: The Medal was named for arts patron Frank Granger Logan. Logan founded the brokerage house of Logan & Bryan. He served over 50 years on the board of the Institute. He and his wife, Josephine Hancock Logan, administered the award consistent with their support of the Society for Sanity in Art. They founded that Society in 1936. Josephine Logan also wrote a book in 1937 called "Sanity in Art". The Logans strongly opposed all forms of modern art, including cubism, surrealism, and abstract expressionism.


title: Thames Barrier

paragraphs: The Thames Barrier is the world's second-largest movable flood barrier, after the Oosterscheldekering in the Netherlands. It is downstream of central London. Its purpose is to prevent London from being flooded by exceptionally high tides and storm surges moving up from the North Sea. It is raised (closed) only during high tide; at ebb tide it is lowered to release the water which backs up behind it.

paragraphs: The barrier's northern bank is in the London Borough of Newham and its southern bank is in the London Borough of Greenwich. The report of Hermann Bondi into the North Sea flood of 1953 affecting parts of the Thames Estuary and parts of London was what led to the building of the barrier.

paragraphs: London is vulnerable to flooding. A storm surge generated by low pressure in the Atlantic Ocean sometimes tracks eastwards past the north of Scotland and may then be driven into the shallow waters of the North Sea. The surge tide is funnelled down the North Sea which narrows towards the English Channel and the Thames Estuary. If the storm surge coincides with a spring tide, dangerously high water levels can occur in the Thames Estuary. This situation combined with downstream flows in the Thames tells engineers when to operate the barriers.

paragraphs: The threat has increased over time due to the slow but continuous rise in high water level over the centuries (20 cm (8 inches) / 100 years) and the slow "tilting" of Britain (up in the north and west, and down in the south and east) caused by post-glacial rebound.

paragraphs: Fourteen people died in the 1928 Thames flood, and after 307 people died in the UK in the North Sea Flood of 1953 the issue gained new prominence.

paragraphs: Early proposals for a flood control system were stymied by the need for a large opening in the barrier to allow for vessels from London Docks to pass through. When containerization replaced older forms of shipping and a new port was opened at Tilbury, a smaller barrier became feasible with each of the four main navigation spans being the same width as the opening of Tower Bridge.

paragraphs: A Thames Barrier flood defence closure is triggered when high tides are forecast in the North Sea "and" river flows are high at the tidal limit at Teddington weir. If water levels might exceed in central London, that is the trigger.

paragraphs: Closure begins about 9 hours before a dangerous high tide reaches the barrier. Messages give orders to stop river traffic, close subsidiary gates and alert other river users. As well as the Thames Barrier, the smaller gates along the Thames Tideway must be closed. Once river navigation has been stopped and all gates closed, then the Thames Barrier itself can be closed. The smaller gates are closed first, then the main navigable spans in succession. The gates remain closed until the tide downstream of the barrier falls to the same level as the water level upstream.

paragraphs: After heavy rain west of London, floodwater flows down the Thames upstream (before London). Because the river is tidal from Teddington weir all the way through London, "this is only a problem at high tide", which prevents the floodwater from escaping out to sea. From Teddington the river is opening out into its estuary, and at low tide it can take much greater flow rates the further one goes downstream.

paragraphs: When the river is in flood upstream, if the gates are closed shortly after low tide, a huge empty volume holds behind the barrier which can act as a reservoir to hold the floodwater coming over Teddington weir. Most river floods will not fill this volume in the few high tide hours when the barrier needs to be closed. If the barrier was not there, the high tide would fill up this volume instead, and the floodwater could then spill over the river banks in London. About a third of the closures up to 2009 were to prevent flooding caused by heavy rain to the west of London.

paragraphs: In the 1980s there were four closures, 35 closures in the 1990s, and 75 closures in the first decade of this century. The rate of closures is above that predicted, and is increasing rapidly.

paragraphs: An incident that was potentially catastrophic for London occurred on 27 October 1997. The dredger, MV "Sand Kite", sailing in thick fog, collided with one of the Thames Barrier's piers. As the ship started to sink she dumped her 3,300 tonne load of aggregate, finally sinking by the bow on top of one of the barrier's gates where she lay for several days. Initially the gate could not be closed as it was covered in a thick layer of gravel. A longer term problem was the premature loss of paint on the flat side of the gate caused by abrasion. One estimate of the cost of flooding damage, had it occurred, was around £13 billion. The vessel was refloated in mid-November 1997.

paragraphs: The barrier was closed twice on 9 November 2007 after a storm surge in the North Sea which was compared to the one in 1953. The main danger of flooding from the surge was on the coast above the Thames Barrier, where evacuations took place, but the winds abated a little and, at the Thames Barrier, the 9 November 2007 storm surge did not completely coincide with high tide.

