title: Dinosaur brains and intelligence

paragraphs: Dinosaur brains and intelligence are interesting topics. Dinosaurs were once regarded as stupid animals, but it is now realised that some of the smaller carnivores had above average intelligence for reptiles. This idea led to exaggerated portrayals in films like Jurassic Park.

paragraphs: The idea that "Stegosaurus" had a "brain the size of a walnut" (an oft-repeated phrase), was not quite accurate. It had a brain the size of a dog's, but in proportion to its body, the brain was very small. In the 1880s a well-preserved "Stegosaurus" braincase allowed Othniel Charles Marsh to get a cast of the brain cavity, which gave an idea of the brain size. The endocast showed that the brain was indeed small: relative to body size, maybe the smallest among the dinosaurs. The fact that an animal weighing over 4.5 metric tonnes (5 short tons) could have a brain of no more than 80 grams (2.8 oz) led to the idea that dinosaurs were unintelligent, an idea now largely rejected.

paragraphs: Marsh also noted a large canal in the hip region of the spinal cord, which could have accommodated a structure up to 20 times larger than the famously small brain. This may have been used to coordinate the hind region in defence against theropod attack. This function for the "second brain" is not proved by any direct evidence.

paragraphs: Brain size usually increases with body size in animals (is positively correlated). That means large animals usually have larger brains than smaller animals. The relationship is not linear however. Generally, small mammals have relatively larger brains than big ones. Mice have a direct brain/body size ratio similar to humans (1/40), while elephants have comparatively small brain/body size (1/560), though elephants are obviously quite intelligent animals.

paragraphs: The formula for the curve varies, but is usually given as Ew(brain) = 0.12w(body). As this formula is based on data from mammals, it should be applied to other animals with caution. For some of the other vertebrate classes the power of 3/4 rather than 2/3 is sometimes used, and for many groups of invertebrates the formula may give no meaningful results at all.

paragraphs: Intelligence in animals is hard to establish, but the larger the brain is relative to the body, the more brain weight might be available for complex cognitive tasks. Rather than simply measuring raw brain weight, the EQ formula makes for a ranking of animals. The ranking coincides better with the observed complexity of behaviour. Mean EQ for mammals is around 1, with carnivorans, cetaceans and primates above 1, and insectivores and herbivores below. It also puts humans at the top of the list. The relationship between brain-to-body mass ratio and complexity of behaviour is not perfect, because other factors also influence intelligence. These factors include the evolution of the recent cerebral cortex and different degrees of brain folding. This increase the surface of the cortex, which is positively correlated to intelligence in humans.

paragraphs: Traditional comparisons of brain volume to body mass in dinosaurs have estimated brain size as the volume of the endocast. However, the brain of the modern reptile genus "Sphenodon" fills only about half of its endocranial volume. Some paleontologists used this fifty percent estimate in their estimates of dinosaur brain volume. Other workers have observed that details on the endocranial surface indicates that some fossil reptiles had brains that occupied a much larger portion of the endocranium. Larsson notes that the transition from reptiles to birds prevents using a set ratio from being a valid approach to estimating the volume of the endocranium occupied by a dinosaur's brain.

paragraphs: Adding difficulty is the wide range of estimates for live mass. One study estimated that the live masses for many dinosaur genera had a four-fold range. Larsson laments that "[t]he broad ranges of body mass estimates, combined with the ambiguous ratio of endocranial volume occupied by the brain, present a high degree of uncertainty for [creating an] index of brain size". Consequently, he attempted to minimize errors by making a different kind of comparison.

paragraphs: While it is difficult to estimate the absolute volume of the brain, the proportions of its various regions of the brain should be the same in the endocast as it was in the live brain. Larsson's study compared the ratio of the cerebrum, which is clearly marked on the inside of skulls, to the rest of the endocast's volume. According to Larsson, his technique is superior to traditional comparisons of brain volume to estimated live body mass.

paragraphs: Most dinosaurs, and most theropods, had brains no better than present-day reptiles, so far as can be estimated. In a 2001 study of a "Carcharodontosaurus saharicus" endocast, Hans Larsson found that both "C. saharicus" and "Allosaurus" had a ratio of cerebrum to brain volume that was very similar to non-avian reptiles. By contrast, the "Tyrannosaurus" ratio was slightly in the direction of a more bird-like proportion. Since tyrannosaurs are relatively basal coelurosaurs, this is evidence that the advent of the Coelurosauria marks the beginning of a trend in theropod brain enlargement.

paragraphs: "Troodon"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio was 31.5% to 63% of the way from a nonavian reptile proportion to a truly avian one.

paragraphs: "Archaeopteryx" had a cerebrum-to-brain-volume ratio 78% of the way to modern birds.

paragraphs: The method used for Larsson's comparison was not the EQ, but a ratio of the size of the cerebrum to the whole brain. The cerebrum is chiefly responsible for what might be called 'intelligent behaviour'.

paragraphs: The brains of dinosaurs were generally much like other reptiles in their proportions. The exception is the coelurosaurs, which had cerebra proportionately larger than most reptiles, but proportionately smaller than modern birds.


title: Tellurium(IV) iodide

paragraphs: Tellurium(IV) iodide, also known as tellurium tetraiodide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeI. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains iodide ions.

paragraphs: Tellurium(IV) iodide is a black solid. It breaks down when heated to tellurium(II) iodide and iodine. It is a weak reducing agent. It conducts electricity when melted.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting tellurium with iodine or by reacting tellurium with iodomethane, CHI.


title: Tellurium(IV) fluoride

paragraphs: Tellurium(IV) fluoride, also known as tellurium tetrafluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeF. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions.

paragraphs: Tellurium(IV) fluoride is a white solid. It reacts with water to make tellurium dioxide and hydrofluoric acid. It reacts with many metals when heated.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting tellurium dioxide with sulfur tetrafluoride. It can also be made by reacting cold fluorine with tellurium. Another way is reacting selenium tetrafluoride with warm tellurium dioxide. Fluorine can also react with tellurium(II) chloride or tellurium(II) bromide to make tellurium(IV) fluoride.


title: Tellurium(IV) oxide

paragraphs: Tellurium(IV) oxide, also known as tellurium dioxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeO. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions.

paragraphs: Tellurium(IV) oxide can be yellow or white. The white form is the manmade form. The yellow form is natural, also known as tellurite. The manmade form is most common in chemical reactions. At high pressure, the manmade white form turns into the yellow form. It melts at a high temperature to make a red liquid.

paragraphs: Tellurium(IV) oxide does not dissolve in water. It reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid. It can react with many strong acids and powerful oxidizing agents. It can also react with strong bases. It makes one's breath smell like garlic when it is eaten.

paragraphs: Tellurium(IV) oxide is made by burning tellurium in air.

paragraphs: It is used in devices that can convert light into sound. It can make glass with special properties.

paragraphs: It can cause birth defects. It also makes bad breath.


title: Tellurium oxide

paragraphs: Tellurium oxide can refer to either of these chemical compounds.


title: Tellurium(VI) fluoride

paragraphs: Tellurium(VI) fluoride, also known as tellurium hexafluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeF. It contains tellurium in its +6 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions. It is the oldest known tellurium fluoride.

paragraphs: Tellurium(VI) fluoride is a colorless gas. It condenses to a white solid when made cold. It has a very bad smell. It is very toxic. It is similar to selenium hexafluoride, even though it is less volatile (not as easily evaporated). It reacts with water to make telluric acid and hydrofluoric acid. It reacts with tellurium under to make tellurium tetrafluoride.

paragraphs: It is made by reacting hot fluorine with tellurium. Cold fluorine gas makes tellurium tetrafluoride. It can also be made by reacting fluorine with tellurium trioxide. Another way to make it is reacting selenium tetrafluoride and tellurium dioxide to make tellurium tetrafluoride, which is heated above to make tellurium hexafluoride and tellurium.


title: Tellurium fluoride

paragraphs: Tellurium fluoride can refer to either of these chemical compounds:


title: Avram Glazer

paragraphs: Avram Glazer is the joint-chairman of Manchester United Football Club with his brother Joel.

paragraphs: Glazer lives in New Orleans with his wife and their two children. He is a son of Malcolm Glazer.


title: Telluric acid

paragraphs: Telluric acid is a chemical compound. It is an acid. Its chemical formula is HTeO. It contains hydrogen and tellurate ions. It contains the TeO form of the tellurate ion.

paragraphs: Telluric acid is a weak acid. It reacts with strong bases to make tellurates. It is a powerful oxidizing agents. It can be dehydrated to make tellurium trioxide. The metatelluric acid, HTeO, does not exist.

paragraphs: Telluric acid can be made by reacting tellurium dioxide with chromium trioxide or hydrogen peroxide.

paragraphs: It is used to make other tellurates such as sodium tellurate.


title: Electrical resistivity

paragraphs: Electrical resistivity is a concept in electrical engineering. It is a measure of how much a material stops the flow of electric current through it. Most metals have very low electrical resistivity.

paragraphs: More precisely, "the resistivity of a material of conductor is the resistance of its unit area of cross section and per unit of its length" The International System of Units uses the ohm metre for measuring how much electrical resistivity there is. Electrical resistivity is the inverse of electrical conductivity. This term is more used for semiconductors and insulators.

paragraphs: The resistivity of a substance is equal to the resistance of a rod of that substance which is 1 metre long and 1 square metre in cross-section. This can be a 1 cubic Metre cube. So we can also say that the resistivity of a substance is equal to he resistance between the opposite faces of a 1 metre cube of the substance. The resistivity of a substance does not depend on its length or thickness. It depends on the nature of the substance and temperature.


title: Manzanar

paragraphs: Manzanar was the name of a Japanese American internment camp in California. It was near Lone Pine, California, in the desert near Death Valley. Thousands of people were kept there; most of them were Japanese people from Los Angeles. The camp opened in 1942 and was closed in 1945. Today, the camp is a National Historic Site.


title: Philip Gunawardena

paragraphs: Don Philip Rupasinghe Gunawardena (11 January 1901 – 26 March 1972) was a Sri Lankan politician. He introduced Trotskyism to Sri Lanka. He studied in the United States and picked up liberal ideas there.


