title: Kitagawa Utamaro

paragraphs: , also called Utamaro, was a Japanese artist. He was a master of the ukiyo-e style of woodblock prints and painting.

paragraphs: Utamaro is known for his studies of women ("bijinga"). He also made nature studies.

paragraphs: His work was popular in Europe. He influenced artists in Europe who were called Impressionists.


title: Hanamachi

paragraphs: A hanamachi (花街) is a Japanese word used to call a neighborhood where courtesans and geisha lived and worked. The word's literal meaning is ""flower town"". These neighborhoods used to have many "okiya" ("geisha houses") and "ochaya" ("tea houses", where geishas entertained guests). The term "hanamachi" is used in modern Japan to call the areas where modern-day geisha are still living and working. Today, "hanamachi" are rare outside of Kyoto.


title: Japanese traditional dance

paragraphs: There are two types of Japanese traditional dance: "Odori", which was created in the Edo period; and "Mai", which was created in the western part of Japan. Odori came from "Kabuki" drama, where it is danced by men. Mai derives from "Noh" drama, also danced by men. Today it is usually danced by female dancers, and is mostly done in houses, instead of on stage.

paragraphs: A type of the Mai style of Japanese dance is the "Kyomai" or Kyoto style dance. Kyomai was created in the 17th century Tokugawa cultural period. Noh drama, music and dance was heavily influenced by the elegance of the manners of the Japanese Imperial Court. Kabuki drama, and hence Odori, was a more democratic form, but still (viewed with modern eyes) quite traditional.


title: Parkour

paragraphs: Parkour is an activity in which the goal is to move from one place to another as quickly and efficiently as possible, using the abilities of the human body. Parkour helps to overcome barriers, and is practiced in rural and urban areas. Parkour practitioners are called "traceurs", or "traceuses" for females.

paragraphs: Founded by David Belle in France, practitioners only use efficient movements to develop their bodies and minds, and to be able to overcome barriers in an emergency. It may also be a form of entertainment or a hobby.

paragraphs: Acrobatics (such as flips and wall flips) are not part of parkour, because of inefficiency in a difficult situation (emergency). Freerunning is the branch of parkour, when such flips are used rather than efficient movement.

paragraphs: In 1988, David Belle was 15 years old. His father Raymond Belle was a great fireman. David was influenced by his father. He left school at the age of 16 and his father helped him to make him stronger. David and his classmates began to create new actions to train themselves. They named it parkour.

paragraphs: Parkour does involve risks and many people get injured every day. Injuries can range from a simple concussion to a broken limb or even worse: death.


title: Shakuhachi

paragraphs: The is a Japanese flute which is played vertically (up-down) like a recorder, instead of horizontally (from side to side) like the Western transverse flute. Its name means "1.8 foot", its size. It is traditionally made of bamboo, but ones made of wood or plastic exist today. It was used by the monks of Zen Buddhism in the practice of "suizen" (blowing meditation).


title: Christian movements

paragraphs: Christian movements are different religious, political and philosophical ideas of Christianity that means Christians belonging to one movement have a small difference in beliefs than a person from a different movement. Liberal Christianity and Evangelicalism are examples of different Christian movements.


title: Li Guang

paragraphs: Li Guang (; ? – 119 BC) was a Chinese general of the Han Dynasty. His father, Li Xin, was a great military leader. Li Guang became a soldier when he was young. As Li Guang fought bravely in the battlefields, he was soon promoted to a general. He killed himself in the year 119 BC.


title: Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea

paragraphs: The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea is a London borough, west of central London. Notting Hill is in North Kensington.

paragraphs: The borough includes several districts in the west of London; before 1965 the two boroughs of Kensington and Chelsea were separately administered.


title: London Borough of Enfield

paragraphs: The London Borough of Enfield is the northernmost London borough. It is controlled by the Labour party. It is an area with people from many countries and cultures in it.


title: Huo Qubing

paragraphs: Huo Qubing (; 140 BC - 117 BC) was a Chinese general of the Han Dynasty under Emperor Wu. He was very good at shooting with his bow on a horse. When he was 18, he was ordered to attack the Xiongnu with 800 cavalry. Finally, his troops killed about 2,000 enemies and kidnapped the imperial officials.

paragraphs: In the spring of 121 BC, Emperor Wu ordered Huo Qubing to invade the Xiongnu with 10,000 cavalry. He occupied 5 cities within 6 days and finally killed 8,000 enemies. In order to fairly eliminate the main force of the Xiongnu, Huo Qubing and Wei Qing led 100,000 cavalry and fought with their enemies in the desert in the spring of 119 BC. Huo Qubing died in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the capital of the Han Dynasty, when he was 24.


title: Kali Yuga

paragraphs: In Hinduism, Kali Yuga (Devanāgarī: , lit. "Age of Kali", "age of vice"), is one of the four stages or yugas that the world goes through. Traditionally, most Hindus believe that the Kali Yuga is 432,000 years long. Kali Yuga is also recognized and stated in Sikhism, in the Guru Granth Sahib.


title: Squash (plant)

paragraphs: Squashes are a kind of fruit. They originally came from the New World. Gourds are in the same family as squashes. Pumpkins and courgette (zucchini) are types of squashes. Although squash is a fruit according to its botanical classification, it is generally considered a vegetable in food preparation.

paragraphs: The English word "squash" comes from askutasquash (which means "a green thing eaten raw"). This is a word from the Narragansett language, which was documented by Roger Williams in his 1643 publication "A Key Into the Language of America". There are similar words for squash in related languages of the Algonquian family such as Massachusett.

paragraphs: The squash has been an important crop in the Andes mountains since the pre-Columbian Era. The Moche culture from Northern Peru made ceramics from earth, water, and fire. This pottery was used to represent important themes. Squash are a popular shape in Moche ceramics.


title: Nelumbo

paragraphs: Nelumbo is a genus of water plants which are also known as lotus. Lotus flowers are large – up to 20 cm (8 inches) across – and they smell sweet.

paragraphs: The Sacred lotus of Asia has pink flowers. The American lotus has yellow flowers.

paragraphs: In India the lotus is considered a symbol of purity

paragraphs: The lotus flowers grow over the water. Lotus leaves often float on top of the water. The roots of lotus plants are in the mud (wet dirt) under the water. Every part of every plant must have air for respiration (breathing). Air spaces in the stems and roots make the lotus able to live and respire under water.

paragraphs: People can eat lotus roots and seeds. Cattle (cows) like to eat the leaves and flowers.

paragraphs: Lotuses look rather like water lilies from the Nymphaeaceae family. It is the "National flower" of both India and Vietnam and also the "Provincial flower" of Sindh province, Pakistan.


title: Nymphaeaceae

paragraphs: In botany, Nymphaeaceae is the name of a family of plants which grow in water. The family is also called "water-lily family".

paragraphs: Their flowers suggest they are one of the earliest groups of angiosperms. Modern genetic analyses by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group researchers has confirmed its basal position among flowering plants.

paragraphs: Also, the Nymphaeaceae are more diverse and wdespread than other basal angiosperms. Nymphaeaceae is in the order Nymphaeales. According to the most widely accepted flowering plant classification system, this is the second diverging group of angiosperms after "Amborella".


title: Ugly Betty

paragraphs: Ugly Betty is a Golden Globe- and Peabody Award-winning American comedy-drama television series. It stars America Ferrera, Vanessa Williams, and Eric Mabius. It premiered on September 28, 2006, on ABC in the United States. The series follows the life of Betty Suarez (Ferrera), and her incongruous job at the ultra-chic New York City fashion magazine ""Mode"". Betty's status as a "fish out of water" drives much of the plot. Ugly Betty ended on April 14, 2010 after low ratings during season 4.

paragraphs: Based on average total viewers per episode of "Ugly Betty" on ABC:

paragraphs: Since the show's debut, the main characters have become the latest fixures in the lexicon of pop media culture. They have already had parodies, news media stories and art-imitating-life situations, as well as recognition from the United States Congress itself.


title: Shinto shrine

paragraphs: A Shinto shrine is a sacred place or site where people worship in the Shinto religion. Many Shinto shrines have buildings, gates, and natural areas such as forests and rivers around them. The usual Japanese word for a Shinto shrine is .


title: Mineko Iwasaki

paragraphs: , born Masako Tanaka on November 2, 1949 in Kyoto, was Japan's number one "geiko" (geisha) until she retired at the age of 29. She entertained many important people when they visited Japan, like Queen Elizabeth and Prince Charles. She retired because she was tired of the profession, and wanted to start a family.

paragraphs: Author Arthur Golden did an interview to her and used her as inspiration for his book "Memoirs of a Geisha", that was later made a movie. Iwasaki later said that the book was full of lies, and that nothing that Golden said ever happened to her. She put a lawsuit against Golden for this, and they solved it out of court in 2003. After the publication of "Memoirs of a Geisha", Iwasaki wrote her autobiography, "Geisha, A Life".


title: Libra (astrology)

paragraphs: Libra is an astrological sign, related to the constellation Libra, in the Southern Hemisphere near Scorpius and Virgo. In the tropical zodiac, the Sun meets Libra from September 23 to October 23, and in the sidereal zodiac, it ends on November 15. Libra, (The Scales of Balance), is the only symbol of the zodiac that is inanimate (it is not represented by an animal or person). The opposite sign to Libra is Aries.

paragraphs: The corresponding month in the Babylonian calendar is "Tišritum", made for Shamash (the Sun).

paragraphs: Libra's symbol, the scales, is the only symbol in the zodiac that is not represented by an animal or person.

paragraphs: In mythology a Libra is related to the Greek Goddess of Justice, Themis, the Greek mythology version of Atalanta (meaning balanced), and Astraea (daughter of Themis), who went up to heaven and became the constellation of Virgo, and carried the scales of justice, which is the constellation Libra.

paragraphs: Libra is also related to the Greco-Roman goddess Aphrodite/Venus and sometimes also the goddesses Eris/Discordia & Hermione/Concordia, Hera/Juno, Ishtar, Freyja, and Frigg and the god Xolotl.

paragraphs: Astrologers broadly agree that the following are the characteristics of Libra:

paragraphs: In astrology Libra is ruled by the planet Venus. The Indian version of Libra is Tula, the Chinese version is the Dog.

paragraphs: People born in Libra are said to be good in jobs to do with human relationships and a harmonious (social) place is very important for them; for example places for an artist, poet, diplomat, social worker, fashionable people with cosmetics.

paragraphs: People born in Libra have a graceful and balanced body: for example a pretty person with a round head and quite a small person with a nice face, for example a high forehead; a thin nose; a dimple; and thick eyebrows. They are also charismatic.