paragraphs: The barrier was originally designed to protect London against a big flood level. The defence level included long-term changes in sea and land levels as understood at that time (~1970). Despite global warming, and a higher predicted rate of sea level rise, recent analysis suggested the barrier could last until around 2060–2070.

paragraphs: Released in 2005, a study by four respected academics contained a proposal to replace the Thames Barrier with a more ambitious 16 km (10 mi) long barrier across the Thames Estuary from Sheerness in Kent to Southend in Essex.


title: Environmental chemistry

paragraphs: Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. Environmental chemistry can be defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in the air, soil, and water environments; and the effect of human activity on these. Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary science that includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry, as well as uses analytical chemistry. It is related to environmental and other areas of science. It is different from green chemistry, which tries to reduce potential pollution at its source.

paragraphs: Environmental chemistry starts by understanding how the uncontaminated environment works. It identifies the chemicals that are present naturally. It studies the concentration and effects of those chemicals. Then, it accurately study the effects humans have on the environment through the release of chemicals.

paragraphs: Environmental chemists draw on a range of concepts from chemistry and various environmental sciences to assist in their study of what is happening to a chemical in the environment. Important general concepts from chemistry include understanding chemical reactions and equations, solutions, units, sampling, and analytical techniques. Chemists study compounds with biological activity such as pheromones.

paragraphs: A contaminant is a substance present in nature at a level higher than typical levels or that would not otherwise be there. This may be due to human activity. The term contaminant is often used interchangeably with "pollutant", which is a substance that hurts the surrounding environment. While a contaminant is sometimes defined as a substance present in the environment as a result of human activity, but without harmful effects, it is sometimes the case that toxic or harmful effects from contamination only become apparent at a later date.

paragraphs: The "medium" (for example, soil) or organism (for example, fish) affected by the pollutant or contaminant is called a "receptor". A "sink" is a chemical medium or species that retains and interacts with the pollutant.

paragraphs: Chemical measures of water quality include dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, nutrients nitrates and phosphorus, heavy metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), and pesticides.

paragraphs: Environmental chemistry is used by the Environment Agency (in England and Wales), the Environmental Protection Agency (in the United States) the Association of Public Analysts, and other environmental agencies and research bodies around the world to detect and identify the nature and source of pollutants. These can include:

paragraphs: Quantitative chemical analysis is a key part of environmental chemistry, since it provides the data that frame most environmental studies.

paragraphs: Common analytical techniques used for quantitative determinations in environmental chemistry include classical wet chemistry, such as gravimetric, titrimetric and electrochemical methods. More sophisticated approaches are used in the determination of trace metals and organic compounds. Metals are commonly measured by atomic spectroscopy and mass spectrometry: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission (ICP-AES) or Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometric (ICP-MS) techniques. Organic compounds are commonly measured also using mass spectrometric methods, such as gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Non-MS methods using GCs and LCs having universal or specific detectors are still staples in the arsenal of available analytical tools.

paragraphs: Other parameters often measured in environmental chemistry are radiochemicals. These are pollutants which emit radioactive materials, such as alpha and beta particles, posing danger to human health and the environment. Particle counters and Scintillation counters are most commonly used for these measurements. Bioassays and immunoassays are utilized for toxicity evaluations of chemical effects on various organisms.

paragraphs: Peer-reviewed test methods have been published by government agencies


title: Foster the People

paragraphs: Foster the People is an American indie pop band from Los Angeles, California. Foster the People have four members: Mark Foster, Isom Innis, Mark Pontius, and Sean Cimino. Their best known song is "Pumped Up Kicks" which was released on September 14, 2010 and reached #1 on Billboard's Alternative Songs chart, #3 on the Rock Songs tally and #3 on the Billboard Hot 100.

paragraphs: So far as of 2014, Foster the People has released 2 Studio albums and 1 EP:


title: Joseph-Louis Lagrange

paragraphs: Joseph-Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Lodovico [Luigi] Lagrangia, Turin, Piedmont, 25 January 1736 – Paris, 10 April 1813) was a mathematician and astronomer. According to one authority, he was "the greatest mathematician of the eighteenth century".

paragraphs: He lived part of his life in Prussia and part in France. He made significant contributions to mathematical analysis, from number theory, to classical and celestial mechanics.

paragraphs: On the recommendation of Euler and d'Alembert, in 1766 Lagrange succeeded Euler as the director of mathematics at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. He stayed there for over twenty years, producing a large body of work and winning several prizes of the French Academy of Sciences.