title: Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas

paragraphs: "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" is an extremely popular Christmas song that is played every holiday season. The words were written by Ralph Blane and the music by Hugh Martin in 1943. The song was first introduced by Judy Garland in the 1944 movie, "Meet Me In St. Louis". A modified version was introduced by Frank Sinatra who felt the original was too sad for his 1957 album, "A Jolly Christmas". It has also been recorded by many other performers including Christina Aguilera, Demi Lovato, Sam Smith and the Pretenders. In 2007 ASCAP listed the song at number three in the 25 most played holiday songs.


title: Hurricane Diane

paragraphs: Hurricane Diane was really devastating to the East Coast of the US during 1955. The storm caused severe destruction and an unusually severe death toll. Diane was among several hurricanes which bashed the East Coast during 1955, the others being Connie and Ione. The name Diane was later retired.


title: Martha Stewart

paragraphs: Martha Stewart (born Martha Helen Kostyra, August 3, 1941) is an American entrepreneur, author, and media personality. Stewart is famous for the "Martha Stewart Living" TV show and magazine. She was born in Jersey City, New Jersey to Polish-American parents.

paragraphs: In 2004, Stewart was convicted of obstructing justice and lying to investigators about a stock sale. She served five months in a West Virginia prison. She was on ABC but moved to another channel. In May 2018, President Donald Trump said he was thinking about pardoning Stewart for her charges.


title: Paul Edwards (composer)

paragraphs: Paul Christison Edwards (born ) is an English organist and composer of music for the Anglican Church.

paragraphs: Paul Edwards spent his childhood in the village of Turvey in Bedfordshire. He liked church music, especially the sound of the big organ in the church at Turvey. He became a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral for four and a half years and then spent the same amount of time as lay clerk at Peterborough Cathedral. He has been organist and choir master at several churches in Bedfordshire, including All Saints, Turvey and St. Paul's Church, Bedford. He works as a teacher, piano accompanist and choral singer.

paragraphs: Edwards has made a series of recordings of interesting old organs of North Bedfordshire. He has transcribed and edited ten volumes of 18th century "English Organ Music". The list of all his compositions has 450 opus numbers. They include about 150 hymn tunes and a large number of anthems. Many of these works have been published in collections including "Hymns for Today’s Church", "Psalms for Today" and "Carols for Today". His carol "No Small Wonder", written in 1983 was published in "Carols for Today" in 1986 and was recorded on LP by Canterbury Cathedral Choir. It was sung at the famous Nine Lessons and Carols service broadcast on the BBC Television by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge in 2000. His music has been recorded on several CDs.

paragraphs: Edwards finds inspiration for his compositions in the English countryside, especially that of Norfolk He also enjoys driving and photographing busses and coaches.


title: Lay clerk

paragraphs: A lay clerk, also known as a lay vicar, is a term used in the United Kingdom to describe a male singer who sings in a cathedral choir or a choir belonging to a college of one of the large traditional universities. A lay clerk is usually paid for the job. When he is called "lay vicar" the term "vicar" comes from the Latin word "vice" (meaning "deputy"). A lay vicar is not in holy orders (he is not a priest). Today there are a few female lay clerks, e.g. in Dublin.

paragraphs: The term "layman" was used in the Middle Ages for a chorister who sings some of the music that was too difficult for the priests to sing. Today many of the lay clerks in places such as Oxford or Cambridge combine their work as layclerk with studying at University. It is similar to a scholarship for studying.


title: Richard Owen

paragraphs: Sir Richard Owen KCB (Lancaster, 20 July 1804–18 December 1892) was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and palaeontologist.

paragraphs: Owen is probably best remembered today for coining the word "Dinosauria" (meaning 'Terrible Reptile'), and for his outspoken opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

paragraphs: Owen was the driving force behind the establishment, in 1881, of the British Museum (Natural History) in London.

paragraphs: Owen's technical descriptions of vertebrates were important. His "Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates" (3 vols. London 1866–1868) was a standard reference work for many years.

paragraphs: His career was tainted by accusations that he failed to give credit to the work of others and even tried to appropriate it under his own name.

paragraphs: Owen credited himself and Georges Cuvier with the discovery of the "Iguanodon", completely excluding any credit for the original discoverer of the dinosaur, Gideon Mantell. This was not the first or last time Owen would deliberately claim a discovery as his own, when in fact it was not. Owen was finally dismissed from the Royal Society's Zoological Council for plagiarism.

paragraphs: Owen was highly critical of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species", in part because Darwin did not refer much to the previous scientific theories of evolution. Instead, Darwin compared the theory of evolution by natural selection with the unscientific theory in the Bible.

paragraphs: Owen, in Darwin's opinion, was "Spiteful, extremely malignant, clever; the Londoners say he is mad with envy because my book is so talked about". "It is painful to be hated in the intense degree with which Owen hates me".

paragraphs: Owen was also a party to the threat to end government funding of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew botanical collection (see Joseph Dalton Hooker):

paragraphs: In the first part of his career Owen was regarded rightly as one of the great scientific figures of the age. In the second part of his career his reputation slipped. This was not solely due to his underhanded dealings with colleagues; it was also due to the serious errors of scientific judgement which were discovered and publicized. A fine example was his decision to classify man in a separate sub-class of the Mammalia (see Thomas Henry Huxley). In this Owen had no supporters at all. Also, his unwillingness to come off the fence concerning evolution became increasingly damaging to his reputation as time went on.

paragraphs: Owen continued working after his official retirement at the age of 79, but he never recovered the good opinions he had got in his younger days.


title: Ashcroft v. Al-Kidd

paragraphs: Ashcroft v. Al-Kidd is a 2011 case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. It was a civil lawsuit filed in federal court. It argued that holding Muslim-Americans after the September 11 attacks was unconstitutional.

paragraphs: A young man named Lavoni T. Kidd was a prominent football player at the University of Idaho. He is an American citizen. While at college, Kidd converted to Islam and took the name Abudulla al-Kidd.

paragraphs: In 2003, the police arrested Al-Kidd as he was boarding a flight to Saudi Arabia, where he planned to study. He was held for 15 nights under the federal material witness statute (a law that allows police to hold people who are going to testify in court) because he was going to testify in the trial of Sami Omar Al-Hussayen. FBI Director Robert S. Mueller told Congress that al-Kidd's capture was one of the FBI's "success" stories. Al-Kidd was never charged with a crime or called as a witness. He was later released.

paragraphs: Al-Kidd went to court, suing John Ashcroft, who was United States Attorney General from 2001 to 2005. Al-Kidd said he was strip-searched, shackled, interrogated without having a lawyer with him, and treated as a terrorist. The American Civil Liberties Union lawyers who represented al-Kidd claimed he was one of 70 Muslim men who were treated this way.

paragraphs: Aschroft claimed that he had "absolute immunity" from civil lawsuits like al-Kidd's. In other words, because his actions were part of his duties as Attorney General, nobody can sue him about those actions. Ashcroft also claimed that he had "qualified immunity" that prevents such lawsuits unless the official violated someone's constitutional rights.

paragraphs: In 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit found that Ashcroft could be sued and held personally responsible for the wrongful holding of al-Kidd. On October 18, 2010, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear Ashcroft's appeal.

paragraphs: On May 31, 2011, the Supreme Court ruled against al-Kidd by a vote of 8-0. (Usually there are nine Supreme Court Justices, but Justice Elena Kagan did not participate in the al-Kidd case.)

paragraphs: To show that Ashcroft could be sued, al-Kidd's lawyers had to meet a very high burden of proof. They needed to prove that Ashcroft was directly involved in holding al-Kidd, or that he knew what was happening to al-Kidd. The Court ruled that al-Kidd's lawyers had not proved these things. They suggested that al-Kidd's detention was handled mostly by people who were much less powerful than Ashcroft.

paragraphs: All eight Supreme Court Justices agreed that the Ninth Circuit's ruling should be reversed. However, the Justices reached this decision for different reasons.

paragraphs: Justice Antonin Scalia wrote a majority opinion. He was joined by Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Justices Anthony Kennedy, Clarence Thomas, and Samuel Alito. Scalia wrote that a Magistrate Judge had issued a valid arrest warrant for al-Kidd based on specific information about him. Al-Kidd was not arrested in a general effort to sweep a large group of Muslims into jail he was specifically arrested because he was suspected.

paragraphs: In a footnote in his opinion, Scalia argues with Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg about what type of "individualized suspicion" is needed to justify arresting a person. Scalia wrote that a person does not need to be suspected of "wrongdoing" he just needs to be suspected. Scalia found that Ashcroft was protected from any possible lawsuits for ordering this group of arrests:

paragraphs: The objectively reasonable arrest and detention of a material witness pursuant to a validly obtained warrant cannot be challenged as unconstitutional on the basis of allegations that the arresting authority had an improper motive.

paragraphs: Justice Kennedy wrote a concurring opinion. He was joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, and Sonia Sotomayor for Part I of his opinion. He also wrote that al-Kidd's lawsuit should be dismissed.

paragraphs: Kennedy wrote the second part of his opinion alone. In this part, he described his concern that the Attorney General of the United States cannot be personally sued just because lower courts in some parts of the United States have made legal decisions opposing his policies.

paragraphs: Justice Ginsburg, joined by Justices Breyer and Sotomayor, wrote that it was "uncertain" just how powerful the Material Witness Statute was. For example, she/ questioned whether a "law-abiding citizen" who was not suspected of wrongdoing could be sent to jail if he saw "a crime during the days or weeks before a scheduled flight abroad." Ginsburg, Breyer, and Sotomayor were also concerned about how al-Kidd was treated in jail. The Court did leave al-Kidd with the right to sue his jailers for mistreating him.

paragraphs: Justice Sotomayor, joined by Justices Ginsburg and Breyer, wrote that the Court did not have to think about Constitional questions to decide this case.


title: Brit milah

paragraphs: Brit milah is the Jewish ritual circumcision ceremony performed on eight-day-old male babies. The foreskin is cut off from the end of the penis. The operation is carried out by a person called a "mohel", a ritual circumciser, who has been trained and qualified for this task.This ceremony is important for many Jewish people as it is a symbol of the covenant that God made with Abraham. Abraham is a patriach.


title: Lithium nitrate

paragraphs: Lithium nitrate is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is LiNO. It contains lithium and nitrate ions.