paragraphs: In medical astrology and anatomy, Libra rules any part in the body to do with excretion, for example the kidneys, skin, lumbar region, buttocks, adrenals and vasomotor system, and lumbar vertebrae.


title: Matsya

paragraphs: Hindus believe that the Matsya was the first important avatar of Vishnu. As the Matsya avatar, Vishnu took the form of a big fish. Sometimes, it is said that he took the form of a half-man and half-fish. There is a story about this in Hindu scriptures. The story tells about a demon (an asura). That asura was very wicked. He snatched the Vedas, the holy books of the Hindus, and went deep inside the sea. At this point, Vishnu changed his form. He became a "matsya", that is, a fish. He entered the sea and brought back the Vedas. He gave the Vedas to Manu. The Hindu scriptures say that Manu was the first man in the world. He may be compared with Noah or Adam.


title: Kurma

paragraphs: Kurma is an avatar in the Hindu religion. Hindus believe that Vishnu, an important god of Hinduism, had several forms, or avatars, and the second important avatar is called the Kurma avatar. In this avatar, Vishnu took the form of a kurma. Kurma is a Sanskrit language word that means a tortoise. As a kurma, Vishnu is the symbol of strength and stability.


title: Varaha

paragraphs: Hindus believe that Vishnu had many important Avatars, and the Varaha avatar was the third avatar of Vishnu. In this avatar, Vishnu took the form of a black varaha. Varaha is a Sanskrit language word that means a boar. The Hindu scriptures tell a story about this avatar. There was a daitya (a demon) named Hiranyaksha. He threw the Earth (called Prithivi by the Hindus) into the waters of the ocean. The earth was about to sink in the ocean. At this point, Vishnu took the form of a black boar. He entered the water and carried the earth on its body and brought the earth safely to where it should be. Thus, Vishnu as a varaha saved the earth from being destroyed. This is a parody on the Judeo-Christian story of Noah's Ark.


title: Prithvi

paragraphs: Prithvi is the name for the goddess of the Earth in Hinduism.

paragraphs: The goddess prithvi is also called Devi basundhara, mata dharitri and bhoomidevi.


title: Daitya

paragraphs: A Daitya, according to Hinduism, is a type of giant that fought against the gods.


title: Manu

paragraphs: It has various meanings in different mythologies. In early texts, it refers to the archetypal man, or to the first man on Earth.


title: Wild boar

paragraphs: The wild boar ("Sus scrofa") belongs to the family of the real pig (Suidae) from the order of artiodactyls. They live today in almost every part of the world, even many countries that are not their natural habitats.

paragraphs: Wild boars are omnivorous and easily adapt to changes. They were hunted in Europe from long ago for many of their body parts, and were shown in the mythology of many ancient civilizations. Greek, Phoenician, and Persian mythology showed them as fierce, sometimes evil, while others showed them as brave, powerful animals. Again, others saw them as parasitic. Even today many people see wild boars very differently.

paragraphs: The hair of the boar was often used when making the toothbrush until the 1930s. The hair for the bristles usually came from the neck area of the boar. The brushes were popular because the bristles were soft. However, this was not the best material for oral hygiene because the hairs dried slowly and usually held bacteria.

paragraphs: The body of the wild boar, when seen from the side, often looks very big. This impression is partly because, compared to the large body mass, the legs of the wild boar are short and do not look very strong. The wild boar's head is very large. Its eyes are high up on the head, while the ears are small with bristles around it. Its tail can move very quickly, and the wild boar often uses it to show when his mood. If seen from the front, the body looks quite narrow. The wild boar has 44 teeth in its jaw, which helps its strong bite. The male and the female wild boars' snout shapes are different.

paragraphs: A wild boar usually gives birth to about 4 – 6 piglets at a time. Piglets weigh from about 750 – 1000g when they are first born. They are fully weaned after 3 – 4 months. They begin eating solid foods such as worms and grubs after about 2 weeks.


title: Narasimha

paragraphs: Narasimha, according to Hinduism, was the fourth avatar of Vishnu. In this form, Vishnu had the body of a man, but he had a head of a lion. This avatar of Vishnu is also a symbol of great strength.

paragraphs: The Hindu scriptures tell this story about Narashimha. There was a demon (a "daitya") named Hiranyakashipu. He was against all gods. But, his son named Prahlad used to worship the gods, especially Vishnu. Hiranyakashipu was not happy at his son and wanted to burn him to death. Hiranyakashipu also wanted to kill everyone who worshipped the gods and make everyone worship him instead. Vishnu became Narasimha, and protected Prahlad and other people who worshipped the gods by stopping Hiranyakashipu. Brahma had granted Hiranyakashipu a boon that kept him safe so that he could not be killed by a human, animal or deva. He also could not be killed in the day or night, or inside or outside of his palace. This made Hiranyakashipu believe that no one could kill him. When he wanted to kill his son for worshiping Vishnu, Vishnu came to earth incarnated as a half-man, half-lion creature (neither man nor human). This way Vishnu killed Hiranyakashipu in the twilight (neither day, nor night) and on the porch of the palace (neither inside, nor outside), without disrupting the boon given to him by Brahma.


title: Prahlada

paragraphs: Hindus believe that Prahlada was a good person. He was the son of Hiranyakashipu, his evil father, and he worshipped Vishnu. Narasimha protected him from Hiranyakashipu.


title: Yuga

paragraphs: Hindus believe that there are periods of time called yugas ("ages" or "eras"): Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga. When Kali Yuga ends, a new Satya Yuga begins.


title: Vamana

paragraphs: Hindus believe that Vishnu has many important avatars. The Vamana avatar was the fifth avatar. In this avatar, Vishnu was in the form of a human.Vamana avatar is basically in the form of a bramhin(a caste in hinduism which is responsible for ancient spiritual, cultural, educational activitiesand the highest in the Varnas) was taken for a demon king 'Bali'. Lord Vishnu in this avatar asked Bali to offer him 'three feet land' as a form of offering a king offered to a brahmin as a goodwill during ancient times in hindu culture. The story goes when king Bali captured the Adobe of hindu demigods and caused them a fierce battle. 'Aditi' - the mother figure of demigods in hinduism prayed to Lord Vishnu and pleased by her prayers, Lord Vishnu appeared and assured her a boon. In a thought of revenge , she wished that may Bali loose his whole wealth and power."

paragraphs: Lord Vamana (lord Vishnu) when asked Bali for three feet land then Bali laughed and said "Brahamandeva (O Brahmin) you might have asked many luxurious things from me as dakshina but you asked such a menial thing of land of a three feet quantity?" After which Lord Vamana grew so large in size as his one feet could cover whole Earth and other whole heaven! That means, whole land property of Bali was under control of lord Vamana. As per Bali's oath, there was no more land to donate and one feet of lord was remaining. Bali asked lord about who is greater, the thing or who gives the thing? Lord answer was the donar or giver of the thing is greater than the thing. Then king Bali asked the Lord to keep his third feet on his (Bali) head! Pleased by this act of Bali lord promised him the rule of 'Patal' (the underEarth) and promised to protect Bali and his kingdom and slay whosoever disobeys Bali in patal.

paragraphs: It is believed that for 3 day during 'savan'or rainy season , king Bali returns to Earth. These three days are celebrated as Onam in Indian state of 'kerala'. During this festival , the idols of lord Vishnu and king bali are made out of rice and worshiped. A famous boat race is also organised across kerala in honour of king Bali. The people from every faith in kerala celebrate this feast. It is a regional festival of Keralites.


title: Parashurama

paragraphs: Hindus believe that Vishnu has many important avatars. The Parashurama also known as parshurama avatar was the sixth important avatar. In this avatar, Vishnu was in the form of a human. He came to Earth to stop bad people he was the son of sage jamdagni a sage who was known for his temper. it is believed that parashurma was cheiranjiv it means that he was immortal he was the great devotee of Lord Shiva.parshuram s,mother Renuka Devi was daughter of kshatriya after receiving parashurma from Lord Shiva as a boon it was impossible to defeat parashurma in earth. He was the firstbrahmakshatriya (both brahmin and kshatriya warrior)

paragraphs: It is said that he was born before the Lord Rama and still he is alive.in Mahabharata he tought

paragraphs: Dronacharya Bhishma and karna.it is believed that he will teach war skills to the tenth avatar of Vishnu (kalki) once he cutt of the right tusk of Lord Ganesha.

paragraphs: Because Ganesha was not letting him in to meet Lord Shiva when Goddess Parvati and Lord Shiva grew up with anger after hearing this but after they forgive parashurma.


title: Balarama

paragraphs: Hindus believe that Balram was the older brother of Krishna. Some Hindus believe that he is an avatar of Vishnu’s shesh naag. In this avatar, Shesh naag was in the form of a human.


title: Ba Ðình Square

paragraphs: Ba Đình Square (Vietnamese: Quảng Trường Ba Đình) is a place in the Vietnamese capital, Hà Nội. It is where Vietnamese President Hồ Chí Minh declared the independence of the Democratic Republic of Việt Nam from French imperialist rule on 2 September 1945, the same day that World War II ended. This is now where his mausoleum is.


title: Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum

paragraphs: The Hồ Chí Minh Mausoleum (Vietnamese: Lăng Hồ Chí Minh) is a large memorial to Vietnamese independence leader Hồ Chí Minh. It is located in Ba Ðình Square in Hà Nội. This is where his body is kept for people to pay their respects. President Hồ Chí Minh did not want a mausoleum at all. In his will, he said he wanted to be cremated and to have his ashes buried in the hills of the north, center, and south of Việt Nam. He said that he liked cremation because it was healthier than burial or a mausoleum and saved farmland. His successors did not let him have this wish. The government kept that part of his will secret. The government also pretended he died a day after he really did, because he really died on Independence Day and they did not tell anyone.

paragraphs: Many aspects of "Uncle Ho's" last will and testament were altered or, as stated above, ignored. In his last days he was surrounded by those who formed what is now Vietnam's political system, while those loyal to him and his wishes were systematically kept or chased away. Others were put on a bus and executed.


title: Meng Tian

paragraphs: Meng Tian (; ? - 210 BC ) was a Chinese general of the Qin Dynasty under Emperor Qin Shi Huang. His grandfather, Meng Ao, and his father, Meng Wu, were generals as well. After the unification of China, Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered Meng Tian leading 300,000 armies to attack the Xiongnu and build the Great Wall of China. Meng Tian was forced by the eunuch, Zhao Gao, to kill himself by drinking poisonous wine after the death of Emperor Qin Shi Haung.