paragraphs: Lagrange's treatise on analytical mechanics, first published in 1788, was the best treatment of classical mechanics since Newton, and helped the development of mathematical physics in the nineteenth century.

paragraphs: Lagrange's parents were Italian, although he also had French ancestors on his father's side. In 1787, at age 51, he moved from Berlin to France and became a member of the French Academy, and he remained in France until the end of his life. Therefore, Lagrange is alternatively considered a French and an Italian scientist.

paragraphs: Lagrange survived the French Revolution and became the first professor of analysis at the École Polytechnique upon its opening in 1794. Napoleon appointed Lagrange to the Legion of Honour and made him a Count of the Empire in 1808. Lagrange is buried in the Panthéon and his name appears as one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.


title: Homeless World Cup

paragraphs: The Homeless World Cup is an football competition for homeless people all over the world. Starting in 2003 in Graz, Austria, the competition brings together homeless people with the aim to end homelessness.

paragraphs: Anyone can play, male or female, as long as they are at least 16 years old. They must also have been homeless at some point after the previous year's World Cup, work as a street newspaper seller to earn money or be asylum seekers.

paragraphs: A team of 4 players play, with 3 outfield players and 1 goalkeeper. 4 substitution players are allowed.

paragraphs: A team gets 3 points for a win. If a match ends in a draw, it is decided by penalty shootout and the winning team gets three points and the losing team gets one point. Games are 14 minutes long, in two seven-minute halves. The field is 22m (long) x 16m (wide).

paragraphs: Since 2003 the competition has taken place in:

paragraphs: The 2006 Homeless World Cup was the filmed as part of a documentary called "Kicking It". directed by Susan Koch and Jeff Werner focusing on the experiences of seven homeless people at the Homeless World Cup football (soccer) game. Residents of Afghanistan; Kenya; Dublin, Ireland; Charlotte, North Carolina; Madrid, Spain and St. Petersburg in Russia were in the documentary which was narrated by actor Colin Farrell. The movie was released in January, 2008 at the Sundance Film Festival and is being distributed by Liberation Entertainment, Netflix and ESPN.


title: I Know What You Did Last Summer

paragraphs: I Know What You Did Last Summer is a 1997 American teen slasher movie. The movie is based on the novel of the same name by Lois Duncan. The movie was directed by Jim Gillespie. It stars Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze, Jr., Sarah Michelle Gellar, Matthew Lillard, Neve Campbell and Ryan Philippe. The writer is Kevin Williamson (the writer of "Scream"). It was followed by two sequels: "I Still Know What You Did Last Summer" and "I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer".

paragraphs: On the Fourth of July 1996 in Southport, North Carolina, high school graduates Julie James (Jennifer Love Hewitt), Ray and George Bronson (Freddie Prinze Jr. and Matthew Lillard) Charlotte Wilson (Neve Campbell), Helen Shivers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), and Barry Cox (Ryan Phillippe) drive to the beach after a night of partying. While driving along a coastal byway, they accidentally hit a pedestrian. Julie's friend Max (Johnny Galecki) passes by them on the road. Julie reassures Max that everything is all right, and he leaves. After some arguing, the group decides to dispose of the body, dumping it in the water. They agree to never again discuss what had happened.

paragraphs: A year later, Julie returns home from her college in Boston for the summer. Since the incident, the friends have gone their separate ways. Julie receives a letter with no return address, stating, "I know what you did last summer!" Disturbed, Julie tracks down Helen, who has returned to Southport to work at her family's department store after a failed attempt at an acting career in New York City. The girls take the note to Barry, who immediately suspects Max. They confront Max on the docks, and Barry threatens him with a hook. Julie meets Ray, who is now working as a fisherman; he unsuccessfully tries to reconcile with her. Julie meets up with George, who is now working as a host for a children's TV show, she showed the letter to George, then Julie and George meet up with Charlotte, who now works at a video store. She reconciles with George and Julie. Later, Max is killed by a figure in a rain slicker wielding a hook. Barry discovers a note in his gym locker saying, "I know." He is then ambushed by the same assailant driving Barry's car.

paragraphs: Meanwhile, Julie, Charlotte and George researches newspaper articles which lead them to believe the man they ran over was a local named David Egan. Helen, George, Charlotte and Julie go to visit with David's sister Missy (Anne Heche) at her home. Missy explains to them that their family was devastated by David's death; she also mentions that a friend of David's named Billy Blue also visited her to pay his last respects. Later that night, the killer sneaks into Helen's house, cuts off her hair while she sleeps, and writes "Soon" in lipstick on her vanity mirror.