paragraphs: Lithium nitrate is a colorless solid. It makes a red flame when heated. It is an oxidizing agent. It breaks down when heated into lithium oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen.

paragraphs: This metal can be made by reacting lithium, lithium hydroxide, lithium oxide, or lithium carbonate with nitric acid.

paragraphs: Lithium nitrate is used in fireworks to make a red color. It is also used in flares.


title: Lithium peroxide

paragraphs: Lithium peroxide is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is LiO. It contains lithium and peroxide ions.

paragraphs: Lithium peroxide is a white solid. It gives off oxygen when heated. It is an oxidizing agent.

paragraphs: Lithium peroxide is made by reacting lithium hydroxide with hydrogen peroxide and removing the water.

paragraphs: It is used to absorb carbon dioxide on spaceships. It also releases oxygen when it absorbs carbon dioxide.

paragraphs: Lithium peroxide reacts violently with water to make oxygen. It also is an oxidizing agent and can catch things on fire. It is corrosive because it is basic.


title: Adam McKay

paragraphs: Adam McKay (born April 17, 1968) is an American actor, director, writer and comedian. Born in Pennsylvania, he directed and wrote several movies and won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay in "The Big Short".


title: Earth Hour

paragraphs: The Earth Hour is an event organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). It is held on the last Saturday of March every year. The WWF asks people to shut off their lights and appliances for one hour. They want to raise awareness for climate change. It was started in 2007.


title: Police action

paragraphs: Police action is a term for the use of military forces without declaring war. Many military actions are called police actions. People do not declare war commonly any more.


title: Martin Evans

paragraphs: Sir Martin John Evans (born 1 January 1941, Stroud, Gloucestershire) is a British geneticist.

paragraphs: His first success was with Matthew Kaufman. In 1981 they were the first to grow embryonic mice stem cells in a laboratory.

paragraphs: Evans, Oliver Smithies and Mario Capecchi discovered a technique in genetic engineering. It is known as homologous recombination of transgenic DNA. This is important because it is the most reliable method of changing animal genomes.

paragraphs: The three put this to use in two more inventions: gene targeting and knockout mice, and were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2007.


title: Ahmed Al Safi

paragraphs: Ahmed Al Safi, or (احمد الصافي), is a sculptor painter born in Al Diwaniyah, Iraq in 1971.


title: Maria Stuarda

paragraphs: Maria Stuarda is an Italian opera in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Giuseppe Bardari, after Friedrich Schiller's play "Maria Stuart". It was first performed in Naples, on October 18,1834, under the name of "Buondelmonte" due to censorship problems, and in its original version in Milan, on December 30, 1835. One of Donizetti's finest work, it is notable for the confrontation scene between Queen Mary, Queen of Scots and Queen Elizabeth I of England, which in real life never took place.


title: Roberto Devereux

paragraphs: Roberto Devereux is an Italian opera in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, after François Ancelot's "Elisabeth d'Angleterre", it was first performed in Naples, on October 29, 1837. It is a powerful and sweeping work and is sometimes considered one of the most "verdian" of Donizetti's operas. After almost a century of neglect, it was revived in Naples by soprano Leyla Gencer in 1964, and has since then been regularly performed, notably by sopranos Montserrat Caballé and Beverly Sills. The plot is about the love between Queen Elizabeth I of England and her favorite Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex.


title: Roman Wales

paragraphs: Roman Wales is the area of modern Wales that was under Roman Empire control.

paragraphs: Roman Wales was an area of south western Britannia under Roman Empire control from the first to the fifth century AD. Romans considered it to be part of "Roman Britain". South east Wales was fully made Roman at the beginning of the fifth century.

paragraphs: Up to and during the Roman occupation of Britain, the native inhabitants of Iron Age Britain spoke "Brythonic" languages (a sub-family of the Celtic languages) and were regarded as Britons (or Brythons). The area of modern Wales was divided among a number of tribes, of which the Silures in modern south-east Wales and the Ordovices in central and northwest Wales were the largest and most powerful. These two tribes were the ones who put up the strongest force to the Roman invasion: Mona (the island of Anglesey) was only conquered by Gnaeus Julius Agricola in 78 AD.

paragraphs: The first attack on the Celtic tribes of what is now Wales was made under the legatus Publius Ostorius Scapula about 48 AD. Ostorius first attacked the Deceangli in the north-east, who appear to have surrendered with little resistance. He then spent several years campaigning against the Silures and the Ordovices. Their resistance was led by Caratacus, who had fled what is now southeast England when it was conquered by the Romans. He first led the Silures, then moved to the territory of the Ordovices, where he was defeated by Ostorius in 51 AD. Caratacus fled to the Brigantes, whose queen handed him over to the Romans.

paragraphs: The Silures waged effective warfare against the Roman forces. Ostorius died with this tribe still unconquered; after his death they won a victory over the Roman Second Augusta Legion, Legio II Augusta. There were no more attempts to extend Roman control in Wales until the governorship of Caius Suetonius Paulinus, who attacked further north and captured the island of Anglesey in 60 or 61 AD. However he was forced to stop the offensive to meet the threat from the rebellion of Boudica.

paragraphs: The Silures eventually came under Roman rule by Sextus Julius Frontinus in a series of campaigns ending about 78 AD. His successor Gnaeus Julius Agricola subdued the Ordovices and recaptured Anglesey by the beginning of 78 AD.

paragraphs: The Romans occupied the whole of the area now known as Wales, where they built Roman roads and Roman forts, mined gold at Luentinum and conducted commerce, but their interest in the area was limited because of the difficult geography and shortage of flat agricultural land. Most of the Roman remains in Wales are military in nature.

paragraphs: The area was controlled by Roman legionary bases at Deva Victrix (modern Chester) and Isca Augusta (Caerleon), two of the three such bases in Roman Britain, with roads linking these bases to Roman auxiliary forts such as Segontium (actual Caernarfon) and Moridunum (actual Carmarthen).

paragraphs: Romans are only known to have founded one town in Wales, Venta Silurum (Caerwent) in Monmouthshire, although the fort at Moridunum (Carmarthen) was later superseded by a civilian settlement. The modern-day Wales is thought to have been part of the Roman province of "Britannia Superior", and later of the province of "Britannia Secunda", which also included part of what is now the West Country of England.

paragraphs: The later part of the third century witnessed a new concern: defending the coast from seaborne marauders from Hibernia (actual Ireland). The response was a Saxon Shore-style fort at Cardiff and refurbishment elsewhere.

paragraphs: It is not clear when the legionary garrison at Caerleon was finally withdrawn, possibly by the end of the third century, although it may have left a skeleton force there as late as the mid-fourth century.

paragraphs: The military dispositions in late fourth-century Wales at Cardiff, Caernarfon, Holyhead and Caerhun seem to have been concerned with continuing incursions by Irish bands.

paragraphs: The remaining recognisably military posts seem to have been abandoned c.AD 393 when soldiers were needed to counteract a rebellion in Gaul. There is some evidence that troops may have been left to guard the towns of Carmarthen and Caerwent into the fifth century.

paragraphs: Wales was occupied by the Romans from the first century AD to the Roman withdrawal from Britain nearly four centuries later, leaving their province to develop into Sub-Roman Britain and the emergence of Wales in the Early Middle Ages.

paragraphs: The only city founded by the Romans in Wales is Caerwent, called Venta Silurum in 75 AD when was created, and the last place to be left by the Romans.

paragraphs: The town lacked substantial defences until the mid 4th century, when stone town walls were built. A small garrison may have been based in the town during that period. Large sections of the defensive walls are still in place, rising up to 5 metres (17 feet) in height in places.

paragraphs: The walls have been described as ""easily the most impressive town defence to survive from Roman Britain, and in its freedom from later rebuilding one of the most perfectly preserved in Northern Europe.""

paragraphs: Indeed, the Roman town remained occupied after the Roman troops left, until at least the end of the fifth century. Caerwent has been even called the possible Camelot of King Arthur, because it is located only ten miles from the Roman fort Isca Silurum (actually Caerleon), that Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote was the place of the Round Table.

paragraphs: Furthermore, it appears that Christian worship was already established in the town in the fifth century, and it may have had a bishop. A monastery was founded by Saint Tatheus in the 6th century, and a Christian cemetery was also established around the site of the present church.

paragraphs: The name "Venta" gave its name to the emerging Kingdom of Gwent, and the town itself became known as "Caer-went" or "Castra/Fort of Venta/Gwent". Tradition holds that Caradog Freichfras of Gwent moved his court from Caerwent to Portskewett during the second half of the 6th century, finishing in this way the last romanised presence in Wales.

paragraphs: Finally, Gwyn A. Williams argues that even at the time of the erection of Offa's Dyke (that divided Wales from medieval England) the people to its west saw themselves as "Roman", citing the number of Latin inscriptions still being made into the 8th century.


title: Georgia Dome

paragraphs: The Georgia Dome was a domed stadium in Atlanta that opened in 1992 and was torn down in 2017. It was the largest domed building in the world until 1999.

paragraphs: The Dome took up 9.19 acres of land and cost $214 million to build. It was supported by the State of Georgia, after which the stadium was named. It was not far from the CNN Center, Georgia World Congress Center and Philips Arena.

paragraphs: Many different sporting events took place in the dome, mostly football and basketball. It was home to the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League until it was replaced by the nearby Mercedes-Benz Stadium for the 2017 season.


title: New Coke

paragraphs: New Coke was a type of Coca-Cola that was sold from 1985 to 2002. Its flavor was sweeter than normal Coke. It was later sold as Coke II. It is a product of the Coca-Cola Company.


title: Rock of Ages Corporation

paragraphs: Rock of Ages Corporation is a company in Vermont. It mines granite, which it sells largely for use in memorials, though it also makes smaller products.

paragraphs: It was started in 1885, and has its headquarters in Graniteville, Vermont, which is close to Barre.

paragraphs: There are around 230 people who work for the company. Rock of Ages had a profit of about $800,000 in 2008.

paragraphs: In October 2010, another mining company, Swenson Granite Company, said it would buy Rock of Ages for $39 million.

paragraphs: Rock of Ages runs the largest granite quarry in the world. It is about deep, and covers about 50 acres.