title: Kippah

paragraphs: A kippah (Hebrew) or yarmulke (Yiddish) is a small cloth cap worn by Jews.

paragraphs: Traditionally it was worn only by men, but in modern times the push for equality between the sexes in the practice of Judaism has led some women to wear yarmulkes. Some Jews only wear yarmulkes while praying; others wear yarmulkes the entire day, making sure not to walk more than four cubits without head covering (especially outside).

paragraphs: The basis for wearing a head covering is a story in the Talmud (tractate Shabbat).

paragraphs: Often, the color and fabric of the "yarmulke" can be a sign of adherence to a specific religious movement. The Israeli National Religious community is often referred to by the name "kipot srugot" כיפות סרוגות, literally "woven yarmulkes". Similarly, some Haredi sects are referred to by the name "kipot shkhorot" כיפות שחורות, literally "black yarmulkes".

paragraphs: The etymology of "yarmulke" is unclear. Linguists (e.g. Max Vasmer) maintain that the Yiddish word is derived (via Russian or Polish) from the Turkic "", meaning 'raincoat'.

paragraphs: Traditionally, "yarmulke" is considered to have originated from the Aramaic phrase """" (in awe of the Lord), in keeping with the principle that the yarmulke is supposed to reflect someone's fear of heaven. Or perhaps, ""yira malkah"" (fear of the King).


title: Judeo-Arabic languages

paragraphs: Judeo-Arabic languages are a collection of Arabic language dialects spoken by Jews living or formerly living in Arabic-speaking countries. Just as with the rest of the Arab world, Arabic-speaking Jews had different dialects for the different regions where they lived. Most Judæo-Arabic dialects were written in modified forms of the Hebrew alphabet, often including consonant dots from the Arabic alphabet to accommodate phonemes that did not exist in the Hebrew alphabet.

paragraphs: In retaliation for 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jews in Arab countries became subject to increasingly insufferable discrimination and violence, causing virtually all of them to flee en masse to Israel. Their dialects of Arabic did not thrive in Israel, and most became extinct, replaced by the Modern Hebrew language.

paragraphs: In the Middle Ages, Jews in the Islamic diaspora spoke a dialect of Arabic, which they wrote in a mildly adapted Hebrew script (rather than using Arabic script).

paragraphs: This phenomenon is called Judaeo-Arabic and may be compared to both Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish) and Yiddish (Judaeo-German).

paragraphs: Some of the most important books of medieval Jewish though were originally written in Judaeo-Arabic, as well as certain halakhic works and biblical commentary. Only later were they translated into medieval scientific Hebrew so that they could be read by the Ashkenazic Jews of Europe. These include:


title: The Clangers

paragraphs: The Clangers is a British children's television series. The first episode was broadcast on the BBC on 16 November 1969. The series is about a family of aliens who live under the surface of the Moon in caves. They looked like small, pink, knitted mice. Other characters include the Froglets and The Soup Dragon, a dragon that gives out soup. The family uses a US flag as a table cloth.


paragraphs: The London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham is a London borough in West London but is part of an area called Inner London. House prices are more expensive than most parts of England. The borough has three famous football teams: Fulham F.C., Queens Park Rangers F.C. and Chelsea F.C.


title: 1 E9 m²

paragraphs: 1 E9 m² is a term used to group together areas of similar size. It is used for places that are between 1,000 km² and 10,000 km² in area. The term is based from the scientific notation for 1 x 10m².


title: 1 E8 m²

paragraphs: 1 E8 m² is used for places that are between 100 km² and 1000 km² in area. The term is based from the scientific notation for 1 x 10m².


title: 1 E7 m²

paragraphs: 1 E7 m² is a term used to group together areas of similar size. It is used for places that are between 10 km² (1,000 hectares) and 100 km² (10,000 hectares) in area. The term is based from the scientific notation for 1 x 10m².


title: Athletics at the Summer Olympics

paragraphs: Athletics, known as Track and Field in the United States, has been contested at every Summer Olympics since the birth of the modern Olympic movement at the 1896 Summer Olympics.

paragraphs: No new events have been added to the men's athletics programme since 1952 when the short racewalk was added. The roster of events has not changed since then, with the exception of the omission of the long racewalk in 1976. The long racewalk is the only event held for men but not included on the women's programme.

paragraphs: A total of 52 different events have been held in the men's competition. The current list has 24 events.

paragraphs: Many of the discontinued events were similar to modern ones but at different lengths, especially in the steeplechasing, hurdling, and racewalking disciplines.

paragraphs: Team racing events were only run in the six early editions of the Games.

paragraphs: The athletic multi-discipline "triathlon" (3 events) and "pentathlon" (5 events) have been replaced by the 10 event "decathlon", and the medley relay replaced by relay races where each section is the same length as the others.

paragraphs: Standing jump competitions are no longer held, nor are the various modified throwing events which were experimented with in 1908 and 1912.


title: 1968 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: The 1968 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIX Olympiad, were held in Mexico City in 1968. Mexico City beat out bids from Detroit, Buenos Aires and Lyon to host the Games in 1963. The Games were preceded by the Tlatelolco massacre, in which hundreds of students were killed by security forces ten days before the opening day. It is the only Games ever held in Latin America, and it was the second ever outside of Western Europe, Australia, or the USA.


title: Sima Qian

paragraphs: Sima Qian () was the historian of the Han Dynasty under Emperor Wu. He was born at Xia Yang (present-day Shan Xi Province, Han City) in either 145 or 135 BC. His father, Sima Tan, was also a historian.

paragraphs: When Sima Qian was 10, he could read the articles which were written in Classical Chinese.

paragraphs: He travelled around China and visited a plenty of scenic attractions and heritages when he was 20.

paragraphs: In 108 BC, with the death of Sima Qian's father, he carried on the job of being a historian.

paragraphs: In 104 BC, Sima Qian finished editing Taichu Calendar with the imperial officials, Tang Du and Luo Xiahong.

paragraphs: In 99 BC, Sima Qian got involved in the Li Ling Affair. He was punished and sent to prison. Sima Qian would be sentenced to death if he could not pay a fine or accept the terrible punishment - castration. With the fact that Sima Qian did not have enough money to pay the fine and he hoped to finish writing the Records of the Grand Historian, he accepted the castration. Sima Qian finally spent 19 years to write that book.


title: Gymnastics at the 1972 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: Gymnastics at the 1972 Summer Olympics was represented by 14 events: 6 for women and 8 for men. The competition was held from August 27 to September 1 at the Sports Hall in Munich.

paragraphs: The scoring in the team competition event and in event finals was the same, as for gymnastics events at the previous Olympics. But in the all-around the scoring system became similar to that of event finals: for the all-around a gymnast showed one's skills once more on each of the apparatuses; to get the "Total" value for the all-around performance, marks in the team competition were added together, the result was divided by two ("Prelim" value) and added to the sum of marks for all-around routines ("Final" value). Judging system was basically the same, as at the previous Olympics.

paragraphs: "C" stands for "Compulsory exercises" and "O" stands for "Optional exercises".

paragraphs: "Prelim" mark is the value from the "Score" column of the team competition table, divided by two.

paragraphs: "Prelim" value is the sum of two marks for compulsory and optional routine in the team competition on the respective apparatus, divided by two.

paragraphs: "Prelim" value is the sum of two marks for compulsory and optional routine on the respective apparatus in the team competition, divided by two.

paragraphs: Note:country names are given in the form they were used in the official documents of the IOC in 1972.


title: Rowing at the 1980 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: Rowing at the 1980 Summer Olympics was represented by 14 events. It took place in the "Man-made Basin", located at the "Trade Unions Olympic Sports Centre" (Krylatskoye district, Moscow). The rowing schedule began on 20 July and ended on 27 July.

paragraphs: Due to the American-led boycott some strong rowing nations were not present. In that situation East Germany dominated the competition: they won 14 medals, including 11 golds, from 14 events.

paragraphs: Note:country names are given in the form they were used in the official documents of the IOC in 1980.


title: Coxless pair

paragraphs: In rowing, a coxless pair consists of a pair of rowers, each having one oar, one on the stroke side (rower's right hand side) and one on the bow side (rower's lefthand side). As the name suggests, there is no cox on such a boat, and the two rowers must co-ordinate steering and the proper timing of oar strokes between themselves.


title: 1976 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: The 1976 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXI Olympiad, were held in 1976 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. These are the summer Olympic Games organised by the International Olympic Committee. Montreal was awarded the rights to the 1976 Games in May 1970, over the bid of Moscow and Los Angeles, who later hosted the 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympic Games respectively.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

paragraphs: The 1960 Winter Olympics, officially known as the VIII Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1960 in Squaw Valley, California, United States (in the Lake Tahoe basin). Squaw Valley won the bid in 1955.

paragraphs: Alexander Cushing, the creator of the resort, campaigned vigorously to win the Games. After being awarded the Games, there was a rush to construct roads, hotels, restaurants, and bridges, as well as the ice arena, the speed skating track, ski lifts, and the ski jumping hill.


title: 1984 Winter Olympics

paragraphs: The 1984 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XIV Olympic Winter Games, were held in Sarajevo. (At that time, Sarajevo was in Yugoslavia, but it is now in Bosnia and Herzegovina.) Other candidate cities were Sapporo, Japan; and Falun in Gothenburg, Sweden. It was the first Winter Games and the second Olympics held in Eastern Europe (the first was the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow).


title: 1988 Winter Olympics

paragraphs: The 1988 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XV Olympic Winter Games, were held in Calgary, Alberta, Canada and opened by Governor General Jeanne Sauvé. The Olympics were highly successful financially as they brought in million-dollar profits. The games left a lasting impression on the host city and gave it a new identity from a cowtown to a large commercial sector of the country.

paragraphs: 1988 was also the last year that the Paralympic Games and the Winter Olympics were held in separate cities; all subsequent games have been hosted by the same city or a city nearby.

paragraphs: As at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, the Canadian team failed to win a gold medal, matching only Yugoslavia in the dubious distinction of not having won a winter gold medal on home soil.

paragraphs: Calgary first tried for the Olympics in 1964, and again in 1968.


title: Records of the Grand Historian

paragraphs: The Records of the Grand Historian () was written by Sima Qian, the historian of the Han Dynasty. It is a book recording Chinese history from the time of 3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors until the reign of Emperor Wu of Han.


title: Football at the Summer Olympics

paragraphs: Football (soccer) has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932 as a men's competition sport. Women's football was added to the official program at the 1996 Atlanta edition.