paragraphs: The following morning, Julie, Charlotte and George find Max's corpse wearing Barry's stolen jacket in the trunk of their car. When Julie calls the others, the body is missing. Julie, Charlotte, George, Helen, and Barry confront Ray about the recent events. Ray claims to have received a threatening letter as well. Julie goes back to visit Missy, while Barry and Helen go to participate in the Fourth of July parade. Missy reveals David allegedly committed suicide out of guilt for the death of his girlfriend Susie in a car accident and shows David's suicide note to Julie and George. As the writing matches that of the note she received, Julie and George realise it was not a suicide note, but a death threat.

paragraphs: At the Croaker Beauty Pageant, Helen witnesses Barry and Charlotte being murdered on the balcony. She rushes upstairs with a police officer but finds no sign of the killer or Barry or Charlotte. A police officer escorts Helen home, but the killer lures him into an alley and murders him. Helen flees to her nearby family store, where her sister Elsa (Bridgette Wilson) is closing for the night. The killer enters the store and murders Elsa. Helen is chased to the third floor of the building and escapes through a window, falling to a long alleyway. She manages to run toward the street, but the killer stops her and slashes her to death, her screams being drowned out by the sound of the oncoming parade.

paragraphs: Julie and George find an article mentioning Susie's father, Ben Willis (Muse Watson), and realise that Ben was the man they ran over, moments after he had killed David to avenge his daughter. She and George then go to the docks to tell Ray, but he refuses to believe them. Julie and George notice Ray's boat is called Billy Blue and run away. Ben appears, knocking Ray unconscious, and invites both Julie and George to hide on his boat. On the boat, they find photos and articles about their friends and them, and pictures of Susie. Ben's boat leaves the docks, and he begins tormenting Julie and George, chasing them below deck; there, they uncover the bodies of Helen, Charlotte and Barry in the boat's ice box. Ray regains consciousness and steals a motorboat to rescue Julie and George. He ultimately uses the rigging to sever Ben's hand and send him overboard. When the police question them, they deny knowing why Ben attempted to kill them, but they are relieved not to have actually killed anybody the previous summer, and reconcile.

paragraphs: A year later, both Julie and George are in college in Boston. As Julie enters the shower, she notices the words "I still know" on the mirror. Moments later, a dark figure crashes through it as Julie screams in horror.


title: Amu Darya

paragraphs: The Amu Darya (, "Āmūdaryā"; , "Jihôn" or "Jayhoun"; , "Gozan" ), also called Oxus and Amu River, is a major river in Central Asia. It is formed by the junction of the Vakhsh and Panj. In ancient times, the river was regarded as the boundary between Iran and Turan.

paragraphs: In antiquity, the river was known as "Vaksu" to Indo-Aryans.

paragraphs: In ancient Afghanistan, the river was also called "Gozan", descriptions of which can be found in the book "The Kingdom of Afghanistan: a historical sketch By George Passman Tate".

paragraphs: In classical antiquity, the river was known as the "Ōxus" in Latin and Ὦξος "Oxos" in Greek.

paragraphs: The name "Amu" is said to have come from the medieval city of "Āmul", (later, Chahar Joy/Charjunow, and now known as "Türkmenabat"), in modern Turkmenistan. "Darya" is the Persian word for "river".

paragraphs: Amu Darya is a river almost in reverse. It gets its water from a powerful glacier fed stream high in the Pamir Knot at the eastern end of Afghanistan's "Wakhan Corridor", and does not end at the sea but spreads out into the sands of Turkmenistan's" Kyzyl Kum" desert instead of the inland Aral Sea as it did in former times.

paragraphs: In the traditions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (hadith), the river is called by the name Jayhan (Arabic form of its ancient name Gozan).

paragraphs: Historians tell us that one of the most ancient names for the Oxus or Amu in ancient Afghanistan was Jayhan. A name used by Greek, Mongol, Chinese, Persian, Jewish and Afghanastan historians. .

paragraphs: The river's total length is and its drainage basin totals in area. The river is navigable for over . All of the water comes from the high mountains in the south where annual precipitation can be over . Even before large-scale irrigation began, high summer evaporation meant that not all of this discharge reached the Aral Sea - though there is some evidence the large Pamir glaciers provided enough melt water for the Aral to overflow during the 13th and 14th centuries A.D.

paragraphs: Historical records state that in different periods, the river flowed into the Aral Sea (from the south), the Caspian Sea (from the east) or both, similar to the "Syr Darya" (Jaxartes, in Ancient Greek).