title: International PEN

paragraphs: International PEN is a worldwide association of writers. It was founded in London in 1921 to increase friendship and intellectual co-operation among writers everywhere. At first, he letters "P", "E", and "N" stood for "Poets, Essayists and Novelists". Now the group includes any other kinds of writers, such as journalists and historians.

paragraphs: Other goals included: to make the role of literature stronger in developing international understanding and world culture; to fight for freedom of expression; and to act as a powerful voice to help writers who are harassed, imprisoned, and sometimes killed for their views. It is the world’s oldest human rights organization.

paragraphs: PEN is a non-governmental organization that has a formal consultative relations with UNESCO and Special Consultative Status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.

paragraphs: The first PEN Club was founded in London in 1921 by Catherine Amy Dawson Scott. John Galsworthy was its first President. The first members included Joseph Conrad, Elizabeth Craig, George Bernard Shaw, and H.G. Wells.

paragraphs: Past Presidents of International PEN have included Malcolm Afford, Alberto Moravia, Heinrich Böll, Arthur Miller, Mario Vargas Llosa, Homero Aridjis and Jiří Gruša. The current President is John Ralston Saul and the current Executive Director is Caroline McCormick.

paragraphs: International PEN has its headquarters in London. There are also 145 independent PEN Centers in 104 countries around the world. Each of these centers are open to qualified writers, journalists, translators, historians and others actively engaged in any branch of literature. Nationality, race, color or religion cannot effect membership.

paragraphs: PEN awards dozens of literary awards each year. Some examples include:

paragraphs: Literature, national though it be in origin, knows no frontiers, and should remain common currency among nations in spite of political or international upheavals.

paragraphs: In all circumstances, and particularly in time of war, works of art and libraries, the heritage of humanity at large, should be left untouched by national or political passion.

paragraphs: Members of PEN should at all times use what influence they have in favor of good understanding and mutual respect among nations; they pledge themselves to do their utmost to dispel race, class, and national hatreds and to champion the ideal of one humanity living in peace in the world.

paragraphs: PEN stands for the principle of unhampered transmission of thought within each nation and among all nations, and members pledge themselves to oppose any form of suppression of freedom of expression in their country or their community.

paragraphs: PEN declares for a free press and opposes arbitrary censorship in time of peace. It believes that the necessary advance of the world toward a more highly organized political and economic order renders free criticism of governments, administrations, and institutions imperative. And since freedom implies voluntary restraint, members pledge themselves to oppose such evils of a free press as mendacious publication, deliberate falsehood, and distortion of facts for political and personal ends.

paragraphs: International PEN's Writers in Prison Committee works to help persecuted writers worldwide. The Writers in Prison Committee monitors the cases of over 900 writers who have been imprisoned, tortured, threatened, attacked, made to disappear, and killed for the peaceful practice of their profession. It publishes a bi-annual Case List documenting free expression violations against writers around the world. This committee was started in 1960 in response to increasing attempts to silence voices of dissent by imprisoning writers,


title: Liu Xia (poet)

paragraphs: Liu Xia (born 1 April 1961), is a painter, poet, and photographer who resides in Beijing, China. She was married to 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo.

paragraphs: Liu used to be a civil servant in the Beijing tax bureau. She met her husband Liu Xiaobo while part of the Beijing literary scene in the 1980s. She married Liu Xiaobo while he was in prison in a Chinese labor re-education camp between the years of 1996 and 1999.

paragraphs: Ms. Liu prefers to lead the solitary life of an intellectual. However, she has been forced to act for her husband in public because of he is often in prison for his activism. She has been described as her husband's "most important link to the outside world." She also personally experiences pressures from the Chinese authorities for publicly voicing opinions because she is the wife of one of China's most prominent human rights advocates. Since his arrest, the government watches her constantly. She speaks out on issues of human rights both for herself and for her husband. Although she may not want always want to, she has continued to speak publicly all during their marriage and while her husband has been in prison Despite the pressures, she attempts to keep her life normal.

paragraphs: Liu Xiaobo's was sent to prison for 11 years after he helped write the political manifesto 2008 called Charter 08. Liu Xia begged her husband to not participate in writing the document. At first, he did as she asked. But later, he spent much of his time writing and re-writing the document which took three years. He later got more than 300 prominent workers, Chinese Communist Party members, and intellectuals, to sign the charter. 10,000 people added their names to a charter support list on the Internet.

paragraphs: After it was announced that her husband had won the Nobel Peace Prize, Liu Xia said that “For all these years, Liu Xiaobo has persevered in telling the truth about China and because of this, for the fourth time, he has lost his personal freedom." She also said that she would visit him in jail and "give him a big hug". After visiting him, however, she was placed under house arrest and her mobile phone number was canceled. Liu Xiaobo died on 13 July 2017 from liver cancer complications.


title: Jilin University

paragraphs: Jilin University (; often abbreviated JLU or 吉大) is a national university. China's Ministry of Education controls the university directly.


title: Down to the Countryside Movement

paragraphs: The Down to the Countryside Movement was a government plan in China in the late 1960s and early 1970s. During the Cultural Revolution, anti-bourgeois thinking was very common. Mao Zedong said that richer youth from the cities would be sent to mountains or farming villages so they could learn from the workers and farmers there.

paragraphs: Many fresh high school graduates were forced out of the cities. They had to stay in far away areas of China. They became known as the Rusticated Youth of China Many of them lost the chance to go university. Some call them China's "lost generation." Famous authors who have written about their experiences during the movement include Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo, Jiang Rong and Zhang Chengzhi, both of whom went to Inner Mongolia.


title: Hu Jintao

paragraphs: Hu Jintao (born 21 December 1942) is a Chinese politician who was the paramount leader of China and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 2002 to 2012. Hu Jintao also served as the President of the People's Republic of China from 2003 to 2013 and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission from 2004 to 2012.

paragraphs: Hu was born in Taizhou, Jiangsu. Hu left office of General Secretary on 15 November 2012 and the office was taken by Xi Jinping.

paragraphs: Hu Jintao was educated as a hydraulic engineer from Tsinghua University in 1965. According to official biographies, he has a photographic memory. Politically, he is moderate and careful. He spent most of his previous career in Tibet and the poorer provinces, and was therefore unknown to Western analysts until he unexpectedly became the General Secretary (paramount leader). Even as a general secretary, he was quite private - and so has never given an interview.


title: Václav Havel

paragraphs: Václav Havel (), 5 October 1936–18 December 2011, was a Czech playwright, essayist, dissident and politician. He was the tenth and last President of Czechoslovakia (1989–92). He then became the first President of the Czech Republic (1993–2003). He wrote more than twenty plays and many non-fiction works. Many of them were translated into multiple languages.

paragraphs: Beginning in the 1960s, Havel mostly wrote about the politics of Czechoslovakia. After the Prague Spring, he became more and more active against the government. In 1977, he became famous internationally for his work on the human rights manifesto, "Charter 77". He became known as a leader of the opposition in Czechoslovakia. He was also sent to prison for these activities. The 1989, Havel became president during the "Velvet Revolution". As president, he led Czechoslovakia and later the Czech Republic to an open democracy with several political parties. His country changed greatly during the thirteen years he was president. The Czech Republic separated from Slovakia, even though Havel was against separation. The Czech Republic also joined NATO and started negotiating membership in the European Union. The country became a member of the EU in 2004. He was one of the first people to sign the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism.

paragraphs: Václav Havel was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia on 5 October 1936. He grew up in a well-known and wealthy entrepreneurial and intellectual family. His family was active in culture and politics in Czechoslovakia from the 1920s to the 1940s. His father owned part of the suburb of Barrandov. This is the highest part of Prague. Havel's mother came from a well-known family. Her father was an ambassador and journalist. Havel completed his required education in 1951. However, the Communist government did not allow him to continue to study formally because of his bourgeois family background.

paragraphs: In the early 1950s, the young Havel entered a four-year apprenticeship as a chemical laboratory assistant. He took evening classes at the same time and completed secondary education in 1954. None of the colleges or universities with humanities programs would accept Havel for political reasons. So, he chose to study at the Faculty of Economics of Czech Technical University in Prague. He dropped out after two years. In 1964, Havel married Olga Šplíchalová. His mother was against the marriage.

paragraphs: Havel was already leader of the Civic Forum, and on 29 December 1989, he became president. He left office after his second term as Czech president ended on 2 February 2003. Every member of the Federal Assembly voted to make him president. This was a surprising change because Havel had always said that he was not interested in politics. He and other dissidents had said that change should come from groups of people directly, not from the government.

paragraphs: Czechoslovakia had free elections in 1990. Havel won and continued to be president. Havel wanted to keep the federation of the Czechs and the Slovaks together during the breakup of Czechoslovakia. He supported keeping the country together even though this was difficult and there was a lot of pressure. On 3 July 1992 the federal parliament did not elect Havel — the only candidate — because Slovak MPs did not support him. Havel resigned as president on 20 July after the Slovaks issued their Declaration of Independence. He stood for election as president of the new Czech Republic in 1993. He won and became president of this new, separate country.

paragraphs: Havel was quite popular throughout his career. However, some of his actions caused controversy and criticism. One of his first acts as a president was to pardon many people. He wanted to reduce the number of people in overcrowded prisons and release people who had been put in prison during the Communist era even though they were innocent. He did not trust the decisions of a corrupt court of the previous government. He thought the courts had been unfair to most people in prison. Critics said that this amnesty caused more crime. In his memoir, "To the Castle and Back", Havel wrote that most of the people he released had less than a year left to stay in prison. Statistics about this are not clear.

paragraphs: Havel said that the most important thing he did as president was breaking up the Warsaw Pact. Ending this group of countries was very complicated because the association was a deep part of how the countries worked. It took two years before the Soviet troops finally left Czechoslovakia completely.

paragraphs: Havel was very important to changing NATO. He helped change it from an anti-Warsaw Pact alliance to a group that includes former-Warsaw Pact members. Havel spoke very strongly for expanding of the military alliance into Eastern Europe, including the Czech Republic.


title: Qincheng Prison

paragraphs: Qincheng Prison () is a maximum-security prison in the Changping District northwest of Beijing in the People's Republic of China. The prison was built in 1958 with aid from the Soviet Union and it is the only prison belonging to the Ministry of Public Security.