paragraphs: Football was not in the original modern Olympic Games program as international football was not that popular in 1896. However an unofficial football tournament was organised during the first competition. Complete records have been lost and may not even be true but it seems that only two games may have been played. An Athens XI lost to a team representing Smyrna (Izmir), then part of the Ottoman Empire. Smyrna went on to be beaten 15-0 by a team from Denmark. Demonstration tournaments were played at the 1900 and 1904 games and the "Intercalated Games" of 1906, but these were contested by various clubs and scratch teams, and are not considered to be official Olympic events. Neither FIFA nor the IOC recognize the Intercalated Games. The first proper tournament is said to be in the 1908 Olympics, organized by the The Football Association. It had 6 teams. The next tournament was organized by the Swedish Football Association in 1912. However, the tournament was very unbalanced, with some high scoring games such as 10-0 and 12-0, and all of the players were amateurs.

paragraphs: For the 1984 Olympics, the IOC admitted professional players.

paragraphs: Since the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, all teams have to be under-23 years old. Since 1996, three over 23 players are allowed.

paragraphs: A women's edition was added in 1996. The women's tournament has no age restrictions, unlike the men's tournament.


title: 1976 Winter Olympics

paragraphs: The 1976 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XII Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1976 in Innsbruck, Austria. The games were originally awarded to Denver, Colorado, United States in May 1970, but a 300 percent rise in costs and worries about environmental impact led to voters' rejection of a $5 million bond issue to finance the games in 1972, so the IOC offered the games to Whistler, British Columbia (Canada), who had bid on the games, but they too declined due to a change of government there. (Whistler would go on to be associated with neighbouring Vancouver's successful bid for the 2010 Winter Olympics.) The IOC finally called on Innsbruck, which had hosted the 1964 Winter Games just twelve years earlier, to also host the 1976 games. Salt Lake City, Utah, which would eventually host in 2002, offered itself as a potential host after the withdrawal of Denver. The IOC declined.


title: Gymnastics at the Summer Olympics

paragraphs: Gymnastics has been contested at every Summer Olympic Games since the birth of the modern Olympic movement at the 1896 Summer Olympics. For thirty years, only men were allowed to compete. Women's events were introduced at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. The competition was held in artistic gymnastics discipline until 1984, when rhythmic gymnastics discipline was added to the program of the Olympics. Since 2000, trampolining discipline has also been competed.


title: Biathlon

paragraphs: Biathlon (not to be confused with duathlon) is a term used to describe any sporting event made up of two disciplines. However, biathlon usually refers specifically to the winter sport that combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting. Another popular variant is summer biathlon, which combines cross-country running with riflery.

paragraphs: Other multi-discipline sports (otherwise unrelated to biathlon):


title: 1972 Summer Olympics

paragraphs: The 1972 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XX Olympiad, were held in Munich, in what was then West Germany, from 26 August to 11 September 1972. Munich won its Olympic bid in April 1966 over the cities of Detroit, Michigan, USA; Madrid, Spain; and Montreal, Canada. The 1972 Summer Olympics are one of 2 Olympic Games that had a significant criminal incident—the Munich massacre, in which a group of Palastinian terrorists kidnapped and killed several Israeli athletes. The other Olympics with a significant criminal event was the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, USA—the Centennial Olympic Park bombing. A movie about the Israeli response to this was made called Munich.


title: Royal borough

paragraphs: Royal Boroughs are districts in the United Kingdom that have been given this special title because they had special links with the British royal family.


title: Emperor Wu of Jìn

paragraphs: Emperor Wu of Jìn ( 236 - 290) was the founder of Western Jin Dynasty. His name was Sima Yan. He was born in He Nei (now Henan Province). His father was Sima Zhao and Sima Yi was his grandfather. They were the imperial officials of Wei Dynasty and seized control over the imperial court. In 265 AD, Sima Yan forced Emperor Cao Huan to abdicate. In 280 AD, he conquered Eastern Wu and unified China.


title: John Couch Adams

paragraphs: John Couch Adams (5 June 1819 – 21 January 1892), was an English mathematician and astronomer. Adams was born in Laneast, Cornwall and died in Cambridge. He was famous for co-discovering the planet Neptune.


title: Pygmy people

paragraphs: Pygmy is a word that describes several ethnic groups with unusually short people. According to anthropologists, pygmies can be any group where adult men are less than tall on average. The best known pygmies are the Aka, Efé and Mbuti of central Africa. There are also pygmies in Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Brazil. The Negritos of Southeast Asia are also called pygmies.

paragraphs: The word "pygmy" is sometimes thought to be pejorative (an insult). It is, however, the only word that is used to call "all" African Midgets.

paragraphs: The name "pygmy" comes from the Greek word ("pygmaios"). This word was derived from (came from) the word which is the length between a person's elbow and knuckles. The Latin word (pl. "pygmaei") came from this older Greek word.

paragraphs: The word was first used in Greek mythology by the poet Homer. He wrote about a tribe of dwarfs called "Pygmies" who lived in India and Ethiopia.

paragraphs: There are a number of theories to explain why pygmies are so short. It has been proved that their height is hereditary, and is passed on from parents to children. It may have evolved because of the low ultraviolet light found in rainforests, where many pygmies live. This would mean that the pygmies would make less vitamin D in their skin. Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium, which is important for bones to grow. Since the pygmies would get less calcium, they would have smaller bones and skeletons.

paragraphs: There are other explanations for why pygmies are so short. Some explanations are:

paragraphs: Some research shows that the genes for the growth hormone receptor and growth hormone are found much less in pygmies than in related tribes. These genes are important for humans to grow tall.

paragraphs: Pygmies can be found in Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia. Most of these groups are partly hunter-gatherers. They get food from the environment and trade it with nearby farmers. From the farmers they get crops and tools. There are about 250,000-600,000 Pygmies living in the Congo rainforest.

paragraphs: There are a number of Pygmy groups living in Africa. The three best-known groups are the Mbenga, Mbuti, and Twa groups. Each big group includes several tribes that have their own language.

paragraphs: The Mbenga people, sometimes called the "Ba-Mbenga", live in the western Congo basin. The Mbenga include the Aka people, who speak the Aka language. The Aka live in the Central African Republic and the Republic of Congo. The M-Benzélé people, or "western Aka", and the Ba-Sese people, "eastern Aka", are also related.

paragraphs: Other Mbenga pygmies are the Baka people of Cameroon, Gabon, and Republic of Congo. They speak three very similar languages: Baka language, Ganzi language, and Gundi language. Another group of Mbenga pygmies are the Gyele people. The Gyele live in Cameroon and speak Gyele language.

paragraphs: The Mbuti people, sometimes called the "Bambuti", live in the Ituri rainforest in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. They include the Efé people, Asua people, and the Kango people. The Efé speak the Efé language. The Asua speak the Asoa language. The Kango speak the Kango language.

paragraphs: The Twa people, or "Ba-Twa", live in Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Uganda. The Twa speak Kirundi and Kinyarwanda.


title: Itihasa

paragraphs: In Sanskrit, Itihasa means history. For Hindus, an Itihasa is a religious story that tells about what happened in the past. Itihasas are usually epic poems. The important itihasas to Hindus are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

paragraphs: The original meaning of Itiihaasa had a more precise connotation than the word History. The etymology attested to by Panini indicates itiha to mean ‘thus indeed, in this tradition’ .

paragraphs: One of the earliest references to Itihaasa in the literature of antiquity is in Chanakyas’s Arthashastra. Our investigations lead us to believe that the Maurya empire for which he was the preceptor began in 1534 BCE. He defines Itihaasa, in the context of the syllabus prescribed for training of a Prince, with the following words;

paragraphs: पुराणमितिव्रुत्तमाख्यायिकोदाहरणं धर्मशास्त्रं चेतीतिहासः

paragraphs: Puraana (the chronicles of the ancients), Itivrtta (history), Akhyayika (tales), Udaaharana (illustrative stories), Dharmashastra (the canon of Righteous conduct), and Arthashastra (the science of Government) are known by (comprise the corpus of Itihaasah, ) History

paragraphs: Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Book 1, Chapter 5

paragraphs: Thus, History in this definition takes on the meaning more akin to the sense of Historiography and is perhaps even more eclectic and appears to indicate a superset of political science and History as we use them today. We feel vindicated therefore in calling our forthcoming conference a conference on Indian History ( http://www.india-forum.com/forums/index.php?showtopic=2088), since we seem to ascribe the same broad meaning that Kautilya did 3 millennia ago.

paragraphs: The quintessential quote is that of Kalhana in the Rajatarangini,12th century CE (1147 to 1149 CE) who is regarded as a modern in Indian parlance

paragraphs: धर्मार्थ काममोक्षाणामुपदेश समान्वितं ।

paragraphs: पुरावृत्तं कथायुत्तरूपमितिहासं प्रचक्षते ।।

paragraphs: Puraa-vrttam, kathaa-yuttarupam Ithihaasah prachakshate ||”

paragraphs: History will be the narration of events as they happened, in the form of a story, which will be an advice to the reader to be followed in life, to gain the purusaarthas namely Kama the satiation of desires through Artha the tool, by following the path of Dharma the human code of conduct to gain Moksha or liberation.

paragraphs: Clearly there is an emphasis on the traditions and on the utilitarian aspect of History, embedded in the etymology of Itihaasa. The reason we draw emphasis to the ambiguity in the use of the word History is that, in our usage, while we adhere to the broader usage of the word History, it makes for clarity in usage if the Civilizational aspects are distinguished into distinct categories


title: Bhakti yoga

paragraphs: Bhakti yoga is a Hindu spiritual practice. People constantly pray to, and think about, a form of a Hindu god, usually Vishnu.

paragraphs: Bhakti is a Sanskrit term. It signifies an attitude of devotion to God. The relation between man and God is imagined as a beloved-lover, friend-friend, parent-child, and master-servant. The Bhakta worships his chosen God by any of these mentalities.

paragraphs: The Bhagavata Purana teaches nine primary forms of bhakti. They are:


paragraphs: The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) is a newer religious movement based on the original Vedic culture of ancient India It is also known as 'the Hare Krishna' movement. It was founded in 1966 in New York City by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. The organization's core beliefs are based on three scriptures, Bhagavad Gita, Srimad Bhagavatam and the Caitanya-caritamrita.