paragraphs: About of land is drained by the Amu Darya into the Aral Sea endorheic basin. This includes most of Tajikistan, the southwest corner of Kyrgyzstan, the northeast corner of Afghanistan, a long narrow portion of western Turkmenistan and about half of Uzbekistan. About 61% of the drainage lies within Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, while 39% is in Afghanistan.

paragraphs: Of the area drained by the Amu Darya, only about actively contribute water to the river.

paragraphs: This is because many of the river's major tributaries (especially the "Zeravshan River") have been diverted, and much of the river's drainage is dominated by outlying desert and steppe.

paragraphs: The abundant water flowing in the Amu Darya almost entirely comes from glaciers in the Pamir Mountains and "Tian Shan",

paragraphs: which, standing above the surrounding arid plain, collect atmospheric moisture which otherwise would probably have escaped somewhere else. Without its mountain water sources, the Amu Darya would not contain any water because it rarely rains in the lowlands that characterize most of the river. Throughout most of the steppe, the annual rainfall is about .

paragraphs: was called the "Oxus" by the ancient Greeks. In ancient times, the river Jayhan was regarded as the boundary between Irān and Tūrān. The river Jayhan drainage lies in the area between the former empires of Genghis Khan and Alexander the Great, although they occurred at much different times. One southern route of the Silk Road ran along part of the Jayhan river northwestward from Termez before going westwards to the Caspian Sea.

paragraphs: It is believed that the Amu Darya's course across the Kara-Kum Desert has gone through several major shifts in the past few thousand years. Much of the time, the most recent period being in the 13th century to the late 16th century, the Amu Darya emptied into both the Aral and the Caspian Seas. Sometimes, the flow through the two branches was more or less equal, but often, most of the Amu Darya's flow split to the west and flowed into the Caspian.

paragraphs: People began to settle along the lower Amu Darya and the Uzboy in the 5th century A.D., establishing a thriving chain of agricultural lands, towns, and cities.

paragraphs: The first British explorer who reached the region was a naval officer called John Wood. He was sent on an expedition to find the source of the river in 1839. He found modern day Lake Zorkul, called it Lake Victoria and proclaimed he had found the source. Then, the French explorer and geographer Thibaut Viné collected a lot of informations about this area during five expeditions between 1856 and 1862.

paragraphs: The Soviet Union became the ruling power in the 20th century. The Soviet Union fell in the 1990s and Central Asia split up into the many smaller countries that lie within or partially within the Amu Darya basin. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya were first used by the Soviets to irrigate extensive cotton fields in the Central Asian plain. Before this time, water from the rivers was already being used for agriculture, but not on this massive scale. The Qaraqum Canal, Karshi Canal, and Bukhara Canal were among the larger of the irrigation diversions built. The Main Turkmen Canal was a proposed project that would have diverted water along the dry Uzboy River bed into central Turkmenistan, but was never built.

paragraphs: The Oxus river, and Arnold's poem, provide a literary background for the 1930s children's book The Far-Distant Oxus.


title: Founding Fathers of the United States

paragraphs: The Founding Fathers talks about to certain men who lived during the American Revolutionary War era. These men signed the Declaration of Independence, helped write the Constitution of the United States, or helped win the American Revolutionary War. Many of these men were members of the Continental Congress at some point. The term was first applied to these people in 1916.

paragraphs: There were many people who were Founding Fathers. Some scholars like to limit them to a small number, such as seven: George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison.

paragraphs: Most of the Founding Fathers were large landowners or rich merchants. The majority owned slaves. After the Constitution, many of the Founding Fathers became leaders in the federal government.


title: CNDO/2

paragraphs: CNDO is the short cut for Complete Neglect of Differential Overlap. It is both 1) a method for learning key facts about molecular orbitals as well as 2) the name of a particular set of computer programs. CNDO is based on quantum chemistry. It is one of the first semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods. It uses two approximations:

paragraphs: CNDO builds a mathematical model of a molecule. CNDO starts with the position of the positively charged nuclei of the atoms and the negatively charged electron clouds surrounding them. Quantum chemistry tells the model the probability distribution of electron locations based on atomic orbitals. From this information, CNDO computes data about the resulting molecular orbitals.

paragraphs: CNDO/2 is the main version of CNDO. John Pople and coworkers first wrote CNDO/2.


paragraphs: Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers (CAPIF) is a group that represents the music industry in Argentina.

paragraphs: The criteria for certification were changed as of January 1, 2001. CAPIF certification criteria for albums since that date are:


title: AMPROFON

paragraphs: Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (AMPROFON) is a group that represents the music industry in Mexico.


title: Signature song

paragraphs: A signature song is a song that is best known for a music artist because of its popularity among their fans. Signature songs can be songs that helped boost an artist's fan base, popularity, fame, and bookings.