paragraphs: The majority of people in prison here are political prisoners. Some of them were participants in the Chinese democracy movement and Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Famous inmates include Jiang Qing, Bao Tong, Dai Qing, as well as Tibetans such as Choekyi Gyaltsen, the 10th Panchen Lama, and Phuntsok Wangyal. Other inmates included many communist cadres who were criticized during the Cultural Revolution, such as Bo Yibo, Peng Zhen, Israel Epstein, Sidney Rittenberg and David Crook. 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo was also imprisoned here.

paragraphs: The prison is at the eastern foothill of Yanshan, facing the North China Plain in the east, north and south. The plain is where Qincheng Farm (秦城农场) is, which is part of the prison.


title: Suicide pact

paragraphs: A suicide pact is a plan of two or more people to kill themselves. People who agree on such a plan may kill themselves together, or they may do so in a planned manner. When studying suicide, suicide pacts are an important concept. Suicide pacts have occurred through history.

paragraphs: Note that a suicide pact is different from mass suicide. In a mass suicide, many people commit suicide, for the same reason. This reason is often influenced by religious beliefs.


title: Mass suicide

paragraphs: In a mass suicide a group of people kill themselves for the same reason. Very often, all the people involved kill themselves together, at more or less the same time. The reason for the mass suicide often inolves religious views. Suicide bombings and Kamikaze missions are military or paramliitary forms of mass suicide.


title: Goldie Goldthorpe

paragraphs: Bill "Goldie" Goldthorpe (born June 20, 1953 in Hornepayne, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey left winger who played for 16 minor league teams between 1973 to 1984, playing exhibition games with the Toronto Maple Leafs and Pittsburgh Penguins. Goldthorpe grew up in Thunder Bay, Ontario, is widely regarded as one of the most infamous hockey enforcers to have ever played the game, a man once dubbed the "wildest, meanest, most unpredictable player in hockey", earning an amazing 1,132 penalty minutes in 194 professional games. He was the inspiration for the character Ogie Ogilthorpe in the 1977 movie Slap Shot. On January 1, 2008 during the 1st intermission of the NHL's Winter Classic outdoor game in Buffalo, NBC showed a 1 minute and 15 second piece on the movie Slapshot and the Ogilthorpe, Bill Goldthorpe connection to Bob Costas. Costas once did radio play-by-play for the Syracuse Blazers (NAHL) in 1973-74, a team that Bill Goldthorpe played on. Goldthorpe is currently a foreman at a construction company in Canada, having held that position in San Diego for several years.


title: Alex Gray

paragraphs: Alexander Gray (June 21, 1899 - April 10, 1986) was a Canadian ice hockey right winger for the New York Rangers and the Toronto Maple Leafs from 1927 to 1933.

paragraphs: Although born in Glasgow, Scotland, Alex Gray grew up in Thunder Bay, Ontario. He played for five years with the Port Arthur Ports of the TBSHL. According to Legends of Hockey, "he topped the league in goal scoring three times and was its most penalized player twice."

paragraphs: In 1928 Gray signed with the New York Rangers of the NHL. Wearing jersey number 2, he played on a line with Paul Thompson and Murray Murdoch. He helped the Rangers win the Stanley Cup that spring.

paragraphs: After his rookie season in New York he was involved in a big trade with the Toronto Maple Leafs, He was traded along with Lorne Chabot for Melville "Butch" Keeling and John Ross Roach.

paragraphs: He played a total of 13 games for the Maple Leafs in the 1928–29 season (7 regular season games and 4 playoff games). After 1 season in Toronto he was sent to the minors where he spent the remainder of his career.


title: Gordie Clark

paragraphs: Gordon Corson Clark (born May 31, 1952 in Glasgow, Scotland) is a retired ice hockey right winger. He played in the National Hockey League for the Boston Bruins and in the WHA for the Cincinnati Stingers.


title: Round Maple

paragraphs: Round Maple is a hamlet in the civil parish of Edwardstone, in the Babergh district of Suffolk, East of England. Round Maple is 1.2 miles northeast of Edwardstone village, 6 miles east-northeast of Sudbury and 54.9 miles northeast of London. Its postcode district is CO10.

paragraphs: Round Maple gives its name to Round Maple Mild ale. The ale is made at Mill Green. It has 3.3% alcohol. It also has a little bit of maple syrup. Round Maple Mild is a dark ale.

paragraphs: Round Maple has 4 Grade II Listed buildings (important buildings). All are timber-framed and plastered. The buildings include Little Thatch and Hathaway Cottage, Quicks Farmhouse, Seasons, and The Flushing.

paragraphs: Round Maple is on the Great Britain A-Z Road Atlas (1C, 54). It is on the Philip's Navigator Britain (D4, 164). Round Maple's OS grid reference is TL953436, its latitude is 52.056308 and its longitude is 0.847251.


title: Sandy Fitzpatrick

paragraphs: Alexander Stewart "Sandy" Fitzpatrick (born December 22, 1944 in Paisley, Scotland) is a retired professional ice hockey player. He played in the in the National Hockey League for the New York Rangers and Minnesota North Stars.


title: Red hair

paragraphs: People with red hair are referred to as redheads. Natural redheads often have very light colored skin. They often also have freckles.


title: Adasaurus

paragraphs: Adasaurus is a Dromaeosaur theropod dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous. It lived in what is now Central Asia. It was a small carnivore, with a large, sickle-shaped claw on the second toe of each hind foot. An adult was probably about 6.2 feet (2 meters) long.

paragraphs: Two specimens of "Adasaurus" have been found, both from the Gobi Desert of southern Mongolia. One is an incomplete skeleton with partial skull, including the vertebral column except the back of the tail, all three bones of the pelvis, the shoulder girdle and the hindlimbs. The second specimen includes the back end of another skeleton, including the hindlimbs. Both specimens are in the collection of the Mongolian Geological Institute in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

paragraphs: The age of the strata, like most of Mongolia's later Cretaceous sediments, is not known for certain. It is thought to be somewhere between 74 and 65 million years ago. Other dinosaurs found in this formation include "Tarbosaurus", "Anserimimus", and "Saurolophus".


title: Dromaeosaurus

paragraphs: Dromaeosaurus was a genus of theropod dinosaur which lived during the Upper Cretaceous period, about 75 million years ago. Its remains were found in the western United States and Alberta, Canada.

paragraphs: "Dromaeosaurus albertensis" was a small carnivore, the size of a wolf, about 2 m (7 ft) in length and 15 kg (40 lb) in weight. Its mouth was full of sharp teeth, and it had a large "sickle claw" on each foot. It lived during the Upper Cretaceous: some teeth which may belong to it have been found from the latest Cretaceous, 65.5 million years ago.

paragraphs: Although only a few bones are known from the hind limb, they indicate that "Dromaeosaurus" was a powerfully built animal. The presence of feathers in closely related animals makes it extremely likely that it was feathered as well.

paragraphs: "Dromaeosaurus" had large eyes and excellent vision. It also probably had a good sense of smell and hearing. Its neck was curved and flexible and its jaws were solidly built. The tail was flexible at the base but sheathed in a lattice of bony rods; this allowed it to be carried in an upturned position.

paragraphs: Despite widespread attention in popular books about dinosaurs, and complete mounted skeleton casts in many museums, "Dromaeosaurus" is surprisingly poorly known from actual fossils. The popular cast by the Tyrrell Museum was only made possible by knowledge gained from other dromaeosaurs discovered more recently.

paragraphs: The first known "Dromaeosaurus" remains were discovered by paleontologist Barnum Brown during a 1914 expedition to Red Deer River on behalf of the American Museum of Natural History.

paragraphs: Several species of "Dromaeosaurus" have been described, but "Dromaeosaurus albertensis" is the most complete specimen. The genus is even rarer than other small theropods, although it was one of the first small theropods described.

paragraphs: Matthew and Brown originally placed "Dromaeosaurus" within "Deinodontidae" (now known as Tyrannosauridae), based on some similarities in the general proportions of the skull. In 1969, John Ostrom recognized that "Dromaeosaurus" shared many features with "Velociraptor" and the newly-discovered "Deinonychus", and assigned these forms to a new family: Dromaeosauridae.

paragraphs: "Dromaeosaurus" differs from most of its relatives in having a short, massive skull, a deep mandible, and robust teeth. The teeth tend to be more heavily-worn than those of its relative "Saurornitholestes", suggesting that its jaws were used for crushing and tearing rather than simply slicing through flesh. "Dromaeosaurus" had a bite nearly three times as powerful as that of a "Velociraptor".

paragraphs: It is possible that, unlike most other dromaeosaurs, "Dromaeosaurus" relied more on its jaws than its claws to dispatch its prey. It was probably better suited to tackling large prey than the more lightly-built "Saurornitholestes".

paragraphs: The relationships of "Dromaeosaurus" are unclear. Although its rugged build gives it a primitive appearance, it was actually a very specialized animal. It is usually given its own subfamily, the Dromaeosaurinae; this group is thought to include "Utahraptor", "Achillobator", "Adasaurus", and possibly "Deinonychus". However, the relationships of dromaeosaurs are still in a state of flux.

paragraphs: "Dromaeosaurus" are featured in "Walking with Dinosaurs", stalking juvenile "Torosaurus" and attempting to steal eggs from "Tyrannosaurus", despite never coexisting with the latter in real life.

paragraphs: "Dromaeosaurus" makes an appearance in "Jurassic Fight Club", where a pack is shown being capable of taking down "Edmontosaurus" in spite of the carnivores' small size, but the carcass is later taken by a "Tyrannosaurus" (despite the tyrannosaur not being contemporaneous with "Dromaeosaurus").


title: French ban on face covering

paragraphs: On 14 September 2010, the Senate of France () passed a law that forbids the wearing of clothing that covers the face of a person in public, so that the person cannot be identified. The law talks about clothing that covers the face, so it includes burqas and niqabs, but does not include the chador.

paragraphs: The main arguments for the ban are that people wearing such types of clothing cannot be identified by police forces, and that such velis are not compatible with the values of France as a state. In addition, there was a discussion about women's rights. President Nicolas Sarkozy said that a reason for the ban is to protect women from being forced to cover their faces.

paragraphs: The bill which was introduced was refused by many people around the world. Some women in France protested against it too. But there were many supporters of the bill.