title: Hare Krishna

paragraphs: Hare Krishna is a mantra. It is also known as Maha Mantra. The mantra was made well known even outside Hinduism by the International Society for Krishna Consciousness. The mantra can be found in many Hinduist traditions in India. Those who believe in it think that when the mantra is heard, spoken, used for meditation or sung this can lead to a higher state of consciousness. According to Gaudiya Vaishnava theology, this higher consciousness takes the form of pure love of God (Krishna). The mantra is contained in the texts of Hinduism known as the Upanishads, which are considered by some scholars to have roots in the Vedic past.


title: A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada

paragraphs: A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, also known as Srila Prabhupada (September 1 1896–November 14 1977) was the person who created the ISKCON movement.


title: Purana

paragraphs: In the Sanskrit language, purana means story of ancient times. For Hindus, a purana is a scripture that tells what happened in ancient times. Puranas tell about history, ancient Indian traditions, and what Hindus believe.

paragraphs: Mahapurana means Great Story of Ancient Times in Sanskrit.


title: Patti LaBelle

paragraphs: Patti LaBelle (born Patricia Louise Holt on May 24, 1944) is an American R&B and Soul singer. She is known for her high vocal belting (using the chest to make high pitch sounds). She is known for such songs as "New Attitude" and "On My Own".

paragraphs: She was the lead singer of Patty La Belle and the Bluebells during the 1960s and 70s. Later the group was known as simply "Labell". In this later group the style was more laid back, singing hits like The Rolling Stones' "Wild Horses".


title: Whitney Houston

paragraphs: Whitney Elizabeth Houston (August 9, 1963 – February 11, 2012) was an American recording artist. She was best known for her hit singles including "How Will I Know", "I Wanna Dance With Somebody (Who Loves Me)" and her cover of Dolly Partons "I Will Always Love You".

paragraphs: Houston was born in Newark, New Jersey. She was the second child of Army serviceman and entertainment executive John Russell Houston, Jr. and gospel singer Cissy Houston. Dionne and Dee Dee Warwick are her cousins.

paragraphs: Whitney began singing at a young age in gospel music at church, being influenced by her mother. She was described as having an impressive ranging mezzo-soprano voice. In 1983, she was discovered by an Arista Records representative and signed to the label.

paragraphs: Houston released her first album, "Whitney Houston", in 1985. It featured the number-one singles "Saving All My Love for You", "Greatest Love of All", and "How Will I Know". Her second album, "Whitney", was released in 1987 and featured the number-one hits "I Wanna Dance with Somebody" and "So Emotional". In 1990, her album "I'm Your Baby Tonight" was released, and the song of the same name also reached number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, as did the single "All the Man That I Need". She sang the National Anthem at the 1991 Super Bowl and earned widespread praise for the performance. She starred in the film "The Bodyguard" in 1992 and performed several songs on its soundtrack, one of which was a cover of country singer-songwriter Dolly Parton's song, "I Will Always Love You". The song became Houston's biggest hit of her career and reached number one in countries around the world. Houston sat throughout much of the music video for "I Will Always Love You" because she was pregnant with her daughter, Bobbi Kristina Brown. "I Will Always Love You" became the bestselling song by a female artist, with the soundtrack for "The Bodyguard" becoming the bestselling film soundtrack ever. She performed with singer-songwriter Mariah Carey on the song "When You Believe" for the film "The Prince of Egypt".

paragraphs: Houston released albums "My Love Is Your Love", "Just Whitney...", and "I Look to You" in 1998, 2002, and 2009, respectively. She also appeared in the film "Sparkle" alongside singer Jordin Sparks.

paragraphs: Whitney Houston has earned six Grammy Awards and seven number-one songs in a row on the "Billboard" Hot 100. She had a total of 11 "Billboard" Hot 100 number-ones, placing her in fourth place for women behind Mariah Carey (18 number-ones), Rihanna (14), and Madonna and The Supremes (12 each). She is the most-awarded female artist of all time.

paragraphs: Whitney Houston has also been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020.

paragraphs: Houston married Bobby Brown in 1992. In 1993, they had a daughter, Bobbi Kristina Brown. In a 2009 interview, Houston indicated the marriage was both passionate and turbulent. Their marital relationship was marred by drug use and by Brown's professional jealousy, psychological abuse, and physical confrontations. The couple divorced in 2007.

paragraphs: On the night of February 11, 2012, at the age of 48, Houston was found dead in her guest room at The Beverly Hilton in Beverly Hills, California. The official coroner's report stated that she had accidentally drowned in the bath. Atherosclerotic heart disease and cocaine use were listed as contributing factors. Her funeral was televised.


title: Folklore

paragraphs: Folklore is the body of expressive culture, including stories, music, dance, legends, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs, and more within a particular people. This also includes the oral traditions of that culture, subculture, or group. The academic and usually ethnographic study of folklore is sometimes called "folkloristics".


title: Kappa

paragraphs: Kappa (uppercase/lowercase Κ κ) is the letter of the Greek alphabet used to represent the "k" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 20. Letters that came from it include the Roman K and Cyrillic К.

paragraphs: The letter κ always stands for the sound "k" in Greek. It is customary to transliterate (re-write) κ as "c" in English, but this is somewhat problematic since c is pronounced as "s" before e, i and y (which does not happen in Greek).

paragraphs: In mathematics, the lowercase formula_1 is used to represent the curvature of a curve, while the uppercase Κ is used to represent an ordinal number which is also a cardinal number.


title: Văn Cao

paragraphs: Văn Cao (born Nguyễn Văn Cao; 15 November 1923 – 10 July 1995) was a famous Vietnamese composer. He wrote the Vietnamese national anthem, "". He, along with Pham Duy and Trinh Cong Son, is widely considered one of the three most important people in modern (non-classical) Vietnamese music.


title: Kojiki

paragraphs: Kojiki or "Furukotofumi" (), also called in English the "Records of Ancient Matters", is the oldest book known in Japan. It was written 712 CE, and dedicated to Empress Gemmei. The Kojiki is a book about Japanese mythology and the Shinto religion. The book mixes the legends of first emperor of Japan and several others with stories about the gods. Therefore, it is difficult to know which parts of the Kojiki are real and which parts are legend. According to legend, all the emperors of Japan are descended from Amaterasu, the sun goddess.

paragraphs: The Kojiki is written in Chinese, but the way the Japanese wrote it is by using the pronunciation of the Chinese characters and not the meanings of them. In other words, a person who can read Chinese will not be able to read the Kojiki unless they also know how to speak Japanese. It includes many Japanese names and some phrases.

paragraphs: The Kojiki is divided into three parts: the , the and the .


title: Hindu philosophy

paragraphs: There are mainly six branches of Hindu Philosophy. These six schools of philosophy have been the result of ancient Indian thought and usually termed as "Sad Darsana". These are:

paragraphs: Among the above six schools of Hindu Philosophy, Vedanta is by far very popular. The Vedanta accepts the authority of the knowledge portions of the Vedas, called Upanishads.


title: Guru

paragraphs: In the Sanskrit language, guru means teacher. Eastern religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and newer movements such as Transcendental Meditation use "guru" as a title. They give it to a teacher (or guide) of religious matters.

paragraphs: In Western usage, any person who has followers may be called a guru, even if he is followed for things other than religion or philosophy. A person with knowledge or expertise may be called a guru if he influences by personal teaching. Modern terms which have a rather similar meaning are mentor and tutor.

paragraphs: Many Hindus have a satguru as well.The word "guru" means the one who removes the darkness from our heart. Satguru means true guru or true teacher. The title means that his students know that the guru can be trusted and will lead them to enlightenment. A satguru is a great soul who has realized God and is able to lead others along the path. God shines out from the satguru more brightly than from other people because he is very pure and enlightened. The satguru is devoted full time to religious life, is unmarried and has given up all possessions, personal life, family and friends. He has received an initiation from his satguru that gives him great spiritual power and authority. He can teach parents how to raise children, adults how to avoid problems and overcome any challenge in life, and in general he can make people feel close to God.


title: Moksha

paragraphs: Moksha is the ultimate goal of personal spiritual development for some schools of Hinduism. It is the equivalent of Nirvana in Buddhism. In the Sanskrit language, "moksha" means freedom. It is as a state of eternal bliss and emptiness. According to Vedanta life is an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth into a physical universe. Hindu scriptures describe Moksha as the spiritual liberation from this cycle and the achievement of an eternal and blissful emptiness that transcends all of the joys, pain, and sorrow of the physical body or corporeal life. It is the goal of Hindu practitioners to achieve Moksha (freedom/liberation from the material world) through the practice of Yoga viz Jnana Yoga(knowledge), Karma Yoga(work), and Bhakti Yoga (through reciting prayers and worshipping God).

paragraphs: Moksha is a Vedic term. Scholars disagree about the precise relationship between the Moksha of Vedanta Hinduism and the Nirvana of Buddhism, but there is agreement that they are closely related historically and philosophically. Similarities can be found between Moksha and some concepts found in the Upanishads. Hindu texts explain the Moksha as Sat-Chit-Anand [True blissness of soul by separating the soul from the physical body by practising Dhyan and Yoga ]. Moksha originates from the Sanskrit word, moksa.

paragraphs: In short, moksha symbolizes something which is beyond comprehension; too great and too wondrous to be truly understood, it can only be felt when one attains it. The world is truly a beautiful place, but the greatness that lies within is even more so, since the power of the greatness is completely unknown.

paragraphs: After all, isn't that what beauty is; appreciation of the unknown!

paragraphs: For a more comprehensive explanation of this topic read the books:


title: Caste

paragraphs: The Caste system is a system in India that was once mainly used by Hindus. It started as a job system but later became a social class system that depends on ones ancestry. This system has been generally accepted for about 3000 years. There are four castes in this system, and one class regarded as the "Untouchables". There are also castes in some countries other than India as the system spread to South Asia about 2000 years ago.

paragraphs: For centuries, this system dictated one's marriages, geographical location, and occupation. The Indian government today works to decrease this discrimination , such as with the quotas set in government jobs in 1950.


title: Brahmin

paragraphs: Brahmin is a part of the caste system in Hinduism. Brahmins are the highest and most respected caste of people. In ancient India people who read the complete Upanishad Brahmanak were called Brahmins. They were teachers, warriors, doctors, scholars, or religious people in the past. They are called "Dwij" because they guided others toward enlightenment.

paragraphs: The caste system classified people by jobs. The people in this caste were mostly priests and dramatists in the Aryan society. The Brahmins arranged prayers and rituals. Parashurama was one of the well known Brahmin by birth, but throughout his life, he was a warrior whose job was to protect Dharma. Parshurama is also Creator Father of Bhumihar Brahman, Bhumihar's are also known as Parashurama Brahman & Bramhkshatriya. Most Brahmins practice vegetarianism.