title: Selena (movie)

paragraphs: Selena is a biographical drama movie. It was released on March 21, 1997, by Warner Bros. Gregory Nava was the director and the screenwriter. The movie is about the singer Selena. She was murdered at age 23 by her friend, an ex-employee of her clothing stores. The movie also describes how Selena started in the music business and her family's problems. Jennifer Lopez starred as Selena, and many music critics believe this movie made Lopez famous. "Selena" was produced by Abraham Quintanilla, Jr. (Selena's father), Moctesuma Esparza and Robert Katz.

paragraphs: Lopez was given $1 million for her role as Selena, making her the highest-paid Hispanic woman ever, at the time. The contained two unreleased songs, two tribute songs and two melodies. It reached number seven on the US "Billboard" 200 chart. It was certified platinum for shipments of one million copies in the United States.bagamash

paragraphs: Nava had a budget of $20 million to make this movie. They filmed the movie in Corpus Christi, San Antonio and Houston, Texas. Over 35,000 fans participated in the Houston Astrodome scene. The movie made $15,599,598 on its first week, the number one movie for that week. In total, it made $35,281,794 in 101 days. "Selena" had mostly good reviews from critics, though many thought the movie did not tell the true story of Selena. The movie won several ALMA Awards and Imagen Foundation Awards. It was nominated for a Golden Globe Award, MTV Movie Awards and a Young Artist Award.

paragraphs: The movie starts with Selena (Jennifer Lopez) getting ready for her Houston Astrodome concert on February 26, 1995. After her performance, the movie goes back in time to 1961. Abraham Quintanilla, Jr. (Edward James Olmos) and his band Los Dinos are at band practice. After band practice, they went to see a promoter in the other side of town. Los Dinos are then discriminated for being Americans of Mexican heritage. Los Dinos then performed at a Spanish nightclub, and are booed off stage by Mexicans for not knowing any Mexican music. The movie goes forward in time to 1981. Abraham had quit his dreams of becoming a music star and began helping his family. After work, Abraham sat down on his chair and began playing the guitar. His youngest child, Selena (Rebecca Lee Meza) was playing a football game in the backyard. She noticed her father and was curious to know what he was doing. She started to sing in front of Abraham. Abraham was surprised, he started a family band, and named it Selena y Los Dinos. He puts A.B. Quintanilla III (Rafael Tamayo) on base and Suzette Quintanilla (Victoria Elena Flores) on drums. Selena became the singer of the group.

paragraphs: The movie is now set in 1989, where Selena is performing at a Houston, Texas festival as an adult. In the next scene, Selena began talking to her cousin (Seidy Lopez) about her dreams of becoming a fashion designer. Suzette (Jackie Guerra) ran upstairs and told them that a rock guitarist is in their kitchen. The three of them began spying to see what's going on. Chris Perez (Jon Seda) began to audition as the band's new guitarist in front of Abraham. Abraham tells A.B. (Jacob Vargas) that he does not like Chris. This is because he is a rocker. However, A.B. tries to tell Abraham that Chris will change his style and look. The next day, Selena asks Chris to eat with her at a pizzeria. In the next scene, Selena's song "Como La Flor" reached number one on "Billboard" which made the group come together and celebrate. Selena is asked to perform in Mexico where 50,000 fans are waiting on her to sing. Selena came out to perform "La Carcacha". However, the crowd became very excited and started pushing people inside of the stage. Selena is later asked by her father to calm down the crowd. She performed a slower version of "Como La Flor" and calmed everyone down. After her performance, she and Chris walked on a pier. Selena told him that she was scared for the first time, while Chris tells Selena that he loves her.

paragraphs: While on the bus, Abraham found out that Chris liked Selena. Abraham tells Chris and Selena that their relationship is over. He then fires Chris and orders him to leave. Selena tried to run after him, however, her father told her that if she did that he will disband the group. After this, Selena and Chris began to meet secretly and they eloped. Selena went to her father's house the next day. Abraham began crying and told Selena that he was sorry. He then accepted Chris into the family. In the next scene, Selena won a Grammy Award and opened her clothing stores. She hired Yolanda Saldivar (Lupe Ontiveros) as the manager. Yolanda began to steal money from these places. After this, Selena started recording songs for her crossover album. Abraham later finds out that Yolanda was stealing money, and holds a meeting to hear Yolanda's side. Yolanda tells Abraham that if given time, she will prove her innocence. Later that night, Selena performed "Si Una Vez" at the Houston Astrodome on February 26, 1995. After that night, Selena asked her mother to scratch her head and that she and Chris are thinking of starting a family. Selena then dreams of the crossover tour and sings "Dreaming of You". After Selena sings the opening of the song, a rose is thrown at her. Selena is seen being rushed to the hospital. Reporters tells everyone that Selena was shot by Saldívar during an argument over the missing financial records. In the next scene, a doctor walks towards Selena's parents. He tells them that Selena has died. "Dreaming of You" is played again, while her fans are seen holding pictures of her during a candlelight vigil. The movie ends with a picture of Selena waving goodbye reading "April 16, 1971 – March 31, 1995".