title: John Flamsteed

paragraphs: John Flamsteed FRS (19 August 1646 – 31 December 1719) was an English astronomer. He was the first Astronomer Royal, appointed in 1675.

paragraphs: Flamsteed calculated the solar eclipses of 1666 and 1668.

paragraphs: He was responsible for several of the earliest recorded sightings of the planet Uranus, which he mistook for a star and catalogued as '34 Tauri'. The first of these was in December 1690, which remains the earliest known sighting of Uranus by an astronomer.

paragraphs: Flamsteed is also remembered for his conflicts with Isaac Newton, the President of the Royal Society at the time. Flamsteed was refusing to publish work commissioned by the king, so in 1712 Newton and Edmond Halley published a preliminary version of Flamsteed's "Historia Coelestis Britannica". They did so "without crediting the author".

paragraphs: Some years later, Flamsteed managed to buy many copies of the book, and publicly burnt them in front of the Royal Observatory. However, the numerical star designations in this book are still used and are known as Flamsteed designations.

paragraphs: In 1725 Flamsteed's own version of "Historia Coelestis Britannica" was published posthumously, edited by his wife Margaret. This contained Flamsteed's observations, and included a catalogue of 2,935 stars to much greater accuracy than any previous work. This was considered the first significant contribution of the Greenwich Observatory. In 1729 his wife published his "Atlas Coelestis", assisted by Joseph Crosthwait and Abraham Sharp, who were responsible for the technical side.


title: Sugar cookie

paragraphs: A sugar cookie is a cookie made from sugar, flour, butter, eggs, vanilla, and baking powder or baking soda.

paragraphs: Sugar cookies were invented when a cookie called a jumble showed up.

paragraphs: Sugar cookies can be iced with a variety of icings and are normally decorated.


title: Edmond Halley

paragraphs: Edmond Halley FRS (8 November 1656 – 14 January 1742) was an English astronomer, the second Astronomer Royal.

paragraphs: He was also a mathematician, meteorologist, and physicist. Halley is best known for computing the orbit of the comet named after him: Halley's Comet.

paragraphs: On leaving Oxford, in 1676, Halley visited the south Atlantic island of St. Helena and set up an observatory with a telescope which had no tube.

paragraphs: He used the telescope to study stars from the Southern Hemisphere. He later published "Catalogus Stellarum Australium" which was about the 341 southern stars.

paragraphs: In 1686, Halley published the second part of the results from his St. Helena expedition. This was a paper and chart on trade winds and monsoons. He thought solar heating caused atmospheric motions. He also established the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level. His charts were an advance in how to display information visually. Halley also persuaded Sir Isaac Newton to publish a book about his discovery of gravity.

paragraphs: In 1690, Halley built a diving bell, a device in which the atmosphere was replenished by way of weighted barrels of air sent down from the surface. In a demonstration, Halley and five companions dived to 60 feet in the River Thames, and remained there for over an hour and a half. Halley's bell was of little use for practical salvage work, as it was very heavy, but he made improvements to it over time, later extending his underwater exposure time to over 4 hours.

paragraphs: That same year, at a meeting of the Royal Society, Halley introduced a rudimentary working model of a magnetic compass using a liquid-filled housing to damp the swing and wobble of the magnetized needle.

paragraphs: In 1691 Halley sought the post of Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford University. As he was well known as an atheist, he was opposed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Tillotson. The post went instead to a mathematician who had the support of Isaac Newton.

paragraphs: In 1693 Halley published an article on life annuities (a kind of pension), which featured an analysis of age-at-death on the basis of the Breslau statistics Caspar Neumann had been able to provide. This article allowed the British government to sell life annuities at an appropriate price based on the age of the purchaser. Halley's work strongly influenced the development of actuarial science. The construction of the life-table for Breslau, which followed more primitive work by John Graunt, is now seen as a major event in the history of demography.

paragraphs: These are generally either , rhyming with "valley", or ""Hailey"," though some people will use Halley's supposed pronunciation of his own name, ""Hawley"." The ""Hailey"" pronunciation inspired the rock and roll singer Bill Haley to call the rest of his band his "Comets" after Halley's Comet.


title: Collective names of groups of like elements

paragraphs: There are areas on the periodic table where elements have similar properties. For example, all of the first column elements (alkali metals) are light, very soft, react with water rapidly, make hydroxides that are strong bases, and react with the halogens to make colorless ionic compounds.

paragraphs: The second column elements (alkaline earth metals) are a little heavier, a little harder, react with water a little less rapidly, made hydroxides that are strong bases, and react with the halogens to make colorless ionic compounds.

paragraphs: The other categories are: transition metals, pnictogens, chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases. There are also inner transition metals that are divided into lanthanides and actinides.


title: Flamsteed designation

paragraphs: Flamsteed designations are for stars that are similar to Bayer designations. However, they use numbers instead of Greek letters. Flamsteed designation contained 2554 stars.

paragraphs: The numbers are usually assigned in the order of increasing right ascension within each constellation. However, because of the effects of precession, they are now slightly out of order in some parts. This method first appeared in John Flamsteed's "Historia Coelestis Britannica", a book that was published by Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton together in 1712.


title: Inner transition metal

paragraphs: Inner transition metals (ITM) are chemical elements on the periodic table. They are normally shown in two rows below all the other elements. They include elements 57-71, or lanthanides, and 89-103, or actinides. The lanthanides are very similar, and the actinides are all radioactive.

paragraphs: ITMs have three incomplete outermost electron shells and are all metals. In some cases they are quite malleable and ductile. Many lanthanides such as Lutetium are used in the lighting industry. Actinides don't occur in nature (except for thorium and uranium), and are highly unstable.

paragraphs: These elements belong to f-block and are known as the anti-penultimate shell.

paragraphs: Its general configuration is (n-2)f^0-14(n-1)d^0-2np^6ns^2 where n= 6-7.


title: Molar mass

paragraphs: Molar mass is the mass of a substance that has 6.022 × 10 atoms (Avogadro's number). The mass number of an element is equal to the molar mass of the element . The molar mass of a chemical compound is the mass when the compound has 6.022 × 10 molecules. It can be found by adding the molar masses of all of its elements. Sodium hydroxide's (NaOH) molar mass can be found by adding the molar mass of sodium, oxygen, and hydrogen, which would be 39.997 g/mol.


title: Absolute hot

paragraphs: Absolute hot is the hottest temperature that matter can reach. It is measured at 1.416785(71) × 10 kelvins. It is the opposite of Absolute zero which is -273.15°C on the Celsius scale or 0 K on the Kelvin scale. When something reaches this temperature, normal physics completely changes.


title: D-block

paragraphs: The D-block is a group of elements on the periodic table. They include the transition metals. The Group 12 elements are normally called post-transition metals because they are different from the transition metals. The Group 12 elements are still in the d-block though. The d-block can hold up to ten (10) electrons at most.


title: Group 12 element

paragraphs: A group 12 element is a group in the periodic table of chemical elements. It includes zinc, cadmium, mercury, and copernicium. Copernicium is not stable so its properties are not clear. They all have low melting and boiling points. Mercury is even a liquid. Zinc is the least electronegative and most reactive of the Group 12 elements.


title: Period 4 element

paragraphs: A period 4 element is an element in the fourth period (row) of the periodic table. It begins at potassium and ends at krypton.


title: Kilogram per cubic metre

paragraphs: A kilogram per cubic meter is a measurement of density. It is defined as the amount of kilograms that one cubic meter of a substance has in it.


title: Smokey Harris

paragraphs: Wilfred Smokey Harris (born October 11, 1890 in Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada - June 4, 1974) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward.

paragraphs: Harris began playing professional ice hockey with the Vancouver Millionaires in 1911. After spending some time with the Millionaires he moved on to play for the Seattle Metropolitans and Portland Rosebuds. Eventually he would find his way to the other side of the country to play for the Boston Bruins in the National Hockey League where he scored the first goal in the teams history.


title: Kilojoule per mole

paragraphs: A kilojoule per mole is a way of measuring the amount of heat needed for something. It is the number of kilojoules needed to make the reaction in one mole of substance.


title: Enthalpy of fusion

paragraphs: Enthalpy of fusion is the measure of the energy needed to change a substance from a solid to a liquid. Extra energy is needed, more than what is obvious by the temperature scale. For example, ice at 0°C needs to absorb heat before it converts (changes) to water at 0°C. The temperature does not change, but energy is absorbed to change from solid to liquid.


title: Ionization energy

paragraphs: Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove the most loosely attached electron from an atom. The atom is not connected to any other atoms. The chemical elements to the left of the periodic table have a much lower ionization energy. The ones to the right have a much higher ionization energy. The chemical elements down the periodic table have a much lower ionization energy (due to electrons being farther away from the atom with increasing atomic radius). The ionization energy increases as each electron is removed.

paragraphs: Ionization energies are dependent upon the" atomic radius". Since going from right to left on the periodic table, the atomic radius increases, and the ionization energy increases from left to right in the periods and up the groups. Exceptions to this trend is observed for alkaline earth metals (group 2) and nitrogen group elements (group 15). Typically, group 2 elements have ionization energy greater than group 13 elements and group 15 elements have greater ionization energy than group 16 elements. Groups 2 and 15 have completely and half-filled electronic configuration respectively, thus, it requires more energy to remove an electron from completely filled orbitals than incompletely filled orbitals.

paragraphs: Alkali metals (IA group) have small ionization energies, especially when compared to halogens or VII A group. In addition to the radius (distance between nucleus and the electrons in outermost orbital), the number of electrons between the nucleus and the electron(s) you're looking at in the outermost shell have an effect on the ionization energy as well. This effect, where the full positive charge of the nucleus is not felt by outer electrons due to the negative charges of inner electrons partially canceling out the positive charge, is called shielding. The more electrons shielding the outer electron shell from the nucleus, the less energy required to expel an electron from said atom. The higher the "shielding effect" the lower the ionization energy. It is because of the shielding effect that the ionization energy decreases from top to bottom within a group. From this trend, Cesium is said to have the lowest ionization energy and Fluorine is said to have the highest ionization energy (with the exception of Helium and Neon).

paragraphs: The "first ionization energy is the" energy required to take away an electron from a neutral atom and the "second ionization energy" is the energy required to take away an electron from an atom with a +1 charge and so on. Each succeeding ionization energy is larger than the preceding energy.