paragraphs: There are many subgroups in Brahmins based on demography. Rishiswar, Sanadhya, Kanyakubj, Telang, Saryupareen, Bhumihar, Goswami, Tyagi, and Saraswati are the main streams of Brahmin. Across the subcontinent, other Brahmins are also believed to have switched from the traditional duties of Brahmins in favor of military and administrative ones. In other parts of the subcontinent, outside of Punjab and the Gandhara region, they have been known as the Tyagi Brahman and "brahma-kshatriya" groups. These groups also claim to have descended from the Parshuram Tyagi Brahmans of Haryana and West Uttar Pradesh; traditionally, they have a close relationship and brotherhood with Mohyals.

paragraphs: Some Mohyal Brahmins migrated eastward and became as some sub-divisions of Bhumihar Brahmins, some of whom are also descendants of Hussaini Brahmins and mourn the death of Imam Hussain.[7] Bhumihar Brahmins and Tyagi/ Mohyal Brahmins have an affinity and brotherhood for each other. The  Bhumihar Brahmins, of whom many, though not all, belong to the Saryupareen Brahmin division of Kanyakubja Brahmins.In Kerala Ezhavathy is also a Mohyal community.[8]

paragraphs: The Brahmanas of the Vedic period were regarded as the most knowledgeable people and the best of best in all arts. Therefore, not all Hindus worship other Gods.

paragraphs: In Tamil Nadu, The Iyers and Iyengars are well known Brahmin communities. Iyers are mostly worshippers of Shiva and the Iyengars are Vaishnavites.


title: Kshatriya

paragraphs: Kshatriya is a division of the caste system in Hinduism. A "kshatriya" is a warrior, ruler, politician, or administrative worker.

paragraphs: However, there is one more lineage (not mentioned in any Puranas) - Nagavanshi (snake-born), who claims descent from the Nagas.


title: Vaishya

paragraphs: Vaishya is a division of the caste system. A vaishya is a trader, merchant or artisan.


title: Shudra

paragraphs: Shudra is a division of the caste system. A shudra is considered a servant or peasant. Shudra and Ati-shudra indicates the bottom most ranks in the Indian caste system.

paragraphs: Mahatma Jyotirao Phule set out the history of shudra-ati-shudra communities in his book "Gulamgiri." He drew the attention to the exploitation of Shudras, Ati-shudras, and women etc. At this time, most prefer not even to touch such castes.


title: Jnana Yoga

paragraphs: In Hinduism, Jnana Yoga is the yoga or practice of knowledge. Jyâna in Sanskrit means "knowledge".

paragraphs: In the Bhagavad Gita Krishna says that jyâna consists of properly understanding "kshetra" (the field of activity—that is, the body) and "kshetra-jna" (the knower of the body—that is, the soul). Krishna emphasizes one must understand the difference between these two. "Those who see with eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body, and can also understand the process of liberation from bondage in material nature, attain to the supreme goal."


title: Atharva Veda

paragraphs: The Atharva Veda is the fourth Veda, one of the Hindu scriptures. There are a number of upanishads in this veda. Ganapathy, Narayana, Devi, Atharva Siropanishaths are part of atharv veda. Bhavanopanisath is also in atharva veda. Sankaracharya established joshimath in kedarnath one of the four popal centres of Hinduism to flourish atharva veda.


title: London Borough of Tower Hamlets

paragraphs: The London Borough of Tower Hamlets is a London Borough a bit east of the City of London and north of the River Thames.

paragraphs: Victoria Park is one of the most important parks. It has a canal running through it and lots people like to walk their dogs.


title: Uriah Heep

paragraphs: Uriah Heep are an English hard rock band. They formed in December 1969.


title: E-book

paragraphs: An electronic book (also called an e-book, ebook or digital book) is a book in digital form. E-books can be read on computers or other electronic devices such as e-book readers. E-book readers, such as the Amazon Kindle, the Kobo eReader and the are devices which are dedicated to showing e-books.

paragraphs: The first e-book might have been the Index Thonisticus, prepared by Roberto Busa in the late 1940s. However, this is sometimes not called an ebook because the digital text was (at least at first) meant to develop an index and concordance, rather than as a published edition in its own rights.

paragraphs: Despite the extensive earlier history, it is commonly reported that the inventor of the e-book is Michael S. Hart. In 1971, Hart was given extensive computer time by the operators of the Xerox Sigma V mainframe at the University of Illinois. Seeking a worthy use of this resource, he created his first electronic document by typing the United States Declaration of Independence into a computer.

paragraphs: One early e-book was the desktop prototype for a proposed notebook computer, the Dynabook, in the 1970s at PARC: a general-purpose portable personal computer capable of displaying books for reading.

paragraphs: In 1992, Sony launched the Data Discman, an electronic book reader that could read e-books that were stored on CDs. One of the electronic publications that could be played on the Data Discman was called The Library of the Future.

paragraphs: Early e-books were generally written for specialty areas and a limited audience, meant to be read only by small and devoted interest groups. The scope of the subject matter of these e-books included technical manuals for hardware, manufacturing techniques and other subjects. In the 1990s, the general availability of the Internet made transferring electronic files much easier, including e-books.

paragraphs: The current eBook standard is the file. There are other proprietary formats like .MOBI, AZW, IBA and PDF.


title: Church–Turing thesis

paragraphs: The Church-Turing thesis (also known as Church's thesis, Church's conjecture and Turing's thesis) is a statement about computers. It says that a very simple kind of computer now named a “Turing machine” is able to compute all computable functions. The Church-Turing thesis is linked to Gödel's incompleteness theorems.

paragraphs: When a programming language is able to do what a Turing machine can do, that language is called Turing complete. If a problem is solvable in one such language, then it is solvable in all of those.


title: London Borough of Brent

paragraphs: The London Borough of Brent is a London borough in north west London and is part of Greater London.


title: London Borough of Ealing

paragraphs: The London Borough of Ealing is a London borough in West London, it is part of Greater London. It includes the town of Ealing, famous for the Ealing Studios, a movie studio.


title: Tamamo-no-Mae

paragraphs: Tamamo-no-Mae (玉藻前) is a legendary figure in Japanese mythology and folklore. In the Otogizoshi, a collection of Japanese prose written in the Muromachi period, Tamamo-no-Mae was a courtesan under the Japanese Emperor Konoe. She was said to be the most beautiful and intelligent woman in Japan. Tamamo-no-Mae's body mysteriously always smelled wonderful, and her clothes never became dirty. Tamamo-no-Mae was not only beautiful, but she was very wise in all subjects. Although she appeared to be only twenty years old, there was no question that she could not answer. She answered every question posed to her, whether about music, religion, or astronomy. Because of her beauty and intelligence, everyone in the Imperial Court adored her, and Emperor Konoe fell deeply in love with her.

paragraphs: After some time had passed, the Emperor suddenly and mysteriously fell ill. He went to many priests and fortune-tellers for answers, but they had none to offer. Finally, an astrologer told the Emperor that Tamamo-no-Mae was the cause of his illness. The astrologer explained that the beautiful young woman was in fact an evil fox with nine tails (kitsune), who was making the Emperor ill in a evil plan to take the throne. Following this, Tamamo-no-Mae disappeared from the court.

paragraphs: The Emperor ordered Kazusa-no-suke and Miura-no-suke, the most powerful warriors of the day, to hunt and kill the fox. After escaping from the hunters for some time, the fox appeared to Miura-no-suke in a dream. Once again in the form of the beautiful Tamamo-no-Mae, the fox told Miura-nosuke would kill it the next day, and begged for its life. Miura-no-suke refused.

paragraphs: Early the next day, the hunters found the fox on the Plain of Nasu, and Miura-no-suke shot and killed the magical creature with an arrow. The body of the fox became the Sessho-seki, or Killing Stone, which kills anyone that comes in contact with it. Tamamo-no-Mae's spirit became Hoji and haunted the stone.

paragraphs: Hoji is said to have haunted this stone in the Japanese prefecture of Nasu until a Buddhist priest called Genno stopped for a rest near the stone and was threatened by Hoji. Genno did a certain spiritual ritual, and begged the spirit to consider her spiritual salvation, until finally Hoji surrendered and swore to never haunt the stone again.

paragraphs: In Matsuo Bashō's famous book, "The Narrow Road to the Deep North" (Oku no Hosomichi), Bashō tells of visiting the stone in the Japanese prefecture of Nasu.

paragraphs: Tamamo-no-Mae's legend served as base for the noh drama "Sesshoseki" (""The Killing Stone"") and the kabuki play "Tamamonomae" (or "The Beautiful Fox Witch").


title: London Borough of Hounslow

paragraphs: The London Borough of Hounslow is a London borough in West London. The western District line and Piccadilly line pass through the Borough. The area was part of Middlesex, and is near to London Heathrow Airport. Through Houslow runs the A4 Great West Road.

paragraphs: The heart of Hounslow is the Treaty Centre, a two-floor shopping paradise with over 10 shops including a Debenhams. There is also a library. The musician M.I.A is from here, and the movie "Bend it like Beckham" is set in this part of London.


title: London Borough of Richmond upon Thames

paragraphs: The London Borough of Richmond upon Thames is a London borough in south west London.


title: Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames

paragraphs: The Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames is a London borough in south-west London. It is one of three Royal boroughs in London.


title: London Borough of Sutton

paragraphs: The London Borough of Sutton is a London borough in south west London.


title: London Borough of Bromley

paragraphs: The London Borough of Bromley is a London Borough of south east London.


title: London Borough of Lewisham

paragraphs: The London Borough of Lewisham is a London borough in south east London.


title: London Borough of Bexley

paragraphs: The London Borough of Bexley () is a London Borough in south east London.


title: London Borough of Havering

paragraphs: The London Borough of Havering is a east London borough. Romford is the major centre. Havering is connected to central London by the District Line, which terminates at Upminster.


title: London Borough of Barking and Dagenham

paragraphs: The London Borough of Barking and Dagenham is a London borough in East London.


title: London Borough of Redbridge

paragraphs: The London Borough of Redbridge is a London borough in north east London.


title: London Borough of Newham

paragraphs: The London Borough of Newham is a London borough in east London.


title: London Borough of Waltham Forest

paragraphs: The London Borough of Waltham Forest is a London borough in east London.

paragraphs: Waltham Forest has urban districts in the south with inner-city characteristics, and richer housing development in the north. The north has reservoirs, open spaces, small sections of Epping Forest, parks, and playing fields, which together cover a fifth (20%) of the borough.