paragraphs: This is a list of the actors and their roles in "Selena":

paragraphs: Selena's family wanted to make a movie about Selena's life. They searched Hollywood, California for movie producers. Abraham then contacted Moctesuma Esparza and Robert Katz. They chose Gregory Nava as the movie director. Abraham told Esparza and Katz that he did not like Nava because of his "ego". The two producers told Abraham that everyone in Hollywood had an "ego problem". They also told him that Nava was the right guy.

paragraphs: Nava spent one month with the Quintanilla family. He wrote down everything that the family said about Selena. By the fifth week, Nava had written the movie and showed Abraham the draft. Abraham was not happy — he did not want Selena's fans to think that eloping was a right thing to do. He also did not like the conflict between his character and Chris Perez. Nava responded that the information was "life events". He also said that even though he may seem like a "bad guy" in the movie, his actions after the marriage would make people see him differently. Abraham agreed and allowed the two stories in the movie. Salma Hayek was originally asked to play the role of Selena in the movie, but she turned it down. She felt that it was "too early" to base a movie on Selena and that it would be too emotional since Selena's death was still being covered on television.

paragraphs: Filming took place in Corpus Christi, San Antonio and Houston, Texas from May to October 1996. Nava posted fliers in Texas asking Selena fans to attend the Houston Astrodome scene. News of this event spread throughout the United States and Mexico. Over 35,000 people attended, some coming from as far as Japan and South America. It took over 3 hours to put makeup on everyone who attended. Producing the Astrodome scene cost about $2 million. The budget of the movie was $20 million.

paragraphs: The movie's trailer was released worldwide in December 1996. Nava spent $1 million on promotions for "Selena".

paragraphs: The soundtrack of the movie was released on March 11, 1997 by EMI Latin. The soundtrack included two songs that Selena did not release when she was alive: "Is It the Beat?" and "Where Did the Feeling Go?". It included two medleys — "Disco Medley" and the "Cumbia Medley". They are live versions Selena sang during her Houston Astrodome concert. Two tribute songs were also in the album. "Viviras Selena" includes Tejano singers and the Barrio Boyzz. "One More Time", which was composed by Olmos is performed by Lil'Ray. The "Oldies Medley" was performed by the Vidal Brothers. The soundtrack reached at number seven on the US "Billboard" 200 chart and number 36 on Canada's "RPM". It was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 1,000,000 copies in the United States. The album was produced by Selena's brother, Quintanilla III.

paragraphs: Chuck Eddy of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the soundtrack an "A" rating and stated that the soundtrack had everything a "right posthumous" album should have. Eddy also stated that listening to the album reveals why Selena's death impacted many Americans. Enrique Lopetegui of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that "One More Time" was a "corny but effective" tribute to Selena. Lopetegui commented that "Viviras Selena" was the "weakest track" of the album and that "Is It the Beat?" was one of the "best songs" of "Selena". He believed that "Where Did the Feeling Go?" was one of the "strongest". Lopetegui also stated that "Where Did the Feeling Go?" was similar to "Vision of Love" which was recorded by Mariah Carey. Lopetegui compared "Is It the Beat?" to the song "I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me)" by Whitney Houston, which had similar beats and sounds. A "Miami Herald" writer believed the soundtrack was "uneven" and stated that Selena's unreleased recordings "outshines" the rest of the songs on the album. A score was released in the summer of 1997 and had music by Dave Grusin.

paragraphs: Before the movie was released, Selena fans were not happy that a Puerto Rican would play the part of a Mexican American singer. Many fans changed their views on Lopez after the Houston Astrodome scene was done filming. The movie opened in 1,850 theaters worldwide. "Selena" was released on March 21, 1997, and grossed $11,615,722, making it the second-highest debut for that week. It grossed $15,599,598 during its first week and became the number-one movie for that week. The next week, the movie grossed $24,285,142. In total, "Selena" grossed $35,281,794. It became the first and only movie directed by Nava to reach the 30 millionth mark. "Selena" was in theaters for 101 days, and Lopez's portrayal of Selena became the "breakthrough role" (becoming very important) for her career. She became very popular after the movie was released. "Selena" was released on VHS and DVD in fall 1997. On September 18, 2007, Warner Bros. released a 10th anniversary of the movie. It featured unreleased "behind the scenes" and extras.