paragraphs: Electron orbitals are separated into various shells which have strong impacts on the ionization energies of the various electrons. For instance, let us look at aluminum. Aluminum is the first element of its period with electrons in the 3p shell. This makes the first ionization energy comparably low to the other elements in the same period, because it only has to get rid of one electron to make a stable 3s shell, the new valence electron shell. However, once you've moved past the first ionization energy into the second ionization energy, there is a large jump in the amount of energy required to expel another electron. This is because you now are trying to take an electron from a fairly stable and full 3s electron shell.


title: Picometer

paragraphs: A picometer is a measurement. It is one millionth of a billionth of a meter. It is also one trillionth of a millimeter. This is very small. Many atoms are larger than this.


title: 1 E-10 m

paragraphs: To help compare different orders of magnitude this page lists lengths between 10 m and 10 m (100 pm and 1 nm).


title: Covalent radius

paragraphs: The covalent radius is the radius of an atom that is measured when that atom is in a covalent bond. It is normally measured in picometers. It is normally found by X-ray diffraction.


title: Van der Waals radius

paragraphs: The Van der Waals radius is the radius of an atom that is seen as a hard sphere. It is named after someone who realized that atoms were not points, but actual objects. It can be found by the critical point and the physical properties of a gas. It also can be found by a molecular crystal.


title: Diamagnetism

paragraphs: Diamagnetism is a type of magnetism. They very weakly repel magnets. Most substances are diamagnetic. It was discovered in 1778 when someone saw that bismuth and antimony repelled a magnet. Diamagnetic things can be levitated. A frog was levitated in a very strong magnet. Water can be repelled by a magnet because it is diamagnetic. It is too weak to be noticed normally, though.


title: Young's modulus

paragraphs: Young's modulus is the measure of how much force is needed to stretch or compress a substance. Its most basic form is stress/strain. Stress is the measure of the force applied to a certain area. Strain is the amount by which the substance is deformed.


title: Shear modulus

paragraphs: Shear modulus is a measure of the amount of force that will shear or twist an object. It is normally the letter "G". It is the measure of the force needed to shear an object that is attached to a solid object. It can also measure the amount of force needed to twist an object.


title: Bulk modulus

paragraphs: The bulk modulus (letter "K") is a measure of the resistance of a substance to compression on all sides. Gases are easily compressed, while solids and liquid are only compressed with difficulty. It is measured by a measuring instrument when another object is placed under pressure. Its unit is psi.


title: Poisson's ratio

paragraphs: Poisson's ratio (letter "v") is a measure of the contraction that happens when an object is stretched. This contraction is perpendicular to the stretching force. It can also expand as the object is compressed in a perpendicular direction.

paragraphs: For example, if a block is being stretched as shown in the image to the right, the equation for the poisson's ratio will be:

paragraphs: Poisson's ratio ranges from 0.0-0.5 for common materials, though for materials with certain structures, can be as low as -1. A material with a Poisson's ratio close to 0 (like cork) can be stretched a lot in the axial direction without changing much at all in the transverse, where as pulling on a material with a high Poisson's ratio (like rubber) will cause it to become much more narrow. A material with a negative Poisson's ratio will expand in all directions as it is stretched.


title: Brinell scale

paragraphs: The Brinell scale is a measure of hardness in materials. It is measured by making a dent in the material and seeing how deep the dent goes with a known amount of force. It is similar to the Mohs' hardness scale, which scratches the material. It is used to test the hardness of metals. Normally, a steel ball is pressed into an object and the dent made is measured.


title: CAS registry number

paragraphs: A CAS Registry Number is a unique number given to every chemical substance by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS). It is also called CASRN or CAS Number. CAS Registry Number is also given to organic, inorganic compounds, minerals, isotopes, alloys. They are numbers ending with a check digit. They do not contain any structure information of the chemical.

paragraphs: It now identifies more than 164 million organic and inorganic substances. 68 million protein and DNA sequences are identified also. It is updated with around 15,000 new substances everyday.


title: Jeff Heerema

paragraphs: Jeff Heerema (; born January 17, 1980 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian professional ice hockey winger. He was drafted in the first round, 11th overall, by the Carolina Hurricanes in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft.


title: Danny Gruen

paragraphs: Daniel Patrick Gruen (born June 26, 1952 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player. His career included 49 games in the National Hockey League and 181 games in the World Hockey Association, during which he played with the Colorado Rockies, Detroit Red Wings, Michigan Stags, Winnipeg Jets, Cleveland Crusaders, Calgary Cowboys, and Minnesota Fighting Saints.


title: Mike Hordy

paragraphs: Michael Hordy (born October 10, 1956 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player. During his career he played eleven games in the National Hockey League for the New York Islanders.


title: Steve Hrymnak

paragraphs: Steve Hrymnak (born March 3, 1926 in Port Arthur, Ontario) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player. His career included playing 18 games in the National Hockey League for the Chicago Black Hawks and Detroit Red Wings.


title: Board of directors

paragraphs: A board of directors is a group of people. They normally oversee the actions of a corporation or other business. There are laws called bylaws that the board follows. They organize the business, appoint the CEO, organize budgets and take care of financial matters.

paragraphs: Within a board, directors commonly organize themselves into several committees, such as: audit committee, compensation committee, and human resource committee.

paragraphs: Usually once a year, the board of directors invite shareholders to a meeting to talk about the company.


title: Clinical thermometer

paragraphs: A clinical thermometer is a thermometer used to measure human body temperature. Most made in the 20th century are mercury-in-glass thermometers. They are accurate and sensitive, having a narrow place where the mercury level rises very fast. A kink in the tube stops the mercury level from falling on it own.

paragraphs: These thermometers are used in clinics by doctors, it is a clinical thermometers they are also called a doctor's thermometers or medical thermometers. Most show both Celsius scale and Fahrenheit temperature scales, and run from 35 degree Celsius to 42 degree Celsius.

paragraphs: Medical thermometers are cleaned before and after each use, with alcohol.

paragraphs: For centuries medical thermometers were large, and took many minutes to register a temperature. In the 1860s smaller, better ones were made, and thus thermometers were more often used. An ear thermometer was invented in the 1960s, which works quickly and easily. Digital thermometers became widespread in the late 20th century.


title: My Name Is

paragraphs: "My Name is" is a song by Eminem, released in 1999. It is the debut and second single overall from his major-label debut album, "The Slim Shady LP".

paragraphs: Producer Dr. Dre wanted to use a sample of Labi Siffre's "I Got The ..." for the rhythm track; as revealed in the sleeve notes of the re-mastered CD of the source album, "Remember My Song", Siffre, who is openly gay, stated, "attacking two of the usual scapegoats, women and gays, is lazy writing. If you want to do battle, attack the aggressors not the victims." Eminem made lyric changes and Siffre cleared the sample.


title: Sugar Act

paragraphs: The Sugar Act (1764) was a tax passed by the British to pay for the Seven Years War, called the French and Indian War in America.

paragraphs: It taxed sugar and decreased taxes on molasses in British colonies in America and the West Indies. This restricted smuggling. It was also a use of mercantilism. It was one of the first taxes that led to protests in the Thirteen Colonies. The Sugar and Stamp Acts were done away with in 1766.


title: Townshend Duties

paragraphs: The Townshend Duties, formally known as the Townshend Acts, was a tax passed by the British. It was named for Charles Townshend, who was the British Prime Minister at the time. He spearheaded the acts, but he died before the detrimental effects were clear. In 1776, he was hanged in effigy, which means a doll was made to represent him and it was hanged in the town square in Boston. It taxed all imported goods. E.g tea, food, anything that was imported. Townshend wanted the duties to make sure the colonists knew that they were under British rule. The acts were resisted in the Thirteen Colonies.


title: Tea Act

paragraphs: Tea Act of 1773 was a law made by the Parliament of Great Britain. The law was made to help the East India Company which had massive amounts of tea stored in London which they could not sell. The law would make the company's tea cheaper than other tea which was being smuggled into Britain's North American colonies. This was supposed to make people buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to accept Parliament's right of taxation.

paragraphs: The law gave the Company the right to directly ship its tea to North America and the right to the duty-free export of tea from Britain. The tax imposed by the Townshend Acts and collected in the colonies remained in force. It became law on May 10, 1773.


title: Jay Treaty

paragraphs: The Jay Treaty was a treaty between the United States and Britain in the years following the American Revolution. The main American involved in the treaty was John Jay, who was also Chief Justice of the United States. It was passed by Congress in 1795. It allowed for increased trade with Britain in exchange for the British giving up their forts on the Great Lakes. The Democratic-Republican Party thought that the Jay Treaty was good for the British and bad for the Americans, which led to them burning effigies of Jay.


title: Aegyptosaurus

paragraphs: Aegyptosaurus, meaning "Egypt's Lizard", is a genus of sauropod dinosaur that lived in Africa around 95 million years ago during the Upper Cretaceous period. Like most sauropods, it had a long neck and a small skull. The animal's long tail probably acted as a counterweight to its body mass. Its tail also ended in a whip-like structure that it used to defend itself against predatory dinosaurs such as "Carcharodontosaurus" and "Spinosaurus".

paragraphs: "Aegyptosaurus" was a close relative of "Argentinosaurus", a much larger dinosaur that lived in South America at about the same time. This suggests a possible land bridge between Africa and South America during the Cretaceous period.

paragraphs: "Aegyptosaurus" was discovered and named by a German paleontologist named Ernst Stromer in 1932. Its fossils were found in Egypt, Niger, and in several different locations in the Sahara Desert. All known specimens were discovered before 1939. The fossils were stored together in Munich, but were destroyed when an Allied bombing raid hit the museum in 1944, during World War II.

paragraphs: The type species is "Aegyptosaurus baharijensis", named after the Bahariya Formation in Egypt, where the first fossils were found.

paragraphs: "Aegyptosaurus" was much smaller and more common than its contemporary, "Paralititan".


title: Public Security Bureau

paragraphs: In the People's Republic of China, a public security bureau (PSB) is a kind of government office. These offices acting as a Police stations. Smaller offices are called "Police posts". These are similar Japanese Kōban.

paragraphs: PSBs in each province and large city take care of policing law enforcement, public security, and social order. Other duties of such offices include residence registration as well as immigration and travel affairs of foreigners.