title: London Borough of Haringey

paragraphs: The London Borough of Haringey is a London borough in north London. There are some interesting sights, for example the stadium of the Premier League football club Tottenham Hotspur and the Alexandra Palace.


title: London Borough of Barnet

paragraphs: The London Borough of Barnet is a London borough in north London.


title: London Borough of Harrow

paragraphs: The London Borough of Harrow is a London borough in north west London.


title: London Borough of Hillingdon

paragraphs: The London Borough of Hillingdon is a London borough. It is the farthest west borough of London.


title: John Shakespeare

paragraphs: Sir John Shakespeare II (c. 1530-September 1601) was an English nobleman, politician, and knight. He was Sir William Shakespeare's father and husband of Mary Arden.

paragraphs: Sir John Shakespeare II was the son of English nobleman Sir Richard Shakespeare I (1490-1561) and Abigail Webb (1493-1565), John II was named after his paternal grandfather the English politician Sir John Shakespeare I (1460-1521), John II great-grandfather was the English politician Sir Thomas Shakespeare (1430-1511).


title: Norwegian Elkhound

paragraphs: The Norwegian Elkhound is a type of dog that was bred in Norway, where most of them are found. They are fluffy and are working dogs.

paragraphs: They have been living and working with humans since the stone age and served as a hunter, herder, guard and companion.

paragraphs: A spitz, type with curled tale and pricked ears, the are friendly,playful and also great with kids.They are a great family dog, but needs a large garden and daily walks. They enjoy an active family that will play with them but are more than happy to live a less strenuous life but,they must not be allowed to get lazy because as with all hounds, will put on weight in excess.


title: Kim Dae-jung

paragraphs: Kim Dae-jung (January 6, 1925-August 18, 2009) was a South Korean president. In 2000, he got the Nobel Peace Prize. He is the first person from Korea to get a Nobel prize. A Roman Catholic since 1957, he has been called the "Nelson Mandela" of Asia Kim Dae Jung was the President (succeeding Kim Young-sam) from 1998 to 2003. He was born in Haui-do, South Jeolla Province, an island off the South Korean Coast.


title: Conway's Game of Life

paragraphs: The Game of Life is an imaginary robot game (cellular automaton) made by the British mathematician John Horton Conway in 1970.

paragraphs: The reason it is called a game is because people who play the game can set it up in different ways to make it do different things. Sometimes people play the game by changing the way the imaginary robot is set up at the start to watch what happens. The Game of Life is a zero-player game because it changes without anybody playing (after the starting position is chosen). A different type of game lets two players set up imaginary robots to see which one is better.

paragraphs: The game is played on a grid of squares called "cells", each cell is black (alive) or white (dead). When people are playing the game, they start by making some dead cells alive. Then the alive cells can make other cells alive or dead because of the rules of the game. The rules are:

paragraphs: The way a player sets up the first alive cells starts the game. The first level (generation) is made by using the 4 rules. After the player is done changing the cells, they do the same thing all over again to make the next level. The game is over when all the cells are dead or all the cells are alive or the game is doing the same thing over and over. The Game of Life is Turing-complete.

paragraphs: John Horton Conway made the Game of Life because he wanted to know if he could make an imaginary robot out of cells that would be able to get bigger. He combined lots of ideas in math to make the rules for the game. It is one of the first ever 'simulation games' that represent things that happen in real life. It is important because when used in complicated math, it can look at many things like physics, biology, economics, and philosophy.

paragraphs: Patterns are special things that happen in the game. Many different types of patterns happen, including static patterns where nothing changes between levels, repeating patterns where the cells that are alive and dead repeat, and patterns that move themselves across the board ("spaceships"). Common examples of these three classes are shown below, with live cells shown in black, and dead cells shown in white.

paragraphs: The "block" and "boat" do not change, the "blinker" and "toad" have 2 looks that repeat, and the "glider" and "lightweight spaceship" ("LWSS") are spaceships which keep moving across the cells in each level. The "pulsar" is the most common repeat that has 3 parts. Most of the repeating patterns have 2 parts, like the blinker and toad. .

paragraphs: Since the Game of Life was made, some people play with new rules. These rules are usually more ways to make cells alive or dead, or they are more rules to make it harder for cells to switch.

paragraphs: Some variations change the way the cells look or where they are put.

paragraphs: When two people play the Game of Life, the alive cells have two colors and a player wins when their colors take up all of the cells. When a dead cell becomes alive, its color is the same as the alive cells that touch it. If both colors are touching the new alive cell, then the color that touches it more wins.

paragraphs: Many other websites concerning the Game of Life can be found on . In addition, Game of Life News is a blog reporting on recent developments in the Game of Life by many individuals.


title: Bio Booster Armor Guyver

paragraphs: Bio-Booster Armor Guyver (Viz Media) or Guyver (Chuang Yi Publishing) (強殖装甲ガイバー, Kyōshoku Sōkō Gaibā?) is a long-running manga series written by Yoshiki Takaya


title: Repulse Bay

paragraphs: Repulse Bay (, literally "Shallow Water Bay") is a famous beach in Hong Kong. It is in the southern part of Hong Kong Island. There are many stories explaining how the bay got its name: in 1841, pirates took Repulse Bay and lived there. They frequently took things from ships. In order to protect the ships, the British Fleet repulsed (attacked) the pirates and their base. Due to this event, it was named Repulse Bay. During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the name of Repulse Bay was changed to ).

paragraphs: float Taiwan is also added to swallow water bay


Saint John


title: Pelagianism

paragraphs: Pelagianism is a theory named after Pelagius. It is the belief that people are not born with original sin and that mortal will is still capable of choosing good or evil without Divine aid. For this reason, Adam's sin was there to set a bad example for those that came after him; other than that it had no consequences. Jesus was there to set a good example (much like Adam's bad example) but also to pay the price for our sins. Pelagius believed that because people "choose" to sin, they are like criminals who need to be pardoned, "not" victims of an inherited sinful nature.

paragraphs: Pelagianism was condemned as heresy at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, some people believe that Pelagius was simply misunderstood. Today there are no known Pelagians, but there are people who follow Celtic Christianity tradition, which respects Pelagius as a good example of Celtic Christian.


title: Goggles

paragraphs: Goggles and safety glasses are thick, plastic glasses worn over the eyes to keep objects out of them. Goggles are used to keep water out of the eyes when swimming. They are also used for safety reasons when working with instruments that can be dangerous, like chemical or when things might fly into the eyes. Special goggles are used for kinds of welding to protect the eyes from bright light.


title: Urashima Tarō

paragraphs: One day, a fisherman named Urashima Taro was fishing when he noticed a turtle, which appeared to be in trouble. Taro saved the turtle and in return the turtle magically gave Taro gills and brought Taro to the Dragon Palace (Ryūgū-jō), deep underwater. The turtle turned out to be the daughter of Ryūgū-jō, a lovely princess. He stayed there with her for a few days, and received a mysterious box from her when he was leaving, which she told him never to open. What he did not realize that time in the Dragon Palace moves an awful lot slower than on land and when he returned 700 years had passed. When he got home he found that all of his family had died long ago. In grief, he opened the box. It revealed itself in a cloud of white smoke, it was his true age, and Urashima Taro aged and died.


title: Electrical generator

paragraphs: A generator usually means a machine that makes electrical energy. It has a generator head with wires, spinning inside a magnetic field. The resulting electromagnetic induction makes electricity flow through the wires. Hybrid electric vehicles carry a generator powerful enough to make them go. The biggest generators don't go anywhere; they stay in power stations.

paragraphs: Different things can be used to make the generator head spin. Some small ones are cranked by someone's arms or legs. Bigger ones are connected to an engine. The biggest ones use a steam turbine or hydroelectric water power. Some use wind power. Whatever makes it turn, the generator converts this energy into electrical energy.

paragraphs: Some portable generators have an internal combustion engine. They are harmful when used indoors because they make carbon monoxide.


title: Inert gas

paragraphs: An inert gas is a gas that does not usually react chemically with other things. Examples of inert gases are argon and helium.

paragraphs: Inert gases are made up of only one element is called a noble gas. Inert gases can also be made of more than one element. They can be gases of molecules or mixtures of gases of elements.

paragraphs: Inert gases are used in several ways. A gas made from nitrogen is used to keep vegetables from spoiling when they are transported. Other inert gases are used in welding. They are put into gasoline tanks to help prevent explosions. The inert gases are as follows:


title: Emperor Gaozu of Han

paragraphs: Emperor Gaozu of Han (, 256 BC or 247 BC – 195 BC) was the founder of Han Dynasty. He ruled China from 202 BC until 195 BC. His name was Liu Bang and Ji was his courtesy name. He was born in Yang Li City. After defeating the great King, Xiang Yu, Emperor Gaozu of Han unified China and became the first emperor of Han Dynasty. Emperor Weidi of Han, Gaozu's son, was the 2nd emperor of Han Dynasty.

paragraphs: One day, Liu Bang's mother slept near the river bank. Suddenly, thick clouds darkened the sky and it thundered. Liu Bang's father, Liu Tai Gong, felt it strange and he worried over his wife's safety. He went to find his wife immediately. When Liu Tai Gong arrived, he saw a dragon sleeping on her body. After this incident, Liu Tai Gong's wife had a baby and Liu Bang was born soon!

paragraphs: According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Liu Bang looked like the dragon. Also, there were 72 moles on his left leg. People saw a dragon following Liu Bang all the time. For the personality, Liu Bang was kind and he loved helping poor people. He liked drinking wines with his friends as well.


title: Unification Church

paragraphs: The Unification Church is a new religious movement based on the importance of the family in creating a world of peace, started by Sun Myung Moon in Korea in the 1940s. It officially began as a church in 1954 in Seoul, South Korea. On October 12, 2009, it was announced that Sun Myung Moon was given the church to his sons, Moon Hyung-jin, Moon Kook-jin, and Moon Hyun-jin.

paragraphs: The Unification Church is a controversial organisation. Some people say it is a cult with bizarre features. For example, Sun Myung Moon's says he is the "Savior, Messiah, Returning Lord" and using a Senate office building for a coronation ceremony. He also said that his teachings have helped Hitler and Stalin be "reborn as new persons". Many countries have recognized the organisation as a religion for legal purposes. This means the Unification Church has to pay less taxes, or no taxes at all.

paragraphs: Some doubt the organization's religious origins. Frederick Sontag, a professor of philosophy whose view of the church is no longer favorable has studied the Unification Church for 11 months. He concluded that "one thing is sure: the church has a genuine spiritual basis." A German court made a similar finding.