paragraphs: The movie had mostly positive feedback from critics. Enrique Fernandez of the "Sun Sentinel" wrote that Nava did a great job in "catching the audience" with "Selena". Fernandez also stated that Lopez had a "terrific characterization" of Selena. Steve Persall of the "St. Petersburg Times" believed that Nava did not do a good job in retelling Selena's murder. Persall believed Nava was under pressure by Selena's family and fans to tell a more "fairy tale" movie then a "real life event". Daisann McLane of "Sun Sentinel" agreed that the movie was more of a "fairy tale" and that "the movie is the family's version of the story". McLane believed that "Selena" "lie[d]" about Selena's "real life". Stuart Elliott of "Austin American-Statesmen" wrote that "Selena" became a "breakthrough success" in Selena's career. Elliott believed that Nava had "perfect[ed]" every scene and that female Hispanics in America can relate to the conflicts and the climax of the story.


title: Selena ¡VIVE!

paragraphs: Selena ¡VIVE! was a tribute concert that was held on April 7, 2005. It was held a week after the 10th anniversary of Selena's death. Over 65,000 fans attended the concert, which featured high-profile artists.

paragraphs: "Selena ¡VIVE!" is the highest-rated and most-viewed Spanish-language show in American television history. The show, which lasted over three hours, scored a 35.9 Nielsen household rating.


title: You and I

paragraphs: "You and I" is a song by American pop singer Lady Gaga from her third album "Born This Way". it was released as the fourth single from the album on August 23, 2011. Gaga wrote the song herself and produced it with R.J. "Mutt" Lange, who is known for his 14-year marriage to Canadian country pop singer Shania Twain and was Twain's writing partner and producer.

paragraphs: The song reached the top ten in the US and Canada. The Recording Industry Association of America certified the song triple-Platinum on February 29, 2016, for sales and shipments of three million copies across the United States.

paragraphs: Gaga is seen on a farm in Nebraska and is dressed in various outfits: in one point, she is wearing a straitjacket, and another time, she is dressed as a mermaid. Actor Taylor Kinney plays Gaga's love interest in the video. Kinney and Gaga dated for nearly five years after making the music video.


title: Kalam

paragraphs: Kalām (, literally "speech" or "words") is the Islamic discipline of seeking theological knowledge through dialectic (debate and argument). It also promotes prudence and logical reasoning. A practitioner of kalām is called a "mutakallim" (plural "mutakallimiin").


title: Ohio Senate

paragraphs: The Ohio State Senate is the upper house of the Ohio General Assembly, the legislative body for the U.S. state of Ohio. There are 33 State Senators. The state legislature meets in the state capital, Columbus. The President of the Senate presides over the body when in session. He is currently Tom Niehaus.

paragraphs: Senators serve four year terms. The terms of the Senators are staggered so that about half the membership is elected every two years. The Senators representing the even-numbered districts are elected in years evenly divisible by four. The Senators from the odd-numbered districts are elected in even-numbered years not divisible by four. Senators are limited to two terms.

paragraphs: Each Senator represents approximately 330,000 Ohioans. Each Senate District covers three Ohio House districts.


title: Snare drum

paragraphs: The snare drum or side drum is a percussion instrument. It has strands of "snares" made of curled metal wire, metal cable, plastic cable, or gut cords. They are stretched across the skin on the bottom of the drum. Pipe and tabor and some military snare drums can have a second set of snares on the bottom side of the top head. This is used to make a "brighter" sound. The snare drum is considered one of the most important drums of the drum kit.

paragraphs: The snare drum can make some special sounds:


title: Economic boom

paragraphs: Economic boom is a phase when the economy has a huge increase. It is a natural cycle.


title: Tremors (movie)

paragraphs: Tremors is an American science fiction comedy horror movie. It is set in Nevada and is directed by Ron Underwood. The screenplay was written by S.S. Wilson and Brent Maddock.

paragraphs: Valentine and Earl want to go to Bixby, Nevada and they leave the Perfection Valley. A subterranean animal kills five people. The Perfection Valley is in danger.


title: Tremor

paragraphs: In biology, a tremor is when antagonist muscles move repeatedly without being controlled. There are different forms of tremors. Very often, a tremor is a symptom for another condition, and not its cause. People with a tremor are not necessarily sick. For example, physiological tremors are measurable, but not visible; they occur in all humans.