title: Solitary confinement

paragraphs: Solitary confinement is a punishment or special form of imprisonment. A prisoner is not allowed contact with anyone, except the prison staff. It may be a kind of psychological torture. It is also used to protect one prisoner from other inmates in the prison.

paragraphs: Solitary confinement has many other names. In American English it is also called the 'hole', 'lockdown', the 'SHU' (pronounced 'shoe') or the 'pound'. In British English people say 'block' or 'the cooler'.

paragraphs: People who think solitary confinement is necessary give several reasons. Some prisoners are considered dangerous to other people in the prison. Other prisoners might be able to lead crime groups even from inside jail. Also, solitary confinement can be used to stop prisoners from communicating with others because of possible fears about national security. Finally, it may be used for prisoners who are at high risk of being attacked by other inmates, such as pedophiles, celebrities, or witnesses who are in prison themselves. This form of solitary confinement is sometimes called protective custody.

paragraphs: In the US Federal Prison system, solitary confinement is known as the Special Housing Unit (SHU), . California's prison system also uses the abbreviation SHU, but it stands for Security Housing Units. In other states, it is known as the Special Management Unit (SMU), pronounced .

paragraphs: Opponents of solitary confinement claim that it is cruel and unusual punishment and torture Taking away human contact, and the sensory input is usually part of solitary confinement and can have a powerful negative effect on a prisoner's mind. This may lead to mental illnesses such as depression and even death.


title: Thomas Gainsborough

paragraphs: Thomas Gainsborough (14 May 1727 – 2 August 1788) was an 18th-century English portrait and landscape painter. He was born in Sudbury, Suffolk, England. He was the youngest son of John Gainsborough. When he was 13, he surprised his father by how well he drew with the pencil. Impressed, his father let him go to London to study art in 1740. In the 1740s, Gainsborough married Margaret Burr and began painting portraits more than landscapes. He had two daughters. In 1774, Gainsborough and his family moved to London. In 1780, he painted portraits of King George III. He died of cancer in London on 2 August 1788 at age 61 years.

paragraphs: In painting portraits he sometimes painted with brushes on sticks six feet long. This put him at the same distance from subject and canvas, set at right angles to each other.


title: Leaellynasaura

paragraphs: Leaellynasaura (meaning "Leaellyn's lizard") was a fast-running, plant-eating dinosaur that lived in Australia during the middle Cretaceous Period, roughly 115-110 million years ago. Australia was within the Antarctic Circle during the Cretaceous period, and it had a very long winter.

paragraphs: "Leaellynasaura" is known from two nearly complete skeletons and two skulls. It is described as an ornithopod. Unlike some other ornithischians, the "Leaellynasaura" did not have any tendons in its tail. The tail is known for being among the longest of its relatives: it was three times longer than the rest of the whole body. It also has more vertebrae in its tail than any other ornithischians except for some hadrosaurs. It also had large eyes to help it look in the dark winter.


title: Muttaburrasaurus

paragraphs: Muttaburrasaurus was a plant-eating dinosaur that lived during the middle Cretaceous period, about 113-97.5 million years ago. This dinosaur means "Muttaburra (in Queensland, Australia) lizard". "Muttaburrasaurus" are about 24 feet (7 m) long. They may have lived in herds.


title: Gulf of Salerno

paragraphs: The Gulf of Salerno is a gulf of the Tyrrhenian Sea in the coast of the province of Salerno in south-western Italy. The northern part of this coast is the Costiera Amalfitana. This includes towns like Amalfi, Maiori, Positano and the city of Salerno itself.

paragraphs: The Gulf of Salerno is separated from the Gulf of Naples (on the north) by the Sorrentine Peninsula, while from the south it is bounded by the Cilento coast.


title: Gigi D'Agostino

paragraphs: Luigino Celestino Di Agostino (born December 17, 1967) is an Italian disk jockey. He was born in Turin, Italy. Di Agostino is better known under his stage name Gigi D'Agostino. He is also known as the "Violento Man".


title: San Bruno, California

paragraphs: San Bruno is a city in San Mateo County, California, United States. The population was 41,114 at the 2010 census.

paragraphs: The city is next to San Francisco International Airport and Golden Gate National Cemetery.


title: King's College, Cambridge

paragraphs: King's College is one of the colleges of the University of Cambridge, England. It is a very famous college because it is very old and it has a world-famous choir.

paragraphs: The college was founded in 1441. Its full name is "The King's College of Our Lady and St. Nicholas in Cambridge". The students at the university usually just call it "King's".

paragraphs: King's was founded in 1441 by King Henry VI. At first the college was going to be quite small, but by 1445 the college was going to be a magnificent building to show how important the king was. The king gave the college a lot of money for several feudal privileges.

paragraphs: King Henry VI had admired what William of Wykeham had done when founding the twin colleges of New College, Oxford and Winchester College in 1379. He copied a lot of Wykeham's ideas when building King's and Eton College. These colleges still have the same tie as part of their uniform.

paragraphs: Originally, the college was just for boys from Eton College. It was not until 1865 that other people could study there. King's does not have any strong connection now with Eton, although there is still a scholarship for a student from Eton to study at King's.

paragraphs: Although building began in 1441, the project was interrupted by wars and it was not until 1544 that the inside was finished.

paragraphs: By this time King Henry VIII was King of England.

paragraphs: Henry VI is still remembered at the College: each year, on the Saturday after the end of Autumn Term (which in Cambridge is called the "Michaelmas term"), is Founder's Day. It begins with a service in the chapel: the "Founder's Eucharist". This is followed by a Founder's Breakfast with ale and finally a big dinner called "Founder's Feast" to which all members of College in their last year of studies are invited.

paragraphs: The College Chapel is built in the style of late Gothic architecture. It was built over a period of a hundred years (1446–1531) in three stages. The Chapel has the world's largest fan vault, stained glass windows, and the painting ""The Adoration of the Magi"" by Rubens.

paragraphs: Many concerts and college events take place here. The world-famous Chapel choir consists of choral scholars (male students from the college) and choristers (boys educated at the nearby King's College School). The choir sings services on most days in term-time, and also performs concerts and makes recordings and broadcasts. Every Christmas it sings the service called Nine Lessons and Carols which is shown on BBC television as well as heard on the radio.

paragraphs: The Chapel is so famous that it is seen as a symbol of Cambridge, and appears on the logo of the city council.

paragraphs: Nearly all subjects that can be studied at Cambridge can be studied at King's. There is a big library which includes some rare books and manuscripts.

paragraphs: Traditionally students have come from independent schools (so-called "public schools"), but today the college has gradually started to include many students from state schools.

paragraphs: As with all Cambridge colleges King's has its own student unions both for undergraduates and for graduates.

paragraphs: The student union has a long record of activism. In the 1980s a long strike against the college's investment in apartheid South Africa was organised.

paragraphs: The Cellar Bar is a small room in the basement of the college, which is used for music. The main bar at King's is far older. The bar has been traditionally painted a socialist red, including a picture of a hammer and sickle. In 2004 it was redecorated, with the walls painted yellow and the overall décor lightened. A hammer and sickle survives in a frame on the wall. There is a lot of argument about this. King's also has a Coffee Shop next to the bar. A Vacation Bar, or "vac bar", also is sometimes open during the summer vacation, run by (and mainly for) the graduate students who stay in College throughout the year.

paragraphs: Most Cambridge colleges celebrate May Week with a May Ball (which actually falls in June), but since the early 1980s King's has instead held a June Event (a more informal version of a May Ball) which they call King's Affair. The reason they have a different event from other colleges is because many students who were not invited used to forced their way into the party (so-called "gatecrashing"). A ticket usually costs around £60 which is cheap compared to the May Ball tickets for other colleges which can cost up to £200.

paragraphs: Once someone has been admitted to the College, they become a member for life. For this reason, King's alumni (people who used to go there) are referred to as 'Non Resident Members'.


title: Leavening agent

paragraphs: A leavening agent is a substance used to make a baked good rise. Most people like baked goods that are risen, so leavening agents are popular.

paragraphs: Yeast is a common leavening agent. It is a fungus that converts sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide makes the bread rise. This is slower and makes the bread more soft. Most of the ethanol evaporates when the bread is baked. The yeast is also killed when the bread is baked.

paragraphs: Yeast takes longer time to rise than chemical leavening agents. It also can be killed by heat or salt. Yeast is normally sold in small packages. These contain yeast fungi.

paragraphs: "Main articles: Baking powder and baking soda"

paragraphs: There are several chemical leavening agents. For acidic foods, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) can be used. It reacts with the acid to make carbon dioxide gas, which makes the bread rise. For non-acidic foods, baking powder is used. Baking powder is a mix of a powdered acid and sodium bicarbonate. They react when dissolved in water to make carbon dioxide gas. Baking powder is more common.

paragraphs: Baking powder and baking soda leavening is better for certain baked goods like muffins or cakes. The bread rises much faster with baking powder or baking soda. It is not affected by many other ingredients. But it does not have the same texture or taste that yeast has.


title: Sweet potato pie

paragraphs: Sweet potato pie is a type of pie. It is common in the southern United States. It is similar to pumpkin pie. It is common at Thanksgiving. It is a side dish or dessert.

paragraphs: "The most delicate root that may be eaten," as the sixteenth-century English mariner and slave trader John Hawkins called it, suited European taste. Henry VIII ate his sweet potatoes in heavily spiced and sugared pies, a fashion that survived at least until the 1680s."

paragraphs: It is normally made as a large tart. It doesn't have a top crust. The filling has mashed sweet potatoes, milk, sugar, eggs, and flavoring. The filling can be made light or dense. Occasionally marshmallows are added as a topping.

paragraphs: Creamy vegetable pie recipes date back to Medieval Europe. It was a favorite of Henry VIII of England. He was known to eat a great number of sweet potato pies at a time believing they were an aphrodisiac. Sweet potato pie appears in the southern United States from the early colonial days. Like many sweet potato recipes, sweet potato pie was likely developed by the black slaves from traditional African cuisine. It is a staple of Soul food today. Recipes for sweet potato pie first appeared in printed cookbooks in the 18th century. It was included with savory vegetable dishes. By the 19th century, sweet potato pie was considered a dessert.