paragraphs: Some detractors have said that the church's main purpose is to advance Moon's political aspirations, such as the formation of a one world government.

paragraphs: Critics point to irregularities in the use of money. They highlight the church's role in enriching Moon personally. The Moon family situation is described as one of "luxury and privilege" and as "lavish".

paragraphs: Nansook Hong lived with the Moon family for 14 years. She describes the Unification Church as "a cash operation". She also pointed out there have been questionable movements of money, for example: "The Japanese had no trouble bringing the cash into the United States; they would tell customs agents that they were in America to gamble at Atlantic City. In addition, many businesses run by the church were cash operations, including several Japanese restaurants in New York City. I saw deliveries of cash from church headquarters that went directly into the wall safe in Mrs. Moon's closet."

paragraphs: In the 1990s, thousands of Japanese elderly people claimed to have been defrauded of their life savings by Moon followers' spiritual sales. Moon's church was the subject of the largest consumer fraud investigation in Japan's history in 1997 and number of subsequent court decisions awarded hundreds of millions of yen in judgments, including 37.6 million yen ($300,000) to pay two women coerced into donating their assets to the Unification Church.

paragraphs: In the United States in the 1970s, the media reported on the high-pressure recruitment methods of Unificationists and said that the church separated vulnerable college students from their families through the use of brainwashing or mind control.

paragraphs: Moon dismissed these criticisms, stating in 1976 that he had received many thank-you letters from parents whose children became closer to them after joining the movement. (In 1977, Moon had a notice posted in all Unification Churches in America, mandating that all members write to their families no less than once every 10 days.)

paragraphs: Moon and his wife were banned from entry into Germany and the other 14 Schengen treaty countries, on the grounds that they are leaders of a sect that endangered the personal and social development of young people. The Netherlands and a few other Schengen states let Moon and his wife enter their countries in 2005. In 2006 the German Supreme Court overturned the ban.

paragraphs: Critics of the Unification Church have accused the organization of being closely involved with covert CIA-authored operations against communism in Korea during the 1960s. The Church is known to have been involved with weapon and munitions manufacturing in Korea since the 1960s, as documented in a 1978 United States Congressional Report on the Unification Church. The explanation given by Korean Unification Church members is that all manufacturers seeking to do business in South Korea were required to supply the military.

paragraphs: Sun Myung Moon's controversial religious and political Unification Movement, which includes not only the Unification Church but an enormous constellation of civic organizations, including the Washington Times Foundation, is allied politically with evangelical Christians such as Jerry Falwell and Tim LaHaye. Advocates adhering to this point of view have challenged the church's tax-exempt status in the US, arguing that the political activities of church-related groups comprise an impermissible intrusion of the church into political areas.

paragraphs: In her 1998 book "In the Shadow of the Moons: My Life in the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Family", Nansook Hong, ex-wife of Sun Myung Moon and Hak Ja Han's eldest son Hyo Jin Moon said that both Sun Myung Moon and Hak Ja Han told her about Sun Myung Moon's extramarital affairs (which she said he called "providential affairs"), including one which resulted in the birth of a boy raised by a church leader, named by Sun Myung Moon's daughter Un Jin Moon on the news show "60 Minutes".

paragraphs: In 1993, Chung Hwa Pak released the book "Roku Maria no Higeki" ("Tragedy of the Six Marys") through the Koyu Publishing Co. of Japan. The book contained allegations that Moon conducted sex rituals amongst six married female disciples ("The Six Marys") who were to have prepared the way for the virgin who would marry Moon and become the True Mother. Chung Hwa Pak had left the movement when the book was published and later withdrew the book from print when he rejoined the Unification Church. Before his death Chung Hwa Pak published a second book, "The Apostate", and recanted all allegations made in "Roku Maria no Higeki".

paragraphs: Authorities in Brazil and Paraguay have expressed concerns over the Church's purchases in recent years of large tracts of land in South America, ranging in the hundreds of thousands of acres.

paragraphs: In May 2002, federal police in Brazil conducted a number of raids on organizations linked to Sun Myung Moon. In a statement, the police stated that the raids were part of a broad investigation into allegations of tax evasion and immigration violations by Moon's organization. The Association of Families for Unification and World Peace was the target of the raids, which took place in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and the personal residence of Moon's primary representative in Brazil, Reverend Kim Yoon-sang. As of 2008 no legal action has been taken by the Brazilian government resulting from their investigations.

paragraphs: Moon has spoken vehemently against homosexual activity. In talks to church members he compared homosexuals to "dirty dung-eating dogs" and prophesied that "gays will be eliminated" in a "purge on God's orders". These statements were criticized by gay rights groups.

paragraphs: B. A. Robinson of the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance wrote:


title: Philip Pullman

paragraphs: Sir Philip Pullman (born Norwich, England, 19 October 1946) is an English writer. He is the best-selling author of "His Dark Materials", a trilogy of fantasy novels, and a number of other books. In 2008, "The Times" named Pullman in its list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945".One of the greatest books to come around in the 20th century

paragraphs: Pullman is a supporter of the British Humanist Association and an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society. "New Yorker" journalist Laura Miller has described Pullman as one of England's most outspoken atheists, although Pullman describes himself as an agnostic.

paragraphs: On 15 September 2010, Pullman along with 54 other public figures signed an open letter, published in "The Guardian" newspaper, stating their opposition to Pope Benedict XVI being given "the honour of a state visit" to the UK, arguing that he has led and condoned global abuses of human rights. The letter says "The state of which the pope is head has also resisted signing many major human rights treaties and has formed its own treaties ("concordats") with many states which negatively affect the human rights of citizens of those states". Other signers included Stephen Fry, Professor Richard Dawkins, Terry Pratchett, Jonathan Miller and Ken Follet.


title: Yomi

paragraphs: Yomi (黄泉), the Japanese word for the underworld in which horrible creatures guard the exits. According to Shinto mythology as related in Kojiki, this is where the dead go to exist and rot forever. When one eats at the hearth of Yomi it is impossible to return to the land of the living.

paragraphs: Yomi is similar to Hades or Hell. In the Shintoist tradition, Yomi is known because Izanami retreated to that place after her death. Izanagi followed her there and when he returned, he washed himself, creating Amaterasu, Susanoo, and Tsukuyomi. (See Japanese mythology.)

paragraphs: Yomi is different from Christian Hell in that all souls go there, no matter their actions in life; and one does not receive punishment for evils made when alive. It is a dirty and polluted place. In Japanese tradition, pollution is usually associated to evil. By the tradition of Kojiki, Yomi is usually believed to be underground, and its entrance to be located in Izumo province.

paragraphs: Yomi is ruled over by Izanami no Mikoto, the Grand Deity of Yomi ("Yomotsu-Ōkami" 黄泉大神). According to Kojiki. The entrance to Yomi was blocked by Izanagi when he returned to Earth, using a great boulder ("Chibiki-no-Iwa" 千引の岩) at the base of the slope that leads to Yomi ("Yomotsu Hirasaka" 黄泉平坂).


title: Eve

paragraphs: The day before, or the evening before, a holiday, such as:


title: Ryūgū-jō

paragraphs: In Japanese mythology, Ryūgū-jō (竜宮城) is the palace of Ryūjin, the dragon god of the sea. It is located under the sea. Depending on the version of the legend, it is built from red and white coral, or from solid crystal. Those that live in the palace were Ryūjin's servants, which were various creatures of the sea. On each of the four sides of the palace is a different season, and one day at the palace is like 100 years on earth. In legend, Urashima Tarō visits Ryūgū-jō.


title: Imp

paragraphs: An imp is a mythological creature similar to a fairy or demon, usually described in folklore and superstition.

paragraphs: Imps are usually described as mischievous more than a serious threat, and as lesser creatures, not important supernatural beings. The small helpers who attend the devil are sometimes described as imps. They are usually described as small and very active.

paragraphs: Imps were the common name given to familiar spirits that served witches in the Middle Ages. Imps were usually kept inside artifacts such as gemstone pieces or vials and summoned for service with magic.


title: British Asian

paragraphs: British Asians is an ethnic group which includes people who have British nationality but are originally from South Asia. This includes the countries Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and the Maldives.

paragraphs: The 2001 UK Census says there are 2.33 million British Asians. They make up 4% of the population of the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: British Asian does not include people from eastern Asia. People from eastern Asia are called by their own ethnic origins. An example is British Chinese.


title: Black British

paragraphs: Black British are people who have British nationality but are originally from Africa.

paragraphs: The 2001 UK census says there are 1.2 million Black British people. They are 2.33% of the population of the United Kingdom.

paragraphs: In the past, Black British used to mean any immigrant who was not English, like British Asians, but people say that it was because of racism in England at that time.


title: Ryūjin

paragraphs: Ryūjin (Japanese 龍神 "dragon god", also called Rinjin and Owatatsumi) was the god of the sea in Japanese mythology. He was a dragon, a symbol of the power of the ocean, had a very big mouth, and could transform into human shape. Ryūjin lived in Ryūgū-jō, his palace under the sea built out of red and white coral, from where he was believed to control the tides with magical "tide jewels". Sea turtles, fish and jellyfish were Ryūjin's servants.

paragraphs: Ryūjin was the father of the beautiful goddess Otohime who married the hunter prince Hoori. The first Emperor of Japan, Emperor Jimmu, is said to have been a grandson of Otohime and Hoori's. This means, Ryūjin is believed to be one of the ancestors of the Japanese imperial dynasty.

paragraphs: A legend about Ryūjin is the story about how the jellyfish lost its bones. This story tells that once, Ryūjin wanted to eat monkey's heart, and sent the jellyfish to get him a monkey. The monkey managed to escape from the jellyfish by telling him that he had put his heart in a jar in the forest, and offered to go and get it. When the jellyfish came back and told Ryūjin what had happened, Ryūjin became so angry that he beat the jellyfish until its bones were all broken.


title: Takamagahara

paragraphs: Takama-ga-hara (Japanese: 高天原), literally "High Heaven's Plain" but usually translated as the "High Plain of Heaven," is a place in Japanese mythology. In Shinto, Takama-ga-hara is the place where the Kami live. The legends say it's connected to the Earth by the bridge "Ama-no uki-hashi" (the "Floating Bridge of Heaven"). In Shinto, when a kami is worshipped, it is to leave Takama-ga-hara and enter a shrine.


title: Gospel music

paragraphs: Gospel music is a style of music. It is often written to express personal or group belief, regarding Christianity. This music is used to praise, worship and thank God, Christ or the Holy Spirit. Perhaps the most famous gospel song is Amazing Grace.